Kalm's account of his visit to England : on his way to America in 1748

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bo

Me fa

Scorra AMERICA,

Konal. Sivensta WetenfFaps
Academiens befallning,

Heb
Publici fofinad t
gorvdttad
OIF
PEHR KALM,

Oeconomiz Profeffor i Abo, famt Ledamot af
Kongl. Gmenfia Weten(Faps-Academien.

Tom. I.

Wied Rongl. Majits Allernadig(te Privikgio.

STOCKHOLM,
Trycft pd LARS SALVIL foftnod 1753.

KALM’S

ACCOUNT OF HIS

VISIT TO ENGLAND

ON HIS WAY TO AMERICA IN 1748.

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Translated by JOSEPH LUCAS..

WITH TWO MAPS, AND SEVERAL ILLUSTRATIONS.

Lando:
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK.

1892.

All rights reserved.
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ame tera CG
A lo v 8
LONDON: f

DIPROSE, BATEMAN AND CO., PRINTERS,
SHEFFIELD STREET, LINCOLN’S INN FIELDS, W.C.

LIFE OF KALM.

—_—

PEHR KatM was born in March, 1716, in the Swedish
Province of Angermanland, three months after the
death of his father, Gabriel Kalm, Minister at Nerpes,
in Osterbotn. His mother’s name was Catharina Ross.
Kalm became a student at Abo in 1735, where Professor
Brovallius directed his attention to Natural History.

Brovallius introduced him to Baron Bjelke, who not
only received him into his own house, but sent him to
travel; in 1740 to Tavastland, Savolax, and Karelen,
and in 1741 to Upland and Vestmanland. On setting
out for the latter he entered as a student at Upsala,
under the guidance and instruction of the great
Linneus. In 1742 he travelled through Vestgétha
and Bohuslan, and published his “ Vestgotha och
Bohuslinska Resa” in 1746. In 1743 he visited the
Skjargard, or Archipelago on both sides of Stockholm,
in Roslagen and Sddermanland.

His contributions to the Flora Svecica of Linnzeus

Vili LIFE OF KALM.

from these home journeys were honorably acknowledged
by Linnzeus (De Peloria, Ups. 1744).

In 1744 he went with Baron Bjelke through Russia
and part of the Ukrain; and in 1745 explored the
southern half of Vestergéthland.

In 1745, Kalm, still a student, was elected a
Ledamot, or Member, of the Swedish Academy of
Sciences, and in the following year was appointed
Docens in Natural History at the Academy at Abo.
In 1747 he was nominated as the first Professor of
Economie at Abo.

The same year, at the instance of Baron Bjelke and
Linneus, he was commissioned by the Government and
the Vetenskaps Academi, or Academy of Science, with
the joint subsidies of the Universities of Abo and Upsala,
and the Manufactur Kontor of the Swedish States, to
visit North America, for the purpose of describing the
natural productions of that part of the world, and of
introducing from thence into Sweden such useful plants
as might be expected to thrive in the North of Europe.

Kalm himself says in his Preface (p. 7) :—

“In the autumn of 1747, after His Majesty had
granted me permission to leave my duties, and license
to travel abroad on the errands of the Royal Swedish
Academy of Science, and after His Majesty had not only

given me his own Passport, but also had most graciously

LIFE OF KALM. ix

given orders to his Ministers at the French, Spanish, and
English Courts, as well as those at the United Provinces
in Holland, to obtain for me the Passports of these
Powers, I commenced on 16th October [New Style,
which is everywhere used in this preface] the voyage
from Upsala down to Githeborg.

“I had chosen as my assistant the Horticulturist
(Trigardsmistaren) Lars Jungstrom, who was quite at
home in the science of Horticulture and the cultivation
of plants, adroit in delineating all sorts of things by
mechanical drawing, indefatigable on journeys, and in
the highest degree trustworthy. We remained at Géthe-
borg on account of a continuous adverse wind to the 11th
December, when we sailed from thence, but being driven
by a fearful storm we were obliged to seek Norway.
Here we remained till the 8th February, 1748, when we
sailed from thence to England, and arrived at London
the 17th of the same month. For want of a vessel to
cross to America we were obliged to remain in England
till the 5th August, when we went on board at Gravesend,
and on the 11th of the same month we lost sight of
England. we
“(On the return Voyage] 1751.

“ After a bad voyage, unusual storms, and being often
in peril of our lives, on the 23rd March we caught sight

of England. On the 27th of the same month our ship

x LIFE OF KALM.

ran aground at the mouth of the river Thames so hard,
that with two pumps we could not pump out as much
water as poured in through the bottom of the ship, but
were obliged to seek the nearest land, from whence I
travelled by road to London, where I arrived on the
2gth March, and had the pleasure some days later to see
our ship and goods arrive there, after it had been
repaired. On the 5th May we left London, and on the
16th of the same month reached Gotheborg, and on the
3rd June arrived at Stockholm.

“From notes which I made on these Travels, the
first Volume [1753] is communicated to the public. It
contains various observations made in Norway and
England. [The first 111 pages of the second volume,
1756, contains the remainder of the English notes].

“As far as regards English Rural Economy (Landt
hushallningen), I have omitted much in order that the
work might not become too bulky, but think, please God,
of giving it to the Swedish Academy. When I have been
speaking of England, I have sometimes come to use some
English words. I do not see why it should be accounted
in me a fault more than for others to use French words.
They are however nearly [p. rr] all explained by me in
one place or another.

‘““Many who have more pleasure in reading books for

diversion than for instruction, will perhaps soon be weary

LIFE OF .KALM. xi

of seeing Aker, Ang (arable fields and meadows), and
various matters connected [p. 12] with agriculture, so
often named in this description of travels (Resebeskrifning)
which is unusual in most descriptions of travel which
have hitherto appeared, if I except those of the great
Linneus, and those who have followed his method, and
some few others, but it was just the object of this journey
and my principal business to collect such. I wish that
we had, not only of the whole Kingdom and each Pro-
vince, but also of every Harad, and even Parish (Socken),
an accurate description of the Rurai Economy, as by that
means we should have a clear light and guide for improving
our agriculture. [This seems to be the original suggestion
for an Agricultural Survey such as was carried out in
England towards the end of the century, forty to fifty
years later]. By that means we get to select the best of
everything, and to reject that which we find in our agri-
culture to be less profitable than another; we are thereby
led to devise still better, when the science of Agriculture
is thoroughly set going.

‘“‘ When a number is quoted after the name of a plant
without any book being named, the Flora Svecica of
Linnzus is always meant.

“When any particular thing has been told me which
I had no opportunity of seeing for myself, I have

commonly named my Sagesman (informant), partly to

xii LIFE OF KALM.

express my gratitude to the person who has communi-
cated anything, and not to give out as my own that
which belongs to another, partly that it may stand to my
informant’s [p. 14] own account, in case it be found to
be little in accordance with the truth. In reference to
that which I have not seen myself, but have been obliged
to rely upon the accounts of others, I have in addition
commonly used the word berattades or sages or skal,
but that which I have either seen myself, or all have
related with one mouth, I have said that it is so.

“I have studiously omitted descriptions of plants,
animals, and rocks, Orters, djurs, och stenarters.
Most readers regard them as wearisome; besides they make
the book larger and dearer; but I have always introduced
where I have got to know of any, the uses of plants,
animals, and minerals. The descriptions I will, please
God, communicate in a Latin work at some future time.

Abo, the 13th July, 1753.”

Kalm, who had married in America, in 1750, a lady
from Sweden, died on the 16th November, 1779, without
completing his account of his travels. Thus says Odhelius
(A minnelse Tal, p. 25): ‘The description of the American
“travels which he published by degrees during the same
‘period, gave him additional occupation. We have in his
‘lifetime seen three parts of it come out (1753-56-61), and

“the fourth which he had ready and written with his own

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. xili

‘“‘hand, his successor in office (Kreander) has promised
‘* immediately to place in the hands of the public.”

This promise was never fulfilled. Professor Kreander
obtained possession of the manuscript of the subsequent
parts under the will, but was prevented by his early
death from publishing them. Previously to the lament-
able fire of 1827 they were preserved in the library at
Abo.

oN 2 EE KO

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.

Of the now exceedingly rare

three volumes, not much more
| than one-half relates to America.
| The first 137% pp. of Tom, I.
/ bring up the account to Kalm’s
departure from Grémstad for
England.

The wonderful account of

England occupies from p. 138 in

Tom. I. to p. rr in Tom. II.—in

all 458 pp. 8vo. The American portion was translated into
English last century by John Reinhold Forster, but the

xiv TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.

English portion has never before been translated. It is
totally unknown in this country, but far transcends in
completeness and accuracy of description any work of its
age on England known to the present translator. Kalm’s
work in England was carried on from four centres: Graves-
end, London, Woodford, and Little Gaddesden. Few
subjects have escaped his scrutiny; but whether social or
natural, town or country, each has been described with the
minute and delicate accuracy of a man of keen observa-
tion, of refined taste, and of high scientific training.

The botanical names used by Kalm are mainly those
of Caspar Bauhin, and of Linnezeus in the Flora Svecica,
Stockholm, 1745, 8vo. The identification of the plants
would have been a hopeless task but for the existence in
the British Museum of two volumes, with MS. notes, from
the library of Sir Joseph Banks. The first of these is the
copy of the Prodromos Theatrt Botanici of Caspar Bauhin,
Basilece, 1671, 4to, with press mark ‘‘ 448 p. 3 (2); and
the second the copy of the Fl. Svecica, with the press
mark ‘“‘ 450 f. 2.” On the margins of these two copies
are written the Linnean names of many if not most of
the plants enumerated in those two works, as given by
Linneus in the 13th Edition of the Systema Nature
(Vindobone, 1767—1770, 3 Tom. 8vo), which from its
publication superseded the works of the older botanists

and the earlier works of Linnzeus himself,

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. XV

Kalm’s agricultural notes are full of vivacious and
picturesque descriptions and of valuable information and
suggestions: the scientific portion is of the very highest
order of excellence, as witness his measured geological
sections of tertiary strata, his description of the Chali,
the Portland stone, or the Totternhoe stone, &c., and his
careful enumeration of the genera and species of grasses
found in grassfields and haystacks. For the rest, his
acuteness of observation and faithfulness of description
have been verified by the translator on the ground.

The head-pieces and tail-piece and the ornamental
capitals are reproductions of the originals. The legend
on one of the head-pieces should read ‘ Ljusare anda,’
‘Lighter yet.’

In this translation the circumflex has been used
instead of the Swedish ° over the letter “‘a,” as was done
by Linnzus in his Flora Lapponica, 1737, 8vo.

The figures, with the exception of that of the archzo-
logical mystery on p. 402, and the plan showing its site,
are reproductions of Jungstrém’s figures, some of which
have, however, been omitted. Mr. F. W. Lucas, the
author of the magnificent work on America, “‘Appendicule
Histovice ; or, Shreds of History hung on a horn,” 1891,
4to, has contributed a learned note on the identity of the
Frisland of the Zeni with Faerd, a proof that may be

strengthened by the names of several other places in

xvi TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.

Faeré. He also contributed the note on p. 19, and that on
p. 20, on Angria, the Sea Rover, concerning whom, Robert

Bloomfield writes in the little poem on Shooter’s Hill :—

“ This far-seen monumental tower
Records the achievements of the brave,
And Angria’s subjugated power
Who plundered on the Eastern wave.”

He has also contributed facsimiles of the portions of
Rocques’ survey, showing Wanstead Manor, and Chelsea
as they existed at the date of Kalm’s visit.

The sections on pp. 406-7 have been published by
Mr. Whitaker, F.R.S., in the Memoirs of the Geological
Survey of England (Geol. of London, 1889, pp. 174-5) as
condensed by him from the M.S. of this translation.

Jak.

TooTING GRAVENEY,

December 4th, 1891.

itl

iy
Wa

KALM’S ENGLAND.

THE VOYAGE FROM GROMSTAD
TO ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 138.]

Io o’clock in the morning we
committed ourselves in the
Lord’s name to the seas
between Gromstad in Nor-
way and England. On the
passage nothing especially
remarkable occurred, beyond
that on January 30th, at
4 o'clock in the afternoon, a very large fish appeared,

which for more than an hour swam before the ship on
B

2 KALM’S ENGLAND,

the surface of the water. When its back-fins stood
above the water they looked in the distance like a sail.
The weather was beautiful and the wind moderate, and
after a fair passage, on the 4th of February, we caught
sight of the English coast and Foreland lighthouse, and
at night we cast anchor off Margate.

Thermometrical Observations were made this day both
in the air and in the sea water. In the air, or in the
shade on the south side of the ship the Thermometer of
Celsius at 10 o’clock in the morning stood 4$° above 0°
[40'1? Fahr.] I had several whole buckets full of water
drawn up from the sea, and set the Thermometer in them
directly, when the Mercury shot up like an arrow to 8° Cels.
[46°4° Fahr.] where it always remained stationary and
went neither higher nor lower: but when I took it out of
the water and held it in the open air, it again fell in two
or three minutes to 4° or 3° above 0° Cels. [39°2° or
37°4° Fahr. ]

[T. I. p. 139.] At sunrise on the morning of the 5th
February, we took a pilot on board, when we at once
began to sail up to the River Thames, near and in whose
mouth there lies an endless number of banks.

On the left hand, the English coast was now con-
tinuously in sight, and consisted of white chalk, which at
the water’s-edge was nearly perpendicular. Ata distance,
as seen from the sea, this country was like enough to the
coasts of Estland [Esthonia] although the kind of rock
here was altogether different.

The water was whitish, which was due to the chalky
bottom; for when we drew up the anchor, all that adhered
to the anchor-fluke was bare white chalk, mostly dis-
integrated and soft like a thick mud. Although small
pieces of hard chalk, Krita, occurred amongst it, we
did not see any flints or Testacea therein.

On the land appeared one church after another, with

THE VOYAGE FROM GROMSTAD TO ENGLAND. 3

towers all of stone, as well as beautiful houses, gardar,
windmills, etc.

Bankarna vid Segelleden. The banks near the
navigable channels are marked by black or white buoys,
which float on the surface of the water.

In this river there is the Ebb and Flood, which goes
right up beyond London. Seafarers avail themselves of
it in this way, that when it is flowing upwards, the ships.
and boats which are bound for London go with it, but
directly the Ebb begins to go, these all cast their an-
chors and lie still; then, on the other hand, those coming
from London lift anchor, and drive outwards with the
Ebb as long as it continues to run, and when it stops
they drop their anchors. In this way vessels come both
to and from London without particularly [T. I. p. 140]
caring about the wind that is blowing, so long as it is not
too strong. It is impossible to express the untold multi-
tude of ships and vessels which sail up and down this
river daily, especially in the summer time, when ships in
some of the narrower places can hardly avoid running
into each other, and often at the same time cause each
other great damage.

Themse Floden. The River Thames.—On the 6th
February in the morning we continued our voyage. At
mid-day we sailed past the town of Gravesend on the
left hand, which is commanded by a little fort in its
midst.* The width of the river for about a mile above
Gravesend was about three to four musket shots.

Batars Styren. The steering apparatus of boats. In

* The Blockhouse erected 1539 by Henry VIII. ‘‘ Upon which certain
‘piece of land called ‘ Le Grene’ a certain house and tower called a Block-
“house by our Lord the King, is just now built and constructed.” (Deed of
Conveyance of ‘‘Le Grene,” 3rd June, 1543). ‘This Blockhouse remains
“at the waterside in front or north of the terrace at the west side of Terrace
“garden and pier.” (Cruden Hist. of Gravesend 1843, 8vo. p. 163). [J.-L]

B 2

4 KALM’S ENGLAND.

some boats they had so arranged the steering apparatus
that one could sit forward in the boat and steer it. On
the top of the rudder was set crossways, a ‘ tiller’ or board
of some two feet long, which was parallel with the stern-
panel of the boat, when the rudder was directed end
backwards or in linea recta with the boat’s keel. On to
both ends of the tiller was fastened a small cord or
‘ tiller-line,’ tag, wherewith they turn the rudder where
they wi!l. Thus one could tie the tiller-ropes to his arms
and steer, but equally do what he liked with his hands.

Landets beskaffenhet omkring Themsen. The
landscape around the Thames where we were sailing was
pleasant, and one of the prettiest I had ever hitherto seen.
The Thames was for the most part three to four musket-
shots wide. On both sides the strands, Stranderna, were
sometimes rather high and steep, especially farther down
towards Gravesend, sometimes quite low, remarkably so
farther up towards London. Next to the river there
lay for the most part meadows, angar. Farther up
[T. I. p. 141] from the Strand, the country was sloping
from the hills down towards the river, and on these
slopes appeared ploughed fields, Akrar, which were con-
sequently very favourably situated.

No dikes, diken, could we see; but in place of
gardesgardar (fences) there were mostly hackar,
hedges of different kinds of bushes.

Beautiful buildings, mostly of brick, sten, made a
show everywhere, yet we saw some small houses of cross-
beams covered with boards. A number of churches
adorned the country in many places along by the river,
all of stone, and with more or less high towers.

A great number of church towers were built in the
same way as the city gates of Moscow, viz.: the walls
were cut off horizontally a little above the church, so as
to leave the section square at the top.

THE VOYAGE FROM GROMSTAD TO ENGLAND. 5

In other respects, the country sometimes appeared
hilly but without any rocks except the chalk, Krit-
bargen. On the hills, and also in many other places,
there appeared leafwoods* and beautiful plantations,
léfskog och skéna lundar, whose trees were in some
places tall enough.

Krittbrott. A chalk pit was also remarked here
and there on the banks of the river, as at Cliffe and
Purfleet.

Far och hastar. Sheep and horses appeared every-
where on the ploughed fields and pastures, betesmarker,
though the weather was still chilly enough. The ground
was everywhere bare, so that not the smallest sign of
snow was seen, but the fields began in some places to
look tolerably green.

Arundo, 99, vulg. [A. Phragmites, L., now P. communis.]

The Reed grew in abundance near the banks of the
river. We also saw it cut, bound in sheaves, and laid in
great heaps on the river banks. Wooden houses were in
many places thatched with it.

There were walls, vallar, on the edge of the river’s
bank, between the river and the adjacent meadows and
ploughed fields, about 4 feet high, which consisted of
earth, mull, with planks outside towards the river to
prevent [T. I. p. 142] the river from overflowing the
ploughed fields and meadows when a very high tide
occurred. In some places these walls were of earth
only, af bara jord.

In the sequel they shall be fully described.

* A natural observation for one coming from a land of pines. [J. L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS,

INCLUDING
HAMPSTEAD, CHELSEA, FULHAM, WIMBLEDON COMMON,
PECKHAM, DULWICH, GREENWICH, &c.

In the evening at sunset we arrived at London.

Immediately upon my arrival I addressed myself,
according to the instructions given me by the Royal
Academy of Science of Sweden, to Mr. Abraham Spalding,
a Swedish merchant in London, who afterwards, during
the whole of my visit to England gave me every imagin-
able information, help, advice, and explanation of various
things; recommended me, partly himself, partly through
his friends, to all the places I had occasion to visit, or
where there was anything remarkable to see; lent me
all the money I required for the whole of my foreign
travels, and besides that, showed me manifold kindness.

The oth February, 1748.

Note respecting Concha (1333) Subviol. [Mytilus Edulis,
Mussel] omitted.

The 11th February.

Arter. To make peas still more wholesome and
agreeable, a mill, en qvarn, is used to grind them in,

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 7

so that they are split in two, and the thin pellicle or
scale which surrounds them is detached. [T. I. p. 143.]
It is well known that all peas split naturally into two
parts as soon as the outer cuticle is removed from them.
Afterwards the loose skin is farther winnowed away with
a winnower or fan, Vanna eller dryfta.

. [Paragraph on pickling Cucumbers, Gurkor omitted. ]
The 15th February, 1748.

Thermometrical observations were made yester-
day. [T.I.p.144.] The room which the people lived
in had a fire in it the whole day from morning till night,
although most of the heat went away through the chim-
ney, because in London they neither use a spjall, nor
know what a spjall is, for which reason also there is no
name for it in the whole of the English language.* The
thermometer was first set by the side of the window,
when it always stood at 10° Cels. [50° Fahr.] During
my visit to Norway I also made similar observations in
the large hall, sal, which we lived in, which was only
warmed by alittle iron stove, jarn-ugn, and that seldom
over twice a day. When it was warm enough in the hall,
the thermometer stood at 19° or 20° Cels. [66°2° to 68°
Fahr.] but when it fell to 15°, 14°, or 13° Cels. [59°, 57°2°,
55'4° Fahr.] we thought it was tolerably cold and chilly.
The observations were carried on both when it was very
cold, and only moderately cold, out in the openair. To-
day the thermometer hung from morning till evening in
the same room in the middle of the wall between the
window and the fireplace, when it ranged through the
day between 8° and 5° Cels. [46°49 and 41° Fahr.] In
the fireplace however nothing but coal was burned. The

* Fr. ‘*Bouchoir, clapet, de cheminée, de poéle.” Weste, Zer. 1807.
Damper, valve. [J. L.]

8 KALM'S ENGLAND.

following day it ranged between 7° and 4° Cels. [44°6°
and 39'2° Fahr.] It remained thus all the other days
and never went above 10° Cels. [50° Fahr.]. In Sweden
the fire is commonly lighted as soon as the thermometer
falls as low as 10° Cels. There, 15° Cels. [59° Fahr.] is
considered very moderately warm, but 20° Cels. [68°
Fahr.] is too hot for most people, that is when the ther-
mometer hangs on the window frame.

[T. I. p. 145.] The 19th February, 1748.

Koks-Kryddgardar.— Market-gardens appeared in
several places, together with very large fields which the
market-gardeners rented, and had sown with everything
that is required in the kitchen. The length and breadth
of the beds was such as is usual in kitchen gardens, some
with thin planks round them. They sloped, although a
very little, towards the mid-day sun. Most of them were
at this time covered over with glass frames, which could
be taken off at will. Under these they had sown cauliflower
seed, Blom-kals-fr6, which was already come up four
inches high. The cauliflowers, Kalen, stood in even rows
across the beds, sangen, about eighteen inches between
each row, and each plant. As cold and snow had come,
they had placed the frames over the beds, afterwards
‘Russian matting over these, and straw over that, four inches
thick. They had stood thus till to-day at noon, ora
little before, when the straw and mats were cast off, and
the frames raised quite up, so that the sun and air could
play freely over them. On some of these beds there were
no mats over the frames, but bare straw lay on the glass.
Otherwise the beds were arranged inside in the way
which is usual with forcing beds, drif-bankar, viz.:
horse-dung down at the bottom and fine good mould on
the top. Of the rest of the field, a great part was filled
with large bell-glasses, glas-klackor, under which also

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 9

cauliflower plants were set, three or four under each bell-
glass. Besides the afore-named beds, there were here
long asparagus beds. Their height above the ground
was two feet. They had at the sides, either boards, or only
straw. On the top they were similarly covered with
glass, matting, and straw, which had just been all taken
off at mid-day. The Asparagus under them was one inch
[T. I. p. 146] high, and considerably thick. On the field
stood a number of bell-glasses with Asparagus under.
All these bell-glasses had not any straw, matting, or any-
thing else over them on account of the cold and snow,
but stood quite bare. They were all of one piece.

Radisorne. The Radishes were also sown in beds,
which nearly lay horizontal with the ground. In the
snowy weather they had been covered over only with a
mat, which was taken off at mid-day. They had now
begun to come up. __ For shelter against the north wind,
there were set up by some beds on the field, small fences,
hagnader, of reeds arranged perpendicularly, and of
about 2 inches thickness.

[Kalm was at Woodford from 28 Feb. to 16 Mar.]

[T. I. p. 166.] The 16th March, 1748.

In the morning I went in to London from Woodford,
to get certain information as to how soon any ship would
go from thence to America.

Husens byggnad. The construction of houses. At
all the places I passed through in Essex, brick houses
‘were used, brukades Stenhus. They were all built of
brick, tegel, but in some of the farm houses the brick-
work was built between crossbeams of wood, var teglet
muradtemellan Kors-verk af tra, which were erected
both ad angulos rectos et acutos. Some out-houses only, such
as Lador och Logar, ‘lathes’ and ‘lodges,’ to thrash corn
in, horse-stables, hast-stall, etc., were so far of wood, that

10 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the walls were built of boards, nailed horizontally over
one another. The ordinary houses in which the folk
lived, consisted often of two or three stories, Vaningar,
seldom of one only. I speak now of Farm-houses or
Bonde-gardar. The roofs of the houses were all of
tiles, tak-tegel,* both of the square and flat sorts, and of
that which resembles gutters, raénnor, such as are
used with us in Sweden. The former, or the square
sort, was most used. This seemed to have the advan-
tage of the [T. I. p. 167] concava, or gutter-like tiles,
because if one or more tiles of this sort cracked, the
water could still not run down through it, as almost
always happens with the concave. In some places, in
laying the roof with such square and flat tiles, they had
smeared clay under the tiles by which means it was made
impossible that either rain or snow could be, by wind or
blast, driven into the loft. The chimneys were commonly
built in one of the gable-walls, often so far out, that the
gable-wall formed one side of the chimney, and the three
others were altogether outside the building. This had
the advantage, that if the soot were to take fire in the
chimney, and the chimney cracked, there was still seldom
any fear of fire in the building.

The 17th March, 1748.
Huru Hastar Spannas fore, Kéras, etc.
How horses are put to, driven, &c. The vehicles, Akdon,
which are used here in England, are wagons and carts,
Vagnar och Karror. As has been said before, they

do not know of the Sled, Slada, because the snow, which
seldom lies on the ground over a couple of days, does not

* “ THACKTILES. Roof tiles; opposed to wall tiles, or bricks. orth.’
Grose. Prov. Gloss. Suppt. and Ed. Lond. 1790. 8% but wrongly explained
in Bailey Aug. Dic. Ed. 1753. 8 [J.L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS, II

give them the opportunity of using it. For ordinary
Coaches, Kusk-vagnar, a pair of horses are harnessed
abreast, Spannes i bredd, as with us in Sweden; or,
when they are heavier, two, three, or more pairs, one
after another ; but for other wagons on which all sorts of
things are carried, and for carts, where they are large,
the horses are harnessed or spanned in quite a peculiar
manner, viz., not in pairs or abreast, as for the
coaches, but all in a single row the one after the other.
I have once seen as many as eight such horses spanned
all in a row after one another, nevertheless, it is rare to
see so many. Commonly five or six horses are used for
one of the large baggage wagons, tross-vagnar [T. I. p.
168], so harnessed tandem, irad. They are bound to and
after one another with strong iron chains, jarn-kadjor,
one of which goes on each side of the horse, and where it
comes sometimes to rub against the horse’s side it iscovered
with leather, so that it may not gnaw the horse, gnaga
hasten. The weight and thickness of these chains is
such that any other than English horses would with
difficulty be able to support it, for the horses which are
used here in England for these wagons, are as large as
the largest cavalier-horses, Ryttare-hastar, in Sweden,
fat, and of an uncommon strength. By the collars,
lokarna, the horses drew the load or the wagon, lasset
eller vagnen, which is fastened on to these iron-chains;
and the chains are supported by straps, remmar, four
inches broad, which lie across the horse’s back. There
are seldom any reins, t6mmor, used in the whole length
of this long row of horses, but they were accustomed
to be steered wherever he wished, or to stop or go faster,
only by the various and particular calls of the driver,
Kuskens. Also one never sees more than a single carl
accompany and drive a wagon and six horses spanned all

in a row.

12 KALM’S ENGLAND,

All English horses, at least as many as I saw, have
had the tail, svantsen, cut offabout six inches from the
root, so that the whole stump of the tail was only four or
six inches long. On my asking the reason of this, some
Englishmen have answered that it is the custom of the
country to have the horses so bob-tailed, stump-
svantsiga.

But must it not be considered a reason that the tail
has been docked, because, when they are harnessed all in
a row, and close behind each other the horse going before
may not strike the next in the eyes with his dirty and
muddy tail? The wagons which are used here are fright-
fully large, with very high wheels, and are loaded with an
[T. I. p. 169] astonishing weight. Hence it happens
that no roads in this country can stand against them,
sta bi, but the large and heavy wagon and cart-wheels
cut deep ruts in the road, in the same way as happens
on the roads with our rocks, Bergslagor, in Sweden.
[Defoe’s advice was not carried out till some years after
this date].

The 18th March, 1748.

Pafoglars nytta.—The use of Pea-fowls. Some
English gentlemen kept at their own houses a great many
Peafowls, Peahens, but particularly Peacocks, which
they did, partly because these fowls are very beautiful
and showy, partly and principally because their young are
one of the best flavoured steaks, stekar, which can be
desired. They are fed in the winter time with corn in
the same way as hens.

Rena galf, ete.—Clean floors, etc.—English women
generally have the character of keeping floors, steps, and
such things very clean. They are not particularly pleased
if anyone comes in with dirty shoes, and soils their clean
floors, but he ought first to rub his shoes and feet very

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 13

clean, if he would be at peace with them in other things.
Hence it is that outside every door there stands a fixed
iron, on which the men scrape the mould, and other dirt
off their shoes before they step in. The women leave in
the passage their pattins, that is, a kind of wooden shoes
which stand on a high iron ring. Into these wooden
shoes they thrust their ordinary leather, or stuff, shoes
(when they go out) and so go by that means quite free from
all dirt into the room. In the hall or passage, and after-
wards at every door, though there were ever so many one
within the other, there lies a mat, matta, tacke, or some-
thing else, to still more carefully rub the soil off the shoes,
so that it is never, in short, sufficiently rubbed off.

[T. I. p. 170.] The roth March, 1748.

Frukost, Breakfast, which here in England was
almost everywhere partaken of by those more comfortably
off, consisted in drinking Tea, but not as we do in
Sweden, when we take a quantity of hot water on an
empty stomach, without anything else to it, but the
English fashion was somewhat more natural, for they ate
at the same time one or more slices of wheat-bread,
which they had first toasted at the fire, half-stekt vid
Elden, and when it was very hot, had spread butter on
it, and then placed ita little way from the fire-on the
hearth, so that the butter might melt well into the bread.
In the summer they do not toast the bread, but only
spread the butter on it before they eat it. The cold
rooms here in’England in the winter, and because the
butter is then hard from the cold, and does not so easily
admit of being spread on the bread, have perhaps given
them the idea to thus toast the bread, and then spread
the butter on it while it is still hot. Most people pour a
little cream or sweet milk into the teacup, brukas, at
sla litet gradda eller s6t mjolk i Thee-kuppen,

14 KALM’S ENGLAND.

when they are about to drink the tea. The servants in
London also commonly get such a breakfast, but in the
country they have to content themselves with whatever
else they can get.

Middags-mAaltiden. Dinner did not here consist of
one particular kind of food, any more than it does among
other peoples: but still the English nation differed some-
what particularly from others in this; that butchers’
meat formed with them the greater part of the meal, and
the principal dishes. The meat is prepared in various
ways; yet generally speaking it is either boiled or roasted.
When I say that it was boiled, let no one imagine that it
was made into soup, lagt i sAppa, for what we in
Sweden call supan-mat seems hardly ever to be in use
among Englishmen. [T.I.p.171.] Thus, all kinds of
soups, Soppor, call them what you will, as well as grét,
valling, and nearly all kinds of mjélk-mat, &c., in the
houses of most Englishmen, are entirely unknown. Thus,
it is that in England at dinner-time they hardly ever use
spoons, Sked, for anything but pouring the sauce on the
“steak,” 4n at Osa ‘‘saucen”’ pa stek ; to take turnips,
potatoes, carrots, &c., from the dish, fatet, and lay them
in abundance on their plates. It is indeed true that one
sometimes gets a kind of kéttsoppa, or broth, as it is
called, but it is more nearly a k6tt-spad than a k6tt-
soppa. Boiled meat, kokadt k6tt, is here used in the
same way as we use a kokadt skinka (boiled ham)
bringstycke (brisket), etc. OxkOtt is called beef; kalf-
kOtt, veal ; far-kOtt, mutton ; flask, pork. No Ragouts,
Fricasees, Plackfink (Ortolans), &c., does one ever
see in their houses, but the meat is cooked in large
pieces. Roast meat, Stek, is the Englishman’s delice
and principal dish. It is not however always roasted,
stekt, to the same hardness as with us in Sweden. The
English roasts, stekarne, are particularly remarkable

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 15

fortwo things. x. All English meat, whether it is of Ox,
Calf, Sheep, or Swine, has a fatness and a delicious taste,
either because of the excellent pasture, betet, which
consist of such nourishing and sweet-scented kinds
of hay as there are in this country, where the culti-
vation of meadows has been brought to such high
perfection, or some way of fattening the cattle known
to the butchers alone, or, for some other reason.
2. The Englishmen understand almost better than
any other people the art of properly roasting a joint,
konsten, at val steka en stek, which also is not
to be wondered at; because the art of cooking as practised
by most Englishmen does not extend much beyond roast
beef and plum pudding, stek och P. Pudding in the
same way is much eaten by Englishmen, yet not so often
as butchers’ meat, for there are many meals without
pudding. I do not believe that any [T. I., p. 172]
Englishman, who is his own master, has ever eaten a
dinner without meat. Puddings are prepared here in
manifold ways, with or without raisins, Russin; currants,
Corinther, and such like things in it, but they all deserve
the credit of being well prepared. Potatoes are now very
much used together with the roast meat, stek. They are
cooked as we cook turnips, and either put on the same
dish as the meat or ona specialone. A cup of melted
butter stands beside it, to pour on to them. When they
have boiled meat, whole carrots are laid round the sides of
the dish. Cucumbers, gurkor, are much used with their
roast meat as before described; also several kinds of
green vegetables, as lettuce, lactuc, salad, sallat,
sprouts, grén-kal, and other cabbage, k4l, prepared
mostly like lettuce or spinach, spinat, &c. Turnips are
here used in exactly the same way as potatoes. There
is also eaten much green peas when they can be had;
but otherwise than green, beans and peas are very

16 KALM’S ENGLAND.

seldom eaten. Cider, Appel-mos, is also much drunk
with roast meat. Their pies, which are mostly a kind of
tartor, ‘arts and pastry, are also sometimes seen. Cheese,
ost, nearly always concludes the meal, mAaltiden.
Commonly, there is set on the table, whole, a large and
strong cheese, and each person cuts what he likes from it.
Mj6lk-mat is hardly ever seen at their meals, either
dinner or supper, except what is taken in puddings, and
in tea in the morning. Butter, sm6r, is seldom placed
on the table. Their drinks are various. Those who can
afford it mostly drink wine, others ale, 61, cyder, ‘‘ swag,”
or small beer, svagdricka, but the favourite drink
—lifdryk—of all the Englishmen is Punch. After meal
times one generally sits for an hour at the table, or at
least as long as till certain toasts, skalar, have been
drunk by all, such as the King’s health, the Prince
[T.I., p. 173.] of Wales, the Royal Family, absent
friends, &c.

Afton-maltid, supper, is taken by some Englishmen,
but by others, never. It is, however, with those who
eat it, a very sparing meal. It seldom consists of more
than one dish, which is commonly butchers’ meat,
for the most part roasted, and a little cheese after it. It
often consists only of cold meat, and that which is over
from dinner, middagen. As Englishmen eat a late
breakfast and a late dinner, sent Frukost och sent
Middag, they do not require such a heavy supper.

[Kalm was at Woodford and Little Gaddesden from
Mar. 20, to Ap. 21, 1748. ]

[T. I. p. 366.] The 21st April, 1748.

In the morning I went from Woodford into London.
Mr. Abraham Spalding then introduced me to Mr,
Ellicot, F.R.S., who was now reckoned one of the best

LONDON AND SUBURBS 17

clock-makers in London, both for watches for the fob,
Byx-sack-Ur, and other clocks. In one of his rooms he
showed me several of the clocks he had made, the
ingenuity of some being exceeded by that of others.
Towards evening, I accompanied him to the great patron
of Natural History and lover of learned men, Mr. Peter
Collinson, F.R.S., who afterwards took me with him to
the Royal Society, which meets every Thursday at five
o’clock in the afternoon. A little time after I had entered,
the Secretary read out a notice, sedel eller Bill, con-
taining the announcement that ‘a Swedish gentleman of
‘the name of Kam had been introduced to see the Royal
‘Society by Mr. Collinson, Fellow of the same Society.”
Here were read out ‘‘ Observations on the variation of
“the Magnetic Needle” [by Mr. George Graham, F.R.S. |
‘observations on a Coccionella, which had damaged trees
“in Ireland’”’ [by the Revd. Philip Skelton.] A communi-
cation from My. Bradley that he had seen a comet, etc.
[This last is not recorded in the Phil. Trans. for
ry48, Js Le]

A little after 7 o’clock the meeting was concluded, when
the Fellows went home by degrees. Mr. Collinson at
once introduced me to Dr. Mortimer, secretary of the
Royal Society, and to Mr. Catesby, author of the precious
and costly work on the Flora and Fauna of Carolina in
America. [In the Brit. Mus. the only edition is Catesby
(M.) Nat. Hist. of Carolina, 2 vols., folio, London, 1771. ]

[T. I. p. 367.] The 2and April, 1748.

A great part of this day was devoted to seeing rarities
in London. Mr. Warner gave me his company the whole
day to show me the same. Among several other note-
worthy objects, I reckon in particular the following:
King Charles the rst on horse-back, all in bronze. The
place where King Charles I. had his head cut off. King

James II. in bronze. Westminster Abbey Church, where
c

18 KALM'S ENGLAND.

the kings of England are crowned and buried. We
saw here the royal tombs, among which Queen Eliza-
beth’s and the beheaded Scottish Queen Mary’s, King
Henry VIII.’s and King William III.’s tombs were well
worth seeing. An old chair, stol,* was shown in this
church, which was very badly made, on which all the
later English kings, for a period of several centuries,
have sat when they were crowned. Many a poor old
woman with only one room has a better and more hand-
somely made chair, stol, than this; but for the sake of
its great age, because it had been brought from Scotland
as long ago as the 13th century by King Edward I., and
on account of the prophecy about the stone, sten, which
lies in this chair, stol:

Ni fallat fatum, Scoti quocunque locatum.,
Invenient lapidem Regnave tenentur ibidem.

it is held in so high esteem. There is seldom anyone,
who now sees it, who has not the curiosity to sit upon
it. At the coronations this chair is overdrawn with costly
cloths. Another chair stands beside it, which was made
when King William III. and his Queen Mary were both
crowned at one time. Besides this we saw Sir Isaac
Newton’s tomb, graf, and the monument erected near it
to his memory. One thing struck me particularly—
[T. I. p. 368]—that they not only erected here monuments
and epitaphstosuch well-deserving men as had been buried
in this church, but also in honour of such as had their
resting place elsewhere; even for such as had not been
of the English nation, and perhaps had never been in
England, but either through heroic actions, or their
learned writings, had won the love and esteem of the
English nation.

We afterwards saw both Houses of Parliament, the
upper and the under. The place where they impeached,

* Solium regale”' Ov. Fasti. VI. 353, and in four other places. [J. L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS. Ig

anklagade, the Scottish lords [Lovat, Kilmarnock and
Balmerino] for the late rebellion was examined; St.

James’s Park, the Royal Palace, &c., Chelsea Hortum

Botanicum, which is one of the principal ones in Europe.

Here we found the learned Mr. Miller, who is Horti Pre-

fectus of the same.

In the evening I was at the house of Dr. Mortimer,
secretary of the Royal Society. Here I met the great.
Ornithologus Mr. Edward, who had published a book on
birds in the English language, with matchless copper
plates, all in life-like colours, so that it looked as if the-
bird stood living on the paper. He had now with him
several drawings of a number of rare birds from several
districts, which he had hit off incomparably well, and
intended to publish. *
To write with a lead pencil, so that it may not

be rubbed out.

Mr. Warner told me that if one writes with a lead
pencil on clean paper, and, as soon as he has written,
dips the paper softly and carefully in clean water, and
afterwards leaves it to dry thoroughly, all that has been
written with the lead pencil will be very difficult [T. I. p.
369] to rub out, but sticks to the paper nearly as fast as
if it had been written with ink.

[Paragraph about Liktornar, omitted.]
The 24th April, 1748.
8j6-Rofvaren Angria. The device of the Sea-rover
Angria to make ships sail fast.

Captain Shierman, who had lived in the East Indies
for a period of fourteen years, had in the same period had
the ill luck to be once taken by the notorious sea-rover

*George Edwards (c. 1693—1773), F.R.S. 1757, began to publish his
“Natural History of Birds” in 1743. He presented to the Brit. Mus. the
Dutch picture containing a drawing from life of the Dodo, from which most
modern representations are taken. [F. W. L.]

G 2

20 KALM'S ENGLAND.

Angria,* in which captivity he had been for more than
two years [T. I. p. 370.] before he had made his escape.
He told us what means this sea-rover used to make his
ships sail very fast, so that no European ship could get
away from him, so that he could not overtake it, med
mindre han ju skulle fa det fast, which consisted in
this, that he never kept any of his ships in the sea over a
month; after the lapse of which time he had it carried
into some dock, tapped off the water, and afterwards
made them polish the ship quite smooth and slippery
with cocoa-nuts which were cloven in two. With these
cocoa-nuts the ship was polished on the outside, that is
to say, the part of the ship which was under water,
so long that there was not much left of the cocoa-
nut; and as the cocoa-nut has at the same time an
abundance of oil in it, so the surface of the ship was
doubly polished and made slippery, glatt och halt.
First the cocoa-nut, by its hardness, made the ship in the
polishing quite smooth and polished, slatt och glatt,
and secondly, the oil of the cocoa-nut made it so slippery,
halt, that it went incredibly fast through the water, and
had from it very little resistance. After the lapse ofa
month the oil began to diminish, and a number of Testacea,
or snails, snaéckor, mussels, musslor, and such-like’
shell-fish, skal djur, fastened on to the ship, from which
cause the ship took to going somewhat slower; wherefore
he at once had it drawn up on the land, or carried it into
a dock, made them scrape off that which had fastened
upon it, and polish it, as has been said. In this way he
put himself in a position that no European ship could

*The piratical state, founded by Konna Ji Angria, in the middle of the
XVIIth century, flourished for more than 100 years, though the English,
Portuguese and Dutch tried to destroy it. Col. Clive and Admiral Watson
at last succeeded, andon the 13th February, 1757, took Geriah, then the chief
stronghold of the Angrias, and broke their power. [F. W. L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 21

escape him,-after he had once caught sight of it. All his
ships were of oak: His strong castle on the land made
-him and his ships safe, if any naval power, sj6-magt,
should attempt to chastise him. In outward appearance
he was very handsome, was somewhat cruel, grym,
especially towards the captives, whose [T.I. p. 371] heads
he very often had cut off for his amusement. He died when
he was only 30 odd years old, and left his trade to his
brother, and to his sons, whom he had by his many wives.
The 25th April, 1748.
Description and use of the White Stone which
is here called Portland Stone.

This kind of stone is much used, particularly in
London and the neighbourhood, for house building and
other purposes, and takes its name from the Isle of

‘Portland. It is a white, or white and slightly inclining to
yellowish, and sometimes a grey stone, a species of lime-
stone, and is very like the Freestone which has been
described above at Tatternel, in Bedfordshire. Doubtless
it has the same origin as this. In this Portland Stone
‘there is also found a very great abundance of oyster and
mussel shells, and other testacea. It has also the property
-that when it is sawn or broken, it smells strongly of stink-
stone, orsten. Everywhere in London where there are
masons’ yards, one sees carls, who sit and saw this stone
asunder into different shapes. Their saw, which they
use for this purpose, looks exactly like any other saw,
but.has no teeth, instead of which they employ sand,
which effects the same purpose as teeth. The operation
‘is thus: they take the sand which is found here near
London, and sift it tolerably fine. After that it is blended
with a little clay moistened with water, laid on a board,
which is placed above the stone they intend to saw, so
that the board slopes towards the score, skaran, or 7/t,
remnan, which the saw makes. On the upper side of

22 KALM’S ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 372] the board there stands a can or bucket full
of water, kanna eller 4mbare. This vessel, karil,
has a little pipe at the bottom, through which the water
softly runs across the sloping board past the fine sand,
a little of which it carries by degrees with it down into
the score or saw cut, i skaran, when the saw requires it.
Then the water carries down the sand which had lain in
its way, but when all the sand has run off the board, the
carls push more sand with astick down to the water that
it may bear it in the same way by degrees down into the
saw score, Sig-Skaran, under the saw. Meantime, the
carl draws the saw forwards and backwards, when this
fine sand keeps continually falling, faller alt for et,
under the saw blade, and thus performs the same service
as teeth, to wear away and saw the stone. They said
the reason why they do not use teeth on their saws, is
that the teeth would bite so hard and fast, that no one
would be able to keep up the sawing. With other tools
used by masons, sten huggare, they prepare and fashion
this stone in manifold ways. The greatest part of St.
Paul’s Church is built of this stone, right up to the top;
also, the Abbey Church of Westminster ; indeed, nearly
all other Churches, as well as the high so-called Monu-
ment. Of this stone, also large and magnificent gentle-
men’s houses are built, in London as well as out in the
country. Besides that, grave-stones, outside window-
frames, and the lintels, jambs and arches of doors, paving
stones for floors, and curb-stones for footpaths at the
sides of streets where no one drives, are made of this
stone. It is used also to cover garden walls with, and
walls round properties, for posts along the sides of the
streets to prevent coachmen and carters from driving on
to the path where people walk, for posts round fireplaces,
chimney-posts, for window sills of buildings, for garden
rollers [T. I. p. 373], for posts under ricks, and for

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 23

Stone steps, trapp-stenar. Of this stone, also, those
wonderful bridges, London Bridge and Westminster
Bridge, are built. Also, all milestones are made of it.
In short, this Portland Stone is here used for everything
for which the stones of Gottland,* Oland, and the flaggy
firestone, télg-stenen, of Kinnekulle can be used.

a The 26th April.

[Paragraph “ Praservativ mot Rédsot ” omitted.]
Dikes-broar af Tegel. Brick Bridges over Ditches.

I saw nearly everywhere in the places which lie
around London, that where any water came to run under
the highway, landsvagen, or also any other road, they
had instead of any other bridge, made a bridge of brick,
en bro af tegel. They had dug there a very deep
ditch, walled and arched a bridge with bricks, and after-
wards filled up with earth the part over the arch, so that
the road was even and flat all the way across it, so much
so that there was little sign of any bridge. [T. I. p. 374.]
‘They had also managed in the same way, when any little
beck or runnel, back eller rannel, came to flow though
any earth-wall, mull vall, which had been cast up
round meadows, arable fields and market gardens, or
when it passed under any house, &c., so that the water
there always ran under and through small arched channels
of brick. It were much to be wished that we, in Sweden,
shouid follow the same custom, for experience here shows
that brick bridges last a long time, and from this it is
clear that their arch, when it is properly made, is strong
enough, kunna nog halla, to drive upon.t There can

* ‘Civility and courtesy, e passant, are indigenous to the limestone
strata of Gottland.” - Sylvanus, Rambles in Sweden and Gottland, London,
1847, 8vo. p. 156. [J. L.]

} This now reads as a gentle satire. There are few such ‘country
bridges” without a notice that they are only strong enough for ordinary traffic,
as distinguished from traction engines. [J. L.]

24 KALM’S ENGLAND.

hardly be any land where larger carts and wagons are
used, and heavier loads are laid on them than in England,
where three times as much, if not more, is loaded on a
public coach, en for-vagn, as in Sweden. However, I
have seen such bridges everywhere in use where I have
travelled in England, in Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire,
Buckinghamshire, Essex, Middlesex, Surrey and Kent.
We could scarcely make a better use of our abundant
granites, gra-stenar, than they if they were employed for
this purpose.
The 27th March, 1748.

To-day I went up inside the Monument, as it is called,
in London, and inspected the same. Many would shudder
to look down from such a height, and wonder how so
high and narrow a pillar of stone, which is hollow within,
so that one can go up by steps inside it to the top, has
been able to stand for so many years steady and firm.
It seems, however, that those who live round about it on
all sides, have difficulty in controlling their fears for the
same in heavy storms, but further on more shall be given
about this.

[T. I. p. 375]
To get an abundance of Ktichen Garden Plant Seeds.

The market gardeners around London have commonly
the custom that they do not employ their time in sowing
and cultivating all sorts of garden and kitchen garden
produce, but they mostly keep to something special.
Thus some are only used to sow beans, peas and spinach,
spinat, and leave out the other vegetables. Others
again do not trouble themselves about those, but propa-
gate other plants. Some do not devote themselves to
fraga ej efter, the planting and cultivation of any
particular plants to sell for household use, but devote
‘all their time and labour to sowing all kinds of plants tor

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 25

kitchen and flower market gardens, for kéks och
blomster kryddgarden, so as to provide themselves
with seed, which they afterwards sell, and make their
living out of that alone. Other gardeners, tragards
mastare, only make it their business to keep trascholor,
or nurseries, in which they have all kinds of young trees
to sell, and so forth, so that it often happens, for example,
that one of the gardeners who has only laid himself out
for tree-planting, has not sown vegetables in his garden.
Amongst those who exclusively devoted themselves to
sowing all kinds of plants for the purpose of getting their
seeds for sale, was Mr. Gordon, who had before been
gardener to the famous Shevard. While I was in his
market garden I noticed that the earth and mould, which
he mostly used for his plants, was meagre enough in
comparison with what is generally used in a kitchen
garden, kéks-krydd-gard. This was that the plants
might not shoot much in leaf, but give a large quantity
of seed, for a fat earth causes the plants to grow
luxuriantly in stalk and blade, but there result therefrom
few or no seeds, and vice versa, for the same thing happens
here as in vegno animali, a fat hen lays few eggs.

[Ts de Be 375s]
At ratt propagera Arbutus af fron. The proper way to
raise Arbutus from seed.

Mr. Gordon told me that there are very few nursery-
men who can raise, fort planta, Arbutus folio serrato,
C. B. from seed, for it comes up well enough after it has
been sown from seed, but when it is transplanted it com-
monly dies. Mr. Gordon’s plan for this was that he
sowed the seed ina forcing bed, dref-bank, and as soon
as its plants came up, he transplanted them; for if he
waited longer, they commonly died when they were moved
to another place, a thing which few people know.

26 KALM’S ENGLAND.
[T. I. p. 378.] The 29th April, 1748.
Hattar of Tagel. Hats of horsehair.

Several ladies in this place had hats which were made
of snow-white horsehair and looked incomparably well.

The dome of St. Paul’s.

At mid-day I went with Mr. Warner and Captain
Shierman up St. Paul’s Kyrko-torn to see the prospect
round London from thence. We ascended the same
right up to the top by steps, trappor. The tower is all
built of white Portland stone which is full of all sorts of
petrified bivalve shells, musslor. Farther on more
shall be given about St. Paul’s Church and Tower.

From the highest gallery, Fran O6fversta galleriet,
of this tower was a matchless view on all sides if only the
air had got to be clear, but the thick coal smoke, which
on all sides hung over the town, cut off the view in
several places. From it we could count a very large
number of Churches in London, that isto say, something

guished from the other large houses.

Innanhvalfvet eller kapan pa detta stora
torn, som 4r inne uti Kyrkan, the inside of the dome
of this great tower, which has galleries round about it on
the inside, is particularly remarkable for this, that if one
sets his mouth close to the wall and whispers something,
hviskar nagon ting, at one of the doors, which go
‘in to the dome, and another person at the same time sets
his ear to the wall at one of the other doors which are
on the opposite side of the dome, he hears every word
that is whispered, hor den hvart ord, som hviskas,
very plainly and distinctly, as when one speaks through
a long small pipe or.twbe; but if he takes his ear from the

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 27

wall, nothing at all is heard, héres alsintet, although
the other person whispered as loud as before.

[T. I. p. 379.] The 30th April, 1748.

Mull-vallar omkring Angar, kéks-krydd-
gardar, etc. Earth-walls around meadows, market
gardens, Gc. .

A number of small enclosed meadows, pastures, and
market-gardens, lie on all sides round and close in to
London, and part of them also in the suburbs. Instead
of fences, plank-fences, walls or other kind of hedge
around all these, high and thick earth-walls were cast up.
These earth-walls consist of the same soil, jordmon,
as is found on the meadows, &c., viz., of a brick-
coloured clay, tegel-fargad lera, with much gravel and
Pebble-stones amongst it. In one place and another in the
suburbs they had cast up walls around the market-
gardens, for the most part merely of the dirt which had
been shovelled together on the roads close by. The
height of these earth-walls was various, mostly 6 feet,
sometimes, though seldom, as much as 8 feet, yet often
only 4 feet or 3 feet, but few below that. There was
commonly a ditch on the outer side of them. The wall
was broader at the bottom, but afterwards narrowed
more and more up to the top where it was sometimes
scarcely 6 inches broad. The breadth or thickness down
at the ground, 8, 6, 5, or 4 feet, according to the height
of the wall. When such a wall became old, it fell down
in some places, for which reason it should be very often
repaired. The height and inclination of the wall,
together with the ditch outside it, prevented any cattle
from getting over it as long as it was whole. By this
means wood was spared, and no more time or trouble
was required for repairing these earth-walls than with us

28 KALM'S ENGLAND,

in Sweden is yearly occupied with our gardes-gardar.
Still it seems that such mud walls would not do well for
fences with us, because our great cold [T.I. p. 380] in
winter and the thaw, tjalen, would tear them down, so
that they would require too much repairing. When these
English mud walls began to tumble down in any place,
they took some of the earth which was dug up in the
ditch beside the wall, and daubed it over the sides of the
wall till they were quite flat, or if the hole was large it
was filled up with the earth just named. They are very
anxious about this, that grass and plants should grow on
the sides of the walls, for it hinders rain and frost in the
winter from injuring the walls so much; because these
plants and their roots bind the earth, and besides that
overgrow it so that it then tumbles down less.

The ist of May, 1748,

Meadow-inclosures round London and their
grass-growth.

We said just now that on most sides of London, close
in to the town, there lie among other inclosures several
inclosed meadows or pastures, Angs-tappor eller
beteshagar, with high earth-walls round them. The
-grass-growth in them was very thick and luxuriant,
nearly everywhere, and was now a foot high or more.
We saw here to-day plants of Alopecurus culmo erecto, 52[A.
pratensis, Meadow Fox-tail grass], which was nearly two
feet high, and its spikes, spice, were everywhere out in
flower. The grand opportunity for getting all kinds of
choice manure here in London to spread on these
meadows is the thing that especially contributes to this
fertile growth. Their owners derived a very large profit
from this source, for some of these pastures were let to
those who kept cows, to supply the town with milk;
others were hired out to butchers, to keep there fora

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 29

time the cattle they had bought for slaughter; some to
brewers or others, to turn their horsesin. [T. I. p. 381.]
A fixed charge was paid per day for every animal that
had freedom to go there, which for the whole year
mounted up to a considerable sum. On the north side
of London in particular there were the most meadows, in
which there was the most beautiful grass-growth which
can be. By the 18-20 May, the grass-growth was as long
as in our best meadows in Sweden at the close of July.
It was also at the afore-named time in May that they
everywhere began to mow those meadows, which through
the spring had not been baited by any animals.
Bromus panicula erecta coarctata (Linn. Flor. Svec. 87)
[Banks. MS. “varietas secalini;” Sw. Raklosta].
And the above-named AJlopecurus formed nearly all the
beautiful growth on these meadows, although red or
white clover, vapling, had sometimes mixed with it.
It is said that the owners commonly manure them every
autumn, in September and October, with the dung and
dirt which is collected in London in the streets, and is
laid outside the town in large heaps, from which they
afterwards carry it out on to their meadows, which par-
ticularly contributes to this their luxuriant growth.

The and May, 1748.

To hinder thieves from climbing over garden
walls.

The fence, hagnad, which was seen here around
gardens and kitchen gardens, was commonly walls of
4, 6, or 8 feet high. In some places, though seldom near
London, there were hedges of several thorny trees. In
some places only were plank fences seen; but walls were
most used, partly because they were the most durable,
and could best fence off violent and cold winds, partly
because the twigs of several fruit trees could best be

30 KALM’S ENGLAND.

spread out and fastened on to them when one wished to
force them to fruit early [T. I. p. 382] which has been
treated of above. But to prevent thieves from being
able to climb over the walls, they had daubed clay,
smetat ler, on the top of it 6 inches high, and 6 inches
to a foot wide. In this clay, when it had only just been
laid on the wall, they had everywhere stuck at random,
a large number of bits of broken bottles, bouteiller, glass,
glass-decanters, glas-flaskor, and such like, which turned
their sharp edges, hvassa kanter, upwards and towards
all sides, and prevented anyone who had the desire to
climb over the wall from taking hold of it with the bare
hands, lest these sharp and edged glass-bits should cut
his hands all to pieces; and when he in climbing over
should get so far as to sit on the wall, he might get so
much cut that he would not be so soon cured after it. In
England it is very easy to get such broken glass-bits at
inns and beershops, of which there are here so large a
number.
The 3rd May, 1748.

Hjelp for Prast-barn. Help for Priests’ Children.

To-day Vocal and Instrumental Musique was performed
in St. Paul’s Cathedral, by more than 100 performers,
where a considerable number of people assembled to
hear it. No one was admitted who had not paid a fixed
charge, which was regulated according to the place he
wished to have inthe church. The money thus collected
was distributed to poor priests’ children for their main-
tenance and education. The London Gazette related that
they collected to-day in this way something more than
#400 sterling. This which took place to-day was only a
Preludium to a great Musique which was fixed for the fol-
lowing Thursday, or the 5th hujus in St. Paul’s Cathedral,
when the Archbishop [T. I. p. 313] of Canterbury, nearly

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 31

all the Bishops who were in London, together with an
innumerable concourse of people, were assembled there to
hear the beautiful Musique, which was esteemed the
principal of all Musique, which are held yearly in London.
The Friday’s Gazettes afterwards made known that they
collected somewhat over £700 sterling in the day, which
was all devoted to the education and help for both sexes
of poor priests’ children.

Ceremonies at the beginning of May.

Now was seen at many places in the streets a custom,
plagsed, which milk-girls practise here in London, at
the beginning of May, or at the advent of summer.
They had bound together several vessels, karil, such as
cans, pint pots, drinking-cups, kannor, stop, skalar,
&c., which were mostly of silver, but sometimes also of
tin, bleck eller tenn, and made with them a device,
skapnad, either like a Pyramid, or like a man, or most
frequently like a woman, or also in some other fashion.
Some of these images, bilder, were decked with a
number of flowers. They were carried either on a
barrow or on the head. A spelman, or fiddler, who
played the viol, always accompanied them, together with
several girls. They mostly stood in front of each house
where they were accustomed to offer milk for sale, when
the fiddler fiddled, d& spelmannen spelte, and one or
more of the girls danced. The usage was that after they
had done this, they received pence from the persons at
whose house they danced. They began this on the 1st
May, and kept it up for some days.

The 4th May, 1748.

In the morning I visited the Duke of Argyle, a man

who was a very great lover of Mathematique and Natural

Science [T. I. p. 384] but in particular of Botanique, and
the branch of that science which is called Dendrologie,

32 KALM’S ENGLAND.

which treats of trees. After that I spent a great part of
the day at the house of Dr. Mitchell, who was born in
Virginia, in North America, and had spent a great part
of his life there, and was thus well acquainted with all
the circumstances of that country. Among other things
he gave me the following account, which I afterwards
found was correct, when I went to America.

[Vax af et slags Pors. Deferred. See AMERICAN
NoTEs below.]

(T. I. p. 393.] The oth May, 1748.
In the morning I returned to London.

Arundo vulgaris til skjul i k6ks-krydd-gardar.
Reeds as screens* in market gardens.

Instead of other fences it was here a very common
practice to employ veeds, ror, asa shelter or screen, til
skjul eller skarm, for the plants which might grow in
the heat of the sun, i solbaddet. To this end they had
taken reeds, Arundo, 99 [Banks, MS., Phragmites], set
them up perpendicularly, and made of them as it were a
paling-fence, et plank, in a straight line to the length
required. The reeds were here laid quite close together,
and nearly two inches thick. Above and below were two
thin rods, smala stanger, between which the ends of
the reeds were set and bound fast with bast. The ends
of these rods were bound fast to poles, palar, driven
down into the ground. Often instead of any other fence,
hagnad, around the kitchen gardens they had nothing
but these reeds set up in the way just described.

Huru vagar omlagades. How roads were repaired.

I have before said that the roads cannot last long on

account of their heavy carts and wagons, which with

*« Screen, skreen, a device to keep off the wind, hail, &c.” Bailey’s
Dictionary, 1753.

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 33

their wheels soon cut deep ruts, hal, down into the
ground. To mend these after they have once been made,
allthe road was hacked up with pickaxes, hackor. After
that they took a large harrow on which a weight was
laid, with which they afterwards harrowed all the road
smooth and even, so that when the horses come on to it
walking, they often chose a new track, spar, so that
the wheels thus came to go on harder places than before.
The road is also often harrowed without being first
hacked up, but this is only done when the tracks of the
cart wheels, spdren efter karr hjulen, are not
particularly [T. I. p. 394] deep. Else it was much the
practice here that when the road became uneven it was
hacked up, and the hacked-up ground was carried to the
wheel-ruts, halen efter hjulen, and filled into them.

The toth May, 1748.
Koks-krydd-gardar, deras hagnad, ans, etc.
Market-Gardens, their fences, cultivation, Gc.

I have named above (p. 386 orig.) that the land around
Chelsea is almost entirely devoted to nursery and vegetable
gardens. The same is true of the land on all sides round
about London, that it is mostly used as pleasure-gardens,
nurseries, and market gardens: because det Stora
London (the vast L.) and the frightful number of people
which there crawl in the streets, kralar pa gatorna,
pays the market gardeners many fold their labour and
outlay. These nurseries and market gardens are sur-
rounded either with earth-walls or walls, mull-vallor
eller murar, or wooden fences, tra-plank, or living
hedges of trees, or with walls of oxhorn, of which more
below. The earth-walls have been described above
(p. 379 orig.), the walls, Murarna, on p. 381 orig.,

although the greatest part of them have not such glass-
D

34 KALM’S ENGLAND.

bits inlaid on the top. All these walls are built of brick.
Plank-fences made of boards were also used here in many
places, but the boards which were used for this purpose
were no other than those they had bought from old
broken up ships and boats, Skepp, farkostar, och
batar, which were still quite full of nails. Thus they
knew in this woodless district how to make use of old
ships and boats after they had become useless for the sea.
They also availed themselves very much of hedges as
fences. Hawthorn was the tree of which most hedges
consisted; but besides this I also saw hedges of elm,
especially of a [T.I. p. 395] small kind of it, also of yew,
maple, sloe, and several others, Barrlind, Afvenbok,
Slan, &c. In gardens no tree was so much used for
hedges as yew, Barrlind, Taxus, which admitted of
being clipped and managed in various ways. How they
used reeds for a shelter has just been told (p. 393 orig.).
Besides ordinary vegetables there were planted in the
market gardens which lay nearest the high road all kinds
of flowers, which the passers by bought and carried away
with them. I saw also the whole of this season both
men, old women and girls, Karlar, karingar, och
pigor, walk or sit in the streets of London with baskets
full of all kinds of flowers, bound in small bunches,
knippor, which they offered to the passers-by, who also
bought them in numbers. The vegetables which were
most numerous in the market gardens at this season were
beans, peas, cabbages of different sorts; leeks, Purio,
Allium porrum, L; Pip-l6k, A. fistulosum, L; Gras-
16k, A. schenoprasum, L., chives; radishes, lettuce (?)
“Sallad ”; asparagus, sparis, spinach. The greater
part of these were sown in rows, so that they could more
easily clear away the weeds between them with English
hoes, tvéra hackor, and keep the earth loose. Between
the rows of peas, beans and cabbages there was a distance

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 35

of 18 inches or 2 feet, and 6 inches to g inches or more
between the plants in the row. They hoed here entirely
with small light English hoes, and the mould was moved
on to the stalks of the plants more and more as they
grew, so that they stood as it were i kupor,* that is
“banked up.” Peas were growing on pea-sticks. The
tops of the stalks were cut off the beans so that they
might shoot more into pods of fruit. Between the plants
which were sown thicker the earth was cleared of weeds
and hoed up with quite small hoes of about 2 inches
broad, and with a handle, skaft, 2 feet long; but it cost
enough to the one who hoed, who was thus obliged to go
very crook-backed, krokryggig, and stooping, luta,
the whole day.

[T. I. p. 396.] The 11th May.

In the morning we walked out to see the places which
lay on the S.W. side of Chelsea, over the bridge at
Fulham, and went some distance on the other side of the
last-named place. At all places between Fulham and
Chelsea, which is a distance of two English miles, and
round about Chelsea, we saw little else than mere gardens,
Tra-gardar, and especially vegetable market-gardens,
k6ks-krydd-gardar. We have told about them before.
Large brick houses, stenhus, which belonged to gentle-
men and others were scattered here and there among the
gardens, Tra-gardarna, to which those who lived in
London, now and then, especially on Saturday afternoons,
went to take the fresh air and to have the advantage of
tasting the pleasures of a country life.

Fulhams Bro. Fulham Bridge [Putney B.] Fulham is a
Parish situated two miles from Chelsea, and four from
London, to the S.W. In appearance it is a pretty town

* Kupa. Amas de terre autour d'une plante.”—Veste. Zex 1807. [J.L.]
D2

36 KALM’'S ENGLAND.

with several smooth streets. All the houses are of brick,
very beautifully built, some of which belong to gentlemen
and Herrskaper, “ Lordships,” in London, are hand-
somely built. Round about this place the country is full
of gardens, orchards and market-gardens, both for plea-
sure and use, and it can indeed be said that the country
here is everywhere nothing but a garden and pleasance,
Tra och lust-gard.

The river Thames runs close past this parish on the
south side, so that the district can conveniently have
convoi for passengers from London. Here there is a
wooden bridge over the river, built on piles driven down
into the bed. AIl those who walk or drive over it must
pay bridge-money, bro-penningar. Each person who
goes on foot pays a halfpenny, en halfpence.

[T. I. p. 397]
Stora falt. Large Common.

On the other side of the Thames opposite Fulham
there lay a large and tolerably flat and bare common,
falt, which was abandoned to pastures. It was for
the most part overgrown with genista spinosa, furze, which
was now in its best flower, so that the whole common
shone quite yellow with it. In one place only was it cut
down, either for fuel or something else. In some places
we saw ling here; but it was quite small. May not the
fertility and goodness of the soil be the reason of that?
And may it not rather thrive better on dry and meagre
places, torra och magra stallen. I also saw small
platswith Reindeer moss, Ren massa [Lichen rangiferinus ],
which also was very short. The soil was a brick-colored
coarse sand, tegel fargad grof sand, with a little soil,
Svartmylla, on the top. [Wimbledon Common and
Putney Heath. |

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 37

At forekomma dam pa vigar. To prevent dust on
roads.

From the sun and strong west wind, the roads were
now so dry that when vehicles, vagnar, and horses went
on them there rose from them so much dust, stoft och
dam, that it was very difficult to get along, for both eyes,
mouth and nose were filled with it. Trees and plants by
the wayside were covered with it. To remedy this we
saw at one place a man driving a cart, kaérra, which was
made like a brad-lar, or large wooden box, but had at
the back a transverse row of small holes. This box,
kista, was now fullof water, and whena board at the back
which stopped up the holes was raised the water ran out
by degrees where the man drove, and made the road
quite wet, so that the dust could no longer rise up. It
was in front of a gentleman’s house that he drove up and
down the road with his cart. I afterwards saw at several
places [T. I. p. 398] such carts used, especially when
the King went up to Parliament.

[T. I. p. 403.] The 15th May, 1748.

In the afternoon I walked out on the North side of
the town to see the country on that side. The land here
was mostly divided into grass fields, 4ngs-tappor.
Beautiful and very well-built villages, farm-houses, and
buildings were scattered here and there amongst them.
These villages and houses were commonly surrounded
with beautiful gardens. A multitude of people now
streamed out here from all sides of London to enjoy
their Sunday afternoon and take the fresh air. In allthe
aforesaid villages there was a superfluity of beer-shops,
inns, and such-like houses, where those who came from
the town rested. There were also small summer houses,
lust-hus, built in the gardens, with benches and tables in

38 KALM’S ENGLAND.

them, med bankar och bord uti, which were now all
full of swarming crowds of people, folk-skackar, of
both sexes.

[T. I. p. 404.] The 16th May, 1748.

Ormar handterade med hander. Snakes handled
with hands.

We saw to-day as well as on the previous days a
common man clad in rags, who had a large collection of
living Vipers and snakes, Hugg-ormar och Snokar,
which he went and carried about in the streets, dem
han gick och bar omkring p& gatorna, to show to
folk for money, at visa At folk for penningar. He
could handle them with his hands quite quietly, and
without the snakes offering in the least to bite him,
utan at Ormarne bédo det ringaste til, at hugga
honom. He had a bag, pase, in which he laid them, and
when anyone gave him ‘en halfpence,” he took them out
with his hands, either one after another or also by the hand-
full, as many as he could hold. Often to awaken more
astonishment, he stuffed either a viper or a snake whole
into his mouth, antingen en Huggorm eller en
Snok helt och hallen in uti munnen pa sig, and
kept his mouth shut for a little while, and then opened
his mouth and let the snake crawl out of it. When he
slipped them on the ground they sought to run away. He
said he had sometimes been bitten in the thumb by them
when he had caught them ; but he knew such an antidote
for it, et sadant bot derfore, that it could not do him
any harm; yet he would not make known what it con-
sisted in. That the snakes, snokarne, did not do him
any harm was no wonder, but how he managed with the
vipers, men huru han bar sig 4t med Huggor-
marna, Iknownot. This I saw, that they not only did
not offer to bite him but also when a stick was pointed

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 39

at them, dé en kapp sattes 4t dem, or when some
one poked their heads with the end of his stick they
never bit at the stick. Some of the more forward of the
small crowd, sometimes dared to take hold of them
without the snakes attempting to bite them: whence
there seemed to be reason to believe that this man had
clipped off the teeth with which they [T. I. p. 405.]
bite. Such were our opinions about this, to-day. The
following day Dr. Mitchel paid him highly, when he made
known to Dr. Mitchel in what his art consisted, that he
could so carelessly handle the vipers; viz.: in this, that
when he had caught one of them fast, he had cut off the
‘two large teeth, which they, as a cat with its claws, can
shoot out and bite with, or draw back. After they have
lost them, they can do no further harm. He related that
sometimes when he had caught them, he had been bitten
by them, but that his antidote for that had been Snake-
Oil, Orm-olja, which he had made in this way, that he
had boiled the snake-fat, Orm-ister, to oil, which oil he
constantly carried with him in a glass bottle, and when
he was bitten, he smeared himself with this oil over the
place where he had been bitten, when he had no further
harm from it, after he had merely rubbed in the oil.*

* In M. Morin’s Reptiles e¢ Poissons, 144 pp., Paris, 8vo., is pp. 62-3 an
“¢ Addition a l’article de la Vipere Commune” consisting of two extracts from
Valmont de Bomare, a contemporary of Kalm, of which the second is
‘* REMEDES CONTRE LA MORSURE DE LA VIPERE. Les remedes vulgaires
“contre la morsure de la vipére (p. 63) sont extérieures et intérieures. Les
“‘extérieures sont de lier promptement, si l’on peut, la partie au-dessus de la
“*morsure, fo te up if possible the part above the bite ; d’approcher le plus pres
‘de cette morsure un morceau de fer rougi au feu, 40 hold a piece of red hot
“son close to the bite, ou de briiler sur la plaie un peu de poudre a canon, or
“ 10 burn a little gunpowder on the wound, ou bien enfin de scarifier la plaie et
“ @appliquer dessus de l’ail, du sel ammoniac pilés ensembles, zo scarify the
“ound and apply to ita mixture of garlic and sal ammoniac pounded together.
‘ As an internal remedy, on avale l’alcali volatile pris 4 des doses assez fortes.”
—(Valmont de Bomare.) [J.L-.]

40 KALM’S ENGLAND.

He said that among other things, the difference between
a viper and a snake, Huggorm och en snok, was
this that the viper when he sees that a human being
wishes to strike him dead, always holds the head higher
than the neck; but a snake in the same case holds it
lower down than the neck.

[Defer a note on North America. ]
[T. I. p. 408.] The 18th May, 1748.
At hindra damm p& gator. To prevent dust on roads.

From the great drought which there had now been
for several days there rose a strong and thick dust in the
streets of the town; but still more outside the same from
the grinding of horses, wagons and carts, so that one
could scarcely open his eyes, SAaten knapt... .
kunde se up med 6gonen, especially outside the
town. To somewhat prevent this in the streets of the
town, there were here and there men or boys who with
shovels cast about the water which had come to run out
of the pumps on to the street, and thus made the streets
wet. Those who had their shops close to each other,
strax bredevid, where there was much wheel traffic,
had the streets sprinkled in this way. On the places in
front of the houses, platsar utanfor hus, where people
walked backwards and forwards, water was also spread
for the same reason.

[Defer the visit to Sir Hans Sloane. ]
[T. I. p. 4o9.] The 19th May, 1748.
[Defer Friesland, &c. ]
[T. I. p. 410] Cedrus af Libanon burit frukt. Dr.
Mortimer said that he had been out into the country to visit
an acquaintance, where some cedar trees from Lebanon

had been planted, one of which had now for the first time
borne fruit and had cones, kottar. It was planted there

LONDON AND SUBURBS., 41

from seed, fifty or fifty-two years since, and from the time
it was sown it has not been moved from the same place.
The others, which had been sown at the same time, but
afterwards moved, had not yet shown a sign of fruit.

The 20th May.

To-day we took a walk down to the Greenwich side on
the south side of the river Thames. In all our walks out
into the country, however often they occurred, we took
care to notice, som fast ofta Skedde, togo vi noga
i akt, what the grass growth in the meadows consisted
of, its state of luxuriance, with various things which belong
to the cultivation of meadows, 4ngs-sk6tseln, but asthis
would take up too much room in a description of travels,
en Resebeskrifning, it is left for some other Academic
work.

Stangsel omkring krydd-gardar Akrar, 4ngar,
&e. Fences around market-gardens, arable fields,
meadows, Gc.

The palings and fences, stangsel oct hagnad, which
on this side, quite near to London, were used round
nursery and market gardens, arable, and meadows, tra-
och k6éks-krydd-gardar, &c., were commonly such
mud-walls or clay-walls, mull-valler,-as have been
previously described [p. 379, orig.]. In other places
there was a similar mud-wall, but still not so high,
on which the Elder tree, Flader-tra, Sambucus, had been
planted, and which have made a thick and beautiful
hedge. By all these earth-walls there were commonly
ditches, which still, in this drought, had an abundance of
water in them.

[T. I. p.411.] In some places on these walls there were
Willows, pilar, planted, about two or three fathoms from
each other, which had been cut off, or polled, about 12

42 KALM’S ENGLAND.

feet above the ground, after which they had struck out a
multitude of new shoots, telningar, which were after-
wards cut off again, 4 nyo, as often as they were required.
In other places, and everywhere somewhat farther from
town, here in Kent, they had hedges of hawthorn round
their inclosures, with which afterwards all kinds of leaf
trees had mingled themselves.

Beskaffenheten af hogderna.

About three or four miles S.E. of London, there lay in
Kent some high hills side by side. These were long-
sloping on all sides, and consisted of earth, jord. Isaw
on them, right up to the summit, either arable fields or
meadows all divided into small inclosures or tappor,
fenced with hawthorn hedges, with a number of cther
trees among them. The soil, Jordmon, of which the
upper crust on these hills consisted, was the _brick-
colored clay, which is found everywhere round London,
den tegel fargade leran som har omkring London
6fver alt finnes, blended with a finer or coarser sand
of the same colour. Some of these inclosuves were sown
with wheat, others with barley; some with peas and
vetches. A great part with beans. Some were laid
out as meadows, and now stood in an abundant crop of
grass. The earth, jorden, on all these hills commonly
looked as if it had been a fine loose powdered brick, en
fin 16s sénderstott tegel-sten. The prospect from
them was behagelig, delightful. On the west was seen
the whole of London, how it lay and extended itself in a
crook along the river Thames, and made a show with its
many towers. [T. I. p. 412.] The top of Sé. Paul’s
Church dome seemed to be almost the same height as these
hills. The coal smoke which constantly hangs over
London, sufficiently prevented me from seeing it clearly,
but it stood as in a fog, tokn. The ships which sailed

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 43

on the Thames could be seen quite well. The country
all round resembled a garden, and its many hedges pre-
vented me from seeing much into the fields. In Kent the
country looked like a collection of wood-grown hills,
skog-bevaxta hégder, with ploughed fields among
them.

Hvetet. The wheat was sown in stitches or small
ridges. Commonly, sucha rygg was ten feet, sometimes,
also, twelve feet broad, with water furrows between each
rygg. No ditches were used on all the ploughed fields
we saw to-day, except by the hedges. The height of the
ridges in the middle was six inches, nine inches, or a foot
higher than the bottom of the water furrows, and sloped
towards both sides. The wheat here stood beautiful,
no ears, 2X, were yet seen. The barley, kornet, was
sown in the same way as with us in Sweden, in broad land.

Arterna, Pease, were all sown in rows, and there was
always three feet and sometimes three feet six inches be-
tweentherows. They had with hoes, hackor, cleared away
the weeds between the rows, and moved the loose mould,
mullen, up towards the stalks of the peas. No pea-
sticks, ruskor, or anything else had been laid here for
the peas to climb up, but they were lying along the
ground as they were large. It was a very convenient
fashion to sow pease in this way in rows, i rader, for
one could so very easily take away all the weeds
with a rake, ty en hade ganska 1latt fore, at med
en kratta ut6da ograsen. In the gardens on this
side of the town we saw pease [T. I. p. 413] in the same
way sown in rows; but then there was not commonly
more than eighteen inches, two feet, or two feet six inches
between the rows.

Bonorna, Beans, on these fields were all sown in
broad cast, yet on ten feet wide stitches, but in the market
gardens at Southwark the garden beans were all sown in

44 KALM'S ENGLAND.

rows two feet or two feet six inches between the rows.
In some places in the gardens there was a number of
asparagus beds, and beans were planted in the passages
between them. Vicia Sativa, tares were always sown in
broad cast, and not in rows, yet on ten feet broad siztches.

Huru far ransa bart ogrés emellan Bonor.
How sheep clear away weeds between beans.

In one of the inclosuves which in the aforenamed
manner were sown with beans, we remarked that they
had turned in thirty odd sheep, nagra och 30 far, which
went there and eat off the weeds between the beans,
which weeds they ate up, and bit off quite close to the
ground, but did the beans not the smallest harm. We
spent along time in carefully examining, vi gingo lange
och sago med noga flit efter, der Faren gingo
midt ibland Bonorna, where the sheep went amongst
the beans, whether they had not touched them, but we
could not mark a single leaf of them bitten. The weed
which grew here in multitudes, and the principal weed
was Srnapis (Linn Flor Svec. 548—RapistTRuM Flore luteo
C.B. or the common Aker-senapen [Sinapis Arvensis.
Linn.—Lilja, Skanes Flora. 1 472; Brassica Sinapistruin,
J. Hooker, St. Fl. 1870, p. 30. Charlock, at Aldbury,
near Tring, “‘Curlock; ” at Whitwell, Herts, ‘‘ Carlock ;”’
at Rusper, Suss; “ Kelk,” and in Sussex, generally
“Kilk,” ] together with some plants of hvitrot* (Triticum,
Linn. Flor: Svec. 105), both of which the sheep ate
greedily, especially the Charlock When the sheep had
eaten to repletion they lay down among the beans to rest,
at hvila.t They thus performed a double service, first,

* So on p. 387 orzg. but elsewhere ‘‘ Qvickrot” as in Linn Av. Sv, 105.—
Trit. repens. [J. LJ

} A verb preserved in Eng. ‘* To while away the time.’” Fy. Chémer, to
rest, 16 Cent. Chaumer, Provencal, Chaume, ‘‘the time when flocks
“rest: [J. L.] os

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 45

that they cleared away the weeds, and secondly, that
they manured the field by their droppings.

Vaxternas frodighet. The luxuriance of the plants.

On all sides around London, both near to the town
and also [T. I. p. 414] somewhat farther from it, I
remarked that a number of plants were commonly much
more luxuriant and larger than with usin Sweden. Thus
karrborre-bladen [kard-borre, Lilja, Sk. Fl. 565,
Lappa ; Arctium Lappa, J. Hooker, St. Fl. 187, Burdock
Dut, Klissen-kruid; Ger, Klette, Hoff, 1791, 1. 283 ; Ital.
Bardana; Fr. Bardane.] Burdock leaves, leaves of
kattost (Malva) Mallow; so also Senecio Vulg., ground-
sel, Aparine Vulg. [Galium Aparine L.] Urtica Urens
maxima [U. dioica. L.] great nettle; hundfloka [“ gul
stormhatt,” Veste; Aconitum Napellus L. Monkshood]
and several other such plants were double as large, if
not more, as they commonly are in Sweden, which all
seems to be a sign of the soil, and its richness hereabouts,
partly natural, partly from long continued manuring and
turning over.

The 21st May, 1748. Sirv Isaac Newton’s Graf.

Among other beautiful monuments which are erected
in St. Peter’s or Westininster A bbey Church here in London,
where the Kings of England are both crowned and buried,
there is also that which has been erected in memory of
the great Mathematicus and Philosophus, Sir Isaac Newton.*
He lies buried in the nave,i framre delen,t of the

* This touching dedication of KALm recalls the words of Hume—“ The
‘severest scrutiny which NEWwTon’s theory has undergone, proceeds not
‘* from his own countrymen but from Foreigners, and if it can overcome the
‘‘obstacles which it meets with at present in all parts of Europe, it will pro-
“ bably go down triumphant to the latest posterity.” Essay ox the Rise of the
Arts and Sciences, 1742.

{This shows that Kalm must have entered by the West door, now
closed. [J. L.]

46 KALM’S ENGLAND.

church immediately in front of the choir, strax for
choret, where some of the old royal tombs are. Close
above the grave and on the side towards the choir his
monument is erected, where he himself lies carved in white
marble, and rests on his right elbow, och stédjer den
hégre handen under hufvudet. Above him is a
celestial globe, himmels-glob, carved also in white
marble, on which the paths of the comets are set out in
gilt lines,* hvarpa Cometernas gang med forgylte
Linier star utsatt, also these words: ‘‘ Dec. 24, 1680.”}

Under the right elbow are four books in Folio, on
which he rests. These books lie one upon another, and
there is set forth on one side, p&é ena sidan, what they
contain, viz.: onthe highest stands the word “ Divinity”;
on the next under it, “‘ Chronology” ; then [T. I. p. 415]
“ Opticks’; lastly, “Philo. Prin. Math.”{ Down below
him stand carved angels, 4nglar, [beautiful little boys],
who hold mathematical instruments, &c. 2

The inscription on the monument is this :—
H. S. E.
ISAACUS NEWTON, Eques auratus,
Qui animi vi prope divina
Planetarum Motus, Figuras,
Cometarum Semitas, Oceanique stus,
Sua Mathesi facem przeferente,

* These gilt lines have disappeared. [J. L.]

} This date has disappeared. For the great comet of 1680, see J. Herschel,
Astron., Ed. 1867, Art. 573. [J. L.]

{ These words have all disappeared. From the position of the Fo/ios, they
must have been gilded on the ends, or what would be the top-edges of the
Folios if standing upright, as on the books shown in the Frontispiece to the
2nd Ed. of the Dunciad, 1729. [J. L.]

§ Mathematics. Thus says Hume: “ Religion and Politics, and consequently
“ Metaphysics and Morals. All these form the most considerable branches of
“Science. Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, which only remain, are not
“half so-valuable.” Essay oz the Rise of the Arts and Sciences, 1742. Time,
that proves all things, has given another verdict. [J. L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 47

Primus demonstravit ;

Radiorum lucis dissimilitudines,
Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates,*
Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus erat, pervestigavit,
Nature, Antiquitatis, S. Scripture, ¢
Sedulus, Sagax, fidus interpres,

Dei O.M. Majestatem Philosophia asseruit,
Evangelii Simplicitatem moribus expressit.
Sibi gratulentur Mortales
Tale tantumque extitisse

HUMANI GENERIS DECUS.
Nat. XXV. Dec. a.p. MDCXLII. Onur XX. Mar. MDCCXXVI.
Around the Monument itself is an iron railing, jarn-
galler.{ On one side of the monument there are these
words: “Gut. KENT Pict. ET ARCHIT. invenit.” ; on the
opposite side “ MicH. RysBRACK, sculpsit.”’
On the grave-stone in the pavement there are these

words:
“* HIC DEPOSITUM EST

QUOD MORTALE FUIT
ISAACI NEWTONI.”
[T. I. p. 416.] The 22nd May, 1748.

In the afternoon I went with some Englishmen and
the present Professor of CEconomy at Lund in Sweden,
Herr Mag. Burmester, out to Hampstead, a little “‘ stad,”
or town, some few miles north of London, in a very
delightful place, to which on Sundays, and “‘ vid vackert
vader” (in fine weather), a great many people ride or
drive and walk in the summer to enjoy themselves.

Af hvad jordmon hdgderna omkring London
besta. Of what soil the hills round London consist.

The hills, H6gderne eller jord-backarne, which

* Newton discovered the polarization of light. t Kalm omits the ‘‘S”
before ‘‘ Scripture.” {There are no iron-railings now. [J. L.]

48 KALM’S ENGLAND.

lie in the neighbourhood of London, on the Kent side as
well as on the Essex and other sides, resemble outwardly
to a great extent the hills in Hertfordshire, which com-
monly under the top soil, 6fra jord-skarpan, consist of
bare chalk. Reasoning upon analogy I was inclined to
think that the hills in the neighbourhood of London also
consisted lower down of solid chalk,* and that only at
the top lay a thick crust of the brick-colored clay, which
occurs everywhere about here; but several people whom
I consulted about this denied utterly that there is any
chalk under these hills. To-day I got still farther evidence
that this seems to have the truth on its side, for Professor
Burmester told me that he had seen down at Woolwich
a shaft, graf eller grop, dug to about twenty English
yards down through such a hill, where the strata lay
nearly in this order :—

On the top soil, svartmylla

Then a stratum of the brick-colored clay

Further down a bed of all sorts of mussel and snail
shells :
Next to that a bed of a hard clay full of small round
stones :
Under which a fine white sand which continued
without being bottomed [T. I. p. 417] as far down as the
pit was dug, but no chalk occurs in this hill.t A man,
who lives close to it, was said to be the owner of this pit,
out of which he sells the fine sand to various persons to
use for their brick-making and other purposes.

Vinter-Krassa til Sallad. Winter-Cress for Salad.

Erysimum, 557 [E. Barbarea, now Barbarea Vulgaris |
or Winter-Cress, grows abundantly in England on the

* Kalm was right. The chalk underlies the whole of the London basin. [J. L.]

+ This section must have gone close on to the chalk, but did not quite
reach it. [J.L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS 49

banks of ditches and elsewhere. It is sown here in the
kitchen gardens and used in the winter-time and also in
the spring while it is still tender, as salad, or more cor-
rectly speaking as gron-kAl, chouvert, in the same way
as we in Sweden prepare spinach. If they have not

planted it in the kitchen gardens they avail themselves of
the wild ones.

Angar och deras gras-vaxt. Meadows and their
Grass Growth.

On the whole of this side of London which we visited
to-day there was a great multitude of inclosures, or
tappor, nearly all laid out as meadows. The land
around Hampstead consisted mostly of hills, long-sloping
on all sides. The grass-growth in them was very beau-
tiful, and now as long as any on our very best meadows
in Sweden at the end of June, which is principally owing
to this, that these meadows are here commonly manured
every year. On most of the meadows around Hampstead
the grass growth consisted almost solely of Bromus, 87
[Banks, MS. ‘varietas secalini’], which here stood as
thick as the thickest rye-fields, and every plant was
2 feet 6 inches high or more. When this grass grew on
high hills, kullar, and on very dry places, it was not
longer than it commonly is in Sweden.

[T. I. p. 418.]

Some other kinds of grass had mingled themselves
amongst it, but they were so few, that it is not worth
while to mention them. Among them, however, Alope-
curus 52 [A. pratensis L.], was the commonest. I also
noted however, that in most of the beautiful meadows
which are:‘found round London, both these aforenamed
kinds of grass have nearly always formed the most
plentiful, best, and most luxuriant grass-growth. I

should also think that if we in Sweden, especially near to
E

50 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the towns, looked after our meadows with the same care
and diligence as the Englishmen around London, our
meadows would also yield, kasta af sig, as much and
as good hay as these, if not more so. The soil was here
the same as everywhere around London, viz., a brick-
coloured clay blended with a finer or coarser sand of the
same colour, the surface of which, by the decay of the
plants, had got to be mould, mylla. A great many of
the meadows on this side were now mown, and the hay
partly carried, partly also it still stood in rows or cocks.

[Defer AMERICAN NOTE. ]
Bee I. p- 419.| The 23rd May, 1748.
Hvad Skilnad jordmon gor at vaxter.
What difference the Soil inakes to Plants.

It is sometimes wonderful to see what a difference the
climate, as well as the soil, and other circumstances, make
to one and the same kind of plant. Medicago, 621
[M. lupulina] covers, vaper pa, the acre-reins A4ker-
renar, of Upland in Sweden, and the roadsides in clay-soil,
ler grund, where it creeps out of the earth, and often
spreads itself out for a length of two feet on all sides.
When it gets into vegetable and other kitchen gardens it
grows still more luxuriantly and larger. Here around
London I found it on the hills and knolls, p&é hégder
och kullar, where it grows so miserable, small, and
slender, spinkot, that I had great difficulty in recog-
nizing it. I saw hardly a plant of it which had attained
a length of 6 inches, but most were only 4 inches long.
Some werealso only 14inch. The soil was here a mixture
of brick-colored clay, sand, and humus, svartmylla,
which seemed to be a good earth; but still this plant
was here [T. I. p. 420] sc small, though at the same time
a number of other plants grew luxuriantly enough. Lolium,

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 51

104 [L. perenne.] Rye grass had almost the same fate.
It grew small and very slender, spinkot, while Bromus
87 |var. secalini] and Alopecurus, 52 [A. Pratensis. L.]
thrive in this earth very well. I particularly noticed in
the case of the Bromus, that it here formed the longest
and principal grass-growth on nearly all the meadows
round London, and grew to a length of 2 feet 6 inches or
3 feet, whereas in Sweden, on the dry sand hills, it com-
monly is not over 4 inches high, slender, and miserable.

[Defer AMERICAN NOTE. ]

Vaggl6és fordom sallsynte i Angland. “ Wall-lice”
or bugs formerly rare in England.

Mr. Catesby said that about twenty years ago they
hardly knew here in England what a ‘“‘ Wall-louse”’ was ;
but since that time they had travelled over here in ships
from foreign countries, so that there are now few houses
in London in which these least welcome guests have not
quartered themselves.*

Huru Foglar och Fiskar i en natural Samling
bast conserveras. How Birds and Fishes ave best preserved
in a collection.

Mr. Catesby described the method which he had
used on his travels to prepare and preserve birds and
fishes, which he designed for his collection. It consisted
in this, that when he had got a bird he took [T. I.
p- 422] the entrails, inalfvorna, out of it, then
sprinkled snuff all over the inside, put it in an oven,

* “Their original name was Chinche or ‘ Wall-louse’( Ray. “71st.
insect. 7), and the term Bug, which is a Celtic word, Wel. Bwg, signifying a
ghost or goblin, was applied to them after Ray’s time” [d. 1674]. ‘‘ Bug”
in its old sense ¢.g. ‘ Thou shalt not nede to be afraid of any dugs by night”
(Mathew’s Bible Ps. xci. 5), Winter’s Tale, III., 2, 3, also in Aing Henry
VI, 5, 2, and in Cymbeline twice, became obsolete. (Kirby and Spence,
Entomol. Let. 1V) (J. L.] 3

2

52 KALM’S ENGLAND.

which was as hot as when bread is taken out of it ; for if
the heat is too great all the fat melts. When the speci-
men had remained a short time in the oven it was taken
out to cool. It was again put in the oven, and left
there till it was quite dry; for the trick consists in this,
that it must not be dried too quickly, but gradually

Afterwards, if one wishes to carry them
sidyarena they are laid in casks, tunnor, or such like,
snuff is sprinkled over and in them, to drive away moth,
mal, and other injurious insects, skade-krak. Fish
are best preserved in spivitu Vint.

(T. I. p. 422. ]
Hvart land har Sin Sed.

Each country has its-peculiar customs in one thing and
another, and so it is in England. I believe there is
scarcely a country where one gets to see so many
Peruques as here. I will not mention that nearly all the
principal ladies, and also a part of the commoner folk,
wear Peruques, but I only speak of the men, who in short,
all wore them. The boy was hardly in breeches before
he came out with a Perugue on his head, which was
sometimes not much smaller than himself. It did not,
therefore, strike one as being at all wonderful to see
farm-servants, Bonde-dranger, clodhoppers, Torpare,
day- -labourers, dagsverks-karlar, Farmers, Bonder,
in a word, all labouring-folk go through ther usual
every-day duties all with Perugqwes on the head. Few,
yea, very few, were those who only wore their own hair.
I had to look around a long time in a church [T. 1.
p. 423] or other gathering of people, before I saw any-
one with his own hair. I asked the reason for the
dislike of, and the low estimation in which they here
held their own hair? The answer was, that it was
nothing more than the custom and mode. Here in

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 53

England short peruques were mostly used, yet some of
the grand people also had “locks” on them, lackar
uti. They were dear enough. For one guinea it was
passable, and did not look very handsome. I should
have to give at least a couple of guineas, if I wished to
have one of some value, and a good one.

I never noticed that any Englishman used boots,
stOflor, in any case, except when he was riding and
sitting on a horse.* On other occasions shoes, skor,
were always used. Sometimes, when any snow fell in
winter, so that it was dirty in the streets, there was here
and there an individual who wore boots.t If anyone in
any case walked in the town with boots, he had always a
riding-whip, piska, in his hand as a sign that he had
ridden in, rest in til hast, or was just about to mount
and ride out of the town. If he did not do this, he was
looked upon as a foreigner, at whom the people could
stand and stare, as at something extraordinary. I re-
member that, during my visit to the country in dirty and
rainy weather, when I had pulled on my boots, to go
drier about the feet, I was asked by one and another if I
intended to ride out to any place that day in such bad
weather.

The sword, Varja, is very seldom worn except by
members of Court, or some foreigner.

The 25th May, 1748.

In the afternoon I went with Dr. Mitchell, My. What-
son, the well-known Mr. Graham [T.I. p. 424], and some
other Fellows of the Royal Society, out to Dulwich, in
Survey, and other places in that neighbourhood, to see
what rare plants might be found there, as well as in Kent.
The whole of this tract of country was most delightful.

* “ Rida och sitta til hast.” Sitta til hast—Lat. Zguwo insidere. [J.L.]

“+ Boots [Bottes, Fr.], leather coverings for the legs in traveling.”
Bailey, Zug. Dic., 15th Ed., 1753. [J. L.]

54 KALM’S ENGLAND.

It went up and down in long sloping hills with valleys
between. We had a continuous series of well-built
villages, gentlemen’s houses, ploughed fields, meadows,
orchards and gardens, kitchen - gardens, commons,
utmarker, &c.

The country was everywhere divided into small m-
closures, with hawthorn and other hedges round them,
so that one could only suppose that he was travelling all
the way through a garden. Here and there appeared
small woods of all sorts of leaf-trees. When a view of
the country was obtained from some of the highest hills,
backar, it looked pretty enough; but the great number
of hedges caused it to look, a little farther off, as though
it were entirely overgrown with woods, through which
some brick house peeped here and there; for as the
inclosures were for the most part small here, the hedges
prevented the ploughed fields and meadows which lay
between them from being seen.

[Defer AMERICAN NOTE. ]
[T. I. pe 4255]
Géodsel lagd i hégar; A4ngars gédning.
Manure laid in heaps ; manuring meadows.

Nearly everywhere here in England it was the prac-
tice to carry out dung and other dirt, which is collected
in farms and villages, and lay it in large heaps by the
ploughed fields, to lie there for a time and ferment toge-
ther. Those who live round London buy the dung and
refuse which is collected in the streets, and carried out
and laid in large heaps outside the town. This manure
they afterwards carry out in the spring on to their mea-
dows, market gardens, ploughed fields, &c., lay it in some
corner of them, or also on the common close by, in a
great heap, where it lies the whole summer under the

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 55

open sky, and ferments together. On the top it is com-
monly covered with straw-litter, halm-byssje. As a
great part of the land round London is laid out in
meadows and pastures, and the owners are very careful
by all means to cover over the grass-lands with it, be-
cause they can thus obtain a larger profit from them, so
they commonly manure their meadows once a year, which
is done thus. In September or October, or also later,
when the cattle are no longer driven on to the meadows
or pastures, they take the manure which has lain and
rotted in the above-named heaps, carry it out on to the
meadow, and there spread it out somewhat thinly. The
rain, which at this season of the year commonly follows
this, washes the manure down to the roots of the grass,
so that it does not evaporate, at den ej svinner bart
iluften. Hence it happens that the meadows around
London bear so luxuriant and abundant a grass-crop tha t
they can be mown so early, and several times a year.
[T. I. p. 426. ]

This well rotted manure, the time of year when it is
spread out on the meadows, and the English climate, in
which not much snow falls at a time in the winter to wash
away the best and fattest of the manure in melting, cause
the meadows to fare incomparably well on it, and accounts
for no one here knowing much about what it is for the
manure spread on the meadows to burn up the grass.

Rag saéllsynt omkring London.
Rye rare around London.

To-day for the first time we saw rye growing here in
England, for in all the places we had been at before we
had not seen one rye plant, rag-stand, because it is
wheat that is grown everywhere here. This rye now
stood in the ear, everywhere, and was tolerably fine, so

56 KALM’S ENGLAND,

that rye would thrive here very well, if they had not wheat,
which always has the preference.

Senfardig Var. Late Spring.

Everyone here in England said that all vegetation
was three weeks later than it had been for many, indeed
for sixty years [1688]in this country; when we never-
theless thought that it was three weeks earlier than it
could be about Stockholm in Sweden, at this time in
ordinary course.

Halso-brunnar och hus dervid.
Mineral waters and houses near them.

At one place there were on the side of a hill some pit-
wells dug in the bank, whose water they use to drink in
the summer, like that of any other mineral spring, sur-
brunnars. The water had no outlet, and tasted like
the water in ordinary clay-pits, ler-gropar, and it seems
that the benefit of this exists only in folks’ imagination.
Several cabins, kojor, were built close by for the visitors
to the spring. The walls were of sods, the roof of furze,
and the bare ground [T. I. p. 427] served for a floor.

At Dulwich there was a well dug and walled round
deep down into the earth, which had the reputation of
having restored many to health. The water was said to
be purging. The great heat and thirst drove us to drink
a great quantity of it, without the slightest effect.

Matvarors pris i Krigstiden.
The price of provisions in time of war.

I asked whether provisions were dearer here in Eng-
land in war time than at other times. They answered
“No,” but they are then commonly cheaper. The reason
is that it is then forbidden to carry them out of the king-
dom. That meat was now dear was due to the cattle
disease which had carried off such a number of animals,

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 87

(T. I. p. 439.] The 28th May, 1748.
Huru ler beredes til tegel-slaning.
How clay is prepared for brick making.

Immediately outside the town on the north side near
the road to Hampstead, there were large pits where the
clay and sand [T. I. p. 440] were dug up, from which
they made bricks close by. The soil here consisted of a
brick-colored clay, mingled with a fine sand. This sandy
clay, sand blandadeleran, was cast together in large
heaps in this way, that when one stratum of it had been
been laid a foot thick, or less, there was spread over it a
stratum of coal ashes about 4 inches thick or less, then
sand and clay mixed, after that coal-ashes again, and so
on. Next to that the water was led from the ponds, vattu-
groparna, to it through troughs, ramnor, as much,
that is to say, as was required. The sand-mixed clay,
coal-ashes, and water, were then mixed together for as
long a time as was necessary to mingle them thoroughly
together. After that this clay so prepared, was thrown
into trucks, ka&rror, specially made for the purpose, and
carried to the place where the bricks were made.

The 29th May, 1748.

In the morning I went in company with Director
Campbell out to the Duke of Argyle’s house at Whitton,
situated ten miles west of London. The Duke himself
invited me, and begged me to come there once before I
left England, for which visit he himself fixed the day.
This Duke’s house lies on a great flat common,* et
stort flakt falt. The soil was very meagre, mager,
nearly all around being bare ling-heath, bara ljung
hed; but the Duke has been able to show what plea-
sure, art, and money are able to effect, and that by their

* Hounslow Heath. [J. L.]

58 KALM’S ENGLAND.

means the most meagre places are converted into
fruitful land. The Duke, who had himself the greatest
insight into Botany, as well as Mathematics, and other
branches of Natural Science, Naturkunnogheten,
had also had a beautiful garden laid down here. The
first beginning of it was made in [T. I. p. 441] the year
1723, when the Duke first bought, tilhandlade sig,
this ground. Here, there was a collection of all the
kinds of trees, which grow in different parts of the world,
and can stand the climate of England out in the open
air, summer and winter. The Duke had himself planted
very many of these trees with his own hand. There was
here a very large number of Cedars of Lebanon, which
appeared to have the best opinion of a dry and meagre
earth, and it seems that it might be suitable for planting
on our great heaths and sandy tracts, stora heder och
moar,* in Sweden and Finland.

Of North American Pines, Granar, Firs, Tallar,
Cypresses, Thuyas, all these and many other kinds,
there was an abundance, which throve very well. There
were already small groves of them. Diligence and Art
have not been spared here to make everything delightful.
The Duke comes out here from London as often as he
can find time from his duties. Here is also a beautiful
orangery. There were no more than just sufficient rooms
in the house, though they were very pretty, but not to
be compared with such Castles, Slott, and Palaces
which such great lords are used to have, and are
especially common in England. The Duke himself
observed the thoughts, which in consequence of this,
arose in my mind and in that of my travelling companion.
“Your wonder,” said he, “ probably is why I have not a
‘‘ larger and grander house here than this; but I have
“ first decided to prepare this meagre soil, and make it

* Mo. glarea slerilis. Wallerius, AZineralogia, Stockholm, 1747. [J. L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 59

available to plant all kinds of trees in, and after
setting the trees in the order, and in the positions they
ought to occupy so that they may grow, then, as I
have the money, I can always build the most hand-
some Castle in one year, and even a shorter time,
when I [T. I. p. 442] choose to do so, which it would
take a poorer man Io years to build, but to effect so
much as that a single tree shall take root and grow as
much in one year as it would otherwise grow in ten,
that can I never effect with money, but Nature must
have its time; therefore he who intends to build a
house, and lay out a garden round it, ought to make
a beginning with planting trees to gain time.”

In the evening we went back to London, together
with Dr. Mitchell, Mr. Watson, and several other
naturalists, who had been out at the Duke’s this day.

The 30th May, 1748.

During the whole of my visit to England, both before
and after the date just given, I made numerous observa-
tions not only on the cultivation of meadows, but on the
plants of which the hay and grass growth in their
meadows particularly consists, and which plants are the
most profitable in their meadows on various kinds of
soil; which plants horses, donkeys, cows, sheep, swine,
and other animals usually eat; and which, on the con-
trary, they reject, and always pass by; with several other
(Economico-Botanical observations ; but, as they would
take up too much room in a description of travels, they
are left for another occasion to be published either in
Academic Disputations or under some other name.

6e

The and Fune, 1748.

Plants useful for sowing on the sides of Earth-walls, to
fasten the mould by.

T have several times before mentioned, that in several

60 KALM’S ENGLAND.

places [T. I. p. 443] around London, high and sufficiently
steep earth-walls are used instead of a fence, gardes-
gard, or other hedge around their ploughed fields,
meadows, and pastures, and market gardens. When the
earth becomes dry at the sides, especially when there
has been a frost, it is very much given to slip down and
destroy the wall. I remarked, however, that nature
herself was diligent in remedying this, and that art came
to her aid, which was effected by certain plants that had
taken up their abode on the sides of the walls, and had
bound the earth together with their roots, and by the
shelter of their leaves, med bladens skugga, prevented
the sun and frost from doing violence to the mould which
without the plants would be loose. Among them there
were in particular the following :—

Qvickroten, 105 [Triticum], was the best of all
grasses, and was also the commonest on the sides of the
walls. It grew thickest of all, the most luxuriant, and
the richest in blades, and made the longest grass growth.
The highest was commonly 2 ft. 6 ins. to 3 ft.

Hundexing, 83 [Banks MS., Dactylis Glomerata]
stood in some places plentiful enough.

Renlosta, 85, was also a beautiful grass for fastening
earth-walls, especially where the earth is loose. I saw
it growing in many places on the sides in abundance,
luxuriant and rich in blades, indeed it often stood as
thick as the thickest rye field especially under the shade
of the hedges. Its height was 2 ft. 6 ins. to 3 ft. In
some places Akervinda, 173 [C. Arvensis, L. Ger.
Winde.] Small Bind Weed, covered the whole south side
of the high and very steep earth walls, where it had
bound the earth together with its thick growth, plentiful
leaves and shade, myckna blan och skugga.

In other places there grew Hordewm, 107 [H. Muri-
num] quite alone on both sides of the earth-wall, where

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 61

[T. I. p. 444] it stood like the thickest rye-field, but was
not taller than about 1 foot high. It seemed as if this
grass would thrive best on the south side of the wall.
In many places the sides of the walls were covered over
either with Quickroot, 105 [Triticum repens] or Renlosta
(85) or Scandix, 241, seminibus hispidis [S. Anthriscus, now
Anthriscus Vulgaris] Beaked Parsley, each of which in its
place and by itself made the thickest growth that can be,
and certainly seemed to be very profitable and serviceable
for sowing on the sides of earth-walls, to fasten the loose
mould by. It seemed as if the Quickroot would thrive
better on the north side of the walls. These walls con-
sisted of the brick-colored clay found everywhere around
London, which has frequently been mentioned before.

The 3rd of Fune, 1748.

In the afternoon I was at the house of Dr. Cromwell
Mortimer, Secretary of the Royal Society in London,
where I then made the acquaintance of Mr. Baker, who
had written the beautiful book on Polygs, in which he re-
counts the many experiments he had made with them.
[Omit a silly note on a child’s skull found in a chalkpit.]

[T. I. p. 445.] Luteola, 439. [Reseda Luteola, L.]
Dyers Weed, Weld, grew everywhere outside London on
the earth-walls. That it can be contented with the
driest earth I noticed from this, that it grew in fissures in
the tops of the walls in the greatest heat of the sun
where all other plants, even Poa Murorum [P. Compressa,
L.] were entirely withered up and killed by the great
heat; but this stood there green and in flower, more
than 18 inches high. The cattle always left it uneaten.

The 6th Fune, 1748.

List of births and deaths, &c., in several places. In
a printed description of London, in Folio, there is a list

62 KALM’S ENGLAND,

of births, deaths, and marriages in several of the largest
towns of Europe, from which to drawa comparison with
London, and to show the size of London. I will in the
last volume (D.V.) of these travels give how many are
annually born, die, &c., in London. [This promise was
never fulfilled.] Now I will only shortly state them con-
cerning the foreign places, as they stood entered in this
book. [Pp. 446 and 447 of T. I. contain Tables for
Nine towns. |

[T. I. p. 447.]
Several good institutions in London.

In several places, especially in the larger streets,
where the people stream backwards and forwards, there
sit either men or old women with shoe-brushes, blacking,
and such like, ready to clean shoes for anyone who may
require their services. Thus when [T. I. p. 448] one
walks in the street, and gets muddy about the shoes, he
turns to one of those who stand in the street, and allows
him to clean his shoes. It is not necessary to take off
one’s shoes for this purpose, but one sets the feet with
the shoes on upon a little table, stol, which is put there
on purpose, when they are cleaned. A halfpenny is paid
for each shoe. This is a great advantage in this place,
where the women are so very careful about their clean
and white floors, besides that, one can go neat about the
feet.

In many places, and almost everywhere in the large
streets, there stand carriages for hire, hyr-vagnar,
ready to carry, on payment, anyone who wishes to use
them. These hire-coachmen, hyr-kuskar, do not get
to take payment, according to their own judgment, if they
are employed in the town, but they have a certain Taxa,
how much they shall receive from the one place to
another, above which they cannot go without a fine,

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 63

utan boter, but where anyone takes a chaise, vagn,* to
a certain place outside the town it then commonly de-
pends on a bargain. Besides this there is the law or
regulation, lag eller stadga, for these hire-chaises in
the town, that if one wishes to have the carriage for
several hours, a half or a whole day, then it is paid for
according to the number of hours, in this way, that two
shillings are always paid for the first hour, but after that,
only a shilling is paid for each hour. In the same way
one can almost anywhere get a carrier, Akare, to convey
anything that may be needed. Similarly there is always
a multitude of porters, Barare, ready to carry anything
from one place to another.

In several places, especially at the west side of the
town, where the Court resides, der Hofvet bor, there
are seen a number of Post Chaises, which stand for hire
at anybody’s service.

At all the stess by the river, and in the “lanes,”
granderna, which run down to the same [T. I. p. 449]
there stand whole troops of vowers, Roddare, who as
soon as they. become aware of anyone coming a long way
off, set up a horrible noise, et faseligt buller, so that
by shouts and upraised hands they made known their
readiness to carry one where he wished to go on the

river.t
The Penny Post is also here a useful institution, which

consists in this, that if one has a letter or anything else,
which does not exceed a pound in weight, to send to
anyone in London, or the places situated close by, it is

* “ We engaged what is termed a wagon, but which bears a tolerable re-
semblance to an ordinary post chaise, to take us to Brill,” &c., p. 32,
Descriptive History of Holland, Grandfather, 1819. 12mo. [J.L.]

+ Vincent Bourne gives an amusing description of this in his “Iter per
Thamisin.”
** At nautae venientem ubi me videre sagaces,
Sese disponunt, omnes clamare parati,
Et jam protensis manibus diversa loquuntur,” &c. [J.L.]

64 KALM’S ENGLAND.

sent by the Penny Post, which is established at several
places in London, and one pays for it one penny, when it
quickly and safely reaches its destination, snart och

sikert kommer fort. Besides this, there are
certain men who, every day, when the Post is going to
start from London to any place, go round with small
bells, which they ring. Anyone who has a letter to send
to the Post, can give them to such a man, when he for
one penny safely carries it to the Post, which is a great
convenience in this large town, where many have over
half a mile to walk to the Post-house.

[Water-supply by bored-tree-stem-pipes. |

About the advantage of having sufficient water at
home in one’s own kitchen by means of pipes made of
bored stems of trees, pip-stackar, which bring the
water there underground ;* about the streets, which at the
sides are laid with smooth flat stones with posts at the
outside, within which people walk quite safe from all
vehicles and horses; about the links, lycktor, which
everywhere in the larger streets are lighted at dusk
uptandas i skymningen, and burn the whole night,
together with many other useful institutions, I have either
told before, or am going to speak further on.

The oth June, 1748.

Vaux-Hall. In the evening I went with some of my

* Several of which were to be seen in 1885 lying as excavated at the
northern end of Shaftesbury Avenue close to Oxford Street, of different sizes.
some very large and others quite small, mains and branches. In ‘‘ Hydraulia,”
By Wm. Matthews, Lond., 1835, 8vo., pp. 66-68, is some interesting
information respecting these wooden pipes from which I extract the following.
The trees were elm ; at one time the New River Company alone had 400
miles of wooden pipes, which were entirely renewed in the course of every 20
years. The bore varied from 3 to 6 or 7 inches, and a few near the Reservoirs
10 or 12 inches. Between 1810 and 1820 the whole of the New River Com-
pany’s wooden pipes were replaced by iron ones. [J. L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 65

acquaintances to Vauxhall, to see that much-vaunted
pleasure garden, where the youth of London, almost
[T. I. p. 450] every evening in the summer, divert
themselves. This pleasure-garden lies a little beyond
Westminster Abbey, ofvanfér W. A., but on the other
side of the river Thames. It is full of allées, planted
with Lime and Elm, Lind och Alm, where people can
walk about. At one place is a high special Altan, built
with a roof over it, and benches in the Altan, on which
the musicians sit. At 6 o’clock in the evening, they
begin to assemble, when the music commences at 7 or
8 o’clock in the Altan, with a very large number of
different kinds of instruments, among which is also an
organ [orgor, as in French, in the plural.] When they
have played for some time, there appear Chanteurs or
Chanteuses, Sangare eller SAngerskor, who also sing
from the Altan, lata hora sig fran A; sometimes only
one sings, sometimes two, and sometimes three together.

While they are singing, they are accompanied now and
again by instruments. When they have continued fora
time, there is an interval, halles nagot up, both with
songs and music, when those who have come out there
either promenade, spatsera omkring, in the garden
or sit down at one of the many tables there are, and have
brought to them various foods and drinks, wines, confi-
tures, punch, meat, stek, apples, fruits, &c., which are
all tolerably dear, so that those who sell them do not
seem to lose anything by it. No man or lady enters the
garden without paying a shilling at the entrance. After
that anyone is free to buy anything or not. One can in
in the meantime listen to the music, walk about, see and
be seen, without any further cost. As soon as it begins
to be a little dusk, lamps are everywhere lighted up,
which are here in the garden in great multitudes, and

which burn for some time after 10 o’clock, when the
F

66 KALM’S ENGLAND.

songs and music cease, and all the guests hurry away.
[T. I. p. 451.] There are here ready all the statues and
ornaments which are used in gardens. Thus the means
of supporting themselves and earning money are mani-
fold. Here the musicians and men and women singers
earn their subsistence. Here those make large profits
who sell various kinds of provisions. Rowers and hire-
coachmen are well satisfied with this institution, because
they have a large profit out of the large number of people
going and coming thither and thence, partly in chaises,
partly in boats, dit och dadan, dels i vagn, dels
med bat. The owner, who leases out this pleasure-
garden to those who make all these arrangements, is said
to gather a pretty penny, vackra penningar, out of it
in the summer.* I will not now talk about the ruffians,
skalmar, who often plunder and rob those who are
leaving it at night. Meantime, its use by folk may ina
certain way be good, but then it is certain that it is also
in some ways harmful, men s& slar det ej felt at den
ock isomt ar skadelig, because the youth is not a
little ruined through it when he gets into a habit of
coming here every evening. He gets accustomed to do
no work, and, on the other hand, to squander money in
various ways. Young ladies, also, might not always be
improved to the pitch of perfection here.

The roth Fune, 1748.
Mr. Petey Collinson’s Garden at Peckhai.

In the afternoon I went out to Peckham, a pretty
village, en vacker by, which lies three miles from
London, in Surrey, where Mr. Peter Collinson has a
beautiful little garden, full of all kinds of the rarest plants,

* “Samla vackra penningar,” it is curious to find this expression,
though in the plural, in the Swedish. [J. L.] ;

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 67

especially American ones which can endure the English
climate, and stand out the whole winter. However neat
and small this garden was, there was, nevertheless,
scarcely a garden in England in which there were so
many kinds of trees and plants, especially [T. I. p. 452]
of the rarest, as in this. It was here that Mr. Collinson
sometimes, as often as he got time from his business,
amused himself in planting and arranging his living
collection of plants.

Hast knockors nytta.

An use of horse-leg knuckle-bones.

For the border or the outer edge of the flower-beds,
Mr. Collinson had set knuckle-bones, knockor, of horse
or ox-legs, such as the boys with us in Sweden and Fin-
land use to make their so-called is-laggor, ‘“ ice-legs,”
with which they run upon the ice. The transversal end,
den tvéra 4ndan, was set down in the ground, and
the round curled end stood upwards. All were the same
length, and quite close to one another, which performed
the same service in hindering the earth from slipping
down from the beds, as if there had been boards set
round them. This use of horse-leg bones in kitchen-
gardens I have seen before at several places just outside
Moscow, in Russia.

Huru Viscum sas. How Mistletoe is sown.

Mr. Collinson told us his method of sowing Viscum
(Linn. Fl. Svec. 816), which consisted inthis. The berry
is squeezed open, Baren kramas sOnder, and laid on
the smooth places on the bark, p& de slata stallen i
barken, of some tree, when it very quickly fastens itself.
But if they are laid in the rimes or cracks, skramor
eller sprickor, of the bark of a tree, they will fasten

on to it with difficulty.
F 2

68 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Huru Tran-bar kunna sas i en Tragard. How
Cranberries can be sown in a garden.

Mr. Collinson showed me, among other plants, our
common Tran-bars-ris Vaccinia, 315, palustria, Lob.
[Vaccinium Oxycoccos], Cranberry [O. palustris. Pers.,
Hooker], which are commonly very difficult to trans-
plant into a garden. His method, in which he sought to
follow Nature, was this. They were sown in a pot,
kruka, full of earth; but instead of leaving the hole at
the bottom open, as in other flower-pots [T. I. p. 453]
so that the water may run off and not stand at the bottom
of the pot and stagnate, syra, he had stopped up the
hole, so that the water stood and stagnated. The pot
was set in the shade, and moss laid upon the earth, in
which Vaccinium palustre grew. He said that he also got
a great number of other bog and water-loving plants to
grow by this method.

Tragards anlaggning.
How to lay out a garden.

On this point, Mr. Collinson remarked that one of the
principal circumstances in connection with it is, so to
arrange that it has the morning sun. No one can believe
what an influence it has when the sun gets the first thing
in the morning to dry up the vapours, dunster, that
have fallen in the night.

Then, as regards the shape of a garden, Mr. Collinson
held the quadrilateral, fyrkantiga, to be the best, and
the circular not so good; for the Duke of Richmond had
his garden laid out in a circular form, which seemed as
if it ought to ward off the drift of the weather more,
but the experience was quite otherwise, for when the
wind works itself in there, it does more harm than if it
were four-sided, because it here courses round the garden,
l6per rundt omkring tragdrden, because the cir-
cular form hinders its escape. , es

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 69

[T. I. p. 406.] The 17th May, 1748.

Fences or barriers around meadows, market gardens,
&c., of Ox-horn. I have above in several places described
the fence, stangsel och hagnad, which they mostly
use near London round their kitchen gardens and
meadows, &c., which consists of high cast-up earth walls,
mull-vallar, but now I will tell about another kind of
fence, hagnad, which they also avail themselves of here
very much, and is such: An earth-wall is cast up in the usual
way. The breadth or thickness at the ground is made
proportionate to the height of the intended fence, for the
higher the wall the broader the basis. When the earth
has been cast up toa height of about six inches it is
levelled all over the top. Thereupon they have ready to
hand a multitude of the quicks or inner parts of Ox-
horns; for the outer part of the horn itself, is taken off
and sold to comb-makers and others who work in horn ;
or these have, after they have bought the whole horn
from the butcher, retained the outerpart, and left the
inner and useless part for this behoof. This quick is so
cut off that part of the skull commonly goes with it.
The quicks are then set quite close beside one another
over the earth that has been cast up for the wall, and
this so that the larger and thicker ends of the quick, or
that to which a portion of the skull is attached, is turned
outwards or lies just in-the face of the side of the wall.
In this way two rows of quicks are laid, viz.: one row
on one side of the wall, and the other on the other, so
that the small ends of the horn quicks meet in the
middle. Over this is afterwards cast earth about six
inches thick, when again in the aforenamed manner is
laid a stratum of double-ranged ox-horn quicks [T. I.
p. 407], viz., so that one row turns the large ends
towards one side, and the other towards the other.

It is thus continued alternately, skiftevis, with earth

70 KALM’S ENGLAND.

and ox-horn quicks till the wall has reached the desired
height. Only it is noted that the wall is battered, or
made narrower and narrower the higher it gets. Thus
there may often be seen in such a wall as many as six
strata of ox-horn quicks. The object of using these
quicks is principally to bind the earth in the wall by
them, and make it steady that it may not so soon slip
down. Sometimes there were less strata of these quicks
in a wall, as five, four and three; but then there was
also more earth between each stratum, up to the thick-
ness of one or two feet; but such a wall was not so
lasting as when more layers of ox-horn quicks were
inlaid in it. In some few places there were walls of
bare ox-horn quicks laid quite thick one upon another,
only that they filled up the spaces between the horns
with mould. Thus they knew here to make use of that
which in other places is thrown away.

(T. I. p. 453.] The 11th Fune, 1748.
Ox-horn Walls and barriers around Market Gardens.

To-day I saw on the north side of the Town a barrier ot
wall around a market garden, which was built of bare
ox-horn quicks. The height thereof was four feet, the
breadth [T. I. p. 454] the same. It was not here as in
the former place laid strata-wise of ox-horn quicks and
earth, but the horns were piled up on one another as
thick as ever they could find room, and the interstices
only were filled up with mould. The large ends of the
quicks were turned outwards. The sides of these walls
were quite perpendicular. On the top there was as
much earth laid as would lie, som kunde ligga qvar,
and this was now overgrown with the following plants,
which bound it together :-—

Convolvulus, 173. [C. Arvensis. |
Hordeum, 107. [H. Murinum.|]

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 71

Triticum, 105. [T. Repens.]

Senecio, 690. [

Scandio, 241. [Anthriscus Vulgaris. ]
Cerastium, 399. [C. Viscosum.]

The rath Fune, 1748.

Quakarenas Gudstjenst. The Quaker’s Service.

In the afternoon I was in one of the Quaker’s churches
to see their ceremonies at God’s service. They had
neither pulpit, predikstol, nor altar, but only benches.
The men sat mostly separately by themselves, and the
women on their side also separate, and they did not mix
with each other, as is done in other churches. Nearly
all the men had their hats on their heads, and they only
took them off while prayers were being read. Here there
were no regular priests, but any one of them, be it man
or woman, was a spiritual priest, en andelig Prast,
who began to speak and preach in the church, as the
spirit, according to their belief, gave them the inspiration,
alt som Andan, efter deras tro, gaf dem uppen-
barelsen in. To-day there preached two old men, of
whom the one who spoke last, delivered a very beautiful
sermon. He scarcely said anything which he did not at
the same time prove from the Holy Scripture. It all
pointed to this, that men [T. I. p. 455] ought more and
more to put off their sins, and seek to enter into fellow-
ship with God. This people is a very paiseworthy body,
because they are commonly more temperate and sober-
minded, saktmodigare, more peaceable, stillare,
more charitable, hjelpsammare, and betake themselves
more to guarding against all resentment, and outwardly
sinful life, than a great part of the Presbyterian as well as
of the English Church, in both of which latter they do
not commit the great fault of neglecting the Sacraments

72 KALM’S ENGLAND.

like the Quakers, who are never baptised, and,never go
to God’s Holy Communion, heliga Nattvard, because
they say that they are spiritually baptised, dépte pa et
andeligt sadtt, and also are spiritually partakers of our
Saviour’s body and blood, besides some other points in
which they err.

Further on, in my description of Pennsylvania, which
is a place entirely of Quakers, I have more to tell about
this people, when I shall produce the Rules and Church
Ordinances, according to which they are regulated, and
which they hold as a chose sainte, en heligdom, that
only the principal among them have in manuscript, but
which are never allowed, with their knowledge, to be seen
by anyone else. [Kalm did not fulfil this promise. ]

(T. 1. p. 461.] The 17th Fune, 1748.
Brist p& Spring-kallor omkring London.
Want of Spring-wells round London.

On all sides of London which I visited I do not know
that I ever saw any springs, kalla, which spring up out
out the earth, such as occur everywhere in Sweden, but
nearly all the water which they use in London and the
villages round it, is led to the town or villages partly
through underground pipes or tubes from some lake or
river far away, and partly they have dug large pits and
ponds where the rain-water is collected. Thus there is
found in nearly every meadow a large pond, grop, with
sloping banks on all sides in which is collected an
abundance of water, which serves for the cattle to drink
when they are kept in these enclosures. Notwithstand-
ing this want of springs around London, yet no place in
the world [T. I. p. 462] suffers less from want of water
than this town, where superabundant water is led through
underground channels to each and every house, or also

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 73

by continually pumping and water-forcing machines from
the river Thames. *.

The 18th Fune, 1748.
Nyttan af Ickorns-Svantsar. Use of Squirrels’ tails.

The hairs which they used here for Artists pencils
Rit-penslar, were taken from squirrels’ tails. Those
who prepared them said that those which are taken from
English Squirrels’ tails are not much good, but the best
are taken from a kind of squirrel which comes from
Russia.

The 19th Fune, 1748.

Ox-horn quicks, in addition to walling purposes are
carried out on to the high roads and there spread out,
earth and sand are then laid upon them, which makes
the road firm and durable.

The 22nd Fune, 1748.

En Sten af Gamla Carthago. A Stone from
ancient Carthage.

As I was walking through St. Dunstan’s Churchyard
in Stepney in company with others, we saw a stone
which was said to have been brought from the Ancient
Carthage, in whose walls it had formerly lain. It was
now built into the wall, on the East side of the small pro-
jecting [T. I. p. 463] wing or Church Porch, which was
on the north side of the Church. On this stone there
was the following legend :—

“ Of Carthage Great was J a Stone
‘*O Mortalls Read with pitty !

‘* Time Consumes all, it Spareth none,
“Man, Mountain, Town, nor Citty:

*The London Bridge water-wcrks founded 1582, by Peter Morice, and
subsequently augmented. For descriptions and views see Beighton, P#d/.
Trans, 1731, & Matthews’ Aydraulia, 1835 pp. 26-28. 8vo. [J. L.]

74 KALM’S ENGLAND.

‘* Therefore, o Mortalls, all bethinke
“ You, whereunto you must ;

** Since now Such Stately Buildings
** Lye Buried in the Dust.

“THoMAS HuGHES, 1663.”

Several people had written their names on the stone
here and there, by which they had made the inscription
sufficiently indistinct.

Vitriols-verket och Kékningen. The manufacture
and boiling of Vitriol.

At the Establishment of Herr Sezl, a Swede, we saw
his Vitviol-Manufacture, and the whole process of boiling,
which is shortly this. The Material of which this Vitriol
is made is a pale iron-pyrites, Svafvel-kes, of different
shapes. This iron-pyrites is taken, or found, somewhat
more than 100 miles from London, near Harwich, where
it is found on the sea bottom, p& sj6-botten,* and is

* It happens that Urban Hjirne at p. 340 of a work entitled ‘‘ Den Be-
svarade och Forklarade Anledningens Andra Flock. Om Jorden och Land-
skap iGemeen.”” Stockholm, 1706, in a section “Om Jordens Floo,” Adout
the Strata of the Earth, has the following : ‘‘ There is also a noteworthy de-
‘* scription of the Stratum, floo, in the cliff, backen, near Harwich in
‘« England, which has been described in detail by M. S. Buschenfelt. When
“ the sea is at the ebb or low water, this bank, backa, is in all 70 feet high
‘* from the water-line up to the edge of the cliff at the summit, consisting—

Ft. ins
“ First, on the top, of ordinary soil ‘ ; ' » 0 6

» Next to that follows a reddish kind of eink. : i —_
*' Next to that some horizontal beds of broken bivalve cele,

“ forkrossade musslor, sand, and whole bivalve and

‘‘univalve shells, masslor och sneckor, sand mixed

‘with pebbles and flint-stones, Klapur, sand, och,

“ flint-steen, under one another ° _
‘Again coarse sand containing bivalve-shells, ens

“grus, and sandbeds, sandhvarf, intermixed as a

“ streaky mass—in all . : : . ‘ . + I0 0

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 75

there collected in large quantities and carried to different
Vitriol works in England. A great many of these pieces
of iron-pyrites, Svafvel-kes-Stycken, are exactly like
wood, twigs, &c., so that even the medullary rays,
savrandar, in the branches can be seen. These bits of
wood have been so impregnated by the sulphurous spirit
or vapour that they are now entirely changed into a
Svafvel-Kes or lump of iron-pyrites. See Dr. Walle-
rius’ Mineralogie, p. 340.*

The lengths of these pieces of iron-pyrites are 6 inches
to a foot, as thick as a man’s arm, more or less. Ovyster
shells are also found [T. I. p. 464] in it. But they
are mostly unchanged only that they are rusty on the
outside.

The lumps of iron Pyrites or Marcasite, Svafvel-
kesar, are not available for boiling Vitriol out of at once,

Ft. ins,
“After that, there comes a fine reddish and thin-streaked

“mass of shells) musslemast, of clear and clean
“stomusslor, toathickness of . $ 3 8 0
‘‘and are just as if they had been designedly pounded t ina
“mortar, and the Englishmen dwelling in the country
‘round use to burn them to lime after the Dutch manner,
“ After that there follows quite another kind of thing, in all
‘* 28 feet thick, consisting of an endless number of streaks
‘and horizontal beds, partly of pebbles and sand together,
“and partly of a grey sandy clay, partly of a dark kind of
“earth, mork jordart, and soon . 2 4 28 o
“ After that,a streaky clay, en randig lera, dows to the
“base and the water, in all 25 feet high. which is like a
‘network of streaky stuff, distinguished by different
“colours and streaks, has the outward appearance of a
“ dark-brown shale, skifverberg, contained in two or
‘three horizontal bands, s:reck, of 22} feet thickness. and
“ extends right through the hill here and there sticking out
“like great flat stones, Steen-hallar.” Hijarne, p. 340. [J.L.]

* Wallerius, Johann Gottschalk, A@imeralogia, Eller Mineral Riket in-
delt och beskrifvit afI.G.W. Stockholm, 1747. 8vo. This was the first
of a long series of ‘ Mineralogies.” [J. L.]

46 KALM’S ENGLAND.

but they have at first to be prepared for that purpose for
along time, which is done in this way, that they are
spread out over a certain shallow pit or “pan,” falt,
to lie out in the open air, so that the sun may get to
work freely upon them. Herr Seel told me that this
place where it is so prepared, has in the first place been
fitted for it in this way: they had dug so far into the
ground till they came to a solid clay that was able to
resist the percolation of the Vitriol-lye, for a looser kind
of earth would absorb the most of the Vitriol-lye, but
still as they could not trust to that they had laid the
bottom with chalk for a thickness of 4 to 6 feet, which
had become hard packed together: At all sides of this
pit or pan, the banks or walls were similarly made of
chalk, to a thickness of 4 to 6 feet ; but to be still more
sure that the Vitriol-juice could not escape, tranga sig
bart, either through the bottom or the sides of the pit,
dammen, both the bottom and the sides were rendered
with a plaster of gypsum called Tervas, which has the
property that it afterwards hardens in water like stone.
Thus the bottom and sides were so prepared that
one could rest assured that the Vitriol-juice or lye,
Vitriolslakan eller luten, could not pass through
them.

The bottom of this pit was not flat or a planum, but
was shaped like a number of ridges, or roofs of barns or
houses, side by side, in the lowest parts of which there
were always laid gutters of lead, rannor af bly, along
which the lye or juice afterwards came to run to the
house where the pans were in which the Vitriol was
boiled, kokades. On this bottom [T. I. p. 465] so
prepared the aforenamed Marcasite, Svafvel-kes, was
laid, everywhere a foot thick, when it was left to lie
under the open sky, that the sun, rain, and air got to
play freely on it. When the sun has been shining for a

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 77

long time upon it, this Marcasite effloresces to a mould,
vittras sénder til en mull, and that very gradually,
so that the surface of it first begins to effloresce, vittra
sOnder, and afterwards the remainder. It has to lie
here 6, 7, 8, 10, or even 12 months sometimes, before it
has crumbled to mould. When the sun has worked
some time on it, it becomes quite white and mealy on
the outside, and if one sets the tongue on this meal it
tastes exactly like Vitriol. When the rain afterwards
falls on this stone, the mealy part and all that has
become resolved into salt, is washed away from it, and
carried down to the bottom of this dug place, grafda
platsen, when it runs through the canals that are there
to the house where the Vitriol is boiled, where it is col-
lected in a large Cistern. Outside the aforenamed dug
pit, grafde dam, where the stone is laid out, there
stand, let down here and there, bottomless tuns, bot-
tenloésa tunnor, in which the gutters or pipes which
lead the water to the Cistern can be seen down at the
bottom. One sees in them how the Vitriol-lye runs ; for
the gutter which comes from the dug pit, ends on one side
of the tun, tunnan, and on the opposite side commences
the pipe, pipan, which leads the water to the above-
named cistern. These tuns are set here for this reason,
that it can be seen in them whether any of the gutters
or pipes have become stopped up, and which pipe it is,
so that the same may be set to rights.

They are very careful here that some rain should fall
on this Marcasite, Svafvel-kesen, after the sun has
shone upon it for some days. For example, six days’
[T. I. p.. 466] sunshine and the seventh rain were here a
beautiful thing; for then the Marcasite would soonest
effloresce, vittra s6nder, and yield the most vitriol-lye ;
but as such a succession of weather does not always
happen, the owner -has erected at two places in the

78 KALM’S ENGLAND.

square in which the Marcasite is spread out, syringes,
sprutor, to which the water is led through leaden pipes
underground. To get the water there, there is a pump-
ing-machine a little way off, which is driven by horses, so
that the water is pumped to these syringes by means of
three pumps. They can thus, by means of a small long
pipe of copper, which is screwed on to the syringe, and
can be turned round to all sides, spread the water on all
sides over the iron pyrites or Marcasite here spread out,
and thus to a certain extent perform the same service as
the rain, to wash down the effloresced vitriol-meal or salt.
This vitriol-works lies close to the river Thames, so that
one has the advantage of seeing all the ships that pass
up and down the river.

From the Thames there goes an arm up close by these
vitriol works ; therefore, when the Thames rises at high
water, as much of the flood water is collected in the dug
channels as is wanted, and is afterwards penned in by a
sluice-gate, dam-bord, when it is ebb in the river
Thames, or the water falls very low. All the water
which falls into the effloresced Marcasite, Svafvel-
kesen, either from rain or from the syringes, filters
through the same down to the bottom, after it has first
dissolved, 16st up, all the vitriol-salt which it has met
with, and carries it with it in the above named way
through the gutters or pipes to the cisteyn in the house
where the Vitriol is boiled.

From this cistern it is pumped by hand up to the pan
in which it is boiled to Vitriol. This pan, panna, is of
lead, very large, quadrilateral, lies with [T. I. p. 467] its
bottom on closely-laid iron bars, and a fire is lighted
under it in two ovens close beside each other, entirely
supplied with coal.

. If they notice that the heat becomes too strong under
the pan, they can diminish it by this means—that on the

LONDON AND SUBURBS, 79

inner side of the oven there go up two or three flues,
korstens-pipor, in which there are dampers, spjall.
When the damper or valve is opened, the flame and heat
have freedom to ascend through it, and thus the heat
under the pan diminishes, and consequently the degree of
boiling; but when the spjall is shut, the heat is in-
creased. The boiling lasts about five, six, or seven days
before the lye becomes so thick that it is fit to make
vitriol of, which can be proved by means of a special
glass globe with holes in it, which they lay in some of the
lye, lut, which they have taken up. By means of this
hydrometer it is seen how thick the water or lye, vatnet
eller luten, is in this boiling-pan. At last, when it is
full-boiled, it is tapped off into three large oblong cisterns
of lead which stand a little way from the pan, where it is
left to stand and cool, when the Vitriol settles on the
bottom and sides of these cisterns. The lyewhich will not
give any more vitriol-crystals is poured back into the
pan; but the Vitriol that has shot out into crystals is
collected.

In the boiling, it is necessary to be particularly careful
that the pan is almost constantly full, which is done by
pumping more lye out of the cistern into the pan than is
boiled in it, because the pan would otherwise melt. Very
much and heavy rain on the outspread Marcasite is in-
jurious, because the lye which then filters down is so
weak that it is not much stronger than mere water, and
consequently it requires a great deal of fire, long boiling,
and more labour before the Vitriol is produced from it.
The owner said he bought every year £100 to £150 worth
of this iron-pyrites or Marcasite. As the channels from
the Thames [T. I. p. 468] go right into the works, he
can lay boats and small barges close alongside, and un-
load pyrites and coal. He did not employ much more
than two or three persons in the whole factory.

80 KALM’S ENGLAND.
TT. I. p. 438.] The 27th May, 1748.

Angs-bargningen.* Carrying the meadows, or
Haymaking.

The meadows were now everywhere being mown and
carried, which lay on the slopes just outside London.
Some of them were already mown, and the hay carried,
inbargadt. The whole process was carried out almost
in the same way as with us. The grass was mown with the
scythe, and left to lie inthe order in which the mowers,
siatter-karlen, laid it, tillit had become somewhat dry
on the upper side. After it was raked out, though
seldom with rakes, rafsor, but with the here universally
used iron-forks, jarn-gafflar, with along wooden handle,
et langt traskaft, it was so left to dry. After-
wards it was turned once or more with the iron-forks,
then raked together into rows, i strang, with ordinary
rakes. After that it was cast together with the often-
mentioned pitchforks into [T. I. p. 439] large cocks
valmar, getting on for 8 feet high. Afterwards it was
laid on large waggons, and carried home. It was very
rare here to see any women at the work in the meadows,
but the carrying of the meadows was performed mostly
by men only. It isincredible what an abundance of grass
was now found on those meadows, especially on those
which lay on the north side of the town. It nearly

* “Angs-bargningen ” and “Angsbruket i Middlesex.”

In the View of the Agriculture of Middlesex, drawn up for the Board of
Agriculture: By John Middleton, 1798. London, 8vo. the distribution of
‘‘ Meadow and Pasture” in Middlesex is shown by a green colour on the
valuable map at the beginning. It quite substantiates A’a/m’s description, though
50 years had passed away. The subject of ‘ Meadows and Pastures” forms
8ec. I., p. 219-225 of “ Chap. VIII., GRASS,” pp. 219-253. The subject of
‘* Haymaking ” or Angs-bargningen ” is Sec. III., pp. 237-251 ; that
of ‘‘Sown-Grasses’’ so exhaustively treated by Aal/m fining Sec. II., pp.
226-236. [J. L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 81

everywhere stood up to my waist, when I went in the
meadows, and was so thick that there could never be any
thicker. Bromus, 52 [“var. secalini’], ALOpECURUS,
52 [A. pratensis], Poa 78 [P. Pratensis], which had now
begun to stick themselves up in abundance, made at this
time all the beautiful grass-growth that was found here.
The meadows were very even and smooth, ja4mna och
slata, with not a single hillock, tufva, on them. The
grass was cut off as near the ground as the scythe could
go, so that there were scarcely 23 inches of stub, stubbe,
left remaining. Whenthe grass was newly mown, the stub
near the ground was nearly white, which was caused by
the grass growing so very thick. Also the lower part of
the new-mown hay was quite white for the same reason.
On account of the luxuriant and thick grass-growth the
mower could not progress at each stroke of the scythe,
lie-tag, farther than a short 6 inches, for the grass was
so thick that he was not able to drive his strokes farther
in, at han ej orkade taga djupare in i sander.
It has been often mentioned above that all these meadows
are manured once a year with the choicest manure.

[T. I. p. 468.] The 24th Fune, 1748.
Angs-bruket i Middlesex. Use of the Meadows in
Middlesex.

Mr. P. Collinson related to me an account of the trade
fod-krok, and livelihood, narings-medel, which the
farmers, inhabitants of Middlesex, practise, specially on
the side on which Hampstead lies, and beyond or north
of that. It consists in this, that the farmers or
Landtmannerna there lay out all the ground and land
which they have, only and solely as meadow, without
themselves having any ploughed land, or feeding any

cattle, excepting some few horses, whicli they require for
G

82 KALM’S ENGLAND.

cultivating the meadows. The meadow is here all their
food and sustenance. It seems to be wonderful that it
can suffice for that, especially as the farmers in this dis-
trict pay a higher rent yearly than others, but still it is
so. As they live near London they buy and carry home
from thence all their manure, which is collected in the
streets, and afterwards carried outside the town and laid
in great heaps. No farmer who sends in a load of hay to
be sold, allows his wagon to go back empty from the
town, but it is there filled with the above-named manure
only, which after it has lain its proper time by the meadow
and fermented into one mass, brunnit ihop, is spread
out in the autumn over the grass-sward in the meadows.
In January, February, or March, the cattle are taken out
of the meadows, and do not get to go on them any longer,
after which the grass is left freedom to grow. In this
state it continues so that the farmer, at the beginning of
May goes for the first time on to it with the scythe, lian,
and mows it. A farmer [T. I. p. 469] or Landtman on
this side has commonly no more servants than one single
man, drang. Many might then think, How will he with
so little help be able to cut and carry the hay from his
many and scattered large meadows? The answer to this
is that he wins, bargar, all his meadows in the summer
with day labourers, dags-verks-folk. In the beginning
of May there come from Ireland over to England a very
large number of Irishmen, who, like our Dalecarlians,
Dalkarlar, in Sweden, go and hire themselves out every-
where to the farmers. The whole of this part of England
which lies immediately north and east of London, carries
on nearly all its hay-making and harvest work with only
this people, who come over at the beginning of May, and
remain there the whole summer, leaving their own dwel-
lings at home in Ireland to the care of their wives and
children; but towards autumn, after the seedtime and

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 83

harvest’ are past, they return home with the money
which they have been able to earn.

In the same way as the Irishmen seek their food and
income on this side in the summer, so it is the case with
those from Whales or Wallis that they earn their money
also on this side of England in Kent, for towards the
haymaking season, h6-bargnings-tiden, the folk come
from thence in very large numbers down to the country
parts of Kent to work for wages ; but with this difference
that instead of only men coming as from Ireland, there
come mostly only women and girls, bara qvin folk,
hustrur, och pigor, from Wales, all well, cleanly, and
very neatly clad. These perform nearly all the summer
cropping in Kent, both of hay and grain. They also
take down and pluck off the hops. They remake the
hop gardens. They [T. I. p. 470] gather the various
kinds of beautiful fruits which Kent produces. But I
will return to the farmers in Middlesex, and their
meadow cultivation, Angs-sk6tsel. It is there the afore-
named Irishmen, whom they employ in summer to mow
and carry all their hay. As soonas the meadow has thus
been mown in the month of May, and the hay stacked,
no cattle are turned into the meadows, but the grass
then at once has freedom to begin to shoot and grow, in
which it makes such progress that if the weather is good
they often get to mow them for the second time by the
beginning of Fuly. If it happens, then, that they have
finished the aftermath or second mowing early, even
then no cattle are slipped into the meadows to bait, but
the grass is again left freedom to grow, by which they
get to mow the meadows for the third time in September.
But if the spring is late, as it was this year [1748] so that
they cannot finish the first mowing before the close of
May or the beginning of June, and consequently the

second not before the second half of July, then they do
G 2

84 KALM’S ENGLAND.

not in sucha year wait for the third mowing, but as
soon as the meadows have been carried, and the hay
either taken into London or stacked at home, the cattle
are slipped into them to get their subsistence from the
grass-stub on the meadows. As they have few animals
themselves, they either hire out these meadows which
have been mown to butchers in London, who pay them
handsomely by the week for each animal, be it ox or
sheep, which has freedom to go there to bait, i bet, or,
as they mostly do, they buy up at the markets a number
of thin oxen or sheep, which they can commonly get for
a moderate price. These they drive on to their
meadows, where they have to go and become fat, till
towards January or February, the time of year, namely,
[T. I. p. 471] in which the places lying farther from
London could not supply it with fat cattle ready to
slaughter, and the cattle or beasts of slaughter are con-
sequently dearest; then these farmers sell them to the
butchers with considerable profit. A great number of
establishments in London keep their own horses, but as
they have no need of them in the winter they keep them
at some of these farmers, and pay three or four shillings
a week for each horse, which is a long way cheaper for
them than if they were to buy hay and keep them in
London in the stable. As there is an untold number of
horses kept in the stable, it is not wonderful that hay is
very dear there, especially at some times of the year, of
which these farmers situated near to London are well
able and know how to avail themselves. And so it may
from this be easily understood to what extent, huru
vida, the meadows alone are sufficient to earn for them
and their households, food, clothes, and everything that
they require, and to give them power to pay their heavy
rents without loss.

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 85

The a5th Fune, 1748.

Kallare och rum under gator. Cellars and
rooms under streets.

Notwithstanding the size of London, still they are
careful that no spot of ground shall be left useless
and waste. In many places there are passages from
houses down under the street to the cellars and other
rooms which have been built under the street. In one
place and another they had dug up one half ofa street, and
were then engaged either in walling round an old cellar
or in building an entirely new one. Under several of the
squares there were also built cellars or other rooms.

[T. I. p. 472.]
Sma gardar vid hvart hus. Small yards to each
house.

At nearly every house in the town there was either in
front towards the street, or inside the house and building,
or also in both places, a little yard. They had commonly
planted in these yards and round about them, partly in
the earth and ground itself, partly in pots and boxes,
several of the trees, plants, and flowers which could stand
the coal-smoke in London. They thus sought to have
some of the pleasant enjoyments of a country life in the
midst of the hubbub of the town.

The 26th Fune, 1748.
Huru Sallad tilredes. How Salad is prepared.

Englishmen commonly prepare their salad thus: They
take Lactuca, lettuce, and throw away the outer coarser
leaves, because they are bitter, baska. Likewise the
coarsest of the stalks are rejected. These lettuce-leaves
are cut to pieces very coarsely; afterwards, a little fine
salt is taken, two or three knife-points’ full, more or less,

86 KALM’S ENGLAND.

according to the quantity of salad one has. This is laid
on a plate, talrik, on which vinegar is poured, and is
well stirred about. After that, olive-oil, bomolja, is
poured on to it, after which the salt, vinegar, and olive-
oil are mixed well together. This is afterwards poured
on to the cut-up lettuce-leaves, which one puts into a dish,
and so well mixed with one another, when it is ready.
I never saw sugar used here with salad. Green cucum-
bers are prepared in the same way for salad, after they
have first been cut across into thin slices, tunna skif-
vor. Some mix the slices of cucumber with the lettuce-
leaves, and afterwards pour the prepared oil, vinegar, and
.salt on to the mixture ; but generally each is prepared by
itself for [T. I. p. 473] the reason that all persons cannot
bear to eat of all the kinds, but have only a relish for one
of them. Some mix together cucumber slices, lettuce-
leaves, mint, salvia, krass, water-cress, &c., cut them
into large pieces, and prepare salad of them in the
manner described above.

The 27th Fune, 1748.

Alm. The Elm. There is scarcely any tree which
is so much planted in England as the elm-tree; so that
it can, in a certain way, be called the Englishmen’s
favorite tree.* I saw great numbers of them in London,
and just outside the town. Nearly all the squares in
London were planted round with it. The Allees in St.
Fames’s Park, outside the Royal Palace, were only and
solely of this tree, excepting that by the water there were
willows, pilar. So also around Moorfield. Likewise
where the Danish Church stands. This and the willow
were, in short, the only trees which were planted along
the sides of the streets. In the villages outside London

* This is only true of the London clay and of the south. The oak mono-
polised the weald clay which Wm. Smith called the oak-tree clay. [J. L.]

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 84

this tree had been planted on both sides of the road,
where it made a beautiful shade and a pretty appearance
with its widely-spreading branches. Outside most of the
gentlemen’s houses there were allees or clumps, lunder,
of elms. Mr. P. Collinson had, in his beautiful garden
at Peckham, so clipped one of these trees that it, with
its twigs, formed the roof of one of his summer-houses
which stood on one side of the garden, and opposite, on
the other side of the garden, was an Esculus, Linn., or
Castanea Equina, C.B., Horse-chestnut, clipt in the same
way ; so that its branches spread themselves out on one
side, and formed a roof and shelter over the seat or bench
which was erected beneath it. In My Lord Tilney’s
garden, which is described under Woodford, there were
high and long allees, made only and solely [T. I. p. 474]
of elm. They had there got to grow to some height.
Afterwards they had bent the tops towards one another,
and allowed them to shoot out branches, where they now
made a tolerably thick roof, so that when one stood at
one end and looked along this allee, it seemed as though
it were arched or vaulted with green trees. On many
estates these elms were likewise left to shoot out branches
on the inner side of the allee, through which they formed
a thick and leafy roof over the allee, so that it was very
lovely on summer days to walk along these allees, where
it was always shady and refreshing. When I went down
to Gravesend, in Kent, and in the part of Essex that lay
opposite to Gravesend, I found no tree, of which there
were so many planted by the streets and outside the
houses, in the towns, villages, and farms, and of which
there was such an abundance in the hedges around the
fields as of this. The reason why they in particular
choose this tree before others is said to be that it gives
the best shade, endures the coal smoke very well, stands
for a long time green, and keeps its leaves till the

88 KALM’S ENGLAND.

autumn, when others are pale and shed them, besides its
manifold usefulness for all kinds of carpenter’s and
turner’s work, til allehanda snickare-och svarfvare
arbeten.

The 28th Fune, 1748.

Bréd. The bread which here in England was every-
where and exclusively used, at least where I travelled,
was large loaves, limpor, baked of wheat-flour, hvete-
mj6l. Other bread is next to never eaten. Most
Englishmen had scarcely heard tell of rye-bread, hort
talas om rag-br6d ; few had seen it, and still fewer
were those who had eaten it. Many also did not [T. I.
P- 475] know, that anyone was in the habit of baking
bread of rye, but they thought that it was only used as
food for cattle. This ought all to be understood of those
who lived in London and the provinces immediately
round ; for several told me that in the north of England
it is common enough to bake bread of rye-meal. Like-
wise that there are large tracts in the north where most
of the people mostly live on Haver-bread, Hafre-bréd,
[oatmeal cakes.*] In London they sometimes, at break-
fast, til-frukost, eat with butter, while they drink tea, a
kind of thin, small, round cakes, which are snow-white,
taste very nice, and are said to be made of the finest
Haver-meal. But still wheat-loaves are the principal
sort.

[T. I. p. 186.] The 25th March, 1748.
A great Five in London.
To-day there happened the great conflagration in
London in which over 100 houses near the Royal Ex-

change were burned down. It was generally considered
that there had not been so large a fire in London since

* See Lucas’ Studies in Nidderdale1V., 1872, 8vo,

LONDON AND SUBURBS. 89

the great firein 1666. As regards the fire which happened
to-day, it was remarkable that notwithstanding its size,
there were nevertheless very many in London, both of
my acquaintance and others, who never once knew about
any fire till late in the evening after it was all extinguished,
or they first got to know about it the following day from
the newspapers, Avisor, which come out daily in London;
which was partly occasioned by the enormous size of
London, and partly by the thick and voluminous smoke,
which, especially at this time of year, floats over the
town. On our way we did not see any smoke from this
fire, nor did we know to look out for it.

SURUEUR ER ERY BYE LY ALEEERueEyREY s
LY LY YL UN UEN LS XELCI ER ERT
KOE KOR KOH KOHIORIOK KOR 2 KOEK OK ORK ORK ORK KOR
AXAELELELK SAE ZX LELELEAR
$ AAGRABRRABABSBARARARARRBRRAAR &

CHELSEA.

[T. I. p. 386.] The 5th May, 1748.

Tra-och kdéks-krydd gardar. Orchards and
vegetable market-gardens.

On all sides round about Chelsea there is scarcely
seen anything else than either orchards or vegetable
market-gardens, and beautiful houses as it were scattered
amongst them. The orchards, Tra-gardarna, were
full of all kinds of fruit trees, such as apple, pear, plum,
cherry-trees, &c., which were now nearly all at their best
in full flower. I saw here in many places large fields
which were nothing but Tra-scholor, all planted full of
all kinds of small trees for sale. There were here many
gardeners, Tra-gards-mastare, whose only means of
living consisted entirely of these Tra-scholor, “tree
schools,” or as they are here called nurseries. This was
in itself a very useful thing, for when a gentleman or any
one else had bought an estate, or [T. 1. p. 387] wished
to form a new garden, he was not obliged to wait for
several years before he could rear from seed, small trees
which he could plant out, but he could at once buy all
such of various sizes, well cultivated and clipped, from
the aforenamed nurserymen, so that he could in one year,
if he was otherwise able to afford it,om han annors
hade rad dertil, plant as many trees in his garden as
he wished and required, and of whatever kind he pre-

ferred. Inthe same way, if any old trees went off by
go

Extract from Rocques Sur

Attra:
Soy
LE

ay
wy
any

Za
Fe,

EK
sie

Sy, Cline \
OG

yeh yh

Syed
N
o> ’ oe (ut VAAN waar

>. Sho wing Chelsea, Ranelagh House, etc.

\ ‘
oN Cis te ae Ney
wee ibaa ibe ad,

[To face p.91

CHELSEA. gi

any chance, he could always in the above named way
easily get others; and because there were here so many
who drove this trade, so it was also easy to get such
young trees for a moderate price. The same thing is true
of market garden produce. Some nurserymen or market
gardeners lay themselves out for all kind of market-
garden produce, to keep for sale, others trouble them-
selves only about some few, which they sow in large
quantities, and cultivate well. As we to-day wandered
out about Chelsea, we saw whole tracts, like very large
arable fields, sown only with beans, cabbages, and aspa-
ragus. The beans were all of the kind which are here
called Broad Windsor Beans. They were all sown in
-rows, in broadland. The breadth between each row was
21 inches, and often only x foot between the rows; and
the distance between the bean plants ineach row, g inches
to 1 foot. They were now everywhere in flower. A boy
went witha little iron hoe, jarn hacka, and cleared away
the weeds between the rows, of which weeds Hvit-
roten [T. repens], was the principaland most. In some
places they had planted several kinds of cabbages be-
tween the rows. In other places there were long beds
3 feet to 4 feet broad, all sown with asparagus. There I
noticed a new contrivance [T. I. P. 388], which I had not
seen before, viz., how they collected a number of necks of
broken bottles. Such a bottle neck was set on each aspa-
ragus plant, Sparis stand, so that the asparagus stood
and grew up through the neck. The end of the neck was
open so that the air had free access to the asparagus.
When the sun shone on these glass necks, the glass per-
force became very hot, through which the temperature
inside the glass or neck was considerably increased, in
consequence of which the asparagus came to push up all
the quicker, and made haste to grow. All the asparagus
plants which were inside these bottle necks were about

92 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the thickness of a little finger and were now, as they
were at their best, about to be cut. Thus they knew here
in England how to make use of nearly everything, often
of such things as are regarded by us as useless. It has
been shown before (p. 382 orig.), how broken bottles
and bits of glass can be turned to account, and here it is
shown that they also know how to make use of old
broken bottle necks.

[T. I. p. 398.] The rath May, 1748.

Froén ligga lange oskadde i jorden.
Seeds lie long unscathed in the Earth.

Mr. Miller told me, that in a place where Rhabar-
barum verum had stood for ten years he had this season
had it moved from thence to another place where no
plant of it had grown for ten years; but now this year
where he had had the earth dug up at this place, a new
plant had come up from the seeds which had lain there
in the earth for so many years, which was now in full
flower. Mr. Miller said he had had the same experience
with a Fumaria (Fumitory) whose seeds had lain fourteen
years inthe ground before they had come up. In the
case of the Fumaria Mr. Miller mentioned this, that
Lobel had made another new species out of Fumaria
bulbosa, and had called one of them F. bulbosa viridi flore,
which however is only a variety, for if one takes Fumaria
bulbosa and buries its bulbs very deep down in the
ground, yet so that it can come up, all the flowers come
green as Lobel has described it; but if these bulbs are
laid nearer up to the surface of the ground it is then an
ordinary Fumaria bulbosa.

Ugnar i Orangerier. Stoves in Orangeries.

The stoves in the Orangeries in Chelsea Apothecaries

CHELSEA. 93

Garden are all arranged in the way which Mr. Miller
describes in his Gardeners’ Dictionary, under the word
Stoves, viz.: that the smoke comes to pass through
several bends backwards and forwards in one of the long
walls of the orangery. In the largest orangery in Chelsea
garden the smoke makes six bends, before it escapes.
Mr. Miller said that he had at first [T. I. p. 399] had
them made like channels under the floor at the sides of
the house, but he had since altered this in the above
named way, because he had not found that a good plan.
For from the great heat, the tan, garfvare Barken,
that lay nearest these flues, Canaler, grew so hot, that
it became quite dry, and the danger was that it would
take fire. He knew two, if not more, examples in which
orangeries here in England had been burnt by the tan
becoming so hot that it took fire. Coal was burned in
the ovens here in the winter, commonly once in the twenty-
four hours, viz.: every evening, but if the day is cloudy
a small fire is also lighted in the morning. Mr. Miller
considered coal the best thing to use for this purpose
because they burn so evenly. Peats (Torf) he considered
to be equally good with coal in this respect ; but they have
the disadvantage that the smell of them passes through the
wall into the house, so that it smells strong in the
orangery, which does not happen with Coals. Mr. Miller
said that he had at first used Peat, but left it off for the
reason first named. Wood, he believed not to be so good
for fuel as coal and peat, because it heats too quickly and
strongly. The tan which had lain for a time in the
orangery around the pots, krukorna, was afterwards
used in the garden as ordinary manure. On the mould
in the pots in the orangery nothing was laid, neither
sawdust nor anything else. In Moscow I have seen saw-
dust laid on the mould in the pots in orangeries, to
keep them moist longer.

94 KALM’S ENGLAND.

The 13th May, 1748.

To-day the Session of Parliament was closed for this
season, when King George II., at 2 o’clock in the after-
noon [T.I. p. 400], went up to Parliament to deliver
part of the Articles of Peace [Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]
and to take leave of the House, because His Majesty was
intending to cross to Holland the same or the following
day, and then to go on to his hereditary land in Hanover.
I had one of the best opportunities there could be to see
him both long and well because I stood in the front row
both when he went in and came out of Parliament, just
where he alighted from his carriage. When he had got
out of Parliament and had sat down in his carriage he
remained a short time before he drove away from the
Houses of Parliament, talking to the Duke of Richmond,
who afterwards accompanied him in the carriage.
Besides, when he went in to the Parliament House and
also when he came out and entered his carriage the
crowd raised a cry or shout of joy. Some among them
cried out ‘‘God bless the King’”—that is, Gud valsigne
Konungen.

Ranelagh House.—In the evening I visited Ranelagh
House, which is a little out of Chelsea on the London
side, where the youth of both sexes, and the elder people
go to divert themselves. Ranelagh House is reckoned
one of the largest halls in Europe. It is built nearly round,
and has onlya pillar in the middle. Here, in the summer
there is Instrumental and Vocal Music almost every evening,
and now and then in the mornings. Those who wish to
go in there must pay a shilling. Round about the house
is a large garden with many allées planted with high
hedges on both sides. On all sides within the house
there are built by the wall, as it were, small [T. I. p. gor]
Contoirs, which were quite open to the hall itself.

In the middle of this division, afstangningen,

CHELSEA. 95

is a table with benches on both sides. Any one
who pleases can sit here and be served with all
kinds of food and drink, which is here imme-
diately to hand, som har 4r strax til hands. Men
and women find nothing else to do here but to walk
about in this large hall and listen to the music, or
to sit and faire bonne chére, plaga sig, in the small rooms,
or also to divert themselves in the garden, &c. Such-
like pleasure-houses, lust-hus, are found in many places,
both in and outside of London, where time is killed
fornotes, in such a way, especially in the afternoons
and evenings. In the Town there are held Comedies
Oratorios, Instrumental Concerts, Musique, Rope-
dancing, Lindansare, &c. Besides all kinds of pleasure-
houses, and according to the time of year, they also
avail themselves of one or other of these. If these
pleasures were only employed for this purpose, that after
one had tired himself out with his duties or business
during the day he took his pleasure here once a week in
the afternoon to freshen up his spirits, then they would
be of great service; but to devote every day to this,
seems, sauf meilleur avis, ofOrgripeligen, to be nothing
else than to waste their youth and lead them to dissi-
pation, idleness, and Jibertinage. Everything has its
measure, Alt har sitt matt. Here they are accustomed
to vanity, ostentation, inutilité, bagatelles, fafanga, to
waste precious time, to fall by degrees into weakness
and indolence and to fight shy of work, sky for arbete.
Married ladies and Mistresses of Establishments, and the
young girls become in many ways altered and ruined,
bart skimde, and lose all pleasure in household duties.

Den 14 Maji, 1748.
Ron vid Larix.
Mr. Miller told us that the Duke of Bedford had had

96 KALM’S ENGLAND.

a number of Larices, C.B. [European] Larches planted in
his garden, some of which had come to be planted in very
good garden soil, and [T.I. p. 402] others again had to be
content with only a very meagre soil. When they after-
wards began to grow, those in the meagre soil had
commonly made double as long shoots as those in the
good garden mould, tragards jorden, and looked very
lively, while on the other hand, the former, which stood
in a good soil looked quite drooping, matta, as though
they where obliged reluctantly to force themselves to
grow. The wonder-worthy laws of the Allwise Creator
in respect of plants are proved by this, that the meagre
and poor earth also has its special trees and plants,
which flourish well in it, but thrive badly, vantrifras,
in what we humanly speaking, call a better soil. He
said he had found the same with the Cedar of Mount
Lebanon, but as I note that he has entered this experience
in his work The Gardeners’ Dictionary, I will not now say
any more about it, but refer the reader to that work.

Chelsea Ar en liten Férstad eller By.

Chelsea is a little suburb or village, situated a couple
of miles from London towards the west. The river
Thames runs close past Chelsea, stryker tatt forbi C.,
on the S.E. and S. sides, and on the other sides there is
nothing else besides nurseries and market-gardens, of
which there are here a frightful number. The place re-
sembles a town, has a church, beautiful streets, well-
built and handsome houses all of brick, three or four
stories high. I cannot ‘just’? understand what some of
those who dwell here live upon. Some have small haber-
dashers shops, but that is not saying much. Publi-
cans, innkeepers, coffee-house keepers, brewers, bakers,
butchers, and such like, can here make a good living ; be-

cause a multitude of people from London in fine weather,

CHELSEA. 97

vackert vader, * in the summer come out here, to enjoy
themselves, when such people well know [T. I. p. 403]
how to charge for what they sell. The principal livelihood
of the others seem to be from houses and rooms, which
they let to gentlemen, who in summer now and again,
especially on Saturdays, Sundays, and part of Monday,
come out here from London to stay, and take the fresh
air. Rooms are here considerably dearer than in London
itself, which is said to be due to this, that they have
heavy taxes, utlagor, and that they get no one in the
winter time to lodge there, wherefore they are obliged
in the summer time, as it were, to take for both at once
to compensate for the loss.

Several houses in this place belong to gentlemen who
live and reside in London, and only now and then journey
out to Chelsea ; but, in short, a third of the houses are said
to belong to Siv Hans Sloane, who bought them many
years ago, and now lets them to different people.

[T. I. p. 408.] The 18th May, 1748.
Sir H ans Sloane.

In the morning I went to Chelsea, and spent part of
the morning in Chelsea Apothecaries Garden. After-
wards I accompanied Mr. Miller to Sir Hans Sloane to
pay my respects to him. He lay to-day in bed, and
looked a picture of old age, and was reported to be now
in his g4th year. Mr. Miller gave him to understand,
gaf honom vid handen, the reason of my journey, that
I was intending to visit the places in North America
where no Botanist had been before, there to gather and
describe all the plants and trees I should come upon,

* From Copenhagen to Gottenburg, you have a delightful sail,—if in
“ vackert vader,” as the Swedes say, &c. Sylvanus, Sweden and Gottland, 1847,

8vo. p. 44. [J.L-] ss

98 KALM’S ENGLAND.

and make all kinds of observations on Natural History
and Natural Science Natur-Kunnogheten &c., which
Sir Hans Sloane approved of very highly, and believed
that I should find there a number of rare things. Sir
Hans Sloane had many years before given up all his public
engagements [T. I. p. 409] and resigned himself now
for the remainder of his life to live in rest and peace
at Chelsea on his estate. He was now rather deaf, so
that we were obliged to shout loud for him to hear it.
On the tongue he had a swelling, so that he spoke
indistinctly enough and very slowly. Sometimes a long
time passed by before he got out a word.

[T. I. p. 388]. The 6th May, 1748.
Sir Hans Sloane’s Frus Graf. Lady Sloane’s grave.

Sir Hans Sloane had long been a widower. During
his residence in Jamaica he had married a very rich
widow, which placed him in a position to fulfil his bent
for Natural History, and enabled him to buy the greater
part of the Natural History Collection he now owns. Ever
since he about eight years ago ceased to be President of
the Royal Society [1740] [T. I. p. 389] he has lived
continually here in Chelsea on his estate free from all
care. One and all looked upon this man with a par-
ticular respect, because he was the oldest of all the
learned men now living in Europe, whose names on
account of their writings and learning, are widely known.
We find in the Philosophical Letters of that learned man,
Fohn Ray, several letters which Sir Hans Sloane had
written as long ago as the year 1684, together with
several of John Ray’s answers to them, from which ap-
pears what a great insight Sir Hans Sloane had even at
that time [aged 2g] into all branches of natural science,
not to mention the other sciences.

CHELSEA. 99

His wife, whom we have just mentioned, and with
whom he had spent the greater part of his life, lay buried
in the churchyard here in Chelsea, where Sir Hans
Sloane had erected a handsome monument of hewn stone
over the grave, which was on the S.E. side of the church
against the wall. Roundabout this carved grave was an
iron railing, jarn-galler. On the east and west sides
were Sir Hans Sloane’s arms, vapen. On the south
side there was nothing written, but the hewn stones were
there quite smooth. Dcubtless Sir Hans Sloane wished
to leave others freedom to engrave there his In Memoriam
and laudatory Epitaph, 4minnelse och 1aford, after
his dust once comes to be preserved beneath it together
with that of his wife. [Sir Hans Sloane died Jan. 11th,
1753, nearly five years after Kalm’s visit, and just before
this Tome was published. ]

On the north side of this monument there were these
words, quite free from show and flatterie :

“ Here lyeth the body
Of Dame Elizabeth Sloane,
Wife of Sr. Hans Sloane, Baronet,
Who departed this life
The 27th of September, 1724,
Aged 67.’’*
La. Lp, ago.

* This Epitaph having perished with the slab on which it was written
has disappeared and has been replaced by another on a substituted slab.
‘* Here lies interred
Elizabeth Lady Sloane,
Wife of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart.,
Who departed this life
In the year of our Lord, 1724,
And the 67th of her age.” Copied April 14, 1888.
Thus not only the original Epitaph, but the date of her death, and her

age, had been forgotten. [J. L.] ee
H 2

100 KALM’S ENGLAND.

SIR HANS SLOANE’S MUSEUM.

Kalm visited this on the 28th April and the 26th May.
The April account, pp. 376-7, is an abstract of the May
account which fills 10 pp. 427-38. I shall give the April
account as it stands with selections from the May. [J. L.]

[T. I. p.376.] The 28th April, 1748.
Siv Hans Sloane’s Natural Samling.

In the morning I went in company with Mr. Warner,
Captain Shierman, and some other English gentlemen
up to Chelsea where we spent some time in looking at
Chelsea Garden, but afterwards went to see Sir Hans
Sloane’s collections, in all three Natural Kingdoms,
Antiquities, Anatomy, and many Curiosities.

We saw here a great collection of all kinds of stones,
stenar, partly polished, slipade, partly such as still
lay in their matrix as they are found in nature. We
saw all sorts of vessels, karil, Tea-cups, Thée-kappar,
saucers, SkAlar, snuff-boxes, dosor, caskets, aSkar, spoons,
skedar, Jadles, slefvar, and other small instruments, all
manufactured out of Agates and Jaspis, &c.; a number
of different kinds of pearls, several learned men’s Contre-
faits, among which we particularly devoted ourselves to
the study and admiration of the great Botanicus and
[T. I. p. 432] Natural Historicus, John Ray.

Mr. JoHN Ray’s Contrefait, is the only one’ of him
that exists in England. It is very like that which is
found in his ‘‘Wisdom of God in the Creation,” on
the title-page [T. I. p. 376.] Avery large collection of
insects from all parts of the world, all of which were now
preserved in four-sided boxes, l4dor, with clear glass
glued on both over and under, so that one could see them
quite well, but these boxes or cases were also so well
stuck together and so [T. I. p. 377] tight that no worms

CHELSEA. IOI

or other injurious insect could get at them, and spoil
them [T. I. p. 433.] The sides were of wood. In some
both lid and bottom, lacket och botten, were of a very
clear glass, but in most only the lid. At the joints the
glass was stuck or glued fast with paper. Where the
bottom was of glass, the insect was gummed on to the
middle of the bottom. [T.I. p.377.]

Some of the East and West Indian Butterflies,
Fiarilar, were far more showy than a peacock with his
matchless variety of colours. A very large number of
all kinds of corals and other harder sea plants, Sj6
vaxter, a multitude of various sorts of crystals, several
head-dresses of different races of men, musical instru-
ments, &c. Various stuffed birds and fish, where the
birds, Foglarna, often stood fast on small bits of board
as naturella as if they still lived. Skeletons of various
four-footed beasts, among which we particularly noticed
that of a young elephant, the stuffed skin of a camel, and an

African many-striped ass, mangrandig Asna. Several
human skeletons larger and smaller, the head and other
parts of a frightfully large whale [T. I. p. 438.] This
Hvalfisk was said to have been go feet long. The
length of its head bone was nearly 18 feet [T. I. p. 377.]
Honungs-fogeln, humming birds from the West Indies,
which there made a show with their many colours, and
sat in their nest under glass as though they had been
living; the bird’s-nest, Fogel-bo, which they eat in Asia
as any other food; [T. I. p. 431] which they eat in the
East Indies. It was white, and looked almost as if it
had been made of white wax [T.I. p. 377.] A great
collection of snakes, lizards, fishes, birds, caterpillars,
insects, small four-footed animals [various anatomical
specimens] etc. all put in spiritu vind in bottles, and well
preserved ; dried skins of snakes from the East and West
Indies, of many ells length and proportionately broad ;

102 KALM’S ENGLAND.

very many tomes of an herbarium, among which we par-
ticularly examined those which Sir Hans Sloane himself
had coliected in Jamaica [T. I. p. 434]; 336 volumes of
dried plants in Royal folio; on each leaf there were as
many plants stuck on as there was room for.

[T. I. p. 377.] Sir Hans Sloane’s Library, which pro-
bably has few like it among private collections gathered
together by one single man, and consists of somewhat
more than 48,000 volumes, all bound in superb bindings.

[T. I. p. 427.] The 26th May, 1748.

To-day I accompanied some gentlemen to Sir Hans
Sloane’s to see once more his Natural Samling, and in
particular to get to make more exact observations on the
Cobra di Capello, Serpent, which has, as it were, glass
eyes on the neck, hvilken pa nacken har likasom
glas 6gon, [whence the French name ‘Le Serpent a
lunettes,” ‘‘ Spectacle Snake”; also ‘‘ Naja,” Naia
Tripudians (Merv.) M. Morin Reptiles et Poissons, p. 68,
illustrated on p. 69 and Frontispiece], and to get to
count its scuta abdominalia and squamas caudales,
abdominal plates and tail scales, about which Linnaeus
asked me in a letter. . . . [T. I. p. 437]. The
snake, Cobra di Capello, had 183 scuta abdominalia and
squainas Caudales. If the small squamce, which lie under
the chin, parallel with the scuta abdominalia, are also
reckoned,then there are twomore. It was difficult enough
to count them, because the snake lay in spiritu vind in a
sealed glass bottle.

[T. I. p. 427.] To describe all this great collec-
tion in detail, omstandeligen, would fill several
Folianter: for anyone who has not himself seen
this collection would probably have very great diffi-
culty in picturing to himself that it is so large.
We had to-day the advantage that Sir Hans Sloane

CHELSEA. 103

[T. I. p. 428] honoured us with his company for a couple
of hours while we were studying and examining his vast
collection. What we now examined was in particular
the following [many stones, A gates, Faspis &c. |
Puddingstone is the name of a stone which we saw in abund-
ance about Little Gaddesden and at other places in
Hertfordshire. It is nothing else than a conglomeration,
sammangyttring, of several small round flint-stones.
In Hertfordshire it was used mostly for land-marks and
boundary-stones, ramarken och granse-skilnader,
I saw there quite large pieces of it. Here, in Sir Hans
Sloane’s collection, it was polished, and very much
resembled Pudding of several kinds, whence it has also
acquired its name. In the lapidaries’ shops there were
[T. I. p. 429] snuff-box lids of it which looked very
handsome. The person who showed us this collection
to-day told us that a certain Englishman some years ago
‘ bought some pieces of this polished, carried them to
China, and there sold them, by which he made 1,200 per
cent. A good transaction! . . . [Several stones]
cups, &c., some of which have often cost Sir Hans Sloane
fifty guineas. [Saucers, spoons, &c.]

[T. I. p. 430.] Afterwards the most costly stones
were shown us, which were arranged in a box made ina
particular manner. The box was quadrilateral, a little
more than 6 inches long and not quite 6 inches broad, and
nearly 6 inches high. On the top it sloped from all sides
together,* so that it resembled a monument on a grave,
or a house with an Italian roof. It consisted of a great
many small boxes, which are not drawn out as usual,
but the upper box was always a lid to the under, so that
the lowest box had for a lid all the boxes above it. The
gems, adla-stenarna, were small and lay in small

* We should say just the opposite. [J. L.]

104 KALM’S ENGLAND,

round holes turned or cut out in the boxes. It was said
that in this box there were 1,300 different kinds of gems.

[Various other stones [T. I. p. 431], various Foreign
curiosities, and a silly picture].

[T. I. p. 432.] Afterwards we went into a long narrow
room where the greater part of Sir Hans Sloane’s rarities
are. This room is about 12 feet broad. The height
about 14 feet, the length was said to be 110 feet. Along
the sides there stood at the bottom cabinets, skap, of
sorts of Natural Curiosities, and other things, partly on
them partly hung on the walls; but about a fathom
from the floor above the Natural Curiosities the walls
were all covered with books.

[The rest of p. 432 and 433 descriptions of contents
of cabinets, also the greater part of 434, to same room.]

[T. I. p. 434.] In another room we saw... a
machine to lay books on, when one wishes to read or
requires several books at a time. I cannot so exactly
describe it. It somewhat resembles such a wheel as there
is in Stockholm at Norrbro (Northbridge), and is there
driven by the stream [T. I. p. 435] but instead of each
wing or board in that wheel there was here a long four-
sided box, which was moveable on an axle, and seems to
have had some weights in the bottom, for as this wheel
was turned round, each box always had the same side
downwards, The books were laid on the outer sloping
sides of the box, and thus stood always in the same
position, and went round with the wheel as it was
turned. The length of this wheel was about 5 feet and
its diameter about 3 or 4 feet. I do not remember, Jag
kommer ej ihog, how many boxes there were, but one
could have lying in front of him a very large number of
books at a time.

Here we saw twenty-four volumes of rare books, all in
costly bindings, given to Sir Hans Sloane by the King of
Trance.

CHELSEA, 105

5,300 volumes of manuscripts in Medicine and Natural
History, bound in beautiful bindings.

A book of Chinese Paper with several beautiful
pictures in it.

Besides the aforenamed long and narrow room there
were eight other rooms, in which all the walls were full of
books, from the floor to the ceiling. Each of these
rooms was about 14 ft. high, the length and breadth
about 15 to 18 ft., sometimes more, sometimes less.

[Other various objects of Natural History. ]

[T. I. p. 436.] The shoes of several different Races
Folkslags Skor; but the Finns’ Birch-bark shoes,
Finnarnas Nafver-Skor,*and the Russians’bast-shoes,
Russarnas Bast-Skort, made of lime-bark were con-
spicuous by their absence.

[ Various other objects. ]

In another room were several of such books as
consisted of colored pictures [T. I. p. 437] of all sorts
of Natural objects. Such were Mariana’s, Catesby’s,
Sebe’s, Madame Blackwell’s, &c., costly works, Egyp-
tian Mummies, Roman and other Antiquities, &c. In
the garden we saw Sir Hans Sloane’s Chair [T. I. p. 438]
with three wheels under it, two in front and a little one
behind, in which he was drawn about in his garden.

[T. I. p. 438.] The 26th May, 1748.

Thermometers Jamforelse Comparison of Thermometers.
After I was tired of seeing all this [Sir Hans Sloane’s

* Finnarnas Néfver-Shor, the white birch-bark. The Lapp name
for the birch is Sake, as Linnzeus (ora Lapponica Amst. 1737, 8vo. p. 262)
remarks. “ Calceos dum piscatum eunt, gerunt ex ramentis (p. 263)
corticis betulini,” &c. ‘* when they go a fishing they wear long boots made of
pieces of birch-bark,” &c. [J. L.]

{ Russarnas Bast-Skor. Ger‘ Bast Schuhe, Basteln, Russ. “ Lapshy
(plur.), des Souliers de cordes d’ecorce d’arbre.” J. Heym. Dewéisch-Russ-
Franz Wirterbuch, 1805, obl. 8vo. [J. L.J

106 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Collection] I went to the Chelsea Physic Garden as it is
called, where I compared the Thermometer of Prof.
Andrew Celsius, with that Mr. Miller used in the
orangery, and the difference was this :-—

When Celsius stood at Mr. Miller’s was
oe the graduation on the right.
23 34, the graduation on the left.

18 { 25, the graduation on the right.

281, the graduation on the left.*

[T. 1. p.455.] The 16th Fune, 1748.
Botanic Garden at Chelsea.

In Chelsea lies the famous Botanic Garden, which
in London is called Chelsea Physick Garden, which be-
longs to Apothecaries Hall in London, was established
for the Education of Apothecaries in the knowledge of
herbs, and has, as regards herbs, one of the largest
collections of all rare foreign plants, so that it is said in
that respect to rival the Botanic Gardens of both Parts
and Leyden. At least it is believed to overgo them in North
American plants. It is laid out at Chelsea [T. I. p. 456],
a short English mile from London, because a great
many plants cannot thrive in London for the coal-smoke.
The river Thames flows past it on one side. On the
opposite side lies the orangery full of all such foreign
plants as cannot stand constant exposure to the open air.
Among other foreign trees which are found there are
four Cedars of Lebanon, which stand out in the garden
and are now as large and high as our largest firs, Furur,
although they were not planted there before the year
1683, and stand there in a very meagre earth. The
ground for this garden has been presented to the

* Miller's was apparently a differential Thermometer. One was
invented before 1676 by Johann Christoph Sturm, Prof. of Mathematics
at Altdorf. [J.L)

CHELSEA. 107

Apothecaries Hall by Sir Hans Sloane, with the con-
dition that they shall supply it with fifty new plants every
year. In one room of the Orange-house, that, namely, in
which the plants are set in the winter time, which cannot
bear exposure in the open air, but still do not require
any heat, stands Str Hans SLoaNE carved in white
alabaster with a scroll of paper in his hand, on a white
marble pedestal.

On the South side of this pedestal, towards the
entrance these words are read :

“Sir Hans Sloane, Baronet,
Physician to his Majesty,
President
of the Royal College of Physicians

and Royal Society
who
That the knowledge of plants

might be preserved and improved
to the Glory of God
and Benefit of mankind
[ To Dy pe tay | Gave this ground
in the year of our Lord 1721
To the Company of Apothecaries London
To be a Physic Garden for ever.”

On the East side are these words :
‘“* They
Being sensible how necessary

that branch of science is
to the faithful discharging the Duty
of their Profession
with gratefull hearts
and general consent
Ordered this Statue to be Erected
in the year of our Lord 1733
That their successors and Posterity
may never forget
Their Common Benefactor.”

108 KALM’S ENGLAND.

On the West side stand these words:
“Placed here in the year 1737
Sir Benjamin Rawling Kn’t, Master.

Mr. Joseph Miller \ Bae?
Mr. Joseph Richards ees

[T. I. p. 457.] Ray’s HERBARIUM.

In a room up in the Orangery there is preserved
as a great rarity, the collection of plants which the
great Historicus Naturalis, Foh. Rajus or Ray himself
collected and arranged, and with his own hand wrote
the names under. My. Ray presented this collection a
week before his death, which took place the 17th January,
1706, to his good friend and neighbour, Mr. Samuel Dale,
author of the well known Pharimacologia. [T. I. p. 458.]
Mr. Dale afterwards in his old age gave this as well as
his own collection of plants to the Physic Garden at Chelsea,
to be preserved for ever. The plants in Myr. Ray’s
Herbarium were sewn with cotton on to the paper in
large paper books. The whole collection consisted of
about eight or twelve such paper books in folio. In some
places the plants had been cut out, for Dr. Sherard had
borrowed this collection from Mr. Dale, and when he
had found any plant, which was either rare, or he thought
much of, it was said that he had either clipped or cut it
out, so that the books had been sufficiently mutilated.*

Mr. Philip Miller, in whose charge this garden is left,
is and no mistake a great Horticulturist, Tragardr
mastare. So much the better to be able to judge of
this, I will mention one thing and another, which throws

* This is one of the most interesting accounts in the whole of Kalm.
William Sherard was at Smyrna from 1702 to 1718, therefore the mutilation
of Ray’s Herbarium must have taken place between that date and Sherard’s
death in 1722, at the age of 69. Sherard bequeathed his Herbarium con-
taining 12,000 species of plants, to the University of Oxford. [J. L.]

CHELSEA. 109

light'on the subject, and just as they have been related
to me by trustworthy men. Myr. Miller’s father was a
Nurseryman, who followed that occupation all his life,
and in the Practique of it had gone a long way. He had
begun to instruct his son, this Philip Miller, in the art
from his earliest years, and was in this so much the more
lucky, that his son had an uncommon liking for that
occupation. As the man throve, so he spared no expense
in also causing his son to havea sufficient education in
various languages, and other sciences, which profit and
adornaman. Miller quickly assimilated all that his father
had himself taught him, both in Theorie and Praat, of orna-
mental and kitchen gardening. At the same time he
went through all books which had appeared in England
on these sciences. An industrious intercourse with other
enterprising nurserymen in this [T.I. p. 459] town and in
the country round made him still more proficient. But he
did not stop with this. A change of soil, climate, &c,
often causes a plant which can, according to ordinary rules,
be transplanted at one place, not to admit of this being
accomplished with the same advantage at another place,
but a particular treatment is often required at each place.
His thoughts were therefore turned upon travelling. He
was well off, and had therefore no difficulty in accom-
plishing this. To travel out to foreign countries without
having first made himself acquainted with what remark-
able things there are to be found at home, he held
neither for wisdom nor usefulness. He therefore tra-
velled through the greater part of England, observing
everything, but was especially careful to inspect all
ornamental and kitchen gardens, and to make himself
at home and acquainted with all horticulturists, for he
was of the opinion that he could get to learn something
useful which he did not know before, at least from some
of them. He conversed with them on all matters con-

110 KALM’S ENGLAND.

nected with their business, and had his trouble often
many times repaid with the useful wrinkles, de nyttiga
r6n, he gained. As agriculture has so near a connection
with horticulture, Tragards vasendet, therefore he
kept at the same time an observant eye on everything
which occurred in rural economy, landthushallningen,
particularly in the cultivation of ploughed lands. Thence
it comes that he is still reckoned as the greatest theo-
reticus in England.

After he had thus travelled through England, he
started on his foreign travels, and then explored Flanders
and Holland, because he knew that there were also great
horticulturists there, and that the science of the manage-
ment of ornamental and kitchen gardens had there
reached a high pitch of excellence. Whether he, besides
the aforenamed lands, also explored other districts, I
have not understood, but from the foregoing it can be
seen [T. I. p. 460] that no nurseryman has so much
advantaged himself in learning both the theorie and
practique of his business. After his return home he
devoted much time in practising all that he had known
before, and that he learned upon his travels. Hereupon
he afterwards published his Gardeners’ Dictionary in Folio,
in which he describes in detail the cultivation of all sorts
of plants, those which belong to kitchen gardens, as well
as those which are cultivated in academical and medi-
cinal gardens, with numerous other useful notes. Some
time after that there also appeared the 2nd volume, in
which he completes the work by the account of the
cultivation of plants omitted in the first volume; but as
this large work was dear enough, he shortly after made
an abstract of it, in which he excluded all philosophical
and other curteusa passages, and introduced only that
which particularly belongs to a nurseryman’s business,
so that nothing on that subject is omitted, The large

CHELSEA. III

book is printed in Folio, the latter in 8vo. His great
Gardeners’ Dictionary in Folio was some time back, in the
summer of 1752, republished with many corrections and
additions, after it had first been translated and printed
in several languages.

As regards the common opinion of Miller’s Gardeners’
Dictionary, I have asked several of the greatest and best
horticulturists both in England and America, what author
amd what book they had found and believed to be the
best in Horticulture, not only as regards a number of
rare plants, but in particular those which are planted for
the kitchen and Fabriquer, both trees and plants. They
have all answered with one mouth, Miller’s Gardeners’
Dictionary, either in Folio, or the abstract in 8vo.,
was the best of all, and that when one has it, no other
book is afterwards required, because there is found
in it everything that is in the others, and much
more besides, and that both more clearly and better
worked out than in any other, although the others often
have manifold more words. The same answer I have
also got from several distinguished persons who had them-
selves had a particular pleasure in planting trees and
plants with their own hands. If any of the Lords and
the great “‘ Herrar’’ in England wished to lay outa new
garden, orto remake an old one, Mr. Miller would always
show them how it ought to be done. When the greatest
lords drove out to their estates, he often drove out with
them in the same carriage, i sammavagn. Ina word,
the principal people in the land set a particular value on
this man.

AMERICAN NOTES

MADE IN Lonpon.

[T. I. p. 384.] Vax af et slags Porss.

Wax from a kind of sweet willow.

In many places where there are morasses or wet
grounds in North America there grows in abundance a
little bush, which is called by Botanists Myrica foliis
lanceolatis subserratis, fruciu baccato. Linn. Hort. Cliff.
455. Upsala 295. This Myrica or sweet willow, Pors,
instead of other fruit has berries which have on the
outside a kind of a wax, which is used as a candle, til
ljus. They take the berries and cast them into a pot of
boiling water, when the wax melts off the berries by itself
and floats as a grease on the top of the water. When the
water is cold, the wax hardens, and can then be taken off
and kept till it is wanted. The candle is made from it in
the same way as tallow or ordinary wax. They mostly mix
this wax with the tallow they are going to make dip
candles of, as it makes the tallow candle harder and
firmer; for if the summers in Virginia are very warm
then the tallow candle becomes so soft and weak from
the great heat that it cannot stand straight but bends
down; but if some of this wax is melted together with

the tallow they never bend with the summer heat. Some
12

AMERICAN NOTES. 113

of the poor people in that country are said to make
[T. I. p. 385] their candles entirely from this wax.

The Duke of Argyll had some of these bushes planted
in his garden, which not only thrive there incomparably
well, but had also borne such a quantity of fruit that he
caused wax candles to be dipped from the wax which
he caused to be boiled from the berries in the above-
named manner.

Villa Oxar. Wild Oxen.

When the traveller in Virginia has gone some miles
from the sea shore up country, or up towards the hills,
he often gets to see a multitude of the wild Oxen which
are found there. When they become aware of the
presence of man, they run away directly without doing
any harm; but if any one shoots at them and they
are only wounded by the bullet and not nearly killed,
they come rushing at the one who has fired, and are
dangerous enough unless one can find a means either
to shoot them down directly and kill them, or to slip
away. Their principal food is the great Reed (Arundo),
which there grows everywhere in the morasses. The
Indians or the wild folk there, shoot them, sometimes
eat up the flesh, or throw it away and use the skin, or
sell it to the Europeans, who make the same use of it as of
any other ox-leather.

A certain Gentleman of Virginia has caught some of
their calves alive and reared them at home, but he has
never been able to get them so thoroughly tame that they did
not at the same time retain some of their wild and buffalo
nature, yxa natur; for as soon as they have been
let loose they have run away to the woods, and no fence
or hedge has been so good that they have not broken
over it. Sucha living calf had also been carried over
to England and is the same [T. I. p. 386] which is

I

134 KALM’S ENGLAND.

depicted in Mr. Catesby’s beautiful work on Carolina.
Some gentlemen in Virginia had also got these oxen
tolerably tame, but they have nevertheless, mostly, in
the end to shoot them dead, on account of the great
damage they have caused; for when they have been let
loose, they have not indeed run away but have remained
at the farm, and gone in to any enclosure they chose,
eaten up and trampled down the crops and other
planted things; because no hedge can be so strong
that they could not knock it down with their horns or
at least make themselves an opening or gap through it.

[T. I. p. 405.] The 16th May, 1748.

Svinens foda, K6tt, &c., in North America. Dr.
Mitchel said that there is hardly in any part of the
world more beautiful and well-flavoured pork, svin-
kott, than in North America. This he principally
ascribed to the maize, which is there planted, and grows
in abundance, and on which the swine are fed. They
are also driven into the oakwoods in the autumn, where
they feed on the numerous acorns, ek-ollen, which are
there found.

[T. I. p. 409.] The 18th May, 1748.

Friesland nu forloradt. Friesland now lost.

In the morning I called upon Dr. Mortimer, who was
Secretary of the Royal Society. Among other subjects
that we talked about, he asked me if I knew what had
become of the Friesland, which in former times was
named as a land which lay west of Iceland. He showed
a couple of old maps, Landt-chartor, both of which
had Friesland shown as a large island, getting on for
half as large as Iceland and west of it. On Friesland
there were shown the names of many havens and places.

AMERICAN NOTES. 115

One of these maps was engraved in the year 1666. As
we at the present day do not know of any large
island in the same longitude and latitude, so it is a
question what to think of it. Can there have been such
an island? Dr. Mortimer related that he had talked
about it with several old sea captains, and one of them
had told him that when he had sailed in about the same
longitude and latitude as the old maps had placed
Friesland, he had found there a much shallower water
than elsewhere, indeed in some places so shallow that he
had not ventured to proceed in that direction; for the
rest, all sea captains had said that at the present time
there is no land, island, or anything of the kind seen there.
May there not formerly have been a large island which
has since sunk ?*

* Friesland or Frisland, one of the phantom islands of the North
Atlantic, has been the subject of much speculation among geographers. The
first suggestion of the island upon the map, appears on the Edrisi map, 1154,
(Tabula rotunda Rogeriana) where a considerable island is shown to the north
of England and Ireland marked ‘“ Resland.’”’ Next on the oval diagram known
as the Imago Mundi of Ranulfus de Hyggeden, 1360, an island called
“ Wrislad,” appears with Noravega, Islanda and Tile. Lelewel considers
with some show of reason that ‘‘ Resland” and ‘“ Wrislad”’ represent Frislanda
(Geog. du Moyen Age. vol. iii. p. tor, n.). On the Genoese Pizigani map,
1367, is an island opposite to the south-west coast of Norway, called
‘‘Sialanda ;” an island in a corresponding position is shown on the Catalane
map, 1375, and on the map of Fredrici d’ Ancone, 1497, (Wolfenbutel) named
‘¢ Stillanda,”’ and this island on both these maps bears a legend, stating that
the inhabitants speak the language of Norway and are Christians. This name
‘Stillanda”’ has been read by some modern geographers as “ Frislanda.”
There can be no doubt, however, as to the correct reading, if either the
original Catalane map, preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale in Paris, or
the fine photographic facsimile published by Delisle ‘Documents Géogra-
phiques, 1883,” (Brit. Mus. S. 35, 5, sheet 16), is referred to. The facsimile
of the Catalane map in Santarem’s Atlas (Brit. Mus., Tab. 1850, a. pl. xiii),
gives the same reading, but is not so clear. Lelewel reads it ‘‘ Scillante.”
The Pizigani map is given in Jomard (Brit. Mus, S.11.1. map. x.) and the
Wolfenbutel map in Santarem’s Atlas (Brit. Mus., Tab. 1850, 4. page 74.) The
names and positions of the Island ‘‘ Sialanda” or “‘Stillanda,” in the three

I 2

116 KALM’S ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 418.] The 22nd May, 1748.
Silk-grass in America.

I asked Dr. Mitchel what sort of grass silk-grass was,
which is mentioned in the description of Virginia, and is
said to serve the same purpose as hemp. He answered
that it is called by Morison in his Hist.* Yucca foliis
filamentosis, and grows in Virginia on the sea-shore. It
was formerly used like flax and hemp to make clothes of,

maps last named show that it is the “Stillante”’ of the Fra Mauro map, 1459,
i.e. Estland or Shetland. This, however, is not altogether inconsistent with its
being the genesis of the Frislanda in the Zeno map, referred to below, as the
name may have been then misread, as it has been in later days, and the learned
ignorance of the cartographers of the XIVth and two following centuries, and
their confusion as to the names and true situations of the islands in the North
Atlantic, is abundantly evidenced by their maps. The first map on which the
name “ Frislanda”’ is found clearly written, is that by Juan de la Cosa, who
accompanied Columbus on his second voyage (1493-1496), drawn in 1500.
The name occurs also on the Portuguese ‘Carta da Navigar,” by Alberto
Cantino, 1503, but in this the position of the island is shifted farther to
the east, close to the Ilhas de Fogo. ‘‘Insula de Uresland” is shown on a
Map in Kunstmann, c. 1505 (Brit. Mus. Tab. 1850, a. Blatt. Il). Neither
Bordone, 1528, nor Zeigler, 1532, mentions it either in their text or on their
maps. Zurla recognises Frisland in the “ Ixilandia’’ of the Fra Mauro map, 1459.

Frislanda is mentioned by Christopher Columbus in a memorandum
referring to his voyage to Iceland in 1477 (quoted in the life of the Admiral
written by his son, Ferdinand Columbus, who died in 1539, in Spanish, but
first published in 1571, in Italian) in which he distinguishes it from Iceland
and identifies it with the Thule of Ptolemy.

But it is principally in connection with the apocryphal voyages of the
Venetian brothers Nicolo and Antonio Zeno at the end of the XIVth
century that the name of Frisland is known. An account of these
travels was published in Venice in December, 1558, and was accompanied
by a map compiled by Nicolé Zeno, a direct descendant of Antonio, and
founded, as he alleges, on an old and rotten map found among the family papers
of the Zeni. The narrative is given by Ramusio (3rd ed., 2nd vol., 1574),
by Hakluyt (Divers Voyages 1582, and Voyages and Navigations vol. 3, 1600)
and an abstract appears in Purchas hys Pilgrims (vol. 3, 1625). The Zeno
map was accepted as genuine, and copied with slight alteration by Ruscelli

* Historia plantarum Universalis, Tomi III. Robert Morison. Oxon
1680, 1689, Fol. [J. L.]

AMERICAN NOTES. 117

but since they have been in the habit of getting clothes
and other similar things from Europe, the method of
preparing this has been so far forgotten that they no
longer know in what way it was formerly prepared.

[T. I. p. 419.] Dr. Mitchel said that he had sown it
in his garden in Virginia, where it throve well. He had
attempted to treat it in the same way as hemp, when he
obtained from the fibres in the leaves a sort of fibre not
unlike hemp. Only a few of the wild plants grow in

(Ptolemy, Venice, 1561), by Moletius (Ptolemy, Venice, 1562), by Gerard
Mercator, 1569, and by Ortelius (Theatrum Orbis, 1570). Frobisher thought he
had actually found the Frisland of the Zeno map when he reached Greenland
on his first voyage in 1576, and that he sailed along its coast four days on bis
second voyage in 1577, and landed there on his third voyage in 1578.

The map took a strong hold on the geographers of the day and was used
by cartographers for nearly two centuries after its appearance in 1558.
Since then many writers have endeavoured to reconcile its falsities with facts,
while others have held that both the map and the narrative were altogether
founded on fiction alone, ¢.g., Torfeeus (1705) and Charlevoix (1744). Of
the former class some have believed that Frisland did once actually exist,
but that it has been submerged, or lost by some natural convulsion ; amongst
these are Delisle (1720), the Duc d’Almadover, The Abbé Zurla (1806)
and Amoretti (1811); others have tried to identify it with some land still
existing, but known to us by another name. John Reinhold Forster (1786),
the translator of the American portion of Kalm’s travels, somewhat inconsist-
ently adopted both these views, but he seems finally to have preferred the
latter, and identifies Frisland with Fara, Fera or Ferasland, a small island
off the east coast of Hoy in the Orkneys; others, ¢g., Terra Rossa (1686),
followed by Admiral Irminger (1879), have satisfied themselves that Frisland
was Iceland, but the majority “in number and value” of writers on this
subject, though differing on other points, think that it was the Faroes; of
these are Buache (1784), Eggers (1794), Maitebrun (1831), Zahrtmann (1833),
Bredsdorf (1845), Lelewel (1852), and Major (1873-9).

An examination of the copy of the large map of Olaus Magnus, Venice,
1539, long missing, but a copy of which was discovered by Dr. Oscar
Brenner at Munich in 1886, since any of the above mentioned authors
have written on the matter, seems to make it clear that the opinion
was correct that the Frislanda of the Zeno maf has its original in the
Faroes. Zahrtmann says: that the then name Faer-eyar does not appear in
the Zeno narrative as it was difficult to Italianize. Frisland is probably a
contraction of the adjectival form Faereysk-land. The identity of the

118 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Virginia, but its home is farther south. Dr. Mitchel
believed also that it is scarcely found in Pennsylvania
because it is too cold there for this plant. I have since
found this was true, and that linen is prepared from its
leaves.
[T. I. p. 420.] 23rd May, 1748.

Nearly the whole afternoon was spent at the house of
Mr. Catesby, a man who is very well known for his Natural
History of Carolina in America. In this work he has in-

Frislanda of the Zeno arrative is another matter, and such is the
confusion of this story, that it is not wonderful that Forster has
scattered the names shown upon the Frislanda of the Zeno map, over
the Orkneys, the Hebrides and the Faroes. The Frislanda of Christopher
Columbus was also most probably the Faroes. The Friesland referred
to by Kalm is evidently that of the Zeni. The map of 1666, which
he saw at Dr. Mortimer’s, was probably one of Seller’s. The largest
and most detailed map of Frisland is that which occurs in the Lafreri
Atlas (1550-1575), of which only two perfect copies are known to exist.
It contains, with three notable exceptions (viz., ‘Monach, Ledovo, and
llofe, which are not in the field of the Lafreri map), all the names on the
Zeno map, but is much larger, and the island is shown covered with trees,
fields, towns, &c. Unfortunately, the map, a later copy of which may be
found in the British Museum under the name “ Petri de Nobilibus formis,
S. 10. 1. (156),” is not dated, so that a doubt remains which of the two maps
is the older. It is usual, however, to reduce a small map from a large one
and not to elaborate a large map from a small one, and this would point to
the probability that the Lafreri map is earlier than the much smaller and less
detailed Zeno map. However this may be, Frisland kept its place on many
of the principal maps of the XVIth and XVIIth centuries.

Against the theory of submergence or destruction there is no physical
impossibility, or even improbability, as the alleged site of the island lies
within an area in which the land is sinking, and in the neighbourhood cf
extinct volcanoes. But it is incredible that a large island with many towns
and ports, and having constant and considerable mercantile transactions with
Flanders, Brittany, England, Scotland and Denmark, as alleged in the Zeno
narrative, in the XIVth century, should have totally disappeared without
some record of such a remarkable catastrophe having been preserved in the
histories of those countries with which it traded. On this account alone the
submergence theory must be rejected, and the identity of Frisland with the
Faroes maintained. [F. W.L.]

AMERICAN NOTES. Tig

comparably well represented with lifelike colours, the
rarest trees, plants, animals, birds, fishes, snakes, frogs,
lizards, painted-toads, skildpaddor, and insects, which
are there found, so that no one can see that they are not
living where they stand with their natural colours on the
paper. Mr. Catesby seemed to be a man of nearly sixty
years, and was somewhat short-sighted. He now devoted
his time to reading, and to further elaborating the
Natural History. His aforesaid work, which consisted of
two large Volumes in Regal Folio, was very dear; and
both together now cost in England twenty-two to twenty-
four guineas, therefore not for a poor man to buy.

[T. I. p. 420.] The 23rd May, 1748.
Nytta och Skada af Punch.

Good and harm of P. I asked Mr. Catesby and Dr.
Mitchel whether they thought that Punch was a useful
or a baneful drink? They answered that their opinion
was that it is beneficial or baneful according as it is
prepared. Mr. Catesby [T. I. p. 421] said that his
experience in Virginia and Carolina had been as follows.
They drank at one time Punch which was made of
strong Brandywine or rum and water with much sugar
in it, but only a little lemon-juice was added. The
effect, which they gradually found, of this was, that after
some time they got a kind of Paralysis, which was such
that they could not hold anything with the fingers; for
they had almost no strength in them, but were obliged
to place everything they wished to take hold of between
the two hands. For example, they could not hold the
glass which they wished to raise to the mouth with the
fingers, which they could not press together, but between
the wrists, hand-logorna.

Afterwards they began to diminish the quantity of
Brandywine and sugar but to put more lemon-juice in

120 KALM’S ENGLAND.

it, after which they did not get such troublesome paralysis,
although commonly the sad future consequence was
that he who drank Punch generally became very palsied,
darrande, in his old age.

[T. I. p. 424.] The 25th May, 1748.

Gramina perennia nog rara uti Virginien. Peren-
mal grasses rave enough in Virginia. Dr. Mitchel, who had
lived a very long time in Virginia and North America* told
me that perennial grasses are there very rare. The
grasses that are mostly found there are generally gramina
annua, which sow themselves every year. For this
reason he said he was disposed to have a large number
of seeds of gramina perennia collected here, and sent over
to Virginia to be sown there. For the rest, he said that
the grass in Virginia has not the beautiful vivid and
green colour [T. I. p. 425] that it has here in Europe, but
the colour of the grass is there brownish, and not so
grateful to the eye.

* With reference to the ‘‘ Dr. Mitchel” who has been so frequently
mentioned :—

John Mitchel, MD., F.RS., emigrated to America early in the 18th
century, returned to England in 1748, and died in America 1772. He was
the author of various Botanical, Zoological,and Medical books, but is best
known for his excellent map of America, which was published in 1755. It
has been often used in boundary negotiations, and is still regarded as an
authority. [F. W. L.]

WOODFORD.

CoUNTRY BETWEEN LONDON AND WOODFORD.

[T. I. p. 146.] The 28th February, 1748.

N the morning I went out into the
country to a place named Wood-
ford, 10 miles from London, in
Essex. The prospect of the
country between London and
Woodford, where we now travelled
was mostly plain, or only in small
hills. The whole way there is
nothing else but a succession of

beautiful houses, fertile arable fields and verdant meadows.

At all the houses there was commonly a garden full of

various beautiful trees. The walls of the houses were

overdrawn either with Syringa, Caprifolium, [Lonicera

Caprifolium] Goatsleaf Honeysuckle, Wedera, Ivy or

Mespilus pyri folio Sempervirens, or some other kinds.

In some places there were not planks but hedges round

the gardens, of Taxus, yew, elm, hawthorn, or some

other tree.

The whole of the land was divided into inclosures, or
tappor och tickter, which were all surrounded by
hedges of all kinds of planted trees, especially hawthorn,
sloe, [T. I. p. 147] dog-rose, blackberry-bushes, holly,

Agvifolium, together with a number of other trees
121

122 KALM’S ENGLAND.

which had come to grow in the hedges. In some places,
especially nearer to London, there were high earth-banks
cast up, about 4 feet high, instead of hedges round the
fields. They consisted of the usual brick-colored clay of
the district, with a quantity of gravel and pebblestones,
grus och sma slata flint-stenar. These fences
gardes-gardar, or earth-walls, mull-vallar, require
repairing yearly.

The earth, mullen, had now slipped down in many
places and made an opening so that the cattle could go
through it. But they are not here so difficult to maintain,
because the winters here are seldom so sharp that there
is any frost in the earth, at det blir nAagon tjala i
jorden, which otherwise is in a position to damage an
earth-wall sooner than anything else. The beautiful
appearance of the country must altogether be ascribed
to industry and labour. It resembles one continuous
pleasure garden, tra eller lustgard, from the many
living hedges there are everywhere.

London’s many towers appeared in the distance.
However clear the air may be, there seems always to be
a fog-like cloud standing over the town, which comes
from the coal-smoke which ascends in abundance from
the innumerable fireplaces, where fires are continually
burning. The roads are full of travellers, on foot and on
horseback, in wagons and carts, who travel backwards
and forwards, so that one often has, as it weré, to steer
through them. In some places the Thames appears in
the distance with many ships and vessels sailing there
outwards and upwards.

The River Lea. Were and there are river channels
and cuts, Canaler, some made expressly and artificially
from the Thames up country, for the purpose of con-
veniently carrying coals and other commodities. *

* The river Lea is rendered navigable for barges up to Hertford, by
many artificial ‘cuts.’ [J. L.]

WOODFORD. 123

[T. I. p. 148.] The 4th March, 1748.
Bot for Brannsaér.

Remedy for burns. Among remedies for burns it is
reckoned an exceedingly good one to rub the burned
place with ink, bleck, directly one has burned oneself,
which not only prevents blisters from rising, but also at
the same time heals, which effects are attributed to the
vitriol in the ink.

The 7th March.

Epping Forest. Immediately to the North and East
of Woodford there lies a beautiful forest, l6f-skog. The
soil, as in the whole district, is en grof rédaktig
eller tegel-fargad sand, som har kallas gravel, a
coarse reddish or brick-colored sand, which is here called
gravel, mixed with a fine earth and a quantity of ordinary
blackish flints. The forest is high-lying. Rabbits and
roe-deer are said to abound in it, though we did not see
any when we passed through it. Nor did we find any
plants in this forest in flower, excepting the trees named
below. Otherwise the ground was everywhere green.
The trees had not been allowed to grow high, ej fatt
vaxa langa, but after they had obtained a height of
g-12 feet they had polled them for firewood, ved, or
some other purpose. They had afterwards thrown out
many branches, and thus made a crown.

The trees which we found in this forest were the
following :

ILEx foliis ovatis acutis spinosis, Linn. Hort. Ups. 32,
Agrifolium, &c., of Ray, called by the English Holly, was
here the commonest of all trees. (I. Aquifolium.)

It grew mostly in bushes, but sometimes as trees of
12 feet high. The reason of its short growth was, that it
was cut off by the surrounding inhabitants for firewood,
ved. This [T. I. p.149] bush which keeps its green and

124 KALM’S ENGLAND.

beautiful leaf the whole winter, was an ornament to these
woods. It is much to be wished that it would grow in
Sweden.

Carpinus, 786, Afvenbok, [C. Betulus L. 1770], is
called by Englishmen Hornbeam, and occurs in con-
siderable abundance. It had a good many of the last
year’s leaves remaining, but withered enough. From
some trees they were all fallen off.

Cratecus, Hagtorn, hawthorn, in considerable
abundance, though quite small bushes. The leaves
were all off.

Facus, Bok, beech, very abundant, had nearly all its
last year’s leaves remaining, although completely dried
up. The bark was quite smooth and resembled ROnn,
[Sorbus Aucuparia] the Rowan tree or Mountain Ash.

Quercus, Ek, oak, here and there tolerably abundant.
From the old trees the leaves had mostly fallen off, but
for the most part, still remained on the young ones.

Uvex, [U. Europzus], called by the English Furze,
grew in some places, especially on the edge of the
forest, in great abundance. Mr. Richard Warner [author
of part of a translation of Plautus, 1767, and of Plantae
Woodfordienses; Catalogue of the plants about Woodford,
London 1771, 8vo.] told me that it flowers nearly the
whole year, except a couple of months in mid-winter.
As this plant is very full of thorns, taggar, it is difficult
to advance without boots where it is abundant. Ata
distance many might have thought that there was a group
of Juniper bushes, Enbuskar; for its leaves, blan,
resemble it, and it grows in exactly the same or similar
places. About its great [T. I. p. 150.] usefulness for
hedges, &c., an account shall be given farther on.

Rosa, Vulg. Dog Rose, with several other varieties
of the same, grow here and there. They had now no
leaves. Rusus [R. Fruticosus] Bjérnbars-buskar,

WOODFORD. 125

Blackberry-bushes, grew here and there especially in the
hedges, gardesgardar. The stalks were often 18 feet
long andmore. They did not stand erect, but when they
had grown about a fathom in height they curved down
to the ground, and afterwards crept along it. It was
not good to get along where these grew abundantly,
on account of their long thorns. In the hedges they
were not so uneven. The leaves were fallen off most of
them, but on some few they were still remaining.

HEvDERA [H. Helix, 190], called by the Englishmen
Ivy, grew on a great many of the trees, up which it had
clambered. In particular, it had taken up its abode in
the crown which had been formed after carpinus (horn-
- beam) beech, and oak, had been polled, but the stalk
went from the crown close to the tree down to the
ground. It had green, fresh, and beautiful leaves.

SPARTIUM, 589 [S. Scoparium, now Cytisus Scoparius]
Broom, grew here and there on the borders of the woods.

Ruscus C.B.[R. Aculeatus] Butcher’s Broom, grew in
some places in the woods, but was quite small. The
leaves fresh and green; it had also remained in flower the
whole winter, and flowers were now beginning to expand.
The leaves ended in a spine, en tagg. The plant was
pretty to have at the borders of garden beds, where
box, buxbom, is now otherwise used.

DapuHNeE, Linn. Hort. Ups. 94, [D. Laureola] Spurge
Laurel, grew here and there in the wood, though in few
places.

[T. I. p. 151]. The climate of Engiand is quite
different from that of Sweden, which the inhabitants
ascribe partly to the more southerly position of the
country, partly and principally to the surrounding ocean.
The ground was here everywhere now quite green and
bare of snow, except that some still remained near a
few hedges, gardesgard, which was left from the .

126 KALM’S ENGLAND.

unusually heavy snow that had fallen a fortnight before.
All the cattle went out on the field to pasture, without
the farmers having to take thought for their food.
Indeed horses, cows, sheep, swine, geese, fowls, &c.,
often go out by themselves and seek their food in the
fields the whole winter. For the cows they have also
houses to put them in sometimes at night during bad ©
weather, and a haystack close by in case of need; the
sheep are not allowed any house at all, but they go
constantly under the open sky, summer and winter,
night and day. It is only on account of the small lambs, of
which they take a little care, that they are sometimes
kept under cover, under tak. During the last-fallen
heavy snow, which lay a long time, the sheep were kept
quartered only by a haystack, there to have their food
as long as the ground lay covered with snow. There is
also in this district no difficulty in keeping a large
number of cattle. A farmer also escapes the dis-
advantage of giving himself much trouble and unrest
in collecting fodder for the cattle during the winter
[as in Sweden].

In the houses where the folk dwell the fire burns on
the hearth all day, anda spjall is an entirely unknown
thing, as has already been said. Therefore, when it is
cold the folk sit round the fire, when often the one side
is hot while the other side freezes.

The earth and the ground, Jorden och Marken,
takes here so little harm from cold and frost that one
can plough the whole winter through, and there is hardly
a month in the year in which [T. I. p. 152] some kind of
seed is not sown. Spring-rye, barley, and pease, were
already sown in the fields. Beans, pease, and other
kitchen-garden fruits, were already sown for the most
part by the close of February, and even by the middle
and the beginning of that month.

WOODFORD. 127

Seas, rivers, and becks were open, only some fish-
pond, fisk-dam, and some small pool, liten puss, had
still ice at the end of February, when it was unusually
cold here, but now they were all thawed, uptinade. It
is looked upon as a very unusual thing when the river
Thames at London is over-drawn with ice. One who
lives there does not have the advantage of enjoying this
treat many times in his life. It is true that sometimes
during the winter a little snow falls here, but it seldom
lies longer than three days, and when this does happen
it is looked upon as something unusual, for which reason
also those who live about London do not know what a
sled, slada, is.

The 8th March, 1748.

Plants standing in flower at this date included only
the following, which are partly among England’s wild
plants, and partly planted in their gardens. I except
here Genista Spinosa and Ruscus, which also now stood
in flower, because I have just mentioned them. We
wandered a long way round about, and made a note of
those we saw standing in flower.

CRocus vernus was planted in gardens at the edges of
flower beds, and especially on both sides of paths, where
it formed a great ornament with its yellow, gula, flowers
at this time of year. I saw it also with white, blue, and
blue-grey flowers, though seldom.

[T. I. p. 153]. Gavantuus [G. Nivalis], Snowdrop,
was planted in gardens in the same kind of places as
the crocus. Of our wild plants in Sweden, the following
were in flower, which are numbered as in Linn. Flora
Suecica :

Alsine, 369 [Stellaria Media].
Lamium, 494 [Lamium purpureum].
Senecio, 6go [Senecio Vulgaris].
Bellis, 707 [B. perennis] Daisy.

128 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Corylus, 787 [C. Avellana] Hazel.

Primula Veris, 161, Primrose.

Chelidonium Minus, 460 [Ranunculus Ficaria ].
The 9th March, 1748.

Hackar, hedges, were planted around all ploughed fields,
meadows, and pastures, gardens and kitchen-gardens, and
often around the ordinary courtyards and farmyards.
Instead of a plank-fence, plank, round the fields,
meadows, and pastures, they had first of all dug a ditch
and cast up the earth on the bank of the ditch. In this
banked-up earth there were afterwards planted small
shoots, either of hawthorn [Cratoegus Oxyacantha],
blackberry-bushes, 409, or dogrose, 406, ToOrne, mixed
together. The hedges especially consisted most of
hawthorn with blackberries and dogroses, interspersed
here and there. The hawthorn was five times as
numerous as the other two put together, if not more,
and the blackberry bushes quite three times as many as
the dogrose. At first, as long as these shoots were still
small, they had set up beside them a dead fence, en ddd.
hack, which was a kind of gardesgard, in which the
twigs of the afore-named thorny bushes were instead
of a fence, stangsel. Before the gardesgdrd, or
dead fence, had become old, the planted trees were
already so grown up, that they could afterwards fence off
all cattle and completely fulfil their office.

[T. 1. p. 154.] The height of these hedges was com-
monly 6 feet, g feet, and sometimes 12 feet; sometimes
also only 3 or 4 feet. The thickness was from 2 feet to
6 feet or more. In these hedges accidents such as wind,
birds, mice, &c., have afterwards planted several other
trees, as oaks and ashes; Hornbeams 786 [Carpinus
Betulus], Afvenbokar; Flader, 250 [Sambucus Nigra],
Elder; Elms 219; Agrifolium (Raj. Syn. 466) [Holly]Ivy,
1go, and other leaf-trees.

WOODFORD. 129

The pollard oaks spread out like a crown, and
formed a good shelter for cattle in hot sunshine or storm.
All the twigs in this crown were very often cut and
carried home for fuel, when other shoots commonly
struck out anew. Sometimes when the hedge had very
much widened out at the sides, it was cut right down,
and a dead hedge set up instead. After a short time the
cut-off stems shot forth a multitude of twigs, which after-
wards formed the most beautiful hedge one could desire.
A bad habit which I noticed hawthorn, blackberries,
and dogroses had, was that they commonly creep with
their roots over a wide space, vidt omkring, out
towards the arable or meadows, where they had not
prevented this by a little ditch close to the hedge. When
they had so crept, no one had been with the scythe to
the grass which was nearest to the hedge and on its side.

Besides the manifold uses which these hedges serve,
there are among cthers (1), that much wood, skog,
which would otherwise be required for fences, gardsel,
is by this means saved. (2) The labour of yearly laying
down gardesgardar, dead-fences, is avoided [T. I. p. 155]
because these, once planted, last for ever. (3) When
anyone wishes to cut down an old hedge he has an
. abundance of fuel, and a new one comes up instead ina
little time. (4) The cattle have a very good shelter,
skjul och skyged, from them against storms and other
bad weather. (5) It is a matchless protection for
ploughed fields and meadows, because storms and other
cold winds, which otherwise on large open fields, Opna
falt, often thin away and destroy the plants, and cause
great damage, are resisted by the hedge. (6) They are
an incredible ornament to the country, because wherever
one turns his eyes it seems as if the whole country
were a beautiful and delightful garden.

Farther on I shall describe in detail how these hedges
K

130 KALM'S ENGLAND.

are laid down entirely new, or renewed from old ones,
and managed, with many circumstances connected with
the subject.

Hoet. The hay was arranged in stacks, commonly
near the cowhouse, which in this country was mostly
situated in one of the meadows or pastures. Over the
haystack was no shelter but a little straw. It stood
under the bare heavens, only that it was fenced in. We
devoted a long time to the same to ascertain exactly
what kinds of plants the hay here consisted of, and
found them to be the following, numbered after Linn.
Flor. Sv.:

Anthoxanthum 29 [A. Odoratum].
Phleum 50 [P. pratense].
Agrostis 62 [A. Capillaris].
Aira 67 [Holcus Mollis].
Poa 77 [P. Angustifolia].
Cynosurus 81 [C. Cristatus].
3 83 [Dactylis Glomerata ].
Avena 96 [A. pratensis ].
Lolium 104 [L. perenne].
Plantago 123 [P. Media].
Rumex 292 [R. Crispus].
» 296[R. Acetosella].
Cerastium 379 [C. Viscosum ].
Ranunculus 466 [R. Acris].
Trifolium 612 [T. Repens Sv. Hvitvapling].
‘ 615 [T. Pratense].
Carduus 658 [C. Crispus].
Chrysanthemum 700 [C. Leucanthemum].
Achillea 705 [A. Millefolium Sv. Rélleka].

Nos. 62 and 67 were the most abundant, and 81
tolerably so.

WOODFORD. 131

[T. I. p. 156.] The roth March, 1748.
Trans plantering. The planting of trees.

Whilst I was visiting at Woodford I often went about
with Mr. Richard Warner, an English gentleman. He had
inherited from his forelders a fine property, which he, in
the English fashion, had rented out to farmers or tenants,
and now lived on his rents out here on his estate, free
from all unrest and oppressive cares. Few can be com-
pared to him in a peculiar disposition to be of service in
all things, both to natives and foreigners. He had
travelled much, had a deep insight into nearly all sciences,
but particularly horticultwre_in which his principal pleasure
consisted. In his garden were nearly all the trees and
bushes that could endure the climate of England, and
these stood the whole year out in the fresh air, and under
the open sky. They were planted in mazes, laby-
rinther, and in many other ways. One can see a list of
such trees as will stand the climate of England in Miller’s
Gardeners’ Dictionary, atthe end. I amused myself some-
times in the daytime in standing by and seeing how he
planted all sorts of different kinds of trees. He was not
very tender about it. The earth in the garden consisted
of a yellowish-red mould mixed with sand. A little pit
was dug for the tree which was to be planted, which was
sometimes only 18 inches or 2 feet, but sometimes 6, 8, or Io
feet high. The pit was then adjusted to the size of the root.
He generally took care that, when the tree was taken
up out of the nursery, tra-scholan, or the open country,
enough earth accompanied the roots, but stillit often hap-
pened that the roots were quite bare. When they were
set in the hole, gropen, there was no manure laid undei
or around the roots, but the [T. I. p. 157] earth which
had been cast up when the hole was dug was cast on to
and around the roots, and was afterwards trampled down ;

but I remarked that sometimes, after the root of the tree
K 2

132 KALM’S ENGLAND.

had been set down in the hole, a couple of spadesful were
taken from the surface soil which lay under the leaf-trees,
planted two or three years before, and laid close round
the roots, and sometimes a little under the same before
the rest of the earth was shovelled on to them.

The roots of Agrifolium, holly, were not cut off when
they were set; but the ends of the fibres are cut off all
round the roots of Taxus. Inthe case of Acicular-leaved
trees, Conifer, such as Taxus, yew, Pinus Abies and
P. Sylvestris, the Norwegian spruce and Scotch fir, Gran
och Tall, I remarked that notwithstanding it was rainy
weather the day after they had been planted, they were,
nevertheless, watered plentifully enough around and on
their roots. The reason was said to be this, that by that
means they take root and become established sooner. In
the case of some trees which had been planted the
autumn before, grass or dried hay was laid over the
mould or banked up earth around the plants, mullen
eller jordkupan, which was said to be done to protect
the roots the first winter from cold.

The 11th March, 1748.

Yesterday and to-day, and some of the following days,
there fell a considerable quantity of snow, although it was
nothing compared with the snow which falls every month
through the winter with us in Sweden.

However, nearly all Englishmen said that there had
not for many years been so much snow here in England
asnow. This snow, however, did not lie much over a
week before it was entirely melted away.

[T. I. p. 158. ] :
Hvad formon en Angelsk Bonde vid sit landtbruk
har framfor en Svensk.
What advantages an English farmer has over a Swedish one,
in his farming operations.
It is well-known that the winters in England can in

WOODFORD. 133

no way be compared with our Swedish ones. I here
refer especially to the southern parts and around London,
for farther north in England also, they are sharper.
The snow seldom lies more than two or three days on
the ground. Cows, horses, sheep and other animals here
go out the whole winter, and feed on the grass which
stands green and flourishing the whole year through.
There is no month in the year in which they cannot
plough and sow the fields) November, December,
January, February and March are seldom so cold
that any frost, tjala, could prevent them from tilling
the ground, for which reason also there are found
set forth in English agricultural books what ploughing
and duties in the fields, Akersyslor, they have to
perform in each of these months. There is no one here
who knows what a sled, slade, is; because the snow
seldom lies so long that anyone would be able to use
one. Sledge, which Lexicograghi make in English the
same as Slada in Swedish, is nothing but a slapa.
How it is farther north, I leave there.* The winter
comes here very late and goes away very early, if at
least I can call it winter, for the English winters are
commonly such as September in Osterbotten and
October in Stockholm. From such a climate and so
mild winters an English farmer or Landtman derives
many advantages, which a Swedish Bonde, does not
enjoy. An English farmer escapes the greater part of
our winter charges, Vinter-k6rslor. The mild winters
enable him to use sticks instead of logs for fuel, Ris
i stallet for ved til bransle, and make it unnecessary
for him to[T. I. p. 159] employ a great part of the
winter in sawing up wood, til veds k6érning. His

* The S/ed is used on the Pennine Chain, Fora sketch of one form see
Studies in Nidderdale” Glossary, sv. [J.L ]

134 KALM’S ENGLAND.

fuel is from his hedges, which are commonly not far
from the farm, but can be carried or carted home as
it is required. He never need waste any time in hewing,
sawing, and splitting wooden fences, gardsel, and
carrying home of staves, samt stafvars hemfoérning,
because he has around his fields living fences, lefvande
gardesgardar, which so far from rotting away, soon
grow up where they are properly managed, and thus
furnish him yearly with sufficient fuel not only for his
own behoof, but also to sell to others. The houses
which are built of brick, sten, free him from sawing
timbers ; and roofs of tiles, which never rot, from cutting
and carrying home rolls of birch bark, roof trees, roof
boards, and shingles. The earth, bare of snow and
verdant through the whole winter, which gives the
cattle for the most part sufficient food, f6do, makes it
unnecessary for him to gather nearly so much hay and
fodder, foder, as a Swedish Bonde must do, if he
‘will succeed in other ways. Also there is the great
advantage that he can plough and till the earth when
he will, and it is convenient, without being obliged to
bustle and hasten as in Sweden, where all the labours
of fetching food for man and beast come, as it were,
at the same time; and to get to feed sheep on the
turnip land with turnips the whole winter time; to
escape having to build houses for cattle and sheep; to
have vegetables out of the kitchen garden the greater
part of the year; most of all, never to need to feat that
he will suffer harm to his cattle from wolves and bears,
Vargar och Bjornar, which do not exist there.

The 12th March, 1748.

Hackar i Tragardar. Hedges are used in gardens
of different [T. I. p. 160] kinds of trees, which partly
grow wild in England, or have been imported from

WOODFORD. 135

other places, but are now so acclimatised, that they
are able to stand out the whole year, and endure the
winter well. Mr. Warner did not himself know whether
any American leaf trees were used anywhere in England
as hedges, or whether any other American trees were
so employed. I will divide the trees used in hedges into
two divisons viz. :

Tran til hackar, som altid hafva grona 1loéf.
Trees in hedges which always have green leaves.

Taxus (Linn. Fl. Sv. 825) is much used in this
place, admits of being clipped, and looks very pretty.
I did not see so many hedges in gardens of any tree
as of this, which, besides that, was clipped in pyramids
and a hundred other forms. [Yew. Taxus baccata.]

ILex [I. Aquifolium] holly. A great many varieties
of this are used, both with and without spines, taggar,
also foliis ex albo variegatis, and several others. One
could make hedges of this 12 feet high and more. A
hedge of this is one of the most beautiful one could
ever wish to see, and it were to be desired that this
tree would stand our winters.

Uvex. [U. Europaeus] furze. As this flowers mostly
the whole year, it is, with its beautiful yellow flowers,
very handsome.

Papus. [Prunus Padus], bird-cherry. This occurs in
nearly all gardens. In some places it was used as a
hedge, which was very beautiful.

[T. I. p. 16r.] Visurnum, Linn. H.U. 62,2, Tinus,
Clus. Lauro-tinus vulgo, [Laurustinus] is used in some
places for hedges, but they are not particularly well
adapted for that purpose. See Miller’s Gardeners’
Dictionary.

PHILLYREA. Nearly all sorts have been used for
hedges, but when hard winters occur they perish; besides

136 KALM’S ENGLAND.

other inconveniences. [There are three species, natives
of Southern Europe, Italy, Spain, Twrt. v. 32, 1806. ]

QuERcus (Linn. Hort. Cliff 448, 2). Ilex, C.B.
[Q. Ilex L.], together with several varieties of it, was
used here for hedges round the ‘‘ Wildernesses,” or ‘‘ Laby-
vinths,” and mazes, irrgangar, and other ‘“ quarters.”
These hedges were very thick, well admitted of being
clipped, and looked very beautiful.

MEsPILUS spinosa, Linn. H.C. 189, 2, Pyracantha, T. B.
[Mespilus Pyracantha, L. 1770, II. 343], now M. Ger-
manica, was used in many places for hedges, and looked
very pretty. Especially they had planted it against the
brick walls of houses on the sides facing the roads, where
it climbed up the wall and, with its green leaves, the
whole year through, made the walls very pretty.

Buxus arborescens, C. B. [B. Sempervirens, L.], was
used in different places for hedges in, as well as round,
gardens and ordinary crofts, sé uti, som omkring
tragardar och ordinaira gardar, clips well, and
made one of the thickest and most beautiful hedges.

Tran til hackar som hvar Host falla sin 16f.
Trees in hedges which shed their leaves every autumn.

Uximus, 219. Alm, elm [U. Campestris], was
enough used for hedges, and grew to a considerable
height. They had two sorts of this tree, in particular,
one which grew [T. I. p. 162] very high and was used
for hedges on some sides of the gardens to ward off the
blast, and one which was less, and which was used for
smaller hedges.

Tina, 432. Lind, lime [T. Europea], and other
varieties of it, was used in the same kind of places as the
Elm, and grew high enough.

Carpinus, 786 [C. Betulus], Horvnbeam, was some-
times very much used for hedges in gardens. It was

WOODFORD. 137

mostly clipped off, so that it did not get to grow higher
than about 4 feet high.

Rosa Sylv. foliis odoratis, C. B. [R. rubiginosa], ‘‘ The
Sweet Briar, or Eglantine,’ was enough used for hedges,
looked very pretty and thick, when it was green and full
of leaves.

Matus, Appletrad, Apfletrees, of different kinds.
These did not form ordinary hedges, but were used in
that form which is called Espaliers, which, however,
perform the same service as a hedge.

Cratcécus [C. Oxyacantha], Hagtorn, Hawthorn,
was used in many places for hedges in orchards and
kitchen gardens, but especially around small vege-
table gardens, and sometimes round the front garden,
innangarden, because it grew very thick, was thorny,
and could be made very beautiful by clipping.

CoryLus, Hassel, Hazel, was used in many places for
hedges.

PRUNUS SYLVESTRIS, C.B. [P. Spinosa, L.], Slan,
Sloe, was used in many places for hedges, but mostly
around vegetable gardens, K6ks-krydd-garden, and
the main building, Mangarden, in the same way as
hawthorn.

RIBES, 195, Gooseberry-bushes [R. Grossularia],
Krusbars-buskar, were used in some [T.I. p. 163]
places in gardens, as hedges, and were both beautiful
and useful. [Banks MS., R. Uva Crispa.]

SAMBUCUS, 250, Flader, Eldev, was used very much
for hedges round the vegetable gardens near London.

The 13th March, 1748.
Stenkols-nytta, &c.

The use of Coal, &c. The fuel which is exclusively
used in London is coal, Sten-kol. In the villages which
lay nearest around London, coal was also the principal

138 KALM’S ENGLAND.

fuel, although there also they spun it out with sticks,
risqvistar, cut in the hedges. But a couple of Swedish
miles, or about 14 English miles from London, and in
places to which they had not any flowing water to carry
up boats loaded with coals, for the most part bare wood
was used, either from the trees they had cut down in re-
pairing hedges, or from dug-up tree-roots, or fuel of some
other kind, as brackens, Ormbunkar, furze, &c. Tin
and silver-gildings soon took a black colour from the
coal smoke, if they were not often scoured or cleaned.
Statues of former kings, such as those of King Charles I.,
King Charles II., King James II., looked just as if the
image of a nigger or of a crossing-sweeper, en Morians
eller Korstens-fajares bild, had been set up, only in
royal costume.

When the snow had lain a couple of days on the roofs,
it began to acquire a black colour. The houses were all
either blackish or grey from the coalsmoke. To aforeigner,
and one unused to it, this coal-smoke was very annoying,
besvarlig, for it affected the chest excessively, especially
at night. I found in my own case that however free I
was from cough when I now and again went into London
from the country, I got [T. I. p. 164] one always as soon
as I had been there a day, which never failed to be the
case, even farther on in the summer when the air was warm,
and there were not large fires in the town; but as soon
as I left London, and had been two days out in the
country, I lost my cough. All who lived far out in the
country, and were not accustomed to coal-smoke, even
native Englishmen, had the same tale whenever they
came up to London on their business. But when any-
one had been for a time in London he no longer had so
very manifest a sensation of it. Nevertheless, I am not
altogether indisposed to believe that this great coal-smoke
is even one of the reasons that cause so many in England

WOODFORD. 139

to be troubled with lung disease and Hectique (con-
sumption).

Coal-ashes mixed with clay, of which bricks, Tegel,
are made, will make the brick or tile much stronger and
firmer than the clay by itself.

The same ash carried on to ploughed clay-lands, ler-
grund akrar, makes a matchless manure. Farmers,
Landtman, who live many miles from London, buy it
and carry it home a long way to manure their arable
withit. In gardens it is said also to be very good and of
the greatest possible service.

The 14th March, 1748.

AGRIFOLIUM (Ray Syn. 466). Holly is a tree which
especially occurs in the woods in England, and with its
evergreen leaves makes them beautiful even in mid-
winter. The wood is used for toys for children, also for
knife-handles, because it is hard. Coachmen’s whip-
handles, Kuskarnas piske-skaft, are made mostly of
this wood ; for it is at the same time flexible. The prin-
cipal use which they make of this tree is for hedges,
which are both thick and beautiful, and last almost for
ever. My. Warner told me he knew a person whose
father, [T. I. p. 165] sixty or more years ago, had had
all the hedges round his property planted with this tree,
which hedges are still, at the present time, so thick that
a dog cannot get through them. A holly-hedge has be-
fore all others the palm in this, that it retains its green
and beautiful leaves both winter and summer, and is thus
a good shelter for sheep and other cattle against blasts
and bad weather. Buird-lime is made from the bark. In
woodless districts it is also used for fuel.

The 15th March, 1748.

Faren. Sheep in England seem almost to be more

140 KALM’S ENGLAND.

hardened, hardade, to stand bad weather than ours in
Sweden. The whole of this season there were showers
of sleet, sndglopp, or snow mixed with rain every day.
The thermometer of Celsius stood also sometimes in the
open air as low as 3° below 0 [26°6° Fahr.] To this I
can add that the same thermometer in the room where I
slept, lag, which had no fire in it, stood nearly all day
yesterday 1° below o [30°2° F.] and this morning at
7 o'clock, 2° below o [28°4° F.], from which it may be
imagined how cold it must have been out in the open
country, p& fria faltet. None the less for that, and
although the snow now covered the ground to a depth of
nearly 4inches, the sheep went night and day out in thein-
closures or the small fenced pastures, ute i tackterna,
eller de sma instangde betesmarker, under the
open sky without having any house or shelter, hus eller
skjul, to go under. I except small lambs and their
mothers, who were let under cover. The sheep had this
advantage, that the snow seldom lay the whole day over
all the ground, but one place and another soon became
bare, where they could seek their food. The quantity of
wool they now had on them seemed also to be able to
protect them tolerably well from the cold. [T.I. p. 166.]
Here they had freedom to run night and day about the
pastures, but in very many places it is also the practice
to drive the sheep in the daytime either on to the arable
fields, meadows, or pastures, to bait; but every night
they are set in folds on some arable piece, where they
not only by their droppings manure the field, but also
come to stand in the fold quite close beside each other,
because the fold was expressly made so narrow that they
thus might warm each other. After a couple of days,
just about, the fold was changed to another place, so that
all the field might be equally manured.
[Kalm was in London 16-20 March. ]

WOODFORD. 141

[T. I. p. 173.] The 20th of March.

In the morning I went out to Woodford. Spartium
589, [S. Scoparium] called by Englishmen Broom, grew
in abundance on high-lying pastures, where the soil con-
sisted of a coarse sand, en grof-sand. [The Bagshot
Sand.] Almost all the brooms, qvastar, which were
used, out in the country, to sweep houses with, were
made of it. When it was fresh, it had a peculiar and
particularly agreeable scent. According to Mr. Warner,
this is used by some brewers instead of hops, when the
beer, drickat, which’ is brewed with it, becomes very
strong, and soon makes those who drink it drunk.

The 21st March, 1748.

Stenvaltar. Stone Rollers, were much used here in
gardens and kitchen gardens. The stone itself consisted
of a kind of white limestone or coarse species of marble,
Marmor, but the rest of the machine, by which it was
drawn, was mostly of iron. There were several sizes,
according to what one wished to use them for. One of
those which lay in Mr. Warner’s garden was 2 feet 3
inches long; diameter 21 inches. [T.I. p. 174.] Some
others in the same garden were smaller. They were used
to draw along the paths in the gardens, which in this
district were strown with gravel and coarse sand, grus
och grof sand, so as by that means to press down the
lumps in the gravel and make the path even and flat.
This was done several times in the summer according as
the earth in the paths from various causes, such as worms,
burrowing, &c., puffed up. For levelling lawns, gras-
vallens, or grass, they did not use stone-rollers, but only
wooden rollers, travaltar.

Rokor. Rooks in numbers, injurious to arable fields,
and how they are exterminated. In all the villages, byar,
in this district there was a frightful number of a kind of

142 KALM’S ENGLAND.

crow called by zoologists Cornix frugilega, and by the in-
habitants of the island of Oland off the coast of Sweden,
Roka. (See Linn. Fauna Svecica). They had built their
nests up in the highests summits, skatan, of elms, oaks,
and other lofty leaf trees, where no one could get at:
them. There were often seen in a single tree ten, twelve,
sixteen, twenty, and more such nests, bon, all made this
year. There was therefore constantly, but especially in
the mornings early such screeching, skrik, in these
trees that one could scarcely hear what another person
said if they were standing near the trees. These birds,
Kreatur, did the “farmers” or agriculturist, Landt-
mannen, an incredible amount of harm, for as soon as
wheat, barley, oats, pease, or, in a word, whatever kind
of crop there might be was sown, they covered the fields
and plucked up, plackade up, as much as they could
get at. When the pease were sown, which was nearly
all done by the drill, or in rows, and began to peep up,
there were the rooks collected in large numbers. They
began to follow along the rows [T.I. p. 175] in which
the pease were sown, and pulled up, ryckte up, all they
could find, so that not many of the peas were left. I
saw a farmer who had this spring sown a large field with
pease which were so entirely destroyed by these destruc-
tive birds that he was obliged to plough it up and sow it
again with oats, because scarcely a single pea was left
remaining. Scare-crows, Fogel-scramslor, were set
up in the fields, but could not frighten them, kunde
icke injaga nagon raddhoga idem. Many might
think because they always had their nests in trees near
villages, that it was not difficult either to shoot them
there dead, up in the trees, or to destroy their nests, or to
climb up in the trees and poke down their nests with long
poles, or in some other way to prevent their increasing in
numbers. To this it is answered: “ Certainly, sit, if one

WOODFORD. 143

had leave to do it;” but as the rooks have commonly
been so sly, sluga, as to build their nests in such trees
as stood in front of, utanf6r, gentlemen’s and noble-
men’s houses, and belong to them, they were free from
all attacks of enemies; because it was very seldom that
any gentleman allowed anyone to shoot or molest them in
his trees, but seemed to consider himself entitied, as it
were, to shelter them, because they had taken refuge with
him, and, as it were, solicited his protection. A gentle-
man could so much the more lightly do this, because here
in England they hardly ever cultivate their fields or landed
estates, landtgods, themselves, but let them out to
farmers and live on the money flowing in from their
tenants. The farmers it is true destroy these rooks,
Rakor, by shooting them, when they meet them in the
fields ; or they also take Nux Vomica, Rafkakor, boiled
in water, soak the seed or peas which are to be sown in
it, and then sow them. When the rooks eat them they
become intoxicated |T. I. p. 176], so that directly they
fly up they fall down again, and either die, or are killed
by the farmer’s folk, without any mercy.

The seed is said not to take any harm from this steep-
ing. In the trees near the farmers’ houses no such nests
are seen.

The 23rd March, 1748.

In the morning I went into London, and came back
to Woodford in the afternoon, the same day.

They know how to make use of the dirt on the roads,
in England.

I saw everywhere in London, as well as in the larger
villages between Woodford and London, carts only made
for the purpose of carrying away the dirt which from
many causes, such as folk, horses, and cattle collects in
the roads.

Such sweepings and other refuse as in London are

144 KALM’S ENGLAND.

collected in the houses, are cast out into the street by
the servants, where they are afterwards shovelled to-
gether in heaps, and laid in the dung-wagons to be
carried out of the town to some particular place where
they are shot. Such a wagon or cart as is used for
cleaning the town has the advantage, that it does not
drive out of the way of anyone it may happen to meet
in the street. When farmers and others convey anything
into the town to be sold, they seldom drive with an
empty load home, but they mostly take a wagon full of
this manure out with them from the places where it is
collected together. Some of these places are such, that
the ground on which the dirt is laid belongs to one person
who lets it out to another, who does not allow anyone to
take a load from it, who does not pay a certain price
for it.

[T. I. p.177.] Other places again are of this descrip-
tion, that anyone has freedom to take the dirt from them
without paying anything for it. For this reason farmers
who live not far from London, do not take the trouble to
seekafter Marle and other manures on their own properties
because they have such a good opportunity for providing
themselves with excellent manure from London. Those
who sell this dirt are said to derive large incomes from it
in the course of a year, and a farmer does not think much
of paying a few pence for every load he takes on the
return journey home in an otherwise empty wagon.

‘The 24th March, 1748.

Genista Spinosa vulg. Raj. Syn. 475, is called by the
Englishmen Furze. It is used in some places here in
the country for hedges round the arable fields, meadows,
&c., but this is not so verycommon. The reason why
it is so little used for this purpose is said to be principally
that when it has stood three or four years the lowest

WOODFORD. 145

twigs begin to wither, dry up, and fall off, through which
the hedge becomes thin at the bottom, so that small
animals can creep through it. This can nevertheless, be
remedied by sowing some furze seeds every year under the
hedge. Also, if the twigs are cut off, or the stalks them-
selves down at the bottom, then it strikes out new and
fresh shoots, otherwise it is much used for hedges in
gardens. The use of this bush, besides this, is that in this
woodless district it is much used for fuel, whence it happens
that it has seldom got to grow to any height. Otherwise
it thrives well, so that where it has once taken hold,
fatt faste, itis not so easy to eradicate. The farmers,
Bonderna, sometimes have great trouble in effecting
this, where it has got to insinuate itself [T.I.p.178.]
sufficiently into the fields. The twigs are much used to
light fires with, because they have the same qualities as
Juniper-twigs, or straw, viz., that they flare up, and
quickly take fire, and rise up in a large and bright flame.

In many places the walls of outhouses and sheds
uthus och liders-viggar, were made of it in this
way, that the roof of the shed, lider-taket, stood on
posts; between each post there were staves, storar,
erected, one foot or a little more apart; between
these the furze was wreathed in the same way as the
sprays in a kol-skrinda, or coal-sled, are plaited in
serpentine folds. Sheep eat these shoots when they
have newly run up, but they do so only from hunger, and
for want of other better food. Rabbits eat it very much.
It is a pity that it will not stand our climate. Who knows,
however, whether it might not be able to grow down in
skane? [N. Lilja. Skdnes Flora, 1869, p. 512 “Sand
Gultérne (Ulex. Europeus Linn). . . . Cultivated,
very rare, Torup, Alnarp, Broby.”’ J. L.]

[Kalm was at Little Gaddesden from March 25th to

April 15th, 1748.]
L

146 KALM’S ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 340.] The 15th April, 1748.

We left Little Gaddesden in the morning and
travelled this day, first to St. Alban’s, and afterwards
to Colney, situated three miles the other side of St.
Alban’s.

A couple of miles after we left Little Gaddesden, we
came to Great Gaddesden, which is a Parish, but has not
so many farms and houses as Little Gaddesden, which
contradicts its name, for Little Gaddesden means
“Lilla G.,” and Great Gaddesden means ‘“ Stora G.”
Perhaps it may have been larger in former times.*

Prospecten af landet.

Between Little Gaddesden and St. Alban’s the country
was a continuous series of hills and dales. It much
resembled the country between Tveer and Moscow, but
still more between Moscow and Toulou, Tula, in Russia.

The hills were high, and consisted of chalk, but the
highest crust of the often before-mentioned tegel-
fargade jorden eller leran, brick-colored earth or
clay. These hills, h6gder, commonly ran from N.N.W.
to S.S.E., and sometimes from N. to S., although they
also often had some other direction. The sides of these
hills were mostly langslutte, long sloping, yet in some
places somewhat steeper. All the country was divided into
inclosures in the same way as has been described at Little
Gaddesden [p. 210 orig.| and in many other places. These
inclosuves were surrounded with hedges of the same
description.

Beautiful houses appeared here and there. Husen
bygde af sten, murade emellan korsverke af
tra. ‘Brick and Stud” houses, or houses built of brick,

* There area large number of Roman bricks built into the east-end of Great
Gaddesden Church. The area of G. Gaddesden Zar. is 4,149°29 acres, and
that of L. G. par. only 925°497 acres. [J. L.]

WOODFORD. 147

walled up between crossbeams of wood, which went both
ad angulos rectos et acutos. Some houses were roofed,
tackte, with flat tiles, but most with straw in the way
which has been described above at several places here
in Hertfordshire. Some [T. I. p. 341.] outhouses had
walls of oak boards. Around the farms, all sorts of fruit
trees were planted, such as apple-tree, pear-tree, cherry-
tree, walnut-tree, &c., of different kinds, while in some
places some of them stood in the hedges round the
inclosures, so that the houses here were mostly situated
in orchards of fruit trees, 16f-lundar af frukt tran.
On the hill-sides and hills there lay either arable fields,
meadows, or pastures. In a word, the country here
everywhere resembled a charming and well-arranged
garden.

Harvar at rifva bart massan pa A4ngar med, &c.
Harrows to tear away mosses from meadows with, &c.

Ona gentleman’s estate, there lay a couple of such
Fall-grindar, or hurdles, as have been described [on
p. 262 orig.], between whose tran och spolar, staves
and rods, on the under side were inserted and interwoven
a number of slan-gristar, sloe-twigs, so that they were
held quite fast. With these harrows thus arranged they
drove along the moss-grown meadows, when the thorns
and the sharp twigs of the sloe tore up the moss in the
field and swept it away with them. In like manner
these harrows were used for this, that when the manure
was spread over the grass-sward of the meadows they
drove these harrows over the fields, by which means the
dung and earth were torn asunder and reduced to pieces
by the sloe-branches.

Tra rotter til bransle. Tyree roots as fuel.

On the same estate there lay several heaps 12 feet

high and 5 or 6 fathoms long and wide at the base,
L.2

148 KALM’S ENGLAND.

which all consisted of dug-up roots of beech, oak, ash,
&c., which were now mostly cut up to be used at the
house for fuel’ instead of other wood, ved. Thus they
knew in this district how to make use of every bit of a
tree, and to be careful of the wood.

[T. I. p. 342.] Hopgyttrade flintstenar.
Conglomerated flint-pebbles. Puddingstone.

For the most part, at all the farmhouses there were
placed here and there against the corners tolerably large
stones, such as one or two men might carry, which
stones were only a conglomeration of quite small round,
trinda, so-called Pebblestones, which are alla kind of small
round smooth flint-stones. They had here been bound
together by some fine clay, lera, which had afterwards
become as hard as flint. I do not know where they had
taken them from, for they did not occur on the open plain.
In London I afterwards got to see small pieces of it, which
were polished and made into the lids of snuff-boxes, when
they looked like the most beautiful agates, and exhibited
a variety of colours.

Hurudant vatten Har brukas til kokning, etc.
What kind of water is here used for cooking, etc.

I have said before [p. 281 ovig.] that a spring or
any running water is very seldom found on the Chalk-
hills. Therefore those who live there are obliged to
dig large and deep ponds, dammar, in which the rain
water can collect, and clear itself, sila sig tilhopa.
In colour this pond-water exactly resembled such white
and thick water, as in Sweden usually stands in clay-pits,
lergropar, only that this, here in England, inclined a
little to yellow, which was due* to the chalk soil, krit-
grunden, which it stood upon. Folk avail themselves

* This yellow tint is caused by hydrated peroxide of iron. [J. L.]

WOODFORD. 149

of this water, for want of any other, for cooking food,
washing dishes, linen, etc., til mats-kokning, karils-
twattning, bykning, etc.

We could never perceive any unpleasantness in con-
sequence of the food we ate which was cooked with it.
We also saw linen-clothes, floors, &c., become quite as
clean and as white with this as with any other water.
This was also the cattle’s drink, who likewise did well
upon it.

Sades-stackar pa stalpar. Ricks on props.

We saw the whole way from Little Gaddesden to
[T. I. p. 343] Woodford in Essex ricks at the farms
partly of round partly of oblong shape; part of them
stood on pillars, part on the bare ground. In a word,
exactly the same as have been described [pp. 229 and
255 ovig.|. Some stood on wooden posts more or less
high, surrounded in the middle or at the upper ends
either with polished brass or tin, others stood on stone
posts, which were of the white /reestone, which is got
near Tatternel. They were hewn square, and quite
smooth on all sides. The height of the pillar was
2feet 6inches. On the top of the pillar was laid a square
flagstone, hall, of the same kind of stone, whose under
side was quite smooth and flat, and reached on every
side 6 inches beyond the square pillar, stalpen, so that
mice and other small injurious animals could not possibly
climb up these posts to the stack. On the top these
square flagstones were so hewn that they sloped down on
all sides, so that the water ran off them at once. The
bottom of the stack consisted of small sticks, stange,
laid 3 to 6 inches apart.

On these there were first laid either brackens,
Ormbunkar, twigs of sloe, hawthorn, or dry straw, and
afterwards the sheaves of the crop, Sades-karfvar.

150 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Halm til goédsel. Straw as manure.

Straw of wheat, barley, oats, pease, beans, &c.,
was given to the cattle as fodder at home, and what
they did not eat was cast into the farmyard, to be
trampled down and turned into manure, in the same
way as has been described above (p. 251 orig.) This we
saw done at every farm, where we travelled in England.

Godselns utf6rsel. How the manure is carted.

The manure which had been prepared in the above
manner we now saw in many places, being carted on to
the fields, and there [T. I. p. 344] laid in small loads
or heaps.

These carts, karror, were very large, and made in
such a way that the body, skrafvet, could be turned
and sloped down backwards after a cross-board at the
back had been first taken off, when the manure slid down
by itself, after which the body of the cart fell back into
its former horizontal situation. Such carts are used for
the same purpose at many places in Sweden, only that
the English ones are far larger.

Huru akrarna voro lagde, &c. How the fields were
arranged, Gc.

The fields were here everywhere divided into smaller
or larger inclosures surrounded with hedges, of all sorts
of different kinds of trees, as has been mentioned above
at Lntile Gaddesden. As the country here lay by turns
in hills and dales, so also the situation of the arable
fields was adjusted accordingly; yet they commonly lay
on the sides of the hills.

The soil at the top of them was the brick-colored
earth, tegel-fargade jorden, which has been described
above at Little Gaddesden, but under that, at a greater
or less depth, solid chalk came on nearly all the arable-

WOODFORD I51

fields. Hereabout lay a tremendous number of ordinary
flints of the size of the closed fist and smaller, so
that one could scarcely see any of the earth or soil for
them.

They had in some places so got the upper hand,
that they were obliged to gather them, placka dem
tilhopa, and lay them in heaps. The carl who accom-
panied us assured us that the best and choicest wheat,
barley and oats, and even turnips, grow on such very
stony fields. These fields were now sown with wheat,
barley, oats and peas, or they were about to be sown
with turnip seed, not to mention, at fértiga, that a
part of them were now left fallow, til trades-land.
The wheat was here nearly everywhere sown in
“stitches ” or “ four thorough land.” [T. I. p. 345.] The
breadth of such a stitche was just a Swedish ell, or 2
English feet. The breadth of the water furrows which
lay between the stitches, was, at the top 18 inches the depth
6 to g inches At some few places wheat was sown in
broadland, there, for instance, where the land seemed
to be very dry. Pease were here nearly everywhere
sown in the recently named stitches, with the exception
of some single place where they were sown in broad-
land, which last-named was everywhere used near Little
Gaddesden.

Barley, oats, turnips, clover, St. Foin, vetches, &c.,
were all sown in broad-land. The wheat stood beautiful,
barley and pease had already come up.

Clover, Sain Foin, Ray-grass, sown as fodder for cattle.

In some places the incloswres were sown with clover,
Trifolium purp. sativ, in other places with Sain Foi, or
also with Sain Foin and clover together. Inotherplaces with
clover and Ray-grass together, or also with Ray-grass only,
(med bara R.) “ Ray-grass” or“ Rey-grass” [rye-grass ] is

152 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Lolium radice perenni. Linn. 104 [Lolium perenne}. These
plants now stood everywhere very beautiful. The carl
who accompanied us said that when clover and ray-grass
are sown together, the ray-grass prevents the cows
from swelling or bursting, when they eat too much of
the too satisfying clover.*

Mr. Williams at Little Gaddesden said that the same
effect is produced if clover and trefoil (Medicago legumini-
bus reniformibus, Linn. 621) [M. lupulina] are sown
together.

In some places where they had last year cut clover,
the ‘stub’ or ‘haulm,’ stubben eller halmen, which
they had left remaining was now collected and laid in heaps
to be carried home and laid among [T. I. p. 346] other
straw in the farm yard, to rot together to manure. If
this dry stub was left to stand on the ground it would
hinder the growth of the new clover.

Krit-grop Strata in a chalk-pit. On the S.W. side
of a hill in a field there was a large chalkpit where they
had taken chalk, to be carried out on to the fields for
manure. Herethe sides were not of bare chalk, without
beds of another kind of rock but the strata lay in the
following order :—

Ft. ins.
t. On the top, the brick-colored earth, tegel-
fargade jorden, sometimes 1 foot,
sometimes 2 feet thick; for in some
places this stratum was more, in other
places less thick............. Io
2. Chalk, krita, with whieh Hints, flint-stenar,
were mixed here and there .............0..... I 0
3. The brick-colored earth, 2 or 3 inches ......4.. O 3

* «They have lately sown Ray grass, Gramen loliaceum, to improve

cold, sour, clayey weeping ground, unfit for Saint Foin.” Plot. Mat. His¢.
of Oxfordshire. 1677. Fol. [J.L.]

WOODFORD. 153

4c Chalk with a tittle Hint, Flinte scucciasuece 6 oe
5. The brick-coloved earth 0... ccecce eee we = OOF
6. Chalk with a multitude of Ainestones in ow. 4 0
7. The brick-colored earth 4 inch to 1 inch 1 inch
TONS PICHAS: sop cechianuin mers enoimesaeene eke Oo 2
For in some places ie was thicker than
in others.
8. The hard chalk which is here called “ Hur-
lock” right down to the bottom or 1 ell,
for how this was afterwards I could not see,
because the fallen earth and chalk prevented
TAI: cassmnuvie emmuayes cadets ccmiedeivanieieeittinae 2 6
Ir of

The narrow Strata of the brick-colored earth or clay
tegelfargade jorden eller leran went sometimes in
long curves, bukter, upwards, sometimes downwards.
It was remarkable that the lowest stratum of all, or
No. 8, was Hurlock wherein there was scarcely a single
flint, flintsten, which however were tolerably abundant
among the chalkbeds. [T.I. p. 347.] The carl who
accompanied us said that Hurlock is the best to burn lime
of, and that such good lime does not come from pure
and loose chalk. Some of the flints in the chalk
resemble spigots or goats horns. Might I not have got
to see freestone underneath this, such as there was at
Tatternel if the pit had been some fathoms deeper ?*

* This question may be answered definitely. The bed (No. 8) here so
well described by Kalm, as to make it easily recognisable, is the top of the
“ Chalk Rock” beds of Mr. W. Whitaker, which lie at the base of the
Upper Chalk and on the top of the Middle Chalk, to which as a whole I have
repeatedly heard the name of ‘‘ Ilurlock”’ applied on the area between 7rzng
and Dunstable.

The thickness from the ‘ Chalk-rock” of Whitaker to the freestone of

Tatternel or Totternhoe is 310 feet.
[continued over.

154 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Hedera ates af Far och ar en prydnad vid gardar.
Ivy is eaten by sheep, and is an ornament on houses.

The carl who accompanied us told us that sheep
willingly eat the leaves of ivy. “I had the same story from
another afterwards. At St. Alban’s, where we dined, this
had climbed up the plank fences of some gardens, and
covered them, so that at a distance they looked like
green-clipped hedges.

Kallor.

In the dales we saw here and there springs of
running and clear water. [Only the Gade at and below
Great Gaddesden, and the Ver at St. Alban’s. |

Tattare. Gypsies.

We encountered to-day at several places large
troops of the wandering gypsies, with a number of their
wives and children, and wondered highly that this useless
folk could be tolerated in this country.*

‘* There is often a layer of flints resting at once on the ‘ Chalk-rock,’ but
there are no flints in it.” See Mems of the Geol. Survey of Gt. Btn. vol iv.,
p. 46, 1872, and vol. i., 1889, pp. 67-68.

On the site of this chalk-pit I observe, pits just dug to the chalk-rock are
scarce. As it was on the S.W. side of a hill it must have been west of Great
Gaddesden. If Kalm rode across the fields by the path from Home Farm,
Little Gaddesden, he would then pass two chalk-pits with the required aspect
and depth between Little Gaddesden and St. Margaret’s, and as the one on
the 500 feet contour west of St. Margaret’s touches the chalk-rock beds I
believe it to have been this one. I am well acquainted with all the chalk-pits
old and new, in the district. [J. L.]

* To a Romano-phil this sounds harsh, but only two years before, or in
1746, Jean Gordon was ducked to death in the Eden at Carlisle, a specimen
of “toleration ’’ that would have reduced Kalm’s wonder, had he been aware
of it. Itis interesting to find this little notice of English gypsies, which I
had not seen when I published my Vetholm History of the Gypsies, Kelso,
1882, in which I collected hundreds of passages relating to the gypsies of
Europe, which show how fruitless were the various barbarous means used
for their extermination from this and other countries. See also p. 353,
orig., p. 161 below. [J. L.]

WOODFORD. 155

Flinta til murar, vagars lagning, ete.

Flints for walls, road-making, Gc.

In one place and another we saw walls of arable fields
built of flints only, af bara flinta. In some places a
great part of the church walls were built of them. Out-
side St. Alban’s some carls were engaged in digging deep
ditches by the road side. Their depth was 3'feet 6 inches.
Where these ditches were on the hills, there were a great
many large flints among the earth cast up from them,
some of them so large that one carl was scarcely able to
lift more than one of them. They were afterwards carried
out on to the roads to fill up the [T. I. p. 348] deep holes
made by their large and heavy cart and wagon-wheels.

In other places where the ground was more even and
not in hills, small Pebblestones were dug up, which were
sm4 rundaktiga kiselstenar af bara flinta, small
round pebbles of flint, which also were carried out on to
the roads. Together with these Pebblestones there was
also dug up here a quantity of brick-colored grus or
gravel, which was afterwards screened, sallades, from
the pebbles, to be used on paths in pleasure gardens and
kitchen gardens. In some of these places where the
ground was even, and not in hills, the soil, right down to
the bottom of the ditch, consisted of the aforenamed
brick-colored gravel, with clay amongst it, med lera
deribland, and an abundance of Pebblestones. In other
places also, on the hills, there was on the top the brick-
colored earth, 3 or 4 feet, and chalk under it, in which
was found abundance of flint.

Kyrko-torns skapnad, m.m. Church-towers’ shapes, etc.

The church-towers here in England, especially in the
country, were commonly such, that they did not taper
off at the top ina spire, spira eller spits, but resembled

156 KALM’S ENGLAND.

a cut-off parallelogram, so that, when the four square walls
of the tower were finished, the tower also was commonly
complete, only that the sides on the top resembled old
town walls, gamla stads-murar, alias, that on the
top of the walls there was left a row of spaces on all the
sides, the same breadth as the brickwork that was con-
tinued upwards between the openings.* In the middle,
or towards one side of this tower a thin pole was erected,
on which, on certain occasions a flag was hoisted, either
of one colour or another. To-day we saw flags hoisted
on all the church towers in St. Alban’s, some white,
others red, some of other colours. [T.I. p. 349.] The
reason was said to be, that it was done to celebrate the
Duke of Cumberland’s birthday, which was to-day.

Hast hoar. Horse troughs.

At Colney they had in one place and another horse-
troughs, out of which the horses drank, lined with lead. I
have also seen the same both before and since at many
other places here in England.

Orter begarlige for Svin. Plants Enjoyed by Swine.

Outside Colney there went some swine and ate of the
green plants which stood in the bank under a hedge. I
noted that Alsine media C.B. [Stellaria Media] Chick-
weed, was a very favorite food with them, but they did
not trouble themselves about young nettles, Ndasslor,
of both kinds, Uriica urens minor, C.B. and Urtica Urens
Maaima, C.B. (LU. wrens. L. (small nettle) and U. Diotca L.
(great nettle) Stinging Nettles, Ger. Nessel. Hoffm. 1791

P. 335+]
The 16th April, 1748.

We continued our journey from Colney, where we lay

* Most of these brick Jastlements are later additions to ancient towers.

UJ. L.]

WOODFORD. 157

the night before, through Bell Bar, Cheshunt, Waltham
Cross, and Waltham Abbey, till in the evening we reached
Woodford, in Essex.

Juncus til Saten i Stolar. Rushes for Seats of Chairs.

In several wet places and near the water wesaw enough
of Funcus laevis panicula sparsa major C.B. which grew
there [Funcus effusus L. Soft rush.] The carl who accom-
panied us told us that chair-bottoms are made of this,
when it is either plaited in three or twisted with two
stems. Poor folk make their living by it.*

A
Akrarnas belagenhet och lage.
The situation and condition of certain arable fields.

We saw at one place a ploughed field, which lay
quite flat. The soil was a grey clay, Jordmon var
en gra lera. No flints or very few [T. I. p. 350]
appeared on it, a fact which we afterwards noticed on
all the fields we saw to-day, viz.: that very few flints
occur on them. The afore-named field had last year
been sown with pease, when it had been laid out in
Three-bouts-land, that is, 6 furrows in every ridge, 6
faror i hvar ryggning. The breadth of such a
Three-bouts-land was 4 feet 6 inches. The water furrows
were drawn between each ridge, rygg eller uphégning,
and were 2 feet wide across the top. The depth of
each and every water-furrow was g inches. The land

* In the Zavring (Sussex) Church Accounts, 15 Hen. VIIL., 1524, given
in Cartwright’s Western Sussex (vol. ii. of Dallaway). “ It. for a lod of versys
xvd.”=="‘a load of rushes,’ so called probably because they were either
twisted or plaited, Lat. Verso (freq. of Verto) to turn often, from side to
side, or round about. The proper name as used by the straw-plaiters at
Ivinghoe for the dexd given to the straw in the operation of plaiting is
“turn,” ¢.g., “We put ina sfeel at every 12th Zuri.” Ivinghoe, Sept. 21st.,
1886. [J. L.]

158 KALM’S ENGLAND.

was wet. At the ends there were water-furrows to lead
off the water. For this summer this was left to lie
fallow, and would be sown with wheat in the following
autumn. Farther up in the same field where the soil
was drier, the field was laid out in Ten-bouts-land, or so
that each ridge, ryggning, consisted of 20 furrows.
The breadth of such a land was 11 feet (54 aln.). They
were highest in the middle and sloped on both sides.

Svalor. Swallows appeared to-day for the first
time this year.

Kaniner deras hemvist &c. Rabbits, their
dwellings, Gc.

We came before dinner, middagen, to a plain,
slatt, which was very much overgrown with brackens
Ormbunkar. It was nearly surrounded by ploughed
fields. On this warren, falt, which was fenced round
with planks, plankor, we saw a great many rabbits,
ofa grey colour, which had their residence here. The
ground was quite full of the holes which they had dug,
and into which they ran down, as soon as one came
somewhat near them. They were said all to belong to
a gentleman, who lived not far from thence. In one place
and another there were traps, fallor, set to catch them.
These traps exactly resemble a kind of traps which are
set for large rats. [T.I. p.351.] They are knocked
together of four boards, like a long box, ladda. At each
end hangs a perpendicular board, like a door, which by
a specially contrived arrangement above the trap,
resembled a brunns hink, or hatch of a stream, and
can be hoisted up so that the entrance to the trap stands
open. Inthe middle of the trap, an iron pin or a little
wooden rod goes cross-wise, and as soon as the rabbit
climbs on to this and presses it down, a pin on the

WOODFORD. 159

outside slips loose and the boards at both ends fall
down, and the rabbits are thus shut in. Branches,
Armar, made of small sprays, spratar, go out from
these traps on four sides, as in a Ryssja, Kipe, or
“« fish-trap”* to lead the rabbits in.

In the fence itself which separates the fields from this
inclosure, there were also such traps, but only open
at the end which turned towards the arable fields and
nailed up at the other end towards’ the plain, slatten,
where the rabbits were. It thus seemed that the owner
of the arable field was at liberty to catch all rabbits
which were in his field and wished to go out of it, but
had not leave to take any if one should go from the
warren into the fields. We saw afterwards the same
day at two other places, the one between Bell Bar and
Cheshunt, the other between Waltham Abbey and Woodford,
such places, on the open ground, where rabbits were
kept, and where there were similar traps to catch them
with. At the former place they had their dwelling in
the side of a bank, where the owner had had several
longitudinal and transverse ditches dug, of 3 feet deep,
to lead off the water which came running down from
the bank above, and prevented it from thus trickling to
the place where the rabbits had their holes, but that
the ground might be dry for them. We saw them
run there by thousands. They had dragged brackens
down into their holes. No [T.I. p. 352] other food
was given them, than what they themselves could find
on the ground. The owner seemed in consequence to
have a considerable profit from the ground he let out
as a rabbit warren.

* A long round tapering wicker-basket, called ‘‘fish-coop” on the
Humber, “‘ kipe” in Oxfordshire, ‘‘ put,” ‘‘ putch,” or ‘‘cype,” on the Severn,
formerly “cyt,” “kydel.” [J.L.]

160 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Harliga bygningar. Beautiful houses.

A great number of handsome large houses made a
show everywhere in the woods, through which we
travelled, the whole of this day. Nature and Art
seemed here to have united to make this country charm-
ing and delightful.

The 17th April, 1748.
Kall Var. Cold Spring.

Our host, a man of seventy years old, told us
that he could not remember a cold wind, and what
is more, so much snow, lasting so far on in the spring
as it has this year, for it snowed—indeed, very heavily
—the greater part of this day. All the others with whom
I spoke about this had the same tale. The leaves of
the trees were now first beginning to shoot out. Haw-
thorns and dog roses, Hagtorn och Toérne, were those
which were most advanced in this respect, but on the
others there scarcely appeared more than the incipient
buds, while, commonly, all trees are said to stand at this
time with large leaves.

The 18th April, 1748.

In the morning I went into London and returned in
the evening.

Asnors nytta. The use of Asses.

These animals are used by several people in this
country. They were commonly quite as small as year-
old foals. The principal reason why they keep them is
said to be that those who have lung disease, Lung-sot,
or Hectique, might have the opportunity of drinking
asses’ milk, because the Medici [T. I. p. 353] in this place
prescribe it as the surest and best medicine for these
distressing passions. It is also for this reason that large
troops of donkeys are seen, particularly in the district,

WOODFORD. 161

pa falten, round about London. Besides that, donkeys
are used hereabouts to carry burdens. In particular,
bakers, who send round their men to sell bread, use
donkeys to carry the bread-baskets, when a_ large
basket commonly hangs, sitter, on each side of the
saddle. The gypsies, Tattare, who roam about this
country, use only donkeys instead of horses to carry their
children and baggage. [See also p. 347, orig. ]

The 19th April, 1748.

In the morning I went with Mr. Warner and some
English gentlemen to the places which lay immediately
to the east of Woodford. The hedges, inclosures, houses,
ricks, and hay-stacks, all kinds of straw for manure in
the farm-yards, in a word, all their rural economy was
such as that we have described at Little Gaddesden in
Hertfordshire; but the soil was a brick-coloured clay
mixed very much with Gravel and Pebblestones. Chalk
does not appear here. Also the land here in Essex is
much more affected by wet than in Hertfordshire, where
the ground was much drier.

En stor Ek. A large Oak.

Mr. Warner went out with us to-day, especially to
show us an oak tree, which he said was one of the
thickest oaks he had seen in England. We measured
the periphery of the trunk, stammen, four feet above
the ground, when we found that this oak was 30 feet round.
At 15 feet above the roots it divided itself into twelve large
branches, and each of these twelve divided itself after-
wards into several smaller branches. We measured its
width from the outermost twigs on the west [T. I. p. 354]
to the outermost twigs on the east, in this way, that we
erected at each side a perpendicular line from the ground
to the outermost twigs on the W. and E. sides, when we

found that there were just 116 feet between the two
M

162 KALM’S ENGLAND.

lines. The oak stood in Barking parish, and a fair,
Marknad, used formerly to be held under it. Some of
these branches were now withered.*

Crambe maritima til mat. Seakale as food.

Upon my travels in 1742 in Bohuslan, I found Crambe
Maritima Brassicce folio, Tournef which there grew wild by
the seashore. I then mentioned in a Memoir (Memorial)
of mine at Kongl. Sv. Vetenskaps Academien (the
Royal Swedish Academy of Science), that this might do
for food. To-day I saw that opinion of mine confirmed,
for Mr. Warner showed me three beds in his kitchen-
garden where this was sown only for cooking purposes.
It was used in the following way. In the months of
April and May it begins to shoot up new shoots, nearly
like an Asparagus. These are cut off and prepared in the
same way as Spinat in Sweden, when it is one of the
best-flavoured green vegetables which anyone can wish
for. Our midday-meal to-day was mostly made up of it.
It is cultivated everywhere here in England by Gentlemen
for the above-named purpose. When it is older it is not
good to eat; beause the leaf becomes as tough as leather.
Its seeds are sown in April, May, June, or July, soearly, that
is, as that they may come up and acquire enough strength
to resist the winter cold. Next spring the bed is covered
over with gravel, grus, 4 inches thick, but it is most to
be preferred if sand can be got from the sea-shore. In
this [T. I. p. 355] it thrives very well. When it is two
or three years old, one can begin to cut it, and the
same root lasts a long time, year after year without re-
quiring to be sown.

* Hainault Forest was disforested in 1851. Here stood the celebrated
Fairlop Oak on an open space still called ‘‘Fairlop plain.” Its trunk
measured 44 feet round near the ground, and its branches covered an area of
300 feet in circumference. airlop Fair was held under it on the first Friday

in July. [J.1..J

WOODFORD. 163

Fisk-masars nytta, etc. Use of Seagulls in Gardens.

Mr. Warner had four seagulls, Fisk-masar, in his
garden, two of which were of the common sort, and the
two others a little larger and blacker, which he had got
from Newfoundland, in North America, where they occur
wild inabundance. He had had one wing of each clipped,
so that they could not fly away. These gulls wandered
everywhere about in the kitchen garden, and sought out
earth-worms, met-maskar ; Evucas, caterpillars ; frogs,
Grodor ; snails, Sniglar; and many other little beasts
injurious to kitchen gardens and garden plants, which
they ate up. When the gardeners, arbets-karlarna,
were digging up the earth at any place, they followed
close after them, and plucked up all earth worms, and
coarser insects which the carls in turning over the earth
heaved up tu the day. In a word, they cleared the
garden industriously of many injurious things without in
any way doing harm to the plants more than that they
once and again trampled on them, which, however, did
not matter at all. The only food which they were given
was either pieces of raw meat or slices of wheat-loaves.
They were so tame that even if they were at the farthest
end of the garden, and Mr. Warner called ‘ Gull, Gull,”
from his window, they came directly, kommo de strax,
meaning, of course, to get something to eat. Those which
had come from America were very savage, arga. When
anyone ran after them they turned round [T. I. p. 356]
to fight, at hugga emot, and if one then sprang away
from them, they leapt or flew for some distance after
him.

Orsak til tufvor pa angar.
The origin of hillocks on meadows.

In one meadow and another I saw small hillocks of

about a foothigh, and the same diameter. When I dug into
M 2

164 KALM’S ENGLAND.

them I found in them some of the yellow ants, de gula
etter-myror [Formica rubra]. I asked some English-
men what they thought was the origin of these hillocks,
tufvor. They answered that the first cause is the mole,
mullvaden, which casts up the heaps; but afterwards
the ants, myrorna, take up their quarters in them and
increase them.

Akrarnas lage och hafd har vid Woodford.

The position and cultivation of the ploughed fields near
Woodford.

The country here round Woodford does not lie level
like a planum, but all slopes towards the east side so
that it has full advantage of the morning sun. All the
other arable and grass fields situated in this part of
Essex, slope in the same way either to the one side or
the other. The subsoil here consists of a brick-colored
clay dividing into cubical masses, Jordmon harstades
bestar af en tegel-fargad i tarningar fallande
lera, mingled with coarse sand and small Pebblestones,
which Pebblestones are small round stones which there
consist of ordinary flint, but other fragments of flint
than these, such as there were on the fields in Hert-
fordshire do not occur here, for those which were found
there were mostly broken pieces of flint, sénder-
remnade flint-stycken, with a chalk crust round
them, and with very sharp edges; but these Pebblestones
are mostly small, quite round, and very smooth on the
surface, overdrawn with a petrified white calcareous
surface, krit-skarpa.* Those who lived here, denied
altogether that any chalk, krit-barg, occurs in this
district round Woodford, but they maintained that all

* These bleached flint pebbles will mostly effervesce with nitric acid.

J. L)

WOODFORD. 165

the hills there consisted of the recently named brick-
colored clay, coarse sand, and Pebblestones. For
[eke ke Be 357] cultivating the fields there were used here
the plough, harrow, roller, spade, etc. These ploughs,
plog, were nearly like the Essex Plough, which in some
‘things resembles the Hertfordshire [Buckinghamshire and
Bedfordshire ; Kalm had forgotten the county] foot
plough but has a broader ploughshare, bill, and no
foot; the mould-board, vand-bradet, is also better
placed. Only one $erson used the Hertfordshire single
wheel plough. The harrows, roller, and spade, exactly
resembled those we have in Sweden. They used also
here, while harrowing, to fasten sometimes three or more
‘harrows side by side, as has been before described in
Hertfordshire. The wheat is mostly sown here in Six-
bout-lands but sometimes also in the manner practised
in Hertfordshire in stitches or two-bout-lands or as it is
called four-thorough-land. The breadth of a six-bout-land
was commonly 6 ells (12 feet) sometimes less. The
water-furrows between these “lands” were 18 inches
wide at top, their depth often nearly a foot. These
six-bout-lands sloped somewhat on both sides at the
ends. In the lowest part the land was designedly made
sloping that the water might soon run away. The
wheat on all these places stood very beautiful. In
some places there were still more, in other places less,
than six bout-land, according as the soil of the fields was
wetter or drier. Barley, Korn, was sown here very
little, and that all in broadland. Pease were sown in
drill, 18 inches or 2 feet between every drill or row, and
were mostly hoed, hoades, in between, when they drew
up the mould with small hoes, hackor, on to their
roots. Oats are sown here enough, and that all in broad-
land. Potatoes were much planted here by some, and
that commonly on a certain piece of the field. The

166 KALM’S ENGLAND.

manure was carried out in March on to such a ploughed
plot, and spread out over the land. Afterwards the
same land was dug up with a spade, when [T. I. p. 358]

A the manure came to lie lowest. In this the
potatoes were afterwards planted in rows. To
do this still more quickly they had a stick,
kapp, of the accompanying figure, with which
they made a little hole for the potato, to lay
itin. D Bis the part of the stick that made
the hole in the earth when they trod on the
pinC D. No ditches diken, are seen here
on the ploughed fields, although the land in

B some places might not require them, but the
furrows between the stitches would fulfil all requirements.
The arable fields were all surrounded with hedges of
hawthorn, which were set up and managed nearly in the
same way as has been before described in Hertfordshire.
All the land about here was divided into small inclosures,
tappor, which were either arable fields, meadows, or
pastures, all of which were surrounded with hawthorn
hedges.

Beskrivning pa Woodford. Description of Woodford.

Woodford is a parish or large village with a church in
it, which lies in Essex, eight miles N.E.of London. The
houses in this place are not built so close together as in
several other parishes, but more scattered about. They
are all of brick, several stories high, well built, and some
of them handsome. The inhabitants are partly Farmers,
but still more Gentlemen. The means of livelihood are
various. The gentlemen, Gentlemennerne, live mostly
on their money, which they get from their property.
Bakers, innkeepers, butchers, have an abundant market
for their wares, and thus practise a good trade, féd-
krok. Farmers or others who are owners of some

WOODFORD. 167

land, make use of it in many ways: for it is partly used
for arable fields, partly for meadows, and partly for
pastures. On the fields there are sown, in particular,
wheat, oats, and pease [T. I. p. 359] which the owners
carry to London and there sell, but the most profit comes
from the meadows and pastures; for as hay in London
is very dear, so it is here exceedingly well worth while
to look well after the meadows, 4ngarna. By means of
the large number of horses and other animals to which
they allow freedom to go on their meadows and pas-
tures, they make incredible profits, for several people in
London send their horses out here to bait, at beta, and
pay a certain sum per week for each horse. The same
thing is done with butcher-cattle, slagt-boskap, which
are pastured on the meadows. Besides this, the farmers
themselves buy up a quantity of sheep, calves, and
other cattle from different places, which they keep for a
time either in their imclosures, or in sheds, i hus, to fatten
them, and then sell them to butchers in London. The
last system returns most profit in the year tothe farmers
hereabouts because no kind of provisions has such a
large consumption in England as meat.

Such farmers are called Graziers, for they practise
agriculture least, and devote themselves to grass and
pastures to fatten cattle and sell them. The country
round Woodford is charming. The houses lie on a hill.
The hills and dales in the country round form a beautiful
view in the distance. On the west and S.W. sides are
seen London’s high towers, as well as the beautiful build-
ings which lie scattered about here and there in the
country, with a multitude of arable fields, 4ker-falt,
pleasure gardens and orchards, lust-och tra-gardar.
On the east and S.E. sides, the river Thames appears,
where are ships going to and from London, to say
nothing of a diversity of beautiful villages, vackra

168 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Byar, magnificent mansions, fruitful fields, meadows,
orchards, plantations, skogs-lundar, &c., which here
delight the eye. This is also the reason why some of
the inhabitants of London partly have [T. I. p. 360]
their own houses here, and partly hire houses here,
especially in the summer time. For this reason also,
rooms here in the summer are often dearer than in.
London itself.

Grindar. Description of various Gates.

The gates here were of several kinds. I will first.
describe those which they used very much at the
entrances, g4ng-vigar, in front of, utan f6r, gentle-
men’s houses. These were so made that they could be
opened, tagas up, both ways, inwards as well as out-
wards.

They are mostly small, made like other gates, but
instead of hanging like other gates, on two gang-jarn,
‘“‘ride-hinges”” or ring-hinges, and hackar, “ driving-
hooks,” ‘‘ gate-hooks,” or pivot-hooks of similar shape,
the shapes of the lower hinge and “ gate-hook,” haken,
are here quite different from the upper. The upper
“‘ driving-hook,” hake, is like our common door and
gate-hooks, and is constructed as in the accompanying
plate, Fig. 1. It is driven into the side of the gate-post,
grind-stalpen, which turns towards the gate. The
gate, grinden, hangs by a “‘ride-hinge” on to this
hake, or ‘driving-hook,” which ‘‘ride-hinge,’ gang-
jarn, is fastened on to the middle of the side of tae gate
which turns towards the gate-post.

For the lower hinge, instead of a “ ride-hinze,” there
is driven into the bottom of the gate, 6 inches above the
ground, or a little more, a double socket-iron, et jarn,
of the shape represented in Fig. 2, in which F E is the
part which is driven into the side of the gate-frame,

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WOODFORD. 169

grind-ramen, which is towards the gate-post, grind-
stalpen. This socket-iron is driven in so that AB is
horizontal. For the lower gate-hook, instead of the
“‘driving-hook,” there are two iron “knuckles,” jarn,
such as are represented in Fig. 3, driven into the gate-
post, side by side, and as far apart as the distance
between the sockets C and D in Fig. 2. Here, in Fig. 3,
MI and L R are the parts which are driven into the gate-
post, and that in such a way that GH, or the knuckle-
pin, comes to stand perpendicularly.

When the gate hangs on the upper “ driving-hook,”
kroken, Fig. t, then the socket or hollow, inbég-
ningen eller utholkningen, in Fig. 2 [T. I. p. 362],
which is between B and C fits on to the knuckle-pin,
G H, of one of the ‘‘ knuckles” shown in Fig. 3, and the
other socket between D and A, Fig. 2, fits on to the
knuckle-pin, GH, of the other knuckle, Fig. 3, so that
each knuckle-pin, G H, always fits into its socket when
the gate is shut, nar grinden star igen.

When one opens the gate, it rests with one of the
sockets, ¢.g., between B and C, Fig. 2, filled by the
knuckle-pin G H, of one of the knuckles, Fig. 3, while in
the same case, the other socket between D and A goes
away from the other knuckle, haken eller jarnet,
GH, and vice versé when the gate is opened, tages up,
the other way.

Klinkan p4 grinden, the latch of the gate, is like
an ordinary grind-klinka, gate-latch, but thick,
trubbig, at the end, and is set in the middle of the side
of the gate which faces the gate-post.

Det jarn hvari klinkan faller, the ‘hapse,”
“‘hasp,” or “catch,” into which the latch falls when
the gate is shut, is of the shape shown in Fig. 4, from
which it is seen that the gate can be opened and shut
either way, because this “‘hapse”’ is fastened notch

170 KALM’S ENGLAND.

upwards, ‘‘just’’ on the side of the gate-post which looks
towards the gate.

The ‘driving-hook,” Fig. 1, is rather long, and the
gate heavy, so that when it is opened and shut again it
comes to rest by its own gravity or weight, just so that
the latch falls again into the notch in the hapse for it,
Fig. 4. The hapse ought to be fastened on to the gate-
post, so that N O, Fig. 4, is horizontal. The latch is
not made to reach farther than the latitudo transversalis,
or breadth at top of the hapse, so that it may be able to
pass backwards and forwards and not strike against the
gate-post.

Another kind of klinka, ‘“ gate-latch,” is shown in

Fig. 5. Aker-grindarna, the gates of arable fields
are for the most part exactly like our gates, and swing
on similar hinges and gate-hooks. E F is an iron spike,
et jarn, driven horizontally into the side of the gate.
AC is another iron, which hangs perpendicularly, but
[T. I. p. 363] rides on an iron-pin, jarn-nagel, at
B, so that its under side EA can be bent in towards the
latch-post of the gate, but not outwards from the gate
farther than the perpendicular position. When the
gate is open, and it is afterwards shut, the hapse, klinkan,
Fig. 4 which is fixed to the gate post so that its notch
faces the gate, strikes against the latch-tongue C A, Fig. 5,
between E and A, when it bends its lower end A in
towards the gate, and as soon as the notch in the hapse is
reached, och s& snart Klinkan gatt langre in, it
falls by its own weight back into the perpendicular
position, and the gate cannot be opened again, before
one bends either A inwards or C outwards so far that
AC becomes nearly parallel with EF, Fig. 5. At D is
a projection, en hake, as far as which this iron spike
E F is driven in to the side of the latch-post of the gate,
because otherwise the pin at B might be damaged while

WOODFORD. 171

the iron-spike E F was being driven in to the gate, by
striking it with a mallet at E.

In other places all this was of wood, and instead of
the hapse, klinkan, in this case being below E F, Fig. 5,
it lies above it, so that when the gate closes, B C which
is not then curved but straight, bends in towards the
gate, and A then goes out from it, and also from its
weight at A it shuts by itself, when the fixed hapse
comes opposite the latch-post of the gate.*

Sades-lador; Sadens-tréskning, etc. Barns,
thrashing corn, etc. The barns in this district were
sometimes built of brick with cross beams of wood
between; sometimes the walls were of oak boards,
Ek-brader, nailed fast horizontally. On the top they
were mostly covered with tiles. A few were thatched
with straw.

Logen, the “lodge’”’ where the corn was thrashed
was in the middle, and a “bay” or “lathe,” lada, on
either side. Golfvet, the floor of the lodge was not
higher above the ground than in the bays on each side
of it nor was there any wall between them. They
[T. I. p. 364] continued the thrashing far into the
summer. Slagorne, the flails, were the same kind as
ours.

Some people used to clear the corn of chaff, agner,
by means of fans, Kast-skafvel, others had a particular
machine for the purpose, which was made of wood in
shape like a Ranntra or loom in which one weaves
cloth, but instead of standing perpendicularly like a
loom, this winnower is laid horizontally, as it has to be

* From the indiscriminate use by Kalm of the same word for different
objects, and of different words for the same parts, the translation of this
passage would have been impossible without the figures and a knowledge of
the English technical names and uses of the various parts of the hinges and
latches described. [J. L.]

172 KALM’S ENGLAND.

turned round. It lies also with each end of its axle-tree
in a post with a hole cut in the top of it, en uti 4ndan
upgrafven stalpe. To each of the outer longitudinal
outer-bars of the frame, langtran, which lie parallel with
the axis, there is fastened a foursided cloth, either of
coarse linen or wool, which hangs downwards. When
the machine is turned round, these cloths, which are
four in number, produce a strong wind. The thrashed
corn, together with the chaff, agnarne, lies in a coarse
sieve or ‘‘riddle,” rissel, which either stands upon a
trestle, tra-stallning, or hangs by ropes. This riddle
is placed between the winnowing-machine and the barn-
door, logd6éren. Thereupon one carl begins to turn
the machine round, and another to jog, st6ta, the sieve
backwards and forwards, when the strong wind which
comes from the cloths drives the chaff, which together
with the grain falls from the sieve, out to and through
the lodge-door; but the grain falls down, the more so
the heavier it is, in a perpendicular line.

Afterwards the grain is sifted and winnowed or
fanned once more till it is clean. The faster the machine
is turned round the stronger is the wind it produces.

Anmarkningar vid nagra delar af hushalliningen
uti Essex. Notes on some branches of Rural Economy
in Essex.

Several of the farmers here kept a large number of
cows, from which they got very much milk. I have before
[T. I. p. 365.] mentioned that the women never went out
to milk, but that this office was always performed by the
carls, who went out into the pastures where the cattle
were kept, morning and evening, and milked, and after-
wards carried home the milk from thence, when it was
taken from them by the girls, pigan, who siled it in
winter in wooden vessels, trabunkar, but in summer in

WOODFORD. 173

large square boxes, lador, of lead, 4 or 6 inches deep, in
which the milk curdles, skal l6pna, in the summer very
well, and becomes most delicious. The sweet milk was
sold to the neighbouring inhabitants, who did not them-
selves keep cows; but that which was over was siled in
the above-named manner and made into butter. The
‘butter was churned or ‘“ Kerned,” [Nidderdale], in tub-
shaped kerns, karnades i tunnor, which were turned
round bya handle. The kern-milk, karn-mjolken, was
sold to the poor, or swine were fattened with it.

Drangarne. The farm servants were sufficiently
occupied during the day with various outdoor duties
such as the care of cattle, ploughing, pl6jning, sowing,
carting, kOrning, repairing hedges, &c., but as soon as
they entered the cottage, stugan, in the evening, they
did not apply themselves to the least work, more than
that they ate, sat, and talked till eleven o’clock in the
evening. They never troubled themselves to make
wagons, or agricultural implements, for all such things
were bought of certain people in the country, whose
special business it was to make them.

For fuel, coal was partly used, which was bought in
London and carted here, partly and mostly wood, ved,
which their hedges so richly provided them with, espe-
cially their oaks, Ekar, and other trees, which they poll,
topphuga, and leave to strike out new shoots, as has
been mentioned before.

Stekvandare, meat-jacks, or spits, they have in
every house in England. They are turned by a weight,
which is drawn up as often as it has run down. The
spits themselves are of iron, simply made, a very
[T. I. p. 366] useful invention, which lightens labour
amongst a people who eat so much meat.

[Kalm was in London from April 21, to May 7, 1748.]

174 KALM’S ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 390.] The 7th May, 1748.

In the morning I went from London out to Woodford
in Essex, to Mr. Warner.

Gras, ogras, &c., til dref-bainkar.
Grass, weeds, Gc., in forcing beds.

Mr. Warner had had the grass cut in several places
in his garden, and laid it in a heap, to be carried down
to the bottom of a hot-bed, dref-baink, and afterwards
mould, mull, over it, to use instead of unfermented
horse-dung ; for when moist hay, ratt h6, comes to lie
tight together it begins to ferment, and thus generates as
much heat as unrotted horse-dung causes, when it is laid
and trampled down in a hotbed. At several places in
Chelsea, near London, I saw that the market gardeners had
all the weeds collected together, which they had come
across in their market gardens, and had laid them in large
heaps to use for the same purpose.

MaAssans hastiga vaxt. Rapid Growth of Moss.

The earth seemed in many places here in England,
especially if it was meagre, to favour the growth of mosses
almost more than I have seen in other places. When
they had laid earth in pots, and had sown some plants
therein, it often happened that the moss began to come
up in the pot some few days afterwards. The more
meagre the earth, so much the quicker was the moss said
to come up. This moss was all of the genus Bryum. Pots,
krukor eller pattor, in which they had laid mould,
and sown plants six months [T. I. p. 391] or so before,
were on the top so covered over with moss that the mould
in the pot could with difficulty be seen. Some of these
pots stood in hot-beds under glass, others under the open
sky. I saw the rapid growth of this moss in pots in
many places.

254, RG

et 8
147

+

Extract from Rocque’s Survey 174

pe

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Oe LEP a atte MRE BS

pte

[io face PITS.
ng Wanstead Manor and surroundings

WOODFORD. 175
The 8th May, 1748.
My Lord Tilney’s Magnificent House.

In the afternoon Mr. Warner took me and several of
his Swedish friends with him to show us My Lord
Tilney’s magnificent Palais, which lies between Woodford
and London, about six miles from the last-named
place. We had here a clear example of how disadvan-
tageous it is not to observe moderation in what one is
about to undertake. The following was narrated to me
about this house :—It was about twenty years ago, ora
little more, that My Lord Tilney, an Irish earl, was
pleased to erect here a new and magnificent house with
a large and beautiful garden round it, because the site
lay uncommonly well, and the view from it was very
delightful on all sides. My Lord Tilney was then a lord
possessed of much money, which he had inherited from
his forefathers. The difficulty met him at the place
where the house should be built, that there was no water;
but money could cure all such things. Where, previous to
that time there was scarcely anything but a ditch with a
little water in it, we now saw a large flowing river, all
made with art and human labour. He had had dug
about the whole place many ponds, dammar, of which
one and another resembled a little lake, so that the one
which lies in front of the windows of the mansion, and is
all artificially made, is so large that they can sail to and
fro [T. I. p. 392] on it with large boats. Around the
house there is on one side a large and beautiful garden
with manifold allées, Alleer, promenades, trees clipped
and hewn in all sorts of ways, several summer-houses,
orangeries, forcing-houses, dref-hus, ruins, and arches
of bent trees. In a word, all that can be required and
produced by art in a garden. For a long distance,
towards all sides, there were planted in allées, rows, and

176 KALM’S ENGLAND.

other forms, all sorts of trees, but that which principally
excites the admiration of the spectator is the magnificent
large building, which is all of hewn stone, and more
resembles a royal palace than a private man’s property,
without as well as within.

In it there were very many rooms furnished in the
most costly way, and this so that one room was not like
another. Magnificent paintings, extensive tapestries,
Tapeter, costly tables of many kinds of marble, large
crystal lustres, ljus-kronor, gilded chairs, tables, ceilings,
tak, &c., various kinds of statuary, Bildhuggeri, and
what varieties the East and West Indies can supply,
were here displayed before the eyes. We saw tapestries,
Tapeter, or more correctly, a kind of screen, skarm,
of crosswise-laid glass threads, glastra, of several
colours, and picture-scenes, which resembled fine cloths,
tyger, and were said to have come from the East Indies.
It was affirmed that My Lord Tilney had laid out so
much on all this that he has barely as much left that he
can in some sort support his state, or maintain, halla
vid magt, what he has here erected.

This was evident both with the house and garden,
which had not been fully completed, because the owner’s
resources did not allow him to incur further expense.*

* The house was Wanstead Manor.

In Magna Britannia, &c., Lond., 1720, 4to, Vol. I., p. 653. twenty-eight
years before Kalm’s visit, legitur: ‘‘ Sir Richard Child, the son of Sir Josiah,
now enjoys it, and has by his great expense so much improved it, though a
princely habitation before, that the world itself cannot parallel it for buildings
and fine gardens.” Zhe Beauties of England and Wales, 1803, 8vo.,
E. Brayley and J. Britton, Vol. V., p. 466, adds: ‘‘Sir Richard, afterwards
created Earl Tylney, erected the present Wanstead House in the year
1715.” ‘*The principal front is 260 feet in length. The whole building is
cased in Portland stone; its depth is between 70 and 80 feet.” ‘Colin
Campbell was the architect.” There is a view of the house opposite p. 466
(P. 467.)‘‘ The river Roding, which is formedinto canals,” &c, A Topographical

WOODFORD. 177

Dict. of England &c. S. Lewis, 7th Ed., 1849, 4to., Vol. IV., p. 459, adds:
“Sir Richard, created Earl of Tylney, 1731.”

“From Lord Tilney it (Wanstead Manor) passed to Sir James Tilney
Long, whose only daughter inherited this magnificent estate early in the
present century.”

THE REST OF THE STORY.

Annual Register, 1812. Chronicle p. 157.

MARRIAGES. March. ‘William Wellesley Pole, Esq., to Miss Long,
eldest daughter of the late Sir T. Long, Bart.”

ANN. REGIST., 1823. Chron., p. 65. May.

‘‘ Wanstead House was sold by auction on the premises on Monday last
for £10,000. One of the conditions of sale binds the purchaser to clear
everything away, even to the foundation, by Lady Day, 1825. The biddings
commenced at £1,000,” &c., &.

“Thus is sacrificed to extravagance and gambling a mansion which cost
in its erection more than £360,000, and which has no equal in the county of
Essex.”

ANN. REG., 1825, p. 280. DEATHS.

“Sept. 12th. At Richmond, aged 35, Mrs. Wellesley-Pole-Long-
Wellesley. On the roth, the remains of this amiable unfortunate lady were
removed from Richmond on their way to Draycot in Wiltshire, the seat of
Lady Tilney, there to be deposited in the family vault,” &c.

Tourist’s Essex. E. Walford, 12mo., Lond., 1882.

‘*The house was pulled down, to pay his debts, in 1822-23, and his wife
died soon after from a broken heart.”’

William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley, the husband of Mrs. Wellesley-
Pole-Long- Wellesley, succeeded to the Earldom of Mornington in 1845, and
died 1st July, 1857. (Burke’s Peerage.) [J. L.]

SIC TRANSIT GLORIA MUNDI.

N

LITTLE GADDESDEN.

CouNTRY BETWEEN WooDFORD IN ESSEX AND
LITTLE GADDESDEN, HERTFORDSHIRE.

io Oe oe oe The 25th March, 1748.

) N the morning I undertook at the
cost and at the request of Herr
Vice-President Baron Bjelke, a
journey to see Mr. Ellis, who
lived at Little Gaddesden in Hert-
fordshire. Mr. Ellis was a man
who had a great reputation for his
Practique in Landthushallnin-
gen, or Rural Economy, but still
more for his many writings on the same Art, which
latterly he had published yearly.

I started at 9 o’clock together with Jungstr6m, and
a man who was our guide.

The principal villages and places we passed through
this day were the following,

WALTHAM ABBEY, situated six miles from Woodford,

is now a little town, but has formerly been much larger.
178

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 179

The houses are tolerably [T. I. p. 179] good, and the
church built in an antiquated style. Close to it was an
old monastery, Kloster. At this town we saw in a gentle-
man’s garden the largest Tulip-tree in England, which
rivalled the largest elms in height. The fruit however
does not ripen sufficiently to be available for seed.

WALTHAM Cross, a beautiful village an English mile
from the last named place, and on the borders of Hertford-
shire, for hitherto we had been in Essex. Here we saw
one of England’s antiquities, a specially carved pillar,
pelare, erected in former times in memory of a Queene
[Eleanor, wife of Ed. I.]

CHESHUNT, a small but pretty village situated an
English mile from Waltham Cross. Here we saw several
beautiful and costly orchards. A river, en back,* which
was artificially dug, getting on for sixty miles through
the country, flowed through this village down to London.
It is partly from this river that the water is led through
subterranean channels and pipes, into houses, kitchens
and cellars in London.

ST. ALBaNs, a tolerably large and pretty town, is
12 miles from Cheshunt, and 20 from London. It
has in former times been very large and is reckoned one
of the oldest towns in England, and is remarkable
for its many antiquities. One of the existing churches,
remarkable for its size and architecture, sardeles
byggnad, looks as if it must be very old.

Close to the same church there still stands a gateway,
en port, which was built by the Romans during their
occupation of this country. The gateway is, however,
built round about, and the same house is used as a

* The New River. From an exact measurement made in 1723 by Mr.

H. Mill, the engineer and surveyor of the N. R. Co., its extent was ascer-
tained to be 383 miles, 16 poles. Matthews ‘‘Hydraulia” 1835 |[J. L.]
N 2

180 KALM’S ENGLAND.

prison. [T. I. p. 180.] In the town there are four
churches, but one of them is used as a market-place.

HEmpsTEeAD (Hemel Hemsted) is situated 5 miles
from St. Alban’s, and 25 from London. The town is
small but tolerably pretty, lies down in a dale, dald,
and has a church with a high tower.

Little Gaddesden is a long village situated 30 English
miles from London. We arrived there at six o’clock in
the evening. I shall have farther on a better opportunity
of describing this place. Now, I will give several notes
which I made to-day on the journey between Woodford
and Little Gaddesden.

The appearance of the country which we passed
through to-day was simply beautiful. There was not
the smallest sign either of rock or granite, barg eller
grasten. It was not entirely even and flat, but went
in a continuous succession of undulations so that it was
like a collection of hills and dales; yet the hills were for
the most part very long-sloping down into the dales.
Between these ridges there sometimes flowed a little
beck.

Jordmon, the soil, was here the same as in Essex
and Hertfordshire, viz.: on the top, soi, svartmylla,
but immediately under that a reddish-yellow or Ochre-
colored clay, lera, mixed with a number of pieces of
flint, and, in the neighbourhood of Essex, of a similar
colored gravel or coarse sand, groft grus. Around Hemp-
stead in Hertfordshire, the hills consisted partly of
chalk.

All these hills and dales were divided into arable
fields, meadows, and pastures, the spaces near the towns
or villages being occupied by gardens and kitchen-gardens
side by side, and here and there beautiful parks of all
sorts of different kinds of trees, which were for the most
part fenced round with living hedges of various leaf-

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 181

trees which [T. I. p. 181] commonly consisted of
hawthorn blended with blackberry-bushes, sloe, ash, oak,
ivy (Agrifolium), elm, etc.

These last-named had mostly been brought there by
different chances, such as birds, &c.

I saw not the smallest sign of such a farm fence,
gardesgard, as is used in Sweden, unless the dead
fences which are erected in places where an old quickset
hedge has been cut down to get anew one to grow in its
place, can be called a kind of gardesgard. Gentle-
men’s estates and farms were scattered here and there.
The houses of the former were handsomely built, and of
the latter very beautiful, all of brick, sten. Ina word,
the whole country in Essex as well as in Hertfordshire,
through which we progressed, everywhere resembled a
garden, tradgard, so that neither nature nor art and
diligence had here spared anything which contributes to
the adornment of a country.

Husen, the houses which we saw in this journey
were nearly all of brick, sten, yet not everywhere only
and solely of brick, but in some places were korssverks-
vagear, ‘cross-work walls,’ i.e., brick and stud walls.
In most places the houses were two or three stories high.

Of the English house-building I note, that the houses
are commonly so built, that even the upper stories, which
with us in Sweden are usually only a granary, en vind,
consist here of chambers and a room, in which the
servants commonly lie, so that the roof slopes just close
on to this room, without any granary, Skulle eller
Vind, above.

The walls in the upper stories consist often of thin
boards and laths, daubed on the outside as well as the
inside with clay and lime, so that it seems as though they
were of stone.

Such thin boarded walls are possible in this country

182 KALM’S ENGLAND.

where the winters are so mild. The roofs [T. I. p. 182)
of the houses are mostly of tiles, which, however, are not
concave or trough-shaped, as with us in Sweden, but
commonly quite flat and plain, quadrilateral and oblong.
They are fastened in this way, that on the under frame-
work of the roof, which consists of rafters, are nailed
horizontal laths of wood in rows, along the length of the
roof, the one a little above the other, or about three
fingers’ breadth between the laths. On these laths are
hung the tiles, which begin down at the eves, takfoten,
and so go upwards imbricatim.

In these tiles there are at the upper end two holes
side by side in which are set wooden pegs, which, on the
lower or inner side are 3 or 4 inches long; but on the
upper side they are cut off even with the upper surface
or outside of the tile. There are always two holes in
each tile, although they often do not set more than one
peg in either of the holes, because one such a peg seems
to suffice. The rain water cannot rot away these pegs,
because they are always covered by the projecting end of
the tile that lies next above.

The roofs in these places on that account look exactly
like church and other roofs with us in Sweden, covered
with square shingles, span, only that the colour is some-
what different. Ona great many outhouses and a great
many cottages, stugor, (which, however, were of brick),
the roof, taken, consisted only of straw.

Tak-resningen, the roof, was here mostly high, and
very steep, so as to run off the rainwater more quickly,
by which means the roof is rotted less. In some places
there were seen some wooden outhouses, whose walls
consisted of oak boards.

Galfven, the floors of the houses, were mostly of fir
or pine boards, which they had bought in London. In
the lowest story, tiles or some other [T. I. p. 183] stone
were used as a floor.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 183

Korss-stenarna, the chimneys, were often built, as
has been before remarked, in the gable, gafveln, of the
house itself, and this sometimes so that nearly all the
chimney stood outside the house-gable, while the gable
formed one side of the chimney. In so mild a climate as
England has, this was good, in case the fire ever fastened
on the chimney soot; but otherwise it seems to be of
little use that the back of the fire-place, towards which
the fire mostly plays, stands outside the building.

Akrarna, the ploughed fields, were everywhere
where we travelled, very well cultivated. I have said
before that the country consists of hills which slope on
all sides. The fields, therefore, lie so that they have par-
ticular advantage from the morning, midday, or evening
sun, towards which they lie. Sometimes also arable fields
are found on the north side of the hills, yet it was mostly
the practice to leave this side either for pasture, meadow,
or other parks,* Parker.

Jordmon, the soil was here everywhere the sandy
brick-colored fat clay which around London is common
enough, den med sand utblandade tegelfargade
feta leran som omkring London ar nog allmann.
[The London clay. ]

On the ploughed fields lay a multitude of ordinary
flint fragments, in some places so thick that many would
wonder how the crops could there get any room to take
root. I never saw any ditches on the ploughed fields,
besides those which at times were found close to the
hedges which were planted round about the fields. But
the manifold water-furrows, vattu-faror, here served for

* Park in the Coverdale district means an enclosure for horses, its original
sense (see ‘‘ Studies in Nidderdale,” p. 34 and glossary). T. Rothe’s “Aord
Staets forfatning for Lehnstiden 1., 291,” showed that the word in its sense of
deer-park was of English origin. [J. L.]

184 KALM’S ENGLAND.

ditches, for most of the arable fields were so laid out that
there was not more than 2 feet between the water-furrows.
The breadth of such a water-furrow was (as occasionally
measured) 9 inches to 1 foot, and the depth 6 to g
inches. They were nearly always drawn from the hills
down the ploughed fields, that the water might have
[T. I. p. 184] free escape, but where the fields sloped
too much they were drawn parallel with the dales, and
not right down to the same for this reason, that a great
water-flood might not scour away the soil and crops.

No acre-veins in the middle of the fields, but only
round about at the sides, near the hedges, but these reins
were nearly always overwhelmed with mosses, like the
worst of our moss-choked meadows.

In some places the water-furrows were not so close
together, but the ploughed fields were laid out in broad-
land,* that is, in even and wide plots about 20 feet
between each furrow, or grip. The space between the
water-furrows was laid out in small ridges, or riggs,
ryggar, which are here called ‘stitches,’ which were
highest in the middle and sloped on both sides towards
the water furrow.

Thus no balks of earth, inga balkar af jord,
appeared here, which would hinder the water from
flowing down into the furrows.

Magra orter.
Arid and sterile places also occur in England.

We saw to-day between Cheshunt and Bell Bar a great
plain, yet not even, but having ridges and hollows, which

* Broadland. On the chalk these broadlands run now, 1886, generally
20 yards, but sometimes 18 yards wide. Two I measured at Albury, Herts.,
ran 56 feet and 58 feet. The “yards” are only stepped. On Grove Farm,
Ivinghoe Aston, two adjoining old curved ridges were 62 and 48 feet wide.
Sep. 21. 1886. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 185

was little better than our barren ling heaths, Ljung-
hedar, in Sweden. This plain extended nearly four
English miles across, with a proportionate area.* The
subsoil was brick-coloured clay.

An abundance of the common ling grew upon it.
Otherwise the plain was overgrown with ling-tufts,
Liung-tufvor, between which were found a great
quantity both of brackens, Ormbunkar, and mosses,
but only some isolated blades of grass. Sheep were now
pasturing here. In some places grew hornbeam enough,
six feet high, and tolerably thick. The tops were cut off
for fuel, otherwise it was of no particular use. This was
a common land or allmanning, and may have been left
in [T. I. p. 185] such a neglected state, without any
improvement having been effected there, for that reason.
[Northaw Common. ]

Kaniner, rabbits, occur wild in many places in this
country. We saw on the afore-named heath some of
them on a bank, of a grey colour. Now, in the middle
of the day, there were only a few up, but the great multitude
of holes which were seen everywhere in the bank, together
with the information of our guide, that they are especially
to be seen in the evenings, assured us that there were pro-
bably a very great number of them, although they were
now down in the ground. They were said to belong to a
lord [the Earl of Salisbury] who lived not far off, and that
no one without his permission had leave to disturb them.

Far, sheep, were feeding almost everywhere on the
hills where there are pastures. In some places, where
the hills were long-sloping, the water-furrows appeared
drawn with the plough in a direction straight down the
field, and sometimes obliquely down the sides. The

* From Gough’s Oak to Bell Bar (4 miles) the road runs most of the way
on gravel-capped ridges of London clay. [J. L.]

186 KALM’S ENGLAND.

reason is said to be to give the water by that means a
free escape, so that it might not stand and become acid,
sura, and by that means make the grass unwholesome
for the sheep.

Krita, chalk, is seen in many places between St.
Alban’s and Hempstead spread out on the field as a
manure. The arable pieces were nearly as white as chalk
with it, since it was in some places laid on in tolerable
abundance. They intended now at the first opportunity
to plough it down. The soil on which it was laid was
the frequently-mentioned coarse, reddish-yellow sand,
mingled with a reddish-yellow clay and fragments of flint.
Near to Hempstead we saw an entire hill, which con-
sisted only of chalk. [T. I. p. 186.]

Kodynga, cowdung lay in some places carried out
into the fields lying in heaps side by side, but not yet
spread out.

Massa, Moss, both Bryum and Aypnum, grew in
distressing quantities on allthe utmarker, ‘ out fields’
heaths or commons, and meadows, and acre-reins, which
lay near the hedges. It had in these places for the most
part strongly taken root ; indeed, many of these meadows
and commons resembled in that respect the most mossy
of our meadows.

[Here follows a short notice of a fire in London given
above under “‘ London.” ]

The 26th March.
[At Little Gaddesden. |

In the morning I went to call upon Mr. Ellis but he
had already gone out on to his fields. I therefore took,
in company with Jungstr6m, a walk out on to the
arable fields around Little Gaddesden to inspect the
same, the rather because it is commonly [T. I. p. 187]
held that in Hertfordshire and on this side, there are

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 187

the best Agriculturists, Akerman, in England. We
now found here part of the arable fields very well
husbanded, so that they lay almost like beds in a kitchen
garden, others again sufficiently carelessly managed.
The same description mostly applied to the inclosures,
or tappor, which were laid out as meadows that one
part was very well cared for, sk6tt, the grass-growth
very thick, and not a sign of moss in them.

Others stood beautiful with clover, Sain Foin, and
such like kinds of hay, but there were some also, which
deserved our pity. The moss had there so got the upper
hand, that it had almost entirely extirpated the beautiful
hay which had formerly been sown there. It resembled,
in a word, our most moss-choked meadows. After a
time we met an old farmer, and enquired of him “to
whom the field belonged which was cultivated with so
much care?” Ans. “It is mine, if I may make so bold
as to say it.”

Q. “Who is the cultivator of this inclosure, which
stands so green and luxuriant with clover, and on which
there is not one blade of moss ?”

Ans. ‘This is mine, that is Mr. Williams’,” etc.

Q. “ Who is the owner of this field, which to a great
extent stands under water, and is so ill cultivated?”’ Ans.
‘A Mr. Ellis as he is called.” ‘‘ Mr. Ellis?” I asked, “ you
must have forgotten yourself, or is there here more than
one Mr. Ellis?” “‘ No,” replied the man, there is not more
than one Mr. Ellis here, and to him the field belongs.”

Q. ‘Who works on the inclosure away there where
the moss has so excessively got the upper hand ?”’

Ans. “‘ The same Mr. Ellis.” I had from such para-
doxical answers soon forgotten all my Latim, and asked
therefore “ if it is the same Mr. Ellis who is so celebrated
for the many beautiful works he has published on [T. I.
p- 188] Rural Economy?” The man answered that it

188 KALM’S ENGLAND.

is the very same, and as for Mr. Ellis’s beautiful books on
Rural Economy, he let them be for what they were worth,
dem lanmade han i sit virde, but this he said he
was sure of, that if Mr. Ellis did not make more profit
out of sitting and scribbling books, and selling the Manu-
scripts to the Publishers, than he realised from his
farming, he would soon have to go and beg —for Mr. Ellis
mostly sits at home in his room and writes books, and
goes sometimes a whole week without going out into his
ploughed lands or meadows to look after the work, but
trusts mostly to his servant, drang, and young son, who
is still a boy.

I feared that the farmer said this from envy, and there-
fore left such a heretic! after he had constrained me
to confess at least to myself that he had a very large
experience in farming.

We had now walked through a great many of their
arable fields, meadows and inclosures, and had at
last entered the churchyard to view the church, when
Mr. Ellis himself came to meet us. He had got to hear
from someone that strangers from foreign parts were
come to visit him. We then, at his request accompanied
him home to see the inventions he had discovered for
the improvement of agriculture. He showed us a
mixture of a particular manure which he had under a
thatch-roof. He said that this manure had not its like,
to produce the growth of a manifold crop, but we could
not get out of him what this manure was composed of.
He next showed us his four wheeled drill plough, fyrhjulta
drill-plog, which he considered to be worth its weight
in gold.

This is now to be seen drawn on the title page of
Mr. Ellis’s Farmer’s Instructor.

[T. I. p. 189]. Afterwards he showed us the double
Hertfordshive plough, of which there are both an illustration

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 189

and description in Mr. Ellis’s Agriculture improv’d. Item,
a sieve with steel wires, et SA4ll med st&l-tra, to
separate the small wheat and barley-corns from the large,
by that means to obtain a choice and much-sought-after
seed-corn; item, three small treatises which lay ready
and fair-copied for the press. They treated of the
management of sheep and the duties of the shepherd.
These treatises waited for the printer who would pay
most for them. They have since been printed under the
name of ‘‘ The Shepherd’s Sure Guide,” together with a
lot of letters to him, and several which he himself had
written.

I asked Mr. Ellis whether he had at his own house
all the kinds of ploughs which he describes in his
writings, and particularly those which he praised so
highly for their usefulness. He answered ‘‘ No,” and
gave as a reason that if he had them at home he could
not have them in peace, partly because gentlemen took
them away, partly that they were stolen by others.

I then asked if he had not at home the useful ploughs
and other kinds of machinery which he himself had
invented. He answered ‘‘No,” and gave the same reason
for not having them. I asked, supposing anyone wanted
them how one could get them made, and if there was any-
one in the village who constructed them? He answered
that none can make them here, for it requires a singu-
larly intelligent head for the purpose, but he had a man
who lived 30 or 40 English miles from Little Gaddesden
at whose place he had all such things made for one and
all of the eminent persons and others, who ordered them.
It is, therefore, obligatory on those who wish to have
[T. I. p. 190] such a plough or implement to pay the
cost of its carriage from the maker to Mr. Ellis, as well as
thence to London, or to any place one might wish.

During my visit to Little Gaddesden I enquired on

190 KALM’'S ENGLAND.

different occasions—not one, but very many—of those
who lived here—farmers and other men—where and at
whose establishment they believed Mr. Ellis had his
implements and ploughs, &c., made. They answered
that all implements that gentlemen, and others who had
read his writings, order of him, are made by the plough-
maker, Plog-makaren, who lived close beside the
house where I lodged, for Mr. Ellis gives him the
model and describes it to him, and contracts with
him what he shall have for the woodwork, but the
smith who lived close to the park (Ashridge Park),
constructs the iron, according to the model and
description Mr. Ellis has given him, and that he receives
from Mr. Ellis the payment they have agreed upon, Som
de kommit 6fverens om. Afterwards, Mr. Ellis sets
whatever price he likes on the ploughs or implements
which have been ordered of him. These farmers denied
entirely that Mr. Ellis had his implements made at the
establishment of any other man at a distance from here,
as he himself told me.

Still, I put to those who lived here, not once, but
many times, the following questions :—Q. Whether Mr.
Ellis uses, or has used, on his arable land any other kinds
of implements than the other Farmers in this parish or
village? All answered unanimously that he had never
used other or more than they, and that the ploughs
which he uses are the same as they had used from time
immemorial [T. I. p. 191], only they said that he on
some single occasion, for his amusement, may have used
some others, perhaps, for an hour. They unanimously
bore testimony to the fact that he sells a number of the
same implements as he has described in his books, to
different gentlemen.

Q. Whether Mr. Ellis uses on his arable any other kind
of manure than the other farmers in Little Gaddesden ?

LITTLE GADDESDEN. Ig!

Ans. Absolutely no other.

Q. Whether Mr. Ellis gets annually from his arable
a more abundant harvest, skérd, than the other
farmers ?

Ans. Never more than others; for if he gets more one
time, they get more another.

Q. Whether Mr. Ellis uses to plough, k6ra, and treat
his arable in any other way than the other farmers in the
place ?

Ans. Never; but entirely in the same way.

Q. Has he a large number of sheep ?

Ans. No more than the other farmers, but rather
less.

Q. Has he a large number of cows?

Ans. Two individuals; for in the whole of Little
Gaddesden there are hardly twenty cows in all.

Q. Has he a large number of work-people, tjenste-
folk?

Ans. One girl and a boy, besides his son and daughter ;
for in this place it is the custom that a farmer does not
keep many servants, but always employs day-labourers,
dagsverks-folk, for which reason in every village there
live a great many poor, who hire themselves out to work
for pence.

They gave here eight to ten pence a day to one carl,
who for that is obliged to work from 6 o’clock in the
morning till 6 in the evening. This character they said
they were obliged [T. I. p. 192] to give Ellis: that he
never let any of the labouring folk wait for their money,
as is otherwise very common, but he gives them each
evening their day’s money, sin dags-penning. In the
same way he pays down, straxt, those who make any-
thing for him.

The farmers maintained that Mr. Ellis’s principal
occupation consists in writing books, and selling to gentle-

192 KALM’S ENGLAND.

men the ploughs and implements which he has lauded
therein, although he had seldom tried them himself.

He has also been for a time a Custom House officer,
or Exciseman, Tull-betjent, also for a long time with a
brewer in London.

The Treatise he has written on Brewing, om Brygg-
ning, is considered by several in England as the best
of all his writings, because he relates therein his own
experiences. When he first came to Little Gaddesden
he was quite ignorant of Rural Economy. He had learnt
most of it there, but his neighbours will not yet recognise
him for so good a Farmer, Landtman, as many of them,
but said that he does not cultivate his arable and
meadows so well as the others. With his present and
second wife he had made a rich marriage, and with her
money bought the farm he now lives upon. At first he
undertook several experiments in husbandry, but he had
not been particularly lucky with them, for the most
part of what he had left of the money he got with his
second wife had in this way taken its departure, so that
he was poor enough. His spouse had gtieved so much
over it, that she had not been able to recover herself,
komma sig fore.

After a time, when he had made several tours in
England to note all sorts of thingsin Rural Economy, he
sat down to write books, and to havevarious [T. I. p. 193]
agricultural implements made to sell to others, in which
he had found his reckoning better, so that he has now
tolerably recovered himself, although he is not just so
particularly rich. Through this assiduous book-writing it
happens that his arable and meadows are worse cared
for than his neighbours’. Meantime his writings proved
their good and great worth, and gained especial renown;
because he gave in them what he had with much trouble
and great industry collected during many journeys through

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 193

England in all departments of Rural Economy, very much
of which it is useless to seek for in other books, and has
never before been mentioned, far less described. He
seems, however, to be too diffuse, and to bring much in
that does not belong to the subject, and sometimes a
thing is found inserted in ten, twenty, and more places
in his writings. The worst is, that one cannot build
upon what is said in them; for he has been too
credulous, and has taken as true what false and made-
up stories his mischievous neighbours often amused
themselves by telling him—of which several persons
assured me.*

Harfningen. The harrowing which we saw to-day
in a field near LITTLE GADDESDEN, where pease were
being harrowed down was somewhat peculiar. They had
taken six harrows. Each harrow, which was square, con-
sisted of four wooden bars, and on each bar, tra, five
iron tines, jarn-pinnar, so that the whole harrow had
twenty tines. They had bound all these six harrows side
by side, by laying a long pole or ‘stang,’ stang, across
them, and binding them fast to the stang. In front of
the harrows were six horses harnessed abreast, one horse
for each harrow, harf. With these harrows thus arranged
the field was harrowed. A young boy went and led one
of the side horses and [T. I. p. 194] another went
behind and drove them. They had by that plan the ad-
vantage that the field was sooner harrowed, and that they
did not require to employ more than two persons for six
harrows and horses.

Jordmon, the soil, was here very loose and fine, so

* Although Ellis was a charlatan, and did not help to solve the great
problem of how to make farming pay, it is probable that, had he been able
to read Swedish, he could have recovered substantial damages in an action for

libel. [J. L.] g

194 KALM’S ENGLAND.

that the harrow-tine, harf-pinnan, could easily tear it

to pieces.*
The 27th March.

Mr. Ellis did me the honour to spend a great part of
the day with me. He esteemed it a great pleasure to
talk with me on various things in Rural Economy; yet
he seemed more to ask than to be asked. When I en-
quired of him about one thing and another, I seldom got
any other answer than that he referred me to some of
his writings, where I should find the subject exhaustively
treated.

He said he had travelled nearly all over England, to
see and write up their Rural Economy, hushallning.
Often when he had got to hear that anyone experienced
in Rural Gconomy lived at any place, and whose name
was known for his particular insight into some special
branch of Rural Economy, Landthushalliningen, he
had travelled expressly to him, although he lived 20, 30,
or more miles out of the way. When he observed that this
other was interested in his conversation, and did not wish
to lose any of it, Mr. Ellis always had something pleasant
and delightful to relate in some branch of Rural Economy
which the other was fond of, after which the other to pay
him back again, began to tell something to Mr. Ellis,
and so by turns, till Mr. Ellis got to know all that the
other professed or was noted for. Often has he posed as
if his object had not been to learn something, merely
[T. I. p. 195] to get a better insight into what he
wanted, because the other did not then take him for
what he was.

* This seems to have been a species of co-operation, in which several
farmers lend horses and implements for the day to one, especially when he
takes a new farm, as still practised at Kelso. It is unlikely that one of these
small farmers would have had six harrows. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 195

After some of his books had been printed, he travelled
about himself and had with him some examples to sell to
gentlemen. He then travelled incognito, and let no one
know who he was, but gave himself another name, and
said he was sent by the publisher to sell books. This
he did, partly to collect many observations, and partly to
hear the opinions of others upon his writings.

I asked what he thought of Mr. Bradley’s writings.
He said that Bradley had written very well about Horti-
culture, but in Agriculture and Rural Economy he was no
use, because he was entirely inexperienced in Agriculture,
Landtbruk. Mr. Ellis said alsothat he had neverthought
of writing anything on Rural Economy; but when he got
to read Bradley’s writings, and saw how inconsistent
they were, he had taken up his pen to write something
better.

Mortimer’s books on Rural Economy he said he had
not seen, or at least read.

Switzer’s writings he considered in many things to be
very good.

He also said he was now a man of somewhat over
60 years of age, for he said he was born in the 80’s in the
last century. Nearly all his life he had been and was
still quite fresh, only that he had now and then been
troubled with gout. He said he had been related to
Mr. Sherard. [James Sherard the botanist. ]

When I said that he by his writings had caused Little
Gaddesden to get an undying name, and that no one
before his time knew that a Little Gaddesden existed,
he answered ‘‘No prophet is accepted in his own
country ” Luke iv. 24.

The tobacco which he had by him, and which he
smoked, was strongly mixed with aniseed by which
it was agreeably scented. He thought such a tobacco

very wholesome.
02

196 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Bot mot Ormbett. Remedy for Snake bite.

Mr. Ellis said he knew a sovereign remedy for snake
bite, which consisted in this, that when anyone had been
bitten by a snake, blifvit huggen af en orm, he must
at once kill the snake, take its fat or lard, fett eller
ister, and lay it on the wounded place. This, he
assured us, supersedes everything hitherto discovered.
I have since on my foreign travels heard from very
many this given as one of the surest remedies against
snakebite.

Bot mot Sara égon. Cure for Sore Eyes.

Mr. Ellis assured us that sore eyes are cured by
nothing so well as fat and lard of snakes and swine,
which Sir Hans Sloane first discovered, and has since
made generally known through the press.

As Mr. Ellis wished to hear something of the mode
of life among the Lapps, I mentioned to him as a
peculiarity that one scarcely ever finds a Lapp afflicted
with scurvy, and added that Linneus ascribes as a
reason the Lapps’ diet, which is never to use salt, or eat
salt meat; also that one from that seems to have reason
to believe that salt might possibly be the principal cause
of this sickness. Also I told him that few of the Lapps
use bread, and many of them, perhaps, have never seen
it, but that they avail themselves of dried flesh, and fish
instead. But I note that Mr. Ellis [T. I. p. 197] did
not rightly understand my meaning, for in a book which
he has since published, and which he calls The Country
Housewife’s Family Companion, he says, pp. 22 and 23, that
he gathered from me ‘that the Lapps are never plagued
with scurvy, for the reason that their bread is dried fish,
&c.” whereas I not only ascribed to the salt, the first and
greatest, if not the only principal cause of this sickness,
and vice versa that when salt is not used one does not

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 197

hear of it, but also told him the question which the great
Boerhave put to our learned Linneus, whether all the
Lapps were not full of scurvy because they dwelt in so
cold a climate? and Linnzus’ answer thereto. I have
thought it necessary to insert this here, so that nothing
should stand as my opinion that I do not own.

The 28th March, 1748.

In the morning we walked out on several grass-lands
and arable fields, falt och 4krar, which lay around
Little Gaddesden. In the whole of the latter half of this
month the ground here was entirely bare of snow, bar,
and green, and the weather sometimes tolerably fair; but
for all that there is up to this date hardly a sign of the
trees putting forth their leaves, much less flowers; so
that to all appearance they do not seem to see the trees
in leaf here so very much earlier in the spring than in the
southern provinces of Sweden. Hazel and some species
of willow were in flower now, but almost no other trees.

Et stort falt. 4 large Common [Ivinghoe Com-
mon] lay onthe N.W. side of Little Gaddesden, where
a number of sheep were pasturing. It was a down or
summit of the country, en hégd af landet, long-sloping
on all sides. [T. I. p. 198.] The soil was the same gravel
and sand of reddish-yellow or brick-colour as has been
described above. Here and there appeared tufvor, mole,
or anthills, enough. The whole table-land was overgrown
with furze and brackens, and a little grass in some places.
The ground, on the places free from furze and brackens
was very much choked with mosses. The districts
around Skéfde in Vaster-Gothland, when Billingen is ex-
cepted, is very like England in appearance, although
there are granites, grastenar, instead of which in these
parts in England, flints lie on the arable and commons,
or ‘outlands,’ utmarker.

198 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Orter. Plants which stood in flower at this time of
year, were noted, that thereby the difference between
England and Sweden in this respect may be somewhat
judged of. They were the following :—

VERONICA, 17. [V. Agrestis] was here an evil weed
on the arable fields.

PRIMULA VERIS Vulgaris, Raj. Syn. 284, Primrose.

Narcissus, H. U. 74 sp. 2, Pask-liljer, “ Lent Lilies,”
Daffodils [Nar. Pseudo-Nar. ]

Smultron. [Fragaria Vesca.] Wald Strawberry.

RANUNCULUS, 460. [R. Ficaria.] Lesser Celandine.

Lamium, 494. [Lam. purpureum.] Purple Dead Nettle.

DraBa, 523 [D. Verna. ]

Uvex, H. U. 212. [U. Europeus] Furze.

LrEonTopon, 627. [L. Taraxacum. L.] Dandelion.

TussiLaco, 680. [T. Farfara.] Coltsfoot.

BELLIs, 707. [B. perennis.] Daisy.

HassEL, Hazel.

(T. I. p. 199-] Satices. Willows.

Dapune, 94. [D. Laureola.] Spurge Laurel.

FURZE was, of all plants, the one which grew most
plentifully on the aforenamed common. From being con-
stantly cut down for fuel by the people, it was now
scarcely 4 inches high. Two boys went on one place, and
with a “bill,” a particular kind of scythe or axe, lia
eller yxa, cut it off close to the ground. The length
of the blade of this bill was 1 foot, the breadth 3 inches,
the thickness at the back about }inch. It was sharp on one
side so that it could only be used by one who was right-
handed, or who, while holding the shaft with both hands,
has the right hand foremost or nearest the scythe, lian.

The bill-blade itself made with the shaft which was of
wood, and the part of the iron which the shaft was
fastened to, a very obtuse angle, so that the carl escaped
having to stoop while he was striking the cutting stroke..

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 199

The boys thus cut down with this scythe Furze,
Brackens, old grass, and whatever came in their way, all
of which they then raked together into heaps, bound
them into bundles, and used the thin shoots of black-
-berry-bushes, Rubus, 409 [R. Fruticosus| as a band
to bind them with. It was, therefore, highly neces-
sary for one who would bind these into bundles that he
should have good gloves, because both furze and the
blackberry bushes are among the most thorny kinds of
trees or bushes. We saw several heaps of such bundles,
which lay here upon the plain, and which were to be
carried home for fuel. This [T. I. p. 200] furze with its
thorns, had the effect that, when one walked where it
grew, it tore great scratches on the shoes, and where it
encountered the stockings, they were not respected. It
pricked the legs savagely. We afterwards saw boys in
many places in this district cut down the same in the
above-described way for fuel.

Flinta. Flint of the ordinary and common kind,
which is used to strike fire with, and in fire-arms, lay
plentifully on the arable fields. On some fields there
was such an abundance of them, that one had difficulty
in seeing a bit of earth for them. It was found here
both of the lighter and darker sort, and sometimes in
larger sometimes in smaller pieces. The largest as large
as a common clod, klot, but mostly they were quite as
small as the closed fist and less. Since there is not the
least sign of granite, grasten, in this district, it is often
the practice to take flints for the foundations of houses.
In one place and another the outhouses are for the most
part built ofthem. Bricks also are commonly used both
for foundations and walls.

The 29th March, 1748.

Far. Sheep are found everywhere in this country

200 KALM’S ENGLAND.

in great numbers, which originated partly in this, that
they get to sell all the more wool, partly also because
there is no nation which eats so much meat as the
Englishmen, and among the same, their mutton or Far
stek is not to be despised, and therefore the farmer has
a considerable profit, who is the owner of a large number
of sheep, not to mention their other uses. Nearly all
their sheep were white. There was scarcely one ina
hundred that was black or brown or any other colour.
They commonly had either [T. I. p. zor] on the back,
the nape of the neck, the head, or elsewhere, wool
coloured red in one pattern or another, with ruddle,
rod-krita, and water mixed, by which colouring every
owner knew his own again. The greater number of them
had two horns. Every farmer had commonly one sheep
which carried a little bell, skalla. The little lambs had
a very long tail which reached nearly to the ground, but
as soon as they were nearly six months old half the tail
was cut off, which was said to be done partly because
the sheep looked better, partly and principally because a
great deal of dirt fastens on to the long tail. The
English sheep were far from shy, at least nowhere near so
much so as our Swedish. They went day and night
out on the pastures under the open sky, without having
any house or roof to go under.

In one single place I saw that a boy went with them
to pasture, but commonly and almost everywhere they
were left without a shepherd, vall-hjon, entirely by
themselves. At home at the farms they had in some
places small Skeelings, skjul, built of short posts and
the roof of the skeel of straw, under which the sheep
could go when it rained, or was bad weather. Some had
also another outhouse, into which the shepherd, Fara
herden, in such a case, and in some places every evening,
drove in the sheep. Some farmers had in the middle of

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 201

the farm-yard under the open sky erected as it were a
crib orrack, krubba eller hack, of two narrow hurdles,
grindar, which were fastened together at the bottom, and
between which fine hay was laid of which the sheep went
to eat in the night when they stood at home in the farm-
yard.

The sheep are clipped here not more than once a
year, and that in the summer. They are folded from
Michaelmas in the autumn till this time [T. I. p. 202] in
the spring, and later, on turnip-lands, a better description
of which shall be given farther on.

The hurdles, grindarna, wherewith, and within
which, they are folded, are about 8 feet long, and 3 feet
6 inches high, which hurdles are ‘keyed’ or looped,
klafvas, close together in a row, a post being driven
down into the ground between each; and thus, accord-
ing to the number of sheep, they made a larger or
smaller fold, falla. From the fold there commonly
runs a narrow passage made of similar hurdles, to some
one of the living hedges, by which the field is sur-
rounded, that the sheep in bad weather may be able
to go to such hedge and shelter there. In the sheep-fold
there is mostly a ‘‘ sheep-crib” or “‘ sheep-trough,” ho,
knocked together of two boards ad angulum acutum, or a
little less than an angulus rectus, and a board-lap at each
end, so that the fodder may not run out. When it is bad
weather barley is laid in this trough, or oats, or pease,
for the sheep to eat.

Halm-tak. Straw-thatch was much used in this
district, on outhouses as well as on cottages, stugor
hvari folket bodde. It was also hereabout not un-
common to see beautiful brick houses, stenhus, with
straw-thatch over. A great many outhouses were, how-
ever of wood, the walls, for instance, being made of thick
oak-boards. The roofs of the houses, whether they were

202 KALM’S ENGLAND.

of tiles or thatch, were very steep and high-pitched, so
that it was quite impossible to go upon them, as with us
in Sweden, where straw-thatch is used, but for all such
one was obliged to have a ladder to stand upon when
there was anything to do to the roof. The rain-water
could also not remain so long on such a steep-sloping
thatch roof.

Halmtaken, the thatch roofs, were here made in
this way, that one first erected a framework of wooden
beams upon which the thatch roof [T. I. p. 203] is to
rest, by erecting wooden rafters from both the ‘long-
walls,’ which rafters at their lower ends stood on the
voofplate, tak foten; but at their upper ends leant
against each other at the roof-tree of the house and
formed there an angulwm acutum. Across and above
these rafters were nailed horizontal laths all the way
up the rafters up to the ridge, Krapp-asen, one
row of laths above the other, about a foot between
each row. They had afterwards begun to lay thatch
down at the eaves, takfoten, so that the thatch might
be a foot thick, sometimes more, sometimes less. The
straw was then laid so that the large ends of the straw
were turned downwards, and the small ends upwards;
but at the ends of the sides of the ridge-shaped roof, it
was turned so that it did not there lie parallel with the
other straw on the roof but obliquely, that is to say, the
lower ends obliquely outwards from the ridge and the
upper more on to the inner part of the thatch, as is seen
in the accompanying Figure. [Fig. omitted. J. L.]

The straw is fastened thus: when it had been arranged
as one would have it, it was then bound round at the
upper end with a withe of willow, en vidja af Vide,
or hazel, and so [T. I. p. 204] fast to some of the
above named horizontal laths. That is to say, the lowest
row of straw was first bound in that way fast to the roof-

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 203

plate, takbandet, afterwards, other straw was laid
on that, but a little higher up, ofvanf6re, so that the
latter comes to cover the upper parts of the first laid
straw, together with the withe or band, banden, with
which it was bound. In this way it was continued in
layers right up to the ridge, krapp-dsen, till the whole
roof had thus been thatched, tackt. Across the ridge
was laid long straw, lang-halm, as much and as thick as
one wanted, when it was bent and turned in that position,
s4lunda, down on both sides of the ridge, and was after-
wards bound fast in the above described manner on both
sides of the ridge. On this thatch there were not laid
any sticks, Riskor, or anything else to press: down or
retain the straw against storm and wind, because the straw
was so well fastened that it was not necessary. Besides
that, such weights on the straw have the disadvantage
that the rain-water easily comes to stand against them,
and in these places causes the thatch to rot more quickly.
It was wheat straw which the roofs here were thatched
with, and in this district it grows very long.

The 30th March, 1748.

Svartmyllan, ellerden jorden, som pa 4krarna
lag Ofverst, the soil which lay on the surface of the
ploughed fields was not here of so black a colour as I saw
in Russia, about Moscow, and between Moscow and
Tulou, where it often looks as black as gunpowder ; but
it.strikes here for the most part somewhat of a reddish-
yellow or ochre-colour, which without doubt proceeds
from the gravel and clay immediately under it, which
have the same colour. The soil under [T. I. p. 205] the
grass sward on the hill sides, and such like places was
also commonly of the same colour.

Vapling; Trifolium purpureum...pratensi simile
—Raj. Syn. 328 [T. pratense L.] which is called

204 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Clover by Englishmen, was sown here on a great many
of the arable fields and inclosures or small tappor, and
that always, where I saw it, on ‘ broad-cast land,’ or on
nearly flat-ploughed land, and not on that which lay in
high ridges. After this is sown, it seldom lasts more
_than two years before it dies and must be sown again de
novo. Some have it for three years, but never more.
Here it is usual to sow it with some kind of crop. The
second summer after it is sown it is cropped once and
often twice. After that, the land is ploughed up and
sown with wheat, till, after a few years, it is laid down
as meadow again.

Akrarna. The arable fields in this district, which
stood sown with wheat, were for the most part laid out
in Stitches or Four-thorough-land* : that is, that the whole
field was laid out in small ridges, ryggar, each of the
ridges only of four furrows, fyra faror, with water
furrows between all the ridges, med tata wattu-faror
emellan ryggarna. The breadth of the ridge between
the water furrows was a Swedish ell, or 2 English feet.
The ridges, or Stitches, were so made that they lay highest
in the middle, and sloped after that on both sides
towards the water furrows. The Water furrows were
drawn from the highest lying part of the field, to that
part of it which lay deepest down towards the dales,
all in lined rectd. The depth of the water-furrows was
6 inches, sometimes more, sometimes less, the breadth
1 foot, just about. At both ends of the water-furrows,
both upper and lower, were drawn four such stitches, or
ridges [T. I. p. 206], with water-furrows between, all of
the same breadth as the others across the field, or so
that the stitches and water-furrows, which went from the

* Four-furrow-land. ‘‘ Furrows are here called ‘thoroughs.’” (Colloq)
1886. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 205

highest to the lowest part of the field, made with these
[‘ headlands’ or ‘ butts’] angulos rectos, or abutted per-
pendicularly against them.

These cross-ridges may have come to be made for
this reason, that when ploughed up and down according
to the field; there is always left at both ends a bit
unploughed ; that is to say, the [‘ headland,’ or] piece on
which the horses, dragarne, are turned round, which
must afterwards be ploughed up crosswise just as it
-lies, p&é detta sattes.

Humla. Hops we saw planted in no place by the
farms and villages here in Hertfordshire where we
travelled. I asked the farmers whether they had no hops
-here? They answered that they do not plant any hops
in this district, but they buy all that they have need of
for their requirements from Kent and the districts in
‘England where they specially lay themselves out for hop-
planting. In England the wholesome custom is much in
use, that nearly every district lays itself out for something
particular in Rural Economy, to cultivate, viz., that which
will thrive and develop there best, and leaves the rest to
other places. They believe they win more by this means
‘than if they cultivated all departments of Rural Economy;
for, besides that he who has many irons in the fire must
necessarily burn some, they also think it is not worth while
to force nature. Thus their principal occupation in
Hertfordshire is Agriculture; Hop-growing and Cherry-tree
cultivation in Kent, sheep-farming in another place,
cattle-breeding in another, &c. ,

They thus sell their own ware, and buy what they
themselves have not, or they also exchange ware for ware.

Tjenste-folk, Farm servants. A farmer in this
district does not himself keep many servants. When he
has a drang, manservant, and a piga, girl, he has
enough. There are also many farmers who have no

206 KALM’S ENGLAND.

manservant. I was assured that in all Little Gaddesden
there were not twelve menservants who serve as such for
annual wages. For here it is the custom that every
farmer mostly employs dagsverks-karlar, som
arbeta for dags-penning, day-labourers who work
for daily wages, to perform all their affairs with, both in
the arable field, in the meadow, in the lathe, thrash-
ing, &c., by which arrangement they believe, for many
reasons, that they come out much better than if they
themselves kept and fed many agricultural labourers.
It is also for this reason that in every town, parish, and
village, Stad, Socken, och By, there live a great many
labouring men and poor folk, who only feed themselves
and their families by going to work for farmers, gentle-
men, and other wealthy persons for daily or weekly
wages. Here in Little Gaddesden a labouring man gets
from 8 or Io pence to a shilling a day. At Woodford,
in Essex, my host gave g shillings a week to each
labourer whom he had at his farm to thrash, and kept
them in svag-dricka, small beer, besides. When
a labourer here in Little Gaddesden gets a shilling a day
or a little less, he is bound to provide his own food, and
he is given by the farmer, or the one who hired him,
nothing further except small beer, Svag-dricka eller
Spis-6l, as it is everywhere the practice not to let the day
labourer have anything further. Carpenters who had set
up a new plank-fence received from our landlord eighteen
pence a day and kept themselves in food and all.

Kor. Cows.

[T. I. p. 208]. They had not a particularly large
number of cows here in Little Gaddesden. One farmer
had seldom over 3 or 4, often less. I was assured that
in the whole of Little Gaddesden there were not more
than twenty cows. The whole winter up to the month of

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 207

May they are kept at home at the farm in a cow-
shed, hemma vid garden i hus, and fed with dry
hay, but afterwards they have freedom to go out in the
pastures, beteshagarna, during the summer, and there
seek theirfood. The reason why they have so few cows in
this village and the other villages lying round about, is said
to be this, that they have so little pasture and meadow
land ; because it is mostly arable; but in other places
some distance from here where they have large pastures,
betes-marker, there are said to be plenty of cows.

Getter brukades ej har. Goats are not used here.

One farmer only, Mr. Williams, had two goats, viz.,
a buck and a goat, which were shown to me, as something
rare, that they believed I had never seen before. He
said he kept them mostly in the stable because he was
of the opinion that the horses did well with them.

Ormbunkar, Pteris, 843. [Pt. Aquilina] Bvrackens
grew in very great abundance on the hills, near and in
the hedges, and elsewhere. At a farm I saw the same
dried, carried home, and there laid in two heaps, each of
them as large as a small house, and nicely thatched with
straw. I asked for what purpose they would use this
large quantity of brackens. They answered “ for fuel for
all purposes for which otherwise wood or furze, &c., is
used.” In particular they said they used this in the pre-
paration and drying of malt, [T. I. p. 209] brewing,
and such like. In my walks afterwards on different sides
around Little Gaddesden, I always found this growing in
great abundance on all common pastures or hills. From
the good soil, it had commonly grown here to a greater
height and luxuriance than with us in Sweden. We
also saw several places where they cut the same and
collected it for fuel. In the Duke of Bridgwater’s Park
[Ashridge] which lay close to Little Gaddesden, there

208 -KALM’S ENGLAND.

was a large brickyard, Tegel-bruk, where a multitude
of bricks, Tegel, were made. The fuel which was then
used to lay in the brick-kilns, Tegel-ugnarna, and to
burn the bricks with, was small bundles and twigs of
beech, but especially these brackens. ‘We saw large
heaps of it lying in the brickyard, thatched with straw.
The folk said that these ferns give in the burning a much
stronger heat than many kinds of wood.

Furze is said not tocome up to ‘this, in that respect,
by a long way. A worthy old farmer assured me that
brackens ought to be reckoned amongst the best fuel, as
he could testify from a long experience. He used it for
baking and much else. In many places it was also seen
collected, and thrown amongst the straw under the cattle
in the farm yard, there to lie and rot, and by that means
form manure. It is also used to lay on the ground under
wheat, pease, and barley stacks.

The 31st March, 1748.

In the morning we went over several arable fields,
meadows, and pastures, to view the condition of the
district and the country.

[T. I. p. 2r0]. Arter, pease were sown here in very
many places, and that always in ‘ broad-cast-land’ or
on flat-ploughed plots, jamna Aker-stycken. Each
‘cast,’ or space between the water-furrows, was about 20
feet broad. A cross furrow went down at the end, but I
saw not for what use, for it lay like an earth bank down
there, and held back, qvarh6élt, the water which had
flowed down there from above when it was raining, for
the bank of the water-furrow was so large and broad
that it dammed back the down-flowing water and
hindered its running off. The pease were here either
sown in the same way as we sow our crops, or also
in rows.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 209

Belagenheten af Byarna.

The arrangement of the villages, or a Parish, was com-
monly thus. The houses, GArdarna, were built all in
one row, sometimes quite close together, sometimes
farther apart. On one side, about and alongside of the
village always lay the common pastures and heath or out-
lands, betes och utmarker, and on the other their
gardens, ploughed fields, meadows and inclosed pastures,
beteshagar. On the side where the out-land was,
there always went a road, gata, or way close to and along
the village [the Back Lane].

Sometimes there were seen cherry-trees, walnut-trees,
beeches and such like trees planted outside the gates, yet
not thickly.

On the other side of the village where the arable
fields, &c., lay, there was nearest to the house their
kitchen-garden or flower-garden. After that came the
ploughed fields, commonly, but not always, for they
alternated with meadows and pastures. All these were
fenced and inclosed with hedges, which consisted mostly
of hawthorn, but mixed with that were sloe-bushes,
Starkeb&rs-buskar, blackberry-bushes, Bjérnbars-
buskar, Dog-rose, Torne, ivy, holly, Agrifolium, [Ilex
Aquifolium], ash, Ask, lime, Lind, willows, Salices,
oaks, Ekar, bird-cherry trees, Fogel-kirsbars-tran,
[not Prunus Padus the bird-cherry, but Prunus Avium,
the Gean] and often a number of large beeches, BokKar,
etc. In some places the [T. I. p. 211] farms lay on
the hills, in other places in the dales, so that on that
point there was no certainty. Some villages, however
did not lie in this fashion, in particular those which were
in Vale Land,* but the houses were there built, for the

* Vale Land, low-lying plains on the Gault clay outside the chalk
range, as the Vale of Aylesbury, and that which lies spread to the view from

Dunstable Downs and Ivinghoe Beacon. [J. L.]
P

210 KALM’S ENGLAND.

most part scattered, as in a town, but much farther apart.
Ploughed fields and fenced inclosures appeared there on all
sides. A number of different kinds of trees were planted
both in the villages in front of the houses and along the
streets, and round about outside the villages, which all
served as an ornament for the village or the parish, which
lay as in a garden, and as a shelter, skygd, against
blasts or cold winds, which in Vale Land played over the
large open fields.*

Hostackar. Haystacks are used here in England
everywhere, in Essex as wellas in Hertfordshire and else-
where, where I have been. I hardly ever saw any hdlada,
‘hay-lathe,’ on the meadows. Thus, they had the hay
also at home at the farms almost more in stacks than in
hay-sheds. The shapes of the English hay-stacks was
in all places the same, that is to say, they had the shape
of a house standing by itself, or of a hay-lathe on the
meadows with us in Sweden, yet the thatch is a little
steeper; and the lower half which resembles walls, is
ordinarily made so that it slopes more and more inwards
the nearer it gets to the ground, so that the eaves of the
thatch on the sides, and the higher gable at the gable
ends (which as I have before compared it to a house, I
may now call them) project, which is done entirely that
the wet and rain may injure the hay less. On the top
these stacks are commonly well thatched with wheat straw.

A hay stack is made here (Little Gaddesden) in the
following manner :—

When the hay is quite dry, it is carried to [T. I. p. 212]
the place where the stack is to be made, after which
the hay is laid in the aforenamed four-sided house-like
form, and is well trampled.

When the hay-stack has quite got its right shape,

* Alas! these are nearly allinclosed. [J.L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 211

like a house with a span-roof, they begin to thatch it
with wheat-straw, which is effected thus: A little above
the thatch-foot of the hay-stack, a hole is stuck here and
there horizontally all the way along the roof of the stack
with a kapp or “ rick-peg ;”” thereupon Jong wheat-straw
is taken, at one end of which is made a fold or twist,
et veck, and the.straw is twisted tightly together by the
twist. The highest part of the straw, or the twist, is
then stuffed into the holes which have been made in the
hay, with the rick-peg, by which means it is fastened. [ Here
is a figure.] When the straw has thus been stuffed into
the hay, a whole row along the voof, helaraden langs
ofver taket, they begin a foot or more higher up, to do
likewise along the whole roof, taking care that this row
is parallel [T. I. p. 213] with the former or lower, when
this stuffed-in straw covers over the upper ends of the
lower rows. They continue thus to stuff in the straw
into the hay as far up as the ridge or the highest top of
the voof, when in every case the upper straw covers the
ends of the lower. Along the ridge, which resembles a
roof-ridge, kroppas, there are first laid brackens,
Ormbunkar, and then straw on those, which is fastened
at the summit, thus: Two long split-sticks or ‘ rods,”
langa spjalkor eller sprator, are laid over the straw
along and on opposite sides of the roof or thatch, which are
fastened with many rick-pegs, as the accompanying Figure
shows. The rick-pegs are knocked down into the hay,
so that the crook at the top presses down the “ rods,”
spjalken, and holds the straw fast. [It is not necessary
to reproduce the figure. J. L.]

On both sides, at the gables from the highest ridge
down the edge of the thatch there are laid long rods which
are in the same way fastened with similar “ rick-pegs ”’
which hold fast the straw and prevent the wind from

carrying it away at the edges.
P 2

212 KALM’S ENGLAND,

I have asked several old farmers and labourers why
they do not use lathes, lador, here to keep the hay in?
They have answered that they considered haystacks,
when they are well thatched with straw far better than
lathes (haysheds). The reason they gave was that when
the hay is laid in lathes, the part of it which lies nearest
to the walls, 6 inches or a foot from the wall commonly
becomes spoilt, musty and mouldy, skamt, unkigt och
mogligt, loses its beautiful scent, so that the cattle
will not eat it at all willingly, but on the other hand in
the stack it retains its sweet and fragrant scent, is eaten
by the cattle very greedily, and it is only the outer surface
of the uncovered part which takes a little harm from
rain, but is for all that not so bad as that which is laid
next the wall in the lathe. All the hay, which was set in
stacks in the parts [T. I. p. 214] of England where I
travelled, is not taken out of the stack in the same
manner as is usual with us in Sweden, viz.: that one
tears off the highest first and so continues downwards,
but all this hay is cut out of the stack with a ‘hay
knife’ specially made for the purpose, which is done in
this way: When they require any hay out of the stack
for the cattle, they begin to cut at one of the gable ends
of the stack first, that is to say, they begin at the highest
ridge or top to cut loose slices, flingor, of about 2 feet
broad or more, just as they please. Thus it is continued
with the cutting, across the whole gable end from above
downwards, as it is required. On this cutting, skarning,
it was noted, that it is not cut perpendicularly down, but
the lower one gets, so much the more it is cut sloping
into the stack, so that the upper part of the stack where
one is cutting overhangs the under, that the hay in the
stack may not take any harm from wet. In this way the
stack is cut to pieces until there is hardly any more hay
left.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 213

The English haystacks have also the advantage that
they do not take harm from rain, whether they are touched
or not. Against which the Swedish way compels one
either to take in the whole stack at once, or runs the
risk that bad weather will injure it, after it has once been
robbed on the top, not to mention that the structure of
the English haystacks in every way obviates the wet,
which the Swedish on the other hand seems rather to
assist. Moreover, the English farmers also think that
the hay thus cut in little billets doux from the stack,
skurit litet i Sander fran stacket, smacks much
better to the cattle, and is more readily eaten by them;
and retains its fragrant scent longer, than if they were
to tear the stack to pieces all at once; when at least a
great if not the greater part of the hay’s delightful
fragrance would disappear and be lost.

[T. I. p. 215.] Sain Foin was sown in one or another
enclosure ; we saw sometimes whole fields sown with it,
and that always in broad-land. No sheep or other animal
had pasture on it this year, for which reason it was now
standing beautiful enough, grew mostly in clusters,
klasar, and was now a couple of inches high. The
place where it grew lay towards the morning sun, but
a great quanity of mosses had rooted in it in the
vacant spaces between this Sain Foin. The soil was
the same as everywhere about here. When this has
once been sown, it can remain for fifteen, eighteen or
twenty years’ time, if it is only manured every third year,
on the ground where it grows.

Clover was sown in one and another inclosure, tappa,
and that always in broad-cast-land. On the places which
seemed to have been sown the past year, it stood very
green, thick and beautiful, an inch or two high. On
older places it. was somewhat thinner, but nevertheless,
of the same height.

214 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Lucerne is not sown at all in this district because they
think that it is not worth while.

Skogs-lundar. Woods appeared here and there.
They consisted of all kinds of trees growing wild here in
England; for of Scotch Fir, barr-tra, I have not seen
any where I travelled in Essex and Hertfordshire, except
those which had been expressly planted out near houses,
and in some places on the fields, pa falten. Beeches
were, however, the principal trees in the woods, and in
this district grew in considerable quantities. Fogel
Kirsbar (Prunus avium), the Gean, lime, Lind, Ash,
hazel, oaks, willows, poplars, hawthorn, dog-rose,
To6rne, sloe, ivy, blackberry bushes, maple, L6nn, and
many others, often vied with each other in numbers. The
hornbeam, Afvenbok, was here [T. I. p. 216] very
rare.

On all sides of these woods lay either arable fields,
meadows, pastures, orchards, commons or outlands,
utmarker, or villages. Holly and Laureola Semper-
virens [Daphne Laureola], also ivy, which clambered up
the trees, adorned these woods with their beautiful
green leaves.

I saw one and another group of blackberry bushes
which retained its green leaf the whole winter, although
some of them had become brown and as if burnt,
bruna och lika som branda. Furze showed itself
among them, and might at a distance lead one to believe
that it was a Juniper, so like is it. Its natural soil is
high-lying, dry, and sterile sandy plains and hills.

Mullvadar. Moles are found in great number in
Essex, as well as in Hertfordshire, and often cause the
farmers great damage. I saw in several places in Essex
one mole hill, Mullvadshégen, beside another, and
that in great abundance, and mostly on the arable fields.
Here in Hertfordshire also, a multitude of their upcast

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 215

hills appeared. They do not avoid any earth which is
dry. In Essex they had their abode under the soil,
Svartmyllan, even so in Hertfordshire; but then I
also saw here in Little Gaddesden that they cast up
their hills in bare chalk ina ploughed field on a chalk
hillside. They are commonly caught here with a
particular kind of trap, fallor, which is set out for them
in their hole. The farm servants frequently amuse them-
selves by setting these traps, giller, for them, because
the farmers, or their employers, pay them a certain
price when they deliver to them so and so many moles,
si och sé manga Mullvadar, at atime. Therefore
they collect them diligently, and hang them up in
bundles, till they can reach the [T. I. p. 217] desired
quantity, when they show the same to their master and
get the promised reward. Farther on, these mole-traps
shall be described and illustrated.

[This promise was never fulfilled].

Aker-renar. ‘Acre-reins,’ Balks, were found in
some arable fields, but very seldom. The breadth ot
them was a Swedish ell, two English feet. These were
only on the larger [open] fields, and served as boundaries
between the farmers’ strips, tegar.

Akrarna. The arable fields were almost everywhere
divided into small inclosures, tappor, always with living
hedges around them instead of fences, gardesgard; but
where the hedges were cut down, a dead-fence, or
gardesgard, was set up till a new hedge grew up.
Commonly, nearly all these inclosures were quadrilateral,
only they sometimes resembled squares, quadrater,
sometimes oblongs; yet they had also sometimes some
other figure, as, one somewhat circular, trapeziform, &c.,
but these were, neverthelesss, scarce enough.

Angarna och beteshagarna. The meadows and

216 KALM’S ENGLAND.

pastures were divided in the same manner, mostly of
similar size and figure. The greatest part, if not all of
them, have formerly been ploughed fields, and become
per ordinem successionis ploughed fields again, because the
English custom, for the most part, is by turns, to lay
down ploughed fields to meadows, and meadows to
ploughed fields.

The greater number of these were so overgrown with
mosses, Bryum, Hypnum, that our most moss-grown
meadows in Sweden could scarcely be worse. What the
reason of this may be I know not. Sheep pasture, gai
bet, on a great part of these the whole year, day and
night, in dry and wet. May not their trampling, and
baiting, as the ground is often wet enough, cause the
grass to be damaged [T. I. p. 218] as well as destroyed
at the root, and worn away, fortynat ? or is the land
very favourable for mosses? I believe so; for a ground
does not lie here long after it has ceased to be worked
with the plough before it becomes overgrown with mosses.
May not the leaf-trees planted round about contribute
somewhat to this? It seems very likely, for one com-
monly sees that the moss keeps to places near and
under leaf-trees, and rather in their shade, especially on
the north side of them, whence it extends farther and
farther out on the land. I saw, however, here and there
one and another inclosure, tappa, which was almost
entirely free from them, and in these the grass growth was
thick and very beautiful, and when I looked more closely,
dung or manure was spread out over the grass-sward on
these places.

Arter. Pease were thrashed in some places even at
this season. In a large barn, sides-lada, which was
built of itself, far from other houses, in the fields, Akrar,
we saw a large stack of pease-straw, Arthalm, still un-
thrashed. It consisted of the kind of peas here called Maple

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 217

Pea,* and was used as food for swine. The pease-straw
stack had the same shape as the haystacks hereabouts,
that is to say, it resembled a hélada, hay-lathe. Its
length was 20 feet, breadth 16, height at the sides 4 feet
6 inches, but in the middle of the gable-end, or up to the
ridge, as it were, Io feet. On the top it was thatched
with wheat straw. Round about it was fenced in with
sloe, omgardad med Slan, which was set close beside
it, and prevented the cattle from coming near it.

Rof-kals eller Rof-blads nytta til Sallad eller
Gron-kA4l.

Turnip-tops used for Salad or as Greens.

It is well known that here in England [T. I. P. atg]
it is the custom to sow turnips on the ploughed fields as
fodder for sheep; on which they go and bait—of which
more further on. The turnips consequently stand in the
fields at this time of year. The women are in the habit
of cutting off the young delicate leaves, klena bladen,
which shoot out at this season, and prepare them in the
same way as we prepare spinach, Spinat, in Sweden,
with a little butter, and eat it so with their roast meats,
Stekar. One who has not eaten it would have difficulty
in imagining what an agreeable and well-flavoured dish,
ratt, this is. They said that the turnip leaves are
no use at any other time of year but this, for that
purpose.

Igelkottar. Hedgehogs are found in this district
wild. The carls brought me one, which they had taken
on the ground, and which afterwards quietly decamped,
practicerade sig ut, through the door at night. An
old farmer told me that they suck the milk from cows,

* Still called ‘‘ Maple Pea,” 1886. [J. L.]

218 KALM’S ENGLAND.

when they lie down on the ground, and otherwise do them
harm. *

Ko-dynga. Cowdung was carried and arranged in
small heaps close beside each other on the arable fields,
but still unspread. It consisted mostly of straw-litter,
halm-byssja; for here it was the practice to spread a
quantity of straw out on the farm-yard under the cattle,
where they lie; which straw is afterwards shovelled to-
gether, skAttas tilhopa, into heaps, left to lie and rot
a little, and is afterwards carried out on to the fields. This
dung thus carted out, will, after a few days, be spread
out, ploughed down, and the land sown with barley or
turnips, Korn eller Rofvor.

Grindar. Gates are used in nearly all inclosures,
tappor, through which one may drive a horse, kéra
med hast, or drive sheep, eller drifva Faren. The
height of the gate was seldom over 3 or 4 feet, often it
was in a deplorable state. Every inclosure had com-
monly one such gate. One [T. I. p. 220] was obliged to
lift it up and back again. Otherwise, where a footpath
ran through any inclosure, there was commonly in the
hedge a stile, klif-statta, in some place, over which
one could go; for the hedges which consisted of prickly
hawthorn, deprived one of the pleasure of climbing or
forcing his way over or through them, but one must go
through the gate or over the stile.

* “<«¢ Hertfordshire Hedgehogs.’ This proverb seems to have no other
meaning than that of pointing out the number of hedgehogs found in this
county. Hedgehogs are harmless animals who. from the vulgar error of
their sucking cows, have, time out of mind been proscribed, and threepence,
or a groat, paid for every one of them brought dead or alive to the church-
wardens, by whose order they are commonly gibbeted on one of the yew
trees in the churchyard,” &c. Fras. Grose, Local Proverbs, app. of Prov.
Gloss. Lond., 2nd Ed., 1790, 8vo. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 219

The 1st April, 1748.

Agrifolium Raj. Syn. 466. [Ilex Aquifolium.] Holly
had grown by itself in some places here at Little Gaddes-
den, close in front of the houses, on the green, pa betes-
marken. Those living near had constantly clipped off
the same expressly, so that this tree did not get to grow
high, but spread out with its branches to a considerable
width. The reason why they thus clipped it was that
the women might get to lay their linen, which they had
washed, on it to dry, for which purpose these trees were
now very useful.

Sag-stallen. Saw-pits, where they sawed asunder
trunks of trees and logs, stackar och klabbar, into
boards and other things, they had here in England at
most farms, and made in a very handy way. Instead of
having Sag-backar, sawyers’ trestles, as we have in
Sweden, on to which we must with much difficulty lift
the stocks or trunks we wish to saw to pieces, they have
here dug a pit down in the earth of a fathom’s depth
more or less. The length of the pit is commonly 6 to
8 feet, the breadth 3 to 4 feet. Internally it is commonly
lined with boards, so that the earth may not fall down
into it from the sides.

De Sagar. The Saws, which are commonly used here
consist of a broad saw-blade, sag-blad [T. I. p. 221],
with handles, handtag, at both ends. One carl stands
therefore down in the pit, and the other [the top sawyer |
above, each of whom holds his end of the saw. They
have the stocks rolled across the pit, when they wish to
saw it across, or along the pit, when they wish to saw it .
into boards. They thus avoid having to lift the stocks
up into the Sag-backar, or high frames. When any
carpenters or others buy a whole beech in the woods or
in any of the fields, they first saw it off close to the

220 KALM’S ENGLAND.

ground, and when they have thus got the tree down they
do not incur the cost of carrying the tree home whole, as
it had fallen, but they saw it into smaller pieces on the
spot where it grew, dig there a pit 6 feet deep, or of the
shape which has just been described, where they saw the
tree to pieces, or to boards, or whatever they wish.

Sniglar. Snails can often cause great damage on
arable fields and meadows. Mr. Ellis showed me yester-
day a letter which he had received from a learned and
experienced gentleman, who has a great taste for Rural
Economy, in which letter this gentleman relates that
when he succeeded to his estate after his father’s death,
there was found on a brick wall, sten-vall, on his estate
a dreadful lot of snails.

In the morning before sunrise they were out on the
grass and ploughed fields, where they did great damage.
On one occasion he remarked that when the swine were
turned out in the morning, and came to pass close to this
wall, they left all other food and began only to seek for
and eat these snails. From this, he concluded to send
out boys in the morning, while the dew still lay heavily
on the ground [T. I. p. 222], and collect them in baskets,
and attempt to give them to the swine at home, when he
had the pleasure of seeing how greedily the pigs ate them
as if they had been their choicest food. He did not
afterwards regret that he caused them to be collected
every day,and fed the swine with them, for they not only
became astonishingly fat, so that the hair fell off them, but
when a pig, gris, which was fed on the snails, was killed,
his flesh was found to be of the best possible flavour.

Tegel-sten. Brick brayed into fine dust or meal is
used here to scour or polish all kinds of iron or brass
implements, &c., in a household, such as candlesticks,
ljus-stakar, snuffers, 1jus-saxar, knife-handles, knif-
skaft, tongs, eld tanger, &c. Some of this dust was

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 221

laid quite dry in a cloth, with which the iron or brass
utensils were polished. If this dust is wet, the utensils
which are rubbed therewith become zruginous, Argig,
in consequence.

The and April, 1748.

In the morning we walked about in [Ashridge] Park,
which lay S.W. of and close to Little Gaddesden, and
belonged to the Duke of Bridgwater, who lately died in
early youth and left his estates to his sisters and young
brother, who was only eleven years old. [‘ John, 2nd
‘Duke of Bridgwater, was born in April 1726, and died
“in February 1748, unmarried. Francis, third and present
“ Duke of Bridgwater, and only surviving brother of the
“last was born in 1736. His grace is not married (1775),
‘and, if he dies without legitimate issue, will be succeeded
“by his cousin. . . . But he is best known by that
“noble canal in Lancashire which takes its name from
‘““him, and will effectually transmit it to future ages,
“being by all accounts a work worthy of the ancient
“Romans.” The Complete English Peerage, Rev. F.
Barlow, 2nd Ed. 1775, vol. I. pp. 225-6. |

The Stone House itself, which was very handsome*
lay in the midst of the park, from which there were
prospects on four sides through the midst of the park,
cut in straight lines.~ The park consisted especially
of lofty, thick and dense beeches, with some oaks
mingled amongst them, blandad deribland, hawthorn,
ash,{ hazel, also appeared in it in some places.

* The frontispiece of Todd’s Boxhommes shows the north front, as it was
in 1768.
+ These still exist, 1886. The Prince’s Riding runs N.W. straight for
1} miles to Money Bury Hill. At its summit is the obelisk erected to the
memory of Francis, 3rd Duke, whose likeness will be found on page 56 of
Todd’s Bonhommes. He died 8th March, 1803, unmarried.
t Skelton in his Crown of Laurel has the distich :
“ Fraxinus in clivo frondet que viret sine rivo
Non est sub divo similis sine flumine vivo.”

222 KALM’S ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 223.] Hjortars foda och nytta, &c.
Deer’s food and use, Ge.

We saw a very large number of deer, Hjortar, both
large and small, which were kept in this park. Some few
of them were snow-white, but the greater number of them
were for the most part of a brownish grey or fawn colour
similar to hares, Harar. A man who accompanied us,
assured us that there were over 1,000 head, stycken,
now kept here, and which we had no difficulty in believ-
ing, in view of this, that we saw large herds, hopar, of
them whenever we went in the park. In several places
there lay cut down and laid for the deer, fresh young
beeches, ashes, and hawthorn, from which they had
gnawed, gnagit, the bark, so that these trees were now
quite without bark. It was the ash, however, which of
all trees was most laid for them, mast lagd for dem,
and from which they gnawed most bark. These barked,
afskalade, trees, after they had become dry, were an
excellent fuel.

In one place and another in the park there wasa
shed, hus, erected, which commonly consisted of a roof
on posts under the middle of which there ran a long
rack, hack, made of two hurdles which were tied
together by their lower sides, so that the hay could be
laid between them. Here the deer had their refuge in
bad weather and got their fodder, fda, from the hay
which was there spread for them in the racks, uti
hackar. In the summer they got their fodder from the
grass in the park, but in the winter from the hay which
had with this object been carried in the summer into
lathes, lador, of which there were several here in the
park. It is well known that the male deer, hjort-
hanarna, or stags, have horns, but the hinds, honarna,
have not, and that the stags shed their horns once a
year, when new ones grow instead.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 223

It was also at this time of year that they began to
shed their horns, falla sina horn. We saw some
which now had only one, the other had already fallen off.

The use which was made of these deer, djur,
besides the pleasure the owner had of them, is that
the flesh [T. I. p. 224] is esteemed a delicacy, while
the skins are excellent for breeches, &c., the horns are
in great request among various mechanics for knife-
handles, and such like, together with this, that they are
sold to apothecaries for their medicinal purposes.

At forekomma héets hopbrinnade.
To prevent the spontaneous combustion of the hay.

In one of the lathes, lador, when the hay was
collected for the deer, a plan was shown to us, how they
prevent hay which had been newly carried in, from
taking any harm from spontaneous combustion, which
was managed thus; they knocked together square tubes,
trummor, of four boards about 6 feet long more or
less, and 1 foot square. These were set here and there,
perpendicularly in the hay when it was laid in the lathe,
iladan, and were arranged so that the wind, by means
of the hole they left came to play through the hay, by
which means the warm vapour which causes the hay to
take fire, finds an escape. These pipes are placed in the
hay when it is laid in the lathe, and when it has been
packed in they are drawn up, and leave a hole behind
them through which the vapour ascends. Some use
tubs, tunnor, or “ well-frames” or ‘‘ curbs” (?)
fjalingar, for this purpose. In a similar manner these
are used when it is necessary to place grain crops that
are not thoroughly dry in barns or lathes, lador.

Holada med tak, at lyfta up och ned.
A Hay-lathe with a roof to lift up and down.

Among other lathes, lador, in which the hay was

224 KALM’S ENGLAND.

kept for the deer, we got to see one here, which was
made in a particular manner, that is, that when some of
the hay which lay in it was taken away, the roof could
be lowered after it,so that it nearly always lay close
on to the hay when it was so desired. The plan was
this; they had driven down four posts, stalpar, in a
square, one at each corner, horn. The length of the
posts was 30 feet, the distance between two posts was
14 feet. At the bottom, [T. I. p. 225 is occupied by an
illustration] [T. I. p. 226] between these posts, there
were made walls of oak boards which were nailed fast
to the posts.

The height of the walls from the ground was 8 feet.
Above the board-walls there was a thatch-roof between
the posts, which thatch suspended above the house was
convex, and formed absolutely a half, octahedron,
octagon, which, however, at the border had slightly
oblong sides.

The ‘thatch-band’ or roof-plate, tak-banden, con-
sisted of wooden bars, dovetailed into each other at
the ends. They all went close outside the posts, so
that the posts stood right in the angle which two
sides of the roof-plate, tak-foten, made with each other.
A crooked stick was afterwards nailed fast by one end
to the one side of the roof-plate, and by the other end to
the second side, which formed a right angle with the
first ; yet in this way, that this crook came, as it were,
to form at the corner a little triangle, of which the crook
made one side, and the other two were formed of the
two sides of the roof-plate, and the post ran right through
the middle of this triangle.

On others which I saw, the thatch-band or roof-plate
went inside the posts, and the crook outside, just as they
wished. In the posts were several holes, right through
them, the one a little above the other.

TAN

Jo ‘face p. 224°

Hoy-Lathe woth moveable wor

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 225

When the thatch-roof is to be lifted higher up, a carl
climbs up at each corner and lifts it up with his shoulders,
when a thick iron pin is set in one of the holes, as high as
one wishes to have it, on which pin the roof is then rested.
When the rcof was lifted up, the corners of the roof-plate
went up close by the posts. If they wished to lower it
further down, the pins were taken out, so that it gently
descended as far as was desired. The thickness of the
straw on the thatch-roof was g inches. The stack was
now full of hay, loaded up to 4 feet below the roof.

[T. I.p.257.] Af hvad vaxter héet harstides bestod.
What plants the hay in this place consisted of.

As the grass-growth on the meadows and pastures at
this time of year was so short and cropped by the cattle
that I could not possibly distinguish the plants and herbs,
de vaxter och Orter, of which the grass sward here
consisted, we devoted a couple of hours to ransacking
the hay here in the lathes, and in seeking out and register-
ing all kinds of plants which were found therein, that
we might from that be able to judge of the goodness of
the hay. I will, as far as practicable, place them in the
order of their abundance, so that the plants, which were
found here in the greatest numbers, have the honour to
stand first, while those of which there were found the
least of all, come to be left to the last.

They were the following :—

[x.] Lotus. Loti-corniculatce major species J[ohann ]
B[auhin]. Raj. Syn. 334. I could not find in what this
differed from Lotus s. Melilotus pentaphyllos minor
glabra C[aspar] B[auhin], which especially occurs with
us in’ Sweden. A boy who was with us called it Lady-
finger grass. [Anthyllis vulneraria, Kidney Vetch.] I
afterwards carried a plant of it home to Mr. Ellis, and

asked if it was not his Lady-finger grass which he praises
Q

226 KALM’S ENGLAND.

so beyond comparison, and sets before all other kinds of
grass in his Modern Husbandman as, for, “in the highest
perfection the most proper hay for feeding saddle-horses,
deer, sheep, and rabbits,” as well as for “cattle,” with
many exalting words? He answered that it was just the
right and the same one, which he in the above-cited,
and many other places, so highly praised. This is found
among the hay in great abundance, and most of all its
constituents.

[2.] Réd Vapling, Red Clover, 615, in great abun-
dance. [Trifolium pratense. |

[T.I.p.228.] [3.] Hvit Vapling, White clover 612,
much, yet not so much as the foregoing. [T repens. ]

[4.] Kambexing, 81, Crested Dog’s-tail grass, most
of all the grasses. [Cynosurus Cristatus. Linn. writes
Kamb-Exing].

[5.] Gramen lanatum, Dalech, Linn. Fl. Sv. 67,
tolerably abundant. [Holcus Mollis.]

[6.] Hundaxing, Rough Cock’s-foot grass, 83,
| Dactylis Glomerata], rivalled in numbers the preceding.

[7.] CENTAUREA, 709, Jacea C.B. [Pin. 271] tolerably
common. [Centaurea Jacea. |

[8.] Latuyrus, 599. Sylv. C. B. [Pin. 344] some.
[Lathyrus Sylvestris. ]

(g.] PHLEUM. Ang-Kampe, Cat’s-tail grass, 50, toler-
ably abundant. [P. pratense. ]

[10.] Ang-hafre, 96, a little. [Avena pratensis. ]

[x1.] HreraciuM, Hawkweed, a sort thereof, with fol.
lin. hirsut. some [probably H. umbellatum. ]

[12.] Festuca, 93. Some plants. [F. Rubra L. now
F. ovina, var. rubra.] Fescue-grass.

[13.] CHRYSANTHEMUM. Bellis Major, J. B., Ox-eye.
Some plants. [C.Leucanthemum Linn. Syst. Nat., 1770,
T. II., page 562. ]

[14.] Briza [B. Media], Quaking grass, some plants,

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 227

[15.] AGRostis Arist. maj. prat., some plants.
[? A. Vulgaris, var. Aristata.] Bent grass.

[16.] SERRATULA C.B. [Pin. 235. Linn. Fl. Sv. 660.]
Some plants. [S. Tinctoria] Saw-wort.

[17-] Linum CatHarTicum, 255. Some plants.
Purging Flax.

[18.] Vicia, Mus-arter, 605. [V.Cracca] some plants,

[1g.] Fitipenpvura vulg. [C. B. Pin. 163. Linn. FI.
Sv., 404 Spircea Filipendula] some plants.

[20.] PLANTAGo, 123, do. [P. Media.]

[21.] MILLEFOLIUM vulg. alb. C.B. [Pin. 140] one
single plant. [Achillea Millefolium.]

There were many we could not find here, although
we searched long for them. The Papilionacee alone made
almost double as much as the others. A part of the hay
had become slighly musty, but much of it was uninjured,
and smelt very good.

At befria Sades-stackar for Moss.
To prevent Mice from getting into ricks.

In the Duke of Bridgewater’s park we got to see a
particular way in which to build stacks, so that mice
shall not approach them, in that the bottom, botten, on
which the rick stood, or “ rick-staddle,” was not down on
the ground, but stood on pillars, pelare, 3 feet from the
earth. The “rick-staddle,” which was of wood, was
either four-sided or round. It rested on eight or ten
pillars, besides another ditto, which stood under the
middle of the bottom, midt under botten. The
pillars were square, built of bricks, each side 1 foot wide.
The length of the pillars was 2 feet 6inches. Upon each
pillar in every case was laid a thick flag-stone or stone,
halla eller sten, the “flat-stone” or the “ resting-
stone,” which extended 6 inches on all sides beyond the
pillar, and thus prevented mice from possibly reaching

Q 2

228 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the stack. Upon these pillars the bottom was then laid.
On some posts there was no such “ resting-stone ”’ on the
top, but the upper part of the pillar was for the height
of one foot covered on all sides with a thin polished
sheet of brass, which also prevented the mice from climb-
ing up, because they could not possibly get a foothold on
this polished brass. These ricks had beyond that the
advantage, that the wind got to play under them. On
the top they were well thatched with straw.

Vattu-Konst, at draga up vatten med.
Hydraulic machine to draw up the water with.

The above-mentioned duke’s house was situated on
one of the chalk ridges of this place, where there was no
spring to get good water out of. Therefore they had caused
a well, en brunn, to be dug down through the chalk ridge
to a depth of very many fathoms [275 fect.] To get up
the water out of the same, a large wheel was built, which
had athick axletree, around which there went a long rope,
which had a large bucket, balja, fastened to each end,
yet in [T. I. p. 230] this way, that when the one pail
went up with the water, the other went empty down.
Inside the great wheel a horse was led, who by his walk.
ing inside the wheel drove it round, and thus the buckets
were lifted up and down. The water was poured out of
the bucket into great troughs, hoar, made of lead, from
which it was afterwards led through leaden pipes and
gutters to the places where it was wanted.

* This is a very old well. It appears in an Inquisition made 2oth
October, 17 Eliz. [1575], before Sir Edmund Asshefyld and Richard Young,
supervisors of Her Majesty’s possessions.

‘“* Jtem.—Presentant insuper juratores. . . . Domus vocata the Well-
House, cum appendicibus. Valet vendi vij£.”" Todd’s Bonhommes, p. 63.
Lond. 1823, Fol.

‘‘When the Earl of Bridgewater came into possession of the estate
[1803]. . . there were remaining . . . the Engine House, which
covered a well 275 feet deep.” 7. p. 70. [J.L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 229

Spanors forvarande. The saving of Chips.

Just outside the Duke’s house a number of labourers
were engaged in wood-cutting of different kinds, at
slogda Atskilligt. The chips, Spénorna, which
resulted, were not left to lie strewn around on the hill,
but it was the duty of one of the carls to gather them
together and lay them up in heaps, which were mostly
conical in shape, liknade coner, so to be left to dry,
after which they were carried under cover, tak, to be
afterwards used as fuel, til bransle.

Trarotters och qvistars aktsamma samlande
til bransle. The careful collecting of tree-roots and
sticks for fuel.

I have said before that this extensive park mostly
consisted of large and lofty beeches, and many other
trees. Here and there they had cut down some of them,
and sold the smooth part, den slata delen, or sawn it up
into boards, but those of which the stem had been knotty
and uneven was cut up for firewood and piled up in cords,
trafvat up i famnar,* either to be used for the duke’s
own requirements, or, principally, to be sold to those who
lived round about the park, but had themselves no access
to fuel.

When the beeches and trees were cut down and felled
to the ground, they were cut off close to theearth. Two
or three years after that, the stub that had been left, den
avarlamnade stubben, together with all the roots
proceeding from it, large and small, which one could
find, was dug up, cut up into small pieces, and arrangedt

* Fathoms, ‘‘FAMN VED, corde de bois.” Veste. Lex. [J. L.]

t+ “Corp oF Woop, a parcel of firewood 4 foot broad, 4 foot high,
and eight, foot long.” Bailey Ang. Dic., 15th ed., 1753—the date of Kalm’s
present, or Ist Vol. [J. L.]

230 KALM’S ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 231] in four-sided oblong heaps, to dry.
Their height was 6 quarters, or 3 English feet, and the
breadth the same, but some of them were 3} ells long,
7 English feet, others double as long, or 7 ells, 14 English
feet. In digging up the roots they had been so careful
s& noga, that among these heaps there lay a great
many fibres of the roots, whose length was not over 6
inches, and thickness not greater thana quill pen. These
roots thus arranged were sold as fuel to those who lived
some English miles round about. The twigs of the trees
were carefully collected, cut into lengths of 6 inches and
less, and bound in bundles, to sell in the same way to those
who had not themselves any access to fuel. The Swedish
wood vendors ought to consider this.

Rag, hvartil den sas och brukas.
RYE, what it is sown and used for.

An old farmer told me that they did not sow Rye
here as food for people, but that it is sown in the
autumn to be used the following spring, in April, as food
for sheep, after they have first eaten up the turnips on
the turnip-land, Roflanden. The sheep are then
turned on to the rye-gratten, p&é Rag-bradden, to
gratten on it, till it becomes so short that they can
find no more to eat. Some farmers afterwards leave
the rye to stand and grow, and when it has become
ripe, cut it, but most plough up the earth on which it
has grown, and prepare it for wheat seed, when the
sheep’s dung, together with the rye-gratten, rag-brodden,
becomes an excellent manure.

Rofvors ratta ans. The right way to treat Turnips.

Turnips are much sown here in England, as food for
people as well as for all kinds of cattle, such as cows,

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 231

swine, sheep, &c. To make them large, clever husband-
men have the finesse, bruka kloke hushAéllare det
grepet, to employ “ Hoeing” about the turnips when
they have come up after the sowing, and have attained
some size, [T. I. p. 232] that is, they cut away a part
of the sown turnips so as to leave g inches between those
that are left, for this purpose they employ a hoe, en
grafta eller hacka, whose blade is quite blunt and
nearly straight at the end and nearly 6 inches broad.
This space between the turnips, is so hacked up with
this instrument that the soil becomes quite loose. In this
loose earth the turnips increase so considerably, that
they grow to a larger size than a man’s head. They are
afterwards used for different purposes, til atskilligt.
The sheep are either turned on to the turnip-land, yet
on to a small part, a little at a time, i sander, by
means of a fold, where they not only have an abundant
fodder from the turnips, but also manure the same field
considerably by their dung; or the turnips are taken up
as fodder for the sheep or other animals at home in the
shed, i huset, orsold to suchas have sheep or other animals
to fatten, and so forth, so that they turn them to account
in many ways. An old farmer told me that from a single
“acre land,’ when the turnips grew somewhat quickly,
he could commonly gain £14, £16 to £18 sterling profit,
inkomst, only, however, if he had taken in this ‘‘ acre
land” at a certain time of year. Obs. The “hoeing
instruments ”’ which they used here in all places, exactly
resembled the hackar, which they use in Sweden, e.g.
at Ultuna, for hoeing tobacco, which may perhaps have
originally taken their pattern from here in England.

Mr. Ellis’s Four-wheel drill plough.

In the afternoon I was at Mr. Ellis’s, who then
showed me the use of his newly invented four-wheel drill

232 KALM’S ENGLAND.

plough. He to-day sowed a little wheat with the same.
The land was first well ploughed, harrowed, and laid out
in broad-land. One carl went and drew the plough, and
[T. I. p. 233] another went after and steered. The use
of this plough was that in front was set a little plough-
share, plogbill, which ploughed up the furrow into
which the seed which is sown will fall. Immediately
above this ploughshare, but farther back, was a little
funnel, tratt, from whence the seed fell down behind
the ploughshare into the furrow. Out of the funnel
behind this fell the fine compressed manure on to the
seed just sown, and last of all was set the harrow, which
either had tines or iron blades, tinnar eller jarn
skallor, to harrow the seed again. In a word it was
nearly of the same construction as that which Herr
Probsten VeESTBACK invented, and described in Kongl
Vetensk. Acad. Handlingar. Mr. Ellis and I were not of
the same opinion on this point. He flattered himself so
much on his invention, that he also said that since Adam
was made there has never been invented so useful an
Instrument and Machine as this Drill-plough. I should
too much weep for human-kind if this were true, for after
Mr. Ellis had, with two carls, devoted the whole after-
noon to using this plough, he had not succeeded in sowing
a pint, en kanna, of seed. Scarcely was a half-furrow
sowed before one was obliged tostand and attend to the
plough. Now, the seed would not run; now, the mould
stuck fast in the hole at the bottom of the funnel; now,
the corn was not harrowed well down, so that there
were here /rictiones frictionwm. Had man for all time
past not been able to sow in a better manner than was
done here to-day, mankind would long before this have
died of hunger. I do not deny that if this plough is rightly
worked and used, it may for some kinds of seed have its
great service, as with pease, &c.

LITTLE: GADDESDEN. 233

Jarn-broddar. Ivon Crampoons for climbing
up trees with.*

At the house of a labourer I to-day got to see a pat-
ticular kind [T. I. p. 234] of iron crampoons, which they
use when they wish to climb up in any tree, either to take
young squirrels, [korn-ungar, rooks’-nests, Krakbon,
or anything else ; for as the trees here, for example the
beeches, are for many fathoms in their lower part en-
tirely without branches, and quite smooth, they can get
up in no other way than by ladders, or with these cram-
poons. The former were too costly, and difficult to
carry everywhere with them, but the latter
not so. Their shape can best be seen from
the accompanying Figure, where C BA
D shows the whole crampoon, which is
of iron, and D E the strap or band by ©
which it is bound:fast to the leg. A B is
the part of the crampoon which comes
to-be under the shoes, and on which one
stands when one climbs up. The length
of the space between A and B is just fitted
to the breadth of the shoes. C is the
very point of the crampoon, sjelfva uden
pa bradden, which is always on the
inner side of the foot towards the tree.
The length from F to C is just two fingers
wide. It is whetted as sharp as the
sharpest and keenest knife’s point that
one may so much the better be able to (S
strike into the tree with it. This point, 2===\ c¢

udd, does not slope off in an acumen, like © BA

* “Crampoons (Crampons F.), pieces of iron hooked at the ends, for
the drawing or pulling up of timber, stones, &c.’” Bailey, Zug Dic., 15th
Ed. 1753.-

234 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the point of a knife, but is more obtuse, and more nearly
resembles a small punch, hugg-barr, yet the point is
not quite so obtuse, trubbig, but more oval. If it were
as narrow-pointed as a knife, it could not then possibly
be so strong, but would more easily break off.

[T. I. p. 235.] Jarn-spik funnen midt i en tra.
An tron nail found in the middle of a tree.

Some carls were engaged to-day in sawing up some
stocks into boards. As they were sawing a thick log,
klabb, of ash in half they could not fora time get the
sawblade to advance much, but several teeth therein broke
off. In the end, after they had with much trouble got
the log sawn in two, and would look what the reason was
that the saw stuck so, they found a large iron nail in the
middle of the tree. It was on all sides so grown round
by the tree, that we could scarcely see otherwise than that
it had grown there, for there was no rottenness visible in
the tree round it. It was probably knocked into the tree
when it was young, and afterwards became thus sur-
rounded and enclosed by the tree.

The 3rd April, 1748.

Kaniners slagt och gallning. The slaughtering and
gelding of rabbits.

Mr. Ellis told me that they here used to slaughter
rabbits in the same way as a pig or other animal is
slaughtered, viz., that they stick it in the throat and so
tap out the blood, when the flesh will be much more
agreeable than when they are killed in the usual way,
with a blow on the nape of the neck, or as hares, Harar,
are killed. He believed he was the first who had begun
thus to take their lives by drawing off the blood. He
also told me that he always caused some of the bucks to

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 235

be castrated, because their flesh has a much better flavour
than when they are left ungelt.

Spisars skapnad. The shape of the hearth.

There is almost more wood burnt by one farmer
and labourer, Landtman, in England than by one
Bonde, &c., in Sweden. England lies some degrees
more to the south, which diminishes [T. I. p. 236] the
cold in the winter time. Therefore it is not extra-
ordinary that there is so great a difference between
the winters in England and Sweden, so that while
the cattle in Sweden, must be fed for seven or eight
months in the stable, they here go out almost the
whole year, winter and summer. Many would therefore
not be able to imagine that the English cottages,
stugorna, in which the folk reside during the winter,
were colder than the Swedish, and still less will anyone
be able to believe that an English farmer, labourer,
peasant, Bonde, Landtman, Torpare, or other, would
burn as much if not more wood in the year than a Swede,
especially because the winters here are so mild and
short ; and moreover, that the districts in most places
near London are very woodless, skoglés, but for all
that this is in most cases, and in a certain way, true.
I will name the reason. The fireplaces, spisarna, are
here mostly built, in all the ways in which we build them
in Sweden, only with this difference, that here they never
use a Spjall, or anything else in its place to retain the
warmth; but a spjall is to an Englishman who has
never been out of England a thing so unknown, that it
is difficult so to describe to him what a spjall is that he
“shall understand it. No, here all the warmth goes freely
up the chimney; windows, doors, roof, floor, &c., are not
stopped or made tight, but the wind and cold get freely
to play through them. There is no moss on the inner

236 KALM’S ENGLAND.

side or in the middle of the roof. Therefore it is not
wonderful, if in the winter time it is as cold in as
it is out. In this country in the farm cottages, bond-
stugorna, the fire-hearth, elds-harden, is commonly
so low that it isa planum with the floor itself. The
chimney places, spisarna, in these are also so large,
that three or four stools can be accommodated within
the chimney-place, spisen, on which they sit to warm
themselves. As soon as the wind begins to be somewhat
fresh, as it commonly is from and in [T. I. p. 237] a
great part of October, till and in a great part of April,
wood is for the most part burnt on the hearth from
morning till evening. Round it the folk sit and warm
themselves and when the cold is somewhat more severe,
the women are seen sitting near the fire, without doing
the least thing, more -than prate, utan at gora det
ringaste mer, an prata. Therefore, also it is not
wonderful that an English farmer, &c., burns in the
course of the year, as much if not more wood than a
Swedish Bonde. The same can also be said about
an English townsman, Borgare, priest, Gentleman, &c.

The 4th April, 1748.

In the morning we walked about over very many
arable fields to make our notes on their mode of Agricul-
ture, &c.

Jordmon harstéades. The soil hereabouts.

I have said above that the whole of this district
consists of bare hills. These hills are nothing else than
solid chalk, for commonly when they dig 6 feet down
into the earth, and often less, the chalk itself occurs,
tager sjelfra kritbarget emot. The earth, den
jord, which lies at the surface, is here everywhere of a
brown colour, which inclines a little to yellow.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 237

Akers-gédning, s4ning med Rofvor, upk6r-
ning, etc.

The manuring, sowing with turnips, and ploughing of the
arable fields.

In one place a farmer was engaged in ploughing up
his field, at k6ra up sin Aker, which had before been
manured and grown with turnips, &c. I asked him how
he had treated this field? He answered: Last year, in
May, chalk was carried into it, together with a large
quantity of dung, which is here mostly bare straw, and
which was all spread out and ploughed down. In June
the whole of this enclosure was sown with turnip seed.
In September, at Michaelmas, the sheep were turned on
to it, where they had since been, and baited, betat, till
[T. I. p. 238] this day. When it was sown with turnip-
seed, Rof-fr6, the field was laid out in broadland, and
to-day, when it was being ploughed up anew, it was
similarly laid out in broadland, in which they intended to
sow barley this morning if the weather is fair. The
sheep by their droppings, together with part of the half-
rotted turnips, which have just been ploughed down,
helped considerably to make the soil fertile. They first
ploughed four to six furrows at both ends of the field,
and across, tvars f6r, the same, and afterwards
ploughed the whole field lengthwise, langs efter, so
that all the other furrows. stood perpendicular to the
furrows at the ends, which the horses always trampled
down in the turning. I asked the reason why he did not
plough the furrows, which had been ploughed at the
ends, last, as we do? The farmer answered that if he
should have so dealt this morning with, som han i
morgon torde vela sa, only a part of the field, for
instance, as much as he will plough up to-day, then he
would have been obliged to plough the long-furrows,

238 KALM’S ENGLAND.

lang-farorna, at the ends first ;* for it should be noted
that in private enclosures, enskildta tappor, there are
never any Aker-renar, “acre-reins,” or balks, in the
midst of the field. Ditches, also, are never seen in these
districts in the fields. The Inclosuve looks inside as if it
were only an 4ker-stycke, “field-plot”? or “land,”
which may be large or small, therefore when he ploughs
the furrows at both ends, he ploughs them at once from
the one end of the field to the other, by which means the
labour is lessened. Also, if he had to-day ploughed in
our way, viz.: laid out the field first in furrows, and
afterwards drawn the Cross-furrows, tvar-faror, at both
ends, so as to plough up the land on which he turned
the plough, or the “ headlands,” he would then only have
been able to plough up a piece of the cross-furrows at the
ends (i.e. of the headlands); that is to say, so much as
answered to the part of the field he had ploughed up to-
day; through which he would have had more trouble
than if he had driven the plough from one [T. I. p. 239]
end to the other.

The fields were ploughed deep enough (as is said
to be the case) to extirpate the weeds. It was the Two-
wheel single Hertfordshire plough that was used for all this
work.

For some purposes two horses were used; for others,
three; again, for others, four; but if the ground was
hard, as many as six horses were harnessed to the plough.
Here the horses are always set in pairs before the plough,
that is to say, two abreast, and not tandem, as is practised
in some places. Several experienced farmers said that
the fields are not manured with chalk oftener than every
sixteen, eighteen, or twenty years. The reason given is
that where it is manured oftener, the earth becomes too

* And would therefore have had to plough the ends twice over, + Ls
‘ pioug

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 239

dry, loose, and friable, lucker, but the field is always
manured with other manure every third year, industrious
farmers even manure it thus every year.

Tra-verket i Plogarna.
The wood-work in the ploughs.

All the wood-work in the ploughs hereabouts was of
ash, which is a very hard and tough wood, except the
“mould-board,” vand-bradet, which was mostly made
of beech, because the ash is not always found of the
thickness.

Huru gamla Bok och Ek-stubbar, &c.,
upgrafdes, etc.

How old beech and oak-stubs, &c., were dug up, Gc.

In one of the arable fields there was beside a hedge a
long acre-rein, Aker-ren, of 5 or 6 fathoms broad. Here
and there, stood thick beech-stubs, BOk-stubbar, and
now and then an oak-stub, Ek-stubbe. The trees which
had grown on these stubs were for the most part cut
down two years back. Here a carl was now engaged in
digging and hewing them up, which he did thus :—He
first hacked up the mould on one side of the stub,
together with all the small roots and fibres, which pro-
ceeded from the same, with a mattock, yxa, of the shape
shown in Fig. A. It was sharp and somewhat broad,
[T. I. p. 240] at both ends, but with this difference, that
the edge at one end was turned in the same way as the
edge of an ordinary cutting axe, hugg-yxa, and at the
other end as in a hoe or adze, hacka eller skarf-yxa,
though the shape of this mattock neither resembled a
cutting axe nor hoe. All these loose cut roots were
collected together, and laid in small heaps to dry. After
that he began to cut the stub to pieces, which he did

240 KALM’S ENGLAND.

thus : —He had a lot of iron-wedges, jarn-viggor, some
of which he set in a row right across the middle of the
stub, knocked in one after another, and by that means
split the stump.

Afterwards the carl continued to set one iron wedge
beside another, according as the rift in the stub increased
in size, up to as many as four or more wedges, side by
side, by which the stub was more and more split, and the
half of the stub, which began to widen out from the other,
always went towards the side on which the carl had
previously dug away the earth, and hacked up the roots,
because there was not the same resistance as on the other
side.

As soon as he had thus got the stub tolerably broken
to pieces, he used the iron hook, jarn-hackan, (see
Fig. B.) which he called ‘ Dog,’ so as further entirely to
sever and break off the half stub. In doing this he hung
the kook, haken, D B A, fast on to the cloven stub, the
point A being in the rift itself Next, a strong pole,
stang, also called ‘ Dog,’ was set through the iron ring
C DE, which pole was shod with iron at the end which
is passed through the iron ring. At the end of this iron
shoeing, jarn-skoningen, were two iron teeth, jarn-
tander, by which the dog, pole, or stang* could be
fastened into the stub. He then set this iron-shod end
down in the ground, or near the roots of the stub, and
began to bend the other end of the dog-pole, stangen,
down, when the point A of the hook drew and split off the
half which had been loosened by the wedges from the
other half of the stub. In the above described way they

* Stang, //of-dog, S. An instrument ‘consisting of a long piece of
‘*wood, to act as a lever, with a piece of iron at the end, standing out a few
‘‘inches, grooved, so as to make teeth to clasp the hop-poles and draw them
‘*readily from the ground. S[ussex.] Also used in Kent.’ W. D. Cooper,
Suss. Gloss. and Ed., 1853.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 241

split the whole stub loose and to pieces. This dog was
entirely, ring and hook, of iron. The diameter of the
ring was 7 inches; the length of the hook, kroken, 1
foot ; the breadth of the hook at B, where it was thickest,
was 2 inches, and at the same part of the hook measured
across, 1inch, derstades p& hakan en tum. Inside
the hook between A and B, were several scores, in-
huggna sk4ror, so that it might get a better hold.
After he had got up the whole stub, it was hewn and
cloven to pieces for firewood. The reason, why the carl
took up this stub was partly thereby to get firewood,
partly and principally because he wished to take in this
broad ‘rein,’ ren, to the ploughed field. He told me
also that many acres of land, ménga, Acre-land, in
many places hereabouts had been cleared and made into
arable fields or meadows in the same way.

He drove down the iron wedges with a wooden beetle,
tra-klubba, [T. I. p. 242] and when he went home, he
had two boards of the length of the beetle nailed together
at the sides ad angulum rectum, which he laid like a roof
over the mallet, so that it might not take any harm from
the rain.

MAss nog pa krit-jord. Moss enough on the Chalk-soil.

I have said before (p. 237 ovig.) that all the soil,
jordmon, on this tract was nothing else than chalk-
ground, krit-grund, none the less for that mosses will
thrive incredibly on the same; for nearly all meadows,
acre-reins by the hedges, pastures, commons, utmarker,
in a word, all grass land, which is not often remade,
omlagad, and manured was so overgrown with mosses,
Bryum and Hypnum, that our most moss-choked meadows
in Sweden can scarcely be worse. We remarked that in
some of these moss-grown places there were here and

there green plats, plattar, of a luxuriant green grass,
: 'R

242 KALM’S ENGLAND.

which is ascribed to the sheep-dung which they may have
dropped on these places, or to some other manuring
thing.

Huru Bokar fallas omkull. How Beeches ave felled
to the ground.

In this district the beech is ‘the most plentiful of all
trees. It is seldom cut down with an axe, but is sawn
down with a long saw. The saw-cut is made quite close
to the ground, or scarcely a hand’s-breadth above the
same. Whensomewhat more than half the tree has been
thus sawn through, and it begins by its weight to press
down on the sawblade so that it cannot be drawn for-
wards or backwards, they drive in iron wedges into the
kerf or rift, halet eller rannan, which the sawblade has
made, and thus lift up the tree on one side, so that it
cannot hinder the saw-blade by its weight.

Bokars s6nder-sagning och sag-spans nytta.
The sawing up of beeches and the use of the sawdust.

In one of the fields a carl was engaged in sawing up
beeches into small boards [T. I. p. 243] to be used for
shovels, SkOfflar. They had dug a pit, et hal, down in the
ground, in the way which has been described on p. 220
(orig.), over which they laid the stocks, stackarnar; when
they were sawing, one carl always stood down in the pit,
gropen. The tree was sawed first into logs, klabbar,
of 3 feet long, these again into such small and thin boards
as were required. The logs which had been sawn across
were stood up on end, so that the one end stood down on
the earth and the other up in the air. The upper end
was covered for nearly an inch thick with the sawdust,
sag-span, which fell during the sawing. This was done
with the object of preventing the log from forming any
cracks or fissures from the sun. I asked whether this

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 243

sawdust was used for any other purpose? Several whom
I asked about this gave me the answer that when it
is dry, it is used as fuel, til bransle, and that it is
sold in woodless districts ‘per bushels’ or by the ton,
tunntals, to be used for that purpose.

Bokars Alder. The age of the Beeches.

In one of the largest beeches which was here cut
down we counted the sap-rings, saf-ringarna, to get to
know the age of the tree, as well as to see how good the
soil was to drive the tree quickly to size. Some four
inches above the ground the diameter was 3 feet 6 inches
exactly. We counted here eighty-six sap-rings, which
showed that the age of the tree was eighty-six years.
The innermost and outermost sap-rings were narrow
enough, viz., from one-sixth to one-eighth inch thick, but
at the time when the tree was about thirty years old it
had made the strongest growth annually in thickness, for
a single sap-ring was then often as much as half an inch
thick. Seldom was there one under a quarter-inch thick,
Foga var nagon under, &c., but they were com-
monly between a quarter and half-inch.

[T. I. p. 244.] It was very easy to measure the
diameter of the stock, stocken, for it was cut down
with the saw, med sAg kullsagad. The length of
this stock, from the large end to the little end, was
29 feet 6 inches. The sap-rings were afterwards counted
at the small end, when the age of the tree showed sixty-
five years. The diameter was here 19 inches; 2 feet
6 inches above where the tree was cut off near the root
its diameter was 2 feet 8 inches. The periphery at the
same place was 8 good feet.

En eks Alder. An oak’s age.

An oak stub was measured to see how old it was,

when we found from the sap-rings that its age was forty
R 2

244 KALM’S ENGLAND,

years. Its diameter was 1 foot 5 inches. The sap-rings
were very thick. The oak, according to the account of
an old man, en gubbe, who owned the field, had been cut
down for two years and carried away, so that we could
not for that reason get to see its length. The soil of this
tree was the same as has often been described above.

Flinta jamn pa en sida. 4A flint even on one side.

We found here a large piece of flint, which on one
side was as even and flat as a board.* The breadth and
length of this flat side was just a little more than, vid-
pass litet mera 4n, 6 inches. . [2$ lines omitted.]
. . Thesurface of this flat side was blended with a half-
petrified chalk. That it may not be relegated to oblivion,
I will now remind you that in this district round about
Little Gaddesden there is not found any other kind of stone
than ordinary flint and “‘ Puddingstone,’’ or conglomerated
masses thereof, sammangyttringar deraf.t

Arbets-karlars skor. Labouring men’s shoes.t

The shoes which the labouring men [T. I. p. 245]
commonly used were strongly armed with iron. Under
the heel was set an iron which followed the shape of the
heel, and somewhat resembled a horseshoe. Round

* These beds of tabular flint occur in the lower part of the upper
chalk. [J. L.]

+ Aman sinking a well in gravel near Bedale, Yorkshire, told me he
came upon a ‘‘samman” at the depth of 25 feet, and on his showing it to
me, it proved to be a mass of conglomerated gravel. Near London these are
often called “ Rock.” [J. L.]

t Grose gives a proverb, ‘ Hertfordshire clubs and clouted shoon,”
which latter, as Fuller observes, being worn by the tenants, enables their
landlords to wear Spanish-leather boots and pumps. Grose. Local Proverbs,
1790, 8vo. [J. L.]

§ Clouted Shoon. ‘“CiutTa. C/louted-shoes, or horse-shoes, also strakes
of iron with which cart-wheels are shod.” Bailey, Zxzg. Déc., 1736, 15th Ed.,
1753, 8vo. “CLOUT. v. to piece or mend with cloth or zvon.” F, Grose,
Prov Glos., 2nd Ed., 1790, 8vo. [J.L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 245

about the soles were nails knocked in quite close beside
each other. It was also knocked full of nails under the
middle of the sole, far more than under our dalesmen’s
shoes, Dalearlars skor,* so that they can go with
these a long time before they are worn out. They had
sometimes gaiters, l6sa st6fvel-skaft, which were not
fastened to the shoes, but were used in the same way as
damascor with us in Sweden, only that these are strapped
together on the outer side of the leg.

Tegel af den gula jorden. From the reddish-
brown earth inclining to yellow, which everywhere here
lies immediately upon the chalk, they make and burn
their bricks, Tegel, here. Some are said to make
bricks of it without adding any sand. This yellow earth
looks like a yellowish-red clay, gulrod lera, and is very
tenacious and binding.

In the afternoon we walked a long time about the
arable fields and pastures with Mr. Williams, a farmer
here in Little Gaddesden, who of all who lived here was
indisputably the greatest Practicus in Rural Economy.
He counted it a special pleasure to relate to me his
different contrivances in farming economy, sina hvar-
jehanda hushalds grep. When we got to see his
arable fields and meadows, with their state and manner
of cultivation we could not sufficiently admire them, for
they excelled many fold both Mr. Ellis’s and the other
farmers’ arable fields. Indeed, all that belonged to Mr.
Williams out of doors and at home in all departments
of Rural Economy was such that the others could not
come near it.

[T. I. ps 246s] Akrens gédning.
Manuring the ploughed fields.

If practicable, and the season permits, he causes his

* Dalecarlia is in Swedish, ‘‘ Dalarna,” the dales. [J. L.]

246 KALM’S ENGLAND.

labourers to manure his arable every year with the
manure, which results from the cows, sheep, and horses,
in the manner which shall be described further on. The
time of year when he has this manure carried out is in
the winter, on the days when the weather is such that he
cannot use the horses for any other field work, 4ker-
bruk. As regards manuring with chalk, he had the
same story as has been mentioned above (p. 239
orig.).

Nedhuggna hackar til bransle.
Cut-down hedges as fuel.

When Mr. Williams cuts down an old hedge to make
a new grow in its place, he employs, as is usual, part of
the cut-down hedge for the erection of a dead fence; but
the other part, which is over, and is the most, be it twigs
or thicker timber, qvistar eller tjockare virke, he
has cut shorter, to 3 feet or 4 feet long, binds it into
small bundles, and sells as fuel to the surrounding
inhabitants who have need of such, or it is left for pay-
ment of the day labourers and such like folk who work
for him,* til. betalning At dagsverks-karlar, som
arbeta hos honom. For two or three logs of the
larger timber, each of which is little thicker than an’arm,
he gets as much as for a bundle of twigs, en knippa af
qvistar.

Art-land. Pease land.

We accompanied Mr. Williams over one of his arable
fields, which was entirely sown with different kinds of pease.
The field consisted of 10 acres of land, Akern bestod af
toacre land. The pease were now getting on for 3 inches
high. When the pease stalk is 3 or 4 inches long, a

* Payment in kind is not even yet wholly extinct, as in the neighbour-
hood of Kelso, [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 247

roller is driven over the field to make it flat. He said
that the pease take no harm at all from it, but it is useful
tothem. Part of these had been sown for eight weeks.
Maple Pea for about three ditto.

[T. I. p. 247.] Vicice, Tares, &c., sown for horses.
On several arable plots, Aker stycken, they had some
Vicie or Vicker, Vetches, of different kinds. One of
these sorts was much praised. They were sown there
last autumn on broadland, and had the peculiarity that
they endured the winter cold, and were already nearly
three inches high. In the month of May he has them
cut, and gives the green stalks, halmen, to the horses,
for which they are very wholesome. This purges them
and makes them fat and in good condition. After they
have thus been cut in May, they stand and grow, either
to be again cut once more towards autumn, or to be left
for seed.

One and another large arable plot was also sown with
clover, which now stood very beautiful and green.

Gropar der de fordom tagit Krita.
Pits, where they formerly have taken Chalk.

We saw in several places in the fields, and also on the
pastures, large deep pits, where in former days they have
taken chalk, either for manuring the fields or for some-
thing else. In most of such old pits, not only was the
bottom overdrawn with thick grass sward, but in some
stood high and thick beeches. On all the hill slopes,
backar, round about this tract such old pits appear.

Bokar skadeliga for hackar.
Beeches injurious to hedges.

Everywhere here in the hedges round about the arable

fields there grew large and high beeches. Many inclosures

were so surrounded by them, as if by a hedge. Mr.
Williams said that these did the arable field little service,

248 KALM’S ENGLAND.

partly because with their widely outspread roots they
drew the nourishment, f6dan, both from the crops sown
on the arable, and from the other trees in the hedge,
partly and principally that by their shade, and the drop-
ping of the water from their branches [T. I. p. 248] and
leaves, they, as it were, killeéthe hedges and trees which
grew under them, of which, hvarpa, plain proofs were
everywhere visible, for under all these trees the hedges
were very poor and thin, usle och glese, not to mention
that these, by their shade, incredibly furthered the growth
and increase of the mosses, especially in the meadows and
pastures lying on the north side of them, where it was
always found that the moss under their shade throve best
of all, and thence afterwards extended along the surface
of the ground. But the farmers must endure this, for
they had not liberty to hew down so useful, and for the
country so ornamental a tree, more than was absolutely
necessary ; because few of the farmers owned the farms
they lived upon themselves, but rented, arrenderade,
them from others.

Sot til gédsel. Soot as Manure.

Several arable fields were shown us just sown with
wheat, on which Mr. Williams had soot strown as manure.
He had bought it in London, and conveyed it from thence
hither, so that it had cost him tenpence a bushel before
he got it here, which cost however he did not grudge, for
he reckoned soot as one of the choicest manures on the
field. He had also strown some of it over the grass-sward,
grasvallen, on some of the small enclosed meadows,
which he said was partly because it was very manuring,
and partly because the mosses were destroyed by it.

Ek-bark at Garfvare. Oak bark for Tanners.
About three or four weeks after this, they begin to fell

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 249

oaks, and strip, fla, the bark off them to sell to tanners.
They now get commonly a shilling for a yard of it, that is

of the bark, ‘stapled,’ upstaplad, or piled up in the
cubic yard.

Bok och Ek-ollon til féda fér Svin.
Beech and Oak mast as food for Swine.

From the Beeches which here grew in abundance,
were collected [T. I. p. 249] annually a great number of
beechnuts with which the swine are fed, who flourish and
grow very fat on them. In the same way, acorns are
gathered as food for pigs; yet they do not willingly eat
acorns as their food as against beech-nuts, dock
spisa de samma i godhet til deras féda ej up
emot Bok-ollon. Some lost a great many swine last
year, which happened through this, that they gave them
acorns to eat before they had lain any time, and had, as
it were, been prepared for food, through which the swine
died. This could never happen with beech-nuts, which
they can eat without harm as soon as they fall down
from the tree.

Genista Spinosa at branna tegel med. Furze [Ulex
Europaeus] to burn bricks with.

I have said before (p. 199 orig.) that they almost
everywhere in these woodless districts use Genista Spinosa
Vulgaris, Raj. Syn. 475, as fuel in fireplaces, i spisar.
Mr. Williams now told me that it is also used in this
district to burn bricks with, when they collect it in
small bundles, dry them, and during the brick-burning
stuff these bundles into the brick-kiln, instead of other
wood. I also saw afterwards at the brickyard, which
belonged to the Duke of Bridgewater, that this, like the
brackens, was collected and arranged there in heaps by
the bundle, lagd der i hégar knipptals, so as to
use it as fuel during the brick-burning.

250 KALM’S ENGLAND.
Aska til g6dsel paangar. Ashes as manure on meadows.

Mr. Williams had strown ashes over the grass-sward
in one and another of his meadows, partly to destroy
the moss, partly by this means to increase the growth
grasvaxten, for he counted ashes as a_ beautiful
manure on meadows.

Dikes-jord til gédsel. Ditch earth as manure.

Down in a dale a ditch had newly been thrown out.
The earth, jorden, which had been taken out of it, was
arranged in heaps alongside of the ditch, to [T. I. p. 250]
lie some time, but afterwards it would be carried out
on to the ploughed field, spread out, and blended with
the other soil of the ploughed field, Aker-mullen, asa
manure. This earth which was dug up out of the ditch,
diket, was mostly a beautiful soil, en sk6n svart-
mylla.

Nyttan af the two-wheel double Hertfordshire
Plough, eller den tvahjulade dubbla Hertfordshire
plogen.

We afterwards accompanied Mr. Williams home to
his farm, where he showed us the two-wheel double
Hertfordshire Plough which no one else besides himself
in the whole of Little Gaddesden had. It is well-known
that this plough consists only of one plough-beam, plog-as,
but on this beam there are two ploughs, the one before
and the other behind, den ena framfoére, den andra
bakefter. Plog-dsen, the plough-beam makes a bend,
en krok, between the two ploughs, through which it
happens that each plough ploughs a. separate and new
furrow, so that the latter plough turns over its furrow
on to the furrow which the first plough has made. Thus
this plough casts up two furrows at one time, and, asall
wheat fields hereabouts are mostly laid out in two-bout-

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 251

lands or what they here call four-thorough-stitches,* i.e.,
ridges, ryggar or ‘‘ vigs”’ consisting of four furrows, so
this double plough effects the saving of labour, that
while others must plough twice forwards and twice
backwards, to make such four-thorough-stitches or riggs,
consisting of four furrows, it is not necessary with this
plough to plough more than once forwards and once
backwards, when the field similarly becomes so arranged.

Mr. Williams showed me quite large ploughed plots
aker-stycken, which he had laid out with this plough
in two-bout-lands. When this plough is used, three pair
of horses must always be set before it, whereas before
other ploughs no more than two pairs or less, are required.
[T. I. p. 251.] The field ought also to be very loose
and dry, where this plough is to be used; for if the field
is not loose and dry, Mr. Williams said he never uses it,
because it then becomes so heavy that no horses can
draw it, Arka draga den. The plough-beam and wood-
work should also be very strong, if it is otherwise to stand
the work, om den annars skal halla. In a word, in
loose soil and sandyearth, uti lés-mylla och sandjord,
this is of great service, but not so in clay, lera, and
hard fields.

Halm af Korn, Hvete,Arter, Bonor, etc., til gédsel,
Straw of barley, wheat, pease, beans, Gc., as manure.

Here and there in his farm yard, fa-gard, there stood
vacks, hackar, under the open sky to lay fodder, foder,
in for the cattle. The racks were made of two long
hurdles, grindar, such as are used in Sweden in the
stalls for horses, to lay their hay in. Two such long
hurdles were fastened together at their lower ends, and

* “ One bout” is once up the field and back. ‘“ Four thorough stitches,”
==“ four-furrow stitches.” [J. L.]

252 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the upper ends widened out from each other so that
they thus formed a vack, en hack, in which the fodder
could be laid. This rack stood upon two trestles,
backar, of wood, viz.: one under each end, of such a
height as was most suitable for the cattle to be able to
reach up to the fodder. In these racks was laid straw
of wheat, barley, oats, pease, or beans, as well as hay,
of which the cows and sheep got to eat at nights. The
cows stood at home the whole winter, day and night,
and ate of the fodder in these racks when they would ;
for they went loose in the farmyard, but the sheep were
only at home in the yard when it was rainy and bad
weather, for otherwise they were folded, fallades, at
nights out on the arable fields or went in the cnclosures.
Of this straw in the rack the cattle, Kreaturen, ate
part, and part they drew down under-foot, which was
afterwards spread out over the whole farmyard, and
was left for them to lie and trample upon.

[T. I. p. 252]. It goes on like that the whole year,
whence the thickness of the straw that lies spread about
all over the farmyard is considerably increased. The
cattle continually let fall their droppings thereupon,
besides any refuse which is cast there. When this
collection has risen to some considerable quantity, it
is then shovelled, skattas, together into great heaps,
which commonly happens in the spring season, and
is left so to lie and ferment, brinna tilhopa, for
a time, viz., for three or four weeks, not more, because
it takes harm. By this means a farmer can obtain a
quantity of beautiful and choice manure for his arable.
This mode of providing himself with manure at skaffa
sig gddsel, is practised by one and all of the farmers
here in Little Gaddesden, as well as in the parishes round
about. Isaw not only the farmyards full of trampled
straw or “haulm,” halm, of all the above named kinds

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 253

of crops, but in many places Brackens, Ormbunkar,
mingled with them, to increase the manure. In or
outside the farmyards I saw everywhere large haulm
heaps, halm hégar, piled up, which are left to lie and
ferment. This manure so prepared is afterwards carried
at a convenient opportunity out on to the ploughed fields
in carts, karror, where it is laid in small heaps close
beside each other, spread out and ploughed down. It is
especially carted out at a time when wet weather hinders
them from using the horses for ploughing. When this
farmyard manure, halmen, is thrown out, makas,
or shovelled, skAttas, in heaps, there is nearly always
some mould, mull, cast over the haulm-manure, halmen,
or it is covered with it, that the sun may not get to dry
it too much, and draw the “nature,” kraften, out of
it. These dunghills always lie under the open sky,
although a shelter, skjul, might be better.

Atskilligt slags foder at hastar.
Different kinds of fodder for horses.

Mr. Williams took us out to his stable, to see in what
way [T. I. p. 253] he uses to feed and fodder, foda
och fodra, his horses. Here he had with a steel-
mill, stalqvarn, caused to be chopped up, latit
sonderkrossa, the kinds of peas which were called
Maple Pea and Grey Pea*, into large pieces, mixed with
it ‘malt-dust’ or malt-fan, together with white and
black oats, which he gave several times a day to his
farm horses, which throve upon it incomparably well. This
fodder was given them morning noon and night, and

* These are still so-called, 1886. I find also in Ray’s “ Syxops s,’ 318 :—
(2) Pisum arvense flore roseo fructu ex cinereo nigricante, &c. Gray

pease. . ;
(3) Pisum arvense flore roseo fructu variegato. . . . Maple pease.

J. LJ

254 KALM’S ENGLAND.

just as it was required, but their ordinary food was the
following chaff, hackelse: He had the haulm of barley
and pease, wheat-awns and ears chopped up, and with
this was put a little of the straw about 4 inches long,
more or less, together with hay. This was all cut up so
small, that it was little larger than coarse cut tobacco.
After that they had blended all these together, and laid
it dry in the crib for the horses, who ate it willingly and
flourished well on it.

Strata uti Kritgropar, in chalk pits.

In the hill, backen, on which Little .Gaddesden
was built, there was a chalk pit from which they had in
former times taken chalk. Here the strata were in this
order :—

Ft. Ins.
1. The top soil, svartmyllan, or the brick-
colored earth, consisted of decayed plants
and the brick-colored clay and chalk, in some
places 4 ell, in other placesrell ... - 2 0
2. Chalk of the ordinary loose kind [shrave], 6 ails I2 0
3. A stratum of the brick-colored clay, 3 inches . 0 3
Total .. .., I4 3

Ma4lt-hus. Besides that Mr. Williams was a great
farmer, he had also large profits from malting, at han
maltade malt, and sold it to [T. I. p. 254] all the
surrounding inhabitants. He showed us the malthouse,
which was large enough. The floor was made of the stone
called Freestone which is dug six English miles from
hence, and which is brayed to dust, bokas sonder til
stoft, mixed with water, and prepared as clay, ler, and
after that the floor of the malthouse is made of it. The
floor was somewhat sloping, so that the water could run

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 255

off from the malt. This Freestone, together with the pit
or mine, grufvan, from which it is taken shall be
described farther on. [Totternhoe Stone. ]

Stal-qvarnars bruk, at mala Malt och Arter.
The use of steel mills to grind Malt and Pease.

Here were shown to us two steel mills, one of which
Mr. Williams used to grind malt in, and the other to
crush to pieces the pease which he mixed with oats as food
for the horses. They both had a large fly-whecl, svang-
hjul, which made the labour lighter for those who had
to work them.

The 5th April.

In the morning we took one of the smaller farmers or
Landtman, who was known for Agriculture and Rural
Economy, with us, and started on the way to Ivinghoe,
which lay in Buckinghamshire, four miles N.W. from
Little Gaddesden, which lay in Hertfordshire, on the
borders of Buckinghamshire. The object of this walk
was to see the district: around Ivinghoe because Mr. Ellis
told us that the appearance of the country and the soil,
jordmon, was entirely different from what there was at
Little Gaddesden; for at Little Gaddesden is ‘“ Chilturn
Land,” but around Ivinghoe ‘“ Vale Land.” That land
which consists of high hills and the chalk formation is
called ‘Chilturn Land.’ ‘Vale Land’ consists of large
plains and flats, stora falt och slattar, and lies mostly
in valleys.

[T. I. p. 255.] Agrifolium, Holly, of a considerable
size. In a hedge, a little away from a farm, we saw a
tree of Agrifolium, Raj. Syn. 466, [Lex Aquifolium] which
was one of the largest I had hitherto seen in England. We
estimated that the height of this Agrifolium was 36 feet,
and it would certainly have been higher if it had not been
cut off at the top. We measured the periphery 2 feet

256 KALM’S ENGLAND.

above the ground, where it was 4 feet 6 inches. The
stem was, for a length of 16 feet from the roots, quite
straight and smooth, only that here and there on the
bark grew small protuberances, knylor, in size and
figure like hazelnuts. These were hard and woody, but
seemed not to have any communication with the tree
itself inside the bark. We had previously found on
beeches just similar protuberances and of the same de-
scription. The carl who accompanied us knew no other
use of this tree than that it is used for fuel.

Sades-stack pa stalpar. Ricks upon posts.

In one place and another we saw ricks built in the
same way as has been described before (p. 229 orig.), viz.,
standing on posts, stalpar. The posts were at the
middle surrounded by polished brass, to hinder the ascent
of mice into the rick, which here consisted of wheat, and
was called by our guide a ‘ wheat frame.’

Skatt-karra. A boy came along pushing a very
large wheel-barrow, loaded with furze for fuel, which he
had cut on the large dry common, falt, which lay
close by. The body of the barrow, karran, was built
like a sled, Skrinda, only that at the back or towards
the handles, skalmare, there was no frame, grind, but
it there stood open. In short, there were high frames,
grindar, where in ordinary wheel-barrows there are
boards in front and at the sides.

[T. I. p. 256.] Stort falt. A large Common. [Ivinghoe
Common. |

We had the whole way, almost as far as Ivinghoe, on

the right hand inclosures, or tappor, of arable fields,

meadows and pastures, fenced in by living hedges, and

sometimes a farm ;* but on the left hand wasa very large

* The farm of Ward’s Hurst. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 257

down and common, * mycket stort falt och utmark,
which to the view seemed somewhat to resemble our
arid, sterile Ljung-hedar, Lingheaths, in Sweden, only
that no ling was found on this one, and that the land did
not here lie flat, but rose by degrees, and by degrees fell
off again, or sloped downwards. It was nearly all over-
grown with Genista Spinosa, furze, which here was not
much over 4 inches high, because it is altogether cut
down by poor folk close to the ground, and is carried home
for fuel. The whole plain, with much more, belonged to
the Duke of Bridgewater. [This is the same elevated
plateau described at T. I. pp. 197-8, and p. 197, above. ]

Jordmon i dalderna, en flint-sand och des nytta.
The soil in the dales a flint-sand, and tts use.

It was curious, that for the most part down in all the
dales between the hills, the soil consisted mostly of pure
flint gravel, or a coarse sand, bara flint-grus, eller en
grof sand, which was not such as our most common
sand in Sweden, viz., of quartz, but it consisted of bare
flint, such as is found everywhere about here, which
had been reduced toa coarser or finer sand. From some
little mixture of chalk soil, krit-jord, amongst it, the
colour of this deposit was a rust-colour. We sought
diligently a long time to see whether we could not find
any grains of quartz, sand-korn af Q., but in vain.
Nor was there found here any other kind of stone, large
or small, but flint. Those who live in this district, mix
this sand with clay [T. I. p. 257] of which they make
and burn bricks, and when they build a house it is mixed
with lime.

Kalk af Krita. Lime from Chalk.

I enquired of the carl who accompanied us what kind of

* Ivinghoe Common. [J. L.]

258 KALM’S ENGLAND.

lime they use here for their houses, and where they get
the same? Heanswered, that they dig up ordinary chalk
out of the chalk hills, lay it together in heaps, and burn
it in the same way as is usual in burning lime from lime-
stone, kalk-sten, when the chalk, after it has been burnt,
is reduced toa fine powder or meal, which is an ordinary
lime. With this lime blended with flint-sand, they build
all their brick or stone houses. All those who livedround
about this place, told me as a very well known and com-
mon thing, that the chalk is burnt by them everywhere
to lime, by being laid in lime kilns, kalk-ugnar, and
after burning is slaked, of which more further on.

Naslor til gronkAl. Nettles as Green-imeat.

When the nettles first come up in the spring, they
are plucked by the women, and prepared as green-meat,
gronkal, in the same way and method as we in Sweden
prepare Spinat. They here maintain that nettles prepared
thus or in any other way, and eaten, are very wholesome,
and purify the blood.*

Dagg-maskar, en begarlig mat for Anckor.
Earth-worms a favorite food of Ducks.
Everywhere on the range, at Little Gaddesden, as well
as the villages round about, the whole of the ground
appears to be full of worm-holes. Close to all these
holes are found small heaps of fine mould, mull, which
the worm had heaved up when it made the hole [worm-

* NETTLE SALAD. I enquired at Ivinghoe whether this is still made.
The negative answer is inconclusive, as it is still prepared in Surrey, 1886,
where they only call them Jdoz/ed nettles. Sir W. Hooker (Flora, 5th Ed.
1842) says: ‘‘In Scotland the young tops of nettles are boiled and eaten by
the common people.” (U dioica, p. 296.) Sir W. Scott also: ‘Nae doubt I
suld understand my ain trade of horticulture, seeing I was bred in the parish
of Dreepdaily, near Glasco’, where they raise lang-kail under glass, and
force the errly nettles for their sprig kail.’” Andrew Fairservice in Rod
Roy. [JL]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 259

casts]. Around Woodford, in Essex, the ground is in the
same way full of worms and their holes. I saw to-day
that a troop of ducks waddled about and, as it were,
sought for something. I asked the carl who accompanied
us if he knew what they were seeking for? He answered
that in the evenings and very early in the morning the
worms creep out of their holes on to the ground, for
which reason the ducks go very early in the morning
afield to seek for them, and eat them very greedily,
ganska sna4lt. When it advances a little farther into
the day, so that the sun mounts higher up in the heavens,
the worms creep down into their holes under the earth,
when the ducks also, as they can no longer reach them,
return back from the plain, and wander home to the
farms. We got afterwards several times to see that the
carl spoke truth.

At Woodford Mr. Warner had four Sea Gulls, Fisk-
masar, who went in his garden, and diligently followed
the gardeners, when they were digging in the garden.
These gulls were very clever at swallowing the worms
which were cast up in turning over the earth.

Jordens tjocklek pa Kritan i dalderna.
The thickness of the sotl over the chalk in the dales.

The carl who accompanied us told us that when a
well, grop, is dug in the dales between the chalk hills,
one often may have to dig 14 or 20, and more feet deep
before reaching the place where the chalk is met with,
tager emot: but on the other hand, it is often not
necessary to dig on the chalk hills or ridges, krit-
bargen eller hégderna, more than 1 or 2 feet, before
the chalk rock itself occurs, tager vid. The soil was
here everywhere in the dales, for a great part, the before-
described [p. 256 orig.] flint-sand which nearly always

had a reddish or rust colour.
$2

260 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Genista Spinosa [Ulex Europaeus]. Furze as fuel.

We saw in many places in the before-mentioned great
arid common, betesmarken, considerable heaps of
Genista Spinosa, furze, which had been here cut and after-
wards laid together to be thence [T. I. p. 259] carried home
for fuel. This fuel was a collection of furze, brackens,
Ormbunkar, and dry loads of grass, amongst which,
however, Genista Spinosa, furze, formed the greater part.

Buxbom planterad pa torra backar.
Box bushes planted on dry hills.

On one of the high chalk hills that exist here the
Duke of Bridgewater had caused to be planted, partly in
rows as hedges, partly in the form of small woods, a
quantity of box-tree, Buaxus arborescens,C[aspar] B[aauhin]
The height of these trees was 4, 5, or 6 feet. They
throve here very well. The place on which they grew
was one of the highest-lying and driest of all that can be
imagined, where grass and other plants from the dryness,
and perhaps from the sterility of the soil, had entirely
perished and died out, for these lay just facing the
greatest heat of the sun starkaste Solbaddet, a little
below the highest ridge on the south side of a high hill.*
In appearance, dryness and sterility, the hill sufficiently
resembled Polaks-backarna near Upsala; but the soil
was here quite another kind, viz., the yellow chalk soil,
besides that this hill was getting on for two or three
times higher than the Polaks-backe. The Duke of
Bridgewater sold much of this boxwood in London to
turners.

* Buxbom. These bushes still exist, 1886; the highest about 15 feet.
The height of the ground is 760 feet on the east side of Steps Az//, just below
the highest ridge, which here runs N. and S. where I sawthem. Sep. 22nd.

[J.-L]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 261

Akrarnas belagenhet, Jordmon, &c., omkring,
Ivinghoe.

The situation of the arable fields, soil, &c., around I vinghoe.

On the south side of the hills, about an English mile
before one arrives at Ivinghoe, there lie some frightfully
high chalk hills, which on almost all sides are steep,
branta, but most of all on that which faces the N.W.
[Steps Hill.]

At the foot of these chalk hills, to the N.W., N., and
N.E. [Ward’s Coombe] sides lie very large arable fields,
which for the most part are quite smooth, jamna,
and to the view sufficiently resemble the arable plain of
Upland. The arable [T. I. p. 260] hereabouts, on which
wheat was sown were laid out partly in broadlands, or
mostly flat-ploughed plots, partly in two-bout-lands, or in
small riggs, ryggar, with water furrows between: still
broadland was most used. The broadlands were also, for
the most part, quite flat, or just the least thing higher in
the middle, s& godt som féga ting hégre midt pa.
Here appear no ditches, no acre-reins, not even fences,
gardesgard, or hedges around the arable fields,
akrarna. They lay in Common-Field, or in teg-skiften,
though there was no vein between the ‘lands,’*
tegarna, but they were separated only by a narrow
water-furrow, vattu-far. The colour and the soil,
Fargen och Jordmon, here were now quite another
sort, and different from what we had seen before, for the
colour of the arable was here mostly white, or very light
grey, which caused anyone who saw these ploughed fields
from a distance before he had taken a good view of them
to think they had been spread over with chalk. The soil
here also was quite another sort, for it consisted of a

* ‘Lands.’ So-called, 1886. Ivinghoe, Ward’s Hurst, &c. [J. L.]

262 KALM’S ENGLAND.

harder kind of chalk which is here called Hurlock,* and
has ordinarily the quality that it will with difficulty fall
to pieces for use on the fields. Sometimes, when there
is a great drought, it is said to fissure, rémmna, very
much. Otherwise they call this soil Joam, or loamy ground,
and it is just, as I may say, a medium between chalk
and a stiff clay. It is a species of chalk, kritaktigart,
in a certain way; but the chalk is so hard that it cannot
easily be loosened or turned to any use on the fields. I
speak of the soil which is dug up in the chalk-banks, or
slopes, Kritbackarna, for that which is found in the
ploughed fields was, through the folks industry and
manuring, more loose, yet it seems almost to have the
qualities of a potclay, spiklera, namely, to hold moisture.
On the north side of the great hills [that is the range of
Ivinghoe Beacon, Steps Hill, and Clipper Down] the
ploughed fields were still, at midday, quite [T. I. p. 261]
wet, which came from the sharp frost there was the night
before, whose remaining moisture the sun had not yet
been able to dry up. But when we went home in the
evening the mould on the ploughed fields was quite dry.
On the wet roads where the soil was much trodden it
everywhere looked like a lime-mortar which is used for
walling. The wheels of the carts with which they drove
on the roads were so coloured by it as if they had driven
them into a heap of mortar. It was a special feature
that there were no flints on the ploughed fields, unless it
were some single bit, of which it is quite uncertain how
it had come there; while, on the other hand, the fields
around Little Gaddesden and in all Chilturn Land were
quite full of them; but, instead of these, there here lie
pieces of this hard chalk. In the same way, in all the

* Hurlock, the name for the Lower Chalk, near Tring and Dunstable,
1886. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 263

banks, backarna, where they had taken chalk the whole
quarry, brott, seems to consist of such hard chalk
lumps, kritstycken, but not a single flint-bit among
them, except at one single place. Wheat is said to grow
very well in this earth, barley tolerably, black oats some-
what better. In wetter places beans thrive very well,
but pease are said not to flourish.

Far i fallor pa nyss sadda Korn-akra.
Sheep in folds on newly-sown Barley-fields.

They were now busily engaged here in sowing Barley,
Korn, which was done in broadland, and the seed was
harrowed down directly after the sowing. The plough
which was here everywhere used was only and exclusively
the so-called Foot-plough.* Many may think, because
the two-wheel single Hertfordshive plough + has such great
advantages over other ploughs, that they also would use
it, because it is generally and almost exclusively used
in Hertfordshire, which lies [T. I. p. 262] only 3 or 4
miles from here. But they said that their foot-plough is
better, because the before-named Hertfordshire plough
with its wheel could not advance in this soil, which at
certain times of year is very soft and miry, blot och
sank, but the wheel would sink deep into it, and become
stuck fast, full-klibbade. On these newly-sown barley-
fields stood several folds in which they keep the sheep at
night, which by their droppings manure the field con-

* Foot-plough. A few years ago these had almost disappeared, but
within the last 7 or 8 years they have come into use again on the Gawlt, as at
Slapton, where they are used in wet weather. They are now made by the
blacksmith at Eaton Bray, 1886. The iron plough is used in dry weather,
1886. [J. L.]

+ The Hertfordshire plough has apparently disappeared. I have not
succeeded in seeing one, though I have been sent on more than one wild
goose chase to remote farms to see one, 1886. [J. L.]

264 KALM’S ENGLAND.

siderably where the barley is sown. When the sheep
have stood one night on a place, the fold is changed next
morning to the space immediately adjoining, and thus it
is continued over the whole barley-field for a whole fort-
night after it has been sown, until it is an inch or more
high. They have always a bundle of good hay, which
is strown out in the rack,* i hacken, for the sheep, when
they come there in the evening. The folds, fallorna,
consisted here as everywhere of such hurdles, grindar ;
which are made exactly the same shape as our common
aker-grindar in Sweden, although all the timber, verket,
in those which were used for folds, was much smaller,
klenare, so that they might be so much lighter to change
and carry from one place to another. The breadth or
length, as I will call it, of these hurdles was for the most
part 8 feet}, the height 3 feet 6 inches. They had as many
such hurdles in readiness, as their number of sheep was.
When they are set up intoa fold, one hurdle is fastened to
another in this way that a stake, st6r, is knocked down
witha mallet, klubba, between the side posts, sid-traden,
of two hurdles, to which pole, pale, one end of the
hurdle is bound fast, and the fold thus consists of a lot
of hurdles set in a four-sided figure, and a pole driven
down between each hurdle, to which they are bound
fast, so that they may stand firm. In these folds the
sheep stand at [T. I. p. 263] nights under the open sky,
and seem not to have it particularly warm on the wide
plain, when a strong north wind blows; because the
fields here are very large and lie open to that wind. But
as the sheep are clipped here only once a year, and that
in the middle of the summer, they can well make shift,
barga sig.

* I saw one of these, Sep. 21, 1886. [J. L.]
t+ Some I measured, Ivinghoe, Sep. 21, 1886, were 7 feet 8 inches long.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 265

Klades-klutar til gédsel p& Akern.
Rags as manure on arable fields.

On the fields which were sown with wheat, we saw
here and there rags, klutar, or small Japs, lappar,
of old clothes, which were ploughed down in the field.
Those who dwell here about Ivinghoe, and are 34 miles
from London, do not fail to take the trouble to buy from
tailors and others in London, all sorts of old rags which
they carry from thence home, cut them into small bits,
strow them over the field which they wish to sow with
wheat, plough them down, and sow wheat therein. They
said they scarcely knew of anything, which so manures
the fields, and forwards the growth of crops in sucha
soil as they have there; for these laps hold back the
moisture a long time and are a good manure, with several
advantages.

Akrar utan hackar eller stangsel.
Arable fields without hedges or fences.

All these large flat fields which were situated down
in the valleys around Ivinghoe, lay quite open, without
any fence or barrier, hagnad eller stangsel, either of
hedges or deadwood fences of any kind, hackar eller
gardsel. I asked why they had not planted hedges
around the field as a barrier, til stangsel, as in all the
other places in the neighbourhood? Some answered
that hedges will not grow quickly in this soil. Others
said that the fields all lie here in teg-skifte, exchange-
able slips, intermixed, om hvart annat, so that it is
thus not commonly done; for if one will go forward
another wishes to go back, and if one wishes to plant,
the other [T. I. p. 264] does not, and thus it is left
undone. Hence it comes that no one had liberty to do
it without a special Act of Parliament. I was tolerably
satisfied with the latter reason, but the former I had

266 KALM’S ENGLAND.

difficulty in believing ; for I saw old hedges in one place
and another by the’fields where the trees seemed to flourish
as well as up in Chilturn Land about Little Gaddesden,
&c., for the hawthorn, sloe, blackberry bushes, and
other leaf trees formed here as beautiful and thick
hedges as in Hertfordshire. I enquired further, how the
cattle can then be restrained from springing into the
arable fields and there doing harm? To this they
answered that each farmer keeps a cow-herd, fa-herde,
who accompanies the cattle and sheep, and drives them
on to the places which it is allowed for them to bait
upon, and keeps them from running into the ploughed
fields or meadows to do har m there.

Huru Atskillig slags halm, ormbunkar, ete,
beredes til gdodsel.
How different kinds of straw, Brackens, Gc., are prepared
as manure.

At a place just outside Ivinghoe there lay by the
roadside a large dunghill of dung, straw, &c., shovelled
together to ferment. Its length was 48 feet, breadth
24, and height about 1 fathom. It consisted of the
fodder which they had given to the cattle and spread
out under them in the farm-yard, i fa-garden, namely,
wheat, barley, beans, pease, and oat-straw, together with
a multitude of brackens. They dispose of it, as has been
mentioned above (p. 251, orig. p. 251 above.)

Huru de goéra sig nytta af orenligheten pa vagar
vid byar.
How they use the dirt on the roads near the villages.
EverywhereI have travelled in this country I have
remarked that straw and other litter has been strown on
the parts of the roads in the villages which were wet and
dirty. The object of this was [T. I. p. 265] partly to get

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 267

the roads through the villages into a fitter and dryer state
to go upon, partly and principally to procure by that
means an increase of manure for the fields, for this straw
or litter is trampled down by folk, horses, and other
animals, mixed with the droppings of the animals, and
the mud or soil the roads consist of, &c.

When it has lain thus for some time it is shovelled
together into larger or smaller heaps by the wayside,
‘which mostly have the shape of a cube, or oblong. Their
height is seldom under 3 feet, but indeed more, up to a
fathom. Commonly alittle mould is cast on the top that
the sun may not dry it too much. Here it gets to lie
thus the whole summer in the heaps to rot and ferment,
brinna tilhopa, after which it is carried out on to the
fields as a beautiful manure.

Sades-stackar pa stalpar. Ricks on posts.

At Ivinghoe we saw a great collection of ricks at their
farms, which all stood on posts, just 3 feet from the
ground. The posts were mostly of Freestone,* hewn
square. On the top of each stone-pillar, sten-stalpen,
was laid a * flat stone,’ or ‘resting stone,’ + halla, of the
same kind of store, which reached far beyond the pillar
on all sides, to prevent mice from slipping up into the
stack. Some had the pillars either in the middle or to-
wards the upper ends, clad with a thin very smooth brass
or tin plate, massings eller black-skifva, which
likewise hindered the mice from climbing up into the
stack, because they could not possibly get fast hold of the
brass or tin. Yet it was equally necessary that no sticks,
timber, or other things should come to rest against the
stack, of which they could easily avail themselves. to get

* Totternhoe Stone.
} Called Flatstone or ‘ Resting Stone,’ 1886. [J. L.]

268 KALM’S ENGLAND.

up. These stacks were sometimes four-sided [T. I. p.
266], sometimes round, and their shapes can best be seen
from the accompanying figures; for they did not have
them in many varieties. On the top, these, as well as
all ricks in these places, were very well thatched with
straw, ganska val tackte med halm, which was done
in the same way as has been previously treated in detail in
respect of hay-stacks [p. 211 orfg.] In such stacks were
built up not only wheat, barley, and oats, (for rye is not
sown in this place), but also pease and beans. Besides,
the feet or pillars, pelare, which stood round about the
sides, there was always a foot or pillar set under the
middle of the stack for the sake of greater strength. The
number of the pillars was commonly nine—viz., one under
the middle and eight round about. These ricks always
stood at home at the farms, and never out on the fields.
The crop, saden, can be kept for a long time good and
uninjured in such a stack, without turning musty, or
taking any harm; for manifold experience has shown that
all kinds of seeds are kept [T. I. p. 267] best and longest
in their own seedhouse, or husk. Down on the bottom,
botten, ‘ Rick-staddle,’ or ‘ Rick-frame,’* is spread out
preferably, furze, hawthorn, and sloe, and sometimes
brackens. These thorny trees are especially used for
the bottom of the rick, so that if any chance has brought
mice into the stack, their thorns should deprive them of
the pleasure of staying there long, and also hinder the
ascent of others. Down at the ground the stacks were
always narrower, and broadest in the middle, where their
thatch ended, so that the sides might not take harm from
rain which drips down from the thatchfoot on to the
stack. The pease and bean stalks were thatched with
straw in the same way as the corn-ricks.

* So called, 1886. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 269

Valt. The Roller.

On a pasture at Ivinghoe lay a large roller, which was
made in this way, that above the roller was as it were a
roof, on which stones could be laid when one wished to
make the roller heavier, and taken off again when one
wished to roll anything which did not require such a great
weight. The diameter of the roller or the stock was 18
inches.

Bladen pa Hedera, Gc. Ivy leaves as food for Sheep.

The leaves of Hedera Arborea, C.B. are said to be
gathered here by good economists, hush4llare, who
give them green to their sheep, which eat them very
greedily. Thecarl who accompanied us related as a fact,
that small pills, a4rter, are made from this tree, which
pills are laid in sores to keep them open.

Beskrifning pa Ivinghoe. Description of Ivinghoe.

Ivinghoe is a parish or large village, whose inhabitants,
for the most part, live by agriculture. Yet there were
here also a few shopkeepers, as is usual in all parishes or
large villages in England. The houses [T. I. p. 268] or
farms are not built all in a row, as in Little Gaddesden,
but more in a round form, asin a town. In the middle
of the parish there stands a beautiful stone church,*
with a tower to it, med torn pa, yet not built in the
manner usual in England, viz., cut off at the top, but
with a spire, spir-torn, in which was set a timepiece
without a hand.T

* Principally flint with irregular lumps of Freestone (Totternoe Stone).

J. L.]

{ There are now two clocks, both with two hands. Such a one-handed

clock may still [1886] be seen on one of the west towers of Westminster
Abbey. |J. L.]

270 KALM’S ENGLAND.

All houses in this parish, besides some outhouses,
which were of oak-boards, were built of stone or brick,
tegel, yet the brickwork was entirely between cross-
work or cross-timbers, korsverke, which went both ad
angulos rectos et acutos.* The roofs nearly all of straw,
halm, well-thatched, and very steep. Everywhere by
the streets and round about the houses there were trees
planted, so that the place lay almost in a garden. The
village lies mostly in a hollow. On the east side are high
chalk hills, on which arable fields go right up to the
highest point.

Sag-span af Bok til bransle.
Saw-dust from Beech for fuel.

In some places we saw that they had in their sheds,
lider, among other fuel, also heaps of. beech-dust,
B6ék-span. Their use, when they are dry, was said
only to be this—that by them the fire can be kept alive
on the hearth, but that they are no good to cook food
with. Some sticks were always laid at the bottom on
the hearth, nederst i Spisen, upon which these were
afterwards cast.

Flinta til galf och grundval pa hus.
Flints for floors and foundations of houses.

In some places the floor of the entrance, Forstugu-
galfven, consisted only of flints, which were there laid
in clay, ler, so the flat side came to be turned up. In
many places, also, the foundations of the houses, often
for a height of 4 feet above the ground, were built only
of flints.

* Many of these old houses are still to be seen at Ivinghoe. At Eaton
Bray, called ‘ brick and stud’ work, 1886. [J. L.]

+ On a> conical eminence seen from Ivinghoe village on the northern
end of Pitstone Hill, over 690 feet. It is one mile S.E. of [vinghoe. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 271

Allehanda slags halm til gédsel.
All kinds of straw for manure.

In each and every farmyard there was wheat, barley,
oats, beans [T. I. p. 269], pease, and other straw in
abundance strown under cows, by that means to increase
the manure in the manner which has been described
above [p. 251 orig. 251 above].

Akrarnas belagenhet, etc.
The situation of the ploughed fields, &c.

North of Ivinghoe, those fields which lay nearest
the village were situated on the north side of a chalk
hill,* so that they slope considerably. On them appeared
neither veins nor ditches, but only poor broken hedges
around them. All were laid out in broadlands. The
breadth of each broadland was commonly 20 feet. The
soil was white and of the same character as has been
described [p. 259 orig.], viz., of a very hard chalk with-
out any mixture of flint among it. It is said to have
the property that in severe drought it cracks all
to pieces in deep and wide fissures, vid stark
torka spricker alt sénder i djupa och breda
ramnor, often 2 or 3 inches broad. But the lower
parts of the fields north of Ivinghoe, those, namely,
which lay at the bottom lowest down on the flat plain
in the valley were laid out in an entirely different
manner, namely, in ridge half-acre land, and ridge acre
land, that is, the whole field, Akern,t lay in great ridges,
ryggar eller uphdghingar, highest in the middle,
halst midt pa, and sloping on both sides, just in the

* The escarpment of the Lower Chalk or Hurlock. [J. L.]

} There is one particular field from which Kalm evidently took his
description—the third from Ivinghoe, through which the footpath to Ivinghoe
Aston passes, before it crosses the beck. [J. L.]

272 KALM’S ENGLAND,

same way as the fields are laid out in Westmanland and
Nerike in Sweden. Each ‘rigg’ was here so large that
it contained a whole or a half tunnelands land,
‘ Townland’s land.’ The breadth of each ridge or rygg
was 20, 24, 28, 32, or more feet.* The perpendicular
height of these ridges in the middle above the plane of
the bottom of the water-furrows, midt pa, mot det de
voroi botten af vattu-faren, was 18 inches, 2 feet,
or 2 feet 6 inches; for some ridges were higher than the
others. They were obliged to lay out their fields in this
way, because they lie so low and are very favourably
placed for wet, och 4ro mycket benagne for vata,
and because there are not here used any [T. I. p. 270]
other ditches than water-furrows, vattu-farar, between
these broad ridges. Thence also it comes that the land
which stands nearest the water-furrow has been entirely
drowned and ruined by the water. These low places were
last year sown with beans.f All the ryggs and water-
furrows were drawn from the highest part of the fields
down to the hollows so that the water might run off so
much faster. Down at the bottom of the valley, there
flowed a little beck, scarcely larger than an ordinary ditch.{
Flints seldom appeared on these fields, much less any
other kind of stone. The fields this summer lay fallow,

* The breadth of each ridge. On Sept. 21, 1886, I measured five of these.
They are very high, and there is a furrow along the summit of each—not
for water, but for the reason that the plough started at the bottom on both
sides and finished at the top of each ridge last time it was ploughed—which
must have been very many years ago. The field is now old pasture. The
following are the breadths in feet :-—

Furrow to Ridge, and Ridge to Furrow: 25, 24, 23, 19, 25, 21, 23, 25,

17, 26.

Furrow to Furrow: 49, 42, 46, 48, 43.

This kind of ploughing is still called ‘‘ Ridges.” [J. L.]

+ Grassland, 1886. [J.L.]
$ That running from Ivinghoe N.E, to Ivinghoe Aston. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN,. 273

and will in autumn be sown with wheat, but still they
had not begun to plough them up, but they were in the
same state as when the beans were cut.

A - ,
Akrar och annan jordmon, etc.

Arable fields, and another soil, etc.

We afterwards crossed over the afore-named beck on
the other side of which arable fields occurred which
were of an entirely different colour from those we have
just described, although they were only separated from
the others by a little beck; for the soil here was white
no more, but of a dark grey colour*, af en morkaktig
farg, and had flint stones enough. It seems also not to
be so stiff as the white earth, but more loose, and
resembled mylla mould. On account of their low
situation, it was similarly laid out in broad ridge lands
or ryggs, still the ryggs here were not quite so high
as the former ones, or those on the other side of the
beck, which were exactly like the ploughed fields of
Westmanland; but these were more like our fields in
Nerike, where the ridges are not so high. It was wonder-
ful that a little beck of 2 or 3 feet wide should make so
great a difference, especially as the same beck was not
over 2 feet deeper than [T. I. p. 271] the water furrows
themselves in the fields on both sides. The reason
might be this. The beck runs from west to east. On
the south side lie high chalk hills of the hard kind of
chalk, which slope gradually towards the beck. On the
north side of the same beck there lie for 2 or 3 miles
small hills of another, or a little darker earth,t which
also slope towards the beck, but their slope is so slight,

* The Gault. [J. L.] + The Gault. [J. L.]
T

274 KALM’S ENGLAND.

that it scarcely departs from a horizontal plane, streket.
The white earth, jorden, which occurs in the valleys
on the south side of the beck, has doubtless been washed
down from the neighbouring chalk hills, because the soil,
jordmon, is identical; but that it has not gone on to
the other side of the beck, may probably have been
caused in this way, that the water in the beck, which
runs tolerably swiftly, always carries the same away with
it?

I also imagine that in the first instance the earth on
the south side of the brook has been down in the valleys
of the same black, svarta, colour as it is immediately
on the other and north side; but has afterwards been
cevered, Ofver hélgd, by the white earth which has
been washed down from the chalk hill: for the black soil
on the north side of the beck seems to have to thank the
beck for it, that it has got to retain its colour. Here on
the north side of the beck, the land was again divided
into small inclosures or tappor, of arable fields, meadows
or pastures, surrounded with living hedges, though here
also we were met by large arable or Common Fieldst
which there lay in teg-skifte, exchangeable slips, or
‘lands,’ and were. ridged like the ploughed fields in
Nerike. When we came two miles north of Ivinghoe, the
fields acquired a still blacker colour, so that the soil there
was almost like a svart-mylla, ‘black-earth.’ They
were all laid out in 20-feet broad ridges, tolerably high,
exactly like the arable in Westmanland, only that a great
part of these vidge- [T. I. p. 272] lands were so, that along

* The true reason is that the base of the chalk is reached near the brook,
which here flows from S.W. to N.E., and that the Gault passes under the
chalk, dipping S.E. [J. L.]

+ Alas, bya mistaken political economy, these and other open fields
have been enclosed. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 275

the middle of the highest ridge was drawn a little water-
furrow 6 or g inches deep. The water-furrows between
the ridges were now nearly full of water. A great part
of these ploughed fields had been last year sown with
beans, and were now left this summer fallow. Most part
of the fields lay low, and in watery places. Some of
them were now sown with beans, and that in broad cast,
and afterwards ploughed down. This land where the beans
had just been sown had the summer before been sown
with wheat. That this land was low-lying and wet could
also be seen from several plants of Funcus A quatilis, rushes,
which grew on the very ploughed fields themselves.

Dikes-jord til gédsel pa ang.
Ditch-earth for manure on the meadows.

There was at a place close to the road a ditch,*
through which a great deal of water had its escape,
lopp, which came from the arable fields just described,
which there consisted of a black earth, svart jord,
This ditch, which had been filled up again by the black
earth which the water had carried with it from the arable
fields, had just been cleaned out. All the mould,
mullen, which had been taken out of it was arranged
in a high long bank on the ground alongside of the
ditch, where it would now be left to lie for a time in the
open air, to be, as it were, tempered. After that it would
be carried home to the farm, cast on the dunghill, where
it would lie for a time, to draw to itself more juice from
the dung, and, after that, would be carried out on to the
arable or meadows, and spread out over the grass-sward,
where it will incredibly increase the grass growth,
especially if rain conveniently happens to fall directly
after it has been outspread.

* Vidi, Sep. 21, 1886, Ivinghoe Aston. [J. L.]
T 2

276 KALM’S ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 273.]
Akrarnas beligenhet, etc., vid Carrington.
Situation of the ploughed fields, etc., near Carrington.

At Carrington,* which lay a couple of miles north of
Ivinghoe, the arable fields consisted of an earth which
was almost as black as gunpowder, very fine and loose,
and looked nearly like the black earth, den svarta
jorden, which we dig out of our karr, bogs, in Sweden.
There seldom appeared any flint-stone in it. The whole
field was laid out in broad vidge-lands or ryggar, in the
same way as in Nerike. A part of them was now sown
with wheat, which now stood green and very beautiful.
Along the middle of the highest ridge there went a little
water-furrow,} 6 inches deep, or sometimes a little more.
The breadth of each and every vidge-land, or rygg, was
nearly always 20 feet. The wheat had always been sown
in the ordinary manner, and ploughed down.

Halm til bransle. Sivaw as fuel.

We saw on a ploughed field large heaps of wheat-
straw, hvete-halm, and also in one place and another
by the farms this straw arranged in heaps, partly under
shelter, skul, partly not. They told us that they would
use the aforenamed straw in this woodless district as fuel
for boiling water, washing dishes, &c.

Korn saddes. Barley was being sown.

Everywhere we wandered about to-day they were
engaged in sowing barley, both on flat-ploughed plots
and on broad ridges. When the barley is sown they

* T have failed to identify this place, unless it be Cheddington. [J. L.]

t ‘ Water-furrow.” Iam told these are not water-furrows, but simply
the result of the last ploughing having been started at the bottom on each
side of the ridge and turning downwards, so that the last bout on each side
leaves a furrow at the top. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 277

harrow it under. There were commonly three or four
harrows bound together abreast in the manner before
described [p. 193 orig.], and a horse for every harrow, so
that they all drew abreast. One single little boy drove
all three horses and harrows, so that for three or more
harrows bound together, and the same number of horses,
there was only required a little boy.

[T. I. p. 274.] Stora Aker-stycken sAdda med
Bonor. Large ploughed plots sown with beans.

The arable fields which lay immediately north of
Ivinghoe, which were very low-lying and wet, were almost
entirely sown with such kinds of beans as they here call
horse-beans.* It is with them that horses and swine are
fed the greater part of the year, but to sheep and cows
they are not commonly given.

Tjenlig mark til Far-bete.
Land suitable for sheep-pasture.

One and all whom I asked about it truly told me
that the fields and arable, falten och Akrarna, here
about Ivinghoe are not good for sheep-pasture, because
they are wet and low-lying, for when rainy summers
happen the sheep here commonly get the rot, Rdét-
sjukan, and dropsy, and often die off in large numbers.
On the contrary, they consider all Chilturn land, that is
the districts lying on the hills, or the chalk-formation, as
the most suitable of all and most wholesome for sheep,
and there they thrive the best of all, all of which a long
experience has shown to be true.

Kalk af ordinair flinta. Lime from ordinary flint.

Several people in Ivinghoe related that those who
dwell 20 miles from thencet burn their lime from the

* They are still called so, 1886. [J. L.]
t The folk say that this was probably near Leighton Buzzard. [J. L.]

278 KALM’S ENGLAND.

ordinary flint, which in Hertfordshire occurs everywhere
on the fields. I made the suggestion that it might
be some kind of limestone that resembled flint.
They answered ‘No,’ but that it was the same
ordinary flint as occurs here on the fields, and that
which is used to strike fire with, but the manner in
which it is burned to lime they were unable to describe.
The smith at Little Gaddesden and another old man also
confirmed the same—viz., that in some places they burn
lime from flint, and added that [T. I. p. 275] this lime is
very good and strong, and better than other lime; also
that it is a special way how they burn flints to lime, which
these men, however, had not themselves understood. Mr.
Ellis also told me that he heard told as a fact that lime
is in some places burnt from flint, but that he himself
had never seen it done. The truth, however, seems to
result in this, that it is some particular kind of limestone
which in colour, shape and hardness tolerably resembles
flint, and it is of this the lime is burnt, but strangers
mistake it for flint; for it is somewhat difficult to believe
that ‘ordinaiy Flinta skal s& latt ga til kalk,’
ordinary flint will so easily change to lime!

Petrifications in Chalk.

At Ivinghoe, also, several related that everywhere
here lime is burnt from ordinary chalk, but as I made the
suggestion that it might be some kind of limestone which
resembled chalk, the landlord, Husbonden, went into
the house, i garden, and produced, tog fram, a piece
of ordinary chalk and showed that it was of this that
lime is here burnt. When we began to examine the piece
of chalk we found several smussel-shells imbedded in it.
We broke the piece of chalk asunder, when shells like
mussel-shells, likaledes mussel-skalen, were found
inside it, which were all of the kind which are called

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 279

Pectinites. They were all very small. This was an
unfailing sign that the chalk-formation, Krit-bargen,
had in former times been sea, as well as that the chalk is
a child of later times, unless these so-called mussel-
shells are lusus nature.

Nyttan af den harda kritjorden vid Ivinghoe.
Use of the hard chalk at Ivinghoe.

The white earth, jorden, which was dug up in wet
places at or near Ivinghoe below the chalk of the hard
kind or Hurlok, looked just like [T. I. p. 276] a lime
mortar.

The carl who accompanied us, told us that they
here use to build walls with it because it is very binding.
The pieces which had become very hard, and as it were
half petrified, were carried out on to the roads, to repair
them with. Otherwise, ordinary flint was also very much
used for carrying on to the roads to fill up the deep ruts,
sparen, with, which the wheels of the large and heavy
carts and wagons which are used in England had made,
often getting on for 2 feet deep in the ground.

Hackar af bok. Hedges of beech.*

In one place and another between Ivinghoe and Little
Gaddesden, the hedges around the inclosures consist
principally of small beeches, which had been industriously
planted there. And as the beech in this district retains
its old leaves the whole winter right up to the spring
when the new begin to shoot forth, such a beech-hedge is
of especial use and advantage, as it is a very good shelter
for sheep in the winter time in bad weather and cold
blasts, while on the other hand the other hedges stand
leafless.

* As on north side of Edgeborough churchyard, 1886. [J. L.]

280 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Andring pa jordmon. Change of soil.

As soon as we had gone 14 miles south* of Ivinghoe
the soil acquired quite another colour and appearance.
The white disappeared, tog af, and the yellowish-red of
which all the fields round about Little Gaddesden consist,
again appeared. The fields were full of flints, the hills
clad with an abundance of leaf-trees, and luxuriant hedges
around all the fields) What the reason was of sucha
change we could not discover, for the facies and appear-
ance of the chalk hills near Ivinghoe, and here where
this change of soil began, was the same as around [T. I.
p- 277] Little Gaddesden, only that the dales between were
here many times larger and planer.

May not the dales in former times have stood under
water, while the hills on the other hand, which were
above it, were cultivated and inhabited, and the soil,
svartmyllan eller myllan, resulting from decayed
plants and animals have had many times many centuries
to increase, and by mixing with the chalk, to have
acquired the yellowish-red colour? But then it seems
that rain and water-floods wash down the mould or soil,
from the hills down into the dales? May not the white
earth around Ivinghoe, perhaps after some centuries,
acquire the same reddish-yellow colour as the soil around
Little Gaddesden and thereabouts. May not the differ-
ence in the ripeness or hardness of the chalk be due to
that difference of the time and the ages since the chalk for-
mation has come to stand above water or under the same ?

Flackar af sarskild jordmon.
Patches of different soils.

In some parts of the commons, utmarken, which

* 1} miles S. of Ivinghoe. Kalm here seems to have ascended Albany
Nower. The only ‘‘dales” are Albury Dale and the far larger and planer
pass of the Bulbourne. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 281

consisted of the reddish-yellow earth, there occurred flats,
platter, of a totally different colour, viz: almost as
black as pitch. Such a spot might be about 6 feet
diameter. The carl who accompanied us, told us that
they call these spots land springs, that they are some-
times very wet and boggy, sura; if they dig quite deep
down in such a place, no other colour is met with than
this black, which is, as it were, a pipe or vein of quite
differently coloured earth among the other. May not a
long continued pollution, syrande, of the water have
produced this colour? May it not be that there is
under the chalk formation a black earth, and that a
water-vein or pipe ascends from it up to the day,* or
may some mineral cause this ?

[T. I. p. 278] Skillnad pa hvete-broddens
gronska och langd.

Difference in the greenness and length of wheat stalks.

It is well known that here in England they do not
sow all their wheat at one time, but some earlier, some
later. Some in September, other in October, November,
December, January, February, &c. Therefore the sprouts
must also be different from one another. We saw to-day
some of all sorts. Some was quite green, long, thick,
and very beautiful, others less and less, according to
the time it had been sown, so that some was only just
coming up.

Skada af Teg-skifte. Evils of the common fields.

To-day we had manifold proofs of this, what harm
and hindrance it is for a farmer to have all his property
in teg-skifte, common fields, with his neighbours, and on
the other hand what an advantage to have an isolated

* No. [J.L.]

282 KALM’S ENGLAND.

farm and possessions all to himself, when he gets to
manage and cultivate them according to his own dis-
cretion. Around Little Gaddesden and on all Chilturn-land
every farmer more or less had his own severalties which
he afterwards divided into small inclosures by hedges.
There was one inclosure sown with wheat, another with
barley, turnips, pease, oats, sainfoin, clover, trifolium,
tares, potatoes, or whatever he wished.

While the fields were lying fallow, he could sow it with
turnips, feed sheep on it, and afterwards plough down the
remaining bitten turnips, and have thereby a much greater
advantage than if he had left it fallow. In short, he
could in a thousand ways improve his property and earn
money. On the other hand, here about Ivinghoe, where
the common fields are everywhere in use, no hedges are
seen. Nor are there here any pease or kinds of grass
sown as fodder for sheep, cows, horses and [T. I. p. 279]
swine. When wheat, barley, some oats, beans, and
turnips at anyone’s farm are excepted, they had nothing
more.

Nor had they any turnip land to feed sheep upon.
Therefore they were deprived of the advantage of getting
to sell any fat sheep or other cattle, &c. The reason
they gave for all this was that their arable was common
field, allmaninge, which lay in teg-skifte, and thus
came to lie every other year fallow, when one commoner
always had to accommodate his crops to the others; but
the principal reason of all was said to be that ona common
land no one has freedom to inclose his strips, without
a special permission and Act of Parliament.

The 6th April, 1748.

In the morning we set out again, with the same man
who accompanied us the day before, on a walk to a place
where they dig the white, hard, chalky stone of which

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 283

churches, houses, &c., in this district are built. This
kind of stone is here called Freestone, and shall be
described immediately below !

Akrarnas pbelagenhet, &c.

The fields between Little Gaddesden and Dagnal lay
for the most part on long sloping sides of the chalk hill.
A great part of them were laid out in broad-lands, especi-
ally those on which barley was now sown. These broad-
lands, breda &ker-stycken, lay almost entirely flat, so
that they were not higher in the middle. Between each
broad-land there always went a water-furrow drawn
from the highest part of the field down to the dale.
Down at the bottom, where the water-furrows and
broad-lands ended, was a water-furrow drawn across
the others, but commonly this defect was remarked,
that this [T. I. p. 280] furrow had laid an earth-
bank at the end of every water-furrow running down
to it, without the owner having taken the trouble to
shovel up the mould out of the water-furrows running
down the field so as to leave the water free escape into
the cross-furrow. Mr. Ellis’s fields were in this respect
nothing better than the others. It seems also difficult
to avoid the result that the water, if a wet summer
should happen, would here come to be dammed up and
injure the plants.

Halm-tak. Straw thatch.

On most of the houses, where we went to-day, in
Dagnal as elsewhere, the roofs were mostly of thatch,
voro taken merendels af halm, built in the usual
manner, previously described, very steep, and 1 foot in
thickness. Sometimes also the highest part of the gable-
wall, getting on for half of the gable from the top,
upifran, was clad with straw, or made like a thatch

284 KALM’S ENGLAND.

roof, so that some of these roofs somewhat resembled the
so-called Italian roofs. The carl who accompanied us
said that these roofs are subject to great risk of fire and
sparks, whence it happens that they are now beginning
to provide themselves with tile roofs, tegel-tak, as fast
as they can afford to. The roof-tile, taktegel, which
they use here for their roofs is almost always of the
square kind,* and flat like shingles, tak-span. They
are made and burnt from the yellow earth, which is found
everywhere about here. In many places they had at least
tiles on the cottage, or the part of the cottage, in which
the fire was, still there were a great many cottages
thatched with straw thatch.

Tre-hjulad vagn, at kora sad, &c., med.
Three-wheeled wagon to carry seed, &c., with.

At Dagnal we saw a little vagn with three wheels to
carry seed, harrows, ploughs, etc. in, on to the fields, and
for other purposes. The diameter of the wheels, which
were all the same size, was 2 feet. Above the cart,
karran, was an awning, skrinda, of 6 good [T. I. p.
281] feet long and 3 feet broad. The wheels were set so
that one stood in front and two behind, side by side, as in
a cart, karra. The front wheel was fastened to andran
in the shafts, exactly like the wheel on a wheel-barrow,
where it would nevertheless have been better if it had
been so arranged that in turning it could have been able
to turn itself about in the same way as the front wheels
under a wagon.t
Rariteten af kallor, bickor, och far har pa

orten.

The varity of springs, becks, and rivers in this district.

It was remarkable that in the whole of this district

* And still is, 1886. I have seen no pantiles in this district. [J. L.]
+ Similar wagons are now used by railway contractors. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 285

it was a very rare thing to get to see a spring. The
parishes or the villages lay partly on the chalk hills,
partly in the dales in the same, yet commonly without
having access to any spring. This was so at Little
Gaddesden, and at other villages. All the water they
had was taken out of wells or ponds, brunnar eller
dammar. Thus there were at nearly every village, one
or more large ponds expressly dug to be collecting places
for the water. Here the people took their water, and
here the cattle slaked their thirst. In some places in the
pastures there were also similar ponds for the sake of the
cattle. The country is here little else than a collection
of chalk hills, as it were, set beside each other, long-slop-
ing nearly on all sides. Between these chalk-hills are
deep dales. When the land in other parts of the world
goes in such undulations up and down, or consists of a
chain of hills and dales, there nearly always runs a small
if not a larger beck down in the dales between the hills.
So have I seen it in Russia, so it is in Sweden, so have
I since found it in America, but not so here. The
bottoms of the dales consist either of arable fields,
meadows, pastures[T. I. p. 282 ]or commons, utmarker,
without any running water being seen. It is very seldom
that any beck is met with here. The conclusion, there-
fore, seems to be that a land which consists of chalk-
hills has indeed its springs, becks, and rivers; but still
not nearly in the same abundance as a land which con-
sists of granite and clay soil, grabarg och lergrund.
After we had to-day walked over very large arable fields,
which lay smooth and even, and closely resembled the
fields in Upland in Sweden, only that on these English
ones no acre-reins are found, but the plots lay all in flat
broad land, we met with a spring,* rakade vi p& en

* This was Buckshead or Boxstead Spring. [J. L.]

286 KALM’S ENGLAND.

kalla, as a great rarity in these districts. It took its
rise in the middle of a large arable field, where it, with its
beck, formed a valley 60 or 70 feet below the surface of
the fields. In this deep dale the water streamed from
under the earth in several places just as if small becks
had come rushing out, and formed at once a tolerably
large beck. The banks of the spring-beck, Kall-backs-
backarna, consisted entirely of chalk, although they
were now mostly overgrown with grass.

Watercress. Down in the beck grew an abundance of
Nasturtium aquaticum supinum,* C.B. A common com-
plaint was that high-lying districts had great want of
water.

Allehanda slags Halm til gédsel.

All kinds of straw for manure.

At all the farms which we passed by to-day, we saw all
kinds of straw laid out in the farm-yards, to be changed
into manure in the way which has been described in
detail above [p. 251, orig.].

Sades-stackar pa pAlar eller stalpar.
Ricks on poles or pillars.

At Edgeborough,} Eaton, { and all the villagesand farms
we passed by to-day we saw a number of ricks of wheat,
barley, oats, pease [T. I. p. 283], and beans, which there
stood on pillars, stalpar, hewn out of the white so-called
Freestone. The height of the pillars was 2 feet 6 inches to
3 feet. Their shape, and the build of the stack in other
respects the same exactly as has been described above
[p. 265, ovig. 267 above]. But, besides these kinds of

* Nasturtium Officinale. Watercress is still largely cultivated at all
the chalk springs, of which there are six within a mile, and eight within the,
two miles between Coombe Hole and Well Head inclusive. [J. L.]

+ Still so called (1886), though spelt Zdalesborough. [J. L.]

{ Eaton Bray. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 287

stacks or ricks, we also got to see at Eaton and Edgeborough,
and at other farms, another build of ricks, which was as
follows:—The rick, or the crop itself, was set on a
staddle, botten, of twigs, which staddle stood on six
posts of wood. The height of each post was 8 feet. In
the middle of the same, or 4 feet from the ground, was a
tin-plate of 6 inches broad, bent round the post to hinder
the ascent of mice to the rick. At the upper ends the
posts were cut in tenons, fitted into mortises in the
horizontal beams which lay on them, and formed the
bottom of the stack, or rick-staddle. Down at the
ground these posts stood on logs, so that they might not
be rotted away at the ends from the moistness of the
ground. On the top the stack was very well thatched
with straw. Commonly, these stacks were of the
four-sided shape (as in Fig. p. 266 orig.). A dead rook
was mostly hung thereupon to frighten others of the
same kind. In these stacks there was the advantage
that they could also be used as a skeel and shed, skjul
och lider, to keep all different kinds of implements under
for rain, for carts, ploughs, harrows, &c., were commonly
placed under them; but then it was necessary to look
carefully to it that none of these implements were so
arranged that they could serve the mice as a ladder up
to the stack. These and many kinds of ricks were used
only by those who had large farms, or gardar, may be
of very many acres, for those who were small farmers or
Landtman, had no need of such, because they soon
arrived at the stage of thrashing out their crops.

[T. I. p. 284.] Saten, at sitta pa vid spisar.
Setiles, to sit on by the fire-places.
At the taverns or inns, krogarna, it was the custom
that the carls sat by and around the hearth and either
smoked tobacco or drank. It has been said before, that

288 KALM’S ENGLAND.

no spjall is used here, and that the door of the room
is seldom shut, especially in taverns and inns, so that
the wind has free entrance nearly from all sides. On
the hearth the fire always lies and burns. Therefore,
when it is cold, one can often warm oneself on one side
and freeze on the other. To prevent this, there was
used here in many places a kind of settle or bench,
saten eller bankar, made of boards, in shape like a
sofa with very high back, so that when one was sitting
therein, the head could not be seen from behind. These
settles, saffor, did not go in a straight line, but were
curved like the arc of a circle, because those who sat in
this settle thus had better advantage of the warmth of
the fire, which came, as it were, from the centre.
According to their size, six or more persons could find
room to sit in them. When one sat in such, in front of
the fire, he was never exposed to a draught on his back,
because the high frame of close boards prevented that.

Vinter foda for Bi. Winter food for Bees.

The carl who accompanied us told us that the best
food which can be given to bees in winter time is salt,
which is finely powdered and set for them. He said
further that the bees in this district are commonly fed in
the winter with sugar and honey, which, however, is not
nearly so good as this, viz., salt, however absurd it may
seem to one who has never tried it. He assures me that
out of 100 who keep bees there are not ten who know
this [T. I. p. 285], not Mr. Ellis himself. The carl
himself, however, had many times tried feeding bees
with it. He believed that I should one day have
occasion to thank him for it.

Faren bette pa Hvete-brodd.
Sheep pastured on Wheat-sprouts.
The wheat fields now stood here in many places

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 289

beautiful and green with luxuriant shoots, on to which
flocks of sheep, Fare-hopar, were always driven to
pasture there. As this was a Vale Land, or land con-
sisting of large open fields in the vale, so there were not
here used many inclosures bounded by living hedges, but
mostly common fields, or lands, which lay in teg-skifte,
lit. exchangeable slips, or ‘lands,’ for which reason, also,
we saw here no inclosures sown with turnips or grass
seed as food for sheep.

Korn saddes. Barley was being sown.

The folk were this day occupied everywhere in the
fields in sowing barley, which was done on smooth or
flat ploughed land, when it was sown out in the sama
way as with us in Sweden, and was harrowed down.

Akrarnas belagenhet.

On the north side of Eaton [Bray] there were very
large arable fields which lay* between the chalk hills in
the vale, dalar, in sufficiently low-lying and wet places.
They much resembled the fields, Akrarna, in Ufland,
in this, that these were large, and lay quite flat and not
on hills.

Since they lay so low and were so very wet, they
were all laid out in Ridge Acre lands, or in the Westmanland
manner. They differed only from them in this respect,
that along the middle of the highest part of each ridge
there went a little water-furrow 6 to g inches deep, and
the same breadth on the top. In the water-furrows
between the ridges there now stood a large quantity of
water. No other ditches were seen. Wheat was sown
on a part of these fields, and [T. I. p. 286] they were
now very busy sowing barley on the other.

* On the Gault. [J. L.]

290 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Snackor uti ymnoghet. Abundance of Snails.

We went through an inclosure, tappa, where was a
little wood of leaf-trees. In it there lay on the ground
under the trees a very large number of snails.

Breda Aker-renar vid hackar och hvar-fore.
Broad acre-reins by the hedges, and why.

In nearly all small inclosures and tofts, tappor, of
arable in this district at Little Gaddesden, as well as in
other places, the ‘reins,’ renarna, by the hedges were
commonly of considerable breadth—12 feet wide or more.
I asked the reason of this. The answer was that, as in
all these places there is very little meadow-land, ang, they
carefully cultivated the reins to increase their supply of
hay. Besides that, it is not convenient to have the
ploughed fields too near to the hedges, for as the trees
of which the hedges consist, run out into the soil of the
ploughed portion, so no crop can grow near the hedge,
because the roots of the trees then draw all the nourish-
ment out of the soil, for which reason it is also found
that the seed which is sown too near the hedge, as it
were, dwindles away and dies out.

Beskrifning pa Tatternels* Stengrufva.

Description of the Totternhoe stone-mine(called the “‘ Quarry-
pit,” 1886. ]

We went afterwards to the place where the white
stone is hewn, which is here called Freestone, and of which
churches and other houses, &c., are built. The place
where it is taken out is one of the highest chalk hills in
this district, situated in Bedfordshire, just 6 miles north
of Little Gaddesden. The nearest village to it is called

* Tatternel. Still so called (1886), though spelt Totternhoe. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 291

Tatternel, after which the mine or stone-pit, grufvan
eller Sten-brottet, likewise got its [T. I. p. 287]
name.

In some places these chalk hills were long-sloping, in
other places steeper. In some places the ploughed fields
were on the top of all, where the chalk seems white
enough, yet not quite so white as chalk, doubtless because
it has from time to time been mixed with all sorts of
different manures which have been carried on to the
fields. Here there were ploughed fields in many places
on the top of these chalk hills, when just under the same,
many fathoms into the hill there were large ‘ drifts’ or
‘adits,’ ganger, where they hewed and dug up this
stone.

When the hill was observed, on a side where it was
steep and all the grass sward was off, so that the clear
white chalk showed itself to the open day, it then lay
mostly in this order:

Ft.

Onthetop was the grass sward, gras-skarpan,
with the soil, svartmyllen, immediately under it
about 1 foot thick, or sometimes a little less ...... Io

After that the ordinary chalk came on, which
however was blended with the harder kind of chalk
which is here called Hurlok, and is so hard that
one cannot write with it. The deeper one gets
the more he meets with this Huvlok, and less and
less of ordinary loose chalk, till after 3 or 4 fathoms
aa depth there is syle else than bare
Hurlok .. aie vans sesigeretes 24 ©

een the chalk: and ‘Hisch, ‘Hints next to never
appear, so that flint is here very rare. When one comes
still farther down, this Hurlok begins to be mingled with
Freestone, when the Hurlok, as one gets deeper, diminishes

more and more, while the Freestone on the other hand
U 2

292 KALM’S ENGLAND.

increases, tager til, until very low down one sees
nothing else but bare Freestone.

[T. I. p. 288.] This freestone is dug deep under the
hills. Here were three places, where they had formerly
hewn the same, and where adits down at the foot of the
hill went far under the earth, or the chalk hill. I was as
farin as the ends of two of them, one of which was
longer than the other. The former went as far as 40
poles—66o0 feet under ground.

At the entrance into the hill the same was walled
round for about 12 feet, as a door to this Freestone, to
prevent the Hurlok on the steep side of the hill from
slipping down and closing up the entrance again. But
after one gets farther in, it was not any longer walled,
but the roof and walls consisted entirely of Freestone,
just as nature had set it there. When anyone wished to
enter, a light, which was carried in the hand to light one-
self with, was lighted at the entrance of the adit. For
after one had come 6 or 7 fathoms into the mine, there
was no more daylight, but it was coal-black darkness as
of night. The breadth of these adits under ground was
for the most part 6 feet, the height 7 feet. Still the
breadth and height were sometimes a little greater,
sometimes again somewhat less. The water now trickled
down everywhere through the roof, or vault of the adits,
gangarna, from the hill above, ofvanifran backen,
which was said to come from the snow and rain which
had collected on the hill in the winter-time, but in the
summer, according to the unanimous account of the
workmen, this is everywhere as dry as it is ona dry
highway road. The carls avail themselves of this water
which is thus filtered down, silas ned, when they would
sharpen their tools with which they perform their work,
but for nothing else. Both roof and walls were very
uneven, for sometimes the sides projected, &c., some-

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 293

times went in hollows, according as [T. I. p. 289] it
occurred to them to hew the stone, and its natural
divisions. The adits into the chalk hill went mostly
horizontally, yet they sloped a little down in some places.
On both sides of the main adits there were other adits,
both ad angulos acutos, rectos, et obtusos, so that if the
entrances of all these cross-galleries had been open, this
would have been to one unacquainted with them the worst
Labyrinth and maze, irrgang, there could possibly be,
but these adits were now mostly filled up with the loose
bits of Freestone which had been broken off in the process
of hewing.

The stone divided itself here in the mine all in cracks
or fissures which all went from above downwards, ofvan
ifran nedat, more or less perpendicularly, but no
fissures ever ran horizontally or very obliquely, which was
the unanimous account of the workmen. These fissures
were sometimes broader, 6 inches wide or more, some-
times quite narrow, but nearly all very deep, so that a stick
4 feet long could be stuck into them without reaching
the end of them. These stones clear each other some-
what perpendicularly ad angulos vectos, or as though the
whole of the lower part of the chalk hill inside, as it
were, consisted of four-sided pillars, placed perpen-
dicularly, yet of unequal thickness, that is to say, that
some of these square pillars were larger, some less.
Similarly the sides also are not of the same breadth, so
that when on one pillar all four sides are of equal breadth,
on another only the two opposite sides may be of the
same breadth—e.g., two of the opposite sides may be
6 feet broad, but again the two other sides standing
opposite to one another [T. I. p. 290] are not more than
4 feet, 2 feet, or 18 inches broad, and so forth. One
does not here expect an absolute mathematical equality
in breadth of the four, or of the two sides which stand

294 KALM’S ENGLAND.

opposite to each other, but one is content if only they
are somewhat about the same breadth. Thus these
stones naturally clear each other perpendicularly on all
sides, and form as it were perpendicular sides of cubes
and oblongs, but they are never naturally divided horizon-
tally, but all horizontal division must be effected
artificially. When the carls wish to have a stone broken
horizontally of any perpendicular height or thickness,
they hew with their picks, hackor, a horizontal line
where they wish it to be divided, and then knock wedges
of iron into it, by which they spring it loose horizontally
to any thickness they please.

The loosened pieces are afterwards carried out on a
low wagon or truck, vagn, which instead of four wheels
has two rollers, kaflar, of ash, one at each end. The
diameter of each roller is nearly 1 foot. The body of the
wagon is made of solid oak timbers. This wagon, with
the stone which lies upon it, is drawn by the carls along
the adit till they get it out to the day, and if they after-
wards wish to have it up the hill at the entrance of the
mine, it is wound up along the road with a windlass, and
is so drawn to the place where they intend to hew and
work at it.

The stone, down in the mine, and when it was first
hewn, was of a grey or clay colour, and so soft that it
could be cut with a knife as easily as a hardened or dry
pot-clay, spik-lera. Similarly one could then [T. I. p.
291] with the hands and fingers break it in pieces, pro-
vided the pieces were not too thick ; but when it had come
up to the day, and lain for a time in the open air, it be-
came very white, although not quite so white as chalk:
for it could be seen that there was a considerable difference,
if one wrote with a piece of chalk on a wall built of this
stone; which I tried, and the man who had the direction
of the mine, also showed me. Similarly it has also the

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 295

property that after it has come into the open air it
always hardens more and more as it gets older and comes
to lie longer in the open day. Hence it is, that as soon
as it comes out of the mine or stone-pit, it is worked by
the carls, while it is still soft, for any purpose they please
and which it can be used for.

That these chalk hills where this stone is quarried
have not been as they are from the world’s beginning, the
various heterogenea seem to testify, which are often found
in hewing in the same, and of which we noted the
following :—

1. Kesballar. Balls of ivon pyrites. For the most
part round and spherical, uneven on the surface, some-
times externally ochre-colored, sometimes shining like a
ball of iron pyrites, Svafvel-kes. When they were
broken asunder, it was seen that a centre existed nearly
in the middle of the stone from which radii proceeded to
all sides of the periphery. The carls called them Crow’s
Gold, that is, Krake-guld, and did not know that they
were of any use. When laid in the fire they burned, and
emitted strong fumes of sulphur. These lay here and
there in the stone. They had a considerable weight,
nearly as great as that of a piece of iron of a similar
size.

[T. I. p. 292.] 2. Tra-r6étter, roots of trees. The
labourers said they sometimes find pieces in this stone
of the thickness of a carl’s arm, on which not only can
the bark be seen and separated from the tree within,
but also it is plainly seen that they are small pieces
of oaks. Such fragments seldom occur here of more
than 1 foot long. I was so lucky as to get here a
stone in which such a twig or root lay, which the carls
hewed loose, together with a piece of the stone, and gave
it me as a rarity. The twig in this stone is about the
thickness of a little finger.

2096 . KALM’S ENGLAND.

3. Concha, Pectinites dicta. The shell called P. oc-
curred in great numbers in these stones. Seldom was
any side of a stone hewn flat on which was not found
one, if not more of its shells.) The number of cockles,
strimmorna, was also not equal upon all the shells.
The small ones, the thickness of a nail, here formed the
greatest number.

4. Concha, Oftrea dicta. Oyster shells. We. saw two
of these which lay in the side of a large stone which we
had not liberty to hew asunder. They were so naturella
that it seemed as if some one had taken an oyster shell
and crammed it into the stone. The man who had the
supervision of the mine said that such natural oyster
shells are very often found in this stone when it was hewn
asunder. These oyster shells, as well as the aforenamed
Pectinites, always lay, according to the supervisor’s
account, horizontal in the stone as it stands in the mine,
or so that they turn the convex side down and the con-
cave up.

[T. I. p. 293.] We could not see many hetevogenea
here, nor did the supervisor of the miners know of many
kinds, however much we questioned him about them.

The use of this freestone, and the purposes it is used
for, are various. The principal is to build houses of it,
when it has first been hewn here at the mine into a
four sided oblong form. Likewise it is used for win-
dow-frames and door-posts, and arches over fire-
places, windows, and doors, for several kinds of
pedestals and pillars, the bottoms of baking-ovens, and
other such things. Most of the churches in this
district are entirely built of this stone, which indicates
the great age of this stone-mine. A quantity of it is
carried to various gentlemen’s estates round to build
houses and other things. The small pieces which are
struck off and chipped in the mine, when the stone is

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 297

broken loose, are used, partly to be carried on to the roads
to fill up the deep wagon and cart-ruts; partly they are
carried home by some farmers, brayed into fine dust
mixed with water, and worked into a cement, bruk, of
which the floors of malt houses and ‘lodges,’ or the part
of the barns where they thrash corn, are made, because
this, thus prepared, binds very strongly together. I asked
the carls whether lime can be burned from this stone ?
They all answered no, and added that one may burn it
as long as he likes, but he will never make lime of it—
which I leave there. Likewise they said that it is no
good for laying as a floor, because it softens and is re-
duced to a sediment by water which comes to stand upon
it [T. I. p. 294]. The tools and other things which the
miners use here at their work are the following :—Inside
the mine, where the stone is hewn loose, there are used
only a pick, iron-wedges, and a mallet, hacka, jarn-
viggar, och klubba. The picks or pickaxes, hac-
korna eller yxorna, exactly resemble the picks which
we use in Sweden to hack mill-stones with, only that
these English ones are very sharp, and are often
sharpened. The iron-wedges and mallets are of the
ordinary kinds. They avail themselves of the before
described (p. 290, orig. 294 above) wagon to carry the larger
stones out of the mine; but small bits are carried out
with a wheel-barrow. All the labour in the mine is per-
formed with a light, because not the least daylight can
get to the places where they work, but when the light is
put out or taken away, it is pitch dark. After they have
got the stone to the place they wish, they hew it with the
aforenamed picks, of which some are larger, some smaller,
some are broader, others narrower. With these the
stone is hewn tolerably even and flat on the sides. If
anyone wishes to have a very broad stone, or any other
narrower stone in half, a long saw is used, with which

298 KALM’S ENGLAND.

one or two carls saw it asunder, just as they please. To
make the sides even, and the corners square, a ruler
or straight-edge and set square are used, brukas lineal
och vinkel-hake. To finally make all quite plane and
smooth, they use an iron scraper or rimer, Skaf-eller
slat-jarn, with which they scrape or shave, skafva, it flat.

Down in the mine which went under ground, were set
here and there on the walls of the adits fast-stuck shoots
of Wild Thyme, Timjan, sweet briar, T6rn-rosor, &c.,
about which the carls related that if these are set there
fresh in the summer time, they will remain there green and
as fresh, and smelling as sweet in a couple of months’ time.

Some whom curiosity had driven [T. I. p. 295] down
or into this mine had written their names with the date
on the walls.

I asked the carls whether those who continually
labour in these mines are affected by any particular ill-
ness above others? They answered that they for the
most part get to enjoy good health, and are not aware
that they are exposed to more illnesses or cramps than
others. It is also very seldom that any stone falls down
by itself from the roof into the adits. They remembered
only one unlucky accident, which had been timed in
such a manner that a carl had been killed by a stone
which fell from the roof and crushed him to death. This
may doubtless have been the god-forgotten man of
whom Mr. Ellis tells in his ‘‘ Shepherd’s Sure Guide,”
pp. 231-2.

The carls also said that they had not remarked any
sign of approaching weather from this mine.

When this stone is hewn, sawn, or scraped with an
iron, it smells and stinks like a Stink-stein, Orsten.

The place and entrance to the mine was well on for 20
fathoms (120 feet) perpendicular depth below the highest
summit of the chalk hill, if not more.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 299

In several places appeared unsightly large pits,
gropar, which now on the bottom were overgrown
with grass, where they in former times had hewn up this
stone. The workmen told us that in one and each of
the same pits there is a hole or adit in under ground,
but that the entrances to them were now fallen in. The
deepest hole which was 40 poles into the hill where they
were now working, and in which I was, was said to be
over 500 years old. The whole mine was said to have
been worked for 1,000 years. There was a house or two
[T. I. p. 296] here built of this stone thatched with straw,
in which the workmen took their meals, kept their tools,
and worked in bad weather.

Akrarna. The ploughed fields which lay on the
chalk hills over or upon the mine were sown either with
wheat or black oats, which were both said to grow on
this soil very luxuriantly. But other kinds of crops do
not flourish there so well, because the earth is too dry.

[Here omit 16 lines. The art. ‘ Krita forvandlad
til flinta,’ in which Kalm records a superstition that
chalk lying on fields exposed for some time to the sun and
open air is changed to flint. ]

Rinnande vatten genom Kallare haller drickat
svalt.
Running water through cellars keeps the beer fresh.

In Eaton [Bray] where we dined, the landlord showed
us his cellar in which he had his ale, 61, and beer,
dricka, which was situated close to a little running beck,
and so arranged that the water came to run in the cellar
right under the middle of the beer-barrels. On either side
of the cellar was a row of beer-barrels, and the water ran
[T. I. p.297] under each row, for which purpose it was also
at the entrance to the cellar divided into two branches.
He assured us that the beer never turns sour in this cellar

300 KALM’S ENGLAND.

in summer, but is kept quite fresh by this water running
below. When he wished, he could always exclude the
water from the cellar, if only the hole was closed again,
through which it ran in; when it flowed its course in the
beck itself which ran close by the cellar.

At stiga til hastar fran en trappa.
To mount horses from a step.

Everywhere here at the farms in the country and in the
small places, there was a little trappa or ‘ mounting-
step,’ built 3 feet or 4 feet high, with steps up to the
highest part of it, on which the men, but especially the
women, went up when they wished to set themselves in
the saddle upon the horse. This mounting-step was
sometimes built against the wall of the house; but at
times also it stood by itself alone out in the yard or out
on the hill.

Qvarnar. Miils.

On the tract where we went to-day we saw two or
three windmills, built in the same way as is most usual
with us in Sweden. We also saw a water-mill at one
place,* which differed in nothing from ours more than
that here there were quartered a frightful number of
large rats, which they called Hanoverian rats.

Akrars belagenhet, &c.

On the south side of Edgeborough there were very
large fields. They were all laid out in bvoadland and teg-
skifte, but not the smallest acre-rein, 4ker-ren, or
ditch was found on them. These last, however, were
not required, because they lay sloping enough. They were
now devoted to crops for thissummer. We remarked

* There are now three water-mills at Eddlesborough, and one at
Totternhoe. -[J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 301

here what we [T. I. p. 298] had also found before on all
much-sloping fields in the whole of this district, that the
water-furrows between the ‘/ands’ were not drawn from
the highest parts of the fields to the lowest, but across,
and almost parallel with the beds of the valleys, which
was done that the water in heavy rain might not wash
away the mould and the sown crop, as it would otherwise
do to some extent if the water-furrows ran right down
from the hill to the valley, which is prevented by draw-
ing out the ploughed fields and furrows in the aforesaid
way.

Fara-falla p& 4akrar, och dessa Kreaturs mang-

faldiga nytta.

Sheep-folds on the arable fields, and the manifold uses of these
animals.

Sheep dung and urine are here considered as the
choicest manure for arable land, and the folding of sheep
on fallow land is reckoned such a useful thing that it
cannot be paid for in money. It is also only through
sheep that many a poor man has all his food and the
necessaries of life. The thing goes on thus:—A poor
man lays by something by labour, or how he can, so that
he is just able to buy a few sheep—the more the better.
Thereupon he goes to a farmer and offers to fold his
sheep at night on his fallow fields, if the farmer will give
him a reasonable payment therefor. The farmer is quite
satisfied with an offer which is so good for his fields, and
agrees with the owner of the sheep to pay him a certain
sum for every acre of land of his on which he folds his
sheep. If now the sheep-man sees that the farmer will
not give him so much as he thinks he has a right to ask,
he tells another farmer about it, and always strikes a
bargain with the highest bidder, or where he gets the
largest [T. I. p. 299] profits. When the agreement is

302 KALM’S ENGLAND.

entered upon, the sheep-man drives his sheep in the day-
time to pasture on the Common-lands, or Almanningar,
and [common] ‘ arable-field-pastures,’ betes-Akrar,* or
also on the farmer’s own land, where he always has
freedom to pasture them, because they by the droppings
which they leave after them always pay for what they
eat. The abundance of all kinds of weeds, which grow
upon the fields, gives them also an abundant feed. The
sheep-man goes himself to pasture with them, Faére-
mannen gar sjelf vall med dem, and in the evening
he drives them out on to the fallow-fields of the one whom
he has made an agreement with, where they are folded
at night in the same way as has been described above
[p. 262 orig. 263 above]. The more the sheep-man’s sheep
are increased, the more acres of land can he manure in
the year, and, consequently, the larger is his profit.
When it is very bad weather, he feeds them at home at
night with all kinds of straw and hay, which he afterwards
converts into manure, in the manner which has been
described above, and sells the same. The mild nature
of the air here in England which allows the sheep to go
out to pasture the whole year, summer and winter (and
in consequence nearly all the time they are folded on the
arable), causes the profit on a small flock of sheep to be
considerable, especially when the advantage of England
is added to that, that they have here no need to fear
wolves, vargar, which are not found in this country.
The sheep’s wool, and the manure collected at home
in bad weather, from the straw, together with the sheeps’
droppings, all of which the sheep-man can sell, in
addition to his being able now and then to sell some
sheep to the butcher, richly repay the few pence he had

* Of course these, which are only pastures after the crops are carried,
disappear with the enclosures. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 303

laid out on hay and straw for the sheep at times when
bad weather had compelled him to keep them at home.
Some assured us that when a man is owner of thirty or
forty sheep he can [T. I. p. 300], by only folding them
on another man’s arable, gain for himself in the year
from £10 to £12 sterling. Others said that ifa man has
150 sheep, he can in two weeks’ time just manure an acre
of land with them, and receives commonly from the
farmer 16s. in payment for each acre of land he so
manures.

The sheep are kept no more than one night on each
place in the field, but they stand tolerably thick. The
farmer leaves the man entire freedom to bait his sheep
in his own way, and pays him, nevertheless, the above-
named summa for each acre of land. Some of these
sheep-men, Fara-m4n, sell their sheep in the winter,
and buy others in the spring instead, from the districts
where they keep many sheep. They do this for the
reason that in mid-winter they cannot so easily fold
sheep on the arable, but are then often obliged to keep
them at home and feed them with all kinds of straw and
hay.

Late in the evening we returned to Little Gaddesden.

The 8th April, 1748.
Kyrko-tak af halm eller Ljung.

Church-roofs of straw or ling.

Mr. Ellis told us that he had seen, on his travels in
Suffolk, churches with stone walls, but for want of some-
thing else, thatched with straw in the same way as
houses are here thatched with it. Such a straw thatch
he said may last 100 years. A gentleman from Cumber-
land told us the same, that in one place and another
there are churches in Cumberland thatched with ling.

304 KALM’S ENGLAND.
[T. I. p. 301.] L6f til bransle. Leaves as fuel.

Mr. Ellis told us that poor folk use to collect the leaves
which fall down from the trees, dry the same, and use
it for fuel.

Huru kalk brannes af Krita.
How lime is burnt from chalk.

When I to-day questioned Mr. Ellis about the process
how lime is burned from chalk, he bade me accompany
him to a place where they burn it, which I did, and found
it done as follows :—

Here was an ordinary walled kiln, ugn, in which bricks
are burned. In it lime and bricks are burned together and
at the same time. The chalk is first dug up in large or
smaller pieces out of the chalk. hills and is carried to the
brick-kiln. Then, when one wishes to burn bricks, the
kilns are walled over nearest to the fire with bare chalk,
and that in the quantity which one wishes to have of
lime, or has of chalk, but not more than that the bricks
also may be burned through.

The largest pieces of chalk are laid nearest the fire
and the smaller ones on the top, ofvanpa. Above,
ofvanfor, the chalk are laid the bricks, tegelstenar,
which are burned in the usual way. After that a fire is
made in the kiln pipes, ugns-piporna, of which there
were two. First of all large wood is laid in, with which
the kiln is made hot. Afterwards only small bundles of
twigs, ris-qvistar, are used. Genista spinosa, furze, with
grass and moss, or also Brackens. With these the burning
is continued for three or four days and nights, dygnen,
when both the bricks and the chalk are full-burnt.
After the bricks and chalk have somewhat cooled, they
are covered over on the top with moss and furze blended
together, such as they had cut and bound together on

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 305

the common.* At the same time all the kiln-mouths are
also stopped, so that no moisture may draw in. There-
upon the bricks are first taken out and afterwards [T. I.
p- 302] the chalk, which chalk is now, after burning,
much lighter than before. It is then slaked with water,
like another unslaked lime, when it falls asunder into a
fine white meal or powder, which is the lime with which
they here build houses, manure arable fields and meadows,
etc.

Far-bete, som ar godt. Sheep-pasture which is good.

I asked Mr. Ellis what the nature and quality of the
sheep-pastures was here in England in the Provinces,
where they had the best sheep and the choicest wool. He
answered, all the sheep pastures in the said Provinces
consist of bare high chalk hills or escarpments, krit-
barg eller backar, yet differing from these districts
here in Hertfordshire, in that there are no hedges, but all
common land and open plains. He said further that
the sheep will not thrive so well in this district, where
there are too many inclosures surrounded with living
hedges, although the pasture itself is good enough; but
least of all will they flourish on wet places and Vale lands
where they always fare ill. He added that the place
the sheep should thrive best upon, ought to be dry hills,
where the wind has free access on all sides, and is not
hindered by hedges, &c. There should be no sumpy
places. The higher the place lies up in the air the
better for the sheep. If the meadows lie low, but consist
of salt-grass, the sheep also thrive tolerably well, although
they do not make such fine wool.

* Pa faltet. Ivinghoe Common. See T. I. pp. 197-8 and p. 256 ore.

and pp. 197 and 256 above. [J. L.]
x

306 KALM’S ENGLAND.

HushAallningen in Cumberland.

From a man from Cumberland I learned the following.
There are no chalk hills, but only high granite mountains,
graberg. The sheep are much smaller than those in
other parts of England, and the wool considerably
‘inferior, but the flesh good. The horses not of so large
a kind as here. [T. I. p. 303.] The sheep go out and
bait the whole winter. A great number of cows are
kept there. The cheese, osten, which is there made
is not so good as in other parts of England; but the
butter, sm6ret, is beautiful, and is bought there for
many places. The swine there are beautiful and fat,
and every year a multitude of them are driven from
thence to London. Very little wheat is sown there,
but rye largely, and still more barley and oats, of which
two last most of their bread consists. Earth-walls,
jord-vallar, are used mostly as fences, til stangsel,
around their arable fields. In ploughing, Aker-k6rsel,
they mostly use horses. In the river which divides
Cumberland from Skottland are found the best salmon
which occur in England. The farmers are mostly them-
selves the owners of their farms, or the home, homma,
they live at. It is rare to find any beeches there, but
oakwoods enough. No goats are kept there. The
houses are in some places built of clay and straw mixed
together, but in some places in Skottland the walls of
the houses are made only of grass turfs, grastorf, and
thatched with straw or ling. The fire-places and fuel
are used in the same way as in England, viz: without,
spjall, coal is what they mostly burn. Carts are mostly
used to drive in. The district is very cold in winter-
time. Most of their manure for the fields is cattle dung.

The oth April.

In the afternoon we walked about several arable-fields

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 307

and meadows, as well as inclosuves to make notes on one
thing and another.

Af hvad vaxter héet bestar.
Of what plants the hay consists.

On p. 227 orig. 225 above, are enumerated of what
plants the hay consists in one of the Duke of Bridgewater’s
hay lathes, hélador. [T. I. p. 304.]

To-day we amused ourselves by seeking out and
describing the plants which occurred in a haystack at
Hudnall. The hay smelt incomparably sweet, so that
there could hardly be a more agreeable scent from hay.
The owner said they had no other art with it than to
take care that it is dry weather when the hay is cut,
and the same dry weather will require it frequently to
happen that it is cut the one day and before the evening
of the next day it stands in the haystack; only that it
has necessarily been turned and dried before it is set in
the stack. He ascribed the good scent that the hay had
only to the goodness of the soil. How it is with this, I
leave there, but this I know, that I have seen not only
here where the soil, jordmon, was blended with chalk,
and on the chalk hills, but elsewhere in England where
the soil consisted of Gravel, grus, and where no chalk
was found for several miles—I have seen hay, which in
colour was somewhat red, til fargen ronnat nagot,
and which at a distance many might have taken for
spoilt, but which had nevertheless, the loveliest scent
that hay can ever have,so that it was a pleasure to
smell it, and which besides that was eaten more than
greedily by horses and cattle. The art, konsten, by
which this was prepared, shall be discussed a little farther
on. As this hay which we saw to-day was grown here
on high banks or hills, héga backar, we sought dili-

gently to see whether we could not find Linneus’ far-
=2

308 KALM’S ENGLAND.

gras or far-svingel in it, but it was labour in vain.
We saw not a sign of it. For the use of those who know
how to apply the principles to the care of meadows, I
will give a list of the plants of which the hay consisted.
In the same way as I have done before I will set down
the plants in the order of their abundance. They were
the following :—

[T. I. p. 305.] 3. Cynosurus, Kambexing, Linn.
Fl. Sv. 31 was commonest of all [C. cristatus. ]

2. Falthven, (Linn. Fl. Sv. 62) very common.
The fine blades of this made here the best grass-growth
and the most hay. [Agrostis capillaris.]

3. ANTHOXANTHUM (Linn. FI. Sv. 29), enough. [A.
odoratum. ]

4. Hvit Vapling, White Clover, much. [Trifolium
repens. |

5. Hundexing, (Linn. Fl. Sv.83) tolerably common.
[Dactylis Glomerata. ]

6. LoLiuM PERENNE, some. [Rye grass. ]

7. R6d Vapling, red clover.

8. Angs-svingel, 91. [Festuca Elatior. ]

g. Angs-grén, 77. [Poa angustifolia. ]

10. Plantago, 123. [P. Media.]

11. Lotus pentaphyllos flore majore luteo splendente,
Cc. B.

12. Dens Leonis, Linn. 627. [Leontodon taraxacum,
Dandelion. |

13. JACEA nigra 709, [Centaurea Jacea. |

I4. Mjolk- tistel, Hieracium, 639. [H. umbellatum. ]

Past Angs-syra (Linn. Fi. Sv. 295). [Ang-syra.
Rumex acetosa Linn. Lilja Sk. Fl. 239, Sorrel.| Each ofthe
foregoing group was found here in tolerable abundance.

16. GRAMEN LanaTuM Dalech 67. [Holcus Mollis.]

17. Ang-hafre, g6. [Avena pratensis. ]

18 Angs-Kampe, 50. [Phleum pratense. ]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 309

1g. Latuyrus Sylvestris lutea, 599. [L. pratensis. ]

20. Darr-gras, 80. [Briza Media, Quaking grass.]

21. Rod-svingel, 93. [Festuca rubra, subsp. of
F. ovina, Hooker, Stud. Fl., 1870, p. 448. Fescue-grass. |

22. TussILaco Vutec. Coltsfoot. [T. farfara.]

23. EQuisETum pratense.

24. BRUNELLA. [Prunella vulgaris, self-heal.]

25- Millefolium vulg. alb., Bauh. Pin., 140. [Achillea
Millefolium.] Yarrow, Milfoil.

26. CERASTIUM Villoso-viscosum 379. [C. Triviale
Link, is the C. Viscosum Linn. of W. Hooker and Arnott,
see J. Hooker, St. Fl. 1870, p. 55. Mouse-ear Chickweed.]

27. BELLIs Sylvestris minor C[aspar] B[auhin]. [B.
perennis L. Daisy. ]

28. Linum Catharticum [Linn. Purging flax.]

Of each of this last group there was found only a
single example.

Klades-lappar til gédsel pa A4kern.
Rags for manure on the arable.

We afterwards went over small inclosuves which were
sown with wheat, partly in broadland and partly in four-
thorough-stitches. Everywhere on these fields lay small
pieces of clothes or clothes-laps and clouts, or rags of all
sorts of different colours, some of which lay down in the
ground, others on the surface. They were bought from
a tailorin London, and carried here from thence, and laid
out on the fields as an excellent manure to increase
[T. I. p. 306] the growth of crops. The soil, jordmon,
was here the same brick-coloured earth as is found every-
where on Chilturn Land, but in addition these fields were
very full of flints.

Boékars vaxt och alder. Beeches’ growth and age.

On the north side of a hill there were several beeches

310 KALM’S ENGLAND.

cut down, where we passed the time for an hour to see
their age. All these stood in the open air not close
together, but far away from each other.

A beech trunk was measured which had at the large
end fifty-four sap-rings. The diameter was just 2 feet.
The sap-rings which were found nearest the heart,
ka&rnan, were narrowest and smallest, smalast och
smarst, from which they grew larger, gradatim; the
further they lay from the heart out towards the surface,
the larger they were. The length of the log was g feet.
At the small end there were forty-four sap-rings, and
the diameter was 19 inches. The distance between the
heart and the surface which had turned towards the
east, was 7 inches, the other 12 inches was all on the
west side.

Another beech trunk had at the large end seventy
sap-rings. The diameter could not be measured where
it was cut off at the roots, because the stem toward the
roots branched out so much on all sides; but 2 feet 6
inches above the place where the large end was cut off,
the diameter was found to be 194 inches. The length of
the trunk was 17 feet. At the small end there were 59
sap-rings ; the diameter 144 inches.

Another beech-trunk had at the large end 51 sap-rings.
The diameter was there 2 feet. The length of the log ro feet
3 inches. At the small end there were 41 sap-rings; the
diameter there 164 inches. [T. I. p. 307.] Always when
the diameter of a tree was measured, the bark was not
included.

Hedera ganska lang. Dess vaxt och Alder.
Ivy very long. Its growth and age.

In a wood, en Skogs-park, we saw 3 or 4 bushes of
Hedera Arborea C.B., which were the highest and longest
I ever yet saw.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 311

They had twined themselves around beeches, and
climbed up them right to the top. Their green leaves
covered the beeches so as to make them look at a distance
as if they were covered with verdure, and with full fresh
leaves close to the stem. The height of these ivy-bushes,
to the best of our judgment, a good 60 feet if not more.
We cut off one of the thickest, 4 feet from the ground, to
see how old it was, and measured its thickness. The
diameter was 14 inches, and it had here thirty sap-rings,
which showed its age inyears. As it had climbed up the
tree it had everywhere driven in a number of fibres
and roots into the same, from its stem, to hold fast
by. It had branched itself in many branches, which all
ran upwards. Some went right up to the top, others
wound themselves somewhat spirally round the tree.
This is not particularly liked by wood-wards or gardeners,
because it injures the trees, draws the nourishment from
them, and causes decay.

The 10th April, 1748.
At forvara rotter om Vintern.
To keep voots in the Winter.

Our host told us that among the best ways that
are practised in England for keeping carrots, parsnips,
Mor-roétter, Palsternackor, and other roots in the
winter uninjured by the cold, etc., is to lay them in dry
wheat-straw. Mr. Ellis said that some keep them in dry
sand [T. I. p. 308] in cellars. Others let them stand
out on the land the whole winter, only that the land is
covered well over with straw, or something else, so that
the cold cannot get at them.

Tecken till vaderlek af Bellis.
Sign of the weather from Daisies.
It was pleasant to see how Bellis sylvestris minor, C.B.,

312 KALM’S ENGLAND.

which here grew in multitudes on all pastures and grass
ground, and was now in full flower, drew together its
petals when the air was cold, or when it was like rain or
bad weather. A great many flowers of Syngenesia or
floribus compositis [Composite] had this quality.

Kes-ballar har och dar pa Akrar.
Balls of ivon-pyrites here and there on the fields.

I have before (p. 291, orig. 295 above) given a description
of the Kes-ballar which lay embedded in the Freestone
at Tatternel, and were found in abundance in the same
stone mine. In our walks hither and thither in the fields
and in other places in this district we often found these
Kes-ballar, Crows’ gold, Iron pyvites, either in pits where
they had dug up the chalk to carry on to the fields for
manure, or also out on the ploughed lands, in many
places round Edgeborough, as well as here round Little
Gaddesden. Those which are found on the fields have
doubtless been carried there with the chalk from the
chalk pits. When these had lain for a time on the fields,
the air, rain, and sun had considerably altered their
colour and appearance. They exactly resembled a piece
of the iron ore which is dug up in bogs and morasses,
and were of the same irony rust and ochre colour. The
interior looked very much like Ochra, although it was
harder, but the surface itself retained its radiated sul-
phurous colour and structure. They had still their former
considerable weight. [As these are found here in all chalk
hills among the ordinary chalk [T. I. p. 309] so I ask,
‘‘May not the bottom of all chalk hills, although it be
low down, consist of Freestone? May not the chalk and
Freestone differ, if only in the degree of hardness or
development, according as they lie nearer the surface or
deeper down? May not this which is now Freestone, in

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 313

former times have been chalk, or vice versé ? May not the
chalk sometimes, perhaps, change first to Hurlock and
afterwards to Freestone or vice versa ?” *]

The 11th April, 1748.

Huru en ny hack anlagges.
How a new fence is laid down.

When anyone wishes to erect an entirely new hedge
of living trees, either round arable fields, meadows, or
other property, it is done here in Hertfordshire, where
folk are held to be most expert in the art, in the following
manner :—

The hedge is planted generally in lined recta. If the
ground is free from trees and stubs, a pair of furrows
are ploughed straight on, where the new hedge is to be
planted. These furrows are turned towards each other,
but if the ground is full of tree-roots, so that the plough
cannot advance, the earth is commonly dug up with the
spade. Some use not to dig up anything on the place
they wish to plant, but are content with the mould they
cast up out of the ditch. When the earth has thus been
ploughed or dug up where the hedge is to be planted, a
ditch is dug along and close beside the same, which
ditch, after all the earth has been cast up out of it, is
commonly 2 or 3 feet deep below the surface of the
ground. This mould, which is taken out of the ditch,
is cast on to the ploughed-up, or dug-up, earth, at first
as much as to make a bank of 1 foot high or a little
more. Thereupon, young shoots of hawthorn or sloe

* In answer to the questions which I have enclosed in brackets :—

The Totternhoe Stone, a marly sandstone, might be called a develop-
ment of the Grey chalk, but that it lies at its base, above which the sandy
element disappears. The answer to the latter questions is negative. They
are separate beds. [J. L-]

314 KALM’S ENGLAND.

are taken, and cut [T. I. p. 310] off obliquely a good 4
or 6 inches above the root, and afterwards planted in the
cast-up bank all in a row, or in linea rectd. The thickness
of these shoots is about the size of a finger, sometimes a
little less. They are set so close together that there is
commonly not more than 3 inches between each. When
they are planted there is made, as it were, a water-
furrow right along the whole bank about 4 inches deep,
in which these shoots are set by their roots, but are so
placed that they do not come to stand perpendicular, but
very much leaning towards the ditch, so that they might
later on so much the better keep off the cattle. Upon
that the furrow in which they are planted, is turned over
again, by which mould is cast on to their roots, so that
the newly-planted shoots often do not come to stand
with their ends over an inch above the ground. The
shoots which are commonly used for this purpose
are either hawthorn or sloe, which are intermixed, but,
besides these, there are set here and there, either at a
certain distance or length from each other, or just as
they please, small shoots of willows, Vilar, Salices ;
beeches, B6kK; ash, Ask; maple, Lé6nn; lime, Lind;
elm, Alm; and other leaf-trees; which are cut off, so
that they are as short as the others. When this has
been arranged they begin to make the bank, vallen,
higher, in that more mould is cast up out of the ditch on
to the roots of the newly-planted shoots, till the wall or
bank, vallen eller banken, has been raised 1 foot
higher than when they were first planted, and of sucha
slope that when a stick is laid on the side or slope of the
bank there is commonly 18 inches between the row the
first shoots were set in, and the summit of this added
earth. Herein is now planted, in exactly the same
way, a row of hawthorn or sloe, and several of the above-
named leaf-trees, whose [T. I. p. 311] roots are

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 315

afterwards well covered over with the earth which has
been cast out of the ditch. When a_ perpendicular
line is erected from the row the lower planted shoots
stand in, it is seen that they stand 1 foot nearer the ditch
than the upper row, whence the slope of the bank
towards the ditch can be judged.

The earth which is here cast out of the ditch,
and in which the hedge was planted, consisted of the
brick-colored earth which is found everywhere about
here, with some flint-sand and small flint stones among
it. On one side the ditch hindered the cattle from
getting at the newly-planted shoots to do them any
injury, and on the other there were set up, as it were,
ledstangar, railings, or also a dead fence, which some-
what resembled a gardes-gard, similarly to prevent the
cattle on that side also from approaching the young
trees. It is commonly in the month of October or
February that this work is carried out in England. At
a place between Little Gaddesden and St. Albans there
was a new hedge planted in the above-named way, but
to hinder the cattle from injuring the young shoots,
there were on the summit and along the bank set what
I may call ledstanger, railings.

Down below the shoots there was a deep ditch dug,
partly for the same object, partly and principally to get
earth in which the shoots could be planted. On the
other side of the ditch opposite the hedge, close to the
edge of the ditch, there was a dead fence erected to
hinder the cattle and sheep from getting down into the
ditch to bite off the newly-planted shoots.

In another place there were, with the same object,
erected hurdles exactly the same as are here used as folds
on the arable, and have been before described (p. 262
orig. 264 above). These were placed just at the edge of the
earth-bank [T. I. p. 312] in which the shoots were

316 KALM’S ENGLAND.

planted, to hinder the cattle from climbing up on to
the earth-bank.

Obs. In England there is the advantage that nearly
in every town and large village there is one or more
nurseryman, Tragards-mastare, whose principal occu-
pation is, to sow and plant the seeds of a number of
different kinds of trees, and to keep ‘tree-schools,’ so
that they can sell a number of all kinds of different young
shoots for a reasonable price to one who requires them.
When, then, a farmer, en Landtman, wishes to lay
down, for example, a new hedge, he goes to such a
nurseryman and buys of him as many 1,000 shoots as he
requires, which he can at once plant out as a hedge
without waiting from the time they are sown till they
have grown so large that they can be planted out, which
would be too longsome, for langsamt, because the
hawthorn-berries lie, for the most part, two years in the
earth before they come up.

Sometimes a new hedge is made with a ditch on its
outer side, as in the afore-named manner, sometimes
also, without a ditch, when the mould to plant the shoots
in is taken from both sides of the place where the hedge
is going to stand. In planting the shoots, it is especially
necessary that the soil should be arranged close into and
around their roots. If the hedge is laid down without
any ditch, a dead fence must first of all be erected on
both sides of the planted shoots, to keep the cattle off
them, till they are somewhat large.

Huru en gammal hack férnyas, och en déd
upresas, &c.
How an old hedge is renewed, and a dead fence erected.

It has been mentioned above several times that no
other fences, stangsel, are here used around the arable
fields, meadows, pastures, orchards, flower gardens, and

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 317

kitchen gardens, &c., than [T. I. p. 313] hedges of all
sorts of prickly trees, sometimes also of trees without
thorns, and when these are somewhat old they are cut
down that new scions may shoot up from the cut-off
stubs. A dead fence is in the meantime erected for as
long a time as the upshooting scions take to acquire a
sufficient height, so that they can themselves fence off
the cattle. Now, I have just above described how an
entirely new hedge is used to be laid down in England,
therefore I will here give in detail the latter, or how to
renew an old hedge, and erect a so-called dead-fence, 6d.
hack, &c. I will describe it in the manner in which this
work is performed here in Hertfordshire, where it is
commonly held that the folk understand this work best
of all in the whole of England.

When a new-planted hedge is nine years old, it is
commonly cut down, partly that the owner may get fuel
from it, both for himself and to sell to others, partly that
he may get a new and better hedge from the upshooting
new scions; for when a hedge has stood for nine years,
a part of the trees in it begin to grow old and to go off,
so that it is no more so thick as before. In performing
this job all the trees are cut down quite close to the
ground, which do not grow in a straight line in the
middle of the hedge where the dead fence is to be
erected; but a part of the trees which thus stand in the
middle of the hedge, as many, namely, as one considers
on the spot will be necessary, are left to stand till one
has entirely cut down the others.

After that, staves, stafrar, are taken from the leaf-
trees which had stood in the hedge, the twigs, qvist-
arna, cut off, and the staves made quite smooth. The
length of every staff is made 4 feet 6 inches. The thick-
ness is from }[T. I. p. 314] to 2 inches diameter, and
sometimes more. These 4 feet 6 inch staves, are set all

318 KALM’S ENGLAND.

in a row, where the fence is to be, the one staff after the
other, never two staves abreast, so that just 2 feet length
is left between every staff, sometimes a little more, and
sometimes a little less. These staves are driven a good
4 inches, if not 6 inches down into the ground, and, that
this may be done more easily, the carl has a little mallet
with which he drives them down. Hereupon be it noted
that, if any of the trees which grow along where the
fence is to be erected, are found not to be particularly
long and thick, they are cut off 4 feet above the ground.
The remaining 4 feet stub, is made quite smooth from
twigs, and left to stand to be used asa staff or ‘ hedge-
pole,’ stafver. The more one can get of these the better
it is, because they, as root-fast trees, make the dead fence
stand steady and fast. After that, the carl takes the
longer trees left remaining in the hedge, cuts them more
than half through, about 4 inches above the roots, and
bends them so, gently and cautiously down along the
hedge. This down-bending is begun at one end of the
hedge thus :—Let the hedge, for example, go in a straight
line from north to south. Ifthe carl intends to begin to
tress, at flata, the dead hedge at the south end, he cuts
the tree standing there a little more than half through,
4 inches or more above the ground, which cutting is done
on the north side of the tree. After that he takes hold
of the tree, bends it softly and carefully down towards
the south ; and asthe lower parts of these trees are thick,
so that after they have been thus bent down they will
not further admit of being bent somewhat serpentiformiter,
if 1 [T. I. p. 315] may so call it (by which I mean when
it is first on one side of the one staff and immediately
after on the other side of the next), he causes the thick
stem to lie close against one side of the staves,and that
commonly on the twiggy side—of which more anon. Yet
he regulates this according to the situation of the tree, on

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 319

whichever side of the hedge it stands most; but the
upper ends of these trees thus half cut through near the
roots, which admit of being bent, he bends right and left
serpentiformiter about the staves, that is, if in this hedge
which stands north and south he makes the narrow end of
this tree to go on the east side of the one staff he causes
it afterwards to go on the west side of the next staff, still
he mostly arranges it so that the ends of these are turned
to the twiggy side. I will at once describe what I un-
derstand by the twiggy side, den qvistiga sidan.
Now, as these turned-down and half cut through trees,
are here to perform the same service as gérdsel or
gardsel-trador with us, they are commonly laid at the
inclination, or in the same sloping manner as some of the
gardesgards-trador, ‘fence-trees’ with us, viz., not
horizontally but obliquely and sloping, yet so that the in-
clination is nearer a horizontal than a perpendicular
line.

In this way the carl continues from the south end
northwards, so that he successively bends the trees which
follow in the hedge over those which have previously been
bent down, and that nearly in the same way as we in
Sweden make a sloping gardes-gard, only that he here
leaves the larger ends, as said before, to stand on one
side close to the staves, and bends the little end now to
one side of the one staff, and then to the other side of the
next staff, and so arranges that all the outer ends of these
[T. I. p. 316] trees are left on one and the same side
of the dead fence or gardes-gard, viz., in the fore-
going example, if he has turned the end of the first
down-bent tree to the east side of the fence, hacken,
so he ought also as far as possible to turn all the other
outermost ends of the down-bent trees towards that side
alsu. The height of the hedge is equal to that of the
staves, viz., 4 feet. When the tree is cut near the roots

320 KALM’S ENGLAND.

somewhat more than half through, especial care is taken
that the cut or incision in the part of the tree which
is to be bent down is made very long, so that rain water
and other wet may be all the less able to damage it, as
well as that it may so much the better be able to be
bent; but the stub which remains down in the ground,
one does not trouble himself about how the end of that
is cut. And as it is seldom that so many trees grow in
the middle of the hedge, that they alone, when they are
bent, will be sufficient to fill up the fence with, but
there are openings all the same here and there, long sprays
and stems, spratar och stand, of hawthorn are taken,
which are bent or laid in the hedge in the same way as
the little ends of the former trees, viz., that they go
somewhat in formam serpentinam hortzontaliter, or, now on
the right hand side of the one staff, and afterwards on
the left of the next following, and so by turns always so
that the outermost ends are ultimately turned to one
and the same side of the hedge, as here, in the example
given, to the east. They are especially particular, to
in this way wreath or set in hawthorn or sloe down to
the ground, to thereby hinder the swine from going
through the hedge in their explorations, because both
these trees with their long thorns usually deprive them
of all pleasure in such a research. [T.I. p. 317.] But
that this dead fence may have still more strength, they
procure for themselves long sprays either of hazel,
willow, blackberry-bushes, or some other tree of which
they take two sticks of about the same length, which are
twisted, or wreathed spirally about each other on the
top of the fence over the others, always so that the ends
of the staves, st6rarna, come to be wreathed in between
those two sprays, and thus fastened. They begin with
this, thus :—

The large end of a spray is set on the one side of a staff

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 321

en stor, and the large end of another spray on the other
side of the same staff. Next, the sprays are bent across
each other, so that the spray, whose large end was now
for example, on the west side of a staff comes in the
next place to lie on the east side of the next staff. Soit is
commonly done with the sprays at their large ends, where
they are thick and stiff, but afterwards they are wreathed
spirally, so that they had commonly got in one, if not
two spirals between every staff. When these sprays are
complete two new ones are taken, and it is continued in
the same way along the top of the whole length of the
gardes-gard. But hereupon be it noted, that if the
trees a little more than half cut through near the roots
and afterwards bent down, turn the root ends or the
thicker ends, for example, towards the north, and the
point or the smaller end towards the south, as they lie
in the hedge, these spirally-wreathed sprays ought to
turn the large ends, on the contrary, to the south and
the little ends to the north, also the work of wreathing
them is begun at the north end, because it is believed that
the dead hedge is by this means steadier and bound
. faster, than if they are turned with the ends in the same
direction as the large trees, which lie obliquely and sloping.

In respect of this also [T. I. p. 318] care is taken
that these spirally-wreathed sprays, all come to lie
horizontally.

In most cases the sprays were only wreathed once
spiraliter between each staff so that one and the same spray
by this arrangement always came to lie on the same side
of the staves. It was also commonly arranged that the
small end of these came eventually to be turned to the
twiggy side, and if it at any time came to be turned
out to the other side, it was always cut off. I have in
this description often mentioned the twiggy side, den

qavistiga sidan. Now, I willsay what itis After the
Y

322 KALM’S ENGLAND.

dead hedge has thus been erected as has been described, all
the twigs on one side, by preference on that which looks
inward, are cut off, so that it is quite smooth and even,
but on the outer sides of this dead hedge to which the
carls had turned all the points of the so bent down and
inset trees, the twigs are cut off in this way, that the
twigs near the ground are allowed to go out 2 feet or
2 feet 6 inches from the hedge, but are afterwards cut
off shorter and shorter the higher they are up, so that
the highest are scarcely 4 inches long.

If one stands on the flat side, and looks over the
hedge, and along it on the twiggy side, then it looks like
a sloping earth wall. The reason why the twigs on the
one side are left so long is that the young shoots and
scions which come to run up just between these twigs
may in their tender age be shielded from the approach
of the cattle by these dry twigs, which are mostly
hawthorn.

In several places it was the practice that when they
cut down an old hedge near the roots and erected a
[T. I. p. 319] dead, in the manner just described, in
the same place, they dug close alongside of the hedge
on one side a little ditch of 1 foot deep, and the same
breadth, which was done for two reasons.

1. The mould which was taken out of the ditch was
cast up on, and over the roots of the hedge, which is
accounted a choice manure to force the cut-down hedge,
both to shoot faster, and to form a larger number of shoots.

2. The ditch on one side hindered the cattle from
coming to the young shoots and injuring them. On
the other side they were protected by the thorny twigs
left remaining, but in many places, in short, in most
places, this was neglected, nevertheless, it seemed to be
a very wise provision.

All the trees and twigs cut down in the hedge were

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 323

collected together, cut into different lengths and bound
up in bundles. The stems of the thicker trees, which
were of an arm’s thickness, more and less, were set out
and bound separately together. The twigs and the
smaller sticks were also bound together in bundles.
Scarcely any twig was left, however small it was, which
did not find its place with the others in the bundle, an
unfailing sign that the folk here knew to set a right value
on the wood, and to be careful of such a precious treasure.
It is incredible, however, what use and profit a ‘farmer’
and Landtman, in these woodless districts had from
these hedges, which gave him not only sufficient fuel
for his own requirements, but put him also in the position
to sell a quantity of it to others who had not such them-
selves.

The larger a tree was, the dearer it wassold. I noted
also that more prudent [T. I. p. 320] economists always
carried the smallest bundles of twigs home for their
own use, and were content with them; but spared all
the thicker timber to be sold to others. I even saw one
who himself burned brackens the greatest part of the year,
and sold all the wood which he yearly got from the
hedges he cut down, which was a considerable quantity.
Wherever we wandered about we saw large fagots and
bundles of larger and smaller timbers, which they had
bound together from the cut-down hedges, and left for a
time near the hedges to dry, from whence they were either
carried home, or sold for ready money. They were also
sometimes left for poor folk, who in return did day-work
for the farmer.

When a hedge had thus been cut down and arranged,
it commonly made such strong shoots, that in two or
three years’ time it could do service as a barrier, and be
in a position to keep out the cattle. The dead fence

was then taken away, and carried home for fuel.
¥2

324 KALM’S ENGLAND.

The cutting down of these living hedges and the
erection of the dead hedges in their place was commonly
effected in October and November, in the autumn, and in
January, February and March, and at the beginning
of April, in the spring, only with this difference that the
young hedges were cut down in the autumn, but the old
in the spring, which experienced economists had found
to be best.

In the hedges there stood here and there large trees,
such as beeches, ashes, elms, limes, &c., which were an
ornament around the arable fields; but the large leaf-
trees are said, however, to have the disadvantage that
they by their dripping when rainy weather set in, as it
were [T. I. p. 321] killed the hedges which stood under
them, besides drawing considerable nourishment from
the arable fields close beside them.

The height of these dead fences was, as has been said,
commonly 4 feet; but it was also lower in some places,
where they had only sheep and no large cattle.

The reason why the trees were cut little more than
half through, near the roots, and afterwards bent down,
was in addition to what has been given above, partly that
the dead hedge might be steadier, partly that young
shoots should shoot up where a long-sloping incision was
made in the tree so bent.

The hedges here consisted of different trees, such as
hawthorn, sloe, dogrose, blackberry-bushes, willow, ash,
elm, maple, beech, holly, oak, etc., among which the
hawthorn formed the most part, and next to that the
sloe. This last was an arrant rogue at creeping under
the earth with its roots, so that it was not long among
the others in the hedge before it came creeping from them
forward out into the fields. Here it so pulled the wool
from the backs of the sheep, which sought for the fine
grass under it, that large locks of wool remained every-

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 325

where on its thorns. Jungstrém called it Ull-rjuf,
‘ wool-stealer,’ in consequence, for which name this bush
here gave very good reasons. A little ditch drawn along-
side the hedge could easily have stopped its bad habit of
creeping far from the hedge. In cutting down a hedge,
as soon as the trees which were not wanted for erecting
a dead hedge were cut down to the ground, there was
commonly dug up a narrow ditch close to the hedge, out
of which the mould was cast up on the stubs which
[T. I. p. 322] were covered with it that the sun might not
injure the stubs, but that they might be forced to make
stronger shoots, and strike out many scions.

Helge-dagars firande i Angland.
The celebration of Holy Days in England.

England has nearly the same high-days as we in
Sweden, and the Gospels and Epistles for them are also
nearly the same; but the Church ceremonies are ganska
skilljaktige, very different. The sermon itself (in the
English Church) which is all read from a paper writing,
does not last over half-an-hour. The priest does not in-
terpret in it the Gospel or Epistles, but he takes some
Bible text which he explains and moralises over, and it
sometimes happens that in the whole of his sermon no
more Scripture Texts are cited and expounded than the
single one he has taken for a Text. Sunday is esteemed
outwardly in some things very holy, so that no ordinary
work is carried on on this day. To dance, play cards,
play on an instrument, to hum or sing dances on Sunday
is esteemed a very great sin and scandal, and the man
who was so indiscreet and transgressed in these respect,
might at least in any town, soon place himself in great
danger and risk. But to sit all day at the beer-shop,
krogen, drink himself drunk, to visit mindre tuk-
tiga hus, and pass the day with dissolute scum

326 KALM’S ENGLAND,

is not so rigorously guarded against. On the other holy
days, Helgedagar, except Sunday, such as the second
and third days in great high-feasts, stora hogtider,
the Feast of the Annunciation, Midsummer-day, &c., a
service it is true is observed in the church, but all work
is carried on exactly the same as on any week day. Ina
word, they are observed here in the same way as Apostle
days in Sweden.

Angelska Qvinfolkens klader-dragt, maner, &c.
English women’s costumes, habits, Gc.

When the English women in the country are going
out to pay their compliments to each other, they com-
monly wear a red cloak, klades-kapa. They also wear
their patiens, jarn-skor, under their ordinary shoes
when they go out, to prevent the dirt on the roads and
streets from soiling their ordinary shoes. All go laced,
and use for everyday a sort of Manteau, made commonly
of brownish Camlot. The same head-dress as in London.
Here it is not unusual to see a farmer’s or another small
personage’s wife clad on Sundays like a lady of ‘ quality’
at other places in the world, and her every-day attire in
proportion. ‘Paniers,’ Styf-Kjortlar, are seldom used
in the country. When they go out they always wear
straw hats, halm-hattar, which they have made them-
selves from wheat-straw, and are pretty enough. On
high days they have on ruffles, manchetter. One
hardly ever sees a woman here trouble herself in the
least about outdoor duties, such as tending, at vara
med, in the arable and meadows, &c. The duty of the
women in this district scarcely consists in anything else
but preparing food, which they commonly do very well,
though roast beef and Pudding forms nearly all an
Englishman’s eatables.

Besides that, they wash and scour dishes and floors,

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 327

etc., for about cleanliness they are very careful, and
especially in these things, to wash clothes, and to hem
one thing and another minutely.

They never take the trouble to bake, because there is
a baker in every parish or village, from whom they can
always have new bread. Nearly the same can be said about
brewing. Weaving and spinning is also in most houses
a more than rare thing, because their many manufacturers
save them from the necessity of such. For [T. I. p. 324]
the rest, it belongs to the men to tend the cattle, milk
the cows, and to perform all the work in the arable fields
and meadows, and in the ‘lodge’ and ‘lathe,’ &c. I con-
fess that I at first rubbed my eyes several times to make
them clear, because I could not believe I saw aright,
when I first came here, out in the country, and saw
the farmers’ houses full of young women, while the men,
on the contrary, went out both morning and evening to
where the cattle were, milk-pail in hand, sat down to milk,
and afterwards carried the milk home. I had found,
then, that every land has its customs. In short, when one
enters a house and has seen the women cooking, washing
floors, plates and dishes, darning a stocking or sewing a
chemise, washing and starching linen clothes, he has, in
fact, seen all their household economy and all that they
do the whole of God’s long day, year out and year in,
when to these are added some visitors. Nearly all the
evening occupations which our women in Sweden perform
are neglected by them, but, instead, here they sit round
the fire without attempting in the very least degree what
we call hushalls-syslor, household duties. But they
can never be deprived of the credit of being very hand-
some and very lively in society. In pleasant conversa-
tion, agreeable repartie, polite sallies, in a word, in all
that the public calls belefvenhet, politesse and savoir
vivre, they are never wanting.

328 KALM’S ENGLAND.

They are lucky in having turned the greater part of
the burden of responsible management on to the men, so
that it is very true what both Englishmen and others
write, that England is a paradise for ladies and women.
It is true that common servant-girls have to have some-
what more work in them, halla nagot mera uti, but
still this also is moderate, and seldom goes beyond what
has been reckoned up above. But [T.I. p. 325] the
mistresses and their daughters are in particular those
who enjoy perfect freedom from work.

To us in Sweden, where the wife, no less than the
husband, is obliged in every way to bestir herself and
keep her wits about her, fika och vara om sig, to
help to win the bare necessaries of life, an English wife
would not seem to be particularly well-suited. I have,
however, with my own eyes, seen some proof of this, that
when constrained by necessity to exert themselves, they
have been as clever managers as anywhere in the world,
for they are not wanting in sagacity to carry them through
the most difficult cases.

The 13th April, 1748.
Angars gédning. M anuring meadows.
This work of manuring meadows is mostly performed
here in the autumn, after they have carried the hay,
when soot and other kinds of manure are spread over the

inclosures, tackter, sown with Clover, St. Foin, and
other kinds of hay.

Huru mycket de fa efter en bushels utsade.
How much they get in return for each bushel sown.

Several farmers said here that two bushels of wheat
are commonly sown out on an acre of land, acreland,
and in return, when the field is well-managed and the
year’s growth is good, twenty-five bushels are reaped. At

LITTLE GADDESDEN, 329

Ivinghoe it was related that they get ten bushels of barley,
korn, for every bushel sown.

At s& laga, det héet blifver grént och
valluktande.

How to arrange that the hay may be green and fragrant.

Of the many good kinds of hay here in England I have
in particular seen two; the one is quite green and as if it
were newly mown, though it may be one or more years old ;
the other has a brownish appearance, but smells incom-
parably well, so that no more delightful scent could
attach to hay. I asked that clever farmer, Mr. Williams,
in what way both these kinds of hay were prepared. He
answered [T. I. p. 325] that the hay retains its green
colour if it is treated in the following manner :—As soon
as it has been mown, and has lain a little time, it is
turned over, in which way, if it is sunshine, it is continued
the whole day, so that it is turned over nearly once in
each hour; because with hay there is the peculiarity,
that if the sun gets to shine long on one side and dries it,
it loses its green colour and becomes pale. This turning
is continued until the hay is dry, when it is carried home
and laid in the lathe, lada, or rather in the stack. An
hay thus managed has a very fragrant scent, although
not quite so strong as the following brownish sort, which
is prepared thus :—After the hay has been mown it is
turned as usual from time to time, and when it is nearly
dry, but has still some moisture left in it, which however
should necessarily be a certain degree, for which an
exact knowledge is required, it is carried home, laid in
the lathe, lada, but by preference in the stack, when
from the still remaining moisture in it, it comes to have
as it were a kind of sweating, which far from injuring the
hay, or giving it any unpleasant taste or smell, causes it
to have the loveliest and most delightful scent which can

330 KALM’S ENGLAND.

ever beinany hay. Mr. Williams doubted, however, very
much whether anyone, after a mere account of the pro-
cess, would be ina position to do this, unless he were
present when the hay was so prepared and got to learn
to know then how far it ought to be dried before it is laid
together to undergo this sweating.

This is the hay which is so agreeable to cows and horses,
that they nearly forsake everything else, when they can
enjoy this. The farmers also consider this very whole-
some [T. I. p. 327] and good for cows, because they
become very thirsty and drink much when they have
eaten it, and afterwards give an abundance of milk.

Here I will now add, that all the farmers I talked
with in this place, unanimously affirmed that it is far
better to lay the hay in stacks made and thatched as
above described (p. 211 orig. 210 above) than to lay it in
lathes, lador. The reason they gave was, that after the
stack has been well thatched, the hay can be kept far
better in it, because the air has free access on all sides to
weather and dry it, while on the other hand that which
is arranged in lathes has not this advantage, but is in part,
especially that which lies nearest the walls, musty and
mouldy. Nor can the hay which is laid in lathes ever
acquire the delightful fragrance, which well managed hay,
laid in the stack, commonly has, although the kind of
grass itself often does not seem to be so choice.

Aske-tradets alder. The Ash tree’s age.

An ash which grew in a hedge, and was newly cut
down, had at the large end 104 sap-rings, which gave its
age in years. The diameter was here 22 inches. From
the 14th to the 30th year the tree had made the thickest
sap-rings, but the outermost were very thin. The length
was 12 feet. This tree had not had freedom to grow in
height, but after it had attained 6 feet in height, it had

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 331

been cut off at the top, that it might strike out many
shoots, which were cut off after they had grown to some
thickness, and carried home for fuel, after which the stub
was again left freedom to strike out others, which twigs
again, after some time were cut off for the same object.
This mode of providing fuel, I have seen very much used
[T. I. p. 328] in the districts where I travelled in Eng-
land. On the stub left remaining in the hedge there was
a shoot left, which had run up from the roots, and could
at some future time be used in the same way.

Another ash had 92 sap-rings at the large end, which
denoted the age. The diameter at that place was Ig
inches. Up to the Igth year it had made quite small
sap-rings, but in the rgth year it had made one large
enough, and in the 2oth the largest of all. After that it
had had, Sedan hade hon framgent hade, large sap-
rings, until it reached 38 years, after which they began
to be narrower and narrower. The length of this log
was 19 feet 6 inches. At the little end there were 80
sap-rings. The diameter was there 13 inches. It was
cut and managed in the same way as the former one.

Ek-tradets alder och vaxt.
The Oak tree’s age and growth.

We afterwards came across a felled oak, which we
also examined, to get to know its age. At the large end
were 48 sap-rings. The diameter was 22 inches. After
it had attained a height of g feet from the roots it had
been cut off, that it might strike out many shoots, which
could be used for fuel. It had considerably thick sap-
rings. On one side of the hedge in which it had stood,
was a road, on the other ploughed fields, only small trees
with it in the hedge. The soil the same as everywhere
here at Little Gaddesden. At the little end the sap-rings
could not be distinctly seen, for it was cut several times,

332 KALM’S ENGLAND.

[T. I. p. 329.] Harfvarnas beskrifning, som har
brukas.

Description of the harrows which are used here.

The harrows in use here are made in the same way
as with us in Sweden. Their length is commonly 4 feet
3 inches, breadth 3 feet 2 inches. Some consisted of
five bars, tran, and some of four, with always five tines,
tinnar, in each bar, tra. The distance between the
tines was commonly g inches, the length of the tines 6
or 7 inches. The breadth of each of their sides 3 inch.
They were not fastened, fast haftade, as is commonly
done with us by being thrust in from below, and then
clinched on the top, nadas ofvantil, when the part
which is thrust into the bar is narrower than that below,
but they were here thrust through from above, when the
upper end of them was beaten thin, bent ad angulum
vectum, with a nail-hole in the same crookt and thin
beaten part of the iron, through which a nail was knocked
down into the harrow-bar, harf-traden, which held
the tine, pinnan, fast. But asthe hole for the time or
harrow-tine, harf-pinnan, was as large as the thickness
of the tine, the tine was often shot up, and became loose,
in this flint-full earth.

Jordens tjocklek somligstaids pé kritan.
The thickness of the soil in some places on the chalk.

Ina thick wood of leaf-trees was a pit, where they had
taken chalk, in which we measured the thickness of the
soil, which we found to be 4 feet 3 inches. This earth
which lay upon the chalk was of the same brick-coloured
kind as is found everywhere about here.

Such was the thickness at this place, but in other
places it was sometimes more, sometimes less.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 333

Aldren och vaxten pa Agrifolium. The age and
growth of holly.

In a newly felled hedge there lay among other trees
a somewhat thick holly, Agrifolium Raj. Syn. 466, which
at the large end had thirty sap-rings, which [T. I. p. 330]
showed that it was thirty years old. The diameter was
44 inches.

The 14th Apvril, 1748.
Manfolkens syslor och plagsed har pa orten.
Men’s duties and habits in this place.

Men have here to take thought for the heaviest part
of the cares of husbandry. They have to do all the work
in the arable fields, meadows, in the wood, the lodge, and
the lathe, pa Aker, ang, i skog, loga, lada.

The women have also bishop’d the care of the cattle
on to them, even to the extent that the carls commonly
milk the cows, as has been said before. In short, all out-
door work belongs to the men. They have to collect
together the wherewithal to feed, nourish, and clothe
both themselves and the women, for here the women do
not get sore fingers by much spinning, spanad, or arm-
ache or back-ache from weaving. It is the part of the
Manufacturers to make up for this, and the men’s purses
are punished in this matter. The men consequently
think it no more than reasonable that they should some-
times take a little rest. [The Village Inn.] We staid
here at the Imm, where the host kept ale and brandy for
sale, and into which the men of this village very often
came, to pass some hours over some Pint beers (pints of
beer). There were seen, sometimes both before and after
dinner, a number of labouring men and others killing
time in this way. Still, the evenings after six o’clock

334 KALM’S ENGLAND.

were especially devoted to this, after the carls had finished
their regular labour and day’s-work. I often wondered
how some of them could have their means of subsistence
in such a way, the more so because ale and brandy were
here very dear; but most of all I wondered over this, that
folk who could only provide food for themselves, their
wives, and children, out of daily wages, dags-penning,
could spend time and money in this way. It was, how-
ever, not unusual [T. I. p. 331] to see many sit the whole
day at the inn. But the custom, maner, of the country
that friends and neighbours come together, sit and con-
verse, the abundance of money in this country, the ease
with which a man could in every case have his food, if
only he was somewhat industrious, seem to have con-
duced to this result. However, I more than seldom saw
anyone imbibe so much that he became drunk from it.

Ale, 6l, was the drink that was most used here.
Brandy was seldom asked for. It only occurred to me,
a foreigner, how folk, who commonly are so self-seeking,
fikande om sig, could spend often a great part of the
day in this way. This manner of life was customary at
all the places I travelled through in this country. It is
not to be wondered at then, if a great many labourers
and others, however large the daily wages and profits
they can make, can, for all that, scarcely collect more
than what goes from hand to mouth.

Tussilago p& akrar. Colts foot on arable fields.

On the greater parts of the arable fields, which were
somewhat damp, Tussilago vulg. [Coltsfoot, T. Farfara]
grew in great abundance, and that mostly on the
ploughed plots which had been sown the year before.

Goken, the Cuckoo,1 heard to-day the first time
this year, though some said they had heard it a week
before.

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 335

Mullvads-hégar upkastade. Mole-hills cast up.

I have often before said that in this place are found a
very great number of moles. The earth and mole-hills
which they had cast up on the meadows, the farmers
caused to be spread out over the meadow, that they, in
any case, should not originate any hillocks, tufvor, on
them.

[T. I. p. 332.] Boékars Alder och vaxt.
Beeches’ age and growth.

Below the house where we had our lodgings was a
wood of high and thick beeches. Among them were
some cut down, on two of which we counted the sap-
rings, to see their age and growth, and to gain from that
some idea of the fertility of the soil. One of the beeches
which lay here had at the large end 162 sap-rings. The
diameter there was 2 feet 10 inches. The length of this
beech-stock was zo feet. At the little end there were 142
sap-rings, and the diameter was 2 feet 4inches. Another
beech in the same park had at the large end 168 sap-rings,
or years old. The diameter at this end was 3 feet 5
inches. The length was 18 feet 6 inches. At the little
end there were 156 sap-rings, and the diameter was 2 feet
I inch.

At this point I make only this remark: This wood or
park consisted of high and thick beeches. The soil was
here the same as is found everywhere about Little Gad-
desden, viz., the often described brick-coloured earth,
tegelfairgade jorden, but the reason why these trees
had not come to increase in their thickness in proportion
to their age is, that those previously described had grown
in hedges, where they had had open air on all sides, a
long way between each tree, and the roots had the use of
the neighbouring ploughed fields, &c.; but these had
stood crowded together where the air was prevented

336 KALM’S ENGLAND.

from getting to them by those standing round. In that
position they could only hasten to run up in height.
Perhaps, also, it might somewhat have contributed to
this, that the ground had always been overgrown with
grass, which had not given the tree-roots so much
nourishment as where they ran under the cultivated
fields.

[T. I. p. 333.] Huru frukt-tran planteras vid
murar och deras nytta.

How fruit trees ave planted against walls and their use.

Everywhere I have travelled here in England in the
country as well as in and near London and other towns,
I saw a particularly profitable custom with the planting
of certain fruit trees, which consisted in this :—Around
most of the gardens here in England there were built
brick-walls of various heights. When anyone had a fruit
tree which he wished to be able to bear either early or
ripe fruit, the same was planted, if the wall ran from west
to east, on the south side of, and close against the wall.
Afterwards its branches, qvistar, were carefully spread
out along the wall, on both sides of the tree, after which
a little bit of cloth was taken and bent round the twig,
qvisten. This bit of cloth was afterwards nailed fast
to the wall, by which means the twig or branch of the
tree came to be stretched out along the wall. According
as the twig grew longer it was nailed fast to the wall with
more laps in the aforenamed manner. They began in
this way when the tree was little, and afterwards went
on so continuously, according asthe tree grew. No twig
or branch got to grow on the outer side away from the
wall, but the tree was obliged only to extend itself on
both sides. By reason of the tree thus coming to stand
right in the heat of the sun, it could not be otherwise
than that its fruit should be very early ripe and very

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 337

beautiful. The trees whose fruit otherwise could never
be ripened in England ripened quickly in this way as
well as if they had been indigenous in England. Apricots,
Apricoser, Pistachios, Pistacier, Peaches, Persiker,
in their manifold varieties, with other beautiful fruits,
were managed in the same way.

They were planted in the same manner against walls,
or the walls of houses, which in summer time looked very
pretty in consequence, when a choice [T. I. p. 334] fruit
tree often overclad the whole wall. No side of the garden-
walls or of the house-walls, for the houses were here nearly
always built of brick, was left bare and void of them,
whether it was that which faced the south, east, west, or
north ; for they chose out for those aspects such trees as
either preferred the morning, noon, or evening sun, or
loved to stand in the shade. Thus it is often seen that
cherry-trees which bear Morels, Moreller, were spread
out on the north side of the garden-walls or house-walls.
In the same way were red and white currant bushes,
Vinbars-buskar, planted on the last-named or north
side.

Halm-hattar. Straw-hats.

I have mentioned before (p. 323 orig. 327 above) that
the greater number of the English women in this district
trouble themselves very little about such domestic duties
as in other countries form a great part of the occupations
of women, but that they had laid most of the burden of
that on tothe men. I saw, however, in some places some
part of the women afford proof that they are not wanting
in ability for various things, if only the custom of the
country had not freed this sex from such. Here were
several women who were very busy in making straw hats
which they afterwards sent hither and thither to be sold.

The straw which was used for this purpose was only
z

338 KALM’S ENGLAND.

wheat straw, nothing else. Of this, long straws were
taken, which were cut off into pieces g inches long, which
were bound into small bundles after the tubes had been
first cleaned out. Such a straw as has been speckled
black by the rain, ought on no account to be taken. To
make the straw still whiter they did this: One of the
bundles was dipped in water ; afterwards sulphur was laid
in a round iron ladle, stopslev,* which had no handle,
[T. I. p. 335] and it was set fire to, after which this
lighted sulphur, together with the st6p-slev was set on
the bottom of a can, pint-pot, or similar vessel of the
same width above and below. Round about the sides of
this vessel these straws, halm-stran, are set up, so that
the sulphur is in the middle of the bottom. The pint-pot
is covered over with a cloth, when the vapour and smoke
from the sulphur makes the straw in these bundles much
whiter than it naturally was before. When they wish to
plait, flata, with it, such a bundle is first dipped in water,
so that the straw may be softer, and not break off. The
particular manner in which this plaiting is afterwards
done cannot so clearly be described in words.T

Anméarkningar vid Krita och Flinta.
' Notes on Chalk and Flint.

It has often been mentioned before in this description
of my travels, that the hills in the whole of this district
in Hertfordshire, consisted only of chalk, af bara krita,

* Stop-slev. In Ivinghoe village, Sept. 1886, sulphur about the size
of a walnut is laid in a shallow circular iron pan, shaped like a scale-pan,
nearly 6 inches diameter and about } inch deep. This is set on to live
coals which are contained in a circular iron pan 6 inches diameter at top, and
2 inches deep, narrowing towards the bottom. The whole apparatus is
called the ‘ Steam-pan,” and is bodily put into a box or can with the straw
round it, and covered over as described by Kalm. [J. L.]

+ Straw plaiting is still to be seen, as described, at every cottage between
Hitchin and Tring. The women earn 2d. a day for all they can plait. [J. L.]

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 339

and that the surface soil, 6fversta skarpan, was full of
flints, often in such multitudes that the ground, marken,
could scarcely be seen for them. Here we noted that
the most flints lay on the surface, but commonly the
deeper they were in a chalk pit the less the number of
fragments that occurred. I saw many chalk-pits, on
whose sides there scarcely appeared a single flint, while
notwithstanding that, the ploughed fields and the soil
above were quite full of them.

[Here omit 7} lines to bottom of page 335, and
63 lines on page 336, recording the superstition of Mr.
Ellis and other farmers, that lumps of chalk exposed to
the sun and rain hardened into flint.] I made the sug-
gestion that the flint might lie inthe middle of the lumps
of chalk, and that no one had seen it before it came out
on the field, when the air, rain and sun, reduced the
chalk itself to a fine meal [which is clearly the true ex-
planation of the appearance of angular flints ‘in places
where they knew that no flints had been before and
which afterwards, when the chalk had lain some time
were found full of flints.”] But they answered that then
they would meet with a large number of flints in those
chalk pits where the chalk is dug or hewn loose for ma-
nuring the fields, but they had not found such, or only very
few. It is not every kind of chalk that undergoes this
change, but it must be a particular sort, because when
chalk is carried on to the fields for manure the greatest
part of it goes to pieces to a fine meal or mould after it
has lain some time on the field in the open air; but only
certain pieces of it are left to lie and harden, without thus
going to dust, but what kind of chalk this is I cannot say.”

* There is no foundation whatever for this story of the farmers beyond
that on clayey parts of the fields on to which they therefore carried chalk,

flints afterwards appeared in the manner suggested above by Kalm. [J. L.]
Z2

340 KALM’S ENGLAND.

It cannot be the harder kind of chalk which is here
called Hurlock, because we observed near Ivinghoe that
there occur scarcely any flint fragments where an abun-
dance of the Hurlock lay on the fields ..... [Omit
nearly 2 lines] .. . Fields situated on the north side
of a hill were commonly less full of flints than those on the
south side [Omit 3} lines to bottom of p. 336, and g
lines on p. 337, where Kalm adverts to the possibility of
flints being carried on to the fields with the chalk manure,
and to the practice of picking flints off the fields and lay-
ing them in heaps. ]

[T. I. p. 337.] When ordinary chalk comes to lie
exposed to the weather or becomes wet, it sometimes
hardens so that no one can write with it. Besides
what has just been advanced, it seems to be tolerably
clear that both the chalk and flints behaved so, for we
found in some places on the fields large pieces of chalk,
which were quite hard, and when we broke them to pieces,
they consisted of chalk all through. Others of them had
at the centre a flint the size of a pea, or of a bean, others
as large as a hazel-nut, and others still larger; but all
that which was outside this flint was a hard and half-
petrified chalk. This went by degrees, so that from a
flint the size of a pea at the centre, and all the rest a
hard chalk around it, it went toa flint the size of a closed
fist, and still larger, in the middle, so that at last there
was only an outer crust of this hard chalk of some } inch
thick... . [Omit 2 lines.] We saw and collected
several pieces in which we could plainly perceive, to all
appearance, the whole process from a black fully developed
flint at the centre to a loose chalk at the outer surface,
and all grades of hardness between these two points, ripe
flint and [T. I. p. 338] loose chalk. A great number of
flints on the fields had a white chalk-crust, Krit-skarpa,
round them. Several flints were entire and of the same

LITTLE GADDESDEN. 341

quality throughout. Sometimes flints were found of all
kinds of curious shapes, which resembled goats’-horns,
spigots, etc. In some pieces appeared traces of bivalve-
shells, musselskal, especially of the kind called
Pectinites.

When a flint has lain a long time in the sun it ac-
quires a white colour on the surface like a burnt flint,
Kisel-sten, and in some places among the white it has
a bluish colour. Inchalk-pits there are often seen strata
of an entirely different colour, viz., of tegel-fargade
jorden eller svartmyllan 6fverst, the brick-coloured
earth or soil on the top, which is a sign that these dis-
tricts in former times stood under water; for in deep
chalk-pits, Krit-gropar, there sometimes occur two or
more stvata of such brick-coloured earth with several ells
pure chalk above and between them.*

The 15th April, 1748.

In the morning we set out on the journey back from
Little Gaddesden to Woodford, in Essex.

The whole of the time we stayed at Little Gaddesden
we got to learn a great deal more of English rural
economy from the farmers than from Mr. Ellis, who was
very jaloux and ‘close’ about the little he knew of the
subject. When we first came to Little Gaddesden he
had his four-wheel-drill-plough which stood out on the
farm ; but directly afterwards it was locked up, so that I
did not get to see it any more than when Mr. Ellis, with
two carls, devoted a whole afternoon to sowing out with
it about a pint of seed. When we took our leave, he
gave me a leaf written full of various of his so-called

* These latter earth beds are ‘pipes’ in the chalk. The explanation of
the flints on the surface, and their absence in the pits is that the latter are dug
in the middle chalk which has very few flints, and that the hills are capped
by upper chalk which has many. [J. L.]

342 KALM’S ENGLAND.

receipts. For example, ‘How to prepare an excellent
manure for arable fields.’ ‘How several [T. I. p. 339]
cattle diseases may be cured,’ &c.; but he did not dis-
close the method how all this is to be set going with so
much advantage, but set forth only at what price he sold
one and all of these Receipts. Most of them cost I00
dollars (copper pieces); but then the purchaser was
obliged to swear never to disclose the same to anyone
else. It is a pity that the man had so short a memory
that he himself forgot to practise these receipts on his
own farm and land, for his arable fields and meadows did
not look as if they answered to that which was promised
in these surpassing receipts. He offered to make with
me a tour through several counties in England of fourteen
days’ duration, to instruct me in English Rural Economy,
and for all this inconvenience to him, he demanded no
more than that I should only keep him a horse, pay his
expenses, and find him in everything he required on this
tour, together with twelve or fourteen guineas into the
bargain. I thanked him for his attention, and asked him
to defer this tour tillanother time. Nevertheless, I asked
after all, that he who had travelled so much about in
England in the places where the best English sheep and
choicest English wool were found, and now also had three
tracts on the management of sheep ready for the press,
would let me know what districts and kinds of grass they
are in particular, which the sheep eat and flourish so well
upon? and again what the plants are which are so bane-
ful or injurious to sheep? because this is one of the prin-
ciples of the management of sheep. Mr. Ellis stood for
a little time at this, and remained silent ; but in the end
said that he had never given it a thought.

GRAVESEND.
[T. I. p. 475.]

London at 3 p.m. in the so-
called ‘ Gravesend Tilt-boat’
for Gravesend, where we
arrived at half-past seven in
the evening. It is a great
convenience for travellers to
go by this boat. A single
person only pays gd. for the
passage down to Gravesend, or for the up voyage from
Gravesend to London, but if he has anything more to
convey, it is increased to a shilling for one person, or
more according to what he may have to take with him.

The moment the water at London Bridge is at its
highest, and begins to turn to go back with the fall, this
boat sets out, after giving notice for an hour previously
by ringing a little bell, that those who wish to accompany
her shall go on board. In this boat there is a most com-
fortable seat. A tilt or shelter is put up over it [T. I.
p- 476] so that one has no fear of rain. If the wind is
343

344 KALM’S ENGLAND,

with the boat, it goes all the faster for the tilt; if it is
against her, they avoid it as far as regards the tilt, by
lowering the same. We now went on before down to
Gravesend, there to wait for the ship, which was soon
to follow, and in the interval we had the opportunity of
seeing the country round Gravesend.

The 1st July.

The country round Gravesend is at once the prettiest
and the most delightful that can be imagined. It goes
here in hills up and down, all divided into small ploughed
fields, meadows, pastures, gardens, tragardar, &c., by
quickset hedges, lefvande hackar. The hills are
mostly of chalk, krita. The whole south side of the
Thames consists of bare chalk, and here there is one
chalk pit beside another, where chalk and flint are taken.

Papaver erraticum, 428 [P. Phoeas, Red Poppy] was
here among the wheat and beans the rankest weed. I
have never seen it in such abundance as here in the arable
fields, for its beautiful red flowers seemed absolutely to
cover the fields, but for small pleasure or profit to the
owners, because it both smothered the crop, and was,
for its untold multitudes of seeds, next to impossible to

eradicate.
The and Fuly.

Jord-vallar vid bradden af Thames.
Earth-walls on the banks of the Thames.

In the afternoon we walked along the earth-walls
which were cast up on the banks or sides of the river
Thames to prevent the water at high tide from overflow-
ing the adjacent meadows on both sides of the river. It
is well known that at this place there is ebb and flood,
ebb och flod, fluaus et refluxus maris, so that the water
in the Thames stream for six hours falls rapidly [T. I. p.
477| outwards and goes lower, and for the next six hours

GRAVESEND. 345

the river rises and becomes very high, in some places
often 12 feet and more perpendicularly higher than it
was six hours before. The land which lies on both sides
of the river is for the most part flat, flakt, level, slatt,
and low, laglindt, so that if there were no obstacle,
hinder, when the river is high, the water would go over
all the land round about, for an English mile on both
sides, and sometimes more. They * had, therefore, when

* ‘They.’ ‘De hade derfére.’ Kalm, in using the word ‘De,’ has no
suspicion of the difficulty in proving who ‘De’ were. Camden, Dugdale,
and others of the Old Antiquaries, regarded the embankments of the Thames
as Roman work. There is one positive statement, to which Lambarde drew
attention (Peramd. of Kent, written 1570, Pubd. 1576). It is in the Folio
Vellum MS. Augustin[i] Ecclesie Cantuar. Annales, Corpus Christi Coll.,
Cambridge, 301, 1. Fol. 96, dottom line. ‘A®° Mcclxxix.°,’ after other entries,
“Eodem anno inclusus erat primo mariscus de Plumstede per Abbatem de
Lessnes mari,’ the last word being at the top of Fol. 97. Again, on Fol. 103,
line 6, ‘Anno Mcclxxxxiij,’ occurs the entry, ‘Eodem anno inclusus est
mariscus de Plumstede.’ The entries are in abbreviated Latin, and the
Annales end at the year 1316. I copied the extracts by the kindness
of the Rev. S. S. Lewis, [Alas! I must now add ‘the late’ 1891],
Fellow and Librarian, C.C.C. Cant., on May 2oth, 1886. The words,
‘primo’ and ‘mari,’ under the year 1279, are positive. The marshes
referred to extend from Plumsted to Earith. The Manor of Plumsted was
given by William the Conqueror to S. Augustin’s Monastery, Canterbury
(see ‘ Carta Willelmi Congs. de Manerio de Plumstede,’ in Thos. of Elmham,
Hist. Monast. S. Augustini Cantuar , Chron. and Memor., 1858, p. 350). The
Lands of Lessness Abbey were given, on its foundation, by S. Augustin’s
Monast. to the Abbot of L. out of the Manor of Plumstede. Wm. Thorn,
who had been a monk of S. Augustin’s, and who wrote his ‘Chronica’ of
Canterbury some fifty or sixty years after the events recorded, and whose
Chronica was printed by Roger Twysden (Hist. Ang. Scriptores X., Lond.
MDCLIL., p. 1930, b.), tells us, Cap. XXVIL., that ‘‘In the year 1281 a
final agreement was made ” between the Abbots of S. Aug. and Lesnes con-

cerning an advowson claimed by both. ‘ At length these contentions were
settled as follows: The Abbot of S. Aug. ceded, and gave up all right to the
advowson” . . ‘‘and for this recognition the Abbott of Lesnes conceded

for himself and his successors that they at their own expense after the year
next to come ‘ intrabunt mariscum de Plumstede et Lesnes will zxclose from
the sea the marsh of Plumstede and Lesnes,’ that is to say, the whole tract
which lies towards the east, ‘inter gutteram de Borstall, et novam Wallam,’

346 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the water was low and it was ebb, cast up on the Thames
banks high and strong earth-walls which prevent the
water overflowing the country inside the walls, which is
mostly bare meadow land and pastures.

The breadth of these walls or banks down at their
base was 4, 5, or 6 fathoms, the height above the plain
14 fathoms, the width at the top about 1 fathom, some-
times barely 4 to 6 feet, so that they on both sides
diminished gradually in width from their base to their
top. Outside, against the river at the base of the walls
pile-work, palverke, which they took from old ships,
was driven down compactly together, everywhere one
row thereof. But in some places were two rows of such
pile-work, one a little within the other. Immediately
within the piles were laid a large number of lumps of
chalk,* together with large flints, to bind the wall against

* “Tiers of piles driven close to each other, in rows about 18 inches
apart, row from row, the foot of one tier being nearly even with the middle
of the piles of the tier below, and the space between the tiers filled with
chalk or stone, and these rooms, as they are called, succeeding each other,
from the bottom or foot of the bank to its top.” Wiggins’ Emdanking Lands
from the Sea [p. 215, Ed. 1867], Weale’s Series, 1852, r2mo. [J. L.]

between the gutter of Borstall and the ew wall which Johannes Renger
made in Heyflete, which wal/ they will for one month following maintain,
‘contra mare,’ against the sea at their own cost,” &c., &c. It seems as though
Joh. Renger had finished his portion of the wall necessary to complete the
inning of this large tract of marsh before the Abbots had done quarrelling, and
that the original inning took place in 1279 according to the Aznales, and
1281 according to Thorn. These marshes lay drowned again, through the
breaches formed in 1522 (probably from the rotting of the wood of the ‘ water-
gangs’ under the walls) for seventy-five years, or till 1606. Lambarde,
writing in 1570, says: ‘The Great Breach is not yet made up’ (feram Ed.,
1826, 8vo., p. 396). As many other breaches from the same cause occurred
for two centuries or more up to the beginning of the 18th century on both
sides of the Thames, it is probable that all of the Thames walls so breached
within that period are of the same epoch. As far as I know there is no other
record of the first making of a wall but this. [J. L.]

GRAVESEND. 347

the attacks of the water. In some places these walls
were 3 good fathoms higher than the meadows, ploughed
fields, and pastures, lying within and behind them; and
14 fathoms higher than the water at ordinary high tides
in the river. Sometimes there was double and some-
times treble pile-work outside the wall against the river.
The rest of the wall itself was made of the earth which
they had dug on the spot. Here and there [T. I. p. 478]
was some opening under the walls to the meadows,
through which the water could be made to go either to
or from the meadows. These small water-gangs,* vatten-
gang, which on both sides were built in with boards
had a sluice, damluka, which could be taken up and let
fallagain. These sluice gates were fastened with locks, that
wanton people could not take them up, and lay the whole
country near the river under water. The flat land which
lay inside the earth walls was laid out either as meadows
or pasture, or also in some places where it was a little
higher, as ploughed fields. Here and there it was inter-
sected with runnels and dikes to lead off the water, and
drain the sour and low land. It was pleasant to go on
this wall and see, that when the water in the river stood
at its highest, the land and meadows, together with the
ploughed fields immediately inside the wall, were much
lower than the surface of the water in the river. It was
also at high water a pleasure to see how great ships in
the river were moving at a much higher level than the

* Vattengang, ‘ Watergang’ is the word used in the old Ordinances.
Thus, in the suit of Godfrey le Fauconer, ve Romney Marsh, 43 Hen. III.,
1259, Defdts. plead ‘‘that distress taken for repair of those banks and
Watergangs was justly made.” (Dugdale Zmbanking and Draining, 1652,
c. xi., p. 21, Ed. 1772.) So also in Crdinances of John de Lovetot (p. 24),
1288 ; and, of the Thames, the Ords. of Henry de Apeldrefeld, 1290, respect-
ing inter alia ‘banks and watergangs’ (2. p. 27); and many other Ordinances
in Dugdale. [J. L.]

348 KALM’S ENGLAND.

land itself, which at a little distance made a pretty ap-
pearance. On the meadows inside the wall grew a
beautiful grass. It sometimes happens that when there
is an unusually high tide the water in some places breaks
through these earth-walls, overflows the whole ‘ level,’
falten, or plain around, drowns cattle and other animals
which go on the meadows, sweeps away the hay, and
beyond this, does much otherdamage. There are, there-
fore, certain persons appointed, whose duty it is not only
annually to examine whether the dam or earth-wall,
dammen eller mullvallen, is in all places strong and
properly maintained, and where it in any place needs
repair, to cause that to be effected without delay, but
they have also their assistants, who in short, daily walk
along the wall, and look whether the water [T. I. p. 479]
is beginning to damage the earth-wall in any place, so
that the damage may be able to be prevented and cured
in time. —

The sides of the walls were almost everywhere covered
with, qvickrot, Triticum, 105 [T. repens] Couch-grass,
Quickens, Twitch, or Stroil, which grew here very luxu-
riantly to 30, 36, or 42 inches high, and thick enough.
In some places it was cut, in others left. Where it was
cut, which was done by those who owned the meadows
adjoining, it had begun to grow again very luxuriantly,
and stood thick and green, so that this grass seems to be
an excellent thing to fasten the sides of the earth-walls
with, as I said before. No trees were planted on these
walls except a few privets, Ligustrer, which had esta-
blished themselves on the inner side. On top ofthe walls
grew plenty of Gramen Murinum J. B. [Hordeum muri-
num, wild barley, wall-barley], but it was now mostly
withered away. If these earth-walls did not exist, the
river Thames would always look like a very large lake
when the water in the river flooded the whole tract. In

GRAVESEND. 349

one place and another a piece of land [called ‘ Salting’
or ‘Saltings’] has grown up outside the wall, which,
when it is large, is often taken in within the walls by this
means. A new wall is built outside it, and the old one
inside is torn down; but this must be with the consent
of those who have the direction of the walls.*

Nyttan af Flint-sten. The use of Flints.

The whole country at this border, mostly consists of
bare chalk, in amongst which is found a great number of
flint-stones, both large and small. In the Chalk pits,
krit-groparna, these flint stones are collected together
from the chalk, laid in great heaps, and sold to strangers,
who on the voyage from London often take a large
quantity of them in passing. Here, in Gravesend, the
streets were paved entirely with flints.

On the S.E. side, about an English mile from
Gravesend, was a very ancient church,t which [T. I.
p. 480] in short, was entirely built of bare flints, except
that they had used Portland stone for the frames and
arches around doors and windows, and in some places 3
covered the tops of the walls with it. Some Portland
stone was also here and there built into the walls.

Tegel-branneri. The brick-kiln thusseems to have

* The Commissioners of Sewers. [J. L.]

+ St. Peter and St. Paul’s Church (Rectory), Milton Parish. [J. L.]

{ The tower has buttresses—nearly as much Portland stone as flint. At
E. end P. S. predominates. Porch on S. side alternate regular courses. E.
window, now perpendicular, 8 feet 6 inches wide—an insertion—has been
originally 14 feet wide. There are two original two-light windows on N.
side. Cruden gives (Hzst. of Gravesend, p. 70) a view of one, and says
there were six in 1843, and that the church was built between 1307 and
1377. [J- L-] ;

§ Somligstads cannot refer to the stone battlements which then existed.
Irregular patches of stone are still seen along the top of the church wall
(Aug. 4th, 1887). The battlements are shown in the Frontispiece to Pocock’s
Hist. of Gravesend, 1797, which gives a view of Milton Church from the

S. West. [J. L.]

350 KALM’S ENGLAND.

been little used in this country in ancient times, for
in the whole of this church, from the very bottom at the
ground to the top of the tower, not one single brick,
tegel-sten, was seen. The roof of the church was of
lead.* The wall around the churchyard was built of
flints for at least 6 feet, and only on the top covered with
brick, which was laid so that it resembled a span-roof,
rost, or roof of a house or church, in order that the
water might run off quickly. A little S.E. of this church
was an old church,f et gammalt kl6ster, of which the
walls only were now standing. It was also similarly
built mostly of bare flint, only that the frames and arches
of the doors and windows were of Portland stone. Great
trees now grew in the midst of this church.

So Time changes all things!
Sa 4ndrar tiden alt!

In the same way a church at Northfleet | (Northfleth)
an English mile west of Gravesend in Kent, Chadwell
church in Essex, and several other churches, were built
from the ground up to the top of the tower of bare flint,
except that the corners of the churches and towers
together with the frames of the windows and doors were
of Portland stone, and if there was any brick in these
churches it could be very clearly seen that it had been
inserted in later times to repair some dilapidation.

When they built a haystack in any of the chalk-pits,
and the stacks here mostly consisted of Sain Foin,3
they first laid at the bottom on the ground, one or two
beds of thick flints, afterwards dry sticks thereupon

* The old lead roof and the battlements were taken off in 1790, and the
hideous new roof with dropping eaves erected. Pocock, Hést., 1797, pp. 134
to 150. Cruden, Ast. of Gravesend, 1843. [J. L.]

+ St. Mary’s, Denton, 13th century. [J. L.]

} St. Botolph’s Vicarage. [J. L.]

§ SAINFOIN. Kalm always always spells it St. Foin. [J. L.]

GRAVESEND. 351

[T. I. p. 481] and then on the top the hay or Sain Foin,
which was thereby prevented from taking harm from the
moisture from the ground.

Near the chalk-pits several outhouse walls and garden
walls were built entirely of flints, which were nearly
always so placed in the wall, that after a large flint had
been struck in half, the perfectly black and even, or
fractured face was turned outwards; but the round and
white side, which before was the outer surface of the
stone was set inwards in the wall. In many places flints
were carried out on to the roads for their repair.

The 3rd Fuly, 1748.
Akrar. Ploughed Fields.

The whole country around Gravesend was like a chain
of hills on whose sides the ploughed fields lay.

They were middling large enclosures, tappor, mostly
surrounded with a hawthorn hedge, or also sometimes
with a fence of wattled twigs or small branches. I did
not notice any ditches, diken, in the arable fields, and
what is more, xo water-furrows, vattu-farar. The
reasons may be that there are here no winters which
cause the water to accumulate, the sloping position of
the fields, and the soil, jordmon, which does not seem
to retain the water long.

Wheat, Hvete; Barley, Korn; Oats, Hafre; Peas,
Arter; and Tares, Vicie, were the plants which we
found sown on those ploughed fields, which were not
lying fallow, som ej 1lago i trade.

The soil was a clay of a very pale brick-colour blended
with a fine sand. Some pieces of flint lay here and there ;
no other stones were found either on the ploughed fields,
or in the whole of this district. The soil was so loose
that it could be ploughed in the greatest drought, when-
ever they wished, without waiting for the moisture of the

352 KALM’S ENGLAND.

second ploughing, utan at vanta efter Snedmust.
When the ground was ploughed up the earth fell to pieces
tolerably small, and was still further crushed to pieces
with a large and heavy oak-roller, of 6 feet 6 inches long,
and 18 inches or 2 feet diameter, and was harrowed,
harfvades, still smaller, first with a large harrow, and
afterwards with two smaller harrows, harfvor.

After this it was rolled [T. I. p. 482] again so that
the earth on the ploughed fields, trades-Akrarna,
lay now as fine and loose as a fine mould ona bed in
a newly sown kitchen-garden. There were no &ker-
renar, ‘acre-reins,’* i.¢., stvips left unploughed, except
only an ells-breadth close to the hedges. The ploughed
fields did not lie in teg-skifte, or ‘lands,’ originally
exchangeable strips,j but entirely in severalty, ensta-
kade. The same was the case with the meadows and
pastures, each of which was separate from its neigh-
bours.

Hvetet. The crop that was mostly sown here was
wheat, which by itself made three or four times as much
as barley and oats together. I saw no rye here.

Among the crops were found a great many weeds,
among which Papaver, 428 [P. Rheas] Cucubalus, 360,
[Silene inflata, Bladder Campion] and Ranunculus, 468,
[R. bulbosus] were the most plentiful.

The luxuriance of the Wheat, the length of the straw,
and of the ear, and the number of grains in each ear

* REINS. Studies in Nidderdale, 1872, 8vo. (p.60). ‘‘In N. a Reeax is
the strip that was formerly left unploughed around a ploughed field.” For
other ‘‘ Reins,” 2d. p. 61. [J. L.]

+ For the land-division in the common fields, see Col. A. H. Ouvry’s
transl. from the German of E. Nasse, ‘‘ Agricultural Community of the
Middle Ages,” 1871, 8vo.; ‘Primitive Property,” the Eng. ¢vans/. of
Laveleye, 1878, 8vo.; and ‘“ The English Village Community,” F. Seebohm,
1883, 8vo.; also ‘Studies in WNidderdale,” 1872, 8vo. viii. ‘‘ The
Reins.” [J. L.]

GRAVESEND. 353

were nowhere greater than in well-cultivated fields here
in Sweden. The same can also be said about the Barley.

Artland. Pease-land is found in many places. The Peas
were sown in rows. The distance between two rows was
sometimes 18 inches, sometimes 21 inches, sometimes 2 ft.

Inthe same manner, beans were also sown in rows.
This was done partly because the weeds, which both
smother and draw food from the peas, could then more
easily be cleared away between therows with a hoe, hacka;
partly because one could then conveniently go and pluck
the peas without trampling them down; for it is to be
remarked that the Englishmen are very much given to
eating green peas in the summer ; besides that, those who
live near London, or have the opportunity of sending
green peas in the shell thither, sow a great quantity of
peas for that purpose only, that they may turn an honest
-penny by selling them.

They had here cleaned away the weeds between the
rows with a hoe, and drawn the loose mould up against
the roots and stalks of the pease plants. The peas grow
all the better for the soil being so friable and loose.
No cut sticks, twigs, or anything else, were laid on the
ground for the peas to creep upon and cling to, but they
lay stretched out upon the bare earth.

(T. I. p. 483.] Here and there were hung up dead
crows, Krakor, of that sort which in the island are called
Rooks, Rokor [Corvus frugilegus] thereby to strike terror
into those of their relations who are left behind, more
especially because this kind of bird is in England the
greatest pest for the pease fields.*

* Montagu says Rooks are ‘‘content with feeding on the insect tribe,
particularly what is called the grub-worm, which is the /arve of the chaffer
[2 cockchafer]. But in rendering the husbandman this piece of service, it
pays itself by taking some of his corn also.” (Ornith. Dict., 1802,

8vo. [J. L.] 7

354 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Sain Foin was the kind of hay with which they here
mostly fed their horses, who eat it very willingly. It was
given to them either whole with all the grasses and plants
which were among it, or cut up very small, like fine
chopped straw, and afterwards laid in the crib for the
horses.

The 4th Fuly, 1748.

Tistels utrotande. The eradication of Thistles.

Here we found that the farmers were more thoughtful
than in Sweden; for in the last named place they allow
the thistles, Tistlarna, to stand and ripen, when the
wind afterwards carries about their fine seed on to all the
near and distant fields, orchards, etc. Yes, who has not
sometimes found them so thoughtless that when they
cut rye or barley they cut away the crop round about the
thistle but leave it standing,* as though they were afraid
that it would otherwise have no chance of sufficiently
propagating itself! Here, in England, the farmers had
entirely different ways of thinking and acting. We saw
large tracts of ploughed fields, meadows or pastures where
Onopordum, 653 [O. Acanthium, the Cotton Thistle] and
other kinds of thistle which grew thereon had been mown
with the scythe before they had well begun to expand
their flowers, and left to lie and wither on the plain.

Bohvete. Buckwheat was sown in one and another
of the enclosed arable fields.

The 5th Fuly, 1748.
Godning. Manuring.

In one place and another the manure, gddselen, was
carried out and laid in great heaps on the ploughed fields,
about 2 or 3 fathoms between two heaps. The manure
consisted mostly of pieces of straw and such like stuff as

* “ And lingering thistles the rough fields deformed.” Georgics. Bk. I,
1. 151, orig.—173, Tr. J. Mason, 1801. [J. L.]

GRAVESEND. 355

is spread under the cattle in the farm yard. It lay still
unspread. The field was [T. I. p. 484] quite fine-
ploughed. In other places they had already carried out
the manure on to the ploughed fields, spread it out, and
ploughed it in. We afterwards remarked that these
lands now manured were made into Turnip land, for on the
aist July following they were sown with Turnip seed, after
the manure had previously been spread out, ploughed in,
the land rolled, and the mould worked fine.

Vicia Sativa. Tares. Several places round Gravesend
were sown with Vicia Sativa Vulgaris, semine nigro, C.B.
which stood thick, luxuriant, and very beautiful. Its
length was commonly 2 feet to 2 feet 3 inches. In some
places a part of this was already cut and carried away for
food for the farm-horses. It seems to bea plant which
it is worth while to sow and cultivate.

Feniculum Vulgare Germanicum, C.B. [Fennel], grew
as well around London as here about Gravesend, and also
in Essex, on the hills and chalk slopes.

Bransle. Fuel.

The fuel which they mostly used here in Gravesend
was Coal, Sten-kol, which they could easily obtain from
the Colliers, which daily passed close by the town when
bound for London.

The Farmers, Farmarne, who dwelt in the country
round Gravesend, and also on the other side of Essex,
availed themselves most of such timber, verke, as they
obtained annually when they cut down an old hedge and
laid down a new, as before described (T. I. p. 319, ovig.).
I saw great heaps of such sticks and timber lying by the
farmers’ houses without reckoning what they sold, so it
is worth while to have hedges.

In Essex I saw that poor people even collected a
quantity of Genista spinosa vulgaris, Raj. Syn. 475 [Ulex

Europzus, Furze] which they used instead of other wood.
2A 2

Re(a

Seorra AMERICA,

Konsgl. Stoenita WetenfFaps
Academiens befallning,
Dc)

Publici foftnad r)
gorrattad
OIF

PEHR KALM,

Oeconomiz Profeffori Abo, famt Ledamot af
Kongl. Grenfia WetenfEaps-Academien.

Tom, IL

RADA INO O—On
Wed Ronal. Wiaj:es Wernddiafte Privilegio.

STOCKHOLM,
Trycft pd LARS SALVO foftnad, 1756.

ESSEX OPPOSITE GRAVESEND.

[T. II. p.1.] The year 1748.
The 6th Fuly.

In the morning, in company with the then Pastor of
the Swedish Congregation in London, Master Tobias
Biorck, and an English gentleman, I crossed over the
river Thames to Essex, to see the country there. Directly
we were across the river there was about an English
mile of quite lowland to walk over before we came up to
where it began to be hilly.

This low-lying land has, in former times, been part of
the river Thames, but is now, through the earth-walls
and banks which are cast up on the banks of the river,
separated from the same, and turned to account, and
divided into arable fields, meadows, and pastures.

When it is High Water in the river, which happens
twice in the twenty-four hours, the surface of the water
commonly stands much higher than these lowland plains,
so that if the aforesaid earth-walls did not exist, the water
would then overflow the whole of them, and cause these
great plains to resemble a vast lake.

The whole of this low-lying land was [T. II. p. 2]
divided into different portions by deep ditches about
a fathom wide, which was done to lead off the water and
drain the land. Besides that, these dikes here performed

357

358 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the same service as hedges or fences to hinder the cattle
from coming out of the pasture-lands into the ploughed
fields and meadows.

In most places these ditches were full-grown with
Reeds, Arundo Vulgaris Palustris, C. B., which the cattle
bit off as far as they could reach.

Barley was most properly sown on these lowland
arable fields,-and now stood very beautiful. The soil
was clay, Jordmon var lera. A part of these arable
fields was lying fallow. ;

They were now very busily engaged in mowing hay
on the places which were laid down as meadows or
grassland.

Gédning. Manuring.

We found here in Essex, as well as all around
Gravesend in Kent, that the cattle’s dung was carried
out and laid either by some ploughed field or some
meadow where it was thrown together in great quad-
rangular heaps, yet not entirely by itself, but mixed in
alternate layers with turf, thus to lie and ferment into a
compact mass before it came to be used on the arable
fields, meadows, or gardens.

At home at the farms we saw both in Essex and Kent
the manure collected and treated in the same way as we
have described before at Little Gaddesden (T. I. p. 251.
et seq. orig.

ee) Krita. Chalk.

Here and there on this side in Essex are also chalk
hills of the same kind and shape as in Kent. We saw in
one and another place that the chalk was carried out on
to the fields, where it lay partly in, and partly spread out
over, the ploughed portions of land to manure them with.

Hus. Houses.
The husbandmen’s houses, BOndernas hus, here in

ESSEX OPPOSITE GRAVESEND. 359

Essex, were built partly of bare bricks, tegel, partly
with cross-beams, Korss-verke, and bricks between,
and partly they were of cross-beams with boards nailed
over them, partly of cross-beams with laths thereon,
which were plastered and daubed over with clay and
lime. These last were only those which were inhabited
by peasants, torpare, and other poor labouring people.

The houses of the farmers, Farmernas eller
Bondernas, themselves were so well built that they
might well be taken for beautiful gentlemen’s houses,
Herregardar.

Taken. The Roofs were partly covered with tiles,
partly with straw.

Uthusen. The outhouses, such as lada,* the lathe,
loga,t{ the ledge, &c., also the poor people’s stugor,{
cottages, were commonly thatched with straw, tackte
med. halm, in the manner before described at Little
Gaddesden (T. I. p. 202 ovig.). This straw-thatch was
here made very high and very steep, so that the rain and
wet could not stand thereupon, but ran quickly off, for
which reason the thatch rotted less, and could conse-
quently stand many more years than a flatter thatch.
They were made also thick enough, viz., sometimes
1 foot and sometimes 18 inches thickness. The walls
of some of the lathes were also of flint.

In some places they were now very busily engaged in
thatching.

Rag. Rye was in Kent scarce enough, so that there
were few places where any parcels of land appeared to

* Laith, Lathe, shed, O.N. Hlatha, Swed, Lada, Dan, Lade, a barn.
Gloss. to Studies in Nidderdale. [J. L.]

+ Lodge. In Sussex, av open shed ina farmyard. [J. L.]

{ Stuge, ‘stuggor hvari folket-bodde,’ ‘cottages in which the
people lived.’ [J. L.] 8

360 KALM’S ENGLAND.

be sown therewith, but in Essex on this border were
nearly as many rye as wheat fields. It was now mostly
fully ripe, and the straw began to be pale enough, while,
on the other hand, the wheat which grew beside it was
only just beginning to fill the ears or to set seed into
grain, at matas eller satta karna til korn, and was
quite green.

Kyrkan. The church [West Tilbury], which lies
in Essex on a high bank exactly opposite Gravesend,
seemed very old, and was almost entirely built of Portland
Stone, which has been described above (T. I. p. 371
orig.)

{T. II. p. 4.] Sain Foin. On the hills lay several
meadows which were grown only with Sain Foin, which
was now cut, and lay in great cocks.

Hoéstackar. Haystacks.

The hay at the farms was also here set in such stacks
as were before described at Little Gaddesden (T. I. p.
21I ovig.), and were in shape like barns or houses. In
the same way the hay is cut therefrom with a knife
specially made for the purpose.

Vattu-hoar. Water-troughs.

At nearly all the farms, as in Kent, so here in Essex,
they had water-troughs either to give horses the water
out of, or also to keep the water in which they would use
for cooking, which troughs were made partly of Portland
stone, partly also of lead. The water kept very fresh
therein.

Those of lead were commonly covered outside with
boards, because the soft lead otherwise bent outwards or
inwards, if anyone happened to strike against it.

Handskara. For cutting Rye and Wheat on this
tract in Essex they do not use a Scythe, as at most places

ESSEX OPPOSITE GRAVESEND, 361

in Sweden, but small hand-shears ; in cutting Barley and
oats, however, the Scythe, Lja,* was used.

The iron of the hand-shears which they had, was
crooked as in ours, but only about half as wide, so that
it might so much the easier be able to be stuck in among
the crop. On the under side they were not sharpened
evenly along the edge, but they had small teeth filed with
a fine file quite close together and running obliquely
across the edge of the skeavs. There is no doubt that
the straw must come off much faster, as well as remain
steady when they are cutting it.

On the upper side it was ground quite even at the
edge.

[T. II. p.5.] Lia. The Scythe that was used here
to mow grass with was very large and broad in the blade
because it could not otherwise so easily overcome the
resistance of the thick grass-growth which there is on a
great part of the English meadows.

We measured a scythe whose blade was 3 feet 8 inches
long, and 24 inches wide. In the evening we returned to
Gravesend.

[T. II. p. 23.] Essex, midt mot Gravesend.
The 14 Fuly, 1748.

In the morning we crossed the river to Essex to see
what there was to be seen.

Akrar. On the lowland places, near the river
Thames, some of the arable fields were now lying fallow.
They were ploughed quite flat, but full of water-furrows
lengthwise, about Io feet between two furrows. The soil
was a grey clay, Jordmon var en gra lera. Some
small Pebblestones appeared here and there. In some

* The large scythe used in Yorkshire and the north is still called the
‘lea.’ [J. L.]

362 “KALM’S ENGLAND.

places were large plots sown with Beans, which seemed
to thrive here better than in any place I saw in
England. They were sown with open hand, and not
in rows.

In several places was sown Wheat, which was standing
beautiful. The ploughed fields were there arranged in
small ‘ryges,’* ryggar, or ridges, 4 feet wide each, the
ryggs low enough, no reins out on the ploughed plots.
But of all crops, barley, gumrik [Hordeum Hexastichum,
Linn. ‘Kegle Korn,’ Lirja, Skanes Flora, 1869, I. 46],
was here the most plentiful, and now stood beautiful and
flourishing ; the stalk’s length 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet ;
two or more plants from one root, in the greater number
of ears twenty-seven opposite couples of grains. The
ploughed fields lay in Broad-land, about 20 feet between
the water-furrows.

All these arable fields, meadows, and pastures were
separated from each other by dikes, diken, so that here
also each farmer had his own land separated from his
neighbour’s, [T. II. p. 24] that he was able to look after
and keep it as he best would and could.

Hafre. Oats.

We saw at several places in Essex large arable fields
which were entirely sown with white oats, hvit hafre.
Of other kinds of oats we found none.

The ploughed fields at this edge of the county were
richer in soil, svartmylla,} than around Gravesend in
Kent. The sub-soil, jordmon, was brick-coloured. Very
many small Pebble-stones, and other small fragments of flint,
lay on a great part of the arable fields in Essex. On some,

* Ryccs. “Corn riggs are bonnie.”—Burns. [J. L.]

+ ‘Svartmyllan, eller den jorden, som pa akrarna lag 6fverst.’
(T. I. p. 204.) ‘The earth which lay highest on the fields,’ the /of sol; Lit.
black earth. [J. L.]

ESSEX OPPOSITE GRAVESEND. 363

however, there was very little thereof. The principal
reason why, in Essex as well as in Kent, they sow a large
quantity of oats is that they fodder horses therewith.

Géardar: Hus. Farms: Houses.

While we were walking about in Essex to-day we got
to see a great many Farm houses, Farmers gardar, which
here had the same appearance as in the other places in
England where we had been, viz., that they resembled
gentlemen’s houses more than farmers’ houses, at de
liknade Herregardar mera 4n bondgardar. The
houses which the farmers themselves dwelt in were
mostly of brick, tegel, commonly two stories high,
roofed mostly with tiles, yet there were also a great
many that were content with thatch, which is here made
steep and thick.

The Day-labourers, Dagsverks-karlar, who mostly
are the same as Torpare with us in Sweden, had, in
some places, houses whose walls consisted of cross beams
with oak boards nailed on the outside.

Brick houses were on the outside washed with lime,
and white. Close to the farm-house was always the lodge
and the bavn, Logen och Ladan, which were commonly
made in the same way as in Upland in Sweden [T. II.
p- 25], viz., all under one roof, the lodge in the middle,
and lathes on both sides, without any walls or divisions
between them. Both the lathes were without floor, golf;
but the lodge had a floor of boards to thrash upon, which
floor was mostly laid on the bare ground. The lodge had
large doors on both sides, that they could on one side
drive in with a whole load of corn and unload in the lodge,
and afterwards drive out on the other side. The whole
barn, both the lodge and the lathes, had walls of cross-
beams with oak boards nailed horizontally on the outside,
and a high and steep thatch-voof covered with straw 1 foot

364 KALM’S ENGLAND.

to 18 inches thick. Beside the lodge, or also sometimes
in front of it, they had a little Skeeling or shelter, skjul,*
which stood on posts, with straw-thatch over it, at times
with walls of flakes or wattles,} made of interwoven thin
boughs, in which skeeling they kept their ploughs and other
agricultural implements. Commonly also they had a
similar skeeling for their wagons and conveyances. Against
and up the cottage walls were often planted vines which
covered the whole wall.

No hay-lathes, hdlador, were used either at the farm
or out in the meadows, but the hay was all stacked.

Krita. Those who lived here told us, that here and
there on the banks of the Thames in Essex are Chalk
pits { where they get chalk, but that this chalk is not so
good as that whichis dug in Kent. Wesawthat insome
places they carried out the chalk on to the fallow fields,
pa trades-Akrarna, which mostly here lay on the hill,
and that they shot the chalk there in heaps, where it
was yet either unspread or also already outspread, and
partly even ploughed in. [T. II. p. 26.] I asked if they
used much here to manure the fields with, and how much
use it was? They answered that they used it enough for
manuring the fields, that it is especially good on cold
ground, that when they have once manured a field with
it seven and more years may pass before they manure it
anew; that they had found it many times better first to
burn the chalk to lime and then to carry the lime itself

* *SKEELING. The bay of a barn. The inner part of a house or barn
where the slope of the roof comes.’ Cooper Szss. Gloss. 2 Ed., 1853, p. 75.
SKILLING. ‘A place called a S., which is what they lay turf up in.’
Chichester Smugglers, 7th Ed., 1749, p. 14. ‘A Shilling or outhouse
adjoining to the house, wherein lumber and fuel was kept.’ 7d. p. 41.

[J.J

{ Fuakes. Tall wadt/es, in Sussex called Flakes, still manufactured
1886, in Clapham Woods. [J. L.]

} Chalk-pits, ¢9. Purfleet and Grays. [J. L.]

ESSEX OPPOSITE GRAVESEND. 365

out on to the fields, but that this is much more costly.
We saw here and there on the ploughed fields which
lay on the low-lying plain near the Thames, that they
had been manured with chalk.

Rag. Rye.

We noticed in the course of the day several large rye-
fields in Essex, which were now standing very luxuriant.
I asked the people if they were in the habit of baking
bread of this crop, or why they sow it? They answered
that no others but poor people use it for bread; but the
principal reason why they sow it is that they carry it to
London where they sell it to merchants, who ship great
quantities of it abroad, to be there sold.

The soil here in Essex, which on this edge of the
county is very dry, sandy enough, and full of ‘ Pebdlestone,’
seems almost to be more suitable for rye than for wheat.
On the sandy fields the rye stalks were 4 feet long; the
length of most ears 4 to 5 inches.

The beautiful and luxuriant rye was all sown in 20
feet wide Broadland.

Trappor. The steps which we availed ourselves of,
to mount our horses, and which have been described
before (T. I. p. 297 orig.) were here at almost all the
farms. [T.II.p.27.] They had also similar ones in Kent
almost everywhere. The women had in them the greatest
convenience for mounting their horses.

Gdédsel-stackar. Manure-heaps.

In the same way as has been before mentioned (T. I.
Pp. 251, 252 ovig.) about manure, that it is laid in heaps to
rot, we also saw to-day near every farmer’s house, as well
as often out by the fields, that the manure which is col-
lected in the farmyard, was cast together in great four-
cornered heaps to ferment, or rot through into a compact
mass.

366 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Commonly, and for the most part, it was laid alter-
nately with cattle-dung and turf or mould, so that when
they had laid a bed of turf or mould below, a bed
of fresh cattle-dung was laid thereupon, which for the
greatest part was mere straw-litter, halm-byssie,* and
so by turns turf and dung.

Very often these manure heaps lay along the margin
of some arable field to be so much nearer to hand
afterwards, for it was very seldom laid on the ploughed
fields themselves, but mostly close beside them; whereas
it would seem to have been more profitable to have
spread it on a piece of fallow field so that it might be
once for all exposed to the open air; because the places
which the manure was laid upon would be manured by
the liquid which had run down therefrom. We measured
such a manure heap arranged beside a field and found it
to be 102 feet long, 6 feet broad, and only 3 feet high,
formed alternately of turf and dung.

Genista Spinosa. Raj. Syn. 475. [Ulex Europzus]
Furze grew here on the sand heaths, sandhedar, in
astonishing abundance, so that it covered over nearly the
whole [T. II. p. 28] sand heath. The highest bushes
were 4 feet high. It lay here in many places cut
down, and in great heaps. At nearly every farm, gard,
especially at the poorer ones, were large heaps thereof,
which they used instead of other wood as fuel.

Hagnad om akrar. Hedges around the ploughed fields.

The whole country at this side was, in the same
nianner as at the other places where I sojourned in Eng-
land, divided into arable fields, meadows, pastures, com-
mons, &c., each of which was mostly fenced round with
a hedge of hawthorn, in which several other leaf-trees

* Byssie. Afod. Swed. Boss, Litter. [J. L.]

ESSEX OPPOSITE GRAVESEND. 367

also took up their abode, as elm, oak, ash, sloe, black-
berry bushes, Alm, Ek, Ask, Slan, Biérn-bars-
buskar, privet, and others ; yet had the elm at all places
in England * the pre-eminence over other trees excepting
the hawthorn, of which the hedges were.

We saw here, in one place and another, hedges around
some sides of fields which consisted entirely of elm. We
also saw here and there some oak, which in Kent, around
Gravesend, is seldom to be seen. Neither Beech, Bok, nor
Hornbeam, Afvenb6ok (Carpinus), were seen here, nor
have I seen any of them in Kent; both of them, however,
grew in abundance in Hertfordshire.

In some places only had they any wattle-fencing,
gardes-gard af spratar ihop vriden, such as is de-
scribed on p. 14 T. II. ovig. Moreover, the hedges were
in many places poor enough hereabouts, so that they
would not be able to stand against such outrageous cattle,
bangstyriga Kreatur, as we have in Sweden. But
in the places where the hedges were in their proper state
they could always prevent the most turbulent ox [T. II.
p- 29] or horse from entering the arable fields. In
many places they could well have such fragile fences,
because there is on the pasture-lands, for the most
part, such an abundance of good and rich bait that the
cattle need not go to seek better.

Besides that, Swine are mostly fed at home at the farm,
and seldom go far fromit. Hence it happens that in many
places by the hedges the grass stands in the greatest
luxuriance, and is not cropped by any animal, also the
wayside plants are entirely untouched.

Sain Foin. We saw one and another enclosure,

* The elm is specially abundant on the London clay and Gault; the
oak on the Weald clay; the beech on the chalk. In the north the elm is
largely replaced by the Scotch plane, Acer Pseudo platanus. [J. L.]

368 KALM’S ENGLAND.

tappa, on the hills which was sown with Sain Foin only,
which, however, was now cut and carried. Those who
lived in this district told us that they do not sow nearly
as much Sain Foin in Essex as in Kent, because it will
not thrive there so well as in the last named district. Can
this be because* in Kent there are more chalk-hills and
chalk-valleys, kritbarg och kritbotten, than in Essex?
Besides this, we saw also here and there enclosures of
only clover, which also was now cut and carried. Sheep,
Faren, were also already turned in thither to feed on
the stubs.

Bohvete. Buckwheat. Here and there appeared
large fields which were cropped only with Buckwheat. I
certainly never saw it more beautifulthanhere. It stood
now in full flower; but had not yet set seed. The soil
was a dry sandy soil, torr sandmylla, full of small
pebblestones.

[T. Il. p. 30]. Akrar. In all the arable fields which
lay here on the hills, there was not a single ditch; nor
were there any ‘acre-veins’ except along the sides of the
hedges; but these were so narrow, that no one could go
off them without necessarily going onto the ploughed
part. Each farmer had his arable fields, meadows, and
pastures divided off for himself without having to do with
others. Some enclosures were here sown with wheat,
others with Rye, others with Barley, Gumrik, others
with White Oats, others with Peas, others were lying
fallow.

I did not notice anywhere on these hills that Beans
were ever sown except near the farms.

The fallow fields were very well cared for, and the
mould on them was quite fine.

* Yes. Sainfoin is largely cultivated on the Chalk, especially on Slopes,
where there is nothing but chalk soil proper. [J. L.]

ESSEX OPPOSITE GRAVESEND. 369

On some Chalk, Krita, lay spread out, in other places
was manure, carried out and shot in heaps still unspread.
On the slope of a hill the fallow fields were arranged in
stitches, ryggar, 2 feet wide and 1 foot high, so as to
make it easier to eradicate the weeds by means of plough-
ing, korning.*

Ormbunkar. Bvrackens, Brakes.

Pteris, the Bracken, 843 [Pteris Aquilina], had the
same bad habit, oart, here, as in Sweden, that when
they have once begun to grow in a field they are after-
wards difficult to eradicate.t I saw to-day in several
places that it grew as well out in the fallow fields as
amongst the Rye, luxuriantly and in great abundance.

Arter. Pease.

We saw in different places large Pease-fields. The
peas seemed to be flourishing. They were not sown with
the drill or in rows, but with full hand, as is common with
us. No sticks [T. II. p. 31] or branches, or such like,
were found under them, but they lay on the bare ground.
The pods were already tolerably ripe. I opened some,
but found in everyone an astonishing number of small
maggots, maskar, and, as it seemed, not all of one sort.
I reckoned over 170 maggots in one pod. In the most
matured pods the most maggots were found, but in those

*Korning, Ploughing. Kora is to drive, e.g., the plough. Not. to be
confounded with the English provincial word, ‘ Kerning,’ from ‘ Kern,’ a
grain, or corn. “ Kerning ground is that which, drest well, will produce a
great quantity of corn, as gravel does, when others will run more into
straw, and less corz.” Will. Ellis. Practscal Farmer, 4th Ed. 1742, 8vo.
p. 169. [J. L.]

+ To eradicate Brackens. In Abkhaziya the bracken ‘‘grows in one.
“‘ month to a greater height than a manon horseback. If they mow the fern
“ for three years in succession in the spring, when the scythe can still take hold
“ of it, then the plant perishes.” From the Russian of Vladikin’s “ Kavkaziya,”

Moscow, 1874. 8vo. [J. L.]
2B

370 KALM'S ENGLAND.

which were little matured few were seen, and in most
cases none. Some of the fully ripened pods, however,
were also free from maggots.

On one other Pease-field where the Peas were still very
little matured, we could not find any maggots in the
pods. It may possibly happen that the insects, which
had been the origin of the many maggots just described,
had already closed their short life and were dead when
these later peas began to flower, and they thus escaped
this vermin. Lucky is he who so can sow his seed that
the insects, which use to cause this damage in the fields
and the country, come either too early or too late.

In the evening we returned home to Gravesend.

GRAVESEND.
(T. II. p.5.] Mjélkens Ansning, &c. The Dairy.

Here in Kent the farmers or husbandmen keep only a
few cows, so that they have not any more milk than they
require for their own households. When the milk is
newly milked, they sile* it in four-cornered boxes of lead.
The length of such a milk-box, mjélk-lada, is about
2 feet to 2 feet 6 inches. Sometimes they are of the
same length and breadth, the depth about 4 inches.
When this box is siled in the morning nearly full of milk,
it is left to stand so for twenty-four hours, or till the next
morning, when the cream is skimmed off, da graden
skumas af, but the remaining sour milk is used either
for the people, or, as mostly happens, it is given to the swine.

In the same way, the milk that is siled one evening is
skimmed the next, so that in the summer they never
leave it to stand longer in the box than twenty-four hours,

Ste, a milk strainer. Sile, v. o s¢razn, as fresh milk from the cow, v. n. to
sile down, to fall to the bottom, or subside. North. & Lincoln ; Grose, Prov.
Gloss. [J. L.J

GRAVESEND. 371

but in the winter they allow it to stand for thirty-six
hours, so that of the milk that is siled in the morning the
cream is not taken off before the evening of the next day.
From this cream butter is afterwards churned.

I related to the English women how long we in
Sweden let the milk stand before we take the ‘curds,’
filet, off it, when they answered that we could not in
this way make such [T. II. p. 6] good butter as they.
For they said they had proved that when one churns
butter of such a cream as is taken off so sour a milk, the
butter, has not one-half of the delicious and agreeable
flavour, smacken, that the English generally has. A
butter churned from so very thick a milk they here called
girughets Sm6r, ‘rank butter,’ Jit. ‘butter of avarice.’

They believed also that as much butter can be made
of sweet cream as of sour. They never let the milk stand
here in England so long that it becomes like our
filbunkar [flat wooden dishes of curdled milk] with so
thick cream and milk. Moreover, they do not know
here what a filbunka is. They said that they use
leaden vessels to sile the milk in, because in summer it
keeps fresher therein. I asked if they did not use wooden
vessels to sile milk in? They answered, ‘no,’ because an
acid settles in the wood and corrupts the milk, which
acid they cannot so easily wash away.

The leaden vessels are well washed with warm water
every time they are used, so that not the least milk or
acid therefrom is left in them, because it would corrupt
the cream and consequently the butter.

Very little or no cheese, ost, is made in this part of
Kent.

In Essex they have a large number of cows and cattle.

Karnan. The Churn* which they use is a tun lying

* The Churn is still called Kern in Yorkshire. [J. L.]
2B 2

3472 KALM’S ENGLAND.

horizontally upon a frame, larger or smaller according to
the quantity of milk they have for it, and has narrow
boards set inside lengthwise, full of holes to work the
cream more. This Churn is turned round with a winch-

handle.
The 7th Fuly, 1748.

Gass. Geese. The story was related to me to-day by
those who said they themselves had seen it, that in
Lincolnshire [T. II. p. 7] and in other places in England,
once a year, viz., in the summer-time, nearly all the
feathers and down are plucked off living geese, which after a
time again get new down and feathers in the place of the
old ones; although they will look disfigured enough at
first, when they are newly plucked. Those who have
this custom with their geese pretend that the down and
feathers which are plucked off the goose whilst it is living
will have the property that when they are laid in a bolster
and anyone lies upon it so that they become crammed
together, as soon as one gets out of bed, they will
immediately spring up again and expand themselves to
the same height as before, so that it will be scarcely
observable whether anyone has lain in the bed. Such
elasticity will this down have! At least there will bea
very great distinction in this respect between those which
have been plucked from a goose while he was alive, and
after he is dead. Here in Kent, as in Essex, there are
geese enough bred by the farmers; likewise ducks,
Anckor.

At f& Kalf-Kott hvitt. To make Veal white.

Here in England, the county of Essex is particularly
noted before other counties for its Calves, which have a
very excellent, fat, very tender, and very white flesh.
And that it may become so much the whiter, I saw
during my visit to Woodford, that the Farmers, or rustics,

GRAVESEND. 373

used to lay a great piece of chalk in a trough where they
had their fatted calves, that the calves might lick it, which
in their opinion will have the effect of making the flesh
become whiter.

But besides this way, there was to-day related to me
another trick, viz.:—If they slaughter a calf, say, at six
o’clock in the evening, in the usual way, then they stick
him in the neck, and let the blood run so nearly out of
him that he is [T. II. p. 8] almost dead. When they see
that no great quantity of blood is left, they stop the
blood so that it can run no more, and that the calf comes
round somewhat; then let him so live till the morning of
the following day, when they always slaughter him. A
calf slaughtered in this way is said to have much whiter
flesh than if they had slaughtered him in the ordinary
way, and killed him all at once.

The learned Dr. Lister also gives an account of this
in his Journey to Paris, p.m. 157.

Smor. Butter.

In Canterbury, in Kent, butter is not sold by the
pound or by weight, as is the custom everywhere else in
England,* but it is made rectangular and flat as a board,
and is sold by the yard,t efter alntal. The butter in

* This is not quite accurate. In Plot’s Vat. Hist. of Staffordshire, 1686,
ce. III., p. 108, 3 :—‘‘ Limestone Hills. . . . The butter they buy by the pot,
of a long cylindrical form, made at Burslem in this county, of a certain size,
so as not to weigh above 6 lbs. at most, and yet to contain at least 14 Ibs. of
butter, according to an Act of Parliament made about 14 or 16 years agoe.”
There was a Surveyor appointed in consequence of the ‘‘ tricks and cheats”
practised, whose duty it was to probe the butter-pots with « long ‘‘butter-
boare ” to see if they were packed full, ‘‘so that they weigh none (which would
be an endless business), or very seldom.” The Act of Parliament referred to
was passed in 1674, 14 Chas. II., c. 26, ‘* Packing of butter.” Repealed
36 Geo. III., c. 86, s. 19, 1796. [J.L.]

{ In Mexico and California “‘ jerked beef is sold by the vara or yard, as
butter is sold at Cambridge in England.”—Flack, Prazrie a p. 88.

ees

374 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Essex is said to be a good deal better and nicer-flavoured
than that which is made in Kent, at least better than
that which is to be had around Gravesend.

Krita til husvaggar. Chalk in house walls.

At a farm, en by, which lies not far from one of the
chalk pits, we saw an outhouse whose walls were entirely
[T. II. p. 9] built of chalk, which they had cut into
quadrangular pieces. It was only at the corners of the
house, and at the doors and the window openings that
they had built with brick. One and another of these
chalk bricks, Kritstenar, if I may so call them, was
partly injured by the air, and was beginning to fall to
pieces; but most of them were flat ‘and uninjured. The
house seemed to have stood from 8 to 12 years.

Hedera. Ivy. At several Farms Hedera arborea, C.B.
[H. Helix] grew close against the walls, up which it
clambered, and often entirely covered long walls, which,
in consequence, looked very pretty. In like manner it
clad in many places walls around churches, houses, and
gardens. The walls of the before mentioned old church
[Denton Church] were for a great part overdrawn with ivy.

Vinranckor. Vines.

At very many houses in Gravesend, and at a great
many of the Farmers’ and other houses, rich as well as
poor, round about the country, they had planted vines on
the sides of the houses and cottages which looked
towaris the south, mot solen,* and whose walls at this
time of the year were almost covered with them.

Kersbarstran. Cherry irees.
Kent is the district that has the name for this, that

* Turn not your vineyard to the setting sun.” Georgics II., 298, orig.

331, Zr. Mason, 1810, 8vo. [J]. L.]

GRAVESEND. 375

therein grow not only the best and finest flavoured
Cherries, Kersbar, in England, but also, if anyone will
give credit to their account, in the whole world. Which-
ever way one goes out of Gravesend, as well as farther
out in the country, one sees almost everywhere near the
farms, large fields and orchards, parcker, planted only
with Cherry trees. In other places are found large
orchards of Afples [T. II. p. 10] and Pears, Aplen och
Paron, either planted separately by themselves or also
mixed with Cherry trees. The Cherry trees are planted
ordine quincunciali.* The ground, Marken, under them
lies in some places entirely in grass, i linda, and is
used either as meadow or pasture.

On the south side of Northfleet Church was a large
orchard of Cherry trees. The earth between the Cherry
tvees was ploughed up, made fine, and sown with wheat,
which was now standing there as luxuriant and flourish-
ing as at any place I saw on this country side. From
the cultivated appearance of the soil it seemed as though
they had long availed themselves of this land for
ploughing. Several Apple tvees were also planted here.
The Cherry trees were now full of fruit, bar. The soil had
apparently been well cared for, because it was not
noticeable that the trees made the wheat thinner or
poorer immediately under them.

When I was over in that part of Essex which lies
immediately opposite Gravesend, I remarked that almost
everywhere where I wandered about I scarcely ever got
to see any Cherry trees, much less any whole orchard of
them, and not nearly so many as around Gravesend, in
Kent. This caused me to ask the people in the villages

* Quincunx. Adam, Roman Antiquities [1791, 2nd ed., 1792], in the
oth ed., 1822, p. 364, figures this ¢wo deep, that is to five parallel rows wide.
(J. L.]

376 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the reason why they did not endeavour to plant here as
many Cherry trees as in Kent, which lies close beside
them, only that the river Thames divides them? They
answered that it could not well be done, because the
Cherries in Essex never attain the same agreeable flavour
as in Keni. Another said that because the soil in Essex
is Gravel, gYUS, Cherry trees will not thrive there, ville
ej kersbars traden der fort; on the other hand, Pear
trees flourish there well.

Between Gravesend and Rochester I also saw [T. IL.,
p. 11] a great number of Cherry orchards on both sides of
the road, especially towards the Gravesend side. The
Cherry trees were here planted not ordine quincunciali,
but all in squares. The distance between two trees was
4 feet. The ground between and under the trees was
entirely used up as arable, or also sown with Sain Foin,
Clover, or Tares, Vicia Vulgaris Sativa, J. B. [Johann
Bauhin]. To use these orchards also as ploughed fields
seemed, however, to have something incongruous in it,
for since the fruit ripened some weeks before the wheat,
they were obliged, when they wished to have the use of
the fruit, in many places round and under the trees, as
well as between them, to trample down the wheat or the
crop sown, which we saw happened to all Wheat, as well
as Barley and Oats. But where the orchards were sown
with Clover, Sain Foin, and Tares (Vicia), it was not
incongruous, because these kinds of hay were commonly
cut and stocked before the fruit was fully ripe. The
English fruit-growers, Tragards mastare, maintain that
the fruit trees thrive best and bear the most abundant
and best flavoured fruit when the soil under and between
the trees is kept cultivated, halles brukad, and loose, like
a ploughed field, without any crops, grasses, or weeds
being allowed to grow thereon. They had shot and
hung hosts of dead Jackdaws, Kajor, Rooks, Rakor,

GRAVESEND. 377

Crows, Krakor, Magpies, Skator, &c., up in the
branches of the trees to frighten away their comrades
from coming thither either to scathe the trees or the
crops. From these suspended, half-rotted, and stinking
birds it was not difficult to know at a distance when
some cherry orchard was in the neighbourhood. All
through this time of the year whole boatloads of cherries
of many sorts are carried from Gravesend * to London.

[T. IL, p.12.] The 8th Fuly, 1748.

Akrar. Many of the arable fields which were lying
fallow were so full of guickens, qvickrot, 105, that it was
esteemed a pity. I never saw any ditch in all the arable
fields which were in the neighbourhood around Gravesend,
or thereabouts, no water-furrows, no acre-reins. The
lowest places were commonly sown with Barley, Gum-
rik, which commonly had 12 to 13 grains in each row.

The colour of the soil also in among the ploughed fields
was a flesh colour; the mould very loose, with enough
small round and flat flintstones and bits of chalk among
it. In some places it could be plainly seen that ditches
were needed, because the water had stood there and
formed boggy ground, stannat och syrts, so that the
wheat was very thin. In many places the fallow fields
had not yet been ploughed since the crop reaped on
them was carried, but they lay entirely overgrown with
weeds.

Vau.t 439 Dyers’ Weed, Weld. [Reseda Luteola]

* The Cherry orchards have long disappeared from the neighbourhood of
Gravesend. 1890. [J. L.]

tVau. Dan. Vau, Vouvre ; Ger. Wau.—Miiller Dax. Deuts. Worterd,
1800; Dut. Wouw; Lg. ‘ Weld, a kind of herb whose stalk and root is in
great use for dying the bright and yellow lemon colour.’—Bailey, Eng.
Dic. 1730. 15th Ed. 1753; fr. Gaude. Botan. Reseda Luteola, Dyer’s Weed.
' Reseda Lut. yields ‘ Weld’ a yellow dye.—Hooker Stud. Flor. 870. p. 41.

[P-L]

378 KALM’S ENGLAND.

which is cultivated for its yellow colour, was in several
places drawn up root and all, bound in small sheaves,
Karfvar, which were set one against another in the
fields to dry, in the same way as we do with Hemp and
Flax. Its seeds were still not much more than half ripe.
It grew here wild, in places abundantly, in other places
it was expressly planted.

The oth Fuly, 1748.

Angar. The low places in Kent which at high water
lay below the level of the water in the river Thames,
were divided into meadows and isaianis 2s
PPellsepet ed (tas qe ar. td ol

No ike grew on “thee lowland
meadows, but Justead of hedges or other fences around
them, there were deep dikes about a fathom wide, which
now stood nearly full of water.

Arundo Vulgaris Palustris J.B., the Reed [Phragmites
communis] and Scirpus 39[S. Maritimus] or the Sea-rush,
hafssav, grew in the greatest abundance in these dikes
and were considered very good fodder.

The kinds of grass of which the plants on these
meadows principally consisted, were Alopecurus culmo
evecto 52. [A pratensis], Gramen Secalinum pratense
elatius (Morison) [Hordeum Secalinum] and Aira 67 syn.
Gramen lanatwm (Dalech) [Holcus Mollis].

These here formed the finest, thickest, and most
luxuriant grass sward that anyone could wish to have on
his meadow. It was now being mown here with all
diligence. The pastures were divided into many parts,
so that when the cattle went for one week on one pas-
ture, the grass was growing in two or three others, where
the cattle had been before: and when the cattle had been
here one week, they were moved to the pasture which at
the last change had been longest free from their bait.

GRAVESEND. 379

Hence it happened to a certain extent that the grass
grew between the cattle’s feet !

In every pasture was commonly a little pond with
sloping sides or banks, on one side of the field, that the
cattle might get their water: because the banks of the
dikes were designedly made so steep that they could not
get at the water to drink therefrom.

On the meadows there is not the least sign of moss
found, because the thick and luxuriant grass prevents such.

[T. II. p.14.] In most places the meadows were
smooth and flat without any hillocks, tufva, but in some
places, especially higher up against the ploughed fields,
were hillock, tufvor, enough, but small. In one and all
of them which we dug asunder, was found a multitude of
small yellow ants, myror. In several places where they
had newly and to-day mown hay, we found loose mould
in small hillocks, newly, and probably only this week
constructed, and resembling a mole-hill, mullvadshég,
but when this mould was scattered, it was found full of
the before-named ants. Thus have they heaved up these
hillocks, tufvor. But we also had the opportunity of
discovering another cause for these hillocks in this
situation, which was Funcus acutus panicula sparsa, C. B.
[J. Tenax Banks. MS.] This grew in many places in
very great abundance, and had the peculiarity of always
growing in tufts or tussocks, tufvor. It is not destroyed
by any animal on account of its hardness and roughness
or bristling exterior; it takes hold of dust, damb, straw,
stra, and anything that is driven by the wind. Directly
this begins to grow on the smoothest ground it makes it
in a few years full of hillocks, tufvor.

Gédslens férmerande. A mode of increasing the
quantity of manure.

The soil, which is dug up when the before-named dikes

380 KALM’S ENGLAND.

are made was after some time carried home by the
farmers, where it was laid in the farm yards, alternately
with the cattle-dung, in heaps, to lie there and ferment
together with the same, which thus made a choice
manure.

The [Gregorian Po Fuly, 1748.*
Gardesgardar. Fences.

In some places only we saw fences, which were made
mostly of small sprays, spratar, which wattled fences
are, in some parts of the country, very much used. They
are made in this way [T. II. p. 15] that, instead of
placing, as we do, two staves side by side, there is only
one set by itself, which generally is not longer than the
height of the fence. Between two staves there is a
distance of about 2 feet. Instead of ‘edder,’ Gardsel,
small branches or twigs of trees are used, which are bent
alternately in curves about the staves in this way, that
when the one staff has been left on the left side of the
horizontally placed runners, spraten, the next staff comes
to be on the right side of the same, and so on.

Servatula. Foliis dentatis Spinosis, 662, or Aker-
tisteln, [S. Avvensis, L., afterwards Cnicus arvensis L.
now Cissium (Tournefort) arvensis] grew in many places
in the greatest profusion in the loose mould on the walls.
In some places it was cut down, that it could not get the
chance of ripening and seeding, and so doing injury to
the neighbouring ploughed fields and kitchen-gardens.

In other places they had the mischievous practice,
common in Sweden, of leaving the thistle untouched, by
which it was much more easily enabled to spread itself all

* This is the first appearance in this work of the double or alternative
date contemplating the difference of eleven days between the Old and New
Style.—[J. L-]

GRAVESEND. 381

around, and become injurious to the crops sown, and also
to the kitchen garden plants.

Vagar. Roads.

Almost everywhere on both sides of the high roads,
were hawthorn hedges planted, so that one walked or
travelled here as in an Allée, or in a garden.

These high roads had not the character, as with us in
Sweden, that the road lay higher than the land around,
but here exactly the opposite is the case—viz., so that
the road goes in most places deep down in the earth, to
a depth of 2, 4, or 6 feet, so that many would believe the
road was only some dry stream-course. There is com-
monly on one side of the road [T. II. p. 16], if not on
both sides, on the walls or the high sides, a footpath,
gangwag, on which those who travel on foot go, so that
they are not in danger from those who drive or ride.

That the roads are so deepseems to come from this, that
in this country very large wagons, vagnar, are used with
many horses in front, on which wagons a very heavy load
is laid. Through many years’ driving, k6rning, these
wagons seem to have eaten down into the ground, and
made the road so deep. On the other hand, the hedges
which are planted on both sides of the road had in-
creased their mould, partly from dust which had been fixed
by them, partly from the leaves which they let fall yearly,
partly from the earth which is shovelled up like a little
wall against the roots when the hedge is made or laid
down. But the principal cause, nevertheless, seems to
be due to the wagons, because the arable-fields, pastures,
and meadows on the sides equally in most places lie higher
than the road. The soil, jordmon, which here consists of
sandy gravel and pebbles, sandgrus och klapper, and
which immediately absorbs water, causes these roads to
suffer little injury from rain. During heavy rain some

382 KALM’S ENGLAND.

water runs along these roads, but it does not last long,
and, moreover, running water outside the river Thames

is here very scarce.
The 42 Fuly, 1748.

Bonor. Beans. On whichever side I went out
round Gravesend in Kent, I always got to see on every farm,
Farmer’s gard, some large beanfield. In some places
were whole large arable fields and tracts sown with beans
only. It was commonly the sort which has small and
narrow pods.

In all the places I saw them, they were sown in rows.
The distance or width between two rows [T. II. p. 17]
was uncertain, sometimes it was as muchas 2 feet 6
inches, sometimes less, even to only 6 inches—which,
however, seemed too thick. It was not too much when
just 1 foot width was left between the rows.

The distance between each Bean-flant, Bon-stand,
and thenext in the row was however not the same through-
out, but just as if they had been in a hurry when they sowed
them. I saw them stand one foot from each other;
sometimes, however, they had scarcely more than an
inch breadth between them. They commonly stood six
inches from each other, which space they certainly
required, if not a little more. The reason why the
Beans were sown in rows was partly that they could get
at them so much the more readily to clean away the weeds
between them with a hoe, as well as afterwards the
better to be able to pluck off their green pods, which
they send to London to be sold; partly that by casting
up the mould to the stalks they furthered the growth of
the Beans.

After the stalk had attained some length, the top was
cut off that it might shoot no more in length, but turn
all its strength on the maturing of the Beans. They

GRAVESEND. 383

were sown at different times, whence it happened that
when some plots exhibited ripe beans, in other places
they were just beginning to strike out into flowers. The
principal reason why there are so many beans sown here
is that they feed horses and pigs with them in the
winter.

The Li Fuly, 1748.
Svartmyllans tjocklek. Thickness of the soil.

Near one of the chalk-pits, krit-groparna, was an
orchard, tragard, which consisted partly of [T. II. p. 18]
cherries and partly of Walnut-trees. Here, on one side
of the Chalk-pit, they had taken away all the soil or
vegetable-carth svartmyllan eller matjorden, which
lay upon the chalk. This soil, matjord, was not black,
but rather more of a flesh-colour. The thickness of the
soil svart-myllan eller matjorden, was here mostly
2I inches, in some places 27 inches, in other places
18 inches and thereabout. The upper surface of the
chalk was however, not horizontal, but went more like
waves.

At g6éra Vin af Russin. To make Wine of Raisins.

My landlady where I had my quarters here in
Gravesend, had Wine which she herself had made from
Raisins, which was so good that those who wish to be
thought to be judges of wines had difficulty in distin-
guishing it from Madeira Wine.

The Receipt was given me, how it is made, which
was thus :—

To 100 lbs. of Smyrna Raisins are added 45 to 50
pints of water, which is afterwards stirred twice a day,
for a period of fourteen or sixteen days.

Thereupon, the raisins are well pressed, and the Wine,

384 KALM’S ENGLAND.

or the expressed juice of the Raisins, is poured into a
barrel, ankare, which holds about 30 pints, kannor.
Afterwards a piece of brown paper is taken and stuck full
of holes, and laid over the bung-hole, sprund halet. Some
of the wine, or the expressed juice, must be preserved in
an open vessel to fill up the barrel, according as it works
itself out, or ferments over. It must so stand till the
whole of it again begins to ferment. Thereupon three
quarts of well distilled Brandy, are added, with one pound
of the best sugar, the white [T. II. p. 19] of sixteen eggs,
and one ounce of alum, which has been boiled in one
quart of water. All this is mixed well together, and laid
in the barrel, which is well shaken about, bunged, and
left to stand so for one year before it is tapped.

On the foregoing it is to be remarked: rst. That when
one begins to blend the Raisins and water together, the
water is thrown into a tub, kar, or vat, vatten-sa,
which ought to be very clean.

While they are both being agitated together in the
same vessel, karil, the vessel is covered over with
cloths, that earth and such like may not get into it.

andly. The sugar and white of egg are whipped
before the alum is put in, for if you were to put the alum
in at the same time, it would cause the egg to coagulate.
The water in which the alum is boiled ought, moreover,
to stand till it is cool, before it is thrown into the sugar
and egg.

At géra et svagare vin. To make a milder wine.

After you have made a strong wine in the foregoing
manner, pour anew twenty pints of water on the pressed
out raisins, and let it stand one week, after which it is
pressed out from the raisins, and is poured into a
fifteen-pint barrel; and when it has done fermenting
there are put therein half as much Spirit of Wine, Sugar,

GRAVESEND. 385

White of Egg, and Alum, as in the former. After three
weeks’ time, it may be ready to be tapped. This weak
wine will not keep long, but after it is tapped and bottled,
it must be drunk at once. The stronger wine becomes
better and more agreeable, the longer it afterwards
stands untouched, and that for many years.

[T. II. p. 20.] Note.—Wine so made of Red Smyrna
Raisins becomes sweet ; but of black Smyrna Raisins it
becomes like Madeira wine.

Strata Terre. Immediately west of Northfleet, which
lies about a couple of English miles west of Gravesend,
there was by the highroad a large pit, grop, out of
which they had taken partly Pebblestone, to lay on the
road, partly sand for different purposes. ol

. In.

I. On the top Pebblestone, larger or smaller,
mingled with a somewhat fine brick-coloured sand,
though Pebblestone formed the greater part ...... 2 6

2. A brick-coloured somewhat fine sand, at the
thickest 1 foot, but thinner on both sides till it
was entirely lost in Pebblestone............csceseee TO

3. Pebblestone mixed with a einew hae fie
brick-coloured sand, like No. 1; yet the thick-
ness of this Stratum was not everywhere the same,
for here in the middle it was thinnest, but towards
both sides it became thicker .........sccscsseeseseseees 2 0

4. Same sand as No. 2 lost itself ienilaty a in
Pebblestone, otherwise the strata of this sand were

always entirely clean and free from Pebblestone ... 0 6
5. Pebblestone, mixed with quantity oe of
the brick-coloured sand .......ceeeeeee 3 8

6. Same sand as No. 2, it we eau ‘elealy
see that this had not come hither all at once, but
by degrees, for it was divided into exceedingly

CHIU SEVALE: ce diawegisecrcctasec casas ia RAVeaneeres 2 —O
2C

386 KALM’S ENGLAND.

ft. in.
47, A dark brick-coloured or brownish clay.

[T. II. p. 21.] It lay in some places imme-
diately over the chalk; in other places lay the
sand, No. 6, next above the chalk .........:eeseeeeeees Oo 4
8. Krita. Chalk pebbles. This was the rarest
bed we ever saw in any sand pit. It was mostly
chalk, but nevertheless, mixed enough with small
Pebblestones. Several pieces of chalk were ex-
ternally quite smooth, shaped oval or round, and
had the same appearance, figur, as Pebblestone,
but when they were broken asunder they consisted
of bare chalk. This bed was not of the same
thickness throughout, but thinned out towards

both sides till it was entirely lost ........:c00 eee I 3
g. A brick-coloured coarser sand, much aaee
with Pebblestones ......... 6 0

to. Chalk mixed with one. light Ai. ‘eel
Pebblestones, together with a number of broken
mussel and snail shells .........ss.0008s. Ift.6in.to o 6
11. A quite fine light sand passing to yellow,
free from all foreign admixtures (heterogenets), 4
feet thick, and who knows how far down? because
the fallen gravel, sand, &c., prevented us from
seeing farther down.

Obs.—That the thickness of one and all of these beds
is not uniform, but sometimes thick, sometimes thin,
sometimes entirely lost, as though someone had in former
times tipped these strata out of a wheelbarrow, which
can all be ascribed to varying directions of the currents,
and the unequal movement of the waves, storms, &c.

From this hill it may be 1 or 11 musket shot to the
nearest Chalk pit, kritgrop, whose sides consist of bare
chalk, and which is 12 or more fathoms deep, so that
one can thus be sure that the whole of this [T. II. p. 22]

GRAVESEND. 387

hill just described, with its many stvata, and which lies
higher than the surface of the hills near the chalk pit,
most certainly overlies the chalk, for visso star pa
krita. All the hill banks, strand backarna, of the
Thames, 14 musket shot below this hill, consist of bare
chalk, either pure or mixed with Flints and small
Pebblestones.*

Svin. To prevent these animals from grubbing up
the ground, and entering the ploughed fields through the
hedges, they were, in Kent and Essex, both ringed in the
snout and bore on their necks triangular wooden yokes,
exactly in the same way as is done with us here in
Sweden.

Alm. Elm. When we were walking to-day down
by the banks of the river below Northficet, Nordfleet,
where the river banks consist almost entirely of chalk,
with interbedded flints here and there, with soil, svart-
mylla, almost of a brick colour thereupon, we remarked
how the large Elms which grew in the hedges on the
river banks had penetrated with their roots through the
soil, which was here 2 feet thick or more, right down to
the chalk; but as soon as they met the chalk they very
seldom entered it, but then began to run horizontally
along the bottom of the soil above the chalk. We re-
marked this of very many Elms. The chalk is probably
too hard for their roots. It was only in one single place
that I could see that a couple of Elm roots entered a
fissure in the chalk for a depth of 1 foot or 18 inches

* The beds here described are now known as the O/dhaven Pebble Beds
of the Woolwich Series (Whitaker), and the Zhane¢t Sand (Prestwich). This
section was cited by SIR TORBERN OLAF BERGMAN, (?) orig. work, German
tr. by L. H. Rohl in Welt-beschreibung, Th. I, cap. V., § 39., p. 114
Greifsvald, 1769-74, 8vo. And again transl. into German, incorrectly, by
CARL ABRAHAM GERHARD, Versuch einer Geschichte des Mineral-reichs.
Berlin, 1781-2, 8vo. Erster Theil, § 100, p. 190. [J. L.]

2c 2

388 KALM’S ENGLAND.

perpendicular. [T. II. p. 23.] The bank had slipped
down, or been under-eaten by the water in the river, so
that I could see this quite clearly in many trees.
[T. II. p. 31.] The 18 Fulii, 1748.
Et satt at rida. <A way of riding.
In England they are much in the habit of practising
a way of riding which is most strange, and not in use
among us in Sweden. It is that two persons, the one
aman and the other a woman, both sit on one and the
same horse. The carl sits in front, guides and governs
the horse in the usual way; but the lady [T. II. p. 32],
or woman, sits behind him in the same way as women
generally sit on horseback, viz., sideways. It is here
common to see them so come riding, not only in small
places and out in the country, but even in the middle of
London ; but especially in the summer time when they
ride out of town for recreation.

The 14 Fuly.

Ho-bargningen, H6-stackar. Hay making, Hay
stacks.

The meadows were now in most places mown, but in
some places they remained still to mow. In the fields
the hay was treated in the same way as has been before
named in this description of my travels, (T. I. p. 438).
When it was quite dry it was set in cocks, Valmar, 6 foot
high, and down on the ground there were spread cocks
from which it was afterwards carried to the place where
the stacks were to be made. If the fields lay near the
farm, the hay was carried home and stacked, but if they
lay any considerable distance from the farm, the stack
was made in the field. In the high-lying places the hay
consisted mostly of Sain Foin, but in low places, of kinds
of grass.

GRAVESEND. 389

The hay is carried to the stack in wagons, but where
the fields were flat, they availed themselves of a very
handy plan, which consisted in this, that they had a rope
which was fastened to the harness or iron chains with
which the horse drew. This rope was set round about
the cock, and was turned down at the back and passed
underneath it, and afterwards the rope was fastened by a
loop to the chain, when the horse ran the whole cock to
the stack, which was then being made in the field. There
seemed to be little or. no hay left behind the cock on the
field [T. II. p. 33], but the cock came almost entire to the
place. Instead of a bridge, they filled the dike with hay,
over which they drove.

Hostackarna, the haystacks are. made either round
as in Fig. 1, or oblong, and in the shape of a house, as
Fig. 2.

WOW,

Vy
Wy
CCAR LE

ee KYA VAM Me

As the hay-stack was made the hay was trodden down at
once, so that it might lie steady. At the beginning, and
while the stack is still low, they have horses on it to
trample the hay; afterwards, higher up, the trampling is
done by many men. When they have got the stack ready
in one of the aforenamed shapes, the sides LN and MO
in Fig. 1, and EF and CDGH in Fig. 2, are cut with

390 KALM’S ENGLAND.

a knife specially made for the purpose, flat or smooth,
partly that the cattle may not so easily be able to steal
from it, partly that the rain and wet may not fasten
thereon, partly that it might look better.

I will for clearness call the upper and out-sloping
sides AE and ABCD, Fig. 2, and KL, KM, Fig. 1
‘thatch,’ tak, and the lower and in-sloping sides LN,
MO Fig. 1 [T. II. p. 34], and EF, CDGH, Fig. a2,
sides or walls. The stacks are always made so that they
are widest at the thatch-band, tackbandet, and grow
narrower afterwards down their sides all the way to the
bottom. This also prevents the water which comes
dripping from their thatch from rotting the walls or sides.
Now follows how the thatching is effected. They are
commonly thatched with straw, which is here taken from
the wheat, as they reckon that the best. Sometimes they
are thatched with hay, but not so often. Then they raise
a ladder against the haystack, so that it comes to lie
along the direction of the thatch. Afterwards they take
the ‘baster,’* a small sheaf of straw, halm-karfva, which
is bound with straw at both ends. This is laid down at
the thatch band LM, CD, in this way that it comes to
lie horizontally. Afterwards they stick a ‘rick-peg ’ (pron.

*BasTER. A long, narrow bundle of straw about as large as one can
span with both hands, still used as described by Kalm, Sept. 1886, also for
laying along the ridge of the stack to make the crest of the straw stand erect,
At Gaddesden Row, Herts, it is prov. like ‘Master.’ Also in the form
« BAssE (disyll.) a collar for cart-horses made of rushes, straw, sedge, &c.’
Bailey Dic. 1736. Normandy Patots, Batiére, a packsaddle, Fr. Bat, Ital,
Basto ; O.N. (Zce/) Bastari, « bast binder, Fr. Batier, Jta/. Bastiére, bastaio, a
pack-saddle maker.—O.N., Dax., Swed. Ger., Dut., Eng. Bast ‘lime tree
bark made into ropes and mats.’ Bailey, Aug. Dic. 1736. ‘Bass, Bast,
matting, dried rushes or sedges.’ Brockett Northern Gloss. 3rd ed., 1846.
Dan. ‘Bast. Ger. Bast, damit man bindet.’ G.H. Miiller, Dan-Deutsch
Wirt, 1800.—O.N. (Zce/.), Swed., Basta to bind into a bundle, Dan. Baste og
binde, to dind up; &c. [J.L.]

GRAVESEND. 391

‘reek-peg’’),a narrow stick, right through each end of this
baster or small straw sheaf into the stack, that the baster
may lie steady. On this baster is afterwards laid loose
straw about 3 or 4 inches thick, or 6 inches, or even alittle
more, so that the narrow ends of the straw are turned up
towards the top of the stack, and the thick are laid across
the above-named baster, karfva, so, however, that the
ends project a little beyond the lower sides of the stack,
to prevent the water which in wet weather runs down the
thatch from pouring on to the sides of the stack. After
they have laid the straw thus, they have ready to hand
long, narrow, slender sticks [the ‘ rick-pegs’], which are
sharpened at one end. One of them is taken and stuck
in with the sharp end down in the stack, on one side of
the straw already laid on, yet towards the higher part of
the same. The rick-peg is then bent [T. II. p. 35]
across the straw so as to lie horizontally. This horizontal
part is called ‘the rod.’ To make it lie still, and at the
same time fasten the straw, they have another sprata,
‘spray’ of 20 to 25 inches’ length, which is sharpened at
both ends, and in the middle is slightly cut out on one
side, so that it can be bent together,

as in the accompanying figure, with-

2
out breaking off. The ‘spray,’ P Q.R,
thus bent is set into the stack in
such a way that one end, P, goes in Po 2

one side, and the other end, Q, on the other side of
the ‘rod’ or long spar laid across the straw.

The bent spray, PQ R, is then pressed or beaten
down till it fastens the end of the ‘rod,’ and likewise
presses the straw and holds it fast. Afterwards new
straw is taken, and is laid above this in the manner before
described, to fasten in such a manner that the large ends
of the new straw come to lie above and to cover the
small ends of the straw previously laid below, and the

392 KALM’S ENGLAND,

same with the ‘ rods’ which were laid across it. On this
new straw no rod was set, but they take still another lot
of straw and set it a little higher up, and then it is first
fastened with a long ‘rod’ across, in the same way as
has been described before. In this way it is continued
upwards till one comes to the top, and there also fastens
the straw. After that the ladder is moved a little more
to one side, and the thatching is begun again down at
the thatch-band, in the manner before described, tight
in to that which is already thatched, and is continued so
upwards. The row which is thatched every time
[T. II. p. 36] from the bottom of the thatch, takfoten,
up to the top before the ladder is changed, is as broad as
the carl can reach to lay when he stands on the ladder.
One or two carls are down below, who prepare the straw
and give it up to the one who is thatching, who lays this
straw near him till he requires it. That he may have
the straw so much readier to hand, he has two pieces of
stick of 2 to 3 feet long, which he sticks into the stack
in a horizontal line, about two feet from each other.
Above and against these the straw is laid; but if it blows
hard, he has still beside these, two other sticks, each about
two feet long, sharpened at one end, and fastened together
by a string, et band, at the other, as in the figure.

He sticks these pegs, kappar, into the
stack, the one on the lower side of the
straw, and the other on the upper side, when
the string which is between them comes to
lie across the straw, and holds it tight so
that it cannot blow away. As soon as the
carl has laid two rows of straw, or changed
the ladder twice, he has a somewhat thick
stick, kapp eller kafle, about four feet
long, with which he beats down the straw to make it lie
even, and afterwards smoothes down the straw with it,

(¢

cee HTN INDI) Pyar Son

cee DYDC) b

GRAVESEND. 393

beginning above at the top of the stack, and so down-
wards, when he also sweeps away all the loose straw
which lies on the stack, and makes the straw-thatch on
the whole smooth. After that he continues [T. II.
p- 37] to thatch the upper part of the roof of the stack,
in the manner before described.

The lower sides, B D and C E, never stand perpen-
dicular, but are always made so that the higher they get
the farther they project outwards, so that the stack is
narrowest down at the ground, and broadest up at the
thack-band. Both the round and square have this
peculiar shape, which prevents the water that drips down
from the bottom of the thatch from falling on the lower
sides and rotting them. No pole is set in the middle of
a stack, as with us.

In some places they make very large and high stacks.
When the stack becomes so high that they can no longer
reach to cast the hay from down below up to the carl upon
the stack, there is built on one side of the stack a
scaffold of boards, or a door which lies on two poles, on
which a carl places himself, to whom the hay is first
cast, and who afterwards sends it farther up on the stack.

When the stacks are thatched with bare hay, some-
times also when they are thatched with straw, they are
often made smooth on the surface with simply a rake,
rafsa, so that they, as it were, comb down the top of
the stack with it. The shape of the haystacks and the
manner of making them was everywhere in this district
the same as I have now described. Most haystacks were
here thatched with straw.

Up at the summit of the haystack the spars always
lie bare and uncovered, and thus come to be seen there.
The stacks were always so arranged that the thatch was
very steep, for the rain and wet to be able to run off
so much the quicker. The pitchforks, Jarngafflarna,

394 KALM’S ENGLAND.

they used were of different sizes and lengths. In those
with [T. II. p. 38] which they cast the hay up on to the
stack, the pitchfork, jarngaffeln, itself was 1 foot
long and 6 inches between the ‘grains’ or ‘tines,’ *
grenarna, fastened to the handle with an iron ring, as
on an ice-pick, the shaft two fathoms long, or as long as
one wishes. The small forks, to toss the hay on the
meadow, were 6 inches long, and 4 inches between the
‘gaffles’ or ‘tines,’ gafflarna,y; the length of the shaft
at will. The tines or prongs on all these forks were not
straight, but slightly curved, Grenarna pa alla dessa
gafflar voro ej rake, utan litet krokuta. A figure of
such a hayfork, hégaffel, can be seen in Linnzus’s Skanska
Resa, p. 303, fig.6 [Stockholm, 1751.8vo.]. When they here
made a haystack, there commonly stood a carl who, with
one of the before-named pitchforks, jarntjufvor,
pitched up the hay. One or two carls received it, and
spread it out evenly on the stack, as they found it best.
Afterwards there were commonly four lads who did
nothing else than constantly trample it. The lower sides,
or the lower parts of the stack, were made smooth with
a rake, and the hay was also raked off, so that the stack
in its lower parts might be so much narrower, and wider
upwards.

The 1% Fuly.

In the morning we walked from Gyravesend to
Rochester, which lies 7 English miles from the first-
named place.

Utsigten af Landet. The appearance of the
country. We had the whole way a variety of ploughed

-* © Tine the grain of a fork’ (Bailey, Ang. Dic. 1736), ze branch or
orong. [J. Li]
{ ‘Gaffle, part of a crossbow.’ 2. [J. L.]

GRAVESEND. 395

fields, meadows and orchards, all planted round with
hawthorn hedges, in which stood all kinds of foliaged
trees, 16ftran, such as Elm, Alm, Elder, Flader,
Blackberry-bushes, BjGrnbarsbuskar, Ash, Ask, Oak,
Ek [T. II. p. 39], Dogwood, Benved, or Cornel
(Cornus), Aspen, Asp, Ivy (Hedera Arborea, C. B.)
LH. Helix], Sloe, Slan, Privets (Liguster), the Spindle-
tree, Alster, Ewonymus [Europeus], Maple (Acer
Campestre minus) C. B.

Here and there lay some beautiful farm. The country
here, as in most places where we were in England, was
not even and flat, but a continuous chain and variety of
somewhat high and long-sloping hills, with valleys
between. These hills had all sorts of shapes, sometimes
round as rye-bread loaves, sometimes oblong, and of
various other shapes. The inclosures, or ploughed fields
and meadows, lay on the tops and the sides of the hills,
as well as down in the valleys, délderna. In some
places these hills were steep enough. They all consisted
of bare chalk, which had only acoating of soil upon it, of
g inches, I foot, 15 inches, or 18 inches, yet in most places
not more than about 1 foot thickness, which we could
plainly see the whole way where the high road crossed
these hills and they had been digging on the sides of the
road; to say nothing of the fact that the same appeared
in all the chalk-pits, kritgropar, which were dug here
and there. On the whole of this walk we could not see
the least sign of any flowing and running stream or river,
excepting the river Medway (Midway) which passes by
Rochester. Such running water seems to be very rare
on the chalk hills and in their neighbourhood.

The greater part of the inclosures, or tappor planted
round with hedges, which we saw to-day were ploughed
fields, sown partly with Wheat (Triticum hybernum aristis
carens, C.B.), Barley, Gumrik, White Oats [T. II. p. 40],

396 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Beans, or Pease. 1 do not know of which ot these kinds
there was most, either of Wheat or Barley. It seemed as
though there was more Barley on the Gravesend side,
and that Wheat prevailed around Rochester. Of Oats
there was the least. We also saw in some places large
hop-grounds, hummel-gé. On the Gravesend side there
were extensive inclosures, planted with Cherry-trees ;
but towards and at Rochester there were not so many
of them. When we had comea mile out of Gravesend
we came to a little wood which consisted of all the above-
named kinds of leaf trees, where we set down as a great
rarity two trees which we had not before had the pleasure
to see growing wild in England; viz., our Birch, var
Bjork, which stood in a little bog,* Karr, and Funiper
bushes, Enbuskar, of which last we saw several on a
chalk-hill, where they grew on the rough chalk, and had
scarcely 3 inches of soil upon the chalk. They seemed,
however, to be tolerably luxuriant.

Tragardar af Kersbirs, Apple, Paron, och
Valnot tran. Orchards of Cherry, Apple, Pear, and Walnut
trees. I have just said that we saw here a great number
of Orchards, planted with Cherries and other fruit trees.
The notes I made about the orchards in this district are
given above under the 7th July. As far as regards the
other trees, we saw likewise a multitude of apple and
pear trees, planted either in the same orchard with the
cherry trees promiscuously, or also by themselves. The
earth under and between them was in [T. II. p. 41] the
same condition as I described on the 7th July respecting
the cherry trees, ploughed up, and used as an arable-field,
or grassfield, so that these fruit-trees stood in the middle
of crops or grass. They were, nevertheless, much better
adapted to have crops sown under and between them,

* This certainly fixes the site at Denton. [J. L.
y

GRAVESEND. 397

because the crops ripened as soon as, if not before, the
ripening of their fruit, and thus there was no necessity for
them to trample down the crops while gathering the fruit.
At the sides of these orchards, and often at the sides of
the ploughed fields, and at home at the farms stood plenty
of large walnut trees, there planted, and now full of fruit.

Strata Terre. I remarked a little above, that nearly
all the hill sides, backar, between Gravesend and
Rochester consisted only of chalk, af bara krita, with
only a thin stratum of soil, svartmylla, lying upon it;
yet we saw in 2 or 3 places that some of these chalk-hills,
kritbarg, had above and upon them not chalk, but a
hill of sand, en backa af sand, at times mixed with
small Pebblestones, which sandhill lay upon the chalk,
which was beneath it, and it was remarkable that the
chalk-hills which had such a sandhill or collection of sand
upon them, were commonly the highest hills of all we
saw along this road. But how this sand in former ages
came there, either by some river, or in what way, I cannot
say. We found, however, that the sand in such a hill
upon the chalk, was not of one kind only, but consisted of
many sorts which lay alternately upon one another. I
will give their position im one of these Mills, backar,
through the middle of which the highway ran.

[T. II. p. 42.]
ft. in.
1. Svartmylla. On the top, soil of g to 12 ins.
thickness, but sandy enough... sieeeeas Io
2. A yellow fine sand, with just coherence
sufficient to form lumps hardt i ee hop-
sittande fin sand... re arraann 249
3. A light-yellow calle ane Tooset pane oie aver 3.0
4. A very fine grey SANA w.ccccscccesise seetecrrereeee 3° 0

398 KALM’S ENGLAND.

and who knows how much more, because the bottom of
the pit prevented us from getting farther down, but, that
it could not go a very great depth, could be concluded
from this, that the hill-sides on both sides below, consisted
of bare chalk, as we saw on both sides of the high road,
which was dug in them. Here and there in each of the
above-reckoned sand-strata, there were some small pieces
of, I know not what I shall call it, which looked as if it
had been a nail rusted away.*

Hagnad om akrar, angar, &c.

Around nearly all the enclosures, such as ploughed
fields, meadows, orchards, &c., were planted hedges of
hawthorn, but they were in some places worthless enough.
In only a few places were there any ‘ Raddles,’ or wooden
hurdles, Ris-gardes-gard ; at times, but seldom, one got
to see such wattled-hurdles, sprat-gardes-gard, as were
described above (T. II. p. 14, orig.).

Akrarne. The ploughed fields we saw to-day, lay
both on the tops of the hills, and on their sides. I have
recently named (T. II. pp. 39, 40, orig.), the kinds of
crops that were sown on them. There were no dikes
or water-furrows ever seen on or near them—both of
which, however, would be of little use here, because the
chalk soil seems to absorb all the water [T. II. p. 43], in
respect of which we did not see the least flowing water all
along this road. I saw no ditches by the road-side,
which is a sign that the water cannot possibly remain
there long. If by the side of any single hedge, there was
sometimes found a ditch, this seemed only to be made to
get earth out of, to make a bank on which the hedge had
been planted, and to get mould to cast up on to the roots of

* At Poling Wood, Sussex, where the Reading clays are dug for the
pottery, these pieces of ‘‘what-you-may-call-it” are called by the workmen
“Rock.” [J. L.]

GRAVESEND. 399

the hawthorn of which the hedge had been made. There
were no acre-reins out on the ploughed fields, but only very
narrow ones at the sides of the fields, close to the hedges.
These were so narrow that one could with difficulty walk
upon them still less mow any hay there. In most places
these ploughed fields lay full of small Pebblestones. The
land was ploughed quite even and flat, that which was
sown with wheat as well as that with other kinds of
crops, but there were some riggs or stitches. There were
very many weeds on a great part of their fallow fields.
Some were thus full of quickens, which had been sown
there ; others full of wild poppies, Vallmoge, various
kinds of Thistles, tistlar, and other weeds, ogras. But
it was not to be wondered at, because the ploughed fields
in such places at this time of the year were left untilled.

With such agriculture, 4kerbruk, it is not difficult
to understand why their Wheat, Barley, Oats, Pease and
Bean-fields, stand so full of wild Poppies and other weeds,
viz.: partly because they manage the ploughed-fields so
badly, and leave the weeds all freedom to run to seed and
sow themselves. I remarked that they used frequently
to drive horses, sheep, and cows, to bait on the same, but
[T. Il. p. 44] while they meant to reap a profit, they
* caused themselves double loss ; for while, it is true, they
commonly ate up the wild poppies, yet several of the
other rank weeds were left (such as thistles, &c.), mostly
to stand untouched by the cattle. Such a fallow-field
was often left to lie two or three years uncultivated and
as a pasture.

Though it happened, truly enough, that when the
earth got as it were a coating of grass-sward, grasvall,
over it, the number of thistles and other weeds diminished ;
yet as soon as such a pasture was again ploughed up, the
earth loosened, and cultivated as a ploughed field, and
sown with seed, the manifold seeds of weeds lying in the

400 KALM’S ENGLAND.

earth also got new life, came up to the day, grew,
grodde, and in many places smothered the crop; for
their seed has the property, that if the ground is hard,
and unfit for them to come up, they can lie many years
down in the ground without growing or taking harm, but
quicken as soon as the earth is moved and turned over.
From this we see how necessary are many courses of
ploughing during the summer in a field confounded with
weeds.

The Pease in these fields were partly sown in rows and
the earth ploughed up between: the weeds uprooted, and
the mould moved on to the roots, so that the stalks are
ona hill. We also saw the Pease-land sown in the same
way in rows, but never cleared of weeds, or the earth dug
up between, but the weeds were entirely smothering and
taking the life out of the Pease. In many places the
Peas were sown broad-cast, as with us, and there the
weeds and the Pease had to fight with each other for
existence, as they best could.

The Pease were nowhere furnished with sticks.

[T. II. p. 45.] Of the Harrow and Roller here used
there is nothing particular to record; they are mostly
like ours. The Plough, Plogen, in Kent has this advan-
tage, that the ploughshare, vandbradet, can easily be
changed to whichever side of the plough one wishes.
But in other respects it merits no recommendation,
because it is very heavy and unwieldy.

The soil, jordmon, on all these ploughed fields was
of so loose a nature, that they could in the greatest
drought plough it up when they wished. In such a loose
earth they nearly always set three pair of horses, as large
as the largest Dragoon horses, before this‘ plough ; then
one full-grown person was required to hold the plough,
and a boy, gasse, to drive the horses: we sometimes
saw even as many as five or six pairs of such large horses

GRAVESEND. 4ol

set before one plough. Such an earth, for whose ploughing
up they laboured with three pairs of horses, we could at
all times in Sweden with the Westmanland plough, and
especially with Baron Brauner’s, without doubt equally
well and finely plough up with one pair of horses, if not
with a single one. The Kentish plough has this peculiarity
that it ploughs deeper than most other ploughs. We saw
however, in some places to-day, fallow fields, which lay
quite well farmed and ploughed up, so that the earth was
friable and fine as the best new-made bed in a garden.
Beans were mostly sown in rows, and treated in the same
way as described above (T. II. p. 16 orig.) yet they were
also here and there sown, as with us, broad-cast.

[T. II. p. 46.] Vagarna. The roads here were good
enough. Although the ground was chalk, and therefore
firm, yet they were not satisfied with that, but coarse
sand and small Pebblestones were everywhere carted on to
them, because Chalk in wet weather is slippery enough.
On both sides of the road there were mostly hedges, and
the road went, especially in hills, deep down in the
ground, even to eight or ten feet. There were no ditches
beside the road.

Vaderqvarn. Windmills. Here and there on the
hills, appeared some Windmills, built in the usual way.
At Rochester was a Windmill which pumped up the
water for the use of the town.

Vastanvind. The west wind strong in England. That
the west wind in this part of England must be one of the
longest lasting, and strongest winds appeared clearly
from this, that in the plantations, Tragardar, which
nevertheless, lay quite even, and not so especially facing
this wind, the trees bent over from the west, with the
upper part considerably over towards the east side, which
oblique and leaning growth was without doubt caused by

the aforesaid west wind.
2D

402 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Kyrkor. Churches, the ancient ones mostly of Flints, 6c.
I have mentioned above (T. I. pp. 479-80), that nearly
all the old Churches in this part were built of Flints,
as Chadwell in Essex, ~Northfleet west of Gravesend,
and several others in Kent. To-day also we saw that
many Churches in Rochester were for the most part built
[T. Il. p. 47] of bare flint, Flinta, only that they used
some Portland stone among them.

We went after-
wards from the high
road up to a hamlet,
til en by, where we
saw an old Church
which they used as
a malthouse,* héllo
pa at gora til et
malthus. This was
similarly almost en-
tirely built of Flints,
only that the window
frames and mullions,
fonster karmar
och ramar, and the
door-posts, ddor-
tran, were of Port-
land stone. The West Front of Ruined Church at
windows were quite Ivy Cottage, Shorne, 1887.
small. There appeared, truly enough, bricks, tegelstenar,
in the walls in one place and another, but it could at
the same time be plainly seen, that the wall had there
been broken, and that the brickwork was the work of
later times.

* In lane to Shorne. Kalm was the first writer who notices this ruin.
The Kentish Traveller, 4th Ed., 1790, has a paragraph, p. 116: ‘‘On the

GRAVESEND. 403

We saw afterwards another Church [the description
applies to Shorne Church], which similarly, was for the
greatest part built of Flints, flintor, yet that Portland
stone was here and there built into the wall. The
window frames and tracery as well as the door-posts
were always, in all such old Churches, of Portland stone;
also frequently the angles of the Church wallsand the tower.

The windows were mostly small enough. For which

west side of the lane opposite to the house marked Mr. Maplesden’s in the
ROE OE GS SnNTENe Map, the traveller will probably
OeHraTEn notice an ancient Chapel or Oratory.
There can be no doubt of its having
been a sacred edifice, because in
digging for the foundation of the
contiguous building a stone coffin
and many human bones were dis-
covered. In Mr. Thorpe's Aztegucties
is an engraving of the North-West
view of this Chapel, but it is left to
the researches of future antiquaries
* to ascertain when and by whom it
had its original, no deed or other
historical evidence having yet been
met with relative to its institution
or endowment.” The Map referred
to in the above note is on the scale
of one inch to a mile in the X. 7. Mr. Maplesden’s house is now called Pies
Place, and a little cross-lane into the above lane from the west and passing
south of the ruin is called ‘ Malthouse Lane.’ I have not been able to find
the alleged view in any of the thirteen plates in Thorpe’s Avtiquities. On
August 1oth, 1887, I visited the ruin, when Mrs. Cheesman, et 84, told me
that when she was young it was always ca//ed ‘the Malthouse,’ but that she
did not know that it had ever been used as such. Kalm’s description is
accurate. The windows are all two-light, but the mullions are gone. This
was atrue Church; A /%sciza and two sedilia are to be seen on the south side
interior. The architecture is pure Early English, probably early 13th century.
The curious history of the extinct Merston Church close by, leaves room
to suppose that this too was once a parish church. This venerable ruin forms
part of a modern residence known as Ivy Cottage, and seems to be totally
unknown to modern Archeologists. [J. L ]

2D 2

404 KALM’S ENGLAND.

reasons we may conclude: (1) That the brick kiln, Tegel-
branneri, in former times seems to have been little
known, or at least not specially used in this district.
(2) That the use of Glass, Glasbruken, also in those
times was not very great.

On the south side of another Church there have for-
merly been three large doors side by side; but they were
afterwards built up with flints, and made only into small
windows.

Some of these old churches now stood deep down in
the earth so that their floor was much deeper down than
the outer surface of the Churchyard—a sign of their great
age. Thus, either the Church has sunk, or the earth in
the Churchyard has been raised by [T. II. p. 48] the
corpses and coffins buried there, with other earth that
had been carried there, or all these causes together.

I also noticed that in most places in this district, and
also in Essex, they used the churchyards where they
buried their dead as pastures for horses, donkeys, or
pigs, but especially for horses. In some places the
churchyard, Kyrkogérden, was used also as a hay-
field or meadow, so that they mowed the grass before
the cattle were driven in thither.

Rochester is a beautiful town, tolerably large, and very
old, lying on both sides of the river Medway,* about 27
English miles from London. Here about are several
hills, and part of the town also lies upon them, but still
it is mostly down in the valleys by the river side. The
houses are mostly of brick, some of them quite beautiful.
There are several churches here, some of antique archi-
tecture, gammal modig byggnad. Over the river

* On both sides of the river. Strood occupies the left bank opposite
Rochester. [J.L.]

GRAVESEND. 405

Medway runs a large stone bridge,* which is reckoned

to be one of the finest in England. In the town is

a Cathedral and Bishop’s Palace. A short distance

below the town lies the famous Chatham, where the

English men-of-war are partly built, repaired, and kept.
In the evening we came back to Gravesend.

The 45 Fuly, 1748.

Brunn i fasta Kritbarget. A well in the solid
chalk. Between two of the chalk-pits at Northfleet there
ran a wall or projection of [T. II. p. 49] bare chalk,
which they had left untouched, from 8 to g fathoms wide.
On both sides of this wall of chalk were great chalk-pits
of 6 or 7 fathoms deep. The sides thereof were perpen-
dicular. Near one side of this wall they had dug a well,
en Brunn, down in the dense and solid chalk. This
well was round, 3 feet 6 inches diameter, and steined
with brick. I measured its depth, and found that from
the surface of the ground down to the upper surface of
the water in the well was 57 English feet. The water
which was taken from it was very clear, and tasted as
nice as the best Kall-vatten, spring-water, and was also
very refreshing, latt druckit. Those who live here-
abouts take from it all the water they require for cooking,
family drinking, brewing, boiling, washing clothes, and
for punch, tea, &c. Besides this, 8 horses and 4 cows
were watered daily with the same well-water, for although
the river Thames is close by, yet they do not give its

* Rochester Bridge. For its history see Lambarde, Peramd. of Kent, 1576,
gto, pp. 303-314; Stow, Avnales, 1615, fol., p. 3353 J. Harris, Hist. of Kent,
1719, fol., pp. 259-262, &c.; W. Wildash, Hest. of Rochester, 2nd Ed., 1817,
8vo., pp. 35-49, with a beautiful engraving of Rochester Bridge, Castle, &c.,
from Strood Quay. From whence (p. 41) is gathered that ‘‘ In what year
the present stone bridge was begun cannot accurately be determined ; it was,
however, compleated in the fifteenth year of Richard IL, 1392.” [J. L.]

406 KALM’S ENGLAND.

water to horses or cattle, because it is very salt, as the
Floodtide, Floden, refluxus maris, brings up salt water
from the sea, and if the horses and cattle drink of this,
it is said to make them ill. Although this is a dry
summer, it has never been remarked that the water has
diminished in this well. I asked whether the people who
drank of it felt well after it? They answered that better
water cannot be than this, and that they never feel
ill from it, or are in any way subject to illnesses more
than other people. I now drank freely enough of it,
without experiencing the least inconvenience afterwards.
I have also during the whole of my visit [T. II. p. 50] to
Gravesend, as well as elsewhere in England, never
experienced in the least degree such an effect as some
ascribe to the chalk water, kritvatnet, viz., that one
unaccustomed to it will at first have diarrhoea until he
becomes used to it. Most, and probably all the wells in
Gravesend are dug in the bare hard chalk; so that the
water which I drank at meal-times and when I was
thirsty the whole time I was there, was no other than
that which had filtered through the chalk, silat sig
genom Kritan, but I have not noticed the least
change in the body in consequence.
The 14 Fuly, 1748.

Strata Terre. On the south side of the Windmill
Hill, Vaderqvarns backen, which lay near Gravesend,
was a large pit from which they took sand. Here we
saw what the hill on the south side consisted of, and
measured the strata, which were as follows, beginning at

the top :— Ft. ins.
I. Svartmylla, sot] ......seesee ees sitskenie TO
2. Soil anda fine sand mingled together. These

together produced a yellow colour ..........s04. I oO

3. A light-grey fine sand. In it were here aad
there ochre OF TUSt-SPOtS c.rcccccsccesssesevesessevesesene I 6

GRAVESEND. 407

Ft. ins.
4. Light ochre-coloured sand, which went in ais
WAVES wseeeeee wena eeiee sewn 0. OF
5. Light- “eney eatd same as No. ie ie 6
6. A rust or dark ochre-coloured sani. saptasieaaia ian or
7 A fine, very light Sand siscis pecsncwes sicacseasen 2 6
8. An ochre-coloured fine sand .........sssseeseeees O OF
g. Fine very light sand, the same as Ne. ‘a
which went down to the bottom of the pit,
gropen, and who knows how far down ?
7 8

Higher up on the hill was another sandpit, sandgrop,
the bottom of which was higher than the top, Kullen
[T. II. p. 51], of the foregoing. There the beds,
hvarfven, were in this order :— Ft. ins.

1. Svartmylla, Sol, about x foot, but a good
deal mixed with a fine brick-coloured sand and
sthiall Pebblestones. ucvssssdaie ssssasaunesseve maaanses sreeee Io

2. Pebblestomes ...scccereeesecee Pere 2 6

These Pebblestones were 2 mostly the size ak
marbles, knackar, coal-black, round or oval,
quite smooth, as though they had been ground or
polished. When such an one was broken it was
found to consist of bare flint. No angular ones
were seen at all.

3. An ochre-coloured fine sand... 2 6
4. A fine white sand 0 3
«, An ochre-coloured sand ...sscvesmesccminnne @ ©
6. A fine white sand -O 2
7. The ochre-coloured sand .......ssseesesseereees O 2
8. The fine white sand ........ Oo 2
g. A grey clay falling into cubes, “En era 1 a]
tarningar fallande lera..............-2.5. 0 of

ro. The fine white sand ...... cesseeee sees seevenere O 2

Ti. The srey Clay criss ease sarterscererecba we 0 Of

408

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
2I.
22.
23.
24.
25.
20.
27.
28.
2g.
30.
3I.
32.

33:

KALM’S ENGLAND.

Ft. ins.
The ochre-coloured sand ..........0e ec eseeee eee 0 2
The fine white sand . dias cutidvorscetvaseten Ol 1
"Fhe grey clay ieccste eicsiawecsesadecessanavencr verso: (OT
The fine white sand .........sccececseseeseeeeeeee O OF
The grey Clay -...ccsscescccssesesetsseecssnes cesene OT
The fine white sand 0 3
The ochre-coloured sand .. .o Lr
The fine white sand Sianmustesteemiaassoncse Oia
The sey clay soriormnne uss umnnennen O I
The fine white sand .....cieececee eee eee eee eee ees 0 3
The grey clay .. saeeeg 0 OS
The fine white ands ‘full of aust Spee sex ven are)
[T. Il. p.52.] Aight grey sand ............ 0 1
The fine white sand sueeaesines anoee devises O19
The ochre-coloured sand ......secces eens .o.r
The fine white sand 0... ..ecee cece eee eee ee eee 6 .o
The ochre-coloured sand ........ .o.r
The fine white sand .. ..... 0 6
The light grey sand, full of fist spots stints 2 0
The ochre-coloured sand . -3 0
Pebblestones, ee with a ight ‘yellow
sand ......06 dissuade too ateroicedeeecnav lO
The fine white sand a deiipaltasia acy 4 0
27 4%

No more could be seen on account of the depth of

the pit.

Whether all these Sivata came into their present

shape at the sin-flood or on any other occasion, I leave

others to divine.

The whole of this high sand-hill,

Sandbacken, does most probably stand upon solid chalk,
because all the country round about consists of bare chalk '
with a thin crust of earth upon it.*

* These sandpits may still be seen, but are now occupied by gentlemen’s

houses.

UJ. LJ

GRAVESEND. 409

Massa. Mosses.. On the hardest chalk hills, it is
true, some fine Hypnum sometimes appeared; but we
nevertheless remarked that this district around Gravesend
was not especially favourable for mosses. There was no
sign of these seen, though I looked carefully for them,
either on the arable fields or inclosures which were sown
with Clover, Sain Foin, &c., not even once on the reins
by the hedges.

The Woodlouse. Oniscus cauda obtusa integerrima.
Linn. Fauna Svecica, 1256, occurs in multitudes every-
where on the chalk, that it has as it were taken up its
quarters in these places [T. II. p. 53.] When anyone
came near it, it drew itself together, so that it lay per-
fectly round, and looked like a very small, black, shining
egg. This is larger than our ordinary Swedish wood-
louse, grasuggor (plural).

The 18 Fuly, 1748.

Phalena subulicornis spirilinguis; alis superioribus sub-
coeeruleis, punctis sex rubris, inferioribus omnino rubris.
Linn. Faun. Svec. 814 [Anthrocera Filipendulae, Burnet
moth]. This beautiful moth, Fiaril, which made quite a
show with its beautiful red colour, had in particular taken
up its abode in old Chalk pits overgrown with small
bushes, where it flew in multitudes; but outside them it
was very rare. It flew very slowly, and not so fast as
the other butterflies, Fiarilar. It sat very much on the
flowers of Scabiosa pratensis hirsuta C. B.

Aranea abdomine fusco ovato, linea exalbida pinnata,
cauda bifurca, Linn. Faun. Svec., 1223 [A. labyrinthica]
occurs here in multitudes, on the chalk hills as well as in
other places. I saw it also in Essex. The accurate
description which Linnzus gave in his Fauna Svecica
(loc. cit.) of the manner in which it makes its house, bo,
relieves me from the necessity of repeating this, because

410 KALM’S ENGLAND.

this spider, Spinneln, makes it here in England almost
in the same way. The difference is only this, that we
found his subtle house and snare not only laid out over
the grass, but also on the sides of sloping banks, backar,
when the earth had fallen down; and on these places he
commonly chose his house, where some little pit of a
hand’s breadth [T. II. p. 54], and depth ran into the
bank. There he made his cylindrical house down in the
aforesaid hole, above which he spread out his net on all
sides, that it looked like a great funnel, tratt, especially
if there were some small bushes in the neighbourhood,
on which he made fast some ends of his net. A fisher-
man setting his bownets, Ryssior, cannot set them more
cleverly. He had often made his house up in the bushes,
where the threads of his net extended a couple of ells on
every side from his cylindrical hole, so that no insect
could come near the bush without being snared in the
net. He himself always sat either at the bottom, or
opening of his cylindrical hole, so like an open purse,
ready to spring til vags, forward, as soon as there was
any booty to win. When any insect was caught, he
sprang at once upon it, and bit it several times in the
head, then carried it into the entrance of his nest, where
he ate it up. It was enjoyable to see what work he had
with the Curculionide beetles; for as these are covered
over with a hard shell he could next to never reduce
them to order. As soon as they came on his net he
seized them, but they were so clever that they drew in
the feet and head. He then bit them well on the shell,
but without effect; then, as soon as he left them they
again began to crawl, when he sprang up again and bit
them: but equally in vain, so that he at last became
tired, and let them go their way. He had always down
in the bottom of his house a hole through which, when
pressed by necessity, he could have his escape, and not

GRAVESEND. 411

be caught, when he always sought [T. II. p. 55], his
safety behind some twig, or down in the earth, when any-
one chased him, but directly one again became quiet, he
‘crope,’ krop, through the hole into his house, advanced
to the opening to see whether any further danger was
brewing, or ifall was quiet. I sometimes tore their house
asunder, when they commonly, after one or two days,
had it ready again.

Svin. In Kent the farmers generally have no more
pigs than they require for their own use, so that they
seldom come to sell any of them; but in and near London,
the Distillers keep a great many, often from 200 to 600
head, which they feed with the lees, drank, and any
thing that is over from the distillery: and after these
animals have become fat enough, they are sold to the
butcher at a great profit.

In the same way, and with the same object, a great
number of pigs are kept at starch factories, which are fed
and fattened on the refuse of wheat, when the starch is
manufactured. The house where the swine are kept, is
cleaned and washed every day.

Akrar, Hvete, Korn, ete. Arable fields, Wheat,
Barley, etc. Several old and enterprising farmers in this
district, told me that when the arable fields are well pre-
pared one can get areturn from wheat of 20 times the
grain, and sometimes a little more, but the fields must
then be well managed. Similarly they can get 20 times
the grain from Barley, on a well-cultivated field. The
kind of crop is changed yearly [T. II. p. 56] viz., when
the fields have lain one summer fallow, they are sown
either with wheat or turnips, after that with Beans, then
with Barley, or Oats. The fallow fields are commonly
ploughed three times during the summer; if they go so
far, they are ploughed 4 times, and harrowed and rolled
between each ploughing. Chalk is also used here for

412 KALM’S ENGLAND.

manure, on the ploughed fields, and when a field has once
been manured with it, it is not necessary for them to
manure it again for 10, 14 or more years.

Pa styf lergrund sades Kritan vara sk6n.
On a stiff clay soil the chalk was said to be good.

Among other ways of manuring arable fields, it is
reckoned as the best to fold sheep on them in the summer,
during the night in a little narrow fold, so that they stand
quite close together. One and another enterprising
farmer said he had himself tried to sow wheat in rows,
and ploughed up the earth with a horsebreak, a little
neat plough which is drawn by one horse, between the
rows; but it had not turned out well for them. Never-
theless, they thought that it might be done, otherwise the
horsebreak is much used here to plough and clean away
the weeds between the rows sown with Beans and Pease,
since it lightens the labour very much.

Turnips are also much sown here in Kent for sheep,
swine, and oxen to feed and fatten them with. i

The Farmers said that they found the best time to
sow wheat here, to be within one month before Michael-
mas (after the Old Style) many, however, sow it one
month after, but this plan is not held to be so good.

Angs-skétsel. The management of Grass-land, Sain
Foin, Clover, &c. Most of their grass fields in this district
are sown with some [T.II. p. 57], particular kinds of
hay, such as St. Foin, Clover, Tares, Vicia, Lucerne, &c.

Sain Foin is said to thrive very well on the chalk hills,
Kritbackar, which we also found to be everywhere
evident. For 30 years back they had not known so much
of it used as now. They learned to use it from France.
Sain Foin is an excellent food for horses, but for cows it
is, when dried, not so good as good hay. When it has
once been sown, it can sometimes stand for 16 or more

GRAVESEND. 413

years before it need be sown again. It is either given to
the horses whole, as it is, or it is chopped up in a chaff
cutter, i en hackelse-kista, stalk and all, very small,
and so is mixed with oats, baiting, agnar, beans or
pease, and is afterwards given to the horses, who thrive
perfectly well on it. They cannot cut the Sain Foin here
more than once in the summer. Clover is also very much
sown here, but it does not last so long as Sain Foin,
because it must be sown with wheat or something else,
and a parcel of land is sown time about. They hardly
ever carry more than two cuts, slattar, before it is sown
again, nor is it worth while to let it stand longer, for
when one has cut it two years or two summers, it loses,
tyner af,* so much after that that they can scarcely go on
to it with the scythe, lian, therefore when they have mown
it two summers, and very often only one, the field is
ploughed up anew, and sown with Clover, but although
it cannot stand long before it must be sown again, yet it
saves a great deal of inconvenience, above all in this
district, where no ordinary kind of grass will [T. II. p. 58]
thrive; because this Clover, the first summer it is mown,
gives such a very great abundance of a rich and good
hay. As a food for horses it is most excellent, but not so
for cows, although it is true they milk a good deal
from it, yet the milk acquires some particular flavour in
consequence, and is not nearly so agreeable as when the
cows are fed with good grass. -One can particularly
easily recognise this Clover-smack in the milk, if the cows
are allowed to go out in the summer and eat the green
clover. At that time one must take care that they are
not allowed to eat as much as they like of it, for the
clover tastes so nice to them, that they cannot stop, but

* ‘TINE, to lose v. JAMESON. Tine, tyne, and Supt. Tine. J.T.
BROCKETT. Gloss. of NV. country words. NEWCASTLE, 1846. [J. L.]

414 KALM’S ENGLAND.

sometimes they eat it so greedily that they swell up and
die. The Clover has in one respect the advantage over
other kinds of hay, that it can commonly be cut twice in
the summer. Some have also now begun to sow Lucerne,
but it is still uncertain how it will succeed. [This is a very
interesting notice].

Tares. (Vicia vulgaris Sativa, 7. Bauhin) are also
sown here by some for fodder, and the Farmers knew
scarcely any kind of hay on which the cows give so much
milk, and when they have eaten it, especially if it is green,
the milk also’ has a nice flavour; nevertheless, it is found
that cows give the best flavoured milk when they eat
good grass. In very many places here in England they
mow their meadows twice in the summer, sometimes
also three times, but they seldom drive the cattle in to
feed there, either in Spring or Autumn. Nevertheless, the
farmers said that the hay of the aftermath, af den senare
slatten, was not so good as that of the first crop.

[T. II. p. 59]. Bénor. Beans are much sown here,
and used as food for horses and swine. They also give
them pease for food.

Krita. Chalk. It is not known to me whether chalk
is used for any purpose in gardens, tragardar, but in
hop-grounds hummel-gardar, it is used by some as a
manure, when it is first mixed with other manure.

Ost, Sm6r, etc. Cheese, Butter, etc.

Nearly every County (Province) in England has some-
thing special, which it produces more plentifully and of
better quality than any othercounty. Thus Kent commonly
yields better hops and cherries than other counties ; Hert-
forvdshive better flour, hvetmjol; Cheshire and Gloucester-
shire better cheese; Suffolk better butter, etc. In con-
nection with this, it is remarkable that the county which
gives the best butter, cannot produce such good cheese,

GRAVESEND, 415

and vice versd. The reason seems to be that for either
butter or cheese the best and fattest milk is required.
Where they make butter they also make cheese, but they
use first to churn the butter from the milk, and after-
wards they make cheese from the same, which cannot be
good, because most of the quality, masta kraften, of
the milk is already taken away.

Rag. Rye is also sown here in Kent by some who
partly sell it, partly use to mix it with wheat, to grind
and make bread of it. The straw, Halmen, is sold to
Watermen, Roddare, and those who go backwards and
forwards with boats and yachts to and from London, who
use to lay [T. II. p. 60] the straw on the bottom of the
boat, and on the seat, so that passengers may sit so
much better, and not soil or dirty their clothes.

The 4% Fuly, 1748.

To-day I went with the Tilt-boat to London to hear
whether the Captain and the ship I was to cross to
America in at once might not be ready for the voyage;
and in the afternoon returned with one of the Tilt-boats
down to Gravesend.

Kritans nytta. The use of the Chalk.

On the fields which lie in the neighbourhood around
Gravesend they use very seldom or next to never to
manure their ploughed fields with chalk; because the
soil which is there mostly a mould is already so loose
and dry that it ought not to be any looser: but farther
away from thence where they have wet, low-lying arable
fields, consisting of clay, they manure them from time to
time with chalk. All the agricultural labourers, Akerman,
and Farmers hereabout, agree unanimously in this, that
the principal use of chalk as a manure on a ploughed
field, is on such land as consists of stiff clay and cold soil,

416 KALM’S ENGLAND.

for it unbinds the clay, and makes it fit to produce crops
in abundance. It isalso on this account that the Farmers
in Essex where there is no chalk to be found, even those
who live a long way off, come hither down to the banks
of the Thames, where there are chalk-pits, to buy here
many loads of chalk, and carry them a long way over
land [T. II. p. 61], to manure their arable fields with it,
when they consist of a stiff clay. Those who live farther
in Kent, and have a similar clay soil, improve it in the
same manner, with chalk. In sandy soil chalk is said
not to be of any use.

Thus those who live both near and far away from here,
avail themselves of this chalk for manure for their arable
and grass lands. From Essex, Middlesex, Surrey, and
very many other places in the English Provinces which
either lie near the Thames, or else on the sea coast, all
kinds of provisions, such as wheat, barley, oats, butter,
cheese, &c., are carried to London in small vessels.
When the same small vessels return home from London,
they will not go back empty; therefore they come to
some one of these chalk pits, ballast their vessel with
chalk which they can have here for a small price, and
carry it home, where they either burn it first to lime,
before they lay it on the arable fields, or lay it on the
fields as they get it. Foreign ships also on the home-
ward voyage often take from hence a great quantity of
chalk with them.

The bases of the walls and banks on both sides of the
Thames are made of this chalk, partly because it binds
well, and partly because they have no other kind of stones.
It is arranged there both in layer and smaller pieces.
[T. II. p. 62]. The outhouses in different places were
built of bare Chalk. The principal use to which chalk
has been put, is, that in several places, they burn lime of
it-- of which more a little farther on.

GRAVESEND. 417

In the Comedy House in London, the vope-dancers,
Lindansare,* and those who walked on the rope and
lines, used to rub their shoes thickly underneath with
chalk, so that they should not slip. The rope also was
chalked to a certain extent.

The 22 Fuly, 1748.

Notes on the Chalk and Chalk hills at Northfleet, and
other places in Kent.

Northfleet is a village which lies a short English
mile West of Gravesend, on the same side of the
river. Here, and all the way to Gravesend, all the
hilly banks of the river Thames, and the land around,
consist of bare chalk, only that a thin soil lies upon it.
Here, near the banks of the Thames, one great chalk pit
succeeds another, both of considerable extent, and of
great depth. These chalk pits are for the most part
quadrangular, and their sides are perpendicular. The
depth of these pits from the upper surface down to the
bottom is 8, 12,15, or more, fathoms. They do not
belong to one and the same person, but there are several
who have shares therein, who are gentlemen living in
London, but who have, nevertheless, people here who live
near the chalk pits [T. II. p. 63], to see that the work
goes on well and properly.

That the chalk has been quarried for many centuries
back, can be concluded, besides what one has from old
historians, also, partly from the number of the pits, and
their very great size and depth, partly from the con-
siderable number of old pits, which are now to a great
extent refilled with rubbish and overgrown with all kinds

*In the Prologue written by Dr. Johnson, and spoken by Garrick at the
opening of the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, 1747, line 46, ‘Here Hunt may
box, or Mahomet may dance,’ refers to a celebrated rope-dancer. [J. L.]

2E

418 KALM’S ENGLAND.

of trees and weeds. Some of the chalk-pits where they
were now breaking up and burning the chalk were near
the river; others again some musket-shots therefrom ;
for they had taken away all the more suitable chalk from
nearer the river so that there was nothing left, but high
heaps, full of the earth they had sifted when they took
the chalk, and the soil which had lain upon it together
with pieces of flint, chalk, bricks, and other rubbish. In
these chalk-pits we had a very good chance of seeing how
thick the vegetable soil and the mould is which lies upon
the chalk, as well as all the various beds and strata of
chalk, with what is found in it, etc. At the top of the
pits, and upon the chalk, lay the vegetable mould or soil,
matjorden eller svartmyllan, commonly to a depth
of 15 inches, mixed with small pieces of flint, which
resembled those which lie on the open plain, and the
sun has bleached and made white. The colour of this
soil was brown. Yet the soil was not everywhere along
the top of the pit the same thickness; for just [T. II.
p- 64] as it was 15 inches thick, so it went down in a
bow or curve to 4 feet perpendicular depth. Neither
was the breadth of such a sinus, Vigg, everywhere the
same, for sometimes the upper part was Io or 12 feet
wide, sometimes scarcely 2 feet. The depth of such
hollows was also unequal—now more, now less; yet the
soil was commonly, beyond and above these pockets,
15 inches.

Below that came the chalk. It was not quite pure at
the top, but to some small extent mixed with the brown
earth for a thickness of 3 feet.

This mixed chalk thus looked dirty, and was also
charged with pieces of flint and full of small Pebblestones,
which, both flints as well as pebbles, exactly resembled
those which lay up to the day and were bleached by the
sun, which seems to indicate that these parts of the chalk,

GRAVESEND. 419

which are now 4 feet perpendicularly under the upper
surface of the soil-crust, jordskarpen, formerly lay up
to the day and the sun. We dug into the bank and found
everywhere such bleached flint fragments and Pebblestones.
When these bleached flint fragments which lay in the
bank were broken, they often looked inwardly like flints
which have been in the fire, but nevertheless, have not
been so hard burned as to have run to glass.*

At times were found at 8 feet perpendicular depth
in the chalk itself large spots or pipes, flackar, of
[T. II. p. 65] one to two feet diameter, which consisted
entirely and solely of such brown mould as lies on the
surface, and is the same as we call svartmylla. In
these ‘‘ pipes” as well asin the chalk around them, were
plenty of small Pebblestones. We found similar pipes in
many chalk pits. In some places they were obliged to
throw away the vegetable soil, flint fragments, Pebble-
stones, and other mixed earth, for a depth of 6 feet
perpendicularly, before they could get pure chalk to use
for lime burning.

I will now give the notes I made in one and another
of the chalk-pits in order that I might see how the beds
lay in them, and what the walls consisted of. In one of
these Chalkpits, the nearest to Gravesend, the strata were
in this order :— ft. in.

1. Highest, and on the chalk was soil, Svart-
mylla eller matjord, which here in colour was
mostly brown, about one foot thick more or less... I 0

It was not everywhere of the same thickness,
but sometimes went down in curves or pockets,
viggar eller kilar, in the chalk to a depth of
two, three and four feet, but unequal breadths.

2. Next tothat a chalky mixture of Pebblestones

* Of course this is the effect of oxidation. [J.L.]
2E 2

420 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Ft. in.
and some of the aforenamed soil, Svartmylla,

principally chalk—one foot, more or less ............ I 0

This chalk was somewhat loose and not so
[T. II. p. 66] hard as the perpendicular walls of
the chalkpit.

3. Afterwards came a nearly horizontal stratum
of bare roots, about 4 to } inch thick. It consisted
of nothing but small roots, the largest of which
were the size of a quill pen; but one could not
distinguish what kind of roots these had been.
They were not particularly rotten. I imagine that
they were fine roots of Hawthorn, Hagtorn,
which had run so far down, and then they had
found under this stratum a harder chalk, and
could not go farther down in the earth, but after-
wards ran horizontally upon the same, and con-
sequently time after time had formed this. What
made me think so was (1) that the chalk which
lies immediately under is very hard; (2) That I
found fresh and growing Hawthorn roots, of the
same thickness as recently named, which ran just
horizontally among the other roots in this stratum.

4. Hard chalk, 3 fathoms. What it was like
further down I cannot say, because the fallen
gravel and mould, grus och mullen, prevented
more being seen below.

In one of the Chalk-pits which were close to Northfleet

Church, the strata of the chalk were in this order :—
ft. in.
1. The soil and vegetable earth, Jordskarpan

och matjorden... seist dome: (10
2. [T. IL. p.67.] ‘Waa Chalk about 58— te feet, 60 oO
Pieces of flint were here and there mixed in it.

3. A stratum of bare flints, laid quite close

together—% to'6 inches Tick... cssccsesdercenne 8° 6

GRAVESEND. 421

Ft. in
4. The hard chalk .. sou leesuiknwrachacestaaert) WO” YO
5. A Stratum of inte % ie o i
The flints here also lay auike lose sonetlien:
but the pieces of flint were very thin, like small
thin tablets. There often lay a couple of such
thin bits on one another.
6. The hard chalk .. es wives 18> 0
7. A stratum of dints exactly ike Nac 3.
8. The hard chalk .. seeneed sees 4 10
And who knows eo fee ae: Beas tie
bottom of the pit prevented me from seeing deeper.
92 7%

Note.—In the chalk bed, krithvarfen, below No. 3.
some flints only appeared here and there.

In another of these large chalk-pits nearer to Gravesend
the strata were thus :—

ft. in.
I. On the top, soil, Svartmylla, about ...... Io
but mingled with chalk, that the colour of this
earth was very like bricks.
Be Chalk. sescessciistwsrees + 12 0
3. A stratum of flints, dite, hovizontal, as “if
they had been eae laid level wo... 0 6
4. Chalk about.. aah . 30 0
5. [T. II. p. 68.] A sfakgni of ints arranged
in ee same way aS NO. 3...ssecssssesseeceeeeesseereseees O 6
G5 (CHAK cin aesveateneuis gaxtetiade..~ 3-20
7. A bed of flints fike the presedinee. we 0 6
8. Chalk one fathom and perhaps mnt deeper,
because the fallen earth prevented me from seeing
HOLS i sss sie veo doe Selene vendeter serves sastevencrezesseveomeney: 70! 0
5g 8

Obs. 1.—That these strata of flints consisted only of

422 KALM’S ENGLAND.

one single bed of flint, and not of many piled one on the
other. It seemed as if there had been a flat, even, and
level plain of bare chalk, whereon someone had spread a
stratum of single flints so close together that one touched
another, and then laid chalk on it.

Obs. 2.—The flint which lay in these beds was in some
places thicker, up to 6 inches thickness, in other places
thinner, even to a thin plate of }-inch thick. Between
these strata of flint there seldom appeared any flints in
the chalk itself, only some isolated ones here and there.
In the chalk, but very seldom, was some little Pebdle-
stone, sometimes oval, sometimes spherical.

In the afore-named strata of Flints, the flint is sur-
rounded by chalk quite close, as if the chalk had been
soft, bl6t, when the flint came to sink down in the chalk,
and afterwards some more soft chalk came to lie thereon.
[T. II. p. 69.] These strata or beds of flints among the
chalk are peculiar. The flint stones lie here as horizon-
tal and as close to one another as if they had been
designedly thus arranged by human hands. How did
the Flint stone first come there in such an order ?

The whole hill, backen, near the river Thames
west of Gravesend, consisted of bare chalk; but at its
base, even with the water surface when the flood-tide is
highest, was such a stratum of flints as just described,
which lay in the same way, quite horizontal,as if it had
been arranged on the dead level. The pieces of flint
lay here entirely in the same plane. This flint stratum
could be seen at low water for nearly half an English
mile along the river bank.

The colour of these perpendicular walls in the chalk-
pits is, for the most part, snow-white. In other places it
had acquired a yellowish tint, viz.: where there was soil
and trees above, from which some wet occasionally
trickled down and ran over the sides. In the places

GRAVESEND. 423

where there are many lime-kilns, kalkugnar, the per-
pendicular walls are, from the quantity of coal-smoke,
nearly black. In some places where the chalk had newly
fallen down, it was full of black specks, the size of a small
pin’s head, just like as if a Lichen had begun [T. II. p.
70] to grow there. In one piece and another were large
rust spots, which in some places ate into it to some
extent.

The perpendicular sides or walls of the chalk-pits are
commonly full of fissures, springor, which go some-
times perpendicularly, sometimes horizontally, and cross
each other at right angles. The width of such a fissure
is not always the same, being sometimes so narrow that
one can scarcely thrust in the blade of a knife, but some-
times they are wider, that one can easily get in a finger.
I cannot just say of which kind, perpendicular or horizon-
tal, there occur most, yet the horizontal seem to be the
most numerous. When I call the fissures perpendicular,
it is not to be understood that they were so according to
mathematical rules, but they stood sometimes exactly
perpendicular, sometimes nearly so. The same remark
applies to the word horizontal.

In the old chalk pits they had in some places dug
large holes like caves, hvalf. Those who lived close by
said that they thought they had been in former times
used as cellars, kallare. The cave within had not taken
any particular injury from time, nor had the walls; yet it
seemed that pieces of chalk had from time to time fallen
down from the roof. The chalk in these old cellar walls,
which were perpendicular, was full of fissures which ran
both perpendicularly and horizontally, and even obliquely.
I mean [T. II. p. 71] by oblique that which is a medium
between perpendicular and horizontal, or tolerably near
thereto. These oblique fissures were everywhere very
few, and not nearly so many as the others. The distance

424 KALM’S ENGLAND.

between the horizontal fissures was nothing less than the
same throughout ; for when the one stratum, if I may so
call it, was thick, the next was often quite thin.

In the old cellars the distance between the planes of
the bedding was mostly 6 inches, sometimes, however,
more; often x inch, and sometimes only half an inch, or
a narrow strip, en smal rimsa. Nor was one and the
same stratum always of the same width between the
fissures ; for although it commonly maintains the same
width, it sometimes happens that when it has been for a
time of one and the same width, it then by degrees grows
narrower, and at last terminates in an angulum acutis-
simum. Neither did the fissures always behave the same
way: for now a fissure might run exactly horizontal, as
far as the face of the chalk-pit went ; mow, just as it had
gone for a little horizontally, it stood obliquely, and
another horizontal fissure began in it, I, 2, 3, or more
inches, either above or below, and so on.

When one gently drew out a piece of chalk, which lay
between two horizontal fissures both [T. II. p. 72] the
under and upper sides thereof were a planum, or plane
without lumps or projections, and commonly of a little
darker colour than the chalk within, a sign that air and
water had entered the fissure. The coal-smoke which
comes from the limekilns, which occur in nearly all these
pits, is however able to have caused the same dark colour.
After running for some time straight as a line horizon-
tally, it bent off and ran obliquely.

Among the horizontal joints or bedding-planes, there
were commonly some master-joints, which mostly ran the
whole way across the face of the quarry, and were larger
than the others. The distance between them varied—a,
3, or 4 feet, seldom less than 18 inches, but the space
between them was often divided by small horizontal
fissures.

GRAVESEND. 425

Neither are the perpendicular fissures of the same
description throughout, for sometimes they go in a
straight line right up the wall. Sometimes when they
have gone a certain distance, they stand obliquely, and
then another begins a little on either side, and runs up in
a straight line. The width of sucha fissure behaves in the
same way, as has been said of the horizontal ones. The
distance between the perpendicular fissures, as with the
horizontal ones, is not uniform, but sometimes wide,
sometimes narrow, often only 1 inch and even less; but
sometimes 2, 4, 6, 8, and Io feet wide.

[T. II. p. 73]. These perpendicular fissures, or
‘joints,’ commonly preserved a certain direction, for they
mostly ran from E. to W. and from N. to S., or about,
it might be, a slight curve from W. to N. and E. to S., as
well as from S. to W., and from N. to E. But this was
so slight, that it could scarcely be noticed. Yet there
were at times some seen which departed from this rule, and
ran for example from S.E, to N.W., from N.E. to S.W.,
and so on. Nevertheless, this curvature happened seldom
enough. They commonly lay, as was first noted, and this
in chalk pits, which were a whole English mile from each
other.

When pieces of chalk were drawn out of the rock,
their sides facing the perpendicular fissures were quite
plane, and as smooth as if they had been cut even with a
knife drawn along a rule.

The chalk walls which have been longer exposed,
and on which both the sun, air, and rain have operated
longer, are far more full of perpendicular, horizontal and
oblique fissures, than that which is newly quarried. At

_least the former could be more plainly seen: for an old
chalk, which has been longer exposed, is nearly cracked
all to pieces, while in a newly fractured surface one can
with difficulty see any cracks.

426 KALM’S ENGLAND.

Sometimes in the larger fissures it is seen that thin
and flat bits of flint, like thin pieces of Schist [T.II.p.74];
had filled up the fissure. Can it have been formed there,
after the chalk had been so cracked to pieces? Thus, it
is evident, that chalk rocks have their fashion or quality
of cracking to pieces, just as ‘granites,’ grabargen,
with us.

When the chalk has lain its time in the open air,
under sun and rain, there are often very small holes, on
the upper surface, so that it becomes as it were cellular.
The depth of the holes is, however, seldom over 1 or 2
geom. lin.=, or 4 inch.

The flints which were found in the chalk had no
certain shape, but were nearly all formless pieces, just as
when one smelts metals or some ore, and lets it run on
the ground in any chance form. The largest pieces of
flint are about 2 feet long, though one seldom sees such
large ones. Most are about 9g to 12 inches. Nearly all
flints, here in the chalk pits, are black; though some
lightish pieces occur here and there.

On the banks of the river Thames there lie in some
places plenty of flints, but although the strand for six hours
stands under water, and for the next six in the open air,
still they have not suffered any other change on that
account, than that some are externally of a white colour,
or also sometimes slightly inclining to blue, such as flints
are wont to be when they lie on the hills in the open air,
and the sun shines on them and bleaches them. Other-
wise most of the flints here were as clean and black, when
they were broken, as those which are newly taken out of
the solid chalk. [T.II. p. 75]. The flints sometimes
had on their surface, as it were, a rust-eaten or ochre-
coloured crust, and in such flints rust-eaten places often
occurred. The figures were such as before described, as
those assumed by an ore, smelted and run on the earth

GRAVESEND. 427

as it would. The pieces were commonly oblong, and at
the same time full of lumps and irregularities. They
also frequently resembled fingers, feet, pegs, human
bodies, part of a hand, a goat’s-horn, a small calf-horn,
etc. Inside they were commonly black, but also fre-
quently more or less full of lighter spots.

The Heterogenea and foreign or less common things,
which are found in these chalk pits, either in the chalk
or the flints are in particular these :—

1. Stralflinta, as I calla kind of stone which lies
like a sponge upon the flint, is broad and flat, consists
of parallel threads hard-petrified, which run perpendicu-
larly to its flat side, exactly like the Amiant-like
Stralgips, [fibrous gypsum] in Prof. Wallerius’s Mineral-
ogia,* p.55, only that this is somewhat denser. In colour
it is white or light grey. Still it is a kind of flint, because
it strikes fire with steel. It lies not only in the flint, but
also sometimes in the chalk.t

2. Musselskal, Bivalve shells, occur firmly fixed in
corresponding cavities in the flint, as well as in the
chalk.

3. Crystaller, Crystals. Often when one breaks a
flint to pieces, there are found inside small rock crystals,
barg crystaller [T. II. p. 76] closely packed. There
is generally an empty space left with them.

4. Klotrunda flintbitar, or the so-called chalk-
eggs. These are frequently found firmly united to the
flint. Externally such a chalk, or, more strictly, flint-
egg, is covered with a white chalky crust of the thickness

* Wallerius (Johann Gottschalk). Mcneralogia. Eller Mineral Ricket
indelt och beskrifvit af J. G.W. Stockholm, 1747, 8vo. The first of a long
series of Mineralogies. [J. L.]

} Stralflinta. Thin plates or scales of fish exhibiting a transverse fibrous
structure are common, especially in fragments, in the upper chalk, and in the
flints. [J. L.]

428 KALM’S ENGLAND.

of a half line, inch; but when it is broken one gets to
see that it consists mostly of bare flint. They are
generally spherical, klotrunda, but sometimes slightly
oblong, sometimes they are quite solid and bare flint,
but sometimes hollow, when in the centre there lies a
little chalk, either attached to the flint, or loose, so that
when it is shaken, the chalk is heard striking against the
sides within. From such internal space there is no hole
or passage to the outer periphery, but the flint is solid
round about the hollow space within. These are as
small as swallows’ eggs or bullets, and also as large as
cannon balls.

In some chalk pits the men used to sit and flake the
flints there gathered into small pieces to sell to travellers
and others to strike fire with.

[Omit 8 lines on p. 76 and 5 lines on p. 77.]|

[T. II. p. 77.] Some old chalk pits are now left
desert, and stand full-grown with all kinds of trees and
weeds. Among the trees are particularly Privets,
Viburnum, Guelder-Rose or Wayfaring tree, Thorn-
bushes, Cornus fem. [Cornus sanguinea, Cornel] in very
great abundance.

[Omit 4 lines. ]

When the sun shines, while one remains in a chalk-
pit, it costs the eyes a good deal to look at the white
chalk.

Rabbits, Caniner, had their holes and dwellings in
several places in the loose fallen earth and chalk, where
in the evenings they are seen in great numbers.

Tattingar. Sparrows had their nests in the excavated
caves.

In one of the chalk-pits was laid out a beautiful
orchard full of different fruit trees, together with all
kinds of kitchen garden plants and vegetables.

In the chalk-pits near Rochester which lay 14 Swedish

GRAVESEND. 429

mile from those just described at Northfleet, the chalk-
walls had entirely the same structure as those described
above, viz., that they went in similar horizontal [T. II.
p. 78] and perpendicular fissures, contained the same
heterogenea, had precisely similar strata of flints, laid close
to one another, and 1, 2, 3, or more fathoms of chalk
between every such stratum and the next. In the chalk
between these strata there were also some flints here and
there.

How they burn lime from chalk at Northfleet and elsewhere
in Kent.

I have before remarked that all the country around
Northfleet consists of bare chalk, in which they have dug
deep pits and taken out of them both chalk and flint, partly
for sale abroad, and partly to burn lime from the chalk.
The method of burning lime here practised is the fol-
lowing, which I will relate in the order in which it
happens :—

They break off with a crowbar large pieces from the
sides of the chalk-pits, and cause them to fall down to
the bottom of the pit. They begin this quarrying at the
top of the pit, after they have first removed the mould and
earth, which lies upon the chalk, and so continue down-
wards right to the bottom; but not more at one time
than will suffice for burning for one or two weeks. All
the other walls in the chalk-pits which they have left off
quarrying are mostly perpendicular, but the walls where
they are working are sloping enough, so that they can go
up and down the same frequently. The pieces which
have fallen down, and are still very large, are hewn
asunder into smaller pieces with an iron pickaxe.

[T. II. p. 79.] After that, the chalk, so reduced into
somewhat smaller pieces, is laid on a lump or block
of chalk which they have made for themselves, and with

430 KALM’S ENGLAND.

a pick, which is like such as we use to pick millstones
with, only that the edge of the pick does not go parallel
with the handle, but at right angles to or across the
shaft, asin a scarf-cutter, Skarf-yxa, they hack the chalk
into still smaller pieces, so that the largest bits of chalk
are seldom larger than a clenched fist. The pick is about
two inches wide in the blade. The flints which are
found among the chalk are collected and laid in a heap,
to be preserved and afterwards sold. They next have a
‘Riddle,’ ‘Fiddle,’ or sieve, et Rissel, of about 30
inches diameter, whose bottom is made of small iron
wires, the ‘ bars’ and ‘slashers,’ bound round with very
fine iron wires, or ‘whippings.’ These iron wires, #.¢.
the bars and slashers, are set as usual in the sieve so as
to make it full of four-sided holes or squares. Every
side of such a square mesh is 14, 12, or 2 inches. This
‘ Riddle’ or ‘ Fiddle,’ Rissel, was held by one person,
while another with a shovel cast the chopped-up chalk
therein, when it always happened that the pieces which
were smaller than the hole in the bottom of the fiddle
passed through and fell out, together with the chalk
which in the process of chopping had been reduced to
powder. The pieces of chalk which were left in the
fiddle were cast out into baskets, which were carried to
the limekilns to be burned to lime; but the smaller
pieces which fell out through the holes of the fiddle
[T. II. p. 80], together with the fine meal, was left lying
on the bank, and was not carried to the lime kiln. The
reason why they will not use this is said to be that it
puts out the fire in the limekiln because it is so fine.
Skafveln, the shovel which they took up the bits of
chalk with, was slightly concave, exactly like such shovels
as are used in granaries and salt-houses, only that it was
somewhat broader. The breadth, or latitudo transversa,
of the shovel blade was 22 inches; latitudo perpendicu-

GRAVESEND. 431

laris, or the length, was 10 or 11 inches. At the bottom
and round the edge it was shod with iron.

Korgarna, the baskets which the small pieces of
chalk were cast into, and in which they carried the chalk
to the limekilns, were made of willow boughs or shoots,
in shape like a large Goblet, or Beaker, Pocal eller
Bagare. Their height was 13 inches, the diameter at
the base rather over 6 inches, the diameter at the top 15
to 16 inches.

After they had filled the baskets, of which there was
here a very large number, they were carried by women
to the limekilns, where there was a carl who received the
basket, cast or tipped the bits of chalk out of it over or
on to the limekiln, yet in such a manner that he slung
them with such direction that they did not come to lie on
each other, but were spread evenly about beside each
other.

The limekiln was built of brick. When it was empty,
and one looked down into it from above, it was in shape
like a beaker [T. II. p. 81] or goblet, as round as if it
had been drawn with a pair of compasses, but narrow at
the bottom and widening upwards. The internal diameter
of the kiln at the base or bottom was 66 to 72 inches,
but at the top at the surface of the ground the diameter
was 13 feet, some a little more. The perpendicular
height inside from the bottom to the highest rim, 22 feet
6 inches. Down at the bottom the kiln was externally
built perpendicular for a height of 6 or 7 feet, above
which level its shape afterwards on all sides looked like a
parasol. They had there laid horizontally on the top of
the perpendicular wall, beams, or balks, on which they
had set other smaller balks, which all sloped outwards
like a parasol. Immediately within the balks were laid
large lumps of chalk, and immediately inside these the
brick wall of the limekiln, which leant against and was

432 KALM’S ENGLAND.

supported as it widened out by these closely-laid, parasol-
shaped balks, or struts; for if these struts had not been
there, the upper part of the kiln would not have been
able to stand. These balks so arranged were fastened by
their upper ends to other horizontal balks, which were
shaped into a frame adapted for that special purpose,
whereon a platform was made on which they could go
and walk around the kiln, and carry chalk, coals, and any-
thing that was necessary for the same. Down at the
bottom the limekiln had four openings, or mouths, ugns-
munnar, through which the fully burned chalk could
be taken out, and by means [T. II. p. 82] of which the
wind always found access to play in and heat up the
coal in the kiln, so that there was always a strong
draught.

Each kiln-mouth, ugnsmun, which was square, was
30 inches broad and 2 feet high. The perpendicular
part, i.c., the lower part of the kiln, was externally an
octangle in this way, that starting with one of the sides
that stood perpendicular, the oven’s mouth was in the
next, in which the upper part of the side stood quite as
far out as the perpendicular face, but afterwards went
more and more in, the lower it got, till at the bottom of
this inwardly sloping part was the kiln-mouth. They
had in most cases built a screen of boards round the
kiln with two entrances, one on each side, to prevent
the too excessive blasts of the wind. This screen was on
the outside of the kiln, for on the other side, the bank
with its perpendicular sides, against which the lime-kiln
was built, performed the same service. The bottom of
the bank where they were now getting the chalk was
horizontal with the upper surface or the edges of the
lime-kiln. When they burn chalk to lime in this kiln,
dry brushwood or sticks are laid on the bottom to light
the fire with, then a thin stratum of coal, then a stratum

.

GRAVESEND. 433

of the broken pieces of chalk, again a thin stratum of
coal and so alternately until the goblet or beaker-shaped
kiln is full. The fire is lighted at the bottom, and spreads
itself more and more upwards according as the coal down
below becomes burnt up. [T. II. p. 83.] The chalk is
generally burned to lime, although it holds together in
the same bits as it was when it was put in.

As. the chalk becomes full-burnt, the pieces are taken
out down below, at the bottom of the kiln, through the
above described kiln-mouths, when the chalk which is
above, successively sinks down into its place. And that this
may proceed with more certainty, they have a long either
single or forked fire-poker, which they thrust here and
there down into the kiln from above, and stir about, when
the bits of chalk sink down all the faster. The bits of
chalk are shovelled out of the fire with the above described
broad shovel. The fuel they use for this purpose is only
and solely coal, except that when they first light up a kiln
they have at the bottom fagots to light up with, because
the coal will not otherwise so easily take fire. A little
way from the kiln lie large heaps of coals, but before
they are used. they are broken with an iron hammer into
quite small pieces, little larger than the end of a little
finger. A great part is as smallas dust. The carls give
as a reason that they burn better and more evenly in
consequence, and do not become caked because a thin
bed of such is sufficient to heat up and burn the stratum
of bits of chalk which lies upon or under it. As soon as
the carl has broken into very small pieces as much coal
as he considers to be sufficient for a certain number of bas-
kets, he takes some water in a bucket and throws it [T. II.
p- 84] thinly over the same fine-broken coal, partly by this
means to prevent them from being blown away by the
wind, since they are now in part like mould, partly also

because they will heat stronger when they come thus into
2F

434 KALM’S ENGLAND.

the kiln. Thus prepared the coal is carried by women
in the above-described baskets, and is set around the
sides of the kiln, where the carl takes them, and throws
them into the kiln as he finds necessary.

No one must think that the beds or strata of these
coals in the lime-kiln are so thick that when they have
laid such a bed upon the white chalk, the chalk can be no
more seen, but only black coal. By no means, these coal
beds are both thin and very porous. Two or three or four
such baskets, as have been before described with the
chalk, suffice for a stratum up at the highest edge of the
kiln, where it is widest. In the same way it is true of
the stratum of chalk, that the bits of chalk do not lie so
close, but that one can nearly everywhere see the bits of
coal between them. Someone may perhaps think that
the lime which is burned from this chalk must lose much
of its white colour, by reason of the black coal which is
mixed alternately with it; or also may enquire whether the
coal is afterwards separated from the bits of chalk ?
The answer is that the coal is not separated from the
bits of chalk after the chalk is burned, nor would it admit
of this, because, as was said before, the bits of coal are
quite small, and a great part [T. II. p. 85], of them like
mere dust, but they remain and are blended together with
the chalk; but it ought to be noted that when the coals are
burned they have lost all their black colour, and acquired
a light one, so that the chalk as far as regards its white-
ness takes very little harm on that account. Besides
that, they assert that a lime burned from chalk, which is
blended with powdered coal ashes will be much more
binding in the walls, than all other lime-mortars, which
quality they attribute to the coal-ashes.

At every kiln there are six persons, three men and
three women. Two of the carls have the charge of
breaking the chalk loose, and of hewing it into small

GRAVESEND. 435

pieces, as well as of lifting the baskets on to the women’s
shoulders; but it often happens, nevertheless, that the
women also get helping to hack the chalk into small
pieces. Both the carls and all three women help to fill
the baskets with the bits of chalk, when the carls com-
monly screen the bits of chalk in the fiddle, and the
women throw them into the baskets. The women are
obliged, almost alone, to carry the baskets on their heads
and shoulders from the place whence the chalk is taken
to the lime-kilns. Likewise they are obliged to carry
coal-baskets from the place where they were filled to the
lime-kiln. The third of the three carls is constantly at
the lime-kiln, where he takes the chalk baskets from the
women’s heads and shoulders, and throws the chalk into
the kiln. Similarly he throws the coals in their turn into
the kiln. In short, he performs all the duties which are
carried on at the lime-kiln itself, besides that he helps
[T. II. p. 86], when he has time, to break up the coal into
small bits, at boka sénder stenk4len, etc.* Every
woman always carries three baskets each time, namely,
she has a piece of board of about 8 inches broad, and about
I foot long, on which is a rope or band, one end of which
is fastened to one end of the piece of wood, and the
other to the other. This band is laid by a noose over
the upper part of the head, so that the piece of board
comes to lie across the shoulders, when one basket is set
to rest upon the piece of board, and the other two beside
it on the head, whilst the woman inclines her head a
little as she walks. On the head they have an old man’s-
hat, and under the piece of wood and the band a bunch
of hay, that the piece of wood and the cord may not
injure the back.

* Boka, sce Glossary to Studies in Nidderdale, p. 240, s.v.‘ Bukker,’

also Stud, p. 28. [J.L.] =a,
2F 2

436 KALM’S ENGLAND.

When these lime-kilns are once lighted up, they are said
to burn the whole year night and day, only being allowed
to go out during Yuletide, on the principal feast days. But
as soon as these are past they are lighted up new, and are
continued in that state night and day till the next Yule.

The chalk which is laid in the morning in the kiln to
burn, is in it, sometimes two, sometimes three days,
before it passes through the kiln, and becomes full-
burned. For the most part they reckon three days for
its burning. While it is thus passing through the kiln
its burning goes on, not only from the beds of coal which
lie next to it, but [T. II. p. 87] also from the brickwork
in the kiln, which is very hot from the long continued
burning. The heat of the kiln is so strong that pieces
of flint which have accompanied the chalk fragments
into the kiln are converted into a white glass.

As soon as the chalk laid in the kiln is full-burnt, and
has got through the whole kiln, so that it is now at
the bottom, it is taken out of the kiln with the above
described shovels. The ground outside round about the
lime-kiln near the kiln-mouths is [paved with] broad
square flat bricks, tegelstenar. The burned bits of
chalk are laid in such places as are in the skeeling or
shelter, skjulet, which is round about the kiln, and
when they have got all the corners, vrar, so full that no
more can be accommodated there, it is carried thence in
large carts, karror, down to the banks of the Thames,
which runs close by, where it is laid unslaked in vessels
or barges, and is carried up to London to be sold. Other-
wise when they take a portion of this burned chalk, and
throw a little water upon it, it begins by degrees to
smoke and becomes so hot that one cannot hold the
hand upon it. At length the bits fall to pieces into a fine
meal, exactly in the same way as happens with another
unslacked lime from limestone.

GRAVESEND. 437

When the chalk is full burnt, it is considerably lighter,
than it was before, and full of small fissures, like as when
one has laid potters’-clay in the fire. The colour on the
surface is greyish, which without doubt is due to the
coal and smoke. If sucha piece be broken asunder, it
is not [T. II. p. 88] so white within as it was while it was
still unburnt.

Pieces of flint of 5 inches long and 1 inch diameter,
which have come to be cast with the chalk into the lime-
kiln are burnt through, and snow white all through so
that they look like white Dutch ware, krus.

The burned pieces of chalk are so cracked to pieces
and full of cracks that they fall into small bits when one
takes hold of them.

The parts of these pieces which have been against
the cracks are also darker in colour than that which has
been midway between the same cracks, because some
coal smoke has without doubt penetrated into the cracks.

That the slacked lime might not be spilt when it is
thrown into the barge, they had a trough of boards
knocked together, of 4 or 5 feet wide, and about 8 feet
long, which they set sloping against the side of the boat
and tipped the bits of chalk out of the barrow into this
trough, when they fell down into the vessel. Such a
trough or slide is always used at boats when unburnt
chalk is loaded in them.

I have said before that around all these kilns on the
lower side is built a screen of boards, partly to prevent
the wind from blowing too strongly on to the kiln, partly
and principally that those within it might be able to keep
the burnt pieces of chalk, which they take out of the
kiln before they are carried down to the barge, Fartygen,
or yacht, Jackten, which conveys them to London. This
screen is in fact of boards, but its foot is in some places
to a height of 3 feet of brick. Fora roof over [T. II.

438 KALM’S ENGLAND.

p. 89] this skeeling is the altan or balcony, as I may call
it, which goes round about the upper edge of the kiln.
Between the kiln-walls at the bottom and the screen,
skrank eller plank, the distance is commonly 6 feet.
The screen has two openings, one on each side of the
kiln, where they load the burned bits of chalk on to the
cart.

The limekiln is always built close in to the place
where they break the chalk, that they might not have too
long a distance to carry the baskets and the chalk, there-
fore there are seen standing here and there unused old
limekilns, which they have left since they had quarried
away all the chalk near them, and it began to be too far
to carry the chalk-baskets.

The women receive each about eightpence a day, for
which they work exceedingly hard, for they mostly labour
like slaves.

They said they were paid in this way, that a woman
gets one penny when she has carried sixteen baskets of
chalk to the limekiln, and for this penny she had also
broken up a good deal of chalk. The man who had
charge of them, confirmed what the women had said, that
they receive one penny for sixteen baskets carried, at
which rate they can earn twelve, fifteen, or eighteenpence
a day, according as they are industrious. The men,
Karlarne, get either nine or ten shillings a week. Food
and everything they must find for themselves.

A little way from Rochester on the Gravesend side
were several Chalkpits, out of which they took chalk,
which was loosened with crowbars, jarnst6rar; hacked
still farther to pieces with iron-hackers, jarnhackor, or
picks, and was finally beaten [T. II. p. go] with iron
pounders, jarn-knoster, into small lumps and bits,
which were afterwards carried to the kiln, where they
were burned to lime.

GRAVESEND. 439

After they had pounded a heap of chalk fragments
into smaller bits, all the pounded chalk was not carried
to the limekiln, but they laid it first in a coarse ‘ fiddle’
and screened away that which had gone to powder, which
they did not take. The flints which were found in the
chalk were separated therefrom, and were cast together
in a heap, to reform the ground, as they were obliged to
do. The limekilns were here built entirely underground,
so that the upper edge of the limekilns was horizontal
with the surface of the ground: The kilns were, however,
here one-third part smaller than those which are at North-
jieet, and getting on for half the size; but in other respects
nearly of the same form, excepting that at the bottom
there is only one draught-hole, drag-hal, instead of
several as in those at Northfleet. They also went through
at once down to the same draw-hole, like a tar-mill with
us in Osterbotten. In other respects, the walls are all
built of brick. The Carl said that the chalk, which he
lays in the kiln the one morning, can be ready burnt to
take out the following morning. The lime they burn here
is not carried to London, but is all used up at Rochester
and in that neighbourhood.

The chalk is burned, in other respects, here in exactly
the same manner as at Norvthfleet, viz., alternations of coal
broken into very small pieces, and bits of chalk, etc.

The ist August, 1748.

(T. II. p. 91.] Sain Foin is much used here in Kent.
Most people here call it Cinquefoil which they have cor-
rupted from Sain Foin. When it is once sown, it can
stand ten or twelve years, without requiring to be sown
again; for which time they can mow it every year. After
the time when it begins to be somewhat thin, so that it
does not seem to be worth while to mow it, they do not
at once plough up the ground it grows upon, but let it.

440 KALM’S ENGLAND.

remain two, three, or four years, during which time they
give liberty to cattle, but in particular sheep to go and
bait upon it, by which means the land also becomes
manured. They are obliged to proceed thus with it,
because here in Kent there is very little meadow-land
and pasture for sheep. When they do plough up such
land it is commonly sown the first year with Pease, but
sometimes with another crop, as is found necessary.

For horses Sain Foin is an excellent food both in
summer and winter, but if it is given to cows, after it is
dry, they eat no more of it than the flowers that lie on
the top, nearly all the rest they reject and trample under
foot. It has been attempted to sow it, at some places in
Essex, from the seeds which they took from hence, Kent,
but it has not by any means flourished, but grew so
poorly that it has not been worth while to sow it again.
The soil is sand and gravel, at the places where it was tried.

Clover. In this district also much clover is sown.
Spring is commonly the season when it is sown, but they
do not get to mow it before the next [T. II. p. g2]
summer after that. It is hardly ever sown more than
two summers in succession, and very often not more than
a single summer, after which they commonly leave it to
the next summer after it is mown before turning in the
sheep to feed upon it. As was said above, it is necessary
to cause them to be closely crowded on the pasture,
because the farmers then at the same time have the
advantage, that the fields are manured when the sheep
go in to pasture there. The cows eat the clover greedily,
both fresh and dry, stalk and all.

Vicia Sativa. Similarly, in many places hereabout
they sow tares or Vicia Sat. as food for cattle. The
principal use to which it is put, is that they cut it up
green at this season of the year, and give it to horses at
home, who eat it very greedily. No more of it is left

GRAVESEND. 441

standing on the land than proves necessary for collecting
its seed for next year, for this is a planta annua, which
must be sown every year, and that in early spring so that
it can by this time, August, be taken up as food for cattle.
At this time of the year, tid, they here keep their horses at
home in the stable for the reason that out in the inclosures
they are so much troubled with flies and other insects.

Rofvor, turnips. They also sow turnips here as at
other places in England. The season when they com-
monly sow them is just about this time. I was to-day
in a large inclosure in the afternoon, which in the
morning had been sown with turnip seed. The whole
inclosure was laid out as turnip land. The land lies
fallow all the summer before this time. At the beginning
of July they carry [T. II. p. 93] the manure out on to
this land (see T. I. p. 483 ovig.) which manure is mostly
straw-litter, halmbyssie, such as is collected in the
farm-yard, fa- garden, and has there lain under
the cattle, and has become mixed in with their dung.
After this has been carried on to the fields and laid
there by the load, lasstals, it is spread out as soon as
possible, and is ploughed down. After that the field
is harrowed and rolled so that it becomes quite fine.
The principal reason why they sow such a quantity of
turnips here is that they feed and fatten both sheep
and oxen with them in the winter.

Akerbruket. The Agriculture. The places which
they make up their minds to sow with wheat in autumn
are such as are either now lying fallow, or also where
- beans are now growing, which they plough up in the
autumn and sow with wheat.

The and August, 1748.

Kallor mycket vava har pa orten. Springs very
rave in this district. I have often before made the remark

442 KALM’S ENGLAND.

that spring-wells and gushing springs with becks flowing
from them, springkéllor med springéder och
flytande bick fran dem, such as occur in abundance
in Sweden, are sometimes scarce at the places I had pre-
viously been to in England. I have also made the same
observation here in Kent, and also in the part of Essex
which lies opposite Gravesend. The country on both
sides consists of high banks and hills with deep dales
between, and in some places,-particularly on-both sides of
the river Thames, large low-lying plains, so that many.
from all this might conclude that in the valleys between
the hills and on the low plains immediately under the hills,
there would be found an abundance [T. II. p. 94] of
running streams, and a plentiful supply of springs here
and there, but nothing is more rare. During my visit to
Gravesend I walked tolerably well over the country
around on all sides, was also twice over in Essex, and
there walked assiduously round the country, but for all
that I had not the good fortune to get to see a single
spring, k&lla, with running water, nor a single running
stream, more than immediately west of Northfleet.

All the running water I saw here was in the river
Thames, the river Medway, which passes by Rochester,
and the little beck west of Northfleet.

An Englishman was asked whether there are any
springs here. He immediately answered yes, and in
addition to that they are beautiful; but when he comes
to point them out, it is nothing else than a deep well
down in the chalk, which he says has a spring feeder,
because the water therein cannot be emptied out,
although it lies some fathoms’ depth down.

It is certain that the country is here very pretty, to
such an extent is this so that through the planting of
hedges round all the enclosures it everywhere resembles
a garden. Besides this, the continual variety. of high

GRAVESEND. 443

knolls and deep dales without seeing any stones larger
than a boy can throw, greatly increases its charm, but
nevertheless, the pretty effect of crystal clear running.
becks, and their murmuring sound in the green dales is
much missed; such a joy no one here knows of. I am
here speaking about the places I was at, for in several
other parts of England there is an abundance of beauti-
ful springs. [T.II.p.95.] All the water which the
inhabitants require for themselves and their cattle must
be collected either in deep wells in the chalk, or in large
dug-pits and ponds in the inclosures, where the rain.
water stands, and serves for the cattle, which there.
pasture, to drink, for which purpose also such ponds
have always very gently sloping sides, that the cattle
may be able to go down to them and drink. But some-
one might ask the reason why there are here so very
few, or in short, no springs and becks, where, neverthe-
less, the country consists of banks and hills, with deep
valleys, though it sometimes rains here heavily? I
answer that I cannot just understand this, but I have
made the following observations :—

1. They have everywhere here deep wells in the
chalk, both near the Thames and far away from it,
wherein is an abundance of water which never fails.

2. The surface of the ground consists of a loose
mould, on which one hardly ever sees any water stand,
however it rains, but it sinks in at once, and the upper.
surface is soon dry, at least on the top.

3. When they have dug the pits so deep, that they are
some way down in the chalk, the water stands in them,
and remains for several days before the sun succeeds in
drying it up.

4. When one digs never so little into the chalk, where
it forms a hill, it is quite humid and moist within, and the
deeper one digs so much more humid and wetter it is. .

444 KALM’S ENGLAND.

5. In the chalk pits the chalk is found not to lie quite
dense [T. II. p.96] and solid, but is full of both horizon-
tal and perpendicular fissures.

6. If one goes early in the morning into a chalk pit
before the sun has dried up the dew, or also on to a field
where pieces of chalk are lying, one will find that the
chalk is slippery, and almost wetter than any other kind
of earth.

From all these observations it seems to follow that
the rain and the snow which falls cannot stand in the
surface soil because it is too loose ; but it goes down into
the chalk; that the chalk has a property of absorbing
moisture; that the water filters deeper down, through
the many perpendicular and horizontal fissures in the
chalk: that very few becks could, on that account, be
found on the chalk hills, because they, as it were, swallow
up all the water before it has time to collect so as to form
a beck; that crops and pease which grow on the chalk
hills, for that reason, do not require to be drained,
because the chalk, which lies below, probably absorbs the
dew in the night, and in the day is dissolved by the water
which lies down in the fissures.

From this want of springs and flowing waters it
happens that the cattle, at times in the summer when it
is a long and severe drought, come to suffer much. They
must often then be driven some miles before they can be
watered. I was informed that in some places they had
no other water to use for cooking than such as was
collected in the chalk pits, which is white and thick, and
often so full of small insects that they are obliged both to
filter and boil it [T. II. p. 97] first, before they dare use it.

Sain Foin. I have said above that most of the inclo-
sures which here in Kent are used as meadows, were
sown with Sain Foin. I saw to-day places were Sain
Foin had been cut, harvested, and carried home this year,

GRAVESEND. 445

but as no cattle had been turned in to feed there, it had
already so advanced in growth since that time, that it
was now gin. high, with an abundance of soft and tender
leaves striking out from the roots and stalks which, more-
over, stood very thick, so that I believe that they might
be able to mow it again this summer.

The 3rd August, 1748.

Salicornia, dess nytta, Samphire its use. Salicornia
herbacea. Linn. Flor. Svec. I.; Rai. Syn. 136; grows on
the low-lying banks of the Thames, which at every flood
tide are overflowed by the salt water of the Thames—for
one ought to know that the water in all this part of the
Thames which is at and below Gravesend is very salt,
because the flood which happens twice a day (of 24
hours) drives the salt water up from the sea. The
English women pluck this herb at this season, and pickle
it, insylta, which is done as follows: The herb is taken
entire as it grows, but broken off at the roots. As much
of it as is required is thus gathered. It is well washed in
cold vinegar, one stalk and plant after another, that all
the dust and dirt which had clung to it might .be rinsed
off. They do not wash it in water [T. II. p. 98] because
if it is afterwards laid in vinegar (as it should be) the
water which remains firmly lodged in the plant, dilutes
the vinegar, so that it becomes weaker, whence it becomes
clouded and full of mildew, and thus becomes altogether
ruined. After they have thus washed the stalks or the
plants clean in vinegar, and laid them on a board for the
vinegar to run off a little, they take a stone jar,
stenburk, of the size which they have enough Samphire
(Salicornia) for, lay the plants therein till it is full, pour
in the best and quite pure vinegar, just so much as to
cover the herbs in the pot. Thereupon they take some
mustard, rub it down to a perfectly dry powder, because

446 KALM’S ENGLAND.

it has no efficacy, kraft, or at least is not so strong
if it is unground and entire. They then cut a clean
linen cloth to the size round and diameter of the jar
inside, and then another linen cloth of the same size,
hem them round the hedges to a round bag, fill it with
the ground dry mustard so that it is only as thick as the
blade of a knife; then, not only sow up the hole through
which the mustard was put in, but also sow a quilted
network of cross-lines upon the face, just as one stops
a quilt or bodice with ‘ hards’* and cotton, that it may
lie even. This bag, pAsen, so filled is laid upon the
Samphire, which not only presses it down so that it all
lies in the vinegar and none above it, but also prevents
it from forming any mildew on the surface. Afterwards
they have a large Chamois-leather, simsk-lapp, which
reaches well over the jar. This is laid over the jar and
tied tight down that the virtue, kraft, of the vinegar
may not be lost. [T.II. p. 99.] They let it stand so
for 14 days or a month, and then look whether the
Samphire still retains its green colour, which if it does
then they take some pinks, naglikor, Dianthus Caryo-
phyllus, L. Clove Pink, ginger, Ingefara, pepper, and
mace, muskotblomma, half an ounce of each, and
half an ounce of Jamaica pepper (allspices), boil them
together, let them cool, and then lay them in the jar with
the Samphire, tie it up again, after replacing the mustard
bag as before said, and leave it so to stand till they
require it. But if, as commonly happens, they see that
the Samphire has not kept its green colour, but has
‘changed to a yellow colour, they take it together with
the vinegar it lies in, lay it with the afore-named spices

* «Harps of Flax and Hemp, the coarser parts separated from the fine
stuff.’ Bailey, Ang. Dic. 1736. ‘HARDENS’ or ‘HARDEN,’ oan nee
fabric &e. - Lucas, Stud: 1882, Glossary. p.257. [Ji-L.J - core

GRAVESEND. 447

in a metal saucepan, and boil all till the Samphire which
had a yellow colour when it was put in acquires a beau-
tiful green colour, in respect of which be it noted that it
is stirred from time to time while it is boiling. As soon
then as it has got its former green colour, which com-
monly happens in the course of half an hour, although
sometimes more or less, they take it off the fire, pour all
together into the jar, lay on the mustard bag, tie the
Chamois leather over, and preserve it till it is wanted.

They often make them in this way. After they have
rinsed them in vinegar when they are newly plucked,
they pour pure vinegar on them, and boil them at once
with the aforesaid spices; upon which, it is to be noted,
that although they are green when they are laid in the
metal saucepan, they nevertheless become quite yellow
as soon as they are warm, but they must be kept boiling
till they regain their former [T. II. p. 100] green colour,
after which it is proceeded with according to the previous
instructions. They do best of all if they are preserved
in a jar in a somewhat warm room. They are used in
the autumn and winter season with steak and other food,
in the same way as pickled walnuts or cucumbers, without
anything else being added to them.

Obs.—The vinegar which they are rinsed and washed
in is thrown away after they have been washed.

At insylta Champignioner. To Pickle Mushrooms.
The women pickled them thus: they plucked them whilst
they were still quite small, when they keep best, boil
them in very salt water about ten minutes, take them out
and lay them in a linen cloth to dry. Afterwards they
take vinegar, whole pepper, and mace, muskotblomma,
boil it all together, and also pour a little white wine into
it. When it has boiled a little they take it off, let it cool,
lay the mushrooms after they are dry in a glass jar, pour
the vinegar and the other spices on to them so that it

448 KALM’S ENGLAND.

covers them over, then they have a Chamois leather
which they tie over the glass so that it is quite closed, and
use it when it is wanted. The large mushrooms are not
pickled, but are stewed while fresh. The small ones
which were pickled were of the size of finger’s-ends, and
consisted of the entire pileus or hat, and the pedunculas
or stalk, with the damelle and all, nothing being taken
away. They were not washed before they were laid in
the pickle, saltlakan, to be boiled.

[T. II. p. ror.] The 4th August, 1748.

At midday came Captain Lawson from London to
Gravesend, whither the ship had already gone before on
the 2° July.

Gravesend is a little spot which lies in a charming
place in Kent close to the river Thames, about 22 English
miles from London. The houses are for a great part of
brick, but some are old and built in a very ugly style.
The streets are uneven, irregular, and paved with flints.
In the town is a beautiful English Church and a Presby-
terian House of Prayer, BOnehus. Outside the English
Church is this inscription: ‘‘Hanc edem_ incendio
lugubri deletam Georgius II., Rex Munificentissimus,
Senatus Consilio, instaurandam decrevit,’’ which at
once points attention to the conflagration which this
little town suffered some years back, when a great part
of it was laid in ashes.*

In and around the town are several kitchen gardens,
kryddgardar, whence a large quantity of kitchen
garden produce is sent up to London nearly every day,
besides what is sold to seafarers, sjOfarande; and
Gravesend Asparagus is especially famous, as it is

* 24th August, 1727, destroyed t10 houses and the Church. Pocock
Hist, of Gravesend, 1797. [J. L.]

GRAVESEND. 449

reckoned the best in England. The principal support of
the inhabitants consists here in selling all kinds of pro-
visions and liqueurs to sea-folk and travellers. All ships
which come from abroad to London here take a Custom
House officer on board. Here also nearly all ships from
London furnish themselves with fresh provisions before
they commit themselves to the seas. The ships generally
go some days beforehand from London to Gravesend,
partly [T. II. p. 102] to furnish themselves afresh, partly
to, as it were, undergo from the Custom House officer a
new cleaving before they go to sea, and the captain and
passengers commonly come down here 4 or 5 days after
the ship.

Exactly opposite Gravesend on the other side of the
river Thames, in Essex, lies the fortification called
Tilbury Fort, which commands the approach to London.

Between Gravesend and London there run daily
several small yachts or boats, which convey passengers
and other travellers there and back.

2G

[The 5th August, 1748. ]

_ [At this point commences Pehr Kalm’s ‘ Travels into
North America,’ translated into English by J. R. Forster.
With Maps, Cuts, and Notes. Warrington, 1770-71.
3 vols., 8vo. The account of the voyage down the
Channel is much abridged, and descriptions of points on
the English Coast are omitted altogether. ]

The 5th August, 1748.

Resan. The Voyage.

At 6 o’clock in the afternoon we went on board the
ship Mary Gally, commanded by Captain. Lawson, and
bound for Philadelphia in North America. We then
sailed in the Lord’s Name from Gravesend, and went a
good piece down the river Thames before we cast anchor.
We lay there till about 3 o’clock the se nORaDE morning,
when the voyage was continued.

The 6th August.

In the morning we continued our voyage down the
river Thames, and so out into the Channel, down which

we afterwards sailed under the coasts of England. We
450

THE VOYAGE. 451

could constantly see the shores of England, and were at
times in tacking close into them.

All those parts consist of Chalk which are high,

steep, and almost perpendicular. Measured by the eye
the height of these steep Chalk coasts, from the water
up to the turf, seemed to be 3 to 4 fathoms, in some
places [T. II. p. 103] more, in other places less. We
could see with the naked eye that in these chalk cliffs
also there were such strata of bare flints as have been
described above, one of which, just half way between
the water surface and the top soil, ran quite horizontal,
as though it had been arranged on the dead level, and
was visible nearly the whole way along this piece of coast.*
Lower down, a little above the surface of the water,
another appeared, but the view of it was broken and
indistinct. Upon these Chalk hills lay beautiful arable
fields, on which the crops which were almost all wheat
were just beginning to turn yellow, and were nearly
ready for cutting. We could not see any sheaves or cut
crops, whereas, at the beginning of the week before, we
saw rye sheaves in Essex from Gravesend.
_ About six o’clock in the evening we arrived at Deal,
off which we cast anchor. Deal is a little spot or town,
flack eller stad, lying on the shore at the entrance of
a little bay, vik, which the sea has made. The houses
are nearly all built of brick, and roofed partly with
pantiles, but mostly with plain tiles. _

There is only one church in the town, not large, and
almost without a tower, only a little box, kur, in its
place. The churchyard is tolerably large, and has
planted round it an avenue of elms, in which one can go
and walk. The inhabitants live tolerably comfortably,
and support themselves principally by trade. Nearly all

* This has been called by Mr. Whitaker ‘‘ The Three-inch Band.” [J. L.]
. 262 ©

452 KALM’S ENGLAND.

ships which come from London, and intend to proceed
through the Channel, or vice versd, lie here one day or
more and furnish themselves commonly with all kinds of
fresh provisions, besides [T. II. p. 104] brandy and other
wines, although they have to pay very heavily for them,
because the people know how to make a good bargain.
A great many also get their living by rowing, in that
they carry passengers from the ships to the land and
back, for which they always make them pay dearly. By
fishing they also make handsome profits, by selling the
fresh fish to the sea folk who come here to anchor. In
the late war most of them followed privateering, kaperi,
and thereby accumulated large sums. The haven,
hamnen, is not particularly good, for it is open to the
south and east, from which quarter the storms have
freedom to beat upon this place from the sea, but that
does not make any difference, because it is mostly in the
absence of this wind that the ships lie here in the roads.
Here the ships leave the pilots whom they had from
London to Gravesend. When the south-east gales are
blowing heavily they know it in Deal, because it lies open
to this wind. Here also the ships which are bound for
London take their pilots on board.

The 7th August 1748.

In the morning I landed at Deal, where I was till
towards evening.

Lumbricus Marinus. When the sea-water at ebb-tide
fell off Deal, the fishermen went down on to the lowest
places, which the sea had just left, and which were
covered over with a fine sand, where they dug up
the sea-worms, hafsmaskar, which have their residence
under the sand on the sea-shore, and are described
by Linnzus in his Vest Gotha Resa. p. 189 [T. II.
p- 105], and also in his Fauna Svecia, 1270 [1746].

THE VOYAGE. 453

[also in Systema Nature, Vindobone, 1767, 8vo. Ed.
Decima tertia, 3 T.—T. I. pars. II. p. 1076, 277]. They
dug up these creatures, krak, which are a species of
earth-worms, metmaskar, in this way. They had a
little digger, grep, of iron with three grains or tines, with
which they dug up the loose sand where these worms
had their residence, when they commonly found them 18
inches deep in the sand. The sign which they had to be
able to know where these worms lived is that they creep up
out of the sand at high water, and lie upon it, but as
soon as it is ebb and the tide goes out they creep down
under the sand. Meantime, as faras they have been on
the surface of the sand they leave their track behind
them, which consists of bare fine sand, and looks like
small worms lying in a ring, or of disc-shaped forms,
kringel-lika former, in the other sand. These raised
sand-rings indicate to the fishermen the place where the
worms live, and by that means betray them. The worms
they get are collected in bottles, and are used as bait
on hooks for whiting or cod. They call them Logworms.*

Machine to wind up Boats.

At Deal there is ebb and flood, when the water for
six hours rises high up, and for six hours falls very far
out, therefore to get up the boats so that they may stand
more safely and not be broken by the waves when it
begins to be high water, they have on the beach above
where the boats stand, capstans, with perpendicular axes,
with which by means of a rope which is fastened near
the bottom of the boat, they wind it up as high as they
wish on the beach.

The 8th August, 1748.
Next day at 3 o’clock in the morning we left Deal, and

* That is Sea-worms. O. Norsk, Ligr, the sea. [J. I]

454 ‘KALM’S ENGLAND.

‘ went with the tidal current from thence along the Channel,
but not faster than the stream drove us. We had the
English coast at a short distance on our right-hand. It
consisted of bare chalk, was tolerably high, and stood
for the most part perpendicular.

At Io o’clock in the morning we passed Dover, which
is a little spot with a Castell above it onahill. The
country here along the coast was in some placés quite
steep, in other places long-sloping for about half an
English mile, above which the high chalk hills came on,
‘togo emot. These were not perpendicular, but more

‘sloping, and now over-grown with grass. When the
land had gone so long-sloping for a certain distance, it
again became steep and perpendicular, so that bare
white chalk appeared. Im the afternoon the wind blew
rather fresh, blaste en liten kul, so we luffed (Joverade)*
off and on between the English and French coasts. We
were sometimes not far from the French side, so that we
could, especially with a glass (Perspectiv), clearly see
houses, fields, &c. Here, I remember what I read in
Camden’s Britannia, viz., that he says that he early

- formed the opinion that England had formerly joined on
to France} or Flanders, where Dover and Calais now lie,
by some small arm, and that the sea had. afterwards
washed it away, or some other accident now unknown to
us, had come to destroy the same arm or ness, arm
eller nas. I for my part am much inclined [T. II.
p. 107] to believe the same when I consider the following
facts, viz., that England opposite Calais, between Deal

* Sw. Lofvera, Fr. Louvoyer, Ger. Laviren, Zug. Luff. Bailey, Eng. Dic.,
1736, has “‘ To oof (commonly pronounced luff ) a term used in conding of a
ship, as oof, &c., 7.2, keep the ship nearer the wind.” [J. L.] sae

} To say nothing of the uncertain conjecture of several writers, Antonius
Volscius, Dominicus Marius Niger, Servius Honoratus, Joh. Twine, Guil.
Musgrave, and Henry, Hist. of Btn.—Pref. [J. L.]

THE VOYAGE. 455

and Dover, forms a projecting point, and that Flanders
near Calais forms a point projecting towards England ;
that both points consist of the same kind of earth, viz.,
of high perpendicular chalk cliffs, kritvallar ; that the
land on both sides has the same facies and appearance ;
consists of a collection of round and long-sloping hills of
chalk, kullriga och langsluttande hdgder af
Krita, so that if one who had seen the coast of England
should get to see the coast of France here, and did not
know that it was such, he would certainly believe that it
was the English coast, vallen, and English hills. On
the English coast we saw here and there some beautiful
churches, small towns, &c. The ploughed fields lay on
the hills, but trees were here rare, and we did not notice
that they were divided into enclosures by means of
hedges.

In the evening a multitude of Porpoises, Marsvin
eller Isor, tumbled about everywhere in the sea around

our ship.
A Burial at Sea.

In the evening, a woman, one of the religious fugitives
from Pfaltz in Germany was buried according to the
usual custom of the sea. She was one of sixty men,
women and children, who were now going with us over
to the English colonies in America, to settle there. The
funeral was performed in this way, that after they-had
bound her in sailcloth, a quantity of coals in an old sack
were fastened to the feet, when she was laid on a board,
and then plunged from the board into the sea, when she
sank at once to the bottom. Some Psalms were sung

first.
The oth August, 1748.

Resan. The Voyage. At daybreak the ship was
allowed to drive forward with the tidal current as long as

456 KALM’S ENGLAND.

it lasted; but before that, as long as the stream was
against us, we had cast anchor. At daybreak we passed
one of England’s promontories, uddar, called Dungeness.
At g o’clock the stream was against us, when we cast
anchor nearly opposite Fairlight. On the sea it was now
so calm that the water scarcely moved beyond that the
stream drove it. We could see the English coast quite
easily, which was in some places high, steep, and sloping,
almost perpendicular, and in other places long-sloping.
The perpendicular earth walls near the sea did not here
consist of chalk, but of a light grey earth. We could
nowhere see a sign of chalk in them. The French coast
lay so far from us that we could scarcely see it. At
12 o’clock noon it began to blow somewhat, when we
lifted anchor, unfurled the sails, and with tacking, drew
away.

We were sometimes right under the English coast
near Fairlight, which coast did not here consist of chalk
but of a grey fine sand, as far as we could discover with
the glass and the naked eye; besides this, Captain
Lawson confirmed the same. This coast also was steep
enough, so that no one could climb up it without a ladder,
stega, or some other instrument, verktyg, but in some
places it was long-sloping. The country above it was,
like the rest of England we saw, a collection of hills
[T. II. p. 109] side by side, with dales between. Yet
the hills here were more gently sloping. On them lay
ploughed fields, meadows, and pastures, which were all
enclosed with green hedges and leaf-trees. Here and
there some churches appeared on the hills, with quite
little short and pointed steeples on massive towers, which
had been so built, that the wind which here has a large
field to gather strength upon, might not blow them over.
We could see no chalk cliffs or hills here. Towards
evening we cast anchor for a short time, but as a gentle

THE VOYAGE. 457

east wind began to blow at g o’clock, the anchor was
again lifted, and the voyage was continued the whole of
the following night.

Hafsdjur. Marine Animals. [Jelly fish.] We saw
also a kind of marine animals floating in the water
something like the annexed figure. The colour
was mostly violet. It was round and opened itself
nearly like a purse, pung, when we saw in the
midst of it four white rings. It must be some kind of
Medusa. I could not get a chance of catching any.
The sizes were various, some quite small of 1 inch
diameter, and the largest about 6 inches across.

The toth August, 1748.

The voyage was continued the whole of this day with
a favourable and delightful wind, which drove the ship
quickly, but raised some waves on the sea. In the morn-
ing at 7 o’clock, we caught sight of the Isle of Wight,
which lies outside Portsmouth, and [T. II. p. rzo],
belongs to England. It, as well as the country round,
seemed to consist of chalk, because the cliffs, vallarna,
were snow white. It is also highland enough.

Farilar. While we were sailing here out on the sea,
so that we could only see a little of the English coast a
great way off, but not any other land, there came some
white butterflies flying over the sea, and sometimes
accompanied the ship for a little. Sometimes also they
flew before the ship. I could not catch one to see what
species it was, but they exactly resembled the snowwhite
Cabbage Butterflies, Kal Farilar, both in shape and
size.

I did not see them pitch anywhere on the ship. We
also saw them yesterday. All wondered how these frail
creatures ventured so far from the shore.

At noon we passed in front of the Isle of Wight, which

458 KALM’S ENGLAND.

“was a very high land, but yet near the shores mostly
‘long-sloping. The soil was there of chalk, but this chalk
is said not to be so good as that near Gravesend, but
harder. On both sides of the Isle of Wight appeared
high steep cliffs of bare chalk. The land on the surface
of this island seemed to be divided by hedges.

At 5 o’clock in the afternoon, we began to see the Isle
of Portland, nearly in front of us at a great distance. We
also saw the English coast right opposite us, but a long
way off. This was [T. II. p. 111], mostly steep enough,
and seemed quite white, but whether it was chalk or
some white kind of stone or other, I could not determine,
for the long distance.

The 11th August, 1748.

Resan. The Voyage. We sailed quickly the whole
-of the previous night, and also this day. At 6 o’clock in
the morning we saw Bolthead, a promontory of England,
inside which Plymouth (Pleymouth) lies. Porpoises
tumbled about here and there inthe water. At noon the
-wind moderated, and almost died away, so that the ship
could not. travel very fast. Otherwise our ship was a
-very fast sailer. The captains who were on board agreed
that they had scarcely ever seen any ship which sailed so
fast. They reckoned it thus, than when other ships in
‘one hour sailed three miles, ours in the same time sailed
‘5 miles. At noon we left the English Coast, and saw it
again no more. Vi lamnade vid Middagstid
Angelska vallen och sago den ej mera.

i.) dUEN- DEX.

The Figures ad pages.

Acre-reins-- ... was 50, 184, 215, 238, 239,-290, 300, 352, 368
Aftermath .. .., See wl esis aie vist 35% oon 4I4
Agriculture... 4... ei ee See ales aaa wee 441
AMERICAN NOTES: » ... 6 eee co) tee os oes ane ry 112-120
-North American pines, capa ae ok ae oe §=—58

* Ammeios, silk grass. ... :- ial ese an Wes ee 116

wax from a kind. are sweet willow se wae eee =II2

o are Wild OxER 2. eee age ERY tee Aas Ges TS
Angria, the-sea rover... edie b8b. eared eam. Rob a eee eee ve =IQT
Anthrocera Sear I. Gateoc sivas one one tes eee 409
Ants. ...-- vue ea tes _ ar en we 164
Arable field raathies wa a ~ 302

fields, position and ailtieatien of a ee we. wah 26: 276,
283, en 300, 351, 368, 398, 411

without heakes or fences ... . Ane vee 265
Aranea labyrinthica ... a6 rr ase ate aie wes 409
Arbutus, to raise from seed ... aoe «se sa ois ws 25
Arid places... eee wees ee ar ae oe we 184
Ash tree, age of Os ses bee Tab abh wees. Hee ie ses 9330
Ashes.as manure on meadows eee Sieh Wie dey Stag ae 250
Ashridge park, 221; deer in, 222; hay in, 225; ricks in, 227;
well in, 228; donkey wheel over well eas ces we = 228
Asses, the use of ah ‘vee eae in ae see wee =160
; Biker author of work on-Polyps- ...- > “r tne we = «OL
Balls of iron-pyrites, here and there on the fields aes wee 312
Barley’ REE sae wis sv sare wie aoe as 43, 165
Barley sown... gees aye 18% eee deat © Weel Roa eee wre B976y 289
Barns, thrashing corn, &e. aa see see eee se ee =I71
’ 'Baster ... eve a ee eae ‘vs ate wee 390
Beans ... és eats re ss see — 276, 381, 382, 414
Beautiful inotiees ae was es eis ae as oe 160

459

460 INDEX.

Beech, age and growth of ... see
and oak mast as food for swine
——_——- stubs, how dug up...
Beeches, how felled ... or a

injurious to hedges ee
Bell Bar eae ose sea ise
glasses

Birds and fishes, how best preverved | ina aalieation

Births and deaths, list of ... ace
Bolthead awe as ase Ses
Boots... aes

Bored tree-stems for aoe siped in batiden

Botanic garden, Chelsea... tus
Box bushes on Steps Hill... ees
Bout, defined ... ioe ei te
Brackens eee eee a toe
Bread ... tee aes ove ane
Breakfast tee see
Brick and stud walls ... site
—— battlements to church towers ..
—— bridges, over ditches
—— dust for polishing metals
Broadcast (sowing) ...

land ... oa oe ase
Broadland, 91, 151, 165, 184, 247, 261,

362, 365.

Broad Windsor beans...
Broken glass on walls...
Broom ... eee dee tee eae
Buckwheat
Buckshead spring
Bugs formerly rare in Epatand
Burial at sea
Burnet moth
Burns, remedy for
Buschenfelt, MS., cited
Butter ... one vee

Cabbage butterflies
Capstan... , st
Carrington (? Gheddington’ aie

43, 275, 400, 401
ees 208, 213

307, 243, 335

vee ees 249
239

wee 242

247

one 157, 159
. 8

51
61

458
53

64

‘ 106
ae ws. 260
wee «= MOLE «251
: 207, 369
Ao we «= 88
a8 en 3
181, 270, 359
156

wn. 23
220

263, 271, 283, 285, 300, 309,

abe ses 409

ve =O
bas we 29
141

‘ 368
sia wee 285
5!

oe 455

123
note 74

+6371, 373, 414

457

ae ta

as 276

.

.

INDEX. 461

Carrying the meadows, or haymaking ... eee on we. 80

Carthage, a stone from As ies sas mr e's owe 73
Cast. iwe or Se aes wa sea wee 208
Catesby, Natural History Gf Carclin ar ese =-17, 114, 118, 119
Cavesinthe chalk... i ies sas Are otis 423, 428
Cedar of Lebanon 1 sti ane eae wae or wee 40
Cellars and rooms under streets... see bes a we 85
Ceremonies at the beginning of May eee vee _ ok? |

Chalk ... oe soe ees oe is sas es 358, 414
and chalk hills at Northfleet ... we oie ae auc. ALT

and flint, noteson_.... sae ain ia wes wee 338
aS manure... ahs Pe He fa se 186, 412
hard, at Ivinghoe xe ay des aes ar ee 279
eggs ane sve see eee a sae bes vee 427

fossils... sie we eck see eee 278, 296, 341, 427
in house walls ... sis ais ce are eae wee 374
pebbles ... ee oe xis ee aes tae we 386

IIE

water system, analy aed Baie ee ae Bes oe 441
thickness of soilon ... aie ins as eae Seam 1332

use of ... aes = oes wey ees Bes vee 415
CHANNEL, voyage down fhe. ase dee ee Ses 450-458
Cheese, butter, etc. ... fae oes ac ee ae ve 414
CHELSEA ws ies ae sie ice ave ses go-III
Botanic garden at... wee ose oe wee oe 106
Chelsea, description of oe aed en Per we = 96
Cherry trees ... ics ses sak ave Bes ar ws 374
orchards Se aes _ an ao ose wa 974
Cheshunt ae ew site isis sea aa asia 157, 179
Chips, saving of _ tee ons aes tes a eee 229
Church, ruined at Shorne ... tae ae as6 oa wee 402
Churches (various) ... wee ise oan des ig 349, 402
Church roofs of straw or ling tee ate aes ais wee 303
Church-towers, shapes ae age Se sea i wee 155
Churn .. _ aaa aso ee vow S37
Clay, how es for ‘bucle calbay ioe ins eas gee | OY
Clouted shoon.. ove its ee ae _ aes ee 244
Clover ... ar see cms AW ice wets 203, 213, 440
sain foin, ray-grass, sown as fodder for cattle... 151, 412

smack ... ve ase a56 wie one aa wes 413

Coal, use of... iia Sin Re, Wb, Oa Se TB

Collinson (Peter), F. R. s. iy aes ose «se =17, 66, 67, 81, 87

462 INDEX.

Comedy House, London _... aes ee OR ets we 417
Common fields... © sce ciuee ee , 210, 261, 265, 274, 281, 289
Cords of wood... : 1c. see sees at ois eee vee 229
Coronation stone, inscription on... avs we =: 18
Country between Little Gaddesden and St. AlGane or wee 146

between Woodford and.Little Gaddesden se see «278

north of London. ... aise sap sis ses we 37
Cows «+»... aa ee) cqatens ae ade eens nets ee 206,
Cowherd cscs nee <n a big ie ins we 266
Cowdung as manure... .... a iss aie ave 186, 218
Cranberries sown in-a garden eee aaleaet ie vee. tee = 68
Crampoons ..... ats, PS: Cee RA iki aoe bee saa & 233
Cross-furrows ... ee eer a8 als des vee 238
Crows’ gold . -...0 c:-0ee oe eae ieee ies ae aeeS 295, 312
Cuckoo ... see) We. Wee sae ales eee co aes cr vee 334
Cumberland tase & desat-caktve A deee 46d ay, 0d wee 303, 306
Cure for sore.eyes . .... CC ee, meee ee wee 196

Dactylis Glomerata .... . ... or nes wis wee ww. 60
Dairy, the se Re. apn aies ais sve 370
Dale, Samuel, ‘ahadtior: of Ray’ s erhedum ves ore ws» 108
Deal, described... - ... ‘ies sit ve ase ee wee 451
privates cisiasies A aes in ats see yee vee 452
Deciduous trees; ... Bhi) Gia wes sia an ae «136
Denton, bog-at... - ... _ Sue ae ais “aes wee 396
- ruined church gad, Pasa eg Lekaies sis 350, 374
Ditch. earth as manure parr oe als) a2 ate a 250,.275
DOG Gustin ete. a acts a5 aie nxt ae par w. 140
Dover .... ie eee abs a dies Ke wee 454
Drill acc a su tea a ee ian ax ais bee wee 165
Duke of Argyle eae ase Dah, Segciee os ed ee we 113
house and garden.at Whitton... at Kee! Se
—_ —_——_ visit to dae cu SS ant pon a wee BT
———— Bridgwater ... si sais we 4 vee , , 227, 260
—-—— Cumberland’s witihaay see aoe a ee ioe SESS.
— Richmond ... ‘ae et he “ied as wee O4
Dulwich, mineral well at... ame ss Bos, Meco we «56
Dungeness__... eee en tee a cee aes wee 456
Dust on roads, to prevent. ... vale Sit oe BON canes 37, 40
Dyers’ weed, near London. ... Bact panes er, cn oui me 4 dl wwe = 6
-Gyravesend _ ... ats seis eieS posite 377

INDEX. 463

Earth-walls around meadows, market gardens, &c. deen Geese H27
Eaton Bray... “ eee scene ws 287, 299
Edwards, George, F.R. S., aril thdlogict =e ete ane we «IQ
Edder ... eas wes dae wee a6 ies we 380

Eddlesborough, Edgeboro’ ass uae are oe ies 286, 312
Ellis, farmer, Little Gaddesden ace avs ... 186, 188, 194, 341
Ellis’s four wheel drill- nee ine ace one vee 188, 231

Elm,the 6... eC re 86, 387
England, climate of ... sag ate vis sos see. 125
English farmer, advantages over Swadilili., se feds gadw B92
women’s costumes, habits ... ove bee ave 326, 337
Epping Forest ... on oes ave ose wes eee 123
trees in aes ive ea dies se saey 123

Essex OPPOSITE GRAVESEND ee ee ie wee 357-370
Evergreen trees in hedges ... 0 use ewe see she S'S

Exchangeable slips ... oer siti ies shy, 265, 274, 289, 352

Fairlight as ase aes tee ue see one we 456
Fairlop fair... eae ees nes ees ss ay vee 162
oak a. _ aoe sos ie ew I6E

Farms, houses, barns, day noua: Re; ie fas saa vee 362
Farm servants . te a8 see 3% eis vee 205
Fences and hedeed ae se aby sige a a 69, 380, 398
Fields, how arranged ... see oi dey das wi ave. 150
Fire in London ae a see ach see _ wo = 88
Flakes ... ae a one wee OF Mas bon sige ewe 364
Flat stone ‘ins ae oui rey dite sats a 227, 267
Flint... ae oe ae ee “abs siete os we 199
— useof .. as dee. “Aes ahs see ae wee 349
—— notes on ... oes aa tos toe tes ee 422, 426
sand, its use eae ais re aie ae is soe 2259
Flint even on one side,a_... i one tee aes wee 244
Flints, for walls and road making ... eae «a he sea ESS:
Floors ... a ate a2 ane ees es teat ED
Fodder, Gifareot kinds of, fee houses tes ees ese tea 252
Footplough ... oes ae vee tee eee tee vee 263
Forcing beds ... eee aus wes aes oer ees 8,174
Four-thorough-land ... sie _ sis att 131, 165, 204
Four-thorough-stitches He: le au 4a a 251, 309
Friesland, now lost... oes sede (eae eee ose ee =II4

Fruit trees on-walls- ... way de eas tee ae oe vee 336

464 INDEX.

Fuel...

7 vee a are aoe we sas oe §=355
Fulham Bridge toe oe eee oes on we 35
Furze ... S59 ates oat wie whe we «=144
— to burn bricks with a ete aes dee aie ves 249
—asfuel ... eae st on daa tae sis isx 260

Gaffles ... aise eee
Garden, how to lay out

Gates ... “8 soe tai ioe Jee nes ia ae 218
— dessrtbeton of ... aes oh sib ae eee wee 168
Geese ... bas oui aa nee sad ak bed aa 372
Glass frames... eee ee wee oe eat wwe wie 8
Goats... aa sist sie ree its aa vss. 207
Good Fiatinations in L Agee axe ate ie wes ax 62
Graham, F.R.S. ist eae bes eae 25 anid ace 53
Grain or tine ... = a wae sae wes uae ae 394
Grassland (see nisaieias) es tee see ix ot wes 412
Grass, weeds, &c., in forcing beds ... ate Set 174
GRAVESEND... wits ae as sas es ce: abpsiae

Gravesend, desertbad .. ise “ies _ mee we 448

— the soil, eae of oo... ees als wee 382
Grey pea Sas eee ae se ee err siete se 253
Gypsies... ees eas or os eis bv wag 154, 161

Hainault Forest ae “ae ee Ja we wee note 162
Hampstead visited... at a8 asa a 2 we AT
Hand-shears ... ae acs aid sea aes pr we 360
Hanoverian rats sie awe eee a, awe awe se. 300
Harrows sie aie tee sins aie aaes LAY
Harrowing near Little ‘Gaddesden sss ite as ss wee 193
Hats of horsehair aT fe es ie ae avs we 26
Haver-bread ... dais ea sig ov ahs ne we = 88

Hay, grasses and plants in ... aad nee see 130, 225, 307, 378
Haylathe ade Saat) ghouele ae jue see 210, 217, 364

with moveable roof se ae sa sh see- 223
Haymaking, hay stacks ues see nee sins ive we 388
Haystacks ia ie aid 210, 360, 389
Hay, to prevent cponbanesiis gaitguctgn of ad ee 223
How to arrange that the hay may be green and fragrant eee 329
Hearth, shape of -... ves ae ass sais as was, 235

Hedges (Woodford) ... ene
cut down as fuel

of beech a See
round arable fields...
used in gardens eon

Hedge, how a new hedge is laid down
how an old hedge is renewed, &c...

Hedgehogs... ees
Help for priests’ chifldren eee
Hemel Hempstead... wee
Hertfordshire plough... aoe
Hills round London, what soil
Hillocks, origin of ... tee
Hjarne (Urban) cited...
Holly... ie

—— age aah 18

Holy Days, celebration of, in 1 Ragland

Hops ... .

Horses, how Bite to, arene Se,
Horse beans

Horse-leg knuckle- bones; use Siok

troughs... a
Houses,-construction of at
arrangement of tes
roofs, floors, chimneys
of Parliament... vas
Hudnal... suite ‘ive
Hurdles sae aes
Hurdle-harrows, or drags
Hurlock... een vas Jes

Ice-legs ... eee eve

Tron nail in middle of tree

——pyrites .. oes vee

Isle of Portland a owe

Wight ...

Ivinghoe, visit to aie ace
description of

eee

eee

465

wee 128

(246

es 279

366, 398

wee 134

eee 313

we § 318

avv O17

ave. -30

ies ws 180
238, 250, 263
vee) AF

163, 379

note 74
139, 219, 255,
$53 (333

325

eee 205

era ce)

eet 297

one 67

vee =156

ry 9

wee 363
181-3, 358
we = «18

tsa 307

wee 201

eee $147

oe 153, 262, 279, 291, 292, 313, 340

arable fields and other soil

—— change of soil as
<a

Common ... ale

oe = 67
wee 234
295, 312
oe §=458
457, 458
eee 255

269

273

280
197, 256

2H

466 INDEX.

Ivy ove ase mr at eos
—— as food for sheep oe
— age hae one eee one

Jelly fish sas one eee
Joints in chalk... rec Seis

Kentish plough vee eee wee
Kerf... eee wee ese one
Kipe ... ac a see ise
Kitchen garden seeds... a eee
Kype .. ose oe eos eee

‘Lands,’ 261 ; ‘ exchangeable slips,’
Land springs ... wes ove ons
Land suitable for sheep pasture...
Landscape, in Kent ... eae tee
Larch, how to grow ... one

Lathe ... ‘ial sie ass ei

Lawson, Captain ae vs ae
Lead pencil, to write with

Lessness ae wee
Lime burnt from chalk
— from chalk on se

—— from ordinary flint...
Links ... wee an ave oe
LITTLE GADDESDEN ... er

Reached and described ies

Bricks from the yellow earth
Description of harrows used...
Men’s duties and habits a
Mole-hills cast up... vee
The soil at... Ste see
Lodge ... ees eee tee tee
Logworms«. eee eee
LonDON AND SUBURBS eee
London, great fire in...
Bridge waterworks ...
Long furrows ... see eas eee
Lucas (F. W.) ee on sins

process of burning described

was owe =159
see wee = 24
oon owe =159

265, 274, 300, 301, 352

9, 171, 329, 333, 359

ies eee 281
sae wee 277

eee wee «= QOS

- 448

wae 19

: 345
304

z 257
. 429
; 277
aie we = «64
ue 178-342
tee we 180
ee vee 245
aie save 332
ae ae 333
ees 335

180, 183, 193, 203, 236

9, 171, 333, 359

Ss wee 453
a wee 6-89
88

. 73
wn eee 237

19, note; 20, note; 115, note.

INDEX. 467

Lucerne ‘ie wes SNC ose we ies eae 214, 414
Lumbricus marinus, logworms tie ae nae one woe 452

Malt house, Little Gaddesden wae as eee wee 254
“The Malthouse,” ruin of church at Sibrns Bee ron ee 402
Manure, how carted ... sis ae wee eee 150

manuring meadows... «. +54; 328, 354, 358, 365, 379
Maple pea es eee sige re Ae 216, 247, 253
Manuring ploughed Golds ae aie ise ace ae wee 245
Marcasite se se aye = “ah tes 76, 77

Market gardens, 8, 33 ; at Southwark, 43; at Chelsea ... wee: 9O
their fences, cultivation, &c. ae eae vee 33

Marle ... aan aay a one one as we «144
Meadows and their grass-growth sound London. ae 28, 49

use of in Middlesex ae a8 Aga wee wwe = OL

and pastures ste ewe au ae aie wee 215
Mice, to prevent getting into ricks ... wee bie oes eee 227
Middleton, John wae ies we 80
Miller, Philip, the Batanist 4 19, 92, Se. 35, ey one ; memoir... 108
Miller's Gardener’s Dictionary sie sae 93, 96, 110, III, 131
Mineral waters and houses near them sve ass axe wwe = «56
Mistletoe, how sown ... as oat tae aad isa 67
Mitchell, John, M.D., F.R. S... wae ses 32, 39, 116, 117, 119, 120
Moles ... one eet wiss ea see wes 164, 214, 335, 379
Monument, the a iu ial ite wee avs ws «24
Mornington, Earl of . eee <6 ies sass “177:
Mortimer, Dr. Conwell Bovetaty of Royal Society 19, 61, 114, 115
Moss ... : eee ane aie see ae 186, 409
— enough on 1 the chalk- al rr 3a see oe eee 24
—— rapid growth of... i oe sae oe 7 ee 174
Mouldboard ... wee aes ss ee aon eee 165, 239
Mounting steps be ate sia ace as ae 300, 365

Mushrooms, to pickle... Ae gee des veh ists oe 447
Mutilation of Ray’s Herbarium... ane eas sae we 108

Nettle-salad_ ... oe ais es wee has eee wee 258
New River... _ ee en ey iw eee 64, 72, 179
Northfleet Church ... ne as bes ase ae wee 350

section at ... wae Ses et eae aie ese 385

Oaks, age of « bos ae ove see oes re 243, 331
2H 2

468

Oak bark for tanners \.. isa
Oats a. ane
Old chalk vies. oa

Orchards of chet apple and want trees 5. (Gravescia):
and vegetable market gardens (Chelsea)

Outhouses
Ox-horn fences
quicks for road making

Paralysis, from punch drinking
Parish, arrangements of
Parliament, Session 1748

Pasture good for sheep eos
Patches of different soils
Pattins . _ ee
Barment | in kind

Pea fowl ie ose ing
Pease ... sas ‘tare «as
—— land

Pebblestones ...

Penny Post in London

eee

Perennial grasses rare in Virginia ...

Peruques
Petrifications in chal
Pipes in chalk... ees see

Plants, enjoyed by swine
on earth-walls

- the luxuriance of
useful for banks dais
Plot, Dr., cited... ee aes
Plough, Essex... :
Hertfordshire...
Ploughs, woodwork in
Ploughbeam

Plucking live geese

Plumsted

Porpoises

Portland Stone, deswindan ae

in flower at Woodford, Marah sth...
— Little Gaddesden, March 28th

6, 43, 165, 208,

eee

eee eee

216,

= 155) 16, 164 385, 407 418 419
Peckham, Peter Collfusod! s garden at ate .

119
209

94
305
280
326
246

12
369
246

66
63
120
52
278
419
156
70
127
198
45
59
152
165
250
239
250
372
345

455
21

INDEX. 469

Postchaises... wee eC ee eve aes os ae 63
Price of provisions in wartime .. |... eae as we 56
Puddingstone ... aes ee diy ad es as 148, 244
Punch, harm and use of sais ses eee wis aie 16, 119
Putney Heath and Wimbledon Common ... ees aie see 36

Quaker’s Service # ... xis eae aes sv vee awa 7

Rabbits, their dwellings ... ie ots ‘os vee 158, 185
slaughtering and gelding of ar toe ac vee 234
wild ... ie iss sis ea as A we 185
Racks ... ase a ree wee eae ex des 251, 264
Raddles ee Goel “anes Suyk awl “ae eG one 7308
Rags, as manure on arable ... ren se iss tee 265, 309
Raisin wine... wh ie ais ie Rear sink wee 383

A milder ditto ... abe sie aie sist ea wee 384
Ranelagh House ssie abe ies ses ce es wee = «O94

Ray’s Herbarium sae Ae as sin sive tas we 108
Reeds, as screens in market gardens cs ate es wee 9, 32
Reins (see “Acre reins”)... Sik aes sie 261, 271, 290
Renlosta, a grass useful for banks ... aes eee eee «60
Resting stone ... vee i sis cr dws site 227, 267
Return for each bushel sown i's a nile is wee 328
Rick frame... oa ies ats oS eee ae 268

Ricks, on props Sic és oes <o tie 227, 256, 267, 286
Rickpeg Frc ie wee vee wee wee as 211, 390
Rickstadde ... wae ene sie sie nes 227, 268, 287
Ridge-acre-land oe one ove ene ae as 271, 289
Ridge-half-acre-land ... wee tee wee eee toe Eee). (27 E
Ridgelands... aie ies tee a0 én 273; 275, 276
Riding .. : ose saa vee ave seen nee 388
Rigs (see yee) Sia eee eos one tos wee eee 251
River Lea ie deg Nee ase eee sit oe 122
Roads, 381 ; how fepained aes ant eae aa aes war 98
Road dirt, use of aes uae ao as aes sale 143, 266
—— watering, 37; with shovels ... uae eas one ve 40
Rochester, description of ... tee tee tee eee eee 4O4

Bridge soe wee vos see see tee vee 405
Rock crystals in flint... one te tee we ie vee 427
Rod... es bas ne tte ies oa Fee 211, 391
Roller, the ... vue bee eee ees oes ave we 269

470 INDEX.

Rooks ... se ose see wie ae es

Roots, to keep in winter... ba tee ae

eee 141, 353
aes sae SII

Rope dancers ... a eae tee 417
Royal Society, visit to ve 17
Running water through cellars héeps ‘beer fredh 299
Rural economy in Essex, 172; in Cumberland .., 306
Rushes, for seats of chairs ... a 157
Rye bes wae sae as "as, 365, 415
—rare around London ... ane ve 55
—useof ... mort on 230, 415
—— grass eee aes oe ies ae ase I51
Ryggs, or riggs ‘sis re awe «64.35 roe 251, 272, 276, 362
Sain foin ose “s on wes I51, 213, 366, 412, 439, 444
Salad, how peepared. aes . ie see 85
Saltings... see a 349
Samphire, its use 445
Sandpits, strata in 406, 407
Saws, sawpits ... wwe 219
Sawing of beeches and the use a af saw- voles, 242
Saw-wort nae 379
Seakale, as food ae an 162
Seagulls in gardens 163, 259
Sea- walls (Thames) 344
Sea-worms .. wee we 452
Seeds lie long unscathed in the ganth eae de 92
Sermons in English Church .. a sa wt 325
Service, Church at re 325
Session of Parliament, 1748 ... 94
Settles ... ees 287
Sheep ste 7 vue 185, 199

inEngland ... see ay see 139

in folds on barley-fields Rie 263

eat weeds ie ws 44

folds, on arable we ae 301

pastured on wheat-sprouts ... due 288
Sherard, the mutilator of Ray’s Herbarium 108
Shoes ... 5 cee oe 53
—_— labouring n men’s uae es ave one 244
Sights in London... oe aes oe =«d7

Sign of the weather from daisies

468 we 31

Sile ia wwe eee ase eee ees eos sos wee 370
Sir Isaac Newton’s tomb .., ise ae ean ae we 45
Sir Hans Sloane see see ise ave wee re ny A

Sloane’s library... eee eee tee eve vee 102
—_—___-_—__—— museum ... ses ea sae sis ws I00

Sloane’s, Lady, grave... see ae ses iss aa we = «9S

epitaph rer isis cis ie ae we = «99
Six-bout-land ... aes ses oee _ ais _ wee =165
Skeel, skeeling... oe wee eee evs aes als 287, 364
Sled eon eee eee eee ooo eee Try wee ove Io
Snails, eaten by swine ase See ave i's aie ese 220
abundance of ... ‘vs eee ae ase nee we 290
Snakes, handling of 1.0 14. suse wee wee 88

Snake-bite, remedy for ae aes aia vee ans vee 196
Soil we ove ove ae bee 193, 203, 236, 241, 257, 400
—— influence on plants... wie tee eee ane we 50
-—— thickness of $5 see ane des ee wee 259, 383
Soot as manure Hs aay eee ia fai ee wee 248

Sparrows build in caves ooo any Ar oe ove wwe 428
Speel ... bee oes aes isa oe aes wee = note 157
Spider ... Se ven das sie “ws was wee 409
Spring-wells, want of, round Laridon aaa ese oe 72
Little Gadiesden ove be we 284
Springs near Great Gaddesden_.... avs os aco vee 154

rare near Gravesend... ae oe ae sce, See AAT
Spring, late... wee er saa ae ao ase we 56
cold... dug wise ar are ee oie we =160
Squirrel’s tails, use of ia aes ase aes was aa. 73

St. Albans ie aus tee wit oes aes ais wwe 179
St. Botolph’s Church, Northfleet ... was oer ee see 350
St. Dunstan’s, Stepney ae wee ies ies ows ae. S93
St. Mary’s, Denton ... see eeu se uae aa 350, 374
St. James’s Park ws wee wis ae sie at we = 86
St. Paul’s, the dome of aes vee eo eee a 26, 42
St. Peter and St. Paul's, Milton... ase aCe ase ve 394
Stapled bark ... aoa tee ae aes ae ate wee 249
Steel Mills, use of, to grind malt and peas... or ae vee 255
Stitches... ee ine alee ie sae 43, 151, 165, 204, 369
Stone rollers ... eee ase ae wee ee be Pres 8 |
Stoves in orangeries ... ase _ aoe ais ses ae 92
“ Stralflinta” (fish scales) in chalk... re a ive wee 427

472 INDEX.

Strata terre ...

Straw as fuel .. we wee as ase ri
manure or iss
brackens, &c., reputed as manure
hats... ae “ase oe was
of barley, wheat, pease, Beans &c., aS manure
plaiting wee oe oes vee
thatch ... za ais

Sunday, how spent in England eee vee ae

Supper ... rc eee ae
Swine ...
Sword worn at Court .. v6
Strata in chalk pits near r Little Gaddesden

Tares, &c., sown for horses .

s+ 48, 152, 254, 385, 397, 406, 407, 419, 420, 421

wee 276
ies see 50
tea wee 266
sie 337
aay ee O54
ave we 337
ais 201, 283
ae wee 925
dia’ 16
ee 387, 411
ied iw 353

aes 152, 254

44, 247, 414, 440

Tarring Church accounts... ue note 157
Tatternel ave sen 290
Ten-bouts-land wee ia 158
Terras ... mie 76
Tegskifte, “lands” oainally? ue 1 exishanpesble slips” (see spines 300
Thames, banks in estuary of... aes 3
river ... as ais a di 3

— chalkpits on banks of 5, 363
— earth walls on banksof ... oe 344
—— landscape round ... tes 4
—— reedonbanksof ... ous 5 ae “ak 5
—— marshes dis An ee 344, 357, 361
meadows on aon - aac cat we 378

_— sheep and horses on 5
Thatching ate ro 210, 390
Thermometers, comparison of ide sss FOS

Thermometrical observations in houses...

Thistles... bse ia Prt wae ties aie

Three-bouts-land wie wae are aes
Three-wheeled wagon toe

Tilbury Fort ... eae 7 eae

Tilney, my Lord ase ave say ae a
Tilt-boat (Gravesend) sive ainig oe a
Tines ... sie a divs wee

Tobacco flavoured with aniseed ...

Totternhoe stone-mine ibe ia

aie 7
wee 354, 380
eee wee =157

a owe 284
a8 ewe 449
dete eee 175
vs 343, 415
oe soe 394
wt eee 195

iis sss 290

INDEX
-Townland’s land iss ave ‘ve
Trees, deciduous, in hedges ... eee
—— evergreen, inhedges ..
— the planting of... wee a
Tree-roots as fuel was nes waa
Tulip tree ae a -_ its
-Turnips... eee one one eee

how to treat ... eee
Turnip-tops ‘used for salad or as eens

Tussilago oe aa ase
Tussocks aie ase as
Two-bout-land a acts vee

Valmont de Bomare (cited) ..
Vauxhall ee

Veal to make white

Vicia sativa, or tares ...

Villages, arrangement of

Vines

Vitriol, the mann erate baa ‘boiling oe
Voyage, from Grémstad to England
down Channel ‘

Wallerius, J. G. ve ee
Waltham Abbey ses ane

Cross sve ves
Wanstead House oe8
Walk from Gravesend to Rochusten

Warner, Richard ios ae ins
Water used for cooking

Watercart ane wa ne
Watercress

Watergangs

Water supply to London
and wind mills

troughs... oes one toe
Wattled hurdles ies aGe aa
Weld ... as
Well in the slid calle, Ao) a is
Wellesley, Mrs. sas ius iv
West wind strong in England, the..

473

ave eee 272

sis wee 136
sis woe 135
<a ose =I3E
“ioe 147, 229
one we 179
eas we 441
one we 230
ase we 217
site wee 334
ee oe 379

165, 251, 261

oe = MOLE §=—-3.9)
tue wwe = 65
vee 372

44, 247, 414, 440
209

374

74

. wae OPS
157, 159, 178
157, 179

175

394

17, 131, I41
ae ve =148
ace 37

we 286

347

64, 72

‘ibis 300
es we 360
: 398
ee 61, 377
405

177

is ee «401

414 INDEX.

Westminster Abbey ... tee oe
What you may call it... eee

Wheat ... vee eee see tes
stalks, length and greenness of
Whitaker, Wm., F.R.S. ‘tis roe
Wild oxen (Mirena) os one
Williams, farmer, Little Gatterden..
Windmills Sis ae ive exe
Windmill hill ee section at

Winnowing machine . to
Winter-cress, for calad Sei ese
Winter food for bees... det oa
Woods, trees in des wes wes
WooprorD

eee

Woodford, county between Lindon aiid Woodford

—— description of
—— hedges at
Woodlouse ... a fi
Woolwich, section at.. wee

Yard of butter... ids se
Yards to each house ... see ae
Yokes for pigs...

eee eee

we «=—s«s18
wee 398
wee 43
wee «281
153, 387
113
187, 245
wee 4OI
406, 407
we =I71
- 48
288

214
121-177
121

166

. 128

wee 409
- 48
se 373
wwe = 85
387

BOTANICAL INDEX.

Acer campestre jie wale Sai Aes ale we 34, 214, 395
Achillea millefolium ... wae ene ae ee 130, 227, 309
Aconitum napellus ... toe eos nee toe toe ve 45
Agrostis capillaris ... aes wes aie wes vee 130, 308
vulg. var. aristata ... es re as ies wee 227

Aira (Holcus Mollis) ... aie vee vee tos 36 oe = 67
Allium fistulosum ... oa ee see se was ws 34
porrum or toe wee aoe vee on we 34
schoenoprasum xe ao one see wes 34
Alopecurus pratensis ... eee vase ove waa 28, a6: 51, 81, 378
Anthoxanthum odoratum ... coe Bis oon was 130, 308
Anthriscus vulgaris ... one és oe se iy we 6
Anthrocera filipendulae ose ies ea ae a0 see 409
Anthyllis vulneraria .., us age as eas ie wee 225
Apple trees... sive ate sie oe% sige sie wer 1387
Arbutus és wes “ee asi non one sae one 27
Arctium lappa... ao8 is aa Sie ac ane we 45
Arundo (see Phragmites) ... soe we “ 5
Ash ae ee fre ass Sey 181, see 214, re sae: 367, 395
Asparagus ae wee te tee tee toe wee 9
Aspen ... eee ae aia ses wee ate ee vee 395
Avena pratensis des wat sis see vee 130, 226, 308, 395
Barbarea vulgaris... Pr we 48
Beech ... tee + 124, “209, 214, 221, 247, 249, 279, 309, 335, 367
Bellis perennis... an wis ies ae «ss 127, 198, 309, 311
Birch ... ave ose sey sie ae One eee see 396
Bird cherry ... ate oe ies its 135, 209

Blackberry (see Rubus fuicosde)s

Box (see Buxus).

Brackens (see Pteris).

Briza media... ses aes one ee oe se 226, 309

476

Bromus, var., secalini... os
Broom ... ase ais oes
Bryunm ... ata tee tes
Burdock tee eve ee
Butcher’s broom aue aaa
Buxus sempervirens ... oe
Carduus crispus it sins
Carpinus betulus

Castanea equina sas
Cauliflower... nD ie

Centaurea jacea

Cerastium viscosum ... ss
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum
Cissium arvensis

Convolvulus arvensis...
Cornus sanguinea

Corylus avellana tee
Crambe maritima

Cratoegus oxyacantha

Crocus vernus...

Cucubalus aoe one tee
Cynosurus cristatus

Cytisus scoparius

Dactylis glomerata
Daphne laureola
Dogrose...
Dogwood

Draba verna

Elder fs

Elm, see Ulmus.
Euonymus Europaeus
Equisetum pratense ...

Fagus Sylvatica (see Beech)
Fennel ... eee ten
Festuca elatior...

rubra ...
Foeniculum

BOTANICAL INDEX.

eee

124, 128, 136,

121, 124, 128, 137, 160, 181,
130,

60, 130,
< 125,
121, 124, 128, 160,

29, 49, 51, 81

wee 125
we 174
we 45
125
136, 260
eee 130
214, 367
87

ia 8
226, 308
130, 309
130, 226
380

. 60
395, 428
128, 137
162
214, 221
127

352
226, 308
125
226, 308
198, 214
209, 214
395

198

128, 395
395

309

owe 355
we 308
226, 309

355

BOTANICAL INDEX. 477

Fragaria vesca... ait oes an age a ase ve 198
Fumaria a 2a one ave ast ae wa A ae 92
Furze (see Ulex).

Genista spinosa (see Ulex Europeaus) ee a Fae wees 127

Guelder rose ... os ee aie aie aise wee 428
Galanthus nivalis ee we eee aii ise ane woe 127
Galium aparine eee vee ae oes oa ae we 45
Hawthorn, (see Cratoegus)
Hazel ... wee aes ses 2% ws =: 128, 137, 198, 214, 221
Hedera helix ... we 121, 124, 154, 209, 214, 269, 310, 374, 395
Hieracium ar ks sis eos ess sie se 226, 308
Holcus mollis ... ee sea ee _ a 226, 308, 378
Holly (see Ilex).
Hordeum hexastichum ie aes aes wa ds vee 362
murinum ... awe see wes oa seis 60, 348
— —secalinum ... eae Ses Sus aie an wes. 378
Hornbeam (see Carpinus).
Horse chestnut wes sas aa wae eas ac wae 87

Tlex aquifolium, 121,123, 128, 132, 135, 139, 181, 209, 214, 219, 225, 333.
Ivy (see Hedera).

Juncus effusus... ie ioe ats a ae or sive SES 7.

tenax ... eee wee ves ase oes tee «es 379
Juniper... see ae see eee ees ae oes we 396
Lactuca... Ges ss one seg es aes ais we = 85
Lamium purpureum ... ies is a ave ais 127, 198
Larix oes £6 3 tee ans we 95
Lathyrus (sylvestris) pivtangee ss dist ae ay 226, 309
Laurustinus ... 358 ae dee a6 ue aie oe 135
Leontodon taraxacum... sels iat ss ie nai 198, 308
Lichen rangiferinus ... oie ; ene tee oe = 36
Ligustrum ide ar aay a eae wits 548, aoe, 395, 428
Lime tree gs wa ies ies sus eee 136, 209, 214
Linum catharticum ... ses is dus eae 227, 309

Lolium perenne ioe oe ai i 25 st, 130, 151, 152, 308

478 BOTANICAL INDEX.

Lonicera caprifolium ...
Lotus ... sing aes

Malus 7
Maple ... oes
Medicago lupulina

Mespilus ae tes

—— germanica ..
Mountain ash ... eee
Myrica ... i tne

Narcissus pseudo-narcissus ...

Nasturtium officinale...

Oak (see Quercus).
Onopordum acanthium

Papaver rhoeas... vis
Phillyrea aes
Phleum pratense ee
Phragmites communis
Pinus abies

— sylvestris...
Plantago media A
Poa angustifolia

—— compressa

—— pratensis...
Poplar ... ia so
Primula veris. Primrose
Privet ...

Prunella vulgaris
Prunus avium ...
spinosa... one
Pteris aquilina...

Quercus
ilex ...

Radishes awe ae
Ranunculus acris ae
—— bulbosus...
——— Ficaria ...

a fats see 121
wees tte 225, 308
. 137

wes 34, 214, 395

50, 152

121

136

124
112

198
286

354

344, 352

Pe 135

130, 226, 308

5, 378

132

132

130, 227, 308

130, 308

61

81

ee wee ise oe 214
ace sie ei 128, 198
. 348, 367, 395, 428

iis wee 309
135, 209, 214
ce 34, 137

207, 304, 369

124, 129, 181, 209, 214, 331, 367, 395

136

9

+. 130

. vee 352

Reed ... aes ces
Renlosta (unidentified)
Reseda luteola... wes
Ribes grossularia ate
Rosa rubiginosa

— vulgaris ...

Rowan tree... we
Rubus fruticosus as
Rumex acetosella ...
crispus... oes
Ruscus aculeatus aes
Rye grass (see Lolium).

Salicornia herbacea ...

Salix... oe tee
Sambucus nigra toe
Scabiosa

Scirpus maritimus _...
Scotch fir cia ees
Seakale... oo
Senecio vulgaris
Serratula tinctoria
arvensis
Silene inflata ..,
Sinapis arvensis
Sloe... vee
Sorbus aucuparia
Spartium scoparium ...
Spindle tree ...
Spruce ... <i
Spurge laurel ... es
Spircea filipendula
Stellaria media
Sweet briar_... eee
Syringa... ait toe

Taxus baccata...

Thornbushes ... ces
Tilia Europcea... wee
Thyme ... eee one

BOTANICAL INDEX.

479

5, 378
60, 61
61, 377
137
137
124
tel LRA “dns 124
124, 128, 181, 209, 214, 357, 395

re 130, 308

ane aia sis we. 130
ea Mae one 125, 127

445

198, 209, 214

128, 137

409

an 378

ar ies 132, 214

wee 162

127

227

380

352

sins sea ra we «44
34, 137, 181, 209, 214, 367, 395
ies ive Ae 124
125

395

132

125

227 |

127, 156

298

ew «121

eee 34, 121, 132, 135
ove tee wee 428
136
298

480 BOTANICAL INDEX.

Trifolium pratense ~ ...

repens ‘ ..
Triticum hybernum’ .
repens

Tulip-tree eee
Tussilago farfara

Ulex Europaeus
Ulmus Campestris
Urtica dioica
urens

Vaccinium oxycoccos...
Veronica agrestis
Viburnum a re
tinus (see, Laurustinus).
Vicia cracca

— sativa ...

Viscum ... ees

Watercress see
Wintercress ...

Yew... wee ate as
Yucca

130, I5I; 226, 308

sie 130, 226, 308
aes | te 395
+++ 44, 60, 61, 348, 377
Wea 179

198, 309, 334

124, 135, 144, 198, 214, 249, 304, 355, 366

86, 121,128, 136, 181, 367, 395
wae Toate 45, 156
156

68
198
428

ac aes sen 227
vee 355, 414
67

ais Sue a. 286
48

Diprosz, BaTEMAN & Co., Printers, Sheffield Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, W.Cc.

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