The land of the czar

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Land of the czar.

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THE

LAND OF THE CZAE.

THE

LAND OF THE CZAR.

O. W- WAHL.

"■lepTem^ 3eMJH Mockobckoh, Hame i;apcTBO
Hst Kpaa Bt Kpafi

II,APt. (BopHCL rojyHOBt).

KaKi. cb ofijaKOBTi TH MoatemL ofiospiTi.
Bee D;apcTBO Bflpyrob : rpaHHAH, rpajH piira.

A. 0. IlyniKnHT,.

Feodor :

The pictm-e of the Moscovitish country,
Our own Empire from East to "West.

The Ozar (Boris Godounov) :

So canst thou overlook, as from the clouds,
The whole Land of the Czar at once.
Boundaries, cities, rivers.

From the Tragedy of A. S. Pushkin, "Boris Godounov.

LONDON:
CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

1875.

[The right of translation is reserved. ]

A. Q n/^-^

PEEFACE.

Amongst the many works that have been written
on the Empire of Russia, there are but few of which
it may be said with truth, that they fully met the
requirements of a public desirous of obtaining, at a
comparatively small sacrifice of time and money, a
correct general insight into the conditions of that
colossal country.

In consequence of recent events the attention of
the British public has been incessantly kept alive with
regard to Russia and its probable political future.
The Khivan Expedition, in particular, has given rise
to a sort of vague, uneasy feeling, in most cases
exaggerated for want of correct information on the
subject.

Few schools, if any, profess to teach the history
of the Russian nation, of its religious and literary life;
and the opportunities for proper self-information on
these matters, and particularly on the character of

VIU PKEFACE.

that people and the development of their intellectu;
and political condition are for divers reasons very
scarce or of difficult access.

There are some excellent books that might fulfil
that object most thoroughly, but, unfortunately, they
are very expensive, or voluminous, and therefore
almost entirely confined to the libraries of the great
and wealthy.

The Author, who has for many years resided and
travelled in Eussia, for these reasons inclines to the
belief that a work like the present, condensing within
a necessarily narrow compass the greatest possible
amount of general information, and compiled in as.
popular a manner as compatible with the weighty
nature of the subject, will meet the wishes of that
numerous class, who, anxious to acquire a fair and
clear judgment on the affairs of the great eastern
giant, may thus, it is hoped, be brought to look upon
the latter in a kindly and equitable spirit, and not,
' as hitherto, in the light of the grim European
bugbear.

Personal experience, and more or less intimate
acquaintance with members of all the classes of the
Eussian people, supported by, some of the highest
authorities who have written on the subject in all its

PREFACE. IX

specialities, form tile basis of this book. Its contents
comprise the following subjects : —

1. General statistics of the Russian Empire, viz..
Geographical, GeoloQ,-5cal, Aor cultural. Industrial, &c.

2. The populations ef Eussia, their character,
domestic and spiritual life, &c.

3. A glimpse at the history of the Russian Empire
from Rurik to Alexander II., Nikolayevitch, preceded
by some introductory remarks on recent political
events, the Khivan Expedition, &c.

4. The Church of Russia.

5. The history of the Russian language.

6. The Caucasian languages.

7. The history of the Russian literature.

Loudon, 1st Oct., 1874.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE I.

PAGE
STATISTICAL DE8CEIPTI0N OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE — ITS

GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, CLIMATE — TRAVEL-
LING IN THE STEPPE MOUNTAINS GENERAL GEO-
LOGICAL CONDITION MINES ..... 1 15

CHAPTER II.

RIVERS AND LAKES CLIMATE THE ANIMAL KINGDOM OF

RUSSIA HUNTING IN THE CAUCASUS — BOVINES

SHEEP — HORSES — BEARS — WOLVES-. . . 16 — 31

CHAPTEE III.

THE RUSSIANS OF GREAT RUSSIA . . . 32 — 58

CHAPTEE IV.

THE RUSSIANS OF THE MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS AND

THE WORKMEN ...... 59 — 02

CHAPTEE V.

THE RUSSIANS OF SIBERIA ..... 63 — 67

XU CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI. PAGE

THE EUSSIANS OF LITTLE RUSSIA — RDTHENES — WHIT

RUSSIANS 68 — 74

CHAPTER VII.

THE COSSACKS . . . . . 75 — 82

CHAPTER VIII.

SERBIANS — BULGARIANS — POLES LITHUANIANS — LETTS —

WALLACHIANS .... . . 83^ — 90

CHAPTER IX.

OSSETS — PERSIANS — KOURDHS — RUSSIAN GIPSIES — JEWS

KARAIMES .... ... 91 — 101

CHAPTER X.

ARMENIANS ... . 102 106

CHAPTER XI.

THE GERMANS SWEDES — GREEKS — HINDOOS . . . 107 112

CHAPTER XII.

THE POPULATION OP THE CAUCASUS — THE KHARTLE

RACE GROUZINIANS — IMERETHI ANS MINGRELIANS

GOURIANS — SSUANES — PSHAVS, TOUSHES, KHEVSOURS 113 — 123

CHAPTER XIII.

THE LESGHIS — MURIDISM — SHAMYL .... \2i — 131

CHAPTER XIV.

THE KISTES OR TCIIETCIIEXTS ..... 132 131

CONTENTS. xm

CHAPTEE XV. PAGE

THE TOHERKESS OR ADIGHB — THE ABKHAZ . . . 135 — 137

CHAPTEE XVI.

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE CAUCASUS MOHAMME-
DAN EMIGRATION ENGLISH MISSIONS MORAVIAN

BRETHREN . . . . .138—149

CHAPTEE XVII.

SAMOYBDES — YOURAKS — OSTJAKS 150 — 155

CHAPTEE XVIII.

THE FINNISH NATIONS — LIVONIANS, ESTHONIANS, VOTES,
INGRIANS, .«YR(EM(EISBTS, SAVAKOTBS, LAPS, PER-
MIAKS, ZYRIANS, VOTIAKS, BESSERMENBS, OUGRIANS,
VOGHULS, OSTJAKS, TCHEREMISS, MORDVINS . . 156 — 168

CHAPTEE XIX.

THE TARTAR RACE IN RUSSIA — TCHOUVASHES — BASHKIRS,
MESHTCHERIAKS, TEPTIARS, TARTARS PROPER, NOGAIS,
CRIMEAN TARTARS — OP ASTRAKHAN, KARAPALKAS, OP
KAZAN, SIBERIAN TARTARS, TCHOUDS, TELEUTES,
CAUCASIAN TARTARS, KOUMYKS, TURKOMANS, KIRGHIZ-
KAISSAKS, KIRGHIX, YAKOUTES .... 169 — 204

CHAPTEE XX.

THE MONGOL RACE BOURIATS — KALMUKS . . 205 213

CHAPTEE XXI.

TOUNGOUSE PEOPLES — YOUKAGHIRS — TCHOUKTCHIS — KAM-

TCHADALIS — GHILLAKS — KOUEILES OR AINOS . . 214 — 226

Xll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI. PAGE

THE RUSSIANS OP LITTLE RUSSIA — RDTHENES — WHIT

RUSSIANS . 68 74

CHAPTER VII.

THE, COSSACKS 75 — 82

CHAPTER VIII.

SERBIANS — BULGARIANS — POLES — LITHUANIANS — LETTS —

WALLACHIANS 83^ — 90

CHAPTER IX.

OSSETS — PERSIANS— KO'URDHS — RUSSIAN GIPSIES — JEWS —

KARAIMES .... ... 91 — 101

CHAPTER X.

ARMENIANS . 102 106

CHAPTER XL

THE GERMANS — SWEDES — GREEKS — HINDOOS . . . 107 112

CHAPTER XII.

THE POPULATION OF THE CAUCASUS — THE KHARTLE
RACE — GROUZINIANS — IMERETHIANS — MINGRELIANS
GOURIANS— SSUANES — PSHAVS, TOUSHES, KHEVSOURS 113 — 123

CHAPTER XIII.

THE LESGHIS — MURIDISM^SHAMYL .... 134 131

CHAPTER XIV.

THE KISTES OR TCHETCIiEXTS ..... 132 134

CONTENTS. XUl

CHAPTER XV. PA«B

THE TOHEEKBSS OE ADIGHE — THE ABKHAZ . . . 135 — 137

CHAPTER XVI.

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE CAUCASUS MOHAMME-
DAN EMIGRATION ENGLISH MISSIONS MORAVIAN

BRETHREN . . ... 138—149

CHAPTER XVII.

SAMOYEDES — YOURAKS — OSTJAKS ... . 150 — 155

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE FINNISH NATIONS — LIVONIANS, ESTHONIANS, VOTES,
INGRIANS, jEYRCEMffllSETS, SAVAKOTES, LAPS, PEK-
MIAKS, ZYRIANS, VOTIAKS, BBSSERMENES, OUGRIANS,
VOGHULS, OSTJAKS, TCHEREMISS, MORDVINS . . 156 — 168

CHAPTER XIX.

THE TARTAR RACE IN RUSSIA TCHOUVASHES — BASHKIRS,

MESHTCHERIAKS, TEPTIARS, TARTARS PROPER, NOGAIS,
CRIMEAN TARTARS — OP ASTRAKHAN, KARAPALKAS, OP
KAZAN, SIBERIAN TARTARS, TCHOUDS, TELEUTBS,
CAUCASIAN TARTARS, KOUMYKS, TURKOMANS, KIR6HIZ-
KAISSAKS, KIEGHIX, YAKOUTES . . . 169 204

CHAPTER XX.

THE MONGOL RACE BOURIATS KALMUKS . . . 205 213

CHAPTER XXI.

TOUNGOUSB PEOPLES — YOUKAGHIRS — TCHOUKTCHIS — KAM-

TCHADALES — GHILLAKS — KOUEILBS OR AINOS . . 214 — 226

XIV CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXII. PAGE

ETHNOLOGICAL TABLE OP THE POPULATION OP THE

RUSSIAN EMPIRE 227 — 229

CHAPTER XXIII.

A GLIMPSE AT THE HISTOET OP THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE SAME BY RURIK TO

THE REIGN OP ALEXANDER II. NIKOLAYEVITCH

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS . ... 230 236

CHAPTER XXIV.

FIRST PERIOD. THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OP RUSSIA . 237 246

CHAPTER XXV.

SECOND PERIOD. FOUNDATION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
BY THE VARAEGS (nORMANs), RURIK, OLEG, IGOR,
SVJATOSLAV, .TAROPOLK I., VLADIMIR I. . . . 247 252

CHAPTER XXVI.

THIRD PERIOD. SVJATOPOLK — JAROSLAV ISASLAV

VSEVOLOD — SVJATOPOLK (mICHABL) — MSTISLAV

lAROPOLK II. — VSEVOLOD OLGOVITCH — IGOR OLGO-
VITCH — ISASLAV MSTISLAVITCH — GEORGE DOLGOEUKI

— ISASLAV III. ROSTISLAV I.— MSTISLAV ISASLA-

VITCH, ANDREJ I. — JABOPOLK III. AND MSTISLAV III.,
MICHAEL II. — VSEVOLOD III. — GEORGE VSEVOLODO-

viTCH .... ... 253—265

CHAPTER XXVII.

FOURTH PERIOD. THE MONGOL REIGN, JAROSLAV II.

AND III. DMITRI I. ALEXANDER II. MIKLAILOVITCH

— IVAN I., SIMON THE PROUD — IVAN II. — DMITRI IV.

— DONSKOI VASSILY U. — VASSILY III. . . . 266 273

CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTEE XXVIII. •'agb

IVAN III. — VASSILY IV. — IVAN IV. — PEODOR I. — BORIS

GODO0NOV — THE DMITRI PRETENDERS . . . 274 — 28.2

CHAPTER XXIX.

SIXTH PERIOD. MICHAEL I. ROMANOV ALEXEJ I.

PEODOR III. — PKTER THE GREAT .... 283 — 291

CHAPTER XXX.

SEVENTH PERIOD. CATHARINA I. PETBE II. ANNA

ELIZABETH — -PETER III. CATHARINA II. PAUL I.

ALEXANDER I. PAVLOVITCH NICHOLAS I. ALEX-
ANDER n. NIKOLAYBVITCH ... . 292—317

CHAPTER XXXI.

THE CHURCH OP RUSSIA — DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE CZAR

IVAN IV. THE TERRIBLE AND THE JESUIT POSSBVIN 318 332

CHAPTER XXXII.

THE LANGUAGES OP RUSSIA — SLAVONIC LANGUAGE THE

LANGUAGES OP LBSGHISTAN — MITZDSHEGI, OSSETIAN,
TCHERKESS, ABASS AND SSUANI LANGUAGES — TARTAR
— SANSKRIT ROOTS 333 — 354

CHAPTER XXXIII.

THE LITERATURE OP RUSSIA . . . . 355 — 383

EERATA.

Page 24, line 20, for gallop before the telya, read tely^ga.

„ 29, — -16, for strong foal, read stray foal.

„ 29, — 33, /or Rabtcliik(fr. jellinotte), /•eoc? gelinotte.

„ 30, — 21, /or wolfs, reac? wolves.

,, 353, — 2,/ornicht — rien — nitchto, read, "nought" in-
stead of "rien."

THE

LAND OF THE CZAE.

CHAPTER I.

STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE — ITS QEOGEAPHY

GEOLOaT — AGRICULTURE — ZOOLOGY — CLIMATE.

The immense continent of Russia extends over 212° long,
by 40° lat., and comprises nearly half a million of geogra-
phical square miles — more than double the size of Europe,
one-sixth of the -whole earth.

Its northern neighbours are the Polar and White Seas,
and Norway ; its western, Sweden, the Baltic Sea, Germany,
Austria, and Moldavia. In the south we have Turkey,
Persia, the Black and Caspian Seas.

This line of frontier, continuing on the Asiatic side, touches
successively on the Steppe of the Kirghiz-Kaissaks, on Turk-
istan or Independent Tartary, and on the Chinese Empire,
the northern boundaries of which it finally pursues down to
the shores of the Pacific Ocean.

A considerable part of this continental mass is covered by
an almost eternal snow, or forms arid syrtes. But by far
the largest portion consists in the so-called " Steppes," or
prairie land, extending over the greater part of the empire
in Europe.

Majestic representatives of the grandest and most pic-
turesque Alpine formation, the Ural with its treasures, the
Altai system (one of the ancient cradles of mankind), the

2 THE LAND OP THE CZAE.

Caucasus (the grand junction station of languages), the
Sacred Ararat and others are raising their lofty heads into
the clouds, forming, as it were, an appropriate frame to
the immeasurable fertile plains of which we have spoken
above.

The Steppe is, as we have said, the vast undulating plains
occupying the greater part of Eussia proper.

Although generally described as a dreary waste by most
travellers, who, for the purpose of business, or under the
impulse of scientific research or of general curiosity, have
crossed it, it is (with all deference to the opinion of others)
certainly not without its beauty and evidences of Nature's
sublime grandeur. Whether in the luxuriant, flower-
studded garment of spring, or in the pure, dazzling crystal
robe of winter, it cannot fail to afford peculiar enjoyment to
the thinking man, who has abandoned himself for the nonce
to the hospitality of these vast solitudes.

Nerve-stirring and exhilarating is the continuous battle
with the elements, even of winter ; and pleasant the timely
interruption occasioned by the arrival at some solitary post-
house, plain, low-roofed, and snow-buried, but with a cosy
corner by the huge stove, and the ever ready " samovar," or
tea-urn.

If densely-populated countries and cities are apt to pro-
duce a certain exclusiveness in the social intercourse of the
inhabitants, in the immense solitudes of Russia all reserve
vanishes before the breath of that love of our species which
is innate in all mankind. A few days' disuse of habitual
society has broken down the icy barrier of selfish seclusion,
and a genial warmth qualifies the response to the respectful
and generalljr hospitable welcome of the postal official and
his family.

The writer of this book recollects being highly amused
one Saturday afternoon, when, waiting for horses at Alexan-
drovsk, a solitary Cossack station, not far from Giorgjevsk
in Cis-Caucasia, he became witness to the following serio-
comic domestic scene. The actors were the brisk and good-

GEOGRAPHY. b

looking wife of the official and her sturdy little son, Petrush,
who, a stout little five-year-old, seemed inclined for another
romp with Ivan (evidently his particular chum), while the
careful mother was anxious to give him his bath and put
him to bed. With admirable patience, the good woman
strove for some time to make the imp listen to reason ; but
at last, when kind persuasive words, kisses, and promises
of cakes for the Sunday breakfast proved unavailing, she
seemed suddenly to remember the scriptural recommendation
of the rod ; some sharp whisks, followed by a dreadful roar,
struck the listener's ear ; then all became silent, excepting
perhaps the contented splashing of the little Cossack in the
water. " Here I am," thought the unseen witness of the
scene, " 2000 miles from home, amongst a strange people —
half warriors, half farmers — yet, barring the difference in
language, very similar scenes may be enacting at this
moment in many a familiar household."

While listening to poor little Petrush's troubles, I have
finished my tea; the driver's " Lozhadjei gatovi" (horses
ready) ! has called me to the sledge, where the trusty steeds,
with fi?osty whiskers and eyelashes and a certain mischievous
curiosity, give me a look that almost speaks, seeming to
say, " Who is that creature that tears us away from our
•thistles on such a night?" A last " ssovssem " (all right) !
and off we are again, flying along the endless track at the
rate of fifteen rciiles an hour.

The moon (oh, how kind a friend to travellers in Russia !)
has risen in the meantime. Drowsily she looks through the
misty night air on the sparkling plain spread out before the
nocturnal wanderer, like one immeasurable sea of glittering
silver. The sound of hoofs is lost in the snow, and silence
reigns throughout. Behold ! one solitary fox in the moonlit
distance ! With ears erect, prowling after a poor sleeping
partridge, he is the only visible representative of animated
nature.

One of the principal conditions to the enjoyment of such
scenes is, of course, a sound constitution and temperate

B 2

4 THE LAND OF THE CZAR,

living. la the author's opinion it is the greatest mistake,
and one into which many travellers fall, to drink spirits and
wine, and to live on ham, pasties, and other indigestible food,
while travelling. The shaking of the telj^ga on a rough
road not only, but the fatigue of constant travelling itself,
tends to weaken the digestive organs for the time. The
food ought, therefore, to be of the lightest description, such
as bread and butter, and fowl, accompanied by tea, which in
Eussia is so delicious. In most cases, where travellers
break down, it has been caused by too rich a diet. In the
hot weather the traveller in wild countries ought to provide
himself with a large tin can, which, filled every morning
with good tea, will keep him in good spirits during the day,
and assuage his thirst better than water, or any other drink.

Travelling for weeks together under the burning sun of
Trans-Caucasia, in miasmatic, swampy districts, the author
has never once been attacked by fever, although nearly every
one of the natives accompanying the expedition was down
with it ; and he attributes this fact solely to his strict atten-
tion to a diet such as described above. Affected by the
luxury of town life, his long and trying travels have inva-
riably had the best after-effects on his health.

The heat and dust of the Steppe during the long summer
days are certainly a severe trial to health and temper ; but
then, how delightful the balmy coolness of the moonlit
night ! How heart-expanding the glory of the rising and
setting sun !

Somewhat similar in grandeur to the storms of the sea
are those of the Steppe. Let the wanderer hasten to reach
the sheltering roof of the stanzia (station). Once there he
is safe ; the clouds disperse, and onward lies the course.

As long as weather and roads permit of uninterrupted
locomotion, all is serene ; but woe to the unhappy wayfarer
that is compelled to take the road in wet weather, when the
rain has tm-ned the black mould covering the greater part
of Russia proper into one enormous bootjack !

Where before two horses had easily sped along with the

GEOGRAPHY. 5

light telj^ga, eight perhaps are now required to attain a
snail's pace. The wheels from behind, and the horses' feet
in front, plaster one with mud, which, before entering the
post-house, has to be scraped off with a piece of deal board.
From 240 versts the day's work sinks to thirty, and that
after a day of unspeakable toil and discomfort. But this is
the very worst feature of Steppe travelling, and one, the
author is happy to say, it rarely unveiled to him.

In dismissing this subject, it may be safely asserted, that
to an unprejudiced and good-tempered observer, the
Eussian Steppe is not without considerable interest and
charms.

But now the scene changes !

Gigantic Alpine ranges debar our gaze from mighty
Asia. The " Mirages," that daily mocked us in the Steppe,
become all at once real — nay, are far surpassed by reality.
All the choicest beauties and treasures nature possesses,
seem to have been piled up, and spread over this region by
the mighty hand of the all bountiful Creator.

Looking towards the south, we descry, towering above the
Black Sea, a magnificent terrace of limestone, the Tauride
Mountains, the Tchadyr Dag (or Hill of the Tent), 5000 feet
in height, until, having crossed the Sea of Azov, one's awe-
struck gaze is arrested by the wondrous Caucasus. Stretching
its colossal limbs from the Black to the Caspian Sea, it
throws forth a mighty arm in a southern direction, until
precisely on the meeting point of the Russian, Turkish, and
Persian frontiers, it takes in its clasp the last buttresses
of Mount Taurus.

Here stands the majestic Ararat, a sacred name to the
Armenians, and to all readers of the Book of Genesis one of
pious interest. Upwards of thirty centuries have rolled past
in the space of time since that Book was written. Where
is its great writer and legislator now? Where the great
God-beloved nation, for whom he recorded and legislated ?
Dissolved — dispersed — ages ago ! But Ararat still stands I
Though storms and earthquakes of centuries have shaken

t> THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

many a scale from off his shield, yet does he rear his hoary
head iato the clouds, as firmly as in the time of Noah.

No other Alpine range surpasses, or even equals, the
Caucasus in grandeur of scenery, in historical, geological,
and other scientific interest.

Greeks and Romans, who in ancient times carried their
wars even into these wild regions, had to undergo great
hardships and dangers, yet never succeeded in securing a
firm and permanent footing in that country. The wild,
fabulous accounts they brought home with them, struck awe
into the hearts of all hearers.

Horace in his 22nd Ode sings of those regions of dread :

" Sive per Syrtes iter aeshiosas,
Sive factums per inhospitalem
Caucasum, vel quae loca fabulosus
Lambit Hydaspes. "

Respecting the name and signification of " Caucasus "
there is a wide difiference of opinion. The most ancient
explanation of it we find in Pliny, who derives this word
from the Scythian " Graucasus," which is said to signify
" nive candidus." As, however, this etymology is not
confirmed by any known language, and it is extremely
improbable that the whole family of words to which it
belongs should have been lost, it seems to carry little
weight, and to be equally unfounded with many others set
up by the ancients.

" Kaukas," which is a foreign term in these mountains,
may perhaps come from the Persian appellation " Koh-Ckaf,"
signifying the Mountains of Ckaf * The more ancient form
of this word was probably " Ckafssp or Ckassp," with the
termination "Assp," which was common in the Median
dialects.

From this ancient form the Caspian Sea and the nation of

* In PeMwi, the ancient language of Media and Parthia, a mountain was
called " kof," consequently the Caucasus was styled ' ' Kof Ckaf, or Kof Ckasp."
— See Klaproth.

GEOGRAPHY. 7

the Caspians probably received their name, for according to
the testimony of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), the people in-
habiting the Caucasus called it the Caspian Mountains —
Kaa-mov bpos. In Moses of Chorene it is named Kowkass
and Kaukass ; and in the History of Georgia, compiLed by
the direction of King Wakhtang the 5th (Wakhtang Mekh-
uthi Levanssa tse, Wakhtang V. son of Levan (1703—1722
in Kharthli) ), from the archives of the convents of Mzchetha
and Gelathi, the most ancient boundaries of this country are
thus described : — " On the east it has the Gurganian Sea
(Gurganissa), now called the Sea of Gilan ; on the west the
Pontic, otherwise the Black Sea ; on the south the Orethian
Mountains, situated in the country of the Kurds (Khurthia)
towards Media, and on the north the Kawkasian Mountains
(Khawk'assia), which are called by the Persians " Yalbus."
In the epitome of the history of the country, written by
the Georgian prince Davith, and printed at Tiflis in 1798,
the Caucasus is likewise styled from ancient authorities
K'awk'ass. " The country belonging to him (to Thargamoss)
was bounded on the east by the Gurganian Sea (Caspian) ;
on the west by the Black Sea (Pontus) ; on the south by
the Aressian Mountains (those of Khurdistan) ; and on the
north by the K'awk'asian.*

All this sufficiently proves the antiquity of the name of
Caucasus among the neighbouring nations ; nevertheless at
present it is but little used by the Asiatics, who commonly
call this mountain by the Tartar name of " Yalbus," i.e.,
" Ice-mane." In Tartar the appellation is properly " Yalbus
thaglar," but among the Nogai it is likewise pronounced
" Yildis thaghlar " (Mountains of the Stars). The Turks call
it " Ckaf th^gi " (Mountains of Ckaf). The Georgians
usually employ the Tartar term, and say " Yalbusiss Mtha,"
Mount Yalbus. The Armenians call it " Yalbusi-ssar " as
well as Kawkas.

High above the snow line the Kazbek or Mginvari lifts up

* Shemok'lebuli Istoria ssa Eharthuloissa. — Brief History of Georgia,
sec. i, p. 84.

a THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

his crown. Its pass leads througli tte ancient Caucasian Gates
through which the Scythians and other European barbarians
poured their hordes of wild warriors into Asia, which on her
part retaliated by sending clouds of her nomadic children into
Europe. This gate is situate at Dariela, of which a few
traces only remain on the left of the Terek river, as the
rocks on which it stood were blown up, in order to make
room for the military road. It was most advantageously
situated on a rock, the foot of which was washed by the
Terek. The valley at this point is not 120 yards in width,
and is bounded on either side by a steep and lofty hill.

Dariela, called by the Ossetes " Dairan," lies on the fron-
tiers of Georgia on the rivulet " Zach-don," which empties
itself into the left of the Terek. Opposite to that place the
Akhkara falls into its right, and a road runs along the latter,
through the country of the Mukil and the Ingushes, into
K'akhethi. The mountains here are composed of sienite
intermixed with a few particles of glimmer; and close to
Dariela, on the left side of the Terek, of green stone of the
porphyry kind.

According to the History of Georgia, Dariela was built
by the third King Mirvan (167 — 123 B.C.) to protect his
dominions against the Khasari, who inhabited the northern
districts of the Caucasus. The name of Dariela seems to be
of Tartar origin, for " Dar " or " Thar " signifies narrow, and
"jol" or "jol" a way; consequently, " Darjol " means a
narrow pass, and the valley is actually so narrow, that 300
men might here, as at Thermopylae, easily withstand ever so
numerous an army.

The Georgians call it also Chevis-K'ari, or the Gate of
Chevi (name for the upper part of the Terek Valley). Pliny
doubtless mean^ Dariela in the following description of the
Caucasian Gate : — " In the country of the people of Iberia,
the Diduri and Ssodi are the Caucasian gates, which by many
are very erroneously called the Caspian — a prodigious work
of nature, between abrupt precipices, where are gates closed
with iron bars, under which runs the river " Diri odoris."

GEOGRAPHY. 9

On this side of it, upon a rock, stands a castle, which is
called Oumania, and is so strongly fortified as to be capable
of withstanding the passage of an innumerable army." This
description is not only perfectly applicable to Dariela, but
the very Georgian name " Thergiss mdinari," the river
"Tergl" (Terek), seems to be disguised in the appellation
Diri odoris. The country on the west side of Dariela is yet
called by the Ossetes " Koban," which reminds one of the
fortress of Cumania mentioned by Pliny.

Procopius is blamed by Pliny for applying the name of
" Caspian " to the Caucasian Gates, but his description of
Dariela is otherwise extremely correct. " Mount Taurus, in
Cilicia, first runs into Cappadocia, and thence into Armenia,
Persarmenia, Albania, and Iberia, and the people resident
around it are partly free and partly dependent on Persia. It
keeps increasing in magnitude, and it is almost incredible
how much it augments both in width and height, the further
it extends. Beyond the frontiers of Iberia is a narrow road,
which leads through the most elevated valleys a distance of
fifty stadia, and is so closely shut up by steep and inacces-
sible rocks, that scarcely any outlet is to be seen. There
nature has formed a pass, which you would suppose to have
been constructed by art, and which is distinguished by the
ancient appellation of the Caspian Gate. From this place
extends a well-watered level tract, and the whole country is
well adapted for the breeding of horses, as it contains many
spacious plains. Here dwell almost all the tribes known
by the name of Huns, and their settlements extend to the
Palus Maeotis ; these, when they pass the above-mentioned
gate to^tack the Romans and Persians, mount fresh horses,
and make not the smallest circuit, as they have only this
distance of fifty stadia to go before they reach the Iberian
frontiers. If they pursucyany other road, they have to endure
great fatigue, being obliged to leave their horses behind, and
to steal through the windings and deep defiles between the
mountains.

" Alexander, son of Philip, made aware of this, fortified

10 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

the avenue with gates, and built a castle, which, after it
had passed through various hands, at length came into the
power of Ambazukes, by birth a Hun, who was a friend of
the Komans and of the Emperor Anastasius. After him,
Kabades, King of Persia, made himself master of the
gates."

" Dairun," the Ossetian name of Dariel, is even preserved
by the Byzantine historians ; for when Zemarches, who was
sent A.D. 669 to the Turkish Khan at Ektag (Altai
Mountains), was returning to Constantinople, and came to
the country of the Alanes, who resided to the north of the
Caucasus, their leader Sarodius advised him not to travel
through the territory of the Mindimiani, because the Persians
were lying in wait for him in the country of the Suanes, but
rather to proceed home by the " Darinian Way." Zemarches
then went by the Darinian road to Apsilia (in the modem
Mingrelia), leaving the country of the Mindimiani on the
left. (See M. v. Klaproth's " Caucasus.")

The most glorious giant of the Caucasian Mountain range
is the Elbruz. In the part of the Caucasian system where
schist and limestone are overlying granite, he stands sur-
rounded by a belt of conical porpbjTy peaks (every one of
which towering above the snow line), a colossal piUar, 18,000
feet in height above the level of the Black Sea.

The word " Elbruz " is not in reality a proper name, but
a general appellation of all lofty snow-clad mountains, and
has been given even to the entire Caucasus on account of its
elevated points covered with everlasting ice. This name is,
however, of high antiquity.

The Elbruz has been ascended several times, the first on
the 22nd July, 1829.

A bristling frontier of mountains, of nearly equal height,
frowns both on Siberia and the Chinese Empire, sending out
branches to the north and north-east of the lake Baikal.
Extending from the High Irtysh into the southern part
of the government of Tomsk, stands the formidable Altai
System (21° long, and 52° 30' lat.). In Russia it is composed

GEOGRAPHY. 11

of the Altai Kolivan, or Little Altai, an undeserved title, as
it covers more ground and possesses loftier peaks than the
rest. Between the snowy Alps of Katooma and Tchouia, the
majestic Bjelookha rears up her head to a height of 14,500
feet above the sea level. It is in these trachytic mountains
(by the Ancients called " Hills of Gold ") that the precious
metals of Russia are found. One branch of the Altai, which
from the lake Teletskoi runs off in a N.W, direction, under
the name of the " Kuznetski," contains the plateau known
as the " Poklonnaya Gora," or Bowing Mountain. It is
continued in the east by the Sayane Chain, which gives birth
to the Yenissei River. Advancing from here as far as
53° 4.5' lat., under the name of " Ergik," these mountains,
on approaching the Baikal, assume another alias, and become
the Goorbi, or Toukinsk.

On the extreme confines of China appear the Tchokoods,
followed by the " Yablonnovoi Khrebet " (Apple Mountains),
which, on nearing the Sea of Okhotsk, is called the Stan-
novoi Khrebet (Stately Hill).

Returning from this end of the world to Europe, we should
have to cross the Ural, a range of mountains stretching from
south to north for more than 1100 miles, between the 53rd
and 58th degrees longitude. Owing to the imperceptible
rising of the earth's surface in those parts, we should feel
surprised (on arriving at Bilimbayevsk) at finding ourselves
at a height of 1600 feet above the level of the sea. This
mountain range offers, however, comparatively speaking,
little imposing and picturesque scenery. Branches of the
Ural are the Gouberlinsk Hills, the Obshtshy syrte (common
syrte), the Yougorkij Khrebet, which at the island of Vaigatsh
thrusts its foot into the Glacial Sea. On the opposite
shore of that same sea, in Lapland, the profile of the earth
is disturbed by the last ramifications of the Scandinavian
mountains, of which granitic masses, as if hurled there by
the hands of Titans, are found all over Finland. Volhynia
and Podolia enclose the eastern extremities of the Karpathian
Mountains.

13 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Eegarding the geological condition of the Russian Empire,
especially of Russia in Europe and the Ural, it has been
ascertained by eminent geologists, particularly by the late
lamented Sir E. J. Murchison, Bart., that whilst the Lower
Silurian is throughout the lowest fossiliferous type, it is also
the base of a series of overlying formations, very distinctly
referable to the Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Carboni-
ferous groups ; and as the proofs of these natural divisions
there extend over a very large portion of the earth and in a
completely unaltered state, so are they still more clear than
those offered by any one region hitherto examined.

The reason for this is the all but entire absence of all
traces of igneous agency, and the consequently undisturbed
and unbroken condition of the paleozoic strata of this vast
region — i.e., Russia in Europe and the Ural.

Owing to this circumstance the distinct development of
the earliest sedimentary strata may be traced and studied
over a very wide space, and certain desiderata, not supplied
by other countries, clearly determined.

Sir Roderick has described a peculiar form of the carbo-
niferous system, and given a detailed account of the coal-
bearing tracts of Russia in Europe and the Ural by esta-
blishing, under the name of " Permian " (so named after the
ancient kingdom of Permia), a copious series of deposits,
which form the true termination of the long paleozoic periods.
This supra-carboniferous group spreads over a region of
enormous dimensions in Russia, from the Volga to the Ural
in the East, and from the Sea of Archangel to the southern
steppes of Orenburg.

The secondary period is in Russia far less represented than
that of paleozoic date. There are no masses referable to red
sandstone or Trias, nor are there any traces of Muschelkalk.

The Jurassic deposits, consisting principally of shales and
sands, covered detached districts of Russia from the Icy Sea
to the Caucasus.

The Cretaceous system is exclusively confined to the
southern part of Russia.

GEOLOGY. 13

Nearly, if not entirely, deficient in marine deposits of the
Pliocene, or newer Tertiary period, the southern extremities
of Eussia, from the confines of the Black Sea and of the Sea
of Azov to the Caspian and Aral Seas, as well as wide tracts
of Asia, the Crimea, and Caucasus, are composed of deposits
which, distinctly overlying the oceanic tertiaries of the Miocene
Age, are completely distinct from any other geological
group hitherto described. Uniformly and copiously charged
with a limited number of species of shells, more or less
similar to those of the Caspian of the present day, these vast
accumulations of the Steppes have been formed exclusively
in the same brackish waters; that must once have occupied
an area as large, if not larger, than the present Mediter-
ranean Sea.

While the whole sedimentary superficies of Central Russia
(forming nearly one-half of the Continent of Europe) has
been disturbed only by broad, undulatory movements, but
not subjected to great disruptions, nor affected by any intru-
sion of igneous matter, we find that, in the Ural and Siberia,
formations of the same age as those above described have
been thrown up in mural masses, broken into fragments, im-
pregnated with minerals, and often inverted in their order.
These wonderful phenomena occur along a grand meridian
fissure in the earth's surface, through which copious masses
of igneous matter have been evolved at intervals of very
remote antiquity, whilst the chain has undergone elevation
and even impregnation with gold ores at a period, geolo-
gically speaking, not very distant from our own.

An interesting phenomenon is the " tchornozjem," or black
mould, covering vast tracts of Southern Central Russia, and
which is even found in Siberia. Its origin has given rise
to many conjectures, and puzzled geologists during a
very long period ; but most men of science are now nearly
all agreed as to its being a subaqueous formation pro-
duced by the destruction of the Jurassic shale, and en-
riched by the decomposition of aqueous plants and animal
matter.

14 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

This black loam is doubtless the best of all Eussian soils
and of extraordinary fertility, yielding magnificent crops of
cereals, of beetroot, madder, turnips, tobacco, &c. The
tobacco grown in it in Bessarabia nearly equals the best
Turkish in flavour.

Astounding are the riches Eussia possesses in her mines !
Who has not heard of her precious stones, her gold, platina,
and silver? But she can also boast of fine iron, copper,
tin, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel lodes, as well as of her ex-
tensive coal deposits.

The gold mines most renowned in the mining world are
situated in the Ural, the Altai and JSTertchinsk in Siberia,
and produce about one million sterling per annum. The
heaviest nugget found weighed about 75 lbs.

Of platina the mines of Neeshne'i-Taghilsk produce about
5000 lbs. weight per annum. The largest nugget discovered
weighed nearly 18 lbs.

The silver mines are exclusively confined to Asia, i.e., to
the Altai.

Copper and iron occur in all the systems named, but also
in the Caucasus in great quantity and magnificent quality.

A large tin mine is being worked at Irkoutsk.

The coal, which occurs in large beds, consists chiefly of
anthracite.

Between the years 1745 — 1850, the mines of the Altai
have produced about 1600 tons of silver ; those of Nertchinsk,
between 1704—1850, only 500 tons. The Altai has accord-
ingly yielded at the annual rate of 16 tons of silver, Nert-
chinsk but Sj- tons.

The Altai and the Yablonnovoi Khrebet furnish compara-
tively little gold, but much iron. The principal gold-washeries
are situated in the government of Tomsk, in the districts
Atshinsk, Krasnoiarsk, Kansk, Yenisseisk, Neeshnei-
Ordinsk, and Irkoutsk, Verkhnei-Oodinsk, Zabaikalsk, and
the district of Olegminsk (government of Yakutsk).

These gold-washeries employ constantly about 40,000 men.
About 150,000 are engaged in the working of the Altai

MINES. 15

mines (Tomsk), of whom 130,000 are Crown peasants, who
must not be confounded with convicts. The Nertchinsk
mines, in the district of Zabaikalsk, employ upwards of
40,000 men, amongst which number are 25,000 peasants of
the Crown and 3000 convicts.

CHAPTEE ir.

EIVEES AND LAKES.

EussiA is traversed by many and gigantic rivers, of which
the largest is the Volga, it being about 2400 miles in length.
It discharges its waters, together with the rivers Ural, Terek,
Kour, and Araxes, into the Caspian Sea. The Sea of Azov
receives the Don. Coming from the Caucasian steppes the
fabulous Rion (or Phase of the Ancients) and the Kuban
flow iuto the eastern part of the Black Sea, while on its
opposite coast the same is done by the Dnjepr, Dnjestr,
and Boug. The Baltic Sea is fed by the Dwena, the Neva,
and the Niemen. The Icy Sea receives by far the greater
share of water &om Russia. The Northern Dwena, the
Siberian river Mezam, the Petchora, the Obi, Irtysh, Yen-
nisei, the Anabara, Lena, Jana, the Indighuirka, and Kolyma
all plunge into that sea. The Pacific Ocean receives the
Anadyr, coming from the land of the Tchuktchi.

Besides these principal arteries, Russia is studded with
lakes, whose number it is hard to count. The largest are iu
Siberia, the Baikal measuring 34,000 square versts (seven
versts equal to about four English miles), and the Teletskoi.
Not far from St. Petersburg is the Ladoga lake, of 13,700
square versts; to the N.E. the Onega, of 7700 versts; there
are the Tchoudis, Peipous, and Pskof of Livonia, together, of
4000 square versts. Near Novgorod we have the Ilmen and
the Bjelo Ozero; near Archangel, the Imandra; and in
Finland the Enara and Saima, and an infinity of lesser
ones.

CLIMATE, 17

CLIMATE.

The disastrous retreat of the French from Moscow in
1812, and the farspread, woful tale of their dreadful suffer-
ings, have probably been in a high degree the cause of the
unfavourable reputation attaching to the Eussian climate.

It is no doubt in many parts of the country exceedingly
severe, not only on account of the latitude, but also be-
cause the Russian Continent, in the same measure, as one
advances towards the east, is becoming more and more com-
pact. The soft sea breezes have entirely disappeared, and
made way instead for land winds, rude and icy, like the
steppes, over which they pass. There being no natural
shelter from them, their fury is annihilating in its effects.

On the other hand, the sun is distressing in summer,
and during sixty-six days in the latitude of St. Petersburg
scarcely leaves the horizon at all.

- The climate in the south of Russia is on the whole exceed-
ingly healthy. The air is dry, and in the summer months
there is seldom a day without its kindly breeze.

Autumn, on the shores of the Black Sea, is the most
delightful season imaginable. The nights of September
and October are still and mild, and lit up by the brightest
moon.

The most distressing feature of winter in South Russia are
the frequent winds, that will penetrate the thickest furs and
find their way into the houses, guarded though they be by
double doors and windows. The temperature here rarely
sinks far below zero; still, owing to the above circumstance,
out-door exercise, which in the north with a still cold of
twenty or more degrees is pleasant and exhilarating, in
Southern Russia becomes on windy days next to imprac-
ticable.

Siberia, with her colossal proportions, is of course subject
to a great diversity of climate. While its northern parts
experience all the horrors of intense cold, the south is gene-
rally temperate.

t

18 THE LAXD OF THE CZAB.

The climatic regions of Russia maybe classified as follows: —

Making the Icy Sea the starting-point, we find, on pro-
ceeding in a southAvard direction, that the glacial region
descends as far as the 70th degree north latitude. Be-
tween that and the 60th degree we have already woods,
from the animal inhabitants of which the finest furs are
obtained. At 60° lat. the climate permits of the rearing of
cattle.

Elementary agriculture and the cultivation of barley com-
mence at 55° lat., that of rye and flax at 50°, of wheat and
fruit at 45°, of maize and wine at 40°, and the remainder,
down to 38° 30', constitutes the region of oil and the cotton
tree, of silk and the sugar cane, products of annually in-
creasing cultivation in Trans-Caucasia.

Almost incredible is the yield of the vegetable kingdom in
Russia, particularly in that part of the country situated
between the Karpathian Mountains and the Ural, which may
be considered the real granary of Russia.

Immense quantities of grain of the finest quality, of Indian
corn, of flax, hemp, hops, rape, and linseed, mustard-seed,
tobacco, beetroot, madder, vegetables, and fruit (particularly
grapes and melons), splendid building and other timber,
are yearly produced, and many of them largely exported.
The amount of cereals grown alone reaches as high a figure
as 400 millions of quarters and upwards.

The Crimean wines, but particularly those of Kakheti, in
the Caucasus, are delicious ,and cheap. In 1864 the author
paid in Vladikavkas for a bottle of the latter quality only
about 10 to 15 copeks, or 4:d. to 5d. If bought in the skin,
it was still cheaper, and a more wholesome and pleasant wine
it would be difficult to find. The way of treating the wine is
rather curious. Enormous sun-baked clay jars, turnip-
shaped, and holding about 3000 to 6000 quarts, are buried
in the ground, and filled with the juice of the grape. Their
orifice (about 18 inches in diameter) is covered with a flag-
stone, over which straw and earth is lightly heaped up to
the level of the earth's surface. The gas created by fermen-

ZOOLOGY. 19

tation makes its exit at leisure by lifting the cover, and
escaping through the loose overlying matter. Fermentation
over, the wine is pumped out and filled into skins (of ox,
sheep, or goat). One-third of the wine is generally spoilt
and lost, owing to the imperfect, careless manner the last-
mentioned operation is carried on, and by which the deposit
at the bottom of the jar is stirred up.

The most thickly timbered part of Russia is that of Nov-
gorod ; but also Lithuania, Livonia, Esthonia, the Caucasus,
and Siberia, as well as other provinces, possess immense
forests. From the Caucasian Mountains a great quantity of
veneering wood is annually exported.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM OF RUSSIA.

The same is most richly represented in Russia. Besides
our own ordinary species of domestic animals, we find there
the camel, the bison of the Lithuanian forests, the reindeer,
the wild horse, the buffalo, and extraordinarily extensive
varieties of game. Well known are the costly furs of the
sable, the ermine, marten, beaver, otter, the zibeline, and
others. The sportsman finds ample spoil for his rifle in the
bear (brown and white), the lynx, wolf and fox, the eland,
three species of wild goat, the tur (a kind of argali), the red,
roe, and fallow deer, the walrus and seal, the wild cat, jackal,
etc. : — and in Siberia and the Caucasus he may even show his
prowess by encountering the Mongolian tiger, quite equal to
his Bengal brother in size and ' ferocity. In the Tcherkess
country the panther is occasionally met with. There is,
perhaps, no country in the world where the sportsman may
pass his time so agreeably as at Vladikavkas. He wiU find
there a tolerably good inn, splendid food, and excellent wine.
He would soon become acquainted with the officers stationed
there, and pass delightful hours in their hospitable houses
and families. Some of them are sure to share his predilection
for the chase, and introduce him to fields and woods possibly
swarming with game. Unfortunately, many of the native

20 THE T.AVn OF THE CZAR.

sportsmen have been withdrawn from the country in conse-
quence of the wholesale emigration of the Mohammetan
tribes, which took place in 1864-65. Part of the tribes
had gone to Bulgaria and Turkey proper, and another part
went and settled in Asia Minor. Half of them, if not many
more, died in the first year of the emigration, of want, typhus,
and from other violent causes. The Turks detested them on
account of their thievish propensities. The poor fellows had
nothing to eat, and cattle-lifting and other modes of "con-
veying " came natural to them.

At the end of November, 1864, I was present at a great
battue, at which about 1000 Ossetian warriors attended.
I was on a visit to the chief of the Ossetes, M. M. K, who
was also a general in the Caucasian militia (cavalry). Ac-
companied by a Baron de R., who was on his way to Tiflis
on a little political mission of a very innocent character to
His Imperial Highness the Grand Duke Michael, and who
had rather doubted my narrations of Ossetian sport, seeming
inchned to set them down as the usual sportsmen's latin, I
begged my Ossetian friend to give the baron a practical
demonstration of the chase of his native mountains. To this
the kind General at once consented. That same night he
sent messengers into all his villages, and the next morning
brought us about 1000 horsemen, who, surrounding part of
a thicket in the Black Mountains (a parallel of the Caucasus),
drove the game towards us. The amount of game that met
our guns was most astonishing — four bears, a large number of
wild hogs, deer, foxes, and hares were killed. The most
interesting sport was that attending the bagging of the bears.
They had sneaked out at the side, and were running throuo'h
the valley leading to the prairies which connect the Black
Mountains to the great Caucasian chain at a distance of
about twenty miles. But they were seen by the boys of the
valley, who, at once mounting their horses, came fall speed
to where we were, and reported their observations to Affago,
the brother of the General. This man, a second Nimrod in his
way, lost no time in spurring after the fugitives, whom he

ZOOLOGY. 21

also overtook in the midst of the snow-covered plain. With-
out a moment's thought he pushed his well-trained steed up
to the old bear, whom he succeeded in dispatching by a
whisper into the ear from his one-bore gun. To avoid the
charge of the widowed she-bear, and to gain time for loading
his gun (an operation performed by these people with incre-
dible dexterity), he made a little detour at full speed. With his
gun ready again for action, he at once returned to the charge,
and dispatched the female animal as promptly as he had
finished her mate, after which feat he killed the two cubs (half
grown) at his leisure. The two old bears were as big as any
brown bear I had ever seen. They, as also their young, had
a large white spot as big as a plate between the shoulders.
In the spring following I had a young one of the size of a small
shepherd's dog presented to me, but the little playful fellow
managed to tear my coat and scratch my hands, before I had
had him five minutes, to such a degree, that I had to decline
the pleasure of his company home.

Amongst the kinds of bovines the most remarkable is the
Saratoff ox, a splendid, gigantic animal of beautiful form and
colour. There is a smaller kind in use amongst the Ossetes
of the Terek, which gained my admiration by its great strength,
activity, and endurance. Of slender, deer-like build, it has
a stride so long and brisk that it is next to impossible for
the ploughman to follow it without running, and the driver
simply never attempts walking by the side of the animal,
but takes his seat at once on the yoke between the heads of the
beasts. The Government has tried to increase the size and
weight of this noble animal by crossing it with the great
Saratoff breed, but the experiment has generally miscarried
through the quality of the water, which, being mostly supplied
by the mountain torrents, and therefore loaded with a fine
sand, becomes fatal in its use to the last-named ox, while
the pure Osset breed drinks it with impunitj^

All the Russian bovines are, on the whole, excellent working
material, while their beef is of superior flavour. The cows,
however, do not yield either much or fine milk. Gifted by

2, -2 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

nature with great strengtlr, hard and sound li9ofs, and an
extraordinary power of endurance, they are able to perform
journeys of a surprising length. Their food, while crossing
the endless steppe, baking under the cloudless sky of July,
often consists of most wretched materials ; and sometimes it
happens that they have to go for several days without a drop
of water. Some of the weaker beasts, of course, will suc-
cumb, and become the food of the vulture. Their bleaching
bones remain to remind the passer-by of the cruelty of
man and the patient fidelity of the gentle animal drudge.
These oxen are mostly of a light fawn colour, with black
muzzle, eyes, and tips. Their eyes are beautifully gentle
and soft, and it is really difficult to meet with a vicious
specimen.

In Trans- Caucasia the buffalo is extensively employed.
Its strength considerably exceeds that of the common ox, but
its wayward habits render its use rather irksome to farmer
and carrier. A caravan of buffaloes, for instance, on scenting
water will at once break into a regular stampede. Nothing
will stop the animals, and madly they rush into river or
swamp, dragging their freight behind them. They are
moreover rather delicate, require careful feeding and water-
ing, and their skin must frequently be rubbed with o'A to
prevent it getting cracked and sore. Their feet also are
more tender than those of the ox, and require shoeing. It
is rather an amusing sight, this shoeing process. They are
led between four stout posts ; their position is then without
further ceremony reversed. Lying on their backs, with their
feet fastened to the posts, they have to submit, nolens volens,
to the blacksmith's hammer and tongues. The milk of the
buffalo is rich and fine in flavour, but the yield is small.
They are destructive to orchards and young plantations on
account of their rubbing and leaning against such trees, and
nibbling the young bark and shoots.

The camels employed in South Eussia seem to be better-
tempered animals than their Egyptian brethren. A caravan
of perhaps 200 or more of these beasts, when winding along

ZOOLOGY. 23

the serpentine track of one of the great mountain passes (as
the writer saw them on the Kazbek), offers a strikingly grand
sight. They object to frozen, slippery roads, and may be
seen to lie down and scream with fright; their feet, made
for the warm sand of the desert, must feel out of place on
the ice.

The Russian sheep is justly celebrated for its wool, and is
bred in enormous herds. There are sheep farmers who
possess from 200,000 to 600,000 of these animals. They
are mostly of the merino breed, yielding a short-stapled
wool.

A peculiar animal is the Crimean sheep, on account of its
great tail, which, owing to its disproportionate, fatty deve-
lopment, sometimes grows to such a size as to require a
little sledge or cart for its support. This tail is, however,
very good eating, and much esteemed by gourmands not too
particular about fat.

The Caucasian mountain sheep is small, but its wool of
very fine quality. Its only drawback is its being infested
by small prickly seed-capsules of a kind of thistle growing
on the mountain glens, on which the animal grazes. These
tiresome bodies get so firmly entangled in the wool, as to
become almost one with it, and it is probably owing to this
circumstance that the wool has as yet no place on the great
European markets. The meat surpasses the best Welsh
mutton in flavour.

All the world has heard of the astounding quantities of
tallow, meat, skins, and wool produced by the numberless
herds of cattle and sheep reared on the Russian steppes.
These articles form a considerable portion of the revenues of
the Russian commercial and agricultural world.

The Russian horse deserves a larger share of space than
this work can afford. The chapter treating of the Cossacks
and their habits exhausts the subject as far as the Cossack
nag is concerned.

The greatest sport the Russian gentleman knows is fast
driving. He therefore does not spare either trouble or

34 THE LAND OP THE CZAR.

pan into the fire. They ought to consider that the country
which gave birth and affluence to most of them has a right to
exact from them an equal share in its burdens and services.

We now come to the more intimate characteristic de-
scription of the principal races inhabiting the mighty Empire
of Eussia.

M. de Pauly's magnificent work on " Les Peuples de la
Russie" has perhaps exhausted this subject in the most
complete manner, and cannot be recommended sufficiently to
the reader's attention. Owing, however, to the costly style
in which it has been got up, it is beyond the reach of the
greater part of the public, and can never become a popular
book. In the succeeding pages will be contained many
passages from the same, which may perhaps induce the
reader to apply to the original for a more complete description
of this interesting subject.

1st. the EUSSIAl^S OF GEEAT RUSSIA.

The precise definition of the Russian character is one of
the most difficult tasks to be fulfilled, although all that is
strictly Russian in the picture intended to portray, is pecu-
liarly conspicuous, and such as to strike the reader's per-
ception at first sight.

This character, in fact, owes its present mould to a multi-
tude of circumstances, historical and social, but, looking at it
as a whole, one cannot but recognize a remarkable singularity
attaching to it.

Only that man who can sympathize with the Russian
character can hope to understand and to define it. The basis
of the character, and the prime mover of all the actions of
the Russian is the heart with its light and shade, its noble
sensations and its erroneous impulses.

His cunning, superficiality, indolence, instability, intem-
perance, and prodigality are faults not instilled in him by
Nature, but which he has acquired under the influence of
accidental circumstances, and of a too precipitate process of
civilization.

GEEAT-EUSSIANS. 35

The Russian, representing the generality of the people, is
good, simple-minded, and of a quiet disposition, trusting in
his God, and full of resignation.

A certain patriarchal spirit pervades all his thoughts and
acts, and the observer is struck by a singular facility with
which he is impressed by exterior influences and events.

Ardently devoted to his religion and his country, for which
he is ready to make any sacrifice, the Russian considers the
" White Czar " to be the supreme personification of botL
In his eyes, the Czar is the only legitimate sovereign of the
whole world. His orders, or those of his officers, are executed
without reserve, and the word " prikazano " admits of no
appeal. An inviolable fidelity attaches the Russ to the
throne, to the Church, and to the ancient national customs,
be they good or bad.

The earth of his fathers. Holy Russia, the confraternity
of all the Russians under the sceptre of the Czar, the com-
mon faith, the relics of the saints, and the graves of his
ancestors, they all form a whole of peculiar harmony, such
as to absorb all his feelings, and to fill his whole heart.

Just as the Russian considers every one of his country-
men to be his brother, in contrast to the foreigner, so has
he particular denominations and sentiments for his (even
the most distant) relations. He is attached to the country
which he inhabits, even to its natural condition, by the ties
of a kind of a relationship. He calls the Czar, the priest,
the aged, "father;" his equals, "brother;" and even his
superiors give the latter appellation to their inferiors,
although in that case some difference in the pronun-
ciation marks the distinction. The "brat" (brother),
sounds then more like " brits." The man of the people
often addresses his superior even with " Thou," and speaks
of Russia, of the town of Moscow, of the grand river Volga,
&c., as of his mothers.

Notwithstanding the goodness of his heart and his resig-
nation, the system of oppression and contempt which for so
long have weighed him down, the Russian peasant, guided

D 2

36 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

by his instincts of sociability, his practical good sense and
subtle judgment, had never entirely lost the recollection of
his former personal liberty. At the bottom of his soul this
remembrance had always been kept alive and cherished.

As there have been nations who preferred their ancient
independence to the material well-being they enjoyed under
foreign rule, so the Russian peasant, once become a free
man, has paid far less regard to the conditions of his eman-
cipation than to the great fact of his real liberation itself.

An opinion has been current among a great number of
proprietors (which has even found its way to foreign circles),
as to the peasant not yet being ripe for that liberty — that
he was too much accustomed to look upon his master in the
light of a protector or father. The sequel has, however,
proved this opinion to have been altogether erroneous ; and
the following incident (by no means an isolated one) will go
far in refuting all the premature fears entertained on that
account. " Some old peasants on receiving the decree of
liberation, reverently uncovered their heads, made the sign
of the holy cross, and lifting their eyes to Heaven (mentally
calling down its blessings upon the head of the Czar), with
the fervent accent of deep gratitude and of firm conviction,
exclaimed : " God be praised ! We have lived at least one
day as free men, and may now depart this life in peace ! "

The Eussian, by his life of the steppe, in his immense
forests, on the gigantic rivers abounding with fish, on his
stormy lakes, is constantly brought into contact with nature.
His mind is thereby rendered practical; and, while free
from all morbid sentimentality, he proves by his behaviour
to dumb animals, his innate fondness for Nature, the mother
of all. With caresses and terms of endearment the " yam-
shtshik" (post-boy) will animate his horses; and, hard as
the Eussian is as regards his own bodily comforts, to his
domestic beast he is invariably kind.

A most characteristic trait of his disposition is his ready
hospitality, his open hand in the presence of distress and
want. Without asking about religion or rank of the

GKEAT-EUSSIANS. 37

benighted wanderer that knocks at his door, he places the
treasures of his larder, his cellar, and his best room at the
disposal of his guest; and, notwithstanding his love of
money, he does not dream of receiving payment for his
hospitality. The aged, the decrepit beggar at his door,
even the wretched criminal dragging his chains to a Siberian
prison, never go empty from his village; for even the
poorest villager will fumble for some stray coppers in his
pocket, in order that he too may contribute his mite towards
the relief of his fellow-man.

The Eussian cares little for his parental hearth, or for the
parish soil he helps to cultivate. The cause of this indiffer-
ence is the absence of landed property amongst the peasants.
In. their villages the Russians feel themselves intimately
bound only to their families, their neighbours, to the parish, or
to individuals, but not to the ground or the place they inhabit ;
and in this respect they strikingly differ from the Germanic
and Latin races, and even from the western Slavonians, in
whom the love of the paternal hearth is inextinguishable.

Of all men the Russian is perhaps the most capable of
creating a comfortable existence for himself; but as -to his
feeling any love for or taking any pride in his profession
or pursuits (a quality which so highly distinguishes the
English and the Germans), he is perfectly unconscious
of the same. The latter nations love their calling, and
follow it up with iron perseverance, constantly striving for
perfection. They recognize the hand of Providence in the
position they gain for themselves, and consider it almost a
religious duty to remain strictly faithful to the once chosen
profession, art, or trade. The Russian, on the contrary,
looks upon the matter from a perfectly diiferent point of
view. Whatever he sees, hears, or gets a notion of, he at
once, by hook or by crook, attempts to turn to his advan-
tage ; and he esteems his work only in as much as it is a
means of gaining money. In fixing a price for the same, he
goes by neither principle nor rule ; he simply tries to get as
much as he possibly can. He has not the slightest notion

38 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

of that feeling of honour, of that conscientious zeal, which
animate the dutiful workman, making him strive to produce
a work as solid and as perfect as possible ; his aim is but a
good appearance and speedy achievement, that he may
quickly turn it into money.

If one trade does not succeed, he at once passes to another.
Often the same varies with the seasons, localities, and other
circumstances. In the meantime, his taste for traffic and
small speculation lead him into every kind of business, until
he at last settles down somewhere ; and if chance and
circumstances favour him, he ends by becoming a real
merchant. Although his trade may have made a rich man
of him, he does not therefore love it more in the least ; it
is and remains iu his eyes but a medium to profit and
opulence. If he have children, he will have perhaps one of
the boys educated in a manner best calculated to render him
a valuable assistant to himself. As regards the others, he
thinks and labours day and night to provide for them an
education which will qualify them for the military and civil
service, and thus to start them on the road to nobility.

The peasant, as already said, is good, simple-hearted, and
of an excellent temper, and great kindness of heart ; but,
as he gets well-off in the world, the natural candour and
loyalty of his disposition too often diminish in the same
proportion.

The importance of position being a matter of great
moment — rank, title, money — in brief, all which is condi-
tional to influence, has in Russia an exceedingly high value.
But, after all, where has it not? Everybody may try for
whatever place in the government service, for there exists
no privilege of class in that respect. There is hardly any
spirit of caste, but also no " esprit de corps," and not enough
conscience to support a severe sense of duty.

The acquisition of good and lucrative posts is considered a
highly desirable and pleasant aim to strive for ; but the con-
scientious fulfilment of the duties incumbent on the same is
a perfectly different matter, and capable of much elasticity.

GREAT-RUSSIANS. 39

The Russian is patient and calm, a fatalist to a certain
extent. " God wills it so ! " " What is there to be done ? "
" Such is fate ! " are exclamations constantly in his mouth.
He is a man of sentiment rather than conviction ; sensitive
to first impressions; but in his appreciation he reflects
rarely on the motives which stimulate his acts ; lie therefore
has no perfectly clear opinions of his own, and constantly
falls into contradictions. He is credulous, exclusive in his
judgment, curious and talkative, extreme to exaggeration,
more generally yielding to the sensations of his heart tban
acting according to fixed principles. For this reason he is
capable of the most ridiculous and again of the noblest acts.
This want of reflection renders anything like discipline,
perseverance, constant devotion, and stability irksome and
difficult to him.

The Russian is not vindictive, somewhat rude, perhaps,
but good-hearted, and is keenly alive to justice. He will
support an act of severity, if accompanied by a certain hon-
hommie and marks of interest. He who has to rule him must
take care not to let himself be suspected of any vacillation
in words or deeds, for the Russian requires positive decision,
especially in matters opposed to his opinion or will. In the
presence of indecision in the orders given, he at once becomes
restive and recalcitrant. But all must be done in a certain
paternal spirit; in all domestic institutions and rules, in
business transactions, the voice of a father must ever be
blended with the most imperious discipline. The Russian is
extremely fond of social joys, and there is no severer punish-
ment for him than solitude.

Sensuous fellow that he is, he detests rule or a systemati-
cally-ordered existence. He requires the most complete
" se laisser aller," for he will move at his ease, remain at
home, or travel abroad at his pleasure, and according to the
taste of the moment. He will not let himself be tied down
to a life of order and economy ; he loves change, the hazard,
gambling, &c.

The man of the people in Russia is wanting in foresight,

40 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

his destructiveness makes him careless regarding property,
and owing to his long serfdom he has not yet formed very
just and precise notions on the right of property and the
respect due to it. He lives but for the present moment and
does not trouble himself about preparing a foundation to
future and permanent benefits.

He does his work with a sort of precipitation and momen-
tary energy, excited in him only by the lively desire for the
speediest enjoyment of the results of his efforts.

He has no idea of thrifty management, for never having
possessed anything but what really belonged to his master,
his notions regarding the latter's property have always been
rather hazy in kind. The requirements of his household he
generally satisfied by helping himself freely to what the
estate supplied, and economy was the last thing he ever
troubled himself about.

For evidence of this improvidence in the Russian character?
of the absence of all desire for the acquisition of property,
and for the conservation of the same for his family, we need
but look at the waste carried on in his splendid forests, the
bad state of the roads and bridges, the defective agriculture,
the neglect of cattle and sheep, &c.

No improvement on this head can be expected to take
place as long as the peasant has but a share in the revenue
of the parish lands ; but once he will have his own ground to
cultivate, to improve and preserve for his family, he will
soon be forced to think about husbanding his resources, and
learn to lay by in times of plenty for the seasons of drought
and scarcity.

The reproach of improbity frequently addressed to the
Russian is unfortunately often deserved, and the result of
former social circumstances. As long as the country people
have no intercourse with the towns, they distinguish them-
selves by a loyalty and honesty altogether unparalleled,
especially in the northern provinces. There one may observe
a quaint simplicity of customs that call to mind primitive
times. These qualities are instinctive, and not acquired by

GKEAT-EUSSIANS. 41

reasoning ; innate, and not developed ; transmitted, and not
acquired. But it is precisely owing to this circumstance
that they so often succumb to the outrage those primitive
feelings experience when brought into contact with a corrupt
world of towns and dense populations. It would, however,
be a cruel error were one to apply that reproach of improbity
to every class and to all the regions of the empire.

In the jjarts inhabited by the simple landed proprietor,
the unassuming merchant, and the peasant, the people will
be found just as good, honest, straightforward, and trust-
worthy as in any other part of Europe. Experience has
proved to the writer of these pages that there is perhaps no
country in the whole world, where one could travel for months
unaccompanied, unarmed, through the densest forests, the
solitary steppes and the wildest mountains in such perfect
security as in Russia.

Highway robbery and murder are crimes of which one
hears very rarely, and if so, they are generally found to have
been perpetrated by foreigners, for the real Russian is averse
to violence and bloodshed, and incapable of'jplanning any
iniquitous enterprise, though he might, on the spur of the
moment, be induced to participate in it.

impart from the more or less corrupted serving class of the
towns, the Russian will always be found to be a very good
fellow, obliging and civil, gifted by easy and dignified
manners, patient and prompt to help under difficulties, brave
and steadfast in danger. The Russian's patience is such as
one would look for in vain amongst any other nations, but it
has its limits, and the author would not advise anybody to
abuse it. Cowardice or puerile fears are not known to the
Russian. A rigorous nervous system enables him to support
physical evils and to exhibit an imperturbable calmness in the
presence of the most imminent danger.

A certain fatalism and religious trust in the Almighty
strengthen this equanimity and passive resignation, but,
alas ! tend not less frequently to lead him into error.

A little incident illustrative of this peculiarity of the

42 THE LA2fD OF THE CZAR,

Eussian came under the author's own observation. " The
Russian nurse we had in attendance on our children was most
devotedly attached to the baby, and would, I firmly believe,
at any moment have sacrificed her life for the little one.
But when one bitter night in early January the latter had a
severe attack of croup, she, frightened at the distressing
symptoms, lost all hope, and considering it to be the will of
Grod that the child should go to Heaven there and then,
severely reproached us parents for endeavouring to save our
baby, saying, ' God wishes to take the child to himself, and
it is wicked trying to counteract his will ! ' "

We thereupon took the child altogether into our special
care, and after a few days had the pleasure of seeing her
smile again in perfect health. Nobody felt greater delight
than Njanja; but when chaffed about her absurd notions she
still would shake her head and mutter something about
" Foreigner, and not of our religion," &c.

A certain love of ease of body and mind makes the Rus-
sian prefer the agency of his senses rather than that of his
reason with respect to exterior impressions, and of the latter
he again gives the preference to those that agitate his feel-
ings than to such as directly appeal to his reason.

He listens to news and narratives with keen avidity, but
he does not in general like to reflect for a long time on
serious subjects, or to be at the trouble of giving advice.

However much he may be inclined to listen to friendly
advice, the person wishing to gain any ascendancy over him
must first make himself master of his way of seeing things
in general. Talent and good intention do not suffice in such
a case. It is quite an art, the knowing how to talk to the
peasant. It would be the gTeatest mistake were one to
assume that any silly talk or foolish lecture would at all
affect the feelings of the common man, who may be compared
to a sensible child holding fast to the traditions dear to its
heart, to the sacred customs of its paternal hearth. No, one
must come down to his level, if one would inspire him with
that confidence so imperiously necessary to his becoming a

GREAT-RUSSIANS. 43

believing and eager listener to the truths of science, in which
one may feel anxious to initiate him, and which are of such
eminent importance with respect to the progressing amelio-
ration of his existence and condition. Wary prudence must
be the guide on approaching the region of his ideas, of his
beliefs, and even of his prejudices ; for there is his sanctuary,
his most dearly-cherished treasure.

When English machinery was first introduced into the
agricultural districts of Eussia, the peasants would look
in silent wonder upon the preparations preceding the
start of a steam thrashing-machine for instance. But the
moment the steam was let on, and the machine began to
move, to thrash the corn and bring it out readily fanned,
sifted, and sorted, they often with one accord would break
into an uncontrollable fit of merriment, throw themselves on
the ground and roll about in a perfect agony of laughter at
the ridiculous toys those English had brought into Holy
Eussia, in their audacious conceit trying to supersede the
thrasher (ox), the plough, and fan of their fathers. At the
angry call of the steward, however, they would jump up and
begin to supply the machine, to remove the straw, fill and
clear away the sacks and chafl", &c., and the English toy led
them such a dance all day long as they never had experienced
before. Eeluctantly they began to admire the amount and
quality of the work done, but they did not look upon the
machine, that threatened to become a severe taskmaster, and,
as an innovation, was a nuisance altogether, with any favour-
able eye.

On every estate is generally a moozhik, who being pos-
sessed of some superior intelligence, is looked upon by all,
(even including often his master), as a sort of factotum. It
is very amusing to listen to these fellows' judgment of an
engine, for instance, perhaps the first they have ever seen
in their lives. The proprietor may be quite as ignorant of
machinery as his man, and fearful of having to pay a large
sum for a thing that, for all the engineer's promises, may
after all turn out a useless tool, helplessly looks to his facto-

44 THE LAKD OF THE CZAR.

turn, whom he asks, " "Well, Ivan, what do you think of it?"
Not for an .instant is Ivan at a loss about what he has to do
or say. "With the coolest confidence in the world, he walks
up to the engine, examines the parts he understands, viz.,
the wheels, the pole, the apparatus for greasing the wheels,
&c., and if satisfied on these points, pronounces his approving,
" Khorosho ! " (Good). The rest of the engine is sure to be
right, in his estimation, if only the pole and carriage-wheels
are prosti-Russhi fashion.

Such scenes I witnessed but six or seven years ago ; but
since then civilization has advanced with such gigantic strides
in Eussia — a network of railways has been spread over the
greater part of the empire in Europe, and agricultural and
other machinery introduced into nearly every estate and
town, that even the tenacity of Russian reminiscence has
given way, and the Eussian peasant cannot but begin to feel
that his forefathers were not altogether infallible, and that
in some degree he owes his freedom and many advantages he
possesses, and which they knew nothing of, to the foreign
appliances of mechanical force.

The Eussian has a very correct appreciation of all unfore-
seen incidents, and knows how to profit by the same, if he
would but take the trouble of giving them fair consideration.
In a country where many things are still in an abnormal
state, a man is obliged to look sharply about for chances,
profit of the least circumstances, and utilize all that can lead
to success. The Eussian, therefore, noble, citizen, or pea-
sant, knows how to adapt himself to all that may turn up,
and to conduct himself adroitly in all positions of his life.

Owing to his jienckant for sociability, the Eussian's man-
ners have that ease and fiexibility, which enable him to move
amongst his fellows with dignity and grace even in cases of the
most opposite nature. There is nothing awkward, clumsy, or
angular in his appearance, such as one observes so often in
individuals belonging to other nations. He does not carry
about with him for ever his particular interests, his private
afiections, his habits, scruples, and his personalty ; he passes

GEEAT-EUSSIANS. 45

lightly and with unconcern over all discomfort, he submits
to whatever circumstances, and his presence rarely fails to
impress the observer with a certain sense of roundness and
completeness of manner. This constitutes the great charm
of life in Russian society, which (perhaps excepting a frequent
absence of higher interest) never fails to leave behind an
agreeable impression and most pleasing recollection. The
simplicity of heart and strongly-pronounced sentiment of
humanity, which guide the Russian on all occasions, are the
only motives that sustain him in the serious fulfilment of
his duty, and which in business and everyday life often pre-
vent him from acting up to the full requirements of the law.
The same qualities serve considerably to sweeten the many
abnormal circumstances attending all business transactions,
but particularly so the social relations of his country.

And withal the Russian never makes a parade of his
philanthrophy or of his charitable kindness ; for they come
natural to him, are matters of course ; they are conferred
without ostentation, like a thing generally understood, for
such is the bent of his heart, which derives the greatest
pleasure from acting up to its generous impulses. He
despises and pities the ungrateful, leaving him to the disci-
pline of his own conscience with a magnanimous " Bog
snim ! " (God be with him !) He considers the aggravation
of the sufferings of misfortune a great sin, even in cases
where they are merited : " Strike not a prostrate foe ! " he
says, and withholds not his helping hand from the unhappy,
whatever may be the cause of his condition.

To speak evil of the dead is most repugnant to the
Russian character. " God is their judge ! " he thinks ;
" leave them to rest in peace !"

If such was the character of the man of the people, while
in the fetters of serfdom, what may one not expect from the
free individual ?

THE AHISTOCRACT.

The social relations of the Russians amongst themselves,
I.e.., their classification according to rank or pursuit of in-

46 THE LAND OF THE CZAB,.

dustry, science, and art, diiFer considerably from those of tlie
western world.

Previous to the time of the Var^ghs, or Varangians,
as some say, there existed no aristocracy in Russia. That
people (Norse) were the first to introduce nobdity amongst
their new Sclavonic subjects. The Russian nobility of that
time formed an aristocracy of Office and State. They lived
near the person of the Prince, whose behests they executed
in times of peace as well as of war. A high Varsegh descent
was always dearly valued by the Russian nobles, and the
Boyars were chosen but from persons of that quality. The
root of the Russian nobility may therefore be said to have
sprung from Varsegh premises. The descent from Rurik
was reputed then, as it is to this day, the highest and most
illustrious degree of birth.

When Moscow became the capital, the highest aristocracy
underwent a considerable modification, by which their ascen-
dancy and privileges were severely curtailed.

The energetic Czars, Ivan III. and lY., anxious to pro-
mote the civilization of their people by every means in their
power, considered the paralyzation of high aristocratic influ-
ences one of the most essential measures towards a speedy
realization of their object. They did not think it worth
while putting any pressure upon the lesser nobility. With-
out adding to their importance at the expense of their supe-
riors, they left them where they had been before, L e.,
they continued to hold their lands by hereditary grant from
the Czar or the State direct, without acquiring a positive
right of property to the same. In the course of time, how-
ever, this nobility gradually assumed great ascendancy and
prerogatives over the counfry people, or the free class of pea-
sants, and that without on their part taking upon themselves
any responsibility whatever towards that class. While thus
virtually enjoying the fruits of the land and ruling the pea-
sant with absolute power, they did not, however, acquire a
legal right to the estates and to the liberty of the peasants
till the end of the sixteenth century, when Peter the Great

GREAT-RUSSIANS. 47

oflScially confirmed the prerogatives they had usurped, and
which have ever since continued to exist as their positive
and legal right.

The Act of Emancipation of the Serfs has, of course, can-
celled the above law, in as far as it affected the personal
liberty of the peasant.

A general competition to every branch whatever of the
government service being admitted on principle, Peter I.
instituted the " Tchin," with its fourteen classes of hierarchic
rank for the military and civil service, without which nobility
could not exist, and under certain circumstances was even
annulled. In consequence of this law, many persons outside
the circle of nobility could acquire the latter by serving the
State. This hierarchy, or order of nobility, according to
class and rank, and which to this day is the only nobility
legally recognized by the Law of Special Prerogatives,
destroyed, so to say, the individuality of hereditary and
landowning nobility, and the existence of a distinct caste by
moral ascendancy, such as it more or less possesses in other
countries.

At first the nobility acquired within the ranks of the four-
teen classes was by law considered hereditary ; but this clause
has since been subjected to divers restrictions.

The absence of the law of primogeniture, or, at least, of
compulsory entail of property, and the generally negligent
management of the landed estates, could not fail to render
the condition of the peasant a truly deplorable one. Owing
to the former circumstance, the property, including the serfs,
frequently changed hands, and the habit on the part of the
lords of the manor of residing in the larger cities in most cases
left the unfortunate serf entirely at the mercy of the stewards,
too often men of doubtful principles and rude education.

The material advantages acquired by the aristocracy in
consequence of these grants of landed estates and peasants
were immense. A great number of foreigners, Germans,
French, Poles, Tartars, Greeks, &c., became enrolled at that
period in the ranks of nobility ; and some of the princely

48 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

houses of world-wide renown date their titles from the time
of Peter the Great, or even from later periods.

The rules of the " tchin " exhibit a considerable preference
as regards the military rank. Thus the rank of Colonel (6th
class) still entitles its possessor to hereditary nobility, while
in the Civil Service this right ceases with the Councillor of
State (Statskij Sovjetnik), a noble of the 4th class.

Oflficer and official from the 14th to the 9th class of
the tchin are addressed as, " Wellborn " (Blagorodie) ; from
the 8th to the 6th class to, " Very Noble " (Vissokobla-
gorodi^) ; in the Civil Service the 5th class (a rank not any
longer existing in the Military) is entitled to, " Very High-
born" (Vissokorodie) ; the 4th and 3rd classes to, " Excel-
lency " (Prevoskhoditelstvo) ; and the 2nd and 1st classes
finally to, " Very Excellent " (Vissokoprevoskhoditelstvo).

The nobility live generally at St. Petersburg, Moscow, in
other large cities, or abroad, paying little attention to their
vast estates ; only the proprietor of comparatively small
landed property remains at home superintending the manage-
ment of his lands in person.

Owing to the above-mentioned indifference on the part of
the great noble, agriculture is, as yet, in a very backward
condition.

That there are some highly praiseworthy exemptions from
this rule I need not say, and what between the emancipation
of the serfs, the establishment of railways, and other means
of travel and transport, a rapid improvement in this respect
cannot fail before long to elevate Eussian agriculture to the
level attained in Western Europe.

Although the traits of Eussian character, as delineated in
the preceding pages, may be traced also to the character of
the aristocratic representative of the nation, the latter is,
nevertheless, distiaguished by other qualities worthy of re-
mark.

Sociability, charitableness, hospitality, are the virtues
in which the Eussian noble decidedly excels. To these may
be added a certain affability of manner manifesting itself

GREAT-KUSSIANS. 49

often on the slightest provocation by an exhibition of
spontaneous and unconscious sympathy. Though it may be
true, that the money quickly gained is just as freely spent,
and that the possession of great material wealth renders the
exercise of hospitality a matter of small account, it is, for all
that, but just to say, that the application of this invidious
argument to Russian hospitality and its motives can be at
once refuted by the fact that the same amiable qualities
shine just as brightly in the presence of modest fortunes,
gained probably by the sweat of the brow.

What elsewhere is called " Public Life " is a thing little
known in Eussia. Consequently the house, the family there,
are of first importance. The strength of family ties with the
Russians is all the more conspicuous, as that quality threatens
to become extremely scarce in the case of Western European
society, particularly in Germany, where people are visibly
inconvenienced by private visits of any duration, and that
even in cases where the visitors are near relations.

While in Russia visitors are welcomed with a joy as sincere
as touching — in G-ermany they meet never without a certain
formality. Instead of giving him his welcome to homely
pot-luck, the German host conducts his visitor to the table
d'hote of a restaurant ; and, if he is admitted at all to the
family mahogany, every care will be taken to conceal the
daily and intimate family habits. The prayer before and
after dinner is omitted, the children excluded from the
society of the elders, poor Spitz and Puss driven from their
corner — in short, everything tends to prove, that one is
a shamed, instead of being proud, of the family customs.

In Russia the case is precisely the reverse. The whole
family, even the domestics, are gratified by the presence of
visitors. All endeavour to make them feel at home ; and,
without causing any change in the ordinary routine of the
house, they are made to perceive by thousand little attentions
that they are welcome, and could not better repay the kind-
ness shown them than by a speedy repetition of their visit.
One must witness the thrill of joy vibrating through every

50 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

nerve of the household at the near prospect of visitors, in
order to conceive an idea of the hospitable sentiment of the
Russian. With a peculiar sound of satisfaction they say to
each other : " Sevodnja gosti boodut ! " (There will be
visitors to-day.)

The opulent Russian of noble descent (even when gratifying
his " penchant " for ostentation) does not lock himself up in
his house for the selfish enjoyment of his riches — no, he
loves — and that is the true test of innate generosity of soul —
he loves to see as long a row of guests as possible sitting in
merry enjoyment at his well -furnished table.

Still more meritorious is his spirit of true Christian
humanity, which has covered his country with innumerable
charitable establishments. The Russian in the splendour
of Court dress, in the most brilliant uniform, the bearded
citizen in his long kaftan, the great and noble landowner,
the simple farmer, the opulent Muskovite merchant, all vie
with each other in fervent zeal to increase the number of
most magnificent refuges for the poor, the aged, and the
infirm.

And the spirit of charity is so generally pervading all
classes, that there is scarcely a single village which does not
possess its hospital or other charitable institution.

The high society of St. Petersburg, it is a well-known fact,
may rank, as regards manners and distinguished form,
with the very best in Western Europe. Unfortunately a
taste for splendid appearance and the passion for a luxurious
style of living are sometimes, perhaps, carried too far by the
civilized classes of Russian society, and is a remnant of
ancient habits combined to a certain foibleness of character
and vanity.

The Russian is often prone to prodigality and to living
above his means, in most cases for the sole object of shining
and of keeping up with his acquaintances.

Everything is sacrificed to the moment, and an hour passed
m pleasurable excitement is never considered too dearly paid
for. The result is a repugnance to serious business and the

GEEAT-EUSSIANS. 51

tedious pei'formance of a difScult duty. Floating amidst a
thousand different interests, the Russian is alternately in-
dulgent and pretentious, indifferent and zealous, undecided
and vacillating, or determined and resolved.

The civilized Russian is highly intelligent, and of quick
comprehension, but interested only by fits and starts ; he
likes change and variety, and blindly submits to the caprices
of fashion.

A serious evil is the injudicious education of their children,
who are more frequently spoilt than educated. Parents
prefer to make of them amusing playthings for the gTatifica-
tion of their own vanity, to seeing them properly guided and
instructed, and brought up in a way calculated to insure their
growing up into useful, serious men, of an independent and
firm character. The extravagant tenderness and foolish
fondness lavished upon them at an early age, the indulgence
and weakness with which their faults are passed over, cannot
but exert a most pernicious influence on the infantine mind.
Too early emancipated, they submit to a wholesome discipline
with a very bad grace. They are presumptuous, and pay but
little respect to age and experience. Considering, moreover,
the want of athletic exercise, joined to an overstrain on the
nervous system, one cannot wonder at the present generation
falling short of the fine Russian type, which earlier accounts
and one's own imagination may have led one to expect.

The family life of the Russian most distinctly reflects his
character, his bent of mind, and the effect of the historical,
political, and social influences of the past and of the present,
which have been instrumental in the forming of the same.

The Russian begins and ends the day by prayer. The
daily ablutions of the lower classes take up but little time and
trouble. The baths (probably of Finnish origin) are invalu-
able in a sanitary respect ; applied, however, in excess, they
are apt to produce a relaxation of the pores and the falling
off of the hair at a premature age. Even the lower classes
make use of them at least once a week.

The father or master of the household takes upon himself

e2

52 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

the smallest share of its duties ; he presides over the arrange-
ment of the whole, and goes in his own, or in the person of
other members of his family, in search of outdoor work.
The greatest share of the household work, and the hardest, is
thrown on the women, whose patient submission, in the
presence of the comparative indolence of the men, remind
one but too vividly of early Oriental customs.

The peasant's diet is of the most frugal description. His
food is not substantial, but he eats much and often. The
diet of the town is far more generous than that of the country.
All Russians, even the highly civilized, sleep much and
soundly. It would indeed be diificult to find a people who
required and enjoyed so much sleep as they do. A nap
after meals is indispensable to them. People in easy cir-
cumstances, particularly the women, sleep long in the morn-
ing ; hence pernicious results to the household, to the proper
training of the children, &c. Order, proper surveillance,
and regularity, under such circumstances, are next to impos-
sible.

The table manners of the middle and lower classes are
deplorably deficient in grace and decency, although in good
society they resemble those of other countries. But fre-
quently in the most luxurious households the visitor may at
a glance detect a certain want of order, the absence of the
indefatigable hand, of the vigilant eye, belonging to the lady
of the house, whose influence, however invisible, must some-
how or other pervade the very air of the establishment.

If the female of the working class labour too much, that
of the higher does too little. Amongst the former much of
the work by rights belonging to the men is laid on her
shoulder; amongst the latter the men generally attend to
many things which ought to form the exclusive business of
their wives. A false and unnatural state of things is the
result of this irregular and unfair distribution of duties —
one is ill at ease and weary for want of suitable occupation.

While the woman of the people appears oppressed, that
of the higher classes is too emancipated. She evidently

GEEAT-IIUSSIAN"S. 53

attaches more importance to passing enjoyments, to re-
ceptions, visits, balls, &c., than to the duties which ought
to constitute the glory and happiness of womanhood.
Brought up solely to shine in society, the Russian lady is
distinguished by remarkably smooth and amiable manners.
Her society is therefore much sought after and courted. They
are generally most kindhearted, hospitable, and active in
the promotion of charitable deeds and institutions.

The Russian lady frequently discovers intellectual faculties
and a certain amount of sound sense, which put the same
qualities, perceptible in the conversation and manners of their
lords, decidedly into the shade, as the latter are rarely
moving in that respect on the same level with their spouses.

Since Peter the Great the Russian woman's lot has un-
dergone a great change for the better, and she has been
raised to a far more dignified position than she had held
anterior to that monarch's reign.

The sociable character of the Russian offers the greatest
charm to the sojourn of the foreign visitor. Although
society there may be said to afford perhaps too much in the
way of material enjoyment, and that it is to a certain extent
wanting in variety of distractions, yet it is always pervaded
by a certain affectionate warmth and frankness, which go
far to prove the innate love of the Russian of living in con-
stant contact with his neighbours, and his aversion to an
isolated existence amidst the objects of luxury and art
which crowd his brilliant mansion. The Russian of all
classes loves society for its own sake, as well as for the oppor-
tunity it affords him for ostentatious display. He measures
the charm of society by the number, position, and quantity
of his guests ; and the pleasure he experiences depends as
much on the degree of attention towards himself a visit is
considered to imply, as on the gratification of his hospitable
feelings. This is the reason of the extraordinary importance
attaching to visits in Russia, and that one is nowhere re-
ceived with so much grace and amiability.

In the larger cities good society is often imitated in a

54 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

more or less burlesque maimer by a certain bourgeoisie, by
upstart tradespeople, clerks, and others, when a magnificent
toilet, a vulgarly stiff manner, French dances, and other
means are resorted to, in order to impress the visitor with
the appearance at least of " bon ton " and of superior edu-
cation. Families living in retirement and modest simplicity
are looked down upon by those people with ignoring con-
tempt and disdain.

All Eussians have a decided dislike for walking exercise,
which sometimes manifests itself in a highly ludicrous
maimer. I remember well the astonished look of a gentle-
man, at whose country place I happened to be staying a few
years ago, on my proposing a walk to the top of a small hill,
situated at a distance of about a quarter of a mile from the
house. " What, you mean to say you want to walk up that
hill ? I wiU have a droshki ready in a moment." When I
persisted in my resolution to walk, he shook his head in
absolute bewilderment, and evidently put me down in his
own mind for a most bizarre character. Perceiving his
reluctance I did not venture to repeat my request for his
company and started alone. On my return I was greeted by
the whole family with astonished questions about my heroic
exploit, so as to make me almost fancy myself a second
Tannhauser returning from the Venusberg of the popular
German fairy tale.

It is probably owing to this want of proper walking
exercise added to the superheated houses, that the Eussians
are far more sensible of the cold winter air than most
foreigners.

The amusements of the Eussian people are generally of a
very simple character, and in accordance with their peace-
able disposition. The towns have their public promenades,
theatres, music-halls, balls, and their religious festivals.
Some of the latter are evidently of a very ancient date ; so,
for instance, the feast of the " semik " (from " sem" — seven),
which is celebrated on the seventh Thursday after Easter,
and which once probably was held in honour of the Deity

GREAT-RUSSIANS. 55

"Tora." On that day the marriageable young girls of
ancient times used to go into the dense forests consecrated to
the goddess, singing songs analogous to the circumstances,
and performing dances, holding in their hands green branches
ornamented by many-coloured ribbons. When the dance
was over, the branches were flung into the water ; if they
sank it was considered a sign that the young aspirant to
matrimony would not get married that year. Up to the
present time a similar custom may be observed on Pentecost
Monday. On that day the young girls may be seen to ran
through the streets singing and dancing and agitating in
their hands branches of green holly.

A very gay season is the " Sviatki," which last from
Christmas to Twelfth night. Daring those days the streets
resound with songs of joy, and people meet in the houses to
sing, dance, and masquerade. The masks go from house to
house, often most singularly representing scenes recalling
historical reminiscences, a performance particularly grateful
to Eussian taste.

The village feasts, i.e. those of its patron Saint or Church,
last for several days, and are celebrated in great gaiety,
especially if they happen to fall due during the fine season.

The ladies then vie with each other in the exhibition of
the most luxurious toilet. These festivals partake, all more
or less, of a patriarchal and exceedingly pleasing character,
and are distinguished by the entire absence of riotous scenes.
The young girls, dressed in their best, and ornamented with
flowers, and ranged according to age, walk through the
streets singing songs, which generally refer to objects and
ideas of the greatest simplicity. They are at times shrill,
at others languishing and melancholy.

The men also group together according to age. The whole
village at last assemble on some big square or common,
where it is soon joined by a mighty concourse of visitors
from the surrounding villages. There are swings, and
ornamented tents with every kind of eatables, particularly
gingerbread and nuts.

56 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Music (the indispensable accompaniment of all festivities)
is supplied by the " balalaika " (a kind of guitar of three
strings, and a truly national instrument), the accordian, by
the " goolok " or " goossli " (a horizontal harp), by the
" doodka " (a primitive flute), by the " yeleika," " sepovka,"
and " sopel " (horns), and by the " svirel," or reed whistle.
All these instruments seem to be of Greek origin. When
singing, the lads and lasses form separate circles under a
special leader, who from time to time yields up his place to
another " zapievals." This song is very monotonous, and
often interrupted by original dances performed by the men.
As regards the dance, a circle is formed, within which a
man and woman execute the " trepak," a national dance
also called the "prissadka" and " kazatshka." This is a
true Russian dance, though somewhat partaking of an
Asiatic character; and the Russian gives himself up to it
solely for the love of the dance itself, and without any con-
sideration for his partner. It is probably of Tartar or gipsy
origin, and not without glimpses of a poetical nature. It
commences with a certain measure and movement calcu-
lated to show off the symmetrical beauty of the forms, and
accompanied by an impassionate mimic, implying caresses
and entreaties by the men rejected by the women. The
performance ends by a face-to-face dance (probably borrowed
from the Cossacks) of a very rapid measure, great vivacity
of movement, and accompanied by genuflexions and sharply
accentuated gestures.

The lady's steps are short and rapid ; she holds her arms
extended, and a handkerchief in her hands. In this posture
she executes all sorts of undulating and graceful figures.
The dance is accompanied by an instrument ornamented with
bells and bright ribbons. This is called " lojki," on account
of its resemblance to a bunch of spoons. The man holds
one of these instruments in each hand, where they serve to
give relief to his movements, just as the handkerchief does
to those of the women.

In some parts of the country another kind of dance is in

GEEAT-EUSSIANS. 57

use, called " tcliijick." The geatlemen preserve a ludicrously
impassive countenance. Dressed in their long kaftans, their
heads covered, and the hands in the pockets, they dance in a
circle before the ladies, who follow them all the time sing-
ing. On certain accords of the music being struck, the
gentlemen at once turn round, take off their caps, make a
little bow, and kiss their partners with a tranquillity of soul
and countenance almost incredible. The towns know, of
course, only French dances.

As already said, nothing approaching riotous conduct is
ever witnessed on festival occasions, but also no true gaiety.
On great holidays all the world and his wife will turn out to
walk up and down the boulevards or promenade, when
people pass and re-pass each other with almost silent
indifference. A foreign visitor, struck by this want of
animation, once put the following characteristic question to
a person near him : " For what great personage's funeral
are all these people assembled?"

The lower classes enliven their long winter evenings by
sundry amusements and games. In the case of the civilized
part of the nation, all games have made room for the cards.
These have become the object not only of amusement, but
of veritable passion, often strongly developed in the young
men, who seem to know no other pleasure besides, except
that of smoking papiros or cigarettes.

The quantity of cards annually transported by the St.
Petersburg-Moscow Railway alone (110 tons) will furnish
the best illustration of the strength of this habit.

The essential stimulus to a genial flow of the animal
spirits, viz. bodily exercise, is wanting to all Russian
amusements, pastimes, and games ; and with it the neces-
sary counterpoise to the tendencies of effeminate degene-
ration, so often the result of a too refined civilization.

The principal and almost only sport of the Russian
gentleman consists in driving at the highest possible speed.
In order to excel in this, he pays enormous prices for fast-
trotting horses, and puts up with the most wretched con-

58 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

veyance, provided it is whirled along the ground at a
break-neck pace. Few Eussians know anything about
hunting, shooting, swunming, boating, gymnastic and other
exercises requiring strength and agility. For such they
have neither taste nor the necessary elasticity of mind and
muscle.

CHAPTEE IV.

THE KUSSIAN OF THE MANUFA0TUB.INO DISTKICTS AKD THE WOUKMAN.

Manufacturing industry in Eussia is every year assuming
a wider range, without thereby seriously and unfavourably
affecting the commercial relations with foreign countries.
The latter may now and then be subjected to certain modi-
fications, without, however, suffering any diminution in the
sum total.

The principal manufacturing districts of Russia are the
Governments of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Vladimir, and
Perm, of which the last, however, is exclusively confined to
metallurgical industry.

The value of produce of Moscow is double that of Perm,
but only about two-thirds that of the Government of St.
Petersburg.

Second in rank as regards industry, are the districts
of Orel, Kostroma, Tambov, Rjazan, Kalooga, Neezhnei-
Novgorod, Simbirsk, Kursk, Samara, Tver, Orenburg, and
Voronezh ; and, lastly, Tula, Vjatka, Saratov, Pensa, Kazan,
Pskov, Yarosslav, Novgorod, Smolensk, and Kherson.

The villages surrounding the large manufacturing towns
are exclusively occupied by the town establishments. The
masters supply the material, which the young girls bring
back LQ a manufactured state. Whole villages and large
rural districts owe their livelihood to one and the same
trade.

In most of the districts the workmen are always fully occu-
pied, yet such is the love of change ingrained in the Russian

60 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

character, the men seldom remain long in the same place.
While to a foreign workman this change of locality would be
a matter of indifference on account of the sameness of natural
conditions, for the Russian the change and with it fresh
food for his jocund spii'its is a matter of absolute necessity.

He gives preference to places where great numbers are
employed, however hard he may have to work, and he never
considers the loss in substance these continual changes must
cause him. This is the reason of the often very original
diversity in the occupation of the Eussian workman. They
vary with the season and chances.

The Russian is fond of new society, for it promises him
fresh tales and new songs, without which he cannot exist
either during his hours of work or leisure.

In the government of Moscow the weavers are altogether
in the power of the master, and therefore often exposed to
considerable hardships. The price of the goods is seldom
fixed beforehand, for the peasant, afraid of being left without
work during the long winter time, is obliged to consent to
the conditions, which the master may think fit to impose on
him, and of which the most trying is that which defers the
payment for the work done to a period subsequent to the sale
of the goods.

The shoe trade of Vladimir is carried on under very similar
circumstances.

The inhabitants of that province generally spend the
summer in the towns, where they work in the capacity of
waiters, masons, carpenters, &c. Owing to their gay soci-
ability they frequently manage to spend the greatest part of
their earnings before they get back again to their homes. In
winter they return to their shoemaker's benches, and that
they might not be tempted to sell the shoes elsewhere, the
master gives them but one kind of boot (either right or left)
to make according to a particular pattern.

The industry of the rural districts is pervaded in a striking
manner by a certain spirit of association. Every enterprise
is carried out ordinarily by " Artels," or associations of work-

MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 61

men, who work independently in small or large gangs, or
under a contractor (podrjadtchik). In that case they fix the
wage beforehand, as well as the duration of their work, and
choose from among their number a delegate or " artelshtohik,"
who is charged with the economical affairs of the artel. For
the defrayal of the necessary expenses they remit to him
every week a part (equal for each) of their earnings, and at
the end of the season they return to their villages with the
surplus saved. These artels are most excellent institutions.
They frequently guarantee for the integrity, sobriety, and
good behaviour of their members, so that bankers are in the
habit of employing the latter as bill-collectors. In that
capacity they sometimes handle enormous sums of money,
which to an ordinary clerk might perhaps prove a strong
temptation, but may be confided with impunity to the hands
of an artel member.

A similar system is being followed ^by the "Burlaks,"
whose business consists in the towing of boats on the Volga.
Their regulations are exceedingly severe. The lazy or ill-
behaved amongst them is in the first instance soundly flogged
by his own comrades, and if that punishment avail not, ex-
pelled the " artel."

Trade and industry, of course, flourish best where the
peculiar condition of locality comes to their aid. The
inhabitants of the Eostoff district, for instance, in the govern-
ment of Yarosslav, where good arable land is comparatively
scant, occupy themselves almost exclusively with market
gardening. Those of the Danilovsky district take service in
the hotels and restaurants of the towns. In the borough of
Velikoe, of the same government, linen goods are largely being
manufactured, but the importance of this branch of industry
has greatly diminished since the introduction of cotton mills.
At Romanov-Borissoglebsk one meets only with forges, while
the opposite banks of the Volga are entirely monopolised by
tanneries.

In Vologda all the world is carpenter or "plotnik," as
also in the forest lands of the north-eastern districts. These

62 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

carpenters, who work in wood in every possible fashion,
manufacture with their hatchets alone, and without hardly
ever using their saws, the most delicate articles as well as
the rudest. Their ability and cunning workmanship are
qualities not to be met with in any foreign carpenter, and
must excite the admiration of all beholders.

During the summer they travel over Eussia.

In some parts, as for instance in Vologda, the peasants
occupy themselves exclusively with agriculture ; in the dis-
trict of Kadnikovsk with the manufacture of felt boots
(valiki) of excellent qualitj\

Ship-buHding is mostly confined to the district of Arch-
angel. The barges of Kostroma are in high repute.

The forest districts produce bark, charcoal and tar, mats,
sacks, &c.

Kazan is celebrated for its leather. In the neighbourhood
of Susdal (Vladimir) the manufacture of pictures of saints
occupies several villages. This government furnishes, more-
over, many masons and stone-cutters.

At Torjok (Tver) the embroideries in gold and silver on
morocco leather are justly renowned for quality and quantity.

CHAPTEE V.

THE EUSSIANS Of SIBERIA.

Ihe colossal territory of Siberia throughout its whole ex-
tent bears witness to the former existence of a far more
numerous population. Innumerable tumulous mounds, in-
scriptions on the rocks of the banks of the Lena, and ruins
of ancient towns and fortresses are disseminated over the
country in every direction. The greater part of those vestiges
of an anterior civilization doubtless owe their existence to
primitive peoples, of whom history keeps no record, but who
had evidently attained to a certain degree of development.
For throughout the whole of Siberia, especially where the
mountains have been recently explored, one meets constantly
with traces of an anterior culture, which had disappeared
ages ago.

The conquest of Siberia once achieved, the Russians were
not slow in invading the most remote parts of that country.
Some were animated by their love of gain (Promychlenniks),
i.e. adventurers of industry of every kind, particularly trap-
pers and furriers ; some by their love of adventure in an
abstract sense of the word, like the Cossacks ; some from
fear of a merited chastisement (criminals real or suspected) ;
others at last for religious reasons, as for instance, the "Ras-
kolniks " (dissenters).

In consequence of this influx of Russian elements the indi-
genous races generally receded before the advancing step of
the invaders, and from certain provinces have disappeared
altogether. Only in places where agriculture and permanent

6i THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

settlements are beginDing to develop themselves, maybe ob-
served an increase of population proportionate to tbe pro-
gressing improvement of the moral and material condition of
the country. This fact is verified in the most striking
manner by the case of the Burjates, Yakoots, and recently
also by that of the Kirghiz-Kaissaks.

Christianity, and the cultivation of the land and firm
maintenance of a strict law of property, cannot fail to pro-
duce a gradual transformation of the primitive conditions of
existence in Siberia, and Russia in particular seems destined
for the accomplishment of that task.

The river Yennissei divides Siberia into two parts, of which
the western half is the one principally inhabited by the Rus-
sians. This country is generally flat, only to the south of
the Tomsk Government mountains may be seen stretching as
far as the glacial regions.

The Ural, on account of its gradually sloping nature, can
hardly be considered a proper line of demarcation ; but the
produce of the soil, the nationality, languages, and customs
of the inhabitants of Perm decidedly partake already of an
Asiatic character.

Eastern Siberia — i.e. the governments of Yenisseisk, of
Irkutsk, and the provinces of Zabaikalsk, Yakutsk, Amoorsk,
and Primorsk — is generally considered to form the veritable
Siberia proper. The number of the Russian inhabitants of
this part of Siberia, of this land of terror and suffering, does
not equal one-half of the native tribes.

Amongst the 4,550,000 inhabitants of Siberia, including
the Kirghiz-Kaissaks and the Kirghiz proper, there are about
2,350,000 Russians, of which perhaps 200,000 are Cossacks.
The inhabitants of the Siberian towns are almost exclusively
Russian.

The trade of Siberia consists of a kind of exchange busi-
ness, where Russian manufactured goods are bartered for
cattle, fish, furs, &c. The Russian merchants have, how-
ever, to sustain an energetic competition on the part of Tartar
and Bookharah merchants. Troitskossavsk, near Kiakhta,

THE RUSSIANS OF SIBERIA. 65

the central point of Siberian commerce, is situated close to
the Chinese frontier and to the great Chinese trading town
of Maimai-tching. The quantity of goods (such as tea and
others) annually imported into Eussia by way of Kiakhta
amounts to about three million pounds sterling.

The civilized class of Siberia is composed almost exclu-
sively of civil and military officers. There is hardly any
bourgeoisie in the towns. Life amongst the above-mentioned
society consists of a perfect round of pleasure, enhanced by
the exhilarating influence of the beautiful South-Siberian
climate and of the splendour of a gigantic Nature. Under
those circumstances heart and mind expand and rise above
the narrow-minded prose of European life even amongst
more or less intimate connections. The name " Siberia,"
so startling to European ears, produces an electric effect on
whosoever has lived in that country, as it is sure to recall
sweet reminiscences. The lower class as well as the higher
both possess, more or less, the good qualities of the Russian
character without so many of its usual faults. The good
society of Irkutsk has all the refined manners and the bon
ton of Western Europe.

The interior of the houses is more comfortable, Parisian
fashion more brilliantly represented, and the champagne
sparkles there in greater profusion and better quality than
in many a fashionable saloon of the most important Euro-
pean cities.

While in Europe people think twice before they start on a
visit of a few miles distance, a ball in Siberia sometimes
brings together people from distances of 80 to 100 and more
miles, across rivers, hills, precipices, and over roads and
bridges which would terrify a European brought up in the
luxuries of a refined civilization.

The Siberian Eussians are of middle size, but strongly
built. In the northern parts the Eussian type is the predo-
minant; the people are fair and have blue eyes. In the
south the admixture of Asiatic blood may be traced in the
black hair, the small and dark eyes, and the projecting

66 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

cheek-bones. The voice of the Siberian Kussian is stronger
and deeper than that of his European countryman. His
character is more animated and passionate, and his gestures
are more lively and energetic. He is a bold backwoodsman,
and habitually carries arms ; even while ploughing his field
he wears his gun slung on his back.

The women are not handsome ; but strongly constituted
and industrious. The wife not only directs the household,
but she also tends the fields, sows, reaps, prepares the flax,
and makes the clothes, while the husband is away to earn
money by carting merchandise. They live according to
ancient customs, and display (especially as regards furs) an
incredible luxury.

Although the greatest part of the population has sprung
from criminals, their habits are pure and simple, and their
general probity is such as to render locks for the doors a
matter of superfluity.

The long speeches and profasion of words of which the
European Eussian is so prodigal, are unknown to the Siberian,
whose promises are all based on his word, which to him is
sacred.

A singTilarly beautiful and strong race of men, repre-
senting the true Russo- Siberian type, inhabit the districts of
Tara and Kaiinsk, in the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk,
and particularly the Baraba (incorrectly called the Bara-
binde Steppe). These are the descendants of Eussian emi-
grants. Honest, adroit, rich, free and easy in their manner,
dignified, and of a proud and imposing bearing (the result of
conscious strength and personal independence) they even
object to be called Eussians or anything but Siberians.
Many of them are severe sectarians. Fanaticism has been
known to have driven many of them into voluntary mar-
tyrdom by fire and other means.

The Siberian- Eussian is very superstitious, but not without
a strong element of poetry. Folk lore, fables, and legends
are rife there.

The Siberian generally speaks with a peculiar twang

THE RUSSIANS OF SIBERIA. 67

resembling a chaunt. Their grammar is not logically correct
and regulated, and the pronunciation of the words pecu-
liarly deviates from the original. Throughout the province
of Yakoutsk the Yakout language is being used by every-
body. In north-eastern Siberia the Koriako-Tchuktche is
spoken, and in Kamtchatka again they make use of a sort of
mixed dialect, composed of the Russian and divers other
tongues belonging to the indigenous population. The word
" Kamtchatka " is derived from " Kontchatj," to terminate,
and is a name appropriate to the geographical position of the
province.

CHAPTER VI.

THE RUSSIANS OF LITTLE-EITSSIA (MALOEOSSIANI).

They are after the Eussians of Great-Eussia the most
numerous tribe of the empire. During several centuries
Little-Eussia formed the political, religious, and intellectual
centre of the country. It was the cradle of the Cossack
system. Its peoples number 11,800,000 souls, and inhabit
the governments of Kiev (l,640,000),of Volhynia (1,120,000),
of Podolia (1,250,000), of Yekaterinoslav (880,000), of Vo-
ronezh (600,000), of Kursk (300,000), of Tauride (200,000),
of Bessarabia(150,000),ofOrel(150,000),of Saratov (50,000),
of Samara (50,000), in the country of the Cossacks of the
Don (80,000), and at last in the government of Mohilev
(40,000). There are moreover 215,000 Little - Eussians
inhabiting the kingdom of Poland.

The national centre of the Little-Eussians are the govern-
ments of Poltava, Tchernigov, and the parts contiguous to
Kiev, whence, since the end of last century, they have
extended as far as the steppes of Yekaterinoslav and Kherson,
and partly even to more northern districts. The purest
type attaches to the inhabitants of Poltava and Tchernigov.

As regards the intellectual condition and character of the
Malorossiani, they differ considerably from the corresponding
qualities as observed in the case of the Great-Eussians.
Amongst the latter may be observed a certain uniformity in
the distribution of mental gifts, but with the Malorossiani
the case is just the reverse, inasmuch as one meets amongst
them people of extraordinary mental endowments by the side

THE RUSSIANS OF LITTLE-RUSSIA. 69

of the dullest and incurable imbeciles. Intellectual strength
and weakness, wealth and poverty of mind, are brought into
frequent collision, producing thereby inevitable shocks. No
other Slavonic tribe knows how to lay hold of or pounce
upon the weak or ludicrous points in the character of their
neighbours, and to use them with greater poignancy than
the Little-Russian.

All the sarcasms, which the Eussian so liberally bestows on
the simplicity of the " Khakhol " (Little-Russian), on his
want of address and his capricious humour, are but feeble
imitations of the quick witticisms and gibes which the Malo-
rossiani themselves are in the habit of aiming at each other.
Caustic humour with them is a common gift ; it accompanies
them into all situations of life, and its effect is greatly
enhanced by the laconic dry manner in which they give
expression to it.

The Malorossian is generally suspected of being in an
excessive degree addicted to intemperance. This is, how-
ever, not strictly just. It is true he drinks often and much,
but rarely in excess of a prudent measure. While the real
Russian from time to time abstains for a few days, but only
that he may make up for it at other times by excessive
indulgence, the Malorossian drinks regularly every day, but
without ever making a beast of himself.

The price of spirits in their country being lower than in
any other part of Russia, the temptation is of course propor-
tionately stronger, and the moderate habits of the Little-
Russian therefore all the more meritorious.

Theft is a scarce crime in Little-Russia, and their language
has not even a name for that vice. They call a thief simply
a malefactor. Favoured by a more genial climate the Malo-
rossian generally lives more generously than the Russian, and
cannot do without at least one hot meal per diem. Less
scrupulous than the Russian in the observance of the exterior
forms and rites of the Church, the Malorossian has never
shown any predilection for sectarianism, and up to the present
day not one single dissenter {raskolnik) is found amongst

70 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

them. The constant oppression and religious persecution on
the part of the Poles produced no effect whatever on the
Little-Eussians, i.e. on the inhahitants of the left banks of
the Dnjeper ; for this people, which had always fought for
its faith, so as to prefer the wild life of outlaws in the steppes
to an easy existence held out to conversion, has ever remained
strictly faithful to its religion.

The poetical, dreamy nature of the Little-Eussian believes
still in elementary spirits and all sorts of demons. He has
inherited this superstition from his Pagan ancestors. He
thoroughly believes in the power of an evil spirit, who tries to
possess Man from the very day of his birth* The peasant's
anxiety for the earliest baptism of his new-born child is based
on the fear of its being turned (if a girl) into a water-
witch, or "russalka" (from russlo — ^brook), and (if a boy)
into a faun, forest sprite or " leshy " (from less — wood, forest).
The leshys and russaltas are not distinguishable from other
men or women, and the sign of the Holy Cross exercising
no effect on them, they thereby, differ from other evil geniL

The russalkas live in the water; but they often rise in
legions from the waves, for the purpose of dancing in the
moonlight on the prairies. They are so exquisitely beautiful
and enticing, that whosoever looks on their charms must pine
to death. Golden hair, from which clear drops of water like
brilliants sparkle, falls ia luxuriant curls on their snowy bosoms
and shining shoulders. Eyes blue like the southern sky, and
over-arched by velvety brows, a graceful, slender waist and
enchanting forms, complete the picture so attractive to a
poetical imagination. But these lovely beings possess neither
hearts nor souls. He who, captivated by the bewitching call
of a russalka, would follow and clasp her in a passionate em-
brace, would soon be goaded to frenzy by a certain sound and
ripple on the water, by the rank aquatic plant pressed to his
bosom, proving to him that he had been tricked by one of
these mocking nixes.

The Little-Russian's mind is filled besides with all kinds of
superstitious imaginations concerning sorcerers (Vedmas),

THE EUSSIANS OF LITTLE-RUSSIA. 71

and magicians (Vedmaks, oupyres), or wise men and women
fortune-tellers (Znakhars and Znakharkas). However thes e
good people are not considered as standing in any relationship
to the Evil one.

As regards the dialect spoken by the Little-Eussians, the
same may be said to have remained without hardly any
admixture, excepting a few Tartar words that have stolen
into it. It has remained far more faithful to the old Slavonic
than the proper Russian language, although the latter has
been adopted by the civilized classes, and moreover has re-
mained the book language.

Gogol has written comedies and other works in the Little-
Eussian dialect. The Russians are pleased to call the latter
rough and barbarous, which is all the more unjust, as, without
speaking of other merits, by which it is distinguished, it is
incontestably the only Slavonic Russian tongue, by which
the true epical and lyrical poetry of the Russian people has
been transmitted to the present generations. It has preserved
all the force and virgin quaintness of the mother tongue,
such as one meets with in the ancient Slavonic. While
still possessing many of the forms long since disappeared
from the modern Euss, it is also more sonorous and har-
monious to the ear. The tunes of the Little-Russian chaunts
and songs are original and very poetical. With the exception
of the songs which usually accompany all Russian dances
(but of which there are not many), they all tend to reflect
the mournful regret of a beatific past, never to return. Of
all Russian tribes the Little-Russians furnish the best
singers. The Imperial Chapel ever recruits from their
country.

Their songs, which from morn to eve resound in village,
field, and wood, are now generally of modern date, excepting,
however, those of the Tchornomorski Cossacks, their des-
cendants, who have still preserved their ancient Cossack
songs. The lays of the latter, known in literature under the
name of " doum," are uniform, melancholy, but expressive
of the historical subjects they tend to recall.

72 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

The Germans have beautiful translations of Little- Russian
poetry by Bodenstedt.

ECTHENES.

The Ruthenes or Russnjaks are the Little-Russians in-
habiting the right bank of the Dnjepr in the Governments
of Kiev, Podolia, and Volhynia, as well as in the south-
eastern parts of the kingdom of Poland. They are the
inhabitants of the ancient principality of Halitch, which
belonged to Poland, with the exception of the town and
borough of Kiev, in virtue of the treaty of Androussov.
These Ruthenes, under the double influence of the Poles and
the Jesuits, form a nationality altogether distinct from the
Malorossiani of the left bank of the Dnjepr. The inhabitants
of Volhynia may be considered to be the purest type of these
Ruthenes in Russia.

The exterior of the Ruthenes varies in appearance according
to the countries they inhabit, so that amidst a large assembly
of Ruthenes, such as, for instance, one might meet at a fair, it
is easy to recognize the inhabitants of each village by a certain
characteristic peculiarity of features and dress. Rarely tall,
they are powerfully built, and the men have very broad
shoulders. The women, though thin and pale, are pleasant
to look at ; their heads are small, their faces oval, and their
hair of dark colour. They are delicately built, and have very
small feet. Their diseases consist principally of fevers, ague,
and dysentery.

Piety, honesty, and hospitality are the characteristic
qualities of the Ruthenes. Neither they nor the Little-
Russians possess those engaging, amiable manners towards
the stranger, that, in so high degree, distinguish the genuine
Russian ; but their intentions are not less sincere and well-
meant. Like the Little-Russian, the Ruthenes manufacture
all the utensils they are in need of themselves, and are like
the former, economical to avaricein all excepting the con-
Bumption of liquor.

THE RUSSIANS OF WHITE-RUSSIA. 73

THE EUSSIANS OF WHITE-RUSSIA.

They inliabit the Governments of Mohilev, Vitebsk,
Smolensk, Tchernigov, Orel, Minsk, Grodno, and Vilna, to
the number of 3,000,000 souls. Separated by the Poles
from their Russian brethren, they rejoined the Russian
Empire only since the middle of the last century, i.e. after
the triple partition of Poland. They are the descendants of
the ancient tribes of the Krivitches and Dregovitches of
Eastern Russia, i.e. of one of the two Slavonic peoples that
had settled in Russia proper. Their union with Poland,
while separating them from the Russian Church, had not
been able to enforce their adopting the Roman Catholic
faith.

The Polish nobility and clergy striving with all the means
in their power to bring about the conversion of the whole
population to the Roman religion, the White- Russian
nobility first gave way to intrigues, promises, or intimidation,
and were followed by a great part of the people, but only
after a severe and prolonged struggle against unheard-of
cruelties and oppression. Notwithstanding the latter a con-
siderable portion of the peasantry remained constant and
faithful to the Greek Church.

The Russians of White-Russia proper are the real Bjeloruss,
and inhabit the narrow strip of land situated between the
Dvina and Dnjepr, and on the territory between those two
rivers, which unite White- Russia to the Baltic and the Black
Seas. This central position is of great importance in a
geographical and commercial respect.

One rarely meets among the Bjelo-Russ with the strong
constitutions, numerous families, the patriarchal and peace-
able customs of the peasantry of Great- Russia, who inhabit
fine villages, and well-aired, spacious houses. No more does
one encounter the lively Pole, distinguished in feature and
form, though perhaps somewhat blustering and vain, with
his slender, handsome, bright, and coquettish mate. Drained
by the Jews (who have fastened like so many vampyres

74 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

upon SO large a portion of the Russian populations), and by
the excessive use of spirits, of all means of comfort, the poor
peasant, after a hard day's work, finds but a wretched clay
hut without a chimney, a water jug, and a piece of the
coarsest possible bread, to rest his limbs in and to still the
cravings of hunger and thirst. Notwithstanding the low
degree of his civilization and his poverty, the White-Russian
peasant is an exceedingly good-hearted and inoffensive fellow,
though generally lazy, and backward in thrifty household
qualities.

This characteristic condition is caused partly by the
oppression they experience at the hands of the bailiffs or
stewards of the estates on which they exist, partly also by
the " Vodka " (liquor), which serves to impoverish their
blood and substance. This liquor, generally distilled from
corn or maize, is sold by the Jews. These latter know how
to render themselves indispensable to the peasant, even when
a good crop has seemed to reward his labours. The Jew
first of all refunds himself for all the loans he may have
advanced, obliges the peasant to buy all sorts of things, and
recoils not before any infamous trick, as long as he can draw
his unfortunate dupe into drinking his liquors, and spending
as fast as possible the last kopek he may possess. The
Russian Government has, however, for some years past,
interdicted the residence of the Jews in the White-Russian
villages, as well as the establishment of their liquor hells
within the parishes of that country.

CHAPTER VII.

THE COSSACKS.

We now come to this most interesting class of the Russian
population.

The word " Cossack," or, according to Eussian pronuncia-
tion, " Kazak," has been considered by some to be of Tartar,
by others of Tcherkess origin, as the latter, though called by
the rest of the world " Tcherkess," go amongst themselves
by the appellation of " Kashakh." Again, it is thought by
some Russian writers, that the term " Cossack " might be a
perversion of " Kaissak," originating with the Kirghiz-
Kaissaks. The Cossacks form a living rampart, from 5,000
to 6,000 miles in length along the entire Asiatic frontier of
Russia, i.e. from the Sea of Okhotsk in Easternmost Siberia
down to the Don and the Caucasus. They form a distinct
fraction of the Russian nationality. A series of violent cir-
cumstances, internal more than foreign, produced their
aggregation, which afterwards developed itself completely
during the struggle with the Tartar invaders and the warfare
with Caucasian tribes. The Cossack element acquired real
importance since the re-union to the Government of Moscow
of those principalities that had for a long time been separated
from the same, but particularly since the peasants had become
part and parcel of the landed properties, when the Empire
was troubled by religious agitations, and during the reign of
the false Dmitris, which had plunged the administration of
the country into an inextricably chaotic condition.

76 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

The Cossack system was a new form of organkation of the
" Commune " (Obshtshina) as it existed at the time of the
division of the Empire of Russia into several priiicipalities
before and during the domination of the Mongols. It soon
by its bold proceedings gave proof of the spirit that animated
it, and of which it was capable.

While the Cossacks of the Dnjepr owed their origin to
the oppressive yoke of the Mongols, against whom they re-
belled, those of the Don were born of the strife between the
old and new " regimes," i.e. of the Commune (Obshtshina)
against the yoke of the privileged classes, those of the^
lords and proprietors.

In constant warfare with hostile tribes and factions, the
sole cause and means of their existence being war, they were
glad to recruit their numbers from men of any nationality,
provided they were mighty in battle and of vigorous consti-
tutions.

Their importance was ever proportionate to the degree of
danger they encountered. When the latter gave way to ad-
vancing civilization, they were gradually restricted in and
deprived of their privileges. Unjust as this measure may
seem, it must not be forgotten, that with the disappearance
of legitimate foes their warlike disposition was apt to find
vent against their own countrymen. In search of warlike
adventure they were not at all scrupulous about the colours
they served, and often fought in the service of some of their
former and most inveterate enemies. The purpose of their
existence being war, they sought to live up to it at any price,
and, in the absence of foreign enemies, they became a
dangerous body, which kept Poland, Russia, Civilization, and
Christendom in a constant state of fear on account of their
perfidy, brigandage, and predatory habits.

Secretly in intelligence with the Swedes, the cunning and
ambitious Mazeppa played a most ambiguous part before the
Czar, Peter the Great, untU, unmasked by Menzhikov, he
and his rebellious followers were severely punished, and
after the battle of Poltava deprived of all their influence and
power.

THE COSSACKS. 77

Catherine II. abolished the dignity of the " Hetman "
altogether. After the Cossack revolt of the river Yaik
(Ural), she determined on the suppression of the ferocious
and undauntable " setch " of the Zaporoghian Cossacks of
the Dnjepr. The greater part of them refused to deposit
their arms, but emigrated to Turkey. When by a subsequent
treaty with that country the river Kuban was fixed upon as
the natural boundary line of the Turkish dominions, Cathe-
rine proposed to the Zaporoghians settling on that river in
defence of the new frontier. They accepted her proposal and
have ever since functioned in that capacity on the lands
appointed them.

During the reign of Ivan IV., Yermak, a Cossack brigand,
conquered Siberia, a country which, strange to say, by some
sort of fatality, has since become a place of punishment for
outlaws like himself. Since the last century, and particularly
in consequence of the revolts of Mazeppa and Pougatshev,
the Cossacks of Little-Eussia, of the Don, Volga, and the
Ural have lost their ancient privilege concerning the choice
of their own Ataman, or Hetman, and officers.

At the present day the Atamans nominated by the Czar
seldom belong to the Cossack race, and the Ataman-general
of all the Cossacks is " ipso jure," the hereditary prince of
the Russian crown.

The Cossacks vary in language and type with the country
they inhabit. Those of the Caucasus, for instance, have com-
pletely adopted the habits, arms, and dress of their ancient
foes, the Tcherkess. Intermarriages and similarity of customs
have nearly identified them with the latter, so that only ex-
perienced eyes are able to make distinction between them.
Agriculturists as well as warriors, they possess fine cattle
and horses in great numbers. Without calculating Bash-
kirs, Kirghiz -Kaissaks, and Caucasian militia, they can in
case of war send into the field 150,000 cavalry, 50,000 foot,
and a large park of artillery.

The government supplying them only with ammunition
and the artillery material, they must find provender for them-

78 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

selves and horses wherever they can, which they manage to
do by plunder. A cruel system ! They are particularly use-
ful as patrols, vanguards, and for the purpose of veiling the
movements of an army. The regular service of the army
is opposed to their nature and training. Excellent coast
and border-guards, foragers, and conveyers, they develop in
this kind of service an incredible sagacity, address, and
intrepidity.

The inseparable companion of the Cossack, his horse, is
eminently gifted with all the indispensable qualities of a rough
service. Small, but strong, and thriving on the most
wretched food, the Cossack steed, which is shod only on the
forefeet, will face any obstacle, and without baiting or repose
whatever, perform immense courses by night or day. The
Donski horse has longer legs and is of a lighter build than
the other Cossack horses. Its neck is longer and of greater
flexibility. Like all steppe horses, that of the Kubanski
Cossack is wary and timid, owing to the nightly aggressions
of the wolves to which their taboons are constantly exposed.
A certain apprehensive feeling prevents this horse from
abandoning itself unconditionally to the enjoyment of sleep,
and keeps it in a state of constant watchfulness, rendering
its senses exceedingly acute, a quality of vital importance to
its master.

The horses of the Uralski Cossack are the smallest, but
' also the most patient, the strongest, and hardiest of all.

The Cossacks of the Azov number about 10,000 souls. As
farmers they almost equal the German colonists, who are
justly considered the best agriculturists of Russia.

The Cossacks of the Superior Don River are mostly of fair
complexion, grey eyes, and of a vigorous constitution. They
also are good farmers, and take great pride in their horses
and cattle. Thrifty even to avarice, they understand en-
riching themselves in the service of the government. The
women do all the work of house and field, spin and weave,
and even make the clothes of the family.

Their customs and morals are most severe. They are very

THE COSSACKS. 79

sober, and observe great parsimony in dress and style of
living, and the women even exceed the men in these quali-
ties. They are greedy of gain, discourteous, and far less
hospitable than, for instance, the Uralski Cossack, who will
spend his last kopek in the cheer he delights to set before
his guests.

The intercourse of the sexes is subjected to most severe
rules, and music and dancing is considered fit only for women
of light character.

The Cossacks of the Lower Bon are generally dark-com-
plexioned and black-eyed. They are bold riders, and excel-
lent marksmen. They make superior soldiers, and are
therefore much esteemed in the military service, and ad-
vanced to posts of distinction. At home they occupy
themselves with divers small trades, commerce, agriculture,
and fishing.

The Cossacks of the Ural have preserved the Eussian type
more than any of the others, though less so in exterior
appearance, than in customs and language. They inhabit
the land on the river Ural (formerly Yaik) facing the Kirghiz
Steppe, and extending from Orenburg to Gouriev at the mouth
of the Ural river on the Caspian Sea.

This river, owing to its capricious, accidental nature, is
not navigable, but is most important on account of its fish.
Its bed being particularly adapted for the deposit of the
spawn, the fish abound here in prodigious numbers. The
quantity of caviar gained is incredible, and its quality the
best in the world. Part of the Steppe of the Cossacks is
only fit for the breeding of cattle, but above and below
Uralsk the country is very fertile and picturesque, rich in
pasture lands, forests, and cultivated fields. It is conse-
quently the most populated part of the district.

The Uralski Cossacks owe their origin to the bands of
Cossacks of the Don and Volga, who had fled before the ad-
vance of Murashkin, whom Ivan IV., Vassiljeveih in 1677,
had dispatched to those rivers with orders to punish the
Cossacks for their deeds of turbulence. They founded

^0 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Uralsk in the year 1622, and lent their support to Alexis
Mikhailovich against his Polish and Swedish enemies. In
1683 they were sent against the BasKkirs, and since Peter
the Great shared in all the glory of Russian military enter-
prise.

In Siberia the Cossack element after the expulsion of the
Tartars had nowhere found so vast a field for its activity,
or so easy a chance of booty, as on the Yaik. It has there-
fore in no other locality preserved its ancient spirit of liberty
in similar force.

The Cossacks of the Ural represent a fine and robust race
and are endowed with good sense and other amiable qualities.
They live in Stanitzas (of from 100 to 200 houses), built at
distances fi-om each other of fifteen or twenty versts (seven
versts equal four English miles). They are fond of luxury and
splendour, and never grudge their money in the exercise of
their hospitable feelings. Most of them can read and write,
for which they may thank the Eussian officers and officials,
who, grateful for the pleasant sojourn amongst these jolly fel-
lows, have generously striven by the establishment of libraries
and reading-clubs to raise their intellectual standard. The
" Raskolniks " (heretics, dissenters) amongst them are favour-
ably distinguished by the superior education they give their
children. Their mode of teaching is curious, inasmuch as the
children must invariably learn all their lessons by heart.
There are but few found amongst them who can neither read
nor write. Dissent is rather fashionable amongst these Cos-
sacks, for to 18,000 raskolniks and 50,000 " yedinovertsi "
(old believers) there are only 2000 souls belonging to the
orthodox Russian church. Of these numbers the dissenters
are the best educated.

The Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus are little distin-
guished from those of the Black Sea (Tchornomorski) or of
the Kuban. Like these they are active and bold warriors.
Camped on the western part of the Caucasus, on the Laba
river, facing the Tcherkess country, always amidst danger
and battle, they have acquired a high degree of intrepidity,

COSSACKS. 81

cunning, perseverance, physical strength, and subtlety of
spirit. They may with justice be called the Russian Tcherkess,
for by frequent intermarriages (the conquered women on both
sides ever becoming the wives of the victors), they have
become assimilated to the Tcherkess by blood and habit.
They number together with the Tchoruomorski Cossacks
about 250,000 souls, the males exceeding the females ;
25,000 of them are constantly on service. Their property in
live stock amounts to about 770,000 heads of cattle, 515,000
sheep and 87,000 pigs.

THE COSSACKS OF ASTRAKHAN.

They number but 1800 souls, and inhabit the banks of the
Volga from Saratov to Astrakhan. Their principal settle-
ment is situated in the country of Tchornoyar.

The country of the Orenburg Cossacks is divided into
twelve military districts. They amount to about 130,000
souls, the female sex forming the larger half Their
live stock consists of 75,000 horses, 100,000 head of
cattle, and 225,000 sheep. Their line extends over 250
geographical miles in length, and faces the Kirghiz and
other wild borderers. They are therefore constantly exposed
to danger and of a hardy and courageous disposition. It is
only in winter that they can enjoy some repose. During
the other seasons their life is one of risk and hardship.
Attached to them are a certain number of Bashkirs. The
steeds of the latter, though wretched in appearance, possess
most extraordinary faculties of endurance.

THE COSSACKS OF SIBERIA, TRANSBAIKALIA AND OF THE AMOOE.

Cited in history for their temerity and successful audacity,
they, under Yermak, conquered the enormous continent of
Siberia, the importance of which country has only recently
begun to be understood by the Russians. Another Cossack,
Moskvitin, penetrated through an immense steppe, covered
with snow, as far as to the Pacific Ocean.

82 THE LAITD OF THE CZAE.

A third, Deshnev, ventured in a small canoe npon the
Glacial Sea as far as the Arctic pole, and became the dis-
coverer of the " ddtroit," separating the old and new worlds.
They are advantageously distinguished from the Orenburg
Cossacks by a fine exterior, agility, address, strength,
intelligence and a superior style of existence. Their line
extending along the Kirghiz steppe is protected by many
isolated posts, and consists of a plain covered by forests of
birch trees and fresh and salt water lakes. Their houses are
infinitely superior to those of the Orenburg Cossacks.

OBSERVATIONS.

When in the year 1320 King Ghedimin of Lithuania took
Kief, a number of people fled from his cruelty, and settled
down near the mouth of the Dnjepr. Constantly attacked
by the Lithuanians, Poles, and Tartars, they defended them-
selves with great bravery, and ended by becoming the most
warlike comniunity Eussia has ever possessed. King
Sigismund of Poland in 1540 ceded to them in perpetuity
the territory above the falls of the Dnjepr. From this new
land they took the appellation, of Zaporoghian Cossacks
(porog — cataract). Stephen Bathory gave them a commander,
who took the title of Hetman or Ataman. Subsequently
oppressed by the Poles, who wanted to bring them into the
Eoman church, they threw off their yoke in 1654, and under
their Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitzki submitted to the Czars
of Eussia, The whole of Little-Eussia followed their
example, and were reunited to Great Eussia after a separa-
tion of 334 years. Though much more ancient than the
Cossacks of the government of Kliarkof, called the Slobodes,
the Zaporoghian Cossacks held the second rank. They
elected a leader called Kokherei Ataman. " Kokh " is a
Tartar word signifying " camp." Their principal residence
was called " Setcha," which means a fortified camp (otsetch,
Euss., to separate, cut).

CHAPTEE VIII.

The Eussian Serbians inhabit the government of Yeka-
terinoslav and Kierson. Emigrants of recent date, under
their Colonel Khorvat, they have quickly mixed with the
rest of the population.

The Serbian (lUyrian) nation has occupied since the seventh
century of our era the country on the southern bank of the
Sava to the frontier of Albania, and on the Morava as far as
the Adriatic. Their customs were simple ; they were hospit-
able, fond of music and song, but inveterate enemies of
oppression. Their character has retained these qualities to'
this day. They became Christians, and joined the Byzantine
Church in the seventh century. Previous to the Turkish
domination they had great princes and heroes. Amongst the
latter held the first rank Stephen Nemania, who conquered
Bosnia, and founded a dynasty, which bore his crown and
title for 200 years. This great sovereign (grand joupan)
laid also the foundation to a national hierarchy, which
under his successors insensibly became a completely indepen-
dent institution, and proved a powerful support to the crown.
The mightiest of all the princes of the House of Nemania
was Stephen Douchan, who lived in the fourteenth century.
After 300 years'' oppression by the Turks the Serbians rose
like one man in defence of their nationality, and after a
sanguinary struggle, which lasted many years, they succeeded
in preserving it. While the banks of the Sava and Morava
were stUl smoking with the blood shed in- this war of

G 2-

84 THE LAND OF THE CZAH.

independence, their echoes repeated the songs of a remark-
able national poetry, born, as it were, of the troubles and
dangers that had beset them. Slavonic taste, distinguished
at all times by its music and poetry, has produced nothing
to equal the warlike hymns and odes that were bred and
cherished in the forgotten mountain-gorges of Serbia. By
the side of a charming lyrical lore had risen up an epical
poetry, which recalled not only the memories of a glorious
past, but also of their vicissitudes during a period of
oppression and degradation. A frequent subject were the
recent battles, by which the people had known how to re-
conquer its independence. The merit of these powerfully
interesting creations is still further enhanced by the sweet
harmony and grace of the Serbian language. They number
about 6,000,000 of souls, of whom one half belong to the
Greek, a third to the Roman Church, and about 600,000
are Moslems.

THE BULGARIANS.

They number altogether 4,000,000 souls. Of these 59,000
.ire living in Russia, viz. 45,000 in Bessarabia; 11,000 in
Kherson; 2500 in Taurida. Out of the total 4 millions,
80,000 are Roman Catholics, 300,000 Mohamedans and the
rest G-reek Catholics. With the exception of 84,000, who
are Russian and Austrian subjects, they all belong to
Turkey ; emigrated into Russia since the beginning of the
present century, they are peaceable and laborious colonists.

THE POLES.

This once so great and always interesting nation is
represented in Russia to the number of 4,640,000 souls.
Their total number is eight and and a half millions, of which
two millions are in Austria, and 1,900,000 in Prussia. The
kingdom of Poland is inhabited by 4,764,000 souls (including
600,000 Jews, and 300,000 Germans). The government of
Grodno has 225,000, Podolia 205,000, Vilna 185,000,

BULGARIANS, POLES, LITHUANIANS. 85

Minsk 185,000, Volhynia 165,000, Kief 75,000, Vitebsk
70,000, Mohilev 40,000, Kovno, 30,000, St. Petersburg
18,000, Courland 13,000, Yekaterinoslav 4000, Livonia 3000,
Kherson 1000, Bessarabia 1000, of Polish inhabitants. The
sexes are about equal in number. They are good soldiers,
and have ever distinguished themselves by their valour.
The aristocracy are a fine class of people, well cultivated, and
of highly polished manners. Their ladies are exceedingly
handsome and elegant in manners and appearance, and are
therefore, like the Eussian ladies, great ornaments of society.

The Polish peasant is not handsome, but well-grown,
active, and brave.

The language is a daughter of the ancient " Lekhe " or
" Liakhe." With the exception of the Kasoobian dialect on
the left bank of the Vistula this language has no particular
dialect. The Silesian and Mazurian dialects contain many
German words. It is a very beautifal and rich language, and
has had great influence on the development of that of the
Eussian people. The Serbian language is the only Slavonic
tongue surpassing the Polish in sonority. The Polish litera-
ture is essentially flourishing at the present day, particularly
in Prussian Poland, whose inhabitants are distinguished
from all other Poles by a high degree of cultivation and by
the superior material well-being they enjoy.

THE LITHUANIANS.

They are half-brothers of the Slavonic peoples, with whom
they form a branch of the Indo-European race. The nearest
relations of the Lito- Slavonic nation are the Germanic race.
They inhabit the country south-east of the Baltic, to the
north of the Dvina and south of the Njemen. They number
now about 2,600,000 souls, i.e. 1,620,000 genuine Lithua-
nians (of which 820,000 Litvins and 800,000 Imoods or
Samoghetians), and 980,000 Letts. Of the Imoods 140,000
inhabit the easternmost part of Prussia, and 220,000 the
extreme north of Poland.

86 THE LAKD OF THE CZAR.

The period of their first settlement in the Baltic provinces
has not as yet been accurately ascertained. Constantly
fighting with hostile neighhours they preserved their savage
and warlike character for a very long time, and the fourteenth
century saw them still pagans. Their civilization began with
their subjugation by the Poles, they became Eoman Catho-
lics, and perfectly embodied with the Polish nation, so that
all that can remind one now of Lithuanian nationality is
limited to language, certain peculiarities of costume, and
some isolated specimens of affinity to their ancient paganism.

They proved most vexatious neighbours to the Kussians
ever since the middle of the twelfth century. In the depth
of winter they fell in great force upon the provinces of Po-
lotsk, Novgorod, Pskof, and even part of Volhynia, which
they completely sacked and devastated, until they were met
by Eoman Mstislavich, who having routed them, pursued
them to their very haunts. His cruel punishment was not
forgotten by them for several centuries.

During the Mongolian reign they had easy play with the
oppressed Russian nation, and under their Grand Duke
Eingold made repeated inroads into Eussia. Checked by
Alexander Nevsky he turned to the southern parts of the
country, took all the land as far as Pinsk and threatened
Volhynia. Pressed and defeated sorue time after by internal
and external enemies, Eingold invoked the succour of the
Pope Alexander IV., promising for himself and people to
join the Eoman Church. The Pontiif upon this at once
recognized his sovereignty, and reconciled him to his ene-
mies. But Eingold broke faith with him, and soon after
was assassinated by his own family (in 1265). Lithuania
passing into the hands of Prince Daniel of Halitch became
the victim of the sanguinary vengeance of Eingold's son,
who was a convert of the Greek Church. During the Mongol
reign of terror they repeatedly invaded Eussia. The real
founder of the Lithuanian-Eussian Grand-Duchy was Ghd-
dimin (1320-1345), who, though himself a pagan, still was
no enemy to Christianity. This great Prince conquered Vol-

LITHUANIANS. 87

hynia, Tchernigov, and Kief, held the Mongols in check
and attached those provinces by so strong a lien to his primi-
tive country, that henceforth they shared in the fate of the
latter, even subsequent to its loss of independence. Despot
and warrior like his ancestors and people, Olgherd, son of
Ghedimin (1345-1377) boldly bearded the Teutonic Knights
and the Mongols, and extended his power to the land beyond
the Dnjepr. Under his son Yaghello or Yagailo (1377-
1434) Lithuania became annexed to Poland. In the year
1386 Yaghello joined the Roman Catholic Church, and suc-
ceeded to the Crown of Poland through his marriage with
Yadviga (Hedwig) , grand-niece of King Casimir. In 1 4 1 3 he
provoked the separation of the Kief Metropolitan from that of
Moscow, but recognized the supremacy of Constantinople. His
body-guard consisted entirely of Tartars. When he ascended
the Polish throne, his cousin Vitold, though allied to Poland,
was almost independent Grand-Duke of Lithuania. He
became a Roman convert, defeated his neighbours, including
the Tartars, conquered Smolensk, and in 1401, together with
Yaghello, gave the " coup de grace " to the Teutonic Knights
at the battle of Tannenberg. But this independence could
not last long ; the Roman Catholic Church had already too
firm a hold on the people, and owing to Yaghello's influence
and bribes of new bright-coloured kaftans and red boots
svhich were distributed among the people, they speedily be-
came converts to that religion which their nobles, inter-
marrying with Polish ladies, had already embraced. The
Polish and Catholic elements henceforth predominated and
destroyed the independence of Lithuania, identifying its
history with their own. Interesting is the method by which
the Jesuits managed to bring about the conversion of the
Greek Christians to their own Church. They began by
establishing the so-called Union of the Greek and Roman
Churches, which was ostensibly based on the Florentine
Council. As soon, however, as the people seemed reconciled
to this innovation, the Jesuits straightway walked over the
bridge thus formed, and laid their destructive hand on the

88 THE LAND OF THE CZAH.

Church Union itself, which from this time became altogether
Eoman Catholic.

The Litvins and the Samoghetians differ in dialect,
customs, prejudice, and dress, as well as in the degrees of
civilization. The Samoghetians are better farmers, wealthier,
better informed, their villages are superior, and they live in
ease and cleanliness. The etymology of the name Lithuanian
lies in the words " Letoovi " (Lidtoovninkas) and " Letoova,"
by which they designated the name of their nation and of
their land. The old Latin name was " Lithvani " and
" Lithva." The name " Samoghetian " is derived from the
Lithuanian word, " Zemajtej " (he who comes from below),
i. e. who lives near the sea. The Lithuanians are fine men,
very fair, with blue eyes, which are large and next to pro-
jecting. The nose forms a line with the forehead. Their
skin is very white. The women are often extremely beau-
tiful, with regular features, a brilliant complexion, blue
eyes, fair hair, and slender waists. Their life, hitherto so
hard, and their way of living so wretched, have already
much improved since the emancipation of the serfs. Unfor-
fortunately, here also Jew and liquor vie with each other in
continuing as long as possible the miserable condition of
this poor people.

The women's lot is exceedingly hard. They assist the
men in all their labours, even when in a condition requiring
carefal attention. No medical man ever looks after them.
An old woman takes his place, who, when she finds her
skill insufficient, holds a candle to her patient's nose, and
knocks with a broom against the ceiling. Hardly is the
patient relieved, when she is made to swallow a draught of
hot spirits, mixed with red clay, hydromel, pepper, and
butter. After two or three days the latter returns to her
work, in addition to which she has now to nurse her
baby, who perhaps keeps her awake for whole nights
together.

The nurse first of all washes the child in cold water, in
memory of " Laooma " or " Laima " (the goddess of animal

LETTS. 89

and vegetable fecundity). For a whole year it knows no
shirt, but is wrapt in swaddling clothes.

The Lithuanians have preserved a host of traditions — songs
and proverbs — evincing a discreet state of intelligence. Their
legends have all a moral tendency and considerable poetical
value, and are proofs of the taste of this people for the mar-
vellous.

The Yatviaghians, the immediate southern neighbours of
the Lithuanians, and probably their brethren in race, are dis-
tinguished from them by their ferocious character. They
have completely lost their old language, and speak the Rus-
sian dialect of White-Russia, and profess the Greek religion.
They live in the districts of Kobrin, Bjelsk, Volkovisk, and
Brest-Litovsk (government of Grodno).

THE LETTS.

They number about one million of souls, and are distri-
buted throughout Courlande (460,000), the southern part of
Livonia (360,000), the western part of the government of
Vitebsk (140,000), that of Kovno (16,000), that of St.
Petersburg (3000), and the government of Pskof (1000).
They are Lithuanians intermixed with Fins — viz. Semigalls,
Zales, and Cours. This fusion is the result of Teutonic in-
fluence, to which the Letts are, on the whole, indebted for all
the good and bad that has ever fallen to their lot. About
the time of Christ's nativity, a people called the Venedes in-
habited the eastern banks of the Vistula; and still further to
the east lived the Esthonians, another people of Finnish or
Tchoodish descent, who then, as now, were distinguished by
their serious and taciturn character. The Venedes (now
Vends) were subsequently expelled from the environs of
Vindan and Riga by the Cours (then still purely Finns), and
who then went in search of the Letts — probably Finns, also
together with whom they founded the town of Venden.
The Esthonians, Livonians, and the Courlanders (Finnish or
Tchoodish tribes, spreading themselves from north to south
over Ae eastern coasts of the Baltic) became partly thrown

90 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

back by Lithuanian tribes in a north-western direction, and
partly absorbed in their mass. Part of this mixed race
settled in the country where now Vilna stands. The Estho-
nians were driven back to the north,^ the Livonians to the
west as far as the sea-coast, but with regard to the. Cours,
they preferred joining the victors in the -country to the south
oftheGulfofKiga.

The Letts (Latykhy of the Eussians) call themselves in
their own idiom " Liatvis," their land " Liatvejou-zemmd."
They belong principally to the Protestant church (750,000),
and there are about 170,000 Eoman and 60,000 Greek
Catholics.

The creeds they profess have a very varying influence on
their character. While the Protestants are generally thrifty,
laborious, and clean, the Catholics are lazy, ignorant, un-
cleanly, drunkards, and poor; but, however intellectually
dull, they are most bigoted to their religion.

Their country is inhospitable and covered by vast forests.

THE WALLACHIANS.

They represent a fusion of Daces (Celts), Romans, Sla-
vonians (also Getes and Petsheneghians). Of the 770,000
souls living in Eussia, 620,000 inhabit Bessarabia, 95,000
Kherson, and 13,000 Yekaterinoslav. They are a handsome,
thrifty, and peaceable race, and good agriculturists. They
are as yet very ignorant, and want the intellectual sparkle of
the eye, which alone ' can make beauty interesting. Their
morality is severe, and their women, who are pretty and
delicately built, are of a charmingly gentle and modest de-
meanour. Their features are seldom sharply delineated, for
their whole frame is peculiarly rounded off in all its details :
there is nothing approaching the angular form in their ap-
pearance. Their picturesque dress greatly enhances the
effect of their slender and upright figures.

CHAPTER IX.

THE OSSETS, OK OSSETINIAKS.

They are composed of four^ families — i.e. of the Digor,
Kourtati, Alaghir, and Tagaoor, of whicli the first and last
are the most important. Wakhoucht, in describing the
Ossets, attributes to them black eyes and brown hair, a small
and clumsy stature. Their women he states to be small, re-
plete, and rarely good looking. The author, who is inti-
mately acquainted with this tribe, agrees with Wakhoucht
regarding the colour of eyes and hair. He has generally
found them to be of middle size and slender build, though
exceedingly active and muscular. As there are exceptions to
every rule, so is there in this case, for he has seen very tall,
powerful, as well as a few small and stout men amongst
them. All the women that came under his observation were
of ordinary size and slender frames. Their features were
neither handsome nor ugly. They seemed all very hard
worked. The costume of the Ossets resembles that of the
Tcherkess, and is, like the latter, very picturesque and
practical. Their language is purely Iranian, and each of
the four families has its own dialect. It contains many
Germanic roots. A certain want of flexibility proves the
long contact of the Ossets with many different tribes, and
which has resulted in the loss to their language of the ancient
richness of the original Indo-European root. It is, however,
far richer and more supple than the modern Persian. It has
no literature whatever.

The Ossets call themselves Ironians, and their country

92 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Ironistan, while the Georgians apply to them the name of
" Osso " or " Osseti," after a kind of cheese they manufac-
ture. One half of them are Christians, the other Moham-
medans. Their system of Christianity partakes more or less
of Islamism and Paganism. M. de Pauly calls the Ossets
one of the rudest and most insignificant races of the Caucasus,
that had no taste for poetry, nor the chivalrous spirit which
so eminently distinguishes their neighbours the Cabardians
or the Tcherkess (Adighd), nor did they possess the religious
zeal and love of liberty of the Lesghi, who have only recently
been conquered.

The writer of this having had peculiarly favourable oppor-
tunities for observing this people, he may be allowed to differ
(with regard to their character) with the above-named great
authority. Their feats of horsemanship and warlike exercises
are by no means inferior to those of the Tcherkess, and their
himting exploits and daring chase of bear, wolf, and fox
would excite the admiration of the boldest backwoodsman
or fox-hunter. Surrounded as they always were by powerful
warlike tribes of domineering disposition and far greater
numbers, they have been driven to the wild refuges of the
almost inaccessible mountains forming the valley of the
Terek. It is highly probable that the recollection of former
oppression on the part of the above Caucasian nations had
induced them to neglect the comparatively easy defence of
their natural mountain strongholds, and to throw them-
selves, so to say, into the arms of a nation from which
they might expect permanent protection and chances of
speedy civilization. The author has had proofs of their
desire of becoming useful citizens of the great Russian
household by turning their swords, henceforth useless,
into ploughshares, and by embracing the habits of in-
dustry and thrift, which had raised the nations of western
Europe to the high standard of power and prosperity they
are known to enjoy. They were the first of the wild moun-
tain tribes who attempted the introduction of European
appliances. One of their principal chiefs, Moussa Kondook-

OSSETS. 93

hov, applied to an eminent Ipswich firm of engineers for
agricultural macliinery and utensils, and it is a pity that he
■was not supported in his anxious endeavours by those who
ought to have used every means in their power to ensure the
permanent settlement of an intelligent, docile race like that
of the Ossets. But the military authorities had little
sympathy for all that lived " k la Tcherkesse " and did not
belong to their own church. The consequence was, that M.
Kondookhov, a chief distinguished for his intelligence and
moderation, who had had the advantage of a St. Petersburg
education, and appeared well read and informed, joined with
all his tribe the Mohammedan emigration to Turkey in 1865-
Two of his boys, Asslam Beg and Khas-Bij, were frequent
visitors at the writer's house, and more high-spirited, gentle-
manly, and intelligent lads it would be difficult to meet with
anywhere. Although gratitude for the unbounded heart-felt
hospitality experienced at the hands of this people render
the task of vindicating their often- traduced character a matter
of great pleasure to the author, the above account contains
not a single word but what is strictly true and based on
personal experience. The reader will perhaps feel interested
in the narrative of the writer's reception by the Ossets, inas-
much as it furnishes an accurate description of the customary
manners accompanying similar occasions.

About Easter, 1864, we arrived at Vladikavkas, the
Russian town and fortress at the northern foot of the Kazbek
pass, and not very far from the celebrated ancient Caucasian
gates of Dariel (see Chapter I., Caucasus). After we had
for two days enjoyed the Easter hospitalities of some of the
Eussian officers (amongst whom I must particularly dis-
tinguish Cols. Yon Eglan and Lubinsky, as well as Col. and
Capt. Dudarov,two Ossetinian, cousins), a numerous company
of mounted Ossets, who had been sent by General Kondookhov
for the purpose of escorting us to his place, made their
appearance, and, in proof of the innocent and unpolitical
purport of our visit, included also the two first-named officers
in their invitation to their mountain home. The latter was

94. THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

situated in a long and wide valley of the Black Mountains,
at a distance of about 24 miles. The way led across a fertile
prairie clad in its best dress of early spring. Our escort,
numbering 100 or more men, entertained us, chemin faisant,
by feats of horsemanship and dexterous manoeuvres.

One man would ride ahead at full speed, and, at about 300
yards' distance, drop a piece of paper on to the ground. The
others then followed one by one in full career, and, without
pulling up, would discharge their guns at the paper, load
again with incredible rapidity, and without abating speed,
return again to the sport. They also tried to pick up a fur
cap which one had thrown down, in which feat several of
them succeeded with the greatest ease. The ride was
pleasantly interrupted by the arrival at a large village belong-
ing to the Ossetinian chief. Col. Mohammed Dudarov, We
rode into a spacious square court, at the one side of which
stood his neat dwelling-house, and a little apart from it the
hall of the guests, or "Kornatski." It consists of a large
hall, furnished by a huge fireplace, and ottomans arranged
Turkish fashion around the walls, which latter again were
hung with the arms and Tcherkessian maU. helmets and
armour of former times.

At the threshold of the kornatski we were received by Col.
Dudarov, who offered us the welcome cup of native porter
of excellent quality, with which we had to wash down a long
ceremonious speech in the Ossetinian language. After having
led us through the kornastki, we repaired to his own dwelling-
house, at the door of which we had to pass through a similar
ceremony, at which, however, Madame la Veuve Cliquot
assisted instead of John Barleycorn. The interior of the
house presented a mixture of Russian and Oriental comfort.
The conversation, interlarded by the pops of the champagne
bottles, became very animated, but as the advancing afternoon
soon put a stop to the banquet and drove us into the saddle,
the temporary damage done to the understanding of the
party only served to heighten the excitement of the sport.
When the sun had set some time we arrived at last at our

PERSIANS. 95

friend's house. He stood on the platform before his house,
in the midst of his brothers and cousins, waiting to receive
us. He wore a Tcherkess dress, of a beautifully delicate
lavender colour, and, after a hearty embrace and Ossetinian
speeches of welcome, which were separately confirmed by his
brothers, he led us into his most comfortable mansion, and
to his well-furnished dinner-table. The dinner was served on
silver, and all the tankards and other drinking vessels were
of the same metal and of most artistic form. The quality of
the victuals was exquisite. Besides the most delicious
mountain mutton and beef, there was an astonishing variety
of game. After dinner we repaired to the library, where we
lit cigars and talked till midnight. A clapping of his hands
was most promptly obeyed by half a dozen great bearded
mountaineers, who, pushing us on to the ottomans, despoiled
us of our dress with a dexterity which seemed to betray
considerable experience in the operation. During the night
we were guarded by half a dozen of tall and serious warriors,
who stood at the open door upright and unmoving like statues.

The limits of this work not permitting a larger space to
this subject, the full account of the author's stay amongst this
people must be deferred to another occasion.

Their villages are often situated in localities that seem
accessible only to the eagle or the chamois. The writer,
when watching their agricultural labours from the other side
of the valley, has often been struck by the grotesque aspect
of their teams of oxen, which, in toiling up the hill, seem to
stand on their hind legs and on each other's heads.

The chapter on Russian languages will also treat of the
Ossetinian dialects.

THE PEESIAiTS.

The Talychs, or Tolychs, of the government of Bakii, form
part of those of Persia, and inhabit the south-western coast
of the Caspian Sea. Their language is spoken in 140 villages
of that government. It is one of the Iranian languages,
and somewhat analogous to the Persian. They are of middle

96 THE LAI^D OF THE CZAR.

size, well-proportioned and of dark complexion. The Talychs
number near Lenkoran, in the government of Bakii, about
15,000 souls, and remind one strongly of the Indian type.
Although they keep their hair cropped close, they rarely
cover their heads. Their women, although of wild exterior,
are for that not repulsive, but rather good-looking. Their
character is pacific, generous, and hospitable, but they are
rather indolent In their morals they resemble their Tartar
neighbours. Their country is thickly wooded, and has a most
luxuriant vegetation. The soil is swampy, the air damp,
and the climate hot and unhealthy.

THE KOTJEDHS.

They represent no special, well-defined tribe, but have
been by many supposed to be the descendants from the ancient
Chaldeans, the Iranian nation of warriors and conquerors,
some legions of which, as far back as 2,000 years before
Christ, exercised a decisive influence on the Semitic tribes
living on the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. This same type,
as represented by the figures of czars and warriors in the
ancient Assyrian works of art, may be traced to individuals
of the present generation of Kourdhs. An indomitable and
eminently warrior-like spirit distinguished the Kourdhs from
the most distant time. The celebrated Sultan Saladin was a
Kourdh. Their resistance to the Mongols was most obstinate,
and Timour at last conquered a part of Kourdistan only at
an immense sacrifice of blood and time. In the 1 4th centiuy.
Sultan Soliman the Great invaded Western Kourdistan, but
the Turks had the greatest difficulty in maintaining their
possession. Their country is at present divided between
Turkey, Persia, and Russia, but with regard to the two first
powers their submission can only be called a nominal one.
They are constantly at war with those powers, for in the
Persians (their brethren in race) they see Khiites, so abhorred
by them, and in the Turks their odious conquerors, whom they
consider themselves privileged to rob and kill. The territory

KOUEDHS. 97

they occupy extends from 40° latitude West, or from Angoura to
N.E. of the great Salt Lake. It is but a few years since that
their hordes advanced as far as Constantinople. There are
a few in Mesopotamia, many in Syria, particularly in the
province of Aleppo. They are established on the whole of
the territory between Lake Ourmia and the Persian Gulf,
and may be found in equal numbers in the Khorasan (from
Khor-(pers)-Sun). Like the ancient Chaldeans, they are
expert in agricultural pursuits, and are altogether active and
clever workmen. Their principal wealth consists in cattle,
herds of sheep, buffaloes, cows, goats, horses, and camels.

They are tall in stature, and very powerful. Their heads
are round, throats slender. Their features are regular, the
forehead is. free, the hair black and thick, the nose aquiline,
eyes brown and brilliant, and complexion dark. The
expression of their countenance is on the whole agreeable,
energetic, and manly. The women are not often beau-
tiful. They are an aristocratic and feudal people, brave,
frank, honest in mutual relations, devoted to their princes,
modest, grateful, lively, and sociable. They love music and
dancing, are proud of their nationality, and cherish a pro-
found sentiment of morality. Their vengeance is sanguinary,
and they love plundering, but always strictly respect the
female sex. Amongst the Mohammedan nations they seem
to prepare for themselves an important future. Their lan-
guage, similar to the Persian, evinces considerable Arab
influence. The objects of their songs are their heroes and
their deeds of valour, their country, mountains, vales, and
brooks, &c. Although mostly professing Islamism, they
are on the whole indifferent Mussulmen. Then: Christians
belong to the JSTestorian sect. There are besides three other
sects of religionists : the Yessids, Ali-Ullakhi, and Tchorakh-
Souderan. The first believe in one God, Christ, and the
Virgin, but join to this creed some utterly foreign doctrines.
They have no religious books, eat the meat of cattle that
has met with a natural or unnatural death, and are fond of
spirits. Old women are with them objects of incredible

98 THE LAKD OF THE CZAK.

veneration. There are about a million of them in Asia Minor,
in Erivan only a few hundreds.

1st. The Ali-Ullakhi : Their God is called Ali, and the
cock plays an important part in their rites.

2nd. The Tchorakh-Souderan (extinguisher of lights) are
so-called, because they congregate at night, and are believed
to adore high trees, rocks, and other majestic creations of
Nature.

The Russian Kourdhs live principally in Erivan, Bakii,
and Koutais. Of the 11,000 souls, 7500 are nomadic,
and 3500 have fixed residences; 7000 are Mohammedans
(Khiites),4000 Sounnites, 300 Yessids, and a few Christians.

THE KTJSSIAN GIPSIES (TSTGANES).

They are supposed to be Indians, and are spread over a
great part of Western Asia, North Africa, and Eastern
Europe. In Egypt roam three tribes of them ; the Helebis,
Gagars, Nooris or Navers. The Navers of Palestine and
Syria call themselves Kourbats, Roumeles, Yingani ; all
lead a vagabond life, but occupy themselves also with divers
trades. In Persia most of them are saddlers (tsingars).
Their language presents great analogy to that spoken by
some of the peoples living between the Indus and Himalaya.
They were probably driven westward by Timoor (1408-
1409), for after 1417 they were suddenly seen in great
numbers in Germany. One of their tribes calls itself Yats,
which seems to point to the Indian tribe Yat There are
about 50,000 in Russia. In Trans-Caucasia they number
3000, who speak Turkish, and whose morality is detestable.
The remainder is distributed throughout the country in the
following manner: — In Bessarabia are 18,000; in Taurida,
8000; in Voronezh, 2600; in Kherson, 2500; in Kursk,1000;
in Moscow, 1000 ; in Kharkov, 1000 ; in Kief, 900 ; in Smo-
lensk, 800 ; in Poltava, 800 ; in Kalouga, 600 ; in Vitebsk,
600 ; in Rjazan, 600 ; in Orel, 500; in Samara, 500 ; in Tcher-
nigov, 500 ; in Yarosslav, 500 ; in Poland, 350, &c.

JEWS. 99

THE JEWS.

To the Semitic or Syrio-Arab nations belong the Jews,
Chaldeans, Syrians, Arabs, and Abyssinians (the ancient
Ethiopians). The immigration of Semitic tribes into Africa
took place probably anterior to Abraham. The Ethiopian
Jews most likely came from Asia, whereas the African
Ethiopians never went to Asia. The Abyssinian Jews,
called there " Falassians, i.e., the Banished," probably went
there after the conquest by Nebuchadnezzar. They have pre-
served their ancient customs, language, and sacred Hebrew
writings. Their race in the course of years has considerably
increased, for while at the period of their independence they
only numbered four millions, they now count already seven
millions.

The Jews of Eussia are divided into two principal fractions.
The first is formed by the Israelites or Talmudists, which
again divide into Rabbinists (Misnaghids) and the Kabba-
lists (Khassids). The second fraction are the Karaemes, of
whom by-and-by.

The Israelites are called by the Russians Yevreis or Jids,
the latter being their own execrable version of the German
" Jude."

There are about 2,000,000 of Israelite Talmudists in
Russia, viz., 600,000 in Poland, 195,000 in Podolia, 225,000
in Kief, 188,000 in Volhynia, 114,700 in Kovno, 95,500 in
Grodno, 97,500 in Minsk, 103,000 in Mohilev, 75,500 in
Vilna, 66,500 in Bessarabia, 60,500 in Kherson, 62,500 in
Vitebsk, 30,000 in Tchernigov, 25,500 in Poltava, 22,500 in
Courland, 13,000 in Yekaterinoslav, 4000 in Taurida, 2000
in St. Petersburg. The remainder are sprinkled over the
different Russian provinces, and some are met with even in
Siberia and the Caucasus. In many provinces their estab-
lishments in the villages are interdicted. This prohibition
is based on the experience of several centuries, and is easily
explained by the fact, that about one-third ol tlnir number

H 2

100 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

are proprietors of liquor hells. The common Jews live
generally in the Hi-famed quarters of the towns, in wretched
houses, in dirt and an unwholesome atmosphere. The con-
sequence is often an infirm age, scorbutic women, rachitic
children, and a hideous disease called " kaltoun." The air
in the houses is suffocating, and the latter are swarming
with vermin. Tin cleanliness is their constant companion.
Their sobriety is, however, unquestionable. They are generally
excellent husbands and fathers. They marry mostly at a
very early age, and boys of sixteen are often fathers.
Hygienic reasons make them abstain from many kinds of
food.

Amongst their artizans are watchmakers, engravers,
and jewellers, who enjoy a greater respect than the tailors,
hatters, dyers, carpenters, tinkers, smiths, upholsterers,
carriage makers, &c. The higher classes are represented by
bankers, merchants, manufacturers, contractors, and distin-
guished physicians. There are many highly-educated, exalted
men amongst this class, whose charitable munificence is
extended with equal liberality to people of all faiths.

The kingdom of Poland has the greatest proportion of
Jews. It amounts to about one-eighth of the whole popula-
tion. Warsaw has about 42,000 out of a population of
161,000 souls. They seem to crowd principally in places
where political and household matters are most disordered.
The two great centres of the Jews in Russia are Berdytcheff
in Volhynia and Shklov in the government of Mohilev. The
greatest part of the Odessa trade is in the hands of Jews.

THE KARAIMES (THE SECOIJD FRACTION).

Their number in Eussia amounts to about 6000 souls, of
whom 4000 are in the Crimea (near Bakhtchissarai, in the
borough of Tchoufoute-Kald, also called town of the Ka-
raiimes), 700 in Kherson, 500 in Vilna, 300 in Volhynia, 250
in Kovno, and 500 in the Caucasus. They enjoy great credit
and privileges in Russia. They maintain their doctrine to be

" KARAiMES. 101

the pure Mosaic, and free of all spurious innovations. Ac-
cording to their doctrine aU celestial and terrestrial bodies
are created, with the exception of the Creator himself. " At
the day of judgment," they say, "the Lord will awaken the
dead, that they may rise and be judged according to their
deeds. The Lord has punished his chosen people by banish-
ment, and from Him direct one must daily expect the
Messiah, the son of David." They reject all verbal tradition,
and keep strictly to the old text of Moses. They were sepa-
rated from the Israelites already before the advent of Christ,
and came first into Europe with the Arabs, amongst whom
they lived in Portugal and Spain, and afterwards in North
Africa, for several centuries. Their principal centre has been
Cairo. They are found in Europe, in Russia, Moldavia,
Vallachia, Gallicia, and Constantinople; in Asia, on the
Euphrates, and in Persia. In the Crimea they write Tartar,
their maternal language, with Hebrew letters. The Hebrew
language is known alone to their "savants."

At Constantinople they speak Greek; in Egypt and on
the Euphrates, Arab ;. in Western Russia, Polish. The dis-
tinctive traits of their character are modesty, purity of
morals, love of work, and sobriety. Their society includes
no lazy characters, beggars, or criminals. Their word is
implicitly believed in by everj-body. They are generally tall
and robust, have black hair, and very cleanly habits. Their
women are beautiful ; their skin is white, and their eyes of
the fine shape and colour of those of the Oriental women.
They are honest, moderate in business, and esteemed by
everybody.

CHAPTER X.

THE AKMEXIASS.

They are one of the most ancient peoples of the universe,
and distinguished for their early and precocious civilization.
They inhabit in close numbers the hills of Asia Minor and
Iran, and notwithstanding the great and constant vicissitudes
they have undergone in the course of many centuries,
have maintained their nationality and religion with Oriental
obstinacy. Their country being situated on the very high-
road of Asiatic and European invasion, it alternately became
the battle-ground of Assyrians, Medians, Persians, Romans,
and Parthians, Sounnites and Khiites, Russians and Cauca-
sians. They are the Jews of the East ; like the latter hated
and despised, though indispensable. Their history com-
mences 2000 years before Christ. They trace their origin to
Haiii (G-aitk), great grandson of Japhet, who is believed to
have settled in Assyria subsequent to his revolt against Bell.
For this reason they call themselves " Hai " or " Haiks,"
and claim a near relationship with the Persians. This name
became current amongst them since Aram, sixth successor
of Haik. Their country, Armenia or Haistan, takes these
two names from the above sources. It is divided into Great
and Little Armenia by the River Euphrates. A part of their
territory was always independent, others were under Median
and Persian supremacy till the conquest of Alexander the
Great, who killed the last sovereign of the house Haik in
battle. His name was Vaghe. They subsequently made
submission to Mithridat I. the Great (Arsacis VI.) of Par-

AEMENIAJSrS. l03

thia, who placed one of his relatives on the throne, whose
family reigned for six centuries, viz., from 149 b.c. till
A.D. 428.

Theodosius the Great divided Armenia with the Shah of
Persia about a.d. 387. In the year 885 a member of
the Jewish family of Bagratis received the title of Czar
of Armenia, from the Caliphe Mohammed. In consequence
of this circumstance great trouble came over the country
under three dynasties of native princes (till 1080). At the
beginning of the twelfth century the Turks (Seldshoukides)
conquered Great Armenia. Supported by David II. of
Georgia, Armenia passed alternately into Turkish and
Georgian hands, until at last, between the years 1232-39,
it became the prey of the Mongols, who devastated it com-
pletely. From this time it lost all political significance, and
fell afterwards into the power of the Turks and Persians. In
1828, it was acquired by the Russians.

Christianity had been introduced into the country as far
back as the year 300 during the reign of King Tiridate, by
St. Gregory. However salutary the same may have operated
on individuals and their morals, poUtically it proved ruinous
to the country, in destroying its warlike character and
exposing it to the hatred of surrounding Pagans and
Moslems.

In 406 a new alphabet was ordered by Patriarch Isaac,
and the Bible translated. The former consisted rather of the
old alphabet perfected and augmented by seven letters. In
491 the Armenians called a National Council, which resulted
in their solemn separation from the Greek, and forming
henceforth a Church of their own. The principal dogmata
of the Armenian Church are the following : " Christ is of
one substance only. The Holy Ghost emanates alone from
the Father. The torments sinners have to suffer in the
next world are not eternal," &c. The Armenians celebrate
Baptism and Confirmation conjointly. For the Sacrament
of the Eucharist they use pure wine and leavened bread.
The latter is steeped into the wine, and thus is passed from
one to the other.

104 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

The Armenian-Grregorian Ohurch in Russia numbers
400,000 adepts, 1000 churches, a few monks and nuns, and
upwards of 2000 priests. The Nestorian sect numbers about
1000 souls. The latter admit of bigamy. Their church
service aud sacred books are performed and written in the
Syriac language. The total number of Armenians is about
two millions, and they live nowhere in compact masses.
Their Eussian subjects reside mostly in Trans-Caucasia, ,
viz., 120,000 in Baku, 100,000 in Erivan, 75,000 in Tiflis,
40,000 in the government of Kutais, 15,000 in that of
Stavropol, 15,000 in Daghestan, on the Terek and Kouban.
European Russia is inhabited in the following provinces:
in Yekaterinoslav, 19,000; in Astrakhan, 6000;, in Taurida,
4000; in Kherson, 3000; in Bessarabia, 2000; and a few
hundreds at St. Petersburg, in Podolia, and Moscow.

The Armenians lost much of their individuality of character
and morality in consequence of their long oppression by the
Turks and Persians. Weighed down by the foreign yoke,
they learned to think only of their own material interests.
Vaunting, full of self-love, and greedy for honours and
distinction, they still prefer applying their faculties to peace-
ful pursuits and literature. They acquit themselves well
under arms, and may boast of some of the most remarkable
individualities amongst the most valorous chiefs of the
Russian army.

The territory of Russian Armenia is mountainous and of
volcanic formation. The rocky ground is covered by a thin
stratum only of humus or mould, which is productive alone^
when constantly kept moist by a laborious system of irriga-
tion. Without this the land would be an arid desert, similar
to the higher localities, where irrigation has deteriorated
owing to the indolence and neglect of the inhabitants. An
English engineer has been for a considerable time engaged
in tracing the whole of Trans-Caucasia, and in drawing up a
system of irrigation on a gigantic scale. Probably the state
of the treasury of the country may not for the present permit
of the execution of this sclicme, but there is no doubt but

ARMENIANS. 105

that it will be carried out before long, for the advantages that
must result from it are too immense, not to excite extraor-
dinary efforts on the part of the Russian G-overnment.

The high antiquity of the now existing canals is proved by
the flourishing and prosperous condition of the country and
its inhabitants nearly 3000 years ago. It may be divided
into three differently conditioned parts, viz., the high
mountain land, the moderately hilly country, and the low-
land or , plain. The last is the hottest, richest, and most
densely populated.

The Armenians may rank with the most beautiful races of
the earth. They are well-proportioned, of smaller and more
delicate build than the Georgians, and dark complexions.
Their eyes are large and black, theh profile frequently Greek,
the forehead perhaps slightly too low, and their chests too
flat. Their character is mild and calm; they are polite,
unobtrusive, moderate, and remain true to old customs and
ancient occupations. Ignorant perhaps and uncultivated,
they are endowed with considerable capacity and good sense.
Their excellent memory favours the acquisition of foreign
languages, though their pronunciation is generally defective.
The Armenian is essentially rational, sentiment being with
him of very secondary consideration ; therefore the litera-
ture of the country, once sufficiently rich, contains no poetical
production. With the genius of speculation, his address and
cunning, he possesses the remarkable faculty of accommo-
dating himself to circumstances, and to conform his occupa-
tions to the latter. At home he is farmer, in Eussia merchant,
and in the Caspian provinces he grows silkworms. He holds
steadfastly to his religion and nationality, aad zealously
contributes towards the expenses and maintenance of his
churches and monasteries. Mutual sympathy, and a strong
feeling of national fraternity, bind all Armenians together.
They encourage arts and sciences, and strive to give their
children the best education their means will allow. Those
educated in Russian colleges have made an honourable
name for themselves in divers careers. They are patient,

106 THE LAND OF. THE CZAR.

diligent, calculating, and sober to excess, so to say. Their
manners are insinuating and seductive, but their attachment
disappears with the opportunity for gain. Their women are
indolent, or rather lazy to immovability. Their costume
resembles the Persian.

The villages are dirty and badly kept. Family and cattle,
including swarms of insects of numerous species, aU live to-
gether in the greatest harmony. In the country about
Nakhitchevan the misery is dreadful and general. Their
songs are anything but melodious, their music loud and
monotonous. Their dances are certainly not graceful. The
Armenian language is poor, inflexible, and uniform. Its
many nasal and guttural consonants render it disagreeable
to the ear ; the pronunciation is monotonous, and wanting in
harmony. It possesses many Arian roots, but of all the
Iranian tongues the Armenian deviates mostly from the
Arian idioms in general.

CHAPTER XI.

THE GBBMANS.

The German class of emigrants called into Eussia by the
Czars Ivan III. and IV., or their descendants, are, for the
most part, established in the towns as artists, chemists,
physicians, merchants, professors, &c. Their artizans, who
are generally hard-working, talented, and persevering, in
most cases succeed in making a little fortune, which again
enables them to start their children in commerce, send them
to college, or to let them embrace the military profession, &c.
The younger generation, born in Russia, but brought up
in genuine German style, anxious to pass off for Russians
by the adoption of the language and manners of the country,
generally share the unfortunate fate of a go-between or
neuter production, for they deceive nobody by their swagger,
least of all the Russians, who esteem far more the original
German character than this kind of bastardism, which is
devoid of a decided national basis.

The German colonists live in more or less extensive vil-
lages or colonies. The generations born in Russia have
preserved the language, even dialect, habits, religion, and
morals of their old country. Although the Czars Ivan III.,
IV., and Peter I. had recognized the advantage of colonizing
the country by a steady, hardy, and intelligent race of thrifty
farmers like the German peasants, it was principally Catha-
rina II., who first conceived the idea of colonizing the
greater part of Russia on a large scale. Her intention was
crowned with success as regards the populating of the steppes.

108 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

but with the exception of the districts of Taurida and Kherson,
the G-erman colonists had not that moral influence on the
native population which the high-minded Empress so ardently
desired. In December, 1762, an Imperial Manifesto was sent
forth into aU countries inviting foreigners (except Jews) to
come and settle in Russia. They were to become Eussian
subjects, and the Government undertook to famish the means
for their comfortable settlement. The following were the
rights and privileges granted them : —

] st. Free religious exercise, permission to build churches,
and to have their own special clergy, who however had
not to attempt proselytism except in the case of
Mohammedans.

2nd. They were to be exempt from all taxes for thirty
years.

3rd. The colonies were to have the right to their own
administration and parish laws, provided the latter
did not interfere with those of the country.

4th. They were to be free for ever from all military
service.

By all accounts, it seems that the last convention is now
in great jeopardy of becoming a dead letter, as not only all
German colonists, but even the Mennonites, a sect to whom
all warlike work is an abomination and strictly interdicted
by their religion, are henceforth to be subjected to the new
Military Law, according to which every Eussian subject must
serve his country (be he prince or beggar).

It is said that the Mennonites and many German colonists
even have resolved to leave the country rather than submit
to the infringement of their privileges. The future
wiU show the result. It is certainly a difficult matter to
defend the abolition of an old right; but it is also well
known, that a great lapse of time will bring about circum-
stances which might render the strict execution of ancient
laws, particularly when they refer but to a small community,

GERMAJ^ COLONISTS. 109

a matter of peculiar and pungent irksomeness to the rest of
the nation, and seriously interfere with the carrying out of
so great and practical a law as the new military regulations.
The German colonists, if they will only patiently and fairly
consider the matter, cannot but come to the conclusion, that
what is fair to one portion of the public must be so also to
the other. They have had upwards of a hundred years of
peace and prosperity. Most of them had been of the poorest
class of peasants in their own country. Owing to the fine
climate of South Russia and the great encouragement they
have always experienced at the hands of the Government,
they have mostly become wealthy, have large and comfort-
able houses and outbuildings, extensive fields, cattle, horses,
and money at their bankers'. If the spirit of fairness and
equity be not sufficiently strong to make them submit
to a regulation which exempts none of their fellow sub-
jects, whatever may be their rank, surely gratitude for
many benefits received ought to press down the scale. Be-
sides the colonies of Saratov — of which that of Sarepta (a
settlement of the Moravian Brethren, situated at a distance
of fifteen miles from Tsaritsin, on the Volga,) is the most
known and endowed with exceptional privileges — colonies
were founded under Catharina, i.e., in the Baltic provinces
and the governments of Tchernigov (1766), in those of Vo-
ronezh and St. Petersbufg (1767), in New Russia, in the
government of Yekaterinoslav, where the Prussian Mennonites,
a sect distinguished for their morality and industrious, peaceful
habits, founded several settlements. Emigration and coloni-
zation to and in Russia continued during the succeeding
reign, Odessa and Theodosia forming the centres of the Ger-
man colonies in South Russia. New Mennonite colonies were
established in Taurida ; Bessarabia and Poland also received
a large share of German colonists. Between 1817-18 the
Wurtemberg emigrants settled in Georgia. The Njemetzki
Colonja, or German colony of Tiflis, is one of the richest,
and forms almost the finest quarter of the town. The mem-
bers of this settlement are all wealthy.

110 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

The colonists are distributed throughout Russia in the
following manner : —

Souls.

In the Government of St. Petersbnig 4,000

,, Livonia (near Vendeu) . . . . 300

. ,, Tchernigov (at Krolevets, 2 colonies) . 800

„ Voronezh (1 colony) .... 1,000

„ Saratov 110,000

„ Samara 80,000

„ Tekaterinoslav 20,000

„ Kherson 50,000

„ Tam-ida 27,000

Bessarabia 22,000

,, Orenburg ...... 1,500

,, Stavropol 1,000

„ Grouzia 3,000

On the rivers Kuban and T^rek 500

The German colonies are distinguished by their appearance
alone from aU other inhabited places of the country around.
The villages are surrounded by enclosures, although each
house is, built separate from that of its neighbour. The
houses are the precise copy of those of the native German
villaga The colonist's dress and utensils have remained
the same, with the exception of the sheep-skin coat of
winter, which the rigorous climate has made him adopt.
His language betrays the primitive dialect, although strongly
interlarded with Russian words. As already stated, the
greater part of the German colonists are in easy circum-
stances, many of them even very rich. One of the Tauridian
German sheep farmers, Fein, who died in 1866, and with
whom the writer was well acquainted, left a princely fortune,
part of which consisted in about 330,000 sheep. The colonists
have the great and undeniable merit of being the first
to introduce into Russia the principles of good agriculture
and thrift The class of the better artizans in Russia consist
for the greater part of Germans.

THE SWEDES.

In type, physical and moral conditions, they closely
resemble the German. Their number is about 200,000:

GREEKS. 11 L

viz., 185,000, wlio speak three diiferent dialects, are settled
in Finland ; in St. Petersburg, 8000 ; in Esthonia, 6000 ; in
Livonia, 400 ; and in Kherson, 300. They hardly differ at all
from the inhabitants of the mother country. They are fair
of complexion and strongly built; their women slender,
active, vigorous, and pretty. The Swedes are very laborious,
and earn a decent livelihood by breeding cattle, hunting,
fishing, navigation, and agriculture. Their little roan horses
are in high request in Russia. The Swedes of St. Peters-
burg are almost exclusively merchants or employers of
the administration of the capital itself. M. Russwurm, of
Hapsal, in his book " Eibofolke," says of them : " The
Swedes of the Esthonian coasts, especially those of Runoe,
Rogoe, and Odinsholm, are fair, fresh-coloured, and well
made ; they are strong, active, patient, and capable of sup-
porting dangers and the rudest toil. Their countrymen,
who are settled on the rivers, call them ' Eibofolke,' or
inhabitants of the islands ; the Esthonians designate them
by the name of ' Rootsi-zahvass.' "

M. Kunik mentions them in the following terms : — " To
obtain a true idea of the vivacity of the old Normans, and
of their physical strength at the time of Rurik, one must
make the acquaintance of the 'Eibofolke.' " With regard
to Russian ethnography, they deserve particular attention.
Their salient virtues are their honesty, a,nd considerate and
reflective character. Unfortunately, however, they are still
very superstitious.

TEE GREEKS.

They number about 60,000 souls; of which, in the govern-
ment of Yekaterinoslav, 33,000; in Bessarabia, 3000; in
Kherson, 3500 ; in Taurida, 5000 ; in Tcbernigov, 2000 ; in
Podolia, 200; in Trans-Caucasia, 5000; besides a small
number on the coasts of Southern Crimea and at Astrakhan.
Many merchants of their nation are established at St.
Petersburg and Odessa ; they are almost all very wealthy,

112 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

and living in a most luxurious style. In Bessarabia exists a
settlement of about 1000 Arnaouts.

THE HINDOOS.

A small number of this people inhabit Astrakhan and
some points on the Caspian coasts, and are engaged in trade.
At Baku is living a little company of fire- worshippers. In
the neighbourhood of the " eternal fires of Bakii " stands a
kind of temple, in which these people perform their nocturnal
rites, a wretched parody on the doctrine of Tserdoucht. The
sight of the old shrunk figures stalking about in the light
of those spontaneous flames, like so many ambulating
phantoms, macerating their nearly naked and extenuated
frames, offers one of the most singular and interesting
spectacles that the world can produce.

CHAPTER XII.

THE POPULATIONS OF THE CAUCASUS.

The territory of the Caucasus comprises about 8000 square
miles, with a population of 4 million souls, 1,750,000 of
■which are Christians, and 2,250,000 Mohammedans. The
Caucasian nations, properly so called, may be classified
as follows: viz. — 530,000 Georgians, 650,000 Lesghians,
150,000 Kistes (Tchetchents), and 500,000 Tcherkess.

The Iranian race is represented by 30,000 Ossets, 18,000
Persians, 11,000 Kourdhs, and 365,000 Armenians. There
are, moreover, 900,000 Tartars, 32,000 Kalmuks (in the
government of Stavropol), 11,000 Jews, 5000 Greeks, 5000
Germans, and 3000 Bohemians or gipsies. The Russian
population (including the Cossacks) amounts to 760,000
souls.

Owing to the continual wars and political disturbances,
to the invasions and dominations of barbarous tribes, which
for centuries devastated the country, decimated the people,
and destroyed every germ of civilization that from time to
time had ventured to the surface, the people are now just
as poor and backward in cultivation, as the magnificent
country they inhabit is rich and profuse in natural resources.

THE TRIBES OF THE KHAETLE EACB.

They inhabit the country between the Black Sea coast
and the junction of the Kour and Alazan rivers, the Great
Caucasian range, and that of Adjara, or the Little Caucasus.
The Khartle race is represented by about 30 tribes, the

114. THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

most important of which, at the present time, are the
Lnerethians, Mingrelians, Grourians, Ssuanes, Pshavs, Toushes,
Khevsours, but, above all, the Georgians and Grouzinians.
On the Turkish portion of the Black Sea-shore live the
Lazes, a tribe of savage brigand mountaineers.

Eussia has been for many years in amicable correspond-
ence with the Cakheti and KarthK country, the inhabitants
of which, once so powerful and wealthy, were their co-
religionists. Timoor's victories brought all these tribes
under the oppressive yoke of the Turks and Persians about
the year 1400. They were, besides, exposed to the constant
attacks of the half-savage bands of theLesghifromDaghestan.
At the time of the collapse of the Byzantine empire, the
Grouzinians implored Eussia for help. In 1783 Catharina 11.
took them under her protection. In 1801 the Grouzinians,
in 1803 the Mingrelians, in 1804 the Imerethians, and in
1810 the Gourians, became formally annexed by Eussia.
Ssuanethi only recently followed the above tribes.

The Georgians pretend to a descent from Karthlos, the
great-grandson of Japhet, and younger brother of Haik, or
Haos, the founder of Armenia. The Armenians call them
"Virk" (plur. of "Vir," from Ver, above). With the
Persians they go by the appellation of Kourdji, or Gourdji
(after the Eiver Kour — from Kyros or Cyrus). Georgia is
divided into the following parts : —

1. Aghovank, Aghovami, or Albania, situated on the

south-eastern slope of the Caucasian range. The
Albanian people trace their descent to the Armenian
patriachs.

2. Cakheti, comprising the present districts of Telav and

Signakh, on the banks of the Alazan. The name
Cakheti is derived from Cakhos, one of the eight sons
of Karthlos.

3. Somkhethi, which since 1100 has always formed part

of Georgia.

POPULATION OF THE CAUCASUS. 115

4. Samtzkhe, or Saatabago since the establishment of the

Georgian Atabeks during the twelfth century.

5. Imerethia, which owes its name to its situation "beyond"

the Mount Likh, as " Imier " signifies beyond.

6. Akhal-Tzikhe, occupying the south-eastern extremity

of the government of Kutais, was ceded to Russia by
the Turks in 1829. This tribe represents the purest
G-eorgian blood.

7. Abkhazia (Aphshegh of the Armenians, and Apsilia of

the Byzantines). Its real name is Abjib, signifying
" half," or the part situated in the middle.

8. Mingrelia {Arm., Bgher ; Georg., Egrisi) takes its

name from Egros, brother of Karthlos.

9. Gouria, between the rivers Rion and Tchorokh. (Deri-

vation of name not as yet discovered. )

From the time of David II. to the invasion of the Mongols
all the tribes of the Karabagh, Shirvan, and Daghestan
were tributaries of the Georgian monarchs. Even Trebizond
fell before the arms of the great Queen Thamar. During
the eighteenth century all the country between the Lars and
Araxes obeyed the valiant and restless Heraclius II.

In the year 302, before Christ, Pharnavaz, governor of
Mtzkhetha (contemporary of Alexander the Great), founded
the kingdom of Georgia. To him has been attributed
the compilation of the Georgian alphabet, although the
Armenians maintain that one of their own teachers, Mezrob,
had been its author.

The fact is, that the Georgians possess two different kinds
of writing, i.e., one with round letters, very similar in cha-
racter to those of the Zends and Pehlvis, the other resembling
the Armenian characters. A double origin is therefore
highly probable.

The Georgians became Christians about the year 325.
Eusthades, Patriarchof An tioch, baptized the people without
meeting with any resistance. Since 596 the Georgian Church
has been a branch of the orthodox Greek Church. At the

116 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

end of last century it was stiU dependent on the Patriarch of
Antioch, but stands now under the Sacred Synod of St.
Petersburg.

During the seventh century Georgia fell into a de-
plorable state of abasement. The wars of Heraclius and
the everlasting struggle against the Mohammedans impo-
verished and ruined the country. From the time of its
foundation it was constantly disquieted and convulsed by
the contentions between the different dynasties, who alter-
nately had the direction of the kingdom's affairs. Their
reigns fall into the following periods : —

The Karthlosides or Pharnavazides reigned from 302 to
164 before Christ, and from 2 before to 186 after Christ.
The Nebrothides governed from 162 to 93 and from 33 to 3
before Christ ; the Arsacides from 93 to 33 before Clirist,
and from 186 to 265 after our Lord ; the Khosroides from
626 to 570 and from 619 to 786 ; the Bagratides at last from
576 to 619 and from 787 to 1801.

In the eighth century the Georgians were called upon to
defend their country against a terrible Arab invasion. The
Khazar wars preceded the second period of the Bagratides
(Ashot the First and Bagrat I.). At the end of the tenth
century Bagrat III., the adopted son of Bagrat the ImbecQe,
made himself sole lord and sovereign of the United King-
dom of Aphkhazo-Karthli. With his dynasty commenced
the vigorous development of political power, learning, and
taste for arts and science. He took Iberia, joined Cakhethi
to his dominions, and made himself master of all the terri-
tory between Aphkhazia and the Caspian Sea, with the
exception of the country of the Orbelians. Under his reign
the Iberian convent of Mount Athos became distinguished
for its learned interpretation of the sacred Scriptures and the
most valuable productions of Greek theology. After Bagrat
rV., who, allied to the Greeks, successfully fought the Turks,
the country was troubled by constant acts of brigandage and
devastated by the Seldjoukites. But a new era commenced in
1089, when David II., who claimed descent from the Pro-

GROUZINIANS. 117

phet David, ascended the throne. His reign lasted till 1125,
and proved one of the most glorious Georgia had ever seen.
He was called by his people the Restorer and King of Kings.
He called 40,000 warriors from the northern slope of the
Caucasian range, and assigned them land in Georgia, where
they settled. Great was the preponderance exercised by
Georgia during the twelfth century, principally in conse-
quence of the Crusades, which weakened the power of the
Moslem. This happy state of things was, however, com-
pletely upset by the invasion of the Mongols. The last
victories of Georgia it owed to its great Queen Thamar
(1184 — 1212). Her capital was Tiflis (name analogous with
Toplitz, both owing their names to their mineral waters).
It was founded in 469, in 853 taken by the Arabs, then
by the Turks, who held it till 1122, when it came again
into the possession of its natural lords. Its most bril-
liant period was the reign of Thamar. She spread the
gospel of Jesus Christ throughout the Caucasus, favoured
arts and science, stimulated literary life to most remarkable
productions, and decreed new laws. In 1220 the Mongols
fell into the country, ravaged it, and established them-
selves there completely in 1236. At the end of the same
century the famous conqueror Timoor entered Georgia six
times, and utterly destroyed Tiflis. The ruin and deso-
lation which had followed the steps of that scourge of Eastern
Europe and Asia, were effaced by Alexander (1414 — 1442),
who built up the towns, restored the churches, and re-estab-
lished the unity of his country.

THE KARTHLE (GEOUZmiANS).

They inhabit the government of Tiflis. Their province is
divided into two parts, i.e., Grouzia and Cakheti. The
Turks had possession of the former from 1722 till 1735,
when they were expelled by Nadir Shah, who confided the
government to a Bagratide, Teimourez, who reigned over it
under Persian sovereignty. His son Heraclius united both
king'doms. Cakheti was under Persian rule from 1615 to

118 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

1703, and from 1675 till 1760 her kings, even those of the
Bagratide family were Mussulmans. Their last king Giorgi
ceded the land to Russia. The Cakheti is the Eldorado of
the Caucasus. Its climate is delicious, its soil most fertile
and of prodigious yield under the ancient system of canali-
zation. The country is wonderfully picturesque, and studded
with mementos of former civilization. It may be said to
consist of one compact system of gardens, orchards, and
vineyards. The wine is of splendid quality, although its
culture is of the most primitive description.

The type of the people resembles that of the Georgians,
and may rank with the most beautiful of the earth. Boden-
stedt says : — " Everywhere in Grouzia one sees men of tall and
vigorous frames, and women of slender, elegant figures, regu-
lar, distinguished features, and large, finely-cut eyes ; but in
vain one looks in either sex for that noble beauty, which is
found only amongst nations of advanced civilization, where the
eyes are the unerring reflectors of the exalted sensations of
the mind and heart. The beauty of the female form is gene-
rally more developed than that of the face, the charm of
which passes off very soon. The physical difference between
the Georgian and the European lady is also conspicuous in
their style of dressing. The effect of the charm of the
European lady is enhanced by closer acquaintance. The
most insignificant physical appearance frequently proves
captivating by the mutely-eloquent glance, the fine expres-
sion of the mouth, and by the interesting play of the features.
A simple attire pleases all the more, as one enters into a
detailed inspection of its delicate elegance and exquisite
purity. The impression one experiences in the presence of a
Georgian lady is precisely the reverse. Their exterior is
brilliant, but loses under close examination. When out
walking, they wear the ' tchadra,' a sort of veil, which enve-
lops the whole person, and which they know how to dispose
around them, so as to display the fine proportions of the
handsome, and to hide the defects of the ugly. The dress
consists sometimes of a short, bright-coloured sarafan, at

GEOUZINIANS. 119

others of a long robe, cut out on tlie bosom so as to show a
bodice of light colour underneath, which is generally most
richly and artistically embroidered. The red silk pantaloons
are hemmed with gold, and most charmingly set off a little
foot in its tiny, high-heeled slipper of Persian morocco.
The women wear also a light-coloured handkerchief, slung
(in the form of a cross) round their heads — covering part
of the forehead, it serves to retain a gauze veil, falling back
and partly hiding the thick plaits of their long and dark
hair. There is not a more melancholy spectacle in the world
than an old G-eorgian woman, who is more like a hag than
anything else. While the young beauty modestly hides
beneath the tchadra, old age uncovers a bosom, that ought to
be consigned to everlasting seclusion."

The Grouzinians are an aristocratic and feudal people,
born warriors, brave soldiers, and excellent riders, but not
particularly available for European tactics. They are amiable
and hospitable, but mostly ignorant and uncommunicative,
and too proud and warlike to love trade and industry. The
Armenians are to them what the Jews are to the Poles : they
hate and despise them, but cannot do without them. They
are not gifted by superior intelligence, which is probably
the result of their excessive consumption of wine. The
greater portion of the nobility hardly know more than to
read and write, but the lower classes do not even know that.
Their amusements are enjoyed in the open air ; they consist
principally of music and dancing, especially with the female
sex. Their musical instruments are the " zourna" (a flute),
and the " tchoungour" (an instrument of two metal strings).
Their songs are monotonous. The subject is mostly of an
heroic nature, and descriptive of events of the past. The
dance of the men is wild, and expressive of the audacious
and warlike spirit of the Grouzinians. That of the young
girls is grave, slow, never accompanied by jumping move-
ments, but distinguished by graceful attitudes. The favourite
and also the most interesting dance is the " lesghinka, min-
grelka, or abkhazka." It gracefully expresses longing, pur-

122 THB LAND OP THE CZAR.

three principal valleys formed by the Ingour and his affluent
the Moulkze.

The Ssuanes live in patriarchal style in large families, of
which, generally, several congregate together for mutual
defence. They possess but few horses. The country is
healthy, therefore more populated. They live by agriculture
(which is, however, difficult, owing to the nature of the
country) by cattle breeding, and brigandage. The latter is,
however, gradually disappearing. Their country produces
saltpetre in great quantity. Their character is uncertain.
The Ssuane is cowardly or brave, honest or robber according
to circumstances. From early infancy accustomed to hard-
ships, he possesses great strength and agility. His sobriety
is of the strictest bind ; he is therefore extremely hardy and
enduring. During the winter he hunts and passes his time
in dancing and exercise of arms. His wife is bought, but
if he cannot afford the money, he must carry her off by force.
Not long ago he used to sell his daughters into slavery.
The Ssuanes are nearly all fair and blue-eyed. Their hair is
never cut and falls down the neck in long waves. They are
very superstitious, and believe in dreams and prophecies.
Fortune-tellers are much esteemed by them, and often
manage to acquire great influence on the credulous minds of
their countrymen.

These three tribes inhabit the north-eastern part of the
government of Tiflis, where it approaches the snow line.
They are the descendants of Georgians, who settled here for
the purpose of defending their country (Cakheti) against the
raids of the wild Lesghi, who, like famished wolves, ever
hovered in the forests surrounding it. They have no written
alphabet, but there is a kind of ancient Georgian dialect in
use amongst them. They also speak modern Georgian, and
the tongues of the Lesghi and Kistes, of which tribes several
live on theii' territory. Their pronunciation is harsh and
embarrassed. They pretend to profess the Greek faith, but

PSHAVS, TOTJSHES, AND KHEVSOURS. 123

they have in reality no idea of its dogmas or ceremonies.
Superstition is their faith, and vengeance their law. Their
exposed country, but principally the ruthless reign of Shah
Abbas and its effects are probably the cause of their unculti-
vated condition. That tyrant destroyed the churches built
by Queen Thamar, killed the clergy, and forced whole
villages to embrace Islamism, or drove them for shelter to
the mountains. The Pshavs are savage and rude, and of
intrepid courage, but nevertheless submissive and pacific.
The Khevsours are brigands, and hostile to civilized tribes.
A school recently established in their country will probably
tend to improve their character. They number about 6000
souls.

The Tonshes during winter are driven with their cattle to
distant pastures, generally to the land on the river Yora, a
distance of 160 miles. They are distinguished by their fine
figures, their loyalty and chivalrous sentiments. Their organi-
zation is theocratic, and they count about 6000 heads.
Their neighbours are the Kistes (Tchetchents), the Didos
(Lesghi) and the Grouzinians (Cakhes).

The Khevsours, numbering about 3000, have a democratic
organization and live by the breeding of cattle. Numerous
brooks traverse their country and are ingeniously utilized by
them for mills driven by turbines.

CHAPTEE XIII.

THE LESGHIS OE DIDOS.

Thet are probably of Kiste or Tchetchents origin, and
inhabit the eastern slope of the Caucasus and Daghestan, a
mountainous country descending to the Caspian Sea. Their
numerous tribes speak four principal tongues, of which the
most commonly used is the Avarian dialect. On the coasts
and lower parts, the Tartar and Persian languages are spoken,
their literary language being Arab, which is, however,
only known to the Moullahs. During the last twenty years
the Lesghi allied to the Tchetchents formed a group, fiercely
opposed to the other Caucasian nations. This opposition
was not only directed against Christians, but also against the
Tcherkess and Mohammedan tribes inhabiting the north-
western part of the Caucasus. They were the principal
partizans of Schamyl, and distinguished by their religious
fanaticism and democratic organization. The most interest-
ing epoch in the history of Daghestan commences with the
year 1843, when that country became the theatre of most
romantic wars and combats.

In 1.596, i. e., during the reign of Fedor IvanoTitch, the
last scion of Rurik, the Russians invaded Daghestan for the
purpose of aiding the Grouzinians against the Turks, but
they abandoned the country again in the year 1 604.

In 1722 Peter the Great, marching along the west coast
of the Caspian Sea, invaded Daghestan. Tarki and Bakii
submitted to the Czar, and received a Russian governor and
garrisons. The Empress Anna, in 1735, restored those

THE LESGHIS. 125

proviuces again to Persia. In 1786 the Shamklial of Tarki
voluntarily submitted to Eussia, and soon after also the
Khan of Mekhtoula.

In 1806 the Khanates of Kouba and Baku, in 1813 those
of Derbent, Kurakh, Baku (Tartar), Talych (Persian),
Sheki, Shirvan, and Karabagh, were re-united and for-
mally ceded to Eussia. In 1819 the free tribes of Akousha,
Surghia, Eoutta, and Koubatsha, voluntarily acknowledged
Eussian supremacy. Avaria, which had been conquered al-
ready in the year 1803, rebelled against the Eussian rule in
1818, when General Yermolov completely procured their
subjection, together with that of the Koumyks. Prince
Mahatov, in 1820, conquered the most important military
locality of Daghestan, viz., the Khanate of Kazi-Koumoukh,
Nearly the whole of Daghestan had passed thus into Eussian
hands, who owed their easy conquest to the disunity of the
tribes. The peaceful calm of 1824, however, resembled the
silence of the elements preceding a storm; for about that
time the religious democratic doctrines of the fanatic Kazi-
Moullah, first of all promulgated at Grhimri, began to spread
themselves over Daghestan and Tchetchnia. These doc-
trines, known by the name of Muridism, under the mantle
of religion, brought aboiit an important political reform,
founded on democratic principles. The Muridism com-
pletely destroyed all authority of the Khans, whom the
Eussian government had retained and confirmed. Seeing
their own rule in jeopardy, they promptly took preventive
measures, and thus opened the twenty years' war of Daghestan
and Tchetchnia, which furnished astounding proofs of devo-
tion, self-denial, and heroic bravery on the part of the
Caucasians. The word " Murid " signifies a person desirous
of walking in the way of the truth. It was simply a desig-
nation given to those who gathered around the " Murshids,"
or teachers of the way of truth ; a doctrine which, in the
case of these mountaineers, referred more to political than
to religious principles. The Koran consists of three parts :
viz., the "Shariat," or the book of civil laws; the "Tarikat"

126 THE LAND OP THE CZAR.

(Muridism), or book of moral laws ; and the " Kharitat,"
or account of the religious revelations made to the Prophet,
and which, in Mussulman eyes, form the highest degree of
religious faith. The Mohammedans consider the public and
private life of man fixed by the " Shariat," to the exclusion
of all other legislation. Practically, this primitive law
sufiers many transgressions, so that the " Tarikat " (the
Muridism, or all the clergy subjected to the immovable law)
has but developed and perfected the doctrine. As the inter-
preters of the Tarikat can only be ecclesiastics, the Shariat
gives to the clergy an abstruse power over the people. The
Muridism, at its commencement, exercised no influence over
the tribes ; and only after it had caused the fall of the
Tartar Khans and aristocracy, it assumed a power which has
astonished the world, for it had roused the spirit of liberty,
so keen in the otherwise rude and savage breast of the
mountaineer. At the end of the last century lived at
Ghimri, a village of the Koissoubou tribe, a certain Ismail,
who had come from Ghidatl, and whose only son, Mahoma,
had married Baghi-Sultane, a girl from Ghimri. This
Ismail, who was a learned man (according to Mohammedan
ideas), and intimately acquainted with the character and
customs of the moutaineers, was subsequently made adjunct
to the khadi of the tribe of Karanai, to whom he had gone.
About 1785 a son was born to Mahoma, at whose birth
supernatural phenomena were said to have taken place. He
was called after his father. This child was Kazi-Moullah, who
at a later period became so celebrated, and who was called
by the mountaineers Moullah-Mohammed (Kazi signifies an
individual carrying on a sacred war). At the age of ten
Kazi-Moullah, or Moullah-Mohammed, went to his grand-
father at Karanai, under whose direction he seriously studied
the Arabic language and the Koran, Not satisfied with the
extent of his learning, he went to Arakany, to the learned
Said-Effendi, who subsequently became the favourite of
General Yermolov. But the liberalism of that teacher dis-
pleased him quite as much as the latter disliked the reserved

THE LESGHI, KAZI-MOTJLLAH. 137

character and somewhat theatrical manner of Kazi-Moullah.
His term passed with Said-Effendi finished the oral instruc-
tion of the future apostle of the Djikhad (war against the
Unfaithful). He soon acquired influence with the Kabar-
dians and the Nogai. He was twice married, but in each case
separated from the brides on the first day on account of
their inability to hold their tongues. He then married the
handsome Patimate of G-himri, who submitted to the trial
of silence. The appearance and character of Kazi-Moullah,
a true Oriental in the full sense of the word, then already
indicated his future career. He was a most remarkable
personage — ambitious, calm, serious, cold, and cruel.

The first ideas of Muridism were brought into the country
by MouUah-Mahomet (not to be confounded with Kazi-
Moullah). He embraced that doctrine with the most intense
ardour, and retired into the mountain solitudes to pray and
fast. In this manner he soon attracted the attention of the
" Kurines." Without pursuing any political object, he con-
tented himself with playing the part of a Murshid, although
his preaching excited the Kurines against the Eussians.
Their cry of " Kazavat ! Kazavat ! Mohammedans, the time
of tJie Kazavat has come ! " resounded in every valley, in
every homestead of Daghestan. The numbers of the fanatics
soon increased to a most formidable figure, especially after
they had been joined by Kazi-Moullah (1825). General
Yermolov began to get alarmed, but was kept quiet by the
Chief of the Kuragh, Asslan-Khan, and by the disappear-
ance of MouUah-Mahomet. — All of a sudden Kazi-Moullah
arose, a new and more powerful teacher and prophet, bent
on a complete reform of religious, social, and political
affairs. His severity regarding intemperance, the great vice
of his people, drew upon him the animosity of the MouUahs.
He therefore went to the Karadakh, from which place the
learned Moslems exercised the greatest authority over Dag-
hestan; and when he returned from there he had with
him three other zealous missionaries, one of whom was
" Schamyl." He at once renewed his attack on the vice of

128 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

drunkenness, by decreeing a punishment of forty strokes of
the rod, which he and his coadjutors underwent first of all,
just as if they had been guilty of that vice themselves.
Kazi-Moullah soon managed to effect a complete cure
amongst his people, and his doctrine spread with marvellous
rapidity. His immediate disciples took the name of Murids.
At the end of 1829, on the return of the Russian army
from a successful campaign against Persia, Daghestan was
already filled with the elements of a general conflagration.
Koissoubou, Goumbet, Andia, and other small tribes on the
Koissou-Andi, as well as the Koiissou of Avaria, half Targi,
and all the Avarian villages except the Khounzakh, obeyed
Kazi-Moullah, who then carried a scheme in his head for
uniting the tribes for a march against Constantinople. He
openly preached war against Russia, and against all who
did not strictly obey the law of the Shariat, and at once
began the sanguinary campaign of Daghestan. Killed at
the storming of Ghimri, in 1832, his death created profound
sensation. His body had been found, grasping his beard
with one hand, while the other was stretched forth towards
Leaven ; a circumstance which the fanatical multitude inter-
preted as an incentive to prolong the war unto death.
Before. long a successor of Kazi-Moullah, similar in prin-
ciples and zeal, an active, violent, intrepid, and audacious
leader, was found in Hamzat-Bek, of Avaria. Member of
a good family, he, with the aid of Asslan Khan of Kurim,
upset the Khans of Avaria. He was assassinated in 1834
by the brother of Khadji-Mourad, who afterwards became
the well-known Murid chief. The fall of the Khans had
united most of the tribes. At the first news of Hamzat-
Bek's death, Schamyl, with 200 devoted Murids, burst into
the Aoul (village) of Novo-Gotsatl, confiscated the treasure
of Hamzat-Bek, declared himself his successor, and was
universally recognised as " iman."

Schamyl (Schamil, Chamouil, or Samuel) was born at
Ghimri about 1799. His father was a poor shepherd of the
name of Dinckavu. His infancy was spent in poverty ; he

SCHAMYL. 129

then became pedlar, travelling fishmonger, then a singer in
wine-houses, juggler, and what not ; but, gifted with much
spirit and force of character, he joined Kazi-Moullah, and
began to play his inspired part. Less religious than Kazi-
Moullah, less impetuous than Hamzat-Bek, Schamyl sur-
passed both by his spirit, perseverance, quick-sightedness,
and his ability of seizing the right moment for his daring-
deeds. Already, under Hamzat-Bek, he had occupied a very
high position. In 1837 he was repeatedly beaten by the
Russians, who, in 1839, took Akhoulgo, a fortress situated
on an inaccessible rock. His flight from the ruin was con-
sidered a miracle. Daghestan having become untenable for
him, he made Tchetchnia his land of refuge and theatre of
action by taking up his residence at Cargo, in Itchkeria, on
the mountains of Andi. In 1842 he reigned over 130,000
families (600,000 souls) of Daghestan, and 35,000 families
of the Tchetchents living to the north of the Andi moun-
tains. This population, under his command, formed a com-
pact military body. Every man, from the age of sixteen to
sixty had to serve. He paid particular attention to his
cavalry, and had a body-guard of 600 picked, unmarried
Murids, whose business it was also, to watch over the
political and religious opinions of the people, and who were
consequently much feared. He also introduced a new system
of taxes, and made the people believe that, he was in con-
stant correspondence with Turkey and the Pasha of Egypt.
He managed to make the people look upon him as a man
living under a particular and divine dispensation by his
miraculous escapes, long retreats, prayers, and frequent
fasts. His policy was somewhat Macchiavellian ; for he
held the Lesghis and Tchetchents in mutual dependence.
He was a true genius, who on a different field would
doubtless have become one of the most important historical
personages.

In 1843 the Russians opened the campaign with superior
numbers, and altogether different tactics. The year 1845
saw the taking of Dargo, Schamyl's residence ; but, although

130 THE LAND OP THE CZAR.

a fine feat of arms, it had no immediate result, inasmuch as
Schamyl at once transferred the seat of his power to Veden,
a fortress in the neighbourhood of Cargo. His authority in
Daghestan had been much impaired since 1848 ; he there-
fore made Tchetchnia the theatre of war, which it remained
till the year 1859, when it fell into the power of the
Eussians. During the Crimean war Schamyl had remained
quiet; but when Prince Bariatinsky had been appointed
governor of the Caucasus, it soon became known to Schamyl,
that he displayed great energy in preparations for carrying
the principal scene of military operations into the very heart
of Daghestan and Tchetchnia. Schamyl saw himself reduced
to an ever-narrowing territory ; till at last, forsaken by the
Lesghi, and shut up in Grounib (in Andalat), he surrendered
to the Prince, after a most heroic defence, on the 25th
August, 185.9. The Emperor Alexander honoured the old
hero by proofs of the highest consideration, and assigned
to him and his family the town of Kalouga for a residence.
That magnanimous Prince was deeply moved on beholding
Schamyl for the first time, and showed his admiration
for the brave and able leader of men by a sympathetic
embrace.

The Lesghi number about 650,000 souls. They are divided
into many tribes, of which the Avarians are the most im-
portant, awakening particular interest by the deviation of
their language from those of all the rest, by the singularity
of their customs and their brilliant deeds of bravery. They
live in about fifty aouls.

If the character of the Lesghi is distinguished by several
fine qualities, it is not without an equal number of bad ones.
They are brave, active, and persevering ; can perform extra-
ordinary marches in an incredibly small space of time, yet
they are vindictive in the extreme, and delight in brigandage.
The Lesghi's revengeful passions derive a moral support
from his religion and the customs of his country. Sanguinary
revenge extends not only to individuals, but to whole
villages and tribes. The murderer rarely remains in his

THE LESGHIS. 131

village, but takes refuge with another tribe. The Lesghi
are hospitable, hut after their own manner. They hold
hospitality sacred, even in the case of Russian soldiers and
other enemies ; but they hope to obtain presents, and with
a little money one can buy from them all one may wish for.
They are addicted to drunkenness and excessive smoking.
The men generally lounge about under the open sky, sleep-
ing or chatting, and listening to news, of which they are
excessively greedy. The position of their women is a truly
unhappy one. They are looked upon as a kind of domestic
animal, but treated worse than the horses. They and the
donkeys carry the corn home from the fields, make the hay,
house it, look to the horses, bake the bread, spin and weave
the material for their clothes, prepare the dung for the soil,
or make it into bricks for fuel. They soon age under this
treatment, and are then still more despised. One rarely
meets with a handsome woman in Daghestan, they are all
small and bent. Only the wives of the Beks show some
good looks. Bigamy is scarce amongst the Lesghi, but
only because the second wife must be paid for as well as the
first. Divorces are easy and simple ; and after three months
a woman may re-marry. Transgressions of chastity are
seldom heard of.

The Lesghi is very abstemious as regards solid food. A
moderately sized piece of his heavy indigestible bread with
mutton fat taken in the morning lasts him throughout the
whole day ; but he is, nevertheless, exceedingly strong and
hardy. Badly fed, wretchedly clad, and barefooted, he knows
neither fatigue nor maladies. Although not particular about
their dress, their houses are kept very clean. They are keen-
sighted and of sound judgment ; and therefore, from a mili-
tary point of view, superior to the Tchetchents. In the
attack they are less impetuous and rapid than the last, but
more resolute and steadfast.

In the eastern and less hilly part of Daghestan, where
their territory approaches the Caspian Sea, the Tartar
element has exercised a great influence on the Lesghi.

K 2

130 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

a fine feat of arms, it had no immediate result, inasmuch as
Schamyl at once transferred the seat of his power to Veden,
a fortress in the neighbourhood of Dargo. His authority in
Daghestan had been much impaired since 1848 ; he there-
fore made Tchetchnia the theatre of war, which it remained
till the year 1859, when it fell into the power of the
Russians. During the Crimean war Schamyl had remained
quiet; but when Prince Bariatinsky had been appointed
governor of the Caucasus, it soon became known to Schamyl,
that he displayed great energy in preparations for carrying
the principal scene of military operations into the very heart
of Daghestan and Tchetchnia. Schamyl saw himself reduced
to an ever-narrowing territory ; till at last, forsaken by the
Lesghi, and shut up in Gounib (in Andalat), he surrendered
to the Prince, after a most heroic defence, on the 25th
August, 1859. The Emperor Alexander honoured the old
hero by proofs of the highest consideration, and assigned
to him and his family the town of Kalouga for a residence.
That magnanimous Prince was deeply moved on beholding
Schamyl for the first time, and showed his admiration
for the brave and able leader of men by a sympathetic
embrace.

The Lesghi number about 650,000 souls. They are divided
into many tribes, of which the Avarians are the most im-
portant, awakening particular interest by the deviation of
their language from those of all the rest, by the singularity
of their customs and their brilliant deeds of bravery. They
live in about fifty aouls.

If the character of the Lesghi is distinguished by several
fine qualities, it is not without an equal number of bad ones.
They are brave, active, and persevering ; can perform extra-
ordinary marches in an incredibly small space of time, yet
they are vindictive in the extreme, and delight in brigandage.
The Lesghi's revengeful passions derive a moral support
from his religion and the customs of his country. Sanguinary
revenge extends not only to individuals, but to whole
villages and tribes. The murderer rarely remains in his

THE LESGHIS. 131

village, but takes refuge with another tribe. The Lesghi
are hospitable, but after their own manner. They hold
hospitality sacred, even in the case of Russian soldiers and
other enemies ; but they hope to obtain presents, and with
a little money one can buy from them all one may wish for.
They are addicted to drunkenness and excessive smoking.
The men generally lounge about under the open sky, sleep-
ing or chatting, and listening to news, of which they are
excessively greedy. The position of their women is a truly
unhappy one. They are looked upon as a kind of domestic
animal, but treated worse than the horses. They and the
donkeys carry the corn home from the fields, make the hay,
house it, look to the horses, bake the bread, spin and weave
the material for their clothes, prepare the dung for the soil,
or make it into bricks for fuel. They soon age under this
treatment, and are then still more despised. One rarely
meets with a handsome woman in Daghestan, they are all
small and bent. Only the wives of the Beks show some
good looks. Bigamy is scarce amongst the Lesghi, but
only because the second wife must be paid for as well as the
first. Divorces are easy and simple ; and after three months
a woman may re-marry. Transgressions of chastity are
seldom heard of.

The Lesghi is very abstemious as regards solid food. A
moderately sized piece of his heavy indigestible bread with
mutton fat taken in the morning lasts him throughout the
whole day ; but he is, nevertheless, exceedingly strong and
hardy. Badly fed, wretchedly clad, and barefooted, he knows
neither fatigue nor maladies. Although not particular about
their dress, their houses are kept very clean. They are keen-
sighted and of sound judgment ; and therefore, from a mili-
tary point of view, superior to the Tchetchents. In the
attack they are less impetuous and rapid than the last, but
more resolute and steadfast.

In the eastern and less hilly part of Daghestan, where
their territory approaches the Caspian Sea, the Tartar
element has exercised a great influence on the Lesghi.

E 2

CHAPTER XIV.

THE KISTES OK TCHBTOHBNTK,

Who go also by the appellation of Mitsdjeghis,Mitcliikistes,
according to tribes, call themselves by the generic name of
Nakhtch^ (people). The Russians haye given them the name
Tchetchents, after their ancient aoul " Grrand-Tchetchen," on
the Argoun. There are twenty-one tribes of them, speaking
more or less varied idioms, but also a dialect common to
them all. This dialect shows no analogy with any other
Caucasian language, with the exception perhaps of the Lesghi
idiom. They have no literary language, and are Mohamme-
dans. Amongst the Ingoushes and other neighbours exist
still some traces of Christianity, consisting in ruins of ancient
churches and a great number of sacred vessels, which testify
to the preaching of Christ's gospel amongst these people.

The territory of Tchetchnia is situated between the rivers
Terek, Sunja, and the Little Kabardah, as the land south of
the Sunja, which is divided into two parts by the river Goita.
The land on the left bank is called Little, that on the right
Great Tchetchnia. The Tchetchents, although already sub-
jected to the Eussian Crown in the reign of Peter the Great,
have always proved a turbulent and dangerous people. In
1818 General Yermolov subdued the greater part of the
Tchetchnia ; and they remained quiet till the appearance of
the " Muridism," which called forth all their native ferocity
and fanatacism. They became the principal and most
fanatical supporters of Schamyl. In 1840 they recognized
Schamyl as their sovereign. With him they succumbed in

THE TCHETCHENTS. 133

1859, and became again Russian subjects. Tbey have bow-
ever (since 1865) emigrated in large numbers to Turkey.
Their tribes are the Ingoush (in the neighbourhood of Vladi-
kavkas, the Nazranians (Nazz-Khoi), the Karaboulaks, the
Galashi (Galasherts), the Galgai (Gal-Khoi), the Kistes,
the Djerakhi, the Tsori, the Akhos, the Pshekhoi, the Shou-
bonty, the Shiaros, the Kialal, the Djan-Boutri, the Tcharbil,
the Itchkeri, the Kalchkalyks, the Mitchiks, and the Aoukh.

Although of tall and slender build they are vigorously
constituted, of pale complexion, and have a sinister, piercing
glance, aquiline nose, and marked features. They are strong
and active, and all their movements are easy and graceful.
Their morals are of a low standard, they are brigands, and
a dangerous robbery, pluckily carried out, counts with them
for a grand deed. Only relations and neighbours are beyond
the pale of their license. They are not wanting in prudence
and reflection, and their intercourse with strangers is gene-
rally marked by a certain courtesy and amiability joined to a
somewhat haughty demeanour. They are violent and un-
tameable, cruel, covetous, and extremely vindictive. The
crimes of treason, parricide, incest, and adultery with them
are only punishable when the culprit is of the female sex.
Cowardice is punished by public contempt. An unfaithful
wife is stoned, or stamped to death by horses. In the case
of a seduction, the girl is completely set right by marriage,
and the seducer, if not inclined to this kind of atonement, is
put to death on the first opportunity. The violation of hos-
pitality is by them considered one of the deepest crimes.
They would not even to Schamyl deliver the refugee Lesghi,
who had fled to them for fear of a deserved punishment.
Their family life is patriarchal, though influenced by Mo-
hammedanism. The father of the family is the absolute
chief. The men seldom do any work, but load the women
with all the toil of household and fields. A wife costs about
twenty or thirty roubles, and she expects moreover an outfit
for her wedding present. They keep the houses in good
order and very clean, and live generally on affectionate

134. THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

terms. The men are very jealous and susceptible as regards
conjugal fidelity. The young people are very reserved, and
the conversation between future husband and wife is carried
on with a deference bordering on the most delicate shyness.
A Tchetchents never insults a young girl, or even touches
her hand, as that would bring upon him the public con-
tempt. During the confinement of the wife the husband
absents himself from the house, leaving the patient to the
care of his or her parents. He abstains even from speaking
to his wife for a long time after the event, especially if the
baby is a girl. The Tchetchents have no discourteous or
insulting word or terms, and the djali-korne (child of a dog),
rarely used by them, is of Russian invention. If speaking
contemptuously of the Russians they make use of a word of
ambiguous meaning, viz., "ghiaour" — infidel, which pro-
nounced " gaour" means dog. They cultivate maize, wheat,
and millet, bees, and silkworms. They manufacture an inferior
kind of cloth and linen, dress sheepskins, make felt bourkas,
&c. They love silver coins, especially when small and new.

CHAPTEE XV.

THB TCHEP.KESS OK ADIGSt.

The Adighe (Azoukli of the Abkhaz) inhabit the north-
eastern slope of the Caucasus, and, under the name of
Kabardians, the Great- and Lesser-Kabardah. They are
divided into the following tribes : — The ISTatoukhais, Shap-
zougs, Bjedoukhs, Gatioukais, Abadzekhs, Kemgoui, Yegh-
eroukoi, Makhmiroi, Mokhoshs, Beslenei, Oubykhs, and
Kabards.

They belonged from an early period to the most inveterate
enemies of Russia. Tlie Natoukhais are zealous Moslems,
and have resisted Russian supremacy until recently. Sub-
jected at last, they have almost all emigrated.

The Shapzougs are a very wild tribe and little religious.
Their religion is a mixture of Christianity, Islamism, and
Paganism. Many of them profess no religion at all.

The Gatioukais recommenced hostilities in 1850, but were
subjected, and have now left the country.

The Abadzekhs have never been tamed. In 1846 a famine
induced them to submit to Russian rule, but they soon
broke loose again, and had to be forced into subjection,
in consequence of which they have emigrated in great
numbers.

The Tcherkess tribes number about 500,000 souls, and
form two principal groups, viz., the Adighe (380,000), and
the Abkhaz (120,000). The ancients called them " Korketes,"
the Byzantine historians, " Tsarkasoi," from which is de-
rived the word " Circassian." They once inhabited the

136 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

Kouban Valley and the Crimea, and amongst them lived
other more civilized people, which have left their traces in
the ruins of ancient churches and villages. The memory of
the Greeks, Venetians (Venedes), and Genoese (Djenidi),
lives still in their tradition. Civilization in the Caucasus was
evidently far more advanced during the Middle Ages, than it
is now, which is probably owing to Turkish influence. San-
guinary struggles between the aristocratic and democratic
factions often induced the Tcherkess to recur to the Eussians
for help, but the enemies of Russia amongst their number
always knew how to unite both parties to a general "levee
en masse" against that power. Like Schamyl, Khadji-
Mahomet (in 1842) preached Muridism and the Shariat in
Transkoubania. The Tcherkess listened to him, and began
to devastate the Russian territory. After Khadji- Mahomet
appeared Soliman-Effendi, who, though a very learned man,
had no talent for leadership. He quarrelled with the chiefs
and even with Schamyl, and at last in disgust went over to
the Eussians in 1846. Schamyl's last emissary, Mahomet-
Amine, was a very diiferent personage. The " Sheikh," as
the Tcherkess called him, was at that time nearly sixty
years- old, but possessed of great energy and endurance. He
zealously preached the Shariat and Muridism, and organized
six armed places. In each of these he established a tribunal.
Already in 1851 he was at the head of a powerful party. In
order to gain over the Adighe, he, though a low-born man,
married into the princely family of Karabak-Bolotokov. The
wilder tribes were however very hostile to him, and set up
another prophet, Sefer-Bey, in opposition to him. After a
long struggle and the capture of Schamyl, he in November
1859 submitted to the Russians.

THE ABKHAZ OE AZEGA.

They inhabit the beautiful and fertile country between the
rivers Khamysh and Ingour, and enjoy a most delightfal and
salubrious climate. One-half of their number axe Chris-

THE ABKHAZ. 137

tians, the other Mohammedans. They have none of the
distinguished qualities of the other Caucasian peoples. Bo-
denstedt says of them : " Their language resembles some-
what that of the Adighe. They are distinguished from their
neighbours by their social democratic organization and their
physiognomical and bodily construction. The. expression of
their irregular features is ferocious ; of medium height and
thin, they are vindictive, bloodthirsty robbers, and without
faith. Having only vegetated for centuries, they have hardly
any history. Christianity was first introduced into Abkhazia
by the Emperor Justinianus, but showing little fruit. Queen
Thamar had this people baptized again. The advent of the
Turks however frustrated her object, and the Abkhaz became
Mohammedans. They remained, notwithstanding all these
changes, attached throughout to their ancient customs and
idols. They have a great veneration for old trees, particu-
larly oaks, and every tribe possesses one of these sacred
trees.

CHAPTER XVI.

CONCLUDING KEMARKS ON THE CAUCASUS.

In taking leave of this beautiful and interesting country,
a few words remain to be said respecting the probable future
of the principal nations described in the preceding pages.
Many erroneous views regarding their fate under Russian
rule have been created by writers who have never been
amongst those nations, or have derived their information
from prejudiced sources. For upwards of 200 years the
Eussian Grovernment have zealously striven, by kindness and
force, to bring about the conversion and civilization of the
wild tribes of the Caucasian mountains, and if Christianity
has not utterly been destroyed by the constant assaults of
Pagan and Mohammedan invaders, it is principally owing to
Russian protection. The Christian inhabitants of the Caucasus
now live in the sunshine of peace and happy freedom, where
formerly they had been for centuries outraged and oppressed
by the followers of Mohammed, i.e., the Turks, Tartars, and
Persians, as well as by their own princes and nobles. The
groans of slavery have given way to songs of joy, the victims
of oppression have risen from the dust, into which they had
been trodden, and stand upright in the rays of a promising
future. Churches and schools are being established even in
the wildest regions of the imposing mountain world. Amidst
the crystal temples of glacial nature resounds the peal of
Christian bells, calling the once idolatrous population to the
adoration of Him, who came into the world to comfort the
poor and weary, and to enlighten those that know not.

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE CAUCASUS. 139

If the task of civilizing the Mohammedan part of the
Caucasian peoples had offered difficulties of a most serious
kind before the appearance of Muridism, it has become one
of utter futility ever since, as this phenomenon has destroyed
all chances of Christian influence for centuries to come.
Moreover, the habits of a roving, depredatory life of revenge,
on the eye for eye and tooth for tooth principle, and other
violent, often religiously revered customs, are too indelibly
ingrained in the character of the greater part of the Moham-
medan nationalities, to justify any hope of a speedy eradi-
cation. With the best, nay anxious, desire to encourage the
increase of population throughout their vast territories, and
particularly in the rich country in question, the Eussian
Grovernment has reluctantly come to the conclusion that the
wholesale emigration of the Mohammedans, as zealously
preached by their own Murshids, would prove in the end the
most efficient fan, wherewith to separate the chaff from the
wheat. The Grovernment therefore not only readily gave its
consent for the emigration, but entered into arrangements
with the Porte for the transport of the tribes. In the spring
of 1864 the writer, bound for Vladikavkas, met several of
the caravans of the Koubanski Tcherkess, as they toiled along
the dusty tracks of Cis-Caucasia. They offered a most
heartrending spectacle. Victims of a fanatical zeal, they
mournfully forsook the verdant prairies and woody heights of
their fathers. Few of them had any money or means of
subsistence. Owing to these circumstances and to the presence
of the women and children, their progress was banefully pro-
tracted. The Kouban ague, from which many were suffering
before they started, degenerated into typhus, which rapidly
communicating itself to the famished masses, strewed the
steppes with their graves. The Eussian officers did what
they could, and made extraordinary efforts to bring the poor
people as quickly as possible to their place of destination.
The Turkish Government had concluded contracts with divers
parties for the transport by sea from Taman to Kustendjeh.
After having undergone the unspeakable wretchedness of a

340 THE LA^^) OF THE CZAR.

long steppe journey, the unfortunate emigrants now became
the victims of the cupidity of unprincipled speculators. They
were huddled up in the holds of sailing-vessels in ruinous
numbers, and what between this crowding and the presence
of so many sick, dying and dead, the result was that not more
than half their original number ever reached the Turkish
shores. Their misery did not even end here, for, no proper
preparations having been made for their reception and pro-
visory maintenance, the survivors were put to direful
extremities, and in order to procure food, in many cases
returned to the chivalrous occupation of their old country,
i.e., cattle lifting, kc, and managed very soon to make them-
selves thoroughly detested by their new friends.

Thousands died of typhus, and have left their bones in the
earth of the Faithful. Of the surviving, many, disgusted by
the reception their Turkish co-religionists had given them,
have long since petitioned the Russian Grovernment for per-
mission to return to their old homesteads. Many have come
back without permission.

A few of the tribes, as, for instance, the Ossets, led by
intelligent and prudent chiefs, have managed their emigration
on far better conditions, but even those are not hapfjy where
they are, and yearn for their old scenes of adventure. It is
the old story ! The process of civilization, in order to be
sure, must necessarily be slow, and those nations, who, owing
to their backward intellectual cultivation, cannot promptly
conform to a new and better' order of things, must make room
for those who can. They have had centuries and every
opportunity at their disposal for following the example of
civilized nations. The only results are the ruined vestiges of
former civilizing agents, proving that the march of iatellect
during the three last centuries has been of a decidedly retro-
gressive nature. The Eussian Government sixrely cannot be
blamed for having neglected the education of the Caucasians.
They have invited their chiefs on the most liberal and honour-
able terms to their capitals, and taught their children at the
best colleges of St. Petersburg and Moscow, in the hopes,

CONCLUDING KEMAEKS ON THE CAUCASUS. 141

that, with the new generation, a new era of intellectual ad-
vancement would begin to spread the light of civilization ; but
all to no purpose. General Kondookhov, the Ossetinian
Chief, of whom we have heard before, mournfully foresaw the
inevitable fate that sooner or later must befal his people.
He attempted the introduction of industrial habits.; but
whatever he built up in the daylight of civilization, of which
he individually had felt the genial warmth, was pulled down
again in the night of fanaticism, the dark shades of which,
in the shape of the Murshid's invocations, persisted in still
further confounding the understanding of the ignorant masses.
Most praiseworthy efforts have been made on the part of
Protestant Missionaries to bring the dispersed Tartar and
other tribes within the pale of Christ's Church, but the result
can hardly be said to have become perceptible, even where
the Missionary forces were of the most efficient kind. The
Roman and Greek Churches would perhaps have stood a better
chance, for the uncivilized mind must be touched through
the medium of the senses, and the pompous ceremonies of
those Churches would have been, for that reason, more likely
to have made converts than the simple and unostentatious
preaching of Christ's Gospel of love — a doctrine which is
moreover so opposed to the revengeful and warlike spirit of
the audience.

In a lovely valley of the Beshtaii, or Five Mountains, are
situated the now celebrated mineral springs of Pjatigorsk,
and in the neighbourhood, at Ckarass, has been for many
years an English Missionary settlement. Owing to the un-
heal thiness of the climate only two out of the original 17
families resided there at the time of the writer's visit in
1864. The two remaining were already very old, though hale
gentlemen.

Julius Von Klaproth, in his " Travels in the Caucasus,'
1807-1808, mentions this establishment. " These Mission-
aries," he says, "are supported by the Scottish Society for
the Propagation of the Gospel, and his Imperial Majesty has
graciously conferred on them extraordinary privileges^ pro-

142 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

cured chiefly through the influence of the former Secretary
of State, Nikolai Xikolajevich Novossilzov. The main objects
of their establishment here are the translation of the Bible
into Tartar, and the conversion of the Caucasian nations,
particularly the Tartars, according to the tenets of the Church
of England. As all these Missionaries apply themselves
with peculiar zeal to the study of the Tartar language, most
of them have already made very great proficiency in it,
especially as they have native Tartars for their attenflantsj
and are thus kept in constant practice. Their Superior?
Henry Brunton, a worthy old man, who formerly resided as
a Missionary in Africa among the Suni or Mandingar nation,
has chiefly directed his attention to the language used in
writing, and has ably translated the four Evangelists, besides
several smaller religious books. All these works are printed,
and, according to the account of several Tartars, whom I
I questioned on the subject, they are extremely well
written.

The Mission has a complete printing-ofiice, with a fine
press, which, together with the paper for 3,000 copies of the
New Testament, was sent hither from London. The Arabic-
Tartar types rival in beauty those of the first-rate establish-
ments in Europe. There are two founts ; the latter was cast
upon the same matrices as were used for the Oxford letters,
with which "White's " Institutes of Timur," and several other
works, have been printed in England. The smaller corre-
sponds with the types employed in printing the Arabic Xew
Testaments and Psalms (published 1720 to 1730), and after
which the Arabic letters were cast at Gottingen.

Up to the time of my visit to Ckarass, the following works
had issued from the press of that place : —

1. A large Catechism in the Tartar language, in question and

answer, 92 pages, small 8vo.

2. A shorter Catechism of seven pages, small 8vo., without

title.

3. Endshil diniin sseri, i.e., " The Essence of the Religion of

ENGLISH-SCOTCH MISSION. 143

the Gospel." Printed at Ckarass, 1806, 14 pages,
small 8vo.

4. Bir dostiin Gelamy Mosslemanek, " The Word of a Friend

to the Mussulmans," 52 pages, small 8vo. At the end
are the words : " At Ckarass in 1221st year of the
Hhedshrah (1806)."

5. Issainiln endshil Matteiniin Jassussi, " The Gospel of Jesus,

written by Matthew."

6. The Gospels of Mark, Luke, and John, printed together,

in demi 8vo.

As these missionaries enjoy the right of purchasing slaves,
they already possess several Tcherkessians and Tartars, whom
they have instructed in the precepts of Christianity and
baptized, with the intention of restoring them at some future
time to liberty. Excellent as the objects and plan of this
institution may be, it seems very doubtful whether it will
ever accomplish the aim of the founders, since it is extremely
difficult to persuade Asiatics to embrace a religion unaccom-
panied by external ceremonies, and the moral part of aU
religions is almost invariably alike. The missionaries have
moreover excited the animosity of the neighbouring Nogai
Tartars by the conversion of a person belonging to one of the
principal families of that nation.

Since my return from the Caucasus I have been informed
that many Herrnhuters from Sarepta have removed to Ckarass
and made common cause with the English missionaries, by
which the colony has been considerably increased. Thus the
whole institution is likely in time to lose its peculiar character,
and the genuine Christian enthusiasm of its founders to de-
generate into hypocrisy and avarice, which are well known, to
be the motives of all the actions of the Herrnhuters in their
Eussian settlements, and the mission will soon ^e transformed
into a mere linen manufactory, which, to be sure, would be a
profitable concern, for linen and shirts are current coin
throughout all the Caucasus."

It is to be regretted that a man of such distinguished

144 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

literary parts like Klaproth should have advanced such
extraordinary comments and vague statements regarding the
" Herrnhuters," a community of which he evidently knew
nothing whatever, and than which no Christian denomination
is less swayed by selfish or interested motives. His mind
had doubtless been poisoned by reports proceeding from the
lips of enemies, by which this meritorious but unretaliating
class of Christians has often been most unjustly calumniated.
The above statement is false in every detail ; for, in the first
instance, the Herrnhuters or rather Evangelical Community
of Brethren (United Brethren, Moravian Brethren) has only
one settlement in Russia, i.e., at Sarepta, in the government
of Saratov. They have never settled nor intended to settle
in the Caucasus, and all who know anything of their system
of economy, or of their laborious and eminently successful
but yet unobtrusive eiforts for the propagation of the Gospel
in all parts of the world, will readUy and indignantly absolve
them from the charges of hypocrisy and avarice. They are
the spiritual descendants of the Wicklif&ans, the Waldenses,
and Albigenses, and, finally, of the Moravian and Bohemian
Evangelical Christians, who at the beginning of last century
were expelled from Eoman Catholic Austria, and fled to
Saxony, where they found their first resting place on the
estates of Count von Zinsendorf. They had been for many
years brethren in adversity and in religious persuasion. The
cruel persecutions of which they had been the victims during
centuries had firmly knit them together. In the soli-
tudes of the wUd Bohemian forests, in desolate places, they
had met in order to listen to the preaching of the true Gospel
of Christ. Wrestling with dangers from their infancy, their
minds and hearts were filled with that lofty heroism which
enables man to face hardships and death for the sake of the
Faith, and which has made them the bold pioneers of
Christianity and civilization in many parts of the world.

The report of a Moravian settlement in the Caucasus owed
its origin probably to the journey of two of their missionaries
through that country in search of a remnant of a company of

MORAVIAN ERETHEEN. 145

Bohemian Brethren, who were known to have fled into Asia
during a time of persecution, and whom they thought of
heing able to trace among the tribe of the Tchetchi (probably
Tchetchents, Bohemian Czechi). They accordingly dispatched,
in November, 1781, Brothers Gottfried G-rabsch and Georg
Gruhl to Astrakhan, where the Governor furnished them
with passports, to enable them to visit the Tartars on Mount
Caucasus. They first proceeded to Beregee, the place where
Professor Gmelin was imprisoned and died. The Moham-
medan inhabitants refused them shelter and food, and after
great trouble and a long detention by Uzmei-Khan, who
took all possible pains to find out their real object in coming,
and believed Brother Grabsch to be a learned and rich man,
or a physician, they on the 11th March, 1782, started for
Kubasha. Immediately on their entering the town, their
ears were assailed by the cry of the Mollahs upon the mina-
rets, calling the people to prayer ; proving the people to be
Mohammedans. They lodged with Uzmei-Khan's friend,
Mahmud, who appointed them a room on the fifth floor of
his house.

Brother Grabsch immediately proceeded to inquire into
the origin, religion, language, and books of the inhabitants,
visited every house, and left nothing undone, if possible to
trace some memorial of the Christian religion having once
prevailed at Kubasha. He discovered the ruins of three
churches, and an inscription over the door of one of them
cut in stone, which neither he nor the inhabitants could
decipher, except that in the middle of it the number 1213,
in the usual Arabic ciphers, had remained legible. Not far
from this ruin stands a noble and stately church, built of
hewn stone, and decorated with a profusion of architectural
ornaments, but now converted into dwellings, and divided
into flve stories. At the top of the building several inscrip-
tions were pointed out to Brother Grabsch, but he was utterly
unacquainted with the characters. The people possess no
more any books written in the characters formerly in use
amongst them ; they now use the Arabic both in writing the

146 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Turkish, Tartar, or their own language. They assert that
about 325 years ago (about the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury) they became converts to Islamism.

Brother Grabsch had a long conversation with ten of the
most intelligent inhabitants of Kubasha, hoping to discover
from them some trace of the Czeshi or supposed Bohemian
Brethren. They told him, that 300 years ago they had been
Christians, but they now thanked G-od for having directed
them into the right way to Heaven ; that they did not wish
to hear anything about the Christian faith, and could never
acknowledge him as a brother until he turned Mussulman,
and that they hoped his intention in coming to Kubasha was
not to reform them, &c.

Brother Grabsch's reply is characteristic of the equitable
and dispassionate principles of the Moravian Brethren. He
declared, that it was not his intention, neither was it in his
power, to turn them from their way of thinking, if they
believed themselves so certain of possessing the truth ; for
the Brethren to whom he belonged only endeavoured to
instruct such as were troubled in their consciences and
anxious to be restored to the favour of God, and to point out
to them the only true and living way to heaven and happi-
ness, through the merits of Jesus Christ.

At taking leave they all declared their friendship for him,
and Mahmud himself assured him, that whenever he came to
Kubasha he would always consider and treat him as his
brother. " What," said Brother Grabsch, " though I do
not turn Mussulman?" "Oh, all that goes for nothing,"
replied Mahmud.

At Derbent the missionaries were detained for some time
by Hashi Bek, until some silk goods confiscated by the
Eussians should be restored to him. They had to write to
their Kislar friends for assistance, which they also obtained
by return of the messengers, and proceeded at last in company
of a caravan to Tiflis. The journey proved very tedious, as
the waggons were drawn 'by oxen, and the drivers, who were
Mohammedans, refused to supply the travellers with food.

CZAR HEEACLIUS, AND MORAVIAN YISITOKS. 147

They were in great fear of attacks on the part of the Lesghi,
who had just returned from a wholesale plundering expe-
dition. At Bakii and Shemakhah they lodged with Arme-
nian Christians, who treated them with great kindness.
During his abode here, Brother Grabsch was frequently con-
sulted as a physician, though he constantly protested against
it. He found many opportunities to preach Jesus, both
to Armenians and Persians, by whom he was heard with
pleasure and attention. The last thirty miles before Tiflis
they had to make on foot under a scorching sun, and when
at last, weary and faint, they arrived, they did not know
where to stay the night. A young boy, whom they met in
the suburbs, took them to his father's house. He was a poor
and aged man, but both he and his wife received the travel-
lers most kindly, declaring that God himself had sent them
these guests.

On the following day they went in search of an Armenian,
to whom they were recommended. They had likewise a letter
to Prince or Czar Heraclius, of Georgia, who was then absent.
They were, however, by order of Prince George most hospi-
tably entertained at the Czar's expense. The Governor,
Gabriel Pavlovich Galebov, and Prince Paul Andronikov,
showed them also much friendship, and, in general, they
were treated with every mark of kindness and respect. On
the 30th they had an audience from the Czar. Brother
Grabsch was placed in a chair close by the Czar, who bade him
welcome, and conversed with him in the Turkish language.
They remained about a fortnight, during which time the
Czar as well as the Russian authorities showed them the
kindest attention. The latter pressed them hard respecting
the establishment of a Moravian settlement in Georgia. At
midnight of the 6th July the Czar sent for them, and begged
them to apply to the Sarepta Elders for the establishment of
a Moravian colony in his territory. The Czar at last rose
from his seat, and stepping up to Brother Grabsch, addressed
him : " Feodor Ivanovich, I am informed that the Brethren
are an upright and intelligent people ; and if I could get

L 2

148 THE LAOT) OF THE CZAE.

five, ten, a hundred, or a thousand of them to settle in my
country, I should give praise to God. That would indeed be
a crown on my head, even in hoary age." He offered to
write himself to the bishops and elders of the Brethren's
church, promising to grant them every privilege they could
desire, and in case they found their abode in his country un-
pleasant, to send them back at his own charge.

The Czar was then sixty-four years old, and wore a long
black beard. He had a venerable and mild countenance, and
was as much noted for his humanity as for his military
prowess. His mode of living was regular ; he spent most of
his time either in transacting the business of the State, or in
religious exercises, and devoted but a few hours to sleep.
He had six sons and seven daughters ; the behavioxir of the
former was very cordial and unreserved.

Brother Grabsch found here a desirable opportunity of
writing by a caravan to the Brethren's missionaries at Grand
Cairo. His landlord, a man of extensive knowledge, both in
the European and Asiatic languages, who had travelled
through most of the Western countries of Europe, informed
him, to his surprise, that he had visited the missionaries of
the Brethren's church both near Tranquebar and at Nancau-
wery, one of the Nicobar islands.

Having received a letter from Czar Heraclius to the
bishops and elders of the Brethren's Unity, written in the
Turkish language, the two missionaries left Tiflis on the 2nd
of August for Mosdok. The Czar gave them an escort, and
provided in every way for their safe passage of the Kazbek.
The Ossets having destroyed aU the bridges over the Terek,
they were obliged to climb over the most steep and dan-
gerous rocks. An Ossetian, Prince Dudarukva (perhaps a
relation of the author's friend. Col. Dudarov), gave them a
safe-conduct into his village, Achmet, but he demanded an
exorbitant reward, for his civility, in cotton goods. As they
were not able to pay it, he detained them many days.
Arrived at Mosdok they found out their mistake respect-
ing the Tchetchi or Tchegemzes (as they called the

MORAVIAN BRETHEEN. 149

Tchetchents), and returned to Sarepta by way of Kislar and
Astrachan.

This account, wMch, apart from the interest it oifers with
regard to the religious community it describes, and their
endeavours to propagate the Gospel of Christ, is a curious
illustration of the condition of some of the Caucasian nations
towards the end of last century. Having said so much
regarding the Moravians and their institutions, we may con-
clude by stating, that their missions are not carried on by the
aid of charitable contributions ; but that the trades in which
they are engaged, and the capital for which is supplied by
the congregational treasury, together with their excellent
educational establishments, alone furnish the means for the
execution of their benevolent enterprises. It thus appears,
that every member of the Fraternal Unity contributes with
hand and brain towards the spreading of Christianity in its
purest form. Their church rites resemble the Lutheran,
though there are attached to them divers beautiful ceremo-
nies, and their music is considerably above the medium
standard. Wherever they may be settled, they are good
patriots and obedient to the authorities of the country that
affords them protection. They therefore willingly obey the
call to arms in defence of the fatherland, and many a young
Moravian Brother sleeps in a French grave.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE tTEAIiO-ALTAIC POPULATION.

THE SAMOTEDES.

Spkinging from the same Altaic source, they seem to
form the link between the Finnish and Mongolian races, and
are spread over the extensive tract of country between the
White Sea and the Khatanga and Yenissdi rivers. From
the Ostiaks we learn of their cruelty and brutality, how they
would pluck the yet quivering heart from their enemies'
breasts and even devour the slain. Their Russian name
implies the habit of anthropophagy.

Their language consists of three distinct idioms, i. e., those
of Timan, Ijma, and Kazym.

1. The Samoyedes of North-Western Siberia. They are

divided into Samoyedes of Kanin, Timan, of the
swamps of Bolshy-Zemelsk, of the mouth of the Obi
and into Youraks. The latter are, however, sharply
distinguished from all the other tribes. The three
first live in European Russia, and are called
" Samoyedes of Mezen."

2. The Samoyedes of Timan live in the country between

the eastern coast of the Glacial Sea and the Petchora,
the TsyLma forming the southern confines of their
territory. They are close neighbours of

3. The Samoyedes of Kanin, who occupy the westernmost

position of aU. They keep reindeer in great numbers,
and are bold hunters and fishers. Their prey consists

SAMOYEDES. 151

of foxes, wolves, reindeer, seals, polar-bears, and birds.
They number about 1000 heads.
4. The Samoyedes of the swamps of Bolshy-Zernelsk inhabit
the territory between the Petchora and Ural and as
far as the mouth of the Kara.

They are divided into three tribes, i. e., the Pustozersk
(1600 souls), Ijmas (1000 souls), and Oust-Zelemsk (1000
souls). The first live on the very coast of the Glacial Sea.
They all are hunters and fishers, their game being principally
reindeer, wolves, foxes, and birds.

Christianity has been introduced amon§st the Samoyedes
of M^z^n in 1822, and in 1826 the first church was built
(and consecrated) on the Lake Kharvea in the Ural. Before
the year 1830, about 3303 persons had received baptism.
Not long after, two additional churches and a school per
district were erected. The Pagan portion of the people
practise Shamanism, believe in a superior being " Noum,"
spirits, demons, and adore idols. They prefer to celebrate
their rites in the island of Vaigatch, it being for them the
most sacred place on earth. " Noum " is also believed by
them to be the Creator of the Gods. Death is for them the
end of everything, only ' tabidis ' (Shamans) are immortal.

Each " tundra " (marsh) has a chief, who, together with an
assistant, is elected every three years. He receives two per
cent of the " Yassak" (tribute in furs), for which he is
responsible.

The Samoyedes are timid and peaceable, and disputes,
rows, and murders are very rare amongst them, and whenever
they happen, it is generally found to have been caused by
drink. They are careful not to ofi'end, but neither will
they tolerate insult. Liquor and tobacco are their greatest
solace. Their character shows a certain fund of good nature,
but they are very lazy, and abominable gluttons. Their
intellectual faculties are little developed, they are careless,
improvident, and therefore poor. They dream and think of
nothing but the finding of good pasturage for their reindeer.

152 THE LAND OF THE CZAPv.

Some of these people on hearing of the magnificent splendour
of St. Petersburg, exclaimed in a transport of admiration:
" What a splendid moss must there not be at SL Petersburg
for our reindeer!" They are indescribably dirty in their
habits, and positively never wash. The men are short of
stature but strongly constituted. The women are perhaps still
more filthy than the men. They axe exceedingly dissolute,
and look Hke old hags at the age of twenty. Their number
is gradually diminishing, so that they will probably die out
before long.

THE SAMOTEDES OF THE GULT OF THE OBL

They number about 4500 souls, and resemble the Samoyedes
of the other tribes, only their dialect is altogether distinct from
the rest It is disagreeable to the ear, and they possess no
written language. They are decidedly superior in intellect
to the Ostjaks, prudent, thoughtful and economical. Those
of their children who visited the schools at Berezov from
1844 to 1849 distinguished themselves by a peculiar pro-
ficiency in arithmetic, design, and calligraphy. These
Samoyedes are of short stature, but of a robust constitution.
They have big heads, straight foreheads, round and flat faces,
big mouths, dirty yellow complexions, projecting cheekbones
and narrow eyes (similar to the Mongol type), black hair
(bristle-like), big ears, and short hands and feet. The ladies
are quite as ugly as the gentlemen. Their dress is made of
reindeer skins and similar to that of the Ostjaks. Coloured
strips of cloth, sown on to the furs, are considered the height
of elegance by the — fair sex. These people live in portable
tents, by the Russians called " tchoum," by the Samoyedes
" Mjakani." They eat Kttle bread, but much fish and rein-
deer meat, and the hot blood taken from the dying reindeer
is considered the greatest delicacy. Their way of feeding
offers a revolting sight. The instant a reindeer is skinned
and its belly cut open, the whole family pounces, knife in
hand, on the warm flesh, which they dip into the reeking
blood and swallow, without masticating, with beastly voracity.

YOUEAKS. 153

That which the men cannot eat, is left to the women, who
without knife, bury their ugly heads into the gory carcass,
and with their sharp teeth soon finish the remainder. This
tribe practises Shamanism to a great extent, and not very
long ago robbed and massacred the Christian Ostjaks that
lived amongst them. If one of them dies, they dress the
dead body in his best suit, and get his favourite reindeer to
carry it to the grave. The latter is covered with planks and
earth. Four men, armed with stout bludgeons, then smash
the head of the reindeer. If it dies without a struggle, it is
considered a lucky omen, and they evince extravagant joy.
But if it lift again its head, they run away in every direction,
crying " Vassissa, Vassissa ! " (woe, woe !) They then light
a great fire over the grave, into which they pour oil, fat,
bread and tobacco, and everj^body presses forward to fumigate
the clothes, which operation, they suppose, breaks the spell.

THE YOUEAKS.

This nomadic tribe, which counts about 500 souls, is
little known. Their land forms part of the district of
Touroukhansk in the government Yenisseisk. They have
black hair and a dark complexion and more agreeable faces
than the last tribe. They have fine figures, and are agile and
handy. The women resemble the Eussian type. The cos-
tume of both sexes is very simple, and ' entirely made of
reindeer skins, and attached to it is a hood. They let their
long hair hang down behind, and ornament it with tin
buttons, small chains, and even with silver roubles, which
articles are bought of the merchants of the Yenisseisk
government. The wealthier people try to imitate Eussian
dress and customs. Fire-arms are almost unknown to them.
The river Youraks are nearly all pagans. Their numerous
gods are represented by animals, of which the wolf is
execrated, but the bear held in veneration. The new-born
children are at once plunged into cold water or snow, in
order to make them hardy, and for the same reason they
sleep in a state of complete nudity. The consequence is, that

154 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

the Siberian winter carries off many babies. They are very
careful of their sick. Chilblains they cure with bear's
grease. Some of them possess as many as 1000 reindeer,
and love them so much, that they will suffer the severest
pangs of hunger for four or five days together, before they
can make up their minds to kUl one of their tame favourites.
When at last they kill a reindeer or a bear, they make up
for their abstinence by bolting as much as fifteen pounds of
meat at one meaL

The Samoyedes of the North-Eastem Provinces or Tavghi
live in the extreme north of Siberia, and are exposed to a
frightful climate. There are but few of them left.

Those of the country between the Yenissdi and Khatanga
are Pagans. They also eat the meat raw, but are cleanlier
than the Ostjak-Samoyedes.

The Samoyedes of Sovihern Siberia are neighbours of the
Youraks, and inhabit the Upper Taz, the Yelogoui, and the
affluents of the Vakh river. They are pure Samoyedes as
regards race.

The Ostjak-Samoyedes, speaking the dialect of Tourouk-
hansk, are principally fishers. They are dirty in their
habits, and exceedingly lazy, and therefore the poorest
tribe of all.

The Ostjaks, speaking the dialect of Tomsk. Their lan-
guage is different from any of the other Samoyede dialects.
Though baptized long since, they still continue their idola-
trous rites. Like the Samoyedes of the north-east, they
have their traditional heroic songs. They are fishers, and
carriers of merchandize. At the beginning of winter they
start in sledges for distant hunting grounds. They are poor,
lazy, stupid, and brutal.

The Samxryedes-Kamassin inhabit the land on the right
banks of the Yenissei, but there are few of them left,'

The Ostjaks of the Yenissei number 900 souls, and inhabit
the banks of the Yenissei, about half-way up its course.
They are of middle size, rather feebly constituted, and with-
out characteristic traits. The expression of the men's faces

OSTJAKS. 155

is hard and sinister. The women have all a sickly appear-
ance. Both sexes are notorious by their total disregard of
cleanliness. They have been Christians for many years, and
there is no Shamanism amongst them ; but their character
is savage, cunning, deceitful and they are very cruel to
their wives, whom they can buy at 10 or 15 roubles (30s. to
45s.) ahead. They abandon their sick with the same cruelty.

CHAPTEE XVIII.

THE PINUISH NATIONS.

After the Slavonian, these constitute the majority of the
Rnssian population. They lived in ancient times in the
western parts of Siberia, and were carried westward by the
emigration of peoples. They may be divided into two
groups; i.e., the western and eastern.

(a.) The Western Group, or Baltic Finns (Russ., Tchou-
khnya, Tchoukhontsy : Finn., Suomalaisets) comprises the
Esthonians, Livonians, Laps, in short, the Finnish inha-
bitants of Finland, Lapland, Esthonia, of the governments
of Archangel, Olonetz, St. Petersburg, Xovgorod, Tver,
Livonia, and Courland.

The primitive inhabitants of Finland proper were the
Laps. The country to the south and south-west of the lake
Ladoga was inhabited by the Tchoude tribes — the Yemes
and Votes. North of that lake lived the Karelians.

During the twelfth century the latter commenced en-
croaching on the Tchouds in a westward direction. The
Yemes were the first to be driven into Finland by the
Ingrians. Chasing before them the Laps, they came upon
the Karelians, by whom they were pushed westward to the
centre of Finland, and towards the Finnish Gulf.

The Votes were completely disabled by Prince Vseslav of
Polotsk, at the battle of Novgorod, in the year 1069.

At the end of the eleventh century the Votes and Kare-
lians were close neighbours of the Slavonians, and adopted
their customs and religion.

FINNISH NATIONS. 157

The Finnisli nationalities are divided into four principal
sections ; i. e., the Tchouds of the south (Livonians and
Esthonians), the true Finnish tribes, the Karelian tribes,
and the Laps.

FIRST SECTION.

The Livonians (Courland), 2000 souls.

The Esthonians (Virolaisets), living in the Tchoukhnia,
north of the Livonians, and in the governments of
St. Petersburg, Pskov, and Vitebsk (about 700,000
souls).

SECOND SECTION.

The Votes, a remnant of the ancient Tchouds (about 5000

souls), inhabiting tv^o districts of the government of

St. Petersburg.
The Tchouds, like the Votes, branches of the Yemes

(55,000 souls), in the governments of Novgorod and

Olonetz.
The true Finns (Suomalaiisets), in South-West Finland

(600,000 souls).

THIRD SECTION.

The Kvaenes and Karelians (Kainulaisets and Karia-
laisets), in the northern and eastern parts of Finland
and in the governments of Archangel, Olonetz, Nov-
gorod, Tver, and St. Petersburg.

The Aeyraemoeisets (30,000), in the governments of St.
Petersburg and Viburg.

The Ingrians (18,000), in the government of St. Peters-
burg.

The Savakotes (45,000), in the governments of St. Peters-
burg and Viburg.

FOURTH SECTION.

The Laps (4000), in the north of Finland. They are of
foreign origin, but speak now the Finnish language.

158 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

THE LIVONIANS (2000 SOULS).

These people have preserved their language in tolerable
purity, l)ut it is spoken only amongst intimate connections.
The official and Church language is the Lettonian. Near
relations of the Esthonians, they are bold mariners, and
dangerous wreckers ; violent, unforgiving, and extremely
obstinate. Drunkenness and theft are frequent amongst
them, but their marriage vow is severely kept Their con-
jugal life is altogether exemplary. Their women and girls
are as courageous sailors as the men. They marry late;
frequent exposure prematurely renders their skin wrinkled,
greyish, and aged in appearance; but they enjoy robust
health. They are very shy in the presence of strangers.

Their religion is the Lutheran; but, although at first
sight their piety seems profound, they seldom show the true
index of the Christian religion, i. e., a sincere conviction
of the truth of Christ's doctrine.

THE ESTHONIAilS (700,000)

are distributed throughout the governments of Esthonia
(260,000), St Petersburg (10,000), Pskov (10,000), Vitebsk
(10,000), and the northern parts of Livonia (410,000).

They call themselves " Ma-mees " (man of the land), or
"TaUopoeg" (son of the farm, fr. Finn., "talo;" Hun-
garian, " telek "). Their country they name " Meie-ma "
(our country), and their nation " Ma-rahvas " (people of
the land). Amongst the Finns they go by the name of
'' Virolaisets."

Sharing the fate of the Letts, they were Christianized,
civilized, and tyrannized over by the Teutonic knights.

Their character is somewhat ruder than that of the Letts,
but has more vigour and resisting power. Their civilization
began with their subjection in 1327.

They are heavy-jawed, thin-necked, of middle size, but
stout and strong. Near the coast they grow taller. Their
hair is reddish-fair, soft, and straight ; their complexion and

FINNISH TRIBES. 159

shape of skull somewhat approaching the Mongolian type.
Their language is a Finnish dialect.

The Esthonian is generally serious and awkward in
manner, diEEident of strangers, and the women are little
inclined to fun or gaiety. Patient, because phlegmatic, their
carriage is far from easy ; but they are vindictive, and the
most inveterate enemies of the German race. Without
being warlike, they possess a certain stubborn courage, and
show no fear of death. Adultery is considered by them the
most horrible crime. Without being either intelligent or
sagacious (though not so stupid as the Grermans try to make
them out), they are honest and disinterested. They never
dance, and the swings are their greatest amusement.

Their popular lore generally has a chaste and noble love
for its object, and they have preserved many heroic legends.

They celebrate weddings with great pomp, the rejoicings
lasting often many days.

THE FINNS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ST. PETERSBURG (100,000)

differ little from other Finns, but have adopted many
Russian customs.

THE VOTES (5000).

They inhabit the districts of Oranienbaum, of Tamburg,
and the sea-shore. Their religion is the Greek. Only the
men speak the Russian language, and badly enough. Their
style of living is similar to that of the Esthonians. They
are all independent farmers, not excepting the poorest
amongst them.

THE INGRIANS, OR IJORS (18,000).

Their settlements are situated in the government of St.
Petersburg. They derive their name from Inghegherd,
daughter of Olof Skoet-Konung, King of Sweden, who (in
1019) married the Grand Duke Yaroslav, and who gave her
name to the land she had demanded for her dowry, as well
as to the river and the inhabitants, although the latter did
not appear on it until 100 years after that event. Their

160 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

constant qaarrels with the Karelians and Yemes drove them
into the arms of the Russians.

The ^yrcBmceisets (30,000) live in the government of St.
Petersburg, and resemble the last tribe.

The Swvahotes (45,000) also of the government of St.
Petersburg, are distinguished from the last only by the
different dress of the women. They are all Lutherans.

The Finns of Finland, or the Karels of the Etissians
(1,430,000).

They are farmers, and have been so for centuries, only on
the coast they occupy themselves in trade, and make very
good, sailors. As regards their character, they are just,
energetic, tenacious, and patient, and probity is the con-
spicuous and indigenous virtue of the people living in the
north-eastern part of Bothnia- The affability and hos-
pitality of the Finns of the interior of Finland is proverbial.
They are rather tongue-tied, and seem melancholy. Although
themselves fair, with blue or grey eyes, their heroes, as
described in their songs, are invariably dark with raven hair.
They are middle-sized, with low foreheads, straight nose, and
prominent cheek bones. They shave beard and moustaches,
and, parting the hair in the middle, they let it fall over the
ears. Their religion is the Lutheran, and they celebrate
Christmas by great solemnities.

Their poetry is of the Epic style (rouno) , and most productive
amongst the Karelians. Superstition has still great sway
with these people. They live principally by agriculture and
fishing, and are bold hunters of the bear, wolf, fox, &c. Their
country produces a great amount of tar.

FOURTH SECTION. THE LAPS.

The Laps of Finnish Lapland or Enare Laps, so-called
after the river of the same name, in which fish abound.
Their territory is close to the Norwegian frontiers. They
were Christianized during the Catholic era of Finland, but
became Protestants three centuries ago. The first Protestant
temple was built in the year 1600. Summer is their fishing

LAPS. 161

season, in winter they hunt the reindeer. They live in yourtes
(Tartar), or kotds (Lap). The aspect of their villages is dis-
agreeable to the eye of the visitors, and an accumulation of
offal of fish renders them still more offensive to the nose.
They salute the stranger by a mute pressure of the hand,
and childish questions, such as : " Is the Czar well ? Is the
Bishop well ? Is the G-overnor well ? " &o. The women
make themselves obnoxious by their fidgety curiosity. They
possess the latter quality to a truly distracting extent.
Their wearing apparel consists in reindeer-skin coats and
trousers, to which, in winter, is added a large bear-skin
collar covering chest and spine. This collar is made larger
for the women, who, moreover, on holidays, wear a toupee of
five inches in height on the very top of their head.

As regards their religious condition, they are habitually
pious, but, at the same time, very superstitious, and there
exists still amongst them a species of rite, of which the
serpent is the object. They know all the Psalms and Church
service, as well as the New Testament, by heart ; have
prayers in the morning, at night, and before and after meal
times. The Laps are much attached to wife and chdd, and
even to the servants. Notwithstanding this mildness, they
possess a great share of courage and intrepidity. Great
crimes are scarce amongst them, but they have no idea of
good manners, and the men are apt to enforce their will with
the fist.

THE LAPS OF EUSSIAN LAPLAND.

There are about 3000 of them. They live principally in
the government of Archangel, and belong to the Greek
Church. Full of superstition, they believe in sorceries, magic
art, &c. They will soon be altogether russified.

THE EASTERN FINNISH GROUP.

The Permiahs (60,000). Of that number 25,000 souls
belong to the Perm country, 30,000 to Iven, the property of

162 THB LAND OF THE CZAR.

the noble family of the Stroganovs, and to Viatka 5000.
They are fast degenerating. Once celebrated for their tall,
and even colossal statures, they are now stunted in growth
and weak. There is only one family of the old and pure
Permian blood extant. A member of the same was a perfect
giant in size and strength, who could lift a cart weighing
upwards of 1000 pounds on to another cart. He attained the
age of 115 years, his father having been 112 years old when
he died.

The present race is broad-shouldered, thin, and short-
necked, with flat chest, little shanks, big hands and feet, and
of deformed appearance. Their heads are small and angular,
and the forehead depressed. The women have, however,
pretty, small hands. One sees generally two types, of which
one is fair and even red-haired, with big face, red or yellowish
complexion, grey eyes, big turned~up nose, thick lips, and
round chin ; while the other is characterised by the dark
brown hair, long face, smutty complexion, dark eyes, straight
and thin nose, thin lips and pointed chiu. Neither sex is
handsome. Their half-closed, inexpressive eyes, and the rest
of their ugly countenance, impress the latter with the character
of stupidity, brutality, low cunning, malignant caprice ; and
regarding the married people, of unbridled sensuality.

The young girls have often brighter and more expressive
eyes, but neither eyebrow nor bosom. The walk of the
Permians is awkward and clumsy, and vacillating, and accom-
panied by a grotesque swinging of the arms. On the whole
they are healthy, but both men and women are excessively
lazy. Eude and arrogant at home, the Permiak is timid and
shy abroad. They are drunkards, and grossly immoral.
Their churches are little frequented, but they keep the fasts
rigorously.

They call themselves "Komi." Their language is a
Tchoud-Idiom. It is very poor, and considerably adulterated
with Russian words. All Permiaks speak the Eussian
language.

ZYEIANS. 163

THE ZYKTANS (90,000 SOUls).

They are a people of hunters, and inhabit the inhospitable
territory of the eastern parts of the Vologda and Archangel
Governments. They thus are the southern neighbours of the
Samoyedes. The Zyrian is a perfect man of nature, in as
far, at least, as he lives entirely amidst Nature's grand and
often terrible scenes. He passes the whole winter in the
forest, hunting the bear, wolf, fox, sable, &c. In peaceful
tranquillity, he lives a life of primitive simplicity. At first
sight his appearance is anything but pleasant and winning.
There is a certain cunning expression in his eyes, and side-
long glances, and an awkward reserve, which are repulsive to
the stranger. If not spoken to in his own tongue, he main-
tains a rigid silence. But he who understands how to manage
him, will soon discover many good qualities of heart in him.
He is of middle size, strongly and regularly built, and of
pale complexion. His speech is chopping and intoned like
a chaunt. Eish and fruit are his principal food, and water
strictly his only beverage. His love for the paternal hearth
is unbounded, and sooner than leave his home, he wUl readily
undergo the greatest hardships. It happens often, that his
crops are entirely destroyed by drought, or frost, &c. In that
case he will content himself with bran, bark, and young pine
twigs. They have their own patriarchal life apart from the
rest of the world, and their travelled countryman loses in their
eyes, because he with his experience, his foreign look, and his
narratives, disturbs the smooth and clear surface of their
simple, happy existence. Frank, and full of kindly feeling
for each other, the Zyrians, in the presence of strangers,
become impenetrable, vindictive, and distrustful. Persevering
in danger and hardships, bold in all their enterprises, they
strictly keep their word, and fulfil what they have undertaken
to the very letter. They are scrupulously honest. When
carrying money to the stations (for instance, the amount of
the village's government taxes) the Zyrian will inform all
passers-by of his errand, whereupon those solemnly uncover

M 2

164 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

theirheads. On his arrival the landlord sends at once all persons
present out of the house, and as soon as the event is known
in the village, everybody hides in his house until the messenger
has gone again. The Zyrian is very hospitable, and a traveller
is nowhere safer than with him. When he leaves home, he
leaves his doors wide open, as if inviting all passers-by to
enter. He loves solemnities, especially if frequently repeated,
that last for several days, and cost much money. His
Christian education makes, as yet, little headway. The
Zyrian of the Vologda district farms and breeds cattle, now
and then, and to a limited extent. He then lives on bread,
milk, and butter, but he is essentially hunter and fisher. He
earns much money by the sale of his fnrs and fish, but in
most cases remains poor, as he spends his money freely, and
does not mind incurring debt besides. Their rivers swarm
with fish, especially the river-net of the district of Oust-
Syssolsk. In the Petshora many salmon are caught, which
often weigh as much as 601bs. But the " lokh " (i.e., salmon
that has hibernated in a lake) sometimes exceeds that weight
by upwards of 401bs. The sterlet attains to 301bs. In that
district alone about 6000 tons of fish are taken annually, of
which about one-third is sold. During the autumn and
winter about 3,000,000 to 6,000,000 rebtchiks (hazelfowl)
are caught, and sold at 7, 10, or 15 kopeks, which at St.
Petersburg cost 50 kopeks each. The furs fetch the follow-
ing prices : — Best bear skins, 6 to 7 rs., or 18s. to 1/. ; otters, 7
to 12 rs. or 20s. to 33s. ; black fox, 35 to 45 rs., or 5^. to 71. ;
zybelini (sable), 10 to 15 rs., or 30s. to 45s. ; 10 ermine
skins, 1 to 1|- rs., or 3s. to 4s. 6d. ; squirrels, per 100, 6 to
7 rs. or 18s. to 20s.

The Zyrian bathes every day, even when outlying in the
snow and ice of a winter forest. Having lit the fire and put
the kettle on, he cuts a flat piece of wood into a flesh-scraper.
In the meantime, his water boUs, he strips to the skin, how-
ever intense the cold may be, and begins by pouring the
boiling water over himself. While doing so, he scrapes with
his stick as fast as he can, until the whole surface of the skin

VOTIAKS AND BESSEEMiENES. 165

is in a profuse perspiration. He then dresses himself, and
lies down in the snow for his night's rest. Physiognomical ly,
his type resembles the Finnish; his architecture betrays
Eussian tuition.

The Zyrians of Archangel hunt less, but are sharp men of
business, and keep enormous heTds of reindeer. They differ
from the others by the aquiline shape of their noses, their
athletic figures, keen glance, and by their cool assurance.
Their spirit is penetrating and sly, they are indifferent to
danger, but possessed of extraordinary cupidity. They are
generally wealthy. Some of them gain by their reindeer as
much as 30,000 or 40,000 rs. = 5,000^. to 6,000/. per annum,
and an annual income of 800/. is a common matter with
them.

They number about 12,000 souls.

THE VOTIAKS AND BESSERMABNES (230,000)

of whom 220,000 live in Viatka in compact masses, and
9000 in Kazan. Their three tribes are the following : —

-■tj '

1st. Votiaks (malmyisko-sarapulski), who have preserved
their old customs and language, and are excessively
dirty.

2nd. Votiaks (glasovsko-sarapulski), who have approached
the Russian element, as regards exterior, dress, cuSt
toms, and language.

3rd. Votiaks (yelabniski), who betray Tartar influence
in language and morals. They also are very dirty.
Their hair is fair (reddish), and their eyes light-
coloured. They occupy themselves with agriculture,
manufacture of mats and sacks of bark, hunting of
squirrels, and minding their numerous beehives. They
are never idle. The language used by them is har-
monious, but poor. ' They have taste for music and
sing for ever ; their improvised songs, are however, to
all appearance, utterly devoid of sense.

166 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

There are living amongst them a certain number of
Bessermaenes (about 5000).

THE OUGKIAU OE OTTGEIC PEOPLES.

These peoples are Voghuls and Ostjaks, and descendants
of the ancient Ougrians, to whom the Madgars or Madgyars
(Hungarian-Magyars) stand in more or less near relationship,
and inhabit the northern part of the Ural Mountains and the
territory of the Obi and Irtysh.

THE VOGHULS (7000 SOuls).

Once under the name of " Mansy," wild and turbulent,
they are now peaceable and submissive. Christianity was
introduced amongst them upwards of 100 years since, but
they are now only Christians by name. They are distrustful
and disposed to resistance, but, when treated with justice and
humanity, will serve a stranger well enough. Only the
Voghuls of the Lovsa and the Pelym may be called true
Voghuls. Essentially hunters, their business season begins
with winter. They are taciturn, and always gloomy in ex-
pression, even when dancing or druuk. This Voghul may
on the whole be called a refractory individual.

THE OSTJAKS (23,000 SOTlls).

They are the easternmost Finnish tribe, and live within
the mighty river-net of the Obi and Irtysh. Their language
is an Ougro-Ostjak branch of the Finnish idiom. Each of
the three tribes called the Ostjaks of the Irtysh,— of the
Upper and of the Lower Obi, — speaks its own dialect.

1st The Ostjaks of the Irtysh strongly betray Eussian
influence. They were baptized long since, and are
devotedly attached to the Russian- Greek Church.
Strictly believing in Christ's doctrine, they yet betray
no precise knowledge of it.

2nd. The Ostjaks of the Obi have preserved their dialect
in a purer condition. In the country honest, good,

FINNISH TRIBES OP THE VOLGA. 167

and sober, they get easily spoilt by the contact with
town life. They are rather feebly constituted, lazy,
and sickly in appearance. Their complexion is a pale
yellow, and they have small eyes, round and flat faces
and flat noses. They let their shaggy black hair
tumble about their heads indiscriminately. The beard
is unmercifully pulled out by the root. The women
are still dirtier and uglier than the men, and their
houses indescribably filthy. They are withal a jolly
lot, full of songs and familiar loquacity, and their
smile is frank and pleasant. Spirits and tobacco are
their greatest delight.

The name " Ostjak " is thought to be derived from
" Ass-yakh " (men from the Obi), or from " Ariakhi "
— numerous (from " ar " =many, and " kho " =:man).
Their conquerors, the Tartars, called them Oushtjaks,
contemptuously implying their being brutal savages
or barbarians. It is singular, that besides the Russians
and Tartars, none of their neighbours call them Ost-
jaks. The Samoyedes know them by the name of
" Taga." They have many Tartar customs. Their
titles and the women's costumes are Tartar, and alto-
gether the Tartar influence is far more apparent than
the Eussian.

THE FINNISH TRIBES OF THE VOLGA.

THE TCHEEEMISS (210,000 SOuls).

They inhabit the territories of the Governments of Vjatka
(100,000), of Kazan (90,000), of Kostroma (4000), of Neezh-
nei-Novgorod (7000), of Perm (6000), and of Orenburg
(3000). Part of them live in the mountains and the others
in the plains near the Volga. The former are active and
industrious, well-made, and their faces, though pale, not
disagreeable. The latter are dark and small, but gifted with
extraordinary keen organs of sight and hearing. Xlieir
character is phlegmatic.

168 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

The Tcheremiss of the hills are very different from those
of the steppes, with whom they never intermarry. Their
dialect is harmonious in sound, and in that respect far supe-
rior to that of the Tcheremiss of the plains. Both dialects
contain many Tartar words. The young girls wear their hair
in two tresses, which hang down their hacks, but the married
women iavariably hide away theirs. On the whole slow and
rather dull, the Tcheremiss are capricious, vindictive, and
obstiaate, but true and honest. Passionately fond of their
forests, and persevering hunters, they are in high request as
forest-gaards. The Tcheremiss of the mountains are zealous
Christians of the Eussian Church, those of the steppes are
(one half of them) Pagans as yet.

THE MOEDVINS OE MOEDVA (700,000 SOuls).

They inhabit the Grovernments of Pensa (160,000), of Sim-
birsk (130,000), of Saratov (100,000), of Samara (140,000),
of Neezhnei-Novgorod (70,000), of Tambov (75,000), of
Kazan (17,000), of Orenburg (17^000), and of Astrakhan
(800), and are divided into two tribes : of Erza and of Mok-
sha, of which each has its particular dialect.

The name " Mordva " is derived from " mourk " (man), and
" va " (water). They are the southernmost Finns or Tchouds,
but in most parts so russified that their ancient type can
hardly be recognized. Those of Erza have preserved the
Finnish type and structure. They have fair or reddish hair.
The Moksha are dark, and their spare beard shows an ad-
mixture of the Tartar type. They are honest, industrious,
and hospitable, but taciturn and irritable, and less firm than
the Tcheremiss.

CHAPTEE XIX.

THE TARTARS OF RUSSIA.
THE TCHOUVASHES (670,000).

They inhabit the Governments of Kazan (400,000), Sim-
birsk (125,000), Samara (70,000), Orenburg (40,000),
Saratov (20,000), Perm (15,000). Their blood is a mixture
of Finnish and Tartar elements, and it is even probable that
the remnants of the ancient Bulgars of the Volga have been
gradually absorbed by this tribe. Although in exterior
qualities differing from the real Tartars, their language is
altogether that of the latter nation. The Tchouvash is thin
and fair, and of lesser size than the Tartar. He is timid and
shy, and retreats before the Russian, of whose language he .
knows but little. His costume, however, is that of the latter.
The Tchouvashes were baptized in 1 743, but their religion
betrays nevertheless traces of Islamism and Paganism. They
live in forests and solitary places, where they need not fear
the approach of strangers. Their songs are simple and
natural.

They are less cleanly than the Tcheremiss, lazy and bad
farmers, and therefore poor, notwithstanding the great fer-
tility of their soil.

THE BASHKIES, MESHTCHEBIAKS, AND TEPTIAES (600,000)

inhabit the Governments of Orenburg (500,000), of Perm
(60,000), of Samara (26,000), and of Viatka (15,000), the
Meshtcheriaks (125,000) indiscriminately living amongst

170 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

them. Both are placed tinder Cossack supervision, and
assist the latter in their toOsome frontier service. They are
divided into twenty-eight cantonments, their territory being
situated between the Ural, the river Ural, the great Ik, the
Bj^laya, and the Kaspa. Their country is fertile, but the
climate is severe, owing to the great heat of summer and
frightful winters. They are Tartars, with an admixture of
Finnish and Mongolian elements. The Meshtcheriaks are
Mohammedans, and far cleanlier in their habits than the
others. They were formerly in constant warfare with the
Kirghiz. They have round faces, dark complexions, a wide-
awake look out of their grey or dark eyes, brown hair,
medium-sized mouth and nose, projecting cheek-bones, big
ears, and little beard. There are few pretty women amongst
them. Their maladies are principally the small-pox (which
carries off many, rendering the survivors truly hideous), and
diseases of the eyes produced by the dust and wind of the
steppe. They lead a nomadic life, and though obliging and
willing to serve, make but indifferent soldiers. They are
however robust and splendid riders, and now armed like the
Cossacks. Their villages have schools, and civilization is
slowly progressing amongst them. Horse- theft is their
delight ; they are fond of liquor, but cannot easily procure
it. MUk, sour cheese (krut), the " makhan " (hash of beef
and horse), but particularly the " bishbarmak," are their
favourite dishes. The latter is a hash of meat mixed with
flour. Their drinks are vodka, kumyss, airan, kvass, and
bouza (beer). The language of the Bashkirs is a Tartar
dialect ; their songs, couplets, invariably composed of but
four verses.

The airs are melancholy, and the notes rather dragging,
but the effect is not disagreeable. Islamism is stiU. the
dominant religion, but there are also many Christian con-
verts. The old men are often truly pious, but they are never
fanatics. Superstition has great sway over them. They
pretend to have books printed in hell. He who can read
them knows the past, present, and future, and can perform

THE GENUINE TARTARS. 171

miracles by the help of spirits and demons. They tremble
in the presence of their magicians, who are also their medical
advisers. The Mohammedans belong to the Sunnite sect,
and believing themselves particularly favoured by heaven,
commit the most daring deeds and consider death a gain.
They are enthusiastic fatalists. The clergy, divided into
three categories, i.e., the "Akhouns, Mollahs, and Azant-
cheis," stand under the authority of the Tartar Mufti of Oufa.
Their mosques are exceedingly simple. Polygamy (four
wives only) is allowed, but they are too poor to profit by
the permission to its full extent. Their funeral ceremonies
always wind up with a race.

The Teptiars and Bobyles (275,000) are representants of
the Tcheremiss, Votiaks, Tartar, and Tchouvash types. The
Teptiars are nearly all Mohammedans and closely related to
the Tartars. The Finnish element predominates with the
Bobyles.

THE GENUINE TARTARS (2,200,000).

We owe the earliest information on the Turkish or
" Touran " tribes to the Chinese (b.c. 126). The primitive
race of the Turks inhabited the western and eastern parts
of Turkestan, or the Great and Lesser Boukharah, between
the Caspian Sea and Koukounor in Central Asia, where
they lived in towns and villages, and occupied themselves
with agriculture and commerce. They owe their present im-
portance to the adoption of Islamism.

Amongst the most ancient known states of Turkestan,
the most important were Takan (Ta-hia), that of the
nomadic Kirghiz and that of the Khannsiu, whom the
Chinese call '* Khassaks," the Eussians, however, " Kirghiz-
Kaissaks." The Mongol tribes, in the fourth and third
centuries before Christ, lived in subjection to the Turks,
subsequently, however, Modo-Khan united all the Mongolian
forces, and reversed that order of things by bringing the
whole of Turkestan and the Boukharahs (though but for a
short time) under his rule. The identity of the Khouns

172 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

(Shuns) and the Mongols remains yet to be proved. The
" Tou-kin " (Turkish name) are, according to Chinese autho-
rities, the descendants of the " Hiungnou." Almost all the
words of their language, as preserved by the Chinese, are
entirely Turkish. In the year a.d. 1100, Yeliss-Dashi
(of the Kidan dynasty) founded, with Mongolian hordes,
a great Empire, which he called " Eara-Kitaif," and which
comprised Dzoungary, the Khokand and Tashkent. The
civilization of the Turks about that time began in consequence
of the introduction of Islamism.

At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the great
Tchinggis-Khan, uniting all the Mongolian tribes, subjected
the kingdoms of Tangout,Ouigour, Kin, Kara-Kitai, Kharezm,
and all territory and peoples between his Empire and the
Caucasus. After his death the vast Empire was divided
between his four sons. The eldest, Dshoutchi, reigned over
the western kingdom of Kiptchak. Ugaetaei, successor and
third son of Tchinggis-Khan, extended the conquests of his
father by sending (in 1236) his nephew Batii or Baty, son of
Dshoutchi, against the eastern nations of Europe. This chief,
at the head of 500,000 warriors, overran the whole of Kussia
as it then was, and penetrated even (by way of Hungary)
into Moravia and Silesia. On the death of Ugaetaei, in 1242,
Baty returned to Kiptchak, where he joined the great horde
of the Mongols. His horde (a word derived from the Mongol
" Ordo," yourte) was known under the name of " Golden
Horde," and occupied the whole kingdom of Kiptchat, and
the territory between the Dnjepr, the Ural, the Black, and the
Caspian Seas.

In the meantime, Koujouk, son of Ugaetaei, had succeeded
his father, and was followed by his nephew Moengghd.

In the year 1260, Khoubilai usurped the throne, which
irregular act caused a declaration of independence on the part
of all the native Princes, amongst whom foremost was Baty.
Henceforth, therefore, the Golden Horde remained in the
hands of the house of Dshoutchi.

During the reign of Baty's third brother, Moenggh^-

THE TARTAR "HORDES." 173

Taemur (Mengghd-Timour) Islamism spread rapidly through-
out the horde, and became general under Ousbek. Moenggh^-
Taemur was succeeded by two Khans, i.e., Nogai, the younger
brother of Baty, and his son Touda-Mangou. Nogai made
himself master of all the horde, but was deposed by his
nephew, Tokhta, son of Moengghd-Taemur, and fled to the
Crimea, where he founded the Crimean Khanate. Ousbek
mounted the throne of Saraii in 1313. The final liberation of
Russia from the Mongol yoke took place in 1480 in the reign
of Ivan III. The brave military chief Mamaif was Khan of
the horde in 1370, and ally of Yaghello, of Lithuania. In
1380 he met with a disastrous defeat at Koulikov on the
Don, at the hands of Grand Duke Dmitri Donskoi, and his
rival Tokhtamysh finished his ruin by dispersing the debris
of the horde. Sarai all this time remained intact. Tokhtamysh
(1382) marched to Moscow, and defeated and imprisoned
the Grand Duke in revenge for Koulikov.

His ambition made him turn next upon the mighty
conqueror Tamerlan (Timour) of the princely family of
Tshagatai (who by this time had subjected the Kalmuks, and
taken Persia, Syria, and the Turkestan), but he was beaten
and fled. The victor then destroyed Sarai, devastated Kipt-
chak, and returned to Asia.

On the death of Timour-Khan, Tokhtamysh returned to
the Golden Horde, but only to find that Edighi, supported by
Timour- Koutlouk, had been made Khan. At this time began
the protracted wars between the Tchinggis-Khanites, of the
family of Tokhtamysh, against the Timourides, and caused
(at the end of the fifteenth century) the division of the Golden
Horde into the Great Horde, the Golden Horde, and those of
the Crimea and of Kazan.

Mengli-Ghir^i, Khan of the Crimean Horde, utterly de-
stroyed the Golden Horde in 1502. He had obtained the
Khanate through the powerful support of the Czar Ivan III.,
who, taking his part against the sons of Hadji- Ghirdi, grand-
son of Tokhtamysh, had made a faithful friend of him for
life. His descendants, who even to this day are princes, had

174 THE LAND OF THE CZAB.

inherited his hatred of the Timourides, and were the final
cause of their fall.

In the meantime the d^ris of the defeated hordes joined
to the Nogais, had formed the Tartar kingdom of Astrakhan,
which, in 1654, was annexed by Eussia.

The Crimean Horde, allied to Casimir, of Lithuania, had
become very powerful under Hadji-Ghirei. After Mengli-
Grhirei's death they made constant incursions into Russia,
but were held in check by the Cossacks of the Don and the
Zaporoghians. They gradually decreased in power, and
during the reign of Catharine II., in 1783, were incorporated
with the Russian Empire.

The kingdom of Kazan was founded contemporaneously
with that of the Crimea by a Tchinggis-Khanite of the name
of Oula-Makhmet, who was not of the Tokhtamysh family.
Defeated by the Timourides, Oula-Makhmet fled to Moscow,
and afterwards to the Bulgars of the Kama, Kazan, founded
by Baty, and destroyed by the Russians at the end of the
fourteenth century, was rebuilt and fortified by Makhmet,
who united also the inhabitants of ancient Bulgaria.
Ivan III., profiting by the intestine troubles of the town,
took Kazan, and placed it under the authority of a Khan,
who was devoted to his interests, and obliged to declare him-
self vassal to the Russian Crown and march against the
Golden Horde. We have seen that the Crimean Tartars did
the same from another quarter. In the reign of Ivan IV.,
1552, Kazan was taken by assault, after a desperate defence,
and received from this time a Russian governor, churches,
convents, &c. The kingdom of Kazan had never had a great
extent, but it was rich, powerful, and well populated. The
noblest elements of the Turkish character developed them-
selves in a high degree amongst the Tartars of Kazan.

THE NOGAIS (50,000 SOUls).

Descended from the hordes of Tchinggis-Khan, they are a
tribe of Tartars, whose veins contain the greatest proportion of
Mongol blood. They inhabit the Governments of Taurida,

THE NOGAiS. 175

Stavropol, and the territory between the rivers Kuban and
Lala. Those of the Kuban are divided into five tribes, i.e.,
the Takhtamyshs, Mansourovs, Kiptchaks, Karamurzas, and
Naourouzovs. There are now only about 16,500 individuals
of this tribe in Russia, who are all Mohammedans, and
occupying themselves with the breeding of cattle and horses.
In 1860 they were still living, to the number of 40,000, in
the north-western district of the Azov country, but these,
together with the Crimean Tartars (80,000), have since
emigrated to Turkey. It is said, however, that many of them
have since come back. The Nogai are of middle size, and
have a good carriage and much native suppleness. Their dark
complexion is a proof of their pure origin. Their noses are
well delineated, but slightly turning upwards towards the
end, which causes the nostrils to seem rather large. They
have black and bright eyes, very beautiful teeth, but a poorly
furnished beard. They are very sober, and prefer meat, par-
ticularly horse flesh, to vegetables. They eat also beef and
mutton, but hardly any bread at all. They have a kind of
tea prepared with milk, water, butter, and salt, but their
favourite beverages are koumyss and aiiran.

The koumyss is prepared in wooden tubs of peculiar form.
A certain quantity of mare's milk is poured in and mixed
with a little koumyss yeast to accelerate fermentation. The
tub is kept as warm as possible, and covered with a lid.
Thus it is left standing for some hours, during which the
contents of the tub are frequently being stirred and increased
from time to time by an addition of freshly-drawn mare's
milk. The longer the koumyss remains standing, the sourer
and stronger it gets, and, as the process advances, the stirring
must be more and more actively carried on. An ordinary
ladle not sufficing, they employ a machine made for the
purpose. Once arrived at a certain degree of strength, the
koumyss is lightly covered up. The greates t cleanliness must
be observed in the making of it, if one wishes to obtain
a beverage of first quality. It is then very wholesome.
That of Turkoman manufacture has a smoky flavour, which

176 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

disagreeably affects the palate of the unaccustomed toper.
This flavour is caused by some aromatic plants, which those
people use for fuel, and is much prized by the Turkomans
themselves. Their koumyss and that of the Kirghiz is
generally preferred to the Nogai manufacture, as the latter
tribes are not very particular as regards cleanliness.

The " airan " is still more indispensable for the Tartars
than the koumyss. It is made of cow's milk, in small tubs,
in which it is first boiled, and then allowed to get cool. It
is then stirred until it is ready for use. From the " airan "
the Nogai prepare a small kind of cheese, which they find
very appetizing. The airan does not require either the
careful attention or the cleanliness which must absolutely
accompany the brewing of the koumyss ; and is, therefore,
more adapted to their notions on those qualities, which
with them are of the haziest kind. The Nogai rarely attain
a great age, many, in fact, die during adolescence.

Cutaneous diseases are most frequent with them, and
their dirty habits, and the use of magic incantations instead
of medicine, render those complaints still more dangerous.
They generally buy their wives from the Crimean Tartars
or in foreign aouls, and pay for them in cows. A good wife
is worth about 30 cows, or 25L The betrothed must not see
each other until the " Kalym " is entirely paid. " Cash, or
rather cows down, or no wife," is the rule with them. The
Tartar and Kalmuk girls are cheaper, because they do not
wear so well. The marriage ceremonies are very simple.
The young wife dares not speak to any one but the parents
and sisters of the husband, and is thereby rendered shy and
timid. Polygamy is allowed; but the first wife occupies
always the highest position in the harem. Youth and beauty,
however, frequently interfere with that rule. Polygamy
seems necessary for the proper management of household
affairs, for they have no servants. The wife must do the
servants' work instead, and her position resembles altoo-ether
that of Oriental women in general. She is her husband's
absolute property ; dares not go out without his permission

THE NOGAi: TAETARS. 177

nor eat out of the same plate. The numerical proportion of
the sexes is in favour of the male. After the death of the
father, the sons may sell their wives, and even their own
sisters. A husband cannot sell his wife, but may repudiate
her, in which case she is not allowed to marry again. If
legally divorced, however, the wife may be married again,
but must restore the Kalym.

The Nogaii of the government of Stavropol breed many
horses in taboons. The horses are of the Kirghiz race, wiry
and fast, but useless for draught. Their cows give little
milk, and their race of sheep is very inferior.

The character of the Nogaif is similar to that of the Tartars
as well as of the Mongols. They have a great respect for
age, and their customs are patriarchal. They blindly obey
their chiefs, and are proud of their origin and nationality.
In their opinion, the preponderance of the Mongol element
(the oldest and most noble), which they can boast of, elevates
them above the Tartars. The Nogai character offers some
strange contradictions. In the character of workmen or
beggars they will never steal ; but in their capacity as shep-
herds they cannot resist the temptation of cattle-lifting.
Apart from this, the Nogaif are to be depended on, but hot-
tempered and vindictive. Only the nobility (Murzas) carry
arms. They enjoy certain honorary privileges, and never
mix with the common people. There is also a lesser nobility.
They have hardly any amusements or games. The dance
of the men consists in a kind of pantomime, and movements
of head, hands, and feet, without however stirring from the
spot. The women neither sing nor dance. Their popular
songs generally refer to their ancient grandeur. Tobacco is
an indispensable article of luxury for them.

The Nogai language is a dialect of Oriental Turkish.
Their civilization as regards intellectual culture is at a total
standstill ; and tlio schools are frequented only by those
who are desirous of becoming Mollahs. The way of teaching
is very unsatisfactory, heavy, and mechanical, and serves
more to choke than to develop the germ of intelligence.

178 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

Their religious ceremonies are very complicated, notwith-
standing the distinctly defined ritualistic boundaries pre-
scribed by Islamism, and it is even said that they still
practise Pagan sacrifices.

THE TAKTAES OF THE CRIMEA.

They are the last tribe that lost their independence to
Russia, and are even to this day the truest representatives of
the Tartar race as it was when in its glory. Owing to their
close connection with Turkey, Islamism is with them very
deeply rooted. In the year 1858 their number amounted
to 240,000; at the present day but a few are left. The
others have emigrated to Turkey, according to some prophecy
which predicted the union of all Mohammedans on Turkish
ground. They have, however, cause to repent of their rash
piety, for the holy soil did not offer them anything like what
they had left behind ; and it is said that they are returning
in large numbers to the meat-pots of Crimean Egypt.

These Tartars are of Nogaii blood, slight in build, but wiry,
with a dark yellowish complexion (often passing into copper
colour), black eyes, small and flat nose, black hair, and
little beard. The formation of their eyes and temples are
strikingly peculiar, inasmuch as the latter are very project-
ing, and make the former appear very deeply set in their
cavities. The eyes are narrow and long, and turn up slightly
at the corners towards the arch of the eyebrow.

The Tartars of the northern mountains of the Crimea, and
of the steppes and valleys of that part of the country, are
distinguished from the others by their tall stature, powerful
frames, and their resemblance to the Tcherkess. Their
complexion is lighter, they have big and dark eyes, black
beards and hair. They are a very handsome people. In the
Bouth of the Crimea they seem to have much Greek blood in
their veins. They are also tall, strong, and dark (but not
yellow, like those of the central plains), and have long and
agreeable faces, straight noses, of sometimes Greek or Roman
form, and black eyes and hair. The form of the Tartar ear

CEIMEAN TARTARS. 179

is very peculiar, and is probably caused by their habit of
wearing the big sheepskin caps. Thus it happens often that
the ear is actually broader than it is long. The fairness of
the skin of their women, who take care never to expose it to
the air, is really extraordinary.

As the Koran forbids them the use of wine, these pious
people drink spirits instead, and in large quantity too.
They also brew an intoxicating beverage from rice, which at
times is sweet, at others sour, and is called " bouza," and
which they are exceedingly fond of. They have also a great
predilection for camel meat. The Tartars of the plains cut
the horse meat into long strips, and put it under the saddle
in order to render it more tender. They are great gamesters.
Their education consists in being able to read the Koran
and to write in Tartar. The women are not considered to
require any education whatever. They marry generally
between the ages of thirteen and fifteen, but the men rarely
take a wife before their thirtieth year. Daughters are sold
by their fathers for money or cattle. Excessive familiarity,
curiosity, loquacity, cleanliness, and hospitable humour are
the faults and virtues of the Crimean Tartars. They move
and work with a certain silent dignity. It is amusing and
interesting to watch them clean their houses and take care
of their guests. They give vent to their joyous feelings by
music and dancing, but each sex by itself. Asiatics dance
for the pleasure of dancing itself, while the European does
so more for the sake of his partner. They must pray five
times a day, and wash face, hands, and feet before each
prayer. The shaving of the head and trimming of the nails
is done for the sake of cleanliness. They go to the Mosque
or Messdjid only in the morning on holidays and during
fast, and before entering must take ofi' every ornament they
may have about their persons. Their mosques are extremely
clean, whitewashed, and without ornament, and the floor is
covered with a felt carpet. Their fasts are very rigorous.
The Feast of the " Ramaz§,n," or of the apparition ol the
Koran, is one continuous fast of thirty days.

N 2

180 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Many Tartars are sportsmen. In the hills they hunt the
wolf and the roe; in the plains the hare, partridge, &c.
They are also passionately fond of falconry, for which they
train their own birds.

The southern coast of the Crimea offers a most delightful
aspect, by its picturesque scenery and the out-door life of its
inhabitants. In the villages, the women at sunrise come out
of their houses with jars to draw water. After their
ablutions the men go to the Mosque, and then to work till
eight o'clock, when the family assembles at the breakfast
table. That meal is very simple, and consists of bread,
onions, and garlic. The men then light their pipes, and
slowly go to their daily work. The children are very lively,
and allowed to play to the age of nine or so, but the little
girls never take part in the games of the boys. They stay with
their mothers, who gradually initiate them in the household
duties. Towards noon they repose for about two hours, and
partake of a meal similar to the breakfast. At sunset all
work ceases, and everybody goes home. At this hour the
old and young men sit under the village trees to smoke and
talk. At the approach of night the call to prayer resounds
again. Women run for a last draft of water, and all retire
in peace.

The Tartars of Lithuania (8000) inhabit the governments
of Minsk (3000), Vilna (2800), Kovno (400), and in the
north of Poland (200). They are partly composed of Crimean
Tartars, who were made prisoners of war and colonized in
1395, by Vitold, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who also estab-
lished a body-guard of free Tartar warriors, who still form
part of the lesser Polish nobility (shlakhta). Although
married to Polish women of that rank, they still remained
Mohammedans, and contracted no marriage below their caste,
so that the Tartar type and martial spirit havB been preserved
by them in all their ancient force. But forty years since
there still existed a Tartar regiment, the first rank of which
was armed with pikes, the second consisting of the servants
of the first, which was entirely composed of nobles. They

THE TARTARS OF ASTRAKHAN. 181

are generally poor, but lead an irreproachable life, as if to
prove the respect with which they regard the memory and
escutcheon of their fathers. They are almost exclusively
engaged in the tanning trade, and altogether a most worthy,
excellent people, faithful and brave soldiers, modest, sober,
a ad discreet in word and deed. Only the educated can read
Tartar, but without understanding it, and write Russian or
Polish with Arabic letters. They read the Koran in the
Eassian or Polish translation.

THE TAETAES OF ASTEAKHAN.

1. The Koundrovs (11,000) (a Nogai tribe) originally
came into the country in 1740. They had been living for
centuries with the Kalmuks and Kirghiz, and consequently
lost their primitive type, which had become Kalmuk. They
live now in the governments of Krasnojarsk and Astrakhan,
surrounded by Russian peasants, Kalmuks and Kirghiz,
and call themselves " Karagatch " or " Kara-agatch " (Black
tree). They are nomadic, and keep camels and oxen. Like
the ISTogai, they are not cleanly, though hospitable, and have
little compassion for the poor and wretched. Being but
lukewarm readers of the Koran, their Mollahs are held in
little respect.

The price of a wife is from 50 to 1 000 roubles, an exorbi-
tant sum, when one considers the simplicity of their habits,
but not difficult to explain. A family of five persons cannot
do with less than £15 per annum, to which sum must be
added £3 for Government taxes. In order to make up that
sum, or 115 roubles, he must sell a camel (25 rs.), 2 horses
(50 rs.), 1 ox (25 rs.), 5 goats (5 rs.), and 5 sheep (10 rs.).

2. The Yourtovs and Yemeshnis (10,000) are also Nogai,
and descended from the Golden Horde of Astrakhan. They
are industrious and honest, but timid and very credulous.
Their features are regular, and amongst the female sex may
even be seen sometimes very pretty faces, but their habit of
rubbing the skin with fatty substances, and the hot climate
gives them a prematurely aged appearance. These Tartars

182 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

are dignified in appearance and movements. They speak the
Russian language tolerahly well, and passionately love
gambling and music, which consists with them in exceedingly
pleasing ditties.

The Tartars of the Boukharah, Gkilian, and Agryjan (600)
are the descendants of merchants from Boukharah, Khiva,
and Persia, who were attracted to Astrakhan during the 17th
century.

THE KABAPALKAS OK EAEAPAKHS.

Their name signifies " Black Caps," and their country is
the Isthmus between the Caspian and Aral Seas, and the
Oust-Ourte (highland). They came under Russian rule in
1827. There are also some of these people in the Pashalik
of Akhaltsik (Trans-Caucasia). They are splendid riders
and plucky soldiers.

The Tartars of Kazan and Orenburg (1,140,000) are
somewhat mixed up with Finnish elements, and there are
individuals amongst them of a decidedly Finnish type, and
again, such as might be taken for Caucasians. The women
are slight and delicate, and both sexes possess great sup-
pleness and grace. Their dress is of a highly expensive
kind.

They are industrious, particularly at their national trade,
the preparation of skins ; manufacture also Morocco leather,
and even work in the mines. Their nankins and soaps are
celebrated. The Tartar idiom spoken by their tribe is the
purest of all Turkish dialects spoken in Russia, and has pro-
duced a literature by no means despicable. They are an
affable, gentle, honest, sober, and very cleanly people, so
that they are much in request everywhere. Their family
life is exemplary, and their children are carefully educated.
They thirst for advancement in civilization, but their religion
prevents them exceeding a certain point, while, however, it
encourages the preservation of genuine Tartarism.

The Russian nobility counts several distinguished families
of purely Tartar origin.

SIBERIAN TARTAKS. 183

Though most zealous Mohammedans, their Mollahs are
little instructed. These Tartars are spread over many of the
governments of Russia, and live in Samara (105,000), Sim-
birsk (85,000), Viatka (80,000), Saratov (50,000), Pensa
(45,000), N. Novgorod (37,000), Perm (35,000), Tambov
(13,000), Rjlzan (5500), St. Petersburg (3500), Kostroma
(300), Moscow (300), and amongst the Donski Cossacks
(600).

The Siberian Tartars of the governments of Tobolsk and
Tomsk (40,000) offer no particularly characteristic traits, and
have adopted Russian customs. Their occupation is the
breeding of cattle, some agriculture and carriage of mer-
chandise.

The Tourals are the westernmost tribe of all, and most
resemble the Tartars of Kazan. They speak a superior
dialect, although they are in the habit of borrowing from the
Russian and Voghul languages.

The Barabints live between the Obi and Irtysh. Of a livid
complexion and resembling the Mongolian race, they have
little intellectual capacity ; are, however, gentle and phleg-
matic. Although they have received the baptism of the
Christian Church, they secretly continue to practise Sha-
manism.

The Obi Tartars inhabiting that river near Narym are
Christians.

The Tchoulyms of the Tchoulym river are also Christians,
and renouncing their primitive language and customs, have
become altogether Russified.

The Boukhars and Tashkents (9000) are mostly rich mer-
chants, residing in the commercial towns on the South
Siberian frontier, in the government of Tobolsk.

The Tartars of the Yenisseisk government (22,000) are
composed of three tribes — z.e., of the Katchints, Sagaites,
Kaibals, of which the two last show a strong admbcture of
the Finnish and Samoyede elements. The first live in the
district of Minoussinsk, a district most interesting to ethno-
logists, on account of the numerous mementos it ofiers of

184 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

primitive inhabitants altogether different from those of the
present day.

That people, almost entirely unknown as yet, were the
Tchouds, and the numerous objects of sculpture and inscrip-
tions on the enormous blocks of stone, of which their tumu-
lous monuments had been composed, are proofs of a certain
culture. Many precious mementos have been lost to science
owing to the cupidity of the native tribes, but the archaeolo-
gist may yet meet with a rich treasure in those ancient granite
tombs. The sculptured figures which had stood on the tops
of the tombs generally represent men, animals, and birds,
but nobody has as yet succeeded in deciphering the inscrip-
tions.

These Tchouds had been probably driven out of their
original country by other neighbours, who also have left
their own particular traces ; for in some places on the banks
of the Yenissei and the Touba have been found many inscrip-
tions altogether different from those of the Tchouds, and
which seem to belong to the time of Tchinggis-Khan. Rem-
nants of the wild hordes of Asia still roam about Siberia, and
are called Tartars, although they are not all of Turkish
origin, but are strongly mixed with Finnish and Mongolian
elements. We know little about these tribes errant, and the
chances of a closer acquaintance are daily diminishing, owing
to the growing Russian colonization, which threatens soon
to absorb all these tribes within its own numbers.

In the districts Minoussinsk and Atchinsk live about 4000
Katchints.

The Sagaltes (11,500) live on the banks of the Abakan
river. One of the tribes, the " Belters," were originally
Finns. Though speaking a Tartar dialect, their physiogno-
mical characteristics betray generally the Russian and scarcely
ever the Tartar or Mongolian type. They always give their
children two names, of which one is Christian and the other
Pagan. They are industrious and honest, and, like the
Finns, never steal, but are hard drinkers.
The Kaibals are a nomadic tribe, and roam about the ter-

THE KAlLBALS, KATSHINTS, AND KIZILTS. 185

ritory on the right bank of the Lower Abakan, Yenissei, and
Sogda. Numbering about 1100 souls, they are of the Tartar
type, but their language is Samoyedish. They believe them-
selves to be the most ancient people of the country. All
these Tartars have black hair, and under their flashing black
eyes a protuberance, which tends to make the nose appear
reverted and pointed, and their nostrils unnaturally enlarged.
Their beautiful eyebrows, little mouths, fine lips, and white
teeth are not sufficient to relieve the hideousness of the fea-
ture described. Their aspect is truly repulsive, and if by
chance a pretty woman is seen amongst them, she will gene-
rally be found to be of Tartar blood, while they are themselves
principally of Samoyede extraction.

They are of small stature and stout, dark, but of high
colour, which (though natural to them) is still further
enlivened by rouge. They dress and trim their hair according
to the Russian fashion, but have little beard. The women
dress in the Mongol style, and are burdened with all the
hard work, while the lazy husbands sit by the fire and
smoke. The poor women's lot is hard in the extreme, and
they are very submissive, for the incensed husband has the
right to kill his wife with impunity. Their songs are gene-
rally improvised ballads of an ear-splitting nature ; and the
musical instruments consist of a sort of balalaika of three
strings, called " kobyss," and the " djytagan," which is a
flat and thin board on which are strung seven cords. Their
dances are mere clumsy imitations of the movements of
animals, such as the bear, wolf, &c. Simple like children,
they are diffident, like all people that have suffered much.
Incapable of great crimes, they look on theft and deception
as indications of a superior spirit and ability.

The Katchints are the richest and most honest of these
Tartars, distinguished by their loyalty and hospitality, and
preserve their good humour and cordiality even when in a
state of intoxication.

The Kizilts are a dishonest people, and have very dirty
habits.

156 THE LAXD OP THE (^AB.

While the Belters may be called the most lespectable of all
the tribes, the ^a^joites aie the most careless.

The Kamo^i-iir'ts form three onloiisses (parishes), acooiding
to nationalitv — ix., that of OutshoomakoT, of Abalakov, and
of Agolsk. of which the first are entirely Tartar, and com-
posed of the people once inhabiting' the banks of the Katcha .
near Krasnojarsk, ije.. •• Tartar KatchiiLts.'" Those of the
Onloiiss Abalatov, or of the forests, are of Samoyede origin.

The Kamassints of AsuLst ^seyenty . from the riyer AgTil,
are neither Tartars nor Samoyedes, but remnants of the
ancient "Kottes," and of the same origin as the ancient
Assans. Th^ haye adopted the Bassian langtia^e, religion,
and sTTie of living.

The Karooai-i, the easternmost of the Finno-Samcyede
race, is the tribe that succunbed to tie powerfid influence of
the Tartar-Katchints, and were already Tartars, when they
established themselves in tbeir present territory of Xeezhnei-
Oudinsk- If the Finn o- Samoyede origin has made them
htmters (whict Tartars nerer are , they betoken their trans-
formation by their lanrnage. customs, religions creed, and
costimie. There are only 500 of them left. They are of
middle size and good coiLsritntion, tur not robusL They
have small heads, narrow shoidders and hips, tiny hands and
feet, black and straight hair, sniall eyes, low foreheads, and thia
noses, and resemble somewhat the Kirghiz-Kalssaks of t'ae
MidEe Horde. The costume of both sexes is the same with
the exception of the head-'iress. They live by the breeding of
reindeer and hunting. Ihey are gentle, but fond of liquor.
The discovery of the Ea.sr Siberian gold mines Bussia owes
to these people. A.tjough baptized generatioLS ag:. they
are Chrisria^s only by name, and formerly worshipped the
Sua, siy, ic. and brou^'hr them sacrifijes of bkjod. In
their conntiy, on the steep banks of the TeL'issei. idols have
];>een disinterred representing animals — as. frr instance, the
'• domesde reindeer," which does not exist in those parts at
the present day. Sometimes it is surmounted by a rider
dressed in a tight short coat, and wearing a big roimd hat.

THE SOJOTES, TELEUTES, &C. 187

and holding a bow and arrow, made ready, in his hands. In
other cases the reindeer is represented in a docilely " cou-
chante " position in front of a man, who is followed by a
dog.

The Sojotes (once Samoyedes, now Tartars) live close to
the Chinese frontier, and have party intermingled with the
Bariats. Some purely Samoyede vestiges may be met with
among the Sojotes of the Sayane Mountains. They are
lamaists. Their attire is of the simplest, and consists of a
Kirghiz mantle of camel-hair, a kind of cap of horsehair,
and a round Tartar cap with large borders. The latter are
commonly called Sayanes. To them belong the recently
discovered Onriang-Khai, a tribe of high interest to the
ethnologist.

The Teleutes (2000) inhabit the government of Tomsk, and
first came to Russia in 1755, when they settled in the country
around Tomsk and Kousnetsk. They are also called " White
Kalmuks," by the Russians Tatar-Teleutes, or Koumandins,
after the Lake Teletzk and the little river Koumanda, and by
themselves " Teless." They had fled before the Black Kal-
muks to their eastern neighbours and brethren in race, the
Sayanes. They all speak Russian, and number about 2000
individuals (women not included).

Physiognomy and costume of the Teleutes on the left bank
of the Beeya strikingly recall the Finnish and Karelian
types. The men shave their heads, leaving a tuft only, like
the Chinese. Their women are well made, and smoke like
the men. They are sharply distinguished from the Tartar
and Mongols by their ordinary habits. Only a small number
of them are Christians.

The Teleutes or Teleugouts of the Upper Mrassa, the
Kondoma, and the Tom number now about 6000 souls, and
are on the increase.

THE TARTARS OF THE CAUCASUS.

The Russians call all the mountain tribes of the Caucasus
indiscriminately by the above name. We shall apply the

18S THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

same only to the tribes of the Turkish race, who, with the
exception of the Nogai, inhabit the western coast of the
Caspian Sea and the eastern provinces of Trans-Caucasia.
The aborigines of that country are of the Karthle or Geor-
gian, — the Haikan or Armenian, — and of the Iranian races
(Pars, and Kourd.). During the occupation of Persia by
the Tartars, the two co-religionary nations had intermarried,
and it is highly probable that it was their progeny who
founded the kingdom of Shirvan, on the rich pasture lands
of the Kour and Arax, and which, though divided into
several khanats, existed still in our days.

The first emigration of the Tartar race to the Caucasus
must have taken place after the destruction of the kingdom
of Khovaresm by the hordes of Tchinggis-Khan, and after
the alteration of the course of the Eiver Amou-Daria (once
flowing into the Caspian, now discharging into the Aral Sea),
had damaged the climatic conditions of their country, and
forced the inhabitants of those parts to evacuate their old
haunts, and go in search of other and better pasture lands.

The cruel conqueror Nadyr-Shah forced the Tartars of
the Caucasian plains into the Mohammedan sect of the
Shiites, whilst their brethren, who lived in the mountains,
remained Sounnites. They were for a long time the pre-
dominant nation of the Caucasus, but their power gradually
fell into decay, and in the reign of Peter the Great the Sham-
khal of Tarku and the khans of Derbent and Baku swore
fealty to the Russian crown. The khans of Shirvan, Sheki,
Gandja, Karabagh, and others followed their example,
during the reign of the Empress Catherine II. At a later
period they forgot their oath, however; but Tsitsian, Prince
of Georgia, at the head of Russian troops, brought them
again under the Russian rule. In 1 8 1 3 Persia solemnly ceded
to Russia the khanates of Karabagh, Gandja, Sheki, Shir-
van, Derbent, Baku, Kouba, and Talysh, and abstained
from all influence in the Daghestan, Georgia, Imeretia, and
Abkhazia.

Including the 95,000 souls of the Stavropol government,

THE TARTARS OF THE CAUCASUS. 189

and 5000 Turkomans, the Tartar population of the Caucasus
numbers about 900,000 individuals.

Owing to political, climatical, and local influences the
Caucasian Tartars are considerably distinguished from all
other representatives of that race. The recollection of their
past greatness and of the important part their nation had
played in the destinies of the world, has prevented them from
sinking below a certain level; but the Persian influence,
which once was so powerful, has tended more than anything
else to metamorphose the primitive character of the Tartars.

The Koumyks, who inhabit the territory of the lower
Terek and Soulak rivers, have been Russian subjects ever
since the reign of Peter the Great, and with the Karat-
chais (2000), the Malkars, Ourousps, Tcheghem, Khoulam,
Beringhei, and Balkars (9000), as well as with the Nogai of
the Kouban (16,600), have adopted the customs of the
mountaineers, with whom they have come into repeated
contact. The same may be said of the Koumyks of the
Shamkhal of Tarku (vassals of the Russian crown), and of
the inhabitants of the khanate of Mekhtoula, who speak the
Koumyk language, which is a particular Tartar dialect.

The following description of the character of the Cau-
casian Tartar refers to the individuals belonging to the
compact mass of Tartars inhabiting, nearly exclusively,
the eastern provinces of Trans- Caucasia — i.e., those of
Baku (100,000), Daghestan (75,000), Erivan (100,000), and
Tiflis (50,000). They are the proudest of all the Russian
Tartars, and if Persian influence has made them acc[uainted
with divers serious vices, it has also civilized them more
than any of the Caucasian Mussulmans.

The population of the above enumerated provinces must
have been far more numerous, before the Mongol invasion,
than it is now. The proof of this supposition will be readily
found in the imposing ruins of very large towns, and of
several gigantic aqueducts, which traversed the valleys of
the Kour, of the Arax, and the steppe of Mugansk. These
territories, once deprived of irrigation, were quickly burnt

190 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

up and transformed into arid deserts. The stagnant waters
engendered malaria and venomous miasma, before the
baneful effects of which the once opulent population rapidly
receded.

The Tartars are the most productive, industrious, and
important element of the Caucasian races. They are well
made, and have agreeable features, big eyes, dark com-
plexions, and noses of the Eoman type. The women are
finely proportioned, slender and elegant, and their charms
are much enhanced by a beautiful costume. The latter
consists of a short gold-embroidered tunic, clasped by a
belt woven with gold or silver wire, and often studded with
turquoises and other gems. The chemise is of red silk, and
slightly open in front. They wear exceedingly large and
loose pantaloons, and coloured stockings of fine wool. The
young girls wear their rich black hair in long drooping
curls, which fashion favourably heightens the expression of
their handsome faces, especially while executing their grace-
ful, passionate " pas a deux." Although the Koran severely
enjoins the women covering their faces to profane eyes,
they yet understand well enough to show off their attractive
qualities — in fact, quite as well as any of our own beauties.
They are extremely fond of dress and pleasure. Full of
life and animal spirits, and of keen comprehension, they do
not remain behind any of their European sisters with regard
to chat and gossip. The laws and customs of the Mussul-
mans keep the women in deplorable ignorance ; they have
therefore no other vent for this mental activity but the
wretched trivialities of the harem. If they could be instructed,
they would doubtless prove a great ornament to society by
their beauty and natural intellectual gifts. They resemble the
Polish ladies in looks and figure, but a Trans-Caucasian sun
has given them a still warmer blood.

The Shiite Tartars of Trans-Caucasia, like the Persians, are
smooth-tongued and crafty courtiers, even to intimate friends,
and always, at least on the surface, your devoted servants.
Closely tied to each other by language and religion, they

THE TURKOMANS. 191

have, notwithstanding the Persian influence, preserved a con-
siderable share of their primitive national character, and
possess to this day much of the lofty pride and impetuous
courage of their forefathers. They are conscious of their
descent from Tamerlan and Tchinggis-Khan, and proudly
remember the greatness and power of their nation in days
gone by. Unfortunately, however, that does not cure them
of their vicious propensities, such as insincerity and disregard
of those moral laws which constitute the honour and dignity
of man. They stimulate sensuality by the excessive use of
the narcotic " tariak," which irritates the nerves and troubles
the brain. Hospitality in times of peace, and courage in
battle, are their greatest virtues. Excess, vindictiveness,
superstition, indifference to, and cool treatment of, their
wives, especially when under the influence of tariak, and un-
reasonable jealousy, are the dark shades of their character.
Like all Mussulmans, they often marry several wives. Thus
it frequently happens that these spirited, peppery creatures
disagree, and their lord is called upon to decide between them
and restore peace. Of course he cannot deliver a judgment
pleasant to all the parties, and the matter generally ends by
the whole harem turning upon him and making his life so
wretched that he is fairly driven from the house, and on
some pretence or other goes travelling for some time. It
is even said that such scenes send many pilgrims to Mekka
who otherwise would gladly stay at home.

THE TURKOMANS.

This tribe, numbering about 2000 families, or kibitkas, is
composed of about 1500 families of the ancient Turkish
race of the Caucasus, and about 500 kibitkas of Astrakhan
Tartars, and roam about the territory situated north-west of
the Caspian Sea — i.e., between the northern frontier of Persia,
the Caspian Sea and kingdom of Khiva, as well as the deserts
separating Khiva from the Boukharah. They are persuaded
that they are descended from the chief of a great race, of the
name of " Turk," who, they say, inhabited the Arabian desert

192 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

at the time of Mohammed, and subsequently emigrated to the
Amou-Daria, where he took a foreign wife, with whom he
had eight sons, who became chiefs of eight tribes. From
him, according to their ideas, descended the Turkomans, for
" Turk man " means, " I am a Turk," or "descendant of
Turk."

Two of those tribes are called Seilkhans (Sioui-ounkhins
or Seinkhis) and Khassans, after one of their khans of the
name of " Khassan." The Kalmuks also introduced a num-
ber of Turkomans into the country occupied by the Hord of
Boukejev. The new emigrants, troubled by the Kirghiz-
Kaissaks, went westward, but, again opposed by the Khivans,
retreated to the desert Oust-Ourte. From there they sent
(1801) deputies to Astrakhan, and the Russians having ad-
mitted them subjects to their Crown, in the year 1803, they
constructed a fort at Manghyshlak. In 1811 the Turkomans
asked permission to emigrate to Astrakhan, but meeting with
difficulties, in the years 1813-15, came voluntarily to settle
in the Khouudrov-Tartar territory, and have ever since gone
by the name of " Turkomans of Manghyshlak." They are of
middle size, but strong, hardy, and of swarthy complexion.
Owing to their residence amongst the Kalmuks, they have
lost the regularity of their features. They are Sounnites, and
keep strictly to their ancient customs and patriarchal style of
living.

THE KIRGHIZ-KAISSAKS (1,450,000).

The people who go by the above appellation amongst
foreign nations ignore the name altogether, and invariably call
themselves " Kazak or Khassak." By their number and the
extent of country they occupy, they are entitled to hold the
first rank amongst all the Tartars of Eussia in the considera-
tion of the world. The Kirghiz Steppe is a vast plain, low,
sandy, and studded with small lakes and ponds containing
salt water, an arid desert exposed to the rigor of a Siberian
climate. It is, however, hilly and fertile on its margin,
especially in the northern and southern parts. The former

THE KIRGHIZ-KALSSAKS. 193

is the most fertile region ; the latter has no trees, but well-
watered prairies, especially adapted for grazing vast herds
of cattle. The eastern section of its fertile belt is rich in
luxuriant valleys, intersected by deep rivers, and the natural
girdle of the basin of the Issy-Koul (hot lake), 5000 feet above
the sea level, offers the grandest spectacle of a sublime
mountain world. The frontier line of the Kirghiz territory,
starting at Omsk, its north-eastern extremity, and mounting
the left bank of the Irtysh, follows that river to Nor-Zaissan
(Lake of Zaissan). Running off from here in a southern
direction, it touches on the country of Tchougoutchak, Ak-
Kend and Kouldja, until it reaches the Is.sy-Koul. Em-
bracing the upper course of all the rivers feeding the lake
Balkhash, it continues to the Tchou-River, which it follows
to T^le-Koul, until, above the fort Perovski (Ak-Metshet) it
comes upon the Syr-Daria river, which it pursues as far as
the Aral Sea. Between that and the Caspian Sea lies the
desert Oust-Ourte, which, forming an undefined frontier, ex-
tends along the north-west coast of the Caspian Sea and the
river Ural to the land of the Orenburg and Siberian Cossacks.

The Kirghiz, or Khassaks, form a branch of the great
Tartar or Turkish family. During the supremacy of Tching-
ghis-Khan and his successors, they received amongst their
number several foreign peoples, of which the names are still
extant in some of the tribes, and became very powerful under
the Khan Arsslan at the beginning of the fourteenth century.

The conquest of Siberia touched them all the nearer home,
as the last Khan of Siberia was one of their nobles, a Kirghiz-
Kaissak. Towards the middle of last century, and after the
disunion of the Dzoungar people, they began to move east-
ward. Up to the end of last century their history consisted
only in warlike expeditions against that people. During the
latter part of the seventeenth century lived their celebrated
Khan Tiavka (son of Djanggher), to whom they owe a code of
laws, and who ruled more by his wisdom and gentle genius
than by force and violence. It was he who first appointed
chiefs for each horde.

194 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

Intestine disturbances and wars with their neighbours,
particularly with the Dzoungars, who spread terror even into
Russia and China, are the principal events of their history
signalizing the beginning of last century.

Desirous of procuring the aid of Russia against their
enemies, they recognized the sovereignty of Peter the Great.
In consequence of this they were not molested for some time
by their old enemies, until they, presuming on their power,
managed to make themselves so obnoxious to their neigh-
bours, that the latter, at last uniting their forces, turned
upon and nearly annihilated them. They then applied
again to the Russians, although in reality opposed to that
people, who were their political and religious enemies, and
who exercised a severe check on their wild and depredatory
habits. Only as late as the year 1730 the crafty Khftu Abul-
Khair, in the name of the Little and Middle Hordes, swore
the oath of fealty to the Empress Anne, while the Great
Horde, though under subjection to the Dzoungars, extended
its power in the south in the direction of Turkestan. After
the death of Khoung-taidchi (Grand Duke) Galdan Tsyr^n
the Dzoungar people split up into many factions and became
paralyzed by disunion. The great Horde therefore easily
succeeded in the year 1756 and 1757 to shake off the yoke
of the Dzoungars, and in 1771 fought under Oubashi against
the Torgouts. Abul-Khair had in the meantime repeatedly
broken his oath of allegiance to the Russian Crown.

The Kirghiz do not represent the pure Tartar or Turkish
type. The Mongol type is the predominant, but by its side
wdl be sometimes found the true characteristics of the ancient
Turk. The latter type is, however, strictly confined to the
nobility.

THE LITTLE HORDE (850,000)

Consists of 200,000 Kibitki, forming three principal sub-
divisions : the tribe of Alimouli, of Bajouli, and the Semi-
rodsk ("of the seven tribes"). Although subjected to
Russia, this is the most warlike horde of the three, and

THE KIEGHIZ. 195

stands under the direct surveillance of the Governor-General
of Orenburg and Samara. The Russian Government levies
a tax of one rouble and a half on each Kibitka, equal to a
net total of 100,000 roubles per annum. The territory of
the Little Horde comprises the land of' the Cossacks of the
'Ural and Orenburg, and extends in the Bast to 83° long.,
and southward to the Sea of Aral and the Syr-Daria, and is
divided into three districts.

THE HOEDE OF BOUK^JEV.

This horde occupies the low lands north of the Caspian Sea
and the country between the Volga and Ural Rivers. Their
appearance on this territory took place after the evacuation
of the same by the Kalmuks, who had emigrated to China
in 1771. Colonel Popov, Commander of the Astrakhan
Cossacks, proposed to the Kirghiz Sultan Boukei (son of
Abul-Khair), to petition the Russian Government for the
permission to settle in the " Rynnpeski." The concession
being granted, Boukei came with 1500 Kibitkas, which num-
ber, however, rapidly increasing, amounted in 1820 already
to 7500, and in 1862 to 25,000 Kibitkas, or upwards of
100,000 souls. Their number would be still larger, had it
not been for the disastrous winter of 1822, when the whole
steppe was turned to ice, and frightful snow-storms and icy-
blasts destroyed all animal life. The losses of the horde during
that dreadful season amounted to 280,000 horses, 73,000
heads of cattle, and 1,000,000 sheep. Overwhelmed with
terror, they fled into the Government of Saratov, but have
been quietly settled again in their old territory since 1863.

Boukei was elected Khan by the Interior and Little Hordes
in 1812, and this election was confirmed by the Emperor Alex-
ander the First. He was succeeded by his son Djanggher,
who did much for the civilization and colonization of the Khir-
ghiz. In his veins flowed some of the blood of his ambitious
and crafty ancestor Tchinggis-Khan. While flattering and
cajoling the Russians he indulged in dreams of a revival of
the ancient grandeur of the Mongol conquerors, and keenly

2

196 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

watched for an opportunity that should enable him to unite
his tribes and to create for himself an independent position.
The Interior Horde is a branch of the Little Horde, and sub-
divided into nine parts, each of which is ruled by several
chiefs, who depend on the temporary Council of Chiefs, which
again stands under the direct authority of the frontier Com-
mission of Orenburg. The dignity of the Khans ceased in 1845
withDjangger, whose death took place in that year. Tchinggis,
his eldest son, as well as his brothers have been raised to the
rank of Eussian princes, and receive a pension, but hold no
authority in the administration of the country.

In this manner, it will be seen, that the Russian Govern-
ment in abolishing the privileges of caste, of which the aris-
tocracy (white bone) had for centuries made a cruel use
against their inferiors in rank, the plebeians (black bone) of
their people, had morally and materially established a per-
manent state of legal order.

The inferior posts are filled by Kirghiz, and the lawsuits
contending for a sum or value not exceeding thirty roubles
are decided by Kirghiz judges. Most cases refer to horse-
lifting, the greatest weakness of the Kirghiz, who moreover
delight in litigation. The Government levies the taxes of
the Interior Horde on the herds (18 kopeks per camel,
14 kopeks per horse, 8 kopeks per sheep). The annual net
revenues amount to about 90,000 roubles.

These Kirghiz, like all others, are divided into two castes,
i.e. nobles (sultans) and common people, or into white and
black bones, their own term of distinction.

The Mongol type is the predominant one. Their women
are ugly and uncleanly. They mount like the men and wear
the same long coat, large pantaloons and boots, only the head-
gear is different. They wind a large veil around their heads,
while the men wear the " thibeteika," a small pointed cap,
over which is set a white hat of lambskin in form of a cone.

The only public entertainment of the Kirghiz consists in
horse-racing, and no ceremony, be it wedding or burial,
passes unaccompanied by that sport. An enormous concourse

THE KIRGHIZ. 197

of people of both sexes greatly enhances the interest of the
scene. It is astonishing to see the accuracy with which men,
and even only half-dressed little urchins about nine years
old, can calculate the distance a horse can run. If it should
fall at a short distance from the mark, it is dragged there by
ropes. A distance of eleven to twelve miles has been run in
34 min. 40 sees.

The most curious horse-race is that of the women. An
Amazon, mounted on a very fast horse, is pursued by the
best riders, who strive to come up with her, seize her round
the waist, and pull her off the horse. She defends herself
against these anything but gallant attacks with a short whip,
until one of her pursuers manages to get a firm hold of her.
A very disgusting spectacle offer the camel races : these ani-
mals run very fast (two versts in 3 min.), but their scream-
ing and groaning, and the thick foam which they scatter
from their mouths and noses in every direction, are highly
offensive to the ears and eyes of the spectator.

The letters are sent about the steppe by a mounted mes-
senger, who often rides over a distance of 200 versts (115
miles) in one day.

The Kibitkas are made of striped felt, ornamented with
ribbons, which is pulled over a wooden scaffolding.

THE MIDDLE HOEDE

Is the most pacific of all, and composed of about 100,000
Kibitkas (400,000 souls), belonging to the four tribes :
Arghyn, Naiman, Kiptchak, and Ouvak-Ghirei. They in-
habit the land extending from the line of the Irtysh to the
deserts which separate the Kirghiz steppe from the Khanats
of Central Asia, and from the Chinese frontier in the East
to the territory of the Little Horde in the West.

Their wealth consists in 900,000 horses, 300,000 heads of
cattle, 3,350,000 sheep, and a moderate number of camels.

THE GKEAT HORDE (300,000)

Is composed of 75,000 Kibitkas or 300,000 souls, of which

198 THE LAXD OF THE CZAH.

about a third have recognized the Russian supremac}\ They
are divided into four tribes : the Ousyn (Onissoun), the
Toulatai, Sargam, and Kouthrat. The tribes that have
bucome subjects of the Russian Crown are indiscriminately
called Ouissouns. Their territory is situated in the south-
eastern part of the steppe between the frontier of China and
the Mounts Ala-Tau and Kounghi, and again between the
Ala-Taii and the Lake Balkhash. The tribes stand under
their chiefs (sultans), who have to be confirmed by the
Russian Government. The sultans are all chosen from
among the descendants of the Kban Ablai, and their power
is hereditary in the direct or collateral line. They stand
under the surveillance of the Pristav (Commissarj') of the
Great Horde, who resides at Kopal.

The Great Horde pays no taxes, but has to famish relays
for the Cossack Divisions. It is comparatively poor in beasts,
owing to the incessant inraids made into their territory by
warlike neighbours, by whom they have been harassed for
centuries. It owes its present prosperous state entirely to
Russia. The Kirghiz-Kaissaks have got neither the broad
faces of most Tartars, nor the flat ones of the Kalmuks ; but
their eyes are small and deep set, mouths small, thin cheek-
bones projecting, and beards sparsely furnished, which
physiognomical condition is the natural effect of their former
intimate relations with the Kalmuks, whose women they
prefer to their own.

Both sexes enjoy a robust constitution. The men might
almost be called handsome ; but the women, notwithstandino-
their flashing eyes and fresh-coloured faces, would scarcely
please European taste, owing to their Kalmuk eyes and
projecting cheek-bones. Purity of air, a simple style of
life, an easy mind, and frugal habits, render them capable
of supporting hunger and thirst for days together ; but they
make up for such enforced abstinence whenever they have a
chance. They can then eat a lamb of six months at one
sitting, and ask for more. Both sexes are excellent riders.
They never think of washing themselves, and are inveterate

THE KIRGHIZ. 199

smokers ; only the Kirghiz of the Little and Middle Hordes
prefer the tobacco in the shape of snuff. Small-pox,
diseases of the eye, and other disorders caused by their dirty
ways, trouble them severely. Their food consists principally
of mutton and a kind of sour cheese, which somewhat
assuages thirst, but they use little salt. The chief beverage
is the koumyss.

They like to ornament their saddles and bridles as richly
as their means will allow them, sometimes even with pre-
cious stones. Their arms are of very indifferent quality,
but they are gradually introducing fire-arms.

Their religious condition is of a deplorable kind. They
profess Islamism, adulterated by idolatry. Many tribes
believe in a good G-od and in an evil God, and adore also
other spirits ; and magicians are all-powerful with them.
The Kirghiz think themselves very good Mussulmen, and
consider all other religionaries to be renegades. They curse
the She'ites, because they fancy themselves to be Sounnites,
but they have not the remotest conception of the difference.
The rich practise polygamy. Never observing fasts or ablu-
tions, although the Koran so severely commands these forms,
they pray at home, as they have neither mosques nor clergy.
Their superstition makes them easy dupes to the magicians
and pretended physicians, whom they call " batchy," and
who sometimes really perform astonishing tricks.

On the whole the Kirghiz are ignorant, proud, lazy, pas-
sionate ; have no idea of right and wrong, and are brigands
from their cradles. The women being burdened with all the
household work, the men have nothing to occupy them at
home. They therefore lounge about to gossip and fish for
news. Their curiosity is excessive, and the most insig-
nificant news spreads like lightning through the steppe.
They are terrible gluttons, and ever inclined to violate their
word, and take in every one not mussulman. Their indo-
lence does not prevent them from looking sharply after their
interest ; and where they discover the least degree of weak-
ness, they do not shrink from the most impudent exactions.

200 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

They know neither consideration nor pity, and are not even
courageous. Having no idea of order, obedience, or disci-
pline, they show no unity in action. They attack in small
troops, and with the vivacity of falcons. Their first shock
is sharp and violent, but of little tenacity, and they fly in
the wildest disorder. They only fight for the sake of plunder,
and when they can depend on the swiftness of their horses.
Their hospitality is only for the Mussulmen, and then only
because commanded by the Koran. The nobles are very
proud of their descent, and of Russian titles.

The women are generally of kind dispositions, and worth
a great deal more than the men. They are tender to the
children, and compassionate. Funerals are always con-
ducted with great ceremonies of lamentations and acted
despair, for which the women sometimes practise for a year
before the glass.

Their only good qualities consist in their respect for the
aged, and feelings of gratitude.

THE KIEGHIZ, PROPERLY SO CALLED.

The name " Kirghiz," or " Kerghez," belongs to this
people alone, and has nothing to do with the Kirghiz-
Kaissaks — an altogether different nation, and their deadly
enemies. For the sake of distinction from the others, they
are called, " Wild, or Black Kirghiz ; " by the Chinese,
" Bourouts ; " and by the Russians, " Dikokamenniye "
(or Kirghiz fi:om the Wild Rocks).

They know no boundaries, and roam about the territory
of the Issy-Koul ; in the east as far as the line of Kouldja
and Akssou ; in the south they sometimes enter the little
states of Badakhshan and Karatighen ; in the west as far as
Khokand and Tashkent ; and in the north often show them-
selves on the heights of Kounghi Ala-Tau. The ancient
Chinese described this people as stout, tall men, with grey
or blue eyes, and, red hair, which seems to point to a
Finnish origin, the type of which has succumbed to their

THE YAKOUTES. 201

long sojourn amongst the descendants of Tchingghis-Khan.
Driven from their Siberian home by the Russians, thrown
back again by the Dzoungar-CEloet, they, under the pro-
tection of the Kamassiuts, went south-east and settled
amongst the Bourouts.

The Black Horde, partly subjected to Russia (100,000) is
divided into three tribes — the Bogou, Sara-Baghysh, and
Sulty — who are under the authority of the " Bis " (chiefs),
and again subdivided into many small tribes governed by
chiefs elected by majority of votes.

The chiefs of the Ourmans, Djantai and Djan-Karatch
(who in 1847 desired to become Russian subjects) stated the
number of these Kirghiz to be 40,000 yourtes, or 200,000
souls. Manap-Bourambai, who reigns over the Bogou, has
under his orders 10,000 yourtes, and upwards of 100,000
horses. This tribe has always been harassed and cruelly
oppressed by the Sara-Baghysh, its neighbours, and has
probably for that reason placed itself under Russian pro-
tection. These Kirghiz are great breeders of cattle, but
also agriculturists. Their cattle are very fine. Civilization
and practical morality encounter formidable obstacles in the
character of this people, who consider pillage of caravans,
cattle lifting, and the most barbarous cruelties, to be heroic
and chivalrous exploits. Their brigandage has rather in-
creased since 1843 instead of declined. Nevertheless the
Russian government keeps on amiable terms with the Black
Horde, in order to insure as much as possible the safety
of the caravans on the road to Kouldja, Tchougoutchak,
Tashkent, Khokand, and Kashgarie.

THE YAKOUTES (200,000).

Although now separated from their brethren in race, the
Turco-Tartars, they belong to the same family. A nomadic
and meditative people, they have always distinguished them-
selves from their neighbours by fine qualities of character,
and by their warlike spu-it. They inhabit the district of
Yakoutsk in Eastern Siberia, and the lands irrigated by the

202 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

Lena and its affluents. A pastoral people, they occupy
prairies and valleys, while their neighbours, the Toungouse,
who are exclusively hunters, roam about the hUly and woody
part of the country.

The Takoutes call themselves " Sakha " (or plural " Sak-
halar"); but the first Russians gave the Toungouse the
name of " Yako," by which the latter designated the Yakouts,
and turned it afterwards into " Yakouta," &c. They are
divided into several tribes, which owe their origin to the sons
of the fabulous " Eliei," father of all the race. Before the
arrival of the Russians, they were ruled by five princes, who
lived in constant warfare with each other, and probably
caused their separating into five tribes, who never have any
intercourse with each other. These tribes are governed by
Princelets (Knjazeks), but crimes, such as theft and murder,
are judged and punished according to the Russian laws. The
court life of these Knjazeks is rather amusing by the airs
they give themselves, and the absurd ceremonial on which
they insist. They are always accompanied by runners, who
must hold their horses, aid them in mounting and dis-
mounting, execute their behests, and amuse them by the
way with their gossip.

The Yakoutes are mostly of middle size, robust, broad
shouldered, and of Kalmuk physiognomy, owing to their
intercourse with the Mongols. They have black, bright, but
small eyes, black bristly hair, bony heads, thick and short
necks, oval faces, though disfigured by strongly projecting
cheek-bones, big and fiat noses, and their complexion is very
dark. Their teeth are white and regular, their lips thick,
but ISTature has given them no beard whatever. The men
wear their hair very short (except at the back of the head) ;
the women, on the contrary, have very long hair, which they
twist iato plaits. Being almost always on horseback, their
legs are bandy, and their gait is therefore very ungraceful.
The Yakoute's face expresses his meditative habit and calm-
ness of soul, but is capable of reflectiug the most opposite
emotions in a highly conspicuous manner. The Yakoutes

THE YAKOXJTES. 203

of Touroulihansk, living on the territory between the Yenissei
and the Khatanga, have curly hair and purely Tartar physiog-
nomies. The women are in every respect more beautiful
than the men.

The Yakoutes of the territory of the Ostrog of Ouda,
especially the men, have, like the Bouriats, flat and horribly
ugly faces.

The climate of their country is extremely severe. The
summer brings them myriads of mosquitoes, and the winter
its icy blasts and usual accompaniments. Of the two, how-
ever, the latter season is after all the best for travelling.
The Yakoutes are fishers and hunters, but since 1853 they
have paid considerable attention to agriculture. They live
to a great age, and old men, of more than one hundred
summers, are no rarity with them. They live in portable or
stationary yourtes according to the season. The poorer
families make their windows of ice, cut into thin frames,
and fastened with snow. They carve very neatly in wood,
and are good smiths. Their domestic animals consist prin-
cipally of horses and horned cattle, as they keep few reindeer,
goats, or sheep. With their horses they make a good living
by the transport of merchandise. The Yakoutes of Okhotsk
make use of dogs only, and horses are bought by them only
for food. They are abominable gluttons, and to see an
animal killed, boiled, or roasted, is for them the most plea-
surable sight in the world. The rich Yakoute begrudges the
killing of a healthy beast, and feels no disgust whatever of
meat supplied by an animal that had been sick or had died
of some disease. There is a story of a Yakoute who, at a
wedding, once drank 40 lbs. of melted butter, and three
others swallowed without winking, so to say, 16 bottles
of spirits, while they devoured a whole male one-year-old
reindeer, and bolted many a pound of melted butter besides.
They are very dirty in their household arrangements, on the
pretext that dirt keeps warm ; but their houses are palaces
compared with the " tchoums " of the Samoyedes. They
are nearly all baptized, but their notions of Christianity are

204 THE LAND OP THE CZAR.

of a very imperfect kind, and the most absurd superstition is
rife amongst them.

Although of a lazy temperament, the Yakoute has good
' business qualities. He is cunning, enterprising, and, in his
trading transactions, insinuating and dissimulating. He
looks upon a person, who lets the opportunity for cheating
another escape him, as upon a fool. Theft with him is a
fault, but no sin ; and he steals, not because he wants, but
simply to show his address. They have no idea of hospitality,
and a Yakoute, who has entertained another, expects the
latter to treat him in return, and that pretty quickly, or he
will bring an action against him ; for he considers his guest
to have become his debtor and bound to repay him. Their
memory is of an astonishing power, and they sometimes, with
most scrupulous accuracy, will tell each other of things that
happened as long as twenty years before. Their poor are
despised, because they look upon them as abandoned by God.
The rich are proud, unapproachable, and unjust. If the
women are diligent housekeepers, they are so more from
habit than from a sense of duty, for their husbands live in
great fear of their tongues, and never dare do anything with-
out their consent Their imagination is little developed.
Song and dancing are unknown to them. On the other hand,
they are very curious, and delight in listening to narration.
Their language springs from the great Turco-Tartar source ;
it contains, however, many Mongol words. It has never been
written.

The best of the Yakoute tribes is the one inhabiting the
country near Neezhnei-Zatoundrinsk. They are of an
obliging disposition, and exceedingly hospitable. They are
very fond of dancing, but the way in which they do it is
curious. Forming a circle, they move slowly from one foot
to the other, singing : " Kheira, kheira, khetchou, khetchou,
khongai, ourai, ourai, aggan, aggai!"

CHAPTER XX.

THE MONGOL EACE.

The ancient division of the Mongolian people, which
existed already before and after Tchinggis-Khan, is still
found amongst the Russian Mongols. The genuine Mongols
of Transbaikalia, and their neighbours, the Bouriats, belong
to the Eastern Mongols ; the Kalmuks of the Altai, of the
Government of Tomsk, and their brethren in race the Kal-
muks of the Volga, form part of the Western Mongol tribe,
or rather of the descendants of the Political League of the
Oirates.

The cradle of all the Mongol tribes is the tableland of
Central Asia. To this day they lead a nomadic life. They
profess principally Buddhism or Lamaism, a religion supe-
rior to the Shamanism, which had been their primitive reli-
gion, but inferior to Islamism, which the Turkish tribes had
adopted.

Ever since the discovery of Central Asia by the Chinese
(about 200 years before Christ), all the tribes the latter
found there, which probably were those subsequently called
Mongols, were simultaneously united under the sceptre of
the dynasty of the Khounns (according to Chinese pronun-
ciation : Khiounn-nou, Hiong-nu). The Mongol nation re-
ceived always its name from the reigning dynasty. On the
fall of a reigning house the people did not lose its political
existence— it only changed the name.

A few years before the birth of Christ the house of the
Khounns was for some time ruled by the Chinese, and since

206 THE LAIJD OF THE CZAK.

the year 14 it was called " Gounnou" {i. e. very humble slave,
while " Khiounn-nou," signifies "pernicious slave"). The
Mongols, continually at war with the Chinese and Turks of
Turkestan, divided into hordes and were almost constantly
moving about, although as yet strictly within their own
territory, or Mongolia.

It was owing to Tchinggis-Khan, that the dynasty of the
Tatans (chinese " Touan ") acquired its power, and could
maintain itself in Eastern Mongolia,' until upset by the
Chinese.

On the banks of the Amoor lived, long before Christ, a
people named " Soush^n," and in the Mandshoury itself,
the people " Ilou." At the beginning of our era the last
nation subjected the former, adopted the name Oughi, and
divided into different tribes. In the fifth century one of
these tribes living on the banks of the Amoor, became
powerful, but was itself, 200 years after, split up into sixteen
hordes, known by the name of Mo-ho (Mokh). It is pro-
bable that at the beginning of the ninth century one of
these Mokh tribes emigrated in the direction of Ordoss
(South-eastern Mongolia), took then the name of Tatan,
and insensibly increasing, spread itself into the Khalka
(west of Argoun) : in the eleventh centiuy it transmitted its
name to its adopted country. The Tatans were divided into
several aimaks, of which the most powerful were the Mongols,
the Taitshoutes (Taigoutes), the Kherchs, and the Tartars.
The Mongols alone, towards the middle of the twelfth century,
carried on a successful war against China. This proves that
the name of Mo-ho (Mokh) has nothing whatever to do with
the appellation Mongol. The history of the Chinese dynasty
of the Tangs (618 — 906) already mentions a people Mong-
ou, who lived to the north-west, at a great distance from
the Mo-hos ; and at the time of the Li-ao dynasty, a tribe
called Mong-kou-li nomadized about those countries, and
very probably was the Mongolian tribe. The Chinese his-
tory throughout makes a decided distinction between the
Mokhs and the people, whose name be^au with Mong

THE MONGOL RACE. 207

(Mongols). These Mong-kou-lis, who then still peaceably
traded with Northern China, all at once rose up conquerors
and founders of a universal empire at the time of the Kin-
dynasty (1115 — 1234). Towards the end of the twelfth
century the Mongol sovereign Tdmoudjin became the most
mighty of all the Tatan Princes, and after some victories
accompanied by horrible cruelties he was elected Emperor,
under the name of Tchingghis-Khan, in consequence of a
congress of princes assembled on the Upper Onon in the
year 1206. In this way the names of Mongols and Tartars
became familiar to all Europe, and were at a later period
applied even to the Turkish tribes, who appeared on the
scene of Timour's (Tamerlan) exploits. (Tatar is the plural
form of Tatan, which however is rarely used in the Mongol
language, but familiar to the Mandshu dialect, which trans-
forms the termination of the singular " n " into an " r ■" (ri)
in the plural. The Mongols of our day know no more the
word " Tatan," but always say Tatar.)

Tchingghis-Khan had founded an Empire such as no
monarch ever possessed ; but, after his death, the same was
first divided amongst his sons, and intestine disturbances and
constant wars with their neighbours gradually reduced it to
its present dimensions. In 1638, considerable fractions of
the Mongol people had detached themselves from the general
mass of the people and their national interests, in conse-
quence of which circumstance the Eastern Mongols came
under the domination of the Mandshus, and lay in the last
throes of their political independence. In the Altai, the
Western Mongols maintained themselves for more than one
hundred years, but finally succumbed in their turn like their
eastern countrymen. At the same time, the Russians had
already subjected the wild tribes of the Bouriats, and enter-
tained pacific relations with the Mongols of the Khalka.
Advancing down the Amoor, they came into close contact
with the Mandshus, but neither part wishing to measure
arms with the other, they, at the peace of ISlertchinsk in
1689, agreed as to the natural frontier of the Amoor, and

208 THE LAXD OP THE CZAR.

tMs convention was not altered until the year 1858. In
virtue of that peace, the Bouriats remained under Russian
domination, which also absorbed a small number of the
Northern Mongols on the Onon, the original home of
Tchingghis-Khan.

The spoken language of the Mongols has perfected itself
before their literature, and independent of every foreign
influence. After Modo-Khan (200 years before Christ) had
united all the Mongol tribes under the name of ETioung-nou
(later Mongol), a new political organization became indis-
pensable. Feeling the want of written characters, he began
by using those of the Chinese. In consequence of this,
many Chinese entered the Mongol service, which promised
them great advantages. This state of things existed amongst
the Mongols for more than 1000 years, and only under the
first sovereign of the house Kitan (in 920), they at last
invented a national hand-writing. Tchingghis-Khan, as
well as his successors, availed themselves of the Ouigour and
also of the Chinese ^Triting. The former is in use to this
day, but in two forms, viz., in the alphabetic characters of
the Eastern Mongols and those of the Kalmnks. All Mongol
tribes speak the same language. It is an idiom springing
from the same source as the Turkish or Tartar language.

EASTERN MONGOLS.

The Bouriats (230,000). — One of the tribes, who, in ages
long gone by, emigrated westward, and spreading subse-
quently in a northern and north-western direction, drove
back the Toungouse, and penetrated into the country about
the Baikal, of which they form the principal population.
Although once close neighbours of the Kalmuks of the Altai,
they had been for a long time separated from the Kalmuk
nation, and are for that reason considered Eastern Mongols.

They are divided into different sets, which bear the name
of the locality where their settlements are situated ; as for
instance (west of Baikal), the Koudin Bouriats, the Yerk-

THE BOURIATS. 209

holinsk, Olkhon, Idin, Balajansk, Alarsk, and Tunkin; and
(in the east, in Transbaikalia) the Khorin, Selenghin,
Kudarin, and Bargouzin-Bouriats.

All Bouriats have a great resemblance to the Kalmuks —
their projecting cheek-bones, which in their youth are not
so very conspicuous, owing to their full habit and round forms
— are undeniable witnesses of the above-named element. The
Bouriat is strong and of middle size. His hair, of which he has
but a tuft on the top of the head, is black and soft ; his eyes
are black and narrow, the brows thin and raised, the ears big
and standing off, the teeth even and of striking whiteness,
the nose big and flat, the forehead low and flat, his com-
plexion is dark, but clear and glossy, and the skull of a
conical shape. His short legs, which in sitting he crosses
Oriental fashion, are generally bandy. This circumstance
and the disproportionate development of the upper frame,
renders his walk vacillating and awkward. Compared to
the Eussians, the Bouriats are not very muscular. They
seldom live to an advanced age, owing to their excessive
use of tobacco and their objecting to any medicine excepting
that which has been prescribed by their lamas, shamans, or
magicians.

The costume of the Transbaikalian Bouriats is very rich
and splendid, particularly that of the young girls of the lake
Baikal, which is very singular, but suits them extremely
well. On week days they wear only goat or sheep skins ;
but on holidays they are dressed in kaftans of the finest and
blackest of sables and other costly furs, such as are found
nowhere else. The ladies wear much jewellery, consisting of
all kinds of precious stones, pearls, and gold and silver
ornaments, with which they load arms, neck, ears, fingers,
hair, and dresses. Men and women wear a pointed red silk
cap trimmed with sable. The large and flashing knife and
a Chinese pipe mounted with brass, constitute the height of
elegance.

The Bouriat is phlegmatic (though he can occasionally
flash out with great fire), and does not work, unless driven

310 THE LAND OF THE CZAR,

to it by hunger. The women are generally far more active
than the master of the house. The men are careless, lazy,
taciturn, and in commercial transactions not over scrupulous,
although theft is rare amongst them. Hospitality is for
them a sacred duty. They are neither so licentious, nor so
rude and uncultivated as the Yakoutes. They have a decided
predilection for tobacco and spirituous liquors, but soon get
intoxicated. Their food consists often in meats of diseased
beasts, and they make a sort of hash, which they eat entirely
without salt, though composed of spoilt meat. They also
consume much seal's fat, which they swallow raw and with-
out either bread or salt. Their tea is mixed with fat and
salt, and compressed in the form of bricks. Of this, they
throw a few pieces into a saucepan and boil it, and this
beverage is considered nourishing and wholesome. Although
nomads, they are bad shepherds, and take little care of
their flocks ; excellent riders and marksmen, they yet hunt
very rarely. The household utensils and the material for
their clothes are made by themselves, and they are generally
also clever at all work in iron. They are fond of music and
song, although it is rather of a flabby kind and in accordance
with their listless ways. The women are considered impure,
and their fate is often deplorable.

Their language is one of the four known dialects of the
Mongol language, and not essentially distinguished from
either the northern or southern Mongol, or from the Kalmuk
dialects. On the other side of the Baikal this lans:uaffe
contains a certain number of Thibetian and Hindoo words.
The Russian language serves for business transactions. The
Kiorine Bouriats, as the most civQized of their tribes,
generally are able to read and write.

The religion of the Bouriats, up to the middle of last
century, had almost entirely consisted of Shamanism ; but
Christianity, although only recently introduced among that
people, is making rapid strides. Between 1840 and 1844
only 1,300 Bouriats of both sexes had received baptism ; in
1851, 7,700 persons had been added to that number, which,

THE KALMUKS. 211

by this time, must be very considerable. It is particularly
the poor women who press forward to the baptismal font.
Amongst the baptized are many highly honourable, worthy
persons. Some of their customs remind one of Shamanism ;
as, for instance, the habit of sacrificing to the gods on
important occasions, such as grievous maladies, voyages, &c.
Many localities of the Baikalian territory, particularly the
island of Olkhon, are reputed sacred.

The ancient country of the "Western Mongols is Dzoun-
garia, and to this day inhabited by the Kalmuks. Its
territories extend from the Altai Mountains and the Lake
Oubsa, towards the West, as far as the Great Hord of
Kirghiz-Kaissaks, and from the frontier of Russia south-
wardly as far as the Hymalaja (Tengre-Vola).

The Mongols of the West, or Kalmuks, are known by
different appellations — i.e., Qjjloet-Dzoungars on account of
their nationality, and Oirates in consequence of their political
league. The different tribes and sub-divisions are also
denominated by particular names.

THE ALTAIC OK BLACK KA.LMUKS.

They inhabit, in the government of Tomsk, the country
north and south of the Altai Mountains as far as the
Chinese frontier.

Separated from their other brethren in race, and still in
every respect faithful to the ancient customs of the Kal-
rfiuk-Dzoungars, they can hardly be said to have made the
first step towards civilization, although they begin to use
firearms. Their language is a mixture of Mongol and
Tartar, although the Dvojedantsy (a tribe tributary to both
Russia and China) possess a particular idiom, and speak
besides the Mongol language. They are thick-set and broad-
shouldered, their legs bandy, owing to their constant life on
horseback, and their features are Mongol.

p 2

212 THE LAXD OF THE CZAE.

The lot of the women is very hard. They are the slaves
of their husbands and articles of property bought with money
or cattle. The men are exceedingly indolent, and only
occupy themselves with hunting. Their food and beverages
resemble those of most Mongols — i.e., the " kotcho " (or
boiled barley groats), horse-meat, compressed tea, koumyss,
airan, &c. Some of them are very rich, and possess upwards
of 40 taboons of horses and 3,000 sheep. A taboon consists of
30 mares and one horse. The camels are scarce amongst them.
The Kalmuks are generous, hospitable, good-naturedly
impulsive, and without calculation or after-thought ; never
troubling themselves about the future, they will give away
their last sheep. The poor live by the side of the rich, and
coolly help themselves to the milk and other victuals they
require. As long as their liberty is not encroached on, they
are pleasant and obliging, but they would never consent to
the imposition of mercenary services.

Their music is primitive, the instruments consisting of a
reed flute and a kind of guitar of horse-skin with strings of
horse-hair twisted into cords. Their song is duU, mono-
tonous, and treats but of things which happen to strike the
eye at the moment. Riding and shooting (in which arts
they are exceedingly proficient) are their favourite pastime.
They are hunters and fishers, but only when obliged ; other-
wise they remain at home in a state of perfect apathy. In
swearing an oath the Kalmuk kisses the barrel of his gun,
and their signature consLsts in the mark by which each man
distinguishes his cattle.

The religion of the Kalmuks is Shamanism ; with them
the Shamans are magicians, prophets, and physicians. Siuce
the year 1830, great efforts have been made to convert the
Kalmuks of th& Altai, and this missionary work has also
been crowned with success.

THE KALMUKS OF THE VOLGA,

or rather Torgotes (Tourgoutes), are nomadic tribes, on the

THE KALMUKS. 213

right bank of the Volga, in the government of Astrakhan,
Stavropol, and in the country of the Cossacks of the Don.
They came in the year 1636 from the westernmost bounda-
ries of the Chinese Empire, and obtained extensive pasture
lands on both banks of the Volga. Every village of those
parts is surrounded by some Kibitkas inhabited by poor
Asiatics (Kalmuks), who come from the steppe in order to
earn a penny by their work. The men accordingly engage
themselves as farm-labourers, shepherds, or fishers; the
women as sempstresses. One meets amongst the Kalmuks
with great simplicity of heart and candour, and if they were
not constantly moving about, they would have been Christians
long ago. They are honest and peaceable, and distinguished
by their good morals and a certain spirit of fraternity ; but
their kibitkas and the preparation of their food evince an
entire absence of any idea of cleanliness.

The Kalmuks of Astrakhan twelve years since possessed
as many as 100,000 horses, 150,000 heads of horned cattle,
790,000 sheep, and 23,000 camels and goats.

Both sexes passionately love tobacco, which they smoke
from short pipes, and they are also much addicted to the
use of spirits. All of them, excepting the clergy, eat horse-
meat.

The population of Kalmuks on the Volga amounts to
130,000 souls.

The language of the Kalmuks is Mongol, somewhat
modified. For ages separated from their Mongol brethren
of the East this language has been gradually changed by
the adoption of many Tartar words.

CHAPTER XXI.

TOUNGOUSE PEOPLES.

The nationalities known by that name are divided into
the following tribes, which are distinguished from each other
by their occupations and habits : —

1. The nomadic Toungouse and the Toungouse of the
settlements (fishers), which are subdivided as follows : Toun-
gouse of the government of Yenisseisk, who have preserved
the national type and represent in the most perfect degree
that of the nomadic or forest Toungouse.

Toungouse of the environs of the lake Baikal, in the
government of Irkoutsk, strongly resembling the last.

Toungouse of the province of Yakoutsk, who, being princi-
pally nomadic, have adopted in many respects the habits of
the Yakouts, while the smaller moiety of them, who have
settled, have more approached the Russians.

Toungouse of the sea of Okhotsk, or Lamouts, who are
partly nomads (fishers), partly settlers (farmers).

Toungouse of Nertchinsk, who live principally by the
breeding of cattle.

Toungouse of the Upper Amoor (nomads and fishers).

Toungouse of the Lower Amoor (fishers), Xamki (?).

Toungouse of the Northern and Southern Lower Amoor
(mixed with Jlandshous and Chinese).

2. Daours, or Daourians, on the Middle Amoor, who
occupy themselves with cattle breeding and agriculture.

These Daours deviate considerably from the general Toun-
gouse type.

THE TOUNGOUSE. 215

The Toungoiise inhabit the greater part of the vast terri-
tory of Eastern Siberia. In the north they are close upon
the Glacial Sea ; in the south they fish in the Amoor and
Baikal ; in the east they have for neighbours the TcKouktchis ;
the Koriabs and the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Yeniss^i and
Ket rivers, form their natural western boundaries.

Their territory is in many parts hilly and swampy, in
others covered with almost impenetrable forests, and in
every direction traversed by rivers and other watercourses.
The climate is extremely severe, and the population propor-
tionately small, the Toungouse numbering altogether only
about 70,000 souls.

The name Toungouse probably is derived from the Chinese
Toung-hou (barbarians of the north-east), for " Toung "
means " east," and " hous " barbarians of. the north. The
Toungouse themselves have adopted divers appellations, by
which they distinguish the different tribes, such as Evenki,
Ovenki, Yevoisny, Kamnegany, &c. The tribes of the east
of the Okhotsk Sea are called Laments ; but the pastoral
Toungouse of the Southern territory and of the Amoor are
generally distinguished by the name of Orotchones ; for they
call themselves Orotcha, which signifies shepherds of rein-
deer (" oron "= reindeer). The Toungouse tribes of the
Amoor (farmers and graziers) are called Daours by the
Bouriats.

The Toungouse became Russian subjects in the middle of
the seventeenth century.

The Toungouse live mostly in the woods, and are con-
sidered a nation of hunters par excellence. Their tribes
of pure descent belong to the most interesting primitive
peoples known. The Toungouse is born, lives and dies in
the woods ; if single, he roams day and night through the
forest with his gun or bow, and endures the greatest hard-
ships, often including fasts of several days' duration, with
perfect equanimity. If married, he is accompanied by
his whole family and a few reindeer to carry his scanty
traps. He thinks then only of hunting, and such of the

216 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

members of the family as are able, assist him, as best they
can.

The physiognomy of the Toungouse generally expresses
gentleness and a good heart ; his eyes are the reflection of a
pure and simple soul incapable of deceit and cunning. He
is peaceable and sincere, and extremely hospitable. He
loves his liberty and independence above everything else, and
only the most urgent necessity can drive him into the volun-
tary performance of any kind of work.

The Christian religion has made little progress amongst
the Toungouse, who are as yet more faithful to Sha-
manism than any other people of Siberia. Their priests,
who are much respected by them, give themselves a hideous
and ferocious appearance, whenever they are called upon
to evoke the spirits. Shamanism, still at this day in force
throughout the whole of North Asia and the North-west of
America, is a degenerated form of the primitive religion of
Central Asia.

This primitive religion taught the adoration of the omni-
potence and the supreme wisdom of God, as well as the glori-
fication of the celebrated men which were elevated by the
apotheosis to the rank of divinities of second order. Im-
postors, however, for their own vile purposes, soon introduced
new doctrines and ceremonials, which completely altered the
original purity of the religion. Exorcists of both sexes
appeared, who, under violent beating of cymbals and tam-
bourines, and with the help of contortions, convulsive jump-
ing, piercing shrieks, and often even of self-inflicted wounds,
worked themselves into a kind of ecstasy, and pretended to
enjoy, while in that state, the faculty of direct communica-
tion with the spirits or the gods.

The Toungouses are generally of middle size, and have
oval heads, round faces, and a broad and flat forehead ; the
eyes are black, bright, narrow, and a little sunk ; the brow
arched, the nose flat (its upper part on the same line with
the eyes) ; the mouth is large, and the lips generally very
thick; the cheek-bones are prominent, and the chin is

THE TODNGOUSE. 2J7

square; the chest well developed, and the back vigorous.
They never either cut or comb their thick hair, which they
however keep together by a knot at the back of the head.
They have little beard. Some of them extract the hair of
the beard, and even to this day tattoo their face and chin.

The women are much like the men, but their physiognomy
is more expressive.

The Christian Toungouse baptize their children when they
go to pay the "yassak" (tax of skins). They are very
affectionate parents, and give their children only such names
as are expressive of love and tenderness. The young people
marry at the age of fifteen or sixteen; they choose their
wives, and fix 'the "kalym" (thirty roubles =4/. 10s.)
themselves. Sometimes in lieu of the kalym the young
betrothed offers to the father, brother, or uncle of the bride,
his own mother, sister, or niece in exchange.

The Toungouse songs are improvised on the spur of the
moment, but hardly ever of an edifying description. In
dancing, men and women, embracing each other, whirl about
in the maddest manner, crying all the time, " Yokher eh —
yokher eh — yokher he ! tchokh, tchokh, tchokh ! yokher
he ! " &c. They love dancing exceedingly, but have no
musical instruments whatever.

The Christian Toungouse sew their dead into a reindeer
skin, and bury them ; but the Pagans, although they also
perform the first operation, do not inter the bodies, but
suspend them from trees.

The Bussian Government has done much for this people.
It has established offices, where they may buy flour, powder,
lead, arms, &c., on credit. The Toungouse are therefore
strongly attached to the Government, which, in case of an
epidemic disease amongst them, provide medical assistance
of the most efficient kind. They are fond of spirits, and this
renders them easy dupes for the Russian merchants, who,
after having plied them well with liquor, generally manage
to buy the most costly furs at vile prices.

The Toungouse is active, indefatigable, and bold in the

218 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

hour of danger. In following the track of an animal he
performs journeys -which would kill a horse or even a dog.
Every inch of ground is known to him, and his organ of
sight is most extraordinarily developed. He never misses
his aim, he his arm the rifle or the bow. The latter he
employs in fishing, and his arrows pierce his prey at con-
siderable depths. Nothing pleases him so much as the
encounter with the bear, whom he kills with his sharp hunt-
ing knife attached to a stick of five feet in length.

One of the tribes, the Lamoutes, who inhabit the territory
of the Sea of Okhotsk, distinguish themselves from the
other Toungouse only by their dialect. They are all bap-
tized, very good Christians ; and their upright loyalty is
such, that the tribunals consider their word equivalent to an
oath — in fact incontrovertible. This excellent people unfor-
tunately share with the other tribes the passion for tea,
tobacco, and spirituous liquors, which exercise a most perni-
cious influence on their health and general well-being, while
they undermine their morals and intellectual faculties.

The name Lamoute is derived from " lamou " (the sea) ;
some ethnographers consider the name " namki " more
correct, as " nam " in the dialect of those parts is the
proper appellation for sea, while "amou" and "omo"
signify " lake," and " mou," or " mouke," means water in
general.

The most civilized are the Nertchinsk-Toungouse, who
already at the end of the seventeenth century became Chris-
tian — i.e., at the period of the military expeditions under-
taken by the Cossacks of Siberia against the Chinese. The
Toungouse Prince Gantimoor (Khan Timoor), filled with
admiration for the bravery of the Cossacks, resolved to settle
near them, and he was the first who soon after demanded to
be baptized.

The Orotchones are the most inferior tribe of the Toun-
gouse. They are small of stature and badly shaped, have
prominent cheek-bones, flat faces, big noses and mouths,
thin lips, small and oblique eyes, spare eyebrows, black and

THE YOUKAGHIES. 319

straight hair, and little beard. Owing to their roving life,
they are little civilized; and the Shamans are still all-
powerful with them. They marry very yonng, while they
are still children, and principally in order to get the domestic
services of the woman or little girl, who occupies that posi-
tion in her husband's house, for life.

The Toungouse tribe of the Maniagres are distinguished
from the others by their occupation, which is the breeding
of horses and not of reindeer. They are generally strongly
built and above the middle height.

The Daours are farmers and shepherds and live on the left
bank of the Amoor between the mouths of the Khoumar and
of the Oussouri. Their religion is Shamanism mixed up
with doctrines of Confucius and Lamaic dogmata and cere-
monies. Their idols represent the forms of frogs, toads,
turtles, &c., but never that of a human being; they are
rudely made, and elevated on high poles.

THE PEOPLES OF EASTERN SIBERIA.

The YoukagJiirs (800). — They inhabit the shores of the
Glacial Sea, on the Yana, Indighirka, Alazeya, Kolyma, and
the Upper Anadyr, and are the remnants of divers tribes
who lived between the Toungouses, Tartars, and Koriako^
Tchouktchis. , They may be said to form the link between
the latter and the Eskimos. Once a numerous tribe, they
have been reduced to the present small number by their
incessant wars and the small-pox. The Yenissei-Cossacks
came upon them first in 1639, and found them a far more
hostile people than the Yakouts. They had no idea of civili-
zation, lived by rapine, made use of stone hatchets, prepared
their food in wooden bowls, and cooked it by means of
red-hot stones. Their religion consisted in Shamanism of
the grossest kind.

The Youkaghirs have black eyes and hair, an elongated,
pale face, but rather regular and expressive features. In
customs, way of living, and costume, they resemble their

220 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

neighbours the Lamoutes. It is difficult to find traces of a
national language amongst them, and they speak generally
Toungouse or Russian. They are hospitable, good-natured,
merry, and modest, but very lazy, uncleanly, and inveterate
smokers and drinkers. The Youkaghir is exceedingly fond
of his domestic reindeer, which he would not kill, even to
save himself and family from starving. The children are
suckled until they have passed their fifth year, a custom met
with also in Westphalian Sauerland.

Although very superstitious, the greater part of the nation
are baptized. The Youkaghir Christians show much piety,
benevolence, and love for their neighbours.

Since 1842, the Youkaghirs venture to sea to hunt the
seal, and men and women undertake every autumn a cam-
paign against the field rats, and rob those careful little
animals of their winter provisions. They visit also the fair
of Fort Aniouisk, where they sell their furs and pay their
taxes. It is always the elders who take the money to the
Ispravnik, or Russian tax-collector. Every year they com-
plain of unprofitable hunt, of the want of sufficient powder
and shot, of diseases, &c. The officer politely expresses his
sympathy, but nevertheless insists on the payment. They
then beg him to receive the tax (yassak) in money, instead of
furs, to which he generally consents.

The Tchouvants are counted amongst the Youkaghirs.
There are only 200 souls, who are probably of the same
origin. They are nearly all baptized, but show still strong
inclination to Shamanite superstition.

The Koriako- TchouMchis inhabit the extreme north-eastern
parts of Siberia, the Anadyr forming the natural boundary
between their country and that of the Tchouktchis. These
tribes are decidedly distinguished from all other Siberian
tribes by the formation of their faces, and particularly that
of the skull, of which the type resembles far more that of
their southern, but especially of their eastern neighbours,
the Aleutes, who belong to the Eskimo race in the most
extensive sense of the word. The skulls of the Tchouktchis

THE TCHOUKTCHIS. 221

and Koriaks are depressed near the temples, and elevated
liehind. Their eyes are not so small, their faces less flat,
and the forehead higher, than is the case with the Mongols.
Tlieir hair is black, and there may be seen some agreeable
faces amongst them. They are supposed to have come from
America.

The Tchouktchis, although wild and warlike, are neverthe-
less an essentially mercantile people, and occupy the north-
eastern coasts of Siberia, and all the mountainous, swampy,
moss-clad territory between the Bay of Tchaoi^n and the
mouth of the Anadyr. The Cossacks entered their country at
the beginning of the seventeenth century. Presents of knives,
glass beads, &c., insured their good- will; and in 1644 the
Cossacks built a blockhouse, which now has grown to be the
town of JSTeezhnei-Kolymsk. The first missionary arrived
amongst the Tchouktchis in 1704, but baptism did not
become general before the years 1800-1810. During the
winter of 1811-12 the Priest Sleptsov, a self-denying,
zealous preacher of the Gospel, penetrated to the territory
situated at a distance of 280 to 300 miles east of the
Neezhneif-Kolymsk, which he found occupied by the
Tchouktchis, at that time a wild and hostile people. He
arrived at (what he called) Tchavan, written " Tchaoun " on
the ancient charts, and which the Tchouktchis call Tchava,
Tchaouan. Before the Tchouktchis came there the land was
occupied by a people to whom the Tchouktchis had given the
appellation of Tchavatcha, which reminds one of the modern
Tchouvants. In the Tchouktchi language the word Tchaout-
chou, or Tchavtchou, signifies : shepherds of reindeer. The
Tchouktchi people are subdivided into three classes — i.e., the
reindeer breeding Tchouktchis (Tchavtchou), the marine
Tchouktchis (Ankalehn), who live by the produce of their
uets and harpoons ; and the merchant Tchouktchis (Kavra-
remkit), who visit Anioui'ski-Ostrog and another town on the
Krougovy-Main, about 120 miles from Neezhnei-Kolymslv:,
there to exchange their furs for Russian goods. Business is
carried on in the open air and on the ice of the river Anioui,

2-Z2 THE LAND OF THE CZAB.

on whicli they erect their tents. The Russians bring their
goods to Neezhnei-Kolymsk from great distances, even from
Takoutsk, especially Tcherkassk tobacco, hardware, glass,
linen, ribbons, otter, wolf, and glutton ftirs, which they
exchange for the reindeer skins, and beaver, marten, lynx,
and other furs. The latter, as well as the walrus teeth, come
almost exclusively from America.

The settled Tchouktchis (Yevkals, 10,000) inhabit the
shores of the Glacial Arctic Ocean. One of the tribes, the
Namolles, live on the banks of the bay of Kolioutchensk
and of the mouth of the Anadyr. They are descended from
the Esquimos, and number about 1,000 souls. Their lan-
guage is a dialect of the Kadiak idioni. Their eyebrows are
raised, their eyes close together, and their physiognomy
altogether resembles that of the Mongols ; for their face is
perfectly flat, and the nose hardly perceptible. The little
girls are, however, frequently very pleasant-looking, the
ugliness of the Mongol features being softened by youthful
roundness and fresh complexion. The old women are
hideous. Their character is on the whole satisfactory ; but
their habits are dirty, and they practise Shamanism in its
coarsest form.

They never sacrifice reindeer to their idols, but dogs,
although they possess but a small number of the latter.
The dogs are put to the sledges only in winter, but are
indispensable for the chase of the bear. The Tchouktchis are
far more hunters than fishers, and their arms consist of guns,
bows, nets, lances, &c. The wolf is zealously hunted and
killed by them, not for the sake of his fur so much as ior
his simple destruction, because he is considered by them to
be possessed L}- a bad spirit, and hostile to their reindeer.
They catch the wolf sometimes in an extraordinary manner.
Tliey drive a bar of iron into the ground or ice, after they have
dipped it into some odoriferous substance ; and the instant
the tongue of the wolf touches it, it becomes fastened to it
by the frost and congealed. When the Tchouktchis kill a
wolf, they cry out: "Wolf, do not be angry with us,

THE KOEIAKS. 223

for it is not we, but the Eoussaki, who have killed
you ! "

It is said that on important occasions the Tchouktchis
will even sacrifice human beings to their gods, but they will
not confess to this fact, but state, that the few persons they
have sometimes sacrificed had been tired of life, and begged
them formally and fervently to offer them up to their deities.
Their dances and songs are barbarous, and the gestures with
which the women accompany the same are even very indecent.
Their only musical instrument is the tambourine, but they
are wonderfully clever in imitating any kind of animal and
birds.

Many of the reindeer-breeding Tchouktchis are very rich,
and possess as many as 10,000 and 12,000 reindeer. They
are very hospitable, and never leave the slightest service
unrewarded. Notwithstanding their savage and warlike
spirit, which Christianity has somewhat softened in the
case of the small number that have received baptism, they
are just and honest. In the same manner as they are im-
placable to an enemy, so are they staunch and true to their
friends. They are only nominal subjects of Russia, and it
will take a very long time before the Russian Government
can hope to Christianize and civilize them. The Russians
have known them for two to three centuries, and the result of
their endeavours for their conversion has remained very insig-
nificant to this day.

The Koriaks are the neighbours of the Tchouktchis, of the
same race, and resemble them almost on every point. They
have round, sometimes also oval, faces, and a deep yellow
complexion (in the case of the women more delicate and of
lighter colour). Young people have full and high-coloured
cheeks. The cheek-bones are less prominent, the nose not
so flat, in some cases even aquiline, but their other features
resemble those of the Tchouktchis. The Koriaks are well-
made, and the women have delicate little hands and feet..
Married women only tattoo their faces, because they hope
thereby to arrest the ravages of time.

224 THE LAXD OF THE CZAE.

The Koriak language has very harsh sounds, but its voca-
bulary being exceedingly limited, it is easy to learn the
whole by heart. They seldom speak the Tchouktchi tongue ;
the Russians trading with them must therefore learn the
Koriak dialect. It must be said that the Koriaks marry
under formidable difficulties. The young aspirant to the
altar of Hymen first of all must carry some presents- to the
father of the lovely creature he adores. If they are accepted
he then enters on a period of servitude with that Koriak
Laban, and is charged with all the hardest work, such as
the guarding of the reindeer, fetching of fuel, &c. He
never speaks to the young lady, who, on her part has also
to hold her tongue ; but he firmly counts on her tender and
grateful heart. K the young gentleman pleases the papa,
which frequently takes the latter six or even ten years to
find out, he has his hard-earned Rachel sent to him, but in
the utmost state of filthiness, so as to disgust him^ if pos-
sible, and get his services for nothing. Polygamy is per-
mitted, but, on the conditions just detailed, not often taken
advantage of. If the girl is not pleased with the young
man she may refuse him, and he is then sent back without
ceremony. On the eve of the wedding the parents of his
bride with other friends administer a sound thrashing to him
with canes, in order to initiate him into the troubles and
cares of married life. Man and wife invariably live most
happily together, and they show great affection for their
offspring. They are a good, honest, and just people, and
hospitable in the extreme. Of a lively temperament, they
are witty and capable of giving replies of stinging sarcasm,
but they are vindictive and their habits filthy beyond all
description.

Their dead are burned together with their favourite rein-
deer.

Their Shamanism is a mixture of fear and adoration of
good and bad genii.

THE KAMTCHADALS AND GHILIAKS. 225

THE KAMTCHADALS (2,000).

The indigenous people of the peninsula of Kamtchatka
may be said to have nearly disappeared in consequence of
their intermingling with the Russian, Koriak, and Lamoute
elements that have been attracted to their beautiful pasture
lands in the western part of their territory. The Cossacks
were the first Russian settlers in the country about the
beginning of the seventeenth century. Petropavlovsk was
the first capital of the province tUl 1854, when it was super-
seded by Nikolayevsk at the mouth of the Amoor.

Desirous of encouraging the agriculture of Kamtchatka,
the Russian Government has at different periods sent colonists
from the Lena to that province. Independently of the climate
and latitude of this easternmost country of Asia, the condi-
tion of the soil seems directly opposed to the success of
agricultural pursuits. The country is traversed by a chain
of volcanic mountains, which render the ground sterile, and
cause the accumulation of enormous mounts of (in some parts
of the country) never-melting snow, especially in the eastern
half of the peninsula ; while the western and more temperate
part is only fit for the cultivation of potatoes and some other
vegetables, but not of any kind of cereals.

The forests of Kamtchatka are very rich in animal life of
every kind, and in winter the produce in furs is very con-
siderable. The breeding of dogs is here carried on upon a
very large scale, while that of cattle and horses is rather
neglected, although the former prosper here better than at
Yakoutsk. The Kamtchatka dog is the best, strongest, and
fastest of all the draught dogs of Siberia, and great prices
are sometimes paid for a good dog. If the road is good,
they will run a distance of 45 miles a day with ease.

THE GHILIAKS

are so much in contact with the Russian colonies of the
mouth of the Amoor, that their nationality, as well as their

226 THE LAXD OF THE CZAR.

language have almost entirely disappeared. They are quite
distinct by exterior and language from the Toungouse of the
Lower Amoor, although their manner of living is precisely
similar to that of the latter, inasmuch as both peoples are
great fishers and hunters. Their language has not the
remotest aiSnity to that of the Toungouse, and is remarkable
for the great number of monosyllables it contains. They
are also taller and stronger than the Toungouse, and their
eyes are less oblique than those of the latter. The mouth,
although small and formed by thick lips, is not ugly. The
nose is short, fat, and turned up ; the eye-brows are very
thick and boldly arched ; the hair, black and thick, is curly,
and the beard far stronger than with the Toungouse.

THE KOUEILES OE AINOS.

They are probably of Kamtchadal race, but more closely
allied to the G-hiliaks, and inhabit the islands of the same
name, i. e., the northern part of the Island of Sakhalin.
There are but a few hundred of them extant.

The Kourile has an elongated and flat face, brown hair
and beard, but both so thick and long that nearly the whole
body is covered by them. They are very timid, and much
given to suicide. Their occupation is fishing and hunting,
and they repair every year to the islands of Choumshou and
Ouroup in order to exchange their sea-otter skins against
Russian or American goods.

CHAPTEE XXII.

THE POPULATION OF THE EUSSIAN EMPIRE.
INDO-EUEOPEAN NATIONS.

(g

Eussians of Great Russia
,, of Siberia
,, of Little Russia
, , of Wliite Russia

Cossacks .

- a S Serbians
Ills Bulgarians
Ph S'a Poles .

LlTHTJANIAN

People.

Lithuanians
Lettonians .

People of ,

THE \ Vallachians

Latin Race.

(

Lbanian
Peoples.

(' Ossetinians
Persians .
Kourds
. Armenians

PeACTIONS f Germans

OP Indo- J Swedes .

Bttbopeak I Greeks

Peoples. I Gipsies .

Jews.

Jews .
Karaimes

(Georgians .
Lesghi .
Kistes (Tcheohents)
Tcherkess

31,290,000
2,135,000

12,015,000
2,950,000
1,600,000

1,000

69,000

4,640,000

1,480,000
980,000

770,000

30,000

19,000

11,000

400,000

920,000

200,000

52,000

50,000

2,008,000
6,000

530,000
650,000
150,000
500,000

54,690,000

2,460,000
770,000

460,000

2,014,000

1,830,000
63,446,000
Q 2

228

THE LAiro OF THE CZAR.
UEALO-ALTAIC NATIONS.

Brought over

63,446,000
16,000

SAMOilJiJJES. -1 Samoyedes ....

16,000

' Livonians . . . .

2,000

Esthonians . . . . 1

700,000

Tohouds

55,000

Votes ....

5,000

Pians

600,000

Jjors .....

18,000

Aeirasmoeisets . . . .

30,000

PnnnsH
Peoples.

Savokotes ....
Kareliaiis . . . .
Laps

45,000

1,016,000

4,000

Permians . . . .

60,000

Zyrians ....

90,000

Votiaks

235,000

Vogtuls

7,000

Os^aks

23,000

Tcheremiss ....

210,000

, Mordvas

700,000

3,800,000

' Tchouvaslies

670,000

Bashkirs

1,000,000

Tartars ....

2,191,000

Taetab,

Boukliarees . . . .

9,000

Peoples.

Turkofiians ....

70,000

Kirghiz-Kaissaks . . .

1,450,000

Kirgliiz (genuiae)

110,000

^ Yakouts .....

200,000

5,700,000

r Mongolians ....

6,000

Mongols.

Bouriats

^ Kalmuks ....

224,000

146,000

376,000

TOUfTGOTJSE

Toimgouse . . . .
Ostjaks of the Yenissei

70,000

Peoples.

1,000

71,000

f Youkaghirs . . . .

1,000

Peoples op

Koriako-Tchoutchis .

24,000

Oeiental --

Kamtchadals . . . .

2,000

SiBEELi.

Ghiliaks ....

10,000

^Amos

1,000

38,000

38,000

73,447,000

POPDLATION OF THE EtTSSIAN EMPIRE. 2:^9

TOTAIi POPTILATION ACCORDrfTG TO EACES.

Indo-European Eaoe .
Caucasian „

Uralo- Altaic „ .
Oriental Siberian ,,

Total

61,616,000

1,830,000

9,963,000

38,000

73,447,000

CHAPTEE XXIII.

A GLIMPSE AT THE HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE FROM
THE FOUNDATION OP THE SAME BY RURik TO THE REIGN
OF ALEXANDER n.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The Russian Monarchy of our days, into the colossal propor-
tions of which the preceding chapters have given the reader
some insight — if now it extends over 500,000 square miles —
in the year 1462, it possessed but 18,500.

The conquest of Siberia, in 1584, at once raised that figure
to 125,000, which, by the time of the death of Peter the
Great, had increased to a total of 264,000 miles.

The title of the sovereigns of Russia for a long time, was
Grand Prince, Grand Duke, or Chief and Father of the
divers vassal princes. It was elevated to that of Czar,
Povelitjel, Ssamodery^ds in 1547; and in 1721, in the
person of Peter the Great, to that of Emperor.

The idea of the so-called " Imperial Despotism," as
exercised by the Russian monarchs, has been always most
obnoxious and alarming to the politicians of Western Europe,
and, in truth, there exists no ruling power in Russia besides
the " will of the Czar." He is, as it were, the Empire itself
personified, and supposed to have received his authority
direct from the Almighty. But all men are apt to measure
foreign countries and their laws and customs by their own,
and to condemn every institution, which does not seem to
be founded on precisely the same principle as those they
have been accustomed to, as objectionable and contrary to
reason and justice.

INTEODUCTOEY REMARKS. 231

Liberal papers, in defence of their principles, loudly raise
their voices against any form of government which seems to
imply the least tendency to despotism ; and often add thereby
to the prejudices already clouding the public judgment for
want of proper and dispassionate information, and of a care-
ful study of the subject.

However impracticable, nay, even disastrous, such a form
of government might prove in countries of more advanced
and thorough-going civilization, of smaller dimensions, and
different geographical and other conditions — in a country
like Russia, where the highest state of civilization may be
observed by the side of the most absolute barbarism, and
which stands yet in sore need of creative improvement — ^the
absolute form is perhaps the only practical one, and alone
capable of attracting the many contrasting mental elements
and social interests to one common centre.

Considering the difficulties the immense extent of the
Russian Empire must offer to the proper enforcement of any
government measure, the necessity of an iron rule must
strike the rational thinker at once. A long time must pass,
and a considerable onward step in the civilizing process must
have been made before a properly constituted parliament
could be formed, such as would represent not only the aris-
tocratic, but also, and in exceeding proportion, the middle
and rural classes.

A constitutional government, at the present time, would
only serve to hamper the energetic and liberal action of the
Czar Alexander II., and, to say the least, endanger the
advancement of the country.

Ruling with iron absolutism, the late Czar Nicholas I.
may yet be said to have used his power entirely for the good
of his country and people. His enlightened and persevering
solicitude has brought light into the chaotic condition of the
Russian Code of Law, a compilation of ages.

The " Svodzakon," or code for the equal administration of
the laws throughout the whole Empire, is the work of that
great monarch ; and if the significant meaning of the pro-

23a THE LAND OP THE CZAE.

verbial acclamation of the oppressed Eussian subject: "Czar
daleko, y Bog vyssoko ! " (the Czar lives a long way off, and
God high above ns !) has now lost its force, it is, in the first
instance, owing to the inexorable, lightning-like justice of
the Czar Nicholas, and to the energy and sound judgment
with which his high-minded successor is following up the
home policy of his father.

Much ink has been spUt in this country on the occasion of
the Khivan expedition ; and it is only now, and thanks to
the august marriage, which has so recently united the sove-
reign houses of Russia and England by the most intimate
family ties, that people begin to think their suspicions might
have been uncalled for.

TTe have already seen of what nationalities the population
of the Caucasus is composed, and the difficulties against
which the Russian Grovemment has had to contend in the
management of the semi-barbarous Mohammedan subjects
of that province, ever since its protection had first been
solicited by the Christian Principalities of Trans- Caucasia.
The fanatical torch of Muridism had ignited the undefined
mass of combustible material stored up in those wild moun-
tain deserts, and given it an aim in the destruction of all
non-professors of the Shariat. Though quelled for the time
being, the fire still smoulders in the minds of those untutored
tribes, and has secretly spread to the co-religionistic elements
beyond the border, where, fed by the plundering and roving
propensities of a fanatical and weakly governed population,
it has proved for many years a constant source of annoyance
to the Russian Government, and prevented a prosperous
colonization of a province endowed by a beautifal Nature
with all the qualities which, in the hands of industrious
settlers, would soon make it one of the most important
possessions of the Crown.

The author's own acquaintance with Caucasian affairs
emboldens him to assert that the Khivan expedition had not
been undertaken a moment too early.

The constant inroads and plundering expeditions of the

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 23b

Turkomans, accompanied in most cases by bloodshed, rapine,
nay, the destruction of. entire colonies, when all males were
put to the sword, and women and children carried off into
the most degrading slavery, on the one hand, and the utter
impossibility of obtaining redress from either the Turkish or
Persian Governments on the other, had rendered the military
occupation of Khiva a matter of most stringent necessity.
In no other way could the much-discussed and so-called
" Act of Aggrandisement " prove of the slightest advantage
to the Eussian Government, which (if at all deserving of
blame) may rather be censured for its leniency towards the
offenders, and for its tardiness in resolving to put an end
with a high hand to this unsatisfactory state of affairs. Its
duty was to protect at any cost the lives and property of
their Caucasian subjects, and of all those who had ventured
their money in the new railways and other institutions of
public enterprise in the Caucasus, and it could do so only
by acting precisely as it did. Dreams of India, one may
rest assured, were as far from their thoughts as of Tartarus
itself.

It may be asked what the Eussian policy portended at
the time of the Black Sea question, and which subsequently
led to the Crimean war ?

The answer will without great difficulty present itself to
the reflecting, dispassionate mind of the well-informed reader:
Eeligious feeling and sympathy with the Greek Church
and its numerous children, professing a faith so nearly allied
to their own, may have furnished the prime cause to the
pressure put upon the Turkish Government. It is, more-
over, but natural to assume, that a great nation like the
Eussian must have felt the obstacle to their full sway in,
and free egress out of the Black Sea, as presented by the
Turks, a matter of extreme and intolerable irksomeness.

The first news of the Suez Canal scheme was received in
this country with anything but satisfaction, and what would
be the feelings of the British nation if the Egyptian Govern-
ment \^ere to think it proper to exercise a rigid system

234 THE LAifD OF THE CZAE.

regarding English vessels passing hj tliat route ? The cases
are somewhat analogous, for the political and commercial
interests of Russia are as much involved in the Black Sea
question as those of Great Britain might be influenced by
the laws and regulations respecting the Suez CanaL

Far be it for us to defend a breach of treaty, but a word
of excuse can never come amiss. As regards the treaty
itself, it had been wrung from a government humbled by a
series of defeats and the loss of its great southern strong-
hold. Onerous as its terms were to the feelings of a great
nation, it might have been foreseen that sooner or later it
would have to undergo considerable modification, if not an
unconditional annulment. The conditions of peace imposed
by Germany on France, after a war which the latter had
herself provoked on far more trivial grounds than those
which had caused the Crimean campaign, were considered
hard and onerous by the greater portion of the English
politicians, who seemed to consider themselves perfectly
justified in prognosticating a speedy renewal of the struggle,
as well as repeated attempts to reconquer provinces which
France had formally ceded to Germany. The Germans,
fully alive to these natural consequences, are far from re-
joicing in the acquisition, but look upon those prbvinces
merely as the most effective bulwark against any sudden
attack on the part of their volatile neighbours upon their
Rhenish frontiers. They are prepared to make good their
defence, but will not feel astonished if, sooner or later, they
wOl have to fight again for the integrity of their newly
acquired territory. In the seventeen years which lay be-
tween the signing of the Crimean treaty and its modification,
and during which the Russian Government had strictly
maintained the conditions imposed by that Act, many events
have happened, which have altered the political and social
condition of Europe, and tended to deprive the treaty in
question of its original importance, and to render all fears
regarding the consequences of its abolition imaginary and
devoid of substantial reasons.

INTEODUCTORY REMARKS. 235

Personal experience in the intercourse with representatives
of all classes of Russian society, military and civil, have
never afforded the writer a single instance of vindictive feel-
ings existing ia Eussian minds with regard to England and
its successes in the Crimea. On the contrary, they inva-
riably seemed to look upon that war, though disastrous to
their arms, as a natural and necessary phase of their political
development. Unlike another nation, nearer home, they did
not dream of vengeance, but with magnanimous ingenuity
seemed to acknowledge the superiority of political and social
advancement of their former adversaries, whose example,
which had been so forcibly set before them, they ought to
follow in more than one respect.

" The Crimean war has been the commencement of an
entirely new period for us — a period of progress moving on
an enlightened and liberal basis. The English and French
have taught us a good lesson, which will in time bear ex-
cellent fruits," were remarks which the writer has frequently
heard. No evidence of Ul-feeling rankling in their hearts on
any 'occasion obtruded itself in the dispassionate discussion
of this subject.

It must, moreover, be borne in mind that since that war
twenty years have roUed by, and with them conquest has
gone out of fashion and given way to a consolidating policy,
of which no country stands in greater need than Russia.

It will probably take centuries to populate the Russian
Empire sufficiently to utUize their fine arable lands, their
forests, their immense mineral possessions to their full
extent, and to make manufacturing industry keep pace with
the natural produce of the country. For the achievement
of this object a hardy, intelligent, and industrious working
class is a matter of absolute necessity. Conquests in Central
Asia would not bring them these, but only serve to drain
the old country of that vital element of which it stands itself
in urgent need.

That the present urbane and liberally-minded Czar is fully
aware of this fact, he has proved by his glorious work of

236 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

liberation of the serfs, by which he may be said to have in-
augurated an entirely new era for his country, an era of
freedom and progress and of a steady advance towards
material and intellectual prosperity.

One of the most magnificent possessions of the Eussian
Crown, a perfect paradise, defying all description, is the
Caucasus. In order to procure for that country the blessings
of civilization, it is above all necessary, that its borders
should be rendered safe and respected by the wild and
plundering hordes, who prowl about the same like so many
packs of hungry wolves, whose business is brigandage, and
who can hardly be said to own any master.

For the proper utilization of the immense resources of
that country, the help of the great civilizing agent, the
railway, and other means of locomotion and transport must
be called to the van. Why should there be any lurking
cause of alarm in the efforts which are being made by the
Eussian Grovernment towards a realization of that desirable
object? What is more natural, than their wish to con-
vert a province, which hitherto has proved to them but a
source of trouble and enormous expenditure in blood and
money, into one of extraordinary prosperity, and which
could doubtless contribute largely to the revenues of the
empire ?

Having by these few lines endeavoured to lay before the
reader a succinct material for reflection regarding the present
politics of Eussia, we now invite him to accompany us on a
rapid flight through the realm of its history, in the hope
that it may excite his curiosity to a more careful study of
the same than the space of this work wUl allow us to afford
him.

CHAPTER XXIV.

FIRST PERIOD.

The infancy of the history of the great continent, now
called Russia, is wrapt, like that of most nations, in clouds
of legendary tradition, although there cannot be any doubt
as to the temperate regions of that country having been in-
habited at a very remote age and considerably anterior to its
written historical records.

The first allusion to the existence of a Russian people we
find in Homer's writings, which tell us of a Kymmerian
nation and a city " Kymmerion," covered by everlasting
clouds and darkness. This description probably refers to the
long Russian winter lit up but by occasional glimpses of the
Aurora borealis.

Herodotus mentions the happy and perfect " Hyper-
boreans," who inhabited the most distant and unknown
countries in the north and east of Europe ; the Argyppeans
of the Ural, people with flat noses (Kalmuks?) and the
Jssedonians, whose golden treasures were guarded by
griffins.

The ancient historiographers called all these nations by
the comprehensive name of " Scythians : " Hippocrates
describes them of puffy appearance, fat, their joints beino-
hidden in the latter, and possessing little hair (all marks
which may be observed at this day). According to Herodotus
they cured their diseases by burning, revered their god of
war in the form of the Holy Sword (just as the Huns of
Attna and the Tartars of Tchingghis Khan did), lived in

238 THE LAOT) OF THE CZAE.

Yourtes, or felt tents, drank mare's milk, of which they
brewed an intoxicating liqnor, inebriated themselves with the
steam of hempseed, constantly sat on their horses, and
finally distinguished themselves by their swinish habits.
Their power was broken in the first instance by Philip of
Macedon. Fifty years after that prince (about 350 before
Christ) they were driven eastward by the Ghetes. Their
remnants were fallen upon by the Sarmatians, who dis-
persed them, and occupied their territory. Herodotus and
Hippocrates have handed down to us the fable of the warlike
exploits of their maidens. " When the Greeks," says the
the father of history, "had fought against the Amazons,
whom the Scythians call Ayor-Pata, which name is rendered
by the Greeks in their language Androchtones (men-killers)
for ' Ayor ' in Scythian signifies a man, and ' Pata ' to
kiU ; when, I say, they had engaged and defeated these people
on the banks of the Thermodon, it is related, that they
carried away with them in three ships all such as they had
made prisoners. When they had got out to sea, they rose upon
their conquerors, and cut them all in pieces ; but ignorant
of navigation and unskilled in the use of the helm, the sails
and the oars, they suffered the ships, after they had killed
the men, to drive at the will of the wind and waves, and
landed at Kremnes on the Maeotian Sea. Kremnes was
situated in the country of the independent Scythians. The
Amazons having here quitted their ships and penetrated into
the inhabited districts, seized the first herd of horses they
met with, mounted them, and plundered the country of the
Scythians. The latter could not conceive who were these
enemies, with whose language and dress they were unac-
qaainted. They took them at first for young men of the
same age, and came to an engagement with them, after
which they discovered from the slain that the intruders were
women," &c. So far Herodotus, whom, for want of space,
we cannot follow through the whole narrative, but must
content ourselves with a short account of the fate of these
Amazons.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 239

The Scythians sent them a deputation of young men, who
by their judicious manner succeeded in winning the confi-
dence and love of those brave virgins. They would not,
however, return with their husbands to their country, but
crossing the Tanais travelled for three days in a north-
eastern direction, " where they at last fixed their abode,
which they yet inhabit. Hence the wives of the Sarmatians
still retain their ancient customs. They ride on horseback,
hunt and go to war with their husbands.

Skymnos of Ohio says of these Amazons ; " The Palus
Maeotis received its name from the nation of the Maeotians.
Next to the Sauromatians come the Maeotians, and then the
Jaxamates. Demetrius observes, that they gave their name
to the Palus Maeotis ; and Ephorus says that they were the
same as the Sauromatians (Sarmatians). It is conjectured
that after the battle on the Thermodon the Amazons incor-
porated themselves with these Sauromatians, and that the
latter hence received the name of Gynaiko-Kratumenoi, or
people ruled by women."

Strabo's account is as follows : " It is said that the
Amazons dwelt on the mountains beyond Albania. Theo-
phanes, who accompanied Pompey on his expedition to
Albania, at least asserts that the Albanians were separated
by the Amazons from the Scythian tribes of the Legi and
Geli, and that the river Mermadalis formed the boundary
between those two tribes. But Skassius, Metrodotus,
Hipsicrates, and others, who were well acquainted with the
country, asserted that the Amazons were neighbours of the
Gargaraeans, who inhabit the northern foot of the Keraunian
Mountains."

These two opinions mentioned by Strabo come after all to
the same point ; for the Legi are the modern Lesghi, and
the Geli the Jngush tribe Galgai, and the Keraunian Moun-
tains are the northern ranges of the Caucasus as far as the
Besh-tau. It is obvious, then, that the Amazons and their
husbands must have resided in the Kabardah and the steppe
of the Kuma, and been separated by the Terek (Mermadalis)

240 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

from the Lesghians and Kistian tribes. As they were
Sauromatians, from whom in all probability are descended
the Ossets, who likewise formerly resided farther north-
ward, and are the Alanes of the Middle Ages, it plainly
appears that the Amazons, Maeotians, Sauromatians, Alanes,
and Ossets, belonged to one and the same race of the
descendants of Japhet.

The Amazons were said to have destroyed the right breast
of their daughters by fire, in order to give greater strength
and freedom to the right arm. Thus Mela states, lib. iiL,
cap. 4 : " Gens (Sarmatiae) habitu armisque Parthicae
proxima verum ut coeli asperioris, ita ingenii. Non se
urbibus tenent, et ne statis quidem sedibus. Ut invitavere
pabula, ut cedens et sequens hostes exigit, ita res opesque
secum • trahens, sempre castra habitat : bellatrix, libera,
indomita, et usque eo immanis atque atrox, ut foeminae
etiam cum viris bella ineant. Atque ut habiles sint natis
statim dextra aduritur mamma. Inde expedita in ictus
manus quae exeritur, virile fit pectus. Arcus tendere,
equitare, venari, puellaria pensa sunt : ferire hostem, adul-
tarum stipendium est : adeo ut non percussisse, pro flagitio
habeatuT, fitque eis poena virginitas."

Nearly all the ancient historians speak of these warrior-
women, and legends referring to them are current amongst
the Tcherkess and the inhabitants of the Daghestan.

Herodotus probably got his information about the Sauro-
matians from an Armenian, who may have made use of the
Armenian word of " Ariousbanogh," which signifies " men-
murderers," and it is not unreasonable to suppose, that he
mistook the only barbarous term, which occurs in the narra-
tive, for Scythian.

Schober heard from Armenian and Tartar traders in the
Daghestan, that they had met with relics of these people
on certain mountains of Great Tartary, and that they
still bear the name of Emazuhn. It is said, that they yet
hold the men in complete subjection, keeping them merely
for domestic servitude. The Tcherkess legend calls those

ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF RUSSIA. 241

womea " Emmetsh," and the Nogai chief, who first made
war against them, and then reconciled and married them
into his tribe, was named Tul. The hypothesis founded on
the similarity of these names is not altogether unreasonable.
The Sauromatians, or Sarmatians, were (according to
Pomponius Mela) divided into two tribes, " the Roxolans
and Yazyghs." The former lived between the Dnjepr and
Don, were cowardly when on foot, but splendid riders and
extraordinarily active. The mail-armours are represented
on the column of Trajan.

The Yazyghs inhabited the left bank of the Danube, and
are by many believed to be the parents of the Slavonic
tribes, because the Slavonic word " yezykh " signifies "lan-
guage," and the Slavonians to this day designate a person
belonging to them as " speaking," in opposition to the
appellation of " mute," which they bestow on foreigners ;
so " N'yemeds " (mute) is the name for " German," but is
also sometimes extended to natives of other countries besides
Germany.

In the year 70 before Christ, Mithridat conquered the 70 b.o.
Crimea and the adjacent provinces, including Kherson,
which countries became thus incorporated with the kingdom
of Pontus. After his defeat and death by the Eomans
they passed into the hands of the latter.

Besides the Scythians and Sarmatians there lived many
nations in Russia, which all successively played their part
in the historical drama of that country. They were : —

1. The Alanes, whom Ammianus Marcellinus considered
to be the Massagetes, and who lived between the Caspian
and Black Seas. Allied to the Huns they spread over the
whole of Europe to Spain, and at last to Africa. Their
unexampled valour and savage humour made them the
terror of their enemies. Remnants of this nation have been
living on the Caucasus for a very long time.

2. The Goths.— Taw dominions, during the third century,
extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and their hero,
Ermanarich, compelled the Crimea and a part of the present

242 THE LAUD OF THE CZAU.

European Eussia to bow under his sceptre. He also beat
the Vends, who probably were the real ancestors of the
Russian nation of the present day.

3. The Slavonians, who probably owe their name to the
word "-sslovo," word, speech, were for a long time
the terror of the Eastern Roman Empire, and nearly con-
quered Constantinople, but were persuaded to raise the siege
by the valour of Belisarius and a supply of money from the
Imperial treasury of Justinian. In the year 557 after Christ,
they succumbed to the Avarians. Nestor, the ancient Russian-
Greek chronicler, gives us the names of their sub-divisions
as foUows :

a. The Slovenians (speaking, or true Slavonians). They
inhabited the Volkhov and the Lake Jlmen, and were
probably the founders of Novgorod ;

b. The Polotckanians, who settled in the country around
the junction of the rivers Polota and Dwina, where to-day
stands the town of Polotsk ;

c. The Dregovitches, whose territory was situated between
the Dnjepr, Pripat, and the western Dvina;

d. The Radimitches, who took their name from Eadom, a
chief of the Polanes, or from the town of Eadom in Little
Poland ;

e. The Viatitchi, who inhabited the country near the
sources of the Okka and Don. Their founder was Vjatko, a
brother of Radom. They were not the only descendants of
the Sarmatians, for aU Slavonic tribes came from that
source ;

f. The Severians, who occupied part of the present govern-
ment of Tchernigov. Their capital was Ljoubetch ;

g. The Soulitc/ii, who were settled on both banks of the
Soula;

h. The Folanes, between Dnjepr and Boug. TheybuUt
Kiev, but their name afterwards was lost to them and
bestowed on the Lekhs, who became the foimders of the
Polish Empire ;

i. The Derevians, a wild tribe of warriors inhabiting the

ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF EUSSIA. 243

forests of Vilna. Their principal towns were Korosten and
Ovrutch :

k. The Dulyabians, living on the northern Boug in Vol-
hynia. They were severely oppressed by their victors, the
Avarians, who harnessed both men and women to their
carts ;

I. The Boughians, the western neighbours of the last tribe ;

m. The White Khorvats, who lived on the northern slope
of the Carpathian Mountains ;

n. The Lutitches and Tivertses who inhabited the country
on both banks of the Dnjestr and Prout, i.e., Podolia,
G-alizia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and who were the most
refined of all the Slavonians ;

0. The Uglitches, who, perhaps, had their name from the
River Ugol.

As regards the religion of the ancient Slavonians, the
ancient records afford us but little information. The Eussian
Slavonians seemed to have venerated seven idols. The
highest was " Perun," a gigantic image of whom, carved in
wood, with a head of silver and golden moustaches, used to
stand before the Tower of Vladimir at Kiev. (Popoff adds
to this description golden ears and iron feet.) His name
signifies " a blow, stroke," for he was the god of thunder
and lightning and all the phenomena of the Heavens. In
his hand he held a stone like a thunderbolt, ornamented by
rubies and carbuncles, and before him blazed an everlasting-
sacrificial flame. Cattle and even human beings were sacri-
ficed in his honour.

There were, moreover, Khorss, Dashbog, Stribog, Samergl,
and Mokosh. Stribog was probably the Russian Aeolus (v.
142 of the epic " Igor's Campaign against the Polovz ").
Dashbog is mentioned in v. 189 of the same poem. The
root of his name may, perhaps, be hidden in the word
" dozhdj," rain. Khorss seems to have been the Bacchus,
Mokosh the god of cattle (Pan) of the Slavonians. Lado
was the god of love and bliss ; Kupalo, the god of harvest ;
Koleda, the god of peace.

E 2

244 THE LAND 01" THE CZAR.

Besides the Slavonians, many other wild tribes inhabited
Russia from the sixth to the twelfth century. They were
the following :

IN THE SOUTH.

1. Tlie Avariam, who for many years tyrannized over the
Slavonians, particularly the Dulyabians. They were tall,
strong, proud, brave, crafty, savage, and cruel; at first
nomads, then warriors, and at last a commercial people,
they became rich, indulged in excesses of every sort, and
degenerated. A kind of plague annihilated them alto-
gether.

2. The Bulgarians, originally Tartars, separated in the
■fifth century into three tribes, of which the first went
south and settled on both sides of the Danube ; the second
(the Khvalisses). remained on the Volga; and the third
settled on the Kama, and was called the Kamian or (vide
Nestor) the White Bulgarians. In the year 635, their great
Prince Kouvrat fell upon the Avarians, and drove them for
ever from his territory.

3. The Kkazars were Tartars or Turks, who had settled
in the Caucasus, and, although partly Christian, inclined
to the Jewish religion. Feared as great warriors, they
domineered over the greater part of the country, but
were at last subjected by the Greeks and Romans. The
fortress Sarkel, on the Don, and the place Elhazan, near
Kharkov, owed their origiu to them. They all obeyed a
Grand Khan (Kha-Khan), who resided at Atel (Etel,
Balangiar Astrakhan). He was guarded by 1 2,000 soldiers.
The great King of Persia, " Khosroes," protected his land
against the Khazars by a wall (forty parasangs long), which,
now called the Caucasian wall, astonishes still all beholders
of its ruins. Several Byzantine Emperors were married to
Khazarian princesses. Their decline began in the ninth
century, when they lost Kherson and Kiev (the latter to the
Varaeghian heroes " Askold and Dir ").

4. The Fetcheneghians. The Byzantine and other Oriental

THE PETCHENEGHIANS AND POLOVZ. 243

and Occidental historians have made this people appear
on the stage of history under a great variety of mostly
corrupted names. We thus find them mentioned as
" Petchenares, Patsinaks, Patsinakites, Pecenai, Pedines,
Kangar, Bisseni," &c. The Mohammedan historian, Ibn-
Hankal, calls them "Tchebal, or Patchbal;" others, again,
" Bedshfagie, Bahbak, Nedshakie, Bakhtal, Kangli," &c.
They lived over a wide tract of country, from the lower
Volga eastward to within forty-seven days' journey of the
Tatar river north-east of Turkestan. Since the year 900
they were masters of the whole Black Sea coast from the
Don to the Danube. In 966 they defeated the Khazars,
and pushed them to the south : and in 968 they for the first
time came into conflict with the Russ. The Grand Duke
Svjatoslav (Rurik's grandson) promptly beat them back, but
treaeherously met with his death at their hands in 972.
They continued to harass the Russian people until they were
finally and completely destroyed by the Polovz in 1117.
They were the scourge of their neighbours ; and greed, per-
fidity, and brutal sensuality, the principal 'traits of their
character.

5. The Polovz were a nomadic tribe of the Turks.
After a long warfare against the last nation, they at last
defeated them, and occupied their country. The next
objects of their aggression were the Khazars ; and since the
middle of the eleventh century they appeared west of the
lower Volga, on the Don, and the coasts of the Azov and
Black Seas, and were henceforth called by the Russians
" Polovz," a name perhaps derived from " polovy "
fawn-coloured. They are identical with the Komanes of
the Greeks. Some historians supposed, that they joined
their Mongol-Tartar victors and founded the Orda or Herd,
which was called after its chief Noga, " Nogai," and the
descendants of which are living to this day -in the govern-
ment of Stavropol. They were a wild nomadic tribe, who
1 ived on raw meat, blood, and mare's milk ; loved war and
pillage, and were the most perfidious of barbarians.

246 THE LAND OP THE CZAE.

6. The Burtas, neighbours of the Khazars, owe their
name probably to the black foxes fonnd (even to this day)
in their country, for the Arabic word " Burtas " means
" black foxes."

7. The Yassi and Kassoghs are supposed to be the
ancestors of the Tcherkess. Their country was situated
on the shores of the Sea of Azov, a name which per-
haps owes its origin to " YassL" In 1022 Prince Mstislav
killed their giant Prince Rededya single-handed, after
which event they disappear from historical records.

IN THE EAST.

8. The JMiite Bulgarians. Their primitive religion was
of the rudest kind. In the year 920 their prince, Almis,
introduced Islamism amongst them, and they adopted
also the Tartar language. The Bulgarians of the Danube
spoke the Slavonic language, and were Christians. Their
name disappeared with the conquest of Kazan.

9. The Ungrians probably were descendants of the Huns
or Parthians, and at a later period went by the name of
Maghyars. They came from Lebedia (Kharkov), or swan
country, and in 898 appeared before Kiev.

The north of Russia was inhabited by most of the
Tchoudish or Finnish tribes, the descendants of which are
extant at the present day ; and which have been described
in detail in the chapters treating of the populations of
Russia.

CHAPTER XXV

SECOND PERIOD.

THE VAEABGHS, VAKANGHIANS (nORMANS).

The Novgorodians, Tchouds, and Krivitches — in short, the
subjects of the Republic of Novgorod — finding that they
could never hope to enjoy peace and prosperity under their
own government, and tired of the everlasting differences and
feuds between ambitious and selfish factions and families,
in the year 862 listened to the advice of one of their 862.
elders " Gostomysl," and resolved to choose a king or duke,
a mighty man of war, who might lead them to victory
against foreign enemies and establish a strong government
in Novgorod capable of a well-ordered home rule, and of
insuring respect abroad. To this end they called the three
Norman or Varaeghian brothers : " Rurik, Sineus, and
Truver." The first established himself at Novgorod, the
second at Bj^losero, and the third at Jsborsk. Two years
after Sineus and Truver died, and Rurik became master of
their duchies and founder of the Russian monarchy.

In the same year Askold and Dir, companions in arms of gg^.
Rurik, dissatisfied about the division of lands amongst his
principal followers, from which act they had been excluded,
went in search of adventures on their own account. Having
made themselves masters of Kiev, they invited other Varae-
ghians from Novgorod to join them and settle in that town.
Their terms bemg advantageous, they soon saw themselves
at the head of a force of brave warriors, with whom already
in the year 866 they could undertake an expedition against see.

248 THE LAM) OF THE CZAE.

Constantiaople. In 200 boats they appeared before that
city, which their cruel proceedings soon fiEed with fear and
terror. Their first notions of Christianity date from that time.
879. After a reign of fifteen years Eurik died in 879, leaving
his infant son Igor under the guardianship of his able and
warlike friend Oleg. Eurlk's memory, notwithstanding his
imperious rule, merits the reverence of the historiographers,
for by uniting sundry Tchoudish or Finnish tribes with the
Slavonians, but at the same time practically respecting the
language, religion, and customs of the latter, he laid the
foundation to that unity, which subsequently proved of
eminent importance to the prosperity of the newly-founded
state.

OLEG (879—912).

His first act was a march to Kiev, which he took by foul
means, and after having treacherously murdered Askold and
Dir, his former friends and companions (although nomi-
nally only tutor to the young Igor Rurikovitch), he continued
to reign till the hour of his death. He extended the empire

907. by his conquests, and in 907 undertook an expedition against
Constantinople. With 2000 boats (each containing forty
warriors) he crossed the sea, while his cavalry advanced
direct by land upon that city. The Emperor Leo VL, the
philosopher, thought of preventing his entry by a huge iron
chain stretched across the mouth of the Golden Horn ; but
Oleg landed his troops and carried on the siege with imheard-
of cruelty and barbarity. His password was " general de-
struction;" and even Xestor speaks of his deeds with
undisguised horror. He compelled the Emperors Leo and

911. Alexander (in 911) to sue for peace.

An extract of the treaty drawn up at that time between
him and those emperors will prove interesting. It begins
with the following words : —

" We, of Euss descent, Karl Ingeld, Farlaf, Werewid,
Rulaf, Gudy, Euald, Karn, Frelaf, Euar, Aktevu, Gruan,
Lidolfost, Stemid, sent by Oleg, the Eussian Prince, and by

HISTORY OF EUSSIA. 249

all the highborn boyars, his vassals, to ye : Leo, Alexander,
and Constantin, the great Emperors in God, in confirmation
and publication of the love existing between the Russians
and Christians, at the desire of our grandees and at the
command of all Russian vassals, have by the following
articles confirmed this love in writing, and not verbally, as
before, and sworn to it upon our arms, according to the
Russian faith," &c.

Here follow the conditions of peace, which for want of
space we must omit.

The treaty concludes as follows : — ■

" In order to insure a strict fulfilment of this treaty
■between us Russians and Christians, we have it written on
parchment with cinnabar in two copies (Greek and Russian).
The Greek Emperor has signed the same with his own
hand, and sworn to the deed by the Crucifix standing before
his face at the time, and by the Holy, only born Trinity of
the only true God, and has handed over to us one of the
parchments, while we, Russian ambassadors have delivered
over to him the other, after having sworn to it for ourselves
and also in the name of all the Russ concerning the faithful
execution of the instrument in all that regards the peace
and love henceforth existing between the Russians and the
Greeks. On the second Sunday in September, on the 8th
day of that month, in the 16th indiction from the creation
of the world 6420 (911 a.d.)."

What renders this curious document peculiarly interestino*
are the Varaeghian names of the ambassadors and the terms
of the oaths made by heathens and Christians.

For the maintenance of his great armies Oleg levied taxes,
of which Novgorod alone had to pay 180 lbs. of fine silver
per annum.

A son of a barbarous time and country, Oleg yet was a
wise prince and great warrior. He died in the year 912. 912
The legend tells us that the manner of his death had been
foretold him. His favourite charger, the prophecy said,
would prove the cause of his death. Finding that the

250 THE LA^D OF THE CZAE.

animal had died during his campaign before Constantinople,
he laughingly had it disinterred in order to have a look at
the bones of this object of terror, and to prove to his people
the fallacy of human prophecy. Placing his foot upon the
skull of the horse, he was however bitten by a venomous
snake, which had been concealed within it, and thus met
after all his death by means of his favourite steed.

IGOK EUEIKOVITCH (912 — 945)

was thirty-seven years old when Oleg died, and proved
9X3. a worthy successor to his brave tutor. In the year 913
915. he defeated the Derevians ; in 915 the Petcheneghians ;
94X. and in the year 941, he undertook a new campaign against
the Greeks. He accordingly appeared in the Bosphorus
with a fleet of 10,000 boats, which however was com-
pletely scattered and destroyed by Theophanes, who availed
himself on that occasion of the Greek fire. But only two
years later we see him again ready for another expedi-
tion against Greece. The Emperor Eoman Lakapen, how-
ever, succeeded in appeasing his wrath in time, and con-
cluded a peace in the following terms : " We of Euss
descent, ambassadors and guests, Ivor, ambassador of the
Kussian Grand Duke Igor, and we other ambassadors
(here follow fifty names nearly all Varaeghian), sent by the
Russian Grand Duke Igor, by all the princes and people of
the Russian country, for the purpose of renewing the old
peace and of destroying the machinations of the Devil (who
for so many years has hated that which was good, but loved
all hatred, malice and bloodshed) and of upholding the
friendship existing between the Greeks and Russians, for as
long as the sun shall shine and the earth exist. Whatever
Russian intends to break this covenant, he shall, if baptized,
receive his punishment at the hands of the Almighty God
and be condemned to eternal damnation ; and if he be not
baptized, then shall neither God nor Perun assoil him, his
own shield shall afford him no protection, he shall fall by his

HISTORY OF EUSSIA. 251

own sword, by his own arrow, and he shall be a servant in
this and the future life."

As Igor grew older, he became avaricious and greedy of
money. He cruelly oppressed his own subjects, especially
the Derevians, who, however, at last, being driven to despair,
fiercely turned upon him under their Prince Mat, in the
neighbourhood of Korosten. Igor lost not only the battle, 245.
but also his life, and was buried outside the walls of that
town.

He was a brave warrior, and, barring his avarice, a prince
of high qualities, who proved himself ever kind to his
Christian subjects. He was succeeded by his son

SVJATOSLAV IGORBVITCH (945 — 972),

who, being yet of tender age when his father died, remained for
some years under the guardianship of his mother Olga, whom
tradition calls " crafty ;" the Church, " holy ; " and history,
" the wise." "When already advanced in years, she received 957.
the baptism of the Christian Church at Constantinople. On
her return, she spared no effort to convert her son, but in
vain. " What ! do you seriously ask me to become the
laughing stock of my own court ? " he answered her, and
remained a Pagan to the end of his days. He took the
reins of government into his own hands in the year 956, and
became a hero, who conquered Bulgaria, and greatly added
to the Eussian dominions by his wars. He spent little time
at his court, but was almost constantly in the field. His
wars with the brave and able Emperor Tzimiskes lasted many
years ; but he was forced in the end to make peace. He
would have fought to the last man, but his generous an-
tagonist, who admired the courage and spirit of the old hero,
offered him honourable terms, and parted from him in a most
amicable manner. On his way home, however, Svjatoslav
was surprised at a dangerous spot in the river by his old
enemies the Petcheneghians, who killed him with all his
followers. Their king, Kuria, had his head cut off, and his

352 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

skull turned into a drinking cup. The Eussians have pre-
served his battle speeches, which, if true, are very fine.

JAEOPOLK I. SVJATOSLAVITCH (972 — 980).

A good-natured but weak prince, reigned only eight years.
His half-brother, Vladimir, who is said to have caused him to
be assassinated, mounted the throne after him, although a
posthumous child of Jaropolk was born soon after the latter's
death.

VLADIMIR I., SVJA.TOSLAVITCH (980 — 1015).

This Grand Duke, called by history " the Great," distin-
guished himself not only by his brilliant ■ feats of arms, by
the able manner in which he put down revolt, by his victories
over the brave Yatwaighians, the powerful Metchislav, and
the wild Petcheneghians, but also by his prudent internal
government of the Empire, his introduction and propagation
of the Gospel of Christ, by his reverence for the works of
Greek art, by the building of schools and banishment of all
dangerous superstitions, by the founding of cities and the
colonization of his country by skilful foreigners, by his
powerful support of the poor and helpless, and the removal
of the dangerous- Yaraeghians. Amongst other princely
virtues he possessed that of holding his own passions and
desires in subjection, and a bright era would have followed
his reign, if he had not divided his kingdom between his
sons, and thereby created the pernicious strife for power
between a host of ambitious princes, who, following their
own selfish objects, did not seem to care what became of the
poor unfortunate people.

CHAPTER XXVI.

THIRD PERIOD.

SVJATOPOLK JAEOPOLKOVITCH (1015 — 1019)

began his reign by wreaking bloody vengeance for the
murder of his father, Jaropolk, on the sons of Vladimir, Boris,
Gljeb, and Svjatoslav, but was soon defeated and driven out
of Kiev by the only surviving son of Vladimir.

JAEOSLAV VLADIMIROVITCH (1019—1054).

He divided the Empire with Mstislav, Prince of Tmuto-
rakan, and defeated the Livonians and Bsthonians. Mstislav
died in the year 1036 (probably by foul means), and Jaroslav io36.
reigned henceforth alone. In constant wars with father
and brothers his family feelings had been utterly lost. He
showed much superstitious piety, but beneath the cloak of
the most zealous external religiosity were often hidden the
most execrable crimes. He adhered to his father's system
of divided power ; was brave, but cruel. On the death of
the Metropolitan of Kiev, Theopempt, in .1051, he resolved
to evade the usual appointment of a new Metropolitan by
the Patriarch of Constantinople, and without, however, sepa-
rating his Church from the Greek, to give to his country a
Metropolitan of his own election. He, therefore, called the
Russian bishops to Kiev, and induced them to elect Hilarion
as the head of the Russian Church. He was a Russian by
birth, and a pious and learned man. His ordination took
place in the Church of St. Sophia at Kiev.

254 THE lAlfD OF THE CZAE.

Jaroslav founded (1031) a school at Novgorod, showed
much respect for the fine arts, built beautiful houses, sup-
ported and promoted industry, and introduced a book of
laws. His superstitious piety induced him to have the bones
of Oleg and Jaropolk disinterred and baptized. The wife
of Jaroslav's son, Vladimir, is said to have been a
daughter of Harold, Earl of Kent, the last of the Saxon
kings of England.

is-isLAv jABOSLAvrrcH (1054 — 1078).

Jaroslav had divided his empire between his sons Isaslav,
Svjatoslav, Vsevolod, Igor, and Vjatcheslav, and thereby
provoked the most disastrous consequences. These brothers
re-established the supremacy of the Constantinople Patriarchs
over the Russian Church. During this reign was built the
monastery of the Caves at Kiev, which became the seat of
civilization, and trom which missionaries were sent through-
out the whole of Russia.

Isaslav was succeeded, not by his sons, but by his brother

VSEVOLOD JAEOSLAVITCH (1078 — 1093).

This prince was good-natured but weak, and his reign
proved one of the most unhappy of Russian history. Inces-
sant wars and invasions by wild, hostile tribes, plague,
drought, famiue, and earthquakes seemed to imite for the
destruction of all mankind. The prop of his tottering throne
was, however, his son, the brave Vladimir Monomakh, who
defeated Vseslav, Prince of Polotsk, the Turks, who were
prowling in the country about Perejaslavl, the Vjatitches,
the wild Polovz, and the sons of Rostislav and Jaropolk, whom
he drove into Poland. The unfortunate division of the country
into principalities neutralized, however, the effects of all his
deeds. The year ] 092 was rich in natural phenomena, and
kept the ignorant people in a constant state of terror. The
reign of Vsevolod saw the erection of many convents, churches,
1089. schools, and hospitals. The Emperor Heinrich IV. of

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 255

Germany is supposed to have had one of his daughters, Agnes
or Adelheid, to wife.

Vsevolod died at the age of sixty-four. He was a learned 1093.
man for his time, knew five languages, was pious, good-
hearted, chaste, sober, humane, but a bad ruler. His first
consort was Anna, daughter of the Emperor Constantin
Monomakh. She bore him Vladimir and the Princess Anna.
His second wife was a princess of the Polovz, by whom he
had Rostislav, Eupraxia, and Catharina. He was not suc-
ceeded by Vladimir, who, not wishing to add to the misery
of the people by a new war of contention for the crown,
abstained from the throne in favour of

SVJATOPOLK [michaelJ (1093 — 1113).

This was a bad character, and brought the most direful
troubles on his country. The Polovz, having defeated the
Eussians, devastated the country by fire and sword, and
carried thousands of its inhabitants into captivity. The
father of Eussian history, the venerable Nestor, painted the
horrors of that invasion in vivid colours. The sight of the
unhappy captives, who, naked, barefooted, and loaded with
heavy chains, were torn from their hearths and marched off
into foreign slavery, called forth his eloquent lamentations ;
and the aspect of the devastated fields and the burnt home-
steads broke his heart. Vladimir and Svjatopolk, some time
after, took ample revenge on the Polovz ; but the country
was split up into an ever increasing number of sub-divisions
amongst the many princes, and daily rendered more and
more wretched. David Igorevitch, having persuaded Svja-
topolk to deprive the Prince Vassilko of his eye-sight,
provoked the revenge of his famUy, thereby causing renewed
and furious wars. According to Karamsin, Eussia resembled
during that reign one immense military camp, and the noise
of arms deprived the people of all rest.

Vladimir II. Vsevolodovitch Monomakh, who received the
name Vassily in holy baptism, reigned from 1131 to 1125.

256 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

Hardly had Svjatopolt closed his eyes, when the citizens
of Kiev fell upon the grand ducal treasure and carried it
off. They then proceeded to the extirpation of the Jews.
While this confusion was at its height the better cla.ss of
townsmen had elected the noble and brave Vladimir to the
throne. His first act was the re-establishment of order and
the banishment of the Jewish usurers from Russia. He
strove to maintain order and peace in his country ; and his
brave sons, Mstislav, Jaropolk, and George (Turgi), kept
the latter free from foreign enemies by defeating the
Tchouds, the Polovz, and the Bulgarians of Kazan. Against
his son-in-law, the Greek Prince Leo, he sent his son
Vjiitcheslav to the Danube. Leo, however, had already
been stopped in his onward march by the dagger of an
assassin; and the Emperor Alexis, afraid that Vladimir
might take bloody vengeance for the murder of his daughter's
husband, sent him the insignia of imperial dignity, consist-
ing of a crucifix carved fi-om the wood of the holy cross, of a
goblet of carnelian of the time of Caesar Augustus, of the
crown, chair, and the short coronation mantle which had
served at the coronation of Constantin Monomakh, the
grandfather of Vladimir. The Metropolitan of Ephesus,
Keophyt, brought these things to Kiev, and some of them
are in use at this day at the coronation ceremonies at
Moscow.

1114. The old enemies of the Russians, the Petcheneghians,
having been destroyed in 1114 by the Polovz, implored
Vladimir for a refuge on Russian territory, which he also
granted them. Supported by his heroic sons, who were
all devoted to him, he held all enemies in check, and restored
to his country that peace and happiness to which it had been

1125. a stranger for many dreadful years. He died in 1125, at the
age of seventy-three. "When he felt the approach of death he
had himself carried to the church on the Alta, where Boris
had been murdered, and there he also gave up the ghost. His
first consort had been Gyda, a daughter of the King of
England, Harold. The children were Jngeburge, who became

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 257

the wife of Knud Lavard, Duke of Schleswig, and was the
mother of Valdemar I., King of Denmark ; a second daughter
was first married to Sigurd, King of Norway, and afterwards
to Erich Edmund, King of Denmark. The third daughter
was the consort of the Greek Prince Alexis.

MSTISLAV VLADIMIROVITCH (1125 — 1132)

succeeded to the throne of Kiev. His reign was one of
constant war amongst the princes ; and famine, inundation,
and plague added their horrors to render the people utterly
wretched. Mstislav, a brave and dreaded warrior, did all
he could to keep at least foreign enemies out of the country.
He defeated the princes of Polotsk, the Tchouds, and the
Grand Duke Vsevolod of Novgorod.

In the year 1131 arrived at Kiev the Greek monk 1131.
Michael II., who had been ordained for the Metropolitan
chair of that town, and was consequently the head of the
Russian Church. He was a wise and pious prelate, who
earnestly strove to make an end to civil war by reconciling
the princes with each other; the selfish ambition of the
latter proved, however, invincible. The exarchy of Smolensk
dates from this time, and has existed ever since.

Mstislav's last deed was the defeat of the wild Lithuanians,
on whom he inflicted a terrible punishment. He died in
1132, at the age of fifty-six, and was succeeded by his
brother

JAROPOLK II. VLADIMIEOVITOH (1132 — 1139).

He was a weak regent, unable to cope with the unruly princes
and townships, of which particularly that of Novgorod gave
him great trouble. In the year 1 135 the Metropolitan Michael 1135.
pronounced the interdict over Novgorod, which produced so
profound a sensation, that the Grand Duke Vsevolod, Bishop
Niphon, and the town council sent him a deputation, and
entreated him to recall that measure. The power of the
clergy at that time was very great, but generally well-usee^.

258 THE LAOT) OF THE CZAE.

inasmuch as they strove to reconcile the conflicting parties,
and prevent bloodshed.

Jaropolk died in 1139. His consort had been a Yassian
princess. At the time of his death there remained yet
three sons of Vladimir Monomakh, Vjatcheslav, Andrej, and
George Dolgomki. He was succeeded by

VSEVOLOD OLGOVITCH (1139 1146),

who was an ambitious prince, but endeavoured to re-
establish tranquillity and order in the empire. During his
reign the Metropolitan Michael, mortified at his non-success
respecting the reconciliation of the princes, returned to
Constantinople. His departure marked the beginning of
great disturbances in the Russian Church-

Ysevolod, having appointed a successor to the throne in
1146. his brother Igor, died in 1146.

IGOE OLGOVITCH (1146 1146)

reigned but a few weeks ; for the town of Kiev, afraid of
his wild spirit, and devoted to the house Monomakh, called
Isaslav Mstislavitch, who imprisoned him.

ISASLAV MSTISLAVITCH (1146 1154).

His reign opened with sanguinary civil wars. His uncle,
George Vladimirovitch of Susdal, took Kiev three times, and
compelled Isaslav to flight ; he was, however, at last beaten
back across the Dnjepr. Brought to bay, he accepted another
battle from Isaslav and his own brave son Andrej, whom he
had banished. The battle, a drawn one, was speedily
renewed on the Eut. Isaslav and Andrej were both severely
wounded; but George had to beat a precipitate rptreat
He however soon returned, took Kiev, but was again beaten
and driven back. After this Isaslav had to march against
Vladimirko of HaKtch, defeated him, but blotted his memory
by the slaughter of the prisoners. A terrible battle against

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 259

Vladimirko's son, Yaroslav, remained undecided. On his
return to Kiev lie married an Abassinian princess, but died
suddenly on the 13tli Nov. 1154, deeply mourned by his 1154.
people. He was a manly, powerful character, and Russian
historians call him " the blessed shoot from a good root."
One of the most remarkable events of his reign was the
election of the Eussian Metropolitan at Kiev, in the place
of Michael, by six bishops, whom Isaslav had assembled for
that purpose. Following the example of his ancestor,
Jaroslav I., he strove for the independence of his Church
from the Constantinople supremacy. Accordingly, the
bishops elected the pious monk Clemens of Smolensk, a
prelate deeply learned in philosophy and theology, such as
Russia had never possessed, and who has left many writings,
the object of which had been the edification and instruction
of the people.

Many of the Greek prelates, particularly the Bishop
Niphon of Novgorod, who went so far as to call Clemens
" a ravenous wolf," protested against his election. Clemens,
however, remained the only head of the Russian Church till
the year 1156, when Constantin, who had been appointed ii56.
Metropolitan of Kiev by the Patriarch Lucas Krysobergas of
Constantinople, arrived, and at once opened a furious spi-
ritual campaign against the national rival. The mutual
persecutions were, however, soon brought to an end by the
death of both Metropolitans.

About this time Moscow was founded. Isaslav was suc-
ceeded by both Vjatcheslav Vladimirovitch and Rostislav I.
Mstislavitch, who reigned but one year (1154 — 1155), for
the former died within that time, and Rostislav was forced
to relinquish the throne in favour of Isaslav Davidovitch,
who again, a few days after, had to yield his dignity to
G-eorge Vladimirovitch, who had routed his army, and taken
possession of Kiev.

s 2

260 THE LANB OF THE CZAE.

GEORGE (TUEGI), VLADIMIEOVITCH DOLGOKXJKI

1155-1167. had thus at last attained what for many years had been
the object of his ambition. He was already in his sixty-
ninth year when he came to the throne. Civil war menaced
him from every side ; but just as he was preparing to draw
again the old sword, he died, having reigned only two years.
Tatishtshev describes him as having been tall and powerfully
framed, with a fair complexion, small eyes, a large aquiline
nose, and thin beard. His policy was crafty, but he was a
brave and skilful man of war, passionate, and of untameable
ambition. His descendants have continued to the present
day. He was the contemporary of Frederick Barbarossa,
Henry the Lion, Albrecht the Bear, and of many other
great men.

The Kiev townspeople detested him, and therefore objected
to his son Andrew, or Andrej, and chose instead

ISASLAV III., DAVrDOVITCH (1157 — 1159).
He reigned but two years, and was succeeded by

EOSTISLAV I.J MSTISLAVITCH (1159 1167),

a great and high-minded prince, but who died too early
for the welfare of the Eussian nation. His reign was
disturbed by incessant civil wars. The most remarkable
events taking place during his reign were: the formation
and consolidation of the Grand Duchy of Susdal and
Vladimir ; violent clerical disputes ; disturbances in Polotsk ;
endeavours respecting the introduction and encouragement
of science on the part of some of the prelates r German
colonization at the mouth of the Dwina, and extension of
Russian trade ; and a great victory of the Novgorodians
over the Swedes. The most learned men of the time were
the Metropolitan Ivan and the Archbishop Elias ; the former
of whom is distinguished by his celebrated letter to the

HISTORY OF ETJSSIA. 261

Roman Pope, Alexander III. The spirit pervading that
document is worthy of a more enlightened time.

MSTISLAV JSASLAVITCH (1167 — 1170).

This prince, whose reign was also convulsed by constant 1167-1170-
civil wars, was distinguished for his bravery, judicious
moderation, and justice. He is described to have been of
middle size, handsome countenance, and unusual muscular
strength. His death left Gljeb Yurjevitch master of Kiev.
Having inflicted a terrible punishment on the Polovz, he
also died in 1172 and was followed by 1172.

He had inherited the military qualities of his father, but 1172-1174.
not his ambition, was a warm protector of the Church and
learning, and a particular friend of Bishop Kyrill of Turov.
The civilized portion of the nation went so far as to call him
a second Solomon. He fell a victim to blood revenge.
Joachim Kushko, with twenty other assassins, having first
bribed the steward, broke into his palace at Vladimir in the
dead of night, and that traitor having previously removed his
sword, they fell upon the defenceless old hero, and after a
desperate resistance succeeded in killing him. His naked
corpse was thrown into the garden, where it lay for many
days uncovered and unburied, until at last a faithful servant
ventured back and carried his beloved master's remains to
an honourable grave.

JAROPOLK III. AND MSTISLAV III., BOSTISLAVICH (1174 — 1175)

took the reigns of Government into their hands, but were
both forced to yield them after only one year's power, which
they had abused by oppression and sacrilege, to

MICHAEL IL, TXJEGJEVITCH (1175 1176),

who reigned like his brother, Andrej, at Vladimir, but died
the year following on the 20th June, 1176.

262 THE LAJSTD OF THE CZAE.

He was a brave and virtuous prince and a manly cha-
racter, who severely punished the cowardly murderers of his
brother.

VSETOLOD in., THE GEEAT (tUEGJEVITCH) (1176 — 1213).

He, like his predecessor, had to contend against their
common enemies the Rostov townspeople and the boyars,
who had declared for Mstislav ; but he vanquished the latter
together with his brother Jaropolk and their brother-in-law,
Prince Gljeb of Ejasan, whom he had deprived of their
eyesight.

At this time took place the celebrated expedition of Igor
of Novgorod against the robber tribe, the Polovz, immor-
talized by a grand epic poem by an unknown author. It'
ended tragically, for Igor's army was entirely destroyed in
a battle, which took place on the banks of the Kayala in
the year 1185.

1185. In the meantime the Grand Duchy of Halitch was also
in great trouble. After the death of the wise Jaroslav, his
son Vladimir, a drunken, dissolute youth, having been
deposed by the people, had fled to King Bela of Hungary,
who, however, threw him into prison and took possession of
the throne of Halitch in his own person.

1190. Vladimir, however, managed to escape, and fled to Kasi-
mir the Just of Poland, who, moved by his fate, compelled
Bela to relinquish his prey, and restored Vladimir to the
throne.

1185. During this time a revolution broke out at Smolensk, but
was suppressed by Prince Davy in 118.5. The Xovgorodians,
however, drove away his son and chose Jaroslav of Susdal.
The latter took and destroyed the Swedish town Sigtuna,
defeated the Esthonians on the Peypus lake and plundered
Dorpat. The expedition of the Novgorodians to the Xorthern
Yugoria between the Dwina and the Ob terminated un-
happily, their entire army being destroyed.

Several princes distinguished themselves during this reign

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 263

by their wisdom and bravery ; still the internal quarrels never
abated.

Iq the year 1196 the Grand Duke took Novgorod, but 1196.
only a year after handed it over to Svjatoslav.

After his death his son, G-eorge of Susdal, was to have
had the Crown, but was superseded by his brother, Con-
stantin, of Rostov (1216 — 1219), who defeated him near
Lipesk in 1215, and confined him to the government of 1215-
Susdal. Four years later this prince died, and left the grand
ducal dignity to his brother, the above Prince George.

GEORGE (TURGI) VSEVOLODOVITCH (CALLED THE Ip- TILL 1219,
AFTER WHICH DATE THE III")

reigned from 1213 — 1216 in Susdal and Vladimir, from
1216—1219 in Susdal alone, and from 1219—1238 again in
both governments.

In his reign the greatest calamity that ever befel Eussia,
the invasion of the Mongols, came to pass. These barbarous
hordes advanced under Tchinggis-Khan and his sons from
Chinese Tartary, and commenced their attack by scattering
the Polovz, whose king, Kotjan, fled to the Russians.
Ouward they pushed to the Sea of Azov and the Russian
frontier, where they overpowered the Yasses, Abassinians,
and Tcherkess. Listening to Kotjan's representations the
Russian princes of Halitch, Kiev, Tchernigov, and Yolhynia,
after having killed the Mongolian ambassadors, crossed the
Dnjepr, and on the 31st May, 1224, gave battle to the 1224.
Mongols on the river Kalka. The Russians, and in par-
ticular the heroic Prince Mstislav, of Halitch, performed
prodigious feats of valour, but the Polovz giving way and
frantically falling back upon their own allies, threw the
Russian army into confusion, thereby causing the utter
destruction of the latter, and the death of all their brave
leaders.

With fire and sword the Mongols now pressed forward to
the banks of the Dnjepr, while Dshoutshi, the eldest son of

26i THE LAXD OF THE CZAB.

Tchinggis-Khan, reduced the whole of the Kaptchak cotmtiy,
between the Ural and the Don, to a waste of smonldering
ashes. All Rnssia trembled, when behold! the Mongols
suddenly marched oif in a contrary direction, and, joining
Tchinggis-Khan in the Bonkharah, inundated the kingdom
of Thibet.

In despite of this dreadful calamity, the Russian princes
had not for an instant ceased to tear each other to pieces.

The Lithuanians plundered Xovgorod and Smolensk ; the
Xovgorodians, under Jaroslav, did the same to Finland, while
Daniel of Yolhynia overran Southern Russia.

After an absence of seven years the Mongols under
Oktai, son of Tchinggis-Khan, suddenly re-appeared. Ad-
vancing into the Volga territory they utterly destroyed
all vestiges of prosperity and civilization. Living them-
selves in movable tents they did not see the use of towns,
but only respected pasture lands. Having slaughtered
every living creature in the country of the Bulgarians, they
advanced as far as Rjasan, which town (forsaken as it
was by Grand Duke George) they razed to the ground,
after a most desperate resistance. The inhabitants, not'
expecting quarter, rushed upon the enemy knife in hand,,
and not one of them remained alive. The loss of the
Tartars was tremendous, and tilled their leader's heart with
■^•indictive fary. Too late perceiving his mistake, George
now sent his son Ysevolod against the Mongols; but he
was beaten by Baty, near Kolouma. They next took and
destroyed Moscow and Vladimir: and at last, on the 4th
March, defeated the Grand Duke George himself on the
Setan. George lost his life in the battle, and his body was
afterwards found covered by heaps of corpses. The Mongols
now spread over the whole of Russia, killing and destroying
as was their wont

However, when withm 60 miles of Xovgorod, Baty (pro-
bably alarmed at the immense, dense forests, and the swampy
nature of the country, now turned almost into a lake in
consequence of the thaw, and perhaps fearing to encounter

HISTORY OP RUSSIA. 365

the brave Novgorodians on such battle ground) suddenly beat
a retreat. After a short siege of the little fortress Koselsk,
in the government of Kaluga, which ended in its destruc-
tion, he went into camp in the country of the Polovz on
the Don.

CHAPTER XXVIT.

POUETH PERIOD.

RUSSIA UNDER THE MONGOLS (1238 1462).

This easy conquest of Russia by tlie Mongols was the
natural consequence of tlie disunion of the many princes
governing the unhappy country, as well as of the want of a
well-defined law of succession. As it was, the death of a
grand duke iuYariably becarne the- signal to incessant fends
and sanguinary contentions amongst a host of sons, brothers,
and other relations. The people were thrown from one hand
into the other, divided, given away, and could not but lose
in this way everything resembling unity of action and
interest, and mutual support. The Mongols, who always
marched in hordes of 200,000 or 300,000 men, had com-
pletely eaten up and destroyed the country from Kazan to
Vladimir : and Baty, at last satisfied that he had weakened
the country to such a degree, as to make the Russian priaces
content to be his vassals as long as he restored to them their
principalities, bestowed the grand ducal dignity on the
1238-1247. brother of the dead George, Yaroslav II. Vsevolodovitch, on
condition that he should consider himself vassal to the khans
of the Kaptchak under the sovereignty of the Grand Khan.
Baty's successors acted on the same plan, sent armies into
the provinces and levied taxes, of which, however, they
exempted the clergy, whose support they wished to insure
by this artful leniency. All liberty and independence was
now completely destroyed in Russia. Jaroslav, called the
Restorer, endeavoured to put matters into some shape ; but

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 267

the people's courage and . confidence in their own power
seemed to have gone for ever. The best men had fallen
victims to the sword, and many had been carried off into
slavery. He attempted the re- cons traction of the towns and
villages, and to clear the land of the dead bodies ; but he
hardly had the strength to encounter the Lithuanians, who
had pounced upon Smolensk. Notwithstanding, however,
all this misery, the feuds of the princes continued with un-
abated vigour. With jealous fury they fought for the wretched
remnants of the distracted country.

Isiislav IL, Prince of Smolensk, in the year 1236, expelled 123s.
Vladimir from Kiev, and assumed the grand ducal dignity
himself; but, in 1240, Baty appeared also before Kiev, and, 1240.
after a heroic defence, took, and completely destroyed it.
The only town which the Mongols had not, as yet, mastered,
was Novgorod, which was governed by the wise and noble-
minded Alexander Nevsky, a prince gifted with extraordinary
military and diplomatic talents. He defeated the Lithuanians
and Knights of the Holy Sword, expelled the Swedes from
the Neva country, and was made Grand Duke of Kiev, or the
successor of Jaroslav II. , Svjatoslav III. being deposed by
his own nephews. Alexander, by his yielding prudence gained
the respect and confidence of the Khan Baty or Baton, so that
the latter gave him the whole of South Russia and Kiev, at
the same time restoring the throne of Vladimir to Alexander's
brother Andrej. Already during the reign of Svjatoslay III.
the Mongols had levied taxes within his dominions ; they
now introduced this system of oppression also in the northern
provinces. Selling the privilege to foreign (principally Khivan ,
Astrakhan, and Boukhara) merchants, they allowed them to
oppress and torment the people to a frightful degree. Exas-
perated by the cruelty of these taxgatherers, the population
had at last killed some of these oppressors in retaliation.
Fearing the most calamitous consequences, Alexander at once
hastened in person to the Golden Horde; and, with his usual
tact and firmness, managed to avert the punishment which
Baty-Khan was already preparing to inflict. He died in the

2CS THE LA2vD OF THE CZAE.

year 1263, deeply monmed by a grateftil people, wlio count
him ever since amongst the saints. Peter the Great had his
bones removed to St. Petersburg, and there is not one of the
Russian emperors, vrho has not knelt before the shrine of
Alexander XevskL Many great generals have implored him
for his support and intermission, whenever they departed for
a great battle or an important campaign. During his reign
the first signs of dissensions amongst the ^Longol chiefs be-
came apparent, for Xogai, one of the first generals of the
Khan, threw ofi" his allegiance to the latter, and proclaimed
himself independent sovereign of the country on the Black
Sea Coast. After Alexander Xevsky reigned his brother

JAKOSLAV ni., PEIXCE OF TVER (1263 — 1272),

1276. and after him again, Tassilij, of Kostroma, tni 1276. Daring
his reign the Metropolitan KyriU called an CEcumenical
CouncQ for the purpose of establishing a law calculated to
insure the clerical dignities being held only by men of a
strictly blameless life and unimpeached character. The
personal tax was raised again by the Mongols, when death
carried him off. He was succeeded by

DMITBI L, ALEXAST)ROTITCH (1276 — 1294),

who, after five years' constant war with his brother Alexander,
12S1. had for a short time to reliacjuish the reins of government into
the hands of Andrej. The latter having, with the help of
Mengghi-Timoor-Khan, conquered Yassen in Daghestan, de-
vastated the southern provinces of Russia, returned with an
army of Mongols, with whom he enforced his claims. The
powerftil Xogai, however, leading Mongols against Mongols
into the field, re-installed Dmitri, and forced Tudan-ManoTi-
Khan, the successor of Timour. to abdicate in favour of Tele-
buga, whom he, however, soon after kdled himself, and replaced
by his brother Tokhta, who again before long defeated and
killed XogaL Dmitri died in the year 1294, and Andrej, who
succeeded him. made himself verv obnoxious by his bad and

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 269

weak government. In the year 1300 he destroyed the isoo.
Swedish fortress Carlskrona. About this time, Daniel,
Prince of Moscow, conquered Ejasan ; and, by fortifying
Moscow, founded the subsequent centre of the Russian power.
Andrej died in 1304, and was succeeded by Michael Yarosla- 1304.
vitch. Prince of Tver. Yurgi III., of Moscow, however, sup-
ported by Ousbek Khan, whose sister he had married, at
once attacked Michael, who, however, beat him with his allies
the Mongols before Tver, making prisoners the chiefs of
the latter, as well as of Yurgi or George's consort. The latter
soon after suddenly died at Tver, and Michael, suspected of
the murder, was ordered into the camp of Ousbek Khan, who
had him killed in 1319. George now stepped into his place, 1319.
and founded the fortress Schliisselburg on the mouth of the
Neva. Although Dmitri-Mikhailovitch had paid him 2,000
roubles for leaving him in peace, he persecuted him to the
very camp of Ousbek Khan, where Dmitri, rendered desperate,
ran his sword through him, for which deed the Khan had him
executed, and bestowed the dignity as Grand Dake of the
whole of Russia on his brother.

ALEXANDER II., MIKHAILOVITCH (1327—1338).

Unfortunately for him, a messenger and nephew of
Ousbek Khan, Shevkal, was killed at Tver, because the
people had been made to understand that he had come to
introduce Islamism. The angry khan at once sent Ivan I.,
(Danilovitch,) Prince of Moscow, with 50,000 men against
Tver. Alexander fled, but was executed in 1338 in the isss.
horde of Ousbek Khan. Ivan united Tver with Moscow,
erected churches, and ingratiated himself with the people by
his charitable deeds, which procured for him the appellation
of "Kalita" (purse). He surrounded Moscow with new
palisades, and began the construction of the Kreml in 1339. 1339.

He was succeeded by his son Simon, who called himself
Grand Duke of all Russia, and received the appellation of
" the Proud," in consequence of his severity to the Russian

270 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

princes. Daring his reign began the degeneration of the
1342. Mongols. In 1342 the Pleskovians conquered Narva, and
1347. in 1347 the Russians defeated King llagnus of Sweden,
who had come to convert them to the Roman faith with the
edge of the sword. Russia began to recover ; soon, how-
ever (1346 — 52), the plague appeared, conmiitting great
ravages. Amongst the victims was the Grand Duke himself.
1352. Tchanibek-Elhan called Ivan H of Moscow to the grand
ducal throne. During his reign the provinces of Moldavia
and Vallachia made themselves independent of Russia. The
domination of the 'Mongols advanced with rapid steps
towards their final collapse. The good Khan Tchanibek
was murdered by his own son Berdibek, who also caused his
twelve brothers to be executed. His extravagant exactions
spread terror throughout the whole of Russia, until he in
his turn was murdered, and followed by Kulpa, whose sons
were Christians. Kavrus, a descendant of Tchinggis-Khan,
had them, however, assassinated before they had been in
1359. power five months. At the death of Ivan in 1359, he
appointed Dmitri Constantinovitch of Susdal Grand Duke
of Russia. The latter, however, voluntarily retired to his
own principahtr, and left the government to Dmitri TV.,
who had himself also confirmed by 3Iurut-Khan. This
chief had attained that dignily in consequence of a series
of murders. Xavrus had been murdered by his general,
Khidyr; who again was killed by his own son Tamir-
Khosha, who soon after fell by the hand of Tennick Mamai,
who thus made room for Murut. Murder, confusion, and
strife reigned throughout the country. The Russian princes
did not know any more whom they should obey as the
Kaptchak empire was fast crumbling to pieces. The plague
depopulated the country ; the Teutonic knights devastated
Livonia; and Olgerd of Lithuania inundated Little Russia
and Yolhynia with fiie and sword. On the 30th November,
1368. 1368, he defeated the Russians on the Lake Trostenskoi,
marched before Moscow, and only the severe weather and
want of provisions forced him to raise the siege. In conse-

HISXOEY OF RUSSIA. 271

quence of the intrigues of Michael of Tver, who endeavoured
to get the Khan Mamai to entrust him with the goverment
of Russia, Dmitri himself repaired to the Khan, who con-
firmed him without difficulty. In the year 1374 the 1374.
messengers of the Khan, who had behaved with most pro-
voking arrogance, were murdered at JSTeezhnei-Novgorod.
Mamai prepared for a war of extirpation against Dmitri,
who, after having defeated Michael of Tver, had subjected
the Bulgars of Kazan. In 1377 the Mordvins led the 1377.
Mongol Prince Arab-Shah into Russia, who razed Neezhnei-
Novgorod to the ground. In revenge the Russians
devastated the country of the Mordvins, which brought the
Khan back again to Russia ; where, however, he was met
by Dmitri on the 11th August, 1378, on the banks of the 1378.
Vosha, and completely beaten. A second time, on the 8th
September, 1380, he was defeated by Dmitri on the Don, isao.
who since that battle went by the name of Donskoi. For-
saken, however, by the other Russian princes, he was
overcome . during the next year by Tokhtamysh-Khan,
who had replaced Mamai, and now burnt Moscow. Dmitri
saw himself obliged to buy peace by the payment of
a heavj' tribute, and by surrendering his own son to
Tokhtamysh as hostage. About this time the Permians
were baptized, and the first firearms introduced into Russia. 1389.
Dmitri died in 1389. He was one of the bravest and
most excellent princes that ever lived, and was succeeded
by his son

VASSILT II., DMITEOVITCH (1389 — 1425).

During his reign the Tartar conqueror, Tamerlane, or 1395.
Timour, destroyed the power of Tokhtamysh, and with hJm.
made an end to the domination of the Mongols. But he
himself now marched upon Moscow. Murder and desolation
accompanied him wherever he went. Dmitri had already
opposed him with an army of 400,000 men, when he sud-
denly again turned southward and destroyed Azov. At the

^72 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

same time the Grand Duke was threatened by another war
at the hands of Vitovt, or Vitold, Grand Duke of Lithuania,
who had got hold of the whole of South Eussia : but his
ambition induced him first of all to measure swords with the
Mongols, especially as VassUj was at that time occupied

1399. with the conquest of Bulgaria. On the 12th August, 1399,
he offered battle to the chief Edigei, who, however, proved
his master, and completely beat him. Notwithstanding

1102. this defeat, however, he in 1402 ejected Yurgi Svjatoslavitch
from Smolensk, and the lands of the latter remained
incorporated with Lithuania for 110 years. A^assUj, in

1407. 1407, began an unfortunate war against the Teutonic
knights, and reconciled in the same year the Livonians
and Pskovians. The act drawn up on that occasion gave
him for the first time the title of emperor. About this
time the Mongols marched again upon Moscow, the
pillage of which city could only be avoided by the pay-
ment of a fine of 3000 roubles. Edigei devastated the
country in every direction, but in 1411 withdrew again,
and settled on the shores of the Black Sea. Vassilj died

1425 in 1425.

VASSILJ III., VASSILJEVITCH (1425 — 1462),

the son of the last Grand Duke, was ten years old, when
he came to the throne. Confirmed by the Mongol Khan, he

1434. fought against the Lithuanians, but in 1434 was dethroned
by Yurgi or George Semeika, prince of Halitch, soon after,
however, again re-instated by his people. Again the Mongols
under Makhmet devastated Eussia, and Dmitri Turgevitch

1446. in 1446 took Moscow, dethroned, and blinded the Grand
Duke. The people again stood up for the latter, drove
Dmitri back to Novgorod, where he met with his death by

1453. poison in 1453. Under the co-regency of his son Jvan,
Vassilj defeated the Novgorodians ; he was however made
prisoner at the battle of Susdal by the Khan Ulu-Makhmet,
who gave him his liberty on his paying a heavy ransom.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 273

Vassilj called many artists and men of science to the country.
During his reign was instituted the Concilium of Florence,
the last attempt at a unification of the Greek and Roman
churches, which however proved futile. He died 1462 and i462,
was succeeded by his son,

CHAPTEE XXVni.

FIFTH PEEIOD.

IVAN III., VASSiLJEViTCH (the geeat) (1462 — 1505).

Having restored order in the interior of the empire, he
determined on the expulsion of the Tartars. He accordingly
refused paying the tribute to Akhmet-Khan. The Khan of
the Crimea whose friendship he had secured by assisting him
to his dignity, marched against Akhmet-Khan, who had
been already preparing for a campaign against Ivan. The
latter gaining time in this manner for the completion of his
warlike arrangements laid siege to Kazan, which he destroyed

1469. (1469). After a sanguinary war, which lasted two years, and
during which he committed cruelties and devastations, which
did not by any means distinguish themselves favourably from
those of the Mongols, he in 1471 laid siege to Novgorod, and
forced the venerable republic, that for six centuries had
maintained her independence, to submission, in consequence
of which it gradually sank to the level of a little country
town. He also subjected the Permians, who belonged to

1473. Novgorod. In the year 1473 he married Sophia, daughter
of the Byzantine Emperor Emanuel, which event procured
him the imperial arm?, the two-headed eagle, and from
which time he called himself Samoderyeds or autocrat of all
the Russ. At the instigation of the jealous Kasimir of
Lithuania, the ally of the latter, Akhmet-Khan again invaded
Russia, but was totally defeated in 1472 on the Okka. Allied
to the Tauridian Khans, Ivan refused to pay the stipulated

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 275

tribute to Akhmet, who at once set himself in motion against
him. But the Crimean Khan Mengglii Khirei as promj)tly
invaded Lithuanian Podolia, while the Crimean Czarevitch
Nordulat marched direct upon the defenceless camp of the
Golden Hord. In October Ivan and Akhmet met face to face
on the Oukra, observed each other during some weeks, until
at last Ivan commenced his retreat to Krements, where he
intended taking up a more advantageous position. But the
retreat degenerated into a rout of his discouraged army.
Fortunately for Ivan, Akhmet also returned to his country, as
he had just received the news of Nordulat's attack on the
hord. Near Azov, however, the Shevan prince Jvak threw
himself into his way and destroyed his army, Akhmet
himself losing his life in the battle. This was the death-
blow to the power of the Mongols in Russia. Ivan now
brought the Lithuanians and Tchouds to their senses, took
Tver and after the discovery of the Arkhangelski mines had
coins struck with his own image. He also subjected the
Votiaks. In 1492 he forced the Grand Dnke Albrecht of 1492.
Lithuania to make over his country to him. 1497 saw the 1497.
conquest of Siberia. His war against the Teutonic knights
ended badly for him, for he was beaten by their Grand
Master Plettenberg and forced into a peace of 50 years. Ivan 1501.
had made Russia independent and laid the foundation to her
greatness as well as to the enslavement of her inhabitants.
The barbarous domination of the Tartars had left him a
humbled and obedient mass of people, and the introduction
of tributes and taxes from the whole of Russia. He intro-
duced a new book of laws, which he enforced by another Tartar
legacy, the knout, slavery, and death. His death took place
in 1505 and he was succeeded by his second son Vassilij,
the elder brother Dmitri being at the time imprisoned for
conspiracy against his father. The extent of the Russian
empire amounted at that time already to 47,000 square miles.

VASSILT IV., VASSILJEVITCH (1505—1534).

He defeated in 1506 the Khan of Kazan, Akhmet-Amin ; 1506.

276 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

destroyed his camp two years later, and forced him to sue
1514. for peace. In 1514, he wrested Smolensk from the Lithua-
nians and united it, notwithstanding the lost battle of the
1530. Orsha, with Russia. In 1530 he vanquished the people of
Kazan. In 1510 he had subjected the free town of Plaskov ;
in 1517 he treacherously threw the Prince of Rjasan and
Prince Yassilj Semeika of Severia into prison, and united
their principalities with Russia. He had first been married
to Salomeh, daughter of a nobleman of Tartar descent ; but
as he had no children by her, he separated from her by
divorce, and sent her to a convent. He then married Helen
Griinski of Lithuanian descent, who, on the 25th August
1530, gave birth to Ivan IV., whose memory is still execrated
1534. by the Russian people. Vassilj died in 1534.

IVAN IV., VASSILJEVITCH (1534 — 1584) THE TERRIBLE,

being only little more than three years old at the time of his
father's death, was yet declared Czar under the regency of
his mother and uncle, Michael Glinski. The latter, however,
having remonstrated with his sister regarding her dissolute
conduct, was deprived of his eyes by Helen, and starved to
death in a monastery. The second uncle of the young Czar,
Andrej, was also imprisoned, and soon afterwards murdered.
The Kazanians rose in open revolt at the instigation of the
Lithuanians ; the Crimean Tartars again attacked Russia,
while the Lithuanians themselves, under Sigismund, invaded
the empire in the west. The Russians soon suppressed the
revolt of Kazan, and having beaten the Tartars, concluded
a peace ot five years with Lithuania, according to which the
fortress Sebesh passed into their hands, while Gomel re-
1538. mained with Lithuania. Helen died of poison in 1538, and
her lover. Prince Ivan Tjelepnev Obolenski, was thrown into
prison and starved to death. Now began a time of tyranny
and horror under the regency of the boyars Shuiski, Glinski,
and Bjelski. Vassily Shuiski, the probable assassin of
Helen, first seized the reins of government, but soon after

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 277

relinquished tliem again into the hands of his brothers
Ivan Mikhailovitch, and Feodor Ivanovitch Skopin. All
governed by murder and tyranny, and fostered in the
young prince's heart the most pernicious passions, until
they were superseded by the Glinskis, and died on the
scaffold.

In the year 1541, the Khan of the Crimea suddenly 154 1.
appeared at the head of a large army on the Okka, but was
defeated by the Russians. In 1545, the fourteen-year-old 1545.
Ivan commenced to reign himself under the influence of the
Glinskis, and soon gave evidence of that brutal cruelty for
which he has received the unenviable appellation of " the
Terrible." The party chiefs fell by the axe; Buturlin, a
high ofHcer of the court, had his tongue publicly torn out of
his throat, because he had made use of disapproving language.
Ivan in the same year originated the celebrated body-
guard, the Strelitses. On the 16th January 1647, he was 1547.
solemnly crowned, and married that same year Anastasia
Romanovna, daughter of Prince Romanov Yurjevitch, a
noble-minded lady, who, by her piety and pure character,
exercised a favourable influence on her husband, but who,
unfortunately, died too early for the happiness of the Russian
people. About this time he had also the Ulozhenje (the
Russian code of law) revised and augmented. In the year

1552, he destroyed the town of Kazan, and made a prisoner 1552.
of the Khan Mohammet Edigei, who, on the 8th January

1553, received holy baptism, and married the daughter of 1553.
the Russian noble Andrej Kutusov. About this time, the
Republic of the Donski Cossacks was founded. In 1555, 1555.
Ivan entered upon a war with Esthonia and Livonia, which
ended however unfavourably for him ; for Livonia submitting

to Poland, and Esthonia to Sweden, he became embroiled
with those two powers, the consequence of which was a war
terminating, in 1567, by an armistice with Poland, and an
alliance with King Brick of Sweden, to whom he left
Esthonia. His endeavours to procure German artists and
men of science were frustrated by the policy of the Hanseatic

278 THE LAKD OF THE CZAR.

Tovms and of the Teutonic knights, who feared the enlighten-
ment of the Russian people.

The year 1553 saw the plague in Russia ; the inhabitants
of the steppes and mountains of the government of Kazan
rose in revolt and killed the Russian officials; and Ivan, on the
point of taking the field against the rebels, fell seriously ill,
which caused great disputes regarding the succession to the
throne, some of the boyars refusing to acknowledge Ivan's
son Dmitri. On his recovery, he suppressed the Kazan
revolution with his usual cruelty. Like an infuriated mad-
man or tiger he raged in Xovgorod, Tver, and Moscow. In
the first town alone he caused the death of 60,000 people.
He, in company with his favourite son, Ivan, went about
armed with axes, and slaughtered the unhappy people that
his bloodthirsty hangmen had hunted up, and driven to the
shambles. After he had tired himself out with bloodshed,
and struck terror into the boldest hearts, he endeavoured to
form an independent kingdom of Livonia, which he destined
for the husband of his niece, Prince Magnus ; but was pre-
vented by the unsuccessful siege of Reval, as well as by the

1571. invasion of the Khan of Astrakhan, who, in 1571, penetrated
the empire as far as Moscow, which he burned, with the
exception of the Elreml, carrying off more than 100,000

1572. prisoners. A year after, however, when repeating his incur-
sion, his army was utterly annihilated, at Molody, by Prince
Vorotynski, whom the Czar, about nine months after, had
roasted alive on trivial grounds. In the face of all these
fluctuations in the fortune of war, he managed however to
conclude peace with all his neighbours on advantageous
terms.

1582. In 1582 his son Ivan died in consequence of a wound
inflicted by his own father, whom he had opposed in the
ill-treatment of his wife. The Czar, mad with rage, lifted his
heavy stick and struck him on the head, that he died. This
deed put a temporary stop to his insane passion. Horrified
at his wickedness, he wanted to go into a monastery, but
death prevented him.

HISTORY OP RUSSIA. 279

On the 18tli March, 1584, after having exhorted his weak- 1584.
headed, gentle son Feodor to govern always in the fear of
God, and with love and gracious kindness rather than with
severity, this contradictory character breathed his last. Not-
withstanding all his faults, it must be said of Ivan IV. that
he possessed no small amount of common sense, that he broke
the dangerous power of the boyars, maintained the inde-
pendence of the Bussian Church, and seriously endeavoured
to introduce civilizing elements into the country, and, with-
out allowing proselytism amongst his subjects, invariably
showed great tolerance in his conduct to foreigners dwelling
within his dominions. His character had been corrupted by
the unprincipled guides of his infancy, by his profligate
mother and her family, who did all in their power to awaken
and develop the animal passions that nature had already but
too abundantly implanted in him. That he was susceptible
to good influences, his government during the life-time of
his first noble-hearted consort has amply proved. He was
succeeded by his eldest remaining son,

FEODOR I., rVAlTOVICH (1584 — 1596),

a prince weak in mind and body, for which reason his father
had appointed a regency composed of the boyars, Yurgjev,
Belskoi, Shniskoi, and Mstavskoi, who, with a board of thirty
councillors, were to carry on the government. But Boris
Godounov, a Tartar by birth, and brother-in-law of the Czar,
an ambitious and able personage, knew how to take advan-
tage of the differences existing among the regents, and soon
rendered them completely harmless by the agency of poison
and banishment. Having thus cleared the road, he took the
reins of government into his own hands, and to all appear-
ance handling them with prudent moderation, he did not
shrink from any crime which might bring about the end of
the Rurik dynasty, and elevate his own family to the throne.
No public scaffold shocked the sight of the people, but all
the more actively did he deal out destruction in secret. His

280 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

first victim was the yonnger brother of the Czar, Prince
Dmitri, and dreadfully real in its effect was his feigned re-
sentment of the murder. The son of Feodor's brother Ivan,
the new-born daughter of Feodor, in fact, every one, who in
the remotest degree seemed to stand in his path, fell by
poison, club, or dagger. Feodor founded Tobolsk in 1587,
concluded a peace with Sweden in 1595, by which he obtained
Inghermanland and Esthonia ; he also made peace with the
Tartars. Feodor's death terminated the Varaeghian-Norman
dynasty, and Boris Grodounov ascended to the throne of
Russia.

Ivan IV. had accustomed the people to blind terror ; the
mosl inhuman tyranny was submitted to with adoring grati-
tude, as coming from a ruler, who, as the Head of the Church,
was worshipped as a being representing God on earth. What
wonder if this tyrannical system penetrated into the inmost
bosom of family life ? The master of the house was absolute
despot and tyrant. He could sell his children four times,
and his wife had no protection whatever against his arbitrary
power.

Boris Godounov concluded a treaty with Sweden against
Poland, but in 1600 entered upon an armistice of 20 years
with the latter. He built Beresov and fortified Smolensk
with stone walls, encouraged industry, and secured the ser-
vices of many foreign artizans, but he destroyed the last
remnants of the liberty of the people. The towns were de-
prived of their privileges, the peasants fettered to the soil
and subjected to positive serfdom. Another calamity in the
shape of famine befell the unhappy people, and Moscow alone
counted more than 100,000 dead. Several adventurers, pro-
fiting by the excitement of the afflicted nation, proclaimed
themselves Prince Dmitri. The first, Yakhkov Otrepiev,
an escaped monk and descendant of a poor, noble family,
fled to Poland, where he declared himself to be the murdered
Dmitri, son of Ivan, and Feodor's eldest brother. Returning
to Moscow, he was imprisoned, but escaped again to Poland,
where he managed to deceive Prince Adam Vikhnevetski,

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 281

who married him to Marina, the danghter of the Palatine of
Sendomir, by whose influence he soon collected a sufficient
force with which to maintain his pretended right to the
throne. Strengthened by a considerable afflux of Eussian
partizans, he defeated Boris' army at Novgorod, but was him-
self beaten a year after by the Czar, near Sevsk. In 1 605 Boris 1605.
died by poison, and several revolts at Moscow (got up
in the false Dmitri's favour, in consequence of which the
generals of Feodor II., the son of Boris, espoused the Pre-
tender's cause) enabled him soon to make his entry into Mos-
cow, where his so-called mother publicly acknowledged him.
But his cruel conduct to all whom he suspected to doubt his
identity, and the preference which he extended to the Poles,
to whom he owed his success, drew upon him the hatred of
the people. The year 1 606 saw already a powerful conspiracy,
headed by Prince Vassilij Shuiskoi, preparing his downfall.
On the 17th May they surprised him in his castle, and on
the widow of Ivan IV. suddenly declaring against him, he
was forthwith assassinated. His wife Marina escaped, but
the rest of the Poles were killed, and Shuiskoi elevated to
the throne by the boyars, under the name of Vassilij IV. He
proved, however, a weak character, and unable to cope with
the rebellious elements smouldering within, and every now
and then flaming up from the demoralized masses. Soon a
new fictitious Dmitri appeared on the scene in the person
of Ivan Bolotnikov, formerly a schoolmaster in Sokola.
While marching upon Moscow, he was met, defeated, and
imprisoned. At the same time a third Dmitri fiction, the 1609.
Eussian priest Ivan, created much excitement in Poland.
Eecognized by Marina as her husband, and supported by
her father, he advanced upon Moscow with an army, the
kernel of which consisted of the Swedish auxiliary troops,
who had deserted Vassily IV. because he could not pay
them. Unnerved by famine, the town of Moscow gave up
their Czar Vassilij, who was at once shaved and turned into
a monk. During the siege, however, the pseudo-Dmitri,
while out hunting, got killed by a Tartar Chief, and his

28-Z THE LA2*p OF THE CZAE.

followers, under tlie leadership of the Cossack Zarutchki,
elevated Marina (who promised soon to present the nation
with another questionable Prince Dmitri) to the throne. An
unheard-of state of confusion ensued. While the boyars
elected Vladislav, son of the King of Poland, for their Czar,
a fourth candidate for the Dmitri identify, a certain Sidor,
cropped to the surface, but ended soon after on the gallows.
Owing to the overbearing conduct of the Poles, the reign of
Vladislav presently became highly disgusting to the people.
The Novgorodians, led by a butcher, Kosma-3Iinin, were the
first to rise against Vladislav. Uniting with Prince Dmitri,
Pozharski, and Prokop Lippenov, at Perejaslav, they marched
upon Moscow. Hearing of their approach, the citizens fell
upon the Poles, but the latter being reinforced caused a
terrible slaughter amongst the rebels, and set fire to the city
in five places. However, now the whole nation rose like one
man, and before 1612 not a single Pole remained on Russian
ground. The country, nevertheless, by this time was a
desert, and all traces of civilization had disappeared during
the fifteen years of anarchy and confusion. Foreign enemies,
profiting by this state of affairs, attacked on every side, and
the Swedes took Novgorod. When on the edge of the abyss
of entire annihilation, the boyars at last recovered them-
selves so far as to proceed to the election of a new Czar ; and,
after many stormy debates, their choice, as well as that of
the clergy and the deputies of the towns, fell upon Michael
EomanoY (then a youth of 16) the son of the Metropolitan
Philaret, and by his mother Anastasia, grandson of Ivan IV.
the Terrible.

CHAPTER XXIX.
SIXTH PEEIOD.

MICHAEL I., EOMANOV (1613 — 1646),

was elected Czar of Russia ou the 21st February, 1613,
and his entry into Moscow took place on the 19th April of the
same year. He lost no time in getting the Boyars to draw
up a deed testifying to his legal election, and insuring the
right of succession to his heirs. On his part he promised
by that same document to protect the religion of the country,
and to maintain the privileges of the nobility ; neither to
enter upon any war, nor to make new laws, or alter the old
ones, without the consent of the Imperial Council ; and to
hd,ve no question of law adjudged and decided directly by
him, but strictly in conformity to existing laws. This deed,
a kind of Act of Constitution, does not appear to have
enjoyed the respect of future generations.

Michael tried to restore order within his dominions by
means of a standing army. A few years after he defeated
the Cossack Zarutchki — who had married Marina, the widow
of the two spurious Dmitri, and disturbed the country by
pillage and brigandage — and had him executed at once.

On the 27th February, 1617, he concluded a peace with
Sweden at Stolbova, returning to them Inghermanland,
Karelia, Kexholm, and the country as far as the river Lava,
and paid them a sum of 200,000 roubles besides. The
Swedes on their part restored to him Novgorod and the
other territories which they had taken.

2S4 THE LAUD OF THE CZAE.

Vladislav of Poland proving too strong for Pozharski,
advanced to Moscow, and devastated the country through
which he passed. Michael put an end to this war by the
Peace of Devilma (11th December, 1618), which cost him
Smolensk, Severia, and Tchernigov. Vladislav returned to
him the Russian prisoners, amongst whom was Philaret,
his own father, who henceforth lent his assistance and
advice to his government. Desirous of raising the condition
of Russian industry and trade, he entered into commercial
treaties with Persia and China. In 1632 he opened another
campaign against Poland, in consequence of which he lost
all former conquests, and had to give up all claims on
Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland ; but, on the other hand,
the Poles formally abandoned their claims to the Russian
throne. He signed also a treaty with the Grand Sultan, by
which the latter promised to prevent the Khan of the Crimea
from any renewed invasions of the Russian territories.

Michael proved himself to have been a most able politician,
and considerably added to the extension of the empire, so
that at his death his own son saw himself master of a country
not less than 255,000 square miles in extent. He died in
the year 1646.

ALEXEJ I., MTKHATLOYITCH (1646 1676),

ascended the throne at the age of sixteen, and was
married by his tutor to the latter's sister-in-law, Maria
Miloslavka. Boris Morozov (the tutor) and several other
favourites had completely usurped the government, until,
after several revolts in Pleskov and iSTovgorod, Moscow at
last rose and despatched the favourites. Morozov alone was
with difl&culty saved by the Czar.

During these disturbances two new fictitious Dmitris were
heard of. One of them endeavoured, by some characters
burnt into his skin, to prove himself to be the son of the
first pretender Dmitri, born in prison. At first protected
by King Vladislav of Poland, but subsequently deserted by

HISTORY or RUSSIA. 285

Kasimir, lie fled to Sweden, and tlience to Dake Charles of
Holstein, who delivered him to the Czar on the receipt of
an acquittal of a debt he had contracted in Moscow. The
other, who professed being the son of Vassilij III., dis-
appeared suddenly, and was never heard of again. Adroitly-
profiting by the jealousy existing between Sweden and
Poland, Alexej, in 165i, undertook a war with Poland, from i654.
which power he again wrested Kiev, Tchernigov, Severia,
and Smolensk. He then attacked Sweden, with whom he
did not make peace until 1661, at Kardis. The Poles, sup- leei.
ported by the Crimean Tartars, again obliged him to go to
war, which ended with the armistice of Andrussov (1667), i6(i7.
his former conquests remaining intact. A revolt at Moscow,
caused by the appearance of false copper coin, was drowned
in torrents of blood : 4000 persons perished, of whom 500
were hung.

A new rebellion, under Hetman Stenko Razin, undertaken
in revenge for his brother's execution, by which the Volga
territory was pillaged and devastated, and the town of Yaik
(Ural) and Tarki in Georgia taken, was temporarily quelled
by the governor of Astrakhan, Prosorovski, who compelled
Stenko to retreat to the Volga. Soon after, however, he
rose again, took the flotilla on the Volga, and induced the
crew (6000 Strelitses) to join him. He now assumed the
title of Czar, and conquered Astrakhan. In 1671, however, i67i.
his army, which had increased to a strength of 200,000 men,
was routed by Prince Dolgoi'ouki and General Shermatov.
Stenko himself fell into the hands of the victors, and was
executed. In consequence of his treaty of alliance with
Poland, Alexej made war on Turkey, but was left in the
lurch by the other Christian powers, and did not survive its
termination.

He established a mounted postal service, silk and linen
manufactures, encouraged the working of iron and copper
mines, and improved ship-building. During his reign the
Behring Straits were discovered-by the Cossack Deshnev.

Alexej died in the year 1676, leaving two sons by the le/e.

286 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

first consort Maria, Feodor and Ivan ; by his second mar-
riage with Natalia Isarizhkin, Peter the First, afterwards
called the Great.

FEODOE ni., ALESEJEVITCH (1676 1682),

was a prince of noble qualities, hut delicate health. Averse
to war and violence, he took great pains concerning the
improvement of the internal condition of the country. He
continued, however, the Turkish war, until the defeat of the

1677. Turks in 1677. The Poles having made peace with the last
power, and presuming on Feodor's pacific disposition, now
insisted upon the restoration of a portion of their former
conquests. Sooner than go to war Feodor satisfied them by
an extension of their Lithuanian boundaries, as weU as by the

1678. payment of a sum of money. In the following year the
Turks reconquered the Oukraine, but could not hold it,
owing to the want of provisions. This war termiuated by

1680. the peace of 1680 at Eadzin, and the Zaporoghian Cossacks,
who had been its primary cause, remained under the Russian
sovereignt}'. Feodor did much towards the refinement of
the barbarous ways of his people, by the establishment of
schools, a just administration of the laws of the country, by
his protection of the arts and sciences, and the introduction
of a superior church music. He put an end to the exorbitant
pretensions of the nobility to the hereditary succession to

1632. the higher Government offices by burning the genealogical
registers, by which act the talent of the lower classes became
available for the benefit of the country. He endeavoured to
embellish the towns by artistic architecture, and to improve
agriculture by the introduction of fine Prussian horses.

Having, with the consent of the grandees of the empire
(and passing over his own imbecile brother Ivan), appointed
his youngest and half-brother Peter to be his successor, he
died in 1GS2, leaving no children of his own.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 287

PETER I., THE 6KEAT (1682 — 1725),

was only ten years old, when Alexej died. His ambitions
sister Sophia, therefore, with her favourite. Prince Galyczin,
endeavoured to get the regency into their hands. To this
end they created a rebellion amongst the Strelitses, from
which Peter and his mother had to take refuge in the con-
vent of the Holy Trinity at Moscow, and but for the prompt
arrival of the cavalry would have fallen a victim to his
sister's ambition. His uncle, Anastasius Narizhkin, was
killed, and Sophia, who had been formally appointed regent,
had Ivan crowned together with Peter, and made the former
marry in 1684, hoping that he would have issue, and thereby 1684.
exclude Peter from the throne. The latter in the meantime
was sent with his tutor Lefort to a distant village. This
year saw the religious controversy between the Abakunasts
and Starovertsi, and the revolt of the Strelitses, under their
General Khavanski, which was, however, soon got under, by
the prompt mobilization of all the vassals. Another revolt
of the Strelitses was met by Sophia with such firmness and
severity, that the conspirators were compelled to appear in
the Kreml with ropes round their necks, and humbly to sue
for pardon.

In the year 1686 Poland, desirous of obtaining the assist- 1686.
ance of Russia against the Crimean Tartars, agreed to a
peace, by which it ceded again to the Russian crown Smol-
ensk and the Oukraine. The Russian army, under Prince
Galyczin, really marched against the Tartars, but the two
campaigns remained without any result. Peter all this time
apparently amused himself with boyish games, but in reality
had been made keenly alive by Lefort to his disgraceful
dependence on his sister, to the arrogance of the boyars
and Strelitses, and to the inferior condition of the Russian
empire and nation compared to that enjoyed by the peoples
of Western Europe. In 1687 a son was born him by his i687.
first empress Eudoxia Lapukhin. He thereupon obtained

288 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

a voice and seat in the Council of State, and before long made
a determined snatch at the reins of government.

Sophia, mad with jealousy, stirred up another revolt of
the Strelitses, who nearly got possession of Peter's person
at a small borough near Moscow. He managed, however,
to reach the Trinity Convent, whence, backed by a corps
of faithful Strelitses, he began to examine into affairs.
Sophia, alarmed, resolved to fly to Poland, but was inter-
cepted, and shut up in a convent, her favourite Galyczin
exiled, and the other conspirators knouted to death, or sent
to Siberia, after their tongues had been torn out. From this
time Peter governed alone. He was fiUed with the most
immoderate zeal for the civilization of his people, and desired
to see it on the same level of culture which he had observed
in Western Europe. To this end he required the sea-coast,
and paid the greatest attention to ship-building, supported by
the Dutch ships' carpenter Brand. As soon as he saw him-
self in the possession of twelve men-of-war, he declared war

1695. against Turkey (1695), with a view to the conquest of Azov
and to the subjection of the Crimean Tartars. The army
was commanded by Gordon, the navy by Lefort (his two
tutors) ; but the expedition remained without result, as the
Turks had secured the services of a Grerman engineer, who,
in consequence of the ill-treatment received at the hands of
the Czar, had deserted to the Turks. The fortress was not
reduced till the next year, and the war, after the victory of

1696. Perekop (17th August, 1696), but slowly continued. During
this war the Strelitses had revolted again, but were dis-
covered and all the conspirators executed. The brave de-
fender of Azov was also put to death in a most cruel and

1C97. ignominious manner. In the year 1697, Peter, with a great
suite, went abroad, and visited Prussia, Holland, England,
and the rest of Germany. Suddenly absenting himself from
his part}", Peter went to Zaardam, where he worked for some
time like a common ships' carpenter, and seemed to delight
in the society of his fellow-workmen. At Vienna he was
alarmed by the news of another conspiracy of the Strelitses.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. . 289

Ou his return to Moscow, liowever, he found that Gordon
had already suppressed the disturbances, and Peter came
only in time for the punishment of the offenders. The
executions lasted six weeks, Peter himself and his courtiers
assisting in beheading the condemned. Two hundred of the
Strelitses were hung up before the windows of the Princess
Sophia, who then finally took the veil, under the name of
Marpha. The corps of the Strelitses was dissolved and
converted into infantry.

The Czar Peter I. erected printing establishments, in-
vented a new alphabet, had books written in the Eussian
language, and levied taxes according to the German system.
He discouraged the wearing of beards, and tried to substitute
foreign costumes for the national. The northern war, com-
menced in 1700, was in reality decided on the 27th June, 1700.
1 709, by the battle of Poltava, but was nevertheless protracted 1709.
till 1721. Peter, in 1702, had the Dvina connected with the 1723.
Don and the Volga, and thus with the Black and Caspian Seas ;
in 1703 he founded St. Petersburg, on a most unfavourable 1703.
spot on the Neva, and made it the capital in 1714. 1714.

The year 1703 brought the revolt of the Kazan Tartars, 1703.
who, irritated by heavy oppressions, destroyed many Eussian
settlements, and sold the inhabitants to the Turks. This
calamity came to a pacific end by the remission of the offen-
sive measures and the promise of a general amnesty. In
1704, Astrakhan rose in rebellion at the instigation of the 1704.
exiled Strelitses. The Eussian officials and other Europeans
were murdered, and already the Uralski, Zaporoghian and
Donski Cossacks were on the point of joining the rebels,
when General Peter Shermatov succeeded in settling this
dangerous affair, more by moderation and persuasion than by
severe measures. Four years later, the Donski Cossacks
were again in arms, because they would not surrender the
Turkish deserters coming from Turkish soil, and killed Prince
Dolgoruki. His brother, however, in several engagements
defeated them ; and, when they saw that they had lost 20,000
meji in battle and 10,000 who were driven over the Turkish

290 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

frontier, they gave in, and billed their Hetman Bulavin. The
Zaporoghian Cossacks, under Mazeppa, also rebelled in 1708,
but received a dreadful punishment at Peter's hands.

1710. In the year 1710, the Turks, at the instance of Ch'arles XII.
of Sweden, opened a new campaign against Eussia. Peter,
who commanded his troops in person, came upon the Turkish
army under the Grand- Vizier, Baltagi-Mehemet, numbering
four times his own force. He was surrounded on the Pruth?
and would have been made prisoner, if the dislike entertained
by the Vizier towards the Swedish king had not made him
all the more inclined to accept the Czarina's jewels for Peter's
escape.

These troubles over, Peter went again to Holland, France,

1712. and Germany, where he, in 1712, married his son Alexej to
the noble-minded Christina of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel.
The marriage turned out a very unhappy one, and Alexej
from this time incurred his father's extreme displeasure, by
the dissolute life he led with his boon companions, and in the
society of common women, and particularly by the insulting
neglect of his excellent consort. Peter, informed of his son's
disgraceful conduct, summoned him to Copenhagen, where
he happened to be at the time. But Alexej fled instead to
Vienna, the Tyrol, and at last to Naples ; and only by the
application of greait pressure was induced to return to Moscow,
where the senate unanimously condemned him to death, at
the same time recommending him to the Czar's mercy. The
announcement of this sentence threw him on his death-bed,

1718. and after he had obtained his father's forgiveness, died 1718.
About this time, the Kubanski Tartars destroyed a Eussian
army under Pekovitch.

The northern, war was at last concluded by the Peace of

1721. N'ystadt,onthe 10th September, 1721, which restored Livonia,
Esthonia, Jnghermanland, Karelia, and part of Finland to
Eussia. In consequence of this glorious success, the senate
entreated Peter to accept the title of Emperor and " the
Great," to which request he graciously consented.
As soon as peace had been concluded, Peter erected exten-

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 291

sive docks and warehouses in St. Petersburg, forced the rich
nobility into the building of long streets of palaces by a
given time, under a penalty of confiscation of property, and
promenades to Siberia. In his usual forcible manner attract-
ing inhabitants, and by the grant of particularly favourable
conditions to maritime nations, he soon converted St. Peters-
burg into a capital and port of the first rank. He began
also the construction of a canal connecting the Ladoga lake
with the Black Sea, which work was subsequently finished
by Miinnich.

In 1722, he forced again a war upon Persia, by which he 1722.
wrested from that power Daghestan, Shirvan, Ghilan,
Mazenderan, and Asterabad. He was, however, less success-
ful in subduing the free nomadic tribes of Siberia, and in
the cultivation of that country. In the year 1724, lie had 1724.
his wife Catharina crowned, with a view to securing the throne
to her ; and founded in the same year the Academy of Sciences
at St. Petersburg. While pondering over many other inno-
vations, death surprised him, on the 8th February, 1725. 1725.

CHAPTER XXX.

SEVENTH PEEIOD (1725—1812).

CATHAEINA I. (1725-1727).

Thanks to the influence of Menzhikov and several other
grandees, including the Archbishop Theophanes, the widow
of Peter the Great was proclaimed Empress under the title
of Catharina I.

This Empress gained the affection of the people by her
mild firmness, and satisfied the Zaporoghian Cossacks by
restoring to them those privi]eges which Czar Peter had
deprived them of. More interested in the internal welfare of
the empire than in foreign conquests, she opened the Academy
of Sciences, which her husband had founded, and curtailed
the power of the clergy in more than one respect.

1727. In the year 1727, she concluded a commercial treaty with
China, and formed an alliance of mutual defence and sup-
port with Austria and Spain in 1726.

Successful in a new war with Persia, she yet made a very
moderate use of Matuvskin's victories, inasmuch as she
returned all the conquered territory for an advantageous
treaty of commerce with that power. Having entered into
an alliance with Sweden against Denmark, she had made
already great preparations for a war against the latter, when
it concluded a defensive alliance with England, which stopped
hostilities before they had properly begun. Catharina I.

1727. died in 1727, and in conformity with her will was succeeded
by Peter the Great's grandson and the son of Alexej, then
eleven years old.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 293

PETEK II. ALEXEJEVITCH (1727-1730).

According to that will, a Council or Board of guardians
was to have directed the affairs of the empire until Peter II.
should have attained his seventeenth year; soon, however,
Menzhikov exclusively usurped the reins of government, and
affianced the Emperor to his daughter Maria, and his son
with Peter's sister. Six months later only, the great man
was thrown from his high station into the most abject misery,
by Prince Alexander Dolgoruki, who sent him to Siberia,
and affianced the emperor to his sister Catharina Dolgoruki.
While in power, Menzhikov had been an intriguing, grasping,
greedy, and cruel tyrant ; but he supported his misfortune
with great dignity. Peter II. was a peace-loving prince,
and little troubled his head about foreign policy. He recalled
his grandmother Eudoxia from her convent, removed the
court to Moscow, and left the affairs of the government in
the minister Ostermann's hands. He died unexpectedly of
small-pox, on the 19th January, 1730. Dolgoruki now 1730,
endeavoured to have his sister, the affianced bride of the late
Czar, made Empress, but without success ; for

ANNA IVANOVNA (1730-1740),

daughter of Ivan, Peter's half-brother, and widow of the
Duke of Courland, obtained the crown. Before she was
allowed to ascend the throne, she was obliged to sign an
Act, by which she admitted the right of the senate to decide
on peace or war, and promised never to confiscate any estates,
and above all to send away her favourite Biron, or Biren,
without a day's delay.

Anna agreed to every condition, but a few days after, she
declared herself imposed upon, her promises extracted by
deception and force, and therefore not binding, and at once
handed the reins of government to Biron. The latter availed
himself of his power to send Prince Dolgoruki together with
20,000 other Eussians to Siberia, to banish the Galyczins,

291 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

and send others, obnoxious to himself, to the scaffold. It
was he, who henceforth governed in the name of the Empress.
As it. did not suit her at that time to go to war with Persia,
Anna ceded all former conquests south of the River Kour to
that power, but obtained important concessions regarding
the commercial relations of the two countries, as well as the
advantage of an alliance against Turkey.

About this time began the first differences respecting the
succession to the Polish throne. Russia supported Augustus
III. by an army, which conquered Dantzig, whither the ex-
King, )Stanislaus Lesczinski (who was backed by France),
had fled. August III. ascended the throne, and Russia's
influence in Poland was henceforth permanently secured.

A year later, Anna declared war against Turkey, Austria
having claimed her assistance, according to the Treaty of
Alliance existing between the two powers. An army under
Miinnich devastated the Crimea, and took Azov, but was

1737. compelled to retreat ; until a second expedition(1737)brought
Otchakov, Khotin, and the whole of Moldavia into the power

1739. of the Russians. In the year 1739 the war broke out again,
until after the victories of Stavudchin (or Stavtchany) and
Khotin, peace was at last concluded, according to v.hich
Russia kept Azov, but had to raze the fortifications, and
abstain from the navigation of the Black Sea. All these
advantages were, however, soon lost, in consequence of the
unfortunate campaign of the Austrians, and the Peace of
Belgrade ; but the influence of Russia and respect of its
cabinet had considerably gained.

j-iQ Anna Ivanovna died on the 28th October, 1740, and was
succeeded by the son of her niece, Anna of Meklenburg,
whom she had adopted already in 1731, and married to the
Duke Ulrich of Brunswick-Liineburg. Biron, already in

1737. 1737, had been made Duke of Meklenburg, and was now
appointed regent ; but rendered himself so obnoxious, that
Generals Miinnich and JIanstein, on the 7th Xovember, 1740,
arrested and locked him up in Schliisselbtirg. The Duchess
Anna, now declared regent, lived on very Lad terms with her

HISTORY OP RUSSIA. 295

husband, and on several occasions seriously offended Miinnich
and Ostermann. Intriguing for the marriage of Elizabeth,
daughter of Peter the Great by Catharina, to Prince Ludwig
of Brunswick, against the princess' inclination, she brought
upon herself and Ivan a conspiracy, which was principally
the work of the French ambassador. Bribed by French
money, the Preobrazhenski regiment surprised the regent,
her spouse, and Ivan (6th December, 1741), and carried them
off to Schliisselburg. Ivan, liberated by a monk, was carried
as far as Smolensk, where, however, he was caught again,
and brought back ; until after a long imprisonment in the
reign of Catharina II. , on the occasion of an attempt on the
part of Lieutenant Mislovitch to set him free (1763), he was i''63.
killed by order of the commanding governor, who had his
instructions to that effect.

ELIZABETH PETEOVNA (1741 1762)

was now proclaimed Empress, and commenced her reign by
banishing all the high standing members of the last Govern-
ments (amongst whom Miinnich and Ostermann) to Siberia.
She sent Anna and her husband to Germany, but had them
soon arrested again, and transported to an island in the
White Sea.

The intrigues of the French ambassador, who wished to
prevent the Russian Government from co-operating with
Maria Theresia, as by treaty they were bound, had embroiled
Anna into a war with Sweden (1744), which Elizabeth l^^l-
carried on with much energy. The Russian army, under
the command of General Lascy, penetrated into Finland,
where they captured on the 3rd September, 1741, General
Wrangel with the greater part of his army, near Wilmans-
strand, and France not succeeding in bringing about a
reconciliation between the two powers, Lascy took the whole
of Finland, until, on the 7th August, 1743, the peace of 1743.
Abo put an end to hostilities. Sweden was obliged to cede
Finland as far as the Kymene River. In the same year

296 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Elizabeth declared the Duke Charles Peter Ulrich, of Hol-
stein-Grottorp, son of her sister Anna and of the Duke
Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, her successor, in
consideration of which the latter transferred his claim to the
Swedish crown to his uncle, Adolph Frederick, thereby
securing the influence of Russia in that direction also.

A conspiracy got up at this time by the relatives and
friends of the exiled Golovkins, Lorendolds, itc, was dis-

l''*^- covered and punished with cruel severity. In 1744 Elizabeth
entered into an alliance offensive and defensive with Austria,
in revenge for some sarcastic remarks on the part of Frederick
the Great of Prussia, who used to speak of her as the

1747 " Catin du Xord." In ] 747 she sent an army against
Prussia, which brought about the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
During the same year she married her successor to the
Princess Frederika of Anhalt-Zerbst, who, on entering the
Eussian church, took the name of Catharina Alexeyevna.
Constantly irritated against Prussia by Austria, she, in

1757. 17-57, sent a second army to Germany. On the 5th Januhry,

176?. 1762, she died without seeing the darling wish of her heart
(Prussia's annihilation) fulfilled.

PETEE THE THIRD (5th January to 14th July, 1762),

her nephew and successor, with much energy and circum-
spection tried to strengthen his government and raise the
civilization of his country to the same level as that of the
other European states. An enthusiastic admirer of Fre-
derick the Great, he concluded peace with the latter, and
even formed an alliance with him. He consequently sent
an army against Denmark, which had encroached upon the
country of his family.

He actively busied himself with the reform of all the
government institutions of the empire, but offended thereby
the interests of all classes. The army, notwithstanding
the abolition of corporeal punishment, were dissatisfied
about the introduction of Prussian tactics and discipline,

HISTORY OF RUSSIA, , 297

and jealous of the newly-formed Holstein body-guard. He
deprived the clergy of a part of their estates and revenues,
interdicted the wearing of beards by secular priests, checked
the pretensions of the nobility, whom Elizabeth had always
encouraged, and did away with many abuses, especially with
those attending the appointments to government offices.
Owing to his attachment to the Countess Voronzov he
quarrelled with his wife, who indemnified herself by her
intrigues with Poniatovski, Soltikov, the Orloffs, and others.
As their differences became more frequent and violent every
day, Peter resolved on a divorce and the imprisonment of
his wife in a convent. Oatharina, informed of his intentions,
at once conspired with her favourites, the Orloffs, Dashkovs,
Count Panin, &c., with a view to her husband's deposition
and perhaps death. Although the conspiracy was betrayed,
she went on the 29th June, 1762, to the barracks of the
guards at St. Petersburg, and informing them of the Czar's
death, she got the men to swear to her the oath of fidelity.
Senator Teplov, who in the Kazanski Church was to have
proclaimed the son of Catharina and Peter, had another
proclamation thrust into his hands by Count Orloff, which
declared Catharina Empress; and the nobility and army,
dissatisfied with Peter, hailed her as such. The latter,
apprized of the turn his affairs were taking, fled to Cronstadt,
but found that his adversaries had already locked its gates
against him. He then demanded from the new sovereign
the permission to go with the Countess Voronzov to Holstein,
but he was betrayed and brought to Oraminburg and there
forced to abdicate. Owing, however, to some voices growing
loud in his favour he was vilely murdered in prison by the
brothers Orloff and a hired assassin. They tried first to
poison him, but Peter, detecting the poison, refused to
drink of the glass. The murderers then called to their aid
Boriatinski, who commanded the place, and the unhappy
Czar was strangled. This happened on the ]4th July,
1762. 1762.

^^"^ THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

CATHAEINA II., ALEX^YETXA (1762 — 1796),

■who had not scrupled to sacrifice her husband to her ambi-
tion, knew also how to get rid of other possible pretenders
to the crown. Ivan was assassinated in his wretched prison
1763. in 1763, and a daughter of Elizabeth, and the master of the
Imperial Hunt, Easoumovski (secretly married to the latter),
who had been quietly living at Pisa, was carried off, and
disappeared in Cronstadt. She broke the alliance with
Prussia, but maintained peace, desirous of relieving the
country of the burden of war. Catharina henceforth applied
herself with great energy and ability to the affairs of the
empire, attracted German colonists to the land, founded
villages and granaries, and paid great attention to agricul-
ture. More than 80,000 families of sober and hardworking
farmers were thus introduced into the desert steppes of the
Volga and Sarpa. She founded about 200 towns and nu-
merous schools and educational establishments for the higher
as well as the lower classes. In 1764 a school was attached
to the Academy of Arts, and several clerical seminaries, as
well as an academy for the perfection of the Eussian lan-
guage, were established during her reign.

Desirous of improving the system of legislation of the
country, Catharina convoked (1766) an assembly of deputies
from all the nations composing the vast empire of Russia
to Moscow, with a view to arriving at the compilation of a
code of laws, which would meet the exigencies of all, but
did not succeed on account of the diversity of nationalities
and degrees of civilization. She had several canals opened,
and decreed in 1785 new maritime laws and shipping regu-
lations. She intended also the abolition of serfdom, but the
resistance of the landed proprietors frustrated her design.
Mining operations were carried on with so much energy
during her reign, that they increased the revenues of the
state by seven to nine millions of pounds sterling. The
navy was raised to 45 vessels of the line, and the army to
450,000 men. She forced the aristocracy of Courland to

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 299

depose their Duke of Saxony, whom Poland had appointed,
and to put in his place Biren, who had regained his liberty.
On the death of Augustus III. of Poland she used her influ-
ence to get her old favourite, Stanislaus Poniatovski ap-
pointed King (in 1764). On the 30th October, 1768, the 1764.
Porte, at the instigation of Polish agitators, declared war
against Kussia, availing themselves of the excuse offered
by the demolition of the Turkish town Balla. But the
Turkish arms proved unlucky, as their army was beaten on
the 17th September, 1769, by Prince Galyczin at Khotin, 1769.
who, moreover, occupied the greater part of Vallachia.
While Orlpff with his fleet had the command of the
Bosphorus, General Eomanzov on land threw the Turks
back as far as Isakin. General Medom stirred up the
Caucasian Mountaineers, and Ali Bey, the Princes of Karthli
and Kakheti, and the Mainoots of the Morea. The naval vic-
tories of Orloff completed the critical position of the Turks.
The Russian fleet, which had sailed from the Baltic into
Greek waters, obtained on the 5th of July, 1770, a victory 1770.
near Skio, burnt the remnant of the Turkish fleet at Tchesme,
and destroyed another squadron (a portion of the former) at
Andros on the 17th July. Although Romanzov's army
had . been decimated by hunger and plague in Moldavia,
he gained on the 18th July a victory at Karga, and on the
1st of August another near the lake of Kagul. The plague
communicated itself to the whole of Turkey, Podolia, Vol-
hynia, and Moscow, which city had not less than 100,000
dead. The Grand- Vizier Halil-Pasha having meanwhile
fled across the Danube, Panin had taken Bender and over-
run Bessarabia. Dolgorouki, having relieved Panin, in
1771 occupied the Crimea and appointed a new Khan, 1771
Sahib Ghirai, who acknowledged the Russian supremacy,
of which facts the conquest of Azov and the establishment
of a Black Sea fleet was the immediate consequence. The
Russian army, after having sustained a defeat at Giur-
gevo, was victorious again on the 30th October, 1771, at
Boukharest, while General Weismann on the 25th had sur-

300 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

prised the Turkish camp at Babadagh. The Prince of Georgia
and Ali Bey rpse again, and the downfall of the Porte
seemed already inevitable, when Austria entered into an
alliance with Turkey, and concentrated considerable forces
on the confines of Moldavia, Prussia now brought about an
armistice, during which the partition of Poland took place,
an event which rendered the three powers highly satis-
fied with each other. Russia's share consisted in half of
Polotsk and part of Minsk, Vitebsk, and ilohilev, altogether
about 3000 square miles, with two millions of inhabitants.

1773. In the year 1773, the Turkish war was opened again, but
did not at first prove fortunate for the Russian arms. On
the 21st June, 1773, the Russians were defeated and driven
across the Danube by Hassan Pasha, so that Romanzov, after
the loss of another battle, had to relinquish the idea of con-
quering Silistria. The death of Mustapha III. (11th January,

1774. 1774), and the revolt of the Yanitshars, gave, however, new
courage to Romanzov. He at once re-crossed the Danube,
surrounded Sdistria and Rustchuk, and defeated the Grand-
Vizier Mehemed near Badzardshik. The vizier lost his
baggage, was shut up in Bulgaria, and forced on the 21st
July, 17 74, to sign the treaty of peace of Kutchuk-Kalnardshi,
by which the Porte ceded to the Russians the fortresses of
Yanikale, Kertch, Kinburn, and the territories between the
Bong and Dnjepr, gave up all opposition to the Russian
navigation of the Black Sea and Dardanelles, acknowledged
the independence of the Crimea, and engaged to pay an
indemnity of 5,000,000 dollars.

1775. In the year 1775, a common Cossack of the Ural or Talk
river, Pougatshev, representing himself to be the murdered
Czar, Peter III., caused a dangerous rebellion, which extended
over the governments of Orenburg and Kazan, and main-
tained himself against the Russian generals, Gralyczin and
Souvarov. On the march upon Moscow, however, he was
met and defeated by Colonel Michelsen, and having been
given up to the Russians by his own officers, was executed at
Moscow.

HISTORY OP RUSSIA. 301

The Russian policy from this time increased daily in im-
portance. The already much-clipped Poland was kept in
a state of dependence by the establishment of the continuous
Council, by the guarantee of the Electorate and the
" Liberum veto." Together with Frederick the G-reat, the
Russian government encouraged the party strife in Sweden,
and thus kept that country in a state of weakness and con-
fusion.

In 1778, the independent Crimea was occupied without 1778.
even a remonstrance on the part of the enfeebled Turks, and
the Bavarian war of succession was stopped by the mere
threat of an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia.

The armed neutrality, proposed by Palen, and established
in 1780, was the work of Russia. 1780.

Catharina upheld the principle, that the commerce with
belligerent powers should be permitted to all vessels sailing
under a neutral flag, provided they strictly abstained from
trading in military stores. This system was adopted by
Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Prussia, and even by the powers
actually at war with England, such as France, Spain, and
Holland.

Catharina's favourite scheme was the destruction of the
Turkish and the re-establishment of the Greek Empire,
which she had destined for her second grandson Constantino,
who, to that end, received a G-reek education. Austria
offered a helping hand towards the execution of this scheme.
Jealous of the Russo-Prussian alliance, Joseph II. proposed
an interview at Mohilev, and a plan concerning the above
scheme was here agreed upon; and in 1783 was concluded
that alliance between Austria and Russia, which Frederick II.
had in vain endeavoured to prevent. Catharina pressed
extravagant demands on Turkey, and induced the Crimean
Khan, Sahib Ghirai, to cede his country to Russia. Both
powers prepared for war, which, however, owing to French
intercession, was prevented. On the 8th January, 1784,
they concluded a new peace, according to which the Crimen,
the Island of Taman, and the steppes on the Kuban were

302 THE LAXD OF THE CZAR.

ceded to Russia, who formed of these territories the govern-
ment of Tavrida. But Catharina had by no means relin-
quished her favourite scheme, and tried to rouse the Porte
again by her reception of Turkish refugees. In 1787 she
had another interview with Joseph IL at Kherson. Her
journey thither was one of triumph. On this occasion a
second alliance was formed between Austria and Russia, but
the Porte took the initiative and declared war against Russia
on the 24th August, 1787. The Austrian declaration of war
did not actually get launched before the month of February,
1788. Romanzov and Repnin advanced into Moldavia, but
neither there nor in the Crimea and the Kuban territory did
the Russians obtain any decisive results. At last, however,
Potemkin appeared on the scene as commander-in-chief, and
took Otchakov (17th December). The Russian fleet was
defeated at Sevastopol. After Grallatz had been taken on

1780. the 1st May, 1789, Souvarov gained a victory on the 31st
July at Fokshani ; and, in conjunction with the Prince of
Coburg, another near MartinezhtL Soon after fell Khotin,
Akkerman (13th October), Bender (15th November), Kilia-

iroo. nova (15th October, 1790), and, on the 22nd December,
Souvarov took Jsmail after an heroic defence and frightful
slaughter. Although the Austrians could show but small
results of their own operations under Loudon, the downfall
of the Porte seemed nevertheless to be close at hand, but
was prevented by the jealous interference of the other Euro-
pean powers. By the treaty of peace at Reichenbach in 1790,
Austria did not agree to any loss of territory on the part of
Turkey ; Prussia entered into an alliance with Turkey, while
Sweden had declared war against Russia already in 1788.

17S9. Gustavns III., in 1789, marched into Russian Finland, but
was repulsed on the 24th August near Hogsars. More for-
tunate at sea, he, after several losses near Reval, on the 15th
May, gained the celebrated battle of Fredericksham. Shut
up by the Prince of Nassau in Vyborg Sound, he, on the 3rd
July, near Shentasund, broke through the Russian fleet and
entirely destroyed it. St. Petersburg was in danger, and the

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 303

Empress prepared for flight ; but Sweden's victories on the
sea were not supported by the army, in which dangerous
mutinies had broken out. Gustavus III., therefore, on the
16th August, concluded the peace of Verelil, while the peace
of Yassi, on the 9th January, 1792, made an end of the 1792.
Turkish war. Eussia kept the Crimea, Otchakov, and the
territory between the Dnjepr and Dnjestr. The independence
of the Czar Heraklius of Tiflis or Georgia was formally con-
firmed on this occasion.

Catharina now had again time to direct her attention to
Poland. That unfortunate country, on the 1st May, 1791, 1791.
had decided on a constitution ; but Russia found an excuse
for interfering in the celebrated Targovits Confederation,
which had been dictated by Catharina herself. This led to
a new partition of Poland by the convention of Grodno,
resulting for Russia in the acquisition of the greater part of
Lithuania, Little Poland, and the Oukraine, a territory com-
prising 4553 square miles. Two years later, however, on
the 26th January, 1797, the last remnant of the unhappy 1797.
country was divided between Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
-Russia's share consisted of the remainder of Lithuania and
Samoghitia, all Volhynia, and some parts of Brzesk and
Khelm. In Courland, the antagonism between aristocracy
and " bourgeoisie," by secret fanning, was driven to so
furious a height, that the former in 1795 appealed to Russia, 1795.
and the childless duke, Peter of Courland, a son of Biren,
for a consideration, ceded his rights to Catharina. Towards
France she observed a strict neutrality during the revolution ;
and in 1787 only took notice of the altered form of govern-
ment by annulling the treaty of commerce existing between
the two countries. A short time before her death she
allowed herself to get entangled in a war with Persia on pre-
tence of maintaining the rights of Prince Heraklius of
Georgia. The conquests of this reign increased the Russian
dominions by 11,000 square miles, but at the expense of
1,000,000 men and a most embarrassed exchequer. In the
midst of new projects, death surprised her on the 17th 1796.
November, 1796.

304 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

PAUL I., PETEOVITCH (1796 — 1801),

her successor and only son, took a still more active interest
in the aiFairs of the other European States than Catharina
had done, but in consequence of the system of subjection and
dependence, which had been imposed upon him by his mother,
who never had shown any affection for him, his character had
been rendered wayward, capricious, and harsh. One of the
first acts of his government was the liberation of the Polish
captives, amongst whom was Kosziusko, and an amnesty to
many of the Siberian exiles. Averse to war, he dissolved the
treaty of subsidies with England, and stopped the enlisting
of recruits. All the civil government offices were subjected
to a most severe control, many of the officials dismissed and
others appointed in their places; the Guards lost their
privileges, the sons of the high nobility the right of occupying
the places of officers before they had gained manhood, Prus-
sian uniforms were introduced, and the military service carried
on according to the Prussian system. The general dissatis-
faction created by his innovations rendered him distrustful ;
a secret police was established, and the press strictly con-
trolled. To prevent the influx of revolutionary ideas no
Russian subject was allowed to leave the country. In the

1797. year 1797 Paul decreed a law of succession, establishing the
right of primogeniture, in the male line, and admitting the
female line only in the case of the dying out of the former.
He was extremely shocked by all he heard of the French
Revolution, strictly forbade everything coming from France,

17!:'8. and in 1798, having formed an alliance with the Powers
hostile to that country, he declared war to the latter. On
the 20th Sept., his fleet, conjointly with the Turkish, opened
hostilities, and the year after he sent Souvarov to Italy with
an army of 80,000 men. Jealous of England, which had kept
the fleet taken from the Dutch in the Texel entirely for its
own share, as well as of Austria, whom he suspected of
aggressive intentions regarding Savoy and the Papal States,

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 305

he soon broke away again from the alliance. To oblige Bona-
parte, who distinguished him by marked courtesy, he expelled
the French emigrants, amongst whom was also Louis XVIII. ,
from his dominions, prohibited the exportation of ship-build-
ing material to England, recalled his ambassador from Vienna,
and removed the armed neutrality against England, after he
had seized upon all English vessels then lying at the Russian
ports. In the Mediterranean alone hostilities were still con-
tinued. Russia occupied the Republic of the Seven Islands,
and her importance considerably rose in the eyes of the world.
In the meantime Paul's harsh manner, and the unbending-
severity with which he treated the highest officers of the
State, had provoked a formidable conspiracy. His suspicions
of the same soon becoming evident, the imprisonment of his
Empress Maria and of the Grand Duke Alexander was al-
ready generally expected, when the mine was suddenly fired in
the night from the 23rd to the 24th March, 1801. He was
surprised in the Mikhailov Palace at St. Petersburg by a
party of conspirators, who, after a stout resistance on his
part, put him to death. He was succeeded by his eldest son

ALEXANDER I., PAVLOVITCH (1801 — 1825).

In conjunction with the Scandinavian States, Paul had re-
vived the system of an armed neutrality. This demonstra-
tion became fatal to Denmark, which now came in for all the
angry resentment of England, and would probably have pro-
duced a rupture with that power, if the sudden death of Paul
and the ascension to the throne of Alexander I. had not
brought about a complete revolution of political conditions.
The first step of the latter was more than conciliatory to
Great Britain ; but sincerely bent on the pacification of
Europe, he endeavoured also to improve his relations with
France. At the same time his wise ambition energetically
laboured at the internal development of his people and
country. However, Napoleon's ambition pointed in another
direction, and Alexander came to the conclusion, that warlike

306 THE LAXD OF THE CZAR.

demonstrations alone would effect the pacification of the world.

1S05. He accordingly, in the year 1805, formed an alliance with

1807. Austria, and in 1807 with Prussia, but the fortune of
war during the next two campaigns had declared against the
allied armies, so that it was Napoleon who dictated the condi-
tions of the Peace of Tilsit. Russia obtained Bialystock, but
Alexander had to recall his troops from Cattaro and Corfu,
give up aU connection with England, and declare war against
Sweden, which alone staunchly stuck to the British alliance.
The peace of Fredericksham, which terminated the Swedish

1S09. war in 1809, got Russia the whole of Finland, with the Aland
Islands. Although Napoleon's ally, Alexander yet took but
a feeble part in the Austro-French war of the same year,
but he operated all the more energetically against Turkey
and Persia. The battle of TTagram (1809) resulting in the
Peace of Vienna, Russia obtained part of Galizia (district of
Tarnopol), which she, however, after the war, restored to
Austria. The good understanding between the St. Petersburg
and Paris cabinets, however, did not last long. The spoliation
of the Duke of Oldenburg, a relative of Alexander, caused a
rupture, which resulted in the famous campaign of 1812.

An army of 560,000 men, composed of French and auxiliary
troops, and supported by the corps of reserve, which Austria
and Prussia, in their state of abasement, were obliged to dis-
pose on their frontiers, commanded by Napoleon in person,

1812. crossed the river Njdmen on the 24th June, 1812, and took
Smolensk, on the 18th August. Alarmed by the imminent
danger Alexander had called back from the Turkish frontier
the army of General Koutouzov, whom he appointed com-
mander-in-chief. Ably effecting a junction of the corps of
Generals Barclay de Tolly and Bagrathion with his own, he
hastily threw up entrenchments near the Moskva, and awaited
the approach of Napoleon. A furious battle ensued on the
7 th September, which is known under the name of the
Moskva, or Borodino, and which cost 35,000 lives. The
road to Moscow, however, was now open to the French,
and Napoleon held his entry into the Kreml on the 1 5th

HISrOHY OP KUSSIA. 307

September. But his fortune and genius seemed to forsake
him from that day. He had been surprised at the dead
silence that pervaded the deserted city, but he soon was
enlightened on the cause by a general conflagration flaming
up in every direction, which, in a few days, reduced the city
to a heap of ashes. It was a grand and unexampled sacrifice
that the inhabitants of Moscow had thus brought to their
country, and crowned with complete success. Napoleon seemed
to be almost stupified at the unexpected turn his affairs had
taken, and he lost a whole precious month in negotiations of
peace. At last, on the 18 th October, he evacuated the yet
smoky ruins of Moscow. Cold and hunger, more even than
the enemy, who incessantly harassed him in the rear, brought
about the utter destruction of his gallant army, which, after
the disastrous passage of the Beresina (25th November),
became a mere chaotic wreck, amounting to hardly
90,000 men.

In reward for the efforts Eussia had made for the delivery
of Europe, she received the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which
was converted into a constitutional kingdom. Russia retained
all her formerly conquered territories, and acquired from this
time a very marked preponderance in Europe. From this
moment the consolidation of the general peace became the
object of Alexander, and inspired him above all with the idea
of the Holy Alliance, of which he remained the soul as long
as he lived.

Intimidated by the successes of the Eussian arms, the Porte,
by the Treaty of Boukharest (in 1812) had ceded to Eussia
the whole of Bessarabia, and a part of Moldavia. The exact
demarkation of the thus acquired territory was ultimately
defined in 1817, but the Divan subsequently raised difiiculties
about the fulfilment of the conditions referring to the two
principalities of Vallachia and Moldavia, which the Czar had
taken under his protection.

The Greeks, who had risen against Mussulman oppression
since 1821, and the Moldavian agitators had founded their
success on the cabinet of St. Petersburg, and were urgently

308 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

soliciting its powerful support. The French revolution, and
its consequences, had, however, instilled into the mind of
the otherwise so generous and liberally-minded Alexander an
almost nervous horror of anything like revolutionary enter-
prises ; and, in despite of his own grievances even, he refused
to break entirely with the Ottoman Porte by an active inter-
vention in favour of his co-religionaries, the Greeks. The
same feeling made him constantly exercise Eussia's influence
in opposition to the desires of liberty, which animated the
populations at the time of the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle,
Troppau, Laibach, and Verona. He died of typhus at Tagan-
1825. rog on the 1st December, 1825.

His memory will be for ever revered, not only in Russia,
but by the whole world. His genuine piety, though fre-
quently abused by hypocritical courtiers, exercised neverthe-
less the most beneficial influence in many ways, and led to
a thorough reform of the Eussian Church. How sincerely
Alexander respected a pious and religious spirit has been
proved by his friendship for Madame Von Kriidener and other
kindred spirits. Innumerable are the proofs of his personal
courage, the goodness of his heart, his sense of justice and
humanity. For the saving of a poor peasant (who had fallen
into the Vilna) at the risk of his own life, the London Humane
Society awarded Alexander their gold medal, an honour which
he prized higher than all the glittering stars that covered his
breast. The power of Russia under Alexander rose to a
height which Peter the Great could not have foreseen. The
acquisition of Grouzia, Bialystock, Finland, the kingdom of
Poland, Shirvan, and Bessarabia secured the frontiers, and
increased the number of its subjects of the empire by
10,000,000 of souls.

But far more important is the enhancement of the moral
power, and the steering of the old cabinet policy of Eussia
into the stream of ideas, which enabled that power hence-
forth to follow up schemes, which at another time would
have armed aU the world against her. Alexander's person-
ality ennobled, as it were, the Russian policy, for nobody

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 309

ever suspected his endeavours of being dictated by any but
the most noble and humane motives. He was succeeded
by his third brother, Nicholas, the second, the Grand-Duke
Constantine having formally declined the assumption of the
imperial dignity.

NICHOLAS I., PAVLOVITCH (1825-1855).

Although his elder brother, the Grand-Duke Constantine,
had formally declined the throne, already during Alexander's
time, Nicholas for a long time refused to accept of the Crown
in the fear of weakening the law of succession by so doing,
and only after his brother had solemnly repeated his former
declaration, did he consent to the signing "of the Act of
Ascension to the Throne, which took place on the 24th
December, 1825. The long campaigns in Germany and i825.
France had somewhat demoralized the Russian army, and
infused a revolutionary spirit into its ranks, which gave
rise to a conspiracy, the object of which was the substitu-
tion of a republican form of government in lieu of the
former system of absolutism.

The middle and lower classes, owing to their ignorance of
foreign affairs and low degree of civilization, were absolute
strangers to these new ideas, and only in the bosom of the
aristocracy and in the corps of officers glowed the fire of
revolution. Since Boris Godounov their minds had become
familiarized with the idea of tyrannicide, and in this instance
they intended nothing less than to open the projected move-
ment with the assassination of the Imperial family. The
standard of revolution was to have been raised in May,
but Alexander's death altered the original plan of action.
As they doubted the capability of the people being inspired
sufficiently for their purpose by republican ideas, they
made the holding back of the Grand-Duke Constantine
the ostensible motive of rebellion, declaring that he had
declined the throne only in consequence of violent pressure
having been brought to bear on him by Nicholas. Knowing

310 THE LAXD OF THE CZAE.

their plot betrayed, some regiments of the Guards already
on the 26th December, 1825, under Colonel Pestel, stood np
in arms against Xicholas. They rapidly gained strength, but
just as promptly were they encountered by the new Czar, who,
when he found that kind persuasion was of no avail, crushed
the revolt with an energy that has not been forgotten to this
day. It must be said that the Czar Xicholas felt the greatest
repugnance to such a beginning of his reign, and it was only
after the governor of St. Petersburg, ililoradovitch, together
with four or five officers of his staff', whom the Czar had
sent to remonstrate with the rebellious guards, had been
greeted by the cries for a republic and shot down, that he
gave the signal for the attack. Another attempt, which was
made at Kiev by Lieutenant- Colonel Mouraviev-Apostol
with part of the Tchernigov regiment, was also suppressed at
once. Jlouraviev, Pestel, and Kakhovski, with two others,
who had shot the governor, were hung at St. Petersburg,
and fifty-two more of the officers were at once sent off to
the Siberian diggings. Prince Troubetskoi having implored
the Emperor's pardon, received the following answer : —
" Sit down and write to the Princess, your wife, as I dictate :
' I am well, and have saved my life.' " But the prince was
sent to Siberia, accompanied by his noble-minded wife. The
Ladies Sergius Volkonski, Xaryzhkin, Alexandrina and
Xikita Mouraviev, heroically shared the exile of their hus-
bands. It must, however, be borne in mind that the Siberian
exile in the case of political criminals, is by no means so
dreadful as many authors (particularly Polish) have endeav-
oured to represent it. The writer of this historical sketch
has seen several Polish exiles, who in consequence of an
amnesty extended to them by the Emperor Xicholas, had
returned to Russia and been presented with magnificent
estates in the government of Kherson, who spoke with tears
of regret of the happy, patriarchal time spent in the south of
Siberia. One of them, a gentleman of seventy, had actually
petitioned the Czar for the permission to return to that little-
understood land of banishment, where he had passed thirty

HISTOUY OP RUSSIA. oil

of the most happy years of his life, and who considered him-
self much aggrieved at the Emperor's refusal.

The suppression of this revolt, the unhappy overture to his
reign, seems to have made a lasting impression on the Em-
peror's mind. The trial of the conspirators had brought to
light such monstrous abuses of confidence and dishonest
practices, that the energy with which the Czar Nicholas
applied himself to the purification of the air in all govern-
mental departments, exceeded by no means the. limits of
necessity. His punishment was unrelenting and severe, and
some of the unrighteous cashiers anticipated it by their own
hands.

Catharina had left the country burdened with a heavy
debt, which the French war had not improved, and Nicholas
saw himself compelled to economise his resources by cur-
tailing the emoluments of the numerous officials. Many of
the officers of the State, too honourable to increase their
income by oppression and dishonest acts, slowly died of gen-
teel starvation, while others, less scrupulous, deemed them-
selves justified in reaping where they had not sown. On the
3rd September, 1826, Nicholas and his Empress Alexandra 1826.
were crowned at Moscow. The latter was a sister of the pre-
sent Emperor William of Germany, and a princess of the
most noble and amiable qualities. Her influence on her
stern husband, who was devotedly attached to her, was of
the most beneficial kind.

Nicholas I. had hardly settled down at the head of the
empire, when difficulties arose with Persia respecting the
demarcation of the line of frontier, as laid down by the Tiflis
treaty of peace.

Although Prince Murzikov had been sent to Teheran for the
purpose of finally arranging this matter, and while still at
that city, Abbas Mirza, the son of the Shah, apprised of the
revolt of St. Petersburg and Kiev, thought this a good oppor-
tunity for a renewal of hostilities. He accordingly crossed
the frontier at the head of an army of 30,000 men, and stir-
ring up by the way the Mohamedan subjects of the Russian

312 THE LAKD OP THE CZAR.

1826. Crown, got as far as Elizabetlipol, where, on the 14th Sep-
tember, he was defeated by Yermalov, and forced to evacuate
that town. In consequence of a second defeat on the 25th
September, he retreated to the southern bank of the Araxes.
Paskjevitch, successor of Yermalov, carried the war on to
the Persian soil, and began by storming the fortified con-
vent of Etchmadsin. After many indecisive engagements.
General Pankratiev succeeded in seducing several of the allies
of Persia from their allegiance, owing to which, on the
6th July, the Persians lost the battle of Nakhitshevan, on
the 7th the fortress of Abbas Adad, and soon after the
battle of Abaran. The Russian army now occupied the
province of Erivan. The fortresses of Sardar Abad and of
Erivan surrendered on the 8th October. After so many
reverses and the loss of Kurtash and Tauris, which fell
without offering any resistance, Abbas Mirza sued for peace,
which was also concluded on the 2nd November, and in
virtue whereof Erivan and Nakhitchevan became Russian
provinces. The Persians, moreover, agreed to pay an indem-
nity of 80 millions of roubles, which not punctually forth-

1828. coming had to be enforced in 1828 by the occupation of
Urbia and Arbebil, to get rid of which the Shah, in addition,
ceded the saline springs of Kulpi.

In 1826 clouds of war arose from the Turkish region, but
were dispelled by the treaty of the 6th October, which granted
all the demands of Russia.

At the Congress of London in 1825, Russia advocated the
cause of the Greeks, but England, though deeply sympa-
thizing with that unhappy nation, objected to any enfeeblement
of Turkey. Greece was, however, declared an independent
state. The united squadrons of England, Russia, and France,

1827. on the 20th October, 1827, defeated the Turkish fleet at
Navarino, while the Russian army (having invaded Mol-
davia and Vallachia) took Braila and Varna.

1829. Next year General Count Diebitsh Zabalkansky succeeded
in taking Shumla, and gaining the victory of Madara. He
then crossed the Balkan Mountains, and took Adrianople.

HISTORY OP RUSSIA. 313

General Paskjevitcli, in the meantime, was most fortunate in
Asia. After the victorious battles of Konouly and Millidust,
he had taken Erzerum, and repulsed the Pasha of Tre-
bizond in every direction. The Sultan, in consequence of all
these reverses, was obliged to yield, and peace was at last es-
tablished by the Treaty of Adrianople of the 14th September,
1 829. Russia obtained the right of trading in Turkey, the
free navigation of the Black Sea, the return of six Serbian
districts to Prince Milosh, and an indemnity of war of
10 millions of ducats.

In return for the support of Eussia against the Viceroy of
Egypt (in 1833) the Porte entered into an alliance, offensive 1833.
and defensive, with Russia at Khunkiar-Jskelessi, by which
the Turkish Grovernment engaged, in case of a war be-
tween Russia and other foreign powers, to close the Dar-
danelles against the enemies of the former country. Not-
withstanding the strongest protests on the part of England
and France, who even sent their squadrons to the Archi-
pelago, Russia did not rescind this contract until it expired
in 1837.

The Emperor Nicholas had highly disapproved of the
measures adopted by the King of France, Charles X., and
predicted a revolution, the importance of which with regard
to Eastern Europe could not be foreseen.

By the advice of the crafty Pozzo di Borgo, Russian
ambassador at Paris, who gave the most satisfactory assur-
ances respecting the probable system of government of the
new citizen king, the July throne was promptly recognized
by Russia, as well as (at the London Congress of 1831) the
integrity of Belgium.

The victory of the French people could not, however, re-
main without a re-action on the Polish nation, whose country
had been turned into a Russian province, and was suffering
under the heavy hand of the Grand Duke Constantine. The
29 th November, 1 830, began with a revolution at Warsaw,
which expelled the Russians from the town. The Polish
patriots were, on the one band, supported by cholera morbus

314 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

(which not on]j- carried off thousands of Russian soldiers, but
the Grand Duke Constantine and General Diebitsh them-
selves) ; but, on the other, they were hampered, according to
their ancient practice, by discord and treason. Under these
circumstances they could not make head against their power-
ful antagonist, who, after many sanguinary battles, pushed
the shattered remnants of the Poles across the Austrian and
Prussian frontiers, and subjected the country to all the severity
of a rigorous military discipline, which sent thousands of
them to Siberia. The Polish army was dissolved and put
into Russian regiments, and the Polish constitution hence-
forth existed no more. Poland had been appropriated, and
there remained but absolute force to keep it. A new con-
spiracy, headed by Koinarski, being discovered, he, together
with several citizens and students of Yilna and Kiev,
were executed or exiled. With the aid of Prussia and
Aiistria all Poles were expelled from Cracow, Posen, and
Germany.

About this time the mountain tribes, who inhabited the
territory recently acquired from Persia, resisted the Russian,
rule, and lived in open rebellion against the latter. Owing
to the difficult country the Russians had the greatest trouble
in subduing these wild tribes, although they had an army of
l.^OjOOO men in the field against the latter. England, in
1835, concluded an alliance, offensive and defensive, with
these warlike mountaineers, and supplied them with arms
and ammunition, and although the coasts were severely
watched, and an English vessel earring arms, etc., was actually
captured by the Russians, the courage of the Caucasians
never abated. This war ended only with the capture of
Shamyl in 1859.

The Czar Nicholas, although an enthusiastic soldier, was
not a good general, and since 183.3 remodelled his army
according to the Prussian system, and abolished corporal
punishment almost entirely. He also encouraged the fine
arts and sciences, and showed himself most anxious to pro-
mote the perfection of the Russian language and literature.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 31 S

Karamzin, Pushkin, Bulgarin, Polevoy, Ustrzalov, Lermon-
tov, &c., were stars wliicli shone during his reign.

When Karamzin fell ill towards the end of his life, the
Czar offered to have a frigate fitted out expressly for him,
that he might perform his voyage to Italy surrounded with
comfort and attended by the best medical advisers. To this
advantage was attached moreover a pension of 7000Z.

He did not very graciously listen to the complaints of the
lower classes, which were oppressed by their proprietors,
although he is known to have been averse to the system of
serfdom, but the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 had rendered
him nervously sensitive to everything that in the remotest
degree seemed to manifest a spirit of insubordination. For
the same reason he interdicted the employment of foreign
teachers, and opposed many obstacles to his subjects travelling
abroad. Strange to say, while thus upholding serfdom within
his own dominions, he, on the 21st May, 1841, issued an
ukase, declaring the traffic with negroes amenable to the
penalties of piracy.

His greatest work is the new code of law, or " Svod zakon,"
which he began within the first six weeks after his acces-
sion to the throne. The Emperor found in Speranski the
most able instrument for the achievement of this gigantic
work.

The first publication of the Svod, at the end of 18.32,
was composed of fifteen quarto volumes, printed in double
columns, and embracing eight books of codes, 36,000 articles
(or 42,198 if the additions be included) are arranged therein
in 1499 chapters, and a very detailed table, in alphabetical
order, serves as a key and catalogue. The task of com-
pletion was committed after Speranski's death to Count
Bludoff, who prosecuted legal and judiciary reform with
energy and judgment. On the 15th August, 1845, he com-
pleted the codes of criminal and correctional laws.

The Czar Nicholas was a conscientious monarch, who
earnestly desired the welfare of his people, but the revolutioa
of 1848 seemed to have puzzled his understanding, as much as

316 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

it did that of most monarchs and people of that time. He
■was intensely disgusted at his brother-in-law's, Frederick
William IV. of Prussia, undecided measures, and he looked
upon the latter's removal of the military from Berlin and
participation in subsequent popular demonstrations, as upon
the acts of a madman.

1848. On the other hand, he highly approved of the manner in
which the Austrian Government was making head against
the revolution. He, therefore, when the rising of the Mag-
hyars threatened to make an end of the Austrian Empire,
sent an army of 1 70,000 men, under the command of Pask-
jevitch, Sass, and Riidiger, into Hungary, by which he
promptly suppressed the movement, and delivered many of
the noblest patriots to the scaffold, prepared for them by a
government, which, unaided, could not have resisted their
struggle for liberty and independence.

But his hardest trial was yet to come. The Oriental
question had given birth Lo the Crimean war. Anxious for
the integrity of the Turkish Empire and the much cited
European balance of power, the English and French govern-
ments had determined to operate such a check on Russia as
would for many years paralyze its power in the East. Eng-
land's object was the indirect defence of the Indian colonies,
and Louis Xapoleon eagerly availed himself of the opportunity
as the best means of consolidating his power by throwing to
his nation another sop of military glory, of which he felt
perfectly sure, backed up as he was by a power like England,
not to speak of Turkey and Piedmont, who, however, proved
no despicable allies.

It is not our purpose to add to this sketch a full descrip-
tion of the Crimean war, for, in the first instance, the limits
of this work do not allow of it, and then it is so recent an
event, and has been so fully and ably treated by some of the
most eminent authors of this country, that the public could
hardly feel interested by a condensed repetition in this
place.

1855. Since the death of Xicholas I. (in 18.5.5) the Russian Em-

HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 317

pire lias been governed by his eldest son, tbe present Czar
Alexander II., Nicholajevitcb, and if the former was wor-
shipped by his people with admiring awe, the present Emperor,
by his liberal institutions, and particularly by the abolition of
serfdom, has won not only the love of his own nation, but
the goodwdl and approbation of the whole world.

CHAPTER XXXL

THE CHUECH OF EUSSIA.

The first attempts at Christianization of the Eussian nations
date as far back as tlie ninth century, when Olga, the
■widow of the Grand Duke Igor Eurikovich, and mother
of the then reigning Grand Duke Svatoslav Igorovich,
underwent baptism at Constantinople (lq 955). She found,
however, no imitators for 33 years, when her grandson
Vladimir, after having carefully examined into the different
forms and doctrines of the Christian Churches, and deliber-
ately conferred witb the grandees of the Empire, decided for
the Oriental Eeligion, and was solemnly baptized by Greek
priests. With the zeal of a new convert he commanded all
his subjects to baptism. The old idols were publicly de-
stroyed in the great square of his capital, Kiev, and although,
the common people witnessed the fall of their old gods with
tearful grief, they were driven wholesale into the Dnjepr and
received baptism.

Kiev became henceforth the see of the Eussian Metropo-
litan and the ilonastery of the Caves, which Tladimir had
built, the centre of Christianizing efforts in Eussia. The
whole direction of Church matters was placed under the juris-
diction of the Greek Patriarchs at Constantinople. Omng
to this close connection with the Greek the Eussian Church
was not only drawn into dissensions with the Pope of Eome,
but inspired with deep aversion to the whole Western
Empire.

Attempts at reconcQiation made by the Popes Innocent
IIL (1208), Honorius III, (1227), and Innocent IV. (1248)
proved altogether futile.

THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 319

The Tartar Reiga of Terror (1240—1481) did not inter-
fere with the Church ; on the contrary, the wily Tartar Khans,
aware of the power of the priests over the minds of the
common people, favoured the Church by particular grants
and exemption from taxes.

In 1299 the seat of the Metropolitan was removed to
Vladimir, whence again in 1328 to Moscow. It was from
that city that the learned Metropolitan Isidor took part in
the celebrated Florentine Concilium, but all his endeavours
at a reconciliation with Rome was rendered useless by the
opposition of the Grand Duke Vassilj III. (Vassiljevich),
who obstinately refused to listen to any such scheme.

In the same measure as the system of the Russian dynasties
developed itself, so the Church gradually threw off Greek
supremacy and assumed hierarchic independence.

Vassilj III. (Vassiljevich) and his bishops accordingly
elected the new Metropolitan without further reference to
Constantinople, by which act all church authority was brought
within the Grand Duke's power, and became vested in fact
in his own person.

Ivan III. (Vassiljevich) went still greater lengths by
bestowing upon the ordained the shepherd's crook with his
own hand. After the Turkish conquest Greek influence was
altogether destroyed.

Czar Feodor, desirous of procuring for his church an
importance equal to that attending to the other Oriental
Churches, and profiting by the pecuniary embarrassments of
the Patriarch Jeremiah of Constantinople, proposed to him
and obtained the establishment of a Patriarch of Moscow in
the person of Job (1589), who subsequently ordained Arch-
bishops of Kazan, Novgorod, Rostov and Kruritzi ; but, not-
withstanding all this, the Muscovite Patriarchs, as late as
the middle of the seventeenth century (at least profm-ma)
applied for their recognition by the Constantinople patriarchs.
During the reign of Ivan IV. (Vassilyevich) another attempt
was made to amalgamate, if possible, the Russian and Roman
Churches. The Czar, anxious to induce the emigration of

320 THE LAXD OF THE CZAE.

TVest-European artists and artizans into his country, soli-
cited the Grerman Emperor's and the Pope's support, at the
same time holding out a chance of reconciliation. The Pope
at once complied with his request, and sent him the Jesuit
Possevin, who, however, by his immoderate zeal and pride
verj' soon brought all negociations to an abrupt close, hardly
escaping the honour of a seTcre castigation at the very hands
of the eccentric monarch himself. At the end of this article
we give an extract of the dialogue which had taken place on
this occasion between the Czar and the Jesuit.

After the fall of the Byzantine Empire the orthodox Czar
of the Muscovites became the natural patron of the orthodox
Oriental Church, and that under circumstances of supreme
power, such as the successors of Constantine the Great had
never enjoyed. This power reached its utmost height under
Peter I. Instead of immediately filling the vacant chair of.
Father Hadrian, who died in 1702, he allowed the people
time to get used to seeing the management of aU clerical
matters in the hands of a college of prelates, and in 1721
abolished the patriarchal dignity altogether, declaring the
said college the highest authority in the Church under the
title of " The Holy Synod."

AU bishops, prelates, metropolitans, kc, stood, under the
orders of this College, which again was under the direct
control of the Czar himself, for the latter had declared him-
self the Head of the Rtissian Church. This Cesareo-Papacy,
however, does not apparently endanger the clerical dignity
and the independent particularity of the Russian Church
system, as both are too deeply rooted in the character of the
Eussian people, as to become at all afiected by government
measures. Catharine II. certainly used her power so far as
to confiscate all church property, but then she established a
salaried priesthood, and invalided them at government
expense, so that the Church after all did not suffer any great
loss by that measure.

In consequence of the innovations introduced into the
liturgy by the Patriarch Xikon, many malcontents seceded

THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 321

from the established church since 1666. Their sect is called
that of the " Rascolniks." They call themselves, however,
" Staroverdsi," or adherents to the old faith. They persisted
with the most scrupulous conscientiousness on the exact
fulfilment of the prescripts of their fathers, and abhorred
the innovations in customs and way of living, which, since
Peter's time and under the great influx of foreigners, steadily
underwent important changes. Under the influence of
fanaticism, they again split up into many small sects.
Since the cessation of persecution, however, proselytism has
ceased altogether. One of the sects, the " Dukhobordsi,"
are distinguished by their severe purity of morals and true
Christian spirit.

Diversity of languages, fear of abject subjection, the deep
aversion of Mohammedans and other religionaries to Christian
image worship, and other causes offered great difficulties to
the spreading of the Russian Church. In most cases, how-
ever, these obstacles were met by the Russian apostles in
the most imperious manner. People were driven by thousands
into rivers and lakes, and there baptized en masse by the
shortest process possible. The prescribed forms of prayer being
pronounced over them a cross was hung round their necks,
and the thing was done. Fear and hope, threats and promises
of worldly advantages, did more than inward conviction, of
which it would have been difficult to say, that the Russians
possessed a greater share than their heathenish neighbours
or their Mohammedan fellow subjects. To this circumstance
must be ascribed the mixture of early Christian, Moham-
medan, and other superstitions, of which Russia affords
strong evidence even at the present day. Although the
Czar Ivan IV., Vassilyevich had already given proofs of a
tolerant and liberal spirit, the Established Russian Church
assumed that character only at the instance of Peter the
Great. Previous to his reign, no heretic had been allowed
to enter a Russian church ; and where this could not well be
avoided, as in the case of great personages, the greatest care
was taken lest they touched any of the holy vessels, &c.

323 THE LAXD OF THE CZ-VE.

After their departure, the church was thoroughly purified
and fdmigated, so as to render it again deserving of the name
of a house of God. Proselytes had to be baptized over again,
and to abjure their old faith in the most extravagant terms.
Even the tolerant Czar used always to wash his hand, which
the heretical ambassadors had kissed.

The Patriarch Joachim, painfully aware of Peter's admira-
tion for foreign ways, conjured him in his will (1690) not to
permit to his orthodox suljects any intercourse with the
accursed Lutherans, Calvinists, Latins, Tartars, !JIoham-
medans, Jews, kc, and not to afibrd them any abode in
Holy Eussia. In this he was backed by other churchmen.
But Peter the Great, animated by an ardent desire to improve
the worldly as well as the spiritual welfare of his people, by
lifting them up to the level of civilization he had recognized
in other nations, cared little for these whisperings of super-
stition and fanaticism, and became the founder of an entirely
new epoch of tolerance and enlightenment for the Eussian
empire. In 1702 he issued his celebrated decree, by which
he accorded to all Christian churches free religious exercLse
throughout the empire, opened to foreigners the hitherto
doubly-barred gates of Cesarism, and admitted the detested
heretics within the circle of citizenship.

With a view to the reformation of the Eussian Church, he
insisted on a superior education of the priests and on a dis-
creet management of the convents. He forbade the building
of new convents, reduced their number by incorporating
several in one, and interdicted the reception within their
walls of married men during the life of their wives, of
military men, serfs, officials, of debtors or criminals. Every
novice had to be at least thirty years old, and to serve for
three years in that capacity. To prevent idleness, he found
full employment for the monks, particularly in setting
them to nurse the sick poor in hospitals as well as at their
houses.

He established seminaries for the education of priests.
The Metropolitans he allowed to die out, and replaced them

THE CHURCH OP KUSSIA. 323

by bishops, to whom he severely enjoined charity and
moderation of their orthodox zeal.

His Czarina, Catharine I., religiously continued to carry
out his wishes in that respect after his death.

All the more narrow-minded were the following govern-
ments, viz., those of Peter II., of Anna, but particularly that
of the bigoted Elizabeth. Although the government of the
last-named sovereign was distinguished by the introduction
of Christianity in Siberia, she, on the other hand, encouraged
monastic institutions and other superstitious bigotry as much
as possible.

Peter III. fell a victim to his immoderate zeal of refor-
mation as regards the secular and clerical matters in the
empire.

The great Catharina II. governed in Church, as in all
other matters, with prudent moderation, and opposed the
clergy only, when she deemed it absolutely necessary for the
good of the country. It was only under this impulse that
she ordered the confiscation of the monastic property.

Paul I., Alexander I., and Nicholas I. remained true to
these principles, and it is owing to those enlightened Czars
that the inhabitants of the Russian empire are beholden for
the tolerant modern spirit of the Russian Church.

Princesses, marrying into the imperial family, and con-
sequently entering the Greek Russian Church, are no more
compelled to curse their old faith, and proselytes in general
are simply anointed and not baptized over again. Hence-
forth we perceive the most courteous and amicable inter-
course between the Russian and heretical clergy, although
proselytism from the Russian Church is still strictly inter-
dicted.

The Russian Church holds the following prerogatives :

" No clergyman of another confession is allowed to receive
a Russian subject into his Church ;

" All children of mixed marriages must be brought up in
the Russian faith ;

" The same law applies to foundlings ;

T 2

324 THE LAXD OF THE CZAE.

" No foreigner, having once joined the orthodox Church,
is allowed to rescind."

The profession of other creeds does not, however, exclude
from government offices.

DOCTEIXE, COXSTITUTIOX, AXD CULTURE OF
THE EUSSIAX CHURCH.

Although emancipated of Constantinople, the doctrine re-
mained on the whole that of the Greek Church, i.e., similar
in spirit to that contained in the confession of Peter Mogilas
and others.

After the Grand dukes had declared their church inde-
pendent from Constantinople, the Patriarch of Moscow be-
came the Head of the Church.

Owing to this dignity and the feeling of the people, his
position and rank was considered only inferior to that of the
Grand Duke and his family. He held a seat by the side of
the Grand Duke, and his income was appropriate to the
splendour of his household.

His advice was asked in all serious affairs of the State, and
no war declared or peace concluded without him.

The " Sacred Synod," into whose hands Peter L consigned
the government of the Church, consisted at first of twelve
members, but this number was subsequently and alternately
increased or lessened.

The Czar chooses the same from among the Bishops,
Archimandrites, Hegumenes, and Protopopes.

Added to their number is a secular member in the capacity
of Highest Councillor of the Imperial Crown.

The seat of the Synod is at St. Petersburg, but a coUege
dependent on the same exists at Moscow.

The Russian clergy consist of Monks, on account of their
black dress called " Black Clergy," who alone can attain to
the highest dignities of the Church (and must strictly observe
the vow of celibacy), and the secular clergy, who not only
are allowed, but obliged to marry. They can only hold in-

THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 325

ferior offices. Notwithstanding their generally brown or
blue dress, they are called the " White Clergy."

The Monastic clergy are divided into four classes, consist-
ing :—

1. Of Archierei or Prelates, to whom belong all Metropoli-

tans, Archbishops, and Bishops, who, though all subject
to the Sacred Synod of St. Petersburg, still have each
their own Exarchies. Of these Exarchies, there are 39,
of which 32 are in Europe, viz., at Kiev, Novgorod, Mos-
cow, St. Petersburg, Jarosslav, Novo Tcherkask, Pskov,
RjiLzan, Tver, Yekaterinoslav, Mohilev, Tchernigov?
Minsk ; in Podolia and Bessarabia, Kishinyev ; in Ka-
luga, Smolensk, Neezhnei-Novgorod, Kursk, Vladimir,
Vologda, Tula, Voronezh, Costroma, Archangel, Tam-
bov, Orel, Poltava, Kasan, and Astrachan.
In Asia are seven, viz., at Tobolsk, Vjatka, Irkutsk,
Perm, Pensa, and Georgia.

2. Of Archimandrites (Abbotsj, and

3. Hegumenes (Priors), from whom the Bishops are chosen ;

4. Of Monks and Anachorites, who hold divers offices in

monasteries and seminaries.

There are in Russia about 580 monastic establishments,
with nearly 8000 monks ; but only seven convents, with about
300 nuns. In the case of suppression by the Government,
both monks and nuns are supported by the State, a rather
cheap degree of generosity, as their way of living is extremely
simple and inexpensive.

The secular clergy (to whom a second marriage is inter-
dicted under penalty of being unfrocked) stand under their
respective exarchies. Of them the Headpriests, Protopopes,
or Protorei, who are attached to a great church or cathedral,
hold the highest ranks and are the immediate superiors of
the ordinary popes or priests who form the most numerous
portion of the clergy, and have to perform the common ser-
vice. There are also deacons, sub-deacons, lectors, sextons,
clerks, cantors, who, likewise, receive a sort of ordination,
but different from that of the priests.

326 THE LAXD OF THE CZAR.

The secular clergy have the particular charge of the souls
of their congreg'ations, and to attend to the Confession and
the Sacraments, e\en at the Imperial Court; the Prelates, on
the other hand, read ilass, and preach only on the occasion
of a high festival and holidays.

AU the clergy are paid by the State, and are free of taxation.

In spiritual matters they stand under the special jurisdic-
tion of their bishops and the Sacred Synod; in civil and
criminal things, however, under that of secular tribunals.

The sons of secular priests are not exempt irom military
service.

There are four clerical academies in which the clergy re-
ceive their education, viz., at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev,
and Kasan, together with 58 monastic schools.

The upper clergy receive a somewhat superior education,
although severely bound to a rigid dogma.

The lower clergy, on the other hand, are lamentably ignorant
and tmcultivated, hardly superior to the peasants, and it is
only since the reign of Alexander I. that they have become
exempted from the public infliction of the tnout. They are
badly paid, and forced to agricultural labour, while their
monastic brethren, the upper clergy, are enjoying the most
bountiful revenues.

The Eussian churches are built in the Oriental style. They
have vestibule, temple, and the chancel, only admissible to
priests. Their exteriors are generally ornamented by five
cupolas, one in the middle (the largest), and four on the
corners. They are often gaily painted and gilt, and topped
by double or single crosses. Prayer is performed standing,
or while prostrated with the face touching the ground. The
prayer of the priests is interrupted at intervals by a chaunt
consisting but of three strophes, as, " Gospodipomolimssa I "
(Lord, we pray Thee)," Gospodi pomilui ! " (Lord, have mercy
onus I)," Podai Gospodi;" (Give that. Lord!), executed m
the larger churches by a special choir, but without instru-
mental accompaniment. As in the Oriental, so in the Eus-
sian Churches, are no carved, but only painted images, with

THE CHUECH OF RUSSIA. 327

the exception of statues of angels. The former are seldom
of eirtistic value, and painted in the old Byzantine style on
gold ground.

The festivals of the Russians are on the whole those of the
other Christian churches. A peculiar ceremony is that of
the " Blessing of the water," which takes place at three
different seasons of the year, viz., in winter, spring, and
high-summer. Tiie sacred images are suhmerged into the
water, which by this act becomes purified (idol washing).
There ds, moreover, the Fruit Feast on the 6th August, when
all fruit receives benediction ; and that of the herds and
flocks on the 23rd April, when all cattle is blessed. The so-
named " Moleben," or Personal Blessing, means the purifi-
cation of certain individuals, which takes place in the Church,
and generally on the day of their patron saints. The cere-
mony consists in the priest's singing and praying over the
candidates, and fumigating them. In the Kasanski Church,
in St. Petersburg, on the 7th March to this day, is pro-
nounced in the presence of a great concourse of people a
general curse on all secular and clerical heresies.

Preaching was formerly interdicted for fear of the spreading
of new doctrines. It is owing to this circumstance, that so
few pulpits were found in Russian churches.

The Church language is still the old Slavonic. The spoken
part of the service is therefore as unintelligible to the com-
mon people, as the Latin to the generality of Roman Catholic
congregations.

Many figurative usages, mostly of humoristic tendency,
and dating from the most ancient times, are still in exist-
ence amongst the people.

OBSEKVATIONS.

As a proof of the rude elements which sometimes found
their way into the Church, I will only relate the following
instance : — " In the reign of the pious Grand Duke Andrej
Yurjevich (1169-1174) lived a Monk Theodore, who having

328 THE. LAND OF THE CZAE.

succeeded in ingratiating himself with the above prince, was
sent by the latter to Kiev, there to receive his episcopal ordi-
nation at the hands of the Metropolitan. Assured of the
patronage of the prince, Theodore thought he might dispense
with the ceremony mentioned, and forthwith assumed the
title of bishop. Being a rapacious, bad man, he at once
began to annoy and outrage the inhabitants of the villages
under his control. Not even the monks, abbots, and priests
escaped his tyranny. He put the greatest indignity on the
people by having their heads and beards shaved. He ordered
them to be crucified, blinded, and to have their tongues cut
out, so that they should yield up their property to him. The
Grand Duke, for some time, resented his misdeeds only by
earnest remonstrances; but, emboldened by this leniency,
the wretch had all the churches in Vladimir locked up,
taking the keys into his possession. This proved, however,
the last feather on the camel's back, for the people rose up
like one man, and forced the Grand Duke to ulterior mea-
sures. He had Theodore unfrocked and handed over for
punishment to the Metropolitan, whereupon this good prelate
had Theodore deprived of his eyes, tongue, and right hand ;
"for this heretic," so the annals tell us, "had blasphemed
theHolyMother of God."

DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE CZAK IVAN IV. (VASSILJEVICH), AND
THE JESUIT POSSEVIN, CONCERNING THE AMALGAMATION
OE THE RUSSIAN AND ROMAN CHURCHES.

" We are ready," the Czar began, " to talk the matter
over with you, but only in the presence of our servants, and,
if possible, without loud dispute, for every man loving his
religion feels irritated by contradictions on that point. Dis-
pute engenders discord ; but I desire peace and love."

On the day appointed (21 Feb. 1582) Possevin, with three
other Jesuits, entered the Throne-room, where Ivan, sur-
rounded by his boyars, dvoryans, and princes in waiting of
the first rank, expected him. He received the Pope's am-

THE CHURCH OP RUSSIA. 329

bassador most graciously, but begged him warmly not to
discuss the question of the faith, adding : — " Antonio, I am
now in my fifty-second year, and have not many more years
of my life to expect. Brought up in the doctrine of our
Church, which so materially differs from the Latin one,
could I at my age turn traitor and forswear my faith ? The
day of the heavenly judgment is near ; it will therefore soon
be made manifest which of our faiths be the holiest and
purest. But speak, if you must."

Possevin replied : " Most serene Lord ! Of all the acts of
grace and condescension of which you made me the un-
worthy object, this permission to speak with you on a subject
so important for the eternal welfare of the Christian world,
is the greatest.

" Think not, Sire, that it is the Holy Father's intention
to persuade you to leave the Greek Church ; no, he only begs,
that you make yourself acquainted with that Church, such
as it originally had been, that you obey the edicts of the
CEcumenical Councils, and that you would uphold the true
doctrine as an unalterable law throughout your dominions.
In such a manner all differences will be smoothed away,
and we all shall be one Body with Jesus Christ, to the un-
utterable joy of the alone true, God-appointed Shepherd of
the Christian Church !

" Sire ! Do you not yourself acknowledge the Holy
Father as the chief head of Christianity, by soliciting him to
give peace to Europe, and to procure an alliance of all the
sovereigns of the Christian World to the destruction of the
Infidels ? Have you not evinced a particular reverence for
the Roman Apostolic faith, by allowing Eoman Catholics to
settle in Russia, and to worship the Highest God according
to the holy rites of their Church ?

"Can this general peace and alliance of Christian sovereigns
have any other foundation but a perfect unity of faith ? You
know that this unity has been confirmed by the Florentine
Council, by the Emperor, by the clergy of the Greek empire,
yea, even by Isidor, the highest hierarch of your Church.

330 THE LAXD OF THE CZAR.

Read tlie declarations of that Council (the 8th (Ecumenical),
and if there should be any points on which you have been
misinformed, command me, and I will endeavour to clear up
the dark passages. The truth is obvious ; if thou accept it,
what glory, what greatness, thou wilt attain to, in the
Brotherly AUiance, with the greatest monarchs of Europe.
Thou shalt have not only Kiev, Russia's old property, nay,
the whole Byzantine empire, which God has taken from the
Greeks in punishment of their falling off, and of their dis-
obedience towards Christ, our Saviom-! "

The Czar promptly answered :

" We have never written to the Pope concerning the faith.
I did not wish to discuss this subject with thee even ; for,
in the first instance, I feel averse to wounding thy heart by
a chance hard word, and then my princely duty is strictly
confined to the worldly affairs of my country, and does not
comprise the spiritual welfare of my subjects, which I leave,
together with my own, in the hands of our mediator before
Christ, the Metropolitan. Thou speakest boldly, for thou
art a priest, and hast been sent here from Rome with this
set purpose. We do not look to the Greeks for gospel. We
believe in Christ, and not in the Greeks. And now, as to
the Oriental Empire, know thou, that I am quite content
with what I have got, and do not covet any new dominions
in this world ; and as to the next, I ask but for the gracious
mercy of God."

Without any reference to the Florentine Council, or to
the general Christian Alliance of princes against the Saracens,
Ivan, in proof of his friendship for the Pope of Rome, pro-
mised full liberty and protection to all foreign merchants
and priests of the Latin faith ; but only on the condition
that they strictly desisted from any religiotis discussions with
his Russian subjects. The Jesuit wished to continue the
debate. He accused the Russians of heretical innovations,
and asserted boldly that Rome alone was the old capital of
Christianity.

The Czar began to get chafed.

THE CHUECH OF KUSSIA. 331

" Thou boastest of the truth of thy faith, yet dost thou
shave thy beard," cried he ; " thy Pope lets himself be
carried about on a throne, and his slipper, with the emblem
of a crucifix, be covered with the kisses of thousands of
Christians. "What glory for the humble shepherd of Christ !
What humiliation for the holiest (sanctuary) ! "

" No humiliation," retorted Possevin ; " honour unto whom
honour belongs ; the Pope is the head of Christianity, the
guide of all faithfal monarchs, the sharer of the throne of
the Apostle Peter, nay, of that of Christ himself !"....

Ivan here abruptly fell in :

" The Christians have only one father, that which is in
Heaven. We princes of the earth are raised to our position
in obedience to a worldly law. Let the disciples of the
apostles then be humble and wise ! To us Princes belongs
Cesarean, to Popes and patriarchs episcopal honour. We
revere our Metropolitan also ; but he walks on earth like all
men, and does not presume to hold up his head above kings.
Some of the Popes were indeed true disciples of the apostles,
as, for instance, Clement, Sylvester, Leo, Agathon, Gregor.
. . . But he, who dares to call himself a sharer of Christ's
throne, who has himself carried on a seat (as on a cloud by
angels), he who does not live according to the holy Christian
doctrine, such a Pope is a wolf and no shepherd." . . .

Possevin here indignantly exclaimed : " If the Pope is to
be called a wolf, then I have nothing more to say ! "

Ivan, recovering his equanimity, calmly rejoined :

" See, now, why I would not talk with thee on matters of
faith, for involuntarily one party ever vexes the other. How-
ever, I did not call Gregor SIII. a wolf, but spoke only of
a Pope who does not follow Christ. Now, let the matter
rest."

Ivan put his hand caressingly on Possevin's shoulder,
dismissed him graciously, and ordered the choicest plates
from his table to be carried to him. Two days after this, he
sent again for Possevin. The latter, in the Pope's name
entreated the Czar to send young, intelligent Russians to

332 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

Eome, there to make themselves acquaiuted with the true
dogmata of the original Greek Church, to study the Latin
and Italian languages, and to impart their own to the Italians.
He pressed the Czar to expel from the Russian dominions
the venomous Lutherans, who denied both the Holy Virgin
and the sanctity of the righteous in Christ, and to admit
only Latin priests.

The Czar promised to look out some young Russians suited
for the purpose mentioned, and when he had found, to send
them to the Pope ; but gave the Jesuit at the same time
clearly to understand, that Lutherans, as well as all foreigners
not of the Russian Church, including Roman Catholics,
should enjoy equal liberty and protection, always provided
they did not communicate their erroneous doctrines to
Russian subjects.

Possevin's zealous efforts regarding the erection of Latin
churches in Russia did not meet with the slightest success.
" The Roman Catholics are at liberty to live with us a godly
and honourable life, that is enough ! "

CHAPTER XXXII.

THE LANGUAGES OF EUSSIA.

The great guide to a just appreciation of the intellectual
life of nations are their languages and literature. The
Russian language is generally regarded by peoples of West-
ern Europe as a thing almost beyond their reach, its study
and acquisition as next to impracticable, and as holding out
no final reward proportionate to the toil required.

It is therefore a matter of little wonderment to meet with
questions by a generality of people, even of the educated
classes, such as the following : —

" Does Russia possess any literature ? "
" Is it possible that a language which we understand to
be uncouth and barbarous, like the many primitive peoples
themselves, who inhabit that immense country, could be
made to express anything but the accents of fierce passions,
or at most, the terms of daily business transacted for mere
material existence ? "

" Allowing for prejudice and comparative ignorance on
this subject — is it really worth the trouble wading through
all the intricacies of the formidable Russian grammar,
merely to find at the end lame poetry, partial historical
records, clerical books, translations, &c., to reward the
labour ? "

No doubt the Russian language is very difficult in
grammar, style, and pronunciation, and that to the Russian
himself, as well as to the foreigner'; but it holds out to the
persevering student a delightful reward, by introducing him
to literary fields of peculiar freshness and productive power,

334 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

and laying open before him some of the mosf interesting
pages in the history of man.

Oceans are traversed, inhospitable deserts, mountains, and
stormy seas crossed, neither plague nor the dangers of
savage nature in any shape are regarded in the search
after traces of our fellow-man, of nations long since passed
away.

With reverend awe we stand before the marks they have
left of their intellectual condition ! A stone, a broken utensil,
a shapeless lump of mineral, hardly sufficient to convey to
us a feeble idea of institutions long gone by, or of purely
mechanical ability, are rapturously recognized by Science,
brought away and guarded with religious care, as the sacred
relics of the divine spirit of Man.

But how little do these mementoes after all speak to our
hearts ?

In almost every case are they but indicators of a rude,
material existence. There are no witnesses of the feelings
that animated ancient times, no sound of love, no trembling
throb of the heart unveQing to us the sentiments of hatred,
the fire of passion, the love of battle, the snule of peace or
joy of life, or of that happy exaltation of soul, that pervades
our whole being, after we have lifted it up to the thought of
Eternity in a trusting, heartfelt prayer to Jehovah, Allah,
God. What dead fragments and stones can never tell us,
that we find revealed to us in the living Word, that godsent
Messiah of the Spirit, manifesting what in the sacred crypt
of our soul is sown, germinates, and blossoms !

The living Word we must explore, if we would know what
former nations have been, how they thought, loved, wor-
shipped, hated I But here we have to do with a living
people, a great nation of a most interesting past, and a
glorious promise of the future ! If our imagination and zeal
of research is fired by mementoes of the bygone, with what
love and eagerness ought we not to throw ourselves into the
study of the living, and to endeavour to penetrate into the
inmost recesses of their linguistic and literary treasures.

THE LANGUAGES OF RUSSIA. 335

In that spirit I invite you, reader, to follow me for a little
while to the beautiful literary fields of Russia, to those mys-
terious mountains, over which flowed that living Word and
diffused itself into the different families of man now inhabit-
ing our own happy zone, and of which we are members.

The Russian language as at present spoken, may be said
to have reached its actual height of elegance and power
during the present century, which witnessed the final and
complete settlement (by Pushkin), of the long strife between
the clerical and popular tongues. It is by no means deserv-
ing of the title of harsh and unpronounceable ; on the con-
trary, it is melodious, and in a high degree capable of the
most suhtle and delicate turns and inflexions. The difficulty
of its grammar and pronunciation has been much exag-
gerated ; although it cannot be denied, that especially the
latter demands the student's persevering practice. There are
some letters of the alphabet, the pronunciation of which is
seldom attained by foreigners, but then how many foreigners
does one meet in England, who can pronounce the " tli " and
often many other letters, without at once betraying their
Continental origin. Its syntax, &c., being so entirely differ-
ent from anything one may have been used to in connection
with the languages of Western Europe, one feels, as one
advances, more and more interested; but when the scholar is
once able to begin reading Russian authors in the original
text, the study becomes a source of exquisite delight.

The introduction of the native or Slavonic language dates,
of course, as far back as the invasion of Russia by the Slavonic
nations of the Danube, viz., towards the end of the fourth
century. The flrst elements of civilization and spiritual
progress being introduced into Russia by the Grreek clericals,
the task of establishing a written language fell on those men,
who, not perfectly knowing the Slavonic tongue, introduced
many Greek words into the original Slavonic ; and so it came
that the so-called Church language (almost unintelligible
to the Russian people) originated, and that the people,
on the other hand, made use of a dialect peculiarly their

336 THE LAND OF THE CZAB.

own, and from which the present Russian language has
sprung.

But there are many other languages spoken by the different
nations and tribes subject to the Imperial Russian Crown.
Most interesting are those of the Caucasus, as the reader
will acknowledge when he has perused the following few
examples : —

A. The Lesghistan of eight principal dialects :

1st. The dialect in the districts of Chunsag or Avar,
Karseruk, Hidatle, Mukratle, Ansokul, Karachle,
Gumbet, Avrakan, Burtuna, Anzag, Tebel, Tamurga,
Achti, Ruthul, Dshar, Belakan.

2nd. In Dido and Unso.

3rd. In Kabutsh.

4th. Of the Audi.

5th. In Akusha, Kubetsha, Zudakara.

6th. The Kassi-Khoomyk.

7th. In Kaidak, Kara Kaidak and Tabaszeran.

8th. In Kura.

There are properly only five languages in Lesghistan : —

1st. The Avarian.

2nd. The Kassi-Khoo/nyk.

3rd. The Akusha.

4th. The KarayoM in Southern Daghestan.

Interesting is the similarity of Hunnish names and many
of the names in use to-day amongst the Avares.

Hunnish. Acarian.

Uld, Uldin, Uldes Uldia (an Avare family)

Attila AddUla (common name of men)

Bleda or Boodach Boodach (family name)

Ellak Ellak (Lesgh. men's name)

Dinghizik Dingazik (fam. name)
Eska, daughter of Attila Eska (antiq. woman's name)

Balamir Balamir (masc. name)

THE LANGUAGE OF LESGHISTAN.

337

Hunnisk.

Almus

Leel

Zolta

Geysa

Sarolta

Avarian.
Armuss
Leel
Ssolta
G-aisza
Sarolta.

The Avarian language is exceedingly rougli and harsh.
Their numbers are : —

one

two

three

four

five

20

ke

chchlyab

unnkk

shu

six

seven

eight

nine

ten

anntt'l

ant'l
100

mitr

itsh
1000

annzz

nuss

asar (Persian hesar) :

Avare Declensions : —

Nom. & Ace,
Gen.
Dat.
Voc.
Abl. 1st
„ 2nd

Singular.
Tshi—
Tshial—
Tshial—
Tshi!—
Tshiatze-
Tshialtul-

man
of man
to man
oh man !
■ from man

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl. 1st
„ 2nd

Singular.
Tsbeshu —
Tsheshul—
Tsheshul —
Tsheshu —
Tsheshu ! —

the woman
of the „

to » »
the „ ■

oh woman !
Tsheshutze — from the woman
Tsheshutul — „ ,,

Plural.
Adamal
Adamaltul
Adamaltul
Eh Adamal !
Adamatza
Adamalchiolo

Flural.
Eutshabe
Eutshabatul
Rutshabatul
Eutshabe
Eutshabe !
Eutshabetza
Eutshabechiolo

I receive bread from the mother.

Ebel t'laltasza tsbed posla. Verbally .

Bread given by mother received.

S38 THE LANB OF THE CZAE.

This is the dress of my mother.
Diir ebel t'laliil redtuashe.

This dress I have given to my mother.
Hav redkuashe diir ebel t'ladacht'le.

They killed the mother.
Ebel tshuara.

Mother give bread !
Ebel tshed possL

Lasting : Kvanalya ; Not lasting : Kvanalyari.

Small : Hetinav ; Not small : Hetinagnro.

Walking : Itlyanago ; Not walking : Itlyanagoro.

Odil : To weep ; Odolyayngo : She weeps.

Uetl'lanchila : I laugh ; Uetl'yolyango : He langhs.

GrnmaUeh : I eat ; Gnmalla : He eats.

Kah : I drink ; Kakchola : He drinks.

Avila I speak

Duz avila Thon speakest

Dos avila He speaks

Neyez avila We speak

Noyez avila Yon speak

Doski avila They speak

The Lord's Prayer in the tongue of the Chunzag : —

Emen nedsher sovaldaish bugevh;
Father our in Heaven Thou art ;

HaUal bugabi diir Zar;
Pure be Thy name;

Watshagai kodolch'ti diir;
Come kingdom Thine;

Bugabi chatir diir kin sovalda hagadin ratl'alda
Be wiU Thine like Heaven in, likewise earth in
Tshed nedsher kol'goh tie nedsher dshaka
Bread our constant give us to-day.

MITZDSHEGI LANGUAGES. 339

T^h nedsher nalti kin nedshedslia tolah bug^vh
Forgive our trespass like we forgiving are

nedsher nalti bukarasa.
to our trespassers.

Bedsheg nisb kadir alda
Not bring us temptation in

Kballastun nish tkuesh'tialda
Deliver us evil from

Diir bug^vh aldshant'khli, Gutsh, Tsbukur, dunialaltsbul 1
Thine is kingdom, Power, Glory, eternities in.

2nd Root of language, near Derbend (Caspian), the
Kassi-Khoomyk.

3rd Root. The Akusha, in the mountainous district of
Akusha, as far as the Koissu. This language has many
words in common with the Kassi-Khoomyk, but its
syntax points to altogether different roots.

Ex. : God dies not, Man's life is short.

Akusha. Kassi-Khoomyk.

God : Zallachi God : Wassal

Death : adshal Death : adshal

Not : deekk'ku Without : bakkassa

Man's : adinili Man : adamia

Life : i6muru Long : lakima

Short : kantle Not lives : kalitsheissari.

mitzdsSegi languages.
The Mitzdshegi form, with the exception of the T'hushi,
three great tribes : —

1st. The Galgai, Halha or Ingush, who go also by the
name of Lamur.

2nd. The Ckarabulack (Tartar : black spring), who call

z 2

340 THE LA^'D OF THE CZAR.

themselves Aishte, and wlio are named by the Tshet-
shents : Axishtoyai.

3rd. The Tshetshents.

Ex. : God dies not, Man's life is short.
Dele lervads stighi adshU jadsvi.

The mother kisses her children.
Shen bereshni bartlo sjnnut.

THE LAIJGUAGE OF THE OSSETS.

The Lord's Prayer : —

Fi'd makh kkhazi d^ vol-arvi,
Father our who art in Heaven,

Si'hdag wond nom dav,
Hallowed be name thine,
Arzavod da-eldarad,
Come thy kingdom,

Vod bar dakhi kkhiid vol-arvi avte basstil
Be will thine as in Heaven so earth on ;

Dsiil makh bonti ratt makhen abon,
Bread ours daily give us to-day,

Ama muvads makhen khasst makh, ama
And forgive us trespass ours, and

makhder kkhiid nuvadsem khasstargithen

we so forgive trespassers;

ama ma-bakkhal m£kh akhss'isgoni,
and not lead us temptation in,
ama f^rvasin-khan makh fidb'iliseT !
and dehver us from flesh eviL

Many verbs are conjugated with kkhanin =. to do ; as —

I bend arvalat kkhanin

I vex myself medd „

OSSETINIAN VOCABULARY. 341

I thank arfi kkhanin

I uncover gum „

I am ashamed khudinag „

I spit tu „

Drink not, if not thirsty.
Do not fall into another's speech.

Thirst without not drink = donug nevai mahanas.
When somebody speaks = kkhad kkhe dsiiri
Not speak ! = ma-dsidsur !

Sba: denghis, foord ; Tartar: dengis ; Tshetskents : chortj

Ingush : furt ; Gallic : fairshe, wave and sea.
"Water : don ; Gallic : tonn, wave.
Star : stahleh, stal ; Send. : staranu ; Kurdk : stera, sterk ;

Persian : szitareh ; Latin : stella ; German : Stern.
Mist : mikh ; Kurdk : mesg.

Eain : saran ; Kurdk : baran ; Persian : baran ; Irisk : forrin.
Evening : ser ; Ital. : sera ; Frenck : soir ; Tshetskents : sar-

rakh ; Ingush : seire.
God : Khuzav; Dugor. : Khzaii; Persian: Khoda; Kurdk:

Khudi; Aghuan.: Khudai.
Father : fi'd ; Dugor. : fidde (means also flesh) ; Persian :

peder ; mader, mother ; Lat. : pater, mater.
Mother : mad ; Dugor. : made ; Pers. : mader ; Letts and

Livon. : mate ; Papa : ada ; Mama : ana.
Sister : kho ; Dugor. : khur ; Welsh : khuar ; Bretan : hoar ;

Cornish : khor ; Kurdh : khussk.
Name : nom ; Pers. : nam ; Kurdk : nave ; Samsk. : nama ;

Hindost. : naam ; Lat. : nomen ; Germ. : Name.
Smell : schmack ; Oerm. : geschmack ; Anglo-Saxon : swek.
Tooth : dendeg, dendak ; Kurdk : dedan ; Send. : dentano ;

Peklvi: dandan; Bengal : discoi; Siced.: tand; Lat.:

dens ; Frenck : dens ; Ital. : dente ; Germ. : Zahn.
Throat : khurkh ; Kurdh : gheru ; Russ. : gorlo ; Germ. :

Gurgel ; French : gorge.

342 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

Nail : nakh, naekli ; Kurdh : nainuk ; Aghuan.: nuk ; Pers. :

nakhen ; Hiridost : nuk ; Lithuan. : nagai ; Livon. :

naggi ; Germ. : Nagel.
Heakt : serde ; Etiss. : sserdze ; Send. : erezem ; Lithuan. :

ssirdiss ; Livon. : sirde ; Germ. : Herz.
HoESB : urss ; Ahcska : urtshi ; Anglo-Saxon : hors.
Cow : kkhug ; Germ. : Kuh.
Pig : khuy ; Fers. ; khug ; Engl. : hog.
Cat : gado ; Russ. : kosh ; Celt. : katli : Ersian: ket ; Anglo-,

Saxon: kat; French: chat; Ital.: gatto; Germ.:

katze, &c.
Bear : ars ; Lat. : nrsus.

Egg : aik ; Kurdh : hak, ek ; Old Germ. : eig ; Sfced. : eg.
Fly : bindsa ; Germ. : Biene.

Tree: kkhad; Bretan.: koad; Welsh: kued; Romanish: gaut.
Teune : kodakh ; Latin : caudex ; Pers. : kendeh.
Branch: kalius, solo; Wendish: and Sorab.: galusa; Polish:

goloTish ; Greek : klados.
Eye : syl ; Lat. : secale ; French : seigle ; Cornish : segel ;

Irish : segol, &c.
Wheat : mannau, mannaw.
Court : khart ; Gothic : gart ; Old German : gard ; Ziryan

and Perm. : katta ; Irish : kurt ; Ital. : corte, &c.
Door : duar ; Kurdh : deri ; Pers.: der ; Slav. : dver ; Old

Germ. : dura ; Greek : Qvpa ; Germ. : Thure, &c.
Ship : naii ; Kurdh : naw ; Lat. : navis, &c.
Iron : avssainak ; Kurdh : hassin, asen.
Yoke : osyau ; Pers. : yugh ; Germ. : Joch.
Cap : khud ; Germ. : Hut.

Manslaughter : mard ; Kurdh : mer ; Pers. : miird.
Cause (matter) : khus; Lat. : causa (cosa, chose, &c.).
Sleep : khuss ; Welsh : kisgu ; Cornish : kusga.
Young (new) : noogk, novag ; Kurdh: mi ; Pers. : nu, nav ;

Germ. : neu.
Good : khors ; Slav. : khorosh.
Great : istir, stir ; Dugor. : stur ; Old Germ. : stur; Danish :

stor ; Swed. : sturt ; Lettish : stur.

OSSETINIAN VOCABULAKY. 343

One : evniss ; Lat. : unus ; Germ. : eins.

Onlt-bokn : evniss-gliurd ; Lat. : unigenitus.

Visible : uidtte ; Lat. : video ; Muss. : veezhu.

Shaep : zirg ; Kurdh : ssraf ; Germ. : scharf.

Dead : martt ; Kurdh : mer ; Pers. : merg ; Bretan : mart ;

Send.: mret; Pehlvi: murd; Bengal: mort; Lat.:

mortuus, &c.
Daek : tar ; Kurdh : tari ; Fers. : tarik.
O'thek : andar, andarti ; Germ. : anders.
All : ul, ali ; Germ. : alle.

Moke (much) : filder ; Germ. : mehr or mehr viel.
By name : nominei ; Germ. : namentlicli.
I GIVE: ratt; Welsh: rod, ro; Cornish: ro; Bret.: ro;

Send. : r^v.
I BEWAEE (really : I pkesekve) : bav^rin ; Germ. : Ich

bewahre.
I COUGH : kufin.

I SAY LIES : mang-sagin ; Germ. : Liige sage.
I SLEEP : khusin ; Welsh : kusg ; Bret. : kussket ; Kurdh. :

khav ; Pers. : kus.
One : yii (number).

Two : dueh ; Kurah ; Send. Pers. Pehlvi,
yek euo yek yek.
Kurdh, Pers., Send., Pehlvi
du du dud dii
Three : arte ; Dugor. : arta.
Four : Tzupper : Kurdh : tcbialir ; Pers. : tchihar ; Send.

tchetverd; Pehlvi: tchahar; Slav.: tcheteery.
Five : Fens ; Kurdh : peng ; Pers. : pendu.
Six: Akhsess; Kurdh: sbesh; Pers.: shesh; Pehlvi: s^se
Seven : avd ; Pers. : heft ; Send. : haptd ; Pehlvi : haft.
Eight : ast ; Pers. : hesht ; Pehlvi : asht.
Nine: farast.
Ten: dds.

Eleven : yu-dds ; — twelve : dua-dds ; Pers. : dua-deh.
Fifteen : fun-dds ; Pers. : pans-deh.
Twenty : seds ; Kurdh : bist ; Pers. : bisst ; Send. : bisste.

344 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE TCHERKESS.

The Tcherkess, who call themselves " Adighe," inhabited
once the western parts of the Caucasus and the Crimea.
They are the Sychians of the Greeks. At a later period
they emigrated to the banks of the Kuban river and iato
Great and Little Kabardah. They called themselves also
Kashakh, to which name the word " Cossack " (really
" Kasack ") probably owes its origin.

Their language constitutes a dialect of its own, having but
a few roots in common with the Finnish, Voghul and
Ostyak tongues.

The Tcherkess, Voghuls and Ostyaks belonged in olden
times probably to one and the same tribe, which, however,
at a very early period split itself up into divers branches, one
of which was in all probability the Hunns.

The pronunciation of their language offers extraordinary
difficulties. Many letters require an almost inimitable click
of the tongue, while the pronunciation of the vowels and
diphthongs is subject to numerous modifications.

EXEMPLA.

I have been ss'ye skhad

Thou hast been Uo li skhad

He has been Arr skhad

We have been Deh d'ye skhad

You have been Feh f'ye skhad

They have been Akher skhad

I beat or strike Sse ss'ye 66

Thou beatest U6 v'ye 66

He beats Arr ye 66

We beat Deh d'ye 6o

You beat Feh f ye 66

They beat Akh'skher ye 66

THE TCHERKBSS LANGUAGE.

345

PEBPECTUM.

1 have beaten
Thou hast beaten
He has beaten
We have beaten
You have beaten
They have beaten

Sse ss'ye voash
Uo v'ye voash
Arr ye voash
Deh d'ye voash
Feb fye voash
Akh'skher ye voash

eutueum:.

I shall beat
Thou shalt beat
He shall beat
We shall beat
You shall beat
They shall beat

Sse ss'ye vonsh
Uo v'ye vonsh
Arr ye vonsh
Deh d'ye vonsh
Feh fye vonsh
Akh'skher ye vonsh

INFINITIVUM.

To beat Yevon

IMPEEATIVUM.

Beat ! Yewo !

Part. Praes.
Beating Yevogah

PEiES. PASSIV.

I am being beaten
Thou art being beaten
He is being beaten
We are being beaten
You are being beaten
They are being beaten

Sse ke so vosher

Uo ko vosher

Abi ye vosher

Deh ke do vosher

Feh kho vosher

Abi skhemme yevosher

346

THE LAND OP THE CZAR.

PERFECTTJM.

I have been beaten
Thou hast been beaten
He has been beaten
We have been beaten
You have been beaten

Sse ke so voakhess
Uo ko voakhess
Abi ye voakhess
Deh ke do voakhess
Feb kho voakhess

They have been beaten Abih skhemme yevoakhess

FDTUBITM PASSrV.

I shaJl be beaten
Thou shalt be beaten
He shall be beaten
We shall be beaten
You shall be beaten
They shall be beaten

Sse ke so voan'khess
TJo k6 voan'khess
Abi ye voan'khess
Deh ke do voan'khess
Feb kho voan'khess
Abih skhemme voan'khess

Ex. — The adjective invariably stands after the sub-
stantive.

The handsome man (man handsome) Tsoogh dakhe

The handsome woman (woman handsome) Fiss dakhe
The little dog (dog little) Hha tsook

The little she-dog ' Habs tsook

The black charger Skhakoh pfitzd

The black mare , Skhibs pfitze

Dog = hha; dogs=hhakhe; many dogs =hhak6d.
I am going home (I house to go) Sse unneh me sss'oko

I stand on the Mil (I hill on stand) Sse ash'ha me stetsh
I am riding on a horse (I horse on go) Sse shoogoh sss'oko
I buy a horse (I horse buy) Sse sheh sss'osheg

I buy ten horses (I horses ten buy) Sse sheh pshee sss'-

Whither art thou going ?
Art thou weU ?
Give me bread !

osheg
Danau kora ?
Pog ssish ?
Tshakii kssat'ya !

THE ABASS LANGUAGE. 347

Be saluted ! Upsoy ssh !

What does that cost ? Sitti vassa ?

I love thee Sse vor pfigoh sot-

lagh
I beat the woman Sse ss'ye vorr Fiss'ine

Thou beatest the dog Uo v'ye vorr khamme

He beats the horse Arr ye vorr shemme

"Wilt thou have a pipe ? Luleh ukhee keh ?

Sunday =T'ha makhua (God's day); Monday =Blish'ha;
Tuesday=Goubsh; Wednesday =Berezhia; Thursday =
Makhuk; Friday =Merem (Mary's day); Saturday =
Shabat.
The week is (like Sunday) : Tha makhua.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE ABASS.

The Abass are of the same antiquity as the Tcherkess, but
have never left their original country in the western moun-
tains abutting on the Black Sea. Already in the year 560
they became Christians. In 1023 they were defeated by
the Komans under their king Georgi. Subsequently they
became subjects to the Tchinggis-Khanides, and in 1400
they served in the army of Temir Khan against the Soldan
Bayasit. Their tribes are now inhabiting not alone the
Black Sea coast, but also different localities on the northern
side of the Caucasus, between the rivers Kuban, Kooma,
and Malka.

In the Abkhaszeti proper, from the Enguri northward,
are living the following tribes : —

1. The tribe Sads, on the Bagheti.

2. The tribe Tshashi, on the Aghir, Moquis-tzgali and

Marmar.

3. The tribe Aibga, on the Koddoris and Dal.

4. The tribe Akhshipse, from Sukhum-Kal^h up to the

Kabeti.

5. The tribe Khirpisz, in the limestone hiUs on the

upper part of the river Dal.

348 THE LAXD OF THE CZAR.

All these tribes are called by the Tcherkess : Kush'-kha-
sip Abassi; i. e., Abass beyond the mountain- In Cis-
Cancasia (north of the Cancasus), and south of the Couban,
are living the following tribes of the Abass. Taking them
according to their localities, from east to west, we find : —

1. The BesMlbai 7. The Tubi

2. The Midaveh 8. The Ubukh

3. The Barakai 9. The Bsubbeh

4. The KasLlbeg- 10. The Abasekh

5. TheTshegreh 11. The Xetkhquadsha.

6. TheBakh

The six tribes of little Abassah call themselves Tapanta ;
the Tcherkess call them Baskekh ; the Tartars : Alti Kessek
Abassi.

Their language contains many Tcherkess words ; the
foundation of the two languages is, however, altogether
different.

Exempla of two Abass dialects.

God never dies ; Man's life is short :

{a.) Antsha adshal deghiman ; avhu inzirik sherd am
verb. God death not ; man lives long not

(I.) Antsha dashalsiss ; yinssra eisMssp
God death not ; man lives short

(a.) Yan atshgun ditshagusoi ; kkhaza pkhuss bshedelgu:
Mother children kisses ; man wife loves

(5.) Ten itshgun deshagusse ; lakatsa abkhiss bissidelbi
Mother children kisses ; man wife loves

THE LA^"G^AGE OF THE SSUASI.

This nation, one of the most ancient of the Caucasus, calls
itself " Shnaii." The Georgians, Imerethians, and Min-

THE SStJAI^I LANGUAGE.

349

grelians know them by the name of Ssvani, or Ssoni (their
country Ssvaneti).

Pliny says of them : " Flumen Oobum et Caucaso per
Suanos fluens."

Ptolemy mentions them as : " Suano Colchi." They in-
habit the land on the Zkheniss tzquali. They were Chris-
tianized at an early period ; and even at the present day
some ancient well-preserved churches may be met with in
their mountains. These churches belong to the diocese of
Letshkhoomi. They are a handsome race, but the dirtiest
in the whole Caucasus. Their mountains are rich in splendid
silver-lead, copper, and iron mineral.

Exempla oftlieir language.

Foot=tshishg; Mingrelian : kutsh'khee
Hand=shee; „ khee

Ear=ushku.; „ udshee

Mouth =pl1; ,, pita

Georgian: piri

Tongue =;nin; Mingr. =nma,; Georg. =ena
Heart =gu; Tclierk. and J.5ass.=gu; Mingr. =g\\A

„ Georg.— gvii

Beer = sura; Tartar =SBTa,
Sand=khum; Tartar = ckam

NUMBEES.

Ssuanish.

Mingrelian.

1. eshgu

arti

2. yeru

shiri

3. semi

sumi

4. worshtkho

ot'khi

5. vokhushi

khuti

6. usgva

apkh'shui

7. tshgvid

shquiti

8. ara

ruo

9. tshkhara

tshkhoro

Georgian.

erti

ori

ssami

ott'khi

khuti

ekhvssi

shveedi

rva

tskhra

350

THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

TARTAR LANGUAGES.

They are divided into four tribes, viz. : —
1st. The Nogai Tartars ;
2nd. The Turkomans, or Ckisyl-bashi (i.e., Red-heads,

on account of their red caps) ;
3rd. The Bassjani or Tatar Kush'ha or Assi ;
4th. The Ckoomyks on the north - eastern Caucasus.

They are a most interesting tribe, and descendants of

the once so renowned Khazares.

EXEMPLA.

ENGLISH.

NOGAJi.

CKAEATSHAJ.

CKOOMYX.

CKISTLBAKB.

I weep

yeleiman

yeleiman

aghlarem

agUirem

I sleep

yukhleiman

yukhleiman

yukhlarem

yukhUrem

I laugh.

kuleiman

kuleiman

giilarem

giilirem

I drink

itshaman

itsheman

itshemen

itshirem

I eat

asheiman
(yeiman)

asheiman

asheimen

yirem

I see

goraman

goraman

goremen

goriren

I hear

eshtaman

angleiman

eshtemen

eshidirem

I go

haraman

(ghetaman)
teiman

ghetaman

ghetemen

ghedirem

I touch

tjemen

diighiren

I

men

men

men

men

Thou

szen.

szen

szen

szen

He

ol

ol

61

6

We

biss

biss

biss

biss

You

ssiss

ssiss

ssiss

ssiss

They

oDar

oUar

61ar

filar

All

barinda

barinda

barda

hamessi

One

yanghiz

yanghia

yalghiz

yalghiz

Mau

erkek

ershek

kishl

kishl

Wife

katin

katin

khatiu

arvat

Head

bash

bash

bash

bash

Hand

kol

kol

kol

gl

EXESIPLA OF THE CKOOMTK LANGUAGE.

As it is bdng spoken.
God = AUah.
Death without = adshalsiss.

As it is written.
God = Allah.
Death without = adshalsiss.

RUSSIAN WORDS REFERRma TO SANSCRIT ROOTS. 351

EXEMPLA OF THE CKOOMYK LANGUAGE — continued.

As it is written.
Is = dur.
Man = Adam.

As it is being spoken.
Man = Adam.
Much = kup.
Lives not = turmai.

Mother = anassi.
Her = onyng.
Children = balalary.
Kisses = ope.

Life = yomyr.
Little = as.
Is = dur.
Mother = anassi.
Her = gendu.
Children = avlyadlarin.
Kisses = opeyur.

In conclusion, we add a list of words of the Russian
language referring to Sanskrit roots : —

Sanskrit.

English.

Russian.

Ada

I eat

yedu.

adima

one

adin.

aghni

fire

agon.

akchi

eye

otshi.

amisza

meat

m'yaso.

ashooga

dry

sukhi.

asti

he is

yestj.

balia, valia

great, grand

veli.

bharami

I bear

bremya.

bra ,

true

pravo.

bhrata

brother

bratt.

bhroovo

brow

brovi.

khomoor

four

tchetiry^

da

give

dai.

darana

gift

darenje.

dhoogh

air, smoke

doogh.

dhooma

steam

dym.

dina

day

djen.

352

THE LAITD OF THE CZAR.

Sanskrit.

English.

Russian.

dadhaix)!!

to give

datj.

dodami

I give

dodatj.

Slavon.

dodasti

Thou givest

dodatL

Euss. : dayesh.

dodati

he gives

dodati, inf.
Russ. : dayet.

dslienai

woman

zhena.

dsldva

life

zhizn of zhivetj.

dugida

daughter

dodsh.

dm

two

dva.

dvar

opening (door)

dver.

etot

this

eto, etot.

gada

going

khodya.

ghiri

hill

gora.

greMpan

to \akQ

grabitj.

gooir

word

govor.

lierda

heart

serdse.

dshonidglie

union (marriage).

, zhenidjba.

kalla

stone

[self

skala (rock).

kida

to prostrate one-

Mdatj.

krshra

the cry-

kritshalj (to cry.)

kooka

cock

kokosch.

lekhha

light

lyeghko.

loab

desire

lyoobov (love).

mada, madra

mother

mat]".

miit

death

umeretj, smertj.

masi

moon

mesjats.

modoo

honey

mjod.

niboo

heaven

njebo.

nogo

nail

nogotj.

nagnaba

naked

naghi.

nasa

nose

nos.

nava

new

nov.

ni

no

m.

SANSKRIT, ENGLISH, AND RUSSIAN WORDS. 353

Sanskrit.

English.

Slavon.

nisha

low

nisz.

nicht

rien

nitchto.

ogeonon

the meal

oozhin (supper).

piote

he drinks

piot.

pria

beloved

priazen.

ranlia

quick

rano (early).

sam

together

sam (himself).

shashta

six

shestj.

shvostri

sister

sestra.

starinon

constant

stann (stand).

stana

dwelling

stann (estab-
lished).

sua

his

svoy.

soomana

wheat

semja, semenT
(seed).

sooni

son

syn.

suonoh

sound

zvon.

tada

father

otets, (tjatja).

tama

black

tma (darkness).

tapa

warmth (tepid)

tjoplo.

tapoghittin

to heat

topitj.

tava

thine

tvoy.

tomo

black

tjomno (dark).

tonu

fine

tonki.

tri

three

trl.

tshatvar

four

tchetirje.

tshesanta

to cut the hair

tchesan'ye
(combing).

tuvara

door

dver.

oodxoo

otter

vydra.

veda

science

vedatj (to know)

vighava

widow

vdova.

vaihu

wind

veyatj (to blow)

vahini

war

voyna.

vartana

keeper

vratnik.

vidara

storm

vetr (winds).

354

THE LAND OF THE CZAIL

Sanskrit.

English.

Slavon.

vida

manner

vid.

vish

aU

vess.

vishnn

victor

vyshnee (the
highest).

yati

he goes

itti.

yugon

yoke

eego.

CHAPTEE XXXIIL

RUSSIAN LITERATURE.

The history of Russian Literature may be divided into the
following periods : —

1. The Period of Byzantine influence on Russian civili-
zation and the gradual development of their na-
tionality, from the ninth to the end of the seventeenth
century, the seat of civilization and learning being
at its commencement Kieff, afterwards Moscow.

2. The Period of the Political and Social transformation
of Russia and of the commencement of Western influ-
ence, from 1675 to 1750, the seats of learning, &c.
being Moscow, Kieif, and St. Petersburg.

3. The Period of the predominating Western influence
under Catharina and Alexander from 1750 to 1825,
seats : St. Petersburg and Moscow.

4. The fourth period is called by the Russians that of
Russian Independence and Nationality extending to
the present day.

\st Period. — The first literary achievement in Russia was
the translation of the Greek Bible into the Slavonic tongue
by the Byzantine monks, " Method and Kyrill." Having
acted for a short time as missionaries amongst the Bulga-
rians, they had acquired a certain knowledge of the Slavonic
language, and^ were therefore deemed fit pioneers of Chris-
tianism and civilization in Russia. No doubt they were
excellent, zealous messengers, who unhesitatingly proceeded
to the tedious work of translation. They evidently were

A A 2

356 THE UJST) OF THE CZAR.

anxious that their new flocks should understand the Holy
Word, that flowed from their mouths in prayer and adora-
tion, as well as in preaching of the GospeL They desired
the multitude's getting used to the same words, and there-
fore deemed the existence of a written Russian Bible and
Church Service a matter of most urgent necessity.

Kj-rill began by writing a new alphabet, which he based
mostly on the Greek. For Slavonic sounds, for which he
found no equivalent in the Greek alphabet, he invented
certain signs of his own.

The alphabet once finished, he opened the Greek Text and
translated it word for word into Slavonic, the words known
to the translators being brought into exactly the same form
and place which they occupied in the originaL Those which
they knew not how to express in Slavonic remained Greek,
sometimes Slavonized, often unaltered.

The natural consequence of this treatment of the language
was, that its spirit, if not entirely destroyed, severely suf-
fered, that the educated class turned from the stumbling
jargon thus obtained with undisguised displeasure, that the
common people, for whom it had so laboriously been written,
understood it not at all, and lastly, that it proved for many
centuries one of the most formidable obstacles to the pro-
gress of linguistic and literary achievements in Russia.

For henceforth it was declared the " Holy Book," and
sanctioned for church use, and the " Holy Synod," at a
later period, and after some revision resulting in the
expulsion of some of the too grossly antinational elements,
confirmed it as the unalterable text of the Russian Church.
Thus it remains to this day the voice of the church, and is
taught in all schools collaterally with the Russian language.

The Russian people became in this manner possessed of
two languages : each of which following its own bent, the
one, the dead-bom language of the church and consequently
of learning and science, remained for a long period the only
organ by which the few distinguished spirits found vent in
clerical writings and chronicles; while the other, the real

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. o'-U

tongue of the people, by a direful fatality had died a moral
death, from which it took centuries to resuscitate it.

The entire literary life of the Eussian nation of this period,
comprising nearly 800 years, reduces itself to the following
scanty mementoes : —

1. The Ostromirovo Evangelium, containing the oldest
text of Kyrill's translation.

2. The venerable Monk Nestor's Chronicles and Cos-
mography throwing the first rays of light on Eussian
History, and therefore justly and highly reverenced

• by all writers of history.

3. The lyrico-epic poem: " Ivor's campaign against the
wild Polovz" (about a.d. 1200), the first poetical pro-
duction known in the Slavonic language.

The manuscript, long in the possession of Count Mussin-
Pushkin, was burnt in Moscow in 1812.

4. Chronicles of the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries,
homilies, legends of the old fathers of the church
and monastic records.

5. Books of travels, of which the most remarkable are
those of the merchant Nikitin to India in the year
1450, and of Kotoshin through Eussia.

6. An infinity of dogmatical sermons.

7. An extensive collection of popular tales and poems.

Sacharoff, a Eussian Archaeologist of the present century,
gives a full account of the legends of the Eussian people.
He tells us of more than one hundred different kinds
of sorcery, black art, witchcraft, fortune-telling, dream
interpreting, &c., for which many objects served as media,
even such as needles, Easter eggs, &c. He describes 36
popular games, and at last shows us a rich collection of
popular lore, such as wedding-, parting-, soldier-, robber-,
Cossack-, cradle-, and other songs.

The following institutions were established during this
period : —

358 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

In 1553. The 'first printing press.

In 1564 appeared for tte first time in print some books

of a Slavonic Bible.
In 1588. The first seminary of preachers in Kieff.
In 1590 appeared the first Slavonic-Greek grammar.
In 1 627 the first chart and geographical description of

Russia.
In 1644 began the first collection of legal codes of Russia.

Having endeavoured to vindicate Russian genius in the
presence of so meagre a list of literary results by pointing out
to the reader the pernicious effect of defective foreign teaching
enforced by means of superstitious reverence, however well
meant and dictated by pious impulses it may have been, we
now come to the description of other and ruder causes,
that lent a powerful hand to the fettering of all spiritual
advance of the Russian people at that period.

Notwithstanding Byzantine influence, and in despite of the
endless sufferings caused by the everlasting contentions and
wars of their Princes, who, only pursuing their own selfish
interests, mercilessly trampled their own subjects under foot ;
in despite of unruly tribes of heathens, who ever now and
then swept with fire and sword over one or the other of the
Russian provinces, effacing in their ruthless course all traces
of civilization that may have gradually sprung up here and
there ; in the face of all this the spirit of the nation might
have shook itself free at an earlier hour, and soared into
loftier regions, had not the greatest of disasters that Russia
has ever experienced, namely, the Mongolian invasion and
reign of terror, fallen upon that unhappy country.

At a time when in western Europe the harp of the
troubadour delighted happy homesteads, when the lays of
Ossian, the Nibelungen, the songs of Blondel, of TTalther
von der Yogelweide, of Wolfram von Eschenbach charmed
palace and cot, the wild hordes of Tshinggiskhan and Bati
were raging in the vitals of Russia, For upwards of two
centuries they persistently made war on aU that resembled

EDSSIAN LITERATURE. 359

civilization ; they destroyed the towns, ruined the wealth of
the country, and trod into the mire every germ of spiritual
culture.

And not the Tartars alone were the cause of all these
devastations, but other neighbours, and even their own
princes, seemed to vie with each other in reducing the
country to a state of utter inanity, dilapidation, poverty and
bodily and mental misery. Owing to this invasion we find
not a few Tartar words henceforth mixed up with the ori-
ginal Slavonic. Under such circumstances the poetic spirit
of the nation remained hidden under a black cloud, and
only in the second half of the fourteenth century it feebly
ventured to lift the pall that had so long lain on it. The
language was still that of the Church, full of heavy words,
metaphors and allegories, but already mrKed with the
popular tongue, and although on the whole an unpleasing,
clumsy compound, sometimes uttering childish absurdities,
yet shadowing forth as it were in the tottering steps of the
child the future greatness of the adult.

This time was principally prolific in popular poetry, and
nothing could be simpler than the production of these songs.

Wherever a company met it was at once proposed to sing
a song (of course improvised). A circle was formed and
one began by singing one verse, upon which the chorus,
repeating the last words, sometimes responded by the word :
Hail ! Upon this a second sang a verse, and so on.

For instance, a company has agreed to sing in honour of
the new bread or harvest.

Chorus.

Afore all to God in Heaven — HaU ! . . Eaill

And to our Czar on earth— Hail ! . . EaU !

That his hair never whiten with age may ! . Sail I

And his colour'd garment ne'er tear nor fray ! EaU I
And his fiery steed, the trusty, may it never

run away ! Ea^L !

His faithful servants may they never de-
generate ! Eail !

And that in holy Russia all evil terminate ! EaU I

May the sun ever shine, the wonderful ! . Eail I

The First begi

ins :

,, Second continues

„ Third

j»

„ Fourth

)j

„ Fifth

»

„ Sixth

jj

,, Seventh

j>

„ Eighth

),

360 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Cliorns.
The Nintli continues : And the Czarina's golden purse remain for

ever full ! BaU I

„ Tenth „ May the big streams never tany.

Our gloiy to the seas to cany ! . . . HaU I
„ Eleventh „ All the little rivers be for the mill ! . . Haill

Chokus. — For this ditty we sing to the bread ! . . . Bail I

It is devoted to bread and its praise ! ... SaU I

A comfort to aU aged and weak ! . . . . Hail 1

And to be respected by the young ! . . . . HaU I

The Epos : Ivor's campaign against the PoloYz, by an
unknown poet of the twelfth century, probably in the style
of the old, unfortunately to us lost legends of Russia, is a
poem distinguished for its style, beautiful handling of lan-
guage, and imagery, bold, foil of feeling, graceful, a brilliant
memento of the early spiritual culture of Russia.

Legends of a more recent style : of the celebrated, brave
knight Hija, the Muromese and the Robber Nightingale ;
of Filipat and Maxim, and their exploits; of the heroes
Bowa, Karolevish, and the beautiful king's daughter, Drush-
nevna, and many others belong to this period.

Vladimir the Great was to the Russian recorder and
minstrel much the same what King Arthur was to the
English; and the heroes Dobrynga, Nikititch, and others
might by all accounts have been worthy to measure swords
with Lancelot and his companions.

As regards the legend itself and the way it is told,
however, it must be said, that it cannot bear comparison
with similar writings of other nations.

A peculiarity of the Russian legends is the quaint ideas
recurring continually iu the same, the ever predominating
number " three," and the exclusive use of patronymics.
Thus, the fathers usually have three sons, the heroes and
knights-errant ride through three times niue empires, the
bravest are always thirty-three years old, they achieve their
deeds only on the third attempt, &c. Aged parents have sons
bestowed upon them, but by the particular grace of God ; these
do not grow by years, but by days and hours. Man and horse

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 361

seem to form but one being ; the knight is powerless till he
finds the steed appointed him, which again suffers no one to
ride her but the knight for whose services she is destiaed.

2nd Period. — This period began with Peter the Great
(1689 — 1725), one of the first acts of whose reign was a
reformation of the Russian Grammar, to which he himself
supplied a new ahd simplified alphabet, as a basis for which
he availed himself of the Latin one. It contains thirty-six
letters, or rather thirty-five, and exists to this day.

Owing to Peter's admiration for foreign advancement and
institutions his reign saw many foreign words introduced
into the Russian language, so all the words referring to
war, toilet, theatre, and kitchen are mostly French. Those
signifying matters of art, science, business, and music are
Italian. Marine and navy affairs English and Dutch, and
those treating of domestic institutions, mining, and military
matters, German.

The same monarch founded schools on the Leibnitz
pattern, and granted a monopoly for the printing of Russian
works to the Amsterdam printer and publisher, Tessing.

The first poet of his time was Kantemir (a.d. 1744),
son of the Hospodar of Moldavia and ambassador at Paris.
His principal poems are those in which he satirises the
great Russian vices, " gambling and intemperance."

The Church literature of this time partook more of the
polemic than the dogmatic, while the secular writings were
almost excusively limited to History (Tatishtsheff ).

The Drama began to give the first signs of life principally
in representations of the Mysteries.

In 1713 the first printing-press was set up in St. Peters-
burg.

During the reign of the bigoted and incapable Czarina
Elizabeth (1741-61) the literary movement proved rather
retrograde than progressing.

In this time appeared, however, on the literary horizon
the great poet and " savant" Lomonosov (1711-65), the son
of a poor peasant of Denissovski, near Archangelsk. The

362 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

pope of Jiis village having bestowed on him all the teaching
of reading and writing of which he himself was capable, he
put his whole library, consisting of a Prayer-book, a Slavonic
Grammar, and an Arithmetic, at the disposal of his eager
pupil, who, for want of other resources, learnt the same by
heart. Thus it came that he knew the Slavonic grammar
and language better than his preceptor, while at the same
time he was thoroughly familiar with the popular tongue, a
circumstance of great promise to his country, for only from
a master proficient in both could Eussia expect salvation.
And gloriously was that promise fulfilled ! Lomonosov,
lashed by his thirst for knowledge, escaped from his pa-
ternal village, and after many adventures arrived in Moscow,
where he was admitted to a seminary. Soon distinguishing
himself by his genius and untiring diligence, he was, in
1734, by way of reward of his endeavours, sent at the
expense of the Crown to Germany, where he studied in
Marburg, under Wolff, Philosophy and the Natural Sciences.
His life at Marburg, his marriage with the daughter of his
poor landlord, his poverty, and his resolution to improve
matters by a grand stroke, beginning by a clandestine flight
from his wretched hearth, his Odyssean-like rovings and ad-
ventures, and final desertion from King Frederick William's
guards, who had kidnapped him, and his final flight to
Holland and St. Petersburg, where he lived for a long time,
a member of the Imperial Academy, on an income too paltry
to permit of his sending for his wife and family ; the enter-
prising affection of his excellent spouse, who at last managed
to join him with her little brood, the tearful delight of the poor,
sensuous fellow on meeting again with his dear ones after so
long a separation, would farnish material for as interesting
and heart-stirring a romance as ever has been written.

Like Lessing in Germany, so he, in his native land,
developed a most happy activity. He wrote in the living
language of the people, using it with creative power for the
eloquent expression of his ideas.

In the grammar he wrote he unfortunately followed the

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 363

Latin construction, thus throwing a new obstacle in the way
of the free and independent development of the language.
But the road was now clearer and permitting of bolder
strides ! In rapid succession he published work after work.
They were mostly treating of scientific subjects, and while they
served -as models of scientific prose, they at the same time
introduced science itself into Russia, thus giving to the
spirit of study and enterprise of the young generation a firm
and clear aim. The appearance in print of his Odes, in
which he first employed the tonic accent, was the signal to
loud, enthusiastic rejoicings throughout the whole empire,
that never before had heard such verses, such new sounds of
harmony in its own native tongue.

However deficient as poet, in the proper sense of the
word, Lomonosov is said to have been, it can never be
denied that his sacred Odes breathe forth true, exquisite
inspiration, and that he was the father of the modern
Russian prose.

His contemporaries were Tredjakovski, the translator of
Fdnelon's Telemachus (otherwise of little account), and
Sumorokov, the author of many tragedies, some of them
of considerable merit, somewhat in the style of Corneille,
Racine, Moliere. He became manager of the first theatre
(founded 1756) in St. Petersburg.

In the year 1755, Elizabeth founded the University of

Moscow.

TWO VERSES OE LOMONOSOV'S ODE : Evening Reflections on
THE Majesty of God, on seeing the geeat Noethekn Lights.

Now day conceals her face and darkness fills

The field, the forest with the shades of night ;

The gloomy clouds are gathering round the hills,

Veiling the last ray of the lingering light.

The abyss of heaven appears — the stars are kindling round ;

Who ? who can count those stars ? who that abyss can sound

Just as a sand 'whelm'd in the infinite sea ;

A ray the frozen iceberg sends to heaven ;

A feather in the fierce flame's majesty ;

A mote, by midnight's madden'd whirlwind driven,

Am I, 'midst this parade ; an atom, less than nought,

Lost and o'erpower'd by the gigantic thought.

364 THE LAKD OF THE CZAR.

Zrd Period. — Catharine and Alexander. Seat of cnlture,
St. Petersburg and Moscow. Catharine 11. (1762 — 96), the
enthusiastic protectress of fine arts and science, herself
authoress of divers popular works, gave at once a new
and powerful impetus to the progress of literature. She
founded schools (civil and military), gymnasia, ladies' col-
leges, surgical and other scientific institutions. By special
Ukas she gave full liberty regarding the establishment of
typographical establishments, created public libraries and
popular theatres.

The gigantic monument of Peter the Great, on the Isaac's
Square at St. Petersburg, is her work, in witness whereof
the inscription :

" Petro Primo — Catharina Seconda."

The great poet of her reign is Derzhavin (Grabriel
Eomanovitch), who began his career as soldier in the Im-
perial Body Guards.

On Catharina's coronation day, he stood a sentinel at the
portal of the Imperial Palace, where he beheld his Czarina
in all the splendour of youthful beauty, in the blaze of the
coronation attire, and surrounded by a scarcely less brilliant
cortege. His poet's soul fired by the magnificent sight, he
at the instant of his release from duty flew to his solitary
dwelling, and in the impassionate strain of inspiration wrote
his grand poem : " Feliza, the Goddess of Bliss, instructing
Prince Chlor in the Art of Governing." In obedience to
the advice of his friends, who deemed its publication not
expedient for fear of ruinous consequences to the author
from the vindictiveness of the courtiers, whose foibles the
poem had not by any means spared, he did not publish it
then, nor for a long time .ifterwards, although it continued
to delight a chosen but limited circle of friends and
admirers.

Tears elapsed before the moment arrived that should
bring this gem to light But it did come, and in the fol-
lowing manner : — Catharina having issued a new periodical.

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 365

of which she was editress, she stated to the Countess Dash-
koff her anxious wish of opening the first number by some
extraordinary production of Russian genius. The Countess
having heard through a friend, an admirer of Derzhavin, of
the poet's " Feliza," insisted on its being put into her hands
that very day. A hasty glance suiBced to throw her into
ecstasies ; but there was no time for more, for the poem had
to be printed forthwith in order to be ready for the Czarina's
breakfast-table on the ensuing morning. The printer proved
punctual, and the Countess had the satisfaction of seeing
the Czarina with the periodical in her hand. Her breathless
watch in the adjoining room was soon over, for a violent
peal of the Empress's bell called her to her Sovereign, whom
she found in a passion of tears.

Folding her in a fervent, grateful embrace, Catharine
exclaimed, " Oh, name him to me, the man who so com-
pletely has seen through me, who so deeply has read in my
inmost soul my sincere longing to be a blessing to my
country! Oh, name him to me, that his brightness may
henceforth shed a glorious light on my Court ! "

The poem had been inserted into the periodical under the
title, " Ode to the Kirghiz-Kaissak Princess ' Feliza,' by
a Mursa (a Tartar Prince), who has been for a long time living
at Moscow, but is now on business at St. Petersburg."

In a dingy government office, midst dusty prosy acts,
stood, despatching packets and letters, which he had just
sealed, the once brilliant Guardsman — now a poor, salaried
clerk.

There enters at this moment a special messenger, who
hands him a sealed parcel, with the address : " From
Orenburg. — The Kirghiz Princess to the Mursa." The
parcel contains an autograph letter of the Empress (warmly
thanking and naming him Councillor of the Court), the
portrait of the august donoress set in diamonds, a golden
snuff-box with brilliants, and 500 ducats in money.

From this moment Derzhavin lived no more in obscurity,
but held henceforth some of the highest posts of honour at

366 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

the Court — such as, Minister of Finance, of the Foreign
Office, and Justice ; but he was, before all, the first lyric
poet of his time, who, cleansing the Kussian language of all
foreign elements, infused instead into it a power and elegance
which have only recently been surpassed. With him sprang
up the real national poetry, and grafted on it have since
become many noble shoots. In the northern nosegay hence-
forth reigns the eternal spring, whose sweetly scented
blossoms are wafted to us annually in ever-increasing
showers. In Derzhavin's works we hear the rustling of the
wings of a true poet's spirit, whose sphere is governed by
three principal factors; viz., the glorification of Catharina
and of her government ; reflections on the supernatural ; and
praise of a free, serene enjoyment of life. That he to a
certain extent, however, was under the influence of his time,
is shown by a casual indulgence in high-stepping rhetoric,
imagery, and learned digressions by which he at times
assails what in other instances he upholds. His Ode,
"Grod" (1780), is one of the most sublime poems ever
written. He has been suspected of having taken his inspi-
ration from Goethe's "Faust;" but this can hardly be, as
that great work was not completed till the year 1800, although
some scenes from it had appeared abeady in 1775, the witches
kitchen in 1790, and the rest in 1797—1800.

Translated into Chinese and Japanese, the Emperors of
ihe two respective countries had the poem " God " hung up
on golden tablets in their palaces at Pekin and Jeddo. The
following translation is by Sir John Bowring : —

GOD!

O Thou eternal One ! whose presence hright
All space doth occupy, all motion guides ;
Unchanged through time's aU-devastating flight
Thou only God ! There is no God besides !
Being above all beings ! Three in One !
Whom none can comprehend and none explore ;
"Who fill'st existence with Thyself alone :
Embracing aU — supporting— ruling o'er, —
Being, whom we call God, and know no more !

EUSSIAN LITERATURil. 367

In its sublime research, philosophy

May measure out the Ocean deep — may count

The sands, or the sun's rays— but God ! for Thee *

There is no weight nor measure ; none can mount

Up to Thy mysteries ; Eeasou's brightest spark,

Though kindled by Thy light, in vain would try

To trace Thy counsels, infinite and dark ;

And thought is lost, ere thought can soar so high.

Even like past moments in eternity.

Thou from primaaval nothingness didst caU

First chaos, then existence ; Lord ! on Thee

Eternity had its foundation : all

Sprung forth from Thee — of light, joy, harmony,

Sole origin ; all life, all beauty Thine.

Thy word created all, and doth create ;

Thy splendour fills all space with rays divine !

Thou art, and wert, and shalt be ! Glorious ! Great

Light-giving, life-sustaining Potentate !

Thy chains the tmmeasured Universe surromid :

Upheld by Thee — by Thee inspired with breath !

Thou the beginning with the end hast bound,

And beautifully mingled Ufe and death !

As sparks mount upwards from the fiery blaze,

So suns are bom — so worlds spring forth from Thee,

And as the spangles in the sunny rays

Shine round the silver snow, the pageantry

Of Heaven's bright army glitters in Thy praise !

A million torches lighted by Thy hand
Wander unwearied through the blue abyss ;
They own Thy power, accomplish Thy command ;
All gay with life, all eloquent with bliss —
What shall we caU them ? Piles of crystal light —
A glorious company of golden streams —
Lamps of celestial ether burning bright —
Suns lighting systems with their joyous beams ?
But Thou to these art as the noon to night.

Yes ! as a drop of water in the sea,

All this magnificence in Thee is lost :

What are ten thousand worlds compared to thee ?

And what am I, then ? Heaven's imnumber'd host,

Though multiplied by myriads and array'd

In all the glory of sublimest thought,

Is but an atom in the balance weigh'd

Against Thy greatness ; is a cypher brought

Against infinity ! What am I, then ? Nought !

368 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

NoDght ! But the effluence of Thy light divine,

Pervading worlds, hath reached my hosom too ;

Yes ! in my spirit does Thy spirit shine,

As shines the sunbeam in a drop of dew.

Nought ! but I live, and on Hope's pinions fly

Eager towards Thy presence ; for in Thee

I Uve, and breathe, and dwell ; aspiring high.

Even to the throne of Thy divinity.

I am, God ! and surely Thou must be !

Thou art ! directing, guiding all, Thou art !
Direct my understanding then to Thee ;
Control my spirit, guide my wandering heart ;
Though but an atom 'midst immensity,
StOl I am something fashion'd by Thy hand !
I hold a middle rank 'twixt heaven and earth.
On the last verge of mortal being stand,
Close to the realms where angels have their birth.
Just on the boundaries of the spirit land !

The chain of being is complete in me ;

In me is matter's last gradation lost,

And the next step is Spirit — Deity !

I can command the lightning, and am dust !

A monarch, and a slave ; a worm, a God !

Wlience came I here, and how ? so marvellously

Constructed and conceived ? Unknown ! this clod

Lives surely through some higher energy ;

For from itself alone it could not be !

Creator, yes ! Thy wisdom and Thy word
Created me ! Thou source of life and good !
Thou spirit of my spirit, and my Lord !
Thy light. Thy love, in their bright plenitude,
Fill'd me with an immortal soul, to spring
O'er the abyss of Death, and bade it wear
The garments of eternal day, and wing
Its heavenly flight beyond this little sphere.
Even to its source — to Thee ! its Author there.

thoughts inefl'able ! visions blest !
Though worthless our conceptions all of Thee,
Yet shaU Thy shadowed image fill our breast.
And waft its homage to Thy Deity.
God ! thus alone my lowly thoughts can soar,
Thus seek Thy presence— Being, wise and good !
'Midst Thy vast works admire, obey, adore.
And when the tongue is eloquent no more.
The soul shall speak in tears of gratitude !

EUSSIAN LITERATURE. 369

Allied to Derzhavin were : —

Oserov, by whom we have several tragedies.

Von Wisin, Kndzhnin, Kapnist, representing the true
national comedy.

Bogdanovich and Kheraskov, epic poets of mark ; and the
charming fable writer Chemnitzer, who has has been called
the second Lafontaine, but who probably surpasses the latter
in several respects. He was a man full of amiable eccen-
tricities, and much beloved by all that knew him.

History and Science formed the subjects to the productions
of Novikoff, Schlozer, Miiller, and Boltin, all of high value ;
and numerous expeditions to Kamtchatka, the Northern and
Southern Polar Seas, to China and other distant countries,
furnished ample material for scientific research and record.

The diplomatic style of this epoch was quite peculiar
to itself.

Of Chemnitzer' s (Ivan Ivanovich) fables I can, for want of
space, only quote the following short one, translated by Sir
John Bowring : —

THE "WAGGONS.

I saw a long, long train

Of many a loaded, lumtering wain ;

And one there was of most gigantic size,

It look'd an elephant amidst a swarm of flies ;

It roll'd so proudly that a passenger

Curiously asked, "Now, what may that contain ? "

' ' Nothing bxit bladders, sir ! "

Such masses (misnamed men !) are little rare,

Inflated, bullying, proud, and full of— air !

Inimitable in his simplicity of style and language, Chem-
nitzer was unknown to many of his contemporaries. He did
not belong to their age.

Bogdanovich was long without a rival as far as simplicity
and lightness are concerned.

Kndzhnin^s tragedies are distinguished from those of
Sumorokov by superior regularity, roundness, and aptitude.
The style of his Psyche (Duzhenka) is a remarkable pheno-
menon of the age in which it was written.

370 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

The Russian Academy performed a tmly great work in
the production of the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian
language.

The Academician Miiller commenced the first literary
journal in Russia, entitled, " Monthly Essays ; Useful and
Entertaining."

In 1759 Lamarokov published the "Industrious Bee,"
1756, the "Moscow News;" and in 1762, Kheraskov
started at Moscow the " Hours of Leisure."

The same time brought Petrov's " Heroic Exploits of the
First Turkish War;" Kheraskov's Epic Poems; Bogdano-
vich's poem in the romantic style ; and Knazhnin's tragedies
appeared.

All these authors were warmed by the rays of the genial
sun of Derzhavin ; they no longer wrote exclusively for the
Court, as under Elizabeth, for the Court now showed itself
anxious to identify the glory of the people with its own. At
this period Russian authors enter the fertile spring of their
birth, their number increasing so vastly that it becomes
impossible for the limits of this work to treat of them
singly.

The most important writers of this period are : —

Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Krinovsky, Setzhenov, Popovsky,
Konissky, Levzhin, Bratanovsky, Levanda, lelagin, Kheras-
kov, Petrov, Barkov, Bogdanovich, Chemnitzer, Van Wisin,
Derzhavin, Kapnist, Kostrov, Pleshtshejeff, Knazhnin,
Neledinsky Meledsky, Bobrov, Dolgoruki, Khvostov, Miiller,
Shtsherbatov, Boltin, Golikov, Schlozer, Novikov.

What Peter I. and Catharine 11. had begun, was worthily
continued by the humane, enlightened, and high-minded
Czar Alexander I. To his earnest zeal for the true
enlightenment of his people, the Russian nation is beholden
for the establishment of the " educational bureau," to which
he entrusted the chief superintendence of all places of learn-
ing with the exception of the clerical, military, and mining
schools and the seminaries, which were established under the
especial direction of Maria Peodorovna.

RUSSUN LITERATUEE. 371

Immediately on its creation this bureau adopted a general
system of education throughout Russia, which was crowned
with the highest success. By the fundamental laws of this
system, Russia was divided into the following six depart-
ments, viz.: —

1. That of Moscow, to which belong the governments of
Moscow, Tver, Kaluga, Vologda, Jarosslav, Vladimir,
Tula and Smolensk.

2. That of St. Petersburg with the governments of
St. " Petersburg, Olonets, Archangel, Novgorod and
Pskov.

3. That of Kharkov, governments Slobodsk, Ukraine,
Tshernigov, Poltava, Kieff, Kursk, Orel, Voronezh,
Kherson, Tauride, and the lands of the people of
the Don.

4. That of Dorpat and governments of Courland,
Esthonia, and Livonia.

5. That ofKasanwiththe governments of Kasan, Pensa,
Simbirsk, Neezhegorod, Astrachan, Perm, Vjatka,
Tobolsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk, Tambov, Saratov, and the
Caucasus.

6. That of Vilna with the governments of Vilna,
Grodno, Minsk, Mogileff, Vitepsk, Volhynia, Podolia
and Bialystok.

For each of these departments a university was appointed,
to every government town a lyceum, to every district town a
distinct school, and to every hamlet a parish school. The
supervision of each district was confided to a curator, and
the general superintendence of all these together was given
to the directory of the head school.

The charter of Kharkov University, dated November 4,
1804. The nobility subscribed for the same 400,000 roubles.
It was opened on the 17th January, 1805, that of Kasan on
the 5th July, 1814, that of St. Petersburg on the 8th Feb.
1819.

372 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

Some of the nobles, like Demidoff, Besborodko, and others,
distingnished themselves on this occasion by their extra<-
ordinary zeal and generosity.

A thirst for knowledge had fallen on the people, and the
ardent desire of the educated class to provide permanent
institutions for the enlightenment of their poorer countrymen
led to the foundation of an astounding number of scientific
and literary societies and clubs.

Notwithstanding, however, the great talents, who then
wrote in the Russian tongue, the latter moved stDl in the
trammels of the different influences amply elucidated in the
above pages. In the last but one decennary of the 18th
century the didactic and easy style of Russian prose began to
be current among the people of Moscow, whose conver-
sational language was remarkably pure and correct. At
this period, when all the defects of the language, which had
hitherto prevailed, existed still, and after many ineffectual
attempts had been made to improve it, and to get rid at
once of the roughness of the common dialect and the rhetoric
style of the book language, Karamsin appeared. Karamsin
(Nikolaj MikhaHovich)," Imperial Russian historiographer,
counciQor of state, knight, member of several learned socie-
ties, was bom at Simbirsk on the 1st December, 1765. He
received his education at Moscow, where he was indoors
pupil of Prof. Schaden, and where he later finished his
studies at the University. He then served some years in
the guards, and after quitting the service travelled for two
years through western and southern Europe. On his return
be settled at Moscow.

1803 he was made historiographer of the Russian empire.

1804 he received the title of Aulic councillor.
1810 the order of St. Vladimir, third class.
1812 he was named Collegiate Councillor.

1816, on his presenting the first 8 volumes of his
Russian history to Alexander, the Czar appointed
him CouncUlor of State, and decorated him with the
order of St. Ann, first class.

EUSSIAN LITERATURE. 373

Karamsin preferring the French and English construction
to the long Latin and German periods with which the
Russian language had hitherto been encumbered, he gave to
his countrymen in the Moscow Journal the first taste ot
the light, agreeable, and accurate language it had so long
desired in vain, and which was well fitted to convey the
common popular expressions, as well as to follow the
logical constructions of the most polished European
languages.

Himself of Franco-Russian education, it was even he
who put a complete stop to the Franco- Slavonic Pseudo-
classicism.

His most distinguished allies were Muravyev and Podshi-
valov, but his success created an immense crowd of imitators,
who proved more formidable to him than his bitterest
enemies and opponents. They copied only his weak side,
and exaggerated his faults. They introduced barefaced
Gallicisms and exhibited whole lines of French words in
pages printed in the Russian character. At this conjuncture
1802) appeared Shishkov's book " Upon the Old and New
Style of the Russian Language," in which he hotly attacked
this injurious fashion, and exposed all the ridiculous and
unsuitable novelties with which the writers of the time, in
their attempts to follow Karamsin, disfigured the language.

Two regular parties arrayed themselves amongst the
Russians, viz., that of Moscow following Karamsin, and
that of St. Petersburg, which advocated at once the old style
of construction and the newly -coined words. Hostilities
were on both sides violent and incessant, but Karamsin, and
his style remained victorious in the end, and the latter, after
being purified of the spots with which Karamsin's imitators
had corrupted it, assumed a now undisputed pre-eminence
in the Russian language.

After 1816 Karamsin lived at St. Petersburg, where he
died on the 3rd June, 1826, in the Taurian Palace. The
collection of his works contains : — 1st. Lyrical poems ; 2nd.
Letters of a Russian Traveller ; 3rd. Tales: Poor Elizabeth,

374 THE LAND OF THE CZAK.

The Beautiful Princess, The Fortunate Dwarf, Julie, The
Impenetrable Forest, Natalia, Sierra Morena, the Island
Bornholm and Marva Posadnidza, or the Subjugation of
Novgorod, which last is considered the best; 4th. Historical
Panegyrics on Catharine II. ; 6th. Discourse on Fortune ;
6th. Upon Bogdanovich; 7th. Histor. Fragments on the
Insurrection of Moscow under Alexej Mikhailovich, The Pan-
theon of Russ. Authors, Antiquities of Russia, Historical
Recollections and Remarks on Journey to Monastery Troit-
ska ; 8th. Discourses at the Meeting of the Russian Academy.
His smaller prose compositions are to be found in the journals
edited by him. In Moscow he was editor of— 1st. The
" Moscow Journal ; " 2nd. "Aglaia;" 3rd. "Aonides;"
4th. " PantheonofForeignBelles-Lettres;" 5th. "European
Messenger ; " of many translations ; but his crowning work
was his " History of the Russian Empire," at which he
wrote twenty years, from 1803 to 1823. A glorious memento
of the author's genius, it is at the same time an eloquent
proof of the love of truth displayed by the high-minded Alex-
ander. The works of Karamsin had a most extraordinary
influence upon his contemporaries. The fair sex of Russia
also were attracted and stimulated to occupy themselves
with the elegant literature of their country, and thus laid
the foundation for the cultivated and improved taste of the
present age.

His greatest opponent was, as already said, Shishkov, who
translated Schiller's " WaUenstein," Tick's "Fortunat,"
Raupach's "Princes Khovanskj," but these works have
now become obsolete.

Shikovsky, on the other hand, translated to perfection
Schiller, Goethe, Uhland, Riickert, and Homer's " Odyssee."

Gnddish published a translation of the " Iliade."

Bafyuzhkov and Raitsck translated Dante, Ariosto, Pe-
trarca, and Tasso; but the best translation of Goethe's
" Faust " we owe Vronzhenko, who moreover translated
"Macbeth," "Hamlet," and Byron's "Manfred."

Krllov's Fables are perhaps the best that ever were written.

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 375

No one ever surpassed him as regards productiveness and
nationality.

Dmitrijev wrote Russian verse in narrative and didactic
form. His tales, fables, satires, and songs show the possi-
bility of giving to Eussian poetry all the lightness and
neatness of the French tongue. The elevation, power, the
lively and happy colouring in Oseroff'a tragedies, the deli-
cacy and feeling in Shukovsky'' s poems, the elegiac style,
dignity of conception, and accurate delineation of nature
exhibited in Bat'yuzhkov's works, the simplicity, natural
turn, and wit in the fables of Krilov — all these found material
for the expression in the Russian language.

Gnddich, Shukovsky, and Voyeikov, introduced successfully
the Greek meter. Honourable mention deserve the labours
of Vostakov, Sokolov, Born, Nikolsky, Heim, Linde, Vater,
Tappe, Puchmaier.

In Esthetics and Criticism, Shishkov, Makarov, Martinov,
Merzl'yakov, and Ostolopov were the most prominent writers.

In Bibliography', Sopikov.

In History, particularly Eugenj, the Metropolitan Ses-
trenzevich-Bogush, Count Mussin-Pushkin, Bantish-Kamen-
sky, Malinovsky, Katshenovsky, Timkovsky, Buturlin,
Richter, S. Glinka, Ewers, Krag, Lehrberg, Adelung, and
Wichmann.

In Statistics : Storch, Hermann, Sablovsky. Count Eo-
manzov earned for himself an imperishable monument in the
Pantheon of Russian history.

The Theatre at that time had Semenov, a poet of singular
talent, but who found no successor. It is besides greatly
indebted to Prince Shakhovskoj, the distinguished dramatic
writer.

In dramatic poetry we have furthermore Krukovskoj, who
follows Oserov, Lobanov, Kokoshkin, Khmelnitzkj, Katenin,
Visskovatov (distinguished by translation of Il'jin), Neva-
khovich, Ivanov, who wrote dramas in prose.

Prose writers are Muravyev, Apostol, Jastrebzov, Des
tuniss.

376 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

Military prose : Glinka, Pissarev, Golovina, Bronevsky.

LigM prose : Ismailov and Prince Shalikov.

Lyrical poets of Alexander's time were, Panin,, Pankraty,
Sumarokov, Burinsky, Milonov, Davidov, Pushkin, Zhatrov,
Prince Gortchakov, Bunina, Shikhmatov, Panayev, and
others.

General Davidov, the enthusiastic soldier-poet may be said
to represent Korner in his country, and Prince Skakhovskoy,
called the Kussian Kotzebue.

Griboyadov, a man of eminent talent, unfortunately left us
only one drama, " Misery caused by a Superabundance of
Mmd."

MerzPyakov is jastly esteemed as aesthetic and critic.

We now come to the last period of the History of Russian
Literature or

Atk Period. — That of Independence and Nationality,
under the reign of the Czar Nicolai I. and of the present
high-minded and enlightened Czar Alexander II., who,
following the footsteps of Peter the Great, of the intel-
lectual Catharine, and lastly, those of his great nncle and
father, crowned the work for which they had so carefully
smoothed the road, by his grand act of the liberation of the
serfs. Freed from the fetters that had so long held them
down, they will before long in their turn sound the harp,
which hitherto had but obeyed the touch of fingers blazing
forth aristocratic emblems engraved on the costly gems of
Siberia and the Indies ; and in fact the beginning has already
been made.

We have seen Lomonosov, Derzhavin, and Karamsin
endeavour to take the Russian Pegasus from the plough.
At last he stands before the nation free of the fetters that so
long had held him bound, his wings are grown again ; impa-
tient for the final soar to Parnassus, his eyes flash the divine
fire of poetry. He feels the approach of the man, according
to the ancient legend, appointed to mount him. And that
man did not keep him waiting long.

Hot and furious the war between Classicism and Roman-

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 377

tism had been waging, and in its rear followed an entire
revolution in literary ideas and judgment. The Karamsin
period of Russian literature was at an end. A new sun had
risen on its horizon, smoothing down the turbulent waves of
strife ; that sun was —

Alexander Ssergeyevich Pushkin, who at last for ever
brought the feud between the language of the church and
that of the people to a final and happy conclusion.

Prose and verse of this truly great poet exhibit the highest
perfection of form, combined with the most soul-felt popu-
larism. Deep feeling and a rich, creative fancy breathe in
every line of his voluminous writings, and their language
will remain for many years to come an unsurpassable model
of purity and graceful ease.

His principal works are : " The Lyrical Epos, Eugene
Onyagin," a beautiful illustration of Eussian popular life ;
the novel, "The Captain's Daughter," depicting the rebellion
of Pugatshev ; and the most perfect tale (as regards style),
" Dubrovsky."

When hardly fourteen years old, he published in the
" European Advertiser" a small poem " On the Death of Kou-
touzov," in 1815 his so-called Lyceum poems, in 1820 his
" Eussl'yan and L'yudmila," " The Son of the Fatherland,"
and others. " Russl'yan and L'yudmila " is a poem of six
cantos, and a picture of the heroic age of Russia at Kiev,
displaying an unwonted poetical spirit, fancy, and taste,
which promise, under favourable circumstances, to become
productive of the richest fruits.

His poem, " The Prisoner of the Caucasus," appeared in
1824. The last production of his muse was " The Well of
Baktshissarai," a poem of 600 lines, for which a Moscow
publisher paid him the liberal sum of about 450^.

Pushkin was born on the 26th May, 1799, at St. Peters-
burg, was brought up at the Imperial Lyceum, from which
he was removed in 1817 and placed in the College for the
Administration of Foreign Affairs. He died in his native
city on the 10th February, 1837, from a shot-wound received

378 THE LAND OF THE CZAE.

in the breast in a duel with his brother-in-law, D'Authes,
Baron von Heckeren, the adopted son of the Dutch Ambas-
sador at St. Petersburg. The duel was occasioned by family
broils, and by the imputed infidelity of the wife of one of the
party with the other.

Alex. Bestuzhev says of him : " While yet a child he sur-
prised by the manly vigour of his style ; the mines of his
mother-tongue laid themselves open to the rising youth, and
poured forth tO him the magic store of poetry. His works
bear the stamp of originality, and leave an impression on the
memory and feeling of the reader. His thoughts are full of
acuteness, bold, and fiery ; his language is clear and well-
regulated — the tones of his verses very music. Availing
myself of a genuine Eussian simile, ' they flow like pearls
over velvet.' Two of the poems of this young bard, ' Euss-
I'yan and L'yudmila' and ' The Prisoner of the Caucasus '
are especially full of maiden charms. The last composed on
the green hillock of Ovid's tomb, within sight of the silver-
hoary Caucasus, glitters with the richest store of fancies and
with the peculiar beauties of the local splendours of the
natural scene. Inequality in the plan and the drawing of
the characters are his principal faults, which he possessed in
common with all poets who have equalled him in fire and
been carried away by their imagination."

Pushkin differs from his predecessors principally by the
fact, that in the successive progress of his works he not only
evinces the gradual development of the poet, but also that of
the man himself, and of his character. His poems of one
year are ever clearly distinguished from those of the preced-
ing in intrinsic quality and form, thereby proving, that keen
observation of real life and his ever fertile idea formed the
foundation to his writings.

In his boyish attempts appears no influence of Derzhavin,
but rather of Shukovsky, Bat'yushkov, Kapnist, and Vassilj
Pushkin. Only his " Onyagin " reminds one of Derzhavin's
style.

However fond of Shukovsky's poems he seems to have

RUSSIAN LITEEATUKE. 379

been, his chosen pattern was Bat'yushkov. This fact his
works abundantly illustrate by a certain coyness and again
merry roguishness ever now and then sparkling through,
just as one observes the .same in Bat'yushkov's poems.

With child-like veneration he looked up to the veteran
Derzhavin. In his memoirs he says : —

" The world smiled on my boyhood ; the first success
spread its sheltering wing over me ; the venerable Derzhavin
saw me — when stepping into his grave he gave me his
blessing."

With exquisite zest he relates the incident here alluded
to. On the occasion of a public examiaation of the students
at the Lyceum, when he was but in his sixteenth year, he had
the honour of being called upon to read aloud " Derzhavin's
Eeminiscences of Tsarskoj-Sselo," not two paces distant from
that poet, who was loud in his praise of the boy's rendering.
He always looked upon this event as one of the greatest of
his life. The remembrance of Karamsin, Dmitrijev, and
Shukovsky, Pushkin dearly cherished to the end of his life.

We close this chapter with the mention of another publi-
cation in which he took the principal share, viz., " The
Insurrection of the Poles and the Fall of Warsaw," in three
cantos, by Alexander Pushkin, W. Shukovsky, and Khour-
yakov. One of the cantos is superscribed, " To Russia's
Defamers."

Having reluctantly taken leave of the immortal Pushkin,
we now turn our admiring glance to his younger contempo-
rary, Mikhail Yurjevich Lermontov, by many called the
" Eussian Byron," of whom Professor Boltz wrote : " Thou-
sands have deplored, that he was not born, like Byron, a free
citizen of happy Albion. Beautiful as his lays are, what far
mightier accords might not the harp of this fiery bard have
sent through the woods and halls of a free country ! As it
was — alas ! — he was destined to mourn, like a second Pro-
metheus, an exile of the inhospitable Caucasus — only to
meet at the end of his short life the fate of Pushkin." His
poet's breast also was pierced by the murderous missile of a

380 THE LA^^) OF THE CZAR.

duelling pistoL Too early his sweet lyre ceased its strains,
though they wiU never stop vibrating in the hearts of comiag
generations.

Of his prose, Varnhagen van Ense (who has translated
an episode of his celebrated novel " Bela ") says, that it is
fully worthy to rank equally with that of the greatest masters
of all nations.

Lermovtov belonged to a distinguished noble family.
Born on the 1.5th October, 1814, he was educated at the
University of Moscow, whence he entered the Guards at
St. Petersburg. His lively imagination and fieiy spirit led
him rapidly through the wild oatfield of inconsiderate youth.
Soon wearied by the pleasures of the gay Russian capital, a
reaction set in ; he retired from the flaring scenes of noisy
gaiety and devoted himself entirely to Ms muse. The high
circles, to which he belonged, declared him a misanthrope,
and a poem he wrote on the occasion of Pushkin's death
drew upon him the displeasure of his superior officers, in
consequence of which he was sent on active service to the
Caucasus. The glorious mountain world of that cormtry
fired his soul and inspired him to songs of most exquisite
wild melody. Xo poet had ever painted it with such truth
and power. He loved the sounds of battle for the mere
excitement they stirred up in his spirit, and he found more
satisfaction in the distraction of his gloomy moods, than in
the desire for glory and distinction. Like Byron, he was
inclined to brood over his own wrongs, real or imagined ;
like that poet he made his own individuality the ever-
conspicuous theme of nearly all his works. Even where he
describes other persons and circumstances, his own thought
and feeling appear always prominent His best poems are,
" The Lay of the Czar Ivan Vassiljevich," "The Demon,"
" The Gifts of the Terek," " Ismail Bey," and many others.
His best prose is displayed in the incomparable, widely-
read novel, " The Hero of our Own Time." A small collec-
tion of his works appeared already in 18-10, at St Peters-
burg, and a third edition of the whole of his works in 1852.

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 381

They exhibit a thorough knowledge of the power of the
Russian language, and not even Pushkin has handled the
same with superior grace and force.

As already mentioned, it was an unhappy duel, which cut
him down in the very bloom of his years, as he was little
more than twenty-seven when he fell. Many of his works
have been translated into the English language, and I hope
this book may, in its humble way, prove inducive to a desire
for closer acquaintance with the Northern bard.

We have now arrived at a period of extraordinary literary
fertility. Owing to the genius of a Lomonosov, a Derzhavin,
a Karamsin, and a Pushkin, the Eussian nation possessed
now a beautiful and rich language, by which to express their
long pent-up feelings, and to find vent for the hitherto
fettered energy of literary enterprise. Writers of both sexes
seem to vie with each other for the palm of poetical,
romantic, and scientific authorship. To deal with them all
singly would be impossible for the limits of this work. Its
object has been, I hope, fulfilled in laying before the public
of this country a concise and correct account of literary life
in Eussia, and in furnishing a guide and impetus to the
study of the language, in the first instance, and in the
reaping of an ample reward for the toil by the lecture of the
authors with whose lives and works we have endeavoured
to make the reader somewhat acquainted.

Of more modern authors, and such as are living and
writing at the present time, we may in conclusion mention
the following : —

Poetry and Belles-Lettres. — Nikitin, a peasant of Voronezh ;
Krassov, Feth, Count Alexis Tolstoj, the brothers Kir^efsky,
Krestovsky, and others.

Romance. — Count Leo Tolstoj, Tourgudniev, two novel
writers of remarkable powers; Pisemsky, Dostogefsky, Gont-
charov, Uspensky, Vesselovsky, &c.

Folk-lore has been considerably enriched by the re-
searches of Afanasiev, Orest Miiller, Gerbel, De Pule,
&c. Mr. Ealston has just published a work on this sub-

382 THE LAND OF THE CZAR.

ject, which we cannot enough recommend to the perusal of
the public.

History. — Professors Kostomarov and Solovief, K. Bes-
tuzhef-Eumin, Gerrye, Popof, A. Pypin, Dubrovin, Kle-
vanov, Zamyslovsky, Shubinsky, Semefsky, Bartenief,
Buturl&i, Pekarsky, A. Eomanovich, Slavatinsky, Simon-
enko, Prince Vassiltchikov, Prof Aristov, Harkavi (relations
of the Arabian writers about the Khazares, Bulgarians, and
Slavonians, edited, with great care and learning, by a young
Oriental scholar) ; Gen. Fadeief (Ideas on the Eastern Ques-
tion (anti-german) ).

Biography. — E. Koralevsky (Count Bludof and his Time) ;
Gen. Kitcheief (Personal recollections of French occupation
of Moscow).

Clerical. — Father Moroshkin (History of the Jesuits in
Russia, as far as the year 1820).

In Eolitical Literature great progress has been made in
Eussia^ Recent works are marked by solid thought and
sound principles.

Skaldin, " In the Waste and in the Capital."
Zablotshy-Desiatovsky, "Pruss. Finance" (very good).
Shukovshy, " History of Political Literature of the 19th

Century."
Yurji Samarin, " Border Lands of Russia."
Banilevsky, " Russia and Europe " (extreme Slavono-

phile style).
Nikitin, " Life of the Imprisoned."
Maximovich, " Siberia and forced Labour." The 4th
volume of the Military Statistical Collection — Russia,
accompanied by invaluable Maps.
Zahielin, " Domestic Life of Court and People."
Hebrew Library, edited by A. E. Landau. — " On Hebrew
and Talmudic Law ;" " The Position of the Jewish Race in
Russia and Europe ;" " Review of Modern Jewish Litera-
ture ;" and " A Tale of Jewish Life."

Law. — Journal of CivU and Commercial Law; Prof.
Andreefsky, " History of Russian Law ;" Arseniev, Netchaief,

EUSSIAN LITBRATUKE. 383

&c. Father Gartckakov, " Landed Properties of the Eussian
Patriarchs and Metropolitans and of the Holy Synod — from
988 to 1738.

Geography and Travels. — Kostenko, Veniubov, Maximov,
Count Sollogul, Zimmermann, &c.
Arts and Science : —
D. Rovinsky, " Eussian Engravers, 1564 to Foundation

of Academy of Fine Arts;" " Belgrade."
Frczevalshj, " Ussurian Eegions."
Sidorov, " North of Eussia."
Shalkovsky, " Suez Canal."

Prof. Setchenov, " Physiol. Processes of Growths."
Livanov, " Dissenters and Criminals."
Laroche and Father Rammofshy, assisted by Prince Odo-

jefsky, " On Glinka and Church Music in Eussia,"
M. JSF. Galkin ^ \ Ethnog. Hist. Materials for Central
P. J. Pashino. J Asia, Turkestan in 1866.
A most useful and cleverly compiled work is Bazunov's
Book Catalogue.

Mezhof gives curious lists of articles and books published
in commemoration of Lomonosov, Karamsin, and Krllov,
at their recent centennials.

There appeared on Lomonosov 129, on Karamsin 173, and
on Krllov 63 different articles.

The works of Derzhavin, Grigorovich, and Dobroljubov
have lately been republished.

INDEX.

Atadzeklis, 135.

Abassian Language, 3^7, 348.

Abbas Shah, 123.

Abkhaz, 135, 136.

Adighe, 135.

Aeraemoeiseta, 160.

Ainos, 226.

Alanes, 241.

Alexander Mikhailovitch, 269-271.

Alexander Nevsky, 267, 268.

Alexander II. Nicholayevitch, 317.

Alexander I. Pavlovitch, 305-309.

Alexej I. Mikhailovitch, 284-286.

Ali-UUakhi, 97.

Altai, 10, 11.

Amazons, 237-241.

Ambazukes, 10.

Amusements, 54-58.

Andrej I. Yui'gyevitch, 261.

Anna Ivanovna, 293-2S5.

Animal Kingdom, 19-31.

Aphkhazo-Karthli, 116.

Ararat, 16.

Argyppeans, 237.

Aristocracy, 45-54.

Armenians, 102-106.

Arsacides, 116.

Askold and Dir, 247.

Ataman, 82.

Avarian Languages, 336-339.

Avarians, 244.

Aversion to Walking Exercise, 54.

Bagratides, 116.

Baikal Lake, 11.

Barabints, 183.

Bariatinsky, 130.

Bashkirs, Meshtsheriaks, and Tep-

tiars, 169-171.
Batu, 172.
Bat'yuzhkov, 374.
Bears, 30.
Belters, 186.
Besborodko, 372.

Bjeloukha, 11.

Black and White Clergy, 324, 325.

Black Sea Treaty, 233-235.

Bogdanovitch, 369.

Boris Godounov, 280.

Boughiaus, 243.

Boukliarees, 183.

Bouriats, 208-210.

Boviues, 21, 22.

Buffaloes, 22.

Bulgarians, 84, 244.

Burtas, 246.

Cakhethi, 116.

Camels, 22, 23.

Caspian Gates, 9.

Catharina I., 292.

Catharina II., Alexeyevna, 298-303.

Caucasian Gates, 8.

Caucasians, 113.

Caucasian Tartars, 187-191.

Caucasus, 6-10.

Charity, 36, 37, 60.

Chemnitzer, 369.

Church Language, 356, 357.

Climate, 17.

Cossacks, 75-82.

Coures, 89.

Crime, 41.

Crimean Tartars, 178-180.

Cumania, 9.

Dances, 55.

Dariela, 8.

David II., 116, 117.

Davidov, 376.

Demidov, 372.

Derevians, 242.

Derzhavin, 364-368.

Dialect of Little-Kussia, 71 .

Diet, 62.

Division of Russia, 371.

Dmitri I. Alexandrovitch, 268, 269.

Dmitri,Constantinovitch, 270.

386

IXDEX.

Dmitri IV. Donskvi, 271.
Dmitriyev, 375.
Dregovitche?, 2i2.
Dshoutchi Khan, 172.
Dukhobordsi, 321.
Dulyabians, 243.

Education of children, 51.

Eibofolke, 111.

]-:ibraz, 10.

Elizabeth Petrovna, 295, 296.

Emigration of Caucasian Tribes,

139-141.
English Mission.?, 141-143.
Ergik Mountains, 11.
Esthouians, 158, 159.
Ethnographic Table, 227-22!i.
Eusthades, 115.

Falassians, 99.

False Dmitris, 2S0-2S2.

Fatalism, 39-42.

Feodor III. Alexeyevitch, 286.

Feodor I. Ivanovitch, 279.

FestiTals, 327.

Finnish Eace, 156-163.

Freed Serfs, 36,

Frontiers of Kusiia, 1.

Gambling, 57.

Game, 29.

Gatioukais, 135.

Genuine Kirghiz, 200, 201.

Geological Formation, 1.

Geology, 12-14.

George Tladimirovitch, 260.

George II. and III. Vsevolodovitcb,

263-265.
Georgia, 114, 115.
Georgians, 114-117.
Germans, 107-110.
Ghddimin, 86, 87.
Ghiliaks, 225.
Gipsies, 98.
Glinka, 376.
Goaditch, 375.
Golden Horde, 172.
Goorbi Mountains, 11.
Goths, 241.
Gouberlinsk HUIs, 11.
Gouriaus, 121.
Great Horde, 197-200.
Greeks, 111, 112.
Griboyadov, 376.
Grouzinians, 117-120.

Hamzat-Bev, 12S.
Heraelius, il6.
Hetman, 82.

High Society, 50, 51.

Hindoos, 112.

Hiatory of Russia, 237-317.

Holy Svnod, 320.

Horde of Bouk^yev, 195-197.

Horses, 23-29.

Hospitality, 49, 50.

Huns, 9.

Hyperboreans, 237.

Igor Olgovitch, 258.

Igor EmikoTitch, 250, 251.

Igor's Byzantine Wai-s, 250.

Igor's Expedition against the Polovz,

262.
Imerethians, 120.
Improbity, 40.
ImproTldence, 40.
Ingrians, 159, 160.
Intemperance, 69-74.
Introductory Remarks to Kuss. Hist. ,

230-236.
Ironians, 91, 92.
Irtysh, 10.

IsSslav II. of Smolensk, 267.
Isaslav Mstislavitch, 258, 259.
Isaslav III. DaiidoTiteh, 2S0.
Isaslav laroslavitch, 254.
Ivan I. DanUovitch, 269.
Ivan II. of Moscow, 270.
Ivan III. Vassilyevitcli, 274, 275.
Ivan IV. Vassilyevitch, 276-279.
Ivan IV. and the Jestiit Possevin,

328-332.

Jaropolk I. Svjatoslavitch, 252.
Jaropolk II. Vladimirovitch, 257.
Jaropolk III. and Mstislav III.

Eostislavitch, 261.
Jaroslav Vladimirovitch, 253.
Jaroskv III. Tver, 268.
JeiYs, 99, 100.

Kaibals, 1S3.
Kalmuks, 211-213.
Kaltoun, 100.
Kamassints, 186.
Kamtchadals, 225.
Kantemir, 361.
Kapnist, 369.
Karaemes, 100, lul.
Karagass, 186.
Karamsin, 372-374.
Karapalkas, 1S2.
Karelians, 160.
Earpathian Mountains, 11.
Karthle Race, 113.
Karthlosides, 116.
Kiissoghs, 246.

INDEX.

387

Katchints, 185.

Katooma, 11.

Kazan Tartars, 182.

Kazbek, 7.

Kazi-Moullah, 125-128.

Khadji-Mahomet, 136.

Kharikat, 126.

Khazars, 244.

Kheraskov, 369,

Khivan Expedition, 231-233.

Khorvats, 243.

Khosroxdes, 116.

Kirghiz-Eaissaks, 192-194.

Kistes, 132-134.

Kizilts, 185.

Knazhnin, 369.

Kokherei, 82.

Koriako-Tchouktchi, 220.

Koundrovs, 181.

Kour River, 114.

Kourdhs, 96.

Krilov, 374.

Knznedzki Mountains, 11.

Lamarokov, 370.
Languages of Kussia, 333-354.
Laps, 160, 161.
LaToma, 88.
LermontoT, 379-381.
Lesghis or Didos, 124-131.
Letts, 89.

Liakhe dialect, 85.
Lithuanians, 85-89.
Little Horde, 194, 195.
Little-Russians, 68-74.
Little-Eussian Poetry, 72.
Litvins, 88.
Livonians, 158.
Lomonosov, 861-363.
Lutitches, 243.

Malorossiani, 68-74.

Manufacturing Districts, 59-62.

Mazurian Dialect, 85.

Mennonites, 109.

Merzl'yakov, 376.

Method and Kyrill, 355, 356.

Michael L Romanov, 283, 284.

Michael 11. Yurgyevitch, 261.

Middle Horde, 197.

Mines of Russia, 14, 15.

Mingrelians, 120.

Mitzdsheglii Languages, 339, 340.

Moengghe-Taemour, 173.

Mongol Invasion, 266-273.

Mongol Race, 205-213.

Monk Theodore, 328.

Moozhik, 31.

Moravian Brethren, 143-149.

I Mordrins, 168.
I Mountains, 5.

Mstislar Isaslavitch, 261.

Mstislav Vladimirovitch, 257.

Muller, 370.

Muridism, 125-127.

Murshid, 125.

Musical Instruments, 56.

Music of Little-Russia, 71.

Natoukhais, 135.
Nebrothides, 116.
Nemania (Stephen), 83.
Nicholas I. Pavlovitch, 309-316.
Nogai, 173.
Nogais, 174-178.

Obi Tartars, 183.

Obshtshina, 76.

Obshtshy Syrte, 11.

Oleg, 248-250.

Oleg's Byzantine Campaign, 248, 249.

Olga, 318.

Olgherd, 87.

Origin of the word " Cossack," 75.

Oserov, 369.

Ossetinian Language.?, 340-343.

Ossets, 91-95.

Ostromirovo Evangelium, 357.

Ostjaks, 154, 166, 167.

Ougrians, 166.

Paul I. Petrovitch, 304, 305.

Permiaks, 161, 162.

Persians, 95.

Petcheneghians, 244.

Peter I. the Great, 287-291.

Peter I. 's Alphabet, 361.

Peter II. Alcxeyevitch, 293.

Peter III., 296, 297.

Petrov, 370.

Phamavaz, 115.

Poem " God " (Derzhavin), 3C6.

Poklomaya Gora, 11.

Polanes, 242.

Poles, 84, 85.

Polish Literature, 85.

Polotchanians, 242.

Polovz, 245.

Population of Russia, 31, 228.

Prince Gortchakov, 376.

Principal writers of Catharine II. 'a

period, 370.
Promychlenniks, 63.
Pshavs, Touslies, and Khev.sours,

122, 123.
Public life, 49.
Pushkin, A. S., 377-379.

388

INDEX.

Radimitches, 242.

Raitsh, 374.

Easkolniks, 63, 321.

Eecent authors, 381-383.

Eeligion, 70.

Restriction of Cossack privileges, 76.

Eingold, 86.

Eivers and lakes, 16.

Eostislav I. llstislavitch, 260.

Eurik, Sineus, and Truver, 247, 248.

Russian Churcli, 318-332.

Russian Gods, 243.

Russian Legends, 360.

Russian Literature, 355-383.

Russian Universities, 371.

Russians of Great- Russia, 34-62.

Russians of Siberia, 63-67.

Ruthenes, 72.

Said Effendi, 126.
Sagaites, 184.
Saladin, 96.
SamogHtians, 88.
Samoyedes, 150-155.
Sanskrit roots, 351-354.
Sarmatians, 240.
Savakotes, 160.
Sayane Mountains, 11.
Scandinavian Mountains, 11.
Scythians, 241.
Semigalls, 89.
Serbians, 83, 84.
Setcha, 77-82.
Severians, 242.
Shamanism, 151.
Shamyl, 127-130.
Shapzougs, 135.
Shariat, 125.
Sheep, 23.

Shukovsky, 374, 375.
Siberian honesty, 66.
Siberian life, 65.
Siberian Tartars, 183.
Siberian women, 66.
Simon Ivanovitch, 269.
Size of Russia, 1.
Slavonians, 242.
Slavonic Bible, 358.
Slavonic Languages, 335.
Slobodian Cossacks, 82.
Slovenians, 242.
Sociability, 44, 45.
Sojotes, 187.
Soulitchi, 242.

Sport in ihe Caucasus, 19-21.
Ssuani Languages, 348, 349.
Ssnanes, 121, 122.
Stannovoi Khrebet, 11.
Staroverdsi, 321.

Steppe, 2.
Superstition, 70.
Svod-Zakon, 231.
Svjatopolk (Michaell, 255.
Svjatopolk laropolkovitch, 253.
SvjatoslavJgorovitch, 251, 252.
Swedes, 110, 111

Table manners, 52.

Talychs, 95.

Tamerlan (Timour),173.

Tarikat, 126, 127.

Tartar Bodyguard, 87.

Tartar Languages, 350, 351.

Tartar religious books, 142, 143.

Tartars, 169-204.

Tartars of Astrakhan, 181, 182.

Tartars of Lithuania, 180, 181.

Tauride Mountains, 5.

Taurus, 5.

Tchadyr Dag, 5.

Tcheremiss, 167, 168.

Tcherkess, 135-137.

Tcherkess Language, 344-347.

Tchetchents, 132-134.

Tchin, 47, 48.

Tchingghis Khan, 172-174.

Tchokood Mountains, 11. .

Tchorakh-Souderan, 97.

Tchomorjem (black mould), 13.

Tchouds, 184.

Tchouia, 11.

Tchouktchis, 221-224.

Tchoulyms, 183.

Tchouvashes, 169.

Teletskoi Lake, 11.

Teleutes, 187.

Teutonic Knights, 87.

Thamar, 115-117.

Tiflis, 117.

Timour, 117.

Titles, 48.

Tivertses, 243.

Tokhtamysh, 173.

Toukinsk Motmtains, 11.

Toungouse, 214-219.

Tourals, 183.

Trade of Siberia, 64, 65.

Tradesmen, 37, 38.

Travelling in Russia, 2-5.

Tred^akovski, 363.

Troits kossavsk, 64.

Tumulous Mounds, 63.

Tuikomans, 191, 192.

TJgaetaei, 172.
UgHtches, 243.
Ungrians, 246.
Ui3, 11.

INDEX.

389

Uralo-Altaic peoples, 150-225.

Vaigatsh, 11.

Vallachians, 90.

Varaegh descent, 46.

Varaeghs (Normans), 247.

Vassily II. Dmitrovitch, 271, 272.

Vassily III. Vassilyevitch, 272, 273.

Vaasay IV. Vassilyevitch, 275, 276.

Vedmas, 70, 71.

Vegetable Kingdom, 18.

Venedes, 89.

Viatitohi, 242.

Vladimir I. Svjatoslavitch, 252.

Vladimir II. Vsevolodovitch Mono-

makh, 255-257.
Voghuls, 166.
Von Wisin, 369.
Votes, 159.
Votiaks, 165.
Voyeikov, 375.
Vronzhenko, 374.
Vsevolod Jaroslavitch, 254, 255.
Vsevold Olgovitcli, 258.
Vsevolod III. Yurgyevitch, 262, 263.

White Bulgarians, 246.

White Russians, 73, 74.
Wine, 18, 19.
Wolves, 30, 31.
Woman's position, 52, 53.

Yalilonnovoi Khrebet, 11.

Yadviga, 87.

YageUa, 87.

Yakoutes, 201-204.

Yaroslav II. Vsevoldovitch, 266.

Yassi, 246.

Yatvaghians, 89.

Yazygns, 241.

Yenissei River, 11.

Yermolov, 126, 127.

Yessids, 97.

Yougorky Khrebet, 11.

Youkaghirs, 219, 220.

Youraks, 153,' 154.

Yourtovs, 181.

Zales, 89.

Zaporogliians, 77-82.
Znakhars, 71.
Zyrians, 163-165.

THE END.

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London, 193, Piccadilly, W.
October, 1874.

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Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, fancy boards, 2s. each, or 2s. 6d. in cloth.
THE WHITE ROSE.
CERISE. A Tale of the Last Century.
BROOKES OP BRIDLEMERE.
" BONES AND I ; " or, The Skeleton at Home.
" M., OR N." Similia Similibus Curantur.
CONTRABAND ; OR, A LOSING HAZARD.

MARKET HARBORODGH ; or. How Mr. Sawyer went to the Shires
SARCHEDON, A LEGEND OF THE GREAT QUEEN
SONGS AND VERSES.

SATANELLA, A STORY OF PUNCHESTOWN.
THE TRUE CROSS. A Legend of the Church.

CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS.
ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION

OF 5HB

WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS.

To te completed in 30 Monthly Tolnmes. Demy 8to, price 10s. eacK

This edition irill be printed on a finer paper and in a larger type than has been
employed in any previous edition. The type has been cast specially for it, and the page
will be of a size to admit of the introduction of all the original illnstrations. These will
be printed from the steels and blocks on which the original artists themselTes were engaged.

No such attractire issue has been made of the writings of Mr. Dickens, which,
Tarious as have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands of an ever-widely
increasing popxdarity, have never yet been worthily presented in -a really handsome library
form.

The want lia« been extensively felt, and is so often brought under the notice of
Messrs. Chapman and TTall that the present enterprise 'is undertaken to satisfy it.

The collection will comprise all the minor writing it was ilr. Dickens's wish to pre-
serve, and the series of tales will be issued in the order in which they were writt€n,

YoluTiies already puhlisJied.
SKETCHES BY"B0Z." TVith 40 niustrations by Geoege CECiKsnA^K.
PICKWICK. 2 vols, mth 42 Illustrations by " Pmz."
OLIVER TWIST, "^^i* 24 Dlustrations by CEUiKsnASK.
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols, with 40 IUui=tratioii3 Ly 'Phiz."
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by Catteemolb, &c.
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. 2 vols, with 40 illustrations by "Phiz."

AMERICAN NOTES and PICTURES FROM ITALY. 1 ™i.

With 8 Illustrations.

CHAKLES DICKEXS'S WOEKS.

HOUSEHOLD EDITION.

Kow PuMUhiny,

IN WEEKLY PENNY NUMBERS AND SIXPENNY MONTHLY PARTS.

Each Penny Xumter will contain T^i'o Illustrations.
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BARNAEY RUDGE. With 46 Illustrations, cloth, '4s. ; paper, 3s.

Messrs. Chapsiax &, Hall trust that by this Edition they wiU be enabled to place
the Works of the most popular British Author of the present day in the hands of all
English readers.

The next Yolume wUl be A TALE OF TWO CITIES, with Illustrations Iv
F. Eaksakii.

CHAELES DICKENS'S WORKS.

LIBRARY EDITION. PostSvo.

30 vols., with the Oriyinal Illustrations, cloth,, £12,

THE "CHARLES DICKENS" EDITION. In Crown 8vo.

In 19 vols, cloth, with Illustrations, £Z is. Qd.

PiCKWioz Papbbs With 8 Illustrations

Martin Chuzzlewit With 8 ,,

DOMBErANDSON With 8 ,,

Nicholas NioKLEBr With 8 ,,

DA-VID COPPEEFIEID With 8 „

Bleak House With 8 „

Little DoRKiT With 8 „

Our Mutual Friend With 8 ,, ...

Barnabt EuDGE With 8 „

Old CuHiosiir Shop With 8 ,,

Tale OF Two Cities With 8 „

Sketches BY Boz With 8 ,,

Amekioan Notes ajid Reprinted Pieces With 8 „

Christmas Books With 8 ,,

Oliver Twist With 8 ,,

Great Expectations With 8 „

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A Child's History of England With 4 „

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OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LAN-
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THE ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION. anDemySro.)
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