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Denmark and the Danes;
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DENMARK AND THE DANES
Frontispiece.
Georg Brandes.
\Pfioto : Elliott & Fry, London.
DENMARK AND THE
DANES
A SURVEY OF DANISH LIFE,
INSTITUTIONS AND CULTURE
BY
WILLIAM J. HARVEY and CHRISTIAN REPPIEN
WITH A MAP AND 32 ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON
T FISHER UNWIN, LTD
AD£LPHI TERRACE
_I3 !
111 ...
H-3 4
First Published in 1915
(All rights reserved.)
.1/.
FOREWORD
In the preparation of this book the writers have
attempted to give an account of recent social,
economic and political movements in Denmark,
and a description of the origin and development
particularly of institutions peculiar to that country,
and which have won her the admiration of Europe.
Denmark, during the last half century, has passed
through the throes of a wonderful regeneration.
Her peasantry has been emancipated from a
condition of veritable serfdom ; her education has
been liberalised ; her land system, agriculture and
finance have been reorganised and brought to a
pitch of excellence which is the envy of many a
greater, yet less perfectly developed, state.
One of the present writers is English, and the
other, Danish. They may therefore justly claim
for the book that it is an attempt to see Denmark
from within and without. Quotations and sources
of information have been given wherever possible
throughout the text ; but the authors have to
acknowledge much assistance generously ren-
dered to them by friends, both Danish and English,
whose names are too numerous to mention. Some
parts of the work have appeared in article form in
the periodical press, and in this connection we have
viii FOREWORD
to thank the Daily Chronicle, the Westminster
Gazette, the Manchester Guardian and Charles
H. Kelly for kind permission to reproduce.
It would be too much to hope that a work of this
character, dealing with such a range and variety
of subjects, shall be entirely free from miscon-
ceptions, or that some small errors shall not have
crept into the text. For such and all other
shortcomings we crave the reader's indulgence,
trusting that the general accuracy of the
information contained within these covers will
sufficiently compensate,
W. J. H.
C. R.
CONTENTS
PART I.— THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE.
CHAP. PAGE
I. The Land 17
IL The People 25
HL Copenhagen and the Large Towns . 41
IV. The Royal Family .... 58
PART IL— HISTORICAL.
V. General Sketch of Danish History. 65
VI. Political History from 1849 to the
Present Day .... 86
PART III.— AGRICULTURE AND FARMING.
Vll. The System of Land Tenure . . 103
Vill. A Typical Danish Farm and Co-
operative Dairy . . . .117
IX. Pure Milk in the Large Towns . 124
X CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
X. The Scientific Methods of the Danish
Farmers ..... 132
XI. Co-operation 141
PART IV.— CULTURE.
XII. Education 159
XIII. The Popular High Schools . . 169
XIV. Modern Literature .... 178
XV. Thorwaldsen and Modern Art . 195
XVI. Music and the Theatre . . . 212
XVII. Recent Scientific Research in Den-
mark 219
XVIII. Royal Danish Porcelain . . . 246
XIX. The Press 252
PART v.— FINANCE AND INDUSTRY.
XX. State and Municipal Finance . . 261
XXI. The Banks 272
XXII. The Credit Unions .... 279
XXIII. Danish Commerce and Industry . 283
CONTENTS xi
PART VI.— GOVERNMENTAL.
CHAP. PAGE
XXIV. Administration 299
XXV. Social Laws 308
XXVI. Denmark's Overseas Possessions . 323
Index . . 337
ILLUSTRATIONS
fACING
rAGI
Dr. Georg Brandes . . . Frontispiece
Map 17
Moorland Scenery in Jutland, with Ribe
Cathedral 20
Frederiksborg Castle 22
A Labourer's Garden, Copenhagen . . 28
Amalienborg Square, Copenhagen ... 40
Rosenborg Castle, Copenhagen ... 42
Round Tower, Copenhagen .... 44
The Raadhusplads, Copenhagen ... 48
The Stock Exchange, Copenhagen . . .50
Queen Alexandra's Villa, Copenhagen . . 60
Interior of Palace Church, Frederiksborg
Castle 74
The Women's Franchise Demonstration . . 98
Queen Louise Bridge and Gardens, Copenhagen 100
A Heathland Cottage . . . . , 104
The Flower Market, Copenhagen . . . 140
Open-air Gymnasium, Copenhagen . . . 158
The Royal Academy at Soro (A Secondary
School) 162
Thorwaldsen's Museum, Copenhagen . . 194
Open-air Theatre, Copenhagen . . .212
xiv ILLUSTRATIONS
FACISO
PAOB
Niels R. Finsen 217
Interior of Lupus Clinique . . . • 226
"Towards the Light," The Statue of Niels
R. Finsen. (In the Background, the Rigs
Hospital) .... . . 230
Dr. Valdemar Poulsen 234
Prof. P. O. Pedersen 238
Interior of Royal Porcelain Factory, Copen-
hagen 246
Old Copenhagen Porcelain Figure Group . 250
The Fish Market and Fishing Boats in the
Canal, Copenhagen 288
The City Hall, Copenhagen, from the Tivoli 300
The Danish Royal Guard, paraded before
Amalienborg Castle, Copenhagen . . 304
Korsor City Hall: a Typical Provincial
Town Hall 306
The King of Denmark watching Boy and Girl
Scouts doing Red Cross Work . . . 310
Icelandic Ponies being Disembarked at Copen-
hagen 324
PART I
THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE
CHAPTER I
THE LAND
Geological Origin — Physical Characteristics — Rivers,
Lakes and Forests. — ^The Heaths — ^The Sand-dunes
of North-west Jutland — ^Afforestation and Reclama-
tion — Flora and Fauna of Jutland and the Islands.
Geologically, Denmark has been produced by
he Norwegian mountains in much the same way-
is the Newfoundland banks are to-day being
brmed by the icebergs from Greenland. It is
)ften said that every stone in Denmark can be
:raced back to its original resting-place in Norway,
md that if it had not been for this long-continued
md powerful glacial action, Denmark would
probably have existed as a group of coral and
;halk islands rising abruptly from the sea. In
support of this theory there are those wonderful
md unique formations which in many places have
Droken through the clay strata, the most beautiful
)f which is Moens Klint, a range of lofty, turretted
liffs, standing perpendicularly out of the sea,
overed with forest growth, andsphtup into peaks
nd gorges, pinnacles and clefts. If one sees
[oens Klint from the deck of a steamer in the
'ening when the setting sun is behind it, it is
place of lights and shadows ; a place for the
inter ; in a sense symbolic of the character
/D. B
i8 DENMARK AND THE DANES
of the Danish people ; open and free, yet with a
hidden strain of pessimism running through it.
Denmark consists of three large and some smaller
islands, and a great out-jutting promontory from
North Germany. The large islands are Sjoelland,
Fuhnen and LoUand, and the promontory is
Jutland. Copenhagen, the capital, is situated on
Sjoelland, often called Sealand. Taking the coun-
try as a whole, it is one of the flattest in Europe ;
Himmelbjerg, near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, is
the highest point, and it is raised only 550 feet
above sea-level. But it is not flat as Holland is
flat ; it is pleasantly diversified into rolling moor-
lands, cornfields and meadows, beech-woods and
low hills. Only the small island of Bornholm,
however, to the south-east, and far out in the
Baltic, contains any really rugged scenery. The
rest of Denmark is for the most part quietly rural
in character.
The country abounds in small lakes and meres,
generally overhung by dense beech-woods ; the
largest of these are the Arreso and Esromso in
Sealand, and the Himmelbjerg lakes in Jutland.
The coasts of Denmark are in the main low and
sandy, the wiestem shore of Jutland in particular.
In many places the sea, even during the present
century, has made enormous inroads, but strenuous
efforts are now being initiated to prevent any
further incursions, by means of powerful groynes
and embankments.
THE LAND 19
The surface of Denmark is made up of boulder
ay and boulder sand. It is not stratified,
lough certain stratified deposits have been formed
y the action of water, which contain remains of
rctic animals. Most of the chalk belongs to the
ighest or " Danian " sub-division of the Cre-
Lceous period. It is only in the island of Born-
aim that older formations may be observed, and
lere, as in Sweden, a series of strata appear which
along to the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and
retaceous periods. It is believed by most geolo-
:sts that Denmark was finally raised out of the
!a in something like its present conformation
Dout the close of the Glacial epoch. Certain
arts. of the country are still slowly rising.
The climate is a Uttle warmer in the summer and
little colder in the winter than in England. The
lean average temperature for the whole country
45-14°, though the " islands " are, on the whole,
>mewhat warmer than Jutland. The annual
linfall varies between 21-58 inches and 27-87
ches, according to the locality ; the heaviest falls
xur on the west coast of Jutland, and they
screase in a fairly even ratio eastwards. More
lan half the rainfall occurs from July to Novem-
3r ; the wettest month being September, and the
:iest, April. Thunderstorms are frequent during
le summer months. South-westerly winds pre-
lil from September to March ; in April a search-
g and bitterly cold east wind predominates ;
B 2
20 DENMARK AND THE DANES
between May and August the winds are for the
most part westerly.
There are no large rivers in Denmark. The
Gudenaa is the longest. It is in Jutland, and has
a course of but eighty miles. Excelleilt salmon
fishing can be obtained in this river, but it is
practically unnavigable. The Kolding and the
Veile, also in Jutland, are great estuaries which
discharge into the Cattegat ; while the Konge and
the Varde flow into the North Sea. In Sealand
the Sus and the MoUe are the largest ; while in
F\lhnen, the Odense-Aa is navigable by barges for
about forty miles.
The characteristic scenery of the northern and
north-western districts of Jutland is boggy heath-
land, sparsely populated and almost unproductive.
Along the west coast stretches a belt of sand dunes,
in plaices five or six miles wide. This arid desert
is upwards of 200 miles in length, and extends from
Blaavandshuk to the Skagerrack. Irrigation work
has been begun, and by a gjsnerous use of natural
manures and much planting of trees, the drift of
the sand has been arrested, and some of this barren
waste reclaimed. The process of reclamation is
still proceeding.
The sand dunes are continued far out into the
sea by the Scaw, a long, low peninsula dividing the
Skagerrack from the Cattegat. A small town of
about 2,500 people stands on the edge of this great
dune desert. It is the most northerly point of
THE LAND 21
)enmark. Its main streets are sand ; its houses
ften old fishing boats ; its gardens patches of
jclaimed beach boasting only a few flowers and a
tunted, coarse kind of grass. A little to the north
f the town is the great lighthouse, whose beams
lark the meeting of the waters of the North Sea
nd the Baltic. Notwithstanding the depressing
liaracter of their surroundings, the people of the
caw are thoroughly Danish — warm-hearted,
enerous and clear-headed.
Of forests, Denmark boasts but few. Only 8-3
er cent, of the area is covered with trees. With
lie exception of England and Portugal, all the
ountries in Europe show a higher figure than this.
The principal trees in the Danish forests are
tie characteristic beeches. Thirty-nine per cent,
f the wooded area of Denmark is occupied by
aese noble trees. They are to be found over the
'hole of the country with the exception of West
utland and Bomholm, in both of which places
le climatic conditions are too bleak and windy,
brmerly there were many oaks in Demnark, but
ley have been displaced by the beeches, the latter
eing more shady. Only 6 per cent, of the forest
rea now consists of oak, and the trees are for
le most part small. There are very few real old
aks such as we have in England, but the foresters
ave recently begun to buy acorns in Germany
ad Holland with a view to increasing the oak
ercentage.
22 DENMARK AND THE DANES
Of other leaf trees in Denmark the principal are
the ash, red alder, poplar, elm and maple, which
together make up another 6 per cent, of the forests.
The climate is a little too cold for them, however,
and they do not flourish so well as in more southerly
countries. Pine trees were first imported in the
nineteenth century by von Langer, a famous
Master of Foxhounds, who came from Hanover.
Before 1770 there had been only leaf trees in
Denmark. Now something like 49 per cent, of
the Danish woods consists of pines, the principal
varieties of which are the fir, spruce, larch and
mountain fir. Two particularly valuable species
are cultivated in plantations, the fir (^inus
silvestris) and the larch (larix).
In the north of Sealand there is the great Grib
forest — ^reached from the town of Hillerod—
where the trees are so dense that the branches
intermingle and grow together, and the only
sounds that break the deep silence are the songs
of birds, and the movement of tiny springs half
hidden in the undergrowth. Hillerod is often
termed the Danish Versailles, as it contains the
historic castle of Fredriksborg, and on the other
side of the forest the palace of Fredensborg, one
of the favourite places for the family reunions of
many of the Royal Houses of Europe.
Denmark has not much to offer in the way of
sport. Game is scarce. There are some red deer,
fallow deer and roebucks. In parts of the country,
O
o
h
THE LAND 23
lare, fox, squirrel and duck may be found ;
nore rarely still, pheasant, partridge and snipe.
Only in one limited area are there any wild boar.
In former times the red deer were very nume-
rous ; so much so that, in the year 1610, Chris-
tian IV. drove from Copenhagen to Kirsholm, a
distance of about eight miles, and in one morning
shot thirty-six red deer. It is computed that
to-day there are not more than 300 of these animals
altogether in the whole of Jutland, where they
live wild, principally in the forests between
Aalborg, Viborg and Aarhus.
The fallow deer was imported in the seventeenth
century, and has about the same range as its more
inteUigent cousin, the red deer. Both are kept on
the great estates, but are disliked by the peasants,
as they make serious depredations among the
potatoes, turnips and com. The red deer is shot
with bullets and the fallow deer with small shot.
The hare is fairly generally distributed. It does
a great deal of damage to the farm properties,
making free particularly with cabbages, com,
young plants and acoms. It is difficult to extin-
guish, though its numbers are said to be slowly
decreasing year by year. It is the same variety
as that found in England, Germany and France,
but its ears and tail are shorter than the species
found in Sweden and Norway. The range of the
squirrel is not so extended as that of the hare. It
is regarded as vermin, and slaughtered whenever
24 DENMARK AND THE DANES
opportunity offers. A curious point for natura-
lists is that the squirrel in Jutland is red, in
Sealand, brown, and in Fuhnen, black. Foxes,
badgers and boars are exceedingly rare, the latter
being only found in the preserved park of
Ravnholt.
Of game birds, the pheasant was imported about
fifty years ago. It has spread very rapidly. Part-
ridges, on the other hand, have been dislodged
and are decreasing. The duck lives in many of
the lake districts, but the Danish bird is unusually
timid, and therefore very difficult to shoot. Snipe
are to be had only between March and October,
except on the small island of Amager, near Copen-
hagen, where they may be obtained at any time
of the year.
CHAPTER II
THE PEOPLE
inological — Race Relationships and Characteristics —
The Language — ^The Danes To-day — Industries —
Suicides — Danish Statistics — ^The Abstinence Move-
ment — The Moral Life of the Copenhagen Streets —
Marriage and Divorce — ^The State Church — Social
Customs — Court and Society — Ancient Nomen-
clature — Folk-dancing.
The people of Denmark belong to the North
rman family, their nearest in kin being the
edes, the Norwegians and the English. The
idominant type is yeUow-haired and blue-eyed,
e language suggests to the ear an admixture of
rman and English, with the former element pre-
ninant. It is neither so musical as Swedish nor
guttural as German. When spoken by a young
I, its general intonation is not unlike the Scotch
the Lx)wlands. It has often been said that the
glish fishermen of the east coast emd the Jutland
lermen of the west coast find no difl&culty in
ierstanding each other when they meet on the
gger or Fisker Banks. Indeed, nearly all the
nmon objects ill daily use, as well as all the
bs of action, and many of the impersonal verbs
jsess identical soimds in Jysk — the dialect of
tland— and in East Anglian. For English
26 DENMARK AND THE DANES
people the most difficult sounds in the Danish
language are undoubtedly the soft " d," the " r "
and the long vocals.
The national characteristics of the Danish people
are generosity ; slami^ss^j^— speech ; a good-
humour which has become proverbial ; determina-
tion almost amounting to truculence, especially in
the case of peasants ; an immense capacity for
hard work and sustained efEort ; extreme demo-
cratic principles ; a strange fatalism which is a
mixture of scepticism and hesitation ; and finally,
a complete and wonderful fearlessness in throwing
over traditions and prejudices.
They are an intensely modem people, neither
taciturn nor exuberant. The great Danes, those
in power and authority, do not always give one the
same impression of control and careful breeding
that one gets from people occup5dng the same
position in England. But there is a compensating
allowance of warmth. They are neither great
optimists nor extravagant idealists. Their dreams
are of a very practical nature, and there is about
them a certain atmosphere of clean and sane
hmnanitarianism which is very attractive. They
seem to carry out their reforms in a spirit of com-
mon sense which is almost scientific. Perhaps this is
because their temperament is genuinely, rather than
sentimentally, democratic. It is this average-
ness about them which doubtless prevents them
from mounting to supreme heights, but at the
THE PEOPLE 27
me time saves them from slipping to colossal
pths. They are a balanced people, their
mocracy is broad and practical, and the type is
obably nearer Enghsh than any other on the
mtinent.
In height the Danes are not quite such a tall
ce as the English, the average being about one
ch less. But they are a hardy and a constitu-
Dnally strong people, admirable as farmers and
friculturists, clever engineers and mechanicians,
id fearless and capable seamen. The number of
habitants per square mile is about the same as
France, but only one-half the proportion found
England. Yet in the last ten years the popula-
Dn of Denmark has increased by 12*5 per cent.,
hile that of England during the same period has
ily gained 8*8 per cent. The annual birth rate is
^proximately 28*1 per thousand ; in England
ri per thousand. The death rate in Denmark is
57 per thousand ; and 157 per thousand in our
ivn country. The most prevalent disease is
iberculosis.
The industries of Denmark, with one exception,
not demand any great toll of life. There are
mines, and but few dangerous trades. The one
;cupation in which numbers of hves are yearly
tst is fishing. Suicides, however, are somewhat
reater in proportion to the total population than
1 most other countries, the percentage being just
ouble that of England in this respect. Only
28 DENMARK AND THE DANES
France, Switzerland and Saxony show higher
relative statistics of suicide. Against this it must
be mentioned that Danish statistics are so care-'
fully compiled, and so much more complete than
those of other and larger countries ; and thatj
when one compares accurate figmres with those
which are only approximate, it is generally to the
disadvantage of the former. In this manner
Danish blue books often unduly depreciate Den-
mark. The proportion of suicides is notably
diminishing, o'wdng in great measure to the extra-
ordinarily rapid growth of the temperance and
total abstinence movements. On an average out
of every five suicides three or four are men, and
only one or two women.
The Abstinence Associations alone now number
200,000 members. This movement is not, as in
England, regarded as of a semi-religious character,
but rather as a hygienic and scientific crusade
against a demonstrated evil. Spirits are defined as
such beverages which contain more than 2^ per
cent, of their weight of alcohol. One of the princi-
pal alcoholic liquors drunk in Denmark isbrsendevin
(eau de vin), from which each Dane consumes i"i5
gallons of pure alcohol per annum. But the amoun^
has diminished by upwards of 20 per cent, during
the last twenty years, and the rate of diminutioiP
is increasing."^! Of beer the Danes do not drink so
much as the English^ the relative consumption
b^ing represented by the numbers two to three.
THE PEOPLE 29
;re also a decrease is noticeable. Moreover, the
hter and more harmless Pilsener beers are now
iich more used than they were formerly.
The temperance movement has been conducted
a very popular manner, free from fanaticism or
ejudice, and in a very praiseworthy scientific
irit. The Danes, moreover, have proved that
le legislative instrument is more effective than we
e incHned to believe in England.
A distinct line is drawn between inns and public
juses, the first being defined as houses which
iceive travellers and provide service for them,
at which are not permitted to serve residents
L the district ; the latter are the houses which
iter for all-comers. A Ucence is given in the
juntry by the Amt or county council, but it
mnot be granted if the parish council, or two-
lirds of the inhabitants in the parish, vote against
;. As a rule one public house is permitted for
ach 350 residents ; but new legislation is expected
3 decrease the number of Ucensed premises in
Toportion to the population. In most cases a
cence remains vaUd for a period of either 5 or
years. Licensed premises must be closed at
1 o'clock ; in some places at 10 o'clock. In
Copenhagen only is it permitted to remain open
mtil I o'clock in the morning. It is forbidden
o retail spirits to persons under the age of 18
^ears. The local police have the option of
prohibiting female attendance in bars, while
30 DENMARK AND THE DANES
licences may be withdrawn, without appeal, in
cases where houses are badly conducted.
Copenhagen compares rather unfavourably with
some of the other capitals of Europe with regard to
the moral life of the streets. An extraordinary
number of natural children are born every year
in Denmark. One child out of every four in the
metropolis is born out of wedlock. In the whole
country the figure is one out of nine. It is diffi-
cult to explain these statements, while it is still
more difficult to discover extenuating circum-
stances. Too much freedom is generally permitted
during engagements, and betrothals are more
frequently broken than in other countries. These
two factors undoubtedly tend to cause a slack-
ness in views as to sexual relations, which we are
convinced will ultimately work to the detriment of
Danish character.
Until 1906 prostitution was controlled in the
same manner, as in other Continental countries, by
means of licensed houses and regular medical
inspection. In 1906 control was abolished, and
prostitution no longer legally recognised. The
results have been only partially satisfactory. No
women are now permitted to earn a living solely
by this method. They must demonstrate to the
police that they have other means of subsistence.
Severe punishments are inflicted in cases where
persons suffering from venereal diseases are
detected either soliciting or procuring. The 1906
THE PEOPLE 31
V, while it has cleared away the privileged
fessionals, has led to a notorious increase in
number of girls and young women who volun-
ly engage in this tragic business, apparently
pleasure ; and whereas before, prostitution
i confined to certain streets of the town, it now
mts itself generally, and in a more free and
meless fashion.
)ivorces can be obtained with a greater readi-
s and ease in Denmark than in England. If
two parties can agree as to its necessity, it is
icient for them to appear before a magistrate.
nusconduct on either side is required. The
gistrate examines the case with the assistance
L priest, and it is the main function of these two
tlemen to endeavour to arrange the differences
the parties, not to judge upon the merits of
case. Assuming that the husband and wife
not be persuaded to a reconciliation, a decree
separation is granted for three years, during
ich they must not re-marry. The decree is
de absolute at the end of the three years,
ompatibihty of temperament is a sufficient
se for divorce, and the result of this system has
wn that divorce actions in Denmark neither
ite the great public scandals which follow
ilar cases in our own country, nor are accom-
lied by the morbid and sensational details
h which we are familiar in England.
:he State Church in Denmark— officially desig-
32 DENMARK AND THE DANES
nated " Evangelically-Reformed " — ^is Lutheran,
and 98J per cent, of the populace belong to it..
Only one-third per cent, remain outside the pale of
any religious body. There are therefore few civil
marriages, as these are only allowed by Danish law
when one of the parties to the marriage is not a
member of either the Lutheran or one of the other
churches. Notwithstanding these figures, there is a
great deal of agnosticism and freethought in the
shadow of the Church itself, for the Danes are
not naturally a religiously-incUned people.
The divisions in the State Church are neither
many nor serious. There is, as in England, a
High Church party, which had its origin at the
same time as the English High Church party and
the Oxford movement. Then there are the Grundt-
vigians or Merry Christians, a sect founded by
Bishop Grundtvig, whose writings and sermons
inspired the creation of the Popular High Schools,
about which details have been furnished in another
chapter. Finally, there are the EvangeUcals or
Missioners, whose views would place them in
England somewhere between the Low Church
party and Wesleyan Methodism. There are prac-
tically no Nonconformists, and hence reUgious strife
has not been imported very much into educational
questions, the State Church still retaining a large
hand in the guidance and control of all schools.
If a number of people attending one of the State
churches desire to have their own clergymanj they
THE PEOPLE 33
y leave' the church in question and found
)ther, without thereby ceasing to become mem-
s of the Lutheran body. Similarly, a resident in
2 parish may, should he so desire, regard himself
a member of the church in another parish,
e internal affairs of a church are managed by
congregational council, chosen democratically,
d consisting both of men and women.
At the head of the Church are the seven Bishops
Copenhagen, Fuhnen, LoUand, Aarhus, Aalborg,
boirg and Ribe — ^who are all theoretically equal,
ough in practice the Bishop of Copenhagen takes
ecedence, inasmuch as he alone is the advisor of
e Ministry. Next in authority to the Bishops are
,e Deans, and finally the Vicars. There are not
many ecclesiastical ranks as in England. The
;ans who serve in the seven cathedrals are termed
iocesans. The State Church is liberal both in
jctrine and practice, permitting its priests
fferences which in England would certainly
eate serious trouble. A movement for dis-
itabhshment and separation has greatly increased
L strength in recent years.
The services in Danish churches are neither so
npressive nor so beautiful as in England. There
re no psalms or canticles ; ecclesiastical music is
ot of the same, high order ; prayers are fewer ;
nd sermons are considerably longer. One ob-
srver has declared that " the people seem to come
nd go just as they please during the whole of the
D. C
30 DENMARK AND THE DANES
licences may be withdrawn, without appeal, in
cases where houses are badly conducted.
Copenhagen compares rather unfavourably with
some of the other capitals of Europe with regard to
the moral life of the streets. An extraordinary
number of natural children are bom every year
in Denmark. One child out of every four in the
metropoUs is born out of wedlock. In the whole
country the figure is one out of nine. It is diffi-
cult to explain these statements, while it is still
more difficult to discover extenuating circum-
stances. Too much freedom is generally permitted
during engagements, and betrothals are more
frequently broken than in other countries. These
two factors undoubtedly tend to cause a slack-
ness in views as to sexual relations, which we are
convinced will ultimately work to the detriment of
Danish character.
Until 1906 prostitution was controlled in the
same manner, as in other Continental countries, by
means of licensed houses and regular medical
inspection. In 1906 control was aboUshed, and
prostitution no longer legally recognised. The
results have been only partially satisfactory. No
women are now permitted to earn a living solely
by this method. They must demonstrate to the
poHce that they have other means of subsistence.
Severe punishments are inflicted in cases where
persons suffering from venereal diseases are
detected either soliciting or procuring. The 1906
THE PEOPLE 31
IV, while it has cleared away the privileged
ifessionals, has led to a notorious increase in
i number of girls and young women who volun-
ily engage in this tragic business, apparently
pleasure ; and whereas before, prostitution
3 confined to certain streets of the town, it now
mts itself generally, and in a more free and
imeless fashion.
Divorces can be obtained with a greater readi-
is and ease in Denmark than in England. If
; two parties can agree as to its necessity, it is
ficient for them to appear before a magistrate.
misconduct on either side is required. The
gistrate examines the case with the assistance
I priest, and it is the main function of these two
itlemen to endeavour to arrange the differences
the parties, not to judge upon the merits of
: case. Assuming that the husband and wife
mot be persuaded to a reconciliation, a decree
separation is granted for three years, during
ich they must not re-marry. The decree is
de absolute at the end of the three years.
;ompatibility of temperament is a sufficient
ise for divorce, and the result of this system has
wn that divorce actions in Denmark neither
ate the great public scandals which follow
ilar cases in our own country, nor are accom-
lied by the morbid and sensational details
h which we are familiar in England,
'he State Church in Denmark — officially desig-
32 DENMARK AND THE DANES
nated " Evangelically-Refonned "— is Lutheran,
and 98I per cent, of the populace belong to it.
Only one-third per cent, remain outside the pale of
any rehgious body. There are therefore few civil
marriages, as these are only allowed by Danish law
when one of the parties to the marriage is not a
member of either the Lutheran or one of the other
churches. Notwithstanding these figures, there is a
great deal of agnosticism and freethought in the
shadow of the Church itself, for the Danes are
not naturally a religiously-inchned people.
The divisions in the State Church are neither
many nor serious. There is, as in England, a
High Church party, which had its origin at the
same time as the English High Church party and
the Oxford movement. Then there are the Grundt-
vigians or Merry Christians, a sect founded by
Bishbp Grundtvig, whose writings and sermons
inspired the creation of the Popular High Schools,
about which details have been furnished in anoliier
chapter. Finally, there are the Evangelicals or
Missioners, whose views would place them in
England somewhere between the Low Church
party and Wesleyan Methodism. There are prac-
tically no Nonconformists, and hence reUgious strife
has not been imported very much into educational
questions, the State Church still retaining a large
hand in the guidance and control of all schools.
If a number of people attending one of the State
churches desire to have their own clergyman, they
THE PEOPLE 33
may leave' the church in question and found
another, without thereby ceasing to become mem-
bers of the Lutheran body. Similarly, a resident in
one parish may, should he so desire, regard himself
as a member of the church in another parish.
The internal affairs of a church are managed by
a congregational council, chosen democratically,
and consisting both of men and women.
At the head of the Church are the seven Bishops
— Copenhagen, Fuhnen, LoUand, Aarhus, Aalborg,
Viborg and Ribe — ^who are all theoretically equal,
though in practice the Bishop of Copenhagen takes
precedence, inasmuch as he alone is the advisor of
the Ministry. Next in authority to the Bishops are
the Deans, and finally the Vicars. There are not
so many ecclesiastical ranks as in England. The
deans who serve in the seven cathedrals are termed
Diocesans. The State Church is liberal both in
doctrine and practice, permitting its priests
differences which in England would certainly
create serious trouble. A movement for dis-
estabhshment and separation has greatly increased
in strength in recent years.
The services in Danish churches are neither so
impressive nor so beautiful as in England. There
are no psalms or canticles ; ecclesiastical music is
not of the same high order ; prayers are fewer ;
and sermons are considerably longer. One ob-
server has declared that " the people seem to come
and go just as they please during the whole of the
D. c
34 DENMARK AND THE DANES
period of worship ; the women frequently remove
their hats ; and the pastors exhort much, explain
little."
The best preachers are undoubtedly to be found
in the " Indre " Mission or EvangeUcal section of
the Church. For the benefit of the statistics
hunter we may say that the High Church party
numbers seven-twelfths of the members of the
State Church among its adherents ; the Grundt-
vigians or Merry Christians, three-twelfths ; and
the EvangeUcals or " Indre " Missioners, the
remaining two-twelfths. This latter section is
distinguished both by its old-fashioned and narrow
theology, and by the sincere, earnest lives of its
members. " Indre " means " home," but the
Missioners, in addition to their diversified work in
Copenhagen and throughout Denmark generally,
also support certain men on the mission field in
other countries. The pastors of this section,
although still counted priests of the State Church,
openly preach the much-criticised and abandoned
doctrine of eternal condemnation for unrepentent
sinners, but they are so unworldly and self-
sacrificing in their social and religious work that
their popularity does not suffer in consequence.
The energy of the " Indre " Missioners, and the
successes which have attended their efforts, are as
amazing as they are unprecedented in the religious
history of Scandinavia. During the past twenty
years they have built no fewer than thirty new
THE PEOPLE 35
churches in Copenhagen alone, three hospitals, a
home for fallen women, and numbers of Sunday-
schools. Moreover, they control hotels in all the
principal towns in Denmark, Norway and Sweden ;
run five or six newspapers, including one daily ;
and possess their own printing establishment.
They regularly employ over loo colporteurs and
i6o lay preachers ; and it has been computed that
in any single year the section holds upwards of
35,000 meetings.
One curious fact may be observed here. The
" Indre " Missioners steadily refuse to co-operate
with the Grundtvigians, although they are quite
wiUing, and often do, join forces with the High
Church party. The reason for this is rather
difficult to find. Perhaps the stem Cromwellian
pietists who animate the newer evangelical move-
ment find in the freer and more tolerant atmo-
sphere of the Merry Christians a serious hindrance
to their work. Certain it is, however, that in
spirit Bishop Grundtvig, the founder of the Merry
Christians, was not opposed to the essential piety
of the Missioners, although he might not have been
in sympathy with their narrow theology. Grundt-
vig died in 1872 at the age of eighty-nine, after
having fought a strenuous and hfe-long battle
against the Rationalism then prevalent in the
Danish Church. He took a clear-headed and
bright view of life, was a man of sunny tempera-
ment, broad-minded, a patriot and a lover of the
c 2
36 DENMARK AND THE DANES
people. His genius found its noblest expression
in the composition of hymns of wonderful depth
and beauty, and fired with enthusiasm both
rehgious and national. Before he died he became
known throughout Denmark as the " lonely
champion of the Bible." His followers are still
extremely national in their outlook, and it was
largely due to Grundtvig that the popular High
Schools were founded, and that the peasants and
small farmers became the leaders in the struggle
for LiberaUsm. The Missioners, on the other hand,
affect rather to despise the national and Hberal
sentiment and to consider themselves cosmo-
poUtans. This constitutes another bone of con-
tention between the two sections.
We may conclude our shght review of the
rehgious hfe of Denmark by saying that the High
Church party, as in England, lays its principal
stress on questions of doctrine. There are only
about 4,500 Roman Catholics in Denmark, and
about the same number of Jews. Salvation Army
work among all sections and classes is greatly on
the increase.
The social hfe of the Danes, particularly in the
metropoUs, has in recent years undergone a notable
change, developing very much along French Imes.
Cafe, Salon and restaurant habits are increasing
in a pronounced manner. Despite these facts,
however, the Danes still remain a charming and
hospitable people. Their customs, especially those
THE PEOPLE 37
associated with their great national and religious
festivals, assume the existence of the family as the
basis of all social amenities. There is practically
no recognition of " grades " in society. Sets —
artistic, literaryi theatrical, political — are inevi-
table in any organised social system, and they are
of course to be found in Denmark, with this
essential difference, that when seeking admission
to them, birth or position count for nothing a^d
cleverness for everything.
Christenings, confirmations, weddings, funerals
are all conducted with more elaborate ceremony
than in our own country. Practically every
Dane is a confirmed member of the Lutheran
body ; and family celebrations in connection with
the various stages of the religious life of each of
its members involve the profuse giving of feasts,
presents, and congratulatory or condolatory cards,
as the case may be. The Danes also make a great
deal more of Christmas and Easter than we do in
England.
It is the custom for both sexes to wear rings
when betrothed. The engagement rings are plain
gold circlets, and are worn on the third finger of
the right hand. These rings are not changed on
marriage, the same one sufficing both for an engage-
ment and a wedding. Dress rings and other
jewellery are much affected, the young Danish
girls especially being fond of display of this kind.
The Danes dress well : the men follow the
38 DENMARK AND THE DANES
English modes, while the women are noted in
northern Europe for the beauty of their figures
and the taste of their attire. Copenhagen tailoring
is generally counted superior to that of all other
cities, with the sole exception of London.
At the present moment English manners, cus-
toms and ideas are in great demand in the Danish
metropolis. An Englishman finds a readier wel-
come than any other national. The Germans,
largely owing to the Sleswick-Holstein trouble,
are, as elsewhere on the Continent, not held in any
great esteem. EngUsh is very generally spoken
in the homes, the shops, the clubs, and in business,
social, poUtical and literary circles.
The Danes, like most small nations, possess a
unique facility in acquiring foreign tongues, and
the purity of their English accent is excelled only
by that attained by their near relations and
neighbours, the Norwegians. In the music halls
English artistes often fill a very large share in the
programme ; in athletics, English cricket, tennis,
football or boxing teams annually visit Copenhagen
and compete with the best that Denmark has to
offer in these several sports ; finally, and perhaps
the most convincing test of popularity, several
of the most important booksellers in the Danish
capital rely for a large proportion of their profits
upon the sale of the best works in modern English
literature.
The Court does not affect society in Denmark so
THE PEOPLE 39
much as it does in England. There are a few balls
during the winter and one or two dinner parties
at the Royal palace every week. These constitute
almost entirely the official functions of the Danish
court. In no capital in Europe do the members of
the Royal family move about in a less formal or
more unostentatious manner than in Copenhagen.
The reason for this is that the Danes, notwith-
standing their genuine spirit of democracy, possess
an instinctive reverence for the monarchical insti-
tution. They are not republicans, and the King
of Denmark is probably safer among his people
than any other monarch in Europe, our own not
excepted.
At all social functions in Denmark people of
all grades or spheres are on an equality. At
dinpers ladies and gentlemen leave the tables at
the same moment, this being due to the fact that
practically all Danish women smoke. Hereditary
titles are no longer conferred, either by King or
Government, and the roll of the old nobihty may
therefore be regarded as closed. There are, how-
ever, very many orders of merit and decorations
which may be honourably gained in the political,
diplomatic, scientific or commercial worlds.
The traveller in Denmark will be struck by the
extraordinary prevalence of personal names ending
in sen — Hansen, Petersen, Jensen, Sorensen, and
the like. This is due to an ancient custom where
a man was known by his father's Christian name.
40 DENMARK AND THE DANES
with the suffix sen or son added ; thus Christian
the son of Peter Jensen was not called Christian
Jensen but Christian, Peter's son (Petersen). In
this manner a great deal of unnecessary confusion
has arisen, and the State has now recommended,
and is actively encouraging, the discarding of these
old family names, and the invention of new ones.
The Genealogical Institute helps all those who desire
it in the choice and legitimising of new names.
The Danes are superb dancers, both in the form
of ballet and folk dancing. The Royal Theatre
in Copenhagen produces ballets second only in
beauty and importance to those of Petrograd.
But the finest and most characteristic of the
national dances may be seen during the various
annual festivals, especially in the country. During
the May celebrations, on Valborg Eve, at Whitsun-
tide and on Midsirainier's Eve the best of these,
folk dances are held ; the Midsummer festival, with
its bonfires and fireworks, being the most animated
of the four.
CHAPTER III
COPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS
The Danish MetropoUs — Its Situation, Aspect, Qimate
and History — Christian IV., the Building King —
The Churches, Monuments, Open Spaces, Museums
and Art Collections of the City — The Tivoli — Ama-
lienborg and the Royal Palaces — ^The University- —
The " City of Spires " — ^The Raadhus — Sanitation
and Health — Populations of the Principal Towns in
Denmark — Elsinore and the Castle of Hamlet — ^The
Sound — Rosldlde — Aarhus — Count Frij s — Frij sen-
borg — VeUe — Horsens — Randers — Aeilborg —
Esbjerg — Fano — Viborg — Ribe — Odense —
Svendborg.
The Danish metropolis, finely situated on the
Oresund, the stretch of water which separates
Denmark from Sweden, possesses a quiet, subtle
grace and a rare charm, both of position and archi-
tecture, which entitle it to rank among the beauti-
ful cities of the world. It is a town of waterways
a:nd canals, lakes and inlets, islands and bridges.
Its streets are regvilar and straight, though there
are many quaint, narrow byways which remain as
relics of an earlier age. In the winter it is a grey
northern city shrouded in mist, wind-swept, cold
and damp. In the summer it puts on a frivolous
southern garb, fills with German tourists, and is
one of the most dehghtful pleasure towns in the
world.
42 DENMARK AND THE DANES
Kobenhavn, the native name for the city,
signifies the " merchant's harbour." Although it
had existed as a fishing village for many centuries
in the earUest times, it first became important in
1 167, when Valdemar the Great and Bishop
Absalon fortified it against the frequent attacks
of pirates. In 1254 it was granted a municipal
code by Archbishop Erlandsen. Valdemar Atter-
dag made the rising city his residence for some time,
and in 1422 Eric of Pomerania invested it with
special privileges. It then rapidly developed into
the trade centre of the country, and after 1478,
when the University was founded, it became at
the same time the seat of government and the
centre of culture in the north.
In the middle ages the town had a stormy
history. It was sacked by the Germans from
Lubeck in 1248, and conquered by Jaromar of
Rugen eleven years later. In 1294 a revolt of the
citizens was only quelled after much blood had been
shed. The town was captured by John the Mild
in 1328, and again pillaged by the Lubeckers in
1368. Sieges, religious and feudal strife, visita-
tions of plague, bombardments, fires and epidemics,
these constitute the history of the Danish capital
from the time of its foundation to the beginning of
the nineteenth century.
Much of the old town may be said to have been
planned by Christian IV., that great building king,
and, perhaps, the most popular of the Danish
COPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS 43
monarchs since the time of the Valdemars. The
present city is divided into three parts : Old Copen-
hagen, which is contained within the ancient ram-
parts ; the Void districts, which extend between the
boulevards and the lakes ; and the outer city. A
narrow channel divides the old town into two
parts.
Kongen's Nytorv (King's New Market) and
Raadhuspladsen (Town Hall Place) are the main
centres both for traffic, and for that delightful
open-air caf6 Ufe characteristic of the Continent.
The first named is a large, irregular space sur-
rounded by hotels and offices, and dominated by
the Royal Theatre and the Thott Palace, the
latter a fine old seventeenth century building
belonging to Baron Reedtz-Thott. The Royal
Theatre is in the Renaissance style. It was built
in 1874 to seat about 1,600 people, and is famous
throughout Northern Europe for its fine per-
formances of classical comedies, opera and ballet.
Over the proscenium is inscribed the suggestive
legend Ej blot til Lyst {" Not for pleasure only ").
If one were asked to select the three most inte-
resting buildings in Copenhagen from an historical
standpoint, the choice would b edifficult. Prob-
ably the majority of Copenhageners, at any rate,
would suggest the Vor Frue Kirke (Church of Our
Lady), the Round Tower, and Rosenborg Castle.
The Frue Kirke, although originally founded in
the twelfth century, has been destroyed on so
44 DENMARK AND THE DANES
many occasions by fire, lightning and bombard-
ment that nothing now remains of the original
building. It is, however, still one of the most
interesting edifices in the Danish capital, if for no
other reason than that of its intimate association
with the hfe of the city through so many centuries.
The kings of Denmark have been crowned beneath
its dome for many hundreds of years. It has been
to Copenhagen what Notre Dame was to Paris, the
centre both of its civic and religious hfe. In
recent years the church has been rendered more
memorable by the acquisition of some of ThOr-
waldsen's masterpieces. The statues of Christ and
the Twelve Apostles placed in the interior are
among the greatest works of the immortals.
The Rundetaarn, or Round Tower, is one of the
many edifices raised by Christian IV. It was
originally an observatory, but is now a show-place,
notable chiefly for the extremely fine outlook over
the city, the islands, and the Sound, which may be
obtained from its summit. It is ascended in an
unique manner by means of a very wide spiral
road, up which it. is possible to drive a horse and
carriage. Peter the Great and the Czarina
Catherine are said to have performed this feat in
a conve37ance with four horses.
Of all the monuments to the architectural skill of
Christian IV., none' surpasses in chaste and
harmonious beauty the castle of Rosenborg. It
was commenced in 1610 and finished in 1625. It
j [Copyright :
The Round Tower, Copenhagen.
& Underwood.
;OPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS 45
5 a blending of Dutch, Italian and Renaissance
tyles of architecture, and is filled with the art
oUections of all the kings and queens of Denmark
ince the time of its royal builder — gold, silver,
snamels, furniture, jewellery, porcelain, amber,
ace and ivory, Venetian glassware, tapestries and
jronzes. It is a wonderful collection. The
iamous " Flora Danica " service in porcelain is
perhaps the gem of the treasures to be seen here.
The choicest specimens of pillar-work, panelhng
md decorative ceiHngs to be found in Rosenborg
ire in the Marble Hall, the Knight's Hall, the
Rose Apartment, and Frederik IV.'s Bedchamber.
Copenhagen contains many beautiful churches.
The Frue Kirke has already been described. Of
the others, the most striking are the Marmor Kirke
(Marble Church), the Russian and English churches,
Vor Frelser's Kirke (Church of Our Saviour),
Helligaand's Kirke (Church of the Holy Ghost), and
Trinitatis Kirke.
The Marble Church possesses a great copper
dome which is but a few feet smaller in diameter
than that of St. Peter's in Rome. The foundation
stone was laid by Frederik V. in 1749, but the
building remained unfinished for over a century
and a quarter. In 1874, a rich financier, Herr C. F.
Tietgen, had it completed at his own expense,
though upon a somewhat smaller scale than origi-
nally designed. Vor Frelser's Kirke was erected
between 1682 and 1696, and is surmounted by a
46 DENMARK AND THE DANES
tower, than which there is but one loftier in
Northern Europe, The view from the " ball " at
the top of Vor Preiser's tower takes in the harbours,
the old and modem towns, the royal dockyards,
the island of Amager, the distant forests of Sealand,
and the blue waters of the Sound. The Russian
church, with its three great golden cupolas, was
built by the Czar Alexander III., and opened in
1883. The Enghsh church (St. Alban's) stands in
a most charming situation upon the banks of a
diminutive lake. The site was granted on per-
petual lease by the Danish Government, and the
consecration took place in 1887, the foundation
stone having been laid by the Prince of Wales
(Edward VII.) two years earlier, in 1885. The
church was designed by Sir A. Blomfield, and
possesses several beautiful stained-glass windows,
one of which was presented by Sir Edward Monson,
formerly British Minister at Copenhagen.
Helligaand's Kirke contains a handsomely deco-
rated interior. It was originally the chapel of a
famous convent. Trinity Church is one of the
Christian IV. buildings. Many of Tycho Brahe's
instruments were formerly kept here, but in the
fire of 1728 they were unfortunately destroyed,
together with a number of invaluable books and
documents.
Copenhagen, the Athens of the north, is remark-
able for the number of museums, art collections,
and public statues which it possesses . The principal
:OPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS 47
)f these is, of course, the Thorwaldsen coUec-
:ion, which is at one and the same time the tomb
)f the great sculptor and the abiding place of
nany of his finest works. The great building
tself is modelled dfter an Etruscan tomb.
After the Thorwaldsen collection the Glyptotek
s the most important in Scandinavia. It was
Duilt in 1888 by Herr Carl Jacobsen, a wealthy
viewer. It is a museum devoted both to the
mtique and modem, and is housed in a handsome
pranite building, built from designs by Dahlerup
md Kampmann. The antique section contains
Egyptian> Greek and Roman works in marble and
terra cotta, important early Christian relics,
ivooden statues from Japan, and a specially fine
collection of ancient bronzes. The modern section
comprises works by the best Scandinavian, German,
[talian and French sculptors, most notable of all
Deing the superb Rodins acquired by Jacobsen at
mmense prices.
The State Art Museum contains the royal coUec-
■ion of engravings, casts, paintings and sculpture,
md is a valuable addition to the city's pubUc art
measures. The Folke Museum, one of the most
nteresting and unique of its kind in the world, is
iesigned to illustrate the Ufe and customs of the
people from early times to the present day by
neans of specimens of their houses, and collections
)f furniture, household utensils, carvings, and old
:extile fabrics.
48 DENMARK AND THE DANES
Copenhagen is well provided with parks and
promenades. Between three and five o'clock in
the afternoon "Stroget," the popular name for the
series of fine shopping streets connecting Kongen's
Nytorv and the Raadhusplads, is thronged by an
animated and typical Danish crowd. On Sunday
mornings and on fine summer evenings the
Langelinie is the favourite promenade. It was
built in 1906, fronts th^ harbour, runs for some
distance out into the sea, and ends in a small pier
and lighthouse. At the entrance to this esplanade
is a famous fountain statue by Bundgaard of
" Gefion with her oxen ploughing up Sealand."
Near this statue stands the pretty St. Alban's
Church of the English. From the Langelinie the
view is very fine, embracing the shipping in the
roadstead, the citadel with its ancient ramparts
and moats, the celebrated shipbuilding yards of
Burmeister and Wain on the Refshale Island
opposite, the Trekroner Fort, the island of Hveen,
and in the far distance, if the weather is fine, the
blue coasts of Sweden. In the neighbourhood of
the Langelinie is the Free Harbour, opened to
shipping in November, 1894.
Of open spaces S6ndermarken,0rsted's Park, and
Frederiksberg Gardens are the principal. The
first of these is prettily laid out in the English style,
and lies close to the handsome residence of Herr
Carl Jacobsen, to whose generosity the city of
Copeiihagen owes so many of her finest art
0^
O
O
lOPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS 49
reasures. Orsted's Park is situated on the site of
he old ramparts, is beautifully kept, and contains
, good statue of H. C. Orsted, the discoverer of
lectro-magnetism. Frederiksberg Gardens, with
ts lake and canals, is not unUke the Green Park of
^ondon. They are in close proximity to the Zoo-
ogical Gardens, which, although neither so large
lor so representative as other collections in more
avourable climes, are nevertheless remarkably
food, and the only real collection of animals north
if Hamburg. Perhaps the most popular of the
Copenhagen "lungs" is Kongen's Have (The King's
jarden) . It belongs to Rosenborg, and is the great
)lace for open-air meetings. The Botanical
j-ardens in the vicinity contain a very fine palm-
louse and an aquarium.
The city has an excellent aerodrome, situated
)n the island of Amager. The ground has a
iplendid surface, is bounded on one side by the
iea, and measures one kilometre each way. Its
jquipment is quite modern, first-class hangars and
efreshment pavilions providing for all the wants
)f aviators and visitors.
The Tivoh is the most famous of all the pleasure
esorts of Denmark. One Danish wag has said
hat " Denmark is Copenhagen, and Copenhagen is
he TivoH." This exaggeration contains an ele-
nent of truth. If there is one thing the Dane
mows how to do it is to enjoy himself. And there
;an be no doubt that the Tivoh occupies a very
D. D
50 DENMARK AND THE DANES
large place in the heart of all real Copenhageners.
The gardens were laid out in 1843, on the lines of the
old Vauxhall Gardens of London. Indeed, its first
name was " Wauxhall Ha ve . " The Tivoli achieved
success immediately, and has outlived its EngUsh
forerunner. To-day it is quite as much an
institution in Denmark as the Parliament or the
Law Courts. It attracts visitors not only from the
other Scandinavian countries, but also from
Germany, Holland and Russia, while English
travellers arriving in Copenhagen for the first time
go to the Tivoli before they know their way to
their rooms at the hotel. There are theatres for
revues, operettes, and musical comedies, in which
the best Danish actors play ; restaurants and
cafes ; bands, dancing halls, concerts, bazaars,
amusements and fireworks.
In absolute contrast to the hfe and gaiety of the
Tivoli, one passes along the " Stroget," across
Kongen's Nj^torv, and through Bredgade, where
many of the embassies [are, to the aristocratic
portion of the city. Here in Amahenborg we find
a quiet old-world square of four grey, rococo
palaces. The royal family live here when in
Copenhagen. When the guard is changed at mid-
day the uniforms and the crowd and the music,
with the old palaces of Christian VII. standing out
against the sky, combine to make a scene from a
Hans Andersen tale. Near Amalienborg are the
High Courts of Justice ; and in Bredgade, a
:OPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS 51
hort distance from the palaces, lies the present
)uilding of the Rigsdag. It was formerly a
)arrack. The Parliament will shortly occupy a
luarter of the new palace — Christiansborg — now
n the course of erection.
The University of Copenhagen lies in the Hol-
jerg district. The house of the great Danish
ilohere is adjacent. The University buildings are
n Gothic style, and quite modem, having been
erected between 1831 and 1836. Many of the
)ther structures in the neighbourhood belong to
:he University and are used as laboratories, or
:or special purposes connected with the Univer-
sity work.
The Stock Exchange is a particularly handsome
Duilding built by Christian IV. in the Dutch-
Renaissance style. It is surmounted by a curious
i^et characteristic spire, decorated with ornate
gables. One of the first things which compel
1 visitor's attention on arriving in the Danish
netropoUs is the extraordinary number of tower-
ng steeples. Copenhagen has been termed the
' City of Spires," a title for which there is
imple justification. Nearly all the churches and
Dalaces and some of the other buildings possess
:owers capped with tapering spires. The loftiest
)f them aU is to be found on the Raadhus, or City
Jail, whose fine proportions, original style of
irchitecture, and beauty of outhne, make it the
loblest pile in Scandinavia. This building was
D 2
52 DENMARK AND THE DANES
begun in 1892 and completed in 1902 by Martin
Nyrop. Jhe copper-sheathed spire is 347 feet
above the level of the street, and the great four-
dialled clock, with its magnificent peal of bells, is
worked by electricity. The large covered court-
yard is decorated in the style of the Italian
Renaissance. On three sides the first story has
open galleries supported by pillars ; and fine por-
tals lead into the open courtyard at the back, in
which the low arched gallery immediately under
the eaves is one of the most striking features.
The beauty of the main fagade is enhanced by
the great castellated wall which rises above the
roof and is flanked by two small towers. In
front of the wall is a flat open space, prbtected by
a balustrade supporting a row of life-sized bronze
figures of the city watchmen of days gone by.
Among NjTTop's original ideas is a dove-cot in the
form of a round tower on the side facing the Tivoli.
This is meant for a flock of white doves, which will
hover as " emblems of peace over this civic palace."
Martin Nyrop's Raadhus is undoubtedly the finest
specimen of rriodem Danish architecture.
The city of Copenhagen claims to be one of the
healthiest of the world's capitals. For the quin-
quennial period 1881 — 1885 the crude mortality
rate was 22*3 per thousand ; for the period 1906—
1910 this had decreased to 15 •! per thousand.
The death-rate in London during the same quin-
quennium was I4"9 per thousand, in Paris 17*5
COPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS 53
per thousand, in Vienna 17-1 per thousand,
and in Petrograd — ^the highest of all — 25-6 per
thousand.
One of the reasons for this low death-rate is the
fact that the Danish capital is, owing to its strin-
gent medical precautions, almost entirely free
from " dirty diseases " ; cholera, exanthematic
typhus, typhoid and small-pox are of such rare
occurrence that it has been seriously stated that
few physicians in Copenhagen have had the
opportunity either of seeing or treating them.
The water suppUed for drinking in the Danish
capital is exceptionally good, being wholly obtained
from artesian wells. Surface water is not per-
mitted to be used, and all the sources of supply
undergo a weekly bacteriological examination.
Copenhagen water contains a heavy percentage of
iron, and it cannot, therefore, be conveyed direct
from the wells into the mains ; it is first exposed
for a considerable period to the oxidation of the
atmosphere and then filtered.
The sewerage system is one of the completest and
most efficient on the Continent. Underground
canals convey the sewage under the harbour and
the island of Amager, where it is pumped into the
Sound some three or four miles from the outskirts
of the city. Cesspools such as are still used in
Paris, Vienna, Munich and other important cities
on the Continent, have not been employed in
Copenhagen for over thirty years. The milk supply
54 DENMARK AND THE DANES
is under the control of sanitary officers. No meat
may be offered for sale unless it has first been
inspected and passed by the municipal veterinary
surgeons, and then only in shops which are con-
trolled by the Board of Health, which also super-
vises the sale of sausages and other articles pre-
pared from meat.
There are only four towns of any size in Den-
mark. They are Copenhagen, which, with the
adjacent municipality of Frederiksberg, now has a
population of just over 575,000 ; Aarhus, with
65,000 ; Aalborg, with 35,000 ; and Odense, with
40,000. The rest of the country is occupied by
small communes, hamlets, villages and outlying
farmsteads. The total population does not exceed
2,750,000, of whom it will be seen about one-fifth
live in the capital.
In Sealand, north of the metropolis, there are
several ancient and historic cities, of which perhaps
Elsinore is the most interesting to English people
by reason of its supposed connection with Hamlet.
The grave of the prince and the brook in which the
luckless Ophelia was drowned are pointed out to
tourists by enterprising guides ; but there is no
truth whatever in their assertions. Hamlet was
born in another part of the country, and it is
doubtful if he ever even visited Elsinore. His
burial-place is unknown. Shakespeare is reputed,
however, to have visited the town prior to writing
his famous tragedy.
COPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS 55
Near to Elsinore is the celebrated fortress of
Kronborg. The environs of the fortress are
exceedingly beautiful— lofty hills, well-timbered
parks, the view of the Swedish coast close at hand,
and the crowded shipping in the Sound. It is often
said that nowhere in the world can so many vessels
be seen together and in such constant movement as
in this narrow channel between Denmark and
Sweden — ^the connecting link between the Baltic
and the North Sea.
Due west of Copenhagen hes the old cathedral
city of Roskilde, at one time the capital of the
country, and next to Copenhagen the most
historic site in Denmark. It was successively the
residence of Harald Bluetooth, Svend, and Canute
the Great. Most of the Danish kings lie buried
here. The cathedral, standing on a lofty eminence,
is the finest and largest ecclesiastical building in
Denmark, and its grey twin towers form landmarks
which can be seen for miles around on all sides.
The second town in Denmark — Aarhus — lies at
the end of a fjord on the east coast of Jutland.
Its old cathedral of St. Clement is the longest
church in Scandinavia. This city is growing in
importance. It has become a great shipping
centre, and its wealth is mainly derived from large
oil and margarine factories. Near Aarhus is the
present King's summer residence, Marsehsborg,
presented to him on the occasion of his marriage
by the population of Jutland. The surrounding
56 DENMARK AND THE DANES
:ountry is the most varied in Denmark — lakes and
[lower-covered heaths and wooded hills. Fifteen
niles to the north-west lies Frijsenborg, the seat of
Ilount Frijs-Frijsenborg, the largest landed pro-
prietor in the country. The Count, who is one of
;he leaders of the Conservative Party, was a great
personal friend of the late King Edward.
Other important towns on the east coast of
futland are Vejle, celebrated for its beautiful
dtuation on Vejle Fjord ; Horsens, an important
nanufacturing town ; Randers, remarkable for its
beautiful women, its great glove factories, and the
jxcellence of its salmon ; and Aalborg, the cement
:own.
The only town of any size on the west coast is
isbjerg, which lies in an almost direct line between
^ondon and Copenhagen. It is sheltered from the
vinds which blow over the North Sea by the little
sland of Fano. The harbour, built between 1868
md 1888 at a cost of £140,000, is the fourth
n the kingdom, and since the opening of direct
iteamship communication between Denmark and
Ingland has sprung into a position of importance
ixceeded only by Copenhagen, Aarhus and Aalborg.
in the interior of Jutland the two quaint old
;athedral cities, Viborg and Ribe, are mainly
nteresting to historical students. The churches
n each of these cities are notable, and the visitor
vill be delighted with the numerous storks who
test on the house-tops or solemnly parade the
COPENHAGEN AND THE LARGE TOWNS 57
marshes and on occasions even the village streets
of this old-world neighbourhood.
On the island of Fuhnen the only two towns of
note are Odense and Svendborg. The former is
the third city in Denmark, and one of the oldest
places in Scandinavia, being sacred to the memory
of the ancient Norse god Odin. Svendborg occu-
pies a fine situation on the south-east coast of
the island, and is a favourite summer resort of the
Danes from all parts of the country.
CHAPTER IV
THE ROYAL FAMILY
The Children of King Frederik VIII.^ — Popularity of the
Danish Royal House — Democratic Characteristics —
Members, Customs, Ramifications — The Clannishness
of the Gliicksburgs — The Present Ruler — A Character
Sketch— The King's " Wife " and " ChHdren."
The late King Frederik VIII. of Denmark left
behind him seven children, of whom the present
King is the eldest. He was born in 1870 — the
year of Sedan — at a time when Danish relations
with Germany were severely strained, and although
the royal house of Denmark is German in its
origin, Frederik and his son Christian soon demon-
strated that their sympathies and interests were
essentially Danish. The result is that no royal
family in Europe to-day is more securely entrenched
in the heart and imagination of the people it rules
than is the Gliicksburg family of Denmark ; and
certainly no ruling house is more remarkable for
its genuine simplicity, its love of democratic
customs and institutions, or the real talent and
abihty of its members.
The second son of the late King Frederik married
his cousin. Princess Maud of England, and in 1905
was elected to the throne of Norway. Two
younger sons, Harald and Gustav, hold commis-
THE ROYAL FAMILY 59
sions in the Danish army, having, in accordance
with the estabhshed custom in Denmark, worked
their way up from the rank of private soldier.
The present King has two unmarried sisters, Thyra
and Dagmar, who Hve with their mother, and
one sister who is married to a Swedish prince.
The King's uncle, the celebrated Prince Valdemar,
is an admiral in the Danish navy. He married the
late Princess Marie of Orleans, who is often said
to have been the most popular Frenchwoman
who ever came to Denmark. Prince Valdemar
generally represents the King abroad, and during
his long and distinguished career has been offered
several crowns, including that of Bulgaria. He
has four young sons, one of whom. Prince Axel, is
a daring aviator ; while another, Prince Aage,
recently contracted a marriage with the beautiful
daughter of the late Italian ambassador in Copen-
hagen, thereby renouncing his royal position and
rights. Prince Valdemar's only daughter has re-
cently matriculated at the University of Copen-
hagen, probably the first royal lady in history to
be scholastically examined in the ordinary way, or
to be entered as an undergraduate at a university.
King Frederik, as all the world knows, had three
distinguished sisters ; Princess Alexandra, who
became Queen of England ; Princess Dagmar, who
became Empress of Russia ; and Princess Thyra,
who married the Duke of Cumberland ; while their
brother, Prince George, became King of Greece.
6o DENMARK AND THE DANES
In that one generation, therefore, the Gliicksburg
family was related to more than half the royal
families of Europe ; and it has been computed
that the descendants of the old King Christian IX.
of Denmark at the present time rule over three-
fifths of the inhabitants of the world.
The clannishness of the Gliicksburgs is notorious.
Queen Alexandra and the Dowager Empress of
Russia have jointly purchased a beautiful villa on
the Danish coast, some miles north of Copen-
hagen, in which they reside together during a large
part of every summer. Although the children
and grandchildren of old Christian IX. are now
scattered from one end of Europe to the other, it
is a characteristic of them that they never forget
the land of their birth ; and Fredensborg Castle
was until quite recently the scene of more notable
royal reunions than any other palace in Christen-
dom. The heads of the reigning houses of England
and Russia, Norway, Sweden and Greece, with their
families, came to this historic castle almost' every
year, in order to participate in the simple, dignified
and almost bourgeois life of the modern Danish
court.
The present ruler of Denmark, Christian X., is
often termed affectionately by his people the
Citizen King on account t»f his unaffected and
natural manners, his bluff, slangy method of
speech, his clear conception of his constitutional
position, and the genuine pleasure he evinces
THE ROYAL FAMILY 6i
when mixing up with his subjects, and especially
when being treated as one of them. He is a fine
public speaker, possessing a cultured voice of great
power and range. He eschews ostentation and
pomposity as if they were twin plagues, and when
speaking of the Queen or the princes he never
refers to them as such, but invariably as " my
wife " or " my children."
King Christian is far and away the tallest
monarch in Europe, towering a full head above
the majority of his tallest subjects ; and one
Danish wit has said that " when the King gets cold
feet in December he only begins to sneeze in May,
as it will take the worst cold at least six months to
reach his head."
One of the King's favourite practices is to board
the royal yacht on a fine summer evening and order
her captain to take her during the night to one of
the many pleasant coast resorts in Sealand or
Jutland, arriving there quite unexpectedly in the
small hours of the morning, when he will land
while the majority of the inhabitants are yet
asleep and call upon the burgomaster, afterwards
strolling unaccompanied through the streets and
chatting heartily with whomsoever he may meet.
King Christian's popularity is deservedly shared
by his beautiful wife. Queen Alexandrine, Princess
of Mecklenburg, and by their two young sons.
PART II
HISTORICAL
CHAPTER V
GENERAL SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY
Norse Myth — Sea Robbers — Saxo Grammaticus — ^Tribal
Divisions — ^The Vikings — ^Ansgar and the Intro-
duction of Christianity — ^Alfred the Great and the
Danes — ^Swain — ^Canute the Great — ^The First Arch-
bishop of Scandinavia— The ParUaments of Jutland,
Sealand and South Sweden — The Wends — ^Bishop
Absalon — ^Valdemar the Great — ^The Creatibn of the
Danish NobiUty — Canute VI. — Valdemar the
Victorious — The Conquest of Northern Germany —
The Battle of Reval — The Treachery of the Count of
Schwerin — ^The Darkest Century in Danish History —
Bankruptcy — ^Niels Ebbesen and the Uprising of the
Jutes — ^Valdemar Atterdag — ^The Hansa States —
Queen Margareth — The Kalmar Union — Eric of
Pomerania — Christian II. — Dyveke — The Assassina-
tion of the Swedish Nobility — ^Martin Luther — The
Danish Lutheraii Church — The Building King — ^The
Storming of Copenhagen — ^Political Changes — ^The
Age of Absolutism — Economic Changes — The
Napoleonic Era — Nelson bombards Copenhagen —
The Peace of Tilsit — ^Sleswick-Holstein — The Spirit
of Modem Denmark.
Danish history first emerges from obscurity and
tradition into something resembling fact and
record about the year 800 a.d. Before this time
it is difficult, if not altogether impossible, to
disentangle the Danish elements from the vast
fabric of general Norse myth and legend. One
D E
66 DENMARK AND THE DANES
fact alone can be stated with certainty. From the
eariiest times the Northmen had been quick and
daring pirates, a race of freebooters and sea
robbers, a violent people who loved fighting, the
smell of battle, peril and conquest, and the salt
scent of the sea wind in their faces.
Much of the spirit of this ancient race can be
gleaned from the pages of Saxo, a Danish monk
who Uved about the year 1200 a.d. As in England
prior to the year 800, so in Denmark, we find that
the country was divided into a number of tribal
kingdoms, of which those of the Jutes and the Sea-
landers were undoubtedly the strongest and the
most feared; As we peruse the monkish pages we
heir continually the din of battle, the echo of spear
on shield, battle-axe on crested helmet. It is a
history of blood and war, the quest of Valhalla, an
unparalleled story of intertribal strife.
At length, however, weary of fighting with each
other, the Northmen launched their galleys into
the farthest waters of the then known world. To
England they came, driven and buffeted by wind
and wave, to Scotland and Iceland, to France and
the fair countries of the South, until the Northern
barbarians were the terror of civiUsed Europe, the
one power which still presented a stubborn front
to the growing might of Christianity. The Viking
ships, entering the mouths of great rivers, devas-
tated and destroyed the rich and fruitful lands
upon their banks, annihilated whole populations,
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 67
despoiled and desecrated churches and cloisters,
spreading dismay and terror wherever they went,
putting women to violence, young boys to slavery,
old men to, death. War to these early Scandi-
navians was the breath of existence, the only object
in life worthy of ardent pursuit. While so much
as one drop of blood remained in their veins
they were prepared to fight. They died Bersekers.
After death they believed in a heaven of fighting
gods, with whom they assembled each morning and
went forth into battle. Those who fell in the fight
would arise when the evening came to take again
the axe and spear and sally forth to that never-
ending battle of the gods.
For seven or eight hundred years the Vikings
pursued unchecked their career of slaughter and
violence. Then in 826 the German monk Ansgar
travelled into Denmark, and set the first seeds of
Christianity in the heart of this untamed and bar-
baric people. A few years later Harald the Blue-
toothed was baptised, the first king of the Danes
to accept the religion of Christ.
The history of Denmark between the years 800
and 1042 is so interwoven with that of England
that it cannot easily be written apart. The Danes
in the reign of Ecgberht swept up the Thames to
London, and although in succeeding reigns they
were repeatedly repulsed and driven back, they
continued to arrive in England in greater and
greater numbers. Alfred the Great and his sons
E 2
68 DENMARK AND THE DANES
succeeded in temporarily destrojTing their power,
but under Swain the Two-bearded they renewed
their supremacy. This was the direct outcome of
that" treacherous massacre of all the Danes in
England upon St. Brice's Day which blackens the
memory of King ^thelred. Swain, hearing the
terrible news, swore to revenge his murdered
countrymen, and set forth from Denmark to the
conquest of England, He succeeded admirably in
canying out this project, and iEthelred's kingdom
was shorn of all but Wessex. Swain was followed
by his son Knud (Canute), who in single combat
defeated and slew .^thelred's son, Edmund Iron-
sides, subsequently annexing Wessex to his king-
dom, which then embraced the whole of Denmark,
Norway, England and parts of Sweden.
During the reign of Canute Enghsh and Danish
customs, laws and methods of administration
naturally became intermingled. Much was taken
from each country and adopted in the other,
though, speaking generally, it may be said that the
Danes in England became merged quietly with the
people whom they had conquered.
Dtiring the century which followed the death of
Canute the Christian churches in Denmark,
Norway and Sweden increased in numbers and
influence. In 1104 the first Archbishop of Scandi-
navia was appointed. He estabUshed his seat in
Lund, the principal town of the South Swedish
provinces, which then belonged to Denmark. The
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 69
capital of the Danish kingdom in these days was
Roskilde, an important town in Sealand.
During this period the three dominant partners
in the kingdom were Jutland, Sealand and the
South Swedish provinces. Each of them pos-
sessed its own independent parliament (ting),
whose functions were to make and administer local
laws and elect a king. When the same personage
was elected by all three tings, the election was
declared valid for the whole kingdom. In 1147,
however, the three local parliaments chose each a
separate king, and as none of them would give way,
a long and protracted civil war ensued. After ten
years of desperate fighting the nominee of Jutland
destroyed the Sealand and Swedish candidates,
assumed the sceptre of the three kingdoms, and
became one of the mightiest kings in Danish his-
tory. This was Valdemar the Great.
Under the preceding kings Denmark had been
persistently harassed by a Slav tribe called the
Wends, whose home lay on the southern shores of
the Baltic. These people organised annual pira-
tical raids to the rich fiat lands of the Danes, much
in the same manner as the Danes in their turn con-
ducted operations against the eastern shores of
England. However, as soon as Valdemar had
secured his throne, he devoted the early years of
his reign to. the subjugation of these Wends. He
carried the war boldly into the enemy's country.
With the assistance of his friend Absalon, one of
68 DENMARK AND THE DANES
succeeded in temporarily destro5dng their power,
but under Swain the Two-bearded they renewed
their supremacy. This was the direct outcome of
that" treacherous massacre of all the Danes in
England upon St. Brice's Day which blackens the
memory of King iEthelred, Swain, hearing the
terrible news, swore to revenge his murdered
countrymen, and set forth from Denmark to the
conquest of England. He succeeded admirably in
carrying out this project, and .^thelred's kingdom
was shorn of all but Wessex. Swain was followed
by his son Knud (Canute), who in single combat
defeated and slew .uEthelred's son, Edmund Iron-
sides, subsequently annexing Wessex to his king-
dom, which then embraced the whole of Denmark,
Norway, England and parts of Sweden.
During the reign of Canute English and Danish
customs, laws and methods of administration
naturally became intermingled. Much was taken
from each country and adopted in the other,
though, speaking generally, it may be said that the
Danes in England became merged quietly with the
people whom they had conquered.
During the century which followed the death of
Canute the Christian churches in Denmark,
Norway and Sweden increased in numbers and
influence. In 1104 the first Archbishpp of Scandi-
navia was appointed. He estabUshed his seat in
Lund, the principal town of the South Swedish
provinces, which then belonged to Denmark. The
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 69
capital of the Danish kingdom in these days was
Roskilde, an important town in Sealand.
During this period the three dominant partners
in the kingdom were Jutland, Sealand and the
South Swedish provinces. Each of them pos-
sessed its own independent parliament {ting),
whose functions were to make and administer local
laws and elect a king. When the same personage
was elected by all three tings, the election was
declared valid for the whole kingdom. In 1147,
however, the three local parliaments chose each a
separate king, and as none of them would give way,
a long and protracted civil war ensued. After ten
years of desperate fighting the nominee of Jutland
destroyed the Sealand and Swedish candidates,
assumed the sceptre of the three kingdoms, and
became one of the mightiest kings in Danish his-
tory. This was Valdemar the Great.
Under the preceding kings Denmark had been
persistently harassed by a Slav tribe called the
Wends, whose home lay on the southern shores of
the Baltic. These people organised annual pira-
tical raids to the rich fiat lands of the Danes, much
in the same manner as the Danes in their turn con-
ducted operations against the eastern shores of
England. However, as soon as Valdemar had
secured his throne, he devoted the early years of
his reign to. the subjugation of these Wends. He
carried the war boldly into the enemy's country.
With the assistance of his friend Absalon, one of
70 DENMARK AND THE DANES
the heroes of Danish history, a great statesman and
soldier, Bishop of Roskilde and afterwards Arch-
bishop of Lund, he in 1168 took the Wendic capital,
and forced the defeated pirates to accept Christi-
anity and Danish suzerainty at the same time.
Absalon subsequently founded the royal city of
Copenhagen.
The period of Valdemar the Great and Bishop
Absalon is one of the most pregnant in the history
of this people. Before Valdemar the sovereigns
of Denmark had ruled largely by personal power,
almost without parliaments or advisers. They had
been rich men, dependent for their position and
authority upon their wealth and personality. It
was the man who was strong, and not his kingly
office. Valdemar, however, proceeded to strengthen
the office, while at the same time retaining the
authority of the man. He sought the alliance and
advice of the great nobles and ecclesiastics. He,
in fact, created the Danish nobility by the simple
process of exempting certain wealthy people from
taxation on condition of mihtary service in times
of need.
Valdemar was succeeded by Canute VI., who
was able to maintain the power gained by his pre-
decessor. It was in the following reign, however,
that of Valdemar the Victorious, that Denmark
advanced to the proudest position in its history.
This truly great monarch continued in the tradi-
tion and poUcy of Absalon, the conquest of
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 71
Northern Germany, until at length he was master
of all the rich and fertile lands north of the Elbe.
The Danish king ruled from Lund to Hamburg
and Lubeck.
The Pope then sought his assistance in the matter
of the bishopric of Esthonia. The German Order
of the Sword had conquered parts of Esthonia
and estabhshed a bishop therein, but, the natives
having revolted, the ecclesiastic found himself in
a position of grave difficulty. Valdemar entered
Esthonia and fought a battle on his behalf near
Reval, in which he was victorious. Tradition has
it that during the progress of the fight a new
standard fell from heaven into the midst of the
Danish army at a moment when it was near to
being defeated. The miraculous appearance of
this blood-red flag, with its white cross of hope,
encouraged the Danes to further and more des-
perate efforts, and when at the end of the long
day they remained the victors of the field, the
heaven-sent standard 'was forthwith adopted as
the national flag of Denmark, and continues so to
this day.
The King of Denmark was now the mightiest
potentate in Northern Europe. The Baltic had
become a Danish Mediterranean. In his own
country Valdemar was on friendly terms with the
Church, the nobility and the people. But, like
many other empires built up in a single reign, that
of Valdemar's was to prove of short duration.
72 DENMARK AND THE DANES
When hunting one day upon a small island, the
King was treacherously taken prisoner .by one of
his vassal kings, the Count of Schwerin, who
immured him in the dungeons of his ancestral
fortress for three years. Subsequently he was
ransomed and released, but only on condition that
he gave up all the States he had conquered, with
the sole exception of Esthonia. Valdemar coura-
geously attempted to regain his former dominions,
but was defeated in the battle of Bomhoved, one
of the most decisive in the history of Denmark,
since it stopped for ever the Danish expansion to
the south. The King devoted his declining years
to internal administration. His legal code was
used in Sleswick until the year igoo.
The century following Valdemar was the darkest
in Danish history. Valdemar's three sons succeeded
each other on the throne, but they were all vicious
and incapable men. The first was killed by one
of his brothers, the second by the people ;
the third was perpetually embroiled in quarrels
and disputes with the Church. The succeeding
King was executed by the nobles, while his son
continued the unhappy tradition of aUenating
Church and State commenced by his father.
About this time there grew up in Denmark a
custom which ultimately became productive of
incalculable misery and strife. The younger sons
of the King were given parts of the country in
feud, and these sub-kingdoms were declared
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 73
hereditary. This unwise procedure created a class
of royal nobihty owning vast properties and there-
fore commanding much weight and influence in
the national councils. The power of the King
proportionately declined. Quarrels with the Church
and with the royal nobles, prominent among whom
were always the dukes of Sleswick, compelled the
King to spend more and more money in petty
warfare and the maintenance of such power as
still remained to him. The treasury was so
impoverished by the continual strain thus placed
upon it that eventually the King was reduced to
borrowing money from the Counts of Holstein,
who in return for their assistance were granted
extensive mortgages upon one part of the kingdom
after another. By the year 1320 very Uttle un-
mortgaged territory remained which the King of
the period, Christoffer II., could call his own.
Virtually the Holstein counts were the rulers of
Denmark. Between the years 1332 and 1340 there
was no king. The land of the Dane had passed
into the hands of money-lenders. Holstein was
supreme in the ancient seat of the Northern
sea-kings.
The darkest and most difficult epochs in a
nation's history invariably produce its strongest
men. Denmark was again to gather strength and
sit in the seat of the mighty. On the night of
April ist, 1340, a young Jutland noble, Niels
Ebbesen, crept into the castle of Randers and
74 DENMARK AND THE DANES
killed the Count of Holstein. This was the signal
for a general uprising of the Jutes, which resulted
in the expulsion of the Holsteins from Denmark.
A young prince, Valdemar Atterdag, was elected
king. He proved a brilliant ruler, though he
cannot be cleared of the charges of self-seeking,
unscruptdousness and dishonesty which have been
so often and so justly urged against him. He
reigned for thirty years, during a most hazardous
and trying period, crushing many rebellions,
making order out of financial chaos, engaged in
continual warfare with both foreign and domestic
enemies. Sweden, during the time of Denmark's
extremity, had taken advantage of the oppor-
tunity to annex the Danish provinces in the south
of her own land. The Hansa States were rapidly
increasing in power and wealth. The exiled Count
of Holstein and the Duke of Mecklenburg were
perpetual thorns in the side of the young ruler.
Yet he succeeded in defeating them all. He repaid
the loans for which his country had been given in
mortgage. He forced Sweden to rehnquish the
southern provinces; he curbed the rising Han-
seatic power ; and when he died in 1375 Denmark
was again a power in the North.
Queen Margareth, the daughter of Atterdag, now
ruled as regent for her son, the young Olaf , This
gifted woman was the widow of the King of
Norway, so that in the person of Olaf, the Danish
and Norwegian crowns were imited. The young
To face p. 74.]
[CoPjTignc: Unaerwoou & Unaerwood.
'Interior of Palace Church, Frederiksborg Castle.
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 75
prince died shortly afterwards, and Margareth,
assuming absolute power, was elected also Queen of
Sweden. The three Scandinavian countries were
now ruled by one sovereign. In the year 1396 the
so-called Kalmar Union was devised, a constitution
which had for its object the perpetual union of
Scandinavia, while according local autonomy to the
separate countries. Margareth evidenced supreme
capacity and genius in her administration of the
three countries, and although Eric of Pomerania
was later elected king in her place, she neverthe-
less contrived to retain the real power until the day
of her death. She died in 1412, and almost imme-
diately disruption occurred. Eric was accused
of favouritism, of harbouring a strong preference
for Danes in positions of office. Eventually he
was compelled to fly the country, when Sweden
elected one sovereign and Norway and Denmark
another. Thus ended the first brief Scandinavian
union.
The new King of Denmark was a mediocrity
who accompUshed nothing, and was undistin-
guished even by vices. He was succeeded by
Christian I., the first king of the Oldenburg family,
a house which ruled in Denmark for more than four
hundred years (1448 to 1863). This king made
a great though unsuccessful attempt to reconquer
Sweden. The two countries were, however, again
united under his son, Hans, who reigned from 1481
to 1513. But whilst the first Scandinavian union
76 DENMARK AND THE DANES
had lasted for some fifty years, the second barely
exceeded thirty years in duration.
King Hans was followed by Christian II,, one of
the most striking personalities of his age. He had
been greatly influenced by the new humani-
tarianism which was then gaining prominence, and
made some endeavours to ameliorate the unhappy
condition of the lower orders. His benevolent
schemes were, however, resented by the nobles and
landed gentry, and in addition failed to secure the
support of the Church, because, instead of seeking
advice from her priests, the King had rather sought
it from his mistress, a beautiful Dutch girl, whose
name was Dyveke. On several occasions the
Swedish nobles conspired against him, until, exas-
perated, he took a bloody revenge. At a great meet-
ing of the nobility in Stockholm in 1520 he caused
one of his friends, a clerg57man,to rise and denounce
hundreds of the best families for treason against the
State. The accused were thrown into prison, tried
by a court of hostile citizens, condemned upon the
flimsiest of evidence, and executed. This out-
rageous deed was followed by a general revolt in
Sweden against Danish rule, and the Danes were
compelled to abandon the country. There has
since been no union between Denmark and
Sweden. Instead, this unwarrantable execution
of Swedish nobles led to those long wars and
recriminations which later blacken the pages of the
history of both countries. Three years after this
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 77
event Christian II. was driven from Denmark.
Seeking the assistance of his brother-in-law, the
Emperor Charies V., he endeavoured to re-enter
the country, but was taken captive, and remained
a prisoner for the rest of his hfe.
Martin Luther had now commenced his work in
Germany, and shortly after the death of Chris-
tian II. the Danish Lutheran Church rose suddenly
into power. The Protestants in Denmark nomi-
nated one king, and the Catholics another. The
CathoHc nominee was a child, and he was supported
in his candidature by the Hansa States. A war
between the two reUgious parties followed, which
continued for three years and ended in a decisive
victory for the Lutherans. The end of this war
saw also the decline of Hanseatic power in the
Baltic, The Catholic Church in Denmark was
abolished in 1536, when Protestants were appointed
to all the bishoprics. The church lands and pro-
perties were appropriated partly for the establish-
ment and endowment of the new Church and partly
for educational purposes.
The history of Denmark in the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries is the
history of a rapidly declining power. Since the
separation from Sweden in 1520 the relations
between the two countries had been constantly
strained. From 1563 to 1570 they were at war, the
result of which was so uncertain that neither country
gained anything, and both celebrated the victory.
78 DENMARK AND THE DANES
From 1588 to 1648 Denmark was ruled by
Christian IV., a monarch notable for the many
striking and beautiful edifices which he caused to
be erected in Copenhagen. In his reign Denmark
became embroiled in the Thirty Years' War in
Germany, fighting on the Protestant side. The
Emperor, however, invaded and took possession of
Southern Jutland. Denmark retired from the war
having gained nothing and lost prestige, money
and lives. Christian then became envious of the
success of the Swedes in Germany. Making a slight
pretext, he declared war upon Sweden, and at sea
achieved some measure of success. Notwith-
standing this, he was heavily defeated on land, and
at the conclusion of peace Denmark was com-
pelled to surrender two Norwegian provinces as
well as some of her islands in the Baltic.
The next king, Frederik III., endeavoured to
regain what had been lost by his predecessors, but
was unsuccessful. The Danes now finally lost the
South Swedish provinces. In the following year,
the King of Sweden, repenting that he had not
asked for more at the peace of Roskilde, stormed
Copenhagen on the night of February loth, 1659.
The city was vaUantly defended by the King and
the citizens, and on the morning of the nth
the Swedes retired. As a result of this raid the
island of Bomholm, in the Baltic, was given back
to Denmark.
The events leading up to 1659 ^^^.d demonstrated
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 79
the incapacity of the nobility, and in 1660 the
States of the Realm decided to change the form
of government. The power was withdrawn from
the nobles, and given absolutely into the hands of
the King. At the same time, the citizens of the
towns were granted extensive powers in local
matters. An age of absolutism followed for a cen-
tury and three-quarters.
This period, although it added no new posses-
sions to the Danish crown, was productive of much
lasting good to the Danish people. Education
became more general. Trade and industry revived.
The old code of Valdemar was carefully revised
and adapted to the altered conditions. Impor-
tant reforms in the system of land tenure were
instituted. The peasants, however, still had much
ground for complaint. A military law was passed
in 1701 which provided that no peasant could leave
the estate on which he was born from his four-
teenth to his thirty-fifth year. This hmit was
later extended to the fifty-fifth year. The land-
lords were given certain rights over their tenants.
They could, for example, decide which of them
should be drafted into military service. The
story of the emancipation of the peasants is out-
lined in the chapter on land tenure. It may be
here remarked that the power of the landlords in
this direction, and the compulsion to dwell on the
estates were both simultaneously abolished in
1780. During the era of absolutism Danish
8o DENMARK AND THE DANES .
mercantile trade commenced, and was fostered
by the foundation of many companies designed
expressly for foreign trade and exploitation.
One of the companies dating back to this period
for its origin is the now world-famous Royal
Copenhagen Porcelain Manufactory.
The long peace which Denmark enjoyed from
1720 until the Napoleonic era was a period of
internal development, but not external expansion.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century this
beneficent peace was rudely shattered, and Den-
mark was plunged into wars with both England
and Sweden. During the American War England
had claimed the right to search all mercantile
ships for contraband. Denmark, Sweden, Russia
and Holland constituted themselves into an armed
neutrahty, claiming that a neutral flag should also
cover contraband of war. In 1798 France com-
menced to take such vessels as were not power-
fully convoyed by warships. Shortly afterwards
Napoleon changed his policy towards, arid in favour
of, the Armed Neutrahty of the North, in order to
be in a position to more effectively direct the whole
of his strength against his chief enemy, England.
The British Government demanded that Denmark
should withdraw from the coahtion, and dis-
patched a fleet under Sir Hyde Parker and Lord
Nelson. The Danes were quite unprepared, but,
with the assistance of some old hulks, they offered
a courageous and desperate resistance. Nelson
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 8i
attacked on April 2nd, 1801, with a strong fleet
and 1,200 cannon, as against the 600 cannon
possessed by the Danes. After five hours of
bombardment the Danish batteries were silenced,
and most of the Danish ships captured. Nelson
then sent the following message to the Diinish
Government : " Lord Nelson has instructions to
spare Copenhagen when no longer resisting, but
if the firing is continued, he will be obliged to
burn all the floating batteries he has taken, without
having power to spare the brave Danes who have
defended them."
The city capitulated, and Denmark withdrew
from the Northern coalition. It cannot be sup-
posed that Nelson actually intended to carry out
his threat, but it had the desired effect.
For some five years following the bombardment
of Copenhagen Denmark, although not in sym-
pathy with the aims of Napoleon, contrived to
maintain her neutraUty in the struggle between
England and France. At the peace of Tilsit,
however, she was forced to join the other Con-
tinental nations, at the behest of Napoleon, in the
famous aUiance against England, designed to kill
British commerce by closing every port of Europe
to British ships. As in 1801, the Enghsh Ministry
decided to break up the coaUtion by attacking
the weakest of its members. Accordingly, in
1807, a fleet was again dispatched by Canning to
Elsinore with the demand that the Danish fleet
D. F
82 DENMARK AND THE DANES
should forthwith be handed over to the British
admiral as a hostage until the war with Napoleon
should be terminated. Meeting with a refusal,
Copenhagen was once more bombarded, on this
occasion for three days. The Church of Our Lady,
the University and many of the finest public build-
ings in the city were either damaged or destroyed,
and the whole of the Danish fleet was taken to
England.
During the succeeding years Denmark entered
into a defensive alliance with Napoleon and was
successful in harassing British shipping in Danish
waters, Bemadotte, who had been elected King
of Sweden, deserted the cause of the French
emperor, and went over to the side of England,
almost immediately declaring war upon Denmark.
Napoleon sent troops to assist the Danes, but owing
to the vigilance of the English ships in the Sound
between Sweden and Denmark, they were pre-
vented from landing on Swedish territory. The war
dragged desultorily on until the defeat of the Cor-
sican in Russia, when the Danes were compelled
to sue for peace. The terms were the surrender
of Norway to Sweden and of Heligoland to England.
This was in 1814. The Dano-Norwegian Union had
then lasted for more than four hundred years.
Denmark had now been shorn of all her foreign
possessions with the sole exception of Holstein.
There followed a period of internal reconstruction.
In 1813 the State had verged on bankruptcy,
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 83
owing to the heavy expenses entailed by the war.
Trade and commerce had been crippled. The
standard of living among the peasantry had
deteriorated, and the national spirit had sunk to
its lowest ebb. The only thing that had gained in
strength during this depressing period was the
literary art. The opening years of the nineteenth
century are often counted the golden age of
Danish Uterature.
It was first necessary to place the finances of the
country upon a stable basis, and how this was
accomplished is related in a subsequent chapter.
Many far-reaching reforms were planned and
successfully carried through.
The recuperative decade was rudely broken in
1848, the year of the revolts in Paris and Berlin.
The German-speaking population of the provinces
of Holstein and Sleswick rose against the Danish
rule, and invited the Duke of Augustenburg to
become their prince. The Prussian Government
conceived this to be a favourable opportunity to
execute a counter-stroke, with a view to diverting
attention from the BerUn revolution. An army
was sent to help the Sleswick-Holsteiners against
Denmark. In 1849 the Danes defeated the Prus-
sians at Fredericia. and the |Prussian army was
withdrawn. The rebels however still continued
to maintain the struggle, but were eventually over-
borne and reduced to submission. The Duke of
Augustenburg then formally abandoned his claims,
F 2
84 DENMARK AND THE DANES
But the trouble was not yet ended. The German
elements in the population of the two provinces
clamoured for Prussian dominion. The Danes
naturally desired to remain Danish citizens. The
inevitable resultant of these two opposing forces
was friction. In 1863 an Act was passed through
the Copenhagen Parliament giving one assembly
to Sleswick, where the Danes were predominant,
and another to Holstein, where the Germans were
in the majority. In this year the last king of the
house of Oldenburg died. He was succeeded by
Christian IX., a member of the Glucksburg family.
The Duke of Augustenburg now reiterated his
claims to Sleswick-Holstein, and as the Danish
Government refused to rescind or amend the Act
of 1863, Prussia and Austria together declared war
on Denmark. It did not last long. Denmark
expecting assistance from Sweden and the other
powers who had guaranteed her integrity, was
disappointed. At Dybbol, in Sleswick, the Danish
army was overwhelmed and crushed, after a
spirited defence lasting for more than ten w^eks.
At the peace Denmark relinquished the two
provinces to Prussia and Austria jointly.
For two years these two powers retained their
dual control, until 1866, when they were at war
with each other. At the conclusion of that war
Sleswick-Holstein became German, on condition
that if at any time the people of Northern Sleswick
voted for a return to Danish rule, that province
SKETCH OF DANISH HISTORY 85
was to be handed back to Denmark. In 1869 the
Danish Government opened up negotiations with
Bismarck with this end in view, but as Prussia
claimed jurisdiction over the German-speaking
peoples there, and as it was rightly considered that
this would in itself afford the Berlin Government a
pretext for interference in purely Danish affairs,
the population of Sleswick was sacrificed to the
growing idol of Teutonic Imperialism. In 1878
the stipulated alternative was withdrawn from the
articles of peace between Prussia and Austria,
The people of Sleswick, notwithstanding their
inclusion in the German empire, are still largely
Danish. The Danish tongue is spoken. Their
sympathies and antipathies are precisely the same
as those of the people of Denmark, and they con-
tinue under very depressing conditions to foster
and encourage the national spirit, in the hope that
one day they may be again united to the mother-
country. The lamentable events of 1864 led many
to believe that the days of Denmark as a nation
were numbered. That this has not been the case
is a tribute to the vital energy and inherent courage
of the people. The spirit of the old Vikings is not
yet dead. The race has rallied to the appeal of
one of the national poets, to conquests in a new
field, to internal development, culture, education,
social laws, science and agriculture. " What out-
wardly has been lost shall inwardly be regained."
That is the moving inspiration of young Denmark.
CHAPTER VI
POLITICAL HISTORY FROM 1849 TO THE PRESENT
DAY
The Constitutional Agitation — ^The Law of 1849— The
Enghsh Model — Claims of Holstein — Increasing
Friction — ^The Constitution of July 28th, 1866—
Methods of Election to Landsting and Folketing —
The National Liberal Party — Rise of Farmers'
Representatives — An Experimental Period — New
Criminal Code and Provision of ' Railways — The
Position in 1870 — The " Internationale " and the
Socialists — National Defence — ^Estrup — ^The Leaders
of the Democratic Group — Refusal of the Budget —
Government by Royal Decrees — The New Military
Law — General Bahnson — Estrup's Defence — Storm
of Opposition — Attempt on the Premier's Life — The
RigSdag Dissolved — ^Provisional Budgets — Fortifica-
tion of Copenhagen — ^Estrup's Social Legislation
— The Reconciliation — Estrup's Retirement and
Death — Denmark's First Democratic Government —
Deuntzer — System of Taxation Revised — The
Alberti Frauds — Trials before the Realm Court —
Subsequent Events — Some Characteristics of Danish
Political Life.
The effects of the constitutional movement
which spread over the whole of Europe in the
thirties and forties of the nineteenth century were
strongly felt also in Denmark. From 1660 the
King had been absolute. In the early part of the
century demands for a constitution began to be
POLITICAL HISTORY FROM 1849 87
made, which, growing in insistence, at length
became so imperative that the King, hearing in
them the knell of royal absolutism, and not desiring
to furnish a cause for revolt, wisely decided to
accede to the wishes of his people. Frederik VII.
accordingly on June 5th, 1849, granted and signed
the Constitutional Law. Modern political history
in Denmark began on that day.
Frederik's constitution, modelled upon the
EngUsh, provided that the power should reside
with the King and the Rigsdag. The latter was
divided into two Tings, the Folketing (Lower
House) and the Landsting (Upper House). The
method of election to the popular chamber was
roughly the same as in England, with this important
exception, that each man possessed only one vote,
and was not entitled to exercise it until his
thirtieth year. On the other hand, the franchise
was wider than in England, owing to the absence
of a property qualification. The Landsting re-
mained in the hands of the King and the great
landowners. The former possessed the right of
personally selecting one-fifth of the members of the
Upper House.
In this first Rigsdag the Holstein deputies
claimed that matters affecting only the people
in that province could not rightly be determined
by an assembly the majority of whom were Danes.
In this protest we find the ultimate origin of Den-
mark's trouble with her German provinces. As
88 DENMARK AND THE DANES
time advanced the friction increased rather than
diminished, until 1863, when a new Constitutional
Law was carried by the Rigsdag, providing a
separate assembly for Holstein, while retaining in
the national Parliament the power of veto and of
social legislation affecting the whole kingdom.
Sleswick still remained without a local parUament.
After the loss of the two German provinces the
question immediately arose whether to retain the
Constitutional Law of 1863 or revert to that of 1849.
The Democratic parties in the Rigsdag argued that
the 1863 constitution had been drawn up to meet
special cdnditions, and that the original constitu-
tion should now be revived. The Conservative
Ministry did not take this view of the matter,
preferring to revise the constitution of 1863 rather
than return to the earUer one. A deadlock was
threatened, and would doubtless have involved
serious consequences had not the parties come to a
compromise whereby an intermediate course was
taken, and a new law formulated which embraced
the important features of both the older laws.
The constitution of July 28th, 1866, was the result.
The method of election to the Landsting was
changed. Twelve members of this assembly were
now chosen for their lifetime by the King ; fifty-
four members were elected by the people in a
somewhat indirect and involved manner : as to
one-half by the voters to the Folketing, and as to
the other half, by the land and property owners.
POLITICAL HISTORY FROM 1849 89
In the country, the owner of the largest estate in
an electoral district possessed the same influence
as did all the other voters in the district put
together ; in a town, that fifth of the inhabitants
which paid the most income tax chose the same
number of members as the remaining four-fifths
of the electorate.
The party distinctions immediately following
the granting of the new constitution were neither
well defined nor constant. The National Liberal
party, which from 1849 had been the strongest
body of political opinion in the country, had now
assumed a more conservative bias, and while
retaining a majority in the Landsting had lost
ground in the Folketing. In the latter chamber
the Left party, composed mainly of farmers' repre-
sentatives, held the chief power.
It was largely a formative and experimental
period. The most important law carried through
was the new Criminal Code ; but perhaps the
greatest and most lasting work of these early
parliaments was the provision of the network of
railways which was subsequently to prove of such
immense assistance to Denmark in the develop-
ment of her agricultural resources.
In 1870 the general aspect of Danish politics
changed materially, taking approximately their
present Unes. A Right party was formed, with a
policy which enabled it to embrace the old National
Liberals and some of the more conservative of the
90 DENMARK AND THE DANES
new Left. The latter party split up into a number
of well-defined groups, all of which agreed in
demanding that the King should form a Ministry
from that party which held the majority in the
popular chamber, and that the Budget should be
the prerogative of the Folketing, both of which
principles were then quite novel to Denmark.
The Right, however, successfully maintained that
the two Houses should possess co-equal power,
contending that a system which in England had
been slowly and genuinely developing during many
centuries could not be immediately adopted in
Denmark.
The Socialist party now made its somewhat
inauspicious entrance into Danish politics. A
branch of the " Internationale " had been formed,
and a great propagandist open-air meeting arranged.
This assembly was summarily forbidden by the
police, and its promoters first imprisoned, and
subsequently deported to America. No more was
heard of the movement for some considerable
time.
The first important struggle between the Right
(Conservative) and Left (Democratic) parties arose
on the question of national defence. The Con-
servatives maintained that it was at least necessary
to be in a position to defend the capital, and
demanded money from the Folketing for this
purpose. The Democrats, who had a majority in
the lower chamber, denied this principle, contend-
POLITICAL HISTORY FROM 1849 91
ing that to fortify Copenhagen would not only
prove expensive and futile, but in addition actually
harmful. The utmost concession that could be
wrung from them was for the provision of a mov-
able water-fort, which could be transferred to the
point of danger as and when required. Two Con-
servative Ministries were forced to resign ; yet
each time the King appointed a new Ministry from
the same party. On the latter occasion, in 1875,
Herr Estrup, an extraordinarily fearless and
strong-willed pohtician, became Prime Minister.
He had previously been Secretary of State for the
Home Department, and in that capacity had
evidenced great ability and firmness. Appointed
in the face of an adverse majority in the Folketing,
he seems to have resolved to carry on the govern-
ment of the country as much as possible by royal
decrees, a policy which later he successfully
adopted. Estrup at once demanded money for
the sea-fortification of Copenhagen, a demand
which was promptly refused. The Prime Minister
then dismissed the Pariiament, but the ensuing
elections went so strongly against him that out
of 102 members to the Folketing he could only
claim the support of twenty-eight . Still he refused
to listen to the clamour for his resignation. The
leaders of the Democratic group were Berg, an
orator and a man of rare pariiamentary gifts ;
Count Holstein-Ledreborg, the most eloquent
Dane of his time; and Viggo Horup, the first
92 DENMARK AND THE DANES
political journalist to rise to the front rank of
Danish statesmen. The last of this trio repre-
sented the most modem movements in literature,
politics and social life, inspired and moulded by
Georg Brandes.
The Left endeavoured to secure the resignation
of the Ministry by refusing its Budget, with the
exception of those most necessary supplies without
which the public services could not be maintained.
The Landsting rejected the mutilated Budget,
and again Estrup dismissed the Rigsdag. The
Ministry then persuaded the King to agree to a
provisional Budget. This procedure appeared to
be perfectly constitutional at the moment, as it
was provided in the law of July 28th, 1866, that
when the two Houses were not assembled the King
could, when advised by his Ministers, issue pro-
visional Bills, to be submitted for ratification to
the new Parhament as soon as it met.
When the Folketing reassembled six months
later, the Democratic parties split up into two
main groups, one of which was more moderate than
the other, and which entered into an agreement
with the Ministry relative to the less contentious
items of the Budget. The other group consti-
tuted itself into the Radical party, bitterly oppos-
ing Estrup in what it regarded as his arbitrary
and unconstitutional methods. The succeeding
years are filled with the records of the quarrel
between the two groups of the Left. The Ministry
POLITICAL HISTORY FROM 1849 93
meanwhile took advantage of these Democratic
differences to carry through a new military law
of great importance.
In the elections of 1881 the two Left wings
united against the Estrup Cabinet, and, gaining a
renewed victory at the polls, came back to the
Folketing with the avowed determination of over-
throwing the Ministry. Every proposal of the
Conservatives was automatically referred to the
" burial committee," a similar procedure to moving
that the Bill " be read this day six months."
The Budgets were denuded of all but the most
essential items, and the Cabinet found it utterly
impossible to obtain anything of a special character
from a Folketing bent on its destruction. In the
elections of 1884 Estrup found himself with but
nineteen out of 102 seats. It was in this year that
the SociaUsts first acted as a united party, gaining
two seats in Copenhagen.
The general opinion now prevailed that the
Prime Minister would at last resign. Instead, he
astounded his enemies and gratified his friends,
not only by retaining office, but by indicating his
contempt for the Folketing by at once giving the
portfolio of war to General Bahnson, a strong
defence man. The Folketing retaliated by throw-
ing out the new War Minister's first statement,
and by refusing every item in the Budget relating
to fortification or defence. Accordingly, Estrup
issued a second provisional Budget, which this
94 DENMARK AND THE DANES
time contained not only the provisions for the
maintenance of the public services, but in addition
such special items as the Prime Minister consi-
dered necessary for other purposes. His defence
of his action was characteristic but unsound. He
claimed that, as he had accepted responsibility
from the King for the finance of the year, he
was justified in obtaining by any means within
his power, constitutional or unconstitutional, the
supplies which the Cabinet deemed necessary.
This second provisional Budget excited a storm
of opposition throughout the country. Several
Radical members were imprisoned for violent and
inflammatory speeches. In the autumn of 1885
an attempt, which fortunately miscarried, was
made upon the Premier's Ufe. The Rigsdag was
again dissolved, and several new decrees followed.
The pohce force in Copenhagen was materially
strengthened, while it was strictly forbidden to
buy or carry weapons. Incitements against the
Government were punished with heavy fines or
terms of imprisonment.
In the following years until 1894, provisional
Budgets were issued annually. They contained
votes for military and defensive purposes, which
were not carried by Parliament, but which Estrup
nevertheless made effective. Thus, in the teeth
of fierce opposition, this remarkable poHtician
succeeded in fortifying Copenhagen by land and
sea. His claim to recognition as a statesman of
POLITICAL HISTORY FROM 1849 95
the first rank is based, however, not only on his
prolonged and successful struggle with the Danish
Folketing, but also upon the many excellent social
laws which he succeeded in carrying. Among
these may be mentioned the Acts providing
old-age pensions, sick-clubs, and regulation of
parish relief. The Radical parties throughout
opposed these Bills, but only on the ground that,
if they were passed, they would serve to delay the
ultimate resignation of the Ministry.
In 1892 the extreme Radical group lost ground
somewhat. Count Holstein-Ledreborg retired
from political life. Berg had died shortly before
the elections, and Horup was defeated by Alberti,
who belonged to that more moderate wing which
favoured a compromise with Estrup. There fol-
lowed the reconciliation of 1894. The two Houses
agreed upon a Budget which satisfied the Ministry,
and the provisional laws were subsequently
rescinded. Shortly after the reconciliation Estrup
resigned. He had carried on the government for
nineteen years under unparalleled conditions.
Inspiring the strongest regard and admiration
among his followers, he was at the same time the
best loved and the most hated man in Danish
poUtics. He lived in retirement for many years,
a hfe member of the Landsting, to which he had
been personally nominated by the King, and on
his death, in December, 1913, the older Conserva-
tives were still quite blind to his errors, while the
96 DENMARK AND THE DANES
most fanatical members of the Left regarded him
as the great animal of the Apocal3q)se. Perhaps
the best that can be said of him is that he did not
retire until the moment of triumph. He remained
to defeat his enemies, and then, when there was
no more fighting to undertake, withdrew into a
dignified and merited retreat.
Following Estrup's retirement, three moderate
Conservative Ministries succeeded each other, but
the Right steadily lost ground until, in 1901, they
retained only eight seats out of 114. Count Frijs,
himself a Conservative, then demanded in the
Landsting the resignation of the Conservative
Cabinet, and the formation of a Left Ministry.
This demand was immediately conceded, and
Denmark obtained her first democratic govern-
ment.
Herr Deuntzer, a lawyer, became Prime Minister.
He was quite a new man to political hfe, and the
real forces in the Cabinet were J. C. Christensen,
the Minister for Education, and Alberti, the
Minister for Justice. The Cabinet possessed an
overwhelming majority in the Folketing, but were
in a minority in the Upper House. The new
Ministry at once proceeded to reform the system
of taxation. New taxes were levied, and old
imposts revised. The tithes on the land were con-
verted and aboUshed. Attempts were made to
cut down military expenses, and a committee was
appointed to see if this was practicable.
POLITICAL HISTORY FROM 1849 97
In 1904, the Minister for War, General Madsen,
asked for increased supplies . with a view to
strengthening the sea defences of the capital. A
section of the Government's supporters criticised
this demand on the ground that so long as the
committee of 1902 was working no additional
expenditure should be incurred. As a result the
party divided, and in 1905 Deuntzer resigned.
The new Cabinet was formed by Herr (afterwards
Sir) J. C. Christensen.* Alberti still retained the
portfolio of justice. The Ministry was supported
by the moderate groups of the Left, and opposed
by the Radical-Socialist wing. The so-called
"flogging law" was passed for certain grave
assaults. The tariffs were revised. Labour ex-
changes were created.
In the spring of 1908 public attention was mainly
concentrated on the Alberti affair. The Minister
of Justice had for some considerable time been the
subject of innuendoes in the Folketing concerning
his administration of the funds of the Sealand
Farmers' Savings Bank and the Danish Butter
Export Company, of both of which companies he
was the chairman. The Copenhagen press openly
hinted at falsification of accounts, and did not
find it difficult to substantiate charges of nepotism,
but the Ministry stood firmly by its member and
refused an investigation, Alberti, moreover, was
* Herr Christensen received his knighthood from King
Edward VII.
98 DENMARK AND THE DANES
upheld by the immense authority which he wielded
over his party. At length, the charges gathering
weight and finding his position in the Folketing
untenable, he resigned, when he was decorated by
the King with the highest possible Danish order.
This latter was intended as a demonstration of the
voluntary character of his resignation. But six
weeks later Alberti denounced himself to the police
for fraudulent misappropriation of the funds
entrusted to his management. The amount of the
defalcations exceeded £1,000,000, the greater pro-
portion of which had been lost in mining specula-
tions on the London Stock Exchange. ^ The frauds
extended over a number of years, and had been
cleverly concealed by juggling balances from the
account of one company to that of the other, a plan
rendered more easy of accomphshment by the fact
that the two concerns presented their respective
balance-sheets at different periods of the year.
The resignation of the Cabinet which occurred
almost immediately was caused partly in view of
its support of its ex-Minister, and partly because
the Prime Minister, Herr Christensen, had during a
short period acted as Finance Minister, and granted
the Sealand Farmers' Savings Bank a loan of
;£85,ooo. It was therefore felt that the Cabinet
was toojdeeply involved in the crisis to continue
the government. The new Ministry was formed
by Neergaard, the leader of the moderate group.
The Alberti affair naturally occupied the greatest
POLITICAL HISTORY FROM 1849 99
place in public attention for many months. The
ex-Minister was tried and condemned to eight
years' imprisonment. The late Prime Minister
and the Home Secretary, Berg, were also sum-
moned before the " Realm Court," the political
tribunal of Denmark. The trials excited intense
interest. Christensen was absolved from criminal
offence, though his defence of Alberti and his
persistent refusal of an examination were strongly
criticised. Berg was fined for his neglect in the
matter of the Savings Bank accounts, the super-
vision of which properly belonged to the duties of
his department.
Recent years have strikingly evidenced the grow-
ing strength of the Radical and Socialist parties.
Ministry has succeeded Ministry with admirable
regularity. Neergaard's Cabinet retired in favour
of one formed by the old Left leader, Count
Holstein-Ledreborg, who accepted office only to
obtain a solution of the question of national
defence. The result was a compromise by which
the sea defences of the capital were considerably,
and the land fortifications slightly improved,
while the final decision was postponed to 1922.
This was followed in 1909 by the Zahle Ministry,
which was more Radical in complexion than any
of its predecessors. In 1910, Bemtsen* became
* Bemtsen, who belonged to the Left party, introduced a Bill
for a new Constitution, which was received enthusiastically by
Radicals and Socialists. It gave votes to all men and women
over twenty-five years of age, abolished all privileges of the
G 2
100 DENMARK AND THE DANES
head of the Government, and in his turn was
succeeded by the second Zahle Cabinet in May,
1913. At that election the Radical-Socialists swept
the country, and accepted ofi&ce for the second time.
In completing this slight review of the develop-
ment and present position of Danish politics, it may
be remarked that a political career in Denmark does
not afford the scope obtainable in a larger country,
neither does it require the same abiHty to rise to a
position of eminence. The lines of demarcation are
mainly as between Liberals and Socijdists. There
is no Conservatism in the English sense of that
word, because there is no aristocracy, and but few
vested interests. There exist, moreover, no strong
party cries, no Imperial questions, and but few
matters of high foreign poUcy. In these circum-
stances it is hardly surprising that Denmark's
greatest men are not often to be found among her
politicians ; rather must we turn to the realms of
science and art, of culture and education.
wealthy classes, and restricted the election to the Upper House to
people over thirty years of age. At first the Conservatives
opposed the measure, but the election in May, 1913, having given
the Radical-Socialists a majority in the Lower House, Zahle
carried the Bill through to the Upper House. When the European
War broke out in 1914 the more Conservative elements in the
Radical block thought so important a Bill should not be forced
at that critical moment against the desire of a large section of
the electorate. Nothing was done, therefore, for some time.
The country, however, has been surprised recently to learn that,
consequent upon negotiations between the Conservative and
Radical leaders, the former have accepted the Constitution,
which has now support from all parties, and will be signed by the
King on June 5th, 1915, the anniversary of the First Constitution.
To face p. loo.]
[Copyright: Undetwood & Underwood.
Queen Louise Bridge, Copenhagen.
PART III
AGRICULTURE AND FARMING
CHAPTER VII
THE SYSTEM OF LAND TENURE
Danish Agriculture a Hundred Years Ago and To-day —
Causes of the Improvement — The Alliance between
Scientist and Farmer — Conditions — Land Ownership
prior to the Nineteenth Century — Community of
Ownership — Villenage — Ecclesiastical Tithes —
Scheme for Abolition of Tithes — ^Villenage Abolished
— ^Sale of Entailed Estates — Peasant Proprietorship
— Tendency to Small Holdings — Effect of the Growth
of the Factory System — The Land Laws — Small
Holdings the Vindication of a Great Economic Law —
Retrograde Movements — Middle-class Holdings —
The Acts of 1899, 1904 and 1909 — ^Arrangements for
Repayment of Loans — The State Schemes — The
Small Holdings Selection Board — Objections to the
Danish Small Holdings Act — Present Conditions of
Farm Labourers in Denmark — Loans on Small Pro-
perties — Mr. Christopher Turner's Examination —
The Future.
Less than a hundred years ago agriculture in
Denmark was no whit more developed than in
any other country in Europe. To-day the Danish
farmer takes his place as one of the most scientific
farmers of the age, while Denmark is, pro-rata to
its area and population, almost the greatest
grower of farm produce that history has seen.
What is the cause of these astonishing facts ?
The answer is threefold : (i) a favourable system
of land tenure, (2) advanced and well-developed
methods of co-operation, and (3) a close alliance
104 DENMARK AND THE DANES
between the theoretical scientist and the practical
farmer, the laboratory and Mother Earth. Den-
mark is a striking example of what immense things
can be done, even with poor material, by com-
bining energy with thought, work with science.
The land in itself possesses little fruitfulness. It
is neither rich in soil nor great in area. There are
vast expanses of barren downs, especially in the
northern and western parts of Jutland, which
subtract from the average productivity of the
country. Its climate is much the same as that
of Ireland, and if all the constituent factors are
examined by those qualified to judge, it can be
easily ascertained that the natural conditions in
Denmark are not such as in themselves conduce
to great results. Inland there are degrees of
frost on as many as ii6 days in the year, while
the coast strips have 90 days of frost per annum.
The number of days upon which both rain and
snow fall is on an average 156 in the year, while
snow only falls on 34 days. There are 94 days of
fog or mist per annum, and, on the average,
1,200 hours of sunshine yearly. Practical farmers
will agree that these facts do not account for
the results that have been achieved. By what
artifices then have the Danish farmers overcome,
in a great measure, the disadvantages of their
meagre inheritance, and been enabled to wring
such an extraordinarily fine return from their
soil ?
THE SYSTEM OF LAND TENURE 105
Until the close of the eighteenth century the
land remained in the absolute possession of a
minority of large landowners, who let it, in most
cases on unconscionable terms, to the small-
farmer class. The properties of these latter were
so split up that a system termed " community of
ownership " had to be devised as the only means
whereby a living could be made. This system
provided that, when within a given area one tenant
farmer desired to sow corn all the other farmers in
the same area must likewise do the same, and on
the same day, it not being practicable for one man
to grow rye on his small patch while his neighbour
produced barley or wheat.
Moreover, at this time the small properties were
burdened with villenage to the greater, the tenant
of the former paying in labour for the use of his
land. It will readily be perceived that such
labour would be required by the manor at times
when the small farmer could ill spare it, e.g., the
harvest, when he ought to be managing his own
property rather than working for his overlord.
Finally, there were the ecclesiastical tithes, from
which the land is not yet quite free, although
they are now being converted under the following
generous State scheme. An Act of Parliament
provides the payment of a capital sum amounting
to twenty-five times the average of the tithe for
the previous ten years. Of this the Government
is paying seven twenty-fifths and the farmers
io6 DENMARK AND THE DANES
themselves eighteen twenty-fifths, which the State
will loan to thetti. The State has issued bonds
which in 55^ years will be completely cancelled,
when all the farmers' loans will have been repaid.
In the nineteenth century great strides were
made in the direction of altering the system of
land tenure, of abolishing villenage, and of con-
verting the tithes aforementioned. Proprietors of
entailed estates were allowed by law, and even
encouraged, to sell portions of their lands to their
tenants, while the State did all in its power to
assist the latter with their purchases. The moneys
received by those who thus sold entailed lands
were not wholly at the disposal of the seller. He
was compelled to invest the greater part in what
we should call trustee securities, which invest-
ments were then entailed to his heirs in precisely
the same manner as the land had previously been.
But he was permitted to retain for his own use
12 per cent, of the proceeds provided he sold to
his own tenants or their kin, and only 8 per cent,
if he dispossessed the tenants and sold to out-
siders. And in this manner it has come about that
the Denmark of to-day is largely a country of
small peasant proprietors. In the last fifty years
some 10,000 farms have become the absolute
property of their holders, and at the present time
only 27 per cent, of the area of Denmark is bur-
dened with rent.
With the growth of the population we find an
THE SYSTEM OF LAND TENURE 107
inevitable tendency to smaller and smaller hold-
ings. At the end of the seventeenth century the
bias was, if anything, in favour of large estates.
To-day it is increasingly in favour of the small
to medium class. An examination of the suc-
cessive land laws demonstrates the gradual change
that took place in pubHc opinion consequent upon
the great change in the conditions of Ufa, the rise
of the factory system, the migration to large towns
(especially in England), and the creation thereby
of Denmark's principal market.
Let us now briefly indicate the legislative Acts
which, in the establishment of a successful class of
small holders, have tested and vindicated a great
economic law. In 1769 an Act was passed
prohibiting free yeoman farmers from merging
their properties into the adjoining estates. This
is, in itself, evidence of the fact that by the middle
of the eighteenth century a desire existed to
preserve medium-sized as against great estates.
In the same year it was forbidden to divide farms
into smaller portions than would each provide an
ample living for one family. In 1848 it was strictly
prohibited to lease small holdings on condition
that part of the rent should be paid in labour
(villenage). In 1875 Credit Union Banks were
founded with State aid, in order to assist the small
holders to purchase and develop their land. At
the same time inducements were offered to those
small holders who worked their properties skil-
io8 DENMARK AND THE DANES
fully and produced good results, while grants were
made for study and travel purposes.
About 1890, however, a. slightly retrograde
mbvement set in, caused by the existence in the
country of two classes of peasants : first, the young
farmers who had all along worked for the manors,
and who now either emigrated to America, or
came into the big towns to make a better living ;
and second, the small holders who were supporting
themselves upon their properties, and who would
not therefore work on the larger estates. The
owners of manors were, therefore, in great need
of workers, and in order to obtain them they
demanded that the State should create small hold-
ings so scattered and minute that the owners of
them would be forced to work for others during
a portion of the year. At the same time the
peasants demanded holdings large enough to fully
support them. To solve the difficulty a compro-
mise was effected whereby a middle class of
holding was created, which gave the small farmer
scope to earn a large portion of his living, while
at the same time requiring him to perform a
certain quota of work upon the larger estates.
The particular laws relating to small holdings
provide instructive reading in that they show
clearly the manner in which the Danes have
attempted to overcome the difficulties inherent to
a system of land tenure where the owners are
largely peasants requiring to be carefully watched
THE SYSTEM OF LAND TENURE 109
and controlled. In the successive Acts of 1899,
1904, and 1909, the following are among the
conditions upon which a candidate is admitted to
a small holding. His age must exceed twenty-
five years but be less than fifty. He must pre-
viously have worked upon a farm for at least
four years. He is required to furnish a guarantee
from two persons of standing that he is an indus-
trious, sober and proper person, and considered
capable of managing such a property. He must
show sufficient means to work the farm reason-
ably, while not at the same time possessing such
capital as would enable him to purchase the holding
without assistance. The minimum area of these
farms is fixed at 2 J acres, and the purchase price
must not exceed ;^36o, including the value of
buildings, Uve stock, etc. The State will lend
up to 90 per cent, of the total value of such
properties.
The arrangements for the repayment of loans
are simple and equitable. During the first five
years interest only is paid. Afterwards the total
loan is divided into two parts, one of two-fifths
and one of three-fifths. The latter section of the
loan is converted into what may be called public
stock, aiid placed on the market with a State
guarantee through the Mortgage Bank of Denmark.
On the other two-fifths section after the first five
years, dming which he has only paid 3 per cent.,
the borrower must pay 4 per cent., the extra i per
cent, accumulating as a sinking fund for the
no DENMARK AND THE DANES
ultimate redemption of the loan. He, however,
continues to pay 4 per cent., and thus, as the loan
is reduced through repayments, these repayments
automatically increase in proportion year by year.
When the two-fifths section has been paid off in
46J years, the three-fifths section is dealt with in
precisely the same manner, the complete loan being
repaid in 98 years.
Annually about £222,000 is loaned to small
holders, and £14,000 to small holders who are at
present tenants, but who desire eventually to
become the owners of their properties. It was
found at first that the State schemes in this direc-
tion commanded no confidence, and that the annual
parliamentary grant was more than sufficient for
the purpose. Now, however, the grant is heavily
applied for every year, and it has, in fact, become
necessary to select the inost suitable candidates
from among the applicants. A board has been
formed with this object in view. The number of
small holdings created under the Acts up to 1912
is 6,275, and the Treasury has lent already well
over £1,600,000.
Of those small holdings now in existence 27 per
cent, of the owners were between the ages of twenty-
five and thirty when they acquired them, 43 per
cent, were between thirty and forty years, and
the remaining 30 per cent, exceeded forty years.
There are on an average five members to each
family. It has been found that the small holder
works roughly 155 days in the year either on the
THE SYSTEM OF LAND TENURE iii
great estates or in some other kind of handiwork.
In other words, his holding only provides him
with one-half of his annual income. The general
tendency, however, is for the properties to become
somewhat greater, while the necessity to work on
the estates is of course proportionately diminished.
The objections to the scheme which one generally
meets with in Denmark are chiefly confined to
the quality of the soil and its high market price.
In many places the land would be quite without
production were it not for the wonderfully inten-
sive methods of the Danish farmers, and it is
therefore often urged that in these circumstances
Deimiark is a country better suitable for the large
farmer with capital than for the small holder. It
will be found, however, that, although the average
price of land has increased by 53 '8 per cent, since
1870, the annual value of the harvest has during
the same period increased by over 100 per cent.
Moreover, it is the worst parts of the country, the
north-western districts of Jutland, which have bene-
fited by the change in the system of tenure and the
introduction of intensive methods. Lands which
were formerly barren wastes, yielding nothing, now
provide livings for hundreds of families.
There is of course a great temptation for the
large estate owner to get rid of his worst land to
the small holders. This difficulty has been met
and to a great extent overcome by means of land
purchase societies. A number of people desirous
of obtaining State small holdings will combine
112 DENMARK AND THE DANES
together, forming a society for the selection and
purchase of good land. The Treasury is prepared
to grant loans to such societies on somewhat
similar conditions as to single small-holders. The
State will also aid an individual member of the
society, provided the value of his holding does not
exceed £665. In the period 1885 — 1895 the mort-
gages amounted to 54 per cent, of the total value
of properties sold. In the last five years the per-
centage has only been 50, which indicates not
that the absolute burden on the land has been
diminished, but that interest requires a less pro-
portion of the annual profit than formerly. The
number of agricultural bankruptcies has been 12
per cent, lower than the figure for the preceding
eight years, and the number of properties sold by
compulsory auction 40 per cent. less. The value
of horses, cattle, machinery, etc., has increased by
43 per cent, in the last fifteen years.
It has been found that the small holdings often
attract an inferior type of peasant, for a really
skilful agriculturist finds no difficulty in securing a
property much greater than that which he could
obtain under the State scheme.
It was feared at first that the small holdings
would draw the servants and retainers from the
large farms and manors, leaving these latter
entirely without labour. But experience has
shown this fear to be groundless, and Denmark
now possesses in the children of the present small
THE SYSTEM OF LAND TENURE 113
holders a rising generation who will form a class
of labourers produced and nurtured on the soil,
and accustomed to farm work from their infancy,
and who will in their turn work on the farms until
such time as they are themselves able to acquire
holdings.
By many economists the amount which an
applicant for a State small holding has to furnish —
namely, 10 per cent, of its total value — ^is con-
sidered to be too small, for if in the first few years
of possession he suffers any heavy loss, it is exceed-
ingly difficult for him to make a recovery in the
face of a go per cent. State mortgage.
Notwithstanding these objections to the scheme,
it certainly has a balance of argument in its favour,
and there can be little doubt that it has been one
of the factors which have helped to raise Danish
farming from imminent bankruptcy to a position of
economic security. We do not claim that Danish
small holders are superfluously wealthy, but com-
paring the present with the former state of affairs,
it cannot be denied that the Danes have achieved
a great and magnificent piece of work in the solu-
tion of their land problem along the lines outlined
in this chapter. The position of the agricultural
labourers of Denmark compares very favourably
indeed with that of their fellow-labourers in other
countries. A farm labourer can make from £30 to
£33 a year, exclusive of allowances of milk, etc.
Those most familiar with the home life of these
D. H
114 DENMARK AND THE DANES
people are agreed that they enjoy superior clothing,
much better food, and more favourable condi-
tions than the same classes in England, France,
or Germany. A small holder is of course in a
decidedly better position than a landless labourer,
for he has his garden and stock. The Savings
Banks show that, whereas a landless labourer saves
nothing, a small holder whose family is not too
large can save, and often does, the while his debt
decreases, and his property appreciates in value.
In the majority of cases when a small holder
eventually sells his property, he has something
in hand after he has repaid the balance due on his
mortgage, showing that he has earned more than a
bare living from his labour. A small holder can
make up to £i8 per annum when working on the
great estates, which is more than sufficient to pay
the interest on his mortgage.
A great deal of misunderstanding exists as to the
amount of loans on Danish small properties and
the efiect which such apparently tremendous
mortgages will ultimately have economically. In
this connection it should be remembered that in no
other country can money be obtained so cheaply,
or on such favourable general conditions, as in
Denmark ; and loans are commonly taken because
the farmer knows he can make more than the
interest he will have to pay. Mr. Christopher
Turner, the author of Land Problems and National
Welfare, in a letter to one of the writers, deals with
THE SYSTEM OF LAND TENURE 115
this point. We venture to insert a short extract.
He states : "I cross-examined a good many
Danish farmers about their mortgages. My im-
pression is that they were all making such good
interest on the money they borrowed that their
borrowing was a very good business. In this
country we do not reaUse that there is borrowing
and borrowing ; that if you borrow at 4 per cent,
and make 10 per cent., it is very good business
indeed."
Summarising, the cumulative effect of the suc-
ceeding land laws has been to make Denmark a
land of small and medium properties. One half
of the area is appropriated to farms of between
38 and 150 acres. The total number of farming
properties is 250,000. Of these only 800 have
more than 600 acres ; 1,600 possess between 300
and 600 acres, while 116,000 own less than eight
acres apiece. The Act of 1906 divides properties
into manors, farms and small holdings, and fixes
minima under which the two first must not come.
Politically the country has during the last twenty
years been governed by the owners of medium
properties.
It is, of course, impossible to foreshadow future
developments, but the remarkable growth of co-
operation in Denmark and the splendid machinery
for such purposes which already exists in that
country possess a real significance in the eyes of
those best able to judge. It is hardly Ukely that
H 2
ii6 DENMARK AND THE DANES
the actual system of land tenure will change from
peasant proprietorship to State ownership. But it
is more than probable that a few years mil witness
extended co-operative small ownership, with con-
trolled markets and a poohng system of profits.
This is already the case to a large degree in dairies,
slaughter-houses, and machine-buying societies;
and we believe that the present trend will continue,
uninterrupted by any violent change to any system
of collective or socialistic ownership. Its results,
at any rate, justify such an assumption.
CHAPTER VIIl
A TYPICAL DANISH FARM AND CO-OPERATIVE DAIRY
Absence of Fences — Pegging of Cattle — Farm Buildings —
Diesel Motor — Stables — Overheating of Cow-bj^res
— Scientific Control Association — ^Piggery — ^Mr. Pon-
toppidan's Farm at Aarhus described by Sir H. Rider
Haggard — Poultry Yards — Specimen Rotation —
Manure Tanks — The Co-operative Dairy.
The traveller on approaching a Danish farm,
or when travelling through farming districts, will
be struck by the almost entire absence of fences.
This may be one of the reasons why cattle, and
even sheep, in Denmark are not allowed to wander
freely over the fields, but are pegged down within
certain restricted areas. But the chief reason for
this practice is that it is economical and secures
an even manuring of the field.
The farm which we have selected to describe is
situated near the sea-coast and within four miles
of a country town in Jutland. The house of the
farmer and the buildings together form a square
round an extensive courtyard paved with cobbles.
The buildings are thatched, but the house, built
in the Dutch style, possesses a tiled roof. The
whole farm, outhouses included, is lighted by
electricity, and you can hear the steady throb-
throb of the Diesel oil-engine motor which pro-
duces the current and is used for pumping.
ii8 DENMARK AND THE DANES
threshing, milling, and a number of other purposes
incident to the life and work of the owner.
The stables are lower than is generally the case
in England, and the temperature is considerably
higher. But experience has proved them to be
not unhealthy. The same remarks apply to the
cowhouses. Many foreign agriculturists consider
that in Denmark farm buildings generally, and
cow-byres especially, are kept too warm, and that
the cows thereby run increased risks from tuber-
culosis. Theoretically this may appear to be a
not unreasonable assumption, but actually it will
be found that the risks are guarded against in
other ways, the Scientific Control Association being
particularly keen on securing the healthiest possible
conditions, especially for cows supplying drinking
milk to towns. In other cases, e.g., when the
milk is designed for butter-making, it is taken to
the co-operative dairy, boiled and sterihsed, and
thus the danger of infected milk is obviated.
Most Danish farmers milk their animals three
times a day. The cows generally lie two in a stall,
and over each is placed a specification chart
stating its average yields of milk, the amount
of foodstuffs it consumes daily, the dates of
calving, and a variety of other information
required by the inspectors of the Scientific Control
Association. The milking is mostly done by an
ingenious machine, though, when the animal has
been partially emptied, the operation is concluded
TYPICAL FARM AND DAIRY 119
by hand in order, as it is termed, to " dry " or
" strip " the cow.
Near the cowhouse is a bam of unthreshed grain.
Stacks are only rarely seen in Denmark, corn
and hay being generally kept vmder cover and not
stacked. The piggery is between the bam and the
poultry yard. In another chapter we have related
how pig-farming came to be carried on to such an
extent in Denmark, and how it has been found
possible to make it, perhaps, the most profitable
side of Danish farming considered in relation to
time and outlay. One of the most remarkable
swine farms in the world is that of Mr, Pontoppi-
dan at Aarhus, in Jutland. Sir H. Rider Haggard,
after his visit to Denmark, in 1910, to observe the
general conditions of Danish agriculture, described
this particular farm in terms which showed that it
had impressed him greatly, and we therefore venture
to quote the most interesting portion of his descrip-
tion. He writes : " Mr. Pontoppidan breeds all his
own pigs, which in race are Danish crossed with
Yorkshire. His sows are only allowed to produce
five or six Htters, after which they are fatted up
to a weight of from 400 to 500 lbs. Danish.
Observation has shown him that after five or six
htters the sows both eat and overlie their off-
spring ; also that the pigs bom between the second
and the sixth htters are the strongest and do the
best. His principal feeding-stuff is maize, but he
also uses broken wheat or rye from the EngUsh
120 DENMARK AND THE DANES
and Black Sea mills, 500 lbs. of skim milk daily,
turnips, kohl-rabi, swedes and mangolds. Lastly,
the fatting pigs receive, amongst their other foods,
all the blood from the Aarhus slaughter-houses,
which is pressed into cakes and mixed with salt
and borax. Of these cakes, that are stored in
racks, nearly 1,000 lbs. are used every day. Their
cost is three-eighths of a penny per lb., and they
contain about 35 per cent, of albumen.
" The pig-pens are arranged in a large, round
building, and in all my agricultural experience I
have seldom seen a more remarkable sight than
they afforded. First we went upstairs, where
live the young pigs which are being ' grown on.'
As we appeared among these, hundreds of heads
and forelegs were thrust over the tops of the sties,
and from hundreds of hungry throats rose a chorus
of piercing yells. Indeed, the din was so tremen-
dous that I was glad to escape from the place. On
the ground floor were the pigs whose earthly
career was drawing to an end, many of them being
already marked with the fatal black spot which
indicated that on the morrow they must make their
first and last journey — to the slaughter-house.
" At that date pork was, and,- 1 believe, still is,
fetching a price in Denmark that at present makes
its breeding there a most remunerative business —
no less, indeed, than ^d. per lb. This is paid for
the animal as he walks on the scale, and for that
reason it is customary to feed a pig as heavily as
TYPICAL FARM AND DAIRY 121
possible on the morning of his departure. He is
given an opportunity of satisfying himself with
every dainty before he dies, and as he recks not
of the future, his appetite rises to the occasion.
At s^d. (30 ore) per lb., pork production is fairly
remunerative ; while 3d. (24 ore) per lb. covers all
outgoings and risks. The average cost of a pig
from the hour of its birth to that when it enters
the bacon factory, including an allowance for
labour, rent, and every other expense, is here
reckoned at £2 gs. lo^d. (45 kroner), and the
average price it realises is ;^3 6s. 6d. (60 kroner).
" In another part of the piggery are kept the
great drop-eared boars and the new-littered sows.
Here the piglings are weaned by means of an
ingenious contrivance of wooden bars, behind
which they are confined, only being allowed to the
mother at stated intervals, which grow rarer until
they are sufficiently hardened to be moved up-
stairs."
Since the foundation of the various egg export
corporations the poultry yard has become an
increasingly important and valuable asset to the
Danish farmer, and on the farm which we are
describing fowls, turkeys, and geese take up
almost the sole, undivided attention of two women
and a boy. As the farm is near the sea-shore, the
birds are fed on seaweed, grass and green fodder.
Seaweed is often also used as a manure in the
orchards, being packed tightly round the roots of
122 DENMARK AND THE DANES
fruit trees, and serying the double purpose of
keeping them cool and damp.
The majority of Danish farmers work their land
on a seven-year rotation. In different parts of
the country the actual order of crops, of course,
varies, and it depends largely on the nature and
quality of the soil, but the following, which is the
rotation of our farm in Jutland, may be taken as
a fair specimen : (i) oats sown down with clover,
(2) mixture of oats and vetches, (3) fallow,
(4) barley, (5) wheat and rye, (6) beet, and
(7) oats sown down with clover again.
The inspection of the farm will be concluded by
a glance at the great manure tanks, the importance
of which has been emphasised in another chapter.
On very large farms the capacity of these tanks
varies from 1,500,000 to 4,000,000 lbs. Danish;
on middle farms and on small holdings tanks of a
much more moderate capacity are of course
employed.
About a mile away, across the fields, you can
just catch a gUmpse over the beech trees of the tall
factory chimney of the co-operative dairy. Every
morning the dairy collects the milk from all the
farms in the district. This is weighed on a machine
which registers automatically. The milk is then
filtered, warmed and separated, the skim being run
into a cylinder, reheated, and transferred to a large
tank. After weighing out, three-quarters are
returned to the co-operating members and the
TYPICAL FARM AND DAIRY 123
balance retained by the dairy for manufacture into
cheese.
A visit to a Danish co-operative dairy — such an
one, for example, as the Trifohum at Haslev, the
largest and most wonderful of its kind in the world
— ^provides the most striking evidence of the
immense advance which has been made upon the
simple and Arcadian methods of a quarter of a
century ago. The multitude and variety and
the extraordinary ingenuity of the machines
employed and the order, swiftness of operation,
and scientific precision of the whole work would
astound and bewilder an old-fashioned farmer
from, say, Wiltshire or Dorsetshire. For there is
Uttle of sentiment and nothing of leisure or tradi-
tion about modem Danish farming; it is as
scientific as a chemical reaction.
CHAPTER IX
PURE MILK IN THE LARGE TOWNS
Busck Milk Supply Company of Copenhagen — ^Testing
and Preparation of Milk — Decrease in Infant Mor-
tality — Distribution — Comparison with English
Methods and Prices — ^A Suggestion to Municipalities
— Pasteurisation — Comparison of Food Values of
Milk and Beer— Rapid Cooling and the Hygienic
Milk-pail.
Nearly every large town in Denmark possesses
a company or corporation, partly philanthropic
in its aims, which exists to supply the populace
with pure milk and cream at the cheapest possible
rates. The most remarkable of these concerns is
the celebrated Busck Milk Supply Company of
Copenhagen, which has a capital of about £25,000.
It never distributes more than 5 per cent, in
dividends, although there is Httle doubt that,
were it run as a business concern, it could easily
earn 20 per cent, profit or more. The excess over
and above the 5 per cent., however, is devoted
to improvements and additions to machinery,
equipment, and buildings, and to free distribution
of milk to the poor.
The company provides cream in four different
grades : whole milk, half-skimmed milk, children's
milk in sterilised bottles, and infants' milk
PURE MILK IN THE LARGE TOWNS 125
specially prepared under the most stringent pre-
cautions. No cows are kept, the original supplies
of milk being obtained from selected farms in the
Copenhagen district.
The milk, on arriving at the company's dep6t,
is tested and emptied into small vats, which are
standing near a larger vat, containing a mixture
compoxmded of one part of salt water to two parts
of ice. This mixture is slowly pmnped into lofty
coolers, and the milk is then passed over the coolers
and run into a tank, whence it is driven through a
special sterilised filter made up of gravel and cloth
sheets. From the filter it passes into a large clean
tank, when it is ready for distribution.
The cream, which has been separated by steam-
driven Alfa separators, flows over cyhnders filled
with ice to an ingenious machine which has six long
pipes, through which it passes into sterilised bottles.
Nothing — milk, cream, butter or cheese — ^is ever
touched by the hand, and the extreme care with
which the infants' milk is prepared has undoubtedly
resulted in the saving of thousands of young lives,
and contributed to the notable decrease in the
figures of infant mortality for Copenhagen and the
surrounding districts during the past thirty years.
A very efficient system of distribution has been
devised by the company, and this attracted the
special notice of Sir H. Rider Haggard during his
inspection in 1910. He writes : " AH being
prepared, the milk is distributed in the following
126 DENMARK AND THE DANES
fashion. Two hundred cans, each containing
ICO lbs. Danish, are sent to the hospitals. Some
goes to three shops the company possesses, while
the rest is hawked by means of forty-four vans,
which deUver it from door to door.
"These vans, which I saw, are extraordinarily
well contrived and adapted for this purpose. The
cans of whole and skimmed milk are placed on
either side of the front portion of the vehicle, and
locked up in such a position that the milk can be
drawn through taps which are specially protected
from dust. It cannot be otherwise got at even by
those in charge of the van. Over the taps are
written the quality and price of the milk. In the
rear compartment of the van are trays which
exactly fit the cases that hold the bottles of cream
and of children's and buttermilk, the prices of
which are inscribed over the door. These trays in
summer are covered with a layer of ice.
" To draw its vans the company keeps a stud
of eighty horses, which I saw Ijdng or standing,
on moss Utter, in beautiful stables. Not far from
these stables are the ice-houses, where is stored
the specially collected ice, 3,000 tons of which are
used every year.
" Much might be written about this company,
but perhaps enough has been said to convey some
idea of its remarkable character and the perfection
of its management. It was the first society for
the distribution of pure milk in the world, and I
PURE MILK IN THE LARGE TOWNS 127
believe that even now, although some others
exist in different countries, it remains the most
important. If there is an3;1:hing on the same scale
and organised in quite the same way even in the
vast city of London, the fame of it has not reached
me. I suggest that here there is an opportunity
for enterprising and philanthropic vendors of milk
in all the great towns of our coimtry. Only could
milk and cream thus collected and treated be sold
at similar cheap rates in England ? The charges
made to the householder in London and other
Enghsh cities do not seem to suggest that this would
be the case.
" The London price for new milk is a little under
double the price for the same article in Copenhagen,
whereas the difference in the cost of cream is
enormous. The Copenhagen company charges
IS. 2ld. per litre for its best cream, or, let us say,
IS. 6d. (an outside figure) per quart, as against 4s.
charged by the London dairies. Surely this is a
matter that the corporations of cities might con-
sider in the interests of the health of the popula-
tion, and especially of young children. If a cor-
poration may supply water or electricity why
should it not supply milk ?
" But the matter of municipal trading is one
on which I do not wish to enter. Therefore I
leave this somewhat thorny question with the
remark that those who are alive five-and-twenty
years hence will probably see in every large town
128 DENMARK AND THE DANES
an institution labelled ' The Corporation Pure
Milk Supply Dep6t.' "
Mr. Busck's company, which started business in
1878 on hired premises, now owns 11,300 square
metres of ground, of which 5,600 square metres are
occupied by buildings and plant. Its daily sale
of milk amounts to over 25,000 quarts, and it
employs a staff of 130 men, 140 women, and 230
boys. In cases of illness all the employees, as well
as members of their families, receive gratuitous
medical treatment without any deduction of salary.
All the cows used by the company are examined
by veterinary surgeons twice a month, while cows
supplying infants' or children's milk are tested
every half-year with tuberculin. The animals are
kept on pasture as long as possible. Immediately
after the milking operations have been concluded
the milk is cooled down to 5° Celsius, but no
pasteurisation is permitted, as this is now
generally admitted to be an unnecessary proceed-
ing and fraught, in some instances, with consider-
able risk to the public, as, although it effectively
destroys the bacilli of disease, it, at the same time,
reduces the nutritive properties of untreated milk.
In an article published in MacClure's Magazine
for December, 1908, a contributor very succinctly
stated that " the dairyman who pasteurises good
milk is a fool, and the dairyman who pasteurises
bad milk a rogue. The only excuse for pasteurisa-
tion is that it is the lesser of two evils, and the
PURE MILK IN THE LARGE TOWNS 129
Copenhagen Milk Supply Company has shown the
world that it is unnecessary."
In the well-known American review The Out-
look, Prof. J. E. Pope, commenting on his visit
to Copenhagen in 1906, stated that in his judgment
Copenhagen was the capital where milk is the best
and cheapest. He noted particularly the impor-
tance placed upon the delivery of milk at a very
low temperature in contrast to the common
practice in America and England of delivering it
warm, in which case it deteriorates rapidly.
During the past thirty years the consumption
of milk in Copenhagen has increased by a much
greater ratio than the proportionate increase in
the population would lead one to suppose. At
the present moment the average consumption
equals almost exactly one pint per day per person.
In London and Manchester the allowance is less
than one quarter of this quantity. The abundance
and the cheapness of good milk has undoubtedly
contributed in . no small measure to the extra-
ordinarily rapid growth of the temperance and
alUed movements in Denmark, as it has been
clearly pointed out in the press and the churches,
and the schools, that even ordinary buttermilk
contains from four to five times the food value per
volume of beer. Bavarian beer, for example, con-
tains only one half a pint food value of a quart of
whole milk. A quart of Bavarian beer costs 27 ore
(slightly more than ■i\d.), while a quart of whole
D. I
130 DENMARK AND THE DANES
milk can be purchased in Copenhagen for i6 ore
(about 2d.). From the point of view of cost,
therefore, milk yields better value for money,
while if the relative food values and nutritious
properties are worked out it can be demonstrated
that Bavarian beer, which costs 27 ore, should only
be valued at 4 ore.
One of the most important of the appliances
employed by the Copenhagen Pure Milk Supply
Company is known as the hygienic milk-pail,
the object of which is to collect and store the milk
so efficiently cooled that it will keep long enough
without pasteurising or other similar treatment.
The apparatus consists of a cyUndrical tinned
steel pail, in the bottom of which is placed a pear-
shaped copper receptacle, which is closed by means
of a flat lid under the bottom of the pail. When
the pail is in use the lid is unscrewed, the pail
turned upside down, and the receptacle filled with
a mixture of one part of common salt to three
parts of crushed ice or snow. The cow is milked
straight into this pail, and the milk thus loses
its cow-heat. The micro-organisms are by this
method immediately placed into an environment
which precludes development, while the milk
does not lose any of its nutritive properties.
This rapid cooling process has produced some
very notable results. Dr. Miiller, of Leipsic,
instituted a series of valuable experiments with
Mr. Busck's hygienic pail, of which we will quote
PURE MILK IN THE LARGE TOWNS 131
one only. A certain cow, which yielded 12 quarts
of milk, was milked from the two right teats into
Mr. Busck's pail and from the two left into an
ordinary pail, the specimens being -plsiced side by side
in bottles in a room at a temperature of 1$° Centigrade.
The milk from the ordinary pail became sour and
thick after 82 hours ; that from the hygienic pail
did not become sour until after having been kept
for 144 hours.
In connection with the rapid cooling process
invented by Mr. Busck, it may be noted here that
his company use upwards of 18,000 lbs. of ice
daily, and that the whole of this enormous quan-
tity is produced and crushed on the premises by
a Danish Diesel oil-engine motor.
I 2
CHAPTER X
THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF THE DANISH FARMERS
The Key to the Success of Danish Farming — Education —
Co-operation of Professor and Peasant — ^The Copen-
hagen High School of Agriculture — Fjord and
Segelcke — Early Methods — Danish Cows — Scientific
Control Association — Production of Milk — Export of
Butter — ^Jersey Cows — Use of the Area of Denmark
for Cereals and Vegetables — ^Annual Value of the
Harvesti — Rotation of Crops — Fertilisers — Liquid
Manure — " Lucerne " Grass— Winter Feeding of
Cattle — Farming Machines — Enterprise of the
Young Farmers — ^Irrigation, Moorland Conversion
and Planting — English " Model " Farms — Fanning
for Profit.
The key to the success of Danish farming,
indeed the key to the success of all Danish enter-
prises, may be found ultimately in the question of
education. A century ago the men who were
leading Danish pohcy perceived with admirable
foresight that Denmark could only be great if her
peasants were given a free and liberal education,
and to this end much of the legislation of the last
hundred years has devoted itself. Further, the
professor has given the service of his brain to the
peasant, and the peasant has responded by putting
his work and the strength of his arm behind the
professor's theories. There are many countries
richer a,hd more favourably placed, possessing
SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF FARMERS 133
greater facilities, and scientific men of equal
brilliance. But in no country in the worid is the
co-operation of university and farm so complete,
so loyal, or so free from prejudice as in Denmark.
The headquarters of scientific farming in Den-
mark are at the Copenhagen High School of Agricul-
ture. This institution was founded in 1858, has a
staff of forty professors, and controls experimental
stations in various parts of the country. All the
year round lectures are given, reports received,
experiments made, and assistance afforded to
young farmers who are quaUfying to take up
holdings in the country. The school has branches
devoting themselves separately to (i) agriculture,
(2) veterinary science, (3) woodcraft, (4) gar-
dening, and (5) land surveying. Students from
Norway are admitted into the veterinary science
branch. In addition to the above subj ects, lectures
are given on physics, mineralogy, chemistry,
botany, zoology, soil composition and fertilisation,
farming machinery and its uses, treatment of
domestic animals, pathology of plants, and book-
keeping for farmers. Observational tours are
periodically arranged. The ordinary course at
the school lasts from two and a half to four years.
The fees amount to only ;^5 a year, while there
are several scholarships of from £1.2 to ^^24 per
annum. The principal and professors constitute the
governing body of this very successful institution.
The school has possessed from its inception a
134 DENMARK AND THE DANES
staff of scientific men of the first rank, and it had
the good fortune at the very outset of its career
to win the confidence of the farmers. Mention
has already been made of Profs. Fjord and
Segelcke. The former was the first lecturer in
physics which the school had. He had been a
schoolmaster, but devoting his attention to the
study of bacteria in meat, milk, and other dairy
products, he soon realised the importance of apply-
ing scientific methods to farming matters. He
carefully reviewed the position of Danish farming
from both scientific and economic points of view,
and to him is largely due the credit of conceiving
and inaugurating that splendid machinery of
co-operation which raised Danish farming from
imminent bankruptcy to its present sound and
healthy condition.
Before the time of Fjord and Segelcke the farmers
kept no records or accounts. They worked on no
principles other than those of tradition or personal
prejudice. The dairymaid and the farm hand were
neit^ier watched nor controlled. The presence of
harmful ingredients in milk or butter, if suspected,
was never prevented, while the use of the thermo-
meter was almost unknown. Yet to-day a Danish
farm is a scientific machine as nearly perfect as it
is humanly possible to be, a machine in which the
possibility of error is all but eUminated.
It is out of the question in a book of this scope
to deal fully with this important side of Danish
SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF FARMERS 135
fanning, or even to provide an outline of the many
experiments which have been made in and through
the agricultural institutions of Denmark. The
matter is largely of bacteriological and chemical
interest, and belongs, therefore, rather to a scien-
tific than to a general work. But some brief
indication of the intensely scientific nature of
Danish farming will not be out of place here.
Practically all Danish cows are kept in stables
for the greater portion of their lives. Many of
them indeed are lifelong prisoners. The sheds
are built in a large and airy style, and the atmo-
sphere within them is just as pure as the air over
the fields. For exercise the animals are taken to
be watered once a day. On some farms the cows
are allowed a limited amount of open-air pasturage,
but only in the summer from June to September.
The effect of rain and cold on the yield of milk is
known to a nicety. Those fortunate cattle which
are placed on the fields in the summer are tied to
stakes with a range of but eight yards. When the
stakes are removed and transferred to another
quarter of the meadow, the farmer is careful to
observe that all the clover has been eaten.
An inspector from the Scientific Control Associa-
tion visits the farms once every three weeks. The
assistants who do this work are specially trained
men or women. Each cow is examined, its jdeld
of milk, the percentage of butter fat, the amount
of fodder consumed, are analysed, and the surplus
136 DENMARK AND THE DANES
calculated. It is thus possible for each fanner to
know precisely how each cow pays him and further
to compare his animals with those of his neigh-
bours. As soon as a cow ceases to pay it is fed up
for the butcher.
It has been shown that a Danish cow 3delds, on
an average, 2,617 kilograms of milk, and this figure
is rapidly increasing. In 1899 the average yield
was only 2,100 kilograms. The cows from small
properties give slightly more than those from
the larger estates. The production of milk in
Denmark now exceeds 2,875,000,000 kilograms
annually, representing a value of £16,000,000.
The export of butter in 1911 was 89,500,000 kilo-
grams, giving a value of £10,500,000. Cheese is
not exported to any great extent, as the higher
prices received for butter yield handsome profits.
The Jersey cows, which were originally imported
for their rich fatty milk, have not yet become accus-
tomed to a confined life. They contract much
tuberculosis, and also suffer greatly from a painful
stomach complaint. It is hoped, however, to
acclimatise them after further experiment. This
innovation is being carefully watched by the
cattle-breeding associations.
The following table shows the use of the area of
Denmark for cereals and vegetables : —
Per cent.
Per cent
Wheat .
. i-oo
Barley
. 6-00
Rye
. 7-10
Oats
. 10-40
SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF FARMERS 137
Per cent.
Per cent.
Seeds
4-40
Buckwheat
0-20
Potatoes .
1-40
Spurry .
Q-IO
Carrots .
0'20
Fallow .
5-90
Beetroot .
2-20
Garden produce
O-OI
Kohl-rabi
I 90
Tobacco .
0-002
Turnips .
i-8o
Clover and grass
7'6oo
Sugar beet
070
Clover and grass
Chicory .
0-02
(not for har-
Podding grain .
0-30
vest) .
12-100
The annual value of the harvest is more than
;^35,ooo,ooo, being on an average £5 5s. an acre
for corn-land, £11 13s. an acre for roots, and ^3
an acre for hay. For small holders the cultivation
of roots is found to pay better than anything else,
inasmuch as the labour falls in a more convenient
period of the year.
The crops, as we have already explained, are
rotated, grain with roots. As fertilisers nitro-
genous foods are mostly used. These are pur-
chased either in England or Germany. Chih
saltpetre, superphosphates, and kali, a mineral
product from Salzburg, are extensively employed.
In addition, great use is made of natural manures,
both hquid and solid. A Danish farmer values his
reservoirs of liquid manure as much as his separated
milk. The reservoirs are built of cement, and
are air-tight. The liquid manure is chiefly em-
ployed for potatoes, sugar beets, clover and grass.
A special species of grass known as " lucerne "
r38 DENMARK AND THE DANES
is cultivated. This is grown in field^, outside the
rotation. Hay is cut from it some three or four
times a year. A field of " luceri^j lasts about
three years. The cattle are not**'^^tured on
these fields, as it has been discovered that the grass
grows more luxuriantly when cut. It possesses
pretty yellow and blue flowers, somewhat resem-
bling clover. A peculiar feature about this grass
is that it requires the presence of certain bac-
teria before it will grow. This must be either
bought or taken from another "lucerne" field.
The soil containing the bacteria is termed " pode-
jord." The use of " lucerne " is extending.
In the winter the cattle and pigs are fed upon
the " lucerne " hay and oil-cakes. The latter are
made of seeds from which the oil has been pressed.
The animals seem to like it, but their pleasure is
evident when the spring returns, and supplies of
fresh grass and clover are forthcoming.
For such a small country the Danish farmers
employ an inordinate number of farming machines.
There are in Denmark, in use at the present
moment, more than 32,800 seed-sowing machines ;
44,700 mowing machines ; 27,600 harvesting
machines ; 65,700 threshing machines ; 4,600
wind motors ; and 83,100 reservoirs for liquid
manure. No opportunity is lost of obtaining the
latest farming devices, and the young farmers
particularly show great originahty in overcoming
the difficulties which face them. One instance
SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF FARMERS 139
which came to our notice may be cited. A
small farmer in an outlying and barren district
decided to take over some uncultivated and
apparently hopeless land a great distance from
any water supply. He had a well dug, and a pump
erected with a small Diesel motor, then led the
water over the new estate in lead pipes a little
beneath the surface of the ground. In this manner
he made himself practically independent of the
rain, and in a few years the ground, which had
formerly been quite barren, provided him with an
ample living.
This reclamation work has also been undertaken
in other parts of the country. One hundred years
ago there were in Denmark some 2,200 square
miles of unproductive heath-land ; fifty years later
this area had diminished to 2,100 square miles ;
to-day it is only about 900 square miles. This fine
piece of work has been accomplished mainly by
the Society for Cultivating the Heath, which was
founded in 1866 by Herr Dalgas. Its aim was
national, and from the beginning of its operations
there was no thought of private gain. Its chief
energies are spent in irrigation, regulation of
watercourses, building of roads, conversion of
moorland into meadow-land, construction of drains,
conveyance of marl, and in many cases peat-
making and the planting of suitable districts with
trees. The society receives a subsidy from the
State of £20,000 a year, and maintains nine wood-
140 DENMARK AND THE DANES
rangers and fifteen assistants, who render help
gratis to meadow owners and others desirous of
planting trees on their properties. It also owns
twenty square miles of coniferous trees, and has
supervision over a further 200 square miles,
privately owned. The results of experiments in
the cultivation of bog-land are made known by
means of over 500 demonstration stations.
Enough has now been written to indicate that
farming in Denmark has become an exact science.
It is true that we have in England many model
farms much finer than anything that may be
seen in Denmark, but these are for the most part
owned by wealthy amateurs, to whom expense is
not an important matter. On the other hand, the
Danish farmer cannot afford to farm for show or
pleasure. With him it is a question of profit.
The demand of the young peasants when they come
to the high-schools is " Show us how to make a
farm pay." Accordingly, even the manager of
an agricultural school must run the demonstra-
tion farm attached to the institution as a paying
concern, and not for show purposes. " The best
demonstration of your methods, and the finest
advertisement for your theories," say the young
agriculturists of Denmark, " is to make profits out
of your school farm."
m
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rl
m^i
j>
•>
[Copyright : Vndefwood & Vndenvood.
Flower Market, Copenhagen.
CHAPTER XI
CO-OPERATION
Denmark prior to 1864 — Competition — What the EngUsh
Farmers did — Com Production and " Intensive "
Farming — Increase in Live Stock — Ireland, Australia
and Canada — Horses in Denmark — ^Breeds of Cattle
— Shorthorns and Jerseys — Scientific Control Socie-
ties — ^BuUs — Decrease of Sheep-rearing, and why —
Reason for the Increase in Pig-rearing — Profs.
N. J. Fjord and T. R. Segelcke — The High School of
Agriculture — First Co-operative Dairy — ^The Position
To-day — ^Advantages of Co-operation in Dairying —
Educational Effects — Some Objections — ^Statistics of
Co-operative Dairies — ^Method of Establishing them
— ^The Part played by the Savings Banks — ^Weekly
Settlements — Improvement in the Quahty of Produce
— The English Market Captured — Government Regu-
lations — Tests of the Royal Experimental Laboratory
— Co-operation in the Meat Trade — German Import
Regulations — England prohibits Import of Living
Cattle from the Continent — Slaughter-houses — ^The
Egg Industry — Remarkable Development — The
General Supply Associations — Co-pperative Whole-
sale Societies — Reasons why Co-operation unpopular
in Great Britain — The English Character — A Change
in the System of Land Ownership Required — ^The
Most Convincing Argument.
Until 1864 Denmark was in the main a corn-
producing country. Owing, however, to the grow-
ing export of that commodity from Russia and the
United States, and to the keen competition caused
142 DENMARK AND THE DANES
thereby, it became quite impossible for the Danish
farmers to make corn-growing pay. In similar
circumstances the English farmer had gone to his
landlord and obtained a remission of rent. But
this could not be done in Denmark, the farmers
being their own landlords, and they were therefore
reduced to the necessity of either vacating their
properties or devising some new method of
managing them which would yield a greater profit.
In these adverse circumstances we find the origin
of co-operative and scientific farming in Denmark
and the cause of the complete reversal that has
taken place from com production, where the farmer
only takes the absolute yield of the ground, to
intensive farming, where everything that can be'
profitably employed is used, the land and its
products are nursed and studied, nothing is wasted,
and nothing is ornamental. The result has been
an immense increase in live stock, in cattle, pigs,
and poultry, and a consequent increase in the
production of butter and the output of eggs.
Indeed, so pronounced is this change that we find
that, with the exception of the thinly populated
countries of Ireland, Australia and Canada, Den-
mark possesses in proportion to its population
more live stock than any other country in the
world.
There are about 535,000 horses in Denmark.
The Jutland breed predominates. It is a rather
heavy type, exceedingly strong and eminently
CO-OPERATION 143
suitable for rough farm work. About 20,000 of
these animals are exported every year to Germany,
under a customs duty of seventy-two marks each.
A lighter type of horse is the Frederiksborg breed,
also a strong and useful animal. Of recent years,
in addition to breeding horses, the Danes have
found it necessary to import them. From 10,000
to 20,000 now enter the country annually, mostly
small animals from Russia, Sweden and Iceland.
The imported horses are chiefly employed on the
small holdings.
The Danish farmers possess some 2,257,000
cattle. Again we find two predominant breeds,
the Red Danish and the Jutland, the former being
a pure milk cow and the latter being used both for
milking and for meat. Some short-horned cows
are imported for meat only, and numbers of
Jerseys for their rich, fatty milk. The Scientific
Control Societies periodically inspect the farms,
and discover by an analysis of the amount of food
consumed by each cow, together with its 5aeld of
milk, whether or no it is paying its owner to main-
tain it. Immediately the point is reached at which
it no longer provides a stipulated margin of profit
the cow is slaughtered. In this manner the
average life of a cow in Denmark has greatly
diminished since the establishment of the controls,
and to-day it is much less than in other countries,
where animals are often maintained long after the
profit stage has been passed. With regard to
144 DENMARK AND THE DANES
bulls, many of these are only retained for one or
two years, carefully fattened, and then sold to
Germany as meat. The covering bulls for breeding
purposes are specially selected, and are usually
owned by societies.
There are now only 726,000 sheep in Denmark,
and this number is continually decreasing, owing to
insufficiency of pasturage and the better profits
which can be made by dairy farming.
On the other hand, the number of pigs has
rapidly increased. There are now over 1,467,000
of these animals, as against 304,000 fifty years ago.
Even then these figures do not show adequately
the immense and growing profit yielded by this
side of dairy farming, for whereas formerly the
average life of a pig was from eighteen months to
two years, now it is killed when six or seven months
old. The weight fixed by the slaughter-houses is
from 80 to 100 kilograms. Such a weight is
usually attained in Jutland in six or seven months ;
in other parts of the country, in seven or eight
months. Of late years there has been a tendency
to keep fewer but superior boars.
The growth of pig-rearing was coincident with
the development of dairy farming, and was largely
caused by the great quantities of skimmed milk
left over after the butter-making. The co-opera-
tive dairies send this back to the farmers, and, true
to the new principle of using everything that can
be profitably employed, they considered it better
CO-OPERATION 145
to rear pigs on buttermilk than to waste a product
of such obvious utility.
Much of the success of Danish fanning can be
directly traced to two scientists, N. J. Fjord and
T. R. Segelcke, both professors at the High School
of Agriculture. These gentlemen in the seventies
directed their energies towards farm work and
agrarian questions in general, though more particu-
larly in the direction of devising methods for
increasing the production of milk and the manu-
facture of pure butter.
One important feature of their earlier work was
the instruction of the peasants in modem and
scientific methods, and proving to them the value
of co-operation. As a result the first co-operative
dairy was opened in Jutland in 1882, to be followed
in but a few years by himdreds of others. To-day
there are 1,200 co-operative dairies, owning more
than 1,000,000 cows, or 81 per cent, of the cows in
Denmark. There are only some 222,000 cows
which are not co-operatively owned.
The chief points in this system are : (i) the
small farmer obtains the benefits which inevitably
follow great production ; (2) he has a regular
weekly settlement from the dairy to which he sells
his milk, and therefore contracts no bad debts,
and is furthermore not compelled to be a merchant
as well as a farmer ; (3) he has a strong and direct
inducement to produce as much milk as possible ;
(4) he receives a share in the profits of distribution,
D K
146 DENMARK AND THE DANES
being part owner of the factory which kills and
disposes of his meat or of the dairy which purchases
and sells his nndlk or makes it into butter ; (5) from
the point of view of the consumer, the middlemen's
profits— often amounting to as much as 120 per
cent, on dairy produce — are saved ; and (6) the
system has been found to be valuable from an
educational standpoint.
One keen observer, who has especially noted
this last point, declares that among " the indirect
but equally tangible results of co-operation I
should be inclined to put the development of mind
and character among those by whom it is practised.
The peasant or little farmer who is a member of
one or more of these societies, who helps to build
up their success and enjoys their benefits, acquires
a new outlook. His moral horizon enlarges itself ;
the jealousies and suspicions which are in most
countries so common among those who live by the
land fall from him. Feeling that he has a voice in
the direction of great affairs, he acquires an added
value and a healthy importance in his own eyes.
He knows also that in his degree and according to
his output he is on an equal footing with the
largest producer and proportionately is doing as
well. There is no longer any fear that because he
is a little man he will be browbeaten or forced
to accept a worse price for what be has to
sell than does his rich and powerful neighbour.
The skilled minds which direct his business work
CO-OPERATION 147
as zealously for him as for that important
neighbour.
"Again, being relieved from all the worry and risk
of marketing and sure that whatever he buys from
his society, be it seeds, or foodstuffs, or implements,
is the best obtainable at the lowest rate compatible
with good quality, he is free to devote himself
altogether to the actual business of his life. Also
in any great doubt or difficulty he can rely on the
expert advice of his control society ; all the science
of the country is in fact at the disposal of the hmn-
blest worker of its acres. The farmer who, stand-
ing alone, can be broken across the knee of tyranny,
extortion, or competition, if bound up with a
hundred others by the bond of a common interest
is able to mock them all."
Doubts have sometimes been expressed as to
whether the method of co-operation will pay in the
long run. The chief arguments urged against it
are that the farmers often work for the greatest
gross result, feeding their cows on the most expen-
sive artificial foods, a practice which is certainly
successful now, but which in time might conceiv-
ably end in a serious deterioration of the animals.
Moreover, the day labourer, who in former times
had been accustomed to receive milk from his
employer either free or at greatly reduced prices,
now finds that on many farms this bounty has been
withdrawn in the great race after quick profits.
To guard against the misuse of the co-operative
K2
148 DENMARK AND THE DANES
system, and to avoid the grosser follies of ignorance,
Scientific Control Associations have been formed,
which send inspectors round the farms to inquire
into their management. The work of these con-
trols is spoken of in greater detail in another
chapter. They receive support from the Govern-
ment to an amount of some £7,000 annually.
Each co-operative dairy has on an average 164
members with 963 cows, and possesses buildings
and plant worth about £i,Soo. The customary
manner of establishing such a dairy is for a certain
number of farmers in a locality to combine, borrow-
ing the necessary capital from a Savings Bank, each
farmer giving a guarantee in proportion to the
number of cows he possesses. It is required by
statute that the loan shall be repaid in ten or fifteen
years, when the dairy must take up a new loan of
the same amount as the first. This new advance
is then distributed among the members in propor-
tion to the quantities of milk they have sold to the
dairy during the period of the previous loan. In
this manner a loan is taken up every ten or fifteen
years, and the Savings Banks are thus directly
interested in the development of the dairies.
Weekly settlements are inaugurated whereby
each member receives about 75 per cent, of the
value of the milk he has sold, the remaining 25 per
cent, being retained by the dairy and, after deduc-
tion of working expenses, handed over to the
members twice a year.
CO-OPERATION 149
Not long after the establishment of the first
co-operative dairy it became apparent that a great
improvement had been effected in the quaUty of
butter produced, and within a few years Danish
butter had been acknowledged by the critical
English public as the finest product in the market.
The export steadily increased, especially to Eng-
land, and the price commanded was invariably
higher than that obtained by other butters. If
complaints were received from English importers
or dealers, they were carefully examined, and the
error was at once remedied, with the result that
to-day the butter from Danish co-operative dairies
possesses an unrivalled reputation and an assured
market.
The Government regulations provide that butter
for export shall not contain more than 16 per cent,
of water, and that no other ingredient than salt
shall be used as a preservative. There are several
annual exhibitions of butter held under the patro-
nage and with the financial support of the State,
But the most important tests are those arranged
by the Royal Experimental Laboratory, whose
board periodically selects for trial purposes a
certain number of dairies, which are forthwith
requested by telegraph to submit a given number
of samples immediately. The results of these tests
are pubUshed at intervals, and they go to show
that the outcome of the establishment of these co-
operative dairies and scientific controls has been
150 DENMARK AND THE DANES
not only to raise the quality of butter, but, in
addition, to increase the number of cows and also
the average annual yield of milk from each cow.
The co-operative system has also been adopted in
the meat trade. Cows' flesh is exported in con-
siderable quantities, chiefly to Germany. For-
merly the Uving animals were exported, but in
1897 the German import regulations were made so
much more strict that it became virtually possible
to send there only slaughtered cattle. A slight
relaxation has, however, taken place in recent
years, and numbers of hving cows from Denmark
are now sold to the German pubHc slaughter-
houses, after having been carefully examined for
signs of tuberculosis, and detained for ten days in
quarantine. The reason why Denmark has no
market for her meat in England is that in 1892
England prohibited the import of living cattle
from the Continent, and the prohibition remains
in force. As the profit from selling living cloven-
footed animals is greater than when selling meat,
the Danes naturally prefer to send this produce to
Germany.
In 1911 the export of living cattle and meat |rom
Denmark had a value exceeding ^13,000,000, of
which by far the most important part consisted
of pork, the value of this section alone being
£6,500,000.
The first co-operative slaughter-house was
opened in 1887 ; seven others followed in 1888,
CO-OPERATION 151
and now there are thirty-six of these institutions.
The members are compelled to sell their meat there,
even if they could obtain better prices elsewhere.
In addition to these co-operative slaughter-houses,
there are twenty-two private slaughter-houses in
Denmark. The animals are paid for according to
their weight when killed. There are not so many
members of co-operative slaughteries as of co-
operative dairies, largely because membership is
not required as a condition of sale, yet limits the
sale to the co-operative institution. The prices
obtained axe, however, usually so good that the
Danish farmer finds it more profitable to become
a member than to remain outside. The owners of
64 per cent, of the pigs in Denmark, for example,
have joined this movement.
The great industry in eggs is also managed
now on a basis of co-operation, although it was
the last of the staple industries of Denmark to
come under this beneficial influence. The largest
society for the export of eggs is the Danish Egg
Export Corporation, which has 48,000 members
and 500 branches. The eggs are carefully tested
and selected. The society fines very heavily
members detected in knowingly or carelessly
selhng bad eggs. There can be httle doubt that
the co-operative movement has been of incal-
culable benefit to this industry, and has been the
direct means of raising it to its present high level
of excellence. In 1864 the export of eggs was
152 DENMARK AND THE DANES
800,000. To-day it exceeds 430,000,000. The
total number of hens in Denmark is 12,000,000,
representing a value of more than £1,500,000.
Any account of the co-operative undertakings of
the Danish farmers must include the General
Supply Associations, which differ very much from
the institutions known by this name in England.
They have been founded by the farmers them-
selves, and number about 1,400, with a total
membership of over 200,000. They exist mostly
in the country districts, away from the large towns.
The prices charged are generally the same as those
of the private tradesman, but at the end of every
year the surplus is divided in cash among the
members of the association. The total sales made
by these societies are upwards of £4,000,000 yearly.
A third of the stores sell to outsiders as well as
to members, and are then obliged to obtain a
business licence. Those associations which only
deal with their members are exempt from this
licence. It is found that one-sixth of the stores
deal for cash only ; one-sixth give credit ; while
the remainder allow their managers to grant
credit at their own risk. Almost all the associa-
tions are themselves members of a Co-operative
Wholesale Society, which has an annual sale of
about £2,500,000, and manages factories for
tobacco, chocolate, soap, and other important
articles of general consumption.
A few years ago the farmers formed associations
CO-OPERATION 153
for buying feeding-stuffs, the most powerful of
which is the Co-operative Feeding-stuff Society of
Jutland. This society has a membership of 30,000
and an annual sale of £1,000,000. On the same
principle the co-operative dairies have recently
combined with a view to the purchase in England
of their coal, dairying machines, and appliances.
Finally, mention may be made of an English
Co-operative Wholesale Society which has agents
in Denmark for the purchase of butter, and is
the owner of a slaughter-house for pigs.
It has often been wondered why, with the strik-
ing successes of the Danes before them, English
farmers have so consistently fought shy of adopt-
ing co-operative methods. The reasons probably
are that the English farmer finds little or no
difficulty in securing a good market for his whole
milk, and therefore has no special incentive to go
in seriously for butter-making. Danish farmers,
however, when criticising our methods, attribute
this sh5mess to the character of the EngHsh land
system. They declare that ' ' tenant farmers will not
co-operate because, co-operative accounts being
open to inspection, they fear that their landlords
might raise the rents if it were found that they
were prospering. Only owners of land will co-
operate."
But we imagine that Sir H. Rider Haggard has
discovered the real reason why co-operative farm-
ing and dairying are so unpopular in England.
154 DENMARK AND THE DANES
He writes : " It is common knowledge that at
present co-operation does not flourish in Great
Britain. Speakmg generally, notwithstanding the
blandishments of the Agricultural Organisation
Society, which now receives a small subsidy from
the State, and much individual effort and exhor-
tation, the British tenant farmer consistently
declines to co-operate.
" In support of this view I wiU quote a few sen-
tences from the yearly Bulletin of the Interna-
tional Institute of Agriculture. In a monograph
on Great Britain and Ireland, under the section
headed ' The Sale of Produce ' it says : — ' We
find that in Great Britain co-operation for the
sale of produce is still in its infancy.' Again,
in another place it says : ' The co-operative
creamery at which butter is made is almost
unknown in England.' Finally, under the section
headed ' Agricultural Credit ' it says : ' Agri-
cultural credit has made but little progress in
England and Wales, and no credit societies have
as yet been formed in Scotland. The number of
credit societies is increasiflg ^lowly in England,
but the aggregate business ;is Still 'vety trifling.'
" When we consider the Dalfish figures for co-
operative undertakings, those for Great Britain
are by comparison practically neghgible. Various
reasons for this unhappy state of affairs are
suggested in the Bulletin. Thus, with reference
to the sale of produce in Great Britain, it says :
CO-OPERATION 155
' The markets are close at hand, and there is
usually a considerable choice, not only of markets
to which to send produce, but of methods of dis-
patching it. These facts make it very difficult to
induce the farmers to take concerted action.'
" But the thing goes deeper, indeed to the bed-
rock of the British nature. Most farmers in this
country do not co-operate simply because they
will not. Co-operation is against their traditions,
their ideas, and, above all, their prejudices. In
any given village three of them will send three
carts to the station, each carrying one chum of
milk, when one cart could carry all three, rather
than arrange together that two-thirds of this daily
expense and labour should be saved. Any observer
may see the process in operation.
" So it is with everjrthing, and so, I beUeve, it
will remain, unless in the future some great change
should come over our system of land ownership.
This of course has happened, or is happening, in
Ireland, with the result that there co-operation is
beginning to jBourish."
- One of the mosf cdn\^ncing arguments in favour
of co-operative science remains to be stated. In
the eighties — ^ba^re the days of co-operative under-
takings — ^the produce of the farms of the peasants
only conmianded a price of from 60 to 70 per cent,
of that obtained by the produce from the great and
wealthy farms. To-day the peasant farmers carry
off an overwhelming preponderance of prizes and
156 DENMARK AND THE DANES
medals, while the co-operative butter, which for
the most part comes from the middle and small
farms, fetches a price equal to, and sometimes
greater than, that of the first-class butter made on
the big farms.
Within the last few months the co-operative
movement in Denmark has broken new ground.
A Co-operative Bank, promoted and largely man-
aged by the great co-operative societies, has been
founded. Its cUents will be found principally
among the agricultural classes. Last year a co-
operative cement manufactory began operations,
which have so far been imsuccessful ; this com-
parative failure may be accounted for by the fact
that the factory's chief supporter has been the
General Union of Danish Supply Associations,
an undertaking which was bound by contract to
obtain all its suppUes of cement during a certain
period from the older factories. It has now been
mulcted in damages to the extent of nearly
^^200,000 for breaking the terms of this contract ;
and this fact will naturally have its effect upon
the corporation which largely depended upon its
support.
PART IV
CULTURE
CHAPTER XII
EDUCATION
emocratic System — The Act of 1814 — ^The System as
it is at Present — Teachers — The Control of Elemen-
tary Schools — Fines for Non-attendance — ^The Ele-
mentary Curriculum — The County General Fund
— ^The Cost of Elementary Schools — Examinations —
Secondary Education — The Danish libraries — Re-
quirements for State Officials — ^The University of
Copenhagen.
'he Danish educational system is completely
locratic. From the elementary schools {Folke-
ler), through the secondary schools {Mellem-
ler) and the gymnasia, to the University, there
Ji admirable grading, arranged so as to afford
ry intelligent student an opportunity of making
areer for himself.
ittendance in the elementary schools has been
ipulsory from 1739. But it was the remark-
; Education Act of 1814 which really sent
imark to the front in this matter, a position
ch she has maintained for nearly a hundred
rs, and still maintains. Indeed, it may be
ily said that the Danes as a race receive the
st general education in Europe. One only has
■ravel in the country districts and to remark
intelligence of the peasantry to be convinced
his fact.
i6o DENMARK AND THE DANES
The Act of 1814 has of course been modifi
and extended, principally by further Acts pass
in 1899 and 1908 respectively. These latl
measures provide a body of regulations and
mass of safeguards only interesting to the educ
tionalist. It will be sufficient for the purpos
of the present work to summarise the system as
now exists.
Teachers in elementary schools receive ;
excellent training extended over a period of thi
years, during which time special attempts are ma
to discover and develop any unique powers whi
the candidates may possess. Four-sevenths
the teachers in Denmark are men, and the i
mainder women. The general supervision of e
mentary schools is still largely in the hands of t
Church, in the person of its bishops and deai
who act in co-operation with school committ(
elected by the municipalities or parish counci
The chairman of such a committee is invariat
a clergyman.
All elementary education is free, materia
books, and accessories used in the schools bei
provided. Attendance is compulsory from t
beginning of the first term after which the ch
reaches the age of seven years, up to the cl(
of the term during which it attains fourte
years. Non-attendance without an appro\
reason is fined at the rate of i^d. per day for 1
first thirty days, 3^d. per day for the ensui
EDUCATION i6i
irty days, 'jd. per day for the third period of
irty days, and is, zd. per day afterwards,
atistics show that on an average the children in
wns miss one day in the year without reasonable
cuse, children in the country two days per
mum. The maximum number of pupils for an
;mentary school class is fixed at thirty^five.
The principal subjects taken are Danish history,
nguage and Uterature (seven hours per week
)ligatory), religious instruction, arithmetic, hand-
riting, geography, ' singing and drawing. In
Idition, special subjects for boys are gymnastics
id handicrafts, for girls g3nnnastics and domes-
c economy. Further optional subjects for boys
■e mathematics, physics and modern languages,
id these subjects can be taken by girls if specially
jsired. It will be granted that the curriculum
somewhat wider than in EngUsh elementary
;hools.
In the towns, the schools must open for forty-one
eeks in the year, with an average number of
3urs per week of twenty-one, exclusive of gym-
istics, drawing, handicrafts and optional subjects.
1 the country, schools must also open for forty-
le weeks, but the minimum number of hours is
jduced to eighteen weekly, in view of the longer
istances which many of the children are com-
elled to travel.
Each county {amf) possesses a general fund for
le following purposes : {a) providing school
D L
i62 DENMARK AND THE DANES
teachers of long service with bonuses, (6) pay-
ment of pensions, and (c) affording assistance to
schools in particularly poor (Mstricts. The general
cost of all elementary schools in Denmark is borne
as to one-half by the State, and as to the other
half by the municipality or parish. Salaries for
men teachers commence at £83 per annum in the
towns, and increase to ;£i65 per annum ; for women
teachers they begin at ^py, and rise to £110. In
the country the salaries work out at a somewhat
less figure, but free houses and gardens are gene-
rally provided, and there are often extra emolu-
ments for services rendered in connection with the
local churches.
The town schools contain either six or seven
classes, and are so arranged that a normal pupil
will pass through one class in each year. The
senior classes usually meet from 8 o'clock in the
morning, the junior classes from one o'clock in the
afternoon to 4 or 5 o'clock. The average number
of pupils in a town school is 1,500.
Before proceeding from one class to a higher it is
necessary to pass the annual examination on the
year's work. This is conducted by the school
authorities, is mostly oral, and is customarily
attended by the parents and friends of the pupils.
Such are the main features of elementary educa-
tion in Denmark. The system seems to have been
intelUgently conceived, and it is certainly intelli-
gently applied. It has produced some notable
EDUCATION 163
ults, and the Danes have every reason to feel
md of it. " In England you find factories,
Germany barracks, and in Denmark schools."
at is a Danish saying, and it expresses admirably
; enthusiasm for education which the Danes
asess.
Examined by the same standards, the Danish
item of secondary education also takes a high
ice among European systems, but it is really on
; soundness, wideness and thoroughness of her
mentary education that Denmark must in the
in be judged. The secondary institutions of
nmark consist of the popular high-schools, the
ihnical and polytechnical schools, the evening
itinuation centres, and the ntunerous affiliated
iding and lecture unions. Speaking generally,
find that the elementary schools, being so much
ier in their scope than in England and including
much of what we shotdd term secondary work,
i^e somewhat encroached upon the sphere of the
ondary institutions, with the result that the
ter do not fill quite the same place that similar
titutions do in England. The curriculum of
nish secondary schools embraces literature,
guages, handicrafts, and commercial and scien-
c subjects.
Merence might here be made to the Danish
•aries. Although these are for the most part
ill, they consist of well-chosen volumes, and
much used for study purposes. There are
L 2
i64 DENMARK AND THE DANES
700 proviiicial libraries, with an average number of
500 volumes each. Most of the schools possess a
separate library. The libraries in the larger
towns contain from 2,000 to 10,000 volumes.
The three most important collections of books in
the country are the Royal Library in Copenhagen,
mth 750,000 volumes ; the Copenhagen Univer-
sity Library, with 400,000 volumes ; and the State
Library in Aarhus, with 250,000 volumes. From
the State Library as well as from that of the High-
school of Agriculture, technical works are sent
on apphcation to all parts of the country.
State ofi&cials at the post and railway ofl&ces in
Denmark are required to pass the prelimincer
examination, usually before or at the age of sixteen
years. An excellent all-round education is neces-
sary to successfully negotiate this test.
Those students who desire to proceed to the
University must enter a classical school, first
taking the final examination of the secondary
school {Mellemskole). Those who do this then
remain at the classical school until the age of
eighteen years, when they may sit for the studenter
examination, which gives entrance to the Uni-
versity. This examination is taken in one of three
ways : (a) history and classical languages, with
either English or German as an additional subject ;
(6) modem languages, with Latin as an additional
subject ; {c) mathematics and physics, with one
modem language.
EDUCATION 165
The University of Copenhagen is one of the
lest in Europe. It was founded in 1478, under
bull issued by Pope Sixtus IV. on Jtine 19th,
75, and has numbered many distinguished
tiolars among its professors. There are now
out one hundred professors and tutors on its
iff. It has six faculties, and is managed by a
nsistory composed of professors chosen by
iction, and serving by right of seniority. All
rtures are free to the pubUc generally with the
caption of a few referring to purely professional
bjects. The head of the University is styled
ictor Magnificus.
All undergraduates are required to take an
lamination in the principles of philosophy within
year of entrance. This demands httle reading
om the student, and is not taken seriously.
Degrees may be taken in theology, law, econo-
ics, medicine, natural science, physics, and litera-
re. The faculty of theology is entered by
mparatively few students, owing to the uncer-
in economic position of clergj^nen in Denmark,
le salaries paid to vicars and curates of the State
lurch are small and quite inadequate. There are
loluments which depend usually upon some such
:traneous event as the value of the com harvest.
Eten an incumbent is under an obligation to
ly a pension to the widow of his predecessor in
e Hving. In these circumstances it is hardly
be wondered at that there is a grave shortage
i66 DENMARK AND THE DANES
in the number of men offering themselves f(
Holy Orders. Efforts are being made to me<
this state of affairs by placing clerg3mien in
somewhat sounder economic position. The degR
in theology demands five and a half years' readinj
and carries with it the licence to preach.
Law is the favourite faculty. The degree i
taken not only by those desiring to becom
solicitors and barristers, but often also by men wh
enter a commercial hfe. It is divided into tw
parts, the first including maiiJy theoretics
subjects, e.g., the history of law, Roman la\i
and the fundamental principles of economics
the second part is practical, embracing commer
cial, general, criminal, and international law
The average time for the degree is five and a hal
years.
Economics is not a popular faculty, owing to tb
fact that it is found to be not so useful as law ii
obtaining positions after leaving the University
There is, however, a growing demand in Danisl
banks and insurance companies for men who hav(
taken this degree, and the nmnbers entering th(
faculty have consequently shown a decided ten
dency to increase in the past five years. The tinw
taken, as in theology and law, is five and a hal
3i^ars.
The degree in medicine caimot be obtained ir
less than six and a half years. The reading wbrl
occupies about five years, and this is followed bj
EDUCATION 167
)m fourteen to sixteen months as a volunteer in
hospital, generally the National Hospital in
ipenhagen. Ladies are admitted to this faculty,
to all others, with the sole exception of theology,
jnmark has produced many remarkable physi-
ms and surgeons, a result contributed to in
> small measure by the high level of excellence
aintained in the University faculty of medicine.
is noteworthy also that Danish nurses are
cepted in all the principal hospitals in Europe
id America, which is in itself a tribute to
.e thoroughly practical training which they
ceive.
The other faculties are organised on much the
me lines as those we have mentioned. With the
:ception of the men reading law, the under-
aduates follow the lectures with a keenness which
ould both surprise and gratify the authorities of
1 Enghsh university. With regard to law, it is
)t necessary to be so assiduous in attendance at
ctures, as there are so many excellent law-books
Danish, and such a plethora of really brilliant
>aches. Indeed, it is often the case that a law
udent is never seen at the University until the
ly on which he takes his degree.
Scholarships are numerous but small. Colleges,
icording to the English conception of that word,
e non-existent. There are, however, several
)stels where scholarship men live free, the
eatest of which is the Regensen, built two
i68 DENMARK AND THE DANES
hundred and eighty years ago, and affording
accommodation for about one hundred students.
The examinations for degrees are mainly oral,
and the fees on being admitted are quite nominal.
After taking the degree a graduate is styled Candi-
date (Bachelor). To be admitted into the facuI1;y
as a Doktor it is necessary to prepare an original
thesis, and apply to the University for permission
to dispute. The public are admitted to the dis-
putation. The thesis is first attacked by two
experts nominated by the University, and must
then be defended by its author.
CHAPTER XIII
THE POPULAR HIGH-SCHOOLS
bristian Flor — Statistics relating to the High-schools —
Their Object — Life in a High-school — ^The Curriculum
— Superstitions.
The popular high-schools are institutions which
ere originally pecuhar to Denmark, although in
jcent years they have also been successfully
jtablished in Norway, Sweden, and more especially
1 Finland. The first high-school was fotmded in
S44 at Rodding, in Sleswick, by Christian Flor.
Them Sleswick became a German province the
:hool was removed to Askov, near the Dano-
■erman frontier. Many other similar schools
Drang into existence about this time. After the
ar of 1864 a period of stagnation set in, and no
irther development ensued until about twenty
ears ago. During this dormant period the con-
itions of the peasantry were enormously improved,
id recent years have witnessed a notable revival
I the importance of these institutions.
There are now eighty of them in Denmark, with
714 pupils, 3,610 of whom are men, and 3,104
omen. Five thousand six hundred of the pupils
•e betv^^een the ages of eighteen and twenty-five,
ifty-four per cent, of them are the children of
170 DENMARK AND THE DANES
farmers, 21 per cent, the children of small holders,
3 per cent, the children of labourers, and 10 per
cent, the children of skilled hand-workers. One-
third of the pupils are supported by the State,
although it is a cardinal principle that the help
which a pupil receives from the Treasury shall not
be sufficient to cover all his expenses at the school.
Some sacrifice on his part is expected, in order
that he may prove his earnestness and genuine
desire to profit by the instruction given in the
institution. On the other hand, care is taJcen not
to exclude a poor applicant merely on the ground
of his poverty. The inclusive fees amount to about
two guineas a month. The total cost to the State
is £25,000 yearly.
The aim of these schools is not so much to teach
exact knowledge as to develop minds too long
accustomed to move in one narrow groove, to
suggest subjects of thought, to open up wider
vistas, to set free the trammelled imagination of a
peasantry inevitably bound to the soil, as a camel
is bound to the eternal pilgrimages of the desert.
Lectures, singing, conversation, physical exercises,
history, folk-lore, make up the characteristic
features of these highly original foundations.
Below is given an account of hfe in a high-school
by a young woman who spent more than a year in
one of the largest of them. The translation is
included in this book because it shows something
of the motive power behind the schools, and gives
THE POPULAR HIGH-SCHOOLS 171
vivid idea of the manner in which their success
Ls been achieved. No attempt has been made to
ter the coloured style of the narrative, as it was
It that the document as it stands would be a
ore valuable testimony to the usefulness of the
stitution about which it treats.
" The best time in which to visit a popular high-
hool is on an ordinary week-day. Educa-
onaUsts and friends genuinely interested in the
.eas behind, and the work done in, these schools
lay always obtain accommodation in the home of
le principal for a stay of several days.
" The curriculum of all the schools is roughly
le same. The men students are instructed in
,nd-surveying and book-keeping during such time
5 the women students are taking needlework,
otherwise the subjects are the same for both men
ttd women.
" A summer day in the life of a high-school girl
ill begin at half-past seven in the morning, when
le sonorous bell rings for a breakfast consisting of
ills and butter with fresh, steaming coffee. When
ley assemble in the large, central dining hall, the
iris are still a little heavy with sleep, but as the
leal proceeds the subdued conversation gradually
ives place to a noisy chattering. After morning
jffee a short prayer is read in the principal's
rawing-room, the pupils standing silently in little
roups. This is followed by a psalm, and then an
djoumment is made to the large lecture-hall.
172 DENMARK AND THE DANES
where the proceedings are opened with the singing
of a national sokig.
" Then the principal ascends the tribune, a
raised dais somewhat in the style of a church pulpit.
Perhaps he will speak of one of the national heroes,
a statesman, scholar, king or poet ; or he may
choose as the subject of his lecture some important
period of Danish history. We will imagine that
he is speaking of BUcher, the moorland poet. He
relates the sad history of that lonely and tragic
figure, pointing out the peculiar intensity and grip
of his poems, and concluding with the story of the
splendid struggle he made fpr the right of free
speech in Denmark and his great share in the
Danish people's fight for a hberal education.
During the lecture a perfect silence has been main-
tained in the hall. The girls have lived for an hour
out on the Jutland wastes with BUcher. The
method of teaching is open to impeachment. It
may be inaccurate, it is often imaginative, aiid
it is certainly unscientific. But it fulfils its pur-
pose.
" After the lecture clothes are changed, and in a
few minutes the girls assemble in the gymnasium
for drill and exercises. We Danes are keen
gymnasts, and nearly all Danish girls are able to
pride themselves on the possession of fine figures.
The exercises are designed to furnish already strong
young bodies with grace and elasticity, to create
harmony between body and soul. The girls sing
THE POPULAR HIGH-SCHOOLS 173
id shout much during this hour, and the over-
ladowing spirit is one of gaiety. We do not go
irough our work with the same grim seriousness
hich we have heard is for the most part to be
)und in an EngUsh g5nnnasitun. A refreshing
lower-bath is taken at the end of the hour.
" Then follows a travel lectme. A knowledge of
eography is obtained by descriptions and pictures,
here are no text-books. The pupil is not required
D learn an5^hing by heart. The lecturer speaks
imply about na±ure, and the life of the people in
arious lands. He climbs the mountains, crosses
be seas in quest of peril and adventure, lands in
trange ports, sunburnt lands. Southern islands,
lighty gorges, great plains and forests. He speaks
f the sonorous hfe of cities and the sombre, starlit
ilences of the waste places of the earth.
" At the close of this hour a period of recreation
3 insisted upon, during which it is strictly pro-
libited to remain in the class-room. Some of the
;irls take a short walk ; others play tennis on the
chool courts.
" Dinner is served at midday. The food is not
uxiuious, but it is wholesome and well prepared.
The tables are adorned with freshly gathered
lowers and small Danish flags. The principal and
lis wife each preside over a table, while the re-
nainder of the staff are spread among the pupils.
" A free hour follows dinner. This is utilised for
he reading of newspapers, writing of letters.
174 DENMARK AND THE DANES
changing of library books, and consultations with
the principal.
" At half -past one the girls commence needle-
work. In fine weather this is done in the garden,
or the fields near the school. One of the teachers
usually reads aloud from a book as the girls are
working. Instruction is given both in ordinary
practical sewing and in art-sewing, embroidery,
etc. Special care is taken to develop good taste
and a sense of harmonies and colour. The needle-
work ends with a song, perhaps of Blicher's, and
then smorrebrod is taken, that characteristic
Scandinavian meal.
" The historical lecture, generally given by the
principal, is regarded as the most important feature
of the day. The same method is followed asin the
other subjects, namely, vivid descriptions, pictures,
questions, conversation. Perhaps the principal
speaks of the long struggle Ijetween Greeks and
Persians, between culture and barbarism. He
shows how culture was kept alive during the dark
ages, and in the time of Alexander the Great spread
from frontier to frontier of the then-known worid,
preparing the groimd for the subsequent propaga-
tion of Christianity,
" This lecture finished, a hymn is sung, and the
work for the day is ended.
" The girls now have tea, and discuss the manner
of spending the evening. Customarily a walk is
taken into the surrounding country, perhaps to a
THE POPULAR HIGH-SCHOOLS 175
luded lake which in the neighbourhood of our
tool was always a favourite point for such
:ursions. The girls walk in groups with friends
i teachers, while the sun sets behind those
rkening forests of gigantic beeches so character-
c of Danish scenery. The lake is reached, the
1 has gone, and the night wind begins to rustle
ough the trees. Presently the evening bell is
ird as a faint summons from the distant village,
; of the teachers gives the sign, and the girls
urn to the school.
' It is half-past nine. There still remains an
ir to be filled in. How shall it be spent ? The
ncipal's wife solves the problem. She has
ird that it is the birthday of one of the girls, and
the occasion must be celebrated, invites the
ole school to a ' rhubarb supper.' The invita-
a is unanimously accepted, and in less time than
akes to write the great drawing-room is crowded
h happy girls, some sitting on chairs, others on
r stools, many on cushions spread over the floor.
ery place is occupied. The informality of the
asion is evidenced by the distinct preference
iwn for the floor. The rhubarb is produced, and
gues are loosened.
' Perhaps there is in the room a young lady from
,t part of the country where BUcher lived,
rough her grandmother she has heard many
ries of the great poet. On one occasion, tired
1 exhausted, with his gun upon his shoulder.
176 DENMARK AND THE DANES
he had rested in her grandfather's cottage on th
Jutland moors. The girl speaks of these thingi
describes his lonely tomb in the corner of the ol
churchyard, while the others take in every wor
much more readily than they would take in th
wisest sayings of the profoundest philosophc
in the world. The speaker knows but little c
Blicher or of his poetry, but she has been intereste
by the morning's lecture, and now she commun:
cates her interest to the others. The girls groi
more animated. The strong Jutland dialect i
mingled with the singing, mellow tone of the maid
from Fyen and the pleasant drawl of the Sealan
girls.
" Presently the conversation wanders away froi
the moorland poet. Short stories are told, thoug
anything in the nature of a ghost yarn meets wit
a rather ignominious reception in the shape of
chorus of healthy laughter. The Danes are nc
generally superstitious, yet when they first com
to the schools most of them retain lingering ren
nants of the old folk myths. Once, however, i
the genial, healthy atmosphere of the school, the
are shown that most phenomena are capable (
a natural explanation. They quickly learn thi
the spook seen nightly on the churchyard wall
none other than the parson's little white goa
Hans, in quest of the burgomaster's little blac
goat, Johanna.
" Before retiring the principal and his wi
THE POPULAR HIGH-SCHOOLS 177
e hands with every pupil. At eleven o'clock
only lights burning in the great building are
i in the principal's library or study, where he
eparing for the work of another day. Every-
:e else is a deep brooding silence."
M
CHAPTER XIV
MODERN LITERATURE
Romanticism and Realism— Political Interests— Nationa
ism and Patriotism— The Reaction— Georg Brande
the Literary Engineer— His Disciples— The Quarn
between the Old School and the New— Brandei
Influence on Norwegian and Swedish Literature-
Ibsen and Strindberg — Holger Drachmann— J. I
Jacobsen — Sophus Schandorph — Erik Skram-
Edvard Brandes— A Widening Gulf— The " Ideal
Realists — Karl Gjellerup — Herman Bang— Henri
Pontoppidan — Peter Nansen — The Poets— Vigg
Stuckenberg— Johannes Jorgensen — Sophus Claui
sen — ^Sophus Michaelis — Johannes V. Jensen— Tl
New IdeaUsm — ^The Drama — ^Emst von der Reel
and Drachmaim — ^Problem Plays— The Satirists-
Gustav Esmann and Gustav Wied — Henri Nathanse
— ^Julius Magnussen.
A STUDY of the most distinctive Danish Uteri
ture of the nineteenth century reveals a gradui
progression from an ideal romanticism to a stroi
and forceful reahsm. In the beginning of tl
century Adam Oehlenschlaeger's dramas intr
duced the romantic idealistic period. It was
period of imagery and fantasy. Poets, pla
Wrights and novelists all trod softly in the temf
of the past, awakening the old echoes, culling fro
that vast treasury the glittering jewels of tiir
MODERN LITERATURE 179
lights were dim. It was a wonderful period,
the moonshine, scarcely tangible, an era of
iowed imaginings. And it slowly faded away,
ing its mark upon that younger school which
been nurtured amid its soft lights and haunting
lows. Literature now began to approach real
to study and depict the present, though still
,n atmosphere of idealism. Political interests
m to awaken ; the young writers dreamed of an
;ed Scandinavia. During the war of 1848 — 1850
onahsm, patriotism, Uberahsm, introduced a
note into Danish literature. Then followed
reaction consequent upon the failure of the
of 1864. There ensued a decade of stagnation ;
esh impetus was required. Denmark waited
the new pen which was to usher her literature
n its latest phase,
he man who more than all others created
new era was Georg Brandes. He was the
it literary engineer. He dug the big canals
»ugh which the literary streams of other
itries flowed over Denmark. He irrigated his
country with the mighty Nile waters of France
Germany, Italy and England. He was
nsely reaUstic, a powerful and cultured oppo-
t of " rose-pink " idealism both in literature
art. His first lectures aroused a storm of
3sition, followed by an embittered warfare
vords, declaimed and written. Yet he won
[pies — Holger Drachmann, Schandorph, and
M 2
i8o DENMARK AND THE DANES
otjiers. The quarrel between the old and the new
schools was Waged in verse and prose. The most
important contributions were Kaalund's poetic
letters to Drachmann and Schandorph's Idealism
and Realism. Brandes believes in nature as the
foundation of all true art and Uterature. He is
not irreligious so much as anti-ecclesiastic. To
him religion stands for faith and the past ; his
philosophy is the philosophy of hope and the
future. " The cradle is more sacred than the
altar."
Georg Brandes was too great to belong alone
to Denmark. His influence widened, and Norwe-
gian and Swedish literature began to reflect his
teaching. His mmierous critical studies and his
lectures on the Main Currents in the Literature of
the Nineteenth Century brought him into touch
with the literary culture Of Europe, with the
religious freedom of Hegel and FeuerbaCh, with
the new critical methods of Saint-Beuve and Taine,
and with the political and social theories of Spencer
and Stuart Mill. He persuaded Ibsen to abandon
the symbolic and to grip the real. A decade later
he profoundly influenced Strindberg, and through
him changed completely the character of Swedish
literature.
The writings of Brandes are often said to be
anti-national and anti-rehgious. Rather are they
cosmopolitan and agnostic. He is a Dane, though
he has lived as much in Berlin and Paris as in
MODERN LITERATURE i8i
Copenhagen. It is possible that the movement of
which he was the forerunner and founder has been
carried much further than he himself desired,
for in later years he has not commended all the
exaggerations or the literary excesses of his fol-
lowers.
Worthiest perhaps of all the disciples of the new
school was Holger Drachmann (1846 — 1908), a
lyricist of great power. His novels, poems and
dramas all reveal an intimate touch with nature.
He is mercurial. His emotions pass swiftly as
cloud shadows over the sea. His play Once upon
a Time is one of the greatest iattractions of the
repertoire of the Royal Theatre, while his poems
Songs of the Sea and English Socialists have a
graceful charm and a full-throated sweetness of
melody worthy of Keats or Morris.
In 1885 Drachmann abandoned his old master,
Brandes, denounced the exotic tradition, and
declared himself a Conservative and a patriot.
J. P. Jacobsen (1847 — 1885) was another of the
new writers who had bathed in the rich streams
with which Brandes flooded Denmark. He is a
master student of the soul. His works proclaim
him a metaphysician, with a scientific power of
observation and analysis. Like Goethe and
Wordsworth, he is the poet-scientist, placing his
trust in the mind and the senses. His style is
wonderfully coloured, but it is not fantastic. Herq
is a man who can see relative values, who knows
i82 DENMARK AND THE DANES
how to correlate and group, to adjust and analyse.
He explains a psychological development as a
chemist explains a complicated reaction. He
materialises occult movements, visualises emo-
tional changes, plots the graph of thought streams.
Maria Grubbe, the first of Jacobsen's two long
novels, is characteristic of his wonderful insight into
the workings of human nature. Its heroine is
the daughter of a nobleman. Through several
marriages he depicts her deterioration, her slow
abasement. It is a ruthless, pitiless picture of the
destruction of a soul. There are no concessions to
weakness at the end. It is a tragedy as Macbeth
and Werther are tragedies, hopeless and unrelieved.
Jacobsen's other novel, Niels Lyhne, written in his
last illness, is a powerful study of a Free-thinker and
is believed to contain a summary of his own
religious views. Among his shorter stories Fru
FSnss, The Plague of Bergamo and Two Worlds are
the most characteristic, and may be justly com-
pared to the best in Maupassant for their intensity
and weird grip. Jacobsen was undoubtedly the
greatest prose artist whom Denmark had produced.
Sophus Schandorph (1836 — 1901), who wrote
Idealism and Realism, was the scribe of the lower
middle classes. His wit is blunt and biting and
not over-particular, his outlook on life that of a
man who has probed to the soul of things and
found there vanity, yet who accepts the posi-
tion with a certain rough and blustering good
MODERN LITERATURE 183
humour, Schandorph's style is strong and mas-
culine, often lacking in both grace and restraint,
and not always free from the grosser faults of bad
taste and exaggeration. But — and this is a virtue
of a kind — he remained true to the Brandes
tradition. In 1876 he published a volume of
realistic stories, Country Life, and in 1878 a novel.
Without a Name. His most notable work, how-
ever, is a dourly amusing story of lower middle
class hfe in Copenhagen, entitled Little Folk, pub-
lished in 1880.
Erik Skram, born in 1847, the fourth of the great
disciples of Brandes, has written Uttle. But the
intimate study of the mind of a young girl to be
found in his Gertrude Colbjornsen is generally con-
sidered to be one of the finest things in modern
Danish literature. The most characteristic fea-
tures of Skram's writing are his minute and detailed
observations and his ability to crowd his stage, yet
assign to each figure a role necessary to the develop-
ment of the central idea.
If Georg Brandes opened this new and rich epoch,
his brother Edvard closed its first period. The
younger Brandes is a playwright, a student of
Asiatic languages, a politician and a Radical
Semite . His writings faithfully reflect the influence
of his brother's philosophy, with, perhaps, certain
added social sympathies and a greater sense of the
value of practical work. But he has apparently
deserted literature for a political sphere. For many
i84 DENMARK AND THE DANES
years he was a member of the Folketing, and
he is now Minister for Finance in the Radical
Cabinet.
A little younger than the writers of this first
realistic school, we find a group of four able men
who were still largely under the influence of
Brandes, though differing from him on essential
features. They were Karl Gjellerup, Herman
Bang, Henrik Pontoppidan and Peter Nansen.
The first of this quartette, Gjellerup, bom in
1857, began his Hterary work as an idealist. A
student and admirer of Schiller, his faith lay in
ideal conceptions. Like the great German poet,
his earliest writings were vigorous assaults on
social conditions, delivered not from a practical or
utilitarian standpoint, but from the lofty elevation
of the dreamer and visionary. Carried away in
the flood of the Brandes movement, he deserted
Schiller and became a realist of a very pronounced
kind. During this period he lost faith in the
efficacy of Christianity as a power for social
regeneration and penned some cynical criticisms
which he later learned to regret. Leaving Den-
mark, he travelled for many years, eventually
returning to his old love, Schiller, and opposing
the Brandes influence in literature as strongly as
he had formerly upheld it. His poetic novels
Minna and The Mill, written with a warmth and
feeling not unworthy of the author of Die Rauber
and Wilhelm Tell, constitute the best work of this
MODERN LITERATURE 185
writer, who was at one and the same time poet,
novehst, morahst and biologist. In the main
Gjellerup comes nearer in sympathy to the great
German and Enghsh poets of the first half of the
century — ^to Goethe, Schiller and Lessing, Words-
worth and Coleridge — than to any authors of his
own country or period.
Contemporary with Gjellerup, another romantic
idealist tinged with realism produced a series of
writings extraordinary in their intensity, strange
and incomprehensible in their nervous movement.
Herman Bang, born 1858, is an impressionist, a
sketch artist among authors. His writings are a
collection of shifting panoramas, restless and un-
certain. At times pure photographic naturalism
predominates, yet when the mood takes him, he
can be as misty and "shadowful as the Brocken in
the evening. Erotic and pagan, classic and form-
less, satirical and creative, no writer of his time
rivals him in versatility. His most important
works are On the Road, a short novel of domestic
Hfe ; Tine, a passionate story of the war of 1864 ;
Ludvigsbakke ; and Mikael, the last being a
masterful study of character and tempersiment.
The work of Henrik Pontoppidan, born 1857,
is the most naturally fresh and vivid in the
whole range of modern Danish literature. In
general style and outlook he is often said to
closely resemble the great Russian Turgeniev.
There are no exotic perfumes, no heavy essences,
i86 DENMARK AND THE DANES
no scenes of darkened boudoirs or languorous
delights. Land, forest, sea and shore provide the
settings, and sunshine, stofm, struggle and rest,
the motifs, of his melodies. The smell of fresh
earth, the dew on the grass in the early morning,
the mist rising above the plains, the strong wind
driving across the sea, this is Pontoppidan. No
Danish writer so thoroughly understood, or pos-
sessed the ability to so faithfully reproduce, the
lives and thoughts, work and faith, of his fellow-
men, or could catch so inimitably the subtle,
illusive atmosphere of the peasant homesteads of
Denmark. Farmers and fishermen, shepherds and
foresters, schoolmasters and parish priests, find a
faithful reflection in the pages of Henrik Pontop-
pidan. The Promised Land is a collection of the
three short stories which are considered to repre-
sent his best work, but without doubt the greatest
contribution which he made to the literature of
his time is the epic romance Lykke Per, begun in
1898 and finished in 1904. This is an immense
work in eight volumes, depicting the making
of a strong man. The minor characters em-
brace all the types of the decade which ended
with the outbreak of the South African war in
1899.
Peter Nansen, the last of this brilliant quartette,
is the writer who most resembles J. P, Jacobsen
in outlook and style. The same deeply reflective
spirit permeates the novels and poems of both men.
MODERN LITERATURE 187
and both write in a particularly beautiful Danish.
Hansen's work is very popular in Germany. His
most important novels are Julie's Diary, Marie,
God's Peace, and Judith's Marriage. The last is
in dialogue form. There are only two characters,
but each is intimately and finely drawn. It would
be difficult to name a book in the literature of
any country revealing greater skill in the analysis
of mind and emotion. The majority of Peter
Nansen's books are of a pronouncedly sexual
type.
Towards the end of the eighties of the last century
four young writers sprang almost simultaneously
into prominence. They were Viggo Stuckenberg,
Johannes Jorgensen, Sophus Claussen, and Sophus
Michaelis. The first of these, Stuckenberg, has
only written a few small volumes of verse. But
they are characteristically Scandinavian. There
is that mysterious something about them which
marks them as the product of a mind descended
from those fierce pessimistic old heroes who made
the Viking saga epics, a strange reticence, a
compound of gloom smd stolid acquiescence, a
mixing of the spirit of the Berserker with the noble
fatalism of a General Gordon. The poems of
Viggo Stuckenberg carry with them this touch of
infinite and overbrooding sadness. He is a pale
figure of the shades. He does not come out into
the full svmshine and revel in it, as do the Latin
poets. He seeks rather to solve the mystery of
i88 DENMARK AND THE DANES
abounding shadows. He is a lover of gentleness,
refinement and beauty, but he shrinks from ele-
mental strength and passion. He feels and senses
deeply, and his nature is of that stamp which does
not make exhibition of its pain and doubt. It
shrinks within itself with the timidity of the
wounded animal creeping away into some lonely
shrine to die. StUckenberg breathed his last at a
very early age, and his final work. Snow, contains
some of the most exquisite devotional poems in
the Danish tongue.
The work of Johannes Jorgensen may be con-
veniently divided into two periods : first, anti-
religious; and second. Catholic. In poetic style
and treatment the first period has much in com-
mon with the earlier poems of his friend Stucken-
berg. To this group belong some novels more
cleVer than inspiriting. But in the collection of
poems Confessions — Per Mortem ad Vitam, he
strikes a new note. He announces his conversion
to Cathohcism, to a belief in eternity, and in Christ
as the hope of eternal peace. The closing poem of
the book, Conftteor, is a noble recantation of the
great error of his past. Following the publica-
tion of Confessions came that remarkable little
essay Lies and Truth, in which he dissects the
moral and spiritual life of Denmark, pillorying the
gross deceits of materialism and scepticism, and
claiming that the Christian Church is the one
grounded and sure rock amid the restless and
MODERN LITERATURE 189
surging billows of the age. All Jorgensen's later
books are filled with this deep Catholicism, and
transcend in literary form and purity of ex-
pression anythip.g that he had written in his
anti-religious period. The most notable of his
larger works are The Book of Travels, Our Lady
of Denmark, and Pilgrimage. His poems and
hymns are exquisite things, ineffable as that light
which plays over the faces of the angels in the
pictures of Fra Angelico, sonorous as Gregorian
masses, oftfen wildly beautiful, as in the description
of the death of Paul Verlaine.
Sophus Claussen is of another breed. His
metier is homely life in small provincial towns.
His characters are drawn from that same milieu
used so vigorously in the novels of Schandorph.
But he is not so sardonic, and his treatment is
quieter, more restrained. He is never tasteless or
vulgar. It is difficult to appraise the work of
Claussen with any due perspective. He is too
near, a remark which appUes equally to his con-
temporary Sophus Michaelis. Doubtless much of
what they have written will prove to be of
ephemeral interest. The best novel of the latter
is The Apple Island, an unequal blend of romanti-
cism, symbolism and reaUsm. It is more glowing
and violent than anything else in recent Danish
literature. Its colours and strong lights and vivid
contrasts tend to blind and confuse by their
sheer brilliancy. Yet it is undoubtedly a powerful
igo DENMARK AND THE DANES
work, and its author will travel further along the
road of literary achievement.
The most popular of the younger Danish authors
is Johannes V. Jensen. He resembles Jack
London in his choice of subjects as well as in his
general method of treatment. The book of his
which at the present moment is most widely
read is Braen, an imaginative story of man in the
earliest dawn of history.
Other writers whose names connect the age of
romanticism with a later period are the two,
Ewalds — Herman and Carl. The former (1821 —
1908) was notable chiefly for a long series of his-
torical novels in the style of Harrison Ainsworth.
Carl Ewald, who died in the same year as his father,
used the fairy tale as a vehicle for satire and the
ventilation of his political and moral theories.
The writing of verse, which had declined in the
early years of the Brandes influence, revived under
Drachmann. But all attempts to introduce the
theories of the symbolist to Denmark failed, and
Danish poetry is, on the whole, natural and lyrical
in its essential characteristics. Otto Fonss, the
composer of seven small volumes of nature
poems ; Valdemar Rordam, author of that cele-
brated lyrical success The Danish Tongue; and,
perhaps more than anybody else, the before-
mentioned Johannes Jorgensen and Sophus
Michaelis are the irfBst popular of the modern
Danish poets.
MODERN LITERATURE 191
The development of stark naturalism in Danish
literature has received a notable check in recent
years. The plea of the idealists was for beauty,
that of the realists for truth. But the truth of the
reaUsts was found to be mostly ugly. They
sought for it only in the seamy and shadowy
aspects of life. And hence the healthy reaction
which, revolting against this one-sidedness, has
resulted in a newer and saner conception of the
functions of literature. The new writers chronicle
with all the fidelity of the old, but their realism is
not that species of crabbed narrowness which
fails to find the sun because it is hidden behind a
bank of storm clouds. It is a sort of idealism
which has its roots in the hving world of men and
women ; and it is as distinct from the old
fantastic idealism as it is from the old ugly
realism.
The characteristic drama of Denmark has par-
ticipated in this same cycle of change and growth.
In the later sixties of the last century the historical
dramas constituted the chief fare in the menu of
the national theatre. They were rich in scenic
setting, and they were splendidly oratorical ; but
there was no psychology, no study of soul or emo-
tion. They were historical pageants merely, pano-
ramas reconstructed in the dust of libraries. And
young Denmark, after the war of 1864, did not want
to read her own history. Rffther did she desire to
look forward into the future, forgetting the past
192 DENMARK AND THE DANES
in the spirit of " What outwardly has been lost
shall inwardly be regained."
This was the moment when Ernst von der Recke
and Holger Drachmann founded the school of
lyrical drama in Denmark. The former's play
Bertran de Born was produced at the Royal
Theatre in 1873, and marked the definite breach
with the old traditions, while Drachmann's come-
dies, The Prince and the Half of his Kingdom,
East of the Sun and West of the Moon, Once upon a
Time, and The Dance of Koldinghus, carried on
the new movement.
Ibsen's work in Norway of course had its inevit-
able reaction upon Danish drama. The problem
play began to appear, also plays dealing with
marriage, the codes of life and conduct. The most
successful were the works of Edvard Brandes, of
Otto Bentzon, and of Karl Gjellerup. The latter's
plays, when compared with his prose writings, are
somewhat ponderous anjd heavy. His seriousness
and his speculative methods are Teutonic rather
than Danish. Brandes and Bentzon wrote with
more facile pens. They possessed also a saving
gift of humour^ and the comedy spirit in their
writings is not crushed by the stolid phlegm of the
German. The most dramatic works of this trio
are however Gjellerup's Wuthorn and Herman
Wandel, both of which insist upon the rights of
personality as against the rights of the com-
munity.
MODERN LITERATURE 193
At the end of the century two new voices began to
be heard. They were those of Gustav Esmann and
Gustav Wied, both satirists. Esmann is a typical
Copenhagener, witty, clever, not above vulgarity.
The plots of his plays are most ingeniously elabo-
rated, while his characters are drawn with a simple
and admirable directness. His most popular plays
are The Dear Family, Magdalene, The Old Home,
and Alexander the Great. The latter is an inimit-
able comedy whose hero is not the Alexander of
history, but an exceedingly humorous Copenhagen
waiter.
Gustav Wied's plays deal, in a manner which is
generally sardonic and often absurdly grotesque,
with social and ethical problems. His figures are
mainly caricatures, yet he has achieved immense
popularity both in his own coimtry and in Germany.
Her Old Grace, The Pride of the Town, 2 x 2 =5,
and Dancing Mice represent his most characteristic
work.
This sUght survey of modern Danish literature
must close with a brief mention of the work of
three comparatively new men. Henri Nathansen
haslwritten several briUiant plays describing
Jewish family Ufe, the most important of which
are Mother is Right, Daniel Hertz, and Within the
Walls. Sophus Michaelis' Napoleonic play St.
Helena and novel 1812 give promise of a great
future, while his dramd A Marriage under the
Revolufionja-chieyed a phenomenal success in the
D N
194 DENMARK AND THE DANES
United States. Finally, Julius Magnussen is the
author of two popular comedies. Who loves Ms
Father and His Single Wife, both of which have
at once found a place in the repertoire of the
Royal Theatre.
CHAPTER XV
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART
Bertel Thorwaldsen — His Parentage, Life arid Influence
— His Works and Style — The Classic Revival — Thor-
waldsen's Museum — The Art of H. V. Bissen —
Jeriehau and the Germ of Realism — Stephen Sinding
— Oppermann and the Transition — The Rodin
Method — French and Danish Realism contrasted —
The Academy of Fine Arts — ^Abildgaard and Jens
Juel — Comparison between Dutch ^nd Danish Paint-
ings — ^Danish Sentiment — C. V. Eckersberg, the
Founder of the Modern Danish School — Karl Madsen,
the Ruskin of Denmark — Eckersberg's Pupils :
Kobke, J. T. Lundbye, G. Rump, and V. Kyhn —
Specialists in Peasant Life : Sonne, Dalsgaard, Ver-
mehren, and Exner — Constantin Hansen and the
Italian Influence — Vilhelm Marstrand — ^The Cosmo-
politan Trend — P. S. Kroyer — Julius Paulsen — Vil-
helm Hammershoj — Lauritz Tuxen — ^The Manet and
Bache Temperament — ^Viggo Johansen — Historical
Painting — ^Anecdotic Genre — Copenhagen Painters —
Michael Ancher and C. Locher — The New Idealism
and Joachim Skovgaard — ^The Symbolists — ^Zahrt-
mann — ^Ejnar Nielsen — Decorative Art — Hans Teg-
ner, the Illustrator.
Bertel Thorwaldsen, the greatest sculptor of
the classical reviva,l, was born in 1770 in Copen-
hagen. He was the only son of poor Icelandic
parents, who had some years earlier emigrated to
Denmark. His father was reputed to be a skilful
wood-caryer. Young Thorwaldsen never went to
N 2
196 DENMARK AND THE DANES
school, the sole information which he received
during his eariy years being obtained from his
father, who taught him a little reading and
writing and, most important of all, as it afterwards
transpired, the elements of drawing.
During his whole life his knowledge of subjects
other than his beloved art is said to have been
exceedingly limited. At the age of eleven Bertel
was sent to the Royal Academy of Arts in Copen-
hagen, having already exhibited promise of his
remarkable future. For several years he pursued
his studies under depressing circumstances, in his
spare moments being required to assist his father
with the wood-carving business. The old Thor-
waldsen, perceiving in his son a means of slackening
his own efforts, began to imbibe wine^and spirits
in quantities neither good for his health nor for
his son's pocket. In two or three years he
degenerated into a permanent inebriate, and the
burden of supporting the family fell upon the
shoulders of the yoimg art student. Notwith-
standing the adversities and misfortunes which
persistently dogged his footsteps, however, Bertel
found time to compete for all the Academy prizes,
and carried them off one after another, until he had
gained everything that was to be had, including the
great gold Medal and a three years' travel scholar-
ship in Italy, In the year 1796 therefore we
find Thorwaldsen journeying southwards, having)
been granted a passage on a Danish wai^p
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART 197
He travelled to Palermo in Sicily, then to
Naples, where he lived for a short time, and on
March 8th, 1797, he entered Rome, the city in
which he was to spend most of the remainder of his
life, and to create those masterpieces which com-
pelled the admiration and wonder of artistic
Europe.
During the earlier years spent in Italy he hved
with the Danish archaeologist and art connoisseur
Zoega, and was busy absorbing the manifold
beauties of that treasure-house into which fortune
had placed him. He was lost in wonder and quite
unable himself to produce anything. We can
imagine him there, very childish and not free from
vanity, a tall young man with rich, fair hair and
contemplative blue eyes, a leonine head, well-
shaped, classic features, and pale complexion.
Such was the adolescent artist of the Roman days
of wonder and amazement.
He worked only sufficient to satisfy the demands
of the Academicians at home and to gain a
renewal of his scholarship for a further three years.
In 1802 he had exhausted his money, and almost
run the course of his scholarship. Nothing had
been produced of any special merit. At this crisis
he conceived the notion of executing a statue of
Jason returning to his galley after fetching the
golden fleece from Colchis. To this work he
devoted himself with feverish and continuous
energy, completing it just before the time when he
198 DENMARK AND THE DANES
must return to Copenhagen. The statue im-
mediately created a furore. All art-loving Rome
came to see it. Canova pronounced it " something
extraordinary, a revolutionary piece of art."
Notwithstanding the chorus of praise, Thorwaldsen
could discover no purchaser, and being entirely
without the means to execute the statue in marble,
he reluctantly decided to abandon it, and even
arranged with a German friend to accompany him
on th^ return journey. On the day fixed for the
departure he was taking leave of his landlady
when the German came to announce that his
papers were not in-order, and that the journey
must be postponed for a day. That day saved
Thorwaldsen, For once officialism and' red tape
rendered a signal service to humanity in that they
were the unconscious means of giving to the world
a great artist. That very afternoon a wealthy
English banker, Sir Thomas Hope, going the
round of Roman sights under the guidance
of an art connoisseur, came by chance to
young Thorwaldsen's studio, bojight the Jason
statue at sight, and ordered its execution in
marble.
From that moment Thorwaldsen obtained so
many commissions that Sir Thomas Hope's order
was not finally completed until twenty-five years
later, when, as a compensation for the delay, the
artist at the same time presented Sir Thomas with
finely wrought statues of his wife and his two
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART 199
daughters, and two of his other miscellaneous
works in marble.
Orders poured in from all quarters, and it soon
became evident that the years during which he
had created nothing had not been wasted. Rather
had they been years of preparation. After the
Jason statue Thorwaldsen's works cannot be con-
veniently divided into periods, as can the creations
of most artists. From the beginning everything
he did was of a technical perfection which does not
permit of ordinary criticism. His works vary only
in the nature of their inspiration, the amount of
personal interest he had in them and the share he
himself took in their execution. For so great
became the demand upon him that he was com-
pelled at length to employ many assistants, only
designing and directing the works himself.
From 1803 to 1819 his most famous productions
were statues of Bacchus, Apollo, Ganymede and
Adonis, the reUefs " Morning " and " Night " and
" Alexander's Triumph," the latter of which is
thirty-five yards long. It was executed for the
Qmrinal to commemorate the visit of Napoleon
to Rome in 1812. It represents the entrance of
Alexander the Great into Babylon after his great
victory over the Persian king Darius, as described
by the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus.
Three marble copies of this magnificent work have
been made, two of which are in Copenhageij, and
the third in the villa of Count Sommariva on the
200 DENMARK AND THE DANES
lake of Como. " The Dying Lion," otherwise a
very impressive piece of work, erected in Lucerne
in memoriam of the Swiss Guard of Louis XIV.
who lost their lives in the chivalrous defence of the
Tuileries in 1792, has serious faults, arising mainly
from the fact that the sculptor had never seen a
lion.
In 1819 we find Thorwaldsen back in Denmark
for a year, and being f^ted royally. His home-
ward journey had been an uninterrupted triumph.
In 1805 he had been elected a member of the
Royal Academy of Arts, and during his visit honours
and orders were showered upon him from kings
and cities, learned societies and academies.
He returned to Italy and continued to live there
until 1838, when he came back to Denmark for
the last time, living in Copenhagen from 1838 to
1844. He died suddenly in the Royal Theatre on
March 21st in the latter year.
The most important of his later works are
the statues of the two Polish patriots Prince
Poniatovsky and Count Potocky. The first of
these was erected in Warsaw, but was taken
by the Russians and destroyed. The statue of
Gregorio VII. to be found in the church of St.
Peter's in Rome is considered to contain some of
the artist's finest work, but it is not well placed,
being lost in the immensity of its surroundings. A
rather indifferent statue of Byron was offered first
to Westminster Abbey and later to St. Paul's, but
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART 201
on religious grounds was not accepted. It now
stands in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge.
The largest work of this kind undertaken by Thor-
waldsen may be seen in Munich in the great statue
of the Duke Maximilian of Saxony. Shortly before
his death he had been working on a conception
of Martin Luther. This remained unfinished, and
may be seen in Thorwaldsen's Museum in Copen-
hagen. But the greatest creations of the master
to be found in Denmark are without doubt the
statues of Christ and the Twelve Apostles, whose
fitting resting place is the Frue Kirke.
Thorwaldsen's style was not modern. He was
the greatest imitator of the antique which the
nineteenth century produced. Severely classical
in his early days, he relaxed a little towards the
end. But throughout his long and busy hfe
Hellenic j^nd Roman-Hellenic influences predomi-
nated. His work does not show that strong
vitality, that strenuous realism, characteristic of
Rodin's statuary, but it is purer in form, quieter
and more contemplative.
The artistic motto of this period was "Go to
nature." "To this Thorwaldsen added " and learn
from the antique how to look at it. " It is wrong to
assume that Thorwaldsen's work was merely an
aesthetic imitation of antique forms ; he was too
much of a creative genius to be content with that.
His ideal was the presentation of pure, absolute
beauty with no disturbing elements, and he
202 DENMARK AND THE DANES
selected for treatment only such subjects as har-
monised with his peculiarly Northern tempera-
ment — comparatively passionless, philosophical,
placid and good-natured. He depicted almost
entirely goodness, content, happiness and purity ;
the dark side of hfe he avoided: pain, care,
passion and suffering discovered no responsive
chord in his artistic soid. One of his many critics
however has admitted that " sometimes a kind of
sly smile seems to pass through his soul into his
art, especially when dealing with Cupid and the
little love-god's caprices."
Thorwaldsen's Museum, in which are collected
copies of most of his works, is naturally the Mecca
of Danish art. The building itself is two stories
high. Its style is confined to one motive, and is an
almost exact rephca of an ancient Etruscan rock
sepulchre. The quadrangle encloses a courtyard
in the centre of which is the simple tomb of the
great sculptor. In the back wing is the famous
"Hall of Christ"— the Holy of holies of this
wonderful temple of art. The other rooms open
into each other, and each room contains but one
statue, some bas-reliefs inserted into the walls,
and a couple of busts. This arrangement was
made at Thorwaldsen's express request, as he
wished the spectators " to concentrate their
interest so far as possible on one work at a time."
In the vestibule £|.re models of the celebrated
equestrian statue of Poniatowski, the portrait
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART 203
statue of the unhappy Pope Pius VII., and statues
of Schiller, Gutenberg and the Duke of Leuchten-
berg. Perhaps the most interesting of all, how-
ever, is the model of the Swiss lion monument at
Lucerne. In one of the side corridors is a notable
reproduction of the John the Baptist group from
the Frue Kirke. The rooms behind the tomb are
mainly filled with statues of Greek gods and heroes
of the Odinic and other pagan legends. The mighty
form of Christ is placed in a special hall surrounded
by the exquisitely wrought figures of the Twelve
Apostles. In the upper rooms are copies of the
Alexander frieze and the " Morning " and " Night "
bas-rehefs, while one special antechamber is de-
voted to a collection of Thorwaldsen's books, his
clay models, drawings, some of his furniture,
and, most interesting of all, the last piece of work
upon which he was engaged before his death, a
bust of Luther. The strokes of his modelling-
stick are visible, and the Uttle lump of clay which
he placed on the breast when he stopped his work,
only a few hours before he died, is still there.
Thorwaldsen's influence on Scandinavian art is
generally considered to have been in many respects
a dangerous one in that for some considerable
time Danish sculptors were attracted by it to Italy
and the classic. As a classicist and pagan he failed
to foster those national, personal and religious
sources of inspiration which are after all the truest
ideals of creative art. This bias towards the
204 DENMARK AND THE DANES
antique can also be distinctly traced in the works
of the great Swedish sculptors Sergell, Bystrom
and Fogelberg, but perhaps it is most plainly
marked in the art of H. V. Bissen (1798 — 1868).
This sculptor was one of Thorwaldsen's most
celebrated pupils and imitators, but his works,
which are distinguished by an extraordinary
purity and refinement of conception, reveal an
inordinate admiration for the Greek method.
Another of Thorwaldsen's pupils was J. A.
Jerichau (1816 — 1883), whose work however does
not possess the same purity or strength as Bissen's.
The master's influence is still potent, but Jeri-
chau's style foreshadows that modern realism
which was destined to culminate in Rodin and the
French school. The best known of this sculptor's
works is the Man and Panther statue in the
Glyptothek at Copenhagen.
The gradual evolution of reahsm in sculpture
may be perfectly observed by passing from the
Bissen room in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptothek
through the Jerichau room into the gallery filled
with the works of Stephen Sinding. Oppermann,
the great critic, sums up this transition process
very admirably. " We come," he says, " to one
of those stages which may be called dramatic
because of the violence of the conflict between the
old, which is passing away, and the new, which is
taking its place. A new generation, eager to
strike out new paths, begins to play the leading
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART 205
part — a generation which is not rich by inherit-
ance, nor as yet ennobled by struggle. A
characteristic representation of the art of this
generation is to be found in the works of Stephen
Binding. Whilst men of the old school in their
works and ways showed that they built upon and
found rest in a Christian view of Ufe, no such firm
spiritual basis is discernible in the productions of
this section of the new school ; they are distin-
guished by unrest, aspiration, craving. The artists
insist on what is real and tangible ; in place of the
grandeur, peace and spiritual vision of their pre-
decessors, they must have life, passion and
motion."
It is at this point that Scandinavian art leaves
Thorwaldsen and the classic and begins to approach
the Rodin method ; yet, curiously enough, it always
remains more manly and free than the French. It
never becomes either so soft or so sensuous, and the
attitudes of its figures are more charming and
graceful. In this latter respect the spirit of Thor-
waldsen has not striven in vain.
Traces of the classic revival may also be found,
although in a much less degree, in the paintings
of the time when Canova and Thorwaldsen were
at the height of their fame. It was not until the
nineteenth century that Danish art acquired its
marked national character. In 1754 the Academy
of Fine Arts had been founded, but the early
exhibitors, including the celebrated Abildgaard
2o6 DENMARK AND THE DANES
and Jens Juel, were too imitative in their style.
Juel, however, did some admirable work in
portraiture, foreshadowing the trend which ulti-
mately led to the establishment of a distinctive
national style.
There is a certain relationship between the art
of Denmark and that of her near neighbour
Holland. In both countries natiue presents few
vivid contrasts either of form or colour, and the
result is that Dutch and Danish painting is as
" demure and staid as are Dutch and Danish
landscapes." The iartists display no bold origi-
nality, no magnificent depth of colouring, no
splendid virility either in the choice or treatment
of their subjects ; rather do they reveal a tender
intimacy with melancholy and homely things, a
dreamful, placid imagination, and a deUcate
refinement of touch, all of which are related to the
national temperament at its best. One Danish
critic has phrased this characteristic very clearly.
He writes : " Touching feeling for home and
country is the key-note of modern Danish art.
The Dane has no sentiment but that of home.
His country, once powerful, has become smaU and
unimportant in the councils of the nations. It is
not difficult to understand therefore that he clings
with a melancholy tenderness to the only thing
that is left him — his home."
The real founder of the modern Danish school
was C. V, Eckersberg (1783 — 1853), who was a
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART io
pupil of the French painter David. Eckersberg's
works, particularly his portraits, combine careful
design and delicate colouring with an elegant style,
but most of his landscapes and marine studies are
immature and laboured in execution. It is quite
clear that David influenced the technical side of
his art only. Karl Madsen, the renowned writer
and the Ruskin of Denmark, has declared that it
is Nature in her every-day dress which Eckersberg
depicts. Yet whilst he saw only prose where
others saw poetry, he managed to discover poetry
where others could only see prose.
Eckersberg's most successful pupils were
Christian Kobke (1810 — 1848) and the better-
known painters J. T, Lundbye, G. Rump, and
V. Kyhn. The first of these, Kobke, was noted
mainly for his clever and spirited portraits in the
modem style, and for his pictures of Copenhagen.
J. T. Limdbye was a landscape and animal painter
of merit, while both Rump and Kyhn largely
confined themselves to every-day fife in Den-
mark. The latter was probably at his best on
large canvases.
Towards the middle of the century Sonne,
Dalsgaard, Vermehren and Exner began to
specialise in provincial peasant life. The works of
all these men are full of impressive sentiment and
feeling. Constantin Hansen, a painter of this
period, was one of those who had fallen under the
spell of the Thorwaldsen influence. He is remark-
2o8 DENMARK AND THE DANES
able for a series of >rilliant Italian pictures. After
having lived in the South for many years, he re-
turned to Copenhagen and executed the beautiful
decorations in the lobby of the University.
The greatest and most versatile among modern
Danish painters was without doubt Vilhelm
Marstrand (1810 — 1873), famous alike for his great
Bible subjects, his comic figures from Holberg,
the Danish Moliere, his pathetic scenes from the
history of his own and other countries, and his
animated and vigorous pictures depicting the stir
and tumult of Italian street life. Marstrand and
Karl Bloch were the leaders in a phase of grandiose
historical painting and anecdotic genre such as was
witnessed in almost every country about this time.
Bloch as a historical painter is said to greatly
resemble Piloty, the German ; his vivid colouring
was acquired in the ItaUan schools. His most
famous pictures are Samson in the Prison-house
and King Christian II. in Prison, both of which
created a genuine outburst of admiration and
praise.
French and cosmopolitan influences now began
to overshadow and to break up the distinctive
national characteristics of the immediate followers
of Eckersberg. A group of younger painters,
which included P. S. Kroyer, Juhus Paulsen and
Vilhelm Hammershoj, reflected into Danish art the
principles and teaching of the celebrated cosmopoli-
tan Otto Bache. Kroyer perhaps had the happiest
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART 209
and lightest touch of this trio. He was straight-
forward in his methods, and he employed no
trickery. His art, as well as that of his friend and
contemporary Lauritz Tuxen, was allied to the
temperament of Manet and Bastian Lepage.
Their elegance was Parisian, Kroyer especially
revealing a bold inventiveness and amazing skill.
He was a painter of wonderful open-air effects and
" tender twilight moods," the glare of sunshine,
the soft reflections of artificial light. Karl Madsen
has said that " in portraiture he stands alone
among Scandinavian artists ; in versatiUty and
facile elegance he may almost be compared with
Frans Hals."
Julius Paulsen is one of the most talented
painters of the day. His colouring possesses a
softness and delicacy worthy of Rembrandt.
Vilhelm Hammershoj is remarkable for his ex-
quisite sense of tone and refinement of effect. He
paints magical contrasts of hght in half-darkened
rooms. It is said that he. is a great admirer of
Whistler, to whose genius his own is akin. Perhaps
of all Danish painters he reveals the most pro-
nounced individuality.
Another artist who found his inspiration in
the French school is Viggo Johansen, who has,
however, superimposed upon the Manet and Bache
temperament a certain gentle dreaminess which is
entirely his own. He speciaUses in dark sitting-
rooms, children's parties, quiet festivities ; An
D. o
210 DENMARK AND THE DANES
Evening at Home, The Christmas Tree, Grandma's
Birthday, are typical subjects. Johansen is also one
of the finest landscape painters Denmark has
produced. Over all his pictures of this type a
mysterious and melancholy stillness seems to rest.
So popular are they, and so quickly and eagerly
purchased, that several years ago the Luxem-
bourg attempted in vain to secure one.
Belonging to this cosmopohtan group also is
Axel Helsted, a genre painter of skill and merit
but no great genius, while Holsoe, Ring, Haslund,
Syberg and Irminger, all of them contemporaries,
paint typical scenes from Copenhagen life. Michael
Ancher and C. Locher specialise in marine sub-
jects, Skaw fishermen and the like ; their work is
characterised by a certain broad sympathy and
careful observation. Viggo Pedersen, Johan Rohde
and Philipsen live together in the neighbourhood
of Copenhagen ; their paintings are marked by
the same sober melancholy and gentle tone.
The new ideaUsm is represented by Joachim
Skovgaard, who has been gallantly endeavouring
for a number of years to endow Denmark with
a monumental tj^pe of art. Of late he has become
more and more notable as an interpreter of Bible
subjects, his finest canvases in this direction being
Christ among the Dead and The Pool of Bethesda,
both of which caused a sensation in the world of
art. His most famous work is his fresco-decora-
tions on the ceiling of the Cathedral at Viborg.
THORWALDSEN AND MODERN ART 211
Of the younger painters Harald Slott-MoUer
and J. F. Willumsen are remarkable for their
daring and their highly symbohcal style. Zahrt-
mann, a lover of Italy, occasionally rivals Etty in
his subtlety of tone, though many of his Italian
pictures are sheer debauches and riots of colour.
His historical pictures of Christian IV. 's unfor-
tunate daughter, Eleonora Christine, are considered
the very best in modern Danish art. Ejnar
Nielsen's portraits reveal the overshadowing spirit
of Danish pessimism and melancholy.
Among decorative artists of genius Denmark
can only count one, L, Frolich ; among illustra-
tors, Hans Tegner is probably the greatest of the
day.
o 2
CHAPTER XVI
MUSIC AND THE THEATRE
Comparison of Danish and Irish Music — ^Weyse and Hart-
mann — Heise — P. E. Lange-Miiller — Saga Music —
Gade's Symphonies — Henriques, Enna, and Carl
Nielsen — The Critical Faculties of the Danes — ^Danish
Ecclesiastical Music — The Copenhagen Conserva-
toire — Prof. Neruda — ^The Early History of the
Theatre in Denmark — Holberg's Comedies — ^The
Romantic Plays — German Drama — ^The Introduc-
tion of Vaudeville — ^J. L. Heiberg — Problem Plays —
Ryge and the First Nielsen — Michael Wiehe, Fru *
Johanne Luise Heiberg, Emil Poulsen and Fru
Hennings — ^The Royal Theatre — Representations of
Foreign Authors in Denmark — Shakespeare's Hamlet
— ^The Great Actors of the Last Decade and the
Modem Period — ^The Dagmar Theatre — Schools of
Acting — ^The Folke and New Theatres — Other
Theatres — ^Varieties.
A CERTAIN similarity is easily traceable between
the music of Denmark and that of Ireland. Sim-
plicity, sincerity, a certain subdued and wistful
melancholy, and rare flashes of fire and passion —
these are the characteristics of the native compo-
sitions of both countries. Denmark has never
produced what may be termed great classical
music ; hers is essentially a peasant music.
National Danish songs are like Danish landscapes
and Danish art, quiet and pastoral, plaintive and
* Fru = Danish for Madam.
MUSIC AND THE THEATRE 213
unassuming, redolent of still autumn evenings
spent in the glades of fragrant beech woods, or
on undulating and heather-covered moors, or on
the bosoms of secluded and placid lakes. The
most characteristic are the songs of Weyse and
Hartmann, though perhaps those of Heise are
better known, especially his music to Ibsen's
Kongsemnerne, von der Recke's Bertran de Born,
the opera King and Marshal, and the Jutland
national song Jylland mellem tvende Have.
A small group of composers later attempted —
not with great success — to approach the classical
in conception and style ; and mention must be
made of a brief period of inspired music whose
massive strength and wild beauty can only be
compared to the grandeur of the ancient Scan-
dinavian sagas. But, speaking generally, the
musical genius of the Danish people expresses
itself most naturally and effectively in songs and
ballads, folk-dances and sonorous hymns. The
only really brilliant exception to this generalisa-
tion is Gade, the composer of several beautiful
symphonies and orchestral suites, and whose best-
known works, the Elverskud and Korsfarerne, are
regarded as among the great masterpieces of the
latter half of the nineteenth century.
Another popular composer of this period, P. E.
Lange-Miiller, is renowned chiefly as a writer of
spirited ballad music, though his finest work is
undoubtedly contained in the music which he
214 DENMARK AND THE DANES
wrote to Drachmann's romantic play Once upon a
Time. Lange-Miiller is the composer of the Danish
national anthem We love our Land.
Among younger composers the names of Fini
Henriques, August Enna, and Carl Nielsen deserve
mention. Henriques is justly celebrated for his
distinguished dance and ballet music, particularly
The Little Mermaid. Carl Nielsen's opera Saul is
the only big work of this kind produced in Den-
mark in recent years. August Enna has written
some delicate and fanciful music round many of
the fairy tales of Hans Andersen.
Although they cannot be regarded as excep-
tionally distinguished in composition, the Danes
are certainly excellent judges of music. Their
critical faculties are both sound and well developed,
and as a nation they evince a genuine love of
good music comparable only to that shown by
the German and the Italian peoples. Grand opera,
orchestral recitals, classical concerts and popular
music are in great demand all the year round,
while the sacred concerts held periodically in most
churches are a special feature of Danish life.
Danish ecclesiastical music is dignified, melodious,
and in the main exceedingly beautiful, though it
sometimes errs on the side of heaviness, probably
owing to its Lutheran and Teutonic origin.
The Copenhagen Conservatoire of Music, which
was founded in 1866, has done a great work in
popularising the music of the old and modern
MUSIC AND THE THEATRE 215
masters, in promoting concerts on an artistic level
with those of the academies of the leading musical
centres in Europe, and more particularly in the
teaching of singing. Prof. Neruda, who was a
brother of Lady Halle (died 1915), and one of the
best-known teachers of the day, had been for over
a quarter of a century the inspiring spirit of all
that may be accounted finest in modern Danish
music. The Copenhagen Conservatoire is sub-
sidised by the State, and has been from time to
time richly endowed.
It is only in two or three of the best theatres
of Copenhagen that the acting may be said to
reach the artistic excellence of either Paris or
London. The Royal Theatre, the oldest in Copen-
hagen, for nearly two hundred years held a privi-
leged position, as it had been granted a monopoly
of all the best plays, native and foreign, the other
theatres only being permitted to produce light
comedy or such plays as were not required by the
Royal Theatre. This " monopoly " was subse-
quently relinquished, and a reserve put upon 160
plays only, subject to the condition of producing
them within a period of ten years.
The first " playhouse " in Denmark was opened
in 1722, in order to compete with the numerous
foreign troupes of aptors who then toured the
country. It achieved an instantaneous success,
and from that time the dramatic art, so brilliantly
founded by Holberg, has never looked back. At
2i6 DENMARK AND THE DANES
the end of the eighteenth century the romantic
play became the rage, although the works of
Moliere, Sheridan, Goldsmith and Lessing still
remained more or less popular. Unfortunately,
however, French and German decadent influences
were in the ascendant, and for the first twenty-five
years of the nineteenth century dominated the
Danish stage to such an extent that native plays
stood no chance of presentation. The introduc-
tion of the vaudeville method by J. L. Heiberg in
1825 brought to a sudden end the era of florid
German drama, and for more than forty years gay,
light comedies monopohsed the programmes of
the principal Danish theatres, to be in their turn
superseded by the problem plays of Ibsen and
Bjornson. The greatest actors produced by the
old romantic school were Ryge and the first
Nielsen, and of the newer school Michael Wiehe
and Fru Johanne Luise Heiberg, Emil Poulsen
and Fru Hennings. The two latter were particu-
larly successful in Ibsen roles.
The present Royal Theatre was built in 1872 —
1874 on the site of the old State Theatre. It
seats about 1,600 persons, and produces opera,
plays, and spectacular ballet. Performances begin
early and punctually, no person being allowed to
enter during the acts. The theatre is subsidised by
the State, the most prominent of the performers
being styled the King's Play Actors. They are
specially trained at the school attached to the
2o ja.ce p. 217.] \By kini permission of Charles H. Kelly.
Niels R. Finsen.
MUSIC AND THE THEATRE 217
building, often serve for forty or fifty years, and
receive a substantial pension on retirement. The
repertoire of this famous theatre includes practi-
cally all the world's most celebrated comedies and
tragedies, operas and dramas ; the greater number
of ballets produced, however, are specially Danish.
The most popular of the foreign authors whose
works are regularly represented here is undoubtedly
Shakespeare. Among modern pla5Avrights Shaw,
Pinero, and Arnold Bennett compete for the first
place in public estimation. Shakespeare's Hamlet
was first produced in Denmark in 1812. Like the
Comedie Frangaise in Paris, the Royal Theatre is
associated with one of the greatest comedy writers
of all time, Ludvig Holberg (1684— 1754), the
Danish Moliere.
Among the greatest actors of the last decade
whose names are connected with this theatre are
Olaf Poulsen, the comedian to whose histrionic
genius is mainly due the credit for the fact that
Holberg's comedies are now better presented and
more popular than they have ever been before ;
Dr. Karl Mantzius, a versatile actor, who has only
recently retired after a Ufetime of distinguished
service ; Jerndorff, an actor of the old school ;
and the celebrated opera singers Peter Cornelius
and Herold. The younger men, who are ably
maintaining the fine traditions of the theatre,
include Neiendamm, Johannes Poulsen, Poul
Reumert, and Adam Poulsen.
2i8 DENMARK AND THE DANES
The Dagmar Theatre is generally reckoned the
second theatre in Copenhagen. Its productions
invariably possess a fine literary flavour, and those
who direct its policy make a special point of
encouraging young writers. Shakespeare, Ibsen,
Shaw, D'Annunzio and the principal dramatists
and playwrights of all countries and periods are
regularly presented at this theatre, whose most
renowned actor was Fru Betty Nansen. She is
not at present performing on her old stage.
The Folke Theatre is principally a family place,
where the fare is invariably light and harmless.
The New Theatre is devoted to costume and
modern comedies. At the Casino, the Scala, and
the Norrebro may usually be found musical
comedy, revue or operette. Carl Alstrup, the
principal actor at the Scala, and Frederik Jensen,
of the Norrebro, are the two most popular come-
dians in Copenhagen.
There are several variety theatres, but none of
high standing. The prices in all theatres are
moderate, the acting in others than the four
first mentioned is often poor, while the plays are
mainly vulgar adaptations from the German or
French. No Copenhagen music-hall bears a high
reputation, and some of them, particularly those
in the Frederiksberg quarter, might have been
transplanted from San PauU or Montmartre
CHAPTER XVII
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN DENMARK
An Array of Illustrious Names — Niels Ryberg Finsen:
his Parentage and Eariy Life — The Latin School at
Reykjavik — Life reverses the Judgment of School —
At the University — Disease — Graduation — The
Origin of Finsen's Speculations — The " Red-room "
Cure for Small-pox — Foundation of the Institute of
Light — The Significance of Finsen's Achievement —
His Inventive Faculty — His Heroic End — The Insti-
tute To-day — Concentrated Treatment — Intense
Light Baths — Internal Diseases — Dr. Valdemar
Poulsen — Early Career — The Telegraphone —
"Spark" and "Wave" Methods of Radio-tele-
graphy — Claims of the Poulsen-Pedersen System —
Commercial Position — Wireless Telephony — Prof.
P. O. Pedersen — Ivar Knudsen — Baumgarten
aild Burmeister — Rivalry with German Shipbuilders
— Purchase of Diesel Patents — Success of the Diesel
Motors — Comparison with other Motors — The Diesel
Engine as applied to Ships — The First Motor Liner
launched — Comparison of Motor-propelled and
Steam-propelled Vessels.
Denmark, although one of the smallest countries
in Europe, has during the last half-century con-
tributed an imposing array of illustrious names to
the records of original work in science, philosophy,
hterature and art. The recital of but a few names
is necessary to prove the truth of this statement.
Thorwaldsen, many of whose statues may be re-
garded as among the most exquisite and beautiful
220 DENMARK AND THE DANES
pieces of sculpture wrought in modern times ;
Orsted, the discoverer of electro-magnetism ; Hans
Andersen, that great wizard of the North, who is
known and loved wherever there are ugly duck-
lings and folk young enough in spirit to follow him
in his fantastic and whimsical adventures ; Finsen,
whose name deserves to rank with those of Lister
and Pasteur, Metchnikoff and Rontgen ; Georg
Brandes, perhaps the greatest living Dane and
one of the most potent forces in European letters
of the day ; Dr. Valdemar Poulsen, whose radio-
telegraphic system, based on a continuous-wave
theory, is proving itself the only serious rival to
the Marconi system, and bids fair to become one
of the big things of the future ; and, finally, Ivar
Knudsen, the famous engineer, who built and sent
to sea the first liner to be exclusively driven by
oil-engine motors — all these are the names of
Danes who in the last fifty or sixty years have
achieved an international reputation in some branch
of specialised scientific research, of hterature,
criticism, or art. It is a hst of which any country
might reasonably feel proud, and when we recollect
that Greater London contains nearly three times
as many people as the whole of Denmark, the record
becomes still more amazing.
For the purposes of the present chapter we shall
select three only of these names for a more detailed
study, as representative of the most important
scientific work recently accomplished in Denmark.
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 221
Niels Ryberg Finsen was born in i860 at
Thorshavn, in the Faroe islands, his parents being
Icelanders. His father was the highest Govern-
ment official on the islands, and the Finsen family
can trace their ancestry back to the year 900 a.d.
Many of them were bishops, and many more were
lawyers. The arms of the family — a falcon on a
blue ground — form the basis of the new national
flag of Iceland.
As a boy young Finsen was quiet and self-con-
tained, a passionate lover of nature and of such
outdoor sports as his rather weak frame permitted.
He is said to have been fonder of climbing the
precipitous " fjelds " of his native islands than of
the schoolroom. Upon the lofty summit of one
of the lulls on the island — no superlatively easy
cUmb even for a man in the full measure of his
strength — Finsen has carved his initials. The
old house in which he first saw the light stands not
far from the shore, and his boyhood was spent in
bathing and fishing, climbing and shooting, par-
ticipating in the local whale-hunts, fowling wild
birds, sheep-shearing, racing after the wild ponies
on the uplands — a free, natural, open-air life, which
doubtless contributed much to the development
of that impatience of restraint and contempt of
conventionality which marked his later years, and
to that extraordinary dexterity of fingers which
would have made him, had he so chosen, the most
celebrated surgeon of his time. In the wind-
222 DENMARK AND THE DANES
driven solitudes of the Faroes Niels Finsen learned
courage, endurance, adaptability, steadiness of
nerve, and skill of hands, all of which were pre-
paring him for and leading him up to that great
calling for which destiny had marked him out.
At an early age he was sent to the Latin school
at Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland and the home
of his forefathers, after a brief and unsuccessful
sojourn at Herlufsholm's Public School in Den-
mark. The head of Herlufsholm's has placed on
record the following discouraging judgment of his
pupil : " Niels Finsen is a good boy at heart, but
his abilities are small, and he shows utter lack of
energy." It is a remarkable fact, however, that
life often reverses the judgment of school, and this
proved to be so in Finsen's case. His career at
Reykjavik was perfectly successful, and it was in
the society of the proud, self-reliant Icelanders that
Finsen developed that almost supernatural strength
of character that became so obvious in his later
life. In 1882 he began his degree work at Copen-
hagen University, having been granted a scholar-
ship from the Reykjavik school. At this time he
shared the political opinions of the young Radicals
of the eighties, and Dr. Thulstrup, his friend and
biographer, has put it on record that his " Radical-
ism sprang from his ideal character. He was
weighted neither with traditional opinions nor
Conservative prejudices. From his earliest days
he sought only truth, fearlessly examining the
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 223
basis of his every conviction, and never satisfied
with a dogma or a theory merely because it is
held by general consent. He was the last person
to be won over by mere surface eloquence, which
was as repugnant to his frank and open character
as to his scientific instincts."
In these early days of university work his
radiant cheerfulness became clouded by the know-
ledge that he was suffering from a mysterious and
incurable disease, which had been slowly and in-
sidiously creeping upon him during the latter half
of his youth. He grew continually weaker, and
his constitutional activity deserted him, never
again to return. Like Robert Lotiis Stevenson,
he knew he was doomed early, and like him, he
lived to make a fine and heroic fight for life. By
a magnificent effort — which in after-days, when it
became known, stirred the imagination of his
country and of the world — ^he battled against the
terrible malady, resisting it step by step, until
in the end he was compelled to live an almost
entirely sedentary existence, husbanding every
precious grain of his strength, scientifically cal-
culating every oimce of effort which he could safely
put forth.
In 1890 he graduated. His degree, however,
was an undistinguished one owing to the ill-health
from which he suffered during the period of his
reading ; but it is eloquent of the impression he
had already produced among those best able to judge
224 DENMARK AND THE DANES
that, notwithstanding his poor degree work, he
was immediately offered a position in the Univer-
sity laboratory. Here he remained for five years
as a prosector of anatomy, at the expiration of
which period he resigned his appointment in order
that he might be free to make a series of experi-
ments which had previously occiurred to him.
In his reminiscences he tells a very interest-
ing story of the origin of his speculations on the
medical qualities of light. He had observed that
when he was in the room of his friend, which was
light and sunny, he invariably felt better and worked
better than when in his own room, which faced
due north, and was therefore dark and simless.
From his own room he commanded a view of a
back yard and a small tiled shed. One afternoon,
while depressed and in ill-health, he was sitting
at the window, staring idly out over the yard.
The sun was shining, but one half of the shed was
in shadow. Upon the sunny half a lazy black
cat stretched and dreamed luxuriously. Presently
the shadow reached forth and touched the slum-
bering feline. Immediately it rose, moved to
sunny quarters again, licked itself, and contentedly
renewed its interrupted dreams. This perform-
ance the cat repeated several times and on several
days, always preferring the sunny half of the shed.
Finsen concluded from this simple observation
that light was beneficial to the cat, since it in-
stinctively searched for it ; and he resolved from
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 225
that moment to give the matter scientific inves-
tigation. Humanity is as deeply indebted to
that lazy black cat as it is to Newton's apple, or
Watt's boiling kettle, or the foot-bath of Archi-
medes, for from these simple beginnings grew his
profomid researches into the effects of certain
kinds of light upon the germs of disease.
Believing that the latent energies of the sun's
rays could be split up into two groups, one
harmful and the other beneficial, he commenced
to experiment along lines which he felt inwardly
convinced would lead him to an important, if
not epoch-making, discovery. He had heard of
the wonderful researches of the English doctor
Black in the treatment of small-pox. This able
physician excluded all light from his patients,
keeping them in dark rooms ; and by this means he
had been able to effect several complete cures.
Finsen's theory was that it was only necessary
to exclude the violet or chemically active rays of
the spectrum. In a famous pamphlet, published
on July 5th, 1893, he explained his method,
which was to place the small-pox sufferer in a red-
screened room, the red colour effectively absorb-
ing the inimical blue-violet rays. He then estab-
Ushed what was called his " red room," and from
this beginning developed the great institute now
designated by his name.
It is somewhat curious that Finsen began his
work with an investigation of the harmful functions
D. p
226 DENMARK AND THE DANES
of certain kinds of light. It was characteristic
of the man. He beheved in attack first, defence
afterwards. Not content with the success he had
attained, he immediately renewed his experi-
ments in other directions. He noticed that the
black skin of the negro possessed certain qualities
lacking in our white skins. He painted parts of
his own person black, and, taking sun-baths,
observed that the painted portions, when washed,
were clean and fresh, the exposed portions being
raw, red, and swollen. Using sunlight, electric
light, shaded lamps, he went on, himself the sub-
ject of many of his tests, until he had a very fair
knowledge of the functions of light in general, and
certainly a wider knowledge than any physician
who had preceded him. Most notable of all,
perhaps, was his discovery of the utility of the
violet rays for kiUing the malignant bacteria of
that terrible skin malady, lupus. In 1895 a
patient who had suffered from this disease for
eight years approached Dr. Finsen, and was elec-
trically treated. The progress of the disease was
immediately arrested, and the man eventually
completely cured.
At this juncture the Finsen Institute of Light
was founded, with the assistance of a grant from
the Danish Treasury and generous help from a
Mr. W. Jorgensen and Mr. Hagemann. In 1903
Finsen obtained the Nobel prize for medicine,
and devoting practically all the money he obtained
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 227
therefrom to developing his rapidly growing sana-
torium, placed it practically for all time upon a
sound financial footing.
The real significance of Finsen's achievement is
that in the course of time all old cases of lupus
will either have been cured or have died. Lengthy
and costly treatment will become superfluous,
since the disease will be taken in hand before it
has had time to corrode or disfigure the bodies of
those it attacks. In this manner the really terrible
forms of lupus will become extinct.
It would be impossible to detail all the experi-
ments which Finsen made in connection with his
research work into the employment of light
rays in therapeutics, but one other fact deserves
mention before we pass on to record his heroic
death or the subsequent development in the
scope of the institution which he founded.
Finsen possessed an inventive faculty which was
truly amazing. At different periods of his Hfe
he patented an improved mechanism for breech-
loading rifles, invented a special kind of cooking
apparatus, designed an ingenious dissecting knife,
and discovered a prescription for hsematine
lozenges. The idea for the modification of the
trocar of a dissecting knife occurred to him under
circumstances which reveal his extraordinary
courage and presence of mind. It was in connec-
tion with the illness which brought about his death,
and of which at that time very few definite data
P 2
228 DENMARK AND THE DANES
were known. As Finsen had spent many years in
Iceland, where the disease is prevalent, it was for
some time believed to be a worm in the liver —
echinococcus — but it was generally diagnosed as
chronic heart and liver complaint, which could not
be detected by the customary method of auscul-
tation. One of the symptoms was a continually
recurring abdominal dropsy. When the fluid in
the abdomen had increased to an intolerable or
dangerous limit, several pints of it were tapped
away. This was generally done by introducing a
small metal cannula through the tissues of the
abdomen, which were pierced by a steel needle,
the point of which projected beyond the mouth of
the tube. At the opposite end of the cannula was
attached a handle, so that when the trocar had been
inserted the needle could be withdrawn, thereby
making room for the pent-up fluid to escape.
During one of these operations the cannula had
just been inserted, but Finsen, who was lying
quietly on his back in the bed, saw by the look on
the operator's face that something had gone atoiss.
He inquired as to the cause of the concern, and was
informed that the handle had broken off, and that
the needle had slipped down through the cannula
instead of being drawn out. This was a serious
predicament, for, were the needle lost in the abdo-
men, an, operation would be immediately necessary
in order to recover it, and in the state of Finsen's
health this would undoubtedly have proved fatal.
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 229
Yet he neither moved nor gave signs of any anxiety.
Speaking very quietly, he said to his wife, who was
standing near the bed : " Send across to the Poly-
technic, or to Preisler,* and fetch a powerful
magnet. I will remain perfectly still. Perhaps
part of the needle is still sticking in the lower end
of the cannula, in which case we are certain to be
able to extract it. " Finsen's coolness undoubtedly
saved his life. The magnet was obtained and the
needle easily extracted. Later Finsen so modified
the construction of the trocar that a similar mis-
hap could not now possibly occur.
The manner in which throughout his life-
long illness Finsen analysed his own condition
and the heroic way in which he corrected, fre-
quently by most painful remedies, the defects of
the metabolism in his body, must arouse the
prof oundest admiration for him both as a scientific
observer and as a man. He carefully studied every
symptom in order to discover its exact value in
the progress of his disease. Towards the end he
was so intimately acquainted with the arrangement
and the heeds of his own organism that he managed
to maintain life and to continue the physical
functions of life far longer than would otherwise
have been possible ; and although his name will
always be principally associated with his light
treatment for lupus, the manner in which he con-
trived to benefit humanity by his own personal
* A famous scientific instrument maker of Copenhagen.
230 DENMARK AND THE DANES
sufferings is as equally, if not more, deserving of
recognition. Finsen died on September 24th, 1904,
at the age of forty-four, after a brief but crowded
life, during the greater part of which he waged a
continual struggle with pain and disease in his
own person. His was truly a courageous spirit,
operating through a medium of broken and ailing
flesh.
Since his death the institute, which is at the
same time the chief result of his life's work and the
monument of the faith which inspired it, has been
considerably extended both in size and scope.
It is divided into three sections: a laboratory,
the clinique for skin diseases, and that for internal
diseases. About one hundred and fifty consul-
tations are given every day, the greater proportion
of the patients being sufferers from either lupus or
eczema. Upon the elaborate apparatus for the
treatment of these dread diseases four patients
may be placed simultaneously. It consists of
connected and elevated divans, upon which the
sufferers recline. Above them is the great arc
light. A nurse attends each patient and mani-
pulates the concentration apparatus, which can
only be applied to small areas at a time. The light
is transmitted through a prism of mountain crystal,
filled with a capsule of blue-coloured water, which
absorbs the heat and the red-yellow rays, allowing
only the chemically active blue-violet rays to pass.
The treatment lasts for an hour and a quarter.
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 231
No pain or discomfort is experienced, the patients
being able to read books and to speak to each other.
The cure takes from three weeks in favourable
instances to some years in very obstinate cases.
At the present time about 10 per cent, of those
treated come from foreign countries. Daily out-
patients are received as well as resident patients,
the latter of whom live in villas attached to the
sanatorium.
In addition to the concentrated treatment, many
sufferers are given intense light-baths over the
whole of the body, and it is interesting to see these
bathing-chambers at work. The glare of the light
is blinding, but by cleverly devised shields the
patient's face is so hidden that no damage to his
sight can possibly occur. The heat is absorbed by
a thin downward stream or wall of water, inter-
posed between the light-source and the sufferer.
After the bath the patient invariably feels
exhausted and sleepy, and is then taken to a
rest-chamber in which the light is toned and sub-
dued.
In recent years internal diseases have often been
treated at the Finsen Institute with considerable
success, the Rontgen rays being utilised to locate
the precise area which requires treatment.
In order to obtain accurate data as to the medi-
cal effects of rarefied air under all conditions of
time, temperature, and wind-pressure, a very
practical apparatus has been devised. This con-
232 DENMARK AND THE DANES
sists of a large, air-tight, spherical room, in which
two observers can live for as long as may be neces-
sary. The air-pressure is slowly reduced, producing
the effect of a mountain climb. At the same time
the temperature diminishes, while a powerful
electric fan creates wind-currents, and light screens
vary the intensity and colour of the illumination.
Food is passed into the chamber through a
hermetically sealed tube which penetrates its
walls. A telephone communicates with those
outside, and two beds and a table provide accommo-
dation for ordinary normal life, reading, writing,
and sleeping. In this room observers have lived
for a week at pressures corresponding to altitudes
in excess of those of some of the highest mountains
in the world, and exceedingly valuable data have
been obtained.
In one of the rooms of the institute there exists
a small collection of the personal effects of Finsen —
the last letters he wrote, a review of a Lancet
article, the glass instruments used for weighing
his food during his final heroic struggle with
oncoming death, his Nobel certificate, and the
science medals awarded him by King Edward VII.
and Queen Alexandra.
Upon the wall there hangs one of Finsen's
favourite pictures, Arnold Bocklin's " Isle of the
Dead." It is a dark and gloomy subject, and it
is difficult to understand its influence upon Finsen,
unless he regarded it as a call to his mission of
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 233
healing, an inspiration to that glorious, beneficent
gospel of Hght which was the quota he contributed
to the worid's knowledge, and his addition to the
sum total of human happiness.
The second of the trio of scientific names of whom
we propose to give an account in this chapter is
Valdemar Poulsen, the inventor of the arc and
continuous-wave system of radio-telegraphy. Five
years ago Dr. Poulsen was, except among his own
countrymen, almost unknown to the general
public. To-day he enjoys a growing international
reputation, having passed in a few strenuous
months from comparative obscurity into the fierce
blaze of publicity and fame. In personal appear-
ance he is of medium height though strongly built.
His head in shape curiously suggests that of
Lord Kitchener. The iron-grey hair stands up
straight and untended. The close-clipped mous-
tache fails to conceal the firm lips, and serves to
emphasise the resolute strength of the jaw. It is
a powerful face which dominates but does not
repel.
The now famous Danish inventor is forty-four
years old. He is the son of a judge of the highest
court of Denmark. As a yoimg man he read for
the degree in Natural Sciences at Copenhagen
University, but did not remain to graduate.
Accepting an appointment as an assistant engineer
with the Copenhagen Telephone Company, he at
234 DENMARK AND THE DANES
once commenced to devote his attention to a study
of radio-telegraphy.
In 1899 he invented the telegraphone. This is
an ingenious apparatus for recording telephone
conversations and repeating them at will. It can
be adapted to a variety of uses. By this instru-
ment the himian voice is electro-magnetically
recorded and stored on a wire or a thin disc of steel,
without indentation or pin marks, and without the
employment of any other agency than electro-
magnetism. The record remains indefinitely, it
never deteriorates, and it can be easily reproduced.
If it is desired to obliterate it a simple application of
a magnet instantly accomplishes this. The utilisa-
tion of this invention saves both time and money.
A modification of the apparatus is employed on
the Copenhagen Central Telephone Exchange to
detect subscribers who abuse the company's
employees. To deny one's words when one hears
them repeated by this little machine is obviously
futile. It may also be used as a correspondence
recorder, the letters being dictated by the business
man in his office, while they are typed from the
telegraphone in the central typewriting bureau.
As a public speech and musical recorder it pos-
sesses points of superiority to the best gramophon©
in existence, inasmuch as infinitely longer records
can be obtained.
Shortly after the invention of the telegraphone
Poulsen left the company in order that he might
To face p. 234.]
[Photo : Rosa Metz-Pasberg, Copenhagen.
Dr. Valdemar Poulsen.
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 235
be free to follow a new line of investigation that
had suggested itself to him. He then entered
upon that series of experiments which led him to
the discovery of what are now termed the Poulsen
arc and waves, upon which his system of radio-
telegraphy is based.
Into the controversy as to the respective merits
of " spark " and " wave " methods of wireless
communication we do not propose to enter. But
a general outline of the earlier work in the science
is necessary to define Dr. Poulsen's position. As
long ago as 1879 Clerk Maxwell demonstrated the
existence of the waves now customarily designated
after the German mathematician Hertz. The
Italian physicist, Righi, showed how to produce
these waves with the necessary strength, while the
Frenchman, Branly, first conceived the idea under-
lying that important instrument, the coherer. It
only then required a combination of well-known
electrical apparatus to make wireless telegraphy
commercially possible. Marconi's apparatus was
the first to achieve any practical success, to be
followed later by the Telefunken, the Goldschmidt,
and the Poulsen- Pedersen apparatus. The Marconi,
the Goldschmidt, and the Telefunken systems fall
into the same category, in that they are spark
methods, that is, they employ intermittent elec-
trical discharges, technically termed either " pitch "
or " musical " sparks. Poulsen's method, how-
ever, stands alone, in that it employs a continuous
236 DENMARK AND THE DANES
wave. In the early days of his experiments
Dr. Poulsen beUeved that the future of wireless
telegraphy would lie with the system which could
produce continuous waves, and accordingly
directed his work to that end. He eventually
succeeded in obtaining the desired objective by
utilising the arc formed by a current passing be-
tween two carbons in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
In a famous lecture delivered before the Electro-
technischer Verein in Berlin, in October, 1906,
he conclusively demonstrated the utility of his
arc and waves in radio-telegraphy and telephony.
Since then he has succeeded in producing a higher
kilowatt power for a much less expenditure of
energy than can be shown by any other radio
system.
The proprietors of the Poulsen-Pedersen appa-
ratus have claimed for it the following advantages :
(i) economy ; (2) a greater speed of signalling ;
(3) a finer capacity for " attuning," with conse-
quent immunity from outside disturbances ; and
(4) the commercial practicability of wireless tele-
phony. In America the system is already well
established. Three years ago the Poulsen Wireless
Corporation of Arizona purchased the various
patents for the United States of America. It is
now converted into the Federal Telegraph Com-
pany. It has its headquarters in California, and
has built nearly twenty stations in the western
States, among which is San Francisco. It possesses
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 237
a station as far east as Chicago, and one on the
Sandwich Islands. Stations are in the course of
erection in the eastern States, in Alaska, the
Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. The Poulsen
stations at San Bruno Point, California, and in
Honolulu have corresponded daily for over three
years, across a distance as great as the Atlantic,
using only 30 k.w. power, the average number of
words exceeding 2,000 per diem. Finally, the
Washington Goverimient, after carefully testing
the various systems as to capacity of range, has
given the Poulsen Company instructions to build
a station at Colon (Panama) to correspond! with
the station at Arlington. The Universal Radio
Syndicate is also building new Transatlantic sta-
tions for rapid telegraphy between Ireland and
Canada.
With no other system is wireless telephony
at present commercially possible. This is impor-
tant, as although the radio-telephone will never
be used in cities or to any great extent on land, it
is bound to become both necessary and useful at
sea. In igo8 Poulsen succeeded in telephoning
without wires from Esbjerg to Lyngby in Den-
mark, a distance of 145 miles, using only 3 kilo-
watt, and in igio he telephoned from Los Angelos
to San Francisco (295 miles), using 12 kilowatt.
At Copenhagen, gramophone music played in the
Poulsen station in Berlin can be distinctly heard
over a distance of 215 miles.
238 DENMARK AND THE DANES
Prof, P. 0. Pedersen, the friend and
colleague of Dr. Poulsen, has designed an appa-
ratus for reading quick-telegraphy which greatly
facilitates the receipt of messages. It consists of
a thin gold wire moving in a magnetic field. This
casts a shadow upon sensitive photographic paper,
which passes at a uniform speed over a roller,
producing wave-lines which are permanently
imaged on the paper. Short lines indicate the
dots, medium lines the dashes, and long lines the
spaces of the Morse code.
Valdemar Poulsen is a strenuous worker, and no
living m^n of eminence concentrates so much as
he does. He has practically no interests outside
his own chosen sphere. He believes that success
in a technical profession can only be the result
of immense application. The spark of genius
which God has planted in a man's soul must be
fanned unceasingly by self-endeavour if it is to
burst into the flame which will glorify both its
Creator and its possessor. He beUeves that wire^ ;
less telegraphy is suitable chiefly for ocean work,
in extensive, thinly-populated countries such as
Russia, and in time of war, between operatin|
divisions of armies. The United States, SoutH|
America, Russia and China will, he considersifin
the near future, prove to be the Eldoradoes of the
wireless contractor.
Poulsen has confessed that in his school days
at Christianshavn he had a great predilection for
To face p, 238.]
Prof. P. O. Pedersen.
{Photo : El felt, Copenhagen.
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 239
constructing mechanical apparatus. It was his
custom to make almost every instrument explained
in the text-books or used by the demonstrators in
the lecture theatre, and he often laughs now at the
crudeness of material and construction of some of
these primitive machines.
Of honours, Valdemar Poulsen possesses singu-
larly few for a man of his attainments. In 1907
he received the gold medal of the Royal Danish
Society for Science ; in 1909 the University of
Leipzig admitted him as a Doctor of Philosophy
{honoris causa) ; and quite recently he has been
presented with the most notable recognition a
Danish scientist can obtain, the Medal of Merit,
in gold with crown, an honour which he shares with
but four others, Nansen, Georg Brandes, Sven
Hedin, and Amundsen.
We now come to the third name in this trio of
notable Danish scientists. Ivar Knudsen is a
member of the famous shipbuilding firm, Bur-
meister and Wain, which first sprang into pro-
minence under the designation Baumgarten and
Burmeister, about the year 1846. Building at
first only some five or six vessels annually, and
retaining their workmen principally for repairing
ships damaged in Danish waters, they quickly grew
in influence, and after 1863 their development was
extraordinarily rapid. From the first, the Ger-
man shipbuilders had viewed their young rivals
240 DENMARK AND THE DANES
with extreme disfavour, and now beconiing jealous,
they attempted to drive them out of the market by
sending up the price of steel blocks to prohibitive
limits, thus increasing the cost of ship construction
to a point which they deemed would be beyond the
resources of the younger firm. But the Copen-
hageners were not to be ousted so easily from their
position. They began to buy scrap iron and to
remake it into steel in their own yards, eventually
becoming, to a certain degree, independent of
either English or German steel manufacturers. In
time they were able to erect their own smithery,
and by installing powerful hydraulic presses to
commence to manufacture all kinds of steel shafts,
a business which has since proved highly satis-
factory and remunerative.
In this manner their sphere of operations
gradually widened out. The Emperor of Russia's
famous yacht " Standart " was built by them. In
1902 they built a cruiser for the Russian Govern-
ment, which was unfortunately destroyed by the
Japanese. A big ice-breaker for use on the
Gulf of Finland followed, and so by degrees this
firm worked its way to the position of premier
shipbuilders north of Hamburg. To-day it em-
ploys over 3,000 men regularly, and possesses the
largest floating and dry dock in the north of Europe
— a monster erection containing three berths.
To the general pubUc Burmeister and Wain,
and Herr Ivar Knudsen are chiefly notable as the
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 241
builders of the first motor-driven liner to take the
water. The Diesel patents were bought by Knud-
sen on behalf of his firm in 1897, when a small
test motor was erected. The trials were unsatis-
factory, and it was not until 1903 that any further
advance was made. They then commenced to
build stationary motors for electricity, gas and
water works, and pumping stations. These
achieved an immediate success, the Diesel motor
being both practicable and cheap for such pur-
poses. In small towns, on farmsteads, and in
outlying parts of the coimtry, where steam or
other engines can only be run at prohibitive cost,
the light inexpensive Diesel motor can readily
be installed. They are now very generally used
in Denmark, and the market for them increases
every year. Small co-operative societies often
buy them, the members using the power provided
at the usual rates. At the end of the year profits
are divided.
The Diesel engine is a four-stroke internal com-
bustion engine working with oil in its crude state,
and of vertical pattern to save floor space and to
avoid wear and tear on cylinder walls caused by
the weight of the piston moving to and fro in
horizontal cylinders.
There are no sparking coils, ignition plugs, car-
buretters or vaporisers, the ignition being effected
by the mixing of hot air and oil dust. This means
added safety in the working of the motor, as there
D. Q
242 DENMARK AND THE DANES
is no explosion such as occurs in other types of
oil or gas engines working with igniting apparatus.
Furthermore, the combustion is absolutely com-
plete, no residue being left behind in the cylinder.
The oil is used in the liquid state, not being first
vaporised as in other motors.
The chief advantages of the Diesel engine, as
applied to ships, are the complete and ready
interchangeability of all parts, the extreme sim-
plicity of the plant, and its absolute reliability.
There is no steam to get up, and no large staff of
boilermen or grimy engineers is required. A great
liner can be started in less than half a minute, and
the engine is always ready to begin work even after
months of idleness. A few motormen can work
a io,ooo-ton boat round the world. The first
man to realise the practical importance of this
engine was the subject of this present sketch,
while the first great steamship company to put
one of the engines upon an ocean-going vessel
was the East Asiatic Company of Copenhagen,
who in igii placed an order with Burmeister and
"Wain for a large liner to be fitted with Diesel
motors. The Selandia was the result.
She was built in fourteen months, and went out
to sea a year before any other oil-driven vessel.
She is 370 feet in length, 53 feet in beam.and 30 feet
in depth. Her draught is 23 feet 6 inches and
dead-weight capacity 7,400 tons. She is fitted
with two Diesel engines, showing a total indicated
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 243
aorse-power of 2,500, each engine possessing
;ight cylinders. Her speed is twelve knots. The
Selandia's trial voyage was, of course, historic in
:he annals of shipping, as she represented a revolu-
:ion in construction, and her early career was
:herefore watched with intense interest. From the
irst she proved an unquaUfied success. The East
\siatic Company promptly followed her up by
jlacing orders for other similar vessels. Knudsen
aunched the Christian X. in 1912. This ship was
subsequently purchased by the Hamburg- America
ine, and in their service has made three completely
iuccessful voyages from Hamburg to New York,
hen being transferred to the North South American
rade, where she is still giving every satisfaction to
ler owners.
The Nordstjernan Company, a wealthy Swedish
ine, ordered six of these vessels, two of which have
)een launched, and the remainder are to follow by
he end of 1914 The Fionia, built for the East
Asiatic Company, and which represents the latest
ievelopment in oil-driven liners, left the slips in
eptember, 1913.
It has often been stated that the motor ship will
Doner or later entirely supplant the steamship.
Jut this is hardly possible. For long journeys and
3r cargo boats up to 10,000 tons the Diesel
lotor possesses advantages which every ship-
wner concedes. The cost in fuel alone on a
02
244 DENMARK AND THE DANES
boat such as the Selandia is ^^60 a day less than on
a steamer of the same size. Then the oil fuel being
carried in the double bottom of the ship a great
saving of space results, a fact which has been
appreciated by tramp owners. As the oil is used
up the tanks are filled by sea water, which then
acts as ballast. The Selandia can take in her
full quota of oil in two and a half hours. She can,
for example, fill her tanks in Borneo, travel to
Antwerp or Liverpool with a cargo of rubber,
copra, or Eastern produce, unload there, and then
continue the voyage to Cahfornia with European
manufactured goods, thus completing the journey
round the world on one supply of fuel. In Cali-
fornia she loads oil again. This feat is absolutely
impossible for any steamship. The saving both
of time and money is of course considerable. An
oil -driven boat of the Selandia t3rpe can travel to
Bangkok (Siam) and back four times in the year.
The journey from Copenhagen to California takes
forty-two days, and is generally performed without
a stop. For tramps and general cargo boats,
therefore, the merits of the oil engine have been
sufficiently demonstrated, but for great passenger
linere, where speed is of more consequence than
expense, the steam engine will doubtless retain
its present supremacy.
Herr Knudsen's firm now have orders for motor-
driven vessels up to and including 1917, and it
may therefore be justly claimed that the oil engine
RECENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 245
I ships is firmly established. The credit for this
reat achievement belongs very largely to the
titerprising Copenhagen shipowners and ship-
uilders, who were the first to courageously back
heir opinions by putting the engine on the market
nd the ships on the sea.
CHAPTER XVIII
ROYAL DANISH PORCELAIN
Louis Fournier and pdte tendres — Frantz Heinrich Miiller's
Genius and Courage — Retail Business opened in
Copenhagen — Miiller's Technical Achievements —
The " Flora Danica " Service — ^Blue and White
Underglazed Painted Porcelain — ^The Period of Deca-
dence— Hetch and the "Empire" Style— The
" Arctic Night " of Danish Ceramics — PhUip Schou
and the Renaissance — ^Arnold Krog — ^The Paris
Exposition of 1889 — ^The Golden Age — Individuality
and National Sentiment — Dalgas — The Creative
Artist.
It has often been said that Denmark has no
distinctive national art. This may be true when
applied to the present decade of painters or
sculptors. But a visit to the Royal Copenhagen
Porcelain Factory demonstrates that Denmark
possesses at least one supremely beautiful and
national art — the art of the potter. The porcelain
produced by this factory during the two periods
1775 — 1802 and from 1890 to the present day
ranks with Sevres and Dresden, Meissen and
Wedgwood.
The first Danish porcelain was made in 1760,
during the regime of the famous Louis Fournier.
This brilliant Frenchman was in charge of the
ROYAL DANISH PORCELAIN 247
Lctory erected by Frederik V. about 1758, Only
)me twenty authentic pieces from this period are
nown to exist at present. These early creations
'ere not true porcelain, but what is called pdte
mdres, or soft paste. The modelling, design, and
olouring were imitative, and although they were
f wonderful beauty for such early examples, they
rere not distinctly national in character. The
•"ournier period did not last long, concluding,
.pproximately, with the death of Frederik V. in
766, when, after a brief struggle against growing
inancial difficulties, the factory ceased work.
In 1775 Frantz Heinrich Miiller, a young Danish
:hemist, founded a small company for the manu-
'acture of porcelain. He obtained a monopoly
n all the dominions of the King of Denmark, and
t was this small company which later developed
.nto the great factory whose name is known
throughout the world wherever there are potters,
Dr artists, or collectors. Miiller early succeeded
in producing some very beautiful specimens.
His genius and his courage in the face of great
difficulties and opposition won him the admiration
of his contemporaries and the recognition of con-
noiseurs. During the first four years of the exist-
ence of the factory its financial position grew
weaker and weaker, and it was not until Chris-
tian VII. had paid the debts and the concern had
been taken over by the State that it may be said
to have become firmly established. Miiller con-
248 DENMARK AND THE DANES
tinued to manage the factory, and in 1780 a retail
business was opened in Copenhagen, an event
which proved the turning point in the financial
history of the firm. Miiller's productions began
to be known, and in time he came to be acclaimed
a genius in the ceramic art. Towards the end of
the Miiller period the Royal Copenhagen Factory
took its place beside the other great factories of
Europe.
The technical achievements of this master
potter were to perfect the body and the glaze of
the porcelain, to introduce exquisite gilding, and
to create a national style. In 1790 the importa-
tion of foreign porcelain into Denmark was pro-
hibited. In 1801 Miiller retired from the factory.
Between 1790 and 1802 was executed the famous
" Flora Danica " service as a gift from the Crown
Prince Frederik to the Empress Catherine 11. of
Russia. It was designed as a magnificent present
to a powerful monarch. The death of Catherine
in 1796 did not, however, stop the execution of the
work, and when it was finally completed it num-
bered between two and three thousand pieces.
Upon this porcelain is painted, in natural colours,
representations of all the principal flora of Den-
mark. The work was carried out under the super-
vision of the botanist Theodor Holmskjold and
the painter A. C. Bayer. Notwithstanding its
scientific accuracy and a certain stiffness, which
was perhaps unavoidable, it remains the greatest
ROYAL DANISH PORCELAIN 249
chievement in Danish ceramic art, and may be
istly compared with the celebrated pate tendres
hvxes service (1778) and the Wedgwood dinner
jrvice (1774), both of which may now be found
1 the Imperial Palace of St. Petersburg.
Blue and white underglazed painted porcelain
ow began to be recognised as the characteristic
ational production of the Danish factory. The
riginal design is said to be of Chinese origin.
Ir. Arthur Hayden, to whom all art connoisseurs
re tremendously indebted for his authoritative
lOok on Copenhagen porcelain, has compeired the
)anish copy and the Chinese design by saying
hat they bear the same relationship to works
Q literature where the translation is generally
dmitted to be greater than the original.
Following the retirement of Miiller in 1801, a
)eriod of decadence set in. In 1807, at the bom-
)ardment of Copenhagen by the EngUsh, much of
he factory and many of its finest treasures were
mfortunately destroyed. Evil days followed both
inancially and artistically. In 1824 Herr G.
letch became director, and the so-called Empire
tyle was introduced. The designs were both heavy
,nd artificial, and for more than fifty years what
las been described as the " Arctic night " of Danish
eramics held the luckless factory in its relentless
;rip.
At length, however, in 1883, PhiUp Schou became
ttanager, and two years later Arnold Krog was
250 DENMARK AND THE DANES
appointed art director. These two men between
them effected the renaissance of Danish porcelain.
Schou was intensely modern. He erected work-
shops containing the latest equipment. His kilns
were of the newest design. He spent money like
water. He developed a new technique, and in
1889 the Copenhagen products gained a triumph
at the great International Paris Exposition which
astonished and confounded the artistic world. The
older factories in Europe found themselves hope-
lessly antiquated in the face of the intense and
beautiful modern work of the new Danish potters.
Copenhagen had added a fresh and glorious page
to the history of the development of European
ceramic art.
The years between 1890 and 1902 are regarded
as the golden age of the modem renaissance.
Classic, stereotyped, and ornamental styles were
abandoned. A realistic gripping of nature was
sought after and obtained. National sentiment
became the dominant note. Schou and Krog
created a ceramic art forceful and original, tem-
peramental and poetic, unfettered by tradition
and, most important of all, Scandinavian in its
aim and outlook.
To-day Copenhagen is the leading porcelain
factory in Europe. Herr Frederik Dalgas, the
present director, is a worthy successor of Schou
and Miiller. The spirit of these mighty potters is
faithfully venerated, though much new and original
ROYAL DANISH PORCELAIN 251
ork is being done. It is a notable characteristic
: the Danish people to feariessly and continually
low their individuality its fullest scope. With
lis object in view, each artist, designer, painter or
julptor in the factory is permitted a free hand to
■ork out his own ideas. His work-rooms are as
eautiful as his products. He is, indeed, a free
id unfettered artist in the completest sense,
erhaps that is the reason why his productions,
'hich may now be found in every museum or
jUection of any importance in the world, repre-
;nt the highest type of modern national and crea-
ive art.
CHAPTER XIX
THE PRESS
General Characteristics — Berlingske Tidende — The
Nationaltidende — Vort Land — PoUtiken — The Harms-
worth of Danish Daily Journalism — ^The Introduction
of the English System — Extrdbladet — Social Demo-
kraten — Kobenhavn — HSvedstaden — ^The Provincial
Press — Periodical and Technical Journals.
Danish newspapers and periodicals afford many
interesting points of comparison with the journal-
istic enterprises of the larger countries. In the
first place, they are of a more local and chatty
character ; there is no large background — every-
thing is viewed at extremely close quarters. In
Copenhagen many mediocrities, who in London or
Paris would never attract press notice, are often
interviewed ; their sayings are reported in full,
while their photographs adorn the pages of the
principal dailies. This is perhaps inevitable in a
small country, but it often proves very amusing
to the foreign visitor. If a premiere at one of the
theatres is to be criticised, one usually finds a great
portion of the report devoted to an account of the
notabihties present, with minute descriptions of
the toilettes of the ladies. A sick-club or a local
bank holds its annual meeting, and matter which
THE PRESS 253
in English paper would relegate to a few lines on
the financial page Is in Denmark fully reported,
ivith photographs of all the secretaries, managers,
directors and lawyers concerned.
Notwithstanding these little peculiarities, the
press of Denmark is in an exceedingly healthy
condition. The quantity and the style of the
presentation of home news is admirable, while
the leading papers are well informed and fairly
quick with their service of foreign news. The
majority of them are well printed, and in this
respect compare favourably with the German
papers. The total number of dailies in Deimiark
is 300, which, in relation to a population of less
than 3,000,000, is a strikingly high figure.
The oldest of the daily papers at present in
existence is the Berlingske Tidende, which was
established in 1749, thirty-five years before the
Times appeared in London. It is a moderate
Conservative organ, deriving its support principally
from the great landowners who constituted the
majority of the Upper House. It has belonged to
the Berling family ever since its foundation. Its
spedaHties are foreign and financial news, and as
it has very intimate connections with the various
European bourses, it commands a great circulation
among the business people of the Danish capital.
It has morning and evening editions, the former
constituting the finest advertising medium to be
found in Scandinavia. On political and economic
254 DENMARK AND THE DANES
questions it is somewhat ponderous, but it deals
with Hterature, music, art and the stage in a
more entertaining manner.
The Nationaltidende is a journal with somewhat
similar characteristics, but it is much younger.
If the Berlingske Tidende represents the great
landowners, the Nationaltidende may be said to be
the organ of the wealthy classes in the towns.
This paper also has two big editions daily, and
several smaller and cheaper editions, devoted to
special purposes. The morning and evening edi-
tions of both Berlingske Tidende and National-
tidende cost 5 ore, or about two-thirds of a
penny, per copy. Both papers issue a special
weekly sheet for women, and in their ordinary
editions devotes special sections to law, shipping
and agriculture.
The third Conservative paper in Copenhagen is
Vort Land, the organ of the extreme wing of the
party. In the main this journal supports the
policy of the late ultra-Conservative leader, Estrup,
and although poUtically it has some influence, it
does not possess the strong financial backing of the
two others mentioned.
The Liberal-Radical party have only one paper in
the metropohs, and that is the well-known journal
Politiken. Next to Social Demokraten it has the
greatest circulation in Denmark, about 50,000
copies daily. It sprang into existence about
thirty years ago, with the then Radical leader
THE PRESS 255
ggo Horup as editor. Later it came into the
nds of Dr. Edvard Brandes, and now it is
Qtrolled by Herr Cavling, the Harmsworth of
mish daily journahsm. The PoUUken is the
5st modern and cosmopoHtan newspaper in
andinavia, and among those who regularly
atribute to its columns may be found many of
3 most important names in Danish hterature
d art, political and social movements. This
imal was responsible for the introduction into
snmark of the peculiarly English system of
all pages, prominent headlines and illustrations.
Herr Cavling belongs much of the credit for
J present strong position of his property. He
3 throughout been more interested in modernis-
; Danish methods than in gaining poUtical
luence for himself. And it has thus come about
it the circulation of the Politiken is not by any
ans limited to the party whose organ it is.
ny people read it for its smart and lively style,
political editorials not being considered so
portant as its exceedingly clever presentation
general home and foreign news.
The same may be said of the afternoon paper
'rabladet, the Evening News of Copenhagen, a
)er commenced during the Russo-Japanese
' by the proprietors of Politiken. It gained
immediate success, and now has a circulation
ceding 50,000, an immense figure for Denmark,
:osts about one farthing, and appears in the
256 DENMARK AND THE DANES
streets of Copenhagen at three and six o'clock in
the afternoon.
Social Demokraten, the paper with the greatest
circulation in Scandinavia, is a Socialist-Labour
organ of great weight in the trade unions and
among the working classes in Copenhagen and the
larger towns. It sells 60,000 copies daily.
The Centre party, although it is not by any
means flourishing in the capital, yet controls a
daily journal, Kobenhavn, with a powerful follow-
ing. This paper costs only 3 ore, and, Uke Politiken,
is remarkable not so much for its editorial policy as
for its smartly written news matter. Its circula-
tion is practically restricted to the middle classes.
Upon its staff are many distinguished journalists.
A new daily appeared about two years ago with
a strongly national and religious policy. It is
called Hovedstaden, and was at first run upon non-
party lines, but has latterly inclined to the Centre
group. The chief point in its propaganda appears
to be an agitation in favour of a stronger military
defence of the country.
Outside Copenhagen there are many daily news-
papers almost as influential as those of the capital.
The chief of these are the Aarhus SHftstidende and
the Aalborg SHftstidende, both of them old, Con-
servative, and fairly wealthy so far as newspaper
properties go in Denmark. The Jyllandsposten is
a morning paper of good standing published in
Aarhus. It gives the best commercial and foreign
THE PRESS 257
elligetice of all the country newspapers. Other
imals of a similar character are the Aalborg
ttstidende, the Aarhus Amtstidende, and Fyens
iende. Finally, there is the Berg press, an
portant group of papers spread over the whole
intry. They were founded by the old Centre
,der. Berg, and are now controlled by his son.
The periodicals and technical journals are not
merous. For the most part they have to
uggle fiercely for existence, and cannot be com-
red to those of England, Germany, France or
3 United States. Verden og Vi is the most
)dern and interesting. The Familie Journal and
'emmet are popular weeklies, each with a cir-
liation exceeding 200,000. Illustreret Tidende
itates such papers as the Graphic and the Illus-
ied London News. There are only two good
mthUes, Tilskueren and Gads danske Magasin.
it they are both inchned to be academic rather
an popular, and their circulation is therefore
)re Umited than it might otherwise be. Finally,
jntion must be made of Klods-Hans, the Danish
inch, a cleverly conducted journal.
PART V
FINANCE AND INDUSTRY
R2
CHAPTER XX
STATE AND MUNICIPAL FINANCE
Dortions of Direct and Indirect Taxes — ^The Acts of
1903 and 1912 — ^The Tariff Law of 1908 — Fluctuations
in the Relative Values of Land — ^Uniform and Quin-
quennial Assessments — Capital Value of Estates in
Denmark — Graduated Income Tax and System of
Abatements — Limited Companies — Legacy, Custom
and Constmiption Duties — Tax on Motor Cars —
Amusement Tax — Railways — ^The Post Ofl&ce-r-
Lotteries — ^The National Bank — ^Telegraphs — ^Ex-
penditure on Social and Productive Purposes — ^The
Fortification of Copenhagen and the Naval and
Mihtary Charges — Support of Trades and Industries
— ^Agricultural Subsidies ■ — Reclamation Works —
Fishing, Lightships, Lighthouses, Mail Routes, etc. —
Hospitals, Lunatic Asylirais and Old Age Pensions —
Educational Grants — Interest on the National Debt
— ^Analysis of the Danish Budget — ^Municipal Income
Tax — Debts of Danish Municipalities.
lS in the Budgets of other countries, so in that
Denmark, the taxes constitute the major por-
i of the State's income. Of these taxes three-
rters are obtained indirectly ; the remaining
rter is in the form of direct taxation. Per
d of the population the Dane suffers only
:e-fifths of the average tax which the Englishr
1 pays,
he most important of the financial reforms
262 DENMARK AND THE DANES
carried through in recent years in Denmark were
those embodied in the Acts of 1903 and 1912 and
the tariff law of 1908. The Act of 1903 was
part of the great scheme to remove the economic
burdens on the land, and it was carried through
at the same time as the abohtion of ecclesiastical
tithes. Before 1903 taxes on property and land
had been payable on a valuation made in 1840,
and in this matter the Danish reformers experienced
precisely the same difficulty that we are experi-
encing in England to-day, a fluctuation in relative
values. Land which in 1840 possessed little or no
value had now become very valuable, yet it paid
no tax ; on the other hand, land assessed highly
in 1840 had diminished in value, and was conse-
quently paying a tax which was both dispro-
portionate and unjust. To get over this difficulty
a system of quinquennial assessment was devised,
and a uniform tax of i*i per thousand imposed on
the estimated capital value of all estates — ^including
lands and buildings — ^under the new assessment.
The present figure for the capital value of all
estates in Denmark stands at £350,000,000.
Direct taxation on income is levied at a rate
of 1*4 per cent, per annum for incomes under £55,
increasing according to a graduated scale to 5 per
cent, for incomes over £11,000. The first £45 is
always exempted from taxation, while there are
additional allowances of about £5 for each child
under the age of fifteen years.
TATE AND MUNICIPAL FINANCE 263
he profits of limited companies are taxed at
rate of 3 per cent, after the provision of a
er cent, dividend for the shareholders. This
ipany tax brings in about 1,250,000 kroner
),ooo) annually to the Treasury.
If indirect taxes legacy, custom, and consump-
L duties are the most important. The legacy
ies have recently been increased, and are now
rged at a rate varying from i to 3 per cent.,
ording to the amount of the estate, provided it
olves upon the children of the legator ; from
) 6 per cent, if it devolves upon the parents or
thers and sisters of the legator ; from 7 to
>er cent, if it comes to grandparents, uncles,
its, or relations of the same consanguinity as
se ; finally, from 10 to 12 per cent, if it is
[ueathed to still more distant relatives, or per-
s who are not relatives at all. Legacies to
ipitals are uniformly taxed at the rate of 10 per
It.
"ustoms duties in Denmark provide about a
rd of the State's income, notwithstanding that
Act of 1908 reduced the tariff considerably. At
! present time most of the necessary articles of
ly use are admitted free, e.g., foodstuffs, meat,
jr, coal, petrol, while the duty on manufactured
tal goods has been reduced by about one-half,
e Act, however, increased the tobacco duties,
i imposed a heavy tax upon imported cigarettes
from 10 to 25 per cent, of the value. Speaking
264 DENMARK AND THE DANES
generally, Danish customs dues are levied accord-
ing to weight, but in some instances they are
specifically charged according to Value. Under
this 1908 Act the dues average nearly 5 per cent,
of the total imports. Formerly the figure was
nearly 8 per cent.
So far as consumption duties are concerned,
spirits are rather heavily taxed, although the duty
on pure spirit is only about one-tenth of that
charged in England. The amount is fixed at
3s. per gallon, but the greater part will be repaid
on a declaration that the spirit will not be used for
drinking purposes. The duty on beer is one of the
highest in the world, and as Danish people con-
sume great quantities of this hquor, the yield is
important to the Treasury. Finally, sugar is
dutiable, both imported and home-produced.
There is a tax on motor cars, but it is not impor-
tant. Motor lorries or haulage waggons for com-
mercial purposes do not suffer so heavily in this
respect as cars kept for pleasure. A 10 per cent,
amusement tax has recently come into force. It
appHes to theatres and concert-haUs. A heavier
tax of 20 per cent, is levied on biographs, music-
halls, circus shows, etc. Both the taxes on motor
cars and on amusements are divided equally
between the State and municipaUties.
The remainder of the income of the Danish
Treasury is derived from the railways, the Post
Office, the lotteries, and the National Bank. More
5TATE AND MUNICIPAL FINANCE 265
in one-half of the railways and all the great
nk-lines belong to the State. The income last
ir exceeded £350,000, but owing to the recent
•round increase in fares, it is anticipated that the
>fit for the forthcoming and subsequent years
1 reach from £500,000 to £550,000. The capital
ested in Danish State railways amounts to
),ooo,ooo. The total mileage is 2,000. Some
;s, although not State-owned, are partially
,te-supported in that the Treasury have acquired
m 25 to 75 per cent, of the shares.
The Post Office and telegraphs are not propor-
lately so profitable as in England. Together
y bring in about £100,000 a year.
Another much-discussed source of income is
levy on the State lottery and the stamp
y on the lottery tickets. The former brings
^85,000 and the latter £100,000 a year. This
:ery has existed for some 150 years, and although
aboHtion has often been mooted, it is still
lined, the defence being that were there no
1-conducted and genuine lottery those people
3 will gamble would throw away their money in
idulent German or Austrian lotteries. This
ament is supported by the interesting fact that
usands of Danish lottery tickets are sold annu-
in Sweden, where this form of speculation is
permitted. The Swedish Government is re-
ted to be considering the advisability of re-
iblishing its own lottery. It is quite certain
266 DENMARK AND THE DANES
that no more money is wasted on this form of
gambling in those countries where it is carried on
than is, for example, spent in backing horses in
England, while the lottery, if well conducted, has
certain advantages which cannot be discovered in
connection with the turf in our own country. The
profits go to the State and not to bookmakers,
and granted that a very large section of the public
will gamble, there is much to say for a system of
organised State lotteries.
In addition to the above lottery, there is in
Denmark another which is called the National
Industrial Lottery, in which the prizes are pro-
ducts of Danish manufacture. The profits are
devoted to supporting evening schools for young
hand-workers. Two smaller lotteries are privately
controlled, but must contribute a fixed proportion
of their income, the one to (a) the Treasury, and
(b) the support of small holders, and the other to
the Treasury of the Danish West Indian Islands.
The final item upon the income side of the Danish
Budget is an amount of ;^45,ooo received annually
from the National Bank for its sole right to issue
notes. This sum is fixed at ;f42,ooo with an addi-
tion of one-quarter of the profits after the share-
holders have received a 6 per cent, dividend and
certain allocations have been made to the reserve
funds of the Bank.
Coming now to the expenditure of income, we
find that the Danish State in comparison with other
STATE AND MUNICIPAL FINANCE 267
:es spends a much greater proportion upon
al and productive purposes, and less upon
tary and unproductive purposes. The ordi-
f military expenditure has during the last forty
rs only increased from los. to 12s. per inhabit-
, a striking contrast to the figures of England,
nee or Germany. It is true that an Act of
9 provided an extraordinary expenditure of
750,000 for the fortification of Copenhagen, to
spread over a number of years. Notwithstand-
this sum, the military and naval charges amount
ether to only one-quarter of the Budget,
considerable sums are spent in supporting cer-
1 trades and industries. Agriculture receives
lually some £225,000; planting of heath land
i reclamation works appropriate £100,000 ;
ling receives £25,000 (including insurance for
es, boats and tackle) ; £150,000 is allocated
lightships, hfeboat services and the Uke in
inection with the work of safeguarding
J dangerous West Jutland coast. The mail
ites between Denmark and England are also
pported by substantial subsidies, in order
give the Danish farmers an opportunity of
eping the valuable English market for their
iry produce.
Social work takes 30 per cent, of the State's
:ome, 5 per cent, being devoted to old age pen-
)ns. Hospitals and lunatic asylimis receive
tween 6 and 7 per cent., national folk-schools
268 DENMARK AND THE DANES
the same amount, scientific education and the
arts about 5 per cent. The interest on the National
Debt appropriates 10 per cent.
Summarising, it may be said that the following
table represents roughly the allocation of the
funds of the Danish Budget : —
Per cent.
To the support of trade and industry
directly 10
For purposes of social betterment
and amelioration . . . . . • 30
Army and navy votes . . • • 30
Administration (Civil Service, police,
pensions, etc) . . . . . . 20
Interest on National Debt . . . . 10
There has not been a surplus on the Budget for
many years, owing partly to the extraordinary
mihtary expenses already mentioned, and partly
to the very considerable support which the
Treasury gave the banks during the Alberti crisis
in 1908. New loans have recently been raised,
and the National Debt has therefore been greatly
increased. In 1864, after the German war, it was
about £15,000,000. Between 1864 and 1880 it
was diminished to £10,000,000, partly at the ex-
pense of the reserve funds and partly by the fact
that Sleswick and Holstein took over a portion.
In 1890 the debt stood at about the same figure as
in 1880, but between 1900 and the present time it
has again risen, and now stands at £19,500,000.
STATE AND MUNICIPAL FINANCE 269
The greater part of the debt is placed in France,
m which country Denmark obtains most of her
ns : £6,500,000 is at 3 per cent. ; £9,000,000
3| per cent. ; while the last £4,500,000 was
:ained at 4 per cent. Speaking generally, most
the loans commanded good prices, e.g., from
to 96 per cent, for 3 J per cent, bonds. The most
ent loan, hpwever, was not obtained upon such
ourable terms, the price being only 93^ per
it. Against the debt the Treasury owns real
»perty to the value of £50,000,000 in land,
ildings, etc.
!t was generally beUeved in financial circles that
new loans would be necessary for a period
several years, and last year's Budget showed
jurplus. The yield from the new taxes will
ibably be more than at first estimated. As
apared with other coimtries, the Danish National
bt is not large. It works out at £6 los. per
abitant, and in this connection it must not
overlooked that Denmark has invested much
ney in such undertakings as railways and small
dings, which in England are left to private
iative.
fuming to local finance, we find that the income
he municipahties is derived from rates and from
nicipal enterprises, such as trams and water,
, and electricity works. The rates are levied
h on persons and properties, the corporation
ig free to decide the amounts necessary to
270 DENMARK AND THE DANES
meet the expenses of the year. The municipal
income tax permits of an exemption of the first
5^50, and an additional allowance of £5 for each
child. Over and above these amounts the rates,
for example, in Copenhagen vary from i to 6 per
cent, according to the extent of the income.
If 6 per cent, is insufficient to cover the year's
expenses, it may be increased. But if the increase
reaches 20 per cent, of tax received for the preceding
year, an appeal must first be made to the voters,
the new council then deciding whether the proposed
increase be sanctioned or not.
In provincial towns a somewhat different method
obtains. The rate is the same for all incomes, but
it varies from 5 to 10 per cent, in different parts of
the country. The assessors are permitted to add
up to 25 per cent, to the nominal amount of income
for the purposes of taxation, or, on the other hand,
to reduce the amount by 65 per cent, in certain
well-defined cases. Unmarried persons or per-
sons with abnormally large incomes have 25 per
cent, added to their incomes for the purpose of
assessment, while large families with small incomes
receive a corresponding reduction in the assess-
ment. Each person is compelled by statute to
make a return of his income to the appointed
assessors, failing which it is officially estimated, and
the delinquent has to pay on the estimated figtire.
In many municipaUties a further 50 per cent, is
added to the assessment value if the income is
STATE AND MUNICIPAL FINANCE 27T
ived from interest on bonds or shares, 35 per
t. if from house or landed properties.
The total debt of Danish municipalities is
1,000,000, most of which is with the Danish
iks. The debt has increased very much in the
t twenty years, owing to the fact that most
nicipalities now own emd control gas, water,
I electricity works, schools and hospitals.
CHAPTER XXI
THE BANKS
e National Bank— Disorganised Cohdition of Danish
Finances before 1818 — ^The State becomes Bankrupt
— Object of the National Bank — ^Mortgages on
Landed Property — Gold Reserve — Notes — Charac-
teristics of Danish Banks — ^The Private Bank of
Copenhagen — C. F. Tietgen — ^Successful Promotion
of Public Companies — ^The Landmans Bank — The
Handler Bank — Liquidations — ^The Efiect of the
Alberti Crisis — Causes of the Monetary Strain of 1907
— ^The Crash of 1908 — ^Speculative Financiers — ^The
Position To-day — Savings Banks.
The leading financial institution in Denmark is
e National Bank, a private bank with a capital
£1,500,000. It was established in 1818. Before
lat time Danish finances were unorganised and
a state of unusual confusion. A private bank
liich had been founded a century earlier had
jcome bankrupt and been taken over by the
;ate, which in its turn had become bankrupt in
}i3. The result was that the country was
)oded with paper money with no funds to cover
. At this juncture the National Bank came into
dstence with the object of repa5dng the notes
ten in circulation with 10 per cent, in notes
sued by itself. As security for the new notes a
.ortgage of 6 per cent, was laid upon all the landed
THE BANKS 273
property in the country, the properties receiving
shares in the Bank according to the proportionate
amount of the mortgage. This experiment proved
completely successful. After a few years the new
Bank began to pay dividends, and has done so
ever since. It had been granted, for a period of
ninety years up to 1908, the sole right to issue
notes in Denmark. In igo8 this monopoly was
renewed for a further thirty years, on condition
that the Bank always keeps a gold reserve of at
least one-half of the nominal amount of the notes
issued, and possesses in addition easily realisable
securities covering the remaining half in the pro-
portion of 125 kroner to each 100 kroner of notes
issued. The Bank pays annually about £40,000
to the State for this privilege, and a further 25 per
cent, of the profit after 6 per cent, has been
released in dividends to the shareholders. Under
special circumstances the stipulation as to the
proportion of gold reserve may be changed by
arrangement with the Government, but in that
case the Banl^ is under an obligation to pay to the
Treasury a levy of 5 per cent, per annum on the
amount which is not covered. Of the five gover-
nors two are personally nominated by the King.
Nearly ^^8,000,000 in notes has been issued, to
cover which the Bank possesses some £5,000,000 in
gold, a reserve greater than that stipulated. The
dividend is generally between 7 and 8 per cent,
per annum.
D. s
'4 DENMARK AND THE DANES"
For about thirty years the National Bank was
e only institution of its kind in Denmark, and
was not until 1846 that a second bank was
unded. Yet now there are more than 150 banks
the country. Many towns of from 3,000 to
000 inhabitants possess two banks. They are
nerally S;mall, however, and purely local in their
)erations. The great banks bperate only in the
pital, and do not, to the same extent as
aglish banks, establish county or provincial
anches.
The J'rivate Bank of Copenhagen, which has a
dd-up capital of £2,000,000, was founded in
157 by Herr C F. Tietgen, perhaps the greatest
anish financier of modern times. In the years
llowing 1864, when there was an abnormal
owth in Danish industry, and when commercial
velopment proceeded with tremendous rapidity,
is Bank was the leading financial institution in
andinavia, and through it Tietgen promoted
ose great and successful undertakings, the Great
arthern Telegraph Company, the United Steam-
ip Company, and the Danish Sugar Manufactory,
ch of which now has a capital of over £1,000,000.
The richest Bank in Denmark at the present time
the Landmandsbank, established in 1871 by
srr I. Gliickstadt, a financier who is also con-
cted with a great many of the most successful
rnish commercial enterprises : the East Asiatic
impany, the Copenhagen Free Harbour, etc.
THE BANKS 275
Herr Gliickstadt was succeeded by his son, Herr
E. Gliickstadt, a man of great initiative and energy.
The Landmandsbank has a capital of £4,000,000,
and, unlike most other Danish banks, operates
about twenty branches in the country.
The third great Bank in Denmark is the Handels
Bank, controlled by Herr Damm, the greatest
living authority on banking and finance in Den-
mark. This institution has a capital of £1,500,000,
with a reserve of £500,000, and may be termed the
Bank of the great co-operative undertakings.
As has already been stated, the country banks are
small, the largest possessing a capital of but
£350,000, while the general average capital may
be computed at from £5,000 to £20,000. Not-
withstanding their smallness, there have only
been some three or four liquidations during fifty
years.
The Alberti crisis led many observers to suppose
that Danish finance was essentially unsound. An
impartial examination however proves that in the
main the financial institutions of Denmark have
been built up and developed along normal lines,
and that to-day they are in a position relatively
as strong as the leading banks in the larger States
of Europe.
The underlying cause of the monetary strain of
1907 is not far to seek, and its effect can be better
understood now than formerly. The years pre-
ceding the crisis had been years of unexampled
s 2
6 DENMARK AND THE DANES
asperity, of commercial expansion, and of rapid
urease in the number and output of industrial
dertakings. To meet the changed outlook
i^eral iiew banks sprang into being, the prin-
)al of which were the Central Bank, the Detail-
ndler Bank, and the Grundejer Bank. At first
ese institutions were carefully managed and paid
ill. After a time, however, their directors,
[led into a sense of false security by good returns,
d honestly believing that this abnormal period
)uld continue, endeavoured to extend their opera-
ms, and instead of preparing for the inevitable
action, as did the older banks, sought to advance
ore rapidly than natural development warranted.
They financed a host of infant undertakings,
id even engaged in building operations on a large
ale. Almost all this business has since proved
be sound, but at the time it was more than the
>ung banks could stand. In order to obtain
oney to finance their various schemes they in-
eased their capital and offered higher rates for
jposits than did the older banks. Then in 1907 the
scount reached an .unparalleled height, money
jcame scarcer and scarcer, and the new banks,
hose investments were in securities upon which
ley could not realise, were of course the first to
el the effect of the tightened market. The
rst institution which failed to meet its obUgations,
id was compelled to close its doors, was the Central
ank, the smallest of the three above mentioned.
THE BANKS 277
It was eventually taken over by the Private Bank,
which guaranteed the depositors, who thus lost
nothing. The shareholders, however, suffered a
loss of 95 per cent, of their holdings. In the
liquidation proceedings it appeared that the Bank
itself possessed the major portion of its own shares,
having purchased them in the open market in
order to send up the price. The public, there-
fore, were not badly hit in this particular failure.
But half a year later, in the early months of
1908, came the great crash, the Detailhandler
Bank and the Grundejer Bank simultaneously
stopping payment. In order to allay somewhat the
resultant panic, and if possible to prevent a general
run on the other Copenhagen banks, the Govern-
ment immediately entered into negotiations with
the old-established banks in the metropoUs. They
were five in number. The outcome of the negotia-
tions was that the Treasury, in conjunction with
the five banks, agreed to indemnify all depositors,
the State taking over one-half of the Uabihty and
each of the five banks one-tenth. In this way the
depositors were saved from loss. The Grundejer
Bank will ultimately be able to pay a composition
of some 4s. in the pound to its shareholders, but the
shares of the Detailhandler Bank are scarcely
worth the paper they are inscribed upon . The total
Uabihty thrown upon the Treasury and the five
banks by this crash was about ;£i,500,ooo.
Since 1908 Denmark has been slowly recovering
8 DENMARK AND THE DANES
)m the effects of the lamentable speculations of
r younger financiers, and to-day the position
pears to be thoroughly sound. The older banks
ve now recovered their prestige, and, speaking
nerally, the methods employed both in finance
d in business are more conservative than they
;re before the crisis.
The Savings Banks at the present moment
ntain deposits of more than £45,000,000, and
issess reserves exceeding £3,000,000. They are
n on somewhat different lines from the Post
fice Savings Bank in England, being largely
-operative. The profits are employed partly
accumulating a reserve, and partly for benevo-
at purposes. The Savings Bank Act contains
ovisions regarding the management of the stafi,
,e number and status of the auditors, and com-
ils all such banks to submit their books to a
iriodical examination by the State Savings Bank
ispector. The moneys deposited in the banks
ust only be invested in certain specified securities,
incipally land and credit union bonds, while
Us must not be discounted in any circumstances,
here are special Savings Banks for domestic
rvants, supported by the State, giving the usual
,tes of interest, and affording absolute security.
CHAPTER XXII
THE CREDIT UNIONS
Objects of Credit Unions — ^Methods of Borrowing — Re-
payments^ — Interest — Deposits — Expenses of Ad-
ministration — Credit Union Bonds — Market Prices —
Old and New Series Bonds — Closed Series — Statistics
—Reserve Funds — ^Annual Losses — Small holders'
Credit Unions — Government Guarantee — ^Sale of
Bonds in Foreign Countries — The Kongeriget Da^-
marks Hypothek Bank.
The credit unions, which as financial institu-
tions are peculiar to Denmark, are societies formed
by borrowers, chiefly landowners, to obtain money
at reasonable rates and under the most favourable
conditions. The method employed is as follows.
A person who desires to raise a loan applies to one
of the many existing unions. His property is
inspected and its value appraised. The board of
the union can then grant a loan up to a little more
than one-half of the value of the property. In
theory anything up to 60 per cent, may be granted ;
in practice the loan is generally for an amount less
than 50 per cent. The borrower then elects to
pay either 2, 2^, or 2^ per cent, of the loan each
six months. The sum paid at the end of each
half-year is always the same, and it therefore
follows that as the interest decreases the amount
!o DENMARK AND THE DANES
repayment of capital proportionately increases.
le interest is calculated at if, 2, or 2^ per cent,
tiile the rest of the demi-annual pa3mient is
cumulated in a sinking fund for the repayment
the loan. Often the union will insist upon a
iposit of from 2 to 5 per cent, being placed to
i reserve, which amount is repaid when the loan
finally liquidated, and the borrower must pay
small sum towards the expenses of administra-
m of the union.
A distinctive feature of these societies is that the
rrower does not receive his loan in cash, but in
nds issued by his union, and these he must put
: the market through the medium of the Stock
cchange, running the risk of their not realising
much as he expected. In most cases the bonds
s quoted at less than their face value. For
ample, the present prices for 3 J per cent, bonds
le about 85 ; for 4 per cent., about 90 ; and for
per cent., between 97^ and 98 J. The prices,
Dreover, vary considerably, some unions com-
mding better quotations than others, while old
ries bonds realise better than the newer series.
thus often happens that by taking a greater
m at the low rate of interest the borrower
entually only receives the same sum as he would
Lve received had he accepted a smaller loan at a
gher interest, for it will be seen that the loss
stained is much greater when selling the low
terest bonds on the market.
THE CREDIT UNIONS 281
The loans are repaid to the union in sixty years.
They are divided into series, and the members of
one series are responsible individually and col-
lectively for the debt of the series, but such ha-
bihty is limited to the value of their real or landed
property. When a series has reached a fixed
amount, which varies between five and ten
million kroner, according to the union, it is closed,
and the bonds of a closed series then become more
valuable than those of a new or partly subscribed
series in that there is a greater chance of one of
the bonds being drawn for payment. They are
always repaid in full, whatever market price has
been obtained for them.
There are eleven credit unions in Denmark, each
of which operates within its own definite area.
Together they have granted mortgages over
224,000 properties, to a total value of some
£91,000,000. The reserve funds of the combined
unions exceed ;£3,5oo,ooo. The annual loss during
the last ten years has been one-third per cent.
This has been met out of the reserve funds. Only
once during fifty years has it been necessary for
the members to subscribe more than the fixed rates
of interest.
Two of the credit unions exist specially for the
benefit of small holders, and have a Government
guarantee up to 4 per cent, interest on their bonds,
which accordingly are quoted a little higher on
the market.
2 DENMARK AND THE DANES
About ;£20,ooo,ooo of the various credit union
inds have been sold in foreign countries, and, in
der to obtain the best prices for them abroad,
e Kongeriget Danmarks Hypothek Bank has been
tabUshed, with a capital of ;^i, 100,000, raised by
e State. This Bank buys Danish credit union
)nds, afterwards converting them and issuing its
vn bonds in their place to the value of those
)nds which it has purchased. These Hypothek
)nds are then placed on the foreign market and
immand exceptionally good prices. The reason
r this procedure is that as there are so many
nds and denominations of credit union bonds,
id as it requires a somewhat lengthy acquaiht-
ice with them to become famiUar with their
spective values, the foreign investors prefer to
ive the bonds amalgamated and issued to them
^ a responsible bank, which is in a position to
idertake all differentiations and valuations. The
ypothek Bank is seven years old, and has sold
ime £3,000,000 bonds to France alone, at rates of
terest var^ng from 3^^ per cent, to 4 per cent
;r annum.
CHAPTER XXIII ^
DANISH COMMERCE AN£) INDUSTRY
Geographical Position as a Commercial Factor — ^The
HanSeatic Union— The Netherlands — ^The Eighteenth
Century — The Royal Danish Porcelain Factory —
Destruction of the Mercantile Fleet— Denmark Bank-
rupt—The Struggle with the Norddeutscher Mer-
chants — The German War of 1848 — Effect of the
Opening of a Direct Shipping Line to England — The
Hamburg Crash of 1857 — Removal of the Toll on
Shipping passing Elsinore — ^The Rise of Copenhagen
— Beginning of the Great Trade Boom— Limited
Liability Companies — Shipping Concerns — The Free
Port — ^The United Steamship Company — The East
Asiatic Company — The Siam Steam Navigation Com-
pany — Mount Austin Rubber Estates, Limited —
Importation of Soyn Beans from Manchuria — The
Danish-Russian Line — C. K. Hansen — Lack of Coal
— Deamess of Labour — ^The Theory of Specialisation
— Messrs. Burmeister and Wain — F. L. Smith and
Company — Bing and Grondahl — Tariff on Articles
for Home Consumption — Effect of Co-operation
— The Agricultural Group — The Danish Sugar
Factories — Monopolies — Great Northern Telegraph
Company — Copenhagen Telephone Company — Gas,
Water, Electric Light, and Tram Companies — The
Danish Petrol Company — Monsted Margarine,
Limited — The Sulphuric Acid and Superphosphate
Factory.
The relatively favourable position of Denmark,
in close proximity to the Baltic and the North
Sea ; the geographical centre of an important area
4 DENMARK AND THE DANES
ibracing Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia and
jrmany ; divided into islands by deep and easily
.vigable belts — these should have sent her to the
mt, industrially and commercially^ at a much
riier date than has actually been the case. Not-
thstanding all her advantages, practically the
lole of the commerce of the North was com-
anded for many years by the Hanseatic Union,
at mighty and unscrupulous alliance of German
ties, of whose vast magnificence and riches
idences may still be seen in the old mercantile
daces of Hamburg and Lubeck and Bremen.
With the decline of the Hansa States the com-
ercial centre of gravity moved to the Nether-
nds, and it was not until the eighteenth century,
iring a period when the Dutch supremacy was
I the down grade and England had not yet
tained her great monopoly, that Danish trade
st began to flourish. This century was a time
uninterrupted peace for the Danes, and as the
eater States were for the most part embroiled
continual warfare, it proved the beginning of a
mmercial renaissance for Denmark. The Treasury
nerously assisted the private speculator. New
mpanies were founded, new colonies acquired.
I the West Indies, in Guinea, and in India the
anish merchants began to make themselves felt.
is true that many of these earlier successes
oved to be of but a temporary nature. But it
is a beginning, and many speculators and business
DANISH COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 285
houses grew wealthy. In the Christianshavn
district of Copenhagen may be seen to this day
some of the fine patrician residences built by the
merchant princes of that period. Perhaps the
most renowned of the companies of those days was
the Royal Danish Porcelain Factory, which still
exists, and which a;nnually brings a great deal of
money into the country. It has also contributed
in no small measure to the creation of a national
art in Denmark.
A prosperity based upon these unique circum-
stances, however, was bound sooner or later to
receive a set-back. In the early part of the nine-
teenth century Denmark found herself at war with
Sweden arid England, and in a period of but
nine years almost all the Danish mercantile ships
were either captured or destroyed. It is computed
that in the year 1800 the merchants of Denmark
were the proprietors of no less than 1,100 ships.
In 1809 this number had been reduced to 128, the
Enghsh having taken or fired something like a
thousand vessels. It can scarcely be a matter for
surprise that with the loss of the fleet between
1800 and 1809 and the secession of Norway in
18 14, in conjunction with the expenses of two
costly wars, the Danish State became bankrupt,
and her new-found commerce passed once more
into the hands of the waiting Hamburgers.
For half a century we witness an heroic struggle,
an attempt at reorganisation, a keen and spirited
286 DENMARK AND THE DANES
contest between the Danes and the Norddeutschei
merchants. The German war of 1848 fanned tht
national sentiment ; while a direct shipping line tf
England, opened in. the same year, proved th€
beginning of a less artificial and more lasting
prosperity. In the period 1848 — 1860 the im-
ports from England increased by 250 per cent., 01
more than 20 per cent, per annum. The financial
crash in Hamburg in 1857 tested the capacity of the
newly founded Private Bank of Copenhagen, and
clearly demonstrated that Danish trade was now
being built up along sounder economic lines than
formerly.
But perhaps the most important of the con-
tributory factors to this commercial revival was
the removal of the toll on shipping passing through
the Sound separating Denmark from Sweden. The
history of this imposition is interesting. It was
first levied in 1425, and many vessels, in order to
escape the duty, passed from the North Sea to the
Baltic through the Belts. It had, however,
developed into a very profitable source of income
for the Treasury, latterly bringing in as much as a
quarter of a million pounds annually. Othei
countries had often protested without avail against
this imposition, and for several hundred years the
Danes were able to retain it. In 1855, however,
the United States ambassador took the bull
boldly by the horns and flatly informed the Danish
Ministry that American shipowners would not b€
DANISH COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 287
prepared to submit to the levy after 1857, and that
in their refusal to pay they had the cordial support
of the United States Government. The Danes
then wisely decided to call a general conference on
the matter, to which all the Powers interested were
invited. The result was that the States concerned
agreed to pay Denmark an indemnity of £4,000,000
on the understanding that the imposition was for-
mally and permanently withdrawn. Of this sum
England contributed more than £1,000,000, the
proportions being decided according to the
respective tonnages of shipping which had passed
through the Sound during the latest years of the
existence of the toll. The interest on the indem-
nity did not amount to the sum of the annual
levies, but there can be little doubt that what the
Treasury lost the merchants of Copenhagen more
than gained. For from that moment the com-
mercial supremacy of the capital in these Northern
waters has been assiired. Vessels no longer avoid
the Sound, and the Danes now recognise that the
American ambassador, in compelling them to sweep
this relic of medisevalism into the limbo of the past,
provided their expanding trade with an impetus
from which it has never looked back. After 1864,
therefore, when the great trade boom came,
Danish industry, shipping and commerce were all
fully prepared to take their share.
In a slight review of such an extensive subject
it is impossible to trace all the causes which have
288 DENMARK AND THE DANES
contributed to the widening of the commercial
field. Practically all the most significant develop-
ments began in the years immediately following
the conclusion of the German war. The total
capital of hmited liability companies in Denmark
at the present moment exceeds £50,000,000.
From 1875 to 1895 these newly established con-
cerns were slowly consolidating their position, but
not much enlargement was attempted, the impetus
being rather spent in the direction of social and
agricultural betterment. This was the time when
the great co-operative institutions sprang into
being. Subsequent to 1895 there again ensued a
remarkable and rapid growth in trade and industry,
both in the promotion of new companies and in the
extension of old ones.
Shipping concerns have always held an impor-
tant and dominating position in the list of Danish
commercial undertakings, a fact not to be won-
dered at when it is recollected that only seven out
of the seventy-three towns of Denmark are not
situated either by the open sea, or on some fjord
leading to the sea. Less than i per cent, of the
internal carrying trade of Denmark is done by
foreign ships, while about 60 per cent, of the trade
between Denmark and other countries is carried by
Danish vessels. In addition, there exist several
Danish companies whose ships do not come to
Denmark at all, but ply between ports in other parts
of the world. The routes between the Baltic and
To face p. 288.] {Copyright: Underwood & Underwood.
Fish Market and Fishing Boats in the Canal, Copenhagen.
DANISH COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 289
the North Sea harbours are said by shipowners to
be the most profitable in this direction, though
there are no accurate statistics available to show
the precise extent in which Denmark participates.
Regular services between East Asiatic ports are
also highly spoken of.
The mercantile vessels flying the Danish flag now
number about 3,700, the total registered tonnage
exceeding 500,000. Eighty per cent, of them are
steamships. The headquarters of the majority of
the companies owning these ships are in Copen-
hagen, the absolute supremacy of which city has
been the outcome, as already explained, partly of
the rescinding of the Oresund's toll, and partly of
the opening of the Free Harbour in 1894.
In the spring of 1891 the Rigsdag passed the
" Free Port Bill," and almost immediately the
great undertaking was begun. The area on which
the new harbour was to be constructed had first
to be reclaimed from the sea. Extensive dams
were built, the water was pumped clear, and the
bed which the waves had washed over for cen-
turies was laid bare. Over 1,094,000 cubic metres
of earth had been removed by means of the power-
ful steam excavators specially designed and built
for the work. On November ist, 1893, Prince
Valdemar, by simply pressing an electric button,
opened the dams which separated the drained
area from the sea, and thei^ water rushed in and
filled the docks. These fatter are from 24 to
D. T
290 DENMARK AND THE DANES
30 feet in depth, and have about 12,000 feet of
quay frontage. About one year later the buildings,
warehouses, and coal depdts had been finished,
railway connections built, and the free port of
Copenhagen, one of the finest in the world,
opened to traffic. The cost of the whole under-
taking was about £1,200,000. It is now con-
trolled by a private company, with a capital of
;£250,000.
The geographical situation of the Free Harbour
is excellent ; the comparative shallowness of the
Baltic ports makes of it a natural transit place for
the goods of the large Transatlantic steamers,
while the distribution of goods is facilitated by the
wonderful system of steamer ferries which connect
the Danish capital with the other parts of the
kingdom, with Norway and Sweden, and with
Continental Europe.
More than 35,000 steamers and sailing vessels
pass the watchmen on the custom-house pier in the
course of a year, and of these about one-third are
from England or British ports. Copenhagen is
practically the only port in Denmark which receives
international traffic, although Esbjerg, which is
the outlet for the great export trade in butter,
eggs, and dairy produce from Jutland, is growing
in importance, and Marstal and Fano are road-
steads for numerous sailing vessels.
The greatest shipping concern in Scandinavia is
the United Steamship Company, founded in 1866,
DANISH COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 291
with a capital of £1,500,000. It was promoted by
that financial genius Herr G. F. Tietgen, who
amalgamated several smaller companies with the
object primarily of controlling the local Danish
trade. Operations were later successfully ex-
tended to the Baltic, and they now cover the whole
globe. This powerful concern maintains regular
services between Europe and the principal ports
of North and South America, the Levant, the Black
Sea, and the Mediterranean. Its chief route is
between Copenhagen and New York, and is served
by the popular Scandinavian-American liners of
from 9,000 to I3;000 tons. The export route from
Esbjerg to Harwich is also run by this company,
with the assistance of a generous State subsidy.
The fleet of this line consists of 150 ships, with a
total registered tonnage of 200,000. In 1912 it
earned about £200,000, and paid its shareholders
a dividend of 8 per cent.
The East Asiatic Company, Limited, is a com-
bined shipping and trading business. It was
founded in 1897, and, like the United Steamship
Company, has a paid-up capital of nearly £1,500,000.
It carries on trade in India, Siam, China, Japan,
South Africa, South America, the West Indies,
and the Pacific coast. It owns some twenty
vessels, with a total tonnage of 75,000, and in
addition hires steamers on contract. Moreover, this
company is either interested in, or the proprietor
of, several smaller concerns, the greatest of which
T 2
292 DENMARK AND THp DANES
is the Siam Steam Navigation Company, possessing
nine steamers. The East Asiatic Company were
the first shipowners to send a motor liner to sea.
Their offices are in Copenhagen, London, and Bang-
kok. In Siam the company owns and controls
forests and mills, rubber and cocoanut plantations.
One of its subsidiary concerns is the Mount Austin
Rubber Estates, Limited, which possesses a capital
of £450,000. A recent undertaking has been the
importation of the soyn beans from Manchuria to
Copenhagen and Stettin, where they are converted
into oil-cakes in the company's own; factories for
subsequent use as fodder for cattle. The goods
carried to the East consist for the most part of
European manufactured articles, and more par-
ticularly of Danish cement. The company dis-
tributes a dividend of from 8 to 11 per cent, per
annum. Its employees number upwards of 10,000.
A great many of the shares are held in England,
and are regularly quoted on the London and Paris
exchanges.
There are some smaller shipping concerns, with
capitals varying from ;£25o,ooo to £500,000. The
Danish-Russian line is a well-managed and pros-
perous company belonging to this group. The
C. K. Hansen firm is the largest owner of tramp
steamers in Scandinavia, and one of the largest
in the world.
Danish industry has always been handicapped
by the smallness of the country and the utter lack
DANISH COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 293
of coal and metals. There is, moreover, no
abundance of labour, and wages are therefore
comparatively high. In these circumstances the
great factories and the congested industrial areas
of England and Germany, France and Belgium,
will never be found in Denmark. It is only when
a Danish manufacturer selects some speciality and
develops it to a high pitch of excellence, or to a
degree of perfection which makes competition
impossible, and particularly when he chooses a
speciality which demands great technical skill and
intelligence from the workman, that he can hope to
enter the international market on terms with the
manufacturers of the more favourably endowed
countries. This economic limitation can be ob-
served by a very cursory study of the character
of successful Danish industrial undertakings. In
the greatest of them all, for example, Messrs. Bur-
meister and Wain, the world-famous shipbuilding
firm, their most pronounced success was obtained
when they began to speciaUse in Diesel motors and
motor-propelled vessels. This firm has a capital
of £600,000, and regularly employs from 3,000 to
4,000 men in its yatds and machine shops.
Among other concerns which have speciaUsed in
a similar manner are Messrs. F. L. Smith and
Company, who are building cement factories all
over the world with wonderful success. The
excellent results attained by the great porcelain
factories " Royal Danish " and Messrs. Bing and
294 DENMARK AND THE DANES
Grondahl afford a further illustration of the truth
of this theory of specialisation.
There are few protected industries in Denmark.
The duty on imports now amounts to about 6 per
cent, of their value. Under this tariff certain
trades have been specially nursed, mainly in
articles destined for home consumption, e.g., cur-
tains and hardware.
The effect of the co-operative movement upon
Danish trades has been described in an earlier
chapter. It virtually dominates the agricultural
group — dairy work, slaughter-houses, and the
export of eggs. Some agricultural machines are
made in Denmark, but the greater number are
imported from the United States. One impor-
tant industry however has remained outside the
co-operative movement : the production of sugar
from the sugar-beet. The Danish Sugar Factories
were founded by Tietgen. They have a capital of
£i,'25o,ooo, and enjoy a great protection under
the tariff. The combine pays average dividends
of from 15 to 25 per cent, per annum, but the
gross profits are much greater than this figure,
a large proportion accruing under former agree-
ments to the beet cultivators, who sell their
products to the company.
Among the remaining undertakings which fall
within the scope of this chapter are the Great
Northern Telegraph Company and the Copenhagen
Telephone Company. The former was promoted
DANISH COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 295
in 1869 by Tietgen. It owns and controls tele-
graph lines between Denmark and Norway and
the British islands, and Russia. It is, more-
over, the proprietor of several valuable mono-
polies in China and Japan. The head office is in
Copenhagen, and its chief branches in London, Paris
and Shanghai. Its capital is £1,500,000, and its
annual dividends are from 18 to 25 per cent. It
has accumulated reserves of about £3,000,000.
During the financial crisis in the seventies many of
the shares passed to Paris, but the administration
of the company still remains in Danish hands, the
Danish Government having the right to nominate
a section of the board.
The Copenhagen Telephone Company has the
monopoly for Copenhagen and Sealand. Its capi-
tal is £1,000,000. The Danish metropolis pos-
sesses more telephones in proportion to its popula-
tion than any other city in the world except
Stockholm. There are 53,000 subscribers, or one
telephone to each ten inhabitants. The cost of
installation and the rates charged for calls will
appear to be extraordinarily cheap to an English-
man accustomed to the tariffs of his own country.
Gas, water, and electric light are in most cases
provided by the municipalities, as are also trams
and enterprises of a like nature. It therefore
follows that but few private companies are formed
for these purposes. The Danish Gas Company,
with a capital of £500,000, however, is an important
2^6 DENMARK AND THE DANES
exception. In towns where the municipality for
some reason is unable to supply gas, a monopoly is
granted to this company for a certain number of
years, at the end of which period the gasworks
revert to the authority which gave the contract.
This concern pays lo per cent, dividends, the shares
being mostly in English hands.
The Danish Petrol Company has a capital of
£250,000, distributes dividends up to as much as
50 per cent., and is largely controlled by the
kindred Rockefeller interests. Monsted Margarine,
Limited, is a prosperous concern, with excellent
foreign connections. Finally, the Danish Sul-
phuric Acid and Superphosphate Factory is of
importance to agriculture. Its dividends often
reach 40 per cent.
PART VI
GOVERNMENTAL
CHAPTER XXIV
ADMINISTRATION
The Ministries — Effect of Democracy in Denmark — Civil
Government — The Municipalities — Local Govern-
ment — Copenhagen — Legal Procedure — The Courts
of Justice — Defects — ^The Rigsret — ^Defence Prob-
lems — Conscription — Military and Naval Adminis-
tration — The Army in Peace and War — Diplomatic
and Consular Services.
The political administration of Denmark is
carried on by a Cabinet consisting of the Prime
Minister and nine other members, who are at the
head respectively of the Foreign Office, the Home
Office (with which are included the Post Office
and the functions of the English Local Government
Board), the Treasury (embracing also the colonial
administration), and the Ministries for Church
and Education, for Commerce and Shipping, for
Public Works (including the State railways),
for Agriculture, for Justice, and for National
Defence.
Each Cabinet Minister receives a salary of £675
annually. The present Danish Ministry is one
of the most democratic in Europe. It neither
gives nor accepts titles. An interesting feature
of Danish political life is the opportunity it
affords for obscure individuals to attain positions
300 DENMARK AND THE DANES
of great importance in the State. A village
blacksmith has been Minister of Public Works ;
several small holders have been at the head
of the Ministry for Agriculture ; while both
the late Prime Ministers — I. C. Christensen and
Berntsen — ^were country schoolmasters before
entering pohtical life. The present Education
Minister is a parish priest, while the daughter of
one of the present Cabinet has worked as a domestic
servant in London,
The democratic wave has brought many dema-
gogues who should never have left their shops or
farms to positions quite beyond their capacity,
and where they have only proved lamentable
failures. Those who have seen anything of Con-
tinental politics behind the scenes, or who under-
stand the motives of much that is done, generally
admit that the two greatest stains upon it are
corruption and demagogy. Pohtical hfe in Eng-
land is not untarnished by these vices, but without
boast we may claim loftier standards of political
honour and morality than are to be found in any
other country which possesses a parliamentary
system, and it is for Englishmen to see that the
great name and fine traditions remain unsullied.
However, despite the defects which must be in-
separably associated with a system in which poli-
ticians are professionals, we believe that Danish
democracy has brought to hght many statesmen
of great initiative and astonishing abiUty who
ADMINISTRATION 301
would otherwise have remained without an oppor-
tunity of exercising their undoubted gifts.
For purposes of civil government Denmark is
divided into the capital and eighteen shires or
amter. Copenhagen is administered by a Royal
Of&cer, a magistracy, and a general council. The
Royal Officer is the President or Lord Mayor of
the city ; the magistracy consists of four alder-
men and four councillors, chosen by the General
Council, which has fifty-five members. Elections
to the General Council, as in all municipal elections
in Denmark, are on a system of proportional
representation, each party being allotted a number
of seats in proportion to the poll it has obtained.
Women have possessed votes to this body since
1908, but as a general rule there are only one or
two lady members to each council in the country.
Trams, and water, gas and electricity works, and
several hospitals belong to and are controlled by
each mimicipality.
In Copenhagen the Chairman of the General
Council has not the same power as in the country,
where he is also mayor, and often at the same time
magistrate and chief of police. As in England,
the amter are controlled by county councils,
while there are almost identical distinctions, as
between towns and municipalities, boroughs, urban
and rural district councils, and parishes. These
comphcations of local goverimient are beyond the
scope of the present work. Speaking generally.
302 DENMARK AND THE DANES
the local authorities have the same powers as in
England, somewhat extended in certain directions.
Only in such matters as the taking up of a new loan
is the sanction of the Home Secretary necessary.
The members of county councils are elected in
a somewhat complicated manner, the system being
similar to that applied to the elections for the
Landsting. The municipalities of Copenhagen and
the provincial towns, however, are elected by
those who are rated on an income of at least
400 kroner (£22). Aldermen and sheriffs are in
most cases appointed by the Crown, except at
Copenhagen, where they are elected by the General
Council, subject to royal approval. The finan-
cial position of Danish municipalities is, on the
whole, exceptionally good. The ordinary Budget
of Copenhagen amounts to about ;^i, 100,000
annually.
Legal procedure in Denmark affords many
curious contrasts to our own system. In the first
place, a Danish judge does not fill the same posi-
tion in society or occupy the place in the public
mind as do the .judges in England. In many
instances his position is combined with other
offices, and he is not therefore primarily thought
of as Mr. Justice Jensen, but as Herr Jensen, a
State officer and judge. The greatest salary
received by any Danish justice is £500 per annum.
There are three courts : the Common, the Upper,
and the Supreme. Each civil case is first sent to a
ADMINISTRATION 303
small committee, whose object is to attempt to
settle the dispute by consent. FaiUng this, re-
course is had to one of the Common Courts, of
which there is one in every town. Procedure is
extremely slow, as there is no pleading, and all the
evidence has to be laboriously examined in writing.
An appeal from the decision of a Common Court
judge is made first to one of the Upper Courts, of
which there are only two, one in Copenhagen and
one at Viborg, and finally to the Supreme Court,
which consists of thirteen members, and is the
only law court in Denmark except a special court
for commercial and maritime cases where pleading
takes place.
The apparently grave defects of Danish criminal
procedure are that judge and police ofl&cer are
often the same person, who has therefore to collect
the evidence against the prisoner and to sentence
him, and that an advocate is denied to the accused
during the preliminary stages of examination. It
is hoped that a general reform of the legal system
will shortly be carried into effect. Civil cases will
be taken with greater dispatch, and a separation
between judicial and police functions will be insti-
tuted. Juries will be used in the great majority
of cases, oratorical pleading will become general,
and the accused will be permitted an advocate
from the beginning of the case. That these much-
needed reforms have not been carried through
earUer may be ascribed to the fact that any change
304 DENMARK AND THE DANES
would prove expensive. Moreover, it should be
remembered that although the evils of such a sys-
tem in a large State would be very considerable
indeed, in a country so small as Denmark, where
the distance between judge and public is not so
marked, and where any abuse of the system cannot
take place without being instantly discovered,
they are so minimised as to be almost negUgible,
In addition to the general courts, Denmark has
a specially constituted political court called the
Rigsret, or Realms Court, whose functions are to
try and punish members of the Cabinet who have
been impeached either by the King or by a vote
in the Folketing. This court consists of the
members of the Supreme Court acting together
with an equal number of- distinguished men chosen
by the Landsting. The Rigsret has only been
used on three occasions during the sixty-six years
that it has been in existence.
Since the war of 1864 the defence of the country,
and more particularly that of the capital, has been
one of the principal points of contention in Danish
politics. Parties have come into and gone out of
of&ce solely on this question. In an earher chap-
ter we have shown how Estrup, the Conservative
statesman of the seventies and eighties, succeeded
in the face of tremendous opposition in fortifying
Copenhagen both by land and sea. Since the
domination of the Liberal and Radical parties the
system of defence has been completely reorganised,
ADMINISTRATION 305
principally by a reform carried through in 1909.
The sea fortifications of Copenhagen were then
strengthened considerably, and it was decided to
abolish the land forts in igi22, unless the Rigsdag
at that time decided otherwise. The troops have
latterly been concentrated in Sealand, where
thirty-six out of the fifty-two infantry regiments
of the Danish Army are now stationed. The
remaining sixteen regiments are distributed in
Jutland and Fyen.
The conscription of Denmark is mild when
compared with that of Germany, Austria, or France.
All Danes at the age of twenty are medically
examined as to general suitability for military
service, and as only 11,000 conscripts are desired
annually, it follows that a large proportion of the
male population escapes, only the very fittest
indeed being accepted. The length of service varies,
but the average works out at less than twelve
months, some arms requiring two years, others
only four months. Payment of about is. per
diem is made to all conscripts who do not receive
full board at the barracks ; to those who obtain
everything the daily rate is proportionately
reduced. At the conclusion of the period of
service a conscript remains in the army lists for
sixteen years, and during this time is, of course,
liable for war service.
Both military and naval administration are
carried oi> by the Minister for Defence. Formerly,
D. u
3o6 DENMARK AND THE DANES
in Conservative Cabinets there were two Minis-
ters, respectively officers of the army and navy.
Now however these are combined, and the Minister
is generally a civilian, who has the assistance of an
advisory board composed of officers from both
services.
On the active list are a life guard battalion and
ten infantry regiments of three battalions each,
five cavalry regiments of three squadrons each,
twelve field batteries, three battalions of fortress
artillery, and six companies of engineers. The
permanent peace strength is about 13,500 ofiicers
and men, and the annual contingent of special
reservists — who are men trained for short periods
only— is approximately 17,000. The field army on
a war footing, without depdt or garrison troops and
reservists, would be about 50,000, though by calling
up all the reserves, about 125,000 men could be
mustered.
The army is divided into two commands, the
Sealand Command and the Western Command,
each with a General Commanding Ofiicer. The
navy consists of six small battleships, four coast
defence ships of about 4,000 tons each, twenty-four
torpedo boats and destroyers, five or six submarines
and five protected cruisers. Most of the vessels
are antiquated.
Denmark maintains diplomatic services in Eng-
land, Germany, Russia, Norway, Sweden, China,
and the United States. There is a combined
ADMINISTRATION 307
embassy in Paris for France and Spain ; in Vienna
for Austria and Italy ; and in Brussels for Belgium
and Holland.
To these has recently been added an embassy
at Pekin, where Danish interests had formerly
been in charge of the Russian Ambassador. As,
however, Danish companies have acquired exten-
sive interests in the Far East, the desire for a
special embassy became stronger. In the same
manner Denmark has, since the last Balkan war,
appointed a Minister at Constantinople. Consular
services are maintained in all the principal ports
and commercial centres.
u 2
CHAPTER XXV
SOCIAL LAWS
General Conditions — ^The Workmen's Protection Act, 1913
— Holidays — Early Closing of Shops — ^Women in
Factories — Child Labour — Dangerous Trades— Old
Age Pensions — Longevity in Denmark — Hospitals
— Treatment of Epidemic and Tuberculous
Cases — Consumption — Sanatoria — Sick Clubs —
Accident Insurance — Fishermen and the State
Insurance Board — Unemployment — " Periodical
Workers " — ^Trade Unions — Labour Clubs — Labour
Exchanges — ^The State in its Relation to Children
— Illegitimacy — Foster Houses — Parish Relief —
" Help " Societies.
In its relations with the weakest and most
unprotected section of the community, in its
labour and poor law administration, Denmark has,
during the past thirty years, been working out a
code of social law unsurpassed in Europe, both for
its practicability and its broad humanity. It is
true that in Denmark the statesman is not faced
by the grave industrial problems of many of the
larger States. It is a country of farming and com-
merce, not of factories and mines, or of those
vast areas of industrial workers such as we have
in England. Moreover, the body of the Danish
people is largely composed of those for whom it is
not an impossible thing that they may some day
SOCIAL LAWS 309
require the assistance of the community, although
not for the moment in want. It therefore follows
that the Dane is inclined to support " self-con-
tributory " schemes with a greater readiness
than he would show were it quite certain that
he himself would never receive any benefit
from them.
Denmark has had for twenty-five years
reforms for which many of the more powerful
States are still waiting— absolute protection of
workmen against long hours and unhealthy or
unsuitable conditions ; pensions to old people ;
State sick benefits and insurance, both against
accidents and unemployment ; provision for
destitute and natural children ; and State aid
for widows.
The Workmen's Protection Act, 1913, which is
applicable to all trades and to any industrial
undertaking which employs other motive power
than wind and water, insists upon a certain cubic
quantity of air for each indoor worker, a minimum
height for each room, proper conditions as to both
natural and artificial light, the necessary conveni-
ences for eating and washing, the provision of
wardrobes, and most stringent precautions against
fire. The rooms are required to be cleaned daily,
and the system of ventilation in any building
used for industrial purposes must be upon an
approved plan. The Act enforces special restric-
tions as to the emplo37ment of machine men.
310 DENMARK AND THE DANES
lift attendants, and work involving an element of
danger, however small. All boilers are annually
inspected by the factory supervisor, and it is
forbidden to allow any man to attend a large
boiler unless he has first acquired a certificate
from certain specified engineering bodies stat-
ing that he possesses the necessary knowledge,
and is a fit and proper person to perform such
a duty.
The number of holidays in the year, including
Sunday, is sixty-one and a half, and upon these
days no employer can demand the attendance
of his workmen, except in certain necessary in-
stances, or where special arrangements have been
made with the sanction of the Home Secretary.
Danish workmen put in, on an average, 9"8 hours
per diem (all trades), as against ii'4 hours thirty-
five years ago. The position of shop workers
is not so satisfactory, but the movement for
shorter hours is now extending so as to embrace
these long-suffering members of the community.
The Act provides that all shops shall close at
8 o'clock in the evening, and furnishes the
municipal and local authorities with power to
close them at 7 o'clock when and where deemed
necessary.
Women are not permitted to work in factories
for a period of one month after childbirth without
special certificates from a doctor. During this
period of enforced inaction State aid is given when
SOCIAL LAWS 311
desired, and is specifically regarded as " not in the
nature of parish relief."
Children under fourteen may not be employed
in factories. Young people between the ages of
fourteen and eighteen cannot be employed for
more than ten hours a day, and not in any cir-
cumstances between 8 o'clock in the evening
and 6 o'clock in the morning. Factory workers
between these ages must be allowed two definite
rest periods during their working day. The
inspector of factories may, and often does,
determine that the work in a certain factory
contains such elements of danger to life or
health that it is unsuitable for women and
young people, and in such cases these latter
are prohibited from working in the factories
in question so long as the danger can be shown
to exist.
Old age pensions were first introduced in
Denmark in the year 1891. The Act provides a
pension at the age of sixty to all who are unable
to support themselves or those dependent upon
them. The conditions are : (i) birth in Denmark
or naturalisation ; (2) continued residence in the
country for the preceding ten years ; (3) no con-
victions for criminal offences ; and (4) no receipt
of parish relief during the five years immediately
preceding the " pension age," unless such has been
repaid.
The pensions are not fixed, but depend upon the
312 DENMARK AND THE DANES
necessities of each individual case. The munici-
pality and the State each contribute one-half.
The proportion of the population of Denmark
which is supported in this manner is 24 per cent,
of the people of the necessary age, or 37 per cent,
of the male population and 21 per cent, of the
female section of the community. The pensions
average £11 per annum. A pensioner is permitted
to reside where he desires, and it is often the case
that persons in receipt of old-age pensions will
elect to live in one of the towns rather than in the
country, the reason being that in the towns the
pensions are slightly higher than elsewhere. In
such instances the municipality of residence is
entitled to claim three-quarters of its half of the
support from the municipality of birth.
In certain quarters it has long been felt that this
Act is not the best that could be devised, inasmuch
as no inducement is given to thrift. There have
been many instances of persons accumulating
money and spending it between the ages of fifty and
sixty in order to quaUfy for an old-age pension.
Moreover, examples of deliberate evasion have been
brought to light, in which a man has made over
his property and investments to his family, and
thus secured for himself the full old-age relief. It
is beheved that a new Act will shortly be forth-
coming, based upon a self-contributory scheme,
providing a popular insurance against destitu-
tion in old age, and making it possible for every
SOCIAL LAWS 313
Danish citizen at a fixed age to receive an income
from the State.
Denmark is a country where longevity is most
marked. The Scandinavians generally are a long-
lived people, and as, for the most part, they work
under healthy conditions, it becomes comparatively
easy to frame laws for the provision of help in
sickness.
There are, of course, many private nursing insti-
tutions and hospitals in Denmark, but the care of
sick people is largely relegated to the munici-
palities and counties {Amter), who own and control
most of the great hospitals in the country. The
magnificent National Hospital in Copenhagen,
however, belongs to the State. It is one of the
finest in Europe, both in equipment and methods.
The hospital contains 1,200 beds, and its adminis-
tration is almost entirely in the hands of the
authorities of the Copenhagen Umversity, whose
professors form its governing body, and provide it
with its staff of doctors. The medical students at
the University obtain the practical part of their
training here.
In its treatment of epidemic and tuberculous
cases the Danish State is notably generous.
Tuberculosis is the scourge of Denmark. Some-
thing hke one-eighth of the people die from its
ravages. In 1901 a national crusade was com-
menced against this terrible disease, and a society
was founded whose sole object consists in fighting
314 DENMARK AND THE DANES
consumption from its first incipient stages to its
fatal end, with all the means at the disposal of
modern science. The society is supported gene-
rously by the State, and, as may be imagined in
the special circumstances, also by the mass of the
people. Indeed, so great has been the loyal and
earnest co-operation of the populace with the
Government in this matter, that in the short
space of ten years so many first-class sanatoria
have been equipped that it is now possible for
every tuberculous sufferer to receive the most
modern treatment either gratuitously, or for the
pa3mient of fees in accordance with his means.
Sick clubs are of great assistance in this re-
spect, but the State often bears as much as three-
quarters of a patient's expenses, and in addition
supports his family during his isolation in the
sanatorium.
When new sanatoria are erected the Govern-
ment deposits £90 for each bed. The National
Sociejty for the Prevention of Tuberculosis also
assists poor families into better dwellings, and
often procures for afiElicted persons employment of
a more suitable character.
Sick clubs are very popular in Denmark. More
than one-quarter of the inhabitants belong to such
institutions. The membership of each club varies
between 100 and 1,000, while four of them have
each more than 10,000 members. The total
number of subscribers increases by about 40,000
SOCIAL LAWS 315
per annum. To obtain State aid a sick club must
show a minimum of fifty members, must restrict
its operations to a certain parish or town, and must
consist of only working-class members. The
Government support to the club amounts to
2s. ^d. a year for each member on the roll, and
IS. 5d. per annum towards the fees of each member.
In addition, a subscriber to a sick club is admitted
into the State hospitals at half charges. The
support which the sick club gives to its members
consists of free doctoring, nursing and treatment
at the hospitals, and a cash grant which must not
exceed two-thirds of the sufferer's average earn-
ings, with a fixed minimum of 6d. per diem. This
assistance is usually rendered during a period of
thirteen weeks, but some clubs extend the period
to twenty-six weeks. The contributions payable
by the members are statutorily fixed at i6s. per
annum in Copenhagen, lis. per annum in the
smaller towns, and 5s. per annum in the country.
A person may not join a sick club after the
age of forty, but transfers from one club to
another are sometimes made after that age, pro-
vided both the clubs in question are themselves
members of the Central Union, which arranges
the re-insurance for the clubs. Finally, per-
sons in the enjoyment of incomes exceeding
;fioo a year are inehgible for membership of a
sick club.
So far as accident insurance is concerned, Den-
3i6 DENMARK AND THE DANES
mark is one of the safest countries in Europe in
which to hve. Only 230 persons pef annum out
of each million in Denmark are killed in accidents.
The proportion in England is more than twice this
figure. The low Danish rate may be accounted
for by the absence of mines, rocks, and mountains.
Most of the accidental deaths in Denmark arise
from drowning.
Insurance against accidents is largely effected
through private companies as in England, though
the State also participates in this business. In
1898 an Act was passed compelling the employer,
in the event of acddent sustained while in his
employ, to pay to the workman : (a) a sum of
three-fifths of his average earnings during the first
thirteen weeks following the cessation of support
from his sick club ; (6) in cases of absolute in-
validity, six times the annual income in one sum ;
(c) in case of death, to the persons dependent
upon the deceased a sum equal to four times the
annual income. In practice it is found that
most employers transfer these liabilities to the in-
surance companies. All disputes on questions
of accident insurance are settled by a special
court, which decides whether the employer's
liabihty shall be paid immediately in cash
or converted into an annuity during the life of
the workman.
The farmers do a very large part of their insur-
ance themselves on a co-operative basis. Fisher-
SOCIAL LAWS 317
men are subject to a special State Insurance Board,
to which they are each required to pay 6s. a year.
In sickness they receive is. Sd. a day ; in invalidity
a sum of £200 down ; in case of death, £140 is paid
to the relatives. Sailors in the mercantile marine
receive similar benefits, while in the case of
foreigners who meet with death while serving on
Danish ships the £140 is also paid to the dependents
when the deceased person is a member of a nation
which in similar circumstances would treat a Dane
as a native.
The latest figures show that there is more un-
employment in Denmark than in most of the other
Eiiropean countries, but that, on the other hand,
there is a much better organisation for deaUng
with it. The average number of unemployed in
the winter is 10 per cent, of the labouring popula-
tion. This may be largely accounted for by the
fact that several hand workers depend for their
living upon climatic conditions, and should rather
be termed " periodical workers " than " unem-
ployed," especially as during their terms of employ-
ment they earn much higher figures than the
regular worker.
The trade unions of Denmark stand in an excep-
tionally strong position, and to this may be in
part attributed the fact that although there is
more periodic unemployment, there is infinitely
less destitution or suffering than in other countries,
with apparently lower figures of unemployment.
3i8 DENMARK AND THE DANES
In 1907 the State took over the control of the
labour clubs, which are institutions for supporting
unemployed workmen, quite apart from the trades
unions, the sick clubs, etc. It is compulsory to
restrict the operations of the labour clubs to one
trade, or to one town, while they must be open to
all comers, whether members of trade unions or
non-unionists. They must have no other object
than that for which they are designed, and must
keep their work strictly separate from that of
any other similar institution, particularly the
trades unions. The assistance from public funds
which these clubs receive is as follows : The
municipality in which the club is domiciled is
entitled to donate an amount equal to one-third
of the members' fees, in which case the Treasury
will add a sum equal to one-half of the income
of the club {i.e., the fees of the members plus
the municipal donation), so that the total grant
from public funds will be the same as the
members' fees, provided, of course, that the
municipality gives the maximum amount it is
permitted to give, which in 88 per cent, of
cases it does.
The members of a labour club receive during
unemployment between yd. and 2s. 3^. a day, but
the support must not exceed two-thirds of the
average wage a worker in that trade and locality
would receive. No grant is made for the first two
weeks of unemployment, and in no case in which
SOCIAL LAWS 319
the sufferer has not been a member for a period
of one year. Neither is relief obtainable during
strikes or lock-outs, or where the unemployment
is the fault of the workman, or when a member
dechnes work offered him by the club. In legiti-
mate cases support is granted for ten weeks. The
members of these institutions exceed 100,000 in
number, while the fees average out at about 14s.
per annum.
Labour exchanges have been worked success-
fully in Denmark for ten years. The exchange in
Copenhagen finds employment for 40,000 workers
every year.
The State in its relation to children has
always been an important point of agitation
in Danish politics, and a vast body of laws
relating to the child testify to the care and
thought which have been bestowed upon this
important subject.
There are an extraordinary number of natural
children in Denmark, due to conditions which have
been emphasised in another chapter. Towards the
support of an illegitimate child the father must
contribute a monthly amount determined according
to the circumstances of the mother. He has no
right of control over the child. Should he desert
the mother, or fail in his obligation to pay the
maintenance, he is, as in England, summoned before
the magistrate and compelled to fulfil arrears, and
to guarantee future payments. If the father dies.
320 DENMARK AND THE DANES
or it becomes otherwise impossible to obtain the
monthly contributions from him, the mother
apphes to the municipality, which then graftts
what is called " normal foster-house support,"
an income of between £4 and £8 a year, being
about three-fifths of the normal annual cost
of a child in a good foster-house. This is
regarded as " parish relief " to the father but
not to the mother.
Married parents are compelled by Danish law
to support their offspring until the age of eighteen
years.
The maintenance of the children of necessitous
widows is arranged for upon a sliding scale. The
conditions are that the widow's fortime is less than
£225, and that her annual income does not exceed
two-thirds of the amount which is exempted
from income tax (viz., ^^45, with an allowance
of £5 for each child under the age of fifteen
years). The support consists of an annual grant
of £5 los. for each child under two years ; £4 8s.
for each child between two and twelve years ;
and ;^3 6s. for each child between twelve and
fourteen years,
Foster houses are under the supervision of the
police. A special State board undertakes the care
of natural children, orphans, and the children of
criminal or notoriously bad parents. Children
may be separated from parents in certain well-
defined cases, where it is deemed that the parents
SOCIAL LAWS 321
would have a deteriorating effect upon the chil-
dren, or where continued neglect can be proved
against both parents. The expenses of child
maintenance in all the instances mentioned are
divided between the Treasury and the munici-
palities.
Parish relief in Denmark has been reduced to a
minimum. Its receipt debars the recipient from
an old age pension, disqualifies him from admit-
tance to membership of unemployment clubs and
institutions of a similar character, and, if unmar-
ried, prevents him from marrying without special
permission for a period of five years after its receipt.
About 4 per cent, of the population receive inter-
mittent relief of this kind. The workhouses in
the country are for the most part old and bad, with
the exception of those in the capital and some in
the larger towns.
To avoid the stigma of pauperism, there are
many help societies, which grant aid on some-
what similar lines to that given by the parishes.
The income of these societies is obtained
partly from the Ucences on dogs and partly
from certain funds at the disposal of the muni-
cipalities. The help given must not exceed £10 in
eighteen months.
Denmark is not yet an Utopia, and Danish
statesmen have not been invariably successful in
their plans for social amehoration, but it may
be claimed for them, without any undue par-
D. X
322 DENMARK AND THE DANES
tisanship, that, whatever else they have done,
they have at least faced their problems
courageously and attempted a solution, while
many other countries are still disputing over the
nature of the difficulties.
CHAPTER XXVI
DENMARK'S OVERSEAS POSSESSIONS
The Faroe Islands — Physical Characteristics — Inhabitants :
their Customs and Occupations— Language, Educa-
tion, and Temperament — Fauna — Iceland — Confor-
mation — Volcanoes and Geysers — Reykjavik — Com-
merce — Communication — The Iceland Ponies — The
TingwaUa — Tourist Possibilities — Greenland — ^The
Esquimaux — ^The Danish West Indies — ^The Future
of Denmark.
With one exception the overseas possessions
of Denmark are of little commercial or political
importance. They consist of Iceland, Greenland,
the Faroe islands, and the Danish West Indies.
Of these the Faroes, strictly speaking, form a part
of Denmark itself, being represented at Copen-
hagen in the Landsting by one member and in the
Folketing by one member. They are a group of
about twenty islands, seventeen of which are
inhabited, situated in the North Atlantic, west of
the Shetlands, occupying an area of 400 square
miles, and supporting a population of 18,000
people. The principal town, which is situated on
Stromoe, or Stream Isle, is Thorshavn, with less
than 6,000 inhabitants, but th^* wealthiest village
is Thrangisvaag, the capital of Suderoe (South
Isle). These islands are extremely small, and
X 2
324 DENMARK AND THE DANES
the channels between them often dijSicult to navi-
gate. Their soil is poor, and their vegetation
scanty. The people live mainly by fishing, sup-
plemented by sheep farming on a smjill scale, the
collection of birds' eggs, and occasional whaUng.
The climate is milder than might be expected from
their Northern latitude, owing to the fact that
they lie near the course of one of the currents of
the Gulf Stream. The islands were first populated
by fugitives from Norway in the ninth century.
In the middle ages communication with the outside
world was very rare, and therefore to this day the
islanders still retain many of their ancient and
picturesque customs and costumes. For adminis-
trative and ecclesiastical purposes they are in-
cluded in the diocese of Sealand.
Local affairs are controlled by an assembly called
the Lagting, whose chairman is an Amtmand,
appointed by the King of Denmark. This island
council only sits for about two months in the
summer, and its members are paid out of the pro-
ceeds of a poll-tax levied on all the voters in the
islands. There are no bye-elections, each deputy
having an assistant chosen to take his place in
the event of his retirement or death. Taxes
are collected by sheriffs, who are invariably
Faroe men.
There are no lawyers on the islands with the
exception of those at Thorshavn, where all impor-
tant cases are tried. Smaller cases are left to the
DENMARK'S OVERSEAS POSSESSIONS 325
discretion of the headman of each village, or for
the sheriffs on their quarterly rounds, the final
appeal in all instances being to the Danish courts.
Crimes, however, are said to be extraordinarily
rare, the Faroe islander being temperamentally
peaceable and law-abiding. The greater number
of offenders who find their way into the only two
prisons on the islands are stated to be fishermen
from the Shetlands. Mr. Nelson Annandale, the
well-known ethnologist and traveller, has dis-
covered a rather curious custom still in vogue in
the Faroes. As the law only permits a prisoner to
be given bread and water, and as this is hardly a
generous diet in a Northern climate, an arrange-
ment is made whereby a man who is detained for
more than a few days serves his term in periods
of three days, enjoying three days' freedom
between each, so that his punishment is spread
out over twice the estimated period. Under
ordinary circumstances there is no danger
of his escape during the periods of respite, and
should a ship come in while he happens to be
free, he can easily be clapped into gaol again
until it sails. Long sentences are, of course,
served in Denmark.
In Thorshavn there is a small college for
teachers, and in some of the larger villages there
exist elementary schools, the instruction being
given in Danish, but the education is mostly of a
patriarchal character and received in the homes.
326 DENMARK AND THE DANES
The results of this system are not altogether ur
satisfactory, the peasants being naturally intelli
gent and gifted with great common sense. The
are a strong and unusually handsome race, we]
proportioned, dignified, fearless, sober emd ver
hospitable. Springing from a stock half Vikin§
half Scottish, they make excellent sailors am
fishermen. They are honest, sane, clean in hem
and person, and by many are considered to b
the finest living representatives of the heroes o
the ancient sagas.
The Parish dialect is a corruption of tb
classical Norse of the ninth and tenth centuries
and when written resembles modem Icelandic
although in pronunciation the two language
differ materially. The weekly and fortnighth
newspapers which emanate from the presses a
Thorshavn, however, are for the most part printec
in Danish, which is read and understood b]
nearly everybody on the islands, being thi
language of the churches, the schools, tb
Lagting and the law.
The Faroe houses are picturesquely constructec
of wood, roofed with birch-bark, and painted wit)
tar in precisely the same style and manner as ii
Norway more than a thousand years ago. Soli
tary farmsteads are rare. In the capital the appear
ance of the irregular, narrow streets and stairways
the faded brown and grey wooden houses, and tb
primitive oil-lamps, give the place a curiously old
DENMARK'S OVERSEAS POSSESSIONS 327
world aspect that is very enchanting until one
" stumbles in the dark down some steep flight of
steps, or one of the very many precipitous openings
on the sea."
Nearly every Faroe man owns the land he occu-
pies, which is cheap though almost unproductive ;
but he is obliged to wring the major portion of
his living from the sea. Fortunately the waters
round the islands contain enough fish to ensure, if
not an excess, at any rate a sufficiency, of food for
himself and for those dependent upon him.
Whaling and fowhng are the chief occupations,
providing the islanders with food for the winter,
oil for their lamps, floats for their nets, and toys
for their children. The chief whale followed is the
" pilot " — Globicephaliis melas — ^while of birds the
islands team with puf&ns, fulmar petrels, gannet,
guillemots, razorbills and shear-waters. It is said
also that the great haUbut grows fatter on the
Faroe bank than anywhere else in European
waters.
More important than this group of islands —
indeed, the most important of all the Danish pos-
sessions — ^is Iceland, with her 85,000 inhabitants,
her own parUament, and her national flag, the
land which is incomparable in the prodigality of
wild beauty with which nature has endowed her.
Her glaciers are the largest in Europe, while her hot
springs and geysers, her tablelands of volcanic
cinders, her lava fields, her forests of dwarf trees.
328 DENMARK AND THE DANES
her long and silent valleys, form an ensemble as
unique as it is picturesque.
Like the Faroes, Iceland was originally colonised
by the Norwegians, but at the separation of 1814
it remained under the Danish crown. The area of
the country is estimated at 40,500 square miles,
and it is not unhkely that its commercial expansion
will prove extremely important to Denmark. It
is said to be the most volcanic island in the world,
though there has not been much loss of life, largely
owing to the fact that Hecla, the chief volcanic
peak, is situated in the remote and almost inaccess-
ible interior of the country. Peculiar features of
the island are the warm geysers, which sometimes
reach thirty or forty yards in height. In former
times these phenomena occurred two or three
times daily with great regularity ; now, however,
the springs are inactive on occasions for several
days at a time.
The high plateaux of the centre of the island are
frequently snow- and ice- bound, but the lowlands
of the coast enjoy a healthy and equable climate,
with no extreme severity either of winter or sum-
mer. The majority of the commercial companies
operating in Iceland are Danish or English, the
chief articles of export being the famoMs Iceland
ponies, wool and mutton, cod, eiderdown, and
blubber. Although in former times the island
appears to have had an exceptionally high rate of
mortality, this has diminished considerably in
DENMARK'S OVERSEAS POSSESSIONS 329
recent years, and the number of inhabitants is now
steadily on the increase.
The capital of the country is Reykjavik, with a
population now approaching 13,000 souls. Despite
its proximity to the Arctic circle, this town is not
by any means the primitive settlement many
English people believe it to be. There are two
biograph theatres open throughout the year, and
in addition a winter theatre. Two newspapers
are pubhshed, the most important being the
Isafold, which is issued twice weekly. There is
the parUament house, the cathedral, and in addi-
tion two other churches, one Protestant and
one Catholic. The Bank, the Library, and the
Old Icelandic Museum are fine modern buildings.
There are at present, however, no trams and no
electric light. Two years ago a gas company com-
menced operations. The water supply is obtained
from a large waterfall some eight miles distant
from the town. There are two good hotels, and
weekly communication between Leith, the Faroes
and Copenhagen is maintained by two Danish
shipping companies. Both in summer and winter
steamers connect with the principal coast towns
and Reykjavik, and with the little southerly
island of Vestmanoe. There is a large Latin school,
with scholarships leading to the Copenhagen Univer-
sity, of which mention has been made in an eariier
chapter. In this connection it may be observed
that students from Iceland receive a maintenance
330 DENMARK AND THE DANES
grant of some sixty kroner a month during the
three or four years they are at the University, On
an average there are twenty or thirty Icelandic
students in Copenhagen every year.
Communication in Iceland is effected almost
entirely by means of the wiry little national ponies.
There are no railways. The roads connecting the
principal points of the island are moderately good,
though in the winter they often become impassable.
With the exception of the capital and Akurejni,
there are no important towns, but there are some
three or four fairly large communities, the chief
of which are Isafjord and Seydisfjord. One of the
villages boasts electric light in every house. This
is Havnefjord, a diminutive city near Reykjavik,
and the only place in Iceland possessing a dynamo.
The motive power is supplied by a waterfall.
It has been cleverly shown by Mr. Annandale,
to whom reference has already been made, that
Icelandic hfe cannot be perfectly comprehended
until one has grasped the part which the small
wiry ponies play in it. " Everybody in the country
rides. To walk is considered to be deficient in
personal dignity ; to pay a call on foot in the
country, or even to dismount uninvited at a farm-
house door, is looked upon as a breach of good
manners. The very beggars are men who, through
laziness or misfortune, are unable to produce
sufficient on their own farms to support their
families, and who ride round to their neighbours
DENMARK'S OVERSEAS POSSESSIONS 331
with a large bag, in which they receive broken
meats and cast-ofi clothing. Without the ponies
it would be impossible for the lowest savage to
exist in Iceland, except directly on the coast, for
without food from the sea, if not from abroad,
there would be nothing to eat. Every luxury,
every article above the necessities of primitive
man, every plank of wood, every piece of metal,
every poxmd of corn, must come from the outside.
The food supply of the whole population is entirely
dependent on the ponies, which carry in the hay,
transport the wool to the coast, and bring fish to
the farms which are not near the sea. Indifferent
as to their track, sure-footed £is goats, they trot
along through marshes, over mountains, across
rivers, in single file, sometimes herded by a dog,
sometimes tied tail to head, often almost hidden
by their loads. Given time and numbers, they will
carry anything from a man to the wood and metal
for a house. During the summer the cost of keep-
ing one of these useful animals is only about a
farthing a day."
The Icelandic tongue is akin to old Norwegian,
and the characteristics and tendencies of the
people are not dissimilar to those of their ancient
forbears. They are proud, independent, sceptical,
extraordinarily self-reliant, and patriotic almost to
the point of Chauvinism. In some respects they
may be said to have retained much of the tradi-
tionary temperament of the splendid old Vikings
332 DENMARK AND THE DANES
who preceded them, but they are neither so clean
nor so lovable as the Faroe islanders. One re-
markable fact must not be omitted. In a few years
it will be quite impossible to obtain alcoholic
drinks on the island. Already it is forbidden to
import them, and when the existing stock has
become exhausted no more will be supplied, except
for medicinal purposes. The chief food of the
Icelanders consists of fish, mutton and fowls.
Vegetables are imported from Scotland and some
oxen from Denmark.
Perhaps the most celebrated tourist resort on the
island is the Tingwalla, a wild ravine about thirty
miles north of Reykjavik. Its attractions are an
immense earthquake crack in the mountains, two
beautiful lakes, and some warm springs from which
the steam rises, often shrouding the sides of the
mountains. Iceland is being rapidly opened out
from the tourist standpoint, and there appears to
be no reason why in the future it should not become
one of the favourite countries for travellers, a
Northern Switzerland. But the alcoholic prohibi-
tion would have to be removed if any money is to
be attracted to the country. Two great German
liners make the round trip every summer, from
Hamburg to Reykjavik, Akureyri, Spitzbergen,
the North Cape, Christiania and back to Hamburg
again.
In addition to the Faroes and Iceland, the Danes
number among their overseas dominions that vast.
DENMARK'S OVERSEAS POSSESSIONS 333
inhospitable, ice-bound country, Greenland. Out
of an estimated population of some 14,000 souls
only about 400 are Europeans. Greenland is a
great expense to Denmark, the country only being
inhabitable for a short distance inland. Neverthe-
less missionaries and doctors are maintained there
in an ahnost vain effort to preserve the Esquimaux
from extinction. The trade of the country is the
monopoly of the Royal Greenland Trading Com-
pany. The chief product is kryolith, a substance
used in the manufacture of soda.
The Danish West Indies consist of three small
islands — St. Croix, St. Thomas and St. John —
whose united area is but 142 square miles. The
population, which at present numbers 27,000, is
slowly decreasing. Although a new harbour has
been built at St. Thomas, the islands as a whole
yield no return to their possessors, and require a
certain grant from the Danish Budget annually.
Upon several occasions a sale to the United
States has been proposed, but never carried
into effect.
One meets with a multitude of strange specula-
tions as to the future of Denmark. A State once
dominant and powerful, now sunk politically to
perhaps the lowest ebb in its history, has yet during
the last fifty years passed through an agricultural,
industrial and social awakening which has com-
pelled the admiration of Europe. The Danes have
no outstanding diplomatic or political gifts, but
334 DENMARK AND THE DANES
they compensate for the lack of these by a business
shrewdness, a sound common sense, and a power of
steadily applying themselves to their own better-
ment materially and intellectually. Notwith-
standing these gifts, there are many who believe
that the future of this race, so near to our own both
in blood and in capacity, will be a d^k and
troubled one. Speaking generally, it may be said
that the middle and upper classes are decidedly
pro-EngUsh in their sympathies, while the mem-
bers of the trade unions were at one time more
influenced by German labourers. The organisation
of the Socialistic party and the trade unions was
originally copied from Germany, but it seems as if
English and American institutions have during the
last few years become better known to the Danish
labourer and gained his sympathy for these
countries.
There are not lacking those who prophesy that
within fifty years Iceland will have been lost to
England, Greenland to Canada, and the Danish
West Indies to the United States of America.
These are the pessimists. On the other hand, one
may find here and there the dreamers who behold
through the mists of the future the dawning of a
glorious and resplendent United Scandinavia. We
are inclined to share neither of these views ; but,
believing in the inherent patriotism and vitality
and common sense of the race, and confident that
the strong spirit of the Vikings is not yet dead,
DENMARK'S OVERSEAS POSSESSIONS 335
we see no reason why, when the difficult shallows
of the immediate future have been negotiated, the
Danes should not once more become the great
power in the North to which they are entitled by
their geographical position, their history and their
national character.
FINIS.
340
INDEX
Easter, 37
Ebbesen, rebellion of, 73
Ecclesiastical music (Danish),
34 .
Ecclesiastical tithes, conversion
of, 105
Ecgberht, 67
Eckersberg, 206, 207
Edmund Ironsides, 68
Education, democratic system,
15^—163
libraries, 163, 164
of peasants, 132, 159 — 163
(popular high schools), 32,
i6g — 177
secondary, 163
Edward VII., 46, 56, 232
Egg Export Corporation, 151
Egg industry, 151
Elbe, 71
Elsinore, 54, 81
Emperor Charles V., 77
England, 21, 23, 27, 31, 37, 56,
66, 68, 80, 114
English Church (Copenhagen).
46, 48
English manners, 38
Enna, August, 214
Entails, conditions of, 106
Eric (of Pomerania), 42, 75
Erlandsen (Archbishop), 42
Esbjerg, 56, 290
Esmann, Gustav, 193
Esronso, 18
Esthonia, Bishopric of, 71
Estrup, 91
arbitrary methods of, 92
—95
attempt on life of, 94
resignation of, 93
Ethnology, 25
Evangelicals, 32
Ewalds, The, 190
Exner, 207
Extrabladet, 255
Factories, women in, 310, 311
Factory system, rise of, 107
Familie Journal, 257
Family reunions, 22
Fano, 56, 290
Farm buildmgs, description of,
117
Farm labour, 105
Farm properties, general statis-
tics of, 115
Farming, economic position of,
134
headquarters of, 133
machines, 138
scientific, 132 — 140
Faroe Islands, 221, 323 — 327
Fauna, 23, 24
Fences, absence of, 117
Fertilisers, 137
Feurbach, 180
Finance, 261 — 282
Finsen, N. R., 220, 221 — 233
Fishermen, 25
Fishing (salmon), 20
Fisker Bank, 25
Fjord, Prof., 134, 145
Flag, national, of Denmark, 71
Fleet, The, 79—81
Flogging law, 97
Flor, Christian, 169
Flora, 21, 22
Flora Danica porcelain, 45, 248
Folke Museum, 47
Folke Theatre, 218
Folketing, method of election
to, 87
Fonos, Otto, 190
Forests, 21
Foster houses, 320, 321
Foumier, Louis, 246, 247
Fox, 24
France, 23, 27, 28, 66, 114
Fredensborg, 22, 60
Fredericia, Battle of, 83
Frederik III., 78
Frederik V., 45, 247
Frederik VII., 87
Frederik VIII., 58
Frederiksberg, 54
gardens, 49
Frederiksborg, 22
Free Harbour (Copenhagen), 48
Frijs-Frijsenborg, Count, 56, 96
Frijsenborg, 56
Frolich, L., 211
Frue Kirke, 43, 44
Fuhnen (Fyen), 18, 20, 24, 57
Bishop of, 33
Funerals, 37
Fyens Tidende, 257
Gade, 213
Gads danske Magasin, 257
INDEX
341
Game, 23
Geneological Institute, 40
Geological formation, 17
George, King of Greece, 59
Germans, 38, 42
Germany, 21, 23, 114
Geysers, 328
Gjellerup, Karl, 184, 192
Glacial action, 17
Gliicksburg family, 58, 60
Gluckstadt, I., 274
Glyptotek, 47
Goldschmidt wireless system,
235
Grain stocks, 119
Great Northern Telegraph Co.,
274, 294
Greenland, 332, 333
Grib Fores-t, 22
Grundejer Bank, 276, 277
Grundtvig (Bishop), 32, 35, 36
Gnindtvigians (Merry Chris-
tians), 32, 35
Guden Aa, 20
Gustav, Prince of Denmark, 58
Hagemann, 226
Haggard, Sir H. Rider, 119,
126, 153
Halle, Lady, 215
Hamburg, 71
Hamlet, 54
Hammershoj, V., 209
Handels Bank, 275
Hanover, 22
Hans, King, 75
Hans Andersen, 51
Hansa States, 74
decline of, 284
Hansen, Constantine, 207, 208
Hansen, C. K., 292
Harald, Bluetooth, 55, 67
Harald, Prince of Denmark,
58
Hare, 23
Hartmann, songs of, 213
Harvest, 137
Haslimd, 210
Havnefjord, 330
Hay, 138
Hayden, Arthur, 249
Heath-land, 20
reclamation of, 139
Hecla, 328
Hedin, Sven, 239
Hegel, 180
Heiberg, Fru J. L., 216
Heiberg, J. L., 216
Heise, songs of, 213
Heligoland, 82
Hell^aand's Kirke, 46
Henniags, Fru, 216
Henriques, Jini, 214 "
Herald, 217
Hereditary titles, 39
Hertz, 235
Hetch, G., 249
High schools (popular), 32, 169
—177
Hillerod, 22
Himmelijjerg, 18
History, Danish, 65 — 100
Hjemmet, 257
Holberg, 51
Holberg, Ludvig, 217
Holidays, 310
Holland, 22, 80
Holmskjold, Theodor, 248
Holsoe, 210
Holstein, 82
Counts of, 73, 74
-Ledreborg, Count, 91, 95,
99
Hope, Sir Thomas, 198
Horsens, 56
Horses, 142, 143
Horup, Viggo, 91, 95, 255
Hospitals, 313
Hostrup, Jens, 190
H'dvedstaden, 256
Hveen, 48
Ibsen, 180, 218
reaction on Danish drama,
192
Ice-houses, 126
Iceland, 66, 222, 328 — 332
Illegitimacy, 30, 319, 320
Illustreret Tidende, 257
Indre Mission, 34, 35
Industries, 27
Industry, Danish, 283 — 296
Infant mortality, decrease in,
125
Inns and public-houses, 29
Institute of Light (Finsen), 226
—233
340
INDEX
Easter, 37
Ebbesen, rebellion of, 73
Ecclesiastical music (Danish),
34
Ecclesiastical tithes, conversion
of, 105
Ecgberht, 67
Eckersberg, 206, 207
Edmund Ironsides, 68
Education, democratic system,
159—163
libraries, 163, 164
of peasants, 132, 159 — 163
(popular high schools), 32,
i6g — 177
secondary, 163
Edward VII., 46, 56, 232
Egg Export Corporation, 151
Egg industry, 151
Elbe, 71
Elsinore, 54, 81
Emperor Charles V., 77
England, 21, 23, 27, 31, 37, 56,
66, 68, 80, 114
English Church (Copenhagen).
46, 48
English manners, 38
Enna, August, 214
Entails, conditions of, 106
Eric (of Pomerania), 42, 75
Erlandsen (Archbishop), 42
Esbjerg, 56, 290
Esmann, Gustav, 193
Esronso, 18
Esthonia, Bishopric of, 71
Estrup, 91
arbitrary methods of^ 92
—95
attempt on life of, 94
resignation of, 95
Ethnology, 25
Evangelicals, 32
Ewalds, The, 190
Exner, 207
Extrabladet, 255
Factories, women in, 310, 311
Factory system, rise of, 107
Familie Journal, ■z^'j
Family reunions, 22
Fano, 56, 290
Farm buildings, description of,
117
Farm labour, 105
Farm properties, general statis-
tics of, 115
Farming, economic position of,
134
headquarters of, 133
machines, 138
scientific, 132 — 140
Faroe Islands, 221, 323 — 327
Fauna, 23, 24
Fences, absence of, 117
Fertilisers, 137
Feurbach, 180
Finance, 261 — 282
Finsen, N. R., 220, 221 — 233
Fishermen, 25
Fishing (salmon), 20
Fisker Bank, 25
Fjord, Prof., 134, 145
Flag, national, of Denmark, 71
Fleet, The, 79—81
Flogging law, 97
Flor, Christian, 169
Flora, 21, 22
Flora Danica porcelain, 45, 248
Folke Museum, 47
Folke Theatre, 218
Folketing, method of election
to, 87
Fonos, Otto, 190
Forests, 21
Foster houses, 320, 321
Foumier, Louis, 246, 247
Fox, 24
France, 23, 27, 28, 66, 114
Fredensborg, 22, 60
Fredericia, Battle of, 83
Frederik III., 78
Frederik V., 45, 247
Frederik VII., 87
Frederik VIII., 58
Frederiksberg, 54
gardens, 49
Frederiksborg, 22
Free Harbour (Copenhagen), 48
Frijs-Frijsenborg, Count, 56, 96
Frijsenborg, 56
Frolich, L., 211
Frue Kirke, 43, 44
Fuhnen (Fyen), 18, 20, 24, 57
Bishop of, 33
Funerals, 37
Fyens Tidende, 257
Gade, 213
Gads danske Magasin, 257
INDEX
341
Game, 23
Geneological Institute, 40
Geological formation, 17
George, King of Greece, 59
Germans, 38, 42
Germany, 21, 23, 114
Geysers, 328
Gjellerup, Karl, 184, 192
Glacial action, 17
Gliicksburg family, 58, 60
Gluckstadt, I., 274
Glyptotek, 47
Goldschmidt wireless system,
235
Grain stocks, 119
Great Northern Telegraph Co.,
274, 294
Greenland, 332, 333
Grib Forest, 22
Grundejer Bank, 276, 277
Grundtvig (Bishop), 32, 35, 36
Gnmdtvigians (Merry Chris-
tians), 32, 35
Guden Aa, 20
Gustav, Prince of Denmark, 58
Hagemann, 226
Haggard, Sir H. Rider, 119,
126, 153
Hall6, Lady, 215
Hamburg, 71
Hamlet, 54
Hammershoj, V., 209
Handels Bank, 275
Hanover, 22
Hans, King, 75
Hans Andersen, 51
Hansa States, 74
decline of, 284
Hansen, Constantine, 207, 208
Hansen, C. K., 292
Harald, Bluetooth, 55, 67
Harald, Prince of Denmark,
58
Hare, 23
Hartmann, songs of, 213
Harvest, 137
Haslund, 210
Havnefjord, 330
Hay, 138
Hayden, Arthur, 249
Heath-land, 20
reclamation of, 139
Hecla, 328
Hedin, Sven, 239
Hegel, 180
Heiberg, Fru J. L., 216
Heiberg, J. L., 216
Heise, songs of, 213
Heligoland, 82
Helligaand's Kirke, 46
Henhings, Fru, 216
Henriques, Jini, 214 '
Herald, 217
Hereditary titles, 39
Hertz, 235
Hetch, G., 249
High schools (popular), 32, 169
—177
Hillerod, 22
HimmellDjerg, 18
History, Danish, 65 — 100
Hjemmet, 257
Holberg, 51
Holberg, Ludvig, 217
Hohdays, 310
Holland, 22, 80
Hohnskjold, Theodor, 248
Holsoe, 210
Holstein, 82
Counts of, 73, 74
-Ledreborg, Count, 91, 95,
99
Hope, Sir Thomas, 198
Horsens, 56
Horses, 142, 143
Horup, Viggo, 91, 95, 255
Hospitals, 313
Hostrup, Jens, 190
Hovedstaden, 256
Hveen, 48
Ibsen, 180, 218
reaction on Danish drama,
192
Ice-houses, 126
Iceland, 66, 222, 328 — 332
Illegitimacy, 30, 319, 320
Illusireret Tidende, 257
Indre Mission, 34, 35
Industries, 27
Industry, Danish, 283 — 296
Infant mortality, decrease in,
125
Inns and public-houses, 29
Institute of Light (Finsen), 226
—233
342
INDEX
Insurance, accident, 316
co-operative and mercan-
tile, 317
" Internationale," go
Irminger, 210
Irrigation, 20
Isafjord, 330
Isafold, 339
Jacobsen, Carl, 47,48
Jacobsen, J. P., 181, 182
Jaromer of Rugen, 42
Jensen, Frederik, 218
Jensen, Johannes V., 190
Jerichau, J. A., 204
JerndorfE, 217
Jews, 36
Johansen, Viggo, 209, 210
John the Mild, 42
Jorgensen, Johannes, 188, 190
Jorgensen, W., 226
Juel, Jens, 206
Jutes, 66
uprising of, 74
Jutland, 18 — 21, 23, 24, 25, 69,
III
agriculture in, 104
Jyllandsposten, 257
Jysk (dialect), 25
Kaalund, poetic letters of, 180
Kalmar Union, 75
Kampmann, 47
Barshohn, 23
Klods-Hans, 257
Knudsen, Ivar, 220, 239 — 245
Kobenhavn, 256
Kobke, Christian, 207
Kolding, 20
Konge, 20
Kongen's Nytorv (King's New
Market), 43, 48, 50
Kongeriget Danmarks Hypo-
tek Bank, 282
Krog, Arnold, 249
Kronborg, 55
Krozer, P. S., 208, 209
Kryolith, 333
Kyne, 207
Laaland (Lolland), 18
Bishop of, 33
Labour (farm), 105
clubs, 318, 319
Labour exchanges, 319
origin of, 97
Lakes of Jutland, 56
Land Purchase Societies, iii
loans to, 112
Land tenure, 103 — 116
Landmans Bank, The, 274, 275
Landsting, method of election
to, 88
Langeliaie, 48
Lange-Miiller, P. E., 213
Language, 25
Legacy duties, 263
Legal procedure, 302 — 304
defects of, 303
Liberal party, 89
Licensed premises, 29
Limited companies, taxation
of, 263
Liquid manure, 122, 137, 138
Lister, 220
Literature, modern, 178 — 194.
Sea also under various
authors.
Locher, C, 210
Longevity of Danes, 313
Lotteries, 265, 266
Lubeck, 42, 71
Lucerne grass, 138
Lund, 68, 71
Lundbye, J. T,, 207
Lutheran Body, 37, 77
MacClwe's Magazine, 128
Madsen, General, 97
Madsen, Karl, 207
Magnussen, Julius, 194
Mail routes, 267
Mantzius, Dr. Karl,' 217
Manure, liquid, 122, 137, 138
natural, 20
Manuring, 117, 121, 122
Marble church, 45
Marconi, 235
Margareth, Queen, 74
Marie, Princess of Orleans, 59
Marriage, 30, 31
Marselisborg, 55, 56
Marstal, 290
Marstrand, Vilhelm, 208
Martin Luther, 77
Maud, Princess, of England, 58
INDEX
343
Mecklenburg, Duke of, 74
MetchnikofE, 220
Michaelis, Sophus, 190
Middle-class holdings, creation
of, iq8
Military expenditure, 267
Military service, 79
Milk, comparative prices of, 127
consumption and delivery
of, 129
distribution of, 125, 126
hygienic pail, 130
in large towns, 124 — 131
Miiller's cooling presses,
130
Pasteurisation, 128
supply of Copenhagen, 54
Moens Klint, 17
MoUe, 20
Monson, Sir E., 46
Moral life (Copenhagen), 30
Mortgage Bank of Denmark,
109
Motor cars, tax on, 264
Mtiller, Frantz Heinrich, 247
Munich, 53
Municipal trading, 127
Municipalities, tax on, 269 —
271
Music, 212 — 218
Nansen, 239
Nansen, Fru Betty, 218
Nansen, Peter, 186, 187, 218
Napoleon, 80 — 82
Nathansen, Henri, 193
National Defence, go
National Liberal Party, 89
National Tidende, 254
Navy (The), 307
Neeregaard, 98
Neiendamm, 217
Nelson, 80
Neruda, Prof., 214
New names, 40
Nielsen, Carl, 214
Nielsen, Ejnar, 211
Nobel Prize, 226
NobiUty, creation of, 70
Nomenclature, 39
Nonconformists, 32
Nordstjeman Company, The,
243
North Sea, 20, 21, 55
Northern coalition, 80, 81
Northmen, 66
Norway, 23, 68
Nyrop, Martin, 52
Oaks, 21
Odense, 54, 57
Odense-Aa, 20
Odin, 57
Oehlenschlaeger, Adam, 178
Olaf, Prince, 74
Old age pensions, 267, 312, 313
Oldenburg family, 75, 84
Ophelia, 54
Orsted, 220
Orsted, H. C, 49
Outlook, The, 129
Painting, Danish and Dutch,
206
Paris, 53
revolt of, 83
Parish relief, 321
Parker, Sir Hyde, 80
Pasteur, 220
Pasturage, insufficiency of, 144
Paulsen, J., 209
Peasant proprietorship, 106
Pedersen, P. O., 238
Pedersen, Viggo, 210
Personal power of Danish kings,
70
Peter the Great, 44
Pheasant, 24
Philipsen, 210
Physical stature, 27
Pig fanning, 119, 144
growth of, 144
remuneration of, 121
Pinero, 217
Political history, 86 — 100
Politihen, The, 255
Pontoppidan, Henrik, 185 — 186
Popular high schools, 32, 36,
169 — 177
Population, 27, 54
Porcelain, Royal Danish, 246
Pork, relative pnce of, 120
Portugal, 21
Post Oface, The, 265
Poulsen, Adam, 217
Poulsen, EmU, 216
Poulsen, Johannes, 217
344
INDEX
Poulsen, Olaf, 217
Poulsen, Valdemar, 220, 233 —
239
Poulsen wireless, advantages
of, 236
Poultry farming, 121
Preisler, 229
Press, The, 252 — 257
Private Bank of Copenhagen,
The, 274, 286
Profit pooling, 116
Prostitution, 30
control of, 30
Prussia, 83, 84
Raadhus, 51, 52
Raadhuspladsen (Town Hall
Place), 43, 48
Race relationship, 25
Radio-telegraphy, 234 — 239
Railways, provision of, 89, 265
Rainfall, 19
Randers, 56, 73
Rationalism, 35
Ravnholt, 24
Realm Court, trial before, gg
Recke, Ernst von der, 192
Reedtz-Thott, Baron, 43
Refshale Island, 48
Rent (farm), 106
Reumert, Poul, 217
Reval, Battle of, 71
Reykjavik, 329
Ribe, Bishop of, 33, 56
Righi, 235
Rigsdag, democratic parties in,
88
power of, 87
Rigsret (Realms Court), 304
Ring, 210
Rivers, 20
Rodin, 47, 204, 205
Rolde, Johan, 210
Roman Catholics, 36
Rontgen, 220
Root cultivation, 137
Rordam, Valdemar, 190
Rosenborg Castle, 43, 44
Roskilde, 55, 69
Peace of, 78
Rotation of crops, 122, 137
Round Tower (Rundetaam),
43, 44
Royal Experimental Labora-
tory, 149
Royal Family, 58 — 61
Royal Theatre, 40, 43
Rump, 207
Russia, 80
Empress of, 59, 60
Ryge, 216
Saint-Beuve, 180
Salmon fishing, 20
Salvation Army, 36
Sanatoria, 314
Sanddunes, 20
Sanitation (Copenhagen), 52, 53
Savings banks, 148, 278
Saxo grammaticus, 66
Saxony, 28
Scandinavia, Archbishop of, 68
Scandinavian-American liners,
291
Scandinavians, 67
Union of, 75
Scaw, 20
Scenery, characteristic Danish,
175
Schandorph, 179, 180, 182, 183
Schiller, 184
School farms, 140, 145
Schou, Philip, 249
Schwerin, Count of, 72
Scientific Control Association,
118, 135, 143
Scientific research, 219, 245
Scotland, 66
Sculpture. See under Thor-
waldsen.
Sealanders, 66
Sedan, 58
Segelcke, Prof., 134
Selandia, The, 242
Sevres, 249
Sewerage (Copenhagen), 53
Seydisfjord, 330
Shakespeare, 54
Shaw, George Bernard, 217
Sheep, 144
Shipping, merchant, 285, 288
— 292
Sick clubs, 314, 315
Sinding, Stephen, 204
Sjcelland (Sealand), 18, 20, 22,
24. 54. 69
Skagerrack, 20
INDEX
345
Skovgaard, 210
Skram, Erik, 183
Slaughter-houses, co-operative,
150. 151
Sleswick-Holstein, 38
Sleswick, 85
legal code of, 72
revolt in, 83
Slott-MoUer, Harald, 211
Small holdings, arguments in
favour of, 113 — 115
conditions of candidacy,
109
minimum area of, 109
mortgages on, 114, 115
objections to, iii — 113
origin of, 107
repayment of loans on, 109
Selection Board, no
State guarantee, 109
statistics re, no
Small ownership (co-operative),
116
Smith, F. L., & Co., 293
Smorrebrod, 174
Social Demokraten, 254, 256
Social laws, 309 — 322
Social life, 36, 37, 39
Socialist party, go
Sonne, 207
Sound, The, 55, 286
Spencer, 180
Spirits (alcoholic), 28
Sport, 23
Squirrel, 24
St. Brice's Day, massacre of, 68
St. Croix, 333
St. John, 333
St. Thomas, 333
Stables, 118, 126
State Art Museum, 47
State Church, 31
disestablishment, 33
divisions of, 32
doctrine and practice, 33
High Church party, 36
internal management, 33
origin of, 77 I
quarrels of king with, 73
services, 33
Stevenson, R. L., 223
Stockholm, massacre of Swedish
nobles in, 76
Storks, prevalence of, 57
Strindberg, 180
D
Stuart-Mill, John, 180
Stuckenberg, Viggo, 187
Suicides, 27, 28
Supply associations, peculiar
characteristics of, 152
Surface, geological, 19
Sus, 20
Svend, 55
Svendborg, 57
Swain, The Two-Bearded, 68
Sweden, 23, 41, 48, 55, 68, 74,
77. 80
Swineries, 119
Switzerland, 28
Syberg, 210
Tailoring, 38
Taine, 180
Taxation, 261 — 263
reform of, 96
Tejner, Hans, 211
Telefunken wireless system, 235
Telegraphone, The, 234
Telephone Company (Copen-
hagen), 295
Temperance associations, 28, 29
Temperature, 19
Theatres, 212 — 218
Theatres, Royal, 40, 215, 216,
217
Thirty Years' War, 78
Thorshavn, 323
Thorwaldsen collection, 47, 202
— 203
influence on Scandinavian
art, 203 — 204
life, works, style, 195 — 202
Thott Palace, 43
Thrangisvaag, 323
Thulstrup, Dr., 222
Thunderstorms, 19
Thyra, Duchess of Cumberland,
59
Thyra, Prmcess, 59
Tielgen, C. F., 45, 274, 291, 294
Tilsit, Peace of, 81
Tilskueren, 257
Tings, 69
Tingwalla, 332
Tivoli (Copenhagen), 49
Town HaH Place (Copenhagen),
43
Trade unions, 317
Trees, 21, 22
346
INDEX
Trekroner Fort, 48
Trustee securities, 106
Tuberculosis, 27
treatment of, 313, 314
Tumor, Christopher, 114
Tuxen, 209
Tycho, Brahe, 46
Unemployment, 317
United Steamship Company,
274, 290, 291
University of Copenhagen, 42,
51, 164 — 168
co-operation of farmers
with, 133
Valborg Eve, 40
Valdemar Atterdag, 42, 74
Valdemar, Prince, 59
Valdemar the Great, 42, 69, 70^
Valdemar the Victorious, 70
ValhaUa, 66
Varde, 20
Variety theatres, 218
Veile, 20, 56
Venereal diseases, 30
Verden og Vi, 257
Vermehren, 207
Vestmanoe, 329
Viborg, 23, 56
Bishop of, 33
Vienna, 53
Vikings, 66
Villenage, 105, 107
abolition of, 106
Von Langer, 22
Vor Preiser's Kirke, 45
Vor Frue Kirke, 43
Vort Land, 254
Weddings, 37
Wedgwood porcelain, 249
Wends, 69
Wesleyan Methodism, 32
Wessex, 68
West Indies (Danish), 333
Weyse, songs of, 213
Wied, Gusfeiv, 193
Wiehe, Michael, 216
Wild boar, 23
WUlumsen, J. F., 211
Winds, 19
Workmen's Protection Act, 309
Yeomen farmers, laws relating
to, 107
Zahle, 99
Zahrtmann, 211
Zoological Gardens (Copen-
hagen), 49
SKADBURY, AONtW, & CO. LD., LONDON AND TOMBRID6S.