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Encyclopedia  of  ni  ss  ons.  Descriptive,  h 


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olin  O^ers 


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THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

MISSIONS 


DESCRIPTIVE,    HISTORICAL,    BIOGRAPHICAL, 

STATISTICAL 


SECOND  EDITION 


Edited  under  the  Auspices  of  the  Bureau  of  Missions 


Rev.  henry  OTIS  DWIGHT,  LL.D.,  Rev.  H.  ALLEN  TUPPER,  Jr.,  D.D. 
AND  Rev.  EDWIN   MUNSELL   BLISS,  D.D. 


FUNK  &  WAGNALLS   COMPANY 

New  Yokk  and  London 

1904 


A  .  \  ^1  fO  7  (. 


Copyright,  1904,  bt 
FUNK  &  WAGNALLS   COMPANY 

(Registered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London) 
Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America.   Published  October,  1904 


A 


00:N"TEI^rT8 


PAGE 

Preface  to  the  First  Edition vii 

Preface  to  the  Second  Edition xi 

List  of  Contributors  of  Special  Articles xiii 

Abbreviations  Used  in  the  Encyclopedia xiv 


The  Encyclopedia  of  Missions 1 

Appendices: 

I.     directory  of  foreign  missionary  societies     .......  817 

II.       chronological     table     of     the    extension    of    PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

FROM    THE    TIME    OF    CAREY 824 

III.  LIST  OF  BIBLE  VERSIONS 826 

IV.  MISSIONARIES    WHO    HAVE  MADE    TRANSLATIONS    OR   REVISIONS    OF    HOLY 

SCRIPTURE 830 

V.       STATISTICAL    TABLES 835 

VI.       ROMAN  CATHOLIC  FOREIGN  MISSIONS 848 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 


THE  standpoint  of  this  Encyclopedia  is,  primarily,  that  of  one  who,  interested  in 
foreign  mission  work,  seeks  to  enlarge  his  vision  and  increase  his  knowledge; 
secondarily,  that  of  one  who,  looking  forward  to  a  personal  share  in  it,  seeks  to  inform 
himself  as  to  its  various  phases,  that  he  may  the  more  readily  decide  where  he  can  prob- 
ably labor  to  the  best  advantage.  The  basis  is  the  Society  in  which  each  individual 
is  more  especially  interested;  its  history,  organization,  development;  its  missions  and 
stations.  Then  the  view  broadens  to  take  in  the  countries,  races,  and  religions  in  their 
relations  to  the  work,  not  only  of  his  own,  but  of  other  denominations.  Special  topics 
open  up,  individual  workers  stand  out  in  prominence,  and  as  one  step  after  another 
is  taken,  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  work  is  not  divided,  but  is  one;  and  all  these 
with  varied  names  are  but  portions  of  the  one  great  army  of  the  Church. 

The  plan  thus  includes  two  general  departments:  1.  The  organized  work — the 
societies,  their  origin  and  growth  at  home,  and  their  work  abroad;  2.  The  countries  in 
which,  the  races  for  which,  that  work  is  carried  on,  and  the  religious  beliefs  that  are 
encountered. 

Accessory  to  these  are :  1.  A  gazetteer  of  Mission  Stations ;  2.  Biographical  sketches 
of  Missionaries;  3.  Description  and  enumeration  of  Bible  versions;  4.  Articles  on 
special  topics  closely  related  to  the  work  of  Foreign  Missions;  5.  Maps,  appendices 
of  bibliography  and  statistics,  and  indices. 

It  became  early  evident  that  to  accomplish  so  much,  minutiae  must  give  place  to 
perspective.  However  fascinating  the  details  might  be,  they  must  be  constantly  used 
merely  as  illustrations.  To  do  more,  would  not  only  have  so  enlarged  its  extent  as 
to  make  the  book  unwieldy,  but  have  blurred  the  distinctness  of  the  impression  that 
it  has  been  sought  to  give.  Thus  in  the  accounts  of  the  societies  and  their  work  per- 
sonal terms  are  few.  The  history  of  Missions,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  is  largely  the 
history  of  individual  men  and  women.  Those  who  have  stood  at  the  helm  and  guided 
these  great  organizations  were  and  are  no  less  missionaries  than  those  who  have  gone 
to  the  foreign  field,  yet  even  to  mention  the  names  of  all  within  the  space  allowed  would 
have  almost  made  the  work  a  mere  chronicle.  So  of  the  countries  and  stations,  the 
races  and  religions.  The  effort  has  been  to  give  so  much  geography,  history,  etc.,  as 
would  serve  as  a  framework  for  pictures  of  missionary  work  and  spiritual  need. 

With  regard  to  the  biographical  sketches,  it  became  evident  very  early  that  it 
would  be  necessary  to  draw  the  line  sharply  to  exclude  the  living,  and  that  to  mention 
all,  even  of  the  dead,  would  be  impossible.  The  sketches,  too,  must  be  brief,  indicating 
rather  than  describing  the  work  each  did.  So  of  the  Bible  versions;  brief  paragraphs 
were  all  that  could  be  attempted. 

When  the  question  of  special  topics  came  up,  the  scope  seemed  unlimited.  There 
were  city  missions;  home  missions;  missions  in  their  relations  to  commerce,  music,  the 
liquor  traffic,  the  slave-trade;  early  Christian  and  medieval  missions;  the  various 
questions  under  discussion  in  regard  to  methods  of  missionary  work, — the  lay  element, 
education,  self-support  of  native  churches,  etc.  To  treat  even  a  few  of  these  thoroughly, 
tho  eminently  desirable,  would  be  impracticable.  As  careful  a  selection  as  possible  has 
been  made,  and  as  much  space  given  as  seemed  proportionate  to  the  general  scope  of 
the  work. 

The  plan  led  also  to  the  decision  to  embody  statistics  and  general  lists  in  the  form  of 
appendices,  which  could  easily  be  changed  in  subsequent  editions,  as  the  work  developed. 
These  appendices  include:  (a)  A  bibliography;  (b)  Lists  of  Bible  versions,  arranged 
alphabetically  and  geographically,  showing  the  languages  and  dialects,  the  number  of 
people  reached  by  them,  the  linguistic  families  to  which  they  belong,  the  characters 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 


in  which  they  are  written,  the  amount  of  translation  work  done,  and  the  society  under 
whose  auspices  they  have  been  prepared,  and  in  the  Index  the  page  of  the  Encyclopedia 
where  they  are  referred  to;  (c)  A  list  of  missionary  societies  with  the  addresses  of  their 
secretaries,  the  date  of  organization,  and  the  page  of  the  Encyclopedia  where  they  are 
spoken  of;  (d)  A  list  of  missionary  stations,  giving  their  geographical  location,  the, 
societies  carrying  on  work  in  them,  the  number  and  sections  of  the  maps  where  they  are 
found,  and  the  page  of  the  Encyclopedia  where  they  are  described;  (e)  Tables  of  statis- 
tics: (1)  By  societies  and  missions;  (2)  By  countries  and  societies;  (3)  A  summary  of 
the  whole.  The  General  Index  includes  names  of  persons  mentioned,  places  referred  to, 
and  general  subjects  treated.  The  maps  cover  all  important  mission-fields  with  as 
much  fulness  as  is  practicable.  The  effort  has  been  made  to  locate  every  mission  station 
of  importance,  and  in  some  cases  the  outstations.  The  importance  of  political  influence 
in  Africa  and  of  the  languages  of  India  has  led  to  the  furnishing  of  a  map  of  each  country 
specially  designed  to  bring  out  those  characteristics. 

Specific  statements  as  to  the  appendices  will  be  found  in  prefatory  notes  to  them. 

Many  questions  came  up  for  consideration.  In  the  alphabetical  arrangement  of 
articles  a  difficulty  arose  in  regard  to  the  location  of  the  societies.  To  place  them  under 
their  corporate  names  would  be  confusing,  and  the  effort  has  been  made  to  designate 
each  by  the  term  by  which  it  is  most  widely  known,  with  cross-references  wherever  it 
seems  necessary.  If  there  is  difficulty  in  finding  any  one,  a  reference  to  Appendix  C 
will  easily  give  the  solution. 

Then  came  the  question  of  spelling.  The  spelling  of  foreign  names  is  in  hopeless 
confusion.  No  two  societies  agree.  Often  the  same  society  is  not  consistent  with 
itself.  Governments  have  laid  down  rules,  which  few  follow;  and  no  two  Governments 
make  the  same  rules.  Should  we  spell  Beirut,  Beyrout,  or  Beyroot;  Maulmain  or 
Moulmein;  Harpoot,  Harput,  or  Charput;  Foochow  or  Fuhchau;  Gurhwal  or  Garhwal; 
Punjab  or  Pan  jab;  Hyderabad  or  Haidarabad;  Assiout,  Assyoot,  or  Siout;  San  Paulo 
or  Sao  Paulo;    Otjimbenque  or  Otyimbingue? 

But  instances  almost  innumerable  could  be  added.  The  reader  will  find  a  few 
of  the  perplexities  noted  in  Appendix  D.  To  be  absolutely  logical  or  consistent  was 
impossible.  In  India  names  the  spelling  of  Hunter's  Encyclopedia  has  been  adopted. 
In  Africa,  the  Church  Missionary  Society  and  the  ABCFM  reports  have  been  followed 
in  the  main;  elsewhere  the  editor  has  done  the  best  he  could,  and  if  in  any  instance 
some  mission  station  eludes  the  patient  search  of  the  reader,  let  him  make  a  note  of  his 
failure  for  the  benefit  of  future  workers  in  this  line. 

Numerous  requests  have  come  in  for  an  indication  of  the  pronunciation  of  the 
names  of  places.  To  do  this,  however,  was  so  manifestly  impossible  that  no  effort 
has  been  made.  Each  reader  is  at  perfect  liberty  to  pronounce  Kachchh  or  Njenhangli 
as  he  chooses. 

Another  difficulty  arose  from  the  recurrence  of  the  same  name.  If  one  is  perplexed 
to  distinguish  the  Washingtons  that  occur  in  every  State  of  the  Union  he  will  under- 
stand the  danger  of  confounding  the  various  Salems  of  Africa,  the  Bethels  of  the  West 
Indies  and  India,  or  the  Bijnaurs  (Bijnours?)  of  the  Northwest  Provinces  and  Oudh. 

The  question  of  statistics  was  also  a  perplexing  one.  After  much  consideration  it 
was  decided  to  give  the  general  statistics  in  the  form  of  tables  in  an  appendix,  intro- 
ducing into  the  body  of  the  Encyclopedia  only  such  as  were  necessary  in  order  to  indi- 
cate the  general  nature  and  scope  of  the  work  in  the  different  stations.  So  far  as 
practicable,  these  have  been  brought  up  to  date  of  publication. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  work  blanks  were  sent  to  every  mission  society  and 
mission  station  that  could  be  learned  of.  The  societies  in  almost  every  case  responded, 
and  many  of  the  stations.  With  these  as  a  basis  and  the  careful  study  of  the  reports 
of  the  societies,  the  various  Encyclopedias,  etc.,  the  great  majority  of  the  statements 
were  prepared.  In  a  few  instances  the  society  statements  came  from  outside  parties. 
Thus  the  article  on  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  was  furnished  by  Dr.  L.  P. 
Brockett;  that  on  the  Moravian  Missions,  by  Rev.  B.  Romig  of  Herrnhut;  and  so  of  a 
few  others.  _  Whenever  it  was  practicable  these  statements  were  referred  to  persons 
connected  with  or  specially  informed  regarding  the  societies,  with  a  view  to  their  being 
free  from  inaccuracy.  Some  countries,  etc.,  were  described  by  writers  specially 
acquainted  with  them.     Thus  the  India  articles  were  prepared  by  Rev.  C.  W.  Park,  of 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 


Birmingham,  Conn.,  formerly  of  Bombay;  Japan,  by  Rev.  W.  E.  Griffis,  D.D.;  Brazil, 
by  Rev.  J.  Beatty  Howells,  long  a  missionary  in  that  country.  The  subjoined  list 
will  indicate  most  of  the  writers.  The  biographical  sketches  are  chiefly  the  work  of 
Rev.  Samuel  Hutchings,  D.D.,  whose  eighty-three  years  of  age  have  not  dimmed  his 
interest  or  dulled  the  keenness  of  his  pen.  For  the  lists  of  Bible  versions  we  are  indebted 
to  the  kind  courtesy  of  R.  N.  Oust,  LL.D.,  of  London.  The  sketches  of  the  versions 
have  mostly  been  prepared  by  Dr.  Bernhard  Pick,  of  Allegheny,  who  has  made  the 
subject  a  special  study.  The  Arabic  version,  however,  has  been  described  by  its  trans- 
lator. Rev.  Dr.  C.  V.  A. Van  Dyck,  of  Beirut;  the  Turkish  version  by  Rev.  H.  O.  Dwight, 
of  Constantinople. 

In  seeking  for  any  title  look  first  in  the  Encyclopedia;  also  in  the  Index  of  Appendix 
B  for  Bible  versions ;  in  Appendix  C  for  societies  or  faith  missions ;  in  Appendix  D 
for  Mission  Stations;  and  in  the  general  Index  for  all.  The  page  references  in  the 
appendices  refer  only  to  articles,  not  to  places  where  mention  of  any  topic  is  made  in 
other  articles;  e.g.,  the  station  of  Allahabad  will  be  found,  by  Appendix  D,  on  page 
41  of  Vol.  I.  It  will  also  be  found,  by  the  general  Index,  on  page  250,  Vol.  II.,  etc. 
So  of  the  versions.  Any  person  desiring  to  look  up  the  whole  work  of  a  Society  will 
turn  from  the  account  of  the  Society  itself  to  that  of  the  country  where  it  works,  the 
stations  it  occupies,  and  the  biographical  sketches  of  its  missionaries,  as  he  finds  them 
mentioned  in  the  different  articles.  In  giving  accounts  of  stations  only  those  have 
been  included  in  the  body  of  the  work  with  regard  to  which  some  definite  information 
is  given  beyond  the  mere  fact  of  their  being  occupied  by  a  certain  society.  The  com- 
plete list  appears  in  Appendix  D. 

It  is  a  pleasant  duty  to  acknowledge  the  kind  courtesy  of  the  many  who  have 
assisted  in  the  work:  of  the  publishers,  who  have  furnished  the  means  and  have  left 
the  editor  so  free  to  carry  out  the  plan  as  fully  as  was  practicable;  those  who  have 
worked  in  the  office  with  an  interest  that  has  shown  their  task  to  be  no  mere  perfunctory 
duty;  the  contributors,  whose  patience,  consideration,  and  ability  have  done  so  much 
to  make  the  work  not  merely  instructive,  but  entertaining;  the  officers  of  the  Mission- 
ary Societies,  whose  unfailing  willingness  to  answer  innumerable  questions  has  been 
so  often  put  to  the  test.  To  name  each  one  would  be  to  give  the  list  of  all  with  whom 
the  editor  has  come  in  contact  in  his  work ;  yet  he  cannot  but  make  special  acknowledg- 
ments to  Dr.  Dalman,  of  Leipzig,  for  his  article  on  the  Jews;  to  the  Rev.  S.  M.  Jackson, 
for  the  Bibliography;  to  Dr.  Cust,  of  London,  for  his  table  of  Bible  versions;  to  the 
officers  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  for  the  free  use  of  their  atlases  of  India  and 
Africa. 

That  errors  and  omissions,  some  apparently  inexplicable,  will  be  noticed,  must 
be  expected.     Any  report  of  such  to  the  publishers  will  be  gladly  received. 

The  work  in  truth  has  been  a  labor  of  love,  and  the  highest  return  that  can  come 
from  it  will  be  the  consciousness  that  it  has  furnished  a  link  in  the  chain  that  is  to  bind 
together  the  great  divisions  of  the  one  great  army  of  the  Church,  as  they  come  through 
its  pages  to  know  and  understand  each  other  better. 

Edwin  Munsell  Bliss. 
New  York  City,  March,  189L 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 


NO  long  series  of  reasons  need  be  given  why  The  Encyclopedia  of  Missions  demands 
revision  after  twelve  vears.  Political  changes  have  parceled  out  among  the  nations 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  have  brought  one  at  least  of  the  Asiatic  nations  into  parity 
of  influence  with  Western  Powers  in  shaping  the  destinies  of  the  Far  East,  and  have 
marked  all  Africa  with  the  familiar  national  colors  of  Europe  and  made  her  mysterious 
central  regions  a  field  for  the  personally-conducted  tourist,  and  a  participant  in  the 
privileges  of  the  Universal  Postal  Union.  The  body  of  experience  in  the  mission  field 
has  crystallized  into  what  is  sometimes  called  a  "Science  of  missions,"  made  up  of 
more  or  less  exact  principles  of  labor,  which  are  more  and  more  widely  accepted  by 
missionaries  of  all  nations  as  fundamental.  The  mere  increase  of  missionary  enter- 
prises and  the  expansion  of  mission  fields  are  notable  facts,  while  above  every  other 
reason  the  growth  of  the  Christian  community  in  almost  every  non-Christian  land 
requires  the  rewriting  of  every  descriptive  paragraph  in  the  book.  When  the  editors 
asked  valued  advisers  in  Europe  and  America  what  faults  of  The  Encyclopedia  of  Mis- 
sions most  loudly  called  for  correction  in  a  Revised  Edition,  .the  answer,  as  unanimous 
as  if  the  question  related  to  some  text-book  of  science  written  twelve  years  ago,  was 
"Its  antiquity." 

It  is  with  grave  misgivings,  nevertheless,  that  this  revision  is  offered  to  the  public. 
Rigorous  compression  has  been  required  in  order  to  keep  the  Revised  Edition  within 
limits  of  bulk  and  cost  which  permit  a  considerable  reduction  of  price. 

Articles  dealing  with  the  various  Missionary  Societies  have  most  persistently 
rebelled  against  our  limitations  of  space.  The  history  of  societies  of  the  first  magnitude, 
the  story  of  their  origin,  development  and  expansion  under  providential  leadings;  the 
record  of  the  stedfast  faith  which  has  been  demanded  for  their  support,  together  with 
hints  of  the  reasons  why  they  are  now  recognized  as  instruments  of  a  Divine  purpose 
to  shape  the  destinies  of  the  race,  would  demand  several  volumes  of  the  size  of  the  one 
now  offered. 

The  editors  have,  therefore,  had  no  option  but  to  give  mere  sketches  of  the  Societies, 
showing  salient  points  of  history  and  general  characteristics  of  effort  rather  than  details 
of  labors.  Even  so  it  has  been  impossible  to  mention,  except  in  the  Directory,  many 
Societies  which  are  doing  noble  work  with  narrow  means  and  with  but  a  handful,  per- 
haps, of  missionaries  in  the  field.  It  is  merely  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  mis- 
sionary movement  in  the  various  nations  and  denominations  which  can  be  offered  in 
this  work.  The  great  characteristics  belonging  to  all  the  Societies  in  common:  their 
motive,  aim,  difficulties,  methods,  mutual  helpfulness,  general  relations  and  influences, 
direct  and  indirect,  are  treated  in  separate  articles,  all  of  which  should  be  read  by  the 
student  of  the  work  of  any  one  Society  who  would  comprehend  the  fulness  of  its  might 
as  an  agency  for  Christian  civilization  and  the  dignity  of  its  position  before  those  who 
hope  for  the  elevation  of  the  race. 

One  important  change  in  the  plan  of  the  book,  which  some  may  regret,  is  the  omis- 
sion of  maps.  None  of  the  old  maps  could  be  republished  without  radical  and  expensive 
changes.  It  is  hoped  that  the  wide  circulation  attained  by  Dr.  Beach's  fine  "  Geography 
and  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions  "  will  go  far  to  relieve  inconveniences  resulting  from 
the  absence  of  the  maps  in  the  Encyclopedia.  As  a  further  relief,  an  effort  has  been 
made,  in  describing  mission  stations,  so  to  define  their  location  that  their  approximate 
place  can  be  found  in  any  good  atlas. 

Descriptive  notes  of  about  5,000  cities,  towns,  and  villages  are  furnished  in  this 
work.  Our  aim  has  been  to  give  some  data  concerning  all  places  in  non-Christian  lands, 
which  are  of  present  importance  in  the  missionary  enterprise.     In  deciding  what  places 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 


to  omit  through  lack  of  space  for  all,  we  have  tried  to  limit  such  omissions  to  outstations, 
and  to  stations  which  have  shown  little  growth  in  a  number  of  years,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  in  a  dormant  condition.  The  task  of  describing  places,  hundreds  of  which  are  found  , 
in  no  existing  atlas  or  gazetteer,  invites  errors  which  we  cannot  hope  to  have  escaped, 
and  for  which  we  must  crave  the  leniency  of  critics.  The  spelling  of  the  names  of  these 
places  has  caused  much  perplexity  owing  to  diversity  and  even  inconsistency  of  usage 
among  the  Missionary  Societies.  In  order  to  avoid  adding  to  the  confusion  we  have 
thought  best  to  follow  as  a  general  rule  the  system  adopted  by  Beach  in  his  "Atlas  of 
Protestant  Missions." 

Success  in  our  undertaking  could  not  be  possible  without  the  collaboration  of  the 
officers  of  Missionary  Societies  all  over  the  world.  This  has  been  freely  asked,  and 
we  gratefully  realize  that  it  has  been  most  cordially  given.  Moreover,  many  mission- 
aries and  others  have  placed  at  our  disposal  their  knowledge  as  experts,  or  have  pre- 
pared for  the  Encyclopedia  articles  on  special  subjects.  A  list  of  these  contributions 
to  the  value  of  the  book  we  give  below,  indicating  at  the  same  time  the  names  of  those 
whose  a-rticles  in  the  first  edition  we  were  able  to  use  without  important  modification. 
We  would  also  make  special  acknowledgment  of  our  indebtedness  to  Dr.  Beach's 
"Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions,"  whenever  his  laborious  research  has  served  to  correct 
or  to  supplement  our  own  endeavors.  The  general  information  found  in  Dr.  J.  S.  Dennis' 
"Centennial  Survey  of  Foreign  Missions"  has  also  been  of  great  value  in  preparing 
for  the  Appendix  the  Directory  of  Missionary  Societies  and  the  List  of  Bible  Translators. 

In  sending  out  this  new  edition  of  The  Encyclopedia  of  Missions  we  cannot  refrain 
from  mentioning  the  astonishment  mingled  with  awe  aroused  in  our  own  minds  by 
our  close  study  of  the  growth  of  the  missionary  enterprise  since  the  first  edition  was 
issued.  It  is  our  belief  that  if  any  will  study  this  rapid  advance  and  growth  they  will 
find  the  conviction  unavoidable  that  this  enterprise  and  its  present  power  in  the  non- 
Ghristian  world  is  the  fruit  of  more  than  a  merely  human  impulse.  This  book  presents  ' 
again  an  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  "  stone  which  the  builders  rejected  is  become 
the  head  of  the  corner.     It  is  the  Lord's  doing  and  it  is  marvelous  in  our  eyes  I " 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  OF  SPECIAL  ARTICLES 


*AndruSi  Rev.  A,  N Mardin,  Turkey. 

*Atterbury,  Rev.  W.  W.,  D.D.. .  New  York  City. 

Barrows,  Mrs.  J.  H Oberlin,  Ohio. 

♦Barton,  Rev.  J.  L Boston,  Mass. 

Beach,  Rev.  H.  P New  York  City. 

*Brockett,  L.  P.,  M.D Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Brown,  Rev.  A.  J.,  D.D New  York  City. 

CarroU,  Rev.  H.  K.,  LL.D New  York  City. 

♦Chambers,  Rev.  R Erzroom,  Turkey. 

Chester,  Rev.  S.  H.,  D.D Nashville,  Tenn. 

*Cobb,  Miss  M.  L East  Orange,  N.  J. 

Coe,  Rev.  E.  B.,  D.D New  York  City. 

Condit,  Rev.  J.,  D.D San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Conklin,  Rev.  J.  W.,  D.D New  York  City. 

Crawford,  Rev.  L.  S.,  D.D Trebizond,  Turkey. 

Cronkhite,  Rev.  L.  W Greenwich,  N.  Y. 

*Crowell,  Miss  K.  R East  Orange,  N.  J. 

Cushing,  Rev.  J.  N Rangoon,  Burma. 

*Cust.  R.  N.,  LL.D London. 

Dennis,  Rev.  J.  S New  York  City. 

Doremus,  Miss  S.  B New  York  City. 

*Eddy,  W.  W New  York  City. 

♦Ellinwood.  Rev.  F.  F.,  D.D New  York  City. 

Fletcher,  Miss  A.  C Washington,  D.  C. 

Gamewell,  Rev.  F.  D New  York  City. 

♦Gates,  Rev.  O.  H Berlin,  Germany. 

♦Gihnan,  Rev.  E.  W.,  D.D 

♦Gracey,  Rev.  J.  T.,  D.D President  International  Mis- 
sionary Union. 

Greene,  Rev.  F.  D New  York  City. 

♦Griffls,  Rev.  W.  E.,  D.D Boston,  Mass. 

*Grout,  Rev.  Lewis  (late  of 

South  Africa) 

Haas,  Rev.  John  A.  W.,  D.D.. .  .New  York  City. 

Hand,  Chas.  W.,  Esq New  York  City. 

Haven,  Rev.  W.  I.,  D.D New  York  City. 

♦Howells,  Rev.  J.  B Jaher,  Brazil. 

♦Hulbert,  Prof.  H.  B Seoul,  Korea. 

♦Hulbert,  Prof.  H.  W.  (late  of 

Beirut,  Syria) Marietta,  Ohio. 

♦Hutchings,  Rev.  S.,  D.D.  (late 

of  Madras,  India) 

♦Jackson,  Rev.  S.  M New  York  City. 

♦Kalopothakes,  Rev.  M.  D Athens,  Greece. 

♦Labaree,  Rev.  B.,  D.D Urmia,  Persia. 

♦Laurence,  Rev.  E.  A 


♦Laurie,  Rev.  T.,  D.D.  (late  of 
Mosul,  Turkey) 

♦Loomis,  Rev.  S Newark,  N.  J. 

♦Lovett,  Rev.  R London,  England. 

♦Marshall,  C.J Salvation  Army,  New  York 

City. 

♦Martin,  Rev.  Chalmers  (late  of 

Bangkok,  Siam) Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Martin,  Rev.  Paul Princeton,  N.  J. 

♦McFarland,  Rev.  H.  H Woodhaven,  L.  I. 

Mackay,  Rev.  R.  P.,  D.D Toronto,  Ont. 

♦McLaurin,  Rev.  J Woodstock,  Can. 

♦McLeman,  Rev.  D Akaroa,  New  Zealand. 

♦Morse,  R.  C New  York  City. 

Ohl,  Rev.  J.  F.  F.,  Mus.D Philadelphia,  Pa. 

♦Panaretoff,  S.,  Prof Robert  (jollege,  Constanti- 
nople. 

♦Park,    Rev.    C.    W.    (late    of 
Bombay,  India) 

♦Parsons,  Miss  E.  C New  York  City. 

♦Pick,  Rev.  B.,  Ph.D.,  D.D New  York  C  ity. 

♦Romig,  Rev.  B Herrnhut,  Germany. 

♦Russell,  Rev.  F.,  D.D New  York  City. 

Sailer,  Mr.  T.  H.  P.,  Ph.D New  York  City. 

♦Shedd,  Rev.  J.  H.,  D.D 

Shedd,  Rev.  W.  A Urmia,  Persia. 

♦Shelton,  Rev.  C.  W Birmingham,  Ct. 

Smith,  Rev.  G.  B New  York  aty. 

Speer,  Mr.  R.  E New  York  City. 

♦SprouU,  Rev.  W.  J Latakiyeh,  Syria. 

♦Starbuck,  Rev.  C.  C 

♦Steele,  Rev.  R.,  D.D Sydney,  Australia. 

♦Taylor,  Rev.  J.  Hudson London,  England. 

♦Thomson,  Rev.  A.,  D.D 

TisdaU,  Rev.  W.  St.  Clair, D.D.  .Bedford,  England. 

Turner,  Mr.  F.  P New  York  City. 

♦Watson,  Rev.  A.,  D.D Alexandria,  Egypt. 

Wells,  Mr.  Amos  R Boston,  Mass. 

♦Whitney,  Rev.  J.  F.   (late  of 
Micronesia) 

♦Wilshere,  Rev.  D Nassau,  Bahamas. 

Wishard,  Mr.  L.  D Chicago,  111. 

♦Wood,  Rev.  I.  F.  (late  of  Cey- 
lon)  

♦Wood,  Rev.  J Ottawa,  Can. 

♦Wright,  Rev.  W.,  D.D 


♦Contributora  to  the  First  Edition  whose  work  has  been  available  for  the  present  work. 


ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN  THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ABCFM American  Board  of  Commiasioners  for 

Foreign  Missions. 

ABHMS American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society. 

ABMU American  Baptist  Missionary  Union. 

ABS American  Bible  Society. 

ACM Australian  Church,  Missionary  Society. 

AFFM American    Friends'    Board    of    Foreign 

Missions. 

AMA American  Missionary  Association. 

AME African  Methodist  Episcopal  Missionary 

Society. 
AWM Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission- 
ary Society. 

B Basel  Missionary  Society. 

Ber Berlin  Missionary  Society. 

BFBS British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 

BMP Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the  Baptist 

Convention  of  the  Maritime  Provinces. 

BMS Baptist  Missionary  Society. 

BOQ Foreign  Mission   Board   of  the  Baptist 

Convention  of  Ontario  and  Quebec. 

BTS Bible  Translation  Society. 

BZM Baptist  Zenana  Missionary  Society. 

CA Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance. 

CC Christian  Church  Missionary  Society. 

CEZ Church  of  England  Zenana  Missionary 

Society. 

CIM China  Inland  Mission. 

CMS Church  Missionary  Society  for  Africa  and 

the  East. 
CP Cumberland     Presbyterian     Missionary 

Society. 
CSFM Church    of    Scotland    Foreign    Missions 

Committee. 
CWBM Christian   Woman's   Board   of  Missions 

(Disciples). 

DBS Danish  Bible  Society. 

DMS Danish  Missionary  Society. 

DS Danish  Santal  Mission. 

EA Evangelical  Association. 

ECS Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  Mission- 
ary Society. 
ELGC Evangelical   Lutheran   General   Council 

Missions. 
ELGS Evangelical    Lutheran    General    Synod 

Missions. 
ELUS Evangelical  Lutheran  United    Synod    of 

the  South. 

Erm Ermelo  Missionary  Society. 

FCMS Foreign    Christian    Missionary    Society 

(Disciples). 

FCS Free  (  hurch  of  Scotland  Missions. 

FFMA Friends*    Foreign     Missionary    Associa- 
tion, 

FMS Finnish  Missionary  Society. 

GES German     Evangelical     Synod     of     the 

United  States. 

GM Gossner  Missionary  Society. 

HEA Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association. 

Her Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society. 

Ind Independent  Missionary. 

JB Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary  Union. 

JU Jerusalem  Union  of  Berlin. 

KIM Kurku  Inland  Mission. 

Leipz Leipzig  Missionary  Society. 

LMS London  Missionary  Society. 

MCC Missions    of    the    Methodist    Church    in 

Canada. 
ME Missionary    Society    of    the    Methodist 

Episcopal     Church    in     the     United 

States. 
MES Board    of    Missions    of    the    Methodist 

Episcopal  Church,  South. 
MM Melanesian  Mission  Society. 


Mor Moravian  Missions. 

MP Methodist  Protestant  Missionary  Society. 

MR Mission  Romande  (French  Switzerland). 

NAM North  African  Mission. 

NBC Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the  National 

Baptist  Convention  of  America. 

NBS National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland. 

Neth Netherlands  Missionary  Society. 

Neth.B Netherlands  Bible  Society. 

Neth.M Netherlands        Mennonite       Missionary 

Society. 

Neuk Neukirchen  Missionary  Institute. 

NHM New  Hebrides  Mission. 

Nor Norwegian  Missionary  Society. 

NSM Netherlands  State  Missionary  Society, 

OV Old  Version. 

P Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society. 

PB Christian  Mission  (commonly  called  the 

Brethren) . 

PCC Foreign  Mission  Committee  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Canada. 

PCE Foreign    Mission    of    the    Presbyterian 

Church  in  England. 

PCI Foreign    Mission    of    the    Presbyterian 

Church  in  Ireland. 

PE Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  Amer- 
ica Missionary  Board. 

PMMS Primitive  Methodist  Missionary  Society. 

PN :  .  .  .Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  U.  S,  A. 

Pruss.  BS Prussian  Bible  Society. 

PS Presbyterian    Church   in   the   U.    S.   A. 

(South)  Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 

RBMU Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union. 

RBS Russian  Bible  Society. 

RCA Reformed  Church  in  America  (Board  of 

Foreign  Missions). 

Rhen Rhenish  Missionary  Society. 

RP Syixod  of  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church 

in  North  America, 

SA Salvation  Army. 

SAMS South  American  Missionary  Society. 

SBC .Southern  Baptist  Convention  (For- 
eign Missionary  Board). 

Scand Scandinavian  Alliance  of  the  U.  S.  A. 

SDA Mission    Board    of     the    Seventh    Day 

Adventists. 

SPCK Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 
edge. 

SPG Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel. 

SPG  J London  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 

the  Gospel  among  the  Jews. 

Swed.M Swedish  Missionary  Society. 

Swed.N Swedish  National  Missionary  Society. 

Swed.U Swedish  Missionary  Union. 

UB United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

UE United  Evangelical  Missionary  Society. 

UFS United  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

UM Universities'  Mission  to  Central  Africa. 

UMFC United  Methodist  Free  Churches  (Home 

and  Foreign  Missions). 

UP United   Presbyterian   Church   of   North 

America  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 

UPS United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scot- 
land Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 

Utr Utrecht  Missionary  Union. 

WCM Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Missions. 

WMS Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society. 

WU. Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society. 

YMCA Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 

YWCA Young  Women's  Christian  Association. 

j^BM Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Mission. 

^AM Zambesi  Industrial  Mission. 


THE 

Encyclopedia 

OF  Missions 


AADTA:  A  settlement  in  Upolu,  Samoa;  station 
of  the  LMS. 

ABACO  ISLAND.    •  See  Great  Abaco. 

ABADjnrEH:  A  village  in  Palestine  near  the 
southern  end  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias;  mission 
station  of  the  Friends'  Foreign  Mission  Society, 
with  a  school  and  a  dispensary. 

ABASA:  Village  E.  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Gold 
Coast,  W.  Africa;  outstation  of  the  WMS,  with 
six  village  schools  and  about  600  professing 
Christians. 

ABBOTABAD :  Town  in  the  district  of  Pesha- 
war in  the  northwest  frontier  province  of  India ; 
mission  station  of  the  CMS,  and  of  the  Church  of 
England  Zenana  Missionary  Society,  with  a 
dispensary  and  a  number  of  pupils  in  the  zena- 
nas. 

ABDUL  MASIH  (Servant  of  Christ) :  The  new 
name  which  was  adopted  by  Sheikh  Saleh,  con- 
verted through  the  influence  of  Henry  Martyn 
in  1809;  and  soon  afterward  admitted  to  the 
Church  at  Calcutta.  He  was  born  at  Delhi,  was 
Persian  and  Arabic  Moonshi  of  Luoknow,  then 
became  keeper  of  the  King  of  Oudh's  jewels  and 
was  for  years  a  most  zealous  Mussulman.  Just 
after  he  had  been  horrified  by  the  atrocities  of 
his  coreligionists  in  the  Rajput  State  of  Jodhpur, 
he  became  deeply  impressed  by  Martyn's  preach- 
ing, and  accepted  Christ  as  his  Savior.  The 
Sheikh  Saleh's  conversion  caused  great  excite- 
ment among  his  former  associates ;  and  he  became 
an  able  and  influential  minister  of  Jesus  Christ. 
He  was  the  first  native  pastor  under  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  in  India. 

ABEBIFY:  Town  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony, 
W.  Africa;  4,000  inhabitants  using  the  Ashanti 
language  and  worshiping  idols  or  fetishes; 
station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society,  having 
connected  with  it  17  outstations,  in  which  are 
15  village  schools.  The  Christians  of  this  place 
number  735.     Name  also  given  as  Abetifi. 

ABEEL,  David:  Born  June  12,  1804,  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  He  accepted  the  position 
of  chaplain  of  the  American  Seamen's  Friend 
Society  at  Canton,  with  a  conditional  appoint- 
ment as  missionary  of  the  American  Board  at 
the  end  of  a  year,  and  sailed  with  Mr.  Bridgman, 
October  14,  1829,  for  China.  In  December, 
L    1 


1831,  Mr.  Abeel  entered  the  service  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board,  and  sailed  on  the  27th  for  Batavia, 
partly  for  his  health,  but  chiefly  to  visit  the 
churches  planted  by  the  Dutch,  two  centuries 
before,  in  the  islands  of  southeastern  Asia. 
While  visiting  London,  July  25,  1834,  he  told 
of  the  degradation  of  the  women  of  the  East, 
and  presented  an  appeal  to  the  Christian  women 
of  Great  Britain,  which  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  the  Society  for  Promoting  Female  Education 
in  the  East.  October  17,  1838,  he  returned  to 
Canton,  but  the  "opium  war"  preventing  his 
usefulness  there,  he  visited  Malacca,  Borneo, 
and  other  places.  On  account  of  ill  health  he 
returned  to  New  York,  April  3,  1845,  and  died 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  September  4,  1846,  aged  42. 
He  published  A  Journal  of  a  Residence  in  China; 
A  Missionary  Convention  in  Jerusalem;  The 
Claims  of  the  World  to  the  Gospel. 
Williamson  (G.  R.),  David  Abeel,  New  York,  1849. 

ABEIH:  A  village  of  the  Lebanon  district  in 
Syria,  25  miles  S.  of  Beirut.  A  mission  station 
established  by  the  ABCFM,  but  in  1870  trans- 
ferred to  American  Presbyterian  Board.  The 
Theological  Seminary  which  was  founded  there 
in  1869  was  transferred  to  Beirut  in  1874. 
Depending  upon  the  4  stations  of  the  Lebanon 
district  are  45  outstations,  and  as  many  primary 
schools,  with  about  650  church  members.  The 
missionary  statistics  of  Abeih  are  included  in 
those  of  the  district  thus  described. 

ABENAQUI:  This  is  a  dialect  of  the  Micmac 
language  of  the  North  American  family.  It  was 
first  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries  of  the 
American  Board,  and  is  written  with  Roman 
letters. 

ABEOKUTA:  Capital  of  the  Yoruba  district 
(Lagos  Protectorate),  W.  Africa.  It  stands  on 
the  E.  bank  of  the  Ogun  river,  about  60  miles  N. 
of  Lagos,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railroad. 
It  occupies  the  two  highest  of  several  detached 
hills  which  ascend  gradually  to  the  N.  E.,  and 
terminate  in  a  bluff  surmounted  by  masses  of 
smooth  gray  granite.  This  bluff  gives  the  place 
its  name,  which  means  "under  the  rock."  Wars 
ruined  the  Yoruba  country  in  the  early  part  of 
the  19th  century  and  the  fugitives  from  many 
towns  gathered  here,  slowly  forming  the  city 
which  now  has  150,000  inhabitants,  and  is  an 


Abetlfi 
Acre 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


important  commercial  center.  The  growth  of 
the  city  was  greatly  stimulated  about  1840  by 
the  arrival  there  from  Sierra  Leone  of  freed  and 
Christianized  slaves,  who  were  natives  of  the 
Yoruba  country.  These  men  set  themselves 
against  the  human  sacrifices  and  other  cruelties 
of  the  fetishism,  and  the  atrocities  of  the  slave- 
trade  of  which  this  city  was  a  center.  They  also 
prepared  the  way  for  the  establishment  of 
missions. 

A  mission  was  opened  in  the  city  by  the  CMS 
in  1846;  by  the  WMS  about  the  same  time,  and 
by  the  SBC  (of  America)  in  1856-1876.  Hos- 
tility of  slave  merchants  and  liquor  dealers  to  the 
enlightening  effect  of  Christianity  has  led  to 
several  fierce  attempts  to  destroy  a  reform 
which  opposed  both.  At  last  a  general  uprising 
against  the  English  took  place  in  1867,  during 
which  all  white  men  were  driven  from  the  city, 
and  400  native  Christians  fled  for  their  lives; 
the  churches  were  sacked,  and  Christian  influ- 
ence might  have  been  destroyed  for  years  had 
not  Mr.  Johnson,  the  able  negro  preacher,  held 
to  his  post  throughout  the  troubles.  At  present 
the  four  native  chiefs  who  rule  the  city  attend 
church  regularly,  and  form  a  regular  Council  of 
Government.  A  Board  of  Education  for  the 
Yoruba  region  under  these  chiefs  has  taken  the 
place  of  the  savage  councils  of  the  fetish  priests, 
which  terrorized  the  land  in  the  first  half  of  the 
19th  century.  Intemperance  and  polygamy 
are  forces  which  still  resist  advances  of  spirit- 
uality among  the  people,  and  the  influx  of  foreign 
traders  facilitated  by  the  railway  is  not  an 
unlimited  benefit  to  the  city. 

Paganism,  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity 
are  the  prevailing  religions  at  Abeokuta.  There 
is  a  Roman  Catholic  mission  there.  The  Prot- 
estant Christian  community  consists  of  about 
5,000  souls,  of  whom  1,700  are  communicants. 
There  are  11  missionaries,  and  73  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  connected  with  the  three 
missions.  The  CMS  carries  on,  in  connection 
with  Abeokuta  Station,  21  village  schools,  a 
theological  class  and  a  dispensary,  besides  main- 
taining a  special  work  for  lepers.  The  WMS 
has  22  outstations,  and  3  village  schools,  and 
the  SBC  reports  2  outstations  and  1  village 
school. 

ABETIFI.     See  Abebify. 

ABKHASIANS:  A  warlike  tribe,  inhabiting  the 
country  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caucasus. 
Under  the  Roman  Emperor  Justinian  they  be- 
came Christians,  but  subsequently  adopted 
Mohammedanism,  to  which  religion  they  still 
nominally  belong,  though  their  religion  in  fact 
consists  of  a  barbarous  mixture  of  Christian, 
Mohammedan  and  heathen  notions  and  usages. 
The  greater  part,  of  these  people  have  been  in- 
duced by  the  Turkish  government  to  remove 
to  Asiatic  Turkey,  where  they  form  agricultural 
communities,  living  apart  from  the  rest  of  the 
population. 

ABOA:  Town  on  the  Rombi  river  in  the  Ger- 
man Colony  of  Kamerun;  station  of  the  German 
Baptist  Missionary  Society,  opened  in  1900. 
Also  written  Abo. 

ABOKOBI.     See  Agbogea. 

ABOMEY:  The  capital  of  Dahomey.  It  was 
captured  by  the  French  in  1892.  It  is  not  a 
mission  station,  but  has  been  reached  by  the 
Wesleyan  Missionary  Society.  It  has  about 
20,000  inhabitants. 


ABORIGINES  PROTECTION   SOCIETY:   The 

tendency  of  colonists  from  the  so-called  civilized 
countries  to  disregard  the  rights  of  natives  of 
territory  which  they  desire  to  occupy  has  had 
many  painful  illustrations  in  Australia,  the 
Pacific  islands,  and  various  parts  of  Africa,  not  to 
mention  other  better  known  regions.  Feelings 
of  revulsion  from  such  injustice  and  of  sympathy 
for  its  victims  caused  the  formation  of  this. 
Society  in  1837.  The  Society  aims  steadily  to- 
champion  the  rights  of  tribes,  especially  in  Africa, 
which  are  oppressed  by  the  thoughtlessness,, 
carelessness,  or  greed  of  white  settlers.  It  seeks 
to  prevent  settlers  from  crowding  natives  off 
from  lands  actually  in  occupancy,  and  to  secure 
just  legislation  regulating  the  distribution  of  land 
to  white  settlers,  limiting  or  forbidding  the  sale  of 
liquor  to  natives,  and  otherwise  placing  legal  bar- 
riers in  the  way  of  injury  to  those  who  through, 
ignorance  or  weakness  cannot  defend  their  own 
interests.  The  methods  so  far  used  by  the  Society 
have  been  by  appeal  to  public  sentiment  through, 
the  press,  and  by  direct  application  to  the  Govern- 
ment. This  Society  is  not  in  any  sense  a  mission- 
ary organization.  Nevertheless  its  object  is  one 
which  coincides  with  the  purpose  and  wish  of  all 
missionaries,  which  fosters  the  spread  of  civiliza- 
tion among  backward  races  and  which  attracts, 
them  toward  the  adoption  of  that  Christian  prin- 
ciple of  good  will  to  all  on  which  the  existence  of 
the  Society  is  based.  Headquarters,  Broadway 
Chambers,  Westminster,  London,  S.  W.,  England. 

ABURAH:  A  town  N.  E.  of  Kumassi  in  the 
Gold  Coast  Colony,  W.  Africa;  station  of  th& 
WMS,  with  1  missionary,  49  native  workers,, 
men  and  women,  75  outstations  and  550  church, 
members. 

ABURI:  A  town  of  6,500  inhabitants  in  the- 
Gold  Coast  Colony,  W.  Africa.  A  station  of  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society,  established  in  1847.  It 
has  6  missionaries  and  18  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  It  has  9  outstations,  10  village  schools 
and  700  church  members.  Also  station  of  the 
WMS,  with  4  missionaries  and  93  native  workers^ 
men  and  women.  It  has  14  village  schools,  1 
high  school  and  650  church  members. 

ABYSSINIA :  The  name  is  derived  from  Arabic 
"Habash"  =  "mixed"  population.  The  inhabi- 
tants call  themselves  Itiopavians=  Ethiopians. 
The  region  now  included  under  the  common 
name  Abyssinia  has  been  called  most  appro- 
priately the  "Switzerland"  of  Africa.  It  consists, 
for  the  most  part,  of  a  mountainous  plateau, 
averaging  9,000  feet  above  sea  level,  precipitous-- 
on  the  east,  and  falling  away  more  gradually  in 
other  directions,  everywhere  being  intersected  by 
profound  ravines  and  dominated  by  lofty  snow- 
capped peaks.  A  desert,  stretching  from  the  Red 
Sea  to  the  base  of  the  mountains,  still  further 
isolates  this  Alpine  region.  Abyssinia,  made  up- 
of  the  provinces  of  Tigrfi,  Lasta,  Amhara,  Gojam, 
Shoa,  and  adjoining  lands,  covers  about  150,000 
square  miles.  The  average  climate  on  this  lofty 
plateau  is  delightfully  temperate,  the  depths  of 
the  ravines  being  thoroughly  tropical,  while  the 
higher  mountain  shoulders  are  decidedly  Arctic. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  supports  a  great  variety  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life.  Rich  mines  of  great 
variety  abound,  and  the  country  furnishes  every 
necessity  for  a  highly  developed  civilization. 

The  people  of  Abyssinia  number  about 
3,500,000;  they  are  much  superior  in  every 
respect  to  their  African  neighbors. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Abetlfl 
Acre 


The  Introduction  of  Christianity:  Abyssinia  has 
been  called  the  first  and  only  mission  field  of  the 
Coptic  Church.  It  was  converted  to  the  Christian 
faith  early  in  the  4th  century,  in  this  wise: 
Meropius,  a  philosopher  of  Tyre,  went  on  a  voy- 
age for  purposes  of  travel  and  observation  to 
"India" — a  much-abused  title,  supposed  to  desig- 
nate in  this  case  South  Arabia.  He  had  with 
him  his  two  young  nephews,  Frumentius  and 
Edesius.  The  ship  put  into  a  port  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea  and  its  passengers  were 
promptly  slain  by  the  natives.  Frumentius  and 
Edesius  alone  were  saved  alive  as  slaves,  and 
taken  to  Axum,  the  ancient  capital  of  Abyssinia. 
Frumentius  was  instrumental  in  introducing 
some  knowledge  of  Christianity  among  the  people 
and,  having  asked  help  in  his  missionary  labors 
from  the  Church  in  Egypt,  he  himself  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Abyssinia.  He  is  known  in  the 
church  of  that  land  as  Abu  Salama,  "the  Father 
of  Peace." 

The  venerable  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Ethiopio  dates  from  the  4th  century  and,  if  not 
finished  by  Frumentius,  was  doubtless  set  under 
way  through  his  zealous  foresight.  Upon  this 
book  rests  whatever  power  Abyssinia  had  in  its 
best  days. 

The  Abyssinian  Christians  are  connected 
ecclesiastically  with  the  Coptic  Church  of  Egypt, 
but  hold  to  certain  observances  of  Judaism.  The 
clergy  being  the  only  educated  people  and  hold- 
ing great  power  in  their  hands,  conservative 
influences  and  deep  suspicion  of  foreigners  have 
ruled  the  policy  of  the  kingdom  up  to  the  present 
time.  In  the  new  Africa,  Abyssinia  is  destined 
to  play  an  important  part.  That  its  Christianity 
should  be  revived  and  made  to  live  in  the  hearts 
of  its  adherents  is  the  most  pressing  duty  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

The  Jesuit  Episode:  In  1490  A.D.,  the  Abys- 
sinian Christians  were  rediscovered  by  the  naval 
officers  of  John  II.  of  Portugal,  who  had  sailed 
all  the  way  around  southern  Africa.  The  Chris- 
tian world  thought  that  at  last  the  famous 
"Prester  John"  was  found  away  up  in  the  Abys- 
sinian Mountains.  The  King  of  Portugal  sent 
Petro  Cavilham,  the  Jesuit,  to  push  the  interests 
of  Portugal  in  Africa.  This  interference  was 
resented.  The  Abyssinians  came  to  blows  with 
the  Portuguese  soldiers,  who  worked  under  orders 
from  the  Jesuits.  At  one  time  these  zealous 
churchmen  were  victorious,  and  8,000  enemies 
lay  dead  upon  the  battle-field.  As  the  young 
Abyssinian  Prince  Facilidas,  whom  the  Jesuits 
had  half  won  over,  walked  through  the  heaps  of 
slain,  he  is  reported  to  have  come  to  this  conclu- 
sion: "A  religion  which  causes  so  much  bloodshed 
cannot  be  good.  We  had  better,  tho  vic- 
torious, return  to  the  faith  of  the  conquered  and 
remain  faithful,  as  they  were."  When  he  became 
king  he  expelled  the  Jesuits,  and  all  further 
attempts  on  their  part  to  get  a  footing  in  the 
country  failed.  The  attempt,  in  1621,  when 
the  Jesuits  installed  a  patriarch  in  Abyssinia, 
Vas  especially  disastrous.  Over  a  century  later 
(1750-1754)  a  third  attempt  was  unsuccessful. 
French  influence  now  seems  paramount  in  Abys- 
feinia  and  the  construction  of  a  railroad  to  Harrar 
from  the  French  seaport  of  Jibuti  on  the  Red  Sea 
has  greatly  strengthened  this  influence. 

Protestant  Missions  in  Abyssinia:  In  1830 
Bishop  Gobat  and  Mr.  Kugler  were  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Abyssinia  by  the  CMS.  The  work 
began    with    bright    prospects.     Bishop    Gobat 


traveled  extensively  and  learned  the  Amharic, 
the  common  language  of  the  people,  a  dialect  of 
the  ancient  Ethiopic,  which,  though  still  used  in 
church  services,  has  become  a  dead  language, 
even  to  many  of  the  priests  who  go  through  the 
ceremonies.  Bishop  Gobat  broke  down  in 
health,  and  had  to  leave  the  country.  Mr. 
Kugler  died.  Later,  Mr.  Isenberg  and  Dr.  Krapf 
took  up  the  work.  The  Jesuit  cloud  again 
appeared  on  the  horizon  in  tlie  shape  of  Sapeto, 
who  was  sent  out  by  the  Propaganda.  His 
intrigues  aroused  the  old  suspicions  of  foreign 
interference,  and  all  foreigners  were  expelled 
the  country  in  1838.  Krapf  and  Isenberg  went 
to  Shoa,  and  were  received  in  a  kindly  manner 
by  the  Idng.  There  they  compiled  an  Amharic 
dictionary,  as  well  as  a  geography  and  prayer- 
book.  Before  this  the  Bible  had  been  translated 
at  Cairo,  in  1808,  into  Amharic  by  an  Abyssinian 
monk,  Abu  Rumi,  assisted  by  the  French  Consul 
Asseline.  In  1840  the  ms.  was  bought  and 
revised  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
Altho  the  Protestant  missionaries  had  been 
expelled,  the  work  went  on.  The  Protestant 
missionaries  remained  on  the  borders  of  Abys- 
sinia until  1859,  when  they  were  allowed  to  return 
to  the  capital  only  to  be  imprisoned  in  1862 
through  a  Frenchman's  intrigue  with  the  ignorant 
and  suspicious  king  Theodore.  An  English  mill-  ■ 
tary  force  released  the  captives  in  1868,  and  the 
CMS  has  not  renewed  its  efforts  for  the  Abys- 
sinians. The  Swedish  Evangelical  National 
Society  in  1866  began  a  mission  near  Massaua 
on  the  Red  Sea  in  what  was  Abyssinian  territory, 
but  is  now  the  Italian  colony  of  Eritrea.  Its 
missionaries  have  gradually  pressed  toward  the 
Abyssinian  frontier  and  now  they  have  5 
stations  W.  of  Massaua  manned  by  18  mission- 
aries and  13  native  workers,  both  men  and 
women,  and  with  a  printing  house,  schools,  and 
about  300  communicants  connected  with  their 
churches. 

The  Sacred  City  of  the  Ethiopians,  Bent  (T.),  London,  1893; 
The  British  Mission  to  Abyssinia,  Rassam  (H.),  London, 
1869,  2  vol^.  Wanderings  Among  the  Falashas  of  Abys- 
sinia, Stern  (H.),  London,  1862;  Abyssinia,  Vivian  (H.), 
London,  1901. 

ACCA,     See  Acre. 

ACCRA:  A  town  on  the  Gold  Coast,  W.  Africa; 
station  of  the  WMS,  with  3  missionaries  and  34 
native  workers,  men  and  worpen.  It  has  30 
outstations  and  2  village  schools.  The  National 
Baptist  Convention  (U.  S.)  also  opened  a  station 
here  in  1900.  The  number  of  professing  Chris- 
tians found  at  Accra  is  about  650.  The  name 
is  also  written  Akra. 

ACCRA,  or  Ga  language:  This  language 
belongs  to  the  negro  family  of  African  languages, 
and  is  spoken  by  about  100,000  people  living  in 
the  region  of  the  Volta  river.  Gold  Coast  Colony, 
W.  Africa.     It  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 

ACRE  (St.  Jean  d'Acre) :  A  seaport  on  the  coast 
of  Palestine,  which  was  celebrated  during  the 
Crusades.  It  is  a  strongly  Mohammedan  town, 
surrounded  by  a  wall  and  used  as  a  place  of 
detention  for  political  prisoners.  One  of  the 
recognized  heads  of  the  Babis  resides  here  in 
banishment,  and  hence  directs  and  encourages 
his  followers  in  Persia  and  elsewhere.  Acre  is  a 
station  of  the  CMS,  with  7  missionaries  and  20 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  there  is  also 
a  hospital  with  two  dispensaries  in  the  outsta- 
tions, and  there  are  8  schools.  Taking  the  town 
and  its  outstations  together,  the  number  of  com- 


Adnbazar 
Africa 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


municants  is  about  100,  mostly  from  branches  of 
the  Oriental  Church. 

ADABAZAR:  A  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  about 
■60  miles  E.  of  Nicomedia;  a  station  of  the 
ABCFM.  Mission  work  resulted  early  in  the 
establishment  of  a  strong  church,  which  supports 
its  own  pastor  and  schools  and  has  become  a 
center  of  great  influence  among  the  villages  of 
that  section.  The  church  has  taken  upon  itself 
responsibility  for  a  girls'  boarding  school,  the 
Board  furnishing  three  unmarried  women  mis- 
sionaries as  its  teachers. 

ADALIA:  A  seaport  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  the  ancient  Attaleia.  The  popula- 
tion is  about  13,000  Mohammedans,  with  quite 
a  number  of  Greeks.  It  is  not  occupied  as  a 
mission  station,  but  is  visited  by  colporteurs  of 
the  BFBS. 

ADAMS.     See  Amanzimtote. 

ADAMSHOOP:  Town  in  the  Orange  River 
"Colony,  S.  Africa,  founded  by  the  son  of  a  slave. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Mission  Society  since  1867. 
One  missionary  and  20  native  workers  form  the 
force  at  this  station  and  4  outstations  and  500 
church  members. 

AD  ANA:  A  city  of  45,000  inhabitants,  the  seat 
of  government  of  the  province  of  the  same  name. 
S.  of  the  Taurus  Mountains  in  Asiatic  Turkey. 
The  people  of  the  city  are  mostly  Mohammedans, 
but  there  are  a  considerable  number  of  Armeni- 
ans, some  Nusairiyeh  and  a  small  Greek  com- 
munity. The  people  of  Adana  are  noted  for 
energy  and  force  of  character.  It  is  a  station 
of  the  ABCFM,  with  a  working  force  of  5  mis- 
sionaries and  32  native  workers,  men  and  women. 
It  has  an  excellent  girls'  boarding  school,  an 
orphanage,  a  fine  church  building  with  650 
church  members. 

Adana  is  also  an  outstation  of  the  RP  for 
work  conducted  in  Arabic. 

The  ABS  has  a  Bible  depot  and  subagency 
there. 

ADDA,  or  Ada:  A  town  on  the  Gold  Coast, 
W.  Africa;  station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Socie- 
ty, with  several  outstations  and  6  village  schools 
and  a  kindergarten.  The  number  of  professing 
Christians  is  about  250. 

ADDYMAN,  John:  Born  in  Leeds,  county  of 
Yorkshire,  England,  on  October  22,  1808.  Con- 
verted at  sixteen,  he  at  once  threw  himself 
earnestly  into  evangelistic  work,  first  in  Leeds 
and  then  in  London.  He  was  at  this  time  con- 
nected with  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  but  his 
views  on  the  subject  of  church  government  hav- 
ing undergone  some  change,  he  left  the  Wesleyan 
community  and  united  himself  with  the  Method- 
ist New  Connexion.  He  was  called  into  the 
ministry  of  that  body  in  1833.  Just  at  this  time 
the  subject  of  commencing  a  mission  in  Canada 
was  seriously  occupying  the  members  of  the  New 
Connexion  and  Mr,  Addyman  was  chosen  to  be 
the  pioneer  of  the  movement  in  the  Far  West. 
His  labors  in  Canada  were  very  trying,  involving 
great  privations  and  dangers,  and  often  attended 
by  romantic  experiences.  During  what  is  known 
as  the  Canadian  Rebellion  he  was  in  great  peril, 
his  life  being  threatened ;  being  suspected  as  a 
spy,  he  was  arrested  and  kept  for  some  time  in 
prison.  At  length,  through  his  arduous  toils  and 
trials,  his  health  failed,  and  in  1845  he  returned 
to  his  native  land,  having  been  the  main  instru- 
ment in  establishing  177  churches,  which  con- 


tained more  than  4,000  membsrs,  but  which  have 
since  expanded  into  large  and  flourishing  centers, 
and  now  form  part  of  the  Methodist  Church  of 
Canada.     He  died  June  7,  1887. 

ADELAIDE:  A  village  of  1,200  inhabitants,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Koonap  River,  in  Cape 
Colony,  S.  Africa.  Religion,  the  denominations 
common  in  Britain  and  America;  the  native 
fetishism  also  exists.  It  is  a  mission  station  of 
the  UFS,  established  in  1861,  and  has  a  working 
force  of  a  missionary  and  his  wife  with  a  native 
worker.     There  are  185  church  members. 

ADEN:  A  fortified  seaport  at  the  southwestern 
corner  of  Arabia,  belonging  to  Great  Britain, 
having  been  bought  from  the  Turks  in  1839  by 
the  British  East  India  Company.  The  climate 
is  hot  and  very  trying  to  Europeans.  The  popu- 
lation is  almost  exclusively  Mohammedan,  but 
of  several  races  and  tribes  who  go  to  Aden  for 
commerce  from  the  interior  of  Arabia  and  from 
Africa.  The  UFS  has  a  mission  station  at 
Shuikh  Othman  in  the  district  of  Aden.  Three 
missionaries  and  2  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  compose  the  force  which  carries  on  a 
high  school,  a  hospital,   and  a  dispensary. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  islands 
lying  N.  E.  of  New  Guinea,  belonging  to  Ger- 
many and  forming  a  part  of  Bismarck  Archi- 


ADOWA:  Capital  of  Tigr6,  Abyssinia;  a  town 
of  about  3,000  mhabitants.  It  has  not  now  any 
missionary  enterprises. 

ADRIANOPLE:  Capital  of  the  Turkish  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name  (Turkish  Edirneh),  on  the 
Maritza  (ancient  Hebrus),  in  Thrace,  130  miles 
northwest  of  Constantinople.  Population, 
85,000  Mohammedans,  Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews, 
with  a  few  Roman  Catholics  and  a  small  group 
of  Protestants.  The  scenery  of  the  city  is 
beautiful,  the  gardens  of  the  wealthy  citizens 
delightful,  and  the  appearance  of  the  40  mosques 
most  picturesque.  The  trade,  centered  in  a 
capacious  bazaar,  is  considerable,  and  the  city 
possesses  strategic  importance.  Founded  by 
Emperor  Hadrian  in  125.  Mission  station  of 
British  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel 
among  the  Jews;  1  Jewish  missionary;  also  an 
outstation  of  Constantinople  (ABCFM) ;  it  has  a 
native  Evangelical  church,  and  a  Bible  depot  of 
the  ABS. 

AFGHANISTAN:  A  country  of  Central  Asia, 
N.  E.  of  India,  which  it  separates  from  Russia 
and  Persia.  It  is  a  mountainous  country,  with 
lofty  tables  and  deep  ravines,  few  rivers,  and  a 
climate  that  presents  a  great  variety,  changing 
from  intense  cold  to  tropical  heat.  The  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  about  5,000,000  Moham- 
medans of  the  Sunnite  sect,  divided  into  two 
classes,  Durranes  and  Ghilzais.  They  are  a 
fierce,  turbulent  people,  constantly  at  feud  and 
difficult  to  govern.  No  mission  work  can  be 
attempted  at  present  in  Afghanistan,  but  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  have  published 
the  New  Testament,  Psalms,  and.  historical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  Pashtu,  or  Afghani. 

AFRICA:  The  continent  of  Africa  is  equal  in 
area  to  Europe  and  North  America  combined, 
comprising  nearly  12,000,000  square  miles.  Its 
greatest  length  is  5,000  miles,  and  its  greatest 
breadth,  4,600.  Both  tropics  cross  it,  and  the 
equator  mtersects  it '  a  little  below  the  center. 
By   far  the  largest   portion   of   its   territory   is 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Adabazar 
Africa 


therefore  intertropical.  In  its  physical  configu- 
ration Africa  has  been  happily  compared  to  an 
inverted  saucer.  It  is  rimmed  on  a  great  part 
of  its  seaboard  by  a  narrow  strip  of  low  land; 
at  a  distance  of  from  50  to  200  miles  from  the 
coast  the  land  rises  rapidly  to  an  average  height 
of  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  and  in  some  parts 
to  lofty  mountain  ranges;  then  the  whole 
interior  is  a  vast  table-land,  sinking  slightly  in 
the  middle.  In  this  hollow  lie  the  great  lakes 
^whence  flow  the  mighty  rivers  that  drain  the 
whole  country. 

These  rivers  are  the  dominating  features  of 
African  geography.  The  problems  that  have 
chiefly  concerned  the  explorer  have  been  to 
ascertain  and  locate  the  sources  and  the  courses 
of  the  four  great  streams,  the  Nile,  the  Niger, 
the  Congo,  and  the  Zambesi;  and  the  triumphs 
of  modern  African  exploration  are  almost  all 
connected  with  these  four  names.  The  Nile  is 
by  far  the  longest  of  the  four,  having  a  course 
extending  over  37°  of  latitude;  but  the  Congo 
exceeds  it  in  volume  and  in  the  dimensions  of 
its  basin.  Of  the  four  great  lakes  of  what  is 
usually  called  Central  Africa,  Victoria  Nyanza 
and  Albert  Nyanza  belong  to  the  Nile  system; 
Tanganyika  belongs  to  that  of  the  Congo,  and 
Nyasa  to  that  of  the  Zambesi,  one  of  whose 
tributaries,  the  Shir6,  flows  out  of  it. 

I.  Geographical  and  Political  Divisions:  The 
following  table  shows  the  divisions  of  Africa  as 
constituted  at  the  present  time  (1903).  The 
process  of  delimitation  is  still  going  on  in  north- 
ern central  Africa,  but  by  consulting  the  latest 
maps  in  connection  with  this  table  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  process  of  partition  is  practically 
completed.  For  areas,  populations,  missionary 
and  other  facts  the  different  divisions  should  be 
studied  under  their  respective  heads.  The 
abbreviations  in  parentheses  after  the  names  in 
the  table  indicate  the  government  under  whose 
influence  or  into  whose  possession  the  territory 
named  has  fallen,  viz.:  B — Great  Britain;  F — 
France;  G — Germany;  I — Italy;  Ind — Inde- 
pendent State;  P — Portugal;  S — Spain;  T — 
Turkey. 

Abyssinia  (Ind). 

Algeria  (F). 

Angola  (P). 

Basutoland  (B). 

Bechuanaland  Protectorate  (B).    . 

British  East  Africa  (B). 

Cape  Colony  (B). 

Central  African  Protectorate  or  Nyasaland  (B). 

Congo  Free  State  (Ind). 

Dahomey  (F). 

Egypt  (T&  B). 

Egyptian  Sudan  (T  &  B). 

Eritrea  (I). 

French  Congo  (F). 

French  Guinea  (F). 

French  Somaliland  (F). 

Gambia  (B). 

German  East  Africa  (G). 

German  Southwest  Africa  (G). 

Gold  Coast  Colony  (B). 

Italian  Somaliland  (I). 

Ivory  Coast  (F). 

Kamerun  (G). 

Lagos  (B). 

Liberia  (Ind). 

Natal  (B). 

Nigeria  (B). 

Orange  River  Colony  (B). 


Portuguese  East  Africa  (P). 

Portuguese  Guinea  (P). 

Rhodesia  (B). 

Rio  de  Oro  (S). 

Rio  Muni  (S). 

Senegal  (F). 

Senegambia  and  Niger  (F). 

Sierra  Leone  (B). 

Somaliland  Protectorate  (B). 

Togoland  (G). 

Transvaal  Colony  (B). 

Tripoli  (T). 

Tunis  (F). 

Wadai  (F). 

Zanzibar  (B). 

The  New  International  Encyclopedia  gives 
the  following  approximate  statistics  of  the  di- 
vision of  the  area  and  population  of  Africa  among 
the  various  powers : 

Country  Area  Sq.  miles.  Pop. 

France  4,000,000  32,635,910 

Great  Britain  2,700,000  41,773,360 

Germany  1,000,000  14,200,000 

Portugal  800,000  8,197,790 

Turkey  400,000  1,300,000 

Italy  200,000  450,000 

Spain  80,000  136,000 

II.  Geographical  Exploration:  The  first  of 
modern  travelers  was  Bruce,  who  traveled 
through  Nubia  and  Abyssinia  in  1768-73,  and 
traced  the  course  of  the  Blue  Nile.  After  that 
the  Niger  was  for  a  half  century  the  goal  of  suc- 
cessive explorers.  Mungo  Park  reached  its 
upper  waters  in  1796;  Denham,  Clapperton, 
and  Laing  followed;  but  it  was  not  till  1830 
that  Lander,  sailing  down  the  stream,  discov- 
ered its  outlet  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  In  1816 
Tuckey  attempted  to  explore  the  Congo,  but 
fell  a  victim  to  the  climate.  Central  Africa 
proper  still  remained  untouched.  In  1845  Sir 
Roderick  Murchison,  President  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society,  said:  "Our  knowledge 
of  Africa  advances  slowly,  and  is  confined  almost 
exclusively  to  the  coast;"  and  in  1851  another 
president,  Captain  Smyth,  said:  "All  beyorid 
the  coast  of  Central  and  Southern  Africa  is  still 
a  blank  in  our  maps." 

The  wonderful  discoveries  of  the  last  60  years 
begin  with  the  two  missionaries  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  Ludwig  Krapf  and  John 
Rebmann,  who  were  the  earliest  explorers  of 
Africa,  from  the  eastern  side  (1844-46).  Reb- 
mann's  discovery  of  Mount  Kilima-Njaro,  in 
1848,  was  the  first  great  step  forward  in  what 
has  been  well  called  the  Recovery  of  Central 
Africa.  In  the  following  year  Livingstone 
made  his  first  important  journey,  in  the  far 
south,  and  reached  the  small  lake  Ngami.  In 
1854  Baikie  took  the  second  Niger  expedition 
(with  which  was  S.  Crowther)  up  the  Benu6 
branch  more  than  600  miles  from  the  sea;  and 
about  the  same  time  Barth  was  prosecuting  his 
extensive  journeys  in  the  Sudan  and  around 
Lake  Chad.  Livingstone  was  then  gaining  his 
great  reputation  in  the  south,  particularly  by 
his  journey  across  Africa  from  Loanda  to  the 
mouth  of  Zambesi,  by  which  the  course  of  that 
river  was  determined  (1854-55).  In  1857  Bur- 
ton and  Speke,  stimulated  by  the  researches  of 
Krapf  and  Rebmann,  which  had  for  several 
years  pointed  to  a  great  inland  sea  somewhere  in 
the  interior,  made  their  great  journey  from  the 
East  Coast,  and  in  the  following  year  discov- 
ered Lake  Tanganyika  and  the  Victoria  Nyanza. 


Africa 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


In  1859  Livingstone  discovered  Nyasa,  and,  not 
knowing  tliat  thie  mystery  of  the  inland  sea, 
heard  of  by  Rebmann,  had  been  solved,  wrote 
home;  "This  (Nyasa)  must  be  what  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  has  been  thinking  of  for 
many  years."  (The  Portuguese,  however,  knew 
of  Nyasa;  and  Cazembe's  capital,  in  the  heart 
of  the  lake  region,  had  been  reached  by  Lacerda 
as  far  back  as  1798,  and  by  Monteiro  in  1831.) 
In  1862  Speke,  on  his  second  journey  with  Grant, 
discovered  Uganda,  and  the  outflow  of  the  Nile 
from  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  and  sent  home  his 
famous  message,  "The  Nile  is  settled."  Mean- 
while several  Egyptian  officers  with  Petherick 
had  ascended  the  White  Nile  nearly  to  the  Albert 
Nyanza,  which,  however,  was  first  seen  by 
Baker  in  1864.  In  1866  Livingstone,  abandon- 
ing his  southern  fields,  began  his  later  travels  in 
the  lake  regions,  around  Tanganyika,  and  on 
what  are  now  known  to  be  the  headquarters  of 
the  Congo.  The  search  for  him,  when  his  long 
absence  caused  anxiety,  led  to  Stanley's  first 
journey  (1871),  and  to  that  of  Cameron.  The 
latter  was  the  first  to  cross  Africa  from  east  to 
west  (1874-75);  but  his  too  southern  route 
missed  the  course  of  the  Congo,  which  was 
determined  by  Stanley  on  his  second  journey 
in  1876-77.  This  was  the  journey  in  the  course 
of  which  Stanley  explored  the  Victoria  Nyanza 
and  visited  Uganda.  Meanwhile,  the  remark- 
able explorations  in  the  Sudan  of  Schweinfurth, 
(1869-71)  and  Nachtigal  (1869-74),  partic- 
ularly those  of  the  former  in  the  territories  west 
of  the  Upper  White  Nile,  revealed  to  the  world 
countries  and  peoples  utterly  unknown  before, 
notably  the  Monbuttu  and  Nyam-Nyam  dis- 
tricts and  races. 

The  Congo  particularly,  within  eight  years  of 
the  discovery  of  its  course,  became  a  compara- 
tively familiar  stream.  The  vast  territories 
drained  by  it  have,  by  European  treaty,  been 
formed  (so  far  as  commerce  is  concerned)  into 
a  Congo  Free  State. 

Among  the  events  and  ongoings  that  in  more 
recent  years  have  contributed  to  the  enlarge- 
ment of  our  knowledge  of  Africa,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  protectorate  practically  assumed 
over  Egypt  by  Great  Britain  since  1883,  the  long 
continued  troubles  in  the  Sudan,  and  especially 
events  that  culminated  in  the  overthroAv  of  the 
Orange  Free,  State  and  the  South  African  Repub- 
lic, and  reduced  them  to  British  colonies.  To 
these  happenings  should  be  added  the  activity 
manifested  by  Great  Britain  in  pushing  its 
African  railway  enterprises,  aided  by  some  other 
powers,  a  process  that  promises  to  bring  into 
railway  connection  with  the  whole  world  the 
entire  east  coast  and  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
continent. 

The  more  recent  explorations  have  been 
undertaken  less  to  discover  new  regions  than  to 
increase  our  knowledge  of  regions  already 
reached.  The  best  known  of  the  expeditions 
since  1885  was  that  of  Stanley,  undertaken  to  dis- 
cover tlie  fate  or  whereabouts  of  Emin  Pasha 
(Snitzer).  This  went  up  the  Congo,  traversed 
the  vast  forests  of  equatorial  Africa,  and  crossed 
into  Zanzibar.  In  1899  an  expedition  led  by 
E.  S.  Grogan  and  Arthur  Sharp  crossed  the  con- 
tinent from  north  to  south,  investigating  the 
feasibility  of  a  "Cape  to  Cairo"  railroad,  and 
making  many  valuable  discoveries.  Donaldson 
Smith  explored  Somaliland  with  good  results, 
Foureau  crossed  the  Sahara  to  the  Congo,  and  Mar- 


chand  made  his  memorable  "mission"  to  Fashoda 
within  the  period  named.  The  future  explor- 
ation of  the  continent  will  certainly  be  con- 
ducted from  motives  chiefly  commercial  and  m  a 
scientific  manner,  assuring  to  the  next  genera- 
tion a  knowledge  of  this  vast  continent  as  accu- 
rate and  full  as  that  which  we  now  have  of  the 
better  known  regions  of  the  earth. 

///.  Races  and  Languages  of  Africa:  The  mis- 
sionary problem  of  this  vast  "dark  continent  is 
intimately  related  to  the  character  of  the  races 
and  languages  found  within  its  boundaries. 
The  population  of  Africa  is  estimated  by  the 
more  recent  authorities  at  175,000,000,  or  about 
one-eighth  of  the  entire  population  of  the  earth. 
Deniker,  in  his  "Races  of  Men"  (London,  1900), 
gives  a  complete  classification  of  the  African 
races  from  which  we  derive  the  following 
abstract : 

1.  Arabo- Berber,  or  Semito-  Hamites:  This 
stock  is  found  in  N.  Africa  to  as  far  as  15°  S.  lat. 
It  includes  about  three-fourths  of  the  so-called 
Arabs  of  N.  Africa,  who  in  fact  are  Berbers 
speaking  Arabic.  There  are  four  sub-races  (1) 
Djerbas,  the  Berbers  of  the  Tunisian  coast  (2) 
the  Elles  type,  of  Central  Tunis,  (3)  the  present 
Berber  type  of  Algeria-Tunisia,  and  (4)  the  Jerid 
or  Oasis  type.  The  Fellahin  of  the  Nile  valley 
below  the  first  cataract  belong  to  this  stock. 
The  ancient  Egyptian  language  preserved  as  the 
Coptic  dialect  is  spoken  by  about  500,000  to 
750,000  Berbers,  and  the  Arabo-Berber  tribes  of 
the  Nile  valley  between  the  first  and  fourth  cata- 
ract number  about  190,000. 

2.  Ethiopians,  or  Kushito-  Hamites,  or  Nubians: 
This  stock  inhabits  N.  E.  Africa  from  the  25th 
deg.  to  the  4th  deg.  S.  lat.  They  occupy  the 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
from  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to  Madisha.  The  prin- 
cipal divisions  of  this  stock  are  (1)  Nubians, 
speaking  the  Amharinga  and  Tigrenga  dialects, 
(2)  the  Gallas,  or  Oroma,  who  are  nearly  pure 
Ethiopians,  (3)  the  Somalis,  who  are  Gallas  mixed 
with  an  Arab  stock,  and  (4)  the  Afari,  or  Danakil. 

3.  Fulah-Zandeh  Group:  This  comprises  a 
whole  series  of  populations  of  mixed  Ethiopians 
and  Nigritians,  extending  in  a  belt  five  or  six 
degrees  wide  across  the  continent,  including 
with  many  other  tribes,  the  Masai,  of  the  eastern 
section,  the  Nyam-Nyam,  or  Zandeh,  and  on  the 
more  westerly  side,  the  Fulah-Zandeh. 

4.  Nigritians:  These  comprise  all  the  negro 
populations  that  do  not  speak  the  Bantu  dia- 
lects, and  which  are  conveniently  divided  into 
four  sections,  viz:  those  of  the  Eastern,  Central 
and  Western  Sudan,  and  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
embracing  many  tribes  and  subdialects. 

5.  Negrilloes:  These  are  a  stock  of  pigmies, 
extending  in  a  belt  reaching  in  general  three 
degrees  on  either  side  of  the  equator  entirely 
across  Africa. 

6.  BantuGroup:  This  group  embraces  numerous 
peoples  of  Central  and  S.  Africa,  whose  dialects 
form  the  Bantu  linguistic  family,  distinct  from 
the  Nigritian.  They  are  conveniently  divided 
into  Western,  Eastern  and  Southern  sections, 
embracing  many  tribes  and  families.  To  the 
southern  section  of  this  group  belong  the  well- 
known  Zulu  tribes. 

7.  Bushmen-  Hottentots:  A  people  reduced  by 
the  more  warlike  Bantu  tribes  to  a  few  thousand 
families,  many  of  them  nomads  and  forest  hunt- 
ers. 

The  ethnological  divisions  have  not  been  easy 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Africa 


to  fix,  but  the  best  authorities  are  fairly  agreed  in 
arranging  them  by  language,  and  the  linguistic 
grouping  has  made  such  progress  of  late  years 
that  the  above  may  be  taken  to  be  a  fairly  con- 
sistent outline  grouping  of  the  races  of  the  con- 
tinent. 

IV.  Religions  of  Africa:  The  missionary  to 
Africa  has  the  task  of  making  himself  acquainted 
with  a  greater  variety  of  religious  customs  and 
superstitions  than  can  be  found  in  any  other 
quarter  of  the  world.  These  religions  are  charac- 
terized in  general  by  a  belief  in  some  sort  of 
surpeme  being,  in  many  quarters  by  the  worship 
of  ancestors,  somewhat  as  in  China,  by  Fetish- 
ism with  its  priests,  sorcerers  and  groveling 
rites,  and  by  superstitious  fears,  incantations, 
charms  and  barbaric  ceremonials.  Idolatry,  in  the 
sense  of  the  making  and  worshiping  of  images, 
is  not  so  widely  diffused  as  might  be  supposed. 
There  is  nothing  in  Africa  like  the  elaborate 
image-worship  of  India.  Hideous  idols  are  com- 
mon among  the  West  African  Negroes;  but  in 
Central  Africa,  so  far  as  is  known,  none  are  to  be 
found.  But  what  is  called  fetish  worship  is  uni- 
versal. A  fetish  is  a  charm;  and  almost  any 
object — a  tree,  a  stick,  a  stone,  a  shell,  a  plant, 
the  limb  of  an  animal,  a  vessel  filled  with  some 
strange  compound — in  fact,  anything  whatever — 
may  have  power  imparted  to  it  by  certain  medi- 
cine-men— power  to  preserve  the  owner  or  bearer 
from  danger,  or  power  to  injure  his  enemies. 
Particular  fetishes  fulfil  particular  purposes. 

All  these  native  religions  may  be  comprised 
under  the  term  pagan.  Of  the  pagans  on  the 
entire  globe,  six-sevenths  are  in  Africa,  which  is 
therefore  emphatically  the  pagan  continent.  Of 
the  imported  religions  of  Africa  the  leading  repre- 
sentative is  Mohammedanism.  Carried  in  the 
7th  century  by  fire  and  sword  over  North 
Africa,  this  faith  has,  in  the  last  two  centuries, 
advanced  its  borders  considerably,  and  now  pre- 
vails widely  in  both  the  Western  and  Eastern 
Sudan,  in  West  Africa  and  along  the  east  coast, 
and  its  missionaries  are  more  or  less  actively 
spreading  their  faith  among  the  populations  of 
Central  Africa. 

The  Christian  populations  of  Africa  comprise 
the  Copts,  descendants  of  the  Monophysites  of  the 
5th  century,  numbering  about  750,000;  the 
Abyssinians,  whose  ecclesiastical  system  depends 
upon  that  of  the  Coptic  Church;  Roman  Catholics 
who  have  had  missionaries  in  Africa  continuously 
since  the  16th  century,  and  now  aggregate 
about  2,450,000;  and  Protestants,  numbering 
about  3,250,000,  including  the  English  and 
Dutch  of  South  Africa. 

Hindus,  chiefly  dwelling  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  continent,  number  about  250,000  in  Africa; 
and  according  to  varying  estimates  there  are 
from  550,000  to  750,000  Jews,  chiefly  on  the 
Mediterranean  coast. 

V.  Missionary  Work  in  Africa,  General  View: 
The  first  Protestants  to  undertake  evangelizing 
work  in  Africa  were  the  Moravians,  who  began  in 
1792.  Since  that  time  nearly  every  Protestant 
denomination  has  undertaken  missionary  work 
in  some  part  of  the  "dark  continent."  For 
details  of  this  work  the  reader  should  consult  the 
articles  upon  the  political  and  territorial  divi- 
sions of  the  continent,  and  particularly  the 
statistical  tables  found  in  the  Appendix  to  this 
work. 

Statistics  naturally  take  no  account  of  the 
great  number  of  Christian  men  and  women  in 


Africa  not  directly  related  to  missions,  but  who 
exercise  evangelizing  influences  in  innumerable 
ways.  The  established  and  self-supporting 
churches  are  naturally  evangelizing  agencies, 
and  it  is  farther  to  be  considered  that  very  much 
work  by  Christians  cannot  be  identified  nor 
reduced  to  statistical  form. 

Obstacles  and  Difficulties  encountered  in  Mis- 
sionary Work  in  Africa:  These  are  many,  but 
not  insurmountable.  The  first  is  the  climate  of 
many  parts  to  which  missionaries  have  under- 
taken to  go.  This  is  deadly  to  mo.st  Europeans 
or  Americans  who  spend  any  time  on  the  coast 
or  in  the  lowlands. 

The  vast  number  of  languages  spoken  by  the 
175,000,000  or  more  of  the  inhabitants  of  Africa 
is  a  very  serious  obstacle  to  missionary  labor. 
Nowhere  is  a  universal  speech  more  of  a  desider- 
atum. 

Slavery  and  the  appearance  of  the  Arab  slave- 
trader  are  still  real  terrors  in  many  regions,  and 
sadly  interfere  with  the  progress  of  the  Gospel; 
but  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  this  great  crime 
against  humanity  is  permanently  under  restraint, 
so  that  its  vitality  will  steadily  fail. 

The  traffic  in  liquor  is  another  obstacle  to  the 
missionary  enterprise  and  the  spread  of  the 
Gospel,  particularly  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 
Steps  have  been  taken  to  limit  this  evil. 

Other  difficulties  and  problems  that  confront 
the  missionary  in  Africa  can  be  only  mentioned. 
The  brutal  animal  nature  of  the  natives  in  many 
regions  makes  the  instilling  of  a  pure  religion 
seem  nearly  impossible.  Polygamy  and  the 
degradation  of  women  to  the  level  of  mere 
beasts  are  facts  to  be  counted  on.  The  influence 
of  the  sorcerer  and  wizard,  based  on  the  nearly 
universal  belief  in  evil  spirits,  is  encountered 
everywhere,  and  such  men  are  the  natural  ene- 
mies of  the  missionary  because  they  are  the 
religious  leaders  of  their  tribes.  The  greed  of 
commercial  enterprise,  resulting  in  age-long  abuse 
of  the  natives,  who  have  been  wronged  by  the 
white  man  since  the  earliest  times,  also  weighs 
in  some  parts  of  the  continent  to  make  entrance 
into  the  confidence  of  the  African  people  more 
difficult. 

Nevertheless,  most  Africans  are  hospitable  to 
the  foreigner,  naturally  docile  under  the  influence 
of  stronger  minds,  and  especially  curious  and 
eager  to  learn  new  things.  In  this  latter  trait 
they  are  far  more  easily  reached  than  are  the 
Chinese  with  their  fixed  and  retrogressive  tem- 
perament. The  Africans,  moreover,  are  not 
naturally  atheistic,  and  have  many  ideas  and 
beliefs  that  prepare  them  to  believe  the  Gospel. 
A  history  that  shows  individual  Africans,  like 
Bishop  C^owther  of  Yorubaland,  or  national 
development,  as  in  Uganda,  promises  like  fruit 
from  Christian  teaching  elsewhere. 

Keane,  Africa  (Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography  and 
Travel),  London,  1895;  White,  Development  of  Africa, 
London,  1892;  Brown,  Story  of  Africa  and  lis  Explorers, 
London,  1892-95;  Keltie,  The  Partition  of  Africa,  London, 
1895;  Johnston,  History  of  the  Colonization  of  Africa  by 
Alien  Races,  Cambridge,  1899;  Livingstone,  Missionary 
Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa,  New  York,  1858; 
Last  Journals  of  David  Livingstone  in  Central  Africa,  Lon- 
don, 1874;  Cameron,  Across  Africa,  New  York,  1877; 
Stanley,  Through  the  Dark  Continent,  New  York,  1878; 
Drummond,  Tropical  Africa,  ^  ew  York,  1888;  Stanley, 
Jn  Darkest  Africa,  New  York,  1890;  Johnston,  Livingstone, 
and  the  Exploration  of  Central  Africa,  London,  1891 ; 
Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  New  York,  1897; 
Lloyd,  In  Dwarf  Land  and  Cannibal  Country,  London, 1899. 

AFRICA,  German  East.  See  German  East 
Africa. 


Africa 

Aim   of   Christian 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


AFRICA,  German  Southwest.  See  German 
Southwest  Afhica. 

AFRICAN  METHODIST  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH ;  Parent  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  the,  (1847):  The  foreign  mission  work 
of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is 
found  in  Africa,  South  America,  West  Indies 
and  Hawaii.  The  first  foreign  field  of  the  church 
was  Haiti  (1824),  where  the  society  now  reports 
10  stations  and  2,000  adherents.  In  British 
Guiana  it  reports  20  stations  and  5,000  ad- 
herents. It  reports  15  missionaries  in  the 
Windward  Islands,  and  3  missionaries  in  Cuba. 
Its  missions  in  Africa  include  stations  in  Sierra 
Leone,  Liberia,  the  Lagos  Colony  (on  the  West 
coast  of  the  continent) ,  in  Cape  Colony  in  South 
Africa,  extending  northward  as  far  as  Northern 
Rhodesia.  In  Africa  it  reports  altogether  300 
preachers  and  a  membership  of  11,000.  The 
origin  of  the  work  of  this  organization  in  South 
Africa  was  the  withdrawal,  in  1894-95,  of  a 
number  of  native  church  members  from  the 
WMS  churches  in  the  Transvaal.  The  seoeders 
formed  a  new  body  which  adopted  the  name, 
"Ethiopian  Church."  The  movement  was  in 
some  measure  a  protest  against  a  color  line  in  the 
churches  of  Africa.  In  1896  the  Ethiopian  church 
united  with  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States,  and  the  movement 
is  spreading  with  some  energy  among  native 
churches  in  Africa. 

The  Woman's  Parent  Mite  Missionary  Society 
(1872),  and  the  Woman's  Home  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  (1892),  are  auxiharies,  the 
last  named  having  its  chief  support  in  the 
Southern  States.  The  headquarters  of  the 
society  are:  61  Bible  House,  New  York  City. 
Organ :   Voice  of  Missions. 

AFRICAN  TRAINING  INSTITUTE  (Colwyn 
Bay,  North  Wales) :  This  Institution  was  founded 
in  1889  by  the  Rev.  W.  Hughes  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  a  thorough  English  training  to  excep- 
tionally gifted  Africans.  The  plan  was  heartily 
approved  by  many  of  the  African  Christian 
clergy  and  others,  and  is  supported  by  auxiliary 
committees  established  at  several  points  in  W. 
Africa.  The  Training  Institute  is  located  in  a 
delightful  part  of  Wales,  at  Colwyn  Bay,  and 
has  already  shown  its  usefulness.  It  has  edu- 
cated more  than  200  Africans,  who  are  now 
working  at  about  15  places  in  W,  Africa,  mainly 
in  the  Congo  region,  and  who,  by  so  much, 
become  the  direct  channels  of  the  influence  of 
the  Institute.  The  Institute  teaches  its  pupils 
some  of  the  arts  which  will  find  place  for  appli- 
cation in  Africa  and  it  has  5  auxiliary  or  prepara- 
tory schools  in  Africa,  the  most  intelligent  of 
whose  graduates  will  be  taken  to  complete  their 
training  in  the  mother  in.stitution.  The  number 
of  students  now  in  training  is  about  75. 

AGARPARA:  A  village  near  Calcutta,  India; 
station  of  the  CMS,  with  one  unmarried  woman 
missionary  in  charge  of  a  house  for  female 
orphans. 

AGBOGBA,  or  ABOKOBI:  A  town  N.  of  Accra 
in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society,  with  21  outstations  and 
IS  village  schools.  The  number  of  professing 
Christians  is  about  500. 

AGNEW,  Miss  Eliza:  Sailed  from  Boston  to 
Ceylon,  under  the  ABCFM,  in  1839,  and  for 
forty-three  years  she  labored  as  a  missionary  of 
the  Cross,    never    returning    to     native     land. 


She  was  the  first  unmarried  woman  sent  as  a 
missionary  to  Ceylon,  and  for  forty  years  she 
was  the  efficient  principal  of  the  girls'  school  at 
Oodooville.  In  June,  1883,  Miss  Agnew  received 
a  paralytic  shock,  and  during  the  same  month 
she  passed  into  her  heavenly  rest. 

AGRA:  A  city  of  about  170,000  inhabitants, 
capital  of  the  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
United  Provinces,  British  India.  It  has  several 
magnificent  architectural  relics  of  the  Mogul 
Empire,  and  is  venerated  by  the  Hindus  as  the 
scene  of  the  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  It  is  an 
important  center  of  Mohammedanism.  The 
climate  is  good  except  from  April  to  September. 

It  is  a  station  of  the  BMS,  opened  in  1811,  and 
now  carried  on  by  5  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  and  24  native  workers.  There  are  2 
outstations  and  9  village  schools,  an  orphanage, 
and  70  church  members. 

It  is  also  a  station  of  the  CMS,  commenced  in 
1853,  and  now  having  a  working  force  of  21 
missionaries  and  38  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  who  carry  on  7  village  schools,  5  high 
schools  and  a  fine  college.  There  are  205  com- 
municants connected  with  this  mission. 

The  BZM  commenced  a  station  here  in  1871 
and  has  5  missionaries  and  11  native  workers, 
all  women,  with  5  village  schools  and  more  than 
400  women  pupils  in  the  zenanas. 

The  Edinburgh  Medical  Mission  Society  has  a 
training  class  here. 

The  ME  has  a  station  here  with  a  missionary 
and  his  wife  and  32  native  workers,  20  village 
schools,  and  550  church  members. 

AGU:  Town  in  the  German  colony  of  Togo- 
land,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the  N.  German  Mis- 
sionary Society,  opened  in  1900. 

AGUADILLA :  Town  on  the  W.  shore  of  Porto 
Rico;  a  flourishing  station  of  the  Presbyterian 
Home  Missionary  Society,  with  about  150 
adherents. 

AGUASCALIENTES:  Capital  of  the  smallest 
State  in  the  Mexican  Republic,  270  miles  north- 
west of  Mexico  City.  It  takes  its  name  from 
the  hot  springs  which  abound  in  the  vicinity. 
It  is  surrounded  by  rich  gardens  abounding  in 
olives,  figs,  vines,  pears,  etc.  Climate,  temper- 
ate; population,  32,000  Mexicans;  language, 
Spanish;  religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Mission 
station  of  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church 
(1888);  1  missionary  and  wife,  2  unmarried 
women,  7  native  workers,  men  and  women,  a 
printing  house,  2  industrial  schools,  1  outstation, 
3  common  schools,  and  105  church  members. 

AHMADABAD:  The  capital  of  the  district  of 
the  same  name,  Bombay,  British  India.  It  was 
formerly  one  of  the  most  magnificent  cities  of 
India,  and  its  superb  architectural  monuments 
still  testify  to  the  fact.  It  is  an  important 
center  of  the  Parsees.  It  is  a  mission  station  of 
the  PCI,  established  in  1861;  with  6  missionaries 
and  30  native  workers,  men  and  women,  a 
theological  seminary,  2  orphanages,  a  high 
school,  and  11  common  schools.  There  are  100 
members  in  the  church. 

It  is  also  occupied  as  a  mission  station  by  the 
ME,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  5  native 
workers,  and  by  the  Christian  and  Missionary 
Alliance,  and  the  Salvation  Army,  statistics  in 
regard  to  which  are  lacking. 

AHMADNAGAR:  A  city  in  the  presidency  of 
Bombay,  British  India,  standing  on  the  Deccan 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Africa 
Aim   of   ClirlMtian 


plateau  and  on  a  line  of  rail  joining  Dhond  on 
the  Bombay  and  Madras  line,  with  Manmad  on 
the  Bombay  and  Calcutta  line.  It  has  35,000 
inhabitants,  of  whom  3,572  are  Cliristians,  for 
the  most  part  connected  with  the  mission  of  the 
ABCFM.  This  mission  was  commenced  in  1831. 
Up  to  1855  the  whole  number  of  converts 
amounted  only  to  78.  But  then  a  movement 
arose  which  spread  to  about  100  villages,  and 
brought  over  600  communicants  into  the  church. 
A  convert,  Krishnarao,  introduced,  in  1862,  the 
Kirttan  at  the  meetings — songs  on  the  life  of 
Christ,  sung  with  instrumental  accompaniment. 
The  present  force  of  the  mission  consists  of  17 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  of  whom  2  are 
physicians  and  3  industrial  instructors.  It 
maintains  1  theological  seminary,  1  training 
school  for  women  workers,  2  high  schools,  1 
industrial  school  of  great  efficiency,  1  industrial 
school  for  women,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary.  Con- 
nected with  the  mission  are  2  churches  in  the  city 
which  pay  the  expenses  of  their  own  Christian 
work  and  contain  634  members.  In  the  district 
superintended  from  the  city  are  17  other  churches 
with  1,280  members  and  18  common  schools. 

The  SPG  entered  Ahmadnagar  in  1870,  and 
has  its  headquarters  outside  of  the  city  with  a 
somewhat  extensive  work  in  the  district  to  the 
north. 

The  Christian  Literature  Society  for  India  has 
a  publishing  house  in  the  city  and  conducts  a 
normal  training-school. 

The  Industrial  Missions  Aid  Society  has  a  rug 
factory  in  the  city  which  gives  employment  to 
boys  trained  in  the  industrial  schools  of  the 
Mission. 

It  is  a  notable  fact  that  while  the  population 
of  the  district  decreased  by  52,000  in  10  years, 
1891-1901,  the  Christians  of  the  district  increased 
in  the  same  time  from  6,734  to  20,864. 

AHOUSAHT :  Village  on  the  W.  coast  of  Van- 
couver Id.;  station  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Canada,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
missionary  woman,  1  Sunday-school  and  1  village 
school. 

AIDIN:  A  city  57  miles  southeast  of  Smyrna, 
Turkey.  Population,  35,000,  chiefly  Mohamme- 
dans, but  with  a  few  Greeks  and  Armenians. 
It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  Mfeander 
River,  and  built  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Tralles,  once  occupying  this  site.  Out- 
station  of  the  ABCFM  worked  by  the  mission- 
aries at  Smyrna. 

AILSA  CRAIG:  Village  in  West  Shire,  Nyasa- 
land,  Africa;  station  of  the  Zambesi  Industrial 
Mission,  with  an  industrial  school  and  2  village 
schools. 

AIM  OF  CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS:  The  aim  of 
foreign  missions  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
aim  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  world,  or  of 
the  Christian  nations  of  the  world.  There  are 
many  good  and  Christian  things  which  it  is 
not  the  duty  of  the  foreign  missionary  enterprise 
to  do.  And  we  must  not  confuse  the  aim  of  for- 
eign missions  with  the  results — an  easy  con- 
fusion— because  there  is  no  other  force  so  powerful 
to  accomplish  results  accessory  and  indirect.  It 
is  misleading  also  to  confuse  the  ultimate  issues 
with  the  immediate  aims;  it  is  not  only  mis- 
leading, it  is  fatal.  Some  things  can  only  be 
secured  by  those  who  do  not  seek  them.  Mis- 
sions are  powerful  to  transform  the  face  of 
society,  because  they  ignore  the  face  of  society, 


and  deal  with  it  at  its  heart.  They  yield  such 
powerful  political  and  social  results,  becauss 
they  do  not  immediately  concern  themselves 
witifi  them.  Again,  we  must  not  confuse  the  aim 
of  missions  with  the  methods  of  missions.  It  is 
an  easy  thing  to  select  a  method  with  the  view 
to  the  accomplishment  of  some  given  end,  and 
then  because  the  end  is  difficult  of  accomplish- 
ment, because  the  method  is  easy  of  operation, 
because  its  results,  apart  altogether  from  the 
main  aim,  are  good  and  useful  in  themselves,  it 
is  easy  to  exalt  the  method  into  the  place  of  the 
end. 

Having  cleared  the  ground  so  far,  what  is  the. 
aim  of  foreign  missions?  It  is  a  religious  aim. 
It  cannot  be  stated  too  strongly  in  an  age  when 
the  thought  of  men  is  full  of  things,  and  when 
the  body  has  crept  up  on  the  throne  of  the  soul, 
that  the  work  is  not  immediately  and  primarily 
a  philanthropic  work,  a  political  work,  a  secular 
work  of  any  sort  whatsoever.  It  is  a  spiritual 
and  a  religious  work.  Of  course  religion  must 
express  itself  in  life,  but  the  missionary  does  not 
go  into  the  world  primarily  as  trustee  of  a, 
better  social  life.  He  goes  as  the  trustee  of  His 
life  Who  said  of  Himself,  "Except  ye  eat  the 
flesh  of  the  Son  of  man,  and  drink  His  blood,, 
ye  have  no  life  in  you."  "I  came  that  they 
may  have  life,  and  may  have  it  more  abundantly." 
"The  bread  which  I  will  give  is  my  flesh,  which 
I  will  give  for  the  life  of  the  world."  President 
Seeley's  lectures  on  Christian  Missions  have  the 
great  merit  of  laying  chief  emphasis  on  this 
predominance  of  the  religious  and  spiritual  char- 
acter of  the  aim  of  missions. 

The  aim  of  missions,  then,  to  borrow  Dr. 
George  Washburn's  phrase,  is  to  make  Jesus 
Christ  known  to  the  world.  Other  phraseology 
may  be  used.  We  can  say  the  aim  of  missions, 
is  the  evangelization  of  the  world.  Or,  we  can 
say  the  aim  of  missions  is  to  preach  the  Gospel 
to  the  world.  And  if  we  understand  these  terms 
in  their  Scriptural  sense,  they  are  synonymous 
with  the  phrase  just  quoted.  But  many  persist 
in  using  them  at  less  than  their  Scriptural  value. 
It  makes  clear  what  the  aim  of  missions  is,  to 
say :  The  aim  of  foreign  missions  is  to  make 
Jesus  Chri.st  known  to  the  world. 

And  almost  any  method,  almost  any  agency, 
may  be  recognized  as  legitimate  which  subjects 
itself  with  fidelity  to  this  supreme  aim.  As 
Alexander  Duff  said  in  1854,  in  the  first  Mission- 
ary Conference  in  New  York  City,  "The  chief 
means  of  divine  appointment  for  the  evangeliza- 
tion of  the  world  are  the  faithful  teaching  and 
preaching  of  the  pure  Gospel  of  salvation,  by 
duly  qualified  ministers  and  other  holy  and  con- 
sistent disciples  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  accom- 
panied with  prayer,  and  savingly  applied  by  the 
grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  such  means,  in  the 
providential  application  of  them  by  human 
agency,  embracing  not  merely  instruction  by  the 
living  voice,  but  the  translation  and  judicious 
circulation  of  the  whole  written  Word  of  God, 
the  preparation  and  circulation  of  evangelical 
tracts  and  books,  as  well  as  any  other  instru- 
mentalities fitted  to  bring  the  Word  of  God 
home  to  men's  souls,  together  with  any  processes 
which  experience  may  have  sanctioned  as  the 
most  efficient  in  raising  up  everywhere  indige- 
nous ministers  and  teachers  of  the  living  Gospel." 
This  is  fair  and  broad.  It  sets  out  openly  a 
range  of  mission  effort  that  will  throttle  and 
restrict  no  useful  missionary  enterprise,  and  it 


Aim  of  Christian 
Alaska 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


10 


exalts  to  a  predominant  and  singular  place  the 
supreme  aim  of  making  Jesus  Christ  known  to 
His  world.  Philanthropy  and  education  will 
have  a  large  part  among  the  methods  of  mission- 
ary work,  but  they  are  its  methods  and  not  its 
end.  By  these  and  all  other  agencies  the  enter- 
prise seeks  to  plant  in  humanity  the  principle  of 
the  divine  life  itself,  to  live  and  bear  fruit  in  a 
thousand  fold  more  social  amelioration  and  intel- 
lectual improvement  than  the  missionary  move- 
ment as  such  could  accomplish. 

This  description  of  the  missionary  aim  does 
not  lift  from  our  shoulders  the  burden  of  respon- 
sibility that  we  cannot  escape,  and  it  does  not 
lay  there  a  burden  of  responsibility  that  we  can- 
not bear.  We  dare  not  say  that  we  have  done 
our  duty  when  we  have  spoken  Christ's  name  to 
the  world ;  nor  that  we  have  made  Jesus  Christ 
known  to  the  world  when  we  have  given  the 
world  such  a  proclamation  of  Christ  as  would 
suffice  for  us  who  already  know  Him  to  take  in 
the  full  meaning  of  the  message.  Neither,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  we  left  to  struggle  hopelessly 
under  the  burden  of  the  world's  spiritual  con- 
version or  moral  regeneration.  We  cannot  con- 
vert one  single  soul;  how  shall  we  convert  the 
world?  Midway  between  the  position  of  no 
responsibility,  and  of  all  responsibility,  the 
Church  stands,  sharing  something  with  God, 
sharing  also  something  with  the  world.  We 
cannot  sever  ourselves  from  that  link  of  loving 
sympathy  which  binds  us  to  its  death;  we  can- 
not sever  ourselves  from  that  link  of  sympathy 
which  binds  us  to  His  life.  We  are  meant  to 
be  between  His  life  and  its  death,  channels  of 
the  grace  and  salvation  of  God. 

The  aim  of  missions  is  to  make  Jesus  Christ 
known  to  the  world  with  a  view  to  the  salvation 
of  men  for  that  eternity  which  embraces  alike 
the  time  that  is  to  come  and  the  time  that  now 
is.  We  cannot  narrow  salvation  to  but  one 
world,  this  one  or  the  next.  And  further  we 
must  not  state  the  aim  of  missions  in  purely 
individualistic  terms.  Our  duty  lies  certainly 
to  our  generation,  but  it  does  not  stop  there. 
We  are  bound  to  preach  to  every  person  in  the 
world  the  Gospel  of  the  only  Savior;  we  are 
bound  also  to  make  known  to  the  world  that 
there  is  a  body  of  Christ  which  is  His  Church, 
and  to  gather  up  all  responsive  men  into  visible 
churches,  which  shall  be  outward  evidence  of 
the  body  of  Christ,  and  shall  secure  to  the  Gos- 
pel an  influence  and  perpetuity  which  institu- 
tions and  not  individuals  must  supply.  Henrj' 
Venn,  Dr.  Warneck  and  Rufus  Anderson  have 
given  proper  emphasis  to  this  element  in  mis- 
sionary policy  and  duty.  We  are  to  establish 
and  foster  native  churches,  self-extending,  self- 
maintaining,  self-directing,  which  shall  carry 
out  to  their  own  people,  whom  we  may  not  reach, 
the  message  that  has  come  to  them,  and  which 
shall  carry  down  into  the  generations  to 
come  after  them,  the  blessings  which  we  have 
given  them  as  their  own.  This  is  the  aim  of 
foreign  missions,  to  make  Jesus  Christ  known 
to  the  world,  with  a  view  to  the  full  salvation 
of  men,  and  their  gathering  into  true  and  living 
churches  to  which  the  missionary  enterprise 
may  commit  the  larger  and  enduring  Christian 
duty  as  it  passes  on  to  "regions  beyond." 

This  is  the  supreme  aim.  It  is  a.  just  thing  to 
challenge  the  world  to  sympathy  with  missions, 
because  of  the  philanthropic  and  social  results 
that    missions    achieve,    and    the    heroic    spirit 


which  they  display.  But  their  supreme  aim  is 
neither  to  establish  republics  or  limited  mon- 
archies throughout  the  world,  nor  to  lead  Chinese 
or  Hindu  people  to  wear  our  dress,  nor  to  re- 
model their  social  institutions,  where  these  are 
already  wholesome  and  clean.  The  supreme 
aim  is  to  make  Jesus  Christ  known.  Any  true 
view  of  the  world  must  make  room  for  other 
forces  than  missions.  God  is  King,  and  so 
surely  as  His  hand  is  upon  the  work  of  missions, 
it  is  upon  all  the  great  forces  that  are  making 
the  world.  We  cannot  acknowledge  that  the 
force  of  political  influence  has  escaped  from  His 
control,  that  He  stands  impotent  before  the 
commerce  and  civilization  of  the  world.  His 
hand  is  upon  these  things.  They  play  at  last 
into  His  almighty  purposes.  They  are  but  part 
of  His  influence.  They  and  all  the  forces  of  life 
run  resistlessly  on  to  the  great  goals  of  God. 
But  these  forces  are  only  supplementary  to  the 
power  that  the  missionary  holds  in  his  hands 
from  His  pierced  hand  Who  died  and  rose  again, 
and  Who  is  King  of  them  that  reign  as  kings, 
and  Lord  of  them  that  rule  as  lords. 

This  aim  of  missions  should  have  determining 
authority.  We  sometimes  allow  ourselves  to 
drift  into  methods  of  work  that  presuppose  a 
quite  contrary  aim.  When  we  lift  off  the 
shoulders  of  a  new  native  church,  for  example, 
the  burdens  that  it  must  bear  if  it  is  ever  to 
grow,  the  act  seems  like  kindness,  while  it  ia 
fatal  to  the  Church  and  neglectful  of  the  supreme 
missionary  aim.  It  is  easy  to  slip  into  indirect 
conceptions  of  duty,  or  to  do  what  God  can  do 
through  other  agencies.  Missions  are  to  do 
their  own  work,  and  not  the  work  of  other 
agencies  6r  other  forces.  Methods  of  work,  in 
their  proportion  and  in  their  perpetuation, 
should  be  ruled  by  the  supreme  and  determining 
aim  of  the  missionary  movement. 

And  not  alone  the  method  of  missions,  but  the 
spirit  of  the  enterprise  should  be  ruled  by  that 
aim.  It  proposes  no  promiscuous  and  indefinite 
project.  It  has  its  own  clean-cut  piece  of  work 
to  do.  To  be  sure  it  is  often  confused  enough 
in  the  actual  work  among  men,  but  the  cir- 
cumstances which  confuse  it  show  also  how 
important  its  clear  perception  and  prosecution 
are.  If  this  is  the  aim  of  missions,  the  enter- 
prise is  not  a  miscellaneous  and  undefined  task. 
It  is  a  clear  and  practicable  project,  well  justify- 
ing the  words  of  Simeon  Calhoun,  the  "Saint  of 
the  Lebanon:" 

"It  is  my  deep  conviction,  and  I  say  it  again 
and  again,  that  if  the  Church  of  Christ  were 
what  she  ought  to  be,  twenty  years  would  not 
pass  away  till  the  story  of  the  cross  would  be 
uttered  in  the  ears  of  every  living  man." 

AIMARA  LANGUAGE:  In  Bolivia  nearly  400,- 
000  people  speak  this  language.  It  belongs  to  the 
South  American  family,  but  has  been  modified 
by  the  Spanish.  It  is  written  with  Roman 
letters. 

AINU  LANGUAGE:  Classed  among  the  abo- 
riginal languages  of  the  Extreme  Orient  family, 
the  Ainu  has  no  literature  and  has  been  written 
for  missionary  purposes  and  in  Roman  letters 
only.  It  IS  spoken  by  about  150,000  people 
found  m  Japan. 

.u^W^?/  .T"bes  inhabiting  Saghalien,  Yezo, 
the  Kurile  islands  and  various  adjacent  regions 
partly  under  Japanese  and  partly  under  Russian 
jurisdiction.     As  in  the  case  of  many  aboriginal 


11 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Aim   of   Christian 
Ala.Hlca. 


races  the  name  of  this  race  means  simply  men. 
Tradition  says  that  the  Japanese  were  originally 
Ainus,  and  only  became  a  distinct  race  by  inter- 
marrying with  the  Chinese.  The  Ainus  are  dif- 
ferent from  other  Mongolian  tribes,  and  in  their 
more  vigorous  physical  formation  resemble  the 
Caucasian  type.  Tho  armed  and  painted 
like  savages,  they  are  inoffensive  and  hospitable, 
but  rather  shy.  They  are  pagans,  and  practise 
polygamy.  Groups  of  10  or  12  families  live 
together  in  miserable  huts,  with  a  chief  for  each 
group.  ^  They  support  themselves  by  hunting 
and  fishing.  Those  of  them  who  have  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity  have  shown  sturdiness  and 
enthusiasm. 

AINTAB:  A  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  about  35 
miles  west  of  the  Euphrates,  in  the  province  of 
Aleppo.  It  has  30,000  inhabitants,  chiefly 
Mohammedans  and  Armenians.  One  of  the  most 
flourishing  stations  of  the  ABCFM,  with  a  large 
female  seminary  and  a  college  founded  in  1874. 
There  are  4  large  churches,  2  of  them  having 
stone  buildings,  with  accommodation  for  over 
1,000  each.  The  Protestant  community  is  one 
of  the  most  influential  in  Turkey.  The  effort  in 
1863,  to  establish  an  Episcopal  cathedral  failed. 
The  common  schools  are  on  the  graded  system, 
are  supported  entirely  by  the  people,  and  are  of 
very  marked  efficiency.  The  Central  Turkey 
College  at  Aintab  altho  independent,  is  closely 
connected  with  the  mission.  The  hospital  and 
dispensary  has  been  most  efficient.  The  work  of 
the  station  is  carried  on  by  12  missionaries  and 
132  native  workers,  men  and  women.  It  has  27 
outstations,  61  primary  schools,  7  high  schools 
and  an  orphanage.  The  number  of  church  mem- 
bers in  the  field  is  about  3,500. 

AIN-ZAHALTA:  A  village  in  the  Lebanon  dis- 
trict of  Syria;  station  of  the  British  Syrian  Schools 
Society,  with  a  dispensary,  6  outstations  and  6 
village  schools. 

AITUTAKI  ID.    See  Hervey  Lslands. 

AIYANSH :  A  station  of  the  CMS  in  the  diocese 
of  Caledonia,  British  Columbia,  founded  in  1883. 
It  is  carried  on  by  a  missionary  and  his  wife  and  5 
native  workers,  men  and  women.  An  industrial 
school  and  a  publishing  establishment  are  car- 
ried on,  and  the  number  of  communicant  Chris- 
tians is  78. 

AJERItANDIDI :  A  mission  station  of  the 
Netherlands  Missionary  Society  in  the  Minahassa 
Peninsula  of  Celebes. 

AJMERE:  A  territory  in  Rajputana,  India, 
governed  by  a  Chief  Commissioner,  appointed  by 
the  Governor  General  of  India.  Its  area,  inclu- 
ding the  district  of  Merwara,  which  forms  its 
southern  portion,  is  only  2,711  square  miles,  and 
its  population  (1901),  476,912. 

Hinduism  is  the  prevailing  religion.  Moham- 
medans are  also  found  and  a  small  number  of 
Christians.     The  language  is  Hindustani. 

The  province  adjoins  the  Rajputana  desert, 
has  a  limited  rainfall  and  is  subject  to  destructive 
famines. 

Missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  Ajmere  by  the 
CMS,  the  UFS  and  the  ME.  The  whole  number 
of  places  occupied  as  stations  by  these  societies 
is  four. 

AJMERE:  Capital  of  the  commissionership  of 
Ajmere  in  British  India.  Its  population  num- 
bers (1901)  73,839.  The  prevailing  religions  are 
Hinduism,    Jainism    and    Mohammedanism.     It 


has  a  very  fine  and  old  Mosque  built  on  the  site  of 
a  Jain  temple.  It  is  a  mission  station  of  the 
UFS  (opened  in  18G2).  The  ME  and  the  SPG 
also  have  native  workers  here.  The  UFS  has  a 
publishing  establishment,  a  dispensary  and  a  hos- 
pital in  this  place.  The  aggregate  working  force 
IS  8  missionaries  and  140  native  workers  of  both 
sexes.  The  total  number  of  communicant 
Christians  is  about  700. 

AJNALA:  A  town  in  the  di-strict  of  Amritsar, 
Punjab,  India;  .station  of  the  CMS,  with  21  native 
workers,  and  of  the  CEZMS,  with  4  women  mis- 
sionaries, and  8  native  women  workers,  4  village 
schools,  1  high  school  and  1  hospital.  There  are 
33  communicants. 

AKABE:  A  town  on  the  Benue  river,  Nigeria, 
W.  Africa;  station  of  the  CMS,  opened  in  1897. 
The  people  are  in  the  main  fetish  worship- 
ers, with  a  few  Mohammedans  among  them. 

AKIDU:  A  village  on  Lake  Kolar,  Madras, 
British  India.  A  flourishing  station  of  the  BOQ, 
established  in  1880,  and  operated  by  3  mission- 
aries and  42  native  workers,  men  and  women.  It 
has  9  outstations,  a  dispensary,  a  high  school  and 
22  common  schools,  with  1,700  communicants  in 
the  field  under  its  supervision. 

AKITA:  A  city  in  the  island  of  Hondo,  Japan, 
with  30,000  inhabitants.  A  station  of  the  FCMS, 
with  3  missionaries  and  4  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  It  has  a  dispensary,  a  nurses'  training 
class,  9  outstations  and  220  church  members.  It 
is  also  an  outstation  of  the  ME  in  charge  of  2 
native  workers. 

AKKAWAY,  or  Acawaio :  This  is  a  language  of 
the  South  American  family  spoken  by  a  limited 
number  of  the  people  of  Guiana.  For  mission- 
ary purposes,  it  has  been  written  with  Roman 
characters. 

AKROPONG:  A  town  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony, 
W.  Africa,  in  the  domain  of  the  Ashauti  lan- 
guage. 

The  religion  of  the  people  is  Fetishism.  The 
Basel  Missionary  Society  opened  a  station  here  in 
1835,  which  has  been  very  successful.  Ten  mis- 
sionaries and  38  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
form  the  corps  of  instructors  for  the  people  of  the 
town  and  of  14  outstations.  The  total  number  of 
communicant  Christians  is  2,100. 

AKWAPIM:  A  dialect  of  the  Otshi  language 
spoken  in  parts  of  the  Ashanti  country  in  W. 
Africa. 

ALABA  IS. :  The  northernmost  group  (com- 
monly known  as  the  Torres  Is.),  of  the  New 
Hebrides  Islands.  The  Melanesian  Mission  has 
kept  teachers  in  the  Torres  Islands  since  1878. 

ALASKA:  The  northwestern  corner  of 
North  America,  formerly  known  as  Russian 
America,  and  purchased  by  the  United  States 
in  1867  for  $7,200,000.  It  embraces  all  of  the 
N.  American  continent  W.  of  the  141st  meridian 
of  W.  longitude,  together  with  a  narrow  strip  of 
land  between  the  Pacific  ocean  and  the  British 
dominions,  and  also  all  islands  near  its  coast,  as 
well  as  the  Aleutian  archipelago.  Including 
islands,  its  area  is  590,883  miles;  an  area  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  Northern  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  with  the  addition  of  the  Virginias, 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  The  exact  eastward 
bounds  of  the  southern  coast  strip  of  Alaska  are 
still  unsettled.  The  population  (1900)  is  63,592, 
of  whom  25,000  are  Indians  and  Eskimos.  The 
white  population  is  rapidly  increasing  in  conse- 


Aleiipo 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


IZ 


quence  of  the  discovery  of  several  very  rich 
deposits  of  gold  in  the  western  and  central  part 
of  the  country.  The  native  tribes  of  Alaska 
are  pagans,  mostly  worshipers  of  departed 
spirits,  cruel  in  their  rites,  and  superstitiously 
subservient  to  their  medicine  men  or  religious 
leaders.  The  climate  of  Alaska  in  its  southern 
coast  regions  and  in  its  islands  is  much  less 
severe  than  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  continent.  On  the  central  plateau, 
600  miles  long  from  east  to  west  an-d  400  miles 
wide  from  north  to  south,  the  summers  are  quite 
hot,  altho  the  winters  are  very  cold.  Because 
of  the  hot  summers  the  cereals  and  many  vege- 
tables of  the  temperate  zone  can  be  grown,  and 
Alaska  may  yet  prove  to  be  an  agricultural 
region  with  a  large  population.  Access  to  the 
interior  of  the  country  is  facilitated  during  the 
summer  by  the  Yukon  River,  which  is  one  of 
the  great  rivers  of  the  continent,  being  navi- 
gable for  1,500  miles. 

The  Russian  (Greek  orthodox)  Church  had 
opened  missions  among  the  Aleutian  islanders 
and  at  one  or  two  points  on  the  mainland 
before  the  cession  of  Alaska  to  the  United  States, 
and  had  made  some  converts.  Since  the  country 
became  a  dependency  of  the  United  States, 
various  Protestant  denominations  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  have  established  mis- 
sion stations  in  various  places.  The  Protestant 
missions  in  Alaska  have  about  20  stations,  occu- 
pied by  118  missionaries  and  13  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  with  places  of  worship,  schools 
and  hospitals.  These  missions  are  maintained 
by  the  Presbyterian  Home  Missionary  Society, 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Domestic  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Board,  the  Moravian  Church,  the 
Friends',  the  Methodist  Episcopal,  the  Baptist, 
the  Congregational,  and  the  Lutheran  Churches 
(Swedish  and  also  Norwegian),  the  American 
Missionary  Association  and  some  smaller  societies. 
Some  of  the  mission  stations  occupied  are  within 
the  Arctic  circle,  where  daylight  in  winter  is  a 
sunless  sort  of  twilight  of  but  three  hours  duration. 
One  station  (Point  Barrow),  on  the  northern- 
most point  of  the  territory,  is  reached  by  rein- 
deer post.  A  considerable  number  of  Indians 
and  Eskimos  have  been  drawn  under  the  influence 
of  these  missions.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
country,  men  engaged  in  the  liquor  traffic 
seduce  and  destroy  a  certain  number  of  the 
simple-minded  natives.  But  in  all  the  stations 
education,  especially  industrial  education, 
has  been  made  an  ally  of  religion  in  lifting  the 
ideals  and  enriching  the  lives  of  the  people. 
The  total  of  Protestant  Christian  natives  is 
(1900)  7,600  souls. 

Alaska:  Government  Printing  Office,  Washinffton,  1900; 
Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  XI,  p.  .513;  Vol.  XII, 
p.  500;  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  481,  499;  .lackson  {S.)  Alaska  and 
Missions  on  the  North  Pacific  Coast,  New  York,  1880; 
Education  in  Alaska,  Wafihin^iori,  1^9G;  Knapp  (F).,  and 
Childe  (R.  L.),  Thlinkets  of  S.  E.  Alasfca,  ChicaRo,  1897; 
BurrouEhs  (.J.),  and  others  of  Harriman  Expedition, 
Alaska,  2  vols..  1901. 

ALBANIA:  The  region  called  Albania  includes 
the  two  provinces  of  Janninaand  Skodra  (Scutari) 
in  European  Turkey,  stretching  along  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Adriatic  from  39°  to  43°  north  lati- 
tude, and  from  18°  24'  to  21°  48'  east  longitude. 
Its  extreme  length  is  about  300  miles  from 
Montenegro  to  the  Gulf  of  Arta  and  the  frontiers 
of  Greece,  while  its  breadth  varies  from  50  to 
100  miles,  from  the  Adriatic  to  an  irregular  line 
on  the  east,  generally  following  lofty  mountain 


ranges.  It  is  a  mountainous  region  throughout, 
being  traversed  by  two  or  three  elevated  ranges 
which  run  parallel,  in  general,  to  the  shore  of 
the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  is  also  well  watered,, 
altho  its  rivers  are  not  navigable.  Its  large 
lakes  of  Jannina,  Castoria,  Ochrida,  and  Scutari 
impart  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  country. 

The  earliest  authentic  notices  of  the  country- 
occur  in  connection  with  the  Greek  colonies  of 
Epidamnus,  or  Dyrrachium  (now  Durazzo),  the 
ancient  port  of  transit  from  Brundusium  (Brind- 
isi)  and  Epidaurus,  in  Dalmatia,  to  which  we  may 
add  the  later  colony  of  Jannina,  which  seems, 
to  have  grown  up  almost  unnoticed,  not  far 
from  the  ancient  Oracle  of  Dodona,  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 

The  name  Albania,  first  applied  to  this  country 
in  1079,  originated  from  Elbassan,  the  seat  of 
the  tribe  of  Albani  in  the  center  of  the  land. 
Anciently  the  region  from  Prevesa  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Voyussa  was  called  Epirus,  and  was  con- 
sidered more  or  less  as  a  province  of  Greece, 
while  all  north  of  Voyussa  was  known  as  lUyri- 
cum.  Hence  we  may  conclude  that  the  Apostle 
Paul  himself  preached  the  Gospel  in  Albania,, 
when  he  tells  us  (Rom.  15:  19),  that  "from 
Jerusalem,  and  round  about  unto  Illyricum,  I 
have  fully  preached  the  Gospel  of  Christ." 
Albania  is  the  least  civilized  of  all  the  provinces 
of  Turkey.  Except  at  rare  and  short  intervals, 
under  honest  and  energetic  Pashas,  brigandage, 
with  its  cruel  murders  and  atrocities,  may  be  said 
to  be  an  almost  constant  feature  of  the  country; 
so  much  so,  that  the  districts  of  Dibra,  Jakova, 
Ipek  have  long  been  inaccessible  to  outsiders, 
while  the  Mirdites,  southeast  of  Scutari,  retain 
even  now  a  barbarous  semi-independence,  to 
guard  which  all  strangers  are  jealously  excluded. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  and  in  several  districts  is 
well  cultivated;  but  much  of  it  lies  waste,  partly 
from  defective  methods  of  agriculture,  but  also 
from  the*  insecurity  of  life  and  property  in  eon- 
sequence  of  the  bands  of  robbers  that  so  fre- 
quently infest  the  country  and  commit  the  most 
frightful  excesses.  It  is  difficult  to  form  any 
reliable  estimate  of  the  population,  but  prob- 
ably 2,000,000  may  not  be  far  from  the  truth. 

There  is  no  missionary  station  in  Albania. 
The  BFBS  has  colporteurs  and  book  depots  at 
various  points,  and  the  ABCFM  has  native 
workers  who  are  Albanians  teaching  one  or  two 
schools  in  the  borderland  between  Albania  and 
Macedonia. 
The  Balkan  Peninsula,  Laveleye  (E.  A.),  2  vols.,  London, 

1887. 

ALBANIAN  LANGUAGE:  As  the  term  "bar- 
barian" was  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  all  who 
spoke  a  different  language  from  their  own,  we 
know  that  the  Pelasgi  in  Greece  itself,  the  Epi- 
rotes,  and  the  lUyrians,  with  many  of  the  Mace- 
donians, spoke  not  Greek,  but  a  different  lan- 
guage, which  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  is 
the  same  as  the  Albanian,  now  spoken  by  their 
descendants.  The  origin  and  character  of  the 
Albanian  have  been  the  subject  of  much  discus- 
sion, some  regarding  it  as  belonging  to  the  Indo- 
Germanic  class,  and  others  pronouncing  it  a 
Turanian  language.  In  fact,  like  the  Armenian, 
it  partakes  of  the  characteristics  of  both  these 
classes;  but  from  its  undoubted  analogy  in  its 
peculiar  roots  to  the  Greek,  Latin,  Sanskrit, 
Celtic,  etc.,  it  is  classed  by  many  scholars  not 
as  a  derivative  from  any  of  these,  but  as  a  sister 
of   equal    antiquity.     A   great    obstacle   to    the 


13 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Alaska 
Alevpo 


critical  study  of  Albanian  is  the  absence  of  any 
literature  except  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 
No  Albanian  alphabet  exists.  The  Gheg,  or 
northern,  dialect  has  been  written  with  Roman 
letters,  while  the  southern  or  Tosk  dialect  has 
been  written  with  Greek  letters.  A  modification 
of  the  Roman  alphabet  will  probably  prevail  as 
the  one  mode  of  writing  Albanian. 

Not  a  little  care  is  needed  to  distinguish  the 
original  terms  and  forms  of  the  language  from 
the  many  words  adopted  later  from  the  Greek, 
Latin,  Slavic,  Turkish,  and  other  languages. 
The  subject  has  engaged  much  attention,  and  we 
may  notice  as  preeminent  in  this  department 
Dr.  Hahn,  who  compiled  an  Albanian  dictionary 
and  grammar,  with  many  characteristic  speci- 
mens of  the  language,  and  Demetrio  Camarda, 
who  studied  the  language  chiefly  among  the 
Albanian  colonies  of  Calabria  and  Sicily,  and  has 
written  largely  on  its  structure  and  affinities.  To 
promote  these  studies  care  is  now  taken  to  com- 
mit to  writing  such  historical  ballads  as  have 
been  handed  down  to  the  present  time,  as  well 
as  other  poems  which  have  been  preserved  in 
various  forms  of  writing.  The  publications  also 
of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and  a 
few  also  by  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  of  Lon- 
don, have  greatly  aided  these  studies.  Several 
grammars  also  have  been  published,  among 
which  we  may  mention  that  for  the  use  of  Greeks, 
by  Mr.  C.  Christophorides,  a  native  of  Elbassan. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  prelates  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  Albania  and  the  religious  teach- 
ers of  the  Mohammedan  body  alike  oppose  with 
some  violence  every  effort  to  transform  the 
Albanian  into  a  written  language.  The  cause  of 
this  opposition  seems  to  be  the  same  in  each  case 
— political  intolerance  of  independent  growth  in 
a  subject  people. 

ALBANIANS:  A  people  chiefly  found  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  whose  subordinate  political  exist- 
ence, lack  of  literature,  and  tendency  to  wander 
abroad  have  arrested  their  national  development 
and  obscured  their  origin  and  racial  affinities. 
Groups  of  Albanians  are  found  in  Sicily,  in 
Calabria,  in  Greece,  and  in  some  islands  of  the 
Greek  Archipelago.  Traces  of  the  Albanian  lan- 
guage or  of  a  tongue  closely  allied  to  it  are  also 
found  in  Southern  Italy.  These  and  other  con- 
siderations have  led  some  to  conclude  that  the 
existence  of  isolated  groups  of  Albanians  points 
to  their  being  the  remnants  of  a  people  originally 
inhabiting  Greece  and  Southern  Italy,  and  retain- 
ing to  this  day  their  distinct  language  and  racial 
peculiarities. 

According  to  this  view  the  Albanians  are  of 
one  stock  with  the  ancient  Pelasgi.  However 
this  may  be,  they  cling  with  an  intense  nation- 
ality to  their  language  and  their  tribal  organiza- 
tion and  the  wild  diversities  of  physical  sur- 
roundings which  belong  to  Albania.  Their 
strong  clan  feeling  has  prevented  anything  like 
cohesion  to  maintain  a  national  unity.  But  their 
modern  history  offers  instances  of  a  temporary 
union  of  the  clans  to  resist  a  common  enemy. 
Such  a  general  union  took  place  in  resisting  the 
Bulgarian  invasion  of  Albania  in  517-550,  and 
again  under  Prince  George  Castriotes  in  resisting 
the  Turkish  invasion  in  1443-78.  The  military 
ability  shown  by  Albanians  in  these  episodes  of 
their  history  and  in  such  a  case  as  that  of  Ali 
Pasha  of  Jannina,  is  a  quality  by  which  the  Turks 
still  profit.  The  flower  of  the  Turkish  army  is 
composed  of  Albanians;  and  of  the  great  Alba- 


nians who  have  risen  to  distinction  in  the  service 
of  the  Sultan,  it  is  only  necessary  to  recall  the 
name  of  Mehemmed  Ali  Pasha,  the  renovator  of 
Egypt  and  founder  of  the  present  Khedival 
house,  to  see  that  Turkey  does  well  to  seek 
Albanians  for  positions  requiring  initiative  and 
courage. 

The  Albanians  are  called  "Arnaouts"  by  the 
Turks.  They  call  themselves,  however,  "Ski- 
petar," — the  Eagle  People.  They  are  divided 
into  clans  so  sharply  separated  as  to  introduce 
dialects  into  the  language.  Their  clan  feeling 
the  Turkish  Government  has  used  with  skill  to 
foment  jealousies  that  shall  prevent  the  Alba- 
nians from  uniting  to  throw  off  a  hated  yoke. 

Since  the  conquest  of  Albania  by  Turkey  in 
1478  the  Albanians  have  been  alternately 
harassed  and  tempted  by  appeals  to  their  love 
for  a  military  life,  and  about  one-half  of  their 
number  have  become  Mohammedans,  still  cling- 
ing to  their  own  language,  however,  and  not 
regarded  as  thoroughly  orthodox  in  belief  because 
still  admitting  the  ties  of  race.  Of  the  Albanians 
who  have  refused  to  accept  Mohammedanism, 
those  living  in  the  southern  part  of  Albania 
belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  and  those  in  the 
northern  part,  including  the  semi-independent 
Mirdites,  are  Roman  Catholics.  In  each  case  the 
ineradicable  love  of  the  Albanians  for  their 
language  has  tended  to  keep  the  masses  of  the 
people  in  dense  ignorance.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic Albanians  are  taught  to  read  in  Italian  or  in 
Servian.  The  Greek  Church  follows  its  usual 
policy,  insisting  that  schools  and  churches  among 
its  Albanian  adherents  shall  use  the  Greek 
language.  As  to  the  Mohammedan  Albanians, 
their  schools  are  conducted  in  Turkish,  and  their 
religious  worship  in  .Arabic.  Whatever  their 
religious  connection,  worship  is  an  unintelligible 
pantomime,  and  education,  an  opportunity  for 
culture  in  a  foreign  tongue  from  which  a  few 
may  and  do  profit,  but  from  which  the  masses 
derive  little  benefit  because  the  women  are 
wholly  illiterate  and  the  "bookless  Albanian"  is 
the  sole  language  of  the  home-life. 
Races  of  European  Turkey,  Clark  (E.  L.),  New  York.  1878; 
Turkey  in  Europe,  by  Odysseus,  London,  1900;  Albania 
and  the  Albanians  in  1898,  Callan  (H.),  Scottish  Geog.  Mag., 
Vol.  1.5,  pp.  337-330,  Edinburgh,  1899;  Roman  Catholic 
Albania,  Nyon  (R.),  Blackwood's  Magazine,  Vol.  173 
pp.  476-487,  London,  1903. 

ALBERNI:  Town  in  Vancouver  Id.,  British 
Columbia;  station  of  the  Canada  Presbyterian 
Church,  which  has  an  industrial  school  there  for 
the  Indians. 

ALBINA:  A  town  on  the  Maroni  river  in  Suri- 
nam ;  station  of  the  Moravian  Missions,  opened 
in  1894  for  East  Indian  coolies.  It  has  2  chapels 
and  2  village  schools  with  about  40  professing 
Christians. 

ALCHUKA-FU  (A-she-ho) :  Town  of  some  im- 
portance on  the  Transsiberian  Railway,  in 
Manchuria ;  station  of  the  UFS.  One  of  the  resi- 
dent missionaries  is  a  physician.  There  are  about 
60  professing  Christians  there.  (Also  written 
Ashiho.) 

ALEPPO :  A  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Syro-Arabian  Desert,  and  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name.  The  city  is 
encompassed  by  low,  barren  hills  and  irregular 
mounds,  intersected  by  fertile  valleys.  It  is  a 
city  of  thoroughly  Oriental  type,  with  extensive 
bazaars,  numerous  mosques,  and  a  people  remark- 
able for  their  elegant  bearing.     The  streets    are 


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Algiers 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


14 


unusually  good  for  the  East ;  and  the  stone  houses 
are  very  well  built.  The  city,  being  on  the  only 
safe  route  between  Syria  and  Eastern  Asia,  is  a 
center  for  the  Damascus  and  Bagdad  caravans. 
The  inhabitants  are  noted  for  their  shrewdness  in 
trade.  There  has  been  a  considerable  European 
colony  in  Aleppo  since  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century.  It  was  the  principal  factory  of  the 
English  Levant  Company  until  Napoleon's  Med- 
iterranean enterprises  broke  up  their  trade.  The 
city  has  about  120,000  inhabitants,  chiefly 
Mohammedans.  There  is  also  a  strong  Roman 
Catholic  element  in  the  population  besides 
Greeks,  Armenians  and  Jews.  The  ABCFM  has 
occupied  Aleppo  as  a  station  at  various  times  but 
has  abandoned  it  on  finding  no  extensive  response 
to  effort.  The  PCE  opened  a  station  there  in 
1895  for  work  among  the  Jews.  It  has  2  mission- 
aries and  4  native  workers,  with  a  primary  school 
and  a  dispensary. 

ALERT  BAY:  A  settlement  of  the  KwagutI 
tribe  on  the  northern  coast  of  Vancouver  Island ; 
station  of  the  CMS,  with  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  2  unmarried  women  and  2  native  workers. 
There  is  a  high  school,  an  industrial  school  and 
a  primary  school.  The  communicants  number 
22. 

ALEUTIAN:  This  language  is  spoken  by  the 
people  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  belongs  to  the 
Arctic  Coast  branch  of  the  North  American  fam- 
ily.    It  has  been  written  with  Russian  letters. 

ALEXANDER,  Bishop  Michael  Solomon :  Born 
in  Prussian  Poland,  1799.  He  was  brought  up  in 
the  strictest  principles  of  Rabbinical  Judaism. 
When  he  was  16  he  was  a  teacher  of  the  Talmud 
and  the  German  language.  At  the  age  of  21  he 
went  to  England,  having  not  the  slightest  ac- 
quaintance with  Christianity,  not  even  knowing 
the  existence  of  the  New  Testament.  He  settled 
in  a  country  town  as  tutor  in  a  Jewish  family. 
Whilst  there  the  sight  of  a  handbill  of  the  London 
Society  for  the  Conversion  of  the  Jews  aroused  his 
curiosity,  and  he  obtained  and  read  the  New 
Testament.  Shortly  afterwards  he  accepted  the 
post  of  Rabbi  at  Norwich  and  subsequently  at 
Plymouth.  There  in  the  providence  of  God,  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  Rev.  B.  B.  Golding, 
curate  of  Stonehouse,  to  whom  he  gave  lessons  in 
Hebrew,  and  through  whom,  after  much  inward 
conflict,  he  almost  came  to  a  conviction  of  the 
truth  of  Christianity.  He  used  to  steal  silently 
down  to  Stonehouse  Church  on  Sunday  evenings, 
and,  under  the  shadow  of  its  walls,  would  stand 
riveted  to  the  spot,  while  he  listened  to  the  songs 
of  Christian  praise,  in  which  he  dared  not  as  yet 
take  part.  His  congregation  heard  of  his  leanings 
towards  Christianity,  and  he  was  suspended  from 
his  duties  as  Rabbi.  Further  trials  awaited  him, 
but  the  Lord  strengthened  his  faith  and  on  June 
2,  1825,  ill  St.  Andrew's  Church,  Plymouth,  he 
was  baptized  in  the  presence  of  1,000  people. 
His  wife's  baptism  followed  six  months  later.  In 
1827  he  was  ordained  deacon  in  Dublin,  where  he 
had  settled  in  order  to  gain  a  livelihood  as  a  teach- 
er of  Hebrew.  Here,  through  his  consistent 
Christian  character,  he  made  many  friendships. 
Eventually  he  became  a  missionary  of  the 
Society,  laboring  first  in  Danzig  and  later  in 
London,  where  he  held  the  post  of  Professor  of 
Hebrew  and  Rabbinical  Literature  in  King's  Col- 
lege, until  1841,  when  he  was  consecrated  the  first 
Anglican  Bishop  in  Jerusalem.  His  work  there 
was  full  of  blessing,  two   prominent   Jerusalem 


rabbis  being  baptized.  It  was  a  great  blow  to. 
the  Society's  mission  there  when,  m  1845,  Bishop 
Alexander  suddenly  died,  his  last  act  being  one 
of  prayer,  before  he  retired  to  sleep  to  awake  in 
another  world.  One  of  his  grandchildren  is  a 
CMS  missionary  in  Japan. 

ALEXANDER,  T.  T.:  Born  in  Mt.  Horeb, 
Tenn.,  October  8,  1850;  sent  by  the  Presby- 
terian Board  (North)  to  Japan  in  1877.  Died  at 
Honolulu,  November  14,  1902.  During  his  life 
in  Japan  he  had  been  active  in  the  opening  of  new 
stations,  had  taught  theology  in  the  Mejii  Gakuin 
in  Tokio,  and  just  prior  to  his  departure  from 
Japan  had  been  in  charge  of  the  evangelistic  work 
in  the  city  of  Kioto,  where  also  he  was  helping  the 
Congregational  missionaries  in  the  Theological 
Department  of  the  Doshisha. 

Dr.  Alexander  was  a  man  of  great  ability,  one  of 
the  best  Old  Testament  scholars  in  Japan;  a  man 
of  rare  openness  of  mind  and  beauty  of  character; 
a  lover  of  peace;  always  forgetful  of  himself, 
modest  and  gentle  in  all  his  ways,  yet  a  man  of 
iron  principle  and  of  unswerving  devotion  to  what 
he  believed  to  be  right.  Few  foreigners  in  the 
Empire  were  so  highly  valued  as  he  by  the  Japan- 
ese, both  for  the  purity  and  sweetness  of  his 
Christian  character  and  for  the  value  and  solidity 
of  his  counsel  and  judgments  in  their  perplexities. 
He  did  much  at  the  time  when  the  liberal  move- 
ment was  strong  in  Japan,  to  help  many  to  find 
solid  standing  ground. 

For  the  last  seven  or  eight  years  of  his  life.  Dr. 
Alexander  was  alone  on  the  field,  Mrs.  Alexander 
and  the  children  residing  in  Maryville,  Tenn.,  for 
the  education  of  the  children.  Happily,  the 
eldest  daughter.  Miss  Emma,  under  appointment 
as  a  missionary  to  Japan,  had  stopped  in  Hono- 
lulu for  a  brief  visit  with  her  father  and  was  pres- 
ent with  him  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

ALEXANDER,  William  Patterson:      Born  in 

Paris,  Ky.,  U.  S.  A.,  July  25,  1805;  studied 
Latin  and  Greek  at  Bourbon  Academy;  taught 
school  to  obtain  the  means  to  go  to  college; 
entered  Center  College,  Ky.,  1826;  graduated  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1830;  ordained 
by  Presbytery  of  Cincinnati,  October  12,  1831; 
embarked  November  26,  1831,  as  a  missionary 
of  the  American  Board  for  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
reaching  Honolulu,  May  18,  1832.  Soon  after 
his  arrival  he  was  appointed  one  of  a  deputation 
from  the  Hawaiian  Islands  to  go  to  the  English 
Mission  at  the  Society  Islands,  and  also  to  visit 
the  Marquesas  Islands  to  ascertain  if  it  would  be 
expedient  to  establish  a  mission  there.  A  favor- 
able report  having  been  made,  it  was  decided  at 
a  meeting  of  the  mission  in  April,  1833,  to  under- 
take a  mission  at  the  Marquesas  Islands,  and 
Messrs.  Alexander,  Armstrong,  and  Parker  were 
appointed  to  commence  the  new  mission. 
They  reached  Nukahiva,  the  largest  island, 
November  10.  After  spending  eight  months 
among  the  cannibals,  they  left  the  Marquesas 
Islands  to  the  LMS,  whose  missionaries  were  then 
on  their  way  thither,  and  returned  to  Honolulu, 
arriving  May  12,  1834.  Mr.  Alexander's  first 
station  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  was  at  Waioli, 
on  the  island  of  Kauai,  where  he  remained  from 
1834-43.  A  great  revival  occurred  1836-38, 
when  the  natives  came  incessantly  from  early 
in  the  morning  till  late  at  night  to  converse  on 
religion.  In  1837,  Mr.  Alexander  translated 
Legendre's  Geometry,  and  prepared  a  text-book 
on  surveying  and  navigation  for  the  Lahaina- 


13 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


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Algiers 


luna  Seminary.  His  efforts,  in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  Armstrong,  to  establish  a  boarding-school 
for  the  missionaries'  children,  resulted  in  the 
founding  of  the  Ponahue  School  (chartered  in 
1853  as  Oahu  College).  Failure  of  health 
requiring  a  change  to  a  drier  climate,  Mr.  Alex- 
ander lett  the  Waioli  parish,  and  took  charge  of 
the  seminary  at  Lahamaluna,  on  Maui,  in  1843. 
This  was  a  high-school  established  for  the 
special  purpose  of  educating  teachers.  Mr. 
Alexander's  health  having  suffered  from  his 
sedentary  employment,  he  was  granted,  in  1849, 
a  year  of  respite  from  school-teaching.  This 
year  he  spent  in  surveying  land  for  the  Hawaiian 
Government  on  East  Maui.  During  this  period 
the  Hawaiian  Government  was  changed  from 
an  absolute  to  a  constitutional  monarchy,  and 
the  poor  serfs  were  granted  their  homesteads  in 
fee  simple.  In  this  movement  Mr.  Alexander 
was  greatly  interested,  and  gave  its  leaders  his 
earnest  cooperation.  Besides  his  labors  in  the 
Lahainaluna  Seminary,  he  published  a  Pastor's 
Manual,  common  school  and  Sunday  school 
books,  two  standard  books  on  the  Evidences  of 
Christianity,  and  A  System  of  Theology.  He 
died  at  Oakland,  Cal.,  in  1884. 

ALEXANDRETTA:  A  seaport  in  the  province 
of  Aleppo,  Asiatic  Turkey,  at  the  extreme  north 
of  the  Syrian  coast.  It  is  the  chief  port  of  entry 
for  the  trade  of  Mesopotamia.  It  is  low,  marshy, 
and  unhealthy,  and  most  of  those  who  do  business 
there  reside  in  the  city  of  Beylan,  on  the  moun- 
tains, about  12  miles  distant.  It  is  also  called 
Iskanderun. 

ALEXANDRIA:  A  city  of  Egypt,  on  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean.  Founded  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  332  B.C.  During  the  Roman 
Empire  it  was  the  capital  of  the  country  and  a 
large  and  important  city.  It  was  the  seat  of  a 
patriarch,  and  an  important  center  of  learning 
m  early  Christian  history.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  it  declined  greatly  in  importance,  and  at 
the  time  of  the  Mameluke  rule  (1300-1800  a.d.) 
the  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  about  5,000. 
Under  the  Turkish  rule,  however,  and  especially 
during  the  reign  of  Mohammed  Ali  (1811) 
Alexandria  grew  rapidly,  and  now  the  popula- 
tion numbers  about  320,000.  Of  these  250,000 
are  natives  (chiefly  Mohammedans),  speaking 
the  Arabic  language.  The  remainder  are  from 
every  country  in  Europe  and  almost  of  the 
world,  so  that  it  is  even  more  of  a  Babel  than  is 
Constantinople.  The  presence  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  Europeans  resident  there  throughout  the 
year  has  had  a  great  influence  in  making  the 
city  one  of  the  most  attractive  in  appearance 
on  the  Mediterranean,  with  broad  streets,  fine 
buildings  and  pleasant  drives.  Being  on  the  sea, 
the  heat  is  not  as  intense  as  at  Cairo,  and  there 
have  grown  up  a  number  of  suburbs,  among 
which  Ramleh  is  one  of  the  most  popular. 

The  general  character  of  the  people  is  very 
low,  the  natives  having  acquired  most  of  the 
vices  of  the  Europeans.  Some  of  these  foreign 
residents,  however,  are  men  who  take  an  interest 
in  the  public  welfare,  and  are  liberal  in  sustain- 
ing hospitals  and  other  benevolent  and  philan- 
thropic undertakings. 

The  Mohammedans  have  acquired  a  very  bit- 
ter feeling  toward  the  Christians  and  the  Jews, 
and  are  ever  ready  to  join  in  any  demonstration 
or  insurrection  against  them,  if  they  have  any 
reason  to  suppose  that  such  a  movement  is  agree- 


able to  the  rulers  of  the  city.  This  feeling  found 
expression  in  a  massacre  during  Arabi  Pasha's 
rebellion,  when  the  city  was  bombarded  by  the 
British  fleet,  June  11,  1882,  and  occupied  by 
British  troops  the  next  day. 

Next  to  the  Mohammedans  the  Syrian  Cath- 
olics are  quite  strong.  The  Greek  Church  is 
wealthy  and  influential,  but  the  Coptic  com- 
munity is  small  and  feeble. 

Mission  work  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  the 
Missions  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
the  United  States,  who  maintain  2  schools, 
one  for  boys  and  a  very  flourishing  and  eflicient 
one  for  girls. 

The  Kaiserswerth  Deaconesses  also  have  a  fine 
school  here,  opened  in  1857.  The  Bible  distri- 
bution is  under  the  care  of  the  BFBS.  The 
Church  of  Scotland  has  a  mission  to  the  Jews  in 
the  city  carried  on  by  10  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  who  have  4  schools.  The  North  Africa 
Mission,  the  Egypt  Mission  Band,  and  the  WMS 
also  have  stations  in  this  city. 

ALGERIA:  A  colony  of  France  in  North 
Africa,  lying  on  the  Mediterranean  between 
Morocco  on  the  west  and  Tunis  on  the  east, 
indefinitely  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Sahara. 
It  has  an  area  of  about  184,474  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  4,739,931  (1901).  Of  this 
the  French  population  numbers  292,464,  the 
Jews  57,132,  Tunisians  and  Moroccoans  26,266, 
Spaniards  155,265,  Italians  38,791,  and  about 
25,000  other  foreigners.  The  Algerian  Sahara 
contains  about  125,000  square  miles  and  has 
about  50,000  inhabitants. 

The  native  population  is  wholly  Mohammedan, 
and  consists  mainly  of  Berbers  (75  per  cent.) 
and  Arabs  (15  per  cent.).  The  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  has  2  bishops  and  386  priests. 
There  are  in  the  colony  21  Protestant  pastors 
and  7  Jewish  Rabbis.  Government  grants  to 
the  religious  establishments  are  shared  by  the 
Protestants  in  proportion  to  their  numbers. 
Oran,  Algiers  and  Constantine  are  the  capitals, 
respectively,  of  the  three  districts  of  the  same 
names  into  which  the  colony  is  divided. 

Laws  of  the  colony  protecting  Mohammedan- 
ism as  the  prevaiHng  religion  restrict  Christian 
missionary  effort  in  Algeria.  The  Protestant 
missionary  societies  laboring  there  are  the 
French  Society  for  the  Evangelization  of  the 
Jews,  the  Penny  Collection  Fund  for  Israel,  the 
Algiers  Spanish  Mission,  Miss  Trotter's  Mission, 
the  Swedish  Missionary  Society,  the  NAM  and 
the  PB.  Four  central  towns  are  the  field  occu- 
pied by  these  Societies. 
Atterbury,  Islam  in  Africa,  New  York,  1899;    Bridgeman, 

Winters  in  Algeria,  New  York,  1899;  SomerviUe,  Sands  of 

Sahara,    London,    1901 ;    Wilkin,    Among   the   Berbers   of 

Algeria,  London,  1900. 

ALGIERS:  Capital  of  the  French  colony  of 
Algeria,  North  Africa.  Population  (1901), 
96,542,  French,  20,000,  including  Jews,  6,000, 
who  own  most  of  the  land  in  the  city,  and 
native  Arabs.  The  town  is  built  in  the  form 
of  an  amphitheater,  on  an  elevation  of  500  feet, 
and,  seen  from  a  distance,  presents  a  very  impos- 
ing appearance,  heightened  by  the  dazzling 
whiteness  of  its  houses,  which  rise  in  terraces 
on  the  side  of  the  hill.  The  climate  is  so  equable 
as  to  make  it  a  health  resort.  It  is  a  strong 
Roman  Catholic  center.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
agency  of  the  BFBS  with  a  Bible  depot,  col- 
porteurs and  Bible  women.  The  North  Africa 
Mission  also  has  a  station  there  with  6  mission- 


Alie'arh 
Anibolilmiadana 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


16 


aries,  men  and  women.  Several  societies  espe- 
cially devoted  to  Jewish  work  also  have  mis- 
sionaries there. 

ALIGARH:  City  and  railway  station  in  the 
United  Provinces,  India,  southeast  of  Delhi. 
Population  of  city  and  suburbs  (1901),  70,434. 
The  religions  found  here  are  Hinduism,  Jainism, 
Mohammedanism.  There  are  also  a  very  few 
Christians.  The  climate  is  changeable  and 
uncertain  in  temperature.  The  CMS  estab- 
lished a  station  here  in  1863  which  has  now  an 
important  work  among  the  women,  carried  on 
by  3  unmarried  missionaries.  There  is  a  dis- 
pensary here.  The  general  work  is  under  charge 
of  a  married  missionary  and  his  wife,  with  31 
native  workers,  both  men  and  women.  There 
are  3  outstations,  10  village  schools  and  about 
100  communicants. 

ALI-ILLAHI:  A  sect  existing  among  the 
Mohammedans  of  Persia  and  Turkey.  They  are 
known  under  different  names,  as  Dawudi, 
Abdulbegi,  etc.  There  is  great  resemblance 
between  their  religious  beliefs  and  those  of  the 
Wusairiyeh  of  Syria,  if  indeed  the  sects  are  not 
one  and  the  same.  They  hold  their  real  opin- 
ions in  secret,  while  professing  before  Moham- 
medans to  be  strict  Muslims,  and  in  their  pres- 
ence conforming  to  all  the  rites  of  Islam.  But 
to  Christians  they  declare  their  hatred  of  the 
Mohammedan  prophet  and  law,  and  do  not 
hesitate  to  violate  the  Mohammedan  ritual. 
Nevertheless,  even  to  Christians  they  will  not 
reveal  their  secret  doctrines  or  practices  with 
any  particularity.  They  have  no  books.  The 
Dawudi  division  profess  to  have  great  respect 
for  the  Psalms  of  David.  Apparently  this 
strange  religion  is  but  a  heathenish  conglomer- 
ation of  Pagan,  Mohammedan,  Jewish,  and 
Christian  superstitions.  Its  adherents  number 
many  hundred  thousands  in  Persia.  It  is  under- 
stood that  many  of  them  are  becoming  Babis. 
Considerable  attempts  have  been  made  to  lead 
them  to  Christianity,  but  with  little  success. 
Their  gross  superstitions  and  ignorance,  with 
their  great  fear  of  the  Mohammedan  rancor  of 
bigotry,  hold  them  fast  in  their  present  deplor- 
able condition. 

ALIWAL  NORTH:  Town  and  railway  station 
on  the  Orange  river  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa;  mission  station  of  the  Primitive  Meth- 
odist Society,  with  4  missionaries  of  both  sexes 
and  5  native  workers.  It  has  an  industrial 
school,  2  theological  classes,  2  village  schools, 
and  about  1,200  professing  Christians. 

ALLAHABAD:  Seat  of  the  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor of  the  United  Provinces,  British  India; 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges,  Jumma' 
and  Saraswati  rivers;  the  stronghold  of  Hindu- 
ism, which  for  centuries  has  fought  successfully 
in  this  region  against  Mohammedanism  The 
population  is  (1901)  172,032,  Hindus,  Moham- 
medans and  Christians,  with  many  less  import- 
ant religious  groups.  It  was  the  first  point  in 
India  occupied  by  the  CMS  (in  1813).  It  is 
now  a  station  of  the  CMS,  the  PN,  the  ME  the 
Zenana,  Bible  and  Medical  Mission,  and'  the 
Woman's  Union  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of 
Ainerica.  The  total  force  stationed  at  Alla- 
habad by  these  societies  consists  of  37  mis- 
sionaries and  109  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  The  various  enterprises  which  they 
carry  on  include  a  Divinity  school,  a  training 
school  for  women,  4  high  schools,  3  orphanages 


43  village  schools,  a  dispensary  and  a  hospital 
The  Bible  Societies  and  the  YMCA  also  make 
this  a  center  for  their  work  in  the  Province. 
The  total  of  communicants  connected  with  the 
various  missions  is  about  550. 

ALLEN,  David  Oliver:  Bom  in  Barre,  Mass., 
September  14,  1799;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College,  1825;  graduated  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1827;  ordained  and  sailed  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  American  Board  for  India,  June 
6,  1827.  There  he  was  connected  with  the 
mission  press  for  many  years.  In  1847  an 
edition  of  the  whole  Bible  in  Marathi,  translated 
by  the  members  of  the  two  missions,  was  revised 
by  Mr.  Allen,  editorial  superintendent  of  the 
American  Mission  Press,  and  member  of  the 
Committee  of  the  Bombay  Bible  Society.  Dr. 
Allen  was  a  faithful  worker  and  wise  counselor. 
His  services,  especially  in  connection  with  the 
press  and  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  were 
of  great  value  to  the  missionary  cause.  Dr. 
Allen  published  a  valuable  work  on  India, 
Ancient  and  Modem,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  articles  in  periodicals.  He  resided  at 
Lowell,  Mass.,  from  1860  until  his  death,  from 
congestion  of  the  lungs,  July  17,  1863. 

ALLEPPIE:  A  seaport  at  the  foot  of  the 
western  Ghats,  in  Travancore,  India.  Popu- 
lation, 22,000.  In  1816  the  CMS  founded  a 
station  there,  principally  for  the  purpose  of 
redeeming  the  Syrian  (Jacobite)  community, 
which  had  been  settled  there  since  ancient  times, 
but  had  utterly  degenerated.  In  the  beginning 
the  undertaking  seemed  destined  to  succeed. 
The  Syrians  even  allowed  the  missionaries  to 
preach  in  their  churches.  But  in  1836  a  new 
bishop  suddenly  broke  off  all  relations  with  the 
mission,  and  the  missionaries  addressed  them- 
selves to  the  heathen.  The  mission  is  now  car- 
ried on  by  one  missionary  and  his  wife  with  26 
native  workers,  men  and  women.  It  has  8 
schools  and  a  special  mission  to  lepers.  The 
Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the  East  also  has 
a  station  and  Leper  Asylum  here.  A  reform 
movement  originating  in  the  Jacobite  Church 
now  promises  good  results. 

ALLGEMEINER  EVANGELISCH-PROTES- 
TANISCHER  MISSIONSVEREIN.  See  Germany, 
Missionary  Societies  op. 

ALLUR:  Town  in  the  Nellore  district,  Madras, 
India.  It  was  occupied  as  a  station  by  the 
ABMU  in  1873,  and  has  a  missionary  and  his 
wife  and  10  native  workers,  men  and  women.  It 
has  5  outstations,  2  preaching  places  and  about 
300  church  members. 

ALMORA:  Capital  of  the  Kumaun  district, 
United  Provinces,  India,  situated  among  the 
Himalayas,  5,337  feet  above  the  sea,  near  the 
frontier  of  Tibet.  Climate  temperate,  making  it 
a  resort  for  invalids  during  the  hot  and  rainy  sea- 
sons. Population  of  the  district,  493,599 — 
Hindus,  Muslims,  Europeans.  Language,  Hin- 
di (Kumauni  dialect).  Mission  station  LMS 
(1850),  with  10  missionaries  and  48  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women.  It  has  10  outstations,  a 
college,  a  hospital,  6  dispensaries,  a  leper  asylum, 
a  high  school  and  18  common  schools. 

ALVAY:  Village  near  Point  Pedro  on  the  N. 
side  of  the  Jaffna  peninsula,  Ceylon ;  occupied  as 
a  mission  station  by  the  WMS  in  1880.  It  now 
has  1  missionary  and  23  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  with  6  outstations  and  8  primary  schools. 


17 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Allgarh 
Ambohliuladana 


ALWAR:  A  city  of  53,000  inhabitants  in  Raj- 
iPutana,  India,  and  capital  of  the  native  state  of 
the  same  name.  A  station  of  the  UFS  was  estab- 
lished here  in  1880.  It  is  occupied  by  a  mission- 
lary  and  his  wife  and  28  native  workers,  witli  6 
common  schools  and  2  outstations.  Also  called 
Ulwar. 

ALWAYE:  Village  in  Cochin,  S.  India,  S.  E.  of 
Trichur.  It  is  a  station  of  the  CMS  since  1881 
and  is  occupied  by  a  missionary  and  his  wife,  and 
21  native  workers.  There  are  3  outstations  and 
4  village  schools. 

AMALAPURAM:  Town  in  the  delta  of  the 
Godavari  river,  Madras,  India,  occupied  by  the 
Plymouth  Brethren  as  a  station  with  a  mission- 
ary and  his  wife  and  3  unmarried  women. 

AMALIENSTEIK:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony, 
S.  Africa.  Mission  station  of  the  Berlm  Mission- 
ary Society  (1853).  The  mission  premises  were 
originally  presented  to  the  mission  by  a  German 
lady  enthusiastically  interested  in  missions,  and 
her  name  is  perpetuated  by  the  name  of  the  sta- 
tion. The  work  is  carried  on  by  4  missionaries 
and  23  native  workers,  men  and  women.  There 
is  an  outstation  and  there  are  more  than  600 
communicants,  mostly  Hottentots. 

AMANZIMTOTE:  Town  in  Natal,  South  Africa, 
S.  W.  from  Durban;  station  of  the  ABCFM, 
which  has  founded  there  important  educational 
institutions,  including  a  girls'  boarding  school, 
an  industrial  school  and  a  theological  class.  It 
is  also  called  Adams. 

AMARWARA:  A  village  in  the  Chhindwara 
district  in  the  Central  Provinces,  India.  The 
Swedish  National  Missionary  Society  has  a  sta- 
tion there,  opened  in  1886,  and  now  occupied  by 
4  missionaries  and  4  native  workers.  There  is  a 
hospital  there  and  2  outstations. 

AMASIA:  A  city  of  about  30,000  inhabitants 
in  the  province  of  Sivas,  Asiatic  Turkey.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Strabo,  and  the  capital  of  the 
last  kings  of  Pontus,  of  whose  tombs  and  defen- 
sive fortifications  there  are  remains.  It  lies  on 
the  Yeshil  Irmak  River,  about  60  miles  from  the 
Black  Sea  coast.  It  is  an  important  trade  cen- 
ter. There  is  a  small  German  colony  in  the  city 
and  a  Protestant  Armenian  community  of  some 
vigor  connected  with  the  ABCFM.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Mohammedans. 

AMATOLE:  A  village  S.  of  Stutterheim,  Cape 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  where  there  are  8  outstations 
and  more  than  400  church  members  under  the 
care  of  native  workers  connected  with  the  Wes- 
leyan  Missionary  Society  of  South  Africa. 

AMBALA:  City  of  (1901)  78,638  inhabitants  on 
the  Punjab  Railway,  and  capital  of  the  district  of 
the  same  name  in  the  Punjab,  India.  It  is  on  the 
whole  a  healthy  place  of  residence.  The  majority 
of  the  population  are  Mohammedans,  but  a  little 
more  than  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Hindus.  Both  the  Punjabi  and  Urdu  languages 
are  in  use. 

The  PN  Society  has  a  station  there  occupied  by 
7  missionaries  and  19  native  workers.  There  are  a 
hospital  and  dispensary,  special  work  for  lepers, 
2  high  schools  and  4  village  schools. 

The  WMS  also  has  a  station  here  under  the  care 
of  a  missionary  and  2  native  workers. 

Also  written  Umballa. 

AMBALANGODA:  Town  on  the  S,  W.  coast  of 
Ceylon;  station  of  the  WMS  with  1  missionary 
and  15  native  workers,  men  and  women.     There 
2 


are  3  outstations,  2  preaching  places,  5  common 
schools  and  25  church  members. 

AMBARAWA:  Town  S.  of  Samarang  in  Java; 
station  of  Neukirchen  Mission,  with  a  missionary 
and  his  wife,  and  6  native  workers  and  6  outstations. 

AMBATO:  Town  of  Ecuador,  South  America, 
S.  of  Quito;  station  of  the  Gospel  Missionary 
Union,  with  a  missionary  and  his  wife  and  one 
unmarried  woman  missionary. 

AMBATOHARANANA :  A  town  of  Madagascar, 
near  Antananarivo.  Has  a  college  founded  in 
1881  by  tlie  SPG  and  a  community  of  nearly  700 
Christians  connected  with  that  Society. 

AMBATOMAICANGA :  A  district  in  the  out- 
skirts of  Antananarivo,  Madagascar;  station  of 
the  LMS  (1831)  with  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives  and  1  unmarried  woman  and  292  native 
workers;  1  high  school  and  48  village  schools, 
and  3,116  church  members. 

AMBATOMANGA:  A  village  S,  E.  of  Antana- 
narivo, Madagascar;  station  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Society,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
1  unmarried  woman  and  99  native  workers,  men 
and  women.  It  has  40  outstations  and  40  village 
schools,  1  high  school,  1  industrial  school,  1  dis- 
pensary and  900  church  members. 

AMBOHIBELOMA :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Imerina,  west  of  Antananarivo,  Madagascar. 
Mission  station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Society, 
transferred  from  the  LMS  after  the  French  occu- 
pation of  the  island.  It  has  1  missionary,  92 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  32  outstations, 
25  village  schools,  1  high  school,  a  dispensary  and 
about  200  communicant  Christians. 

AMBOHIDRATRIMO :  A  village  in  Madagas- 
car, situated  about  10  miles  N.  W.  of  Antanana- 
rivo. Formerly  capital  of  a  petty  kingdom. 
Station  of  the  LMS  (1901)  formed  by  separating 
a  portion  of  the  Amparibe  district,  including  40 
churches.  It  now  has  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  350  native  workers,  men  and  women,  58 
day  schools  and  5,331  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  1,839  are  church  members. 

AMBOHIMAHASOA:  A  town  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Madagascar,  north  of  Fianarantsoa;  sta- 
tion of  the  LMS  (1890),  with  a  missionary  and  his 
wife  and  119  native  workers,  40  village  schools,  1 
dispensary  and  1,200  church  members. 

AMBOHIMANDROSO :  A  town  of  south  central 
Madagascar.  The  neighboring  districts  are 
thickly  populated,  the  native  population  being 
Betsileo.  The  uneducated  people  are  extremely 
dull,  superstitious,  and  suspicious.  Mission 
station  of  the  LMS  since  1875.  There  are  8 
missionaries  and  260  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  There  is  a  dispensary,  and  a  belt  of 
91  village  schools  in  the  surrounding  region. 
The  church  members  number  about  1,000. 

AMBOHIMANGA :  A  town  N.  of  Antananarivo, 
Madagascar,  station  of  the  LMS  (1862),  with  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives  and  242  native 
workers,  46  village  schools  and  2,063  church 
members.  Station  also  of  the  SPG,  with  1  native 
worker.  Station  also  of  the  Norwegian  Mission- 
ary Society;    no  statistics. 

AMBOHIMIADANA :  A  town  in  the  western 
part  of  Madagascar;  station  of  the  Friends  For- 
eign Mission  Association,  with  1  unmarried 
woman  missionary  and  187  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  18  outstations,  1  dispensary,  and 
475  church  members. 


AmboUipotsy 
American   Baptist 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


18 


AMBOHIPOTSY:  A  district  S.  W.  of  Antanan- 
arivo, Madagascar;  station  of  tlie  LMS  (1863) 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  306  native 
worlcers,  42  Sunday-schools,  42  village  schools, 
and  3,000  church  members. 

AMBOINA.     See  Molucca  Islands. 

AMBONIRIANA :  A  town  in  the  central  portion 
of  Madagascar,  near  Betafo;  station  of  the 
Friends  Foreign  Mission  Association  (1899),  with 
1  missionary  and  54  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  1  industrial  school  and  24  outstations, 
and  63  professing  Christians. 

AMBOSITRA:  A  city  of  South  Central  Mada- 
gascar; station  of  the  LMS  transferred  in  1898 
to  the  Paris  Evang.  Society.  It  has  5  mission- 
aries and  150  native  workers  operating  in  about 
100  outstations,  with  a  dispensary,  a  Bible  depot, 
4  high  schools,  a  trainmg  class  for  women 
workers,  and  80  village  schools.  The  number  of 
professing  Christians  is  1,200. 

AMBRYM.     See  New  Hebrides. 

AMBUR:  Town  of  10,000  inhabitants  in  the 
Eastern  Ghats,  not  far  from  the  border  of 
Mysore,  in  the  Madras  Presidency,  India;  station 
of  the  mission  of  the  German  Evangelical  Luther- 
an Synod  of  Missouri,  Ohio,  etc. ;  with  a  mission- 
ary and  his  wife  and  2  native  workers  and  2 
common  schools. 

AMEDSCHOVHE:  A  town  in  German  Togo- 
land,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the  North  German 
Missionary  Society  (1889),  with  4  missionaries, 
3  married  women,  and  25  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  7  outstations,  11  village  schools,  1 
college  and  358  communicants. 

AMERICAN  AND  FOREIGN  CHRISTIAN 
UNION:  The  Society  was  formed  in  the  city  of 
New  York  in  the  year  1849,  for  the  uniting  of  all 
Christian  denominations  in  the  work  of  the  world' s 
evangelization.  Its  early  labors  were  among  tlie 
so-called  alien  populations  of  our  own  country, 
especially  in  the  large  cities.  It  also  wrought 
vigorously  in  foreign  lands,  with  main  reference 
to  giving  God's  Word  and  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel  to  those  who  were  in  the  territories  of 
Roman  Catholicism.  Italy,  Bohemia,  Austria, 
France,  Spain,  the  countries  of  South  America, 
the  West  Indies  and  Mexico  were  included  in  its 
wide  field. 

As  the  denominations  became  more  numerous 
and  strong,  there  arose  the  not  unnatural  ten- 
dency to  conduct  their  missionary  labors  through 
their  own  denominational  agencies.  Hence  the 
Society  found  its  resources  gradually  lessened, 
and  was  compelled  to  limit  the  field  of  its  work. 
At  present  it  devotes  its  energies  to  the  evangeli- 
iation  of  France. 

The  Union  owns  the  site  and  building  of  the 
American  Church,  21  Rue  de  Berri,  Paris.  The 
maintenance  of  that  most  important  church  is 
included  in  the  Union's  care.  It  also  cooperates 
with  the  French  missionary  societies.  At  the 
same  time  the  Union  is  trustee  of  the  funds  raised 
in  this  country  for  the  building  of  an  American 
church  in  Berlin. 

Headquarters:  The  Chelsea,  222  W.  23d  St., 
New  York. 

AMERICAN  BAPTIST  MISSIONARY  UNION: 
The  constituency  of  this  society  is  composed  of 
the  Baptist  Churches  of  the  Northern  and  West- 
ern States.  The  Lott  Carey  Convention  (colored) , 
and  the  German  Baptist  Churches  of  North 
America  cooperate  with  it  in  several  missions. 


A.  History:  The  Baptists  in  America  entered 
heartily  into  the  missionary  movement  at  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century,  and  as  early 
as  1812  had  afforded  substantial  assistance  to 
the  English  Baptist  Mission  at  Serampur, 
India.  Many  of  the  missionaries  of  that  society 
had  been  obliged  to  go  to  India  _  by  way  of 
America,  because  passage  was  denied  them  in 
the  vessels  of  the  East  India  Compariy.  While 
their  presence  and  addresses  in  the  United  States 
had  aroused  much  enthusiasm,  no  organization 
to  promote  foreign  missions  was  formed  until, 
in  consequence  of  their  careful  study  of  the  Bible 
on  the  passage  to  India,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Adoniram 
Judson,  and  Luther  Rice,  of  the  newly  organized 
ABCFM,  became  Baptists  and  were  baptized  at 
Calcutta.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson  remained  to  estab- 
lish a  mission  wherever  Providence  might  indi- 
cate, while  Mr.  Rice  returned  to  America  in  the 
hope  of  inducing  the  Baptists  in  this  country 
to  undertake  their  support.  The  conversion  of 
these  missionaries  to  Baptist  views  was  regarded 
as  a  Providential  indication  of  the  will  of  God, 
and  the  work  of  collecting  funds  to  support  the 
enterprise  thus  thrown  upon  their  hands  was 
entered  upon  by  the  Baptist  churches  with 
enthusiasm.  A  meeting  of  delegates  representing 
all  sections  of  the  country  was  called  to  meet  at 
Philadelphia;  and  there,  on  May  18,  1814,  was 
formed  the  "General  Convention  of  the  Baptist 
Denomination  in  the  United  States  of  America  for 
Foreign  Missions."  This  body  was  incorporated 
June  15,  1821,  when  the  words  "and  other 
important  objects  relating  to  the  Redeemer's 
Kingdom"  were  added  to  the  title. 

From  its  organization,  in  1814,  until  1845,  this 
Triennial  Convention  was  supported  by  the 
churches  of  the  whole  denomination  in  the 
Southern  as  well  as  the  Northern  States;  but  the 
period,  1840-45,  had  been  one  of  great  excitement 
and  agitation  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  and  in 
1845,  upon  the  appearance  of  divergences  of 
view  as  to  the  eligibility  of  slaveholders  to 
appointment  as  missionaries,  the  churches  in  all 
the  Southern  States  withdrew  from  the  Triennial 
Convention,  and  a  separate  association,  with  the 
title  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention,  was 
organized.  This  action  necessitated  a  reorgani- 
zation of  the  friends  of  missions  in  the  Northern 
States,  which  was  brought  about  at  an  extra 
session  of  the  Triennial  Convention,  held  in  New 
York  City  in  November,  1845,  when  a  new  con- 
stitution was  adopted,  and  the  new  Convention 
went  into  operation  in  May,  1846,  under  the 
name  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union. 
The  enthusiasm  of  both  the  November  and  May 
meetings  was  greatly  increased  by  the  presence 
of  Dr.  Judson,  then  visiting  his  native  land  for 
the  first  time  since  he  left  it,  in  1813.  Missions 
about  to  be  abandoned  were  reinforced,  upo,i 
Dr.  Judson's  earnest  pleadings,  and  new  work 
was  entered  upon.  The  debt  of  the  Convention, 
amounting  to  $40,000,  was  paid,  and  contrilDU- 
tions  were  largely  increased. 

B.  Organization  and  Constitution:  "The  single 
object  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
is  to  diffuse  the  knowledge  of  Jesus  Christ, 
by  means  of  missions,  throughout  the  world." 
"The  Union  is  composed  of  missionaries  in  service, 
life-members  and  honorary  life-members.  It 
meets  annually  the  fourth  Tuesday  of  May,  when 
its  officers— president,  two  vice-presidents,  re- 
cording secretary,  and  the  Board  of  Managers- 
are  chosen  by  ballot.     The  Board  of  Managers  is 


19 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Ambohipotsy 
American  Baptist 


composed  of  75  elective  members,  of  whom  not 
more  than  three-fifths  shall  be  ministers,  and  not 
less  than  one-fifth  shall  be  women.  Immediately 
after  the  annual  meeting,  the  Board  of  Managers 
elects  its  officers  and  an  executive  committee  of 
15  (not  more  than  8  ministers),  whose  duties 
comprise  the  management  of  the  entire  mission- 
ary work  of  the  Union,  and  the  control  of  the 
finances  at  home  and  abroad,  the  latter  in 
accordance  with  the  instructions  and  approval 
of  the  Board  of  Managers. 

All  the  officers  and  members  of  the  Board  of 
Managers,  the  secretaries,  and  all  missionaries 
employed  by  the  Executive  Committee  must 
be  members  in  good  standing  of  regular  Baptist 
churches. 

C.  Development  of  Work:  1.  Asiatic  Missions: 
Owing  to  the  fact  that,  when  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Judson  were  compelled  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany to  leave  Madras,  the  only  vessel  in  which 
they  could  secure  passage  was  bound  for  Ran- 
goon, the  missionary  work  of  the  Baptist  Conven- 
tion had  its  commencement  in  Burma  rather 
than  in  India,  as  was  the  first  intention.  The 
mission  thus  started  for  the  Burmese  in  Rangoon, 
in  1813,  was  gradually  extended,  and  included, 
in  addition  to  stations  among  the  Burmese,  the 
Sgau-Karen,  Pwo-Karen,  Shan,  Kachin,  and 
Chin  races.  In  1831  the  mission  to  Siam  was 
commenced. 

In  1835  the  Board  of  Managers  were  author- 
ized by  the  Triennial  Convention  to  "establish 
new  missions  in  every  unoccupied  field  where 
there  was  a  reasonable  prospect  of  success." 
Accordingly,  that  same  year  the  Telugu  Mission 
of  India  was  established,  and  the  following  year 
work  was  begun  in  Assam  at  the  request  of  the 
English  Commissioner  in  that  country.  The 
same  year  the  Bangkok  Mission  in  Siam  was 
removed  to  Hongkong,  the  work  being  chiefly 
among  the  Chinese.  In  1872  a  mission  was  com- 
menced in  Japan,  a  mission  having  been  pre- 
viously begun  in  the  Lu  Chu  Islands.  In  1884 
the  Livingstone  Mission  in  Africa  was  transferred 
to  the  Union,  and  in  1900  work  was  begun  in 
the  Philippine  Islands.  The  Society  also  sup- 
ports or  aids  Baptist  work  in  France  (1832), 
Germany,  Austria  and  Bohemia  (1834),  Den- 
mark (1891),  Sweden  (1855),  Finland  (1889), 
Spain  (1870),  Russia  (1887),  and  Norway  (1892). 

The  Woman's  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary 
Society,  Tremont  Temple,  Boston,  Mass.,  was 
organized  in  1871  as  the  result  of  appeals  from 
the  wife  of  a  missionarj'  in  Burma  for  single 
women  to  work  among  the  women  of  that  coun- 
try. In  response,  a  general  meeting  for  women 
was  convened  in  Boston,  in  April,  1871;  a  con- 
stitution was  presented  and  endorsed  by  the  two 
hundred  women  present ;  the  object  of  the  Society, 
as  stated  in  the  constitution,  was  "to  furnish  sup- 
port, through  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union,  to  Christian  women  employed  by  said 
Union  as  missionaries,  native  teachers  or  Bible 
women,  together  with  the  facilities  needed  for 
their  work,  such  laborers  being  recommended 
by  this  Society."  In  December  of  the  same  year 
their  first  missionary  was  sent  out,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  first  year  they  had  six  missionaries  in 
the  field,  while  the  home  organization  numbered 
141  auxiliaries,  and  the  receipts  were  $9,172. 

The  Home  Department  consists  of  a  Board  of 
Managers,  meeting  twice  each  month  for  an 
entire  day  to  transact  the  business  of  the  Society; 
this  Board  is  divided  into  various  committees 


which  meet  more  frequently.  State  secretaries 
are  appointed  by  the  Board,  and  they  in  turn 
appoint  Association  secretaries.  The  Home 
Department  includes  (1902)  1,523  circles  with 
37,646  members;  419  young  ladies'  circles  with 
8,591  members;  452  junior  organizations  with 
12,705  members.  Total  receipts,  $121,771.26. 
There  are  78  missionaries  on  the  foreign  field, 
433  schools  with  16,690  pupils,  and  134  Bible 
women. 

The  Woman's  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  the  West  was  organized  in  1871  on 
the  general  lines  of  the  other  Woman's  Society, 
working  through  the  ABMU.  The  first  mission- 
ary was  sent  to  Burma  in  December,  1871,  and 
the  receipts  for  the  first  year  were  $4,245.  Its 
Home  Department  (1902)  reports  17,873  con- 
tributors in  the  senior  circles;  62  young  ladies' 
circles,  and  134  junior  organizations.  Total 
receipts,  $60,280.  It  now  has  35  missionaries  on 
the  foreign  field;  220  schools  with  6,771  pupils; 
and  100  Bible  women. 

The  Woman's  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  California  was  organized  in  1875,  in 
San  Francisco,  and  the  Woman's  Baptist  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  of  Oregon  was  organized  in 
1878.  In  1902  a  joint  committee  of  the  Mission- 
ary Union  and  the  Woman's  Societies  was 
appointed  to  consider  the  relation  of  the  latter 
to  the  Union.  This  committee  recommended 
that  the  Societies  of  California  and  Oregon  be 
merged  into  the  Society  of  the  West.  This  was 
accordingly  done  in   1903. 

D.  The  Fields:  I.  Burma  (1813):  On  being 
driven  from  Bengal  by  the  East  India  Company, 
Dr.  and  Mrs.  Judson  went  to  Madras  intending 
to  found  a  mission  in  the  Penang  Straits.  Failing, 
however,  to  find  a  ship  for  Penang,  they  em- 
barked for  Burma,  not  wishing  to  wait  at  Madras 
lest  the  East  India  Company  should  compel 
their  return  to  England.  They  landed  in 
Rangoon  July  13,  1813.  In  1816  G.  H.  Hough 
and  wife  joined  them,  bringing  a  printing  press 
given  by  the  Serampur  Mission.  June  27, 
1819,  the  first  convert  was  baptized,  and  others 
soon  following  a  church  was  formed.  The 
Emperor  of  Burma  having  died,  the  brutal  con- 
duct of  his  successor  brought  on  the  first  Burmese 
War  with  England  (1824-26).  On  the  capture 
of  Rangoon  by  the  English  in  1824  Mr.  Judson 
and  Dr.  Price  were  arrested  and  imprisoned 
by  the  Burmans,  their  captivity  culminating 
in  the  horrors  of  Oung-pen-la,  from  which  they 
were  released  only  in  January,  1826,  when  the 
king  needed  Mr.  Judson's  services  as  interpreter 
in  the  negotiations  for  peace.  The  mission  was 
reinforced  after  the  restoration  of  peace,  and 
supplied  with  a  skilled  printer  and  all  appliances 
for  issuing  books  and  tracts.  In  1834  Mr.  Judson 
completed  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
into  the  Burmese  language,  and  it  as  well  as 
the  other  issues  of  the  Mission  Press  were 
eagerly  received.  The  Religious  Herald,  which 
is  still  continued,  was  founded  in  1844.  After 
the  death  of  Dr.  Judson  in  1852,  the  extension 
of  the  British  possessions  in  Burma  gave  oppor- 
tunity for  the  enlargement  of  the  mission.  The 
station  at  Rangoon  was  reoccupied  at  once,  and 
there  the  missionaries  found  a  small  group  of 
15  church  members  who  had  survived  the  16 
years  of  persecution.  A  general  convention 
of  the  missionaries  in  Burma  assembled  at 
Maulmain  in  1853,  which  decided  that  Burma 
missions  should  be  at  once  permanently  estab- 


American  Baptist 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


20 


lished  in  Rangoon,  Bassein,  Henzada,  Prome, 
Taungngu  and  Shwegyin;  constituted  a  pub- 
lication committee  for  the  control  of  the  Mission 
Press;  recommended  increased  attention  to 
preaching  in  the  native  tongues,  the  ordin- 
ation of  a  larger  number  of  native  pastors,  and 
the  missionary  supervision  of  schools  as  a  "means 
of  Christian  instruction  rather  than  of  imparting 
a  secular  education."  The  establishment  in 
the  principal  stations  of  Normal  schools  for 
training  teachers  and  preachers  was  approved ; 
the  founding  of  other  boarding  schools,  and  the 
teaching  of  English  were  discouraged.  Some 
of  the  decisions  of  the  Convention  have  been 
modified  on  subsequent  experience,  but  this 
Convention  must  always  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  important  events  in  the  history  of 
the  Burma  missions. 

Since  the  overthrow  of  the  Burmese  Kingdom 
in  1885  and  the  incorporation  of  its  territories 
in  the  Indian  Empire,  the  prospects  of  the  work 
among  the  Burmans  have  materially  improved. 
Work  for  the  Karens  was  commenced  by  Rev. 
and  Mrs.  George  Dana  Boardman  at  Tavoy 
in  1828.  That  year  Ko-thah-byu,  the  first  Karen 
convert,  afterward  known  as"theKaren  Apostle," 
was  baptised.  The  first  church  was  formed 
in  1830.  In  1832  the  Karen  language  was 
reduced  to  writing  and  the  first  book  printed. 
In  1843  the  New  Testament  was  printed  in 
Karen,  and  publication  of  the  Morning  Star, 
a  Karen  journal,  was  commenced.  The  Karen 
Theological  Seminary  was  instituted  in  Maul- 
main  in  1846,  and  in  1848  the  Karen  pastors 
in  the  Bassein  district  assumed  self-support. 
In  1850  a  Home  Missionary  Society  was  formed, 
entirely  under  the  direction  of  the  Karens. 
The  jubilee  of  the  Karen  Mission  was  celebrated 
at  Bassein,  in  1878,  by  the  dedication  of  the 
Ko-thah-byu  Memorial  Hall,  paid  for  by  the 
Bassein  Karens,  and  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the 
Bassein  Sgaw  Karen  Normal  and  Industrial 
Institute. 

In  1883  the  entire  Scriptures  were  issued  in 
Pwo  Karen.  This  completed  the  work  of  giving 
the  Scriptures  to  the  Karens. 

A  mission  among  the  Shans,  who  are  very 
bigoted  Buddhists,  was  established  in  1860 
by  Dr.  Bixby  at  Taungngu.  Ten  thousand  Shans 
had  settled  in  the  district  shortly  before  Dr. 
Bixby  arrived  there,  they  having  fled  from 
civil  war  in  their  own  land.  It  being  impossible 
to  enter  the  Shan  country,  schools  were  estab- 
lished for  them  at  Taungngu,  where  a  small 
church  was  soon  organized.  In  1871  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew  and  a  grammar  of  the  Shan  lan- 
guage were  printed.  In  1885  the  first  edition 
of  the  Shan  New  Testament  was  published 
and  the  entire  Bible  in  1891. 

After  the  deposition  of  King  Thibaw  and  the 
annexation  of  Burma  by  the  English  in  Decem- 
ber, 1885,  Shanland  itself  was  open  to  the  mission- 
aries. A  station  was  opened  at  Hsipaw,  in  the 
Northern  Shan  states,  in  1890,  and  at  Mone, 
South  of  Mandalay,  in  1892.  In  both  stations 
medical  work  has  an  important  part. 

The  Chins  are  allied  to  the  Karens  and  are 
nominally  Buddhists.  They  are  found  on  both 
sides  of  the  western  Yoma  range  of  mountains, 
stretching  from  Arkan  to  the  Naga  hills  of 
Assam.  Those  to  the  south  are  divided  into 
4  tribes  using  different  dialects;  those  of  the 
north  are  less  known.  The  fir.st  Chin  convert 
was  baptized  by  Dr.   Francis  Mason  at  Tavoy, 


in  1837.  TheChinlanguagewasreduoed  to  writing 
twenty  years  later  by  a  Karen  preacher  from 
Bassein,  who  baptized  40  of  these  wild  people. 
It  was  not  until  1884  that  an  American  mission- 
ary  established    himself   in   the    Chin   country. 

The  Kachins,  also  allied  to  the  Karens,  are 
found  in  northeastern  Burma,  their  country 
extending  into  China  and  Assam  and  north  to 
Tibet.  They  are  a  wild  and  savage  people. 
Among  these  tribes  work  was  opened  by  Rev. 
J.  U.  Gushing,  in  1877.  Several  Karen  teachers 
from  Bassein  were  then  sent  into  the  Kachin 
mountain  villages  and  since  then  Karens  have 
been  laboring  among  them,  wholly  supported 
by  the  Karens  in  Bassein.  The  first  Kachin 
Church  was  formed  in  1882  at  Pumwai.  The 
Kachin  language  was  reduced  to  writing  by  the 
Rev.  Ola  Hansen,  who  also  translated  the  Gospel 
of  St.  John,  a  catechism  and  some  smaller  works. 
Since  then  a  system  of  applying  the  Roman 
letters  to  the  Kachin  language  has  been  adopted 
by   the   missionaries   and   by   the    Government. 

In  1894  Rev.  and  Mrs.  W.  F.  Armstrong  were 
especially  set  apart  to  work  among  the  half  million 
Telugus  and  Tamils,  who  have  migrated  to 
Burma.  They  have  a  large  and  self  supporting 
church  at  Rangoon,  Other  missionaries  are 
doing  more  or  less  work  among  them. 

The  ABMU  has  in  Burma  (1903)  27  stations 
and  640  outstations;  173  American  mission- 
aries and  1,756  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
741  churches  with  41,770  communicants;  2 
theological  schools,  33  boarding  and  high  schools, 
and  511  elementary  schools.  The  aggregate 
number  of  pupils  in  all  these  educational  insti- 
tutions   is    19,430. 

//.  Assam  (1836):  Direct  evangelistic  work 
is  done  among  the  Assamese,  Bengalis,  Kols 
(imported  from  Nagpur  to  work  in  the  tea- 
gardens)  and  the  hill  men  such  as  the  Garos, 
Nagas,  Mikirs,  etc.  Rev.  Nathan  Brown  and 
Rev.  O.  T.  Cutter  and  their  wives  commenced 
the  mission  in  Assam  at  Sadiya  in  1836,  being 
followed  in  1837  by  Rev.  Miles  Bronson,  D.D., 
who  was  stationed  at  Jaipur.  Both  of  these 
stations  were  given  up  later,  in  favor  of  Sibsagar 
and  Nowgong.  The  Scriptures  have  been 
translated  into  Assamese  and  printed  in  Roman 
letters  and  schools  have  been  opened.  But  the 
Assamese  do  not  seem  to  have  been  deeply 
touched  by  the  Gospel.  The  Assamese  churches 
at  these  two  stations  number  about  725 
members,  while  the  Garos  and  other  hill  men 
and  the  immigrants  from  Bengal  are  far  more 
ready  to  receive  Christianity  with  heart  and 
soul.  The  first  two  Garo  converts  were  baptized 
in  1863.  They  instantly  began  working  among 
their  own  people,  with  such  success  that  when 
Dr.  Bronson  visited  the  Garo  country  in  1867, 
a  church  of  40  members  was  formed  at  Raja- 
simla.  Since  then  the  missions  among  Garos 
have  been  most  successful. 

There  are  (1903)  in  Assam  12  stations  and 
147  outstations;  54  American  missionaries  and 
238  native  workers;  76  churches;  7,150  commu- 
nicants; and  146  schools  with  2,739  pupils. 

///.  India;  Telugu  Mission:  The  enterprise 
of  the  ABMU  in  India  was  begun  by  Rev.  and 
Mrs.  S.  S.  Day  at  Vizagapatanr  in  1836.  In 
1840  the  force  removed  to  Nellore.  Schools 
were  opened  at  various  points;  the  first  Telugu 
convert  was  baptized  in  1840,  and  a  second  in 
1843.  But  soon  both  missionaries  broke  down 
and   returned   to  America.     The  mission  prop 


81 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


American  Baptist 


erty,  schools,  and  the  little  church  of  seven 
members,  including  the  two  Telugus,  was  left 
in  the  care  of  a  Eurasian  preacher,  and  the 
question  of  abandoning  the  Telugu  Mission 
was  seriousljr  considered.  Mr.  Day,  however, 
recovered  his  health  and,  with  Rev.  Lyman 
Jewett,  returned  in  1848.  The  next  five  years 
were  full  of  struggle.  In  1853  a  deputation 
sent  by  the  Society  to  examine  the  Asiatic 
Missions  having  visited  Nellore,  advised  that 
the  mission  be  either  strongly  reinforced  or 
relinquished  at  once.  The  Board  of  Managers 
of  the  ABMU  threw  the  responsibility  on  the 
denomination,  as  represented  in  the  annual 
meeting,  which  decided  to  reenforce  and  con- 
tinue the  mission.  Other  difficulties  having 
arisen,  in  1862  the  question  of  abandoning 
the  mission  was  again  raised.  The  missionary 
map,  always  in  view  at  the  annual  meetings 
of  the  Union,  had  upon  it  a  number  of  red  marks 
to  indicate  the  stations  in  Burma.  These 
marks  looked  like  a  cluster  of  stars,  while  across 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  there  was  one  lone  star, 
indicating  the  only  station  of  the  Board  in  India ; 
and  at  one  of  the  meetings,  when  the  question 
of  abandoning  or  reenforcing  this  mission  was 
under  discussion,  it  was  spoken  of  as  the  "Lone 
Star  Mission."  Dr.  S.  F.  Smith,  author  of 
"My  Country,  'Tis  of  Thee,"  wrote  that  night 
a  poem  picturing  in  place  of  the  one  star,  a 
glorious  constellation  in  that  region.  The 
prophecy  has  been  fulfilled. 

In  1864  the  working  force  was  increased  by 
Rev.  J.  E.  Clough,  the  "Missionary  for  Ongole." 
The  following  year  four  Telugus  were  baptized 
and  from  that  moment  fruit  from  the  long 
period  of  seed-sowing  began  to  appear.  At  the 
end  of  another  decade  there  were  nearly  4,000 
baptized  converts  in  that  mission  field.  Then 
came  a  time  of  trial;  famine,  flood,  cholera, 
and  another  and  a  terrible  famine.  Sorely 
were  the  new  converts  tried,  but  neither  their 
faith  nor  the  faith  of  the  missionaries  failed. 
During  the  period  of  famine  the  missionaries 
deemed  it  wise  to  put  off  all  baptisms  until  the 
work  of  distributing  relief  was  over.  Then 
between  June  15  and  September  17,  1878, 
9,147  were  baptized,  2,222  in  one  day.  The  work 
went  steadily  on,  and  in  December,  1890,  another 
revival  occurred,  when  1,671  persons  were 
baptized  in  one  day  and  during  the  following 
five  months  nearly  10,000  were  baptized  at  the 
various  stations. 

There  are  (1903)  26  stations  and  388  outstations 
in  the  Baptist  Telugu  Mission,  99  American 
missionaries  and  1,008  native  workers;  116 
churches  with  54,995  communicants;  1  theo- 
logical school  with  149  students;  and  549  other 
schools  with  10,664  pupils. 

IV.  Missions  in  China:  In  1833  Rev.  J.  _T. 
Jones,  of  the  Burma  mission,  in  consultation  with 
his  associates  went  to  Bangkok  and  turned  his 
attention  to  the  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  creation  of  a  Christian  literature. 
Altho  his  work  was  in  the  Siamese  language,  the 
first  converts  in  Bangkok  were  three  Chinese. 
From  the  first  the  work  among  the  Chinese  was 
more  promising  than  that  for  the  Siamese,  and  on 
the  arrival  of  reenforcements  one  of  the  mission- 
aries removed  (in  1842)  to  Hongkong  and  another 
(in  1849)  to  Ningpo. 

The  mission  at  Bangkok  has  not  been  largely 
successful  in  itself.  But  through  the  Chinese 
converts  in  Bangkok  an  entrance  to  the  people  of 


China  was  secured  before  that  Empire  was  open  to 
foreigners.  It  is  continued  as  a  part  of  the  enter- 
prise of  evangelizing  China. 

The  first  Baptist  Church  in  China  was  formed 
in  the  Portuguese  colony  of  Macao  and  the  first 
convert  was  baptized  in  1837.  In  1843  the  sec- 
ond Baptist  Chinese  Church  was  organized  at 
Hongkong.  In  1846  it  was  decided  to  remove 
the  mission  to  the  mainland  and  Swatow  wa.g 
chosen  as  the  central  station.  In  1881  a  branch 
of  the  Swatow  mission  took  up  work  among  the 
Hakkas  of  the  highlands. 

Stations  have  been  established  in  several  cen- 
ters in  the  Swatow  region.  The  work  of  the 
Baptist  Southern  China  mission  embraces  5  sta- 
tions and  among  other  enterprises  it  includes  a 
biblical  school  for  preachers;  a  training  class  for 
Bible  women ;  Bible  translation ;  elementary  and 
high  schools;  general  dispensary  and  hospital 
work  and  a  medical  class  for  students. 

The  Eastern  China  Mission  of  the  ABMU  was 
begun  at  Ningpo  by  J.  D.  Macgowan,  M.  D.,  in 
1843.  A  hospital  was  opened  and  the  good  will 
of  the  people  gained  by  the  successful  treatment, 
of  difficult  cases.  The  first  convert  in  this  field 
was  baptized  in  1849.  Gradually  the  force  was 
increased  until  the  mission  now  has  5  stations 
and  about  800  church  members. 

Rev,  Josiah  Goddard  did  important  work  in 
translating  the  New  Testament  into  the  Ningpo 
dialect,  and  his  son,  Rev.  J.  R.  Goddard,  was  the 
chief  translator  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  was 
put  into  Roman  letters  in  1901. 

A  boys'  boarding  school  was  opened  about  1880 
by  the  native  Christians.  This  has  since  been 
maintained  without  expense  to  the  Union. 

The  Western  China  Mission  was  begun  by  W. 
M.  Upcraft,  formerly  agent  for  the  BFBS,  and 
Mr.  George  Warner  in  1889.  The  first  station 
was  HsU-chau,  in  the  province  of  Sze-chwan. 
During  the  first  year  seven  converts  were  bap- 
tized. Medical  work  was  begun  by  Mrs.  Warner 
in  1891.  Two  new  stations  were  opened  in  1894. 
The  following  year  the  Sze-chwan  riots  occurred; 
the  missionaries  were  obliged  to  flee,  and  the  mis- 
sion premises  were  totally  destroyed.  Opera- 
tions were  resumed  in  1896  with  increased  vigor, 
and  hope  was  large  for  continued  expansion  of  the 
work,  when  the  Boxer  Movement  of  1900  swept 
through  the  land  and  the  missionaries  were 
obliged  to  flee  and  the  mission  property  was 
again  destroyed.  Many  foreigners  and  native 
Christians  were  massacred.  The  work  was 
resumed  in  1901  and  increased  opportunities  are 
everywhere  manifest. 

The  Central  China  Mission  was  commenced  in 
1893  at  Han-yang-fu  by  Rev.  and  Mrs.  J.  S. 
Adams  and  Rev.  and  Mrs.  W.  F.  Gray.  In  1895 
the  First  Baptist  Church  was  organized.  Medical 
work  was  begun  in  1897  by  Rev.  G.  A.  Huntley, 
M.  D.,  and  each  year  has  witnessed  a  steady 
growth.  In  1902  a  mission  hall  and  dispensary 
were  erected  and  the  new  Metropolitan  Taber- 
nacle of  the  Baptists  in  mid-China  was  erected 
and  dedicated. 

There  are  (1903)  in  the  southern,  eastern, 
western  and  central  China  Missions  15  stations 
and  202  outstations;  77  American  missionaries 
and  232  native  workers;  85  churches  with  3,870 
communicants;  2  theological  schools  with  49  stu- 
dents; 6  boarding  and  high  schools  with  313  stu- 
dents and  35  other  schools  with  534  pupils. 

V.  Missions  in  Japan:  Jonathan  Goble  was 
sent  to  Japan  by  the  American   Baptist   Free 


American  Baptist 
American   Bible 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


S2 


Mission  Society  in  1860,  where  he  labored  for 
his  own  support  in  part  until  1872,  when  the 
Free  Mission  Society  became  a  part  of  the  ABMU, 
which  assumed  Mr.  Goble's  support  and  appointed 
Rev.  Nathan  Brown  as  their  first  missionary.  To 
him  the  Japan  mission  largely  owes  its  early 
development.  The  first  Baptist  Church  in  Japan 
was  organized  at  Yokohama  in  1873  with  eight 
members,  and  the  following  year  a  station  was 
opened  in  Tokio.  In  1878  Kobe  was  occupied, 
and  Sendai  in  1882.  In  1886  a  station  was 
opened  in  Shimonoseki,  in  Southern  Japan,  but 
the  mission  headquarters  were  later  transferred 
to  Chofu.  In  1891  native  helpers  were  sent  from 
Kobe  to  work  among  the  people  of  the  Lu  Chu 
Islands,  locating  in  the  city  of  Nafa.  Osaka  was 
occupied  in  1892,  Mito  in  1899  and  Otarun  in 
1902.  The  progress  in  all  these  stations  has 
from  the  first  been  stead}'  and  substantial. 

There  are  (1903)  9  stations  and  86  outstations; 
58  American  missionaries  and  137  native  workers, 
30  churches,  with  2,157  communicants;  1  theo- 
logical school  with  19  students;  5  boarding  and 
high  schools  with  332  students;  6  other  schools 
with  313  pupils. 

VI.  Missions  to  Africa;  Liberia:  The  Triennial 
Baptist  General  Convention  was  disposed  very 
early  to  aid  the  African  Baptist  Missionary  Soci- 
ety in  planting  a  mis.sion  in  Africa  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  present  republic  of  Liberia.  That  Society 
had  sent  missionaries  to  Liberia  in  1821.  But 
the  unusual  difficulties  of  the  field  and  the  mor- 
tality among  its  white  missionaries  led  the 
ABMU  to  suspend  its  mission  there  in  1856. 

Congo:  Henry  M.  Stanley,  after  crossing  Africa, 
appeared  at  Boma,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Congo, 
August  7,  1877.  When  news  of  his  feat  reached 
England,  it  aroused  a  desire  to  begin  mission 
work  in  this  hitherto  untouched  region.  The 
responsible  management  of  the  new  enterprise 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  H.  Grat- 
tan  Guinness.  The  first  missionaries  of  this 
"Livingstone  Inland  Mission"  sailed  for  the  Con- 
go in  1878,  and  by  1883  six  stations  had  been 
established,  extending  from  the  coast  to  the  head 
of  Livingstone  Falls.  A  steamer  for  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Upper  Congo  was  launched  on  the 
Pool,  in  November,  1884.  The  staff  then  con- 
sisted of  26  missionaries;  one  of  the  languages 
had  been  reduced  to  writing;  a  grammar  and  dic- 
tionary had  been  published  and  a  hopeful  begin- 
ning made  in  various  lines  of  missionarj'  activity. 
At  this  time  the  mission  was  transferred  to  the 
care  of  the  ABMU.  In  August,  1886,  Ijegan  the 
remarkable  revival  at  Bansa  Manteke,  known  as 
"the  Pentecost  on  the  Congo,"  and  in  November 
of  that  year  the  first  church  on  the  Congo  was 
formed  with  42  members  by  the  Rev.  Henry 
Richards,  after  seven  years  of  apparently  fruit- 
less labors.  A  training  school  for  native  evangel- 
ists was  opened  at  Bansa  Manteke,  and  other  sta- 
tions speedily  founded.  At  every  point  the  suc- 
cess at  Bansa  Manteke  has  been  duplicated  in 
smaller  degrees.  From  1890-97  the  progress  of 
the  work  was  hindered  by  difficulties  between  the 
natives  and  the  Congo  State  officials.  Largely 
through  the  intervention  of  the  missionaries, 
however,  the  troubles  were  .settled,  and  since 
t-hen,  with  increased  facilities  for  communication, 
openings  for  aggressive  missionary  work  have 
steadily  multiplied. 

There  are  (1903)  8  stations  and  98  outstations; 
33  American  missionaries  and  217  trained  Chris- 
tian native  workers;  8  churches  with  3,104  com- 


municants; 1  theological  school  with  20  students; 
5  boarding  and  high  schools  with  36  students  |; 
107  other  schools  with  3,249  pupils. 

VII.  Philippine  Islands  Mission:  The  interest 
of  the  American  Baptists  centers  in  the  Visayan 
group  of  islands.  Rev.  Eric  Lund,  for  20  years  a 
missionary  of  the  ABMU  in  Spain,  was  chosen  to 
open  the  Avork.  Early  in  1900  Mr.  Lund  arrived 
in  Iloilo  in  the  island  of  Panay,  accompanied  by 
Sefior  Branlio  Manikan,  a  young  Visayan  who 
had  been  sent  from  the  Philippine  Islands  to 
Spain  to  be  educated  for  the  priesthood,  but  had 
been  converted  at  Barcelona,,  in  the  mission  under 
the  care  of  Mr.  Lund.  By  an  interdenomina- 
tional agreement  the  district  north  from  Iloilo 
on  Panay  and  the  western  provinces  of  Negros 
became  the  distinctive  field  of  the  Baptists,  and 
Jaro,  which  is  an  important  trade  center,  was 
chosen  as  the  headquarters  for  the  work.  Reen- 
forcements  were  sent  out,  and  in  June,  1901,  a 
church  of  43  members  was  organized  at  Jaro. 
Tracts  and  leaflets  were  distributed  by  the  thou- 
sand, a  religious  newspaper  was  founded,  and  the 
work  continued  with  accelerating  movement. 
In  Negros,  as  in  Panay,  the  work  reached  from 
the  central  station  into  the  surrounding  country. 
Already  a  remarkable  company  of  native  leaders 
has  been  raised  up,  and  the  work  has  everywhere 
developed  with  marvelous  rapidity.  While  the 
educated  classes  are  friendly,  the  work  is  mainly 
among  the  peasants.  Medical  work  was  begun 
in  1902  and  proves  an  important  factor  in  gaining 
all  classes  of  the  people.  Persecution  has  been 
severe,  and  as  a  result  some  8,000  people  have 
left  their  villages  and  established  a  Protestant 
town  on  the  mountain  side,  calling  it  Calvary. 
There  are  (1903)  2  stations  and  5  outstations;  11 
American  missionaries  and  7  native  workers,  and 
3  churches  with  372  communicants. 

VIII.  European  Missions:  European  missions 
were  not  contemplated  in  the  original  purpose  of 
the  Triennial  Convention.  Aside  from  a  few 
points  on  the  western  frontier  of  the  United 
States,  where  domestic  missions  were  maintained 
for  a  few  years,  and  a  mission  to  the  North 
American  Indians,  the  founders  of  the  Con- 
vention thought  of  missions  to  the  heathen  as 
the  only  ones  within  their  scope;  and  when  the 
way  was  opened  for  missionary  work  in  Europe, 
a  distinction  was  soon  established  between  mis- 
sions to  lands  where  the  Greek  or  Roman  Cath- 
olic is  the  State  Church,  and  those  where  Prot- 
estantism prevails.  Thus,  missions  to  France 
(1832),  Greece  (1836),  and,  later,  Spain  (1870), 
were  conducted  as  foreign  missions,  and  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  to  them  from  the  United 
States,  their  work  to  be  supplemented,  as  in  Asia, 
by  native  preachers;  while  the  missions  in  Ger- 
many (1834),  Sweden  (1834),  and  in  other  Prot- 
estant countries  were  from  the  first  prosecuted 
by  native  preachers,  the  Convention  exercising 
only  a  general  superintendence,  and  rendering 
counsel  and  financial  aid  when  necessary. 

The  work  of  the  ABMU  in  France  dates  from 
1832,  and  was  the  result  of  the  report  of  a  com- 
mittee sent  by  the  Union  to  investigate  the  need 
and  opportunity  for  missionary  work  in  that 
country.  Under  Louis  Philippe,  the  American 
preachers  were  not  molested,  tho  native  preach- 
ers were  arrested.  Progress  was  slow,  altho  the 
Rev.  Reuben  Saillens,  associated  with  the 
McAll  Mission,  gave  much  assistance.  Since 
1891  Mr.  Saillens  has  devoted  himself  specially 
to  the  work,  and  great  advance  has  been  made, 


23 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


American  Baptist 
American  Bible 


and  31  preachers,  30  churches,  and  2,409  mem- 
bers are  reported  (1903). 

Baptist  work  in  Germany  was  inaugurated  by 
the  baptism,  by  President  Barnes  Sears  of 
Brown  University,  of  seven  men  at  Hamburg 
(1834).  One  of  these,  Johann  Gerhard  Onoken, 
then  an  agent  of  the  Edinburgli  Bible  Society, 
and  a  boolvseller,  became  the  leader  of  tlie 
Baptist  movement  in  Germany.  Every  effort 
was  made  by  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  author- 
ities to  stop  the  work.  The  leaders  were  impris- 
oned and  fined,  but  the  work  progressed  and 
extended  into  Denmark  and  Russia.  There  are 
reported  (1902)  in  Germany,  203  preachers,  231 
churches,  41,552  members;  in  Denmark,  40 
preachers,  29  churches,  3,928  members. 

The  Missionary  Union  has  had  no  American 
missionaries  in  Germany,  tho  Dr.  Bickel  and 
some  others  had  been  pastors  here;  but  it  has 
sustained  a  part  of  the  missionaries,  aided  in 
building  chapels  and  churches,  helping  the 
theological  seminaries,  etc.,  especially  in  their 
missionary  work  in  Austria,  Hungary,  Ru- 
mania, Bulgaria  and  East  Switzerland.  Emi- 
gration has  carried  off  large  numbers  of  their 
members  and  will  do  so  still,  but  they  show  a 
fair  net  increase. 

The  Baptist  work  in  Russia  was  commenced 
as  a  mission  enterprise  from  Germany  in  1851, 
at  the  same  time  as  work  in  Lithuania  and  the 
Silesian  Mountains.  Progress  was  rapid  not- 
withstanding severe  opposition,  and  in  1888 
the  Russian  churches  hitherto  included  in  reports 
from  Germany  were  set  apart.  There  are  (1902) 
117  preachers,  108  churches,  22,244  members; 
and  in  Finland  12  preachers,  34  churches, 
2,133  members. 

On  the  ship  that  carried  Messrs.  Colman  and 
Wheelock  to  Burma  (1817)  were  several  Swedes 
and  Norwegians.  Some  of  these  were  converted 
and  commenced  work  in  their  homes.  Other 
sailors  were  converted  in  New  York  and  Hamburg. 
One  was  ordained  and  a  church  was  organized 
in  Gothenburg  in  1848.  Soon  after  the  Rev. 
Andreas  Wiberg,  a  well  known  scholar  of  the 
Lutheran  church  in  Sweden,  joined  the  Baptist 
community,  others  of  influence  were  added,  and, 
by  the  help  of  the  American  Baptist  Publica- 
tions Society  and  the  ABMU,  the  work  has 
grown  until  there  are  (1902)  in  Sweden  764 
preachers,  568  churches,  42,011  members,  and 
in  Norway,  16  preachers,  35  churches,  with 
2,707  members. 

In  1870  the  ABMU  adopted  a  work  com- 
menced in  Spain  a  few  years  earlier  by  Prof. 
W.  J.  Knapp,  an  independent  missionary.  The 
work  has  not  progressed  rapidly.  There  are  4 
preachers,  4  churches,  and  135  members. 

Summary:  The  Society  was  organized  in  1814 
with  two  missionaries  in  the  foreign  field,  and 
with  but  a  single  convert  from  heathenism  in 
1819,  had,  in  1840,  97  missionaries,  68  churches, 
44  schools,  and  more  than  2,900  baptized  be- 
lievers; and  an  income  of  $56,948.42.  In  1870 
the  number  of  communicants  had  grown  to 
48,763;  the  force  of  missionaries  was  127,  the 
income  amounting  to  $217,510.56.  In  1902 
478  missionaries  of  the  Union  were  laboring  in 
7  heathen  countries  and  preaching  the  Gospel  in 
more  than  25  languages.  The  converts  in 
heathen  lands  alone  numbered  111,650,  organ- 
ized into  1,003  churches,  of  which  668  were 
entirely  self-supporting.  In  heathen  lands  there 
were   1,473  schools  of  all  grades   with   37,356 


pupils,   2  colleges   and  7  theological  and   Bible 
schools   for   the   training   of   a   native   ministry. 
The   receipts   from   all   sources    (1902)    reached 
$624,713.79  and  the  average  annual  income  for 
the  previous  five  years  was  $653,777. 
Periodic.\l9  published  by  the  Society  and  Auxiliaries:    The 
Baptist  Missionary  Magazine;    The  Helping  Band  (Wom- 
an's Societies) ;    Around  the  World  (for  young  people). 
General  Literaturr;    Smitli  (S.  F.),  Missionary  Sketches, 
Boston,  1879  and  1883 ;  Rambles  in  Mission  Fields,  Boston, 
1884;    Downie  (D.),  The  Lone  Star  (the  TeluRU  Mission), 
Philadelphia,  189.3;  Saillens  (R.), /1m  Pays  des  Tenebrea; 
Histoire  de  la  Premiere  Mission  au  Congo,   Paris,   1889; 
Titterington  (Mrs.  S.  B.),  A  Century  of  Baptist  Missions, 
Philadelphia,  1891;  Jubilee  Conference  of  ABMU  Mission 
in  Assam,  Calcutta,  1887. 

AMERICAN  BIBLE  SOCIETY:  Headquarters, 
Bible  House,  Astor  Place,  New  York  City,  U.S.A. 

Undenominational,  representing  all  the  evan- 
gelical communities  of  the  United  States.  Com- 
bines both  home  and  foreign  work. 

History:  Prior  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, the  American  colonies  of  Great  Britain 
had  been  dependent  on  the  mother  country  for 
all  their  English  Bibles.  The  hostilities  which 
ensued  cut  off  the  supply  of  books  printed  in 
London,  and  a  memorial  was  addressed  to  the 
Continental  Congress  urging  that  body  to  under- 
take the  publication  of  an  edition  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  committee  to  which  the  matter  was 
referred,  after  consultation  with  printers  in 
Philadelphia,  reported  that  the  cost  of  an  edition 
of  the  Bible  would  exceed  £10,000,  and  that 
neither  the  type  nor  the  paper  could  be  procured 
in  this  country,  but  recommended  the  purchase, 
at  the  expense  of  Congress,  of  20,000  copies  in 
Holland,  Scotland,  or  elsewhere.  During  the 
next  thirty  years  private  enterprise  did  much 
to  meet  the  immediate  wants  of  the  nation,  but 
failed  of  course  to  reach  the  homes  of  indiffer- 
ence and  poverty. 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was  or 
ganized  in  1804  at  London,  and  its  first  foreign 
edition  of  the  Scriptures  was  The  Gospel  of  John 
(2,000  copies),  in  Mohawk  and  English.  This 
was  followed  by  efforts  to  secure  an  organization 
in  America  which  resulted  in  the  formation  of 
the  Philadelphia  Bible  Society  in  1809.  Similar 
societies  were  also  formed  in  Connecticut,  Mas- 
sachusetts, New  Jersey  and  New  York,  all  with 
the  well-defined  object  of  putting  the  Scriptures 
into  every  destitute  family  within  the  immediate 
circle  of  their  direct  influence,  and  through  the 
thinly  settled  regions  on  the  frontier. 

Samuel  J.  Mills,  one  of  the  four  who,  at  the 
haystack  prayer-meeting  at  Williams  College, 
gave  the  impulse  that  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  the  ABCFM,  after  his  graduation  from  An- 
dover  Seminary  in  1812  made  two  tours  of 
investigation,  and  his  report  that  the  number 
of  famUies  found  without  the  Bible  far  exceeded 
all  expectations  raised  a  deep  conviction  that 
some  more  efficient  means  must  be  found  for 
meeting  the  want. 

Early  in  1816  Elias  Boudinot,  President  of 
the  New  Jersey  Bible  Society  made  a  public 
communication  in  favor  of  a  national  Bible 
movement.  The  New  York  Bible  Society  fol- 
lowed this  with  formal  action,  resulting  in  the 
calling  of  a  convention,  which  met  May  8, 
1816,  in  the  consistory  of  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church  in  Garden  Street,  and  organized  the 
American  Bible  Society.  Thirty-five  local  organ- 
izations united  in  this  action,  and  eighty-four 
became  auxiliary  to  it  during  the  first  year  of  its 
existence. 


American   Bible 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


2€ 


In  the  earlier  years  the  offices  of  the  Society 
were  in  the  lower  part  of  New  York,  but  the 
great  increase  of  work  necessitated  better  accom- 
modations, and  in  1S53  it  took  possession  of  its 
present  quarters.  The  outlay  involved  in  this 
building  was  provided  for  by  individual  sub- 
scriptions made  for  the  purpose  and  by  rentals 
received  after  its  completion,  no  funds  raised  for 
publication  and  distribution  being  invested  in  it. 

Constitution  and  Organization:  The  American 
Bible  Society  is  incorporated  under  the  laws  of 
the  State  of  New  York  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
publishing  and  circulating  the  Holy  Scriptures 
without  note  or  comment.  It  is  required  oy  its 
by-laws  to  put  the  prices  of  all  its  publications 
as  low  as  possible,  and  practically  sells  them  at 
lower  prices  than  would  be  charged  if  all  the 
ordinary  elements  of  cost  were  taken  into 
account. 

The  business  of  the  Society  is  conducted  by  a 
Board  of  Managers  consisting  of  thirty-six  lay- 
men, residents  of  New  York  or  its  vicinity,  one- 
fourth  of  whom  go  out  of  office  every  year,  but 
may  be  re-elected.  Any  minister  of  the  Gospel 
who  has  been  made  a  life-member  by  the  con- 
tribution of  thirty  dollars  is  entitled  to  be  present 
and  vote  at  the  monthly  meetings  of  the  Board, 
with  all  the  power  of  an  elected  manager.  The 
executive  officers  are  three  corresponding  secre- 
taries and  a  treasurer;  district  secretaries  are 
employed  in  the  United  States,  while  the  foreign 
work  is  chiefly  under  the  care  of  specially  ap- 
pointed agents.  A  large  number  of  Auxiliary 
societies  are  in  close  relation  with  the  National 
Society.  These  are  expected  to  see  that  their 
own  districts  are  well  supplied  through  deposi- 
tories, colporteurs,  or  voluntary  agents,  and  to 
donate  any  surplus  to  the  National  Society  for 
the  general  work.  Until  1874  the  Society  had 
only  two  special  agencies,  in  the  Levant  and  La 
Plata.  That  number  has  been  increased,  until 
now  it  has  its  own  representatives  in  Brazil, 
Central  America,  China,  Cuba,  Japan  and  Korea, 
La  Plata,  The  Levant,  Mexico,  Philippines, 
Porto  Rico,  Siam  and  Venezuela.  These  agencies 
are,  some  of  them,  quite  large,  and  have  the 
charge  of  the  translation  and  manufacture  of 
Bibles,  as  well  as  of  their  distribution,  chiefly 
through  colporteurs.  It  also  acts  through  the 
various  missionary  societies  that  naturally  look 
to  it  as  an  American  organization  for  assistance 
in  their  Bible  work,  or  through  other  local  Bible 
societies — e.g.,  the  Bible  Society  of  France.  This 
action  takes  the  form  of  grants  of  Scriptures 
when  the  versions  used  are  published  by  the 
Society,  and  of  sums  of  money  for  expense  of 
colportage  or  printing  or  purchase  of  Scriptures 
not  published  by  the  Society. 

In  the  foreign  field  the  aim  is  always  to  work 
in  complete  harmony  with  other  organizations 
of  whatever  kind  that  have  the  same  end  in  view. 
Whether  at  home  or  abroad,  it  is  the  conviction 
of  the  Society  that  the  best  results  are  reached 
by  sale,  tho  without  profit,  rather  than  by  free 
distribution.  This  does  not  preclude  special 
grants,  but  such  are  discouraged  rather  than 
encouraged. 

Versions  and  Translations  of  the  Bible  Cir- 
culated: As  early  as  1818  plates  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  Spanish  were  procured  for  the  Spanish- 
speaking  nations  of  America,  and  at  the  same 
time  provision  was  made  for  giving  the  printed 
Gospel  to  some  tribes  of  North  American  Indians. 
Others  followed,  until  the  whole  number  com- 


S rises  more  than  eighty  languages  and  dialects, 
[any  of  these  have  been  printed  on  the  Society's 
own  presses,  or  immediately  at  its  own  expense, 
while  others  have  been  printed  or  purchased  by 
means  of  grants  to  missionary  societies. 

A  large  portion  of  these  versions  have  been 
prepared  by  missionaries,  the  expense  of  publi- 
cation having  been  assumed  by  the  Bible  Society. 
Within  the  first  seven  years  $37,000  was  thus 
expended.  The  establishment  of  distinct  for- 
eign agencies  has  lessened  the  amounts  paid 
directly  to  the  Missionary  Boards,  but  the  Society 
aways  looks  to  the  missionaries  of  every  name 
for  the  hearty  cooperation  which  it  has  received 
in  the  past,  and  tho  "the  Board  will  favor 
versions  in  any  language  which  in  point  of 
fidelity  and  catholicity  shall  be  conformed  to  the 
principles  upon  which  the  American  Bible 
Society  was  originally  founded,"  ordinarily  no 
translation  is  printed  and  published  until  a. 
committee  of  missionaries  or  other  persons 
skilled  in  the  language  have  given  it  their  appro- 
bation. 

Among  the  more  important  versions  are  the- 
Chinese  (Mandarin,  classical,  and  a  number  of 
colloquials) ;  Japanese;         Siamese;  Korean;: 

Mongolian;  Armenian;  Bulgarian;  Turkish; 
Arabic;  several  of  the  dialects  of  the  Pacific 
islands,  and  a  number  in  Africa.  Conspicuous 
among  them  all  stands  the  Arabic  version,  pre- 
pared at  the  sole  expense  of  the  American  Society, 
and  which  is  recognized  by  scholars  everywhere 
as  one  of  the  finest  versions  of  the  Bible  in  exist- 
ence. 

Development  of  Foreign  Work:  It  was  natural 
that  the  attention  of  the  Society  should  be 
directed  to  the  Spanish  colonies  of  America.  In 
1818  plates  of  the  New  Testament  in  Spanish 
were  procured,  and  a  few  years  later  a  special 
report  in  regard  to  Mexico  led  to  the  sending  of 
supplies  of  Scriptures  to  that  country.  South 
America  also  was  visited  about  the  same  time 
by  an  exploring  expedition  sent  out  by  the 
American  Board,  and  in  1833  the  Bible  Society 
sent  a  special  representative  to  report  on  the 
conditions  along  the  west  coast.  No  continuous 
work  was  done,  however,  beyond  the  making  of 
grants  to  the  missionary  societies,  until  1864, 
when  a  regular  agent,  Mr.  Andrew  W.  Milne,  was. 
placed  in  charge  of  the  La  Plata  field. 

The  development  of  missionary  work  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  was  not  overlooked,  and  grants, 
m  aid  of  versions  and  for  the  distribution  of 
Scriptures  were  made  in  many  countries.  In 
1836  the  Rev.  Simeon  H.  Calhoun  was  appointed 
to  represent  the  Society  in  Syria,  but  he  served 
only  a  few  years,  and  it  was  not  until  1854,  whea 
the  Rev.  C.  N.  Righter  was  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople, that  the  Levant  Agency  was  fairly  inaugu- 
rated. In  1876  there  was  a  new  impulse  given 
to  the  work  by  the  sending  of  the  Rev.  Luther 
Halsey  Gulick,  M.D.,  to  China  and  Japan,  and 
of  the  Rev.  A.  L.  Blackford  to  Brazil.  It  was. 
not  long  before  Dr,  Gulick  realized  that  the  field 
entrusted  to  him  was  too  large  for  any  one  man, 
and  he  devoted  himself  to  China,  leaving  Japan,, 
with  the  subsequent  addition  of  Korea,  to  form 
a  separate  agency.  From  that  time  the  advance 
was  rapid.  Special  agents  were  appointed  in 
1878  for  Mexico;  1882  for  Cuba;  1888  for  Venez- 
uela; to  which  Colombia  has  been  added,  1890- 
for  Siam  and  Laos;  1892  for  Central  America. 
The  opportunities  opened  up  by  the  war  with 
Spain  were  promptly  met;  both  as  regards  th& 


25 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


American  Bll>le 


needs  of  the  army  and  of  the  newly  acquired 
provinces;  and  special  agents  were  commissioned 
to  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines. 

In  this  general  development,  as  was  inevitable, 
the  Society's  work  has  frequently  come  into  close 
relations  with  that  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.  In  some  cases  there  has  been 
arranged  a  division  of  territory;  in  others,  a  com- 
bination of  forces;  while  in  others  the  two  great 
societies  have  worked  side  by  side,  each  realizing 
that  there  was  work  enough  for  both. 

Statement  of  Foreign  Work:  South  America: 
The  American  Bible  Society  has  three  agencies 
in  South  America:  the  La  Plata,  Brazil,  and 
Venezuela  and  Colombia.  The  La  Plata  agency 
covers  all  of  South  America  not  included  in  the 
other  two,  especially  Argentina,  Uruguay,  Para- 
guay, Ecuador,  Peru,  Chile  and  Bolivia.  The 
Rev.  Andrew  W.  Milne  is  still  in  charge  (1903) 
after  nearly  forty  years  of  service,  with  his  head- 
quarters at  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina.  The  lan- 
guage used  is  chiefly  Spanish,  though  there  are 
versions  of  portions  of  the  Bible  in  some  of  the 
Indian  dialects,  notably  the  Quichua  and 
Aimara.  This  Agency  has  had  from  its  inception 
to  contend  not  only  with  the  bitter  hostility  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood,  but  with  the 
opposition  of  the  new  governments  to  every  form 
of  evangelical  work,  which,  however,  is  changing 
to  a  more  favorable  attitude.  The  following 
summary  by  decades  shows  how  vigorously  the 
work  has  been  prosecuted : 

Decades.  Bibles.  Testaments.  Portions.     Totals 

From  1864 to  1870...  .       S,S79  7,631        10,417        23,627 

From  1871  to  1880.. .  .  15,347  18,347  45,415  79,467 
From  1881  to  1890.. .  .  37,671  41,193  117,644  196,508 
From  1891  to  1900...  .    69,699        60,765      145,866      266,220 

118,196      127,936      319,332      565,822 

The  Brazil  Agency  is  distinct  from  the  rest  of 
South  America  on  account  of  the  use  of  the 
Portuguese  language.  The  work  of  Bible  distri- 
bution from  the  headquarters  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
is  rendered  easier  than  in  the  La  Plata  agency 
by  the  railways  recently  built  and  by  the  river 
navigation ;  but  the  general  conditions  are  much 
the  same :  hostility  on  the  part  of  most  of  the 
ruling  class  (with  a  few  notable  exceptions),  as 
well  as  of  the  ecclesiastics;  and  absolute  indiffer- 
ence on  the  part  of  the  people.  Each  year,  how- 
ever, shows  advance,  and  the  total  (1902)  of 
330,772  volumes  distributed  since  1876  shows  the 
seed  sown. 

The  Agency  for  Venezuela  and  Colombia,  which 
has  its  headquarters  at  Bucaramanga,  Colombia, 
is  probably  the  most  difficult  field  occupied  by 
the  Society.  The  continued  revolutions,  with 
the  consequent  disturbance  of  economic  and 
social  conditions;  the  rigid  censorship,  making  it 
impossible  for  the  agent  to  report  fully  and  freely, 
have  (1902)  hampered  severely.  Yet,  even 
under  such  conditions,  more  than  90,000  Scrip- 
tures were  circulated  in  thirteen  years;  and  with 
the  establishment  of  peace  and  the  opening  of 
the  Panama  canal,  great  advance  is  looked  for. 

Central  America  :  This  agency  covers  all  the 
States  of  Central  America  and  has  its  headquar- 
ters at  Guatemala  City,  Guatemala.  The  present 
agent  (Rev.  F.  G.  Penzotti)  had  a  long  and  most 
trying  experience  in  Bible  work  in  South  Amer- 
ica, and  the  circulation  of  over  94,000  volumes 
in  nine  years,  mostly  in  Spanish,  is  witness  to 
his  activity  and  success. 

Mexico:  From  his  headquarters  at  Mexico  City, 
the  agent  of  the  Bible  Society  superintends  the 


work  both  in  Mexico  and  along  the  frontier  in 
Texas.  In  no  agency  has  there  been  more  of 
individual  labor,  and  special  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  work  of  Miss  Melinda  Rankin  on  the 
Texan  border  in  1852  and  later.  The  circulation 
is  chiefly  in  Spanish,  and  during  the  twenty-three 
years  from  the  founding  of  the  agency,  numbered 
over  408,000  volumes. 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico:  The  headquarters  of  these 
two  agencies  are  at  Havana  and  San  Juan.  The 
circulation  in  both  is  chiefly  in  Spanish  and 
amounted  in  Cuba  in  nineteen  years  to  98,000 
volumes,  and  in  Porto  Rico  in  three  years  to 
about  10,000,  while  in  1902,  as  many  more  were 
circulated. 

The  Levant:  The  prominent  part  taken  by 
American  missionary  societies  in  the  Levant  ha's 
marked  it  from  the  first  as  a  special  field  of  the 
American  Bible  Society.  The  agency  was  at 
first  somewhat  undefined  in  extent,  but  included 
in  general  the  entire  Turkish  Empire,  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  with  Greece  and  Persia,  while 
a  general  superintendence  of  southern  Russia  and 
the  Caucasus  was  conducted  from  the  headquar- 
ters at  Constantinople.  Northern  Africa,  west  of 
Egypt,  was  dropped;  Greece  was  handed  over  to 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society;  Persia  was 
for  a  few  years  made  a  separate  agency,  and  the 
share  of  the  American  Society  in  Russia  was  con- 
fined to  assistance  rendered  to  the  Russian  Bible 
Society.  At  present  the  agency  includes  Bul- 
garia, European  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  Mesopo- 
tamia, Syria,  Egypt,  and  the  Sudan.  The 
agent's  office  is  at  the  Bible  House,  Constanti- 
nople, and  there  are  subagents  at  Beirut  and 
Alexandria. 

Few  agencies  reach  so  great  a  number  of  races 
and  languages.  The  Scriptures  are  sold  in 
Arabic,  Turkish  (printed  in  three  characters — 
Arabic,  Armenian,  and  Greek),  Armenian  (An- 
cient, Ararat,  and  Modern),  Greek  (Ancient  and 
Modern),  Kurdish,  Persian,  Syriac  (Ancient  and 
Modern),  Hebrew,  Judeo-Spanish,  Bulgarian, 
Slavic,  Rumanian,  Croatian,  Russian,  besides  all 
the  languages  of  Europe. 

One  characteristic  feature  of  this  agency  is  that 
the  great  majority  of  the  Scriptures  distributed 
in  it  are  manufactured  at  the  Bible  House,  Con- 
stantinople, and  the  Presbyterian  Mission  Press 
at  Beirut.  The  work  done  at  both  places  com- 
pares very  favorably  with  the  best  work  in  the 
United  States.  Special  versions  have  been  pre- 
pared, some  of  them  of  the  whole  Bible,  as  the 
Arabic,  Turkish,  Armenian,  Bulgarian;  others  of 
portions  in  special  dialects.  These  have  been 
printed  in  numerous  editions  to  suit  the  taste  of 
every  class  of  men,  from  the  Turkish  or  Christian 
ecclesiastic  to  the  poorest  day  laborer.  The  total 
circulation  of  nearly  2,000,000  copies  has  been 
almost  entirely  by  sale,  the  prices,  however,  being 
placed  within  the  reach  of  the  people,  with  com- 
paratively little  regard  to  the  cost  of  the  book. 
Thus  a  Bible  in  plain  binding,  which  costs  the 
Society  $2  for  printing  and  binding  alone,  is  sold 
for  60  cents. 

In  Persia  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
occupies  the  southern  portion  of  the  field,  and 
the  American  Society's  work  in  Northern  Persia 
is  conducted  through  the  Presbyterian  Mission. 

China:  The  first  regular  agent  of  the  American 
Bible  Society  to  China  was  Rev.  Luther  H. 
Gulick,  M.D.,  who  was  appointed  in  1876.  A 
son  of  a  veteran  missionary  to  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,    and    himself    connected    with    mission 


American    Bible 
American  Board 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


26 


work  in  Micronesia,  and  afterward  in  Italy  and 
Spain,  lie  proved  admirably  adapted  to  the  work 
of  organization  that  devolved  upon  him.  Japan 
was  also  at  first  included  with  China  under  Dr. 
Gulick's  care,  but  was,  in  1881,  made  a  distinct 
agency,  and  Siam  was  added,  but  was  itself  also 
made  independent  in  1889. 

The  flexibility  that  has  marked  the  conduct  of 
the  Society's  work  is  illustrated  in  China,  where 
the  entire  agency  is  divided  into  six  colporteur 
districts,  each  under  the  care  of  a  foreign  superin- 
tendent to  whom  the  native  colporteurs  report, 
while  the  general  agent  has  his  headquarters  at 
Shanghai. 

As  was  natural,  the  first  efforts  of  the  agency 
were  put  forth  in  the  line  of  Bible  translation,  and 
as  fast  as  portions  could  be  prepared  they  were 
offered  for  sale.  The  number  of  copies  sent  out 
from  two  of  the  three  presses  dunng  the  first 
year  was  39,371,  of  which  over  33,000  were  por- 
tions. This  number  was  nearly  doubled  the  next 
year,  and  in  1901  the  total  circulation  was 
428,927,  including  12,341  Bibles,  32,334  Testa- 
ments and  384,252  portions;  and  this  was  a 
considerable  falling  off  from  the  previous  year 
owing  to  the  Boxer  outbreak. 

The  work  of  translation  still  continues,  the 
different  missionary  societies  uniting  with  the 
British  and  Foreign,  Scotch  National,  and  Ameri- 
can Bible  Societies  to  secure  as  great  uniformity 
and  accuracy  as  possible.  The  manufacture  is 
carried  on  chiefly  at  Shanghai,  but  also  at 
Fuchau  and  at  Yokohama,  in  Japan.  A  concep- 
tion of  the  work  will  be  gained  from  the  following 
table  of  publications  in  1901 : 

Place  of 
Publication.  Dial  C;.  Book.         Volumes.    Pag^.^. 

Shanghai.    Mandarin New  Test . .       .5,000     2,750,000 

Genesis 20,000     2,160,000 

Matthew...    40,600     2,764,000 

Mark 40,000     1,760,000 

Luke 40,600     3,008,000 

John 40,000     2,320,000 

Acts 40,000     2,880,000 

Classical New  Test . .       2,000        580,000 

Matthew...  500  25,000 

Shanghai  Colloq...Gen.-Ruth  .500        211,600 

Soochow        "         Gen.-Ruth  500        211,500 

Tuchau,       Classical Bible 3,000     3,576,000 

Fuchau  Colloquial  New  Test . .      6,000     5,118,000 

Mark 3,000        228,000 

Yokohama,Mandarin Bible 6,000     6,410,000 

New  Test..     12,000     6,600,000 

Psalms....      6,000        756,000 

Canton  Colloquial.  New  Test. .       2,000     1,136,000 
Classical New  Test . .      7,000     4,608,000 

Total 273,700  48,102,000 

An  interesting  and  significant  fact  in  Bible 
work  in  China  was  the  interest  taken  in  it  by 
the  young  Emperor  and  the  preparation  and 
presentation  to  the  Empress  Dowager  of  a  mag- 
nificent copy  of  the  Scriptures  in  1899. 

Japan  and  Korea:  On  receiving  information  in 
1872  that  a  Japanese  version  of  some  of  the  Gos- 
pels was  nearly  complete,  the  Society  promptly 
made  a  grant  to  promote  its  publication.  It  sub- 
sequently assumed  the  support  of  Drs.  S.  R. 
Brown  and  D.  C.  Greene,  and  bore  a  considerable 
part  of  the  expense  of  translating  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  appeared  in  parts  and  was  com- 
pleted in  1880.  The  next  year  Japan  was  made 
a  separate  agency,  and  was  so  conducted  until 
1890,  when  the  narrowness  of  the  field  and  the 
peculiar  intermingling  of  interests  led  to  an 
arrangement  between  the  American  Bible  Society, 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  the 
National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland  to  act  in  uni- 
son,  apportioning  the  territory  between  them, 


and  acting  under  a  general  Bible  Society's  Com- 
mittee consisting  of  six  missionaries  appointed 
by  the  American  Bible  Society,  four  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and  two  by  the 
National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland.  The  Ameri- 
can Society  is  represented  by  an  agent  residing  at 
Yokohama.  The  work  done  is  indicated  by  the 
figures  of  circulation  in  1901:  5,505  Bibles; 
27,615  Tests.;  148,372  portions;  total,  181,492. 
It  is  notable  that  nearly  one-third  of  the  Bibles 
and  Testaments  were  in  English.  Of  the  total, 
about  one-half  was  assigned  to  the  American 
Society. 

The  work  in  Korea,  under  the  general  care  of 
the  agent  at  Yokohama,  is  as  yet  not  fully 
organized.  The  work  of  translation  is  still  going 
on  and  the  distribution  is  for  the  most  part 
under  the  care  of  the  missionaries. 

Siam  and  Laos:  Bible  work  in  Siam  was  for 
many  years  carried  on  by  the  missionaries  of  the 
PN  under  the  general  direction  of  Dr.  Guliek; 
but  as  the  work  enlarged  both  in  China  and  Siam, 
a  division  became  necessary,  especially  as  the 
advance  included  the  Laos  people  on  the  north. 
The  headquarters  of  the  agent  are  at  Bangkok, 
where  also  most  of  the  printing  is  done.  From 
the  organization  in  1890  to  1902  the  circulation 
was  282,954,  the  last  year  showing  37,216,  an 
advance  of  5,484  over  the  previous  year.  Of 
these,  the  great  majority,  32,521,  were  Siamese, 
3,615  Chinese,  942  Laos,  the  remainder  Tamil, 
Cambodian,  Malay  and  English. 

Philip-pine  Islands:  This  latest  agency  of  the 
Society  was  established  in  1899,  and  covers  the 
entire  archipelago.  The  agent's  office  is  in 
Manila.  The  circulation  for  the  first  year  was, 
naturally,  small,  but  the  second  year  rose  to 
52,793,  and  in  1902  to  91,260.  The  New  Testa- 
ment in  Tagalog  has  been  completed  by  the 
BFBS,  which  had  commenced  the  translation 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish  War.  As 
yet  only  the  Gospels  have  been  translated  into 
Pampanga  and  Ilocano,  but  the  work  is  going  on 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  printing  is  done  in 
Japan. 

The  total  issues  of  the  Society  for  the  year 
1902  were  1,993,558,  of  which  734,649  were  dis- 
tributed in  the  United  States  (including  Porto 
Rico  and  Hawaii),  and  1,258,909  copies  in  foreign 
lands.  The  total  issues  of  the  Society  in  87 
years  amounted  to  72,670,783  copies. 
The  Bible  Society  Record,  an  illustrated  monthly,  is  the 
Society's  official  organ. 

AMERICAN  BOARD  OF  COMMISSIONERS 
FOR  FOREIGN  MISSIONS: 

/.  History:  In  1806  Samuel  J.  Mills,  with 
three  other  students  of  Williams  College,  fled 
for  refuge  from  a  thunder  storm  to  the  shelter 
of  a  hay-stack,  and  while  waiting  there  pledged 
themselves  to  the  work  of  foreign  missions. 
Later  they  entered  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary. In  1810  Samuel  J.  Mills,  Gordon  Hall, 
Adoniram  Judson,  Samuel  Newell  and  Samuel 
Nott,  students  in  the  Seminary,  conferred  with 
the  faculty,  and  a  number  of  prominent  min- 
isters, in  the  home  of  Professor  M.  Stuart, 
and  were  counseled,  "Go  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord,  and  we  will  help."  The  next  day  two  of 
these  ministers,  Drs.  S.  Spring  and  S.  Wor- 
cester, outlined  a  plan  for  organizing  the  Amer- 
ican Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, which  three  days  later,  on  the  twenty- 
ninth  of  June,  was  adopted  by  the  General  Asso- 
ciation  of   Congregational   Churches   of    Massa- 


27 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


American  Bible 
American    Board 


chusetts  at  Bradford,  Mass.,  and  on  September 
5,  1810,  at  Farmington,  Conn.,  a  constitution 
was  adopted  and  officers  were  elected.  Dr. 
Worcester,  the  first  secretary,  prepared  an  ad- 
dress to  the  churches,  and  every  effort  was 
made  to  arouse  interest  in  the  new  enterprise. 
The  following  year  (1811)  Judson  was  sent  to 
England  to  confer  with  the  London  Missionary 
Society  as  to  the  advisability  of  cooperation, 
but  the  distance  between  the  two  organizations 
was  deemed  to  make  this  inadvisable  and  he 
returned.  In  September  of  the  same  year 
Burma  was  selected  as  a  promising  field  for  the 
first  enterprise  of  the  Board.  Owing  to  financial 
straits,  it  seemed  unwise  to  attempt  anything 
beyond  what  the  actual  cash  on  hand  would 
warrant,  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  Prudential 
Committee,  January  27,  1812,  there  was  at 
first  but  one  vote — probably  Dr.  Worcester's — 
in  favor  of  pledging  the  support  of  the  men 
already  appointed,  but  that  one  vote  carried 
the  day.  It  was  decided  to  trust  God,  it  was 
His  work,  and  go  forward,  believing  that  the 
funds  would  be  obtained.  From  this  principle 
the  Board  has  never  departed. 

By  a  special  effort  six  thousand  dollars  was 
collected,  and  on  February  6,  1812,  Messrs. 
Judson,  Hall,  Newell,  Nott  and  L.  Rice  were 
ordained  at  Salem,  Mass.,  and  before  the  end  of 
the  month  Messrs.  Judson  and  Newell,  with  their 
wives,  sailed  from  Salem,  and  Messrs.  Hall,  Rice 
and  Nott,  with  Mrs.  Nott,  from  Philadelphia, 
for  Calcutta. 

The  work  thus  being  fairly  inaugurated,  the 
next  step  was  to  secure  a  charter  from  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature.  This  met  with  some 
opposition,  but  at  length  on  the  20th  of  June, 
the  charter  was  granted,  and  the  American 
Board  had  a  legal  existence. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  founders  of  the 
Board  anticipated  the  support  of  other  than 
Congregational  churches,  but  at  its  second 
meeting  in  1811,  a  proposition  was  made  to  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
for  the  organization  of  a  similar  society  with 
which  the  Board  might  cooperate.  The  Assem- 
bly declined  to  do  this,  but  recommended  the 
Presbyterian  churches  to  work  through  the 
American  Board.  Accordingly  at  the  next 
meeting  of  the  Board,  in  1812,  eight  commis- 
sioners were  added  to  represent  the  Presbyterian 
Church.  In  1814  the  number  of  Commissioners 
was  increased  by  one  number  from  the  Associate 
Reformed  Church,  in  1816,  by  one  from  the 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  and  later  one  from 
the  Reformed  German  Church  was  added  to  the 
Board. 

In  1825  a  proposition  was  made  by  the  United 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  (Presbyterian), 
formed  in  1817  for  work  among  the  Indians, 
for  union  with  the  American  Board.  This 
was  cordially  endorsed  by  the  General  Assembly, 
and  for  twelve  years  the  Board  represented 
officially  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1837, 
on  the  separation  between  the  Old  and  New 
Schools,  the  former  withdrew  from  support  of 
the  Board,  and  adopted  the  Western  Foreign 
Missionary  Society,  formed  in  1812,  as  their 
own  organization.  The  New  School  branch  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  continued  to  work  with 
the  American  Board  until  1870,  when  they  with- 
drew to  support  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
of  the  reunited  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1857 
the    Reformed    Dutch    Church    established    its 


own  Board;  the  next  year  the  Associate  Re- 
formed Presbyterians  became  a  part  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church,  and  took  up  a 
distinct  work;  and  in  1865  the  Reformed  Ger- 
man Church  did  the  same,  so  that  since  1870 
the  Board  has  practically  represented  Congre- 
gationalists  alone. 

The  ABCFM  now  (1902)  has  in  the  different 
fields  an  aggregate  of  549  American  mission- 
aries, 3,581  trained  Christian  native  workers, 
524  churches  with  55,645  communicants,  14 
theological  schools,  118  boarding  and  high 
schools,  with  10,895  students,  1,134  other  schools 
with  46,149  pupils.  Contributions  from  mis- 
sionary fields  in  the  year  ending  in  July,  1902, 
were  $167,512;  in  America,  $677,593.85;  total 
receipts,  $845,105.85. 

Coordinate  with  the  growth  of  the  Board 
itself  has  been  that  of  its  great  auxiliaries,  the 
three  Woman's  Boards.  As  far  back  as  1812 
several  missionary  associations  of  women  aided 
the  ABCFM,  and  these  were  gradually  so  system- 
atized that  in  1839  there  were  no  less  than 
680  with  nearly  3,000  local  agents. 

In  1868,  the  Woman's  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions was  organized,  auxiliary  to  the  American 
Board.  At  first  the  formation  of  an  inter- 
denominational society  was  contemplated.  On 
the  first  Tuesday  of  January,  1868,  about  forty 
ladies  met  in  Boston,  and  a  proposition  of  the 
American  Board  for  cooperation  with  it  was 
submitted  to  them,  and  a  resolution  was  adopted 
"to  cooperate  with  the  American  Board  in  its 
several  departments  of  labor  for  the  benefit  of 
our  sex  in  heathen  lands."  Committees  of 
ladies  were  appointed  to  prepare  a  constitution 
and  list  of  officers;  and  on  the  ensuing  week, 
at  the  same  place,  the  New  England  Women's 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  was  organized. 

By  the  special  request  of  leading  members  of 
other  denominational  Boards,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  original  plan  of  union  of  evangelical 
sects,  the  first  article  of  the  constitution  was 
adopted  as  follows: — 

"The  object  of  this  Society  is  to  engage  the 
earnest,  systematic  cooperation  of  the  women 
of  New  England,  with  the  existing  Boards  for 
Foreign  Missions,  in  sending  out  and  supporting 
unmarried  female  missionaries  and  teachers  to 
heathen  women." 

While  there  was  to  be  union  under  the  organ- 
ization, in  conference,  prayer,  and  the  home 
department  of  work,  the  treasurer  was  to  keep 
a  denominational  account,  crediting  each  relig- 
ious body  composing  the  union  with  the  sums 
received  from  its  constituents,  and  paying  the 
aggregate  amount  to  the  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  with  which  it  was  connected. 

In  September  of  the  same  year  the  constitu- 
tion was  altered,  and  the  work  of  the  Society 
was  limited  to  the  fields  of  the  American  Board. 
The  restriction  of  work  to  New  England  was  also 
removed,  by  changing  the  name  to  The  Woman-'s 
Board  of  Missions,  whereby  ladies  in  any  part 
of  the  land  in  sympathy  with  the  American 
Board  could  become  auxiliary  to  its  work. 

The  following  year  the  Woman's  Board  was 
incorporated  by  the  Legislature  of  Massachu- 
setts. Auxiliaries  were  formed  among  the 
women  of  the  churches,  and  these  were  gath- 
ered into  "Branches"  having  regularly  ap- 
pointed officers,  constitutions,  etc.,  each  com- 
prising not  less  than  20  auxiliaries  and  mission 
circles. 


American  Board 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


28 


During  the  first  year  the  support  of  7  mis- 
sionaries and  11  Bible  women  was  assumed. 
The  field  of  work  has  been  extended  gradually 
until  the  support  of  all  single  and  some  married 
women,  of  girls'  boarding  and  day  schools,  of 
primary  schools  in  part,  of  kindergarten  worlv 
and  of  all  Bible  women  laboring  in  the  fields  of 
the  ABCFM  ia  now  provided  by  the  Woman's 
Boards,  which  also  sustain  an  extensive  medical 
work. 

There  are  (1902)  24  branches  with  1,136 
senior  and  573  junior  auxiliaries  and  mission 
circles,  and  221  cradle  rolls,  a  total  of  1,930 
organizations,  which  hold,  upon  an  average,  as 
many  as  12,000  meetings  yearly.  Christian 
Endeavor  Societies,  King's  Daughters  and  Sun- 
day Schools  are  affiliated.  The  Woman's  Board 
of  Missions  now  has  131  missionaries  in  18  fields; 
33  girls'  boarding  schools,  300  day  schools,  200 
Bible  women.  Its  annual  receipts  are  $139,- 
607.22. 

The  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Interior, 
also  organized  in  1868,  and  embracing  the  sixteen 
States  of  the  interior  and  northwest,  has  its 
headquarters  at  1.53  LaSalle  Street,  Chicago. 
It  publishes  a  monthly  magazine.  Mission 
Studies,  and  provides  a  department  in  Life  and 
Light  for  Woman.  The  whole  number  ot 
societies  contributing  last  year  was  2,320,  of 
which  1,154  were  seniors,  102  young  ladies,  542 
Christian  Endeavor  societies,  and  522  children's 
societies,  including  Junior  Christian  Endeavor, 
mission  bands,  Sunday-schools,  and  wee  folks' 
bands. 

It  supports  72  missionaries,  70  native  Bible 
women,  136  native  teachers,  2  colleges,  17 
boarding  schools,  2  training  schools  for  Bible 
women,  a  kindergarten  training  school,  and  a 
large  number  of  village  and  day  schools;  also 
evangelistic  and  medical  work.  Receipts, 
$80,820.01. 

The  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Pacific 
was  organized  in  1873,  and  has  five  branches — 
Northern  California,  Southern  California,  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  TJtah.  It  supports  five  mis- 
sionaries, and  helps  in  educational  and  medical 
work  in  India,  China,  and  Japan.  Receipts, 
$6,090.83. 

//.  Constitution  and  Organization  :  The 
ABCFM  is  a  company  incorporated  under  the 
laws  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  U.  S.  A., 
"for  the  purpose  of  propagating  the  Gospel  in 
heathen  lands  by  supporting  missionaries  and 
diffusing  a  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures." 
It  is  composed  of  corporate  members,  of  whom 
one-third  are  by  law  laymen,  one-third  clergy- 
men, and  the  remaining  third  may  be  chosen 
from  either  of  these  two  classes.  It  is  self-per- 
petuating, having  full  and  sole  power  to  fill  all 
vacancies  in  its  own  body,  elect  officers,  and  to 
gave  final  decision  on  all  matters  relating  to  the 
management  of  the  missions  under  its  charge. 
It  has  no  ecclesiastical  character  or  relations, 
no  organic  connections  with  any  church  or  body 
of  churches,  and  is  legally  amenable  to  no 
authority  except  that  of  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  of  Massachusetts,  and  to  that  only  if  it 
violates  the  terms  of  its  charter.  There  has 
been,  however,  of  late  years  an  increasing  desire 
on  the  part  of  the  Congregational  churches  for 
closer,  if  not  organic  relations  with  the  Board, 
and  this  has  been  recognized  and  met  by  the 
Board  itself.  The  number  of  corporate  mem- 
bers was  increased  to   350,   and  again  to   500. 


Efforts  have  been  made  to  secure  uniform 
representation  from  the  different  parts  of  the 
country,  based  in  general  on  the  proportion  of 
annual  contributions  from  each  section.  Nom- 
inations to  membership  in  the  Board  are  made 
by  the  various  State  Conferences  or  Associations, 
the  Board  itself  reserving  the  right  of  election. 
The  regular  meetings  of  the  Board  are  held  in 
different  sections  of  the  country,  in  the  month 
of  October  of  each  year. 

The  actual  business  of  the  Board  is  entrusted 
to  a  Prudential  Committee  consisting  of  the 
President  and  Vice-president  ex  officio,  and 
twelve  members,  six  ministers  and  six  laymen. 
The  executive  officers  are  three  Secretaries,  an 
Editorial  Secretary,  and  a  Treasurer.  The 
offices  occupied  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  Board's 
history  were  generally  small  rooms  in  tenement 
houses,  except  in  1820-21,  when  they  were  in 
the  basement  of  Lyman  Beecher's  Church  in 
Hanover  Street.  For  many  years  they  were  at 
33  Pemberton  Sq.,  the  property  of  the  Board. 
They  are  now  in  the  Congregational  House,  14 
Beacon  Street,  Boston. 

///.  Development  of  Foreign  Work:  The  two 
missionary  parties  that  sailed  for  Calcutta  in  1812 
had  Burma  for  their  objective  point,  but  the  hos- 
tility of  the  East  India  Company  and  a  change  of 
views  on  baptism  by  Messrs.  Judson  and  Rice 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Marathi  Mis- 
sion at  Bombay  in  1813.  The  next  step,  in  1816, 
to  Ceylon,  where  Newell  and  his  wife  had  visited, 
was  a  natural  one.  Meanwhile  the  interest  grew, 
and  mindful  of  the  need  of  the  heathen  nearer 
home,  the  Board  sent  an  exploring  committee 
through  Georgia  and  Alabama,  whose  report 
resulted  in  missions  to  the  Cherokees,  in  1817, 
and  to  the  Choctaws,  in  1818.  In  1825  several 
missions  started  by  the  United  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society  were  transferred  to  the  Board,  and  in 
1830-35  several  other  tribes  were  brought  within 
the  scope  of  their  work. 

Attention  was  then  turned  to  the  Levant.  In 
1819,  Pliny  Fisk  and  Levi  Parsons  landed  at 
Malta,  then  removed  to  Smyrna,  and  from  there 
visited  Palestine,  Alexandria,  Syria  and  Cyprus. 
These  visits  and  the  translation  and  press-work 
done  at  Malta  and  Smyrna  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  missions  to  Syria,  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Persia, 
Greece  and  Bulgaria. 

Simultaneously  with  the  sailing  of  Fisk  and 
Parsons  for  the  Levant,  Bingham  and  Thurston, 
with  several  associates,  set  sail  for  the  Hawaiian 
Islands. 

The  ten  years  from  1819  to  1829  were  chiefly 
spent  in  strengthening  the  work  already  com- 
menced; but  then  again  the  impulse  forward 
could  not  be  resisted.  Bridgman  and  Abeel 
sailed  for  Canton  and  Eli  Smith  and  Dwight  con- 
ducted a  grand  exploring  tour  through  Asiatic 
Turkey  and  Persia,  which  resulted  in  the  com- 
mencement, in  1831,  of  the  station  at  Constanti- 
nople, the  general  enlargement  of  work  among 
the  Armenians  throughout  Asia  Minor,  and  the 
establishment,  in  1834,  of  the  mission  to  the  Nes- 
torians  at  Persia.  The  struggle  of  the  Greeks  for 
national  existence  had  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  Christian  world,  and  in  1831  Jonas  King  com- 
menced a  station  at  Athens.  Abeel's  journey 
from  Canton  to  Singapore  and  Bangkok  resulted 
m  the  formal  opening  of  mission  work  in  those 
places  two  and  three  years  later.  The  slavery 
question  and  the  efforts  of  the  colonization  soci- 
eties had  excited  much  interest  in  Africa,  hardly 


89 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


American    Board 


yet  known  even  as  the  Dark  Continent,  and  the 
Gaboon  mission  on  the  West  Coast  was  started 
at  Cape  Palmas  in  1834,  and  that  to  the  Zulus 
in  Southeastern  Africa  in  1835,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  bequest  of  Asa  Otis,  amounting  ulti- 
mately to  over  a  million  dollars,  that  the  ABCFM 
felt_  able  to  undertake  work  in  other  parts  of 
Africa. 

The  early  growth  of  the  missions  was  rapid, 
new  fields  ever  opening  before  the  Board.  In 
1834  work  was  begun  in  Madura,  India;  in  1836, 
Eastern  Turkey;  in  1847,  Central  Turkey  and 
Fuehau,  China.  Assyria  was  occupied  in  1851; 
Micronesia  in  1852;  North  China  in  1854;  Euro- 
pean Turkey  in  1859;  Japan  in  1869;  Bulgaria  in 
1871.  In  1872  the  Board  consented  to  under- 
take the  care  of  the  fields  of  the  American  and 
Foreign  Christian  Union  in  Papal  Lands,  and 
adopted  the  missions  in  Spain,  Austria,  Italy  and 
Mexico.  In  1880  it  entered  West  Central  Africa; 
in  1882  Shan-si,  China;  in  1883  East  Central 
Africa;  and  in  1902  the  Philippine  Islands. 

In  1857  the  Amoy  Mission  in  China  and  the 
Arcot  Mission  in  India  were  transferred  to  the 
care  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America,  and 
in  1860  the  Assyrian  Mission  was  merged  in  that 
of  Eastern  Turkey;  in  1870  the  Persian,  Syrian 
and  Gaboon  Missions,  and  two  of  the  Indian  Mis- 
sions were  transferred  to  the  reunited  Presby- 
terian Church;  the  other  missions  to  the  North 
American  Indians  were  either  developed  into 
self-supporting  churches  or  transferred  to  other 
societies;  in  1871  the  Hawaiian  Islands  practi- 
cally assumed  self-support. 

IV.  The  Missions  of  the  Board;  1.  Marathi 
Mission:  Driven  from  Calcutta,  on  their  arrival  in 
1812,  and  deprived  of  their  associates,  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Nott  and  Mr.  Hall,  after  many  trials,  estab- 
lished themselves  at  Bombay  in  1813  They 
found  the  Governor,  Sir  Evan  Nepeau,  a  warm 
friend,  a  vice-president  of  the  BFBS,  and  imme- 
diately began  to  preach,  and  set  about  the  work 
of  preparing  a  translation  of  the  Bible  and  other 
Christian  literature,  and  opened  schools.  Other 
missionaries  were  sent  to  join  them  and  new  sta- 
tions were  opened.  The  first  convert  was  Kader 
Yar  Khan,  a  Muslim,  baptized  in  1869.  The 
first  church  was  organized  at  Bombay  in  1826 
and  the  first  pastor  ordained  in  1854.  The  mis- 
sion has  suffered  from  the  famines  1876-8  and 
1896-7  and  from  the  bubonic  plague 

The  mission  has  (1902)  8  stations  and  124  out- 
stations;  42  American  missionaries;  553  native 
workers;  54  churches  with  5,607  communicants; 
185  Sabbath  schools;  20  schools  for  higher  educa- 
tion with  3,597  pupils;  156  common  schools,  and 
the  grand  total  under  Christian  instruction  in  the 
mission  is  9,093.  Industrial  and  medical  work 
are  carried  on;  orphanages  and  widows'  homes 
have  been  established;  Christian  Endeavor  Soci- 
eties flourish;  the  Dnyanodaya,  a  weekly  paper, 
and  the  Balbodh  Mewa,  a  monthly  illustrated 
magazine  for  young  people,  are  issued  regularly. 

2.  Ceylon:  In  1813  Mr.  Newell  had  urged  the 
occupation  of  Ceylon,  and  in  1816  Messrs.  Rich- 
ards, Meigs  and  Poor  reached  Jaffna,  followed  by 
Messrs.  Spaulding,  Woodward,  Myron,  Winslow 
and  John  Scudder.  The  Ceylon  Mission  began  at 
Battycotta  and  Tillipally  in  the  ruins  of  Portu- 
guese churches  older  than  the  settlement  of 
America,  and  at  Oodooville  in  the  residence  of  an 
ancient  Franciscan  friar.  From  the  very  first 
great  attention  was  paid  to  education  and  the 
preparation  of  literature.     In   1826   Battycotta 


Seminary  and  Oodooville  Female  Boarding 
School  were  established,  and  in  1872  Jaffna  Col- 
lege, which  in  1895  organized  the  first  college 
Association  in  the  mission  field.  The  work  in 
Ceylon  has  been  among  the  Tamils,  and  from  the 
first  the  spiritual  development  has  been  notice- 
able. 

There  are  now  (1902)  in  this  mission  6  sta- 
tions and  31  outstations;  13  American  mission- 
aries; 412  native  workers;  18  churches  with 
2,100  communicants;  5  schools  for  higher  educa- 
tion; 136  common  schools,  and  the  aggregate  of 
those  under  Christian  instruction  is  11,039. 
Jaffna  College  with  108  pupils  is  independent  of 
the  mission,  but  is  in  close  relations  with  it.  It  is 
affiliated  to  Calcutta  University.  The  churches 
have  a  native  Evangelical  Society  for  Home  Mis- 
sions, while  a  Students'  Foreign  Mission  Society 
and  a  Woman's  Society  each  support  a  mission- 
ary in  Madura.  The  Christian  Endeavor  and 
YMCA  also  do  good  work. 

3.  Madura:  In  1834  the  Ceylon  Mission  sent 
Levi  Spaulding  to  learn  the  condition  of  the 
Tamils  of  Soutliern  India  and  the  result  was  the 
establishment  of  the  American  Board's  Madura 
Mission.  The  population  of  over  2,000,000  was 
overwhelmingly  Hindu  and  largely  of  the  weaver 
caste.  The  bitter  hostility  to  the  missionaries 
as  the  "pariahs"  of  the  white  people  was  met  by 
the  marked  courtesy  of  the  English,  and  largely 
overcome  by  the  vigorous  educational  policy 
carried  through  by  Mr.  Poor.  The  most  impor- 
tant educational  institution,  Pasumalai  College 
and  Training  Institute,  was  opened  in  1842  at 
Tirumangalam,  but  three  years  later  was  moved 
to  Pasumalai,  near  Madura  City.  It  has  steadily 
increased  in  grade  and  expects  to  be  affiliated  to 
Madras  University.  Medical  work,  industrial 
training  and  publication  of  literature  are  carried 
on  effectively.  The  Madura  Mission  has  (1902) 
11  stations  and  355  outstations;  35  American 
missionaries;  645  native  workers;  38  churches 
with  5,036  communicants;  268  Sabbath  schools 
with  7643  pupils ;  16  schools  for  higher  education ; 
192  other  schools,  and  the  aggregate  under  Chris- 
tian instruction  in  the  mission  is  8,059.  The 
Christian  Endeavor  and  YMCA  are  flourishing 
institutions.  The  mission  has  a  printing  house  at 
Pasumalai,  from  which  two  periodicals  are  issued. 

4.  Madras:  In  1836  Messrs.  Winslow  and  Scud- 
der established  at  Madras  a  printing  house  for 
works  in  the  Tamil  language.  There  was  cordial 
cooperation  with  the  missionaries  of  the  LMS  and 
the  work  grew  until,  by  1842, 53,180,467  pages  had 
been  printed,  and  the  press  was  able  not  only  to 
refund  the  purchase  money,  but  to  pay  all  ex- 
penses and  to  aid  the  general  mission  work  by  its 
profits.  The  death  of  Dr.  Scudder  in  1855,  the 
removal  of  Mr.  Winslow  in  1864,  the  entrance  of 
other  societies  led  to  the  transfer  of  the  press  to 
other  hands  and  the  close  of  the  station  in  1866. 

5.  Arcot:  The  Arcot  Mission  was  commenced  by 
Dr.  H.  M.  Scudder  in  1850,  in  connection  with  the 
Madras  Mission  of  the  ABCFM,  but  in  1858  was 
transferred  to  the  care  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America. 

6.  Sumatra:  Messrs.  Munson  and  Lyman  with 
their  wives  sailed  in  1833  to  explore  the  East 
Indian  Archipelago;  they  reached  Batavia  in 
September. 

Leaving  their  wives  they  proceeded  to  Tapan- 
uli  in  Sumatra,  and  from  there  went  to  visit  the 
Battas  of  the  interior,  arriving  at  the  village  of 
Saooa  in  June,  1834.     A  petty  war  was  in  prog- 


American  Board 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


3a 


ress  and  both  fell  victims  to  the  rage  of  the  com- 
batants. When  it  became  known  that  tlie 
strangers  were  good  men  who  had  come  to  help 
the  people,  the  neighboring  villages  leagued 
together  and  laid  Sacca  waste.  A  thick  jungle 
covers  the  spot,  and  even  the  name  has  passed 
from  the  place.     The  mission  was  not  resumed. 

7.  Siam:  In  1831  David  Abeel  commenced 
work  at  Bangkok,  finding  a  friendly  reception 
from  the  Portuguese  Consul,  but  great  hostility 
on  the  part  of  the  King.  He  was,  however,  com- 
pelled to  leave  by  ill  health.  Three  years  later 
reenforcements  were  sent  to  carry  on  the  work, 
but  found  Mr.  Abeel's  converts  organized  into  a 
church  by  a  missionary  of  the  ABMU.  They 
remained  for  a  time,  devoting  themselves  largely 
to  education  and  the  preparation  of  literature, 
but  with  the  entrance  of  other  societies  the  work 
of  the  ABCFM  was  dropped  in  Siam  in  1850. 

8.  Singapore:  Work  was  begun  in  1834  as  a  cen- 
tral point  from  which  to  reach  southeastern  Asia 
and  the  adjacent  islands,  but  the  decision  of  the 
Government  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  to  exclude 
all  but  missionaries  sent  from  Holland  defeated 
the  plan,  and  the  mission  was  closed  in  1844. 

9.  Borneo:  This  mission,  undertaken  in  1836, 
was  composed  of  members  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church  of  America  and  derived  its  sup- 
port through  the  American  Board  from  that 
denomination.  Efforts  were  directed  specially 
to  the  Chinese  and  Dyaks.  Many  difficulties 
were  encountered,  both  from  the  nature  ofthe 
field  and  from  the  objections  of  Dutch  officials. 
The  missionaries  labored  faithfully  until  1848, 
when  failure  of  health  compelled  those  then  in 
charge  to  withdraw,  and  the  failure  to  find 
recruits  caused  the  mission  to  be  discontinued. 

10.  Hawaiian  {Sandwich)  Islands:  In  1779 
these  islands  were  brought  into  notice  through 
the  murder  of  Capt.  Cook,  and  again,  in  1809, 
when  Henry  Obookiah  came  to  New  Haven  with 
two  other  Hawaiian  boys,  who  were  converted  in 
1813.  In  1819  Hiram  Bingham,  Asa  Thurston 
and  others  were  sent  to  Hawaii  as  missionaries  of 
the  ABCFM,  arriving  March  31,  1820.  Their 
arrival  was  opportune.  The  people  had  revolted 
against  the  tabu,  destroyed  the  idols  and  their 
temples,  and  discarded  for  the  moment  their  old 
religion.  Four  years  later  the  principal  chiefs 
agreed  to  recognize  the  Sabbath,  and  the  ten 
commandments  were  adopted  as  the  basis  of 
government.  In  eight  years  there  were  445 
native  teachers  connected  with  the  mission  and 
26,000  pupils  in  mission  schools.  The  Bible  was 
circulated,  high  chiefs  became  Christians,  and  in 
1828,  simultaneously  and  without  communica- 
tion, a  revival  unexpectedly  commenced  in 
Hawaii,  Oahu  and  Maui,  and  in  1838  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  revivals  in  history  began,  last- 
ing six  years,  and  resulting  in  about  27,000  con- 
versions. In  1850  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical 
Association  was  formed  for  work  in  their  own  and 
other  islands,  and  in  1863  Christianity  was  domi- 
nant in  the  islands;  there  were  churches,  schools 
and  colleges,  printing  presses  and  Christian  litera- 
ture, while  the  native  church  was  sending  mis- 
sionaries to  Micronesia  and  the  Marquesas. 
Accordingly,  the  American  Board  practically 
withdrew  from  the  field  in  that  year.  Many  of  the 
missionaries  remained  in  the  islands  as  pastors, 
teachers,  etc.,  and  the  North  Pacific  Missionary 
Institute,  for  the  training  of  native  pastors,  is 
still  in  charge  of  a  missionary  of  the  Board  as 
well  as  the  work  among  the  Japanese  immigrants. 


11.  Micronesia:  This  name  is  applied  to  four 
groups  of  coral  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
In  1852  Messrs.  Snow,  Gulick  and  Sturges,  with 
their  wives  and  two  Hawaiian  helpers,  were 
sent  to  these  islands  by  the  ABCFM  in  cooper- 
ation with  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association. 
They  occupied  two  stations,  Kusaie  and  Ponapi 
in  the  Caroline  Group.  For  four  years  they 
had  no  certain  communication  with  the  outside 
world,  depending  on  the  none  too  friendly 
trading  vessels  for  mail  and  supplies.  In  1856  a 
missionary  ship,  the  Morning  Star,  was  built 
by  the  Board  for  work  in  these  islands,  and 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hiram  Bingham  were  sent  to  the 
Gilbert  Island  Mission,  while  Messrs.  Pierson 
and  Doane,  with  their  wives,  were  stationed 
in  the  Marshall  group.  Languages  were  mas- 
tered and  reduced  to  writing,  simple  books  were 
laboriously  prepared,  schools  were  started  and 
preaching  services  held,  though  the  latter  were 
difiicult,  and  more  was  accomplished  in  the  day 
schools  and  house  to  house  visiting.  For  the 
work  in  these  islands  a  "Missionary  Navy"  is 
essential.  After  the  Spanish-American  war  in 
1901,  work  was  begun  in  the  Ladrone  Islands, 
with  a  station  in  Guam. 

There  are  4  stations  and  63  outstations;  24 
American  and  1  Hawaiian  missionaries;  149' 
native  pastors  and  teachers;  57  churches,  with 
5,953  communicants;  seven  training  schools, 
with  205  students;  85  native  schools,  with  3,297 
pupils. 

Owing  to  political  and  financial  difficulties 
the  transfer  of  this  mission  by  the  ABCFM  to 
some  English  or  German  Society  seems  possible. 

12.  Palestine  and  Syria:  Pliny  Fisk  and 
Levi  Parsons,  appointed  missionaries  to  Jeru- 
salem in  1819,  landed  at  Smyrna,  where  Mr.  Fisk 
stopped  to  study  the  language,  while  Mr.  Parsons 
went  on.  A  Greek  revolt  drove  Mr.  Fisk  to 
Alexandria,  and  the  coming  of  associates, 
followed  by  exploring  journeys,  resulted  in 
the  conviction  that  Syria  offered  the  best  loca- 
tion, and  Beirut  was  selected,  in  1824,  as  a 
missionary  station.  A  printing  establishment, 
part  of  whose  equipment  was  afterward  re- 
moved to  Constantinople  and  part  to  Beirut, 
was  set  up  at  Malta  out  of  reach  of  the  Turkish 
Government.  At  Beirut  and  vicinity  hostility 
developed  into  persecution,  and  war  and  pesti- 
lence again  and  again  broke  up  the  work.  The 
first  native  church  was  organized  in  1848.  In 
1870  the  Syrian  Mission  was  transferred  to  the 
care  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A. 

13.  Asiatic  Turkey:  Mr.  Parsons  on  his  first  visit 
to  Jerusalem  met  some  Armenian  pilgrims  who 
said  they  would  rejoice  if  a  mission  could  be 
sent  to  their  people.  An  Armenian  ecclesiastic 
secured  and  translated  a  letter  written  by  Jonas 
King  on  leaving  Syria  in  1827,  and  it  produced 
a  wonderful  effect  in  Constantinople.  Two 
years  later,  Messrs.  Eli  Smith  and  H.  G.  0. 
Dwight  made  their  long  journey  through  Asiatic 
Turkey,  the  Caucasus  and  Northern  Persia, 
which  opened  up  the  condition  of  the  Oriental 
churches  to  the  Christian  world  and  brought  it 
face  to  face  with  the  needs  in  that  whole  section. 
The  result  was  the  establishment  of  the  station 
at  Constantinople  in  1831  by  Mr.  Goodell  (with 
Messrs.  Dwight  and  Schaufiler) ,  who  came  north 
from  Beirut,  bringing  with  him  some  publications 
issued  at  Malta.  In  quick  succession  Smyrna, 
Brousa,  Trebizond,  and  Erzerum  were  occupied 
as  stations.     For  a  decade  the  strength  of  mis- 


81 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Amerlcnu   Board 


sionary  effort  was  given  ±o  consolidation,  and 
then  commenced  a  new  era  of  extension  until  by 
1863  the  entire  region  of  Asia  Minor,  Northern 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia  was  dotted  with  mission- 
ary establishments. 

The  great  extent  of  territory  covered,  the  poor 
means  of  intercommunication,  and  the  variety 
of  problems  in  different  sections  led  to  the 
division  of  the  work  into  three  missions,  Western, 
Eastern  and  Central  Turkey.  Each  is  a  separate 
unit  for  administrative  purposes,  yet  there  is 
a  bond  of  union  in  the  fact  that  Constantinople 
is  the  center  for  the  publication  work  and 
the  financial  management,  as  well  as  the 
place  to  which  go  all  the  que.stions  concerning 
the  relations  with  the  government.  The 
work  of  the  Western  Turkey  mission  is  chiefly 
among  Armenians  and  Greeks;  of  the  Eastern 
mission  chiefly  among  Armenians,  tho  one 
station,  Mardin,  reaches  the  Jacobites,  the  legacy 
of  the  old  Assyria  Mission ;  the  Central  is  almost 
entirely  among  Armenians  who  have  the  pecu- 
liarity that  their  language  is  Turkish.  The 
Western  mission  embraces  also  that  portion 
of  European  Turkey  where  Armenians  are 
principally  found.  There  have  been  efforts 
to  reach  other  classes.  W.  G.  Schauffler  was 
commissioned  first  to  the  Jews  and  afterward 
devoted  himself  specially  to  the  Turks,  but  the 
great  work  of  the  ABCFM  in  Turkey  has  been 
among  Armenians  and  Greeks. 

Education  has  always  held  a  prominent  place. 
The  American  College  for  Girls  at  Constanti- 
nople, Euphrates  College  at  Harput,  Anatolia 
College  at  Marsovan  and  Central  Turkey  Col- 
lege at  Aintab,  as  well  as  the  different  theologi- 
cal schools  and  academies,  are  missionary  insti- 
tutions. There  has  been  excellent  literary  work 
done  in  Bible  translation,  in  general  book  pub- 
hcations  and  in  the  weekly  and  monthly  peri- 
odicals. The  missions  suffered  heavily  during 
the  massacres  of  1894-5,  but  have  to  a  consid- 
erable degree   recovered  tjiemselves. 

The  missions  of  the  ABCFM  in  Asiatic 
Turkey  have  12  stations  and  270  outstations; 
145  missionaries;  811  native  workers;  114 
organized  churches  with  13,125  communicants; 
132  high  grade  and  1,134  lower  schools  with 
a  total  of  60,964  under  instruction. 

14.  Persia:  One  of  the  results  of  the  tour  of 
exploration  by  Messrs.  Smith  and  Dwight  was 
to  attract  attention  to  the  Nestorians  in  north- 
western Persia  and  in  the  mountains  of  the 
Turkish  border.  In  1833  Justin  Perkins  sailed 
for  that  work,  and  two  years  later  he  and 
Dr.  Asahel  Grant  opened  a  station  at  Urmiya. 
They  received  a  warm  welcome  from  the  Patri- 
arch, Mar  Yohannan,  and  the  work  prospered, 
especially  that  for  girls  and  women  under  the 
care  of  Fidelia  Fiske.  In  1870  this  mission  was 
transferred  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
U.    S.    A. 

15.  European  Turkey:  Work  was  commenced 
among  the  Bulgarians  at  Adrianople  in  1858, 
in  connection  with  the  Western  Turkey  mission, 
but  as  new  stations  were  formed,  the  European 
Turkey  Mission  was  organized,  the  literary 
work  of  thv,  new  mission  being  carried  on  at 
Constantinople,  however,  until  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Principality  of  Bulgaria.  Various 
political  disturbances  have  hampered  mission- 
ary operations,  but  have  never  stopped  them. 

This  mission  has  (1902)  4  stations .  and  56 
outstations;  28  missionaries;  85  natJ^e  workers; 


10  churches  with  1,415  communicants;  3  higher 
grade  and  19  other  schools,  with  a  total  of  787 
under  instruction. 

16.  Greece:  The  great  interest  felt  in  America 
in  the  Greek  struggle  for  independence  turned 
the  attention  of  Christian  benevolence  to  that 
country,  and  Jonas  King  was  called  from  Beirut 
to  Athens  to  disburse  the  gifts  for  the  suf- 
ferers. He  remained  there  as  a  missionary  of 
the  American  Board  until  his  death  in  1869. 
A  few  other  missionaries  were  sent  to  Greece 
by  the  Board,  but  the  work  farther  east 
seemed  more  important  and  promising,  and 
with  his  death  the  mission  was  discontinued. 

17.  China,  Canton  (1830);  Elijah  C.  Bridg- 
man  and  David  Abeel,  the  latter  under  the 
American  Seaman's  Friend  Society,  sailed  from 
New  York  October  14,  1829,  and  arrived  in 
Canton,  February  25,  1830.  After  two  years 
study  of  the  language  Mr.  Bridgman  issued 
the  first  number  of  the  Chinese  Repository. 
In  1833  S.  Wells  Williams  and  Ira  Tracy  joined 
the  mission,  followed  the  next  year  by  Dr. 
Peter  Parker.  Owing  to  the  opium  war  of 
1840,  the  work  was  suspended  till  1845,  when 
it  was  resumed  under  many  restrictions.  In 
1847  Mr.  Bridgman  was  transferred  to  Shanghai. 
A  civil  war  in  1854  and  a  war  with  England 
in  1856  again  interrupted  the  work;  the  mission- 
aries were  expelled  and  their  houses,  printing 
establishment  and  books  destroyed  by  fire. 
The  treaty  of  1858  with  the  foreign  Powers, 
guaranteed  the  toleration  of  Christianity  in 
all  parts  of  the  Empire,  and  the  work  was  again 
resumed  and  continued  till  1866,  when,  other 
societies  coming  in,  and  the  working  force 
becoming  greatly  depleted  by  death,  the  mission 
was    discontinued. 

18.  Amoy  (1842):  Established  by  David 
Abeel,  who  was  joined  in  1844  by  two  mission- 
aries, members  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America,  which  then  cooperated  with  the 
American  Board.  In  1857  the  work  of  Amoy 
was  transferred  by  the  ABCFM  to  the  Board 
of  Missions  of  that  church. 

19.  Fuchau  (1847):  EstabHshed  by  Stephen 
Johnson  and  Lyman  B.  Peet,  who  was  transferred 
from  the  mission  in  Siam.  Reenforcements 
were  sent  out  in  1848,  1850  and  in  1853,  when 
a  small  boarding  school  for  boys  and  girls  was 
opened.  In  18.57  the  first  church  was  formed 
of  4  members.  The  New  Testament  was  trans- 
lated into  the  Fuchau  dialect  and  the  first  edition 
published,  in  1866,  by  the  American  Board 
and  MethodLst  Episcopal  Missions  conjointly. 
Work  on  the  Old  Testament  was  begun,  but 
not  completed  fully  till  1888.  The  American 
Female  College  was  dedicated  in  1881.  The 
first  Christian  Endeavor  Society  of  the  Mission,  as 
well  as  of  the  country,  wa=  formed  in  1885. 
In  1893  the  native  Woman's  Missionary  Society 
was  formed.  Evangelistic,  Educational,  Medical 
and  Literary  work  are  carried  on,  and  the  aim 
of  the  mission  is  self-support  in  all   departments. 

In  the  Fuchau  Mission,  there  are  5  stations, 
96  outstations,  38  American  Missionaries  wit'i 
210  native  workers;  62  churches  with  2,48? 
communicants,  2  theological  schools,  2  colleges, 
5  boarding  schools,  90  common  schools,  4  hos- 
pitals with  452  patients;  10  dispensaries  with 
30,857  outpatients;  native  workers  contributed 
$4,844.59. 

20.  North  China  Mission  (1860):  Elijah  C. 
Bridgman     was    transferred     from     Canton     to 


American   Board 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


33 


Shanghai  in  1847,  to  assist  in  translating  tlie 
Scriptures.  In  1854  he  was  joined  by  Messrs. 
Atchison  and  Blodgett,  thus  forming  the  Shang- 
hai Mission;  in  1860  the  Mission  was  transferred 
to  Tientsin,  the  key  to  the  surrounding  country, 
and  tlie  name  was  changed  to  the  North  China 
Mission.  A  year  later  the  first  convert  was 
baptized.  In  1864  the  famous  Bridgman  School 
was  opened.  In  1869  the  only  printing  press 
under  the  control  of  Protestant  Missions  in 
North  China  was  established.  Besides  the  work 
of  the  Mission,  it  has  done  printing  for  the 
American  Bible  Society,  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  the  Russian  Ecclesiastical  Mission, 
and  the  North  China  Tract  Society.  The  Boxer 
movement  of  1900  temporarily  interrupted  the 
work  of  the  Mission;  Mission  buildings  were 
destroyed,  and  missionaries  and  native  Christians 
were  massacred  or  fled  for  their  lives.  Indemnities 
have  since  been  promised,  and  in  some  instances 
paid,  and  the  outlook  is  full  of  hope. 

There  are  in  this  mission  (1902)  7  stations, 
50  outstations,  52  American  missionaries  and 
56  native  workers;  8  churches  with  1,455  com- 
municants; 1  theological  seminary,  1  college, 
8  boarding  and  high  schools,  9  common  schools; 
3  hospitals,  3  dispensaries. 

21.  Shansi  Mission  (1882):  Established  at 
Tai-yuen-fu  by  Martin  L.  Stimson.  Eleven 
millions  of  people  inhabit  Shan-si  Province,  of 
high  natural  ability  but  addicted  to  opium. 
Refuges  have  been  established,  and  evangel- 
istic and  medical  work  is  carried  on.  The 
first  church  was  organized  in  1888.  The  following 
year  a  boys'  boarding  school  was  opened.  The 
work  was  interrupted  by  the  Boxer  movement 
of  1900,  but  has  since  been  resumed,  with  added 
opportunities  for  usefulness. 

There  are  (1902)  2  stations,  4  American 
missionaries,  9  native  workers,  2  churches  with 
134  communicants,  1  orphanage,  1  common 
school,  with  28  pupils. 

22.  South  China  Mission  (1883):  Formerly 
known  as  the  Hongkong  Mission,  established 
by  C.  R.  Hager;  the  American  Board  occupies 
the  field  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  Christian 
Chinese  of  California,  the  greater  number  of 
whom  came  from  the  Province  of  Canton. 
The  field  of  this  mission  is  inhabited  by  2,000,000 
people.  For  the  first  few  years  the  work  of 
the  Mission  was  considered  tentative.  During 
8  years  there  was  but  one  missionary  in  the 
field,  but  in  spite  of  hindrance  the  work  has 
been  successful.  A  building  answering  for 
church,  missionary  residence,  station  head- 
quarters, etc.,  has  been  erected  at  a  cost  of 
§16,000,  the  larger  part  of  this  amount  having 
been  given  by  the  natives.  The  people  are 
as  accessible  as  before  the  Boxer  movement 
of  1900,  while  the  obstacles  are  growing  less. 
The  Chinese  Christians  in  California  cooperate 
with  the  Mission  in  its  outstation  work.  There 
are  2  stations  and  20  outstations;  6  American 
missionaries,  37  native  workers;  4  churches 
with  1,090  communicants;  1  boarding  school  and 
10  common  schools;  1  dispensary. 

23.  Western  Africa:  In  November,  1833, 
Rev.  J.  L,  Wilson  and  Mr.  S.  R.  Wyncoop  em- 
barked at  Baltimore  in  a  vessel  sent  out  by 
the  Maryland  Colonization  Society,  and  reached 
Cape  Palmas  early  in  the  following  year.  Having 
decided  upon  Cape  Palmas  as  a  favorable  loca- 
tion, they  returned  to  America.  The  mission 
was    established    in    December,    1834,    by    Mr, 


Wilson  and  his  wife,  greatly  to  the  joy  of  the 
natives.  The  negroes  of  the  Guinea  coast  were 
found  to  be  fearfully  degraded.  Schools  were 
established,  missionary  reenforcements  sent 
out  and  new  stations  opened.  In  1836  there 
were  100  pupils  in  the  schools,  many  of  them 
from  the  far  interior;  a  printing  press  was  set 
up;  a  church  with  6  members  organized.  In 
1837  the  Board  was  compelled  to  lessen  its 
expenditures.  It  was  a  serious  blow  to  this 
mission.  Printing  ceased,  2  schools  were  closed, 
the  boarding  school  reduced,  the  natives  dis- 
couraged and  confidence  was  impaired.  Then 
followed  the  inimical  French  occupation,  and 
the  abominations  connected  with  the  relations 
of  foreign  traders  with  Africa.  In  1843  the 
mission  was  removed  to  the  Gaboon,  on  account 
of  the  attitude  of  the  American  Colony  from 
Maryland. 

24.  The  Gaboon  Mission:  Was  organized  at 
Cape  Palmas  in  1835.  The  new  location  brought 
the  mission  into  contact  with  nobler  races,  as 
the  Mpongwes  and  Bakeles.  Two  dialects  were 
reduced  to  writing,  and  many  heard  the  Gospel 
gladly.  Under  great  difficulties  from  the 
climate,  the  temper  of  the  natives,  and  adverse 
foreign  influences,  it  maintained  itself  and  made 
a  good  record  in  school  and  church  work  during 
the  thirty-five  years  of  its  connection  with  the 
Board.  In  1870,  this  mission  was  transferred 
to  the  care  of  the  Presbyterian  Board. 

25.  Zulu  Mission  (1835)  :  Established  by 
Messrs.  Lindsay,  Venable,  Wilson,  Grout,  Cham- 
pion, and  Dr.  Adams.  It  was  the  first  organ- 
ized effort  of  any  society  in  this  region;  the 
people  were  savage  and  their  language  unwritten 
and  unknown.  Dingaan,  the  chief  of  the  Zulus, 
received  the  missionaries,  and  schools  were 
opened  and  a  printing  press  set  up.  Repeated 
conflicts  between  the  Zulus  and  Dutch  Boers 
hindered  the  work  for  the  first  years,  and  twice 
the  missionaries  were  compelled  to  flee.  The 
Board  had  decided  to  discontinue  the  attempt 
to  labor  amid  such  adverse  conditions,  when,  m 
1843,  Natal  became  a  British  colony.  From 
that  time  the  work  has  gone  steadily  forward. 
The  native  population  increased  rapidly;  Sab- 
bath congregations  and  day  schools  became 
large  and  prosperous;  churches  were  formed  and 
schools  established;  government  allotments  of 
land  for  mission  purposes  and  annual  grants-in- 
aid  for  schools  were  secured.  In  1846  the  first 
convert,  an  old  woman,  was  baptized.  Her  son 
afterward  became  pastor  of  the  church  of  which 
she  was  the  first  member,  and  her  grandson  was 
the  first  Zulu  to  receive  a  full  medical  education. 
In  1870  began  a  decisive  conflict  between  hea- 
thenism and  Christianity,  which  resulted  in  a  more 
intelligent  and  decided  Christian  living  in  the 
converts.  In  1883  the  translation  and  publica- 
tion of  the  entire  Scriptures  was  completed,  and 
a  hymn  book  has  since  been  issued.  The 
Umzumbe  Home  and  Inanda  Seminary  are  for 
the  higher  education  of  the  girls,  while  the  High 
and  Normal  School  at  Amanzimtote  gives  the 
boys  a  similar  opportunity.  In  1892  a  hospital 
and  dispensary  were  opened  by  Dr.  Bridgman. 
A  feature  of  the  mission  is  the  Zulu  Home  and 
Foreign  Mission  Society,  which  supports  5 
evangelists.  New  opportunities  have  resulted 
since  the  close  of  the  Boer  War,  and  a  larger 
field  than  ever  before  is  open  to  the  Zulu  Mission. 
There  are  (1902)  11  stations  and  13  outstations; 
31  American  missionaries;     397  native  workers; 


S3 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


American   Board 


23  churches;  3,555  communicants;  1  theologi- 
cal seminary;  3  schools  for  higher  education 
with  389  students;  50  common  schools  with 
2,500  pupils;   1  hospital  and  a  dispensary. 

26.  East  Central  African  Mission  (1883)  : 
This  is  at  once  the  foreign  mission  enterprise  of 
the  Zulu  Mission  and  an  independent  movement 
"to  reach  the  tribes  in  the  interior.  In  1880 
Myron  W.  Pinkerton  was  sent  by  the  Zulu  Mis- 
sion to  examine  the  ground  for  a  new  mission, 
but  died  before  accomplishing  his  object.  The 
following  year  E.  H.  Richards  was  sent  by  the 
Mission  to  continue  the  work  of  exploration  and 
reached  the  capital  of  Umzila's  kingdom  in 
October,  1881,  when  permission  was  given  to 
open  the  new  mission.  In  1882  William  C. 
Wilcox  explored  the  region  around  Inhambane 
Bay,  and  the  following  year  he  established  the 
mission.  In  1884  he  was  joined  by  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Richards  and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ousley,  the  latter 
being  graduates  of  Fisk  University,  and  of  the 
■schools  of  the  American  Missionary  Association. 
In  1887  Miss  Nancy  Jones  joined  the  Mission, 
the  first  single  woman  of  African  descent  to  be 
commissioned  by  the  American  Board.  Four 
Zulu  Christian  workers  were  added  to  the  force, 
and  the  work  went  quietly  on.  The  Gospels  and 
Acts  were  translated  and  published,  and  schools 
were  established.  The  coast  region  proving 
unhealthful  in  1893,  the  Mission  was  moved  to 
Mt.  SUinda,  in  Gazaland.  Schools  have  been 
opened,  including  an  industrial  school,  and 
evangelistic  and  medical  work  is  carried  on. 
In  January,  1897,  the  first  Church  of  Christ  in 
<jazaland  was  formed  with  16  members,  all  on 
confession  of  faith.  Title  deeds  to  27,000  acres 
of  land  have  been  secured,  including  the  fine 
Silinda  forest. 

There  are  (1902)  3  stations,  6  outstations;  11 
American  missionaries,  1 1  native  workers ;  1 
church  with  41  communicants;  1  boarding 
school  with  64  students;  2  common  schools  with 
41  pupils ;  2  dispensaries. 

27.  West  Central  African  Mission  (1880) : 
Established  by  Messrs.  Bagster,  Sanders  and 
Miller,  at  Bailundu  and  Bih6.  The  Portuguese 
authorities  at  first  treated  the  missionaries  with 
civility  and  rendered  them  important  service, 
and  the  natives  heartily  welcomed  them;  the 
traders  were  prejudiced  against  them,  and  suc- 
ceeded, in  1884,  by  bribes  and  false  reports,  in 
causing  their  expulsion,  but  the  governor  was 
appealed  to,  and  they  were  allowed  to  return. 
The  first  church  was  organized  in  1887,  with 
14  members  all  under  20  years  of  age;  deacons 
were  chosen  from  among  them,  and  later  one 
became  their  pastor.  A  printing  press  was 
established,  schools  opened  and  industrial  and 
medical  work  was  begun.  In  1901  the  Mission 
was  seriously  threatened  by  an  uprising  of  the 
natives  against  the  Portuguese  authorities. 
Nevertheless  steady  growth  and  enlarged  oppor- 
tunities are  reported. 

There  are  4  stations  with  12  outstations;  24 
American  missionaries;  37  native  workers;  4 
churches  with  163  communicants;  1  theological 
school  with  13  students;  10  common  schools 
with  1,146  pupils;  2  hospitals  and  4  dispensaries. 

28.  Japan:  About  1827,  a  company  of  Chris- 
tian laymen  of  Boston  and  vicinity  began  to 
meet  regularly  to  pray  for  the  conversion  of  the 
world;  their  first  contributions  of  $600  were 
devoted  to  Japan,  which  as  yet  had  not  been 
visited     by     Protestant     missionaries.      Forty 


years  later.  Dr.  Neesima,  a  Japanese,  then  a 
student  at  Amherst,  appealed  to  the  American 
Board  to  send  missionaries  to  Japan.  At  this 
time  the  original  gift  of  $600  had  increased  to 
over  $4,000,  and  it  was  decided  to  send  Rev. 
D.  C.  Greene  and  his  wife  to  open  the  new  work. 
They  landed  in  Yokohama  November  30,  1869. 
Work  was  begun  that  same  year  in  Tokio,  but 
after  a  careful  inspection  of  the  field  the  mis- 
sion was  removed  to  Kobe  in  March,  1870.  In 
February,  1873,  the  famous  edict  was  issued 
which  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  proclama- 
tions against  Christianity  posted  during  more 
than  250  years  in  every  town  and  hamlet  through- 
out Japan.  Public  preaching  was  immediately 
begun,  and  a  church  of  11  members  was  organ- 
ized at  Kobe,  in  April,  1874,  and  in  May  a 
church  was  organized  at  Osaka.  Schools,  hos- 
pitals and  dispensaries  were  opened,  and  evan- 
gelistic tours  begun.  The  same  year  Joseph 
Neesima  and  Paul  Sawayama  returned  from 
America,  the  one  to  establish  a  Christian  school, 
the  other  to  become  an  eminently  successful 
pastor.  The  Kioto  Training  School,  now 
called  Doshisha,  was  opened  in  1876,  and  a 
school  for  girls,  now  Kobe  College,  was  opened. 
In  1883the  northern  Japan  Mission  was  opened 
at  Niigata  and  Sendai,  but  in  1890  was  mcor- 
porated  as  a  station  of  the  Japan  Mission.  In 
1891  an  impetus  was  given  to  the  work  by  the 
Union  Evangelistic  Movement,  when  work  was 
carried  on  in  42  provinces,  by  22  denomina- 
tions, employing  536  foreign  and  Japanese 
workers  representing  376  churches.  Seventy-seven 
evangelistic  bands  were  formed;  over  2,000,000 
handbills  and  posters  were  used;  over  600,000 
tracts  were  distributed;  and  over  10,000  yen 
was  raised  for  the  work.  About  20,000  enrolled 
themselves,  giving  name  and  address,  as  con- 
verts, or  as  earnest  inquirers  after  the  truth. 

There  are  (1902)  12  stations,  102  outstations; 
68  American  missionaries,  and  119  native 
workers;  81  churches  with  10,856  communicants; 
1  theological  seminary  with  16  students;  2 
colleges  with  506  students,  5  boarding  schools  for 
girls  with  384  pupils;  1  kindergarten  training 
school  and  4  kindergartens.  Native  contribu- 
tions were  $16,895. 

29.  South  America:  Messrs.  J.  C.  Brigham 
and  Theophilus  Parvin  arrived  in  Buenos  Aires, 
October,  1823.  They  perfected  themselves  in 
the  Spanish  language;  opened  a  school  with 
some  20  pupils  and  a  Sabbath-school  for  Prot- 
estant children,  with  a  similar  number;  revived 
a  Bible  Society  which  had  been  previously 
formed,  and  gave  an  impulse  to  Bible  distribu- 
tion; established  preaching  services  both  on 
Sunday  and  week  days  at  the  house  of  an  Eng- 
lishman; held  Bethel  meetings  on  board  ships 
in  the  harbor,  and  in  various  ways  promoted 
the  work.  Mr.  Marvin  visited  America  in  Sep- 
tember, 1825,  was  ordained  in  Philadelphia,  and 
returned  to  Buenos  Aires  the  next  year  with  a 
press,  printer,  and  female  teacher.  He  wished 
to  labor  on  his  individual  responsibility;  the 
income  of  the  school  was  sufficient  for  his  sup- 
port, and  at  his  own  request  he  was  honorably 
discharged  from  the  service  of  the  Board.  Mr. 
Brigham  left  Buenos  Aires  in  October,  1824,  and 
after  a  tour  of  exploration,  pursuing  the  original 
design  of  the  mission,  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1826,  was  there  invited  to  the  domestic 
secretaryship  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  and 
was  released  from  the  service  of  the  Board. 


American  Board 
American    Frienils 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


34 


In  1833  an  exploring  expedition  was  sent  out 
with  a  view  to  founding  a  mission  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Patagonia.  The  project  was  found 
impracticable  and  the  missionaries  returned.    , 

30.     Mexico   (1872) -.-The  Mission  to   Mexico 
repr<,sents  the  only  work  the  American  Board  is 
now  conducting  upon  this  contment.     It  is  one 
of  the   Board's  three  missions  in  Papal   Lands, 
the  other  two  being  in  Spain  and  Austria.     The 
obiect  of  these  three  missions  m  countries  gen- 
^rilTy  known  as  Romari  CathoUc  is  not  to  a    ack 
and   disintegrate   the   dommant   church,   but   to 
Ltroduce  the   leaven   of   the    «^"^Pl^  ^3    ° 
Christ,    and   to    plant   there   gospel   i-^stitut'O^s 
which   shall   proSuce   ea-rnest,    sincere   Christian 
men  and  women.     Work  was  begun  m  1872  at 
Guadalajara  by  J.  L.  Stephens  and  D.  F.  Wat- 
kins,  and  the  following  year  a  church  was  organ- 
ized  with   17   members.     In   1873   a  work   con- 
ducted  by   Miss   Melinda   Rankin   at   Monterey 
was    transferred    to    the    Board.     In    1874    Mr. 
Stephens  was  killed  while  preaching  at  Ahualulco. 
The  next  years  were  full  of  trials  and  adversities 
In  1877  the  work  at  Monterey  was  transferred 
to   the   Presbyterian   Board   which   was   already 
working    in    that    vicinity.     Opposition    on    the 
part  of^the  Roman  Catholics,  and  a  lack  of  har- 
mony among  the  missionaries  led  the  Board  to 
reconstruct  the  mission  on  a  new  basis.     In  1881 
the  missionary  in  charge  was  instructed  to  turn 
the    work    over    to    new  missionaries    on    their 
arrival;      instead,   however,   he   transferred   the 
missioii    to    the    Methodist    Episcopal    Church, 
South,  and,    when  Messrs.  Crawford,  Howland, 
and  Bissell  arrived,  in  1882,  they  began  what  was 
practically  a  new  mission.     Two  churches  were 
organized;  one  at  Tlajamulco  m  1883,  and  one 
at   Guadalajara   in   1884._    The   same   year   was 
commenced   the   publication   of   a   weekly   dlus- 
trated  paper.     In  the  meantime  a  new  station 
was  opened  in  1882  at  Chihuahua  by  Mr.   and 
Mrs     J     D     Eaton.     At    this    time    Protestant 
Christianity     was     unknown     in     northwestern 
Mexico      In  November,  1883,  the  first  converts 
we?e    baptized,    and    in    April,    1886,    the    first 
church  at  Chihuahua  was  organized;     the  same 
year    Hermosillo    was    occupied    as    a    mission 
station.     In    1890    the    Rio    Grande    Congrega- 
tional  Training   School   was   opened   at   Ciudad 
Juarez.     In     1891     the    various    stations    were 
united  in  one  mission,  having  been  given  better 
facilities  for  communication  by  the  building  ot 
railroads.     There    are     (1902)     5    stations    and 
33  outstations;    16  American  missionaries  and  22 
native   workers;   21    churches   with    1121    com- 
municants ;  1  theological  school  with  8  students ; 
3  boarding  and  high  schools  with  177  pupils;  4 
other  schools  with  133  pupils. 

31  Mission  to  Italy:  On  the  withdrawal  of 
the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  and 
at  the  earnest  invitation  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Italy  the  Board  commenced  a  mission  in  Italy 
in  1872.  The  purpose  was  to  aid  certain  churches 
and  evangelistic  agencies  founded  by  the  Union. 
In  1874  it  was  decided  to  suspend  operations  m 
that  field  because  of  the  limited  means  and  the 
limited  number  of  men  that  the  Board  found 
itself  enabled  to  employ  in  nominally  Christian 
lands  and  the  difficulty  of  finding  a  clear  field 
for  the  Board's  methods  of  labor  on  account 
of  the  presence  of  so  many  other  evangelical 
agencies  at  work  in  Italy. 

32  Mission  to  Spain:  When  in  June,  1869, 
Spain  adopted  a  constitution  guaranteeing  full 


religious  liberty  to  natives  and  foreigners  alike 
^arfous  evange^lical  bodies  took  advantage  of 
the  situation  to  commence  Gospel  work  in  that 
land  In  1872  the  American  Board  estaWished 
a  mission,  with  Barcelona  and.  Santander  as 
stations.  Two  sons  of  the  Hawaiian  missionary, 
Rev.  Peter  J.  Gulick,  with  Rev.  Gustavus  Alexy 
and  Miss  Blake,  were  sent  put  to  this  mission. 
A  school,  previously  opened  by  Mr.  Lawrence, 
connected  with  the  Broadway  Tabernacle  Church  • 
New  York  City,  at  once  came  under  the  care  of 
the  mission.  Aid  was  given  to  feeble  evangelical 
churches,  literature  was  distributed,  and  regular 
preaching  services  sustained.  In  1873  Barce- 
lona was  abandoned,  and  the  first  church  was 
dedicated  at  Santander  in  the  same  year.  Polit- 
ical disturbances  and  the  reactionary  tendencies 
of  a  new  government  interfered  with  the  work 
during  the  next  few  years.  In  1875  Zaragoza, 
was  occupied  and  the  following  year  a  church 
was  organized  with  75  members  from  an  old 
Protestant  body  and  12  new  converts.  A  school 
for  girls  was  established  at  Santander,  which  has; 
since  developed  into  the  International  Institute- 
for  Girls,  located  at  San  Sebastian.  During 
the  Spanish-American  war  it  was  removed 
temporarily  to  Biarritz,  France,  and  it  is  now 
to  be  located  in  Madrid. 

In  1882  the  mission  assumed  care  ot  the  wort 
carried  on  in  the  province  of  TTara  by  the  Evan- 
gelical Society  of  Geneva,  so  that  since  188d  the- 
field  of  the  Board  has  extended  from  Santander 
along  the  line  of  railway  to  the  Mediterranean. 
A  monthly  Christian  Endeavor  paper  is  pub- 
lished, and  two  National  Christian  Endeavor- 
Conventions  have  been  held. 

There  are  (1902)  1  station  with  17  outstations; 
5  American  missionaries  and  24  native  workers;: 
8  churches  with  354  communicants;  1  boarding 
school  with  34  pupils  and  15  common  schools, 
with  772  pupils.     The  native  contributions  were 

33  Mission  to  Austria:  Established  in  1872  by 
Messrs.  H.  A.  Schauffler,  E.  A.  Adams  and  A.  W. 
Clark  and  their  wives,  followed  the  next  year  by 
Rev  E.  C.  Bissell  and  wife.  Prague,  in  Bohemia; 
Brilnn,  in  Moravia,  and  Innsbruck,  in  Tyrol,  were 
occupied;  colporteurs  and  evangelists  were- 
employed  and  encouragement  given  to  active- 
Christian  workers  in  the  already  existing  Protes- 
tant churches.  Violent  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  and  inimical  inter- 
ference by  the  government  rendered  the  work 
very  difficult.  The  action  of  the  Reformed  Con- 
sistory at  Vienna  for  a  time  seriously  crippled 
the  work.  In  no  field  has  opposition  been  more- 
persistent,  the  difficulties  greater,  or  the  faithful 
labors  of  the  missionaries  more  abundant. 

The  work  among  Bohemian  immigrants  in. 
America  has  been  greatly  assisted  by  converts; 
made  In  this  mission.  An  important  feature  of 
the  work  has  been  the  establishment  of  Christian 
Associations,  both  for  young  men  and  for  young 
women.  The  onljr  Rescue  Home  in  all  Bohemia. 
and  Austria  is  carried  on  by  the  mission. 

There  are  now  1  station  and  63  outstations;  4 
American  missionaries  and  17  native  workers;; 
13  churches  with  1,297  communicants;  14 
YMCA;  lYWCA;  1  Rescue  Home. 

Besides  the  various  missions  above  described 
the  ABCFM  carried  on  15  missions  among  the 
North  American  Indians.  Of  this  part  of  th& 
work  of  the  society  the  following  presents  a 
summary: 


85 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


American   Board 
American  Friends 


1.  Cherokees  (1816-60)  :  112  missionaries, 
mostly  lay  and  female;  12  churches,  with  248 
members  in  I860;  schools;  printing,  14,084,100 
pages;  mission  given  up  because  the  Board's 
proper  work  was  done. 

2.  Choctaws  (1818-59):  153  missionaries;  12 
churches,  with  1,362  members  in  1859,  when 
nation  was  declared  a  Christian  people;  schools; 

Erinting,  11,558,000  pages;  mission  given  up 
ecause  of  complications  arising  from  existence 
of  slavery;  in  1872  1  missionary  resumed  labor, 
and  withdrew  in  1876,  leaving  4  churches  under 
the  native  pastor. 

3.  Osages  (1826-37):  Commenced  by  United 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  in  1820;  transferred 
to  the  Board  in  1826;  26  missionaries;  2  churches 
of  48  members;  schools  with  354  pupils;  their 
country  ceded  to  the  Cherokees. 

4.  Maumees,  or  Ottawas  (1826-35) :  Com- 
menced by  Western  Missionary  Society  in  1822; 
transferred  that  same  year  to  the  United  Foreign 
Missionary  Society,  and  to  the  Board  in  1826;  6 
missionaries;  church  with  25  members;  given  up 
because  of  changes  in  the  population. 

5.  Mackinaws  (1826-36) :  Commenced  by  the 
United  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  1823;  trans- 
ferred to  the  Board,  1826;  17  missionaries;  a 
church  with  35  members;  given  up  for  the  same 
reason  as  No.  4. 

6.  Chickasaws  (1827-35)  :  Commenced  by 
Synod  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  1821,  and 
transferred  to  the  Board  in  1827;  10  missionaries; 
a  church  of  100  members;  schools  with  300  pupils; 
given  up  for  the  above-mentioned  reason. 

7.  Stockbridge  Indians  (1828-48) :  8  mission- 
aries; a  church  of  51  members;  given  up  as 
above. 

8.  CreeA:s  (1832-37)  :  6  missionaries;  80  church 
members;  given  up  because  of  peculiar  embar- 
rassments. 

9.  Pawnees  (1834-44) :  10  missionaries;  given 
up  because  of  the  roving  character  of  the  Paw- 
nees and  the  hostile  incursions  of  other  tribes. 

10.  Oregon /ndians  (1835-47) :  13  missionaries; 
broken  up  by  the  massacre  of  1847. 

11.  Senecas  (New  York  State)  (1826-70): 
Commenced  by  the  New  York  Missionary  Society, 
1801;  transferred  to  the  United  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society,  1821,  and  to  the  Board  in  1826;  47 
missionaries;  from  first  to  last,  about  600  church 
members;  transferred  to  Presbyterian  Board, 
1870. 

12.  Tuscaroras  (New  York  State)  (1826-60) : 
Commenced  as  above;  10  missionaries;  church 
members  gathered,  200;  given  up  because  the 
Board's  work  was  done. 

13.  Ojihways  (1831-70):  28  missionaries;  con- 
verts not  definitely  known;  transferred  to  Pres- 
byterian Board  in  1870. 

14.  ^benagitis  (1835-56):  1  Indian  missionary; 
75  members;  given  up  because  of  increasing  dis- 
couragements. 

15.  Sioux,  or  Dakotas  (1835-83):  40  mission- 
aries; in  part  transferred  to  the  Presbyterian 
Board  in  1870;  transferred  to  the  American  Mis- 
sionary Association  in  1883. 

From  the  above  statement  it  will  be  seen  that 
two  missions  and  a  part  of  a  third  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  Presbyterian  Board  in  1870;  one  to 
the  American  Missionary  Association  in  1883; 
5  were  given  up  because  of  peculiar  difficulties; 
4,  because  of  changes  in  the  population;  1 
because  of  massacre,  and  the  remaining  two 
because  the  tribes  had  become  practically  Chris- 


tianized. The  whole  number  of  missionaries 
employed  was  500;  churches,  47;  members, 
3,800;  Indians  reached  by  these  missions,  about 
100,000;  12  languages  were  reduced  to  writing, 
and  besides  the  Scriptures  much  Christian  litera- 
ture was  published  and  many  schools  established 
and  conducted  during  the  continuance  of  the 
missions. 

The  periodical  publications  of  the  ABCFM  are  The  Missiorv- 
ary  Herald,  Life  and  Light  for  Women  (by  the  Woman's 
Board),  The  Mission  Dayspring  (for  children)  and 
Mission  Studies.  These  are  all  monthly  publications. 
An  Almanac  is  also  issued  every  year.  Bibliography: 
History  of  ike  Missions  of  the  ABCFM,  Anderson  (R.),  5 
vols.,  Boston,  1870-74;  The  Hawaiian  Islands,  Anderson 
(R).,  Boston,  1864;  Memorial  Volume  of  the  First  Fifty 
Years  of  the  ABCFM,  Anderson  (R.),  Boston,  1861. 

AMERICAN  CHURCH  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY. 

See  Protestant  Episcopal  Domestic  and 
FoKEiGN  Missionary  Society. 

AMERICAN  CHRISTIAN  CONVENTION.  See 
Christian   Church. 

AMERICAN  FRIENDS'  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  (1871):  There  are  14  yearly  meeting 
Foreign  Mission  Boards  and  10  women's  organi- 
zations in  the  Society  of  Friends,  each  of  which 
carries  on  a  distinct  foreign  mission  work.  The 
other  Yearly  Meetings  have  not  opened  separate 
missions,  thinking  it  wiser  to  strengthen  the' 
existing  missions  than  to  begin  weak  ones  of 
their  own.  In  most  cases  they  have  some  defi- 
nite work  in  the  missions  which  they  assist.  In 
the  Quinquennial  Conference  of  1892  provisions 
were  made  for  the  formation  of  a  central  bureau, 
as  a  medium  of  communication  between  the 
boards  of  other  denominations  and  the  Friends', 
and  as  a  bureau  of  information.  This  was  for- 
mally organized  in  1894,  under  the  name  of  "The 
American  Friends'  Board  of  Foreign  Missions." 

In  1900  it  was  incorporated  under  the  laws  of 
the  State  of  Indiana,  and  made  preparations  to 
take  up  work  in  the  foreign  field,  following  the 
plan  laid  down  in  the  Uniform  Discipline  in  its 
further  organization  for  this  class  of  work.  Its 
income  is  derived  from  appropriations  of  the  year- 
ly meetings  and  other  Boards,  and  from  dona- 
tions ,  legacies,  etc. 

Upon  the  organization  of  the  Five- Years' 
Meeting  in  1901,  this  central  body  became  one  of 
its  organizations.  It  is  made  up  of  representa- 
tives appointed  from  the  various  Yearly  Meet- 
ings. 

The  American  Friends'  Foreign  Missions  include 
the  work  of  the  Central  Board  and  the  Yearly 
Meetings  and  are  carried  on  in  China,  Japan, 
India,  Syria,  Africa,  Mexico,  Alaska,  Cuba  and 
the  West  Indies.  The  total  receipts  (1903)  were 
$58,268.00. 

Missions;  1.  Mexico  (1871):  The  first  foreign 
missionary  work  of  the  Friends  was  begun  by 
the  Indiana  Yearly  Meeting,  at  Matamoros  and 
Ciudad  Victoria,  in  the  State  of  Tamaulipas, 
Mexico,  in  1871.  Schools  were  begun,  and  in 
1872  a  mission  press  was  established  at  Ciudad 
Victoria,  which  issues  a  religious  monthly  paper 
as  well  as  books,  tracts,  etc.,  which  have  a  wide 
circulation  throughout  the  Spanish  speaking 
world. 

In  1873  a  girls'  school  was  established  at  Mata- 
moros, later  known  as  the  Hussey  Institute. 
The  Penn  Institute  at  Ciudad  Victoria,  a  board- 
ing and  day  school  for  girls,  was  established  and 
supported  by  the  New  York  Yearly  Meeting, 
which  also  supports  two  foreign  missionaries  and 
three  native  teachers.     In  1902  the  Juarez  Evan- 


American    Friends 
American    Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


gelical  Institute,  a  school  of  high  grade,  and  a 
Bible  Institute  for  young  men  was  established  at 
•Ciudad  Victoria.  In  1888  the  Western  Yearly 
Meeting  opened  a  station  at  Matehuala  in  the 
State  of  San  Luis  Potosi;  a  second  station  was 
established  by  them  in  1889  at  Cedral  and  a 
third  in  1901  at  Catorce  Real,  where  medical 
work  was  begun,  and  has  proved  of  great  value. 
In  1902  a  fourth  station  was  established  at  La 
Paz,  besides  educational  and  evangelistic  work. 
A  paper  called  "El  Catolico  Convertido  is  pub- 
lished by  the  mission  and  has  a  wide  circulation. 
There  are  (1903)  6  stations  and  9  outstations;  16 
American  missionaries  and  29  native  workers;  11 
churches,  with  766  members;  3  boarding  and 
high  schools,  with  133  pupils;  7  other  schools, 
with  382  pupils. 

2.  West  Indies  (1883) :  The  Iowa  Yearly  Meet- 
ing began  work  at  Glen  Haven,  Jamaica,  in  1883, 
among  two  distinct  classes  of  people — the  colored 
population  born  on  the  island  and  the  coolies 
■brought  as  laborers  from  the  East  Indies.  These 
last  are  generally  heathen.  There  is  a  well  estab- 
lished training  home  for  girls  and  another  for 
boys,  with  a  large  attendance  of  day  scholars. 

In  1886  another  station  was  established  at  Sea 
Side  and  a  third,  in  1889,  at  Amity  Hall.  All 
these  stations  are  in  good  condition  and  the  pros- 
pects encouraging. 

There  are  (1903)  3  stations;  10  outstations;  9 
American  missionaries  and  15  native  workers;  3 
churches,  with  530  members;  2  boarding  schools, 
with  34  students;  4  other  schools,  with  250 
pupils. 

3.  Japan  (1885):  The  Woman's  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Association  of  Friends  of  Philadelphia 
began  work  in  Tokio,  Japan,  in  1885. 

The  work  is  mainly  evangelistic  and  educa- 
tional. A  girls'  boarding  school  has  been  suc- 
cessful. In  1899  a  sub-station  was  opened  at 
Mito  by  the  Canada  Yearly  Meeting,  Woman's 
Foreign  Missionary  Society,  and  outstations  have 
been  established. 

At  Tsuchiura  a  Meating  and  First  Day  School 
are  kept  up  by  resident  native  Christians,  with 
■occasional  visits  from  Japanese  and  foreign  rnem- 
bers  of  the  Evangelistic  Committee.  At  Ishioka, 
a  Japanese  evangelist  has  charge  of  the  work. 
.Since  the  disorganization  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  in  1894,  occasioned  by  Nationalist 
criticism  of  the  Quakers  during  the  whole  Chinese 
war,  the  mission  has  not  reorganized  under  the 
name  of  Friends,  but  the  church  work  is  carried 
■on  under  the  care  of  a  committee  of  Japanese  and 
missionaries  who  are  Friends. 

There  are  (1903)  2  stations  and  2  outstations; 
7  American  missionaries;  22  native  workers;  276 
■church  members;  1  boarding  school,  with  23 
pupils;  1  other  school,  with  140  pupils. 

4.  Alaska  (1887) :  The  Friends'  Mission  Board 
■of  the  Kansas  Yearly  Meeting  founded  a  mission 
at  Douglas  Island,  Alaska,  in  1887.  Church  serv- 
ices and  First  Day  schools  are  held  for  both 
whites  and  natives,  and  a  day  school  is  taught 
during  about  seven  months  of  the  year.  At  the 
outstation  of  Takou  preaching  services  are  held 
and  a  school  is  carried  on.  A  small  steamer  is 
used  to  follow  the  Indians  to  their  outposts,  but 
their  absence  from  their  homes  a  large  part  of 
fthe  year  greatly  retards  the  work.  The  Kansas 
Board  is  investigating  the  question  of  getting  the 
Indians  settled  in  industrial  colonies. 

A  second  station  was  opened  in  1894  on  Kaak 
Island,   by   the   Foreign   Mission   Board   of   the 


Oregon  Yearly  Meeting,  on  the  same  general 
lines  as  the  Mission  at  Douglas  Island.  Here 
too  they  are  confronted  with  the  problem  of  the 
long  absence  of  the  Indians  from  their  homes; 
and  a  home  school  for  the  native  children  is 
contemplated.  In  1897  the  Foreign  Mission 
Board  of  the  California  Yearly  Meeting  opened  a 
mission  near  Kotzebue  Sound,  looking  out 
toward  the  Polar  Sea,  among  the  dwindling  race 
of  Eskimos.  The  Alaskan  is  accessible,  teach- 
able and  responsive,  and  the  outlook  is  encour- 
aging. There  are  4  outstations  in  the  care  of 
native  helpers,  who  are  said  to  have  a  good 
influence  over  the  white  miners  and  trappers  as 
well  as  the  natives. 

There  are  (1903)  3  stations  and  4  outstations; 
9  American  missionaries,  and  15  trained  Chris- 
tian native  helpers;  3  churches  with  358  mem- 
bers; 3  day  schools  with  144  pupils. 

5.  Palestine  (1888) :  This  Mission  was  com- 
menced in  1869  by  Eli  and  Sybil  Jones,  and 
continued  at  their  expense  till  1874,  when  it 
became  an  independent  mission  under  the  name 
of  the  Friends'  Syrian  Mission  (England).  In 
1888  the  Ramallah  station  was  transferred  to 
the  New  England  Yearly  Meeting,  which  here- 
tofore had  contributed  to  the  work  through  the 
English  Friends.  At  the  time  of  the  transfer 
there  was  a  school  for  boys,  another  for  girls, 
and  a  cottage  hospital  and  dispensary.  A 
Training  Home  for  Girls  has  been  established, 
and  in  1902  a  much  needed  Training  Home  for 
Boys  was  opened.  Both  boys  and  girls  receive 
industrial  training  in  addition  to  the  school  and 
Bible  work.  There  are  (1903)  1  station;  4  Amer- 
ican missionaries  and  31  native  workers;  1  church 
with  36  members;  2  boarding  schools,  with  49 
students;  and  7  other  schools,  with  225  pupils. 

6.  China  (1890):  The  Ohio  Yearly  Meeting 
Foreign  Mission  Board  dates  the  founding  of  its 
China  Mission  1890,  tho  its  pioneer  missionary, 
Esther  Butler,  had  been  in  the  country  for  three 
years,  learning  the  language  and  preparing  for 
ithe  work  in  the  mission  of  another  denomination. 
A  station  was  established  at  Nanking,  where 
land  was  purchased  and  buildings  erected.  In 
1892  a  church  was  organized;  in  1896  a  girls' 
boarding  school  and  a  hospital  were  opened. 
In  1898  a  second  station  was  opened  at  Liu-ho- 
hsien,  a  few  miles  north  of  Nanking,  where  evan- 
gelistic, educational  and  medical  work  is  being 
pressed  forward.  There  are  (1903)  2  stations 
and  10  American  missionaries;  2  churches;  1 
boarding  school  with  27  students ;  4  day  schools. 

7.  India  (1896) :  This  Mission  was  established 
by  the  Ohio  Yearly  Meeting  Foreign  _  Mission 
Board  at  Nowgong,  Central  Provinces,  in  1886. 
The  work  is  conducted  by  four  American  women 
missionaries  and  is  mainly  evangelistic. 

8.  Cuba  (1900):  The  American  Friends' 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  began  work  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Cuba  in  1900,  sending  out 
four  missionaries  who  began  work  at  Jibara. 
A  second  station  was  established  in  1902  at 
Holguin,  and  early  in  1903  Banes,  Tanamo, 
and  Puerto  Padre  were  occupied.  Church 
schools  and  colportage  work  are  in  successful 
operation.  There  are  (1903)  5  stations  and  2 
outstations;  11  American  missionaries;  1  native 
worker;  and  1  school,  with  20  pupils. 

9.  Africa  Industrial  Mission:  A  board  was 
organized  in  1902,  composed  of  two  members 
from  each  of  ten  American  Yearly  Meetings, 
and  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  State 


37 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


American  Frlenils- 
American    Missionary 


of  Ohio,  as  the  Friends'  Africa  Industrial  Mis- 
sion. Three  missionaries  were  sent  out  to  begin 
the  worlc  and  establish  themselves  among 
the  Kavirondo  people  in  British  East  Africa, 
near  Kisumu.  The  location  chosen  was  on  the 
banks  of  a  river,  with  waterfalls  that  can  be 
utilized  for  power,  and  several  springs  of  the  best 
water  for  household  purposes.  The  soil  proved 
fertile  and  the  prospects  are  most  encouraging. 
There  is  one  station  and  ten  American  mission- 
aries. 

Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Union  of  Friends 
(1881) :  The  first  foreign  missionary  organiza- 
tion of  women  among  Friends  was  formed  in 
1881  as  a  Yearly  Meeting  Society.  In  1890  the 
ten  independent  societies  organized  in  the  yearly 
meetings  were  united  in  the  Woman's  Foreign 
Missionary  Union  of  Friends.  It  has  four 
departments  of  work:  Interest  and  Organization; 
Literature;  Juvenile  and  Junior;  Proportionate 
and  Systematic  Giving,  having  a  general  secre- 
tary for  each  department. 

In  1903  there  were  ten  yearly  meeting  organ- 
izations in  the  Union,  the  greater  number  work- 
ing through  the  AFFM.  The  missions  in  China, 
India  and  San  Luis  Potosi  in  Mexico  are  entirely 
supported  by  three  of  the  women's  societies. 
18  missionaries  are  supported  by  them. 
The  Friends*  Missionary  Advocate,  monthly. 

AMERICAN     MISSIONARY     ASSOCIATION: 

The  American  Missionary  Association  was 
formed  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  September  3,  1846. 
It  was  preceded  by  four  recently  established 
missionary  organizations,  subsequently  merged 
into  it,  the  result  of  the  growing  dissatisfaction 
with  the  comparative  silence  of  the  older  mis- 
sionary societies  in  regard  to  slavery,  and  as  a 
grotest  against  it.  The  first  of  these,  the  Amistad 
ommittee,  secured  the  liberation  of  forty-two 
negroes  who  had  risen  upon  their  captors  in  the 
Spanish  slave  schooner  "Amistad"  that  was 
bearing  them  into  slavery,  and  were  finally  sent 
by  the  Committee  to  their  native  land,  accom- 
panied by  three  missionaries.  The  other  organ- 
izations were  the  Union  Missionary  Society, 
formed  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  the  Committee  for 
West  India  Missions  among  the  recently  eman- 
cipated slaves  of  Jamaica,  and  the  Western 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society  for  work  among 
the  American  Indians. 

In  the  Foreign  field,  in  addition  to  the  missions 
received  from  the  societies  named,  it  took  under 
its  care  one  missionary  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
two  in  Siam,  and  a  number  of  missionaries  arid 
teachers  laboring  among  the  colored  refugees  in 
Canada — so  that  in  its  Foreign  Department  in 
1854  its  laborers  numbered  seventy-nine,  located 
in  Africa,  Jamaica,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Siam, 
Egypt — among  the  Copts,  Canada — among  the 
colored  refugees,  and  in  North  America  among 
the  Indians. 

The  Home  department  embraced  two  distinct 
fields,  the  west  and  the  south,  and  the  largest 
number  of  home  missionary  workers  employed 
by  the  Association  was  112  in  1860,  15  of  them 
being  located  in  the  slave  States  and  in  Kansas. 

In  1859,  as  the  crisis  in  the  slavery  question 
approached,  the  Society  closed  its  work  among 
the  Copts  and  Indians,  and  directed  its  attention 
distinctly  to  the  colored  people.  As  the  war 
commenced,  in  1861,  the  Association  felt  itself 
specially  called  and  providentially  prepared  to 
work  for  negroes,  and  the  first  systematic  effort 
for  their  relief  was  made  by  it.     Large  numbers 


of  "contrabands,"  or  escaping  fugitive  slaves,, 
were  gathered  at  Fortress  Monroe  and  Hampton,. 
Va.,  and  were  homeless  and  destitute.  The 
Association  sent  Rev.  L.  C.  Lockwood  as  a  mis- 
sionary, to  make  investigations.  He  reached 
Hampton  September  3,  1861,  and  the  next  day 
arrangements  were  made  for  meetings  in  several 
places,  the  house  of  ex-President  Tyler  being  one 
of  them — a  new  use  for  that  mansion,  and  a  new 
era  for  the  colored  people.    , 

But  the  great  event  in  Mr.  Lockwood' s  mis- 
sion was  that  on  the  17th  of  September,  1861, 
he  established  the  first  day  school  among  the 
freedmen.  The  teacher  of  that  humble  school 
was  Mrs.  Mary  S.  Peake,  an  intelligent  Christian 
woman.  Her  mother  was  a  free  colored  woman, 
her  father  an  educated  Englishman.  That 
little  school  laid  the  foundation  for  the  Hampton 
Institute,  and  was  the  forerunner  of  the  hun- 
dreds that  have  followed.  The  school-house 
stood  on  the  coast  where,  two  hundred  and 
forty-one  years  before,  the  first  slave-ship 
entered  the  waters  of  the  American  Continent. 
That  first  slave-ship  and  this  first  negro  school 
will  hereafter  be  contrasted  as  the  initiators  of 
two  widely  different  eras — of  barbarism  and 
civilization.  During  the  war  the  Society  ex- 
tended its  work  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  at  its 
close  was  in  the  front  rank  of  the  various  organ- 
izations at  work  among  the  freedmen,  turning: 
its  attention  specially  to  education  and  the 
establishment  of  a  high  grade  of  schools.  As  a. 
result  the  Association  founded  Fisk  University, 
Tennessee;  Talladega  College,  Alabama;  Touga- 
loo  University,  Mississippi;  Straight  University, 
Louisiana;  and  Tillotson  College,  Texas,  together 
with  forty-five  normal  and  graded  schools  and 
twenty-seven  common  schools,  scattered  over 
the  South. 

Theological  departments  also  were  established 
in  Howard  University,  Fisk  University,  Talla- 
dega College  and  Straight  University,  with  an 
aggregate  of  69  students.  Industrial  instruction 
first  began  in  Southern  mission  schools  in  Talla- 
dega, Ala.,  and  was  early  introduced  into  many 
other  schools,  and  has  been  constantly  extended. 
Talladega  College  and  Tougaloo  University  have 
large  farms.  In  all  the  larger  institutions  and 
normal  schools,  mechanical  arts  are  taught  to 
the  boys,  and  household  work,  cooking,  sewing, 
washing,  nursing,  etc.,  to  the  girls.  From  these 
schools  go  forth  annually  hundreds  of  well- 
qualified  teachers  and  ministers. 

When  General  Grant,  in  1870,  invited  the 
religious  and  missionary  bodies  to  assist  in  the 
work  among  the  Indians,  the  Association  took 
up  again  the  department  which  it  had  dropped, 
and,  in  1882,  by  an  arrangement  with  the  ABCFM 
it  assumed  the  care  of  its  missions  among  those' 
people,  withdrawing  itself  from  the  foreign  field. 
It  was  also  a  pioneer  in  work  among  the  Chinese 
in  California  as  early  as  1852.  In  1875  a  special 
superintendent  was  appointed,  and  the  work 
was  soon  greatly  enlarged.  Parallel  with  these 
lines  was  the  Society's  work  among  the  moun- 
tain whites  of  West  Virginia,  parts  of  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Georgia 
and  Alabama.  With  the  opening  of  Alaska,  in 
1890,  it  pressed  to  its  westernmost  limits  at  Cape 
Prince  of  Wales.  After  the  war  with  Spain,  by 
arrangement  with  the  Congregational  Home 
Missionary  Society,  it  took  Porto  Rico  as  its 
field,  leaving  Cuba  to  the  other  Society. 

The  Bureau  of  Woman's  Work,  organized  in 


American   Tract 
Amparibe 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


38 


1883,  conducts  that  part  of  the  work  of  the 
Association,  by  direct  appeals  and  through 
Women's  State  Missionary  Unions. 

A  summary  of  the  Society's  work  sho%vs  that 
in  the  southern  States  it  has  79  schools  with  480 
teachers  and  14,048  pupils,  230  churches,  139 
ministers  and  missionaries,  12,155  members,  and 
17  311  Sunday  school  scholars;  among  the 
Indians  20  churches,  1,453  members,  2,661 
Sunday  school  scholars,  6  schools,  342  pupils, 
47  white  and  41  Indian  teachers  and  mission- 
aries; among  the  Chinese  33  American  and  11 
Chinese  teachers;  in  Porto  Rico,  2  schools,  10 
teachers,  343  pupils.  . 

Official  organ  of  the  Society:     The  American  Missionary. 
monthly,  New  York. 

AMERICAN  TRACT  SOCIETY:  This  Society 
is  undenominational,  representing  all  the  Evan- 
geUcal  communities  of  the  U.  S.  It  combines 
both  home  and  foreign  work,  publishing 
Evangelical  Christian  literature  in  book  and 
leaflet  form  in  155  languages  or  dialects.  It 
has  depositaries  in  principal  cities,  employs 
colporteurs,  and  inakes  grants  to  religious  and 
benevolent  institutions. 

The  possibilities  of  the  printing  press  as  an 
evangelistic  agency  were  seen  very  soon  after  the 
invention  ot  printing.  At  Basel,  in  Switzerland, 
there  was  virtually  a  Bible  Society,  a  Colportage 
Association,  and  a  Tract  Society  for  France  as 
early  as  1524.  The  New  Testament  and,  after- 
ward the  Old  Testament,  in  several  portions, 
were  very  widely  circulated.  In  many  places, 
unreached  by  the  reformers  m  person  the 
Reformation  was  inaugurated  by  the  circulation 
of  the  writings  of  Luther  and  Melancthon. 
Indeed  the  press  proved  a  most  effective  agency 
in  scattering  seeds  of  reform  everywhere.  _ 

The  influence  of  this  idea  was  manifested  m 
England  by  the  organization  of  the  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  in 
1698  followed  after  a  century  by  the  Religious 
Tract  Society,  in  1799,  and  the  movement  ex- 
tended across  the  Atlantic.  In  1812  Ihe 
New  York  Religious  Tract  Society'  was  formed, 
and  in  1814  "The  New  England  Tract  Society,' 
at  Boston.  In  1823  this  latter  society  changed 
its  name  to  the  "American  Tract  Society,  and 
in  1825  it  became  a  branch  of  a  national  organ- 
ization, which  was  then  instituted,  bearing  the 
same  name,  and  designed  to  constitute  a  great 
central  society  for  the  whole  Union,  mvitmg  the 
cooperation  of  Christians  of  all  denominations, 
and  of  other  tract  associations  as  auxiliaries,  in 
publishing  and  circulating  whatever  would 
best  "diffuse  a  knowledge  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  as  the  Redeemer  of  sinners,  and  promote 
the  interest  of  vital  godliness  and  sound  mor- 
ality "  provided  only  that  such  publications 
shouid  be  "calculated'to  receive  the  approbation 
of  all  evangelical  Cliristians." 

Organization:  The  Society,  consisting  of  persons 
■who  have  become  members  and  Directors  by 
the  payment  of  not  less  than  $30  at  one  time, 
elects  a  Board,  consisting  of  President,  Vice- 
President  and  36  Managers.  This  Board 
appoints  an  Executive  Committee  of  18  Members 
which  in  turn  appoints  the  Executive  Officers, 
consisting  (1903)  of  a  Secretary,  a  Publishing, 
Secretary,  an  assistant  Treasurer  and  Auditors. 
The  Board  of  Managers  also  has  authority  to 
appoint  Members,  Directors,  Honorary  Vice- 
Presidents  and  to  fill  vacancies.  The  Execu- 
tive   Committee    is    divided    into    three    Sub- 


committees on  Publishing,  Distribution  and 
Finance.  The  Publishing  Committee  is  not 
permitted  to  contain  two  members  from  the 
same  ecclesiastical  connection,  and  no  tract 
can  be  published  to  which  any  member  of  the 
Committee  objects.  The  headquarters  of  the 
Society  are  in  the  Tract  Society  Building  m 
New  York  City.  There  are  also  depositaries 
in  Boston,  Cincinnati,  and  Chicago,  and  District 
Secretaries  at  Boston,  Rochester,  Cincinnati, 
and  Chicago,  with  Superintendents  of  Colportage 
at  Rochester  and  St.  Louis. 

Two  of  the  organizations  that  were,  for  prac- 
tical purposes,  united  with  the  American  Tract 
Society  of  New  York,  still  maintain  a  separate 
corporate  existence;  the  American  Tract  Society 
instituted  in  Boston,  and  the  AVestern  Tract 
Society,  with  headquarters  at  Cincinnati.  The 
former  withdrew  from  the  New  York  Society 
during  the  anti-slavery  discussion  of  1857-60, 
but  again  united  with  it  in  1897,  so  far  as  active 
work  is  concerned,  the  District  Secretary 
for  New  England  of  the  New  York  Society 
acting  as  its  Secretary,  and  the  Manager  of  the 
Boston  depository  as  its  Treasurer.  In  Cincin- 
nati the  Western  Tract  Society  has  a  separate 
Secretary.  ,     o     •       > 

Development:  For  two  years  after  the  Society  8 
organization,  only  tracts  were  issued.  In  the 
third  year  volumes  appeared,  the  first  being 
Doddridge's  Rise  and  Progress,  Saints'  Rest, 
Baxter's  Call,  Pilgrim's  Progress,  etc.  System- 
atic tract  distribution  in  New  York  City  and 
elsewhere  began  in  the  fourth  year.  In  the 
sixth  year  prominence  was  given  to  the  value 
of  tracts  in  connection  with  faithful  personal 
efforts  to  save  souls,  Harlan  Page  becoming 
eminent  in  this  transcendent  duty. 

The  volume  enterprise  was  inaugurated  in 
the  eighth  year  by  attempt  to  reach  every 
family  in  the  South  Altantic  States  with  one  or 
more  volumes.  The  West  was  included  the 
next  year.  "The  work  was  so  enlarged  that  in 
the  seventeenth  year  nearly  100  works  had  been 
published,  the  Evangelical  Family  Library  was 
issued,  and  some  2,000,000  volumes  had  been 
put  into  circulation,  and  60,000,000  of  tracts. 

In  1841  the  Society  inaugurated  its  system 
of  colportage,  with  special  reference  to  the 
destitute,  isolated  settlements,  unreached  by 
the  churches,  and  to  the  great  numbers  who 
refuse  to  enter  the  churches.  The  number  of 
colporteurs  increased  rapidly  until  by  1860,  over 
600  were  employed  for  the  whole  or  a  part  of 
eacli  year. 

Another  important  feature  in  tlie  publications 
of  the  Society  has  been  its  periodicals.  The 
first  to  be  established  was  The  American  Mes- 
senger, tlie  official  organ  of  the  Society,  founded 
in  1843.  It  is  an  illustrated  religious  monthly. 
There  followed  in  1847  the  Amerikanischer 
Botschafter,  similar  in  scope  and  purpose  to  the 
Messenger,  designed  for  circulation  among  the 
German-speaking  population;  in  1852  The 
Child's  Paper,  now  known  as  Good  Cheer, 
an  illustrated  monthly  paper  for  young  folks; 
in  1871  a  new  German  weekly,  called  the  Deut- 
scher  Volksfreund,  and  the  Illustrated  Christian 
Weekly,  which  was  afterwards  sold  (1888)  to 
another  house.  Two  new  periodicals  were  added 
in  1879;  Morning  Light,  for  the  younger  scholars 
in  the  Sunday  school,  and  Apples  of  Gold  for 
the  youngest  readers.  Besides  all  these,  there 
is    Light  and   Life,   a  monthly  tract   periodical 


89 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


American    Tract 
Amparlbe 


consisting  of  a  new  eight-page  tract  each  month. 
The  new  conditions  occasioned  by  such  exigen- 
cies as  attended  the  Mexican  War,  the  Civil 
War,  and  the  Spanisli  War,  have  been  met  by 
the  Society  witli  special  publications  and  arrange- 
ments for  distribution.  Especially  has  this 
been  the  case  in  regard  to  the  opportunity 
furnished  by  the  Spanisli  War.  The  Sunday 
School  paper.  Apples  of  Gold,  has  been  issued 
in  Spanish,  under  the  title  of  Manzanas  de  Oro; 
hymnals  have  been  prepared  and  a  general 
literature  as  complete  as  possible,  to  all  of  which 
has  been  accorded  a  most  enthusiastic  reception 
from  the  missionaries  of  various  denominations 
as  well  as  from  the  pastors,  teachers,  and  others 
in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Mexico,  and  South  America. 

The  flood  of  immigration  to  America  has 
furnished  another  field  for  the  Society's  work. 
The  great  mass  of  these  immigrants  land  at 
New  York  City,  and  the  Tract  Society  employs 
a  colporteur,  sometimes  with  one  or  more  assist- 
ants, to  meet,  encourage  and  advise  them  and 
to  supply  them  with  leaflets,  papers,  etc.,  in 
their  own  languages.  The  readiness  of  immi- 
grants to  receive  these  and  the  attention  paid 
are  remarkable,  and  many  times  thanks  are 
returned  to  the  Society  by  the  new  comers  after 
they  have  reached  their  homes  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.  Special  colportage  work  is  also 
carried  on  among  the  Mormons,  the  negroes  of 
the  South,  in  the  mining  and  lumber  regions, 
and  libraries  are  supplied  to  the  army  and  navy 
and  to  merchant  ships. 

The  foreign  work  of  the  Society  is  carried  on 
through  grants  to  the  missions  of  the  various 
denominations  or  to  local  Tract  Societies.  The 
general  method  is  for  a  committee,  representing 
the  several  mission  Boards  abroad,  to  request 
the  issue  of  specific  publications,  original  or 
translated.  The  American  Tract  Society  then 
provides  the  needed  funds  or  prints  the  tract 
or  volume  on  its  own  presses.  Frequently  it 
appropriates  a  lump  sum  from  year  to  year  to 
be  used  by  a  committee  or  mission  press,  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  and  methods  of  the  Society. 
Among  the  missions  thus  assisted  during  1901-2 
were  those  of  the  ABCFM  in  Austria,  Turkey, 
South  Africa  and  India;  of  the  ABMU  in 
Burma;  of  the  SBC  in  China;  of  the  Free  Baptists 
India;  of  the  PN  in  Africa,  India,  Persia,  Syria 
and  Siam;  of  the  RCA  in  Arabia  and  India,  etc. 
Among  the  Tract  Societies  aided  were  the 
Religious  Tract  Society  of  France,  the  Evan- 
gelical Tract  Society  of  Geneva,  the  Italian 
Evangelical  Publishing  Society,  the  North  India 
Christian  Book  and  Tract  Society,  the  Central 
China,  North  China,  and  Chinese  Tract  Societies, 
the  Korean  Religious  Tract  Society,  the  Japanese 
Book  and  Tract  Society,  etc. 

The  total  number  of  volumes  issued  from 
the  home  office  during  the  seventy-eight  years 
(to  1903),  is  32,743,752;  of  tracts,  449,554,252; 
and  of  periodicals,  264,278,668;  making  a  grand 
total  of  746,576,672  copies  of  publications 
printed.  During  1902  new  publications  issued 
at  foreign  mission  stations,  by  the  aid  of  funds 
furnished  by  the  Society,  were  38,  of  which  24 
were  volumes  and  14  tracts.  The  whole  number 
of  publications  issued  up  to  1903  at  foreign 
mission  stations,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Society's  Publishing  Committee,  either  wholly 
or  in  part  with  funds  of  the  Society  appropriated 
.  for  this  purpose,  is  5,080,  of  which  1,018  are 
volumes  and  4,062  tracts. 


The  regular  catalog  of  the  society  includes, 
aside  from  a  large  number  of  books,  tracts, 
hand  bills,  maps,  etc.,  in  English,  publications 
in  over  20  foreign  languages,  including  German, 
French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Welsh,  Dutch,  Nor- 
wegian, Danish,  Swedish,  Hungarian,  Finnish, 
Bohemian,  Polish,  German-Hebrew,  Lithuanian, 
Croatian    and   Chinese. 

The  foreign  cash  payments  for  publication 
(1902)  were  $4,928.08,  making  a  total  expendi- 
ture of  .$747,140.51.  The  total  receipts  (1902) 
were  $383,983.06. 

AMHARIC:  This  language  belongs  to  the 
Semitic  family  of  languages,  is  used  in  Abyssinia, 
and  is  related  to  the  ancient  Ethiopic  or  Giz. 
It  is  written  with  the  Giz  letters  increased  by 
some  additional  characters,  and  it  has  adopted 
words  from  the  Galla  and  some  other  neigh- 
boring African  tribes.  The  Amharic  is  modi- 
fied into  many  dialects  by  the  isolation  of  differ- 
ent sections  of  the  country. 

AMITY  HALL:  A  town  near  the  eastern 
extremity  of  Jamaica,  W.  I.;  station  of  the 
American  Friends'  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
(1897)  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  unmar- 
ried woman  missionary,  and  4  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  3  outstations,  4  Sunday  schools, 
2  young  people's  societies,  1  high  school  and 
108  professing  Christians. 

AMKHUT:  A  village  in  the  Malwa  region, 
Central  India;  station  of  the  PCC  (1897),  with  a 
missionary  physician  and  his  wife  and  1  native 
worker,  an  orphanage  and  a  dispensary. 

AMOY:  A  seaport  on  the  southern  coast  of  an 
island  of  the  same  name,  belonging  to  the  prov- 
ince of  Fo-kien,  China.  It  has  an  excellent 
harbor;  the  climate  is  cool  in  winter,  wet  in 
spring,  and  hot  in  summer;  its  inhabitants,  in 
1901,  were  96,000. 

Amoy  was  one  of  the  earliest  centers  of  Euro- 
pean trade  in  China.  The  stream  of  emigration 
thence  to  Singapore,  noticed  by  missionaries 
and  by  the  chaplains  of  foreign  seamen,  at  that 
point,  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  first  Eng- 
lish and  American  missions  at  Amoy. 

The  RCA  (commenced  by  ABCFM  in  1842 
and  transferred  in  1854)  now  has  at  Amoy  15 
missionaries  and  16  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  with  6  outstations.  The  PCE  (opened 
1850)  has  11  missionaries,  men  and  women,  and 
the  two  societies  together  11  preaching  places, 
5  village  schools,  3  high  schools,  1  theological 
class,  1  training  class  for  women  workers,  1 
medical  class,  1  dispensary,  1  printing  house,  1 
foundling  asylum,  1  orphanage,  and  425  church 
members. 

The  LMS  has  at  Amoy  (founded  1844)  14 
missionaries  and  59  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  with  65  outstations,  40  village  schools, 
1  high  school,  1  theological  class,  1  college,  and 
2,000  church  members. 

The  missionary  operations  at  Amoy  show  a 
good  example  of  comity  between  the  three 
societies  engaged. 

AMPAMARINANA:  A  town  of  Central  Mada- 
gascar, near  Antananarivo.  Mission  station  of 
the  LMS,  opened  in  1864  and  carried  on  by  a 
missionary  and  his  wife,  with  229  native  workers. 
There  are  25  village  schools,  and  2,622  com- 
municants. 

AMPARIBE:  A  town  of  Central  Madagascar, 
a    little    northwest    of    Antananarivo.     Mission 


Amraoti 
Amlevoranto 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


40 


station  of  the  LMS  opened  in  1861,  and  now 
carried  on  by  one  missionary  and  his  wife  with 
425  native  workers.  There  are  59  village  schools 
and  3,645  communicants. 

AMRAOTI:  Chief  town  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  E.  Berar,  Central  Provinces,  India. 
Its  population  is  about  33,000.  It  is  a  station 
of  the  CA  but  no  statistics  are  given.  It  is  an 
outstation  of  the  UFS  (1871)  with  22  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  4  village  schools,  and 
48  church  members. 

AMRITSAR:  An  important  city  and  com- 
mercial center  of  the  Punjab,  India,  and  the 
chief  seat  of  the  Sikh  worship.  Population 
(1901),  162,429.  It  has  a  "pool  of  Immortal- 
ity," on  an  island  in  which  stands  the  chief 
temple  of  the  Sikh  religion.  This  holy  place 
makes  Amritsar  a  religious  metropolis,  and 
attracts  to  it  great  numbers  of  Pilgrims. 

It  is  a  station  of  the  CMS,  founded  in  1851, 
and  now  carried  on  by  14  missionaries,  and  24 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  with  4  out- 
stations,  1  village  school,  1  high  school,  1  hos- 
pital, 5  dispensaries,  and  1  printing  house. 
There  are  165  communicants. 

It  is  also  a  station  of  the  CEZMS  with  16  mis- 
sionaries and  45  native  workers,  all  women,  with 
13  village  schools,  3  high  schools,  1  industrial 
school,  1  training  class  for  women  workers,  1 
hospital,  2  dispensaries,  and  400  pupils  in 
zenanas. 

The  religious  importance  of  the  place  gave  a 
profound  influence  to  the  conversion  here  of  one 
of  the  Sikh  priests  some  years  ago.  A  Mo- 
hammedan religious  teacher  converted  here  in 
1866  became  the  Rev.  Imad-ud-din,  a  Christian 
pastor  of  influence  and  preacher  of  great  power. 

AMROHA :  A  city  of  35,000  inhabitants  in  the 
Rohilkhand  division  of  the  United  Provinces, 
India.  Occupied  as  an  outstation  by  the  ME 
with  13  native  workers,  men  and  women.  It 
has  3  preaching  places,  8  village  schools,  and 
the  number  of  professing  Christians  is  570, 
chiefly  Sikhs,  but  some  of  them  converted  Mo- 
hammedans. 

AMSTERDAM  FARM:  A  village  in  the  Caro- 
lina district  of  the  Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa. 
Station  of  the  SPG,  with  2  missionaries. 

AMURANG:  A  station  of  the  Netherlands 
Missionary  Society  in  the  Minahassa  peninsula 
of  the  island  of  Celebes. 

ANAA.     See  Tuamottj  Islands. 

ANAKAPALLE:  Town  of  17,000  inhabitants 
(and  railroad  station),  west  of  Vizagapatam, 
Madras,  India;  station  of  the  BOQ  (1898),  with 
a  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  and  3  Sunday  schools. 

ANALAKELY:  A  town  in  the  Imerina  district 
of  Madagascar;  outstation  of  the  LMS,  founded 
in  1861;  has  148  native  workers,  with  20  village 
schools,  has  1,400  communicants. 

ANAMABOE:  A  village  near  Cape  Coast 
Castle  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  W.  Africa; 
station  of  the  WMS,  with  1  missionary  and  46 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  33  outstations, 
4  village  schools  and  450  church  members. 

ANAMITIC:  A  mongrel  dialect  of  Cochin 
China  so  far  influenced  by  the  Chinese  as  to  have 
its  nearest  affinity  with  that  language. 

ANAND:  A  town  in  the  Gujarat  district, 
Bombay,  India.     A  station  of  the  PCI,  opened 


in  1877.  It  is  now  occupied  by  4  missionaries 
and  42  native  workers,  men  and  women,  with  5 
outstations,  15  village  schools,  a  high  school  and 
an  orphanage.  There  are  144  communicant 
Christians. 

ANANDPUR:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  British 
India;  a  station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society, 
opened  in  1856.  There  are  now  3  missionaries 
and  4  native  workers,  men  and  women,  with  109 
communicants. 

ANANTAPUR:  A  town  in  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  Madras,  India;  station  of  the  LMS 
(1890),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  mis- 
sionary woman,  and  20  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  12  outstations,  12  village  schools,, 
and  45  church  members. 

ANCESTOR-WORSHIP:  The  worship  of  de- 
ceased ancestors  has  been  an  important  feature 
of  the  religious  practises  among  widely  sejjarated 
peoples  from  remote  ages.  In  modern  times  it 
has  chiefly  attracted  popular  attention  in  China, 
but  it  exists  in  Africa  (See  Bantu  Race) ;  traces  of 
it  are  found  among  the  American  Indians;  it  is 
discovered  among  the  Hindus,  who  have  in  the 
book  of  Vishnu  a  ritual  for  its  proper  perform- 
ance; it  can  be  noted  in  Western  Asia  in  a  rev- 
erence toward  the  graves  of  sages  and  heroes, 
which  leads  Mohammedans  and  others  to  pray 
with  equal  fervor  at  the  tomb  of  Hannibal 
or  at  the  mausoleums  of  forgotten  Christian 
saints,  and  it  appears  in  the  early  religious 
observances  of  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Its  essential  features  are:  (a)  unshakable  belief 
in  the  immortality  of  the  soul  (fc)  trust  in  the- 
power  of  the  dead  to  help  or  harm  the  living 
and  (c)  a  sense  of  personal  privilege  through 
ties  of  kin  to  enjoy  the  protection  of  the  deified  or 
semi-deified  ancestor.  The  mind  of  the  man  who 
worships  his  progenitors  is  in  an  attitude  resem- 
bling that  of  those  who  appeal  for  help  topatron 
saints  in  some  branches  of  the  Christian  Church. 

In  China  Ancestor-worship  is  a  part  of  the  Con- 
fucian system,  but  is  older  by  centuries  than  the 
time  of  Confucius,  and  its  claims  are  more  bind- 
ing on  a  Chinaman  than  those  of  any  other  form 
of  worship.  He  may  sneer  at  Buddhism,  ridi- 
cule the  outrageous  claims  of  the  Taouist  exor- 
cists, and  may  even  be  brought  to  see  that  the 
teachings  of  Confucius  himself  are  but  moral 
aphorisms  incapable  of  changing  the  life  and  bet- 
tering the  future  of  his  disciples,  but  he  will  not 
give  up  the  worship  of  the  ancestral  tablet,  and 
the  paying  of  that  honor  and  reverence  to 
deceased  parents  which  is  the  outcome  of  filial 
piety,  the  root  of  all  Chinese  institutions,  the- 
bulwark  of  her  government,  the  strong  chain 
which  has  bound  the  people  together  as  a  nation. 
The  worship  of  ancestors  is  the  real  religion  of 
China,  and  as  long  as  the  incense  is  smoking  on 
the  ancestral  altar,  so  long  will  Christianity  find 
in  this  practise  a  formidable  foe,  founded  as  it  is 
on  the  best  and  most  natural  instincts  of  the 
human  heart. 

When  a  man  dies  one  of  his  three  souls  is  sup- 
posed to  go  into  the  grave  with  the  body,  one 
goes  to  Hades,  and  one  goes  into  the  tablet 
which  is  prepared  for  its  occupancy  by  his  oldest 
son.  The  use  of  the  tablet  originated  m  the  Chau 
dynasty,  350  B.  C.  Rev.  Dr.  J.  Campbell  Gibson 
thus  describes  this  resting  place  for  the  soul : 

The  tablet  itself  is  a  small  block  of  wood  eight  inches  to  a 
foot  in  height  and  a  few  inches  in  breadth,  on  the  front  of 
which  is  written  the  name  of  the  person  whom  it  represents. 
It  is  sawn  through  its  thickness  into  two  portions,  and  on  the 


41 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Amraoti 
Amlevoranto 


inner  surface  thus  exposed  the  inscription  of  the  name  is 
repeated,  and  usually  the  date  of  birth  and  of  death  s  added. 
This  tablet  is  prepared  soon  after  death  takes  place,  and  it 
is  retained  during  one  or  two  generations  in  the  home  of  the 
family.  Offerings  are  made  to  it  from  time  to  time.  As  the 
tablets  of  successive  generations  take  their  places  in  the 
home,  those  of  earlier  date  are  removed  to  join  those  of  past 
generations  in  the  ancestral  temple.  Every  clan  and  every 
section  of  a  clan  has  its  oun  ancestral  temples,  and  few 
villages,  however  small,  are  without  one  at  least. 

On  the  new  and  full  of  every  moon  special 
offerings  and  worship  are  paid,  and  in  the  spring 
pilgrimages  are  made  to  the  tomb,  which  is  swept 
and  put  in  repair.  There  is  no  need  of  priestly 
interference  in  this  worship;  the  head  of  the  fam- 
ily is  the  high-priest,  and  as  the  older  ones  die  the 
younger  ones  take  their  places  in  this  as  in  all 
other  family  matters.  Ancestor-worship  binds 
family  ties,  it  perpetuates  mutual  interest,  and  is 
the  least  objectionable  and  therefore  the  most 
dangerous  form  of  pagan  worship.  While  it  is 
founded  on  high  principles — the  reverence  and 
love  of  parents — it  is,  in  fact,  a  duty  rendered 
from  motives  of  self-protection  and  self-interest, 
for  if  the  tablet  is  not  erected,  if  the  worship  be 
not  paid,  it  is  believed  that  the  wandering  spirit 
will  wreak  its  wrath  on  the  offending  descendant. 
The  fear  of  this  wrath  is  more  real,  more  vivid 
than  the  fear  of  any  of  the  other  gods. 

Each  succeeding  generation  in  bequeathing 
property  assigns  a  portion  to  be  used  for  the  per- 
manent maintenance  of  offerings  on  behalf  of  the 
dead.  The  practise  affects  the  laws  of  land 
tenure;  it  modifies  the  laws  of  inheritance,  giving 
a  larger  share  of  the  property  to  the  eldest  son, 
because  responsibility  for  keeping  up  the  worship 
rests  upon  him.  It  also  makes  the  birth  of 
numerous  daughters  a  calamity,  because  sons 
only  can  assure  maintenance  of  that  worship 
which  is  supposed  to  benefit  the  departed  soul. 

Ancestor-worship  has  been  of  benefit  to  China 
in  this  respect:  it  has  preserved  the  reverence  of 
parental  authority,  which  reaching  upward  has 
caused  national  respect  for  the  bead  of  the  nation 
as  the  father  of  his  people,  and  it  has  preserved 
the  position  of  woman  more  on  an  equality  with 
man,  and  has  defined  the  position  of  the  mother 
of  the  family  as  the  wife.  Only  one  "illustrious 
consort"  can  be  named  on  the  tablet  to  father  and 
mother,  so  there  is  but  one  wife,  tsih,  in  the  fam- 
ily. Concubines  there  may  be,  but  they  are  not 
admitted  into  the  worship  of  the  ancestral  hall, 
and  this  one  fact  has  done  much  to  preserve  the 
legal,  social  and  domestic  position  of  woman. 
Moreover,  the  system  not  only  forms  a  link  be- 
tween the  living  and  the  past  generations  of  the 
clan,  but  it  also  unites  all  contemporary  branches 
descended  from  a  common  stock.  In  fact  it  has 
been  said  that  Ancestor-worship  is  the  only  point 
upon  which  all  the  Chinese  unite. 

This  peculiarity  of  the  effects  of  the  worship  of 
ancestors  is  seen  wherever  it  is  practiced.  In 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  as  among  the  wild 
tribes  of  Africa  to-day,  the  tie  of  blood  relation- 
ship to  a  common  object  of  worship  always 
tended  to  knit  the  clans  or  tribes  together  into  a 
close  corporation,  admission  to  which  was  almost 
impossible.  It  also  tended  to  cultivate  an  exclu- 
siveness  which  regarded  all  who  are  not  members 
of  the  tribe  as  barbarians  without  rights  and  to 
whom  enmity  is  a  duty.  In  Africa  this  natural 
enmity  is  sometimes  set  aside  and  a  stranger  is 
admitted  to  security  by  mingling  his  blood  with 
that  of  a  tribal  chief.  In  this  ceremony,  intended 
to  establish  a  sort  of  blood  relationship  between 
the  foreigner  and  the  savage  tribe,  there  is  ample 


reason  for  believing  that  its  effect  in  requiring 
the  foreigner  to  venerate  the  ancestors  of  the  tribe 
is  presupposed  by  those  who  accept  him  as  a 
friend. 

The  barrier  against  Christianity  formed  by 
Ancestor-worship  is  solid  and  hard  to  pass.  In 
China  the  people  feel  a  shock  of  pain  and  revul- 
sion on  learning  that  Christians  do  not  worship 
their  deceased  parents.  When  a  Chinese  be- 
comes converted  and  abandons  the  practise  he  is 
regarded  as  having  inflicted  irreparable  injury 
upon  all  of  his  ancestors.  He  has  perhaps 
reduced  them  all  to  beggary.  The  stigma  resting 
upon  Christians  is  the  more  ineffaceable  and 
painful  to  endure  because  at  the  spring  "feast  of 
All-souls",  every  person  in  the  Chinese  Empire 
except  the  Evangelical  Christians  takes  part  in 
the  worship  of  the  dead. 

Under  these  circumstances  many  wise  men 
have  advised  against  a  too  rigid  rejection  of 
Ancestor- worship,  which  may  after  all  be  nearly 
akin  to  filial  respect.  But  the  attitude  of  Chris- 
tianity to  this  form  of  worship  can  easily  be 
determined  when  its  true  character  is  understood. 
Dr.  E.  Faber  succinctly  stated  its  position  when 
the  question  was  discussed  in  the  Missionary 
Conference  of  1890.  In  brief,  "Ancestral  worship 
presupposes  disembodied  souls  to  be  subject  to 
the  same  wants  as  living  bodies;  it  demands  real 
sacrifices  to  them;  it  makes  the  happiness  of  the 
living  depend  upon  appeasing  the  desires  of  the 
dead;  it  is  not  merely  commemorative,  but  it  is 
a  pretended  intercourse  with  the  world  of  spirits; 
it  has  developed  an  extreme  view  of  paternal 
authority,  placing  it  above  the  authority  of  God,, 
and  crushes  individual  liberty  and  it  chains  mil- 
lions of  people  to  the  past  and  prevents  sound 
progress. 

Gibson  (J.  C),  Mission  Problems  in  S.  China,  New  York,, 
Revell,  1900;  Yates  (M.  T.),  Ancestral  Worship,  Shanghai, 
1867;  Maine  (H.),  Early  Law  and  Custom;  Seebohm  (H. 
E.),  Structure  of  Greek  Tribal  Society,  London;  Religious 
System  of  the  Amazulu;  Ancestor  Worship,  Callaway  (H.), 
London,  1870. 

AN-CHIA-CHWANG :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-tung,  China;  station  of  the  ME,  with  6 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  2  village 
schools,  2  outstations  and  200  church  members. 

ANDAMAN  ISLANDS :  A  long  narrow  group  of' 
small  islands  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Bay  of" 
Bengal.  Area,  2,000  square  miles.  They  in- 
clude the  North,  Middle,  South  and  Little  Anda- 
man islands,  with  a  number  of  islets,  and  all  are 
densely  wooded.  They  are  used  as  a  penal  col- 
ony. The  climate  is  very  unhealthy.  The  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  17,500  of  whom  11,465  were 
convicts  and  1,882  native  aborigines. 

The  natives  are  a  diminutive  and  barbarous 
people,  who  seem  to  be  distinct  from  all  other 
known  races  in  physical  features,  language,  and 
customs. 

The  people  of  these  islands  are  averse  to  inter- 
course with  strangers.  Their  religion  is  little 
known  but  seems  to  consist  of  worship  of  good 
and  evil  deities. 

Missionary  effort  has  been  mainly  directed 
toward  the  convicts  at  Port  Blair. 

ANDOHALO:  District  E.  of  Antananarivo, 
Madagascar;  station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Society,  with  1  missionary,  45  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  16  outstations,  16  Sunday 
schools  and  640  communicants. 

ANDEVORANTO:  A  village  of  2,000  inhab- 
itants on  the  eastern  coast  of  Madagascar,  and 


Antivnanarlvo 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


43 


an  SPG  station,  founded  in  1874.  It  now  has 
129  communicants  under  the  care  of  one  Euro- 
pean missionary. 

ANDREWS,  Lorrin:  Born  April  29,  1795,  at 
East  Windsor  (now  Vernon),  Conn.;  graduated 
at  Jefferson  College,  Pa.;  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  1825;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM,  November  3,  1827,  for  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  reaching  Honolulu,  March  31,  1828; 
was  stationed  at  Lahaina  with  Mr.  Richards. 
In  1831  he  was  appointed  to  establish  the 
Lahainaluna  Seminary,  which  was  opened  ^  m 
September  of  that  year  with  25  pupils.  During 
the  succeeding  ten  years  he  exerted  hirnself  to 
found  the  institution  on  a  permanent  basis.  He 
resigned  his  connection  with  the  Board  in  1842, 
because  of  conscientious  differences  of  opiriion. 
In  1845  he  removed  to  Honolulu,  and  received 
the  appointment  of  judge  under  the  Hawaiian 
Government.  For  many  years  he  sat  upon  the 
bench  and  officiated  with  ability  and  integrity. 
His  services  were  highly  appreciated  by  Judge 
Lee.  For  many  years  he  acted  as  secretary  of 
the  Privy  Council,  keeping  the  records  in  Eng- 
lisli  and  Hawaiian.  He  resigned  his  office  of 
judge  in  1855,  but  an  annuity  of  $1,000  was 
appropriated  for  his  benefit  and  continued  by 
successive  legislatures  to  the  very  last.  During 
the  later  years  of  his  life  his  mind  and  pen  were 
constantly  occupied.  His  Hawaiian  Dictionary, 
defining  nearly  17,000  words,  occupied  him  for 
many  years.  His  research  into  the  folk-lore  of 
the  Hawaiian  people  had  been  very  extensive. 
He  died  at  Honolulu,  September  29,  1868. 

ANEIKADU:  A  village  of  the  district  of 
Tanjore,  S.  India,  occupied  as  an  outstation  by 
the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society.  It  has  10 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  and  356  com- 
municants. 

ANEITIUM.     See  New  Hebrides. 
ANEITIUM  LANGUAGE:    It  is  of   the   Mela- 
nesian  family   and  is  used  by  the  people  of  an 
island  of  the  N.   Hebrides.     It  is  written  with 
Roman  letters. 

ANGOLA:  A  possession  of  Portugal,  also 
called  Portuguese  West  Africa,  bordering  the 
Atlantic,  with  a  coast  line  of  more  than  a  thou- 
sand miles  from  the  borders  of  the  French 
Congo  to  German  Southwest  Africa  and  extend- 
ing back  into  the  continent  variable  distances 
to  the  borders  of  the  Congo  Free  State  and 
British  South  Africa.  It  has  an  area  of  484,000 
square  miles,  and  an  estimated  population  of 
4  1 19,000.  That  characteristic  feature  of  the 
African  coast,  the  line  of  cliffs  approached  by 
terraces,  is  continued  northward  through  Angola. 
The  country  is  well  watered,  especially  in  the 
north.  In  the  south  the  rainfall  is  less,  and 
many  of  the  streams  dry  up.  Great  diversity 
of  climate  is  experienced  in  such  a  length  of  coast 
line.  There  are  also  extreme  local  variations, 
due  to  accidental  conditions.  Vegetation  be- 
comes more  abundant  as  you  pass  from  south  to 
north.  The  elephant  and  lion  become  scarce. 
Panthers  and  hyenas  are  numerous.  Zebras 
and  antelopes  occur  in  the  south.  Insects  are 
rare,  but  the  rivers  are  well  stocked  with  fish. 
Caoutchouc,  orchilla  moss  (used  in  dyeing), 
gum  copal,  palm,  acacia,  baobab,  etc.,  are  chief 
sources  of  wealth.  Manioc,  maize,  millet,  sorgo, 
and  European  fruits  and  vegetables  are  culti- 
vated. The  country  is  also  rich  in  minerals. 
The   population   of   Angola   is   affected   by   the 


northward  movement  of  Boers;  also  by  immi- 
gration from  Brazil,  and  by  the  intermingling  of 
Portuguese  with  the  natives.  But  north  ot 
Mossamedes  acclimatization  for  Europeans  is  a 
difficult  and  dangerous  process.  There  are 
about  6,000  of  European  descent  in  Angola. 

Preto  is  the  name  given  to  the  negroes  who 
have  been  brought  into  direct  contact  with 
European  civilization,  and  who  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  coast  towns  and  their  vicinity,  and 
on  the  lines  of  travel  and  trade.  Among  them 
are  found  many  well-informed  people,  merchants, 
and  colonial  officials. 

The  tribes  south  of  Benguela  are  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  primitive  race,  Bushmen  or  Hot- 
tentots, and  partake  of  their  general  character- 

The  Ganguelas  occupy  the  Upper  KuJDango 
basin.  A  great  variety  of  social  condition  is 
found  in  studying  the  different  tribes.  They  are 
represented  as  savage,  but  intelligent  and  enter- 
prising. In  some  tribes  trial  by  ordeal  of  the 
poisoned  cup  is  practised.  Their  headdress  is 
wonderful,  surpassing  that  of  most  African 
peoples;    their  dress  is  scanty. 

On  the  Congo  is  found  the  Bafyote  or  Bacongo 
group.  They  were  the  founders  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Congo.  That  kingdom  still  exists, 
tho  weak,  as  most  the  tribes  have  seceded. 
Roman  Catholic  influence  was  once  apparently 
great,  but  evidently  superficial.  Fetishism  is 
rampant,  nearly  every  natural  object  being  a 
fetish.  The  Bamba  magicians  have  wonderful 
skill  in  feats  of  jugglery. 

The  principal  centers  of  trade  and  general 
influence  are  San  Salvador,  capital  of  the  old 
Congo  kingdom,  and  the  center  of  a  flourishing 
Baptist  mission;  Ambriz;  S.  Paolo  de  Loanda, 
the  capital  and  largest  city  for  3,000  miles  on  the 
west  African  seaboard;  Dondo,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  of  the  Quanza;  Pamba,  in  the 
Ambaca  district,  terminus  of  the  railway  from 
Loando;  and  Bih^,  the  terminus  of  the  southern 
trade  route,  300  miles  long,  starting  from  Ben- 
guela. 

Bih6  is  properly  the  name  ot  the  extremely 
fertile  plateaus  about  5,000  feet  above  the  sea 
level  occupied  by  rude  and  wholly  uncivilized 
but  shrewd  people  of  mixed  origin.  It  is  the 
headquarters  of  a  mission  of  the  ABCFM.  On 
the  coast  are  Benguela,  charmingly  situated 
and  Mossamedes,  a  well-sheltered  port.  Travel 
has  been  facilitated  in  recent  years  by  the  open- 
ing of  new  railroads.  About  225  miles  of 
railroad  have  been  built,  and  other  railways  are 
projected,  connecting  the  principal  towns  of 
the  territory.  There  are  also  about  800  miles 
of  telegraph  in  operation. 

Apart  from  Roman  Catholic  missions  under 
Portuguese  protection,  the  missionary  societies 
established  in  Angola  are  the  BMS,  ME,  ABCFM, 
PB,  and  the  FCMS.  The  BFBS  also  has  an 
agency  in  Angola.  The  whole  number  of  sta- 
tions occupied  by  these  societies  is  14. 
Monteiro,  Angola  and  the  river  Congo,  London,  1895,  2  vols. 

ANGORA:  A  city  of  •  36,000  inhabitants; 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name  in 
Asiatic  Turkey.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable 
commercial  importance,  as  it  was  in  ancient 
times  under  the  name  of  Ancyra  of  Galatia. 
The  majority  of  the  population  are  Moham- 
medans. It  is  a  strong  center  of  the  Armenian 
Catholics.  There  are  also  Armenians,  a  few 
Greeks,   and   some   Protestants.     At  Istanos,   a 


43 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


AitrtrcTVB 
Antanunai'iT'O 


village  a  few  miles  from  Angora,  there  is  a  Prot- 
estant church  of  influence  and  activity  which 
affects  all  the  region. 

ANGRA  PEQUENA:  A  town  on  a  bay  of  the 
same  name  on  the  coast  of  German  Southwest 
Africa.  It  is  the  seaport  of  Great  Namaqualand, 
where  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society  has  sev- 
eral stations  and  a  colony  of  Europeans  is  slowly 
growing. 

ANG-TAU:  A  village  in  the  Fo-kien  province, 
China,  S.  W.  of  Fuchau;  station  of  the  ME  with 
17  native  workers,  men  and  women,  4  outstations, 
7  Sunday  schools,  5  young  people's  societies,  5 
common  schools  and  400  church  members. 
Also  written  Tang-tau. 

ANGULANA:  A  town  S.  of  Colombo  on  the 
W.  Coast  of  Ceylon;  station  of  the  WMS,  with 
■one  missionary  and  16  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  3  outstations,  4  Sunday  schools,  5 
village  schools  and  65  church  members. 

ANHALT-SCHMIDT:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony, 
South  Africa.  Mission  station  of  the  Berlin 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society  (1860);  with 
■2  missionaries,  12  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  2  outstations,  and  500  communicants. 

AWIWA:  A  small  island  in  the  southernmost 
group  of  the  New  Hebrides.  Population,  192, 
all  Christians. 

ANIWAN:  This  language  belongs  to  the 
Melanesian  family  and  is  used  by  less  than  a 
thousand  persons  inhabiting  Aniwa  Island. 
It  has  been  written  for  missionary  purposes 
with  Roman   letters. 

ANKLESWAR:  A  town  of  11,000  inhabitants 
near  Broach  on  the  Narbada  River,  Bombay, 
India;  station  of  the  German  Baptist  Brethren 
Mission,  with  a  missionary  and  his  wife,  an 
orphanage,  and  25  church  members. 

AN-KO-CHUANG:  A  town  in  the  Chi-li  prov- 
ince of  China;  station  of  the  ME,  with  6  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  1  high  school,  1 
village  school,  and  185  church  members. 

ANLO:   A  dialect  of  the  Ew6  language,  q.  v. 

ANNAM:  A  kingdom  under  the  protectorate 
of  France,  occupying  the  most  eastern  portion 
of  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  east  of  Siam 
and  southeast  of  Burma.  Area,  30,000  square 
miles.  Surface,  irregular  and  mountainous. 
Rivers  numerous,  and,  altho  too  shallow  for 
navigation,  most  useful  for  irrigation.  The 
country  produces  an  abundance  of  rice,  sugar, 
spices,  and  tropical  fruits.  The  Annamese  are 
somewhat  akin  to  the  Chinese  in  language  and 
in  many  of  their  important  customs,  but  they 
also  partake  largely  of  the  Malay  characteristics, 
and  evidently  form  a  link  between  the  Mongo- 
lian and  Malay  races.  They  are  generally  quiet 
and  inoffensive,  indolent  and  fond  of  gayety. 
The  women  are  much  oppressed,  but  not  obliged 
to  live  in  seclusion.  The  religions  are  Buddhism, 
Confucianism,  Spiritism,  and  Christianity. 
Annam  is  governed  by  an  emperor,  with  a  French 
resident  to  guide  his  policy.  Mandarins  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  govern  the  provinces 
and  control  the  standing  army,  which  is  compara- 
tively large.  The  capital  of  the  country  is  Hu^, 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name.  The  early  history 
of  Annam  is  involved  in  obscurity;  it  is  only 
known  that  wars  with  the  neighboring  powers 
determined  its  boundaries,  and  that  the  empire 
was  formerly  entirely  subject  to  China. 


In  the  17th  century,  when  Annam  was 
most  prosperous,  the  Jesuits  (among  them 
the  celebrated  Jesuit  missionary,  Alexander 
von  Rhodes,  who  came  there  in  1615)  introduced 
Christianity,  and  in  spite  of  much  persecution 
propagated  it  with  such  energy  that  at  the  close 
of  the  18th  century  French  priests  had 
converted  the  emperor  and  established  a  hier- 
archy of  great  influence.  Later,  however,  these 
doctrines  were  rejected  by  the  emperors,  and 
the  priests  and  converts  persecuted.  One  em- 
peror, Tu-Due,  was  especially  opposed  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  murder  of  several  missionaries, 
between  1854  and  1858,  served  as  pretext  for 
the  acquirement  of  a  French  colony  in  the 
East.  In  1858  a  French  fleet  was  sent  by 
Napoleon  III.,  which  succeeded  in  capturing 
several  important  towns,  and,  altho  the 
Annamese  made  stout  resistance,  the  French 
succeeded  in  dictating  terms  of  peace  by  which 
they  became  possessors  of  three  provinces. 
These  remain  m  their  possession  under  the 
name  of  Indo-China,  the  only  important  French 
colony  in  the  East.  By  this  treaty  three  ports 
in  Tonquin  were  opened,  and  Christianity 
was  permitted  throughout  Annam.  An  insur- 
rection occurred  in  1862,  which  was  quelled  by 
the  French. 

There  are  no  Protestant  missions  in  Annam, 
the  only  missionaries  being  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  In  the  entire  kingdom  of  Annam, 
with  a  population  numbering  C1901)  6,124,000, 
there  are  420,000  Catholics,  under  the  care  of 
125  European  and  264  native  priests,  in  7  apos- 
tolic vicariates. 
Tonkin,  or  France  in  the  Far  East,  Norman  (C.  B.),  London, 

1884;   Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East,  ibid.,  London. 

1895. 

ANNAMESE:  The  language  spoken  in  Annam 
belongs  to  the  Mon-Anam  branch  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  family  of  languages.  It  has  its  own 
written  characters,  but  has  been  written  in 
Roman  letters  in  some  Bible  translations.  It 
is  spoken  by  about  10,000,000  people. 

ANNFIELD:  A  village  in  the  Dehra  Dun 
district.  United  Provinces,  India;  station  of 
the  CMS  (1859),  with  3  missionaries  and  7  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  a  village  school  and 
206   communicants. 

ANOSIBE:  District  S.  E.  of  Antananarivo, 
Madagascar;  station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Society  (1899),  with  1  missionary,  2  unmarried 
missionary  women,  62  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  30  outstations,  30  village  schools, 
1  high  scliool,  1  industrial  school,  and  25  com- 
municants. 

ANTANANARIVO:  Capital  of  Madagascar. 
Climate,  temperate.  Elevation,  4,500  feet. 
Population  (1901),  about  50,000;  of  Hova, 
Malagasy,  Polynesian  and  Micronesian  stock, 
each  class  speaking  a  separate  language.  Re- 
ligion, fetishism;  belief  in  charms  and  ordeals. 
Social  condition,  comparatively  civilized.  Occu- 
pations, metal  and  straw  work,  spinning,  weaving, 
etc.,  in  all  of  which  skill  is  shown. 

Station  of  the  LMS  and  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Society,  to  which  the  LMS  transferred  the 
most  of  its  work  after  the  French  occupation 
of  the  island  in  1896.  Together  the  Societies 
have  29  missionaries  and  24  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  9  high  schools,  1  college,  and 
a  printing  house.  There  are  30,000  church  mem- 
bers in  the  district. 


Antigua 

Apostolic 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


44: 


Also  station  of  the  Friends  Foreign  Mission 
Society,  with  6  missionaries  and  31  native 
workers,  men  and  women.  It  has  2  high  schools, 
a  printing  house  and  a  dispensary,  and  300 
professing  Christians. 

Also  station  of  the  SPG  with  6  missionaries 
and  8  native  workers,  men  and  women,  and 
733  communicants. 

The  Norwegian  Missionary  Society^  also  has 
a  station  here  (since  1869),  with  a  hospital. 

ANTIGUA:  An  island  in  the  British  Colony 
of  the  Leeward  Islands,  W.  I.  Its  population 
is  about  36,000,  chiefly  negroes  who  are  Chris- 
tians. The  Moravians  have  seven  mission  stations 
in  the  island. 

ANTIOCH:  A  city  of  17,500  inhabitants,  in 
the  province  of  Aleppo,  Asiatic  Turkey.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Orontes  River,  about  20  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  largest  part 
of  the  population  is  Mohammedan.  Greeks, 
Armenians,  Roman  Catholics,  and  a  few  Protes- 
tants make  up  the  Christian  part  of  the  popu- 
lation. Altho  the  place  has  lost  the  impor- 
tance of  Apostolic  days,  it  is  still  the  seat  of  a 
Greek  Patriarchate. 

It  is  a  station  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Churches  of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  with  3  mis- 
sionaries and  7  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  a  dispensary,  2  village  schools  and  50 
church  members. 

ANTIOKA:  Station  of  the  Swiss  Romande 
Missionary  Society,  situated  on  the  Komati 
River,  N.  of  Lourengo  Marques,  Portuguese 
East  Africa.  It  is  occu{)ied  by  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  1  unmarried  missionary  woman, 
and  2  native  workers:  2  preaching  places,  2 
village  schools,  a  book  depot,  and  30  commu- 
nicants. 

ANTOFAGASTA  :  A  seaport  in  Chile,  S. 
America,  the  terminus  of  a  railway  across  the 
Andes  into  Bolivia.  Population  about  8,000; 
station  of  the  ME,  with  1  missionary,  2  Sunday 
schools,  and  80  church  members. 

ANTSIRABE:  A  district  near  Betafo,  Mada- 
gascar; station  of  the  Norwegian  Missionary 
Society,  with  2  missionaries,  and  a  hospital. 

ANUM:  A  town  of  the  Volta,  Gold  Coast, 
West  Africa.  Population,  5,000.  A  station 
was  founded  here  by  the  Basel  Missionary  So- 
ciety in  1864,  but  in  1869  the  city  was  destroyed 
by  the  Ashantis.  In  1881,  however,  the  station 
was  rebuilt  There  are  now  5  missionaries  and 
31  native  workers,  raen  and  women,  with  21  out- 
stations  and  23  village  schools.  There  are  740 
communicants. 

ANUPSHAHR:  A  town  on  the  Ganges  in  the 
Bulandshahr  district.  United  Provinces,  India; 
station  of  the  ME  with  6  native  workers,  men 
and' women,  8  Sunday  schools,  5  village  schools, 
a  Young  People's  Society,  and  600  church 
members. 

AONLA:  Town  in  the  Rohilkhand  district, 
United  Provinces,  India,  S.  W.  of  Bareilly; 
station  of  the  ME,  with  19  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  8  Sunday  schools,  4  village  schools, 
and  750  church -members. 

AOMORI:  A  town  of  15,000  inhabitants  on  the 
extreme  northern  coast  of  the  island  of  Hondo, 
Japan. 

It  is  a  station  of  the  RCA  with  1  missionary 
woman,  2  native  workers,  man  and  woman,  and 
30  professing  Christians.     Occupied  in  1891. 


It  is  also  a  station,  occupied  in  1893,  of  the  PE,, 
with  2  women  missionaries  and  2  native  workers,, 
man  and  woman. 

It  is  also  an  outstation  of  the  ME  with  1 
native  worker. 

APAIANG.     See  Gilbert  Islands. 

APAM:  A  town  on  the  coast  E.  of  Cape  Coast 
Castle,  Gold  Coast  Colony,  W.  Africa;  station  of 
the  WMS,  with  1  missionary,  51  native  workers, 
42  outstations,  6  Sunday  schools,  5  common 
schools  and  325  church  members. 

APAMANA.     See  Gilbert  Islands. 

API.     See  New  Hebrides. 

API,  or  BAKI  LANGUAGE:  The  Api  or  Baki, 
belongs  to  the  Melanesian  family  of  languages 
and  is  spoken  in  the  island  of  Api,  New  Hebrides. 
It  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 

APIA :  The  principal  seaport  of  Upolu,  Samoan 
Islands,  with  an  excellent  and  much  frequented 
harbor.  Mission  station  of  the  LMS  (1836),  with 
(1903)  4  missionaries,  men  and  women,  38  native 
worders,  and  1,525  communicants. 

Mission  station  of  the  Interna,tional  Medical 
Mission  Association,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  hospital,  and  1  dispensary. 

Also  mission  station  of  the  Seventh  DayAdvent- 
ist  Missionary  Society,  with  a  missionary  and 
his  wife  and  3  unmarried  missionary  women.  A 
book  depot  is  kept  up. 

APIZACO:  Town  in  Tlaxcala,  Mexico;  station 
of  the  ME,  with  8  native  workers,  4  outstations^ 
5  common  schools  and  434  church  members. 

APPELSBOOSCH :  Village  in  Natal,  South 
Africa;  station  of  the  Church  of  Sweden  Mission, 
with  6  missionaries  and  6  native  workers,  men 
and  women.  Connected  with  it  are  6  outsta- 
tions, 4  preaching  places  and  4  village  schools. 

APPENZELLER,  Rev.  Henry  G. :  Born  at  Sou- 
derton.  Pa.,  February  6,  1858.  Died  June 
11,  1902.  Graduated  from  Franklin  and  Mar- 
shall College,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in  1882;  attended 
Drew  Theological  Seminary  two  years;  appointed 
by  Bishop  Fowler,  in  1885,  as  one  of  the  first 
Methodist  missionaries  to  Korea,  arriving  at 
Chemulpo  with  his  wife  on  April  5,  1885. 
During  seventeen  years  he  was  one  of  the  most 
faithful  and  efficient  missionaries  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  and  held,  with  honor,  a 
number  of  responsible  positions.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Pai  Chai  College  at  Seoul,  principal  of 
the  Theological  Department  and  pastor  of  three 
churches.  As  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Scrip- 
tures into  the  Korean  language  he  made  a  per- 
manent contribution  to  the  cause  of  missions, 
and  his  linguistic  services  were  highly  esteemed 
by  his  associates  of  other  denominations.  The 
name  of  Pai  Chai  Hak  Tang  was  given  to  the  col- 
lege by  the  King  of  Korea,  who  paid  for  the  tui- 
tion of  a  number  of  pupils,  and  who  showed  the 
highest  regard  for  the  principal.  On  July  24,  1887, 
Mr.  Appenzeller  had  the  joy  of  hearing  the  testi- 
mony of  the  first  convert  in  the  mission;  and 
Christmas  day  of  that  year  he  preached  his  first 
sermon  in  the  Korean  language,  his  text  being: 
"Thou  shalt  call  His  name  Jesus,  for  He  shall  save 
His  people  from  their  sins."  In  April  and  May, 
1887,  Dr.  Appenzeller  journeyed  nearly  200  miles 
to  Pyeng-yang,  it  being  the  first  missionary  jour- 
ney taken  in  that  direction,  and  during  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  went  to  Wi-ju,  the  gateway  to 
China,  receiving  eleven  men  into  the  Church  on 
profession  of  their  faith  in  Christ.     In  his  explor- 


45 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


AntliB^na 
Apostolio 


ing  itineraries,  at  a  later  date,  he  visited  eight 
provinces  of  the  Icingdom;  and  during  tliese  mis- 
sionary journeys  he  left  a  deep  and  lasting 
impression  for  good.  In  1890  he  toolv  part  in 
the  organization  of  the  first  Quarterly  Conference 
in  Korea  at  Seoul,  and  before  his  labors  ceased  he 
had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  number  of  com- 
municants in  Korea  reach  nearly  4,000.  On  the 
.afternoon  of  June  11,  1902,  Dr.  Appenzeller  set 
sail  for  Mokpo  to  attend  a  session  of  the  Board 
of  Bible  Translators,  which  had  been  called  to 
meet  there.  During  the  night  of  that  day  the 
steamer  was  run  into  by  another  steamer  near 
Guelin  Island,  and  with  fourteen  Koreans,  three 
Japanese  and  eight  of  the  crew,  this  devoted  mis- 
sionary lost  his  life. 

APOSTOLIC  AND  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MIS- 
SIONS: For  the  first  three  centuries  of  its  life,  the 
Christian  Church  was  distinctively  a  missionary 
church.  Its  chief  purpose  was  the  spread  of 
Christianity.  It  fought  heresy  bitterly,  but  for 
the  great  mass  of  the  people,  creeds  were  a  sec- 
ondary consideration.  Preaching  the  Gospel  took 
always  the  first  place. 

From  the  paucity  of  record,  apart  from  the 
Book  of  Acts,  and  some  references  in  the  epistles, 
some  have  supposed  that  aside  from  Paul,  Peter 
and  John,  and  their  immediate  associates,  there 
was  little  interest  either  in  the  Apostolic  com- 
pany or  the  great  mass  of  believers,  in  the  carry- 
ing of  the  Gospel  message  to  remote  sections. 
That  this  is  incorrect,  is  manifest  from  the  ad- 
vance actually  made  (see  Geography  of  Missions). 
It  is  impossible  that  a  new  faith  should  so  rapidly 
Iiave  extended  over  so  wide  a  territory  and 
against  such  fearful  odds,  in  comparatively  so 
short  a  time  without  great  effort.  At  the  middle 
of  the  2d  century  Justin  Martyr  wrote:  "There 
is  no  people,  Greek  or  barbarian  or  of  any  other 
race,  by  whatsoever  appellation  or  manners  they 
may  be  distinguished,  however  igno»ant  of  arts  or 
agriculture,  whether  they  dwell  in  tents  or  wan- 
der about  in  covered  wagons,  among  whom 
prayers  and  thanksgiving  are  not  offered,  in  the 
name  of  the  crucified  Jesus,  to  the  Father  and 
Creator  of  all  things." 

Fifty  years  later  Tertullian  in  his  address  to  the 
heathen  said:  "We  are  but  of  yesterday,  and  yet 
we  already  fill  your  cities,  its  lands,  camps,  your 
palace,  senate  and  forum;  we  have  left  you  only 
your  temples." 

Already  Abgar,  claimed  by  the  Armenians  as 
their  first  leader  in  the  faith,  had  been  baptized, 
and  even  if  St.  Thomas  himself  never  visited  India, 
a  Christian  teacher  from  Alexandria  visited  Mala- 
bar in  190  and  not  long  after  it  was  reported  that 
there  were  350  strong  churches  in  that  land. 
Early  in  the  3d  century  twenty  bishops  from 
the  Nile  valley  attended  a  council  in  Alexandria, 
while  Tertullian's  church  at  Carthage  was  but  the 
leader  among  several  in  North  Africa.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  also  that  when  Constantine  made 
Christianity  the  religion  of  the  Roman  Empire,  he 
accepted  a  situation  already  of  remarkable  char- 
acter. It  was  no  parallel  to  the  conversion  of 
some  of  the  northern  nations,  where  the  ruler's  will 
was  all  that  was  needed  to  insure  a  change  of  wor- 
ship, regardless  of  a  change  of  thought  or  of  heart. 
No  emperor,  however  mighty,  could  have  made 
Rome  Christian,  had  Christianity  not  already 
been  woven  into  the  very  fiber  of  its  national  life. 

In  considering  how  this  was  brought  about  the 
agencies,  methods  and  underlying  purpose  must 
be  kept  in  mind. 


Agencies:  The  great  agency  of  the  Apostolic 
Church  in  the  missionary  enterprise  was  the  rank 
and  file  of  its  membership.  During  the  first 
three  centuries  there  were  very  few  who  like  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  Silas,  Timotheus  and  a  few  others, 
gave  themselves  to  the  work  of  preaching  in  new 
countries.  Even  the  great  leaders  who  followed 
the  apostles,  Polycarp,  Justin  Martyr,  Ignatius, 
Origen,  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Clement  and  others, 
were  not  missionaries  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
term  is  used  now.  They  were  all  located  in  the 
centers,  and  did  valiant  work  in  them,  but  they 
were  seldom  explorers,  leaders  in  the  outreaching 
of  the  Church.  That  was  chiefly,  almost  entirely, 
the  work  of  obscure  men,  for  the  most  part  lay- 
men, and  also  for  the  most  part  not  distmctively 
set  apart  for  the  work.  The  one  supreme  charac- 
teristic of  the  Apostolic  Church  in  this  respect  is 
the  missionary  zeal  and  activity  of  the  individual 
members.  Women  as  well  as  men — merchants, 
miners,  sailors,  soldiers,  craftsmen,  voluntarily 
made  it  one  of  their  chief  objects,  whether  at 
home  or  abroad,  in  private  or  public  life,  to 
extend  to  others  the  Gospel  message.  Then,  as  in 
no  period  since,  was  it  true  that  every  individual 
Christian  was  a  missionary,  and  it  was  to  this 
individualistic  evangelism  that  was  due  the  mar- 
velous extension  of  those  three  centuries. 

Methods:  In  all  this,  then,  there  was  little  organi- 
zation. Bishops  gradually  acquired  control  in 
their  own  cities  and  districts,  but  all  were  equal, 
and  there  seems  to  have  been  no  concerted  action. 
Each  man,  whether  in  the  centers  or  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  Empire,  was  free  to  conduct  his  dio- 
ceses much  as  he  pleased  and  this  freedom 
extended  to  the  specific  action  of  his  individual 
followers,  who  were  free  to  teach  as  they  judged 
best,  so  long  as  they  kept  clear  of  heresy  and 
made  manifest  in  their  lives  the  principles  they 
professed.  It  was  in  the  combination  and  accord 
of  precept  and  practise  that  lay  the  great  power  of 
that  early  Church. 

Yet  there  was  after  all  a  certain  method  appar- 
ent in  this  individualism.  The  special  efforts 
were  made  in  the  great  centers,  the  cities  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  along  the  lines  of  commercial 
activity.  As  fast  as  the  community  in  one  place 
became  large  enough  a  leader  was  found,  placed 
there  and  expected  to  see  that  his  diocese  grew  in 
numbers  and  influence.  Thus  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus  was  made  bishop  of  his  native  city, 
Neo-Cesarea,  in  Pontus,  when  there  were  about 
twenty-seven  Christians  there.  At  the  close  of 
his  ministry  there  were  said  to  be  but  twenty- 
seven  pagans  left. 

With  the  growth  of  the  Church  there  developed 
also  the  aids  to  work.  This  is  the  period  of  the 
early  versions — the  Peshito  and  Curetonian 
Syriac  for  Syria  and  Mesopotamia;  the  Memphitie, 
Thebaic  and  Bashmuric  for  Egypt  and  the 
Upper  Nile  Valley;  the  North  African  and  Italian 
Latin  for  Carthage  and  Rome.  Alexandria, 
always  a  literary  center,  became,  too,  the  seat  of  a 
catechumen's  school,  practically  a  missionary 
college  from  which  trained  workers  were  sent  out 
to  Africa,  Europe  and  Asia. 

Motive:  In  the  earlier  years  of  this  period,  the 
controlling  motive  in  this  missionary  work 
appears  to  have  been  personal  loyalty  to  the 
Savior  and  a  desire  that,  as  He  had  been  rejected 
and  crucified,  so  now  He  might  be  accepted  and 
enthroned.  There  was  indeed  recognition  of  the 
need  of  men,  but  the  impelling  impulse  was  less 
that  than  their  love  for  Christ  and  a  desire  that 


Apostolic 
Arabia 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


46 


He  receive  full  honor.  As  the  work  continued  the 
human  element  became  more  prominent.  The 
risen  Savior  out  of  sight  was  to  a  degree  replaced 
by  the  needy  ones  in  sight.  There  was  a  better 
conception  of  the  object  of  Christ's  mission,  in  its 
relation  both  to  the  individual  soul  and  to  the  mul- 
titudes who  were  without  God  and  without  hope. 
Human  sympathy  assumed  a  larger,  place,  and 
the  salvation  of  men  became  more  distinctively 
the  object  and  motive  of  missionary  labor. 

With  the  opening  of  the  4th  century  there 
came  a  change  in  almost  every  respect.  The 
active  missionary  propaganda  of  the  Apostolic 
Church  gave  place  to  an  effort  to  assimilate  the 
great  mass  of  heathenism,  which,  when  Constan- 
tine  made  Christianity  the  dominant  faith, 
accepted  its  forms  without  entering  into  its 
spirit.  At  the  same  time  the  loose  individualism 
of  the  preceding  period  was  followed  by  a  closer, 
more  compact  organization,  due  partly  to  the 
change  in  political  conditions,  partly  to  the 
necessity  of  better  supervision  to  counteract  the 
influences  of  heathenism,  the  growth  of  divergent 
and  heretical  creeds,  and  partly  to  incursions  from 
the  wild  natives  of  the  north.  The  Church  had 
by  a  sudden  bound  become  a  nation,  and  the 
simpler  forms  possible  in  a  community  became 
inadequate  to  the  new  duties  and  responsibili- 
ties. 

The  result,  so  far  as  missionary  work  was  con- 
cerned, was  that  the  Church  as  a  whole  ceased  to 
have  any  special  interest  in  it,  the  immediate 
need  filling  the  vision  completely.  It  was  the 
period  of  the  great  councils,  and,  to  the  leaders 
and  the  people  generally,  the  conservation  of 
the  faith  seemed  more  essential  than  its  exten- 
sion. There  were,  however,  individuals  who  still 
felt  the  burden  of  the  nations,  and  the  incoming  of 
the  hordes  of  East  Goths,  Vandals  and  Huns, 
presented  opportunities  as  well  as  needs  that 
taxed  to  the  full  the  fervor  of  ecclesiastics  at 
home,  and  such  apostles  as  Ulfilas,  Honoratius 
and  Patrick  in  Europe,  Gregory  the  Illuminator 
in  Armenia,  Frumentius  in  Africa  and  the  Nes- 
torian  missionaries  who  penetrated  to  Central 
and  Eastern  Asia,  but  left  so  little  record  that 
their  achievements  are  clouded  in  obscurity.  In 
agencies,  methods  and  motive  the  movement 
changed  entirely.  The  great  mass  of  the  Church 
gradually  came  to  know  nothing  and  care  noth- 
ing about  missions;  the  ecclesiastical  leaders  for 
the  most  part  were  content  with  their  immediate 
duties,  and  individuals  commissioned  by  the 
Church  but  scarcely  supported  by  it  were  the  sole 
agents.  With  this  period  began,  too,  a  move- 
ment toward  national  rather  than  individual  con- 
version. Whole  communities  and  even  races 
were  brought  into  the  church  en  masse.  So  too, 
in  this  period,  the  motive  that  became  so  promi- 
nent in  the  next,  of  loyalty  to  and  ambition  for 
the  Church,  began  to  gain  its  hold.  It  was  no 
longer  Christ,  the  Savior  of  the  needy  soul,  that 
filled  the  vision,  so  much  as  the  "body  of  Christ," 
the  Church  to  be,  enlarged,  solidified,  glorified. 

In  a  very  real  sense,  then,  the  proclamation  by 
Constantine  making  Christianity  the  religion  of 
the  Roman  Empire  was  the  greatest  calamity 
that  ever  befell  the  Christian  Church.  It  prac- 
tically suffocated  the  already  waning  energies, 
and  laid  the  foundation  for  that  period  of  inac- 
tivity during  which  the  Eastern  Church  crystal- 
lized and  the  Western  developed  the  ecclesias- 
tical machinery  of  Papacy.  That  missionary 
activity  did  not  disappear  entirely  was  due  to 


individuals  rather  than  the  Church,  as  will  be  evi- 
dent in  the  record  of  the  succeeding  centuriea 
until  the  Reformation,  described  in  the  article 
on  Medieval  Missions. 

ARABIA:  A  peninsula  at  the  southwestern 
extremity  of  Asia,  lying  within  latitiude  30°  and 
12°  45'  N.,  and  longitude  32°  30'  and  60°  E.  Its- 
land  boundaries  are  Egypt  on  the  northwest  and 
Palestine  and  Syria  on  the  northeast.  Com- 
mencing at  the  northeast,  the  waters  which 
successively  surround  it  are:  the  Persian  Gulf, 
Gulf  of  Oman,  Indian  Ocean,  Gulf  of  Aden,  and 
the  Red  Sea.  Its  total  area  is  estimated  at  over 
1,000,000  square  miles.  Arabia  was  formerly 
divided  and  described  by  foreigners  as  consisting 
of  Arabia  Petraea,  the  rocky  mountainous  region 
in  the  north;  Arabia  Deserta,  the  vast  desert 
lands,  and  Arabia  Felix,  the  "Happy"  land,  on 
the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean.  A 
study  of  the  physical  features  of  the  country 
suggests  a  more  rational  division  of  the  surface 
into  equal  thirds;  one  comprising  the  moun- 
tainous lands  along  the  coasts;  another  the 
desert  lands,  which  form  almost  a  complete  ring 
around  the  central  plateau  of  tableland,  which 
forms  the  third  physical  division. 

Beginning  with  the  coast  district  at  the  north- 
west, the  principal  districts  are:  1.  The  Sinaitic 
peninsula,  a  triangle  with  the  Red  Sea  as  its 
apex,  Palestine  for  its  base,  and  the  gulfs  of 
Suez  and  Akabah  for  its  sides,  corresponds  very 
nearly  to  Arabia  Petraea.  2.  Hejaz  extends 
from  latitude  28°  to  21°  N.  along  the  shore,  and 
for  a  distance  inland  varying  from  60  to  150 
miles.  It  is  for  the  most  part  sandy  and  stony, 
with  only  a  few  fertile  spots  around  Medina  and 
Kholeys,  a  few  days'  journey  north  of  Mecca. 
Around  this  holy  city  of  the  Mohammedan  is 
the  Haram,  or  Sacred  Territory,  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  district.  3.  Yemen  occupies 
the  remainder  of  the  mountain  coast  as  far  south 
as  Aden,  and  consists  of  two  portions.  That 
part  lying  along  the  shore  is  called  Tehamah, 
and  is  flat  and  rocky,  while  the  inland  part, 
stretching  sometimes  300  miles  to  the  east,  is 
mountainous,  with  precipitous  hills  and  fertile 
valleys.  The  oasis  of  the  southern  Jowf  is  also 
included  in  this  district.  4.  Aden,  a  small  pen- 
insula on  the  coast,  about  100  miles  east  of  Bab- 
el-Mandeb,  with  the  island  of  Perim,  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  is  subject  to  Great 
Britain.  It  includes  in  its  district  a  smaller 
peninsula.  Little  Aden,  and  the  settlement  and 
town  of  Sheikh  Othman,  ten  miles  from  Aden, 
in  all  70  square  miles.  Its  population  (1901)  is 
43,974.  Aden  is  simply  a  coaling  station,  but 
its  position  makes  it  of  great  strategic  impor- 
tance. 5.  Hadramaut  and  Mahrah  occupy  the 
1,200  miles  of  coast  between  Aden  ana  Cape 
Ras-el-Hadd.  They  have  the  same  general 
features  of  the  other  coast  districts — a  sandy  or 
rocky  shore,  behind  which  mountain  ranges 
stretch  back  into  the  great  desert — and  little  is 
known  in  regard  to  the  interior,  its  inhabitants 
or  products.  6.  Oman  and  Hasa  complete  the 
line  of  coast  districts,  extending  from  Cape  Ras- 
el-Hadd  to  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
mountains  in  Oman  are  the  highest  on  the  coast, 
and  the  strip  of  coast  land  in  Hasa  has  extensive 
fertile  tracts.  Mascat,  the  capital  of  Oman,  is 
the  only  good  harbor. 

The  central  third  of  Arabia,  especially  Nejd, 
is  the  stronghold  of  the  Arab  nation.  On  the 
extreme  north  and  northeast  lies  the  desert,  with 


47 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Apostolie 
Arabia 


the  oasis  of  Jof  and  Teima,  varying  the  monotony 
of  tlie  stony  waste.  South  of  the  stony  desert 
lie  the  Nefud,  or  sandy  passes,  between  whicli 
and  Nejd  is  tlie  district  of  Sliomer,  witla  its 
two  parallel  mountain  ranges  running  northeast 
to  southwest.  The  principal  provinces  of  the 
nine  into  which  Nejd  is  divided  are:  Ared,  the 
central  province,  containing  the  capital,  Riadh; 
Sedeyr,  or  Sudeir,  in  the  highlands  of  the  Toweyk 
mountain  range,  which  runs  north  and  south 
through  the  heart  of  Nejd;  Yemamah,  south  of 
Ared,  a  fertile  district,  celebrated  in  native 
history  as  the  home  of  brave  men  and  beautiful 
women;  and  Woshem,  a  small  but  important 
district  west  of  Ared.  Of  the  desert  surrounding 
Nejd,  that  portion  lying  to  the  southward  is 
called  the  Dahna,  or  "Crimson,"  from  the  color 
of  the  sand,  and  covers  .50,000  square  miles.  Of 
it  little  is  known;  not  even  the  Bedouins  have 
traversed  its  full  extent,  and  European  travelers 
shrink  from  its  heat  and  sterility. 

Climate:  In  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  the  air  is 
dry,  clear,  and,  in  the  main,  healthy,  with  winter 
rains.  The  summer  temperature  in  the  valleys 
is  excessively  high,  but  the  nights  are  cool.  In 
general  the  sandy  slopes  of  the  coast  districts 
are  hot  and  unhealthy,  with  a  cooler,  more 
healthy  air  in  the  mountains.  In  the  desert  the 
heat  is  intolerable,  and  in  the  Nefud  district 
the  deadly  "simoom"  blows.  This  is  a  storm 
of  a  cyclonic  nature,  carrying  in  its  center  a 
noxious  gas,  which  is  death  if  inhaled  in  any 
quantity.  It  lasts  from  two  to  ten  minutes  at 
any  one  point,  and  the  only  way  to  escape  it 
is  to  cover  the  mouth  with  a  cloth  and  lie  down 
on  the  ground,  where  the  heavier  pure  air  is 
found.  Camels  instinctively  bury  their  noses  in 
the  sand,  but  horses  are  often  killed  by  the  gas. 
The  dwellers  in  Arabia  are  divided  into  the 
nomadic  Bedouins,  and  the  dwellers  in  towns. 

1.  The  Bedouins  are  the  shepherds  and  herds- 
men, who  wander  about  the  deserts  from  one 
fertile  valley  to  another.  They  have  been 
called  brigands,  because  they  consider  themselves 
the  lords  of  the  land,  and,  in  the  absence  of  con- 
stituted authority,  take  summary  methods  to 
punish  the  traveler,  whom  they  regard  as  a  tres- 
passer. In  lieu  of  official  fees  for  passports, 
they  take  whatever  property  they  can  lay  hold 
of.  By  paying  a  fee  to  the  first  sheikh  whose 
territory  is  invaded,  an  escort  is  secured  to  the 
traveler,  giving  safety  in  that  district;  a  sim- 
ilar payment  to  the  successive  sheikhs  will  insure 
like  protection;  but  the  neglect  of  such  an 
acknowledgment  of  their  rights  will  lead  to  loss 
of  property  and  sometimes  of  life.  The  Bedouin 
is  not  murderous  by  nature,  but  of  necessity, 
when  his  demands  are  resisted.  There  are 
northern  and  southern  Bedouins.  The  southern 
or  "pure"  Bedouins  are  fewer  in  number  and 
more  savage  in  disposition.  In  all  there  are 
about  1,500,000  of  the  Bedouins.  They  recog- 
nize no  authority  save  that  of  their  chief,  the 
sheikh,  for  they  are  thoroughly  democratic, 
and  consider  every  man  equal.  The  chief  may 
be  such  by  the  law  of  heredity,  but  is  oftener 
chosen  on  account  of  his  qualifications  for  the 
position.  The  Bedouin  is  nominally  a  Moham- 
medan, but  he  scorns  the  formalities  of  the 
Koran,  and  disregards  its  ceremonial  require- 
ments. Tho  he  be  not  far  from  Mecca,  he  does 
not  mingle  with  the  devout  who  go  there,  nor 
will  he  always  spare  the  caravan  of  pilgrims 
that  passes  through  his  territory.     Among  some 


of  the  tribes  a  lower  religious  belief  exists;  all 
gradations  between  sun-worship,  tree-worship 
and  no  worship  at  all,  have  been  found. 

Lying,  perjury,  sensuality,  and  theft  are  their 
vices,  while  fidelity  and  the  observance  of  a 
promise  to  the  extent  which  the  romancers 
chronicle  are  not  uncommon.  With  all  their 
bad  traits,  they  are  to  be  admired  for  their 
shrewd  common  sense,  allied  with  a  sarcastic, 
humorous  side  of  their  character.  Their  dress 
is  simple,  and  they  carry  staves  provided  with 
crooks,  together  with  short  knives  and  old 
matchlocks,  with  which  they  seldom  fail  to  hit 
the  mark. 

2.  The  sedentary  Arabs  number  about  six- 
sevenths  of  the  entire  population  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Arabia.  The  Koreysh  are  the  noblest 
of  the  race,  and  claim  direct  connection  with 
the  Prophet.  Their  clan  ties  and  national  feel- 
ing are  very  strong,  and  they  own  allegiance  to 
their  tribal  head,  the  Sheikh,  Imam,  or  Sultan. 
Where  the  doctrines  of  the  Wahabees  prevail  the 
Mohammedan  religion  is  followed  with  all  its 
strictness  of  ceremonial  and  observances.  Fe- 
tishism is  found  in  Mahrah  and  places  on  the 
borders  of  the  great  desert.  With  belief  in  one 
God  and  observance  of  the  rules  of  the  Koran 
as  to  dealings  between  man  and  man,  one  nat- 
urally supposes  that  the  people  of  Arabia  would 
make  no  difficulty  about  tolerating  the  advances 
of  sincere  Christians.  The  rules  of  the  Koran, 
however,  as  to  generous  dealings  with  men  are 
commonly  understood  as  limited  to  Moham- 
medans, and  the  degraded  type  of  Christianity 
known  to  the  Arabs  makes  them  the  more 
inclined  to  give  full  scope  to  their  religions 
principle  of  non-intercourse  with  people  outside 
of  Islam.  Death  would  certainly  smite  any 
Christian  discovered  in  the  Sacred  territory  of 
Arabia,  and  the  risk  of  death  would  attend 
travel  in  any  part  of  the  interior  of  the  country. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  Mohammedanism  is  the 
only  religion  professed  in  Arabia  at  any  distance 
from  the  coast-line. 

In  person  the  Arab  is  tall,  well  formed,  lithe, 
with  dark  hair  and  eyes.  Physically  and 
morally,  the  race  compares  favorably  with  any 
of  the  races  of  mankind;  mentally,  it  is  superior 
to  most  races.  Special  traits  are  found  in  the 
different  provinces.  The  people  of  Hejaz  are 
fickle;  those  of  Yemen  are  noted  for  gentleness 
and  pliability,  together  with  revengefulness; 
the  tribes  in  Nejd  possess  a  reputation  for  te- 
nacity of  purpose  and  dignity  of  deportment. 
A  love  of  sport  and  games  is  found  among  the 
races  of  Oman  and  Hasa  which  is  absent  else- 
where. 

Arabic  is  spoken  in  its  purity  in  Nejd  and 
Shomer,  more  inelegantly  in  the  other  provinces, 
until  in  the  southern  provinces  it  is  merged  into 
an  African  dialect.  Education  is  deficient;  the 
teaching  of  the  young  is  carried  on  mainly  in  the 
household,  where  the  father  teaches  his  sons  to 
read  and  write  and  to  practise  that  politeness 
which  is  notable  among  the  Arab  children. 

The  total  number  of  inhabitants  of  Arabia 
proper  is  estimated  at  about  6,000,000.  Of  this 
number  the  people  of  Hejaz  (300,000)  and 
Yemen  (900,000)  are  admittedly  subjects  of  the 
Sultan  of  Turkey.  The  other  districts  of 
Arabia  are  governed  by  their  own  chiefs  {Emir 
or  Imam).  Turkey  claims  the  right  to  rule  the 
whole  peninsula  but  has  not  yet  been  able  to 
make  good  the  claim. 


Arabian 
Armenian    ChurcU 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


48 


Missions  liave  not  found  entrance  to  Arabia 
as  yet,  owing  to  the  determined  attitude  of 
Mohammedanism  toward  dissent  from  its 
teachings  wherever  it  has  power  to  enforce 
the  death  penalty.  Two  noble  efforts  have  been 
made  by  loving  service  to  break  through  the 
barriers  of  fanaticism.  One  of  these  is  the 
Keith-Falconer  Mission  at  Aden  (now  carried 
on  by  the  UFS),  with  its  chief  station  at  Sheikh 
Othman  on  the  high  land  back  of  the  seaport. 

The  other  missionary  effort  for  Arabia  is  that 
of  the   Arabian   Mission   of  the   RCA  operating 
from  Turkish  and  independent  territory  on  the 
Persian   Gulf,    with   three   stations,  of  which  the 
most  effective  and  most  hopeful  form  of  work  is 
that  of  the  hospital  and  dispensary. 
Kamil,   by  Jessup   (H.   H.),   New  York,  1898;  Arabia,   the 
Cradle  of  Islam,  Zwemer  (S.  M.),New  York.   1901;  Keith- 
Falconer,   Memorials    of.     Sinker   (R.),   Arabia:    Journey 
through  Central  and  Eastern,  Palgrave,  (W.  G.),  London, 
1869. 

ARABIAN  MISSION.  See  Reformed  Church 
IN  America,  Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 

ARABIC:  The  Arabic  language  is  closely 
allied  to  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  of  the  Sernitic 
family.  This  appears  in  Bible  translation, 
where  the  Hebrew  may  be  turned  into  good  clas- 
sical Arabic  with  comparative  ease.  Difficult 
and  ambiguous  passages  can  be  translated  word 
for  word,  often  by  the  same  word  that  is  used  in 
the  Hebrew,  leaving  the  ambiguity  the  same 
in  the  translation  as  in  the  original.  It  is  rich 
and  refined;  has  an  abundant  and  valuable 
literature,  and  is  spoken  by  50,000,000,  and 
used  in  worship  (generally  without  knowledge) 
by  more  than  200,000,000  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  globe. 

ARABKIR:  City  of  Eastern  Turkey,  on  the 
caravan  road  from  Aleppo  to  Trebizond,  and  50 
miles  northwest  of  Harput.  Population,  30,000. 
Mohammedans,  Armenians  and  Protestants. 
The  prosperity  of  the  town  is  due  to  the  caravan 
trade  and  the  cotton  industry.  The  vicinity 
is  rich  in  fruit  trees.  It  was  formerly  a  station 
of  the  ABCFM,  but  is  now  an  outstation  of 
Harput.  Its  evangelical  church  has  lost  many 
members  through  emigration,  due  to  the  inse- 
curity of  the  country. 

ARAGUARY:  Town  in  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil; 
station  of  the  PS  (1895)  with  a  missionary  and 
his  wife  and  an  unmarried  missionary  woman; 
14  outstations,  and  250  church  members. 

ARAKAN:  For  sixty  years  a  British  province 
of  Farther  India,  now  a  part  of  the  province  of 
Burma,  since  the  war  of  annexation  of  1885-86. 
It  is  separated  from  Burma  proper  by  the 
western  Yoma  range  of  mountains,  which  have 
many  volcanoes,  mostly  quiescent,  and  rise  from 
4,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  habitable  portion  is  a  narrow  strip  of  allu- 
vium, extending  from  the  mountains  to  the  Bay 
of  Bengal.  It  extends  from  the  westernmost  of 
the  delta  branches  of  the  Irawadi  on  the  south  to 
Chittagong  on  the  north,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
W.  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Above  Ramree 
Lsland  the  territory  widens,  and  from  19°  to  21° 
30'  several  short  ranges  of  mountains  are  inter- 
posed between  the  Yoma  range  and  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  and  are  inhabited  mostly  by  the  hill 
tribes.  Its  area  is  16,500  square  miles,  and  its 
population  is  672,000. 

The  people  are  of  the  same  Mongoloid  stock 
.as  the   Burmese,   excepting  the  inhabitants  of 


the  northern  mountainous  region  who  are  of  the 
same  stock  as  the  Karens.  The  religion  of  the 
people  of  the  towns  and  the  lowlands  is  Bud- 
dhism, while  that  of  the  hill  tribes  is  spiritism  or 
nat  worship. 

Missionary  operations  were  commenced  by 
the  BMS  about  1826  and  by  the  ABMU  in  1835, 
both  missions  being  abandoned  after  some  years 
because  of  the  deadly  climate.  The  ABMU  re- 
established its  mission  in  1888  at  Sandoway  and 
has  met  with  good  success  among  the  hill  tribes 
and  the  Tamils  and  Telugus  who  go  to  Arakan 
for  work.  Also  written  Aracan  and  Arracan. 
Comstock  (G.  C),  Notes  on  Arakan,  in  Journal  Am.  Oriental 

Soc,  Vol.  1,  1847. 

ARAWAK:  This  language  belongs  to  the 
South  American  group,  and  is  spoken  in  Dutch 
Guiana.  It  is  written  in  Roman  letters  and  is 
hardly  one  of  the  permanent  languages  since 
only  a  few  thousand  people  are  known  to  use  it. 

ARCHBISHOP'S  MISSION  to  the  Assyrian 
Christians:  The  interest  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land in  the  Nestorians  was  especially  aroused 
by  the  report  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety's expedition  to  the  Euphrates  Valley  in 
1837.  This  resulted  in  the  sending  out  of  a 
joint  expedition  by  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  and  the  SPG.  Their  report  supple- 
mented by  numerous  appeals  from  the  Nestor- 
ians occasioned  another  journey  in  1876,  and 
the  sending  out  of  a  missionary  in  1881,  tho  it 
was  not  until  1886  that  the  work  was  put  on  a 
permanent  footing. 

The  mission  has  no  regular  organization  or 
constitution,  but  is  carried  on  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The 
mission  priests,  who  are  all  unmarried,  receive 
no  regular  stipends  beyond  £25  annually  for 
personal  expenses,  but  live  from  a  common 
fund.  The  work  carried  on  is  largely  educa- 
tional. A  college  has  been  formed  for  priests 
and  deacons,  besides  5  high  schools  and  40  vil- 
lage schools,  the  total  number  of  scholars  being 
roughly  estimated  at  1,200.  Besides  the  educa- 
tional work,  the  mission  clergy  exercise  the 
function  of  ecclesiastical  and  temporal  judges, 
deciding  disputes  between  the  native  Christians 
and  divorce  and  other  spiritual  cases,  according 
to  the  Canon  Law  of  the  ancient  Chaldean 
Church. 

The  object  of  the  Mission  is  stated  to  be  "in 
the  first  place  to  train  up  a  body  of  literate 
clergy;  secondly,  to  instruct  the  youth  gener- 
ally in  both  religious  and  secular  knowledge; 
and  thirdly,  to  print  the  very  early  liturgies 
and  service  books,  to  which  the  Assyrians  are 
much  attached,  which  have  never  been  printed 
in  the  original,  and  of  which  the  very  primitive 
character  is  shown  by  their  freedom  from 
doubtful  doctrine.  The  Mission  seeks  in  no 
way  to  anglicanize  the  Assyrians  on  the  one  hand; 
nor  on  the  other  to  condone  the  heresy  which 
separated  them  from  the  rest  of  Christendom  . 
or  to  minimize  its  importance."  A  committee 
connected  with  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
of  the  U.  S.,  aids  the  mission. 

ARECIBO :  A  seaport  on  the  N.  coast  of  Porto 
Rico.  Population  about  8,000;  station  of  the 
ME  (1901)  with  one  missionary  and  his  wife, 
and  a  Sunday  school. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC:  One  of  the  most 
important  of  the  South  American  republics.  It 
occupies  that  portion  of  the  continent  south  of 


49 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Arabian 
Armenian   Clinrcli 


latitude  22°  S.,  with  the  exception  of  the  west- 
ern slope  of  the  Andes  which  forms  Chile.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Bolivia  and  Para- 
guay and  on  the  east  by  Brazil  and  Uruguay. 
Its  southern  boundary  has  long  been  a  matter 
of  dispute  with  Chile,  but  was  settled  by  treaty 
in  1881,  according  to  the  terms  of  which  Pata- 
.gonia  was  ceded  to  the  Republic  as  far  south  as 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  along  with  the  eastern 
portion  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  At  the  same  time 
a  line  running  along  the  crest  of  the  Andes  was 
defined  as  the  western  boundary.  At  present 
the  country  is  divided  into  14  provinces  and 
9  territories,  with  a  combined  area  of  1,319,247 
.square  miles  and  an  estimated  population,  in 
1900,  of  4,659,067.  The  provinces  are:  Buenos 
Aires,  Santa  F^,  Entre  Rios,  Corrientes,  Rioja, 
Catamarca,  San  Juan,  Mendoza,  Cordova, 
San  Luiz,  Santiago,  Tucaman,  Salta,  Jujuy. 
With  such  an  extent  of  latitude  the  climate  is 
most  varied,  tho  in  general  healthful.  All 
gradations  between  a  temperate  cool  climate 
and  a  moist,  tropical  one  may  be  found  in  this 
Republic.  In  Northern  Patagonia  the  climate 
resembles  that  of  the  British  Isles,  while  Buenos 
Aires  rivals  in  salubrity  the  south  of  France. 
A  dry  cool  temperature  prevails  along  the 
mountain  slopes,  but  along  the  coast  at  the 
north  a  thoroughly  tropical  climate  is  found. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  country 
is  its  great  plains  or  pampas,  which  occupy 
about  three-fourths  of  the  surface,  stretching 
2,000  miles  in  length  and  500  in  width.  On 
these  plains  great  herds  of  cattle  are  raised,  and 
within  late  years  wheat  has  been  grown.  The 
population  has  a  large  percentage  of  foreigners 
^Italians,  French,  Spanish,  Germans,  English), 
and  the  remainder  consists  of  descendants  of 
the  Spaniards  and  Guarani  and  Quichua  Indians. 
Negro  descendants  are  scarce,  as  few  slaves 
were  brought  to  this  section.  Spanish  is  the 
prevailing  language,  tho  in  Corrientes  the 
Ouarani  language  is  spoken,  and  Quichua  in 
Santiago.  The  government  encourages  immi- 
gration from  the  south  of  Europe. 

Altho  it  has  an  area  twenty  times  as  large  as 
that  of  the  New  England  States,  the  Argentine 
Republic  contains  a  population  of  less  than 
three  per  square  mile.  The  broadest  religious 
liberty  is  recognized;  and  the  agricultural  set- 
tlement founded  by  the  late  Baron  Hirsch  for 
Jewish  refugees  is  most  flourishing. 

The  Argentine  Republic  was  occupied  as  a 
Mission  field  in  1836  by  the  ME,  which  now  has 
5  stations  there;  and  in  stations  and  outstations 
about  2,000  communicants  connected  with  its 
churches.  The  SAMS,  the  Seventh  Day  Advent- 
ist  Missionary  Society,  the  International  Medical 
and  Benevolent  Society,  the  South  American 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society,  and  the  Mis- 
sionary Pence  Association  have  establishments 
at  Buenos  Aires.  The  BFBS  and  the  YMCA 
also  have  agents  in  that  city.  The  Christian 
and  Missionary  Alliance  and  the  Plymouth 
Brethren  carry  on  missionary  operations  in  two 
or  three  places,  but  no  published  statistics  give 
information  as  to  its  extent. 

ARIVONIMAMO:  Town  situated  west  of 
Antananarivo,  Madagascar;  station  of  the 
Friends'  Foreign  Mission  Association  (1888) 
with  2  unmarried  missionary  women  and  234 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  60  outstations 
and  preaching  places  and  550  professing 
Christians. 


ARKONA:  A  small  town  in  the  Transvaal 
Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  on  the  Lepalule 
River,  northeast  of  Pretoria.  Mission  station 
of  the  Berlin  Evangelical  Lutheran  M.  S.  (1877), 
with  1  missionary  and  18  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  and  2  outstations. 

ARKONAM:  A  town  in  Madras,  India. 
Mission  station  of  Established  Church  of  Scot- 
land; 4  missionaries  and  23  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  7  outstations,  11  village  schools, 
and  90  church  members. 

ARMENIA:  In  strict  use  of  the  term,  there  is 
no  Armenia  at  the  present  day.  The  name  is 
not  used  either  politically  or  geographically 
with  reference  to  a  definite  territory.  When 
used,  the  name  refers  in  general  to  a  vaguely 
defined  region  centering  about  Lake  Van  in 
Eastern  Turkey,  and  extending  thence  north 
and  southwest.  Ancient  Armenia  was  also  a 
country  whose  bounds  continually  changed 
with  the  fortunes  of  war.  Its  northern  limit 
was  sometimes  the  Kur  River,  now  in  Russia; 
its  eastern  boundary  was  once,  at  least,  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  the  western  boundary  was 
usually  the  Euphrates  River.  The  greater 
part  of  the  region  thus  described  now  lies  within 
the  Turkish  Empire  and  is  also  called  Kurdistan. 

In  order  that  misunderstandings  may  be 
avoided  it  should  be  remembered  that  this 
region  contains  only  a  fraction  of  the  Armenian 
Race.  It  is  inhabited  by  Turks,  Armenians, 
Russians,  Persians,  Kurds,  Circassians,  Greeks, 
Nestorians,  Yezidees,  Syrians  and  Jews.  These 
all  have  had  long  residence  in  the  country, 
which  is  now  divided  between  Turkey,  Persia 
and  Russia.  The  Armenians  are  scattered 
over  the  three  empires. 

ARMENIAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH:  Since 
the  Council  of  Florence,  a.d.  1439,  a  consider- 
able body  of  Armenians  have  been  connected 
with  the  Church  of  Rome.  As  is  the  case  with 
members  of  other  branches  of  the  Eastern 
Church  which  have  accepted  the  supremacy 
of  the  Roman  pontiff,  they  are  allowed  to  retain 
their  own  ancient  liturgy  and  many  of  their 
peculiar  usages.  In  Turkey,  Armenian  Cath- 
olics as  a  rule  avoid  using  their  own  language 
in  social  life.  On  the  whole  they  are  more 
frequently  given  office  under  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment than  members  of  the  Gregorian  Arme- 
nian Church.  The  congregation  of  the  Mechi- 
tarists,  which  was  formed  by  the  Abbot  Mechi- 
tar,  belongs  to  them.  They  possess  a  famous 
monastery  on  the  Island  of  San  Lazzaro,  near 
Venice,  from  which  center  they  have  success- 
fully labored  since  1702  for  Armenian  literature 
and  education  in  the  interests  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  Orthodox  Armenians 
are  inflexibly  opposed  to  these  schismatics,  as 
they    call    them. 

ARMENIAN  CHURCH:  Its  own  writers  claim 
that  its  history  goes  back  to  the  time  of  Christ. 
One  Abgar  or  Abgarus,  King  of  Edessa,  is  said 
by  Moses  of  Khorene,  the  Armenian  historian, 
to  have  been  converted  by  hearing  of  the  wonder- 
ful works  of  Jesus  and  to  have  been  baptized 
by  Thaddeus,  one  of  the  seventy  disciples  first 
sent  out  as  missionaries.  This  Abgar  is  held 
by  the  Armenians  to  have  been  their  king, 
although  Tacitus  calls  him  King  of  the  Arabs. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  the  4th  century 
that  the  Armenian  nation,  as  a  whole,  accepted 
Christianity.     At  the  beginning  of  that  century 


Armenian   Clinrcli 
Armenians 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


50 


St     Gregory    the    Illuminator    preached  at  the 
Court  of   Armenia   with   such   effect  that   from 
that    day    to     this     Christianity    has    been    the 
national   reUgion   of   the   Armenians      For   this 
reason    the    Armenian    Church    is    often    called 
"the  Gregorian  Church."     The  Armenians  them- 
selves, however,  call  it  "the  Church  of  the  Illu- 
minator (Lusavorchagan)."  m,,,,^!. 
Persecution  only  served  to  endear  the  Church 
to  the  people,  and  from  that  time  it  has  been 
identified  with  their  nationahty.     Under  Turkish 
rule  each  religious  body  is  also  a  political  organ- 
ism     The  Armenian  Church  is  httle  more  than 
that    at    present.     It    is    therefore    inseparably 
identified   with   the   race,    and   is   pervaded   by 
much  of  the  corruption  of  Oriental  Christianity. 
Church  Doctrine:     1.  By  accident— some  say 
nurposely— the  Armenians  were  not  represented 
m    the     Fourth     Ecumenical     Church    Council 
which  met  at  Chalcedon  in  451  a.d.,  and  which 
condemned     Nestorianism     and     Eutychianism 
When  the  decisions  of  the  Council  were  reported 
to  them,  owing  possibly  to  the  poverty  of  their 
language   at   that   time,   it   not    having   proper 
words  to  distinguish  the  two  ideas  of  the  nature 
of  Christ  and  the  person  of  Christ,  the  decision 
was   misunderstood.     In  a  synod   of   Armenian 
bishops  in  491   the   decision  of  the  Council   ot 
Chalcedon  was  rejected,  and  at  one  of  the  synods 
of  Tivan,  now  in  Russia,  their  capital  at  that 
time     they    declared    decidedly    for   the    Mono- 
physite    doctrine.     This    doctrine   is    not    made 
prominent  in  their  modern  creeds. 

Other    leading    characteristics   of   the   Arme- 
nians are:  „   .  .  ,     j-  ii. 
2.  They  beUeve  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the 

Father  only.  . 

3  They  accept  seven  sacraments,  altho  m 
practice,  baptism,  confirmation,  and  unction 
are  intermingled.  .   ,  ^     ,  i  j 

4  They  baptize  infants  eight  days  old  ^  or 
less  by  threefold  immersion,  immediately  offering 
them  the  communion.  . 

5.  They  accept  transubstantiation,  and  worship 
the  consecrated  elements  as  God.  ,  ■  ,      ■ 

6.  They  use  unleavened  bread,  which  is 
dipped  in  the  wine  and  given  to  the  people, 
who  receive  it  into  the  mouth  from  the  hand  ot 

the    priest.  ,      ,    ,     ,    ,  -r, 

7.  They  pray  for  the  dead,  but  deny  Purga- 

8.  They  practice  auricular  confession  to  the 
priest,  who  imposes  penance  and  grants  absolu- 
tion, but  gives  no  indulgences.  _ 

9.  They  pray  to  the  Virgin  and  to  saints,  and 
have  great  faith  in  their  mediation.  With'  the 
Greelvs,  they  reject  images  and  accept  pictures. 

10.  They  believe  in  the  perpetual  virginity 
of  Mary  "the  Mother  of  God." 

11.  i?hey  regard  baptism  and  regeneration 
as  the  same  thing,  and  have  no  practical  concep- 
tion of  a  new  birth.  All  are  saved  who  partake 
of  all  of  the  sacraments,  do  proper  penance,  ob- 
serve the  fasts  of  the  Church,  and  perform  good 

works.  .  ,     ,        .       i- 

12.  Original  sm  is  removed  by  baptism, 
actual  sin  by  confession  and  penance. 

Services  are  held  in  the  church  each  morning 
at  sunrise  and  each  evening  at  sunset  through- 
out the  year.  The  altar  is  invariably  toward 
the  east.  The  sacrament  of  the  Lord  s  Supper 
is  observed  twice  a  week,  but  the  people  partake 
usually  only  twice  a  year.  Mass  is  observed 
as  one  of  the  formal  rites  of  the  Church.     Con- 


fession to  the  priest  is  a  necessary  preparation 
for   participation.  .   .      „       ,,       m.       t. 

Church  Goi-ernmeni.— Originally  the  Church 
was  under  one  spiritual  head,  the  Catholicos 
who  was  the  general  bishop.  He  resided  at 
first  at  Sivas  but  later  contentions  arose,  and 
with  them  divisions,  until  now  there  are  three 
who  hold  his  office:  one,  recognized  as  the  Su- 
preme Catholicos,  resides  at  Echmiadzin,  their 
holy  city,  now  in  Russia;  one  at  Aghtamar, 
upon  an  island  in  Lake  Van,  in  Eastern  Turkey; 
and  one  at  Sis,  in  the  ancient  province  of  Cilicia. 
It  is  said  that  at  the  consecration  ot  the  Ech- 
miadzin Catholicos  the  dead  hand  of  Gregory 
the  Illuminator  is  even  now  employed  as  a 
medium  of  succession.  The  Catholicos  alone 
can  ordain  bishops  and  consecrate  the  sacred 
oil  which  is  used  in  the  various  ceremonies  of 
the  Church.  -mi 

Besides  the  Catholicos,  there  are  m  Turkey 
two  patriarchs,  one  of  whom  resides  at  Constan- 
tinople and  one  at  Jerusalem.  These  offices 
were  established  by  Mohammedan  authority 
for  political  purposes  alone.  The  patriarch  must 
have  a  bishop  s  office  ecclesiastically,  but  to 
this  is  added  considerable  influence  with  the 
government  and  over  all  Gregorian  Armenians 
in  civil  matters.  The  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople is,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  the  recognized 
civil  head  of  the  Armenian  Church  in  Turkey. 

There  are  nine  different  grades  of  Armenian 
clergy,  all  of  whom  are  consecrated  by  the 
laying  on  of  hands.  These,  in  the  order  of 
rank,  are:  Catholicos,  bishop,  priest,  deacon, 
sub-deacon,  candle-lighter,  exorcist,  reader, 
and  porter.  There  is  also  a  class  called  varta- 
beds,  who  are  preaching  monks.  The  priests, 
are  married,  and  must  have  a  wife  at  the  time 
of  ordination,  but  can  never  remarry.  The 
priest  cannot  become  a  bishop  unless  his  wife 
dies.  .^    ,     . 

Obstacles  Peculiar  to  Missionary  Work  Among 
Armenians:  1.  The  idea  that  the  Church  is  ' 
coextensive  with  the  Armenian  race,  so  that 
one  who  withdraws  from  the  Church  rejects 
his  nationality.  2.  The  Church  is  already 
Christian,  and  consequently  Christian  life  has 
little  relation  to  the  Christian  profession.  3. 
The  difficulty,  from  the  side  of  the  Turkish 
Government,  in  erecting  buildings  and  in 
maintaining  Christian  and  educational  insti- 
tutions. 4.  The  existing  poverty  and  oppres- 
sion, accompanied  by  Oriental  penuriousness. 
5  The  turning  of  the  attention  of  young  men 
to  the  Western  world,  as  a  refuge  from  oppres- 
sion and  massacre,  and  the  consequent  emi- 
gration of  large  numbers.  . 

Peculiar  Encouragements:  1.  The  religious 
nature  of  the  race,  and  the  fact  that  they  accept 
the  Bible  as  the  Word  of  God.  2.  The  desire 
for  education.  3.  The  peculiar  relation  of 
the  Armenians  to  the  14,000,000  of  other  races 
among  whom  they  dwell,  and  who  must  be  reached 
largely  through  the  evangelized  Armenian 
Church.  4.  Since  mission  work  began  among 
the  Armenians,  there  has  been  a  gradual  rejec- 
tion of  their  superstitions  and  reliance  _  upon 
rites,  and  a  marked  awakening  in  the  line  of 
education.  5.  Of  late  years,  owing  to  the 
urgent  demands  of  the  people  for  the  Gospel 
preaching,  the  vartabeds,  bishops,  and  some- 
times the  priests  and  teachers,  preach,  and 
their  sermons  are  often  evangelical  in  tone  and 
full  of  wholesome  advice. 


61 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Armenian    Chnrch' 
Armenians 


In  ecclesiastical  matters  the  Armenian  Church 
reckons  a.d.  551  as  the  year  1.  This  is  the 
point  of  departure  for  the  dates  found  in  nearly- 
all  old  manuscripts  of  the  Church. 

Fortescue  (E.  F.  K.),  The  Armenian  Church,  London,  1872, 
8vo. :  Bianchini  (P.).  The  Armenian  Ritual  (with  European 
musical  notation);  Venice,  1876,  4to;  Lynch  (H.  F.  B.), 
Armenia,  London,  1901;  Anderson  (R.),  History  of  Mia- 
aiona  to  the  Oriental  Churches,  Boston,  1870,  2  vols. 

ARMENIAN  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the 
the  Iranic  branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  lan- 
guages. It  has  two  marked  divisions,  the  an- 
cient, written  language,  which  is  rich  in  vocab- 
ulary and  inflection,  and  the  modern,  spoken, 
which  has  dropped  many  of  the  older  forms 
and  constructions,  and  contains  Persian  and 
Turkish  roots  and  idioms.  The  difference 
between  these  two  branches  of  Armenian  is  very 
marked;  it  is  something  the  same  as  that  between 
the  Latin  and  Italian.  The  ancient  language 
was  the  product  of  an  age  of  learning,  and  was 
then  embodied  in  literary  works.  The  modern 
tongue  is  the  result  of  centuries  of  ignorance, 
without  books,  literature,  or  education.  The 
difference  between  these  two  branches  is  now  so 
great  that  an  uneducated  person  can  understand 
little  or  nothing  of  the  classical  language. 

There  are  two  principal  spoken  Armenian 
dialects  at  the  present  time — the  Ararat  dialect, 
which  is  spoken  by  many  of  the  Armenians  in 
Russia  and  Persia,  and  the  western  dialect, 
which  is  used  in  Southern  Russia,  Western 
Armenia,  and  Eastern  Asia  Minor.  The  Bible 
has  been  translated  into  both  these  dialects. 
The  difference  between  these  two  dialects  con- 
sists mostly  in  forms  and  constructions. 

Altho  there  was  a  language,  there  was  no 
Armenian  alphabet  until  the  beginning  of  the 
5th  century.  At  that  time  Mesrop,  one  of  the 
learned  saints  of  the  Church,  invented  36  of  the 
38  characters;  the  two  others  were  added  later. 
The  relation  of  Armenian  to  other  languages  is 
yet  a  question  of  discussion  and  doubt. 

Perhaps  one-third  of  the  Armenians  in  Turkey, 
especially  those  in  the  southern  and  western 
parts,  and  in  the  Kurdish  Mountains,  have  lost 
their  vernacular,  and  speak  only  Turkish  or 
Kurdish.  An  effort  is  being  made  in  Russia  to 
force  Russian  upon  the  Armenians  in  place  of 
their  own  tongue. 

ARMENIANS:  It  is  probable  that  no  country 
of  the  size  of  that  anciently  called  Armenia 
now  has  so  many  separate  races  preserving  their 
identity  among  its  inhabitants.  The  early 
history  of  these  peoples  is  so  mixed  with  myth 
and  legend  that  the  truth  is  difficult  to  find. 
During  the  Assyrian  and  Median  periods  there 
was  evidently  a  great  organized  monarchy,  with 
a  strong  military  power,  in  the  Lake  Van  basin. 
The  Van  inscriptions  show  a  line  of  kings  who 
were,  both  in  civilization  and  in  military  powers, 
far  in  advance  of  any  of  their  contemporaries 
in  neighboring  kingdoms.  At  times  tliey  were 
formidable  enemies  to  the  Medes. 

This  country  was  well  known  to  the  Assyrians 
as  early  as  the  9th  century  b.  c.  At  tliat  time 
three  principal  races  occupied  the  territory. 
These  were  the  Nairi,  who  were  spread  from  the 
mountains  west  of  Lake  Van  along  both  sides  of 
the  Tigris  to  the  Euphrates,  and  even  farther; 
thQ  Urarda  (people  of  Ararat),  who  dwelt  to  the 
north  and  east  of  the  Nairi,  on  the  Upper  Eu- 
phrates, about  Lake  Van  and  possibly  on  the 
Araxes;     and  the  Minni,  whose  country  lay  to 


the  soutlieast  of  the  Urarda,  in  the  Urmia 
basin.  The  Nairi,  Urarda,  and  the  Minni  were 
propably  Turanian  or,  at  least,  non-Aryan,  races. 
Their  congeners  in  Western  Asia  were  tlie  early 
Babylonians,  and  not  the  Medes,  the  Persians,, 
or  the  Plirygians. 

Besides  tliese  tliree  races,  it  is  evident,  accord- 
ing to  Sayce,  from  inscriptions  recently  deci- 
phered,that, even  at  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  King 
Tliotmes  IV.,  there  was  a  powerful  race  in  tlie 
north  called  the  Hittites,  or  Khiti.  In  the 
records  of  the  conquests  of  Assur-nazir-pal  men- 
tion is  made  of  his  conquests  among  the  Hittites. 
As  far  as  we  can  learn,  nearly  all  of  these  con- 
quests were  made  within  the  limits  of  Armenia 
or  upon  its  borders.  What  became  of  this 
people  is  not  known  at  the  present  day. 

These  races  appear  to  have  maintained  their 
independence  until  the  time  of  Assur-bani-pal, 
about  640  b.  c,  when  tlie  last  king  of  this  series 
succumbed  to  the  Assyrian  yoke. 

But,  at  the  time  of  Herodotus,  everything 
seems  to  indicate  that  a  strange  people  had 
entered  the  land,  bringing  with  them  a  new 
language,  new  names  and  customs,  and  a  new 
religion.  The  source  from  which  they  came  is 
doubtful.  Herodotus  and  Stephen  believe  they 
came  from  Phrygia,  while  their  language  and 
religion  would  indicate  Media.  One  thing  is 
certain:  the  old  Turanians  had  ceased  to  rule, 
and  the  Armenian  race  had  been  formed,  which 
is  undoubtedly  a  mixture  of  the  ruling  Aryan 
tribes  with  the  primitive  Turanian  populations. 
The  word  "Armenia, "used  in  Isaiah  xxxvii:38  and 
2  Kings  xix:37,  is  an  incorrect  translation  for 
"the  land  of  Ararat." 

Armenian  histories  describe  the  events  of 
some  sixteen  centuries  respecting  which  contem- 
porary evidence  has  not  yet  been  found.  Accord- 
ing to  them,  the  first  ruler  of  Armenia  was  Haik,, 
the  son  of  Togarmah,  the  son  of  Gomar,  the  son 
of  Japheth,  the  son  of  Noah.  This  Haik  is  said 
to  have  left  Babylon  to  escape  the  tyranny  of 
Belus,  the  King  of  Assyria.  Belus  pursued 
him  to  the  land  of  Ararat,  and  there,  in  a  great 
battle,  was  slain  by  Haik.  This  occurred  some 
twenty-three  centuries  b.  c.  At  this  time  the 
Armenian  kingdom  was  set  up.  Even  to  this; 
day  the  Armenians  call  themselves  Haik,  and 
their  country  Haiasdan.  Several  centuries  later, 
they  say,  Aram,  the  seventh  from  Haik,  having 
incurred  the  hatred  of  the  Queen  of  Assyria, 
was  slain  in  a  battle  with  that  nation,  and  his 
kingdom  became  an  Assyrian  province. 

It  may  be  mentioned  in  passing  that  the  name 
Aram  appears  among  the  kings  who  left  inscrip- 
tions upon  the  roclcs  at  Van.  But  neither  his 
race  nor  his  language  shows  any  affinity  to  the 
Armenian. 

The  Armenian  histories  narrate  that  at  the 
time  of  the  captivity  of  Israel  a  certain  number 
of  the  Hebrews  escaped  to  the  mountains  of 
Armenia  and  intermarriages  took  place.  Later 
the  Armenian  King  Dikran  (Tigranes)  was  the 
friend  and  ally  of  Cyrus.  His  successor  was 
Vahakn,  celebrated  in  song  and  story  for  his 
great  victories,  and  deified  after  deatli. 

The  last  of  the  Haik  dynasty  was  Vahe,  who- 
was  an  ally  of  Darius  III.  against  the  Macedo- 
nians, and  was  defeated  and  slain  by  them. 
From  that  time  Armenia  was  trampled  by  con- 
quering armies  until  190  B.  c,  when  the  country 
was  freed  by  two  Armenian  nobles,  -K'ho  divided 
it,  one  of  them  ruling  over  Armenia  Major,  and 


Armenians 
Arya  SomaJ 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


5S 


the  other  over  Armenia  Minor,  which  was  north 
and  west  of  the  Euphrates^    This  division  con- 
tinued until  89  E.  c,  when  Dikran  II.  (Tigranes) 
of   the   line   of   Ardashes    (Artaxus),    conquered 
Armenia  Minor  and  united  the  two  kingdoms. 

In  67  B  c.  Armenia  became  an  ally  ot  Kome, 
but  rebelling,  their  king,  Ardavaz  was  captured 
bv  Pompey  and  beheaded  in  Alexandria  by 
Cleopatri,  30  b.  c,  and  the  country  became 
tributary  to  Rome.  The  country  was  m  tur- 
moil for  two  and  a  half  centuries  thereafter. 

In  261  of  the  Christian  era  Armenia  became 
again  subject  to  Persia.  All  of  the  royal  family 
were  slain  except  Durtad,  the  young  son  of  the 
kino-  He  escaped  to  Rome,  and  m  286,  by  the 
helS  of  Rome,  was  established  upon  the  Arme- 
nian throne.  It  was  through  him  that  the  Arme- 
nians as  a  nation  accepted  Christianity. 

It  was  the  constant  effort  of  Persia  to  subvert 
Armenian  Christianity  and  establish  Magianism 
in  its  stead.  To  this  end,  cruel  persecutions 
were  undertaken,  and  frequent  incursions  were 
made  From  632  to  859  a.  d.  Armenia  was  the 
scene  of  almost  incessant  struggle  between  the 
Eastern  Empire  and  the  Mohammedans,  and  it 
becameby  turns  subject  to  each. 

In  859  the  dynasty  of  the  Pagratidae  came 
into  power,  and  was  recognized  by  both  the 
Caliph  and  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
but  in  1079  the  greater  part  of  the  country 
became  dependent  upon  Constantinople. 

A  small  kingdom  remained  m  the  Taurus 
Mountains,  north  of  Cilicia,  which  alhed  itself 
with  European  monarchs  during  the  crusades. 
It  maintained  its  independence  until  1375,  when 
the  last  Armenian  king,  Leo  VI.,  was  captured 
bv  the  Egyptians  and  banished. 

From  this  time  Armenia  lost  its  separate 
national  existence.  The  greater  part  of  the 
country  was  annexed  to  Turkey,  while  the  east- 
ern section  remained  subject  to  Persia  and  the 
•  northeast  to  Russia.^  Russia  took  another  large 
section  of  Armenia  in  1878. 

Personal  Characteristics:  As  far  as  moral 
traits  are  concerned,  the  Armenian  compares 
favorably  with  the  other  races  of  the  East.  Ages 
of  subjection  have  generally  disposed  them  to 
quiet  submission.  They  have  now  little  hope 
of  political  restoration  as  a  nation,  altho  a  con- 
stant agitation  is  carried  on  with  that  end  m 
view  The  Armenians  are  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  artisans,  merchants,  and  bankers  They 
are  persevering  and  shrewd  in  financial  dealings. 
In  Asiatic  Turkey  the  Greeks  alone  can  compare 
with  them  in  trades,  professions,  business  abihty, 
and  general  intelligence.  The  Greek  is  more 
speculative  and  the  Armenian  slower  and  more 
cautious.  In  the  finances  of  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment some  Armenians  hold  high  positions, 
and  in  many  ways  they  have  rendered  them- 
selves indispensable  to  the  prosperity  and  lite 
of  the  country.  In  spite  of  the  general  increase 
of  poverty  throughout  Turkey,  the  Armenians, 
up  to  the  period  of  the  massacres  of  1895-96, 
held  their  own  better  than  the  other  races. 

The  number  of  Armenians  who  are  now 
scattered  throughout  the  world  is  estimated  at 
from  2,000,000  to  3,000,000.  Perhaps  two- 
thirds  of  the  race  reside  in  Turkey.  The  rest 
are  in  Russia,  Persia,  India,  China,  Africa, 
Europe,  North  and  South  America,  and  in 
nearly  every  country  of  the  world.  Up  to  the 
present  time  the  nation  has  preserved  its  indi- 
viduality  to    a   remarkable    degree,    resembhng 


in  this  respect,  as  in  others,  the  Jews.  With 
their  dispersal  throughout  the  world,  however 
the  Armenians  intermarry  with  other  races  and 
a   distinct   tendency   to   race   disintegration  has 

""^^ee  ako  Armenia,  Armenian  Language,  aad 
Armenian  Church. 

Lvnch  (H  F.  B.),  Arm-enia,  London  1901,  2  vols,  8°.;  Cur- 
zon  (R  ),  Armenia:  A  Year  at  Erzroom,  London,  1854, 
8°  Harris  (J.  R.  &  H.  B.),  Letters  from  Armenia,  New 
York    1897.  12°. 

ARMEWO-TURKISH  LANGUAGE:  The  Turk- 
ish language  when  written  with  Armenian  letters. 
See  Turkish  Language. 

ARMSTRONG,  Richard:     Born  at  McEwens- 
ville   Pa.,  April  13,  1805;   graduated  at  Dickin- 
son College,  Pennsylvania,  1828,  and  at  Princeton 
Theological   Seminary,    1830;    ordained   by   the 
Presbytery  of  Baltimore,  and  saded  as  a  mission- 
ary  of  the  American   Board  for  the   Hawanan 
Islands,    November    26,    1831,    reaching    Hono- 
lulu  May  16,  1832,  after  a  six  months    voyage. 
At  a  meeting  of  the  mission  in  April,  1833,  it  was 
decided  to  commence  a  mission  at  the  Marquesas 
Islands,    and   he    was   appointed,    with    Messrs. 
Alexander  and  Parker,  to  that  field.     After  they 
had  resided  several  months  on  Nukahiva  Island 
they   were   informed   that   English   missionaries 
were  on  the  way  from  the  LMS  to  occupy  those 
islands.     It  was,  therefore,  decided  to  relinquish 
the  field  and  return  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
Their  residence  for  eight  months  among  savages 
and  cannibals  was  one  of  great  danger  and  dis- 
comfort     Mr.  Armstrong's  first  station  after  his 
return  was  at  Haiku,  then  at  Wailuku,  on  Maui, 
from  1835-40.     Here  he  had  a  parish  ot  25,U0U, 
schools  with  1,700  children  to  examine  and  supply 
with  teachers,  churSies  to  build,  and  in  various 
ways  he  identified  himself  with  all  pubhc  inter- 
ests     In  1840  he  was  removed  to  Honolulu  to 
take  charge  of  Mr.  Bingham's  church,  where  he 
remained  eight  years.     The  large  stone  church 
left  unfinished  he  completed,  planning  and  super- 
intending  the   work.     While    at    Honolulu   Mr. 
Armstrong   was   engaged   for   many   months  m 
translating  the  proceedings  incident  to  the  con- 
cession to  the  people  of  right  to  the  fee  ot  their 
homes,  and  even  in  making  actual  surveys  of  the 
lands  subject  to  the  new  law.     During  the  four 
years'    absence   of   Mr.    Richards    (1842-46)   Mr 
Armstrong  was  really  the  head  of  the  Department 
of    Public    Instruction,    the    whole    work   being 
devised    and    superintended    by    him.     On    the 
death  of  Mr.  Richards,  in  1847,  the  position  was 
offered    to    Mr.    Armstrong,    which    he    finally 
accepted,    remaining   in   this    office   until    1855. 
He  then  became  President  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation.    He    died    in    consequence    of    injuries 
received  in  falling  from  his  horse  September  23, 

The  king,  Liholiho,  published  in  the  native 
paper  a  sketch  of  his  character  and  work,  which 
describes  Dr.  Armstrong  as  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,  President  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, member  of  the  House  of  Nobles  and  of  the 
King's  Privy  Council,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees  of  Oahu  College,  Trustee  of  the  Queens 
Hospital,  and  executive  officer  of  the  Bible  and 
Tract  Society,  and  deeply  interested  in  develop- 
ing the  agricultural  resources  of  the  kingdom. 
The  king  adds  that  Dr.  Armstrong's  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  Hawaiian  language,  and  the 
facility  with  which  he  wielded  the  pen,  naturally 
imposed  upon  him  an  immense  amount  of  toil; 


63 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Armenians 
Arya  Somaj 


that  his  immediate  and  appropriate  duties  were 
connected  with  the  cause  of  education,  all  the 
schools  of  the  kingdom  coming  under  his  super- 
vision, and  that  no  government  officer  or  mission- 
ary was  brought  into  such  close  intimacy  with 
the  nation.  Tho  his  week-day  duties  were  so 
abundant  and  onerous,  Dr.  Armstrong  never 
spared  himself  as  a  minister  of  the  Gospel.  He 
was  an  eloquent  preacher  in  the  Hawaiian  lan- 
guage, and  always  listened  to  with  deep  interest 
by  the  people. 

ARNI:  Town  in  the  North  Arcot  district, 
Madras,  South  India.  Climate,  tropical.  Popu- 
lation, Hindu,  Muslim,  with  a  few  Christians. 
Language,  Tamil,  Telugu,  and  Hindustani. 
Mission  station  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
in  America,  established  in  1S54.  It  has  2  mis- 
sionaries and  64  native  workers  of  both  sexes, 
a  publishing  house,  17  outstations,  an  industrial 
school,  and  18  village  schools.  The  professing 
Christians  number  300. 

ARNO.     See  Marshall  Islands. 

ARNOT'S  GARENGANZE  MISSIOIf.  See 
Christian  Missions. 

ARORAI.     See  Gilbert  Islands. 

AROUCA:  A  town  of  Central  Trinidad,  east 
of  Port  of  Spain  and  northeast  of  San  Fernando. 
Mission  station  of  the  UFS,  with  1  native  worker 
and  185  church  members. 

ARU  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  islands  in  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  lying  W.  of  New  Guinea.  The 
population  numbers  about  25,000.  The  Nether- 
lands Missionary  Society  has  a  station  on  Wokan, 
the  largest  island  of  the  group. 

ARUPPAKOTAI:  A  town  in  the  Madura  dis- 
trict, Madras,  India;  station  of  the  ABCFM, 
with  a  missionary  and  his  wife,  94  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women,  85  outstations,  a  high 
school,  42  village  schools,  a  YMCA,  and  965 
church  members.     Also  written  Arrupukottai. 

ARYALUR:  A  town  of  the  Trichinopoli  dis- 
trict, S.  India;  station  of  the  SPG,  opened  in 
1825;  has  13  native  workers,  6  preaching  places, 
4  village  schools,  and  320  native  communicants. 

ARYA  SOMAJ :  This  body  is  one  of  several 
societies  or  organized  bodies  of  Hindus  which 
admit  the  spiritual  and  moral  degradation  of  the 
people  and  seek  to  introduce  reform.  It  origin- 
ated in  Northern  India,  and  while  it  has  made 
some  growth  in  Central  India,  its  chief  strength 
is  in  the  Punjab.  It  is  far  more  antagonistic  to 
Christianity  than  the  Brahmo  Somaj.  Such 
antagonism  is  demanded  by  the  appeal  which  it 
makes  to  the  patriotism  of  Hindus,  as  exemplified 
in  its  watchword  of  "India  for  the  Indians.  In 
its  view  that  man  is  a  traitor  to  India  who 
accepts  Christianity.  This  political  quality  in 
its  aims  doubtless  explains  in  some  degree  the 
vigor  seen  in  the  Arya  Somaj. 

Its  religious  ideas  also  contain  elements  of 
strength.  It  teaches  that  God  is  one  God,  the 
Creator  of  all  things,  and  the  kindly  Well-wisher 
of  all  His  creatures,  who,  however,  has  never 
revealed  Himself  by  incarnation.  This  mono- 
theistic teaching  it  claims  to  find  in  the  four 
Vedas,  which  alone,  by  the  way,  it  accepts  out 
of  all  the  Hindu  religious  literature. 

Religion,  according  to  the  Arya  Somaj,  con- 
sists of  obedience  to  God,  study  of  the  Vedas,  con- 
tentment with  one's  lot,  and  the  practise  of  truth 
and  justice  toward  all  men.  The  doctrine  of  the 
transmigration  of  souls  is  the  true  eschatology, 


for  it  rights  all  wrongs  and  at  the  same  time 
assures,  in  time,  the  salvation  of  all  from  the 
condition  commonly  called  Hell. 

Some  remarks  on  details  will  better  show  the 
bearings  of  its  curious  creed: 

(a)  Its  testimony  for  the  monotheism  of  the 
Vedas  is  clear  and  explicit.  (6)  It  is  inconsistent 
in  adopting  the  schools  of  philosophy  in  general 
terms,  at  the  same  time  that  it  differs  from  some 
of  them  so  widely  in  its  positive  theism  and  in  its 
theory  of  creation,  (c)  Its  humane  elements  in 
respect  to  woman  and  child-marriage  are  evi- 
dently borrowed  from  Christianity  and  the  higher 
sentiment  which  it  has  created,  (d)  Its  doctrine 
in  respect  to  caste  is  a  virtual  arraignment  of  the 
entire  Indian  cultus  and  civilization,  (e)  It 
strikes  a  blow  at  the  all-prevailing  pessimism  of 
India  in  ascribing  benevolence  of  design  to  the 
supreme  and  personal  creator  of  all  things.  In 
this  respect  it  approaches  very  nearly  to  the 
Christian  view  and  to  that  of  Plato  and  Aristotle. 
(/)  It  is  less  grossly  anthropomorphic  and  more 
spiritual  than  the  old  Hindu  faith  in  its  concep- 
tion of  heaven  and  hell,  which  it  looks  upon,  not 
as  places,  but  as  characters  and  conditions;  on. 
the  same  principle,  caste  is  character  and  not  an 
accident  of  birth,  {g)  It  is  elevated  in  its  ethical 
standards,  and  it  gives  to  ethics  a  godward  side. 
Obedience  to  God  is  one  of  its  foremost  require- 
ments, (h)  Its  denial  of  all  incarnations  of  deity 
is  a  two-edged  sword,  which  strikes  at  both; 
Hinduism  and  Christiantiy.  It  is  so  far  in  accord 
with  Islam,  (i)  Tho  it  approves  of  Yoga  or 
asceticism  in  theory,  yet  its  definition  of  true 
religion  is  as  practical  as  that  of  the  apostle 
James.  It  embraces  the  cardinal  virtues  of  life, 
both  active  and  passive — such  as  contentment, 
repression  of  the  passions,  the  return  of  good  iot 
evil,  knowledge  of  the  Vedas,  obedience  to  God, 
and  truthfulness  and  just  dealings  toward  all 
men.  (j)  Its  positively  missionary  character  is 
in  sympathy  with  Buddhism  and  Christianity, 
rather  than  with  Hinduism,  (k)  Its  advocacy  of 
female  education  is  a  proof  that  it  has  caught  the 
spirit  of  Christian  lands.  In  no  one  feature  does 
the  Arya  Somaj  strike  more  deeply  at  the  root  of 
old  Hinduism  than  in  its  policy  with  respect  to 
women.  (1)  It  apparently  attempts  a  compro- 
mise between  true  theism  and  the  prevailing  pan- 
theism. It  inspheres  the  human  soul  in  the 
infinite  soul,  and  apparently  expects  its  absorp- 
tion into  deity;  yet  it  speaks  of  the  soul  as  a  real 
entity,  and  maintains  its  free  will,  and  therefore 
its  moral  responsibility,  (m)  Its  doctrine  of 
transmigration  is  exceedingly  plausible.  No  bet- 
ter reasons  could  be  given  for  such  a  theory  of 
eschatology. 

The  relation  of  the  Arya  Somaj  to  Christianity 
and  to  Western  thought  is  unique  and  full  of 
interest.  It  is  exceedingly  hostile  to  Christian 
propagandism,  and  yet  it  is  a  far  more  efficient 
handmaid  of  Christianity  than  was  the  Brahmo 
Somaj  in  its  most  palmy  days.  It  is  more  effi- 
cient, because  its  attitude  toward  all  Hindus  is 
more  conciliatory,  and  therefore  more  persuasive 
and  influential.  It  is  less  radical  as  to  changes 
in  doctrine,  and  yet  not  one  more  step  radical 
with  respect  to  those  great  social  movements 
which  Christianity  is  striving  to  promote. 
Moreover,  the  Arya  Somaj  is  a  real  ally  of  Chris- 
tianity against  the  various  current  phases  of 
Western  infidelity.  It  takes  the  side  of  truth 
against  the  agnosticism  of  Huxley  and  Herbert 
Spencer.     It  is  strongly  theistic.     It  believes  in 


Arya  Soniaj 
Asiatics 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


54 


an  intelligent  and  omnipotent  First  Cause,  and  a 
real  creation  of  the  world.  It  maintains  benev- 
olence of  design  in  the  creation  and  government 
of  the  world,  which  Tyndall  and  Darwin  reject. 
It  is  in  advance  of  Max  MuUer  in  the  doctrine  of 
a  preternatural  revelation  of  God  to  man.  It 
brings  all  virtue  and  philanthropy  within  the 
■domain  of  religion,  and  is  a  rebuke  to  all  those 
who  would  dispense  with  God  in  the  government 
of  human  affairs.  It  challenges  all  forms  of 
pessimism,  ancient  or  modern.  Eastern  or  West- 
•ern,  and  maintains  that  the  one  God  of  the  uni- 
verse is  wise  and  good,  and  therefore  worthy  of 
all  reverence  and  love. 

Nevertheless,  while  modern  Aryanism  is  in 
some  sense  an  ally  of  Christian  civilization,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  it  is  more  or  less  of  the 
nature  of  an  entrenchment  of  essential  Hindu- 
ism. The  more  nearly  it  counterfeits  the  truth 
of  God  and  shuns  disgusting  rites,  the  more  plaus- 
ible does  it  become.  It  considers  that  it  has 
adjusted  itself  to  modern  science  and  progress, 
:and  needs  no  further  change.  Christian  mis- 
.'sionaries  must  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  the 
Arya  Somaj  is  an  aggressive  and  bitter  enemy  of 
'Christianity.  It  hopes  to  bar  the  extension  of 
the  teachings  of  Jesus  Christ  in  India,  just  as  it 
hopes  to  check  Islam,  or  to  overthrow  the  degrad- 
ing superstitions  of  popular  Hinduism.  In 
order  better  to  attack  Christianity  it  is  borrowing 
from  Western  scoffers  at  the  Bible  a  logic  and  a 
vocabulary  and  from  the  missionaries,  a  care- 
fully proven  theory  of  the  uses  of  school,  pulpit 
and  press  for  purposes  of  propaganda.  Its 
enmity  to  Christian  teachings  is  deliberate  and 
permanent. 

This  enmity  might  be  a  source  of  dread  to  the 
missionary,  were  not  the  Arya  Somaj  fatally 
weak  in  risking  its  whole  system  upon  the  unten- 
able claim  that  the  four  Vedas  teach  a  pure  mono- 
theism. Because  of  this  weakness  which  must 
some  time  be  revealed,  this  active  organization 
will  serve  its  day,  holding  what  light  it  has  before 
the  people,  and  then  it  will  fall  because  it  has  no 
stable  foundation. 

ASANSOL:  Town  in  Bengal,  India;  station  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  North,  with  3 
missionaries  and  4  native  workers  of  both  sexes, 
3  village  schools,  an  orphanage,  young  people's 
societies  and  about  325  professing  Christians. 

ASHANTI  LANGUAGE :  This  language  belongs 
to  the  Negro  family  of  African  languages,  and  is 
spoken  in  W.  Africa  by  about  3,000,000  people 
along  the  Gold  Coast.  For  missionary  purposes 
it  has  been  written  with  Roman  characters.  It 
is  also  sometimes  called  the  Otshi  language.  It 
exists  in  two  dialects,  the  Akwapim  and  the 
Fanti. 

ASHTON,  Rev.  W.:  Born  July  13,  1817. 
Died  March  29,  1897.  He  was  a  missionary 
of  the  LMS  at  Barkly  West,  South  Africa,  and 
■during  a  service  of  fifty-four  years  in  the  mission 
field  he,  as  a  self-sacrificing,  consecrated  mission- 
ary of  the  cross,  did  much  for  the  enlightenment 
of  the  Dark  Continent. 

ASIA  MINOR:  Originally  confined  to  a  small 
section  on  the  border  of  the  jUgean,  the  term  has 
come  to  include  that  portion  of  Asiatic  Turkey 
lying  between  the  Black  Sea  on  the  north  and 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  the  Marmora 
and  jEgean  seas  on  the  west,  and  the  Euphrates 
Valley  on  the  east.  This  last  boundary  is  vague, 
AS  the  Euphrates  is  tortuous  in  its  course.     It  is, 


however,  sufficiently  accurate  for  practical  pur- 
poses.    See  Turkey. 

ASIATICS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES:  The  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  California,  in  1849,  opened  the 
way  for  the  immigration  of  the  Chinese  to  this 
country  in  large  numbers.  In  the  one  year  of 
1852  there  were  20,000  arrivals.  Twenty-five 
years  later,  there  were  no  less  than  150,000  in  the 
United  States.  Of  these,  30,000  were  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, somewhat  more  than  this  number  in  other 
parts  of  California,  and  the  remainder  scattered 
elsewhere.  In  San  Francisco,  Chinatown  em- 
braces the  greater  part  of  fifteen  blocks,  in  which 
Chinese  life  as  seen  in  China  is  quite  accurately 
reflected.  The  Chinese  being  so  extremely  con- 
servative, they  cling  very  tenaciously  to  their 
own  modes  of  life.  While  learning  our  language, 
and  observing  our  ways,  they  largely  live  in  a 
world  of  their  own;  and  most  of  them  eventually 
to  go  back  home  and  die  among  their  own  people. 
They  bring  their  idolatry  with  them,  and  in  San 
Francisco  alone  have  eighteen  temples. 

The  first  Christian  work  was  begun  among  the 
Chinese  in  1852,  by  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions,  which  sent  the  Rev.  Wm. 
Speer,  D.D.,  to  San  Francisco  for  this  purpose. 
He  labored  with  great  zeal  and  earnestness  until 
his  health  broke  down,  and  for  long  years  was 
remembered  as  "The  Chinaman's  Friend."  He 
was  succeeded  in  1859  by  the  Rev.  A.  W.  Loomis, 
D.D.,  who  for  thirty-two  years  was  a  devoted  and 
successful  laborer.  In  1866  a  Chinese  church  of 
twelve  members  was  organized.  In  1870  Dr. 
Loomis  was  joined  by  Rev.  I.  M.  Condit,  D.D., 
who  still  has  charge  of  the  Presbyterian  work  in 
California.  The  mission  house  built  by  Dr. 
Speer  became  too  strait  for  the  work,  and  in  1882 
the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  being  situated  in 
close  proximity  to  the  encroaching  Chinese  quar- 
ters, was  purchased  and  occupied  as  mission  head- 
quarters. 

In  1868  Rev.  Otis  Gibson,  D.D.,  established  a 
mission  of  the  M.  E.  Church.  A  commodious 
building  was  erected  for  chapel,  school  and  rescue 

Eurposes,  in  which  vigorous  work  has  ever  since 
een  carried  on.  A  Congregational  mission  was 
opened  in  1870  by  Rev.  W.  C.  Pond,  D.D.,  who 
has  ever  since  been  its  efficient  superintendent, 
with  Rev.  Jee  Gam  as  native  pastor.  In  1898 
this  mission  purchased  a  large  building,  which  has 
been  fitted  up  in  a  manner  well  adapted  for  work. 
The  Rev.  John  Francis,  of  the  Baptist  Church, 
established  a  mission  in  1870.  Later  a  building  ■ 
for  church  and  school  purposes  was  built  in  a 
location  well  suited  for  its  efficient  work. 

These  missions,  besides  preaching  services  in 
the  Chinese  language,  Sunday  schools  and  other 
church  work,  have  each  evening  schools,  in  which 
the  rudiments  of  English  are  taught.  They  have 
also  opened  '  stations  at  many  of  the  principal 
towns  and  cities  of  the  State,  where  many 
Chinese  have  been  instructed  and  brought  to 
Christ. 

Many  Christian  people  in  our  American 
Churches  were  awakened  to  a  sense  of  their 
responsibility  to  these  heathens;  but,  with  the 
barrier  of  an  unknown  tongue  lying  between, 
how  could  they  do  anything  for  them?  The  Chi- 
nese were  anxious  to  learn  English,  and  so  the 
plan  of  Chinese  Sunday  Schools  was  adopted. 
These  were  opened  in  nearly  all  the  prominent 
churches  of  San  Francisco,  and  at  other  impor- 
tant points.  As  the  Chinese  went  East,  mis- 
sions and  schools  were  gradually  opened,  until 


55 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Arya  Soma] 
Asiatics 


now,  more  than  seventy  of  them  are  found  in  the 
cities  and  towns  of  our  broad  land.  In  New 
York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Chicago, 
and  Portland,  Oregon,  where  Chinese  are  found 
in  the  largest  numbers,  many  flourishing  Sunday 
schools  exist,  connected  with  the  various  church- 
es, and  also  several  organized  missions.  All  this 
has  resulted  in  the  conversion  of  hundreds  of 
souls,  among  whom  are  found  many  devoted 
Christians. 

In  the  first  years  of  Chinese  mission  work 
there  were  not  many  families  or  children.  But 
as  these  began  to  increase  in  San  Francisco, 
schools  were  opened.  These  schools  are  now 
found  in  the  principal  missions,  with  an  enroll- 
ment of  250  scholars.  A  Chinese  public  school 
has  been  in  existence  for  several  years,  which  has 
grown  until  now  five  American  teachers  are 
employed.  A  goodly  number,  too,  of  the  native- 
born  Chinese  attend  our  American  public  schools; 
2,600  in  San  Francisco  are  under  eighteen  years 
of  age,  and  2,000  of  these  are  of  school  age. 
There  are  1,700  native-born  now  here,  besides 
many  who  have  gone  back  to  China.  3,000 
women  are  estimated  to  be  in  San  Francisco,  of 
whom  the  largest  share  are  of  bad  character. 
Slave  girls  have  bfeen  imported  in  large  numbers, 
who  are  bought  and  sold  like  chattels.  There  is 
no  such  thing  as  slavery  known  among  men,  but 
among  females  it  is  sadly  prevalent. 

Homes  for  the  rescue  of  these  slave  girls  were 
established  in  1873  in  connection  with  the  Pres- 
byterian and  Methodist  missions.  During  the 
thirty  years  of  their  existence  probably  1,500 
girls  have  been  rescued.  Each  mission  has  a  fine 
building  for  a  home.  Many  of  these  rescued  ones 
have  become  Christians,  married  Christian  men, 
and  gone  out  to  set  up  Christian  homes  for  them- 


In  1870  Chinese  branches  of  the  YMCA  were 
formed  in  different  missions.  Each  has  a  central 
society  in  San  Francisco,  with  branch  societies 
at  the  various  points  where  Christian  work  has 
been  established.  There  are  scores  of  these  soci- 
eties, to  which  from  the  beginning  several  thou- 
sand members  have  belonged.  Entering  the 
association  is  the  first  step  toward  giving  up  idol- 
atry and  learning  the  religion  of  Jesus.  The  Chi- 
nese are  very  social  in  their  nature  and  this  soci- 
ety is  a  power  to  draw  them  together  and  away 
from  the  dangers  of  bad  resorts. 

Approximate  results  of  Chinese  work  in  our 
country  may  be  briefly  stated  in  the  following 
summary : 

The  number  of  Chinese  in  the  United  States, 
100,000.  Of  these,  in  San  Francisco,  20,000;  on 
the  Coast  outside  of  San  Francisco,  52,000;  in 
other  States  and  Territories,  28,000.  The  whole 
number  of  Christians  in  the  United  States  from 
the  beginning,  divided  between  Presbyterians, 
Methodists,  Congregationalists,  and  Baptists, 
with  a  few  from  other  denominations,  4,000. 
The  present  number  of  Christian  Chinese  in  the 
United  States,  1,600.  Of  these  in  San  Francisco, 
600;  in  other  parts  of  the  coast,  500,  and  in  other 
States,  500.  The  number  of  Sunday  Schools,  75, 
with  an  attendance  during  the  year  of  2,500 
scholars;  children  in  schools,  500.  The  number 
of  lay  preachers  converted  in  U.  S.,  who  have 
labored  both  here  and  in  China,  60.  Chinese 
ordained  ministers  who  were  converted  in  U.  S., 
12. 

The  influence  of  those  converted  here  upon 
their  homes  in  China  as  they  return  is  one  of  the 


most  hopeful  phases  of  the  work.  All  the  Chi- 
nese who  have  emigrated,  not  only  to  this  coun- 
try, but  to  nearly  all  others,  are  from  the  one 
province  of  Canton,  and  from  a  few  districts  or 
counties  of  that  province.  While  this  is  so,  still 
they  represent  a  population  of  probably  ten  or 
fifteen  million  souls.  The  reflex  influence  of  the 
thousands  of  Christians  converted  here,  and  the 
thousands  more  who  have  been  instructed  in  a 
knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  seen  with  wondering 
eyes  the  prosperity  of  this  Christian  country,  as 
they  return  home  to  dwell  among  these  millions, 
is  very  great.  It  is  mightily  weakening  the  power 
of  idolatry,  as  well  as  building  up  the  constituency 
of  a  Christian  community.  A  score  or  more  of 
chapels  have  been  built,  some  entirely  and  others 
partly,  by  these  American  Chinese  Christians. 
One  church  in  the  heart  of  this  region  was  built 
entirely  by  California  Christians,  costing  six 
thousand  Mexican  dollars,  and  in  which  they  sup- 
port a  native  pastor.  This  is  only  one  notable 
instance  among  many.  Quite  a  number  of  the 
native  preachers  of  this  region  were  converted 
in  the  United  States.  More  and  more  the  hearts 
of  the  Chinese  Christians  among  us  are  turning 
toward  transplanting  in  China  the  seed  which  has 
been  sown  among  them  here.  The  contact  of  the 
Chinese  with  our  Christian  civilization  is  no 
mean  power  in  helping  to  bring  about  the 
New  China. 

Mission  work  among  the  Japanese  in  the  United 
States  is  a  hopeful  and  growing  one.  On  the 
Pacific  Coast  they  are  fast  increasing  in  numbers, 
as  they  are  free  to  come,  while  an  exclusion  law 
shuts  out  the  Chinese.  Dr.  E.  A.  Sturge,  who  is 
the  best  of  authority,  says:  "There  are  about 
.60,000  Japanese  on  this  Coast,  40,000  in  Califor- 
nia and  4,000  or  5,000  in  San  Francisco.  More 
than  forty  steamers  are  plying  between  this  Coast 
and  Japan,  and  every  steamer  arriving  adds  to 
the  number  of  Japanese  in  our  country.  There 
are  not  many  of  these  people  in  the  East,  as  there 
is  no  employment  for  them  there.  There  are 
about  a  hundred  in  Chicago,  and  perhaps  two 
hundred  in  New  York  City.  Most  of  those  who 
come  directly  from  Japan  belong  to  the  student 
class,  and  are  here  for  the  purpose  of  study, 
while  the  majority  of  those  who  come  from 
Hawaii  belong  to  the  laboring  class.  The  Japan- 
ese in  this  land  are  nearly  all  young  men,  and 
very  few  of  them  expect  to  remain  in  America 
more  than  five  years.  As  they  all  wear  the 
American  dress,  and  reside  in  no  special  quarter, 
their  presence  is  scarcely  realized." 

Mission  work  among  this  people  was  begun  in  a 
small  way  twenty-five  years  ago,  but  as  they 
have  rapidly  increased  in  the  last  decade,  the 
work  has  grown  into  two  flourishing  missions  of 
the  Methodist  and  Presbyterian  Churches. 
Both  of  these  missions  have  commodious  build- 
ings and  are  carrying  on  a  most  interesting  and 
encouraging  work.  The  Methodist  mission, 
which  is  the  largest,  is  under  the  superintendency 
of  the  Rev.  M.  C.  Harris,  D.D.,  and  the  Presby- 
terian is  under  E.  A.  Sturge,  M.D.  They  both 
have  the  aid  of  native  pastors.  The  Japanese 
readily  accept  Christianity,  and  a  thousand  Chris- 
tians are  now  reckoned  to  be  on  the  Coast.  The 
work  is  spreading  beyond  San  Francisco,  as  the 
people  are  scattering  throughout  the  State  in  the 
fields  and  orchards.  The  Methodist  mission  has 
stations  to  the  number  of  eight  or  ten,  while  the 
Presbyterians  are  also  establishing  stations  at 
outlying  points. 


Asisipi 
Auclcland 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


56 


ASISIPI.     See  Sandy  Lake. 

ASMARA:  A  village  west  of  Massaua,  in  the 
Italian  Colony  of  Eritrea,  N.  E.  Africa;  station  of 
the  Swedish  National  Missionary  Society  (1891), 
with  7  missionaries  and  6  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  3  village  schools,  an  orphanage,  a 
printing  house  and  51  communicants. 

ASSAM :  A  province  of  British  India  ceded  to 
the  East  India  Company  by  the  king  of  Burma 
in  1826.  Until  1874  it  was  administered  as  a 
part  of  Bengal.  It  is  now  a  separate  province 
under  a  lieutenant-governor.  It  lies  between  the 
parallels  of  24°  30'  and  28°  15'  N.  latitude,  and 
between  the  meridians  of  89°  and  96°  50'  E.  from 
Greenwich.  It  is  the  chief  seat  of  tea-culture  in 
India.  Its  area  is  49,004  square  miles  and  its 
population  (in  1891)  5,476,833. 

The  country  consists  of  two  extensive  river 
valleys  and  three  ranges  of  mountains.  At  the 
north,  Bhutan  occupies  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  and  the  somewhat  lower 
range  which  overlooks  the  wide  and  fertile  valley 
of  the  Brahmaputra.  The  valley  of  this  great 
river  extends  from  Sadiya  in  the  east  to  the  foot 
of  the  Garo  Hills,  where  the  river  turns  to  the 
south.  The  right  bank  is  level,  and  has  broad 
fertile  lands,  densely  inhabited;  the  left  bank  is 
crowded  by  a  range  of  hills  named  from  the  tribes 
that  occupy  them,  the  Garo,  the  Khasi,  and 
Jaintia,  Naga,  and  Singpho  Hills.  The  com- 
paratively level  and  broad  valley  extending  from 
the  right  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra  is  mostly 
occupied  by  Assamese,  the  rulmg  race.  They 
have  also  several  cities  and  towns  on  the  left 
bank.  Southwest  of  the  hills  of  the  left  bank 
lies  the  valley  of  the  Surma,  a  large  tributary 
stream  flowing  into  one  of  the  delta  branches  of 
the  Jumna  or  Brahmaputra.  This  valley  is 
broad,  well  watered,  and  fertile.  The  Khasi  and 
Jaintia  hills  overlook  it.  It  was  formerly 
claimed  as  a  part  of  the  Eastern  Bengal  plains, 
but  the  Indian  Government  has  now  transferred 
this  whole  valley  to  the  Assam  Province,  to 
which  it  properly  belongs. 

The  People:  The  ruling  class,  the  Assamese, 
hold  very  similar  relations  to  the  hill  tribes  of 
Assam  as  the  Burmans  do  to  the  hill  tribes  of 
that  country.  They  are  of  different  race,  habits, 
and  religion.  The  Assamese  are  believed  to  be 
allied  to  the  Shans,  tho,  perhaps,  remotely. 
They  were  formerly  Buddhists,  but  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  having  sought 
the  protection  of  Bengal,  they  adopted  the  entire 
Brahmanist  system — divinities,  caste,  idol-wor- 
ship, and  all.  Their  language,  tho  originally  of 
the  Pali  stock,  has,  by  the  adoption  of  Hinduism, 
and  their  intimate  association  with  Eastern 
Bengal,  acquired  a  large  infusion  of  Bengali. 
The  hill  tribes,  which  in  the  aggregate  outnumber 
the  Assamese,  are,  beginning  with  the  Chinese 
frontier  on  the  northeast;  the  Mishmies;  the 
Khamtis,  said  to  be  of  the  Tai  or  Shan  family 
who  are  most  numerous  on  the  Chinese  side  of 
the  mountains;  the  Singphos,  who  are  found  in 
large  numbers  also  on  the  Burmese  side  of  the 
mountains;  the  Aror,  the  Nagas,  the  Kacharis, 
or  Kosaris,  north  of  the  Brahmaputra;  the 
Mikirs,  in  the  hills  near  Nowgong;  the  Garos, 
of  several  clans;  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  Khasia 
and  Jaintia  Hills,  looking  toward  the  Surma 
Valley,  the  Khasi  and  Jamtia  tribes,  and  still 
another  tribe  of  Nagas,  are  found.  To  these 
must  be  added    the    Kols,  a  tribe  from  Chota 


Nagpur,  in  Central  India,  who  have  been  brought 
by  the  Government  into  Assam  to  work  m  the 
tea  gardens.  It  is  said  that  there  are  over 
250,000  of  them  now  in  Assam. 

It  is  believed  that  some  of  the  largest  of  these- 
tribes  are  either  closely  afEHated  to  hill  tribes  in 
Burma,  or,  perhaps,  identical  with  them;  this  is- 
very  probable  in  regard  to  the  Singphos  of  Assam, 
and  Chittagong,  and  the  Kachins  of  Upper 
Burma;  also  the  Nagas  of  Assam  and  the  Chins, 
of  Burma.  The  relationship  of  these  tribes  is  a. 
matter  of  some  moment  to  those  engaged  in 
Bible  translation  for  them. 

Climate:  Assam  is  wholly  within  the  north 
temperate  zone,  tho  in  the  subtropical  part  of 
it.  Its  location  and  the  high  hills  and  mountains, 
which  cover  so  large  a  portion  of  its  surface 
should  make  it  healthy,  but  do  not.  In  the 
valleys  there  are  marshy  lands,  and  the  fickle, 
moist,  and  variable  temperature,  with  its  terrible 
cold  and  its  fervid  heat,  have  rendered  it  par- 
ticularly fatal  to  the  Europeans  and  Americans 
who  have  spent  much  time  there.  It  is  fre- 
quently visited  by  the  cholera,  and  both  acute 
and  chronic  diseases  of  the  liver  prevail.  Of  late 
years  the  construction  of  good  roads,  and  the 
drainage  of  the  marshes  for  the  establishment  of 
tea  gardens  has  somewhat  improved  the  salubrity 
of  the  country. 

Religions:  The  Assamese,  as  we  have  said,, 
adopted  Hinduism  about  1760.  They  are  rigid 
adherents  to  caste.  One  or  two  of  the  hill  tribes 
on  the  north  of  the  Brahmaputra,  notably  the 
Kacharis  and  several  of  the  Bhutan  hill  tribes 
bordering  on  Assam  at  the  north,  are  Moham- 
medans. The  greater  part  of  the  hill  tribes, 
including  all  those  south  of  the  great  river — the 
Garos,  Nagas,  Khasis,  Mikirs,  Singphos,  etc. — 
are  demon  worshippers,  making  offerings  to  the 
Nats,  or  demons,  to  induce  them  not  to  injure 
them.  They  believe  in  a  living  Supreme  Being, 
the  Creator,  but  think  He  is  too  much  occupied 
with  the  vast  affairs  of  the  universe  to  care  for- 
human  beings,  and  too  merciful  to  punish  them 
for  anything  they  have  done  or  may  do;  and  so 
they  do  not  offer  Him  any  worship  or  reverence. 
They  believe  dimly  in  a  future  life,  but  not  in 
a  state  of  rewards  or  punishments.  In  general, 
their  religious  belief  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
hill  tribes  of  Burma.  The  tribes  nearest  to  the- 
Chinese  have  adopted  some  ideas  of  ancestral 
worship. 

Missions  in  Assam:  The  first  mission  com- 
menced here  was  that  of  the  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union,  established  in  1836  at  the-, 
solicitation  of  Captain  Jenkyns,  the  British 
deputy  commissioner,  who  offered  of  his  own 
means  a  considerable  sum  toward  the  expense  of 
such  a  mission  to  the  heathen  under  his  charge. 
The  first  missionaries  were  Rev.  Nathan  Brown, 
an  eminent  missionary  and  scholar,  who  had. 
begun  his  missionary  life  in  Burma,  and  Mr.  0.  T. 
Cutter,  a  printer.  The  first  station  was  at  Sadiya, 
near  the  northeast  frontier  of  Assam,  about  400 
miles  from  the  Burman  capital,  and  almost  200 
from  Yunnan,  in  China.  The  tribe  to  whom  they 
were  designated  were  the  Khamtis,  a  lifll  tribe 
occupying  both  sides  of  the  lofty  range  which 
separates  Assam  from  China.  The  geography 
and  ethnology  of  this  region  were  not  well  under- 
stood, and  the  voyage  up  the  tortuous  Brahma- 
putra was  exceedingly  tedious,  occupying  over- 
four  months  in  the  native  boats.  The  mission- 
aries, however,  entered  upon  their  work  with  a. 


67 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


ANlsipt 
Auckland 


stout  heart,  and,  finding  that  there  was  little  to 
be  done  among  the  Khamtis,  they  turned  their 
attention  to  the  Assamese  and  Shans  in  and 
around  Sadiya.  In  1839  an  insurrection  of  the 
Khamtis  commenced  with  an  attack  on  Sadiya, 
which  necessitated  the  removal  of  the  mission- 
aries to  Jaipur.  Jaipur  was  abandoned  from  its 
unhealthiness  and  other  causes,  and  Sibsagar,  on 
a  southern  affluent  of  the  Brahmaputra,  was 
selected.  This  is  now  the  chief  town  in  Eastern 
Assam,  and  is  still  a  station  of  the  ABMU.  The 
station  at  Nowgong  was  established  in  1841. 
The  first  Assamese  convert  was  baptized  the 
same  year.  In  1842  a  school  was  opened  there, 
with  80  pupils,  and  in  1843  the  Nowgong  Orphan 
Institution  was  established,  which  for  many  years 
was  the  means  of  doing  much  good.  It  was  given 
up  in  1856.  The  station  at  Gauhati  was  com- 
menced in  1843.  There  were  very  few  converts, 
and  these  Assamese  only,  till  1846.  From  this 
time  till  1853  there  were  frequent  accessions  to 
the  churches  in  Sibsagar,  Nowgong,  and  Gauhati, 
mostly  Assamese,  with  a  very  few  Kacharis 
and  Nagas.  In  1863  the  first  of  the  Garos,  the 
fiercest  of  the  hill  tribes,  was  baptized,  and  soon 
became  a  missionary  to  his  tribe.  The  same  year 
one  of  the  Mikirs  was  baptized.  From  these 
beginnings  the  good  work  spread  with  great 
rapidity  till  in  the  churches  of  the  Garo  Associa- 
tion, in  1877,  there  were  617  members. 

The  Kols  from  Chota  Nagpur,  who  are 
employed  in  the  tea  gardens,  began  to  attract 
attention  in  1874.  They  are  mostly  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Sibsagar.  Some  of  them  had  heard  of 
Christ  from  Lutheran  missionaries  in  their  home 
in  Bengal,  and  in  Assam  they  were  ready  to 
accept  Him.  There  are  now  two  or  three  large 
churches  of  these  people.  There  have  been  some 
conversions  among  the  Milcirs,  who  are  best 
reached  from  Nowgong.  Tho  there  was  consid- 
erable promise  among  the  Kacharis,  north  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  the  accessions  from  that  tribe  have 
not  been  large.  Work  was  commenced  among 
the  Nagas  as  early  as  1840,  but  without  much 
result  tiU  1871,  when  Rev.  E.  W.  Clark  made  a 
tour  of  the  hills.  There  are  at  least  three  distinct 
tribes  of  Nagas  in  these  hills. 

There  are  now  21  mission  stations  in  Assam, 
of  which  8  belong  to  the  ABMU  and  1  to  the 
SPG,  the  remaining  12  belonging  to  the  Welsh 
Calvinistic  Methodist  Society.  The  census  re- 
turns 35,000  Christians  in  Assam  of  all  denomin- 
ations. 

ASSAMESE:  A  language  spoken  in  Assam, 
belongs  to  the  India  branch  of  the  Aryan  family 
of  languages.  It  is  written  with  the  Bengali 
character  and  is  used  by  about  2,000,000 
people. 

ASSOCIATE  REFORMED  PRESBYTERIAN 
SYNOD  OF  THE  SOUTH :  The  foreign  missionary 
work  of  this  denomination  began  in  1875,  when 
a  missionary  was  sent  to  Egypt  to  work  in  con- 
nection with  the  United  Presbyterian  Mission 
Society.  Upon  her  death  this  connection 
ceased,  and  work  was  begun  in  Mexico.  The 
field  of  operations  is  the  State  of  Tamaulipas, 
with  the  central  station  at  Tampico. 

There  are  (1902)  17  outstations,  11  mission- 
aries, 7  native  workers,  330  communicants,  182 
pupils  in  five  schools.     Income  about  $9,000. 

ASSTJAN:  A  town  in  Upper  Egypt,  situated 
on  the  Nile  near  the  first  cataract.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  granite,  and  for  the  great  irriga- 


tion dam  finished  in  1902.  A  station  on  the  so- 
called  Apostles'  route,  established  by  the  Mo- 
ravian Brethren  in  Egypt  in  1865,  but  afterward 
abandoned  by  them.  Visited  as  an  outstation 
by  the  United  Presbyterian  Mission  of  tlie  United 
States  of  America.  Station  of  the  Sudan 
Pioneer  Mission  of  Eisenach,  opened  in  1900. 
It  is  occupied  by  a  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
3  native  worlcers.     There  are  2  village  schools. 

ASUNCION:  The  capital  of  Paraguay,  S. 
America.  Population  35,000;  station  of  the 
ME,  with  one  missionary  and  his  wife,  and  one 
unmarried  woman  missionary,  and  11  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  3  village  schools,  2 
high  schools,  1  college  and  70  members  of  the 
church.  Station  also  of  the  SDA  with  one 
missionary  and  his  wife. 

ASSYRIA:  That  portion  of  Asiatic  Turkey 
extending  from  Diarbekir  on  the  north  to 
Mosul  on  the  south,  and  comprising  the  northern 
part  of  the  Mesopotamia  plain.  The  word  is. 
now  seldom  used  as  a  geographical  term. 

ASSYRIAN  CHRISTIANS :  A  term  sometimes 
used  to  designate  members  of  the  Nestorian 
Church. 

ASYUT,  or  SIUT:  A  city  on  the  Nile,  228 
miles  by  rail  south  of  Cairo.  Population,. 
30,000,  mostly  Mohammedans.  It  was  formerly 
a  principal  seat  of  the  slave-trade,  and  an  impor- 
tant mditary  station.  It  is  now  noted  for  a 
great  irrigation  dam  on  the  Nile,  finished  under 
English  auspices  in  1903,  subsidiary  to  the  great 
dam  of  Assuan.  Ruins  and  catacombs  abound 
in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  a  mission  station 
of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  U.  S., 
established  in  1865,  with  14  missionaries  of  both 
sexes,  a  hospital  and  dispensary,  a  high  school 
for  girls  and  a  college. 

ATAFU  ISLAND :  Also  called  Duke  of  York's 
Island,  is  one  of  the  Tokelau  group  of  islands,  N. 
of  Samoa. 

ATHABASCA  LANDING:  Settlement  on  the 
Athabasca  River  in  the  district  of  Alberta, 
Canada;  station  of  the  CMS,  with  a  missionary 
and  his  wife. 

ATIU.     See  Hervey  Islands. 

ATRAULI:  A  town  of  15,000  inhabitants 
N.  E.  of  Aligarh,  United  Provinces,  India; 
station  of  the  ME,  with  10  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  11  Sunday  schools,  7  village  schools, 
and  900  church  members. 

ATTABARI:  A  town  in  the  Darang  district  of 
Assam,  India;  station  of  the  SPG,  with  one 
missionary  and  10  native  workers,  8  preaching 
places,  5  common  schools  and  800  communi- 
cants. 

ATTANGAL:  A  town  in  Travancore,  S.  India; 
station  of  the  LMS  (1899),  with  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  and  34  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  12  outstations,  14  Sunday  schools, 
21  common  schools  and  110  church  members. 
Also  written  Attingal. 

AUCKLAND:  A  city  on  the  Hauraki  Gulf, 
New  Zealand.  It  has,  including  the  suburbs, 
57,000  inhabitants,  chiefly  English,  Irish, 
Scotch,  and  Germans,  engaged  in  working  the 
gold  and  coal-mines  near  the  town  and  in  the 
manufactories  whose  products  form  the  chief 
exports.  Station  of  the  CMS,  with  one  mis- 
sionary and  28  native  workers,  and  83  commu- 
nicants. 


Aiier 
Babls 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


58 


AUER,  John  Gottlieb:  Born  at  Neubulach, 
Wurtemberg,  Germany,  November  18,  1832.  He 
was  well  trained  by  an  earnest  Christian  mother. 
In  1854  he  was  admitted  to  the  Missionary  Tram- 
ing  School  at  Basel,  and  in  1858  was  sent  as 
missionary  to  Akropong  in  W.  Africa,  and  became 
a  teacher  in  the  seminary.  In  1862  he  dissolved 
his  connection  with  the  Basel  Missionary  Society, 
offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry 
in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  ordained  by 
Bishop  Payne  at  Cavalla.  In  1863  his  wife  died, 
and  shortly  after  he  sailed  for  America.  Return- 
ing to  his  field  in  1867,  he  devoted  himself  to 
two  definite  objects— a  higher  education  for  the 
African  Church  and  a  systematic  preparation 
for  giving  to  the  heathen  the  Gospel  in  their  own 
tongue.  Acceding  to  Bishop  Payne's  request, 
he  became  the  head  of  the  high  school  at  Cavalla. 
He  beUeved  that  the  Bible  should  be  given  to 
the  people  in  their  vernacular.  In  addition  to 
the  work  of  teaching,  he  translated  or  composed 
books  in  the  Kroo  language  and  the  Grebo.  He 
prepared  a  Grebo  primer  and  dictionary,  and 
revised  the  translation  of  the  Prayer-Book. 
He  also  devised  a  method  of  writing  the  Grebo 
with  vocal  marks,  thus  saving  the  use  of  mul- 
tiplied vowels.  He  had  a  school  of  twelve 
■students,  whom  he  faithfully  trained. 

He  was  ordained  bishop  of  Cape  Palmas,  at 
-Georgetown,  D.  C,  April  17,  1873.  Returning 
to  Germany,  in  July,  he  began  at  once  to  carry 
his  work  through  the  press,  and  by  November 
he  had  prepared  an  elementary  book  and  a  Bible 
history  in  the  Kroo  language,  a  translation  of 
the  Psalms,  and  a  book  of  hymns  in  metre  in 
the  Grebo,  a  revised  edition  of  the  Prayer-Book 
and  a  tune-book.  To  this  he  added  a  book  of 
chants.  The  translation  of  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
ture and  Church  Services  into  Grebo,  begun  by 
Bishop  Payne,  he  completed.  On  November 
20,  leaving  his  family,  he  started  for  Africa. 
Tho  very  feeble  on  arriving  at  Cape  Palmas, 
December  29,  he  entered  earnestly  on  his 
mission  work.  He  died,  February  16,  1874, 
at  Cape  Palmas. 

AUKA  NEGROES:  Descendants  of  former 
runaway  slaves  in  Surinam,  who  during  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half  have  become  a  large  tribe  inhab- 
iting the  forests  at  a  distance  from  the  white  settle- 
ments. Moravian  missionaries  have  labored 
among  them  since  1765  and  have  won  about 
30,000  of  them  to  a  profession  of  Christianity. 
AULUA :  A  village  on  the  island  of  Mallicollo, 
New  Hebrides  groujj,  Polynesia;  station  of 
the  New  Hebrides  Missionary  Society,  with  a 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  17  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  9  village  schools,  and  62 
■church  members. 

AURANGABAD:  In  the  Nizam's  Dominions, 
India,  180  miles  northeast  of  Bombay.  Its 
population  is  about  34,000.  It  is  a  station 
of  the  CMS,  opened  in  1860,  and  now  occupied 
by  5  missionaries  and  54  native  workers,  men 
and  women.  There  are  14  village  schools, 
and  800  communicants. 

AUSTRAL  ISLANDS :  A  group  of  small  islands 
lying  S.  of  Tahiti  and  belonging  to  France. 
The  Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society  has 
occupied  five  islands  of  this  group,  of  which 
Rurutua  is  the  largest,  taking  over  the  field 
from  the  LMS,  after  the  islands  passed  under 
French  control.  There  are  8  native  workers 
and  about  650  communicants  in  the  group. 


AUSTRALIA :  When  Australia  was  discovered 
the  aboriginal  race  inhabiting  it  were  found  to 
be  a  nomadic  people,  very  low  m  the  scale  of 
human  life.  Anthropologists  have  ditfaculty 
in  classifying  them  and  in  tracing  their  origin. 
Their  languages  have  also  puzzled  philolo- 
gists, as  "they  have  little  or  no  connection  with 
that  stock  to  which  the  Malay,  Polynesian, 
and  Melanesian  belong.  Dr.  Bleek,  whose 
reputation  gives  weight  to  his  opinion,  believes 
them  to  be  nearly  allied  to  the  languages  of 
southeastern  Africa." 

This  article  will  be  limited  to  some  mention 
of  various  efforts  to  evangelize  these  abo- 
rigines, and,  also  those  directed  to  the  Asiatic 
immigrants  in  differents  parts  of  Australia. 

The  first  missionary  effort  for  the  aborigines 
was  made  at  Lake  Macquarie  in  1825  by  the 
LMS.  Many  of  their  agents  passed  through 
Sydney,  and  some  of  them  had  found  an  asylum 
there  during  times  of  peril  at  Tahiti.  After 
six  years  of  failure  from  the  roving  habits  of 
the  blacks,  the  London  Missionary  Society 
gave  up  the  work,  but  the  Colonial  Government 
continued  it.  The  missionary,  Mr.  ^  L.  E. 
Threlkeld,  persevered  amid  many  trials  and 
discouragements,  acquired  the  language,  printed 
a  spelling-book  and  translations  of  parts  of 
Scriptures.  But  little  impression  was  made 
upon  the  people  and  the  tribes  around  Lake 
Macquarie  having  become  almost  extinct,  the 
mission  was  closed  in  1861. 

In  1832  another  mission  was  established 
at  Wellington.  The  same  difficulties  were  en- 
countered there,  but  the  missionaries  did  their 
best  to  acquire  the  language  of  the  district, 
to  teach  the  young,  and  to  address  the  people. 
They  composed  a  grammar  and  a  vocabulary, 
and  translated  portions  of  Scriptures,  chiefly 
St.  Luke's  Gospel,  and  a  part  of  the  Anghcan 
Liturgy.  But  they  had  to  admit  that  the 
supply  of  food  existing  at  the  mission  was  what 
drew  the  people  to  them.  As  the  country 
became  settled  the  influence  of  vicious  whites 
rendered  nugatory  all  efforts,  and  in  1847  the 
mission  was  broken  up. 

Through  the  influence  of  an  eminent  clergy- 
man of  New  South  Wales,  Pastor  Gossner  of 
Berlin  sent  out  several  missionaries  in  1840 
to  labor  among  the  aborigines  at  Moreton  Bay 
and  Keppel  Bay.  But  the  enterprise  came 
to  nothing  after  eighteen  years  of  continued 
effort.  About  1850  Rev.  William  Ridley 
attempted  missionary  labor  among  the  aborig- 
ines of  New  South  Wales.  He  devoted  hia 
means  and  himself  to  the  work,  learned  the 
language  of  the  {jeople  among  whom  he  lived 
on  the  Namoi  River,  prepared  a  grammar  of 
the  language  and  translated  portions  of  _  the 
Gospel  narrative.  His  labors  were  not  entirely 
in  vain,  but  the  migratory  habits  of  the  people 
forced  him  to  abandon  his  mission. 

More  recent  efforts  in  New  South  Wales  have 
been  on  the  plan  of  forming  reservations  for 
the  residence  and  work  of  the  aborigines  and 
for  educating  the  children.  In  this  the  Govern- 
ment has  become  the  protector  of  the  tribes, 
and  the  Moravian  Missionary  Society  and  the 
various  Christian  denominations  in  Australia  have 
worked  perseveringly  for  their  enlightenment 
and  elevation.  Missionary  effort  for  the  abor- 
igines is  carried  on  at  26  stations  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  Australian  continent.  But  only  a 
limited  number  of  the  tribes  will  submit  to  the 


69 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Aner 
BablM 


restrictions  of  life  on  a  reservation.  A  certain 
number  of  these  degraded  people  have  become 
Christianized,  but  the  general  result  of  all  these 
years  of  effort  is  the  discouragement  resulting 
from  dealing  with  a  dull  and  unstable  people. 

The  total  number  of  the  Aborigines  now 
existing  in  Australia  is  about  55,000.  Of 
these  about  5,000  are  classed  as  civilized  in  the 
census  reports. 

Attracted  by  the  gold  fields  and  by  the  encour- 
agements to  industry,  many  thousand  Chinese 
emigrated  to  Australia.  Numbers  of  them  are 
engaged  in  merchandise,  otliers  in  gold  mining, 
many  in  market  gardening  and  other  industrial 
work.  Some  of  them  can  read  and  write,  and 
all  are  accessible  to  Christian  influence.  The 
numbers  in  1888  in  Australia  were  about  40,000, 
and  even  the  restrictive  legislation  directed 
against  them  has  not  reduced  their  number 
below  30,000  (1901). 

Attempts  have  been  made  by  the  different 
churches  to  establish  missions  among  them  in 
the  chief  centres  where  they  haye  been  located. 
The  agents  have  been  chiefly  Chinese  converts, 
but  commonly  superintended  by  European 
missionaries  who  know  the  Chinese  language. 
A  gratifying  amount  of  success  has  attended 
this  effort. 

Sugar  planting  in  Queensland  led  to  a  great 
demand  for  cheap  labor,  and  vessels  were  sent  to 
recruit  among  the  New  Hebrides  and  Solomon 
Islands  for  laborers  under  an  engagement  for 
three  years.  Many  evils  sprang  up  in  this 
deportation,  and  statutes  were  passed  by  the 
Imperial  Parliament  and  by  the  Parliament 
of  Queensland  to  regulate  the  labor  traffic.  As 
a  result,  a  large  number  of  Polynesians  have 
been  brought  to  Queensland  during  twenty 
years.  Some  of  these  were  recruited  near 
mission  stations,  and  had  been  instructed  in 
Christian  truth.  Most  of  them  were  from  heathen 
and  cannibal  islands.  All  of  them,  however, 
had  heard  of  the  missionary,  and  had  been  led 
to  respect  his  efforts  for  tlieir  good.  Unfortu- 
nately the  languages  of  these  islands  are  almost 
all  different,  and  on  one  sugar  plantation  the 


laborers  represented  so  many  various  tongues 
that  missionary  teaching  in  any  one  of  them 
could  only  be  very  limited.  But  as  there  are 
more  than  9,000  in  Queensland  the  necessity 
for  reaching  them  in  some  way  has  led  to  the 
use  of  the  English  language  in  missions  among 
them.  This  they  acquire  very  readily  and 
encouraging  results  are  reported. 

AUX  CAYES:  A  seaport  town  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  the  island  of  Haiti,  West  Indies. 
Population,  8,000,  chiefly  negroes  and  mulattoes. 
The  climate  is  unwholesome.  The  manufacture 
of  rum  is  one  of  the  principal  industries.  It 
is  a  mission  station  of  the  PE,  which  has  a  native 
worker  and  about  50  communicants.  The 
Western  Annual  Conference  of  the  West  Indies 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society,  and 
the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  also 
have  agencies  here. 

AVEZA:  Village  on  the  island  of  Raiatea, 
Society  Islands,  Polynesia;  station  of  the  Paris 
Evangelical  Society,  with  a  native  worker  and 
170  church  members. 

AWEMBA:  A  settlement  to  the  S.W.  of  Lake 
Tanganyika  in  British  Central  Africa;  station 
of  the  LMS  (1900)  with  a  missionary  and  his  wife. 

AXIM:  A  seaport  on  the  coast  of  the  Gold 
Coast  Colony,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the  WMS, 
with  a  missionary  and  52  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  65  outstations,  12  Sunday  schools, 
10  village  schools,  and  360  church  members. 

AZAMOR:  A  town  near  Mazagan,  Morocco; 
station  of  the  Southern  Morocco  Mission,  with 
a  missionary  and  his  wife,  and  a  dispensary. 

AZERBAIJAN  TURKISH:  See  Turkish. 

AZIMGARH:  A  city  sixty  miles  north  of 
Benares,  British  India;  station  of  the  CMS  since 
1831.  The  Society  has  there  5  missionaries 
and  19  native  workers,  men  and  women,  with 
a  high  school  and  8  village  schools.  The  reli- 
gions of  the  people  among  whom  they  work  are 
in  general  Hinduism  and  Mohammedanism. 
There  are  about  100  Christians  connected  with 
the  mission 


B 


BA:  A  town  on  Viti  Levu,  Fiji  Islands;  sta- 
tion of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  1  missionary  and  628 
native  workers,  283  Sunday  schools,  330  village 
schools,  and  7,475  professing  Christians. 

BAAKLEEN;  A  village  of  the  Lebanon  district 
in  Syria;  station  of  the  Palestine  and  Lebanon 
Nurses'  Mission,  with  4  missionary  women,  2 
native  workers,  1  dispensary,  and  1  hospital. 

BAALBEC:  A  town  of  Syria,  northeast  of 
Beirut.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  ruins  of  the 
Temple  of  the  Sun.  It  is  a  station  of  the  British 
Syrian  Schools'  Committee,  with  2  missionary 
women  and  3  native  women  workers,  1  village 
school,  a  high  school,  and  a  dispensary. 

BABIS  (pron.  Babees) :  A  sect  among  the 
Mohammedans  of  Persia.  In  1845  a  young 
moUah  of  Shiraz,  named  Mohammed  Ali,  com- 


menced to  preach  against  the  vices  of  his  core- 
ligionists. His  bold  invective  against  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  religious  hierarchy  won  instant 
response  from  the  common  people  and  gave  him 
great  popularity  as  a  preacher.  It  also  aroused 
fierce  anger  among  the  men  whose  hypocrisy  and 
luxurious  living  he  attacked.  He  began  to  claim 
that  he  was  divinely  ordained  to  reform  the 
religious  faith  and  practise  of  the  country, 
quoting  from  the  Bible  and  the  words  of  Christ 
as  well  as  from  the  Koran  in  support  of  his 
teachings.  As  he  diverged  more  and  more  from 
the  doctrine  that  the  teachings  of  the  Koran 
have  superseded  all  earlier  revelations,  he  began 
to  defy  the  mollahs  of  Shirez  to  harm  him, 
declaring  himself  to  be  the  Bab,  that  is  to  say, 
the  "door"  or  forerunner  of  the  Mahdi  who  is  to 
come  in  the  last  days  to  reform  religion.  Threat- 
ened with  punishment  by  the  chief  Mohammedan 


BablB 
Ball,  Dyer, 


M.D. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


60 


theologians  of  Teheran  he  answered  by  a  ringing 
defiance  of  all  efforts  to  lay  hands  on  the  messen- 
ger of  God.  Multitudes  of  all  classes  of  the 
people  became  his  followers;  the  Bab  was  re- 
garded as  supreme  authority,  the  throne  itselt 
teemed  to  be  endangered,  and  finally  the  Persian 
Government  arrested  him  and  put  him  to  death. 
His  followers,  who  called  themselves  Babis 
(People  of  the  Bab),  included  some  eminent 
Mohammedan  moUahs,  and  one  remarkable  and 
eloquent  woman  who  continually  stirred  up  the 
people  to  persevere  in  the  new  doctrine.  When 
the  authorities  undertook  to  make  lurther 
arrests,  the  Babis  resisted,  and  serious  battles 
occurred,  particularly  in  the  district  of  Shiraz  in 
some  of  which  the  Persian  troops  were  defeated. 
In  1848  an  attempt  was  made  upon  the  lite  ot 
the  Shah  by  some  of  the  Babis.  An  edict  of 
proscription  was  then  issued  against  the  sect  and 
thousands  of  its  members  were  massacred.  I  he 
leaders  of  the  Babis  escaped  to  Turkey  and 
established  themselves  at  Baghdad.  The  i  er- 
sian  Government,  finding  that  Babism  could  not 
be  eradicated  while  the  successors  of  the  Bab 
still  lived,  requested  Turkey  to  surrender  the 
refugees.  This  Turkey  refused  to  do,  but  finally 
consented  to  place  the  leaders  of  the  sect  under 
surveillance  at  a  point  distant  from  the  Persian 
frontier.  All  efforts  were  vain,  however,  and 
Babism  still  flourishes  in  Persia  more  or  less 
openly.  ^  ,  ,      , 

The  Bab  left  a  volume  of  his  teachings— an 
ambitious  but  ilUterate  production  called 
"Bayan"  (Exposition).  The  doctrines  held  by 
his  followers  seem  to  be  of  a  progressive  charac- 
ter, however,  and  are  now  a  mixture  of  Moham- 
medanism, Indian  Theosophy  and  Pantheism,  in 
which  they  follow  the  lead  of  the  Sufis.  Certain 
texts  and  precepts  taken  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  Psalms  of  David  are  added  to  this 
eclectic  body  of  doctrine.  A  principle  of  the 
sect  held  in  common  with  some  of  the  Dervish 
orders  is  that  all  Mohammedanism  as  taught 
to-day,  and  in  fact  all  religions,  are  hopelessly 
corrupt,  that  the  Mahdi  will,  therefore,  shortly 
appear  to  reform  the  world  and  that  then  true 
religion  will  be  found  to  include  parts  of  the 
Mohammedan,  Buddhist,  and  Christian  teachings. 
The  system  of  morals  preached  by  the  Babis  is  in 
marked  contrast  to  that  of  Islam  in  laying  stress 
on  the  brotherhood  of  all  mankind  and  in  stigma- 
tizing polygamy.  Like  all  Mohammedans,  they 
hold  the  use  of  wine  or  spirits  to  be  a  sin. 

Two  rival  disciples  of  the  Bab,  each  claiming 
to  be  his  divinely  appointed  successor,  are  now 
in  exile  under  surveillance  of  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment, the  one  in  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  and  the 
other  at  Acre,  in  Syria.  The  latter  is  named 
Beha-ed-din  and  has  entered  into  relations  with 
English  and  Americans  with  a  view  to  uniting 
all  religions.  He  claims  10,000  followers  m 
Chicago  and  Baltimore,  in  the  United  States, 
who  believe  that  he  is  the  promised  Messiah. 

Babism  is  one  of  the  results  of  the  impact  of 
Christianity  upon  Islam.  It  was  thought  a,t  one 
time  that  the  Babis  were  more  open  to  Christian 
teaching  than  orthodox  Mohammedans.  So  far, 
however,  they  are  merely  more  tolerant  and  more 
ready  to  seek  in  the  Bible  support  for  their  doc- 
trines. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  VII,  N.  S.,  pp.  362,  451, 
629,  894;  Vol.  XV.,  N.  S.,  pp.  771,  776-.  Vol.  XVII  pp. 
91  207.  A  Year  among  the  Persians,  also,  Babism, 
Browne  (E.  G.),  (in  "Religious  Systems  of  the  World"), 
London. 


BACHELER,  Rev.  Otis  Robinson,  M.D. :    Born 

in  Antrim,  N.  H.,  January  17,  1817  In  the 
spring  of  1839  he  was  accepted  as  a  medical  mis- 
sionary by  the  Free  Baptist  Mission  Society;  and 
after  continuing  his  studies  for  another  year,  he 
sailed,  with  his  wife,  for  India.  He  made  Bala- 
sor  the  center  of  his  work  until  1851,  when  he 
returned  to  America.  On  his  return  to  India  m 
1863,  he  settled  at  Midnapur,  where  the  rest  of 
his  missionary  life  was  spent.  His  dispensary 
proved  to  be  a  great  blessing  to  many,  and 
through  its  influence  hundreds  were  attracted  to 
the  Gospel  message.  AVhen  he  returned  to  India, 
from  America  he  brought  a  printing  press,  which 
was  of  great  use  in  his  work;  and  in  1886  he 
became  principal  of  the  Midnapur  Bible  School, 
which  position  he  held  until  he  retired  from  the- 
field.  After  spending  53  years  as  a  missionary 
he  retired  in  1893,  and  passed  into  his  rest  at 
New  Hampton,  N.  H.,  on  New  Year's  morning, 
1901. 

BADAGA  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  Canar- 
ese  group  of  the  Dra vidian  family  of  languages. 
It  is  spoken  by  the  Badaga  tribe,  living  m  the 
Nilgiri  Hills  south  of  Mysore,  India.  It  is  writ- 
ten with  the  Canarese  letters. 

BADAGRI :  A  city  near  Lagos,  W.  Africa,  for- 
merly important  as  a  trading  center.  It  is  a 
mission  station,  opened  by  the  WMS  m  1842, 
and  transferred  to  the  CMS  in  1845;  it  has  5  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  with  2  outstations,  3 
village  schools,  and  102  communicants. 

BADULLA:  A  town  and  military  post  in  the 
south  central  part  of  Ceylon.  The  climate  is 
healthy  because  of  the  elevation,  which  is  about 
2,000  feet.  It  is  a  station  of  the  WMS,  with  3 
missionaries  and  37  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  There  are  6  outstations,  19  village 
schools,  1  high  school,  1  industrial  school,  1  hos- 
pital, 2  orphanages,  and  a  printing  house. 
There  are  80     church  members. 

BADDEGAMA:  A  village  N.  of  Galle  in  the 
southern  part  of  Ceylon;  station  of  the  CMS, 
founded  in  1819.  At  present  the  station  is  occu- 
pied by  4  missionaries  and  56  native  workers, 
men  and  women.  It  has  3  outstations,  35 
village  schools,  and  1  high  school.  There  are  220 
communicants. 

BAGHARA:  Town  in  the  north  of  the  Santal 
Parganas,  Bengal,  India;  station  of  the  CMS 
(1875),  with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  18 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  9  village  schools, 
and  a  high  school,  and  75  communicants.  Also 
written  Bhagaya. 

BAGHCHEJIK.  See  Bardbzag. 
BAGHDAD :  A  city  of  southern  Mesopotamia, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Baghdad,  in  Asiatic 
Turkey.  It  is  situated  on  the  Tigris,  about  250 
miles  north  of  its  confluence  with  the  Euphrates. 
The  population,  numbering  about  180,000,  is 
composed  chiefly  of  Arabs,  tho  there  are  large 
numbers  of  Persians,  Kurds,  Syrian  Christians, 
and  about  15,000  Jews.  It  was  the  favorite  seat 
of  the  Abassid  Caliphs,  and  under  Haroun- 
al-Raschid  became  very  famous.  Under  Turk- 
ish rule  very  much  of  its  prosperity  has  been  lost, 
tho  it  is  still  the  most  important  city  of  South- 
eastern Turkey,  both  commercially  and  politi- 
cally. Near  it  is  the  shrine  of  Kerbela,  to  which 
the  Persians  flock  in  pilgrimages  in  honor  of  the 
Shi'ite  saints,  Hassan  and  Hossein.  There  is  thus 
constant      communication     with      Persia     and 


61 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Babls 
Ball,  Dyer,  M.D. 


Kurdistan.  It  was  long  the  seat  of  a  British 
resident,  and  it  still  ranks  very  higla  as  a  diplo- 
matic post  of  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  France. 
Baghdad  has  been  the  starting  point  for  the 
various  expeditions  to  explore  the  ruins  of  Baby- 
lon at  Hilleh,  on  the  Euphrates,  100  miles  to  the 
south,  and  of  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon.  Since  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  has  been  excavating 
at  Niffer,  Baghdad  has  been  made  the  seat  of  an 
American  consulate.  Missionary  work  has  been 
attempted  at  various  times  by  the  ABCFM  and 
the  CMS.  The  intense  heat  of  the  climate  makes 
it  very  trying  to  Europeans.  At  present  it  is 
occupied  as  a  station  by  the  CMS,  with  8  mission- 
aries and  7  native  workers,  men  and  women,  who 
have  charge  of  2  village  schools  and  1  hospital. 
There  are  35  communicants  here. 

BAHAWA:  A  village  in  the  Santal  Parganas, 
Bengal,  India;  station  of  the  CMS.  It  is  occu- 
pied by  a  missionary  and  his  wife  and  41  native 
workers,  men  and  women.  There  is  1  high  school 
and  1  dispensary,  and  there  are  545  church 
members.     The  name  is  also  written  Barhawa. 

BAHIA:  A  city  of  Brazil,  South  America,  on 
All  Saints  Bay,  800  miles  northeast  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  Population,  about  200,000,  chiefly 
Portuguese;  religion,  Roman  Catholic,  the  city 
being  the  seat  of  an  archbishop.  It  is  a  mission 
station  of  the  CA,  of  which  no  statistics  are 
available;  of  the  PN,  which  commenced  opera- 
tions here  in  1871 ;  and  has  4  missionaries  and  1 
native  worker,  men  and  women,  and  1  common 
school.  It  is  also  a  station  of  the  SBC,  opened 
in  1882.  There  are  now  3  missionaries  and  15 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  with  27  out- 
stations  and  516  church  members. 

BAHIA  BLANCA:  Seaport  in  the  Argentine 
Republic;  station  of  the  South  American  Evan- 
gelical Mission,  with  one  missionary. 

BAHRAICH:  A  town  in  the  United  Prov- 
inces, India;  station  of  the  ME,  founded  in  1867. 
It  has  21  native  workers,  10  Sunday  schools, 
3  common  schools,  and  182  church  members. 

BAHREIN:  The  largest  island  of  the  Bahrein 
group  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  off  the  coast  of  El 
Hasa,  in  .Arabia;  station  of  the  RCA  Arabian 
Mission  (1892),  with  one  missionary  and  his 
wife  and  a  dispensary. 

BAHRWAL  ATARI:  A  town  in  the  Amritsar 
district,  Punjab,  India;  station  of  the  CMS 
<1889),  with  (1902)  8  native  workers,  and  200 
baptized  Christians,  of  whom  23  were  baptized 
during  1901.  Station  also  of  the  CEZMS  (1890), 
with  (1902)  9  native  women  workers,  2  common 
schools,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary,  700  Zenana 
visitations  and  5  Zenana  pupUs. 

BAIHIR.    See  Behir. 

BAILUNDA:  A  region  in  the  district  of 
Benguela,  Portuguese  West  Africa.  It  lies  on 
the  uplands  about  200  miles  from  Benguela, 
its  seaport.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  the 
temperature,  altho  hot,  is  even.  A  mission 
station  of  the  ABCFM  was  opened  there  in  1881; 
occupied  by  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2 
missionary  women,  and  5  native  workers. 
There  are  9  outstations,  with  1  high  school  and 
2  village  schools.  There  are  25  church  members. 
The  station  has  been  much  harassed  by  the  bad 
feeling  of  European  traders  which  has  excited 
the  suspicions  of  the  native  tribes. 

BALASOR :  A  seaport  of  Orissa,  Bengal,  India, 
150   miles   southwest   of   Calcutta.     Population 


about  20,000,  Hindus  '  and  Mohammedans. 
Language,  Uriya,  Santali,  Hindustani.  First 
mission  station  occupied  by  the  American  Free 
Baptist  Missionary  Society  in  1838.  It  has 
now  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  and  3  mis- 
sionary women,  with  74  native  workers,  men 
and  women.  There  are  2  outstations,  8  village 
schools,  1  high  school,  1  kindergarten,  2  orphan- 
ages, and  230  church  members.  Also  written 
Balasore. 

BALDWIN,  Stephen  Livingston:  Born  at 
Somerville,  N.  J.,  January  11,  1835.  His 
ministerial  life  covered  a  period  of  forty-four 
years.  One  half  of  this  time  was  spent  as  a 
missionary  in  Fuehau,  China;  eight  years  he 
was  pastor  of  churches  in  the  Newark  and  New 
England  Conferences,  and  the  last  fourteen 
years  of  his  life  were  devoted  to  the  work  per- 
taining to  the  ofRce  of  Recording  Secretary  of 
the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  On  October  4,  1858,  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Baldwin  sailed  for  China.  In  1861  he 
returned  to  America,  on  account  of  the  failing 
health  of  Mrs.  Baldwin,  who  died  at  sea;  but 
the  next  year  he  was  in  Fuehau  again,  remaining 
there  until  1870,  when  he  was  granted  a  year's 
furlough  at  home.  The  Fuehau  Conference 
appointed  him  a  delegate  to  the  General  Con- 
ference of  1880;  and  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Ecumenical  Conference  held  in  London  in  1881. 
While  he  was  pastor  of  St.  John's  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  Boston,  he  was  elected  in 
June,  1888,  Recording  Secretary  of  the  Mission- 
ary Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
in  which  he  continued  until  he  died  in  Broolvlyn, 
N.  Y.,  July  28,  1902.  Dr.  Baldwin  rendered 
important  services  as  General  Secretary  of  the 
Ecumenical  Missionary  Conference  held  in  New 
York  City  in  1900.  Under  the  strain  Of  the 
work  of  organizing  this  Conference,  his  health 
gave  way,  and  that  important  service  to  the 
cause  of  missions  doubtless  hastened  his  death. 

BALI:  An  island  situated  E.  of  Java.  The 
people  are  heathen,  but  a  few  Mohammedans 
and  some  Christians  are  found  there.  The 
language  is  allied  to  the  Javanese. 

The  Utrecht  Missionary  Society  has  a  station 
upon  this  island  and  seems,  after  many  vicis- 
situdes, to  have  gained  a  stable  foothold. 

BALIGE:  A  village  on  Lake  Toba  in  the 
North  Central  part  of  Sumatra,  East  Indies. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society, 
founded  in  1881.  It  is  occupied  by  a  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  -ndth  10  native  workers,  men 
and  women.  There  are  5  outstations,  4  village 
schools,  and  1,400  communicants. 

BALL,  Dyer,  M.D.:  Born  at  West  Boylston, 
Mass.,  June  3,  1796;  graduated  at  Union  Col- 
lege, 1826;  studied  theology  at  New  Haven  and 
Andover;  ordained,  1831;  was  agent  in  1833  for 
Home  Missionary  Society  in  Florida.  While  at 
the  South  he  was  much  engaged  in  labor  for  the 
colored  population.  In  1835-37  he  studied 
medicine  with  reference  to  foreign  mission  work, 
and  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  the  med- 
ical institution  in  Charleston.  He  sailed  in  1838, 
under  the  ABCFM,  for  Singapore.  He  was 
stationed  there  two  years,  teaching,  preaching, 
healing  the  sick,  and  superintending  the  printing 
of  Chinese  books.  In  June,  1841,  he  went  to 
Macao,  and  then  to  Hongkong.  To  him  it  was 
given  to  be  the  pioneer  in  opening  the  city  of 
Canton  for  residence  of  missionary  families,  and 


Ballantine 
Bautu  Race 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


62 


to  open  the  way  for  excursions  into  the  country 
around.  His  medical  services  were  of  great 
assistance  in  conciliating  the  good-will  of  the 
people.  His  Almanac  was  for  many  years  a 
most  acceptable  publication.  He  was  most 
laborious  in  out-of-door  work,  mingling  with  the 
people  on  the  banks  of  the  river  or  on  the  ferries, 
and  then  extending  his  visits  to  the  villages  and 
market.  In  this  way  he  became  widely  known 
and  more  and  more  respected  as  his  true  char- 
acter and  the  nature  of  his  labors  were  under- 
stood. In  1854  he  visited  the  United  States, 
returning,  in  1857,  to  Macao.  His  constitution 
was  much  broken,  and  before  his  death  he  was 
confined  to  his  house  four  months.  During 
the  last  seven  years  of  his  life,  the  old  man, 
bowed  down  by  his  infirmities,  and  leaning  upon 
his  cane  would  make  his  way  downstairs  and 
totter  out  to  the  little  chapel  opening  on  the 
street,  and  there,  seated  in  an  arm  chair,  he 
would  distribute  tracts  or  speak  to  passers  who 
might  drop  in  to  look  upon  his  gray  hairs;  for 
the  Chinese  venerate  old  age.  He  died  March 
27,  1866,  after  twenty -eight  years'  mission 
service. 

BALLANTINE,  Henry:  Born  at  Schodack 
Landing,  on  the  Hudson,  near  Albany,  N.  Y., 
March  5,  1813.  He  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Ohio,  Athens,  1829;  entered  Theolog- 
ical Seminary,  Princeton,  but  left  on  account  of 
ill  health;  resumed  his  studies  at  Union  Theolog- 
ical Seminary,  Virginia;  finished  at  Andover, 
1834;  ordained  at  Columbus,  O.,  April,  1835; 
sailed  same  year  as  a  missionary  of  the  American 
Board  for  India.  In  1837  he  was  stationed 
permanently  at  Ahmednagar.  His  health  fail- 
ing, he  left,  in  1850,  for  home,  but  returned  in 
1852.  He  labored  with  great  zeal  and  without 
interruption  as  preacher  and  pastor,  and  as 
editor  and  translator  until  1865.  During  the 
last  five  years  of  his  life  he  gave  much  time  to 
the  theological  education  of  young  men.  By 
medical  advice  he  left  India  with  his  family, 
September  4,  1865.  An  accidental  detention 
of  the  ship  in  the  Red  Sea  aggravated  his  malady, 
and  he  died  November  9,  off  the  coast  of  Por- 
tugal, and  his  body  was  consigned  to  the  ocean. 
His  connection  with  the  mission  covered  thirty 
years.  An  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Mardthi, 
added  to  an  acquaintance  with  Sanskrit,  pre- 
pared him  to  become  a  translator  of  the  Bible, 
and  he  has  left  the  impress  of  his  idiomatic 
Mardthi  on  many  parts  of  the  sacred  volume 
in  that  language.  He  translated  or  composed 
some  of  the  best  hymns  in  the  Mar&thi  hymn 
book. 

BALRAMPUR:  Town  in  the  Gonda  district 
of  the  United  Provinces,  India;  station  of  the 
ME,  with  18  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
9  Sunday  schools,  1  village  school  and  170 
church  members. 

BALUCHI  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Iranic 
branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  languages,  and  is 
spoken  in  Baluchistan,  by  a  population  of  about 
1,500,000.  It  is  written  with  Arabic  letters 
with  slight  modifications. 

BALUCHISTAN:  A  country  of  Asia,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Afghanistan,  on  the  east  by 
British  India,  on  the  south  by  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  on  the  west  by  Persia.  Its  area  is  about 
130,000  square  miles.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  about  500,000,  divided  into  two 
sections,  the  Baluchis  and  the  Brahuis — which 


are  sub-divided  into  tribes  and  again  into 
families.  The  Baluchis  have  several  points  of 
resemblance  to  the  Tartars  and  may  perhaps 
have  sprung  from  a  commingling  of  Persian  and 
Tartar  stock.  The  Brahuis  seem  to  have  a 
linguistic  affinity  with  some  of  the  tribes  of  the 
Punjab.  Mohammedanism  is  the  religion  of  the 
general  mass  of  the  population. 

Baluchistan  is  ruled  by  the  Khan  of  Khelat 
under  the  direction  of  an  English  resident.  For 
strategic  purposes  the  British  authorities  have 
built  a  railway  from  India  into  the  country,  and 
an  English  garrison  is  maintained  at  Quettah. 

Missionary  operations  are  limited  to  one 
station  of  the  CMS  at  Quettah.  There  have 
been  a  few  conversions  notwithstanding  the 
fanaticism  that  would  apply  the  sword  to  every 
man  who  abandons  Islam.  On  the  whole,  the 
greatest  encouragement  is  found  in  the  steady 
circulation  of  the  Scriptures  from  the  Quettah 
depot. 
Baluchistan,  Hughes  (A.  W.),  London,  1877. 

BANDA:  The  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name.  United  Provinces,  India.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Ken  River  and  has  about  24,000  inhab- 
itants. It  is  a  station  of  the  SPG,  opened  in 
1873,  and  is  now  occupied  by  1  missionary  and 
2  missionary  women  with  8  native  workers. 
It  has  a  high  school  and  3  village  schools.  There 
are    32    communicants. 

It  is  a  station  also  of  the  ME  with  10  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  and  7  village  schools. 
There  are  40  church  members. 

BAND  AWE:  A  town  on  Lake  Nyasa,  Central 
Africa,  in  the  W.  Nyasaland  Protectorate; 
station  of  the  UFS,  with  7  missionaries  and 
38  native  workers,  men  and  women.  It  has 
22  outstations,  1  high  school,  55  village  schools, 
1  dispensary  and  450  church  members. 

BANDOENG:  A  town  in  the  west  central 
part  of  the  island  of  Java,  Dutch  East  Indies; 
station  of  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Union, 
with  2  missionaries  and  4  native  workers,  a 
hospital  and  a  theological  class.  There  are 
50  communicants.     Also  written  Bandung. 

BANGALORE:  A  city  of  Mysore,  India,  175 
miles  west  of  Madras.  It  is  on  an  elevated 
site,  a  great  resort  for  invalids;  it  has  consider- 
able trade,  and  is  a  military  post.  Population, 
180,000,  chiefly  Hindus. 

It  is  a  station  of  the  LMS  (1820)  with  7  mis- 
sionaries and  22  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
1  theological  class,  2  high  schools,  and  12  village 
schools.     There  are  121  church  members. 

Station  of  the  WMS  with  9  missionaries  and 
174  native  workers,  men  and  women.  It  has 
a  theological  seminary,  3  high  schools,  and  37 
village  schools.     The  communicants  number  630. 

Station  of  the  SPG  (1837)  with  7  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women,  2  village  schools  and  405 
communicants. 

Station  of  the  Church  of  England  Zenana 
Missionary  Society,  with  (1902)  5  women  mis- 
sionaries, 2  of  them  physicians)  and  14  native 
women  workers,  a  dispensary,  a  hospital,  an 
orphanage,  3  elementary  schools,  and  6  zenana 
pupils. 

Station  of  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society, 
with  7  native  workers,  3  high  schools  and  400 
communicants. 

Station  of  the  ME,  with  3  missionaries  and 
7  native  workers,  men  and  women;  it  has  2 
high  schools,  and  14  church  members. 


63 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Ballantlne' 
Bantxt  Race 


Station  of  the  American  Advent  Missionary 
Societjr,  with  1  missionary,  3  native  worlcers  and 
a  printing  house. 

BANGKOK:  Capital  of  Siam,  on  the  Menam 
River,  about  20  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is 
the  chief  commercial  center  of  the  country. 
Climate,  intensely  hot  in  summer.  Population, 
400,000 — Siamese,  Chinese,  Burmans,  Malays, 
Arabs,  Hindus;  nearly  one-half  of  the  entire 
population  is  Chinese  and  practically  the  whole 
of  the  commerce  of  Bangkok  is  in  their  hands. 
The  approach  of  the  city  is  very  beautiful,  and 
some  of  the  temples  are  very  fine  specimens 
of  elaborate  decoration.  A  large  number  of 
the  houses  are  built  on  rafts,  and  the  internal 
traffic  of  the  city  is  largely  carried  on  by  canals, 
altho  streets  and  bridges  have  been  built  and 
electric  cars  introduced  in  some  quarters. 

Bangkok  is  occupied  as  a  missionary  station 
by  the  ABMU  (1833),  with  3  missionaries  and 
7  native  workers,  men  and  women,  4  outstations 
and  190  church  members. 

It  is  also  a  station  of  the  PN  (1840)  with  16 
missionaries,  men  and  women  and  2  native 
workers,  2  high  schools,  a  common  school  and 
a  printing  house.  There  are  also  187  church 
members. 

The  ABS  has  a  Bible  depot  there  in  charge  of 
an  American  agent. 

BANJERMASSIN:  Chief  town  of  the  Dutch 
Residency  of  the  same  name  in  S.  E.  Borneo, 
situated  near  the  seacoast.  It  has  about  45,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  a  station  of  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society,  with  a  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  unmarried  woman  and  6  native  workers, 
men  and  women.  There  are  2  outstations  and 
4  village  schools.  The  communicants  number 
140. 

BANKHERI:  Town  in  the  Gonda  region, 
Central  Provinces,  India;  station  of  the  Friends' 
Foreign  Missionary  Association  (1896),  with 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  1 
village  school,  1  dispensary  and  10  professing 
Christians. 

BANKIPTJR:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  a 
suburb  of  Patna.  Mission  station  of  the  BMS 
(1818);  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  with 
12   native    workers,    men   and   women.     It   has 

3  outstations  and  5  village  schools.  The  com- 
municants number  26.     Also  written  Bankipore. 

BANKURA:  Capital  of  the  Bankura  district, 
Bengal,  IndisT,  100  miles  N.  W.  of  Calcutta. 
Population,  about  19,000.  Mission  station  of 
the  WMS;  4  missionaries  and  36  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  6  outstations,  2  high  schools, 
18  village  schools,  97  church  members. 

BANWI :  A  town  on  the  island  of  Fernando  Po, 
in  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa; 
station  of  the  Primitive  Methodist  Missionary 
Society  (1880),  with  a  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  native  worker,  a  chapel,  a  Sunday  school  and 
16  church  members. 

BANNTJ:  A  town  in  the  Northwest  Frontier 
Province  of  India,  S.  of  Peshawar;  station  of 
the   CMS    (1864),    1    missionary    physician    and 

4  native  workers,  1  high  school,  1  hospital,  1 
dispensary  and  33  communicants.  Also  called 
Edwardesabad. 

BANSA  MANTEKE :  A  town  in  the  Congo 
Free  State,  West  Africa,  160  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river;  station  of  the  ABMU  (1879), 
with  7  missionaries  and  48  native  workers,  men 


and  women,  32  outstations,  34  village  schools, 
a  high  school,  a  theological  seminary,  and  1,500 
church  members.  This  station  is  an  instance 
of  the  pervasive  power  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ. 
When  it  was  first  occupied,  the  people  were 
entirely  unknown  to  the  outside  world  and 
were  living  in  gross  darkness  of  paganism. 
Their  language  had  never  been  reduced  to 
writing.  It  was  seven  years  before  a  single 
convert  came  forward  for  baptism,  and  he  was 
threatened  with  death  for  becoming  a  Christian. 
Since  that  first  conversion  2,000  of  that  Bantu 
tribe  have  been  baptized;  they  have  the  begin- 
nings of  a  printed  literature;  the  people  them- 
selves have  taken  up  the  duty  of  evangelization, 
and  everywhere  within  a  radius  of  thirty  miles 
of  the  station  the  pagans  have  the  Gospel 
preached  to  them  by  their  own  countrymen. 

BANSKO:  A  village  in  the  Razlog  district, 
European  Turkey;  outstation  of  the  ABCFM; 
an  independent  self-supporting  church  has 
grown  up  in  connection  with  the  mission,  com- 
posed of  Bulgarians. 

BANTING:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Sarawak, 
Borneo;  station  of  the  SPG,  founded  in  1851; 
it  has  1  missionary  and  7  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 13  preaching  places  and  a  high  school. 

BANTU  RACE:  The  preponderating  element 
of  the  population  of  Africa  from  about  the  fifth 
degree  of  north  latitude  to  Cape  Colony  (except- 
ing the  Hottentots,  Bushmen  and  some  smaller 
groups)  is  the  Bantu  race,  numbering  60,000,000 
or  more.  The  name  in  almost  all  the  languages 
of  this  region  (Zulu,  Abantu;  singular  Umantu 
person)  means  "the  people." 

Among  the  members  of  the  Bantu  race  may 
be  named  the  Zulus,  the  Amaxosa  or  Kafirs 
the  Bechuana,  Basuto,  and  kindred  tribes  on 
the  south;  the  Ovaherero,  Ovampo,  Balunda, 
Bateke  and  Mpongwe,  on  the  west;  the  Congo, 
Bayansi,  Bangala,  Babangi,  Manyeraa;  the 
people  of  Toro  and  Uganda,  the  Angoni,  and 
others  among  the  Great  Lakes;  the  Rua,  Bemba, 
Babisa,  and  other  tribes  near  the  Lesser  Lakes 
and  on  the  sources  of  the  Congo;  and  the  Wak- 
amba,  Swahili,  Wanika,  Mahenge,  Wakonde, 
Makua,  and  other  tribes  to  the  number  of  two 
hundred  or  more. 

The  general  kinship  of  these  tribes  is  seen, 
to  some  extent,  in  their  person,  their  hue,  their 
features,  their  religious  notions,  their  mental 
type,  and  their  mode  of  life;  but  most  of  all  in 
their  language.  Taking  their  language  as  our 
guide  and  proof,  we  are  left  with  no  doubt 
that  these  tribes  belong  to  one  and  the  same 
family,  between  which  and  all  other  known 
families  or  races  there  is  a  manifest  and  fixed 
difference.  To  be  sure,  the  languages  of  the 
tribes  differ  from  each  other  in  many  respects, 
especially  in  many  of  their  words,  or  in  the 
forms  of  their  words,  but  the  grammar  is  essen- 
tially the  same  in  all. 

The  more  the  comparative  philologist  comes 
to  know  of  this  Bantu  family  of  languages,  the 
more  does  he  find  of  beauty,  compass,  flexibility, 
and  plastic  power.  All  the  best  known  dialects 
whether  on  the  east,  south,  or  west,  or  in  the 
interior,  are  found  to  be  soft,  pliant,  easy  flowing, 
regular  and  systematic  in  forms,  philosophical 
in  structure  and  principle,  and  wonderfully 
rich  in  ability  to  express  all  the  shades  of  thought 
and  feeling  of  which  the  people  who  speak  them 
have  knowledge.     And  it  is  specially  interesting 


Bantu  Race 
Bantu  Languages 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


64 


to  note  that  this  great  field  of  underlying,  sub- 
stantial oneness  of  speech  is  the  one  in  which 
great  Christian  missions  are  being  extensively 
planted,  and  are  finding  unexpected  facilities  m 
the  wideness  of  the  region  where  the  Bantu  lan- 
guages prevail. 

In  respect  to  the  origin  of  the  Bantu  race, 
and  how,  whence,  or  when  they  came  into  the 
part  of  Africa  they  now  occupy,  the  people 
themselves  can  tell  us  nothing.  Nor  does  ancient 
history  throw  light  on  the  subject.  And  yet 
we  are  not  without  some  good  reasons  for  opin- 
ions in  relation  to  it.  Some  hold,  with  plaus- 
ible show  of  reasons,  that  the  Hottentots  of  S. 
Africa  are  of  the  same  race  as  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  or  at  least  that  the  two  families  were 
one  in  origin,  and  if  so,  then  the  fact  of  their 
being  so  widely  separated  points  to  the  probable 
incoming  of  another  people,  as  from  the  east, 
by  which  they  were  divided,  and  a  portion 
of  them  pushed  on  to  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  continent. 

Inquiring  now  to  which  particular  branch 
of  the  great  families  of  men  such  an  incursive, 
immigrating  race  belonged,  we  can  hardly 
doubt  that  it  was  Hamitic,  having  its  origin 
probably  in  some  branch  of  the  Cushites.  The 
descendants  of  this  line  were  numerous,  and 
some  of  them  settled,  for  a  time  at  least,  in  Asia. 
Others  settled  in  Arabia,  and  doubtless  many 
went  at  an  early  date  to  Africa.  Herodotus 
speaks  of  two  classes  of  Ethiopians,  one  in 
Asia,  the  other  in  Africa.  Many  of  the  former 
served  as  soldiers  under  Xerxes,  tho  their 
home  is  not  easily  determined.  The  historian,, 
however,  tells  us  that  the  Asiatic  Ethiopians 
were  black,  like  those  of  Libya,  but  differed  from 
them  in  language,  and  had  straight  hair;  whereas 
those  of  Libya  had  very  curly  hair.  Now, 
between  the  Bantu  tribes  and  the  proper  negro 
race,  there  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  just  this  kind 
of  difference  at  the  present  time.  To  be  sure, 
the  Bantu  race  is  not  white,  and  yet  their  hue 
is  not  so  dark  as  that  of  the  Nigritian  negro, 
nor  is  their  hair  so  woolly;  and  as  to  their  lan- 
guage— that  most  decisive  mark  of  an  aflinity 
or  of  a  difference — there  is  a  wide  difference 
between  the  Bantu  languages  and  those  of  the 
real  negro  of  the  Sudan.  Taking,  then,  all 
these  suggestive  facts  together,  it  does  not  seem 
improbable  that  the  immigrants  who  pushed 
the  Hottentots  before  them  to  the  southward 
were  from  Asia.  If  this  was  the  case,  it  is  easy 
to  see  why  the  Bantu  peoples  should  be  found 
at  this  day  more  robust,  taller,  of  a  lighter 
color,  with  hair  less  woolly,  with  a  nose  more 
elevated,  of  a  much  greater  facial  angle,  a 
higher  forehead,  and  altogether  of  a  more  intel- 
ligent, Caucasian  look  than  their  Nigritian 
neighbors.  At  the  same  time  we  see  in  the 
whole  Bantu  race  so  much  of  the  true  negro 
type  that  we  must  come  to  the  conclusion  that, 
if  the  Bantu  family  originated  in  any  wise 
other  than  the  negroes  of  Nigritia,  it  mingled 
with  these  until  it  was  largely  fashioned  after 
their  type. 

The  appearance,  color,  and  customs  of  the 
Zulu  are  so  like  those  of  the  other  tribes  of  the 
Bantu  family  that  a  description  of  the  former 
will  give  a  good  idea  of  all.  The  better  classes 
of  these  tribes,  especiallyof  the  Zulu  and  the  Kafir, 
are  somewhat  slender,  erect,  of  good  stature, 
and  well  proportioned;  it  is  easy  for  them  on 
occasion  to  be  graceful,  dignified,  commanding. 


They  are  made  to  be  agile  and  swift  rather 
than  strong;  and  yet  their  women  often  carry 
heavy  burdens  on  their  heads  for  long  distances. 
Their  color  varies  from  a  reddish  copper  or  light 
bronze  to  a  pure  black.  The  latter,  with  just 
a  little  tinge  of  the  red,  pleases  them  best._  A 
few  have  the  regular  features  of  the  Caucasian; 
some,  the  pure  negro;  but  most  of  them  are  of 
some  grade  between  the  two.  Their  black  eyes 
often  twinkle  with  merry  humor,  their  beauti- 
fully white  teeth  are  well  set,  their  general  ex- 
pression is  pleasant  and  confiding.  Physically 
considered,  the  Bantu  tribes  are  a  well-built, 
fine-looking  race. 

In  respect  to  natural  affection,  mental  traits, 
and  social  life,  the  Bantu  family  afford  an  inter- 
esting study.  Except  when  provoked  to  anger 
by  insult  or  injustice,  they  are  mild,  gentle, 
kind,  not  wanting  in  either  parental  or  filial 
affection;  are  helpful  and  sympathetic  toward 
the  suffering;  and  yet,  under  a  sense  of  being 
wronged  or  in  the  excitements  of  war,  they  can 
be  wild  and  fierce  in  the  extreme.  They  are 
hospitable,  fond  of  visiting,  fond  of  society, 
cannot  bear  to  work  alone  or  be  alone.  They 
are  proverbial  for  politeness,  have  numerous 
rules  of  etiquette,  which  are  generally  sensible. 
They  are  quick  to  see  the  difference  between 
right  and  wrong,  ever  ready  to  decry  injustice, 
and  to  submit  gracefully  to  the  suffering  of  de- 
served punishment.  During  the  writer's  resi- 
dence of  many  years  among  the  Zulus,  with 
almost  no  lock  and  key  in  use,  his  grain,  tools, 
cattle — everything  they  most  desired — being 
ever  open  to  access,  he  was  not  aware  that  any- 
thing was  ever  stolen  from  him.  He  once 
thought  they  had  taken  a  hatchet,  but  after 
months  had  elapsed  and  the  annual  burning  of 
the  grass  had  occurred  he  found  it  in  a  field 
just  where  he  had  used  and  left  it.  And  yet 
the  common,  social  life  of  the  Zulu  is  far  from 
p-irfect.  As  one  has  said,  "He  is  far  from  being 
as  honest  in  word  as  he  is  in  acts.  He  is  prone 
to  have  very  large  reservations  in  his  own  mind 
when  he  is  avowedly  giving  a  full  account  of 
some  occurrence,  and  manages  to  disguise  and 
distort  facts  with  exceeding  cleverness  and  skill. 
A  Zulu  will  excuse  a  fault  with  such  ready 
plausibility  that  he  will  make  an  intentional 
act  of  wrong  doing  seem  but  an  undesigned 
accident."  He  expects  his  hospitality  to  be 
reciprocated,  his  kindness  to  be  rewarded.  Indeed 
he  is  said  to  have  it  for  a  proverb  that  "it  is 
better  to  receive  than  to  give."  It  is  easy  for 
him  to  get  very  angry  and  try  to  settle  his  dis- 
pute with  a  club.  And  yet  he  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  vindictive  in  his  resentments.  If 
the  storm  of  passion  is  quick  to  rise,  it  is  also 
quick  to  abate  and  be  forgotten. 

It  would  take  a  volume  to  describe  the  super- 
stitions of  these  people.  Of  all  their  supersti- 
tions, none  have  upon  them  a  stronger  or  more 
hurtful  hold  than  their  belief  in  what  is  called 
witchcraft.  They  believe  certain  evil-minded 
men,  whom  they  call  abatakati,  have  it  in  their 
power  to  hurt,  kill,  or  destroy  anybody  or  any- 
thing, by  the  use  of  poisonous  powder,  incanta- 
tion, or  even  by  the  force  of  mere  will  or  purpose. 
Of  these  so-called  witches  the  people  have  great 
fear.  And  so  it  is  that  any  calamity,  sickness, 
or  death  is  often  ascribed  to  some  influence  of 
this  kind;  whereupon  some  inyanga,  witch  doctor, 
is  called  to  "smell  out"  the  author  of  the  evil. 
And    inasmuch    as    all    the    possessions,    wives, 


65 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bantti  Race 
Bantn  Ijansnases 


children  and  cattle  of  the  man  found  guilty 
are  to  be  confiscated  and  portioned  out  the 
chances  are  that  the  sentence  will  fall  upon  one 
of  the  more  wealthy  men,  especially  if  he  may 
happen  to  be  unpopular. 

The  Zulu  word  inyanga  is  a  term  of  wide  im- 
port and  use.  It  may  denote  one  who  has  a  trade, 
as  a  blacksmith,  a  basket-maker,  or  one  whose 
business  is  to  help  others  across  a  river.  Its 
more  proper  use  is  to  designate  those  who  are 
.skilled  in  higher  pursuits,  as  a  medical  doctor, 
a  witch  doctor — i.e.,  one  qualified  to  find  out 
the  cause  and  cure  of  evil  by  communicating 
with  the  shades  of  the  departed.  A  Zulu's  mode 
of  preparing  himself  for  one  of  these  higher 
professions  is  to  go  through  a  long-continued 
course  of  rigorous  training,  by  means  of  fasting 
self-inflicted  sufferings,  diving  and  staying  under 
water,  wanderings  in  wild  and  weird  places,  that 
he  may  come  into  contact  and  communion  with 
the  amahlozi,  or  fall  into  a  swoon  and  have 
strange  visions  of  the  spirits,  about  which  he 
has  been  talking  and  thinking  so  long.  Then  he 
makes  his  appearance  in  public,  all  besmeared, 
perhaps  with  white  clay,  his  hands  full  of  snakes, 
his  head  covered  with  feathers,  singing,  dancing, 
reciting  his  visions,  and  so  is  prepared  to  be  recog- 
nized as  having  attained  to  the  degree  of  a  med- 
ical priest,  or  a  diviner. 

The  religious  views  and  practises  of  the  Zulus 
correspond,  in  a  measure,  to  all  the  essential 
■elements  of  the  true  faith;  only  on  a  false  basis. 
They  have  their  divinities,  their  sense  of  obliga- 
tion and  dependence,  sense  of  guilt,  belief  in 
need  of  help,  need  of  a  Savior,  need  of  sacri- 
fices, even  unto  blood,  need  of  prayer,  the 
•duty  of  worship  and  service,  and  a  belief  that 
the  present  life  is  to  be  followed  by  another. 
In  their  ignorance  of  the  true  God  and  in  their 
search  for  some  kind  of  divinity,  they  turn  to 
the  spirits  of  the  departed,  the  shades  of  their 
ancestors,  especially  the  ghosts  of  the  great  ones 
of  their  race.  For  here  too  Ancestor-Worship 
is  practised.  They  call  these  shades  by  various 
names,  as  ihlozi,  plural  amahlozi;  itunga,  or  isilumi. 
Ask  them  about  the  end  of  man,  where  he  goes 
when  he  dies,  and  they  say  he  becomes  an  ihluzi 
and  goes  off  to  live  somewhere  underground, 
there  to  build  and  abide  with  his  ancestral 
friends.  Sometimes  they  say  the  dying  man 
becomes  an  isitunzi  (spirit)  and  reappears  from 
time  to  time  in  a  smoke;  and  so  it  is  that  they 
stand  in  awe  of  a  serpent,  and  say,  when  it 
appears  about  their  houses,  that  the  spirit  of 
their  friend  has  come  back  to  visit  them,  and 
see  how  they  fare.  Lions  and  leopards  are  some- 
times looked  upon  as  the  embodiment  of  the 
spirit  of  a  departed  friend.  To  the  shades  of 
the  dead,  they  look  for  help  in  time  of  trouble, 
confess  their  sins,  pray,  and  offer  sacrifices. 
Such  for  substances  is  the  origin,  kinship,  appear- 
ance, and  such  are  the  religious  ideas  and  super- 
stitutions  of  the  many  tribes  which  form  the 
Bantu  race  of  Africa. 

Zululand,  Grant  (L.),  London,  1865;  Journal  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Inst,  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  N.  S.,  Vol.  1, 
pp.  37-47,  London,  1898;  Globus  (German),  Vol.  77,  pp. 
193-195,  Vol.  80,  pp.  384-386,  Braunschweig,  1900,  1901. 

BANTU  LANGUAGES:  Among  all  branches  of 
the  Bantu  race  in  Africa,  the  existence  of  kinship 
seems  to  be  shown  by  the  peculiarities  of  their 
language.  The  resemblances  between  the  speech 
of  widely  separated  tribes  have  not  as  yet  been 
studied  and  fully  interpreted.  But  enough  is 
5 


known  to  lead  to  a  supposition  that  the  Zulu 
and  the  Kafir-Xosa  languages  may  be  the  oldest 
and  most  fully  developed  of  the  whole  family. 
The  Zulu  would  seem,  also,  to  have  been  least 
affected  by  abrasion  or  other  modification 
through  contact  with  other  languages,  having 
been  developed,  fixed,  and  kept  by  its  own 
indigenous,  automatic  principles.  Hence  the 
belief  that  the  distinguishing  grammatical  fea- 
tures of  the  entire  Bantu  family  are  more  mani- 
fest and  clearly  defined  in  the  Zulu  than  in  any 
other  of  its  branches.  In  Zulu,  the  incipient 
element  of  the  noun,  the  nominal  "prefix"  or 
preformative,  is  more  complete  than  m  most  of 
the  Bantu  dialects.  Thus  the  prefix  um,  as  in 
umfana,  boy,  is  simply  m,  mfana,  in  some 
branches.  Mpongwe,  the  name  of  a  country  and 
tribe  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  Bantu  field, 
would  be  Umpongwe  in  the  southeast  among  the 
Zulus  and  Kafirs.  The  Zulu  plural  prefix,  aba, 
as  in  abafana,  boys,  becomes  ba,  as  hafana,  in 
some  dialects.  For  person,  the  Zulus  have 
umuntu;  another  tribe  has  muntu;  another,  mutu; 
another,  mtu;  another,  mundu.  For  the  Zulu 
plural  of  this  word,  abantu,  people,  some  other 
tribes  say  bantu;  some,  antu;  some,  atu;  some, 
wantu;  some,  watu;  some,  wandu,  and  some,  andu. 
Mtesa  (late  king  of  Uganda)  would  be  Umteza 
in  Zulu,  and  the  Lake  Nyanza  would  be  in  Zulu, 
Inyanza.  On  the  Lualaba,  a  branch  of  the  Congo, 
the  natives  say  nyama,  meat;  instead  of  which 
the  Zulus  say  inyama,  meat.  Among  the  Zulus 
bula  amayte  means  thresh  or  break  stones.  The 
Congo  people  called  Stanley  "Bula  Matadi," 
"the  Rock  Breaker."  The  Zulu  and  Kafir  tribal 
names,  Amazulu,  and  Amaxosa,  would  be,  in  some 
dialects,  Mazulu,  Maxosa,  just  as  other  tribal 
names  in  other  parts  of  the  Bantu  field,  such  as 
Makua,  Maravi,  Manyema,  would  begin  with  a, 
as  Amakua  among  the  Zulus. 

Among  the  distinguishing  grammatical  fea- 
tures of  the  entire  Bantu  family  of  languages, 
one  is  what  may  be  called  a  system  of  pronominal 
assimilations  and  repetitions.  This  mode  is 
sometimes  designated  as  the  "alliterative,"  be- 
cause of  the  frequent  recurrence  of  some  particu- 
lar letter  or  syllable  in  a  given  sentence.  Espe- 
cially in  the  Zulu,  nouns  may  be  grouped  into 
eight  distinct  classes,  according  to  their  "prefix" 
or  incipient  element.  Each  class  of  nouns  has  its 
own  pronominal  forms,  all  of  which  bear  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  the  initial  element  of  the 
noun  to  which  they  refer,  or  for  which  they  stand. 
Thus  one  class  of  nouns  comprises  all  those  whose 
incipient  is  Hi;  and  for  this  class  the  relative  is 
eli,  the  demonstrative  leli,  this;  lelo,  that;  the 
personal  pronoun,  nominative,  and  accusative, 
li;  oblique  form,  la;  definitive,  lona,  and  frag- 
mentary form,  simply  I.  Another  class  of  nouns 
comprises  all  those  whose  incipient  is  isi,  as 
isibaya;  and  for  this  the  relative  pronoun  is  esi; 
the  demonstratives,  lesi  and  leso;  personal,  si; 
oblique,  so;  definitive,  sona,  and  fragmentary, 
simply  s.  Each  class  and  number  has  its  own 
preformative  letter  to  be  used  in  forming  the 
possessive;  as,  u,  which  passes  over  into  its  semi- 
vowel w,  for  the  first  class,  singular;  6  for  the 
plural;  I  and  a  for  the  second  class;  y  and  z  for 
the  third.  Thus,  for  the  possessive  my  or  mine, 
we  have,  wami,  bami;  lami,  ami;  yami,  zami, 
according  to  the  class  and  number  of  the  noun; 
as,  umfana  wami,  my  boy;  abafana  bami,  my 
boys.  For  the  possessive  his  or  her,  if  the  noun 
be  of  the  first  class,  we  have  wake,  bake,  lake,  etc., 


Baiitn  Languages 
Baptist  Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


66 


according  to  the  class  of  the  noun  possessed;  as, 
tmf ana  lake,  his  boy;  iUzwi  lake,  his  word; 
Momo  zake,  his  cattle.  For  the  possessive 
SrTef erring  to  persons  or  to  nouns  m  a6a  as 
abatona  boys;  ahantu,  people;  we  have  wabo, 
talTlabo,  Ib'o,  yabo,  etc,  -- ^f  ^V^^^^^j'^f,!- 
word;  izinkomo  zabo,  their  cattle.  And  tor  tne 
possessive  their,  referring    to  nouns  m  izxn    as 

^:Somo,  we  have,  in  I'l-. -^^f ' /-f^Vo'e^ 
Inzo  azo  vazo,  etc.,  as,  xhz%  lazo,  their  voice, 
Sayasazo,   their  'fold;     izimpondo  zazo,   their 

^°One  of  the  most  important  points  in  which  the 
Bantu  languages  differ  from  the  English  and 
many  others  islound  m  the  fact  that  for  the  most 
nart  the  formative  letters  precede  the  root,  that 
fs  most  of  the  inflections  to  which  a  word  is 
sublet,  are  made  by  changes  in  the  begmning  of 
the  word-  thus,  umfana,  boy;  ahafana,  boys, 
inkomo  covf;  izinkomo,  cows;  izwi  or  ilizwi,  word; 
amaTwi  I'ords.  So  in  the  adjective:  umfana 
ZkX  large  boy;  aiafana  abakulal.rge  boys; 
inkomo  enkulu,  great  cow;  ^l^zw^  «^*'=«^«' ,fyf^* 
word  So  in  the  possessive  pronouns:  abafana 
bami,  my  hoys;    izinkomo  zami,  my  cows;    thzwi 

^"  This'YivTng'to  the  nominal  incipient  so  much 
of  molding  influence  over  the  pronouns  and  over 
tteTrefi^^es  contributes  largely  to  precision  and 
the  power  of  inversion.  It  is  also  thought  by 
some^to  add  to  the  euphony  of  the  language 
Indeed,  some  who  at  first  failed  to  see  that  the 
princip  e  really  constitutes  a  vital  feature  of  the 
FanguTge,  were  wont  to  regard  it  as  nothmg  more 
than  a  kind  of  "euphonic  alliteration. 

From  all  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Bantu 
languages  allow  great  scope  and  variety  m  the 
arrlngement  of  words  m  a  sentence  and  at  the 
same  time  preserve  clearness  and  precision. 

One  of  the  greatest  defects  of  these  languages, 
as  might  be  supposed,  is  the  paucity  of  words 
especially  those  needed  for  the  expression  of 
moral  and  religious  thoughts..  Yet,  even  here, 
the  case  is  not  so  difiicult  as  might  be  presumed^ 
One  root  will  often  give  a  large  stem  with  a  good 
number  of  branches,  and  no  small  amount  ot 
fruit  Thus,  from  the  verb  bona,  see,  we  ha,ve 
bonisa,  cause  to  see,  show;  bonisisa  show  clearly; 
bonela,  see  for;  bonelela,  look  and  learn,  imitate; 
bonana,  see  each  other;  bonelana,  see  for  each 
other;  bonisana,  cause  each  other  to  see,  show 
each  other;  bonakala,  appear,  be  visible;  bona- 
kalisa,  make  visible;  umloni,  a  seer;  umboneh,  a 
spectator;  umbonelo,  a  spectacle;  umftomsi,  an 
overseer;  umboniso,  a  show;  istbono,  a  sight, 
curiosity;  isiboniso,  a  vision;  isvbonakalo  an 
appearance;  isibonakaliso ,  a  revelation— and  all 
this  without  going  into  the  passive  voice;  as, 
honwa,  be  seen;  boniswa,  cause  to  be  seen;  boms- 
iswa,  cause  to  be  clearly  seen  etc.  Perhaps  no 
other  language  exceeds  the  Zulu  m  the  scope  and 
liberty  which  it  gives  for  the  formation  of  deriva- 
tive words.  .  ^  ■    ■       4. 

The  liberty  which  it  gives  for  combining  two 
or  more  words,  so  as  to  form  a  significant  com- 
pound, is  another  point  worth  mentioning.  In 
this  way  we  get  impnmalanga,  east,  from  two 
Tf/ords — puma,  come  out,  and  ilanga,  the  sun; 
inchonalanga,  west— from  chona,  sink,  and  tlanga, 
sun.  So,  inhlilifa,  an  heir,  comes  from  combining 
two  words  which  signify  "to  eat  the  estate  of  the 
deceased;"  while  inhlulanhlebe ,  a  bat,  signifies  "a 
long-eared  animal;"  and  ihlolenkosikazi,  the  jas- 
mine, "queen's  eye." 


Many  of  the  names  which  the  natives  give  to 
persons,  places,  rivers,  mountains,  are  also  coin- 
pound  teLs;  and,  whether  simple  or  compound, 
the  most  of  them  are  significant. 

Perhaps  no  language  can  lay  a  better  claim 
than  the  Zulu  to  an  exemption  from  two  great 
faults-on  the  one  hand,  that  superabundance  of 
vowels  and  hquids  which  produces  excessive  soft- 
ness; and  on  the  other,  that  superabundance  of 
consonants  which  produces  excessive  harshness. 
The  happy  mean  which  it  has  observed  m  ite 
inter-mixture  of  mute  consonants  with  vocalic 
and  Uquid  sounds  makes  it  both  pleasing  to  the 
ear  and  easy  to  speak. 

One  of  the  striking  peculiarities  of  several 
Bantu  languages  is  that  sharp,  shrill  sound  called 
a  "click  "  It  constitutes  an  elementary  partot 
the  word  in  which  it  occurs,  as  much  so  as  its 
vowels  or  consonants,  and  is  never  found  m  the 
formative  part.  Of  these  clicks  there  are  three 
kinds,  each  of  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  made,  as  the  dental  the 
palatal,  and  the  lateral.  The  origin  of  these 
peculiar  sounds  may,  doubtless,  be  found  m  the- 
Snomatopoetic  effort  to  suit  the  sound  of  the  word 
to  the  thing  signified. 

The  indigenous  literature  of  all  the  iiantu 
tribes  is  very  scant,  since  no  alphabet  exists  with 
which  to  write  out  thoughts,  folk-lore,  songs, 
royal  eulogies,  and  common  law.  They  have 
a  variety  ot  unwritten,  simple  songs :  evening 
songs,  domestic  songs,  hunting  songs,  heroic 
songs,  and  religious  songs,  or  songs  m  which 
they  give  expression  to  a  wish  or  prayer..  V/Mx 
the  singing  ot  these,  accompanied  with  the 
numbu,  a  musical  instrument  of  one  string,  they 
pass  many  an  hour  of  leisure.  Their  language 
abounds  in  bold,  figurative  epithets  and  compli- 
mentary terms,  of  which  they  make  great  use  m 
singing  the  praises  of  their  kings.  The  royal 
court  upon  grand  festal  occasions,  offers  ample 
field  for  the  royal  rhapsodist  or  bard  to  pour 
forth  his  poetic  imaginings  in  a  most  profuse  and 
fervid  style,  speaking  of  the  king,  to  his  face,  as 
black  and  beautiful,  tall  and  straight,  a  majestic 
elephant,  a  ravenous  hyena,  the  mercfless  oppo- 
nent of  every  conspiracy,  the  devourer,  waster, 
smasher  of  all  his  foes;  lovely  as  a  monster  ot 
resistless  might,  "like  heaven  above,  raimng  and 
shining." 

BAPATLA:  A  town  ot  the  Kistna  district, 
Madras,  India,  40  miles  east  of  Ongole.  Healthful 
location.  Population,  chiefly  Telugus;  station  ot 
the  ABMU  (1883),  with  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  1  missionary  woman  and  47  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  20  outstations,  dl> 
Sunday  schools  and  2,515  church  members. 


BAPTIST  CONVENTIONS  OF  CANADA; 
Foreign  Missionary  "Work  of  the:  The  first 
foreign  missionary  work  of  the  Baptists  ot 
Canada  was  done  in  connection  with  societies 
in  the  United  States.  As  early  as  1838  a 
Society  for  the  Maintenance  of  Foreign  Missions 
was  established  at  Chester,  Nova  Scotia.  Seven 
years  later  the  first  representative  of  the  Cana- 
dian Baptists  on  the  foreign  field  was  sent  to 
Burma  and  later  two  others,  to  labor  under 
the  ABMU.  The  interest  in  foreign  missions 
was  not  aroused  in  Ontario  and  Quebec  till 
1866,  when  a  student  in  Woodstock  College 
desired  to  go  out  as  a  missionary  and  there 
seemed  no  way  to  send  him.  Dr.  Fyfe,  the 
principal,   then  wrote  to   the  Secretary  of  trie 


67 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bantn  Liungnages 
BiiptiMt  Missionary 


ABMU.  The  result  was  a  meeting  of  six  pastors, 
with  Dr.  Fyfe  and  Dr.  Murdock  of  the  ABMU, 
at  the  parsonage  in  Beamsville,  Ontario,  in 
October  of  that  year.  Here  the  Canadian  Aux- 
iliary to  the  ABMU  was  formed,  and  in  October, 
1867,  just  one  year  later,  their  first  two  mission- 
aries were  sent  to  the  Telugu  Mission  of  the 
ABMU.  Two  years  later  the  Rev.  John  Mc- 
Laurin,  also  a  graduate  of  Woodstock  College, 
and  his  wife  were  sent  out. 

Up  to  1873  both  sections  of  the  Baptists  of 
Canada  worked  in  connection  with  the  ABMU, 
supporting  missionaries  in  Burma  and  among 
the  Telugus  of  India,  as  well  as  a  number  of 
native  helpers.  In  that  year,  however,  both 
the  eastern  and  western  provinces  established 
independent  and  separate  foreign  mission  boards, 
while  remaining  in  cordial  sympathy  with  the 
ABMU. 

The  Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the  Baptist 
Convention  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  in  1873 
sent  out  a  party  of  seven  missionaries  to  explore 
and,  if  deemed  advisable,  to  establish  a  mission 
among  the  Karens  of  Siam;  they  failed  to  find 
Karens  in  Siam  in  sufficient  numbers  to  warrant 
establishing  a  mission  and  the  project  was  aban- 
doned. At  this  juncture  an  invitation  for  them 
to  cooperate  with  the  new  organization  in  the 
western  provinces  was  accepted,  and  the  mis- 
sionaries were  transferred  to  the  Telugu  country. 

The  Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the  Baptist 
Convention  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  in  1873,  were 
offered  a  mission  of  the  ABMU,  at  Cocanada 
(Madras,  India).  The  offer  was  accepted,  and 
the  Rev.  John  McLaurin  was  released  from  his 
connection  with  the  ABMU  to  take  charge  of  the 
new  mission.  He  landed  at  Cocanada  with 
his  family  in  1874.  The  following  year  he  was 
joined  by  the  missionaries  of  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  who  were  in  Siam,  and  thus  in  1875 
was  formed  the  Canadian  Baptist  Telugu  Mission. 
There  are  two  boards  in  the.  homeland,  but 
their  work  in  the  foreign  field  is  very  closely 
united  in  interest,  in  method  as  well  as  in  terri- 
torial relations.  The  work  is  carried  on  along 
evangelistic,  educational  and  medical  lines;  a 
strong  native  church  is  steadily  pressing  toward 
self-support;  Bible  women  and  colporteurs  are 
an  especially  effective  evangelizing  agency. 

Missions  of  the  Convention  of  the  Maritime 
Provinces:  District  of  Vizagapatam,  Madras, 
India;  6  stations,  21  outstations,  21  Canadian 
missionaries,  49  native  helpers,  8  churches, 
495  communicants,  17  day  schools,  1  hospital 
and  dispensary. 

Missions  of  the  Convention  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec:  (1)  Godavari  and  Kistna  Districts, 
Madras,  India;  8  stations,  111  outstations,  35 
Canadian  missionaries,  196  native  helpers,  38 
churches,  4,363  communicants,  18  day  schools, 
1,366  pupils,  9  boarding  schools  with  304 
students,  4  physicians  and  3  hospitals  and  dis- 
pensaries. (2)  Bolivia,  South  America;  3 
stations,  7  Canadian  missionaries,  2  schools. 
The   organ    of    the    Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  Societies  of 

Canada   is    The    Canadian   Missionary    lAnk,    monthly, 

Toronto. 

BAPTIST     MISSIONARY    SOCIETY:     The 

Baptist  Missionary  Society,  founded  October 
2,  1792,  was  the  first  of  the  many  missionary 
organizations  which  had  their  beginning  in  the 
closing  years  of  the  18th  and  the  opening 
of  the  19th  centuries.  Since  1781  William 
Carey,    the    "Northamptonshire    Cobbler,"    had 


been  putting  forth  every  effort  to  arouse  his 
ministerial  brethren  to  something  of  his  own 
absorbing  interest  in  the  question  of  giving 
the  Gospel  to  the  heathen.  His  paper,  "An 
Inquiry  into  the  Obligations  of  Christians  to 
use  Means  for  the  Conversion  of  the  Heathen," 
published  •  in  1792,  was  a  most  impassioned 
appeal,  and  with  his  two  sermons,  preached 
before  the  Baptist  Association  at  Nottingham, 
May  30,  and  at  Kettering,  October  2,  1792, 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society.  The  two  points  deduced  from 
the  text  of  the  latter  have  since  become  famous 
— "Expect  great  things  from  God;  attempt 
great  things  for  God."  At  the  conclusion  of 
this  sermon  twelve  of  the  ministers  who  had 
heard  it  withdrew  to  a  little  white  house,  still 
to  be  seen  from  the  Midland  Railway,  and  passed 
the  following  resolutions; 

"Desirous  of  making  an  effort  for  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  among  the  heathen,  agree- 
ably to  what  is  recommended  in  Brother  Carey'si 
late  publication,  we  whose  names  appear  to  the 
subsequent  subscription,  do  solemnly  agree  tO' 
act  in  society  for  that  purpose. 

"As  in  the  present  divided  state  of  Christen- 
dom it  seems  that  each  denomination,  by  ex- 
erting itself  separately,  is  most  likely  to  accom- 
plish the  great  ends  of  a  mission,  it  is  agreed  , 
that  this  society  be  called  'The  Particular  (Cal- 
vinistic)  Baptist  Society  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  among  the  Heathen.' 

"As  such  an  undertaking  must  needs  be 
attended  with  expense,  we  agree  immediately  to 
open  a  subscription  for  the  above  purpose,  and 
to  recommend  it  to  others. 

"Every  person  who  shall  subscribe  £10  at 
once,  or  10s  6d  annually,  shall  be  a  member  of 
the  Society." 

The  twelve  ministers  present  subscribed  £13 
2s  M.  These  "great  things"  were  ridiculed 
by  their  fellows,  but  the  event  has  proved  that 
"the  greatest  things  of  God  have  quiet  and 
small  beginnings." 

Carey  became  the  first  missionary  of  the  So- 
ciety, Andrew  Fuller  its  first  secretary,  and 
Sutcliffe,  Dr.  Ryland,  Jr.,  and  Reynold  Hogg 
formed  with  these  two  the  first  committee. 
Samuel  Pierce,  one  of  the  first  subscribers  at 
Kettering,  desired  to  be  sent  to  the  heathen, 
but  his  early  death  prevented. 

Constitution  and  organization:  The  organization 
of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  is  very  simple. 
Its  membership  comprises  pastors  of  churches 
making  an  annual  contribution;  ministers  who 
collect  annually,  and  all  Christian  persons 
concurring  in  the  objects  of  the  Society  who  are 
donors  of  £10  or  upward,  or  subscribers  of  ten 
shillings  annually  to  its  funds. 

The  affairs  of  the  Society  are  conducted  by  a 
committee  of  forty-eight  members,  two-thirds 
of  whom  are  residents  beyond  twelve  miles  of 
St.  Paul's.  The  committee  meets  monthly,  or 
oftener,  in  London,  on  a  fixed  day,  for  the  des- 
patch of  business;  seven  members  make  a 
quorum.  A  public  meeting  of  the  Society  is 
held  annually,  when  the  list  of  the  committee 
is  read,  the  accounts  are  presented,  and  the 
accounts  of  the  previous  year  reported.  The 
committee  may  summon  public  meetings  in 
London  or  elsewhere  whenever  the  interests  of 
the   Society  require  it. 

All  honorary  and  corresponding  members  of 
the  committee,  and  all  ministers  who  are  mem- 


Baptist  Missionary 
Bardezag 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


bers  of  the  Society,  and  the  secretary  and  treas- 
urer of  London  auxiliaries  are  entitled  to  attend 
and  vote  at  the  meetings  of  the  committee. 

Statemmt    of    Missions;    India:    A    mission    to 
Tahiti,  in  the  South  Seas,  was  at  first  thought  ot 
by  the  Society,  but  this  plan  was  changed  by  the 
accounts    received    from    Mr     John    Thomas,    a 
surgeon  in  the  employ  of  the  East  India  Company 
at  Bengal,  of  the  great  needs  of  India.     Andrew 
Fuller,   in   his   account  of  the   meeting   held   to 
consider  the  matter,  says,  "We  saw  plainly  that 
there  was  a  gold  mine  in  India    but  it  was  as 
deep  as   the   center  of  the   earth.     Who   would 
venture   to   explore    it?      'I  will  go  down     said 
Carey    'but  remember  that  you  must  hold  the 
ropes.'      We    solemnly    engaged    to  him  to   do 
so    nor  while  we  live   shall  we  desert  him.        In 
March     1793,    Carey    and    John   Thomas   sailed 
for  India  in  a  Danish  vesseh     They  landed  m 
Calcutta,    November    10.      Carey  had  told  his 
society   that   he  should  require  from  it  money 
sufficient  to  pay  for  his  passage  only,  believing 
that  once  in  India  he  could  support  himself      1  he 
years  that  followed  were  very  trying      He  found 
work  in  an  indigo  factory,  perfected  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  Bengal  language,  wrote  a  grammar 
of   it,    translated   the    New   Testament    mto    it, 
learned   Sanskrit,    mastered   the   botany   of    the 
region    corresponded  with  the  German  mission- 
aries   Schwartz  and  Guericke,  m  the  far  south, 
set  up  a  printing-press,  and  planned  new  missions 
—all  at  his  own  cost.     On  his  rude  press,  which 
from  his  great  devotion  to  it,  the  natives  thought 
was  an  idol,  he  printed  the  New  Testament  as 
fast    as   he    translated   it.     In    1797    Mr.    John 
Fountain  was  sent  out  to    reenforce  Carey,  and 
in   1799    Messrs.    Ward,   Grant,    Brunsdon,    and 
Marshman  reached  Calcutta.     In  this  year  the 
indigo  factory  was  given  up,  and  on  account  ot 
the  persistent  opposition  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany   the   little   band   of   missionaries   removed 
to  the  Danish  settlement  of  Serampur,   on  the 
west  bank  of  the   Hugli,   fourteen   miles  above 
Calcutta.     Here     they     purchased     house     and 
grounds  for   church,  home,  and   printing  office. 
An  income  for  the  mission  was  secured  from  the 
boarding  schools  opened  for  Eurasian  boys  and 
girls,   and   conducted  by   Mr.   and   Mrs.   Marsh- 
man      In  December,   1800,  Carey  baptized  the 
first  Hindu  convert,   Krishnu   Pal,  a   Brahman, 
who  became  a  noted  preacher,  and  from  his  own 
funds  built  the  first  house  of  Christian  worship 

Carey  was  appointed  by  Lord  Wellesley,  then 
Governor-General,  first  Bengali,  afterward  San- 
skrit and  Marathi,  professor  in  the  College  of 
Fort  William.  The  families  of  the  little  mis- 
sionary community  lived  together,  eating  at  the 
same  table  at  a  cost  not  much  more  than  £100 
a  year.  ,     .  ,,        „    ■   ^ 

The  work  of  translating  the  Scriptures, 
teaching,  preaching,  printing,  and  establishing 
schools  went  actively  on.  Before  Carey's  death 
(1834)  the  whole  Bible  had  been  translated  into 
forty  different  languages  and  dialects,  and  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Hindus  translated  into  Eng- 
lish. In  addition.  Dr.  Marshman  translated  the 
Bible  into  Chinese,  prepared  a  Chinese  grammar 
and  dictionary,  and  translated  Confucius  into 
English. 

In  1812  the  printing  press  at  Serampur  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  loss  from  this  calamity 
■was  great,  but  the  gain  was  perhaps  greater,  for 
the  interest  and  sympathy  of  Christians  at  home. 


of  all  denominations,  was  aroused  to  a  degree 
never  felt  before.  The  whole  amount  of  the 
loss!  £10  OOO!  was  raised  within  fifty  days  and 
sent  to  Serampur,  where  work  was  speedi  y 
resumed.  This  was  the  first  instance  of  really 
large  donations  to  the  cause  of  missions. 

The  work  extended  to  other  parts  of  India 
and  many  stations  were  estabhshed.  In  181U 
these  stations  were  organized  into  five  missions: 
the  Bengal  Mission,  including  Serampur,  Calcutta, 
Dinaipur,  etc.;  the  Hindustani  Mission  (North- 
ern India),  including  Patna,  Agra,  etc.,  and  the 
Burraan,  Bhutan,  and  Orissa  Missions  In 
1813  there  were  in  all  20  stations,  with  63  Euro- 
pean and  native  laborers. 

In  1827  the  missionaries  at  Serampur  and  the 
Society  at  home  became  two  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent missionary  bodies,  because  of  the  refusal 
of  the  former,  using  in  mission  service  a  large 
amount  of  property  which  they  had  accumulated 
without  the  aid  of  friends  at  home,  to  render  to 
the  parent  Society  a  strict  account  of  their  pecu- 
niary transactions.  In  1854  the  Serampur 
Brotherhood  had  contributed  to  the  mission 
£90  000.  A  friendly  separation  was  therefore 
agreed  upon,  which  continued  for  ten  years. 
In  1837  the  two  bodies  were  reunited.  ^,  .^  , 
There  are  in  Bengal,  Orissa  and  the  United 
Provinces  of  India  (1892)  195  stations  and  out- 
stations  of  the  BMS,  112  missionaries,  239  natiye 
workers,  7,335  communicants,  7,482  pupils  in 
schools.  The  educational  work  includes  the 
Serampur  College,  founded  by  Carey  in  1829; 
Training  Institutions  at  Cuttack  and  Delhi, 
besides  elementary  schools  and  orphanages. 
The  Society  also  carries  on  special  work  among 
English  speaking  students  and  has  a  printing 
nress    in   Calcutta. 

Ceylon:  The  work  of  the  BMS  m  this  field  was 
commenced  in  1812  and  has  been  largely  educa- 
tional. There  are  (1902)  80  stations  and  out- 
stations,  5  missionaries,  26  native  workers,  l,Udd 
communicants  and  3,196  pupils  m  schools. 

China:  Several  attempts  were  made  by  the 
BMS  to  commence  mission  work  in  this  country, 
and  since  1877  it  has  been  carried  on  success- 
fully In  1902  there  were  346  stations  and 
outstations  in  the  provinces  of  Shantung,  Shensi 
and  Shansi,  with  43  missionaries,  122  native 
workers  4,652  communicants  and  1,312  pupils 
in  schools.  This  mission  suffered  severe  v 
during  the  Boxer  troubles  but  has  rallied  well. 
The  fact  that  the  Rev.  Timothy  Richard  of 
Shanghai,  Secretary  of  the  Society  for  the  UU- 
fusion  of  Christian  Knowledge  among  the  Chinese, 
is  enrolled  among  the  missionaries  of  this  Society 
is  indication  of  the  interest  it  takes  in  the  supply 
of  Christian  literature  for  that  Empire. 

Palestine:  This  mission  of  the  BMS  has  been 
carried  on  since  1880,  with  headquarters  at 
Nablous.  There  were  in  1902,  1  station  and  S 
outstations,  2  missionaries,  7  native  workers, 
129  communicants  and  90  pupils  in  the  schools. 
Africa:  From  1842-82  the  Society  had  a  most 
flourishing  and  hopeful  mission  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa.  The  West  Indian  churches, 
always  desirous  of  sending  the  gospel  to  Atnca, 
began,  after  their  emancipation,  to  carry  out 
their  wishes.  Generous  contributions  were  made 
and  the  Society  in  England  agreed  to  second 
their  efforts.  Two  missionaries  from  Jamaica 
chose  for  the  new  mission  the  island  of  Fernando 
Po,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kameruns  River,  m 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea.     Several  missionaries  from 


69 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Baptist  Missionary 
Bardeza^ 


England,  with  reenforcements  from  Jamaica, 
arrived  there  in  1842;  the  mission  was  firmly 
established,  and  soon  extended  to  the  coast  of 
what  is  now  the  Kameruns;  books  were  pre- 
pared and  large  portions  of  the  Bible  translated 
into  the  Dualla  language  by  Mr.  Saker,  from 
Jamaica,  who  had  reduced  it  to  writing.  The 
work  at  Fernando  Po  had,  on  account  of  Roman 
Catholic  opposition,  to  be  given  up,  and  the 
settlement  at  Victoria,  in  the  Kameruns,  was 
transferred  to  the  Basel  Missionary  Society 
when  that  region  became  a  German  colony. 

In  1877  Mr.  Robert  Arthington,  of  Leeds, 
England,  offered  the  committee  of  the  Society 
£1,000  if  they  would  at  once  undertake  a  mission 
to  the  Congo  country,  in  Africa.  This  proposal, 
and  succeeding  generous  gifts,  enabled  the 
Society  to  begin  operations,  and  missionaries 
were  immediately  sent  out.  Settlements  were 
soon  formed  on  the  Upper  and  Lower  Congo. 
Many  deaths  have  thinned  the  missionary  ranks, 
but  the  places  of  those  who  fell  were  quickly 
filled  and  the  work  goes  hopefully  forward.  In 
August,  1886,  the  mission  premises  at  Stanley 
Pool  were  destroyed  by  fire;  the  missionaries 
were  in  great  distress;  but,  as  was  the  case  at 
Serampur  in  1812,  the  loss  was  quickly  made 
good  by  friends  of  the  mission  at  home.  Mr. 
W.  Holman  Bentley,  one  of  the  pioneers,  has 
done  efficient  work  in  reducing  the  language  to 
writing,  and  supplying  literature. 

In  the  two  missions  at  the  Lower  Congo, 
including  Matadi,  San  Salvador,  Wathen  and 
Zombo,  and  the  Upper  Congo,  including  Arth- 
ington, Bolobo,  Lukoleba,  etc.,  there  are  (1902) 
61  stations  and  outstations,  58  missionaries,  62 
native  workers,  607  communicants,  3,025  pupils 
in  the  schools.  Most  valuable  auxiliaries  to 
the  work  are  the  two  river  steamers,  "Peace" 
and  "Goodwill." 

West  Indies:  About  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  a  colored  man  from  Georgia,  U.  S.  A., 
P.  George  Liele,  organized  congregations  of 
slaves  in  Jamaica.  After  his  death  application 
was  made  (1813)  to  the  BMS  for  assistance  and 
on  advice  of  Mr.  Wilberforce  a  missionary  was 
sent  out.  Others  followed,  chapels  and  schools 
were  built,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
insurrection  (1831)  there  were  14  English 
missionaries,  24  churches  and  10,838  com- 
municants. The  insurrection  checked  the  work 
in  the  island,  but  the  earnest  appeals  of  the 
missionaries  on  their  return  to  England  helped 
much  toward  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  British  Dominions.  After  order  had  been 
restored  the  work  was  again  pressed  with 
success  until  in  1842  the  churches  in  Ja- 
maica announced  themselves  as  independent  of 
the  Society's  funds.  In  the  West  Indies,  includ- 
ing Jamaica,  there  are  (1902)  286  stations  and 
outstations  of  the  BMS,  with  38,345  communi- 
cants (of  whom  32,208  are  in  Jamaica).  Of  the 
10  missionaries  and  619  native  workers,  all  but 
two  missionaries  (in  Jamaica)  are  independent 
of  the  Society.  The  Society  also  has  4  stations 
aiid  61  outstations  in  Italy  and  in  France.  A 
niission  commenced  in  Japan  in  1879  has  been 
given  up. 

The  Baptist  Zenana  Mission:  This  woman's 
organization  for  mission  work  is  in  connection 
with  the  BMS,  and  was  organized  in  1867.  It  is 
independent  in  its  officers,  committees,  and 
funds.  In  India  it  supported,  in  1900,  64 
missionaries    and    200    native    workers    in    20 


stations;  had  94  schools  with  3,620  pupils,  and 
6  hospitals  and  dispensaries  where  23,500  patients 
are  treated.  In  China,  it  had  (1900)  11  mission- 
aries and  20  native  workers  in  4  stations,  and  18 
schools,  with  180  pupils. 

The  medical  work  of  the  BMS  is  conducted 
as  a  special  auxiliary  formed  in  1901,  conjointly 
witli  that  of  the  Baptist  Zenana  Mission. 

The  Young  People's  Missionary  Association 
in  aid  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  was 
organized  in  1848.  The  Annual  Report  of  the 
BMS  gives  a  list  of  individuals,  schools,  etc., 
supported  by  these  various  organizations. 
Organ:  Missionary  Herald,  monthly. 
Marshman  (J,  C.),  Life  and  Times  of  Carey,  Marshman  tS: 

Ward,  2  vols.,  London,   1859;    Myers  (J.  B.),  Centenary 

Volume  of  the  BUS,  London,  1893. 

BAPTIST  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY  (German): 

See  Germany,  Missionary  Societies  in. 

BAPTIST    SOUTHERN    CONVENTION:     See 

Southern    Baptist   Convention. 

BAPUJI  APPAJI:  A  Brahman  of  Nasik, 
Western  India.  He  made  a  public  profession 
of  faith  in  Christ  after  he  was  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  and  as  native  pastor  at  Bombay 
and  missionary  among  his  fellow  countrymen 
he  wrought  faithfully  and  successfully.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Translation  Committee  of 
the  CMS,  and  translated  several  small  books  into 
Marathi.     He  died  at  Poona,  January  16,  1894. 

BARAKA:  A  town  on  the  Gaboon  River, 
West  Africa.  Missionary  work  was  commenced 
here  by  missionaries  of  the  ABCFM  in  1842. 
The  station  was  transferred  in  1870  to  the  PN. 
It  now  has  2  missionaries,  2  unmarried  women 
missionaries,  8  native  worlcers,  men  and  women, 
1  village  school,  2  high  schools  and  226  church 
members. 

BARAMA:  A  town  in  British  Guiana,  W.  of 
the  Essequibo  River;  station  of  the  SPG,  with 

I  missionary,  2  native  workers,  and  2  village 
schools. 

BARANAGAR:  A  town  on  the  Hugli  River  near 
Calcutta,  Bengal,  India;  station  of  the  Church 
of  England  Zenana  Missionary  Society  (1891), 
with  (1902)  2  missionary  women  and  19  native 
women  workers,  1  industrial  home  for  converts, 

II  common  schools  and  35  Zenana  pupils.  Also 
written  Baranagore. 

BARARETTA.     See  Gallaland. 

BARBADOS:  An  island  of  the  Caribbean 
group,  W.  I.,  belonging  to  Great  Britain.  The 
population  is  182,306,  mostly  negroes,  with  a 
number  of  Hindus  brought  there  to  work  in 
the  fields,  and  a  few  Chinese.  The  language 
is  a  jargon  based  on  English.  Missionary  opera- 
tions have  been  carried  on  in  this  island  by  the 
Moravians  (since  1765)  and  by  the  Seventh  Day 
Adventist  Mission  Board  (U.  S.),  the  Salvation 
Army,  the  Brethren  (PB),  and  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (U.  S.). 

BARBARY  STATES:  A  general  term  desig- 
nating that  portion  of  North  Africa  stretching 
from  the  western  boundary  of  Egypt  to  the 
Atlantic,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Sahara,  and  including  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Algeria, 
and  Morocco.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
Berbers,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  region, 
who  still  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  population. 

BARDEZAG:  A  large  village  on  the  hills 
bordering  the  Gulf  of  Nicomedia,  S.  of  the  city 


BardTvan 

Basel   Evangelical 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


70 


of  Nicomedia,  Asiatic  Turkey.  Its  population, 
about  5,000,  is  entirely  Armenian.  The  mission 
station  of  the  ABCFM,  formerly  at  Nicomedia 
was  transferred  to  this  place  largely  on  account 
of  its  greater  healthfulness.  There  is  a  large 
Protestant  community  and  a  flourishing  boys 
school,  where  of  late  years  the  experiment  ot 
manual  training  has  been  made  with  great  suc- 
cess. There  is  also  an  orphanage  for  boys  whose 
parents  were  killed  in  the  massacres  of  1895-96. 
The  Turkish  name  of  the  place  is  Baghchejik. 

BARD  WAN:  Chief  town  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  Bengal,  India.  Population,  35,000. 
A  station  of  the  CMS  with  3  missionaries,  1  with 
his  wife,  5  native  workers  and  31  communicants 
and  1  village  school  supervised  by  the  Church 
of  England  Zenana  Missionary  Society.  Also 
written  Burdwan. 

BARELI:  A  city  of  the  United  Provinces, 
India  on  a  branch  of  the  Ganges,  122  miles 
southeast  of  Delhi.  Population  (1901),  131,208, 
chiefly  Hindus.  Station  of  the  ME  (1856)  with 
8  missionaries,  men  and  women,  3  of  them  med- 
ical 53  native  workers,  men  and  women,  1  hos- 
pital 1  theological  school,  1  orphanage,  1  high 
school,  27  village  schools,  70  Sunday  schools. 
Young  People's  Society,  and  516  church  members. 
Also  written  Bareilly. 

BARHAWA.  See  Bahawa. 
BARINGA:  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free 
State  situated  on  the  Maringa  River,  about  200 
miles  from  the  Congo;  station  of  the  RBMU 
(1900),  with  3  missionaries  and  2  missionary 
women,  1  of  whom  is  unmarried;  1  preaching 
place,  a  village  school  and  a  dispensary. 

BARISAL:  Capital  of  the  district  of  Bakarganj, 
Bengal,  India.  Climate  danip,  but  very  healthful, 
and  the  coolest  in  all  Bengal.  Population, 
16,000.  Race,  Bengali  and  Mugh.  Language, 
Bengali,  Arrakanese,  and  mixed  Hindustani. 
Station  of  the  BMS  (1828),  with  4  missionaries 
and  3  married  missionary  women,  15  native 
workers,  28  outstations,  52  Sunday  schools,  60 
village  schools,  Young  People's  Societies,  1,000 
church  members. 

Also  of  the  Baptist  Zenana  Mission  (1871),  with 
3  unmarried  missionary  women,  12  native  women 
workers,  3  Sunday  schools,  8  village  schools  and 
1  high  school. 

Also  station  of  the  Oxford  Mission  to  Calcutta 
(1901),  with  4  missionaries  and  a  theological 
school. 

Also  station  of  the  SPG  (1869),  with  19  native 
workers,  10  village  schools  and  234  communi- 
cants.    Written  also  Burrisal. 

BARKLY  WEST:  A  town  in  Bechuanaland, 
South  Africa,  near  the  diamond  fields.  Mission 
station  of  the  LMS  (1842);  1  missionary  and  wife. 
BARODA:  Capital  of  Baroda,  a  native  State 
in  India,  231  miles  north  of  Bombay.  Popu- 
lation, 103,790.  Formerly  the  town,  which  is 
a  fairly  well  built  and  pleasant  place,  was  a  very 
important  seat  of  trade  and  of  various  indus- 
tries, and  at  present,  tho  its  prosperity  has 
declined,  it  carries  on  considerable  commerce 
with  the  surrounding  country.  Station  of  the 
ME,  with  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2 
unmarried  missionary  women,  122  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  5  outstations, 68  Sunday  schools, 
50  common  schools,  1  high  school,  a  Young 
People's  Society  and  1,550  church  members. 
BAROTSE  TRIBES:    The   peoples  occupying 


the  valley  of  the  Upper  Zarnbesi  a  vast  and 
populous  plain,  189  miles  long  by  30  to  35  broad 
subject  to  periodical  inundations  and  resultant 
fevers.  The  Barotse  Empire  was  founded  bya 
Basuto  conqueror.  The  Barotse  succeeded  m 
throwing  off  the  foreign  yoke,  but  the  kingdom 
was  maintained.  It  has  been  described^  as 
including  18  large  nations  subdivided  mto 
over  100  tribes.  Each  tribe  speaks  its  own 
dialect,  but  Lesuto,  the  tongue  of  the  exter- 
minated Basuto  (Makololo)  conquerors  is  the 
common  medium  of  communication.  The  re- 
gion occupied  by  tribes  subject  to  the  Barotse 
kingdom  covers  an  area  of  about  100,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  perhaps  1,000,000. 
Europeans  were  long  excluded  from  the  country. 
Grain,  vegetables,  and  cattle  abound.  The 
villages  are  built  on  artificial  mounds  for  protec- 
tion against  the  inundations  of  the  Zambesi. 
The  people  worship  the  sun  and  the  new  moon, 
and  observe  feasts  at  the  graves  of  their  ances- 
tors. The  missions  of  the  French  Protestants 
have  been  very  successful  among  the  Barotse, 
and  the  paramount  chief  is  a  professing  Christian 
who  has  visited  France  and  England. 
BAROTSELAND.  See  Rhodesia. 
BARRA:  A  town  NW.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  in 
Brazil;  station  of  the  MES  (1894),  with  a  native 
worker,  1  outstation,  1  village  school,  1  Sunday 
school  and  171  church  members.  Also  written 
Barra  Mansa. 

BARRACKPUR:  A  town  and  mihtary  station 
in  Bengal,  India,  situated  on  the  Hugh,  15  miles 
from  Calcutta;  station  of  the  Church  of  England 
Zenana  Missionary  Society  (1871),  with  (1902)  3 
women  missionaries  and  22  native  women  workers, 
11  common  schools,  1  training  home  for  converts 
and  43  Zenana  pupils. 

Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with  1  missionary, 
14  native  workers,  men  and  women,  5  outstations, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  high  school,  2  common  schools 
and  63  church  members. 

BARRANQUILLA :  One  of  the  iinportant 
commercial  cities  of  Colombia,  S.  America,  situ- 
ated on  a  cafion  of  the  Magdalena  River,  about 
20  miles  from  the  sea.  Population,  about  40,000. 
It  is  a  station  of  the  PN  (1888) ,  with  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  3  unmarried  women  mission- 
aries, 2  high  schools,  1  common  school,  and  46 
church  members. 

BARRIPORE :  A  town  S.  W.  of  Calcutta,  Ben- 
gal, India;  station  of  the  SPG  (1829),  with  11 
native  workers,  15  chapel  preaching  places  and 
760  communicants. 

BARROW  POINT.  See  Point  Barrow. 
BARROWS  LECTURESHIP  FOR  INDIA:  Lec- 
tureship on  the  Relations  of  Christianity  to  Other 
Religions  founded  at  the  University  of  Chicago,  in 
1894,  by  a  donation  of  $20,000  from  Mrs.  Caroline 
E.  Haskell,  of  Chicago.  The  lectures,  six  or  more 
in  number,  are  required  by  the  terms  of  the  foun- 
dation to  be  delivered  in  Calcutta,  and,  if  deemed 
best,  in  Madras,  Bombay,  or  other  important 
cities  of  India. 

Large  numbers  of  educated  Hindus  and  Mus- 
lims are  now  familiar  with  the  English  language. 
To  these  scholarly  and  thoughtful  men  the  lec- 
tures are  to  be  directed,  setting  forth,  in  a  friend- 
ly, conciliatory  way,  the  great  truths  of  Christian- 
ity, their  harmony  with  truths  found  in  other 
religions  and  their  claims  upon  men. 

Mrs.  Haskell  expressed  a  wish  that  the  Rev. 


71 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bardwau 
Basel  ISvangelical 


John  Henry  Barrows,  D.D.,  the  President  of  the 
Parliament  of  Religions,  and  afterwards  President 
of  Oberlin  College,  should  be  the  first  lecturer. 

Dr.  Barrows  inaugurated  the  lectureship  dur- 
ing the  winter  of  1896-7,  when  he  delivered  more 
than  one  hundred  lectures  and  addresses  in  Hin- 
dustan. These  lectures  were  published  in  book 
form,  both  in  India  and  America,  under  the  title: 
"Christianity,  the  World  Religion."  Tlie  second 
lecturer  on  this  foundation  was  Principal  Fair- 
bairn  of  Mansfield  College,  Oxford,  who  spent  the 
winter  of  1898-9  in  India  and  there  delivered  a 
series  of  scholarly  lectures  afterward  incorpo- 
rated in  his  "Philosophy  of  Religion."  In  the 
winter  of  1902-3,  the  third  series  of  lectures  on 
this  foundation  were  delivered  in  India  by  the 
Rev.  C.  C.  Hall,  D.D.,  President  of  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  The  third 
series  commanded  the  same  respectful,  not  to  say 
cordial,  attention  from  Hindus  and  Muslims  as 
the  previous  lectures.  It  is  the  judgment  of  com- 
petent observers  that  influence  of  considerable 
importance  and  value  has  been  exerted  already 
through  this  lectureship. 

Mrs.  Haskell  named  the  lectureship  from  Dr. 
Barrows,  who  at  the  time  of  its  establishment  was 
her  pastor  (First  Presbyterian  Church,  Chicago) . 
It  is  frequently  called  the  "Haskell  Lectureship," 
however,  from  the  giver  of  the  fund  which  sup- 
ports it. 

BARTHELEMY:  One  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
West  Indies.  Mission  station  of  the  Moravians. 
BASARUR:  A  town  in  S.  Kanara,  South  India; 
station  of  the  Bisel  Missionary  Society  (1876), 
with  2  missionaries  (one  of  them  married),  15 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  2  common  schools 
and  45  communicants. 

BASEL  EVANGELICAL  MISSIONARY  SOCI- 
ETY (Evangelische  Missionsgesellschaft,  Basel) : 
On  August  30,  1730,  the  German  Chris- 
tian Society  (Der  Deutschen  Christenthums 
Gesellschaft)  was  founded  at  Basel  through  the 
influence  of  Dr.  Urlsperger,  who  had  recently 
visited  England.  This  society  undertook,  as  a 
kind  of  union,  to  collect  and  impart  information 
far  and  near  respecting  the  kingdom  of  God.  It 
corresponded  to  the  London  Missionary  Society. 
In  1801  Friedrich  Steinkopf,  who  since  1798  had 
been  secretary  of  the  Basel  Society,  went  to  Lon- 
don as  preacher  to  the  German  Savoy  Church, 
and,  in  1802,  became  a  director  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society.  In  1804  he  took  part  in  found- 
ing the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  He 
was  the  connecting  link  between  England  and 
Basel,  and  largely  through  his  influence  the  Basel 
Mission  was  founded. 

C.  F.  Spittler,  who  had  gone  to  Basel  as  suc- 
cessor of  Friedrich  Steinkopf  (lay  secretary), 
became  so  interested  in  foreign  missions  that  he 
proposed  to  go  to  Berlin  and  enter  a  training  mis- 
sion school  founded  there,  in  1800,  by  Johann 
Janicke.  Thereupon  the  Basel  Society  attempted 
to  induce  Janicke  to  remove  his  school  to  their 
city.  On  his  declining  the  offer,  it  became  more 
and  more  evident  that  Basel  must  begin  a  work 
of  her  own.  In  May,  1815,  just  as  the  city  was 
about  to  be  bombarded  from  Hiiningen,  the  Rev. 
Nicolaus  Von  Brunn,  at  a  regular  missionary 
meeting  in  his  church,  at  which  a  young  man  pre- 
sented himself  for  missionary  service,  suggested 
to  Spittler  that  such  young  men  should  be  edu- 
cated at  Basel  and  then  be  recommended  to  the 
English  societies  who  sent  out  men  to  the  field. 


Steinl<;opf  arrived  at  Basel  in  September,  1815, 
and  induced  Spittler  to  form  a  special  committee 
for  this  purpose.  On  the  25th  ot  the  same  month 
this  body  (Rev.  N.  Von  Brunn,  President;  Rev. 
Mr.  Wenk,  Secretary;  and  a  merchant,  Mr, 
Marian-Kuder,  Treasurer)  held  its  first  meeting 
as  a  mission  "collegium"  in  the  parsonage  of  St. 
Martin's  Church.  Christian  Gottlieb  Blum- 
hardt,  who  from  1803  to  1807  had  been  theolog- 
ical secretary  of  the  German  Cliristian  Society  at 
Basel,  was  invited  to  take  up  the  work  of  the  new 
venture.  After  a  little  delay,  in  the  spring  of 
1816,  Blumhardt  went  to  Basel  as  "inspector"  or 
manager  of  the  Evangelical  Missionary  Society, 
and  on  August  26  of  the  same  year  opened  a 
training  school  for  missions.  Under  the  manage- 
ment of  Blumhardt,  who  was  a  very  cautious  man, 
the  mission  school  slowly  began  to  gather  head- 
way. For  the  first  few  years  its  students,  when 
ready  for  serivce,  were  handed  over  to  foreign 
missionary  societies,  especially  to  the  Rotterdam 
and  the  Church  Missionary  Societies.  But  as 
early  as  1821  it  began  to  send  out  missionaries 
under  its  own  direction.  In  that  year  Zaremba 
and  Dittrich  were  ordained  as  the  first  Basel  mis- 
sionaries for  Southern  Russia. 

From  1816  Blumhardt  edited  the  Evangelical 
Missionary  Magazine,  in  1828  founded  the  Heid- 
enhote,  the  special  organ  of  the  Society;  wrote  a 
history  of  missions  in  several  volumes,  and  man- 
aged the  Society  so  frugally  that  at  his  death  the 
mission  house  (school)  was  supported  by  the 
income  of  the  magazine  and  the  Heidenbote,  and 
an  available  fund  was  raised  to  the  amount  of 
100,000  florins,  with  a  reserve  fund  of  20,000 
florins.  The  following  missions  were  started 
during  his  era:  (1)  One  in  South  Russia  (1821), 
was  suspended  by  an  imperial  ukase,  and  dis- 
solved in  1839.  Before  the  work  was  stopped, 
however,  the  Bible  had  been  translated  into  Tur- 
kish-Tatar and  the  modern  Armenian  languages; 
Armenia  and  the  regions  toward  Baghdad  and 
Tabriz  had  been  visited,  and  an  evangelical  con- 
gregation had  been  established  among  the  Arme- 
nians at  Shamakhi.  (2)  Eight  men  were  sent  to 
Liberia  in  1827  and  1828,  but  four  soon  died,  and 
the  remaining  four  settled  in  other  regions.  (3) 
In  1828  the  mission  on  the  Gold  Coast  was  found- 
ed, but  during  the  first  twelve  years  as  many  mis- 
sionaries died  without  having  seen  the  fruit  of 
their  labors.  (4)  In  1834  Hebich,  Greiner  and 
Lehner  were  sent  to  the  west  coast  of  India. 

The  second  "inspector,"  William  Hoffmann 
(1839-50),  set  the  plan  of  his  work  more  clearly 
before  the  public,  and  pressed  home  the  obliga- 
tion that  rested  on  the  whole  Christian  Church. 
He  also  provided  a  more  efficient  instruction  in 
the  seminary  for  missionary  candidates.  In  ten 
years  the  income  of  the  Society  almost  doubled; 
the  number  of  stations  had  increased  fivefold; 
new  life  was  thrown  into  the  mission  on  the  Gold 
Coast,  placing  the  work  in  Africa  on  an  assured 
basis.  In  1846  mission  work  was  undertalven  in 
China,  at  the  suggestion  of  Giitzlaff.  In  1846-50 
attempts  were  made  to  establish  the  work  in 
East  Bengal  and  Assam,  but  later  on  these  fields 
were  relinquished  to  other  societies 

Under  Joseph  Josenlians  (1850-79)  the  work  of 
the  Society  was  systematized  and  organized;  the 
MissionshauswskS  erected,  schools  were  established 
and  the  industrial  work  that  became  so  marked  a 
feature  of  the  Society's  missions  was  put  in  opera- 
tion. During  the  term  of  Otto  Schott  (1879-84) 
female  and  medical  missionaries  first  went  out. 


Basel   Evangelical 
Battleford 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


72 


Since  then  Inspector  Oehlen,  son  oi  the  well- 
known  professor,  has  been  a  most  efficient  man- 

^^Constitution  and  Organization:  The  Basel  Evan- 
gelical Missionary  Society  is  strictly  undenoin- 
inational,  being  affiliated  with  no  State  Church, 
and  having  relations  with  nearly  all  the  i'rotes- 
tant  Churches  of  Central  Europe.  While  essen- 
tiallv  German,  its  location  in  Switzerland  and  its 
general  character  differentiate  it  from  the  German 
Societies.  Its  affairs  are  conducted  by  a  com- 
mittee of  thirteen  gentlemen  (six  clergymen  and 
seven  laymen).  This  committee  is  self-perpet- 
uating but  manifests  its  sense  of  obligation  to  the 
public  by  the  completeness  of  its  reports  and  the 
care  with  which  it  conducts  its  business. 

The  Basel  Mission  House  is  far  more  than  a 
mere  headquarters  for  the  Society.  It  contains 
a  training  school,  a  book  department,  library, 
refectory,  dormitory,  hospital  and  work-shops. 
The  80-100  students  come  chiefly  from  southern 
Germany  and  Switzerland  and  represent  every 
class  in  life:  agriculturists,  artisans,  clerks 
mechanics,  teachers,  surgeons,  etc.  The  general 
theory  is  that  every  man  of  good  character  and 
sincere  Christian  purpose  can  be  utilized  some- 
where, and  it  is  the  business  of  the  Society  to 
find  out  where.  The  course  of  training  covers 
six  years,  is  thorough,  and  embraces  all  the 
different  departments  of  value  m  mission  work, 
including  the  classics,  Bible  study,  history  science 
and  the  trades,  but  especially  the  development 
of  character.  The  graduates  from  the  theological 
seminary  are  ordained,  through  the  courtesy  of 
some  church.  Reformed,  Lutheran,  or  Free,  as 
the  case  may  be,  tho  the  ordination  is  not 
for  European  service.  In  view  of  the  undenom- 
inational character  of  the  Society,  there  was  some 
question  as  to  what  ecclesiastical  order  should 
be  adopted  for  the  churches  on  the  mission  field. 
Finally  the  Presbyterian  form  was  adopted  and 
a  simple  liturgy  is  used.  ,     ^.        t^       i 

Another     distinctive     feature     of     the     Basel 
Society  is   The  Industrial  and  Commercial  Com- 
mission, first  organized  by  Inspector  Josenhans 
to  meet  the  situation  on  the  Gold  Coast.     The 
mission   there   was   absolutely    dependent   upon 
direct  commercial  communication  with  Europe 
for  all  the  necessaries  of  life.     The  native  Chris- 
tians had  no  method  of  earning  an  independent 
livelihood.     The    establishment    of    a    depot    of 
supplies   and  the   instruction  of  the   natives   in 
agriculture  and  in  the  various    crafts    was    the 
'     inevitable  outcome  of  any  attempt  at  missioriary 
work.     Vessels   were   purchased  by  the  Society 
to  navigate  the  various  rivers  of  the  territory 
occupied,   and  commercial  houses  sprang  up  at 
convenient    points.     In    India    the    commercial 
development  has  been  still  more  extensive,  inclu- 
ding weaving  establishments  at   Mangalore   and 
in  the  region  about  Cananore,  large  tile  manu- 
factories   at    Mangalore    and    Calicut    and    the 
employment    of    mechanics    and    joiners    under 
mission  auspices.     The  net  income  of  the  com- 
mission in  1900,  all  of  which  was  handed  over  to 
the  Society,  was  203,996  francs  ($40,799).    This 
department  has  been  a  paying  investment  from 
the  beginning.     The  total  income  of  the  Society 
amounted  in  1902  to  1,626,116  francs  ($325,223). 
Nearly    one-half    of    this    came    from    Southern 
Germany;    Switzerland  stands   next.     Contribu- 
tions come  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  from  Asia, 
Africa,  America,  and  even  Australia. 
Statement  of  Missions;  Africa:  The   first   effort 


in   Liberia   (1827)    failed   entirely   owing   to   the 
climate;   a   second  (1828),  on  the,  Guinea  coast 
was  almost  entirely  a  failure,  but  m  1831  a  band 
succeeded    in    maintaining    themselves    m    the 
higher   ground    and   established    the    statmn   at 
Akropong.     There    was    considerable    difficulty 
with  the  Danish  Governor,  but  that  was  over- 
come and  the  work  placed  on  a  firm  foundation 
Special   attention  has   been  paid  to   the   school 
system,  from  the  simplest  elementary  schools  up 
to    the    theological    seminary.     The    industrial 
department,  too,  has  been  most  successful.   With 
the   German   occupation    of   the  Kameruns    the 
Basel    Society   took   over   the   mission   work   of 
English  and  American  Societies  in  that  colony. 
On  the  Gold  Coast  there  are  (1902)  12  stations, 
177    outstations,    77    missionaries,    270    native 
workers    8,265  communicants,  and  5,594  pupils 
in   schools;   in    Kameruns   9    stations,    143   out- 
stations,   55    missionaries,    142    native    workers, 
2  874  communicants,  and  4,073  pupils  in  schools. 
'  India  ■  The  Basel  fields  in  India  lie  in  Kanara. 
(Coorg),  Malabar,  and  the  South  Mar^thi  region. 
The  first  station  occupied  was  Mangalore  (1834). 
The  work   was   extended  and   special   attention 
was  paid  to  education  and  industrial  work,  espe- 
cially weaving,  brick  work  and  joiner  work,  giving 
employment  to  multitudes  of  Christians  repud- 
iated by  their  caste  or  otherwise  suffering  from 
want.     There  are  24  stations,   110  outstations, 
148    missionaries,     653    native    workers,    8,488 
communicants  and  11,054  pupils  m  the  schools. 
China:  The  Chinese  mission  of  the  Basel  Society 
was  commenced  under  advice  from  Gtitzlaff  in 
1846    and  with  special  instructions  to  make  it 
an    "inland   mission."     Attention   was   directed 
to   the   Hakka   people,    extending   froin   Canton 
to  the  borders   of   Kiang-si  and  Fo-kien.      Ihe 
work  is  divided  in  two  districts,  highland  and 
lowland    and  is  carried  on  with  the  same  care 
for    education  and    general    industrial   training 
that  is  characteristic  of  Basel  mission  work  else- 
where.    There  were  (1902)   15  stations,  75  cut- 
stations,    44    missionaries,    151    native   workers, 
3,622    communicants    and    1,640    pupils   in   the 
schools. 

Periodical:   Der  Evangdische   Heidmhote,    Basel;    monthly, 

Evangelieche  Missions    Magaztne,    illust.,    monthly,    he 

Missionaire,  in  French,  monthly. 

BASIM:    A   town   in    the   province   of   Berar, 

India.     Population,     13,000.     Station     of     the 

ME   with  one  missionary  and  his  wife,  13  native 

workers     men   and  women,   2   common  schools, 

6    Sunday    schools,   a  Young   People's   Society, 

and  64  church  members. 

BASRA:  Capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name,  adjoining  the  Persian  Gulf  at  the  S._  h. 
extremity  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  city  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Euphrates  below  its  junction  with 
the  Tigris,  and  is  quite  unhealthful.  It  is  a 
station  of  the  RCA  (Arabian  Mission) ,  opened 
in  1891.  It  now  has  4  missionaries,  two  of  them 
married  and  one  of  them  a  physician,  2  out- 
stations and  1  dispensary.  Otherwise  written 
Busrah  and  Bussora. 

BASSA.  See  Geeat  Bassa. 
BASSEIN :  The  southwestern  district  of  Burma, 
extending  from  the  western  Yoma  range  of 
mountains  on  the  west  to  the  mam  stream  of 
the  Irawadi  and  its  principal  outlet  on  the  east, 
and  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  south  to  the 
point  on  the  north  where  the  Yomas  approach 
nearest  to  the  great  river.     It  includes  four  or 


■73 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Basel  BvanfTPllcal 
Uattleford 


five  of  the  larger  delta  branches  of  the  Irawadi. 
Area,  6,848  square  miles.  The  soil  is  rich  and 
fertile,  the  subject  to  floods.  The  population 
somewhat  exceeds  475,000,  of  which  about 
175,000  are  Karens  (Sgaus  and  Pwos  in  about 
equal  numbers),  over  225,000  Burmans,  and 
the  remainder  Talaings,  Telugus,  Chinese  and 
a  few  English.  The  district  has  been  the  seat 
of  very  thriving  and  successful  missions  since 
1837.  The  ABMU  has  three  missions  there:  a 
Burman  mission,  including  also  the  Telugus; 
a  mission  to  the  Sgau  Karens,  with  about  10,000 
communicants  and  50,000  adherent  population 
and  85  Christian  villages,  the  largest  and  most 
advanced  of  all  the  Karen  missions  in  Burma; 
and  a  mission  to  the  Pwo  Karens,  with  about 
1,375  communicants,  and  22  Christian  villages, 
with  an  adherent  population  of  perhaps  7,000. 
The  Roman  Catholics  have  a  flourishing  mission 
among  the  Pwo  Karens  in  Bassein,  but  with  few 
converts  from  the  Sgaus.  The  SPG  has  also 
a  mission  in  Bassein,  which  is  included  in  its 
diocese  of  Rangoon.  Some  efforts  have  been 
made  by  other  denominations  to  plant  missions 
here,  but  with  little  success.  Education  has 
been  carried  to  a  greater  extent  among  the 
Karens  of  Bassein  than  in  other  district  in  Burma. 

Story  of  the  Karen  Missicr.  in  Bassein,  Brocket  (L.  P.) ,  Phila- 
delphia, 1891;  Self-SuppoTt  in  Bassein,  Carpenter  (C.  H.), 
Boston,  1884. 

BASSEIN :  Chief  town  of  the  district  of  Bassein, 
Burma.  It  is  situated  on  the  Bassein  River, 
one  of  the  delta  branches  of  the  Irawadi,  and 
has  an  important  trade  in  rice.  Population, 
30,000;  about  20,000  of  the  people  are  Buddhists, 
and  the  remainder  are  Hindus,  Mohammedans 
and  Christians. 

It  has  been  a  station  of  the  ABMU  since  1840. 
It  is  now  operated  by  12  missionaries  and  300 
native  workers,  men  and  women.  It  has  64  out- 
stations,  157  preaching  places,  123  village  schools 
and  2  high  schools,  and  there  are  12,605  commun- 
icants. 

BASSETERRE:  Capital  of  the  island  of  St. 
Kitts,  W.  I.  Population,  9,900.  Station  of 
the  Moravians  (1777) ,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  32  native  workers,  men  and  women,  2 
Sunday  schools,  3  common  schools,  and  570 
communicants. 

BASTA:  A  village  in  the  Bijnaur  district, 
United  Provinces,  India.  Station  of  the  ME, 
with  13  native  workers,  men  and  women,  6  Sunday 
schools,  3  village  schools,  a  Young  People's 
Society  and  475  church  members. 

BASUTOLAND:  A  territory  belonging  to 
British  South  Africa,  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  in 
1871,  but  placed  directly  under  the  authority  of 
the  crown  in  1894;  lying  between  Natal  and  the 
Orange  River  Colony,  with  Cape  Colony  on  the 
south.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  10,293  square 
miles,  with  a  population  estimated  in  1901  at 
263,500,  of  whom  647  were  Europeans.  The 
country  is  an  elevated  plateau,  well  watered  and 
with  a  fine  climate.  The  Paris  EvangeHcal 
Mission  Society  and  the  SPG  carry  on  missions  in 
this  territory,  occupying  altogether  17  stations. 
The  influence  of  these  missions  upon  the  whole 
Basuto  people  has  been  beneficent  and  profound. 
Norris-Newiuan,  The  Basutos  and  Their  Country,  London, 
1882;  Widdicombe,  Fourteen  Years  in  Basuto  Land,  Lon- 
don, 1892;  Barkley  (Mrs.),  Among  Boers  and  Basutos, 
London,  1900;  Casalis  (E.),  My  Life  in  Baautoland,  1889. 

BATALA:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  24 
miles  from  Amritsar.     Population,  26,000,  Hin- 


dus, Muslims,  Sikhs,  etc.  Mission  station  of  the 
CMS  (1878),  with  3  missionaries  (2  missionaries' 
wives),  22  native  workers,  1  high  school,  2  com- 
mon schools  and  72  communicants. 

Also  station  of  the  CEZMS,  with  (1902)  4  mis- 
sionary women,  one  of  them  being  a  physician,  7 
native  women  workers,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary, 

3  common  schools  and  70  Zenana  pupils. 
BATANGA.     See  Great  Batanga. 
BATAVIA:  Capital  of  Java,  Dutch  East  Indies. 

Population  (1900)  115,887,  of  whom  about  9,000 
are  Europeans.  Founded  in  1519  by  the  Dutch, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  possessions  of 
the  crown  of  the  Netherlands.  In  1722  there 
were  about  100,000  Christians  in  and  about  the 
city,  and  in  1728  the  Bible  was  translated  into 
the  vernacular  tongue,  the  High-Malayan.  But 
at  present  the  whole  native  pouplation  of  the 
city,  with  very  insignificant  exceptions,  is 
Mohammedan.  In  1842  the  English  mission- 
aries were  expelled,  and  only  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics were  tolerated.  Of  late,  however,  a  change 
has  taken  place.  The  Java  Comity,  founded  in 
Batavia  in  1851,  but  since  1855  directed  from 
Amsterdam,  has  a  missionary  and  his  wife  there, 
with  3  native  workers,  1  common  school  and  21 
communicants.  The  Salvation  Army  has  also  a 
post  here. 

BATHURST:  A  town  of  9,000  inhabitants  on 
an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia  River,  W. 
Africa.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the  Gambia 
(British)  Colony.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  3 
missionaries,  34  native  workers,  men  and  women, 

4  outstations,  4  chapels,  4  common  schools  and 
730    church    members. 

BATHURST :  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  20  miles  S.  E.  of  Grahamstown;  popula- 
tion 1,000;  station  of  the  South  African  Wes- 
leyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society,  with  22 
native  workers,  14  outstations,  6  chapels,  3  com- 
mon schools,  a  Young  People's  Society  and  230 
church  members. 

BATHURST:  A  village  south  of  Freetown, 
Sierra  Leone,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the  CMS 
(1822),  with  6  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  2  common  schools  and 
318  communicants. 

BATTA  LANGUAGE:  The  Batta  belongs  to  the 
Malayan  family  of  languages  and  is  spoken  by 
more  than  three  million  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Sumatra.  It  is  written  with  its  own  alphabet. 
The  Batta  is  found  in  at  least  three  separate  dia- 
lects. Of  these,  the  Mandailing,  or  Southern 
Batta,  is  used  by  the  more  cultured  people  and  is 
the  language  most  used  in  literature.  The  Toba, 
or  Northern  Batta,  has  been  printed  in  Roman 
letters  for  missionary  purposes. 

BATTALAGUNDU:  A  town  northwest  of 
Madura,  Madras,  India.  Language,  Tamil, 
Telugu.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1872),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  39  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  16  outstations,  16  preaching  places, 
22  Sunday-schools,  19  common  schools,  1  high 
school,  a  YMCA  and  362  church  members. 

BATTICALOA:  A  seaport  town  in  the  Eastern 
Province  of  Ceylon;  mission  station  of  the  SPG 
(1846) ,  with  17  native  workers,  men  and  women,  3 
chapels, 6  common  schools  and  140  communicants. 

BATTLEFORD :  A  town  in  the  district  of  Sas- 
katchewan, Canada;  station  of  the  CMS  (1876), 
with  2  missionaries,  2  native  workers,  2  outsta- 
tions, 3  common  schools  and  40  communicants. 


Battle  Harbour 
Beirut 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


74 


BATTLE  HARBOUR:  A  settlement  on  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  coast  of  Labrador;  sta- 
tion of  the  Labrador  Medical  Missionary  Society 
(1892),  with  5  missionaries,  men  and  women  (,3  of 
them  medical),  an  outstation  and  2  hospitals. 

BATTLE  RIVER:  A  settlement  in  the  district 
of  Alberta,  Canada;  station  of  the  Methodist 
Church  in  Canada  (1881),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  2  outstations,  1  high  school,  1  Young 
People's  Society  and  135  church  members. 

BATTYCOTTA:  A  district  in  the  west  part  of 
the  peninsula  of  Jaffna,  Ceylon,  coincident  with 
one  of  the  parishes  anciently  formed  by  the  1  ortu- 
guese  Government.  There  were  also  churches 
built  in  these  parishes,  which  afterward  fell  into 
decay,  and  when  (1817)  the  ABCFM  occupied  the 
place  as  a  mission  station  the  remaining  buildings 
were  put  into  their  hands  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment for  mission  purposes. 

This  station  now  has  1  missionary  and  hjs  wite, 
with  98  native  workers,  men  and  women,  10  out- 
stations, 8  preaching  places,  37  common  schools, 
1  high  school  and  450  church  members,  besides 
Jaffna  College,  independently  supported  but 
with  a  missionary  at  its  head. 

BATJ:  A  town  on  the  island  of  Viti  Levu,  Fiji 
Islands;  station    of    the  Australasian  Wesley  an 
Methodist  Missionary  Society,  with  1  missionary, 
476  native  workers,  18  outstations,  165  chapels 
a'nd  preaching  places,  234  Sunday  schools,  347 
village  schools  and  5,146  church  members. 
BAURO.     See  Solomon  Islands. 
BANZA  MANTEKE.     See  Bansa  Manteke. 
BAVARIAN  LUTHERAN  MISSIONARY  SOCI- 
ETY; Neuen  Dettelsau.     See  Germany;  Mission- 
ary Societies  in. 

BAYAMON:  A  village  in  the  outskirts  of  San 
Juan,  Porto  Rico;  station  of  the  Christian 
Woman's  Board  of  Missions  (Disciples),  with  1 
unmarried  woman  and  an  orphanage. 

BAZEIA:  A  town  in  the  eastern  part  of  Cape 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  in  a  fertile,  well- 
watered  and  thickly  populated  tract  of  land  west 
of  Umtata;  station  of  the  Moravians,  occupied  in 
1862  on  the  invitation  of  the  British  Government 
agent  for  the  Tembu  people  and  the  native  chief 
of  this  especial  tribe.  The  station  was  destroyed 
once  by  whirlwind  and  again  by  the  Kafir  war  of 
1881-82,  yet  the  work  here  has  been  encouraging. 
The  present  establishment  consists  of  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  13  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  2  Sunday  schools,  5  village  schools 
and  98  church  members.     Also  written  Baziya. 

BEACONSFIELD :  A  town  in  the  diamond 
fields.  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa.  Population, 
10,500;  mission  station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1885),  with  1  missionary,  1  unmarried 
woman  missionary,  8  native  workers,  1  outsta- 
tion and  123  communicants.  Also  a  station  of 
the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary 
Society,  with  41  native  workers,  23  outstations, 
3  chapels,  3  Sunday  schools,  2  village  schools,  a 
Young  People's  Society  and  502  church  members. 
BEAR'S  HILL:  A  settlement  in  the  northern 
part  of  Assiniboia,  Canada;  station  of  the  Cana- 
dian Methodist  Church  Mission  (1887),  with  1 
missionary  and  107  communicants. 

BEAUFORT:  A  village  E.  of  Savanna  La  Mar, 
Jamaica,  W.  I.;  station  of  the  Moravian  Mission 
(1834),  with  13  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
1  chapel,  1  village  school  and  370  communicants. 


BEAVER  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  central 
group  of  the  North  American  family  of  languages 
and  IS  spoken  by  Indians  living  m  Athabasca, 
Canada.     It  is  written  with  syllabic  characters. 

BEAWAR:  A  town  in  Rajputana,  India,  300 
miles  south  of  Delhi.  A  pleasant  town,  well  laid 
out,  with  broad  streets  planted  with  trees;  the 
houses  well  built  of  masonry,  with  tiled  roofs. 
Climate,  unusually  dry.  Population,  21,000, 
Hindus,    MusUms,     Jains,     Christians,    Parsees, 

Station  of  the  UFS  (1860),  with  3  missionaries 
and  their  wives  and  5  unmarried  missionary 
women,  2  of  them  medical,  55  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  10  village  schools,  2  high 
schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital  and  176  church 
members. 

BECHUANALAND :  A  territory  of  Great  Brit- 
ain in  Africa,  extending  east  and  west  through  9 
degrees  of  longitude,  from  the  Transvaal  colony 
and  Matabeleland  on  the  east,  to  German  South- 
west Africa  on  the  west,  and  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Rhodesia  and  on  the  south  by  Cape  Colony.  It 
naturally  belongs  to  the  general  region  called 
British  South  Africa.  The  area  is  about  213,000 
square  miles,  with  an  estimated  population  of 
200,000.  Until  November,  1895,  Bechuanaland 
included  the  Crown  Colony  of  British  Bechuana- 
land, and  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate.  At 
that  time  the  Crown  Colony  was  annexed  to  Cape 
Colony  and  the  territory  was  about  to  be  put 
under  the  administration  of  the  British  South 
Africa  Company.  In  consequence  of  Jameson's 
raid,  however,  this  was  not  done,  and  the  Pro- 
tectorate is  governed  by  a  resident  commissioner, 
with  headquarters  at  Mafeking.  By  these 
changes  the  boundaries  and  local  sovereignty  of 
the  native  tribes  were  altered,  and  fixed  as  at 
present. 

These  tribes  are  the  Bamangwato,  under  chief 
Khama,  the  Bakhatla,  under  Lenchwe,  the  Bak- 
wena,  under  Sabele,  the  Bangwaketse,  under 
Bathoen,  the  Bamaliti,  under  Ikaneng,  and  some 
smaller  tribes.  Each  chief  rules  his  own  people 
under  the  protection  of  the  King.  Licenses  for 
the  sale  of  intoxicants  are  forbidden.  There  is  a 
native  infantry-police.  The  railway  from  Cape 
Town  northward  traverses  the  Protectorate  as  far 
as  Bulawayo,  and  the  telegraph  line  to  Fort  Sahs- 
bury,  in  Mashonaland.  Missionary  work  is  car- 
ried on  by  the  LMS,  the  Hermannsburg  Mission- 
ary Society  and  the  Missions  of  French  Switzer- 
land. The  number  of  stations  is  seven.  The 
character  of  the  natives  near  these  stations  has 
been  greatly  modified  and  they  have  adopted  to 
a  considerable  extent  European  costumes  and 
European  style  of  dwellings. 

Hepburn,  Twenty  Years  in  Khama's  Country,  London,  1895; 
Mackenzie,  ii/e  of  John  Mackenzie,  South  African  States- 
man and  Missionary,  London,  1902  ■,  Lloyd,  Three  African 
Chiefs,  London,  1895;  Bechuana  of  S.  Africa,  Crisp  (W.), 
London,  1896. 

BEERSHEBA:  A  town  east  of  Rustenburg, 
Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of  the_  Her- 
mannsburg Missionary  Society  (1873),  with  6 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  4  native  workers, 
4  outstations,  5  chapels,  2  village  schools,  1  theo- 
logical school,  and  1,170  communicants.  Also 
written  Berseba. 

BEGORO:  A  town  of  the  Gold  Coast,  West 
Africa,  northwest  of  Akropong.  Population, 
4,000.  Mission  station  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1876);  3  missionaries,  1  missionary's 
wife,  47  native  workers,  men  and  women,  35  out- 


75 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Battle  Harbonr 
Beirut 


stations,   13    village    schools    (1902),   621    com- 
municants. 

BEHAR:  A  province  of  Bengal,  British  India. 
It  lies  in  the  Ganges  Valley,  being  divided  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts  by  that  great  river,  which 
runs  through  it  from  west  to  east.  For  the  most 
part  the  country  is  flat;  its  highest  hill  is  only 
about  1,600  feet  above  sea-level.  Besides  the 
Ganges  itself,  several  large  tributaries  of  that 
river  flow  through  the  province.  The  area  is 
44,130  square  miles  and  the  population  is  about 
24,000,000.  There  are  small  areas  near  Calcutta 
where  the  density  of  population  is  greater  than 
in  Behar;  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  this  is  the  most 
densely  peopled  province  in  all  India.  Each 
square  mile  of  its  territory  contains  on  an  aver- 
age 524  inhabitants;  the  lowest  average  being 
found  among  the  hills  in  the  southeastern  part, 
where  the  population,  of  287  to  a  square  mile, 
consists  chiefly  of  the  aboriginal  Santals.  The 
highest  average,  of  869  per  square  mile,  is  found 
in  the  district  of  Saran,  in  the  western  part  of  the 
province.  In  this  latter  district,  which  is  wholly 
agricultural,  the  density  of  population  in  one 
locality  reaches  the  enormous  average  of  1,240. 
The  prevailing  religion  is  Hinduism,  with  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Mohammedans.  Nearly,  or 
quite,  a  fifth  of  the  entire  population  belong  to 
classes  that  derive  their  living  from  the  soil, 
chiefly  by  way  of  agriculture  or  the  care  of  herds. 

Few  provinces  of  India  possess  more  historical 
interest  than  Behar.  Here,  for  nine  hundred 
years,  from  the  4th  century  before  Christ  to  our 
5th  century,  flourished  an  ancient  Hindu  king- 
dom, known  as  that  of  Magadha,  the  rulers  of 
which  encouraged  the  arts  and  learning,  built 
roads  and  sent  fleets  and  colonists  to  islands  as 
far  east  as  Java.  To  Palibothra,  the  ancient  cap- 
ital of  this  kingdom  (now  identified  with  Fatna, 
its  chief  town  of  modern  days),  Seleucus  Nicator, 
one  of  the  immediate  successors  of  the  great 
Alexander,  sent  his  envoy,  Megasthenes.     At  a 

Eeriod  still  earlier — five  or  six  hundred  years 
efore  Christ — Gautama  Buddha  lived  as  a  de- 
vout ascetic  in  Behar,  and  it  was  at  the  spot  now 
known  as  Buddh  Gaya,  in  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  province,  that  he  is  said  to  have  sat  for  five 
years  under  the  sacred  Pipul  Tree  wrapped  in 
profound  contemplation,  until  he  had  attained 
enlightenment,  or  Buddhahood.  A  spot  so 
sacred  in  the  estimation  of  millions  could  not  fail 
of  identification,  andin  recent  years  the  intelligent 
care  of  the  Indian  Government  has  conducted 
researches  there  which  have  been  rewarded  by  the 
discovery  of  most  interesting  relics  of  the  early 
days  of  Buddhism.  Ancient  temples,  dating  back 
to  250  B.  c,  have  been  excavated;  thrones,  jew- 
els, sacred  images  of  Buddha,  and  other  remains 
have  been  disinterred. 

BEHIR:  A  town  in  the  Gond  region.  Central 
Provinces,  India;  station  of  the  Balaghat  Mission 
(1898),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  unmar- 
ried missionary  woman,  2  native  workers,  1  vil- 
lage school,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispensary,  a 
hospital,  an  orphanage  and  10  communicants. 
Also  written  Baihir. 

BEHRENS,  Henry  William:  Born  February 
13,  1827,  in  Hermannsberg,  Germany;  died  April 
22,  1900,  at  Bethany,  Transvaal,  Africa.  In 
early  youth,  through  the  influence  of  the  village 
pastor,  Ludwig  Harms,  he  determined  to  be  a 
foreign  missionary.  Many  obstacles  preventing, 
he  did  not  sail  for  his  field   of    labor  in  Africa 


until  November  10,  1857,  when  he  was  sent  out 
under  the  Hermannsburg  Society. 

At  Ehlenzeni,  Natal,  Behrens  labored  six 
years  among  the  Zulu  Kafirs.  He  himself  and 
six  Kafirs  built  church,  school,  and  home.  No 
baptisms  occurred,  altho  he  preached  regularly 
to  three  hundred  natives. 

In  1863  he  was  sent  to  work  among  the  Bech- 
uanas  at  Linokana  (in  wliat  is  now  the  Trans- 
vaal). After  a  year  of  faithful  work,  he  saw  no 
results.  He  sat  weeping  one  day  at  his  door 
when  a  negro  inquired  the  cause  of  his  trouble 
and  begged  him  to  visit  his  people  in  Magalies- 
berg.  Mr.  Behrens  accepted  this  as  a  call,  went 
to  the  region,  and  found  a  people  ready  to  hear. 
Their  hearts  had  been  prepared  by  one  of  their 
number  who  while  imprisoned  with  the  Boers 
had  heard  the  Gospel  from  an  English  missionary. 
Behrens  began  work  there  November  29,  1864. 
He  soon  founded  the  Christian  village,  Bethany, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life,  preaching, 
composing  hymns,  and  teaching.  He  was 
pastor  of  a  congregation  of  nearly  two  hundred 
negroes.  He  organized  a  school  for  the  training 
of  native  teachers  and  established  nine  schools 
for  children.  Besides  carrying  on  the  work  at 
Bethany,  Mr.  Behrens  supervised  the  entire 
work  of  the  Society  among  the  Bechuanas,  and 
saw  the  work  grow  rapidly.  Once  every  two 
years  he  visited  every  one  of  the  twenty-nine 
stations  and  twenty-seven  missionaries.  This 
he  did  faithfully  for  thirty-six  years. 

BEIRUT:  A  city  situated  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean,  capital  of  the  Turkish 
province  of  Syria  (Suriye).  It  is  the  commercial 
and  literary  center  of  Syria,  and  in  its  appearance 
and  in  the  culture  of  its  inhabitants  more  nearly 
resembles  a  European  city  than  any  other  city  in 
the  land. 

It  is  situated  on  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Leb- 
anon, and  in  beauty  of  scenery  rivals  Naples, 
the  shore  here  describing  a  graceful  curve  of 
several  miles'  radius,  in  the  bosom  of  which  the 
city  lies,  built  on  rising  ground.  It  is  adorned 
with  many  elegant  buildings,  public  and  private, 
rising  one  above  another  in  a  gentle  slope,  with 
a  near  background  of  mulberry,  olive,  and  pine 
groves,  and  a  more  distant  background  of  the 
terraced  and  vine-clad  sides  of  Mount  Lebanon, 
whose  peaks,  nearly  10,000  feet  high,  are  snow 
crowned  for  several  months  of  the  year. 

The  climate  is  tropical.  The  rainy  season  is 
confined  principally  to  the  three  winter  months, 
when  the  thermometer  rarely  sinks  below  50° 
Fahrenheit.  A  long  summer  reigns,  with  unbroken 
heat  day  and  night,  while  the  thermometer 
ranges  from  80°  to  90°,  and  occasionally  rises 
to  100°. 

The  population  numbers  about  100,000,  and 
is  composed  of  Mohammedans,  Druses,  Chris- 
tians of  various  sects,  and  Jews. 

An  English  company  has  brought  water  to  it 
from  the  mountain  in  an  aqueduct  six  or  eight 
miles  long,  and  has  also  lighted  its  streets  with 

There  are  carriage  roads  in  the  city  and  its 
suburbs,  extending  to  the  near  points  in  the 
Lebanon,  and  one  to  Damascus  (built  by  a 
French  company).  A  railroad  also  connects 
Beirut  and  Damascus. 

Mission  work,  vigorously  conducted  since 
1823,  first  by  the  ABCFM,  and  since  1870  by  the 
PN,  has  borne  fruit  not  only  in  direct  visible 
results  of   educational   institutions    established. 


Beirut 
Beug'al 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


7© 


youth  educated  and  sent  forth  as  teachers,  phy- 
sicians and  preachers,  books  printed,  a  Protes- 
tant community  gathered,  congregations  assem- 
bled, and  converts  enrolled,  but  indirectly  by 
the  upUfting  of  the  whole  community  to  a  higher 
plane  of  social,  intellectual,  and  moral  life. 

In  self-defense  and  in  rivalry  the  other  relig- 
ious sects  have  opened  schools  and  colleges, 
printing-presses  and  hospitals.  The  Moham- 
medans have  even  so  far  nm  counter  to  their 
old  tradition  and  practises  as  to  open  schools 
for  girls,  lest  their  Fatimas  and  Zobeides  should 
learn  in  Christian  schools  too  many  verses  of  the 
Bible  and  too  many  Gospel  hymns;  and  the 
Greek  Church  has  been  compelled  to  open  Sunday 
schools,  in  imitation  of  the  Protestants. 

The  PN  has  at  Beirut  (opened  by  the  ABCFM 
in  1823)  a  station  of  which  the  working  force 
consists  of  4  missionaries  and  their  wives,  with  7 
unmarried  women  and  13  native  workers,  men 
and  women.  There  are  3  preaching  places,  3 
outstations,  1  high  grade  boarding  school  for 
girls,  1  theological  school,  5  Sunday  schools,  1 
printing  house  which  sends  forth  its  issues  wher- 
ever the  Arabic  language  is  spoken  in  three  conti- 
nents. H  publishes  about  25,000,000  of  pages 
annually,  about  half  of  these  being  pages  of 
Scripture.  In  "the  Press"  are  steam-presses, 
with  all  the  apparatus  for  type-casting,  electro- 
typing,  lithographing,  and  binding.  From  its 
doors  go  forth  yearly  about  60,000  bound  vol- 
umes of  scientific  and  religious  books. 

The  Syrian  Protestant  College  is  auxiliary  to 
the  mission,  and  in  closest  sympathy  with  it. 
It  occupies  a  splendid  position  on  high  ground 
overlooking  the  sea.  It  embraces  preparatory, 
collegiate,  medical  and  commercial  departments, 
and  is  more  fully  described  in  a  separate  article. 

There  is  also  a  station  of  the  Kaiserswerth 
Deaconesses  at  Beirut,  established  in  1860.  It 
has  26  deaconesses,  who  conduct  a  fine  hospital, 
served  by  the  Medical  Department  of  the  Syrian 
Protestant  College.  It  also  carries  on  a  high 
school  and  2  village  schools. 

Miss  Taylor's  orphanage,  opened  in  1868,  is 
carried  on  by  2  unmarried  women  and  6  native 
workers,  men  and  women.     It  has  a  dispensary. 

The  Church  of  Scotland  has  a  mission  to  the 
Jews,  with  a  missionary  and  his  wife  and  2  com- 
mon schools. 

The  Jerusalem  and  the  East  Mission  Fund  also 
has  a  station  here,  but  no  statistics  are  given. 

The  British  Syrian  schools  have  a  station  at 
Beirut,  with  5  women  missionaries  and  49  native 
workers,  19  outstations,  1  high  school,  1  school 
for  the  blind,  1  dispensary  and  18  common 
schools. 

The  BFBS  has  a  Bible  depot  here,  with  1  agent 
and  6  native  workers. 

BEIT  MERI :  A  village  in  the  Lebanon  district 
of  Syria;  station  of  the  Friends'  Foreign  Mission 
Association  (1898),  with  1  woman  missionary, 
2  native  workers,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school  and 
2  village  schools. 

BELGAUM :  A  city  in  the  district  of  Belgaum, 
Bombay,  India,  80  miles  northeast  of  Goa.  Pop- 
ulation (including  suburbs),  32,000,  Hindus, 
Muslims,  Jains,  Christians,  Parsees,  etc.;  station 
of  the  LMS  (1820),  with  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  14  native  workers,  men  and  women;  6  out- 
stations, 6  Sunday  schools  8  village  schools  and 
61  church  members. 

BELIZE:  A  city  of  British  Honduras,  Central 


America,  a  place  of  considerable  importance, 
containing  several  churches,  a  hospital,  etc. 
Population,  9,113,  including  many  negroes; 
station  of  the  WMS  (1825),  with  3  missionaries, 
27  native  workers,  men  and  women;  6  chapels, 
7  Sunday  schools,  7  village  schools,  1  high  school 
and  700  church  members.  Also  station  of  the 
Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1887), 
with  1  missionary,  6  outstations,  6  chapels,  5 
Sunday  schools  and  310  church  members. 

BELLA  BELLA:  A  settlement  on  an  island  in 
Milbank  Sound,  British  Columbia;  station  of  the 
Canadian  Methodist  Missionary  Society  (1880), 
with  1  missionary  physician  and  his  wife,  a  chapel, 
a  Sunday  school,  a  dispensary,  a  hospital,  and 
90  church  members. 

BELLA  COOLA :  A  settlement  on  Burke  Chan- 
nel, on  the  coast  of  British  Columbia;  station  of 
the  Canadian  Methodist  Missionary  Society, 
(1881),  with  1  missionary  physician  and  his  wife, 
a  Sunday  school,  a  dispensary  and  20  church 
members. 

BELLARY :  Chief  city  of  the  district  of  the  same 
name,  Madras,  India.  Climate,  hot;  very  dry. 
Population,  59,467,  Hindus,  Muslims,  Christians. 
Language,  Canarese,  Telugu,  Hindustani.  Social 
condition,  rather  poor.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1810),  with  7  missionaries  and  49  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women,  10  outstations,  10  Sunday 
schools,  11  village  schools,  2  high  schools,  1  col- 
lege, 1  orphanage  and  175  church  members. 
Also  station  of  the  SPG  (1880),  with  1  native 
worker,  1  village  school  and  162  communicants. 

BELLESA:  A  village  near  Massaua,  Eritrea,  N. 
Africa;  station  of  the  Swedish  National  Evangeli- 
cal Missionary  Society  (1890),  with  3  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  3  missionary  women  (one  a 
physician),  7  native  workers,  6  village  schools,  a 
dispensary,  an  orphanage  and  71  communicants. 

BELOMBO.     See  Benito. 

BELOOCHISTAN.     See  Baluchistan. 

BENARES:  Capital  of  the  Benares  Division, 
United  Provinces,  India,  situated  on  the  north- 
ern bank  of  the  Ganges  River,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Ganges  and  Jumna.  Population,  209,331, 
of  whom  about  155,000  are  Hindus  and  50,000 
Mohammedans.  In  point  of  population  Benares 
ranks  sixth  in  India.  It  manufactures  silks  and 
shawls,  cloth  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver, 
jewelry,  brass  work,  and  lacquered  toys — the  last 
two  being  exported  to  England  in  considerable 
quantities. 

That  which  gives  to  Benares  its  interest  and 
importance,  however,  is  the  fact  that  it  is  to-day, 
and  has  been  for  more  than  twenty-five  centuries, 
the  religious  capital  of  India,  and  the  most  sacred 
of  all  the  sacred  places  of  Hinduism.  Its  origin 
dates  back  to  the  remotest  period  of  Aryan  occu- 
pation of  India.  Its  early  name  was  Varanasi, 
whence  the  modern  Vanarasi,  or  Benares. 
Another  name  by  which  it  is  often  called  by  the 
people  is  Kasi.  It  had  been  for  many  years — 
probably  for  some  centuries — renowned  by  Hin- 
dus for  its  sanctity,  when,  in  the  6th  century,  Gau- 
tama, then  just  starting  out  on  his  mission  of  con- 
verting India  to  his  new  cult  of  Buddhism,  fixed 
his  residence  at  Sarnath,  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Benares,  only  four  miles  from  the  modern  citv. 
It  remained  the  headquarters  of  Buddhism  until, 
after  a  period  of  800  years,  the  forces  of  Brahman- 
ism  rose  against  their  younger  rival,  over- 
whelmed the  strongholds  of  Buddhism,  and  after 


77 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Belrnt 
Bengal 


a  long  struggle  expelled  it  root  and  branch  from 
the  land.  Benares  then  resumed  its  preemi- 
nence of  sanctity  in  the  minds  of  devout  Hindus, 
■which  it  has  never  since  let  slip.  During  the 
Mohammedan  period,  under  the  Mohammedan 
Empire  (1200-1800)  many  of  the  old  Hindu  build- 
ings were  appropriated  to  Mohammedan  uses, 
while  many  were  destroyed,  and  the  development 
of  Hinduism  and  its  architectural  expression 
■seem  to  have  been  kept  in  strict  subjection;  yet 
the  city  is  said  to  contain  to-day,  besides  innu- 
merable smaller  shrines,  1,454  Hindu  temples, 
most  of  which  are  insignificent  architecturally, 
and  272  Mohammedan  mosques.  The  largest 
of  these  is  the  Mosque  of  Aurangzib,  built  by  the 
Mogul  emperor  of  that  name  from  the  ruins  of  a 
Hindu  temple.  It  stands  on  the  high  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  with  minarets  towering  up  147  feet. 
The  cliff  which  forms  the  river  front,  and  on 
which  the  city  now  stands,  is  some  100  feet  above 
the  water  level.  Flights  of  stairs  at  convenient 
points  lead  down  to  the  water's  edge.  These  are 
known  as  "ghats,"  or  descending  places,  and  up 
and  down  are  continually  passing  Hindu  devo- 
tees and  pilgrims,  with  their  attendant  priests, 
going  to  or  returning  from  the  sacred  waters  of 
the  Ganges,  which  are  supposed  to  be  capable  of 
washing  away  sin.  The  view  of  the  city  from 
the  water  is  exceedingly  imposing,  but  the  streets 
are  narrow  and  mean,  dirty  and  crowded. 
Benares  is  thronged  by  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of 
India.  To  bathe  in  the  Ganges  here  is  the  hope  of 
every  devout  Hindu;  and  to  die  in  its  sacred 
embrace,  or,  failing  that,  to  have  one's  bones 
after  death  transported  thither  and  flung  into  the 
stream,  is  supposed  to  ensure  the  soul  a  speedy 
entrance  into  Paradise.  Bottles  and  jars  are 
filled  by  the  pilgrims  and  carried  by  them  to 
their  homes,  in  order  that  their  friends  who  are 
unable  to  make  the  journey  in  person  may  be 
anointed  with  a  few  drops  of  the  holy  water. 
Many  wealthy  Hindus,  princes  and  others,  swell 
the  ranks  of  the  pilgrims,  and  some  even  keep  up 
residences  in  the  sacred  city.  It  is  from  this  pil- 
grim trade  that  the  prosperity  of  the  city  chiefly 
arises,  as  well  as  from  the  fees  exacted  by  the 
Brahmans  for  tlie  varied  religious  ceremonies. 

At  Benares  is  situated  Queen's  College,  with  a 
roll  of  many  hundred  students;  also  a  normal 
school.  These  are  government  institutions.  An 
observatory,  where  Hindu  astronomers  have  pur- 
sued the  study  of  astronomy,  and  which  was 
erected  in  1693,  overlooks  one  of  the  ghats. 
There  is  a  hospital,  a  town  hall,  a  library  and 
other  literary  institutions. 

The  central  position  of  Benares  in  the  estima- 
tion of  Hinduism,  gives  it  peculiar  importance  to 
the  Christian  missionary.  Blows  struck  here 
are  aimed  at  the  very  heart  and  center  of  the 
Hindu  faith.  "Humanly  speaking,"  says  the 
Rev.  M.  A.  Sherring — himself  for  many  years  a 
missionary  at  Benares — "were  the  city  to  aban- 
don its  idolatrous  usages  and  to  embrace  the 
Gospel  of  Christ,  the  effect  of  such  a  step  upon 
the  Hindu  community  would  be  as  great  as  was 
produced  on  the  Roman  Empire  when  Rome 
adopted  the  Christian  faith.  The  special  sanc- 
tity and  influence  of  Benares  constitute  a  gigan- 
tic obstacle  to  all  religious  changes  within  it." 
The  effect  of  education  and  of  the  dissemination 
of  Christian  ideas  has  been  to  modify  profoundly 
the  life  of  the  better  classes  of  native  society  in 
the  city,  altho  ancient  rites  and  usages  are  scru- 
pulously maintained. 


Missionary  effort  was  commenced  in  Benares 
by  the  BMS  in  1816.  The  city  is  now  a  station 
of  the  LMS  (1820),  with  8  missionaries  and  28 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  with  a  high 
school  and  12  common  schools  and  34  church 
members. 

It  is  a  station  also  of  the  CMS  (1832),  with  11 
missionaries  and  22  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  It  has  3  outstations,  2  high  schools,  an 
orphanage  and  6  village  schools  and  175  com- 
municants. 

The  WMS  has  here  2  missionaries  and  16  active 
workers,  men  and  women,  with  6  village  schools 
and  30  church  members. 

The  Baptist  Zenana  Mission  has  3  women  mis- 
sionaries and  3  native  women  workers,  with  119 
Zenana  pupils. 

The  Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Mission  has  15 
women  missionaries  and  34  native  women  work- 
ers, with  1  hospital,  1  dispensary,  1  high  school,  6 
village  schools  and  225  Zenana  pupils. 

BENGA  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Bantu 
family  of  African  languages  and  is  spoken  in  the 
region  of  the  Gaboon  River,  Frencli  Congo,  W, 
Africa.     It  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 

BENGAL:  One  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor- 
ships of  British  India,  lying  north  of  Madras  and 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  east  of  the  Central  Prov- 
inces and  the  United  Provinces.  It  comprises 
(1)  the  territory  often  spoken  of  as  Bengal  Proper, 
through  which  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra 
rivers  describe  the  lower  portion  of  their  courses, 
including  the  deltas  of  those  great  streams;  (2) 
the  province  of  Orissa,  which  stretches  along  the 
coast  of  the  gulf  south  of  the  delta;  (3)  the  prov- 
ince of  Behar,  to  the  northwest  of  Bengal  Proper, 
and  (4)  the  district  of  Chota-Nagpur,  south  of 
Behar  and  west  of  Orissa.  Its  total  area  is 
151, .543  square  miles  and  its  population  numbers 
(1901)  74,744,866.  In  no  other  part  of  British 
India  is  the  average  density  of  population  so 
great,  the  average  for  the  whole  of  Bengal  being 
470  per  square  mile,  while  in  some  parts  of  Behar 
the  average  is  over  800  per  square  mile. 

The  population  of  Bengal  exhibits  great  diver- 
sity of  race,  religion,  language  and  civilization. 
About  one-third  of  the  whole  population  are 
Mohammedans,  nearly  two-thirds  Hindus  and  a 
residue  of  about  3,000,000  is  composed  of  the 
adherents  of  other  religions,  chiefly  those  pro- 
fessed by  the  half-savage  aboriginal  hill  tribes. 
The  Christian  population  of  Bengal  is  (1901) 
278,366,  having  increased  44  per  cent,  during  the 
decade  1891-1901.  The  increase  of  population 
of  Bengal  during  the  same  period  was  but  little 
more  than  4  per  cent. 

The  prevailing  language  is  the  Bengali.  In 
Behar  and  Chota  Nagpur  the  Hindi  is  chiefly 
used,  and  in  Orissa  the  Uriye  is  the  language  of 
Hindus  and  Christians.  The  aboriginal  tribes 
called  Kols,  Santals  and  Gonds  found  in  Chota 
Nogpur  and  other  districts  in  the  northwest  part 
of  Bengal  are  described  in  separate  articles,  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred. 

The  Mohammedans  of  Bengal  are  mostly 
descendants  of  converts  made  from  the  lower 
castes  of  Hindus  centuries  ago,  but  they  still 
make  many  Converts  every  year  from  Hinduism. 
Behar  was  once  a  center  of  Buddhism. 

The  missionary  history  of  Bengal,  as  well  as  its 
political  history,  is  one  of  the  utmost  interest. 
While  this  province  was  not  the  seat  of  the  earli- 
est Protestant  missionary  activity  in  India — an 


Beng'ali 
Berea. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


7S 


honor  which  belongs  to  Madras — it  is  ever  asso- 
ciated in  the  minds  of  Christian  people  with  the 
names  of  Carey,  Marshman  and  Ward,  who  made 
Serampur  the  starting-point  of  widely  diffused 
evangelistic  influences;  with  that  of  the  eccentric 
Thomas,  who  was  the  pioneer  of  the  work  after- 
ward more  effectively  prosecuted  by  the  Seram- 
pur band,  and  in  more  recent  times  with  that  of 
Duff,  whose  educational  work  at  Calcutta  and 
whose  immense  energy  and  missionary  zeal  were 
the  means  of  lifting  the  work  of  Christian  instruc- 
tion to  the  prominence  which  it  deserves  as  a 
factor  of  missionary  success.  At  the  present 
time  Bengal  is  well  occupied  by  the  agents  of 
many  Protestant  missionary  societies.  The 
English  Baptists,  still  preserving  the  traditions 
and  continuing  the  work  of  Thomas,  Carey  and 
their  early  associates,  the  SPG,  the  CMS,  the 
CSFM,  the  UFS,  the  LMS,  the  WHS,  the  ME, 
the  ABMU  and  many  other  societies  and  inde- 
pendent agencies,  are  conducting  missionary 
operations  in  Bengal.  The  missionary  societies 
cooperate  with  the  government  and  with  the 
people  in  their  efforts  to  extend  education,  hav- 
ing many  schools  and  colleges  in  connection  with 
their  work  at  nearly  all  mission  stations.  In  the 
year  just  mentioned  there  were  within  the  prov- 
ince 51  vernacular  newspapers,  13  being  sheets  of 
some  importance.  Several  papers,  edited  wholly 
in  English,  are  also  issued  by  natives,  besides 
those  conducted  by  European  writers. 

Bengal  is  sometimes  called  "Lower  Bengal," 
since  this  term  was  applied  to  it  when  it  formed 
a  part  of  the  Bengal  Presidency. 

BENGALI  LANGUAGE :  The  Bengali  belongs  to 
the  Indio  branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  lan- 
guages. It  is  said  to  approach  more  nearly  to  the 
Sanskrit  than  any  other  of  the  modern  languages 
of  India.  It  is  spoken  by  about  40,000,000 
inhabitants  of  Bengal  and  Central  British  India. 
Among  its  various  dialects  the  Musulmani  Ben- 
gali is  used  by  some  20,000,000  Mohammedans  in 
lower  and  eastern  Bengal  and  has  been  much 
changed  by  the  introduction  of  Arabic  and  Per- 
sian words.  The  Sanskrit  letters,  with  slight 
modification,  are  used  forwriting  all  or  nearly  all 
of  the  dialects  of  Bengali. 

BENGAL  PRESIDENCY:  One  of  the  former 
administrative  divisions  of  British  India.  It 
comprised  the  northwest  Provinces,  Oudh,  Assam, 
etc.,  besides  the  present  lieutenant-governorship 
of  Bengal.  The  name  is  still  used  in  common 
language  and  in  army  circles,  but  it  is  no  longer 
the  name  of  an  administrative  division.  See 
India. 

BENGHAZI:  A  town  of  Tripoli,  North  Africa, 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Sidra.  It 
stands  on  the  verge  of  a  large  plain,  sandy  and 
barren  for  nearly  a  mile  from  the  shore,but  beyond 
that  having  a  fertile  but  rocky  soil  to  the  foot 
of  the  Cyrenaic  Mountains.  Population,  9,000, 
many  of  whom  are  Jews  and  negro  slaves.  Chief 
occupations  of  the  people  are  agriculture  and 
cattle-raising.     No  mission  work  at  present. 

BENGUELA:  A  district  of  Angola,  W.  Africa, 
and  a  town  in  that  district  from  which  a  railroad 
is  to  be  constructed  to  the  E.  frontier  of  the 
colony,  it  being  the  seaport  for  trade  with  Bih6 
and  the  region  in  which  missionary  stations  are 
established. 

BENITO:  A  town  on  an  island  in  the  San 
Benito  River,  in  the  Spanish  Colony  of  Cape  San 
Juan,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the   PN   (1864),  with 


1  missionary,  3  missionary  women,  11  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  10  outstations,  9 
Sunday  schools,  3  village  schools,  2  high  schools 
and  490  church  members.  Also  mentioned  as 
Belombo. 

BENNETT,  CEPHAS:  Born  at  Homer,  N.  Y., 
March  20,  1804.  Dr.  BoUes,  Secretary  of  the 
ABMU,  advised  him  to  offer  himself  to  the  Society 
to  go  out  as  its  missionary  printer.  He  was 
appointed  in  1828  and  sailed  May  22,  1829,  reach- 
ing Calcutta  October  6,  and  Maulmain,  January 
14,  1830,  with  his  printing  presses.  He  com- 
menced at  once  the  printing  of  tracts,  for  which 
the  demand  in  the  early  history  of  the  mission 
was  very  great.  In  1832  he  began  to  print  the 
Burmese  Scriptures,  and  as  superintendent  of 
the  mission  press  in  Burma  for  more  than  half 
a  century  he  was  permitted  to  print  the  Bible 
in  three  languages — the  Burmese,  translated  by 
Dr.  Judson;  the  Sgau  Karen,  translated  by  Dr. 
Mason,  and  the  Pwo  Karen,  by  Rev.  D.  L. 
Brayton,  and  also  the  New  Testament  in  the 
Shan  language.  From  the  press  under  his  care 
were  sent  forth  more  than  200,000,000  of  Scrip- 
tures, tracts,  and  religious  and  educational 
books  in  all  the  dialects  of  Burma.  He  was  not 
only  a  printer,  but  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel, 
having  been  ordained  to  the  ministry  by  his 
brethren  of  the  mission,  and  in  the  intervals  of 
his  work  as  a  printer  he  labored  as  an  evangelist. 
The  year  1834  he  spent  in  Rangoon,  then  under 
Burman  rule,  preaching  and  distributing  tracts. 
When  in  Tavoy,  whither  he  went  in  1837  to 
print  the  Karen  Bible,  and  where  he  remained 
till  his  return  in  1857,  he  spent  much  of  the 
cold  season  in  the  jungles,  among  the  heathen 
and  the  native  Christians.  In  these  tours  he 
visited  all  the  Tavoy  and  Mergui  districts.  His 
deep  interest  in  the  educational  work  of  missions 
led  him,  in  the  early  part  of  his  residence  in  Maul- 
main, to  take  charge  of  the  government  school 
for  two  and  a  half  years.  To  him  chiefly  is  due 
the  founding  of  the  Burma  Bible  and  Tract 
Society,  and  through  his  influence  its  operations 
were  enlarged  by  the  recent  vernacular  school- 
book  departments.  He  was  also  much  engaged 
in  the  English  church  in  Rangoon.  Mr.  Bennett 
was  taken  seriously  ill  in  July,  1885,  but  rallied. 
Early  in  November  he  had  a  relapse,  and  on  the 
16th  he  passed  away,  in  the  eighty-second  year 
of  his  age,  after  fifth-six  years  of  mission  service. 

BENSONVALE:  A  town  in  the  Orange  River 
Colony,  N.  E.  of  Aliwal  North;  station  of  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society, 
with  1  missionary,  83  native  workers,  33  out- 
stations, 10  village  schools,  1  high  school,  a 
Young  People's  Society,  and  1,110  church 
members. 

BERAR:  A  commissionership  of  Central  India, 
consisting  chiefly  of  a  fertile  valley  lying  east  and 
west  between  the  Satpura  range  on  the  north 
and  the  Ajanta  range  on  the  south.  Its  length 
from  east  to  west  is  150  miles,  and  its  breadth, 
about  140.  It  touches  the  central  provinces  on 
the  north  and  east,  Bombay  Presidency  on  the 
west,  and  the  Nizam's  dominions  on  the  south. 
Area,  17,700  square  miles.  The  population 
numbers  2,897,491  and  is  mostly  composed  of 
Hindus.  Mohammedans,  Parsees  and  Christians 
are  also  found  in  Berar  in  small  numbers.  Some 
aboriginal  tribes,  as  the  Bhils  and  Gonds,  are  also 
found  in  this  region. 

The  language  of  the  Hindus  of  Berar  is  Marathi. 


79 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Ben&*nli 
Berea 


Berar  has  been  entered  by  the  UFS,  and  the 
Kurku  and  Central  India  Hill  Mission.  The 
Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance  also  has,  there 
is  some  reason  to  suppose,  undertaken  evangel- 
istic work  in  this  province.  But  Berar  has  not 
thus  far  been  the  scene'of  missionary  operations  to 
the  extent  which  the  density  of  its  population  and 
the  opportunities  which  it  affords  for  persistent 
and  successful  work  would  seem  to  demand. 

BERBER  LANGUAGES.     See  Berber  Race; 

ALSO    KaBYLE. 

BERBER  RACE:  The  Berbers  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  descended  from  tlie  Libyans,  or  at 
least  as  closely  related  to  them.  Arab  writers 
represent  them  as  having  come  from  Canaan 
previous  to  the  days  of  Josliua.  From  their 
language,  customs,  and  physical  type  they  are 
adjudged  by  some  as  affiliated  with  the  Semites; 
though  others  prefer  to  group  them  as  being 
originally  Hamitic.  Where  they  have  come  in 
contact  with  other  races  or  tongues,  they  have 
been  more  or  less  affected  by  them;  where  they 
have  been  left  in  comparative  seclusion,  as  in 
the  oases  of  the  desert,  they  have  remained,  in 
both  race  and  speech,  comparatively  pure. 

The  present  home  of  the  Berber  race  has  its 
center  in  the  Barbary  States,  especially  around 
the  Atlas  Mountains.  Indeed,  the  Barbary 
States  derive  their  name  from  the  appellation 
used  in  Europe  to  designate  this  race.  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Cust,  "The  Berber  or  Amazirg  is  still 
at  the  present  day  in  various  shades  and  degrees 
of  intermixture,  ethnological,  linguistic,  and 
religious,  with  Arab  and  negro,  '  the  staple  and 
principal  stock  of  the  whole  population  of  North 
Africa  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  extreme 
southern  limit  of  the  Sahara."  The  race  may 
be  divided  into  eight  or  ten  tribes  or  groups, 
chiefly  according  to  the  shades  of  difference  in 
the  language  or  dialects  they  use;  tho  the 
parent  of  all  these  dialects,  the  old  Libyan,  as 
known  to  the  Romans  among  the  Numidians  and 
their  cognates,  no  longer  exists.  The  old  Guanch 
Berber,  or  Libyan  as  spoken  by  the  original  inhab- 
itants of  the  Canary  Islands,  is  also  extinct. 
The  Kabyles  of  Algeria  are  Berbers.  They 
comprise  a  confederation  of  tribes  and  speak 
a  variety  of  dialects,  are  given  to  agricultural 
pursuits,  and  dwell  in  villages.  Those  who 
dwell  among  the  mountains  have  large  flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats,  and  because  of  their  seclusion 
from  Arab  admixture  have  the  purest  dialect. 
They  have,  under  the  French,  a  sort  of  repub- 
lican government.  They  are  a  fine  race,  hospit- 
able and  kind.  The  Mzab  Kabyles  occupy  the 
extreme  south  of  Algeria,  but,  having  great  com- 
mercial enterprise,  are  found  everywhere.  They 
are  Mohammedan  dissenters.  The  Shamba 
Kabyles,  a  predatory  tribe,  dwell  on  the  confines 
of  the  Sahara.  The  Tuwarik,  or  Tuaregs,  another 
group  of  Berbers,  are  nomadic  in  their  habits, 
and  extend  from  Algeria  to  Bornu  and  Timbuctu. 
Twenty  years  before  the  Christian  era  a  governor 
of  the  Roman  province  of  Africa  led  an  army 
against  this  then,  as  now,  unconquered  tribe. 

The  aborigines  of  Morocco  have  been  divided 
into  the  Arab-Berbers  and  the  Shilus,  or  Shel- 
loohs.  The  former  inhabit  the  northern  parts 
of  the  great  Atlas  range,  live  in  a  cheap  kind  of 
hut  covered  with  mats,  tho  in  the  plains  they 
build  of  wood  and  clay,  and  have  villages.  They 
live  chiefly  upon  their  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
make  use  of  mules  and  donkeys.     Their  com- 


Clexion  is  light,  the  hair  of  many  is  fair,  the 
card  scant.  They  are  well-built,  strong,  active 
bold,  and  are  often  at  war  with  their  neighbors. 
These  and  the  Shilus  number  about  4,000,000, 
forming  half  the  population  of  the  Moroccan  Em- 
pire. Their  dress  is  scant,  consisting  chiefly  of  a 
jacket  and  trousers,  and  sometimes  a  blanket. 
The  other  Morocco  tribe,  the  Shilus,  speaking  the 
Shilha  dialect,  occupy  the  southern  part  of  Mo- 
rocco, together  with  the  regions  west  of  the  Atlas 
range.  These  are  of  a  smaller  make  and  darker 
complexion.  They  are  more  civilized  and  pow- 
erful than  the  northern  Berbers.  They  work  at 
trades  and  cultivate  the  land,  are  patriarchal, 
hospitable,  live  in  houses  made  of  stone  and 
mortar,  and  have  villages  and  towns  surrounded 
by  walls  and  towers.  They  claim  to  be  the  abo- 
rigines of  the  country,  and  call  themselves  Ama- 
zirg. 

There  is  a  mixed  tribe,  Arab-Berber,  called 
the  Senegal,  living  on  the  north  banks  of  the 
Senegal  River.  They  are  partly  nomadic,  partly 
settled,  and  make  a  living  by  collecting  gum  for 
the  merchants  at  marts  along  the  river. 

The  inhabitants  of  Ghadamis  of  Tripoli,  at 
home  and  by  themselves,  speak  the  Ghadamsi, 
a  dialect  of  the  Berber;  but  with  the  Arabs,  the 
Arabic;  with  the  Tuwarilv,  the  Tamaskeh,  and 
with  their  negro  slaves,  the  Hausa. 

Another  Berber  tribe  dwells  at  Siwah,  the 
oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  on  the  confines  of 
Egypt.  That  their  own  home  dialect  should  be 
found  to  have  a  clear  affinity  with  the  Berber 
helps  to  show  how  broad  is  the  territory  the 
Berbers  have  occupied;  also  how  remarkable  has 
been  the  resistance  offered  by  the  Berber  lan- 
guage to  the  pressure  of  other  tongues  for  more 
than  three  thousand  years. 

As  to  the  origm  and  import  of  the  name  of 
this  ancient  North  African  race  there  is  some 
diversity  of  opinion.  It  is  said  to  have  first  been 
used  by  the  Arab  writers  of  the  2d  century 
to  designate  the  Libyans  of  Herodotus.  Some 
suppose  it  to  have  been  derived  from  Verves,  as 
found  in  the  ancient  Roman  geography  of  Mau- 
ritania. By  others,  with  more  reason,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  but  a  modification  of  Barbari,  a  term 
denoting  any  one  who  was,  to  the  Aryan  or 
Greek,  a  foreigner,  speaking  a  language  to  them 
unknown.  This  accords  with  the  fact  that  the 
word  Berber  is  not  known  to  the  Berbers  as  a 
national  appellation.  They  call  themselves  Ama- 
zirg, the  Free. 

As  to  the  religion  of  the  Berbers,  their  pagan 
faith  is  nearly  extinct.  Some  of  them  seem  to 
have  accepted  the  Jewish  or  the  Christian  relig- 
ion in  the  centuries  gone  by,  at  least  for  a  time. 
But  at  present  they  generally  profess  the  Moham- 
medan faith,  tho  many  of  them  know  but 
little  of  it.  And  yet  they  are  not  lacking  in  bigotry 
and  fanaticism,  as  the  bitter  opposition  and  per- 
secution to  which  converts  to  the  Christian  faith 
are  subject  afford  sad  proof. 

Missionary  effort  has  not  neglected  these 
people.  The  North  African  Mission,  the  Swe- 
dish Missionary  Society,  the  Gospel  Missionary 
Union  and  others  have  used  every  means  to  come 
into  contact  with  the  Berber  tribes. 

BEREA:  A  settlement  in  Basutoland,  S. 
Africa,  E.  of  Maseru;  station  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Mission  Society  (1843),  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  17  native  workers,  6  outstations,  7 
village  schools,  and  425  communicants.  French 
form  of  name,  B6r^e. 


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80 


BEREA:  A  settlement  southwest  of  Gnaden- 
dal,  Cape  Colony,  S,  Africa.  A  station  of  the 
Moravians,  occupied  in  1865,  when  the  over- 
crowding of  Gnadendai  made  it  necessary  for 
some  of  the  people  to  form  a  colony.  Statistics 
given  in  combination  with  Gnadendai. 

BEREN'S  RIVER  :  A  settlement  on  the  E. 
shore  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  Canada; 
station  of  the  Canadian  Methodist  Church  (1871), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  outstations,  a 
chapel,  a  Young  People's  Society  and  100  church 
members. 

BERHAMPUR:  A  town  in  the  Ganjam  dis- 
trict, Madras,  India;  the  principal  town  in  the 
district  of  the  same  name.  Climate,  unhealthful. 
Population,  25,000,  Hindus,  Mohammedans, 
Christians.  Station  of  the  BMS  (1825),  with  3 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  10  native  workers 
of  both  sexes,  4  Sunday  schools,  3  village  schools, 
and  220  church  members.  Also  station  of  the 
Baptist  Zenana  Mission  Society,  with  3  women 
missionaries,  5  native  women  workers,  and  a 
dispensary.     Also  written  Berhampore. 

BERHAMPUR:  A  city  and  military  station 
S.  of  Murshidabad,  Bengal,  India.  Population 
(1891)  23,515;  climate,  unhealthful  but  improved 
by  military  sanitation.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1824),  with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4 
women  missionaries,  25  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  9  Sunday  schools,  6  village  schools,  2 
high  schools,  and  35  church  members.  Also 
written  Burhampore. 

BERLIN:  A  town  east  of  King  Williams  Town, 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of  the  South 
African  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1889),  with 
2  women  missionaries,  3  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, chapel,  Sunday  school,  and  24  church 
members.     Native  name  Tshabo. 

BERLIN  JERUSALEM  UNION.  See  Ger- 
many, Missions  in. 

BERLIN  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY.  See  Ger- 
many, Missionary  Societies  in. 

BERLIN  WOMEN'S  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY 
for  China.  See  Germany,  Missionary  So- 
cieties IN. 

BERSABA:  A  settlement  in  Surinam,  South 
America,  S.  of  Paramaribo.  It  is  in  the  center 
of  a  district  which  has  always  been  the  darkest 
corner  in  Surinam,  the  stronghold  of  idolatry 
and  sorcery.  Idol  temples  and  places  of  sacri- 
fice are  very  numerous.  The  former  are  not 
imposing  edifices,  such  as  are  found  in  India,  but 
small  structures  only  a  degree  above  common 
pigsties,  and  located  in  out-of-the  way  corners 
behind  the  houses  of  the  village.  They  are  not 
used  for  worship,  but  only  as  repositories  for  the 
idols  and  their  belongings,  which  are  needful  for 
heathen  dances  and  the  performances  of  the 
sorcerers.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Missions 
{1858),  with  a  missionary  and  his  wife,  35  native 
workers,  3  chapels,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  village 
school,  and  190  church  members. 

BERSEBA.     See    Beersheba,    Transvaal. 

BERSHEBA:  A  station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission 
in  Great  Namaqualand,  German  S.  W.  Africa. 
Here  the  missionary  Kronlein  translated  the 
New  Testament  into  Nama.  It  has  1  missionary, 
1  native  worker,  1  village  school,  and  224  com- 
municants. 

BERU:  One  of  the  Gilbert  Is.  which  has  long 
been   occupied   by   Samoan   pastors   under   the   | 


LMS  and  was  made  a  missionary  station  by  that 
Society  in  1901.  There  is  now  (1903)  a  training 
institution  for  evangelistics,  and  a  woman's 
training  institution  for  Christian  workers.  The 
church  members  number  450. 

BETAFO:  A  town  in  Imerina,  Madagascar. 
Mission  station  of  the  Norwegian  Missionary 
Society. 

BETERVERWACHTUNG:  A  settlement  near 
Graham's  Hall,  in  British  Guiana,  South  America. 
Station  of  the  SPG,  with  a  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  and  24  communicants.  Also  station 
of  the  Canadian  Presbyterian  Mission  (1885), 
with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  7  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  4  Sunday  schools,  3 
village  schools,  and  110  church  members.  Also 
called  Better  Hope. 

BETGERI.     See  Betigeei. 

BETHABARA:  One  of  the  most  important  of 
the  Moravian  mission  stations  in  Jamaica,  West 
Indies  (1840)  and  the  center  of  an  extensive  field 
of  effort.  It  is  situated  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  island,  on  the  uneven  surface  of  the  lofty 
range  of  table-land  known  as  the  Manchester 
Mountains.  It  has  a  missionary  and  his  wife, 
15  native  workers,  men  and  women,  2  Sunday 
schools,  2  village  schools,  a  Young  People's 
Society,  and  345  communicants. 

BETHANIE:  1.  A  town  and  railway  station 
S.  of  Bloemfontein,  Orange  River  Colony,  S. 
Africa;  station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society 
(1834),  with  3  missionaries,  17  native  workers, 

1  outstation,  and  930  communicants. 

2.  A  settlement  W.  of  Pretoria,  Transvaal 
Colony,  S.  Africa;  stat'.on  of  the  Hermannsburg 
Missionary  Society  (1864),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  10  native  workers,  men  and  women,  3  out 
stations,  7  village  schools,  and  2,225  commu- 
nicants. 

BETHANIEN:  1.  A  settlement  in  German  S. 
W.  Africa;  station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  village 
school  and  500  communicants. 

2.  A  village  in  South  Arcot,  Madras,  India; 
station  of  the  Danish  Missionary  Society  (1861), 
with  a  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native  workers, 

2  outstations,  1  village  school  and  45  commu- 
nicants. 

BETHANY :  1.  (India)  A  village  in  the  Santal 
Parganas,  Bengal;  station  of  the  Bethel  Santhal 
Mission  (1890),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 

3  native  workers,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
village  school,  1  high  school,  a  dispensary,  a  hos- 
pital, an  orphanage  and  600  communicants. 

2.  (West  Indies)  A  village  in  the  Manchester 
Highlands  of  Jamaica;  station  of  the  Moravian 
Mission  (1835),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
15  native  workers,  men  and  women,  2  chapels, 
2  Sunday  schools,  2  village  schools,  and  370  com- 
municants. 

BETHEL  (Africa):  1.  A  settlement  N.  of 
Stutterheim,  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of 
the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1837),  with  2 
missionaries,  7  native  workers,  and  140  commu- 
nicants. 

2.  A  settlement  in  the  Usambara  region,  Ger- 
man East  Africa;  station  of  the  German  East 
Africa  Mission  (1893),  with  2  missionaries,  1 
missionary's  wife,  2  chapels,  1  village  school  and 
20  communicants.     Called  also  New  Bethel. 

3.  A  village  S.  of  Bonaberi  on  the  coast  of 
Kamerun,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the  Basel  Mis- 


SI 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Berea 
BezTvada 


sionary  Society  (1886),  with  13  missionaries, 
men  and  women,  25  native  workers,  22  outstations , 
25  village  schools,  and  500  communicants. 

4.  A  settlement  in  the  Lichtenberg  district  of 
the  Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa,  about  50  miles 
iS.  E.  of  Maf eking;  station  of  the  Hermannsburg 
Missionary  Society  (1872),  with  a  missionary  and 
his  wife,  2  native  workers,  4  outstations,  1  chapel, 
1  village  school  and  1,250  communicants. 

5.  A  settlement  in  Zululand  (Natal)  S.  Africa, 
about  40  miles  S.  E.  of  Vryheid;  station  of  the 
Hermannsburg  Mission  (1886),  with  1  missionary, 

4  native  workers,  4  chapels,  4  village  schools  and 
■230  communicants.  Also  station  of  tlie  Swe- 
dish Holiness  Union  (1894), with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  3  outstations,  1  village  school,  1  training 
ischool  for  women  workers,  and  90  communicants. 

BETHEL  (Alaska) :  A  station  of  the  Moravian 
Mission  in  S.  W.  Alaska,  situated  on  the  River 
Kuskokwim  (1885),  with  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives  (one  a  physician),  7  native  workers, 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  and  115  communicants. 

BETHEL  (India):  A  village  in  the  Santal 
Parganas,  Bengal,  India;  station  of  the  Bethel 
Santhal  Mission  (1875),  with  1  missionary  phys- 
ician and  his  wife,  8  native  workers,  5  village 
schools,  2  high  schools,  2  orphanages,  1  dispen- 
.sary,  1  hospital,  and  800  church  members. 

BETHEL  (West  Indies) :  A  town  in  the  N.  W. 
of  the  island  of  St.  Kitts,  W.  I.;  station  of  the 
Moravian  Missions  (1832),  with  15  native  workers 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school  and 
130  communicants. 

BETHEL  TOWN:  A  village  20  miles  S.  of 
Montego  Bay,  Jamaica,  W.  I.;  station  of  the 
Christian  (Disciples)  Woman's  Board  of  Missions, 
with  1  missionary,  2  chapels,  2  Sunday  schools, 

1  village  school,  2  Young  People's  Societies,  and 
120  church  members. 

BETHEL  SANTHAL  MISSION  (1875):  Evan- 
gelistic work  among  the  Santals  near  Jamtara, 
Bengal,  India,  was  begun  in  1875  by  Pastor  A. 
Haegert,  at  his  own  expense.  A  mission  house 
was  built  for  a  central  station  and  the  village 
which  grew  up  about  it  was  called  Bethel.  Schools 
were  opened  in  neighboring  sections  of  the  San- 
tal Parganas.  Later  Pastor  Haegert  added  a 
hospital  and  training  school  to  the  equipment  of 
the  Mission. 

There  were  (1900)  4  stations  and  2  outstations, 

5  missionaries  and  20  native  helpers,  1 ,500  com- 
municants, 1  high  school,  with  25  students,  7 
other  schools  with  150  pupils,  1  physician,  13 
hospitals  and  dispensaries. 

An  auxiliary  Society  has  been  formed  in  Eng- 
land to  collect  funds  for  this  Mission  and  is 
called  The  English  Council  of  the  Bethel  Santhal 
Mission. 

BETHESDA  (Africa):  1.  A  settlement  in  the 
S.  W.  part  of  Basutoland,  S.  Africa;  station  of  the 
Paris  Society  for  Evangelical  Missions  (1843), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  22  native  workers, 
12  outstations,  11  village  schools,  and  620  com- 
municants. 

2.  A  village  about  40  miles  W.  of  Kokstad, 
Griqualand,  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of  the 
Moravian  Missions  (1877),  with  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  27  native  workers,  men  and  women, 

2  preaching  places,  10  village  schools  and  390 
communicants. 

BETHESDA  (India) :  1.  A  village  S.  of  Madhu- 
pur,  Bengal,  India;  station  of  the  Bethel  Santhal 
6 


Mission  (1891),  with  1  missionary,  3  native  work- 
ers, 1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school,  1 
high  school,  1  orphanage,  a  dispensary,  a  hospital 
and  30  communicants. 

2.  A  town  in  South  Arcot,  Madras,  India. 
See  Kallakuechi. 

BETHESDA  (West  Indies):  A  village  on  the 
E.  coast  of  the  island  of  St.  Kitts,  W.  I.;  station 
of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1820),  with  16  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  village  school  and  400  communicants. 

BETHLEHEM:  1.  A  town  in  Palestine,  near 
Jerusalem.  The  birthplace  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1899),  with  4  missionary 
women,  a  village  school  and  a  high  school.  Also 
station  of  the  Jerusalem  Union  of  Berlin  (1861), 
with  8  missionaries,  men  and  women,  13  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  3  outstations,  1  chapel, 
1  orphanage  and  5  village  schools. 

2.  A  village  in  the  Santal  Parganas,  Bengal, 
India;  station  of  the  Bethel  Santhal  Mission  (1884), 
with  1  missionary  woman  (physician),  3  native 
workers,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village 
school,  1  high  school,  1  orphanage,  a  dispensary, 
a  hospital  and  50  communicants. 

BETIGERI:  A  village  near  Gadag,  in  the 
Dharwar  district,  Bombay,  India.  Population  of 
Gadag-Betigeri  (1891)  23,880.  Station  of  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society  (1841),  with  (1902)  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  20  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  5  village  schools,  1  Sunday 
school  and  279  communicants.  Also  station  of 
the  SPG  (1888),  with  6  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  3  village  schools  and  36  communicants. 
Also  written  Bettigeri  and  Betgeri. 

BETO:  A  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Bor- 
neo, Malaysia;  station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native 
workers,  1  Sunday  school,  2  village  schools,  and 
70  communicants. 

BETTER   HOPE.     See    Beterverwachttjng. 

BETUL:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  50  miles  N.  E.  of  Ellichpur.  Population, 
5,000,  chiefly  Gonds.  Station  of  the  Swedish 
National  Missionary  Society  (1880),  with  5  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  woman,  2  native  workers,  1 
Sunday  school,  1  village  school  and  15  commu- 
nicants. 

BEUSTER,  Rev.  C:  Missionary  of  the  Berlin 
MS  to  Africa.  He  was  the  first  preacher  of 
the  Gospel  sent  to  the  Bawendo  tribe  in  North 
Transvaal,  and  for  twenty-nine  years,  amidst 
the  greatest  difficulties,  he  labored  among  this 
benighted  people.  He  rendered  the  tongue  of 
this  tribe  into  a  written  language,  translated  part 
of  the  Scriptures  and  other  literature;  taught 
untutored  minds  in  the  primary  schools,  and 
pursuing  his  long  and  tedious  journeys  on 
foot,  he  preached  the  Gospel  to  thousands  who 
had  never  heard  the  Word  of  Life.  For  years 
he  was  the  victim  of  the  unhealthful  climate  of 
the  North  Transvaal;  but  without  intermission 
he  continued  his  labors  of  love  until  he  passed 
from  earth  in  the  year  1901. 

BEYROUT.     See  Beihut. 

BEZWADA:  A  town  of  20,000  (1891)  inhab- 
itants on  the  Kistna  River,  S.  W.  of  EUore,  Mad- 
ras, India;  station  of  the  CMS  (1858),  with  5 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  47  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  28  village  schools,  I  high  school 
and  780  communicants.  Also  station  of  the 
CEZMS   (1881),   with   (1902)   2   missionary   and 


Bliadrakb 

Bible   Distribution 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


8S 


14  native  women  workers,  4  elementary  schools 
and  298  Zenana  pupils. 

BHADRAKH:  A  town  in  the  Balasor  district, 
Orissa,  Bengal,  India;  station  of  the  Free  Baptist 
General  Conference  (1890),  with  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 8  native  workers,  men  and  women,  1 
chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school  and  25 
church  members. 

BHAGALPUR:  A  city  in  the  Bhagalpur  dis- 
trict, Bengal,  India,  situated  on  the  Ganges,  with 
a  population  (1901)  of  75,760,  chiefly  Hindus 
and  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1850), 
with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife,  8 
native  workers,  11  outstations,  2  elementary 
schools,  1  high  school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital, 
1  orphanage  and  288  baptized  Christians.  Also 
station  of  the  CEZMS  (1882),  with  (1902)  4  mis- 
sionary and  14  native  women  workers,  11  ele- 
mentary schools  and  178  zenana  pupils.  Also 
station  of  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the 
East  (1887),  with  1  chapel  and  1  Leper  asylum. 

BHAGAYA.     See  Baghara. 

BHAISDEHI :  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  N.  E.  of  Ellichpur;  station  of  the  Kurku 
and  Central  India  Mission  (1889),  with  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  3  native  workers,  1  chapel, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school,  1  orphanage,  a 
dispensary,  a  hospital  and  6  church  members. 

BHAMO :  A  town  and  trading  center  and  head 
of  steam  navigation  on  the  Irawadi  River,  180 
miles  north  of  Mandalay,  Burma.  Population 
about  7,000.  It  is  but  40  miles  from  the  Chinese 
frontier.  It  is  a  station  of  the  ABMU,  opened  in 
1877,  and  occupied  by  8  missionaries  and  12 
native  workers,  men  and  women.  It  has  9  out- 
stations, 10  preaching  places  and  2  common 
schools.     There  are  120  church  members. 

BHANDARA:  A  town  of  13,000  inhabitants, 
east  of  Nagpur  in  the  Central  Provinces  of  India; 
station  of  the  UFS,  with  1  missionary  physician, 

20  native  workers,  men  and  women,  4  village 
schools,  1  orphanage,  a  dispensary,  a  hospital  and 
30   church   members. 

BHARTPUR:  Chief  city  of  the  native  state  of 
Bhartpur,  Rajputana,  India.  Population  (1891) 
68,033,  chiefly  Hindus.     Station  of  the  ME,  with 

21  native  workers,  1  chapel,  15  Sunday  schools,  a 
Young  Peoples'  Society,  8  village  schools  and  550 
church  members. 

BHERA:  A  town  of  about  17,000  inhabitants 
situated  on  the  Jhelam  River  in  the  Punjab, 
India;  station  of  the  UP  (1884),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  missionary  women  and  2  out- 
stations. 

BHILS :  An  aboriginal  Kolarian  race  of  Central 
India.  One  of  their  typical  men  is  about  5J  feet 
in  stature,  with  short  arms,  prominent  cheek 
bones,  thick  lips,  black  hair  and  heavy  beard. 
Together  with  other  Kolarian  aborigines  they 
were  pushed  back  by  an  early  Aryan  invasion 
from  the  plains  into  the  hill  country,  and  are  now 
found  scattered  over  Rajputana,  the  hills  of  the 
Vindhya  and  Sappura  ranges,  the  outlying  por- 
tions of  Indore  and  Gwalior  provinces,  the  hills 
as  far  south  as  Poona,  and  eastward  along  the 
Godavari  and  Wand  rivers.  Their  favorite 
abode  is  along  the  rugged,  wooded  banks  of  the 
Tapti,  Mahi  and  Nerbada  Rivers  which  flow  into 
the  Arabian  Sea.  Their  estimated  number  is 
3,000,000.  Cruelly  treated  by  the  Marathi, 
they  have  lived  apart,  with  their  own  chieftains 


and  councils  which  settle  disputes  between  indi- 
viduals and  communities,  the  British  authorities 
maintaining  a  difficult  supervision  over  them. 
Marauding  expeditions  into  the  cultivated 
country,  brigandage,  the  chase  with  bow  and 
arrows  as  weapons,  the  raising  of  sheep  and  goats, 
some  rude  agriculture,  and  some  simple  manu- 
factures in  bamboo  have  been  their  means  of 
support.  When  at  home,  they  dwell  in  little 
hamlets,  called  -pals,  each  homestead,  tolerably 
well  built  of  loose  stones  and  interwoven  bamboo, 
located  on  a  separate  hillock  so  that  an  enemy 
may  not  surprise  a  whole  town  at  once.  Their 
clothing  is  meager.  They  have  now  no  separate 
language.  They  are  addicted  to  drink,  and 
when  intoxicated  are  quarrelsome.  Polygamy  is 
practiced,  but  more  than  two  wives  is  unusual. 
Women  are  chaste  after  marriage. 

Their  religion  is  spirit  worship,  with  additions 
from  Hinduism.  They  are  firm  believers  in 
ghosts  and  in  witches.  The  latter  they  swing 
head  downwards  until  they  die  or  confess;  but 
upon  confession  the  witch  is  punished  with 
death  or  banishment.  Siva  and  other  Hindu  dei- 
ties are  worshipped  and  local  deities  are  numer- 
ous. Gatamji,  their  patron  saint,  occupies  a 
niche  in  most  Bhil  houses.  A  Brahman  is  usually 
called  in  to  officiate  at  the  naming  of  the  child 
and  at  marriage.  The  dead  are  burned  and  the 
ashes  cast  into  sacred  streams,  for  unless  they 
have  such  a  resting  place,  their  spirits  are  sup- 
posed to  trouble  surviving  relatives. 

Missionary  work  was  begun  among  the  Bhils 
by  the  Church  Missionary  Society  in  1880.  It 
was  at  first  very  difficult  to  get  in  touch  with 
this  scattered,  secluded  and  suspicious  highland 
folk,  but  persistent  kindness  at  last  won  their 
confidence.  The  first  converts  were  enrolled 
in  1889,  but  in  1900,  after  twenty  years  of  labor, 
the  mission  numbered  fourteen  baptized  and 
fifteen  catechumens.  The  work  of  the  mission- 
aries in  famine  relief  in  1901-2  proved  the  turning 
point  in  the  history  of  the  mission,  and  since 
the  Gospel  has  been  welcomed,  thousands  of 
children  have  been  enrolled  in  the  schools,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1903  fifty-four  converts  were 
baptized  and  the  Bhils  undertook  the  building 
of  their  own  church.  The  Bhil  Mission  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  occupies  four  stations 
in  Rajputana;  Kherwara,  Lusaria,  where  there 
is  a  girls'  orphanage;  Baulia,  and  Bilaria,  with  a 
boys'  orphanage. 

The  history  of  other  missions  has  been  similar. 
The  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  has  an 
encouraging  Bhil  Mission  in  Rajputana  with  a 
"Bliil  Home"  at  Udaipur.  Amkhut  is  the  field 
of  the  vigorous  Bhil  Mission  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Canada,  with  educational,  medical, 
orphanage,  and  industrial  departments.  The 
Christian  Bliils  have  proved  good  mechanics. 
The  baptisms  in  1901-2  numbered  105. 

The  Bhils  are  at  a  crisis  in  their  history,  and 
before  long  will  become  either  Hindus  or  "Chris- 
tians. Because  of  the  absence  of  caste,  they  do 
not  meet  the  opposition  which  the  Hindus  do 
from  their  own  people  when  they  try  to  improve 
their  condition.  They  are  now  coming  to  know 
their  need,  and  at  present  they  seem  peculiarly 
open  to  the  Gospel. 
Wild  Races  of  S.  E.  India,  Lewin  (T.  H.),  London,  1870; 

Brief  History   of  the  Indian   Peoples,   Hunter   (W.   W.), 

London. 

BHIMPUR:  A  town  lying  N.  W.  of  Midnapur, 
Bengal,  India;  station  of  the  Free  Baptist  General 


83 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Bliadral£lk 
Bible  DlMtrlbntlon 


Conference  (1874),  with  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives  (physicians),  139  native  worlcers,  men  and 
women,  2  outstations,  45  Sunday  schools,  45  vil- 
lage schools,  2  orphanages,   1   industrial  school, 

I  dispensary,  3  Young  People's  Societies  and 
270  church  members.     Also  written  Bhimpore. 

BHINGA:  A  village  N.  E.  of  Bahraich,  in  the 
United  Provinces,  India;  station  of  the  ME,  with 

II  native  workers,  men  and  women,  8  Sunday 
schools,  1  village,  school,  4  Young  People's 
Societies  and  220  church  members. 

BHIWANl:  A  city  of  the  Punjab,  India,  60 
miles  W.  of  Delhi.  Population  (1891)  35,487. 
Station  of  the  Baptist  Zenana  Mission  (1887), 
with  4  missionary  women,  one  a  physician,  3  native 
women  workers,  3  Sunday  schools,  3  village 
schools,  a  dispensary,  a  hospital  and  50  Zenana 
pupils. 

BHOT:  A  village  in  the  Almora  district,  United 
Provinces,  India,  situated  near  Chandag,  north 
of  Pithoragarh;  station  of  the  ME,  with  1  mis- 
sionary woman  (physician),  14  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  3  chapels,  4  Sunday  schools, 
23  village  schools,  1  Young  People's  Society,  and 
25  church  members. 

BHUTAN:  An  independent  native  state  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Himalayan  range,  E.  of  Sikkim  and  separating 
British  India  from  the  frontier  of  Tibet.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  13,000  sq.  miles  and  a  pop- 
ulation estimated  at  about  30,000.  The  religion 
of  the  people  is  Buddhism  of  a  degraded  type. 
Their  language  is  allied  to  the  Tibetan.  The 
people  are  called  Bhutias. 

BIBLE  CHRISTIAN  HOME  AND  FOREIGN 
MISSIONARY  SOCIETY:  This  society  was  organ- 
ized in  1821  for  the  purpose  of  sending  mission- 
aries into  unchristianized  portions  of  the  United 
Kingdom  and  into  heathen  lands.  In  1831  it 
sent  two  missionaries  to  North  America,  one  of 
whom  occupied  a  station  in  Canada,  and  the 
other  in  Prince  Edward's  Island.  Their  work 
was  eminently  successful,  and  in  1883,  when  the 
union  of  all  the  Methodist  churches  in  Canada 
was  effected,  the  membership  of  this  mission 
was  about  7,000. 

In  1850  Messrs.  James  Way  and  James  Rowe 
were  sent  to  South  Australia,  and  later  several 
other  missionaries  settled  in  Victoria,  Queens- 
land, and  New  Zealand.  The  work  here  being 
carried  on  under  favorable  circumstances,  soon 
grew  independent  and  self-supporting,  and  now 
the  principal  work  done  in  this  mission  is  the 
planting  of  new  churches  in  needy  districts. 

In  1885  the  Society  sent  two  missionaries  to 
Yunnan,  China,  under  the  auspices  of  the  China 
Inland  Mission,  whose  repeated  appeals  for  help 
had  aroused  much  interest.  At  present  the 
Society  has  three  stations,  Yunnan-fu,  Chao-tung- 
fu,  and  Tung-Chawan-fu,  12  missionaries,  6  native 
evangelists,  41  church  members  and  200  scholars. 
The  recent  changes  have  brought  large  numbers 
of  inquiries. 

At  home  the  Society  has  missionaries  working 
among  the  lowest  classes  of  people  in  London 
and  other  parts  of  England. 

The_  Woman's  Missionary  League  of  the  Bible 
Christian  Missionary  Society,  was  organized  as 
an  auxiliary  to  the  "Society  in  1892  with  special 
reference  to  the  work  in  China. 

BIBLE  DISTRIBUTION:  Its  object  is  to  bring 
knowledge  of  the  Bible  within  reach  of  every 


person.  The  great  Bible  societies  have  adopted 
the  principle  that  the  end  which  they  are  to  keep 
in  view  is  not  the  possession  of  the  Bible,  but  its 
proper  use,  and  that  any  distribution  which 
ignores  tliis  distinction  is  liable  to  do  more  harm 
than  good.  At  different  times  certain  person.s. 
have  given  away  large  numbers  of  Scriptures  to 
the  crowds  that  gather  at  such  places  as  Jeru- 
salem, or  at  fairs  and  expositions.  The  object 
was  undoubtedly  laudable,  but  the  invariable 
result  has  been  that  the  books  tlirown  broadcast  in 
this  way  exercised  little  or  no  influence  for  good, 
and  even  inspired  a  feeling  of  contempt. 

In  order  to  meet  the  requirement  that  the 
Bible  shall  be  placed  within  the  reach  of  every 
person,  however  poor,  the  societies  have  adopted 
the  general  principle  of  gauging  prices  by  the 
ability  of  the  people  rather  than  by  the  cost  of 
the  book.  In  such  lands  as  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain  and  the  larger  part  of  the  Continent 
the  Bible  societies  as  a  rule  ask  cost  price  for 
their  publications,  reckoning  in  the  cost  the 
expense  of  printing  and  binding,  but  making  no 
account  of  the  outlay  for  editorial  work.  To 
this  however,  there  are  exceptions.  In  order  to 
meet  a  special  need,  an  edition,  usually  of  the 
New  Testament,  is  sometimes  placed  at  a  figure 
even  less  than  the  cost,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
editions  designed  for  use  in  the  schools  or  for 
distribution  among  the  poorer  laborers. 

In  the  mission  fields  the  day's  wage  of  a  laborer 
is  often  taken  as  the  gauge,  and  an  edition  of  the 
whole  Bible,  in  plain  but  substantial  binding, 
is  issued  at  such  a  figure  as  will  be  within  the 
reach  of  the  ordinary  peasant  or  artisan.  Editions 
of  the  New  Testament,  or  of  different  portions 
of  Scripture  such  as  the  Gospels,  Psalms,  Prov- 
erbs, the  Pentateuch,  etc.,  are  made  proportion- 
ate in  price.  Scriptures  in  finer  binding  are 
sold  at  actual  cost,  since  they  are  of  the  nature 
of  luxuries. 

If  the  distributor  is  satisfied  that  a  person  is 
not  able  to  give  the  price  of  the  book,  and  that  a 
copy  will  be  well  used,  ordinarily  a  free  grant  is 
made.  The  plan  of  trying  to  secure  the  attention 
and  interest  of  a  person  not  especially  interested 
in  the  Bible  by  the  donation  of  a  copy  has  not,  as 
a  rule,  been  successful.  But  no  iron  rule  as  to 
free  distribution  can  be  laid  down.  Much  must 
be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  person  engaged  in 
the  work. 

For  many  years  the  Bible  societies  worked  as 
auxiliary  to  the  mission  societies  in  distributing 
the  Bible;  making  grants  of  books,  giving  money 
to  pay  colporteurs,  etc.  As  the  different  denom- 
inations entered  the  field,  and  in  not  a  few  cases 
covered  much  the  same  ground,  the  work  began 
to  individualize,  and  at  last  the  necessity  for 
providing  the  Scriptures  for  many  people  whom 
the  missionaries  could  not  attempt  to  reach,  led 
to  the  appointment  of  a  class  of  agents  quite  dis- 
tinct from  those  of  the  missionaries.  Thus  grew 
up  the  system  of  agencies  much  like  those  of  any 
mercantile  house.  The  Bible  Society  Agent  is 
located  at  some  central  point,  such  as  Berlin, 
Vienna,  Constantinople,  etc.  He  keeps  informed 
as  to  the  needs  of  the  territory  assigned  to  him, 
and  seeks  to  improve  every  opportunity  to  in- 
crease the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  and  to 
add  to  the  popular  understanding  of  their  value. 
In  Japan  the  Bible  Society  Agent  has  made  a 
point  of  selling  the  Scriptures  on  railroad  trains, 
with  good  effect. 

As  in  the  case  of  missionary  societies,  so  with 


Bible  DiNtrilmfion 
Bible  Translation 


THK  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


84 


the  Bible  societies,  disadvantages  have  arisen 
from  tlie  presence  of  two  or  more  in  the  same 
territory.  This  has  often  entailed  needless 
expense,  and  has  produced  more  or  less  of  fric- 
tion, if  not  between  the  Societies  or  their  Agents, 
at  least  between  their  employees.  (See  Comity). 
The  svlbordinate  agencies  of  distribution  are: 

1.  Bible  Depots.  These  do  not  serve  merely 
or  even  principally  as  salesrooms  or  places  of 
storage,  but  above  all  they  are  centers  of  influence 
The  sales  from  a  Depot  seldom  equal  those  by  a 
colporteur  and  it  has  sometimes  been  a  serious 
question  whether  the  cost  of  maintaining  them 
has  been  wisely  incurred;  yet  where  an  effort  to 
dispense  with  them  has  been  made,  they  have 
been  quickly  reestablished  as  an  essential  feature 
of  Bible  work. 

2.  Colporteurs.  The  work  of  these  men  is  the 
main  stay  of  Bible  distribution  in  the  mission 
fields.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  Scriptures 
sold  on  mission  ground  pass  through  their  hands 
and  colporteurs  have  done  and  are  doing  quietly 
and  unobtrusively  a  work  unsurpassed  in  impor- 
tance by  that  of  any  class  of  evangelistic  laborers, 
because  it  is  generally  like  the  work  of  the  pioneer. 
More  than  the  missionary  preacher  or  teacher, 
colporteurs  come  in  contact  with  men.  They 
seek  people  out  in  their  homes,  their  shops,  their 
fields,  and  find  access  to  places  which  no  one  else 
could  enter.  Having  as  their  aim  the  placing 
of  the  Bible  in  the  hands  of  all  who  will  read  and 
study  it,  they  have  to  be  wiser  than  serpents. 
Their  daily  life  abounds  in  incidents  as  thrilling 
as  any  in  the  history  of  the  Church.  They  are 
commonly  plain  men,  selected  not  because  of  edu- 
cation but  for  their  initiative,their  tactful  methods 
of  dealing  with  men,  and  their  knowledge  of  the 
Bible  as  a  practical  guide  to  life  rather  than  as  a 
storehouse  of  doctrines.  At  present  there  are 
few  lands  where  every  city  and  town,  or  even 
every  village  and  hamlet  is  not  within  the  field 
assigned  to  some  colporteur.  This  of  course 
demands  careful  organization,  and  no  one  can 
read  the  annual  reports  of  the  Bible  societies 
without  realizing  how  gigantic  is  the  work  to 
which  they  are  bending  every  effort. 

3.  Bible  Readers.  The  work  of  the  Bible 
society  at  the  point  of  distributing  the  Scriptures 
is  so  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  missionary 
society,  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to  draw 
the  line  sharply  between  their  respective  spheres. 
For  many  years  the  Bible  societies  did  not  con- 
sider it  within  their  sphere  to  do  more  than  act- 
ually distribute  the  Bible.  Holding  aloof  from 
all  preaching,  they  considered  that  Bible  readers 
who  must  inevitably  be  in  a  great  degree  teachers, 
were  more  properly  mission  employees.  Yet  in 
many  cases,  when  people  were  unable  or  unwilling 
to  read  themselves,  it  was  found  that  the  Bible 
reader,  by  arousing  an  interest  in  the  Bible, 
became  a  very  important  factor  in  its  distribu- 
tion. Moreover  the  missionary  societies  have 
found  it  simply  impossible  to  provide  such 
laborers  for  all  outlying  regions.  It  has  thus 
come  about  that  the  iBible  societies  have  accept- 
ed the  employment  of  Bible  readers  as  a  legiti- 
mate part  of  their  work. 

Every  missionary  in  the  foreign  field,  whether 
man  or  woman,  preacher,  physician,  or  teacher, 
also  becomes  a  distributor  of  the  Bible  in  the 
ordinary  line  of  daily  duty.  Travelers,  merchants 
and  officials  of  many  nations  and  many  religious 
denominations  have  often  gladly  used  their  oppor- 
tunities for  giving  to  others  the  book  which  they 


most  prized  for  themselves.  Many  a  courier  or 
dragoman  in  the  East  shows  with  pleasure  the 
New  Testament  quietly  put  into  his  hands  by 
the  stranger  whom  he  has  served.  The  number 
of  copies  of  Scriptures  distributed  in  this  unre- 
corded way  is  greater  than  is  commonly  imagined. 

As  to  the  results  of  Bible  distribution,  one 
might  almost  say  that  the  history  of  missions 
throughout  the  world  is  the  history  of  the  won- 
derful influence  of  the  Bible  upon  men  of  every 
race.  All  missionary  literature  teems  with 
incidents  illustrating  the  far-reaching  results  of 
inducing  men  to  read  the  Bible.  Sometimes  it 
is  a  robber  in  the  Armenian  highlands,  who  has 
stolen  the  book  from  a  traveler,  sometimes  it  is 
a  peasant  in  Mexico  who  has  received  it  from  an 
American  soldier  during  the  war  of  1848;  some- 
times it  is  a  Hindu  peasant  who  has  taken  the 
book  from  the  doctor  who  healed  his  disease,  but 
the  result  in  each  case  is  the  same — changed  life 
and  a  desire  to  tell  others  of  the  wonderful  book. 
Something  of  the  magnitude  of  this  influence  of 
the  Bible,  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that 
according  to  the  conclusions  of  Rev.  Dr.  James 
S.  Dennis,  after  a  laborious  study  of  the  reports 
of  the  different  Bible  societies  in  order  to  avoid 
duplication  of  statistics,  the  number  of  Scrip- 
tures or  portions  of  Scripture  annually  distrib- 
uted in  foreign  mission  fields  by  the  Bible  soci- 
eties, is  3,286,834. 

BIBLE  HOUSE,  CONSTANTINOPLE:  One  of 
the  perplexing  problems  connected  with  mission 
enterprise  is  that  of  providing  a  place  for  the 
transaction  of  its  secular  affairs.  Missions  have 
many  of  the  qualities  of  a  great  business.  There 
is  first  the  financial  responsibilities  for  the  differ- 
ent departments  involving  the  expenditure  of 
thousands  of  dollars  annually.  There  is,  too, 
a  great  amount  of  publication  involving  a  stock 
of  printed  sheets,  bound  volumes,  electrotype 
plates,  etc.  The  treasurer  must  have  a  safe 
deposit  for  his  money.  The  Bible  society  or  Mis- 
sion Publication  Department  needs  storage  room 
for  its  books,  the  more  nearly  fire  proof  the  better. 
This  problem  early  became  a  most  serious  one 
in  Constantinople.  That  city  was  the  center  of 
four  missions  of  the  American  Board,  and  of  the 
agencies  of  the  American,  and  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Societies,  and  many  other  missions 
looked  to  it  for  the  transaction  of  important 
business.  At  first  a  room  was  hired  by  each  agency 
in  one  of  the  numerous  khans;  but  this  was  soon 
too  small.  Then  a  whole  building  was  rented 
for  all  together  in  the  business  section  of  the  city, 
but  that  was  insufficient.  The  existence  of  the 
Bible  House  in  New  York  suggested  a  similar 
building  in  Constantinople;  but  when  applied 
to,  the  American  Bible  Society  did  not  feel  justified 
in  doing  more  than  permit  its  agent,  the  Rev. 
Isaac  G.  Bliss,  D.D.  to  raise  the  money  for  a 
Bible  House.  This  he  did  is  1866  and  secured 
a  number  of  prominent  New  York  business  men 
to  act  as  trustees  of  the  property.  There  were 
the  usual  delays  attending  such  an  enterprise, 
but  in  1872  the  building  was  complete  and  ready 
for  occupancy.  It  is  excellently  adapted  to  its 
purpose,  providing  for  the  different  mission- 
ary organizations,  office  room,  safe  vaults,  stor- 
are  room  for  publications,  editorial  rooms  for 
publication  v/ork,  as  well  as  for  Bible  revision 
committees.  All  these  are  supplied  at  a  merely 
nominal  rent.  Other  rooms  are  occupied  by 
printing  and  binding  establishments,  and  on  the 
street  are  stores,  the  income  from  which  has  been 


85 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bible  Distribution 
Dibie  Translation 


applied  to  completing  the  property  and  to  fur- 
nishing a  Sunday  service  for  the  transient  crowd 
always  to  be  found  in  such  a  great  city.  Viewed 
simply  as  a  business  investment  for  the  care  of 
the  secular  part  of  missionary  enterprise,  the 
Bible  House  has  been  well  worth  all  that  it  cost; 
but  it  has  had  another  and  even  greater  value,  as 
a  proof  of  the  practical  character  of  Protestant 
missions.  It  is  known  all  through  the  city  and 
indeed  throughout  the  Empire  as  the  "American 
Khan,"  and  as  the  center  of  those  influences 
which  have  done  more  than  ■  all  else  to  arouse 
ambition  for  a  better  life.  Enemies  have  recog- 
nized its  influence  and  shaken  their  fists  at  it  in 
impotent  rage,  and  many  a  poor  despised  Chris- 
tian has  rejoiced  in  its  simple  beauty  and  strength 
as  the  token  of  the  power  that  is  yet  to  redeem 
the  land.  If  ever  there  were  sermons  in  stones 
they  have  spoken  from  the  walls  of  the  Bible 
House. 

BIBLE    LANDS    MISSIONS    AID    SOCIETY: 

In  1853-4  Rev.  C.  G.  Young,  a  minister  in  the 
North  of  England,  traveling  in  the  East,  came 
into  contact  with  missionaries  of  the  American 
Board  engaged  in  work  among  the  Armenians 
in  Constantinople,  and  was  greatly  impressed 
with  their  devotion  and  zeal.  Returning  to 
England  he  urged  that  an  endeavor  should  be 
made  to  associate  Christians  of  all  the  churches 
in  an  effort  to  cooperate  with  those  already  in 
the  field.  Circumstances  contributed  to  awaken 
interest  in  the  subject.  It  was  just  before  the 
Crimean  War  and  the  Eastern  question  was  assum- 
ing an  acute  phase.  The  Sultan  was  looking  to 
Britain  for  support  against  Russia.  Sir  Strat- 
ford Canning  (Lord  Redcliffe)  the  astute  and 
able  English  ambassador  at  the  Porte,  had 
sought  to  influence  the  Sultan  in  the  direction 
of  a  policy  of  toleration  in  religious  matters. 
For  several  years  Christians  in  Britain  had 
watched  with  sympathy  the  converts  among 
the  Armenians,  who  had  been  grievously  perse- 
cuted. After  one  or  two  public  meetings  which 
increased  interest  in  the  scheme  of  an  auxiliary 
agency  in  England,  on  the  3d  of  July,  1854,  the 
Turkish  Missions'  Aid  Society  was  organized,  the 
Earl  of  Shaftesbury  being  elected  president. 
The  Society  is  entirely  undenominational,  both  in 
its  supporters  and  in  the  distribution  of  its  funds. 
The  first  rule  of  its  constitution  describes  its  aim: 
"The  object  of  this  Society  is  not  to  originate  a 
new  mission,  but  to  aid  in  the  extension  of  gospel 
work  in  Bible  lands,  especially  that  carried  on  by 
the  Americans." 

The  Society  has  been  and  is  a  most  valuable 
helper  to  many  branches  of  missionary  work  in 
Turkey,  having  furnished  funds  to  the  amount  of 
$512,000  to  various  special  objects  of  impor- 
tance. 

The  name  of  the  Society  was  changed  a  few 
years  ago  by  substituting  "Bible  Lands"  for  the 
"Turkish"  of  the  original  name.  Altho  not 
so  largely  supported  as  formerly,  the  Society  con- 
tinues to  work  on  the  same  lines,  making  its 
special  province  the  assistance  of  Christian  work 
in  Greece,  Bulgaria,  Turkey,  Persia,  Syria,  and 
Egypt. 

The  organ  of  the  Society  is  "The  Star  in  the 
East,"  published  quarterly. 

BIBLE  TRANSLATION:  "The  Day  of  Pente- 
cost was  fully  come"  and  the  spirit  of  God  worked 
great  miracles,  and  the  Galilean  disciples  were 
enabled  to  proclaim  the  gospel  in  the  divergent 


tongues  of  the  vast  heterogeneous  crowd  of  three 
continents.  "We  do  hear  them  speak  in  our 
tongues  the  wonderful  works  of  God." 

What  the  spirit  of  God  did  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost for  fifteen  or  sixteen  peoples,  that  are  the 
translators  of  the  Bible  doing  for  all  the  peoples 
of  the  world.  The  end  in  view  is  that  every  man 
may  hear  in  his  own  tongue  the  wonderful  works 
of  God.  For  such  a  work  special  gifts,  graces, 
acquirements,  and  instruments  are  needed,  and 
of  tiiese  we  proceed  to  speak  in  the  following 
sections. 

Qualifications  Necessary  for  a  Translator: 
The  translator  should  be  deeply  conscious  of  the 
gravity  of  his  work  as  well  as  of  its  importance. 
The  man  who  enters  on  such  work  in  a  frivolous 
spirit  will  fail,  like  the  general  who  enters  on  a 
great  war  with  a  light  heart.  Perfection  in 
translation  is  unattainable,  but  it  should  be  aimed 
at.  Translation  at  best  bears  pretty  much  the 
same  relation  to  the  original  that  the  wrong  side 
of  velvet  bears  to  the  right  side.  In  the  wrong 
side  of  the  texture  you  may  have  all  the  material 
of  the  original:  the  warp  and  woof  may  be  skil- 
fully shot,  all  the  weight  and  color  may  be  in  the 
piece,  but  the  glossy  pile  is  wanting.  In  trans- 
lation the  artistic  touch  which  each  author  gives 
to  his  work,  independent  of  the  substance  matter, 
can  never  be  caught  or  transferred  by  another 
hand.  If  this  be  so  in  ordinary  translation,  it  is 
still  more  applicable  to  Bible  translation. 

The  original  languages  of  the  Bible  constitute 
great  difficulties.  The  Semitic  Old  Testament 
is  full  of  perplexities.  The  language  is  archaic, 
the  idioms  are  Oriental,the  transitions  are  abrupt, 
the  allusions  are  uncertain;  the  words  thrown 
together  in  juxtaposition  give  little  cue,  by  form 
or  relation,  to  their  exact  meaning.  Many  pas- 
sages are  vague,  and  capable  of  several  interpre- 
tations, and  all  passages  have  alliteration  and 
play  upon  words  which  cannot  possibly  be  repro- 
duced in  translation. 

The  original  of  the  New  Testament  is  Aramaic 
Greek,  and  the  old  Hellenic  forms  are  filled  with 
new  ideas,  like  the  new  wine  in  the  old  bottles. 
The  old  Hellenic  words  had  to  be  emptied  of 
their  old  meanings  before  being  dedicated  to  the 
new  service,  and  they  are  often  inadequate  ex- 
pressions of  the  fresh  gospel  thought.  The 
translator  will  have  to  trace  the  Hebrew  concep- 
tion in  the  Greek  form. 

In  both  old  and  New  Testaments  there  are 
many  hands  visible.  The  Holy  Ghost,  who  in- 
spired the  men  that  wrote  as  they  were  moved 
did  not  interfere  with  their  individuality  or  style 
of  expression.  Paul  does  not  write  like  Luke 
nor  John  like  James.  The  prophets  are  distinct 
from  each  other  in  thought  and  style,  and  immeas- 
urably removed  from  the  feeling  and  form  of  our 
exact  metallic  age.  Taking  into  account  the 
composite  character  of  the  book,  ranging  from 
simplest  narrative  to  most  flowing  rhapsody, 
one  cannot  but  recognize  how  ill-equipped  a 
modern  scholar  is  for  translating  right  through 
the  Bible.  The  man  who  would  successfully 
reproduce  this  Holy  Book  must  himself  be  under 
the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  who  inspired  and 
guided  the  various  authors.  Purvey,  in  his 
prologue  to  Wickliffe's  Bible,  says:  "He  hath 
need  to  live  a  clean  life,  and  be  full  of  devout 
prayers,  that  the  Holy  Spirit,  Author  of  wisdom, 
knowledge,  and  truth,  dress  him  in  his  work,  and 
suffer  him  not  to  err.  .  .  .  By  this  manner, 
with  good  living  and  great  travail,  men  may  come 


Bible  Translation 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


a& 


to  true  and  clear  translating,  and  true  under- 
standing of  Holy   Writ." 

Faith  in  the  Bible  is  absolutely  essential  to  the 
translator.  It  is  not  desirable  that  he  should 
have  to  take  down  all  his  beliefs  from  the  shelf 
and  reexamine  them  whenever  a  new  hypothesis 
regarding  the  Bible  makes  its  appearance.  The 
translator  should  not  only  have  a  reasonable 
intellectual  belief  in  the  Word  of  God,  but  he 
should  be  a  man  who  has  tried  and  tested  it,  and 
found  in  it  his  own  strength  and  joy.  Having 
felt  its  power  himself,  he  will  know  why  he  must 
be  careful  that  none  of  its  meaning  is  lost  in 
passing  through  his  hands.  Having  been  blessed 
by  it,  he  will  do  all  that  is  in  his  power  to  make 
it  the  bearer  of  blessings  to  others.  Every  phrase, 
word,  letter,  mood,  and  tense  will  have  due  weight 
■with  him,  and  nothing  will  be  slurred  over  or 
■dealt  with  in  a  careless  or  slovenly  manner. 

A  sound  judgment  is  indispensable  to  a  trans- 
lator of  the  Bible.  No  matter  how  great  his 
attachment  and  loyalty  to  the  Bible,  if  he  has 
an  ill-balanced  mind  he  is  in  danger  of  getting 
■entangled  with  Biblical  fads;  and  the  Biblical 
faddist  is  always  discovering  things  in  the  text  of 
the  Bible  that  have  no  existence,  giving  prom- 
inence to  parts  that  are  of  no  more  importance 
than  other  parts,  and  unconsciously  using  the 
book  to  support  his  own  whimsical  opinions. 
The  translator  should  know  the  Bible  in  the 
unity  of  its  truth,  and  be  able  to  see  individual 
passages  in  the  light  of  surrounding  truth.  He 
should  be  able  to  divest  himself  of  the  prejudices 
of  the  religious  or  philosophical  school  in  which 
he  has  been  brought  up,  and  to  cast  aside  all 
prepossessions  in  favor  of  even  the  venerable 
readings  of  his  own  Authorized  Version. 

Sound  scholarship  must  be  based  on  sound 
judgment.  A  liberal  education,  especially  in 
languages,  is  a  good  groundwork  for  Biblical 
scholarship.  The  man  who  professes  to  know 
twenty  or  thirty  or  a  hundred  languages  is  to 
be  avoided.  None  of  the  phenomenal  linguists 
of  the  past  ever  did  any  work  that  has  lived, 
and  this  rule  is  not  likely  to  change  in  the  future. 
The  translator  should  concentrate  his  chief  atten- 
tion on  a  few  languages,  and  leave  large  profession 
to  people  who  wish  to  be  wondered  at.  A  good 
knowledge  of  the  original  languages  of  the  Bible 
is  requisite  to  a  good  translator,  and  if  he  has  an 
opportunity  of  learning  Arabic,  he  will  be  well 
rewarded.  The  Syriac  version  was  one  of  the 
translations  first  made  from  the  original  after  the 
■writing  of  the  New  Testament — perhaps  the  very 
first,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  Peshito  will  be  use- 
ful to  the  translator;  but  Syriac  has  little  litera- 
ture worth  reading,  and  the  time  spent  on  it 
might  more  profitably  be  devoted  to  Arabic. 
The  Latin  Vulgate  should  also  be  at  the  side  of 
the  translator  for  consultation,  and  also  the 
Septuagint;  and  of  living  versions  the  English 
Revised  and  Segond's  French  will  be  found  useful 
a,nd  suggestive.  The  translator  should  be  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  the  manners  and  customs 
of  Bible  lands,  and  with  all  modern  discoveries 
bearing  on  the  Bible. 

The  translator  should  be  thoroughly  acquainted 
"with  the  literature  of  the  language  into  which  he 
is  to  render  the  Scriptures.  He  should  read  its 
classics,  and  especially  the  poetry,  in  order  to 
enrich  his  vocabulary  with  choice  words,  and  to 
learn  to  pack  them  close  with  concentrated 
thought.  He  should  read  the  newspapers,  and 
■converse  with  the  people,  until  he  is  able  to  think 


in  their  language,  without  the  intrusion  of  auxil- 
iary words  from  other  languages.  Most  lan- 
guages have  corresponding  idioms,  and  by  con- 
stant watchfulness  and  practice  approximations 
may  be  found.  If  the  language  is  foreign  to  the 
translator,  he  should  employ  a  trustworthy  native 
to  accompany  him  as  much  as  possible.  He 
should  be  constantly  composing  in  the  language, 
and  employing  his  native  assistant  to  correct  his 
compositions,  and  he  should  get  by  heart  a  choice 
specimen  of  the  language  daily. 

Patience,  in  abundant  measure,  is  a  necessary 
endowment  of  a  translator.  Haste  is  the  fruit- 
ful author  of  ill-done  work.  The  student  in  a 
hurry  will  never  be  a  scholar.  The  impatient 
translator  will  turn  out  crude  and  unfinished 
copy.  There  will  doubtless  be  many  influences 
drawing  and  pushing  him  forward  at  headlong 
speed.  It  may  be  that  he  is  called  to  work  for 
a  bookless  people,  who  have  never  had  the  Scrip- 
tures. Or  he  finds  an  imperfect  version  in  the 
hands  of  the  people,  and  by  the  help  of  a  pre- 
sumptuous native  he  hastens  to  improve  the 
version,  currente  calamo. 

Patience  is  an  attribute  of  strength,  and  the 
translator  requires  firm  moral  fiber  to  resist  the 
influences  that  would  hinder  patience  from 
having  her  work  perfect. 

Bishop  Steere  of  Zanzibar  spent  five  years  in 
completing  his  version  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark 
into   the   Swahili   tongue. 

By  this  patient  procedure  with  one  Gospel 
he  acquired  facility  in  translation,  and  he  had 
the  joy  of  giving  the  New  Testament  to  that 
great  people  before  being  taken  home  to  his 
reward.  The  memorable  words  of  the  revisers 
of  the  Authorized  Version  should  never  be  for- 
gotten by  translators:  "We  did  not  disdain  to 
revise  that  which  we  had  done,  and  to  bring  back 
to  the  anvil  that  which  we  had  hammered;  but 
having  and  using  as  great  helps  as  were  needful, 
and  fearing  no  reproach  for  slowness,  nor  cov- 
eting praise  for  expedition,  we  have  at  length, 
through  the  good  hand  of  the  Lord  upon  us, 
brought  the  work  to  that  pass  that  you  see." 

So  in  the  translation  of  Luther's  Bible.  The 
scholars  who  aided  Luther  revised  with  him 
every  line  with  patient  care,  and  sometimes  they 
returned  fourteen  successive  days  to  the  revision 
of  a  single  line. 

The  English  and  German  translators  and 
revisers  were  rendering  the  Scriptures  into  their 
mother  tongues,  but  the  majority  of  translators 
and  revisers  are  called  upon  to  translate  into 
tongues  which  are  foreign  to  them,  and  which 
they  are  obliged  to  learn.  The  wise  translator 
will  always  work  with  the  assistance  of  native 
scholars,  and  this  will  necessitate  patience  in 
many  respects.  He  will  have  to  bear  with  the 
inaccurate  and  self-satisfied  ways  of  the  unme- 
thodical natives.  He  will  not  be  able  to  take 
renderings  on  trust,  but  must  lead  his  helper 
round  the  idea  until  the  exact  point  is  reached. 
Sometimes,  when  engaged  on  languages  which 
have  no  literature,  and  which  have  never  been 
written,  he  will  have  to  catch  the  words  alive, 
and  fix  them  as  best  he  can  on  paper. 

There  is  nothing,  perhaps,  which  tries  a  trans- 
lator's patience  so  much  as  having  his  work 
revised  by  others.  It  is  never  pleasant  to  have 
one's  composition  found  fault  with,  and  every 
correction  made  by  a  reviser  assumes  imperfect 
work  on  the  part  of  the  author.  If  the  translator 
has  the  grace  of  patience  when  he  first  sees  the 


87 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Dlble  Tranalatlon 


work  that  has  cost  him  so  much  pulled  to  pieces, 
he  will  soon  come  to  appreciate  the  suggestions 
of  men  much  inferior  to  himself.  For  all  these 
things  patience  and  Christian  courtesy  are  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

The  translator  should  cultivate  a  simple, 
easily  understood  style.  Very  often  first  trans- 
lations, made  into  a  literary  language,  are  cast  in 
too  lofty  a  style.  The  native  helper  is  a  scholar, 
generally  proud  of  his  native  literature,  in  which 
he  has  been  educated,  and  his  aim  will  be  to 
translate  the  Scriptures  in  accordance  with  high 
classical  models.  It  is  not  the  business  of  a 
translator  to  render  a  version  in  a  language  as  the 
language  ought  to  be,  but  as  the  language  is. 
The  common  plain  language  of  the  people  as  used 
in  commerce  and  in  everyday  life  will  be  the 
victorious  form  of  speech,  and  into  this  form, 
avoiding  all  vulgarisms  and  low  expressions, 
the  Scriptures  should  be  translated. 

When  the  proper  standard  has  been  reached 
another  question  of  great  difficulty  will  arise. 
The  translator  should  strive  to  convey  the  mean- 
ing while  remaining  as  faithful  as  possible  to  the 
letter  of  the  text.  The  sense  must  be  given 
whether  the  passage  be  rendered  literally  or  not, 
but  pains  .should  be  taken  to  transfer  the  sense 
by  giving  due  weight  to  every  word. 

Translators  of  the  Scriptures  should,  whenever 
practicable,  carry  out  their  work  by  committees. 
The  general  rule  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  on  this  subject  is  as  follows:  "  That  when- 
ever it  is  practicable  to  obtain  a  board  of  com- 
petent persons  to  translate  or  revise  a  version  of 
the  Scriptures,  it  is  undesirable  to  accept  for 
publication  the  work  of  a  single  translator  or 
reviser." 

The  first  great  version  of  the  Old  Testament 
takes  its  name,  Septuagint,  from  the  supposition 
that  the  translation  into  Greek  was  the  work  of 
seventy  scholars.  It  was  certainly  the  work  of 
a  large  revision  committee  —  hence  its  great 
value  and  permanence.  The  revision  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bible  which  resulted  in  the  Authorized 
Version  of  1611  was  the  work  of  many  scholars. 
The  Dutch  version  was  the  production  of  twelve 
translators  and  sixteen  revisers.  The  Manx  Old 
Testament  was  the  work  of  twenty-four  trans- 
lators and  two  revisers. 

The  text  to  be  followed  is  of  primary  impor- 
tance in  Bible  translation.  Up  to  1881  the  work 
of  translation  for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  was  carried  on  in  accordance  with  the 
following  instructions : 

"Whenever  practicable,  a  version  should  be  a 
direct  translation  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
originals.  For  the  Hebrew  Bible,  the  edition  of 
Van  der  Hooght  is  considered  the  standard;  and 
in  the  use  of  this  the  translator  is  at  liberty  to 
follow  either  the  ketih  or  the  keri;  but  not  to 
adopt  any  rendering  which  is  not  sanctioned  by 
the  Massoretic  vowel-points,  or  the  heri,  or  the 
English  Authorized  Version,  or  the  marginal 
readings  of  this  last.  In  the  Greek  Testament 
the  Elzevir  edition  of  the  'Textus  Receptus'  of 
1633,  and  reprinted  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  is  considered  the  standard;  but  in 
cases  where  the  Authorized  Version  differs  from 
this,  either  in  the  text  or  in  the  marginal  reading, 
the  translator  is  at  liberty  to  adopt  a  rendering 
which  may  agree  with  any  one  of  these  three; 
and  if  a  translator  or  editor  think  it  better  to 
omit  the  subscriptions  of  the  epistles,  the  inser- 
tion of  these  is  not  required." 


As  far  as  the  Old  Testament  is  concerned  these 
instructions  still  hold  good.  Hebrew  manu- 
scripts of  the  Old  Testament  are  of  no  great 
antiquity,  dating  only  from  A.  D.  916.  No  doubt 
there  are  ancient  readings  preserved  in  such  ver- 
sions as  the  Septuagint,  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch, the  Syriac,  and  the  Latin  Vulgate.  And 
there  are  doubtless  previous  readings  of  the  old 
Hebrew  preserved  in  quotations  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. Collations  of  such  readings  have  been 
made  with  much  labor  and  some  skill;  but  noth- 
ing has  been  discovered  or  done  to  warrant  the 
Bible  Society  in  adopting  a  new  text. 

The  case  of  the  New  Testament  widely  differs 
from  that  of  the  Old.  Numerous  ancient  and  im- 
portant Greek  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  have  been  discovered  in  recent 
years.  Enormous  learning  and  pains  have  been 
bestowed  on  the  collation  and  classification  of 
these  manuscripts,  and  on  the  inve.stigation  of 
early  versions  and  quotations.  Sufficient  mate- 
rial has  been  accumulated  for  the  substantial 
restoration  of  the  Greek  Testament  of  the  ^fourth 
century. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  Committee  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  1881 
resolved  to  authorize  missionaries  and  others 
engaged  on  behalf  of  the  Society  in  the  work  of 
translation  or  revision  to  adopt  such  deviations 
from  the  "Textus  Receptus"  as  are  sanctioned  by 
the  text  of  the  Revised  English  Version  of  1881. 
The  careful  attention  of  translators  was  at  the 
same  time  invited  to  the  observations  of  the 
Company  of  Revisers  on  the  revision  of  the  Greek 
text  in  their  preface,  and  to  the  caution  suggested 
by  their  emphatic  words:  "Many  places  still 
remain  in  which  for  the  present  it  would  not  be 
safe  to  accept  one  reading  to  the  absolute  exclu- 
sion of  others."  "In  these  cases,"  the  revisers  add, 
"we  have  given  alternative  readings  in  the  margin, 
whenever  they  seem  to  be  of  sufficient  importance 
or  interest  to  deserve  notice."  These  alternative 
readings  should,  therefore,  be  carefully  studied 
before  any  change  is  adopted  from  the  "Textus 
Receptus";  and,  whilst  the  committee  did  not 
desire  to  control  the  conscientious  judgment  of 
translators  or  revisers,  they  suggested  that  where 
the  marginal  note  in  the  Englisii  version  indicates 
that  ancient  authorities  support  the  Elzevir  text, 
there  would  be  safety  in  adhering  for  the  present 
to  the  Elzevir  text. 

The  same  regulations  substantially  have  been 
adopted  by  the  American  Bible  Society,  and  thus 
far  the  two  great  societies  have  proceeded  on  the 
same  lines  in  the  work  of  translation  and  revision. 

The  Names  for  the  Divine  Being  require  special 
attention.  The  difficulty  of  finding  any  Supreme 
Being  among  the  heathen  is  sometimes  very 
great.  Sometimes  the  gods  are  so  numerous  that 
the  difficulty  consists  in  making  a  proper  selec- 
tion. Sometimes  there  are  no  gods  at  all;  but 
the  translator's  chief  difficulty  will  be  to  find  any 
name  among  the  heathen  associated  with  the 
ideas  of  reverence  or  worship.  In  this  matter  as 
in  many  others  the  translator  will  have  to  do  the 
best  he  can.  In  the  Septuagint  and  Greek  Testa- 
ment, Theos  is  substituted  for  Elohim,  and  Lord 
(Kurios)  for  Jehovah  and  Adonai  promiscuously. 
The  terms  were  not  equivalents,  but  apostles  and 
martyrs  preached  the  gospel  meanings  into  the 
names  until  they  became  expressive  of  the  true 
gospel  thoughts  now  associated  with  each. 
Every  care  should  be  taken  to  select  the  best 
word,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  all 


Bible  Translation 
Bible    Women 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


8S 


countries  the  truth  about  God  is  gathered  not  so 
much  from  the  name  as  from  what  is  taught  con- 
cerning Him  who  bears  it.  The  translator  in  a 
heathen  tongue  must  select  the  best  term  or  name 
he  can  find.  Tho  he  may  be  obliged  to  take  the 
name  of  a  false  god,  he  will  find  that  by  degrees, 
through  reading  the  Bible,  the  false  meaning  will 
disappear,  and  the  true  meaning  assert  itself.  It 
might  be  possible  to  transfer  the  original  names 
of  God  by  transliteration,  but  in  that  case  the 
names  would,  in  themselves,  be  absolutely  with- 
out significance  when  first  introduced. 

Translators  will  find  it  difficult  to  render  the 
word  Baptizo  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  all.  If 
translating  for  a  non-denominational  society 
which  is  supported  by  all  denominations,  they 
can  not  be  expected  to  translate  the  word  by  a 
term  which  supports  the  views  of  one  denomina- 
tion. In  versions  made  for  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  the  word  Baptizo  and  its  cog- 
nates are  transliterated  or  transferred,  as  is  done 
in  the  English  Bible,  unless  it  can  be  translated 
by  some  native  word  signifying  sacred  washing, 
without  limiting  the  form  to  either  dipping  or 
sprinkling.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  get 
over  the  difficulty  by  placing  the  neutral  term  in 
the  text,  and  the  denominational  term  in  .  the 
margin,  with  the  words  "some  translate  im- 
merse"— which  is  simply  the  statement  of  a  fact. 
Where  the  version  is  Baptist,  it  would  be  better 
that  the  difficulty  should  be  got  over  by  an 
alternative  reading  than  that  a  rival  version 
should  be  issued.  These  matters  require  to  be 
dealt  with  on  both  sides  in  a  spirit  of  mutual 
forbearance. 

Translators  should  be  careful  to  choose  the 
central  language  in  commencing  versions,  and  to 
resist  all  pressure  to  undertake  translations  in 
insignificant  and  dying  dialects.  Many  versions 
produced  in  local  patois  have  led  to  considerable 
wa.ste  of  Christian  money.  At  first  it  may  not  be 
possible,  with  limited  experience,  to  say  which 
branch  of  a  group  of  languages  is  the  best  vehicle 
for  reaching  the  most  people;  but  first  editions 
should  be  tentative  and  small,  and  the  second 
editions  should  be  revised  into  the  dominant 
form.  Prince  L.  L.  Bonaparte  made  versions  of 
the  Scriptures  into  more  than  a  hundred  lan- 
guages,dialects,  and  patois,  for  linguistic  purposes. 
These  his  Highness  has  handed  over  to  the  Bible 
Society,  with  permission  to  revise  them  for 
evangelistic  purposes;  but  there  are  only  a  few 
of  them  on  which  the  Society  would  be  at  all 
justified  in  spending  funds. 

The  translator  should  be  careful  to  mark  in 
some  distinctive  way  words  inserted  to  make 
the  sense  complete,  but  which  have  no  equiva- 
lents in  the  originals.  Such  words  are  marked 
in  our  English  Bibles  by  being  printed  in  italics. 
This  is  somewhat  unfortunate,  as  in  all  other 
forms  of  English  literature  italics  are  used  to  give 
emphasis  and  prominence  to  words.  The  italics 
should  be  as  few  as  possible.  A  great  many  in 
the  Authorized  Version  are  superfluous.  In  for- 
eign languages  the  supplied  words,  when  neces- 
sary, should  be  printed  in  type  similar  to  the 
body  of  the  text,  but  somewhat  smaller.  In  pre- 
paring chapter  and  page  headings  only  simple 
summaries  should  be  given.  In  our  English 
Bibles  the  chapter  headings  are  printed  in  such 
small  italics  that  they  are  seldom  consulted,  and 
they  form  an  undesirable  wedge  between  chapter 
and  chapter.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  has  long  had  a  paragraph  English  Bible 


prepared  by  Canon  Girdlestone,  and  it  has  Degun 
to  print  foreign  versions  in  paragraphs,  with  sec- 
tional headings  which  simply  announce  the  sub- 
jects of  the  sections.  The  headings  are  simple- 
summaries,  such  as  "The  Creation,"  "The 
Flood,"  "The  Temptation,"  "The  Fall,"  etc. 
Versions  so  arranged,  well  printed  and  accom- 
panied by  maps,  have  been  published  in  Italian,. 
Sesuto,  Malagasi,  French,  and  Dutch,  and  they 
have  been  well  received.  In  China,  too,  the. 
committee  have  agreed  to  publish  summaries, 
sectional  headings,  and  simple  explanations  of 
words  and  terms  not  likely  to  be  understood  by 
the  Chinese. 

The  Scriptures  can  be  read  much  more  intelli- 
gently in  the  paragraph  form.  Much  can  be  done 
by  artistic  printing,  by  proper  spacing,  and  the 
arrangement  of  parallelisms  to  encourage  the 
reading  of  the  Scriptures.  Lasserre's  Gospels  in 
paragraph  form  are  so  arranged  that  every  page 
says  "read  me";  and  Frenchmen,  for  the  first 
time,  read  the  gospel  with  pleasure.  There  are 
many  additional  considerations,  and  necessary 
conditions,  and  infinite  details,  which  might  be 
advanced  with  regard  to  Bible  translation,  but 
these  will  be  best  learned  in  the  practical  work 
of  translation.  As  in  preparing  sermons,  writing 
books,  and  public  speaking,  each  worker  reaches 
his  own  style  by  his  own  methods,  so  translators 
must  be  left  to  find  out  the  lines  within  certain 
limitations  on  which  they  can  best  accomplish 
the  sacred  work  entrusted  to  them;  and  in  the 
matter  of  details,  common  sense  and  scrupulous- 
conscientiousness  will  be  the  best  guides. 

The  list  of  versions  in  the  Appendix  enables  one 
to  judge  of  the  immense  work  already  accom- 
plished in  Bible  translation. 

The  Bible  is  the  greatest  of  all  the  classics,  and 
its  importance  may  be  judged  in  contrast  with, 
them.  There  are,  at  the  present  time,  over  a. 
thousand  philologists  busied  with  Bible  transla- 
tion and  revision,  and  wherever  the  living  mis- 
sionary goes  he  takes  with  him  the  living  word. 
Versions  of  the  classic  masterpieces  of  Greece, 
Rome,  and  the  Far  East  are  few,  and  are  found 
on  the  shelves  of  libraries  and  in  the  homes  of 
learning.  The  versions  of  the  Bible  are  for  the- 
people,  and  no  sooner  have  they  fallen  from  the 
press  than  they  are  taken  up  in  such  quantities 
by  the  missionaries,  by  the  colporteurs,  by  the 
zenana  women,  and  by  all  who  wish  the  divine 
message  made  known,  that  the  average  circula- 
tion of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
alone  is  over  four  million  copies  a  year.  See- 
Bible   Distribution. 

BIBLE  VERSIONS :  By  far  the  larger  proportion 
of  existing  versions  of  the  Bible  are  used  in  ifor- 
eign  missionary  operations.  For  the  most  part, 
also,  they  are  the  fruit  of  the  patient  toil  of  mis- 
sionaries in  the  field.  The  missionary  translator, 
unseen  and  almost  forgotten  in  the  isolation  of  his- 
life  work  as  he  studies  the  sounds,  the  structure 
and  the  vocabulary  of  a  strange  language,  and 
then  uses  his  knowledge  in  translation  of  the 
Scriptures,  renders  a  double  service  to  mankind. 
He  not  only  sets  before  savage  and  illiterate- 
tribes  the  Book  which  is  to  lift  them  in  the  scale 
of  humanity,  but  at  the  same  time  he  gives  to  the 
people  the  idea  of  committing  speech  to  paper, 
and  provides  them  with  the  means  of  doing  so. 
More  than  this,  he  has  placed  in  a  form  accessible 
to  students  in  the  home  land  the  essential  data 
for  .studying  and  classifying  the  language  in 
which  he  is  working.     He  thus  materially  aids. 


89 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bible  TrnuNlatlnn 
Bible  Women. 


the  extension  of  knowledge.  As  Dr.  Cust  has 
remarked,  "It  is  a  marvelous  surprise  to  a  scholar 
who  has  never  left  Europe  to  have  a  translation 
of  a  Gospel  handed  to  him,  of  the  genuineness 
and  approximate  accuracy  of  which  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  in  a  language  that  is  unprovided 
with  scientific  works  or  literary  helps." 

The  list  of  known  languages  and  dialects  con- 
tinually grows  longer  as  the  surface  of  the  earth 
is  more  fully  explored.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  total  number  of  languages  now  rendering 
active  service  exceeds  2,000.  Yet  it  is  by  no 
means  this  number  of  versions  of  the  Bible 
which  we  must  aim  to  provide.  The  list  of  lan- 
guages which  are  dead,  and  that  of  other  lan- 
guages which  are  extinct,  show  that  no  version 
of  the  complete  Bible  should  be  undertaken  with- 
out careful  study  of  the  place  and  the  rank,  as 
Permanent  or  temporary,  which  that  language 
olds  in  which  the  version  is  to  be  made.  Such 
a  fate  as  befell  John  Eliot's  Indian  Bible,  serving 
only  as  a  library  curiosity  because  of  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  language  in  which  it  is  printed,  is  a 
warning  on  this  point. 

As  at  present  conducted,  the  process  of  pub- 
lishing a  version  is  generally  as  follows:  The 
opportunity  or  need  of  one  being  apparent,  an 
arrangement  is  made  between  some  one  of  the 
Bible  societies  and  the  missionary  society  occu- 
pying a  certain  field,  by  which  one  or  more  mis- 
sionaries especially  fitted  for  the  work  are  in- 
structed to  devote  either  the  whole  or  a  part  of 
their  time  to  the  preparation  of  the  translation, 
their  support  and  the  incidental  expense  being,  in 
many  cases,  assumed  by  the  Bible  society.  When 
the  translation  is  completed,  preparations  are 
made  for  publishing,  either  on  the  field,  if  good 
printing  presses  and  binderies  are  available,  or  in 
America,  England,  or  Continental  Europe,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  It  was  formerly  the 
custom  to  do  much  of  the  publishing  in  London 
or  New  York,  but  since  the  establishment  of  the 
numerous  foreign  agencies  it  is  very  largely  done 
at  the  great  centers  of  those  agencies,  as  Vienna, 
Constantinople,  Shanghai,  Tokio,  etc. 

The  translation  thus  made  is  the  property  of 
the  Bible  society  that  incurred  the  expense,  and, 
altho  there  is  no  regular  copyright  taken  out, 
the  rights  of  each  society  are  carefully  regarded. 
In  some  cases,  as  those  of  the  Japanese,  Chinese, 
and  Turkish  versions,  two  or  more  societies  have 
combined  to  share  the  expense,  and  have  equal 
rights  of  publication.  Whenever  one  society 
has  need  of  the  publications  of  another  the 
required  copies  are  purchased,  cost  price  rather 
than  selling  price  being  paid,  on  the  principle 
that  one  society  should  not  reap  financial  benefit 
from  the  benevolence  of  another.  In  certain 
cases  permission  is  asked,  and  usually  granted, 
for  the  use  of  plates  for  the  reduplication  of  a 
version.  In  general  the  rule  has  been  for  each 
society  to  assist  every  other  to  the  best  of  its 
ability,  so  far  as  convenience  or  cautious  regard 
for  mutual  interest  was  involved,  the  aim  being 
not  to  secure  honor  or  glory  to  themselves,  but 
to  further  by  every  possible  means  the  great  aim 
of  the  societies. 

The  number  of  living  and  effective  versions 
of  the  Bible  somewhat  exceeds  400.  All  the 
languages  of  the  "conquering"  clags  now  possess 
versions  of  the  Bible.  Substantially  the  same 
is  true  of  the  "permanent  class  of  languages." 
As  to  the  weak  languages  which  cannot  hold 
their  ground,  and  the  dialects  which  cannot  all 


survive  the  diffusion  of  education,  in  general, 
portions  only  of  Scriptures  have  been  translated 
into  them. 

A  list  of  existing  Bible  Versions,  and  a  list  of 
missionaries  who  have  translated  or  revised  the 
Bible  for  the  Bible  societies,  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix. 

BIBLE  WOMEN:  Mission  reports  originally 
employed  this  term  as  the  simplest  expression 
for  Christian  service  on  the  part  of  a  native 
woman.  A  "Bible  Woman"  read  the  Bible  tO' 
other  women,  went  from  neighbor  to  neighbor, 
repeating  texts  and  explanations  as  she  had 
heard  them,  or,  if  she  could  not  read,  she  recited 
memorized  passages  of  Scripture  or  sang  a  hymn. 
The  phrase  will  always  signify  those  who  make 
the  Bible  known  to  others.  The  Bible  woman 
ingeniously  invents  opportunity  to  introduce 
the  Word  of  God  to  the  heathen.  She  teaches 
women  to  read  in  order  that  they  may  study  the 
Bible;  she  gathers  children  about  her  to  teach 
them  Bible  verses  and  stories;  she  enforces  her 
Bible  teaching  by  the  example  of  her  own  self- 
sacrificing,  happy  Christian  life.  In  the  progress 
of  missions,  however,  the  content  of  the  term 
has  expanded  until  it  covers  wide  and  varied 
activities.  What  does  not  the  Bible  woman  do? 
She  is  equally  ready  to  join  in  a  husking-bee  or 
a  grape-gathering,  to  help  a  tired  mother  with 
her  sewing  or  in  the  care  of  sick  children.  Groups 
of  women  before  their  doors  knitting  or  spinning, 
tho  they  sometimes  curse  the  woman  and 
the  Book,  more  frequently  respond  to  her  pleas- 
ant greeting  with  an  invitation  to  stop.  In 
1901,  when  people  were  dying  of  plague  in 
Bombay  at  the  rate  of  four  hundred  daily,  the 
Bible  women  kept  at  their  posts,  visiting  segre- 
gation camps.  They  move  with  gentle  ministra- 
tion from  one  bedside  to  another  in  all  the  women's 
wards  of  mission  hospitals  in  Asia,  and  conduct 
services  in  their  waiting  rooms  for  patients. 
The  writer  has  seen  them  addressing  rooms  full 
of  listeners  in  the  Margaret  Williamson  Hospital, 
Shanghai,  at  Dr.  Benn's  dispensary  in  Tientsin, 
teaching  convalescents  at  Canton  Hospital.  At 
Tooker  Memorial  Hospital,  Su-chau-fu,  patients, 
especially  from  the  country,  often  begin  to  arrive 
early  in  the  morning,  and  one  of  the  Bible  women 
has  many  precious  opportunities  to  preach  to 
these  early  comers  as  she  sits  in  the  gate-house 
with  her  sewing.  These  women  also  do  a  road- 
side work,  conveying  the  first  elementary  notions 
of  Christianity  to  their  fellow  passengers  on  the 
boat,  or  to  the  traveler  resting,  like  themselves, 
in  the  tea-house  or  under  a  wayside  tree.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  relations  of  kinship  or  clan- 
ship, they  penetrate  to  remote  country  districts 
where  the  foreigner  has  never  gone,  and  publish 
the  name  of  Jesus  where  ear  has  never  heard  it. 
In  wet  and  cold,  more  often  in  blazing  heat,  they 
thread  narrow  city  lanes  and  teach  the  alphabet, 
perhaps,  to  the  secluded  women  of  India. 
They  are  leading  spirits  in  the  women's  meetings, 
they  explain  the  bhajans,  they  are  a  right  hand 
to  the  pastor.  It  is  they  who  arrange  for  the 
sick  to  be  cared  for,  who  advise  mothers  about 
their  children,  urge  their  education,  discourage 
early  marriage,  warn  against  opium.  "These 
Bible  women  in  many  ways  prove  a  blessing. 
The  other  day,  three  of  them  heard  a  fierce 
quarrel  going  on  at  a  village  over  distribution 
of  the  harvest.  The  women,  who  were  farmers 
and  Mahars  in  caste,  had  come  to  blows;  with 
God's  blessing  the  Bible  women  became  peace- 


Bible   "Women 
Bingham 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


90 


makers  and  all  the  belligerents  were  soon  sitting 
together,  listening  to  the  word  of  Christ's  love." 
"A  class  has  been  formed,"  (says  the  report  of 
the  American  Marathi  Mission)  of  old  women, 
some  of  them  blind  and  crippled;  a  Bible  reader 
teaches  them  four  times  a  week.  The  Bible 
women  have  been  very  faithful  to  the  Dorcas 
■Society;  many  garments  have  been  made  for  the 
poor  and  money  gathered  for  materials."  "A 
staff  of  nineteen  women  are  occupied  in  our 
Bible  work  (LMS  in  Calcutta).  Men,  also, 
welcome  these  modest  Christian  workers  who 
often  have  an  opportunity  of  delivering  the 
Gospel  message  to  men  of  rank  and  position." 
The  Bible  woman  is  the  link  between  mission- 
ary and  native  church.  She  clears  up  misunder- 
standings and  interprets  each  to  the  other.  She 
supplements  the  missionary's  halting  tongue 
with  her  fluent  prayers.  She  is  her  escort  to  the 
high  class  house  where  rigorous  etiquette  must 
be  observed,  and  she  delicately  chooses  the 
proper  moment  in  which  to  introduce  her  Gospel 
message.  "Our  efforts,"  wrote  a  missionary  in 
Travancore,  "would  amount  to  comparatively 
little  in  such  a  climate  had  we  not  a  band  of  native 
women  to  go  forth  under  our  direction  to  labor 
from  day  to  day."  "We  must  repeat  ourselves 
in  our  Christian  women,"  said  another. 

The  superior  natural  equipment  of  the  Bible 
woman  was  well  expressed  by  Miss  Ricketts  at 
the  Shanghai  Conference  in  1890: 

"She  has  been  in  the  exact  condition  of  her 
hearers.  She  knows  the  depth  of  their  ignorance, 
their  habits,  temptations,  modes  of  thinking  and 
feeling,  and  therefore  she  can  appeal  to  them  and 
carry  home  her  appeal  by  illustrations  drawn 
from  their  common  life.  She  has  at  her  command 
a  store  of  proverbs  which  give  point  to  what  she 
says.  She  knows  how  much  may  be  expected 
of  them  in  coming  regularly  to  worship,  and  can 
meet  objections  to  keeping  the  Sabbath.  One 
of  our  Swatow  Bible  women  can  almost  always 
gain  and  keep  the  ear  of  her  countrywomen. 
She  carries  with  her  a  wholesome,  sunny  atmos- 
phere which  the  people  enjoy.  When  they  ply 
her  with  irrelevant  questions  she  replies,  "I  have 
only  one  little  mouth  and  cannot  answer  so 
many  things.  What  I  am  saying  is  of  life  and 
death   concern   to   you." 

The  ideal  Bible  woman  reflects  the  missionary's 
methods,  and  energy  and,  to  a  degree,  absorbs 
her  cultivation.  Her  eyes  see  what  sort  of 
instruction  the  country  class  needs  and  discern 
the  secret  of  sudden  coldness  in  the  church. 
She  is  the  missionary's  indispensable  helper,  and, 
tho  many  times  proving  a  disappointment, 
and  often  taxing  that  forbearance  which  is  the 
price  paid  by  superior  endowment  and  training 
to  less  disciplined  assistance,  missionary  and 
Bible  woman  mutually  depend  upon  one  another, 
and  shut  up  together  as  they  often  are  for  weeks 
of  itineration,  sharing  hardship  and  persecution, 
their  relation  in  numberless  cases  is  that  of 
established  trust  and  friendship.  Every  reader 
of  missionary  magazines  will  here  and  there  come 
upon  such  testimony  as  the  following,  in  a  mission- 
ary's letter  from  Marsovan,  Asia  Minor:  "Yeran- 
ouhi,  the  choicest  of  the  Bible  women,  closed  her 
lovely  and  most  useful  earthly  life  in  November, 
1901.  Her  loss  seems  irreparable,  and  was  felt 
as  keenly  by  the  missionaries  as  by  the  poor 
people  to  whom  she  had  so  long,  so  wisely,  and 
so  tenderly  ministered." 

While  the  old  type  of  uneducated  Bible  woman 


still  obtains  in  places,  there  is  a  growing  senti' 
ment  in  favor  of  training.  At  least  eleven  of  th* 
leading  British  and  American  Societies  report 
distinctive  "Bible  Training  Schools"  with  an 
enrollment  of  468  pupils.  Thorough  courses  of 
Bible  instruction  characterize  these  schools,  and, 
in  most  of  them,  at  least  music  and  physiology 
are  taught,  and  out-door  practice  is  required. 
The  school  of  the  Women's  Union  Society  at 
Yokohama  has  a  four  years'  course.  Bible  women 
generally  work  under  missionary  inspection  and 
render  reports.  Conferences  are  occasionally 
held  for  their  benefit.  The  women  are  often 
of  good  social  position  and  genteel  appearance, 
but  blindness  has  not  prevented  some  from 
great  usefulness  in  this  calling. 

Location;  Numbers:  We  rarely  hear  of  Bible 
women  in  missions  to  Roman  Catholic  countries, 
to  the  South  Seas  or  on  the  continent  of  Africa. 
They  are  employed  in  the  Turkish  Empire,  in 
Persia,  Egypt,  Korea,  Japan,  China  and  especially 
all  over  India.  "At  least  two  thousand  (in 
India),  trained  by  -Vmerican  and  English  mission 
schools,  have  access  to  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  Hindu  homes." 

When  Miss  Ellen  Stone  of  Salonika  was  cap- 
tured by  brigands  she  had  a  band  of  nine  Bulgar- 
ian Bible  women  associated  with  her.  Of  these 
it  is  said:  "The  women,  distaffs  in  hand,  spin- 
ning as  they  walk,  not  to  lose  a  precious  minute, 
Testament  and  hymn-book  tucked  in  the  girdle, 
often  with  babies  on  their  backs,  gather  for  the 
prayer  hour.  It  is  a  sight  to  make  believers  in 
the  work  of  the  Bible  woman,  to  see  these  hard- 
handed,  labor-bowed  mothers  of  many  children 
able  to  read  and  sing,  thanks  to  her  patience  and 
encouragement." 

Certain  cities  are  centers  of  extensive  labors 
in  this  line.  Jaffna,  Ceylon,  is  worked  by  over 
fifty  Bible  women.  In  Madura,  Madras  Presi- 
dency, thirty-one  have  access  to  a  thousand  non- 
Christian  homes  of  the  city  where  Bible  instruc- 
tion is  gladly  received,  and  seventeen  other 
women  visit  in  seventy-two  villages  and  instruct 
over  a  thousand  pupils.  At  Ahmednagar,  Bom- 
bay Presidency,  ten  classes,  including  250  illit- 
erate women,  are  taught  by  seventeen  Bible 
women  who  also  have  pupils  in  private  houses. 
Thirty-six  women  of  the  Union  Society  are 
laboring  in  and  about  Yokohama.  Foochow, 
China,  is  another  center,  where  three  missions 
engage  in  training  women  for  Bible  work. 

As  to  the  number  of  Bible  women  employed 
in  Protestant  missions,  only  a  very  partial 
estimate  is  possible.  In  1899  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  received  returns  from  552 
women  under  its  direction.  The  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  in  1902,  reported  a  staff  of  271 
Bible  women,  the  Church  of  England  Zenana 
Society  242,  the  American  Baptist  Union  250, 
the  Presbyterian  Board  (North)  225,  the  Con- 
gregational Woman's  Board  (Boston)  over  200. 
"The  Zenana,  Bible  and  Medical  Society  (London) 
reports  92,  and  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land 36.  'The  American  Marathi  Mission  employs 
109  Bible  women  as  against  a  total  of  84  pastors, 
preachers  and  men  Bible  readers. 

Those  workers  who  appear  on  the  pages  of 
reports  are  usually  paid,  and  by  this  method,  a 
mission  ensures  to  itself  the  advantages  of  con- 
secutiveness  and  definite  hours  of  labor.  The 
wages  of  Bible  women  range  from  25  to  50  dollars 
a  year.  In  addition  to  this  recognized  force, 
there  are  many  voluntary  workers,  the  amount 


91 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bible  Women 
Blnsbain 


and  value  of  whose  services  can  never  be  tabu- 
lated. In  some  of  the  newer  missions,  it  is 
aimed  to  develop  this  voluntary  corps  and  to 
reduce  the  number  of  paid  workers  to  a  minimum. 
The  Mission  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  (North) 
in  Korea  is  a  marked  example  of  this  aim.  Hun- 
dreds of  Korean  women  are  voluntarily  doing 
the  work  of  a  Bible  woman,  as  against  a  handful 
who  are  paid.  The  writer  has  seen  one  effec- 
tively preaching  of  her  own  free  will  to  a  miscel- 
laneous crowd  on  a  river  bank.  These  Korean 
volunteer  Bible  women  were  met,  night  after 
night,  in  country  meetings,  where  they  found  the 
Scripture  passages  for  the  slow,  and  set  the 
example  of  quiet  and  order  to  the  uninitiated. 
They  were  heard  of,  selling  Testaments  as  they 
traveled  about  in  the  conduct  of  their  own  busi- 
ness, or  led  meetings  with  beginners  in  the 
Christian  life.  Their  cleanliness,  their  pure 
language  and  their  Gospel  message,  all  were  re- 
enforced  by  the  fact  that  no  pecuniary  reward 
had  touched  their  hands. 

BICKNELL,  Henry:  Missionary  of  the  LMS 
to  Tahiti,  1796-1820.  In  1819  he  baptized  King 
Pomare,  and  also  assisted  him  in  the  framing  of 
a  code  of  laws  by  means  of  which  good  govern- 
ment on  the  island  was  formally  established. 
Died  at  Tahiti,  August  7,  1820. 

BICKERSTETH,  Edward:  Died  August  5, 
1897. 

M.  A.  Fellow  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge. 
Ordained  deacon  in  1873;  ordained  priest  in 
1874.  Chief  station,  Delhi,  India,  from  1877-81. 
Transferred  to  Japan  in  1886.  Consecrated 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1886,  second  English 
Bishop  in  Japan.  Son  of  E.  H.  Bickersteth, 
Bishop  of  Exeter,  and  grandson  of  a  former  Sec- 
retary of  the  CMS.  He  was  moved  by  the  mis- 
sionary Bishop  French  of  Lahore  to  devote  his 
life  to  a  missionary  career;  and,  influenced  by 
French,  he  planned  a  brotherhood  of  Cambridge 
men,  which  should  form  a  strong  and  concen- 
trated mission  at  some  central  station,  in  affilia- 
tion with  one  of  the  established  societies.  Bick- 
ersteth's  hereditary  associations  naturally  led 
him  to  approach  the  CMS,  but,  difficulties  arising, 
he  concluded  matters  with  the  SPG,  and  Delhi 
was  chosen  for  the  new  "Cambridge  Mission." 

Bishop  Bickersteth  arrived  in  Japan  April 
16,  1886,  and  at  his  request  he  was  allowed  to 
make  his  residence  at  Tokio.  His  great  achieve- 
ment is  spoken  of  as  the  formation  of  the  Nippon 
Sei-kokwai  or  "Japan  Catholic  Church".  He  felt 
that  the  peculiarly  independent  spirit  of  the  Jap- 
anese and  the  tendency  toward  a  latitudinarian 
development  of  Christianity  among  them,  ren- 
dered it  important  that  the  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation, with  its  doctrines  and  forms,  should  be 
positively  recognized.  He  soon  felt  the  value 
and  importance  of  woman's  work  in  Japan;  and 
wrote  to  the  Society  these  urgent  words:  "I  feel 
strongly  that  the  policy  of  working  through 
clergy  only,  without  the  assistance  of  lady  mis- 
sionaries, has  in  the  past  crippled  our  Missions." 
And  since  then,  Japan  has  always  claimed  and 
received  a  good  share  of  SPG  women. 

In  1887  Bishop  Bickersteth,  accompanied  by 
Bishop  Scott,  of  North  China,  visited  Korea,  and 
their  appeal  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  SPG  Mission 
in  this  important  field.  In  1892  the  Bishop  set 
himself  to  visit  every  station  and  outstation  of 
the  Anglican  Missions  in  Japan,  and  his  study 


of  this  large  diocese,  with  its  extremities  2,000 
miles  apart,  led  him  to  the  conviction  that  Japan 
now  needed  more  bishops.  His  suggestions 
were  accepted  and  acted  upon.  Bishop  Bicker- 
steth did  much  toward  consolidating  the  Japan- 
ese Church  under  American,  English  and  Cana- 
dian Episcopal  Missions  into  the  Nippon  Sei- 
kokwai  with  its  complete  synodical  organiza- 
tion, and  his  name  will  also  be  remembered  as 
the  founder  of  tlie  two  community  missions  of 
St.  Andrew  and  St.  Hilda,  the  former  of  which 
(for  men)  renewed  its  connection  with  the  SPG 
in  1900.  The  Bickersteth  Hall,  in  Delhi,  India 
(built  in  1891)  affords  a  splendid  opportunity 
for  preaching  the  Gospel  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
Mohammedan  quarter,  and  the  Bickersteth  Me- 
morial Studentships  for  the  maintenance  of  stu- 
dents studying  for  the  ministry  at  St.  Andrew's 
Divinity  School,  Tokio,  supply  a  felt  need. 

BIHE.     See  Angola. 

BIJAPUR:  Chief  town  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,  India. 
Formerly  an  imposing  city,  it  now  has  (1891) 
about  16,000  inhabitants.  Station  of  the  Basel 
Missionary  Society  (1885),  with  (1902)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  9  native  workers,  4  village 
schools  and  53  communicants.  Name  written 
by  the  Germans  Bidschapur. 

BIJNAUR:  a  town  in  the  Rohilkhand  division. 
United  Provinces,  India.  Population  (1891), 
16,236. 

Station  of  tlie  ME,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  41  native  workers,  men  and  women,  4  chap- 
els, 20  Sunday  schools,  17  village  schools,  1  high 
school,  1  Young  People's  Society  and  1,216  pro- 
fessing Christians.     Also  written  Bijnour. 

BILASPUR:  a  town  and  railway  station  in 
the  Central  Provinces,  India.  Population  (1891), 
11,236.  Station  of  the  Christian  (Disciples) 
Woman's  Board  of  Missions  (1893),  with  7  mis- 
sionary women,  of  whom  one  is  a  physician,  1 
chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  2  village  schools,  a  dis- 
pensary, a  hospital,  an  orphanage  and  70  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

BILIN:  Name  of  a  tribe  inhabiting  a  part  of 
the  northern  regions  of  Abyssinia.  About 
half  of  the  tribe  are  Roman  Catholics,  a  part  are 
Mohammedans,  and  the  rest  belong  to  the 
Abyssinian  Church.  The  tribe  is  also  called 
Bogos. 

BILIN  LANGUAGE.     See  Bogos. 

BILSI:  A  town  in  the  Rohilkhand  division. 
Central  Provinces,  India;  station  of  the  ME, 
with  23  native  workers,  men  and  women,  11 
Sunday  schools,  7  village  schools,  a  Young 
People's  Society  and  960  professing  Christians. 

BIMLIPATAM:  A  town  on  the  coast  of  the 
Vizagapatam  district,  Madras,  India;  station  of 
the  BMP  (1876),  with  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  1  missionary  woman,  6  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  2  outstations,  1  chapel,  1  Sun- 
day school,  1  theological  seminary  and  22  church 
members. 

BINA:  A  town  and  railway  station  in  Central 
India,  S.  W.  of  Lalitpur;  station  of  the  FCMS 
(1894),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  mission- 
ary woman,  3  native  workers,  1  chapel,  1  Sun- 
day school,  1  village  school,  1  orphanage  and  60 
church  members. 

BINGHAM,  Hiram:  born  at  Bennington,  Vt., 
October    30,    1789;     graduated    at    Middlebury 


Bins-yne 

Blliid;  Alisislons  to 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


9Z 


College,  1816,  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1819.  A  visit  to  the  foreign  mission  school  at 
Cornwall,  Ct.,  while  Henry  Obookiah  was  there 
awakened  in  him  a  desire  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  He  was  ordained  September 
29,  1819;  sailed  October  23  of  the  same  year 
as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  and  was  stationed 
at  Honolulu.  His  undaunted  courage,  inflexible 
will,  combined  with  his  good  nature  and  cheerful- 
ness, fitted  him  to  meet  the  opposition  in  that 
stronghold  of  wickedness.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1841  on  account  of  the  ill  health 
of  Mrs.  Bingham.  Six  years  after  his  return  he 
published  History  of  the  Mission  down  to  1845, 
in  an  octavo  volume  of  600  pages,  a  work  of  great 
historic  value.     He  died  in  1869  after  a  brief  ill- 


ness. 

BING-YAE. 


See    PlNG-YANG-HSIEN. 


BIRD,  Rev.  William:  Died  August  30,  1901. 
On  the  17th  of  August,  1901,  Rev.  William  Bird 
celebrated  the  79th  anniversary  of  his  birthday. 
He  had  entered  on  his  fiftieth  year  of  service  in 
the  Syria  Mission. 

He  first  came  to  Syria  in  1823  as  an  infant. 
When  his  parents  and  their  associates  were 
obliged  to  flee  from  Syria,  this  child  became 
treasurer  of  the  Syria  Mission,  his  bed  and  pillow 
being  the  safe  deposit  vaults  for  the  cash,  thus 
eluding  the  rapacity  of  the  Turkish  officials  and 
the  violence  of  a  lawless  populace. 

Not  long  after,  when  he  returned  a  second 
time,  with  his  parents,  to  Beirut,  the  entire 
Protestant  community  came  in  a  little  boat  to 
meet  them.     It  consisted  of  two  men. 

In  1853  Mr.  and  Mrs.  William  Bird  began  their 
missionary  career  (under  the  ABCFM),  the  last 
twenty  years  of  which  was  spent  in  the  service 
of  the  Presbyterian  Board  (North).  Having 
spent  his  childhood  in  Syria,  the  difficult  Arabic 
language  was  practically  his  vernacular.  His 
life  was  full  of  zeal  and  earnestness  and  self- 
denial.  He  preached  with  power  and  marked 
effect.  He  was  loved  and  honored  by  the  people. 
Wherever  he  went  he  was  welcomed.  He  ate 
with  the  people  and  slept  as  they  slept  when  on 
his  missionary  tours,  winning  their  confidence  and 
friendship  by  identifying  himself  with  them,  as 
few  missionaries  are  able  to  do.  He  was  particu- 
larly attractive  in  his  school  work  and  enthusias- 
tically welcomed  by  all  children.  He  was  loved 
and  honored  by  all  who  knew  him,  and  is  deeply 
mourned  by  all  his  associates  and  acquaint- 
ances. 

BIRI  SIRl:  A  village  on  the  borders  of  Assam 
in  Eastern  Bengal,  India,  N.  E.  of  Nasirabad; 
station  of  the  Victorian  Baptist  Foreign  Mission 
Society  (1893),  with  31  native  workers,  20  out- 
stations,  20  chapels,  18  Sunday  schools,  20  vil- 
lage schools,  1  training  school  for  women  work- 
ers and  512  professing  Christians. 

BIRTLE :  A  town  in  the  western  part  of  Mani- 
toba, Canada;  station  of  the  PCC  (1883),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  missionary  women,  and 
1  high  school. 

BISAULI :  A  village  in  the  Rohilkhand  District, 
United  Provinces,  India,  N.  W.  of  Budaun; 
station  of  the  ME,  with  20  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  2  chapels,  16  Sunday  schools,  6  vil- 
lage schools,  1  Young  People's  Society,  and  1,290 
professing  Christians. 

BISHNUPUR:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  S.  E. 
of    Bankura;    station  of   the    WMS.      Statistics 


included  in  those  of  Bankura.     Name  also  written 
Bishenpore. 

BISHOP,  Artemus:  Born  at  Pompey,  N.  Y., 
December  30,  1795;  graduated  at  Union  Col- 
lege, 1819,  and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
1822;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  in  the 
first  reenforcements  for  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
1822.  He  was  stationed  at  Kailua,  and  was 
associated  with  Mr.  Thurston  in  the  translation 
of  the  Bible.  After  residing  twelve  years  at 
Kailua,  he  removed  to  Ewa,  on  Oahu,  where  he 
labored  twenty  years  with  great  success.  Here 
he  translated  Pilgrim's  Progress  and  many  other 
books.  He  never  left  the  islands  except  once,, 
and  that  as  a  delegate  to  the  Marquesas  Mission, 
in  1858.  He  died  at  Honolulu,  December  18, 
1872. 

BISRAMPUR:  A  town  in  Chota  Nagpur,  Bengal, 
India;  station  of  the  German  Evangelical  Synod 
Missionary  Society,  U.  S.  A.  (1869),  with  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  missionary's  wife,  1  missionary 
woman  (physician),  22  native  workers,  men  and. 
women,  9  outstations,  10  chapels,  1  Sunday 
school,  6  village  schools,  1  high  school,  1  indus- 
trial school,  1  theological  seminary,  1  orphanage,, 
a  hospital,  a  dispensary,  and  670  communicants. 
BISTOPUR:  A  town  E.  of  Calcutta,  Bengal, 
India;  station  of  the  BMS  (1844),  with  4  native 
workers,  12  outstations,  14  village  schools,  1 
high  school,  13  Sunday  schools,  7  young  people's 
societies,  and  475  church  members. 

BITHYNIA :  In  ancient  times  a  section  of  Asia 
Minor,  bordering  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the 
Gulf  of  Nicomedia.  There  is  no  present  province 
of  that  name,  but  the  term  is  still  applied  in 
general  to  the  same  region.  It  includes  espe- 
cially the  cities  of  Brousa  and  Nicomedia,  with  no 
very  well  defined  limits  either  to  the  north  or  east. 
BITLIS:  A  city  of  Eastern  Turkey,  150  miles 
southwest  of  Erzerum.  Climate,  healthy,  dry. 
Population,  25,000,  Mohammedan  Kurds  and 
Turks  and  Christian  Armenians.  Its  situation 
among  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  is  peculiarly 
beautiful,  and  surrounded  as  it  is  by  high  peaks, 
it  served  for  a  long  time  as  the  virtual  capital  of 
the  Kurds.  The  rough,  turbulent  character  of  the 
people  has  often  occasioned  trouble  and  even 
danger;  a  massacre  of  Armenians  occurred  in  the 
city  in  1895. 

Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1859),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  3  missionary  women,  29  native 
workers,  men  and  \women,  12  outstations,  9 
chapels,  3  Sunday  schools,  19  village  schools,  2 
high  schools,  1  industrial  school,  and  250  church 
members. 

BIZERTA:  A  seaport  town  and  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  bishop,  in  Tunis,  Africa;  station 
of  the  NAM  (1898),  with  2  missionary  women 
and  1  Sunday  school.  Also  station  of  the  (Swe- 
dish) Women's  Foreign  Mission  Work  (1898), 
with  2  missionary  women. 

BLACKFOOT  CROSSING:  A  station  of  the 
CMS  (1883)  on  the  S.  Saskatchewan  River, 
Alberta,  Canada,  with  3  missionaries  (1  a  phy- 
sician), 1  missionary's  wife,  2  native  workers,  1 
chapel,  1  high  school,  1  dispensary  and  94  bap- 
tized Christians. 

BLACKFOOT  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the 
central  group  of  the  North  American  family  of 
languages.  It  is  spoken  by  some  7,000  Indians 
in  the  Province  of  Alberta,  Canada.  It  is  written 
with  Roman  letters. 


«3 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


BIns-yae 
Blind;  nil»siou8  to 


BLACKLEAD  ISLAND :  A  station  of  the  CMS 
among  the  Eskimos,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Cumber- 
land Sound,  north  of  Labrador  (1894),  with  2 
missionaries  (1  with  his  wife),  1  village  school, 
and  5  baptized  Christians. 

BLANTYRE:  Chief  town  of  the  Nyasaland 
(Britisli)  Protectorate,  Central  Africa,  situated 
in  the  ShirS  Highlands,  S.  of  Lake  Nyasa,  at  an 
elevation  of  3,000  feet.   Population,  about  6,500. 

Station  of  the  CSFM  (1874) ,  which  has  had  many 
difficulties  to  overcome,  some  due  to  early  inex- 
perience, some  to  the  intrigues  of  jealous  mer- 
chants and  some  to  inevitable  collisions  with  Arab 
slave  dealers.  The  place  is  now,  however,  pros- 
pering, has  an  appreciable  commerce  and  offers 
safety  for  life  and  property.  The  Church  of  Scot- 
land has,  at  Blantyre,  16  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  of  whom  3  are  physicians,  22  native 
-workers,  1  chapel,  13  village  schools,  1  high  school, 
1  industrial  school,  special  work  among  lepers,  4 
dispensaries,  1  hospital,  1  printing  house  and 
370  church  members. 

It  is  a  station,  also,  of  the  NBC  (1889),  with  2 
missionaries,  3  native  workers,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  industrial  school,  and  100  professing 
Christians. 

BLAUBERG:  A  town  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  Transvaal  Colony,  South  Africa.  Station 
of  the  Berlin  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
(1868),  with  1  missionary,  11  native  workers,  3 
outstations  and  101  communicants. 

BLEBY,  Rev.  Henry:  Born  in  Winchcombe, 
England,  March  16,  1809.  Died  May  22,  1882. 
Missionary  under  the  WMS.  He  was  received  into 
the  ministry  in  1830  and  sent  out  to  the  Jamaica 
district  in  the  West  Indies,  where  he  rendered 
valuable  services  to  the  Church  of  God.  He  was 
prominent  among  a  noble  band  of  men  who, 
in  the  midst  of  deadly  persecution,  counted  not 
their  lives  dear  to  themselves  if  they  could  but 
mitigate  the  sufferings  of  their  oppressed  fellow 
creatures.  On  one  occasion  the  enemies  of  mis- 
sions to  the  slaves  seized  him,  daubed  his  body 
with  pitch,  and  took  a  lighted  candle  to  set  the 
pitch  on  fire.  He  was  only  saved  by  the  brave 
interference  of  his  wife.  The  experiment  of 
Wesleyan  missions  in  the  West  Indies  owed 
much  of  its  success  to  the  courage  and  faithful- 
ness of  Mr.  Bleby  in  the  discharge  of  the  difficult 
duties  that  devolved  upon  him. 

He  was  the  author  of  the  following  works: 
Death  Struggles  of  Slavery  (being  a  narrative  of 
facts  in  Jamaica  during  the  two  years  imme- 
diately preceding  negro  emancipation).  Scenes 
inthe  Caribbean  Sea.  Reign  of  Terror  (W.  Indies). 
Romance  without  Fiction;  or,  Sketches  from  the 
Portfolio  of  an  old  Missionary. 

BLIND  OF  THE  FEMALE  SEX  IN  CHINA; 
German  Mission  to.  See  Germany;  Missionary 
Societies  in. 

BLIND;  Missions  to  the:  This  is  one  of  the 
works  of  general  philanthropy  for  which  non- 
Christian  peoples  are  indebted  to  Christian  mis- 
sions. Pagan,  and  more  especially  Mohamme- 
dan, peoples  give  help  to  the  blind  as  they  do  to 
other  impotent  folk.  The  emotion  of  pity  is  a 
characteristic  of  the  human  race,  of  which,  hap- 
pily, traces  may  be  found  even  where  self-seeking 
sometimes  seems  to  have  extinguished  all  other 
motives  of  action.  But  in  the  non-Christian 
countries  that  habit  of  thought  for  the  welfare 
of  others  is  lacking  which  Jesus  Christ  teaches 


His  followers.  As  a  rule,  in  such  countries  the 
helplessness  of  the  blind  is  regarded  as  a  natural 
calamity  for  which  alleviation  cannot  be  imag- 
ined, and  which  therefore  separates  them  from 
any  possible  connection  with  the  interests  of 
social  life.  Pity  for  their  condition  is  superficial 
and  finds  sufficient  expression  in  occasional  doles 
of  food  or  pence,  and  only  occasionally  in  the 
construction  of  shelters  for  them.  The  lot  of  a 
sightless  one,  at  the  best,  if  he  is  one  of  the 
common  people,  is  that  of  a  plaintive  suppliant 
who  suffers  in  ragged  and  lonely  uncertainty 
until  death  releases  him.  Schemers  for  easy  gain 
take  advantage  of  the  calamity  in  some  of  the 
Asiatic  countries.  A  blind  child  is  taken  in  hand 
and  cared  for,  as  a  business  investment  by  men 
who  clutch  as  their  due  the  proceeds  of  the  beg- 
gar's appeal  to  the  pitiful.  In  Turkey,  men  make 
it  their  profession  to  scour  the  country  in  search 
of  such  impotent  folk  in  order  to  hire  or  buy 
them  from  their  relatives,  and  then  to  exploit 
their  miserable  condition  on  the  streets  of  the 
cities.  In  China,  it  was  in  past  years  generally, 
and  in  some  places  still  is,  the  custom  of  similar 
harpies  to  gather  up  blind  girls  and  house  and 
feed  and  clothe  them  in  order  to  make  money 
by  thrusting  them  into  a  life  of  debauchery.  In 
such  lands  the  best  that  can  happen  to  a  blind 
person  who  is  of  the  poorer  classes  is  to  be  left 
alone  that  people  may  toss  him  a  beggar's  dole 
and  pass  by  on  the  other  side.  But  let  the  Gospel 
enter  such  a  land  and  the  missionary  who  is, 
charged  to  make  it  known  cannot  rest  until  he 
has  devised  means  of  giving  the  blind  the  power 
to  read,  to  earn  a  living,  and  to  feel,  by  means 
of  this  kindijess  which  appreciates  his  deeper 
needs,  the  love  of  Jesus  Christ  for  outcasts. 

The  work  of  missionaries  for  the  blind  cannot 
here  be  catalogd  in  detail.  But  it  is  a  work 
which  should  not  be  passed  by  without  reference. 
In  China  an  unusually  large  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation become  blind  through  smallpox,  leprosy, 
and  ophthalmia.  For  neitlier  disease  is  any  sane 
medical  treatment  provided  by  the  natives. 
Filthy  and  immoral  habits,  and  the  brutality  of 
parents  who  wilfully  blind  their  children  through 
greed  of  gain,  are  also  causes  of  blindness  in 
China.  As  far  back  as  1857  the  mission  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  (U.  S.)  at  Shanghai 
established  a  school  for  the  blind.  In  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  empire  efforts  to  help  the  blind 
took  a  new  development  when  William  Murray, 
then  a  colporteur  of  the  National  Bible  Society  of 
Scotland,  succeeded  in  applying  the  Braille  sys- 
tem of  raised  dots  to  the  Chinese  characters. 
His  Christian  sympathy  for  the  wretched  Chinese 
blind  drew  the  whole  power  of  his  mind  to  their 
relief,  with  the  result  that  he  solved  the  problem 
of  enabling  them  to  read  books. 

The  system  which  Mr.  Murray  arranged  is  so 
simple  that  even  Chinese  who  can  see  have  found 
the  Braille  alphabet  of  dots  more  easy  to  master 
and  use  than  the  quaint  but  perplexing  characters 
written  by  their  own  ancient  scribes.  Mr.  Mur- 
ray readily  obtained  money  to  open  a  school  for 
the  blind  at  Peking  in  1881,  which  has  not  only 
taught  blind  beggars  to  read  and  write  and  to 
work  for  their  own  support,  but  has  transformed 
some  of  these  hopelessly  dependent  creatures 
into  active  missionary  agents,  as  Scripture  read- 
ers, singers  of  sacred  songs,  and  organists  in 
Christian  chapels.  The  amazement  of  the  na- 
tives on  seeing  a  blind  child  read  with  his  fingers 
arouses    the    deepest    interest,    and    becomes    a 


Blind;  Missions  to 
BlueflelAs 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


94 


means  of  turning  men's  minds  to  study  of  the 
reasons  for  the  intelligent  humanity  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Clirist. 

The  Braille  system  has  been  adopted  by  some 
of  the  missionary  societies,  and  as  tlie  children 
in  the  blind  schools  learn  to  write  it,  they  also 
begin  preparation  of  a  stock  of  Bible  verses  and 
other  useful  matter  which,  once  comrnitted  to 
paper,  they  can  read  again  and  again.  The 
Bible  societies  have  made  this  and  the  Moon 
system  the  means  of  publishing,  in  the  Mandarin 
and  three  local  dialects  of  Chinese,  Gospels  or 
other  parts  of  Scripture  for  the  blind. 

What  Mr.  Murray  did  for  the  Chinese  of  the 
Peking  region  was  done  for  the  people  of  a  good 
part  of  Turkey  by  the  late  Rev.  Elias  Riggs, 
D.D.,  aided  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Moon.  Some  of  the 
Gospels  have  been  prepared  for  the  blind  in 
Armenian  and  in  Turkish.  One  or  the  other  of 
these  two  systems  has  been  adopted  for  the  uses 
of  the  blind  in  Arabic,  in  seven  of  the  languages 
of  India,  in  Burmese,  in  Sinhalese,  in  the  Toba 
language  of  Sumatra,  and  in  the  language  of 
Uganda,  in  Africa.  Thus  in  many  lands  num- 
bers whose  case  had  been  given  up  by  their 
nearest  friends  as  beyond  human  aid,  have  been 
taken  in  hand  for  Christ's  sake  by  strangers  from 
beyond  the  seas  and  have  been  caused  to  see  the 
light. 

There  are  now  12  institutions  for  the  blind  in 
China,  maintained  by  the  PN,  the  CMS,  the  PE, 
the  CIM,  the  WMS,  the  PCE,  the  Berlin  Ladies' 
Missionary  Association,  and  the  German  Mission 
to  the  Chinese  Blind,  besides  the  Murray  Mission 
and  another  independent  mission  expressly  to 
the  blind.  In  India  6  such  institutions  are  car- 
ried on  by  the  CMS,  the  CSM,  the  CEZ,  the  CP, 
and  the  ABCFM.  In  Japan  there  are  4  mission- 
ary institutions  for  the  blind  established  by  the 
CMS,  the  MCC ,  and  an  independent  mission. 
Another  independent  organization  carries  on  a 
school  for  the  blind  in  Korea.  The  PCE  has  an 
outdoor  mission  to  the  blind  in  Formosa,  and 
cooperates  with  the  Japanese  Government  in 
giving  permanent  asylum  to  those  who  need  it. 
The  British  Syrian  Schools  Committee  has  opened 
three  schools  for  the  blind  in  Syria,  one  of  them 
on  the  ruins  of  Tyre — that  ancient  queen  of  the 
Mediterranean.  In  nearly  all  of  these  institu- 
tions there  is  provision  to  endow  the  pupils  with 
simple  industries  which  will  give  them  occupa- 
tion and  support.  But  the  number  of  asylums 
and  schools  for  the  blind  does  not  represent  the 
worlv  of  missions  for  these  wrecked  lives.  In 
every  mission  field  where  no  such  schools  exist, 
individual  missionaries  teach,  and  elevate,  and 
comfort,  and  make  happy  individuals  who  but 
for  them  would  never  know  the  meaning  of  sym- 
pathy. Moreover,  this  liumanitarian  work  has 
stirred  non-Christians  to  imitate  or  support  so 
far-reaching  a  charity.  Even  in  Turkey,  Moham- 
medans have  been  led  in  recent  years  to  copy 
'  this  part  of  tiie  teaching  of  the  Christians. 

There  is  no  point  of  comparison  between  the 
non-Christian  religions  and  Christianity  which 
reveals  a  sharper  contrast  than  their  idea  of  what 
constitutes  kindly  care  for  the  feeble  and  help- 
less. The  man  who  does  not  know  Christ  may 
probably  feel  pity,  but  his  religion  does  not 
direct  his  pity  to  reach  its  proper  goal.  So  he 
gives  the  sufferer  a  penny  and  leaves  him  as  he 
was.  But  the  man  who  has  learned  from  Jesus 
Christ  cannot  leave  the  blind  man  when  he  has 
given  him  bread.     He  sees  the  profounder  needs 


belonging  to  manhood — the  needs  of  heart  and 
soul  and  mind.  He  has  to  supply  these  needs  by 
a  continual  and  unflinching  sacrifice  of  himself. 
But  in  doing  it,  he  becomes  the  means  of  revo- 
lutionizing a  hopeless  and  useless  life  by  bringing- 
it  within  touch  of  the  springs  of  power  in  the 
eternal  world.  This  work  for  the  blind  of  non- 
Christian  lands  would  not  be  done  if  it  were  not 
done  by  Christian  missions. 

BLISS,  Edwin  Elisha:  Born  at  Putney,  Vt., 
April  12,  1817;  died  at  Constantinople,  Turkey, 
December  20,  1892.  Graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1837,  having  for  his  college  mates- 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Roswell  D.  Hitchcock,  and 
Richard  S.  Storrs.  Graduated  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1842;  sailed  for  Turkey 
March  1,  1843,  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM 
assigned  to  the  Nestorians  living  in  the  mountain 
region  along  the  frontier  of  Persia.  The  Turkish 
Government  having  refused,  on  account  of  the 
disturbed  state  of  the  country,  to  let  an  American 
go  to  the  Nestorian  district,  Mr.  Bliss  was  tem- 
porarily assigned  to  Trebizond.  The  demands  of 
other  fields  proving  pressing,  he  never  reached  the 
field  to  which  he  was  first  assigned.  Mr.  Bliss 
studied  the  Turkish  and  Armenian  languages. 
In  1851  he  was  sent  to  open  a  new  station  at 
Marsovan,  in  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Sivas,  and  through  ignorance  of  the  coun- 
try and  devotion  to  his  duty  he  exposed  himself 
to  malaria,  becoming  subject  to  attacks  of  inter- 
mittent fever,  from  which  he  could  not  count 
himself  free  to  the  very  end  of  his  life.  After 
having  worked  with  great  success  in  the  Marso- 
van field,  Mr.  Bliss,  in  1856,  was  transferred  to 
Constantinople  for  literary  work  in  the  Armenian 
language.  During  thirty-six  years  he  was  occu- 
pied in  the  department  of  publication,  part  of 
the  time  in  editing  the  Avedaper  newspaper,  and 
later  in  the  preparation  of  books  and  tracts,  many 
of  which  have  been  daily  food  to  the  Evangelical 
Churches  of  Turkey.  During  his  whole  mission- 
ary life  he  esteemed  it  a  privilege  and  duty  to 
preach  when  opportunity  offered,  altho  a 
victim  of  ague,  and  working  during  the  week  like 
a  slave  of  the  printing-press.  Dr.  Bliss'  influence 
in  mission  councils  and  in  native  churches  alike 
was  extraordinary.  The  simplicity  and  piety  of 
his  private  life,  the  certainty  with  which  his 
action  was  controlled  by  "common  sense  unbiased 
by  passion  or  prejudice,"  to  use  the  words  of  one 
of  his  associates,  "and  the  mingled  devotion, 
pathos,  and  humor  which  characterized  his  dis- 
cussions of  important  matters,"  caused  it  to  be 
remarked  that  while  other  missionaries  of 
renowned  power  were  at  Constantinople  at  the 
same  time  with  him  they  all  recognized  in  Dr. 
Bliss  a  peer.  Probably  all  admitted  that  for 
uniform  soundness  of  judgment  at  times  of  crisis 
he  stood  first  in  the  mission.  Dr.  Bliss  preferred 
to  spend  time  in  doing  his  work  rather  than  in 
calling  attention  to  it.  Hence  he  was  not  widely 
known  outside  of  mission  circles,  altho  his  serv- 
ices in  Turkey  continued  nearly  fiftv  years. 

BLISS,  Isaac  Grout:  Born  at  Springfield,  Mass., 
July  5,  1822;  graduated  at  Amherst  College, 
1844,  and  studied  at  Andover  and  New  Haven 
Theological  Seminaries.  He  married  Eunice  B. 
Day,  of  West  Springfield,  and  in  1847  was 
ordained  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM.  Stationed 
at  Erzerum,  Eastern  Turkey,  he  was  a  pioneer 
in  opening  up  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  to 
missionary  influence.      Uninterrupted  labor  and 


95 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Blind;  Missions  to 
Bliiefieias 


continued  traveling,  at  tliat  time  far  more 
dangerous  and  fatiguing  than  now,  broke  down 
a  naturally  fine  constitution,  and  in  1S52  he  was 
obliged  to  visit  America,  and  later  to  resign  his 
connection  with  the  Board.  Scarcely  a  year 
after  his  resignation  an  invitation  came  to  him 
from  the  American  Bible  Society  to  go  to  Con- 
stantinople as  agent  for  the  Levant.  The  work 
being  less  confining,  in  the  winter  of  1857-58  he 
entered  upon  it  with  enthusiasm. 

He  found  the  agency  without  any  organiza- 
tion at  all.  There  were  almost  no  rules  as  to 
the  distribution  of  Bibles,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  funds  received  from  their  sale  was  applied 
to  general  missionary  work.  With  great  tact 
and  patience,  and  indomitable  will,  he  set  to 
work  to  bring  order  out  of  confusion.  His  field 
was  very  large,  covering  the  whole  Turkish 
Empire  (including  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Mesopo- 
tamia), Persia  and  Greece.  Located  at  Constanti- 
nople, the  port  by  which  most  missionaries  to 
those  lands  entered  into  their  fields,  and  where 
for  many  years  the  annual  meetings  of  the  whole 
missionary  force  were  lield,  his  liouse  was  always 
open,  and  there  were  few  of  those  who  passed 
through  that  did  not  enjoy  its  hospitality.  He 
traveled  some,  tho  not  as  mvich  as  he  felt  essen- 
tial, directing  almost  tlie  entire  work  from  the 
little  office  that  he  shared  with  the  treasurer  of 
the  mission  of  the  ABCFM  at  Constantinople. 
Their  cramped  and  unhealthy  quarters  were  a 
constant  trial,  and  at  last  the  resolution  was 
formed  to  build  a  Bible  House  for  Constantinople 
corresponding  to  that  in  New  York.  Called 
home  in  1866  to  attend  the  Jubilee  of  the  Bible 
Society,  he  pressed  the  need  of  such  a  building. 
The  Society  was  unwilling  to  take  it  up,  but 
allowed  him  his  time  to  raise  the  needed  money, 
and  in  1867  he  returned  with  tlie  requisite  funds. 
The  securing  of  a  site  and  the  erection  of  the 
building  met  witli  the  most  determined  opposi- 
tion, but  in  1872  the  edifice  was  complete  and 
universally  recognized  as  the  handsomest  busi- 
ness building  in  the  city.  It  has  since  been 
enlarged  as  the  work  has  grown.  See  Bible 
House,  Constantinople. 

While  in  the  midst  of  superintending  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Bible  House,  Dr.  Bliss  took  the  time, 
in  1870,  to  make  a  hurried  visit  to  America,  and 
secured  the  transference  to  Beirut  of  the  great 
work  of  electrotyping  and  printing  the  Arabic 
Bible.  This  had  hitherto  been  done  at  the  Bible 
House  in  New  York,  and  the  change  seemed  to 
many  hazardous,  yet  by  dint  of  most  earnest 
appeals  he  secured  tlie  endorsement  by  the 
Society  of  a  step  since  recognized  to  be  one  of 
the  most  important  in  its  history. 

Then  came  the  question  of  the  Turkish  ver- 
sions. There  were  at  that  time  three,  in  the 
Arabic,  the  Armenian,  and  the  Greelv  characters, 
all  made  by  different  men,  and  with  differences  of 
meaning  as  well  as  of  idiom.  This  liad  long  been 
felt  to  be  most  unfortunate,  yet  there  seemed  to 
be  no  help  for  it.  Dr.  Bliss  believed  that  the 
difficulty  could  be  overcome,  and  even  at  the 
risk  of  offending  some,  he  pressed  for  a  union  of 
the  forces  that  were  revising  eacli  version.  At 
last  he  carried  the  day,  and  the  Turkish  version 
of  to-day  is  scarcely  less  a  monument  to  the  men 
who  made  it  than  to  him  whose  clear  vision  and 
earnest  purpose  made  it  possible  for  them  to 
make  it. 

Meanwhile,  he  pressed  colportage  unceasingly. 
From  2,500  copies  during  the  first  year,  the  cir-   | 


culation   ran   up   to   56,628   in   the   twenty-fifth 
year  of  the  agency. 

The  winter  of  1888-89  was  a  trying  one,  and 
he  souglit  relief  in  tlie  warmer  climate  of  Egypt, 
but  on  February  16,  1889,  he  passed  away  in 
Assiout,  Upper  Egypt.  He  was  buried  by  the 
side  of  a  lifelong  friend  and  fellow-laborer.  Rev. 
John  Hogg,  D.D.,  at  the  very  outpost  of  his- 
agency,  whence  it  had  been  his  desire  to  push 
on  the  Bible  work  into  the  heart  of  Darlcest 
Africa. 

BLODGET,  Rev.  Henry:  Born  in  Bucksport, 
Me.,  July  25,  1825.  Died  in  Bridgeport,  Conn., 
May  23,  1903.  For  forty  years  a  missionary  of 
the  ABCFM  in  China,  and  for  eiglit  years  a  Cor- 
porate Member  of  the  Board.  He  graduated 
from  Yale  College  in  the  class  of  1848,  and  was. 
tutor  there  from  1850  to  1853.  He  studied  in 
New  Haven  and  Andover  Theological  Seminaries, 
and  was  ordained  as  missionary  in  January,  1854, 
sailing  that  same  year  for  China.  He  arrived  at 
Shanghai  in  September,  1854,  and  began  to 
preach  in  the  Chinese  language  a  year  later.  Dr. 
Blodget  was  engaged  at  Shanghai  and  at  Tientsin 
ten  years,  but  in  1864  he  located  at  Peking, 
wliere  he  remained  until  1894,  when,  owing  to  the 
increasing  infirmities  of  old  age,  he  returned  to 
America.  He  had  a  wide  influence  in  Peking, 
being  universally  respected  by  representatives  of 
the  Government,  missionaries  of  all  societies  and 
the  Chinese  Christians.  For  the  last  thirty  years 
of  his  life  in  Peking  Dr.  Blodget  gave  his  time 
largely  to  literary  work.  He  gave  his  best 
strength  for  nearly  ten  years,  with  a  company  of 
five,  to  tlie  translation  of  tlie  New  Testament 
into  the  Mandarin  Colloquial  of  Peking.  He 
translated  194  hymns  and  six  doxologies,  and, 
besides  the  New  Testament  and  these  hymns.  Dr. 
Blodget  translated  several  lesser  works,  as 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  The  Reformed  Church  Cate- 
chism, by  Philip  Schaff ;  President  Edwards'  Con- 
secration, and  Henry  and  His  Bearer.  He  also 
carried  from  Shanghai  a  Catechism  and  Tri- 
metrical  Classic,  which  he  rendered  into  Peking- 
ese Colloquial,  and  which  has  been  widely  dis- 
tributed in  North  China.  But  Dr.  Blodget, 
while  giving  his  time  largely  to  literary  work, 
possessed  strongly  the  evangelistic  spirit. 
Every  morning  he  had  a  Bible  class  for  helpers 
and  inquirers,  and  he  gave  time  to  preaching  in 
the  street  chapel  in  the  afternoons.  Once  or 
twice  in  the  year  he  made  a  tour  into  the  country, 
and  for  sixty  miles  south  of  Peking  tliese  visits 
exerted  great  influence  for  good.  His  life  and 
labors  were  a  permanent  contribution  to  the 
cause  of  missions. 

BLOEMFONTEIN:  Capital  of  the  Orange  River 
Colony,  S.  Africa.  Population  (1890),  3,459. 
Mission  station  of  tlie  Berlin  Evangelical  Mission- 
ary Society  (1875),  with  2  missionaries,  10  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  and  370  communi- 
cants. Also  station  of  the  SPG  (1850),  witli  1 
missionary  woman.  Also  station  of  tlie  Sotith 
African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society, 
with  71  native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  vil- 
lage school,  1  Young  People's  Society  and  1,550' 
professing  Christians. 

BLORA:  A  town  E.  of  Samarang,  Java,  Dutch 
E.  Indies;  .station  of  the  Neukirchen  Mi.ssionary 
Society  (1891),  witli  1  missionary  and  wife,  7 
native  workers,  1  chapel  and  2  village  school. 

BLUEFIELDS:  A  town  of  2,000  inhabitants  on 
the  Mosquito  coast,  Nicaragua,  Central  America. 


BlytliTvood 
Bolitaii 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


96 


Station  of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1848),  with  3 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  14  native  workers, 
2  chapels,  2  Sunday  schools  and  300  communi- 
cants. 

BLYTHWOOD:  A  town  in  the  Translcei  dis- 
trict of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of  the 
UFS,  with  5  missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their 
wives,  4  missionary  women,  5  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  4  village  schools  and  1  theo- 
logical seminary.     Also  written  BIythswood. 

BOARDMAN,  George  Dana:  Born  at  Liver- 
more,  Me.,  February  8,  1801.  In  April,  1823, 
he  offered  his  services  to  the  Baptist  Board  of 
Missions,  and  was  accepted.  In  June  of  tliat 
year  he  entered  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  sailing  for  Cal- 
cutta July  16,  1825.  Because  of  the  Burmese 
war  he  remained  in  the  vicinity  of  Calcutta,  occu- 
pied with  study  of  Burmese  until  1827,  when  he 
removed  to  Maulmain,  which  became  the  seat 
also  of  the  mission  in  Burma.  Sir  Archibald 
Campbell  offered  Mr.  Boardman  a  fine,  large  spot 
of  ground  for  a  mission  establisliment.  On  this 
he  built  a  bamboo  house  costing  about  $100. 
The  mission  and  the  Board  in  America,  thinking 
that  the  field  of  operations  should  be  widened  by 
the  establishment  of  new  stations,  Tavoy,  about 
150  miles  from  Maulmain,  was  selected  as  the 
site  for  the  new  station,  and  Mr.  Boardman,  by 
the  unanimous  choice  of  his  associates,  was 
appointed  to  commence  it.  He  took  with  him 
Ko-Thah-Byu,  the  first  Karen  convert,  a  young 
Siamese  lately  baptized,  and  four  of  the  boys 
from  his  boarding-school,  and  reached  the  city 
of  Tavoy,  April  9,  1828.  He  soon  commenced 
public  worship  in  Burman,  and  inquirers  began 
to  present  themselves.  On  May  16  he  bap- 
tized Ko-Thah-Byu,  the  Karen  Christian  who 
had  accompanied  him.  As  the  result  of  the 
indefatigable  labors  of  this  remarlcable  man 
many  of  the  Karens  of  the  villages  scattered  over 
the  mountains  of  Tavoy  flocked  in  from  the  dis- 
tant jungles  to  listen  to  the  truths  he  taught. 
Mr.  Boardman  resolved  to  visit  the  Karens  in 
the  jungle,  and  on  February  28,  1828,  he  set 
out  on  his  first  tour,  accompanied  by  Ko-Thah- 
Byu  and  another  Karen,  a  professed  believer  in 
Christ.  So  much  encouraged  was  he  by  the 
readiness  of  the  people  to  receive  him  and  give 
attention  to  his  instructions,  that  he  determined 
to  pursue  a  course  of  itinerary  preaching  among 
their  villages.  In  these  tours  he  was  generally 
accompanied  by  Ko-Thah-Byu  or  some  other 
convert,  and  some  boys  from  the  schools.  He 
usually  visited  three  or  four  villages  a  week, 
preaching  in  zayats  or  from  house  to  house,  and 
talking  with  those  he  met  by  the  way.  Some  of 
his  journeys  were  long  and  dangerous,  and  often 
on  foot.  He  also  made  tours  in  the  mission  boat 
on  the  river.  These  labors  were  continued  for 
three  years  in  great  physical  debility,  to  which  he 
was  reduced  by  pulmonary  disease.  Tho 
unwilling  to  slacken  his  labors  on  account  of  his 
own  health,  he  was  obliged  by  Mrs.  Boardman's 
very  critical  illness  to  leave  his  station  and  to 
remove  to  Maulmain.  Soon  after  his  return  to 
Tavoy,  Mr.  F.  Mason  joined  him  as  an  associate, 
and  on  the  31st  of  January,  1831,  they  set  out 
together  on  a  visit  to  the  Karens.  They  reached 
their  destination  on  the  third  day,  where  they 
found  a  bamboo  chapel  erected  on  a  beautiful 
stream  and  a  hundred  persons  assembled,  more 
than  half  of  them  applicants  for  baptism.     Hav- 


ing lost  strength,  Mrs.  Boardman  advised  her 
husband  to  return  to  Tavoy,  but  he  replied, 
"The  cause  of  God  is  of  more  importance  than 
my  health,  and  if  I  return  now  our  whole  object 
will  be  defeated.  I  want  to  see  the  work  of  the 
Lord  go  on."  When,  however,  it  was  evident 
he  could  not  live  long,  and  it  was  thought  best  to 
return  without  delay,  he  consented,  on  condition 
that  the  candidates  were  baptized  that  evening, 
to  return  the  day  following.  So  just  before  sun- 
set he  was  carried  out  in  his  bed  to  the  water-side, 
and  in  his  presence  Mr.  Mason  baptized  thirty- 
four  persons.  While  being  conveyed  to  the  boat 
from  the  comfortless  roof  of  the  heathen  Tavoyer 
which  had  sheltered  them  for  the  night,  he  died, 
February  11,  1831.  He  was  buried  on  the 
mission  premises,  the  funeral  being  attended  by 
all  the  European  gentlemen  and  officers  of  the 
station,  with  many  natives.  Tho  but  thirty 
years  of  age  and  but  three  years  in  the  service, 
he  had  accomplished  a  great  work.  Within  the 
last  two  months  of  his  life  57  had  been  baptized, 
all  Karens,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  the  mis- 
sion church  at  Tavoy  had  70  members. 
King  (A.),  George  Dana  Board-man,  Boston,  1875. 

BOBBILI:  A  town  of  15,000  inhabitants  N.  of 
Vizianagram,  Madras,  India;  station  of  the 
BMP  (1879),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  8 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  1  chapel,  3 
Sunday  schools  and  85  church  members. 

BOCAS  DEL  TORO :  A  town  on  the  N.  coast  of 
the  isthmus  of  Panama,  belonging  to  Panama, 
and  situated  at  one  of  the  entrances  to  the 
lagoon  of  Chiriqui.     Population,  3,000. 

Mission  station  of  the  UMFC  (1865),  with  1 
missionary,  6  native  workers,  3  chapels,  3  Sun- 
day schools,  3  village  schools,  and  300  professing 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  Jamaica  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  (1894),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  village  school  and  161  church  members. 

BOCHABELO:  A  village  in  the  Middelburg 
district  of  the  Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa,  lying 
east  of  Pretoria;  station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1865),  with  5  missionaries,  26  native 
workers,  and  1,800  baptized  Christians.  Also 
written  Botschabelo. 

BODINAYAKANUR:  A  village  in  the  western 
part  of  the  Madura  district,  Madras,  India; 
station  of  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1892), 
with  13  native  workers,  4  village  schools,  1  high 
school,   and  300  communicants. 

BOELOEH  HA  WAR:  A  village  S.  of  Medan, 
Sumatra,  Dutch  East  Indies;  station  of  the 
Netherlands  Missionary  Society  (1890),  with  3 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  6  native  workers, 
4  village  schools  and  15  communicants. 

BOENISCH,  Frederick:  A  missionary  of  the 
Moravians  to  Greenland  (1734).  A  man  of 
great  courage  and  zeal,  his  arrival  at  a  time  of 
great  discouragement  was  most  opportune.  After 
five  years  of  privation  and  labor  one  Greenlander 
named  Kaiarnak  received  the  Gospel,  and  took 
up  his  residence  among  the  missionaries,  but  was 
driven  away  for  a  time  by  a  band  of  ruffians, 
afterward  proving  his  steadfastness  by  returning. 
In  1740  Mr.  Boenisch  married  Anna  Stack. 
Their  children  and  children's  children  have  served 
as  missionaries  during  160  years,  a  sixth  genera- 
tion of  the  family  having  now  entered  upon  mis- 
sionary service.  It  was  during  Mr.  Boenisch's 
term  of  service  that  the  brethren  ceased  to  preach 
the  attributes  of  God,  the  fall  of  man,  and  the 


87 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


BIythTvood 
Bohtan 


demands  of  the  Law,  and  instead  began  to  preach 
Jesus  Christ.  This  change  was  what  awakened 
the  consciences  of  the  benighted  people,  leading 
them  to  become  true  followers  of  Jesus. 

BOGADJIM:  A  settlement  in  German  New 
Guinea;  station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society, 
Tvith  a  missionary  physician  and  his  wife. 

BOGOS  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Hamitic 
family  of  languages  and  is  spoken  by  the  Bilin 
tribe  in  the  North  of  Abyssinia.  It  is  written 
with  the  Amharic  letters. 

BOGOTA:  Capital  of  the  republic  of  Colombia, 
on  a  picturesque  and  fertile  plateau  9,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Climate,  temperate.  Population 
(1891),  100,000.  Mission  station  of  the  PN  (1856), 
with  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  missionary 
woman,  1  native  woman  worker,  1  village  school, 
1  high  school,  and  90  church  members. 

BOGUTU  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Mela- 
nesian  family  of  languages  and  is  spoken  in  some 
of  the  Solomon  Islands.  It  is  written  with 
Roman  letters,  and  is  also  called  the  Isabel  Island 
language. 

BOKHARA:  A  Russian  vassal  state  in  Central 
Asia,  lying  between  north  latitude  41°  and  37° 
and  between  east  longitude  62°  and  72°,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Russian  province  of  Turkes- 
tan, on  the  east  by  the  Pamir,  on  the  south  by 
Afghanistan,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Kara  Kum 
Desert. 

The  modern  state  was  founded  by  the  Usbegs 
in  the  15th  century,  after  the  power  of  the 
Golden  Horde  had  been  destroyed  by  Tamer- 
lane. The  dynasty  of  the  Manguts,  to  which 
the  present  ruler  belongs,  dates  back  to  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century.  The  Emir  of 
Bokhara,  in  1866,  proclaimed  a  holy  war  against 
the  Russians,  who  thereupon  invaded  his  domin- 
ions and  forced  him  to  sign  a  treaty  ceding  the 
territory  now  forming  the  Russian  district  of  Syr 
Daria  and  to  permit  Russian  trade.  In  1873  a 
further  treaty  was  signed,  in  virtue  of  which  no 
foreigner  was  to  be  admitted  without  a  Russian 
passport,  and  the  state  became  practically  a 
Russian  dependency. 

The  Russian  Trans-Caspian  Railway  runs 
through  Bokhara  from  Chargui  on  the  Oxus  to  a 
station  within  a  few  miles  of  the  capital,  and 
thence  to  Samarkhand. 

The  area  of  the  country  is  about  92,000  square 
miles  and  the  population  is  about  1,250,000, 
belonging  mainly  to  various  Turkish  tribes. 
The  religion  is  Mohammedanism,  and  missions 
are  strictly  forbidden,  excepting  those  of  the 
Russian  (Greek  Orthodox)  Church. 

Russia  in  Central  Asia,  Curzon  (G.),  London,  1889;  History 
of  Bokhara,  Vambery,  London,  1873. 

BOHEMIA:  A  country  of  Central  Europe, 
formerly  an  independent  kingdom,  now  a  part  of 
the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire.  It  has  a  popu- 
lation of  nearly  6,000,000,  of  whom  about  two- 
thirds  are  Bohemians  (Czechs),  the  remainder 
being  chiefly  Germans.  The  capital  and  chief 
city  is  Prague.  The  language  of  the  majority 
is  Czech,  one  of  the  principal  dialects  of  the 
western  branch  of  the  Slavic  languages.  Its 
alphabet  is  the  Latin,  and  it  bears  a  closer  resem- 
blance to  the  Polish  than  to  any  other  Slavic 
language.  Agitation  for  the  official  recognition 
of  this  language,  with  autonomy  for  the  country, 
has  been  long-continued  and  disturbing.  The 
7 


religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  but  the  number  of 
Protestants  is  increasing. 

Mission  work  is  carried  on  by  the  ABCFM 
among  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  by  the  UFCS 
among  the  Jews. 

BOHEMIANS:  The  Bohemians,  or,  as  they 
call  themselves,  Czechs  (Tchekhs),  form  one  of  the 
principal  tribes  of  the  Slavic  race.  They  occupy 
the  country  of  Bohemia  in  Austria,  and  number 
about  four  millions.  They  are  all  Catholics,  with 
the  exception  of  150,000,  who  belong  to  the 
Protestant  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Confession. 
The  first  germs  of  Christianity  were  planted 
among  them  by  Cyril  and  Methodius,  missionaries 
to  tlae  Slavs  m  the  9th  century,  and  the  Bohe- 
mian Prince  Borivoi  was  baptized  by  Methodius  in 
873-74.  But  Orthodox  or  Greek  Christianity 
was  unable  to  maintain  itself  long  in  Bohemia, 
and  was  soon  supplanted  by  Catholicism.  With 
the  introduction  of  Catholic  Christianity,  Bohemia 
came  under  the  influence  of  German  civilization 
and  feudalism,  and  gradually  the  German  ele- 
ment grew  stronger  and  stronger.  Beginning 
with  the  year  1253  this  German  influence  spread 
rapidly,  so  that  the  Bohemians  were  in  danger 
of  being  entirely  Germanized.  The  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  known  also  as  Charles  IV.,  Emperor 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  is  considered  one 
of  the  brightest  periods  of  Bohemian  history. 
He  founded  the  University  of  Prague  in  1348, 
and  thus  helped  to  make  the  capital  of  Bohemia 
the  center  of  a  great  intellectual  and  educational 
movement.  The  most  important  period,  how- 
ever, is  undoubtedly  the  time  of  John  Huss 
and  the  reformatory  movement  which  he  began. 
Born  in  1368  in  an  obscure  village  of  Bohemia, 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Prague,  Huss 
raised  his  voice  against  the  corruption  and  deprav- 
ity of  the  Roman  Church,  and  demanded  a  purer 
form  of  religion.  Almost  the  whole  of  Bohemia 
joined  his  movement,  and  the  enthusiasm  which 
his  sermons  and  writings  evolced  was  very  great. 
Beguiled  into  the  Council  of  Constance,  where 
he  was  called  to  be  heard,  Huss  was  burned  at 
the  stake  in  1415;  but  his  death  was  the  signal 
for  the  beginning  of  the  terrible  Hussite  wars, 
which  lasted  for  eighteen  years,  and  the  effects 
of  which  were  felt  through  the  succeeding  gener- 
ations, until  1620,  when  Bohemia  lost  her  polit- 
ical independence  and  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Hapsburg  dynasty  of  Austria.  The  Hussite 
movement  in  Bohemia  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
explained  by  merely  regarding  it  as  a  religious 
movement.  To  understand  its  full  bearing,  one 
ought  to  bear  in  mind  that  it  was  also  a  national 
movement  directed  against  the  encroachments 
of  Germanism  that  threatened  Bohemia.  The 
religious  element  of  Hussism  did  not  give  all 
the  fruit  that  might  have  been  expected  from  it. 
After  the  death  of  Huss  his  supporters  split  into 
two  parties,  the  Taborites  and  the  Utraquists,  or 
Calixtins.  The  former,  which  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  extreme  party,  carried  the  principle 
of  the  free  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  to 
extremes.  The  Utraquists,  forming  the  so- 
called  moderate  party,  were  not  disinclined  to 
come  to  terms  with  the  Catholic  Church.  To 
the  Hussite  movement  was  due  the  formation  of 
the  Society  of  the  Bohemian  Brothers,  known 
subsequently  by  the  name  of  Moravian  Brothers, 
distinguished  for  its  piety,  its  good  works,  and 
the  writers  it  contributed  to  Bohemian  literature. 

BOHTAN:  A  district  of  Eastern  Turkey,  S.  W. 


Bolengre 

Bombay    Presidency 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


98 


of  Lake  Van.  It  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Kurds, 
Armenians,  and  Nestorians,  and  is  a  wild  region, 
both  in  its  physical  aspects  and  the  character 
of  the  people.  Mission  work  is  carried  on  chiefly 
by  the  ABCFM,  tlio  sometimes  preachers 
from  the  Nestorian  mission  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  (North)  come  among  the  Syriac-speaking 
Nestorians. 

BOLENGE:  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  Africa;  station  of  the  FCMS  (1896),  with 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  one  of  them  a 
physician,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school,  1 
dispensary. 

BOLIVAR,  Ciudad:  Capital  of  the  State  of 
Bolivar,  in  Venezuela,  situated  on  the  Orinoco. 
Population  (1891),  11,686.  Station  of  the  South 
America  Evangelical  Mission,  with  1  mission- 
ary. Also  station  of  the  Venezuela  Mission, 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

BOLIVIA,  Republic  of :  One  of  the  South  Amer- 
ican republics,  lying  just  north  of  Chile  and  the 
Argentine  Republic.  Its  constitution  was  adopt- 
ed August  2.5,  1836.  By  the  treaty  of  peace 
with  Chile,  in  1880,  all  the  coast  territory  was 
lost,  and  there  are  now  eight  provinces,  with  a 
total  area  of  567,431  square  miles.  Including 
1,000,000  Indians,  the  population  numbers 
2,300,000,  of  whom  500,000  are  Mestizoes,  or 
half-breeds,  and  500,000  whites.  La  Paz,  the 
capital,  has  about  65,000  inhabitants.  Educa- 
tion is  at  a  low  ebb.  The  nominal  religion  is 
Roman  Catholic,  but  the  mass  of  the  Indians 
are  pagans.  It  is  the  least  developed  of  the 
South  American  republics. 

The  Baptist  Convention  of  Ontario  and  Quebec 
has  established  mission  stations  at  Oruro  and 
La  Paz  (1899),  and  the  Plymouth  Brethren  have 
a  station  at  Sucre. 

BOLLOBHPUR :  A  village  in  the  Nadiya  dis- 
trict, Bengal,  India;  station  of  the  CMS  (1849), 
with  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife,  24  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  1  chapel,  3  village 
schools  and  130  communicants. 

BOLOBO:  A  city  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
situated  on  the  Congo  River  about  125  miles 
above  Stanley  Pool.  Climate,  tropical;  popula- 
tion, 20,000;  race,  Bantu;  language,  Kibangi. 
Moral  condition,  low,  owing  to  belief  in  witch- 
craft and  to  the  practise  of  human  sacrifice. 
Station  of  the  BMS  (1888),  with  6  missionaries, 
5  of  them  with  their  wives,  1  missionary  woman, 
10  native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village 
school,  1  dispensary,  1  printing  house,  31  church 
members. 

BOLONDRON:  A  town  of  2,500  inhabitants 
in  the  province  of  Matanzas,  Cuba;  station  of  the 
American  Church  Missionary  Society  (1899), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native  workers, 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school. 

BOLPUR:  A  town  S.  E.  of  Suri,  Bengal,  India; 
station  of  the  ME,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  6  native  workers,  men  and  women,  6  Sunday 
schools^  9  village  schools,  1  orphanage,  and  30 
professing  Christians. 

BOMA:  Capital  of  the  Congo  Free  State, 
Africa,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Congo 
River,  about  70  miles  from  its  mouth.  Formerly 
it  was  the  advance  post  of  the  Dutch  and  Por- 
tuguese traders  in  the  Congo  region;  station  of 
the  CA,  of  which  no  statistics  are  obtainable. 

BOMBAY:  The  capital  of  the  presidency  of  the 
same  name,  and  the  chief  seaport  in  India.     It 


is  situated  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  island  of  Salsette,  which  stretches 
along  the  shore  of  the  continent  from  north  to 
south  for  a  distance  of  over  twenty  miles.  At 
its  southern  extremity  there  was  formerly  a 
group  of  quite  small  islands,  separated  from  each 
other  and  from  the  larger  island  by  narrow  chan- 
nels. Upon  these  Bombay  has  been  gradually 
built  up;  and  now,  by  filling  in  the  channels 
between  the  separate  islands,  these  have  all  been 
consolidated  with  one  another  and  with  the  larger 
island  of  Salsette  itself.  The  harbor,  which  is 
the  safest  and  most  spacious  in  all  India,  and  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world,  lies  between  the  city 
and  the  mainland.  In  1661,  the  Portuguese, 
whose  sway  was  then  undisputed  all  along  the 
western  coast  of  India,  ceded  the  island  of  Bom- 
bay to  England  as  a  part  of  the  dowry  of  the 
Portuguese  princess,  Catherine,  when  she  became 
queen.  The  population  was  then  supposed  to  be 
10,000.  Soon  after,  Charles  II.  gave  it  over  to 
the  East  India  Company  for  an  annual  rental  of 
£10.  In  1673  its  population  was  reported  as. 
60,000 — "a  mixture  of  most  of  the  neighboring 
countries,  mostly  rogues  and  vagabonds."  The 
mixture  of  races  then  presented  by  its  popula- 
tion has  continued  to  be  a  feature  of  its  life  ever 
since.  In  1773  Bombay  became  subject  to  the 
Governor-General  of  India,  whose  capital  was  at 
Calcutta,  where  it  has  continued  to  be  ever  since, 
tho  the  local  presidency  government  was  still, 
retained.  The  growth  of  the  city  has  been  rapid 
and  continuous.  Its  magnificent  harbor  has. 
attracted  the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  mer- 
chants and  traders  from  all  parts  of  the  East  have 
flocked  to  its  bazaars.  A  series  of  wise  and  far- 
seeing  statesmen  have  guided  its  destinies,  under 
whose  direction  the  city  has  been  adorned  with 
fine  buildings,  connected  first  by  wagon  roads, 
and  since  1850  by  rail,  with  all  parts  of  the  Indian 
Empire,  furnished  with  docks,  and  raised  to  a 
position  of  undisputed  preeminence  as  the  chief 
port  of  entry  and  commercial  center  for  all  India. 
Steamers  sailing  daily  bring  the  city  into  close- 
connection  with  Liverpool,  London,  and  the 
Mediterranean  ports.  The  mails  between  India, 
and  Europe  arrive  at  and  depart  from  Bombay. 
Steamers  sail  hence  to  all  parts  of  the  East,  and 
sailing  ships  seek  its  harbor  from  all  over  the- 
world.  It  presents  more  of  the  appearance  of  a 
European  city  to  the  traveler  than  almost  any 
other  city  of  the  East.  Here  the  proverbial  con- 
servatism and  leisurely  slowness  of  Orientals 
seem  to  have  given  place  to  the  quicker  and  more- 
energetic  motions  of  Western  nations. 

In  population  Bombay  ranks  first  of  all  Indian 
cities,  and  among  those  belonging  to  the  British 
Empire  is  exceeded  only  by  London  itself.  The 
census  of  1901  gave  a  population  of  776,006' 
souls — Buddhists  and  Jains,  17,387;  Hindus  (of 
all  castes  and  races),  502,851;  Mohammedans,, 
158,713;  Parsees,  48,597;  Jews,  3,321;  Christians, 
42,327.  The  European  population  by  itself,, 
which  is  mostly  British,  numbered  nearly  10,500. 
This  classification  by  religion  is  comparatively 
simple,  but  that  by  race  and  language  is  vastly 
more  complex.  It  is  said  that  Bombay  probably 
contains  among  its  population  representatives 
from  a  larger  number  of  nationalities  than  any 
other  city.  It  is  easy  to  believe  that  this  is  so. 
Nearly  every  Asiatic  race  has  contributed  its 
quota  to  the  census;  the  diversity  of  race  and 
language  among  the  inhabitants  of  India  alone 
is  very  great,  and  among  the  dwellers  in  Bombay 


99 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Bolenge 
Bombay  Presidency 


are  individuals  from  all  parts  of  India,  speaking 
all  of  the  principal  tongues  which  are  used  any- 
where within  the  limits  of  India.  Africans  of 
many  tribes,  representatives  from  nearly  every 
European  country,  from  America,  from  China, 
and  from  widely  separated  islands  of  the  sea,  go 
to  swell  the  diversity  of  the  Bombay  population. 
The  number  of  languages  actually  used  in  Bom- 
bay is  very  great — doubtless  a  hundred,  more  or 
less.  For  the  most  part,  however,  the  Mohamme- 
dans speak  the  Hindustani;  Hindus  are  divided 
chiefly  between  the  Marathi  and  the  Gujara- 
thi;  the  Parsees  use  a  dialect  of  the  latter  tongue; 
while  Hindustani,  overstepping  the  limits  of 
Mohammedan  communication,  has  become  in 
Bombay,  as  largely  throughout  India,  a  lingua 
franca,  in  low  and  colloquial  forms  of  which 
Hindus  of  different  races  become  intelligible  to 
each  other,  and  to  the  Europeans,  whom  some  of 
them  serve  in  divers  capacities,  and  who  often 
learn  no  other  native  language.  For  purposes 
of  education  and  business,  English  itself  is  mak- 
ing rapid  progress  among  all  classes.  It  is  now 
not  only  possible  but  easy  for  a  European  to  live 
in  Bombay,  to  employ  servants,  deal  with  trades- 
men, purchase  articles  in  the  bazaars,  engage  in 
business,  and  converse  on  all  subjects  with  intelli- 
gent natives,  Hindu,  Mohammedan,  or  Parsee, 
without  knowing  a  single  word  of  any  other  lan- 
guage than  English. 

The  government  supports  in  Bombay  a  college 
(known  as  the  Elphinstone  College),  a  medical 
college,  a  school  of  art,  a  high  school,  and  many 
schools  of  lower  grade.  The  Bombay  University, 
existing  not  for  the  purpose  of  instruction,  but 
merely  for  that  of  examination  and  the  conferring 
of  degrees,  is  accommodated  in  two  elegant 
buildings  on  the  esplanade,  close  to  the  imposing 
array  of  structures  which  give  a  home  to  other 
departments  of  governmental  activity.  Colleges 
and  high  schools  all  over  the  presidency  are  affili- 
ated with  the  university,  and  send  up  hosts  of 
students  every  year  to  pass  the  examinations 
prescribed  by  it  and  to  receive  the  academic  dis- 
tinction of  its  degrees. 

Hospitals  for  Europeans,  for  native  patients, 
and  for  incurables  have  been  built  either  by 
private  munificence  or  public  funds.  A  sailors' 
home  near  the  principal  landing  dock  affords 
accommodation  to  mariners.  The  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  pursues  the  activities  usual 
to  organizations  of  that  name,  including  hostels 
for  students  connected  with  the  different  colleges. 
There  is  also  a  central  office  of  the  YWCA,  with 
4  young  women  in  charge.  The  city  has  a  num- 
ber of  European  churches  connected  with  the 
Church  of  England,  the  chief  of  which  is  St. 
Thomas'  Cathedral,  and  several  owned  by  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland,  the  Free  Church, 
the  American  Methodists,  and  the  Baptists.  The 
Jews  have  several  synagogs.  The  Roman 
Catholics,  besides  their  churches,  have  two  large 
schools  for  native  youth  in  charge  of  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries. 

The  character  of  Bombay  is  determined  by  its 
geographical  and  commercial  relations.  It  is 
first  and  chiefly  a  business  center.  It  is  not  the 
capital  of  a  native  dynasty  and  the  center  of  the 
life  and  energies  of  a  race,  as  the  adjacent  city  of 
Poona  was  long  the  capital  of  the  Maratha 
dynasty  and  people.  It  is  not  a  great  political 
center,  tho  it  is  the  capital  of  the  Bombay  Presi- 
dency and  the  seat  of  the  government,  and  for 
much  of  the  year  the  residence  of  the  governor. 


It  is  certainly  not  a  center  of  intellectual  life,  tho 
it  contains  several  institutions  of  learning,  and 
many  newspapers,  English  and  vernacular,  are 
printed  there.  In  the  matter  of  intellectual 
activity  it  is  easily  outranked  by  Calcutta;  nor 
is  it,  like  Benares,  the  chief  point  of  a  vast  relig- 
ious development.  Its  life  is  commercial,  and 
the  intensity  of  its  business  energy  somewhat 
detracts  from  the  vigor  which  otherwise  its  people 
might  throw  into  religious  or  intellectual  matters. 

Bombay  has  been  the  scene  of  Christian  mis- 
sions ever  since  1813,  in  which  year  Messrs.  Gor- 
don Hall  and  Samuel  Nott  (joined  soon  afterward 
by  Samuel  Newell)  began  the  first  permanent  mis- 
sion in  that  city,  and  also  the  first  mission  of  the 
ABCFM.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  began 
work  in  1820,  the  Scottish  Missionary  Society  in 
1823;  but  in  1835  the  work  of  this  organization 
was  transferred  to  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland.  In  1843,  after  the  disruption,  the 
missionaries  of  the  Scotch  establishment  threw 
in  their  lot  with  the  Free  Church,  leaving  thet 
mission  property  in  the  hands  of  the  old  Church. 
From  that  time  there  have  been  two  Scottish  mis- 
sions in  the  city.  The  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  began  in  1859,  and  the  Ameri- 
can Methodists  in  1871,  tho  their  work  has  been- 
chiefly  among  Europeans  and  Eurasians  (persons; 
of  mixed  European  and  Indian  parentage) ,  of 
whom  there  are  many  in  Bombay.  The  Bom- 
bay auxiliary  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  was  founded  in  1813,  and  the  Bombay 
Tract  and  Book  Society  in  1827.  Both  of  these 
societies  have  rendered  inestimable  aid  to  the 
cause  of  evangelism.  The  two  Scottish  missions 
from  the  first  devoted  their  strength  to  educa- 
tional efforts.  Each  of  these  missions  has  long 
sustained  a  collegiate  institution:  hundreds  of 
Hindu,  Parsee,  and  Mohammedan  young  men 
have  received  within  the  walls  of  these  colleges 
a  good  secular  education  combined  with  biblical 
and  religious  training.  The  whole  force  of  these 
various  societies  now  at  work  in  the  city,  includ- 
ing the  Zenana  Bible  Mission  and  the  BFBS,  is 
93  missionaries  and  201  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  and  the  aggregate  of  native  communi- 
cants reported  by  the  different  missions  is  1,579. 

BOMBAY  PRESIDENCY:  One  of  the  chief 
administrative  divisions  of  British  India,  of 
which  the  capital  is  the  city  of  Bombay.  Its  ter- 
ritory lies  in  the  western  part  of  India,  and  its 
boundaries  are  on  the  northwest,  Baluchistan  and 
Khelat;  on  the  north,  the  Punjab;  on  the 
northeast,  the  native  states  of  Rajputana;  on 
the  east,  the  native  states  of  Central  India,  the 
Central  Provinces,  West  Berar,  and  the  domin- 
ions of  the  Nizam  of  Haidarabad;  on  the  south, 
the  Presidency  of  Madras  and  the  native  state  of 
Mysore,  and  on  the  west  the  Indian  Ocean.  It 
includes  24  districts  in  India,  besides  the  little 
district  of  Aden,  in  Arabia,  having  altogether  an 
area  of  124,123  square  miles,  with  a  population 
(1901)  of  18,559,561;  within  the  territorial  hmits 
of  the  presidency  are  a  number  of  native  states 
under  the  general  supervision  of  the  Bombay 
Government.  These  include  an  additional  area 
of  65,761  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  (1901) 
6,908,648.  The  surface  of  the  presidencj'  pre- 
sents three  well  marked  types  of  physical  appear- 
ance. In  the  northern  part  the  regions  of  Gujerat 
and  Sindh,  with  the  peninsulas  of  Kathiawar 
and  Cutch,  are  for  the  most  part  flat,  and  in  their 
northern  and  western  portions  merge  into  sandy 
and  arid  deserts.     South  of  the  Narbada  River, 


Bombe 
Braliino   SoiuaJ 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


100 


and  for  the  most  part  about  thirty  miles  from 
the  sea,  stretches  the  range  of  mountains  known 
as  the  Western  Ghats.  Between  them  and  the 
sea  the  narrow  strip  of  land  is  Ivnown  as  the  Kon- 
kan,  and  consists  largely  of  detached  ranges  of 
hills,  with  fertile  valleys  between,  through  which 
flow  numerous  tidal  creeks.  East  of  the  moun- 
tains is  the  great  upland  of  the  Deccan,  nearly 
2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  at  its  western 
edge,  where  it  is  buttressed  by  the  Ghats.  The 
prevailing  religions  are  Hinduism  and  Mohammed- 
anism. Christians  and  Parsees  and  a  few  Jews 
make  up  together  hardly  more  than  two  per  cent, 
of  the  population.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  how- 
ever, that  while  during  the  decade  1891-1901  the 
whole  population  of  the  presidency  decreased  by 
318,753  souls  through  famine  and  plague,  the 
Christian  population  increased  by  50,000 — from 
170,000  to  220,000. 

The  languages  in  use  in  the  province  of  Bom- 
bay are  Marathi,  which  is  used  by  nearly  one-half 
of  the  population;  Hindustani  or  Urdu,  used  by 
the  Mohammedans;  Gujarathi,  Kanarese,  and 
Sindhi,  which  taken  together  are  the  speech  of 
more  than  one-third  of  the  population. 

The  missionary  societies  carrying  on  opera- 
tions within  the  borders  of  this  presidency  are 
the  following,  named  as  far  as  possible  in  the 
order  of  their  entrance  into  the  province: 
ABCFM  (1813);  LMS  (1820);  CMS  (1820); 
CSFM  (1825);  UFS  (1843);  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1837);  SPG  (1825);  PCI  (1842);  PN 
(1870);  ME  (1872);  Poona  and  Village  mission; 
the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance;  the  Ram- 
abai  Association;  the  Mission  to  Lepers;  the 
Kurku  and  Central  India  Hill  Mission ;  the  Indus- 
trial Missions  Aid  Society;  the  Zenana  Bible  and 
Medical  Mission,  the  Salvation  Army,  and  some 
others  which  do  not  publish  statistics. 

BOMBE :  A  settlement  about  20  miles  N.  of  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  Kamerun  Colony,  W. 
Africa;  station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society 
(1897),  with  3  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife, 
24  native  workers,  15  outstations,  16  village 
schools,  and  (1902)  161  communicants. 

BONABERI:  A  settlement  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Kamerun  River  in  the  German  Colony  of 
Kamerun,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the  Basel  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1889),  with  5  missionaries,  two 
of  them  having  wives,  24  native  workers,  23 
village  schools,  and  (1902)  540  communicants. 

BONACA  ISLAND :  The  easternmost  of  the  Bay 
Islands,  lying  off  the  coast  of  Honduras,  Central 
America;  station  of  the  SDA  (1886),  with  3  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  3  missionary  women, 
2  native  workers,  10  outstations,  4  chapels,  10 
Sunday  schools,  3  village  schools,  and  126  church 
members. 

BONAKU:  A  settlement  on  the  Kamerun 
River  in  the  German  colony  of  Kamerun;  station 
of  the  German  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1891), 
with  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife,  1  mission- 
ary woman,  5  chapels,  1  village  school,  1  indus- 
trial school,  1  dispensary  and  a  YMCA.  Station 
also  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society,  with  (1902) 
21  outstations,  23  common  schools,  and  783  com- 
municants. 

BOND,  Rev.  Elias:  Born,  Hollowell,  Maine; 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  1837;  Bangor 
Seminary,  1840;  arrived  at  Honolulu,  May  21, 
1841,  and  labored  unremittingly  at  Mohala, 
Hawaii,  until  his  death  July  24,  1896.  He 
labored  under  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Associa- 


tion. Mr.  Bond  was  distinguished  for  his  suc- 
cessful establishment  in  Kohala  of  training 
schools  for  Hawaiian  boys  and  girls,  and  for  the 
personal  interest  he  manifested  in  the  educational, 
social,  commercial,  as  well  as  moral  and  spiritual, 
life  of  this  people.  By  a  fortunate  real  estate 
investment,  he  was  enabled  to  make  munificent 
donations  to  missionary  boards,  and  pursue 
somewhat  independently  his  missionary  and  edu- 
cational work. 

BONDE  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Bantu 
family  of  African  languages,  and  is  spoken  by  an 
unknown  number  of  people  in  the  Usambara 
region  in  the  northern  part  of  German  East 
Africa.     It  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 

BONDOWOSO :  A  village  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Java,  Dutch  East  Indies,  lying  S.  E.  of  Surabaya; 
station  of  the  Java  Committee,  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife  and  1  common  school. 

BONGAUNDANGA :  A  settlement  in  the  Congo 
Free  State,  W.  Africa,  situated  on  the  Lopori 
River  S.  W.  of  Upoto;  station  of  the  RBMU 
(1889),  with  5  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife,  1 
missionary  woman,  2  native  workers,  1  chapel, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school,  and  1  dispen- 
sary. 

BONGINDA :  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  W.  Africa,  situated  on  the  Lopori  River; 
station  of  the  RBMU  (1889),  with  3  missionaries, 
1  with  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  chapel,  1  Sun- 
day school  and  1  dispensary. 

BONGU:  A  settlement  on  the  E.  coast  of  Ger- 
man New  Guinea;  station  of  the  Rhenish  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
and  1  village  school. 

BONNY:  A  town  and  seaport  at  one  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Niger,  in  British  Nigeria,  Africa; 
station  of  the  CMS  (1865),  with  3  native  workers. 
Climate,  very  unhealthy,  due  to  the  surrounding 
country  being  so  flat  and  swampy.  Population, 
12,000.  Race  and  language,  Ibo,  Idzo  and 
Kwa. 

BONTHE:  A  town  on  Sherbro  Island,  off  the 
coast  of  Sierra  Leone,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the 
CMS  (1863),  with  10  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  3  outstations,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school, 
4  village  schools,  and  270  communicants.  Also 
station  of  the  UB  (1855),  with  3  native  workers, 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school  and 
a  Young  People's  Society. 

BOOK  AND  TRACT  SOCIETY  OF  CHINA. 
See  Christian  Literature  Society  for 
China. 

BOONE,  William  Jones:  Born  in  South  Caro- 
lina, July  1,  1805;  graduated  at  the  University 
of  South  Carolina;  studied  law  under  Chancellor 
de  Saussure;  pursued  a  theological  course  at  the 
Seminary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  at 
Alexandria,  Va.,  and  having  studied  medicine 
with  reference  to  the  missionary  field,  offered 
himself  to  the  Board  of  Missions;  was  appointed 
and  sailed  July  8,  1837,  reaching  Batavia 
October  22.  Here  he  studied  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage, held  an  English  service,  distributed  tracts, 
established  schools  and  found  his  medical  know- 
ledge of  great  use.  Consecrated  missionary 
bishop  to  China,  1844.  In  1846  Bishop  Boone 
began  the  translation  of  the  Prayer-Book,  and 
engaged  in  the  revision  of  the  New  Testament. 
In  1847  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  committee  of 
delegates  from  the  several  missions  to  revise  the 
translation  of  the  Bible.     His  ability  as  a  scholar 


101 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bombe 
Brahiuo   SomaJ 


was  highly  appreciated.     He  died  at  Shanghai, 
July  17,  1864. 

Stevens  (Bp.),  Memorial  Sermon  on  W.  J.  Boone',  Philadel- 
phia, 1865. 

BORABORA:  One  of  the  Society  Islands  N.  W. 
of  Raiatea;  station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Missions  Society,  with  1  native  worker,  1  chapel,  1 
Sunday  school  and  315  professing  Christians. 

BORDA:  A  village  S.  of  Hoshangabad,  Central 
Provinces,  India;  station  of  the  Swedish  National 
Missionary  Society  (1894),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  Sunday  school  and 
17  Christians.     Also  written  Bordhai. 

BORNEO :  The  largest  island  of  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,  situated  directly  on  the  Equator. 
Area,  272,820  square  miles,  divided  as  follows:  1. 
Under  British  rule.  North  Borneo,  31,106;  Bru- 
nei, 3,000;  Sarawak,  35,000;  total  69,106  square 
mileg.  2.  Under  Dutch  rule.  West  Coast,  58,926; 
South  and  East  districts,  144,788;  total,  203,714 
square  miles.  Population:  1.  British,  475,000; 
2.  Dutch,  1,073,289;  total,  1,548,289.  Of  this 
about  one-half — that  covering  the  South  and 
East  districts — is  mere  conjecture.  The  climate 
is  remarkably  healthy  for  an  equatorial  island. 
The  surface  of  a  large  part  of  the  island  is  moun- 
tainous and  well  irrigated  by  rivers.  The  inhab- 
itants of  North  Borneo  are  chiefly  Mohammedan 
settlers;  of  Sarawak  and  the  Dutch  possessions, 
Malay,  Javanese  and  Chinese  settlers  and  abo- 
riginal tribes,  mostly  Dyaks,  of  the  Malay  race. 
The  Portuguese  gained  a  temporary  foothold  in 
the  16th  century,  but  were  superseded  by  the 
Dutch,  who  have  held  permanent  control. 

British  North  Borneo  is  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  British  North  Borneo  Company,  being  held 
under  a  grant  from  the  Sultans  of  Brunei  and 
Sulu. 

Dutch  Borneo  was  administered  by  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company  until  its  dissolution  in  1798, 
since  which  time  it  is  governed  by  a  representa- 
tive of  the  home  government.  Mission  work  is 
carried  on  in  British  Borneo  by  the  SPG  in  9  sta- 
tions, connected  with  which  are  49  workers,  both 
native  and  foreign,  and  13  schools  and  a  Christian 
constituency  of  about  5,000,  of  whom  1,250  are 
communicants.  In  Dutch  Borneo  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society  has  8  stations,  with  45  work- 
ers of  both  sexes,  23  schools  and  about  1,000 
communicants. 

BORSAD:  A  town  in  Gujarat,  Bombay,  India, 
N.  W.  of  Baroda;  station  of  the  PCI  (1860),  with 
2  missionaries,  3  missionary  women,  1  of  them 
a  physician,  80  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
5  outstations,  4  chapels,  44  Sunday  schools,  37 
village  schools,  1  high  school,  3  orphanages,  1 
dispensary  and  191  church  members. 

BOTTLENOSE:  A  settlement  on  the  W.  coast 
of  the  island  of  Fernando  Po,  in  the  Bight  of 
Biaffra,  West  Africa;  station  of  the  Primitive 
Methodist  Missionary  Society,  with  1  missionary, 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village  school  and 
10  communicants. 

BOWEN,  George:  Born  at  Middlebury,  Vt., 
April  30,  1816. 

His  conversion  occurred  in  the  spring  of  1844. 
The  May  anniversaries  of  the  great  missionary 
societies  just  at  the  time,  introduced  him,  as  it 
were,  into  a  new  world  of  Christian  enterprise. 
He  at  once  devoted  his  life  to  this  missionary 
work.  He  studied  in  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary  of  New  York,  was  ordained  by  the   | 


Presbytery,  July  4,  1847,  and  sailed  soon  after 
for  India,  under  appointment  of  the  ABCFM. 
In  January,  1848,  he  arrived  in  Bombay,  which 
was  the  scene  of  his  labors,  interrupted  only  by 
occasional  tours  of  missionary  service  in  other 
parts  of  India. 

The  social  gap  separating  natives  from  mis- 
sionaries led  him  to  decline  receiving  a  salary, 
and  he  supported  himself,  living  in  a  simple  way 
among  the  natives.  Living  a  life  of  habitual  self- 
abnegation,  he  was  singularly  free  from  asceti- 
cism, and  altho  uncompromising  in  his  views 
of  Christian  principle,  he  was  welcomed  in  the 
houses  of  high  and  low.  It  was  by  his  personal 
ministry  that  he  became  known,  at  first  despised 
and  ridiculed,  and  then  esteemed  among  the 
people  of  India.  He  became  secretary  of  the 
Bombay  Tract  Society  and  editor  of  the  Bombay 
Guardian,  acquiring  wide  influence  by  the  emi- 
nent ability  and  spirituality  of  his  writings,  selec- 
tions from  which  have  been  published  in  America 
and  Great  Britain  in  three  volumes  severally 
entitled.  Daily  Meditations,  Love  Revealed,  and 
the  Amens  of  Christ. 

After  a  brief  illness,  early  on  Sabbath  morning, 
February  5,  1888,  apparently  while  peacefully 
sleeping,  he  was  not,  for  God  took  him.  His 
death  produced  a  deep  sensation  in  Bombay  and 
Western  India.  Those  most  competent  to  form 
a  judgment  concur  in  the  estimate  that  he  exhib- 
ited a  degree  of  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  which 
there  is  perhaps  no  existing  parallel  in  the  whole 
field  of  missionary  labor. 

BRADLEY,  Dan  Beach:  Born  at  Marcellus, 
N.  Y.,  July  18,  1804;  graduated  from  a  medical 
college  in  the  city  of  New  York,  1833;  sailed 
July  2,  1834,  as  medical  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM;  arrived  at  Bangkok,  Siam,  July  18, 
1835;  was  ordained  by  the  members  of  the  mis- 
sion in  Siam,  November  5,  1838.  In  conse- 
quence of  more  hopeful  calls  elsewhere  it  was 
decided  by  the  Board,  in  1846,  to  withdraw  its 
mission  in  Siam.  Dr.  Bradley  and  Rev.  Jesse 
Caswell,  unwilling  to  give  up  the  work  in  which 
they  had  engaged,  sought  maintenance  elsewhere. 
Dr.  Bradley  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1847,  and  was  released  from  the  service  of  the 
Board,  and  went  out  in  1849  in  connection  with 
the  AMA.  He  was  the  first  educated  physician 
and  surgeon  who  had  visited  Siam,  and  his  skill 
in  the  healing  art  seemed  to  the  natives  little  less 
than  miraculous.  His  mastery  of  Siamese  was 
surprisingly  accurate,  and  his  translations  of  the 
Scriptures  were  of  high  value.  His  published 
writings,  both  in  English  and  Siamese,  were  vol- 
uminous. Those  relating  to  Siam  and  the  Siam- 
ese, published  in  the  Bangkok  Calendar  for  suc- 
cessive years,  form  the  mine  whence  much  of  the 
material  of  more  recent  books  and  articles  upon 
Siam  has  been  extracted.  He  died  at  Bangkok, 
June  23,  1893. 

BRAHMAKBARIA :  A  town  on  the  borders  of 
Assam,  in  Bengal,  India.  Population  (1891) 
18,006;  station  of  the  New  Zealand  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1891),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  missionary  woman,  2  native  workers, 
man  and  woman,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
village  school  and  7  communicants. 

BRAHMO  SOMAJ:  A  modern,  reforming, 
Theistic  sect  in  India,  originated  by  Rammohun 
Roy,  a  high  caste  Brahman  of  character  and 
scholarship,  who  from  his  youth  declared  that 
idolatry   was    contrary   to   the   practice    of   the 


BraHmo    SomaJ 
JBrazil 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


102 


ancestors  and  who  purposed  to  bring  his  people 
back  to  the  monotheism  of  the  ancient  Vedas. 
He  became  so  far  interested  in  Christianity  that 
he  assisted  in  the  educational  work  of  Dr.  Duff 
and  in  Bible  translation.  So  far  as  he  was  a 
Christian,  he  was  a  Unitarian,  and  was  eclectic 
toward  all  the  great  religions.  His  leading 
resulted  in  the  first  Hindu  Theistic  Church, 
opened  in  Calcutta  in  1830  as  the  Brahmo  Somaj 
(The  Congregation  of  God).  After  his  death 
(18.33)  the  Somaj  languished  for  some  years 
until  Debendranath  Tagore,  who  had  received  a 
good  English  education,  joined  it  in  1841,  and 
proved  an  efficient  leader  and  organizer.  In 
1844  he  and  twenty  others  signed  the  initiatory 
covenant  he  had  prepared,  pledging  themselves 
to  abstain  from  idolatry;  to  worship  no  created 
thing,  but  only  the  one  God;  to  lead  holy  lives 
and  to  seek  forgiveness  through  abandonment 
of  sin.  This  organization,  which  came  to  be 
called  the  Adi  (First)  Brahmo  Somaj,  had  by 
1847  enrolled  767  covenanted  members,  and  by 
1850  the  establishment  of  branches  in  other 
provinces   had  been  begun. 

With  the  increase  in  numbers,  marked  differ- 
ences of  opinion  were  developed,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  authority  of  the  Vedas.  This 
agitation  resulted  in  the  issuing  of  a  new  state- 
ment by  Debendranath  called  Brahma  Dharma 
(The  Theistic  Religion).  It  stated  the  Four 
Fundamental  Principles  of  Indian  Theism  as: 

1.  In  the  beginning  before  this  universe  was, 
the  one  Supreme  Being  (Brahma)  was;  nothing 
else  whatever  was ;  He  has  created  all  this  universe . 

2.  He  is  eternal,  intelligent,  infinite,  blissful, 
self-dependent,  formless,  one  without  a  second, 
all  pervading,  all  governing,  omniscient,  omnip- 
otent, immovable,  perfect,  without  parallel. 

3.  By  worship  of  Him  alone  can  happiness  be 
secured  in  this  world  and  the  next. 

4.  Love  toward  Him,  and  performing  the 
works  he  loves  constitute  his  worship. 

Subscription  to  these  principles  admitted  to 
membership.  It  was  further  declared  that 
intuition  and  the  book  of  nature  are  the  original 
basis  of  the  Brahman's  creed,  but  divine  truth 
is  to  be  gratefully  received  from  any  portion  of 
the  Hindu  Scriptures  or  other  good  book  con- 
taining it;  God  is  the  Heavenly  Father,  exercising 
providence  and  hearing  prayer;  repentance  is 
the  only  way  of  salvation;  good  works,  charity, 
knowledge,  contemplation  and  devotion  are  the 
only  religious  rites;  penance  and  pilgrimages 
a,re  useless;  the  only  sacrifice  is  that  of  self;  there 
is  no  distinction  of  castes,  no  transmigration; 
the  mission  of  the  Brahma  Somaj  is  to  purify 
the  old  religion,  not  to  destroy  it. 

The  concessions  made  did  not  satisfy  the  more 
progressive  element,  who  found  a  new  leader  in 
Keshab  Chandar  Sen  (1838-1884).  His  faith  in 
the  Hindu  superstition  taught  him  in  child- 
hood had  been  shattered  by  a  thorough  English 
education  in  the  Presidency  College,  and  in  1858 
he  joined  the  Brahmo  Somaj,  but  ere  long  out- 
stripped Debendranath  in  advocacy  of  radical 
reform.  He  urged  the  abolition  of  all  caste  dis- 
tinctions, including  the  sacred  thread,  the  dis- 
tinguishing badge  of  Brahmans.  This  Deben- 
dranath consented  to  for  himself,  but  declined 
to  impose  upon  others.  Under  his  leadership 
rites  for  deceased  ancestors  and  cremation  were 
remodeled,  and  steps  were  taken  toward  the  edu- 
cation and  elevation  of  women,  who  were  admitted 
to  membership  in  the  Society.     Marriage  reform. 


including  the  abandonment  of  polygamy,  of 
child  marriage,  and  of  the  permanence  of  widow- 
hood. Was  advocated,  and  in  a  measure  practised. 
But,  having  broken  with  Hinduism,  he  was  not 
content  with  a  society  which  purposed  only  to 
purify  the  old  faith.  With  a  large  number  of  the 
younger  members  he  seceded  and  in  1866  organ- 
ized a  new  Theistic  Society  called  The  Brahmo 
Somaj  of  India,  the  purpose  being  to  affiliate 
with  it  all  the  other  somajes, — a  plan  which  was 
never  fulfilled.  The  creed  of  this  Somaj  included 
belief  in  God,  the  first  cause;  the  immortality  of 
the  soul;  the  two-fold  Scripture,  nature  and 
intuition;  rejection  of  the  incarnation  of  God, 
but  belief  in  divinity  dwelling  in  every  man,  and 
displayed  more  vividly  in  some,  as  in  Moses, 
Jesus,  Mohammed,  and  other  great  teachers;  ad- 
mission that  the  worship  of  Brahma  is  the  essence 
of  all  religions.  It  declares  the  brotherhood 
of  man,  prescribes  duties  toward  God,  self,  others, 
and  the  lower  animals,  proclaims  the  retribution 
of  evil  deeds  in  this  world  and  the  next,  and 
urges  the  pursuit  of  holiness  by  worship,  subju- 
gation of  the  passions,  repentance,  study,  good 
companionship  and  contemplation,  describing 
salvation  as  the  deliverance  from  the  root  of 
corruption,  and  unending  growth  in  purity  and 
happiness  in  Him  who  is  the  fountain  of  infinite 
holiness  and  joy.  A  simple  form  of  service  was 
prepared,  consisting  of  prayer,  hymns,  reading 
from  Hindu  or  other  Scripture,  and  a  sermon. 

For  some  time  the  Adi  Brahmo  Somaj,  led  by 
Debendranath  and  Raj  Narain  Bose,  secretary, 
and  the  Brahmo  Somaj  of  India,  under  Keshab 
Chandar  Sen  and  his  cousin,  Pratrap  Chandar 
Mozoomdar,  as  Secretary,  with  "The  Indian 
Mirror"  as  its  organ,  continued  in  not  unfriendly 
rivalry.  But  the  latter  society  was  much  per- 
turbed by  Keshab  Chandar  Sen's  increasing 
mysticism,  his  assertion  of  his  own  special  inspir- 
ation and  authority,  and  finally  by  the  marriage 
of  his  daughter  of  fourteen  to  a  youthful  Maha- 
raja, contrary  to  the  principles  of  the  marriage 
reform  and  the  Native  Marriage  Act  of  1872, 
which  he  had  championed.  A  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  membership  seceded  and  in  1878  organ- 
ized at  Calcutta  the  Sadharana  (General)  Brahmo 
Somaj,  with  Ananda  Bose  as  president.  After 
an  effort  to  lead  the  Somaj  movement  Mozoom- 
dar gave  over  the  attempt  and  went  into  retire- 
ment. 

As  an  organized  movement  the  Brahmo  Somaj 
was  at  its  height  about  1880,  when  149  Somajes 
were  reported  throughout  India.  Latterly  it 
has  been  much  less  in  evidence.  Its  result  is 
thus  summed  up  by  Gustav  Warneck:  "The 
movement  originated  from  an  apprehension  of 
religious  truth,  but  it  degenerated  more  and 
more,  either  to  an  ordinary  rationalistic  liber- 
alism, or  to  a  mysticism  rich  in  phrases  and  cere- 
monies, and  spending  its  whole  energy  in  words. 
Tho  in  language  much  inclined  to  Christianity 
it  has  not  in  the  whole  proved  a  bridge  to  Chris- 
tianity, nor  has  it  exerted  any  noteworthy 
reformatory  influence  in  heathenism.  Never- 
theless it  is  a  characteristic  symptom  of  the  re- 
ligious ferment  which  the  Christian  leaven,  along 
with  Western  education,  has  begun  to  stir  among 
the  Hindus." 
Williams  (M.) ,  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism:  Hopkins  (E.  W.), 

The  Religions  of  India;    Bose    (Ram  Chandra),    Brahmo- 

ism.  New  York,  1884  (Funk  &  Wagnalls). 

BRAINERD,  David:  Born  at  Haddam,  Conn., 
April  20,   1718.      His  parents  were   cultivated 


103 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Brahmo  SomaJ 
Brazil 


as  well  as  religious  people.  He  himself  was 
inclined  from  early  childhood  to  take  an  interest 
in  religious  matters,  but  he  considered  that  he 
did  not  really  commit  the  guidance  of  his  life  to 
Jesus  Christ  until  he  was  20  years  old.  This  once 
decided  he  was  wholly  and  permanently  com- 
mitted to  live  for  his  Master. 

He  felt  the  duty  of  teaching  Christianity  to  the 
Indians,  and  went  to  Long  Island  for  that  pur- 

Eose.  But  later  (1742)  he  was  appointed,  on 
ehalf  of  the  Scottish  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Christian  Knowledge,  to  work  among  the 
Indians  living  between  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  and 
Albany,  N.  Y.  Later  he  was  sent  to  the  tribes 
on  the  Delaware  River  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  New  Jersey  between  the  Delaware  and  the 
sea  coast.  During  the  time  of  this  service  he 
sent  his  journal  regularly  to  Scotland,  and  the 
Society  there  published  it  in  1746,  the  first  part 
under  the  title  Mirahilia  Dei  inter  Indicos,  and 
the  second  part  as  Divine  Orace  Displayed. 

It  is  hard  to  realize  now  the  brave  self-denial 
involved  at  that  time  in  this  young  man's  going 
alone  into  a  dense  and  trackless  forest  to  live 
among  savages,  many  days'  journey  from  any 
white  settlement.  As  Brainerd  wrote,  he  "had 
none  to  converse  with  but  rude  and  ignorant 
Indians,"  except  when  he  found  himself  obliged 
to  plead  the  cause  of  the  Indians  against  the 
avarice  of  conscienceless  whites  who  wished  to 
brutalize  and  rob  them.  But  he  found  a  reward 
in  seeing  some  remarkable  instances  of  changed 
lives  produced  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
among  his  Indian  friends.  He  was  more  than 
content  with  his  life,  and  worked  on  in  increasing 
feebleness — often  prostrated  by  sickness,  but  giv- 
ing up  only  when  his  life  was  worn  out.  Then  he 
painfully  made  his  way  back  to  New  England 
to  die.  The  end  came  October  9,  1747,  at 
Northampton,  Mass.,  when  Brainerd  was  29 
years  old. 

This  young  missionary  was  not  remarkable 
for  learning;  he  accomplished  no  great  and  wide- 
spread results  in  the  field  which  he  had  chosen. 
But  his  journals  are  full  of  life  and  power  to  this 
day.  They  are  a  true  record  of  a  simple  life — 
a  "human  document"  which  shows  mistakes, 
shortcomings  and  bitter  regrets  as  faithfully  as 
longings  for  a  higher  life,  craving  after  God,  and 
a  consuming  desire  to  glorify  God  by  winning 
the  souls  of  the  savages  to  a  godly  life.  So  the 
man's  character  impresses  the  reader;  his  lofty 
principles  and  aims,  his  saintliness,  his  loyalty  to 
Jesus  Christ;  and  does  not  fail  to  arouse  desires 
to  follow  his  example.  It  is  through  this 
quality  of  his  journals  that  Brainerd's  greatest 
achievement  is  the  lasting  impression  made  by 
his  character  upon  the  Church  in  America  and 
Europe.  It  was  Brainerd's  character  which 
made  Jonathan  Edwards  a  missionary  to  the 
Indians  of  Stockbridge;  it  was  to  Brainerd's  mem- 
oirs to  which  Henry  Martyn  traced  his  decision 
to  become  a  missionary;  to  those  simple  records 
of  a  godly  life,  too,  William  Carey  was  indebted 
for  much  of  that  inspiration  which  shaped  his 
decision  to  be  a  missionary  tho  he  had  to  go 
alone.  Brainerd  was  a  true,  noble  man  and  a 
Christian  hero  of  that  small  class  of  heroes  whose 
lives  seem  to  shape  history. 
David  Brainerd,  Wesley  (J.),  Bristol,  1768;    Edwards  (J.), 

revised  by  Dwight  (S.),  New  Haven,  1822,  and  New  York, 

1884;  Sherwood  (J.  M.),  New  York,  1887. 

BRASS:  A  district  in  the  Niger  delta  on  the 
coast  of  W.  Africa.     The  region  is  flat  and  touring 


can  be  done  in  the  dry  season  only,  the  mission- 
aries wearing  long  water  boots  and  tramping 
through  the  thick  black  mud  of  the  mangrove 
swamps.  The  people  are  fetish  worshipers, 
paying  chief  worship  to  the  great  serpents 
which  abound.  The  CMS  has  carried  on  two 
stations  since  1868,  called  Brass  Tuwon  and 
Brass  Nimbi.  The  missionaries  are  7  men  and 
women  and  the  native  workers  3.  There  are 
schools  with  an  industrial  department,  a  dispen- 
sary, and  about  600  avowed  Christians  in  the 
district,  of  whom  51  are  communicants. 

BRASS  NIMBI.     See  Nimbi. 

BRAYTON,  Rev.  Durlin  L.,  D.D.:  In  the  year 
1837  Mr.  Brayton  went  to  Burma  under  the 
ABMU,  and  he  labored  in  the  Pwo  Karen  Mis- 
sion until  the  year  1900,  visiting  America  but 
twice  during  this  long  period  of  service.  As  the 
oldest  missionary  in  Burma,  as  the  leading  mis- 
sionary among  the  Pwo  Karens  for  many  years, 
and  as  the  translator  of  tlie  Bible  into  the  Pwo 
Karen  dialect,  he  was  widely  known  and  greatly 
honored  on  the  mission  field.  During  his  service 
as  a  missionary  he  saw  Burma  develop  from  a 
province  of  little  importance  to  the  most  pros- 
perous province  in  India;  and  he  lived  to  see  the 
dominion  of  Great  Britain  increase  from  detached 
possessions  to  the  control  of  the  entire  territory 
of  the  Hindus,  and  he  heard  the  Queen  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  proclaimed  the  "Empress  of 
India."  Twice  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity 
was  conferred  upon  him.  Shortly  before  his 
death  the  Pwo  Karen  Association  was  held  in 
Rangoon,  in  the  compound  of  which  he  lived; 
and  to  his  fellow  workers  this  Father  in  Israel 
spoke  this  touching  valedictory:  "It  has  been 
my  highest  pleasure  to  seek  first  His  Kingdom 
and  do  His  Will.  By  His  grace  I  have  been 
enabled  to  fight  the  good  fight  and  keep  the 
faith.  But  when  it  shall  please  the  loving  Father 
He  will  call  me  to  Himself  to  be  with  Christ 
forever.  I  know  there  is  a  crown  of  glory  laid 
up  for  me  that  fadeth  not  away."  He  died  at 
Rangoon  April  23,  1900. 

BRAZIL:  The  United  States  of  Brazil  lie 
between  the  4th  degree  of  north  and  the  33d  erf 
south  latitude,  and  the  35th  and  72d  west  longi- 
tude, including  within  their  bounds  about  two- 
fifths  of  the  whole  South  American  Continent. 
This  youngest  born  of  the  American  republics 
measures  from  north  to  south  2,000  miles,  and 
from  east  to  west  2,500  miles,  thus  covering  an 
area  of  about  3,200,000  square  miles,  but  little 
less  than  the  whole  continent  of  Europe.  It 
borders  upon  all  the  South  American  countries 
except  Chile  and  from  the  vast  extent  of  its 
territory  and  the  immense  value  of  its  unde- 
veloped natural  resources  is  bound  to  play  an 
important  part  in  the  history  of  the  New  World. 
The  surface  of  the  republic  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  three  great  basins — one  at  the  north, 
formed  by  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries; 
another  at  the  south,  formed  by  the  streams 
which  united  produce  the  Parana,  one  of  the 
principal  branches  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and, 
lying  between  the  two,  the  section  drained  by 
the  Sao  Francisco,  the  third  river  in  size  in  South 
America. 

Climate:  In  so  vast  a  territory,  with  such  great 
differences  of  altitude,  there  are,  of  course,  many 
varieties  of  climate.  On  the  whole,  however, 
with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  towns  along 
the  seacoast  and  the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  the 


Brazil 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


104 


country  in  general  is  salubrious;  even  in  the  sea- 
board towns  the  mortality  is  not  above,  rather 
below,  that  of  the  large  cities  of  Europe.  In  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  the  hot  season  is  also 
the  rainy  season,  which  lasts  for  three  or  four 
months,  when,  altho  the  days  of  continuous  rain 
are  few,  the  afternoon  showers  fall  with  great 
regularity,  lasting  from  ten  minutes  to  an  hour 
or  two,  and  thus,  lowering  the  temperature  and 
refreshing  the  air,  insure  cool  nights. 

The  most  prevalent  diseases  are  pulmonary 
consumption,  intermittent  fevers,  and  rheuma- 
tism. Leprosy  and  goiter  are  common.  Epi- 
demics of  yellow  fever  occur  only  at  intervals  in 
some  of  the  seacoast  towns.  The  population, 
according  to  the  last  official  census  (1890),  was 
14,333,915,  of  whom  6,302,198  were  whites, 
4,638,495  of  mixed  blood,  2,097,426  negroes,  and 
1,295,796  Indians.  The  Indian  element  pre- 
dominates in  the  northern  states.  A  census  was 
taken  in  1900,  but  was  rejected  as  tainted  with 
error. 

History:  Brazil  was  discovered  about  the  year 
1500,  and  was  soon  after  taken  possession  of  by 
the  Portuguese  and  continued  to  be  a  colony  of 
Portugal  till  1822,  when  its  independence  was 
proclaimed  by  the  son  of  the  King  of  Portugal, 
who  was  acting  as  prince-regent.  He  assumed 
the  title  of  Pedro  I.,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  in 
1824  gave  the  country  a  constitution  which  in  its 
main  features  was  considered  liberal.  In  1831 
he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  the  late  Dom 
Pedro  II.,  who  was  at  that  time  only  five  years 
old.  The  government  was  by  regents  from  that 
date  till  1840,  when  the  emperor's  majority  was 
proclaimed,  altho  he  was  but  fourteen  years  of 
age.  Dom  Pedro  II.,  after  having  occupied  the 
throne  for  a  half  century,  less  one  year,  was 
deported  in  November  of  1889,  when  the  republic 
was  proclaimed.  As  a  natural  result  of  its  his- 
tory the  language  of  the  country  is  Portuguese. 
It  is  a  beautiful  language,  compact,  expressive, 
flexible,  and  well  adapted  for  oratory  and  litera- 
ture. The  literature  is  principally  rich  in  fiction 
and  poetry,  the  few  scientific  works  being  mostly 
translations  from  the  French.  As  French  is  con- 
sidered a  necessary  part  of  a  liberal  education, 
all  the  professional  men  read  it,  and  generally 
more  than  half  the  books  on  their  shelves  are  in 
that  language,  while  French  novels  of  all  sorts 
form  the  staple  literary  diet  of  the  ladies  of  the 
wealthier  classes. 

The  established  religion  of  the  empire  was 
Roman  Catholic.  Under  the  republic,  equality 
between  all  forms  of  religion  has  been  declared, 
but  the  government  continues  to  provide  for  the 
maintenance  of  existing  functionaries  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Qualities  of  the  People:  The  Brazilian  people 
are,  in  general,  hospitable,  generous,  charitable, 
gay,  courteous,  communicative,  quick  at  learn- 
ing, rather  fond  of  show,  somewhat  ceremonious 
and  proud,  rather  inclined  to  look  down  upon 
labor  and  laborers,  but  with  a  remarkable  suav- 
ity and  a  native  politeness  which  is  as  general 
in  the  lowest  as  the  highest  classes.  Tho  not 
as  excitable  as  the  Spanish,  there  is  still  a  strong 
element  of  jealousy  in  their  disposition,  and  a 
tendency  to  vindictiveness  which  gives  rise  to 
many  homicides  in  the  course  of  a  year,  tho 
crimes  against  property  are  much  fewer  than  in 
most  European  countries. 

The  race  as  it  exists  to-day  is  the  result  of  a 
combination    of    widely    diverse     ethnical    ele- 


ments, molded  in  a  great  degree  by  ecclesiastical 
influences.  The  typical  Brazilian  is  small  of 
stature,  with  elegantly  diminutive  feet  and  hands, 
slightly  built  frame,  nervous  and  bilious  tem- 
perament, bloodless  and  sallow  complexion,  and  a 
generally  anemic  and  wornout  look — evidently 
wanting  in  the  strength  and  energy  to  cope  with 
the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  developing 
a  new  country. 

The  bloodless  revolution  in  Brazil,  by  which 
a  country  nearly  as  large  as  the  whole  of  Europe 
passed  from  a  monarchical  to  a  republican  form 
of  government,  with  no  interruption  of  the  func- 
tion of  government,  no  injury  to  its  commerce, 
no  interference  with  the  regular  march  of  busi- 
ness, no  mobs  or  fighting,  emphasized  certain 
peculiarities  of  Brazilian  character  which  merit 
attention  on  the  part  of  those  who  expect  to- 
engage  in  missionary  labor  among  them. 

One  element  of  Brazilian  character  which 
unquestionably  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
quiet  advent  of  the  republic,  was  the  prevalent 
intellectual  sluggishness,  which  indisposes  the 
people  in  general  to  take  the  trouble  to  think  out 
and  decide  any  matter  for  themselves.  In  the 
great  majority  of  cases  the  readiness  with  which 
they  transferred  their  allegiance  from  one  gov- 
ernment to  another  was  due  not  so  much  to 
want  of  fidelity  to  political  convictions,  as  to 
the  total  absence  of  convictions  on  the  subject. 

The,  lower  classes  have  been  accustomed  for  so- 
many  centuries  to  leaving  their  consciences  in 
the  hands  of  the  priests,  and  yielding  them  an 
unreasoning  obedience,  that  the  habit  of  blindly 
following  their  leaders  has  become  a  second 
nature  to  them;  so  when  the  republic  came- 
they  did  what  was  most  natural,  accepted  it,  be- 
cause those  whom  they  had  been  accustomed 
to  follow  accepted  it. 

Even  among  the  educated  classes  there  is  an 
intellectual  apathy  which  shows  itself  in  all 
departments  of  intellectual  activity — science, 
philosophy,  politics'  and  religion — and  this  is 
nothing  more  than  the  natural  result  of  the 
policy  persistently  pursued  by  the  Church  of 
Rome  to  repress  speculation  and  original 
thought,  and  to  allow  its  votaries  free  exercise 
of  their  intellectual  powers  only  along  two  lines 
of  activity — money-making  and  amusement. 

In  view  of  these  intellectual  conditions  of  the 
rising  generation  in  Brazil,  the  great  importance 
of  educational  work  there  becomes  evident. 
While  confessedly  an  indirect  evangelizing 
agency,  it  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  important 
in  the  present  crisis.  There  is  almost  no  positive 
opposition  to  the  Gospel ;  it  is  simply  ignored  by 
many  who  admit  that  it  is  a  very  good  thing, 
but  who  are  unwilling  to  make  the  intellectual 
effort  necessary  to  investigate  its  claims,  and 
to  think  the  matter  out  for  themselves. 

The  change  of  government,  by  throwing  upon 
the  people  the  management  of  their  own  affairs,, 
will  gradually  force  the  people  to  think  for  them- 
selves. It  is  of  the  first  importance,  therefore,, 
that  measures  be  taken  at  once  to  turn  the 
newly  awakened  intellectual  activity  in  the  right 
direction,  as  well  as  to  make  accessible  to  the  peo- 
ple the  materials  for  a  right  judgment  in  science 
and  religion. 

The  prominent  moral  characteristic  of  the 
Brazilian  people  is  a  very  great  lack  of  conscien- 
tiousness, an  almost  complete  absence  of  the 
feeling  that  everything  must  give  way  to  right 
and  duty.     The  result  of  this  has  been  referred 


105 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Brazil 


to  in  speaking  of  their  physical  cliaracteristicg. 
It  has  also  been  prominent  in  their  political  his- 
tory. One  of  the  first  measures  of  republican 
government  was  a  general  decree  that  all  office- 
holders who  gave  in  their  adhesion  to  the  new 
government  within  a  certain  time  would  be  con- 
tinued in  office,  while  those  who  refused  to  do 
so  would  be  immediately  replaced  by  others. 
The  result  of  this  measure  was  a  wholesale  coat- 
turning,  which  would  have  been  amusing  had  it 
not  been  so  sad  an  indication  of  the  utter  lack 
of  principle  on  the  part  of  so  large  a  portion  of 
the  best  citizens.  Altho  many  had  just  before 
been  ardent  monarchists,  and  nearly  all  had 
voted  for  the  monarchical  candidate  in  the  recent 
elections,  not  one  in  a  hundred  declined  to  accept 
the  offered  conditions,  and  the  State  and  munici- 
pal machinery  moved  on  without  the  slightest 
hitch. 

The  police  of  Brazil  are  a  military  organization, 
wear  soldier's  uniform,  carry  guns,  and  in  their 
ordinary  patrol  work  use  sword  bayonets.  As 
soon  as  these  soldier-police,  scattered  all  over 
the  country,  received  orders  from  their  superior 
officers  to  accept  the  republic,  they  tore  the 
crowns  from  their  caps  and  proclaimed  a  change 
of  government.  Outside  of  the  large  cities  the 
number  of  these  police  agents  was  utterly  insig- 
nificant, and  they  could  have  been  easily  over- 
powered, but  even  the  most  ardent  monarchists 
when  they  found  themselves  face  to  face  with 
the  military,  and  called  upon  to  risk  some  per- 
sonal injury  for  the  sake  of  their  political  opin- 
ions, yielded  at  once.  It  was  not  cowardice,  for 
the  Brazilians  are  not  a  cowardly  people,  but 
simply  the  feeling  that  it  was  not  worth  while 
to  risk  anything  for  a  mere  opinion.  The  priest- 
hood, the  whole  effect  of  whose  teachings  for 
centuries  has  been  to  obliterate  the  inherent  dis- 
tinction between  right  and  wrong,  and  to  confuse 
the  minds  of  the  people  on  the  fundamental 
principles  of  ethics,  is  without  doubt  chiefly 
responsible  for  this  demoralization. 

Conditions  of  Life:  The  superior  wisdom  of 
"The  Fathers,"  and  the  necessity  of  accepting 
as  final  their  ideas  and  judgments  in  all  matters 
of  faith  and  doctrine  have  been  drilled  into 
the  people  from  their  earliest  infancy  for  many 
successive  generations,  until  the  habit  of  looking 
backward  seems  to  have  become  ingrained  into 
the  Brazilian  nature,  leading  tliem  to  hold  on  with 
an  almost  religious  pertinacity  to  old-fashioned 
business  methods,  antiquated  modes  of  transpor- 
tation and  farming  (solid-wheeled  oxcarts  and 
packmules  compete  with  railroads  in  some  parts 
of  the  country,  and  not  one  farmer  in  a  thousand 
has  ever  seen  a  plow),  and  the  most  unhy- 
gienic ways  of  living  and  eating.  The  unparal- 
leled progress  of  the  United  States  is,  doubtless, 
largely  owing  to  the  fact  that  every  man  seeks  to 
improve  upon  the  methods  of  his  father,  and  eager- 
ly experiments  with  any  proposed  change  which 
promises  to  be  an  improvement.  The  average 
Brazilian,  however,  regards  any  innovation  with 
suspicion,  simply  because  it  is  an  innovation, 
and  is  very  apt  to  receive  suggested  improve- 
ments with  a  smile  of  half-scornful  superiority, 
and  to  say:  "Your  implements  and  methods  are 
very  good  for  you  and  your  country,  but  the 
ways  of  our  fathers,  who  have  been  working  here 
for  centuries,  are  doubtless  best  for  us  in  this 
country."  This  difference  of  mental  attitude  is 
of  itself  enough  largely  to  account  for  the  differ- 
ence between  the  two  countries,  and  for  it  the 


Church  of  Rome  is  largely,  if  not  wholly,  respons- 
ible. 

It  is  suggestive  that  even  the  roads  through  the 
country  are  only  cared  for  as  they  have  to  do 
with  tlie  parish  churches.  Once  a  year,  upon  an 
appointed  day,  all  landholders  are  required  to- 
present  themselves  at  their  respective  parisli 
churches  carrying  hoes,  brush  hooks,  or  axe  s.. 
Then  all  start  together  for  their  homes,  cleaning 
and  repairing  the  roads  as  they  go;  dividing  as. 
they  successively  reach  the  turning  leading  to 
their  houses,  thus  leaving  a  wide  cleared  road 
from  each  house  to  the  parish  church.  These 
roads  were  formerly  called  sacramental  roads,  as,, 
in  order  to  incite  to  the  prompt  and  faithful 
performance  of  this  task,  the  priests  used  to 
refuse  to  carry  the  sacrament  to  the  dying  except 
over  a  well-prepared  road  of  the  regulation 
width.  There  are  no  road  inspectors  and  no 
provision  made  for  the  care  of  crossroads,  even 
tho  leading  to  a  railroad  station.  So  all  over 
the  country  there  has  been  a  constant  effort  to- 
make  everything  center  in  the  Church. 

The  doing  things  for  show  and  effect  is  a 
prominent  Brazilian  characteristic.  "Para  Inglez 
ver,"  for  the  English  to  see,  is  an  expression 
applied  originally  to  parliamentary  measures- 
which  it  was  known  at  the  time  would  have  a 
good  effect  upon  outsiders,  especially  upon 
investors  in  that  land  whose  ready  money  has 
done  so  much  to  develop  the  resources  of  this 
country;  but  it  has  passed  into  proverbial  phrase 
to  indicate  whatever  is  done  for  show  or  effect. 
The  tendency  which  this  phrase  characterizes, 
and  of  which  the  late  emperor  was  thought  to 
have  been  an  illustrious  example,  is  evident  in 
all  departments  of  the  social,  political,  and  busi- 
ness life  of  the  Brazilian  people.  Their  style  of 
dressing  and  building,  their  business  and  pro- 
fessional methods,  their  school  system  and  news- 
paper articles,  public  speeches  and  private  enter- 
tainments, all  reflect  the  soulless  externality 
which  is  characteristic  of  their  religious  life. 

Education:  So-called  religious  instruction  occu- 
pies tlie  principal  place  in  the  public  schools, 
hours  being  spent  in  learning  by  heart  the  prayers 
and  liturgies  of  the  Church  in  an  unknown 
tongue,  and  another  considerable  part  of  the  time 
in  memorizing  the  Catechism,  which,  being 
learned  parrot-like  without  explanation,  is  almost 
equally  unintelligible  to  the  pupils.  As  a  result 
it  is  not  at  all  unusual  to  find  Brazilian  children 
who  have  been  at  the  public  schools  for  two  or 
three  years,  but  can  barely  spell  through  a  sen- 
tence, and  are  ignorant  of  the  simplest  rules  of 
arithmetic.  In  the  rural  districts  one  often 
comes  across  children  who,  having  learned  out 
of  books  copied  b}'  the  teachers,  are  quite  familiar 
with  handwriting,  but  cannot  read  print  at  all. 

Following  the  system  of  rote  teaching,  which 
is  tlie  only  one  admissible  in  their  religious 
instruction,  the  sole  aim  of  the  teacher,  even  in 
the  higher  schools,  seems  to  be  to  store  the 
memory;  no  attempt  is  made  to  develop  the 
reasoning  powers  or  to  encourage  original  thought 
or  investigation.  The  child's  head  is  stuffed 
with  li.sts  of  names,  numbers  and  rules,  without 
any  attempt  to  explain  principles  or  verify  or 
apply  them  in  practice.  Mathematics  are  taught 
most  superficially,  while  the  generally  received 
test  of  an  educated  person  is  the  ability  to  speak 
a  number  of  languages,  like  the  last  emperor. 
As  a  consequence,  tho  linguists  are  common, 
scientists  are  very  few,  indeed.     About  the  only 


Brazil 

British  and  Foreign 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


106 


thing  that  is  tolerably  well  taught  is  Latin,  and 
that  only  because  it  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
priestly  education. 

Under  such  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising 
that  fully  84  per  cent,  of  the  population  is 
returned  as  illiterate.  Yet  the  land  has  been 
under  the  care  of  the  Church  for  250  years,  and 
when  William  Penn  made  his  treaty  with  the 
Indians  the  Archbishop  of  Brazil  already  had  a 
splendid  cathedral  and  all  its  appurtenances  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Early  Attempts  at  Evangelization:  It  is  a  very 
deeply  interesting  fact  that  the  very  first  effort 
of  the  Christian  Church  after  the  Reformation  to 
engage  in  foreign  missions  was  that  of  the  church 
at  Geneva  to  send  the  Gospel  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Brazil.  Coligny,  the  great  French  Huguenot, 
and  other  friends  of  the  truth  conceived  the  idea 
of  establishing  a  Protestant  colony  in  South 
America  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  their  persecuted 
brethren. 

In  15S5  an  expedition,  consisting  of  three  small 
vessels,  under  the  command  of  one  Villegagnon, 
a  distinguished  French  naval  officer,  sailed  from 
Havre  de  Grace  to  what  is  now  the  harbor  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  where  they  established  them- 
selves on  an  island,  called  to  this  day  Villegagnon, 
in  honor  of  the  leader,  and,  as  he  afterward  proved 
to  be,  treacherous  destroyer  of  this  expedition. 
Their  joyous  reception  by  the  natives,  who  were 
at  war  with  the  Portuguese,  and  other  circum- 
stances seemed  to  warrant  high  hopes  of  success. 

On  the  return  of  the  vessels  to  Europe  great 
interest  was  awakened  for  the  establishment  of 
the  reformed  religion  in  those  remote  parts;  and 
the  church  at  Geneva,  under  Calvin  and  his  col- 
leagues, sent  two  ministers  and  fourteen  students 
to  accompany  the  second  expedition.  How- 
ever, soon  after  these  new  colonists  reached  their 
destination,  the  real  and  villainous  character  of 
Villegagnon  revealed  itself  in  a  series  of  annoy- 
ances and  persecutions  against  the  faithful 
Huguenots,  who,  having  gone  thither  with  the 
hope  of  enjoying  full  liberty  of  conscience,  found 
their  condition  worse  than  before.  The  ruin  of 
the  colony  was  soon  consummated.  Many  of 
the  colonists  returned  to  Europe.  Of  those  who 
remained,  three  were  put  to  death  by  their 
infamous  persecutor,  and  others  fled  to  the 
Indians  and  Portuguese.  Among  the  latter  was 
one  named  John  Boles,  who  is  noted,  even  in  the 
annals  of  the  Jesuits,  as  a  man  of  considerable 
learning,  being  well  versed  in  both  Greek  and 
Hebrew.  Escaping  from  Villegagnon,  John 
Boles  went  to  St.  Vincente,  near  the  present  site 
of  Santos,  the  earliest  Portuguese  settlement  in 
that  part  of  the  country,  where  the  Jesuits  had 
a  colony  of  Indians  catechized  according  to  their 
mode.  According  to  the  Jesuit  chroniclers  them- 
selves, the  Huguenot  minister  preached  with  such 
boldness,  eloquence  and  erudition  that  he  was 
likely  to  pervert  great  numbers  of  their  adepts. 
Unable  to  withstand  him  by  arguments,  they 
caused  him  to  be  arrested,  with  several  of  his 
companions.  John  Boles  was  taken  to  Bahia, 
about  a  thousand  miles  distant,  where  he  lay  in 
prison  eight  years.  When,  in  1.567,  the  Portu- 
guese finally  succeeded  in  expelling  the  French 
from  that  part  of  their  dominions,  the  governor 
sent  for  the  Huguenot  prisoner  and  had  him  put 
to  death  on  the  present  site  of  the  city  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  in  order,  it  was  said,  to  terrify  his 
countrymen,  if  any  of  them  should  be  lurking  in 
those  parts. 


The  Dutch  attempted  to  establish  themselves 
at  different  points  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
country,  from  Bahia  to  Maranhao,  during  more 
or  less  of  the  second  quarter  of  the  17th 
century.  Godly  pastors  accompanied  their  expe- 
ditions and  preached  a  pure  Gospel  in  their 
settlements.  But  this  can  hardly  be  classed  as 
missionary  effort  for  the  permanent  dwellers  of 
the  land;  and  all  trace  of  their  labors  seems  to 
have  passed  away  with  the  language  and  author- 
ity of  the  bold  invaders,  except  the  mention  by 
Southey,  in  his  History  of  Brazil,  that  they  had 
prepared  a  catechism  in  the  language  of  the 
Indians  and  other  books  of  an  evangelical  char- 
acter in  Portuguese. 

The  ABS  and  the  BFBS  were  the  first  societies 
to  attempt  in  recent  times  the  evangelization  of 
the  Brazilians.  Several  individuals  went  to 
Brazil  as  missionaries  about  the  same  time,  but 
their  aim  was  to  benefit  seamen  and  others  of 
their  own  countrymen.  Of  such  were  Messrs. 
Spalding  and  Kidder,  of  the  ME  Church,  who 
labored  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  between  1836  and 
1842.  A  missionary  of  the  American  and  For- 
eign Christian  Union  followed  these  pioneers  with 
the  same  purpose  in  view.  The  first  evangelistic 
mission  in  Brazil  conducted  in  the  Portuguese 
language  seems  to  have  been  that  carried  on 
from  1855  to  1876  at  his  own  expense  by  Dr. 
Kalley,  formerly  of  Madeira. 

In  1859  the  PN  commenced  its  mission  in  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  There  are  now  in  Brazil  28  mission 
stations  maintained  by  13  different  societies  in 
America  and  Great  Britain,  and  manned  by  about 
60  missionaries  of  both  sexes.  The  extent  of 
this  missionary  effort  is  less  striking  when  it  is 
realized  to  be  the  only  evangelistic  effort  made 
for  fourteen  million  of  people.  For  the  spiritual 
wants  of  140,000  Protestant  foreign  residents, 
twice  this  number  of  chaplains  and  pastors  have 
been  provided. 
South  America^  Protestant   Missions  in,  Eeach    (H.  P.),  and 

others,  New  York,  1900;  Brazil  and  the  Brazilians,  Kidder 

(.J.  C.  and  D.  P.),  New  York,  1896. 

BREATH,  Edward:  Born  in  New  York,  Janu- 
ary 22,  1808.  Highly  recommended  as  a  Chris- 
tian and  "an  accurate,  neat,  ingenious,  and  every 
way  competent  printer,"  he  was  appointed  by 
the  ABCFM,  and  sailed  July  21,  1839,  for 
Urmia,  Persia.  In  1847  he  visited  the  United 
States,  was  married,  and  reembarked,  1849.  He 
cut  the  matrices  and  cast  for  the  mission  beautiful 
fonts  of  Syriac  type  with  a  hand  before  unprac- 
tised in  that  art,  but  which  made  a  rare  and 
complete  success.  He  thus  saved  thousands  of 
dollars  to  the  American  Board.  Through  the 
press  under  his  charge  he  issued  more  than  80,000 
volumes,  including  several  editions  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  modern  Syriac,  thus  giving  to  the  people 
about  16,000,000  pages  in  a  language  never 
before  printed.  He  died  of  cholera  in  1861  at 
Seir,  near  Urmia,  Persia. 

BREKLUM  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY.  See 
Germany;   Missionary  Societies  in. 

BRETHREN,  Missions  of  the.  See  Christian 
Missions. 

BRETHREN'S  SOCIETY  for  the  Furtherance 
of  the  Gospel  among  the  Heathen.  See  Mora- 
vian Missions. 

BRIDGETOWN:  Capital  of  the  island  of  Bar- 
bados, West  Indies,  on  a  large  open  roadstead, 
Carlisle  Bay.  Population  (1891),  20,000,  among 
whom  are  many  white  people.     Station  of  the 


107 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Brazil 
Britisli  and  Foreign 


Moravian  Missions  (1829),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  29  native  worlcers,  men  and  women,  2 
chapels,  3  Sunday  schools,  5  village  schools,  and 
605  professing  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
SDA  (1890),  with  4  missionaries  and  their  wives, 
9  native  workers,  2  chapels,  10  Sunday  schools, 
1  village  school,  1  book  depot,  and  605  professing 
Christians.     Also  station  of  the  Salvation  Army. 

BRIDGMAN,  Elijah  Colman:  Born  at  Belcher- 
town,  Mass.,  April  22,  1801,  of  Puritan  ancestry. 
Was  converted  in  a  revival  before  he  was  twelve 
years  of  age.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  College, 
1826,  and.  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1829.  The  ABCFM  proposed  to  him  while  m 
the  seminary  to  go  to  China  as  its  missionary. 
He  acceded,  was  ordained  October  6,  1829, 
sailed  on  the  14th,  and  reached  Canton,  February 
25,  1830. 

In  May,  1832,  Mr.  Bridgman  was  chosen  editor 
of  the  Chinese  Repository  and  continued  to  edit 
it  for  nearly  twenty  years.  In  1839  the  measures 
taken  by  the  Chinese  to  suppress  the  opium 
traffic  resulted  in  war  with  England,  which  inter- 
rupted the  operations  of  the  mission  at  Canton. 
In  1842  the  war  terminated,  and  by  the  treaty 
of  Nanking  five  ports  were  opened,  and  Hong- 
kong ceded  to  the  English.  Thither  Mr.  Bridg- 
man was  removed.  About  this  time  he  prepared 
the  Chinese  Chrestomathy,  a  volume  of  730  pages. 
In  1844  he  was  secretary  of  legation  to  Mr.  Gush- 
ing, sent  by  the  United  States  Government  on  a 
special  mission  to  China,  and  of  his  services  Mr. 
Gushing  spoke  in  high  terms.  After  the  conclu- 
sion of  this  enterprise  Dr.  Bridgman's  time  was 
divided  between  the  Repository,  the  revision  of 
the  Scriptures,  preaching  at  the  hospital,  and 
the  instruction  of  a  Bible  class.  In  1847  he 
removed  to  Shanghai  to  aid  in  the  revision  of  the 
Scriptures.  Early  in  1852,  after  an  absence  of 
twenty-three  years,  he  visited  the  United  States 
for  his  health.  In  1854  through  him  a  new  mis- 
sion was  commenced  in  Shanghai,  of  which  he 
was  the  senior  member  till  his  death  in  1861. 

Tho  his  great  work  was  that  of  translation,  he 
distributed  tracts  and  religious  books,  and 
preached  to  individuals  or  companies  in  streets 
and  villages  wherever  he  could  gather  them. 
He  was  interested  also  in  whatever  could  in  any 
way  promote  the  welfare  of  China,  and  was 
always  ready  to  perform  his  part  for  that  object. 
When  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  four  great 
treaty  powers — England,  France,  Russia  and 
the  IJnited  States — were  conducting  their  nego- 
tiations which  resulted  in  the  Tientsin  Treaty  of 
1858,  he  was  consulted  by  them,  and  frequently 
translated  official  documents  for  them.  In  his 
thirty-two  years  in  China  he  was  more  intimately 
connected  with  and  known  by  the  foreign  com- 
munity at  Shanghai  and  Canton  than  any  other 
missionary,  and  by  all  was  highly  esteemed. 

BRINDABAN:  A  town  situated  on  the  Jumna 
River  near  Muttra,  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India;  station  of  the  ME,  with  2  missionary 
women,  one  of  them  a  physician,  29  native  work- 
ers, 20  Sunday  schools,  6  village  schools,  1  high 
school,  a  Young  People's  Society  and  590  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN  BIBLE  SOCIETY: 
About  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  during  the 
revival  that  spread  over  England,  interest  was 
aroused  in  the  various  means  for  the  promotion 
of  religious  knowledge,  both  at  home  and  abroad, 
and  several  societies  were  formed  which  made 


Bible  distribution  one  part  of  their  aim,  or  their 
sole  object  within  restricted  bounds.  Of  such 
were  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel in  Wales,  established  about  1662;  the  Society 
tor  Promoting  Christian  knowledge,  1698;  the 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in 
Foreign  Parts,  1701;  the  Boole  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Christian  Knowledge  among  the  Poor 
(London),  1750;  the  Religious  Tract  Society 
(London),  1779;  the  Bible  Society,  1780, 
restricted  to  labors  among  soldiers  and  seamen, 
and  afterward  called  the  Naval  and  Military 
Society;  the  Dublin  Association,  1792,  and  the 
French  Bible  Society  (London),  1792,  for  circulat- 
ing the  Bible  among  the  Catholics  of  France.  The 
French  Revolution  cutting  off  communication 
between  the  two  countries,  the  funds  were  turned 
to  the  distribution  of  the  Scriptures  among  "poor 
Catholics  and  others  in  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland."  None  of  these  soci- 
eties contemplated  universal  distribution  of  the 
Scriptures,  nor  indeed  contemplated  or  admitted 
the  cooperation  of  the  different  parties  and  sec- 
tions of  evangelical  Christendom. 

The  Rev.  Thomas  Charles,  of  Bala,  Wales, 
aroused  by  the  dearth  of  Bibles  in  that  section, 
and  the  difficulty  of  securing  the  needed  supply 
from  existing  organizations,  visited  London  in 
1802  and  conferred  with  Rev.  Jos.  Hughes,  Will- 
iam Wilberforce,  Charles  Grant  and  others. 
The  result  was  a  conference,  on  a  general 
plan  drawn  up  by  Samuel  J.  Mills,  on  March  7, 
1804,  at  the  London  Tavern.  About  three  hun- 
dred persons,  representing  different  denomina- 
tions, were  present.  Granville  Sharp  was  elected 
chairman,  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Owen  (afterward 
clerical  secretary),  deeply  stirred  by  the  alto- 
gether novel  spectacle  of  different  denomina- 
tions met  in  union  to  promote  one  glorious  cause, 
moved  the  resolutions  embodying  the  name  and 
general  form  and  constitution  of  the  British  and 
F'oreign  Bible  Society.  These  were  "adopted 
with  unanimous  demonstrations  of  cordiality 
and  joy,"  and  more  than  £700  was  immediately 
subscribed.  The  committee  appointed  at  this 
meeting  afterward  proceeded  to  adjust  the 
machinery  of  the  Society.  Rev.  Josiah  Pratt, 
secretary  of  the  CMS,  to  represent  the  Church  of 
England,  Rev.  J.  Hughes,  the  Dissenters,  and 
Rev.  Mr.  Steinkopff  (afterward  replaced  by  Rev. 
J.  Owen),  foreign  Christian  Churches,  were 
chosen  secretaries.  A  prospectus  was  then  pre- 
pared and  widely  distributed.  Lord  Teign- 
mouth  became  the  first  president.  Among  the 
first  vice-presidents  were  the  bishops  of  London, 
Durham,  and  Exeter,  and  William  Wilberforce. 

The  new  society  was  heartily  received.  The 
Presbytery  of  Glasgow,  the  Synod  of  Glasgow 
and  Ayr,  and  other  ecclesiastical  bodies  directed 
contributions  to  be  received  for  it  from  all  the 
churches  and  chapels  within  the  bounds.  Wales, 
stimulated  by  Mr.  Charles,  of  Bala,  sent  a  contri- 
bution the  first  year  of  about  $9,500,  mostly  from 
the  poorer  classes.  Germany,  Switzerland  and 
other  European  countries  hailed  the  society  with 
delight.  Nuremberg  was  the  seat  of  its  first 
foreign  branch.  It  began  its  career  with  such 
general  support  as  was  a  prophecy  of  its  world- 
wide usefulness. 

Organization.  The  conduct  of  the  business  of 
the  Society  is  entrusted  to  a  committee  of  36  lay- 
men, of  whom  six  are  foreigners,  resident  in  Lon- 
don or  vicinity,  15  are  members  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  15  belong  to  other  denominations 


Britisli  and  Foreign 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


108 


of  Christians.  Thirty  of  these  who  shall  have 
most  frequently  attended  the  meetings,  are  eli- 
gible for  reelection.  This  committee  appoints 
all  officers  except  the  treasurer.  The  president, 
vice-presidents  and  treasurer  are  members  of 
the  committee  ex  officio,  as  also  the  secretaries 
for  the  time  being,  no  other  person  deriving  any 
emolument  from  the  Society  having  that  privi- 
lege. Subscribers  of  various  amounts  are  annual 
or  life  members  or  governors,  and  every  clergy- 
man of  the  Church  of  England  and  every  Dis- 
senting minister,  who  is  a  member,  is  entitled  to 
attend  and  to  vote  at  all  meetings  of  the  Commit- 
tee. 

The  executive  staff  of  the  Society  includes  two 
secretaries,  four  superintendents  of  the  editorial, 
literary,  home  and  publishing  departments,  two 
assistant  secretaries,  fourteen  district  secretaries 
in  England  and  Wales,  six  secretaries  in  India 
and  South  Africa,  and  twenty-four  foreign  agents 
in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

The  first  auxiliary  was  formed  in  1809,  and  in 
ten  years  629  auxiliaries  had  been  formed  in 
Great  Britain.  The  Society  now  has  over  7,900 
auxiliaries,  branches  and  associations,  of  which 
over  5,860  are  in  England  and  Wales.  These 
m.eet  their  own  expenditures,  including  in  some 
cases  colportage,  etc.,  and  remit  the  balance  of 
their  collections  to  the  Society.  The  Society  has 
also  about  250  trade  depots  in  the  London  metro- 
politan district,  aside  from  those  in  other  parts 
of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Development  of  Work:  Immediately  upon  the 
organization  of  the  Society  steps  were  taken  to 
obtain  large  supplies  of  the  Welsh  Scriptures, 
and  subsequently  the  Irish,  Gaelic,  Manx,  and, 
for  the  Channel  islands,  the  French.  Stereotype 
printing  had  just  come  into  use,  and  the  com- 
mittee decided  to  countenance  it,  and  ordered 
stereotype  plates  in  several  languages.  The  first 
New  Testament  printed  expressly  for  the  Society, 
brought  out  in  September,  1805,  was  in  English, 
and  was  printed  from  stereotype  plates,  the  first 
instance  of  the  use  of  that  process  in  the  printing 
of  the  Scriptures.  Editions  in  Spanish  and 
French  were  printed  for  the  30,000  prisoners  of 
war  at  that  time  in  the  country,  and  other  editions 
for  resident  foreigners,  notably  Germans. 

In  1812  the  demand  for  English  Scriptures 
became  so  great  that  the  two  universities  (Oxford 
and  Cambridge)  added  to  the  number  of  their 
presses,  and  his  Majesty's  printers  were  induced 
to  engage  in  the  work  as  their  patent  permitted. 
It  is  from  these  three  (the  only  authorized) 
sources  that  the  supply  of  English  Scriptures  is 
obtained  by  the  Society. 

In  connection  with  the  abolition  of  slavery 
throughout  the  British  colonies  (August  1,  1833) 
a  special  fund  of  £16,249  5s.  9d.  was  raised  amid 
great  enthusiasm  to  put  a  copy  of  the  New 
Testament  into  the  hands  of  every  freedman 
who  could  read  or  was  the  head  of  a  family. 
This  measure  was  ultimately  accomplished, 
August  1,  1836,  when  100,000  copies  were  thus 
disposed  of.  Other  similar  special  exigencies 
have  been  met  in  the  same  liberal  manner.  From 
its  earliest  history  the  Society  has  had  to  meet 
considerable  and  at  times  bitter  opposition. 
An  element  in  the  Established  Church  looked  on 
its  recognition  of  dissenters  with  disfavor,  and 
tried  to  have  it  print  the  Prayer  Book  as  well  as 
the  Bible;  its  willingness  to  assist  continental 
societies  that  used  the  Apocrypha  also  raised 
much  opposition,  and  occasioned  the  withdrawal 


of  the  Scotch  Association  and  the  subsequent 
organization  of  the  National  Bible  Society  of 
Scotland,  altho  in  1827  such  assistance  was. 
forbidden.  Later  an  attempt  to  impose  a 
trinitarian  test  of  membership  failing,  the  Trini- 
tarian Bible  Society  was  formed,  and  the  contro- 
versy over  the  word  "baptize"  resulted  in  the 
Bible  Translation  Society  of  the  Baptists. 

Of  specific  interest  are  the  publishing  of  the 
first  penny  Testament  in  1834  and  of  Scriptures 
in  raised  letters  for  the  blind  in  1837;  the  lower- 
ing of  the  price  of  Bibles  in  1839  through  the- 
cessation  of  the  monopoly  of  the  King's  printer 
in  Scotland,  the  introduction  of  colportage  into 
Great  Britain  in  1844,  and  the  acceptance  for 
circulation  of  the  Revised  Version  of  the  Bible  in 
1901. 

Immediately  on  the  formation  of  the  Society 
correspondence  was  commenced  through  a  sub- 
committee with  foreign  lands,  with  a  view  to 
learn  both  the  needs  and  the  best  methods  of 
work  in  those  lands.  The  first  grant  made  was 
one  of  £100  to  encourage  the  formation  of  a 
society  in  Nuremberg,  in  May,  1804.  One  of  the 
earliest  foreign  correspondents  was  a  Roman 
Catholic  clergyman  in  Swabia,  to  whom  1,000 
German  New  Testaments  were  granted  for 
distribution.  The  first  foreign  edition  of  the 
Scriptures  printed  by  the  Society  was  John's 
Gospel  (2,000  copies)  in  Mohawk  and  English. 

Various  grants  were  made  to  encourage  the 
printing  of  new  editions  of  the  Scriptures  and 
for  the  establishment  of  auxiliary  societies  on 
the  Continent.  In  1812  a  Bible  committee  was 
formed  in  Paris.  Auxiliaries  were  formed  in 
Zurich  (1812), St.  Gall  (1813), Wurtemberg  (1813), 
Frankfort  and  other  places  (1812),  Presburg  in 
Hungary  (1812).  Leander  Van  Ess,  a  Catholic 
priest  and  professor  in  the  University  of  Marburg, 
made  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament;  £200 
was  granted  him  to  enable  him  distribute  3,000 
copies.  The  Berlin  Auxiliary  was  formed  in  1805 
and  soon  printed  20,000  copies  of  the  Scriptures 
in  the  Bohemian  and  Polish  tongues.  In  1807 
means  were  taken  to  supply  the  need  in  Iceland, 
and  in  1823  it  was  reported  that  there  was  not 
a  family  without  the  Scriptures.  An  auxiliary 
was  founded  in  Copenhagen  in  1814.  In  Russia 
an  auxiliary  for  Finland  was  organized  in  1812, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Czar,  Alexander  I., 
and  in  1813  one  for  Russia  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Prince  Galitzin  became  its  first  president,  and 
members  of  the  Russian  Greek  and  the  Armenian 
churches  were  present  at  the  inauguration  of  the 
work.  The  Czar  donated  25,000  roubles,  and 
became  an  annual  subscriber  to  the  amount  of 
10,000.  Auxiliaries  were  formed,  various  trans- 
lations made,  and  a  great  impulse  given  to 
Bible  distribution  and  study.  Nearly  one  hun- 
dred editions  in  thirty  languages  were  published, 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Scriptures  distrib' 
uted.  Alexander's  successor,  Nicholas,  sup- 
pressed the  Society  in  1826,  but  permitted  tne 
formation  of  a  Protestant  Society  for  supplying 
Protestants  with  the  Bible.  In  1809  an  associa- 
tion was  formed  in  Stockholm  through  which 
Lapland  also  was  reached.  In  1814  the  Nether- 
lands Bible  Society  was  instituted  at  Amsterdam. 
It  was  found  that,  while  the  majority  of  the  adher- 
ents of  the  Reformed  Church  had  Bibles,  the 
Lutherans  generally  were  unprovided,  and  the 
Catholics  had  very  few  copies  among  them. 
Societies  were  rapidly  multiplied  to  supply 
the  need,   and  generous  grants   were   made  to 


109 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Brltlsb  and  Forelgrn 


■them.  Efforts  made  by  the  pope  to  check  the 
-work  in  Poland  and  Russia  failed.  Austria 
refused  to  permit  the  work  in  her  territories,  and 
the  Hungarian  Bible  Society  was  suppressed; 
and  yet  many  eminent  Roman  Catholics  heartily 
assisted  the  Society  in  its  work. 

Up  to  1826  it  had  been  the  aim  of  the  Society 
to  encourage  foreign  countries  to  institute 
societies  of  their  own,  on  its  principle  of  circu- 
lating the  Scriptures  without  note  or  comment. 
This  aim  was  remarkably  successful.  Holland, 
Oermany,  Poland,  Russia,  Switzerland,  France, 
Hungary,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  Iceland 
were  aroused  in  a  remarkable  degree  to  provide 
the  people  with  the  Bible.  In  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  Churches  the  various  Protestant 
translations  were  distributed,  while  among  the 
Roman  Catholics,  versions  of  their  own,  but 
-without  note  or  comment,  were  adopted  for 
distribution  by  the  Society.  On  account  of  the 
position  taken  in  regard  to  the  Apocrypha, 
most  of  the  continental  societies  withdrew,  and 
latterly  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
has  carried  forward  its  work  in  Europe  by  means 
of  agencies  under  its  own  immediate  control. 

The  Society  completed  one  hundred  years  of 
arduous  service  March  6,  1904.  That  day,  fall- 
ing on  Sunday,  was  observed  in  all  Protestant 
countries  as  a  day  for  setting  forth  in  the  pulpit 
the  debt  which  the  world  owes  to  the  Bible,  and 
for  commemorating  the  services  of  the  Bible 
societies  to  mankind. 

The  growth  of  the  Society's  work  is  indicated 
by  the  following  figures  as  to  its  issues  and  receipts : 
Up  to  March  31,  1808,  its  issues  were  81,157 
volumes,  of  which  63,113  were  New  Testaments. 
The  next  year  showed  77,272  with  40,862  New 
Testaments  and  35,910  Bibles.  From  that  time 
the  growth  has  been  constant,  until  in  1902  the 
total  issues  were  5,067,421,  including  939,706 
Bibles,  1,364,116  New  Testaments,  2,763,599 
portions.  The  total  issues  up  to  March  31, 
1902,  were  175,038,965. 

The  income  of  the  Society  has  grown  from 
£691  10s.  2d.  in  its  first  year  to  £241,143  2s. 
lid.  in  1902. 

Bible  Women:  The  Society  has  of  late  years 
made  a  special  feature  of  the  employment  of 
Bible  Women,  especially  in  the  East,  to  reach  the 
homes  with  reading  and  instruction.  During 
1901,  621  were  thus  employed  in  Asia,  either  by 
the  Society  direct  or  through  its  auxiliaries  or 
the  different  missionary  societies,  and  they 
reached  over  35,000  women  and  taught  2,384  in 
India,  Ceylon  and  Egypt  to  read. 

Editorial  Work:  An  idea  of  this  branch  of  the 
Society's  work  is  furnished  by  the  statement  that, 
during  the  year  ending  March  31,  1902,  the 
Editorial  Committee  considered  matters  bearing 
on  versions  of  Scripture  in  151  languages  and 
dialects,  of  which  33  belong  to  Europe,  55  to 
Asia,  43  to  Africa,  6  to  America  and  1 4  to  Oceania. 
Negotiations  have  been  conducted  with  the 
owners  of  the  Revised  Version  in  English,  with  a 
view  to  issuing  it  in  forms  suited  to  schools 
and  the  cottages  of  the  poor.  Amoiig  iterns 
of  special  interest  are  a  German  Bible  in  Latin 
characters,  a  pocket  Bible  in  Persian,  a  Re- 
vised Testament  in  Tibetan,  a  new  whole  Bible 
in  the  Ningpo  dialect  of  China,  plans  for  a  Union 
version  in  Nyasa,  etc. 

Agencies:  Of  the  24  foreign  agents  of  the  Society 
seven  are  located  in  Europe,  at  Paris,  Berlin, 
Florence,  Madrid,  St.  Petersburg,  Ekaterinburg 


and  Constantinople;  four  are  in  Africa,  at  Alex- 
andria, Algiers,  Tangier  and  Sierra  Leone;  six 
are  in  Asia,  at  Bushire,  Rangoon,  Singapore, 
Shanghai,  Seoul  and  Yokohama;  one  is  at  Manila, 
one  in  New  Zealand;  three  are  in  South  America, 
at  Buenos  Aires,  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Callao;  one 
is  at  Belize,  British  Honduras,  and  one  at  Kings- 
ton, Jamaica.  There  are  also  five  secretaries  in 
India,  at  Madras,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Allahabad, 
and  Lahore;  and  one  at  Cape  Town  in  South 
Africa. 

Agencies  in  Europe:  The  work  of  the  Society  in 
Europe  is  carried  on  by  colportage,  through  Bible 
depots,  and  by  grants  to  existing  local  organiza- 
tions. In  France  there  were  in  1902,  43  colpor- 
teurs; in  Belgium  8,  Germany  26,  Austria-Hun- 
gary 45,  Italy  36,  Spain  22,  Portugal  10,  Russia 
72,  Turkey  and  Greece  28.  The  last  two  include 
some  work  in  Asia.  New  methods  are  adopted 
as  needed,  instanced  by  the  use  of  a  colportage 
motor-car  and  the  appointment  of  women  as 
colporteurs  in  France;  work  in  the  railway  shops 
of  Belgium,  among  the  soldiers  of  Germany,  the 
emigrants  from  Italy,  and  the  convicts  of  Sicily. 
Everywhere  the  strongest  opposition  comes  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood,  but  the  evan- 
gelical movement  among  the  priests  in  France, 
the  "away  from  Rome"  impulse  in  Austria,  the 
independent  ambitions  of  Hungary,  and  the 
influx  of  new  ideas  into  Italy  and  Spain,  all  affect 
the  work  of  the  Bible  Society  and  are  manifest 
in  increased  sales.  How  much  is  accomplished 
is  indicated  by  the  following  figures  of  sales  by 
colporteurs,  not  including  those  in  depots  or  to 
other  Bible  societies;  France  55,324,  Belgium 
7,391,  Germany  97,892,  Austria-Hungary  72,940, 
Italy  60,413,  Spain  29,934,  Portugal  6,062, 
Russia  217,212,  Turkey  and  Greece  25,095.  In 
some  countries,  notably  Germany  and  Russia, 
there  are  also  large  sales  in  the  depots;  Germany 
205,495,  and  Russia  244,952  copies. 

The  agent  at  Constantinople  has  care  of  the 
work  of  the  Society  in  that  city,  in  Western  Asia 
Minor,  chiefly  near  the  coast;  in  the  islands  of  the 
Egean,  in  Bulgaria  north  of  the  Balkans,  in 
Albania  and  in  Greece.  By  arrangement  with 
the  American  and  Scottish  Bible  societies  dupli- 
cation of  labor  is  avoided.  In  recent  years  the 
chief  difficulty  has  arisen  from  the  opposition  of 
the  Greek  Church  to  the  circulation  of  the  New 
Testament   in   modern   Greek. 

Egyptian  Agency:  This  includes,  besides  Egypt 
and  the  Sudan,  Syria,  Palestine,  Cyprus,  Malta, 
Arabia  and  Abyssinia,  with  the  East  Central 
Africa  sub-agency  at  Zanzibar.  In  Syria,  Egypt, 
and  a  portion  of  the  Sudan,  the  American 
Bible  Society  also  works;  elsewhere  the  British 
Society  occupies  the  field  alone;  thus  it  covers 
the  most  important  part  of  the  Arabic  speaking 
world.  The  headquarters  are  at  Alexandria, 
and  during  1901  fourteen  colporteurs  were  em- 
ployed, who  sold  13,640  copies  of  the  Scriptures. 
Almost  an  equal  number  were  sold  to  various 
missionary  organizations,  and  still  more  granted 
to  missionaries,  etc.,  so  that  the  entire  circula- 
tion was  over  52,000  copies.  Among  the  special 
features  of  the  work  are  efforts  to  reach  the 
sailors  who  pass  through  the  Suez  Canal  and  the 
pilgrims  at  Jerusalem;  a  cordial  letter  from  King 
Menelek  of  Abyssinia;  colportage  on  the  Nile 
steamers  and  among  the  non-African  population, 
Indian,  Arab  and  European,  of  East  Africa. 

North  Africa:  The  two  agencies,  one  for  Algeria, 
with  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  and  one  for  Morocco,  are 


Britisli  and  Foreign 
Broolve 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


110 


among  the  most  difficult  fields  of  the  Society; 
illustrating  its  principle  of  going  into  regions  that 
are  needy,  irrespective  of  returns  in  the  form  of 
sales.  With  four  colporteurs  in  Algeria  selling 
7,218  copies  (1902)  and  three  in  Morocco  selling 
5,959  copies,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  the 
work  has  many  perplexities.  The  French  are 
scornful,  the  Mohammedans  hostile,  and,  espe- 
cially in  Morocco,  the  national  spirit  is  very  bitter. 
The  Society  works  in  close  relation  with  the 
North  African  Mission,  the  London  Jews'  Society 
and  the  Geneva  Evangelical  Society. 

West  Africa:  This  agency  covers  the  territory 
from  the  Gambia  to  the  Congo.  The  agent,  who 
resides  at  Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  works  chiefly 
through  local  auxiliaries  and  the  missions  of  the 
CMS,  the  WMS  and  the  Basel  Missionary  Society. 

South  Africa,  including  Cape  Colony,  Natal, 
Orange  River  Colony  and  the  Transvaal,  is  under 
the  general  supervision  of  the  South  African 
Auxiliary  (founded  in  1840),  whose  secretary 
resides  at  Cape  Town.  The  recent  war  closed  a 
number  of  the  depots,  yet  the  work  has  gone  on 
with  considerable  success,  both  among  the  English 
and  the  Dutch,  as  well  as  the  natives,  the  sales 
and  grants  amounting,  in  1902,  to  about  50,000. 
Madagascar  and  Mauritius  are  both  provided 
with  auxiliary  societies,  the  sales  being  about 
20,000  in  Malagasi  and  2,000  in  Mauritius. 

Persia  and  Turkish  Arabia:  The  agent  at 
Bushire,  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  has  charge  of  this 
section,  including  all  but  the  part  of  Persia  north 
of  Teheran,  which  is  occupied  by  the  American 
Bible  Society.  The  sales  by  10  colporteurs  were 
(1901)  about  6,000  copies,  while  the  total  circu- 
lation was  15,548.  The  agency  is  in  three  divi- 
sions: 1.  the  provinces  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  with 
Bushire  as  center;  2.  South  Central  and  Eastern 
Persia,  with  center  at  Julfa,  near  Ispahan,  and 
sub-depots  at  Sultanabad,  Yezd  and  Shiraz;  3. 
Turkish  Arabia,  with  center  at  Baghdad,  and 
including  Kermanshah  in  Western  Persia.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  work  is  among  Arme- 
nians and  Jews. 

India:  The  Society's  work  here  has  from  the 
first  been  organized  under  separate  auxiliaries, 
six  in  number :  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Madras,  Banga- 
lore, North  India  and  Punjab.  On  the  respective 
committees,  the  various  missionary  societies  are 
largely  represented  and  their  committees  fix 
prices  and  decide  discounts  to  missions  and  other 
purchasers.  The  Society's  colporteurs  and  depots 
always  work  in  close  harmony  with  these  missions. 
The  138  colporteurs  employed  in  1901-2  sold 
181,743  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  while  the  total 
circulation  was  577,035,  the  highest  figures 
reached  in  any  year.  One  feature  of  the  work 
is  the  employment  of  406  native  Bible  women. 

The  three  auxiliaries  in  charge  of  Bible  work 
in  Ceylon,  at  Colombo,  Jaffna  and  Kandy,  report 
10  colporteurs,  9,847  copies  sold  and  a  total  circu- 
lation of  43,216. 

Burma  is  under  a  special  agent  located  at 
Rangoon,  who  reports  eight  colporteurs  and  total 
sales   of   15,179   copies. 

Malaysia  is  divided  into  North  and  South, 
with  headquarters  at  Manila  and  Singapore.  In 
the  Philippines  the  work  is  shared  with  the 
American  Bible  Society,  the  British  Societv 
reporting  (1901)  35,638  copies  sold,  of  which  over 
26,000  were  in  the  Philippine  dialects  and  the 
great  majority  were  portions,  those  in  Spanish 
and  Chinese  each  amounting  to  about  3,600 
copies.     From  Singapore  the  agent  superintends 


work  in  the  Straits  Settlements  and  native  states, 
Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  Celebes,  Moluccas,  and 
lesser  Dutch  Islands,  28  colporteurs  selling  43,395 
copies,  very  nearly  the  entire  circulation.  Here 
Chinese  takes  the  lead  among  the  languages,  next 
coming  Malay,  Javanese  and  Tamil. 

China:  This  large  agency,  covering  China  proper, 
Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Sungaria  and  Tibet,  is 
superintended  by  an  agent  resident  at  Shanghai, 
with  11  sub-agents  in  the  different  provinces. 
There  are  15  principal  depots  and  8  others  under 
the  superintendence  of  missionaries.  There  were 
153  native  colporteurs  at  work  during  the  year, 
and  the  sales  were  382,036  copies,  the  total  circu- 
lation being  431,446  against  604,462  in  1900  and 
856,156  in  1899.  A  significant  feature  is  the 
large  number  of  complete  Bibles  called  for,  the 
largest  in  any  one  year  of  the  agency.  The 
decrease,  due  to  the  Boxer  troubles,  has  been 
chiefly  in  the  colportage,  the  sales  from  the  depots 
not  having  materially  leasened.  The  China 
agency  also  includes  the  work  in  Formosa,  which 
has  shown  steady  development,  the  circulation 
(1901)   being  25,763  copies. 

Korea  has  an  agent  resident  at  Seoul,  who 
reports  a  circulation  of  16,814  copies,  against 
38,006  in  1900,  46,121  in  1899  and  34,813  in  1898. 
This  decrease  is  explained  by  the  severe  drought, 
which  has  raised  prices,  and  the  fact  that  in  1900 
the  native  church  members  supplied  themselves 
with  the  newly  issued  Testament. 

Japan  is  worked  by  a  joint  committee  repre- 
senting the  British,  American  and  Scotch  societies. 

Bible  work  in  Australia  is  conducted  by  43 
auxiliaries  with  476  branches,  and  in  New  Zealand 
by  61  auxiliaries  and  branches,  which  not  only 
care  for  their  own  fields,  among  the  Maoris,  sailors, 
etc.,  but  contribute  liberally  to  the  parent  society. 

In  Oceania  the  Society  assists  the  various  mis- 
sionary societies  with  grants,  but  has  no  special 
organized  work. 

South  America:  In  this  continent  are  three 
agencies:  the  Argentine,  including  Argentina, 
Uruguay,  Paraguay  and  Bolivia;  Brazil,  and  a 
new  one  called  the  Republics  of  the  Andes,  includ- 
ing Colombia,  Ecuador  and  Peru,  the  work  of  the 
Society  in  Chile  being  limited  to  assisting  the  Val- 
paraiso Bible  Society.  In  all,  16  colporteurs  have 
sold  24,758  copies.  This  is  somewhat  of  a  falling 
off  compared  with  the  sales  of  previous  years. 

The  five  Republics  of  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua, 
Salvador,  Guatemala  and  Honduras  are  worked 
by  an  agent  resident  at  Belize,  British  Honduras. 
Seven  colporteurs  in  that  region  sold  9,135  copies, 
almost  the  entire  circulation. 

The  West  Indian  Agency,  including  Dutch, 
French  and  British  Guiana,  the  West  Indian 
Islands  and  Bermudas,  with  its  center  at  Kings- 
ton, Jamaica,  has  the  credit  of  a  larger  proportion 
of  Bibles  sold  (27,911  out  of  a  total  circulation  of 
53,090)  than  any  other  foreign  agency  of  the 
Society.  Some  of  the  83  auxiliaries  and  branches 
are  supplied  direct  from  London,  so  that  the 
above  does  not  represent  the  entire  work  done. 

British  North  America  is  thoroughly  organ- 
ized with  12  auxiliaries  and  over  1,100  branch 
societies,  the  auxiliary  for  Upper  Canada,  with 
its  headcjuarters  at  Toronto,  being  the  largest 
and  most  mfluential  of  all  those  in  British  Colonies. 
It  covers  the  entire  territory  from  the  Great 
Lakes  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 

PERiopiCAi.s:    The  Bible  Society  Reporter,  London!    Bible 

Society  Gleaninqs. 
History  of  the  Bible  Society  (from   1804  to    1864),   liondon 

2  vols. 


Ill 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


British  and  Furcisrn 
Brooke 


BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA:  A  large  territory 
bordering  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa  and  extend- 
ing into  the  heart  of  the  continent,  comprising 
the  East  African  Protectorate  proper,  the  Uganda 
Protectorate,  and  tlie  Zanzibar  Protectorate. 
The  territory  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Congo 
Free  State  and  hes  between  the  Sudan,  Abys- 
sinia and  Italian  Somaliland  on  the  north  and 
German  East  Africa  on  the  south.  The  entire 
area  of  this  part  of  the  British  territory  in  Africa 
is  estimated  to  exceed  1,000,000  square  miles. 

The  East  African  Protectorate  proper  includes 
the  whole  of  the  coast  from  the  Umba  to  the  Juba 
River,  extending  inland  as  far  as  Uganda  and 
merging  to  northward  into  the  Egyptian  Sudan, 
with  an  area  of  about  350,000  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  about  4,000,000.  Arabs  and 
Swahilis  inhabit  the  coast  territories,  while 
farther  inland  are  found  tribes  of  Bantus,  and 
in  the  northern  part  the  Masai,  Somalis  and 
Gallas.  The  territory  is  governed  by  the  For- 
eign Office  through  a  Commissioner  and  a  Consul 
General  with  their  subordinates.  The  capital  is 
Mombasa,  a  town  of  27,000  inhabitants,  situated 
on  an  island  of  the  same  name.  A  railway  runs 
from  Mombasa  to  Uganda  at  the  Victoria  Nyanza. 

The  missionary  societies  established  in  this 
region  are  the  CMS,  the  United  Methodist  Free 
Churches,  the  Africa  Inland  Mission,  the  Scan- 
dinavian Alliance,  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society 
and  the  Neukirchen  Missionary  Society.  These 
societies  occupy  17  stations  altogether,  the  most 
of  which  are  under  the  CMS. 

Travel  in  the  Coast  Lands  of  British  E.  Africa,  FitzRerald 
(W.  W.  A.),  London,  1898:  The  Last  of  the  Masai,  Hinde 
(S.  L.  and  H.),  London,  1901. 

BRITISH  SYRIAN  MISSION  SCHOOLS  and 
Bible  Work  (1860) :  In  the  year  1860  the  Druses 
rose  against  the  Maronites  and  Greeks  in  Damas- 
cus and  the  region  of  the  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon,  and  fearful  massacres  resulted.  The 
condition  of  the  20,000  widows  and  orphans  who 
were  left  aroused  the  sympathy  of  Mrs.  Bowen 
Thompson  of  England,  who  had  spent  many 
years  in  Syria  as  the  wife  of  a  physician,  and  was 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  country  and  its 
peoples. 

She  went  to  Beirut  and  opened  an  industrial 
refuge,  where  200  women  and  children  gathered 
the  first  week.  Schools  were  established  and  a 
training  institution  opened  in  Beirut.  Within  a 
few  years  the  work  spread  to  other  towns  and 
villages  in  Syria,  and  schools  were  attended  not 
only  by  the  children  of  the  Christian  denomina- 
tions, but  by  Jewesses,  Muslims  and  Druses. 
Mrs.  Bowen  Thompson  was  soon  joined  by  her 
sisters,  Miss  Lloyd,  Mrs.  Smith  and  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Mott.  With  their  aid  and  that  of  a  small  staff 
of  native  Bible  women  the  work  was  well  organ- 
ized before  Mrs.  Thompson's  death  in  1869. 

The  schools  of  the  mission  extend  from  Damas- 
cus to  Tyre.  There  is  a  night  school  of  special 
benefit  to  Lebanon  soldiers,  day  schools  for  boys, 
for  girls,  for  the  blind  of  both  sexes,  for  Muslim 
girls  and  for  Jewesses.  In  all,  instruction  is  given 
in  the  Bible.  Special  classes  are  held  for  women, 
both  on  week  days  and  on  Sundays,  and  are 
largely  attended. 

In  1889  the  corner-stone  of  a  memorial  school 
building  was  laid  in  Baalbec,  and  a  medical  work 
has  been  established  in  the  same  city.  A  quar- 
terly paper,  Daughters  of  Syria,  is  published  in 
England  in  the  interest  of  the  schools. 

There  are  4  stations  and  19  outstations,   21 


English  missionaries  and  128  native  workers,  51 
day  schools,  3,743  pupils  and  3  dispensaries. 

The  organ  of  this  Society  is  a  quarterly  paper,  Daughters  of 
Syria. 

BROACH:  Capital  of  the  district  of  Broach, 
Bombay,  India,  situated  on  the  Nerbada,  30 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Population  (1891), 
40,168 — Hindus,  Muslims,  Parsees.  Language, 
Gujarathi.  Station  of  the  PCI  (1887),  with  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  missionary  women, 
9  native  workers,  men  and  women,  5  Sunday 
schools,  5  village  schools,  1  orphanage  and  21 
church  members. 

BRODHEAD,  Augustus:  Born  at  Milford,  Pa., 
May  13,  1831;  graduated  at  Union  College, 
1855,  and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1858; 
ordained  May  4  same  year;  sailed  for  India, 
November  7,  as  a  missionary  of  the  PN,  reach- 
ing Calcutta  April  4,  1859.  At  Mainpurie  and 
Fatehgarh  he  spent  nearly  twelye  years.  In 
1872  he  was  transferred  to  Allahabad.  Dr. 
Brodhead  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  theologi- 
cal training  school  of  the  Synod  of  India,  wrote 
and  published  valuable  treatises  in  sacred  and 
church  history,  edited  the  mission  magazine  pub- 
lished for  the  use  of  the  native  Christians,  and 
assisted  in  preparing  a  hymn  book  for  the  church 
and  Sunday  school,  for  which  he  wrote  and  trans- 
lated several  hymns ;  took  an  active  part  in  the 
North  Indian  Bible  and  Tract  Societies,  and  the 
Christian  Vernacular  Education  Society.  A  suc- 
cession of  severe  attacks  of  Ulness  compelled  him 
to  return  home.  Died  at  Bridgeton,  N.  J., 
August,  1887. 

BROOKE,  Graham  Wilmot :  Born  at  Aldershot, 
England,  in  1866.  He  was  preparing  to  enter 
the  military  academy  at  Woolwich  when  he 
became  interested  in  the  Mohammedans  of  North 
Africa  and  the  seeming  impossibility  of  informing 
them  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  grad- 
ually reached  a  deliberate  conclusion  that  it  was 
his  duty  to  try  to  reach  the  Mohammedans  of  the 
Sudan,  who  were  then  showing  the  fiercest  fan- 
aticism in  connection  with  the  outbreak  of  Mah- 
dism  in  the  region  about  Khartum,  and  to  teach 
them  how  to  walk  in  the  light.  He  studied 
medicine  at  St.  Thomas'  Hospital  and  went  as  an 
independent  missionary  to  Africa,  but  failed  in 
every  attempt  to  reach  the  Sudan.  He  then 
returned  to  England  and  was  appointed  the  same 
year,  December,  1889,  as  an  honorary  lay  mission- 
ary of  the  CMS,  in  order  to  be,  with  the  Rev.  J. 
A.  Robinson,  joint  leader  of  the  new  Sudan  and 
Upper  Niger  mission.  In  May,  1890,  the  expe- 
dition went  to  Africa  and  by  way  of  the  Niger 
into  the  Western  Sudan.  He  was  principally  at 
Lokoja.  There  he  acquired  the  Hausa  language 
and  labored  with  energy  in  preaching,  until  he 
was  smitten  with  fever  and  died  at  Lokoja, 
March  5,  1892,  in  the  26th  year  of  his  age. 

Mr.  Brooke  was  a  hero  in  his  calm,  steadfast 
devotion  to  his  mission.  He  felt  called  to  preach 
in  the  Sudan,  then  one  of  the  darkest  regions  of 
the  earth.  "But,"  as  has  been  said  of  his  deter- 
mined attempt  to  obey  the  call  of  his  Master, 
"the  land  was  not  easy  of  access.  He  tried  to 
reach  it  by  way  of  North  Africa  and  failed.  He 
tried  to  enter  it  by  way  of  the  Congo.  Follow- 
ing the  course  of  that  great  river,  far  into  the 
interior,  beyond  where  foot  of  missionary  had 
yet  trod,  past  large  and  populous  towns  unheard 
of  by  the  civilized  world,  among  nations  whose 
atrocities  equaled  those  of  the  South  Sea  canni- 


Broiisa 
Buddhism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


112 


bals,  through  untold  risks  and  dangers,  he 
pushed  his  way  onward.  But  in  vain.  The 
Sudan  was  still  barred  to  him.  Finally  he  dis- 
covered that  a  door  of  entrance  might  be  found 
by  way  of  the  Niger,  and  that  he  could  best  avail 
himself  of  it  by  joining  the  Church  Missionary 
Society. 

"How,  arrayed  in  the  native  dress,  which  proved 
so  commodious,  he  and  the  friends  who  with  him 
started  the  Upper  Niger  Mission  went  about 
among  the  people  of  Lokoja  and  the  country 
round,  how  quickly  he  obtained  a  mastery  of  the 
language,  how  he  won  favor  among  the  Moham- 
meiians  as  well  as  heathen,  and  found  ready  lis- 
teners for  the  Gospel  story — all  this  has  been 
told  in  detail  in  his  journals  and  leaflets,  and 
forms  a  most  deeply  interesting  and  instructive 
narrative.  In  spite  of  the  many  trials  which 
came  upon  the  mission,  he  was  able  to  record  at 
the  end  of  1891  that  the  Word  of  God  had  been 
fully  preached  over  an  area  equal  to  that  of  Hert- 
fordshire, Middlesex,  Kent,  Surrey,  and  Hants, 
and  not  merely  preached,  but  understood." 

Mr.  Brooke,  besides  preaching,  found  time  to 
translate  several  tracts  into  Hausa.  But  his 
life  was  much  like  that  of  David  Brainerd,  in 
that  the  remembrance  of  its  high  qualities  is  the 
chief  legacy  which  he  left  to  the  Church.  His 
was  a  case  where  "the  highest  mental  and  moral 
gifts,  the  prime  of  life  with  its  vigor  and  its  oppor- 
tunities, were  laid  simply  and  wholly  upon  the 
altar  of  Christ,  and  this,  not  as  a  sacrifice,  but  as 
a  matter  of  course." 

BROUSA:  Capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  Asiatic  Turkey,  about  60  miles  from  Con- 
stantinople. Population,  about  75,000,  Moham- 
medans, Armenians,  Greeks,  etc.  It  is  finely 
located  at  the  base  of  the  Bithynian  Olympus. 
Has  some  mineral  springs  and  is  a  health  resort 
from  Constantinople.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
first  Sultans  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  the 
tombs  built  in  their  honor  are  well  worthy  of  a 
visit. 

Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1848),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman,  15  native 
■workers,  12  chapels,  12  Sunday  schools,  13  com- 
mon schools,  2  high  schools,  1  orphanage  and 
'255  church  members. 

BROWN,  Nathan:  Born  at  New  Ipswich,  N.  H., 
June  22,  1807;  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
1827.  While  in  college  he  composed  the  beauti- 
ful poem,  The  Missionary's  Call,  commencing, 
"My  soul  is  not  at  rest."  After  studying  theol- 
ogy in  Newton  Seminary  he  was  ordained  at  Rut- 
land, and  embarked  for  Burma,  December  22, 
1832,  under  appointment  by  the  Baptist  Triennial 
Convention.  Having  spent  two  years  in  Burma, 
he  was  appointed  by  his  brethren  to  commence 
with  Mr.  Cutter  a  new  mission  in  Assam.  After 
a  four  months'  perilous  journey  through  the 
Hugli,  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra  they  reached 
Sadiya,  about  45  miles  N.  E.  of  the  present 
mission  station  of  Dibrugarh.  Here  among  savage 
tribes  he  began  to  learn  the  language  without 
grammar  or  dictionary.  He  soon  commenced 
the  work  of  tran.slation,  tracts  and  books  were 
distributed,  schools  were  established  and  zayats 
built,  where  the  Gospel  was  preached  by  the  way- 
side. In  1839  Sadiya  was  attacked  by  the  hill 
tribes,  and  many  of  the  people  and  soldiery 
were  massacred.  Dr.  Brown  and  his  wife  fled  in 
a  canoe  in  the  darkness  of  the  night  with  their 
two  infant  children,  and  at  daybreak  found  pro- 


tection in  the  stockade,  still  in  possession  of  the 
British  troops.  Many  natives  of  Sadiya  having 
been  killed  or  dispersed,  the  mission  was  removed 
to  Jeypfjr,  and  in  1841  to  the  densely  populated 
district  of  Sibsagar.  Here  the  missionaries  had 
great  success.  Reenforcements  arriving,  new 
stations  were  established  and  churches  organized. 
But  Dr.  Brown's  great  work  was  the  translation 
of  the  Scriptures.  In  1848  he  completed  the 
Assamese  version  of  the  New  Testament.  In 
1855,  with  health  greatly  impaired  by  twenty- 
two  years  of  toil  and  sufferings,  he  returned  to  his 
native  land. 

In  view  of  the  wonderful  openings  in  Japan 
and  the  urgent  calls  for  missionaries,  Dr.  Brown 
felt  strongly  drawn  to  that  empire  as  a  field  for 
his  personal  labors,  and  in  1872,  under  appoint- 
ment from  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union,  he  set  sail  for  Japan  with  his  second  wife, 
reaching  Yokohama,  February,  1873.  The 
sixty-five  years  of  age,  he  entered  upon  the  study 
of  the  language  with  ardor,  and  in  1879  his  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  in  vernacular  Japan- 
ese was  printed.  He  strongly  recommended  the 
adoption  of  the  Roman  alphabet  in  place  of  the 
Chinese  characters  in  writing  the  Japanese  lan- 
guage, a  reform  which  has  since  been  zealously 
urged,  not  only  by  the  missionaries,  but  by  many 
Japanese.  During  his  six  years'  residence  in 
Japan  Dr.  Brown  received  179  to  his  church  at 
Yokohama,  was  permitted  to  welcome  other 
laborers,  and  to  see  seven  churches  established 
containing  between  300  and  400  members. 

Dr.  Brown  was  not  only  a  translator  of  the 
Scriptures  and  a  preacher,  he  was  also  the  author 
and  translator  of  hymns  in  the  languages  of 
Burma,  Assam  and  Japan.  His  last  work  was 
the  Japanese  hymn-book.  When  no  longer  able 
to  use  the  pen  he  dictated  as  he  lay  on  his  bed  to 
his  native  preacher.  He  closed  his  useful  and 
industrious  life  January  1,  1886,  in  the  seventy- 
ninth  year  of  his  age. 

Dr.  Brown's  published  works  are:  Translation 
of  the  New  Testament  in  Assamese;  Portions  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  Assamese  and  Shan;  Gram- 
mar of  the  Assamese  Language;  Catechism  in  the 
Assamese  and  Shan  Languages;  Arithmetic  in 
Burman  and  Assamese;  Hymns  in  Burman  and 
Assamese;  comparative  vocabulary  of  some  fifty 
Indian  languages  and  dialects,  and  the  Orunbdoi, 
an  illustrated  monthly  magazine. 

BROWN,  Samuel  R. :  Born  at  East  Windsor, 
Conn.,  June  16,  1810;  removed  to  Munson  in 
early  childhood;  graduated  at  Yale  College,  1832; 
sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  for  China 
in  1838.  His  great  work  was  education  and 
translation.  He  it  was  who  first  induced  Chinese 
youth  to  come  to  the  United  States  for  an  edu- 
cation, and  hundreds  of  young  men  from  China — 
some  from  the  highest  families  of  the  empire — 
found  through  him  homes  in  towns  and  cities  of 
the  United  States.  On  going  to  Japan  in  1859 
(under  the  RCA),  he  induced  the  government  to 
send  some  of  its  princes  to  America  for  education, 
and  he  was  active  in  securing  Christian  homes  for 
them.  His  last  services  were  in  connection  with 
the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Japan- 
ese, a  labor  of  many  years,  in  which  he  was  asso- 
ciated with  a  committee  from  several  denomina- 
tions. This  great  work  was  just  completed  at 
the  time  of  his  death.  He  returned  home  in 
1879  and  died,  June  20, 1880,  in  Munson,  Mass. 

BRUMANA:     A  village  on  Mount  Lebanon, 


113 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Bronsa 
Bnddhlsiii 


Syria,  a  few  miles  east  of  Beirut.  Station  of 
the  Friends'  Foreign  Mission  Association  (1873), 
■with  4  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4  missionary 
women  (2  of  them  medical),  14  native  workers 
men  and  women,  1  chapel,  3  Sunday  schools,  2 
village  schools,  2  high  schools,  1  dispensary,  1 
hospital  and  15  professing  Christians.  Brumana 
has  been  twice  chosen  as  the  place  of  meeting 
(the_  second  in  1901)  of  an  important  interde- 
nominational conference  of  missionaries  and 
other  Christian  workers  from  all  parts  of  the 
Levant. 

BUA:  A  town  on  the  island  of  Vanua  Levu, 
Fiji  Islands;  station  of  the  Australian  Wesley  an 
Methodist  Missionary  Society,  with  1  missionary, 
207  native  workers,  71  chapels,  92  Sunday 
schools,  102  village  schools,  and  2,135  professing 
Christians. 

BUCARAMANGA:  A  city  of  20,000  inhabitants 
in  the  district  of  Santander,  Colombia,  South 
America;  station  of  the  American  Bible  Society, 
with  an  agent  and  his  wife    and  a  book  depot. 

BUCHAIIAN:  A  village  in  Griqualand  East, 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  about  ten  miles 
:S.  W.  of  Mount  Fr^re;  station  of  the  UFS  (1886), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  31  native  workers, 
■9  Sunday  schools,  1  village  school,  and  702 
church  members. 

BUCHANAN  (Liberia).     See  Great  Bass  a. 

BUCHAREST:  Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Ru- 
mania; altho  Oriental  in  external  appearance,  in 
other  respects  is  assuming  more  and  more  the 
.aspect  of  a  European  city.  Population  (1890), 
190,633.  Mission  station  of  the  London  Society 
for  Propagating  the  Gospel  among  the  Jews 
(1848),  with  10  missionaries,  9  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  and 
■2  village  schools.  Also  station  of  the  PB  (1899), 
with  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife,  and  1 
missionary  woman. 

BUD  AON:  A  city  S.  W.  of  Bareilly,  in  the 
Rohilkhand  district.  United  Provinces,  India. 
Population,  about  35,000.  Station  of  the  MB, 
with  4  missionaries  and  38  native  workers,  men 
.and  women.  It  has  24  village  schools,  a  high 
school,  and  680  church  members. 

BUDDHISM :  In  discussing  Buddhism  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  many  systems  known  by 
that  name  have  appeared  in  different  ages  and 
in  different  lands.  No  other  faith  or  philosophy 
has  undergone  so  many  and  so  great  changes  in 
the  course  of  its  development.  The  widely 
•different  opinions,  therefore,  which  have  been 
expressed  as  to  its  teachings,  may  each  have 
found  a  degree  of  support  in  some  particular 
phase  or  stage  of  the  manifold  system. 

Another  point  to  be  settled  is  its  relation  to 
Hinduism.  Was  it  a  new  and  distinct  system 
.setting  out  in  the  first  instance  as  a  protest 
against  the  teachings  of  the  Brahmans,  or  was 
it  a  later  develofiment  in  the  mind  of  Gautama 
occurring  after  six  years  of  ascetic  life — a  dis- 
covery or  conclusion  finally  reached  as  he  sat 
under  the  Bo  tree?  Professor  Beall  is  undoubt- 
edly correct  in  the  opinion  that  Buddhism  was  an 
afterthought  and  not  an  original  aim  when 
Gautama  left  his  palace.  He  broke  with  Brah- 
manism  on  its  religious  side;  most  of  its  philoso- 
phy he  retained.  He  protested  against  the  out- 
rageous assumptions  of  the  Brahmans,  their 
intense  sacerdotalism  and  imposture,  their  exag- 
gerated doctrine  of  sacrifice,  and  their  rigorous 


system  of  caste.  He  repudiated  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  Vedas  and  the  superstition,' or 
ultra-religiousness,  of  the  whole  Brahmanical 
cult.  He  even  flew  to  the  opposite  extreme  of 
atheism,  or,  at  least,  a  pronounced  agnosticism. 
Yet,  at  the  same  time,  he  cherished  a  sort  of 
reverence  for  the  high  Brahmans  or  rishis.  He 
tacitly  maintained  many  of  the  speculations  of 
the  Upanishads.  He  cherished,  with  unabated 
ardor,  the  old  Brahmanical  theory  that  the  con- 
nection of  soul  with  matter  is  the  source  of  all 
evil,  and  that  self-mortification,  through  a  series 
of  transmigrations,  can  alone  secure  deliverance. 
Of  the  nature  of  the  soul  he  held  peculiar  views, 
as  will  appear  further  on.  These  views  have 
been  more  or  less  modified  in  succeeding  ages. 

A  clear  distinction  must  be  made  at  the  outset 
between  the  credible  history  of  Gautama  and  the 
extravagant  legends  which  sprang  up  in  various 
lands  long  after  his  death.  It  has  virtually  been 
settled  by  the  consensus  of  the  best  scholars  that 
those  accounts  which  are  the  oldest,  which  were 
authorized  by  the  earliest  councils,  which  have 
the  concurrent  testimony  of  both  the  Northern 
and  the  Southern  literatures,  and  which  are 
credible  in  themselves  shall  be  accepted  as  the 
probable  history  of  Gautama. 

Briefly,  the  facts  thus  recognized  are  these: 
Gautama,  otherwise  known  in  his  youth  as  Sid- 
dartha,  was  the  son  of  Suddhodana,  a  rajah  of 
the  Aryan  tribe  of  Sakyas,  occupying  a  tract  of 
country  north  by  northwest  of  Benares. 

He  was  born  at  Kapilavastu  probably  about 
600  B.  c,  and  was  left  motherless  by  the  death  of 
the  Rani  Maya  Devi  shortly  after  she  had  given 
him  birth.  The  earliest  accounts  represent  him 
as  having  been  born  by  natural  generation,  and 
without  the  miraculous  incidents  of  the  later 
legends. 

There  are  apparent  evidences  of  a  melancholy 
and  more  or  less  morbid  turn  of  mind  even  in  his 
youth,  and  of  painstaking  efforts  on  the  part  of 
his  father  to  cheer  his  despondency  by  the  allure- 
ments of  a  voluptuous  Oriental  court. 

In  spite  of  all  this,  satiety  was  an  early  result, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine,  and  just  after 
the  birth  of  an  only  son  and  heir,  he  left  his 
palace  and  his  inheritance,  and,  lilve  many  other 
princes  in  various  lands,  he  sought  rest  of  soul 
in  asceticism.  The  idea  which  has  been  so  skil- 
fully reproduced  by  Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  that 
Gautama  then  and  there  set  out  to  become  a 
savior  of  men,  has  no  foundation  in  fact.  It  is 
rendered  impossible  by  the  early  traditions;  he 
was  simply  fleeing  from  sorrow  and  distress,  and 
seeking  some  way  of  peace. 

Leaving  his  palace  by  night,  attended  by  a 
faithful  servant,  he  hastened  to  the  open  country, 
whence  he  sent  back  his  horse,  and  exchanging 
garments  with  a  peasant,  he  proceeded  on  foot 
to  a  forest  retreat,  where  he  entered  upon  a  life 
of  self-mortification. 

Dissatisfied  with  his  teachers,  he  himself 
became  the  head  of  a  fraternity,  and  with  five 
or  six  followers  he  sought  even  greater  isolation 
and  greater  austerities  for  about  six  years. 

He  had  at  length  fathomed  the  emptiness  of 
the  Brahmanical  religion.  He  had  giveii  it  a 
patient  and  even  heroic  trial,  and  had  found  it 
vanity.  Self-mortification  could  go  no  further 
without  absolute  suicide.  He  was  so  weak  from 
fasting  that  he  fainted  and  fell  to  the  ground. 
The  crisis  of  his  life  had  come.  He  abandoned 
his  vain  struggles  and  partook  of  needful  food. 


Buddhism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Hi 


This  step  cost  him  the  loss  of  all  his  influence; 
his  disciples  forsook  him  as  an  apostate  and  a 
failure;  he  was  in  extreme  perplexity  and  dis- 
tress. Should  he  return  to  his  family  and  his 
inheritance,  and  appease  his  wounded  pride  by 
proclaiming  that  all  religion  was  a  sham?  The 
temptation  was  strong,  yet  neither  had  his  former 
possessions  given  him  peace. 

Very  real  and  very  great  were  his  temptations. 
Fierce  were  his  struggles  with  the  world,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  with  conviction  and  pride  on  the 
other,  as  he  sat  alone  under  the  shade  of  the 
Bo  tree. 

All  candid  men  must  acknowledge  that  the 
decision  which  Gautama  reached,  and  the  victory 
over  self  which  he  won,  were  sublime.  Greater 
self-control  has  seldom  if  ever  been  attafned  by 
men,  altho  the  power  of  the  human  will  has 
sometimes  found  remarkable  exemplifications. 

John  Foster,  in  his  essay  on  Decision  of  Char- 
acter, cites  the  case  of  a  spendthrift  who,  after 
having  exhausted  a  splendid  fortune,  had  gone 
to  the  seashore  with  the  purpose  of  destroying 
his  life.  But  after  a  long  period  of  reflection  he 
sprang  to  his  feet  with  an  all  absorbing  resolve 
to  retrieve  his  fortune,  walked  rapidly  back  to 
the  city,  engaged  at  once  in  the  humblest  occu- 
pations, and  as  a  persistent  miser  actually 
accomplished  his  end. 

With  equal  force  of  will,  and  in  a  far  nobler 
cause,  Gautama  rose  up  from  his  reveries  to 
become  one  of  the  most  powerful  leaders  of  man- 
kind. He  is  supposed  to  have  been  at  this  time 
about  thirty-five  years  of  age.  The  passions  of 
youth  were  not  dead  with  him,  worldly  ambition 
may  be  supposed  to  have  been  still  in  force,  but 
he  chose  the  part  of  a  missionary  to  his  fellow- 
men,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  ever 
swerved  from  his  purpose.  He  had  won  a  great 
victory  over  himself,  and  that  fact  constituted 
a  secret  of  power. 

He  began  at  once  the  career  which  he  had 
marked  out.  He  sought,  first  of  all,  the  dis- 
affected disciples  who  had  abandoned  him,  and 
who,  doubtless,  had  proclaimed  his  fall.  It  is  a 
strong  evidence  of  the  power  of  his  own  convic- 
tions that  he  speedily  succeeded  in  winning  them 
to  his  new  standard. 

It  was  just  here  that  Buddhism  began  its 
career.  It  had  still  an  ascetic  element;  it  aimed 
to  keep  the  body  under  for  the  sake  of  purity 
and  power,  but  not  as  a  matter  of  merit.  In  the 
place  of  idleness  and  repression  for  its  own  sake 
it  substituted  a  life  of  beneficence. 

Buddhism  was  a  missionary  religion  from  the 
outset;  more  aggressively  so  in  that  early  age 
than  in  the  later  centuries,  when  it  had  lapsed 
into  the  monastic  spirit  of  the  original  Brahman- 
ism. 

Gautama  soon  gathered  a  band  of  about  sixty 
followers,  whom,  after  five  months  of  instruction, 
he  sent  out  to  proclaim  the  "Law."  He  himself 
preached  continuously  for  forty-five  years,  and 
long  before  his  death  he  was  surrounded  by  a 
numerous  order  of  mendicants,  who  received  his 
word  as  law,  and  to  whom  he  stood  in  the  place 
of  God.  The  gentleness  of  his  bearing  and  the 
consistency  of  his  life,  as  well  as  precepts,  won 
men  of  high  and  of  low  degree  with  remarkable 
power. 

During  the  more  favorable  seasons  it  was  his 
custom  to  preach  as  an  itinerant,  wherever  he 
found  the  most  favorable  openings,  but  in  the 
hot  and  rainy  months  he  gathered  his  mendicants 


about  him  in  some  shady  grove  or  on  a  breezy 
mountain  summit  like  the  "Vulture's  Peak." 
He  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  fourscore  years 
from  an  acute  attack  of  indigestion. 

The  account  given  of  his  last  hours  in  the 
Great  Decease  is  full  of  pathos.  He  passed  away 
like  Socrates,  in  the  full  use  of  his  faculties,  and 
discoursing  tenderly  with  his  disciples  to  the  end. 

If  now  we  turn  from  credible  history  to  the 
later  legends  of  the  Buddha,  we  enter  upon  a 
story  of  the  wildest  extravagance. 

The  legends  divide  his  life  into  three  periods: 
(1)  that  of  his  preexistent  states  through  several 
hundred  transmigrations;  (2)  that  of  his  earthly 
life  before  attaining  Buddhaship;  and  (3)  that 
of  his  ministry  after  he  had  become  "  enlight- 
ened." The  preexistent  states  are  set  forth  in 
the  Jatakas  or  "birth  stories"  of  Ceylon,  which 
represent  him  as  having  been  born  530  times 
after  he  became  a  Bodisat  (a  predestined 
Buddha). 

As  a  specimen  of  his  varied  experience  while 
becoming  fitted  for  Buddhaship,  we  read  that  he 
was  born  83  times  as  an  ascetic,  58  as  a  monarch, 
43  as  a  deva,  24  as  a  Brahman,  18  as  an  ape; 
as  a  deer  10,  an  elephant  6,  a  lion  10,  and  at 
least  once  each  as  a  thief,  a  gambler,  a  frog,  a 
hare,  a  snipe.  He  was  also  embodied  in  a  tree. 
But  as  a  Bodisat  he  could  not  be  born  in  hell, 
nor  as  vermin,  nor  as  a  woman.  He  could 
descend  no  lower  than  a  snipe. 

The  legends  represent  the  Buddha  as  having 
"incarnated"  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  relief 
to  a  distressed  world.  He  was  miraculously 
conceived,  entering  his  mother's  side  in  the  form 
of  a  white  elephant.  All  nature  manifested  its 
joy  on  the  occasion.  The  ocean  bloomed  with 
flowers,  all  beings  from  many  worlds  showed  their 
wonder  and  sympathy.  Many  miracles  were 
wrought  even  during  his  childhood,  and  every 
part  of  his  career  was  filled  with  marvels. 

At  his  temptation  under  the  Bo  tree  Mara 
(Satan)  came  to  him  mounted  on  an  elephant 
sixteen  miles  high  and  surrounded  by  an  encir- 
cling army  of  demons  eleven  miles  deep.  Find- 
ing Buddha  proof  against  blandishments,  Mara 
hurled  mountains  of  rocks  against  him  and 
assailed  him  with  fire  and  smoke  and  ashes  and 
filth,  all  of  which  became  as  zephyrs  upon  his 
cheek  or  as  presents  of  fragrant  flowers.  Last 
of  all,  Mara  sent  his  three  daughters  to  seduce 
Buddha. 

In  the  Northern  Buddhist  literature,  especially 
in  the  Lalita  Vistara  of  Nepaul,  many  incidents 
of  Buddha's  childhood  are  given  which  show  a 
remarkable  coincidence  with  the  life  of  Christ. 
It  is  claimed  that  his  birth  was  heralded  by 
angelic  hosts,  that  an  aged  sage  received  him 
into  his  arms  and  blessed  him,  that  he  was  taken 
to  the  temple  for  consecration,  that  a  jealous 
ruler  sought  to  destroy  him,  that  he  disputed  with 
learned  doctors;  that  he  was  baptized,  tempted, 
transfigured,  and  translated.  These  seeming 
parallels  will  be  noticed  further  on. 

The  Literatures  of  Buddhism:  The  teachings  of 
Gautama  were  gathered  up  by  his  disciples  in 
the  form  of  belief  aphorisms  or  sutras,  and  were 
orally  transmitted  for  several  generations  before 
being  committed  to  writing.  They  had  various 
classifications,  like  the  following:  (1)  The  Four 
Truths,  discovered  while  sitting  under  the  Bo 
tree — viz. :  the  fact  of  sorrow,  the  cause  of  sorrow, 
the  removal  of  sorrow,  and  the  means  by  which 
this  is  to  be  done.     The  fourth  was  ramified  into 


115 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Buddhism 


the  eightfold  path.  (2)  The  Middle  Path,  as 
between  the  dominion  of  passion,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  bootless  extremes  of  asceticism  on  the 
other.  (3)  The  Ten  Fetters — viz. :  (a)  Delusion 
of  Self;  (6)  Doubt;  (c)  Dependence  on  Rites; 
(d)  Sensuality;  (e)  Hatred;  (/)  Love  of  Life  on 
Earth;  {g)  Desire  for  Life  in  Heaven;  {h)  Pride; 
(i)  Self-Righteousness;  (j)  Ignorance.  (4)  The 
Ten  Prohibitions,  sometimes  called  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments. One  should  not  kill,  should  not 
steal,  should  not  lie,  nor  get  drunk,  nor  commit 
adultery.  These  five  were  for  all  men.  Five 
others  were  for  the  religious  orders.  These  should 
not  violate  certain  strict  rules  relating  to  food, 
nor  wear  ornaments,  nor  use  perfumes,  nor  sleep 
on  a  soft  bed,  nor  indulge  in  amusements,  nor 
possess  silver  and  gold. 

These  prohibitions  have  often  been  compared 
with  the  Mosaic  Decalog,  but  it  will  be  observed 
that  all  the  Godward  precepts  of  the  latter  are 
wanting  in  the  Buddhist  code;  even  the  parental 
relation  is  unnoticed,  and  the  reference  to  the 
deeper  principle  of  covetousness  in  the  Hebrew 
Decalog  is  also  wanting.  Only  the  outward 
violation  of  the  most  obvious  rules  of  common 
life  is  forbidden  in  the  laity,  and  five  frivolous 
injunctions  are  added  for  the  religious  order. 

It  is  fair  to  say,  however,  that  reverence  for 
parents  was  inculcated  in  other  sutras  ascribed 
to  the  Buddha;  that  the  restriction  and  abuse 
heaped  upon  woman  by  the  laws  of  Manu  were 
mitigated,  and  that,  in  general,  benevolence 
toward  all  men  and  all  living  things  was  enjoined. 

In  the  teachings  of  Gautama  and  his  immediate 
disciples  are  found  many  precepts  which  compare 
favorably  with  those  of  the  New  Testament. 
They  are,  however,  purely  ethical,  and  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  have  a  religious  import. 

Of  the  collections  of  Buddhist  literature  there 
are  two  great  divisions,  known  as  the  Little 
Vehicle  (Hinayana)  of  Ceylon  and  other  southern 
lands,  and  the  Great  Vehicle  (Mahayana)  of 
Nepal,  Kashmir,  and  Tibet.  China  and  Japan 
received  translations  from  both,  tho  principally 
from  the  Great  Vehicle  of  the  North.  The  Pali 
text  of  the  Little  Vehicle  was  adopted  by  the 
council  called  by  King  Ashoka  about  250  b.  c, 
and  was  known  as  the  Tripitaka  (Three  Baskets). 
This,  as  being  the  oldest  and  most  authentic 
body  of  history  and  doctrine,  is  justly  considered 
the  Buddhist  canon. 

It  is  a  strong  point  in  favor  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  Tripitaka,  that  it  was  borne  into  Ceylon 
by  Mahinda,  a  son  of  Ashoka,  soon  after  the 
council  of  Patna.  He  was  received  by  Tissa, 
King  of  Ceylon,  with  great  favor,  and  the  faith, 
as  it  was  preserved  in  his  memory  and  that  of 
his  monks,  was  implicitly  received  in  Ceylon. 
Mahinda  soon  after  translated  the  Tripitaka  from 
the  Pali  into  the  Sinhalese  language,  and  from 
that  time  to  the  present  day  the  two  versions  have 
corroborated  each  other. 

Later  teachings  hold  the  same  relation  to  the 
Tripitaka  that  the  traditions  and  decrees  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  hold  to  the  Canon  of  tne 
New  Testament. 

The  Mahayana,  or  Great  Vehicle,  consists  of 
nine  books,  of  which  the  two  most  important  are 
the  Lalita  Vistara  and  the  Lotus  of  the  True 
Law.  The  former  of  these  is  a  life  of  Gautama 
down  to  the  time  of  his  enlightenment.  It  was 
written  partly  in  poetry  and  partly  in  prose,  and 
evidently  at  different  times.  As  above  stated, 
it  is  in  this  poetic  and  exaggerated  biography 


that  those  legends  are  chiefly  found  which  resem- 
ble the  life  of  Christ. 

In  the  course  of  centuries  important  Buddhist 
works  of  greater  or  less  merit  appeared  in  the 
southern  literature,  mostly  commentaries  on  the' 
alleged  teachings  of  the  "Exalted  One."  Of 
these  the  most  important  are  the  DhammapadOy 
the  Sutta  Nipata,  the  Great  Decease,  etc.  The 
Dhammapada,  or  "Path  of  Holiness,"  was  written 
by  Buddhagosha,  an  Indian  monk,  who  went  ta 
Ceylon  about  430. 

The  book  is  a  sort  of  encyclopedia  and  commen- 
tary combined.  It  is  a  compend  in  Pali  of  all 
the  commentaries  which  till  his  time  had  been 
preserved  in  Sinhalese  only.  The  Dhammapada- 
contains  the  best  things  of  Buddhism,  as  the 
Bhagavad  Gita  sums  up  the  choicest  teachings 
of  Hinduism.  How  far  it  represents  the  veritable- 
words  of  Gautama  and  how  far  it  embodies  the 
sentiments  of  his  followers  can  never  be  known, 
as  it  was  written  seven  centuries  after  the  adop- 
tion of  the  canon. 

The  Doctrines  of  Buddhism:  These  are  (1) 
its  peculiar  conception  of  the  soul;  (2)  its  doc- 
trine of  Trishna  and  Upadana;  (3)  its  theory  of 
Karma;     (4)  the  doctrine  of  Nirvana. 

The  soul  is  said  to  consist  of  five  skandas. 
These  in  their  interaction  constitute  what  all 
others  than  Buddhists  regard  as  the  soul.  They 
are  (a)  material  properties,  (6)  the  senses,  (c) 
abstract  ideas,  (d)  tendencies,  (e)  mental  powers. 
The  soul  is  the  result  of  the  combined  action  of 
these,  as  the  flame  of  a  candle  proceeds  from  the 
combustion  of  its  constituent  elements.  The 
flame  is  never  the  same  for  two  consecutive 
moments.  It  seems  to  have  a  perpetuated  iden- 
tity, but  that  is  only  an  illusion,  and  the  same 
unreality  pertains  to  the  soul;  it  is  only  a  suc- 
cession of  thoughts,  emotions,  and  conscious 
experiences.  We  are  not  the  same  that  we  were 
an  hour  ago.  In  fact,  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
being,  there  is  only  a  constant  becoming.  We 
are  ever  passing  from  one  point  to  another 
throughout  our  life,  and  this  is  true  of  all  beings 
and  all  things  in  the  universe.  How  it  is  that 
the  succession  of  experience  is  treasured  up  in 
memory  is  not  made  clear. 

This  is  a  most  subtle  doctrine,  and  it  has  many 
points  of  contact  with  various  speculations  of 
modern  times.  It  has  also  a  plausible  side  when 
viewed  in  the  light  of  experience,  but  its  gaps 
and  inconsistencies  are  fatal,  as  must  be  seen 
when  it  is  thoroughly  examined. 

Trishna  is  the  second  of  these  cardinal  doc- 
trines. Trishna  is  that  inborn  element  of  desire 
whose  tendency  is  to  lead  men  into  evil.  So  far 
it  is  a  misfortune,  or  a  form  of  original  sin. 
Whatever  it  may  have  of  the  nature  of  guilt 
hangs  upon  the  issues  of  a  previous  life.  Upa- 
dana is  only  a  further  stage  in  the  same  develop- 
ment. It  is  Trishna  ripened  into  intense  craving 
by  our  own  choice  and  our  own  action.  It  then 
becomes  incontroUable,  and  is  clearly  a  matter 
of  guilt.  Now  the  momentum  of  this  Upadana 
is  such  that  it  cannot  be  arrested  by  death. 
Like  the  demons  of  Gadara,  it  must  again  become 
incarnate,  even  tho  it  should  enter  the  body  of 
a  brute. 

Karma:  This  transitional  something,  this  rest- 
less moral  or  immoral  force  which  must  work  out 
its  natural  results  somehow  and  somewhere,  and 
that  in  embodied  form,  projects  into  future  being, 
a  residuum  which  is  known  as  Karma.  Literally 
it  means  the   "doing."     It  is  a  man's  record. 


Bnddbisiii 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


116 


involving  the  consequences  and  liabilities  of  his 
acts.     It  is  a  score  whicli  must  be  settled. 

A  question  naturally  arises,  How  the  record  of 
a  soul  can  survive  when  the  soul  itself  has  been 
"blown  out?"  The  illustration  of  the  candle 
does  not  quite  meet  the  case.  If  the  flame  were 
something  which,  when  blown  out,  immediately 
seized  upon  some  other  substance  in  which  the 
work  of  combustion  proceeded,  it  would  come 
nearer  to  a  parallel.  One  candle  may  light 
another  before  itself  is  extinguished,  but  it  does 
not  do  it  by  an  inherent  necessity.  But  this 
flame  of  the  soul,  this  Karma,  must  enter  some 
other  body  of  god,  or  man,  or  beast,  or  inanimate 
thing. 

Again  the  question  comes,  How  can  responsi- 
bility be  transferred  from  one  to  another?  How 
can  the  heavy  load  of  a  man's  sin  be  laid  upon 
some  newborn  infant,  while  the  departing  sinner 
himself  has  no  further  concern  in  his  evil  Karma, 
but  sinks  into  non-existence  the  moment  his 
"conformations"  are  touched  with  dissolution? 
Buddhism  acknowledges  a  mystery  here;  no  real 
explanation  can  be  given,  and  none  seems  to 
have  been  attempted  by  Buddhist  writers.  To 
be  consistent,  Gautama,  in  denying  the  existence 
of  God  and  of  the  soul  as  an  entity,  should  have 
taught  the  materialistic  doctrine  of  annihilation. 
This,  however,  he  could  not  do  in  the  face  of  that 
deep-rooted  idea  of  transmigration  which  had 
taken  entire  possession  of  the  Hindu  mind.  He 
was  compelled,  therefore,  to  bridge  a  most 
illogical  chasm  as  best  he  could.  Karma  without 
a  soul  to  cling  to  is  a  something  in  the  air.  It 
alights  like  some  winged  seed  upon  a  newborn 
set  of  skandas  with  its  luckless  boon  of  ill  desert, 
and  it  involves  the  fatal  inconsistency  of  invest- 
ing with  permanent  character  that  which  is  itself 
impermanent. 

But  the  question  may  be  asked,  Do  we  not 
admit  a  similar  principle  when  we  speak  of  a 
man's  influence  as  something  that  survives  him? 
We  answer,  "No."  Influence  is  a  simple  radia- 
tion of  impressions.  A  man  may  leave  an  influ- 
ence which  men  are  free  to  accept  or  not,  but  it 
is  quite  a  different  thing  if  he  leaves  upon  a  suc- 
cessor the  moral  liabilities  of  a  bankrupt  char- 
acter. Gautama's  own  Karma,  for  example, 
ceased  to  exist  upon  his  entering  Nirvana;  there 
was  no  rebirth,  but  his  influence  lives  forever, 
and  has  extended  to  millions  of  his  fellowmen. 

The  injustice  involved  in  the  doctrine  of  Karma 
is  startling.  The  newborn  soul  that  inherits  its 
unsettled  score  has  no  memory  or  consciousness 
that  connects  it  with  himself;  it  is  not  heredity, 
it  is  not  his  father's  character  that  invests  him. 
This  Karma  may  have  crossed  the  ocean  from 
the  deathbed  of  some  unknown  man  of  another 
race.  The  doctrine  is  the  more  astonishing  when 
we  consider  that  no  Supreme  Being  is  recognized 
as  claiming  this  retribution.  There  is  no  God; 
it  is  a  vague  law  of  eternal  justice,  a  law  without 
a  lawgiver  or  a  judge.  There  can  therefore  be 
no  pardon,  no  commutation  of  sentence,  no  such 
thing  as  divine  pity  or  help.  The  only  way  in 
which  one  can  disentangle  himself  is  by  breaking 
the  connection  between  spirit  and  matter  which 
binds  him  with  the  shackles  of  conscious  being. 

The  Doctrine  of  Nirvana:  No  doctrine  of 
Buddhism  has  been  so  much  in  dispute  as  this. 
(1)  It  has  been  widely  maintained  that  Nirvana 
means  extinction.  (2)  Prof.  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids 
and  others  have  held  that  it  is  the  destruction  of 
passion,  malice,  and  delusion,  and  that  it  may 


be  attained  in  this  life — that  Gautama  reached 
Nirvana  forty-five  years  before  his  death.  They 
claim,  however,  that  inasmuch  as  it  cuts  off 
Karma  and  rebirth,  it  involves  extinction  upon 
the  dissolution  of  the  body.  (3)  It  is  held  by 
others  that  Nirvana  is  a  return  to  the  original 
and  all-pervading  Boddhi  essence.  This  theory, 
which  is  really  a  concession  to  the  Brahmanical 
doctrine  of  absorption  into  the  infinite  Brahm, 
has  a  wide  following  among  modern  Buddhists 
in  China  and  Japan.  It  is  a  form  of  Buddhist 
pantheism. 

As  to  the  teachings  of  Gautama  on  this  sub- 
ject. Professor  Max  Milller,  while  admitting  that 
the  metaphysicians  who  followed  the  great 
teacher  plainly  taught  that  the  entire  personal 
entity  of  an  arahat  (an  enlightened  one)  would 
become  extinct  upon  the  death  of  the  body,  yet 
reasons  in  his  lecture  on  "Buddhistic  Nihilism" 
that  the  Buddha  himself  could  not  have  taught 
a  doctrine  so  disheartening.  At  the  same  time 
he  quotes  the  learned  and  judicial  Bishop 
Bigandet  as  declaring,  after  years  of  study  and 
observation  in  Burma,  that  such  is  the  doctrine 
ascribed  to  the  great  teacher  by  his  own  disciples. 
Gautama  himself  is  quoted  as  closing  one  of  his 
sermons  in  these  words:  "Mendicants,  that 
which  binds  the  teacher  to  existence  is  cut  off, 
but  his  body  still  remains.  While  his  body  shall 
remain  he  shall  be  seen  by  gods  and  men;  but 
after  the  termination  of  life,  upon  the  dissolution 
of  the  body,  neither  gods  nor  men  shall  see  him." 

Prof.  Khys  Davids  expresses  the  doctrine 
tersely  when  he  says:  "Utter  death  with  no  new 
life  to  follow  is  then  a  result  of,  but  it  is  not, 
Nirvana." 

Professor  Oldenberg  suggests  with  much  plaus- 
ibility that  the  Buddha  was  more  reticent  in 
regard  to  the  doctrine  of  final  extinction  in  the 
later  periods  of  his  life;  that  the  depressing  doc- 
trine had  been  found  a  stumbling-block,  and  he 
came  to  assume  an  agnostic  position  on  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  ego  should  permanently  survive. 

The  question.  What  is  Nirvana?  has  been  the 
object  of  a  larger  inquiry  than  its  importance 
demands.  Practically  the  millions  of  Buddhists 
are  not  concerned  in  the  question.  They  find 
no  attraction  in  either  view.  They  desire  neither 
extinction  nor  unconscious  absorption  into  the 
Boddhi  essence  (or  Brahm).      What  they  antici- 

Cate  is  an  improved  transmigration,  a  better 
irth.  The  more  devout  may  indulge  the  hope 
tliat  their  next  life  will  be  spent  in  one  of  the 
Buddhist  heavens.  Others  may  aspire  to  be  men 
of  high  position  and  influence.  A  man  of  low 
tastes  may  forecast  his  next  life  in  accordance 
with  those  tastes.  The  Buddhist  holds  even 
more  strictly  than  the  Christian  that  every  man 
shall  reap  as  he  has  sown,  for  in  his  view  no  inter- 
posing grace  can  change  the  result.  It  is  wholly 
erroneous,  then,  to  represent  the  system  as  pre- 
senting nothing  more  attractive  to  men  than  the 
prospect  of  extinction.  However  metaphysi- 
cians and  Orientalists  may  settle  the  question  of 
the  last  estate  of  those  who  become  "enlight- 
ened," the  multitudes  care  little  for  a  goal  which, 
according  to  Buddhist  tradition,  less  than  a  dozen 
followers  of  Gautama  have  ever  reached.  "The 
laymen  could  attain  Nirvana,"  says  Professor 
Rhys  Davids,  "we  are  told  of  only  one  or  two 
instances  of  their  having  done  so";  and,  tho  it 
was  more  possible  for  members  of  the  Buddhist 
order  of  mendicants,  we  only  hear  after  the  time 
of  Gautama  of  one  or  two  who  did  so.     No  one 


117 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Buddhism 


now  hears  of  such  an  occurrence."  It  is  safe, 
therefore,  to  conclude  that  the  hope  of  Nirvana 
has  practically  no  influence  on  Buddhist  minds. 
It  lies  at  an  infinite  distance  and  is  shadowy  at 
best,  while  real  existence  lies  between.  That  is 
the  goal  of  hope  and  aspiration. 

The  Migrations  of  Buddhism:  It  is  common  to 
speak  of  Buddhism  as  a  "missionary  religion," 
and  such  it  was  in  its  earlier  career.  Gautama 
from  the  first  and  both  by  precept  and  example 
taught  the  duty  of  proclaiming  the  "Law."  The 
fact  that  a  son  and  a  daughter  of  King  Ashoka 
became  missionaries  in  Ceylon  must  be  accepted 
as  evidence  of  the  earnestness  of  the  missionary 
spirit  of  their  time.  Other  influences  helped  the 
movement,  however.  Ashoka  made  Buddhism 
the  religion  of  the  state,  and,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  political  treaties  formed  between  the  Lamas 
of  Tibet  and  the  Chinese  emperors  extended  the 
system  even  to  Mongolia.  In  many  instances 
Chinese  travelers  in  India  carried  home  with 
them  the  Buddhist  system  and  became  its  advo- 
cates. But  for  several  centuries  real  missionaries 
or  volunteer  teachers  visited  other  lands  for  the 
promulgation  of  the  Law.  Buddhism  was  trans- 
mitted to  Ceylon  about  230  B.  c,  to  Kashmir 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  to  China 
about  67,  to  Burma  in  the  5th  century,  to 
Japan  in  552,  and  to  Siam  and  Cambodia  in  the 
7th  century. 

The  Development  of  Northern  Buddhism:  In 
Ceylon,  Burma  and  Siam  there  has  been  little 
change  from  the  time-honored  doctrine  of  the 
Pitakas,  but  in  Nepal,  Tibet,  and  among  all 
branches  of  the  Mongolian  race  there  have  been 
wide  variations. 

Closely  connected  with  the  legendary  teachings 
which  at  length  came  to  be  associated  with  the 
history  of  Gautama  was  the  theory  tliat  succes- 
sive Buddhas  have  visited  the  world,  and  at 
intervals  of  five  thousand  years  will  continue  to 
appear.  When  Gautama  died,  those  who  had 
learned  to  look  upon  him  with  a  sort  of  worship 
felt  the  loss  of  a  divine  sympathy  and  help.  The 
Buddha  was  dead,  and  according  to  his  own 
teachings  there  was  "nothing  left  of  which  it 
could  be  said  I  am."  But  the  next  Buddha  was 
in  course  of  preparation  in  some  of  the  heavens, 
and  perhaps  could  even  now  hear  the  voice  of 
human  prayer.  Thus  the  Bodhisat  "Maitreyeh" 
(future  Buddha  of  kindness)  came  to  be  recog- 
nized even  in  Ceylon  as  a  hopeful  resource  and 
a  hearer  of  prayer. 

But  it  was  in  the  Northern  Buddhism  particu- 
larly that  the  evolution  of  a  sort  of  semi-theism 
advanced  from  generation  to  generation. 

Professor  Rhys  Davids  maintains  that  the 
"keynote"  of  the  Mahay  ana  (Great  Vehicle)  was 
its  change  from  the  idea  and  aim  of  Arahatship, 
as  taught  in  the  south,  to  that  of  Bodisatship. 
In  other  words,  a  living  Buddha  to  come  was 
thought  to  be  of  more  practical  value  to  mankind 
than  a  dead  Buddha  of  the  past,  however  wise 
and  saintly. 

There  was  that  felt  demand  of  humanity,  wit- 
nessed in  all  ages  and  races,  for  a  divine  helper. 

By  the  4th  century  there  were  worshiped 
in  Nepal  two  Bodisats  named  Manjusri  and 
Avolokitesvara.  The  first  was  the  personifica- 
tion of  wisdom;  the  second  represented  power, 
and  was  the  merciful  protector  of  the  world. 
These  mythical  personages  were  presented  in  the 
Lotus  of  the  True  Law,  one  of  the  nine  books  of 
the  Great  Vehicle.     At  a  somewhat  later  period 


these  two  had  become  three,  with  a  somewhat 
modified  distribution  of  functions. 

Vajrapani  represented  power;  Manjusri,  the 
personification  of  wisdom;  while  Avolokitesvara 
was  the  spirit  of  the  Buddhas  everywhere  present 
in  the  church.  This  is  wonderfully  suggestive  of 
a  possible  borrowing  from  the  Christian  Trinity, 
and  the  date  of  its  development  would  render 
such  a  result  possible. 

Some  time  subsequent  to  the  7th  century 
tliere  were  recognized  five  trinities — one  for  each 
of  five  world  systems.  In  each  trinity  the  first 
person  was  known  as  a  dhyana  or  celestial 
Buddha;  the  second  was  the  spirit  of  Buddhas 
in  tlie  church;  and  the  third  was  the  incarnate 
Buddha  on  earth.  The  trinity  for  our  world 
consisted  of  the  dhyana  Amitaba,  whom'we  shall 
notice  farther  on;  Avolokitesvara,  who  also 
becomes  important,  and  Gautama,  who  was  our 
incarnate  Buddha. 

In  the  10th  century  the  Tibetans  advanced  a 
step  further,  and  proclaimed  the  Supreme  or 
Adi- Buddha.  From  him,  the  One  and  Absolute,, 
all  the  Dhyana  Buddhas  emanated,  while  from 
them  sprang  the  Bodisatwas,  and  from  each 
Bodisatwa  was  evolved  a  kosmos  or  material 
world.  Thus  Buddhism  had  become  essentially 
polytheistic.  ' 

Meanwhile  the  system  had  become  exceedingly 
corrupt  through  a  union  with  the  Hindu  doctrine 
of  Saktism,  or  the  worship  of  the  female  principle 
of  Siva,  and  even  in  Tibet  the  hideous  idols 
representing  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  Hinduism 
were  everywliere  present.  By  a  subsequent 
reformation  the  Buddhism  of  Tibet  was  restored 
measurably  to  its  original  purity. 

Lamaism  or  Lamism:  The  available  functions 
of  Avolokitesvara  had  rendered  him  exceedingly 
popular.  To  him  all  real  supplications  were 
offered.  The  chief  abbot  of  Tibet,  who  was  also 
temporal  ruler,  solidified  and  established  his 
power  by  claiming  to  be  an  incarnation  of  this 
all-pervading  Bodisat.  At  his  death  the  indwell- 
ing one  immediately  became  incarnate  in  some 
newly  born  infant  who  should  succeed  to  the 
theocratic  throne.  To  the  great  advantage  of 
this  supposed  divinity  was  added  an  alliance  with 
Kublai  Khan  and  other  Chinese  emperors,  by 
which,  in  exchange  for  political  fealty  to  the 
Chinese  Emperor,  the  Grand  Lama  of  Tibet  was 
constituted  the  high  priest  of  Buddhism  over 
China  and  Mongolia.  Subsequently  a  disputed 
title  to  the  Lamaship  was  settled  by  the  inaugu- 
ration of  two  Lamas,  and  for  this  purpose  another 
indwelling  Bodisat  was  found,  viz. :  Amitaba. 

The  Worship  of  Quan  Yin:  In  China  a  different 
use  was  made  of  the  ever  available  and  popular 
Bodisat  Avolokitesvara.  He  became  imperson- 
ated in  Qu<in  Yin,  the  well-known  goddess  of 
mercy.  That  Quan  Yin  was  regarded  as  a  female 
finds  its  explanation  in  the  influence  of  the  Indian 
Saktism,  which  had  not  become  quite  extinct 
even  in  Tibet.  Some  of  the  abbesses  in  the 
Tibetan  monasteries  were  regarded  as  incarna- 
tions of  the  wives  of  Siva.  Quan  Yin  on  the 
same  principle  was  an  impersonation  of  Avolo- 
kitesvara on  the  female  side  of  his  nature.  More- 
over, in  this,  as  in  some  forms  of  historic  Chris- 
tianity, the  notion  that  women's  sympathy  and 
compassion  are  most  tender  had,  perhaps,  some 
weight.  In  both  China  and  Japan  Quan  Yin  is 
one  of  the  most  popular,  because  the  most  merci- 
ful, of  deities.  She  is  represented  as  having 
attained  Nirvana,  but  as  having  voluntarily  sub- 


iBnddlilsin 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


lis 


mitted  to  rebirth  in  heaven  that  she  might  com- 
passionate mankind. 

The  Buddhist  Doctrine  of  Salvation  by  Faith: 
We  have  seen  that  the  celestial  or  Dhyana 
Buddha  of  our  world  system  was  Amitaba.  This 
mystical  being  has  become  in  the  Yodo  and  the 
Shin  sects  of  Japan  a  complete  savior.  By  the 
great  merit  which  he  has  stored  up  through  mil- 
lions of  ages  he  is  able  to  save,  vicariously  and 
to  the  uttermost,  all  who  in  true  faith  call  upon 
his  name.  By  the  Shin  sect  the  doctrine  is  most 
fully  developed.  They  claim  that  a  single  act 
of  faith  and  trust  in  Amitaba  will  save  the  soul 
forever.  There  is  a  complete  substitution  or 
transfer  of  righteousness  from  the  savior  to  the 
sinner.  There  is  an  abandonment  of  the  notion 
of  self-merit  and  self-help.  Endless  transmigra- 
tion gives  place  to  an  immediate  and  lasting 
enjoyment  of  heaven  beyond  tlie  setting  sun. 
Asceticism  is  rejected  as  useless,  and  one's  own 
merit  is  "as  superfluous  as  furs  in  summer." 
Yet  this  faith  is  said  to  work  by  love,  and  good 
■deeds  are  performed  out  of  gratitude  to  Amitaba. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that  Buddhism,  begin- 
ning in  sheer  atheism,  should  finally  have  reached 
the  very  threshold  of  Christianity — without  the 
Christ.  There  has  never  appeared  a  more  clever 
and  complete  counterfeit.  No  other  false  system 
has  ever  paid  so  marked  a  tribute,  tho  involun- 
tary, to  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity. 

The  Present  Buddhisms:  We  have  seen  how  the 
system  has  been  developed  in  different  lands.  In 
Ceylon  and  Burma  it  is  still  a  mere  ethical  cult, 
while  the  religious  aspirations  of  men  are  largely 
met  by  the  worship  of  spirits.  In  Siam  it  is 
buttressed  by  an  intimate  relation  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  State.  In  India  it  has  been  vir- 
tually extinct  since  the  9th  century.  In  Tibet, 
as  has  already  been  shown,  it  is  a  virtual  theo- 
crasy  under  the  name  of  Lamism.  In  China 
there  are  thirteen  Buddhist  sects,  but  the  system 
as  a  whole  has  become  a  constituent  of  the 
triangular  system  known  as  theSankaio,  or  "The 
Three  Religions,"  Confucianism,  Taouism,  and 
Buddhism.  They  are  so  united  that  each  supple- 
ments the  other.  The  Chinese  Buddhism  has 
borrowed  from  Confucianism  its  reverence  for 
ancestors  and  for  the  State,  and  from  Taouism 
its  demigods  and  its  geomantic  superstitions. 
The  Chinese  are  in  turn  Confucianists,  Buddhists, 
or  Taouists,  as  exigencies  may  arise. 

The  Buddlaism  of  Mongolia  has  borrowed 
largely  the  Tibetan  type,  tho  it  has  multiplied 
its  Lamas  almost  indefinitely.  Any  distin- 
guished Buddhist  monk  may  come  to  be  regarded 
as  an  incarnation  of  some  holy  Buddha,  and 
through  this  open  pathway  of  ambitious  saint- 
ship,  fraud  and  corruption  have  entered.  The 
Mongolian  Buddhism  is  of  even  a  darker  and 
more  gloomy  type  than  that  of  other  lands. 

The  Buddhism  of  Japan  has  been  greatly 
influenced  by  a  union  with  Shintoism.  It  has 
embraced  many  of  its  popular  superstitions,  and 
as  from  Taouism  in  China,  so  from  Shintoism  in 
Japan  it  has  adopted  the  national  heroes  and 
<iemigods  and  enshrined  them  in  its  temples. 
I'or  a  thousand  years  there  was  a  mutual  agree- 
ment that  Shinto  priests  should  solemnize  all 
marriages  and  Buddhist  priests  officiate  at  all 
funerals.  This  relation  was  finally  abolished  by 
imperial  edict. 

The  Alleged  Coinridences  between  the  Life  of 
■Gautama  and  that  of  Christ:     We  have  already 


alluded  to  the  incidents  of  Buddha's  birth  and 
early  life,  as  set  forth  in  the  legends,  particu- 
larly in  the  Lalita  Vistara  of  Nepal.  Great  use 
has  been  made  of  these  by  the  apologists  of 
Buddhism.  The  inference  which  is  generally 
drawn  from  them  is  that  the  Gospel  narrative 
is  largely  borrowed  from  the  earlier  life  of  Gau- 
tama. Abundant  refutations  of  this  assumption 
have  been  presented  by  Eitel,  Kuenen,  Kellogg, 
Rhys  Davids,  and  others. 

1.  "There  is,"  says  Rhys  Davids,  "no  evidence 
whatever  of  any  actual  and  direct  communica- 
tion of  these  ideas  common  to  Buddhism  and 
Christianity  from  the  East  to  the  West." 

2.  Many  of  the  coincidences  are  merely  acci- 
dental. The  events  in  both  cases  are  those  which 
might  naturally  occur  independently  of  any  con- 
nection; such  as  the  fact  that  both  infants  were 
welcomed  with  joy  by  friends  as  well  as  kindred, 
or  that  they  were  both  consecrated  in  temples, 
or  that  both  were  tempted  to  turn  aside  from 
their  great  missions,  or  that  both  were  credited 
with  precocious  wisdom. 

3.  The  fact  has  already  been  shown  that  the 
Lalita  Vistara,  which  gives  most  of  these  legends 
of  Gautama's  childhood,  cannot  be  proved  to 
have  existed  earlier  than  the  6th  century. 
While  there  is  no  evidence  of  communication  of 
the  ideas  common  to  Buddhism  and  Christianity 
from  the  East  to  the  West,  evidence  is  abundant 
that  Christianity  had  been  preached  and  had 
gained  a  foothold  in  India  and  Central  Asia  long 
before  that  date. 

4.  It  is  intrinsically  improbable,  not  to  say 
impossible,  that  a  circle  of  disciples  which 
embraced  the  mother  and  brethren  of  Jesus 
should  have  undertaken  to  palm  off  a  false  or 
borrowed  history. 

5.  It  is  still  more  improbable  that  the  disci- 
ples, whose  whole  aim  was  to  show  that  Christ's 
advent  was  a  fulfilment  of  Jewish  prophecy  and 
vitally  connected  with  the  Old  Testament 
Church,  should  have  clumsily  copied  a  mass  of 
heathen  legends.  Considering  the  Jewish  horror 
of  heathenism,  no  policy  could  have  been  more 
fatal. 

6.  The  disciples  of  Christ  taught  a  pure  theism, 
in  which  supernatural  elements  appeared  in  an 
intense  and  special  power.  Would  they  base  the 
story  of  one  claiming  to  be  the  Son  of  God  on 
the  biography  of  a  Gentile  atheist? 

7.  Many  of  the  coincidences  are  rather  con- 
trasts. Christ's  preexistence  was  that  of  a  Divine 
Being,  Buddha's  was  merely  a  series  of  trans- 
migrations. Christ  had  shared  the  equal  glory 
of  the  Father;  Buddha  had  been  a  soldier,  a  thief, 
an  elephant,  a  tiger,  a  snipe,  a  frog;  Christ's 
baptism  was  a  religious  rite,  that  of  Gautama  a 
bath  in  a  river.  Christ's  miracles  were  sensible 
and  useful,  those  of  Buddha  objectless,  childish, 
grotesque. 

The  Alleged  Humanity  of  Buddhism  as  Com- 
pared with  Christianity:  There  has  been  great 
effort  on  the  part  of  opposers  of  the  Christian 
faith  to  exalt  Buddhism  as  a  superior  system. 
It  has  been  especially  urged  that  the  "Light  of 
Asia"  was  the  teacher  of  a  gospel  of  peace, 
strangely  contrasting  with  the  belligerent  doc- 
trines and  history  of  the  Christian  Church.  In 
reply  to  this  claim  it  should  be  said,  in  the 
outset,  that  in  all  comparisons  between  Asiatic 
faiths  and  those  of  Europe,  differences  of  climate 
and  race  characteristics  should  be  borne  in  mind. 
Between  the  soft  and  puny  tribes  of  Southern 


119 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Buddhism 


India  or  Ceylon  and  the  Norsemen  of  the  Baltic 
there  are  physical  contrasts  which  no  faith  could 
wholly  efface.  But  considering  that  Scandina- 
vians, once  the  terrors  of  Europe,  are  now  the 
most  peaceful  of  men,  we  may  point  to  the  influ- 
ences which  Christianity  has  exerted  upon  them 
as  among  the  highest  triumphs  of  any  religious 
faith.  Moreover,  northern  races  of  Buddhists 
are  by  no  means  distinguished  for  a  gentle  and 
pacific  spirit. 

There  is  scarcely  any  country  in  which  the  life 
of  a  stranger  is  more  imperiled  than  in  Mongolia. 
The  famous  conqueror,  Kublai  Khan,  was  con- 
verted to  Buddhism,  but,  as  Ebrard  has  well 
shown,  no  change  was  wrought  in  his  nature  or 
his  ambitious  plans.  The  Japanese,  tho  Bud- 
dhists for  thirteen  centuries,  have  been  a  warlilie 
race,  and  their  temples  are  often  crowded  with 
the  images  of  bloodthirsty  heroes. 

It  is  admitted  that  Gautama  discountenanced 
the  destruction  of  life,  whether  of  man  or  of 
beast.  Even  insects  were  spared  with  punctili- 
ous care.  But  this  was  no  new  precept.  Brah- 
mans  had  long  before  taught  the  same,  and  the 
sect  known  as  the  Jains  are  most  absurdly  scrupu- 
lous of  all.  This  sacredness  of  life  is  based  on 
the  doctrine  of  transmigration,  which  is  common 
to  all  nations  of  Southern  Asia.  The  meanest 
beast  or  reptile  may  be  an  incarnation  of  a  human 
spirit.  But  the  real  humanities  of  Buddhism  are 
infinitely  inferior  to  those  of  Christianity. 
Ostentatious  care  of  brutes  is  often  seen  side  by 
side  with  utter  disregard  of  human  suffering.  In 
Canton  one  may  see  a  sacred  asylum  for  swine, 
but  he  would  look  in  vain  for  a  home  for  the 
orphan  or  the  blind.  A  missionary  board  in  our 
day  has  been  asked  to  provide  some  place  in 
Bangkok  for  the  insane,  because  such  an  asylum 
had  never  been  imagined,  so  that  all  that  could 
be  done  for  a  demented  foreigner  in  that  city 
was  to  lodge  him  like  a  criminal  in  jail. 

The  alleged  instances  of  benevolence  in  the 
history  of  Gautama  are  chiefly  found,  not  like 
those  of  Christ,  in  his  earthly  life,  but  in  the  birth 
stories  of  his  former  existences.  Once  as  a  hare 
he  gave  himself  for  a  dinner  to  a  hungry  tigress. 
In  another  of  his  lives  he  gave  his  two  children 
to  a  demon  who  desired  to  eat  them,  and  as  their 
blood  streamed  from  the  monster's  mouth  he 
simply  said,  "By  the  merit  of  this  deed  may  rays 
of  light  emanate  from  me." 

The  attitude  of  Buddhism  toward  woman  has 
been  greatly  emphasized  in  recent  years  by  its 
special  advocates  in  Christian  lands.  That  it 
mitigated  many  of  the  wrongs  which  had  been 
visited  upon  the  female  sex  by  the  Brahmans  will 
be  conceded. 

It  was  a  great  and  important  step  when  the 
Buddha,  not  on  his  own  impulse,  but  by  the  per- 
suasions of  his  kinsman  and  disciple,  Ananda, 
admitted  women  to  the  privileges  of  the  Samgha 
or  holy  order.  The  principle  involved  carried 
with  it  many  social  ameliorations.  Yet  the  posi- 
tion of  Gautama  and  the  whole  leaven  of  his 
influence  in  this  respect  was  far  below  the 
standards  of  the  New  Testament.  In  the  outset 
his  example  in  forsaking  his  wife  and  child  to 
become  a  recluse  cannot  be  commended.  Paul 
taught  that  a  man  might  remain  single  for  the 
sake  of  the  kingdom,  but  to  break  away  from  the 
most  sacred  of  obligations,  and  that  stealthily 
and  without  consent,  must  be  adjudged  a  crime. 
The  baneful  influence  of  this  example,  like  that 
of  Mohammed's  immorality,  has  brought  forth 


its  evil  fruit  abundantly.  In  Burma  any  man 
desiring  to  be  rid  of  his  wife  has  only  to  enter  a 
monastery  and  remain  a  year  or  even  a  month, 
after  which  he  is  free  to  leave  his  sanctities  behind 
him  and  marry  another  wife. 

Logically,  Buddhism  is  opposed  to  all  mar- 
riages, to  all  love  for  wife  or  children.  The  prin- 
ciple that  human  relationships  are  fraught  with 
pain,  and  that  to  get  rid  of  pain  one  must  attain 
an  equipoise  which  is  tantamount  to  absolute 
indifference,  would  break  up  all  society.  This 
tendency  was  pointed  out  to  Gavitama,  and  he 
accordingly  divided  his  followers  into  two  classes, 
the  monks  and  the  laity.  It  was  an  illogical  but 
necessary  concession. 

Buddhist  monasticism  rests  upon  a  much  more 
radical  principle  than  that  of  the  Roman  and 
Greek  churches.  These,  while  maintaining  that 
celibacy  is  conducive  to  the  highest  sanctity, 
nevertheless  honor  marriage,  and  make  it  a 
sacrament  for  the  masses  of  men.  Not  so  with 
Buddhism.  It  puts  no  honor  upon  the  relation; 
it  regards  it  as  an  evil.  Many  utterances  are 
quoted  from  Buddha  which  cast  reproach  upon 
woman  as  woman. 

Thus  in  the  Dhammikha  Sutta,  "A  wise  man 
should  avoid  married  life  as  if  it  were  a  burning 
pit  of  live  coals."  Again,  "That  which  is  named 
woman  is  sin,"  On  another  occasion  Buddha 
said :  "Any  woman  whatever,  if  she  have  a  proper 
opportunity  and  can  do  it  in  secret,  and  if  she 
be  enticed  thereto,  will  do  that  which  is  wrong, 
however  ugly  the  paramour  may  be."  No  foul 
slander  in  the  Laws  of  Manu  can  exceed  this. 

Two  general  precepts  of  Buddhism  will  suffice 
to  show  the  discount  which  it  puts  upon  woman. 
First,  Gautama  taught  that,  altho  she  could 
enter  upon  a  holy  life  as  a  nun,  she  could  not 
attain  Nirvana  without  first  being  born  as  a 
man;  and,  second,  it  was  held  that,  altho  a 
Bodisat  in  his  preexistent  lives  might  be  a  wolf, 
a  snipe,  or  a  frog,  he  could  never  become  a  woman. 
Quite  in  accord  with  these  ideas,  the  female  sex 
has  remained  in  general  degradation  in  all 
Buddhist  lands. 

The  fact  that  a  low  grade  of  morality  exists 
in  countries  wholly  under  the  influence  of  this 
system,  that  profligacy  is  unbridled  in  Mongolia, 
that  thousands  of  children  were  sold  for  prosti- 
tution in  Japan,  that  the  vile  custom  of  polyandry 
prevails  unchecked  in  Tibet,  will  doubtless  be 
set  down  to  other  causes  by  Buddhist  apologists. 
But  when  we  turn  to  the  canonical  books  of  the 
system  and  find  passages  so  vile  that  the  trans- 
lators have  not  dared  to  translate  them,  no  such 
excuses  can  be  accepted.  The  Bishop  of  Colom- 
bo, in  the  Nineteenth  Century  of  July,  1888,  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  translators  and 
publishers  of  the  Pitakas  of  Ceylon  had  omitted 
some  portions  which  were  absolutely  vile.  He 
did  not  complain  that  the  omission  had  been 
made,  but  that  no  mention  was  made  of  the  fact 
— that  the  English  readers  of  the  Sacred  Books  of 
the  East  were  left  to  suppose  that  the  culled  and 
expurgated  version  of  the  Vinayana  there  given 
was  a  fair  and  honest  representation  of  Buddhism 
as  it  really  was  and  is.  Professor  Max  Miiller,  in 
his  introduction  to  the  first  volume  of  the  Sacred 
Books,  a  volume  relating  to  the  Upanishads. 
admits  that  some  things  in  Hindu  literature  were 
considered  unfit  for  the  English  translation,  but 
such  notice  is  wanting  in  Professar  Oldenberg's 
translation  of  the  Pitakas,  where  especially  such 
omissions  should  be  explained,  since  Buddhism 


BnddliiHin 
Bulgaria 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


12& 


'par  excellence  is  paraded  as  a  model  of  purity. 
Lest  we  may  seem  to  do  injustice  to  tiie  Buddhist 
sacred  canon  of  Ceylon,  it  should  be  said  that  the 
omitted  passages  are  not  positive  recommenda- 
tions of  vice — quite  the  reverse;  but  the  very 
prohibitions  defile  the  mind. 

The  aim  seems  to  have  been  to  draw  out  the 
opinion  of  "The  Blessed  One"  in  regard  to  every 
vice  and  crime  that  the  basest  imagination  could 
conceive  of.  Cases  were  stated,  therefore,  in 
which  monks  had  fallen  into  every  species  of  sin. 
The  minutite,  the  sickening  details,  the  prurient 
particularity  of  the  recitals  were  such  that  the 
Bishop  of  Colombo  concludes  that  the  authors 
must  have  transcended  the  possibilities  of  actual 
sin,  and  in  some  instances  drawn  upon  a  depraved 
imagination  in  order  to  illustrate  the  wisdom  of 
the  Buddha. 

Contrasts  with  Christianity:  There  is  not  space 
for  even  a  brief  allusion  to  the  admixtures  of 
Buddhism  with  lower  forms  of  superstition  which 
it  has  encountered  and  absorbed  in  many  lands, 
such  as  the  wide-spread  spirit-worship,  serpent- 
worship,  and  even  fetishism.  But  a  few  of  the 
many  points  of  contrast  between  Buddhism  and 
Christianity  may  be  presented.  We  have 
admitted  the  probable  sincerity  of  Gautama  as  a 
reformer  and  the  great  victory  which  he  gained 
over  his  own  evil  propensities,  also  the  general 
tone  of  benevolence  which  appeared  in  his  teach- 
ings; but  the  system  must  be  judged  as  a  whole 
and  in  the  broad  perspective  of  its  influence.  It 
is  thus  that  Christianity  is  judged. 

1.  Buddhism  contrasts  with  Christianity  in 
respect  to  God.  The  one,  at  least  in  its  original 
form,  is  agnostic  if  not  atheistic,  and  therefore 
derives  no  motives  of  action  from  any  higher 
source  than  man  himself  or  some  blind  law  of 
moral  cause  and  effect.  The  other  makes  God 
real,  personal,  and  supreme — the  source  of  all 
highest  inspiration  and  help,  the  Author  of  every 
blessing  present  or  future,  the  Arbiter  of  the 
human  conscience,  and  the  Rewarder  of  all  who 
seek  Him. 

2.  There  is  a  marked  contrast  with  respect  to 
the  soul.  Buddhism  recognizes  no  permanent 
entity  or  ego.  There  is  only  a  transient  inter- 
action of  physical  properties  and  mental  powers. 
At  death  only  the  Karma,  or  the  good  or  evil 
desert  remains.  Christianity  recognizes  the  soul 
as  created  in  the  image  of  God,  as  conscious  and 
spiritual,  a  distinct  and  permanent  being,  des- 
tined to  live  hereafter,  and  capable  of  loving  God 
and  enjoying  Him  forever. 

3.  While  Christianity  represents  sin  as  an 
offense  against  God  and  centers  in  Him  the  bond 
of  all  moral  obligation,  Buddhism  sees  only  a 
personal  inconvenience,  an  accumulation  of  con- 
sequences. The  motive  even  in  benevolent 
action  is  utterly  selfish,  as  it  aims  at  merit. 
Thus  when  the  preexistent  Buddha  gave  his 
children  to  be  devoured  by  a  demon,  as  stated 
above,  he  thought  not  of  their  suffering,  or  of 
his  wrong  toward  them,  but  only  of  his  own 
great  merit.  All  laws  of  moral  right  and  wrong 
seem  distorted  by  such  a  conception. 

4.  Buddhism  has  no  Savior.  When  Sir  Edwin 
Arnold  represents  him  as  coming  to  save  the 
world,  he  simply  reads  into  Buddhism  his  own 
conceptions  borrowed  from  the  New  Testament 
and  his  Christian  training.  Buddha  relied 
wholly  on  himself  and  he  taught  all  men  to  do 
the  same.  In  later  ages  Buddhists  in  various 
lands  have  expressed  a  felt  want  of  humanity 


by  adopting  various  types  of  quasi  theism,  and 
have  conceived  of  supernatural  beings  as  divine 
helpers,  but  they  have  so  far  departed  from  real 
Buddhism.  The  term  salvation  is  wholly  out 
of  place  in  such  a  system,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  Christianity  is  in  its  whole  aim  and  its 
whole  nature  a  system  of  divine  redemption 
from  sin  and  death. 

5.  Buddhism  lays  stress  on  self  and  self- 
interest.  Its  self-denials  are  for  purely  selfish  ends 
and  it  cares  nothing  for  the  needs  of  mankind. 
In  Christianity  the  ideal  man  denies  himself  for 
the  good  of  the  whole  body  of  which  he  is  a 
member,  and  subordinates  self-will  and  self- 
interest  to  the  welfare  of  mankind. 

6.  Buddhism  has  shown  itself  incapable  of 
regenerating  society.  It  was  founded  by  one 
who  had  turned  his  back  on  all  social  life.  It 
was  very  natural  that  the  system  should  discount 
woman  and  the  home,  for  its  author  was  an 
ascetic,  and  the  monastic  spirit  pervades  all  his- 
teachings.  Homelessness,  mendicancy,  suppres- 
sion of  all  social  and  domestic  instincts,  destruc- 
tion of  love  and  desire,  even  the  desire  of  future 
life,  silence  as  of  "a  broken  gong,"  and  "solitude: 
as  of  a  rhinoceros" — these  were  the  goal  of  the 
true  Buddhist. 

7.  Buddhism  is  a  system  of  pessimism,  Chris- 
tianity, a  revelation  of  cheerful  and  immortal 
hope.  Gautama  aimed  at  "the  death  of  deaths." 
Christ  brought  life  and  immortality  to  life. 

The  whole  assumption  upon  which  the  "Great- 
Renunciation"  was  made  to  rest  is  that  the 
universe  is  out  of  order,  that  all  life  is  a  burden, 
that  there  is  no  benevolent  creatorship,  no  kind 
providence,  and  no  salvation.  Whoever  may 
have  been  responsible  for  such  a  world,  it  is  one 
of  universal  misery  and  distress.  Man  and  beast 
make  common  cause  against  it,  and  Buddha  is 
the  one  great  sympathizer.  When  he  preached 
at  Kapilavastu  before  his  father's  court  the  whole 
animal  creation  was  there, 

"Catching  the  opening  of  his  lips  to  learn 
That  wisdom  which  hath  made  our  Asia  mild." 

It  appears  to  have  been  a  grand  indignation 
meeting  of  man  and  beast,  the  first  and  broadest 
of  Communist  gatherings,  at  which  Buddha 
voiced  the  common  protest  against  the  order  of 
nature,  and  pointed  out  the  way  of  escape  from 
the  sad  nexus  of  existence.     All 

"took  the  promise  of  his  piteous  speech. 
So  that  their  lives,  prisoned  in  the  shape  of  ape, 
Tiger  or  deer,  shagged  bear,  jackal  or  wolf, 
Foul    feeding    kite,    pearled    dove    or    peacock: 

gemmed, 
Squat  toad  or  speckled  serpent,  lizard,  bat. 
Yea,  or  fish  fanning  the  river  waves. 
Launched  meekly  at  the  skirts  of  brotherhood, 
With  man  who  hath  less  innocence  than  these: 
And  in  mute  gladness  knew  their  bondage  broke 
Whilst   Buddha  spoke  these   things   before  the 
king." 

There  was  no  mention  of  sin,  but  only  of  univer-  ■ 
sal  misfortune!  As  Sir  Monier  Williams  remarks, 
the  problem  to  which  Christianity  leads  a  man  is : 
What  shall  I  do  to  be  saved?  But  that  pressed 
upon  men  by  Buddhism  is:  What  shall  I  do  to  be- 
extinguished? 

In  contrast  with  the  deep  shadows  of  a  brood- 
ing and  all-embracing  pessimism  like  this,  we- 
need  only  to  hint  at  that  glow  of  hope  and  joy 
with  which  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  has  flooded 


ISl 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


IlTi4l(11irsi» 


the  world,  the  fatherly  love  and  compassion  with 
which  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  are 
replete,  the  divine  plan  of  redemption,  the  great 
sacrifice,  the  superabounding  grace,  the  brother- 
hood of  man,  and  the  eternal  fellowship  with 
God. 

Special  difficulties  await  the  Christian  mission- 
ary who  attempts  to  convince  educated  Bud- 
dhists of  the  unique  quality  of  the  truths  taught 
by  Jesus  Christ.  He  meets  with  men  whose 
intellect  is  perverted  by  persistent  violations  of 
logic.  It  is  easy  for  the  mind  trained  by  Bud- 
dhism to  believe  mutually  exclusive  propositions. 
Such  a  mind  "feels  no  obstacle  in  believing  that 
there  is  white  blaclcness,  slow  swiftness,  square 
roundness,  or  crooked  uprightness."  The  real 
vitality  occasionally  seen  in  Buddhism  is  another 
difficulty  which  the  missionary  has  to  face.  In 
Japan,  the  claim  of  championship  of  the  highest 
morality  and  of  love  to  the  race  is  made  by 
Buddhists  with  sharp  arraignment  of  Christianity 
in  these  directions.  In  Ceylon  the  Buddhist 
clergy  have  adopted  Christian  methods  of 
instruction  of  children  in  Sunday  schools,  of 
tracts  and  religious  periodicals  to  control  the 
minds  of  the  masses,  and  of  revivalist  tours  to 
stir  their  emotions. 

What  the  missionary  encounters  in  Buddhism 
is  a  religion  founded  upon  a  life,  fortified  by  a 
literature,  and  witnessed  to  by  the  experience  of 
multitudes.  He  must  therefore  study  it  pro- 
foundly, for  this  ancient  system  is  not  to  be  light- 
ly regarded  or  quiclcly  overthrown. 

Davids  (T.  W.  Rhys-),  Buddhism,  New  York,  1896;  Williams 
M.(  Monier),  Buddhism  in  Its  Connection  with  Brahmanism. 
and  Its  Contrast  with  Christianity,  New  York,  1889;  Wad- 
dell,  (L.  A.)  Buddhism  of  Tibet,  London,  1894;  Fielding 
(H.),  The  Soul  of  a  People,  London,  1898,  (Buddhism  in 
Burma;)  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  vol.  IX. ,pp. 
253,  326,  416,  513,  582. 

BUEA:  A  town  in  the  mountain  region  of  the 
German  Colony  of  the  Kamerun,  of  which  it  is 
the  seat  of  the  colonial  government.  Station  of 
the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1896),  with  3  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  6  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations,  7  village  schools  and  (1902)  91  com- 
municants. 

BUENOS  AIRES:  Capital  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
The  most  important  city  in  South  America,  it 
differs  little  in  its  character  from  American  and 
European  seaboard  cities.  Population  (1895) 
663,854. 

Station  of  the  ME  (1836),  with  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  1  missionary  woman,  16  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  5  chapels,  3  village 
schools,  1  high  school,  a  printing  house  and 
851  professing  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
SDA  (1891),  with  5  missionaries,  4  of  them 
with  their  wives,  1  missionary  woman,  8  na- 
tive workers,  14  outstations  and  386  professing 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  South  America 
Missionary  Society  (1898),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  11  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  1  chapel,  2  village  schools.  Station  also 
of  the  PB,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  mis- 
sionary women  and  1  printing  house.  Station 
also  of  the  Missionary  Pence  Association  (1901), 
with  4  missionaries;  also  of  the  International 
Medical  and  Benevolent  Association,  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife;  also  of  the  YMCA  (1901), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife;  also  of  the 
BPBS,  with  5  native  workers  and  1  book  depot. 

BUFF  BAY:  A  town  on  the  northern  coast  of 


Jamaica,  West  Indies;  station  of  the  CWBM, 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  chapels,  2  Sun- 
day schools,  2  village  schools,  4  young  people's 
societies  and  135  professing  Christians.  Also 
station  of  the  Western  Annual  Conference  of  the 
Wesleyan  Church  in  the  West  Indies,  with  1  mis- 
sionary. 

BUGHI  LANGUAGE:  This  belongs  to  the 
Malayan  family  and  is  spoken  by  above  one  mil- 
lion of  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Celebes. 
It  is  written  with  its  own  alphabet. 

BUITENZORG:  A  station  of  the  Dutch  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  Western  Java,  founded  in 
1869.  It  has  1  missionary,  5  native  workers, 
and  165  communicants. 

BUKALEBA:  A  settlement  in  the  Usoga  dis- 
trict of  Uganda,  Central  Africa,  situated  near  the 
N.  extremity  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza;  station  of 
the  CMS  (1891),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
57  native  workers,  men  and  women  and  92  com- 
municants. 

BUKASA:  A  settlement  on  one  of  the  Sese 
Islands  in  the  Victoria  Nvanza,  Uganda,  Central 
Africa;  station  of  the  CMS  (1895),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  143  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  1  Sunday  school,  3  village  schools 
and  480  communicants. 

BULANDSHAHR:  A  city  in  the  United  Prov- 
inces, India,  situated  S.  E.  of  Delhi;  a  station  of 
the  ME,  with  13  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
7  chapels,  16  Sunday  schools,  12  village  schools, 
2  young  people's  societies  and  681  professing 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  ZBM,  with  3  mis- 
sionary women,  7  native  women  workers,  3  vil- 
lage schools  and  155  Zenana  pupils. 

BULAWAYO:  A  town  and  railroad  station  in 
southern  Rhodesia,  Africa;  station  of  the  WMS, 
with  3  native  workers,  2  chapels,  1  Sunday  school, 

1  village  school  and  145  professing  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  SPG  (1893),  with  3  mission- 
aries, I  native  worker  and  66  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  SDA  (1895),  with  6  mission- 
aries, 4  of  them  with  their  wives  (1  a  physician), 

2  Sunday  schools,  2  village  schools,  1  orphanage, 
1  dispensary.     Also  written  Buluwayo. 

BULGARIA:  A  country  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, forming  an  autonomous  principality  under 
the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Rumania,  on  the  east 
by  the  Black  Sea,  on  the  south  by  European  Tur- 
key, and  on  the  west  by  Servia.  It  is  divided  by 
the  Balkan  Mountains  into  two  parts:  Bulgaria 
proper  on  the  north  and  South  Bulgaria  or  East- 
ern Rumelia  on  the  south  of  that  range.  Area 
of  the  whole,  38,080  square  miles. 

Except  along  the  Balkan  Mountains,  which 
traverse  the  whole  principality  from  east  to  west, 
the  country  is  a  vast  plain.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate. The  plains  are  hot  in  summer,  and 
along  the  Danube  there  is  much  malaria,  but  the 
highlands  are  healthy.  The  higher  mountains 
have  snow  on  their  peaks  the  greater  part  of  the 
year. 

The  census  of  1900  gives  a  total  population  of 
3,733,189. 

The  Bulgarians  are  descendants  of  the  Slavs 
who  inhabited  the  Balkan  Peninsula  in  the  7th 
century.  In  the  second  half  of  the  9th  century 
(860-64)  Christianity  was  introduced  in  Bulgaria, 
and  with  it  an  alphabet  was  formed  and  the 
Scriptures  were  translated. 

This  was  due  to  SS.  Cyril  and  Methodius,  who 


'Bulgaria 
Burma 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


isa 


^re  honored  even  to  this  day  as  patron  saints  by 
the  Bulgarian  Church. 

The  Bulgarians  belong  to  the  Greek  (Orthodox) 
branch  of  the  Christian  Church.  Their  spiritual 
head  is  the  Exarch,  who  resides  in  Constantinople 
and  has  the  jurisdiction  over  the  twelve  bishop- 
rics into  which  Bulgaria  is  divided.  In  1893  the 
members  of  the  (Orthodox)  Greek  Church  num- 
bered 2,606,786,  the  Mohammedans  in  the  Prin- 
cipality numbered  643,258,  the  Jews,  28,307;  the 
Roman  Catholics,  22,617;  the  Armenians,  6,643; 
and  the  Protestants,  2,384.  Of  the  Moham- 
medans about  200,000  are  Bulgarians  in  race,  lan- 
guage and  customs  and  are  known  by  the  distinct- 
ive name  of  Pomaks. 

The  modern  Bulgarian  language  has  receded 
more  than  any  other  Slavic  dialect  from  the 
ancient  Slovenic  or  the  ancient  Bulgarian. 
While  the  latter  belongs  to  the  synthetic  class  of 
languages  and  is  rich  in  cases  and  other  gram- 
matical forms,  the  modern  Bulgarian  has  lost 
most  of  these  forms  and  has  become  an  analytic 
language,  expressing  the  relations  of  cases  by 
prepositions,  as  in  English.  The  use  of  the 
article,  which  is  placed  after  and  not  before  the 
word,  chiefly  distinguishes  it  from  the  ancient 
language  and  from  its  cognate  Slavic  dialects. 

Special  missionary  work  for  the  Bulgarians 
was  first  organized  by  the  ME  in  1857,  which  has 
since  conducted  missionary  operations  in  that 
part  of  Bulgaria  lying  N,  of  the  Balkans  (which 
was  at  that  time  a  province  of  European  Turkey). 
The  field  was  organized  into  a  Mission  Conference 
in  1892.  It  now  has  as  a  working  force  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  2  unmarried  women,  and 
11  ordained  native  preachers.  Work  is  carried 
on  in  12  places  and  the  number  of  church  mem- 
bers reported  is  234.  It  also  has  a  high  school 
with  57  scholars. 

The  ABCFM  about  the  same  time  commenced 
work  for  the  Bulgarians  on  the  S.  of  the  Balkans. 
It  now  has  in  Bulgaria  a  working  force  of  18  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women,  and  16  ordained 
native  preachers.  Its  operations  extend  to  30 
places,  and  the  number  of  church  members  is 
reported  at  900.  A  collegiate  institute,  a  theo- 
logical school,  a  boarding  and  high  school  for 
girls  and  a  publishing  house  are  maintained  at 
Samokov. 

The  BFBS  and  ABS  have  provided  Bibles  for 
this  region  and  employ  colporteurs  for  their  dis- 
semination. 

BULGARIAN  LANGUAGE:  This  language 
belongs  to  the  Slavic  branch  of  the  Ar3-an  famUy. 
It  is  spoken  by  more  than  four  million  people, 
chiefly  found  in  Bulgaria  and  the  adjoining  dis- 
tricts of  European  Turkey.  The  alphabet  used 
is  substantially  the  same  as  the  one  mvented  by 
the  bishop  CyrU,  in  the  9th  century,  and  now 
commonly  called  the  Russian  alphabet. 

Old  Bulgarian  literature  is  written  in  the  Slavic 
language  and  is  not  understood  by  the  common 
people.  A  considerable  modern  literature  in 
Bulgarian  has  sprung  up  since  the  Crimean  War 
of  1853-56.  To  this  growth  of  modern  Bulga- 
rian literature  American  missionaries  have  given 
a  notable  stimulus.  The  modern  Bulgarian 
language,  in  fact,  has  been  strongly  and  per- 
manently affected  by  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
made  by  Dr.  Riggs  and  Dr.  Long  and  published 
by  the  Bible  societies. 

BULILIMA:  A  settlement  in  Bechuanaland, 
Africa,  S.  W.  of  Bulawayo;  station  of  the  LMS 


(1895),   with  1   missionary,   1  native  worker,  5 
Sunday  schools  and  5  village  schools. 

BULL  BAY:  A  town  on  the  S.  coast  of  Jamaica, 
W.  I.,  about  12  miles  E.  of  Kingston;  station  of 
the  CWBM  (1876),  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  4  chapels,  3  Sunday  schools,  2  village  schools, 

2  young  people's  societies  and  224  professing 
Christians. 

BULLOM:  A  district  of  Sierra  Leone,  W. 
Africa,  lying  north  of  the  Sierra  Leone  River; 
occupied  by  the  CMS  (1861)  and  now  in  charge 
of  the  Sierra  Leone  Church  Missionary  Society, 
with  10  native  workers,  men  and  women,  1  chapel 
1  Sunday  school,  6  village  schools  and  296  bap- 
tized Christians. 

BULLOM  LANGUAGE :  The  BuUom  belongs  to 
the  negro  group  of  African  languages,  and  is  spoken 
in  the  region  of  Sierra  Leone,  W.  Africa,  by  a 
limited  number  of  people.  It  has  adopted  some 
English  words  and  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 

BULONGOA :  A  settlement  near  the  northern 
end  of  Lake  Nyasa,  in  German  East  Africa; 
station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1895), 
with  1  missionary  and  9  communicants. 

BULRAMPUR.     See  Baleampue. 

BULUWAYO.     See  Bttlawayo. 

BUMBULI:  a  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Usambara  country  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  Colony;  station  of  the 
German  Evangelical  Society  for  Missions  in  East 
Africa  (1899),  with  3  missionaries  (one  having 
his  wife),  1  chapel,  and  1  village  school. 

BUNGABONDAR:  A  settlement  in  the  Toba 
district  of  Sumatra,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated 
near  Sipirok;  station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  17  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  1  Sunday  school,  13 
village  schools  and  921  communicants,  the  most 
of  them  converted  Mohammedans. 

BUNGU:  a  settlement  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Usambara  region  about  50  miles 
N.  W.  of  Vuga;  station  of  the  German  East 
Africa  Missionary  Society  (1901),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife. 

BURRISAL.     See  Baeisal. 

BUONA  VISTA.     See  Galle. 

BURDWAN.     See  Bardwan. 

BURHANPUR:  A  town  in  the  Nimar  district, 
Central  Provinces,  India;  station  of  the  ME,  with 
4  native  workers,  3  Sunday  schools,  1  village 
school,  and  220  professing  Christians. 

BURGHERSDORP:  A  town  in  the  northern 
part  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  with 
24  native  workers,  2  chapels,  2  Sunday  schools, 

3  village  schools  and  164  professing  Christians. 
BURJA:    a  district  in  the  Lohardaga  section 

of  Chota  Nagpur,  India;  field  of  the  Gossner 
Missionary  Society,  with  3  missionaries,  71  native 
workers,  38  chapels,  38  Sunday  schools,  2  village 
schools,  1  high  school,  a  book  depot  and  8,886 
professing  Christians.     Also  written  Burju. 

BURMA:  Within  the  past  seventy-five  years 
the  political  map  of  Southeastern  Asia,  and 
especially  that  part  of  it  lying  between  Tibet 
and  Yunnan  on  the  north  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
on  the  south,  eastern  Bengal  on  the  west  and  the 
Mekong  River  on  the  east,  has  been  materially 
changed  three  times. 

At    present,    and    for    missionary    purposes, 


1S3 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bnlg^aria 
Burma 


Burma  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Burma,  Upper  Burma  comprising 
the  late  kingdom  or  empire  of  Burma,  and  Lower 
Burma  all  that  portion  of  the  country  below  the 
20th  degree  of  north  latitude,  as  well  as  the 
Tenasserim  provinces  and  the  present  mission 
stations  in  Arakan  and  Shan-land  in  the  East, 
the  whole  now  composing  the  most  eastern 
portion  of  the  British  Indian  Empire. 

Burma  is  drained  by  three  great  rivers  and 
their  numerous  affluents:  the  Irawadi,  with  a 
great  and  increasing  commerce,  about  1,400 
miles  in  length  from  its  sources  in  one  or  more  of 
the  great  lakes  in  the  lofty  Himalayas,  and  nav- 
igable for  1,000  miles  or  more  by  large  steamers; 
the  Sitang,  of  inferior  length,  and  having,  at 
certain  seasons  of  tide  and  southwest  winds,  a 
bore  at  its  mouth,  which  renders  the  entrance 
very  difficult;  it  bears  on  its  bosom  a  constantly 
increasing  commerce,  steamers  plying  between 
Rangoon,  Maulmain,  Thayet-myo,  and  Taung- 
ngu;  the  Salwen,  a  long  and  navigable  river, 
rising  in  the  mountains  of  Yunnan,  China,  and 
pursuing  a  course  almost  parallel  to  that  of  the 
Irawadi.  These  rivers  are  separated  in  their 
upper  courses  bv  ranges  of  mountains  varying 
from  4,000  to  6,'000  feet  in  height,  but  as  they 
approach  the  Bay  of  Bengal  or  the  Gulf  of  Mar- 
taban  these  mountains  subside  into  broad  and 
fertile  plains,  and  the  rivers  enter  the  bay  or  the 
gulf  by  many  mouths,  forming  rich  and  extensive 
deltas,  with  a  very  rich  soil,  but  often  covered 
with  a  dense  jungle  which  makes  the  climate 
sickly.  The  valleys  of  these  rivers  are  of  con- 
siderable breadth,  and  being  well  watered  by 
their  smaller  affluents,   are  productive. 

The  beasts  of  prey  are  of  great  size  and  ferocity. 
The  elephants  of  Burma  attain  a  greater  size  than 
those  of  any  other  country  in  the  world.  The 
lion,  tiger,  leopard,  of  several  species,  and  rhi- 
noceros are  all  very  destructive.  The  buffalo  and 
the  Brahmanee  bull  are  trained,  as  are  many  of 
the  elephants,  as  beasts  of  burden.  Horses  are 
few  and  are  rarely  used  for  draught  purposes, 
the  ox  or  buffalo  taking  their  place.  The 
rodent  tribes  exist  in  large  numbers  and  are 
great  pests,  often  destroying  the  rice  crop  in 
large  districts.  Pythons,  boas,  and  other  ser- 
pents, and  especially  venomous  snakes,  like  the 
cohra  de  capello,  are  abundant.  Lizards  of  all 
kinds  are  found  everywhere.  The  birds  are 
numerous  and  many  of  them  beautiful.  The 
insect  tribes  are  annoying  and  many  of  them 
dangerous. 

Burma  has  an  area  of  236,738  square  miles 
(including  Lower  Burma,  conquered  in  1852, 
and  Upper  Burma,  annexed  on  the  overthrow 
of  the  tyrant  Thebaw  in  1885).  Its  population 
(1901)  is  10,490,624. 

There  are  said  to  be  forty-two  different  races 
in  Burma,  but  they  are  mainly  divisible  into  four 
distinct  peoples,  of  whom  the  first  two  are  almost 
entirely  Buddhist  in  religion.  These  are:  1.  The 
Burmans,  under  which  general  name  are  included 
the  Burmans  proper,  the  ruling  race,  and  the 
Arakanese.  2.  The  Talaings,  or  Peguans,  once 
the  lords  of  the  country,  but  now  greatly  dimin- 
ished in  numbers.  3.  The  Shans,  a  generally 
nomadic  race,  but  of  different  affinities,  as 
Chinese,  Siamese,  and  Burman  Shans.  Their 
national  name  is  Tai.  They  occupy  the  eastern 
region  of  Burma,  and  extend  into  Northern 
Siam  and  Southwestern  China.  4.  The  fourth 
race  are  the  Karens,  of  whom  there  are  more  than 


thirty  tribes,  differing,  in  many  respects,  from 
each  other  in  language,  form,  and  habits,  but  all 
worshipers  of  Nats  or  demons.  The  Karens  of 
Lower  Burma  readily  received  the  Gospel,  and 
those  of  them  who  were  under  Burmese  rule  bore 
courageously  bitter  and  cruel  persecution  from 
the  Burmans  for  its  sake.  The  Sgau  and  Pwo 
tribes,  which  occupied  Pegu  and  the  Tenasserim 
provinces,  have  been  largely  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. The  highland  tribes  of  Central  Burma, 
the  Bghais,  Pakus,  Gecko,  Toungthiis,  and  Red 
Karens,  became  converts  at  a  later  date. 

Other  tribes  having  few  affinities  with  the 
Karens,  yet,  like  them,  worshiping  demons  from 
motives  of  fear,  are  found  in  Northern  Burma 
and  along  the  Arakan  border,  and  are  moving 
down  the  Irawadi  into  the  vicinity  of  Mandalay 
and  below,  and  toward  Sandoway  in  Arakan. 
The  largest  and  best  known  of  these  tribes  are 
the  Ch'ins  and  the  Kach'ins.  The  latter  are 
said  to  be  the  fiercest  and  most  warlike  tribe  in 
Burma.  No  Burman  soldier  dares  to  set  foot  in 
one  of  their  villages,  which  are  always  situated 
at  the  summit  of  high  hills.  They  are  supposed 
to  be  identical  with  the  Singphos  of  Assam. 
Yet  these  rough  and  fierce  men  are  yielding  in 
considerable  numbers  to  the  power  of  the  Gospel. 
It  is  worth  noting  here  that  m  all  Burman  cities 
there  is  a  considerable  Chinese  population  engaged 
in  trade,  which  they  control. 

Protestant  Missions:  The  first  attempt  to 
plant  a  Protestant  mission  in  Burma  was  made 
at  Rangoon,  in  1807,  by  Messrs.  Chater  and 
Mardon,  English  Baptists.  Felix  Carey,  the 
eldest  son  of  Dr.  William  Care}',  of  Serampur, 
joined  them  soon  after,  but  Mr.  Mardon  left  in 
a  few  months  and  Mr.  Chater  at  the  end  of  four 
years.  The  London  Missionary  Society  sent 
two  missionaries  to  Rangoon  in  1808,  but  one 
died  and  the  other  removed  in  a  year.  Mr. 
Chater  during  his  four  years'  stay  translated 
Matthew's  Gospel  into  Burmese,  which  was 
printed  at  Serampur.  Mr.  Carey  remained  till 
1814,  and  then,  having  received  an  appointment 
and  title  from  the  Burmese  emperor,  he  went  to 
Ava  to  reside.  There  had  been  no  attempt  at 
missionary  work  except  this  translation  of  Mat- 
thew, and  no  Burman  had  heard  that  there  was 
an  eternal  God.  Mr.  Carey's  mission  house  was 
about  two  mUes  out  of  the  city.  Rangoon  was 
at  that  time  a  miserable,  dirty  town  of  8,000  or 
10,000  inhabitants,  with  houses  built  of  bamboo 
and  teak  planks  and  having  thatched  roofs. 
Its  only  importance  lay  in  the  fact  that  it  was  the 
capital  of  a  rich  and  extensive  province,  governed 
by  a  viceroy,  an  official  of  the  highest  rank,  who 
was  a  favorite  of  Bhodau  Phra,  the  most  blood- 
thirsty and  brutal  tyrant  and  the  most  bigoted 
Buddhist  who  had  yet  sat  on  the  Burman  throne. 
The  viceroy  at  Rangoon  was  almost  as  brutal, 
but  his  chief  wife  was  an  amiable  woman,  well 
disposed  toward  foreigners,  and  possessing  great 
influence  over  her  husband. 

On  July  13,  1813,  Rev.  Adoniram  Judson  and 
wife  arrived  at  Rangoon  to  open  a  Protestant 
mission  there.  He  was  a  man  who  endured  all 
things  that  he  might  find  access  to  a  people  sunk 
in  morasses  of  evil.  It  was  not  until  1819  that 
he  was  able  to  preach  and  teach  religion  in  his 
zayat  and  receive  inquirers  there.  June  27, 
1819,  he  baptized  the  first  Burman  convert  to 
Christianity,  Moung  Nau.  In  this  year  Bhodau 
Phra,  the  Burmese  emperor,  died,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded  by    his   grandson,    Phagyi-dau,   a   ruler 


Burmese  Langnagre 
Cachoeira 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


184 


equally  arrogant,  brutal  and  bloodthirsty  with 
his  grandfather,  but  with  much  less  ability.  His 
arrogance  and  tyranny  brought  on  tlae  first 
Burruan  War  of  1825-26,  and  led  to  the  cession 
to  the  East  India  Company  of  the  Tenasserim 
provinces,  Arakan,  and  Chittagong.  In  1852,  the 
second  war  with  the  English  took  place,  and  Ran- 
goon, Pegu,  and  all  Southern  Burma  became  Brit- 
ish territory.  In  1853  Ra,ngoon  became  again  a 
stationof  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union, 
and  from  that  time  onward  the  Society  has 
had  great  success  in  all  parts  of  the  land. 
Rangoon  was  also  the  first  station  (established 
1859)  of  the  Burma  mission  conducted  by  the 
SPG.  The  educational  work  of  this  Society  has 
been  of  a  high  order  and  wide  influence.  The 
SPG  is  also  laboring  successfully  among  the 
Karens. 

The  ME  Society  has  also  carried  on  a  mission 
in  Burma  since  1878,  laboring  especially  for 
European  colonists  and  Eurasians. 

The  WMS  established  a  station  at  Mandalay 
in  1889,  and  is  doing  a  remarkable  educational 
work  for  women.  It  has  also  given  attention 
to  the  lepers,  maintaining  an  asylum  which  is 
not  only  a  refuge  but  a  portal  to  a  new  life  to 
these  wretched  sufferers. 

The  YMCA  and  the  YWCA  have  stations  in 
Burma;  so  the  Mission  to  Lepers,  the  Missionary 
Pence  Association,  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society; 
and  the  China  Inland  Mission  has  a  single  station 
at  Bhamo,  on  the  northern  border. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  while  many 
Burmese  Buddhists  have  been  converted,  the 
simple,  more  approachable  Hill  tribes  have  fur- 
nished the  larger  part  of  the  Christians  now 
found  in  Burma. 

Shans,  Amongst  the,  Colquhoun  (A.  R.),  and  Hallet  (H.  S.), 
London,  1885;  Bassein,  Self-Support  in,  Carpenter  (C.  H.), 
188.3;  Golden  Chersonese.,  Bishop  (Mrs.  I,  B.),  London, 
1883;  With  the  Jungle  Folk,  Cumming  (E.  D.),  London, 
1897. 

BURMESE  LANGUAGE:  The  Burmese,  which 
is  spoken  throughout  the  Burmese  Empire  and 
Arakan,  belongs  to  the  Tibeto-Burman  group  of 
the  non-Aryan  languages  of  Asia.  It  is  used 
by  about  six  million  people,  and,  being  one  of  the 
aggressive  languages,  it  is  constantly  increasing 
the  area  of  its  use.  It  is  written  with  its  own 
peculiar  Burmese  character. 

BURNS,  William  C. :  Born  in  the  Parish  of  Dun, 
Scotland,  April  1,  1815.  Graduated  at  Aber- 
deen in  1834;  studied  theology  at  Glasgow,  and 
after  a  period  of  successful  labor  in  Ireland  and 
among  the  French  in  Canada,  was  sent  out  by 
the  E.  P.  Synod,  in  1847,  as  its  first  missionary 
to  China.  On  the  voyage  he  began  the  study 
of  Chinese  with  the  only  book  found  in  London, 
Williams'  English  and  Chinese  vocabulary,  and 
a  volume  of  Matthew's  Gospel. 

After  spending  a  year  or  two  at  Hongkong 
and  Canton,  in  1851  he  removed  to  Amoy,  where 
and  at  Swatow  he  did  a  great  work.  Later  he 
spent  three  years  in  Peking,  and  in  1867  he  went 
to  Newchwang  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  mission 
in  Manchuria.  In  a  small  room  at  an  inn  at 
that  city,  destitute  of  every  comfort,  he  died  on 
the  4th  of  April,  1868. 

While  Mr.  Burns  never  interrupted  his  work 
of  preaching,  he  accomplished  important  literary 
work.  Of  this  we  may  mention  a  translation  of 
the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  a  collection  of  hymns 
in  the  Amoy  dialect.  With  the  aid  of  native 
preachers  he   put  some  of   the   hymns   used   at 


Amoy  and  Swatow  into  the  spoken  dialect  of 
Pu-chau-fu.  These  he  first  printed  in  sheet 
form,  and  used  them  in  street  and  chapel  preach- 
ing, and  then  published  them  in  book  form. 

Later  he  prepared  a  volume  of  fifty  hymns  in 
the  Mandarin  dialect,  chiefly  translations  of 
home  hymns,  or  hymns  used  in  the  south  of 
China.  Next  he  put  in  the  dialect  of  Peking 
the  Pilgrim's  Progress  complete  in  two  volumes. 
Some  copies  were  illustrated  with  wood-cuts. 
A  translation  of  the  Psalms  from  Hebrew  was 
published  in  1867. 

BURNSHILL:  A  town  northwest  of  King- 
William's  Town,  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa.  Station 
of  the  UFS,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2 
missionary  women,  29  native  workers,  16  out- 
stations,  1  chapel,  16  village  schools  and  1,420' 
church  members. 

BUST:  A  station  of  the  CMS  in  Uganda,, 
Central  Africa,  situated  on  the  Victoria  Nyanza, 
with  63  native  workers,  men  and  women,  and  184 
communicants. 

BUSRAH.     See  Basra. 
.  BUTARITARI.     See  Gilbert  Islands. 

BUTLER,  William:  Born  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
January  30,  1818.  Died  August  18,  1899. 
Soon  after  his  conversion  he  entered  the  Hard- 
wick  Street  Mission  Seminary  and  Training 
School,  .in  Dublin,  and  afterward  Didsburg 
College,  near  Manchester,  where  he  studied  theol- 
ogy under  the  venerable  Dr.  Hannah.  After 
preaching  several  years  in  the  Irish  Conference, 
he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  labored  for 
some  time  in  the  New  England  Conference.  In 
the  spring  of  1855  he  was  deeply  impressed  by 
an  article  published  by  Dr.  Durbin  entitled  "The 
Crisis,"  urging  the  needs  of  the  India  Mission  on 
the  heart  of  the  Church,  and  in  the  following 
autumn  he  offered  himself  as  missionary  to  this 
fleld.  He  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
mission,  and  he  sailed  with  his  wife  and  two  chil- 
dren in  April,  1856.  The  provinces  of  Bellary,  the 
Dpccan,  Rajputana  and  others  were  brought  to 
the  attention  of  Mr.  Butler  as  especially  needy 
on  his  arrival  in  India;  but  after  spending  several 
weeks  in  Calcutta  he  went  to  the  northwest  to 
consider  the  opening  in  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand. 
These  provinces,  covering  an  area  nearly  as  long 
as  England  and  contaming  a  population  of 
20,000,000  of  unevangelized  people,  presented 
an  attractive  field  to  the  heroic  missionary;  and 
in  Oudh,  in  the  very  stronghold  of  the  enemy,  the 
Mission  of  the  Methodist  Church  was  established. 
The  capital  of  Oudh,  Lucknow,  had  three  times 
the  population  of  Boston;  and  this  city  was  soon 
to  be  the  storm  center  of  the  dreadful  mutiny. 
Mr.  Butler,  with  his  family,  settled  at  Bareilly,  a 
city  of  200,000  inhabitants;  but  soon  his  work  was 
interrupted  by  the  rumblings  of  the  approaching 
outbreak.  Within  ten  weeks  of  the  establishment 
of  his  work,  Mr.  Butler  was  obliged  to  flee  for  his 
life;  and  ten  months  passed  before  it  was  possible 
for  him  to  return  to  his  station.  Khan  Bahadur, 
who,  during  the  mutiny,  assumed  the  title  of  the 
Nawab  of  Rohilkhand,  put  a  price  on  the  head 
of  each  of  the  refugees,  and,  as  a  writer  puts  it, 
"Mr.  Butler's  being  listed  at  five  hundred 
rupees."  The  first  meeting  of  Mr.  Butler's 
mission  was  held  at  Bareilly,  August  20,  1858. 
Three  missionaries,  one  European  helper  and  two 
natives  answered  the  roll.  Yet  to  this  mission- 
ary was  given  the  joy  of  living  until  he  could  see 


125 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Burmese    Laneruase 
Caelioeira 


•one  hundred  thousand  of  the  people  of  India 
accepting  Christ  as  Lord,  brought  into  this  new 
life  tnrough  the  agency  of  the  Methodist  Missions. 
Returning  to  the  United  States,  Mr,  Butler  took 
■charge  of  several  churches  in  New  England,  and 
.afterward  he  was  called  to  the  secretaryship  of 
the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  an 
■organization  devoted  to  work  in  Papal  lands. 
About  this  time  Mr.  Butler  wrote  The  Land  of 
■the   Veda,  which  had  a  large  circulation. 

Seventeen  years  after  Mr.  Butler  was  commis- 
sioned by  his  church  to  go  to  India  to  found  a 
mission,  he  was  called  to  perform  a  like  service 
in  Mexico.  In  1873  he  entered  the  Aztec  land, 
and  soon  his  influence  was  felt  in  the  City  of 
Mexico  and  throughout  the  surrounding  country. 
President  Diaz  received  him  personally  on  several 
■occasions,  and  the  govei'nment  of  Mexico  gave 
him  full  protection  in  laying  the  foundation  of  a 
mission  that  has  prospered  through  the  years. 
It  was  the  pleasure  of  this  venerable  missionary, 
in  1883,  to  return  to  India,  and  after  twenty-six 
years  he  gave  thanks  to  God  at  Bareilly  for  the 
;growth  and  power  of  the  mission  that  was  founded 
in  the  dark  days  of  the  mutiny.  He  spent  his 
last  days  at  Newton  Centre,  Mass. 
Butler  (Miss  C),  William  Butler,  the  Founder  of  Two  Mis- 
sions, Eaton  &  Mains,  New  York. 

BUTTERWORTH:  A  town  in  the  Transkei 
District  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of  the 
SPG  (1883),  with  1  missionary,  21  native  workers, 
21  outstations,  and  760  professing  Christians. 
Also  station  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan 
Missionary  Society,  with  1  missionary,  113  native 
■workers  (in  the  field  of  the  station),  24  chapels, 
14  Sunday  schools,  24  village  schools,  1  high 
school,  1  dispensary  and  1,115  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

BUXTON:  A  settlement  in  the  Klondike  region 
of  the  Yukon  Territory,  Canada;  station  of^the 
CMS  (1887),  with  3  missionaries  and  their  wives, 
1  village  school  and  20  communicants. 

BUYERS,  William:  Born  in  1804,  at  Dundee, 
Scotland;  studied  at  the  Missionary  College, 
Hoxton;  sailed  June  13,  1831,  as  a  missionary 
of  the  LMS  for  India;  was  stationed  at  Benares 
from  1832  till  1840,  when  failure  of  health  required 
his  return  to  England.  He  died  at  Unchadek,  near 
Allahabad,  October  4,  1865.  Mr.  Buyers  was  an 
able  missionary,  and  highly  esteemed  as  a  scholar 
and  worker.  His  published  Letters  on  India  and 
Recollections  of  Northern  India  are  very  valuable. 

BUZACOTT,  Aaron:  Born  March  4,  1800, 
at  South  Molton,   Devon,   England;  studied  at 


Hoxton  Academy;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the 
LMS,  March  13,  1827,  for  the  South  Seas; 
stationed  first  at  Tahiti,  afterward  at  Raratonga. 
On  May  30,  1836,  he  and  Mrs.  Buzacott  accom- 
panied a  band  of  missionaries  to  Samoa,  to  aid 
them  in  their  settlement,  returning  to  Raratonga 
May,  1837.  Mr.  Buzacott  was  an  accomplished 
linguist,  and  much  of  his  time  was  spent,  m  con- 
junction with  Messrs.  Williams  and  Pitman,  in 
translating  the  Scriptures  into  the  language  of 
Raratonga.  He  contributed  also  largely  to  the 
preparation  of  a  native  literature.  In  1846  he 
sailed  for  England,  and  while  there  he,  at  the 
request  of  the  Bible  Society,  revised  and  superin- 
tended the  printing  of  the  entire  Raratongan 
Scriptures.  In  1851  he  returned  with  Mrs. 
Buzacott  to  Raratonga.  In  1857  failure  of  health 
compelled  him  to  retire  from  active  service. 
Leaving  Raratonga  in  November  of  that  year, 
he  went  to  Sydney,  stopping  on  the  way  at  Samoa. 
In  July,  1860,  he  was  appointed  the  agent  of  the 
Society  in  the  Australian  Colonies.  He  died  at 
Sydney,   September  20,    1864. 

BWEMBA:  A  settlement  on  the  Congo  River, 
S.  of  Bolobo;  station  of  the  ABMU  (1889),  with 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  18  native  workers,  10 
places  of  worship  and  16  communicants. 

BYINGTON,  Theodore  L. :  Born  at  Johnsons- 
burg,  N.  J.,  March  15,  1831;  graduated  at 
Princeton  College,  1849;  spent  four  years  in  the 
study  and  practise  of  law;  graduated  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  1857;  ordained  at  Bloom- 
field,  N.  J.,  June  4,  1858,  and  sailed  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  ABCFM  for  Turkey;  commenced 
a  station  at  Eski-zaghra,  European  Turkey,  in 
1859;  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1867  on 
account  of  ill  health,  and  was  released  from  his 
connection  with  the  Board.  He  was  reappointed 
as  missionary  of  the  Board  in  1874  and  stationed 
in  Constantinople  as  editor  of  the  Bulgarian 
family  weekly,  Zornitsa,  and  as  member  of  the 
Mission  Committee  of  Publication.  Failing  in 
health,  he  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1885,  and  died 
in  Philadelphia,  June  18,  1888.  He  was  a 
preacher  of  impressive  earnestness  and  excelled 
as  an  extemporaneous  speaker.  His  largest 
volume  in  Bulgarian  was  on  the  Evidences  of 
Christianity,  which  has  had  a  wide  circulation. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Zornitsa  while  edited  by 
Dr.  Byington  contributed  as  much  as  any  other 
instrumentality  toward  the  development  of  those 
characteristics  that  have  been  so  prominent 
among  the  Bulgarians  in  their  long  struggle  for 
national  independence. 


CABACABURI  :  A  settlement  in  British  Guiana 
north  of  Queenstown;  station  of  the  SPG  (1835), 
with  1  missionary,  2  outstations  and  500  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

CABRUANG.     See  Talaut  Islands. 

CACADU :  A  settlement  about  20  miles  N.  E.  of 
Queenstown,  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of 
the  South  Africa  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  with 
2  women  missionaries. 

CACALOTENANGO :  A  town  in  Mexico,  situ- 
ated about  50  miles  S.  E.  of  Mexico  City;  station 


of  the  Mexican  Mission  Board,  with  2  native 
workers,  man  and  woman,  22  outstations,  1  chapel, 
5  Sunday  schools,  1  village  school,  a  young 
people's  society,  and  175  evangelical  Christians. 

CACAUDROVE :  A  village  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  island  of  Vanua  Levu,  Fiji  Islands;  station 
of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission- 
ary Society,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  22 
outstations,  90  chapels,  158  Sunday  schools,  169 
village  schools,  and  2,329  professing  Christians. 

CACHOEIRA :  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Bahia, 


Caconda 
Calcutta 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


188 


Brazil,  situated  on  the  Paraguassir  River,  45 
miles  W.  of  Bahia  de  Todos  os  Santos.  Station 
of  the  PN  (1873)  formerly  known  as  St.  Felix  from 
the  fact  that  the  missionaries  lived  in  a  place  of 
that  name  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.  In 
1903  the  station  had  1  missionary,  2  missionary 
women,  2  native  workers,  5  outstations,  4  organ- 
ized churches,  2  boarding  schools,  2  day  schools 
and  153  church  members. 


CACONDA. 

CAFFRE. 


See  Kakonda. 
See  Kafir. 


CAFRARIA :  A  part  of  the  eastern  section  of 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa.     Also  called  Kafirland. 

CAIRO:  A  city  of  Egypt,  situated  about  mne 
miles  south  of  the  apex  of  the  delta,  where  the 
Nile  divides  into  the  eastern,  or  Damietta,  branch 
and  the  western,  or  Rosetta,  branch.  The  city 
extends  from  the  edge  of  the  desert  at  the  base  of 
the  Mokattam  Hills  on  the  east  to  the  river  on  the 
west,  and  southward  until  it  joins  Old  Cairo 
(Misr  Atika)  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  Festat. 
This  was  the  site  of  New  Babylon,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Babylonians  after  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt  by  Cambyses,  about  525  B.  c. 
The  new  city,  Cairo,  was  founded  by  Johar,  the 
general  of  the  Fatimite  Caliph  Mu'izz.  It  was 
called  Misr  el  Kahira  because  it  is  said  that  at 
the  precise  time  when  the  foundation  of  the  walls 
was  being  laid,  the  planet  Mars,  which  by  the 
Arabs  is  called  Kahir,  crossed  the  meridian  of  the 
new  city,  and  Mu'izz  accordingly  named  it  from 
this  event.  The  city  grew  rapidly  because  of  its 
position  and  the  facility  with  which  building 
material  was  found.  It  has  become  the  largest 
city  on  the  continent  of  Africa,  and  the  second 
in  the  Turkish  Empire,  having  a  population  of 
from  400,000  to  500,000. 

Cairo  was  made  the  capital  of  Egypt  in  973, 
and  has  continued  to  enjoy  this  preeminence 
during  the  many  vicissitudes  of  917  years. 

From  January  26,  1517,  when  the  Ottoman 
Sultan  Selim  I.  entered  the  city  in  triumph,  until 
July  22,  1798,  when,  after  the  battle  of  the 
Pyramids,  Napoleon  I.  entered  the  city,  nothing 
of  sufficient  importance  seems  to  have  occurred 
to  merit  a  place  in  history.  And  it  was  not  until 
after  Mehemet  Ali  was  established  as  Viceroy  of 
Egypt  that  the  city  began  anew  to  enjoy  prosper- 
ity. Ismail  Pasha  while  Khedive  made  great  and 
Important  improvements  in  and  around  the  cap- 
ital, such  as  extending  the  city  so  as  to  form  the 
new  part  called  for  him  Ismailiyeh,  improving 
the  Esbekiyeh  public  gardens,  planting  trees  in 
and  about  the  city,  and  uniting  Cairo  with  the 
western  bank  of  the  river  by  a  magnificent  iron 
bridge.  Since  the  British  occupation  of  Egypt, 
in  1882,  the  city  has  been  very  much  improved 
and  many  handsome  buildings  have  been  erected. 

Among  the  objects  of  interest  to  the  mission- 
ary, besidesthe  Boulak  Museum,  is  Jama-el-Azhar, 
which  was  changed  from  its  original  use  as  a 
mosque  to  a  "university"  by  Caliph  Aiz  Billah  on 
the  suggestion  of  his  vizier,  Abu'l  Farag  Ya'kub, 
in  the  year  378  of  the  Hegira,  and  has  become 
the  most  important  Mohammedan  institution  of 
learning  in  the  world. 

There  is  nothing  imposing  in  the  appearance 
of  the  buildings,  which  have  an  old  and  dilapi- 
dated aspect.  They  occupy  a  large  piece  of 
ground,  and  consist  of  an  open  court  with  colon- 
nades on  the  north  and  south  sides,  which  are  set 
apart  for  students  from  West  Africa,  East  Africa, 
Syria,  Lower  Egypt,  Upper  Egypt,  the  Sudan,  and 


other  parts  of  the  Mohammedan  world.  On  the 
east  of  the  court  is  the  Liwanel  Jama,  or  sanctu- 
ary, which  covers  an  area  of  about  3,600  square 
yards,  and  has  a  low  ceiling  supported  by  380' 
columns  of  granite  and  marble,  but  not  uniformly 
arranged,  as  if  they  were  not  in  their  original 
places.  Here  the  prayers  are  repeated  and  instruc- 
tion given  to  groups  of  students  who  sit  on  mats 
before  their  teachers.  This  "university"  has  an 
enrolment  of  from  10,000  to  12, OOOstudents, four- 
fifths  of  whom  are  from  12  to  18  years  of  age  and 
who  are  taught  by  321  Sheikhs  or  professors.  The 
president  is  called  Sheikh  el  Azhar,  and  receives 
a  salary  of  about  $500.  The  students  spend 
from  two  to  six  years  in  the  university,  while 
some  continue  longer.  No  fees  are  paid  by  them, 
as  all  expenses  are  met  from  the  endowments  of 
the  mosque,  which  are  of  great  value. 

The  whole  system  of  education  consists  of 
committing  facts  to  memory,  without  exercises 
which  train  the  mind  to  discern  the  truth  and 
detect  error,  or  lead  to  the  forming  of  independ- 
ent opinion.  Mathematics  and  astronomy, 
which  were  studied  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
are  not  in  the  curriculum  of  this  modern  univer- 
sity of  Islamism.  And  yet  the  professors  and 
students  are  proud  of  their  attainments,  and 
look  down  with  feelings  akin  to  disdain  upon  the- 
scientific  and  religious  attainments  of  Western 
Christians.  As  a  close  observer  has  remarked, 
this  education  develops  "a  personality  which  is 
useless  for  any  other  occupation  than  that  of 
teaching  Arabic  phonetics,  grammar,  and  the 
Koran." 

Missionary  effort  in  Cairo  is  carried  on  by  six 
Protestant  societies.  Of  these  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  North  America  made  it  a 
center  and  station  for  their  operations  in  1854. 
This  Society  now  (1902)  has  at  that  point  and 
its  dependencies  14  missionaries,  men  and  women, 
23  native  workers,  men  and  women,  4  Sunday 
schools,  5  high  schools,  1  theological  seminary, 
1  book  depot,  and  690  Harim  (Zenana)  pupils. 
Cairo  is  a  station  also  of  the  CMS  (1882),  with  12 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  13  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  1  village  school,  1  high  school 
and  1  book  depot.  Also  station  of  the  Kaisers- 
werth  Deaconesses  (1884),  with  8  deaconesses 
and  a  hospital.  Also  a  station  of  the  Inter- 
national Medical  and  Benevolent  Association 
(1900),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife.  There 
are  also  two  English  societies  working  for  the, 
Jews  in  this  city.  It  has  not  been  possible  to 
secure  details  of  their  work. 

Whately  (Miss  M.  L.),  Ragged  Life  in  Egypt  (two  series  in 
one  vol.),  London,  1870;  Poole  (S.  L.),  Cairo,  3d.  ed., 
London,  1897;  Hartman  (M.),  The  Arabic  Press  of  Egypt, 
London,  1899;  Charmes  (G.),Five  Months  in  Cairo  and 
Lower  Egypt,  London,  1883;  Duff-Gordon  (Lady),  Letters 
from  Egypt,  revised  ed.,  London,  1902. 

CAKAUDROVE.     See  Cacaudrovb. 

CALA:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situ- 
ated about  40  miles  N.  W.  of  Clarkeburg.  Station 
of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missionary  Society,  with  72  native  workers,  12 
outstations,  15  chapels,  8  Sunday  schools,  13 
village  schools,  a  Young  People's  Society  and 
740  professing  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  (1889),  with  1 
missionary,  3  missionary  women,  10  native 
workers,  6  outstations,  6  chapels,  5  village  schools, 
1  high  school,  380  professing  Christians. 

CALCUTTA:  Capital  of  British  India.  It 
stands  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hugli  River,  one 


137 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Caeonda 
Calcutta 


of  the  channels  through  which  the  Ganges 
reaches  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  about  80  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  earliest  mention  of 
the  name  occurs  in  a  revenue  document  of  one  of 
the  Mogul  emperors,  in  1596,  where  Kalikata 
(Kali-Ghat,  shrine  of  the  goddess  Kali)  indicated 
a  small  Bengali  village  on  the  site  of  the  modern 
metropolis.  In  1686  the  English  merchants  con- 
nected with  the  East  India  Company,  owing  to 
difficulties  with  the  Mohammedan  authorities, 
found  it  necessary  to  leave  their  settlement  at 
Hugh  and  seek  another  site.  Under  Job  Char- 
nock,  then  the  president  of  the  little  settlement 
or  factory,  they  hit  upon  this  site,  Anglicizing  the 
name  into  Calcutta.  The  growth  of  the  place  has 
continued  almost  unchecked  to  the  present  day; 
the  hamlet  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Hugli 
has  thus,  under  the  fostering  care  of  English 
power,  developed  into  one  of  the  great  political 
and  commercial  centers  of  the  world.  That 
portion  of  the  city  occupied  by  the  English  lies 
along  the  river  front,  and  is  adorned  with  palatial 
residences,  imposing  public  buildings,  churches 
of  different  denominations,  and  wealthy  and  well- 
stocked  business  houses.  Back  from  the  river, 
north  and  east  of  the  English  quarters,  stretches 
the  native  part  of  the  city,  a  mass  of  low,  mean, 
and  squalid  huts,  intersected  by  narrow  and 
filthy  streets,  so  that  the  saying  has  become 
current  that  Calcutta  is  a  city  of  palaces  in  front 
and  a  city  of  pigstyes  in  the  rear. 

The  population  of  Calcutta,  with  its  suburbs, 
is  (1901)  1,125,400.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
population  are  Hindus  and  nearly  one-third 
Mohammedans,  and  there  is  a  sprinkling  of  Bud- 
dhists, Jains,  Parsees,  Jews,  etc. 

Calcutta  has  been  in  the  control  of  the  English 
from  the  moment  that  Job  Charnock  and  his 
associates  settled  there  in  1686  until  the  present 
time,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  months  in  the 
year  1756.  In  June  of  that  year  the  city  was 
attacked  by  the  Mussulman  ruler,  or  Nawab,  of 
Bengal — Suraj-ud  Daula — one  of  the  worst 
specimens  ever  known  of  that  class  of  brutal 
despots  which  is  popularly  supposed  to  thrive 
in  the  Orient.  It  was  at  that  time  that  the 
tragedy  of  the  famous  "Black  Hole"  of  Calcutta 
was  enacted.  The  wretched  prisoners  were 
thrust — 146  in  number — into  a  cell  hardly  20  feet 
square,  ventilated  only  by  two  small  windows. 
In  the  morning  only  23  persons  were  found  alive. 
Calcutta  was  recaptured  in  January,  1757,  by 
Admiral  Watson  and  Lord  (then  Colonel)  Clive. 
In  the  same  year,  at  the  battle  of  Plassey,  the 
Nawab's  army  was  defeated  by  a  little  force 
under  Clive,  and  the  question  of  English  suprem- 
acy in  Bengal  and  throughout  India  was  virtually 
settled. 

The  history  of  missionary  operations  in  Cal- 
cutta goes  back  to  the  year  1758,  just  after  the 
rebuilding  of  Calcutta  and  the  establishment  in 
Bengal  of  English  power.  In  that  year  Rev. 
Mr.  Kiernander,  a  Danish  missionary,  whose 
successful  labors  south  of  Madras,  at  Cuddalore 
and  vicinity,  had  been  interrupted  by  hostilities 
between  the  English  and  French,  arrived  in 
Calcutta,  seeking  a  field  for  his  missionary  activ- 
ity. The  Calcutta  Government  encouraged  him. 
He  started  a  school  and  gathered  200  pupils  with- 
in a  year.  He  preached  to  the  natives,  to  the 
Portuguese,  to  the  Enghsh  soldiers.  His  baptisms 
at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  work  numbered  15; 
at  the  end  of  ten  years  there  were  189  converts. 
Afterward  he  built  a  mission  church  chiefly  at  his 


own  expense.  Rev.  M.  A.  Sherring's  history  of 
Protestant  missions  in  India  sums  up  his  work  by 
saying  that  "the  seeds  of  Protestant  missions  in 
Northern  India  were  first  sown  by  him,  and  by 
him  were  the  first  fruits  gathered  in.  He  bap- 
tized hundreds  of  converts;  he  established  impor- 
tant mission  schools;  he  proclaimed  the  Gospel 
to  the  people,  both  European  and  native;  he 
built  a  spacious  church,  and  by  these  and  other 
labors  proved  his  earnestness  and  efficiency." 

About  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  the 
leading  men  in  the  employ  of  the  East  India 
Company,  both  at  home  and  in  India,  became 
possessed  with  the  idea  that  the  promulgation 
of  the  Gospel  in  India  might  excite  prejudice 
against  the  English  rule  and  render  the  work  of 
government  more  costly  and  more  difficult.  Under 
the  influence  of  these  fears  the  Government  of 
India  opposed  to  the  utmost  the  landing  of  any 
missionaries  within  its  borders.  This  oppo- 
sition continued  until  Parliament  renewed  the 
charter  of  the  East  India  Company  in  the  year 
1813,  when  a  clause  was  inserted  in  the  bill 
declaring  that  "it  was  the  duty  of  this  country 
to  promote  the  introduction  of  useful  knowledge 
and  of  religious  and  moral  improvement  in  India." 
The  same  bill  provided  for  an  Indian  bishopric, 
with  an  archdeacon  for  each  of  the  three  presi- 
dencies.    It  came  into  effect  April  10,  1814. 

It  was  during  these  years  of  opposition  that 
William  Carey  undertook  the  establishment  of 
a  mission  in  India.  It  was  with  great  difficulty 
that  he  was  able  to  secure  passage  to  Calcutta. 
Finally  he  reached  there  in  1793  on  a  Danish 
vessel.  After  encountering  much  hardship  he 
was  placed  in  charge  of  a  factory  at  Malda,  where 
he  remained  five  years  and  where  he  was  able  to 
learn  the  Bengali  language,  translate  the  New 
Testament,  and  preach  and  teach  among  the 
natives,  besides  attending  to  his  duties  in  con- 
nection with  the  factory  of  which  he  was  in  charge. 
Between  1797  and  1800  various  desultory  efforts 
were  made  by  the  Christian  Knowledge  Society 
to  carry  on  the  mission  begun  by  Kiernander. 
Much  help  was  given  by  Rev.  D.  Brown,  Dr. 
Buchanan,  and  others,  who  were  serving  English 
residents  as  chaplains.  In  1799  four  more 
English  missionaries  arrived — this  time  in  an 
American  vesssel.  They  effected  a  landing  in 
face  of  governmental  opposition,  but  were  obliged 
to  retreat  to  Serampur,  15  miles  up  the  river, 
which  was  then  held  by  the  Danish  Government. 
The  Danish  governor  was  in  sympathy  with 
their  work,  and  declined  to  give  the  missionaries 
up  to  the  officials  of  the  East  India  Company. 
Here  Carey  joined  them,  and  thus  was  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Serampur  Baptist  Mission. 
It  was  after  this  time  that  the  earliest  American 
missionaries  reached  Calcutta  and  encountered 
the  same  difficulties  as  their  English  brethren. 
At  this  time  also  came  Henry  Martyn  as  a  chap- 
lain in  the  East  India  Company's  service. 

With  the  granting  of  the  new  charter  in  1813, 
the  tone  of  the  government  changed.  The  mis- 
sionary societies  of  England  were  waiting  for  the 
opening  of  the  door  to  enter  in.  The  Church 
Missionary  Society  came  in  1815.  The  London 
Missionary  Society  had  sent  a  missionary  out  in 
1798,  but  he  sought  the  interior.  Their  Calcutta 
Mission  was  begun  in  1816.  In  1837  their  college 
was  begun,  now  a  large  and  successful  institution. 
The  earliest  direct  efforts  in  behalf  of  female 
education  were  attempted  in  1821.  A  society 
for  promoting  female  education  was  formed  in 


Calcutta 
Calvert 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


ISiS 


1824  and  did  efficient  service.  The  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  began  operations 
in  1820,  taking  charge  in  that  year  of  Bishop's 
College,  an  institution  for  higher  Christian  educa- 
tion projected  by  Dr.  Middleton,  first  bishop  of 
Calcutta.  The  Established  Church  of  Scotland 
in  1830  sent  Dr.  Duff  to  Calcutta.  His  energy 
and  devotion  gave  an  impetus  to  the  missionary 
spirit  in  the  home  churches,  was  felt  on  all  mission 
fields  in  India,  and  especially  gave  point  and 
direction  to  educational  efforts  as  a  legitimate 
form  of  missionary  work.  He  started  a  school 
which  soon  grew  into  a  large  college.  In  1844, 
following  the  disruption  in  the  Scotch  Church, 
Dr.  Duff  and  his  associates  threw  in  their  lot  with 
the  Free  Church  and  carried  their  work  over  into 
the  hands  of  the  new  body.  The  old  kirk,  how- 
ever, started  a  new  mission  in  Calcutta,  with  a 
college  of  its  own.  In  1865  the  CMS  founded  a 
college  known  as  the  Cathedral  College. 

Thus  nearly  every  one  of  the  great  societies 
laboring  in  Calcutta  came  in  time  to  have  its 
institution  or  college  for  the  higher  education 
of  native  youth  in  the  English  language  and 
under  the  influence  of  Christianity.  The  London 
Missionary  Society  early  established  a  press, 
which  since  has  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Baptist  Mission,  and  has  done  excellent  service. 
The  latter  mission  has  also  been  fortunate  in 
securing  and  wise  in  retaining  the  services  of 
several  learned  and  scholarly  men  who  have 
devoted  almost  all  their  time  to  the  translation 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  revision  and  printing 
of  successive  editions.  The  duty  of  vernacular 
preaching  both  in  the  city  itself  and  through  the 
surrounding  districts  has  been  faithfully  attended 
to,  and  among  those  who  have  been  especially 
successful  in  this  branch  of  work  may  be  men- 
tioned Lacroix,  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  devoted 
of  the  London  Society's  laborers.  The  American 
Methodist  Church  began  work  in  Calcutta  in  1872 
under  the  leadership  of  Rev.  William  Taylor, 
afterward  missionary  bishop  of  his  church  in 
Africa.  The  work  of  this  mission  has  been  largely 
among  Europeans  unreached  by  the  labors  of 
other  churches,  tho,  as  time  has  gone  on, 
increasingly  among  natives  also. 

The  publication  of  tracts  and  books  in  the 
varnacular  languages  is  cared  for  by  a  tract 
society  auxiliary  to  the  Religious  Tract  Society  of 
London,  while  an  auxiliary  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  provides  an  ample  supply 
of  Bibles  in  the  various  languages  used  in  the 
city  and  surrounding  regions. 

Calcutta  is  thus  seen  to  be  a  center  of  no  small 
amount  of  religious  and  intellectual  activity. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  several  agencies  above 
enumerated,  it  is  natural  that  a  strong  and  intel- 
ligent body  of  Bengali  Christians  should  have 
grown  up  in  Calcutta.  The  influence  of  the 
native  Christian  community  of  the  metropolis  has 
been,  as  was  fitting,  metropolitan  in  its  character. 
Members  of  this  community  have  been  found  in 
all  ranks  of  life — among  the  lawyers,  merchants, 
writers,  editors,  scholars,  and  preachers  of  the 
country.  They  have  established  and  conducted 
with  ability  a  newspaper  printed  in  English, 
devoted  especially  to  the  needs  of  the  native 
church  of  Bengal  and  of  India,  and  in  many  ways 
have  exerted  an  influence  on  the  development  of 
Christianity  which  has  been  widely  felt. 

Besides  the  missionary  societies  already  named 
11  others  are  carrying  on  enterprises  in  Calcutta 
or  its  suburbs:  the  WMS,  the  SDA,  the  Medical 


and  Benevolent  Association  affiliated  with  the 
SDA,  the  local  Bengali  Mission,  the  Oxford  Mis- 
sion to  Calcutta,the  British  and  ForeignUnitarian 
Association,  the  YMCA,  and,  of  the  women's 
missionary  societies,  the  Church  of  Scotland 
Woman's  Missionary  Association,  the  CEZMS, 
the  Baptist  Zenana  Mission,  the  CWBM,  and 
the  YWCA. 

The  aggregate  number  of  missionaries  of  all 
these  societies  in  the  city  and  suburbs  is  184  men 
and  women,  with  586  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  The  enterprises  of  these  missions  include, 
besides  the  colleges  already  mentioned,  86  Sunday 
schools,  130  common  schools,  14  high  schools,  5 
orphanages,  3  theological  schools,  2  training 
schools  for  women  mission  workers,  2  indus- 
trial schools  and  1  hostel  for  native  students. 
The  BFBS  maintains  an  agent  in  Calcutta  and  a 
book  depot.  There  are  8  young  people's 
societies,  besides  the  YMCA  and  the  YWCA. 
The  professing  Christians  reported  by  these 
missions  as  connected  with  their  churches  form 
an  aggregate  of  2,783. 

CALDWELL,  Robert:  Born  May  7,  1814. 
Died  August  28,  1891.  The  University  of 
Glasgow  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
and  the  University  of  Durham  the  degree  of  D.D. 
He  was  missionary  of  the  LMS  from  1838-41, 
arriving  in  Madras,  January  8,  1838.  Joined 
the  SPG  and  ordained  deacon  in  Church  of 
England,  1841,  and  priest  in  1842,  at  Madras; 
consecrated  Assistant  Bishop  of  Madras  March 
11,  1877.  Over  forty  years  of  Mr.  Caldwell's 
missionary  life  was  spent  in  Idaiyangudi,  situated 
in  the  extreme  south  of  Tinnevelli.  In  the  early 
years  of  the  19th  century  the  inhabitants  of 
many  villages  in  this  district  placed  themselves 
under  Christian  instruction,  and  large  numbers 
were  received  into  the  church  by  Gericke  and 
Sattianadan;  but  Caldwell  found  only  the  wreck 
of  these  congregations,  which  soon  felt  his  master- 
ful influence.  In  less  than  three  years  he  had 
formed  21  congregations  and  9  schools;  he 
received  converts  in  31  villages,  and  altogether 
2,000  persons  were  brought  under  regular  Chris- 
tian instruction.  A  church  building  society 
was  formed  at  Idaiyangudi  in  1844,  and  so  well 
was  the  duty  of  self-support  impressed  upon  the 
congregations  that  in  1846  it  was  reported  that 
the  Idaiyangudi  Christians  "could  be  hardly 
surpassed  in  Christian  liberality  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  any  country  in  similar  worldly  circum- 
stances." During  the  years  1845-7  eleven 
churches  and  fourteen  schools  were  built  in  the 
district ;  and  at  this  time  Mr.  Caldwell  reported  the 
proportion  of  inhabitants  of  Tinnevelli  which 
had  embraced  Christianity  was  larger  than  that 
of  any  other  province  in  India.  In  many  places 
entire  villages  renounced  their  idols  and  the 
movement  in  favor  of  Christianity  extended 
from  caste  to  caste  and  village  to  village.  This 
description  included  the  operations  of  the  CMS 
and  in  1850  the  natives  in  Tinnevelli  who,  largely 
under  the  influence  of  the  SPG  and  the  CMS,  led 
by  Caldwell  and  his  associates,  had  embraced  the 
Christian  religion,  in  number  about  forty  thou- 
sand persons,  forwarded  an  address  to  Queen 
Victoria  expressing  thanks  to  God  for  the  bless- 
ings of  his  grace.  As  missionary  Mr.  Caldwell 
had  to  fulfil  the  various  offices  of  pastor,  doctor, 
magistrate,  and  general  counselor.  In  1875, 
when  the  Prince  of  Wales  visited  India,  he  was 
met  by  nearly  10,000  native  Christians  and  an 
address  was  presented  to  him  by  Mr.  Caldwell. 


129 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Calcutta 
Calvert 


In  1880  Bishop  Caldwell  consecrated  a  church  on 
which  he  had  labored  with  his  own  hands  from 
time  to  time  for  thirty-three  years;  in  1883  he 
removed  his  headquarters  to  Tuticorin,  the 
chief  seaport  in  Tinnevelli,  and  here  during  tliis 
year  he  confirmed  538  natives  in  one  day;  and 
m  1887  he  celebrated  the  jubilee  of  his  mission- 
ary career.  In  1890  Bishop  Caldwell,  on  the 
death  of  Bishop  Sargent,  assumed  the  entire 
episcopal  oversight  of  Tinnevelli.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Companion  to  the  Holy  Communion" 
and  of  several  pamphlets. 

CALHOUN,  Simeon  Howard:  Born  August  15, 
1804,  at  Boston,  Mass.;  graduated  at  Williams 
College,  1829;  studied  theology  with  Dr.  GrifEn 
and  Dr.  Mark  Hopkins;  ordained  in  1836;  left  the 
United  States  the  following  November  for  the 
Levant  as  an  agent  of  the  American  Bible  Society ; 
received  appointment  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM  in  1843;  joined  the  Syrian  mission  in 
1844  for  the  purpose  of  taking  charge  of  the  mis- 
sion seminary  at  Abeih,  on  Mount  Lebanon. 
To  this  he  devoted  his  entire  life.  By  him  were 
trained  most  of  the  preachers  and  teachers  now 
employed  in  the  Syrian  mission  of  the  PN,  besides 
.several  engaged  by  other  societies  in  Syria,  Pal- 
estine, and  Egypt.  He  was  also  pastor  of  the 
church  on  Mount  Lebanon.  He  was  thoroughly 
versed  in  the  Arabic  and  Turkish  languages,  and 
.assisted  Dr.  Goodell  in  his  first  translations  of 
the  Bible  into  Turkish.  He  prepared  and  pub- 
lished text-books  in  philosophy,  astronomy,  and 
theology.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1847, 
returning  to  Syria  in  1849;  again  in  1866,  return- 
ing the  same  year.  He  made  his  final  visit  to 
the  United  States  in  impaired  health  in  1875,  but 
addressed  the  General  Assembly  on  the  subject 
of  missions  with  great  power.  Tho  he  ex- 
pressed the  hope  that  he  should  rest  on  Mount 
Lebanon,  he  died  in  Buffalo,  December  14, 
1875.    His  wife  and  three  children  were  with  him. 

Dr.  Calhoun's  influence  in  Syria  was  great 
among  all  classes.  Natives,  whether  Moham- 
medan or  Christian,  often  went  to  him  for  coun- 
sel. While  in  college  Dr.  Calhoun  was  a  sceptic 
and  an  opposer  of  religious  enterprises.  After 
his  conversion,  in  1831,  and  up  to  the  end  of  his 
life,  he  was  noted  for  the  ardor  and  the  simplicity 
of  his  piety.  His  delight  in  the  Scriptures  was 
exceptional.  Hence  he  was  powerful  in  explain- 
ing them  to  others. 

CALICUT:  A  city  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  S. 
India.  Climate,  temperate.  Population  (1901), 
76,981.     Hindus,  Mohammedans,  Parsees,  Portu- 

fuese,   French.      Language,    Malayalam,    Tamil, 
[industani,  etc.     Religion,  Hinduism,  Islamism, 
Romanism. 

Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1842), 
with  8  missionaries,  5  of  whom  are  accompanied 
by  their  wives,  71  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  6  outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  8  village 
schools,  1  industrial  school  and  1,073  professing 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  Mission  to  Lepers 
in  India  and  the  East,  with  1  home  for  the 
untainted  children  of  lepers. 

CALIOUB:  A  suburb  of  Cairo,  Egypt;  station 
of  the  Netherlands  Society  for  the  Extension  of 
the  Gospel  in  Egypt  (1874),  with  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school  and  2 
village    schools. 

CALLAO:  A  city  of  Peru,  South  America, 
which  is  an  important  seaport,  although  its  popu- 
lation has  latterly  become  reduced    to    16,000. 


Station  of  the  ME,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  11  native  workers,  men  and  women,  2  Sun- 
day schools,  3  village  schools,  1  high  school  and 
180  professing  evangelical  Christians. 

CALMUCKS.     See  Mongols. 

CALVERT,  James:    Born    January    3,   1813. 
Died   March   8,    1892.       The   birthplace   of    Mr. 
Calvert  was  Pickering,  York,  England;  and  after 
his  early  education  at  Malton,  he  was  appren- 
ticed for  seven  years  to  a  printer,  bookbinder  and 
stationer.   After  his  appointment  by  the  Wesley  an 
Missionary    Society    he    was    married  in  March, 
1838,  and  Mr.   and  Mrs.   Calvert  embarked  for 
Fiji,  October  of  the  same  year,  with  John  Hunt 
and  T.  J.  Jagger  as  associates  in  their  courageous 
work.     During    the    following    December    they 
reached    Lakemba,    and   six   months   later    Mr. 
Calvert  was  in  charge  of  a  wide  circuit,  including 
thirteen  towns,  connected  by  no  roads,  besides 
twenty-four  surrounding  islands,  some  of  which 
were  over  one  hundred  miles  distant,  with  hardly 
a  seaworthy  canoe  available  by  which  to  reach 
the  savage  inhabitants.    He  and  Mrs.  Calvert  soon 
mastered  the  language,  and  they  showed  remark- 
able  tact,   perseverance    and    courage   in   their 
work  among  the  Fijians.     A  printing  press  was 
sent  out   with  this   missionary   party,   and   Mr. 
Calvert's  thorough   knowledge   of   printing   and 
book-binding  was  now  of  great  use  to  him.     Soon 
a  vocabulary  and  a  grammar    in  the  Lakemban 
dialect  were  ready  for  use.     This  press  was  moved 
from  one  island  to  another,  and  from  it  were 
issued  thousands    of    helpful   papers,   while    in 
1847  a  complete  and  well  bound  New  Testament 
was  ready  for  the  natives.      On  the  island  of 
Oneata   the   work   accomplished   great   good;   a 
church  and  school  were  established,  and,  encour- 
aged by  the  king   of  Nayau,  many  of  the  inhab- 
itants   renounced    their    heathen    worship    and 
embraced  Christianity.     Some  of  these  endured 
persecution,  exile,  torture,  and  even  death  rather 
than  compromise  their  principles.     The  conver- 
sion of  the  daughter  of  the  king  had  great  influ- 
ence among  the  natives.     Mr.  Calvert  did  much 
toward  the  abolition  of  killing  and  eating  human 
beings,  and  on  April  30,  1854,  the  chief  ordered 
that  the  death-drums  be  hereafter  used  to  call 
the  people  together  to   worship  the  true   God. 
In  1857,  Thakombau,  the  king,  after  dismissing 
his  many  wives  with  all  their  wealth  and  influence , 
openly  accepted  Christ   as   his   Savior.     One   of 
his  last  acts  as  king  was  to  cede  Fiji  to  the  Queen 
of   Great   Britain,  October,  1874.     After   seven- 
teen years  of  labor  in  Fiji,  Mr.  Calvert    returned 
to  England,  where,  in  1856,  he  settled  at  Wood- 
bridge,  revising  the  Old  Testament  translation 
for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society;  but  the 
death  of  the  ablest  worker  at  Fiji  caused  him  to 
return  to  his  former  post,  where  his  power  for 
good  was  greater  than  ever.     In  1865  Mr.  Calvert 
was  again  in  England;   October,  1872,  he  went 
to  the  South  African  diamond  fields,  where  he 
did    effective    missionary    work.       Mr.    Calvert 
attended  the  Jubilee  of  Christianity  in  Fiji  in 
1885.     At  this  time  there  was  not  an  avowed 
heathen  in  all  Fiji.  He  found  over  1,300  churches, 
10  white  missionaries,  65  native  missionaries,  over 
1,000     head     teachers,     nearly     30,000     church 
members,    over   42,000   pupils   in   nearly   2,000 
schools,  and  104,585  church  attendants,  out  of  a 
population    of    116,000.     Largely    through    his 

Eersonal    service    he    saw    this    people    abolish 
eathen  customs  and  accept  the  true  (iod. 


Cambodia 

Caiie  Coast  Castle 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


130 


CAMBODIA:  A  kingdom  of  farther  India, 
under  the  protectorate  of  France,  and  forming 
a  part  of  French  Indo-China.  It  lies  southeast 
of  Siam,  and  includes  principally  the  valley  and 
delta  of  the  Cambodia  River,  one  of  the  most 
fertile  regions  of  southeastern  Asia.  Area, 
37,400  square  miles.  Population,  1,103,000, 
chiefly  composed  of  several  indigenous  races, 
with  about  40,000  Malays  and  250,000  Chinese 
and  Annamities.  The  chief  towns  are  Pnom- 
penh, the  capital,  and  Kampot,  the  only  seaport. 

The  early  history  is  obscure.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  17th  century  the  Annamese  set 
apart  the  southern  portion  for  Chinese  who 
had  fled  from  their  own  homes  for  political  rea- 
sons, and  were  a  source  of  disturbance  to  the  gov- 
ernment. This  became  Cochin-China.  In  1787 
the  king  of  Cochin-China  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity through  French  missionaries.  With  the 
aid  of  France  he  then  conquered  Cambodia  and 
Annam,  combining  all  in  the  empire  of  Annam. 
He  favored  Christianity,  and  allowed  the  French 
missionaries  many  privileges.  Under  his  suc- 
cessor, however,  quarrels  arose  with  France, 
which  occupied  Cochin-China  and  in  1863  estab- 
lished a  protectorate  over  Cambodia.  Roman 
Catholic  Missions,  only,  operate  in  that  region. 

CAMPINAS:  A  city  of  Brazil,  situated  at  an 
altitude  of  2,300  feet,  in  the  sugar  growing  dis- 
trict, 60  miles  north  of  Sao  Paulo.  Population, 
20,000.     The  climate  is  mild  and  semi-tropical. 

Station  of  the  PS  (1 869) ,  with  (1 902)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  3  outstations, 
1  school  and  57  church  members.  Station  also 
of  the  SBC,  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  native  worker,  1  theological  class,  and  27 
church  members. 

CAMPOS:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Brazil,  about  150  miles  northeast  of  the 
city.  Station  of  the  SBC  (1890),  with  (1902)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  10 
outstations,  10  preaching  places,  and  702  pro- 
fessing evangelical  Christians. 

CANA:  A  settlement  in  Basutoland,  about  10 
miles  from  the  boundary  of  the  Orange  River 
Colony;  station  of  the  Paris  Association  for  Evan- 
gelical Missions  (1873),  with  (1901)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  16  native  workers,  9  outstations,  8 
schools,  and  723  communicants,  with  366  candi- 
dates for  admission. 

CANADA;    Baptist    Missionary    Societies    of. 

See  Baptist  Conventions  op  Canada. 

CANADA  CONGREGATIONAL  FOREIGN 
MISSIONARY  SOCIETY:  While  the  earlier  efforts 
of  the  Congregational  Churches  of  Canada  were 
directed  chiefly  to  home  evangelization,  a  number 
of  the  stronger  ones  contributed  to  foreign  mis- 
sions through  the  LMS  and  the  ABCFM,  whose 
secretaries  or  agents  appeared  at  the  meetings  of 
the  Congregational  Union,  or  preached  by  invi- 
tation in  Montreal.  Interest  was  also  much 
excited  in  the  foreign  work  by  a  visit,  in  1870,  of 
Rev.  Dr.  Mullens,  Foreign  Secretary  of  the  LMS, 
and  again,  in  1874,  when  the  first  foreign  mission- 
aries, Rev.  Charles  Brooks  and  wife,  went  out 
under  the  auspices  of  the  ABCFM,  to  Constanti- 
nople. But  it  was  not  until  1881  that  the  claims 
of  the  heathen  world  upon  the  Canadian  churches 
were  sufficiently  felt  to  lead  to  the  organization 
of  a  separate  Foreign  Missionary  Society.  This 
society,  while  largely  indebted  to  the  ABCFM  for 
advice  m  regard  to  the   choice  of  its  field,  and 


working  mainly  through  its  channels,  is  yet 
entirely  independent  of  the  older  society,  holding 
its  annual  meeting  at  the  same  time  and  place 
as  the  Congregational  Union  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec,  and  being  wholly  subject  to  the  control 
of  its  own  board  of  directors.  For  the  first  three 
years  it  contributed  through  the  ABCFM  toward 
the  support  of  the  Canadian  Foreign  missionaries 
already  in  the  field,  viz.,  Rev.  C.  H.  Brooks  and 
wife,  in  Constantinople,  the  Rev.  George  Allchin, 
in  Japan,  and  Miss  Macallum,  in  Smyrna.  But 
in  1884  Mr.  W.  T.  Currie,  a  graduate  of  the  Con- 
gregational College  of  Canada,  having  applied  to 
the  Society  for  appointment  to  foreign  service,  was 
accepted,  and  assigned,  under  advice  of  the 
ABCFM,  to  a  new  mission  station  in  Bailunda,  in 
West  Central  Africa,  which  was  henceforth  to  be 
recognized  as  the  Canadian  Mission.  Mr.  Currie 
having  been  duly  ordained  and  set  apart  to  his 
work,  sailed  with  his  bride  for  Africa  in  June, 
1886,  but  the}'  had  scarcely  reached  the  station  to 
which  he  had  been  appointed  before  she  sickened 
and  died.  A  memorial  of  her  has  since  been 
erected  in  the  form  of  a  mission  schoolhouse, 
known  as  the  "Clara  Wilkes  Currie  School,"  for 
which  the  necessary  funds  were  collected  by  the 
Canadian  Woman's  Board.  Mr.  Currie  after- 
ward commenced  a  new  station  at  Chisamba, 
and  Mr.  Wilberforce  Lee,  another  alumnus  of  the 
same  college  as  Mr.  Currie,  was  ordained  and  sent 
out  to  assist  him  (1889).  Others  have  since 
joined  them  and  the  station  is  recognized  by  the 
ABCFM  as  the  special  field  of  the  Canadian 
Society. 

There  were  (1902)  3  missionaries  with  their 
wives  and  3  female  missionaries,  9  in  all.  There 
are  important  schools,  with  an  attendance  of  274, 
more  than  a  third  of  them  girls;  a  hospital,  with 
4  buildings.  The  general  evangelistic  work  is 
very  prosperous. 

In  addition  to  this  work  in  Africa  a  number 
of  missionaries  have  gone  from  Canada  to  other 
fields:  Turkey,  China,  India  and  Japan. 

The  Canada  Congregational  Woman's  Board 
of  Missions  was  organized  June  10,  1886,  in  the 
house  of  the  pastor  of  the  church  in  Ottawa,  Ont. 
Its  beginnings  were  small,  but  in  response  to  cir- 
culars sent  out  by  the  president,  Mrs.  Macallum, 
requesting  the  churches  to  form  auxiliaries, 
several  existing  societies  sent  in  their  adhesion, 
and  a  number  of  auxiliaries  and  mission  bands 
were  organized.  The  lamented  death  of  Mrs.  ■ 
Currie  greatly  quickened  the  general  interest 
in  the  mission  to  which  she  had  given  her  life, 
and  nearly  one  thousand  dollars  were  promptly 
contributed  for  the  erection  of  the  school  to  her 
memory  before  referred  to.  Almost  every 
church  has  now  its  auxiliary  or  mission  band, 
many  of  them  having  both. 

CANADA;  Methodist  Church  in.  See  Method- 
ist Church  in  Canada. 

CANADA;  Presbyterian  Church  in.  See  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Canada. 

CANARESE  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the 
Dravidian  family  of  languages  and  is  spoken  by 
about  9,500,000  people  in  S.W.  India.  Its  alpha- 
bet somewhat  resembles  the  Tamil.  It  is  also- 
called  Karnata. 

CANDAWU.     See  Tonga  Islands. 
CANDIA.     See  Crete. 

CANNANORE:  A  city  on  the  coast  of  Malabar, 
S.  W.  India,  situated  about  50  miles  northwest 


181 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


CauiboilixL 
Cape    Coast    Castle 


of  Calicut.  It  is  a  military  post  and  it  is  remarka- 
ble for  tlie  number  of  its  mosques,  two  of  which  are 
of  special  fame.  Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1841),  with  (1900)  10  missionaries,  men 
and  women,  and  36  native  workers.  The  work 
of  the  station  covers  evangelistic  and  educa- 
tional work,  and  connected  with  it  are  650  bap- 
tized Christians. 

CAUTON:  Capital  of  Kwang-tung  Province, 
China,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Pearl,  or  Canton, 
River,  90  miles  from  the  sea.  The  Chinese  name 
for  the  city  is  Kwang-chau-fvi;  the  foreign  name 
is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Kwang-tung  as 

?ronounced  by  the  early  Portuguese  visitors, 
t  is  also  called  Yeung-sheng,  the  "City  of  Rams," 
by  the  Chinese,  in  reference  to  a  legend  connected 
with  its  founding.  The  city  proper  is  quadri- 
lateral in  shape,  the  side  next  to  the  river  being  a 
little  less  than  two  miles  in  length.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  an  average  height  of  twenty- 
five  feet,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  thick,  in 
a  good  state  of  preservation,  built  of  bride,  with 
stone  foundation.  It  is  a  universal  custom  in 
Chinese  cities  that  the  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass  determine  the  location  of  the  four  princi- 
pal gates.  In  Canton  these  are  found  to  be 
utterly  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  traffic,  and 
there  are  eight  other  gates,  some  of  them  as 
large  and  important  in  fact,  tho  not  in  name. 
The  city  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  old  and 
the  new.  In  the  old  city  are  the  Tatar  garrison, 
their  parade-grounds,  the  residences  and  grounds 
of  the  Governor-General  and  Governor,  the 
examination  hall,  with  its  rows  of  low  cells  for 
the  competing  students,  and  many  fine  temples 
and  pagodas.  Around  the  city  proper  are  the 
suburbs,  where  the  business  of  the  city  is  carried 
on,  especially  on  the  west  side,  which  is  noted 
for  its  manufactures,  its  business,  and  its  won- 
derful stores.  Along  the  river  front,  junks  and 
boats  of  every  description  and  size  find  wharfage 
and  landing  places,  and  the  vast  carrying  trade 
of  the  West  and  North  rivers  is  conducted.  The 
streets  are  narrow  and  closed  by  gates,  which  are 
shut  at  an  early  hour  in  the  evening. 

The  stores  are  usually  low  buildings  of  a  story 
in  front  and  two  behind,  the  whole  front 
of  the  store  being  thrown  open  to  the  street. 
The  only  high  buildings,  with  the  exception  of 
public  buildings,  are  the  fine  eating  houses  and 
the  pawn  shops,  which  serve  also  as  safe- 
deposit  vaults.  The  streets  are  well  paved 
with  slabs  of  granite,  beneath  which  is  a 
sewer.  As  all  the  night  soil  is  removed 
from  the  city  to  be  used  on  the  fields, 
this  deficient  drainage  does  not  cause  epidemics. 
In  comparison  with  other  cities  of  the  East, 
Canton  is  clean.  The  houses  are  built  of  brick 
of  a  slate  color,  and  the  ground  floor  is  of  tiles. 
The  water  supply  of  the  city  is  derived  either 
from  the  river  or  the  canals  which  pass  through 
the  city,  or  from  wells,  whose  flow  is  affected  by  the 
tide,  which  filters  through  the  sandy  soil.  Pure 
spring  water  can  be  obtained  from  the  hills  to 
the  north  of  the  city.  The  natives  never  drink 
water  unboiled,  and  this  custom  has  doubtless 
preserved  the  health  of  the  people. 

Not  far  from  the  walls  of  the  city  is  the  tomb 
of  a  so-called  uncle  of  Mohammed,  with  a  Moham- 
medan burying  ground  and  place  of  worship. 
Opposite  the  city  is  the  island  of  Honam,  for  a 
long  time  the  residence  of  foreigners,  when  per- 
mission to  live  on  the  north  shore  was  denied 
them. 


The  population  is  (1901)  850,000,  its  distinct- 
ive feature  being  that  300,000  people  live  in  boats, 
rarely  spending  a  night  on  shore.  The  river  bank 
and  the  various  canals  are  lined  with  boats  of 
every  variety  and  size,  from  the  little  skiff  to  the 
large  ornamental  hotel  boat.  These  boats  fur-' 
nish  to  a  great  extent  the  means  of  communi-' 
cation.  There  are  no  horses  used  for  that  pur- 
pose, nor  are  the  streets  of  the  native  city  wide 
enough  to  permit  the  use  of  the  cart  of  North 
China.  The  sedan  chair  is  the  only  means  of 
conveyance  on  land,  and  the  facilities  offered 
by  the  boats  are  largely  utilized  by  the  mission- 
aries, whose  residences,  with  few  exceptions,  are 
on  the  river  front.  Opposite  the  western 
suburbs,  and  separated  from  them  by  a  canal,  is  a 
foreign  settlement  on  ground  made  over  a  small 
island  by  surrounding  it  with  a  retaining  wall,  and 
filling  in  the  space  enclosed.  Shamien,  as  it  is 
called,  is  laid  out  in  fine  streets  with  overhanging 
trees,  bordered  by  beautiful  lawns,  and  covered 
with  the  fine  residences  of  the  European  mer- 
chants. Shamien  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
European  settlements  in  the  East. 

The  people  of  Canton  are  the  mof3t  highly 
civilized  of  China,  and  the  luxury  of  the  city  is 
proverbial.  The  shrewdness  and  ability  of  tlie 
Cantonese  as  merchants  has  procured  for  them, 
the  nickname  of  the  Yankees  of  China,  and 
Canton  men,  or  men  from  the  Canton  province, 
compose  nearly  the  entire  number  of  the  immi- 
grants to  the  various  parts  of  the  world  where 
the  Chinese  are  found. 

The  climate  is  more  temperate  than  that  of  any 
other  city  in  a  like  latitude.  The  heat  in  summer 
averages  about  95°,  and  the  minimum  in  winter 
is  usually  42°.  Ice  rarely  forms,  and  snow  is 
almost  never  seen.  April,  May,  and  June  are 
the  rainy  season;  July,  August,  and  September 
are  the  months  for  the  southwest  monsoons, 
which,  with  frequent  thunder-showers,  mitigate 
the  heat.  During  the  fall  and  winter  the  north- 
ern monsoon  blows,  and  clear  weather  is  con- 
tinuous. 

Canton,  according  to  native  annals,  has  existed 
four  thousand  years,  and  traces  of  its  existence 
have  been  found  1200  B.C.  Its  first  intercourse 
with  foreigners  was  in  the  16th  century 
with  the  Portuguese,  and  since  then  the  history 
of  Canton  has  been  the  history  of  China,  as  many 
important  events  in  modern  Chinese  history 
occurred  at,  or  were  connected  with,  this  city. 

The  Protestant  missionary  enterprises  at  Can- 
ton are  many  and  important.  The  LMS  made  the 
city  one  of  its  earliest  stations  by  sending  the 
Rev.  Robert  Morrison  there  in  1807.  It  was 
followed  by  the  PN  in  1844,  the  SBC  in  1845, 
and  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  in  1867.  The 
other  societies  now  operating  in  the  city  are  the 
WMS,  the  ABCFM,  the  UB  Women's  Mission- 
ary Association,  and  the  Scandinavian  American 
Free  Mission.  These  societies  have  in  Canton 
and  suburbs  an  aggregate  of  58  missionaries,  men 
and  women,  196  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
84  preaching  places,  24  Sunday  schools,  52  vil- 
lage schools,  4  high  schools,  5  theological  or  other 
special  training  schools,  1  hospital,  4  dispensa- 
ries, and  1  printing  house.  The  total  number 
of  professing  Christians  at  Canton  connected  with 
these  missions  is  4,727. 

CAPE  COAST  CASTLE :  A  town  and  fort  of  the 
Gold  Coast  Colony,  West  Africa.  Until  1664  it 
was  a  Portuguese  military  station.  Population, 
10,000.     The  town  is  regularly  built  in  a  well- 


Cape   Colony 
Carey 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


133 


wooded  but  poorly  watered  district,  and  has  a 
damp,  unhealthy  climate.  Station  of  the  WMS, 
with  3  missionaries,  34  native  workers,  4  common 
schools,  and  1,240  professing  Christians. 

CAPE  COLONY:  A  British  possession  compris- 
ing the  extreme  southern  portion  of  Africa, 
extending  northward  to  the  boundaries  of  German 
Southwest  Africa,  the  Bechuanaland  Protector- 
ate, the  Orange  River  Colony,  Basutoland,  and 
Natal.  It  has  an  ocean  coast  line  of  about  1,400 
miles,  and  an  area  with  dependencies  of 
221,311  square  miles.  The  population  is  (1891) 
1,527,224.  No  census  was  taken  in  1901,  but  the 
population  is  estimated  at  2,433,000,  the  Euro- 
pean population  numbering  376,987  for  the  whole 
"territory.  The  dependent  provinces  are  East 
Griqualand,  having  15,197  square  miles;  Tembu- 
land,  7,594;  Transkei,  2,552,  and  Walfisch  Bay, 
430. 

A  mountain  range,  in  general  parallel  with  the 
coast,  dividing  the  drainage  of  the  streams  flow- 
ing into  the  Orange  River  from  that  of  the 
-coastal  streams,  is  reached  from  the  ocean,  about 
100  miles  distant,  by  a  series  of  terraces.  North 
of  the  range  the  country  slopes  gradually  toward 
the  Orange  River.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
colony  consists  of  arid  plains  (called  Karroos) 
presenting  many  depressions,  containing  rich 
■soO,  which  only  requires  irrigation  to  make  it 
productive. 

Included  in  the  south  temperate  zone,  the 
climate  presents  many  varieties,  but  in  its  gen- 
eral character  is  mild  and  very  salubrious;  epi- 
demics seldom  prevail.  The  rainfall  is  unequally 
distributed.  The  basin  of  the  Lower  Orange  and 
Great  Karroo  plain  and  the  Kalahari  Desert 
receives  occasional  torrential  downpours,  but 
springs  are  rare.  Wells  are  sunk  and  a  system 
of  irrigation  resorted  to.  The  flora  is  the  richest 
in  the  world.  Vineyards  produce  abundantly; 
cereals  give  a  fair  return.  The  forests  are  con- 
fined to  the  margins  of  the  colony;  one-third  of 
the  population  is  said  to  engage  in  stock  breeding. 
There  are  about  10,000,000  sheep  in  the  country. 
The  wild  animals  have  been  largely  driven  north 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  colony. 

People :  Malays  were  introduced  by  the  Dutch 
as  slaves,  and  are  found  chiefly  in  the  seaports. 
The  Griquas  are  half-castes,  active,  vigorous, 
enterprising  and  courageous,  and  superior  to  the 
aborigines  in  strength  and  stature,  and  number 
among  them  some  of  the  best  and  some  of  the 
most  desperate  characters.  Bushmen  inhabit 
the  western  section  of  Cape  Colony.  They  are 
remnants  of  the  San  races,  are  diminutive  in 
stature,  and  have  light,  yellowish  brown  com- 
plexions, and  are,  perhaps,  related  to  the  Hotten- 
tots. They  have  made  but  little  progress  in 
civilization,  and  have  no  tribal  organization. 
-Scattered  in  various  districts,  they  number,  per- 
haps, 50,000  in  South  Africa.  Hottentots, 
numerous  in  the  western  part  of  Cape  Colony, 
amount  to  about  100,000.  They  resemble  the 
Bushmen,  except  in  stature  and  degree  of  cul- 
ture. They  occupy  kraals,  wear  leather  aprons 
and  a  sheepskin  cloak.  Tribal  organization  is 
preserved  only  among  those  beyond  the  bound- 
aries of  the  European  possessions. 

By  the  census  of  1891  there  were  in  the  Colony 
732,047  Protestants,  of  whom  306,320  belonged 
to  the  Dutch  Reformed  communion,  139,058  to 
the  Church  of  England,  37,102  were  Presbyteri- 
an, 69,992  Independents,  106,132  Wesleyan,  with 
Methodists,  Lutherans,  Moravians,  Baptists  and 


others.  The  Roman  Catholics  number  17,275, 
the  Jews  3,000,  Mohammedans  15,099.  Pagan 
religions  have  still  over  750,000  adherents.  Gov- 
ernment grants  for  the  support  of  religious  wor- 
ship are  being  gradually  withdrawn. 

(5ape  Colony  having  so  many  European  resi- 
dents, the  missionary  enterprise  there  is  carried  on 
by  the  local  churches,  as  well  as  by  the  missionary 
societies  from  abroad.  Of  these  missionary  socie- 
ties the  following  carry  on  work  in  the  colony: 
The  Moravians,  LMS,  SPG,  PB,  Berlin  Mis- 
sionary Society,  Rhenish  Missionary  Society, 
Hannover  Missionary  Society,  International 
Medical  Association,  Mildmay  Mission  to  the 
Jews,  National  Baptist  Convention  (U.  S.  A.), 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (U.  S.  A.), 
Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland,  Primitive  Method- 
ist Missionary  Society  and  the  Society  of  St. 
John.  The  whole  number  of  places  occupied  as 
stations  by  these  societies  is  75. 

Brown,  Guide  to  S.  Africa,  London,  1899;  Bryce,  Impressions 
of  S.  Africa,  London,  1899;  Holub,  Seven  Years  in  S. 
Africa,  London,  1881 ;  Nicholson,  Fifty  Years  in  S.  Africa, 
London,  1898;  Wilmot,  Story  of  the  Expansion  of  S. 
Africa,  London,  1897,  and  History  of  Our  Own  Times  in 
S.  Africa,  London,  1893;  EUis  (A.  B.),  South  African 
Sketches,  London,  1887;  Edwards  (J.),  Reminiscences  of 
Early  Life  and  Labors  in  South  Africa,  London,  1886; 
South  African  Year  Book  for  1902-03,   Loi;don,  1902. 

CAPE  MOUNT:  A  station  of  the  American 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  Liberia,  West 
Africa  (1877),  with  5  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  1  native  worker,  2  Sunday  schools,  and  8 
communicants. 

CAPE  PALMAS :  A  district  and  town  on  the 
coast  of  Liberia,  Africa.  Seat  of  a  missionary 
bishop  of  the  PE,  with  schools  and  churches  at 
Harper  and  Hoffman,  on  the  Cape.  Missionary 
circuit  of  the  MB,  with  7  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  12  native  workers,  11  Sunday  schools,  1 
high  school  and  645  professing  Christians. 

CAPE  PRINCE  OF  WALES:  A  settlement  in 
the  W.  of  Alaska,  situated  on  Bering  Strait;  sta- 
tion of  the  American  Missionary  Association 
(1890),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native 
workers,  man  and  woman,  and  1  Sunday  school. 

CAPE  TOWN:  The  capital  of  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Table  Mountain,  on 
Table  Bay.  It  was  founded  by  the  Dutch  in 
1651.  It  has  a  very  fine  harbor.  The  climate  is 
moderate  in  temperature.  Population  (1891),  51,- 
250.  Station  of  the  Moravians  (1887),  the  South 
African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society, 
the  National  Baptist  Convention,  the  Inter- 
national Medical  Missions  and  Benevolent  Asso- 
ciation, the  Salvation  Army,  and  the  PB,  with  an 
aggregate  of  10  missionaries,  men  and  women, 
57  native  workers,  men  and  women,  25  places  of 
worship,  22  Sunday  schools,  18  common  schools, 
1  orphanage,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary,  1  medical 
training  class,  3  young  people's  societies,  and 
2,971  professing  Christians.  The  BFBS  also  has 
an  agency  and  a  Bible  depot  here. 

CAPE  HAITIEN :  A  seaport  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  island  of  Haiti.  It  is  the  second  town  for 
size  in  the  Republic,  with  a  population  of  about 
29,000.  It  has  a  good  harbor  hemmed  in  by 
hills.  Station  of  the  Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  (1875),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife 
and  48  professing  Christians.  The  Wesleyan 
Western  Annual  Conference  of  the  West  Indies 
also  has  a  missionary  here.  Also  called  Cape 
Haytien,  or  Cape  Hayti. 

CARACAS :  The  capital  of  Venezuela,  S.  Amer- 


133 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Cape  Colony 
Carey 


ica,  founded  in  1567;  situated  at  an  altitude  of 
3,000  feet,  8  miles  (or  by  railway  23  miles)  from 
La  Guayra,  its  seaport.  Population,  about 
70,000.  Climate  agreeable  and  very  healthful. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1897),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife.     Also  station  of  the  CA  and  of  the  PB. 

CARAITES.    See  Karaites. 

CARAMANLIJA:  The  Turkish  language  as 
spoken  by  the  Greeks  of  the  interior  of  Asia 
Minor,  who  have  lost  the  use  of  their  own  lan- 
guage. Retaining,  however,  the  Greek  in  their 
church  services,  they  have  taught  the  Greek 
alphabet  to  their  school  children,  have  used  it 
for  writing  Turkish,  and  have  brought  into  that 
language  Greek  theological  and  ecclesiastical 
terms.  The  effect  has  been  to  produce  a  dialect 
which  is  named  from  the  district  of  Caraman, 
where  it  has  been  most  largely  used.  See  Turk- 
ish Language. 

CARDENAS:  A  seaport  on  the  northern  coast 
of  Cuba,  W.  I.,  25  miles  E.  of  Matanzas,  with  an 
important  trade  in  sugar.  Population  (1899), 
21,940.  Station  of  the  PS  (1899),  with  7  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women,  1  school,  and  45  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

CAREY,  William:  Born  Paulerspury,  North- 
amptonshire, England,  August  17,  1761.  In 
his  youth  he  worked  with  his  father,  who  was  a 
weaver,  but  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  shoemaker  at  Hackleton,  working  at  the 
trade  for  twelve  years.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
was  led  through  the  influence  of  a  pious  fellow- 
apprentice  to  the  faith  in  Christ,  became  an  ear- 
nest Christian,  and  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel.  In 
1786  he  became  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  at 
Moulton,  having  previously  preached  at  Paulers- 
pury, his  early  home,  and  at  Barton.  His  income 
being  too  small  for  the  support  of  his  family,  he 
kept  school  by  day,  made  or  cobbled  shoes  by 
night,  and  preached  on  Sunday.  At  Moulton  he 
was  deeply  impressed  with  the  idea  of  a  mission 
to  the  heathen,  and  frequently  conversed  with 
ministers  on  its  practicability  and  importance, 
and  of  his  willingness  to  engage  in  it.  Andrew 
Fuller  relates  that  once  on  entering  Carey's 
shop  he  found  hanging  up  against  the  wall  a 
large  map  composed  of  several  pieces  of  paper 
pasted  together,  on  which  Carey  had  drawn  with 
a  pen  every  known  countrj',  with  memoranda  of 
what  he  had  read  as  to  their  population,  religion, 
etc.  At  a  very  early  age  he  had  an  intense  desire 
for  knowledge,  eagerly  "devouring  books,  espe- 
cially of  science,  history,  voyages,"  etc.,  and,  not- 
withstanding his  poverty,  he  learned  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  Dutch,  French,  and  acquired  a  good 
amount  of  general  useful  knowledge.  But  his 
heart  was  chiefly  set  on  a  mission  to  the  heathen. 
From  his  ministerial  brethren  he  received  no  S5'm- 
pathy.  While  at  Moulton  he  wrote  and  pub- 
lished "An  Inquiry  into  the  Obligation  of  Chris- 
tians to  Use  Means  for  the  Conversion  of  the 
Heathen."  In  1789  he  became  pastor  of  the 
church  at  Leicester.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Minis- 
ters' Association  at  Nottingham,  May  31,  1792, 
he  preached  from  "Enlarge  the  place  of  thy 
tent  (Isa.  liv:  2,  3),  laying  down  these  two  prop- 
ositions: "Expect  great  things  from  God  "  and 
"Attempt  great  things  for  God."  The  discourse 
produced  a  great  impression,  and  the  result  was, 
through  the  special  cooperation  of  Fuller,  Pearce, 
and  the  vounger  Ryland,  the  formation,  at  Ket- 
tering, October  2,  1792,  of  the  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society.     Carey's  first  wish  was  to  work  in 


Tahiti  or  Western  Africa,  but  he  offered  to  go 
wherever  the  Society  might  appoint  him.  India 
was  selected  for  its  first  mission,  and  he  was 
appointed  with  Mr.  John  Thomas,  a  surgeon,  who 
had  resided  in  Bengal,  and  been  engaged  in  mis- 
sion work.  They  embarked  on  an  English  vessel, 
but,  on  account  of  the  objections  made  against 
missionaries  by  the  East  India  Company,  the 
commander  of  the  ship  was  forbidden  to  take 
them,  and  they  returned  to  land.  After  waiting 
a  few  weeks  they  sailed  in  a  Danish  vessel  bound 
from  Copenhagen  to  Serampur,  and  reached  Cal- 
cutta November  11,  1793.  Having  sailed  in  a 
foreign  vessel  cleared  at  a  foreign  port,  he  landed 
unobserved.  Believing  it  to  be  the  duty  of  a 
missionary,  after  receiving  some  help  at  first,  to 
support  himself,  Mr.  Carey,  soon  after  reaching 
India,  relinquished  his  salary,  and  he  and  his 
family  were  reduced  to  serious  straits.  Leaving 
Calcutta,  he  walked  fifteen  miles  in  the  sun,  pass- 
ing through  salt  rivers  and  a  large  lake,  to  the 
Sunderbunds,  a  "tract  scantily  populated,  and 
notorious  for  pestilence  and  wild  beasts,"  intend- 
ing to  farm  the  land  and  instruct  the  people. 
Here  he  was  found  by  Mr.  Udney,  of  the  Com- 
pany's service,  a  pious  man  and  a  friend  of  mis- 
sions, who  offered  him  the  supcrintendency  of  his 
indigo  factory.  As  he  would  have  not  only  a 
competent  support  for  his  family  and  time  for 
study,  but  also  a  regular  congregation  of  natives 
connected  with  the  factory,  he  accepted  the  offer. 
The  factory  was  at  Mudnabatty,  in  tlie  district  of 
Malda,  and  this  became  the  mission  station. 
During  the  five  years  he  spent  there  he  translated 
the  New  Testament  into  Bengali,  held  daily  relig- 
ious services  with  the  thousand  workmen  in  the 
factory,  itinerated  regularly  through  the  district, 
twenty  miles  square  and  containing  200  villages. 
His  first  convert  was  Ignatius  Fernandez,  of  Por- 
tuguese descent,  who  built  a  church  in  l797,  and 
preached  and  labored  as  a  missionary  until  his 
death,  in  1829,  when  he  left  all  his  property  to  the 
mission.  In  1799  the  factory  was  closed  in  con- 
sequence of  an  inundation.  While  perplexed  as 
to  what  he  should  do,  Mr.  Carey  heard  that  four 
missionaries  had  arrived  at  Serampur,  and  that 
the  Danish  governor  had  proposed  that  they 
establish  a  mission  there,  promising  him  protec- 
tion. They  urged  him  to  leave  Malda.  He 
assented,  and  removed  to  Serampur.  In  1801 
the  Bengali  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
was  printed  by  Mr.  Ward,  and  a  copy  presented 
to  the  Marquis  of  Wellesley,  the  governor-gen- 
eral, who  expressed  his  great  gratification  at  this 
result  of  missionary  work.  About  this  time  Fort 
William  College  was  established  at  Calcutta,  and 
Mr.  Carey  was  appointed  by  the  Marquis  pro- 
fessor of  Sanskrit,  Bengali,  and  Marathi.  This 
position  he  held  for  thirty  years,  and  taught  these 
languages.  He  wrote  articles  on  the  natural  his- 
tory and  botany  of  India  for  the  Asiatic  Society, 
to  which  he  was  elected  in  1805.  The  publica- 
tion of  the  entire  Bible  in  Bengali  in  five  volumes 
was  completed  in  1809.  That  which  gave  Carey 
his  fame  was  the  translation  of  the  Bible  in  whole 
or  in  part  into  twenty-four  Indian  languages  or 
dialects.  The  Serampur  press,  under  his  direc- 
tion, rendered  the  Bible  accessible  to  more  than 
three  hundred  millions  of  human  beings.  He 
prepared  also  numerous  philological  works,  con- 
sisting of  grammars  and  dictionaries  in  the  San- 
skrit, Marathi,  Bengali,  Punjabi  and  Telugu  dia- 
lects. His  Sanskrit  dictionary  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  the  printing  establishment.     He  contrib- 


Carisbrook 
Ca'wnpur 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


134 


uted  also  several  papers  on  grammar  and  East 
Indian  matters  to  the  Journal  of  the  Geographical 
Society,  in  London.  Carey  had  for  years  sought 
through  Lord  Wellesley  the  abolition  of  the  sut- 
tee. In  1829  it  was  abolished,  and  the  proclama- 
tion declaring  it  punishable  as  homicide  was  sent 
to  Dr.  Carey  to  be  translated  into  Bengali.  The 
order  reached  him  as  he  was  preparing  for  public 
worship  on  Sunday.  Throwing  off  his  black  coat, 
he  exclaimed:  "If  I  delay  an  hour  to  translate 
and  publish  this,  many  a  widow's  life  may  be 
sacrificed."  Resigning  his  pulpit  to  another,  he 
completed  with  his  pundit  the  translation  by 
sunset. 

Dr.  Carey's  work  was  now  finished.  After 
forty  years  of  toil  he  passed  away  at  the  age  of 
seventy-three,  June  9,  1834.  He  was  buried 
the  next  morning  in  the  mission  burying  ground. 
He,  who  was  ridiculed  and  satirized  by  the  witty 
Sydney  Smith  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  of  1808  as 
the  "consecrated  cobbler"  and  "maniac,"  accom- 
plished a  work  for  which  he  is  held,  and  will  be 
forever  held,  in  high  honor  as  the  true  friend  and 
benefactor  of  India. 

Smith  (G.),  Life  of  William  Carey,  Shoemaker  and  Mission- 
ary, London,  1887;  Culross  (J.),  William  Carey,  New  York, 
1882. 

CARISBROOK:  A  station  of  the  Moravians  in 
Jamaica,  West  Indies  (1885),  situated  in  the  par- 
ish of  St.  Elizabeth  in  a  somewhat  _  hilly  and 
pleasant  part  of  the  island.  The  station  has  13 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  3  places  of 
worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  and  151  communi- 
cants. 

CARMEL :  A  station  of  the  Moravian  Missions 
(1887)  in  Western  Alaska,  near  Fort  Alexander. 
It  now  has  6  missionaries,  men  and  women,  3 
chapels,  1  common  school,  and  107  communi- 
cants. 

CARNARVON:  A  town  of  1,700  inhabitants  in 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  in  a  mountain- 
ous district  about  325  miles  N.  E.  of  Cape  Town. 
It  is  occupied  as  a  station  by  the  Rhenish  Mis- 
sionary Society.  The  working  force  consists  of 
1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  3  native  workers. 
These  serve  as  instructors  to  a  body  of  666  bap- 
tized Christians  in  the  town  and  neighboring 
regions.     They  also  maintain  a  school. 

CAROLINE  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  islands  in 
the  Pacific,  northeast  of  New  Guinea  and  west 
of  the  Marshall  and  Gilbert  groups.  A  few  of 
them  differ  from  the  great  majority  of  the  islands 
of  Micronesia  in  that  they  are  of  basaltic  forma- 
tion, while  the  rest  are  coral  reefs.  Kusaie  and 
Ponapi  have  mountains  two  to  three  thousand 
feet  high.  Ruk  is  an  immense  lagoon  100  miles 
long,  containing  10  large  islands  and  many 
islets.  Yap  is  also  one  of  the  high  islands.  The 
climate  is  perpetual  summer,  the  thermometer 
ranging  from  72°  to  90°.  On  the  coral  islands 
the  chief  products  are  the  coconut  palm,  often 
growing  to  a  height  of  80  feet,  the  breadfruit 
tree,  the  pandanus  tree  or  screw  pine,  bearing  a 
large  bunch  of  juicy  fruit,  and  an  edible  root 
called  taro.  On  the  high  islands,  especially 
Kusaie  and  Ponapi,  there  is  a  much  larger  range 
of  products,  including  more  than  a  dozen  kinds  of 
bananas.  Various  tropical  fruits  are  intro- 
duced, and  also  some  domestic  animals,  as  pigs, 
chickens,  and  goats. 

The  inhabitants  are  of  the  brown  Polynesian 
race,  having  straight  hair.  As  no  census  has 
ever     been     taken,     estimates     of     population 


vary  greatly.  Ponapi  has  a  population  of  5,000, 
the  Mortlocks  and  Ruk  about  14,000,  Mokil  and 
Pingelap  about  1,250,  Yap  about  8,000  to  10,000. 

The  languages  of  different  parts  of  the  group 
are  quite  distinct  but  with  affinities  pointing  to  a 
common  origin.  They  are  not  easily  reduced  to 
writing  because  of  the  shading  of  vowel  sounds. 
This  has  been  done,  however,  so  that  introduc- 
tion of  (!!hristian  ideas  has  meant  resurrection  to 
the  language  no  less  than  new  life  to  the  people. 

Spirits  of  ancestors  and  other  spirits  were  wor- 
shiped, but  no  idols.  The  people  were  very 
superstitious,  but  had  no  conception  of  a  Supreme 
God,  and  had  no  idea  of  sacrifice.  Certain  places 
regarded  as  the  abode  of  spirits  were  not  crossed. 
Some  islands  had  priests,  who  in  times  of  sickness 
and  on  special  occasions  practised  their  incanta- 
tions, pretending  to  converse  with  the  dead. 

Missionary  effort  was  begun  on  Ponapi  and 
Kusaie  in  1852  by  the  ABCFM.  Twenty  years 
later  there  were  250  church  members  on  Ponapi 
and  226  on  Kusaie.  From  the  first  a  missionary 
spirit  was  cultivated  in  the  converts,  and  when 
the  evangelistic  effort  was  to  be  pushed  westward 
to  other  islands,  native  missionaries  from  Ponapi 
were  the  agents  used,  furnishing  one  of  the  most 
interesting  chapters  in  missionary  annals. 

Political  changes  have  hindered  the  progress 
of  evangelization  in  these  islands.  Many  of  the 
islands  have  chiefs,  whose  authority  is  hereditary. 
On  Ponapi  there  are  several  tribes,  each  having 
an  independent  king  or  chieftain.  But  in  1885 
Spain  laid  claim  to  the  whole  group,  as  Germany 
had  done  to  the  Marshall  Islands,  and  in  the 
summer  of  1886  took  possession  of  Ponapi 
and  later  expelled  the  missionaries.  In  1899 
Germany  purchased  the  Caroline  Islands  from 
Spain.  In  1900  the  missionaries  returned  to 
Ponapi.  But  these  political  changes  have  intro- 
duced to  the  people  new  types  of  white  men,  and 
the  islanders  have  not  been  benefited  by  the 
acquaintance. 

At  present  the  force  of  workers  consists  of  24 
missionaries,  men  and  women  (nine  of  them 
unmarried  women),  and  135  native  workers  of 
both  sexes.  The  missionaries  live  upon  Kusaie, 
Ruk  and  Ponapi,  but  their  work  takes  in  many 
other  islands  of  this  group.  There  are  57  out- 
stations,  with  99  schools,  2  printing  houses,  2  dis- 
pensaries and  5,500  communicants  in  the  various 
churches. 

CARSHUNI.     See  Syriac. 

CARTAGO:  A  town  of  8-10,000  inhabitants,  13 
miles  E.  of  San  Jos(i,  Costa  Rica,  Central  America. 
It  was  founded  in  1553  and  is  situated  in  a  fine 
valley  at  the  base  of  Mt.  Irazu,  an  active  volcano. 
Station  of  the  Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  (1901),  with  1  missionary. 

CARTHEN,  Rev.  Thomas  H. :  Was  a  Cornish- 
man,  born  in  1856,  and  died  in  November,  1896. 
His  boyhood  was  spent  in  the  country  of  Durham, 
and  when  a  very  young  man  he  entered  the 
Christian  ministry,  pursuing  a  college  course 
near  his  native  place.  In  1883  he  united  with 
the  Free  Methodist  Church,  and,  after  a  brief 
stay  at  Oxford,  he  was  appointed  as  missionary 
to  Sierra  Leone.  After  four  consecutive  years  in 
a  most  unhealthy  climate,  he  returned  home  in 
1887;  but  soon  after  his  return  he  learned  of  the 
great  need  of  Christian  work  in  East  Africa,  and 
without  waiting  for  a  formal  appointment  to 
this  field,  he  entered  it  with  characteristic  zeal 
and  enthusiasm.     Here  he  labored  for  ten  years. 


136 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Carlsbrook 
Ca^vnpur 


^e  was  a  man  of  strong  individuality,  and  while 
oftentimes  acting  independently  of  the  Mission 
Board  at  home,  he  always  commended  himself 
by  his  faithful  and  untiring  efforts.  Seemingly 
in  the  midst  of  a  useful  career  he  closed  his  earthly 
labors  in  1896. 

CASABLANCA:  A  small  seaport  on  the  N.  W. 
coast  of  Morocco,  56  miles  S.  W.  of  Rabat.  Sta- 
tion of  the  NAM  (1890),  with  a  hospital  in 
charge  of  7  missionaries,  men  and  women.  The 
local  name  of  the  place  is  Dar  al  Beida. 

CASHMIR.     See  Kashmir. 

CASHMIRI  LANGUAGE.     See  Kashmiri. 

CASSA:  An  island  off  the  coast  of  French 
Guinea,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the  Pongas  Mis- 
sion (1882),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2 
native  workers,  man  and  woman,  2  chapels  and 
2  high  schools. 

CASSERGODE:  A  town  on  the  coast  of  South 
Kanara,  India,  28  miles  south  of  Mangalore. 
Population,  6,400.  Station  of  the  Basel  Mission- 
ary Society  (1886),  with  (1902)  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  42  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  103  communicants  and  11  common 
schools  with  727  pupils. 

CASTLETON :  A  town  in  the  island  of  Jamaica, 
W.  I.;  station  of  the  CWBM,  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  common  school,  1  Young  People's 
Society  and  430  baptized  Christians. 

CATHARINA  SOPHIA:  A  village  in  Surinam, 
South  America.  Its  climate  is  damp  and  rather 
unwholesome,  the  rainfall  during  the  year  aver- 
aging 79  inches.  About  the  year  1849  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Moravian  Church  obtained  per- 
mission to  visit  the  plantations  on  the  lower 
Saramacca.  A  work  of  itineracy  was  at  once 
commenced,  ajid  the  labors  of  the  brethren  were 
greatly  blessed.  The  managers  of  the  Catharina 
Sophia  Plantation,  which  at  that  time  belonged 
to  the  government,  were  kindly  disposed  toward 
the  missionary  and  assisted  him  in  every  way. 
In  1855  the  government  offered  to  hand  over  to 
the  Moravian  Church  authorities  a  chapel  and  a 
dwelling  house  for  a  missionary,  which  had  been 
built  of  pitch-pine  in  Holland,  and  brought  out 
to  Surinam  for  the  use  of  emigrants,  most  of 
whom  had  left  the  place.  The  offer  was  thank- 
fully accepted,  and  the  chapel  was  consecrated 
July  22,  1855.  The  congregation  here  consists 
of  negroes,  Chinese  and  East  India  coolies;  there 
are  now  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  27  native  work- 
ers, and  383  communicants. 

CATORCE:  A  mining  town  in  Mexico,  situated 
at  an  altitude  of  8,800  feet,  120  miles  north  of 
San  Luis  Potosi.  Station  of  the  AFFM  (1898), 
with  1  missionary  physician  and  his  wife,  2  native 
women  workers,  1  common  school  and  1  Young 
People's  Society. 

CATC  RIDGE:  A  settlement  in  the  northern 
part  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  station  of  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary 
Society,  with  25  native  workers,  6  places  of  wor- 
ship, 2  common  schools,  1  Young  People's 
Society,  and  385  baptized  Christians.  Also  sta- 
tion of  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society,  with 
2  missionary  women  and  1  common  school. 

CAUCASIA:  A  province  of  southeastern  Rus- 
sia, bounded  on  the  north  by  the  provinces  of 
southern  Russia  and  Astrakhan,  on  the  east  by 
the  Caspian,  on  the  south  by  Persia  and  Turkey, 


on  the  west  by  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azof. 
It  is  divided  into  two  sections  by  the  Caucasus 
range  of  mountains,  that  on  the  north  being 
called  Northern  Caucasia,  and  that  on  the  south 
Trans-Caucasia.  Area,  North  Caucasia,  86,658; 
Trans-Caucasia,  95,799;  total,  182,457  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1897  was  9,723,523. 
It  is  composed  of  very  heterogeneous  elements. 
The  languages  found  in  the  Caucasus  are  also 
numerous.  The  Russian  government  is  making 
efforts  to  increase  the  use  of  the  Russian  language. 
Ararat  Armenian  and  Azerbaijan  Turkish  are 
extensively  used  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
region.  As  to  religion  many  dissenters  of  the 
Russian  (Greek)  Church  •are  found  in  Trans- 
Caucasia,  which  has  been  used  as  a  place  of  exile 
for  such.  The  Armenian  Church  has  a  large 
body  of  adherents  there,  and  there  is  also  a  large 
Mohammedan  population.  There  are  small 
Protestant  congregations  at  several  points  in  the 
southern  province. 

Mission  work  has  been  attempted  at  various 
times  in  Trans-Caucasia  by  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society,  the  German  -Baptists  and  the  mission- 
aries of  the  ABCFM  and  PN,  whose  headquarters 
were  in  Persia  and  Turkey.  Since  the  opening 
of  railroads  from  Batum  and  Poti  to  Tiflis  and 
the  Caspian  at  Baku,  missionaries  have  found 
that  route  most  convenient  for  access  to  Persia. 
They  have  thus  come  in  contact  with  a  Nestorian 
colony  at  Tiflis,  and  the  Armenians  at  Tiflis, 
Erivan,  Schemachi,  Shusha  and  Baku.  The 
British  and  Foreign,  and  American  Bible  Societies 
have  done  a  good  deal  of  Bible  work  from  Tiflis 
as  a  center.  Protestant  influence  has  been  most 
powerful  among  the  Armenians. 
Bryce   (J.),    Transcaucasia  and  Ararat,   London,   and  New 

York,  1878;    Cunynghame  (A.  A.  T.),  Eastern  Caucasus, 

London,  1872;    Wolley  (C.  P.),  Savage  Svanetia,  2  vols., 

London,  1883. 

CAVALLA:  A  settlement  in  the  county  of  Cape 
Palmas,  Liberia,  W.  Africa;  station  of  the  PE 
(1839).  It  was  formerly  the  headquarters  of  the 
PE  mission  in  the  county.  During  the  irruption 
of  the  heathen  tribes  (1887-1896)  the  station 
was  broken  up,  the  settlement  devastated  and  the 
mission  buildings  destroyed.  It  is  now  (1901) 
occupied  by  1  missionary  and  3  native  workers. 
There  is  1  day  school,  1  place  of  worship  and 
116  communicants. 

CAWNPUR:  A  city  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India;  entirely  a  British  creation.  It  lies  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  130  miles  above  the 
junction  of  that  stream  with  the  Jumna.  A 
body  of  English  troops  was  stationed  near  this 
point  something  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago, 
it  being  then  on  the  frontier  of  the  English 
territory.  Around  the  camp,  as  its  nucleus, 
a  city  sprang  into  being.  It  is  now  of 
great  importance  both  as  a  railroad  center 
and  a  manufacturing  place;  leather  and 
cotton  goods  —  especially  the  former  —  are 
produced  here  in  large  quantities.  The  chief 
historic  interest  centers  about  the  memorial 
gardens,  which  occupy  the  site  of  the  entrench- 
ments within  which  a  body  of  about  1,000  Eng- 
lish (only  400  of  whom  were  capable  of  bearing 
arms)  took  refuge  from  the  native  troops  under 
Nana  Sahib  during  the  mutiny  of  1857.  The 
exact  spot  of  the  entrenchments  is  occupied  by 
the  memorial  church;  and  the  place  of  the  well 
into  which  some  200  bodies  were  thrown,  mostly 
women  and  children — the  victims  of  Nana 
Sahib's  massacre — is  marked  by  a  marble  angel 


Caxias 
Ceylon 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


ise 


and  a  suitable  inscription.  Population  (1901), 
197,170,  of  whom  about  125,000  are  Hindus. 

It  is  a  station  of  the  SPG  (1839),  with  22  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women,  46  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  10  common  schools,  2  high 
schools,  1  orphanage,  1  hospital  and  2  hotels  for 
students.  Also  station  of  the  Woman's  Union 
Missionary    Society    of    America    (1879),    with 

3  missionary  women,  29  native  women  workers, 
11  common  schools,  1  orphanage,  and  1  training 
school  for  women.     Also  station  of  the  ME,  with 

4  missionaries,  men  and  women,  29  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  18  common  schools,  2  high 
schools,  and  430  professing  Christians. 

CAXIAS:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Maranhao, 
Brazil;  station  of  the  PS  (1896),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  a  dispensary 
and  37  church  members. 

CAYMAN  BRAC :  One  of  the  Cayman  Islands, 
off  the  N.W.  coast  of  Jamaica,  W.  I.  It  has  a  large 
export  trade  in  coconuts.  Station  of  the  Ja- 
maica Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1887),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  5  places  of  regular 
worship,  a  Young  People's  Society,  and  170  bap- 
tized Christians. 

CEBU :  A  town  on  the  island  of  the  same  name 
in  the  Philippine  Islands,  situated  on  the  east 
coast,  and  having  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance, being  rated  as  the  third  port  of  the  Philip- 
pines and  a  center  of  the  hemp  trade.  It  is 
well  situated  and  destined  to  grow  in  the  future. 
Population,  11,000.  The  people  are  of  the 
Visayan  stock  and  use  a  dialect  peculiar  to  Cebu 
and  Bohol.  Station  of  the  PN  (1902),  with  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives  and  1  preaching 
place. 

CEDARHALL:  A  station  of  the  Moravian 
Missions,  in  the  western  part  of  the  island  of  Anti- 
gua, W.  I.,  established  in  1822.  At  present 
(1900)  under  care  of  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
with  14  native  workers,  men  and  women,  2  ele- 
mentary schools,  and  358  communicants. 

CEDAR  LAKE:  A  settlement  in  the  territory 
of  Saskachewan,  Dominion  of  Canada  ;  station 
of  the  CMS,  with  1  missionary,  an  elementary 
school  and  34  communicants. 

CEDRAL:  A  village  near  Catorce  in  the  state 
of  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico;  station  of  the  Amer- 
ican Friends  Foreign  Mission  Association  (1895). 
The  working  force  is  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  missionary  woman  and  3  native  workers,  with 
1  chapel,  2  Sunday  schools,  a  Young  People's 
Society  and  33  professing  Christians. 

CELEBES :  An  island  of  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
under  the  control  of  the  Dutch,  situated  east  of 
Borneo,  and,  like  it,  crossed  by  the  equator. 
Area,  71,150  square  miles.  The  interior  is  ele- 
vated and  generally  mountainous;  the  coast  is 
low  and  exceedingly  rugged  in  its  outline.  The 
island  is  well  watered  by  small  streams,  and 
contains  several  lakes.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  1 ,500,000  They  are  true  Malays  for  the 
most  part,  Mohammedans  in  religion,  and  speak 
the  Bughi  and  Macassar  languages,  for  which 
they  have  two  different  written  characters.  The 
Bughis  are  wild  and  savage  in  appearance,  but 
of  a  quiet  and  peaceable  disposition.  The  abo- 
rigines of  North  Celebes  are  classed  with  the  sav- 
age Malays,  altho  the  civilizing  influence  of 
the  Dutch  has  greatly  promoted  their  advance- 
ment. They  make  obedient  servants,  are  gentle 
and  industrious,  and  readily  assume  the  manners 


and  habits  of  civilized  life.  The  island  was  prob- 
ably discovered  in  1525  by  the  Portuguese.  The 
first  intercourse  with  the  Dutch  was  in  1607; 
they  expelled  the  Portuguese  in  1660,  and  since 
1677  both  the  tribes  have  been  subject  to  them, 
tho  the  Bughis,  by  far  the  most  cultivated 
islanders  of  the  archipelago,  have  frequently 
endeavored  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  their  masters. 
Mission  work  in  this  island  has  been  carried  on 
by  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society  for  some 
70  years.  The  district  of  Minahasa,  where  the 
Dutch  Government  Mission  of  the  17th  century 
had  made  some  converts,  has  been  entirely 
Christianized.  There  are  about  150,000  Chris- 
tians in  the  island,  35,000  of  them  being  commun- 
icants. This  whole  district  has  now  been  given 
up  by  the  missionary  Society,  its  Christian 
institutions  being  supported  by  the  Colonial 
State  Church  as  a  government  charge. 

Meyer  (A.  B.),  Die  Minahasse  auf  Celebes,  Berlin,  1876; 
Wallace  (A.  R.),  The  Malay  Archipelago,  London,  1872, 
new  ed.,   1880. 

CENTENARY:  A  station  of  the  LMS  (1897)  in 
Rhodesia,  Africa,  about  90  miles  west  of  Bula- 
wayo,  with  (1901)  1  missionary,  2  native  workers, 
and  2  elementary  schools. 

CENTRAL    AFRICA    PROTECTORATE.     See 

NyaS  ALAND. 

CENTRAL  PROVINCES  of  India:  This  chief 
commissionership  lies,  as  its  name  implies,  at  the 
very  heart  of  India.  Its  limits  of  north  latitude 
are  17°  50'  and  24°  27'  ;  of  east  longitude,  76° 
and  85°  15'.  Its  greatest  length  is  600  miles, 
from  east  to  west,  while  its  longest  north  and 
south  line  measures  500  miles. 

The  population  is  chiefly  (94  per  cent.)  rural. 
Only  six  towns  have  a  population  exceeding 
20,000.  The  most  interesting  fact  regarding  the 
Central  Provinces  is  that  its  hill  and  j  ungle  regions , 
especially  along  the  northern  frontier,  provided 
the  refuge  to  which  many  of  the  aboriginal  tribes 
resorted  when  too  severely  pressed  upon  by  the 
later  Aryan  immigrants.  These  aboriginal  tribes 
were  largely  of  the  Gond  stock,  and  before 
the  present  political  divisions  came  into  existence 
a  large  part  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Central 
Provmces  was  called,  after  the  name  of  this 
great  family  of  tribes,  Gondwana.  Yet  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  Central  Provinces,  these 
aborigines  form  but  a  comparatively  small 
element,  including  both  those  who  have  embraced 
Hinduism  as  well  as  those  stUl  persisting  in  the 
old  worship  of  their  people;  the  last  (1901)  census 
enumerated  only  1,744,556.  Hindus  number 
9,745,579,  Mohammedans  307,202  and  Jains 
48,183.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  while  in  this 
province  Hindus,  Mohammedans,  Spirit  Wor- 
shipers, Jains,  and  Buddhists  all  fell  off  in 
number  in  the  decade  1891-1901,  the  Christians 
increased  in  the  same  time  from  13,308  to  25,591, 
or  99  per  cent. 

The  first  mission  was  planted  at  Nagpur  by  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  in  1844.  The  country 
was  then  governed  by  a  dynasty,  and  the  native 
rajah  claimed  to  have  absolute  authority  over 
his  subjects,  which  in  his  opinion  involved  the 
right  to  prevent  the  baptism  of  Christian  converts. 
The  supreme  government  of  India  was  appealed 
to  by  the  missionaries,  and  declined  to  interfere; 
but  public  opinion  became  so  aroused  that  the 
Nagpur  prince  finally  receded  from  his  position. 
The  Church  Missionary  Society  began  work  at 
Jabalpur    in  1854,    and    it    has    since    occupied 


137 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


CaxiaH 
Ceylon 


other  stations.  The  German  Evangelical  Synod 
(US),  the  Swedish  National  Missionary  Society, 
the  FFMA,  and  the  ME  also  have  important  work 
in  this  province.  Altogether  12  Protestant 
missionary  societies  occupy  29  stations  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  with  142  missionaries,  men 
and  women.  In  1856  a  colporteur,  in  a  journey 
of  200  miles,  entered  many  large  villages  and  saw 
but  two  schools,  with  hardly  40  pupils.  In  1901 
the  schools  conducted  in  connection  with  these 
mission  stations  alone  number  116  of  all  grades. 

CERRITOS:  A  village  near  Guadalcazar,  in 
the  State  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico;  station  of 
the  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of 
the  South  (1901),  with  2  missionaries  (one  a  phy- 
sician), 1  missionary's  wife,  and  a  dispensary. 

CESAREA.     See  Kaisariyeh. 

CEYLON:  The  island  of  Ceylon  lies  between 
5°  53'  and  9°  51'  north  latitude,  and  79°  41'  and 
81°  55'  east  longitude.  It  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  Ireland,  being  270  miles  long  and  140  wide, 
and  containing  25,333  square  miles. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  island  consists  of 
great  plains,  for  the  most  part  heavily  wooded. 
They  occupy  the  northern  half  of  the  island  and 
reach  south  on  each  side  of  the  mountains,  com- 
pletely encircling  them  with  a  plain  of  from  30 
to  70  miles  in  width.  At  the  extreme  north  lies 
a  group  of  small  coral  built  islands  commonly 
called  the  peninsula  of  Jaffna,  which  have  an 
importance  as  one  of  the  centers  of  population 
and  of  mission  work.  The  southern  central  part 
is  occupied  by  a  group  of  mountains  rising  to  the 
height  of  over  8,000  feet.  Adam's  Peak,  the 
most  prominent  of  these,  7,352  feet  high,  has  on 
its  top  a  mark  said  by  Hindus  to  be  a  footprint 
of  Siva;  by  Buddhists,  of  Buddha;  by  Moham- 
medans, of  Adam. 

The  Climate  is  very  hot  on  the  coast,  but  cooler 
in  the  mountain  region.  Owing  to  the  surround- 
ing sea,  the  temperature  is  extremely  uniform, 
and  the  climate  is  not  considered  unhealthful  for 
Europeans.  The  seasons  are  two — a  wet  and  a 
dry,  whose  time  is  governed  by  the  two  mon- 
soons. The  northwest  monsoon  blows  from 
October  to  May,  the  southwest  from  May  to 
October.  The  rainfall  in  the  north  and  south  is 
small,  but  in  the  mountain  region,  especially  on 
the  southwest  slopes,  it  is  large. 

Ceylon  is  an  English  crown  colony,  ruled  by  a 
governor,  aided  by  executive  and  legislative 
councils.  Most  of  the  higher  officials  are  English, 
but  the  natives  who  are  fitted  for  it  are  admitted 
to  office. 

The  Singhalese  are  said  to  have  emigrated  from 
Oude  in  543  B.  c.  A  kingdom  was  founded, 
records  of  which,  as  minute  and  as  dry  as  the 
Saxon  chronicles,  were  carefully  kept.  In  838  the 
Tamils,  who  had  frequently  invaded  Ceylon, 
established  a  kingdom  in  Jaffna.  In  1505  the 
Portuguese  first  visited  Ceylon,  and  in  1518 
acquired  possessions  in  it.  In  1658  their  terri- 
tory passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch.  The 
English  gained  possession  of  the  island  in  1796, 
and  in  1815  the  Kandian  kingdom,  the  last  ves- 
tige of  native  rule  in  Ceylon,  fell  into  their  hands. 

The  population  of  Ceylon  (1901)  is  3,576,990, 
divided  as  follows:  Singhalese,  2,334,817;  Tamils, 
952,237;  Moormen  (Mohammedans,  mostly 
descendants  of  old  Arab  traders),  224,719;  Ved- 
dahs,  3,215;  European  descendants,  23,312; 
Europeans,  9,583.  "The  great  centers  of  popula- 
tion   are    the    western    coast,    from    Negombo 


southward  to  Point  de  Galle;  certain  portions  of 
the  mountain  region,  and  the  northern  extremity, 
Jaffna. 

The  two  principal  races  of  the  island,  Singhalese 
and  Tamil,  differ  widely  from  each  other,  not  only 
in  language  and  religion,  but  in  vigor,  intelli- 
gence, and  personal  characteristics.  The  Tamil 
is  very  industrious,  and  enterprising,  so  far  as  that 
word  can  be  applied  to  any  tropical  race.  Be- 
sides inhabiting  exclusively  the  northern  part  of 
the  island,  the  Tamils  form  the  bulk  of  the  labor- 
ing population  in  the  cities,  while  the  same  race 
from  South  India  supply  the  tea  estates  of  Cen- 
tral Ceylon  with  almost  their  entire  force  of  labor. 
The  Tamils  of  the  overcrowded  peninsula  of 
Jaffna  push  into  other  parts  of  the  island  in  search 
of  employment.  Often  they  have  a  fair  knowl- 
edge of  English,  and  sometimes  rise  to  honorable 
positions. 

The  Hinduism  of  the  Tamils  in  Ceylon  differs 
but  little  from  Hinduism  in  South  India.  Like 
all  the  Dravidian  races  who  have  adopted  the 
creed  of  Brahmanism,  the  Tamils  retained  much 
of  their  old  worship  of  demons  and  nature.  Devil 
trees  and  devil  temples  are  common,  and  popular 
folklore  consists  largely  of  stories  of  the  freaks  of 
these  demons.  There  is  less  of  caste  in  North 
Ceylon  than  on  the  continent  of  India,  tho  even 
here  it  is  the  most  difficult  thing  for  Christianity 
to  overcome.  The  Brahmans  have  here  less, 
influence  than  in  India. 

The  Singhalese,  occupying  the  southern  and 
western  parts  of  the  island,  are  far  less  vigorous 
and  energetic  than  the  Tamils.  Probably  few 
races  on  the  globe  possessed  of  any  degree  of  civili- 
zation have  greater  listlessness  and  indifference, 
greater  torpidity  of  intellect  and  conscience,  than 
the  Singhalese.  The  religion  of  the  Singhalese  is. 
Buddhism  of  the  "Lesser  Vehicle,"  and  more  akin 
to  that  of  Siam  and  Burma  than  to  that  of  Tibet 
and  Eastern  Asia.  It  has  borrowed  from  its 
neighbor,  Hinduism,  so  that  temples  to  Hindu 
gods  exist  in  some  places  by  the  side  of  temples  to 
Buddha.  The  Singhalese  have  also,  like  their 
Tamil  neighbors,  retained  the  lower  forms  of 
superstition  which  Buddhism  nominally  dis- 
placed, so  that  demon-worship  is  still  practised 
among  them.  In  recent  years  the  Buddhist 
clergy  of  Ceylon  have  shown  considerable  energy 
in  moving  the  people  to  resist  the  progress  of 
evangelization.  They  have  made  special  meet- 
ings and  polemic  address  a  feature  of  their  enter- 
prise, aided  in  this  by  western  enemies  of  the 
Gospel  doctrine.  They  have  also  issued  tracts 
and  undertaken  to  teach  the  children  religious 
dogma. 

Ceylon  has  been  mission  ground  for  nearly  400 
years,  and  has  been  the  victim  of  some  of  the  most 
remarlvable  experiments  in  Christianization  that 
the  world  can  anywhere  sliow.  Its  missionary 
history  may  be  divided  into  three  epochs,  corre- 
sponding to  the  governments  which  held  it :  the 
Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  and  the  English. 

Soon  after  the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese,  Fran- 
ciscan monks  followed,  and  Colombo  was  made 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  In  1544  St.  Francis 
Xavier  preached  among  the  Tamil  fishermen  of 
Mannar,  in  the  liingdom  of  Jaffna,  and  baptized 
between  500  and  600  of  them. 

Perhaps  the  chief  means  used  by  the 
Portuguese  in  Christianizing  the  Ceylonese 
is  hinted  at  by  the  old  historian,  who 
says  that  many  became  Christians  "for  the 
sake  of  Portuguese  gold."     It  is  certain  that  bap- 


Ceylon 
Chamberlain, 


George  W. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA    OF  MISSIONS 


138 


tism  was  made  the  gate  to  preferment,  and  was 
regarded  by  the  people  as  a  political  rather  than 
a  religious  ceremony.  To  this  day  Catholic  pro- 
cessions, which  have  a  suspicious  resemblance  to 
those  of  Hinduism,  are  perpetuated  in  Jaffna. 

With  the  conquest  of  the  Dutch  the  palmy  days 
of  Roman  Catholicism  ended.  The  priests  were 
banished,  Roman  Catholic  rites  forbidden  on  pain 
of  death,  and  the  people  were  commanded  to 
become  Protestants.  No  unbaptized  person  was 
allowed  to  hold  office  or  to  own  land,  while  Roman 
Catholics  were  placed  under  greater  disabilities 
than  Buddhists  or  Hindus.  Soon  converts  to  the 
Protestant  Church  were  numbered  by  the  hun- 
dred thousand.  Again  the  Hindus  of  the  north 
accepted  the  government  religion  with  more 
readiness  than  the  Buddhists  of  the  south.  But 
before  long  it  was  found  that  the  converts  were 
only  Christians  in  name,  and  still  held  the  beliefs 
and  practised  the  rites  of  their  old  religions. 
Indeed,  little  was  or  could  be  done  for  their 
instruction.  This  state  of  things  called  forth  the 
condemnation  of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam. 
Before  the  close  of  the  Dutch  period,  the  number 
of  Christians  had  much  diminished,  and  the  min- 
isters themselves  plainly  saw  the  uselessness  of 
the  course  of  compulsion  taken  by  their  govern- 
ment. No  sooner  had  Dutch  governors  been 
driven  from  Ceylon  than  everywhere,  except  in  a 
few  large  towns,  the  whole  system  collapsed, 
temples  were  rebuilt,  and  the  people  gladly  laid 
aside  the  last  remnants  of  "government  Chris- 
tianity." 

After  the  occupation  of  Ceylon  by  the  English 
the  BMS  was  the  first  Protestant  missionary 
society  to  enter  that  field  (in  1812).  Its  work  is 
mainly  among  the  Singhalese.  The  WMS  sent 
its  first  missionary  to  Ceylon  in  1814,  and  it  soon 
took  up  work  in  the  north  and  the  extreme  south 
of  the  island  in  order  to  reach  both  Tamils  and 
Singhalese.  The  ABCFM  entered  Ceylon,  con- 
centrating effort  at  Jaffna,  when  its  missionary, 
Newell,  was  excluded  from  Bombay  in  1813. 
The  CMS  mission  for  both  Tamils  and  Singhalese 
was  commenced  in  1818  in  Jaffna,  in  Kandy,  and 
in  Galle.  The  SPG  took  up  work  in  Ceylon  in 
1838,  laboring  in  connection  with  the  Bishop  of 
Colombo.  In  1886  the  Salvation  Army  estab- 
lished a  mission  in  Ceylon,  with  "  barracks  "  in 
most  of  the  large  towns.  The  YMCA  and  YWCA 
each  have  representatives  in  the  island.  The 
total  number  of  Christians  connected  with  the 
various  missions  is  not  far  from  30,000.  The 
total  of  Christians  of  all  denominations  shown  by 
the  cen-sus  (1891)  is  302,127. 

Mission  work  has  had  peculiar  difficulties  to 
encounter  in  Ceylon.  In  addition  to  the  abom- 
inations of  Hinduism  in  the  north,  the  fatalism 
of  Buddhism  in  the  south,  and  the  torpidity  of  the 
tropics  in  both  parts,  there  were  the  false  impres- 
sions of  nearly  three  centuries  of  "Government 
Christianity"  to  be  rooted  out  before  the  seeds  of  a 
spiritual  conception  of  Christianity  could  take 
root.  This,  however,  has  been  done.  While 
there  is  still  much  to  be  desired  in  the  churches, 
there  are  many  illustrations  of  pure,  firm  Chris- 
tian life.  Tho  seldom  obliged  to  leave  their 
homes  and  villages,  as  often  in  India,  the  con- 
verts have  endured  tests  not  less  strong,  in  the 
daily  influence  of  those  about  them.  That  so 
many  of  the  Christians  have,  under  these  adverse 
circumstances,  held  their  profession  unspotted,  is 
a  matter  almost  of  wonder. 

A  good  proportion  of  the  churches  support  their 


own  pastors  and  teachers.  In  Christian  families 
there  is  a  beautiful  custom  of  taking  a  handful  of 
rice  from  that  to  be  prepared  for  each  meal  and 
setting  it  aside  to  be  given  to  the  Lord;  and  it  is 
no  uncommon  thing  for-  a  man  to  pledge  a 
month's  salary  for  some  special  object  in  the 
church. 

In  comparison  with  either  Hinduism  or  Bud- 
dhism, Christianity  still  appears  very  weak.   But 
its  growth  cannot  be  counted  by  numbers,  alone. 
It  is  confessed,  even  by  those  opposed  to  Chris- 
tianity, that  the  strength  of  the  native  religions 
is  being  sapped,  and  that  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
Christianity  is  only  a  matter  of  time. 
Capper  (J.),  Old  Ceylon,  illus.,  London,  1878;  Ceylon  Mission 
of  the  LMS,  London,  1879;    Harvard  (W.  M.),  Narrative 
of  the  Establishment  of  the  Wesleyan  Mission  in  Ceylon, 
London,  1823;   Howland  (W.  W.),  Historical  Sketch  oj  the 
Ceylon  Mission,  Boston,  1865;    Leitch  (M.  &  M,),  Seven 
Years  in  Ceylon,   New  York,    1890;    Rouse,   Missionary 
Pictures,  Indian  and  Singhalese,  BMS,  London. 

CHAIBASA:  Chief  town  of  Singhbhum  district, 
Bengal,  India.  Population  (1891),  6,900,  of 
whom  4,000  are  Hindus  and  the  most  of  the 
remainder  are  Mohammedans.  A  large  fair 
attended  by  20,000  visitors  is  held  here  annually 
at  Christmas  time.  Station  of  the  Gossner  Mis- 
sionary Society  of  Germany,  with  1  missionary, 
38  native  workers,  men  and  women,  2  common 
schools,  1  high  school,  and  3,412  baptized  Chris- 
tians. 

CHAINPUR :  A  town  in  the  Shahabad  district 
of  Bengal,  India;  situated  about  120  miles  S.  W. 
of  Patna,  near  the  western  border  of  the  province. 
Station  of  the  Gossner  Missionary  Society  (Ger- 
many), with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  34  native 
workers,  16  chapels,  2  elementary  and  1  high 
school, 1  book  depot,  and3,360baptized  Christians. 

CHAKA:  A  settlement  on  the  W.  side  of 
Pemba  I.,  off  the  eastern  coast  of  German  East 
Africa;  station  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Committee  of 
the  Society  of  Friends  (England),  with  2  mission- 
aries, 2  missionary  women,  1  elementary  school, 
1  orphanage  and  a  dispensary. 

CHAKRADHARPUR :  A  town  situated  20 
miles  N.  W.  of  Chaibasa,  in  the  Singhbhum  dis- 
trict of  Chota  Nagpur,  India.  Station  of  the 
Gossner  Missionary  Society,  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary, 18  native  workers,  men  and  women,  9 
chapels,  2  elementary  schools  and  1,100  bap- 
tized Christians. 

CHALDAIC  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect  of  the 
Modern  Syriac. 

CHALDEAN  CHURCH:  Name  taken  by  those 
Nestorians  of  Mesopotamia  who  seceded  from 
their  own  church  in  1780  and  accepted  the 
supremacy  of  the  Pope  of  Rome.  This  secession 
was  led  by  the  Nestorian  Patriarch  of  Mosul, 
whose  hereditary  and  official  name  was  Mar  Elias. 
The  conditions  on  which  these  Nestorians  sub- 
mitted to  Rome  included  the  recognition  of  the 
orders  of  their  clergy,  and  the  privilege  of  using 
their  ancient  liturgy.  The  office  of  patriarch 
was  continued  under  the  title  of  Patriarch  of 
Babylon,  but  it  soon  ceased  to  be  hereditary  in 
the  family  of  Mar  Elias.  The  liturgy  has  been 
gradually  modified  in  some  respects,  and  at 
present  the  Chaldean  Church  is  quite  fanatically 
opposed  to  many  of  those  very  peculiarities  of  the 
Nestorians  for  whose  preservation  their  fathers 
stipulated.  The  number  of  Chaldeans  hardly 
exceeds  75,000. 

Laurie  (T.),  Dr,  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  New 
York. 


189 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Ceylon 
CUambcrlaln,  George  W. 


CHA-LING-CHAU :  Town  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Province  of  Hu-nan,  China;  station  of  the 
CIM  (1898),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  physician 
and  a  chapel. 

CHALMERS,  James:  Born  August  4,  1841. 
Died  April  8,  1901.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
he  entered  a  law  ofRce  at  Inverary,  and  it  was 
about  this  time  that  his  great  interest  in  foreign 
missions  was  aroused  by  a  letter  from  a  mission- 
ary in  the  Fiji  Islands.  So  powerful  was  the 
impression  made  upon  him  by  this  letter  that,  it 
is  said,  on  his  way  home  from  the  religious  service 
he  stopped  in  a  lonely  spot  and,  dropping  on  his 
knees,  prayed  that  God  might  make  him  a  mis- 
sionary to  the  heUthen.  After  his  conversion 
he  spent  three  years  in  study,  during  which  time 
he  was  engaged  in  mission  work,  and  then  he  was 
accepted  as  a  candidate  by  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society,  entering  Cheshunt  College  when 
about  twenty-one  to  prepare  for  the  foreign  field. 
Leaving  Cheshunt  at  the  end  of  his  second  year, 
he  completed  his  training  in  the  institution  at 
Highgate  conducted  by  the  London  Missionary 
Society.  In  January,  1866,  he  and  his  bride  set 
sail  for  Raratonga,  an  island  in  the  Cook  group 
in  the  Southern  Pacific.  After  a  series  of  mishaps 
their  ship  became  a  total  wreck  on  the  reef  at 
Savage  Island  (Niue),  and  they  finally  arrived 
at  Raratonga  in  the  ship  of  the  piratical  Captain 
Hayes,  one  year  and  four  months  after  leaving 
England.  When  Chalmers  arrived  at  Raratonga 
he  found  that  the  natives  had  been  raised  from  a 
condition  of  fierce  savagery  to  a  state  of  semi- 
civilization  through  the  efforts  of  John  Williams 
(1823)  and  Pitman  and  Buzacott;  but  immorality, 
especially  drunkenness,  still  was  rife.  His  time 
was  largely  occupied  by  his  classes  for  the  train- 
ing of  native  teachers  and  by  visiting  the  differ- 
ent stations  on  the  island  on  preaching  tours;  but 
he  considered  his  work  at  Raratonga  as  a  course 
of  preparation  for  missionary  labors  in  New 
Guinea,  where  heathenism  and  savagery  were 
rampant.  In  May,  1877,  under  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  he  and  his  wife  sailed  for 
their  new  field.  Their  first  settlement  was  made 
at  a  point  on  the  bay  lying  between  South  Cape 
and  Suau.  By  his  remarkable  tact  and  personal 
magnetism,  he  soon  disarmed  the  suspicions 
of  the  people;  a  house  of  worship  was  erected  in 
a  short  time,  and  at  the  end  of  two  years  the  work 
at  Suau  was  sufficiently  advanced  to  be  left  in 
the  care  of  a  teacher.  His  time  was  spent  in 
constant  journeys  to  new  fields,  and  one  of  the 
most  important  of  these  trips  was  his  visit  to  the 
natives  of  Motumotu,  a  district  on  the  coast  some 
distance  west  of  Port  Moresby,  where  the  people 
were  especially  fierce  and  bloodthirsty.  His 
numberless  perils  by  land  and  sea  he  referred  to 
simply  as  "the  pepper  and  salt"  which  gave  zest 
to  his  further  and  greater  efforts.  He  and  his 
associate,  W.  G.  Lawes,  worked  well  together,  the 
one  discovering  and  opening  new  fields,  the  other 
mastering  and  reducing  to  working  form  the 
language,  and  training  teachers  for  the  work  on 
those  fields.  In  1882,  after  making  a  visit  to  his 
old  station  at  Suau,  Chalmers  was  able  to  write : 
"For  over  two  years  there  have  been  no  cannibal 
ovens,  no  feasts,  no  human  flesh,  no  desire  for 
skulls.  Tribes  that  could  not  formerly  meet, 
except  to  fight,  now  meet  as  friends  and  sit  down 
side  by  side  in  the  same  house,  worshiping  the 
true  God."  In  October,  1888,  Southeastern 
New  Guinea  was  formally  annexed  to  the  British 
Empire,  and  Chalmers  and  Lawes  rendered  valu- 


able aid,  through  their  knowledge  of  the  country 
and  people.  After  an  absence  of  twenty  years 
Chalmers  returned  to  England,  where  his  speeches 
aroused  marked  enthusiasm.  In  1887  he  visited 
Australia,  and  in  1890  he  made  a  tour  of  the  colo- 
nies. It  was  on  a  voyage  to  Samoa  that  Chalmers 
met  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  the  novelist,  and  a 
loving  friendship  was  formed.  In  1892  Chalmers 
was  established  at  Saguane,  at  the  mouth  of  Fly 
River;  his  field  embraced  the  south  coast  of  the 
island  and  the  islands  of  Torres  Straits  as  far  as 
Murray  Island.  Sir  William  MacGregor,  who 
for  years  held  the  position  of  Lieutenant-Gover- 
nor of  New  Guinea,  wrote  these  words:  "Many 
teachers  died  of  illness;  several  were  killed  by  the 
people  for  whom  they  had  come  to  work.  In 
the  history  of  the  mission  there  loom  out  con- 
spicuously the  names  of  two  great  missionaries, 
the  Rev.  Dr.  W.  G.  Lawes  and  the  Rev.  James 
Chalmers;  the  former  typically  a  man  of  thought, 
the  latter  typically  a  man  of  action.  Each  of 
them  has  worked  for  and  among  the  Papuans 
for  over  a  score  of  years,  and  they  still  carry  on 
work  of  the  greatest  importance."  Since  these 
words  were  penned  Chalmers,  the  wonderful 
peacemaker  of  savage  New  Guinea,  after  living 
unscathed,  tho  many  times  condemned  to 
death,  has  suffered  martyrdom  for  Christ's  sake. 
He  and  his  young  colleague,  Oliver  Fellowes 
Tomkins,  were  brutall}'  murdered  by  a  tribe  of 
skull-hunters  at  Goaribari  on  the  Fly  River. 
Lovett  (R.),  James  Chalmers,  London  and  New  York,  1902; 
Chalmers  (J.),  Life  and  Work  in  New  Guinea, 

CHAMA:  A  town  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony, 
W.  Africa,  about  50  miles  west  of  Cape  Coast 
Castle;  station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1901)  one 
ordained  native  minister,  47  other  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women,  3  elementary  schools,  23 
preaching  places,  3  Sunday  schools,  and  336 
professing  Christians. 

CHAMARLAKOTA:  A  town  in  the  Godavari 
district,  Madras,  India,  situated  87  miles  south- 
west of  Vizagapatam.  Population  13,400,  of 
whom  about  12,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
BOQ  (1882),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  1  high  school, 
a  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  44  church  members.  Also 
station  of  the  ELGC,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife, 

CHAMBA:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Himalayas,  75  miles  E.  of  Jammu. 
Population,  6,000,  of  whom  4,700  are  Hindus  and 
1,200  Mohammedans. 

Station  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Foreign 
Mission  Committee  (1863),  with  5  missionaries, 
men  and  women  (of  whom  3  are  physicians),  11 
native  workers,  6  common  schools,  1  dispensary, 
and  33  communicants.  Also  station  of  the  CMS 
(1877) ,  with  2  missionary  women,  6  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  and  4  village  schools. 

CHAMBA  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Indie 
branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  languages,  and  is 
a  dialect  of  the  Punjabi  or  Silch.  It  is  spoken 
in  Chamba,  a  native  state  south  of  Kashmir,  and 
is  written  with  a  modified  form  of  the  old  San- 
skrit alphabet. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  George  W.:  Born  at  Water- 
ford,  Penn.,  August  13,  1839;  died  July  31, 
1902.  Appointed  in  1866  to  the  Brazil  Mission 
of  the  Presbyterian  Board  (North).  One  of  the 
most  conspicuous  figures  of  the  Evangelistic 
work  in  South  America,  a  great,  good  and  heroic 
man  whose  work  has  been  visibly  blessed  of  God 


Chamberlain,  Jolin 
Chensalpat 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


140> 


beyond  what  usually  falls  to  the  lot  of  those  who 
serve  Him  in  mission  fields,  a  man  to  whom  was 
revealed  the  secret  of  touching  men's  hearts. 

Young  Chamberlain  first  went  to  Brazil  for  his 
health.  He  had  no  idea  of  remaining,  but  was 
soon  infected  by  Mr.  Simonton's  enthusiasm,  and 
returned  home  to  prepare  for  his  life  work  there. 
He  entered  Union  Seminary,  but  the  course  was 
interrupted  by  the  death  of  Simonton,  and  he 
hastened  to  Brazil.  Tho  the  junior  member 
of  the  mission,  Simonton's  mantle  fell  naturally 
upon  his  shoulders.  He  gave  himself  to  the 
work  of  winning  Brazil  for  Christ  with  all  the 
enthusiasm  of  an  impetuous,  ardent  nature. 
Wife,  children,  friends,  means,  all  the  energy  of 
his  nature,  were  swept  into  the  campaign. 

The  story  of  his  life,  when  written,  will  make 
an  inspiring  book  and  will  cover  the  essentials 
of  the  history  of  the  Presbyterian  Mission  in 
Brazil.  In  Rio,  Sao  Paulo,  Parana,  Bahia,  Sergipe 
and  parts  of  Minas  he  is  the  best  known  of  Amer- 
ican missionaries,  and  the  indelible  evidences  of 
his  work  are  found  all  over  this  vast  area.  He 
may  be  justly  called  the  builder  of  churches  and 
the  founder  of  schools. 

Of  great  courage,  matchless  enthusiasm  and 
tireless  energy,  he  traversed  the  dangerous 
regions  of  the  interior,  on  mule  back,  before  the 
days  of  railways,  and,  tho  repeatedly  stoned, 
driven  from  the  towns  and  threatened  with 
death,  he  invariably  returned  and  delivered  the 
message,  won  hearts,  and  churches  grew  up  in 
his  wake.  He  was  a  peerless  evangelist,  pioneer 
and  pathfinder. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  John:  Sailed  for  India  as  a 

missionary  of  the  English  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  in  May,  1802,  reaching  Serampur  January 
27,  1803.  He  had  great  aptitude  for  acquiring 
languages,  and  his  progress  in  Bengali  was  so 
rapid  that  in  a  year  he  could  speak  it  with  an 
accuracy  equal  to  that  of  any  of  the  older  mis- 
sionaries. In  January,  1804,  he  visited  Saugur 
Island,  where  thousands  were  gathered  at  the 
annual  religious  festival.  To  these  people  he 
and  his  associates  preached  the  Gospel  and  gave 
books  and  tracts.  In  the  spring  of  this  year  he 
was  stationed  at  Cutwa,  75  miles  north  of  Cal- 
cutta. In  reviewing  his  labors  he  says:  "It  is 
now  five  years  since  Providence  fixed  my  lot  here. 
Millions  of  the  heathen  have  heard  the  glorious 
report,  either  from  preaching  or  from  the  dis- 
tribution of  upward  of  a  hundred  thousand  tracts 
and  many  hundreds  of  the  Scriptures."  In 
addition  to  this  work  he  had  a  school  of  40  pupils, 
for  whose  benefit  he  translated  Dr.  Watts  cate- 
chism and  a  few  hymns.  Pie  also  made  several 
visits  to  Berhampur,  a  military  station  45  miles 
from  Calcutta,  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the 
soldiers,  among  whom  he  gathered  a  church  of 
24  members.  On  account  of  his  facility  in  ac- 
quiring languages,  his  knowledge  of  the  original 
Scriptures,  especially  of  Hebrew,  and  his  zeal 
and  experience  in  missionary  work,  he  was  sent 
in  1809  to  Agra  to  establish  a  new  mission.  His 
health  having  failed,  he  sailed  for  England  in  1827, 
but  died  on  the  passage. 
Lewis?  (C.  B.),  John  Chamberlain,  Calcutta,  1876. 

CHANDA:  Chief  town  of  the  Chanda  district, 
Nagpur  division.  Central  Provinces,  India.  It  is 
surrounded  by  charming  scenery,  but  is  subject 
to  malarial  fever  in  the  autumn.  A  celebrated 
fair  is  held  here  in  April.  Population,  16,200,  of 
which  number  14,600  are  Hindus.     Station  of  the 


Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  (1898),  with  2  mis- 
sionaries, 5  native  workers,  an  orphanage,  and  a. 
hospital. 

CHANDAG:  A  village  in  the  Kumaon  district, 
United  Provinces,  India,  situated  among  the 
lower  spurs  of  the  Himalayas  not  far  from  the 
boundaries  of  Kashmir.  It  has  been  the  scene  of 
the  brave  and  effective  work  among  lepers  of 
Mary  Reed,  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  (U.  S.) 
Mission.  A  station  of  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in 
India  and  the  East  was  opened  here  in  1883,  and 
now  has  a  chapel  and  a  leper  asylum. 

CHANDAUSI :  A  city  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Moradabad,  40 
miles  W.  of  Bareilly.  Population,  28,000,  includ- 
ing 20,000  Hindus  and  7,700  Mohammedans. 
Station  of  the  ME  (1881),  with  16  native  workers, 
4  chapels,  16  Sunday  schools,  16  elementary 
schools,  a  Young  People's  Society  and  446  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

CHANDBALI :  A  town  in  Orissa,  Bengal,  India 
9  miles  from  the  sea  and  60  miles  N.  E.  of 
Cuttack.  The  climate  tho  hot  is  healthful,  being 
tempered  by  sea  breezes.  The  population  is. 
about  5,000,  chiefly  Hindus,  with  some  Moham- 
medans. The  Telugu  language  and  the  Bengali 
and  Hindustani  here  come  into  rivalry  with  the 
Uriye.  The  General  Convention  of  Free  Baptists 
established  a  station  here  in  1888,  and  the 
present  force  of  workers  consists  of  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  with  26  natives,  men  and 
women;  11  elementary  schools  are  conducted  in 
the  town  and  its  dependencies  and  a  church  of 
25  members  has  been  organized. 

CHANDKURI:  Station  of  the  German  Evan- 
gelical (Synod)  Missionary  Society  (U.  S.)  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  India,  25  miles  S.  W.  of  Bilas- 
pur.  The  station  has  a  force  of  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  with  24  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  There  are  7  elementary  schools,  an 
orphanage,  a  dispensary,  a  book  depot,  8  places 
of  worship  in  the  town  and  its  vicintiy,  and  the 
number  of  baptized  Christians  is  520.  The  Mis- 
sion to  Lepers  in  India  and  the  East  also  has  a 
station  here,  opened  in  1896,  and  maintains  a 
chapel,  leper  asylum  and  a  home  for  the 
untainted  childern  of  lepers. 

CHANDPUR:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  37  miles  east  of  Meerut.  Population, 
12,300,  sixty  per  cent,  being  Mohammedans. 
Station  of  the  New  Zealand  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  (1898),  with  1  missionary  physician  and 
his  wife,  a  missionary  woman,  4  native  workers, 
men  and  women,  1  elementary  school  and  a  hos- 
pital. 

CHANG-CHATI-FU:  A  city  in  the  province  of 
Fo-kien,  China,  situated  about  25  miles  W.  of 
Amoy,  and  possessing  an  important  trade  in  silk 
and  some  iron  works.  Population,  about 
500,000.  The  LMS  opened  a  station  here  in  1862, 
which  is  now  occupied  by  7  missionaries,  men  and 
women  (one  of  them  a  physician),  and  20  native 
workers,  men  and  women.  Connected  with  the 
station  are  a  college,  a  hospital,  8  elementary 
schools,  and  a  body  of  351  professing  Christians. 
The  RCA  also  has  a  station  here  (1895),  with  2 
missionary  women,  17  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  3  elementary  schools,  a  high  school,  and 
14  places  of  worship  in  the  city  and  surrounding 
regions.  The  number  of  professing  Christians 
connected  with  the  station  is  312. 

CHANGOMBE:  One  of  the  villages  on  the  main 


141 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Chamberlain,   Jobn 
Cheugralpat 


land  near  Mombasa,  British  East  Africa.  The 
CMS  opened  a  station  here  in  1898,  which  has  at 
present  4  missionaries,  men  and  women,  7  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  5  schools,  a  dispen- 
sary, and  16  communicants. 

CHANG-KIA-KAU:  A  city  lying  110  miles  N. 
W.  of  Peking,  China,  and  commonly  called  Kal- 
gan.  It  lies  at  an  altitude  of  2,555  feet,  and  is  an 
important  depot  of  Russian  trade.  Population, 
75,000.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1865),  with  5 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  13  native  workers, 
9  places  of  worship,  9  Sunday  schools,  1  elemen- 
tary school,  2  high  schools,  1  hospital,  1  dispen- 
sary, a  book  depot  and  236  church  members. 

CHANG-Ptr-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Fo-kien,  China,  about  100  miles  S.  W.  of  Amoy; 
occupied  as  a  station  by  the  Presbyterian  Church 
of  England  in  1874,  and  now  having  a  force  of  9 
missionaries,  men  and  women  (of  whom  two  are 
physicians),  who  carry  on  a  hospital,  a  dispensary 
and  a  medical  school. 

CHANG-SHAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Che-kiang,  China,  about  30  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Ku-chau-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1878),  with  a 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman 
and  6  native  workers,  men  and  women.  In  the 
town  and  its  neighborhood  are  5  preaching  places, 
and  there  are  41  professing  Christians. 

CHANG-SHU:  1.  A  village  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China,  situated  near  the  Kan  River, 
and  occupied  in  1895  as  a  station  by  the  CIM. 
The  present  force  is  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
2  native  workers.  The  number  of  baptized 
Christians  is  10. 

2.  A  town  in  the  southern  part  of  the  province 
of  Kiang-su,  China.  The  MES  occupied  it  as  a 
station  in  1890  and  now  have  there  1  missionary 
and  2  native  workers,  with  3  preaching  places  and 
a  book  depot.  The  number  of  professing 
Christians  is  112. 

CHANG-TE-FU:  A  city  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  province  of  China,  Honan;  occupied  in  1896 
as  a  missionary  station  by  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada.  The  force  now  working  there 
consists  of  9  missionaries,  men  and  women  (of 
whom  two  are  physicians),  and  5  native  workers. 
Besides  a  chapel,  they  maintain  a  hospital  and 
■dispensary.  It  is  also  a  station  of  the  Cumber- 
land Presbyterian  Missionary  Board,  with  5  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women,  1  native  worker  and  a 
dispensary. 

CHAO-CHAU-FU:  A  city  of  about  200,000 
inhabitants  in  the  province  of  Kwang-tung, 
Cliina,  situated  about  20  miles  north  of  Swatow. 
It  is  the  prefectural  city  of  an  agricultural  dis- 
trict, containing  over  ten  million  inhabitants; 
occupied  as  a  mission  central  station  by  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  England  in  1890.  This  mis- 
sion now  has  there  (1901)  2  missionaries  (one  a 
physician),  1  missionary's  wife,  1  missionary 
woman,  not  married,  5  outstations,  1  hospital,  1 
dispensary,  1  medical  class.  There  is  also  a  fine 
church  building.  The  number  of  communicants 
reported  from  Chao-chau-fu  jointly  with  Swatow 
is  2,140.  Also  a  station  of  the  ABMU  (1894), 
with  a  missionary  and  his  wife  and  4  native  work- 
ers, who  have  3  places  of  worship  in  the  district 
and  80  church  members. 

CHAO-CHENG:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  30  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Ping-yang-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1901),  with 
2  missionaries. 


CHAO-TUNG-FU:  A  city  in  the  N.  E.  part  of 
the  province  of  Yunnan,  China,  which  has  impor- 
tant lead  and  silver  mines.  Population,  about 
50,000.  Station  of  the  Bible  Christian  Mission- 
ary Society  (1888),  with  4  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  a  native  worker,  an  elementary  school 
and  a  dispensary. 

CHAO-YANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  northern 
part  of  China,  beyond  the  great  wall  and  near 
the  western  border  of  Manchuria,  lying  about 
120  miles  N.  W.  of  New-chwang.  It  was  occu- 
pied as  a  station  by  the  LMS  in  1887,  and  in  1902 
was  transferred  to  the  PCI,  the  LMS  having  de- 
cided to  withdraw  from  Mongolia.  A  school  has 
been  opened  and  the  number  of  church  mem- 
bers is  217. 

CHARLOTTENBURG:  A  station  of  the  Mora- 
vian Missions  (1835)  in  Surinam,  South  America, 
and  was  the  first  plantation  opened  to  the  Mora- 
vians for  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  fifty  years 
after  the  missionaries  began  their  labors  in  Suri- 
nam. It  lies  on  a  curve  of  the  river  Commewyne, 
about  50  miles  E.  of  Paramaribo.  The  banks  of 
the  stream  are  lined  with  fresh,  green  woods, 
among  which  here  and  there  pretty  hamlets  may 
be  seen.  At  present  the  missionary  force  con- 
sists of  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  with  12  native 
workers,  men  and  women.  There  is  a  chapel 
and  a  school  and  the  number  of  communicants  is 
255. 

CHAtT-KIA-KAU :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  China,  about  30  miles  west  of  Chen- 
chau-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1884),  with  a  force 
of  12  missionaries,  men  and  women  (one  of  whom 
is  a  physician),  and  14  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  In  the  town  and  its  neighborhood  there 
are  9  preaching  centers  and  290  communicants. 

CHAVAKACHERI :  A  town  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Jaffna  Peninsula,  Ceylon,  situated  11 
miles  E.  of  the  town  of  Jaffna.  Station  of  the 
ABCFM  (1834),  temporarily  vacant  and  under 
care  of  missionaries  at  Udupitti.  It  has  (1900) 
69  native  workers,  men  and  women,  26  elemen- 
tary schools  and  a  dispensary.  The  number  of 
church  members  is  285. 

CHEFOO.     See  Chi-fu. 

CHEMULPO:  The  most  important  of  the 
treaty  ports  of  Korea.  The  climate  is  temperate. 
It  has  about  2,000  foreign  residents,  most  of 
whom  are  Japanese.  Station  of  the  ME,  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  15 
chapels,  2  elementary  schools,  1  theological  class, 
10  Sunday  schools  and  1,081  professing  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  SPG  (1890),  with  2 
missionaries,  1  native  worker,  1  elementary 
school  and  10  communicants. 

CHENCHAUFU:  A  city  and  district  head- 
quarters in  the  eastern  part  of  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  China.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1895), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  mission- 
ary women  (of  whom  one  is  a  physician),  2  native 
workers,  1  chapel  and  23  professing  Christians. 

CHENGALPAT:  Railway  junction  and  chief 
town  of  the  district  of  the  same  name;  situated 
35  miles  S.  W.  of  Madras,  India.  Population, 
6,200,  mostly  Hindus.  Station  of  the  UFS,  with 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman, 
62  native  workers,  men  and  women,  20  elemen- 
tary schools,  3  high  schools,  a  YMCA  and  125 
church  members.  Also  station  of  the  Leipzig 
Missionary  Society  (1893),  with  2  missionaries, 
1  missionary's  wife,  6  native  workers,  4  chapels, 


Clieng"-lcTi-lisieii. 
Cliildren's   Special 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


14a 


4  elementary  schools  and  357  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

CHENG-KU-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China;  situated  about  15  miles  west  by 
north  of  Han-chung.  Station  of  the  CIM,  with 
(1899)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them  married,  7 
native  workers,  3  preaching  places,  1  school,  a 
dispensary  and  87  professing  Christians. 

CHENG-TXJ-FU :  Capital  of  the  province  of 
Sze-chwan,  China.  It  is  one  of  the  finest  cities 
in  China,  situated  in  the  middle  of  a  fertile  and 
well-watered  plain,  surrounded  by  graceful  hills. 
The  people  are  reputed  to  be  among  the  most 
polished  in  the  empire.  Population  (1887)  esti- 
mated at  800,000.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1881), 
with  3  missionaries  (two  of  them  married),  9 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  6  chapels,  3  ele- 
mentary schools  and  251  communicants.  Also 
station  of  the  Methodist  Church  of  Canada  (1891), 
with  5  missionaries  (one  a  physician),  2  chapels, 
1  elementary  school,  1  high  school,  a  hospital,  a 
dispensary,  a  printing  house,  2  book  depots  and 
17  communicants.  Also  station  of  the  Woman's 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Church  in 
Canada  (1893),  with  8  missionary  women  (two  of 
them  physicians),  1  high  school,  1  orphanage,  a 
dispensary  and  a  hospital.  Also  station  of  the 
ME,  with  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  5  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  2  chapels,  4  elemen- 
tary schools,  1  high  school  and  64  professing 
Christians. 

CHENG- YANG- KWAW :  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Ngan-hwei,  China;  station  of  the  CIM  (1887), 
with  (1900)  3  missionaries,  2  native  workers,  and 

1  chapel. 

CHEN-KIANG-FU :  A  city  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-su,  China;  situated  about  40  miles  west  of 
Nan-king  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yangtse  River. 
Population  (1901)  140,000.  The  place  is  a  com- 
mercial center  of  importance.  Its  climate  is 
damp,  subject  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature, 
but  not  unhealthful.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  missionary 
women  (two  of  them  medical),  2  native  workers, 

2  preaching  places,  1  elementary  and  1  high 
school  and  79  professing  Christians.  Also  station 
of  the  PS  (1883),  with  (1901)  3  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  4  preaching  places,  2  outstations. 
Also  station  of  the  CIM  (1888),  with  5  mission- 
aries, men  and  women  (two  of  them  physicians), 
1  native  worker,  1  chapel,  a  hospital,  and  11  com- 
municants.    Station  also  of  the  SBC,  with  (1902) 

3  missionaries  (one  of  them  a  physician),  2  wives 
of  missionaries,  2  women  missionaries,  3  native 
workers,  3  chapels,  3  schools  and  35  church  mem- 
bers. The  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland 
also  has  a  station  here  under  care  of  agent  who 
supervises  a  depot  and  25  native  workers.  In 
the  missionary  and  commercial  reports  the  name 
is  written  Chinkiang. 

CHEN-YUEN-HSIEN :  Town  in  the  province  of 
Kan-su,  China,  about  35  miles  N.  E.  of  Ping- 
liang-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1897),  with  (1900) 
3  women  missionaries,  3  native  workers,  1  chapel, 
1  high  school  and  1  refuge  for  opium  eaters. 

CHERIBON:  A  seaport  on  the  north  coast  of 
Java,  125  miles  east  southeast  of  Data  via.  It  is 
the  residence  of  a  Dutch  governor  and  a  place  of 
considerable  trade.  Population,  52,000,  inclu- 
ding about  600  Europeans.  Station  of  the  Nether- 
lands Missionary  Society  (1865),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  59  communicants. 


CHERRA  PUNJI :  A  village  in  the  Khasia  Hills, 
Assam,  India,  lying  25  miles  S.  W.  of  Shillong,  at 
an  altitude  of  4,455  feet.  The  rainfall  here  is  the 
heaviest  known,  the  mean  annual  amount  being 
474  inches.  The  population  is  somewhat  over 
5,000.  Station  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Method- 
ist Missionary  Society,  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  25  native  workers,  men  and  women,  16 
elementary  schools,  1  theological  seminary,  22 
preaching  stations,  14  Sunday  schools  and  482 
church  members. 

CHESTER,  Rev.  Edward,  M.D. :  Born  in  New 
York  City,  July  12,  1828;  graduated  from 
Union  Theological  Seminary  in  1857  and  entered 
upon  his  work  in  the  Madura  Mission,  India, 
under  the  ABCFM  in  the  spring  of  1859.  He 
spent  nearly  forty-two  years  on  the  foreign  field, 
and  in  pursuing  the  duties  of  a  faithful  missionary 
of  the  Cross,  his  influence  as  an  educator  and  a 
physician  was  deeply  felt  throughout  the  region 
of  his  labors.  Altho  before  leaving  America  he 
prepared  himself  for  medical  practise  in  India,  he 
spent  a  year  at  Madras,  studying  the  forms  of 
disease  peculiar  to  the  tropics,  at  the  hospital, 
infirmaries  and  dispensaries  of  the  presidency 
capital.  When  he  was  put  in  charge  of  the 
Madura  hospital  and  dispensarj',  he  completely 
transformed  the  methods  of  these  institutions  and 
the  mission,  and  the  patients  increased  from 
3,100  to  51,000  annually.  To  these  thousands 
the  Gospel  was  daily  preached,  and  a  leaflet, 
which  served  also  as  a  dispensary  ticket,  was 
given,  containing  the  ten  commandments,  the 
Lord's  Prayer  and  a  brief  statement  of  saving 
truth.  Dr.  Chester  established  the  local  mission- 
ary dispensary  and  medical  service,  and  through 
his  consecrated  energy  the  district  of  Madura  was 
better  provided  with  a  medical  service  for  com- 
bating epidemics  and  common  tropical  diseases 
than  any  other  district  of  South  India.  In 
addition  to  his  extensive  medical  work.  Dr.  Ches- 
ter, during  all  of  these  years,  had  charge  of  a  mis- 
sion district,  with  a  large  number  of  pastors, 
preachers,  teachers  and  Bible  women  under  his 
supervision,  and  also  a  number  of  schools  and 
separate  classes  received  his  personal  attention. 
He  laid  down  his  burden  and  entered  into  rest  at 
Dindigul,  March  26,  1892. 

CHEUNG  MAI :  A  city  in  the  Laos  country  of 
Siam,  300  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Bangkok.  Charm- 
ingly situated  among  hills  on  the  Mah  Ping  River. 
Population,  100,000.  Station  of  the  PN  (1867), 
with  (1901)  16  missionaries,  men  and  women  (one 
of  them  a  physician),  4  native  workers,  7  elemen- 
tary schools,  2  high  schools,  1  theological  school, 
a  hospital,  2  dispensaries,  a  printing  house  and 
1,906  church  members. 

CHEUNG  RAI:  A  city  in  the  Laos  country, 
Siam,  about  100  miles  N.  E.  of  Cheung  Mai. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1897),  for  some  years  known 
in  the  reports  as  Cheung  Hal.  The  force  occu- 
pying it  (1901)  consists  of  2  missionaries  (one  of 
them  a  physician)  and  their  wives,  with  1  native 
worker.  There  are  in  this  field  1  elementary 
school,  1  hospital,  a  dispensary,  a  Young  People's 
Society  and  312  church  members.  The  field  is 
nearly  200  miles  long  from  north  to  south  and 
nearly  as  wide  from  east  to  west.  Within  its 
limits  are  three  organized  churches. 

CHHINDWARA:  Chief  town  of  a  district  in 
the  Narbada  division.  Central  Provinces,  India. 
It  is  situated  on  a  well-watered  table  land,  64 
miles  N.  E.  of  Nagpur.     The  population  is  about 


143 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Cheng-kn-hsieii 
Children's   Spcclul 


9,000,  two-thirds  of  the  people  being  Hindus.  It 
was  occupied  as  a  station  by  the  Swedish  National 
Missionary  Society  in  1885.  The  present  force 
there  consists  of  8  missionaries,  men  and  women 
(one  being  a  physician),  and  16  native  workers, 
men  and  women.  The  various  enterprises  of  the 
station  are  3  elementary  schools,  an  orphanage, 
a  dispensary  and  theological  school,  besides  the 
usual  preaching  services.  There  are  83  profess- 
ing Christians  connected  with  the  station.  It  is 
also  a  circuit  of  the  ME,  with  3  native  workers 
and  97  professing  Christians. 

CHHUNG-JU:  A  town  in  Korea,  55  miles  S.  E. 
of  Seoul;  station  of  the  PS  (1896),  with  7  mission- 
aries, men  and  women  (one  a  physician),  3  preach- 
ing places  and  10  communicants. 

CHIANG-CHIU.     See  Chano-chau-fit. 

CHIANG  HOA :  Town  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
island  of  Formosa,  about  5  miles  S.  W.  of  Taichu. 

Station  of  the  PCE  (1889),  with  (1901)  2  mis- 
sionaries (one  a  physician),  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital and  23  preaching  places  (in  district).  The 
communicants  connected  with  the  central  sta- 
tions of  Tainan  and  Chiang  Hoa  conjointly  are 
2,190.  (The  Chiang  Hoa  field  is  spoken  of  by 
the  missionaries  as  the  Taichu  field  very  fre- 
quently) . 

CHICACOLE:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Gan- 
gam,  Madras,  India;  situated  on  the  Nagavulli 
River,  10  miles  from  the  sea.  Population  (1891) 
18,200,  almost  all  Hindus.  The  BMP  opened  a 
station  here  in  1878,  which  now  has  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  8  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  1  high  school,  a  hos- 
pital, a  book  depot  and  45  church  members.  The 
name  is  also  written  Cicacole. 

CHI-CHAU-FU:  A  city  in  the  province  of 
Ngan-hwei,  China,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Yangtse  River.  Station  of  the  CIM,  with  a 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  missionary  women,  4 
native  workers,  an  elementary  school  and  21  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

CHICHOLI:  Town  in  the  Narbada  division. 
Central  Provinces,  India;  station  of  the  Episco- 
pal Church  in  Scotland  (1894),  with  (1900)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  1  missionary  woman,  4 
native  workers,  an  elementary  school  and  21 
communicants. 

CHI-CHOW.     See  Ki-chau. 

CHIENG-TOONG.     See  Keng-tdng. 

CHI-FU:  A  city  and  seaport  in  the  province 
of  Shan-tung,  China.  It  is  a  commercial  center 
for  goods  of  foreign  manufacture.  The  popula- 
tion is  about  120,000.  The  climate  is  more  agree- 
able to  Europeans  than  th-at  of  any  other  open 
port  in  China,  and  the  place  is  visited  as  a  sani- 
tarium by  foreign  residents  in  the  south  of  the 
empire.  It  was  occupied  as  a  station  by  the  PN 
in  1862,  which  now  has  a  force  there  of  9  mission- 
aries, men  and  women,  94  native  workers,  men 
and  women  (in  the  city  and  in  50  outstations). 
There  are  39  preaching  places,  40  elementary  and 
4  high  schools,  a  dispensary,  and  1,445  commu- 
nicants. It  is  a  station  also  of  the  SPG  (1874), 
with  2  missionaries  and  1  missionary's  wife; 
also  station  of  the  CIM  (1879),  with  39  mission- 
aries, men  and  women  (one  a  physician),  4  native 
workers,  1  chapel,  5  schools,  a  hospital,  a  dis- 
pensary and  50  professing  Christians. 

CHIHUAHUA :  Capital  of  the  State  of  Chihua- 
hua, Mexico;  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Sierra 


Madre  Mountains,  225  miles  south  of  El  Paso, 
Tex.;  founded  in  1706.  The  climate  is  dry,  mild 
and  healthful.  It  is  a  center  for  trade  to  neigh- 
boring gold  and  silver  mines,  and  quite  a  number 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States  reside  there.  It 
was  occupied  as  a  station  by  the  ABCFM  in  1882, 
and  the  force  now  there  is  1  missionary  and  hia 
wife,  2  missionary  women  and  8  native  workers, 
men  and  women.  There  are  2  elementary  schools, 
a  high  school,  a  book  depot,  17  out.stations,  2 
young  people's  societies,  and  291  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  Woman's  Board  of  the  ME8 
(1890),  with  3  missionary  women. 

CHIKALDA :  A  village  in  the  district  of  Ellich- 
pur,  Berar,  India;  situated  43  miles  N.  W.  of 
Amraoti,  in  the  mid.st  of  beautiful  scenery,  at  an 
altitude  of  3,656  feet.  Population  about  5,000. 
Station  of  the  Kurku  India  Hill  Mission  (1894), 
with  (1901)  3  missionary  women,  1  native 
worker,  1  orphanage,  and  1  school,  with  industrial 
department. 

CHIKBALLAPUR:  Town  in  the  Kolar  dis- 
trict of  Mysore,  India,  situated  36  miles  N.  E.  of 
Bangalore.  Population  about  11,500.  Station 
of  the  LMS  (1892),  with  (1901)  2  missionaries, 
15  native  workers,  men  and  women,  7  schools, 
and  30  church  members. 

CHIKORE:  A  settlement  in  the  Melsetter 
district  of  Rhodesia,  near  the  frontier  of  Portu- 
guese, East  Africa,  and  170  miles  W.  by  8.  from 
Beira.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1897) ,  with  (1901 ) 
1  missionary  physician  and  his  wife,  2  native 
workers,  1  elementary  school,  4  preaching  places 
and    1    dispensary. 

CHILAMBARAM:  Town  in  South  Arcot, 
Madras,  India,  situated  21  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Cuddalore.  Its  temples  to  Siva  are  held  in  great 
reverence  in  S.  India  and  Ceylon.  Population, 
18,600,  of  whom  17,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of 
the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1866),  with  (1900) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  15  native  workers,  10 
preaching  places,  9  elementary  and  1  high  school, 
and  847  baptized  Christians. 

CHILDREN'S  SPECIAL  SERVICE  MISSION 
(1868)  :  The  aim  of  this  organization  is  to  supple- 
ment the  work  of  the  Church,  Sunday  school,  and 
home  among  children  by  its  various  publications, 
evangelistic  services,  and  the  Scripture  Union, 
which  was  organized  in  1879.  Open  air  services 
are  held,  and  by  means  of  caravan  and  tent 
workers  go  from  village  to  village,  holding  services 
and  distributing  Christian  literature  among  the 
children.  A  Foreign  Fund  is  used  for  the  issue 
of  such  literature  in  51  different  languages,  which 
is  freely  given  to  missionaries  of  all  denominations, 
and  grants  are  made  to  anyone  visiting  foreign 
countries  who  will  make  use  of  them.  The 
Scripture  Union  Fund  pays  for  itself  through  the 
contribution  of  one  penny  per  annum  from  the 
members  of  the  Union,  and  from  the  sale  of  its 
literature.  Besides  the  publication  of  books, 
leaflets,  etc.,  an  illustrated  penny  monthly,  Our 
Own  Magazine,  is  issued,  with  a  circulation  of 
120,000.  Our  Boys'  Magazine  is  published,  with 
special  reference  to  school  boys.  The  Scripture 
Union  Fund  supplies  a  Scripture  Union  Almanac 
and  the  monthly  Letters,  which  are  also  trans- 
lated into  French,  Dutch,  Danish  and  Swedish, 
and  issued  in  the  Tamil  monthly  magazine.  The 
greater  part  of  the  expenses  for  administration 
of  the  work  of  the  mission  is  covered  by  the 
profits  transferred  to  the  General  Fund,  so  that 


Clille 
China 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


144 


contributions  are  used  directly  for  tlie  work. 
Income  (1902),  General  Fund,  £5,205  16s;  For- 
eign Fund,  £799  2s  ;  Scripture  Union  Fund, 
£3,033  18s. 

Headquarters,  13a  Warwick  Lane,  Paternoster 
Row,  London. 

CHILE,  Republic  of:  Lies  on  the  western  coast 
of  the  southern  portion  of  South  America,  between 
the  crest  of  the  Andes  and  the  ocean,  from  the 
Camarones  River  to  Cape  Horn.  Its  population 
is  about  2,700,000,  chiefly  of  Spanish  descent,  but 
including  50,000  Indians.  The  language  is  Span- 
ish, and  the  religion  of  the  state  is  Roman  Catho- 
lic. Other  religions  are  tolerated  by  law.  The 
climate  is  that  of  the  temperate  zone,  the  temper- 
ature being  modified,  however,  by  the  high  moun- 
tains and  by  proximity  to  the  sea. 

While  the  Andes  wall  in  Chile  on  the  east,  they 
are  being  pierced  by  a  railroad  which  will  soon 
open  communication  with  theArgentine  Republic. 

Mission  work  is  carried  on  by  the  Presbyterian 
Church  (North),  the  ME,  and  tlie  SAMS.  The 
last-named  Society  is  gaining  a  hold  upon  the 
Araucanian  Indians. 

CHILLAN:  Capital  of  the  province  of  Nuble, 
Chile;  situated  about  70  miles  N.  W.  of  Concep- 
cion.  Population  (1901,  estimated),  33,506.  Sta- 
tion of  the  PN  (1894),  with  (1901)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  elementary 
school  and  130  church  members. 

CHILPANCINGO:  A  town  in  the  State  of 
Guerrero,  Mexico;  situated  about  65  miles  N.  E. 
of  Acapulco,  at  an  altitude  of  4,800  feet.  Station 
of  the  PN  (1894),  with  (1901)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  11  native  workers,  3  schools,  8  out- 
stations. 

CHINA:  By  the  name  China  is  designated  the 
possessions  of  the  Chinese  Empire  in  its  widest 
sense,  tho  it  is  used  more  correctly  and  nar- 
rowly to  name  the  eighteen  provinces  which 
constitute  China  proper.  This  immense  country 
comprises  one-third  of  Asia,  one-tenth  of  the 
inhabitable  globe,  and  is  divided  politically  into 
China  proper,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Chinese 
Turkestan  and  Tibet. 

The  eighteen  provinces,  and  usually  one  of  the 
provinces  of  Manchuria  (Sheng  Ching)  in  addi- 
tion, form  that  part  of  the  empire  which  is  dis- 
tinctively known  as  China,  and  are  inhabited  by 
Chinese.  The  area  of  China  is  variously  esti- 
mated from  1,348,870  to  2,000,000  square  miles, 
since  its  western  boundary  is  unsettled.  Its 
greatest  length  in  1,474  miles  and  its  breadth 
1,355  miles.  "It  contains  almost  as  much  terri- 
tory as  is  comprised  in  the  states  lying  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  with  the  addition  of  Texas, 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  and  Iowa." 

Physical  Features  :  In  the  northeast  is  a  great 
plain,  and  the  remainder  of  China  is  divided  into 
three  basins,  separated  by  mountain  ranges 
which  run  from  east  to  west,  and  drained  by 
three  great  rivers  and  their  tributaries.  In 
general,  all  that  part  of  the  country  lying  west  of 
the  meridian  of  113°  is  mountainous;  from  that 
line  down  to  the  coast,  south  of  the  Yangtse- 
kiang  (kiang  meaning  river) ,  is  found  hilly  coun- 
try alternating  with  the  river  valleys. 

The  Great  Plain  extends  from  the  Great  Wall 
north  of  Peking  to  the  junction  of  the  Yangtse 
River  with  the  Poyang  Lake,  and  is  700  miles  in 
length.  It  has  an  average  breadth  of  200  miles 
north  of  latitude  35°  north,  and  covers  an  area  of 
70,000  square  miles;  while  in  the  parallel  of  the 


Yellow  River  it  increases  in  breadth  to  300  miles, 
until  it  reaches  the  Yangtse  River,  where  it 
stretches  400  miles  inland,  covering  140,000 
square  miles  in  this  southern  portion,  making 
a  total  of  210,000  square  miles.  This  basin 
supports  a  population  of  177,000,000,  and  is  more 
densely  populated  than  any  other  part  of  the 
world  of  equal  size. 

Rivers :  Of  the  many  rivers  which  flow  from 
west  to  east  across  China  the  principal  ones  are 
the  Hwang  Ho  (Yellow  River),  the  Yangtse- 
kiang  (Yangtsze  River),  and  the  Chu-kiang 
(Pearl  River).  The  Yellow  River  is  of  very 
little  use  for  navigation,  owing  to  the  great  differ- 
ence in  its  depth  during  summer  and  winter. 
On  account  of  its  habit  of  overflowing  it  has  been 
justly  called  "China's  sorrow."  In  a  direct  line 
its  distance  from  source  to  mouth  is  1,290  miles, 
but  its  numerous  windings  make  its  length  double 
that  distance. 

The  Yangtse  River  is  deep  and  affords  pas- 
sage for  ocean  steamers  for  200  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  with  the  aid  of  modern  engineering 
it  would  be  possible  for  steam  vessels  to  ascend 
2,000  miles.  Its  basin  is  estimated  at  548,000 
square  miles,  and  in  the  amount  of  water  it  dis- 
charges, the  system  of  tributaries  belonging  to 
it,  and  the  means  of  communication  which  it 
aifords,  it  ranks  with  the  great  rivers  of  the 
world. 

The  Chu-kiang  is  formed  at  Canton  by  the  union 
of  the  North,  East,  and  West  rivers,  of  which 
the  latter  is  by  far  the  largest.  They  drain  the 
southwestern  part  of  China,  an  area  of  130,000 
square  miles,  and,  being  intersected  by  numerous 
tributaries,  form  a  perfect  network  of  streams 
which  afford  the  means  of  communication 
between  tlie  three  southwestern  provinces. 

Lakes :  There  are  few  large  lakes  in  China. 
Tung  Ting  Lake,  in  Hunan  is  the  largest  one. 
In  Kiangsi  is  found  the  picturesque  Poyang  Lake, 
having  important  fisheries.  There  are  smaller 
lakes  in  Chili,  Shantung  and  Yunnan,  which 
support  aquatic  populations. 

Provinces :  In  the  division  of  the  provinces 
made  a  hundred  years  ago,  eighteen  provinces 
were  defined.  The  cities  in  the  different  prov- 
inces have  a  suffix  added  to  the  name,  which 
denotes  the  rank  of  the  city  and  the  grade  of  the 
district  of  which  it  is  the  chief  town.  These 
suffixes  are  fu,  chau,  and  hsien,  and  in  general 
may  be  rendered  "department,"  or  prefecture, 
"primary  district,"  and  "secondary  district," 
respectively. 

Climate :  The  eighteen  provinces  occupy  the 
same  relative  position  on  the  continent  of  Asia 
as  the  United  States  occupy  on  the  continent  of 
North  America,  and  the  variations  of  temperature 
are  similar.  The  average  temperature  of  China 
is  lower  than  that  of  any  other  country  in  the 
same  latitude.  The  humidity,  especially  in  the 
south,  is  relatively  greater  than  countries  in  like 
latitudes,  and,  consequently,  the  heat  is  harder 
to  bear.  The  excessive  heat  causes  the  preva- 
lence of  typhoons  during  July,  August  and 
September. 

History:  Chinese  history  may  be  divided 
into  five  periods:  the  Mythological,  the  Legend- 
ary, the  Ancient,  the  Medieval,  and  the  Modern. 
1.  The  Mythological  period  comprises  all  the 
time  antecedent  to  the  accession  of  Fu  Hsi,  B.C. 
2852,  and  native  writers  assign  to  it  myriads  of 
years.  Pan  Ku  is  described  as  having  formed 
the  world  during  this  time.     With  chisel  and 


146 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Chile 
China 


mallet  he  cut  out  the  earth;  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  are  his  works;  his  head  became  mountains; 
his  breath,  wind  and  clouds;  his  voice,  thunder; 
from  various  parts  of  his  body  came  fields,  rivers, 
and  trees,  and  finally  from  the  insects  on  his 
body  came  man.  After  this  Chinese  creator 
■came  a  trinity  of  powers  who  ruled  for  thousands 
•of  years,  and  to  them  are  ascribed  many  of  the 
inventions  of  the  ancient  time.  2.  The  Legend- 
ary period  ends  with  the  accession  of  Yu  in  2205. 
Eight  monarchs  in  all  reigned  during  this  time, 
and  the  tales  that  are  related  of  their  prowess 
resemble  the  legends  of  other  ancient  nations. 
It  was  during  this  period,  about  the  year  2200 
B.C.,  that  the  Chinese  settled  around  the  bend 
■of  the  Yellow  River,  and  from  this  time  on  the 
records  are  more  reliable,  tho  legendary  in  places. 

3.  Under  the  division  of  Ancient  History  may 
be  included  the  dynasties  commencing  with  the 
Hsia  and  ending  with  the  Eastern  Han,  in  221, 
■six  in  all.  Of  these  six  dynasties  the  most 
important  and  the  longest  recorded  in  history 
was  that  of  Chau,  which  commenced  with  Wu 
Wang  in  1122  B.C.  and  lasted  till  255  B.C.  China 
was  then  a  loose  aggregation  of  feudal  states,  and 
the  power  of  the  emperor  was  often  merely  nom- 
inal. The  originator  of  the  Chin  dynasty,  who 
gave  the  name  to  China  by  which  it  was  known  to 
the  ancients,  was  the  Napoleon  of  China.  He 
divided  his  empire  into  thirty-six  provinces, 
with  governors  over  each.  He  also  built 
the  Great  Wall,  which  stupendous  work  was  com- 
pleted in  204  B.C.  after  ten  years  of  labor.  If 
the  wall  made  this  emperor  famous,  his  vanity 
made  him  infamous,  for  he  wished  to  be  considered 
the  first  emperor  of  the  Chinese,  and  ordered  the 
destruction  of  all  books  and  records  which  ante- 
dated his  reign,  and  slaughtered  500  of  the  literati. 
Many  of  the  writings  of  Confucius  and  Mencius 
were  thus  destroyed,  and  many  records  were  lost 
which  might  throw  more  light  on  the  past.  During 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Ping  (Peace)  was  born 
in  Nazareth  that  King  who  came  to  bring  peace 
to  the  world.  The  founder  of  the  Han  dynasty 
instituted  the  system  of  competitive  examina- 
tions, and  under  his  successors  literature,  com- 
merce,  arts,    and   good   government   flourished. 

4.  Under  Medieval  History  may  be  placed  the 
seventeen  dynasties  which  ruled  China  after 
the  overthrow  of  the  Han  family  till  the  accession 
of  the  first  monarch  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  in 
1368.  During  the  first  dynasty  of  this  period 
the  country  was  divided  into  three  principalities, 
and  the  wars  that  ensued  between  the  various 
princes  gave  rise  to  the  Chinese  historical  novel, 
The  Three  Kingdoms,  which  portrays  the  con- 
ditions of  society  at  that  time.  During  the 
Eastern  Chin  dynasty,  323-419,  Nanking  was 
the  capital.  Buddhism  was  the  chief  religion,  and 
the  doctrines  of  Confucius  were  coming  into  uni- 
versal favor.  During  the  Tang  dynasty,  618  to 
908,  China  was  the  most  civilized  country  on  the 
face  of  the  globe.  It  was  the  golden  age  of 
China,  and  to  this  day  the  natives  in  the  south 
call  themselves  Tang-jen,  men  of  Tang,  for  during 
that  time  they  were  civilized  and  amalgamated 
with  the  Chinese  race.  Arab  travelers  visited 
China  during  this  period,  and  to  thern  we  owe 
much  of  the  information  possessed  in  regard 
to  their  civilization.  During  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Tai  Tsung  (627-40) ,  the  Nestorian  mis- 
sionaries presented  themselves  at  court  and  were 
received  with  respect.  The  Yuen  dynasty,  1280 
to  1368,  was  a  Mongol  dynasty,  inaugurated  by 

10 


the  great  Kublai  Khan,  whose  exploits  are  related 
by  Marco  Polo.  The  expulsion  of  the  Mongols 
and  the  restoration  of  native  rule  brings  us  to  a 
period  which  is  comparatively  modern.  5.  The 
last  native  dynasty  was  called  Ming,  or  "bright," 
and  lasted  from  1368  to  1644,  with  sixteen  mon- 
archs in  all.  The  Portuguese  came  to  China  in 
1516,  and  the  Jesuits  gained  an  entrance  in  the 
country  about  1580.  The  Manchus  finally 
attacked  the  imperial  forces,  and,  aided  by  native 
rebels  in  various  parts  of  the  empire,  finally  over- 
threw the  dynasty,  and  Shun  Chlh  took  the  throne 
in  1644,  since  which  time  the  Ta  Ch'ing,  "great 
pure,"  dynasty  has  been  in  power,  the  Chinese 
submitting  peacefully  to  its  rule.  The  Manchu 
conquerors  imposed  their  mode  of  wearing  the 
hair  in  a  queue  upon  the  Chinese.  Kang  Hsi, 
who  reigned  sixty-one  years  from  1662,  was 
one  of  the  ablest  rulers  of  China.  He  ordered  a 
survey  of  the  empire  by  the  Romish  missionaries, 
and  superintended  the  publication  of  a  great 
thesaurus,  in  addition  to  devoting  himself  with 
unwearying  care  to  the  solidifying  of  the  country, 
the  unifying  of  his  people,  and  the  encourage- 
ment of  all  that  makes  a  nation  happy  and 
prosperous.  His  grandson,  Chien  Lung,  reigned 
sixty  years,  which  were  characterized  by  the 
peace  and  prosperity  of  the  country.  Em- 
bassies from  the  Dutch,  Russians,  and  English 
were  received  by  him.  The  Emperor  Tao  Kuang, 
1821-51,  was  a  wise,  able  ruler.  He  waged  bitter 
strife  against  the  traffic  in  opium,  and  brought 
on  the  war  with  England  and  the  consequent 
opening  of  his  country  to  foreign  intercourse. 
The  Tai  Ping  rebellion  broke  out  at  his  death  and 
lasted  the  greater  part  of  the  life  of  his  successor, 
Hien  Fung.  The  minority  reign  of  Tung  Chih 
ended  just  as  he  was  taking  charge  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  he  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
emperor,  Kwang  Hsii,  who  attained  his  majority 
in  1889.  On  September  22,  1898,  however,  an 
imperial  edict  transferred  the  direction  of  affairs 
to  the  Empress  Dowager,  who  has  since  (1904) 
retained  power.  The  following  chronological  table 
is  taken  from  WilHams'  Middle  Kingdom,  and 
gives  the  accepted  dates  in  Chinese  history : 

CHINESE  CHRONOLOGY. 


Dynasty. 


l.Hsia 

2.  Shang 

3.  Chau 

4.  Chin 

5.  Han 

6.  East  Han .  . 

7.  After  Han.. 

8.  Chin 

9.  East  Chin. . 

10.  Sung 

11.  Chi 

12.  Liang 

13.  Chin 

14.  Sui 

16.  Tang 

16.  After  Liang 

17.  After  Tang 

18.  After  Chin. 

19.  After  Han.. 

20.  After  Chau. 

21.  Sung 

22.  South  Sung 

23.  Yuen 

24.  Ming 

25.  Ching 


Number  of  Sovereigns  and 
Average  Length  of  Reign. 


17;  average,  26  years 

28;       "  23     ■'      

34;       "  25J  "      

2 ;  one  37  yrs. ,  the  other  3  yrs 
14 ;  average,  16^  years 


•^  16i     "      

one  2  yrs,  the  other  41  yrs. 
average  14i  years 

9i     "     

7i     "      

4f     "      

one  48  yrs ;  3  together,  7  yrs 

average,  6^  years 

one  16,  one  12,  one  2  yrs. .  . 

average,  14^  years 

one  8  years,  one  7  years .  .  . 

average,  3i  years 

one  7  years,  one  3  years .  .  . 

one  3  years 

average,  3  years 

18*  "      

17     "      


17 


8  up  to  1875;  aver.  30  years. 


Began 


2205 

1766 

1122 

255 

206 

i.  D. 

25 

221 

265 

323 

420 

479 

602 

657 

689 

620 

907 

923 

936 

947 

951 

960 

1127 

1280 

1368 

1644 


Dura- 
tion. 


439 
644 
867 
40 
231 

196 
43 
57 

106 
68 
23 
64 
32 
30 

287 

16 

13 

10 

4 

9 

167 

153 
88 

276 


China 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


.  146 


Opening  of  the  Country  to  Foreigners :  Until  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century  China  was  prac- 
tically closed  to  foreigners,  for,  the  the  Portu- 
guese had  made  trading  voyages  there,  and  tho 
the  East  India  Company  had  sent  out  its  ships  to 
Canton,  foreigners  had  no  treaty  rights  until  after 
the  wars  with  Great  Britain  and  France.  The 
first  war  with  Great  Britain  was  what  is  called 
the  opium  war;  it  was  precipitated  by  the 
seizure  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  Government 
of  20,000  chests  of  opium,  which  they  claimed 
were  being  smuggled  into  the  empire.  The  war 
commenced  with  the  bombardment  of  Ting-hai 
on  July  5,  1841,  and  continued  till  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  Nanking  Treaty,  on  September  15, 
1842.  Canton,  Amoy,  Ting-hai,  Shanghai,  Ningpo 
and  Chin-kiang  were  captured  by  British  arms. 
Nanking  was  invested  and  would  have  been  des- 
troyed unless  the  Chinese  had  consented  to  pay 
the  $3,000,000  demanded  for  its  ransom.  By 
this  time  the  commissioners  from  the  emperor 
were  willing  to  sue  for  peace,  and  agreed  to  the 
terms  of  the  famous  Treaty  of  Nanking,  inclu- 
ding the  opening  of  the  five  ports.  Canton,  Amoy, 
Fu-chau,  Ningpo,  and  Shanghai,  to  British 
trade  and  residence.  On  October  8  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  a  supplementary  treaty  was  signed, 
which  gave  all  foreigners  the  same  rights  at 
treaty  ports  as  the  British  had  been  given.  The 
United  States  sent  Caleb  Gushing  as  plenipoten- 
tiary to  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace  with  China, 
and  this  treaty  was  signed  at  Wanghsia,  a  suburb 
of  Macao,  on  July  3,  1844.  At  this  time  the 
Tai  Ping  rebellion  broke  out.  Its  leader.  Hung, 
professed  to  be  commissioned  by  God  to  accom- 

Elish  the  overthrow  of  the  existing  dynasty.  He 
ad  been  brought  in  contact  with  Christians, 
knew  the  principles  of  the  Christian  religion, 
assumed  to  be  a  Christian,  and  claimed  to  be  led 
by  visions  and  warnings  from  Heaven.  However 
sincere  he  may  have  been  in  his  convictions,  he 
failed  to  comprehend  the  spiritual  nature  of  Chris- 
tianity. He  began  an  insurrection  in  1850  and 
finally  captured  Nanking,  held  in  subjection  five 
provinces,  and  threatened  Peking.  At  this 
juncture  Frederick  Ward,  an  American,  organ- 
ized the  "ever-victorious  army,"  which  under 
his  leadership  and  the  subsequent  command  of 
Colonel  Gordon  captured  over  fifty  cities  from 
the  insurgents,  and  ended  the  rebellion  in  1865, 
when  the  rebel  pretender  was  taken  prisoner  and 
killed.  The  Manchu  dynasty  was  once  more 
supreme  after  fourteen  years  of  war  which  shook 
the  government  to  its  foundations,  devasted  some 
of  the  fairest  lands  and  cities  of  the  empire,  and 
caused  the  death  of  millions  of  its  subjects. 

The  second  war  with  Great  Britain  was 
brought  on  by  the  Chinese  authorities  at  Canton 
boarding  the  lorcha  "Arrow"  and  seizing  some  of 
the  sailors.  The  war  was  ended  by  the  treaties  at 
Tientsin,  in  1858,  between  China  and  the  envoys 
of  Russia,  France,  England,  and  America.  "The 
toleration  of  Christianity,  the  residence  of  foreign 
ministers  at  Peking,  and  the  freedom  to  travel 
through  the  land  were  avenues  heretofore  closed 
against  the  welfare  and  progress  of  China  which 
the  treaties  opened,  and  through  which  she  has 
made  more  real  advances  than  ever  before  in  her 
history."  The  Chinese  did  not  observe  the 
requirements  of  the  treaty,  and  it  was  not  until 
Peking  had  been  occupied  by  the  allied  forces  and 
the  Summer  Palace  of  the  emperor  destroyed 
that  the  treaties  of  Tientsin  were  finally  ratified, 
October  24,  1860. 


During  the  last  forty  years  China  has  been 
a  storm  center;  but  out  of  all  this  disturbance 
there  have  arisen  conditions  that  have  encour- 
aged new  and  better  life  for  the  whole  empire.  Mr. 
Burlingame's  mission,  which  seemed  to  mark  a 
new  era  in  China's  relations  with  the  United  States 
and  with  Europe,  left  Peking  in  1867;  but  in  1871 
a  popular  outbreak  against  foreigners  occurred 
at  Tientsin,  resulting  in  a  deplorable  massacre. 
Altho  the  local  authorities  were  exiled,  and  fifteen 
of  the  riotefs  were  executed  and  a  large  indem- 
nity was  paid  for  the  destruction  of  property  and 
for  the  families  of  those  who  had  perished,  other 
similar  uprisings  were  soon  to  follow.  But  these 
disturbances  interrupted  but  slightly  the  deter- 
mination of  foreigners  to  influence  more  and 
more  the  destinies  of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  The 
catastrophe  of  1900  was  foreshadowed  by  the 
troubles  with  Japan,  the  entanglements  with 
Russia  and  Great  Britain,  and  the  seizure  of  Kiao- 
chau,  in  Eastern  Shantung,  by  the  Germans. 
In  recent  years  China  has  helplessly  watched 
significant  inroads  made  into  her  possessions; 
and  her  most  strategic  points,  like  Port  Arthur 
and  Wei-hai-wei,  have  been  taken  by  Western 
nations.  Germany  has  pressed  her  way  into 
the  province  of  Confucius  and  Mencius;  Great 
Britain,  not  satisfied  with  the  ownership  of  Hong- 
kong, has  extended  her  invasion  to  the  adjacent 
mainland;  France  having  secured  a  foothold, 
must  possess  more  Chinese  territory;  Italy,  by 
putting  in  her  claim  for   San-men  Bay,   shows 

glainly  that  she  wants  to  be  in  the  game;  and 
hina's  next  door  neighbor,  Japan,  plans  to 
shape  the  future  of  the  empire.  The  young 
emperor  was  soon  convinced  either  that  his 
people  would  speedily  lose  all  they  possessed  or  else 
there  would  be  a  division  of  the  country  into 
spheres  of  influence.  He  imbibed  the  views  of 
the  reformer,  K'ang  Yti-wei;  he  read  a  large 
number  of  books  prepared  by  missionaries,  and 
actually  began  the  study  of  the  English  language. 
Just  at  this  time  the  Empress  Dowager  put  forth 
her  strong  arm,  and  expressed,  in  no  uncertain 
words,  her  strong  mind.  The  Emperor's  edicts 
of  reform  were  mostly  rescinded,  and  everything 
was  turned  in  the  other  direction.  The  Boxer 
outbreak  is  familiar  to  all.  "Starting  as  the  work 
of  secret  sects,  which  have  for  centuries  been  a 
source  of  terror  to  the  Empire,  bands  of  men  in 
the  province  of  Shantung  began  to  practise  a 
rude  sort  of  gymnastics,  combined  with  an 
equally  crude  form  of  hypnotism,  supposed  to 
render  the  Boxers  invulnerable."  Hopmg  with 
such  allies  as  these  that  she  could  drive  out  all 
foreigners,  the  Dowager  Empress  issued  a  secret 
edict  against  the  foreigners,  ending  with  this 
statement:  "Let  no  one  think  of  making  peace, 
but  let  each  strive  to  preserve  from  destruction 
or  spoliation  his  ancestral  home  and  graves  from 
the  ruthless  hands  of  the  invader." 

It  soon  became  apparent  that  the  officials, 
sympathizing  with  the  Dowager  Empress,  were 
opposed  to  the  reform  movement  of  the  Emperor, 
the  rise  of  German  influence  in  Shantung,  the 
constant  discussion  by  foreign  papers  in  Chinese 
ports  of  the  division  of  the  empire,  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  interference  in  the  difficul- 
ties between  the  Boxers  and  native  Christians. 
Altho  the  Boxers  commenced  their  attack  on 
the  Roman  Catholics,  and  followed  it  by  persecu- 
tion of  native  Protestant  Christians,  they  soon 
announced  that  they  intended  to  drive  out  all 
foreigners    and    foreign     influence     from     the 


147 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Cbina 


country.  When  they  began  to  loot  villages,  burn 
churches,  and  destroy  homes,  the  hoodlurp 
element,  with  the  prospect  of  gain,  joined  their 
ranks;  and  their  influence  over  the  superstitious 
and  ignorant  masses  increased  when  it  was 
announced  that  they  possessed  supernatural 
power.  During  the"Boxer Movement,"  1899-1900, 
missionaries  of  the  following  societies  suffered 
martyrdom: 

CIM 58    Children,  20 

Chris,  and  Miss.  All 21  "  15 

ABCFM 13  "  5 

BMS   13  "  3 

PN 5  "  3 

Scandinavian  Alliance 5  " 

Swedish.(Mongolia) 3  "  1 

SPG 3  "  2 

BFBS 2 

LMS 1  "  3 

Sheo  Yang  Mission 11  " 


52 


135 
Men,  58;  Women,  77. 

British 71    Children,  28 

Swedish 40  "         16 

U.S.  A 24  "  8 

To  this  list  of  missionary  martyrs  must  be 
added  the  16,000  native  converts,  very  many  of 
whom  might  have  saved  their  lives  and  property 
by  denying  their  Lord  and  renouncing  their  faith. 
The  siege  of  Peliing  by  the  great  Powers  of  the 
Occident  and  the  events  preceding  and  following 
this  historic  fact,  seem  to  be  blessings  in  disguise, 
'and  God  is  already  making  the  wrath  of  man  to 
praise  Him.  The  following  declaration,  made 
by  the  Chinese  Court  after  its  defeat  by  the 
Western  Powers,  and  relating  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  new  Council  of  State,  is  not  without 
significance : 

"Where  native  methods  come  short.  Western 
methods  are  to  be  used  to  supplement  them.  With 
a  view  to  this  the  translations  of  foreign  books 
are  to  be  collected  and  compared,  and  our  Minis- 
ters to  Japan  and  other  countries  are  to  be  called 
on  for  reports  on  the  state  and  progress  of  those 
nations.  For  us  the  example  of  Japan  is  of 
special  interest — not  only  as  belonging  to  Asia, 
but  for  having  in  a  short  time  risen  to  a  place  of 
power  and  influence."  In  his  analysis  of  the 
Emperor's  later  Reform  Edict,  Sir  Robert  Hart's 
words  are  encouraging  and  suggestive:  "The 
Empress  Dowager  has  decided  to  push  on  reform, 
and,  as  a  preliminary,  sets  aside  such  hampering 
distinctions  as  ancient  and  modern,  native  and 
foreign.  Whatever  is  good  for  the  State  or  for 
the  people,  no  matter  what  its  origin,  is  to  be 
adopted;  whatever  is  bad  is  to  to  be  cast  out,  no 
matter  what  be  its  antiquity.  Our  national 
fault  is  that  we  have  got  into  a  rut,  hard  to  get  out 
of,  and  are  fettered  by  red  tape  just  as  difficult 
to  untie.  Bookworms  are  too  numerous,  prac- 
tical men  too  scarce;  incompetent  red-tapists  grow 
fat  on  mere  forms,  and  officials  think  that  to  pen 
a  neat  dispatch  is  to  dispose  of  business.  Old 
fossils  are  continued  too  long  in  office,  and  open- 
ings are  blocked  for  men  possessing  the  talents 
and  qualifications  the  times  require.  One  word 
accounts  for  the  weakness  of  the  Government — 
selfishness;  and  another  for  the  decadence  of  the 
Empire — precedence.  All  this  must  be  changed. 
Those  who  have  studied  Western  methods  have 
so  far  only  mastered  a  smattering  of  language, 
something    about    manufactures,  a  little    about 


armaments;  but  these  are  merely  the  skin  and 
hair;    they  do  not  touch  the  secret  of  Western 

superiority What  must  be  insisted  on  as  a 

principle  is  that  self  shall  be  nothing  and  public 
duty  everything.  We  ourselves  and  the  Empress 
Dowager  have  long  cherished  these  ideas;  and  now 
the  time  has  come  to  put  them  in  force.  Whether 
the  State  is  to  be  safe  or  insecure,  powerful  or 
feeble,  depends  on  this."  The  fact  is  apparent 
that,  since  the  disasters  of  1899  and  1900,  the 
Emperor's  anxiety  for  reform  has  greatly  increased 
and  we  may  hope  that  his  interest  in  Christianity 
is  sufficient  to  ensure  great  blessings  for  his 
country. 

The  events  of  recent  years  have  not  only 
strengthened  the  reform  movement  in  China,  but 
they  have  added  to  the  influence  of  Protestant 
missions  throughout  the  Empire.  The  heroic 
conduct  of  the  missionaries  during  the  appalling 
crises  through  which  China  has  passed  has  awak- 
ened the  admiration  and  elicited  the  sympathy 
of  many  of  the  people;  the  deep-felt  need  for  a 
radical  change  in  State  methods  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  bitter  fruit  of  ignorance  and  super- 
stition, have  given  a  wide  extension  to  Western 
ideas  of  education;  and  the  blood  of  the  martyrs 
has  already  proven  to  be  the  seed  of  the  Church. 
The  four  lines  of  Christian  mission  work — literary , 
educational,  medical,  and  evangelistic — have 
taken  upon  themselves  new  life  and  power  in 
China;  new  avenues  for  the  introduction  of  the 
religion  of  Christ  are  opening;  all  civilized  lands 
are  recognizing,  as  never  before,  the  practical 
utility  of  missions  among  this  "the  toughest- 
fibered,  sturdiest,  most  vertebrate  of  the  nations 
of  the  East;"  the  dark  shadows  of  yesterday  are 
giving  place  to  the  light,  we  may  well  hope,  of  a 
new  day  for  China. 

Government :  The  head  of  the  government  of 
China  is  the  emperor.  On  ascending  the  throne 
the  emperor  takes  a  name  or  style  by  which  his 
reign  is  known;  the  present  emperor  is  called 
Kwang  Hsu,  "illustrious  succession."  He  was 
born  August  14,  1871,  and  began  to  reign  in 
1875.  The  theory  of  the  government  of  China 
is  the  patriarchal;  the  emperor  is, the  Son  of 
Heaven  and  the  father  of  his  people.  Beneath 
him  the  superior  in  age  or  rank  has  sway  over  the 
inferior  ad  infinitum.  While  the  will  of  the  Son 
of  Heaven  is  supreme,  and  his  power  is  said  to  be 
absolute,  it  is  not  unlimited,  as  one  would  think. 
He  is  bound  by  no  constitution,  no  Magna  Charta 
dictated  by  powerful  barons  limits  his  sway,  but 
the  accumulated  force  of  centuries  of  tradition 
and  law  holds  him  to  right  and  justice  with  an 
irresistible  grasp.  He  must  follow  the  behests 
of  Heaven,  or  else  the  people  will  exercise  the 
divine  right  of  rebellion  which  they  cling  to,  and 
which  Confucius,  and  especially  Mencius,  defined 
with  utmost  boldness.  When  floods  or  famine, 
fire  or  pestilence  come,  the  people  look  upon  it 
as  a  judgment  on  the  emperor,  and  he  imme- 
diately offers  sacrifices  to  heaven  to  appease  its 
wrath.  He  is  the  high-priest  of  his  people,  and 
theoretically  has  their  welfare  at  heart.  Pra|C- 
tically  the  people  submit  passively  to  his  despot- 
ism, and  rarely  trouble  themselves  about  the 
government  in  general,  tho  they  may  com- 
plain of  the  exactions  of  the  local  officers.  Lib- 
erty is  unknown.  In  the  administration  of  the 
affairs  of  State  the  emperor  is  assisted  by  a  Cab- 
inet, a  Council  of  State,  and  a  number  of  boards. 
Under  these  boards  are  a  multitude  of  office- 
holders.    These  officials  are  selected  in  accord- 


China 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


14S 


ance  with  the  civil-service  system,  which  is  based 
upon  literary  merit,  and  is  one  of  the  institutions 
of  China  challenging  the  admiration  of  other 
nations.  Theoretically,  any  one  who  does  not 
belong  to  the  proscribed  classes  may  compete 
in  theliterary  examinations  for  the  various  degrees , 
no  matter  how  poor  or  ignoble  he  may  be;  prac- 
tically, these  honors  are  open  only  to  those  who 
have  wealth,  since  many  years  of  preliminary 
study  are  necessary.  The  great  defect  in  tlie 
system  is  that  the  officers  are  not  paid  enough  to 
live  as  their  station  requires,  and  corruption  in 
bribe-taking  and  giving  is  widespread,  while 
extortion  is  universal.  Another  great  source  of 
corruption  is  the  selling  of  degrees  and  the  favor 
shown  to  those  who  purchase  them.  In  spite 
of  this  corruption  and  the  abuses  of  power  which 
can  be  seen,  the  officers  of  the  government  will 
compare  favorably  with  those  of  other  nations 
for  talent  and  industry. 

The  Chinese  People :  The  people  of  China  have 
lived  for  so  many  centuries  in  their  river  basins, 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  that  their 
origin  is  shrouded  in  the  mists  of  tradition  and 
legends.  About  2200  B.C.  tribes  from  Central 
Asia  came  across  the  desert  and  settled  around 
the  bend  of  the  Yellow  River  in  what  is  now 
Shan-si.  Where  these  settlers  came  from  is  still 
a  matter  of  conjecture.  A  recent  writer  claims 
that  they  were  emigrants  from  Babylonia.  The 
presumptive  proofs  of  this  are  in  brief:  Babylonia 
was  a  great  agricultural  country,  and  irrigation 
was  everywhere  to  be  seen;  so  in  China;  "The 
Middle  Kingdom"  was  the  name  applied  to 
Babylonia  by  its  inhabitants,  and  that  is  the 
native  appellation  of  China ;  the  prehistoric 
period  of  China  is  divided  by  native  writers  into 
ten  periods,  and  the  same  is  attributed  to  Baby- 
lonia; the  Babylonians  were  great  astrologers;  so 
are  the  Chinese,  and  the  method  of  computing 
time  is  similar  in  the  two  nations.  More  direct 
proof  is  adduced  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  C.  T. 
Ball,  who  has  been  able  to  lay  down  a  series  of 
phonetic  laws  by  which  he  has  converted  into 
Accadian  almost  the  entire  Chinese  dictionary. 
If  this  is  the  true  origin  of  the  Chinese  people,  it 
will  explain  what  has  hitherto  been  a  mystery. 
Their  language  shows  that  at  some  time  in  the 
past  they  were  a  nomadic  race,  having  their  prin- 
cipal possessions  in  flocks  and  herds.  This  is 
also  hinted  at  in  their  architecture;  but  as  far 
baclv  as  records  go,  they  are  found  to  have  been 
an  agricultural  race.  The  dwellers  on  the 
plains  of  Babylonia  were  descended  from  a  parent 
stock  who  led  a  pastoral  life  in  the  mountainous 
country  on  the  east.  If,  then,  the  Chinese  are 
the  descendants  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  plain, 
the  references  to  a  nomadic  life  in  their  language 
contain  the  remembrance  of  their  earlier  ancestors 
in   the   mountains. 

In  stature  the  majority  of  the  Chinese  are  some- 
what below  the  average  height,  especially  the 
women;  in  the  north  of  China  the  Manchu  race 
is  large  and  fine  in  appearance.  They  have 
black  liair  and  eyes,  yellow  complexions,  and 
obliquely-set  eyes.  The  men  are  noticeable  for  an 
absence  of  beards,  a  thin  mustache  or  a  peaked 
goatee  being  the  most  hair  that  is  seen 
on  their  faces.  They  have  great  endurance  and 
are  a  strong,  sturdy  race,  with  unusual  physical 
force.  They  possess  the  power  of  application 
to  work  of  unvarying  monotony  for  long  hours  at 
a  time,  without  wearying  or  displaying  that 
nervousness   which  is   seen   in   European   races; 


absence  of  nerves  is  one  of  their  principal  char- 
acteristics. They  have  a  wonderful  vitality, 
which  seems  to  be  unaffected  by  such  lack  of 
sanitary  conditions  as  would  be  sure  death  to 
an  American.  Their  skulls  are  thick,  and  they 
do  not  seem  to  be  affected  much  by  the  burning 
heat  of  the  sun.  In  spite  of  their  custom  of 
marrying  early  and  their  excesses  in  vice,  they 
are  very  productive.  The  women  mature  rap- 
idly, and  are  mothers  at  the  early  age  of  thirteen 
and  fourteen.  There  are  no  special  diseases  to 
which  they  are  predisposed,  tho  they  are 
subject  to  consumption,  skin  diseases,  and  dis- 
eases of  the  eyes.  They  endure  suffering  so  well, 
and  recover  so  quickly  from  the  shock  and 
wounds  of  surgical  operations,  as  to  give  credit 
to  the  theory  that  their  nervous  organization  is 
not  so  highly  developed  or  so  sensitive  as  that  of 
European  races. 

Qualities  of  the  People  :  The  Chinese  are  essen- 
tially an  agricultural  race.  They  are  manual 
laborers,  who  possess  industry,  patience,  and 
dogged  determination  in  a  great  degree.  While 
they  are  not  aggressive,  when  aroused  they  are 
no  mean  foes,  and  when  well  officered,  with  men 
of  daring  and  courage  to  lead  the  way,  they  will 
follow  to  the  death  with  great  stoicism.  They 
work  like  automata,  and  excel  in  manufactures 
which  require  a  fine  tactile  sense.  They  have 
no  regard  for  truth  for  its  own  sake,  and  are 
noted  for  mendacity,  deceit,  and  indirectness 
in  all  things.  They  are  wonderfully  polite,  but 
this  same  politeness  leads  to  a  disregard  of 
truth  from  the  desire  to  avoid  unpalatable  facts, 
and  is  too  often  but  an  artificial  veneer  which- 
conceals  selfishness  and  conceit.  They  have 
great  mental  power,  especially  in  memory,  but 
are  lacking  in  the  imaginative  and  artistic  tem- 
peraments. Logic  and  reasoning  they  are  well 
slcilled  in,  and  they  have  a  sense  of  humor  which 
is  of  a  quick  kind.  They  are  a  slow,  methodical, 
conservative,  staid,  phlegmatic  people,  and  do 
not  show  much  emotion;  this  is  due  as  much  to 
education  as  to  nature,  for  they  are  taught  to 
repress  their  feelings.  They  are  more  sullen 
than  quick-tempered,  more  underhand  than 
treacherous.  They  have  great  respect  for  learn- 
ing, and  reverence  their  superiors  to  the  extreme, 
but  are  arrogant  and  conceited  when  learned 
themselves.  When  their  anger  is  aroused  they 
are  more  likely  to  vent  it  in  words  and  impreca- 
tions than  in  blows,  and  street  fights  offend  the 
ears  oftener  than  they  break  the  bones.  In  gen- 
eral, they  are  the  finest  of  the  Asiatic  races,  and 
their  habits  of  domesticity,  reverence  of  parents, 
submission  to  constituted  authority,  quiet  indus- 
try, frugality,  and  temperance  make  them  worthy 
of  respect.  In  their  manufactures  they  show  a 
laclv  of  inventive  skill,  but  they  possess  a  wonder- 
ful amount  of  imitativeness.  Attention  to  detail 
and  laborious  minuteness  is  characteristic  of 
their  works  of  art.  They  show  very  little  inter- 
est in  the  condition  of  any  who  are  without 
tlieir  immediate  circle  of  relations,  but  within 
that  circle  all  that  concerns  the  individual  is 
discussed  and  commented  upon  by  the  many  ad 
nauseam.  They  have  little  idea  of  privacy,  and 
lack  refinement  in  matters  pertaining  to  man's 
physical  nature  and  its  needs  and  appetites. 
The  laboring  men  are  often  (usually  in  the  south) 
bare  to  the  waist,  but  the  women  are  modest  in 
dress  and  behavior,  keeping  the  entire  body 
clothed,  except  among  the  poor  peasantry,  who 
labor  in  the  field  with  the  men. 


149 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


China 


Classes  of  Society :  There  is  no  caste  in  China, 
but  there  is  a  well-defined  distinction  between  the 
classes — a  distinction  which  is  based  on  literary 
attainments  and  official  position  or  on  age.  The 
old  division  of  the  people  defined  only  four 
classes — the  scholar,  the  farmer,  the  artisan,  and 
the  trader — and  they  ranked  in  the  order  named. 
The  reverence  which  is  paid  to  the  scholar  still 
exceeds  that  which  is  paid  to  the  illiterate  rich 
man.  Filial  duty  is  at  the  root  of  this  division, 
for  the  scholar  reflects  credit  on  his  parentage; 
the  farmer  is  able  to  stay  on  his  paternal  acres 
and  look  after  his  family;  the  artisan  is  more  often 
required  to  leave  his  home;  and  the  necessities 
of  a  trading  life  impel  the  merchant  to  go  to  the 
city.  Officials  are  distinguished  from  the  com- 
mon people  by  the  dress  which  they  are  entitled 
to  wear.  The  most  noticeable  feature  of  their 
dress  is  the  button  on  the  top  of  the  hat.  These 
buttons  are  of  nine  kinds,  corresponding  to  the 
nine  grades  of  rank.  As  the  administration  of 
the  law  is  absolutely  in  the  hands  of  the  magis- 
trates, we  find  no  lawyers,  in  the  Western  accep- 
tation of  the  term.  The  professions  which 
sprang  from  the  invention  of  steam,  the  use  of 
electricity,  and  improved  machinery  have,  until 
recent  years,  been  wanting.  The  various  relig- 
ious sects  have  their  priests,  but  these  do  not 
have  the  contact  with  the  common  people  and 
the  influence  on  their  daily  life  that  the  clergy  do 
in  Christian  countries ;  neither  are  they  respected. 
There  are  now  a  goodly  number  of  the  editorial 
profession.  Doctors  there  are,  but  the  science  of 
medicine  is  yet  in  its  infancy.  The  superstitions 
of  China  do  not  permit  dissection,  and  their 
knowledge  of  anatomy  is  vague  and  ridiculous. 
The  body  is  thought  to  be  a  mass  of  flesh  sup- 
ported on  the  framework  of  the  bones,  without 
that  intimate  connection  of  the  joints  and  tendons. 
The  circulation  of  the  blood  is  unknown,  so  far  as 
its  continuous  course  is  concerned.  The  seat  of 
the  breath  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  stomach,  and 
that  also  is  the  seat  of  learning.  Health  and 
sickness  depend  on  the  preservation  of  the  just 
proportions  between  the  five  elements — fire, 
earth,  wood,  metal,  and  water — or  else  they  are 
due  to  the  influence  of  evil  spirits.  There  are  no 
laws  in  regard  to  necessary  qualifications  for 
practising  medicine,  and  most  Chinese  doctors 
are  those  who  have  much  shrewd  knowledge  of 
human  nature  and  some  empirical  knowledge  of 
drugs.  They  use  the  vilest  concoctions  as  medi- 
cine; some  of  the  ingredients  are  scorpions, 
snakes,  centipedes,  lizards,  chamois  horn,  bear's 
gall,  and  vegetable  wax.  Surgery  is  unknown; 
their  superstitions  prevent  them  from  mutilating 
the  human  body,  as  such  mutilation  is  supposed 
to  endure  throughout  the  future  world.  Acupunc- 
ture has  been  practised  among  them  for  cen- 
turies, and  massage  and  blood  letting  by  cupping 
or  by  leeches  are  well  known  to  them.  Within 
recent  years  the  government  has  recognized  the 
advantages  to  be  gained  from  Western  medicinal 
knowledge,  and  has  encouraged  the  study  of  it 
so  far  as  to  employ  Chinese  graduates  from  med- 
',  ical  schools  taught  by  foreigners.     The  occupa- 

^         tion  of  agriculture  is   considered  an   honorable 
occupation,    tho  a   lowly    one.       Probably    half 
;         the  soil  of  China  is  owned  by  those  who  till  it. 
To  sum  up,   Chinese   society   acknowledges   no 
^         aristocracy  save  that  of  brains,  it  is  as  homo- 
I         geneous  as  possible,  and  is  essentially  democratic. 
^         Arrogance  and  conceit  characterize  the  learned 
class,  who  think  no  knowledge  of  value  except 


that  in  their  classics,  and  no  man  wise  except 
him  who  is  well  acquainted  with  their  sages  and 
books. 

Status  of  Woman :  The  classical  teachings  in 
regard  to  woman  are:  1.  Woman  is  different 
from  man  as  earth  is  from  heaven.  2.  Dualism 
in  nature,  consisting  of  tlie  yang  and  the  yin 
principle  (the  good  and  the  bad,  or  the  negative 
and  the  positive),  is  found  here;  woman  is  the 
yin;  man  is  the  yang.  3.  Women  are  human 
beings,  but  they  are  of  lower  state  than  man, 
and  can  never  attain  to  full  equality  with  him. 
4.  Death  and  evils  have  their  origin  in  the  yin 
principle,  but  prosperity  and  life  follow  the 
subjection  of  the  yin  to  the  yang;  therefore  woman 
must  be  kept  under  the  power  of  man,  and  must 
not  be  allowed  any  mind  of  her  own.  5.  The 
education  of  woman  must  aim  at  perfect  sub-  ■ 
mission,  not  at  development  or  cultivation  of  the 
mind.  6.  Woman  has  no  happiness  of  her  own; 
she  must  live  and  work  for  man.  7.  As  the 
mother  of  a  son  in  the  direct  line  of  the  family,, 
she  may  escape  from  her  degradation  and  become 
in  a  measure  equal  to  her  husband,  but  tliat  only 
in  affairs  of  the  household  and  in  the  ancestral 
hall.  8.  Her  bondage  does  not  end  in  this  world,. 
it  is  the  same  in  the  future  world;  she  belongs  to 
the  same  husband  and  is  dependent  for  her  happi- 
ness upon  the  sacrifices  offered  by  her  descend- 
ants. Such  is  the  theory,  but  the  condition  of 
woman  in  China  is  not  as  miserable  as  it  would 
be  if  the  letter  of  the  law  were  carried  out.  Woman 
is  kept  in  subjection;  she  is  practically  immured, 
among  the  higher  classes,  with  no  education  to 
engage  her  mind,  no  employment  but  household 
duties,  fancy  work,  or  gossip  and  gaming,  and  her 
one  object  in  life  is  to  be  the  mother  of  a  son.  As 
a  wife  she  has  more  or  less  influence  over  her 
husband,  but  when  she  becomes  a  mother  her 
influence  over  her  children  is  great,  and  disobe- 
dience to  her  commands  is  one  of  the  great  sins. 
A  son  is  not  exempt  from  his  mother's  authority 
until  her  death,  and  then  her  spirit  demands 
his  reverence.  Daughters  are  despised  by  the 
Chinese,  since  they  pass  entirely  out  of  the  family 
at  marriage;  the  wedding  fees  must  be  met,  and 
their  labor  and  service  are  all  rendered  to  the 
mother-in-law;  whereas  the  son  supports  his 
parents,  brings  home  a  wife  who  is  practically 
an  upper  servant  to  his  mother,  and,  greatest  fact 
of  all,  he  can  offer  the  sacrifices  to  the  ancestral 
tablets  insuring  their  future  happiness.  So 
little  are  girls  esteemed  that  in  some  parts  of 
China  infanticide  is  not  uncommon  on  account 
of  poverty.  The  fact  that  the  empire  has  been 
governed  during  the  life  of  the  present  emperor 
by  a  woman  is  proof  enough  of  the  high  position 
which  woman  can  hold  it  China.  The  seclusion 
in  T/hich  they  are  kept  is  not  as  absolute  as  in 
India,  while  it  is  a  safeguard  of  their  morals.  That 
the  women  are  not  lacking  in  mental  power, 
but  only  require  opportunity  to  develop  it,  is 
shown  by  the  rapid  progress  made  in  study  by 
the  pupils  in  the  mission  schools.  As  a  rule  the 
girls  are  not  sent  to  school,  tho  noteworthy 
exceptions  of  literary  women  are  recorded  by 
Chinese  writers.  Among  the  poorer  classes 
women  work  in  the  fields  and  do  various  kinds  of 
manual  labor  along  with  the  men;  they  are  then 
on  more  of  an  equality  with  the  men,  and  are  not 
secluded  from  them. 

Social  Etiquette :  Ceremonial  observances  in 
accordance  with  the  strict  laws  of  etiquette  are 
reserved  for  formal  or  special  occasions.     The 


China 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


ISO 


ordinary  intercourse  of  the  Chinese  with  each 
other  is  similar  to  tliat  of  other  nations,  with  the 
exception  of  the  difference  due  to  the  separation 
of  tlie  sexes.  Introductions  can  be  made  by 
tlie  parties  themselves,  one  asking  the  other  his 
"honorable  surname,"  after  which  ensues  a  formal 
exchange  of  question  and  answer  until  the  sur- 
narne,  age  and  condition,  married  or  single,  of 
each  is  brought  out.  Courtesy  demands  that 
refreshment  be  offered  when  calls  are  made,  even 
tho  it  be  but  a  cup  of  poor  tea.  Self-depre- 
cation is  characteristic  of  Chinese  polite  phrases, 
and  exaggerated  importance  must  be  attached 
to  all  that  concerns  others. 

Diet :  When  the  seat  of  learning  is  assigned  to 
the  stomach,  and  an  enlarged  abdomen  is  the 
sign  of  a  giant  intellect,  it  may  easily  be  under- 
stood that  the  Chinese  are  epicures.  The  poor 
live  on  rice  or  millet,  with  merely  a  relish  of  fish 
or  pork;  but  the  diet  is  more  generous  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  wealth  of  the  person.  Pork, 
poultry,  and  fish  of  all  kinds  abound.  Fruit  is 
found  in  abundance;  no  one  with  the  money  to 
procure  it  need  famish  for  lack  of  palatable  food. 
Dogs,  cats,  and  rats,  while  occasionally,  in  some 
parts  of  China,  figuring  as  table  dishes,  are  by  no 
means  in  ordinary  use  or  regarded  with  universal 
favor.  Wine-drinking  occurs  mainly  at  feasts, 
and  drinking  wine  apart  from  eating  is  not  a 
native  custom.  Their  wine  is  a  liquor  distilled 
from  rice,  like  weak  brandy.  It  is  an  intoxicat- 
ing drink,  but  it  is  used  sparingly,  and  drunken 
men  are  rarely  seen.  Tobacco  is  used  almost 
universally,  and  by  the  women  as  well  as  the  men. 

Dress :  The  men  wear  a  tunic  and  trousers, 
and  for  special  dress  a  long  gown  of  bright  colors, 
and  short  topped  boots  over  the  trousers.  Their 
costume  is  rich  and  varied  in  color;  and  silks, 
satins,  furs,  and  fine  woolen  goods  are  the 
materials  used.  The  Chinese  costume  has  been 
adopted  by  missionaries  when  it  is  of  advantage 
to  escape  conspicuousness,  and  it  is  compara- 
tively cheap  and  comfortable.  The  dress  of  the 
women  differs  little  from  that  of  the  men.  An 
embroidered  skirt  is  worn  over  the  trousers;  the 
tunic  is  longer  and  the  gown  is  absent.  Bound 
feet,  caused  by  the  early  compression  of  the  feet 
with  long  strips  of  cloth,  is  a  native  institution; 
it  is  not  countenanced  by  the  reigning  dynasty 
— the  empress  is  a  large-footed  Manchu — but  as 
a  mark  of  social  position  it  is  hard  to  correct 
the  custom,  tho  it  is  discouraged  by  the 
missionaries,  and  Christian  sentiment  is  being 
educated  against  it.  Within  the  past  few  years 
there  has  been  a  very  strong  effort  made  by  the 
Chinese  themselves  to  do  away  with  foot-binding. 
Some  of  the  strongest  native  writers  have  issued 
tracts  against  the  custom,  and  societies,  both 
those  established  by  missionaries  and  by  non- 
Christians,  have  done  much  to  discourage  the 
custom. 

Religion:  There  is  no  one  system  of  religion 
which  is  believed  in  by  the  Chinese  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  dignify  it  exclusively  as  the  religion 
of  the  people.  They  are  liberal  in  matters  of 
belief  so  far  as  to  share  their  worship  among  the 
three  different  systems  of  Confucianism,  Taouism, 
and  Buddhism.  The  proportion  belonging  to 
each  is  hard  to  estimate,  for  the  prudent  Chinese 
does  in  religious  matters  as  a  shrewd  Yankee  does 
in  business  ventures — takes  a  share  in  each — and 
if  the  three  systems  be  regarded  as  the  counter- 
part of  the  life  insurance  companies  of  the  present 
day,  the  motive  of  the  Chinaman  in  taking  out  a 


policy  in  each  and  paying  the  premium  will  be 
readily  recognized.  Whichever  of  these  religious 
creeds  he  professes,  the  worship  that  most  appeals 
to  his  heart  is  Ancestor  worship. 

At  the  same  time  the  superstition  which  most 
strongly  sways  him  is  Fung  Shut.  This  Chinese 
term  signifies,  "wind  and  water,"  and  geomancy 
is  its  nearest  English  equivalent.  It  has  influ- 
enced the  science,  religion,  and  customs  of  the 
Chinese  to  a  large  extent,  and  is  responsible  for  a 
majority  of  their  superstitions.  The  way  in 
which  their  welfare  is  influenced  is  not  always 
understood  by  themselves,  and  the  laws  which 
govern  the  so-called  science  are  hard  to  define  or 
detect.  It  was  first  systematized  in  the  12th 
century,  and  its  influence  has  spread  until  it 
involves  all  the  natural  events  and  actions  of 
life.  It  is  founded  upon  the  dual  principle 
which  pervades  all  nature,  the  male  and  female, 
the  positive  and  the  negative,  the  good  and  the 
bad.  These  must  be  kept  in  a  state  of  equi- 
librium or  else  grave  evil  will  result.  The  amount, 
position,  and  influence  of  each  is  determined  by 
the  geomancers,  and  houses  must  be  built  in 
accordance  with  Fung  Shui,  cities  must  be  located, 
and  especially  must  the  graves  be  laid  out  in 
favorable  positions,  or  the  wrath  of  the  dead  will 
follow  the  living  even  as  they  return  from  the 
tomb.  In  obedience  to  its  requirements,  pago- 
das have  been  built  to  correct  the  proportion 
of  high  and  low  ground;  streets  are  laid  out 
crooked  in  deference  to  superstitions  connected 
with  it,  and  high  buildings  are  few,  unless  of  a 
public  nature.  As  it  now  exists  it  is  a  gigantic 
system  of  extortion  carried  on  by  Buddhist  and 
Taouist  priests  alike,  who  call  to  their  help  all  of 
their  small  knowledge  of  sciences,  and  keep  up  the 
myriad  delusions  it  gives  rise  to,  that  they  may 
be  employed  to  perform  useless  acts  for  useful 
fees.  Every  phenomenon  of  nature,  simple  as 
it  is  to  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  sciences, 
has  its  effect  on  the  ignorant  Chinese,  and  the 
disturbance  of  the  existing  equipoise  between 
the  hills  and  valleys,  and  especially  the  encroach- 
ment upon  the  hill-side  graves,  form  the  chief 
obstacles  to  the  building  of  railroad  and  tele- 
graph lines  in  China — obstacles  which  cannot 
be  thoroughly  overcome  until  the  light  of  science 
shall  chase  away  the  fogs  of  Fung  Shui. 

Mohammedanism:  Early  in  the  7th  and 
8th  centuries  missionaries  of  Islamism  came 
to  Canton  and  Fu-chau  along  with  the  Arabian 
traders,  who  then  made  many  voyages  to  China. 
Since  that  time  disciples  of  the  false  prophet 
have  been  found  in  China,  and  in  some  districts 
late  observers  claim  that  they  will  eventually 
take  the  place  of  Buddhists  and  Taouists.  They 
have  preserved  the  belief  in  the  one  true  God, 
and  are  known  among  the  Chinese  as  the  sect 
that  will  not  eat  pork.  Their  chief  strength  is 
in  the  northern  provinces.  In  Peking  they  are 
estimated  at  200,000.  In  Canton  there  is  a 
plain  tower  said  to  have  been  erected  by  them 
during  the  Tang  dynasty,  and  there  is  a  mosque 
and  the  tomb  of  the  maternal  uncle  of  Mohammed 
not  far  from  the  wall  of  the  city  on  the  northeast. 
The  stronghold  of  the  religion  is  in  Hang-chau-fu, 
and  in  some  places  its  disciples  form  a  third  of 
the  population,  their  entire  number  being  esti- 
mated at  10,000,000  in  the  region  north  of  the 
Yangtse    alone. 

Judaism :  Jews  have  been  found  in  China,  but 
information  in  regard  to  them  is  scanty.  They 
claim  to  have  come  to  China  during  the  Han 


151 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


CUlna 


dynasty.  In  the  last  three  centuries  they  have 
lived  solely  in  Kaifung,  the  capital  of  Honan. 
The  Chinese  name  for  them  is  Tiao-Chin-Chiao, 
"tlie  sect  that  takes  out  the  sinew."  At  present 
they  do  not  number  more  than  a  few  hundred 
persons,  and  are  too  poor  to  possess  a  synagog. 

The  attitude  of  government  toward  Christianity 
and  Christian  missions  has  been,  in  the  past, 
simple  indifference.  The  Chinese  authorities 
simply  tolerate  the  missionary.  At  the  same 
time  protection  is  given  him.  If  it  is  denied,  the 
refusal  is  due  to  the  private  whim  of  some  subor- 
dinate official,  in  which  he  is  not  supported  by  the 
government.  Damage  to  missionary  property 
has  been  paid  for  when  the  matter  has  been 
brought  to  the  attention  of  the  high  officials. 
It  can  easily  happen  that  local  feeling  against 
the  missionaries  may  be  stirred  up  by  violent 
men  until  the  local  authorities  are  unable  to  pro- 
tect the  foreigner,  but  such  conduct  is  repudiated 
by  the  government,  and  the  official  is  liable  to 
punishment.  When  the  treaties  of  1858  were 
signed  the  rights  of  missionaries  were  defined. 
In  the  American  treaty  it  was  stipulated  that 
"those  who  quietly  profess  and  teach  these  doc- 
trines shall  not  be  harassed  or  persecuted  on 
account  of  their  faith.  Any  person,  whether 
citizen  of  the  United  States  or  Chinese  convert, 
who,  according  to  these  tenets,  peaceably  teaches 
and  practises  the  principles  of  Christianity,  shall 
in  no  case  be  interfered  with  or  molested."  The 
Russian,  the  British,  and  the  French  treaties 
contain  similar  stipulations. 

Early  Christian  Missions  in  China  :  There  is 
no  doubt  that  Christian  truths  were  taught  in 
China  at  an  early  period  of  the  Christian  era. 
The  first  authentic  account  of  early  missionary 
effort  is  given  in  the  tablet  which  was  discovered 
in  Hsi-ngan-fuin  1625.  The  Nestorian  missionaries 
arrived  in  China  as  early  as  505  a.d.,  and  the  date 
of  the  tablet  is  781.  From  this  time  on  till  the 
travels  of  Marco  Polo  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
Nestorians  had  many  converts;  but  from  the 
time  of  the  Yuen  dynasty  the  records  give  no 
satisfactory  account  of  their  condition  or  fate. 

The  efforts  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  may 
be  divided  into  epochs.  The  first  epoch  was  in 
the  13th  century,  when  John  Corvino  was 
sent  to  China  in  1292,  and  was  successful  in  estab- 
lishing a  mission,  and  from  that  time  on  till  the 
expulsion  of  the  Manchus,  in  1368,  many  con- 
verts were  made,  and  there  were  probably  many 
Christian  communities.  The  second  period  is 
one  of  150  years,  from  the  time  when  Matteo 
Ricci  established  himself  in  Shanking  till  the 
edict  of  expulsion  by  the  Emperor  Yung  Ching, 
in  1736.  Francis  Xavier  was  one  of  the  faithful 
men  who  strove  to  preach  to  the  Chinese,  but 
was  detained  by  the  governor  of  Malacca  and 
died  without  reaching  his  field,  tho  he  was 
buried  on  Chinese  soil.  Michael  Ruggiero,  of  the 
Jesuits,  finally  arrived  at  Macao  in  1580,  where 
he  was  joined  by  Matteo  Ricci,  and  the  era  of 
successful  missions  commenced.  Twenty-one 
years  later  Ricci  reached  Peking  and  made  a  fa- 
vorable impression  on  the  court.  From  this  time 
on  Roman  Catholicism  was  more  or  less  success- 
ful in  China.  When  the  Manchus  came  in  power 
the  knowledge  of  astronomy  which  the  fathers 
possessed  brought  them  the  favor  of  the  court, 
and  their  labors  were  aided  by  noble  and  influen- 
tial friends.  Churches  were  built,  new  missions 
were  established,  and  they  numbered  their  con- 
verts by  the  thousands.     At  length  the  priests 


mingled  with  different  parties  in  affairs  of  State, 
and  the  various  political  intrigues  with  which 
they  were  concerned  led  to  an  edict  against  them 
in  1665,  and  Sohaal,  their  principal  man,  was 
disgraced  and  degraded  from  the  high  offices  he 
held,  and  died  soon  after  of  grief.  The  accession 
of  Kang  Hsi  brought  them  again  in  favor,  and 
by  their  knowledge  of  astronomy  and  surveying 
they  were  given  important  positions,  and  favor 
and  toleration  were  shown  to  their  missionary 
efforts.  During  the  latter  part  of  the 
17th  century  strife  arose  among  the  Jesuits 
and  Dominicans  in  regard  to  the  attitude  of  the 
Church  toward  the  worship  of  Confucius,  de- 
ceased ancestors,  and  the  worship  of  heaven. 
Innocent  X.  issued  a  decree  in  1645  in  which  this 
worship  was  declared  to  be  idolatrous  and  not 
to  be  tolerated.  As  the  Jesuits  had  held  that 
it  was  merely  political  in  its  nature,  they  strove 
to  have  this  decree  vitiated,  and  in  1656  Alex- 
ander VII.  approved  their  course  and  decided 
that  the  rites  were  civil  in  their  nature,  and  could 
be  tolerated  by  the  missionaries.  The  emperor 
Kang  Hsi  was  appealed  to  for  a  decision  of  the 
question,  and  in  1700  he  answered  to  the  effect 
that  the  worship  of  tien,  heaven,  was  the  wor- 
ship of  the  true  God,  and  that  the  other  rites  were 
merely  civil.  This  answer  was  sent  to  the  pope. 
Clement  XL  finally  reached  a  decision,  and 
decreed  that  tien  did  not  mean  the  true  God,  and 
that  the  rites  were  idolatrous,  after  which  the 
emperor  Kang  Hsi  refused  to  countenance  such 
missionaries  as  did  not  follow  the  Jesuitical 
opinions  and  favor  the  retention  of  the  sacrifices 
to  ancestors  and  to  Confucius.  The  first  fifteen 
years  of  the  18th  century  were  years  in 
which  Romish  missions  attained  their  greatest 
prosperity.  There  were  1,100  churches  in 
Kiangnan  and  Kiangsi  alone,  and  100,000  con- 
verts were  claimed.  Soon  after  this  time  Kang 
Hsi  began  to  see  into  the  true  nature  of  the  prop- 
aganda, and  his  faith  in  the  missionaries  was 
lessened  by  their  internal  strife.  In  1618  he 
banished  all  missionaries  except  those  who  would 
follow  the  teachings  of  Ricci.  Yung  Ching 
followed  his  father  with  a  decree  forbidding  the 
propagation  of  the  Tien  Chu  Chiao,  as  Roman 
Catholicism  has  been  called  ever  since,  and 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life  and  that  of  Chien 
Lung,  the  Catholics  were  persecuted  and  lost 
much  of  the  prestige  which  they  enjoyed.  Tho 
never  entirely  extinguished,  their  missions  varied 
in  success  from  that  time  till  the  treaties  of  1858 
brought  toleration  to  them,  as  well  as  to  all  other 
sects. 

Early  Protestant  Missions :  The  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  very  soon  after  its  organization, 
in  1795,  had  its  attention  turned  to  China  through 
the  discovery  in  the  British  Museum  of  an  ancient 
Chinese  manuscript,  but  the  East  India  Company, 
which  had  at  Canton  an  important  commercial 
center,  was  antagonistic  to  all  missionary  effort, 
and  the  Chinese  themselves  strongly  objected 
to  the  coming  of  religious  teachers,  and  it  was 
only  through  the  kindly  interest  of  an  American 
mercantile  house,  Olyphant  &  Company,  of 
New  York,  that  the  LMS  was  at  length,  in  1806, 
enabled  to  send  its  first  missionary  to  China. 
Robert  Morrison  sailed  first  to  New  York,  thence 
to  China,  in  an  American  sailing  vessel,  reaching 
Canton  on  September  7,  1807,  and  was  for  a 
time  allowed  to  reside  in  the  narrow  space  allotted 
to  the  factories  of  the  East  India  Company  out- 
side the  walls  of  Canton,  but  was  soon  obliged, 


Cbina 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


152 


with  other  English  residents,  to  retire  to  Macao, 
which  belonged  to  the  Portuguese  Government, 
and  afforded  a  home  to  many  of  the  early  mission- 
aries, and  was  one  of  the  points  of  attack  upon 
China,  until  China  itself  should  be  opened  to  the 
Gospel.  Other  places  from  which  tlie  mission- 
aries found  access  to  the  strange  people  whom 
they  wislied  to  reach  were  Malacca,  Batavia, 
Singapore,  Borneo,  and  Bangkok,  where  there 
were  great  numbers  of  Chinese  emigrants,  and 
the  LMS,  the  ABMU,  the  ABCFM,  and  other 
societies,  established  missions  among  them  in 
anticipation  of  the  time  when  the  door  of  entrance 
to  the  empire  should  be  opened. 

The  first  associate  of  Morrison,  William  Milne, 
arrived  in  Canton,  July,  1813,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  sailed  tor  the  Indian  Archipelago,  taking 
with  him  a  large  number  of  New  Testaments  and 
tracts  from  Morrison's  press.  He  proceeded  to 
Java  and  thence  to  Malacca,  returning  afterward 
to  Canton,  but  finding  it  difficult  to  prosecute 
missionary  labor  there  returned  to  Malacca, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1822. 
William  H.  Medhurst,  the  third  missionary  sent 
by  the  LMS  to  Cliina,  was  in  1822  sent  to  reen- 
force  the  mission  to  the  Chinese  at  Batavia,  in 
Java. 

In  1829  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions  sent  to  Canton  its  first  mis- 
sionary to  China,  the  Rev.  E.  C.  Bridgman. 
Mr.  Bridgman  was  accompanied  by  the  Rev. 
David  Abeel,  who  had  been  sent  out  by  the  Amer- 
ican Seamen's  Friend  Society,  but  who  soon  trans- 
ferred his  services  to  the  ABCFM.  They  were 
received  by  Olyphant  &  Company,  and  a  printing 
press  was  sent  out  for  their  use  by  the  church  in 
New  York  of  which  Mr.  Olyphant  was  a  member. 
In  1833  S.  Wells  Williams,  then  in  his  twentieth 
year,  was  sent  out  to  take  charge  of  it,  and  it 
remained  at  Canton  until  1835,  when  it  was 
removed  to  Macao,  where  Mr.  Williams  might 
have  the  benefit  of  the  types  of  the  East  India 
Company's  presses. 

In  1834  Dr.  Peter  Parker  joined  the  mission, 
and  his  medical  skill  added  a  new  factor  of  the 
highest  value  in  removing  prejudice  and  in 
winning  the  hearts  of  the  people.  The  Medical 
Missionary  Society,  formed  at  Canton  by  the 
joint  efforts  of  the  missionaries  and  the  large- 
hearted  merchants  residing  in  the  city,  was  the 
result  of  Dr.  Parker's  success  in  starting  medical 
work. 

The  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  estab- 
lished its  first  missionary  work  for  the  Chinese 
at  Bangkok  in  1833,  looking  forward  to  the  time 
when  it  should  be  able  to  enter  China;  and  in  1838 
the  American  Presbyterians  began  their  first 
mission  to  the  Chinese  at  Singapore.  At  all  the 
various  points,  occupied  in  unremitting  devotion 
to  the  study  of  the  language,  to  the  work  of 
translation,  and  to  the  mission  presses,  the  mis- 
sionaries had  accomplished  a  great  work  of  prep- 
aration, when  in  1842,  at  the  close  of  the  first 
opium  war  between  England  and  China,  five  of 
the  chief  ports  of  China  were  opened  to  foreign 
residents,  and  the  island  of  Hongkong  was  ceded 
to  the  British.  At  once  taking  advantage  of  the 
opening,  the  LMS  appointed  a  conference  at  Hong- 
kong of  all  its  missionaries  then  resident  at  Macao 
Malacca,  Batavia,  etc.,  and  as  a  result  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  College,  founded  by  Dr.  Morrison,  was 
removed  from  Malacca,  and  the  Society's  printing 
establishment  and  medical  work  from  Macao 
to  Hongkong. 


At  the  same  time  Mr.  Abeel,  of  the  ABCFM, 
and  Rev.  J.  N.  Boone,  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  entered  Amoy,  and  work  for  the- 
Chinese  on  the  mainland  was  fairly  inaugurated. 
From  this  time  on  the  number  of  missionary 
societies  laboring  in  China  rapidly  increased. 
The  opening  of  nine  additional  ports  by  the- 
treaties  of  Tientsin  increased  the  opportunities^ 
and  the  travels  of  Dr.  Giltzlaff  aroused  new  inter- 
est, until  nearly  seventy  societies  are  represented 
in  that  great  empire. 

Obstacles  to  Missions:  1.  Dislike  of  Foreigners : 
The  feeling  is  general  that  whatever  is  strange 
and  different  from  the  native  is  uncanny.     For 
this  reason  the  most  common  name  for  the  for- 
eigner is  fankuei,  which  is  usually  rendered  "for- 
eign  devil,"  but  it  does  not  mean  devil  so  much 
as  it  does  something  that  is  weird,  strange,  uncan- 
ny, and  therefore  to  be  feared.     The  missionary  is 
an  object  of  suspicion  on  account  of  his  appear- 
ance, his  actions,  and  his  speech.     If  he  wanders- 
along  the  hillsides  for  recreation,  he  is  supposed 
to  be  searching  into  the  mineral  wealth  of  the 
hills  with  eyes  that  can  see  through  the  rocks.   If 
he  picks  a  flower,  it  is  to  be  used  for  medicine  or 
as  a  charm.     Everything  that  he  does  is  suscep- 
tible   of    some    wrong    interpretation. — 2.    The 
Conceit  of  the   Literati.     It  is  a  significant  fact 
that  at  the  utmost  very  few  Siu  Tsai  (B.A.)  and 
Chu-jen    (M.A.)    have    been    known    to   profess; 
Christianity.     The  literati  form  the  most  difficult 
class  to  reach,  and  are  the  most  bitter  opponents, 
of  Christianity;  for  they  are   so    puffed  up  with 
their  knowledge,  and  so  firmly  convinced  that 
whatever  is  Confucian  and  according  to  tradition 
is  right,  that  they  will  not  listen  to  or  heed  the- 
religious  teachings  of  the  foreigner.     The  Moham- 
medans are  also  hard  to  reach. — 3.  Superstitions. 
When  every  little  event  of  life  is  bound  up  in 
some   way  or  other  with  their  multiple  super- 
stitions, the  teachings  of  the  Gospel  are  choked 
by  these  thorns  of  error. — 4.   Ancestor  Worship. 
By  opposing  the  worship  of  parents,  Christians- 
are  regarded  as  unfilial,  and  the  doctrine  which 
refuses  the  rites  of  worship  to  father  and  mother  is 
viewed  with  dislike  and  scorn. — 5.  Opium.  This  is- 
so  serious  an  obstacle  to  the  evangelization  of  the 
Chinese  people  that  some  detail  is  necessary  to- 
make  its  gravity  apparent.     Previous  to  the  18th 
century  opium  was  used  in  China  only  in  small 
quantities  as  a  medicine.     Till   1767  the  trade- 
with    India  was   through   the    Portuguese,  who 
imported  annually  about  200  chests,  each  weigh- 
ing 140  lbs.     Even  as  late  as  1830  a  large  city  like 
Hanchau    had    no    opium-dens.       Now    it    has; 
2,000.     The  rapid  growth  of  the  evil  dates  from. 
1773,  when  the  East  India  Company  entered  on 
the  business.  In  1790,  4,054  chests  were  imported;: 
in  1799,  5,000;  in  1826,  9,969;  in  1830,  16,800. 
In  1834  the  East  India  Company  closed  its  fac- 
tory, but  British  officials  continued  the  traffic,, 
bringing    34,000    chests    in    1836.     After    that,, 
piculs   of    133J   lbs.    each   were   substituted  for 
chests,  and  in  1850,  52,925  piculs  were  imported,, 
the  number  steadily  increasmg  to  75,308  in  1880; 
in  1887  it  reached  96,746  piculs,  thus  growing 
from  12  tons  in  1767  to  5,312  tons  in  1887.     The 
value  of  the  opium  imported  into  China  in  1901 
was  $23,199,500. 

Up  to  1860  opium  was  smuggled  into  China. 
In  1780  (because  they  could  not  take  it  on  shore) 
it  was  stored  on  two  vessels  anchored  near  Macao, 
and  thence  taken  in  charge  by  Chinese  smug- 
glers.    The  Ahh6  Raynal  (Tract  i.,  p.  424)  writes 


168 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


China, 


in  1770:  "The  Chinese  emperors  have  condemned 
to  the  flames  every  vessel  that  imports  it."  It 
was  prohibited  in  1796,  1799,  1809,  1820,  1836, 
and  1837,  and  always  on  moral  grounds.  In 
1828  the  severity  of  the  laws  almost  destroyed 
the  trade.  In  1831  and  1834  England  sent  men- 
of-war  to  Canton  and  armed  the  lorohas  of  the 
smugglers.  In  1830  strangling  was  the  penalty 
for  selling  the  drug,  and  an  offender  was  thus 
executed  at  Macao  in  1832,  in  the  presence  of  a 
crowd  of  foreigners.  Still  Chinese  prohibition 
did  not  prohibit. 

A  crisis  came  in  1839.  The  imperial  commis- 
sioner, Lin,  wrote  to  Queen  Victoria,  imploring 
her  to  put  an  end  to  the  traffic,  and  in  twenty 
days  committed  to  the  flames  20,283  chests  of 
opium,  thus  destroying  $10,000,000  worth  of  the 
drug,  which  was  British  property.  This  brought 
on  the  war  of  1840,  and  at  its  close,  besides  ceding 
the  island  of  Hongkong,  China  paid  $12,000,000 
for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  besides  the  price  of 
the  opium.  But  when  Sir  Henry  Pottinger 
demanded  the  legalization  of  the  trade,  the  Em- 
peror is  said  to  have  replied:  "True,  I  cannot  pre- 
vent the  introduction  of  the  poison,  but  nothing 
will  induce  me  to  raise  a  revenue  from  the  vice 
and  misery  of  my  people."  It  would  seem  as  tho 
a  Christian  nation  would  have  thanked  God  for 
such  words  from  a  heathen  monarch,  and  rallied 
to  his  help.  This  refusal  held  until,  in  1857,  a 
smuggler  bearing  the  British  flag  was  fired  on  by 
the  Chinese  authorities  at  Canton,  and  its  crew 
were  held  as  prisoners.  The  refusal  of  the  Chi- 
nese to  make  any  reparation  for  an  act  which  vio- 
lated the  treaty  was  punished  by  the  bombard- 
ment of  Canton.  France  joined  with  England 
in  the  enterprise  of  securing  respect  for  solemn 
treaties.  The  allies  continued  their  advance 
toward  Peking.  The  Emperor  was  forced  to 
grant  new  facilities  to  foreign  commerce,  besides 
paying  $10,800,000  to  England  and  $6,000,000 
to  France  as  indemnity.  But  the  effect  of  the 
new  treaty  was  to  legalize  the  opium  trade  by 
teaching  the  Chinese  that  their  bungling  and 
technically  illegal  interference  with  it  could  but 
be  punished.  After  1860  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment made  few  efforts  to  discourage  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  poppy;  for,  if  opium  must  be  used, 
they  preferred  not  to  enrich  those  who  had  so 

Persistently  fastened  the  plague  upon  the  country, 
n  the  province  of  Sze-chuan,  government  inter- 
ference with  raising  opium  ceased  in  1865.  It 
was  not  long  before  the  efforts  of  the  government 
were  directed  toward  securing  the  largest  possible 
revenue  from  the  opium  trade. 

An  eminent  British  subject.  Archdeacon  Monle, 
of  Shanghai,  said  in  summing  up  the  relations  of 
Great  Britain  to  the  opium  trade  :"British  author- 
ities in  India,  well  aware  of  the  attitude  of  the 
Chinese  Government,  deliberately  prepared  and 
sent  opium  to  China,  with  only  two  years  inter- 
mission, for  sixty  years." 

The  terrible  results  upon  the  Chinese  people  of 
having  opium  placed  within  their  reach  quickly 
attracted  attention.  The  Shanghai  Conference 
of  1877  said  emphatically:  "We  know  that  opium 
is  a  curse,  both  physically  and  morally,  to  the 
Chinese.  We  must  appeal  to  the  great  heart  of 
England,  and  when  her  heart  beats  warmly  on 
this  question  this  foul  blot  on  her  fair  name  will 
be  wiped  away." 

Mr.  Alexander  Wylie,  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society,  wrote  about  the  same  time: 
"Unless  some  means  be  found  to  check  the  prac- 


tice, it  bids  fair  to  accomplish  the  utter  destruc- 
tion of  that  great  empire." 

Ten  years  later,  Rev.  J.  Hudson  Taylor  wrote: 
"In  China  are  tens  of  thousands  of  villages  with 
small  trace  of  Bible  influence,  but  hardly  a  ham- 
let where  the  opium  pipe  does  not  reign.  It  does 
more  harm  in  a  week  than  all  our  missionaries 
are  doing  good  in  a  year.  The  slave-trade  was 
bad,  the  drink  is  bad,  but  the  opium  traffic  is  the 
sum  of  villainies.  It  debauches  more  families 
than  drink,  and  it  makes  more  slaves  than  the 
slave-trade."  Such  testimonies  might  be  mul- 
tiplied. The  opium  habit,  encouraged  by  those 
members  of  a  Christian  nation  who  are  interested 
in  developing  the  revenues  of  India  through 
poppy-culture,  is  a  direct  barrier  to  the  progress 
of  Christianity  in  China.  How  terribly  true  this 
is  can  be  seen  by  noting  tlie  effects  produced  by 
the  immense  amount  of  opium  consumed  in 
China. 

The  opium-smoker  can  be  detected  in  a  crowd 
by  his  hollow  eyes,  sunken  cheeks,  emaciated 
frame,  and  sallow  complexion.  He  needs  three 
hours  a  day  to  inhale  the  drug,  and  then  he  can- 
not work  more  than  two  hours  before  he  must 
repeat  the  dose.  If  he  has  not  time  for  his  rice 
and  opium,  he  chooses  the  last.  If  he  has  not 
money  enough  for  both,  he  buys  only  opium.  If 
he  lias  no  money  he  pawns  his  clothes.  If  they 
are  already  pawned,  he  steals.  He  even  sells  his 
children  into  slavery,  or  his  daughters  to  a  life  of 
shame,  that  his  accursed  appetite  may  be  fed. 
Often  wives  are  sold  that  the  husband  may  have 
his  opium.  If  he  cannot  get  the  drug,  water 
flows  from  his  eyes,  his  throat  burns,  his  extrem- 
ities are  cold,  and  he  dies  in  agony.  One  mis- 
sionary reports  that  in  three  years  he  was  called 
to  attend  thirty-six  attempts  at  suicide  caused 
by  opium. 

The  opium  habit  has,  furthermore,  an  indirect 
result  in  obstructing  missions,  because  the 
Chinese  who  see  its  evil  ascribe  its  prevalence  to 
Christendom,  holding  all  foreigners  alike  respon- 
sible for  the  defeat  of  the  attempts  of  the  author- 
ities to  break  up  the  trade.  An  opium-smoker 
came  to  a  missionary  from  a  distant  city  to  be 
cured  of  the  habit.  Soon  he  became  so  sick  that 
the  missionary  feared  he  would  die,  and  told  him 
so.  He  thought  it  all  over,  and  said,  "Teacher, 
I  take  the  responsibility:  live  or  die,  do  for  me 
what  you  can;"  and,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  on 
the  means  employed  the  poor  wretch  was 
brought  back  from  the  very  gates  of  death.  A 
Chinese  is  apt  to  be  very  obtuse  respecting 
vicious  practises.  But  as  to  the  evil  and  degra- 
ding tendency  of  the  opium  habit,  he  is  of  one 
mind  with  the  missionary,  who  would  quite  as 
soon  receive  to  the  Church  a  burglar  as  an  opium- 
smoker.  The  effect  of  this  feeling  upon  the 
attitude  of  a  considerable  class  of  Chinese  toward 
Christendom  and  its  missionaries  is  illustrated 
by  incidents  like  the  following :  A  missionary  in 
preaching  happened  to  mention  hell.  "Yes," 
replied  a  respectable  elderly  man  in  the  audience, 
"since  you  foreigners  came,  China  has  become 
hell." 

The  Protestant  Missions  now  in  China :  We  are 
indebted  largely  to  Beach's  Geography  and 
Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions  for  the  information 
contained  in  the  following  summary  statement 
concerning  Protestant  Missions  in  China: 

The  total  number  of  Protestant  missionaries 
laboring  in  China  at  the  beginning  of  1900  was 
2,785.     This  number  includes  610  ordained  and 


China 

Cliina   Inland 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


1S4 


578  unordained  men,  772  missionaries'  wives  and 
825  other  missionary  women;  and  among  these 
there  are  162  male  physicians  and  79  women 
physicians.  The  number  of  native  workers  of 
both  sexes  was  6,388,  and  the  roll  of  native  evan- 
gelical Christians  includes  112,808  names.  The 
missionary  organizations  laboring  in  the  Empire, 
including  Bible  societies  and  other  organizations 
having  foreign  workers  on  the  field,  number  sixty- 
seven.  The  seaboard  provinces  of  China  contain 
by  far  the  largest  number  of  Christians,  tho 
missionaries  are  widely  distributed  over  the 
eighteen  provinces.  The  leading  boards  doing 
aggressive  work  in  the  provinces  are:  In  Manchuria 
or  Sheng-king  the  UFS,  the  PCI,  and  the  Danish 
Missionary  Society;  in  Chi-h,  the  ABCFM,  the 
ME,  the  LMS  and  the  SPG;  in  Shan-tung,  the 
PN,  the  BMS,  the  German  General  Mission 
Society,  the  Berlin  Mission  Society,  and  the 
CIM;  in  Kiang-su,  the  PS,  the  CIM,  the  PN,  the 
MES,  and  the  German  General  Mission  Society; 
in  Che-kiang,  the  CIM,  the  CMS,  the  ABMU,  and 
the  PS;  in  Fo-kien,  the  CMS,  the  ME,  the  ABCFM 
and  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England;  in 
Kwang-tung,  the  Basel  Missionary  Society,  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  England,  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society,  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society 
and  the  ABMU,  the  CMS,  the  SBC,  and  the  PN; 
the  Berlin  Women's  Society  for  China,  the  Ger- 
man Mission  to  the  Chinese  Blind,  and  the  Kiel 
Mission  to  China;  in  Kwang-si,  the  CA,  the  WMS, 
and  the  CMS;  in  Yun-nan,  the  CIM;  in  Sze-chwan 
the  CIM,  the  CMS,  the  ABMU,  Friends'  Foreign 
Missionary  Association,  the  Barmen  (Germany) 
China  Alliance,  and  the  Canadian  Methodists; 
in  Kan-su,  the  CIM,  and  the  St.  Chrischona  Mis- 
sion; in  Shen-si,  the  CIM  and  the  BMS;  in  Shan-si, 
the  CIM,  the  BMS,  and  the  ABCFM;  in  Mongolia, 
the  LMS,  the  CA,  and  the  Scandinavian  Mission 
Alliance  of  North  America;  in  Ho-nan,  the  CIM, 
and  the  CP;  in  Ngan-hwei,  the  CIM,  the  FCMS, 
the  PE,and  the  St.  Chrischona  Mission;  in  Hu-pei, 
the  LMS,  the  CIM,  the  WMS,  the  PE,  and  the 
Swedish  Missionary  Society;  in  Kiang-si,  the  CIM, 
the  ME,  the  SBC,  and  the  Barmen  (German) 
China  Alliance;  in  Hu-nan,  the  LMS,  the  CIM, 
the  PN,  the  PE,  and  the  CP;  and  in  Kwei-chau, 
the  CIM.  The  American,  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  society,  and  the  National  Bible 
Society  of  Scotland,  together  with  the  Society 
for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and  General  Knowl- 
edge among  the  Chinese,  and  the  various  tract 
societies,  have  exerted  great  influences  for  good 
in  different  parts  of  the  Empire.  At  present, 
the  forms  of  Christian  work  that  are  most  effect- 
ive among  the  Chinese  are: 

Medical  Institutions:  Many  doors  have  been 
opened  for  effective  Christian  work  by  means  of 
the  practise  of  medicine  among  the  natives. 
Dispensaries  and  hospitals  are  being  established 
in  many  parts  of  the  land,  the  number  now  exist- 
ing (1900)  being  259;  and  the  245  medical  mission- 
aries are  recognized  more  and  more  as  a  power  for 
righteousness  in  the  whole  field. 

Educational  Work:  In  the  day  schools  hundreds 
of  pupils  are  taught  the  rudiments  of  a  Western 
education,  and  by  means  of  the  Bible,  the  truths 
of  the  Gospel  are  imparted  to  them.  The  pupils 
are  brought  into  closer  association  with  the  mis- 
sionaries in  the  boarding-schools;  and,  altho 
the  numbers  are  comparatively  few  in  these 
institutions,  most  effective  results  have  been 
accomplished.  There  are  170  of  the  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  in  the  missions  in  China. 


In  our  sense  of  the  term,  the  highest  education 
may  not  yet  be  imparted  by  the  missionary  uni- 
versities, colleges  and  other  such  establishments, 
but  practical  education  for  Christian  service 
through  the  station  classes,  and  the  faithful  in- 
struction that  is  being  given  in  the  theological 
schools  serve  an  important  purpose  in  intel- 
lectual uplifting  of  the  people  and  in  the  better 
equipment  of  the  native  teachers  and  preachers. 

Literature:  The  Chinese  are  preeminently  a 
literary  people,  and  much  attention  has  appro- 
priately been  given  to  literature  in  Chinese  mis- 
sions. The  preparation  of  educational  works, 
the  translation  of  the  Bible,  and  the  work  on 
revised  versions  have  been  almost  entirely  the 
labors  of  missionaries;  and  through  the  mighty 
agency  of  the  pen  the  coming  of  the  Kingdom  in 
the  Middle  Kingdom  has  been  hastened. 

Evangelism:  Chapel  services,  street  preaching, 
and  house  to  house  visitation  at  653  stations  and 
2,476  outstations  along  the  seacoast  and  through 
the  inland  provinces,  have,  as  in  apostolic  times, 
proved  to  be  divine  means  for  the  conversion  of 
souls.  The  present  outlook  for  the  cause  of  Christ 
in  China  is  most  hopeful  from  every  point  of  view. 
The  testing  season  of  1899  and  1900  has  not  been 
without  its  blessing  both  to  the  missionary  and 
the  native  Christiaji.  The  heroism  displayed 
by  Christ's  servants;  the  calm  martyrdom  suf- 
fered by  the  missionary  of  the  cross  and  the  con- 
vert from  heathendom;  the  object  lessons  of 
unexpected  strength  and  Christlike  forgiveness 
before  the  enemies  of  the  cross;  and  the  providen- 
tial care  shown  many  in  dire  distress — all  these 
evidences  of  the  divine  grace  have  done  much 
toward  clearing  the  track  for  the  chariot  of  our 
King.  China  for  Christ  should  be  the  watch- 
word for  this  generation.     Amen. 

Allen  (R.),  Siege  of  the  Pekin  Legations,  London,  1901; 
Boulger  (D,  C.),A  Short  History  of  China,  new  ed.,  London, 
1900;  Chang  (Chi  T'ung),  China's  Only  Hope,  New  York, 
1900;  Ching  (Wen).  Chinese  Crisis  from  Within,  London, 
1901;  (Dolquhoun  tA.  H.).  China  in  Transformation,  Lon- 
don,   1898,   ,  Overland  to  China,    1900;  Gray   (Yen. 

J.  H.),  China  {Laws,  Manners,  Customs),  2  vols.,  London, 
1878;  Gibson  (J.  C),  Mission  Prob'tems  and  Mission 
Methods  in  S.  China,  New  York,  1901;  Legge  {J,),  Relig- 
ions of  China,  London,  1881 ;  Martin  (W.  A.  P.),  Cycle  of 

Cathay,   New  York,    1896;    Siege  of  Pekin,   ,   1901; 

Oxenham  (E.  L.),  Historical  Atlas  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
2d  ed.,  London,  1898;  Smith  (A.  H.),  Chinese  Characteris- 
tics, New  York,  1895;  Village  Life  in  China,  New  York, 
1899;  Chirm  in  Convulsion,  2  vols.,  New  York,  1901. 
Williams  (S.  W, ),  The  Middle  Kingdom,  new  ed.,  2  vols., 
1899 ;  Mission  Review  of  the  World,  Vols.  XIII.,  XIV.,  XV., 
New  York,  1900-1902. 

CHINA ;  Christian  Literature  Society  for.     See 

Christian  Literature  Society  for  China. 

CHINA  INLAND  MISSION  (1865) :  The  founder 
of  the  China  Inland  Mission,  the  Rev.  J.  Hudson 
Taylor,  went  to  China  as  a  missionary  in  1853, 
under  the  Chinese  Evangelization  Society. 
Conscientious  difficulties  soon  afterward  led  to  a 
friendly  separation,  and  until  1860,  when  failing 
health  compelled  him  to  return  to  England,  he 
worked  independently.  In  1862  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Meadows  went  to  take  up  the  work  he  had  laid 
down  in  the  province  of  Che-kiang,  followed  in 
1864  by  four  others. 

In  the  meantime  constant  thought  and  prayer 
brought  to  Mr.  Taylor  the  conviction  that  some- 
thing ought  to  be  done  to  reach  the  people  of 
inland  China;  none  of  the  existing  societies  seem- 
ing prepared  to  make  the  attempt.  How  to  inau- 
gurate such  a  work  was  a  problem  in  itself.  How 
to  do  it  without  diverting  men  and  money  from 
existing  societies  was  another  problem,  for  Mr. 


155 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


China 
China  Inland 


Taylor  determined  that  the  new  undertaking 
must  "aid  all  and  injure  none."  The  result  was 
the  adoption  of  certain  principles  which  rule  the 
CIM:  (1)  It  was  foreseen  that  to  meet  the  vast 
needs  of  inland  China  all  the  volunteers  obtain- 
able from  every  branch  of  the  Christian  Church 
would  be  required;  nor  was  there  felt  any  insuper- 
able difficulty  in  working  in  the  mission  field  with 
members  of  various  denominations.  The  new 
work  was  therefore  made  interdenominational 
and  international.  (2)  The  workers  have  no 
guaranteed  salary,  but  trust  in  the  Lord  whom 
they  serve  to  supply  their  needs.  (3)  No  per- 
sonal solicitation  or  collection  of  funds  is  made  or 
authorized  by  the  mission,  voluntary  contribu- 
tions alone  being  received. 

Development:  It  is  worth  while  here  to  note 
instances  of  the  working  of  the  third  principle  of 
the  CIM.  The  needs  of  China  were  made  known 
in  a  little  book,  China's  Spiritual  Need  and 
Claims,  as  well  as  by  public  meetings,  and  volun- 
teers were  called  for  who  should  be  willing  to  go 
to  China  with  no  guaranteed  salary,  in  reliance  on 
God  to  supply  their  needs  in  answer  to  prayer. 
Not  long  afterward  the  first  missionary  party 
was  selected,  and,  as  the  time  for  their  departure 
drew  on,  and  the  funds  lacked,  a  daily  prayer- 
meeting  was  commenced  on  February  6,  1866, 
to  pray  for  from  £1,500  to  £2,000,  as  might  be 
needful,  to  cover  the  cost  of  outfits,  passages,  etc. 
On  March  21,  that  is  after  a  month  and  six 
days,  it  was  found  that  £1,974  5s.  lid.  had  been 
contributed  in  answer  to  daily  prayer.  Later  on, 
a  survey  of  the  needs  of  the  mission  led  its  senior 
members,  on  November  25,  1881,  to  offer 
prayer  for  seventy  new  workers  in  the  years 
1882-3-4.  In  the  years  1882-3-4,  seventy-six 
new  members  reached  the  field  of  the  CIM.  The 
proportions,  however,  of  men  and  women  were 
not  those  that  had  been  asked  for.  The  Lord  of 
the  harvest  reversed  the  proportions,  sending 
only  thirty  men  and  more  than  forty  women, 
thus  anticipating  the  remarkable  and  unex- 
pected developments  of  women's  work,  which 
will  be  noted  further  on. 

It  need  scarcely  be  said  that,  together  with 
the  prayer  for  seventy,  the  necessary  funds  to 
send  them  out  were  also  asked  from  God. 
Special  prayers  were  asked  for  these  funds  on 
January  31,  or  February  1,  1882.  On  February 
2,  an  anonymous  donation  of  £3,000  was 
received  at  the  offices  of  the  mission  in  London 
for  this  very  object.  On  September  1,  1884, 
the  same  donor  sent  £1,000  for  the  same  fund. 
The  contributions  from  the  commencement  up  to 
May  25,  1876,  amounted  to  £51,918  lis.  2d.,  a 
sum  which  had  covered  all  the  needs  and  left  a 
small  balance  of  general  funds  with  which  to  com- 
mence the  second  decade,  besides  £3,700 
specially  contributed  for  work  in  new  provinces. 
These  funds  were  without  solicitation,  in  answer 
to  prayer. 

In  the  second  decade  arrangements  were  made 
for  the  formation  of  a  China  Council  of  Senior 
missionaries  to  superintend  the  work  in  various 
provinces.  The  first  session  of  this  council  (now 
meeting  quarterly  at  Shanghai)  took  place  in 
Ngan-kingin  November, 1886,  and  one  of  the  most 
important  issues  of  that  session  was  the  appeal 
for  a  hundred  new  workers  for  the  CIM  to  come 
out  in  the  following  year.  Prayer  was  made  for 
them.  The  £10,000  necessary  to  cover  the 
expenses  of  this  movement  were  also  asked  from 
God,  with  the  particular  request  that  this  might 


be  specially  given  in  large  sums,  and  in  addition 
to  the  ordinary  income  of  the  mission.  The 
annual  volume  of  China's  Millions  for  1888  con- 
tained as  its  frontispiece  the  photos  of  the  hundred 
who  left  England  m  1887;  and  the  report  of  the 
annual  meeting  held  in  London  on  May  29, 
1888,  records  that  the  income  of  the  year  1887 
had  been  raised  from  £22,000  to  £33,700,  of 
which  £10,000  had  been  received  in  eleven  con- 
tributions, varying  from  £500  to  £2,500  in 
amount.  Once  more,  in  1890,  the  newly  erected 
premises  at  Shanghai  were  occupied  by  the  mis- 
sion, the  whole  cost  of  site,  building,  furnishing 
and  removing  having  been  supplied  for  this  pur- 
pose, in  answer  to  prayer,  without  cost  to  the 
mission. 

All  the  operations  of  the  mission  are  in  accord- 
ance with  one  general  and  comprehensive  plan 
for  the  evangelization  of  the  whole  of  China.  In 
occupying  a  new  province,  the  first  station,  if 
practicable,  is  opened  in  the  capital.  The  next 
step  is  to  open  up  stations  in  the  chief  prefec- 
tures, then  in  subordinate  ones,  leaving  as  a  rule 
places  less  important  to  be  occupied  later  on. 

In  carrying  out  the  plan  of  the  mission  it  was 
necessary  to  explore  China  anew,  from  the  mis- 
sionary standpoint,  but  in  the  meantime  wide- 
spread, evangelistic  and  colportage  work  was 
done  in  nearly  all  the  provinces,  and  also  in  parts 
of  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Siu-kiang,  as  far  west  as 
Kulja,  Eastern  Tibet  and  Upper  Burma.  Fol- 
lowing this  up  stations  were  opened  on  the  above 
mentioned  plan  in  the  capitals  of  the  fifteen 
provinces,  in  which  the  CIM  has  work,  as  well  as  in 
subordinate  cities.  The  report  dated  May  26, 
1878,  told  of  the  missionary  journeys  of  twenty 
pioneers,  and  contained  a  large  map  showing  the 
routes  each  had  taken,  which  covered  an  aggre- 
gate of  30,000  English  miles. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  extensions  of  the 
second  decade,  and  one  fraught  with  far-reaching 
issues,  was  that  of  women's  work  in  the  interior 
of  China.  In  January,  1876,  when  Miss  Wilson, 
of  Kendal,  sailed  at  her  own  expense  for  China, 
there  was  only  one  unmarried  CiM  lady  in  the 
field,  Miss  E.  Turner.  A  good  many  others  fol- 
lowed Miss  Wilson,  and  not  only  were  stations 
opened  for  women's  work  in  the  interior  of  the 
nearer  provinces,  but  within  the  short  space  of 
three  years,  from  October,  1878  to  December, 
1881,  women  had  been  able  to  enter  and  settle 
in  six  of  the  inland  provinces,  besides  bringing 
the  Gospel  to  hundreds  of  women  in  Ho-nan  and 
Hu-nan,  where  permanent  residence  was  then 
unattainable.  Only  those  who  know  the  diffi- 
culties and  trials  of  life  in  the  heart  of  China  and 
the  dangers  and  hardships  of  long  journeys  in 
such  a  land  can  fully  appreciate  all  that  these 
facts  mean;  only  those  who  have  experienced 
continued  loneliness,  isolation  and  peril  among  the 
heathen,  can  know  what  those  pioneer  women 
endured;  only  those  who,  under  such  circum- 
stances, have  faced  sickness,  far  from  any  medical 
aid,  acute  suffering,  and  even  death  itself,  can 
understand  what  the  sacrifice  involved  that  was 
sealed  by  the  first  missionary  graves  in  far-off 
Shen-si  and  Yun-nan 

A  far-reaching  issue  from  the  first  session  of  the 
Mission  Council  at  Shanghai  was  the  formation 
of  training  homes  for  newly  arrived  missioriaries, 
the  preparation  of  a  series  of  books  to  aid  in  the 
study  of  the  Chinese  language,  and  the  drawing 
up  of  a  course  of  study  in  six  sections  to  be  pur- 
sued until   satisfactory   examinations   had   been 


Cblna  Inland 
Chinese    Lansnage 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


159 


passed  in  each.  Ngan-king  was  chosen  as  a  suit- 
able place  for  the  Men's  Training  Home  and 
Yang-chau  in  like  manner  was  selected  for  the 
Women's  Training  Home. 

The  work  whose  development  has  thus  been 
summarized  has  occupied  nearly  40  years,  for  the 
embryo  mission  was  organized  in  England  in 
1863,  tho  the  first  CIM  party  only  reached 
Hanchau  about  the  end  of  1866.  Each  of  the 
four  decades  has  its  own  distinctive  feature.  In 
the  first  decade  the  mission  struck  its  roots  in 
China,  and  gained  experience  by  opening  and 
beginning  to  work  stations  in  previously  unoccu- 
pied districts  of  nearer  provinces.  The  second 
decade  was  the  one  of  widespread  itineration  and 
exploration  of  the  more  distant  provinces,  during 
which  the  first  stations  were  opened  in  all  the 
unoccupied  provinces  except  Kwang-si.  The 
third  decade  was  marked  by  development  and 
consolidation.  Widespread  itineration  was 
exchanged  for  methodical  visitation  of  small  dis- 
tricts around  established  centers,  in  many  of 
which  churches  were  organized,  and  in  others  the 
fruit  is  beginning  to  appear.  During  the  fourth 
decade  the  mission  has  gone  through  the  severe 
test  of  the  riotous  outbreak  against  the  under- 
taking. 

Urganization:  During  the  first  six  years  the 
home  department  of  the  CIM  was  administered 
by  W.  T.  Berger,  Esq.,  who  became  the  first 
Honoraiy  Home  Director  of  the  Mission.  Fail- 
ing health  compelling  him  to  lay  down  the  work, 
in  1872  the  London  Council  of  the  CIM  was 
formed,  and  for  two  or  three  years  two  of  its 
members  acted  as  honorary  secretaries,  but  the 
increasing  needs  of  the  work  demanding  addi- 
tional help,  a  resident  secretary  was  appointed, 
and  further  additions  to  the  home  staff  have  been 
made  from  time  to  time.  This  council  meets 
weekly  for  the  transaction  of  business.  Auxil- 
iaries have  been  formed  in  different  countries  as 
the  work  has  grown,  cooperating  with  the  London 
Council  in  the  selection  and  training  of  candidates 
and  receiving  the  voluntary  offerings  for  the 
mission.  These  funds  are  remitted  to  the  treas- 
urer in  China  and  he  supplies  the  needs  of  all 
those  not  otherwise  supported,  the  funds  being 
distributed  pro  rata. 

In  1903  Mr.  Hudson  Taylor  appointed  Mr.  D. 
E.  Hoste,  one  of  the  Cambridge  Seven,  as  General 
Director,  thus  relieving  himself  from  the  heavy 
duties  of  active  leadership,  while  retaining  the 
office  of  Consulting  Director.  Up  to  the  year 
1889,  British  candidates  had  been  received  and 
entertained  by  the  General  Secretary  and  his  wife, 
but  as  the  mission  grew  this  was  no  longer  pos- 
sible. In  that  year  an  auxiliary  council  was 
formed  in  Scotland,  to  deal  in  an  initial  way  with 
any  Scotch  candidates  who  were  applying;  a 
council  of  ladies  was  also  formed  in  London  and 
premises  were  taken  as  a  home  for  lady  candi- 
dates, to  which  two  adjoining  houses  have  since 
been  added.  Inglesby  House,  Newington  Green, 
London,  was  acquired  by  the  mission  as  a  home 
for  men  candidates,  and  mission  premises  were 
erected  in  1894  on  a  site  behind  this  house. 

Organization  in  the  field:  The  direction  of  work 
in  the  field  is  not  by  a  committee  at  home,  but 
by  a  Missionary  Director,  assisted  by  a  council  of 
senior  and  experienced  missionaries,  who  as 
superintendents  of  the  work  in  the  different 
provinces  help  and  guide  those  who  have  less 
experience. 

New  workers  on  arrival  in  the  field  as  proba- 


tioners usually  go  to  one  of  the  training  homes 
established  by  the  mission.     There,  for  about  six 
months,  they  receive  from  European  and  native 
teachers  careful  instruction  in  the  language,  and 
are  taught  besides  much  that  will  be  helpful  to 
them  as  to  the  geography,  government  and  eti- 
quette  of  the   country,   the   phases  of  religious: 
thought,  and  the  best  methoci  of  communicating, 
the  Gospel  to  the  people.     Then  they  commonly 
proceed  to  some  of  the  inland  stations  of  the  mis- 
sion and  continue  their  studies,  assisting,  as  able, 
in  the  work,  under  the  supervision  of  senior  mis- 
sionaries.    A  definite  course  of  study  is  pursued, 
divided  into  six  sections,  and  periodical  examina- 
tions from  time  to  time  test  the  progress  of  the 
student.     If  his  progress  has  been  satisfactory, 
and  there  is  promise  of  permanent  and  useful 
work,  the  probationer  is  accepted  as  a  junior  mis- 
sionary at  the  end  of  two  years,  and  assists  one  of 
the  senior  missionaries  in  his  district.     If  at  the 
end  of  five  years  he  has  done  well,  and  has  passed 
all  his  prescribed  examinations,  he  becomes  one 
of  the  senior  missionaries,  taking  full  responsi- 
bility for  the  work  of  a  station,  the  district  sur- 
rounding it,  and  such  of  the  younger  workers  as 
are  placed  under  his  supervision.     Over  a  number 
of  these  districts  a  superintendent  is  appointed; 
he  has  probably  been  in  the  country  from  ten  to 
twenty  years.     The  senior  missionaries  can  be 
called  together  when  necessary  to  act  as  a  council 
and  confer  with  the  superintendent  about  the 
whole  work  of  his  provincial  district.     All  the 
superintendents  are  members  of  the  general  coun- 
cil of  the  mission  in  China.     From  the  extent  of 
the  country  it  is  not  possible  for  the  whole  num- 
ber to  meet  together  frequently,  but  a  sufficient 
number  of  them  are  able  to  attend  the  quarterly 
meeting  of  the  council  to  confer  with  the  director 
and    deputy    director    concerning    matters   that 
affect  the  whole  work  of  the  mission  in  China. 
The    work  of    the  mission  being  interdenomina- 
tional,   it   is   found   helpful   to   cluster   together 
workers  whose  views  of  church  government  suf- 
ficiently   correspond    to    enable    them    to    work 
happily   together.     When  a  number  of  natives 
have  been  converted,  and  the  time  comes  to  organ- 
ize a  church,  the  senior  missionary  who  is  respon- 
sible for  the  conduct  of  the  work  is  perfectly  free 
and   unfettered,    and   will    organize   the   church 
according  to  his  own  conscientious  convictions. 
When  a  church  has  once  been  formed  on  any  defi- 
nite lines,  those  who   afterward  superintend  the 
work  do  so  on  condition  of  carrying  it  on  as  it 
was    commenced.     Tho    the    mission    embraces 
Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  Cougregationalists, 
Baptists,    Methodists,    and    a   few   independent 
workers,   all  recognize  each  other  as  fellow-serv- 
ants   of    the    same  Master,  happily  meet  when 
occasion  requires  at  the  table  of  the  Lord,  and 
recognize  each  other's  converts,  however  or  by 
whomsoever  admitted  to  the  privilege  of  church 
fellowship,     provided    they    are    walking    con- 
sistently before  God  and  their  fellow  countrymen. 
Missions:  The  Lammermuir  party,  consisting 
of  Mr.   Taylor,  seventeen  adults  and  four  chil- 
dren, arrived  in  China  in  the  fall  of  1866,  to  find 
that,  tho  inland  China  was  open  for  travel,  it  was 
not  for  residence.     Efforts  to  obtain  quarters  in 
various  cities  and  towns  between  Shanghai  and 
Hanchau   having    failed,    promises   were   finally 
secured  in  the  latter  city,  and  a  fourth  station 
was  established  in  the  province    of    Che-kiang; 
Ning-po,  Shao-hsing  and  Fung-hwa  having  pre- 
viously been  occupied.     During  1867,  three  more 


157 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


CliinjL   l:il.ii£i(l 
Chinese   l^ain^nn^e 


.■stations  were  opened  in  Che-kiang,  and  the  first 
■CIM  station  established  in  Kiang-su.  Su-chau 
and  Yang-chau  were  occupied  in  1868  and  addi- 
"tional  stations  gained  in  Che-kiang.  In  1689 
Ngan-king,  the  capital  of  the  Ngan-hwei  province, 
was  occupied,  and  foi"  many  years  the  CIM  was 
the  only  Protestant  society  in  this  field.  The 
same  year  work  was  begun  in  Kiu-kiang,  in  the 
northern  edge  of  Kiang-si,  from  which  place  over 
100  towns  and  cities  in  the  province  of  Kiang-si 
were  reached  by  itinerations.  No  other  province 
was  entered  till  1874,  when  Wu-chang,  the  capital 
■of  the  Hu-pei  province,  was  occupied  with  a  view 
to  entering  the  nine  interior  provinces,  wholly 
untouched  by  Protestant  missionaries.  In  1875 
a  station  was  opened  at  Bhamo  in  Upper  Burma, 
a  site  having  been  granted  for  this  purpose  by  the 
King  of  Burma.  The  same  year  itinerating  was 
begun  in  the  province  of  Ho-nan,  and  about  the 
same  time  a  first  visit  was  made  to  the  anti- 
foreign  province  of  Hu-nan.  By  this  time  the 
■CIM  had  36  missionaries  and  75  native  helpers, 
occupying  more  than  50  stations  and  outstations; 
28  churches  were  already  formed,  and  there  were 
baptized  Christians  and  inquirers  in  many  other 
places,  altho  the  work  had  been  largely  pioneering. 
In  1876,  the  signing  of  the  Chi-fu  Convention 
■enabled  the  CIM  missionaries  to  visit  remote 
provinces,  and  in  this  and  the  following  year 
Shan-si,  Shen-si,  Kan-su,  Sze-chwan  and  Kwei- 
<:hau  were  occupied  and  Kwang-si  visited.  Dur- 
ing the  next  few  years  a  more  thorough  survey 
was  made  of  the  parts  of  China  unoccupied  or 
less  occupied  by  missionaries.  Thus  information 
essential  to  future  work  was  gained,  portions  of 
the  Scripture  and  tracts  were  distributed,  and 
the  Gospel  was  preached  from  the  border  of 
Korea  to  Ji-t'ang  and  Bat'ang  in  Eastern  Tibet, 
and  from  Kan-su  to  Hai-nan.  In  1897  extensive 
enlargements  were  made  in  the  mission's  schools 
at  Chi-fu  for  the  education  of  the  children  of 
missionaries  and  other  foreign  residents,  and  in 
1898  a  forward  movement  began,  which  was  cut 
short  by  the  Boxer  uprising  of  1900.  In  this 
terrible  outbreak  of  fanaticism  the  CIM  suffered 
heavier  losses  than  any  other  society,  fifty-eight 
missionaries  and  twenty-one  children  of  mission- 
aries having  been  put  to  death.  In  1902  two 
more  of  its  missionaries  suffered  martyrdom. 
The  mission's  policy  of  refusing  indemnity  for  loss 
of  life  and  property  called  forth  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  government  proclamations  ever 
issued  in  China,  and  has  done  not  a  little  to  secure 
the  good  will  of  the  officials  and  people. 

Forces  in  the  Field:  There  are  now  (1903)  509 
stations  and  outstations  in  18  provinces,  763  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women;  541  native  workers, 
and  9,000  communicants  in  the  field  of  the  CIM. 

Branches:  Australian  Council  (1890),  Mel- 
bourne; Finnish  Auxiliary  (1890),  Helsingfors; 
Hamburg  Branch  (1898),  Hamburg,  Germany; 
North  American  Council  (1888),  Philadelphia; 
Norwegian  Branch  (1890),Christiania;  St.  Chris- 
chona  Branch  (1895),  Basel,  Switzerland;  Scot- 
tish Council  (1889),  Glasgow;  Swedish  Branch 
(1887),  Stockholm. 

Associate  Missions:  A  number  of  independent 
organizations  in  various  countries  work  in  har- 
monious comradeship  with  the  CIM,  while  not 
organically  connected  with  it.     These  are: 

Finland:  The  Free  Church  Mission,  Seutula 
Dickursby;  Germany:  The  China- Alliance  Mis- 
sion, Barmen,  Germany;  Norway:  The  Norwe- 


gian Mission  in  China,  Christiania:  Sweden:  The 
Swedish  Mission  in  China,  Stockholm;  United 
States  of  America :  The  Scandinavian  Alliance 
Mission,  Chicago. 

Organ:    China's  Millions,  monthly,  London;    The  Story  of 
the  China  Inland  Mission,  London. 

CHI-NAN-FU.     See  Tsi-nan-fu. 

CHINESE  BLIND,  Mission  to  the.     See  Blind, 

Missions  to. 

CHINESE  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  mono- 
syllabic class  of  languages,  and  is  considered  by 
some  to  show  affinity  with  the  ancient  Accadian  of 
Babylonia.  Whatever  its  origin,  it  is  the  oldest 
spoken  language  in  existence,  and,  along  with  the 
Egyptian  and  cuneiform,  the  oldest  written  lan- 
guage. It  is  monosyllabic,  without  inflexion  or 
agglutination;  its  nouns  have  no  declensions,  its 
verbs  are  not  to  be  conjugated.  A  mythical  per- 
sonage, who  is  said  to  have  flourished  about  the 
year  2700  B.  c,  is  the  reputed  author  of  the 
characters.  The  earliest  form  of  writing  was 
similar  to  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  and  m  the 
main  the  structure  of  their  characters  is  that  of 
an  ideogram.  These  characters  are  divided  into 
six  classes:  1.  Imitative  symbols;  2.  Thought 
symbols;  3.  Combined  ideas;  4.  Inverted  sig- 
nifications; 5.  Borrowed  uses,  and  6.  Sound 
symbols,  or  phonetics.  In  general  the  characters 
are  formed  by  the  use  of  214  radicals — some  of 
these  are  simply  strokes,  but  most  of  them  are 
ideograms — combined  with  primitives,  as  they 
are  called,  which  in  reality  are  no  older  than  the 
radicals,  but  denote  simply  the  part  of  the  char- 
acter which  is  not  a  radical,  or  a  combination  of 
radicals.  The  number  of  characters  given  in 
Kanghi's  Dictionary  is  44,449,  but  the  total  of 
really  different  characters  is  much  less,  probably 
about  25,000,  and  for  a  good  working  knowledge 
of  Chinese  10,000  will  suffice.  In  the  dictionaries 
the  characters  are  found  by  looking  up  the  radical ; 
if  there  is  more  than  one  radical  in  the  character 
the  most  prominent  one  is  looked  for  first;  then 
the  number  of  strokes  in  the  character,  exclusive 
of  the  radical,  is  the  guide  to  the  place  under  its 
given  radical  where  it  may  be  found.  The  char- 
acters are  the  same  throughout  the  eighteen 
provinces,  and  one  who  can  write  Chinese  can  be 
understood  by  that  means  anywhere.  In  writing 
the  language  six  forms  of  characters  are  met  with 
in  common  use,  tho  the  fancy  and  art  of  the  Chi- 
nese have  devised  many  other  forms,  just  as  new 
type  and  fancy  lettering  are  indulged  in  by  print- 
ers and  penmen  in  other  countries.  Of  all  these 
styles,  the  pattern  style  and  the  running  style  are 
the  ones  in  most  common  use,  and  the  foreign 
student  may  well  be  satisfied  to  master  one — 
the  pattern  style.  The  Chinese  language  has  no 
declensions,  no  conjugations,  neither  has  it 
marks  for  the  number  and  gender  of  nouns. 
This  poverty  of  language  is  compensated  for  by 
the  tones.  The  correct  use  of  tones,  and  the 
ability  to  distinguish  them  when  heard  and  to 
utter  them  correctly,  is  the  hardest  task  in  the 
acquirement  of  the  language.  Not  only  does  the 
language  become  unintelligible  when  a  wrong 
tone  is  used,  but  in  Fu-chau,  Amoy  and  Canton 
the  misunderstanding  may  be  very  serious. 

Grammar :  As  there  are  no  case  endings, 
position  shows  the  case  of  the  words.  In  gen- 
eral the  subject  stands  first,  then  the  verb;  modi- 
fiers precede  the  word  modified.  Often  the 
change  of  tone  changes  a  noun  to  a  verb.     There 


Clilnese     I<n  narnnire 
Christian  and  Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


158 


are  no  articles;  a  man  is  spolcen  of  as  one  man, 
and  that  talves  the  place  of  the.  To  form  the  plu- 
ral of  nouns  a  particle  is  added,  as  wo,  "I;"  wo 
mun,  "we;"  or  the  noun  is  duplicated,  yin,  man; 
yin  yin,  all  men.  Moods  and  tenses  are  denoted 
by  position  and  by  the  use  of  particles. .  The  rela- 
tions of  time  are  especially  difficult  to  express  in 
Chinese.  The  imperative,  optative  and  poten- 
tial moods  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  the 
appropriate  words.  Pronouns  are  few  and  their 
use  is  avoided.  In  writing  no  distinction  is 
made  between  a  common  and  a  proper  noun,  tho 
often  one  line  drawn  alongside  the  character 
denotes  the  name  of  a  person,  and  two  lines  that 
of  a  place.  Capitalization,  which  is  exceptional, 
is  produced  by  placing  the  character  above  the 
ordinary  line  level. 

Dialects:  There  are  in  China  numerous  dialects, 
some  of  which  are  so  different  from  the  others 
and  are  spoken  by  so  many  people  that  they  may 
well  be  termed  languages.  The  principal  dialects 
are: 

1.  The  Mandarin  or  court  language.  Peking- 
ese is  the  standard  of  this  tongue,  which  is  spoken 
with  more  or  less  local  variation  in  the  north- 
eastern provinces.  It  is  the  Latin  of  China,  as 
most  learned  men,  and  especially  office-holders, 
are  versed  in  it,  and  in  all  the  provinces  some  are 
found  who  can  converse  in  it. 

2.  The  Cantonese.  This  is  the  standard  for 
the  province  of  Canton,  tho  there  are  several 
other  dialects  spoken  in  the  Canton  province. 
The  Cantonese  diifers  from  the  Pekingese  in  its 
idioms,  in  the  multiplicity  of  its  tones  and  in  the 
number  of  consonantal  endings. 

3.  The  Amoy  dialect  differs  still  more  from  the 
Pekingese,  and  is  also  unintelligible  to  a  Canton- 
ese. 

4.  The  Fu-chau  dialect  has  much  the  same  dif- 
ficulties as  the  Amoy  tongue,  and  is  also  different 
from  the  others.  In  addition  to  the  principal 
dialects,  there  are  variations  of  each  and  local 
patois  in  endless  variety. 

Book  Language:  A  sharp  distinction  is  drawn 
in  Chinese  between  what  is  spoken  and  the  same 
thoughts  as  written.  The  Chinese  writer  who 
would  express  himself  in  the  every-day  language 
of  the  people  would  be  considered  ignorant  of  the 
first  principles  of  composition.  We  find,  there- 
fore, a  book  style,  Wen-li,  which  is  terse,  concise, 
at  times  obscure,  and  so  lofty  in  its  expression 
that  when  read  aloud  to  the  uneducated  man  it  is 
not  understood.  It  is  understood  by  the  scholar, 
whether  he  be  a  native  of  Peking  or  Canton. 
There  is  also  a  modification  of  the  Wen-li  called 
the  Easy  Wen-li,  which,  as  its  name  implies,  is 
not  so  concise  and  is  more  intelligible  than  the 
strictly  classical  Wen-li.  The  fact  that  this 
written  language  is  intelligible  throughout  the 
Empire  binds  the  people  together  and  is  an  effi- 
cient aid  to  the  dissemination  of  Christianity,  as 
books  can  be  distributed,  read,  and  understood 
where  the  distributer  may  be  perfectly  helpless, 
owing  to  the  difference  in  the  spoken  language. 
In  addition  to  the  Wen-li,  books  have  been  trans- 
lated into  the  different  colloquial  styles,  and  while 
they  are  sneered  at  by  the  literati  as  being  fit  only 
for  women,  they  are  read  and  understood  by 
those  who  possess  only  a  limited  knowledge  of 
characters  and  no  great  literary  ability.  In 
many  instances  attempts  have  been  made  by  the 
missionaries  to  Romanize  the  various  dialects, 
with  such  success  as  to  receive  the  endorsement 
of  the  Missionary  Conferences. 


Methods  of  study:  The  degree  of  difficulty  in 
mastering  the  Chinese  language  depends,  as  in 
all  other  languages,  upon  individual  ability.  To 
learn  the  spoken  language  the  best  way  is  to  go 
right  among  the  people;  what  seems  jargon  may 
not  be  understood,  but  the  tones  are  impressed 
on  the  ear,  while  a  vocabulary  will  be  acquired 
at  the  same  time.  Unless  his  destination  is  def- 
initely settled,  it  is  practically  useless  for  the  mis- 
sionary volunteer  to  commence  the  study  of  the 
language  before  reaching  his  field;  but  if  the  des- 
tination is  known,  some  of  the  books  in  that  par- 
ticular dialect,  which  have  the  English  and  Chi- 
nese side  by  side,  will  be  found  of  use  for  the 
general  idea  of  the  structure  of  the  language  and 
the  idioms.  In  studying  the  written  language 
the  best  way  is  to  take  up  the  study  of  the  charac- 
ter separately,  in  order  to  recognize  its  form  and 
to  distinguish  between  those  which  differ  in 
minute  details.  Writing  Chinese  is  best  learned  by 
using  the  Chinese  method  of  copying  the  charac- 
ters, by  writing  on  thin  paper  over  a  copy.  Chi- 
nese is  written  in  perpendicular  columns  from 
right  to  left. 

Those  who  know  the  Chinese  language  best, 
while  recognizing  its  deficiencies,  can  truthfully 
say  with  Dr.  Morrison  that  "Chinese  fine  writing 
darts  upon  the  mind  with  a  vivid  flash,  a  force, 
and  a  beauty  of  which  alphabetical  language  is 
incapable." 

CHINESE ;  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Chris- 
tian and  General  Knowledge  among.  See  Chhis- 
TiAN  Literature  Society  for  China. 

CHING-CHOW-FU    (Shantung).       See    Tsin- 

CHAU-FU. 

CHIN-KIANG.     See  Chen-kiang-ftt. 

CHIOLE:  A  station  of  the  Zambesi  Industrial 
Mission,  in  Nyasaland,  British  Central  Africa, 
situated  about  100  miles  N.  W.  of  Blantyre.  It 
has  (1902)  2  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife,  1 
woman  missionary  physician,  28  native  workers, 
10  elementary  schools,  1  high  school,  with  indus- 
trial department;  1  hospital,  1  dispensary  and  169 
communicants.  By  the  use  of  native  volunteers 
there  is  preaching  in  40  neighboring  villages 
every  Sunday. 

CHIPPEWAY  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the 
central  group  of  the  N.  American  family  of  lan- 
guages. It  is  spoken  by  Indians  of  Athabasca, 
Canada.     It  is  written  with  syllabic  characters. 

CHISAMBA:  A  station  of  the  ABCFM  in 
Angola,  W.  Africa,  situated  about  50  miles  N.  E. 
of  Bailunda,  with  (1902)  3  missionaries  (one  a 
physician)  and  their  wives,  3  missionary  women, 
8  native  workers,  6  elementary  schools,  1  high 
school,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispensary  and  50 
church  members. 

CHITTAPETTA:  A  town  in  the  Godavari  divi- 
sion, Madras,  India,  situated  about  20  miles  W. 
of  Rajamahendri.  Station  of  the  PB,  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife  and  2  missionary  women. 

CHITTAGONG:  A  town  and  seaport  in  Bengal, 
India,  212  miles  east  of  Calcutta.  It  has  consid- 
erable commercial  importance.  Climate,  wet 
and  unhealthy,  diseases  arising  from  impure 
water  and  imperfect  drainage  are  very  preva- 
lent. Population  (1891)  24,100,  of  whom  nearly 
75  per  cent,  are  Mohammedans.  Mission  station 
of  the  BMS  (1881),  with  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  5  native  workers,  a  school  and  87  profess- 
ing Christians. 


159 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Clilnes**    Tin !»•  «rTi n a:e 
Clirlstian  and  MisNlonary 


CHITTUR:  Capital  of  the  district  of  North 
Arcot,  Madras,  India,  80  miles  west  of  Madras 
City.  Population,  5,809,  Hindus,  Muslims, 
Christians.  Station  of  the  RCA  (1854),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  43  native  worlvers,  19 
outstations,  18  elementary  schools,  2  high  schools, 
21  Sunday  schools,  6  young  people's  societies 
and  266  church  members. 

CHIVILCOY:  A  town  in  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, South  America;  situated  109  miles  W.  of 
Buenos  Aires.  Population,  about  11,000,  of 
whom  many  are  Italians.  It  is  on  a  missionary 
circuit  of  the  ME,  with  1  native  worker,  1  place  of 
worship  and  74  professing  Christians. 

CHOLCHOL:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Arauco, 
Peru,  situated  about  100  miles  south  of  the  city 
of  Arauco.  Station  of  the  South  American  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1895),  with  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  a  hospital  and  a  dispensary. 

CHOMBALA:  A  town  in  Malabar,  W.  India, 
situated  about  25  miles  N.  W.  of  Calicut.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1849),  with 
(1902)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  35  native 
worliers,  6  outstations,  5  common  schools,  1  high 
school  and  219  Christians. 

CHOTA-NAGPUR  (little  Nagpur):  One  of  the 
four  great  districts  which  make  up  the  province 
of  Bengal.  It  lies  west  of  Bengal  Proper;  Behar 
adjoins  it  on  the  north  and  Orissa  on  the  south- 
east. Its  western  boundary  is  the  native  State 
of  Rewa,  and  on  the  southwest  it  touches  the 
Central  Provinces.  Its  area  is  26,963  square 
miles,  and  its  population  (1901)  4,900,429.  Of 
these  a  little  over  3,850,000  are  reckoned  as  Hin- 
dus and  about  a  quarter  of  a  million  as  Moham- 
medans. Aboriginal  tribes  furnish  nearly 
800,000  of  the  population,  but  many  of  those 
included  religiously  under  the  term  "Hindus" 
are  connected  by  race  with  these  tribes,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  are  continually  adopting  more  and 
more  of  Hindu  practise,  and  merging  by  degrees 
into  the  body  of  Hinduism.  The  tribes  belong 
principally  to  the  Kol  and  Santal  families,  who 
had  no  education  and  no  writing  until  Christian 
missions  came  among  them. 

Missionary  work  was  commenced  in  Chota- 
Nagpur  in  1845  by  the  German  Gossner  Mission- 
ary Society.  Its  task  was  to  carry  light  to  those 
Kols  sunk  in  ignorance,  to  whom  even  Hinduism 
was  somewhat  of  an  advance  beyond  their  ancient 
worship  of  demons.  The  mission  enterprise  had 
great  success  from  the  first.  The  SPG  came  into 
the  field  to  take  part  in  the  work,  and  now  the 
Christian  movement  seems  to  affect  the  people  in 
mass,  whole  villages  coming  forward  for  instruc- 
tion at  once.  The  number  of  Christian  Kols  in 
Chota-Nagpur  is  about  80,000. 

CHRISTIAN  CHURCH;  Mission  Board  of  the: 

For  many  years  the  Christian  denomination  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  conducted  its  mis- 
sionary operations  under  two  separate  organiza- 
tions, as  departments  of  the  American  Christian 
Convention,  the  ecclesiastical  body  of  the  denom- 
ination. The  Foreign  Mission  Department  was 
organized  in  1886  and  commenced  work  in  Japan 
in  1887.  More  recently  these  separated  bodies 
have  been  reorganized  as  one  and  incorporated 
under  the  above  title. 

The  affairs  of  the  Board  are  conducted  by  a 
Mission  Board  of  nine  (1903)  members,  elected 
quadrennially  by  the  American  Christian  Con- 
vention and  a  Mission  Council  of  five  members. 


the  Secretary  of  the  Missionary  Department  of 
tlie  Convention  acting  as  President  of  the  Board. 
Tliere  are  also  two  Women's  Boards,  one  for 
Home  and  one  for  Foreign  Missions,  both  auxil- 
iary to  the  Mission  Board. 

'The  foreign  work  of  the  Board  is  in  Japan  and 
Porto  Rico  (so  considered  by  the  Board).  In 
Japan  two  stations  are  occupied,  Tokio  and  Sen- 
dai,  and  there  are  18  outstations.  There  are  7 
missionaries,  10  native  worlvers,  7  organized 
churches,  with  382  church  members  and  795 
Sunday  school  scholars.  In  Porto  Rico  the  head- 
quarters are  at  Ponce,  with  work  at  Salinas  and 
9  outstations;  there  are  (1903)  4  missionaries, 
1  native  preacher,  1  organized  church  and  5  Sun- 
day schools.  The  receipts  for  foreign  work  for 
the  year  closing  October,  1902,  were  $10,329.40. 

CHRISTIAN  FAITH,  Society  for  Advancing  the : 
The  Hon.  Robert  Boyle,  distinguished  for  his 
learning  and  interest  in  the  extension  of  Chris- 
tianity, who  was  one  of  tlie  governors  of  the 
"Corporation  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
in  New  England  "  (1649),  and  a  prominent  direc- 
tor of  the  East  India  Company,  not  only  con- 
tributed largely  to  various  missionary  enter- 
prises, especially  in  the  line  of  publications,  but 
left  a  considerable  sum  in  his  will  which  formed 
the  basis  of  a  society  organized  after  his  death, 
in  1691,  by  his  executors.  This  society,  at  first 
called  the  "Christian  Faith  Society,"  afterward 
the  "Society  for  Advancing  the  Christian  Faith," 
was  designed  for  general  charitable  purposes,  but 
the  executors  were  directed  to  use  the  greater 
part  for  the  "advancement  of  th  e  Christian  religion 
amongst  infidels."  The  funds  have  been  well 
invested  and  cared  for  and  the  grants  have  been 
of  great  value,  many  undertakings  having  been 
fostered  which  without  this  aid  would  never  have 
succeeded.  For  many  years  grants  were  made  to 
William  and  Mary  College,  in  Virginia,  for  the 
education  of  Indian  youth.  Then  attention  was 
turned  to  the  negro  slaves  in  the  West  Indies  and 
to  Mauritius  and  other  dependencies  of  the  Brit- 
ish Government. 

CHRISTIAN  AND  MISSIONARY  ALLIANCE: 

I.  History  :  In  the  summer  of  1887  the  Christia'n 
Alliance  and  the  International  Missionary  Alli- 
ance were  formed  at  Old  Orchard,  Me.,  "for  the 
purpose  of  uniting  in  a  purely  fraternal  alliance, 
members  of  evangelical  churches  who  believe  in 
the  Lord  Jesus  as  Savior,  Sanctifier,  Healer  and 
coming  Lord,  and  also  of  uniting  their  effort  in 
the  special  aggressive  work  of  world-wide  evan- 
gelization." 

The  Christian  Alliance  was  formed  upon  the 
special  basis  of  this  "Fourfold  Gospel.''  It  is  not 
an  ecclesiastical  body,  does  not  organize  distinct 
churches,  but  aims  at  spreading  abroad  the  truths 
on  which  it  is  based.  Its  chief  methods  of  work 
are  through  local  conventions  and  its  printed  pub- 
lications. An  important  branch  of  its  work  at 
home  is  the  formation  of  Rescue  Missions. 

The  International  Missionary  Alliance  had  tor 
its  object  "the  immediate  evangelization  of  the 
whole  world  by  sending  missionaries  to  unoccu- 
pied and  neglected  fields."  The  movement  went 
on  quietly  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  centers  of 
work  were  established  in  India,  Africa,  China  and 
Palestine.  These  two  societies  were  united  into 
the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance  in  1897. 
"The  Chri-stian  Alliance  formed  the  sustaining 
constituency  of  the  missionary  work,  and  the 
Missionary  Alliance   was   the   natural   outlet   of 


Christian  and  Missionary 

CliriNtian    Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


160 


the   faith,   love   and    activity   of    the    Christian 
Alliance." 

//.  Organization :  A  central  board  of  managers 
meets  regularly  for  the  transaction  of  business 
and  has  the  oversight  of  the  entire  work.  It  con- 
sists of  24  members,  elected  triennially,  one-third 
retiring  every  year. 

The  officers  include  a  President,  General  Secre- 
tary, Superintendent  of  the  Home  Field,  Super- 
intendent of  Missions,  Treasurer,  Financial  Secre- 
tary and  "various  other  executive  officers." 
Auxiliaries  and  branches  are  formed  under  a 
strong  State  Committee,  with  a  State  or  District 
Superintendent  in  charge  of  the  field,  while  in 
each  locality  there  are  local  branches  under  the 
care  of  a  Committee  and  Superintendent  as  far  as 
possible.  The  work  is  promoted  by  means  of 
numerous  conventions  held  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  the  largest  being  at  Old  Orchard,  Me. ; 
Nyack,  N.  Y.,  and  New  York  City.  The  work  is 
sustained  through  voluntary  contributions. 

in.  Institutional  Work:  The  Gospel  Tabernacle, 
New  York  City,  is  an  independent  church,  incor- 
porated by  special  charter  under  the  laws  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  intimately  connected 
with  *,he  Alliance,  organized  in  1881.  The  New 
York  Missionary  Training  Institute,  founded  in 
1882,  in  connection  with  the  Gospel  Tabernacle, 
removed,  in  1897,  to  South  Nyack,  N.  Y.  It  is  a 
coeducational  school  for  the  training  of  young 
men  and  women,  who,  with  little  or  no  education, 
consider  themselves  called  of  God  to  missionary 
work.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the  equip- 
ment of  foreign  missionaries  and  securing  their 
adaptability  to  their  various  fields  of  labor. 

The  Beulah  Park  Summer  School  is  maintained 
from  June  to  September,  the  course  of  study 
being  similar  to  that  of  the  Nyack  Institute. 

The  Berachah  Home,  established  in  1884  for 
the  purpose  of  offering  a  place  of  rest  and  instruc- 
tion with  reference  to  physical  and  spiritual  life, 
with  particular  attention  to  divine  healing,  which 
is  a  principal  tenet  of  the  Christian  Alliance,  is 
now  located  at  Nyack,  N.  Y.,  while  the  house  in 
New  York  is  continued  as  the  "Alliance  Home." 

IV.   Missions  : 

(1).  Palestine  :  A  station  was  established 
at  Jerusalem  in  1890  by  Miss  Lucy  Dunn, 
who  for  a  year  carried  on  evangelistic  work 
among  the  Jews.  Reenforcements  were  sent  out 
and  Jaffa  was  occupied  and  the  work  extended 
to  the  Arab  tribes  near  the  town.  In  1895,  a  mis- 
sion was  established  at  Safed  in  Galilee,  chiefly 
for  Mohammedans.  In  1898  a  training  school 
was  opened  at  Jaffa  for  the  training  of  Bible 
women  and  teachers.  Village  work  is  carried  on 
from  Hebron  as  a  center.  There  are  (1902)  3 
stations  and  5  missionaries. 

(2).  India  :  There  are  four  principal  centers  of 
work,  with  headquarters  at  Bombay.  The  oldest 
station  is  at  Akola,  in  the  Berar  Province,  where 
the  CA  took  up  the  "Faith  Mission"  established 
in  1886  by  the  Rev.  M.  B.  Fuller;  there  are  now 
8  stations  and  25  workers;  Khandesh  has  4  sta- 
tions and  8  workers;  Gujerat,  5  stations  and  20 
workers. 

The  work  consists  of  preaching  services,  evan- 
gelistic tours,  and  house  to  house  visitation. 
Schools,  orphanages  and  widows'  homes  have 
been  established  and  churches  organized. 

There  are  (1902)  22  stations  and  53  mission- 
aries. 

(3).  China:  The  first  station  was  opened  at 
Wu-hu,  in  Central  China,  in  1890.  Now  there  are 


8  stations  in  and  around  Wu-hu,  1  at  Wu-chang. 
In  1897  a  station  was  established  in  Hunan  and 
in  1899  Nan-ling-h'sien  was  occupied  and  a 
training  school  for  women  opened.  Western 
China  was  occupied  in  1896,  and  has  4  stations, 
one  being  within  the  borders  of  Tibet.  In  1899 
the  Tibet  station  was  destroyed  by  a  mob,  but 
was  again  opened.  The  Swedish  China  and  Mon- 
golia Mission  was  opened  in  1893  at  Kwei-h'wa  as 
headquarters.  This  mission  forms  a  chain  of 
stations  near  the  great  Chinese  wall  from  Kalgan 
in  the  east,  several  hundred  miles  westward  in 
North  China,  and  includes  the  Mongolian  Mission, 
with  headquarters  at  Kalgan  City.  The  North 
China  Mission  has  in  Peking  the  strongest  part  of 
its  work  among  women.  Evangelistic  work  is 
carried  on,  and  schools  have  been  established. 

At  Tientsin  work  has  been  begun  among  the 
English-speaking  Chinese,  and  a  native  church  of 
young  men  has  been  organized;  a  missionary 
society  has  been  formed,  which  supports  native 
workers  in  all  the  provinces  of  China  and  in 
foreign  lands.  South  China  was  entered  in  1892, 
with  Canton  as  headquarters.  Two  years  later 
Macao  was  occupied.  In  1895  the  first  opening 
was  made  in  a  humble  village  across  the  river 
from  what  is  now  Tung-tsun  station.  In  1896 
Lo-ting  was  occupied,  and  the  following  year  sta- 
tions were  organized  at  Wu-chow  and  Kwai-peng. 
In  1898  Nan-wing  was  occupied  and  a  ladies'  sta- 
tion opened  at  Tung-un.  Village  and  girls' 
schools  have  been  established  and  a  training 
school  opened. 

There  are  (1902)  18  stations  and  41  mission- 
aries. 

(4).  Africa;  Sudan  Mission:  There  are  5  sta- 
tions: Freetown,  the  capital  of  the  British  Colony 
of  Sierra  Leone;  Magbele,  in  the  same  colony,  55 
miles  inland;  Ro  Bethel,  in  the  same  colony,  20 
miles  farther  inland;  Makomp,  also  in  Sierra 
Leone,  125  miles  inland,  and  Tubabudugo,  225 
miles  inland,  among  the  Kuranko  tribe  on  the 
N.  E.  border  of  the  colony.  The  Kuranko  peo- 
ple have  been  evangelized  to  a  great  extent  from 
the  last  station  and  portions  of  the  Scriptures 
have  been  translated  into  their  language.  Vil- 
lage and  school  work  is  carried  on  and  a  system- 
atic itineracy  established,  which  includes  about 
40  towns. 

Congo:  There  are  4  principal  stations  and  3  out- 
stations.  Boma,  the  receiving  and  transport 
station,  has  many  coast  people,  and  services  are 
held  in  English,  while  a  school  is  established  for 
their  children.  The  other  three  stations  are  also 
on  the  lower  Congo.  School  and  station  work  is 
carried  on  by  the  natives  under  instruction,  and 
evangelistic  and  medical  work  by  the  mission- 
aries. 

There  are  (1902)  11  stations  and  39  mission- 
aries. 

(5).  South  America:  The  headquarters  for  the 
CA  work  are  in  Argentina,  with  its  4,000,000 
people.  Other  stations  are  at  Caracas,  Venezuela, 
where  native  agents  are  employed  in  the  outlying 
districts.  Brazil  has  1  station  and  1  missionary; 
Chile,  2  stations  and  4  missionaries;  2  stations  are 
in  Ecuador,  where  the  Roman  Catholic  influence 
is  very  corrupt.  In  Bolivia,  a  single  missionary 
is  making  evangelistic  tours  throughout  the  coun- 
try. The  principal  work  in  all  the  Alliance  mis- 
sions is  evangelistic.  Books,  papers  and  tracts 
are  sold  and  distributed. 

There  are  in  South  America  (1903)  6  stations 
and  18  missionaries. 


161 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Chrlstlnn  and  Missionary 
CliriMtiaii   iHiHMtuiis 


(6).  Japan:  Work  was  begun  in  a  quiet  man- 
ner about  1894,  Since  then  the  mission  has  had 
many  vicissitudes,  but  is  now  reported  as  talking 
on  new  and  more  vigorous  hfe.  The  head- 
quarters are  at  Hiroshima.  There  are  (1902)  4 
stations  and  3  missionaries. 

(7).  The  West  India  Islands:  Worlc  has  been 
begun  in  three  of  the  West  India  Islands:  in 
Jamaica  (at  Devon),  in  Haiti,  and  in  San  Do- 
mingo. An  independent  Alliance  work  has 
;grown  up  in  the  city  of  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico. 

Steps  are  now  being  taken  by  the  CA  toward 
work  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 

The  first  publication  of  the  Society  was  the 
Gospelin  All  Lands.  Afterward  the  Word,  Work 
and  World  was  established,  which  was  later 
merged  into  the  present  organ,  the  Christian  and 
Missionary  Alliance  Weekly. 

Another  important  publication  is  the  Alliance 
■  Colportage  Library  of   books    setting  forth    the 
teachings  of  the   Alliance,  principally  on  Divine 
Healing  and  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ. 

The  Alliance  has  its  own  printing  establish- 
ment at  Nyack,  N.  Y. 

CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE  SOCIETY  FOR 
CHINA  (Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and 
General  Knowledge  among  the  Chinese,  1887) : 
The  founder  of  this  Society  was  the  Rev.  Alex- 
ander Williamson,  LL.D,,  of  the  United  Presby- 
terian (Scotland)  Mission,  in  China.  He  was  a 
man  of  exceptional  abilities,  who  went  to  China 
in  the  50's  and  died  in  1890. 

In  1887  the  Society  was  formally  organized  in 
Shanghai,  by  the  missionaries,  its  object  being  the 
publication  and  circulation  among  the  Chinese  of 
"literature  based  on  Christian  principles."  The 
Christian  Literature  Society  for  China  was  formed 
in  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh  in  1892,  chiefly  with 
the  view  of  supporting  this  diffusion  society. 
The  two  societies  are  thus  practically  one,  and 
for  convenience  are  generally  spoken  of  as  such. 
Its  workers  belong  to  all  the  leading  missionary 
societies  of  England  and  America.  Its  editorial 
staff  is  composed  of  six  men,  representing  the 
American  M.  E.  (South),  the  English  Wesleyan,, 
Canadian  Presbyterian,  Church  of  England, 
General  Evangelical  German,  and  the  English 
Baptist  Missions.  All  these  workers  are  devoting 
all  or  most  of  their  time  to  the  work  of  translating 
or  preparing  original  work  in  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage. The  chief  magazine  of  the  Society  is  The 
Review  of  the  Times.  It  also  publishes  the  Chi- 
nese Missionary  Review. 

The  great  reform  movement  of  China  in 
1895-98  was  largely  due  to  the  influence  of  the 
publications  of  this  Society,  which  were  read  by 
the  Emperor  and  the  leading  ministers  and  vice- 
roys of  the  Emperor.  It  was  largely  through  the 
influence  of  the  General  Secretary,  the  Rev. 
Timothy  Richard,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  that  a  coUege 
for  Western  learning  was  founded  in  the  capital 
of  Shan-si.  In  1900,  in  consultation  with  the 
Educational  Association  of  China,  Dr.  Richard 
drew  up  a  general  scheme  of  education  for  China, 
which  was  circulated  in  Chinese  among  the  lead- 
ing viceroys  and  governors.  To  the  wisdom 
and  ability  of  its  secretary  no  little  of  the  success 
of  the  Society  is  due. 

In  1902,  besides  making  free  grants  of  smaller 
pamphlets  to  the  value  of  $2,400  (Mexican)  for 
distribution  to  the  100,000  students  assembled 
periodically  in  the  capitals  of  the  maritime  prov- 
inces of  China,  publications  to  the  value  of 
162,685  (Mexican)  were  sold. 


The  members  of  the  editorial  staff  are  sup- 
ported by  the  missionary  societies  which  they 
represent. 

CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE  SOCIETY  FOR 
INDIA  (formerly  Christian  Vernacular  Education 
Society  for  India,  1858) :  The  need  of  evangelical 
literature  for  the  converts  in  the  missions  of 
India,  Ceylon  and  Burma  led  to  the  formation 
of  this  Society  in  1858.  Its  object  is  to  train 
native  teachers,  instruct  heathen  children  and 
publish  Christian  literature,  the  latter  being  its 
principal  work. 

The  publications  of  the  Society  fall  under  two 
heads:  school  books  and  general  Christian  litera- 
ture. 

They  have  in  the  various  languages  264  school 
books  catalogd,  some  of  which  are  so  widely 
used  that  there  is  a  steady  demand  for  over 
50,000  copies  each,  annually,  the  books  being 
used  in  the  schools  of  over  forty  missionary 
societies. 

In  supplying  these  school  books  the  Society 
not  only  puts  the  thin  edge  of  the  Christian  wedge 
into  the  secular  schools  of  India,  but  receives 
from  sale  of  the  books  a  considerable  profit 
which  helps  in  the  other  branches  of  its  work. 
For  many  years  the  Society  has  published 
annually,  in  the  various  languages  of  India,  more 
boolcs  than  all  other  societies  put  together. 
Since  its  foundation,  the  Society  has  issued  in 
eighteen  languages  2,601  publications  averaging 
131  pages,  and  of  these,  26,417,000  copies  have 
been  circulated,  and  for  some  years  the  output 
has  steadily  increased. 

In  1859  the  Madras  Auxiliary  was  organized, 
and  no  one  man  has  had  so  much  to  do  with  the 
development  of  a  Christian  literature  for  all 
classes  of  people  as  its  veteran  secretary,  John 
Murdoch,  LL.D.  In  1860  a  second  au.xiliary  was 
organized  in  Ceylon  and  a  woman's  auxiliary 
in  1896.  There  are  (1901)  3  stations  and  27  out- 
stations,  5  missionaries  and  69  native  helpers,  1 
high  school,  with  89  students,  135  day  schools, 
with  8,110  pupils. 

CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS,  England  (1827) :  The 
mission  work  of  the  denomination  commonly 
known  as  Plymouth  Brethren,  but  in  its  own 
preference  called  simply  "The  Brethren,"  was 
begun  in  1827,  the  main  object  being  "to  spread 
the  Gospel  and  build  up  churches."  Missions 
have  been  established  in  Europe  as  well  as  in 
non-Christian  mission  fields  as  follows:  (1903) 
Europe:  Belgium,  2  stations  and  4  missionaries; 
France,  3  stations  and  5  missionaries;  Austria, 
1  station  and  2  missionaries;  Rumania,  1  station 
and  4  missionaries;  Spain,  17  stations  and  51  mis- 
sionaries; Italy,  5  stations  and  11  missionaries. 

Asia:  India  (1836),  21  stations  and  74  mission- 
aries; Straits  Settlements  (1866)  and  Malay  Pen- 
insular (1900),  6  stations  and  37  missionaries; 
Laos  (1866),  1  station  and  2  missionaries;  Borneo, 
1  station  and  2  missionaries;  China  (1885),  14  sta- 
tions and  55  missionaries;  Japan  (1888),  1  station 
and  2  missionaries. 

Africa:  Algeria,  4  stations  and  10  missionaries; 
Morocco,  1  station  and  2  missionaries;  Central 
Africa  (1881),  7  stations  and  39  missionaries; 
South  Africa,  2  stations  and  4  missionaries. 

America:  Mexico  (1890),  2  stations  and  4  mis- 
sionaries; British  Guiana,  3  stations  and  15  mis- 
sionaries; West  Indies,  4  stations  and  10  mission- 
aries; Guatemala,  1  station  and  2  missionaries; 
Venezuela,  2  stations  and  3  missionaries;  Ecua- 


Chrlstianshorg 
Clmrcll   Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


163 


dor,  2  stations  and  3  missionaries;  Argentina,  4 
stations  and  16  missionaries;  Chinese  in  U.  S.  A., 
1  station  and  2  missionaries. 

One  of  the  best  known  branches  of  the  Chris- 
tian Missions  is  the  Garenganze  Mission  in  Cen- 
tral Africa,  which  was  estabUshed  as  an  independ- 
ent work  by  Mr.  F.  S.  Arnot  in  1881,  and  subse- 
quently taken  over  oy  the  Brethren. 

Interested  in  Africa  through  the  words  of  Liv- 
ingstone when  very  young,  a  strong  desire  to  go 
to  Africa  became  a  realization  in  1881,  when  he 
sailed  from  London  with  Donald  Graham.  The 
latter  remained  at  Natal  because  of  failing 
health,  but  Mr.  Arnot  proceeded  to  Maritzburg. 

After  years  of  hard  travel  through  the  Zambesi 
and  Barotse  districts,  finding  locations  suitable 
for  Europeans,  he  established  several  stations. 
Other  missionaries  went  out  and  an  evangelistic 
work  is  thoroughly  established  in  the  region  of 
the  upper  Zambesi.  There  are  (1903)  5  mission 
stations  from  Bihg  in  Angola  to  Lake  Mweru  in 
the  Congo  Free  State,  with  15  missionaries. 
Organ:   Missionary  Visitor,  monthly. 

CHRISTIANSBORG:  A  town  in  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony,  W.  Africa,  4  miles  E.  of  Accra.  The 
place  was  formerly  a  Dutch  possession.  In  1843 
a  Christian  negro  colony  was  transplanted 
thither  from  the  West  Indies.  In  1850  the  place 
was  sold  to  the  English,  and  that  change  gave 
occasion,  in  1852,  to  some  unfortunate  dis- 
turbances. The  climate  is  unhealthy.  Station 
of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1858),  with 
(1902)  12  missionaries,  men  and  women;  22 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  5  outstations, 
3  Sunday  schools,  5  elementary  schools,  1  high 
school  and  1,221  professing  Christians. 

CHRISTIANAGARAM:  A  village  in  Tinnevelli, 
S.  India,  situated  about  25  miles  S.  of  Tuticorin. 
Station  of  the  SPG,  with  (1901)  31  native  work- 
ers, 12  places  of  worship,  10  elementary  schools 
and  1,448  baptized  adult  Christians. 

CHRISTIANENBURG:  A  settlement  in  Natal, 
S.  Africa,  situated  W.  of  Durban  and  about  9 
miles  S.  of  Botha's  Hill  station  on  the  railway. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1854), 
with  (1900)  3  missionaries,  21  native  workers,  3 
preaching  places  in  the  neighborhood  and  456 
baptized  Clrristians. 

CHRISTIAN  VERNACULAR  EDUCATION 
SOCIETY,  for  India.  See  Christian  Litera- 
ture Society  for  India. 

CHRISTIAN  WOMAN'S  BOARD  OF  MIS- 
SIONS (Disciples  of  Christ):  Organized  in  1874 
in  Indianapolis,  where  its  headquarters  have  been 
located.  Tho  connected  with  the  Church  of  the 
Disciples  of  Christ  it  is  quite  independent  and 
unconnected  with  the  Foreign  Christian  Mission- 
ary Association. 

The  first  work  of  this  Society  was  the  revival 
of  the  mission  in  Jamaica,  W.  I.,  which  had  been 
practically  abandoned.  There  are  now  con- 
nected with  the  Jamaica  Association  21  churches, 
with  1 ,709  communicants  and  480  day  schools. 

India:  Work  was  begun  at  Bilaspur  in  1885,  in 
cooperation  with  the  Foreign  Christian  Mission- 
ary Society;  in  1886  a  station  was  opened  at 
Deoghur;  at  Bina  in  1894;  and  Pendra,  north 
of  Bilaspur,  was  occupied  in  1900.  In  the  same 
year  work  was  begun  in  the  city  of  Calcutta. 

Evangelistic,  medical  and  educational  work  is 
carried  on,  zenanas  are  visited,  lepers  cared  for 
and  orphanages  established.     There  are   (1902) 


5  stations  and  10  outstations,  43  missionaries  and 
assistant  missionaries,  4  churches,  with  287  com- 
municants; 10  schools,  3  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries and  5  orphanages. 

Mexico:  A  station  was  established  at  Monterey, 
Mexico,  in  1897.  The  work  is  educational  and 
evangelistic.  Day  and  evening  schools  have 
been  established  and  a  church  organized,  with  a 
Sunday  school  and  Christian  Endeavor  Society. 
An  eight-page  weekly  paper  has  been  published 
and  30,000  copies  circulated.  Outstations  have 
been  established  in  the  eastern  and  western  sec- 
tions of  the  city. 

In  Porto  Rico  the  Bayamon  school  for  girls  was 
established  in  1900  and  a  similar  institution  is 
being  established  for  boys.     The  Board  also  car- 
ried on  work  throughout  the  United  States. 
Organ:    Missionary  Tidings,  monthly,  Indianapolis. 

CHUANA  LANGUAGE.     See  Sechuana. 

CHU-CHAU:  A  city  in  Ngan-hwei  province, 
China,  about  25  miles  N.  W.  of  Nanking.  Sta- 
tion of  the  FCMS  (1889),  with  (1900)  2  mission- 
aries (one  a  physician)  and  their  wives,  3  native 
workers,  1  common  school,  1^  training  school  for 
women  workers,  a  dispensary,  a  book  depot  and 
99  baptized  Christians. 

CHU-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Che-kiang,  China,  43  miles  N.  W.  of  Wenchow. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1875),  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman,  15 
native  workers,  1  school  and  30  communicants. 

CHU-CHI-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China,  situated  about  35  miles  west  of 
Hsi-ngan-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1893),  with 
(1900)  4  missionaries,  one  of  them  accompanied 
by  his  wife;  1  native  worker,  1  preaching  place, 

1  high  school,  1  opium  victims'  refuge. 

CHUDDERGHAUT:  A  suburb  of  Haidarabad, 
the  capital  of  the  dominions  of  the  Nizam. 

CHU-KI-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Che-kiang,  China,  lying  about  80  miles  W.  of 
Ning-po.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1894),  of  which 
the  buildings  and  other  property  were  destroyed 
by  rioters  in  July,  1900.  At  last  reports,  up  to 
the  end  of  1901  no  missionary  had  gone  there  to 
reside.  There  were,  however,  remnants  of  the 
Christian  community  of  about  250  (in  the  dis- 
trict) and  these  were  regularly  visited  by  mis- 
sionaries and  native  pastors  from  other  stations. 
Before  the  Boxer  outbreak  there  were  6  mission- 
aries, men  and  women,  and  9  native  workers  here, 
with  8  schools  in  the  town  and  district. 

CHUNDICULLY :  A  station  of  the  CMS  in  the 
Jaffna  district,  Ceylon  (1818).     It  now  has  (1900) 

2  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife,  1  unmarried 
missionary  woman,  2  native  workers,  1  chapel, 
1  high  school  and  a  college. 

CHUNG-KING-FU :  A  city  and  important  river 
port  in  the  province  of  Sze-ohwan,  China.  It 
stands  on  a  rocky  promontory  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Kialing  and  the  Yangtse  Rivers,  1,400 
miles  from  the  sea.  A  British  commercial  agent 
is  located  here  and  a  customs  service  established. 
Population  (1901),  300,000,  or,  with  the  suburbs, 
700,000.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1877),  with  (1900) 
8  missionaries,  men  and  women;  5  native  work- 
ers, 2  schools  and  34  communicants.  Station 
also  of  the  Friends'  Foreign  Missions  Association 
(1890),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  (one  a  phy- 
sician) and  their  wives,  3  missionary  women,  10 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  2  elementary 
and  1   high  school  and  1   dispensary.     Station 


163 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Chrlstiansborif 
Cliarcli  Missionary 


also  of  the  LMS  (1888),  with  (1900)  3  mission- 
aries (one  a  physician),  2  missionaries'  wives,  5 
native  workers,  5  elementary  schools,  an  orphan- 
age, a  hospital  and  72  church  members.  Also 
station  of  the  ME,  with  15  missionaries,  men  and 
women  (three  of  whom  are  physicians) ;  20  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  9  elementary  and  2 
high  schools,  7  preaching  places  and  273  pro- 
fessing Christians.  The  National  Bible  Society 
of  Scotland  also  has  a  book  depot  here,  with  an 
agent  and  his  wife  and  17  native  workers. 

CHUNG-PA :  Town  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
province  of  Sze-chwan,  China;  station  of  the 
CMS  (1894)  which  was  broken  up  by  the  Boxer 
uprising.  One  of  the  missionaries  returned  to 
his  station  in  1901,  but  the  reappearance  of  the 
Boxer  effervescence  in  the  province  made  mis- 
sionary effort  nearly  impossible  up  to  the  begin- 
ning of  1903. 

CHUNG-YANG-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Hu-pei,  China,  situated  about  70  miles  S.  W. 
of  Wu-chang.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1901) 
2  missionaries,  4  native  workers,  1  school,  1 
chapel  and  30  professing  Christians. 

CHUPRA:  A  town  in  the  Nadiya  district, 
Bengal,  India,  situated  about  20  miles  N.  of 
Krishnagar.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1845),  with 
(1902)  1  missionary,  26  native  workers,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  school,  1  high  school,  an  industrial 
enterprise  for  boys  and  137  communicants. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  ZENANA  MISSION- 
ARY SOCIETY  (1880):  Upon  the  separation  of 
the  Zenana  workers  from  the  Indian  Female 
Normal  School  and  Instruction  Society  in  1880, 
the  Church  of  England  Zenana  Missionary  Soci- 
ety was  formed  to  cooperate  with  the  CMS,  while 
retaining  its  independence  of  administration.  It 
undertook  the  existing  work  in  17  stations  with 
31  missionaries  in  India.  In  1883,  in  response 
to  an  urgent  appeal  from  China  and  from  the 
CMS,  a  missionary  was  sent  to  Fuchau,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  the  liberal  support  given  to  the 
special  fund  for  China,  the  Society  has  been  able 
to  occupy  13  stations  in  the  Fo-kien  Province. 
In  1889,  through  the  efforts  of  Rev.  and  Mrs.  J. 
Ireland  Jones,  late  of  Kandy,  2  stations  were  also 
established  in  Ceylon. 

The  Society  has  a  "Home  Workers'  Band"  of 
more  than  800  women,  who  are  kept  in  touch 
with  the  central  workers  by  about  100  associa- 
tion secretaries  and  deputations  from  the  home 
and  foreign  field.  The  "Daybreak  Workers' 
Union"  has  a  membership  of  about  150  bands, 
with  a  total  membership  of  over  3,000  young 
people.  The  "Indian  Widows'  Union"  is  formed 
of  British  widows  who  unite  with  CEZ  mission- 
aries in  work  for  Indian  widows.  Other  women 
than  widows  are  associate  members. 

Branches  of  the  CEZ  have  been  formed  in  Can- 
ada and  Australia. 

The  missionaries  of  the  Society  are  all  women, 
but  their  work  embraces  every  department  of  the 
mission  service.  They  make  evangelistic  tours 
among  the  Hindu,  Mohammedan,  Singhalese  and 
Chinese  villages;  they  teach  the  women  in  the 
seclusion  of  their  homes  or  the  girls  in  school; 
they  practise  medicine  and  conduct  hospitals 
and  dispensaries;  they  train  Christian  women 
as  asisistant  missionaries,  Bible  women,  dispen- 
sers, nurses  and  teachers;  they  provide  homes 
and  classes  for  widows  and  destitute  women  in 
India  and  China;  they  provide  orphanages  for 
I  foundlings  and  famine  orphans  and  give  assist- 


ance to  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  blind  and  the 
leper. 

Missions  (1903);  1.  North  India  (1851):  19 
stations,  41  missionaries,  250  native  workers,  3 
boarding  and  high  schools,  with  57  students,  75 
other  schools,  with  3,139  pupils,  11,670  Zenana 
pupils,  1  orphanage,  with  134  children,  1  hospital 
and  4  dispensaries 

2.  South  India  (1876):  16  stations,  42  mission- 
aries, 318  native  workers,  5  boarding  and  high 
schools,  with  177  students,  58  other  schools,  with 
3,017  pupils,  3,856  Zenana  pupils,  3  orphanages, 
with  136  cliildren,  1  hospital  and  2  dispensaries. 

3.  Pvnjab  and  Sindh  (1872):  24  stations,  69 
missionaries,  144  native  worlcers,  7  boarding  and 
high  schools,  with  201  students,  51  elementary 
schools,  with  2,353  pupils,  741  Zenana  pupils,  5 
orphanages,  with  66  children,  9  hospitals  and  22 
dispensaries. 

4.  Ceylon  (1889):  2  stations,  5  missionaries,  27 
native  workers,  1  boarding  scliool,  with  54  stu- 
dents, 15  other  schools,  witli  461  pupils,  and  1  dis- 
pensary. 

5.  Travancore  and  Cochin  (1862):  7  stations,, 
11  missionaries,  92  native  workers,  1  boarding 
school,  witli  299  students,  14  other  schools,  with 
717  pupils,  21  Zenana  pupils,  1  orphanage,  with 
44  children,  1  hospital  and  2  dispensaries. 

6.  China  (1884):  12  stations,  38  missionaries,. 
115  native  workers,  12  boarding  and  high  schools, 
with  360  students,  46  other  schools,  with  597" 
pupils,  45  Zenana  pupils,  1  orphanage,  with  41. 
children,  4  hospitals  and  4  dispensaries. 

7.  Singapore  (1900):  1  station,  3  missionaries,, 
2  native  workers,  1  boarding  school,  with  70  stu- 
dents. , 

The  organ  of  the  Society  is  India's  Women  and  China^i 
Daughters,  monthly,  London.  It  also  publishes  in  each 
quarter.  Daybreak,  for  girl  students,  and  Little  Torch- 
bearers,  for  children.  For  Medical  work;  Barnes  (Irene 
H.),  Between  Life  and  Death.  London.  1899;  For  work  in 
India:  Barnes  (I.  H.),  Behind  the  Parda,  London,  1899; 
Hull  (E.G. J,  Vignettes  of  Kashmir,  London,  1903. 

CHURCH  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY  for  Africa 

and  the  East  (1799):  In  the  year  1786  twelve 
events  occurred  which  led  to  an  awakening  of  the 
missionary  spirit  in  Great  Britain.  Of  these 
twelve  events,  the  principal  were  the  three  fol- 
lowing: (a)  Wilberforce  dedicated  himself  to  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade;  (b)  Granville  Sharp 
planned  to  settle  the  liberated  slaves  at  Sierra 
Leone,  and  (c)  the  Eclectic  Society  (founded  in 
1783  for  mutual  improvement  by  a  few  evangeli- 
cal clergy  and  laymen  of  the  Church  of  England), 
discussed  foreign  missions  for  the  first  time.  In 
1789  this  Society  again  discussed  foreign  missions, 
but  no  marked  advance  was  made.  In  1791 
Charles  Simeon  again  brought  the  subject  before 
the  Eclectic  Society.  Only  two  or  three  out  of 
the  seventeen  members  present  (presumably 
Simeon,  Thomas  Scott  and  Basil  Woodd)  were 
favorable  to  a  definite  attempt  at  foreign  mis- 
sions, but  long  afterward  Woodd  wrote  across  his 
notes  of  that  meeting  "this  conversation  proved 
the  foundation  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  " 

In  February,  1799,  the  matter  was  again 
brought  before  the  Eclectic  Society  by  the  Rev 
John  Venn,  who  at  this  meeting  laid  down  what 
afterward  became  essential  and  unchanging 
principles  of  the  CMS : 

"It  is  the  right  of  Christian  men  who  sym- 
pathize with  one  another  to  combine  for  a  com- 
mon object." 

"Spiritual   work   must   be   done   by   spiritual 


Chnrcli  Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


164 


"The  mission  must  be  founded  on  the  Church 
principle,  but  not  the  liigh-Church  principle." 

"If  clergymen  cannot  be  found,  send  laymen." 

History:  At  this  time  the  SPCK  and  the  SPG 
were  at  the  lowest  point  of  energy  and  efficiency, 
and  evangelicals  were  not  allowed  to  cooperate 
with  either;  hence  the  necessity  for  a  new  mis- 
sionary society.  On  the  12th  of  April,  1799,  a 
public  meeting  was  held  at  the  Castle  and  Falcon 
in  London,  the  same  hotel  in  which,  four  years 
previously,  the  LMS  was  formed.  Sixteen 
clergymen  and  nine  laymen  met  in  an  "upper 
room,"  the  Rev.  John  Venn  in  the  chair.  Reso- 
lutions were  adopted,  stating  that  "as  the 
SPCK  and  SPG  confined  their  labors  to  the 
British  plantations  in  America  and  to  the  West 
Indies,  there  seems  to  be  still  wanting  in  the  estab- 
lished Church  a  society  for  sending  missionaries 
to  the  continent  of  Africa  and  other  parts  of  the 
heathen  world." 

Therefore,  "the  persons  present  at  this  meeting 
do  form  a  Society  for  that  purpose;"  and  that  "a 
deputation  be  sent  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury as  Metropolitan,  the  Bishop  of  London  as 
Diocesan  and  the  Bishop  of  Durham  as  Chairman 
of  the  Missionary  Committee  of  the  SPCK,  with  a 
copy  of  the  rules  of  the  Society  and  a  respectful 
letter." 

At  this  time  no  name  was  given  the  Society, 
but  six  weeks  later  a  second  meeting  was  held 
which  chose  the  name  "The  Society  for  Missions 
to  Africa  and  the  East."  This  name  never  came 
into  practical  use,  and  the  present  full  name  was 
not  formally  adopted  until  1812. 

In  the  meantime  the  deputation  had  difficulty 
in  getting  access  to  the  Bishops,  and  not  till  July, 
1800,  was  it  able  to  make  its  report  to  the 
Society.  The  Archbishop  was  said  to  "appear 
favorably  disposed,  but  cautious  about  com- 
mitting himself." 

During  the  early  years  of  the  CMS  the  bishops 
declined  to  ordain  its  candidates  for  service 
abroad,  and  it  was  obliged  to  look  to  Germany 
for  its  missionaries.  The  first  missionaries,  two 
Berlin  students,  were  sent  out  in  1802,  followed 
by  others  during  the  next  few  years. 

Not  until  1813,  fourteen  years  after  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Society,  did  two  bishops  consent  to 
ordain  two  of  its  candidates  "for  temporary  work 
at  home." 

In  1819  an  Act  of  Parliament  gave  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury  and  York  and  the  Bishop 
of  London  power  to  ordain  men  for  "His  Majesty's 
Colonies  and  Foreign  Possessions,"  under  certain 
restrictions,  and  a  technical  objection  which 
formed  one  of  the  early  difficulties  of  the  Society 
was  thus  entirely  removed. 

In  1841  two  Archbishops  and  several  Bishops 
joined  the  Society.  In  1845  a  proposition  was 
made  to  unite  the  seven  principal  societies  of  the 
Church  of  England  into  a  Church  Union.  The 
CMS  committee  deemed  the  action  unwise,  and 
it  was  therefore  denounced  in  some  quarters  as 
"not  a  Church  Society."  Then  the  cry  was 
raised  that  all  missions  should  be  worked  "by 
the  Church  in  the  corporate  capacity."  This 
led  to  the  famous  defense  of  Henry  Venn,  known 
as  the  Appendix  to  the  Thirty-ninth  Report. 
The  paper  states  that  the  CMS  "may  be  regarded 
as  an  mstitution  for  discharging  the  temporal 
and  lay  offices  necessary  for  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  heathen. 

"  The  secretary  of  the  CMS  requests,  by  letter, 
the  Bishop  of  London  to  ordain,  in  conformity 


with  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  Parliament, 
such  persons  as  the  Society  is  willing  to  support 
in  some  foreign  station.  The  Bishop,  by  the 
imposition  of  hands,  gives  them  authority  to 
preach  the  Gospel,  with  a  view  to  their  foreif  a 
location.  Hence,  to  call  the  acts  of  the  CMS  in 
selecting  the  station,  paying  the  passage  money, 
and  agreeing  to  provide  the  salary — to  call  these 
acts  a  sending  forth,  of  preachers  in  an  ecclesias- 
tical sense  is  to  confound  names  with  things  and 
to  lose  sight  of  all  true  Church  principles." 

In  1848  the  Jubilee  of  the  Society  was  observed 
and  was  marked  by  a  special  fund,  amounting  to 
£55,322,  to  be  used  in  assisting  disabled  mission- 
aries; in  providing  a  boarding  school  for  mission- 
aries' children;  to  assist  native  churches  in  rais- 
ing endowments,  and  for  mission  buildings. 

In  1882  the  subject  of  medical  missions  was 
brought  under  consideration  and  an  auxiliary 
committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  for  an  exten- 
sion of  work  in  this  direction.  The  medical 
department  of  the  CMS  was  fully  organized  in 
1894,  and  its  influence  has  been  immeasurable 
in  all  missionary  lands. 

The  direct  employment  of  women  missionaries 
by  the  Society  began  to  be  canvassed  about  1882, 
altho  long  before  single  women  had  rendered  it 
efficient  service  in  educational  work.  The 
Women's  Department  of  the  Society  was  fully 
organized  in  1895. 

The  centenary  celebration  of  the  CMS  was  held 
in  1899  after  three  years  of  preparation  through 
the  distribution  of  special  missionary  literature, 
the  holding  of  special  meetings,  and  united  action 
in  making  the  Society  a  subject  for  special  prayer. 
The  centenary  celebration  was  a  solemn,  joyful 
and  most  impressive  occasion  in  which  the  con- 
gregations throughout  the  immense  field  of  the 
Society  participated  by  special  services. 

The  report  of  1902  shows  that  the  CMS  has 
1,276  missionaries,  8,290  native  workers,  2,274 
schools  and  educational  institutions  of  all  grades, 
with  an  attendance  of  116,552  pupils.  There  are 
also  79,586  communicants  in  the  aggregate  on 
its  church  rolls. 

The  year  1841-1842  brought  to  the  Society  an 
alarming  financial  crisis,  while  opportunities  for 
increase  of  work  were  greater  than  ever  before. 
At  this  point  the  committee  appealed  to  the 
country  for  help,  on  the  distinct  ground  that 
they  "looked  for  the  Divine  blessing  upon  the 
faithful,  plain  and  full  maintenance  of  the  great 
principles  of  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus,  by  all  the 
agents  and  missionaries  of  the  Society,  without 
compromise  and  without  reserve.  It  is  the  sus- 
tentation  of  that  Scriptural,  Protestant  and 
Evangelical  tone  throughout  all  their  ministra- 
tions, it  is  the  upholding  of  the  Bible  and  the 
Bible  alone,  as  the  foundation  and  rule  of  faith 
upon  which  the  blessing  of  God  has  rested,  does 
rest  and  ever  will  rest." 

"Upon  these  principles  the  committee  took  their 
stand  in  a  season  of  jeopardy,  and  made  their 
appeal  for  special  assistance."  The  result  was 
that  in  May,  1843,  they  were  able  to  report  a 
larger  income  than  up  to  that  time  had  been 
received  by  any  missionary  society.  Nearly  all 
indebtedness  was  cleared  off  and  a  good  begin- 
ning was  made  in  the  formation  of  a  capital  fund. 
At  this  time  a  finance  committee  of  four  bankers 
had  been  appointed  to  con,sider  the  situation,  and 
they  laid  down  the  rule  that,  altho  the  Society  is 
"called  upon  to  occupy  diligently  with  the  talents 
committed  to  it,  it  is  not  to  aim  at  occupying 


165 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Cliurch  Misslonary- 


with  more  talents  than  God  in  His  wisdom  has 
been  pleased  to  dispense."  On  receiving  this 
enunciation  from  the  finance  committee  the 
stand  was  talcen  by  the  general  committee  of  the 
Society  that  the  "talents"  which  God  gives  a  mis- 
sionary society  are  men,  not  money,  and  if  He 
sends  the  men  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  He 
will  send  the  money  for  their  support. 

In  1853  this  "Policy  of  Faith"  of  the  CMS  was 
clearly  enunciated  before  a  general  meeting  as 
follows:  "The  committee  state  in  the  presence 
of  this  vast  meeting  and  before  the  Church  at 
large,  their  willingness  to  accept  any  number  of 
true  missionaries  who  may  appear  to  be  called  of 
God  to  the  work.  They  will  send  out  any  num- 
ber, trusting  to  the  Lord  of  the  harvest.  Whose  is 
tlie  silver  and  the  gold,  to  supply  their  treasury 
with  the  funds  for  this  blessed  and  glorious  under- 
taking." 

In  1871-72  the  low  water  mark  was  reached  in 
the  supply  of  candidates;  a  Day  of  Intercession 
was  for  the  first  time  observed  with  reference  to 
the  situation  on  December  20,  1872,  and  a 
circular  was  issued,  aslcing  the  constituency  of 
the  Society  to  pray  for  missionary  candidates. 
Twelve  months  later,  in  May,  1874,  at  the  end  of 
the  first  complete  financial  year  since  this  call  to 
prayer  for  men  went  out,  the  Society  was  startled 
to  learn  that  the  receipts  exceeded  a  quarter  of  a 
million.  The  ordinary  income  had  advanced  in 
one  year  £40,000! 

In  1880  the  finances  again  fell  below  par  and  a 
special  joint  committee  of  finance  and  estimates 
was  appointed;  their  strong  conviction  was  that 
"no  religious  society  ought  to  run  ahead  of 
Divine  Providence;  that  the  Divine  will  is  indi- 
cated by  the  amount  of  funds  committed  to  the 
Society's  administration,  and,  that  while  it  is 
right  to  use  every  talent  given  to  us,  we  are  not 
responsible  for  talents  not  given  to  us." 

This  was  the  same  position  as  that  taken  by  the 
Special  Finance  Committee  of  1841-42,  which  led 
the  committee  of  the  CMS  to  declare  that  God's 
will  is  indicated  by  the  coming  forward  of  men, 
not  by  money. 

Following  this  declaration  of  a  policy  of 
retrenchment  the  report  of  1881  showed  a  clear 
balance  sheet,  and  men  who  had  been  kept  at 
home  were  promptly  sent  out.  But  in  1887  the 
Estimates  Committee  warned  the  Society  that 
the  number  of  candidates  was  increasing  more 
rapidly  than  the  funds,  and  argued  that  expan- 
sion of  the  work  should  be  limited  by  the  funds 
at  the  Society's  disposal.  To  this  the  Society 
answered  that  the  candidates  were  unmistakably 
men  sent  by  God,  and  it  was  reasonable  to  assume 
that  He  would  provide  the  means  to  maintain 
them. 

Ultimately  it  was  determined  to  refuse  no 
candidate  merely  on  financial  grounds.  The 
Society  thus  unlcnowinglv  reverted  to  the  policy 
of  1852-53.  In  1893  the  financial  outlook  was 
so  serious  that  the  President  issued  a  letter 
headed  "Ask  the  Lord  and  tell  His  people."  It 
was  proposed  to  abandon  the  "Policy  of  Faith," 
but  on  review  of  the  seven  years  that  the  policy 
had  been  in  operation  it  was  found  that  the  mis- 
sionary staff  had  just  doubled;  the  whole  of  their 
expenses  had  been  paid,  and  in  addition  to  all 
ordinary  expenditure  a  mortgage  of  £20,000  on 
the  Children's  Home  had  been  paid  off.  Thus 
the  "Policy  of  Faith"  enunciated  in  1853,  after- 
ward forgotten;  abandoned  entirely  in  1865, 
with  the  result  of  seven  years'  famine;  partially 


acted  upon  in  1874-76,  and  dropped  in  1877,  with 
financial  difficulties  resulting;  adopted  as  a  new 
thing  in  1887,  and  persevered  in  for  seven  years, 
had  been  honored  of  God  beyond  all  anticipation 
The  resolution  reaffirming  the  policy  was  carried 
nem.  con.  and  at  the  annual  meeting  of  1902  the 
"Policy  of  Faith"  was  again  reaffirmed. 

Organization  and  Constitution:  The  Society  is 
conducted  by  a  Patron,  always  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Family;  a  Vice-Patron,  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  a  President,  who  must  be  a  layman; 
Vice-Presidents,  usually  clerical;  a  Committee 
and  such  officers  as  may  be  deemed  necessary — 
all  being  members  of  the  Church  of  England  or 
Ireland.  The  general  body  of  the  Society 
includes  members  and  governors  who  have  made 
certain  subscriptions  to  the  funds  of  the  Society 
or  have  rendered  special  service  in  its  work. 
The  Committee  consists  of  24  laymen  and  of  the 
clergymen  who  have  been  for  at  least  one  year 
members  of  the  Society.  Of  the  24  lay  mem- 
bers, 18  are  reappointed  each  year  from  the 
existing  Committee,  the  rest  being  elected  from 
the  general  body  of  the  Society. 

The  official  staff  of  the  Society  is  more  complete 
than  that  of  any  other  missionary  organization. 
Aside  from  two  Honorary  Clerical  Secretaries 
there  are  20  secretaries  and  assistant  secretaries, 
divided  among  seven  departments:  Candidates, 
Foreign,  Home  organization.  Editorial,  Lay, 
Women's,  and  Medical.  There  are  19  Association 
Secretaries  in  England,  3  in  Ireland  and  2  in  the 
Scottish  Auxiliary,  while  5  clergymen  are 
emploj'ed  in  missionary  meetings  and  special 
deputation  worlv.  Aside  from  these  there  is  a 
large  number  of  honorary  district  secretaries. 
The  result  is  seen  in  the  thoroughness  with  which 
the  field  is  covered,  the  accuracy  and  complete- 
ness of  the  reports  and  the  variety  and  attract- 
iveness of  the  publications.  The  Society's 
annual  report  is  facile  princeps  among  reports,  as 
are  its  monthly  Churcli  Missionary  Intelligencer 
and  Gleaner  among  other  missionary  periodicals. 
Similarly  its  income  is  larger  than  that  of  any 
other  missionary  society,  in  1902  being,  for  the 
general  purposes  of  the  Society,  £327,000 
($1,635,000). 

A  feature  of  the  organization  of  the  CMS  is  its 
use  of  auxiliary  societies.  These  have  been 
formed  among  those  of  all  ages  and  stations  in 
life.  Prominent  among  these  agencies  for  keep- 
ing the  people  informed  and  interested  are  the 
"Missionary  Leaves  Association,"  the  Gleaners' 
Union  and  the  Savers'  Band.  Oi^  a  similar  nature 
are  the  Lay  Workers'  Union  and  the  Younger 
Clergy  Union,  It  has  been  the  policy  of  the 
Society  to  form  auxiliary  committees  in  the 
colonies  wherever  the  English  community  is 
strong  enough  to  give  practical  aid  to  the  work  of 
the  Society  in  its  midst. 

Development  of  Missions:  With  William  Wilbei'- 
force  as  one  of  the  charter  members  of  the  new 
.':ociety,  and  the  prominence  given  the  slave  trade 
in  Africa  through  his  efforts  and  those  of  Gran- 
ville Sharp,  the  attention  of  the  CMS  was  at  once 
directed  to  West  Africa,  the  center  of  the  slave 
trade,  as  a  needv  field,  and  especially  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  neither  the  Society  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  Christian  Knowledge  nor  the  SPG  were 
working  in  that  country.  Its  first  missionaries 
were  sent  to  the  Susu  tribe  on  the  Rio  Pongas 
in  1804,  the  mission  headquarters  afterward 
being  at  Sierra  Leone.  On  the  opening  of  India 
to  missionary  work  in  1813,  the  United  Prov- 


Chnrcb   Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


166 


inces  (formerly  North  West  Provinces)  Mission 
was  begun  at  Agra  by  Abdul  Masih,  Henry  Mar- 
tyn's  solitary  convert  from  Mohammedanism, 
under  the  direction  of  Daniel  Corrie,  one  of  the 
famous  "five  chaplains"  of  India.  The  second 
mission  of  the  Society  was  to  the  Maoris  of  New 
Zealand  in  1814,  at  the  invitation  of  Samuel 
Marsden,  chaplain  in  New  South  Wales.  The 
same  year  the  South  India  Mission  was  opened 
at  Madras  by  the  first  two  clergymen  of  the 
Church  of  England  to  be  sent  as  missionaries  to 
India. 

The  Bengal  Mission  was  established  in  1816, 
and  the  same  year  work  was  begun  in  the  Trav- 
ancore  and  Cochin  Native  State,  at  the  invitation 
of  the  British  resident.  In  1817  work  was  begun 
among  the  Singhalese  and  Tamils  in  Ceylon. 

The  Western  India  Mission  was  inaugurated  at 
Bombay  in  1820.  Two  years  later,  in  1822,  the 
North  West  Canada  Missions  were  begun  among 
the  scattered  Red  Indian  tribes.  The  treaty  of 
Nanking  in  1842  rendered  China  accessible,  and 
in  1844  the  Mid-China  Mission  was  begun. 

The  following  year  the  missions  in  Africa  were 
extended  and  work  was  begun  in  East  and  West 
Equatorial  Africa.  In  1850  the  Fo-kien  Mission 
was  established  at  Fu-chau. 

In  1851,  on  invitation  of  Bishop  Gobat,  the 
Palestine  Mission  was  opened,  "beginning  at  Jeru- 
salem." Tliis  year  also  the  Punjab  and  Sindh 
Mission  was  begun,  soon  after  the  annexation  of 
the  province  to  British  India.  In  1856  Capt. 
Prevost,  R.  N.,  called  the  attention  of  the  CMS 
to  the  Indians  of  British  Columbia,  and  a  young 
schoolmaster  was  sent  to  them.  A  mission  was 
also  begun  the  same  year  on  the  island  of  Mau- 
ritius. In  1862  work  was  extended  to  South 
China.  In  1869  the  first  CMS  missionary  began 
work  in  Japan,  and  the  Rev.  R.  Bruce  of  the  CMS 
visited  Persia  and  began  a  mission  which  was 
formally  adopted  by  the  Society  in  1875.  In 
1876  the  work  in  Africa  was  further  extended 
and  the  Uganda  Mission  organized.  In  1882  the 
Missions  to  Egvpt  and  Turkish  Arabia  were 
begun,  and  in  18132  the  West  China  Mission  was 
started  in  the  Province  of  Sze-chwan. 

The  Missions.  I.  Africa.  (1)  Sierra  Leone 
Mission  (1816);  The  first  two  missionaries  of  the 
CMS  were  sent  in  1804  to  the  Susu  tribes  on  the 
Rio  Pongas.  A  few  years  later  a  station  was 
opened  at  Yongro  for  the  Bullom  tribe,  by 
Nylander,  who  labored  for  19  years  in  Africa, 
dying  at  his  post  in  1825,  never  having  returned 
home.  In  1817,  at  the  instigation  of  the  slave 
dealers,  the  mission  buildings  were  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  opposition  to  their  work  became  so  for- 
midable that  the  missionaries  were  compelled  to 
take  refuge  in  Sierra  Leone,  the  depot  for  negroes 
rescued  from  slave  ships  by  British  cruisers. 
Here  the  missionaries  remained.  Great  success 
attended  their  labors  and  in  1822  nearly  2,000 
of  the  freed  slaves  were  in  the  mission  schools, 
and  some  hundreds  had  become  sincere  Chris- 
tians. The  work  continued  to  prosper,  but  at 
great  cost.  Fifty-three  missionaries  and  mission- 
aries' wives  died  in  this  field  between  1804  and 
1824.  This  great  mortality  revealed  the  neces- 
sity for  native  agency,  and  in  1827  the  Fourah 
Bay  College  was  opened.  Port  Lokkoh  in  the 
Timne  country  was  occupied  from  1840  to  1850 
and  reoccupied  in  1875.  In  1840  the  native 
Christians  voluntarily  established  a  Church  Mis- 
sionary Auxiliary,  and  undertook  the  support  of 
the  native  schools  in  the-  various  parishes.     In 


1852  the  Bishopric  of  Sierra  Leone  was  founded 
and  ten  years  later  the  Sierra  Leone  Church  was 
organized  on  an  independent  basis,  and  under- 
took the  support  of  its  own  pastors,  churches  and 
schools,  aided  by  a  small  grant  from  the  CMS. 
In  1876  the  Sierra  Leone  Church  Missionary 
Society  was  founded  and  has  since  carried  on  the 
outlying  missions  established  by  the  CMS  in  the 
Bullom  and  Quiah  countries. 

There  are  (1902)  21  stations  and  22  outsta- 
tions,  14  European  missionaries  and  167  native 
workers,  6,932  native  communicants  and  64 
schools,  with  4,830  pupils.  More  than  100  Afri- 
can clergymen  have  been  ordained  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa  in  connection  with  this  and  the 
Yoruba  Mission.  Several  of  them  are  govern- 
ment chaplains. 

(2)  Western  Equatorial  Africa  Mission  (1845): 
A  large  portion  of  the  freed  slaves  gathered  at 
Sierra  Leone  had  been  taken  from  the  Yoruba 
country,  a  thousand  miles  to  the  eastward. 
About  1840  many  of  these  natives,  some  of  whom 
had  become  Christians,  returned  to  their  own 
people,  and  petitioned  that  a  missionary  be  sent 
to  them.  In  1843  Mr.  Henry  Townsend  paid  a 
preliminary  visit  to  Abeokuta  and  returned  to 
Sierra  Leone  and  to  England  with  a  favorable 
report.  He  and  Mr.  GoUmer  with  Samuel  Crow- 
ther,  a  native  of  Yoruba  and  a  liberated  slave, 
reached  Abeokuta  in  1845,  where  they  received  a 
hearty  welcome.  Gradually  the  work  extended 
to  other  towns  and  villages  in  the  interior,  and  in 
1857  Mr.  Crowther  accompanied  a  commercial 
expedition  up  the  Niger  River  and  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Niger  Mission  by  establishing  sta- 
tions at  Onitsha,  Gbebe  and  Idda. 

In  1890  missionaries  were  sent  out  to  locate  at 
Lokoja,  on  the  Upper  Niger,  and  thence  to  try 
to  reach  the  Mohammedan  Hausa  States.  The 
climate  proved  fatal  to  the  expedition,  however. 
A  subsequent  attempt  met  with  better  success, 
and  itinerations  have  been  made  in  the  direction 
of  Sokoto  and  an  effort  has  been  made  toward 
permanent  work  in  the  Hausa  country. 

There  are  (1902)  43  stations,  55  European  mis- 
sionaries and  202  native  workers,  4,749  com- 
municants and  80  schools,  with  4,721  pupils. 

(3)  Eastern  Equatorial  Africa  Mission  (1844): 
The  mission  was  begun  by  Dr.  J.  L.  Krapf,  who 
went  to  Mombasa  after  being  expelled  from 
Abyssinia.  In  1846  he  was  joined  by  the  Rev. 
John  Rebman,  who  opened  the  station  at  Kisu- 
lutini  and  labored  on  the  coast  29  years.  Their 
remarkable  journeys  into  the  interior  opened  the 
way  for  subsequent  geographical  and  missionary 
enterprises  in  East  Africa.  In  1874  the  Rev.  W. 
S.  Price,  formerly  in  charge  of  the  asylum  for 
rescued  slaves  at  Nasik,  Western  India,  was  sent 
out;  land  was  purchased  for  an  industrial  colony 
on  the  mainland  near  Mombasa;  some  200  Afri- 
can Christians  from  among  the  freed  slaves 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  colony  and  the  new 
settlement  was  named  Freretown,  in  honor  of 
Sir  Bartle  Frere.  To  this  place  other  rescued 
slaves  were  sent  for  care  and  training.  Stations 
were  opened  in  1883  in  the  Taita  country  to  the 
westward,  and  at  Taveta  under  the  shadow  of  the 
snow-capped  Kilima  Njaro,  and  in  1890  in  the 
Jilore  region,  to  northward  of  Mombasa,  when 
in  1876  missionaries  were  sent  by  the  Zanzibar 
route  to  establish  the  Uganda  Mission.  Inter- 
mediate stations  were  established  at  Mpwapwa 
in  1876,  at  Mamboia  in  1879,  and  at  Nassa,  at  the 
south  end  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  in  1888.     For 


167 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Chnrcb  Missionary 


these  missions  a  new  bishopric  was  established 
in  1884,  the  Rev.  John  Hannington  being  con- 
secrated the  first  bishop.  He  was  murdered  by 
order  of  King  Mwanga  of  Uganda  in  October, 
1885. 

There  are  (1902)  18  stations,  77  European  mis- 
sionaries and  91  native  workers,  842  communi- 
cants and  49  schools,  with  2,316  pvipils. 

(4)  Uganda  Mission  (1876):  In  November, 
1875,  Stanley  sent  word  to  England  that  Mtesa, 
King  of  Uganda,  would  welcome  missionaries. 
Shortly  after  this  the  CMS  received  two  anony- 
mous gifts  of  £5,000  each  for  work  in  Uganda, 
and  in  June,  1876,  seven  months  later,  the  first 
missionaries  for  Uganda  were  at  Zanzibar  pre- 
paring for  the  march  to  the  Victoria  Nyanza, 
Rubaga,  the  capital  of  Uganda,  was  reached  by 
two  of  the  party,  Lieut.  Smith  and  Rev.  C.  T. 
Wilson, in  June,  1877,  who  were  warmly  welcomed 
by  Mtesa.  Mr.  T.  O'Neill  afterward  joined 
them,  but  the  temerity  of  this  enterprise  became 
evident  in  December,  1877,  when  Messrs.  Smith 
and  O'Neill  were  killed  in  a  quarrel  between  a 
native  chief  and  an  Arab  trader.  Mr.  Wilson 
was  thus  left  alone  in  the  middle  of  Africa.  It 
was  only  after  some  months  that  he  was  joined 
by  Mr.  A.  M.  Mackay,  who  had  been  detained  on 
the  coast  by  illness  for  more  than  a  year.  In 
1884  King^  Mtesa  died,  and  Mwanga,  his  son, 
turned  against  the  missionaries,  and  a  period  of 
danger  and  bloodshed  followed  the  murder  of 
Bishop  Hannington  and  several  native  Christians. 
This  many  times  threatened  the  existence  of  the 
mission,  until  finally  in  1894  a  British  Protect- 
orate was  established  over  Uganda  and  within 
three  or  four  years  prosperity  dawned  for  the 
State  and  for  the  mission.     See  Uganda. 

There  are  (1902)  33  stations,  76  European  mis- 
sionaries and  2,435  native  workers,  9,865  com- 
municants, 5  schools,  with  248  pupils  and  12,117 
others  receiving  instruction. 

The  more  notable  characteristic  of  this  mission 
is  the  advance  of  the  native  Christians  in  intelli- 
gence and  their  acceptance  of  the  duty  of  evan- 
gelizing neighboring  regions.  Busoga,  Toro  and 
Bunyoro  have  thus  been  opened  to  the  mission- 
aries. 

(5)  Egypt  (resumed  1882) :  As  far  back  as  1802 
it  was  suggested  to  the  CMS  that  it  attempt  the 
revival  of  evangelical  religion  in  the  Greek 
Church.  In  1811  came  a  letter  (which  ultimately 
led  to  the  Society's  enterprises  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean) from  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  Malta, 
Dr.  Nandi,  urging  the  needs  of  Mohammedans 
and  Christians  in  the  Levant  and  the  duty  of  the 
CMS  to  relieve  such  needs. 

In  1815  the  Rev.  William  Jowett  was  sent  to 
Malta  "to  survey  the  religious  horizon,"  and 
begin  work,  followed  soon  afterward  by  Messrs. 
Connor  and  Hartley.  In  1825  five  men  were  sent 
to  Egypt,  among  them  Samuel  Gobat.  The 
work  was  carried  on  for  more  than  30  years, 
chiefly  by  J.  R.  T.  Lieder,  who  died  at  Cairo  in 
1865.  He  and  his  brethren  itinerated  in  the 
Nile  Delta,  into  the  Fayum  and  southward  into 
Nubia.  The  missionaries  could  not  work  directly 
for  Mohammedans  and  sought  to  stir  up  native 
Christians  to  life.  The  Coptic  clergy  were  gen- 
erally friendly,  while  those  of  the  Greek  Church 
were  not.  Schools  were  started  and  a  boys' 
boarding  school  was  established  at  Cairo,  which 
m  1842  was  changed  into  a  theological  seminary 
for  Coptic  clergy.  The  visible  results  of  the 
work  were  small  and  no  new  recruits  were  sent  out.   ' 


In  1862  the  mission  was  dropped.  In  1882  the 
British  occupation  of  the  Nile  Valley  took  place. 
At  once  thank-offerings  began  to  be  sent  to  the 
CMS  for  an  Egyptian  Mission.  This  led  to  a 
decision  to  reopen  the  work  in  Egypt,  this  time 
among  the  Mohammedans.  Dr.  F.  A.  Klein  of 
the  Palestine  Mission  was  sent  to  Cairo.  Later 
on,  medical  work  was  begun  at  Cairo  by  Dr.  Har- 
pur.  Cairo  was  regarded  as  a  stepping  stone  to 
Khartum  and  the  Sudan.  But  the  timidity  of 
the  British  Government  respecting  the  effect  of 
Christian  missions  in  those  regions  has  interfered 
with  the  execution  of  this  design.  The  most 
urgent  request  of  the  CMS,  presented  in  1901, 
for  permission  to  station  missionaries  at  Khar- 
tum, received  a  courteous  but  firm  refusal  from 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  which 
concluded  with  the  words:  "It  appears  to  me  to 
be  at  present  impossible  to  indicate  any  time 
when  the  restrictions  now  in  force  on  the  labors 
of  missionaries  in  the  Sudan  could  with  safety  be 
removed,  but  the  matter  will  receive  the  most 
careful  attention."  Nevertheless,  in  1903  Brit- 
ish officials  approved  missionary  labor  for  pagans 
in  the  S.  districts  of  the  Sudan,  and  permitted 
the  CMS  to  open  a  school  for  Muslims  in  Khartum. 
There  are  (1902)  in  Egypt,  4  stations  of  the 
CMS,  28  European  missionaries,  25  native  work- 
ers, 54  communicants  and  4  schools,  with  291 
pupils. 

II.  Palestine  (1851):  When  Samuel  Gobat,  for 
many  years  associated  with  the  work  of  the  CMS 
in  the  Levant,  was  appointed  to  the  bishopric  in 
Jerusalem,  he  appealed  to  the  committee  to  begin 
work  among  the  Jews.  One  result  of  this  was 
the  opening  of  the  Palestine  Mission  by  the  Rev. 
F.   A.   Klein  and  Dr.   Sandrecki,   at  Jerusalem. 

The  ultimate  purpose  of  the  Society  in  under- 
taking the  work  in  this,  as  in  their  other  Levant 
missions,  was  the  evangelization  of  the  Moham- 
medans. Several  stations  were  successively 
occupied  and  other  missionaries  were  added  to 
the  staff.  In  1861,  however,  Jerusalem  and 
Nazareth  were  the  only  stations  in  occupation, 
and  for  many  years  the  work  was  on  a  reduced 
scale.  Bishop  Gobat  had  established  mission 
stations  at  Nablus  and  Es  Salt,  besides  25  schools 
throughout  the  country.  In  1873-5  this  work 
was  transferred  to  the  care  of  the  CMS  and  the 
occupation  of  other  towns  followed.  In  1899 
the  CMS  took  over  the  work  of  the  Female  Educa- 
tion Society  at  Jerusalem  and  Shefamer. 

There  are  now  (1902)  in  the  Palestine  Mission 
19  stations,  71  European  missionaries  and  127 
native  workers,  802  communicants  and  59  schools 
with  3,609  pupils. 

III.  Turkish  Arabia  (1882) :  Baghdad  was  first 
occupied  as  an  outpost  of  the  Persia  Mission, 
with  the  view  of  reaching  Persian  pilgrims  who 
resort  to  famous  Shli  shrines  near  the  city.  The 
first  missionaries  were  the  Rev.  T.  R.  Hodgson 
of  the  Indian  Mission  and  Mr.  Maimon,  a  con- 
verted Jew  of  Trieste.  A  good  deal  of  their  early 
work  was  among  the  Jews,  the  Persian  pilgrims 
not  being  found  very  accessible.  Medical  work 
was  begun  in  1886  by  Dr.  Sutton.  In  1898  the 
work  was  separated  from  the  Persia  Mission  and 
continued  as  the  "Turkish  Arabia  Mission."  In 
1900  Mosul  was  occupied  by  agreement  with  the 
PN,  which  had  taken  over  that  station  from  the 
ABCFM. 

There  are  (1902)  2  stations,  7  European  mis- 
sionaries, 13  native  workers,  61  communicants 
and  4  schools,  with  148  pupils. 


ClmrcU    Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


16a 


IV.  Persia  (1875) :  In  1869  the  Rev.  R.  Bruce, 
of  the  CMS,  visited  Persia,  when  returning  from 
England  to  India,  and  began  work  at  Ispahan. 
In  1875  tlie  Society  formally  adopted  his  work 
as  one  of  its  missions.  In  1879  medical  work  was 
begun.  Since  that  time  doors  have  opened 
rapidly;  the  Babis  have  seemed  friendly  and  the 
Muslims  generally  have  been  attracted  through 
the  medical  services  of  the  missionaries. 

There  are  (1902)  5  stations,  35  European  mis- 
sionaries, 41  native  workers,  100  communicants, 
and  6  schools,  with  497  pupils. 

V.  India  (1813):  (1)  United  (formerly 
North  West)  Provinces:  The  Society's  first  agent 
in  India  was  Abdul  Masih,  Henry  Martyn's  soli- 
tary convert  from  Mohammedanism,  who  was 
sent  to  Agra  in  1813  under  the  direction  of  the 
chaplain  of  the  forces  at  that  station.  In  1815 
Meerut  was  occupied  by  a  converted  Brahman. 
In  1817  Daniel  Corrie  from  Agra  was  appointed 
chaplain  at  Benares,  and  work  was  begun  there. 

By  1854,  4  other  stations  had  been  occupied. 
In  1857  occurred  the  terrible  Sepoy  rebellion, 
which  concentrated  intense  interest  upon  India 
and  incidentally  upon  its  missions. 

The  CMS  raised  a  special  fund  to  replace  build- 
ings and  apparatus  destroyed  and  for  a  general 
expansion  of  the  work.  The  most  important 
event  following  the  meeting  was  tlie  occupation 
of  Lucknow  in  1858,  immediately  after  its  recon- 
quest.  Some  years  later  a  special  work  was 
begun  among  the  Gonds  (1879)  and  the  Bhils 
(1880). 

There  are  (1902)  27  stations,  131  European 
missionaries  and  429  native  workers,  2,146  com- 
municants, 134  schools,  with  10,359  pupils; 
native  contributions,  Rs.  7,742. 

(2)  South  India  (1814):  The  first  two  clergy- 
men of  the  Church  of  England  to  go  to  India  were 
sent  to  Madras  by  the  CMS  in  1814.  A  corre- 
sponding committee  of  the  Society  was  organized 
to  administer  the  work. 

The  Tinnevelli  Mission  was  begun  in  1820,  at 
the  request  of  the  chaplain  at  Palamcotta.  In 
1838  the  Madras  Theological  Seminary  was  estab- 
lished. 

The  Telugu  Mission  was  begun  in  1841  by 
Robert  Noble,  who  established  tlie  famous  Eng- 
lish school  at  Masulipatam,  and  Henry  Fox,  who 
began  a  series  of  preaching  tours  which  resulted 
in  the  foundation  of  an  increasing  Telugu  native 
Church. 

In  1870  work  was  begun  among  the  Tamils 
and  the  people  of  the  Nilgiri  hills,  with  Utaka- 
mund  as  a  center. 

_  There  are  (1902)  82  stations,  62  European  mis- 
sionaries and  1,410  native  workers,  18,223  com- 
municants and  715  schools,  witli  23,764  pupils. 

(3)  Bengal  Mission  (1816):  The  CMS  had  an 
important  part  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Bishopric  of  Calcutta  in  1814,  and  before  mis- 
sionaries were  allowed  in  India  a  CMS  Corre- 
sponding Committee  was  organized  in  Calcutta. 
When,  in  1816,  two  CMS  missionaries  were  sent 
out  to  open  a  station,  the  administration  of  the 
new  work  was  placed  under  the  care  of  this  local 
committee. 

The  following  year  (1817)  Burdwan  was  occu- 
pied and  an  effort  was  made  to  establish  a 
National  System  of  Education.  Nadiya  was 
occupied  in  1831,  and  seven  years  later  witnessed 
a  remarkable  revival,  and  in  1857  the  mission  to 
Santals  was  begun.  In  1865  the  Cathedral 
Mission    College    was    established,    but    discon- 


tinued in  1880,  the  buildings  being  used  for  the 
CMS  Divinity  School  for  Bengal. 

There  are  (1902)  28  stations,  71  European  mis- 
sionaries and  392  native  workers,  2,806  com- 
municants and  115  schools,  with  4,432  scholars. 

(4)  Travancore  and  Cochin  (1816):  Work  was; 
begun  in  these  semi-independent  native  states  in 
1816,  at  the  request  of  the  British  resident,  and 
continued  for  twenty  years,  largely  in  the  hope  of 
stimulating  reform  of  the  ancient  Syrian  Church 
of  Malabar.  Since  1837  the  missionaries  have- 
worked  independently  of  this  church  and  with 
better  results.  In  1873  a  remarkable  revival 
occurred  which  resulted  in  the  organization  of 
a  native  church  which  continues  steadily  to 
grow. 

There  are  (1902)  38  stations  and  25  European 
missionaries,  612  native  workers,  12,096  com- 
municants and  265  schools,  with  12,148  pupils. 

(5)  Western  India  (1820):  In  1818  a  Corre- 
sponding Committee  of  the  CMS  was  formed  in 
Bombay  and  two  years  later  missionary  work  was- 
formally  inaugurated.  In  1832  a  new  station 
was  opened  at  Nasik,  an  important  center  of 
Brahman  influence.  At  Bombay  the  Robert 
Money  School,  established  in  1836,  was  handed 
over  to  the  CMS.  In  1854  the  Rev.  W.  S.  Price 
founded  the  agricultural  and  industrial  settle- 
ment of  Sharanpur,  Nasik,  which  afterward 
became  for  a  time  a  refuge  for  liberated  African 
slaves. 

Poona  was  occupied  in  1882,  and  here  there 
was  established  the  CMS  Divinity  School  for 
West  India.  Special  efforts  were  made  to  reack 
the  Mohammedans  and  Parsees. 

There  are  (1902)  9  stations,  22  European  mis- 
sionaries, 182  native  workers,  1,449  communi- 
cants and  59  schools,  with  2,578  pupils. 

(5)  Punjab  and  Sindh  (1850) :  As  early  as  1840' 
some  English  officers  and  civilians  at  Simla 
raised  a  fund  for  evangelistic  work  among  the 
natives  and  applied  to  the  CMS  for  a  missionary. 
None  being  sent,  they  began  an  independent 
work  at  Kolgur  in  1843  which  was  taken  over  by 
the  Society  in  1848.  In  1850  it  began  the  Sindh 
Mission  at  the  commercial  port  of  Karachi  and 
the  following  year  work  was  begun  in  the  Punjab 
proper  by  establishing  a  station  at  Amritsar,  the 
sacred  city  of  the  Silchs,  and  extension  became  the 
order  of  the  day,  but  tlie  most  important  advance 
was  made  in  1855,  when  Peshawar,  the  military 

Eost  on  the  Afghan  frontier,  was  occupied, 
ahore,  the  capital  of  the  Punjab,  became  a  sta- 
tion in  1867,  and  here  the  Divinity  School  was; 
founded  three  years  later. 

There  are  in  tliis  mission  (1902)  32  stations, 
106  European  missionaries,  180  native  workers, 
1,299  communicants  and  42  schools,  with  6,537 
scholars. 

VI.  Ceylon  (1817):  Work  was  begun  among- 
both  Singhalese  and  Tamils  in  1815,  the  two  races 
having  distinct  languages.  Evangelistic,  educa- 
tional and  pastoral  work  has  been  carried  on,  but 
the  strongest  influence  of  the  mission  has  been 
exerted  through  the  schools.  During  the  first 
years  the  reports  from  the  missionaries  were- 
almost  uniformly  depressing,  while  favorable- 
impressions  of  its  influence  were  given  by  the 
government  officials.  Two  features  of  special 
interest  in  Ceylon  are  the  Kandyan  itineracy, 
begun  in  1853,  and  the  Tamil  Coolie  Mission, 
established  in  1855. 

Much  indirect  good  came  from  a  great  Bud- 
dhist revival  in  1862-4,  and  from  that  time  both 


169 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Church   Missionary 


the  Singhalese  and  Tamil  Missions  began  to  look 
more  promising. 

There  are  (1902)  22  stations,  53  European  mis- 
sionaries, 681  native  workers,  3,525  communi- 
cants and  283  schools,  with  17,914  pupils. 

VII.  Mauritius  (1856):  Early  in  1854  Mau- 
ritius was  visited  by  two  CMS  missionaries  from 
Tinnevelli,  who  found  a  little  band  of  Tamil 
coolie  Christians  from  India,  for  whom  Mr.  A. 
Taylor  of  the  Madras  Auxiliary  Bible  Society 
was  caring.  The  need  of  the  field  was  reported 
to  the  CMS,  and  in  1856  it  began  work  among  the 
coolies.  From  the  first  there  was  much  encour- 
agement. An  interesting  development  of  the 
mission  occurred  in  1860,  when  the  Government 
established  an  orphan  asylum  and  industrial 
school,  placing  them  in  the  care  of  the  CMS  mis- 
sionaries. In  1875,  in  connection  with  Mauritius, 
work  was  begun  in  the  Seychelles  Islands,  among 
the  liberated  African  slaves,  an  industrial  school 
settlement  being  established  on  the  Capucin 
Mountain. 

There  are  (1902)  10  stations,  10  European  mis- 
sionaries, 67  native  workers,  365  communicants 
and  21  schools  with  1,549  pupils. 

VIII.  China  (1845):  (1)  Mid  China  Mission: 
After  the  treaty  of  1842  a  friend  of  the  CMS, 
calling  himself  "less  than  the  least,"  gave  the 
Society  £6,000,  as  the  nucleus  of  a  China  fund. 
Two  clergymen  were  at  once  sent  out,  with 
instructions  to  visit  the  treaty  ports  and  Hong- 
kong, and  report  upon  the  best  place  for  locating 
the  new  mission.  Shanghai  and  Ningpo  were 
selected  and  occupied  (1845-1848).  In  1875  the 
Ningpo  College  was  founded  and  has  been  a 
valuable  agency  in  tlie  work.  The  mission  was 
gradually  extended  to  Hang-chau  and  other 
places.  In  1901,  a  Native  Church  Missionary 
Society  was  formed  for  further  aggressive  worlv. 

There  are  (1902)  12  stations  and  59  European 
missionaries,  105  native  workers,  1,240  com- 
municants and  51  schools,  with  738  pupils. 

(2)  Fo-kien  (1850):  The  city  of  Fu-chau  was 
occupied  in  1850,  but  for  ten  years  the  work  was 
barren  of  results.  In  1860  medical  work  was 
commenced  and  proved  a  helpful  agency.  In 
1864-5  other  large  cities  were  occupied  by  native 
evangelists  and  rapid  progress  was  made  in  spite 
of  severe  persecution.  In  August,  1895,  occurred 
the  terrible  Ku-cheng  massacre.  Since  then 
there  has  been  marked  advance.  During  the 
years  1900-1901  Boxer  bands  made  trouble  in 
various  places. 

There  are  (1902)  18  stations,  77  European  mis- 
sionaries, 415  native  workers,  4,464  communi- 
cants and  185  schools,  with  2,633  pupils. 

(.3)  South  China  (1862):  St.  Paul's  College  in 
Hongkong  had  for  some  time  been  assisted  by 
the  CMS,  but  regular  work  wa-s  not  begun  until 
a  mission  was  organized  in  1862. 

Several  outstations  were  later  established  in 
the  Kwang-tung  Province,  with  Canton  as  a 
central  station. 

There  are  (1901)  6  stations,  38  European  mis- 
sionaries, 58  native  workers,  360  communicants 
and  30  schools  with  1,490  pupils. 

(4)  West  China  (1891):  The  most  important 
CMS  movement  in  (Jjhina  in  recent  years  was  the 
new  mission  in  the  western  province  of  Sze-chwan 
begun  by  Rev.  J.  H.  Horsburgh  in  1891,  who 
planned  the  work  on  very  simple  lines,  the  mis- 
sionaries to  "identify  themselves  as  much  as  they 
could  with  the  people,  and  spend  as  little  money 
as  possible."     They  went  into  the  province  after 


correspondence  and  an  understanding  with  the 
CIM,  whose  missionaries  already  on  the  field 
welcomed  and  assisted  them.  They  at  once 
began  to  itinerate,  this  seeming  the  best  method 
of  work.  By  1894  five  cities  were  definitely  occu- 
pied. In  1895  serious  riots  occurred  in  the 
province,  but  the  CMS  mission  suffered  small 
loss. 

There  were  (in  1900)  10  stations,  41  European 
missionaries,  33  communicants  and  1  school, 
with  15  pupils. 

IX.  Japan  (1869):  In  1867  the  CMS  received 
an  anonymous  gift  of  £4,000  for  a  mission  in 
Japan.  In  1868  came  the  revolution  which 
restored  the  Mikado  to  the  throne  and  in  1869 
the  first  CMS  missionary  landed  at  Nagasaki.  At 
first  the  work  was  carried  on  with  difficulty,  but 
in  1872  religious  liberty  was  practically  pro- 
claimed and  by  1875  four  important  centers  were- 
occupied.  The  new  constitution  proclaimed  in 
1889  gave  increased  religious  liberty  and  made 
possible  further  extension  of  worlc. 

There  are  (1901)  23  stations,  102  European 
missionaries,  156  native  workers,  2,408  com- 
municants and  15  schools  with  559  pupils. 

X.  New  Zealand  (1814):  The  mission  to  the 
Maoris  of  New  Zealand, the  second  of  the  Society's 
missions  in  order  of  time,  was  undertaken  in  1814, 
when  Samuel  Marsden,  with  three  laj'men,  sent, 
out  as  pioneers,  landed  on  the  northern  island. 
Other  missionaries  followed  whose  lives  were 
entirely  in  the  power  of  the  ferocious  cannibals, 
and  were  frequently  in  imminent  danger.  For 
eleven  years  no  results  whatever  were  seen.  In 
1825  the  first  conversion  toolv  place,  and  no  other 
natives  were  baptized  for  five  years.  Then 
began  the  marvelous  movement  which  resulted 
in  almost  the  whole  Maori  nation  being  brought, 
under  Christian  instruction  and  civilizing  influ- 
ences, and  which  led  Bishop  Selwyn,  on  his  arri- 
val in  his  new  diocese  in  1842,  to  write:  "We  see 
here  a  whole  nation  of  pagans  converted  to  the 
faith.  .  .  .  Where  will  you  find  more  signal 
manifestations  of  the  presence  of  the  Spirit,  or 
more  living  evidences  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ?" 
In  1840  New  Zealand  was  made  a  British  colony, 
and  immigration  on  a  large  scale  ensued,  introduc- 
ing the  vices  as  well  as  the  benefits  of  civilization. 
The  inevitable  conflicts  of  race  began  and  the 
continual  disputes  about  the  sale  and  possession 
of  land  led  to  prolonged  and  bitter  wars,  which 
shoolv  the  native  church  to  its  foundations  and 
caused  serious  defections. 

In  1883  a  local  CMS  mission  board  was  estab- 
lished to  administer  the  Society's  grants,  which 
diminished  annually  and  ceased  in  1902. 

There  are  (1902)  48  stations,  18  European  mis- 
sionaries, 346  native  workers,  2,508  communi- 
cants and  7  schools  with  295  pupils. 

XI.  Northwest  Canada  (1822):  The  work  of 
the  CMS  among  the  Indian  tribes  scattered  over 
what  was  formerly  the  Hudson  Bay  territory, 
was  begun  by  the  Rev.  John  West  in  1822  at  a 
little  trading  station  on  the  Red  River. 

The  first  step  in  extending  the  mission  was 
made  in  1840,  when  a  native  teacher  was  sent  to 
open  a  station  at  Devon.  Now  this  district  is  the 
colonial  province  of  Manitoba,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  CMS  work  has  developed  into  the  ministra- 
tions of  the  Church  in  the  colony;  one  of  its 
churches  having  even  become  the  Cathedral  of 
the  Diocese  of  Rupert's  Land. 

The  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  Rupert's  Land, 
the  area  of  which  probably  exceeds  that  of  the 


Chnrcli    Missionary 
Cliarcli  in  the  Mission 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


170 


Chinese  Empire,  is  divided  into  eight  dioceses, 
viz.,  Rupert  s  Land,  Moosonee,  Mackenzie  River, 
Athabasca,  Sasliatchewan,  Calgary,  Qu'Appelle 
and  Keewatin.  In  all  these  dioceses  the  Society's 
agents  labor.  The  whole  Bible  and  Prayer-book 
exist  in  Red  River  Cree,  and  considerable  por- 
tions, with  hymn-books,  etc.,  in  Moose  Cree, 
Ojibbeway,  Soto,  Slave,  Chipewyan  and  Tukudh. 
A  plan  for  the  gradual  withdrawal  of  the  CMS 
financial  aid  to  these  dioceses,  similar  to  that 
adopted  in  New  Zealand,  is  to  become  effective  as 
soon  as  practicable. 

There  are  (1901)  60  stations,  73  missionaries, 
37  native  workers,  2,852  communicants  and  76 
schools  with  2,300  pupils. 

XII.  British  Columbia  (1856):  In  1856  Cap- 
tain Prevost,  R.N.,  drew  the  Society's  attention 
to  the  savage  state  of  the  Tsimshean  Indians  on 
the  coast  of  British  Columbia,  and  a  young 
schoolmaster,  Mr.  W.  Duncan,  was  sent  out.  A 
great  blessing  was  vouchsafed  to  his  labors,  and 
in  1862  the  Christian  settlement  of  Metlakahtla 
was  founded.  In  1881,  Mr.  Duncan,  refusing  to 
work  on  the  lines  of  the  Church  of  England, 
ceased  to  be  a  missionary  of  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society.  In  1887  he  removed,  with  some  hun- 
dreds of  Indians,  to  a  place  70  miles  distant, 
within  the  territory  of  Alaska,  renouncing  alle- 
giance to  the  Queen  of  England  and  coming  under 
the  protection  of  the  United  States,  and  the  sta- 
tion at  Metlakahtla  was  put  in  the  charge  of 
other  missionaries  sent  out  by  the  Society. 
Other  missionary  settlements  are  at  Kincolith  on 
the  Naas  River,  among  the  Kitiksheans  of  the 
interior,  the  Hydahs  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Islands 
and  the  Kwa-gutl  Indians  of  Fort  Rupert,  at  all 
of  which  zealous  work  is  being  carried  on. 

There  are  (1901)  10  stations,  25  missionaries, 
37  native  workers,  407  communicants  and  14 
schools  with  427  pupils. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society  carried  on  mis- 
sions at  Antigua,  Jamaica,  Trinidad  and  at 
various  points  in  British  Guiana  for  many  years 
with  considerable  success. 

Periodicals  :  Church  Missionary  Intelligencer  (OiEcial  organ 
of  the  CMS) ;  T}ie  Church  Missionary  Gleaner;  Mercy  and 
Truth  (Record  of  CMS  medical  work);  Awake  (For  larger 
Sunday-school  scholar-s) ;  The  Round  World  (for  children). 
The  above  are  all  published  monthly.  Quarterly  papers 
for  the  use  of  collectors,  Annual  Almanack;  Annual 
Pocketbook  and  Diary,  and  Extracts  from  Annual  Letters 
of  Missionaries  are  also  published.  Stock  (E.),  History  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society,  3  vols.,  London;  Hole(C.), 
Early  History  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  (to  1814), 
London;   Church  Missionary  Atlas,  London. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND ;  Foreign  Missions  of. 

See  Scotland,  Established  Chtihch  of. 

CHURCH  IN  THE  MISSION  FIELD:  When 
the  missionary  or  evangelist  has  felt  the  joy  of 
leading  men  to  accept  Jesus  Christ,  the  fact  comes 
to  light  that  the  converts  have  to  be  taught  the 
necessity  of  growth  as  the  well  as  the  means  of 
growth.  Each  individual  has  to  be  established 
in  the  faith,  to  be  taught  to  recognize  and  resist 
temptation,  the  idea  of  which  is  new  to  him, 
and  to  be  guided  and  encouraged  as  he  tries  to 
throw  off  old  evil  hal:)its  of  thought  and  action. 
He  cannot  otherwise  become  an  aggressive  worker 
to  win  others  to  allegiance  to  Christ.  Moreover, 
the  new  converts  cannot  stand  alone.  For  their 
own  growth  they  need  mutual  support,  and  to 
maintain  their  position  in  an  unfriendly  and  often 
actively  hostile  community  they  need  organiza- 
tion. Only  through  becoming  members  of  an 
organic  body  can  the  converts  take  the  place  in 
the  community  and  the  nation  where  their  influ- 


ence will  tell  in  support  of  the  principles  which 
they  profess. 

The  church,  then,  must  be  established  early  in 
the  mission  field  as  a  permanent  institution  for 
the  work  of  Christ.  It  must  be  organized  in  all 
its  different  departments,  placed  on  a  firm  foun- 
dation of  faith,  self-support,  activity;  be  provided 
with  the  various  means  essential  to  its  continued 
existence  and  growth.  The  Christian  communi- 
ty is  to  be  permeated  with  Christian  ideas,  its 
social  life  freed  from  its  evil  associations,  brought 
into  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  its 
customs  purified,  its  aims  enlightened,  its  nation- 
al life  made  to  include  a  genuine  and  true  patriot- 
ism. And  so  on  in  all  the  endless  lines  that  open 
up  before  those  who  study  what  is  involved  in  the 
establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God  upon 
earth. 

It  is  a  mighty  task,  more  perplexing  even  than 
the  corresponding  undertaking  at  home.  And 
retrospect  only  makes  its  difficulties  stand  out 
more  prominently.  No  one  can  travel  in  the 
Levant,  over  the  roads  where  Paul  led  the  way 
in  Christian  work,  recall  the  story  of  those  first 
centuries  of  growth,  remember  the  subsequent 
centuries  of  stagnation  and  decay,  and  not 
wonder  whether  the  story  is  to  be  repeated  in 
the  churches  now  gathering  in  every  city  and 
town,  and  almost  in  every  village.  Modern 
Christians  are  no  more  sincere  or  devoted  than 
those  of  earlier  ages;  modern  missionaries  no 
more  earnest  or  skilled  than  the  apostles  and 
fathers. 

The  question  of  the  need  of  new  church  organi- 
zation has  come  up  with  some  sharpness  in  con- 
nection with  work  among  the  Oriental  churches 
and  in  Papal  lands.  When  missions  were  com- 
menced in  the  Levant  among  the  Armenians, 
Nestorians,  Greeks,  etc.,  there  was  no  plan  for  a 
separate  church  organization.  The  old  one,  it 
was  thought,  was  good  enough,  and  it  was  far 
better  to  utUize  that,  introducing  whatever  of 
reform  was  necessary  or  practicable,  but  not 
severing  historic  associations,  especially  in  view 
of  the  fact  recognized  by  all,  that  the  creeds  of 
these  old  churches  were  essentially  in  accord  with 
those  of  the  more  modern  bodies.  This,  how- 
ever, was  found  to  be  impracticable,  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact  Protestant  church  organizations 
have  been  formed  wherever  evangelical  mission- 
aries have  gone. 

The  need  to  organize  the  Church  on  the  mission 
field  being  admitted,  the  duty  of  doing  this  work 
falls  upon  the  missionary.  We  expect  the  mis- 
sionary to  be  fully  occupied  in  winning  converts. 
In  actual  fact,  however,  in  every  successful  field, 
it  speedily  comes  to  pass  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  converts  are  won  by  the  efforts  and  the 
explanations  and  the  pure  lives  of  the  native 
Christians.  This  the  native  believers  can  do. 
But  that  which  they  cannot  do  for  a  long  time 
is  to  bear  the  burden  of  culture  and  nourishing 
those  whom  they  have  been  the  means  of  winning 
to  Christ.     This  duty  falls  upon  the  missionary. 

The  problem  of  the  missionary  is  one  of  secur- 
ing growth  and  permanency.  The  question  he  is 
constantly  striving  to  solve  is  that  of  how  to  hold 
the  vantage-ground  gained,  and  make  it  the  point 
of  departure  for  new  achievements.  Here  certain 
essentials  must  be  kept  in  mind:  1.  The  develop- 
ment and  growth  of  the  individual  church  and 
community  must  be  natural,  not  forced.  The 
genius  of  the  people  must  be  studied,  and  that 
line  of  development  found  which  will  bring  out 


171 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Chnrcli   Missionary 
Church  In  the   Mission 


the  best  that  is  in  them.  South  Sea  Islanders 
cannot  be  transformed  into  Europeans  or  Amer- 
icans, and  every  effort  so  to  transform  them 
results  in  harm.  At  the  same  time  they  must  be 
something  different  from  what  they  have  been. 
While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  the  Asiatic  must 
remain  an  Asiatic,  it  is  also  true  that  the  Chris- 
tian Asiatic  must  be  as  different  from  the  heathen 
or  Mohammedan  Asiatic  as  the  modern  English- 
man is  from  his  Norman-Saxon  progenitors.  2. 
The  element  of  time  is  very  essential.  Occa- 
sionally a  sudden  transformation  will  come;  but 
this  is  the  exception  rather  than  tlie  rule,  and 
he  works  best  who  is  not  disturbed  if  he  has  to 
admit  that  the  growth  of  Christian  character  is  a 
slow  process.  3.  The  methods  adopted  must  be 
primarily  constructive,  not  destructive.  Their 
object  is  to  build  up  rather  than  to  tear  down. 
They  do  not  attack  systems,  but  seek  to  help 
individuals.  It  is  not  that  Islam,  Hinduism, 
Shintoism,  or  Fetishism  is  to  be  overthrown,  but 
that  individual  Muslims,  Hindus,  Japanese,  Afri- 
cans, are  to  be  guided  and  assisted  into  a  higher 
life. 

It  is  not  only  natural  but  inevitable  that  that 
organization  should  take  the  form  to  which  the 
missionary  himself  has  been  accustomed;  and 
thus  it  happens  that  the  mission  church,  in  most 
cases,  seems  to  be  an  extension  of  the  denomina- 
tional differences  of  the  home  lands.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  said  that  those  differences  are  seldom 
if  ever  as  sharply  defined  in  foreign  fields  as  at 
home;  and,  except  in  case  of  divisions  resulting 
from  unworthy  rivalry,  the  members  loolc  upon 
them  as  formal  rather  than  substantial.  There 
are  some  cases  where  the  form  of  church  organi- 
zation has  been  left  almost  entirely  to  the  choice 
of  the  native  community,  with  the  result  of  an 
occasional  departure  from  the  denominational 
usage  of  the  missionary.  This  is  especially  true 
of  missions  conducted  by  the  Congregational 
Churches  of  England  and  the  United  States.  As 
a  rule,  however,  the  polity  preferred  by  the  mis- 
sionary has  prevailed,  not  because  he  has  felt 
tied  to  it,  but  because  in  it  he  can  work  to  better 
advantage  for  the  best  growth  of  the  Church. 

More  perplexing  and  difficult  than  any  ques- 
tion of  form  is  that  of  the  material  to  be  used  in 
organizing  the  new  church.  Men  who  apply  to 
be  received  are  actuated  by  different  motives, 
not  necessarily  from  hypocrisy  so  much  as  from 
sheer  inability  to  comprehend  the  insistence  of 
Christianity  upon  moral  purity.  The  duty  of 
discovering  who  are  sincerely  and  steadfastly 
taking  the  way  that  leads  upward  is  a  very 
weighty  responsibility  to  be  thrown  upon  a 
foreigner  who  has  been  but  a  few  years  among 
the  people  of  the  field. 

In  this  connection  the  fixing  of  conditions  upon 
which  candidates  may  be  admitted  to  baptism 
often  seems  difficult  to  the  missionary.  The  tirne 
may  arise  in  every  field  which  has  been  known  in 
many,  where  the  tide  turns  in  favor  of  Chris- 
tianity and  men  come  in  crowds  asking  to  be 
baptized.  Sometimes  the  conversion  of  a 
leading  man  may  bring  a  whole  village  in  seem- 
ing sincerity  to  desire  to  be  received  into  the 
Church.  It  "is  often  argued  that  baptism  cannot 
be  refused  to  those  who  declare  their  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ.  It  is  even  urged  that  to  take  such 
applicants  when  they  are  in  the  mood  to  be 
received  is  the  wisest  course;  since  after  they  are 
committed  to  Christianity  their  instruction  and 
development  is  facilitated.     The  fact  that  some 


of  those  received  in  this  manner  and  in  this 
expectation  fall  away  and  continue  evil  prac- 
tises, bringing  discredit  upon  the  name  of  Christ 
because  they  have  been  classed  as  Christians  by 
their  neighbors,  seems  to  be  a  conclusive  reason 
for  avoiding  haste  in  receiving  such  candidates. 

For  the  good  of  the  Church  it  seems  to  be  a 
duty  to  make  careful  choice,  to  be  patient  in 
giving  instruction,  and  to  be  slow  in  coming  to 
conclusions  as  to  the  principles  of  the  new  con- 
verts. Far  better  is  it  to  watch  such  in  order 
to  be  sure  that  the  vitality  of  growth  is  in  them. 
Intelligence,  progress  in  education,  intellectual 
championship  of  Christian  doctrine  may  not  be 
treated  as  grounds  for  admitting  converts  to  the 
church.  A  living  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  which 
has  kindled  in  the  heart  a  sincere  purpose  to  live 
in  Him  and  for  Him,  must  be  the  condition  of 
admission,  or  the  Church  will  be  uncertain  in  its 
growth  and  too  feeble  to  stand  in  the  midst  of 
the  hostile  powers  of  pagan  lands.  A  reasonable 
certainty  that  the  applicant  has  made  the  choice 
to  turn  from  the  low  and  self-seeking  life  to  which 
he  has  been  accustomed,  with  earnest  desire  to 
live  for  the  higher  things  that  belong  to  God's 
kingdom,  must  exist  before  the  candidate  can  be 
safely  aclcnowledged  as  a  follower  of  Jesus  Christ. 
At  this  point  practical  proof  of  faith,  through  the 
life  and  its  trend,  should  outweigh  the  most  glib 
proficiency  in  expression  of  doctrinal  soundness. 
The  Christian  is  to  be  a  temple  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  if  that  great  choice  has  not  been  made 
which  opens  a  way  for  the  Spirit  to  enter  the 
heart  as  a  dwelling,  it  is  dangerous  to  hope  that 
membership  in  the  Church  will  serve  as  an  incen- 
tive to  an  ultimate  self-renunciation  thus 
belittled  at  the  outset. 

Another  perplexity  which  confronts  a  mission- 
ary who  would  organize  a  group  of  converts  in  a 
newly  fruitful  field,  is  the  choice  of  those  who  are 
to  be  office  bearers  in  the  Church.  Some  may 
be  prominent  through  education.  But  a  convert 
highly  educated  in  Confucius  or  the  Vedas  is 
not,  necessarily,  qualified  to  lead  his  fellows  in 
spiritual  growth.  Others  may  be  socially  prom- 
inent through  their  possessions  or  position.  But 
men  who  have  had  influence  in  the  heathen  com- 
munity because  of  wealth  or  rank  may  not  be  the 
best  men  to  carry  responsibilities  in  the  Church. 
The  tendency  of  Asiatics  to  suffer  themselves  to 
be  led  by  such  will,  perhaps,  add  to  the  difficulty 
of  placing  the  most  spiritual  men  in  places  where 
their  influence  will  be  widely  felt.  But  happily 
the  missionary,  by  careful  study,  can  hope  to 
reach  a  clear  understanding  of  the  ideas  and 
motives  of  those  who  make  up  the  material  for 
the  new  church.  Furthermore,  the  wise  mis- 
sionary will  take  counsel  with  the  native  evangel- 
ist who  has  had  dealings  with  the  people,  and 
who  understands  the  people  as  the  missionary 
cannot  hope  to  do.  By  such  means  selection  of 
men  must  be  made  upon  whom  so  much  of  the 
growth  and  the  strength  of  the  Church  will 
depend. 

The  question  of  securing  a  right  basis  for 
church  membership  opens  up  the  whole  problem 
of  discipline  in  the  new  churches.  Peculiar  per- 
plexities are  thrown  about  this  part  of  the  edu- 
cation of  converts  from  non-Christian  peoples  by 
the  difference  between  the  missionary  and  his 
spiritual  children  in  mere  matters  of  ordinary 
civilization.  In  this  matter  missionaries  are  con- 
stantly forced  to  remind  themselves  that  the 
ideal  African  convert,  for  instance,  should  not  be 


Clmrcli  in   tlie  Mission 
City   Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


17» 


a  mere  ape-like  caricature  of  an  English  or  Ameri- 
can Christian.  The  real  difficulties  arising  from 
the  circumstances  of  tlie  newly  converted  Chris- 
tian are  too  great  to  leave  room  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  artificial  ones.  Such  a  man  is  surrounded 
by  untoward  influences  which  long  e.xperience 
alone  will  fit  a  foreigner  to  appreciate.  Ties  of 
family  or  clan  have  a  strength  which  we  cannot 
easily  gauge;  usages  suspiciously  like  pagan 
usages  appeal  to  the  convert  under  the  guise  of 
patriotism  or  nationality;  superstitious  rever- 
ence for  witchcraft  is  inbred;  feudal  subservience 
to  the  will  of  the  chief  or  the  lord  of  the  manor 
in  respect  to  observances  and  feasts  is  not  easily 
thrown  off;  caste  affects  not  only  the  vision  but 
the  conscience  of  the  convert.  The  missionary 
teacher  of  the  newly  developing  church  needs 
direct  guidance  from  on  high  if  he  is  wisely  to 
separate  in  his  own  mind  those  points  of  unac- 
customed conduct  which  may  be  tolerated  from 
those  which  must  be  attacked,  while  the  influences 
which  lead  to  them  are  resisted  with  flintlike 
immobility. 

It  should  here  be  noted  again  that  the  mission- 
ary unaided  cannot  hope  to  train  men  by  church 
discipline.  He  must  work  with,  and  as  far  as 
possible  through,  fellow  workers  born  in  that 
atmosphere,  and,  therefore,  knowing  the  impulses 
and  ideas  of  the  people  living  in  it. 

The  difficulties  which  surround  the  question  of 
church  discipline  on  the  mission  field  cannot  be 
better  illustrated  than  by  the  case  of  those  con- 
verts who  have  been  brought  up  to  polygamy. 
It  is  easy  to  declare  that  a  polygamist  may  not 
be  admitted  to  church-membership  unless  he  first 
ceases  to  be  such  by  putting  away  all  but  one 
wife.  Yet  some  missionaries  have  been  led  to 
take  the  ground  that  each  case  must  be  judged 
by  itself,  lest  a  greater  wrong  be  done  in  dismiss- 
ing the  wives  under  a  fixed  rule  which  takes  no 
account  of  their  rights  and  their  feelings.  In 
some  cases  one  of  the  wives  of  an  unbelieving 
and  polygamous  husband  has  become  an  humble 
and  sincere  believer  in  Jesus  Christ.  To  admit 
her  to  the  church  will  be  to  relax  the  fiber  of 
the  whole  body  in  its  stand  against  polygamy. 
To  refuse  her  admission  will  be  to  deprive  her 
of  privileges  and  gracious  influences  which  she 
has  not  forfeited  by  any  act  of  her  own.  To 
insist  on  her  leaving  her  husband  as  a  condition 
of  admission  to  the  Church  will  be  to  smite  her 
in  her  most  tender  human  affections,  as  tho  in 
punishment  for  having  followed  in  ignorance  the 
current  of  usage,  without  conscious  and  wilful 
wrongdoing.  Such  a  situation  is  one  that  de- 
mands the  highest  wisdom  in  dealing  with  its 
complications. 

The  one  principle  that  has  to  be  followed  in 
teaching  the  young  churches  to  maintain  disci- 
pline is  to  preach — and  repeat — and  root  in  the 
hearts  of  the  Christians  who  make  up  the  church- 
membership  the  fact  that  their  witness  for 
Christ  is  to  be  a  positive  witness,  and  that  it 
cannot  have  this  aggressive  quality  unless  each 
member  of  the  church  is  a  living  epistle,  known 
and  read  of  all  men.  As  the  members  of  the 
Church  grow  into  understanding  of  the  nature 
of  Christian  purity,  and  grasp  withal  the  idea 
that  a  church  whose  repute  among  the  heathen  is 
marred  by  spots  has  no  power  to  witness  for 
Jesus  Christ,  they  themselves  will  find  solutions  for 
many  problems  of  discipline'  with  which  the  mis- 
sionary could  not  cope. 

This    sense    of    responsibility    to    witness    for 


Christ  has  another  bearing  so  self-evident  that  it 
need  only  be  alluded  to  here.  From  the  very 
beginning  the  members  of  the  young  church  must 
be  made  to  feel  that  duty  to  their  Redeemer 
requires  them  to  tell  others  how  great  things  the 
Lord  has  done  for  them.  It  is  easy  for  the  mis- 
sionary to  delay  this  teaching  through  sense  of 
the  slender  knowledge  of  the  best  of  the  new 
believers.  But  delay  here  is  fatal.  None  are  so 
ignorant,  who  have  learned  to  try  to  foUow 
Jesus  Christ,  that  they  have  no  light  to  give  their 
neighbors.  In  pagan  lands  a  glimmer  of  light  is 
precious  to  those  who  live  in  darkness  profound 
and  eternal.  Moreover,  the  convert  who  begins 
with  regarding  his  Christian  privileges  as  given 
him  for  his  own  happiness  alone  will  find  it  hard 
ever  to  shake  off  that  heresy.  Without  recogni- 
tion of  responsibility  to  take  up  the  very  work 
which  Jesus  Christ  did  when  upon  earth,  the 
Church  will  lack  the  first  elements  of  strength  and 
stability.  The  members  of  the  Church  must  gladly 
render  others  the  loving  service  that  reached 
them  and  awakened  their  desire  for  right  living, 
or  the  Church  will  slowly  die.  The  condition  of 
life  in  the  Church  everywhere  is  that  it  must  be 
constantly  winning  others  to  allegiance  to  its- 
great  Head. 

The  Church  must  not  only  learn  from  the  very 
first  to  be  exemplary  in  pure  and  honest  living, 
and  in  eagerness  to  give  to  others  the  good  which 
itself  enjoys,  but  it  must  also  learn  from  the  first 
to  give  generously  for  the  support  of  its  own 
institutions  that  it  may  stand  upon  its  own  feet. 
This  is  no  place  to  enter  upon  any  discussion  of 
the  doctrine  of  "self-support"  as  it  is  technically 
called  on  the  field.  The  principle  is  now  univer- 
sally admitted  that  the  newly  constituted  church- 
members  must  be  taught  to  give  for  the  support 
of  their  own  pastors  and  for  other  expenses  of 
the  church  life.  But  missionaries  often  err  in 
delaying  to  press  this  duty  home  upon  the  minds 
of  converts  at  the  very  beginning.  This  is  partly 
due  to  lack  of  understanding  of  the  fact  that  the 
Church,  which  has  learned  to  expect  subsidy,  wUl 
fall  into  confusion  the  moment  the  missionary 
and  his  subsidies  are  taken  away.  It  is  more 
often  due  to  indolence.  The  missionary  sees  that 
the  sums  required  are  very  small  and  feels  that 
it  is  far  easier  to  give  them  himself  than  to 
extract  them  from  the  poclvets  of  people  who 
seem,  and  who  probably  are,  poverty-stricken. 
There  should  never  be  a  day's  delay  in  teaching 
the  converts  their  duty  to  set  aside,  as  the  Lord 
has  prospered  them,  funds  for  His  uses. 

Tlie  Church  on  pagan  soil  which  has  grown 
to  the  point  of  being  what  it  can  be  among  the 
forces  of  reform;  able  to  stand  without  aid  and 
incentive  from  foreign  lands;  to  govern  itself,  to 
maintain  itself,  and  to  use  with  eager  initiative 
every  opportunity  to  advance  the  interests  of  the 
Kingdom,  is  thereafter  the  leaven  hid  in  the  mass, 
performing  the  part  falling  to  it  in  its  Master's 
plan.  It  has  become  a  center  whence  Divine 
influences  will  radiate  with  beneficent  results 
while  life  continues.  And  there  is  no  earthly  joy 
greater  than  that  of  the  missionary  in  a  land  of 
thick  darkness,  who  has  served  as  an  instrument 
in  the  hand  of  God  to  lead  converts  during  their 
early  essays  at  wallving  in  the  Way;  to  organize 
them  into  a  church  and  to  train  them  to  fruitful 
activity  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  Christ  for 
the  world.  That  missionary  has  had  to  efface 
himself,  to  cast  himself  upon  his  Leader  for 
guidance  in  many  a  perplexing  crisis;   but  he  has 


173 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Chnrch   In  the  Mission 
City  lUlsslous 


had  a  share  in  a  work  of  eternal  duration,  and 
"whose  per\  asive  influence  none  can  measure. 
For  such,  ali\ing  church  is  the  very  body  of 
Jesus  Christ,  precious  in  itself,  and  beyond  price 
in  its  worth  to  the  nation  which  is  blessed  by  its 
presence. 

CIENG  BAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Fo- 
kien,  China,  situated  about  10  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Kien-ning.  Station  of  the  CEZMS  (1897),  with 
(1902)  3  missionary  women,  2  native  women 
helpers,  1  elementary  school,  1  high  school  and 
S  converts  brought  in  for  baptism  during  the 
year. 

CIUDAD  DEL  MAIZ :  A  town  in  the  State  of 
San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  about  70  miles  E.  of  the 
capital  of  the  State.  Station  of  the  Associate 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Synod  of  the  South,  with 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman, 
•6  native  workers,  men  and  women,  2  places  of 
worship,  2  elementary  schools,  1  Sunday  school, 
a  Young  People's  Society  and  54  church  members 

CITY  MISSIONS:  This  term  designates,  in 
current  usage,  those  agencies  and  methods  of 
work  through  which  the  church  ministers  to  the 
material  and  spiritual  needs  of  the  laboring 
classes  and  of  the  poor  in  the  great  towns  and 
cities  of  Christian  lands.  It  includes  all  efforts 
of  Christian  love  for  the  ingathering  and  instruc- 
tion of  neglected  children,  the  evangelization 
of  the  masses,  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  wretched, 
or  the  rescue  and  reforming  of  the  depraved  and 
the  vicious. 

Great  cities  in  all  circumstances  require  work 
of  this  sort;  its  spirit  and  the  model  may  be 
studied  in  the  attitude  held  by  our  Savior  toward 
Jerusalem.  A  large  population  inevitably 
includes  a  considerable  proportion  of  poor  people 
who  need  from  their  more  prosperous  neighbors 
the  helping  hand.  The  poor  are  compelled  by 
the  exigencies  of  their  condition  to  inhabit  the 
less  desirable  parts  of  the  town.  There  is  also 
certain  to  be  a  criminal  or  vicious  element  in 
every  large  town,  for  town  life  offers  peculiar 
opportunities  for  escaping  the  restraints  of  public 
opinion,  for  evil  companionship,  and  for  vice  and 
crime.  It  is  therefore  especially  alluring  to  the 
profligate  and  the  dishonest.  Thus  the  vicious 
also  tend  to  herd  together;  and  since  poverty 
promotes  vice  and  vice  begets  poverty  and  crime, 
all  three  are  frequently  found  together  in  regions 
which  are  by  choice  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
churches  and  good  and  helpful  influences.  Such 
places  unless  subject  to  the  patient  and  vigorous 
application  of  moral  disinfectants  become  hot- 
beds and  nurseries  of  every  sort  of  evil. 

But  the  amount  and  importance  of  the  mis- 
sionary effort  which  cities  demand  has  been 
immeasurably  increased  by  those  social  and 
industrial  changes  which  modern  times  have 
brought  to  all  civilized  nations.  The  discovery 
of  the  steam-engine,  its  application  to  the  indus- 
tries, the  development  of  machinery,  with  thou- 
sands of  attendant  discoveries  and  inventions, 
have  together  resulted  in  the  transfer  of  a  great 
share  of  the  world's  work  from  the  rural  districts 
to  the  towns,  whither  the  world's  workers  have 
followed  it.  This  immense  development  of 
manufactures  and  consequent  increase  of  traffic 
ca,used  cities  in  all  civilized  lands  to  grow 
with  amazing  rapidity  throughout  the  19th 
century,  and  especially  during  its  latter  years. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  parallel  in  all  history,  in 
a  city  of  the  same  size,  the  growth,  for  example, 


of  Chicago,  which  in  1880  numbered  503,185 
souls,  in  1890,  1,098,576,  and  in  1900  had  reached 
1,698,575. 

If  the  city  churches  had  nothing  more  to  do 
than  to  keep  pace  with  the  expanding  population, 
their  task  would  be  one  of  no  small  magnitude; 
but  other  elements  have  entered  into  the  problem 
which  very  seriously  enhance  these  difficulties. 
The  steady  flow  of  the  human  stream  into  the 
great  towns  has  crowded  them  to  an  oppressive 
and  truly  terrible  degree.  Such  overcrowding 
has  had  a  twofold  evil  effect  upon  the  artisan; 
it  has  prodigiously  increased  his  rent,  plunging 
him  into  so  much  the  deeper  poverty;  it  has 
driven  him  into  narrow,  and  more  narrow  quar- 
ters, until  it  has  stripped  him  of  every  semblance 
of  a  home. 

The  census  of  1880  reported  one-third  of  the 
families  in  Glasgow  as  living  in  a  single  room, 
and  another  third  as  occupying  but  two  rooms. 
Less  than  one  family  in  ten  in  the  Scottish  metrop- 
olis enjoyed  so  many  as  four  rooms  for  its  home. 
Health  and  morality  seem  alike  impossible  to 
children  brought  up  under  such  conditions. 
New  York  is  even  more  straitly  crowded  than 
any  of  the  old  World  cities,  two-thirds  of  its 
people  living  twenty  to  each  dwelling  house, 
while  London  has  but  nine  and  is  steadily  increas- 
ing the  space  for  housing  the  poor.  Out  of  this 
overcrowding  has  sprung  the  tenement  system, 
a  system  by  which  several  families,  usually  not 
less  than  six  or  eight,  sometimes  as  many  as 
twenty-five,  have  been  huddled  together  under 
a  single  roof,  with  common  entries  and  halls, 
narrow  rooms,  and  dark  bedrooms.  This  plan 
of  housing  the  working  people  is  the  one  that 
generally  prevails  in  American  cities,  altho 
there  are  some  marked  exceptions,  like  Phila- 
delphia. Fully  one-half  of  New  York's  popula- 
tion of  3,437,202  souls  are  at  present  living  in 
her  tenement-houses. 

The  ordinary  city  tenement  offers  to  its  unfor- 
tunate inhabitants  the  poorest  conceivable  apol- 
ogy for  a  home.  Its  atmosphere  is  both  physi- 
cally and  morally  unwholesome  to  a  degree,  and 
fairly  poisonous,  notwithstanding  the  efforts 
constantly  made  in  London  and  New  York  to 
remedy  these  conditions.  The  saloon  is  at  the 
corner,  the  drunkard  reels  up  the  common  stairs; 
the  shouts  of  countless  rude,  neglected  children 
fill  the  air  with  shrill  profanity;  the  discordant 
notes  of  the  neighbors'  quarrels  and  the  wail  of 
sickly  babes  pierce  the  thin  partitions.  There 
is  no  quiet  day  or  night,  no  privacy,  no  chance 
for  the  development  of  healthy  family  life.  From 
the  midst  of  such  environments  the  city  mission- 
ary must  glean  his  scanty  harvest. 

The  problem  of  city  evangelization  is  further 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  in  their  growth  the 
great  towns  have  a  tendency  to  remove  those 
portions  of  society  whose  influence  would  natu- 
rally be  conservative  and  helpful  from  those  who 
most  need  their  help.  The  dwellings  of  rich  and 
poor  are  more  and  more  widely  separated  from 
one  another.  The  most  flourishing  and  able 
churches  are  farthest  away  from  the  fields  that 
most  urgently  require  their  aid.  The  suburban 
movement,  like  a  great  eddy,  draws  off  into  the 
beautiful  park-like  villages  about  the  town  great 
multitudes  of  the  middle-class  folk — the  bone  and 
sinew  of  the  churches'  strength. 

In  addition  to  these  difficulties,  religious  effort 
in  the  cities  of  the  United  States  meets  with  an 
even  more  serious  obstacle  in  the  complex  and 


City  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


174 


confusing  .mingling  of  nationalities  in  the  popu- 
lation which  it  seeks  to  win.  The  immigrants 
constantly  pouring  into  our  land  settle  for  the 
most  part,  or  at  least  so  far  as  the  more  ignorant 
and  undesirable  classes  of  them  are  concerned, 
in  the  towns.  They  and  their  children  it  is  that 
people  the  tenements  to-day.  Seventy-six  per 
cent,  of  the  inhabitants  of  New  York,  seventy- 
seven  per  cent,  of  those  of  Chicago  and  Detroit, 
and  nearly  eighty-three  per  cent,  of  the  people 
of  Milwaukee  are  eitlier  foreign  born  or  the 
children  of  foreign-born  parents.  Every  nation 
of  Europe  and  more  than  one  Asiatic  nation  has 
its  colonies,  one  or  more,  in  our  metropolis;  but 
among  the  tenements,  at  least,  there  is  no  Amer- 
ican quarter.  Being  of  many  races  and  speak- 
ing divers  languages,  having  very  few  and  meager 
conceptions  of  religion,  and  being  opposed  by 
habit  to  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  Protestant 
religious  system,  these  denizens  of  the  tenements 
have  proven  e.xceedingly  difficult  to  reach,  and 
have  rarely  been  gathered  in  great  numbers  into 
the  churches  of  our  fathers.  The  latter  have 
depended  largely  for  their  increase  on  converts 
from  families  of  American  stoclc;  but  such  families 
bear  only  a  small  proportion  to  the  population  of 
most  of  the  great  cities.  This  explains  the  fact 
that  while  in  the  country  at  large  more  than  one- 
fifth  of  the  people  are  members  of  evangelical 
churches,  in  the  great  cities  the  proportion 
varies  from  one-tenth  to  one-twentieth.  The 
reason  also  appears  for  the  fact  that  while  church- 
membership  in  the  whole  country  has  increased 
much  faster  than  the  population,  in  great  cities 
it  has  fallen  behind  the  population. 

Notwithstanding  these  obstacles  and  difficul- 
ties, largely,  perhaps,  because  of  them,  the  work  of 
city  missions  has  been  making  wonderful  advances 
in  recent  years.  The  broadening  and  deep- 
ening of  public  interest  in  its  problems,  and  the 
increased  amount  of  wealth  and  talent  devoted 
to  its  aims,  have  marvelously  enlarged  the  field 
and  the  scope  of  city  missions. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  marked 
characteristics  of  the  new  development: 

1.  The  aim  of  city  missions  has  enlisted  for 
its  various  forms  of  work,  men  and  women  of  fine 
culture  and  large  abilities  in  unparalleled 
numbers. 

2.  It  is  adopted  as  a  rule  that  Christianity 
should  minister  to  all  the  necessities  of  the  help- 
less and  ignorant  and  degraded,  not  only  caring 
for  their  spiritual  needs  but  for  their  physical 
and  intellectual  needs  also,  and  to  do  this 
by  personal  contact  of  individual  with  indi- 
vidual. 

3.  It  is  seen  that  alms-giving  is  rarely  a  ben- 
efit or  a  remedy,  and  a  scientific  treatment  is 
applied  to  poverty,  pauperism,  and  crime. 

4.  The  mission  Sunday  school  is  extended  to 
include  week-day  meetings  and  classes  for  the 
general  instruction  of  people  of  all  ages,  and  the 
children  of  the  tenements  are  given,  as  far  as 
possible,  a  substitute  for  their  lack  of  home-life, 
through  societies,  clubs,  reading-rooms,  evening 
classes,  industrial  instruction,  and  the  like. 

5.  "People's  churches"  are  substituted  for 
mission  chapels,  and  are  equipped  by  the  employ- 
ment of  pastors,  missionaries,  and  other  helpers; 
and  the  work  is  made  more  intensive  and  their 
influence  more  far  reaching  by  establishing  "par- 
ish houses,"  with  reading-rooms,  club-rooms, 
class-rooms,  gymnasiums,  etc. 

6.  A  deepening  interest  is  seen  among  religious 


people  in  the  needs  of  the  poor  which  cannot  be 
met  by  a  tract  or  gift  of  money. 

7.  There  is  a  strong  movement  toward  coop- 
eration between  denominations,  and  between 
congregations  in  any  one  denomination.  This  is 
manifested  in  three  ways:  first,  by  churches  in 
prosperous  communities  combining  to  sustain  and 
enlarge  the  work  of  the  churches  among  the  poor; 
second,  by  churches  of  different  denominations 
uniting  in  schemes  of  general  evangelization, 
including  the  canvass  of  the  whole  congested 
district  of  a  city;  and  third,  b}'  the  multiplication 
of  strictly  undenominational  religious  enterprises 
in  the  cities,  which  spring  up  independently  of 
the  initiative  of  the  churches. 

8.  Christian  literature  is  deemed  a  most  effect- 
ive means  of  influencing  the  people  who  are 
drawn  into  relations  with  the  city  missionary. 
The  Bible  societies  do  an  effective  work  with 
cheap  editions  of  the  Scriptures  or  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  the  London  Tract  Society,  the  Amer- 
ican Tract  Society,  and  similar  organizations 
provide  attractive  tracts  and  leaflets  in  all  lan- 
guages. These  are  not  only  granted  freely  for 
the  use  of  city  missionaries,  but  are  very  exten- 
sively circulated  by  the  colporteurs  of  the  socie- 
ties themselves. 

Every  city  of  consequence  in  Great  Britain, 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  many  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  is  the  field  of  some  sort  of 
city  mission  work.  With  local  variations  the 
same  problems  are  everywhere  met,  the  same  gen- 
eral method  prevails,  and  the  same  tendencies  are 
observable.  The  general  plan  adopted  is  first 
to  minister  to  the  immediate  physical  wants  of 
the  poor,  then  to  help  the  unemployed  to  find 
work.  Missionaries  in  the  service  of  that  church 
go  from  house  to  house,  from  room  to  room, 
learning  needs,  helping  sufferers  to  seek  and  find 
relief,  and  preaching  the  Word;  not  one  apart- 
ment is  left  unvisited,  and  weekly  reports  are 
made,  at  personal  interviews  with  the  pastor. 
Money  is  not  given  to  the  needy  except  in  special 
cases,  tickets  being  used  upon  which  the  orders 
are  given.  Provision  is  made  for  the  care  of 
orphans,  for  securing  change  of  scene  and  rest  for 
the  exhausted  and  for  convalescents,  besides 
clubs,  societies,  meetings,  and  classes.  Great 
vigor  of  life  is  a  mark  of  the  work  in  its  efforts 
to  give  religious  instruction,  yet  nothing  is 
spasmodic,  for  the  people  are  lifted  by  degrees. 
They  are  first  touched  by  the  missionary  in  their 
homes,  are  then  persuaded  to  visit  the  mission 
chapels,  and  thus  are  lifted  a  step  higher.  By 
degrees  they  learn  to  enjoy  the  prayer-meetings 
and  are  finally  brought  into  the  regular  services 
of  the  Lord's  house.  Under  this  system  there  is 
no  hopeless  class,  however  abandoned  the  people 
may  have  been. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  practical  operation  of 
the  modern  theory  of  city  missions  the  following 
list  is  given  of  works  for  the  poor  and  ignorant 
maintained  by  a  single  church  in  New  York: 
Besides  the  regular  religious  services  of  the 
church,  there  are  maintained  services,  in  three 
different  localities,  in  English  and  three  foreign 
languages.  The  church  also  maintains  a  course 
of  lectures  for  women  and  girls;  a  course  of  stere- 
opticon  lectures  for  men  and  women;  a  charitable 
bureau  to  aid  the  needy;  an  employment  bureau; 
a  loan  association;  a  penny  provident  fund;  a 
Chinese  protection  society  to  prevent  imposition 
upon  the  Asiatics;  a  medical  clinic,  a  surgical 
clinic,  an  eye  and  ear  dispensary,   a  girls'   club, 


175 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


City  Missions 


with  club-room,  baths,  mutual  benefit  fund,  and 
regular  classes  in  sewing,  dressmaking,  type- 
writing, stenography,  etc.;  a  girls'  club  house, 
where  members  can  reside  temporarily  when  out 
of  work,  paying  $3.50  or  $4.50  per  week  for  board; 
men's  club,  with  reading  rooms,  billiards,  gym- 
nasium, baths,  classes  in  gymnastics,  book- 
keeping, drawing  and  modeling;  boys'  club, 
with  club-rooms,  baths,  military  drill,  and  classes 
in  typewriting,  bookkeeping,  drawing,  etc.  In 
a  well  managed  club  of  this  class  the  boys  take  a 
strong  interest  because  tliey  are  made  to  feel  at 
home,  and  come  in  contact  with  those  Christian 
workers  only,  who  understand  and  sympathize 
with  their  impulses  and  their  needs. 

Another  of  the  religious  agencies  working 
among  the  congested  districts  of  the  cities  is  a 
class  of  interdenominational  enterprises,  of 
which  the  New  York  City  Mission  and  Tract 
Society  (1829)  may  be  taken  as  a  type. 

The  objects  of  this  corporation  are  to  promote 
morality  and  religion  among  the  poor  and  desti- 
tute of  tlie  City  of  New  York,  by  the  diffusion  of 
evangelical  reading  and  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
by  the  establishment  of  Sabbath  schools,  mission 
stations,  and  chapels  for  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel  and  for  the  ordinance  of  divine  worship. 
The  business  affairs  and  the  estate  of  the  corpo- 
ration are  managed  by  a  board  of  fifty  directors, 
who  are  chosen  from  different  religious  denom- 
inations. 

The  Society  has  erected  churchly  buildings, 
has  organized  independent  congregations  on  the 
principles  of  Christian  union  and  cooperation, 
with  the  Apostles'  Creed  as  the  symbol  of  faith, 
and  with  a  simple  form  of  church  government. 
The  ministers  in  charge  are  regularly  ordained  by 
some  one  or  other  of  the  evangelical  denomina- 
tions, and  associated  with  them  for  counsel  and 
help  are  church  officers  chosen  by  the  people. 
These  missions  are  constituted  on  the  basis  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  and  their  places  of  worship 
are  called  "churches  for  the  people."  Some  of 
these  edifices  are  large,  spacious,  elaborate  in 
their  accommodations  and  of  architectural  come- 
liness, combining  beauty  without  and  comfort 
within. 

The  methods  adopted  by  the  London  City 
Mission  are  much  the  same  as  those  which  are 
pursued  in  other  great  cities  for  the  relief  and 
evangelization  of  the  destitute  and  vicious 
classes.  Each  missionary  visits  once  a  month 
about  500  families,  or  2,000  persons.  Their  work 
is  to  act  as  pioneers  in  places  where  the  faithful 
pastor  may  in  due  time  follow.  They  read  the 
Scriptures,  pray  with  and  exhort  the  people, 
give  them  tracts,  see  that  the  children  go  to 
school,  and  that  every  family  is  possessed  of  a 
copy  of  the  Word  of  God.  While  the  Society's 
missionaries  are  forbidden  to  give  money  or  to 
so  deport  themselves  as  to  be  looked  upon  as  mere 
charity  agents,  they  render  most  effective  service 
in  bringing  relief  to  those  whose  destitution 
demands  immediate  attention;  but  their  constant 
aim  is,  through  Gospel  instrumentalities,  to 
reach  and  renovate  the  character,  and  thus  trans- 
form the  personal  and  family  life.  When  this 
end  is  attained  the  family  is  at  once  found  to  be 
lifted  permanently  above  the  level  of  vice  and 
want. 

The  field  in  London  is  so  vast  that  it  may  be 
rightly  termed  unparalleled,  imperial  and  national 
in  its  proportions. 

In  order  to  come  into  effective  touch  with  this 


vast  urban  field,  the  Society  divides  and  appor- 
tions its  laborers  to  different  districts,  classes,  and 
trades,  and  encourages  the  use  of  every  means 
which  experience  has  proved  to  be  effective  in 
reaching  and  rescuing  the  fallen. 

The  following  constitute  some  of  the  depart- 
ments of  labor:  House-to-house  Visitation; 
Mission  Halls;  Open-air  Work;  Special  Missions 
to  Bakers,  Day  and  Night  Cabmen,  Canal  Boat- 
men, Chelsea  Pensioners,  Coachmen,  Grooms  and 
Hostlers,  etc.;  to  the  Docks,  to  Drovers  in  Isling- 
ton, to  the  Factories,  to  the  Fire  Brigade,  to  the 
French,  to  the  Germans,  Italians,  Spaniards, 
Asiatics,  Africans,  Jews,  and  Foreign  Sailors;  to 
Hospitals;  to  Navvies;  to  Omnilous  and  Tramcar 
Men,  Railway  Men;  to  Post-Oflice  Employes,, 
Telegraph  Boys,  City  Police,  Metropolitan  Police, 
Public-houses,  Common  Lodging-houses  and 
Coffee  shops;  to  Hotels  and  Clubs;  to  Builders  on 
Public  Works;  to  Soldiers  in  London  and  Wool- 
wich; to  Theater  Employes;  to  the  Welsh;  to 
Worlchouses  and  Infirmaries;  and  to  Gypsies. 

The  magnitude,  severity,  and  difficulty  of  the 
work  will  more  closely  appear  from  the  following 
citations,  selected  from  among  many  which  have 
been  published  in  tlie  past  in  connection  with  the 
Society's  reports:  "I  have  paid,"  says  one  mission- 
ary, "during  the  past  year  5,694  visits  and  calls, 
in  which  I  read  the  Scriptures  4,671  times,  besides 
offering  prayer.  To  the  sick  and  dying  I  paid 
556  visits.  I  have  given  away  10,665  religious 
tracts  and  periodicals,  and  12  copies  of  the  Scrip- 
tures; 32  persons  were  induced  to  attend  public 
worship,  of  whom  9  became  communicants;  23 
families  were  induced  to  establish  family  prayer; 
15  confirmed  drunkards  were  led  to  abstain;  5 
backsliders  were  restored;  and  3  couples  living 
together  unwed  were  induced  to  marry." 

One  appointed  to  work  in  the  "Angel  Gardens" 
because  he  was  young  and  strong,  found  the 
"Gardens"  were  filtliy  courts  of  tumble-down 
houses,  whose  population  of  several  thousands 
(in  a  space  of  280  by  160  yards)  were  vagrants 
and  criminals,  many  of  the  houses  being  dens  of 
thieves,  robbers,  and  murderers.  "I  had  not  been 
many  hours  at  worlc,"  he  reports,  "when  I  was 
accused  of  being  a  policeman  in  disguise.  At  once 
I  was  hounded  out  by  a  desperate,  howling  mob 
of  thieves  and  outcasts.  Upon  my  return  home 
I  was  so  cast  down  as  to  be  able  to  gain  relief  only 
in  tears  and  prayer.  Very  cautiously  I  went  to 
work  next  day;  but  upon  ascending  a  very  steep, 
rickety  staircase,  a  woman  ^vith  hob-nail  boots 
came  on  to  the  landing  and  declared,  with  bitter 
oaths,  if  I  came  a  step  higher  she  would  kick  my 
eyes  out;  so  I  retreated.  Desperate  efforts  to 
gain  a  footing  were  continued  for  several  months, 
and  so  hard  was  the  conflict  that  I  have  some- 
times stood  at  an  entrance  to  the  district  in  silent 
prayer  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  I  dared 
venture  down.  This  perseverance,  however, 
with  the  Word  of  the  Living  God,  was  effective, 
and  constant,  brutal  opposition  was  overcome, 
tho  for  long  years  I  was  subjected  to  low  abuse 
and  occasional  acts  of  violence.  No  Christian 
but  myself  dared  venture  into  'Angel  Gardens,' 
and  I  was  therefore  called  to  visit  the  sick  and 
dying  at  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night,  and  many 
a  strange  scene  I  witnessed.  In  full  day  I  saw  a 
gentleman,  who  had  ventured  down  the  place, 
surrounded,  his  coat  taken  off  and  run  away  with. 
One  morning  I  saw  two  women  dragging  a  'slavey' 
into  the  yard  by  her  hair.  A  few  hours  after,  the 
child  of  thirteen  was  found  beaten  to  death  in 


City  Missions 
ClauTTilliam 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


176 


the  yard.  At  another  time  I  saw  two  women 
fighting,  when  one  who  had  fallen  dragged  the 
other  down  by  the  long  hair  of  her  head,  then  bit 
pieces  out  of  her  lips  and  cheeks  and  spat  them 
out  of  her  mouth.  One  Sunday,  on  going  out 
early,  I  saw  a  woman  on  the  ground  with  the 
blade  of  a  knife  sticking  out  of  the  chest-bone. 
She  had  robbed  a  sailor  of  all  his  money,  and  he 
had  stabbed  her.  I  also  witnessed  a  murder 
when  a  Spaniard  killed  a  girl  named  Norah  with  a 
■dagger,  and  before  I  could  prevent  it,  he  blew 
half  his  head  off  with  a  pistol.  After  I  had  suc- 
ceeded in  opening  a  room  for  meetings,  and  a 
ragged-school  in  the  center  of  my  district,  I  was 
often  stopped  in  the  service  by  cries  of  murder 
and  by  fights. 

"After  many  years  of  unceasing  effort  I  gained 
entrance  into  many  rooms,  and  into  most  of  the 
dens.  My  care  for  the  sick  and  the  children 
disarmed  opposition;  then,  in  room  after  room, 
-attention  was  secured  to  the  reading  of  the  Bible. 
Friendship  on  the  part  of  many  took  the  place  of 
hostility,  and  I  have  been  rescued  from  a  band 
of  roughs  by  a  powerful  and  savage  Irish  woman, 
who  on  that  very  evening  was  arrested  for  rob- 
bery, and  was  transported  for  five  years. 

"The  work  went  on;  people  listened;  the  ragged 
school  was  crowded,  and  the  meetings  were  well 
attended;  soul  after  soul  was  brought  under  con- 
viction, and  many  were  gathered  intc  ;.he  fold  of 
Christ.  The  neighborhood  was  opened  up  to  the 
clergy  and  consecrated  lay-workers;  sanitary  and 
other  improvements  were  made;  and  so,  through 
the  entering  in  of  the  Gospel,  the  district  changed 
its  character  to  that  of  a  far  more  respectable 
place." 

Another  class  of  these  religious  agencies  may  be 
encountered  in  some  of  the  cities  of  Europe, 
where  they  have  sprung  from  the  kindly  interest 
■of  a  single  individual,  like  the  old  Belleville 
mission  in  Paris.  A  lady  named  Miss  De  Broen, 
a  worker  in  the  Mildmay  Mission,  London,  being 
in  Paris,  just  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Commune, 
visited  P^re  la  Chaise.  Only  the  night  before 
500  communists  had  been  shot  there,  and  the 
long  ditch  into  which  they  fell  one  by  one  became 
their  common  grave.  A  crowd  of  women  and 
children  surrounded  the  spot;  their  grief  and  de- 
spair were  terrible  to  see;  and  Miss  De  Broen 
longed  to  do  something  for  their  relief.  Every 
man  engaged  in  the  Commune  was  shot,  trans- 
ported, or  had  to  flee  the  country.  Thousands 
of  women  were  thus  left  destitute  and  unable  to 
obtain  work.  Even  the  priests  and  Sisters  of 
Mercy  shunned  them.  No  one  cared  for  them. 
Miss  De  Broen  raised  money  by  personal  solici- 
tation, engaged  a  room,  and,  passing  to  and  fro  in 
the  streets  of  Belleville,  which  had  been  the  center 
of  the  Commune,  she  spoke  to  the  poor  women, 
saying  that  she  knew  of  their  distress,  and  that  if 
they  would  come  to  her  room  they  would  receive 
five  pence  for  three  hours  of  needlework  ;  at  the 
.same  time  she  told  them  that  her  chief  object  was 
to  tell  them  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  The  kind  invita- 
tion sounded  strangely  in  their  ears,  the  greater 
number  hardly  understood  it,  and  the  first  time 
only  three  were  present.  Eight  came  to  the 
next  meeting,  and  from  that  time  the  numbers 
steadily  increased.  The  ignorance  of  these 
poor  women  was  surprising,  and  at  first  they 
were  rough  and  sullen.  Many  had  seen  their 
own  little  ones  pine  in  the  cold  and  hunger  of 
the  siege;  others  had  lost  all — husbands,  sons,  and 
.brothers — in   the   war   and   in   those   last   awful 


days  of  the  Commune;  aU  had  known  the  agony 
of  lengthened  starvation,  buoyed  by  false  hopes 
and  cruel  treachery.  Goaded  on  by  pangs  of 
hunger,  some  had  concealed  weapons  in  their 
clothing,  and  had  attacked  the  soldiers  unawares; 
worse  than  this,  in  their  frenzy,  they  had  done. 
But  after  only  a  few  months  in  the  sewing-class 
a  great  change  had  come  over  the  poor  creatures; 
no  fierceness  and  no  sullenness  now,  but  an 
earnest,  even  a  softened,  expression  appeared  on 
many  a  face.  In  addition  to  the  sewing-classes 
and  Gospel  meetings  at  La  VUlette,  night-schools 
were  soon  opened  for  the  benefit  of  many  men 
who  had  been  imprisoned,  at  the  time  of  the 
Commune,  but  who,  no  charge  having  been  found 
against  them,  were  liberated  after  a  few  weeks. 
They  could  not  read  or  write,  and  were  glad  to 
be  taught.  The  McAll  Mission  in  France  is 
another  instance  of  similar  work. 

The  Salvation  Army  has  proved  a  most  effect- 
ive agency  for  mission  work  in  cities.  Its 
methods  and  style  of  presenting  religious  truth, 
and  the  language  used  by  its  members,  arrest  and 
secure  attention.  It  has  been  called  a  mission 
"from  the  lower  classes,  by  the  lower  classes, 
to  the  lower  classes."  Whether  this  character- 
ization is  just  or  not,  its  members  never  forget 
that  a  large  part  of  the  masses  whom  they  would 
reach  will  not  listen  to  those  who  have  not  warm 
sympathy  of  feeling  for  them,  and  that  they 
can  receive  impressions  and  ideas  through  the 
simple,  perhaps  rough,  but  picturesque  language, 
only,  which  the  common  people  use.  Besides 
its  regular  religious  services  in  its  own  halls  or 
"barracks,"  in  almost  every  city,  even  to  the 
ends  of  the  earth,  which  permits  the  practise,  it 
holds  street  meetings  where  they  are  most  needed 
— near  the  resorts  of  the  vicious.  Its  groups  of 
"slum  sisters"  seek  out  the  sick  and  needy,  and 
comfort  or  otherwise  help  the  despairing.  It 
also  maintains  labor  bureaus;  various  simple 
industries  where  the  unemployed,  however  un- 
skilled, can  earn  a  living;  lodging  houses  for 
men;  inquiry  bureaus;  day  nurseries  for  the 
small  children  of  working  women;  shelter  houses 
for  homeless  women;  missions  for  the  rescue  of 
women  who  have  gone  astray,  and  homes  for 
such  to  use  as  a  means  to  reform,  etc.  The 
Volunteers  of  America  do  a  similar  work  in 
several  American  cities,  and  have  found  a  way 
to  lay  hands  upon  criminals  in  prison  in  order 
to  lead  them  to  honest  ways  upon  their  release. 
Whatever  may  be  said,  justly,  in  the  way  of 
criticism,  the  Salvation  Army  and  its  offshoots 
or  imitators  have  certainly  had  great  influence 
in  stirring  up  the  churches  to  an  appreciation 
of  the  needs  of  the  poor,  and  especially  of  the 
power  of  direct  contact  to  win  and  elevate  the 
outcast. 

One  of  the  earliest  steps  taken  by  Mr.  Hogg, 
the  boy-loving  merchant  of  London,  when  he 
decided  that  street  Arabs  must  be  saved,  was  to 
become  a  shoe-black  himself  for  six  months,  that 
he  might  know  the  boys,  their  needs,  and  their 
thoughts.  As  Dr.  Josiah  Strong  has  said,  such 
persons  "are  in  their  own  persons  a  revelation 
of  God,  and  are  demonstrating  to  us  what  has 
been  demonstrated  to  every  generation  since 
Christ,  that  His  love  and  sacrifice  can  be  shown 
by  the  personal  love  and  self-sacrifice  of  His 
followers  to  the  most  ignorant,  hardened,  and 
vicious,  and  that  with  saving  power."  This 
readiness  to  give  self  for  others  must  underlie 
any  successful  city-mission  work.     Its  instances 


177 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


City  MlHslons 
ClanTvilllam 


are  made  conspicuous,  not  alone  in  worlc  like 
that  of  the  Salvation  Army,  but  in  the  work  of 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  espe- 
cially of  the  University  Settlements  in  the  great 
■cities.  It  is  through  watching  such  methods 
"that  we  see  and  realize  that  no  poor  and  ignorant 
person  is  ever  treated  as  Jesus  would  treat  him 
when  sent  away  with  a  mere  gift  of  money. 

The  Boys'  Club  House,  not  connected  with 
.any  i;hurch  but  exercising  a  strong  uplift  both 
moral  and  spiritual  through  bringing  neglected 
boys  into  touch  with  those  who  have  not  been 
neglected,  is  an  institution  already  developed 
Into  a  power  in  many  cities.  New  York  has  a 
.number,  of  which  the  largest,  with  a  membership 
counted  by  thousands,  is  the  one  built  by  Mr. 
Harriman  at  the  corner  of  10th  Street  and  Avenue 
A.  The  type  of  this  class  of  institutions  can 
best  perhaps  be  seen  in  the  Polytechnic  in  Lon- 
don. This  institution  began  when  Mr.  Quentin 
Hogg,  at  the  age  of  18,  one  evening  in  1863  sat 
■down  under  an  archway  in  a  London  street,  with 
a.  candle  stuck  in  a  bottle  for  light,  to  teach  two 
street  Arabs  to  read  the  Bible.  It  is  now  a  vast 
enterprise  equipped  to  win  and  develop  and  trans- 
form into  useful  and  trusty  men,  the  boys  of  the 
slums  and  the  boys  to  whom  poverty  permits  no 
respite  for  improvement.  There  are  ten  thou- 
sand members,  and  its  graduates  all  over  the 
world  loyally  help  on  its  work.  Such  clubs  are 
■of  priceless  value,  both  in  what  they  prevent  and 
in  what  they  secure. 

While  these  religious  agencies  may  be  encoun- 
tered in  almost  all  cities  in  England,  the  United 
■States  and  Germany,  and  while  they  are  carried 
•on  by  all  denominations,  including  Roman  Cath- 
olics and  Hebrews;  and  while  in  Roman  Catholic 
■countries  the  various  religious  orders  conduct 
'City-mission  work  on  very  similar  lines,  such 
religious  agencies  are  not  by  any  means  the  only 
■ones  working  for  that  general  uplift  of  the  poor 
which  we  have  described  as  a  part  of  the  object 
■of  city  missions. 

So  far  as  the  purpose  is  concerned  in  benefi- 
cent care  for  their  poor  and  their  laborers,  many 
municipalities  do  true  city  mission  work  by 
applying  disinfectants  to  the  hotbeds  of  vice  and 
restoring  home  and  family  life  destroyed  by  the 
■congestion  of  cities.  The  work  of  Glasgow  in 
reforming  its  tenement  house  districts  would  re- 
•quire  a  book  itself,  if  the  full  and  far-reaching 
results  were  to  be  made  clear,  of  an  intelligent  and 
kindly  interference  of  a  city  government.  The 
introduction  by  law  of  decency,  some  measure  of 
iprivacy,  opportunity  to  enjoy  light  and  air,  and 
other  inspiring  improvements  in  the  tenements, 
and  the  establishing  of  little  parks  and  breathing 
.-^rounds  and  play-grounds  for  the  poor,  tend  to 
lift  them  out  of  depths  to  which  the  greed  of 
landlord  and  employer  has  sunk  them.  This  is 
true  missionary  work,  altho  cities  do  not 
commonly  call  their  efforts  in  this  direction  by 
that  name.  Of  the  same  class  are  a  host  of  benefi- 
icent  enterprises,  found  in  greater  or  less  degree 
in  all  cities,  which  do  one  part  of  the  work  of  the 
■city  mission.  An  instance  of  such  an  instrumen- 
tality for  improvement  in  the  City  of  New  York  is 
the  Charity  Organization  Society,  founded  inl883, 
-as  a  sort  of  link  between  the  different  charitable 
resources  of  the  city,  whether  religious,  denom- 
inational, or  independent  of  church  connection. 
It  is  entirely  disassociated  from  questions  of  creed, 
politics,  or  nationality,  and  it  does  not  administer 
alms  from  its  own  funds:  but  it  advises, 
12 


informs,  and  incites  all  who  would  aid  in  any 
way  in  bearing  the  burdens  of  the  ignorant  and 
helpless. 

One  of  the  benevolent  independent  bodies 
aiding  the  poor  in  New  York  is  the  Legal  Aid 
Society,  which  comes  to  the  aid  of  the  poor  in 
any  case  where  deserving  persons  are  unjustly 
treated  by  employer  or  landlord.  Another  is  the 
Sanitary  Reform  Society,  which  sees  to  it  that  the 
requirements  of  the  Board  of  Health  as  to  tene- 
ment houses  are  obeyed.  The  number  of  the 
boys'  clubs  which  are  fostered  on  unsectarian 
lines  is  considerable  in  all  the  cities.  Further- 
more, besides  the  hospitals,  there  are  diet  kitchens 
for  the  sick  poor,  burial  societies  tliat  provide 
for  the  needs  of  the  dead,  and  many  other  enter- 
prises aimed  by  kindly  sympathy  toward  the  help 
of  those  who  need  help.  One  of  the  most  touch- 
ing of  such  kindly  undertakings  is  what  is  known 
as  the  Little  Mothers'  Aid  Association,  which  has 
for  its  object  the  securing  of  needed  rest  for  girls 
of  from  10  to  14  years  old,  who  have  the  care  of 
younger  brothers  and  sisters  during  working 
hours  when  the  mother  is  away.  It  takes  such 
girls  to  its  Holiday  House  for  a  day's,  or  a  week's 
rest  and  entertains  them  at  Christmas  or  at 
Easter.  Of  the  same  class  are  the  Fresh  Air 
enterprises  founded  in  every  city,  which  aim  to 
give  summer  outings  and  country  life  to  mothers 
and  children  from  the  tenement  house  region. 
The  money  for  the  regular  support  of  such  agen- 
cies comes  sometimes  as  thank-offerings,  and 
often  in  large  sums  given  unsolicited;  but  the 
means  are  never,  wanting. 

As  a  resiilt  of  all  these  evangelizing  and  human- 
izing instrumentalities 'there  is  less  drunkenness, 
less  pauperism,  less  crime,  in  the  great  cities  to- 
day than  ten  years  ago.  The  missionary  spirit 
is  abroad,  and  it  is  one  of  the  modern  miracles  to 
see  a  city  growing  better  while  she  is  daily  adding 
to  her  immensity. 

Booth  (C),  Life  arid  Labor  in  London,  5  vols.,  London,  1903; 
New  York  Charities  Directory,  Charities  Organization 
Society,  New  York ;  Reports  of  the  New  York  City  Mission 
and  Trad  Society;  Reports  of  the  Brooklyn  City  Mission 
and  Tract  Society;  Reports  of  the  City  Mission  Society  of 
Boston;  Circulars  of  Information  of  the  Armour  Mission 
in  Chicago;  Reports  of  the  Albany  Czty  Tract  and  Mission 
Society;  Manual  of  the  Union  for  Christian  Work,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.;  Yearbook  of  the  Cathedral  Mission  of  the 
Good  Samaritan,  San  Francisco;  Hatton  CG.),  St.  Giles 
Christian  Mission.,  London,  1886;  Dolling  (R.  R.),  Ten 
Years  in  a  Portsmouth  Slum,  London,  1896;  Tollman 
(W.  H.),  Industrial  Betterment,  New  York,  1900;  Hiis 
(J.  A.),  How  the  Other  Half  Lives,  New  York;  Woods  (R.A.) 
AmericaTis  in  Process,  Boston,  1903;  UfFord  (W.  S.), 
Fresh  Air  Charity  in  the  United  States,  New  York,  1897; 
Am.  Inst,  of  Social  Service,  The  Better  New  York,  New 
York,  1904;  City  Missions,  Organ  of  the  Foreigners'  Mis- 
sion, New  York. 

CIUDAD  VICTORIA:  Capital  of  the  State  of 
Tamaulipas,  Mexico,  situated  about  125  miles 
N.  W.  of  Tampico,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Madre 
Mountains.  Station  of  the  PS  (1880),  with  (1902) 
1  missionary  woman,  2  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations,  1  Sunday  school,  1  elementary  school 
and  31  church  members.  Station  also  of  the 
American  Friends'  Foreign  Mission  Association 
(1887),  with  (1900')  1  missionary,  2  missionary 
women,  15  native  workers,  men  and  women,  8 
outstations,  2  elementary  schools,  1  high  school, 
a  printing  house  and  book  depot  and  5'iO  pro- 
fessing Christi.ins. 

CLANWILLIAM:  Town  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  140  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Cape  Town.  Popu- 
lation, about  7,000.  Climate,  temperate  and 
healthy.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1898),  with  (1901) 
1  missionary  and  175  professing  Christians. 


Clarendon 
CoUe,  Tlionias 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


178 


CLARENDON:  A  town  in  the  island  of  Jamaica, 
W.  I.,  circuit  of  the  United  Methodist  Free 
Cliurches  (1858),  with  (1901)  1  missionary,  31 
native  workers,  4  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday 
schools,  3  day  schools,  and  236  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

CLARK,  Ephraim  W.:  Born  Haverhill,  N.  H., 
April  25,  1799;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, 1824;  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1827; 
ordained  at  Brandon,  Vt.;  sailed  as  a  missionary 
of  the  ABCFM,  Novembers,  1827,  for  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  reaching  Honolulu,  March,  1828. 
In  1852  he  went  with  the  first  company  of 
American  and  Hawaiian  laborers  to  assist  in 
commencing  the  mission  in  Micronesia.  In  this 
duty  he  represented  the  Hawaiian  Missionary 
Society.  In  1863,  having  been  for  fifteen  years 
pastor  of  the  large  First  Church  at  Honolulu,  he 
resigned  the  pastorate,  partly  because  of  insuffi- 
cient strength,  but  mainly  that  he  might  engage 
more  fully  in  Bible  revision.  Having  spent  a 
year  on  that  work  at  the  islands,  he  was  sent  to 
New  York  in  1864  by  the  mission  to  superintend 
the  printing  of  the  Hawaiian  Scriptures  by  the 
American  Bible  Society,  reading  proofs,  prepar- 
ing references,  etc.  This  was  followed  by  the 
translation  and  printing  of  the  Tract  Society's 
Bible  Dictionary,  and  several  other  books  and 
tracts.  The  last  work  completed  was  a  hymn 
and  tune  book.  He  did  not  return  to  the 
islands.   He  died  July  16, 1878,  aged  seventy-nine. 

CLARK,  Robert:  Born  1825,  at  Harmston 
Vicarage,  Lincolnshire.  He  took  his  degree  as 
twenty-eighth  wrangler  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  at  once  ordained  to  be  his  father's 
curate.  In  1851  he  offered  himself  to  the  CMS, 
and  was  sent  to  the  Punjab  Mission.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  two  missionaries  of  the  CMS  to 
the  Punjab,  being  stationed  at  Amritsar.  In 
1854  he  was  one  of  the  first  two  CMS  missionaries 
to  Peshawar,  and  went  there  at  a  time  when  many 
believed  that  preaching  the  Gospel  would  be  fol- 
lowed by  assassination  of  the  preacher.  In  most 
of  the  important  stations  in  these  provinces  he 
did  pioneer  work.  The  most  of  his  missionary 
life,  however,  centered  at  Amritsar.  As  secre- 
tary of  the  Punjab  Bible  and  Religious  Book 
Societies,  he  did  much  to  provide  and  diffuse 
Christian  vernacular  literature.  He  was  a  good 
organizer,  knowing  how  to  make  the  most  of  men. 
In  1877  he  organized  the  Punjab  Native  Church 
Council,  and  in  the  following  year  he  established 
the  Alexandra  Christian  Girls'  School  at  Amrit- 
sar. After  the  publication  of  his  Commentaries 
on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  St.  John,  and  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  he  received  a  Lambeth 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity.  Dr.  Clark  retained 
the  office  of  Chairman  of  the  Church  Council  for 
nearly  ten  years,  the  secretaryship  of  the  CMS 
Mission  till  1897,  and  the  honorary  secretaryship 
of  the  CEZ  for  a  longer  time.  In  1900,  the  seventy- 
fifth  year  of  his  age  and  the  forty-ninth  of  his 
missionary  career,  he  entered  his  rest  at  Kasauli, 
in  the  Himalayas. 

CLARKABAD :  A  Christian  village  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Lahore,  Punjab,  India,  situated  about  45 
miles  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Lahore.  Station  of 
the  CMS  (1869),  with  (1901)  2  women  mission- 
aries, 9  native  workers,  men  and  women,  1 
chapel,  2  elementary  schools,  and  219  communi- 
cants. Also  station  of  the  CEZMS  (1882),  with 
(1902)  1^  woman  missionary,  and  1  orphanage 
with  an  industrial  department. 


CLARKEBURY:  A  town  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  lying  about  22 
miles  S.  W.  of  Umtata.  Station  of  the  South 
Africa  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society, 
with  (1900)  1  missionary,  37  native  workers,  9 
preaching  places,  8  Sunday  schools,  2  high 
schools,  1  industrial  school,  and  600  professing 
Christians. 

CLARKSON :  Station  of  the  Moravian  Missions 
(1839)  on  the  southern  coast  of  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a  mountain 
slope,  about  80  miles  W.  of  Port  Elizabeth.  The 
name  of  the  settlement  is  that  of  a  philanthropist 
who  contributed  largely  toward  the  expense  of 
the  station's  establishment.  The  present  force 
at  this  station  consists  of  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  and  27  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
with  3  places  of  worship,  2  schools,  and  214  com- 
municants. 

CLAY  ASHLAND:  A  town  of  Liberia,  West 
Africa,  on  the  St.  Paul's  River,  northeast  of  Mon- 
rovia. Station  of  the  PE  (1853),  with  (1901)  1 
lay  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers, 
1  place  of  worship,  1  common  school,  and  25 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  ME,  with 
(1902)  1  native  worker,  1  preaching  place,  and 
81  professing  Christians. 

CLAYOQUOT:  A  settlement  on  the  western 
shore  of  Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia; 
station  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  Canada  (1899), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  physician  and  his  wife, 
1  Sunday  school,  a  dispensary,  and  8  professing 
Christians. 

CLYDESDALE:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa  (Griqualand  East),  situated  60  miles  S.  W. 
of  Pietermaritzburg.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1871), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary,  18  native  workers,  8 
places  of  worship,  6  elementary  schools,  and  333 
communicants. 

COAN,  Titus:  Born  at  Killingworth,  Conn., 
February  1,  1801;  died  at  Hilo,  Hawaii,  Decem- 
ber 1,  1882.  In  August,  1833,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  American  Board,  Coan  sailed  on  a 
mission  of  exploration  to  Patagonia,  and  with 
Rev.  Mr.  Arms  he  was  set  ashore  among  the 
savages  of  Gregory  Bay.  For  several  months 
Coan  and  Arms  lived  among  the  ferocious  no- 
mads of  the  eastern  coast  of  Patagonia;  but  the 
savages  becoming  suspicious  of  their  motives, 
they  escaped,  returning  to  New  London  in  May, 
1834.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Coan  arrived  at  Honolulu, 
June  6,  1835,  and  the  following  month  they 
reached  Hilo.  Upon  his  arrival  Coan  found  that 
some  leaven  of  the  Gospel  had  already  been  cast 
into  the  lump  of  heathenism;  missionaries  had 
resided  here  for  brief  periods;  schools  had  been 
established;  one-fourth  of  the  natives  could  read; 
and  there  was  a  church  of  thirty-six  members. 
In  three  months'  time  he  began  to  speak  in  the 
native  tongue;  and  before  the  year  closed  he  had 
made  the  circuit  of  the  island  by  canoe  and  on 
foot,  a  trip  of  three  hundred  miles.  He  was 
incessant  in  his  labors.  He  preached  forty-three 
times  in  eight  days,  examined  twenty  schools  and 
more  than  1,200  pupils,  conversed  personally 
with  multitudes,  and  ministered  to  many  sick 
persons  during  a  tour  of  thirty  days  through  the 
island.  On  a  tour  made  in  the  latter  part  of 
1835,  signs  could  be  seen  of  the  coming  Pentecost. 
Multitudes  gathered  to  hear  the  Word;  and  so 
eager  were  the  people  to  hear  the  message  of 
salvation  that  one  morning  he  was  constrained 


179 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Clarendon 
Coke,  TliomaH 


to  preach  three  times  before  breakfast,  which  he 
took  at  ten  o'clock.  In  1837  the  great  revival 
commenced.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Hilo  and  Puna  attended  religious  services; 
the  sick  and  the  lame  were  brought  in  litters  and 
on  the  backs  of  men;  and  at  any  hour  of  the  day 
or  night  a  tap  of  the  bell  would  gather  thousands 
at  the  places  for  prayer  and  preaching.  The 
great  harvest  years  were  1838  and  1839.  Seven 
or  eight  thousand  natives  had  professed  conver- 
sion; but  very  few  had  thus  far  been  received 
into  the  Church.  The  utmost  care  was  taken  in 
selecting,  examining,  watching,  and  teaching  the 
candidates.  The  first  day  of  July,  1838,  occurred 
the  greatest  accession  to  the  Church;  1,705  took 
upon  themselves  the  vows  of  God  that  afternoon; 
and  2,400  communicants  sat  down  together  at 
the  table  of  the  Lord.  During  the  five  years 
ending  June,  1841,  7,557  were  received  into  the 
Church  at  Hilo;  and  these  composed  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  adult  population  of  the  parish. 
To  show  the  abiding  result  of  this  wonderful 
work  of  grace,  about  one  in  sixty  came  under 
discipline;  the  greater  part  of  these  were  restored, 
and  very  few  were  finally  cut  off.  Under  the 
most  careful  training  the  people  became  more 
and  more  settled  in  faith  and  morals;  and  prob- 
ably to-day  the  ratio  of  people  in  New  England 
who  cannot  read  and  write  is  greater  than  among 
the  Hawaiians  in  Hilo  and  Puna.  In  1867  the 
old  church  was  divided  into  seven  local  churches, 
six  of  them  with  native  pastors.  Mr.  Coan's  two 
books,  Adventures  in  Patagonia  and  Life  in 
Hawaii,  are  of  great  interest. 
Coan  (Mrs.  L.  B.)  Titus  Coan,  Chicago,  1885. 

COCANADA:  A  city  in  the  Godavari  district, 
Madras,  India,  situated  86  miles  S.  W.  of  Viz- 
agapatam;  navigable  canals  connect  it  with  the 
Godavari  River.  Population  (1891)  40,600,  of 
whom  90  per  cent,  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
BOQ  (1874),  with  (1902)  9  missionaries,  men  and 
women  (two  of  them  physicians) ,  19  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women,  3  chapels,  25  Sunday 
schools,  9  elementary  schools,  1  high  school,  1 
training  class  for  Bible  women,  1  industrial 
school,  a  dispensary,  a  printing-house  and  234 
communicants. 

COCHIN:  A  native  state  on  the  W.  coast  of 
India,  between  the  Western  Ghats  and  the  sea, 
and  north  of  Travancore.  It  has  an  area  of 
1,362  square  miles  and  a  popvdation  (1901)  of 
812,025.  The  prevailing  religion  is  Hinduism. 
There  are,  however,  some  groups  of  the  ancient 
Syrian  Christians  of  the  Jacobite  church  still 
remaining  in  this  region. 

The  CMS  commenced  mission  work  in  Cochin 
in  1817,  at  first  in  association  with  the  Syrian 
Church.  Since  1847  it  has  worked  separately, 
altho  the  reform  party  in  the  Syrian  Church  aid 
its  ministers  in  evangelistic  effort.  The  CMS  has 
2  stations  in  Cochin  with  which  143  Christians 
are  connected  and  with  1,144  pupils  in  the  mis- 
sion schools. 

COCHIN-CHINA:  A  province  of  French  Indo- 
China,  lying  along  the  coast  to  the  south  and  east 
of  Cambodia.  It  has  an  area  of  about  22,000 
miles  and  a  population  of  (1901)  2,968,529. 
The  population  is  composed  chiefly  of  Annamites, 
Cambodians  and  Chinese,  with  a  certain  number 
of  Malays,  Indians  and  Europeans.  The  religion 
of  the  people  is  for  the  most  part  Buddhism,  with 
a  considerable  number  of  demon-worshipers,  a 
few  Mohammedans   and   about   75.000    Roman 


Catholics.  The  chief  production  of  the  country 
is  rice,  of  which  large  quantities  are  exported  to 
China.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  trade  of 
Cambodia  reaches  the  sea  through  the  ports  of 
Cochin-China,  of  whicli  Saigon  and  Cholen  are 
the  most  important.  Saigon  until  1902  was  cap- 
ital of  French  Indo-China  and  the  residence  of 
the  Governor-General,  who  now  resides  at  Hanoi 
in  Tonking.  Protestant  missions  do  not  exist 
in  Cochin-China,  but  the  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sions are  pressed  with  vigor  and  success. 

Mouhot  (A.  H.),  Travels  in  the  Central  Parts  of  Indo-China^ 
2  vols.,  London,  1864;  Lagrilliere-Beauclere  (E.),  A 
travers  I'Jndo-Chine,  Paris,  1900;  Aymonier  (E.),  Le  Canv- 
hodge,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1901. 

COCHRAN,  Joseph  G.:  Born  in  Springfield, 
N.  Y.,  1817;  graduated  Amherst  CoUege,  1842, 
and  Union  Theological  Seminary,  1847;  sailed 
the  same  year  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  for 
the  Nestorians.  He  took  the  place  of  Mr.  Stod- 
dard as  principal  of  the  male  seminary  at  Seir, 
and  with  that  school  his  life's  work  was  identified. 
From  1851  till  the  death  of  Dr.  Stoddard,  in  1867, 
the  two  were  associated  in  the  conduct  of  the 
seminary.  Mr.  Cochran  then  became  principal 
and  continued  such  till  1865.  During  those 
seventeen  years  it  is  said  that  he  did  more  than 
any  other  man  to  educate  and  equip  teachers  and 
preachers  for  the  Nestorians  and  for  Persia. 
When  he  took  charge  there  was  no  congregation 
or  Sabbath-school;  before  the  close  of  his  life 
several  churches  were  organized  and  a  presbytery 
formed,  embracing  twenty-five  congregations. 
He  was  a  voluminous  author  and  translator  in 
the  Syriac.  He  prepared  a  very  complete  Bible 
Geography  and  History,  and  several  school-books, 
as  Algebra,  Astronomy,  Natural  Philosophy,  and 
later,  a  valuable  work  on  Pastoral  Theology  and 
Homiletics.  He  died  November  21,  1871,  after 
an  illness  of  thirty  days. 

CODACAL.     See  Kodacal. 

COIMBATORE :  Capital  of  the  Coimbatore  dis- 
trict, Madras,  India,  situated  at  an  altitude  of 
1,348  feet  in  a  hilly  country,  84  miles  S.  E.  of 
Calicut.  The  climate  is  cool  and  healthy,  tho 
malaria  infects  the  regions  at  the  foot  of  the  hills. 
Population  (1901)  53,080.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1830),  with  (1901)  6  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  103  native  workers,  men  and  women,  29 
Sunday  schools,  52  village  schools,  1  high  school, 
1  home  for  boy  and  1  for  girl  pupils  and  279 
church  members.  Also  station  of  the  Leipzig 
Missionary  Society  (1860),  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman,  34 
native  worlcers,  men  and  women,  10  chapels,  12 
schools  and  984  professing  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  SPG  (1895),  with  (1901)  13  native 
workers,  1  chapel,  2  schools  and  187  adult  bap- 
tized Christians.  The  PB  also  has  1  missionary 
and  his  wife  there. 

COKE,  Thomas,  LL.D.:  A  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  a  graduate  of  Oxford. 
In  1776  he  became  the  intimate  friend  of  John 
Wesley,  and  entered  heartily  into  his  plans  for 
the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  He  worked  with  Wes- 
ley for  15  years  as  superintendent  of  his  work. 
In  1786  he  set  sail  from  England  to  begin  a  mission 
in  Nova  Scotia  under  the  WMS.  Returned  to 
England  to  raise  funds  for  the  WMS  mission  in 
the  West  Indies.  In  the  course  of  ten  years  Dr. 
Coke  made  four  voyages  for  that  mission,  and 
also  visited  the  United  "States  at  the  formation  of 


Oolar 

Comity 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


180 


the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  superin- 
tended the  worlv  on  the  West  India  Islands,  and 
under  his  wise  guidance  the  mission  prospered 
exceedingly.  He  now  turned  his  attention  to 
Ceylon  and  India.  He  was  so  anxious  to  com- 
mence this  mission  for  the  WMS  that  he  offered 
to  defray  all  the  expenses  himself,  amounting  to 
£6,000,  and  to  go  with  the  missionaries.  His 
friends  tried  to  dissuade  him  from  this  long  voy- 
age, but  he  said,  "If  you  will  not  let  me  go  you 
will  break  my  heart."  He  sailed  from  Spithead 
in  company  with  six  others.  On  the  ship  he  was 
taken  ill;  a  shock  of  paralysis  followed,  and  he 
was  found  dead  in  his  cabin.  He  was  buried  at 
sea  June  1,  1814. 
Etheridge  (I.  W.),  Thomas  Coke,  London,  1860. 

COLAR.     See  Kolar. 

COLESBERG:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  57  miles  north  of  Middelburg, 
on  high  land  (4,400  feet).  Population,  2,000. 
Station  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missionary  Society,  with  (1900)  22  native  work- 
ers, 4  chapels,  5  schools  and  260  professing 
Christians. 

COLLEGAL:  A  town  in  the  Coimbatore  dis- 
trict, Madras,  India,  34  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Mysore. 
Population  (1891)  9,900,  for  the  most  part  Hin- 
dus. Station  of  the  PB,  with  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  4  missionary  women  and  1 
orphanage.     The  name  is  also  written  Kollegal. 

COLOMBO:  Capital  and  chief  seaport  of  the 
island  of  Ceylon;  situated  on  a  peninsula  on  the 
W.  coast.  It  resembles  a  European  town. 
Population  (1901)  158,228,  Tamil,  Singhalese, 
Europeans  and  Eurasians.  It  is  an  important 
missionary  center.  The  BMS  established  a  sta- 
tion there  in  1812,  which  now  has  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman,  1  native  work- 
er and  a  high  school.  Also  a  station  of  the  WMS, 
with  10  missionaries,  men  and  women,  99  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  7  outstations,  17  ele- 
mentary schools,  2  high  schools,  1  college  and 
552  communicants.  Also  a  station  of  the  CMS 
(1852),  with  14  missionaries,  men  and  women, 
143  native  workers,  men  and  women,  67  element- 
ary schools,  3  high  schools  and  608  communi- 
cants. Also  a  station  of  the  SPG,  with  1  mis- 
sionary, 15  native  workers,  1  elementary  school, 
1  high  school  and  1  college.  The  Christian  Liter- 
ature Society  for  India  has  a  missionary  and  his 
wife  there  with  8  native  workers,  a  printing-house 
and  a  book  depot.  The  YMCA  (1896)  also  has 
a  missionary  and  his  wife  there;  the  YWCA  has 
a  woman  missionary,  and  the  Salvation  Army  a 
post,  of  which  the  statistics  are  not  published. 

COLOMBIA:  A  republic  of  South  America, 
occupying  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  conti- 
nent, adjoining  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Venezuela  and  on  the 
south  by  Ecuador.  The  whole  of  that  section 
gained  its  independence  from  Spain  in  1819, 
being  officially  constitvited  December  27,  1819, 
but  soon  split  up  into  Venezuela,  Ecuador  and 
the  Republic  of  New  Granada.  In  November, 
1903,  the  state  of  Panama  drove  out  the  Colom- 
bian officials  and  declared  itself  an  independent 
republic. 

The  language  is  Spanish  and  the  religion 
Boman  Catholic,  tho  other  religions  are  per- 
mitted so  long  as  their  exercise  is  "not  contrary 
to  Christian  morals  nor  to  the  law." 

The  ABS  has  an  agency  at  Bucaramanga  and 


the  PN  has  3  mission  stations  with  18  workers, 
men  and  women,  and  6  schools. 

COLON:  Town  of  4,000  inhabitants  in  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  situated  on  the  N.  side 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Station  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Western  Conference  of  the 
West  Indies.  The  working  force  in  1900  was  1 
missionary. 

COLONIAL  AND  CONTINENTAL  MISSIONS: 
These  are  missions  established  by  the  different 
churches  of  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  pri- 
marily for  work  among  the  English  residents  of 
the  colonies  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
secondarily,  to  assist  various  evangelical  churches 
in  Europe  in  their  own  home  work.  They  carry 
on  their  work  by  sending  out  special  missionaries, 
appointing  chaplains,  assisting  in  the  erection  of 
chapels,  giving  grants  in  aid  to  local  churches 
and  organizations,  assisting  in  schools,  providing 
for  divine  service  at  army  and  navy  stations,  etc. 
One  of  their  most  important  lines  of  work  is  that 
of  supplying  services  at  the  various  resorts  of 
summer  and  winter  visitors  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  Almost  every  prominent  resort  of  tour- 
ists has  one  or  more  chapels,  where  there  is 
preaching  on  the  Sabbath  by  a  minister,  who  is 
on  hand  also  through  the  week  to  render  assist- 
ance such  as  a  pastor  can  give  in  case  of  need. 
These  stations  are  in  some  degree,  sometimes 
entirely,  supported  by  the  gifts  of  those  who 
attend.  But  it  is  the  rule  that  some  one  of  these 
societies  is  the  actual  supporter  of  the  services, 
without  which  the  Sabbath  of  the  traveler  would 
give  no  opportunity  for  congenial  worship. 
Another  line  of  work  scarcely  less  important  than 
the  so-called  regular  foreign  missionary  work  is 
that  of  supporting  those  evangelical  churches 
that,  under  great  discouragements  and  amid 
much  opposition,  in  Belgium,  France,  Italy, 
Spain,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia,  are  seeking  to 
stem  the  tide  of  priestly  domination  and  preach 
a  pure  Gospel.  Many  of  them  would  be  not  only 
weakened,  but  crippled  and  even  overpowered, 
but  for  the  timely  aid  received  by  them  from 
the  Christians  of  Great  Britain,  largely  through 
the  medium  of  these  societies. 

Many  of  the  foreign  missionary  societies  carry 
on  a  colonial  and  continental  work  of  the  above 
description  in  connection  with  their  work  for 
heathen  and  Mohammedan  lands.  Among  these 
are  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel, 
the  South  American  Missionary  Society,  the 
Methodist  and  Baptist  Societies. 

COLUMBA :  A  settlement  in  the  Transkei  dis- 
trict. Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  situated  about  18 
miles  S.  E.  of  Butterworth.  Station  of  the  UFS 
(1878),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  27 
native  workers,  18  schools,  and  363  communi- 
cants. 

COMBACONUM:  The  most  sacred  town  in 
Madras,  India;  situated  22  miles  N.  E.  of  Tan- 
jore  in  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  Cauvery  River 
delta.  Population  (1901),  ^9,673,  ninety-five 
per  cent,  of  whom  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1856),  with  (1900) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  12  native  workers,  10 
chapels,  7  elementary  schools,  1  high  school,  and 
664  professing  Christians. 

COMBE.  See  Paramaribo,  of  which  it  is  part, 
for  joint  statistics. 

COMITY  of  Missions :  Comity  implies  courtesy 
and  kindly  consideration  and  sympathy  shown 


181 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Colar 
Comity 


to  others.  The  comity  of  nations  is  defined  in 
the  dictionaries  as  "that  friendly  and  mutual 
courtesy  under  which  various  beneficial  acts  and 
recognitions,  not  obligatory,  take  place  between 
nations."  A  certain  self-restraint  or  even  self- 
denial  accompanying  such  kindly  courtesy  is 
suggested  by  this  definition.  Since  Christians  do 
not  feel  self-denial  in  doing  kindly  deeds  for 
fellow  Christians,  we  must  modify  the  definition 
slightly  in  this  place.  Interdenominational  com- 
ity of  missionaries,  or  comity  of  missions,  is  that 
friendly  and  mutual  courtesy  under  which  vari- 
ous beneficial  acts  and  recognitions  take  place 
between  missionary  societies  or  missionaries  of 
different  organizations  because  they  are  working 
for  one  purpose  under  the  one  Master  and  Lord, 
Jesus  Christ. 

In  the  presence  of  the  principle  of  love  to  all 
men  explained  and  enforced  by  Jesus  Christ, 
there  is  hardly  need  to  point  out  other  reasons 
why  missionaries  struggling  with  a  gigantic  task 
in  an  unsympathetic  multitude  should  be  kindly 
and  courteous  to  one  another.  Yet  other  ele- 
mentary factors  enter  into  the  obligation  to  culti- 
vate comity  in  the  enterprise  of  missions.  These 
are  underlying  truths  such  as  God's  unswerving 
purpose  that  His  word  shall  be  as  the  rain  which 
waters  the  whole  earth,  making  it  to  bud  and 
bring  forth,  and  give  seed  to  the  sower  and  bread 
to  the  eater.  Because  of  that  eternal  purpose 
the  work  of  disseminating  knowledge  of  the 
Gospel  is  one  and  indivisible.  Again,  the  effect- 
ive agency  in  this  work  is  God's  word  and  not 
man's  deductions  from  it.  Hence  the  resulting 
fruitfulness  of  barren  lands  shall  be  to  Jehovah — 
not  to  the  men  who  are  used  as  God's  instruments 
in  the  work,  but  to  Jehovah — for  a  name. 
Another  of  these  elementary  factors  is  the  aim 
of  missions.  This  aim  is  not  to  publish  a  human 
philosophy  of  the  plan  of  salvation.  It  is  to 
make  Jesus  Christ  known  to  those  who  know  Him 
not,  in  order  that  they  may  yield  allegiance  to 
Him  and  follow  Him.  In  such  a  work  all  evan- 
gelical missions  are  united,  becoming  branches  of 
a  single,  vast  enterprise  in  which  self-will  of  men 
must  be  subordinate  to  the  King.  This  implies 
that  the  heresy  must  be  resisted  which  would  rate 
differences  of  interpretation  and  outward  prac- 
tise as  a  division  of  Christendom.  Denomina- 
tional differences  cannot  destroy  unity  of  purpose 
and  action  unless  the  spirit  of  self-will  has  taken 
the  place  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  as  the  impelling 
power.  Those  who  are  in  Christ  are  one  body. 
The  conclusion  is  irresistible  that  Warneck  has 
struck  a  right  note  in  urging  upon  all  evangelical 
missionaries  the  point  that  when  evangelical 
denominations  are  admitted  to  "possess  such  a 
measure  of  truth  as  is  sufficient  to  show  a  sinner 
the  way  of  salvation,"  believing  that  salvation 
is  not  by  any  church  but  by  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
comity  of  missions  is  the  logical  consequence. 
All  those  who,  in  love  to  Jesus  Christ,  labor  for 
the  extension  of  His  kingdom  are  fellow  workmen 
in  the  one  undertaking  that  is  directed  by  the 
Divine  purpose. 

Comity  of  Missions,  then,  implies  on  the  part 
of  the  missionary:  1.  A  truly  affectionate  sym- 
pathy for  all  others  who  seek  to  advance  the 
Kingdom;  2.  Readiness  to  aid  such  fellow  work- 
ers in  their  problems  and  difficulties;  and  3. 
Revulsion  from  any  impulses  to  foster  selfish  aims 
at  the  expense  of  other  Christian  laborers.  In 
other  words,  Comity  of  Missions  is  the  application 
of  the  Golden  Rule  throughout  interdenomina- 


tional relations.  It  is  the  exhibition  by  mission- 
ary workers  of  those  very  principles  of  love  for 
God  and  man  which  they  seek  to  commend  to 
the  adoption  of  heathen  and  Mohammedans.  A 
practical  result  of  comity  to  the  lonely  worker  in 
a  heathen  land  is  a  mass  of  kindly  sympathy,  of 
experience,  and  of  fraternal  support  from  fellow 
workers  of  other  names  and  nations;  for  those 
who  are  cut  off  by  their  calling  from  home 
influences  it  provides  a  spiritual  environment; 
it  places  the  resources  of  every  mission  at  the 
service  of  all,  and  it  so  unites  the  missionary 
interests  in  any  heathen  land  that  they  cannot 
be  attacked  with  impunity  nor  disregarded  with 
temerity.  AVhile  a  lack  of  comity  produces 
distrust,  anxiety,  resentment  over  injuries,  and 
waste  of  strength,  the  practise  of  comity  brings 
to  all  missionaries  in  any  land  a  quiet  confidence, 
a  mutual  support  in  prayer,  a  mutual  trust,  and 
a  courage  strengthened  by  the  sense  that  the 
great  aim  is  being  furthered  by  many  instead  of 
by  few.  The  truth  has  been  gradually  receiving 
emphasis  in  the  mission  field  that  converts  in 
Asia  and  Africa  are  not  to  be  taught  to  copy 
the  customs  and  dress  and  mannerisms  of  Europe 
and  America.  Little  by  little  this  rule  will  be 
extended  until  it  also  deprecates  the  teaching  of 
the  forms  and  customs  of  merely  European  or 
American  types  of  Christianity.  For  the  rule  of 
missions  requires  subordination  of  personal  pref- 
erences, of  private  interests,  and  of  national  or 
denominational  rivalries  to  the  general  interests 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  demand 
of  this  great  interest  is  similar  in  kind  to 
current  demands  for  the  subordination  of  per- 
sonal rivalries  and  interests  in  great  business 
enterprises  to  the  needs  of  economical  adminis- 
tration and  larger  strength  and  business  success. 
The  time  has  come  when  lack  of  comity  imperils 
the  whole  enterprise. 

Dr.  W.  Newton  Clark  has  said:  "It  is  the  work 
of  foreign  laborers  in  the  East  to  bring  into 
existence  a  native  evangelizing  force  and  a  body 
of  Christians  that  can  permanently  maintain 
Christianity  in  all  the  future."  But  when  this 
delicate  and  important  work  is  anywhere  in 
progress,  if  another  denomination  appears  in  that 
place  claiming  a  mission  to  preach  some  denomi- 
national peculiarity  of  observance,  it  not  only 
throws  despite  on  the  whole  teaching  of  the 
earlier  missionaries  in  the  field,  but,  by  supplying 
the  people  with  numerous  foreign  preachers,  it 
tends  to  destroy  the  possibility  of  growth 
of  infant  churches  into  self-reliant  and  permanent 
aggressiveness  for  the  Kingdom.  To  a  layman, 
accustomed  to  consider  the  claims  of  courtesy  in 
dealing  with  strangers  and  even  with  rivals,  it 
may  seem  incredible  that  Christians  engaged  in 
this  struggle  for  a  new  race  type  in  the  midst  of 
hostile  masses  of  people  are  not  always  able  to 
suppress  personal  tastes  for  the  sake  of  such  a 
cause.  But  lack  of  the  spirit  of  comity  can  some- 
times be  detected  even  in  the  periodicals  which 
represent  the  missionary  societies.  These  some- 
times declare  that  a  territory  as  large  as  New 
York  State  depends  for  light  upon  a  single  mis- 
sionary. In  actual  fact  a  dozen  missionaries  are 
in  the  district  besides  the  one  referred  to,  but 
they  are  not  within  the  circle  of  vision  of  the 
writer,  because  they  belong  to  another  denomina- 
tion. Or  in  another  of  these  magazines  one  may 
read  the  report  of  a  missionary  who  accompanies 
his  list  of  the  year's  additions  to  his  church  with 
the  naive  explanation  that  the  number  would 


Comity 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


183 


have  been  more,  had  not  all  been  won  from  the 
church  of  another  denomination — "since  it  takes 
twice  as  much  effort  to  convert  one  who  is 
already  a  Christian  as  it  does  to  convert  a 
heathen."  Such  peculiarities  of  missionary 
literature  suggest  the  direction  of  the  selfish  dis- 
covirtesy  and  unkindness  sometimes  practised  by 
missionaries  toward  those  of  another  denomina- 
tion. i\Iany  instances  might  be  cited  of  the 
entrance  of  some  narrow  enthusiast  into  the  mis- 
sion field  of  another  evangelical  denomination  to 
ply  the  church  members  with  objections  to  some 
detail  of  the  teaching  by  which  they  have  been 
brought  to  Christ,  and  to  present  with  feverish 
industry  enticements  to  enter  a  different  fold. 
Then  some  veteran  missionary,  aghast  at  such 
intrusion,  writes  liome  in  humiliation,  "Men 
whom  I  baptized  in  infancy  thirty  years  ago,  and 
whom  I  have  lovingly  nurtured  into  Christian 
manhood,  are  now  being  invited  by  these  new- 
comers, who  have  neither  called  on  me  nor  seen 
me,  to  canvass  the  question  whether  or  not  I 
am  a  minister  of  Clirist."  Moved  by  such  a 
spirit  of  discourteous  rivalry,  the  intruding  mis- 
sionary gathers  up  native  workers  who  have 
been  dismissed  for  cause,  and  church  members 
who  are  under  discipline,  and  lavishes  upon  them 
sympathy  for  the  harshness  with  which  they  have 
been  treated.  The  case  has  happened  more  than 
once  that  a  rival  enterprise,  entering  a  field  long 
cultivated,  has  taken  up  and  trusted  a  native 
helper  dismissed  for  grave  misconduct.  The  act 
causes  scandal  in  the  older  church  and  double 
scandal  when  the  unrepentant  sinner,  thus  encour- 
aged to  be  bold,  repeats  his  misconduct  in 
his  new  position.  Such  intrusions  work  far- 
reaching  harm  to  the  general  cause  of  the  King- 
dom. A  clear-headed  missionary,  grieved  in  soul 
at  the  short-sightedness  of  those  who  can  see  no 
field  so  attractive  as  one  which  is  already  occu- 
pied, says:  "China  can  never  be  Christianized 
on  the  principle  of  putting  half  a  dozen  denomi- 
nations together  in  one  town.  It  is  too  big  and 
too  hard-headed."  This  contempt  of  comity 
causes  what  the  late  Dr.  A.  C.  Thompson  called 
"evangelistic  anarchy."  It  affects  not  unbe- 
lievers but  Christians;  it  is  an  utterly  needless 
waste  of  forces,  and  it  imperils  the  welfare  of 
the  Church  as  a  whole.  This  blind  and  heartless 
proceeding  is  an  outrage  which,  by  contrast, 
throws  emphasis  upon  both  the  meaning  and 
the  beauty  of  comity  of  missions. 

Happily,  discourtesy  is  not  the  rule  of  evan- 
gelical denominations  on  the  mission  field. 
Brotherly  love  is  the  rule.  To  quote  Dr.  A.  C. 
Thompson  again:  "In  general.  Christian  brother- 
hood is  nowhere  so  warmly  felt  as  among 
laborers  from  different  sections  of  the  Church, 
toiling  in  the  same  great  harvest-fields  of 
heathendom."  The  veteran  expert  on  mission 
theory  and  practise,  Warneck,  says:  "The  con- 
cord between  missionaries  of  the  different 
societies  is  greater  than  the  discord;  the  esteem 
shown  on  all  sides  is  stronger  than  the  distrust, 
and  respect  for  one  another's  bounds  is  more 
general  than  infraction  of  them." 

When  infringements  of  comity  occur  through 
inadvertence  or  insufficient  information,  kindly 
negotiations  may  often  save  the  day;  as,  for 
instance,  when  a  few  years  ago  the  Reformed 
Church  in  America  had  its  Arcot  field  in  India 
entered  for  a  sectarian  raid  by  another  zealous 
denomination.  The  Society  calmly  explained  to 
the  intruder's  superiors  the  effects  of  such  intru- 


sion, and  these  wise  and  Christian  men  at  home 
promptly  ordered  the  indiscreet  agent  to  leave 
the  Arcot  field  and  to  save  his  energies  for 
enlightening  the  heathen. 

From  the  beginning  of  modern  missions 
attempts  have  been  made  to  secure  full  practical 
application  on  the  mission  field  of  the  principle 
of  comity  of  missions.  A  favorite  experiment 
has  been  to  attempt  delimitation  of  fields  or 
spheres  of  influence.  The  natural  feeling  under- 
lying such  efforts  led  the  Baptist  (U.  S.)  Triennial 
Convention,  as  long  ago  as  1835,  when  contem- 
plating an  enlargement  of  their  enterprise  of 
foreign  missions,  to  authorize  the  board  of  mana- 
gers to  establish  new  missions  in  every  unoccupied 
field.  The  theor}'  of  territorial  delimitation 
has  generally  suggested  that  in  fields  already 
occupied  missionaries  be  instructed  to  keep  out 
of  the  districts  where  others  are  laboring,  and 
that  in  new  fields  missionary  societies  arrange 
among  themselves  bounds  within  which  each  will 
conduct  operations.  It  is  then  assumed  that 
priority  of  occupation  must  bar  other  denomina- 
tions from  entering  territories  so  assigned.  The 
action  of  Abraham  and  Lot  in  dividing  Canaan 
is  often  urged  as  a  model  to  be  followed  by  mis- 
sionary societies.  Rev.  Dr.  Alexander  Duff,  on 
seeing  the  envious  glances  cast  by  some  of  his 
colleagues  toward  a  prosperous  field  occupied  by 
another  society,  said:  "I  would  as  soon  leap 
into  the  Ganges  as  to  think  of  going  to  Tinnevelli 
except  as  a  brother  to  see  the  good  work  that  is 
going  on."  A  striking  instance  of  a  similar 
comity  was  seen  a  few  years  ago  in  the  Island  of 
Fernando  Po.  The  island  was  once  occupied  by 
the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (England),  until 
it  was  expelled  by  the  Spanish  Government. 
After  many  years  people  in  one  part  of  the  island 
asked  the  Primitive  Methodists  (England)  to 
send  missionaries  for  their  instruction.  People 
in  another  part  of  the  island  asked  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  to  send  missionaries.  About 
the  same  time  Bishop  Crowther,  of  the  CMS, 
hearing  that  there  was  now  toleration  in  the 
island,  went  there  with  a  view  to  opening  mis- 
sionary work.  Residents  in  the  island  immedi- 
ately begged  the  Bishop  to  send  them  preachers, 
and  put  into  his  hands  $1,000  toward  the  expense 
of  building  a  chapel.  But  when  the  Baptists, 
who  had  a  claim  of  former  occupancy,  and  the 
Bishop,  who  had  a  claim  of  present  readiness, 
heard  that  missionaries  of  the  Primitive  Method- 
ist Society  were  already  on  the  way,  they  both 
withdrew;  the  $1,000  was  given  back  to  its  donors, 
and  when  the  Methodists  arrived  they  found  a 
clear  field.  Similar  cases  abound  of  territorial 
divisions  and  of  spheres  of  influence  respected 
by  the  different  societies.  Recent  action  respect- 
ing mission  fields  in  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philip- 
pines, taken  in  conference  together  by  the  several 
American  missionary  societies,  seems  to  show  that 
this  method  of  securing  the  fruit  of  comity  is 
practical  and  effective.  Dr.  J.  C.  Gibson,  of 
Swatow  (in  Mission  Problems  and  Mission 
Methods) ,  has  published  a  diagram  showing  in  a 
very  telling  way  the  waste  of  legitimate  influence 
by  the  missionary  enterprise  through  crowding 
centers  of  influence  too  closely  together.  Yet, 
notwithstanding  all  that  can  be  said  in  favor  of 
the  plan  of  territorial  lines  which  aim  to  secure 
observance  of  comity  by  keeping  denominations 
apart,  the  result  is  often  satisfactory.  Where  a 
missionary  society  is  laboring  among  people  of 
which  some  clans  branch  off  into  a  region  inhabi- 


183 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Comity 


ted  by  people  of  another  race  and  language,  and 
already  occupied  by  another  society,  it  claims  the 
right  to  followup  the  people,  disregarding  merely 
territorial  divisions.  The  passing  of  boundaries 
is  conscientiously  defended  as  necessary  in  cases 
lilie  that  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  mission- 
aries to  the  Nusairiyeh  in  North  Syria  and 
Cilicia,  of  the  missionaries  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  among  low  caste  people  of  the 
Narbada  Valley  in  India,  and  of  missionaries  to 
the  Jews  everywhere.  Furthermore,  with  the 
increase  of  Anglican  communities,  both  native 
and  foreign,  in  India,  the  Church  of  England  has 
decided  (in  1900)  that  missionary  agreements  as 
to  "spheres  of  influence"  can  no  longer  be 
observed.  The  Church  of  England  must  work 
under  the  usual  principles  of  parish  and  diocese 
in  territory  whicli  is  part  of  the  British  Empire. 
Moreover,  aside  from  these  cases  of  objection  to 
the  theory  of  setting  off  districts  and  spheres  of 
influence,  the  plan  is  not  entirely  effective  in 
practise.  The  real  end  sought  through  such 
divisions  of  territory,  besides  avoidance  of  over- 
lapping, and  wastefulness,  is  relief  from  injury 
through  disregard  of  the  principle  of  comity. 
But  those  who  will  not  regard  the  principle  of 
comity  will  certainly  not  regard  territorial  limi- 
tations that  exist  on  paper  only. 

A  source  of  many  violations  of  comity  on  the 
missionary  field  is  discontent  of  native  workers 
with  the  rules  of  the  mission,  and  especially  with 
those  tending  to  develop  self-support  in  the 
churches.  It  sometimes  happens  that  such  mal- 
contents offer  to  transfer  their  service  to  mission- 
aries of  another  denomination.  It  requires  both 
coolness  and  common  sense  to  refuse  such  appli- 
cants. And  yet  to  accept  them  without  close 
scrutiny  will  be  unkind  and  unwise.  In  1838 
native  workers  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
in  India,  having  been  dismissed  for  cause,  offered 
themselves,  together  with  the  field  and  its  equip- 
ment, to  the  London  Missionary  Society.  Of 
course  the  offer  was  refused.  At  a  later  period 
an  able  native  minister  in  the  employ  of  the 
ABCFM  in  Turkey  became  dissatisfied  and 
appealed  to  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  offer- 
ing to  convey  his  whole  congregation  to  the 
Anglican  Church  if  a  missionary  could  only  be 
sent  to  teach  them.  The  CMS  refused  to  enter 
the  field  of  the  ABCFM,  and  after  a  time  the 
party,  which  had  vainly  hoped  to  profit  by 
sectarian  feeling,  returned  to  its  former  connec- 
tion. Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  secure 
a  general  adoption  by  the  missionary  societies 
of  rules  looking  to  the  erection  of  barriers  which 
will  prevent  one  denomination  from  becoming  a 
house  of  refuge  for  church  members  under  disci- 
pline in  another,  and  salary  from  becoming  a 
lodestone  to  draw  men  from  their  posts.  The 
case  has  even  arisen  where  enactments  have  been 
sought  preventing  adherents  from  applying 
uncomplimentary  names  to  the  adherents  of 
another  mission.  As  a  means  of  settling  such 
grievances,  the  establishment  of  "boards  of  con- 
ciliation" by  the  different  missions  has  often  been 
proposed.  The  proposal  has  never  met  with 
general  favor.  For  all  such  troubles  of  the  mis- 
sionary a  sincere  adoption  of  the  principle  of 
comity  would  be  a  sufficient  remedy,  securing 
the  same  ends  as  a  cumbersome  board  of  concili- 
ation. 

Discussions  of  these  various  plans  for  securing 
mutual  regard  among  missionaries  and  mission- 
ary societies  have  proved  the  value  of  regular 


conferences  between  missionaries  of  different 
denominations.  Such  conferences  are  a  regular 
event  in  India,  China,  Japan,  South  Africa,  etc., 
and  similar  conferences  are  established  between 
tlie  officers  of  missionary  societies  in  Germany, 
Holland,  Scandinavia,  Great  Britain,  and  the 
North  American  Continent.  These  Interdenomi- 
national Conferences  have  proved  potent  agencies 
for  fostering  comity  of  missions.  It  now  seems 
that  what  territorial  limitations  and  detailed 
rules  as  to  the  minutiae  of  missionar}'  practice 
have  so  far  failed  to  secure  in  the  way  of  mutual 
confidence  and  consideration  is  in  a  fair  way  to 
be  secured  tlirough  acquaintance  and  face  to  face 
conferences.  It  is  now  clear  that,  when  mission- 
aries of  different  denominations  become  acquaint- 
ed with  each  other,  they  see  that  the  aim  of  all 
is  the  same,  and  tlie  spirit  of  all,  tlie  spirit  of  the 
Master.  One  of  the  more  recent  results  of  this 
mutual  fellowship  between  missions  of  different 
denominations  is  the  discovery  that  various 
forms  of  cooperation  between  societies  are  possi- 
ble, and  also  advantageous  to  all.  An  example  of 
such  cooperation  may  be  seen  in  the  Madras 
Cliristian  College,  founded  long  ago  by  the  Free 
Cliurch  of  Scotland,  and  now  subsidized  by  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  and  the  Wesleyan 
Missionary  Society,  and  patronized  by  all  societies, 
so  that  it  has  become  the  great  representative 
of  Christian  liigher  education  in  South  India.  A 
similar  representative  institution  at  Peking, 
China,  seems  likely  to  be  the  ultimate  result  of 
the  destruction  of  Methodist,  Presbyterian  and 
Congregationalist  colleges  there  during  the  Boxer 
troubles  of  1900.  In  Japan,  in  Mexico,  and  in 
other  fields  the  presses  of  different  denominations 
cooperate  in  producing  literature  that  all  can,  and 
do,  use  in  evangelistic  work.  In  several  coun- 
tries the  different  branches  of  the  Presbyterian 
Cliurch  have  secured  a  degree  of  cooperation 
amounting  to  organic  union  between  their  mis- 
sions. And  in  Japan  the  world  has  seen  the 
thrilling  spectacle  of  all  evangelical  Christian 
churches  cooperating  in  repeated  evangelistic 
campaigns  through  a  union  of  Christian  hearts 
and  abilities  which  did  not  originate  so  much 
with  the  missionaries  as  with  the  native  Chris- 
tians who  demanded  and  would  have  it.  When 
a  stage  of  development  has  been  reached  that 
makes  such  things  possible,  the  history  of  dis- 
cussions respecting  practical  applications  of  the 
comity  of  missions  seems  to  be  near  its  close. 

There  may  be  advantage,  however,  in  summar- 
izing, before  leaving  the  subject,  the  points  which 
seem  to  be  now  settled  as  to  the  practical  applica- 
tions of  the  principles  of  comity  in  the  broad 
field  of  the  missions  of  Protestant  Christendom. 
There  seems  to  be  general  agreement  that: 

1.  Careless  overlapping  of  mission  forces  and 
needless  reduplications  of  apparatus  and  plant  is 
not  only  a  sin  against  comity  but  against  the  Lord 
of  all  missions,  AVliose  resources  are  thus  wasted. 

2.  All  evangelical  denominations  have  rights 
which  must  be  respected  on  the  mission  field; 
and  these  rights  are  equal. 

3.  The  presentation  to  pagans  or  Mohamme- 
dans of  an  impression  of  division  in  the  Chris- 
tian ranks  must  be  avoided  by  all  possible  means. 
Hence  (a)  Every  society  will  abstain  from  efforts 
to  draw  converts  from  other  societies  or  to  prove 
to  the  public  its  own  superiority  to  other  socie- 
ties; (6)  In  choosing  fields  of  action  each  society 
should  select  places  where  it  will  come  in  contact 
with  persons  not  reached  by  other  societies;    («) 


Commerce 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


184 


Missionaries  of  different  denominations  should 
meet  together,  at  stated  times,  wherever  possible, 
for  prayer  and  mutual  encouragement  and  stimu- 
lus, and  should  hold  general  conferences  for 
exchange  of  views  on  missionary  problems  at  regu- 
lar intervals. 

4.  Financial  or  other  stringency  has  taught  all 
that  cooperation  between  evangelical  missionary 
societies  must  be  so  extended  as  to  make  needless 
the  reduplication  of  publishing  houses,  hospitals, 
and  institutions  lor  higher  education. 

5.  For  the  better  cultivation  of  interdenomina- 
tional comity  missionary  candidates  should 
receive  instruction  on  the  subject,  and  official 
organs  of  missionary  societies  should  give  the 
public,  besides  information  respecting  their  own 
work,  ample  descriptions  of  important  results 
gained  by  others. 

Realization  of  the  meaning  and  the  basis  of 
comity  of  missions  carries  the  mind  to  a  fuller 
grasp  of  the  fact  that  in  the  many-sided  mission- 
ary enterprises  of  the  various  denominations 
we  have  before  us  a  movement  resembling 
the  m^rch  of  the  different  columns  of  a  great 
army,  each  independent  and  differently  circum- 
stanced, but  all  moving  under  the  orders  of  one 
Chief,  upon  a  single  strategic  point,  with  the 
certainty  that  at  the  critical  moment  all  will  be 
there,  all  ready  for  action,  and  all  glad  har- 
moniously to  apply  their  whole  power  to  the  one 
object  sought  by  the  great  Commander.  It  is 
the  victorious  march  of  the  armies  of  Jesus 
Christ  which  we  watch  as  we  see  this  steady 
development  of  closer  relations  between  its 
units,  even  while  they  are  absorbed  in  the 
struggle  with  antichrist.  Or,  to  adopt  the  figure 
and  language  of  Rev.  Canon  Edmonds,  of  Exeter, 
"As  we  look  at  the  work  of  missions  we  are 
watching  the  coming  down  from  God,  out  of 
heaven,  of  the  city  of  God."  Let  there  be  no 
trifling  at  such  a  supreme  moment  of  history! 
Report  of  the  Centenary  Missionary  Conference,  London,  1888; 
Report  of  the  Ecumenical  Missionary  Conference,  New  York, 
1900 ;  Conference  of  Foreign  Missionary  Boards  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  New  York,  1893-1903;  Report 
of  a  Conference  of  the  Foreign  Mission  Boards  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  London,  1901. 

COMMERCE  AND  MISSIONS:  Commerce  is 
the  exchange  of  goods,  commodities  or  other 
valuable  property  between  different  peoples.  It 
is  perfectly  proper  to  give  extension  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word,  so  that  it  shall  include  the  inter- 
change of  scientific  and  ethical  and  social  ideas 
between  nations,  since  this  is  an  inseparable 
adjunct  of  that  intercourse  whose  object  is  barter 
and  trade.  But  in  this  article  the  relation  to 
missions  of  commerce  in  its  narrower  meaning 
will  be  briefly  discussed  in  order  to  suggest  (1) 
What  Missions  owe  to  Commerce,  (2)  What  Mis- 
sions have  suffered  from  Commerce,  and  (3)  What 
Missions  have  done  for  Commerce. 

(1)  Missions  owe  to  commerce  the  means  of 
transportation  and  of  communication.  The 
earliest  missionaries  were  enabled  to  reach  India 
and  China  and  Turkey  and  the  coasts  of  Africa 
by  those  means  of  transportation  which  com- 
merce had  already  provided.  If  the  London 
Missionary  Society  sent  its  first  missionaries  to 
the  South  Seas  in  a  vessel  especially  fitted  out  by 
the  Society,  it  was  still  as  a  commercial  venture 
that  the  "Duff"  undertook  the  voyage,  and  it 
was  through  trade  that  its  expenses  were  paid. 
In  our  own  day  missionaries  use,  as  they  would 
use  the  natural  productions  of  the  earth,  the 
great  steamships,   the  railroads,   the  telegraphs 


and  the  postal  facilities  which  commerce  has 
provided  for  its  own  uses.  Merely  to  suggest 
these  things  is  to  show  the  greatness  of  the  debt 
to  the  enterprise  of  commerce  under  which  mis- 
sions must  ever  lie  in  respect  to  the  means  of 
reaching  the  ends  of  the  earth. 

To  commerce,  again,  missions  are  indebted  for 
security  of  abode  in  many  lands.  Bitterly  as. 
the  East  India  Company  opposed  the  entrance- 
of  missionaries  into  the  field  of  its  operations,, 
this  purely  commercial  corporation  finally 
became  the  protector  of  missionaries  in  India 
during  many^  years.  Not  only  in  India,  but  in. 
China,  in  Turkey  and  in  Persia,  missionaries, 
have  owed  their  safety  and  their  opportunity  of 
access  to  the  people,  to  those  laws  and  treaties 
which  were  designed  to  secure  liberty  and  security 
for  traders.  Missionary  enterprises  in  all  of 
these  countries  have  been  carried  forward  with 
great  freedom  because  missionaries  had  a  right 
to  claim  and  to  enjoy  the  same  privileges  of  safe- 
conduct  which  governments  had  secured  for  the 
benefit  of  merchants. 

Again,  commerce  has  served  missions  in  the 
line  of  discovery  and  exploration  of  unknown 
regions  and  of  acquaintance  with  unvisited  races. 
There  is  no  need  to  enter  upon  details  of  this, 
part  of  the  debt  of  missions  to  commerce.  It 
was  Captain  Cook's  report  of  his  explorations- 
which  led  the  first  missionaries  to  Tahiti.  And 
it  was  Stanley's  long  determined  struggle  to  solve' 
the  puzzles  of  Central  Africa  which  prepared  the 
way  for  other  missionaries  to  follow  in  the  foot- 
steps of  Livingstone,  and  finally  to  present  a. 
civilized  Uganda  and  a  peaceful  Nyasaland  to  the 
merchants  of  the  world. 

(2)  Nevertheless,  commerce  has  often  ham-, 
pered  and  sometimes  vehemently  opposed  the 
beneficent  undertakings  of  missions.  There  is- 
nothing  contrary  to  any  law  of  God  or  man  in 
buying  a  commodity  where  it  is  abundant,  in 
order  to  sell  it  at  a  profit  where  it  is  scarce  and  in 
demand.  But  no  law,  human  or  divine,  can 
justify  a  commerce  which  takes  advantage  of  the 
ignorant  and  defenseless  or  selects  for  its  traffic 
articles  that  injure,  degrade  or  destroy.  The 
African  slave  trade  was  a  notable  example  of 
such  conscienceless  commerce  which  long  blocked 
the  progress  of  missions  on  the  western  coast  of 
Africa.  Dr.  Paton's  indignant  appeals  against, 
the  infamies  of  the  liquor  traffic  in  Polynesia, 
supported  by  a  long  series  of  similar  facts  from 
other  parts  of  the  world,  show  how  commerce- 
has  sometimes  set  itself  to  uproot  the  beginnings, 
of  moral  training  among  child-like  races  who  can- 
not discriminate  between  the  benevolent  mission- 
ary and  the  unprincipled  trader.  One  shameful 
particular  of  this  complaint  against  commerce 
may  best  be  set  forth  in  the  form  of  incidents  of 
actual  history,  which  are,  unhappily,  typical  of 
facts  which  may  be  duplicated  in  many  places. 

In  October,  1825,  Rev.  W.  Richards  and  family 
labored  alone  on  Maui,  one  of  the  Hawaiian 
islands.  The  crew  of  the  English  whaler  "Dan- 
iel,'' Captain  Buckle,  because  the  native  women 
did  not  visit  the  ship  as  formerly,  complained  to 
the  missionary.  Mr.  Richards  tried  to  reason 
with  them,  but  they  replied  with  threats  of  burn- 
ing his  house  and  bu-tchering  his  family.  The 
missionary  replied,  "Come  life,  come  death,  we 
cannot  undo  the  work  of  God."  Next  day  the 
captain  promised  peace  on  condition  that  their 
demands  were  complied  with.  He  himself  kept 
a  native  woman  on  board,  for  whom  he  paid  $160; 


185 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Commerce 


and  when,  the  day  after,  the  sailors  came  with  a 
black  flag,  knives  and  pistols,  and,  like  their  pred- 
ecessors in  Sodom,  pressed  toward  the  mission- 
ary's door,  the  clubs  of  indignant  natives  drove 
the  cowards  away.  Through  night  and  day  a 
guard  was  needed  to  protect  the  missionary  from 
Christian  sailors.  Two  years  later  the  British 
consul  at  Honolulu,  with  this  same  Captain 
Buckle  and  several  foreign  merchants,  demanded 
of  King  Kaahumanu  that  Mr.  Richards  be 
punished  for  writing  an  account  of  these  things 
to  the  American  Board ! 

On  another  occasion  Lieutenant  John  Percival, 
of  the  U.  S.  schooner  "Dolphin,"  took  ground  in 
Honolulu  against  the  law  that  indorsed  the  sev- 
enth commandment,  and  on  Sabbath,  February 
26,  sent  a  detachment  to  the  chief  demanding 
its  repeal.  They  were  driven  out  after  they  had 
broken  the  windows,  and  only  the  prompt  rally 
of  natives  saved  the  missionary  and  his  family 
from  violence,  because  an  officer  of  the  navy  of 
the  United  States  of  America  vowed  that  the  law 
should  be  repealed. 

History  is  full  of  wrongs  inflicted  by  civilized 
traders  in  the  name  of  commerce  upon  trustful 
and  ignorant  peoples.  More  than  one  missionary 
has  been  killed  because  simple  islanders  thought 
in  that  way  to  punish  the  traders  who  had  stolen 
men  from  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  in  order  to 
place  them  as  laborers  in  plantations  on  the  other 
side  of  the  globe.  More  than  one  desolating  war 
has  been  waged  in  Africa  because  the  brutal 
voracity  of  commercial  agents  was  discovered  and 
resented  by  its  victims.  Only  when  men  shall 
carry  on  commercial  enterprises  in  non-Christian 
lands  with  that  regard  for  right  and  honesty  and 
justice  to  which  they  are  forced  to  bow  when  at 
home  will  commerce  help,  not  hinder,  the  kindly 
purpose  of  missions. 

(3)  As  to  that  which  missions  have  done  for 
commerce,  it  constitutes  a  debt  as  easily  over- 
looked as  the  debt  which  missions  owe  to  com- 
merce. The  manner  in  which  missionaries  serve 
commercial  development  is  first,  by  becoming 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  people  of  a  back- 
ward race,  through  learning  their  language  and 
living  among  them,  and  second,  by  cultivating 
higher  tastes  and  aspirations  among  them. 
Missionaries  go  to  an  uncivili  zed  land  possessing  an 
admirable  climate  and  fertile  soil,  but  the  people 
are  too  slothful  to  do  more  than  consume  the 
fruits  that  Nature  offers  to  their  hands.  No 
sooner  has  the  Gospel  entered  the  heart  than 
those  same  men  wake  up  to  the  possibilities  of 
development,  and  the  demand  for  the  supply  of 
new  wants  at  once  necessitates  the  suppfies  of 
commerce.  This  leads  them  not  only  to  procure 
decent  clothing,  but  also  comfortable  dwellings 
and  convenient  furniture  in  place  of  their  unfur- 
nished huts,  for  good  clothing  calls  for  clothes 
presses,  and  a  corresponding  advance  in  all  direc- 
tions. John  Williams  found  that  in  the  South 
Seas  savages  did  not  care  for  civilization  until  the 
Gospel  woke  them  to  a  new  life.  European 
houses  stood  for  years  in  Tahiti  and  no  native 
thought  of  copying  them.  Missionaries  wore 
civilized  clothing,  but  no  Tahitian  women  felt  the 
need  of  a  dress  tUl  the  power  of  a  new  life  led 
them  to  desire  to  dress  like  Christians. 

Sir  Bartle  Frere,  familiar  with  heathenism 
both  in  India  and  South  Africa,  says,  "Civiliza- 
tion cannot  precede  Christianity.  The  only  suc- 
cessful way  of  dealing  with  all  races  is  to  teach 
them  the  Gospel." 


The  pervasive  civilizing  influence  of  the  teach- 
ings of  Jesus  Christ  can  best  be  seen  by  turning 
back  to  the  beginnings  of  missionary  effort  in 
uncivilized  lands. 

Rev.  J.  C.  Bryant  wrote  in  1849: 

"Of  fourteen  young  men  who  have  left  my  employ  within 
two  years,  one  has  since  been  converted,  and  of  course  clothes 
himself ;  the  rest  go  naked  as  before,  showing  how  impossible 
it  is  to  civilize  men  without  first  converting  them.  Wash  a 
pig  and  shut  him  up  in  a  parlor,  he  may  stay  clean  for  a 
while,  but  as  soon  as  free  he  will  return  to  wallowing  in  the 
mire.  To  try  to  civilize  heathen  without  converting  them 
is  to  try  to  make  lambs  of  swine  by  washing  them  and  put- 
ting on  them  a  fleece  of  wool." 

Rev.  L.  Grout  says  that,  with  the  Christian 
Zulus  a  level  field  is  plowed  by  oxen,  but 
among  the  heathen  in  the  same  tribe  woman  is 
both  plow  and  ox,  cart  and  horse.  She  is  sold 
for  oxen,  which  are  never  yoked,  but  only  eaten 
by  their  lazy  owners.  On  the  other  hand  Chris- 
tians buy  plows  and  wagons,  build  houses  and 
furnish  them.  In  1865,  500  American  plows 
were  sold  in  Natal  with  a  growing  demand  for 
saddles  and  harnesses,  clothes,  books  and  maps, 
while  the  heathen  were  still  marked  by  naked- 
ness and  misery.  To-day  American  trade  with 
South  Africa  is  progressing  by  leaps  and  bounds. 

English  missionaries  in  Canada  had  skilled 
workmen  to  teach  the  Indians  how  to  labor. 
But  they  would  not  work.  They  preferred  their 
wigwams  and  skins,  their  raw  flesh  and  filth,  till 
inward  transformation  through  the  Gospel  led 
them  to  work  for  the  improvement  of  their  out- 
ward condition.  The  same  is  true  everywhere. 
Civilization  does  not  reproduce  itself.  It  must 
first  be  kindled,  and  can  then  be  kept  alive  only 
by  a  power  genuinely  Christian. 

The  English  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  states 
that  in  Lagos,  Western  Africa,  a  native  built  him- 
self an  elegant  house,  furnished  it  in  approved 
style,  and  yet  with  his  family  occupied  a  hovel 
adjoining  it.  Would  he  have  done  so  if  he  had 
been  converted? 

Dr.  J.  L.  Wilson  says  of  Western  Africa: 
"Something  more  is  needed  to  civilize  heathen  than  speci- 
mens of  civilized  life.  This  would  imply  that  ignorance 
alone  hindered  their  improvement,  whereas  there  inheres  in 
heathenism  an  aversion  to  those  activities  which  are  essen- 
tial to  prosperity.  We  look  in  vain  for  any  upward  tenden- 
cies in  pagans  till  their  moral  natures  are  quickened." 

So  in  Turkey,  while  those  who  do  not  read  the 
Bible  live  on  in  their  gloomy  and  comfortless 
abodes,  chairs  and  tables,  books  and  book  cases, 
Yankee  clocks  and  glass  windows,  mark  the 
homes  of  Bible-readers. 

A  missionary  in  that  land  wrote  in  1880: 
"The  Oriental  left  to  himself  is  entirely  satisfied  with  the 
customs  of  his  fathers;  no  contact  with  western  civilization 
has  ever  roused  him  from  his  apathy,  but  when  his  heart 
is  warmed  into  life  by  the  Gospel,  his  mind  wakes  up,  and 
he  wants  a  clock,  a  book,  a  glass  window,  and  a  flour-mill. 
Almost  every  steamer  from  New  York  brings  sewing  machines, 
watches,  tools,  cabinet  organs,  or  other  appliances  of  Chris- 
tian civilization,  in  response  to  native  orders,  that  but  for 
an  open  Bible  would  never  have  been  sent ;  and  now  as  y;ou 
pick  your  way  along  the  narrow  streets,  through  the  noisy 
crowd  of  men,  camels,  donkeys,  and  dogs,  the  click  of  a 
Yankee  sewing-machine  or  the  music  of  an  American  organ 
greet  the  ear  like  the  voice  of  an  old  friend  from  home." 

Rev.  Mr.  Harris  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society  reports  progress  made  in  the  Hervey 
Islands.  Thirteen  years  before,  when  he  began 
his  work  there,  only  copra  (dried  coconut)  was 
exported.  Now,  besides  that,  lime-juice,  coffee, 
fungus  and  oranges  and  cotton  are  regular  arti- 
cles of  export.  This  enables  the  natives  to  pur- 
chase the  products  of  other  lands.  All  in  Man- 
gaia,  both  men  and  women,  are  clothed  in  Euro- 
pean garments.  Some  wear  watches,  gold  rings, 
lace,  and  embroidery.     Nearly  all  have  umbrellas 


'Coiil'ereneew 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


186 


Sewing-machines  abound.  Cups  and  saucers, 
plates  and  dishes,  lamps,  knives  and  forks,  and 
clocks  are  in  nearly  all  the  houses.  The  islands 
furnish  a  good  market  for  European  goods. 
These  material  benefits  follow,  they  did  not  pre- 
cede, the  Gospel.  An  aged  Mangaian  said 
recently:  "I  owe  to  the  Gospel  all  these  beautiful 
clothes  in  which  I  stand  upright;"  but  the 
uprightness  of  the  man  was  more  beautiful  than 
his  clothes. 

The  entire  cost  of  the  mission  of  the  ABCFM  to 
Hawaii  up  to  18G9  was  $1,220,000.  But  none 
can  deny  that  this  money  used  in  civilizing  the 
islands  and  opening  them  to  intercourse  with  the 
world  was  well  spent  on  seeing  that  in  1901  the 
imports  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  from  the  United 
States  alone  were  valued  at  $21 ,780,000.  Similar 
results  of  missions  may  be  seen  throughout  Micro- 
nesia and  Polynesia,  for  room  has  been  made  for 
commerce  by'  taming  and  elevating  the  people 
through  the  Gospel. 

Rev.  Dr.  F.  F.  Ellinwood  writes  of  the  relation 
of  missions  to  commerce: 

Three  things  have  been   found    almost   universally  true: 

I.  The  Gospel  has  always  elevated  the  character  and 
established  the  power  of  our  civilization  in  whatever  lands 
its  influence  has  reached.  More  than  once  it  has  been  con- 
fessed that  England  could  scarcely  have  retained  her  Indian 
possessions  but  for  the  conservative  influence  of  those  mis- 
sions which  restrained  injustice  while  they  promoted  intelli- 
gence and  loyalty. 

II.  The  first  contacts  of  commerce  are  for  the  most  part 
evil.  Whether  adventurers  precede  or  follow  the  missionary, 
they  blight  society.  Whalers  in  the  South  Seas,  convicts  in 
Tasmania,  slave  traders  in  Congo,  kidnappers  in  Melanesia, 
opium  dealers  in  China,  and  liquor  sellers  among  the  Indians 
and  in  Africa — all  have  proved  a  curse. 

There  was  a  time  in  San  Francisco  when  the  courts  were 
paralyzed,  and  true-hearted  citizens  felt  driven  to  send  to 
Hawaii  for  a  missionary  to  come  back  and  establish  a  church 
at  home.  Even  saloon  keepers  joined  in  the  call,  alleging 
that  without  Christian  institutions  no  man's  life  was  safe. 

III.  Improvement  generally  follows.  Christian  homes  are 
established,  and  the  missionary  is  supported  instead  of 
opposed.  Dark  as  Africa  now  is,  civilization  there  fifty 
years  hence  will  be  full  of  life  and  light.  But  we  should 
hasten  to  allow  equal  rights  natural  to  the  humblest  native; 
and  the  proudest  Caucasian  might  must  not  make  right, 
but  weaker  nations  should  receive  the  same  treatment  as 
the  strongest.  Treaties  should  not  be  made  merely  for  the 
convenience  or  profit  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  and 
commerce  should  be  so  regulated  by  the  golden  rule  of  love 
as  to  bless  and  not  curse  the  nations  with  whom  we  have  to  do. 

Thus  commerce  reaps  lasting  benefits  from  the 
services  of  the  missionary  in  changing  the  motives 
and  elevating  the  aims  of  savages  through  instruc- 
tion in  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  Such  a  case  as  that 
of  Henry  Nanpei,  the  Christian  Chief  of  Kusaie, 
in  Micronesia,  is  a  type,  with  the  help  which  he 
gave  to  the  perplexed  German  officials  by  his 
sane,  statesmanlike  influence  over  his  people, 
when  the  foreigners  came  to  take  possession  of  the 
land.  A  case  like  that  of  Kekela,  the  native  mis- 
sionary to  the  Marquesas,  is  a  type,  again,  of  the 
help  of  missions  to  commerce  in  another  direc- 
tion. Peruvian  "Coolie  Pirates"  had  stolen 
many  of  the  islanders  to  carry  them  into  slavery. 
A  chief  whose  son  had  been  carried  off  vowed  to 
kill  and  eat  the  first  white  man  that  fell  into  his 
hands.  Mr.  Whalon,  first  mate  of  an  American 
whaler,  was  that  man;  and  Kekela,  a  native  mis- 
sionary, ransomed  him  from  the  angry  father 
with  a  new  six-oared  boat  that  he  had  just 
received  from  Boston.  Abraham  Lincoln  heard 
of  it,  and  sent  him  a  valuable  present.  Kekela 
wrote  in  his  reply:  "As  to  this  friendly  deed  of 
mine,  its  seed  was  brought  from  your  own  land 
by  some  of  your  own  people  who  had  received  the 
love  of  God.  It  was  planted  in  Hawaii,  and  I 
brought  it  here  that  these  dark  regions  might 
receive  the  root  of  all  which  is  good  and  true,  and 


that  is  love.  How  shall  I  repay  your  great  kind- 
ness? This  is  my  only  payment — that  which  I 
have  received  of  the  Lord — love." 

To  quote  the  words  of  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  R.  S. 
Storrs  of  Brooklyn:  "Missions  always  assist  com- 
merce. This  is  not  the  first  work  of  missions, 
but  it  is  a  work  which  goes  on  with  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  over  all  the  earth.  For  com- 
merce and  the  Gospel  are  in  harmony  in  this,  at 
least,  that  the  aim  of  each  is  cosmical,  is  earth- 
embracing.  There  is  no  tribe  so  recent  or  so 
ancient,  no  tribe  so  remote  or  so  degraded  that 
the  Gospel  does  not  seek  it,  or  that  commerce  will 
not  reach  out  far  for  access  to  it.  They  go 
together.  The  home  of  commerce  is  on  the 
liquid  bands  that  separate  and  yet  unite  and 
encompass  the  continents;  the  horizon  of  com- 
merce is  the  rim  of  the  planet  and  nothing  less; 
and  so  commerce  and  Christianity  go  together, 
Christianity  helping  commerce.  Not  that  our 
missionaries  go  out  for  that  purpose — they  do 
not  barter  life  for  gold.  But,  wherever  their 
errand  is,  and  wherever  their  teaching  is  felt, 
there  the  wajr  is  opened  for  a  widening  com- 
merce. Intensity  of  conviction  carries  them 
where  the  commercial  agent  gladly  follows,  but 
would  not  lead." 

Report  of  Ec.  Conference  of  1900,  v.  I.,  p.  325  ff.,  New 
York,  1901.  Storrs  (R.  S.)  Missionary  Addresses  of,  Bos- 
ton,  1901. 

CONCEPCION:  Capital  of  the  province  of  Con- 
cepcion,  Chile,  S.  America.  Station  of  the  ME, 
with  (1902)  13  missionaries,  men  and  women,  7 
native  workers,  7  places  of  worship,  13  Sunday 
schools,  1  elementary  school,  1  high  school,  1 
college  for  girls,  1  orphanage,  a  Young  People's 
Society,  and  417  professing  Christians  (in  the 
district). 

CONCORDIA :  A  town  of  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, S.  America,  situated  on  the  Uruguay  River, 
in  the  Argentine  Mesopotamia.  Population, 
about  11,500.  Station  of  the  ME,  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  elementary 
school,  and  57  professing  Christians. 

CONCORDIA  MINE :  A  settlement  in  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situa- 
ted 7  miles  N.  E.  of  the  Ookiep  railway  terminus. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native  work- 
ers, 1  school,  1  Sunday  school,  and  232  baptized 
Christians. 

CONFERENCES  ON  MISSIONS  (Interdenomi- 
national) :  When  the  revival  of  missions  com- 
menced at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  the 
great  effort  at  home  was  to  find  enough  of  those 
interested  in  the  work  to  justify  making  a  begin- 
ning, and  the  great  aim  abroad  was  to  find  a 
field  where  missionaries  could  labor  unmolested. 
The  whole  undertaking  was  then  so  novel  that 
those  engaged  in  it  had  not  yet  begun  to  know 
their  ignorance.  For  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
missions  with  success  requires  not  merely  a  spirit 
of  obedience  to  Christ,  but  some  knowledge  of  the 
difficulties  to  be  met  and  the  best  method  of  over- 
coming them,  and  only  an  actual  advance  could 
indicate  the  points  on  which  they  needed  light. 
The  missionaries  found,  moreover,  that  the  more 
they  advanced,  the  more  questions  multiplied. 
Even  success  only  furnished  new  problems  to  be 
solved,  that  had  not  occurred  to  them  before. 
For  the  solution  of  these  they  went,  first  of  all, 
to  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  then,  as  in  apostolic  times, 
when    an    unlooked-for  emergency    arose,    "the 


187 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Comiueree 
Conferences 


apostles  and  elders  were  gathered  together  to  con- 
sider the  matter"  (Acts  xv.  6),  so  now  in  the 
constantly  recurring  inquiries,  "How  can  we 
remove  this  evil,  and  secure  that  result?"  each 
group  of  laborers  felt  the  need  of  counsel  from 
others  who  encountered  similar  obstacles.  Hence 
missionary  conferences  came  into  existence  natur- 
ally and  unavoidably.  From  the  first  they  were 
often  interdenominational  in  character,  and, 
therefore,  precious  examples  of  the  Comity  of 
Missions.  Such  missionary  conferences  are  of 
two  classes:  1st,  Conferences  of  the  missionary 
societies;  and  2d,  Conferences  of  missionaries  of 
the  various  denominations. 

1.  Conferences  of  the  Missionary  Societies:  The 
first  union  missionary  conference  between  British 
or  American  societies  was  held  in  the  United 
States  May  4,  1854,  the  various  missionary 
societies  being  moved  by  the  presence  of  the  cele- 
brated Dr.  Alexander  Duff  among  them  to  pro- 
pose such  a  convention  in  order  to  manifest  the 
real  unity  of  Christians,  increase  interest  in  the 
work,  and  secure  a  more  intelligent  cooperation 
in  carrying  it  on.  So  11  missionaries,  18  officers 
of  missionary  societies,  and  150  persons  in  all, 
met  in  the  chapel  of  Dr.  Alexander's  church  in 
New  York,  and  continued  together  a  day  and  a 
half.  They  considered  the  comparative  advan- 
tages of  concentration  and  diffusion  in  missionary 
work  on  the  field,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  best  policy  was  to  equip  commanding  centers 
thoroughly,  and  then  operate  from  those  centers 
by  itinerating  in  the  regions  round  about. 

They  expressed  their  satisfaction  also  that  so 
little  interference  with  each  other  had  occurred 
among  different  societies,  and  recommended  an 
agreement  that  as  soon  as  an  evangelical  society 
had  occupied  any  field,  it  should  be  left  in  undis- 
turbed possession. 

The  next  interdenominational  missionary  con- 
ference met  that  same  year  in  London,  October 
12  and  13,  and  was  somewhat  limited  in  the 
range  of  its  discussions,  for  unfortunately  only  a 
few  secretaries  of  missionary  societies  were  able 
to  be  present. 

Next  in  order  came  the  conference  on  missions 
at  Liverpool,  March  19  to  23,  1860,  where 
twenty-five  British  societies  were  represented  by 
their  officers.  Two  missionaries  from  America 
were  present,  and  nearly  one  hundred  other  mem- 
bers took  part  in  the  proceedings.  Two  sessions 
of  three  and  a  half  hours  each  were  held  daily, 
preceded  by  a  meeting  for  prayer  in  the  morning, 
and  followed  by  a  soiree  in  the  evening.  The 
whole  ended  in  a  large  public  meeting  in  Phil- 
harmonic Hall.  Two  stenographers  reported  the 
discussions,  and  the  whole  proceedings  were  pub- 
lished in  an  octavo  of  428  pages;  of  these  the 
index  alone  fills  38. 

Eighteen  years  passed  away  after  the  confer- 
ence at  Liverpool  before  another  was  held  in 
England,  in  the  large  hall  of  Mildmay  Park,  on 
the  north  side  of  London,  October  21  to  26, 
1878.  The  conference  at  Liverpool  represented 
only  25  British  societies,  but  this  one  37  in  all — 
26  British,  6  American,  and  5  from  the  continent 
of  Europe.  This  one  not  only  dealt  more  thor- 
oughly with  particular  fields,  but  also  viewed 
each  in  its  relations  to  the  whole  worlds  noting 
what  had  been  accomplished,  and  searching  to 
see  what  might  be  brought  to  pass  in  the  near 
future.  In  almost  every  case  the  leading  speak- 
ers were  men  who  had  been  on  the  ground,  and 
could    speak    from    personal    observation.     The 


conference  closed  with  a  general  meeting  in 
Exeter  Hall,  which  seemed  to  gather  into  a  focus 
the  interest  and  energy  that  had  been  steadily 
increasing  during  all  its  ten  sessions. 

A  similar  conference  was  held  in  the  same  place 
in  1886,  and  these  previous  conventions  rendered 
possible  the  Centenary  Conference  on  Foreign 
Missions  that  met  in  London,  June  9  to  19, 
1888.  During  fifty  years  men  had  been  asking 
for  the  results  of  the  vast  expenditures  made  for 
foreign  missions.  The  Centenary  Conference 
devoted  fifty  sessions  to  a  searching  scrutiny  of 
every  department  of  missionary  work,  and  to  the 
public  record  of  the  results.  The  great  object 
was  to  encourage  the  churches  to  press  forward 
in  obedience  to  the  last  command  of  Christ  by 
setting  forth  the  experience  of  evangelical  mis- 
sions during  one  hundred  years,  and  to  confer 
on  those  numerous  questions  which  the  large 
expansion  of  the  work  had  brought  into  the  fore- 
ground. The  Conference  made  no  attempt  to 
legislate  for  the  churches,  nor  to  stir  up  tempo- 
rary excitement.  The  kingdom  of  truth  advances 
by  the  spread  of  information  concerning  the  prin- 
ciples of  that  kingdom  and  the  facts  connected 
with  its  progress  in  the  past. 

The  great  number  of  men  and  women  that  the 
Centenary  Conference  drew  together  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  was  a  testimony  to  the  advance 
that  had  taken  place  in  the  work.  In  1860  about 
129  met  together;  in  1878  about  158;  and  in 
1888,  1,576 — nearly  ten  times  as  many.  In  1860 
there  is  not  one  name  of  a  woman  in  the  entire 
list,  and  in  1878  only  two  appear,  tho  more  than 
that  number  (five)  took  part  in  the  proceedings; 
but  in  1888  the  names  of  429  women  appear  on 
the  roll — much  more  than  the  entire  membership 
of  previous  conferences.  In  1860  none  were 
present  from  the  United  States.  In  1878  one 
attended  from  the  United  States  and  one  from 
Canada.  In  1888,  183  names  appear  from  the 
United  States  and  30  from  Canada. 

The  number  of  missionary  societies  represented 
in  the  conference  was  139;  of  these,  57  belonged 
to  the  United  States,  9  to  Canada,  18  to  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  2  to  the  colonies,  leaving 
53  to  the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain. 

Many  topics  discussed  at  previous  conferences 
were  also  discussed  at  this,  but  with  much  greater 
thoroughness:  e.g.,  Missionary  Comity  was  the 
subject  of  two  papers,  and  a  prolonged  discussion 
filled  fifty-nine  pages. 

The  Alliance  of  Reformed  Churches  holding  the 
Presbyterian  system  at  its  meeting  in  Toronto  in 
1892,  arranged  to  invite  the  officers  or  representa- 
tives of  the  foreign  missionary  boards  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  to  come  together  for 
conference  in  New  York  in  1893.  Twenty-one 
missionary  boards  and  committees,  besides  the 
ABS  and  the  YMCA,  sent  representatives  to  the 
meeting  held  in  response  to  this  invitation. 
While  the  sessions  were  not  private  in  any  sense 
they  were  attended  in  the  main  by  secretaries,  and 
members,  and  missionaries  of  the  various  boards. 
The  Conference  sought  a  more  complete  mutual 
correspondence  and  a  more  thorough  unity  of 
action  along  all  lines  of  missionary  policy.  Its 
deliberations  were  found  so  full  of  mutual  advan- 
tage by  the  societies  participating  that  a  con- 
ference has  assembled  every  year  since  under  the 
name  of  the  Interdenominational  Conference  of 
Foreign  Missionary  Boards  and  Societies  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  A  similar  conference 
between  missionary  societies  in  Great  Britain  and 


Confepenees 
Confucianism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


188: 


Ireland  has  been  held  in  London  of  late  years 
with  very  satisfactory  results. 

On  the  initiative  of  the  annual  Conference  of 
North  American  Foreign  Missionary  Boards,  the 
"Ecumenical  Missionary  Conference"  was  con- 
vened at  New  Yorlv  in  April,  1900.  It  met  in 
Carnegie  Hall  and  continued  in  session  during 
ten  days.  The  late  Hon.  Benjamin  Harrison, 
ex-President  of  the  United  States,  presided,  and 
representatives  of  more  than  200  missionary 
societies  were  present  from  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France, 
Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Finland,  Asia,  Africa  and  Australia.  Upon  the 
first  day  of  assembly  the  President  of  the  United 
States  and  the  Governor  of  the  State  of  New 
York  made  addresses  of  welcome  to  the  Confer- 
ence, and  from  the  first  day  to  the  last  public 
interest  in  the  meetings  was  unabated.  Meetings 
were  held  in  neighboring  churches  for  such  as 
could  not  find  admission  to  Carnegie  Hall,  and  it 
is  estimated  that  during  the  ten  days  nearly 
200,000  persons  attended  the  various  sessions. 

In  greater  degree  than  any  of  its  predecessors 
the  Ecumenical  Conference  was  "a  demonstra- 
tion of  the  missionary  character  of  Christianity. 
In  that  respect  it  was  more  truly  a  Christian 
council  than  some  of  the  great  ecclesiastical 
councils  .  .  .  and  at  the  same  time  it 
demonstrated  the  essential  unity  of  the  evangeli- 
cal churches."  In  this  and  in  its  diffusion  of  the 
matured  fruits  of  experience  among  all  engaged 
in  the  actual  work  of  missions,  this  conference 
was  epoch-making  in  its  character. 

Upon  the  continent  of  Europe  the  practise  of 
holding  conferences  of  the  various  missionary 
bodies  has  been  thoroughly  tried  and  its  practical 
value  is  fully  understood.  Such  conferences 
exist  in  Holland  and  in  Scandinavia.  A  confer- 
ence of  German  and  German-Swiss  missionary 
societies  is  held  at  Bremen  once  in  four  years 
which  has  had  an  important  influence  in  fostering 
uniformity  of  mission  policy  and  methods.  The 
value  to  the  societies  and  their  work  of  a  clear 
mutual  understanding  on  such  questions  is  so 
well  understood  that  a  periodical  {Allgemeine 
Missions  Zeitschrift)  has  been  established  for  the 
express  purpose  of  discussing  mission  methods 
and  mission  problems. 

2.  Conferences  of  Missionaries  on  the  field 
which  are  interdenominational  in  character,  com- 
menced in  a  tentative  way  with  the  Calcutta 
Conference  of  1855.  They  are  now  held  at  regu- 
lar intervals  in  India,  China,  Japan,  Mexico, 
various  parts  of  Africa  and  South  America,  and 
in  Syria.  These  conferences  of  workers  in  the 
field,  dealing  with  practical  problems  which  con- 
front the  missionary  enterprise,  are  of  immense 
value  in  working  toward  the  establishment  of 
what  has  been  called  a  Science  of  Missions,  while 
at  the  same  time  they  have  a  strong  influence  in 
promoting  harmonious  relations  between  the 
various  denominations  and  in  showing  to  all  the 
practical  unity  of  all  the  evangelical  bodies. 

Proceedings  of  the  Union  Missionary  Convention,  New  York, 
1854;  Conference  on  Missions  held  in  Liverpool,  1860, 
London,  1860;  General  Conference  on  Missions  held  at 
Mildmay  Park,  1878;  London,  1879;  General  Conference 
on  Modern  Missions,  held  at  Mild-may  Park,  1886,  London, 
1886;  Centenary  Conference  on  the  Protestant  Missions  of 
the  World,  London,  1888,  2  vols;  Anmml  Conference  of 
the  Foreign  Missionary  Boards  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  New  York,  1893-1904.  Ecumenical  Missionary 
Conference,  New  York.  1900,  2  vols. ;  General  Missionary 
Conference  at  Allahabad,  London,  1873;  General  Conference 
of  Protestant  Missionaries  at  Calcutta,  Calcutta,  1855; 
Decennial  Missionary  Conference,  Bombay,  1893,  2  vols. ; 


General  Conference  of  the  Protestant  Missionaries  of  Japan, 
Yokohama,  1883;  General  Conference  of  the  Protestant 
Foreign  Missionaries  in  China,  Shanghai,  1878;  DittO' 
(Conference  of  1890),  Shanghai,  1890;  Shang-tung  Mis- 
sionary Conference  (1893),  Shanghai,  1894;  Ditto  (1898), 
Shanghai,  1899. 

CONFUCIANISM :  Confucius  was  one  of  a  con- 
stellation of  great  names  which  appeared  in  the 
world's  history  about  500  B.  c.  (See  Taouism.) 
Of  these  were  his  own  countryman,  Laotze;  Gau- 
tama of  India  (See  Buddhism),  Pythagoras  of 
Greece,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Sir  Monier  Will- 
iams and  some  others,  Zoroaster  of  Persia. 
They  were  all  nearly  contemporary  with  the 
Hebrew  prophet  Zechariah.  To  speak  accu- 
rately, Confucius,  or  Kungfutze,  was  born,  accord- 
ing to  Chinese  records,  in  the  year  551  B.  c. 
Laotze,  tho  contemporary,  was  born  fifty  years 
earlier.  They  both  appeared  in  a  degenerate  age 
of  Chinese  history,  and  both  aimed  at  what 
seemed  almost  hopeless  reform.  The  ancient 
religion  of  China,  which  is  still  thought  to  be 
represented  by  the  Temple  of  Heaven  in  Peking, 
had  greatly  declined,  and  a  superstitious  nature 
worship,  with  endless  polytheistic  manifesta- 
tions, occupied  the  minds  of  the  people.  The 
various  provinces  now  embraced  in  the  one 
empire  were  more  or  less  independent,  and  were 
often  at  war.  Princes  were  corrupt  and  tyran- 
nical, and  their  subjects  were  disheartened,  reck- 
less, and  debased.  Mencius,  the  commentator  of 
Confucius,  says  of  the  times  in  which  his  great 
teacher  arose:  "The  world  had  fallen  into  decay, 
and  right  principles  were  disregarded.  Ministers 
murdered  their  princes  and  sons  their  fathers. 
Confucius  was  frightened  at  what  he  saw,  and 
undertook  the  work  of  reform." 

These  environments  and  this  one  great  aim  will 
go  far  to  explain  the  character  and  teachings  of 
Confucius  and  the  history  of  his  life.  It  was  no 
part  of  his  purpose  to  establish  a  religion,  and  as 
such  his  system  cannot  be  considered.  He  was 
a  political  reformer,  and  with  that  end  in  view 
he  became  a  teacher  of  general  ethics.  The  State 
was  the  supreme  object  of  his  effort,  but  to  secure 
the  highest  welfare  of  the  state  the  family  must 
be  considered,  and  all  the  minor  relations  of  man- 
kind. It  has  been  common  among  ancient  mon- 
archs  and  lawgivers  to  regard  the  state,  or  rather 
its  rulers,  as  of  supreme  importance,  while  its 
subjects  were  mere  slaves,  and  little  regard  was 
had  for  the  family.  Confucius  was  wiser.  He 
looked  upon  human  society  as  a  pyramid,  and 
saw  clearly  that  whatever  entered  into  the  lowest 
foundations  concerned  the  whole  structure. 
Both  he  and  Laotze,  even  in  that  early  age, 
taught  that  kings  existed  for  the  good  of  the 
people,  and  had  no  right  to  employ  them  merely 
as  the  means  of  furthering  their  own  ambitious 
designs. 

Confucianism  emphasizes  the  worship  of  par- 
ents and  ancestors,  tho  if  strict  definitions  be 
observed,  it  might  be  difficult  to  draw  any  very 
clear  distinction  between  the  reverence  to  be 
paid  to  the  dead  and  that  which  was  due  to  those 
who  were  still  living.  In  both  cases  reverence 
to  parents,  extending  however  many  genera- 
tions back,  was  supposed  to  prove  a  salutary 
influence  in  maintaining  the  perpetuity  of  the 
state  and  the  welfare  of  society.  The  worship  of 
trees,  mountains,  rivers,  and  countless  other 
objects  is  a  part  of  Taouism  or  of  the  old  nature 
worship  Both  Confucianism  and  Taouism  honor 
heroes,  tho  their  images  are  generally  found  only 
in  the  Taouist  and  the  Buddhist  temples. 


189 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Conferences 
Confacianism 


The  Life  of  Confucius:  The  incidents  given  of 
the  life  of  Confucius  are  simple  and  have  not,  as 
in  the  case  of  Gautama,  Mohammed,  and  even 
Laotze,  been  overlaid  with  absurd  legends.  The 
;sage  was  the  son  of  an  old  man,  and  was  left 
fatherless  at  three  years  of  age.  At  fifteen  he 
evinced  remarkable  intellectual  powers,  and  at 
twenty-two  he  was  already  instructing  a  class  of 
disciples  in  the  principles  of  government.  At 
twenty-four  he  lost  his  mother,  for  whom  he  had 
.a  high  regard.  The  conical  tumulus  which  he 
raised  over  her  grave  is  said  to  have  been  the 
pattern  from  which  the  circular  grave-mounds 
of  North  China  originated. 

The  earliest  public  recognition  which  Con- 
fucius received  was  his  appointment,  when  he 
was  about  thirty  years  old,  to  the  tutorship  of 
"two  young  princes  of  the  Marquisate  of  Lu.  At 
the  dying  request  of  their  father  they  were 
taught  political  economy  and  the  art  of  govern- 
ment. In  accompanying  his  wards  to  the  capital 
of  the  country,  Confucius  met  Laotze.  He  is 
said  to  have  sought  instruction  from  the  old  sage, 
but  he  very  soon  found  that  there  could  be  no 
agreement  between  them.  Laotze  was  already 
suffering  that  keen  disappointment  which  embit- 
tered his  last  days,  and  which  Confucius  himself 
at  last  experienced  to  some  degree,  and  he 
received  the  young  teacher  with  critical  disdain. 
He  considered  him  a  noisy  and  pretentious 
reformer,  all  of  whose  roseate  theories  were  yet 
to  be  tested.  For  himself,  Laotze  was  too  proud 
and  self-sufficient  to  be  a  successful  leader  of 
men.  He  was  utterly  destitute  of  magnetism, 
and  repelled  where  he  should  have  striven  to  win. 
He  was  much  more  of  a  philosopher  than  Con- 
fucius, but  was  far  less  practical.  He  gloried  in 
reticence,  and  thought  that  the  zealous  remon- 
strances of  his  rival  against  the  public  vices  only 
advertised  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  Confucius  confessed  him- 
self puzzled  by  the  character  of  Laotze,  and 
could  only  compare  him  to  the  incomprehensi- 
ble ways  of  the  dragon. 

After  two  or  three  rather  unsuccessful  attempts 
as  councilor  of  different  provincial  rulers,  Con- 
fucius gave  up  political  life,  and  devoted  himself 
for  fifteen  years  to  teaching.  He  had  been  dis- 
gusted with  the  profligacy  of  those  who  had 
employed  him,  and  despaired  of  the  princes  of  his 
time.  They  all  came  short  of  a  practical  appre- 
ciation of  his  high  standards  of  either  private  or 
political  virtue. 

As  a  teacher  he  met  better  success.  He  is 
said  to  have  had  not  less  than  three  thousand 
disciples — a  fact  which  reflects  great  credit  not 
only  upon  him,  but  upon  the  intellectual  activity 
of  his  generation.  Five  hundred  of  these  pupils 
became  mandarins,  and  over  seventy  are  said  to 
have  been  distinguished  scholars. 

The  last  effort  of  Confucius  as  privy  councilor 
was  with  the  Marquis  of  Lu — supposably  his 
former  pupil.  He  was  now  fifty-two  years  old. 
For  a  time  this  prince  by  steady  devotion  to  his 
public  duties  greatly  prospered.  He  was  becom- 
ing powerful,  and  to  the  neighboring  princes 
formidable.  The  ruler  of  a  rival  province  or 
chief  city  seeing  this,  sought  to  break  the  power 
of  Confucius  over  him,  and  lead  him  into  vice. 
A  band  of  beautiful  young  dancing-girls  were 
sent  to  him  as  a  present,  and  with  the  desired 
effect.  He  soon  became  indifferent  to  the  coun- 
sels of  Confucius,  and,  giving  himself  up  to  pleas- 
ure, he  crippled  his  power.     The   disappointed 


sa^e  sought  other  similar  engagements,  but  in 
vam.  Many  would  gladly  have  employed  him, 
but  would  not  follow  his  high  standards. 

In  the  one  great  ambition  of  his  life  he  met 
with  constant  disappointment,  and  his  political 
career  he  considered  a  failure.  But,  altho 
not  practically  a  statesman,  he  was  one  of  the 
most  successful  political  theorists  that  the  world 
has  known.  Probably  no  other  man  ever 
stamped  his  ideas  or  his  influence  so  deeply  upon 
the  institutions  of  his  country  as  Confucius.  No 
other  has  ever  influenced  so  many  millions  of 
mankind,  and  contributed  such  marvelous  stabil- 
ity and  perpetuity  to  the  government  of  a  nation. 

Confucius  cannot  be  ranked  among  philoso- 
phers, strictly  speaking.  There  was  nothing 
speculative  in  his  nature.  He  was  a  compiler 
of  the  ancient  wisdom  of  his  country,  and  he 
succeeded  in  putting  it  into  such  practical  shape, 
and  in  urging  it  with  so  much  sincerity  and 
earnestness  of  purpose,  as  to  enlist  many  disci- 
ples at  the  time,  and  to  win  at  last  universal 
honor  and  devotion.  He  was  possessed  of  a 
sturdy  honesty,  and  this  he  claimed  from  all  men. 
His  social  system  was  a  superstructure,  on 
which  he  placed  the  state  at  the  apex  or  head. 
His  reasoning  was  as  follows:  The  ancient 
princes,  in  order  to  govern  their  states,  first  reg- 
ulated their  families.  To  regulate  their  families 
they  practised  virtue  in  their  own  persons.  In 
order  to  such  virtue  they  cultivated  right  feel- 
ings. To  have  right  feelings  they  cultivated 
right  purposes.  To  this  end  they  sought  intel- 
ligence by  studying  the  nature  of  things."  This 
reminds  one  of  the  "eightfold  path"  of  the 
Buddha,  only  that  it  is  more  logical,  and  is  better 
adapted  to  all  the  wants  of  life.  The  "Five 
Relations"  are  those  "between  friend  and  friend, 
between  brother  and  brother,  husband  and  wife, 
father  and  son,  ruler  and  subject."  Such  is  the 
pyramid  of  Chinese  sociology.  Confucius,  who 
in  his  lifetime  could  not  hold  permanently  the 
position  of  privy-councilor  to  a  petty  prince  of  a 
province,  has  since  his  death  ruled  the  empire  for 
twenty-four  centuries.  The  five  relations  had 
been  recognized  long  before  his  time,  but  not  in 
the  same  clear  form  and  in  the  same  practical 
application.  Confucius  so  exaggerated  the 
efficacy  of  his  theories  as  to  exclude  God.  The 
Emperor  stands  virtually  in  the  place  of  Deity, 
and  Chinese  ancestors  are  the  great  cloud  of  wit- 
nesses from  whom  all  celestial  impulse  is  thought 
to  descend  upon  men.  And  there  are  other 
exaggerations  affecting  social  and  domestic  life. 
The  father  may  be  an  unresisted  tyrant  over  his 
child,  and  the  older  brother  may  exact  a  humil- 
iating fealty  from  the  younger.  No  social  system 
can  be  entirely  sound  which  subordinates  woman 
to  a  position  so  inferior  as  that  which  Confu- 
cianism consigns  her.  Confucius  himself,  tho 
most  reverent  toward  his  mother,  has  been 
charged  with  indifference  toward  his  wife.  Com- 
pared with  many  other  systems  of  the  East,  the 
ethics  show  a  degree  of  respect  to  woman,  but 
they  fail  of  that  symmetry  and  just  proportion 
which  the  New  Testament  demands  in  all  the 
relations   of   the   household. 

The  Teachings  of  Confucius:  From  the  age  of 
sixty-six  Confucius  devoted  his  remaining  years 
to  the  editing  of  books.  He  admitted  that  he 
was  not  an  originator,  but  only  a  compiler  and 
editor.  Only  one  of  his  works,  the  Chun  tsew,  or 
"Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,"  can  be  considered 
an  original  production. 


Confucianism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


19& 


His  other  works,  the  Shoo  King  or  "Book  of 
History,"  the  She  King  or  "Book  of  Odes,"  were 
only  compilations  or  revisions.  These,  with  the 
Yih,  King  or  "Book  of  Changes,"  had  existed 
before  his  time,  and  in  his  revisions  or  abridg- 
ments they  suffered  at  his  hands.  The  Shoo 
King,  especially,  he  cut  down  from  about  3,000 
paragraphs  or  verses,  to  less  than  400.  What 
might  be  considered  the  religious  element  in 
this  work  he  almost  entirely  eliminated,  reserv- 
ing only  those  practical  teachings  which  suited 
his  theories  of  society  and  the  government  of 
the  state. 

Those  remains  of  the  Confucian  ethics  which 
are  most  highly  valued  by  the  Chinese  are  certain 
collections  known  as  the  Lun  Yu  or  "Confucian 
Analects,"  the  Ta  Hee  or  "Great  Learning," 
and  the  Chung  Yung  or  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean." 
The  last  two  of  these  are  supposed  to  have  been 
edited  by  Tsze-sze,  a  grandson  of  the  sage.  They 
all  claim  to  reproduce  the  teachings  of  Confucius, 
especially  the  "Analects." 

The  monopoly  of  Chinese  wisdom  was  given 
to  Confucius  by  a  singular  circumstance.  About 
220  B.C.  the  Emperor  Che  Hwang-te  ordered  all 
books  to  be  burned,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Zoon  Ti  King  of  Laotze.  The  execution  of 
the  order  was  very  sweeping,  but  the  works  of 
Confucius  were  afterwards  restored  piecemeal, 
some  from  fragments,  some  from  oral  tradition; 
while  the  great  body  of  literature  from  which 
he  had  made  his  compilations  was  almost  entirely 
lost. 

The  wisdom  of  the  ages,  therefore,  was  rep- 
resented almost  exclusively  by  the  works  of 
Confucius.  Mencius  and  others  added  com- 
ments, but  the  foundation  was  that  received 
from  the  one  great  sage.  Thus  Confucianism 
became  a  monopoly,  and  was  made  canonical 
by  the  decrees  of  emperors  and  the  common 
consent  of  the  people.  The  national  literature 
thus  settled  once  for  all  was  embodied  in  five 
classics,  viz.:  the  Yi  King  or  "Book  of  Changes," 
the  She  King  or  "Book  of  Poetry,"  the  Shoo  King 
or  "Book  of  History,"  the  Le  Ke  or  "Book  of 
Rites,"  and  the  Chun-tsew  or  "Spring  and  Autumn 
Annals."  These  were  in  whole  or  in  part  com- 
piled by  Confucius.  There  are  besides  what  are 
known  as  "the  Four  Books,"  viz.:  the  "Great 
Learning,"  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  the 
"Confucian  Analects,"  and  the  "Works  of  Men- 
cius." These  books  have  for  ages  constituted  the 
text-books  in  Chinese  education;  they  are  also 
the  basis  of  the  competitive  examination  for 
public  office.  That  so  narrow  a  field  of  study — 
one  so  destitute  of  science  or  general  history, 
one  which  is  in  every  respect  so  far  behind  the 
spirit  and  movement  of  the  age — should  be  sup- 
posed to  supply  aU  knowledge  requisite  for  the 
intelligent  performance  of  all  possible  duties  of 
statesmanship  and  diplomacy,  is  a  marvel.  Such 
a  standard  cannot  be  maintained  for  many  gen- 
erations longer. 

When  we  consider  the  low  and  corrupt  state 
in  which  Confucius  found  the  religion  of  his 
country,  we  are  not  greatly  surprised  that  he 
rejected  that  element  from  the  fabric  which  he 
hoped  to  rear,  and  depended  on  social  and  polit- 
ical ethics  merely.  He  was  not  an  atheist,  nor, 
in  the  strictest  modern  sense,  was  he  an  agnostic. 
According  to  the  conclusions  of  Martin,  Legge, 
Douglass,  and  Max  MuUer,  he  really  believed  in 
a  supreme  being,  known  as  "Shangte,"  or  the  God 
of  Heaven.     He  believed  also  in  unseen  spirits, 


and  he  taught  his  disciples  to  "respect  the  gods." 
He  had,  however,  no  moral  sense  of  duty  toward 
"the  gods,"  nor  the  consciousness  of  any  special 
dependence  on  them.  "Treat  them  with  respect, ' ' 
he  said  to  his  disciples,  "but  keep  them  at  a  dis- 
tance," or  rather,  as  Dr.  Martin  renders  it,  "keep' 
out  of  their  way." 

The  same  author  speaks  of  Confucianism  as 
"the  leading  religion  of  the  empire."  Its  objects 
of  worship  he  divides  into  three  classes — the 
powers  of  nature,  ancestors,  and  heroes;  and  he 
adds:  "Originally  recognizing  the  existence  of 
a  supreme  personal  deity,  it  has  degenerated 
into  a  pantheistic  medley,  and  renders  worship 
to  an  impersonal  anima  mundi,  under  the  leading 
forms  of  visible  nature.  Besides  the  concrete 
universe,  separate  honors  are  paid  to  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  mountains,  rivers,  and  lakes." 
Tho  Confucianism  recognizes  these  objects,, 
the  system  so  far  overlaps  the  pantheon  of  modern 
Taouism. 

The  teachings  of  Confucius  must  be  acknowl- 
edged to  have  embodied  many  noble  precepts. 
His  political  ethics  were  above  the  average  of 
those  practised  by  the  most  enlightened  nations. 
The  great  end  recommended  to  rulers  was  not 
their  own  gratification  or  glory,  but  the  good 
of  the  people;  and  no  teacher  ever  insisted  more 
strenuously  upon  the  duty  of  example.  Princes 
were  constantly  reminded  that  public  virtue 
could  not  be  enforced  in  the  face  of  royal  vice 
and  wickedness. 

Reciprocity  was  one  of  Confucius'  favorite- 
expressions  for  social  and  political  virtue.  This, 
in  the  broad  sense  in  which  he  employed  the 
term,  was  nothing  less  than  a  practical  applica- 
tion of  the  Golden  Rule.  Thus  a  father  in  exact- 
ing reverence  from  his  son  should  be  reverent 
toward  the  authority  of  the  state,  and  he  should 
render  himself  worthy  of  reverence  by  a  proper 
regard  to  all  his  own  relations  and  duties.  The 
Prince  in  claiming  loyalty  from  his  ministers 
should  fulfil  all  the  conditions  which  might  pro- 
mote their  fidelity. 

Loyalty  was  another  broad  expression  used  by 
the  sage.  It  included  all  duty,  not  only  to  a 
father  or  a  prince,  but  to  every  interest  of 
society.  "Let  the  superior  man,"  he  said, 
"  never  fail  reverently  to  order  his  conduct,  and 
let  him  be  respectful  to  others  and  observant 
of  propriety ;  then  aU  within  the  four  seas  will  be 
his  brethren." 

Faithfulness  was  enjoined,  as  having,  if  pos- 
sible, even  a  more  sacred  character  than 
loyalty.  "Hold  faithfulness  and  sincerity  as 
first  principles,"  said  the  sage;  "I  do  not  see  how 
a  man  is  to  get  on  without  faithfulness."  He 
maintained  that  while  the  subordinate  must  in 
all  cases  be  faithful  to  his  ruler,  the  latter  must 
be  equally  faithful  to  his  word  and  to  his  assumed 
character  as  the  father  of  his  people. 

In  the  cultivation  of  social  and  political  sin- 
cerity, Confucius  taught  that  the  very  first  step- 
in  the  reform  of  a  corrupt  state  was  "The  Recti- 
fication of  Names."  No  vice  or  dishonesty 
should  be  allowed  to  take  shelter  under  specious 
titles.  All  littleness  or  dishonor  or  incapacity 
should  be  exposed.  Everything  should  be 
brought  to  par,  and  should  be  stamped  ac- 
cordingly. Men  should  be  rated  at  their 
true  value. 

One  great  principle,  which  has  doubtless  had 
great  influence  in  China,  is  known  as  the  "Doctrine 
of  the  Mean."     Confucianism  assumes  that  many 


191 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Confucianism 


evils  flow  from  extreme  opinions.  There  is 
always  another  side,  and  the  balanced  truth  gen- 
erally lies  between.  Every  virtue  should  be  held 
in  poise  by  some  other.  For  a  very  early  exem- 
plar, a  minister  of  the  great  Emperor  Shun,  when 
asked  what  are  the  nine  virtues,  replied:  "Affa- 
bility combined  with  dignity;  mildness  combined 
with  firmness;  bluntness  combined  with  respect- 
fulness; aptness  for  government  combined  with 
reverence;  docility  combined  with  boldness; 
straightforwardness  combined  with  gentleness; 
easiness  combined  with  discrimination;  vigor 
combined  with  sincerity,  and  valor  combined 
with  righteousness." 

It  is  but  just  to  say  that  while  reverence  for 
sovereignty  is  so  strongly  enjoined,  yet  that  rev- 
erence is  coupled  with  discrimination.  No  his- 
tory of  any  country  deals  more  severely  with 
the  memory  of  unjust  rulers  than  that  of  China, 
and  in  many  instances  tyrants  have  been  over- 
thrown. 

It  is  perhaps  due  to  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean" 
and  to  the  conscious  dignity  of  moderation,  that 
the  Chinese  Government  has  often  sliown  so 
much  self-poise  amid  the  exasperations  of  foreign 
diplomacy. 

But  the  character  and  teachings  of  Confucius 
are  far  enough  from  perfect.  It  has  already 
been  shown  that  his  ideal  virtues  were  distorted 
to  promote  his  theories  of  society.  Reverence 
to  parents  was  pushed  to  such  extremes  as  to 
destroy  that  reciprocity  which  he  made  a  test  of 
highest  character.  The  authority  of  the  parent 
is  not  duly  balanced  by  parental  consideration, 
and  the  worst  of  tyrannies  is  often  seen  in  the 
Chinese  home.  Practically,  there  is  no  such 
symmetry  of  the  domestic  virtues  as  that  found 
in  Paul's  Epistles.  Confucius  was  no  model 
in  respect  to  the  rights  of  woman.  He  gave 
seven  grounds  of  divorce,  on  some  one  of  which 
he  divorced  his  own  wife.  His  code  of  morals, 
tho  above  the  morality  current  in  his  age, 
was  not  high.  He  spoke  slightingly  of  what  he 
called  the  "small  fidelity"  which  binds  a  hus- 
band to  one  wife,  and  he  imposed  a  stricter  vir- 
tue on  the  one  sex  than  on  the  other.  Polygamy 
was  allowed  in  cases  of  barrenness,  and  was 
never  a  crime.  The  marital  license  allowed  to 
the  sovereign  is  of  itself  sufficient  not  only  to 
ruin  the  royal  line,  but  by  the  influence  of  high 
example  to  promote  general  immorality  among 
the  people. 

Tho  Confucius  enjoined  humility,  he  did 
not  hesitate  late  in  life  to  claim  perfection.  "At 
fifteen,"  he  said,  "my  mind  was  bent  on  learn- 
ing. At  thirty,  I  stood  firm;  at  forty,  I  had  no 
doubts;  at  fifty  I  knew  the  decrees  of  heaven; 
at  sixty,  my  ear  was  an  obedient  organ  for 
the  reception  of  truth;  at  seventy,  I  could 
follow  what  my  heart  desired  without  trans- 
gressing what  was  right."  Unfortunately  his 
character  showed  to  the  least  advantage  in  his 
old  age. 

Professor  Douglass,  in  speaking  of  the  later 
political  life  of  the  sage,  remarks:  "It  is  impos- 
sible to  study  this  portion  of  Confucius'  career 
without  feeling  that  a  great  change  had  come 
over  his  conduct.  There  was  no  longer  that 
lofty  love  of  truth  and  of  virtue  which  had  dis- 
tinguished the  commencement  of  his  official  life. 
Adversity  instead  of  stiffening  his  back  had 
made  him  pliable.  He  who  had  formerly  refused 
money  which  he  had  not  earned,  was  now 
willing  to  take  pay  for  no  other  service  than  the 


presentation  of  courtier-like  advice  on  occasions 
when  Duke  Ling  desired  to  have  his  opinion  in 
support  of  his  own;  and  in  defiance  of  his  oft-re- 
peated denunciation  of  rebels,  he  was  now  ready 
to  go  over  to  the  court  of  a  rebel  chief  in  the 
hope  possibly  of  being  able  through  his  means 
"to  establish,"  as  he  said  on  another  occasion, 
"an  eastern  Chow."  His  friend  Tsze-loo  expos- 
tulated with  him  upon  his  inconsistency,  but  he 
justified  himself  with  a  lame  excuse. 

Confucius  evinced  great  weal-cness  at  the  last, 
by  being  apparently  more  solicitous  for  his  own 
good  name  than  for  the  welfare  of  his  country. 
When  seized  by  a  presentiment  of  death  he  said: 
"The  course  of  my  doctrine  is  run,  and  I  am 
unlcnown."  "Never  does  a  superior  man  pass 
away  without  leaving  a  name  behind  him.  But 
my  principles  make  no  progress,  and  I  —  how 
shall  I  be  viewed  in  future  ages?" 

The  Relation  of  Confucianism  to  the  Ancient 
Worship  of  China:  The  sage  had  been  peculiarly 
reticent  in  regard  to  a  supreme  deity  and  to  the 
future  life.  "We  do  not  know  life,"  he  said; 
"how  can  we  know  death?"  Yet  when  his  life- 
work  was  done  he  gathered  his  books,  and,  ascend- 
ing a  hill  where  the  worship  of  Shangte  was 
observed,  he  laid  the  books  upon  the  altar,  and 
then  kneeling  before  them  he  gave  thanks  that 
he  had  been  permitted  to  live  to  see  their  com- 
pletion. There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  he  believed  in  a  supreme  being,  whom 
he  saw  fit  to  pass  in  sQence  for  a  purpose,  or 
whether  he  was  utterly  agnostic.  His  teachings 
incline  to  general  skepticism,  but  whatever  may 
have  been  his  personal  views  there  is  scarcely 
room  for  a  difference  on  the  question  of  whether 
a  religious  faith  more  or  less  monotheistic  pre- 
ceded Confucius.  The  best  Chinese  scholars 
agree  so  far.  Real  Chinese  history  can  be  traced 
no  farther  back  than  the  reign  of  Yaou,  2,356  B.C., 
and  there  we  find  clear  and  distinct  traces  of  a, 
worship  of  the  supreme  god  Shangte.  Yaou 
shared  his  throne  with  Shun,  who  succeeded  him. 
Both  have  been  looked  upon  in  all  succeeding 
ages  as  perfect  models  of  sovereigns.  Yaou  was 
the  King  Alfred  of  China,  who  by  his  wise  admin- 
istration united  all  the  warring  states  in  one 
empire.  He  encouraged  astronomical  researches 
and  all  useful  science.  We  are  told  that  when 
he  died  the  virtues  of  his  colleague  Shun  "were 
heard  on  high,"  and  he  was  therefore  appointed 
to  the  throne. 

One  of  his  first  acts  after  coming  to  full  power 
was  to  sacrifice  to  Shangte,  the  supreme  god. 
"Thereafter,"  we  are  told,  "he  sacrificed  specially, 
but  with  the  ordinary  forms,  to  Shangte;  sacri- 
ficed with  purity  and  reverence  to  the  Six  Hon- 
ored Ones,  offered  appropriate  sacrifices  to  the 
hills  and  rivers,  and  extended  his  worship  to 
the  hosts  of  spirits."  "This,"  says  R.  K.  Douglass,. 
Professor  of  Chinese  in  King's  College,  London, 
"is  the  first  mention  we  have  in  Chinese  history 
of  religious  worship,  tho  the  expressions 
used  ('but  with  the  ordinary  forms')  plainly 
imply  that  the  worship  of  Shangte  at  least  had 
previously  existed.  It  is  to  this  supreme  being 
that  all  the  highest  forms  of  worship  have  been 
offeied  in  all  ages.  By  his  decrees  kings  were 
made  and  rulers  executed  judgment.  ...  In  all 
probability  there  was  a  time  when  the  worship 
of  Shangte  was  the  expression  of  a  pure  mono- 
theistic faith  of  the  Chinese.  By  degrees,  how- 
ever, corruption  crept  in,  and,  tho  Shangte 
always  remained  the  supreme  object  of  venera- 


Confucianism 
Constantinople 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


192 


tion,  they  saw  no  disloyalty  to  him  in  rendering 
homage  to  the  powers  of  nature  which  they 
learned  to  personify,  and  to  the  spirits  of  their 
departed  ancestors  who  were  supposed  to  guard 
and  watch  over  in  a  subordinate  manner  the  wel- 
faie  of  their  descendants." 

Professor  Legge  of  Oxford,  in  "The  Religions 
of  China,"  has  illustrated  this  distinction  by 
quoting  the  prayers  of  an  emperor  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  which  were  offered  in  the  Temple  of 
Heaven  in  the  year  1538  a.d.,  in  which  he  first 
invokes  the  spirits  of  the  mountains  and  the 
hills,  and  asks  their  intercession  with  the  supreme 
God,  whose  name  he  proposes  slightly  to  change, 
that  the  change  may  be  acceptable  to  Him.  He 
then  proceeds  to  pray  directly  to  the  God  of 
heaven,  whom  he  addresses  as  the  creator  and 
upholder  and  ruler  of  all  things.  These  prayers 
show  how,  in  spite  of  the  teachings  of  Confucius, 
the  old  monotheism  which  he  ignored  still  sur- 
vived, and  they  show  also  what  great  truths 
underlie  the  worship  offered  in  the  Temple  of 
Heaven  in  Peking. 

In  his  prayer  to  the  spirits  he  says:  "Before- 
hand we  inform  you,  all  ye  celestial  and  all  ye 
terrestrial  spirits,  and  will  trouble  you  in  our 
behalf,  to  exert  your  spiritual  power  and  display 
your  vigorous  efficacy  communicating  our  poor 
desire  to  Shangte,  and  praying  him  graciously 
to  grant  us  his  acceptance  and  regard,  and  to  be 
pleased  with  the  title  which  we  shall  reverently 
present." 

"This  prayer  shows,"  says  Professor  Legge, 
"how  there  had  grown  up  around  the  primitive 
monotheism  of  China  the  recognition  and  wor- 
ship of  a  multitude  of  celestial  and  terrestrial 
spirits,  and  yet  the  monotheism  remained." 
How  differently  does  the  Emperor  proceed 
when,  having  thus  invoked  the  interceding  spirits, 
he  approaches  Shangte  directly.  He  begins: 
"Of  old,  in  the  beginning,  there  was  the  great 
chaos,  without  form  and  dark.  The  five  ele- 
ments had  not  begun  to  revolve  nor  the  sun  and 
moon  to  shine.  In  the  midst  thereof  there  pre- 
sented itself  neither  form  nor  sound.  Thou,  O 
spiritual  Sovereign!  earnest  forth  in  thy  presi- 
dency, and  first  didst  divide  the  grosser  parts 
from  the  purer.  Thou  madest  heaven;  thou 
madest  earth;  thou  madest  man;  all  things  got 
their  being  with  their  producing  power."  After 
stating  the  title  which  he  proposes  to  give  to 
Shangte,  he  adds:  "Thou  didst  produce,  0 
spirit  I  the  sun  and  moon  and  five  planets;  and 
pure  and  beautiful  was  their  light.  The  vault 
of  heaven  was  spread  out  like  a  curtain,  and 
the  square  earth  supported  all  on  it,  and  all 
creatures  were  happy.  I  thy  servant  presume 
reverently  to  thank  thee."  Farther  on  he  says: 
"All  living  things  are  indebted  to  thy  goodness, 
but  who  knows  whence  his  blessings  come  to 
him?  It  is  Thou  alone,  O  Lord,  who  art  the 
parent  of  all  things." 

The  temple-worship  of  Shangte  (for  real  person- 
ality is  still  recognized,  tho  the  name  be 
changed  for  Tien,  heaven)  has  always  been 
associated  with  the  Confucian  system.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever  suspended,  even 
temporarily,  after  Confucius  came;  and  here, 
in  the  prayers  of  the  Ming  emperor,  two  thousand 
years  after  his  time,  we  find  the  old  name  Shangte 
reasserted. 

No  more  impressive  account  has  been  given 
of  this  surviving  monotheistic  worship  in  Peking 
than  the  following  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Wm.  A. 


P.  Martin,  D.D. :  "Within  the  gates  of  the  south- 
ern division  of  the  capital,  and  surrounded  by  a 
sacred  grove  so  extensive  that  the  silence  of  its 
deep  shades  is  never  broken  by  the  noises  of  the 
busy  world,  stands  the  Temple  of  Heaven.  It 
consists  of  a  single  tower,  whose  tiling  of  resplen- 
dent azure  is  intended  to  represent  the  form  and 
color  of  the  aerial  vault.  It  contains  no  altar, 
and  the  solemn  rites  are  not  performed  within 
the  tower.  But  on  a  marble  altar  which  stands 
before  it  a  bullock  is  offered  once  a  year  as  a 
burnt-sacrifice,  while  the  master  of  the  empire 
prostrates  himself  in  adoration  of  the  spirit  of 
the  universe.  This  is  the  high  place  of  Chinese 
devotion,  and  the  thoughtful  visitor  feels  that 
he  ought  to  tread  the  place  with  unsandaled 
feet.  For  no  vulgar  idolatry  has  entered  here; 
this  mountain  top  still  stands  above  the  waves 
of  corruption,  and  on  this  solitary  altar  still  rests 
a  faint  ray  of  the  primaeval  faith.  The  tablet 
which  represents  the  invisible  deity  is  inscribed 
with  the  name  of  Shangte,  the  supreme  Ruler; 
and  as  we  contemplate  the  majesty  of  the  empire 
prostrate  before  it  while  the  smoke  ascends 
from  his  burning  sacrifice,  our  thoughts  are 
irresistibly  carried  back  to  the  time  when  the 
King  of  Salem  officiated  as  'Priest  of  the  Most 
High  God.'" 

Professor  Douglass  charges  Confucius  with 
having  promoted  the  spread  of  polytheism  by 
attempting  to  suppress  the  knowledge  of  the 
supreme  God.  He  substituted  for  Shangte 
(god),  Tien  (heaven);  and  that  change  has  sur- 
vived. But  the  people,  feeling  a  need  of  some 
thing  less  vague,  have  fallen  into  the  worship  of 
countless  other  objects,  and  particularly  the 
worship  of  ancestors.  "But,"  says  the  pro- 
fessor, "in  spite  of  the  silence  of  Confucius  on 
the  subject  of  Shangte,  his  worship  has  been 
maintained,  not  perhaps  in  its  original  purity, 
but  with  works  of  reverence  which  place  its 
object  on  the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  Chinese 
Pantheon.  At  the  present  day  the  imperial 
worship  of  Shangte  on  the  round  hillock  to  the 
south  of  the  city  of  Peking  is  surrounded  with 
all  the  solemnity  of  which  such  an  occasion  is 
capable." 

"There  is  no  need,"  says  Dr.  Martin,  "for 
extended  argument  to  establish  the  fact  that  the 
early  Chinese  were  by  no  means  destitute  of  the 
knowledge  of  God.  They  did  not,  indeed,  know 
him  as  the  Creator  (evidently  the  prayer  of  the 
Ming  emperor  recognized  Him  as  such),  but  they 
recognized  Him  as  supreme  in  providence,  and 
without  beginning  or  end.  Whence  came  this 
conception?  Was  it  the  mature  result  of  ages 
of  speculation,  or  was  it  brought  down  from 
remote  antiquity  on  the  stream  of  patriarchal 
tradition?  The  latter,  we  think,  is  the  only 
probable  hypothesis." 

There  has  been  a  long  and  earnest  discussion 
among  missionaries  as  to  how  far  the  identity 
of  Shangte  with  the  true  God  once  made  known 
to  men  may  be  traced.  Certainly  it  there  be  a 
real  succession  many  attributes  have  been  lost 
and  the  conception  in  any  Chinese  mind  is  very 
dim.  Yet  is  there  not  at  least  an  important 
reminiscence,  and  may  not  the  earnest  mission- 
ary have  the  same  grounds  that  Paul  had  for 
saying,  "Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  declare 
I  unto  you"? 

The  missionary  has  to  meet  in  the  Confucian 
that  self-centered  temper  and  that  inclination  to 
evil  which  is  familiar  enough  in  Christian  lands. 


193 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Confaclanlsni 
Constantinople 


Men  of  the  non-Christian  races  do  not  escape 
such  irreligion  by  being  without  knowledge  of 
Jesus  Christ.  What  the  missionary  also  has  to 
meet  among  the  followers  of  Confucius  is  an 
imperfect  code  of  morals  that  he  must  make  his 
ally  wherever  possible  rather  than  his  enemy. 
Confucianism  does  not  perfectly  repel  influences 
from  outside.  The  lesson  of  the  Boxer  outbreak 
of  1900  is  that  the  people  of  China  need  a  new 
moral  energy,  and  that  Christian  missionaries 
are  the  ones  to  give  them  this  energy,  making 
full  use,  for  the  purpose,  of  their  knowledge  of 
the  maxims  and  the  aims  of  Confucius. 

Douglass  (R.  K.),  Confucianism  and  Taouism,  London, 
1893;  Faber  (E.),  The  Mind  of  Mencius,  London,  1882; 
Jennings  (W.),  Confucian  ATialects,  London,  1895;  Legge 
(J.),   Texts  of  Confucianism   (Sacred   Books  of  the  East 

series),  Oxford  and  New  York;  Religions  of  China, 

London,  1881. 

CONGO  FREE  STATE:  The  exploration  of  the 
Congo  by  Stanley  in  1876-77  opened  a  new  door 
of  entrance  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  led 
to  the  establishment  in  1884  of  the  Congo  Free 
State.  This  is  an  independent  state  under  the 
sovereignty  of  Leopold  II.,  of  Belgium.  It  lies 
between  French  Congo  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan 
on  the  north,  and  Rhodesia  and  Portuguese  W. 
Africa  on  the  south,  reaching  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  which  it  touches  by  only  a  narrow  coast, 
to  Lake  Tanganyika  and  German  E.  Africa  on  the 
east.  It  is  drained  chiefly  by  the  Congo  and  its 
tributaries.  Its  rich  flora,  vast  forests  and  fertile 
soil  make  it  a  tropical  garden  of  great  agricul- 
tural possibilities,  while  its  mineral  wealth, 
mostly  unknown,  may  be  also  of  great  import- 
ance. A  commerce  amounting  annually  to  an 
exchange  in  imports  and  exports  of  about 
816,000,000  has  already  been  established  (1903). 

The  lands  of  the  Free  State  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  First,  those  in  the  actual  occupa- 
tion of  the  natives,  who  do  not  recognize  private 
property  in  the  soil,  but  hold  their  lands  as  long 
as  they  choose  to  cultivate  them,  but  have  no 
permanent  title  to  them.  The  second  class  is 
composed  of  lands  now  occupied  by  foreigners, 
who  hold  by  a  government  title.  All  these  titles 
are  registered,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  the 
sale  or  transfer  of  these  lands.  The  third  class 
consists  of  lands  as  yet  unoccupied.  These  to 
the  extent  of  25  acres  can  be  occupied  by  a  for- 
eigner, if  he  comes  to  an  understanding  with  the 
natives  about  them;  but  he  cannot  cut  timber 
or  open  mines  without  a  concession  from  the 
government. 

The  native  population  is  difficult  to  estimate, 
more  or  less  of  it  being  nomadic,  and  but  a  small 
percentage  sufficiently  established  in  known 
localities  to  make  calculation  reliable.  The  esti- 
mates vary  from  fourteen  millions  to  double  that 
number.  They  are  mostly  of  the  Bantu  race. 
There  are  some  Azandes  in  the  northeast  and 
scattered  tribes  of  pigmies  in  various  sections. 

The  religion  is  mostly  a  revolting  fetishism,  and 
cannibalism  is  not  uncommon.  Sorcerers  and 
wizards  are  found  everywhere,  and  exercise  a 
predominant  influence  over  the  superstitious 
natives.  Belief  in  evil  spirits  is  universal  and  the 
religious  ceremonies  for  the  most  part  are  gro- 
tesque and  barbarous.  Polygamy  and  slavery 
are  an  integral  part  of  the  social  fabric  and  of 
family  life.  Many  parts  of  the  country  remain 
unknown  and  in  a  condition  of  primitive  wild- 
ness,  while  in  some  of  the  eastern  districts  the 
inhabitants  are  still  terrified  by  the  raids  of  Arab 
slave  traders.  At  the  same  time  there  appears 
13 


to  be  indisputable  evidence  that  a  terror  of  the 
Belgian  officials  is  depopulating  some  districts  as 
effectually  as  in  former  days  did  the  terror  of 
the  Arab  slave  hunter. 

Protestant  missionary  enterprises  are  carried 
on  in  the  Congo  Free  State  by  the  ABMU,  the 
BMS,  the  FCMS,  the  RBMU,  the  PS,  the  PB, 
and  the  Swedish  Missionary  Society.  These 
societies  have  established  stations  at  23  different 
places  in  the  State. 

According  to  official  estimates  there  are  120 
Protestant,  and  180  Roman  Catholic  mission- 
aries in  the  Congo  Free  Stata.  Of  the  Roman 
Catholic  missions  there  are  four  each  under 
different  organizations: 

1.  The  Mission  du  Saint  Esprit,  at  Banana  and 
Boma.  There  are  4  priests  and  2  lay  brethren 
at  these  stations,  and  some  small  schools  which 
give  industrial  training  to  the  children. 

2.  The  Belgian  Mission:  Established  in  1888 
at  Kwa-mouth  on  the  Upper  Congo,  with  a  second 
station  projected  at  Luluaburg  on  the  Lulua 
River,  a  branch  of  the  Kasai,  just  on  the  southern 
boundary  line  of  the  Congo  Free  State. 

3.  A  New  Mission  at  Bangola,  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  Upper  Congo,  about  125  miles  above 
Equatorville.  This  is  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits.  The  Catholic  mission  steamer,  Leo 
XIII.,  is  plying  on  the  Upper  Congo. 

4.  The  Mission  of  the  Peres  d'  Algerie  (Algerian 
priests),  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  Free  State.  They  have  2  stations, 
Kibanja  on  Burton  Gulf,  and  Mpala  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Lofuku,  both  on  the  lake.  They  are 
laboring  among  the  Urua  tribe,  but  do  not  report 
much  success. 

Bailey,  Travel  and  Adventures  in  the  Congo  Free  State,  Lon- 
don, 1894;  Bentley  (Rev.  W.  H.),  Life  on  the  Congo,  Lon- 
don, 1887 ;  Pioneering  on  the  Congo,  London  and  New  York, 
1890;  Burrows,  Lanii  o/ (Ac  Pigmies,  London,  1889 ;  Stan- 
ley (H.  M.),  The  Congo  and  the  Founding  of  the  Free  State, 
2  vol.s.,  London,  1878;  Guinness  (Mrs.  H.  Grattan),  The 
New  Worla  of  Central  Africa.,  London  and  New  York. 

CONGO,  French.     See  French  Congo. 

CONSTANTINE:  Capital  of  a  department  of 
the  same  name  in  Algeria,  N.  Africa.  It  was  the 
ancient  Cirta,  and  stands  on  a  detached  rocky 
height,  surrounded  by  ravines  crossed  by 
bridges.  Its  altitude  above  the  sea  is  2,165  feet 
and  its  population  (1901),  41,138,  of  whom  the 
overwhelming  majority  are  Mohammedans.  It 
is  a  station  of  the  North  African  Mission  (1886), 
with  (1900)  6  missionaries,  men  and  women,  and 
a  book  depot. 

CONSTANTINOPLE:  Capital  of  the  Turkish 
Empire,  is  located  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bos- 
phorus  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  stands  partly 
m  Europe  and  partly  in  Asia.  It  is  the  natural 
center  toward  which  converge  the  lines  of  inter- 
est, of  trade,  and  population,  of  Southeastern 
Europe  and  Western  Asia.  Because  it  is  partly 
in  Europe  and  partly  in  Asia,  it  partakes  of  the 
character  of  both  continents  to  such  a  degree 
that  the  natives  of  each  find  themselves  at  home 
in  it.  The  beauty  of  its  scenery  is  scarcely  more 
marked  than  are  the  characteristics  that  make  it 
a  healthy  residence  at  every  season  of  the  year, 
and  a  center  whose  influences  make  themselves 
felt  in  every  portion  of  the  empire.  The  value 
of  its  location  has  been  much  impaired  by  the 
restrictions  upon  trade  of  absurd  custom-house 
regulations,  and  that  jealousy  of  purely  foreign 
investments  that  has  characterized  the  Turkish 
Government.       Produce     that     was     formerly 


CoBBtantinople 
Converts 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


194: 


brought  from  the  ports  of  the  Black  Sea  and 
reshipped  at  the  Golden  Horn  for  Europe,  now 
goes  direct  from  Odessa,  Varna,  Poti  and  Trebi- 
zond. 

Topographically  the  city  is  divided  into  three 
parts:  1.  Stamboul,  or  the  city  proper,  between 
the  Marmora  and  the  Golden  Horn,  occupying 
the  site  of  the  old  city.  2.  Galata  and  Pera, 
where  are  centered  the  European  commercial 
interests.  3.  The  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  the 
islands,  and  Marmora  suburbs.  The  city  stands 
on  several  hills,  so  that  there  is  the  best  of  natural 
drainage.  The  climate  is,  in  general,  mild  through 
the  whole  year,  the  winter  being  tempered  by 
south  winds,  while  in  the  summer  the  prevail- 
ing winds  are  from  the  north.  There  is  usually 
some  snow,  but  it  does  not  lie  long,  and  there  is 
rarely  much  ice.  In  the  summer  the  thermom- 
eter very  rarely  rises  above  90°.  The  chief 
drawback  to  residence  is  the  heavy  winds, 
which  are  hard  for  delicate  throats  and  lungs 
to  bear.  The  spring  months,  April,  May  and 
June,  are  the  most  favorable  for  visiting  the 
city. 

The  buildings  were  formerly  almost  entirely 
frame  houses,  poorly  put  together,  which  burned 
like  tinder  when  a  conflagration  was  once  started. 
Successive  disasters  of  this  kind  have  resulted  in 
the  use  of  brick  and  stone  in  a  great  degree,  tho 
much  that  appears  to  be  brick  is  really  only 
stucco. 

In  its  political  relations  Constantinople  is  the 
very  key  to  the  "Eastern  Question,"  but,  aside 
from  this  wider  international  importance,  its 
political  influence  is  a  most  important  element 
m  its  national  life. 

It  is  the  seat  of  all  government  for  the  empire. 
Every  local  official,  from  Adrianople  to  Bagdad, 
from  Trebizond  to  Tepedelen,  feels  the  influence 
that  binds  him  to  the  capital,  and  this  in  more 
ways  than  the  mere  reference  to  responsible 
chiefs  there.  The  sovereign  keeps  his  eye  not 
merely  upon  the  pashas,  but  on  every  little  village 
mudir;  and  no  one,  from  the  highest  to  the  low- 
est, can  tell  when  he  may  be  called  upon  to 
account  to  headquarters  for  some  act  that  it 
would  be  supposed  was  left  entirely  to  his  dis- 
cretion. Hence  if  any  disturbance  occurs  among 
the  Kurdish  Mountains,  on  the  Persian  border, 
it  must  be  settled,  not  at  the  capital  of  the 
province  (vilayet),  but  at  Constantinople.  The 
absolute  centralization  of  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment in  Constantinople  is  almost  more  marked 
than  is  that  of  Russia  in  St.  Petersburg. 

The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  various  hierar- 
chical influences.  The  Armenian  Patriarch  resi- 
dent in  Constantinople  is  subordinate  spiritually 
to  the  Catholicos  at  Etchmiadzine  (in  the  Cau- 
casus), but  politically  he  is  the  head  of  the  Arme- 
nian nation,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  Patriarch- 
ate is  maintained  in  much  the  same  way  as  is  that 
of  the  Porte.  So  with  the  Greeks  and  other 
Christian  communities. 

So,  again,  Constantinople  as  the  seat  of  the 
foreign  embassies  is  the  center  for  those  foreign 
influences  which  permeate  the  empire  to  a  degree 
almost  inconceivable  to  any  one  not  acquainted 
with  the  country. 

Thus  Constantinople  is  the  center  of  all  inter- 
ests of  the  remotest  sections  of  the  empire. 

The  population  of  Constantinople  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  900,000  to  1,100,000  souls,  of 
whom  considerably  more  than  half  are  Moham- 
medans.    The   Armenians  and   Greeks   number 


perhaps  80,000  each,  the  Jews,  70,000,  while  the 
remainder  comprise  almost  every  race  of  Europe 
and  Western  Asia,  for  thousands  of  men  come  up 
from  the  villages  of  all  Western  Asia,  spend  a  few 
years,  and  then  having  amassed  a  little  money, 
return  to  their  homes.  The  number  of  these  it  is 
impossible  to  estimate  at  all  accurately.  I'hey 
make  up  by  far  the  majority  of  the  laboring  class, 
the  porters  (hamals),  boatmen,  carpenters  and 
even  the  petty  tradesmen. 

In  former  times  each  religious  sect  occupied  a 
distinct  quarter  of  the  city.  Stamboul  had  its 
Mohammedan,  Armenian,  Greek  and  Jewish 
quarters,  while  the  Europeans  were  found  chiefly 
in  Pera,  and  social  intercourse  between  those  of 
different  creeds  was  almost  unknown.  Of  later 
vears  this  has  changed  in  a  great  degree;  districts 
have  encroached  on  each  other  until  in  some  cases 
boundary-lines  have  been  jjractically  obliterated. 
The  languages  are  as  varied  as  the  races.  The 
official  court  language  is  Turkish.  Greek,  Italian, 
English  and  German  are  almost  essential  to  any 
one  whose  business  relations  are  extensive,  while 
the  language  of  diplomacy,  and  the  common  lan- 
guage which  every  educated  person  of  any  race 
or  nation  is  assumed  to  know,  is  the  French. 
Armenian  is  used  only  among  Armenians,  who, 
however,  all  speak  Turkish,  while  many  of  them 
write  it.  Besides  these  one  hears  a  perfect  jargon 
of  sounds — Bulgarian,  Russian,  Arabic,  Persian, 
Spanish,  etc. — as  he  passes  through  the  streets 
or  stops  in  a  restaurant  or  ea{6. 

4.  Mission  Work:  The  above  statements  will 
readily  explain  the  importance  that  has  always 
been  attached  to  the  occupation  of  Constanti- 
nople as  a  center  for  missionary  operations. 
The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  occupied 
it  as  a  post  in  1823  and  has  now  (1902)  an  agency 
and  a  depot  with  17  colporteurs  and  Bible 
women.  The  American  Bible  Society  established 
an  agency  there  in  1856,  and  now  has  an  agent 
and  a  book  depot  and  10  colporteurs  and  Bible 
women.  Both  of  these  societies,  together  with 
the  mission  of  the  ABCFM,  have  publishing  and 
editorial  rooms,  besides  book  storage  depots  and 
salesrooms  in  the  Constantinople  Bible  House. 

The  ABCFM  (1831)  was  the  first  Society  to 
establish  missionaries  in  the  city.  It  now  (1902) 
has  there  17  missionaries,  of  whom  13  are 
women,  and  in  the  city  and  its  3  outstations  in 
neighboring  districts,  31  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  13  preaching  centers,  6  elementary 
schools,  1  publishing  house  and  390  church-mem- 
bers. The  American  College  for  Girls  is  also  con- 
nected with  this  Society.  Robert  College  (1860), 
an  off'shoot  from  this  mission,  is  not  in  any  way 
connected  with  it,  but  is  under  its  own  Board  of 
Trustees  in  New  York. 

Missions  to  the  Jews  were  the  next  to  be  estab- 
lished in  Constantinople,  beginning  with  that  of 
the  London  Society  for  the  Evangelization  of  the 
Jews  (1835),  followed  by  that  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  (1842)  and  the  Established  Church 
of  Scotland.  These  Societies  now  (1900)  have  ia 
the  city,  11  missionaries,  men  and  women  (one  a 
physician),  25  native  workers,  3  preaching  centers, 
2  orphanages,  4  elementary  schools,  1  high  school 
and  1  dispensary. 

The  Kaiserswerth  deaconesses  also  have  a  sta- 
tion here  (1852)  with  a  hospital  and  a  kindergar- 
ten school,  with  17  deaconesses  in  charge  of  these 
institutions. 

Later  enterprises  are  the  FCMS  (1879)  and  the 
Seventh  Day  Adventists'  Mission  (1887),  which 


105 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Constantinople 
Converts 


have  both  together  10  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  and  in  the  city  and  their  27  outstations  in 
different  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  4  native  workers, 
6  preaching  centers,  4  elementary  schools  and 
462  professing  Christians. 

The  political  relations  of  the  representatives  of 
these  various  missionary  bodies  in  a  center  of 
influence  like  Constantinople  is  a  phase  of  mis- 
sionary life  which  is  found  to  be  of  no  small  diffi- 
culty, but  of  great  importance.  The  mission- 
aries themselves  often  have  cases  affecting  their 
rights  as  citizens  which  must  be  carried  to  the 
embassy;  and  there  are  innumerable  instances 
when  their  kind  offices  are  sought  in  behalf  of 
people  who  have  been  for  one  cause  or  another 
imprisoned  or  persecuted  in  every  part  of  the 
empire.  This  work  requires  time,  tact,  patience, 
and  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  country  and  its 
people,  their  laws  and  customs. 

While  there  is  much  valuable  missionary  work 
done  in  Constantinople,  its  chief  importance  after 
all  is  as  a  strategic  point.  To  withdraw  or  even 
weaken  the  force  there  would  be  to  court  disaster 
in  the  whole  empire.  If  Constantinople  can  be 
held,  the  Levant  will  certainly  be  evangelized. 

Amicis  (E.  de),  Constantinople,  New  York,  1896;  Grosvenor 
(E.  A.),  Consianti-nople,  2  vols.,  Boston,  1895;  Dwight 
(H.  O.),  Constantinople  and  Its  Problems,  New  York,  1901 ; 
Prime  (E.  D.  G.),  Forty  Years  in  the  Turkish  Empire, 
New  York,  1875. 

CONSTERDINE,  Rev.  Charles:  Born  at  Little- 
borough,  Lancashire,  September  15,  1869. 
From  the  time  of  his  conversion  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen he  manifested  the  liveliest  interest  in  Chris- 
tian work,  and  in  1895  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Free  Methodist  Church,  England,  to  Newton 
Abbott,  in  the  Exeter  Circuit,  as  pastor.  As  his 
heart  was  turned  to  the  mission  field,  he  soon 
offered  his  services  to  the  Missionary  Committee 
for  East  Africa,  and,  altho  just  before  he  sailed, 
the  news  reached  him  of  the  death  of  one  with 
whom  he  hoped  to  be  associated  in  his  African 
work,  which  put  new  emphasis  upon  the  malarial 
climate  of  British  East  Africa,  he  was  heard  to 
exclaim:  "I  am  ready  for  a  service  of  sacrifice." 
He  first  settled  at  Rib6,  near  Mombasa,  British 
East  Africa;  but,  soon  after  the  Assembly  of 
1897,  he  became  the  colleague  of  Mr.  Ormerod 
.  at  Golbanti,  farther  inland,  and  it  was  there  that 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days.  Soon  after 
reaching  the  foreign  field  he  impressed  his  asso- 
ciates by  his  intense  zeal  and  enthusiasm ;  and  his 
warm  affection  for  the  people  among  whom  he 
lived  and  labored  gained  for  him  a  remarkable 
influence  with  all  classes.  His  self-forgetfulness 
led  him  to  sacrifice  himself,  and,  altho  he  was 
repeatedly  urged  to  return  to  England  for  the 
restoration  of  his  health,  he  would  answer:  "No, 
no;  I  have  thought  sometimes  that  I  must  return, 
but  not  now."  On  Thursday,  January  23,  1902, 
a  second  attack  of  fever,  followed  by  other  and 
worse  symptoms,  brought  his  consecrated  service 
to  an  end,  and  on  the  following  Sunday  evening 
he  peacefully  passed  out  of  the  shadows  into  the 

CONVA:  A  town  in  the  western  part  of  the 
island  of  Trinidad,  W.  I.  Station  of  the  PCC 
(1874),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
missionary  woman,  17  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  2  preaching  centers,  20  Sunday  schools, 
11  elementary  schools  and  100  church- 
members. 

CONVERTS  IN  MISSION  FIELDS:  The  grace 
of  God  will  do  in  India,  in  China,  in  Japan,  in 


Africa,  and  unto  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth, 
what  His  grace  will  do  in  the  United  States. 

In  all  mission  fields  large  numbers  of  converts 
to  Christianity  prove  their  sincerity  by  their 
readiness  to  follow  the  light  at  any  cost  to  them- 
selves; and  their  stability  is  proved  by  the  strong 
front  which  they  oppose  to  temptations  and  per- 
secutions, and  only  right  leadership  is  needed  to 
keep  them  in  constant  activity  in  spiritual  affairs. 
In  this  article  reference  is  made  to  instances  in 
China,  both  as  familiar  to  the  writer  and  as  par- 
ticularly typical  of  the  world-wide  field. 

In  heathen  countries  the  sincerity  of  a  convert 
is  subjected  to  severe  testing  at  the  outset.  The 
demands  of  a  Christian  life  bring  the  convert  at 
once  into  antagonism  with  the  social  customs  of 
his  people.  If  he  meets  the  demands  he  becomes 
a  peculiar  member  of  the  family  and  of  the  com- 
munity, and  separation  follows. 

Separation,  ridicule  and  ostracism  are  difficult 
to  bear  anywhere,  possibly  nowhere  more  difficult 
than  in  China.  Nevertheless,  all  this  the  Chinese 
converts  bear  cheerfully;  not  only  so,  but  they 
often,  by  their  zeal,  invite  attention  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  Christians. 

The  writer  once  had  under  his  supervision  a 
newly  organized  church  in  China,  which  had  met 
with  much  opposition  from  the  community  in 
which  it  was  located.  The  chapels  of  Chinese 
Christians  usually  have,  over  the  door,  signs 
announcing  that  they  are  places  of  worship. 
The  members  of  this  church  were  advised  to  omit 
the  sign  and  to  proceed  cautiously,  seeking  to 
quietly  win  over  the  community.  Returning  to 
the  locality  some  months  after  our  former  visit, 
I  found  over  the  door  of  the  little  meeting  place 
the  usual  sign,  in  large  Chinese  characters,  "The 
Church  of  Jesus."  The  members  said  that  they 
were  acting  within  their  legal  rights  in  organizing 
the  church  and  they  wished  to  announce  their 
place  of  worship  for  the  help  of  all. 

In  countries  where  the  Sabbath  has  not  been 
known  the  sincerity  of  the  native  Christian  is 
tested  by  the  demand  for  Christian  observance. 
It  is  a  struggle  for  life  in  these  crowded  Oriental 
nations.  The  Christian  must  compete  for  a 
living  with  men  who  work  seven  days  a  week. 
All  do  not  meet  the  test  equally,  but  the  church 
in  mission  fields  affords  numerous  illustrations  of 
loyalty  to  conviction  and  sincerity  of  purpose. 
Mr.  Sun,  a  venerable  man,  was  a  cloth  seller  with 
his  stand  out  on  the  great  Hata  Street,  Peking. 
He  became  interested  in  the  Bible,  read  it,  pon- 
dered it,  conversed  about  it  with  Christians,  and 
was  converted.  His  stand  was  well  known,  his 
patrons  numerous.  As  a  Christian  he  decided 
he  must  close  his  stand  on  Sunday.  His  patrons 
knew  nothing  about  Sunday,  and,  finding  every 
now  and  then  when  they  came  to  make  purchases 
that  the  stand  was  closed  and  the  proprietor 
absent,  began  to  transfer  their  patronage  to 
others.  This  was  a  testing  time  for  Mr.  Sun,  for 
a  large  family  depended  upon  him.  But  he  was 
loyal  to  his  conviction,  and  held  true  until  death, 
his  influence  being  a  power  for  good  in  the  Peking 
community. 

There  are  young  men,  trained  in  our  mission 
colleges  in  Western  science,  mathematics  and 
English,  who  are  entering  the  Christian  ministry 
and  Christian  educational  work,  at  salaries  not 
more  than  one-fifth  the  amount  they  could  com- 
mand in  secular  employment.  The  writer  knows 
of  a  young  man  who  graduated  from  college  and 


Converts 
Copiapo 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


196 


was  accepted  by  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs, 
and  was  to  be  assigned  to  a  position  that  would 
have  paved  the  way  for  a  successful  financial 
career.  He  wished  to  enter  the  customs  service 
in  order  to  help  his  father  in  the  support  of  a 
large  family.  After  accepting  the  position  he 
spent  a  sleepless  night  in  the  conflict  between 
desire  and  conviction,  and  the  following  morning 
reported  that  he  must  abandon  his  intention  of 
a  mercantile  life,  and  give  himself  wholly  to  the 
work  of  the  Church  in  saving  others.  To-day  he 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  men  in  China.  Every 
year  graduates  from  mission  colleges  are  mani- 
festing the  sincerity  of  their  profession  by  turning 
aside  from  fine  worldly  positions  to  take  up  a  life 
of  toil,  with  small  pay,  for  Christ's  sake. 

Stability:  There  may  be  sincerity  of  purpose, 
and  yet  purpose  may  fail  under  unusual  strain. 
The  cataclysm  of  1900  in  North  China  was  cal- 
culated to  test  to  the  utmost  the  stability  of  the 
converts. 

Hundreds  died  in  the  persecution  who,  by 
burning  incense  and  bowing  the  knee  to  idols, 
might  have  saved  their  lives.  In  the  London 
Mission  a  man  named  Fan,  a  gatekeeper,  was 
called  upon  by  the  Boxers  to  recant.  He  refused. 
He  was  carried  into  an  open  lot,  a  hole  was  dug 
of  a  depth  so  that  when  he  was  dropped  into 
it  his  head  was  below  the  level  of  the  surface. 
The  loose  earth  was  filled  in  up  to  his  knees  and 
he  was  called  upon  to  recant;  he  refused.  Up  to 
the  waist;  he  refused.  Up  to  the  chin  as  he  stood 
erect,  and  again  he  was  called  upon  to  recant  and 
save  his  life.  Once  more  he  refused  and  the  loose 
earth  was  filled  up  over  liis  head,  burying  him 
alive. 

A  student,  a  young  man  twenty-one  years  of 
age,  a  senior  in  college,  was  caught  by  the  Boxers 
and  called  upon  to  recant.  He  told  tbem  he 
could  not.  They  discussed  his  case  and  agreed 
to  compromise — to  let  him  recant  by  proxy,  one 
of  their  number  burning  incense  and  bowing  the 
head  in  the  young  man's  stead,  and  they  offered 
if  he  would  accept  this  substitute  to  let  him  go. 
Again  he  refused,  saying,  "If  I  did  that,  to  say 
nothing  of  disobeying  God,  I  could  never  go  to 
Peking  and  look  my  teachers  and  classmates  in 
the  face  again,"  and  he  began  to  exhort  them. 
Angered  by  his  refusal  and  his  exhortations  they 
cut  off  his  lips,  his  arms,  his  legs,  and  he  died, 
faithful  to  the  end. 

One  young  man,  a  preacher,  whose  father, 
mother,  sister  and  brother  were  massacred  by 
the  Boxers,  when  asked  by  the  magistrate  what 
he  wanted  by  way  of  indemnity,  replied  that  he 
asked  only  that  he  might  have  the  privilege  of 
preaching  the  Gospel  to  those  who  had  put  his 
family  to  death.  One  of  the  leading  British 
njerchants  of  Tientsin,  in  a  letter  to  the  Peking 
and  Tientsin  Times,  a  secular  paper  published 
in  Tientsin,  called  attention,  shortly  after  the 
siege  of  Peking,  to  the  fidelity  and  stability  of 
the  native  Christians,  which,  he  said,  had  come 
as  a  revelation  to  himself  and  to  many  of  his 
friends  of  the  business  world. 

Activity:  Converts  on  the  mission  field  often  are 
earnestly  active  in  attendance  on  public  worship 
and  in  the  performance  of  outward  duties  per- 
taining to  their  personal  salvation,  as  they  con- 
ceive it,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are  slow  to 
apprehend  their  personal  responsibility  for  the 
savingof  their  fellow-countrymen.  This  was  the 
case  with  a  certain  preacher,  who  arose  in  a 
Methodist  class  meeting  and  announced  that  he   ' 


had  thought  of  visiting  a  distant  village  to  tell 
the  Gospel  story  to  relatives  there  whom  he  had 
not  seen  since  his  conversion;  "but,"  he  added, 
"they  will  be  so  busy,  all  the  time  that  I  am 
there,  trying  to  get  money  out  of  me  that  they 
will  have  no  ears  for  the  Gospel.  Since  they  are 
bound  to  go  to  hell  anyway,  they  can  go  to  hell. 
I  shall  not  visit  them."  Yet  this  man  steadily 
preached  the  Gospel,  and  lived  a  life  so  exemplary 
that  he  was  the  trusted  partner  of  the  mission- 
aries, and  he  finally  gave  his  life  for  the  Gospel's 
sake  and  now  rests  in  a  martyr's  grave. 

The  training  of  native  preachers,  teachers, 
Bible  women  and  colporteurs;  and  special  work 
in  the  schools  and  in  connection  with  evangelistic 
meetings,  is  developing  an  ever-widening  and 
deepening  sense  of  personal  responsibility;  and, 
year  by  year,  an  ever-increasing  number  of  men 
and  women  are  taking  arduous  posts,  enduring 
hardship  and  persecution  cheerfully,  and  exer- 
cising strong  faith  and  offering  prevailing  prayers 
in  behalf  of  their  countrymen.  Converts  from 
Hawaii  are  the  evangelists  of  Micronesia;  con- 
verted Samoans  have  a  noble  record  as  pioneers 
in  work  for  the  savages  of  Polynesia  and  Mela- 
nesia; Fiji  Christians  are  now  devoting  their  lives 
to  the  evangelization  of  New  Guinea;  a  converted 
Muslim  from  Turkey  has  been  laboring  among 
Mohammedans  in  Chinese  Turkestan. 

And  the  church  members  are  more  and  more 
taking  active  part  in  the  work  of  soul  saving. 
They  bring  to  the  work  a  direct  faith  that  is 
lionored  in  inspiring  results — as,  for  instance, 
when  a  group  of  church  members  united  in 
prayer  for  the  salvation  of  a  girl  sold  into  a  haunt 
of  vice  and  contaminated  by  five  years'  contact 
with  the  life  there.  Not  knowing  what  to  do, 
they  prayed.  They  got  the  girl  away  from  her 
vile  keepers,  and  then  did  not  know  what  to  do 
with  her;  they  prayed.  A  profligate  young  man, 
recently  converted,  said,  "Let  us  begin  the  pure 
life  together."  They  were  married  and  from 
thenceforth  went  in  and  out  among  the  church 
members,  honored  and  happy.  They  were  to  the 
membership  a  revelation  of  the  possibilities  of 
faith,  and  their  presence  was,  therefore,  a  blessing 
to  the  church,  and  those  who  had  prayed  in  such 
perplexity  spoke  of  the  result  with  bated  breath 
and  reverently,  as  if  feeling  the  Master  near. 

The  Student  Federation  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  is  enlarging  the  horizon,  of 
young  men  on  mission  fields  and  the  ringing  call 
of  their  motto,  "The  Evangelization  of  the  World 
in  this  Generation,"  is  awakening  many  young 
converts  to  splendid  service. 

In  Peking  the  Christian  young  men  have 
assumed  responsibility  for  the  street  chapels, 
where  they  render  effective  service  by  their  fervid 
testimony.  They  have  also  given  themselves 
ungrudgingly  to  the  distribution  of  Christian 
literature  at  the  great  examinations  held  in 
Peking,  one  of  which,  the  Triennial  Examination, 
calls  together  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand  stu- 
dents from  all  parts  of  the  empire.  This  work 
calls  for  fortitude  and  forbearance  and  the  efforts 
are  not  always  well  received.  The  Chinese  have 
shown  aggressiveness  in  mercantile  life  in  stretch- 
ing out  to  adjoining  lands.  We  find  them  m 
Japan,  the  Philippines,  the  Straits  Settlements, 
and  in  many  other  lands,  and  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  when  the  Gospel  is  more  widely 
diffused  and  has  become  more  the  dominant  force 
in  their  lives,  they  will  be  equally  aggressive  in 
spiritual  matters.     They  are  essentially  the  dom- 


197 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Converts 
Coplapo 


inant  race  of  the  East,  and  as  goes  China  so  goes 
the  great  Eastern  world. 

The  mission  fields  are  not  yet  producing  men 
who  are  capable  of  independent  leadership.  The 
leaders  must  come  from  among  those  who  are 
born  to  the  perspective  and  wide  horizon, 
the  traditions  and  teachings  of  Christian 
lands. 

Such  leaders,  with  faith  to  hope  all  things  and 
believe  all  things  concerning  the  character  and 
possibilities  of  the  converts  on  mission  fields,  will 
find  comrades  there,  talented  and  possessed  of  a 
singularly  direct  faith,  quick  to  apprehend,  apt 
at  suggestion,  skilful  in  affairs,  who  will  follow 
anywhere,  dare  any  danger,  bear  any  hardship, 
stand  true  before  the  persecutor,  and  all  sincere, 
steadfast  and  active  in  the  service  of  the  Great 
Captain  to  the  last. 

COOK  ISLANDS.    See  Hbrvet  Islands. 

COOKE,  Miss  M.  A.:  In  1820  Miss  Cooke  was 
sent  to  India  by  the  British  and  Foreign  School 
Society,  at  the  request  of  a  local  educational 
body  at  Calcutta,  with  a  view  of  starting  a  school 
for  Hindu  girls.  Female  education  had  already 
been  successfully  begun  at  Serampur  by  Mrs. 
Marshman  of  the  Baptist  Mission;  and  Miss 
Cooke  was  to  make  an  attempt  in  the  East  India 
Company's  territory.  After  a  few  months  the 
local  body  found  itself  without  funds  to  continue, 
and  Miss  Cooke  was  transferred  to  the  CMS. 
While  she  was  still  studying  Bengali,  and  wonder- 
ing in  what  way  she  might  presently  begin  to 
worli,  an  incident  occurred  which  gave  her  an 
unexpected  opening.  On  January  25,  1822, 
Miss  Cooke  visited  one  of  the  boys'  schools  in 
order  to  observe  the  pronunciation  of  the  lan- 
guage. Because  of  her  presence  a  number  of  the 
natives  gathered  round  the  school  door;  and  in 
the  crowd  was  a  little  girl,  whom  the  native 
teacher  drove  away,  telling  Miss  Cooke  that  the 
child  had  for  three  months  been  disturbing  them 
by  begging  to  be  allowed  to  learn  to  read  with  the 
boys.  Miss  Cooke  immediately  determined  to 
return  next  day  and  begin  to  teach  her  as  well 
as  she  could.  Next  day  she  went  again,  accom- 
panied by  an  Englishwoman  who  spoke  the  Ben- 
gali well;  and  they  found  fifteen  girls  assembled, 
with  their  mothers.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a 
work  that  has  produced  great  results;  and  when 
Miss  Cooke  sent  her  first  report  to  England,  she 
could  tell  of  fifteen  schools  and  nearly  four  hun- 
dred girls  in  attendance.  Miss  Cooke  suggested 
that  girls'  schools  throughout  England  should  be 
invited  to  contribute  specially  to  this  work;  and 
the  Calcutta  Committee  opened  a  special  fund 
which  speedily  reached  3,000  rupees.  Soon  after 
this,  Miss  Cooke  was  married  to  Rev.  Isaac  Wilson 
of  the  CMS,  but  she  continued  her  labors  zealously 
both  during  her  married  life  and  long  after  she 
became  a  widow  in  1828.  In  1824  a  Ladies' 
Female  Education  Society  was  founded  at  Cal- 
cutta which,  with  the  assistance  of  a  grant  of 
£500  from  the  CMS,  had  established  a  Central 
School,  with  Mrs.  Wilson  at  the  head  of  it.  In 
1836  she  was  released  from  this  Central  School; 
and  she  was  enabled  to  carry  out  the  desire  of 
her  heart  by  establishing  a  female  orphanage  at 
Agarpara.  In  1842  she  herself  united  with  the 
Plymouth  Brethren;  but  she  transferred  her 
institution  to  the  Society  under  which  she  had 
worked,  and  Agarpara  became  a  CMS  station. 
In  the  Missimary  Register  (1838),  the  Bishop 
wrote  these  wo-ds  of  Mrs.  Wilson:  "She  is  carry- 


ing on  the  greatest  undertaking  yet  witnessed  in 
India." 

COOPER,  Rev.  David  James :  Born  at  Belfast, 
Ireland,  in  1873;  died  at  Fez,  Morocco,  October 
17,  1902.  After  a  short  mercantile  career,  he 
was  led  to  devote  his  life  to  missions;  and  in 
November,  1896,  he  was  sent  by  the  NAM  to 
Tripoli,  in  Barbary,  where  he  pursued  his  Arabic 
studies,  and  worked  successfully  in  a  medical 
mission.  The  lamentable  death  of  Miss  Herd- 
man,  of  Fez,  in  the  spring  of  1899,  made  it  nec- 
essary to  find  some  one  to  take  up  the  work; 
and  it  was  evident  that  a  man  was  needed  who 
would  combine  sympathy,  tact,  good  sense,  and 
marked  spirituality.  Mr.  Cooper  was  chosen  for 
the  work,  and  went  to  Morocco  in  the  spring  of 
1900.  He  spent  a  short  time  at  Tangier;  and  in 
the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  entered  upon  his 
work  at  Fez.  The  work  was  interesting,  but  for 
various  reasons  by  no  means  easy.  Mr.  Cooper, 
by  God's  grace,  succeeded  beyond  the  expecta- 
tions of  his  best  friends;  and  not  only  did  the 
work  grow  in  solidity  and  strength,  but  some 
new  Muslim  converts  were  numbered  among  the 
Christians.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
country  was  rather  disturbed  on  account  of 
native  dissatisfaction  with  the  Sultan's  pro- 
gressive and  European  ideas,  there  seemed 
every  prospect  of  a  work  of  wide-spread  useful- 
ness and  power.  On  October  16,  1900,  Mr. 
Cooper  wrote  an  interesting  letter,  giving  an 
account  of  his  journey  up  to  Fez;  and  this  letter 
reached  the  office  of  his  mission  board  after  his 
martyrdom.  On  October  17  he  went  on  the 
streets  with  two  of  the  colporteurs,  and  while  he 
was  standing  near  the  principal  mosque,  a  Mo- 
hammedan fanatic  shot  him  in  the  back.  Altho 
the  best  of  medical  care  was  given  him,  he  died 
two  hours  after  the  fatal  shot  was  fired.  Within 
less  than  an  hour  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Cooper, 
by  order  of  the  Sultan,  his  murderer  was  put  to 
death;  and  the  Sultan,  after  expressing  his  abhor- 
rence of  the  crime,  granted  Mrs.  Cooper  £1,000 
as  an  expression  of  his  sympathy  in  her  bereave- 
ment. 

COORG:  A  small  native  state  in  Southern 
India,  lying  chiefly  among  the  mountains  of  the 
Western  Ghats.  The  name  is  derived  from  that 
of  a  fine,  hardy  race  of  mountaineers  who  once 
dominated  the  region,  and  whose  descendants 
still  form  a  noticeable  element  in  the  population. 
The  dimensions  of  the  territory  are  about  60 
miles  north  and  south,  and  40  east  and  west. 
The  population  is  178,302,  composed  chiefly  of 
Hindus.  There  are  only  about  27,000  left  of  the 
original  tribes  of  the  Coorgs.  Mohammedans 
contribute  only  seven  per  cent,  of  the  total. 
The  chief  town  is  Merkara,  with  a  population  of 
between  eight  and  nine  thousand.  The  Basel 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society  has  a  mission  in 
Coorg.  The  family  of  native  chiefs  who  once 
ruled  Coorg  was  deposed  by  the  supreme  govern- 
ment of  India  in  1834,  and  has  since  become 
extinct.  The  territory  is  directly  under  the 
supervision  of  the  viceroy,  and  is  administered 
by  the  British  Resident  at  Mysore,  who  is  also 
chief  commissioner  of  Coorg. 

COPAY :  A  station  of  the  CMS  in  the  Jaffna  dis- 
trict of  Ceylon,  with  (1901)  2  missionary  women, 
native  workers  and  a  training  school  for  teachers. 
The  statistics  are  included  under  Jaffna. 

COPIAPO :  Capital  of  the  Department  of  Ata- 
cama,  (3hile,  situated  on  the  Copiapo  River,  50 


Coptic  Church 
Croats 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


198 


miles  from  its  seaport  of  Caldera,  and  at  an  alti- 
tude of  1,300  feet.  It  is  the  center  of  a  mining 
district  and  has  extensive  silver  refineries.  The 
population  (1900)  is  9,301.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1870)  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3 
native  workers,  1  chapel,  6  Sunday  schools,  2 
common  schools,  4  chief  outstations  and  300  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

COPTIC  CHURCH :  The  relic  of  a  once  power- 
ful and  progressive  Egyptian  Christianity,  dating 
from  the  1st  century.  According  to  its  traditions 
St.  Marl<  was  its  founder  and  first  Patriarch.  Its 
ritual  appears  to  be  a  close  reproduction  of  early 
Christian  originals.  Its  doctrine  is  of  the  Jacob- 
ite class,  defending  the  Monophysite  heresy,  and 
its  relations  to  all  other  Christian  bodies  have 
been  bitterly  exclusive. 

The  Coptic  Church  was  a  missionary  and 
aggressive  body  up  to  the  4th  century,  carrying 
its  missions  into  Abyssinia  and  beyond,  almost  to 
the  equator.  It  is  now  sunlc  in  ignorance,  altho 
beginning  to  give  some  small  signs  of  intellectual 
awalcening  through  the  influence  upon  the  com- 
mon people  of  American  (U.  P.)  and  English  mis- 
sionaries. Several  priests  and  one  bishop  of  this 
Church  were  educated  in  the  CMS  seminary,  for- 
merly conducted  at  Cairo. 

The  Coptic  clergy  consist  of  monks,  deacons, 
priests,  arch-priests,  bishops  and  metropolitans; 
the  whole  hierarchy  being  under  the  direction  of 
the  Coptic  Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  The  Patri- 
arch has  the  right  to  appoint  the  metropolitan  of 
Abyssinia,  and  even  the  privilege  of  issuing  the 
religious  authorization  when  occasion  befalls  for 
the  coronation  of  a  king  of  Abyssinia. 

The  prelates  of  the  Church  as  well  as  the  monks 
are  required  to  observe  celibacy,  but  on  the  other 
hand  marriage  is  an  absolute  condition  prece- 
dent to  ordination  of  a  priest. 

Butcher  (E.  T.),  The  Story  of  the  Church  of  Egypt,  2  vols., 
London,  1897. 

COPTIC  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Hamitic 
family  of  languages.  It  was  once  the  vernacular 
tongue  of  Egypt,  but  it  was  superseded  by  the 
Greek,  more  especially  by  the  Arabic,  and  is  now  a 
merely  literary  language  cultivated  by  Biblical 
scholars  and  a  very  few  of  the  Coptic  priests. 
There  are  three  principal  dialects  in  Coptic,  viz., 
the  Memphitic,  Sahidic  and  Bashmuric.  The 
Memphitic,  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mem- 
phis, is  the  least  pure  of  the  three;  the  Sahidic  or 
Thebaic,  found  in  Upper  Egypt,  is  more  purely 
Egyptian  and  the  Baslirauric,"  found  in  the  Delta, 
differs  from  the  others  chiefly  by  certain  changes 
in  the  vowels  and  in  some  of  the  consonants. 
The  Coptic  alphabet  is  a  slightly  modified  form  of 
the  Greek. 

COPTS:  A  people  of  Egypt,  numbering  about 
600,000  and  supposed  to  be  a  survival  from  the 
Egyptians  of  the  Pharaohs.  The  name  Copt  is  a 
religious  rather  than  an  ethnic  term,  since  it  is 
applied  to  Christians  only,  while  the  Moham- 
medan Fellahin  of  Egypt  are  of  the  same  stock 
and  race. 

The  Copts  are,  however,  far  more  intelligent 
and  enterprising  than  their  kinsmen  who  did  not 
accept  Christianity.  Nevertheless  when  com- 
pared with  other  Oriental  Christians,  as  Greeks 
and  Arrnenians,  or  with  Jews,  they  are  seen  to 
lack  initiative.  Wherever  found  the  Copts  are 
gentle  and  submissive  to  control;  in  lower  Egypt 
and  Tripoli  they  are  clerks  and  traders,  shrewd 
business  men  and  able  when  under  guidance.     In 


upper  Egypt  they  are  more  frequentlji   indus- 
trious agriculturists. 

American  (UP)  and  English  (CMS)  Mifsions 
have  done  much  toward  stimulating  the  Copts 
into  a  new  intellectual  growth;  and  now  the 
Copts  have  about  1,000  elementary  schools  which 
they  seek  to  conduct  somewhat  upon  Western 
principles.  In  these  schools  they  now  make  it  a 
point  to  teach  the  ancient  Coptic  language. 
About  one-half  of  the  males  in  the  Coptic  com- 
munity can  read  and  write.  See  also  Coptic 
Church. 

Lane  (E.  W.),  An  Account  of  the  Modem  Egyptians,  2  vols., 
London,  1871;  Poole  (S.  Lane),  Cairo,  London,  1897; 
Fowler  (M.),  Christian  Egypt,  London,  1900. 

COQUIMBO:  A  seaport  town  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  same  name,  Chile,  S.  America;  sit- 
uated on  Coquimbo  Bay,  about  200  miles  N.  of 
Valparaiso.  Population  about  9,000.  Station 
of  the  ME,  with  (1902)  2  native  workers,  2  Sunday 
schools,  and  69  professing  Christians. 

COREA.     See  Korea. 

CORDOVA :  Capital  of  the  province  of  Cordova, 
Argentina,  S.  America;  situated  near  the  center 
of  the  republic.  It  was  formerly  the  ecclesias- 
tical metropolis  of  South  America.  It  has  still 
somewhat  of  that  character,  having  an  important 
University,  and  a  very  influential  part  of  the  city 
being  that  in  which  the  clergy  and  their  nearest 
adherents  reside.  It  is  also  an  important  com- 
mercial and  railway  center.  Its  population 
(1901)  is  about  50,000.  Station  of  the  SAEM, 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  of  the  PB, 
with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives.  Name  also 
written  Cordoba. 

COROZAL:  A  town  in  British  Honduras,  sit- 
uated 62  miles  N.  of  Belize.  Population  5,000. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1901)  1  missionary, 
7  native  workers,  5  preaching  centers,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  common  school  and  45  professing 
Christians. 

COSTA  RICA:  A  republic  of  Central  America. 
Area,  22,000  square  miles.  Population,  243,205, 
chiefly  mestizoes,  negroes  and  Indians.  Lan- 
guage, Spanish.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic. 
Tlie  capital  is  San  Jos6,  in  a  beautiful  valley  in 
the  central  part  of  Costa  Rica.  Punta  Arenas  is 
the  port  of  San  3os6,  situated  on  the  Gulf  of 
Nicoya,  the  best  harbor  and  only  port  of  entry 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  main  range  of  the 
Andes,  entering  Costa  Rica  from  the  southeast, 
traverses  its  entire  territory,  widening  toward 
the  northwest,  and  forming  a  table  land,  on 
which  are  situated  the  principal  towns  and  cen- 
ters of  population.  The  rivers  of  Costa  Rica, 
altho  numerous,  are  of  inconsiderable  size,  the 
San  Juan,  which  serves  as  a  boundary  between 
it  and  Nicaragua,  being  the  only  one  navigable 
for  steamers.  It  has  no  lakes  of  any  great  impor- 
tance, but  numerous  small  ones  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  ranges.  Costa  Rica  lies  in  a  volcanic 
belt  and  is  therefore  subject  to  frequent  earth- 
quakes. The  soil  is  very  productive,  and,  the 
less  rich  in  minerals  than  some  of  the  neighbor- 
ing countries,  it  contains  some  rich  gold-mines. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  delightful  in  the  up- 
lands, hot  on  the  plains,  but  everywhere  health- 
ful, except  along  the  lagoons  on  the  western 
coast. 

Costa  Rica  has  been  a  republic  since  1821,  and 
is  governed  under  a  constitution  promulgated 
in  1859,  but  modified  frequently  since  that  date. 
Commerce  is  carried  on  with  the  United  King- 


199 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Coptic  Chnrcli 
Croat* 


dom,   the    United    States    and    Germany.     The 
exports  are  chiefly  bananas,  coffee  and  hides. 

The  BFBS  has  a  Bible  depot  and  an  agent  at 
San  Jos6  and  the  Central  America  Mission  Society 
has  a  mission  station  there  also.  The  Jamaica 
Baptist  Missionary  Society  and  the  West  Indies 
Wesleyan  Annual  Conference  have  stations  at 
Port  Limon  and  Cartago. 

COTTA.     See  Kotta. 

COTTAYAM.     See  Kottayam. 

COVENANTERS;  Missions  of  the.  See  Pres- 
byterian,  RErORMED. 

COWICHAN:  A  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia,  situated  on 
the  Cowichan  River.  Population,  about  1,500. 
Station  of  the  MCC  (1900),  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  Sunday  school  and  1  place  of 
worship. 

CRADOCK:  Capital  of  a  district  in  Cape 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  on  the  railway,  56 
miles  S.  E.  of  Middelburg,  and  at  an  altitude  of 
2,850  feet.  Population,  about  5,000.  Circuit  of 
the  South  Africa  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1900)  6  native  workers,  2  chapels, 
12  outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  1  elementary 
school,  and  163  professing  Christians. 

CREE  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  central 
group  of  the  N.  American  family  of  languages. 
It  is  spoken  by  some  40,000  Indians  found  to 
the  S.  and  W.  of  Hudson  Bay.  It  is  written 
with  Roman  letters  and  syllabic  characters. 

CREEK  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  central 
group  of  the  N.  American  family  of  languages. 
It  is  spoken  by  the  Creek  and  Seminole  Indians 
in  the  Indian  Territory,  and  is  written  with 
Roman  letters. 

CREEKTOWN:,  A  town  in  Southern  Nigeria, 
W.  Africa,  situated  on  the  Cross  River  70  miles 
above  its  mouth.  Climate,  tropical.  The  popu- 
lation is  composed  mainly  of  the  Ibo  and  Ew6 
tribes  of  negroes.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1846), 
with  (1902)  10  missionaries,  men  and  women 
(one  a  physician),  5  native  workers,  5  outsta- 
tions, 5  schools,  a  hospital,  dispensary,  and  303 
church-members. 

CREIGHTON-GINSBURG,  Rev.  J.  B. :  When  a 
young  man  at  Kief,  with  several  of  his  compan- 
ions, he  saved  up  money  to  go  to  London  in 
order  to  learn  more  about  a  Jewish  sect — 
Protestant  Christians,  who  they  heard  rejected 
the  Talmud  and  strictly  adhered  to  the  Bible. 
This  project  was  prevented.  For  the  next  five 
years  he  continued  preparing  for  the  office  of  a 
rabbi.  After  his  father's  death  he  wandered 
about  from  city  to  city,  conversing  with  learned 
Jews,  in  hopes  of  finding  peace.  On  returning 
home,  his  prejudice  against  the  Talmud  and  his 
appreciation  of  the  Bible  became  known,  and  so, 
to  avoid  discussions  he  went  into  a  Jewish  house  of 
learning,  and  for  six  weeks,  he  relates,  "I  never 
went  to  bed,  never  sat  down,  never  uttered  one 
word  after  the  manner  of  the  Pharisees.  The 
only  meals  I  partook  were  bread  and  water  once 
a  day,  just  to  maintain  strength;  and  the  little 
sleep  I  enjoyed  was  standing,  leaning  on  the  desk 
with  my  head  on  my  clenched  fists;  my  time 
was  employed  in  reading  the  Talmud  and  the 
Psalms,  setting  my  heart  to  seek  the  Lord." 
This  retirement  satisfied  the  Jews,  but  his  soul 
was  not  at  rest.  In  the  course  of  a  long  period 
of  struggle,  he  got  to  know  Dr.  Biesenthal  nnd 
Mr.   Schwarz,   both   Hebrew  Christian   mission- 


aries, who  instructed  him  in  the  truth  and  gave 
him  a  New  Testament  in  Hebrew,  and  a  copy 
of  "Old  Paths."  Other  missionaries  of  the  Lon- 
don Society  for  the  Jews  opened  his  eyes  still 
further,  but  Mr.  Goldberg  was  the  final  means 
of  his  being  brought  to  the  truth.  After  ten 
months'  instruction,  on  May  16,  1847,  he 
was  baptized.  In  1856  he  became  one  of  the 
Society  s  missionaries,  laboring  for  thirty  years 
at  Miilhausen,  Constantine,  Algiers  and  Moga- 
dor.  He  finally  was  stationed  at  Constantinople, 
where  for  the  next  twelve  years,  until  his  death 
in  1898,  he  worked  most  faithfully,  having  won 
many  Jews  to  know  Christ  as  Savior. 

CROATIA:  A  province  of  the  Austro-Hunga- 
rian  Monarchy,  forming  with  Slavonia  a  pant  of 
the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  Area,  5,220  square 
miles.  Population,  757,477,  chiefly  Croats,  with 
a  few  Germans,  Magyars,  and  Jews.  Religion, 
Roman  and  Greek  Catholic.  Education,  almost 
wholly  neglected.     Capital,  Agram. 

The  only  missionary  work  is  that  done  by  the 
colporteurs  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.  This  work  has  increased  during  the 
last  few  years,  with  some  evidences  of  encourage- 
ment. 

CROATIAN  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Sla- 
vonic branch  of  the  Aryan  language  family,  and, 
like  the  Servian,  is  spoken  throughout  Servia, 
Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  Montenegro,  Croatia,  Sla- 
vonia, Dalmatia,  etc.  The  difference  between 
the  Servian  and  Croatian  is  largely  in  the  written 
character,  the  Croats  writing  their  langup-ge  with 
Roman  letters. 

CROATS:  To  the  Servian  branch  of  the  Slavic 
race  belong  also  the  Croats,  who  inhabit  Dalma- 
tia, Slavonia,  Croatia,  and  the  western  part  of 
Bosnia,  numbering  hardly  a  million  and  a  half 
of  souls.  The  linguistic  differences  between  the 
Servians  and  the  Croats  are  insignificant;  their 
chief  distinction  lies  in  their  religious  confession 
and  in  their  alphabets.  The  Servians  belong  to 
the  Eastern  or  Orthodox  branch  of  the  Christian 
Church,  while  the  Croats  are  almost  all  Roman 
Catholics,  and  use  the  Latin  alphabet  in  their 
literature.  This  distinction  has  led  to  a  great 
deal  of  coolness  and  even  hatred  between  the  two 
peoples. 

The  Croats  appeared  on  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
almost  simultaneously  with  the  Servians,  and, 
like  them,  they  received  Christianity  first  from 
Rome,  and  then,  in  the  second  half  of  the  ninth 
century,  from  Byzantium;  but,  unlike  the  Servi- 
ans, they  soon  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Roman  Church.  Politically,  the  Croats  remained 
independent  till  1102  a.  d.,  when  they  united 
themselves  to  Hungary  and  shared  in  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  Hungarian  history.  This  union  was  a 
free  and  spontaneous  union  on  the  part  of  the 
Croats,  and  the  Hungarian  kings  were  styled 
kings  of  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Slavonia.  The 
Croatians  had  a  constitution  of  their  own,  and 
the  country  was  ruled  over  by  royal  commis- 
sioners or  bans.  But  in  the  present  century  the 
claims  of  the  Hungarians  to  domineer  over  the 
Croats  led  to  dissensions  between  the  two  nation- 
alities, and  to  the  bloody  conflicts  in  1848-50, 
since  when  the  relations  between  them  have  been 
strained.  The  Dalmatian  Croats,  especially  in 
the  little  republic  of  Ragusa,  attained  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  15th,  the  16th,  and  17th  cen- 
turies a  great  literary  development.  A  number 
of  writers,  especially  poets,  flourished  in  Ragusa, 


CroiTstand 
Cyprus 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


200 


who  were  educated  and  trained  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  and  who  pro- 
duced some  very  important  poetical  worlcs. 
Other  men  who  have  gained  a  world-wide  reputa- 
tion, born  in  Ragusa,  were  the  archeologist, 
Banduri,  the  mathematicians  Boslicovitch,  Ghe- 
talditch,  etc. 

Aside  from  the  worli  of  the  Bible  societies  in 
distributing  the  Scriptures,  no  regular  missionary 
work  has  been  opened  among  the  Croats. 

CROWSTAND:  A  station  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada,  opened  in  1877  and  situated  on 
Swan  River  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  Assiniboia, 
Canada.  It  has  1  missionary,  3  women  mission- 
aries, a  chapel,  a  school,  and  30  church-members. 

CREOLE:  Name  applied  to  people  born  in  or 
near  the  West  Indies  of  foreign,  and  especially 
of  Spanish  or  French,  ancestry.  When  applied 
to  negroes  the  term  means  that  they  are  born  in 
the  country,  as  distinguished  from  those  imported 
from  Africa.  The  European  Creoles  are  gener- 
ally tall  but  not  proportionally  robust.  They  are 
distinguished  for  the  suppleness  of  their  joints, 
which  enables  them  to  move  with  ease,  agility, 
and  grace.     From  the  same  cause  they  excel  in 

Eenmanship,  and  in  everything  requiring  flexi- 
ility  of  movement.  The  women  are  generally 
beautiful,  and  of  fine  figure.  The  Creole  negroes 
present  a  marked  distinction  from  those  imported 
from  Africa,  being  more  slender,  agile,  and  grace- 
ful, tho  not  less  strong  or  capable  of  labor,  with 
quicker  perceptions  and  more  volatile  disposi- 
tions. The  dialects  which  have  sprung  up  in 
the  W.  I.  and  adjacent  regions,  formed  by  the 
corruption  of  Spanish,  French,  and  English,  are 
generally  called  Creole  dialects. 

CRETE,  or  CANDIA :  An  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  belonging  to  Turkey.  It  is  very 
irregular  in  form,  about  160  miles  long,  and  vary- 
ing in  breadth  from  6  to  35  miles,  with  a  total 
area  of  3,326  square  miles.  Its  population  is 
(1900)  303,543.  The  predominating  religion  is 
that  of  the  Greek  Church  (Orthodox).  About 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  Mohammedans 
and  there  are  a  few  Jews  in  the  island.  The  lan- 
guage is  Greek  (modern).  The  BFBS  has  an 
agent  on  the  island,  but  there  are  no  other  Prot- 
estant missions  there.  Until  the  year  1899  Crete 
was  a  province  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  At  that 
date  four  European  powers  intervened  to  end  a 
continuous  state  of  insurrection  and  made  the 
island  an  autonomous  state  under  a  high  com- 
missioner of  the  powers,  altho  nominally  still 
subject  to  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan. 

CRIM-TURKISH:  A  dialect  of  the  Nogai 
Turkish  language  spoken  by  the  Tartars  of  the 
Crimea.     See  Turkish. 

CRITICISM  OF  MISSIONS:  See  Objections 
TO  THE  Missionary  Enterprise. 

CROWTHER,  Samuel  Adjai:  A  native  of  the 
Yoruba  Country;  rescued  from  slavery  in  boy- 
hood. Soon  after  he  was  taken  from  the  hold 
of  a  Portuguese  slaver  to  Sierra  Leone  he  begged 
a  half-penny  to  buy  an  alphabet  card  for  himself; 
within  six  months  he  could  read  the  New  Testa- 
ment; and  after  five  years  he  was  admitted  the 
first  on  the  roll  of  students  of  Fourah  Bay  Col- 
lege, of  which  a  few  months  later  he  was  a  tutor. 
June  29,  1864,  he  was  consecrated  Mission- 
ary Bishop  of  the  Niger  Territory  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  in  Canterbury  Cathedral; 
and  in  the  same  year  the  University  of  Oxford 


conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divin- 
ity. He  was  the  first  native  bishop;  and  in  1841 
he  accompanied  the  first  Niger  expedition.  The 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  in  1880,  awarded 
him  a  gold  watch  for  his  travels  and  researches 
on  the  Niger.  With  the  assistance  of  Rev.  T. 
King,  he  translated  part  of  the  Bible  and  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  into  Yoruba;  and  his  Yoruba 
Vocabulary  and  work  on  the  Nupe  and  Ibo  lan- 
guages show  his  real  ability.  Bishop  Crowther 
was  eminently  successful  as  a  missionary;  and, 
as  one  of  his  associates  points  out,  in  dealing 
with  the  masses  of  the  people,  with  heathen  chiefs 
and  with  the  astute  followers  of  Mohammed, 
his  directness  and  transparent  simplicity  of  pur- 
pose won  their  confidence  and  conciliated  their 
blind  bigotry  of  opposition.  Even  more  marked 
than  his  tact  and  wisdom  was  Bishop  Crowther's 
humility.  His  lowliness  of  mind  seemed  to 
increase  with  his  exaltation  in  office  and  in  the 
esteem  of  the  Christian  world.  He  died  at  Lagos, 
December  31st,  1891. 

CUBA :  The  largest  island  of  the  West  Indies, 
formerly  ruled  by  Spain;  is  now  under  its  own 
government.  It  contains  an  area  of  45,872 
square  miles;  a  coast  line  of  2,000  miles;  and 
has  a  population  (1899)  of  about  1,575,000,  of 
whom  500,000  are  negroes  and  15,000  are  Chinese. 
The  island  is  largely  under  Roman  Catholic 
influences;  not  50,000  of  the  population  attend 
school;  and  only  twenty-four  per  cent,  of  the 
adults  have  formed  legitimate  marriages.  Previ- 
ous to  the  American  occupation  Dr.  Alberto  J. 
Diaz,  a  converted  Romanist,  labored  successfully 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Home 
Mission  Board,  amidst  great  difficulties;  and 
during  the  last  four  years,  in  the  new  atmosphere 
of  religious  freedom,  encouraging  work  has  been 
maintained  by  a  number  of  societies.  The  fol- 
lowing societies  are  now  engaged  in  missionary 
labors  in  the  island:  American  Baptist  Home 
Mission  Society;  American  Bible  Society;  Ameri- 
can Church  Missionary  Society;  American 
Friends'  Board  of  Foreign  Missions;  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Society;  Independent  Bap- 
tist Missionary  Movement;  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  (South)  Board;  Foreign  Missions  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
(Southern) ;  Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society. 
Fipke  (A.  K  ),  History  of  the  Islands  of  the  West  Indian  Archi- 

Selaoo,  New  York,  1899;   Porter  (R.  P.),  Industrial  Cuba, 
ew  York,  1899;    Rowan  (A.  S.)    and  Ramsey  (M.  M.). 
The  Island  of  Cuba,  London,  1898. 

CUDDALORE :  Capital  of  the  district  of  South 
Arcot,  Madras,  India,  situated  on  the  sea  coast, 
65  miles  N.  of  Negapatam.  Climate,  moderately 
healthy.  Population  (1901)  52,216,  chiefly  Hin- 
dus. A  station  of  the  Danish-Halle  Mission  was 
opened  here  in  1728,  but  was  afterwards  given  up. 
The  town  is  now  occupied  as  a  station  by  the 
SPG  (1825),  with  (1901)  18  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  6  places  of  worship,  13  outstations, 
5  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools  and  325  bap- 
tized Christians.  Station  also  of  the  Leipzig 
Missionary  Society  (1856),  with  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  8  native  workers,  3  outstations, 
5  chapels,  2  elementary  schools,  2  high  schools 
and  413  baptized  Christians. 

CUDDAPAH:  Capital  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  Madras,  India,  161  miles  by  rail  from 
Madras  city.  Population  (1891)  17,400,  of 
whom  9,400  are  Hindus  and  7,600  are  Moham- 
medans. The  climate  is  one  of  the  hottest  in  the 
district,    unhealthy,    malarious;  mean  temrxra- 


201 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Cyprus 


ture  in  summer  97°  F.  The  town  is  badly  built 
and  squalid  in  appearance.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1824),  with  (1901,  Jamulamadugu  included)  10 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  160  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women,  190  outstations,  113  ele- 
mentary schools  and  1,182  church-members. 

CULBERTSON,  Michael  Simpson :  Born  Cham- 
bersburg,  Pa.,  January  18th,  1819;  graduated 
at  the  Military  Academy,  West  Point,  1839, 
standing  high  in  character  and  scholarship;  was 
Assistant  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  Acad- 
emy 1839-40;  served  1840-41,  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  of  artillery,  at  Rouse's  Point  during  the 
Canada  border  disturbances.  Resigning  his  com- 
mission in  the  army,  he  entered  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  graduating  in  1843. 
He  was  regarded  by  Dr.  Hodge  as  "among  the 
foremost  members  of  the  institution."  He  sailed 
for  China  in  1844  as  a  missionary  of  the  Presby- 
terian Board;  was  stationed  at  Ningpo  1845-51, 
and  at  Shanghai,  1851-62.  He  visited  the 
United  States  for  his  health  in  1856.  Dr.  Cul- 
bertson's  main  work  for  several  years  was  in 
connection  with  the  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures into  Chinese.  During  his  visit  to  this 
country  he  published  a  work  entitled:  Darkness 
in  the  Flowery  Kingdom;  or,  Religious  Notions 
and  Superstitions  in  North  China.  He  died  of 
cholera  at  Shanghai,  1862. 

CULEBRA:  A  town  near  Colon  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  Station  of  the  Jamaica  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Union  (1900),  with  1  missionary,  2 
preaching  centers  and  2  Sunday  schools. 

CUMBERLAND    PRESBYTERIAN    Board    of 

Missions  and  Church  Erection  (1852) :  As  early 
as  1818  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church 
sent  evangelists  among  the  Chickasaw  Indians, 
which  resulted  in  a  mission  being  established 
among  them  in  1820.  In  1845  a  board  was 
organized  for  carrying  on  the  Home  Missionary 
work  of  the  Church  and  in  1852  a  similar  organi- 
zation was  formed  for  the  foreign  work. 

In  1857  the  Rev.  Edmund  Weir  was  sent  to 
Liberia,  where  he  remained  for  ten  years.  Work 
in  Turkey  was  undertaken  in  1860,  and  the  Rev. 
J.  C.  Armstrong  was  sent  to  Constantinople,  but 
owing  to  troubles  at  home  arising  from  the  civil 
war,  he  was  recalled. 

In  1873  work  was  commenced  on  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  and  was  continued  for  several  years. 

The  Board  now  carries  on  work  as  follows; 

1.  China:  There  is  one  station,  Chan-te-fu,  in 
the  province  of  Hunan.  Medical  work  has 
recently  been  begun  in  connection  with  this  mis- 
sion.    There  are  5  American  missionaries. 

2.  Japan:  There  are  5  stations,  Osaka,  Waka- 
yama,  Tsu  Ise,  Tanabe  and  Shingu.  There  are 
13  American  missionaries,  of  whom  two  are 
physicians. 

3.  Mexico:  There  is  1  station,  Aguascalientes, 
and  4  American  missionaries.  The  mission  gives 
increased  promise  of  permanency.  The  3 
schools  are  doing  well  and  an  industrial  depart- 
ment has  been  added  to  the  boys'  school. 

The  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Cum- 
berland Presbyterian  Church  was  organized  in 
1880  for  the  purpose  of  cooperating  with  the 
general  Board.  Nine  American  missionaries  are 
supported  by  it  in  Japan,  1  in  China  and  2  in 
Mexico.  They  are  principally  engaged  in  school 
work. 

CUMBUM:  A  town  in  the  Karnul  district, 
Madras,  South  India.     Population  (1891)  5,700, 


of  whom  3,000  are  Hindus  and  2,300  Moham- 
medans. The  place  is  noteworthy  for  an  irriga- 
tion reservoir  of  15  square  miles  area,  built  as  a 
precaution  against  famine.  The  place  is  very 
unhealthy  from  malaria,  especially  when  the 
water  is  low  in  this  reservoir.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1882),  with  (1901)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  75  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
30  places  of  regular  preaching,  31  Sunday  schools, 
30  common  schools,  2  boarding  schools  and  3,262 
church-members. 

CUNNINGHAM:  A  town  in  the  Transkei  region. 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  about  15  miles 
S.  W.  of  Butterworth.  Station  of  the  UFS 
(1856),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  45 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  16  outstations, 
16  schools  and  1,546  church-members. 

CUPANG:  Capital  of  the  western,  Dutch  part 
of  the  island  of  Timor,  East  Indies.  The  Nether- 
lands Missionary  Society  maintained  a  station 
here  from  1819  to  1858,  and  gathered  in  860  bap- 
tized converts.  After  the  work  was  passed  over 
to  the  Dutch  Government  the  number  of  Chris- 
tians increased  to  2,700;  but,  asWarneck  has  said, 
they  seem  to  lack  sufficient  oversight  and  to  be 
on  a  rather  low  level  of  moral  and  religious  life. 

CURITIBA:  Capital  of  the  state  of  Parana, 
Brazil,  S.  America;  situated  in  a  pleasant  open 
plain,  where  Europeans  have  settled,  many  of 
them  French.  A  railway  connects  it  with  the 
seaport  of  Paranagua,  about  80  miles  distant. 
Population  about  6,000.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1885),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
2  missionary  women,  7  native  workers,  of  whom 
6  are  women,  1  common  and  1  high  school  and  1 
Young  People's  Society. 

CUTCH.     See  Katchch. 

CUTCHI  LANGUAGE :  This  is  a  dialect  of  the 
Sindhi;  belongs  to  the  Indie  branch  of  the  Aryan 
family  of  languages,  and  is  spoken  in  the  district 
of  Cutch,  W.  India. 

CUTTACK:  Capital  of  the  district  of  Cuttack, 
Orissa  division,  Bengal,  India;  situated  in  the 
delta  of  the  Mahandai  River  at  the  head  of  its 
canal  system.  Population  (1901)  51,364,  of 
whom  75  per  cent,  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
BMS  (1822),  with  9  missionaries,  men  and  women, 
19  native  workers,  6  outstations,  16  common 
schools,  1  high  school,  1  theological  seminary,  2 
orphanages,  a  printing-house  and  1,037  com- 
municants. Also  station  of  the  Baptist  Zenana 
Missionary  Society  (1891),  with  4  missionary 
women,  11  native  women  workers,  6  schools  and 
100  Zenana  pupils. 

CUZCO:  Capital  of  the  Department  of  Cuzco, 
Peru,  and  formerly  the  capital  of  the  empire  of 
the  Inoas;  situated  at  an  altitude  of  11,380  feet, 
350  miles  S.  E.  of  Callao.  Station  of  the  RBMU 
(1897),  with  (1902)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives. 

CWENWENI:  A  settlement  in  the  Transkei 
district.  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  about 
15  miles  S.  W.  of  Umtata.  Station  of  the  South 
Africa  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society, 
with  (1900)  19  native  workers,  8  outstations,  5 
preaching  centers,  3  schools,  4  Sunday  schools 
and  290  professing  Christians. 

CYPRUS:  An  island,  the  third  largest  in  the 
Mediterranean,  60  miles  from  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor  and  41  miles  from  the  coast  of  Syria.  It 
is  almost  150  miles  long  and  55  miles  broad,  with 
an  area  of  3,584  square  miles.     The  greater  part 


Csecbs 
Danlsb 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


20S 


of  the  island  is  mountainous,  a  range  7,000 
feet  high  running  the  whole  length  of  the 
island. 

Cyprus  was  placed  under  British  control  by 
a  special  treaty  in  1878,  altho  it  is  still  nominally 
Turkish  territory.  It  is  open  to  missionary 
operations  because  of  the  perfect  security  and 
religious  liberty  which  British  rule  produces. 

The  population  of  the  island  (1901)  is  237,022. 
Of  these,  182,739  are  members  of  the  Greek 
(Orthodox)  Church  and  51,309  are  Moham- 
medans.    There  are  also  a  few  Armenians  and 


some  Syrians  of  the  Maronite  Church.  The  pre- 
vailing language  is  Greek,  but  Turkish  is  much 
used  in  business  and  knowledge  of  English  is 
increasing. 

Mission  work  is  carried  on  in  Cyprus  by  the  RP 
(U.  S.  A.),  which  has  stationed  at  Larnaca  a  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife  and  1  native  worker.  A 
dispensary  and  primary  school  are  conducted 
and  22  communicants  have  joined  the  mission 
church.  The  BFBS  has  a  Bible  depot  at  Lar- 
naca. 

C2ECHS.     See  Bohemians. 


D 


DACCA:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated  on 
the  "old  Ganges,"  150  miles  northeast  of  Cal- 
cutta. Formerly  capital  of  Bengal,  and  a  most 
populous  and  brilliant  city.  It  now  retains  none 
of  its  former  elegance.  Population  (1901),  90,542, 
of  whom  about  half  are  Hindus  and  a  little  more 
than  half  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  BMS 
(1816),  with  (1900)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  10  native  workers,  3  outstations,  2  schools, 
and  74  church-members.  Station  also  of  the 
Baptist  Zenana  Mission  (1870),  with  3  mission- 
ary women,  8  native  women  helpers,  8  elemen- 
tary schools  and  50  Zenana  pupils. 

DAGHESTAN:  Name  applied  to  that  part  of 
Caucasia  lying  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cau- 
casus toward  the  Caspian  Sea.  Parts  of  the 
country  are  very  mountainous,  with  deep  valleys, 
numerous  lakes,  streams  and  glaciers.  Western 
Daghestan  is  the  chief  abode  of  the  Lesghians,  a 
powerful  tribe,  chiefly  Mohammedans.  Farther 
north  live  Tatar  tribes,  all  of  them  Mohammed- 
ans, more  or  less  nomadic,  living  principally  by 
the  raising  of  cattle  and  horses.  Most  of  them 
are  peaceable  Russian  subjects.  The  few  large 
towns,  among  them  Derbent,  the  capital,  are 
situated  on  the  Caspian  coast.  There  is  no  direct 
missionary  work,  tho  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  has  published  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew  in  Kumuki. 

DAHANA:  A  station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission- 
ary Society  (1878)  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Nias, 
an  island  near  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra,  East 
Indies.  It  was  partly  on  account  of  Moham- 
medan intrigues  among  the  pagans  of  the  place 
that  the  Dahana  station  was  established.  It 
now  has  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3 
native  workers,  2  schools  and  302  professing 
Christians. 

DAHOMEY:  Formerly  an  independent  negro 
kingdom,  now  a  colony  of  France,  situated  on  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  between  Togoland  on  the  west 
and  Lagos  and  Nigeria  on  the  east.  In  1900  the 
boundaries  were  extended  on  the  north  to  join 
the  French  military  territories  in  the  Western 
Sudan.  It  comprises  about  60,000  square  miles 
and  has  a  population  roughly  estimated  at 
1,000,000,  mostly  negroes  of  the  Ew6  family. 
The  climate  is  very  unhealthful,  the  soil  remark- 
ably fertile.  Kotonu,  the  best  harbor  on  the 
coast,  has  been  chosen  as  the  terminus  of  a  rail- 
way now  being  constructed  to  open  up  the 
interior.     The  chief  coast  town  is  Whydah,  for- 


merly a  slave  port,  now  exporting  great  quanti- 
ties of  palm  oil.  Abome,  the  capital,  is  65  miles 
inland,  and  connected  with  Whydah  by  a  road 
which  continues  to  the  Mahi  country,  30  miles 
farther  north.  The  religion  of  the  natives  is 
mostly  the  lowest  grade  of  fetishism,  and  whole- 
sale human  sacrifices  have  been  one  of  its  charac- 
teristics. 

The  WMS  has  a  station  at  Porto  Novo,  under 
charge  of  a  French  missionary  and  his  wife,  with 
some  20  outstations,  at  whose  places  of  worship 
the  average  attendance  is  2,200.  The  total  of 
professing  Christians  is  about  350  (1902). 

Sketchley,  Dahomey  as  It  Is,  London,  1874;  Aspe-Fleuri- 
mont,  La  Guin^e  Franfaiae,  Paris,  1900;  Forbes  (E.  F.), 
DahoTney  and  the  Dahomeans,  London,  1851. 

DAKA:  Settlement  in  Rhodesia,  S.  Central 
Africa,  lying  N.  W.  of  Bulawayo.  Station  of  the 
National  Baptist  Convention  (1900),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  20  professing  Christians. 

DAKHANI  LANGUAGE :  This  language  belongs 
to  the  Indie  branch  of  the  Aryan  family,  being  a 
dialect  of  the  Hindu.  It  is  used  by  the  Moham- 
medans of  Madras,  is  written  in  Arabic  charac- 
ters, and  is  sometimes  called  Southern  Hindu- 
stani. It  differs  materially  from  the  Urdu  or 
Northern  Hindustani. 

DAKURA:  A  settlement  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  Mosquito  coast,  Nicaragua,  Central  Amer- 
ica. Station  of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1893), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  16  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  1  school,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
chapel  and  107  professing  Christians. 

DALHOUSIE:  A  sanitary  hill  station  for  the 
Punjab  established  in  a  portion  of  the  Gurdaspur 
district  which  is  detached  and  lies  within  the 
native  state  of  Chamba,  on  the  borders  of  Kash- 
mir. The  station  lies  at  an  altitude  of  7,700  feet 
and  has  a  population  of  about  2,000.  The  CEZ 
has  a  sanitarium  here,  with  1  missionary  woman 
in  charge. 

DALMATIA:  One  of  the  provinces  of  the 
Austrian  Empire ;  it  occupies  a  narrow  strip  along 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  between  Croatia 
on  the  north  and  Albania  on  the  south.  Herze- 
govina and  Montenegro  bound  it  on  the  east. 
With  its  adjacent  islands  it  is  the  most  southern 
crown-land  of  the  Austrian  Empire.  Area,  4,940 
square  miles.  The  coast  is  steep  and  rocky,  but 
numerous  bays  afford  good  harbors  and  ports. 
Spurs  from  the  Dinaric  Alps  cross  the  interior, 
reaching  an   elevation  of  6,000  feet  in  Mount 


203 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Cxecbs 
Danlsli 


Orien,  while  on  the  north  the  Belebech  Moun- 
tains rise  to  a  height  of  5,000  feet.  The  climate 
is  warm  and  in  general  healthful.  Most  of  the  land 
is  given  up  to  pasture.  The  population  (1900) 
is  593,784.  With  the  exception  of  about  10  per 
cent.,  the  people  belong  to  the  Morlacks  of  Dal- 
matians proper.  The  remainder  are  Italians, 
Albanians  and  Jews.  Full  liberty  of  faith  and 
conscience  is  secured,  and  every  religious  body 
has  the  right  of  ordinary  public  worship  or 
instruction.  The  majority  of  the  population 
belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
Churches,  but  the  Evangelical  Lutheran,  the 
Evangelical  Brotherhood,  the  Gregorian  Arme- 
nian and  the  Jewish  churches  are  recognized  by 
the  state. 

Dalmatians  or  Morlacks  are  a  people  belonging 
to  the  Servian  race,  and  speak  a  dialect  of  Sla- 
vonic called  the  lUyric.  Physically  they  are  a 
fine  race,  tall,  well-developed,  with  regular  fea- 
tures and  dark  complexion.  Those  living  on 
the  coast  are  excellent  seamen,  noted  for  their 
daring  and  bravery.  They  were  the  chief 
strength  of  the  military  prowess  of  Venice  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  Morlacks  of  the  interior 
are  lovers  of  liberty  and  independence,  brave 
soldiers,  who  have  withstood  successfully  the 
aggressions  of  the  Turks.  They  are  noted  for 
hospitality,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are 
deceitful,  rapacious  and  addicted  to  drunkenness. 

Mission  work  among  the  Dalmatians  is  con- 
fined entirely  to  the  colportage  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society. 

DAMASCUS:  Capital  of  the  Turkish  province 
of  Sham,  Syria,  about  60  miles  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean. One  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world, 
and  especially  honored  by  the  Muslims,  who  call  it 
Sham-es-Shereef ,  Damascus  the  Holy.  The  Arabs 
call  it  one  of  the  four  terrestrial  paradises.  The 
view  of  the  city  as  one  descends  from  the  range  of 
Lebanon  is  very  beautiful,  the  surrounding  gar- 
dens almost  concealing  the  city  itself,  except  as 
the  minarets  rise  above  the  mass  of  houses. 
Inside,  however,  it  is  very  like  other  interior 
Oriental  cities,  with  narrow  streets  and  miserable 
houses.  The  population,  numbering  about 
225,000,  are  almost  entirely  Muslims,  the  Chris- 
tians and  the  Jews  being  not  only  few  in  numbers, 
but  weak  in  influence.  At  the  time  of  the  Druse 
massacre,  in  1860,  the  Christian  and  Jewish  popu- 
lation were  driven  from  the  city  and  numbers  of 
them  slain.  Since  then  they  have  returned  in 
some  numbers,  but  the  city  is  still  the  scene  of 
much  Muslim  fanaticism. 

Station  of  the  Jewish  Mission  Committee  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland  (1843),  with 
(1900)  6  missionaries,  men  and  women;  42  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  11  outstations,  12 
preaching  places,  15  elementary  schools,  4  high 
schools  and  207  professing  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  British  Syrian  Mission  Schools  (1868), 
with  3  missionary  women,  14  native  women 
helpers,  3  outstations,  3  schools,  1  chapel  and  1 
Sunday  school.  Station  also  of  the  London 
Jews  Society  (1869),  with  7  missionaries  (one 
with  his  wife),  8  native  workers,  men  and  women  ; 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  a  book  depot  and  1 
school.  Station  also  of  the  Edinburgh  Medical  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1884),  with  2  missionary  phy- 
sicians (one  with  his  wife) ,  2  missionary  women , 
1  dispensary  and  1  hospital. 

DAMOH:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India;  situated    55    miles    N.    W.    of   Jabalpur. 


The  population  is  (1891)  11,800,  of  whom  9,000 
are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  FCMS  (1894),  with 
11  missionaries,  men  and  women  (one  of  them 
medical) ;  12  native  workers,  men  and  women;  2 
dispensaries,  a  hospital,  1  elementary  school,  1 
industrial  school,  a  Young  People's  Society  and 
60  professing  Christians. 

DANG-SENG:  A  town  in  the  Fo-kien  province 
of  China,  lying  about  50  miles  south  of  Fu-chau. 
Station  of  the  CEZ  (1893),  with  (1901)  2  mission- 
ary women,  3  native  women  helpers  and  2  board- 
ing schools. 

DANISH  MISSIONS:  To  King  Frederick  IV. 
of  Denmark  belongs  the  honor  of  having  initiated 
foreign  missions  in  the  Protestant,  or  Reformed, 
Church.  As  Crown  Prince  he  manifested  much 
interest  in  the  condition  of  the  colonies,  which 
since  1620  had  been  part  of  the  Danish  Kingdom, 
and  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  with  the  cor- 
dial assistance  of  the  court  chaplain,  Dr.  Liitkens, 
he  arranged  to  send  Bartholomew  Ziegenbalg 
and  Henrik  Plutschau  to  India,  where  they 
founded,  in  1705,  the  "Danish-Tamil,"  or  "Danish 
Halle,"  Mission  in  Tranquebar.  Until  the  death 
of  christian  Frederick  Schwartz,  in  1798,  this 
mission  continued  to  receive  partial  support  from 
the  Danish  Government,  much  of  its  material 
being  furnished  by  the  SPCK.  The  Royal 
College  of  Missions,  founded  in  Copenhagen  in 
1714,  did  good  work  both  for  the  Tamil  Mission, 
that  of  Hans  Egede  in  Greenland, and  VonWestens 
Finmark  Mission.  Rationalistic  influences,  how- 
ever, were  strong  and  after  the  death  of  Schwartz 
interest  declined.  The  English  gained  control 
of  Hindustan,  the  missionaries  received  their 
support  from  the  SPG,  and  in  1847  the  church 
buildings  and  remaining  interests  were  handed 
over  to  the  Leipzig  Society. 

Meanwhile  much  work  was  done  by  Danish 
missionaries  in  the  service  of  foreign  societies, 
most  of  them  among  the  Moravians.  Ten  were 
sent  to  Surinam,  fourteen  to  Tranquebar,  eleven 
to  Labrador,  of  whom  two  had  been  in  Green- 
land; seven  to  Danish  West  Indies,  nine  to  Eng- 
lish West  Indies,  one  to  North  America,  three  to 
South  Africa,  one  to  the  Mosquito  coast,  one  to 
Australia.  Altogether  53  Danish  missionaries 
have  been  in  the  Moravian  missions,  among  them 
the  Greenland  missionary,  Jans  Haven. 

In  1843  the  "Northern  Schleswig  Mission"  was 
founded  to  help  the  Moravians  in  the  Danish 
West  Indies,  altho  later  Southern  Jylland 
was  separated  from  Denmark.  This  Society 
still  has  its  branches  in  Jylland,  from  which  it 
received  donations  as  late  as  1888. 

Danish  Missionary  Society  {Danske  Missions- 
selskab) :  Headquarters,  Fredericia,  Denmark. 
It  is  a  general  society  of  all  the  Danish  Church 
people,  and  is  conducted  by  a  committee.  Its 
own  particular  work  is  among  the  Tamils  in 
India,  but  it  works  harmoniously  with  other 
missions.  Its  own  missionaries  are  all  ordained, 
and  those  who  have  been  on  mission  ground  for 
three  years  direct  the  affairs  of  the  Society  on 
the  mission  field.  A  yearly  report  must  be  sent 
to  the  home  committee  in  Denmark.  This 
Society  has  on  its  list  Danish  Greenland  Mission, 
Danish  Malay  Mission,  New  Danish  Tamil  Mis- 
sion, and  Northern  Santal  Mission.  It  has  also 
assisted  the  Loventhal   Mission. 

The  mission  movement  in  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  reached  Denmark  also,  and  inspired 
priest  Bone  Falck  Ronne  to  found  the  "Danish 
Mission  Society,"    June    17,    1821.     Its    motto 


Danlsb 

Day,  Samuel  S. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


204: 


was,  "Be  not  fearful:  only  believe"  (Mark  5:  15). 
This  Society  seemed  to  him  a  necessity,  for  the 
Mission  College  was  not  kind,  and  the  strength 
of  the  free  workers  was  very  great.  In  1823, 
on  a  journey  to  Fyen,  Ronne  had  asked  many  of 
the  priests  to  hang  up  boxes  in  the  parsonage 
for  free  gifts  to  the  mission.  Bishop  Plumb 
indicted  him  in  the  court  of  chancery,  and  Ronne 
was  rebuked.  The  ministers  had  to  take  down 
their  boxes,  and  Ronne  was  thankful  for  such 
slight  punishment.  The  Danish  Mission  Society 
began  to  help  the  Greenland  Mission  by  books, 
letters  and  donations,  but  the  acts  of  the  Mission 
College  became  more  oppressive.  They  denied 
the  mission  in  many  ways,  and  would  not  allow 
the  missionaries  to  write  to  any  one  else  but  the 
college  about  their  work. 

The  Society  supported  for  a  little  while  from 
1827  J.  W.  Cappellen,  a  Norwegian,  in  the  Basel 
Missionary  Institution,  and  in  1829  two  men, 
P.  P.  Jager  and  Andreas  Riis,  were  sent  out  from 
Basel,  and  in  1832  arrived  at  Ussu,  near  Chris- 
tiansborg,  in  what  was  then  a  Danish  possession 
and  is  now  the  British  Gold  Coast  Colony  in  W. 
Africa.  Jiiger  soon  diedj-but  Riis  worked  for  13 
years,  first  at  Akra  and  later  at  Akropong,  for 
four  years  the  only  missionary  at  this  station. 
After  the  sale  of  the  Danish  possessions  in  Africa 
to  England  the  work  of  the  Society  was  some- 
what feeble.  Later,  atternpts  were  made  to 
carry  on  work  in  Smyrna,  Turkey,  but  without 
great  success. 

In  June,  1860,  at  a  meeting  held  in  Nyburg, 
it  was  decided  that  the  Danish  Society  should 
become  the  leader  in  all  mission  work  in  Den- 
mark, and  that  Unions  should  be  formed,  and 
that  the  bishop  issue  a  call  to  the  ministers  to 
interest  themselves  in  the  matter.  Two  years 
later  a  mission  school  was  founded.  In  1863  a 
delegate  was  sent  from  Germany  to  inquire  if 
the  Society  would  take  the  independent  mission 
at  Bethanien  in  South  India,  which  Missionary 
Ochs  had  begun,  after  he  had  left  the  Leipzig 
Society  on  account  of  a  difference  between  him- 
self and  the  missionaries  on  the  question  of  caste. 
Ochs  was  at  that  time  in  Europe,  and  came  to 
Denmark,  when  the  Danish  Missionary  Society 
promised  to  help  him  in  India  with  gifts  and 
workers. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  New  Danish 
Tamil  Mission.  In  1864  a  large  number  of  Da- 
nish missionary  friends  interested  themselves  in 
other  mission  work.  A  Greek-Danish  Missionary 
Society  was  founded  by  Victor  Block  in  1863, 
with  a  plan  to  unite  with  the  Greek  (Orthodox) 
Church,  and  with  this  do  a  work  among  the 
Mohammedans,  but  the  Danish  Missionary 
Society  would  not  consider  it.  In  1867  Pastor 
Block  went  to  Athens,  and  the  next  year  the 
mission  was  given  up.  In  1872  the  first  scholars 
of  the  Danish  Missionary  Society,  Loventhal  and 
H.  Jensen,  went  to  Vellur  in  India.  They  worked 
together  till  1874,  when  Jensen  went  into  the 
Danish  Missionary  Society's  service,  Loventhal 
carrying  on  an  independent  mission. 

Greenland  Mission:  In  May,  1721,  Hans  Egede, 
a  minister  of  Vaagen,  sailed?  for  Greenland  from 
Copenhagen.  His  interest  in  that  country  had 
been  aroused  by  the  report  of  the  degradation  of 
the  people,  brought  by  a  brother-in-law,  and  he 
had  for  several  years  tried  to  arouse  the  Danish 
Church  to  do  something.  At  last,  with  the  help 
of  18,000  kroners  subscribed  by  friends  and  600 
kroners  of  hisownmoney,  he  started,  accompanied 


by  his  wife  and  four  children  and  a  company  of 
colonists.  The  enterprise  met  with  great  difficul- 
ties. It  took  him  three  years  to  acquire  the 
language;  the  inhospitable  climate  was  a  heavy 
strain  on  his  health;  the  support  granted  by  King 
Frederick  IV.  was  denied  by  Christian  VI.,  tho 
afterward  partially  restored ;  an  epidemic  of 
small-pox  swept  through  the  community,  leaving 
only  three  families  out  of  200;  his  wife  died  and 
the  brave  man  was  compelled  to  return  to  Den- 
mark. Through  his  influence  the  king  founded 
a  seminary  for  the  education  of  teachers  and  mis- 
sionaries, and  Egede  was  appointed  superintend- 
ent. In  1740  he  was  made  Missionary  CoUege 
director  for  all  the  work  in  Greeidand,  but  was 
greatly  distressed  at  the  lack  of  care  in  choos- 
ing missionaries,  resulting  in  injury  to  the  work. 
The  lack  of  concord  between  Egede  and  the  Mis- 
sionary College  increasing,  he  retired  to  his  own 
quiet  home.  He  died  in  the  merchant  city, 
Stubbekjobing,  on  November  15,  1758.  His 
son,  Paul  Egede,  succeeded  him  as  director  in 
the  seminary. 

The  result  of  the  work  in  succeeding  years 
was  that  all  Greenland  became  Christian,  having 
the  honor  of  being  the  earliest  independent  mis- 
sion church  resulting  from  the  modern  mission- 
ary movement.  The  Danish  Missionary  Society 
continues  its  interest  in  and  superintendence  of 
the  work,  having  one  missionary,  with  several 
native  assistants,  in  their  employ. 

New  Tamil  Mission:  After  the  caste  difficul- 
ties with  the  Leipzig  Society,  Missionary  Ochs 
visited  Denmark,  and  made  an  agreement  with 
the  Danish  Missionary  Society  for  aid  in  the  New 
Danish  Tamil  Mission.  He  then  went  to  Pattam- 
bakam,  and  founded  stations  at  Bethanien  and 
Siloam,  with'  a  mission  house  and  a  school  build- 
ing, which  was  turned  into  a  church.  About  1882 
they  purchased  some  school  property  of  the  Bap- 
tists at  Tiruvanammalai,  and  a  few  years  later 
extended  their  work  into  Arcot,  Ranipet  and 
Sallesapet.  There  were  (1900)  7  stations,  12  out- 
stations,  20  missionaries,  18  native  workers,  277 
communicants,  and  178  pupils  in  schools.  For  five 
years  a  mission  was  conducted  among  the  Malays 
of  India,  at  Assampur  and  neighboring  villages, 
and  another  among  the  Red  Karens  at  Pobja, 
Burma,  but  both  were  given  up. 

A  mission  has  more  recently  been  established 
in  Manchuria  (1896),  and  the  reports  in  1900 
showed  4  stations,  1  outstation,  13  missionaries, 
2  native  workers,  26  communicants  and  12  pupils 
in  the  schools.  Special  attention  seems  to  be 
paid  to  medical  missionary  work,  as  there  were 
4  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  1,000  patients. 

The  Danish  Missionary  Society  also  renders 
assistance  to  the  organization  known  as  the 
Indian  Home  Mission  to  the  Santals. 

Loventhal's  Mission:  Founded  1872  by  Loven- 
thal and  H.  Jensen  (Copenhagen).  The  com- 
mittee has  nine  members  (all  men  of  the  Grund- 
vigsk  belief),  with  three  head  directors.  The 
foundation  of  the  Society  is  Baptism,  its  motto 
"Be  born  again,"  and  it  is  a  mission  to  the  com- 
mon people.  The  directors  simply  raise  money, 
and  do  not  give  advice  or  instruction  to  the 
missionaries,  who  work  independently.  Loven- 
thal and  Jensen  went  out  to  India  in  1872,  and 
founded  a  station  at  Vellur.  Loventhal's  desire 
is  to  have  converts  retain  their  manners  and 
customs  as  much  as  possible.  He  has  no  schools, 
and  travels  from  place  to  place.  He  has  3  Hindu 
assistants,  ordained  by  Jensen  in  1880.     His  prin- 


ao6 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Danish 
Day^  Samuel  S. 


cipal  aim  is  to  baptize  the  natives,  whom  he 
accepts  if  they  seem  honest  in  their  desire  to 
believe  as  the  missionaries  do.  But  one  station, 
2  missionaries  and  3  native  workers  were  reported 
in  1902. 

The  Utakamund  Danish  Evangelistic  Mission: 
Known  also  as  the  Emilies  Minde  (memorial),  or 
Koefoed's  Mission,  is  a  small  organization  for 
voluntary  work  in  Madras,  India.  The  mission- 
aries receive  no  salaries. 

DAPOLI:  A  town  in  the  Ratnagri  district, 
Bombay,  India;  situated  a  few  miles  from  the 
sea  and  about  70  miles  S.  W.  of  Poona.  Popu- 
lation a  little  over  5,000.  It  is  one  of  the  health- 
iest places  in  the  Bombay  Presidency.  Station 
of  the  SPG  (1878),  with  (1901)  1  missionary,  2 
missionary  women,  20  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  1  place  of  worship,  4  day  schools,  2 
boarding  schools  and  20  baptized  adult  Christians. 

DARAPURAM.     See  Dharapukam. 

DARBHAKGAH:  Chief  town  of  the  district  of 
the  same  name  in  Bengal,  India;  situated  about 
56  miles  N.  E.  of  Patna.  Population  (1901), 
66,244.  It  was  originally  a  purely  Mohammedan 
city,  but  the  Hindus  now  outnumber  the  Moham- 
medans almost  in  the  ratio  of  3  to  1.  Station  of 
the  Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Missionary  Society, 
with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries,  3  native 
workers  and  1  school.  Also  a  circuit  of  the  ME, 
with  (1902)  4  native  workers,  2  Sunday  schools 
and  240  professing  Christians. 

DAR  ES  SALAAM :  A  seaport  town  of  German 
East  Africa,  lying  about  40  miles  S.  of  the  island 
of  Zanzibar.  Population,  about  13,000,  Arabs, 
Indians  and  Bantu  negroes.  The  town  gives 
access  to  the  interior  of  the  province  by  well- 
made  roads,  and  a  concession  has  been  issued  for 
a  railway  which  is  expected  ultimately  to  be 
extended  to  the  southern  end  of  the  Victoria 
Nyanza.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Mission  to  East 
Africa  (1887),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  (one 
with  his  wife),  1  native  worker,  1  chapel,  1  school 
and  12  professing  Christians. 

DARFUR.     See  Sudan. 

DARJILING:  A  town  in  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  Bengal,  India,  360  miles  from  Cal- 
cutta by  rail.  It  is  a  hill  station  (7,000  feet)  and 
sanitarium,  which  is  very  popular.  Population 
(1891),  14,100,  of  whom  8,600  are  Hindus  and 
3,700  Buddhists.  It  is  a  place  of  many  lan- 
guages, Nepali  and  the  Bhutia  here  meeting  the 
Bengali  and  Hindi.  The  climate  is  good,  but  the 
rainfall  is  somewhat  excessive.  Station  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Missions  (1870), 
with  40  outstations,  5  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  73  native  workers,  men  and  women;  14 
Sunday  schools,  58  common  schools,  a  dispen- 
sary and  306  professing  Christians.  Also  station 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Woman's  Missionary 
Society  (1886),  with  4  missionary  women,  9 
native  women  helpers,  2  elementary  schools,  1 
high  school,  1  industrial  school  and  38  Zenana 
pupils. 

DARLING,  David:  Born  1790;  sent  by  London 
Missionary  Society  to  the  South  Seas  in  1816. 
Stationed  at  Eimeo  and  Tahiti,  making  various 
missionary  tours  from  Bunaania.  In  1834  he 
went  to  Marquesas  to  commence  a  mission  on 
those  islands,  returning  the  next  year  to  Tahiti. 
He  assisted  in  translating  the  Scriptures  into  the 
Marquesan  language.  Returning  from  a  visit  to 
England,  1852,  he  made  his  home  in  Tahiti  till 


1859,  when  he  retired  from  active  service  and 
settled  at  Sydney,  where  he  died  December  6, 
1867. 

DARSI:  A  town  in  the  Kistna  district,  Ma- 
dras, India,  situated  about  25  miles  N.  W.  of 
Ongole.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1894),  but  not 
occupied  (1901),  the  work  there  bemg  under 
care  of  the  missionaries  residing  at  Ongole  and 
the  statistics  being  summed  with  those  of 
Ongole.  The  native  Christian  communicants 
at  Darsi  and  its  dependencies  number  about 
3,250. 

DASKA:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Sialkot,  Pun- 
jab, India,  situated  about  50  miles  N.  of  Lahore. 
Population  somewhat  over  5,000.  Station  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Missions  (1857), 
with  (1900)  44  outstations,  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  24  native  workers,  1  chapel,  20  elementary 
schools,  1  high  school,  1  theological  seminary 
and  133  professing  Christians. 

DATAGANJ :  Town  in  the  Rohilkhand  district 
of  the  United  Provinces,  situated  about  20  miles 
S.  W.  of  Budaun.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1901)  14  native  worlcers,  16  Sunday  schools,  2 
common  schools,  a  Young  People's  Society  and 
590  professing  Christians. 

DAVAO:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the  island  of 
Mindanao,  P.  I.,  situated  on  Davao  Bay  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
volcano  of  Apo.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1902), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

DAVID,  Christian:  Born  in  Moravia  early  in 
the  18th  century,  his  father  a  Bohemian,  his 
mother  a  German.  He  was  a  zealous  Roman 
Catholic,  but  was  converted  to  the  Moravian 
views  early  in  life  and  became  a  leader  in  the 
great  Moravian  emigration  to  Count  Zinzendorf's 
estates.  Of  this,  Zinzendorf  writes:  "Christian 
David  was  so  intent  on  the  Moravian  emigra- 
tion, that,  when  he  was  engaged  in  wainscoting  the 
saloon  of  my  house  at  Berthelsdorf  in  1723,  and 
had  about  finished  his  work,  he  left  his  tools,  and 
set  off,  without  hat, ona  journey  of  nearly  200  miles, 
to  Moravia,  to  lead  back  emigrants.  He  made 
eleven  or  twelve  journeys  in  all,  and,  tho  often  in 
the  most  imminent  danger  from  the  officers  of 
justice  who  rode  in  search  of  him,  he  was  passed 
by  or  preserved  from  them  in  the  most  wonderful 
manner."  The  removal  to  Berthelsdorf  began  in 
1722  with  ten  persons,  and  within  seven  years  300 
others  had  joined  the  little  company  and  built 
the  town  called  Herrnhut.  In  1733  Christian 
David  accompanied  the  first  Moravian  mission- 
aries to  Greenland.  After  various  journeys  in 
the  service  of  the  church  and  another  voyage  to 
Greenland,  he  in  1748  accompanied  the  great  mis- 
sionary colony  to  Pennsylvania.  In  August, 
1749,  after  revisiting  Greenland,  he  made  another 
visit  to  America,  and  assisted  in  building  the 
chapel-house  at  Nazareth,  Penn.  He  died  at 
Herrnhut,  1750. 

DAY,  Samuel  Stearns:  Born  Ontario,  Canada, 
May  13,  1808;  graduated  Hamilton  Literary 
and  Theological  Institute;  sailed  as  a  missionary 
of  the  ABMU  to  India,  September  20,  1835. 
He  was  stationed  first  at  Vizagapatam,  then  at 
Chicacole,  and  in  1837  at  Madras.  In  Madras  he 
spent  three  years  preaching  in  Telugu  and  Eng- 
lish, and  organized  an  English  church,  of  which 
he  was  the  pastor.  Having  made  several  tours 
into  the  Telugu  country,  he  fixed  upon  Nellore 
as  the  most  suitable  place  for  a  mission,  and  in 


Deaconesses 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


209 


1840  removed  thither  with  his  family.  Mr.  Day 
was  the  founder  of  the  Telugu  Mission.  Amid 
many  discouragements  and  obstacles  he  con- 
tinued to  labor,  in  firm  faith  that  the  Gospel 
would  triumph  in  that  heathen  land.  By  reason 
of  failing  health  he  spent  three  years  (1845-1848) 
in  the  tJnited  States  and  returned  to  Nellore. 
But  in  1853  he  was  compelled  to  return  to  Amer- 
ica and  after  years  of  physical  suffering  he  died 
at  Homer,  N.  Y.,  September  17,  1871. 

DAYAK  LANGUAGE :  This  language  is  found 
in  the  island  of  Borneo  in  two  main  dialects  and 
belongs  to  the  Malayan  family.  Missionaries  of 
the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society  reduced  the  lan- 
guage to  writing,  using  Roman  letters,  and  have 
done  some  literary  work  in  it.  In  German  works 
on   Borneo  the  name  is  spelled   Dajak. 

DEACONESSES:  1.  History:  Almost  from 
the  day  of  her  birth  the  Christian  Church  had  a 
two-fold  ministry — the  Ministry  of  the  Word 
{diahonia  tou  logon),  instituted  by  Christ  Him- 
self for  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  and  the  admin- 
istration of  the  sacraments  (Matth.  xxviii:  19,  20; 
Mark  xvi:  15;  John  xx:  21),  and  the  Ministry  of 
Mercy  (diakonia  he  kathemerin/)  or  the  Diac- 
onate  (Acts  6:  1-6). 

The  latter  was  the  direct  outgrowth  of  the 
former.  At  first  the  apostles,  like  their  Divine 
Master,  combined  both  ministries  in  their  own 
activity.  But  when  the  number  of  the  disciples 
was  multiplied,  and  the  Grecians  in  the  congre- 
gation at  Jerusalem  began  to  murmur  against  the 
Hebrews,  because  their  widows  were  neglected 
in  the  daily  ministration,  the  apostles,  in  order  to 
secure  such  a  systematic  administration  of  the 
alms  as  their  own  growing  duties  of  another  kind 
made  impossible,  called  the  multitude  of  the  dis- 
ciples unto  them  and  said:  "It  is  not  reason  that 
we  should  leave  the  word  of  God,  and  serve  tables. 
Wherefore,  brethren,  look  ye  out  among  you  seven 
men  of  honest  report,  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
wisdom,  whom  we  may  appoint  over  this  busi- 
ness. But  we  will  give  ourselves  continually  to 
prayer  and  to  the  ministry  of  the  word."  The 
assembled  believers  did  as  they  were  commanded, 
chose  seven  men  having  the  required  qualifica- 
tions, set  them  before  the  apostles,  and  these, 
"when  they  had  prayed,  laid  their  hands  on 
them,"  i.  e.,  ordained  them  to  this  newly-created 
office  of  the  Church. 

To  this  ministry  was  committed  the  care  of  the 
poor  and  sick,  under  the  supervision  of  the  minis- 
try of  the  Word.  Tho  Stephen  preached  (Acts 
vi :  8-10;  vii:  1-53),  and  Philip  both  preached  and 
baptized  (Acts  viii:  5,  38),  the  deacons  were 
not  primarily  meant  to  be  evangelists,  but  dis- 
pensers of  charity  and  the  more  immediate  over- 
seers of  the  Church's  temporal  affairs.  Thus 
they  became  the  most  direct  and  efficient  "helps" 
of  the  ministry  of  the  Word;  and  how  beneficial 
this  arrangement  proved  is  evident  from  the  fur- 
ther statement  that  the  "word  of  God  increased; 
and  the  number  of  disciples  multiplied  in  Jeru- 
salem greatly." 

To  this  ministry  of  mercy  women  were  also 
admitted  at  a  very  early  date.  The  necessity  for 
this  evidently  made  itself  felt  almost  at  once, 
inasmuch  as  "the  strict  seclusion  of  the  female 
sex  in  Greece  and  in  some  Oriental  countries 
necessarilv  debarred  them  from  the  ministrations 
of  men"  (Dean  Stanley).  That  women  deacons 
were  already  found  in  the  Apostolic  Church  is 
manifest  from  Rom.  xvi:  1,2.     In  this  passage 


Paul  speaks  of  one  Phebe,  "our  sister,  which  is  a 
servant  (Gr.  diakonos)  of  the  church  which  is 
at  Cenchrea."  He  indicates  the  character  of  her 
office  and  the  nature  of  her  work  in  the  statement 
that  she  had  been  a  succorer  of  many,  and  of  him- 
self also.  For  this  very  reason  he  commends  her 
to  the  Christians  at  Rome,  to  whom  she  probably 
transmitted  his  letter,  and  admonishes  them  to 
"receive  her  in  the  Lord,  as  becometh  saints," 
and  to  assist  her  in  whatsoever  business  she  had 
need  of  them.  If,  furthermore,  the  passage  1 
Tim.  iii:  11  refers,  not  to  wives  of  the  deacons, 
but  to  women  deacons,  as  many  able  commenta- 
tors contend,  then  the  evidence  is  still  more  con- 
clusive that  the  Female  Diaconate  was  an  estab- 
lished office  in  the  Christian  Church  long  before 
the  close  of  the  1st  century. 

The  office  seems  to  have  spread  with  the 
growth  of  the  Church.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
2d  century  we  find  an  undoubted  reference  to 
deaconesses  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  well-known  letter 
of  Pliny  the  Younger,  Governor  of  Bithynia,  to 
the  Emperor  Trajan.  He  writes:  "In  order  to 
get  at  the  truth  of  the  matter  (i.  e. ,  concerning  the 
life  and  customs  of  the  Christians)  I  deemed  it 
necessary  to  put  to  the  rack  two  maids,  who  are 
called  ministrae.  But,  beyond  a  most  corrupt 
and  boundless  superstition,  I  could  extort  noth- 
ing from  them." 

The  Female  Diaconate  reached  its  highest 
development  in  the  4th  century,  and  in  the 
Church  of  the  East.  At  this  time  the  references 
to  it  are  frequent,  and  many  women  of  noble  birth 
are  found  in  its  ranks.  Very  complete  informa- 
tion regarding  it  is  contained  in  that  body  of 
ecclesiastical  writings  known  as  the  "Apostolic 
Constitutions."  This  document  enjoins  that 
faithful  and  holy  women  be  set  apart  as  deacon- 
esses, because  the  Church  had  need  of  them  for 
many  things;  directs  that  they  shall  be  inducted 
into  their  office  by  the  bishop,  with  prayer  and 
the  imposition  of  hands,  in  the  presence  of  the 
presbyters,  deacons  and  deaconesses;  and  even 
prescribes  the  prayer  to  be  used  at  the  service  of 
consecration.  It  also  defines  the  duties  of  the 
deaconesses.  They  were  to  instruct  the  female 
catechumens,  give  the  necessary  external  assist- 
ance at  their  baptism,  visit  and  relieve  the  sick, 
the  affiicted  and  the  distressed  of  their  own  sex, 
minister  to  the  confessors  in  prison,  prepare  the 
bodies  of  women  for  burial,  serve  as  doorkeepers 
at  the  women's  entrances  to  the  churches,  assign 
women  their  places  at  worship,  facilitate  com- 
munication between  the  bishop  or  presbyter  and 
the  female  members  of  his  congregation,  and 
in  general  engage  in  all  those  helpful  services 
from  which  heathen  sentiment  excluded  the 
deacons. 

After  the  4th  century  the  Female  Diaconate 
began  to  decline.  The  causes  of  this  are  to  be 
sought  partly  in  changed  conditions,  but  chiefly 
in  the  growing  belief  that  God  could  be  better 
served  in  a  quiet,  ascetic  life  than  by  a  life  of 
activity  devoted  to  the  good  of  others,  and  the 
consequent  growth  of  monastic  orders.  The 
convent  now  became  the  retreat  for  pious 
unmarried  women;  and,  by  the  9th  century  in 
the  Church  of  the  West,  and  the  13th  in  the 
Church  of  the  East,  the  Female  Diaconate  had 
practically  disappeared.  Only  among  the  Wal- 
denses  and  the  Bohemian  Brethren  before  the 
Reformation,  and  in  some  Mennonite  congrega- 
tions of  Germany  and  Holland  after  the  Reforma- 
tion were  traces  of  it  left  until  its  revival  in  the 


207 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Dayak  LansfunKe 
DeaconesHe» 


first  halt  of  the  last  century  by  the  Rev.  Theodore 
Fliedner,  at  Kaiserswerth-on-the-Rhine. 

Fliedner  became  pastor  of  the  small  Protestant 
congregation   at    Kaiserswerth   in    1822.     On   a 
collecting  tour  through  Holland  and  England  in 
behalf  of  his  poverty-stricken  church  he  became 
acquainted  with  numerous  institutions  of  Chris- 
tian mercy.     These  awakened  in  him  the  desire 
to  undertake  similar  work  himself.     He  began 
by  making  regular  pastoral  visits  to  the  prisoners 
in  the  penitentiary  at  Diisseldorf.     In  1826  he 
founded  the  Rhenish- Westphalian  Prison  Society, 
the  first  of  the  kind  on  the  Continent.     In  Sep- 
tember, 1833,  the  little  summer  house  of  the  par- 
sonage garden  temporarily  sheltered  the  first  dis- 
charged female  convict,  and  became  the  cradle 
of   the    Kaiserswerth    institutions.    Three   years 
later  he  inaugurated  the  work  with  which  his 
name   will    always   be    associated.     Among    the 
Mennonites  of   Holland   he   had   found   deacon- 
esses.    Others  before  him  (Kloenne,  von  Stein, 
Amalia  Sieveking  and  von   der  Recke-Volmar- 
Btein)    had    advocated    the    restoration    of    the 
ancient  office,  but  had  found  no  practical  way  of 
doing   so.     He   himself   had   become   persuaded 
that  no  one  was  by  nature  and  grace  so  well 
fitted  for  the  work  of  ministering  love  as  a  devout 
Christian  woman,  and  to  his  mind  the  solution  of 
the  problem  lay  in  establishing  institutions  for 
the  special  training  of  unmarried  women  in  the 
various  branches  of  charitable  work,  and  in  asso- 
ciating these  in  a  close  community.    Accordingly, 
in  the  spring  of  1836,  with  no  money  but  with  a 
large  measure  of  faith,  he  bought  the  largest  and 
finest    house    in    Kaiserswerth,    organized    the 
Rhenish-Westphalian  Deaconess  Society,  and  on 
the  13th  of  October  of  the  same  year  opened  the 
Kaiserswerth    Deaconess    Motherhouse.      Eight 
days  later,  Gertrude  Reichardt,  the  daughter  of 
a  physician,  became  the  first  probationer.     Now 
began  a  marvelous  development.     The  number 
of  sisters  multiplied  rapidly;  one  institution  after 
the  other  was  added  at  Kaiserswerth;  outside 
"stations"  were  undertaken;  Motherhouses  were 
established  at  other  places,  and  when  Fliedner 
died  in  1864  there  were  already  31  Motherhouses, 
with  a  total  of  1,593  sisters  engaged  in  406  sta- 
tions, the  Kaiserswerth  Motherhouse  alone  having 
425  sisters  working  in  four  continents,  on    111 
stations. 

In  1861  the  Motherhouses  organized  on  the 
Kaiserswerth  model  formed  a  Union  or  General 
Conference,  which  meets  every  three  years  at 
Kaiserswerth.  In  1901  the  number  of  houses 
belonging  to  the  Union  was  75,  with  14,501  sis- 
ters in  active  service,  and  an  annual  income  and 
outlay  of  $3,375,000.  Forty-eight  of  these 
houses  are  in  Germany,  7  in  Holland,  7  in  Russia, 
4  in  Switzerland,  2  in  France,  2  in  Austria-Hun- 
gary, 1  each  in  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway, 
and  2  in  the  United  States.  One  house  in  Ger- 
many, 2  in  Holland  and  1  in  the  United  States 
have  been  received  into  the  Union  since  1901. 
Fifteen  German  houses  have  no  connection  with 
the  Union. 

The  first  effort  to  transplant  the  deaconess 
work  to  the  United  States  was  made  in  1849, 
when,  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Passavant  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  Fliedner  him- 
self brought  over  four  deaconesses  to  become  the 
nucleus  of  a  Motherhouse  at  Pittsburg.  For 
various  reasons  this  first  venture  proved  a  fail- 
ure. In  1884  another  colony  of  German  sisters 
was  installed  in  the  German  Hospital,  Philadel- 


phia, where  the  work  became  firmly  established 
m  the  splendid  Mary  J.  Drexel  Home  and  Phila- 
delphia Motherhouse  of  Deaconesses,  built,  sup- 
ported and  endowed  by  Mr.  John  D.  Lankenau 
(died  1901).  In  its  organization,  life  and  work 
this  house  of  all  American  Deaconess  houses 
most  closely  resembles  the  European  type. 
Additional  Lutheran  Motherhouses  are  now 
(1903)  found  in  Baltimore,  Omaha,  Milwaukee, 
Minneapolis,  Chicago  and  Brooklyn.  Since  1896 
the  American  Lutheran  houses  have  held  four 
General  Conferences  of  their  own. 

2.  The  Motherhouse:  In  the  early  Church  the 
deaconess  office  was  a  congregational  office. 
Those  who  were  set  apart  to  it  were  chosen  from 
the  congregation  in  which  they  were  to  serve, 
and  beyond  having  the  qualifications  required  by 
the  apostles  for  the  Diaconate  in  general  (Acts 
vi:  3;  1  Tim.  iii:  8-11),  they  received  no  special 
training  for  their  work.  This  is  not  the  case 
to-day.  The  deaconess  of  the  present  is  pre- 
pared for  her  calling  in  an  institution  that  makes 
this  its  special  object,  and  to  this  institution, 
known  as  the  Motherhouse,  she  remains  perma- 
nently attached.  By  the  Motherhouse  she  is 
assigned  her  field  of  labor,  and  from  the  Mother- 
house  she  gets  her  support.  Tho  not  an  office- 
bearer in  the  congregation  in  the  sense  of  the 
early  deaconess,  she  is  nevertheless,  by  virtue 
of  her  consecration,  and  viewed  from  the  side  of 
her  practical  activity,  as  truly  a  servant  of  the 
Church  in  her  sphere  as  the  minister  of  the  Word 
is  in  his.  As  the  whole  method  of  preparing  and 
calling  men  for  the  ministry  of  the  Word  to-day 
differs  in  many  particulars  from  that  of  the  early 
Church,  so,  owing  to  totally  changed  conditions, 
the  restoration  of  the  Female  Diaconate  could 
take  place  only  by  adapting  the  method  for  doing 
so  to  these  conditions.  Hence  the  present  insti- 
tutional form  of  the  work,  which  practical 
experience  has  so  far  shown  to  be  not  only  the 
best,  but  the  only  possible  form  for  securing 
abiding  results ;  and  in  this  particular  only  is  an 
essential  difference  to  be  noted  between  the  dea- 
coness office  of  the  early  Church  and  the  same 
calling  to-day. 

The  internal  management  of  the  Motherhouee 
is  committed  to  a  Pastor  and  a  Sister  Superior. 
Candidates  for  admission  must  be  between  18 
and  36  (in  some  Motherhouses,  40)  years  of  age, 
of  unblemished  Christian  character,  intelligent, 
unmarried  and  in  good  health.  The  impelling 
motive  is  beautifully  expressed  by  Lohe,  who 
puts  these  words  into  the  mouth  of  the  intending 
deaconess:  "What  is  it  my  purpose  to  do?  I 
will  serve.  Whom  will  I  serve?  The  Lord 
Jesus  in  the  persons  of  His  suffering  and  needy 
brethren.  What  shall  be  my  reward?  I  will 
serve  neither  for  reward  nor  thanks,  but  out  of  a 
grateful  and  loving  heart.  My  reward  is  that  I 
am  permitted  to  do  so.  And  if  I  perish?  'If  I 
perish,  I  perish,'  said  Esther,  who  knew  not  Him 
for  Whom  I  would  perish,  but  Who  will  not  let 
me  perish.  And  if  I  grow  old  in  the  service? 
Then  my  heart  shall  still  fiourish  like  the  palm- 
tree,  and  the  Lord  will  satisfy  me  with  grace  and 
mercy.  I  go  forth  in  peace  and  fear  naught." 
The  instruction,  in  which  a  so-called  Training 
Sister  (Probemeisterin)  takes  a  prominent  part, 
is  of  a  kind  designed  to  lead  to  the  highest 
development  of  Christian  character  and  practical 
ability.  At  the  consecration  which  ends  the 
period  of  probation  the  candidate  makes  no 
vows,  but  only  promises  faithfulness  in  her  call- 


I>eaconeB8eR 
Dervisli 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


208 


ing.  She  retains  her  evangelical  liberty  to  relin- 
quish it  when  once  conscientiously  convinced 
that  she  ought  to  do  so,  tho  this  does  not  often 
occur  after  one  has  been  consecrated.  Summa- 
rizing the  advantages  of  the  modern  Motherhouse 
they  may  be  stated  as  follows:  It  gives  those 
who  expect  to  devote  their  life  to  the  work  of 
Christian  mercy  in  any  of  its  forms  a  theoretical 
and  practical  training  for  it  such  as  they  could 
get  in  no  other  way,  and  at  no  other  place;  it 
affords  the  best  possible  opportunities  for  utiliz- 
ing the  special  gifts  of  each  one,  and  the  gifts  of 
all  in  common  for  the  accomplishment  of  the 
largest  measure  of  good;  by  the  beauty  of  its 
worship,  the  frequency  and  variety  of  its  ser- 
vices, the  abundant  preaching  and  teaching  of  the 
Word,  the  special  pastoral  care  given  each  sister, 
and  the  healthful  influence  that  comes  from  being 
closely  associated  with  common  aims  in  a  com- 
mon work,  it  is  a  most  potent  means  for  develop- 
ing a  strong  Christian  character  and  personal 
holiness;  while,  finally,  it  also  serves  as  an  out- 
ward protection  and  support  by  lifting  the  sister 
above  the  cares,  frivolities  and  temptations  of  the 
world,  providing  for  all  her  material  necessities, 
sheltering  her  when  disabled  and  offering  her  a 
quiet  retreat  in  old  age. 

3.  Fields  of  Labor:  A  deaconess  of  the  Kaisers- 
werth  type  is  not  a  female  evangelist.  Tho  she 
embraces  many  an  opportunity  to  speak  the 
Word  of  instruction  and  comfort  in  private,  and 
particularly  in  her  work  with  the  young  has 
extraordinary  advantages  for  religious  teaching, 
she  is  nevertheless  not  called  to  the  ministry  of 
the  Word,  but,  in  accordance  with  Matth.  v:  16, 
is  rather  to  demonstrate  the  saving  power  of  the 
Word  by  what  she  is  and  does.  Nor  is  she  only  a 
nurse  of  the  sick,  tho  thousands  are  thus  engaged 
in  hundreds  of  institutions.  Besides  the  nursing 
of  the  sick,  her  work  embraces  the  care  of  the 
aged  and  infirm,  the  insane,  the  feeble-minded 
and  the  epileptic;  the  care  and  instruction  of 
children  in  Day  Nurseries,  Orphans'  Homes  and 
Little  Children's  Schools,  and  of  girls  in  Indus- 
trial Schools,  Servants'  Training  Schools  and 
Girls'  High  Schools;  the  recovery  of  the  fallen  in 
reformatories,  prisons  and  Magdalen  asylums; 
the  protection  of  the  imperiled  in  working  girls' 
homes  and  hospices;  and  above  all,  and  as  the 
crown  of  all,  work  among  the  poor,  the  sick,  the 
bereaved,  the  ignorant  and  the  needy  of  every 
kind  in  parishes,  under  the  direct  oversight  of 
the  pastor. 

According  to  the  statistics  of  the  General  Con- 
ference of  1901,  a  total  of  98  deaconesses  were 
then  stationed  in  Asia,  Africa  and  South  America. 
In  hospitals  there  were  14  at  Alexandria,  9  at 
Cairo,  8  at  Beirut,  8  at  Jerusalem  and  2  in  the 
leper  colony  of  Groot  Chatillon,  Surinam,  South 
America;  in  orphans'  homes  17  at  Beirut,  11  at 
Smyrna,  10  at  Jerusalem  and  2  in  the  school  and 
sanitarium  at  Areya  on  Mt.  Lebanon;  in  parish 
work  at  Alexandria  and  Haifa  2;  15  were  also 
employed  in  the  hospital  and  2  in  the  little  chil- 
dren's school  at  Constantinople.  On  mission  sta- 
tions among  the  heathen  there  were  2  in  Mada- 
gascar, 3  in  Batavia,  2  in  South  Africa,  4  in  West 
Africa  and  4  in  India. 

4.  Other  Types:  In  the  United  States  the  dea- 
coness cause  has  also  struck  roots  in  other 
Churches  besides  the  Lutheran.  In  1887-88  the 
work  was  taken  up  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and  in  1889,  after  various  private  efforts, 
the  General  Convention  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 


copal Church  adopted  a  canon  authorizing  the 
training  and  appointment  of  deaconesses.  In 
the  Methodist  Church  the  work  has  had  a  remark- 
ably rapid  growth,  extending  not  only  into  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  but  also  into  Europe, 
Asia  and  Africa,  with  an  enrollment  in  1901  of 
almost  1,100  deaconesses;  but  in  both  Churches 
named  the  work  differs  materially  from  the 
Kaiserswerth  type.  The  Methodist  deaconess  is 
to  a  great  extent  an  evangelist,  and  neither  in  the 
Methodist  nor  in  the  Episcopal  Church  are  the 
so-called  "training  schools"  and  "deaconess 
homes"  real  Motherhouses,  possessing  those  dis- 
tinctive features  which  European  experience  has 
shown  to  be  essential  for  the  healthy  and  perma- 
nent development  of  the  Female  Diaconate. 
Various  institutions  of  a  similar  character, 
mostly  interdenominational,  and  devoted  almost 
exclusively  to  hospital  work,  conclude  the  list  in 
the  United  States. 

Schafer,  Die  weibliche  Diakonie,  3  vols.,  Stuttgart  (2d  ed. 
1887-1894);  Wacker,  Der  Dmkonissevberuf,  Giitersloh, 
(1890),  (Eng.  trans.  The  Deaconess  Calling,  Mary  J.  Drexel 
Home,  Phila.,  1893);  Wurster,  Die  Lehre  von  der  Inneren 
Mission,  Berlin,  (1895) ;  Uhlhom,  Christian  Charity  in  the 
Ancient  Church,  New  York,  (1893)  ;  Jacobs,  The  Female  Diac- 
onate of  the  New  Testament,  Lutheran  Church  Review, 
January,  1892;  Spaeth,  Phehe,  the  Deaconess,  Lutheran 
(Church  Review,  July  and  October,  1885. 

DEAN,  Rev.  William:  For  many  years  a  mis- 
sionary in  Siam,  under  the  ABMU.  His  work 
in  that  country  began  in  1835,  and  through  his 
efforts  the  first  Chinese  church  in  Bangkok  was 
organized  two  years  afterward.  On  his  return 
to  America  in  1845  he  awakened  great  interest 
in  his  work  by  his  addresses,  and  induced  many  to 
take  a  deeper  interest  in  the  cause  of  foreign 
missions.  In  1864  he  resumed  his  work  at 
Bangkok,  where  he  remained  until  1884.  He 
died  at  San  Diego,  August  13,  1895. 

DEESA.     See  DiSA. 

DEHRA:  A  town  in  the  Dehra  Dun  district, 
United  Provinces,  India.  Prettily  situated  in 
a  mountain  valley  more  than  2,300  feet  above 
the  sea,  75  miles  east  of  Ambala.  Population 
(1891),  27,500,  of  whom  75  per  cent,  are  Hindus 
and  nearly  25  per  cent.  Mohammedans.  Mission 
station  of  the  PN  (1853),  with  (1901)  5  mission- 
aries, men  and  women  (one  of  them  a  physician) ; 
17  native  workers,  men  and  women;  1  common 
school,  2  high  schools,  and  101  professing  Chris- 
tians. Also  station  of  the  General  Synod  of  the 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  North  America, 
with  1  missionary,  5  native  workers,  men  and 
women ;  2  preaching  places,  1  common  school  and 
special  work  for  lepers. 

DEINZERHOHE :  Station  of  the  Neuen  Dettel- 
sau  Missionary  Society,  situated  on  the  E.  coast 
of  German  New  Guinea.  The  force  is  composed 
of  2  missionaries,  who  conduct  a  common  school 
there. 

DELAGOA  BAY:  A  station  of  the  WMS  south 
of  Lourengo  Marques,  Portuguese  East  Africa, 
situated  on  Delagoa  Bay.  In  1899  there  were 
stationed  here  1  missionary,  20  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  with  3  places  of  worship  and  3 
common  schools.  The  South  African  war  dis- 
arranged many  of  the  missionary  enterprises  of 
these  regions  and  revised  reports  have  not  yet 
(1903)  been  obtainable. 

DELENA:  A  station  of  the  LMS,  on  the  S. 
coast  of  British  New  Guinea,  about  50  miles  N. 
W.  of  Port  Moresby.  The  station  was  occupied 
in  1882  and  is  worked  (1902)    by   1    missionary 


209 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Deaconessea 
Dervisli 


and  16  native  workers,  with  17  elementary  schools 
and  462  professing  Chrisstians. 

DELHI:  A  town  of  Punjab,  India,  38  miles  S. 
W.  of  Meerut.  Noted  for  its  wonderful  old 
palaces  and  magnificent  old  buildings,  in  some 
respects  the  most  beautiful  and  curious  in  the 
world.  No  city  in  India  has  finer  thoroughfares 
than  Delhi;  most  of  its  houses  are  of  brick,  well 
built  and  substantial.  It  is  the  easternmost  of 
the  great  towns  of  the  province,  situated  on  a 
fertile  plain  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna.  It 
has  great  historical  importance,  having  been  the 
splendid  capital  of  the  Mogul  (Turkish)  emperor 
Shah  Jihan,  whose  fine  mosque,  Jama  Musjid,  is 
a  magnificent  monument  of  the  17th  century. 
Because  Delhi  was  the  former  residence  of  the 
great  Mogul,  many  Turks,  Afghans,  and  Mon- 
gols have  settled  here,  and  life  among  the  upper 
classes  has  a  decidedly  Mohammedan  character. 
Delhi  was  besieged  by  the  English  during  the 
mutiny  of  1857.  Its  population  (1901)  is  208,575, 
two-fifths  of  whom  are  Mohammedans  and 
nearly  three-fifths  Hindus.  It  is  a  station  of  the 
BMS  (1818),  with  (1900)  8  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  24  native  workers,  men  and  women;  12 
common  schools,  a  theological  class,  a  dispensary 
and  307  professing  Christians. 

Station  also  of  the  Baptist  Zenana  Mission 
(England  1868),  with  8  missionary  women,  20 
native  women  workers,  6  common  schools,  1  high 
school,  a  dispensary  and  175  Zenana  pupils. 
Station  also  of  the  SPG  (1854),  with  (1902)  16 
missionaries,  men  and  women ;  93  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  10  places  of  worship,  19  common 
schools,  3  high  schools  and  873  professing  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1902)  11 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  12  Sunday 
schools,  a  Young  People's  Society,  and  999  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

DEMERARA:  A  river  and  district  in  British 
Guiana  iq.v.). 

DEOBAND :  A  town  in  the  Sahranpur  district. 
United  Provinces,  India;  situated  45  miles  N.  E. 
of  Meerut.  Population  (1891),  19,300,  of  whom 
about  11,000  are  Mohammedans  and  the  most 
of  the  remainder  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
ME,  with  (1902)  11  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  1  place  of  worship,  10  Sunday  schools, 
1  Society  for  Young  People,  and  705  professing 
Christians.     Also  written  Deobund. 

DEOGARH:  A  town  in  the  Santal  Parganas, 
Bengal,  India;  situated  55  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Bhagalpur.  Population  (1891)  8,300,  chiefly 
Hindus.  It  contains  22  temples  of  Siva  and  is 
a  famous  center  of  pilgrimage.  Station  of  the 
CWBM,  with  (1902)  7  missionary  women,  2  of 
them  physicians;  4  native  workers,  men  and 
women ;  3  preaching  places,  2  schools,  an  orphan- 
age, a  dispensary,  a  leper  home,  and  130  profess- 
ing Christians.     Name  also  written  Deoghur. 

DEOLI:  A  town  in  Ajmere,  India,  70  miles 
southeast  of  the  town  of  Ajmere.  Climate  trop- 
ical. Population,  3,000,  including  Rajputs,  low- 
caste  Hindus  and  Minas.  Station  of  the  UFS 
(1871),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  16 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  3  common 
schools  and  10  church  members.  The  place  has 
suffered  severely  from  famine  and  the  Christian 
community  has  been  depleted  by  the  removals 
of  members  to  other  places. 

DEPOK:  A  village  south  of  Batavia,  Java, 
East  Indies.     It  was  Christianized  in  1714,  and 

14 


was  the  seat  of  a  Dutch  Missionary  Society 
(Nederl.  Zending.)  station  from  1834  to  1852. 
In  1878  Schnurman  having  formed  a  Committee 
in  Holland  for  its  support  opened  a  seminary  here 
for  training  native  workers  for  the  whole  archi- 
pelago. It  has  proved  an  efficient  and  valuable 
agency  for  bringing  the  different  races  of  the 
islands  into  touch  with  each  other  and  for  culti- 
vating closer  relations  between  the  various 
societies. 

DERA  GHAZI  KHAN:  A  town  in  the  North- 
west Frontier  Province,  India;  situated  45  miles 
west  of  Multan.  Population  (1891),  27,900,  of 
whom  16,000  are  Mohammedans  and  the  larger 
part  of  the  remainder  are  Hindus.  Station  of 
the  CMS  and  the  CEZ  (1879  and  1893),  with 
(1902)  4  missionaries,  men  and  women  (2  of  them 
physicians);  3  native  workers,  1  elementary 
school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital  and  44  professing 
Christians.  It  contains  many  mosques  and  a 
fine  bazaar. 

DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN:  A  town  of  the  North- 
west Frontier  Province,  India;  situated  on  the 
W.  bank  of  the  Indus,  120  miles  north  of  Multan. 
A  well-planned  town,  with  houses  of  modern 
construction,  but  very  badly  drained.  Popu- 
lation (1891),  26,900,  of  whom  15,200  are  Moham- 
medans, including  many  proud  descendants  of  old 
tribal  chiefs  and  other  aristocrats.  Station  of  the 
CMS  and  of  the  CEZ  (1861  and  1884),  with  (1902) 
5  missionaries,  men  and  women  (2  of  them  phy- 
sicians);  9  native  workers,  men  and  women;  1 
elementary  and  1  high  school,  2  dispensaries,  1 
hospital  and  57  professing  Christians. 

DERVISH:  A  Mohammedan  Theosophist  or 
Sufi;  commonly  a  member  of  an  order  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  seeking  mystical  knowledge  of 
God.  Etymologically  the  word  "dervish"  means 
one  who  begs  at  a  door,  literally  as  a  mendicant, 
or  figuratively  as  a  suppliant  at  the  door  of  God's 
mercy.  The  latter  meaning  is  the  one  which  the 
older  Dervish  Orders  insist  upon.  In  Turkey  pop- 
ular contempt  for  the  unattached,  wandering, 
and  begging  Dervishes  is  expressed  in  a  proverb 
which  says,  "The  Christian's  lazy  man  becomes 
a  monk;  the  Mohammedan's,  a  Dervish"  {Kris- 
tianin  tenbeli  keshish  olcmr,  Mussulmaninki  Der- 
vish). Yet  comparatively  few  Dervishes  are 
mendicants.  It  is  customary  to  call  Dervishes 
monks,  but  none  of  them  are  monks  in  any  sense 
which  implies  vows  of  service  in  an  order,  celibacy 
or  permanent  residence  in  a  monastery.  Of  them- 
selves they  prefer  to  say  that  they  are  "Fakirs," 
that  is  to  say  "poor"  who  desire  to  serve  God. 
Therefore  they  have  become  followers  of  Sufiem, 
or  Theosophy  {Ehli  Tesavvuf). 

The  order  of  Dervishes  is  called  a  "Way" 
( Tarikat) .  It  is  a  voluntary  association,  guarded 
in  a  few  cases  only  by  secret  signs  and  passwords. 
The  members  are  not  bound  to  the  Order  by  any 
promise  of  fidelity.  Men  often  change  from  one 
Order  to  another,  sometimes  belong  to  two  or 
more  Orders  at  the  same  time,  and  lose  no  whit 
in  regard  of  their  fellows  if  they  withdraw,  even 
for  the  purpose  of  setting  up  a  new  and  independ- 
ent Order.  The  place  of  assembly  of  any  Order, 
called  a  Tekk'e  or  a  Zaviy'e,  is  built  in  some  con- 
venient place  and  endowed  by  legacies  of  the 
benevolent  to  serve  for  worship  and  other  relig- 
ious exercises  according  to  the  ritual  of  the  Order. 
To  this  place  all  Mohammedans  are  permitted  to 
resort  for  worship;  there  the  special  exercises  of 
the  Order  are  held,  the  public  special  exercises 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


210 


occurring  once,  twice,  or  three  times  in  the  week; 
there  are  the  rooms  or  cells  in  which  the  Elder 
{Sheikh)  resides  with  such  of  the  members  as  have 
a  vocation  to  do  so.  The  place  is  not  a  monas- 
tery, however,  and  it  may  be  on  the  same  prem- 
ises with  the  rooms  where  the  wives  of  the  Der- 
vishes live.  A  tekke,  of  the  Bektashiye  Dervishes 
commonly  contains  apartments  for  the  wives, 
since  they  may  be  admitted  to  that  order  and  are 
addressed  as  "Sister"  by  all  the  members. 

What  all  the  Orders  of  Dervishes  have  in 
common  is,  (a)  the  general  doctrine  of  Sufism  that 
man  is  capable  of  attaining  to  full  knowledge  of 
God,  and  to  an  ecstatic  sense  of  union  with  God; 
(b)  certain  exercises  of  mind,  of  body,  or  of  both, 
lead  certainly  to  this  knowledge  of,  and  union 
with,  God.  These  exercises  constitute  the  "Way" 
to  God  (each  Dervish  order  following  its  own 
method  of  attaining  the  common  aim) ;  (c )  in 
order  to  follow  the  "Way"  a  perfect  guide  and 
absolute  submission  to  his  guidance  is  essential. 
This  perfect  guide  is  the  founder  of  the  order 
(called  "Pir")  and  his  successor  (  Khalifa),  or  the 
Elder  (Sheikh),  who  has  received  grace  from  these 
to  lead  in  the  particular  district  where  the  Tekk^ 
is  established;  (d)  all  those  who  seek  God  by  any 
"Way"  are  brothers  {Ikhvan);  those  yet  learning 
are  seekers  or  novices  (Murid);  those  who  are 
instructed  and  making  progress  in  the  way  are 
"walkers"  (Salik);  and  a,  Salik  of  long  experience 
may  be  a  "guide"  (Murshtd)  of  novices  and  in 
due  time  perhaps  a  Sheikh  of  a  separate  chapter 
of  the  order;  (e)  the  man  who  has  many  times 
repeated  the  ecstasy  of  the  Divine  Presence  finally 
loses  himself  and  becomes  annihilated  as  to  self- 
will,  so  that  he  is  insensible  to  material  things,  is 
used  by  God  as  an  instrument  for  carrying  out  His 
purposes,  and  thus  can  heal  the  sick  or  slay  the 
strong  by  a  breath,  can  read  the  thoughts  of  men, 
can  know  distant  occurrences,  and  can  transport 
himself  through  space.  He  is  then  a  saint  ( Veli),  of 
whom  there  are  always  some  hundreds  in  the  world. 

The  above  tenets  of  Sufism  are  held  by  all 
Orders  of  Dervishes  in  common.  The  points  of 
difference  between  the  different  Orders  are,  in  the 
main,  differences  of  method,  but  sometimes  of 
interpretation  or  doctrine.  The  differences  do 
not,  however,  as  a  rule,  interfere  with  brotherly 
relations  between  the  various  Orders. 

In  theory  the  Dervish  Orders  derive  their 
doctrine  and  the  main  points  of  their  "Way"  from 
Mohammed  himself  through  the  Caliphs  Abu 
Bekr  or  Ali.  This  theory,  however,  is  supported 
less  by  documentary  evidence  than  by  interpre- 
tations put  upon  detached  sayings  of  the  wor- 
thies of  that  ancient  period,  which  are  claimed  to 
show  belief  in  Sufism.  Preferences  chiefly  as  to 
minor  points  of  their  "Way"  have  led  to  a  vast 
multiplication  of  Dervish  Orders.  But  since  each 
Elder  or  Sheikh  at  the  head  of  any  group  of  Der- 
vishes must  be  able  to  prove  himself  possessed  of 
the  "grace"  of  God  so  that  he  is  a  trusty  guide, 
each  Order  has  a  sort  of  a  genealogical  record  of 
the  line  by  which  "grace"  was  received  by  its 
"Pir"  or  founder  and  by  the  successive  generations 
of  his  followers.  By  study  of  these  spiritual 
genealogies  one  may  see  that  all  the  existing 
Orders  are  reducible  to  eight  or  ten  which  came 
into  existence  during  the  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  next  after  the  middle  of  the  12th  century. 
These  ten  most  ancient  Orders  are: 

1.  Kadiriyfe  (1150). 

2.  Rufai'iy^  (1170);  popularly  called  Howling 
Dervishes. 


3.  Mediniyg   (1180). 

4.  Shazihyg    (1254). 

5.  Mevleviyd  (1260) ;  called  Whirling  Dervishes. 

6.  BedaviyS  (1260). 

7.  Nakshibendiye  (1300). 

8.  Saadiy^  (1320). 

9.  Bektashiye  (1354). 
lO.Khalvetiyl  (1390). 

Excepting  7  and  9  in  this  list,  which  claim  each 
an  exclusive  spiritual  lineage,  the  above  Orders 
all  claim  to  have  received  "grace"  through  a  cer- 
tain saint  named  Juneid,  who  flourished  in 
Baghdad  in  the  9th  century;  and  excepting  the 
Nakshibendiyd  order  (which  carries  its  genealogy 
by  way  of  Bokhara  and  Samarcand  back  to  the 
Caliph  Abu  Bekr)  all  of  them  claim  a  spiritual 
descent  from  the  Caliph  Ali.  Excepting  the 
Mediniy^  (No.  3),  which  is  of  strictly  Arab  (Moor- 
ish) origin,  the  Orders  all  sprang  from  great  men 
of  Persia  or  Central  Asia. 

The  Kadiriye,  Rufai'iyS,  Khalvetiy^,  Mediniyd 
and  BedaviyS  or  their  branches  (Isaviyd,  Dejaniyd- 
EkberiyS,  Tayibiy^,  etc.)  are  well  known  to  all 
travelers  in  Egypt  and  North  Africa  as  the  men 
who  howl,  who  cut  themselves,  who  eat  fire  or  lie 
on  the  ground  for  a  horse  to  trample  on  them,  etc. 
The  fact  should  be  kept  in  mind  while  watching 
such  performances  that  these  acts  are  deemed 
sure  proof  that  the  man  who  does  them  is  insen- 
sible to  material  things  because  at  that  time  self 
is  annihilated  and  he  is  lost  in  God.  This  state, 
which  has  been  caUed  "auto-hypnosis,"  is  the 
result  of  the  religious  exercises  of  the  Order.  The 
"devotees"  (Feda'is),  who  made  the  Assassins 
famous  in  the  Crusades,  or  those  who  run  "amok" 
in  Malaysia,  or  those  who  followed  the  pseudo- 
"Mahdi"  stoically  to  death  before  the  British 
squares  in  the  Sudan,  are  other  examples  of  the 
same  condition. 

The  exercises  by  which  this  condition  of  divine 
ecstasy  is  produced  differ  in  the  different  Orders, 
but  the  theory  of  all  divides  the  exercises  into 
three  parts:  (a)  Worship  and  withdrawal  of  the 
thoughts  from  earthly  things;  (b)  Concentration 
of  the  mind  (on  the  Sheikh,  then  on  the  Pir  or 
founder  of  the  Order,  and  finally,  by  these  easy 
stages,  upon  the  Almighty  himself;  (c)  Recitation 
(Zikr)  of  the  phrase  "There  is  no  god  but  God"  as 
the  climax  of  a  recapitulation  of  God's  attributes 
continued  until  breathlessness.,  The  Zikr  is 
assisted  by  certain  mechanical  means :  for  instance, 
in  the  Kadiriy^  and  Rufai'iy^  type,  by  swaying 
the  body,  stamping  the  feet,  the  whole  congrega- 
tion beating  tambourines,  etc.,  while  the  holy 
sentence  is  shouted  in  ceaseless  repetition.  In  the 
Mevleviyfe  method,  the  Zikr  is  inaudible  tho 
accompanied  by  plaintive  music  of  reed  flutes, 
while  the  devotees  whirl  like  automatic  tops. 
In  the  Nakshibendi  "Way"  the  Zikr  is  also  inau- 
dible, while  the  tongue  is  doubled  back  upon  the 
palate,  the  eyes  are  fixed  upon  the  stomach,  and 
the  breath  is  retained  as  long  as  possible.  In 
the  Bektashiy^  system  it  is  alleged  that  spirit- 
uous liquors  are  imbibed  after  the  assembly  has 
gathered  and  before  the  Zikr  commences.  The 
use  by  several  of  the  Orders  of  opium  and  hashish 
as  an  aid  to  religious  fervor  is  a  better  attested 
evil. 

The  Dervish  Orders  are  commonly  at  odds  with 
the  Mohammedan  theologians  because  they  exalt 
Ali  almost  as  the  Persian  Shi'ites  do,  while  all 
their  wresting  of  texts  and  traditions  and  all 
their  documentary  evidence  of  spiritual  descent 
from  Arabs  cannot  make  their  belief  and  practice 


211 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Dervish 
DliarTvar 


conform  to  Mohammedan  orthodoxy.  But  the 
Mohammedanism  of  the  Koran  and  the  schools 
is  essentially  a  religion  of  outward  observances 
which  keeps  the  eye  of  its  follower  fixed  upon 
himself,  his  washings,  etc.  It  has  no  idea  that 
character  can  be  developed  in  its  followers,  and 
certainly  none  of  spiritual  needs  in  man  which 
God  is  pleased  to  fiU.  The  Dervish  Orders 
promise  Mohammedans  a  satisfaction  for  spiritual 
aspirations  which  otherwise  would  grieve  their 
thirsting  souls  to  the  grave.  It  is  but  a  little 
thing  to  men  in  such  straits  that  the  Dervishes 
have  ransacked  Persia  and  India  for  the  dogmas 
with  which  they  attract  tens  of  thousands  who 
are  not  satisfied  with  the  teachings  of  Mohammed 
and  who  go  from  one  Dervish  Order  to  another, 
still  ever  groping  after  the  true  "Way  of  God" 
and  the  "perfect  guide"  who  shall  lead  their  souls 
to  rest. 

Altho  the  Vlema,  or  theologians,  of  Islam 
frown  upon  the  Dervish  Orders,  the  laity  are  their 
warm  supporters.  In  Turkey  many  a  minister 
of  the  Government  has  a  Sheikh  attached  to  his 
household  to  give  him  private  instructions  in  the 
way,  while  the  Sultan  himself  is  said  to  be  a 
member  of  the  Shazili  Order.  The  influence  of 
the  Sheikhs  is  tremendous.  The  rule  requiring 
perfect  submission  to  their  will  unites  with  the 
influence  of  an  austere  life  and  a  prophet's  vehe- 
mence' in  denouncing  patent  corruption  to  make 
people  hope  from  the  Sheikh  effective  leadership 
m  reform.  It  was  such  promise  of  reform  that 
gave  power  to  the  leader  of  the  Kadiriyfe  and 
Khalvetiy^  Dervishes  of  the  Sudan  when  the 
whole  land  followed  him  as  Mahdi  until  they  had 
given  him  a  power  too  great  for  his  hands  to  wield. 
It  is  such  promise  of  reform  by  return  to  God 
which  gave  to  the  plain,  simple  Sheikh  of  a  group 
of  Shazili  Dervishes  in  Tripoli,  less  than  forty 
years  ago,  the  leadership  of  the  Senoussiye  move- 
ment, which  to-day  is  the  most  potent  force  in  all 
North  Africa,  if  not  in  Islam. 

There  is  much  in  the  teaching  of  the  Der- 
vishes which  appears  to  be  like  a  bridge  between 
Islam  and  Christianity.  The  expressions  of 
earnest  desire  to  know  God,  of  longing  for  anni- 
hilation of  self  and  spiritual  union  with  God  and 
for  escape  from  sin  which  are  common  in  the 
mouths  of  Dervishes  seem  to  be  a  ground  on 
which  every  Christian  may  meet  them.  Closer 
study  discourages  this  view  by  showing  that  the 
words  are  used  in  a  special  sense.  "Desire  for 
God"  is  desire  for  that  feverish  ecstasy  produced 
by  mechanical  means,  which  the  Sufis  compare 
to  drunkenness  and  which  passes  away  leaving 
its  victim  morally  what  he  was  before.  "Walk- 
ing in  the  way  to  God,"  with  escape  from  sin,  does 
not  imply  loyal  service,  but  suppression  of  respon- 
sibility for  deeds  done  in  the  body.  Union  with 
God  in  the  most  of  the  Orders  (the  Nakshibendiyd 
and  the  Melamiye ;  an  obscure  offshoot  from  the 
Khalvety^  Order  are  exceptions  to  this  interpre- 
tation) does  not  mean  fellowship,  but  absorption 
of  the  being,  as  a  raindrop  is  absorbed  in  the  ocean. 
With  the  Christian,  union  with  God  inrplies  a 
higher  type  of  manhood  abounding  in  good  works 
for  others.  With  the  Dervishes,  it  implies  such  a 
suppression  of  this  world's  intelligence  that  a 
naked  idiot  is  the  favorite  type  of  its  highest 
degree.  Any  analysis  of  Sufism  reveals  its  sub- 
ordination to  Indian  Pantheism  and  probably  to 
the  Gnostic  delirium  of  early  Christendom.  The 
missionary  must  approach  Dervishes  as  he  would 
approach  those  known  to  be  saturated  with  these 


Asiatic  perversions  of  great  truths,  and  who  need 
to  be  taught  the  first  elements  of  faith  in  God. 
Brown    (J,    p.),    The   Dervishes,    London,    1868;     D'Ohsson, 

Tableau  de  I'Emvire  Otloman,  Paris;  Lane  (E.W.),  Modem 

Egyptians,  London. 

DESTERRO.     See  Florianopolis. 

DEUTSCHE  ORIENT  MISSION.  See  Germany; 
Missionary  Societies  in. 

DEVON:  A  CMS  mission  station  in  the  Sas- 
katchewan district,  Canada.  Station  established 
in  1840,  and  about  to  be  transferred  to  the  Can- 
adian Church.  It  now  (1901)  has  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  3  native  workers,  6  schools  and  770 
professing  Christians. 

DHAMPUR:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Bijnaur, 
United  Provinces,  India.  Population  (1891), 
6,700,  of  whom  4,000  are  Hindus  and  the  larger 
part  of  the  remainder  Muslims.  Station  circuit 
of  the  ME.     Statistics  included  in  Bijnaur. 

DHAMTARI:  A  town  in  the  Raipur  district, 
Central  Provinces,  India;  situated  160  miles  E. 
by  S.  of  Nagpur.  Population  (1891),  6,700,  of 
whom  5,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  Men- 
nonite  Evangelizing  and  Benevolent  Board 
(1899),  with  (1900)  5  missionaries,  men  and 
women  (one  of  them  a  physician) ;  6  native  work- 
ers, a  hospital,  an  orphanage,  an  industrial  school 
and  50  professing  Christians. 

DHANAURA:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Morad- 
abad.  United  Provinces,  India,  35  miles  E.  of 
Meerut.  Population,  5,300.  Station  circuit  of 
the  ME.     Statistics  included  in  Moradabad. 

DHAR :  A  town  and  capital  of  the  state  of  the 
same  name  in  Central  Provinces,  India;  situated 
35  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Indore.  Population  (1891) 
18,400,  of  whom  75  per  cent,  are  Hindus  and 
about  20  per  cent.  Mohammedans.  Station  of 
the  PCC  (1895),  with  (1900)  4  missionaries,  men 
and  women  (one  a  physician) ;  11  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  1  preaching  place,  3  elementary 
schools,  1  orphanage,  1  industrial  school,  1  theo- 
logical class,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary  and  25  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

DHARAPURAM:  A  town  in  Madras,  India; 
situated  42  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Coimbatore;  cele- 
brated as  a  strategical  center  in  the  wars  of  the 
English  with  Tipoo  Sahib  and  Hyder  Ali.  Pop- 
ulation (1891),  7,700,  of  whom  5,900  are  Hmdus. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1902)  1  missionary 
10  native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  preachmg 
places,  6  village  schools,  and  79  profeseing  Chris- 
tians. 

DHARMSALA :  Capital  of  a  district  in  the  Pun- 
jab, India;  situated  95  miles  N.  W.  of  Simla  at  an 
altitude  of  6,000  feet.  It  owes  its  name  to  an  old 
Hindu  dharmsala,  or  sanctuary.  Population 
(1891)  6,200,  ninety  per  cent,  being  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  CMS.  Statistics  included  in  Kan- 
gra. 

DHARWAR:  A  town  of  Bombay,  India,  capi- 
tal of  the  district  of  the  same  name.  It  is  situ- 
ated 73  miles  E.  of  Goa  and  is  a  railroad  town  and 
center  of  trade  in  produce,  grain  and  cotton  being 
extensively  produced  in  the  region.  Population 
(1891),  32,800,  of  whom  23,900  are  Hindus  and 
7  000  Muslims.  Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1837),  with  (1902)  3  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  21  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
3  elementary  schools,  1  high  school  and  235  pro- 
fessing Christians. 


Diadia 
Uoreli 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


212 


DIADIA:  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free  State; 
situated  on  tiie  N.  side  of  the  Congo  River,  about 
175  miles  from  its  mouth.  Station  of  the  Swe- 
dish Missionary  Society  (1888),  with  7  mission- 
aries, men  and  women;  12  native  workers,  1 
preaching  place,  1  high  school,  1  orphan  asylum, 
1  dispensary  and  394  professing  Christians. 

DIAMANTE :  A  town  in  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, South  America;  situated  on  the  Parana 
River,  about  25  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Parana.  Popu- 
lation about  2,000.  Station  of  the  SDA,  with  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives.  Statistics  included 
under  Buenos  Aires. 

DIAMOND  HARBOR :  A  seaport  in  the  district 
ot  the  24  Parganas,  Bengal,  India;  situated  at 
the  head  of  the  estuary  of  the  Hugli,  30  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Calcutta.  Population  about  5,000. 
Station  circuit  of  the  ME,  with  (1902)  2  mission- 
ary women,  11  native  workers,  5  Sunday  schools, 
5  common  schools,  2  preaching  places,  1  Young 
People's  Society  and  53  professing  Christians. 

DIARBEKIR:  A  city  and  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name  in  North  Mesopotamia,  Turkey. 
It  is  the  ancient  Amida,  called  by  the  Turks  Kara 
(Black)  Amida,  on  account  of  the  walls,  which ,  being 
built  of  black  basalt,  have  a  peculiarly  forbidding 
aspect.  It  is  situated  on  the  Tigris  River. 
Being  a  center  for  trade,  it  has  always  been  an 
important  place.  Population  about  34,000,  of 
whom  about  20,100  are  Mohammedans  (Arabs, 
Turks,  Kurds,  etc.)  and  the  remainder  Chris- 
tians of  various  sects.  It  was  for  many  years  a 
station  of  the  ABCFM  and  was  given  up  because 
of  insalubrity  as  soon  as  the  evangelical  church 
was  able  to  stand  alone. 

DIBBLE,  Sheldon:  Born  at  Skaneateles,  N.  Y., 
January  26,  1809;  graduated  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, 1825;  Auburn  Theological  Seminary,  1830; 
ordained  at  Utica,  October  6,  1830.  Sailed 
the  same  year  with  the  fourth  company  of  mis- 
sionaries sent  by  the  ABCFM  to  the  Hawaiian 
Islands.  He  translated  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, prepared  eight  text-books  on  grammar, 
natural  history,  and  Scripture  history  in  the 
Hawaiian  language,  and  wrote  a  History  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands  Mission  (New  York,  18.39)  and 
a  History  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  (Lahainahma, 
1843).     He  died  at  Lahainaluna,  June  22,   1845. 

DIBRUGARH:  Capital  of  the  district  of 
Lakhimpur,  Assam,  India;  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Brahmaputra  River,  being  the  ter- 
minus of  river  trade  by  commerical  steamers. 
Population  (1891)  9,900,  of  whom  7,100  are 
Hindus  and  the  remainder  chiefly  Muslims.  Sta- 
tion of  the  ABMU  (1896),  with  (1901)  2  mission- 
aries (one  with  his  wife),  2  native  workers,  1 
preaching  place  and  150  professing  Christians. 

DIG:  A  town  in  Rajputana,  India,  lying  25 
miles  N.  W.  of  Bhartpur.  It  is  built  in  marshy 
land  and  is  surrounded  by  water  during  most  of 
the  year.  Population  (1891)  15,800.  Station 
circuit  of  the  ME,  with  1902)  31  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  1  preaching  place,  10  Sunday 
schools  and  520  professing  Christians. 

DIKELE  LANGUAGE.     See  Kele. 

DIKWELLA:  A  town  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Ceylon,  situated  about  10  miles  E.  of  Matura. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1902)  1  missionary, 
19  native  workers,  men  and  women;  3  preaching 
places  in  neighborhood,  6  Sunday  schools,  6  ele- 
mentary schools,  and  18  professing  Christians. 

DINAPUR:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 


on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges,  11  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Patna.  Population  (1891)  44,000,  of  whom 
32,300  are  Hindus  and  about  10,000  Mohammed- 
ans. Station  of  the  BMS,  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  3  native  workers  and  2  ele- 
mentary schools. 

DINDIGAL:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  30  miles 
northwest  of  Madura.  The  name  means  "Rock 
of  Dindu"  and  is  taken  from  a  remarkable  wedge- 
shaped  rock,  1,200  feet  high,  on  which  a  fort  has 
been  constructed.  The  place  was  formerly  of 
considerable  importance.  Population  (1891), 
20,000,  of  whom  14,600  are  Hindus.  Station  of 
the  ABCFM  (1835),  with  (1901)  1  missionary 
woman,  71  native  workers,  men  and  women;  19 
preaching  places,  19  common  schools,  12  Sunday 
schools,  3  high  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital 
and  607  professing  Christians.  Also  station  of 
the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1890),  with 
(1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  8  native  work- 
ers, 4  preaching  places,  1  common  school,  1  high 
school,  and  400  professing  Christians. 

DIP  POINT :  Station  of  the  New  Hebrides  Mis- 
sion on  the  island  of  Ambyrm.  See  New 
Hebrides. 

DISA:  A  town  in  Baroda,  West  India,  lying 
about  20  miles  W.  of  Palanpur.  Station  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  (1893),  with 
(1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  7  native  work- 
ers, 4  common  schools,  1  orphanage  and  14  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST.  See  Foreign  Chris- 
tian Missionary  Society,  and  Christian 
Woman's  Board  op  Missions. 

DIX  COVE:  A  settlement  in  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony,  situated  on  the  coast  about  60  miles  W. 
S.  W.  from  Cape  Coast  Castle.  Station  of  the 
WMS,  with  (1902)  1  missionary,  54  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women ;  29  preaching  places,  5 
Sunday  schools,  1  common  school  and  261  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

DJANDJI  MATOGU:  A  settlement  in  the 
island  of  Sumatra,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated 
on  the  Toba  Lake  about  50  miles  N.  E.  of  Siboga. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers, 
2  day  schools  and  40  professing  Christians. 

DJEMAA  SAHRIDJ :  A  village  in  Algeria,  situ- 
ated near  the  coast  about  40  miles  east  of  Algiers. 
Station  of  the  North  Africa  Mission  (1882),  with 
(1902)  2  missionary  women,  1  assistant  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  man  and 
woman ;  2  preaching  places,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
blind  school  and  40  Christians. 

DJOCJAKARTA.     See  Jokyakarta. 

DOANE,  Edward  Topping:  Born  at  Tompkins- 
ville,  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  May  30,  1820;  grad- 
uated at  Illinois  College,  Jacksonville,  111.,  1848; 
Union  Theological  Seminary  1852;  ordained  1854, 
and  embarked  June  4,  the  same  year,  as  mission- 
ary of  the  ABCFM  for  Micronesia,  arriving  Feb- 
ruary 6,  1855.  Tho  circumstances  made  it 
necessary  for  him  to  be  transferred  temporarily 
to  the  Marshall  Islands  and  to  Japan,  yet  the 
people  of  Ponapi,  where  he  was  stationed,  had  his 
heart,  and  to  them  he  returned  and  for  them 
labored  with  unwearied  gentleness  and  courage, 
and  with  cheering  success.  In  1887,  when  the 
Spanish  forces  occupied  the  island,  Mr.  Doane 
was  seized,  put  in  the  hold  of  a  vessel,  and  sent  as 
a  prisoner  to  the  Philippine  Islands.     The  natives 


S13 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Diadls 
Doreh 


were  so  roused  by  his  unwarrantable  act,  that, 
being  without  Mr.  Doane's  influence  to  restrain 
them,  they  rose  and  toolc  the  life  of  the  Governor. 
Through  the  efforts  of  Julius  Voigt,  the  United 
States  Consul  at  Manila,  Mr.  Doane  was  liberated 
by  the  Spanish  Government,  and  was  returned 
with  apologies  to  his  station.  His  influence 
throughout  the  islands  was  increased  by  what  had 
happened.  Tho  his  health  declined,  he  clung 
to  his  work  till  the  spring  of  1890,  when  he  was 
conveyed  by  the  "Morning  Star"  to  Honolulu, 
where  in  two  weeks  he  quietly  breathed  his  last, 
at  the  house  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hyde,  on  the  15th  of 
May.     He  had  been  35  years  a  missionary. 

DOBER,  Leonard:  The  first  missionary  of  the 
Moravians  to  the  Danish  West  Indies.  He  was 
a  potter  by  trade.  His  attention  was  called  to 
this  field  through  a  conversation  in  1731  with  a 
servant  of  Count  Zinzendorf,  who  stated  that  he 
had  a  sister  in  St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  and  desired  some 
one  sent  to  instruct  the  slaves  in  Christianity. 
Whoever  went  to  these  poor  people  on  the  island 
of  St.  Thomas  must  become  a  laborer  to  work 
among  them,  and  Leonard  Dober  offered  himself 
to  be  sold  as  a  slave,  if  necessary,  in  order  to  reach 
them.  It  was  a  year  before  anything  was  done. 
When  it  was  determined  by  lot,  in  1732,  Dober 
was  selected,  and  Nitschman,  who  was  to  go  with 
him  to  St.  Thomas  and  then  return  to  Herrnhut. 
The  Moravians  at  this  time  knew  very  little  of 
missionary  undertakings,  and  gave  them  only 
these  instructions:  "In  all  things  follow  the  guid- 
ance of  the  Spirit  of  Christ."  They  set  out  for 
Copenliagen,  with  only  their  staves  in  their  hands 
and  only  six  dollars  in  their  pockets.  They  were 
told  at  Copenhagen  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  get  a  vessel  to  go  to  St.  Thomas,  but  their  sted- 
fastness  of  purpose  raised  up  some  influential 
friends  for  them  among  the  royal  family,  coun- 
cilors of  state,  and  her  majesty's  chaplains.  They 
arrived  in  St.  Thomas,  December  13,  1732,  and 
immediately  found  the  servant's  sister,  who,  with 
her  companions,  rejoiced  to  see  them.  For  four 
months  Dober  and  Nitschman  worked  happily 
together,  when  Nitschman  had  to  return  to 
Europe.  Dober  was  left  destitute,  for  there  was 
no  clay  on  the  island  suitable  for  the  making  of 
pottery.  He  was  for  a  time  tutor  to  the  govern- 
or's son,  but  this  interfered  with  his  missionary 
work  among  the  negroes,  and  he  went  to  Tappus, 
a  small  village,  where  he  lived  in  great  poverty. 
In  1733  helpers  came  from  England  to  take  his 
place.  Two  months  later  Dober  returned  to 
Europe,  to  fill  the  office  of  superintending  elder 
in  the  Moravian  congregation  at  Herrnhut. 

DOBRUDJA :  The  portion  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula on  the  right  side  of  the  Danube,  extending 
from  Silistria  and  Varna  to  the  mouth  of  that 
river,  offering  the  most  accessible  military  route 
from  the  north  to  Constantinople.  The  country 
is  flat,  containing  several  large  swamps  and  lakes 
on  the  coast.  Some  parts  are  very  fertile,  and 
produce  good  crops  of  grain;  others  are  covered 
with  grasses.  The  population  is  made  up  of 
Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Wallachs  and  Tatars.  Under 
the  treaty  of  Berlin  (1878)  this  district  was  taken 
from  Turkey  and  added  to  Rumania,  of  which 
it  is  now  a  part. 

DOBU:  A  settlement  on  the  northern  end  of 
Normandy  Island,  British  New  Guinea.  Station 
of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church, 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2 
missionary  women,  37  native  workers,  4  common 


schools,  an  orphanage,  a  dispensary  and  6  bap- 
tized Christians. 

DODANDUWA:  A  town  in  the  southern  part 
of  Ceylon,  situated  on  the  coast  about  20  miles 
N.  W.  of  Galle.  Station  of  the  CMS,  with  (1902) 
1  unordained  missionary,  1  missionary  woman, 
1  native  worker,  1  preaching  place,  and  2  indus- 
trial schools. 

DOHAD :  A  town  in  the  district  of  Ranch  Mahals, 
Bombay,  India.  Population  (1891),  12,900,  of 
whom  8,300  are  Hindus  and  the  remainder  mostly 
Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Ireland  (1891),  with  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman,  7  native 
workers,  men  and  women ;  4  common  schools,  a 
dispensary  and  an  orphanage. 

DOHNAVUR:  A  district  in  Tinnevelli,  India, 
giving  name  to  a  church  circle  of  the  South  India 
Mission  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society ;  founded 
in  1827  by  a  special  gift  of  Count  Dohna. 

DOLAIB  HILL :  A  settlement  in  the  Fashoda 
district  of  the  Sudan,  situated  on  the  Sobat 
540  miles  by  river  from  Khartum.  People  of  the 
neighborhood,  pagans.  Station  of  the  UP  (1902), 
with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  one  of  them 
a  physician. 

DOLE,  Daniel:  Born  at  Bloomfield  (now  Skow- 
hegan),  Maine,  September  9,  1808;  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  College,  Maine,  in  1836;  Bangor  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1839;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of 
the  ABCFM,  November  14,  1840,  for  Honolulu. 
On  his  arrival  he  was  appointed  principal  of  the 
Punahon  school,  and  when  the  school  was  incor- 
porated as  Oahu  College  he  became  the  president, 
which  position  he  held  until  1855.  He  died  at 
Koloa,  Kauai,  August  26,  1878. 

DOLORES:  A  town  in  Argentina,  situated 
about  150  miles  S.  E.  of  Buenos  Aires.  Station 
circuit  of  the  ME,  with  (1902)  2  native  workers, 
3  preaching  places  and  67  professing  Christians. 

DOMASI:  A  mission  station  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  in  Nyasaland;  situated  about  40  miles 
N.  by  E.  of  Blantyre.  The  station  was  occupied 
in  1884,  and  has  now  (1900)  3  missionaries  (2 
of  them  with  their  wives),  2  unmarried  missionary 
women,  33  native  workers,  men  and  women;  a 
chapel,  12  common  schools,  1  high  school,  1  indus- 
trial school,  1  dispensary,  1  printing  house,  and 
138  professing  Christians. 

DOMBURG:  An  important  government  plan- 
tation, lying  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Surinam 
River,  in  Dutch  Guiana,  South  America,  about 
twelve  miles  above  Paramaribo.  At  and  near 
the  village  there  is  a  population  of  about  1,200 
persons  connected  with  the  Moravian  Church, 
and  many  heathen  in  the  surrounding  districts. 
Station  of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1891),  with 
(1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  21  native 
workers,  1  preaching  place  and  341  communicants. 

DONDO:  A  trading  station  in  Angola,  West 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Quanza  River,  180  miles 
from  its  mouth,  at  the  head  of  steamboat  naviga- 
tion. Population,  5,000.  Station  circuit  of  the 
ME,  with  (1902)  1  native  worker  and  50  profess- 
ing Christians.  In  the  cemetery  are  the  remains 
of  several  missionaries  who  lost  their  lives  in  the 
attempt  to  become  accustomed  to  its  insalubrious 
climate. 

DOREH:  A  settlement  on  the  W.  coast  of  the 
western  extremity  of  New  Guinea,  Malaysia. 
Station  of  the  Utrecht  Missionary  Society  (1878) 


Doty 

Unttf  Alexander 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


214 


with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  2  common  schools  and  40 
professing  Christians. 

DOTY,  Elihu:  Born  1812;  graduated  at  Rutgers 
College  1835,  and  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1836;  was  ordained  the 
same  year  as  a  missionary  to  the  heathen.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  first  mission  sent  by  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  and  the  ABCFM  to  Java, 
where  he  labored  from  1836  to  1840,  when  he  was 
transferred  to  Borneo  and  labored  among  the 
Dyaks.    Thence  he  was  removed  to  China  in  1844. 

Mr.  Doty  was  an  excellent  Chinese  scholar  and 
preacher;  an  indefatigable,  courageous,  self-deny- 
ing laborer;  a  man  of  singular  frankness  ;  and  was 
closely  identified  with  the  mission  at  Amoy  from 
its  origin  until  his  death  in  1865. 

DOUGLAS:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Orange  River,  about  60  miles 
S.  W.  of  Kimberly.  Population,  about  1,500. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1894), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary,  1  native  worker,  and 
138  professing  Christians. 

DOUGLAS  ISLAND:  North  of  Admiralty 
Island,  Alaska,  and  about  75  miles  N.  E.  of 
Sitka.  It  is  the  site  of  the  Treadwell  Gold  Mine. 
Station  of  the  American  Friends'  Foreign  Mission 
Board  (1887),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  missionary  women,  1  native  worker,  and 
1  outstation.  Station  also  of  the  PE,  with  (1901) 
1  missionary  woman,  1  preaching  place,  supplied 
from  Juneau,  and  16  communicants. 

DOUTHWAITE,  A.  W.,  M.D. :  Dr.  Douthwaite 
left  for  China  in  connection  with  the  China  Inland 
Mission,  in  1874;  and  the  first  eight  years  of  his 
life  there  were  spent  in  the  province  of  Che-kiang, 
at  the  stations  of  Shao-hsing-fu,  Kii-chau-fu  and 
Wen-chau-fu,  successively.  At  Ku-chau-fu  he 
formed  a  church  of  90  members,  and  during  his 
first  year  at  Wen-chau-fu  he  treated  4,075 
patients.  At  a  time  when  the  Mission  was  in 
great  financial  stress  he  was  offered  a  govern- 
ment post  at  a  handsome  salary,  but  he  resisted 
the  temptation,  and  was  faithful  to  his  Christian 
work  through  years  of  severe  trial.  In  1882  he 
was  obliged  to  recruit  his  health  in  the  bracing 
air  of  Chi-fu.  With  this  place  his  name  is  insep- 
arably linked,  and  throughout  the  Shan-tung 
Province  he  won  the  confidence  often  of  thou- 
sands of  Chinese  patients.  In  1884,  when  Korea 
opened  its  doors,  Dr.  Douthwaite  left  Chi-fu  and 
entered  that  land.  Journeying  into  the  interior, 
he  preached  the  Gospel,  circulated  copies  of  the 
Word  of  God  and  healed  the  sick.  After  a  most 
effective  worlc  in  Korea,  he  returned  to  Chi-fu 
in  1886,  where  he  labored,  in  spite  of  bereave- 
ments and  severe  illness,  for  twelve  years.  Dur- 
ing that  time  his  medical  work  grew  so  extensively 
that  his  Chinese  patients  numbered  20,000  annu- 
ally; and  in  1896  the  out-patients  numbered 
23,700;  in-patients,  216,  and  surgical  operations, 
856.  Chinese,  high  and  low,  acknowledged  the 
good  results  of  his  work,  and  from  the  official 
to  the  beggar  all  sought  his  aid.  Yet,  with  all 
his  skill  and  success,  no  one  more  readily  recog- 
nized the  very  limited  powers  of  a  medical  man 
and  the  absolute  need  of  the  hand  of  God  in  the 
healing  of  the  sick.  Decision  and  determination 
were  strong  features  in  his  character,  and  enabled 
him  to  accomplish  an  amount  of  work  which 
would  have  taxed  the  powers  of  younger  and 
stronger  men.  The  services  of  medical  mission- 
aries  during  the   war  with   Japan  were  highly 


appreciated  by  the  Chinese  Government;  and  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  war,  the  emperor  conferred 
on  Dr.  Douthwaite  and  ten  other  medical  mis- 
sionaries the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Double 
Dragon  (considered  to  be  equivalent  to  the  Order 
of  the  Bath  in  England).  When  Dr.  Douthwaite 
was  leaving  Chi-fu  the  Chinese  general  came  with 
a  guard  of  honor  and  drew  up  in  front  of  the 
hospital.  After  expressing  to  him  the  gratitude 
of  the  Chinese  people  for  his  services,  they 
escorted  him  to  the  jetty.  When  his  lifework 
was  coming  to  a  close,  he  said:  "Had  I  a  thou- 
sand lives  instead  of  one,  I  would  ask  for  no 
greater  joy,  no  greater  honor,  than  to  be  per- 
mitted to  spend  them  all  in  the  glorious  work  of 
winning  China  for  Christ."  He  died  on  October 
6,  1899. 

DOWLAISHVARAM :  A  town  in  the  Godavari 
district,  Madras,  India,  32  miles  by  the  shortest 
canal  from  Cocanada,  and  4  miles  south  of  Rajah- 
mundry.  Population  (1891),  10,500,  mostly 
Hindus.  When  first  built,  the  town  was  a  place 
of  much  importance;  at  present  it  is  a  permanent 
station  of  the  district  engineering  staff,  and  the 
government  workshops  here  turn  out  much  work 
for  the  Public  Works  Department.  The  town  is 
connected  with  several  points  on  the  coast,  by 
navigable  canals.  Mission  station  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  General  Council,  with  (1901)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  21  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  a  preaching  place,  24  common 
schools,  and  700  professing  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  PB. 

DRIEFONTEIN :  Station  of  the  South  African 
Methodist  Missionary  Society,  situated  in  Natal, 
with  (1900)  64  native  workers,  4  preaching  places, 
5  common  schools,  and  1,048  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

DRUSES:  A  peculiar  race  and  sect  living  in 
North  Syria,  among  the  slopes  of  Mount  Lebanon 
and  Anti-Lebanon.  There  are  also  some  settle- 
ments in  the  Hauran  and  a  colony  at  Safed, 
Palestine.  They  are  found  as  far  north  as  Bei- 
rut, as  far  south  as  Tyre,  and  as  far  east  as 
Damascus.  About  120  towns  and  villages  are 
occupied  exclusively  by  them,  and,  together  with 
the  Maronites,  they  compose  the  population  of 
over  200  more.  They  are  estimated  at  65,000. 
Deir-el-Kamar,  about  15  miles  southeast  of 
Beirut,  is  their  chief  town. 

The  origin  and  ethnographical  affinity  of  the 
Druses  are  by  no  means  settled.  The  most  credi- 
ble theory  is  that  they  have  sprung  partly  from 
the  Cuthites,  by  whom  the  devastated  cities  of 
Samaria  were  repeopled  under  the  rule  of  Esar- 
haddon;  partly  from  the  warlike  Mardis,  who 
were  brought  to  Lebanon  by  Constantine  IV. 
in  the  7th  century;  and  partly  from  the  Arabs, 
with,  perhaps,  a  little  of  the  blood  of  the  Cru- 
saders mingled  with  their  very  mixed  ancestry. 
Whatever  their  origin,  their  characteristics  had 
become  fixed  at  the  close  of  the  10th  century. 
They  speak  Arabic  as  correctly  as  the  people  of 
Mecca;  they  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  Chinese 
Empire,  with  which  their  own  traditions  connect 
them;  and  they  exhibit  a  refinement  in  conver- 
sation and  manners,  an  appreciation  of  educa- 
tion, especially  that  of  women,  which  is  in  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  other  Syrian  races  with  which 
they  are  surrounded. 

Hakim  B'emrillah  (the  name  is  a  title  and 
means  Ruler  by  command  of  God),  Caliph  of 
Egypt,  who  began  to  reign  in  996,  is  the  reputed 


215 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Doty 
Dnll,  Alexander 


author  of  their  peculiar  religion.  Twenty-five 
years  of  tyranny  wild  and  terrible  leave  little 
doubt  of  his  insanity,  under  the  influence  of 
which  hj  claimed  to  hold  direct  intercourse  with 
the  Deity,  and  proclaimed  himself  the  incarna- 
tion of  God. 

His  claims  were  made  known  in  a  mosque  at 
Cairo  by  one  Darazi,  but  they  were  received  with 
such  bitter  hostility  that  Darazi  fled  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Lebanon,  where  he  taught  the  new  faith, 
and  the  word  Druse  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
derived  from  this  first  apostle.  Hamza,  a  Per- 
sian, and  vizier  of  Hakim,  is  regarded  as  the  real 
founder  of  the  sect,  for  he  formulated  the  creed 
and  succeeded  in  gathering  together  a  large  body 
of  adherents. 

The  Druses  believe  in  one  only  God,  who  is 
without  form  or  substance,  incomprehensible, 
without  attributes,  and  before  whom  man  is 
dumb  and  blind.  Ten  times  has  this  God  revealed 
himself  in  human  form.  Hakim  being  the  tenth 
and  the  last  incarnation.  A  fixed  number  of 
human  souls  exist  which  can  neither  be  added 
to  nor  subtracted  from,  and  all  who  are  living 
now  have  lived  before,  and  will  continue  to  live 
in  other  bodies  until  the  end  of  the  world.  At 
the  death  of  one  man  the  soul  occupies  a  new 
body,  of  noble  or  base  quality,  according  to  the 
deeds  done  in  the  life  before.  After  myriads  of 
reincarnations,  when  the  soul  has  been  purified 
from  every  stain,  it  will  enter  rest  in  God.  The 
correspondence  of  this  part  of  the  Druse  doc- 
trine with  Indian  philosophy  is  noticeable  and 
probably  came  to  them  through  Persian  Sufism. 
The  Druses  do  not  acknowledge  the  claims  of 
any  other  religions,  but  they  countenance  an 
outward  profession  of  any  religion  whenever  it 
may  be  expedient,  and  unite  with  the  Mohammed- 
an in  his  prayers  and  washings  with  the  same 
indifference  with  which  they  sprinkle  holy  water 
in  the  Maronite  churches.  This  apparent  apos- 
tasy is  due  to  the  fact  that  no  converts  are  desired 
or  permitted,  and  the  faithful  are  enjoined  to 
keep  their  religion  sacred  and  concealed,  if  neces- 
sary. Seven  commandments  of  Hamza  take  the 
place  of  the  five  great  points  of  Islam.  These 
are:  1st.  Truth  speaking  (only  between  Druses) ; 
2d.  Combination  for  mutual  defense;  3d.  Renun- 
ciation of  all  other  creeds;  4th.  Social  separation 
from  all  who  are  in  error;  5th.  Recognition  of  the 
unity  of  Hakim  with  God;  6th.  Complete  resig- 
nation to  his  wUl;  7th.  Obedience  to  his  orders. 
Druses  do  not  pray,  for  prayer  is  impertinent 
interference  with  the  Creator.  There  is  none  of 
the  fatalism  of  Islam,  however,  for  they  recog- 
nize the  freedom  of  the  human  will.  Among 
themselves  they  divide  men  into  two  classes: 
1st.  Those  who  know  the  truth  of  religion,  who 
are  called  Akkals,  or  intelligent;  and  2d.  Those 
who  do  not  know,  the  Jahils,  or  ignorant.  The 
Akkals,  having  attained  knowledge  of  God,  are 
holy  and  have  no  need  of  the  observances  of 
rehgion.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Jahils  have 
need  of  ceremonial  observances  as  a  means  of 
training.  Polygamy  is  not  permitted,  but 
divorce  is  freely  allowed. 

About  the  year  1860  the  jealousies  long  existing 
between  Druses  and  Maronites  were  fanned  into 
fierce  flame  by  fanatical  Mohammedans  who 
thought  to  check  the  growing  influence  which  the 
Roman  Catholic  Maronites  acquired  through  the 
protection  given  them  by  France.  Horrible 
massacres  of  Christians  followed  in  which  the 
Druses  acted  with  the  Mohammedan  rabble  as 


the  enemies  of  all  Christians,  and  which  were 
met  with  terrible  reprisals  whenever  the  Maron- 
ites found  opportunity.  The  result  was  a  Euro- 
pean intervention,  with  permanent  exclusion  of 
Turkish  officials  from  the  Lebanon,  and  the 
establishment  of  autonomous  government  for 
that  district,  with  a  Roman  Catholic  governor  and 
mixed  council,  under  a  constitution  drawn  up  by 
the  European  powers.  Since  that  time  the  pros- 
perity of  the  Lebanon  has  been  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  surrounding  territory,  and  Druses  and 
Maronites  live  on  perfect  equality  before  the  law, 
which  is  gradually  extinguishing  the  ancient  feuds 
and  the  habit  of  settling  them  by  murderous 
attacks.  The  Druses  are  fine  looking,  brave,  in- 
dustrious and  enterprising,  and  live  in  great  part 
through  agriculture. 

Chasseaud  (G.  W.),  The  Druses  of  the  Lebanon,  London,  1854; 
Churchill  (C.H.),  ilfowni  Lebanon,  London,  1853 ;  Wortabet 
(J.),  Researches  into  the  Religions  of  Syria,  London,  1860; 
Carnarvon  (Earl  of),  Recollections  of  the  Druses,  London, 
1860;  Guys  (H.),  Theogonie  des  Druses,  Paris,  1863. 

DUALLA  LANGUAGE:  Of  the  Bantu  family. 
It  is  spoken  by  some  of  the  tribes  found  in  the 
Kameruns,  W.  Africa,  and  for  missionary  pur- 
poses has  been  reduced  to  writing  in  the  Roman 
alphabet.  Missionaries  of  the  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society  (BMS)  and  later  of  the  Basel  Mis- 
sionary Society  have  done  literary  work  in  this 
language. 

DUFF:  A  settlement  in  the  Transkei  reigon  of 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  lying  about  25  miles  N.  E. 
of  Butterworth.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1880), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary,  18  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  10  preaching  places,  11  com- 
mon schools,  and  235  professing  Christians. 

DUFF,  Alexander:  Born  April  26,  1806,  in 
Perthsliire,  Scotland.  He  entered  the  university 
of  St.  Andrews  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  studied 
under  the  celebrated  Chalmers.  The  Church  of 
Scotland  having  awakened  to  the  duty  of  sending 
the  Gospel  to  the  heathen.  Dr.  Duff  was  appointed 
its  first  missionary,  and  at  the  age  of  23  embarked, 
October,  1829,  for  India.  During  his  voyage 
he  was  wrecked  twice,  first  on  a  reef  of  rock 
while  rounding  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  again  on 
the  coast  of  Ceylon,  and  barely  escaped  a  third 
wreck  near  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges.  In  the  first 
wreck  he  and  his  wife  lost  everything,  including 
his  library,  plans  of  operation  and  many  valu- 
able manuscripts.  He  reached  Calcutta  after  a 
voyage  of  eight  months.  One  of  the  chief  objects 
he  had  in  view  in  going  to  India  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  collegiate  institute  which  should 
confer  the  highest  education  on  native  youth. 
His  school  was  to  be  conducted  on  two  great 
principles:  (a)  the  Christian  Scriptures  should  be 
read  in  every  class,  be  the  entire  foundation  and 
pervading  salt  of  the  school;  (b)  since  the  vernac- 
ulars of  India  could  not  supply  the  medium  for 
all  the  requisite  instruction,  the  sciences  of  the 
West  should  be  taught  through  the  English  lan- 
guage. This  was  against  the  opinion  of  the  gov- 
ernment, all  learned  Orientalists  and  the  most 
experienced  missionaries  in  Bengal.  All  these 
insisted  that  higher  instruction  ought  to  be  given 
in  Sanskrit.  With  the  assistance  of  Rammohun 
Roy,  who  entered  fully  into  Dr.  Duff's  views,  the 
school  was  opened  July  12,  1830,  under  a 
banian  tree,  with  five  young  men,  but  was  soon 
removed  to  a  commodious  building.  The  instruc- 
tion was  in  English,  and  the  Bible  held  a  chief 
place.  Before  the  end  of  the  first  week  there 
were  more  than  300  applicants.     Of  these,  250 


Dnir,  Alexander 
Dvraraliat 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


216 


were  received.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  a 
public  examination,  attended  by  a  large  number 
of  Europeans  and  natives  of  high  rank,  gave 
great  satisfaction.  The  next  year  the  number  of 
applicants  was  more  than  trebled.  In  1839  Dr. 
Duff  wrote:  "The  five  who  entered  the  first  day 
have  since  swollen  to  an  average  attendance  of 
800.  The  Governor-General,  Lord  Bentinck, 
considered  the  ablest  and  most  enlightened 
Governor-General  India  has  possessed,  did 
homage  to  it  by  publicly  proclaiming  in  the  face 
of  all  India  that  it  had  produced  unparalleled 
results."  The  number  of  pupils  was  soon 
increased  to  a  thousand.  Among  the  first  con- 
verts were  two  from  the  educated  and  influential 
class.  One  was  Babu  Krishna  Banerjea,  a 
Brahman  of  high  social  position,  editor  of  a  news- 
paper, afterward  a  minister  of  the  English 
Church,  and  a  distinguished  professor  in  Bishop's 
College,  Calcutta.  His  influence  on  natives  of 
all  classes,  especially  the  educated,  has  always 
been  great.  The  other  was  Gopeenath  Nundi, 
afterward  a  preacher  in  connection  with  the 
American  Presbyterian  Mission  in  the  Northwest 
Provinces,  who  during  the  Sepoy  mutiny,  when 
threatened  with  death,  nobly  testified  for  Christ, 
In  1834  Dr.  Duff  returned  home  in  ill-health. 
On  his  recovery  he  made  a  tour  through  Scot- 
land, and  greatly  increased  the  interest  in  the 
missionary  cause  by  his  thrilling  appeals  and 
the  report  of  his  successful  work.  The  degree 
of  doctor  of  divinity  was  at  this  time  conferred 
upon  him  by  the  University  of  Aberdeen.  He 
returned  to  India  in  1839.  At  the  disruption  in 
the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1843  he  cast  in  his  lot 
with  the  Free  Church,  abandoning  his  beloved 
and  prosperous  institution,  its  valuable  library 
and  apparatus,  and  for  twenty  years  conducted 
missionary  work  under  that  body.  He  built  a 
new  institution  from  the  foundation,  and 
equipped  it  as  well  as  the  old  had  been.  The 
influence  of  his  work  continued  to  increase. 
Interesting  conversions  took  place.  In  1846,  on 
the  death  of  Dr.  Chalmers,  he  was  offered  the 
office  of  principal  and  professor  of  theology  in 
the  Free  Church  College  in  Scotland,  and,  tho 
urged  by  Presbyteries,  Synods  and  General 
Assembly  to  sacrifice  his  own  predilections  and 
accept,  he  declined,  begging  them  to  "allow  him 
to  retain,  in  the  view  of  all  men,  the  clearly 
marked  and  distinguishing  character  of  a  mission- 
ary to  the  heathen."  In  1850  he  again  returned 
home  to  work  for  the  missionary  cause,  and 
sought  to  arouse  the  Free  Church  to  more  earnest 
efforts  in  India.  In  1851  he  was  elected  modera- 
tor of  the  General  Assembly.  In  1854,  under  the 
auspices  of  Mr.  George  H.  Stuart,  he  visited  the 
United  States,  where,  as  also  in  Canada,  he 
addressed  thousands  on  the  missionary  work  in 
India.  The  University  of  New  York  honored 
him  with  the  degree  of  LL.D.  Returning  to 
India  in  1857,  he  opened  his  school  for  high-caste 
girls  in  the  house  of  a  Brahman.  At  the  first 
examination,  attended  by  distinguished  native 
gentlemen,  who  expressed  great  satisfaction,  62 
were  on  the  roll.  In  1864,  his  health  having 
utterly  failed,  he  took  a  final  leave  of  India.  On 
leaving  Calcutta  he  received  from  all  classes  of 
the  community,  native  and  European,  heathen 
and  Christian,  emphatic  testimony  of  the  great 
value  of  his  services  rendered  for  nearly  thirty- 
five  years  in  India.  During  the  fourteen  years 
spent  in  Scotland  he  urged  with  great  eloquence 
upon  the  churches  their  duty  to  give  the  Gospel 


to  the  millions  of  India.  His  correspondence 
was  extensive,  many  letters  being  to  native  con- 
verts and  Hindu  students.  He  had  the  chief 
management  of  the  foreign  work  of  the  Free 
Church.  In  1873  he  was  again  elected  modera- 
tor of  the  Assembly.  In  1867  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  evangelistic  theology  in  the  college 
of  the  Free  Church,  which  office  he  held  for  eleven 
years.  He  died  at  Sidmouth,  Devonshire,  Feb- 
ruary 12,  1878,  aged  72.  He  has  been  well 
described  as  "a  man  of  dauntless  will,  consum- 
mate eloquence,  impassioned  piety,  great  self- 
reliance."  His  published  works  are:  New  Era  of 
the  English  Language  and  Literature  (1837);  Mis- 
sions the  Chief  End  of  the  Christian  Church  (1839); 
India  and  Indian  Missions  (1839);  The  Indian 
Rebellion,  its  Causes  and  Results  (1858).  The 
Calcutta  Review  was  mainly  established  by  him. 

Day  (Lai  Bahari),  lAfe  of  Alexander  Duff,  London,  1878; 
Smith  (G.),  Life  of  Alexander  Duff ,  London  and  New  York, 
1879  and  1881;  Maratt,  Two  Standard  Bearersin  the  East, 
London,  1882. 

DUKE  TOWN:  A  town  in  Lower  Nigeria,  W. 
Africa,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Old  Cala- 
bar River,  about  10  miles  from  the  estuary. 
Population  about  40,000.  The  climate  is  hot 
and  unhealthy.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1846),  with 
(1902)  2  missionaries  (one  with  his  wife),  4  mis- 
sionary women,  12  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  1  high  school,  1  industrial  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  1  printing  house  and  394 
professing  Christians. 

DULLES,  John  "Welsh:  Born  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
November  4,  1823;  graduated  at  Yale  College 
with  high  honor  in  1844,  and  at  Union  Theolog- 
ical Seminary,  New  York.  1847;  married  Harriet 
Winslow,  daughter  of  Rev.  Dr.  Miron  Winslow; 
ordained  October  2,  1848;  sailed  as  a  mission- 
ary of  the  ABCFM  the  same  year  for  Madras. 
He  was  stationed  at  Rajapuram,  having  charge 
of  the  church  and  schools.  In  1850  he  made  a 
tour  with  Rev.  Henry  Scudder  with  a  view  to 
establishing  an  outstation  to  the  Madras  mission, 
and  on  their  advice  Arcot  was  selected  and  after- 
ward became  the  field  of  the  Arcot  mission.  Mr. 
Dulles  was  well  fitted  by  talents,  education, 
acquisition  of  the  language  and  genial  manners  for 
the  missionary  work.  But  his  own  ill-health  and 
that  of  his  wife  compelled  them  to  relinquish  the 
field,  and  they  returned  in  1852.  For  three  years 
after  his  return  he  served  the  American  Sunday 
School  Union.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  edito- 
rial secretary  of  the  Publishing  Committee  of  the 
Board  of  Publication  in  the  New  School  branch 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  He  was  appointed 
to  the  same  position  in  the  reunited  church  in 
1870,  and,  on  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Schenck  in 
1885,  was  elected  General  Secretary  of  the  Board. 
He  wrote  Life  in  India  and  The  Ride  through 
Palestine.  Dr.  Dulles  died  at  his  home  in  Phila- 
delphia, April  13,  1887. 

DUMAGUDIEM:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  on 
the  Godavari  River,  115  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Masuli- 
patam.  Population  (1890),  5,000,  chiefly  Kois. 
Mission  station  of  the  CMS  and  CEZ,  with  (1902) 
5  missionaries,  men  and  women ;  20  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women;  1  preaching  place,  15  ele- 
mentary schools,  1  dispensary,  30  Zenana  pupils 
and  830  professing  Christians. 

DUMAGUETE :  A  town  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  island  of  Negros,  P.  I.  Beautifully  situated 
in  a  fertile  district.  Population,  13,200.  Sta- 
tion of  the  PN  (1901),  with  (1902)  2  mission- 


817 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Daft,  Alexander 
Dnrarabat 


aries  and  their  wives  (one  of  them  a  physician), 
1  high  school,  with  industrial  classes,  and  1  dis- 
pensary. 

DUMBOLE:  A  settlement  in  British  Central 
Africa,  S.  of  Lake  Nyasa,  about  80  miles  N.  W. 
of  Blantyre.  Station  of  the  Zambesi  Industrial 
Mission,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
chapel,  4  common  schools  and  1  industrial  school. 
Also  written  Domboli. 

DUM  DUM:  Town  in  the  district  of  the  24 
Parganas,  Bengal,  India,  6  miles  N.  E.  by  E.  of 
Ft.  William,  Calcutta.  It  is  an  important  mili- 
tary station.  Population  (1891),  11,000,  of 
whom  6,300  are  Hindus  and  the  remainder  chiefly 
MusUms.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1902)  1 
missionary,  1  missionary  woman,  8  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women;  7  preaching  places,  4  Sun- 
day schools,  5  common  schools  and  44  professing 
Christians. 
DUMISA.  See  Umzinto. 
DUMMAGTJDEM.  See  Dtjmagudiem. 
DUNDEE:  A  town  of  Natal,  100  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Pietermaritzburg.  It  has  extensive  coal 
fields.  Population,  1,500.  Station  of  the  Swe- 
dish Church  Mission  (1895),  with  (1900)  5  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women;  8  native  workers, 
3  preaching  places,  7  schools,  1  industrial  school, 
1  hospital,  1  printing  house  and  267  professing 
Christians. 

DUWDEGAMA:  Station  of  the  SPG  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Colombo,  Ceylon,  with  (1902)  1  mission- 
ary, 6  native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  1  com- 
mon school,  and  1,023  professing  Christians. 

DUNEDIN:  A  city  and  seaport  of  New  Zea- 
land; situated  60  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Oamaru,  on 
the  southwestern  side  of  the  bay  running  inland. 
It  is  the  most  important  commercial  city  of  New 
Zealand.  First  settled  by  members  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1843.  The  discovery  of 
gold  near  by  changed  the  village  into  a  city. 
Population  (1891),  23,500,  including  suburbs. 
The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Otago  has  an  enter- 
prise here  for  heathen,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  native  worker,  1  common  school  and  8 
professing  Christians. 

DURANGO:  Capital  of  the  State  of  Durango, 
Mexico;  situated  195  miles  N.  W.  of  Zacatecas 
and  near  a  remarkable  hill  of  magnetic  iron  ore. 
Altitude,  6,320  feet.  It  was  founded  in  1551. 
Population  (1889),  24,800.  Station  of  the  MES 
(1884),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  mission- 
ary women,  1  native  worker,  1  preaching  place 
and  3  Sunday  schools.  Station  also  of  the  SBC, 
with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native 
workers,  1  common  school  and  36  professing 
Christians 

DURBAN:  Capital  of  Natal,  South  Africa,  at 
the  head  of  its  harbor  on  Port  Natal  Bay,  45  miles 
east  southeast  of  Pietermaritzburg.  It  contains 
several  public  buildings  of  importance,  and  has 
a  large  trade.  Population,  17,900.  Mission  sta- 
tion of  the  ABCFM  (1892),  with  (1901)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  34  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  40  preaching  places.  Also  station  of  the 
SPG  (1872)  among  the  72,000  Indian  coolies  with 
(1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  1  orphanage,  1  dispensary  and 
100  communicants.  Also  station  of  the  National 
Baptist  Convention  (1900),  with  2  missionaries, 
1  missionary  woman,  1  preaching  place,  1  school, 
and  210  professing  Christians.  Also  station  of 
the  South  African  General  Mission  (1895),  with 


(1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  work- 
ers, 2  preaching  places,  1  theological  class,  and 
70  professing  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission,  with 
(1900)  9  native  workers,  6  preaching  places,  1 
common  school,  and  213  professing  Christians. 

DURU:  A  village  in  the  Ranchi  district  of 
Chota  Nagpur.  Station  of  the  SPG,  with  (1902) 
7  native  workers,  3  common  schools,  and  449 
professing  Christians. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIES:  Name  given  to  Asiatic 
territories  and  islands  which  are  under  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  Netherlands.  The  East  India  Com- 
pany, created  by  the  Dutch  in  1602,  conquered 
these  islands  and  ruled  them  for  nearly  two  cen- 
turies, but  since  1798  the  Company  has  ceased 
to  exist,  and  the  mother  country  rules  the  pos- 
sessions, comprising  Java,  Madura,  Sumatra, 
Rian-Lingga  Archipelago,  Banca,  Borneo,  Cele- 
bes, Moluccas,  Timor  Archipelago,  Bali,  Lombok, 
and  New  Guinea  to  141  degrees  east  latitude, 
with  a  total  area  of  736,400  square  miles  and  a 
population  (1900)  of  about  36,000,000.  The  total 
number  of  Dutch  or  Dutch  connections  is 
60,277,  and  the  whole  number  of  Europeans  in 
the  islands  is  75,297.  Of  the  remaining  popula- 
tion 460,000  are  Chinese,  24,000  Arabs,  and 
32,000,000  natives. 

The  pioneer  missionaries  to  Dutch  Borneo  were 
from  the  American  Board,  who  labored  on  the 
west  coast  from  1839  to  1849;  but  at  present  the 
Rhenish  Society  only  is  doing  missionary  work 
here,  altho  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
has  done  some  temporary  work.  On  five  of  the 
islands,  lying  between  New  Guinea  on  the  east 
and  Sumatra  and  Borneo  on  the  west,  we  find 
the  largest  remnants  of  the  earlier  Dutch  govern- 
ment evangelization;  and  here  a  number  of  mis- 
sionary societies  are  doing  successful  work.  The 
work  in  Sumatra  was  begun  in  1820  by  a  Bap- 
tist missionary;  and  now  representatives  of  five 
German  and  Dutch  missionary  societies  are  reap- 
ing a  rich  harvest.  Miracles  of  grace  have  taken 
place  in  Java  and  Celebes  as  the  result  of  the 
faithful  labors  of  missionaries  of  six  Dutch  soci- 
eties, the  Neukirchener  Mission  and  the  agent  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Nearly 
40,000  Mohammedans  have  accepted  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  In  the  whole  Dutch  East  Indies, 
reports  for  1897  show  502  government  vernacular 
schools  and  578  private  vernacular  schools,  which 
give  instruction  to  about  118,000  pupils.  The 
whole  number  of  Christians  (native)  reported  in 
the  census  was  309,258.  There  were  133  Protes- 
tant and  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  in  the 
islands  in  1900. 

Wallace  (A.  R.),  The  Malay  Archipelago,  London,  1869; 
Scidmore  (Eliza),  Java,  the  Garden  of  the  East,  New  York, 
1897;  ^chT^iher  {K.),  Besuch  auf  Sumatra,  1877;  and  the 
same,  Zweiter  Besuch  auf  Sumatra,  Barmen,  1882;  Wameck 
(G.),  Nacht  und  Margen  auf  Sumatra,  Barmen,  1872  and 
1873;  Bleeker  (P.),  Reis  door  de  Minahasaa  und  den 
Molukshen  Archipel,  Batavia,  1856;  Warneck  (G.),  His- 
tory of  Protestant  Missions,  translated  by  Dr.  Robson  from 
the  7th  German  edition.  New  York,  1901. 

DUTCH  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY.  See  Neth- 
erlands Missionary  Societies. 

DUTCH  (SOUTH  AFRICA)  REFORMED 
MINISTERS'  MISSION  UNION.  See  South 
Africa  Dutch  Repohmed  Church  Mission. 

DWARAHAT:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  in  the  Kumaon  district.  Station  of  the 
ME,  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
148  professing  Christians.  Statistics  included 
under  Bareilly. 


Gclliibnrgrli   Medical 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA.  OF  MISSIONS 


218 


DWIGHT,  Rev.  H.  G.  O.:  Son  of  Seth  and 
Hannah  Strong  Dwight,  born  at  Conway,  Mass., 
November  22,  1803,  but  reared  at  Utica,  N.  Y. 
Graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  1825,  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1828.  Appoint- 
ed missionary  of  the  ABCFM.  Sailed  from  Bos- 
ton for  Malta  in  1830.  With  Rev.  Eli  Smith  he 
explored  parts  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  Caucasus, 
and  Persia,  in  a  journey  which  occupied  the  year 
from  May,  1830,  to  May,  1831.  The  whole  journey 
was  performed  on  horseback  amid  great  perils, 
the  two  missionaries  being  compelled,  for  the 
sake  of  safety,  to  wear  the  Turkish  robes  and 
turban.  These  explorations  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  ABCFM's  missions  among  the  Arme- 
nians of  Turkey  and  the  Nestorians  of  Persia. 
In  1832  Dr.  Dwight  was  associated  with  Rev. 
William  Goodell  in  the  establishment  of  the  sta- 
tion at  Constantinople.  He  studied  the  Arme- 
nian language,  and  was  on  the  most  friendly 
terms  with  the  Patriarch  and  leading  men  of  the 
Armenian  Church.  In  1837  his  wife  and  one  of 
his  sons  died  of  the  plague.  In  the  autumn  of 
the  j'ear  1861  he  went  to  the  United  States  to 
tell  the  churches  of  the  wonderful  changes  of 
which  he  had  seen  the  fruits.  While  engaged  in 
this  work  he  was  killed  by  a  railroad  accident 
near  Shaftesbury,  Vt.,  January  25,  1862. 

Dr.  Dwight  loved  to  preach,  and  to  visit  the 
people  in  their  houses  and  shops  in  order  to  win 
them  to  spiritual  life.  He  had  an  important 
part  in  introducing  evangelical  Christianity  in 
Rodosto,  Nicomedia  and  Adabazar,  places  which 
he  used  to  visit  repeatedly.  He  also  gave  much 
time  to  the  preparation  of  books  and  tracts  in 
Armenian,  and,  occasionally,  to  the  editorial  care 


of  the  weekly  newspaper  published  by  the  mis- 
sion in  Armenian.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
publication  of  details  of  the  persecution  of  evan- 
gelical Armenians  by  their  own  clergy,  and  was 
energetic  in  the  steps  taken  to  secure  the  inter- 
vention of  the  British  government  in  behalf  of 
religious  liberty  in  Turkey. 

Dr.  Dwight  had  great  executive  ability,  sound 
judgment,  particularly  in  times  of  perplexity  or 
danger,  and  an  unfailing  tact  and  courtesy  in 
dealing  with  men. 

The  published  works  of  Dr.  Dwight  are:  A 
Memoir  of  Mrs.  E.  B.  Dwight;  Christianity 
Revived  in  the  East;  and  a  revised  edition  of  the 
same,  called  Christianity  in  Turkey,  published  in 
London  in  1854. 

DYER,  Samuel:  Born  January  20,  1804,  at 
Greenwich,  Eng.;  educated  at  Gosport,  and  Mis- 
sionary College,  Hoxton;  sailed,  April  11,  1827, 
a  missionary  of  LMS,  for  Malacca,  but  went  to 
Penang,  where  he  remained  three  years.  In  1835 
he  removed  permanently  to  Malacca.  His  most 
important  achievement  was  the  invention  of 
movable  metallic  type  for  printing  the  Chinese 
Scriptures.  He  labored  under  every  disadvan- 
tage, having  only  once  seen  the  process  of  type- 
founding  in  England.  He  personally  superin- 
tended all  the  work,  and  the  type  that  he  cast 
were  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and  finish.  So 
great  was  the  improvement  over  the  old  Chinese 
method  of  printing,  that  the  Bible,  formerly 
printed  in  half  a  dozen  volumes,  was  reduced  to 
one,  and  the  New  Testament  to  less  than  ninety 
pages.  He  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  trans- 
lation and  revision  of  the  Chinese  Scriptures. 
He  died  at  Macao  in  1843. 


EAST  LONDON:  A  town  and  seaport  in  the 
southeast  part  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa;  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Buffalo  River,  81  miles  E. 
by  N.  of  Grahamstown.  Population,  6,900. 
Station  of  the  SPG,  with  (1902)  1  native  worker 
and  121  professing  Christians;  also  station  of  the 
South  Africa  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission,  with 
33  native  workers,  6  preaching  places,  6  Sunday 
schools,  6  common  schools  and  310  professing 
Christians. 

EASTERN  RUMELIA :  An  autonomous  prov- 
ince formed  (1878)  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin. 
It  lies  between  the  Balkan  and  the  Rhodopo 
ranges  of  mountains,  in  European  Turkey,  with 
Philippopolis  as  its  capital.  In  1886  the  people 
drove  out  the  governor  appointed  by  the  Sultan, 
and  it  has  since  been  treated  as  a  part  of  the 
principality  of  Bulgaria.  The  ABCFM  has  a 
station  at  Philippopolis.  The  Friends  (England) 
also  have  a  medical  mission  there. 

EBENEZER  (Natal) :  A  town  in  the  southern 
part  of  Natal,  S.  Africa;  situated  85  miles  S.  W. 
of  Durban.  Population,  about  1,500.  Station 
of  the  Free  Methodists  of  America  (1899),  with 
branches  at  Itemba  and  Edwaleni,  which  are 
near  by,  with  (1902)  4  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  4  native  workers,  men  and  women;  2 
day  schools,  and  70  professing  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  Swedish  Holiness  Band  (1893),  with 


1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  school  and  140  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

EBENEZER  (Transvaal) :  A  settlement  in  the 
Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  about  25 
miles  S.  W.  of  Rustenberg.  Station  of  the  Her- 
mannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1872),  with  (1901) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  1 
preaching  place,  7  day  schools  and  1,626  pro- 
fessing Christians.  Station  also  of  the  Hannover 
Lutheran  Free  Church  (1897),  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  school,  and  100 
professing  Christians. 

EBENEZER  (Bengal):  A  town  in  the  Santai 
Parganas,  Bengal,  India.  Station  of  the  Indian 
Home  Mission  to  the  Santals,  with  (1902)  4  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women;  32  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  2  high  schools,  1  printing  house, 
and  (in  the  whole  field  of  Dijnapur  and  Ebenezer) 
11,000   professing   Christians. 

EBENEZER  WIMMERA:  A  station  of  the 
Moravian  Mission  in  Victoria,  Australia;  estab- 
lished in  1859  and  now  (1900)  having  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  preaching  place,  1  day  school, 
and  11  professing  Christians. 

EBON.     See  Marshall  Island. 

EBON  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Micronesian 
family  of  languages,  spoken  by  about  15,000 
people  in   the    Marshall  Islands,  and  reduced  to 


219 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Divlgrht 
EldlnbiiTKli   Medical 


writing  by  missionaries,  with  use  of  the  Roman 
letters. 

EBUTE-META:  A  town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ogun  River,  Gold  Coast,  West  Africa,  about  25 
miles  N.  of  Lagos.  It  has  a  congregation  of  the 
Lagos  Native  Pastorate  Association,  which  was 
founded  by  fugitives  from  Abeoliuta  and  is  under 
the  supervision  of  the  CMS.  It  has  (1902)  3 
native  workers,  2  schools,  and  541  professing 
Christians. 

ECUADOR :  A  South  American  republic,  lying, 
as  its  name  implies,  on  either  side  of  the  equator. 
It  is  bounded  by  Colombia  on  the  north,  on  the 
east  by  Brazil,  on  the  south  by  Peru,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Boundary  disputes 
with  Colombia  and  Peru,  which  are  still  unsettled, 
render  it  impossible  to  define  its  exact  limits.  Its 
area  is  about  116,000  square  miles.  Much  of  the 
land  consists  of  lofty  plateaus.  Descending  from 
the  snow-capped  mountains  a  temperate  climate 
is  met  with,  which  then  increases  to  tropical 
warmth  as  the  plains  are  reached.  The  rainfall, 
especially  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Amazon  and 
its  tributaries,  is  excessive.  Earthquakes  fre- 
quently occur,  and  there  are  at  least  16  volcanoes. 
The  population,  estimated  at  1,400,000,  includes 
pure-blooded  Indians  (30  per  cent.),  mixed  races 
(30  per  cent.)  and  whites  of  Spanish  descent.  The 
religion  of  the  republic  is  Roman  Catholic.  Pri- 
mary education  is  gratuitous  and  obligatory. 
There  is  only  one  railway  in  course  of  construction, 
but  there  are  1 ,200  miles  of  telegraph  lines.  "The 
new  regime  inaugurated  some  years  ago  is  firmer 
than  ever,  after  crushing  out  armed  revolution 
organized  by  priestcraft,  introducing  new  reforms 
every  year  despite  the  revolutions,  and  setting 
forward  prosperity  in  the  country."  Until 
within  a  few  years,  all  Bibles  were  kept  out  of 
the  republic,  except  Latin  Bibles  owned  individ- 
ually by  the  priests. 

In  1900  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction 
established  a  series  of  Normal  schools  organized 
by  a  ME  missionary  and  taught  by  Protestant 
teachers.  Truly  a  brighter  day  is  dawning  in 
Ecuador. 

EDEA:  A  settlement  on  the  Edea,  or  Sanaga, 
River,  Kamerun,  W.  Africa,  situated  at  Edea 
Falls,  40  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  and 
at  the  head  of  navigation.  Station  of  the  Bagel 
Missionary  Society  (1897),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, 1  missionary's  wife,  21  outstations,  20  native 
workers,  1  high  school,  23  common  schools,  and 
189  professing  Christians. 

EDENDALE:  A  town  in  Natal,  S.  Africa;  situ- 
ated about  12  miles  S.  of  W.  of  Pietermaritzburg; 
station  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1900)  50  native  workers,  5  preach- 
ing centers,  5  common  schools,  a  Young  People's 
Society,  and  700  professing  Christians. 

EDINA:  A  town  in  Liberia,  W.  Africa;  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John's  River  near  Bu- 
chanan. Circuit  of  the  ME,  with  a  small  congrega- 
tion and  some  few  church  members. 

EDINBURGH  MEDICAL  MISSIONARY  SO- 
CIETY (1841) :  In  1841  the  Rev.  Peter  Parker, 
M.D.,of  the  ABCFM  Mission  in  China,  visited 
Edinburgh.  Dr.  Abercrombie  was  so  interested 
by  his  accounts  of  medical  missionary  work  that 
he  invited  a  few  friends  to  his  home  to  hear  Dr. 
Parker's  story  of  his  work  and  to  consider  the 
formation  of  an  association  in  Edinburgh  for  the 
promotion  of  medical  missions. 


A  public  meeting  was  held  on  November  30, 
when  the  following  resolution  was  adopted  and 
the  Society  formed:  "That  this  meeting,  being 
deeply  sensible  of  the  beneficial  results  which 
may  be  expected  to  arise  from  the  labors  of  Chris- 
tian medical  men  cooperating  with  missionaries 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  thus  giving  intelli- 
gent proofs  of  the  nature  and  practical  operation 
of  the  spirit  of  love,  which,  as  the  fruit  of  our  holy 
religion,  we  desire  to  see  diffused  amongst  all 
nations,  resolve  to  promote  this  object  and  to 
follow  the  leadings  of  Providence,  by  encouraging 
in  every  possible  way  the  settlement  of  Christian 
medical  men  in  foreign  countries,  and  that  for 
this  purpose  a  society  be  formed  under  the  name 
of  the  'Edinburgh  Association  for  Sending  Med- 
ical Aid  to  Foreign  Countries.' "  It  was  at  the 
same  time  resolved  that  "the  objects  of  the  Asso- 
ciation shall  be  to  circulate  information  on  the 
subject,  to  endeavor  to  originate  and  aid  such 
kindred  institutions  as  may  be  formed  to  prose- 
cute the  same  work,  and  to  render  assistance  at 
missionary  stations  to  as  many  professional  agents 
as  the  funds  placed  at  its  disposal  will  admit." 

At  the  second  annual  meeting  (November  28, 
1843)  it  was  resolved  that  the  association  should 
be  designated  "The  Edinburgh  Medical  Mission- 
ary Society." 

For  the  first  year  the  income  of  the  Society 
was  only  £114,  and  at  the  close  of  its  first  decade 
the  annual  income  had  never  exceeded  £300. 
Until  1851  the  funds  of  the  Society  were  niainly 
expended  in  diffusing  medical  missionary  infor- 
mation. 

Lectures  on  the  subject  of  medical  missions 
were  delivered  by  several  of  the  directors,  and 
afterward  were  published  and  widely  circulated; 
prizes  were  oifered  for  the  best  essays  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  every  available  opportunity  taken  to 
advocate  the  claims  of  this  new  organization. 
From  time  to  time  grants  of  money  for  the  pur- 
chase of  medicines  and  instruments  were  made 
to  the  few  medical  missionaries  then  at  work  in 
the  foreign  field. 

The  Main  Point  Mission  Dispensary,  the  first 
home  medical  mission  in  Great  Britain,  was 
opened  by  Dr.  Handyside  in  November,  1853. 
This  became,  in  1861,  the  Edinburgh  Medical 
Missionary  Society's  Training  Institution.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Prof.  Miller,  a  memorial  fund 
of  above  £2,000  was  raised,  and  the  house  at  56 
George  Square,  now  known  as  the  "Miller  Me- 
morial Medical  Mission  House,"  was  purchased 
and  made  over  to  the  Society  as  a  residence  for 
the  superintendent  and  students.  Medical  Mis- 
sion dispensaries  were  also  opened  in  Glasgow, 
Aberdeen,  Liverpool,  London,  etc.,  and  are  recog- 
nized as  powerful  auxiliaries  to  the  work  at  home. 

In  1877  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of  the 
Livingstone  Memorial  Medical  Missionary  Insti- 
tution marked  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the 
Society;  the  widespread  efforts  made  to  raise  the 
funds  for  the  erection  of  this  building  gave  a 
great  impulse  to  the  cause  of  medical  missions. 
Besides  the  work  at  home,  the  Society  supports 
Medical  Missions  at  Nazareth  and  Damascus,  in 
Syria,  and  a  training  institution  at  Agra,  India. 
For  a  time  a  Medical  Mission  was  carried  on  at 
Niigata,  in  Japan,  and  the  Society  also  helped  to 
establish  the  Belleville  Medical  Mission  in  Paris. 
In  addition  to  this  regular  work  grants  in  aid  are 
made  to  medical  missionaries  of  all  denominations 
the  world  over,  for  the  purchase  of  instruments, 
medicines,  etc.    The  Edinburgh  Ladies'  Auxiliary 


Ejducatlon. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


220 


was  organized  in  1846  to  assist  the  Medical  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  its  work. 

Missions,  Agents  and  Students  (1902) :  1.  Dispen- 
sary and  Medical  Mission  College,  Edinburgh; 
2  physicians,  1  matron,  1  dispenser,  1  janitor,  21 
men  and  4  women  students. 

2.  Nazareth  Medical  Mission;  1  physician,  2 
native  assistants,  and  1  native  nurse. 

3.  Damascus  Medical  Mission,  called  the  Vic- 
toria Hospital;  1  medical  missionary,  1  assistant, 
and  3  nurses. 

4.  Agra  Medical  Missionary  Training  Institu- 
tion; superintendent  and  21  native  medical 
missionary  students. 

5.  Hawthornbrae  Convalescent  Home,  Dud- 
dingston;  239  patients  during  year. 

The  organ  of  the  Society  is  a  Quarterly  Paper,  published  on 
the  first  of  February,  May,  August  and  November  at  Edin- 
burgh. 

EDUCATION;  Its  Place  in  Missions:  In  the 
successful  prosecution  of  foreign  missions  the 
need  of  education  has  come  to  be  fully  recog- 
nized. There  may  be  differences  of  view  as  to 
its  place  and  relative  importance  in  the  various 
fields,  but  there  is  general  unanimity  among  mis- 
sionaries as  to  its  usefulness  and  desirability  in 
all  fields.  All  societies  organized  for  general  mis- 
sionary work  keep  constantly  in  view  as  the  great 
purpose  of  their  existence  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel.  Educational,  medical,  literary  and 
philanthropic  work  may  conceivably  be  dispensed 
with;  not  so  direct  evangelistic  endeavor  for  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen.  For  this  the  disciples 
were  commissioned  by  Christ;  for  this  mission- 
aries are  commissioned. 

But  long  experience,  particularly  in  Oriental 
lands,  proves  that  Christian  education  is  not  only 
a  valuable  adjunct  or  complement  to  evangelistic 
effort — it  is  itself  a  means  of  evangelism.  First, 
it  prepares  the  way  for  the  Gospel  by  under- 
mining the  old  systems,  and  showing  (a)  the 
falsity  of  much  of  the  teachings  of  the  heathen 
religions;  (b)  the  groundlessness  of  their  super- 
stitions; (c)  the  immorality  of  many  of  their 
time-honored  customs;  and  (d)  the  illogical  and 
unphilosophical  character  of  their  explanations 
of  the  natural  phenomena  of  the  universe. 
Western  science  with  its  practical  demonstra- 
tions effectually  clears  the  opening  mind  of  the 
fallacies  and  follies  of  Oriental  wisdom,  and  pre- 
pares it  for  the  reception  of  the  fundamental 
truths  of  a  faith  which  is  not  at  war  with  science, 
philosophy,  and  reason.  Thus,  mental  training 
and  illumination  may,  and  often  does,  prepare 
the  way  for  the  acceptance  of  the  Christian  faith. 

Second,  Christian  education  is  indispensable  to 
the  highest  type  of  Christianity.  Men  may  have 
ha,d  saving  faith  in  Christ  while  in  a  state  of  utter 
illiteracy  and  ignorance;  but  their  influence  as 
Christians  will  be  narrow  and  their  usefulness 
restricted.  They  must  have  training  in  the  vari- 
ous branches  of  learning  to  fit  them  to  be  expo- 
nents and  propagators  of  Christianity  in  the  vari- 
ous spheres  of  life.  The  Christian  native  should 
be  prepared  to  meet  and  overthrow  the  objec- 
tions of  the  heathen  native  to  the  religion  of 
Christ  and  to  give  an  answer  to  every  man  that 
asks  a  reason  for  the  hope  that  is  in  him.  For 
those  who  enter  the  ministry,  or  take  up  certain 
kinds  of  Christian  work,  a  thorough  education 
is  very  desirable,  and  it  is  most  convenient, 
economical  and  satisfactory  to  give  all  of  these 
classes  this  higher  education  in  colleges  and  uni- 
versities in  their  own  country.     They  could  get 


it,  of  course,  in  the  older  and  stronger  institu- 
tions of  the  United  States  and  Europe,  but  at 
much  greater  cost  and  under  circumstances  so 
different  from  those  under  which  they  must  live 
and  labor  as  Christian  preachers  among  their 
own  people,  that  the  missionary  society  generally 
does  not  encourage  candidates  for  the  ministry 
to  go  to  any  Western  land  for  their  education. 

Third,  Christian  education  is  necessary  to  fit 
men  for  business  and  professional  positions  in 
their  own  country.  While  the  system  of  instruc- 
tion provided  by  government  in  India,  and  latter- 
ly by  government  in  Japan,  and  to  some  extent 
in  China,  is  more  or  less  Western  in  character,  and 
is  complete  and  thorough,  it  is  purely  secular, 
and  aims  to  be  impartial  in  its  avoidance  of  relig- 
ious topics.  The  churches  of  the  United  States 
believe  that  it  is  wise  and  necessary  to  have 
denominational  institutions  of  higher  education 
of  equal  grade  with  the  best  secular  colleges  and 
universities,  that  young  men  and  young  women 
may  be  under  positive  religious  influences  and 
teaching  during  the  most  impressive  periods  of 
their  lives;  and  this  reason  has  special  weight  in 
countries  where  heathen  and  antichristian  relig- 
ions prevail.  Christian  colleges  in  India, 
China,  Japan,  and  other  countries  prepare  men 
to  take  service  under  the  government,  and  for 
professional  and  business  pursuits.  Most  of 
them  enter  as  heathen;  many  of  them  graduate 
as  Christians.  Their  conversion  is  earnestly 
sought  by  members  of  the  faculty,  who  never 
forget  in  their  function  as  teachers  their  charac- 
ter as  missionaries.  It  is  due  to  these  missionary 
colleges  and  universities  that  some  of  those  high 
in  the  councils  of  government  or  distinguished 
in  professional  and  business  pursuits  are  Chris- 
tians; while  many  others,  who  do  not  openly 
break  with  all  old  customs  and  ceremonies,  carry 
with  them  a  high  respect  for  Christianity,  and 
use  every  reasonable  opportunity  to  advance  the 
interests  of  the  institutions  in  which  they  have 
been  educated.  Their  attitude  is  in  no  case  one 
of  hostility,  but  of  friendliness.  The  value  of  ed- 
ucation of  the  Western  type  is  so  fully  recognized 
in  many  Oriental  countries  by  government  that 
Christian  institutions  meet  with  little  or  no  oppo- 
sition from  the  constituted  authorities.  It  is 
true  that  the  schools  and  colleges  in  North  China 
were  destroyed  in  the  Boxer  movement  of  1900, 
but  simply  because  they  stirred  the  hatred  which 
the  fanatical  and  superstitious  rioters  had  for  all 
things  foreign.  The  potent  influence  of  educa- 
tion in  ameliorating  the  condition  of  women  in 
the  East  is  an  element  of  vast  importance  in  the 
working  out  of  the  great  purpose  of  Christian 
missionary  societies.  There  the  woman,  as 
among  the  Indians  of  the  American  continent  and 
the  savages  of  Africa  and  the  South  seas,  is 
regarded  as  an  inferiorbeing,  degraded,  oppressed, 
abused,  secluded,  so  that  the  finer  qualities  of 
the  sex  are  in  a  state  of  suppression  and  she 
moves  in  a  restricted  sphere.  Education  not 
only  enlightens  the  mind  of  her  lord  and  master, 
so  that  he  perceives  her  true  place  in  the  house- 
hold and  in  society,  but  it  tends  to  free  woman 
herself  from  the  chains  of  superstition  and  igno- 
rance and  reveals  to  her  a  nobler,  sweeter  and 
truer  life,  according  to  a  larger  and  diviner  plan 
than  that  to  which  she  has  been  condemned  by 
ancient  idea,  custom  and  usage.  The  educa- 
tional institutions  for  girls  are,  therefore,  quite 
as  important  in  the  working  out  of  missionary 
purpose  as  are  those  for  boys,  and  the  growth 


221 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Eidneatlon 


in  the  number  of  these  schools  and  the  pupils 
attending  them  is  one  of  the  most  significant 
signs  of  missionary  progress.  For  it  is  clearly 
recognized  by  missionaries  in  the  countries  of  the 
Orient  that  in  the  devotion  of  the  women  is  the 
strength  of  the  idolatrous  religions.  They  cling 
tenaciously  to  the  tenets  and  customs  and  cere- 
monies of  the  outworn  faiths  long  after  the  men 
have  become  neglectful  and  indifferent;  and  it 
would  be  impossible  to  Christianize  the  masses 
without  reaching  the  women.  The  women  exer- 
cise large  influence  over  the  children,  and  indoc- 
trinate the  girls  in  particular  in  all  the  supersti- 
tions they  themselves  receive.  The  education  of 
women  is,  therefore,  a  necessity  in  missionary 
enterprise. 

Mission  schools  may  be  classified  according  to 
grade  as  collegiate,  preparatory,  elementary, 
kindergarten;  according  to  nature  of  instruction 
given,  as  theological,  biblical,  medical  or  indus- 
trial. In  grade  the  institutions  range  from 
kindergarten  and  elementary  day  schools  to  the 
boarding  or  high  schools  and  seminaries  and  to 
the  college  and  university. 

Of  the  latter  class  Dr.  Dennis,  in  his  Centennial 
Surrey  of  Foreign  Missions,  reports  9i,  of  which 
nearly  one-half,  or  44,  are  in  India,  including 
Ceylon  and  Burma,  13  in  China,  9  in  Japan,  1  in 
Korea,  8  in  Africa,  and  the  rest  (22)  in  Australia, 
Canada,  Madagascar,  Persia,  Syria,  Turlcey, 
South  America  and  the  West  Indies.  In  these 
94  institutions  there  were,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  century,  35,539  scholars,  all  males  except 
2,099.  In  India,  where  higher  education  appears 
to  have  been  most  fully  developed,  nearly  26,000 
of  the  total  number  are  to  be  found.  There  are 
fewer  in  China,  strange  to  say  (1,814),  than  in 
Africa  or  Turkey. 

Of  the  boarding  and  higher  schools  and  semi- 
naries in  which  preparation  is  made  for  the  college 
or  university,  there  are  879,  with  nearly  86,000 
pupils.  Of  these,  406  are  in  India,  166  in  China, 
85  in  Africa,  and  40  in  Japan,  including  Formosa. 
In  this  class  of  pchools  the  feminine  sex  has  more 
adequate  representatives  than  in  the  higher  grade 
institutions,  numbering  34,714,  as  against 
49,612  male  scholars.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  in  China  and  Ceylon,  Japan,  Mexico, 
Oceania,  Persia,  Palestine,  Syria,  Turkey,  South 
America,  and  the  West  Indies,  girls  predominate 
among  the  pupils.  In  India  proper,  the  boy 
pupils  outnumber  the  girls  more  than  two  to  one; 
in  Japan,  the  tables  are  turned  and  the  girls  are 
nearly  three  to  one,  while  in  Mexico  the  propor- 
tion is  nearly  ten  to  one. 

Of  theological  or  training  schools,  for  preachers 
and  Christian  workers  there  are  375.  India  leads 
with  126,  China  comes  next  with  68,  Africa,  third 
with  59,  Japan,  fourth  with  38.  The  rest  are 
distributed  over  the  other  missionary  countries 
of  the  world.  In  these  institutions  11,765  per- 
sons are  being  trained,  8,284  males  and  3,515 
females,  the  latter  predominating  in  number  in 
Burma,  Japan,  Syria  and  Turkey. 

Passing  next  to  medical  schools  and  schools  for 
nurses  we  note  that  there  are  67,  with  651  pupils 
of  whom  230  are  females.  China  takes  the  lead 
in  the  number  of  these  institutions  with  32, 
having  270  pupils,  India  coming  second,  with  191 
pupils. 

Of  elementary  or  village  schools  there  are 
18,742,  with  904,000  pupils,  two-thirds  being  of 
the  male  sex.  There  are  also  122  kindergartens, 
with  4,704  pupils. 


It  remains  to  note  in  this  statistical  survey, 
that  there  are  179  industrial  training  institutions 
and  classes,  in  which  9,074  persons  (of  whom 
2,352  are  females)  are  being  prepared  for  one  or 
another  branch  of  industrial  life.  Africa  here 
takes  the  lead  in  the  numberof  such  institutions, 
tho  not  in  the  number  of  scholars.  India  has  51 
institutions,  with  4,305  pupils,  while  Africa  has 
only  1,845  pupils. 

The  importance  of  industrial  training  in  the 
Orient  and  in  Africa  and  Oceania  is  more  fully 
appreciated  as  Christian  communities  increase, 
as  better  methods  of  living  are  attained,  and  as 
converts  are  shut  out  of  lines  of  work  on  account 
of  their  change  of  religion  and  customs.  These 
schools  are  intended  to  prepare  persons  of  both 
sexes  for  employment  where  skill  is  required  and 
for  which  remuneration  may  be  commanded. 
The  Industrial  Mission  Aid  Society  of  London 
seeks  to  secure  opportunities  for  those  so  trained 
to  engage  in  productive  labor. 

To  summarize:  Missionary  societies  have,  in  all, 
20,458  educational  institutions  of  all  kinds,  with 
1,051,466  scholars,  of  whom  332,980,  or  about 
one-third,  are  females.  The  significance  of  these 
figures  may  easily  be  overlooked.  Compared 
with  the  immense  population  of  the  fields  in 
which  these  institutions  are  found,  they  appear 
almost  infinitesimal.  But  they  certainly  bear  a 
fair  proportion  to  the  number  of  Christian  com- 
munities. The  solidarity  of  the  heathen  and  non- 
Christian  populations,  aggregating,  perhaps,  two- 
thirds  of  the  grand  total  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
world,  is  immense, — an  overwhelming  fact. 
After  a  century,  more  or  less,  of  endeavor  in 
Asia,  all  that  can  be  claimed  is  that  a  beginning, 
a  most  encouraging  beginning,  has  been  made 
in  Christian  work,  the  extent  of  which  cannot 
adequately  be  represented  by  mere  numbers. 
The  crumbling  process  is  everywhere  at  work  on 
heathen  solidarity,  and  the  attitude  of  the  masses 
toward  the  old  religions  is  by  no  means  the  same 
as  it  was  a  century  or  even  a  half  century  ago. 

Moreover,  the  propaganda  of  education  is  a 
rapidly  expanding  propaganda.  The  oldest  col- 
lege in  the  mission  field,  that  at  Serampur, 
founded  by  Carey  and  called  "The  first  Christian 
college  in  the  East,"  dates  back  only  to  1819. 
Of  the  94  collegiate  institutions  reported  at  the 
close  of  the  century,  only  twelve  were  founded 
before  1850.  In  the  third  quarter  that  number 
was  increased  to  25,  while  in  the  last  quarter  57 
were  established.  Thus,  sixty  per  cent,  of  these 
institutions  were  organized  in  the  last  twenty-five 
years  of  the  century,  and  of  these,  twenty  fall 
within  the  last  decade. 

Still  more  notable  is  the  recent  origin  of  the 
institutions  of  the  preparatory  class.  By  far  the 
greater  number  have  come  into  existence  in  the 
last  quarter  of  the  century,  particularly  in  the 
last  decade.  Of  kindergartens  in  the  mission 
fields  there  are  none  that  go  back  of  the  ninth 
decade;  most  of  them  sprang  up  in  the  tenth. 
The  growth  of  the  educational  institutions  in  mis- 
sion fields  in  the  ten  years  ending  in  1900  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  developments  in  the 
modern  missionary  movement.  It  is  all  the 
more  remarkable  when  it  is  remembered  that  it 
is  coincident  with  the  multiplication  of  the  hos- 
pitals, dispensaries,  orphanages  and  other  philan- 
thropic agencies.  It  proves  that  those  who  are 
responsible  for  the  shaping  of  missionary  policy 
are  convinced  that  education  is  an  indispensable 
adjunct  of  evangelization. 


Etat 
lOllot,  Jolin 


THK  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


2Z& 


The  cost  of  the  educational  work  of  missionary 
societies  is  naturally  a  heavy  charge  upon  their 
annual  appropriations.  The  support  of  the  mis- 
sionaries who  are  charged  with  the  responsibility 
of  conducting  it  is  provided  usually  in  the  annual 
budget,  together  with  the  wages  of  native  leaders 
and  others,  with  the  items  of  rent,  insurance, 
repairs,  furniture,  etc.  Pupils  may  be  expected 
to  pay  their  board,  and  in  certain  classes  of 
schools,  fees  for  tuition,  books,  etc.  Endow- 
ments are  not  numerous;  but  individuals  in  the 
home  churches,  classes  in  Sunday  schools,  young 
people's  meetings  and  other  organizations  often 
assume  the  support  of  a  girl  or  boy  while  in  school. 
In  India  a  government  subsidy  is  given  to 
scliools  of  a  certain  grade  on  the  basis  of  exami- 
nations conducted  by  representatives  of  the  edu- 
cational authorities  of  the  State. 

EFAT,  or  VATE.     See  New  Hebrides. 

EFATESE  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  Melane- 
sian  family  and  is  spoken  with  several  dialects 
in  the  island  of  Efat  in  the  New  Hebrides.  It 
was  reduced  to  writing  by  Scotch  Presbyterian 
missionaries  and  an  effort  has  been  made  to  com- 
bine dialects  so  as  to  provide  the  people  with  a 
single  literary  language.  Roman  letters  are 
used  in  writing  Efatese.  It  is  also  called  Fate  and 
Vate. 

EFXJLEN :  4  settlement  in  Kamerun,  W.  Africa, 
situated  east  of  the  coast  belt  and  70  miles  S.  of 
E.  of  Great  Batanga.  Station  of  the  Pl^  (1893), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  (one  a  physician)  and 
their  wives,  3  native  workers,  1  boarding  school, 
1  dispensary,  1  hospital  and  150  professing 
Christians. 

EGEDE,  Hans:     See  Danish  Missions. 

EGEDESMINDE :  An  Eskimo  settlement  on  the 
west  coast  of  Greenland,  situated  on  Disco  Bay. 
Population  about  1,200.  Formerly  a  station  of 
the  Danish  Missionary  Society.  The  inhabitants 
being  now  professing  Christians  the  place  is  under 
care  of  the  Danish  Church  and  is  not  considered 
as  a  missionary  field. 

EGYPT:  Egypt  proper  extends  from  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  north  to  Wady  Haifa  at 
the  second  cataract  of  the  Nile  on  the  south,  and 
from  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  Red  Sea  on  the  east 
to  an  indefinite  line  of  desert  on  the  west.  Politi- 
cally it  includes  also  a  strip  of  Arabia  on  the  east 
of  the  Suez  Canal,  Nubia,  and  an  uncertain  sec- 
tion of  the  Sudan.  By  far  the  greater  part  of 
this  territory  is  practically  uninhabited,  so  that 
of  the  officially  reported  400,000  square  miles, 
not  more  than  13,000  square  miles  contain  a 
population  of  (1897)  9,734,405,  giving  a  density 
of  population  three  times  as  great  as  that  of 
France,  and  even  greater  than  that  of  Belgium 
and  Saxony. 

Of  the  population  nearly  9,000,000  are  Moham- 
medans and  25,000  are  Jews.  The  Christians 
number  730,162.  Of  these,  608,000  are  Copts, 
53,500  belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  56,500  are 
Roman  Catholics  and  the  remainder  are  Arme- 
nians and  Protestants,  with  a  few  unclassed 
individuals. 

The  language  of  Egypt  is  entirely  Arabic. 
The  Coptic,  representing  the  old  Egyptian 
hieroglyphs,  has  long  been  a  dead  language, 
existing  only  in  the  Scriptures  and  liturgies  of  the 
Coptic  monasteries. 

The  climate  of  Egypt  is  in  general  very  dry. 
Northerly  winds  prevail  in  summer  and  south- 


erly winds  in  winter,  so  that  there  is  a  great  uni- 
formity in  temperature,  ranging  in  Cairo  from 
50°  to  85°,  the  highest  recorded  being  116° 
Fahr.  There  is  also  very  little  rain — practically 
none  at  all  in  Upper  Egypt — tho  in  Cairo  there 
are  some  very  heavy  rainfalls;  yet  the  rise  of 
the  Nile  is  accompanied  with  a  great  deal  of 
moisture,  so  that,  especially  on  the  Red  Sea 
coast,  one  seems  to  be  in  a  vapor  bath.  The 
houses  are  built  chiefly  of  sun-dried  brick,  except 
in  the  cities,  where  a  porous  stone  is  used. 

The  present  ruler  of  Egypt,  as  a  tributary 
province  of  Turkey,  is  Abbas  Hilmi  Pasha,  who 
has  the  title  of  Khedive,  or  Prince.  The  admin- 
istration is  in  the  hands  of  native  ministers  sub- 
ject to  the  ruling  of  the  Khedive  and  the  con- 
currence of  the  representative  of  Great  Britain. 
The  army  of  Egypt  is  commanded  by  a  British 
general  who  holds  an  Egyptian  commission  and 
who  employs  a  certain  number  of  British  officers 
in  subordinate  positions.  There  is  also  a  force 
of  about  5,000  British  troops  in  Egypt,  partly 
paid  by  that  province  and  styled  "The  Army  of 
Occupation." 

The  English  control  of  Egypt  (since  1883) 
altho  advisory  in  form,  is  already  revolutionizing 
the  life  of  the  common  people  by  securing  justice 
to  a  marked  degree  and  gradually  suppressing 
official  corruption.  The  schools  of  all  grades 
throughout  the  country  are  required  to  teach  the 
English  language  besides  the  vernacular,  and  a 
date  has  been  officially  fixed  after  which  English 
will  be  the  language  of  all  official  transactions  and 
correspondence. 

Missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  Egypt  by  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States 
of  America  and  the  Church  Missionary  Society  of 
England. 

Of  these  two  missions  the  former  is  much  the 
more  important.  The  latter  has  confined  itself 
to  work  for  Mohammedans,  chiefly  in  connec- 
tion with  the  schools  established  for  Muslim 
children  by  Miss  Whately,  who  died  in  1889, 
leaving  the  schools  under  the  general  charge  of 
the  society.  Missionary  work  among  the  Copts 
has  never  encountered  so  bitter  opposition  from 
the  clergy  as  has  been  met  in  some  other  parts  of 
the  Levant.  The  government,  too,  has  favored 
and  valued  the  educational  work  of  the  missions. 
Under  existing  circumstances,  government  perse- 
cution of  Mohammedans  who  incline  to  Chris- 
tianity does  not  take  place,  and  with  the  spread 
of  knowledge  of  the  English  language  and  litera- 
ture, an  opportunity  for  evangelizing  Moham- 
medans has  been  created  which  should  be  used 
to  the  full. 

Besides  the  UP  and  the  CMS,  the  BFBS,  the 
Sudan  Pioneer  Mission  (German),  the  Kaisers- 
werth  Deaconesses,  the  (Dutch)  Society  for  the 
Evangelization  of  Egypt,  the  North  Africa  Mis- 
sion, the  International  Medical  and  Benevolent 
Association  and  the  Egypt  General  Mission  have 
stations  in  Eygpt.  The  WMS  and  the  London 
Jews  Society  and  four  other  societies  have  mis- 
sions limited  to  the  Jews  in  Alexandria,  Cairo, 
Port  Said  and  Suez.  The  whole  number  of 
Protestants  in  Egypt  is  returned  as  11,894. 
Penfield  (F.  C),  Present  Day  Egypt,  new  ed.,  New  York,  1903;  ' 

Poole  (S.  L.),  Social  Life  in  Eqyvt,  London,  1884-   , 

Cairo,  3d.  ed,,  London  and  New  York,  1897;  Lane  (E.  W.), 
An  Account  of  the  Modem  Egyptiana,  2  vols.,  5th  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1871;  Fowler  (M.),  Christian  Egypt,  London,  1900; 
Watson  (A.),  American  Mission  in  Egypt,  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
1898. 

EHLANZENI:   A  settlement   near  Grey  town, 


823 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Etat 
Eiiot,  Jolin 


Natal,  about  65  miles  N.  W.  of  Durban.  Station 
of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1856), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  11  native 
workers,  12  places  of  worship,  6  schools  and  223 
professing  Christians. 

EHLOMOHLOMO :  A  station  of  the  Hermanns- 
burg Missionary  Society  (1862)  among  the  Zulus 
in  the  Vryheid  district  of  Natal.  The  work  has 
been  very  much  interrupted  by  the  Transvaal 
war  and  statistics  later  than  1901  are  not  at 
hand.  There  then  were  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  native  workers,  a  chapel,  a  school  and  175 
professing  Christians. 

EKAMBA:  Station  of  the  Norwegian  Mission- 
ary Society  in  Natal,  S.  Africa,  about  40  miles 
east  of  Ladysmith. 

EKOMBELA:  A  station  of  the  Hermannsburg 
Missionary  Society  in  the  Vryheid  district  of 
Natal,  situated  about  5  miles  N.  E.  of  Luneburg. 
Founded  in  1862.  Has  about  500  professing 
Christians  in  the  center  and  outstations. 

EKUHLENGENI:  Station,  at  present  (1902) 
without  a  missionary,  of  the  Hei-mannsburg  Mis- 
sionary Society,  in  the  Vryheid  district  of  Natal; 
situated  about  40  miles  N.  of  E.  from  Vryheid. 
Has  about  350  professing  Christians. 

EKULALENI :  Station  of  the  Church  of  Sweden 
Mission  in  Natal,  S.  Africa,  situated  among  the 
Zulus  north  of  the  Tugela  River.  It  was  founded 
in  1888  and  in  1900  had  5  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  and  about  75  professing  Christians. 

EHWENDENI :  Station  of  the  UFS  in  the  Cen- 
tral Africa  Protectorate,  west  of  Lake  Nyasa  and 
among  the  Angoni  tribes.  It  was  founded  in 
1882  and  now  has  (1902),  together  with  Njuju 
and  other  outstations,  2  missionaries,  one  of 
them  a  physician,  50  schools  with  144  teachers, 
2  organized  churches  with  773  members,  and  1 
dispensary. 

EL  ARAISH:  A  seaport  town  in  Morocco,  45 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Tangier.  Station  of  the  Gospel 
Missionary  Union  (1898),  with  3  missionaries. 
Station  also  of  the  North  Africa  Mission  (1899), 
with  2  missionary  women  and  1  dispensary. 

ELAT:  A  town  in  the  Kameruns,  W.  Africa, 
75  miles  E.  of  Efulen.  Station  of  the  PN  (1896), 
with  (1902)  5  missionaries,  men  and  women 
(one  a  physician) ;  an  organized  church,  a  school 
and  a  hospital. 

ELEMA.     See  Orokolo. 

ELETJTHERA:  One  of  the  Bahama  Islands, 
W.  I.,  lying  200  miles  E.  of  the  coast  of  Florida, 
between  Great  Abaco  on  the  N.  W.  and  Cat 
Island  on  the  S.  E.  Area,  132  square  miles; 
population,  8,733.  Station  of  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Missionary  Society.  At  Govern- 
or's Harbor  this  Society  has  1  male  mis- 
sionary, 22  native  workers,  648  Christians  in 
native  Church,  4  church  buildings,  4  Sunday 
schools,  and  at  Rock  Sound  it  has  2  male  mis- 
sionaries, 9  native  workers,  2  outstations,  301 
Christians  in  native  churches,  4  church  buildings, 
4  Sunday  schools.  The  SPG  (1849)  and  the  Bap- 
tist Society,  entering  the  field  later,  have  over  800 
communicants  and  are  doing  excellent  work. 

EL  FUERTE.     See  Fuerte. 

ELIM  (Cape  Colony) :  A  town  in  Cape  Colony, 
S.  Africa,  situated  in  the  Bredasdorp  district, 
about  50  miles  S.  W.  of  Swellendam.  Station  of 
the  Moravian  Missions  (1824),  with  (1900)  6  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women;  31   native  workers. 


men  and  women;  2  preaching  places,   2  schools 
and  about  600  professing  Christians. 

ELIM  (Natal) :  A  settlement  in  the  extreme 
south  of  the  Alfred  district.  Natal,  S.  Africa. 
Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 
(1870),  with  a  missionary  and  his  wife,  a  chapel 
and  a  school. 

ELIM  (Transvaal) :  A  town  in  the  Zoutspans- 
berg  district,  Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situ- 
ated about  210  miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of  Pretoria. 
Station  of  the  Romande  (French  Switzerland) 
Missionary  Society  (1879),  with  (1902)  10  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women  (including  physician 
and  hospital  nurses);  12  native  workers,  14 
schools,  1  hospital,  and  184  baptized  Christians. 

ELIOT,  John:  Born,  1604,  in  Nasing,  Essex 
County,  England.  He  had  eminently  godly  par- 
ents, "by  whom,"  to  use  his  own  words,  his  first 
years  were  "seasoned  with  the  fear  of  God,  the 
Word,  and  prayer."  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  in  1623,  where  he 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  original 
languages  of  Scripture,  was  well  versed  in  the 
general  course  of  liberal  studies,  had  a  partiality 
for  philology,  and  was  an  acute  grammarian. 
On  leaving  the  university  he  became  an  usher 
in  the  grammar  school  of  Rev.  Thomas  Hooker. 
To  his  connection  with  the  latter  he  traces  his  con- 
version. Mr.  Eliot  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the 
ministry,  and,  being  exposed  to  the  tyranny  of 
Laud  on  account  of  his  non-conformity,  followed 
Hooker  to  America,  with  sixty  others,  in  the  ship 
"Lyon,"  which  reached  Boston  November  3, 
1631.  Some  of  his  brethren  who  contemplated 
going  to  America  exacted  from  him  a  promise 
that,  if  they  came,  he  would  be  their  pastor.  On 
his  arrival  he  supplied  the  place  of  Mr.  Wilson,  the 
pastor  of  the  Boston  church,  then  absent  in  Eng- 
land. In  1632  the  brethren  whom  he  had  left 
came  and  settled  in  Roxbury.  Mr.  Eliot  was 
installed  as  their  pastor,  continuing  in  that  rela- 
tion till  his  death,  nearly  sixty  years.  In  1639 
he  was  appointed,  with  Welde  and  Mather,  by  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  leaders  of  the  colony  to 
prepare  a  new  version  of  the  Psalms.  This  Psal- 
ter, issued  in  1640,  was  the  first  book  printed  in 
America.  It  was  entitled  The  Psalms  in  Metre, 
faithfully  translated  for  the  Use,  Edification,  and 
Comfort  of  the  Saints  in  public  and  private,  espe- 
cially in  New  England.  It  was  called  The  Bay 
Psalm  Book,  but  afterward  The  New  England 
Version  of  the  Psalms.  The  book  passed 
through  twenty-one  editions.  Soon  after  Eliot 
was  settled  in  Roxbury  he  became  deeply  inter- 
ested in  the  Indians,  and,  the  legislature  having 
passed  an  act  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel 
among  them,  he  resolved  to  learn  their  language 
that  he  might  preach  to  them.  Through  a  young 
Pequot,  who  had  learned  a  little  English  and 
whom  he  had  received  into  his  family,  he  obtained 
some  knowledge  of  their  language.  He  soon 
became  sufficiently  familiar  with  its  vocabulary 
and  construction  to  translate  the  ten  command- 
ments, the  Lord's  Prayer,  some  texts  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  a  few  prayers.  In  October,  1646,  he 
made  his  first  visit,  with  three  others,  to  their 
camp  near  the  site  of  Brighton,  on  the  border 
of  Newton,  and  preached  to  them,  assembled  in 
the  wigwam  of  Waban,  their  chief,  the  first  ser- 
mon ever  preached  in  North  America  in  a  native 
tongue.  The  service  continued  three  hours,  the 
Indians    asking    many    questions.     Two    weeks 


£]liot,  John 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


S24 


after  he  made  a  second  visit,  when  an  old  warrior 
asked  with  tears  if  it  was  not  too  late  for  him  to 
come  to  God.  In  another  fortnight  he  made  a 
third  visit,  when  a  deep,  serious  interest  was 
manifest,  tho  many  Indians  had  been  incited  by 
the  powwows  against  him.  These  men,  who  were 
conjurers  or  juggling  priests,  violently  opposed 
him.  At  this  third  visit  Waban  was  so  impressed 
that  he  gathered  his  people  at  the  evening  camp- 
fire  and  talked  to  them  about  what  they  had 
heard.  Desiring  to  civilize  as  well  as  Christianize 
the  Indians,  Eliot  had  those  to  whom  he  had 
preached  gathered  into  a  community  on  the  site 
of  their  old  camping  ground.  This  was  about 
five  miles  west  of  Boston,  and  to  it,  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  English,  they  gave  the  name  Nonan- 
tum,  signifying  rejoicing.  Eliot  exerted  great 
influence  over  them  with  rare  tact  and  sagacity 
to  encourage  them  to  adopt  the  modes  of  civilized 
life.  A  simple  civil  administration  was  estab- 
lished, and  in  1647  the  General  Court  established 
a  court,  over  which  an  English  magistrate  pre- 
sided. With  social  and  industrial  improvements 
they  were  trained  with  the  aid  of  some  native 
helpers  in  religious  duties.  These  Indians 
received  the  appellation  of  "praying  Indians." 

Another  place  for  religious  meetings  and 
instruction  was  Neponset,  within  the  limits  of 
Dorchester,  among  a  body  of  Indians  whose 
chief  was  the  first  sachem  to  whom  Eliot  preached. 
A  sachem  at  Concord  now  induced  his  people  to 
petition  for  a  tract  near  the  English,  that  they 
also  might  be  instructed.  Their  request  was 
granted,  a  teacher  was  given  them,  and  religious 
services  were  commenced.  They  adopted  a  code  of 
rules  regulating  their  civil  and  religious  duties 
and  their  social  comfort.  In  1648  Mr.  Eliot  visit- 
ed Pawtucket,  35  miles  southward,  where  was  a 
powerful  chief.  He  and  his  two  sons  gave  evi- 
dence of  true  conversion,  and  desired  Mr.  Eliot 
to  live  with  and  instruct  them,  offering  him  the 
choicest  location.  About  this  time  came  an  ear- 
nest request  from  a  chief  living  60  miles  from 
Roxbury,  on  the  present  site  of  Brookfield,  that 
Mr.  Eliot  would  come  and  teach  his  people.  As 
the  journey  would  take  him  through  a  region 
where  his  life  would  be  in  danger,  a  sachem 
through  whose  country  he  must  pass  came  with 
twenty  of  his  warriors  to  escort  him.  He  set  out 
on  horseback.  The  exposure  and  fatigue  severe- 
ly taxed  his  strength.  "I  have  not  been  dry," 
he  states,  "night  or  day  from  the  third  day  of  the 
week  until  the  sixth,  but  so  travel,  and  at  night 
pull  off  my  boots  to  wring  my  stockings,  and  on 
with  them,  and  so  continue.  But  God  stepped 
in  and  helped."  Not  only  did  the  sachems  vio- 
lently oppose  him  and  persecute  the  praying 
Indians,  but  he  had  received  no  aid  or  cheer  from 
others.  His  own  countrymen  even  aspersed  him. 
It  was  declared  both  "in  Old  and  New  England 
that  the  whole  scheme  was  to  make  money,  and 
that  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  was  a  fable." 
But  despite  the  opposition  of  the  sachems,  the 
apathy  of  most  of  the  English  and  the  hostility 
of  some,  he  pursued  his  work  with  heroic  faith. 
In  1649  Christians  in  England  were  so  stirred  by 
the  fame  of  his  work  that  a  society,  entitled  "The 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  New 
England,"  was  formed  and  incorporated  by  Par- 
liament. Collections  were  made  throughout 
England  and  Wales,  and  liberal  supplies  were 
sent.  This  Society  sent  Eliot  £50  per  annum  to 
supplement  his  salary  of  £60  at  Roxbury.  Eliot 
had  long  desired  to  have  all  his  converts  gathered 


in  one  settlement;  the  Indians  favored  the 
scheme,  and  the  funds  received  from  England 
made  it  practicable.  A  site  was  chosen  on  the 
Charles  River,  18  miles  from  Boston,  and  a  tract 
of  6,000  acres  set  apart  and  named  Natick.  All 
the  praying  Indians  except  one  tribe  were  here 
gathered  in  1650.  The  town  was  regularly  laid 
out,  a  house  lot  assigned  to  each  family,  and  a  large 
building  erected  to  serve  for  a  church  and  school 
room.  The  governor  and  several  others  visited 
Natick,  and  were  highly  gratified.  An  Indian 
preached  before  the  governor  "with  great  devo- 
tion, gravity,  decency,  readiness,  and  affection," 
and  a  psalm  lined  by  the  Indian  schoolmaster 
was  sung  "in  one  of  our  ordinary  English  tunes 
melodiously." 

Mr.  Eliot  now  began  to  train  native  preachers 
and  teachers.  The  converts  were  formed  into  a 
church  in  1660.  His  plan  of  gathering  all  the 
converts  to  the  one  mission  at  Natick  failed,  and 
thirteen  other  towns  of  praying  Indians  were 
formed.  The  industrial  and  educational  work 
was  pursued  with  success.  The  number  of  con- 
verts under  his  immediate  care  in  1674  was  1,100, 
the  result  of  his  thirty-eight  years  of  labor;  and 
scattered  through  Massachusetts,  and  on  Nan- 
tucket and  Martha's  Vineyard,  which  he  had 
visited,  were  2,500  others,  under  the  care  of  the 
May  hews.  Cotton,  and  Bourne,  but  whose  con- 
version may  be  traced  to  the  efforts  and  influence 
of  Eliot.  He  lived  to  see  twenty-four  of  the 
Indians  preachers  of  the  Gospel.  In  King  Phil- 
ip's War  of  1675  the  praying  Indians  suffered 
greatly.  They  were  hated  and  hunted  by  the 
red  men  and  cruelly  treated  by  the  whites.  Mr. 
Eliot  for  protecting  them  was  reviled  and  sus- 
pected by  the  English,  but  he  remained  their 
faithful  friend. 

A  very  important  part  of  John  Eliot's  work  was 
his  translation  of  the  Bible.  The  New  Testament 
was,  through  the  patronage  of  the  English 
Society,  issued  in  1661,  and  the  Old  Testament  two 
years  later.  Eliot's  Indian  Bible  is  the  first  Bible 
printed  in  America.  It  is  the  grandest  monu- 
ment of  early  American  scholarship  and  evan- 
gelism. Of  this  work  Edward  Everett  said: 
"The  history  of  the  Christian  Church  does  not 
contain  an  example  of  resolute,  untiring,  success- 
ful labor  superior."  In  1631,  1,500  copies  were 
printed,  and  2,000  in  1685.  He  translated  also 
Baxter's  Call  to  the  Unconverted,  and  various 
other  treatises  on  practical  religion.  His  original 
works  were  A  Catechism,  an  Indian  Psalter, 
a  Primer,  and  the  Indian  Grammar.  At  the  end 
of  the  latter  he  wrote:  "Prayers  and  pains, 
through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  will  do  anything." 
In  English  he  published  The  Communion  of 
Churches,  The  Glorious  Prospect  of  the  Gospel 
among  the  Indians,  and  other  works.  When, 
through  age  and  infirmity,  he  was  unable  to 
preach  or  visit  the  Indians,  he  induced  several 
families  to  send  their  negro  servants  to  him  once 
a  week,  that  he  might  instruct  them  in  Gospel 
truth.  He  died  May  20,  1690,  aged  eighty-six. 
Sparks'  American  Biography,  Vol.  V.,  Boston,  1836;  Wilson 
(Dr.),  Life  of  John  Eliot,  London,  1853;  Calverly  (R.  B.), 
Life  of  John  Eliot,  London,  1881. 

ELITUBENI.     See  Rainy. 

EL  KSAR.     See  Kasr  el  Kebir. 

ELLICE  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  small  islands, 
S.  E.  of  the  Gilbert  Islands.  There  are  eight 
islands  and  small  groups  of  islets,  with  an  area  of 
fourteen  square  miles  and  about  2,400  inhabi- 


SS6 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Bllot,  John 
fiininaiis 


tants.  The  LMS  has  worked  this  field  with  a 
number  of  native  workers  from  Samoa,  a  mis- 
sionary visiting  them  once  or  twice  a  year.  This 
has  not  had  entirely  satisfactory  results,  and  in 
1901  a  missionary  was  stationed  at  Beru,  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Gilbert  Islands,  who  will 
give  a  closer  supervision  to  the  work  in  the 
EUice    group. 

ELLICHPUR:  A  city  in  Berar,  Central  Prov- 
inces, India,  situated  32  miles  N.  W.  of  Amraoti. 
It  was  once  a  great  city.  Population  (1891), 
26,600,  of  whom  19,000  are  Hindus  and  about 
7,000  Muslims.  Station  of  the  Kurku  Inland 
Mission  (1889),  with  6  missionaries,  men  and 
women. 

ELLIS,  William:  Born  August  29,  1794,  in 
London.  Studied  at  Gosport  and  Homerton. 
Having  offered  himself  at  the  age  of  twenty  as 
a  missionary  to  the  LMS  and  been  accepted,  he 
spent  a  few  months  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
printing  and  bookbinding;  was  ordained  Novem- 
ber 8,  181.5,  at  Kensington,  and  sailed  January 
23,  1816,  for  the  South  Seas.  He  labored  for  a 
while  at  the  islands  of  Eimeo  and  Huahine,  set- 
ting up  in  Tahiti  the  first  printing  press  in  the 
South  Sea  Islands.  He  left  Huahine  for  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  February  24,  1822,  in  com- 
pany with  Messrs.  Tyerman  and  Bennet,  the 
Society's  deputation,  reaching  Hawaii  March 
21;  visited  Oahu  in  April,  and,  because  of  the 
affinity  of  the  Tahitian  and  Hawaiian  languages, 
was  able  to  preach  to  the  Hawaiians  with  facility 
in  two  months  after  his  arrival.  Being  requested 
by  the  king  and  chiefs  to  join  the  mission  in  the 
islands,  and  the  American  missionaries  cordially 
concurring  in  the  request,  he  returned  to  Hua- 
hine, and  removed  his  family  to  Oahu,  February 
5,  1823.  Before  two  years  had  elapsed,  illness 
of  his  wife  compelled  Mr.  Ellis's  return  to  Eng- 
land. During  five  years  he  served  the  LMS  by 
addressing  meetings  in  behalf  of  missions,  and 
afterward,  during  nine  years,  he  was  Foreign 
Secretary  of  the  Society.  While  filling  that 
important  office  he  wrote  his  great  work  on 
Madagascar,  which  is  one  of  the  classics  of  mis- 
sionary literature.  Ten  years  after  he  had 
resigned  his  office  as  Secretary,  Mr.  Ellis  was 
again  called  to  serve  the  LMS  in  1853 — this  time 
by  going  to  Madagascar  in  order  to  supervise  the 
reopening  of  the  LMS  mission  there.  After 
several  disappointments  this  was  accomplished 
in  1862,  and,  his  work  being  done,  he  returned 
to  England  in  1865,  retaining  connection  with 
the  LMS  until  his  death,  June  9,  1872. 
Ellis  (J.  E.),  Life  of  William  Ellis,  London,  1873. 

ELLORE:  A  town  of  Madras,  South  India,  in 
the  Godavari  district,  38  miles  north  of  Masuli- 
patam.  Population  (1891),  29,400,  for  the  most 
part  Hindus.  Mission  station  of  the  CMS(1854) 
and  of  the  CEZ  (1881),  with  (1902)  4  mission- 
aries, men  and  women;  103  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  1  high  school,  76  common  schools 
(of  which  65  are  under  the  district  church), 
202  Zenana  pupils,  and  4,240  native  professing 
Christians. 

ELMINA:  A  town  a  few  miles  west  of  Cape 
Coast  Castle  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  W.  Africa. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  where,  in  spite  of  many 
difficulties  and  much  opposition,  the  church  is  in 
a  healthy  condition.  It  has  (1903)  89  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  40  outstations,  44 
preaching  places,  5  schools  and  496  professing 
Christians. 
16 


ELUKOLWENIS:  A  town  in  Griqualand  East, 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa.  Mission  station  of  the 
Moravians  (1875).  It  was  at  first  dependent  for 
instruction  on  the  weekly  visits  made  by  the  mis- 
sionary stationed  at  Ezimcuka.  It  has  now 
(1900)  16  native  workers,  men  and  women,  and 
210  professing  Christians. 

EMAKOSINI:  A  town  in  the  Vryheid  district 
of  Natal,  S.  Africa;  situated  about  20  miles  N.  W. 
of  Vryheid.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  1  mission- 
ary and  12  native  workers  of  both  sexes. 

EMANGWENI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  South 
Africa,  about  25  miles  W.  of  Estcourt.  Station 
of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1863),  where  1 
missionary  resides,  with  5  native  workers. 

EMERSON,  John  S.:  Born  at  Chester,  N.  H., 
December  28,  1800;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  1826;  graduated  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  1830;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM  for  the  Sandwich  Islands  November  26, 
1831,  reaching  Honolulu,  May  17,  1832.  He 
was  stationed  at  Wailua,  on  Oahu.  There  he 
spent  the  whole  of  his  missionary  life  except  four 
years,  1842-46,  when  he  was  professor  at  Lahaina- 
luna  Seminary.  While  there  he  published,  with 
the  assistance  of  Messrs.  Alexander  and  Bishop, 
and  S.  M.  Kamakan,  an  English-Hawaiian  Dic- 
tionary, based  upon  Webster's  Abridgment,  a 
closely-printed  volume  of  184  pages,  containing 
16,000  words  in  English,  with  definitions  in 
Hawaiian.     He  died  in  1867. 

EMFUNDISWENI :  A  settlement  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Cape  Colony;  situated  about  30 
miles  S.  of  Kokstad.  Station  of  the  South  Africa 
Wesleyan    Methodist    Missionary    Society,  with 

(1900)  1  missionary,  43  native  workers,  18  out-  ^ 
stations,   10  places  of  worship,   14  schools  and 
about  500  professing  Christians.     The  Woman's 
Association  of   the  WMS  also  has  a  high  school 
here. 

EMGWALI:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa; 
situated  about  25  miles  E.  by  N.  from  Stutterheim 
and  not  far  from  the  Great  Kei  River.  Station 
of  the  UFS  (1857),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  2  missionary  women,  13  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  10  outstations,  7  schools,  and 
438  communicants. 

EMKINDINI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  situated 
in  Zululand  not  far  from  the  Umfolosi  River. 
Occupied  in  1900  as  a  station  of  the  Zululand 
Missionary  diocese. 

EMLALAZI:  A  settlement  in  the  Weenen  dis- 
trict of  Natal.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg 
Missionary  Society  (1858),  with  (1901)  1  mission- 
ary, 5  native  workers,  3  preaching  places  and  186 
professing  Christians. 

EMMAUS  (Natal) :  A  settlement  in  the  Upper 
Tugela  region  of  Natal,  situated  about  30  miles 
N.  of  W.  from  Estcourt.  Station  of  the  Berlin 
Missionary  Society  (1847),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, 13  native  workers,  2  outstations,  8  preach- 
ing places  and  365  professing  Christians. 

EMMAUS  (Transvaal) :  A  settlement  in  the 
Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  about  10 
miles  N.  E.  of  Lichtenburg.  Station  of  the 
Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society    (1868),    with 

(1901)  2  missionaries,  1  native  worker,  2  preach- 
ing places  and  1,150  professing  Christians. 

EMMAUS  (West  Indies) :  A  station  of  the  Mo- 
ravian Missions  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
island  of  St.  John,  West  Indies.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  1782,  and   in  1900  had  1   missionary 


fimpangfreni 
KTan^elical 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


and  his  wife,  and  8   native    workers,  men   and 
women. 

EMPANGWENI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  S. 
Africa,  situated  near  Estcourt.  Station  of  the 
Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1863),  with 
(1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  11  native 
workers,  4  preaching  places,  3  schools  and  a 
Christian  community  of  435. 

EMTOMBENI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  S.  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Tugela  River  about  35  miles  from 
its  mouth  and  about  35  miles  E.  of  Greytown. 
Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 
(1897),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  1  native 
worker. 

EMUREMURA:  A  settlement  in  Southern 
Nigeria,  W.  Africa,  situated  on  Cross  River  about 
80  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Duke  Town.  Station  of  the 
UFS  (1889) ;  at  present  (1903)  unoccupied. 

ENDWEDWE.     See  Indwedwe. 

ENFIELD:  A  town  in  the  Island  of  Jamaica, 
West  Indies,  situated  about  18  miles  E.  by  N.  of 
Kingston.  Station  of  the  United  Methodist  Free 
Churches  (1891),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  6 
native  workers. 

ENGCHHUN.     See  Yung-chun-chau. 

ENGH,  John :  Born  in  Cudbrandsdalen,  Norway, 
October  3,  1833.  Died  May  3,  1900.  He  be- 
gan life  as  a  carpenter  in  Christiania,  but  after 
his  conversion  he  gave  up  his  trade  and  spent  five 
years  at  the  Norwegian  Mission  Training  School 
in  Christiania.  In  1865  he  went  to  Zululand,  and 
in  the  following  year  he  entered  upon  his  work 
in  Madagascar.  After  remaining  about  a  year 
in  the  capital,  he  went  to  North  Betsileo  and 
settled  down  in  Betafo,  where  he  did  his  life-work. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Norwegian  Mission  at 
this  place.  His  health  having  failed,  he  returned 
home  in  1886;  but  after  a  rest  of  two  years  he 
returned  to  his  chosen  field,  where  he  labored, 
without  interruption,  for  ten  years.  When  he 
finally  returned  to  his  native  land  there  were  in  his 
district  more  than  12,000  Christians,  members  of 
76  local  churches,  and  about  75  schools,  besides  the 
1,200  or  more  baptized  Christians  who  had  been 
taken  away  by  death.  All  this  was  largely  fruit 
won  through  Engh's  work.  As  he  was  the  oldest 
of  the  missionaries  he  was  called  "Father  Engh," 
and  among  Christians  of  all  names  and  by  many 
of  the  Christless  he  was  greatly  loved  for  his 
work's  sake. 

ENGLAND;  Presbyterian  Church  of.  See 
Phesbytehian  Chukch  of  England. 

ENGOTINI :  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  about  30  miles  S.W.  from  Queens- 
town.  Station  of  the  Moravians.  It  was 
founded  in  1859  in  a  circle  of  twelve  heathen 
Fingo  "kraals,"  where  the  missionaries  soon 
gained  influence.  The  present  force  (1903)  con- 
sists of  2  missionaries  and  15  native  workers, 
men  and  women. 

ENON:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  37 
miles  N.  of  Port  Elizabeth.  Population,  about 
1,500.  Station  of  the  Moravians,  founded  in 
1818.  The  present  force  (1903)  is  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  with  5  native  workers  and  200  com- 
municants. The  adherents  have  been  diminished 
by  the  "Ethiopian  Church"  movement. 

ENTAKAMO :  Station  of  the  Unsectarian  Mis- 
sion to  the  Zulu-Kaffirs,  situated  in  Natal,  S. 
Africa,  on  the  Umzimkulu  River,  about  10  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Stuart's  Town. 


ENTOMBE:  A  settlement  in  the  Wakker- 
stroom  district  of  the  Transvaal  Colony,  S. 
Africa;  station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary 
Society  (1861),  which  had  about  400  professing 
Christians  before  the  Transvaal  war,  but  of 
which  later  detaUs  are  not  now  (1903)  available. 

ENTTJMENI :  A  settlement  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  Natal,  S.  Africa,  situated  near  Ft.  Chater 
and  about  10  miles  S.  W.  from  Eshowe.  Station 
of  the  Schreuder  Norwegian  Mission,  with  (1900) 
5  missionaries,  men  and  women;  a  high  school,  a 
training  class  for  women  workers  and  202  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

ENYANISWENI:  A  settlement  in  the  Transkei 
region  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa.  Station  of  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1900)  8  preaching  places,  5  schools 
and  455  professing  Christians. 

ENYANYADU:  A  settlement  in  Natal;  circuit 
of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  (1900)  40  outstations  and 
850  professing  Christians. 

ENYEZANE:  A  settlement  in  the  Kranzkop. 
district  of  Natal,  S.  Africa.  Station  founded  by 
the  East  Frisian  Missionary  Society  in  1859  and 
at  present  carried  on  by  the  Hermannsburg  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  (1902)  1  resident  mission- 
ary. 

ENZINCUKA:  Settlement  in  Griqualand  East, 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  about  15  mUes 
N.  W.  from  Mount  Frere.  Station  of  the  Mora- 
vian Missions  (1881),  with  (1902)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  2  preaching  places,  2  schools  and 
340  professing  Christians. 

EPHRATA:  A  settlement  in  the  Mosquito 
Reservation,  Central  America.  Station  of  the 
Moravian  Missions  (1860),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife. 

EPI.     See  New  Hebrides,  Api. 

EP WORTH:  A  station  of  the  WMS,  near  Salis- 
bury, Rhodesia,  Central  Africa.  There  are  about 
500  people  living  here  who  are  all  nominally 
Christians.  One  missionary  cares  for  the  work 
and  the  native  congregation  in  Salisbury. 

ERAVUR :  A  town  on  the  east  coast  of  Ceylon, 
situated  about  10  miles  N.  W.  of  Batticaloa. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  22  native  workers. 

ERITREA:  A  colony  of  Italy  in  Egypt  with 
autonomous  administration.  It  lies  on  the  Red 
Sea  and  is  bounded  landward  by  the  Egyptian 
Sudan,  Abyssinia  and  French  Somaliland.  Th& 
coast  line  is  about  640  miles.  The  area  is  99,500' 
square  miles;  population  about  450,000,  of  whom 
aliout  2,000  are  European.  There  is  a  military 
railway  from  Massaua  to  Maiatal,  23  miles, and319 
miles  of  telegraph  line.  The  Swedish  National 
Missionary  Society  has  5  stations  in  Eritrea, 
with  17  missionaries,  men  and  women,  and  135> 
communicant  Christians. 

ERMELO:  A  town  in  the  Transvaal  Colony, 
S.  Africa,  situated  63  miles  S.  W.  of  Barberton. 
Population,  2,000.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1899),  but  temporarily  vacant 
in  consequence  of  the  late  war. 

ERODE :  A  town  in  the  Coimbatore  District, 
Madras,  India,  situated  on  the  Cauvery  River, 
36  miles  S.  W.  of  Salem.  Population  (1891), 
12,300,  of  whom  over  10,000  are  Hindus.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1888), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  10  natirs 


227 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


E^vaug^elical 


workers,  men  and  women;  3  preaching  places, 
4  common  schools,  1  high  school,  and  272  pro- 
fessing Christians.  The  Society  lists  give  the 
name  as  Irod. 


ERROMANGO. 
ERUNGALUR. 


See  New  Hebrides. 
See  Irungalur. 


ERZERUM:  Capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name  in  Asiatic  Turl^ey  and  an  important 
fortress,  situated  110  miles  S.  E.  of  Trebizond 
and  a  little  south  of  the  western  branch  of  the 
Euphrates  River.  It  is  an  important  station  of 
caravan  trade  between  the  Blaclc  Sea  and  Persia. 
Its  altitude  is  6,600  feet.  Population  about 
39,000,  of  whom  26,500  are  Mohammedans  and 
the  remainder  Christians  of  different  sects.  Sta- 
tion of  the  ABCFM  (1839),  with  (1902)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife  (the  wife  being  a  physician), 
2  missionary  women,  35  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  22  outstations,  16  preaching  places,  28 
common  schools,  2  high  schools  and  350  evangel- 
ical Christian  communicants.  Many  of  the  mem- 
bers of  this  church  are  emigrating  in  order  to 
find  security  for  life  and  property. 

ERZINGAN:  A  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  96  miles 
southwest  of  Erzerum.  Situated  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, in  the  midst  of  the  mountains,  it  is  an 
important  military  center  and  is  noted  for  the 
energy  of  its  people,  both  Turks  and  Armenians. 
An  outstation  of  the  ABCFM  worked  from  Erz- 
erum. 

ESIDUMBINI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  S. 
Africa,  about  35  miles  N.  E.  of  Durban.  Station 
of  the  ABCFM  (1849),  with  (1902)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman  and  10  native 
workers,  men  and  women. 

ESKIMO  LANGUAGE:  A  branch  of  the  North 
American  family  of  languages  which  is  found  in 
the  Arctic  coast  regions.  It  is  spoken  in  varying 
dialects  in  the  most  northern  inhabited  regions 
of  America,  from  Greenland  to  Alaska,  and  by  a 
small  section  of  the  Arctic  dwellers  in  Eastern 
Asia.  It  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  mis- 
sionaries by  use  of  the  Roman  letters,  and  also 
in  some  cases  by  the  invention  of  syllabary 
characters  which  better  suit  the  nature  of  the 
language. 

ES  SALT:  A  town  in  Syria,  lying  east  of  the 
Jordan  and  15  miles  N.  W.  of  Heshbon.  Station 
of  the  CMS  (1873),  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  7  native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  schools 
and  380  professing  Christians. 

ESPIRITTI  SANTO.     See  New  Hebrides. 

ESSEQUIBO :  A  settlement  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Essequibo  River,  British  Guiana,  S.  America, 
about  15  miles  N.  of  Queenstown.  Station  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  of  the  West  Indies 
(Eastern  Conference),  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  5  preaching  places,  3  schools  and  360  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

ESTABLISHED  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND; 
Foreign  Missions  of.  See  Scotland,  Estab- 
lished Church  of. 

ESTACION  CATORCE.     See  Catokce. 

ESTCOURT:  A  town  in  Natal,  S.  Africa,  situ- 
ated about  55  miles  N.  W.  of  Pietermaritzburg. 
Outstation  of  the  SPG. 

ESTRIDGE:  A  Moravian  Mission  Station  on 
the  northern  coast  of  the  island  of  St.  Kitts, 
West  Indies.  The  station  was  opened  in  1845 
and  has  19  native  workers,  with  1  preaching 
place,  1  school  and  450  professing  Christians. 


ETAH :  A  town  and  district  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, India,  situated  75  miles  S.  W.  of  Bareillj-. 
Population  (1891)  7,800,  of  whom  5,000  are 
Hindus  and  nearly  2,000  Mohammedans.  Station 
of  the  ME, with  (1903)  18  native  workers,  1  preach- 
ing place,  24  Sundav  schools  and  1,340  professing 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  PN  (1900),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  35  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  25  outstations,  48 
common  schools,  1  high  school,  1  evangelistic 
training  class,  1  training  class  for  women  workers 
and  950  baptized  Christians. 

ETAWAH:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  on  the  Jumna  River,  85  miles  west  by 
north  of  Cawnpore.  It  is  a  pleasant  place,  very 
picturesque,  and  contains  several  buildings  of 
importance.  It  is  regarded  as  the  healthiest 
town  on  the  plains  of  India.  The  population  is 
(1891)  38,800,  of  whom  26,000  are  Hindus  and 
about  11,000  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the 
PN  (1863),  with  1  missionary,  1  missionary 
woman  and  11  native  workers. 

ETEMBENI  (Natal).     See  Itembeni. 

ETEMBENI  (Cape  Colony):  A  town  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Cape  Colony,  situated  about  15 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  King  Williams  Town.  Station 
of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1868) ,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  4  native  workers,  and  258  profess- 
ing Christians.  Station  also  of  the  South  African 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission,  with  (1900)  89 
native  workers,  38  schools  and  1,520  professing 
Christians. 

ETINAN :  A  settlement  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
British  Colony  of  South  Nigeria,  W.  Africa,  situ- 
ated on  the  Kwo-Ibo  (or  Qua-Ibo)  River,  about 
40  miles  from  its  mouth.  Station  of  the  Qua- 
Iboe  Mission  (1898),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  3 
native  workers  and  2  outstations. 

ETTAMANUR:  A  town  in  Travancore,  S.  India, 
situated  about  30  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Kot- 
tayam.  An  itineracy  of  the  CMS,  superintended 
from  Tiruwella,  with  (1902)  18  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  7  outstations,  9  schoolsandl,165 
professing  Christians. 

EURASIAN:  A  term  employed  to  denote  the 
offspring  of  European  and  Asiatic  parentage, 
without  regard  to  the  proportion  of  the  mixture. 
Such  children  are,  in  most  cases,  illegitimate, 
tho  not  necessarily  so,  and  too  often  try  to 
imitate  the  bearing  of  the  European  while  living 
in  subordinate  positions  like  lower  class  Asiatics. 
Frequently  they  exhibit  the  worst  moral  charac- 
teristics of  both  races.  Physically  they  are  well 
formed,  lithe,  graceful,  and  often  beautiful,  and 
show  great  dexterity  in  all  that  requires  deftness 
and  delicacy  of  touch,  such  as  is  required  in  cler- 
ical work.  They  do  not  have  strong  constitutions 
and  are  particularly  subject  to  pulmonary  com- 
plaints. By  reason  of  their  parentage,  the 
Eurasian  girls  are  often  neglected  and  sink  in  the 
social  scale. 

In  recent  years  missions  have  found  means  of 
reaching  numbers  of  Eurasians  effectively  in  India 
and  China,  so  as  to  help  them  make  the  most  of 
whatever  abilities  their  mixed  blood  has  given 
them. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE,  The:  An  associa- 
tion for  the  defense  of  religious  liberty  and  pro- 
moting the  unity  of  all  believers  in  the  essentials 
of  Christianity  and  their  cooperation  for  its  pro- 
gress. It  sprang  from  the  labors  of  some  great 
exponents  of  the  Christian  faith  in  different  lands 


Evani^elical 
Fallscher 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


228 


toward  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
century.  Notable  among  these  were  Thomas 
Chalmers  of  Scotland,  John  Angell  James  of  Eng- 
land, George  Fischeof  France,  Merle  D'Aubign^of 
Switzerland,  and  William  Patton,  Samuel  H.  Cox, 
Lyman  Beecher,  and  others  in  the  United  States. 
In  1842  a  meeting  of  the  Congregational  Union 
of  England  gave  large  consideration  to  the  ques- 
tion of  greater  unity  among  the  various  denom- 
inations of  Christendom.  In  that  year  also  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  report  on  the  same  matter.  A  cele- 
brated letter,  dated  March,  1843,  outlining  such 
an  organization,  and  asking  that  a  meeting 
should  be  called  in  England  to  consider  it,  was 
written  by  Dr. William  Patton,  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  of  New  York, 
to  John  Angell  James.  The  project  made  an 
important  topic  in  the  bicentenary  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly  held  in  Edinburgh,  July,  1843. 
A  conference  of  different  denominations  held  in 
the  Wesleyan  Centenary  Hall  in  February,  1845, 
also  discussed  the  movement.  John  Henderson, 
a  wealthy  banker  of  Glasgow,  collected,  and  in 
1845  published,  a  volume  entitled  "Essays  on 
Christian  Union."  A  meeting  preliminary  to 
organization   was   held    in    Liverpool,    October, 

1845.  At  this  meeting  there  assembled  as  many 
as  two  hundred  ministers  and  laymen  represent- 
ing nearly  twenty  denominations. 

A  call  was  decided  on  for  a  great  meeting  to  be 
held  in  the  following  year  in  London,  and  the 
provisional  committee  held  its  meeting  in  April, 

1846.  Several  delegates  were  present  from  the 
United  States.  The  meeting  for  organization 
assembled  in  the  Freemasons'  Hall  in  London, 
opening  in  August,  1846.  Eight  hundred 
delegates  represented  fifty  denominations  of 
Christians,  and  were  in  session  fifteen  days.  It 
was  in  this  meeting  that  John  Angell  James  in  an 
address  gave  to  Dr.  William  Patton  of  New  York 
the  honor  of  first  conceiving  the  idea  of  the 
alliance.  A  resolution  was  passed  asking  that 
branches  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  be  formed 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  United  States, 
France,  Belgium,  French  Switzerland  and  the 
Waldensian  Valleys,  North  Germany,  South  Ger- 
many and  German  Switzerland,  British  North 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  and  additional 
branches  from  time  to  time. 

Prominent  among  the  subjects  of  discussion 
were  sectarianism,  infidelity.  Popery,  the  Sab- 
bath, and  Christian  education.  There  was  great 
interest  in  this  meeting  among  all  the  denomi- 
nations and  in  the  missionary  centers  of  the  world. 

This  organization  has  held  a  number  of  great 
ecumenical  meetings,  which  have  discussed  the 
foremost  questions  of  human  thought  and  prog- 
ress. Few  religious  conferences  have  engaged 
an  interest  so  profound  and  widespread. 

Branch  national  organizations  have  been 
formed  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  United  States, 
Canada,  New  Brunswick,  France,  Switzerland, 
Germany,  Holland,  Denmark, Italy, Spain, Turkey, 
Greece,  Syria,  Egypt,  South  Africa,  Japan' 
China,  Persia,  East  Indies, West  Indies,  Palestine, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  Chile,  and  Mexico. 

Besides  the  aid  to  the  Christian  faith  through- 
out the  world,  the  Evangelical  Alliance  has  been 


most  practically  useful  in  averting  and  amelior- 
ating persecutions  and  oppressions  from  time  to 
time  in  various  parts  of  the  earth.  By  united 
action  in  the  way  of  remonstrance  and  petition, 
and  by  creating  a  wholesome  and  strong  public 
opinion,  religious  liberty  has  been  promoted  in 
many  countries,  especially  in  Spain,  Italy, 
Austria,  Sweden,  Turkey,  Russia,  Japan,  and 
Persia. 

By  emphasizing  in  statements  of  doctrine  only 
essentials  in  which  all  are  agreed,  by  collecting 
statistics  which  exhibit  the  religious  condition 
and  progress  of  the  whole  world,  and  by  discov- 
ering the  signs  of  the  times  in  the  discussion  of 
advanced  measures,  these  cooperating  bodies 
have  opened  an  ameliorating  influence  among 
widely  differing  churches,  which  results  in  better 
conformity  of  their  denominational  standards  to 
the  spirit  of  union  and  progress. 

A  tew  missionaries  of  different  schools  held  a 
three  days'  meeting  for  prayer  in  Lodiana,  India, 
in  18.58,  and  the  suggestion  arose  that  a  request 
be  made  to  all  the  Christian  world  for  an  annual 
week  of  prayer.  The  Alliance  soon  published 
the  call,  and  has  ever  since  sent  forth  the  pro- 
gram of  topics  to  all  Christendom,  before  the 
beginning  of  the  year.  Many  are  the  revivals 
that  have  followed  this  annual  call  to  prayer,  now 
identified  with  the  Alliance,  which  nas  for  its 
motto  "  Unum  corpus  sumus  in  Christo." 

Headquarters:  Alliance  House,  7  Adam  St., 
Strand,  London,  England. 

The  organ  of  the  Society  is  Evangelical  Christendom,  monthly 
London, 

EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION,  Society  of  the: 
The  Society  was  organized  in  1839.  For  ten 
years  its  efforts  were  confined  to  New  York  and 
Canada,  but  in  1850  work  was  begun  in  Germany 
and  later  in  Switzerland.  The  first  distinctively 
foreign  mission  field  was  Japan,  where  a  station 
was  established  in  1876.  A  new  mission  in 
China  has  long  been  contemplated. 

There  are  (1903)  600  missionaries  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada;  121  in  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land. In  Japan  there  are  6  American  mission- 
aries and  24  workers,  1  station,  39  outstations, 
906  church  members. 

The  Woman's  Missionary  Society  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Association  was  reorganized  in  1892  and 
is  auxiliary  to  the  Missionaiy  Society  of  the 
Evangelical  Association.  It  includes  11  Con- 
ference Branch  Societies  and  153  auxiliaries. 
It  aids  in  all  departments  of  the  work  and  sup- 
ports 2  missionaries. 

EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.     See 

Lutheran  Church. 

EVANSDALE:   A   settlement   in   the   western 

Eart  of  Natal,  S.  Africa,  situated  about  10  miles 
.  W.  of  Dundee.     Station  of  the  South  Africa 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society. 

EW^  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  negro  family 
and  is  spoken  in  Dahomey  by  an  unknown  num- 
ber of  people.  It  has  been  written  with  Roman 
letters.  It  has  two  known  dialects,  called  Anlo 
and  Popo. 

EZINCUKA.     See  Enzincuka. 


S29 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


EiVangrellcal 
Fallsclier 


FAA:  Aparish  in  the  extreme  northwest  of  the 
island  of  Tahiti.  Outstation  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Society,  with  125  church  members. 

FAASALELEAGA :  A  settlement  district  on 
Savaii,  Samoan  Islands,  Polynesia.  Formerly 
occupied  by  the  LMS  as  a  station  (1830) ;  it  is  now 
(1902)  the  center  of  a  Christian  community  of 
about  5,000,  of  whom  1 ,400  are  church  members. 
There  are  90  native  workers,  33  places  of  worship 
and  33  schools. 

FAIRBANK,  Samuel  Bacon:  Born  in  Stamford, 
Conn.,  December  14,  1822.  He  fitted  for  col- 
lege at  Monson,  Mass.,  and  in  Jacksonville,  111. 
Graduated  from  the  Illinois  College  in  1842  and 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1845. 
He  went  to  India  as  a  foreign  missionary  under 
the  ABCFM  in  1846,  arriving  at  Bombay  the 
same  year.  He  was  located  at  Ahmadnagar  for 
four  years,  when  he  removed  to  Bombay  and 
took  charge  of  the  mission  press  there.  In  1857 
he  went  to  Vadala,  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
which  was  his  headquarters  until  1869.  When 
Dr.  Fairbank  reached  the  usual  limit  of  active 
service  he  decided  to  remain  in  India  and  devote 
his  time  to  translation  and  literary  work.  Dr. 
Fairbank's  language  was  the  Marathi,  and  in  this 
language  he  did  much  for  the  literature  of  the 
Mar^thi-speaking  people,  especially  in  the  line  of 
hymnology.  He  prepared  the  first  book  of  musi- 
cal notation  for  Western  India.  He  was  exceed- 
ingly fond  of  nature  and  a  great  student  of  the 
flora  of  India.  Probably  he  did  more  than  any 
man  of  this  generation  to  teach  the  Indian  farm- 
ers with  whom  he  came  in  contact  in  his  mis- 
sionary work  wiser  methods  of  agriculture. 
This  brought  him  personally  into  direct  spiritual 
relations  with  many  whom  otherwise  he  could  not 
have  reached.  In  his  own  district  he  was  chief 
spiritual  authority  for  many  Hindus  as  well  as  for 
Christians.  He  died  of  heat  apoplexy  on  May 
31,  1898,  having  served  in  India  52  years.  In 
1856  he  married  Mary  Ballantine,  daughter  of  a 
missionary  to  India.  Six  of  their  children 
became  missionaries  in  India  and  Ceylon. 

FAIRFIELD:  A  town  in  the  southwestern 
mountainous  part  of  Jamaica,  West  Indies.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1823),  with  (1903) 

1  missionary  and  his  wife,  25  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  and  600  professing  Christians. 

FAIRFORD:  A  settlement  in  Manitoba,  Can- 
ada, situated  on  the  N.  E.  shore  of  Manitoba 
Lake.  Station  of  the  CMS,  with  (1902)  1  mis- 
sionary, 4  native  workers,  4  schools  and  150  pro- 
fessing Christians.  All  the  Indians  in  this  place 
have  learned  to  read  and  write  English. 

FAIRVIEW:  A  town  in  the  southern  part  of 
Natal,  S.  Africa,  situated  on  the  sea  coast  about 
12  miles  N.  E.  of  North  Shepstone.  Station  of 
the  Free  Methodist  Church  General  Missionary 
Board  (1891),  with  (1903)  6  missionaries,  men 
and  women;  7  native  workers,  men  and  women; 

2  schools,  1  industrial  school  and  100  professing 
Christians. 

FAIZABAD:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  on  the  Gogra  River,  78  miles  east  of  Luck- 
now;  a  comparatively  modern  place,  tho  some- 
what decayed  in  appearance.  Population  (1901) 
75,085,  Hindus,  Muslims  and  Christians.     Lan- 


guages, Hindi  and  Urdu.  A  large  military  sta- 
tion. Station  of  the  CMS  (1862),  with  (1902)  12 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  2  schools  and 
192  professing  Christians.  Formerly  station  of 
the  Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Mission,  which 
withdrew  in  1902,  transferring  its  work  to  the 
CMS.  Station  also  of  the  WMS  (1876),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  2  missionary  women,  58 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  3  preaching 
places,  2  outstations,  8  common  schools,  1  high 
school,  1  industrial  school  and  orphanage  and  173 
professing  Christians. 

FAJARDO:  A  town  on  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  island  of  Porto  Rico.  Station  of  the  Amer- 
ican Missionary  Association,  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife. 

FA-KU-MEN:  A  town  in  Manchuria,  China, 
situated  about  50  miles  N.  of  Mukden.  Station 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  (1899), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary,  18  native  workers,  6 
outstations,  7  preaching  places,  4  day  schools, 
1  boarding  school  and  225  professing  Christians. 
Name  also  written  Fa-ko-men. 

FALASHA  KARA:  This  language  belongs  to 
the  Hamitic  group  of  African  languages,  and  is 
spoken  by  the  Falasha  Jews  in  the  Kara  district 
of  Abyssinia.  It  is  written  with  the  Amharic 
characters. 

FALASHA  JEWS:  These  Jews  live  in  Abys- 
sinia, numbering  about  200,000  souls.  They 
occupy,  according  to  Cust,  the  anomalous  posi- 
tion of  not  being  Semitic  either  in  blood  or  in 
speech.  Mission  work  among  them  was  com- 
menced in  1858  by  the  London  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christianity  among  the  Jews,  and 
since  that  time  more  than  1,500  of  them  have 
been  baptized. 

FALEALILI:  A  district  on  the  southern  shore 
of  Upolu,  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Samoan 
Islands.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1836),  with  (1902) 
1  missionary,  58  native  workers,  31  preaching 
places,  31  schools  and  4,926  professing  Christians, 
of  whom  1,248  are  church  members. 

FALLANGIA :  A  settlement  town  on  the  Lesser 
Ponga  River,  French  Guinea,  W.  Africa.  It  was 
the  starting  point  for  the  mission  among  the 
Susus  by  the  West  Indies  Church  Association, 
Barbados.  The  first  white  missionaries  who 
visited  those  regions  were  killed  by  the  slave- 
dealers,  and  in  1818  the  mission  was  abandoned. 
The  next  who  tried  succumbed  to  the  climate; 
but  colored  missionaries  from  Codrington  College, 
Barbados,  who  arrived  at  Fallangia  in  1855,  had 
a  fair  success.  The  work  is  now  carried  on  by 
the  Pongas  Mission  in  connection  with  the  SPG. 

FALLSCHER,  Christian  (of  Germany):  Forty- 
three  years  before  his  death  on  February  11, 
1901,  Christian  Fallscher  went  to  Jerusalem  to 
work  under  the  late  Bishop  Gobat.  Six  years 
later  he  was  sent  by  him  to  Nablus,  as  a  lay 
preacher,  and  there  he  remained  for  thirty-seven 
years,  first  in  connection  with  Bishop  Gobat  and 
later  with  the  CMS.  Through  his  agency  a 
church,  schools,  mission  house  and  house  for  the 
mission  ladies  were  built,  and  a  year  before  his 
death  a  firman  was  obtained  which  enabled  the 
CMS  to  build  a  large  and  handsome  hospital.  In 
1891  medical  work  was  opened  in  Nablus  and 


"Fnn-oheng-lisien 
Fetishism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


230 


ladies  were  sent  to  help  in  schools  and  hospital 
duties.  He  was  loved  and  honored  by  Christian, 
Muslim  and  Jew,  and  by  his  patient  endurance 
and  unpretending  piety  his  influence  became 
potent  and  far-reaching.  Notwithstanding  his 
active  evangelistic  work  among  the  people,  he 
learned  the  difficult  Arabic  language,  and  by  his 
perpetual  intercourse  with  the  natives  he  gained 
a  clear  insight  into  its  idioms  and  intricacies.  He 
was  enabled,  in  a  remarkable  degree,  by  the  grace 
of  God,  to  identify  himself  with  the  jieople 
among  whom  he  lived,  and  in  many  legitimate 
ways  to  follow  their  customs.  He  learned,  in  the 
Christian  sense  of  the  term,  to  lay  aside  much  of 
his  own  personality  and  by  coming  into  close 
sympathy  with  the  people  he  was  enabled  to 
apprehend  the  Eastern  point  of  view. 

FAN-CHf;NG-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Hu-pei,  China,  about  10  miles  north  of  Hsiang- 
yang-fu.  Station  of  the  Hauges'  Synod  China 
Mission  (1893),  with  (1900)  6  missionaries,  nien 
and  women,  of  whom  2  are  physicians;  8  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  4  schools,  1  hospital, 
and  1  opium  victims'  refuge.  Station  also  of  the 
Swedish  Evangelical  Mission  Covenant  of  Amer- 
ica (1890),  with  (1900)  7  missionaries,  men  and 
women.     Name  also  written  Fan-cheng. 

FANTI  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  negro 
group  of  African  languages,  and  is  spoken  by 
some  of  the  tribes  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  W. 
Africa,  being  a  dialect  of  the  Ashanti  allied  to  the 
Otshi  dialect.  It  was  reduced  to  writing  by  mis- 
sionaries of  the  WMS,  who  made  use  of  the  Roman 
letters.  The  beginnings  of  a  literature  have 
been  created. 

FARAVOHITRA:  The  favorite  European  quar- 
ter of  Antananarivo,  capital  of  Madagascar.  It 
is  situated  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  rocky 
ridge  on  which  the  city  is  built,  and  was  bare  and 
desolate  in  1868,  when  the  LMS  chose  it  for  a  cen- 
ter of  work.  A  memorial  church  was  erected 
here  in  1870  on  the  spot  where  in  1849  Christians 
were  burned  alive  for  refusing  to  give  up  Christ. 
The  LMS  has  (1902)  connected  with  Faravohitra 
and  in  the  district  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  256 
native  workers,  30  common  schools  and  4,412 
professing  Christians. 

FARIDPUR  (Bengal) :  Chief  town  of  a  district 
of  the  same  name  in  Bengal,  India,  situated  on 
one  of  the  delta  outlets  of  the  Ganges  about  120 
miles  N.  E.  of  Calcutta.  Central  station  of  the 
Faridpur  Mission  (1867),  with  (1900)  5  mission- 
aries, men  and  women,  one  a  physician;  3  native 
workers,  6  schools  and  1  hospital.  Outstation  of 
the  SPG,  with  250  professing  Christians.  Name 
also  written  Fureedpore. 

FARIDPUR  (United  Provinces):  A  village  15 
miles  S.  E.  of  Bareli,  United  Provinces,  India. 
Population  (1891),  6,400,  of  whom  about  3,500 
are  Hindus  and  2,500  Mohammedans.  Circuit  of 
the  ME,  with  20  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
and  306  professing  Christians. 

FARM  AMSTERDAM.     See  Amsterdam  Farm. 

FARRINGIA:  A  settlement  on  the  River  Ponga 
in  French  Guinea.  Station  of  the  Pongas  Mis- 
sion. 

FATE  LANGUAGE.   See  Efatbse  Language. 

FATEHGANJ  WEST:  A  village  in  the  United 
Provinces,  India,  situated  10  miles  N.  W.  of 
Bareli.  Circuit  of  the  ME  North  India  Mis- 
sion, with  27  native  workers,  men  and  women; 


1  preaching  place,  8  day  schools,  and  725  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

FATEHGARH  (Punjab):  A  town  situated 
about  15  miles  N.E.  of  Batala,  Punjab,  India, 
occupied  (1903)  as  an  outstation  of  Batala  by 
the  CEZ. 

FATEHGARH  (United  Provinces):  A  town 
in  the  United  Provinces,  India.  Capital  of  the 
district  of  Farukhabad,  adjoining  the  town  of 
Farukhabad  and  situated  70  miles  S.  of  Bareli. 
It  was  the  scene  of  a  massacre  of  about  200 
Europeans  during  the  mutiny  of  1857.  Pop- 
ulation about  12,000.  Station  of  thePN  (1844), 
with  (1903)  10  missionaries,  men  and  women; 
53  native  workers,  men  and  women;  6  out- 
stations,  5  preaching  places,  16  day  schools,  4 
boarding  schools,  1  theological  training  class, 
1  orphanage,  4  organized  churches  and  about 
400  professing  Christians. 

FATEHPUR:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  70  miles  N.W.  of  Allahabad. 
Population  (1891),  20,000,  of  whom  10,000  are 
Hindus  and  9,000  Mohammedans.  Station  of 
the  PN  (1853),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries, 
men  and  women;  9  native  workers,  men  and 
women;    1  chapel,  2  schools  and  2  outstations. 

FAT-SHAN:  A  manufacturing  town  and  river 
port  on  the  Canton  River,  9  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Canton,  Kwangtung,  China.  A  great  part  of 
the  traffic  on  the  three  rivers  which  unite  to 
form  the  Canton  River  passes  through  this  place, 
and  people  from  all  parts  of  Kwangtung,  Kwangsi 
and  even  Yunnan  are  met  with.  In  former 
years  the  hatred  of  foreigners  was  great,  and 
at  any  time  preaching  was  likely  to  cause  com- 
motion and  trouble.  Population  about  400,000. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  3  missionaries, 
of  whom  2  are  physicians;  7  native  workers, 
6  outstations,  3  preaching  places,  1  day  school, 
1  hospital,  and  115  professing  Christians. 

FAURESMITH:  A  town  in  the  Orange  River 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  65  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Kimberly;  the  Jagersfontein  diamond  fields 
are  near  this  town.  Population  about  2,000. 
Station  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dist Missionary  Society,  with  (1900)  23  native 
workers,  28  outstations,  3  preaching  places,  2 
day  schools,  and  414  professing  Christians. 

FA  YUM:  A  large  town  of  Central  Egypt,  in 
the  oasis  of  that  name.  Population  of  town 
and  oasis,  150,000.  Mission  district  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  America. 

FEN-CHAU-FU:  A  city  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  on  the  plain,  60  miles 
S.  W.  of  Tai-yuen-fu.  Elevation,  3,000  feet. 
Temperate  climate;  lowest  thermometer  50°  F. 
A  population  of  over  a  million  is  reached  here, 
among  whom  are  many  Roman  Catholics  and 
a  few  Mohammedans,  but  the  majority  are 
followers  of  Confucius  and  Buddha. 

Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1887),  which  was 
broken  up  during  the  Boxer  rising  of  1900. 
Reopened  in  1901,  but  the  missionary  has  not 
yet  (1903)  taken  up  permanent  residence  there. 
There  are  (1903)  94  church  members. 

FENG-CHEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  85  miles  S.  W.  of  Kalgan. 
It  is  a  station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  with  his  wife.  It  is  also  a  station 
of  the  CA. 

FENG-HSIANG-FU:     A  town  in  the  western 


231 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Fan-chengr-lmlen 
Fetisbism 


part  of  the  province  of  Shan-si,  China.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1898);  broken  up  bv  the  Boxer 
rising  in  1900.  Now  occupied  (1903)  by  1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  foreign  assistant. 
The  name  is  also  written  Feng-siang. 

FENG-HWA-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Che-kiang,  China,  situated  about  15  miles 
S.  W.  of  Ningpo.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1866), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  a  number  of  pro- 
fessing Christians.  The  work  suffered  consid- 
erable disturbance  during  the  Boxer  rising  of 
1900.     The  name  is  also  written  Feng-hua. 

FENG-HWANG-CHENG:  A  town  in  Man- 
churia, about  100  miles  S.  E.  of  Mukden.  Station 
of  the  Danish  Missionary  Society  (1899),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife,  1 
dispensary,  3  professing  Christians. 

FENG-KANG:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China,  situated  about  25  miles  E.  by 
N.  of  Kan-chau-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1891), 
which  was  broken  up  at  the  time  of  the  Boxer 
rising  in  1900,  and  now  (1903)  is  still  vacant. 
FENG-TSIANG.  See  Feng-hsiang-pu. 
FERGHANA:  A  territory  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
formerly  Khokand,  one  of  the  Khanates  of 
Western  Turkestan.  It  is  enclosed  by  lofty 
mountains,  and  is  for  the  most  part  well  watered 
and  fertile.  The  climate  is  severe  in  winter, 
and  in  the  valleys  is  very  hot  in  summer.  It 
is  noted  for  its  fruits  and  its  silk  manufactures. 
The  population  is  (1897)  1,560,000,  composed 
of  various  tribes  of  Turks  and  Tatars.  It  was 
forced  to  accept  a  Russian  protectorate  in  1868 
and  was  annexed  to  Russia  in  1876.  It  is  one 
of  the  regions  where  no  Protestant  missionary 
enterprise  is  allowed. 

FERNANDO  PO:  An  African  island  lying  in 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  off  the  Kamerun  coast,  form- 
ing with  the  islands  of  Elobey,  Annobon,  Corisco, 
and  other  small  islands,  a  colony  of  Spain.  The 
area  of  all  is  950  square  miles;  population  23,709, 
mainly  Buwi  negroes  (of  ]3antu  race).  The 
island  of  Fernando  Po  is  volcanic.  Fernando 
Po  has  served  at  various  times  as  a  base  of 
operations  for  missionaries  wishing  to  enter 
Africa.  The  Primitive  Methodist  Missionary 
Society  now  has  4  stations  there,  with  about 
280  native  Christians.  The  Spanish  laws  throw 
many  restrictions  about  the  missionary  enter- 
prise. 

FEROZEPORE.  See  Firozpuh. 
FETISHISM:  It  is  common  for  those  who 
have  a  theory  of  evolution  to  support,  extending 
to  religions  as  well  as  to  physical  life,  to  assume 
that  fetishism  is  invariably  the  lowest  step  in 
the  ladder  of  man's  ascent  to  higher  religious 
conceptions;  that,  beginning  with  this  simple 
alphabet,  the  race  has  gradually  advanced 
through  more  and  more  complex  and  elaborate 
systems  toward  Christianity,  which  is  the  goal 
of  the  religions  of  the  world.  It  is  in  one  sense 
flattering  to  the  Christian  faith,  but,  in  another, 
it  is  utterly  subversive  of  some  of  its  most  funda- 
mental doctrines. 

It  were  better  in  approaching  this  subject  to 
leave  theories  aside  for  a  time,  and  to  deal  with 
simple  facts. 

What  is  fetishism  as  it  is  found  still  surviving 
among  savage  tribes  in  our  time?  What  are 
the  objects  of  worship  to  which  we  apply  the 
name  of  Fetish? 

It  would  take  a  volume  to  name  and  describe 


the  Zulu's  superstitions  and  give  account  of  his 
religious  views  and  practises.  His  superstitions 
are  well  nigh  numberless.  If  a  turkey-buzzard 
lights  near  a  kraal,  something  will  happen. 
For  one  of  these  birds  to  be  caught  in  a  snare  is 
a  bad  omen.  The  man  who  kills  one  of  them 
will  die.  If  a  cock  crows  in  the  early  part  of 
the  night,  some  of  the  people  or  cattle  will  be 
sick  or  die.  Feeding  dogs  on  the  beaks  and 
claws  of  birds  will  make  them  fierce  and  swift 
for  the  chase.  To  wear  the  claws  of  birds  or 
beasts  or  small  horns  of  cattle  about  the  neck 
will  make  a  man  courageous  and  give  him 
prowess.  Bits  of  bark,  roots,  or  bones  sus- 
pended from  the  neck  will  protect  a  man  against 
poison,  lightning,  or  the  designs  of  an  enemy. 
In  the  virtues  and  uses  of  charms,  amulets, 
love  potions,  incantations,  the  African  has  great 
faith.  Throughout  Africa  the  curiously  endowed 
objects  known  to  us  as  fetishes  are  found  to  be 
of  great  variety,  embracing  amulets  and  charms 
worn  about  the  neck,  and  consisting  of  tiger's 
teeth,  serpent's  fangs,  stones  washed  into 
unusual  forms,  curious  shells,  bits  of  wood 
carved  in  fantastic  fashion,  etc.  In  Asia  a 
passage  from  the  Veda  incased  in  a  frame  of 
transparent  horn,  or  a  potent  verse  of  the  Koran, 
or  a  line  from  the  Avesta  supposed  to  be  power- 
ful in  driving  away  evil  influences;  in  Africa  a 
stone  or  rock  of  fantastic  shape  at  the  door 
of  a  hut,  or  a  skull  hung  above  its  lintel;  in 
America  a  totem  raised  on  a  scaffold  by  some 
Indian  tribe — all  these  are  virtually  fet- 
ishes, since  they  are  arbitrarily  chosen  objects 
to  which  is  attached  some  supernatural  power. 
As  a  rule  they  are  not  supposed  to  be  divine  in 
or  of  themselves,  but  rather  to  embody  a  divine 
influence  of  a  mysterious  and  somewhat  spiritual 
character. 

The  fundamental  idea  is  that  of  an  indwelling 
power  that  is  concentrated  and  peculiar.  This 
point  may  be  illustrated  by  popular  super- 
stitions which  still  exist  among  civilized  nations. 
The  horseshoe  has  in  itself  no  more  efficacy  tlian 
any  other  mass  of  iron,  but  in  that  particular 
form  it  is  supposed  to  embody  a  lucky  influence. 
Certain  coins  or  rather  sacred  keepsakes,  carried 
in  the  pockets  or  worn  upon  the  person,  are 
sometimes  supposed  to  be  attended  by  myste- 
rious influences.  No  individual  member  of  a 
group  of  thirteen  persons  embodies  any  baneful 
influence,  but  there  are  many  in  civilized 
countries  who  fear  the  vague  fatality  of  that 
total  number  seated  at  a  table.  In  fact  the 
number  of  objects,  incidents,  relationships,  etc., 
etc.,  to  which  is  ascribed  a  sort  of  magic  influ- 
ence, by  the  people  of  all  lands,  is  very  great. 

In  North  China  and  in  various  other  countries 
certain  uncanny  animals,  like  the  weasel,  the 
fox,  or  the  serpent,  are  supposed  to  be  attended 
by  baleful  influence. 

"  Wherever  found,  fetishism  gives  opportunity 
to  the  witch-doctor  or  the  diviner.  This  again 
opens  the  door  to  the  most  terrible  cruelty, 
through  the  "smelling  out,"  and  the  appeal  to 
trial  by  ordeal  inevitably  leading  to  sacrifice  of 
human  life  and  legalized  butcheries,  as  in  Da- 
homey or  other  "ju-ju"  centers  of  West  Africa. 
In  its  mildest  form  the  appeal  to  the  witch- 
doctor may  still  be  seen  among  the  KafRrs 
and  Zulus  in  South  Africa.  If  one  of  the 
family,  as  the  father,  is  taken  sick,  a  deputation 
is  sent  wiLh  a  cow  or  other  present  to  the  inyanga, 
or  medical  priest,  to  inquire  what   is  the  matter 


Fetishism 
Pljl  Islands 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


232 


and  what  is  to  be  done.  The  priest  accepts  the 
present  and  retires  with  the  deputation  to  some 
nook  near  by,  asks  them  to  smite  the  earth  with 
their  rods,  and  so  arouse  the  spirits,  that  he  may 
hear  what  they  have  to  say.  After  a  long  series 
of  these  performances  the  priest  always  comes 
out  with  a  message  from  the  divinities  to  the 
deputation  that  the  sick  man  has  neglected  his 
religious  duties;  that  it  is  a  long  time  since  he 
has  slaughtered  an  animal  in  honor  and  for  the 
benefit  of  his  ancestral  shades;  that  the  best 
cow  must  now  be  offered,  so  the  anger  of  the 
gods  will  be  appeased,  and  the  sick  man  get  well. 
The  messengers  carry  the  word  back,  the  sick 
man  accepts  it,  prayers  are  offered,  sins  are  con- 
fessed, the  best  cow  is  slaughtered,  the  blood  and 
gall  are  sprinkled  upon  persons,  houses,  and 
premises,  the  beef  is  put  away  in  a  hut  by  itself 
for  the  night,  and  in  the  morning  the  people  pro- 
fess to  believe  that  the  divinities  have  been  there, 
have  tasted  the  meat,  and  are  satisfied.  The 
neighbors  gather,  the  beef  is  roasted  and  con- 
sumed, and  the  hope  is  expressed  that  the  sick 
man  may  recover  soon.  If  so,  all  is  well,  and 
the  doctor  is  extolled  for  his  ability  and  skill 
in  finding  out  the  cause  and  cure  of  the  sickness; 
if  not,  the  doctor  is  denounced  as  a  great  humbug; 
he  has  got  their  cow,  but  they  have  got  no  good. 
And  now  they  go  with  another  cow  to  another 
inyanga  and  go  through  the  same  process,  until 
finally  the  man  does  cither  recover  or  die. 

How  have  these  ideas  gained  currency  among 
men?  If  when  found  among  civilized  peoples 
popular  superstitious  notions  are  empirical,  if 
they  are  the  result  of  slow  growth  and  an  imag- 
inary experience,  as  they  certainly  are,  we  may 
assume  that  fetishism  among  savage  tribes  has 
had  a  similar  development.  Men  have  chosen 
their  fetishes  as  they  have  come  to  place  their 
confidence  in  certain  remedies  for  bodily  ail- 
ments. A  certain  medicine  may  have  been 
selected  by  mere  fancy  at  first,  but  if  in  repeated 
instances  good  results  were  supposed  to  follow, 
it.  gained  currency.  And  so  with  the  fetish. 
Indeed,  many  remedies  are  mere  fetishes,  and 
are  given  to  drive  away  diseases  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  caused  by  evil  spirits.  Pharmacy 
and  superstition  go  hand  in  hand  among  savage 
races,  and  are  rarely  separated.  In  both  cases 
there  is  supposed  to  be  a  connection  between 
the  objects  chosen  and  the  mysterious  power  of 
unseen  spirits. 

So  far  from  fetishism  representing  always 
the  first  stage  of  religious  development,  and 
that  only,  it  proceeds  side  by  side  with  higher 
forms  of  religion  and  intermingles  with  them. 
Many  of  its  objects  supposed  to  represent  super- 
natural power  have  sprung  up  long  after  the 
higher  faith  was  entertained. 

Fetishism  abounds  in  China,  India,  Burma, 
and  Ceylon,  in  spite  of  the  teachings  of  Con- 
fucius and  Gautama.  It  has  really  more  prac- 
tical influence  with  the  people  than  all  the  so- 
called  book  religions  of  the  East.  A  distinguished 
civilian  of  Ceylon  has  declared  that  nine-tenths 
of  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  are  really  not 
Buddhists  at  all,  but  are  the  devotees  of  various 
superstitious  fancies.  The  staple  of  the  popular 
religion  is  devil-worship,  or  the  fear  of  evil 
spirits.  And  the  whole  paraphernalia  and 
ritual  by  which  their  evil  influences  are  warded 
off  belong  to  the  category  of  fetishism. 

The  absurd  and  wide-spread  superstition 
known  in  China  as    Fung    Shui  is  practical  fe- 


tishism; it  is  a  supposed  mysterious  and  super- 
natural something,  which  inheres  in  certain 
objects,  resides  in  certain  localities,  or  hovers 
over  the  abodes  of  the  living  or  the  dead.  It  is 
a  system  of  geomancy,  and  is  especially  related 
to  the  graves  of  the  departed. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  South  America  there 
are  7,000,000  of  people  who  still  adhere  more  or 
less  openly  to  the  fetishisms  of  their  forefathers. 

In  almost  all  nations,  that  which  is  unusual — 
a  river  issuing  from  a  cave,  a  tree  growing  in  a 
peculiar  shape,  a  rock  which  the  waters  have 
worn  into  grotesque  forms,  certain  deformities 
of  the  human  body — is  supposed  to  be  attended 
by  weird  and  preternatural  influence.  And  the 
functions  of  witch-doctors,  jugglers,  medicine- 
men, etc.,  are  supposed  to  be  directed  to  the 
proper  management  of  these  occult  forces.  The 
choice  of  lucky  days  or  fortunate  sites  for  build- 
ings is  supposed  to  belong  to  their  province. 
Of  the  same  class  were  the  haruspices  of  the 
Romans,  who  inspected  the  entrails  of  animals 
or  observed  the  flights  of  birds  in  order  to  direct 
aright  the  movements  of  armies  or  plan  success- 
ful expeditions. 

The  theory  of  Comte  that  fetishism  was  the 
awestruck  recognition  of  divine  influence  in  all 
natural  objects  was  incorrect;  else  why  should 
particular  objects  be  chosen,  why  one  stone  or 
tree  or  stream  more  than  another?  That  which 
makes  a  fetish  is  the  differential,  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  other  objects  and  concen- 
trates in  it  the  divine  and  available  power;  this 
constitutes  its  value.  It  has  been  uniformly 
observed  that  one  fetish  differs  from  another  in 
the  degree  of  inherent  efficacy.  It  may  differ 
also  from  another  in  the  different  kind  of  utility 
which  attends  it,  one  accomplishing  one  good 
result,  and  another,  another.  Where  the  system 
becomes  elaborate,  each  desirable  object  of 
attainment  may  have  its  fetish,  by  whose 
potency  it  is  to  be  gained.  One  of  these  preter- 
natural objects  may  avert  a  given  disease, 
another  secure  victory  over  an  enemy,  another 
insure  the  birth  of  a  son. 

A  little  reflection  will  convince  us  that  fetish- 
ism is  one  of  the  most  wide-spread  and  permanent 
of  all  faiths,  and  that  it  coexists  with  every  other. 
If  we  penetrate  the  lower  strata  of  society  we 
shall  find  it  still  existing  in  the  most  civilized 
countries.  Among  the  colored  population  of 
our  Southern  States  it  prevails  to  a  surprising 
extent.  In  spite  of  the  white  man's  influence, 
and  that  of  the  Church  and  school,  the  "hoodoo" 
finds  awe-stricken  thousands  to  tremble  before 
it.  Fetishism  is  mixed  up  with  the  cure  of 
diseases  and  the  selection  of  times  and  seasons 
for  entering  upon  any  particular  enterprise.  It- 
is  at  the  foundation  of  the  success  of  nostrums 
and   quackeries,   and   manifold   expedients  sup- 

Sosed  to  be  induced  by  the  experience  of  others, 
[ankind  everywhere  find  the  forces  of  nature 
at  their  command,  and  the  fact  that  these  are 
little  understood  and  always  more  or  less  involved 
in  mystery,  does  not  prevent  constant  experi- 
ment. In  a  sense  and  in  a  degree  all  are 
yet  children  groping  their  way  amid  occult 
forces,  and  those  who  are  most  enlightened  by 
science  and  most  exalted  in  religious  privilege 
may  well  sympathize  with  benighted  tribes 
who  are  left  to  their  gropings  merely.  Consid- 
ering their  condition,  it  is  not  strange  that  in  the 
silence  of  nature  they  are  startled  by  the  rustling 
leaf   or   by   any   exceptional   phenomenon  that 


S33 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Fetlshlam 
Fiji  Islnndii 


arrests  attention,  and  are  only  too  ready  with 
the  help  of  fancy  to  clothe  it  with  divine  influ- 
ence. It  is  not  strange  that  when  they  hear  the 
voice  of  the  thunder,  or  the  roar  of  the  distant 
waterfall,  or  the  soughing  of  the  waves  in  some 
dark,  mysterious  cave  of  the  rocky  shore,  they 
are  awe-struck.  To  them  there  is  no  true 
enlightenment;  there  is  nothing  articulate  or 
intelligible  in  the  voices  of  nature  which  they 
hear,  and  they  have  learned  no  wisdom.  Having 
no  divine  revelation,  recognizing  no  Father 
above,  and  only  bowed  down  with  vague  and 
mysterious  fear,  they  are  ready  to  accept  any 
resource.  And  when  some  designing  rain- 
doctor  or  juggler,  witnessing  their  bewilderment 
and  affliction,  proffers  his  aid  to  relieve  from 
drought  or  pestdence  or  famine,  they  must  trust 
him;  tho  he  has  failed  a  hundred  times  they 
have  no  option.  The  totem  on  the  scaffold, 
the  amulets  about  their  necks,  are  equally  dumb 
and  have  often  failed;  but  they  have  no  other 
resource.  Generation  after  generation  they 
grope  on  amid  failures;  and  such  is  the  impera- 
tive necessity  that  man  shall  put  his  trust  in 
something  beyond  the  range  of  his  own  powers, 
that,  altho  fetishism  has  for  ages  proved 
barren  as  Sahara,  yet  it  still  exists  and  must 
exist  till  the  knowledge  of  God,  the  Father  of 
all,  and  Jesus  Christ,  the  only  Savior,  shall  be 
made  known.  Fetishism  is  something  too 
serious  to  be  regarded  with  ridicule.  It  is  the 
most  pathetic  illustration  of  human  ignorance 
and  destitution.  To  one  who  knows  that 
man  is  made  in  God's  own  image  and  destined 
to  worship  and  enjoy  Him  forever,  no  spectacle 
can  be  more  melancholy  than  to  see  him  embra- 
cing with  bootless  and  abortive  faith  a  senseless 
amulet,  a  bleached  bone,  or  a  carved  stick.  As 
an  appeal  to  missionary  zeal,  the  fetishism  of 
the  world  is  pathetic  and  eloquent.  It  proclaims 
in  strongest  terms  the  desolation  of  a  soul  that 
was  made  to  be  a  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
but  is  in  fact  worse  than  empty. 

As  to  the  manner  in  which  the  missionary 
should  approach  those  who  are  under  the  thrall 
of  fetishism  we  may  quote  from  the  remarks  of 
Rev.  Dr.  George  Robson,  of  the  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  at  the  Ecumenical  Confer- 
ence of  1900: 

The  more  one  learns  of  these  fetish  rehgions,  the  more 
is  the  conviction  deepened  that  they  are  not  wholly  inven- 
tions of  wickedness.  .  .  .  Behind  all  the  deviltry  and 
cruelty  .  ,  .  and  underneath  customs  and  practises  in 
themselves  utterly  to  be  reprobated,  there  are  to  be  found 
relics  of  truth,  survivals  of  purposes  and  aspirations  that, 
however  misdirected,  were  originally  pure.  To  some,  it 
may  seem  as  if  the  proper  attitude  of  Christianity  (over 
again.st  these  degraded  religions)  is  one  of  simple  antago- 
ni.sm.  .  .  .  But  this  is  not  the  manner  of  Christian 
science.  ...  A  true  apologetic  is  here  necessary  for 
exhibiting  the  glory  of  Christianity  as  the  final  religion  for 
all  mankind;  and  to  accomplish  tliis  in  all  directions  is  the 
function  of  the  missionary  enterprise.  I  venture  to  think 
that  this  department  of  missionary  apologetic  has  been 
comparatively  neglected,  and  that  it  is  most  desirable  that 
it  should  receive  immediate  and  systematic  attention. 
Literature:  Brintcn  (D.  G.).  Religions  of   Primitive  Peo- 

pleSf   New  York,  1897;   Lyall  (A.),  Natural   Religion  in 

18S5,  London,  1891;  Schultze  (F.) ,  Fetishism,  New  York, 

India. 

FEZ :  A  city  in  Morocco,  situated  at  an  altitude 
of  1,300  feet,  36  miles  east  by  north  of  Mequinez. 
It  is  one  of  the  three  residences  of  the  Sultan  and 
is  a  very  holy  city,  founded  in  793.  The  tomb  of 
its  founder  is  a  sanctuary  for  criminals  of  all 
kinds.  It  has  a  fine  mosque.  Station  of  the 
North  Africa  Mission  (1888),  with  (1902)  a  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  3  missionary  women,  1  theo- 
logical training  class  and  a  dispensary.     It  is  also 


a  station  of  the  Gospel  Mission  Union  (1894), 
with  a  missionary  and  his  wife. 

FIANARANTSOA:  The  capital  of  Betsileo, 
Madagascar,  situated  190  miles  S.  of  Antanan- 
arivo. Population  about  10,000.  It  is  the  cen- 
ter of  the  work  of  the  London  Missionary  Society 
in  Betsileo  province  (1863),  with  (1902)  10  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women;  425  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  46  Sunday  schools,  138  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital and  1,450  church  members.  Also  station 
of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society,  to 
which  in  1897  the  LMS  transferred  one  of  the 
three  districts  of  the  town.  It  has  (1902)  7  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women;  30  schools,  1  theo- 
logical training  class,  1  high  school  and  600  com- 
municants. Station  also  of  the  Norwegian  Mis- 
sion. 

FIFE  BAY:  A  settlement  on  the  southern  coast 
of  the  eastern  part  of  British  New  Guinea.  Sta- 
tion of  the  LMS  (1896),  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife  and  16  native  workers. 

FIHAONANA:  A  town  in  Imerina,  Madagas- 
car, situated  about  30  miles  N.  W.  of  Antanan- 
arivo. Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Society, 
transferred  from  the  LMS  in  1897.  It  now  (1902) 
has  one  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  missionary 
woman,  45  native  workers,  20  day  schools,  an 
orphanage  and  450  professing  Christians. 

FIJI  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  islands  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  lying  about  1,000  miles  north  of 
New  Zealand  and  300  miles  distant  from  the 
Samoan  group  on  the  northeast.  In  all  there  are 
more  than  200  islands,  of  which  about  80  are 
inhabited.  Viti  Levu,  area  4,250  square  miles, 
is  the  largest,  and  Vanua  Levu,  area  2,600,  the 
next  in  size.  Suva,  the  capital,  is  on  the  south 
coast  of  Viti  Levu.  Including  Rotuma  Island 
the  total  area  of  the  group  is  about  8,045  square 
miles. 

There  is  very  little  level  country.  The  greater 
part  of  the  islands  consists  of  alternating  hills 
and  valleys,  the  peaks  sometimes  rising  to  the 
height  of  four  or  five  thousand  feet.  The  climate, 
tho  warm  and  somewhat  enervating  to  Euro- 
peans, is  not  unhealthy.  The  supply  of  water 
IS  abundant,  as  there  are  numerous  streams. 
Tropical  vegetation  grows  here  in  great  abun- 
dance and  luxuriance. 

The  aborigines,  or  Fijians  proper,  are  classed 
midway  between  the  Malay  and  the  Papuan,  or 
negro,  type  of  races.  The  name  Fiji  was  formerly 
synonymous  with  every  cruelty  and  abomination 
that  savages  are  capable  of.  Cannibalism  was 
indulged  in,  sick  and  aged  relations  were  killed, 
widows  were  not  allowed  to  survive  the  death  of 
their  husbands,  and  slaves  were  slain  to  accom- 
pany their  dead  masters;  yet  hospitality  and 
politeness  characterized  this  savage  race  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  The  Fiji  savages  believed 
in  a  future  existence,  and  in  two  classes  of  gods — 
one  immortal  (a  large  serpent  was  the  chief 
god  of  this  class),  the  other,  the  spirits  of  heroes 
and  chiefs.  The  priest  spoke  the  will  of  the  gods 
who  were  not  worshiped  through  idols.  The 
women  of  the  upper  class  enjoyed  considerable 
freedom  and  wielded  great  influence. 

There  is  one  prevailing  language,  Melanesian 
in  its  character,  with  several  dialects.  It  has  a 
large  vocabulary,  is  strong  in  its  expression  and 
flexible  in  its  forms. 

Fiji  presents  a  wonderful  illustration  of  the 
power  of  the  Gospel  to  transform  the  lives  of  the 


Fijian  Liangnage 
Finances 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


234 


most  degraded  and  to  turn  an  entire  people  to  the 
worship  and  service  of  the  living  God. 

The  complete  Old  and  New  Testaments  are  in 
circulation  in  the  islands;  day  schools  and  col- 
leges are  maintained,  and  1,000  churches,  with  an 
attendance  of  100,000,  are  changing  the  moral 
and  social  condition  of  the  people. 

In  the  Fiji  Islands  there  are  now  (1901)  2,247 
native  preachers  and  31,422  native  church  mem- 
Ibers,  besides  10,107  candidates  for  membership. 
In  Rotuma,  a  solitary  island  lying  between  Fiji 
and  the  EUice  Islands,  but  politically  connected 
with  Fiji,  there  are  35  native  workers  and  460 
church  members.  These  churches  are  the  fruit  of 
the  labors  of  the  WMS,  but  are  no  longer  con- 
nected with  that  Society,  being  in  ecclesiastical 
relations  with  the  Wesleyan  churches  in  Australia. 
When  first  discovered  Fiji  had  a  population 
estimated  at  200,000,  but  diseases  imported  by 
European  colonists  have  caused  great  mortality. 
In  1901  the  population  numbered  117,870.  Of 
these,  94,397  were  Fijians,  21,026  were  Indians 
and  Polynesians  and  2,447  Europeans.  Of  the 
non-European  population  91,526  habitually 
attend  the  Wesleyan  churches  and  9,338  the 
churches  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Mission. 
Allen  (W.),  Rotuma  (Australasian  Association  for  Advance- 
ment of  Science),  Sydney,  1895;  Williams  (T.),  &  Calvert 
(J.),  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  London,  1858  and  1877; 
Cousins  (G.).  Story  of  the  South  Seas,  London,  1894. 

FIJIAN  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Mela- 
nesian  family  and  is  spoken  by  about  100,000 
people  in  the  Fiji  Islands.  It  has  several  dia- 
lects considerably  varying  from  each  other.  It 
was  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries  of  the 
WMS  and  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 

FILE  HILLS:  A  settlement  in  the  eastern  part 
of  Assiniboia,  Canada,  situated  about  60  miles 
N.  E.  of  Regina.  Station  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada. 

FINANCES  OF  MISSIONS:  This  is  the  applica- 
tion of  modern  and  approved  methods  to  the 
special  and  peculiar  conditions  surrounding  the 
financial  operations  of  Foreign  Missions. 

A  successful  systenl  of  accounting  must  take 
into  consideration  two  facts:  First,  few  mission- 
aries are  selected  with  a  view  to  their  knowledge 
of  finances  and  accounting,  and  few  sent  to  the 
field  have  any  special  adaptation  to  such  work. 
Second,  this  work  must  be  committed  to 
those  who  have  gone  as  missionaries  with  a  far 
different  purpose,  and  who  are  reluctant  to  allow 
anything  to  interfere  with  the  primary  object  of 
their  missionary  life.  It  is  at  once  apparent  that 
a  system  of'  accounting  must  be  sufficiently  sim- 
ple to  be  readily  comprehended  and  so  worked 
out  in  its  details  as  to  minimize  the  time  required 
of  the  mission  treasurer,  both  as  to  work  on  the 
books  and  on  statements  and  correspondence 
necessarily  involved.  Sufficient  analysis  should 
be  provided  in  the  form  of  report  to  enable  the 
home  office  to  work  out  as  far  as  possible  the 
many  items  of  detail  necessary  to  a  full  compre- 
hension of  the  work  from  the  financial  stand- 
point. 

The  missions  organization  in  the  past  (and  to  a 
large  extent  the  method  is  still  in  force)  has  had 
a  treasurer  for  each  mission  and  a  treasurer  for 
each  station,  the  latter  accounting  to  the  former, 
who  in  turn  accounted  to  the  home  treasurer. 
This  has  resulted  in  absorbing  the  time  of  a  large 
number  of  missionaries  with  but  measurably 
satisfactory  results.  Improved  postal  and  bank- 
ing facilities  in  even   the   countries  most  remote 


make  it  possible  to  eliminate  the  station  treas- 
urer, enabling  one  man,  with  a  small  amount  of 
clerical  help,  to  oversee  the  accounting  of  an 
entire  mission  or  of  several  cohtiguous  missions. 
Faithful  and  intelligent  accounting  is  essential  to 
the  proper  adjustment  of  the  entire  fabric  of  mis- 
sion effort  in  its  corelated  departments.  This  can 
be  best  attained  by  sending  to  the  field  trained.ac- 
countants  whose  entire  time  shall  be  given  to  the 
duties  of  mission  treasurer  and  financial  agent. 

Estimates,  Appropriations  and  Grants:  These 
are  the  basis  of  all  disbursements.  The  estimates 
are  prepared  on  the  field  by  the  mission,  and  are 
intended  to  cover  in  detail  the  estimated  expense 
of  the  coming  fiscal  year.  The  estimates  should 
embrace  the  following  items: 

Cost  of  given  work  for  the  current  year. 

Estimated  cost  of  the  same  work  for  the  ensu- 
ing year. 

Amount  needed  for  additional  or  new  work. 

Estimate  of  field  receipts  from  medical  fees, 
tuition,  subscriptions,  press  receipts,  etc. 

The  estimates  should  closely  follow  the  analy- 
sis of  disbursements,  and  may  be  properly  classi- 
fied as  follows : 

Class  I. — Missionaries  on  Field. 
Sub-Class  A. — Salaries. 
B.— Children. 
Class  II. — Missionaries  not  on  Field. 
Sub-Class  A. — Home  Allowance. 
B.— Children. 

C. — Wives  (if  in  United  States). 
D.— Freight. 
E.— Travel. 
Class  III. — New  Missionaries. 

Sub-Class  A.— Outfit. 
B.— Travel. 
C— Freight. 
D. — Salary. 
E. — Personal  Teachei. 
Class  IV. — Evangelistic. 

Sub-Class  A. — Native  Ministers. 
B. — Licentiates. 
C— Bible  Women. 
D. — Other  Helpers. 
E. — Sunday  Schools. 
F. — Itinerating. 
G. — Any  other  Work. 
Class  IV. — Education. 

iSub-Class  A. — Boarding  Schools. 
B. — Day  Schools. 
C. — Colleges. 

D. — Theological  Seminaries. 
E. — Other  Schools  or  Work. 
Class  VI. — Hospitals  and  Dispensaries. 

Sub-Class  A. — Assistants       (Foreign      and 
Native). 
B. — Medicines,  etc. 
C. — Expenses. 
Class  VII. — Property  (in  Use). 

Sub-Class  A. — Rent,    including   Mission- 
aries' Houses, 
B.— Taxes. 
C. — Insurance. 
D. — Repairs. 
E. — Attendants. 
F. — Lights  and  Heating. 
Class  VIII. — Property  (New). 
Sub-Class  A. — Cost  of  Land. 

B. — Cost  of  Building. 

C. — Alterations  and  Additions. 

D. — Title  Expenses. 


To  be  filled 

in 
New  York. 


235 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Fijian    LaiiKuaK« 
Fluancea 


Class  IX. — Mission  and  Station  Expenses. 
Sub-Class  A. — Mission  Meetings. 

B. — Books,  Printing,  etc. 
C.  — Stationery,  Postage,  etc. 
D. — Medical  Allowance. 
E. — Sanitariums. 
F. — Personal  Teachers. 

Class  X. — Mission  Press. 

All  estimates  excepting  those  forClasses  I.,  II., 
and  III.  are  properly  made  in  native  currency, 
and  this  requires  careful  consideration  by  the 
home  office  of  the  probable  course  of  exchange  to 
ascertain  the  equivalent  in  American  currency 
of  the  amount  asked  for  in  the  estimates. 

The  next  step  is  a  calculation  by  the  Finance 
Committee  of  the  probable  amount  of  income 
available  for  the  ensuing  year.  This  can  never 
be  determined  to  a  certainty.  It  depends  upon 
the  degree  of  spiritual  interest  in  the  home 
church  and  the  financial  conditions  prevailing. 
An  average  of  receipts  for  a  decade,  provided  the 
conditions  mentioned  are  favorable,  is  a  safe 
basis  for  estimate.  The  amount  of  probable 
receipts  being  determined,  an  allotment,  based 
on  the  mission  estimates,  can  be  made,  which 
allotment  is  termed  "The  Appropriations"  (or 
Grants)  for  the  ensuing  year.  When  communi- 
cated to  the  missions,  these  are  the  authorization 
for  the  making  of  contracts  and  the  planning  of 
the  work.  They  should  not  be  changed  during 
the  year,  save  as  larger  receipts  than  expected 
warrant  an  increase  where  enlarged  operations 
are  demanded  and  justifiable. 

Disbursements:  The  disbursements  under  appro- 
priations or  grants  call  for  great  care  on  the  part 
of  the  mission  treasurer.  The  accounts  with 
each  station  should  at  the  end  of  each  month 
show  whether  any  class  of  expenditure  has 
exceeded  the  appropriation  or  grant.  Some 
excess  disbursements  must  be  expected  owing  to 
unforeseen  emergencies,  but  these  are  offset  by  a 
rule  requiring  a  reversion  to  the  general  secretary 
of  all  savings.  A  voucher  system  should  be  used 
in  connection  with  all  disbursements.  This  is 
not  only  a  safeguard  to  the  treasurer,  but  facili- 
tates a  satisfactory  audit.  Mission  field  receipts 
cover  receipts  from  all  sources  except  the  home 
treasurer.  They  include  donations  sent  direct 
to  workers  on  the  field,  fees  from  hospital  patients 
and  from  personal  services  rendered  by  the  medi- 
cal missionary,  and  tuition  and  board  in  schools 
and  colleges.  Many  institutions,  owing  to  favor- 
able conditions,  are  self-supporting,  and  unless 
so  reported  could  be  enlarged  to  a  proportion 
unwise  and  unjust  as  related  to  other  depart- 
ments of  the  work.  Disbursements  under  Class 
VIII.  call  for  extreme  care.  The  acquisition  of 
new  property  and  construction  of  new  buildings 
should  be  limited  to  the  real  necessities  of  the 
work  with  a  conservative  outlook  to  future 
development.  The  difficulty  of  securing,  in 
most  cases,  reliable  estimates,  the  fluctuation  in 
the  prices  of  material  and  labor,  make  careful 
supervision  on  the  part  of  the  financial  represent- 
ative most  essential.  Periodical  statements 
of  the  progress  of  building  operations  and  the 
amount  disbursed  should  be  made  to  the  home 
office.  Charges  and  credits  are  largely  multiplied 
because  of  the  removal  of  the  work  from  the  base 
of  supplies.  The  missionary  and  his  family,  in 
rnany  instances,  must  be  clothed,  and,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  fed  from  America  and  Europe; 
schools  and  hospitals   must   be   equipped    with 


modern  appliances  and  the  dispensaries  supplied 
with  large  supplies  of  drugs  and  medicines.  To 
the  original  invoices  must  be  added  the  cost  of 
transportation,  insurance,  commission,  etc. 
Shipments  of  this  character  contain  goods  for 
from  ten  to  fifty  different  missionaries  and  insti- 
tutions, and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the 
field  treasurer  should  accurately  apportion  the 
various  charges  among  those  interested  in  the 
proportion  of  the  cubic  displacement. 

A  banlcing  system  is  the  natural  outgrowth  of 
a  large  and  increasing  foreign  work.  Direct  and 
economical  facilities  for  the  transmission  of  funds 
are  due  the  missionary  and  his  friends.  Certifi- 
cates of  credit  can  be  purchased  from  the  field 
treasurer,  drawn  on  the  home  office  for  payments 
in  Europe  or  America,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
friends  in  America  can  procure  money  orders 
payable  on  the  field.  By  this  method  insurance 
premiums,  payments  for  purchases  and  trans- 
mission of  gifts  can  be  facilitated.  The  method 
is  simple,  but  calls  for  care  and  precision  in 
accounting.  The  factor  of  exchange  enters  into 
all  charges  and  credit,  and  is  frequentlv  a  matter 
of  some  complication  owing  to  the  wide  fluctua- 
tions of  a  depreciated  paper  currency  in  many  of 
the  countries,  and  the  absence  of  banking  facili- 
ties capable  of  furnishing  reliable  rates  at  the 
time  needed.  The  average  rate  at  which  mission 
bills  of  exchange  were  sold  during  the  previous 
month  is  a  fair  basis  for  adjustment  in  the  suc- 
ceeding month.  Loss  in  exchange,  resulting 
from  the  sale  of  bills  of  exchange  for  authorized 
work  under  the  appropriations  or  grants,  is  prop- 
erly chargeable  to  the  home  office  unless  an  item 
has  been  included  in  the  estimates  for  that  pur- 
pose. Under  certain  exceptional  conditions  it 
may  be  desirable  to  make  for  some  missions  all 
appropriations  or  grants  in  gold  In  1902  the 
peso  of  one  of  the  South  American  countries,  which 
had  been  worth  25c.  gold,  fell  to  a  value  of  2^0.  In 
this  case,  unless  special  relief  had  been  ex- 
tended, the  saving  in  exchange  to  the  home 
treasury  would  have  resulted  in  disaster  to  the 
classes  of  work  for  which  appropriations  or  grants 
had  been  made  in  local  currency  The  serious 
consequences  of  a  worthless  or  fluctuating  cur- 
rency have  become  so  apparent  that  many  coun- 
tries are  considering  the  adoption  of  a  currency 
on  the  gold  basis,  and  when  this  becomes  general 
a  serious  embarrassment  in  mission  accounting 
will  be  overcome. 

An  item  of  no  small  importance  is  that  of 
travel.  The  expenditure  varies  with  the  size  of 
the  mission  board  or  society,  the  number  of  mis- 
sionaries employed  and  the  location  of  the  mis- 
sions and  stations.  This  expenditure  should  be 
carefully  safeguarded  in  order  to  avoid  unneces- 
sary cost  whether  from  extravagance  or  inex- 
perience. The  home  office  should  be  a  bureau 
of  information  and  should  require  a  careful 
accounting  in  detail  of  all  expenditures,  for  its 
audit  and  approval. 

Mission  presses,  colleges,  schools,  hospitals  and 
dispensaries  should  be  placed  on  a  business  basis, 
each  l<eeping  a  full  set  of  accounts.  The  annual 
balance  sheet  sent  to  the  home  office  should  show 
clearly  all  items  of  receipts  and  the  sources  from 
which  derived.  The  disbursements  should  be 
classified,  and  separate  schedules  given  covering 
the  amount  put  into  the  plant,  with  a  full  inven- 
tory of  materials  or  stock  on  hand  at  the  close  of 
the  fiscal  year.  These  statements  are  a  safe- 
guard  against    disproportionate   expansion   and 


Finances 
Firoxpnr 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


236 


the     unnecessary     accumulation    of     unsalable 
stock. 

Outfit  and  freight  allowances  are  properly 
limited  to  actual  necessity,  in  each  case  a  maxi- 
mum limit  being  fixed  as  a  precaution.  Outfit 
lists  should  be  carefully  prepared  and  revised 
annually,  and  expenditures  permitted  only  for 
such  items  as  are  recommended  in  the  lists. 
Freight  allowance  is  designated  in  measured  tons, 
and  necessitates  careful  measurement  of  all 
freight  at  the  point  of  shipment,  excess  above  the 
allowance  being  a  personal  charge.  As  prepay- 
ment of  charges  to  destination  is  rarely  possible, 
all  charges  should  follow  the  freight  to  the  field, 
such  amount  as  covers  the  tonnage  allowance 
being  charged  back  to  the  home  office. 

Real  Estate  Property:  The  value  of  property 
held  by  the  leading  boards  or  societies  amounts 
to  many  millions  of  dollars,  and  these  values  are 
constantly  increasing.  The  amounts  needed  for 
the  purchase  of  land,  erection  of  buildings, 
improvements  and  extensions,  are  usually  inclu- 
ded in  the  annual  appropriations  or  grants.  The 
value  or  cost  of  property  should  be  set  up  on  the 
books  of  the  home  office  so  as  to  appear  in  the 
annual  statement  and  balance  sheet  of  the  board 
or  society.  The  showing  of  such  a  large  amount 
of  invested  funds  gives  a  credit  in  business  trans- 
actions appreciated  by  the  bankers  of  the  world 
who  purchase  mission  bills  of  exchange  or  drafts. 
Careful  attention  to  this  matter  naturally  leads 
to  an  intelligent  investigation  of  land  titles. 
The  tenure  of  much  mission  property  is  still 
uncertain  and  insecure.  There  has  been  a  great 
improvement  in  this  regard  during  the  past 
decade,  and  it  is  well  to  take  advantage  of  the 
liberal  tendency  now  shown  by  most  govern- 
ments in  this  particular. 

Re/ports  of  Receipts  and  Expenditures:  The  suc- 
cess and  efficiency  of  a  system  of  accounting 
depends  in  the  last  analysis  on  the  reports  made 
to  the  home  office.  These  should  be  sent  quar- 
terly, and  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year.  The 
value  of  quarterly  reports  lies  in  the  opportunity 
to  correct  errors  and  explain  disputed  or  mis- 
understood items  before  the  preparation  of  the 
annual  report.  These  reports  should  show  the 
following  items: 

1st.     Receipts,  being  debit  items. 
Balance,  Cash  on  hand  first  of  year. 
Balance  Bills  of  Exchange  or  Drafts  on  hand 

first  of  year. 
Bills  of  Exchange  or  Drafts  received  from 

Home  Treasurer. 
Drafts  made  upon  Home  Treasurer. 
Charges  by  Home  Treasurer  (monthly  state- 
ments). 
Certificates  of  Credit  issued. 
Receipts  on  the  field: 
Contributions. 
Rent. 
Interest. 
Sales. 

Medical  Fees. 
Press  Profits. 
School  Receipts. 
2d.     Disbursements,  being  credit  items. 

Disbursements     under     Appropriations     or 

Grants,  by  stations. 
Property  Disbursements. 
Outfits. 
Freight. 

Advances  for  travel. 
Money  Orders  from  Home  Office. 


Credits  from  Home  Office. 

Receipts  on  the  field  used  in  current  work  as 
authorized. 

Balance  of  Cash  on  Hand. 

Balance  Bills  of  Exchange  or  Drafts  on  Hand. 
The  reports  must  be  accompanied  by  schedules 
giving  in  sufficient  detail  the  items  which  in  the 
quarterly  or  annual  reports  are  given  in  totals. 
The  annual  report  in  every  instance  should  bear 
the  certificate  of  the  mission  auditing  commit- 
tee. With  such  reports  in  hand  the  home  office 
can  determine  the  balance  of  appropriations 
unexpended,  the  balance  of  cash  or  negotiable 
bills  in  the  hands  of  the  mission  treasurers,  and 
the  sums  needed  to  complete  fully  the  work  of  the 
year.  They  also  furnish  a  reliable  basis  for  the 
compilation  of  an  intelligent  annual  report  for 
presentation  to  the  home  constituency  of  the 
board  or  society. 

The  annual  report  of  a  mission  board  or  society 
is  incomplete  and  unintelligible  without  the  pres- 
entation of  a  balance  sheet.  This,  if  accom- 
panied by  sufficient  explanatory  schedules,  will 
furnish  a  report  that  will  be  appreciated  by  the 
laymen  of  the  churches  and  will  create  a  degree 
of  confidence  in  the  management  that  is  essential 
to  the  best  success. 

FINNISH  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY  (1859) 
( Name  in  Finnish,  Suomen  Lahetysseura) :  Fin- 
land was  the  last  northern  land  to  become  Chris- 
tianized after  a  crusade  of  King  Eric  the  Holy, 
of  Sweden,  under  the  Upsala  Bishop  Henrik,  in 
1157.  Through  Michael  Agricola,  Paul  Junsten 
and  other  Finnish  clergymen,  the  Lutheran  doc- 
trine was  spread,  and  the  whole  Finnish  people 
became  Lutheran  Protestants  in  the  16th  century, 
but  not  till  two  centuries  had  elapsed  was  there 
any  missionary  interest.  In  1742  a  carpenter 
named  Nyberg  met  with  some  Moravians  at 
Copenhagen,  and  later  went  to  Herrnhut  and 
was  sent  out  under  the  Moravian  Church  to  Sur- 
inam, where  he  died.  During  1820-1830  a  religious 
movement  spread  over  all  Finland,  and  many 
clergymen,  especially  in  Osterbotlen,  wished  to 
follow  the  example  of  the  motherland,  Sweden, 
which  in  1835  founded  its  first  missionary  society. 
The  most  zealous  of  these  was  Jonas  Lagus,  who 
bought  a  house  with  the  intention  of  opening  a 
training  school  for  missionaries,  training  being 
deemed  an  essential  preliminary  to  good  service. 
He  asked  permission  of  the  government  to  found 
a  missionary  society,  but  all  religious  work  not 
ordered  in  the  ecclesiastical  laws  and  manual  was 
suspected  and  his  request  was  refused.  Later 
Lagus  and  other  priests  were  summoned  before 
the  courts  for  placmg  collection  boxes  for  missions 
before  their  doors.  At  this  time  Pastor  Rein- 
quist,  of  Sordavala,  was  also  an  earnest  believer 
in  missions,  and  was  collecting  funds,  which  he 
handed  over  to  the  Swedish  Society.  He  also 
wrote  books  and  pamphlets,  which  had  much  to 
do  in  keeping  alive  the  missionary  interest. 

In  1857  it  was  proposed  by  the  Bishops  of 
Finland  that  a  solemn  feast  should  be  held  in 
commemoration  of  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity 700  years  before.  Emperor  Alexander 
II.  approved,  and  ordered  a  jubilee  on  the  eigh- 
teenth of  June.  All  Finland  was  aroused  and 
some  young  priests  seized  this  propitious  moment 
to  propose  the  formation  of  a  missionary  society. 
A  petition,  signed  by  200  persons  of  ail  classes, 
was  presented  to  the  Imperial  Senate  of  Finland 
in  1858,  and,  after  consultation  with  the  Emperor 
Alexander  II.,   the   Senate    gave    its    approval 


837 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Finances 
Flrozpar 


to  the  plan,  and  prescribed  that  the  16,000  Finnish 
marks  ($3,200)  given  at  the  Jubilee  feast  should 
be  turned  over  to  the  new  society,  and  that  in 
memory  of  this  feast  a  collection  for  foreign 
missions  should  be  taken  on  one  Sunday  in  each 
year.  Directors  were  chosen  in  Helsingfors  for 
the  new  organization,  and  in  memory  of  the  first 
Christian  preacher,  Bishop  Henrik,  January  19, 
1859,  was  chosen  as  the  day  of  the  first  general 
meeting,  and  the  name  "Finnish  Missionary 
Society^'  was  formally  adopted.  During  the  first 
years  of  its  existence  the  Society  worked  through 
the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society,  the  Gossner 
Society,  and  the  Hermannsburg  Society  of  Pastor 
Harms;  and  it  maintained  a  missionary  from 
1861  to  1867  in  connection  with  the  Gossner 
mission  in  Chota  Nagpur,  India. 

In  1860  the  first  Finn  presented  himself  to  be 
trained  for  foreign  work,  and  the  first  two  scholars, 
Jurvelin  and  Malmstrom,  were  sent  to  Hermanns- 
burg. In  1862  a  missionary  training  school  was 
opened  at  Helsingfors,  and  nine  young  men  were 
chosen  for  a  six  years'  course.  The  funds  of  the 
Society  had  reached  the  sum  of  147,000  marks, 
and  missions  under  Finnish  management  were 
seriously  contemplated.  That  year  Dr.  Carl 
Hugo  Hahn,  a  Rhenish  missionary  from  South 
Africa,  gave  an  account  in  Helsingfors  of  a 
journey  he  took  to  the  Ovambo  country  and 
among  the  Hereros  in  what  is  now  German  South- 
west Africa.  The  Finnish  people  became  deeply 
interested,  and  after  he  had  made  a  second 
journey,  in  1863,  sent  1,200  marks  to  Hahn's 
school  for  the  education  of  native  preachers  among 
the  Hereros.  Two  years  later  Hahn  sent  the 
Society  his  journal  account  of  a  tour  to  Ovambo- 
land,  and  with  it  a  strong  appeal  that  they  under- 
take work  in  that  region.  Accordingly  an  extra 
meeting  of  the  members  of  the  Society  was  held, 
and  it  was  decided  that  in  1 868  five  of  the  mission 
scholars  and  three  colonists  should  be  sent  to 
establish  a  mission  in  Ovamboland,  arrangements 
being  made  with  the  Rhenish  Society  to  divide 
the  field.  The  Finnish  missionaries  remained 
for  a  time  in  the  Rhenish  Mission  Institute  in 
Barmen  and  at  their  stations  among  the  Hereros 
that  they  might  become  accustomed  to  the 
climate  and  people,  and  study  the  language  with 
Hahn  in  Otjimbingue. 

Missions:  Ovambo  Mission.  The  Ovambo 
people  inhabit  the  lands  along  the  border  between 
German  Southwest  Africa  and  the  Portuguese 
Colony  of  Angola.  The  southern  tribes  of 
Ovambos  belong  to  the  German  Colony,  while 
the  northern  are  under  Portuguese  jurisdiction. 
The  first  Europeans  to  visit  the  country  were  Mr. 
Galton  from  England  and  Mr.  Andersen  from 
Sweden,  who  traveled  in  this  region  in  1851. 
Several  exploring  tours  were  subsequently  made 
among  the  Ovambos  by  Dr.  Hahn  of  the  Rhenish 
Society, and,  in  1869,thefirst  Finnish  missionaries 
were  sent  out.  At  first  they  remained  in  Herero- 
land  with  Dr.  Hahn,  studying  the  Herero  language, 
which  is  akin  to  the  Ovambo,  and  learning  from 
the  veteran  missionary  the  best  methods  of  work. 
In  1870  they  established  a  station  at  Omondonga, 
receiving  a  cordial  welcome  from  king  and  people. 
Four  of  their  number  remained  here  to  carry  on 
the  work,  while  the  others  pushed  on;  and  by  the 
following  year  five  stations  had  been  established 
among  four  Ovambo  tribes.  In  1872  the  resident 
Portuguese  stirred  up  the  natives  against  the 
missionaries  resident  among  the  northern  tribes, 
and  during  the  succeeding  years  sickness  and 


death  decimated  the  working  force,  so  that  during 
1878-1882  the  Finnish  Mission  consisted  of  but 
three  stations  and  four  missionaries.  The  first 
convert  of  Ovamboland  was  a  young  girl  whom 
one  of  the  missionaries  took  to  Finland,  where  she 
was  baptized  in  1876.  Subsequently  she  returned 
to  her  native  land  and  married  a  native  evangelist. 
In  1880  four  young  men  were  converted  and  went 
to  the  Rhenish  missionaries  in  Hereroland  to  be 
baptized,  so  as  to  escape  the  hostility  of  their 
own  people.  The  first  baptism  in  Ovambo  ter- 
ritory was  in  1883,  when  nine  young  men  were 
received  into  the  Church.  It  was  noticeable  that 
more  converts  were  made  in  times  of  famine  or 
sickness,  when  conjurers  and  sorcerers  failed  to 
provide  remedies.  In  such  times  of  trouble  the 
people  turned  to  the  missionaries. 

After  the  death  of  King  Kambonda,  in  1885, 
there  were  political  disturbances  which  threatened 
to  break  up  the  work.  His  immediate  successor 
was  friendly  to  the  missionaries,  but  unfortu- 
nately he  lived  but  a  short  time,  and  at  his  death 
the  tribes  under  his  jurisdiction  were  divided  into 
two  rival  factions,  which  were  at  war  for  many 
years.  The  king  of  one  of  these  rival  kingdoms, 
in  which  part  of  the  mission  stations  were  located, 
was  friendly  to  the  missionaries,  and  in  1888  the 
missionaries  in  the  other  section  were  compelled 
to  flee,  abandoning  their  stations.  In  1889  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  reopen  one  of 
the  old  stations;  but  sickness  and  death  had  so 
reduced  the  mission  force  that  in  1890  there  were 
but  two  workers  in  the  field. 

From  1890  to  1900  the  tide  turned  in  favor  of 
the  Christians.  More  missionaries  were  sent  out 
to  meet  the  demand  of  the  natives  for  Christian 
teaching.  The  chiefs,  one  by  one,  ceased  their 
opposition;  old  stations  were  reopened  and  new 
ones  established.  The  people  began  to  manifest 
great  confidence  in  the  missionaries.  The  German 
occupation  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Ovambo 
territory  has  greatly  improved  the  political  sit- 
uation among  the  tribes.  In  1903  work  was 
resumed  among  the  Oukuambi  and  Ongandjera 
tribes.  A  printing  press  has  been  established; 
the  New  Testament  and  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment has  been  printed,  as  well  as  other  Christian 
books  and  leaflets. 

There  are  (1903)  5  stations,  15  outstations,  11 
Finnish  missionaries  and  39  native  helpers;  1,235 
baptized  Christians,  of  whom  455  are  communi- 
cants, and  1,100  scholars  in  the  various  educa- 
tional institutions. 

2.  China  (1901):  A  station  was  established  in 
1901  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Province  of  Hu- 
nan, at  the  market  town  Chen-shu,  a  region  pre- 
viously untouched  by  the  missionary.  The  Fin- 
nish missionaries  who  founded  the  station  studied 
the  language  and  peoples  with  the  older  mission- 
aries at  Hankow  and  Changteh.  So  far  the 
Finnish  Mission  in  China  consists  of  this  1  station 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries. 

FIROZABAD :  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  20  miles  E.  of  Agra.  Population 
(1891),  15,300,  of  whom  9,500  are  Hindus  and 
4,500  Mohammedans.  Station  circuit  of  the 
ME,  with  (1902)  8  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  12  Sunday  schools  and  380  professing 
Christians. 

FIROZPUR:  A  city  in  the  Punjab,  India,  situ- 
ated on  the  old  high  bank  of  the  Sutlej  River, 
3J  miles  from  its  present  bed  and  47  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Lahore.     It  is  capital  of  a  populous  district, 


Flske 
ForsytU 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


23S 


in  which  are  hundreds  of  villages.  The  climate 
is  regarded  as  exceptionally  healthful.  The  popu- 
lation is  (1891)  50,400,of  whom  23,000  are  Hindus 
and  22,000  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1882),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  one  of  them  a  physician;  2  dispensaries 
and  2  hospitals. 

FISKE,  Fidelia:  Born  at  Shelburne,  Mass.,  May 
1,1816;  in  1831  was  a  pupil  and  then  teacher  at 
Mt.  Holyoke  Female  Seminary  with  Miss  Mary 
Lyon.  She  embarked  Maich  1,  1843,  for  the 
Nestorian  Mission  of  the  ABCFM  at  Urmia,  Persia, 
in  company  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Perkins  and  Mar 
Yohannan  (returning  to  Persia).  Miss  Fiske's 
work  was  in  the  girls'  school,  and  it  was  upon  this 
school  that  she  left  the  impress  of  her  consecrated 
life.  Not  only  the  pupils  but  the  women  of  the 
neighborhood  learned  to  look  to  the  school  and 
to  Miss  Fiske  for  deep,  spiritual  instruction. 

After  laboring  there  14  years  impaired  health 
compelled  Miss  Fiske  to  return  to  the  United 
States  in  1858. 

She  was  usefully  employed  in  the  United  States, 
giving  addresses  on  missions  and  taking  part  in 
revival  work  at  South  Hadley.  She  died  in 
Shelburne,  Mass.,  July  26,  1864. 

FLETCHERVILLE :  A  town  in  Griqualand 
East,  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa.  Station  of  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1900)  23  native  workers,  9  out- 
stations,  4  preaching  places,  7  day  schools  and 
about  300  professing  Christians. 

FLORIDA  ISLAND.     See   Solomon  Islands. 

FLORIDA  ISLAND  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to 
the  Melanesian  family  and  is  one  of  those  purely 
local  languages  without  affiliation  to  others  which 
seem  to  be  so  numerous  in  the  western  Pacific. 
It  is  used  by  the  people  of  Florida  Island  (see 
Solomon  Is.)  and  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by 
missionaries  of  the  Melanesian  Mission.  Roman 
letters  have  been  used  for  the  purpose. 

FLORIANOPOLIS:  A  town  and  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Santa  Catherina,  Brazil,  South 
America;  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  island 
of  S.  Catherina,  240  miles  N.  E.  of  Porto  Alegre. 
Population  (1890),  15,000,  but  rapidly  increasing 
by  immigration  of  Germans,  Italians  and  Syrians. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1900),  with  (1901)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  3  outstations,  1  Young 
People's  Society  and  35  professing  Christians. 
Formerly  called  Desterro. 

FOOCHOW.     See  Fu-chau-fu  (Fo-kien). 

FOREIGN  CHRISTIAN  MISSIONARY  SOCI- 
ETY (Disciples  of  Christ ;  1875) :  As  early  as  1849 
foreign  mission  work  was  carried  on  by  the 
Disciples  of  Christ,  but  the  missionary  society 
was  not  formally  organized  until  1875.  Accord- 
ing to  the  constitution  the  society  is  composed  of 
life  directors,  life  members,  annual  members,  and 
representatives  of  churches,  Sunday  schools, 
Sunday  school  classes  and  missionary  associa- 
tions. Its  officers  are  a  President,  five  Vice- 
Presidents,  a  Recording  Secretary,  a  Correspond- 
ing Secretary  and  a  Treasurer,  elected  annually. 
These  officers  constitute  an  executive  committee, 
and,  with  the  life  directors,  a  board  of  managers. 
The  missions  of  the  Society  are  as  follows : 
1.  Scandinavia:  The  first  intention  of  the  new 
Society  was  to  work  only  in  distinctively  heathen 
lands,  but  in  1876,  a  young  Dane  who  had  been 
converted  in  this  country  was,  at  his  own  request, 
sent  to  Denmark  as  a  missionary.     As  he  had 


opportunity  he  visited  Norway  and  Sweden. 
From  this  beginning  the  work  has  grown  till  now 
there  are  (1903)  13  stations,  5  ordained  mission- 
aries and  11  churches,  with  659_communicants. 

2.  Turkey:  In  1879  a  young  Armenian  convert 
in  America  was  sent  to  Turkey  at  his  own  request, 
locating  at  Constantinople.  In  1901  there  were 
17  stations  and  outstations,  4  missionaries  and 
23  native  helpers,  18  churches,  with  603  com- 
municants. "These  results  after  twenty-one  years 
of  labor  seemed  to  the  Society  "very  meager  and 
disappointing,  and  believing  that  Turkey  as  a 
foreign  mission  field  is  both  limited  and  preoccu- 
pied," the  executive  committee  recommended 
the  Society  to  withdraw  from  the  field  as  soon  as 
practicable. 

3.  India:  In  1882  work  was  begun  in  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces  of  India  with  a  station  at  Harda. 
In  1885  Bilaspur  was  occupied,  Mungeli  in  1887 
and  Damoh  in  1895. 

Evangelistic  tours  are  made  through  the  out- 
lying districts  and  educational,  industrial  and 
medical  work  is  carried  on.  Much  time  has  been 
devoted  to  famine  relief.  A  boys'  orphanage  has 
been  established  at  Damoh,  where  the  inmates 
are  trained  to  be  self-supporting;  boy  carpenters, 
weavers,  shoe  makers,  farmers,  blacksmiths, 
etc.,  are  doing  much  work  for  the  mission.  A 
leper  asylum  is  carried  on,  the  finances  coming 
from  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the  East. 
There  are  (1901)  4  stations  and  6  outstations, 
22  American  missionaries  and  64  native  workers, 
5  churches,  with  411  communciants,  9  day 
schools,  1  orphanage;  total  under  instruction, 
1,542;  4  hospitals  and  dispensaries ;  native  contri- 
butions, $127.68. 

3.  Japan:  A  mission  in  Japan  was  established 
in  1883.  The  first  station  was  in  the  district  of 
Akita.  The  work  is  chiefly  evangelistic,  tho  a 
beginning  has  been  made  in  educational  work. 

There  are  (1901)  7  stations,  23  outstations,  13 
American  missionaries,  21  native  workers,  13 
churches,  with  832  communicants,  and  2  day 
schools. 

4.  China:  Work  was  begun  in  China  in  1884, 
and  gradually  extended  until  there  are  5  prin- 
cipal stations  where  educational  and  medical 
work  is  carried  on.  Much  evangelistic  work  is 
successfully  done  in  the  outlying  districts.  An 
important  feature  of  the  work  is  the  distribution 
of  Christian  literature. 

There  are  (1901)  5  stations  and  11  outstations, 
28  American  missionaries  and  51  trained  Chris- 
tian native  helpers,  8  churches,  with  576  com- 
municants; 2  boarding  schools,  5  theological 
classes,  7  day  schools,  4  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries. 

5.  Africa:  A  station  has  been  established  at 
Bolengi,  on  the  Congo.  There  are  7  mission- 
aries (two  of  whom  are  physicians),  and  a  very 
promising  beginning  has  been  made  in  medical, 
educational  and  industrial  work,  while  evangelis- 
tic tours  are  made  into  the  surrounding  country. 

6.  Philippine  Islands:  In  1900  work  was  begun 
in  the  Philippines,  special  grants  being  made  for 
this  purpose,  and  a  station  was  established  at 
Manila. 

In  Cuba  a  station  has  been  established  at 
Havana,  where  preaching  services  are  held  in 
English  and  Spanish,  and  Sunday  schools  and 
day  schools  have  been  established. 

7.  Hawaii:  In  the  Hawaiian  Islands  work  has 
been  begun  at  Honolulu,  in  a  district  peopled  by 
Hawaiians,   Portuguese,  Chinese  and  Japanese. 


S39 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Flake 
Forsytb 


The  purpose  is  to  work  through  the  local  church 
rather  than  build  up  a  separate  work.  Two  new 
missions  have  been  begun;  Sunday  schools  and 
day  and  evening  schools  established. 

This  Society  also  conducts  missionary  work  in 
England   and   has   missionaries   in   readiness   to 
press  into  Tibet  when  the  way  shall  be  open. 
Organ  :   Missionary  InteUicencer,  monthly    Cincinnati.  O. 

FORMAN,  Charles  William:  Died  at  Kassauli, 
India,  August  27,  1894.  Dr.  Forman  was  a 
native  of  Kentucky,  a  graduate  of  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
appointment  as  a  missionary  a  member  of  the 
Ebenezer  Presbytery.  He  sailed  for  India, 
August  11,  1847,  as  a  missionary  of  the  Amer- 
ican Presbyterian  Board  (N),  while  its  mission 
work  in  that  vast  empire  was  still  in  its  infancy. 
In  1846,  at  the  close  of  the  first  Sikh  war,  the 
mission  had  crossed  the  Sutlej  and  planted  a 
station  at  Jalandhar,  within  the  Punjab.  Soon 
after  Dr.  Forman's  arrival  in  India,  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  Punjab  by  the  British  Government, 
and  the  favor  of  the  Board  of  Administration, 
which  included  the  two  Lawrences,  Henry  and 
John,  opened  the  way  for  the  occupation  of 
Lahore,  the  capital  of  the  new  province,  and  the 
late  Rev.  John  Newton  and  Mr.  Forman  were 
appointed  to  the  station.  It  was  in  and  from 
this  center  of  influence  that  Dr.  Forman  did  his 
missionary  work.  That  work  was  varied  as 
necessity  or  opportunity  required.  It  consisted 
mainly,  perhaps,  in  the  organizing  and  super- 
intending of  a  system  of  schools  under  mission 
control  where  the  Word  of  God  was  habitually 
taught  and  from  which  thousands  of  young  men 
have  gone  forth  with  at  least  an  intellectual  con- 
viction as  to  the  truth  of  Christianity,  while  it  is 
believed  that  not  a  few  have  felt  its  regenerating 
power. 

Dr.  Forman  was  universally  beloved.  The 
devoutness  of  his  spirit,  the  simplicity  of  his 
life,  the  strength  of  his  character,  the  broadness 
of  his  views  and  sympathies,  his  indefatigable 
zeal,  his  grasp  of  the  situation  in  India,  and, 
above  all,  his  interest  in  and  affection  for  the 
native  population  of  all  classes  won  for  him  uni- 
versal esteem.  During  the  early  part  of  his  illness, 
when  a  rumor  of  his  death  was  circulated,  a 
notoriously  antichristian  newspaper  published 
in  Lahore  devoted  an  editorial  to  the  commenda- 
tion of  his  life  and  work,  stating  that  no  foreigner 
had  ever  entered  the  Punjab  who  had  done  so 
much  for  the  Punjab  as  "Padri  Forman  Sahib." 

FORMOSA:  An  island  lying  between  latitude 
21°  53'  30"  north  and  latitude  25'  33"  north, 
about  90  miles  from  the  mainland  of  China,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Straits  of  Formosa. 
Its  total  length  from  north  to  south  is  235  miles, 
and  its  greatest  width  is  about  80  miles.  Through 
the  island  from  N.  to  S.,  but  nearer  the  eastern 
than  the  western  coast,  runs  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains. The  coasts  are  rocky  and  uninviting, 
with  few  good  harbors.  The  climate  is  in 
general  more  salubrious  than  that  of  the  oppo- 
site mainland. 

The  inhabitants  are  of  three  classes — the 
Japanese  and  the  Chinese  immigrants,  the 
civilized  aborigines,  and  the  uncivilized  ones. 
Some  of  the  Chinese  are  from  the  Amoy  district 
and  some  are  Hakkas  from  Swatow.  Those  of 
the  aborigines  who  have  adopted  in  part  the 
customs  of  the  Chinese  are  called  Pe-pa-hwan, 
while  the  untamed  savages  are  called  Che-hwan. 


These  aborigines  are  partly  of  the  Malay  stock, 
and  are  broken  up  into  many  tribes  and  clans. 
Physically  they  are  of  middle  height,  muscular 
and  broad-chested,  large  eyes,  round  forehead, 
broad  nose,  and  large  mouth.  Their  language 
possesses  no  written  characters,  and  there  are 
many  dialects.  In  the  district  of  Posia  alone, 
eight  entirely  different  dialects  have  been  recog- 
nized. The  social  condition  of  the  natives  is 
very  low.  The  entire  population  of  the  island, 
according  to  the  census  of  1898,  is  2,705,905. 

The  island  of  Formosa  was  known  to  the 
Chinese  at  an  early  date.  In  1480  emigration 
to  it  was  recorded.  In  1624  the  Dutch  built  a 
fort,  Zealandia,  at  the  place  where  now  stands 
Taiwan,  and  their  power  was  maintained  for 
thirty-seven  years.  In  1682  the  power  of  the 
Emperor  Kang  Hi  was  recognized,  and  Formosa 
formed  a  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  tho  outbreaks 
on  the  part  of  the  aborigines  were  common  until 
1895,  when  it  was  ceded  to  Japan.  The  treaty 
of  Tientsin,  1860,  opened  the  island  to  European 
commerce,  and  Formosa  tea  is  now  found  the 
world  over. 

With  the  cession  of  Formosa  to  Japan,  the 
Japanese  came  to  the  island  in  large  numbers. 
The  officials  show  a  sincere  desire  to  maintain 
a  righteous  administration,  and  missionaries 
are  now  subject  to  the  Japanese  regulations. 

The  Presbyterians  of  Canada,  under  the 
consecrated  labors  of  Mackay,  accomplished 
much  for  the  northern  third  of  the  island,  and 
the  Presbyterians  of  England  have  brought 
great  bles.^ings  to  the  southwestern  and  central 
sections.  Mr.  Mackay,  aided  by  a  single  foreign 
colleague  and  about  80  native  assistants,  gath- 
ered in  his  churches  nearly  2,000  communicants, 
while  his  schools  had  in  training  1,314  pupils, 
and  Oxford  College  43  students.  An  interesting 
feature  of  the  situation  is  the  presence  of  a 
number  of  evangelists  sent  by  the  Christian 
churches  in  Japan,  and  supported  by  them,  to 
labor  among  Japanese  in  Formosa. 

No  missionary  work  has  as  yet  been  attempted 
among  the  wild  savages  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  island. 

FORMOSAN  LANGUAGE:  The  language  of  the 
aborigines  of  Formosa.  It  belongs  to  the 
Malayan  family  of  languages.  It  was  reduced 
to  writing  by  a  Dutch  missionarj'  in  1655,  and 
has  been  written  in  Roman  letters  by  English 
Presbyterian  Missionaries. 

FORSYTH,  Nathaniel:  The  first  missionary 
of  the  LMS  to  India.  Of  very  few  missionaries 
is  so  little  known.  In  tho  last  decade  of  the 
17th  century  a  certain  landowner  in  Scotland 
named  Holdane  became  fired  with  missionary 
zeal  for  the  conversion  of  India,  sold  his  mag- 
nificent estate,  and  proposed  to  devote  his 
substance  to  this  object,  going  himself  and 
taking  other  workers  with  him.  The  British 
Government,  however,  could  not  tolerate  any 
such  schemes,  and  forbade  the  enterprise  so 
persistently  that  the  mission  was  abandoned. 
One  of  the  party,  Mr.  Forsyth,  then  offered 
himself  to  the  LMS,  was  accepted,  and  went 
out  to  India  as  a  missionary  but  without  salary, 
supporting  himself  from  his  own  property.  He 
landed  at  Calcutta  in  the  latter  part  of  1798, 
while  Carey  was  still  in  the  despairs  of  his  fruit- 
less Indigo  culture.  He  promptly  learned  that 
he  would  be  expelled  from  India  if  he  stayed  in 


Fort  Aijal 
Free    Metliodliit 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


240 


Calcutta.  So  he  quietly  went  26  miles  up  the 
river  to  the  Dutch  settlement  of  Chinsurah. 
Quietly,  perscveringly,  conscientiously,  he  did 
his  work,  attracting  no  attention  from  the 
world,  and  even  left  for  14  years  by  his  society 
absolutely  unsupported.  He  was  indefatij^able  in 
his  efforts  to  do  good,  and  he  supported  himself. 
So  he  was  not  heeded  until  he  died,  when  in 
1813  another  missionary  was  sent  to  take  up 
his  work.  Chinsurah,  with  Hugli,  now  is  a 
flourishing  mission  center  of  the  tlFS,  and  the 
name  of  the  pioneer  evangelist  of  that  field 
should  not  be  forgotten. 

FORT  AIJAL:  A  military  post  among  the 
Lushai  Hills  in  Southern  Assam,  British  India. 
Station  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist 
Missionary  Society,  with  (1900)  2  missionaries. 

FORT  ALEXANDER:  A  settlement  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Manitoba,  Canada;  situated  at 
the  entrace  of  Winnipeg  River  into  the  lake  of 
the  same  name,  and  65  miles  N.  E.  of  Winnipeg. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1864). 

FORTALEZA:  A  .seaport  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  Brazil,  situated  on  a  cliiT  overlooking 
the  small  bay  which  serves  as  its  harbor.  It  is 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Ceara.  Popula- 
tion (1890),  41,000.  Station  of  the  PS  (1882), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  1  preaching  place,  1 
day  school,  1  organized  self-supporting  church 
with  156  members.     Also  called  Ceara. 

FORT  CHIPPEWYAN:  A  military  post  and 
settlement  on  the  N.  side  of  Athabasca  Lake, 
Athabasca,  Canada.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1867), 
with  (1902"!  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  and  1 
native  woman  worl-cer. 

FORT  CHURCHILL:  A  station  of  the  Hud- 
•son  Bay  Company,  situated  in  the  territory  of 
Kewatin,  Canada,  at  the  mouth  of  Churchill 
River,  in  a  region  vihose  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture is  14.2°.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1886),  with 
(1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native 
worker,  1  day  school,  and  798  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

FORT  DAUPHIN:  A  town  on  the  S.  E.  coast 
of  Madagascar,  which  has  a  .somewhat  impor- 
tant trade  in  india  rubber.  Station  of  the 
United  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  of  Amer- 
ica, with  (1900)  14  missionaries,  men  and  women  ; 
31  native  worlcers,  men  and  women;  16  out- 
stations, 10  day  schools,  3  high  schools,  and  100 
professing  Chi-istians. 

FORT  GEORGE:  Station  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  on  the  east  side  of  James  Bay,  in 
the  W.  part  of  the  Ung.ava  peninsula,  Labrador. 
Station  of  the  CMS,  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  3  native  workers,  and  2  day  schools. 

FORT  HAKA:  A  Government  port  among 
the  Chin  Hills  in  W.  Burma,  situated  about  130 
miles  N.  W.  of  Pakokku.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1899),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  1  a  physician; 
2  wives  of  missionaries,  4  native  workers,  and 
2  schools. 

FORT  McLEOD:  A  town  in  Alberta,  Canada, 
situated  92  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Calgarv,  at  an 
altitude  of  2,400  feet.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1880),  with  (1902)  1  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  2  schools  and  80  professing  Christians. 

FORT  MACPHERSON:  A  settlement  in  the 
northwest  territory  of  Canada,  situated  on  Peel 
River  about  125  miles  from  its  mouth  in  Mac- 


kenzie Bay.  Station  of  the  CMS,  with  (1902) 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  6  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  1  day  school,  and  505  bap- 
tized Christians. 

FORT  NORMAN:  A  settlement  in  the  north- 
west territory  of  Canada,  situated  on  the  Mac- 
kenzie River,  at  the  junction  of  the  Great  Bear 
River  and  about  60  miles  W.  of  Great  Rear 
Lake.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1871),  with  (1902) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  1 
school  and  200  professing  Christians;  all  the 
people  having  abandoned  heathenism. 

FORT  PEDDIE.     See  Pkddie. 

FORT  PITT:  A  settlement  in  the  province  of 
Saskatchewan,  Canada,  situated  on  the  Sas- 
katchewan River,  about  90  miles  N.  W.  of 
Battleford.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1888),  with 
(1902)  1  mis.sionary  and  his  wife  (who  is  a 
physician),  1  school,  a  dispensary,  and  253 
professing  Christians. 

FORT  SIMPSON  (Canada):  A  settlement  in 
the  territory  of  Mackenzie,  Canada,  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Liard  and  Mackenzie 
Rivers.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1858),  with  (1902) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

FORT  SIMPSON  (British  Columbia) :  A  town 
at  the  N.  end  of  the  Tsimsian  Peninsula,  British 
Columbia,  with  a  fine  harbor.  Station  of  the 
SPO,  with  1  missionary. 

FORT  SMITH.     See  Kehuruko. 

FORT  VERMILLION:  A  trading  post  in  the 
territory  of  .\thabasca,  Canada,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  Peace  River.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1876),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  142 
professing  Christians. 

FORT  YUKON:  A  military  station  in  Alaska, 
situated  on  the  Arctic  Circle,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Porcupine,  on  the  Yukon  River.  Station 
of  the  P.  E.,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
500  baptized  Christians  (Indians  and  Eskimos). 

FOTUNA.     See  New  Hebrides. 

FRANCKE,  Aug.  Herm. :  The  missionary  move- 
ment of  Pietism,  which  arose  in  Germany  during 
the  18th  century,  produced  remarkable  results. 
Baron  von  Leibnitz,  a  philosopher  of  world-wide 
fame,  came  forward  at  this  time  as  a  vigorous 
advocate  of  missions;  and  in  his  work  entitled 
Novissima  Sinica  and  in  the  charter  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences,  he 
embodied  his  views  of  the  subject.  The  book  of 
Leibnitz  came  into  the  hands  of  Francke,  who 
addressed  the  author  a  letter  in  reference  to  it. 
That  letter  is  not  extant;  but  we  have  the  inter- 
esting answer  which  Leibnitz  wrote,  which  shows 
his  genuine  interest  in  the  cause  of  missions. 
The  missionary  ideas  of  Leibnitz  bore  fruit  in 
Francke  and  helped  toward  the  first  missionary 
activity  of  Protestant  Germany.  "Pietism 
united  itself  with  missions,  and  this  union  alone 
enabled  missions  to  live."  Indeed,  Lutheran 
Pietism  was  the  spring  and  support  of  missions; 
and  Francke  was  the  real  leader  in  the  matter. 
Tho  a  pious  layman,  Baron  von  Weltz,  in  the 
17th  century  tried  to  convince  his  fellow-Chris- 
tians of  their  duty  to  send  the  Gospel  to  the 
heathen,  it  was  not  until  the  beginnmg  of  the 
19th  century,  under  the  leadership  of  Zinzendorf, 
Francke  and  Spener,  that  a  real  impulse  was  given 
to  this  great  cause ;  but  within  the  space  of  thirty 
years,  despite  many  difficulties,  seven  lar^e  mis- 
sionary  societies   were   founded.     The   pioneers 


Si41 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Fort  Aljal 
Free  Metbodint 


of  evangelical  missions  in  India  were  sent  out  by 
Fredericlc  IV.  of  Denmark.    These  were  the  pupils 
of  Francke    at  Halle;  and  several  of   their  suc- 
cessors were  also  Germans  and  Pietists. 
Kramer  (A.),  August  Hermann,  Francke,  2  vols.,  Halle,  1882. 

FRANZFONTEIN:  A  settlement  in  German 
Southwest  Africa,  about  200  miles  N.  by  W. 
from  Walfish  Bay.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mis- 
sionary Society  among  the  Herero-speaking 
tribes,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  9 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  day  schools, 
and  400  professing  Christians. 

FRAUENVEREIN  fur  Christliche  Bildung  des 
weiblichen  Geschlechts  im  Morgenlande.  See 
Germany;  Missionary  Societies  in. 

FRAZER,  Edward:  A  negro  slave  born  in 
Barbados,  W.  I.,  1798.  He  was  taught  to  read 
and  write  by  his  mistress,  joined  a  Methodist 
Church  in  1819  and  was  appointed  missionary  of 
the  WMS  to  Dominica  in  1828,  his  master  giving 
him  manumission  that  he  might  accept  the  ap- 
pointment. 

FREE    BAPTISTS;     General    Conference     of 

(1833):  The  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the 
Freewill  Baptists  owed  its  organization  to  a  cor- 
respondence between  Elder  John  Russel,  leader 
of  the  Freewill  Baptists,  and  Revs.  James  Pegg 
and  Amos  Sutton,  two  of  the  earliest  missionaries 
sent  to  India  by  the  General  Baptists  of  England. 
Their  letters  were  published  in  the  Morning  Star, 
and  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Society  in 
"the  old  meeting  house"  at  North  Parsonsfield, 
Maine,  in  1832,  and  in  January  the  new  organi- 
zation was  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the 
State.  In  1835,  after  three  years,  the  income  of 
the  Society  amounted  to  $2,660;  with  this  sum 
they  sent  their  first  four  missionaries  to  India, 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Noyes  and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Phillips 
sailing  from  Boston  in  September  of  that  year, 
arriving  in  Calcutta  after  a  voyage  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty-six  days.  They  at  once  proceeded  to 
Cuttack,  a  station  of  the  General  Baptist  Society 
of  England,  where  they  remained  while  acquiring 
the  language.  In  January,  1837,  they  estab- 
lished a  station  at  Sambalpur,  in  the  hill  district 
of  Orissa,  but  the  location  proving  unhealthful,  it 
was  abandoned  the  following  year,  and  early  in 
1838  the  General  Baptists  surrendered  to  them 
their  work  at  Balasore,  the  northern  district  of 
Orissa.  A  station  was  established  and  the  foun- 
dations of  permanent  missionary  work  were  laid. 
From  this  beginning  there  has  been  steady  growth. 
Much  work  is  done  among  the  Santals,  and  schools 
for  them  have  been  established  throughout  the 
jungles,  taught  by  natives  who  have  been  trained 
m  the  mission  schools.  From  1848  to  1860  a 
school  was  sustained  at  Balasore  for  victims  des- 
tined for  human  sacrifice  who  had  been  rescued 
by  the  British  Government.  In  1840  medical 
work  was  begun  by  Dr.  Bachelor,  who  established 
a  dispensary  at  Balasore.  In  1862  this  was 
transferred  to  Midnapur.  That  year  a  printing 
press  was  established,  which  has  not  only  been 
self-supporting  but  of  late  years  has  contributed 
to  other  branches  of  the  work.  In  1865  Zenana 
work  was  begun.  Schools  have  been  established, 
orphanages  opened,  and  Sunday  schools  and 
Christian  Endeavor  Societies  organized.  Book 
rooms  are  maintained,  and  special  attention  is 
paid  to  the  circulation  of  Christian  literature. 
From  1833  to  1892  the  name  Free  Baptist  For- 
eign Missionary  Society  was  retained,   but  the 


latter  year  the  title  was  changed  to  the  General 
Conference  of  Free  Baptists. 

There  are  (1902)  14  principal  stations  and  31 
missionaries,  12  churches  with  861  communicants, 
76  Sunday  schools,  with  3,463  scholars,  32  schools 
through  all  grades,  with  a  grand  total  of  3,555 
under  instruction;  total  contributions  1,405  Rs. 

The  Free  Baptist  Woman's  Missionary 
Society,  organized  in  1873,  cooperates  with  the 
General  Conference  of  Free  Baptists.  It  has  a 
separate  organization,  sends  out  and  supports 
missionaries  and  teachers,  especially  for  women 
and  children,  and  establishes  schools.  The  United 
Society  of  Free  Baptist  Young  People,  estab- 
lished in  1888,  is  auxiliary  to  the  General  Con- 
ference of  Free  Baptists. 

Headquarters:  Auburn,  R.I. 

FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND  MISSIONS. 

See  Scotland;  United  Free  Church  op. 

FREEMAN,  John  Edgar:  Born  in  the  City  of 
New  York,  December  27,  1809;  was  appren- 
ticed at  the  age  of  fifteen  to  a  trade;  in  1829  pub- 
licly professed  his  faith  in  Christ,  and  in  the  same 
year  decided  to  study  for  the  ministry;  purchased 
the  last  year  of  his  time  for  $80;  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  1835,  at  Theological  Seminary 
1838;  was  ordained  July  12,  1838,  by  Presbytery 
of  Elizabethtown;  sailed  for  India  October  12 
same  year,  as  a  missionary  of  Presbyterian  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions;  was  stationed  at  Allahabad, 
having  charge  of  orphan  boys  and  girls  until  the 
death  of  Mrs.  Freeman  in  1849.  In  impaired 
health,  he  visited  the  United  States  April  28, 
1850,  with  his  two  children.  In  1851  he  returned, 
with  his  second  wife,  and  was  stationed  most  of 
the  time  at  Mainpuri  for  six  years.  In  1856  he 
removed  to  Fatehgarh.  At  the  breaking  out  of 
the  mutiny  he  attempted  with  others  to  reach 
Allahabad  for  safety,  but  was  made  a  prisoner 
by  the  Sepoys  and  put  to  death  at  Cawnpur  by 
order  of  the  rebel  chief.  Nana  Sahib,  June  13, 
1857. 

FREE  METHODIST  CHURCH.  General  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1885) :  In  the  latter  part  of  1880 
the  Rev.  E.  F.  Ward  and  his  wife  went  out  as 
foreign  missionaries,  partly  at  their  own  expense 
and  in  part  supported  by  the  Free  Methodist 
Church,  and  were  recognized  as  its  missionaries. 
Their  going  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  form- 
ation of  the  General  Missionary  Society,  which 
was  incorporated  in  June,  1885.  The  organiza- 
tion consists  of  a  president,  secretary  and  treas- 
urer; a  board  of  five  directors,  meeting  each 
month  for  the  transaction  of  business;  a  general 
board  of  sixteen  members,  advisory  to  the  board 
of  directors,  composed  of  the  four  general  super- 
intendents, who  are  ex  officio  members;  the  gen- 
eral secretary  and  treasurer;  seven  members, 
representing  the  missionary  districts  of  the 
church,  elected  by  the  General  Conference,  and 
three  women,  representing  the  Woman's  General 
Foreign  Missionary  Society,  and  nominated  by  it, 
though  elected  by  the  General  Conference. 
The  missions  of  the  Society  are  as  follows: 
1.  Africa  (1885):  The  first  missionaries  of  the 
Society  sent  to  Africa,  Mr.and  Mrs.  R.  R.Shemeld, 
arrived  at  Durban  in  June,  1805,  and  went  inland 
to  Estcourt,  where  they  opened  a  mission  which 
was  continued  for  some  years  and  then  aban- 
doned. The  same  year  Messrs.  Agnew  and 
Kelley  with  their  wives  began  a  mission  at  Inham- 
bane,  on  the  southeast  coast.  The  location  is 
unhealthful  and  the  mission  has  suffered  from  sick- 


KreetoTvn 
Friends'  Foreign 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


248 


ness  and  death.     In  1890  the  work  was  extended 
to  Natal  and  in  1897  to  Johannesburg. 

There  are  (1903)  6  stations  and  5  outstations, 
15  American  missionaries  and  30  native  helpers, 
4  churches  with  235  communicants,  and  4  day 
schools. 

2.  India  (1885):  The  first  workers  to  be  sent  to 
India  were  Misses  M.  L.  Rauf  and  Julia  Zimmer- 
man; other  missionaries  have  been  sent  out  from 
time  to  time.  Schools  and  orphanages  have  been 
established,  and  churches  and  Sunday  schools 
organized. 

There  are  (1903)  2  stations  and  1  outstation, 
9  American  missionaries  and  13  native  workers, 

1  church  with  80  communicants,  2  schools  and 

2  orphanages. 

3.  Japan  (1895):  Work  was  commenced  by  a 
Young  Japanese  who  had  been  educated  in 
America.  The  special  field  has  been  the  island 
of  Awaji,  tho  some  work  has  been  done  in 
Osaka,  with  the  expectation  of  making  it  the 
headquarters  of  the  mission. 

There  are  (1903)  3  stations,  4  American  mis- 
sionaries and  6  native  workers,  and  2  churches 
with  51  communicants. 

4.  Norway  (1892):  Work  was  begun  by  three 
missionaries,  but  after  a  few  years  the  mission 
was  discontinued. 

5.  San  Domingo:  Work  was  begun  here  in  1893 
and  continued  till  1899,  when  the  field  was  aban- 
doned. 

Headquarters:  14-16  No.  MaySt.,  Chicago,  111. 

FREETOWN:  Capital  of  the  British  Colony  of 
Sierra  Leone,  W.  Africa.  It  is  situated  on  the 
south  side  of  the  estuary  of  the  Sierra  Leone 
River.  It  is  enclosed  landward  by  encircling 
mountains.  It  has  pure  water  and  the  climate 
is  equable,  but  the  town  partly  overlooks  the 
marshes  of  Kroo  Bay.  It  has  a  good  harbor  and 
is  the  greatest  seaport  in  West  Africa.  The  pop- 
ulation is  34,500.  The  Europeans,  half-castes, 
and  immigrants  occupy  distinctive  quarters  of 
the  town.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  com- 
menced its  work  in  1816,  which  is  now  conducted 
mainly  in  educational  institutions,  as  a  Sierra 
Leone  native  church  has  been  organized.  A 
college  at  Fourah  Bay,  two  miles  above  Freetown, 
was  built  in  1840,  and  is  the  principal  college  in 
connection  with  the  West  African  Mission.  In 
1876  it  was  reorganized  and  affiliated  with  Dur- 
ham University.  The  native  church  withdrew 
finally  from  the  CMS  in  1889  so  far  as  receiving 
aid  from  the  parent  society  is  concerned.  It 
numbers  (1902)  3,920  professing  Christians.  The 
CMS  now'(1902)  has  at  Freetown  5  missionaries, 
men  and  women;  18  native  workers,  men  and 
women  (besides  16  in  the  native  church);  752 
professing  Christians,  and  4  schools.  Freetown 
IS  also  a  station  of  the  CA  and  the  African  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  of  the  US,  of  which  no 
statistics  are  issued.  Station  also  of  the  WMS, 
with  9  missionaries  and  66  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  also  of  the  United  Brethren  (1854) 
with  7  missionaries,  men  and  women,  and  12 
native  workers;  also  of  the  United  Methodist 
Free  Church  (1859),  with  5  missionaries,  men  and 
women.  These  six  societies  maintain,  besides 
the  CMS  College  above  named,  16  schools  and 
(including  the  number  given  above)  have  con- 
nected with  them  about  11,000  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

FRENCH  CONGO:  A  colonial  possession  of 
France  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  bounded  on 


the  north  by  the  Kamerun  and  the  Spanish 
colony  of  Cape  San  Juan,  and  on  the  east  and 
south  by  the  Congo  River  and  the  Congo  Free 
State.  The  regions  of  Upper  Ubangui,  Bagirmi 
and  Wadai,  forming  the  northern  section  and 
reaching  to  Lake  Chad  and  the  Sudan,  are  recog- 
nized as  a  sphere  of  French  influence.  This 
recognition  was  published  as  a  result  of  the  fail- 
ure of  Marchand  and  the  Fashoda  expedition  of 
1898  to  extend  the  French  domination  eastward 
to  the  Nile.  An  agreement  was  made  by  which 
the  line  between  the  French  and  English  spheres 
of  influence  follows  an  irregular  and  unsurveyed 
boundary  between  the  above-named  districts 
and  Darfur.  The  whole  area  is  about  450,000 
square  miles,  with  a  population  estimated  by  the 
Statesman's  Year  Book  at  8,000,000  to  15,000,000. 
The  region,  between  the  ocean  and  the  Congo, 
and  extending  from  5°  south  latitude  to  3°  north, 
latitude,  consists  of  a  series  of  terraces  rising 
from  the  coast  and  skirted  by  chains  of  hills 
which  vary  from  1,000  to  nearly  5,000  feet  in 
height.  It  is  well  watered.  The  Kwilu  has  a 
total  course  of  360  miles,  the  Ogow6  720,  and  the 
Gabun  is  an  estuary  40  miles  long  and  7  broad. 
There  are  two  rainy  seasons,  September  to 
December,  and  then,  after  an  interval  of  fine 
weather,  the  rain  sets  in  until  May.  During  the 
hottest  days  in  March  and  April  the  thermometer 
varies  from  78°  to  93°  Fahr.,  and  in  the  cool 
months  of  July  and  August  73°  to  86°  Fahr. 
The  climate  is  insalubrious,  both  on  account  of 
its  humidity  and  the  poisonous  exhalations  from 
the  morasses.  The  soil  is  sandy,  and  vegetation 
consequently  not  as  rich  as  the  abundance  of 
moisture  would  lead  one  to  expect. 

The  original  inhabitants  have  been  largely  dis- 
placed by  immigrants  from  the  interior.  The 
Mpongwe,  of  the  Gabun,  the  remnant  of  a  once 
powerful  nation,  are  intelligent  but  frivolous. 
The  Benga  or  Corisco  are  related  to  the  Bakale,. 
south  of  the  Ogow^.  These  are  now  traders, 
packmen,  etc.  The  Bangwe  dwell  between  the 
upper  and  lower  course  of  the  Ogow^.  The 
Fangs,  who  occupy  most  of  the  region  east  of  the 
Gabun  and  north  of  the  Ogowe,  form  two  groups 
constantly  at  war  with  each  other.  They  are 
light-complexioned,  muscular  and  vigorous,  the 
most  energetic  and  industrious  of  all  tribes  of  the 
region.  They  practise  cannibalism  in  the  inland 
districts.  Among  the  Ashango  forests  and 
toward  the  Congo,  the  Abongo  are  shy  and  timid, 
of  small  stature, and  dwell  remote  from  the  beaten 
tracks.  The  Balumbo,  or  Bavila,  are  largely 
runaway  slaves  from  the  Gabun  and  Congo  fac- 
tories who  have  found  refuge  in  the  inhospitable 
regions  south  of  the  Nyanga  River.  Of  all  varie- 
ties of  the  Bantu  speech  the  Mpongwe  is  the 
most  widely  diffused  in  the  coast  lands.  It  was 
reduced  to  writing  by  American  missionaries.  A 
mission  was  established  by  the  ABCFM  in  Gabun 
in  1842  and  transferred  to  the  PN  in  1871.  The 
Paris  Evangelical  Society  has  two  stations  on  the 
Ogowd  River  and  the  BMS  has  a  station  at 
Wathen,  farther  south.  Roman  Catholic  missions 
are  of  considerable  importance.  Wadai  and  the 
northern  regions  are  still  largely  unexplored  and 
are  Mohammedan,  chiefly  following  the  great 
Sheikh  es  Senoussi  in  doctrine. 

FRENCH,  Thomas  Valpy:  Born  in  1825,  in 
Holy  Trinity  vicarage,  Burton-on-Trent.  Died 
at  Mascat,  May  14,  1891.  Educated  at 
Rugby    School     under     Dr.    Arnold,     and    at 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


FreetOTVn 
Friends'  Foreign 


University  College,  Oxford.  B.  A.,  1846; 
1848,  Latin  Essay;  Fellow;  M.A.  1849.  In 
September,  1850,  went  to  Agra,  North  India, 
as  principal  of  proposed  St.  John's  College. 
In  1854  he  conducted  with  Pfander  the  famous 
public  discussion  with  the  Mullahs  at  Agra,  which 
was  the  means  of  the  conversion  of  Maulvie 
Imad-ud-din  and  Maulvie  Safdar  Ali.  In  1862 
he  was  appointed  to  the  Derajat  Mission.  On 
December  20,  1877,  he  was  consecrated  in  West- 
minster Abbey  the  first  bishop  of  Lahore  (juris- 
diction, Punjab  and  Siudh)  fourteenth  bishop 
from  the  CMS  ranks.  Dr.  French  was  always  a 
pioneer.  Four  times  he  went  to  India  to  begin 
new  agencies,  and  as  a  missionary  his  career  may 
be  divided  thus:  (1)  as  founder  and  principal 
of  St.  John's  College,  Agra,  1850-58;  (2)  as 
founder  and  leader  of  the  Derajat  Mission, 
1861-63;  (3)  as  founder  and  principal  of  the 
Lahore  Divinity  School,  1869-74.  In  all  three 
enterprises  he  did  most  important  service.  Dr. 
French  was  a  great  missionary  to  Mohammedans, 
and  through  his  influence  not  a  few  were  brought 
to  a  knowledge  of  salvation  by  Christ.  It  was  by 
the  natives  of  India  that  French  was  called  the 
"Seven-Tongued  Man,"  because  he  could  preach 
in  the  English,  Urdu,  Hindi,  Punjabi,  Persian, 
Pushtu  and  the  Arabic.  Besides  this  remark- 
able linguistic  knowledge,  he  could  use  in  teach- 
ing, if  not  in  preaching,  the  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Sanskrit  and  German  languages.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  able  works  and  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons.  In  1887  he  resigned 
his  see,  and  in  the  40th  year  of  his  missionary  ser- 
vice he  went  to  Mascat  to  found  a  new  mission 
that  might,  he  hoped,  reach  the  hearts  of  the 
people  of  neglected  Arabia.  But  his  worn  body 
was  not  equal  to  the  strain  of  that  trying  climate 
and  at  Mascat  his  labors  came  to  an  end. 
Birks  (H.).  Thomas  Valpy  French,  2  vols.,  London,  1895. 

FRENCH  SWITZERLAND;  Missions  of.     See 

Switzerland. 

FRERETOWN:  A  village  in  British  East  Africa 
situated  2  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Mombasa,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  inlet  which  separates  Mom- 
basa from  the  mainland.  It  is  also  known  by 
the  native  name  of  Kisauni.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1874),  with  (1902)  11  missionaries,  men 
and  women;  15  native  workers,  men  and  wom^en; 
1  day  school,  1  high  school,  1  theological  class 
and  598  professing  Christians. 

FRIEDENSBERG:  A  station  of  the  Moravians 
in  the  western  part  of  the  island  of  St.  Croix, 
West  Indies.  It  was  begun  in  1721,  in  order  to 
reach  the  large  number  of  slaves  on  the  sur- 
rounding plantations.  The  mission  house  stands 
on  a  hill  in  the  outskirts  of  Fredricksted.  There 
are  now  at  this  station  (1902)  a  missionary  and 
his  wife,  with  12  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
and  432  professing  Christians. 

FRIEDENSFELD :  A  town  on  St.  Croix  Island, 
W.  I.,  situated  near  the  center  of  the  island.  It 
has  the  only  country  church  in  St,  Croix,  all  the 
others  being  in  the  towns  of  Christiansted  and 
Fredricksted,  which  are  fifteen  miles  apart.  Out- 
station  of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1804),  with 
(1900)  361  prof  essing  Christians 

FRIEDENSTHAL :  Mission  station  of  the  Mora- 
vians (1754)  in  the  island  of  St.  Croix,  W,  I.  It  is 
situated  on  a  hill  to  the  west  of  the  town  of 
Christiansted,  which,  together  with  a  great 
expanse  of  ocean,  reaching  as  far  as  St   Jan  and 


Tortota,  is  seen  from  the  windows  of  the  mission 
house.  It  is  the  scene  of  the  labors  of  Frederick 
Martin,  whose  tomb  is  venerated  to  this  day. 
At  the  station  there  are  now  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  18  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
and  435  professing  Christians. 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS.     See  Tonga  Islands. 

FRIENDS'  (AMERICAN)  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions.    See  Amehican  Friends,  etc. 

FRIENDS'  FOREIGN  MISSIONARY  ASSO- 
CIATION (England,  1865) :  The  subject  of  foreign 
missions  was  brought  before  the  central  yearly 
meeting  of  the  Society  of  Friends  in  England  for 
the  first  time  in  1835,  at  its  meeting  in  London, 
and  was  seriously  considered.  From  this  time 
the  matter  was  never  lost  to  sight;  in  1859  the 
interest  was  increased  by  George  Richardson  of 
Newcastle,  who  wrote  to  his  fellow-members 
urging  them  to  concerted  effort  for  the  salvation 
of  the  heathen.  Stirred  to  action  by  this  appeal, 
in  1861  an  address  was  issued  by  the  central 
governing  body  of  the  Society,  calling  on  all  its 
members  to  aid  the  cause  of  missions,  and  this 
action  was  emphasized  by  appeals  from  William 
Ellis,  LMS  missionary  in  Madagascar.  This  led, 
in  1865 ;  to  the  formation  of  a  provisional  commit- 
tee to  promote  the  cause  of  missions  among 
English  Friends,  the  nucleus  of  the  present 
Friends'  Foreign  Missionary  Association.  All 
annual  subscribers  are  members  of  the  associa- 
tion, which  is  governed  by  a  board  appointed 
annually  by  the  meeting  of  members.  This 
board  appoints  the  treasurer  and  secretaries  and 
has  power  to  delegate  any  portion  of  its  business 
to  the  care  of  committees  from  its  members. 
Missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  India,  Madagas- 
car, Syria,  China  and  Ceylon. 

1.  India  (1866):  The  first  missionary  of  the 
newly  formed  association  was  Rachel  Metcalf, 
who  went  to  India  to  assist  Mrs.  Leupolt  of  the 
CMS  in  an  industrial  school  at  Benares.  In  1869 
Elkanah  and  Irene  Beard  of  America  were  sent 
out,  and  a  separate  station  was  opened,  first  at 
Benares,  but  removed  to  Jabalpur  in  1870,  where 
it  remained  till  1874.  It  was  then  permanently 
located  at  Hoshangabad,  the  center  of  a  large 
district  in  the  Narbada  Valley,  with  a  population 
of  three  or  four  millions,  then  unreached  by 
Christianity.  In  1881  the  work  was  extended 
to  Sohagpur.  The  next  years  were  spent  in  lay- 
ing the  foundations  of  various  lines  of  work. 
Evangelistic  tours  were  made  in  the  outlying 
districts;  schools  were  opened,  orphanages  estab- 
lished for  both  girls  and  boys,  an  orphan  indus- 
trial system  started  and  Zenana  and  medical 
work  begun.  In  1890  two  new  stations  were 
opened  at  Sioni  Malwa,  and  Sihore  in  Bhopal.  In 
1892  industrial  works  were  established  at  Ras- 
ulia,  Hoshangabad,  with  funds  contributed 
especially  for  this  purpose;  this  work  has  been 
continued  with  only  occasional  aid  from  the 
FFMA.  In  1893  the  Itarsi  station  was  opened 
and  in  1898  Bankheri  was  occupied  by  the  Soci- 
ety. There  are  (1903)  6  stations  and  10  outsta- 
tions,  34  missionaries,  42  native  workers,  6 
churches,  with  379  members,  4  boarding  and 
high  schools,  with  748  students,  24  other  schools, 
with  1 ,203  pupils,  5  hospitals  and  dispensaries. 

2.  Madagascar  (1867):  In  the  same  year 
(1866)  that  Rachel  Metcalf  went  to  India,  two 
American  Friends,  Louis  and  Sarah  Street,  and 
James  S.  Sewall,  of  Hitchin,  England,  interested 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


244 


in  the  mission  work  by  the  addresses  of  Dr.  Ellis, 
offered  themselves  for  service  in  Madagascar, 
where  they  arrived  in  1867,  just  at  that  juncture 
when  the  adoption  of  the  Christian  religion  by 
the  queen  had  given  an  immense  impulse  to  the 
existing  missions.  The  Friends  did  not  attempt 
to  start  a  separate  mission,  but  aided  the  educa- 
tional department  of  the  LMS  mission  in  the  sud- 
denly increased  demand  for  Christian  instruction. 
As  the  work  grew,  however,  it  was  necessary  to 
divide  tlie  central  province  of  Imerian  into  dis- 
tricts, and  the  care  of  the  Ambohitantely  church 
devolved  upon  the  Friends.  The  area  of  the 
entire  allotted  mission  district  was  2,000  square 
miles,  and  when  first  taken  in  charge  by  J.  S. 
Sewall,  in  1868,  contained  6  chapels,  a  number 
which  was  increased  in  1872  to  62  congregations 
with  37  schools.  At  Antananarivo  the  Society  es- 
tablished a  boys'  high  school  in  the  Ambohijatovo 
quarter,  and  one  for  girls  in  the  Faravohitra  quar- 
ter. In  1872  a  printing  office  was  started,  which 
issues  a  monthly  magazine  for  adults  and  one  for 
children,  and  where  the  native  boys  are  taught 
printing,  lithography,  map-making,  etc.  In  1880 
the  Society  joined  with  the  LMS  in  carrying  on  a 
hospital  and  medical  mission  at  Analekely.  In 
1888  stations  were  opened  at  Arivonimamo  and 
Mandridrano,  in  1893  at  Ambohimiadana  and  in 
1899  at  Amboniriana.  In  accordance  with  the 
regulations  of  the  French  government  the  teach- 
ing of  carpentry  and  agriculture  has  been  added 
to  the  curriculum  of  the  boys'  high  school  at 
Antananarivo,  thus  entitling  it  to  substantial 
government  grants.  The  schools  in  and  about 
Antananarivo  (Ambohijatovo,  Faravohitra,  etc.) 
are  described  in  the  FFMA  reports  under  the 
French  name  of  the  capital,  Tananarive.  There 
are  in  Madagascar  (1903)  5  stations,  23  mission- 
aries, 830  native  workers,  185  churches,  with 
2,482  members,  8  boarding  and  high  schools,  with 
1,304  students,  180  other  schools,  with  11,254 
pupils,  2  hospitals  and  dispensaries. 

3.  Syria  (Commenced  independently  1869, 
organized,  1874,  under  the  name  "Friends  Syrian 
Mission;"  transferred  to  the  FFMA  1898):  Meet- 
ings held  by  Eli  and  Sybil  Jones  in  Syria  and  Pale- 
stine led  to  further  missionary  work.  Three 
schools  were  established  by  them  at  Ramallah, 
Jaffa  and  Ramleh,  and  continued  at  their  expense 
until  1874,  when  the  Friends  Syrian  Mission  Com- 
mittee assumed  their  support.  The  following  year 
a  training  home  for  boys  and  an  industrial  school 
were  established  near  Brumana,  in  the  Lebanon, 
and  in  1881  a  cottage  hospital  and  a  dispensary 
were  opened  and  a  girls'  school  established, 
mainly  with  funds  raised  by  the  New  England 
Friends'  Committee.  The  Ramallah  mission  has 
a  school  for  boys,  another  for  girls,  a  cottage  hos- 
pital and  a  dispensary.  In  1898  this  mission 
was  transferred  to  the  New  England  Committee, 
in  return  for  their  share  in  the  Brumana  mission. 
In  1898  the  entire  work  of  the  Friends  Syrian 
Mission  Committee  was  amalgamated  with  the 
FFMA.  Schools  have  been  established  in  the 
outlying  villages;  tuition  was  at  first  free,  but  in 
1902  the  principle  of  having  the  children  pay  a 
small  fee  was  made  general  in  all  schools  and  was 
considered  a  success.  Educational,  industrial 
and  medical  work  is  carried  on  and  many  evan- 
gelistic tours  are  made ;  Bible  women  also  make 
house  to  house  visitations. 

There  are  (1903)  1  station,  10  outstations,  13 
missionaries,  47  native  workers,  1  church,  with 
35  members,  2  boarding  schools,  with  109  stu- 


dents, 16  other  schools,  with  1,204  pupils,  and  3 
hospitals  and  dispensaries. 

4.  China  (1886) :  The  first  station  of  the  Society 
was  opened  at  Han-chung  by  Robert  J.  and  Mary 
J.  Davidson.  In  1890  Chung-king,  Sze-chwan 
Province,  was  occupied,  and  in  1900  another 
station  was  opened  by  the  Society  Tung- 
chwan-fu  in  the  same  province.  Schools  for 
boys  and  for  girls  have  been  established;  village 
schools,  a  Bible  school  for  women  and  a  school 
for  training  native  helpers  have  been  organized. 
Medical  work  is  carried  on  at  Tung-chwan  and  a 
vigorous  evangelistic  campaign  is  organized  in 
each  station.  Street  chapel  preaching  meets 
with  success,  and  many  tracts  and  copies  of  the 
Scriptures  are  sold  and  distributed. 

There  are  (1903)  2  stations,  12  outstations,  18 
missionaries,  24  native  workers,  2  churches,  with 
36  members,  2  boarding  schools,  with  36  students, 
4  other  schools,  with  169  pupils  and  1  dispensary. 

5.  Ceylon  (1896)  :  Work  is  carried  on  in  the  dis- 
trict around  Matale  (Clodagh)  in  the  hill  country 
north  of  Kandy,  and  in  the  district  around  Miri- 
gama,  in  the  low  country  within  forty  miles  from 
Colombo,  the  missionary  in  charge  residing  for  the 
present  in  Colombo. 

Work  was  begun  at  Matale  in  1896  by  Joseph 
and  Frances  J.  Malcomson.  Both  the  Sinhalese 
and  Tamil  languages  are  used. 

In  the  Matale  district  itinerating  evangelistic 
work  is  carried  on,  schools  have  been  established 
for  both  boys  and  girls,  and  colportage  work  is 
carried  on. 

The  Mirigama  district  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  each  having  a  resident  evangelist  and  one 
or  two  schools.  So  far  the  principal  work  is  dig- 
ging deep  and  laying  foundations. 

There  are  (1903)  connected  with  these  2  sta- 
tions, 13  outstations,  13  Sunday  schools,  with  266 
in  attendance,  15  schools,  with  640  pupils. 

Turkey  (1881):  Two  Armenians  who  had 
become  connected  with  the  English  Friends  were 
sent  to  Constantinople  by  private  benevolence 
in  1881  to  open  a  medical  mission.  This  enter- 
prise has  extended  into  educational,  evangelistic 
and  industrial  efforts  and  is  reported  in  the 
Friends'  Magazine  of  Foreign  Missions,  altho  not 
included  in  the  list  of  missions  of  the  FFMA. 

Our  Missions,  monthly,  London,  contains  letters  from  the 
various  missions  carried  on  by   Friends. 

FRIENDS  SYRIAN  MISSION.  See  Friends 
Foreign  Missionary  Association. 

FRIENDSHIP:  A  station  of  the  Wesleyan 
Eastern  Annual  Conference  of  the  West  Indies, 
near  Georgetown,  British  Guiana,  with  (1900) 
2  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife,  5  preaching 
places,  5  day  schools  and  814  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

FU-CHAU-FU  (Fo-kien) :  Capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Fo-kien,  China,  situated  on  the  Min  River, 
34  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  a  treaty  port, 
opened  after  the  British  war  of  1842.  The  loca- 
tion is  healthful,  begirt  by  hills  four  miles  distant. 
The  walled  city  is  about  three  miles  from  the 
river,  with  its  extensive  suburbs  extending  to  the 
river  bank  and  beyond  on  the  south  side.  A 
foreign  settlement  has  been  built  up  on  Nantai 
Island  in  the  river.  The  two  banks  of  the  river 
are  connected  by  bridges  and  a  large  population 
is  housed  in  boats  upon  the  river.  The  city  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  tea  and  produces  many 
kinds  of  porcelain.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  650,000.     Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1850),  with 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


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Fu-sbnn 


(1901)  18  missionaries,  men  and  women,  of  whom 
three  are  physicians;  62  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  11  preaching  places,  31  day  schools,  2 
high  schools,  1  college,  1  theological  seminary, 

1  training  class  for  women  workers,  1  kinder- 
garten, 2  dispensaries  and  1  hospital.  Station 
also  of  the  CMS  (1850)  and  CEZ  (1884),  with 
(1903)  30  missionaries,  men  and  women,  of  whom 
three  are  physicians;  90  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  9  outstations,  6  preaching  places,  40  day 
schools,  5  high  schools,  1  industrial  school,  1 
woman's  training  class,  1  theological  seminary, 

2  dispensaries,  1  hospital  and  1  school  for  lepers. 
Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  29  mission- 
aries, men  and  women,  of  whom  three  are  phy- 
sicians; 55  native  workers,  men  and  women;  10 
outstations,  11  preaching  places,  59  day  schools, 
2  high  schools,  1  college,  1  theological  seminary, 

1  industrial  school  and  1  printing  house.  The 
aggregate  number  of  professing  Christians 
reported  by  these  societies  is  (1903)  3,660.  The 
name  is  also  written  Foo-chow  and  Fuh-chau. 

FU-CHAU-FU  (Kiang-si) :  A  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Kiang-si,  China,  situated  128  miles  S.  by 
E.  of  Kiu-kiang.  It  has  an  important  trade  in 
native  paper.  Station  of  the  German  China 
Alliance  Mission  (1898).  The  name  is  also  writ- 
ten Fu-cheo. 

FU-CHEO.     See  Fu-chau-pu  (Ki-ang-si). 

FUERTE:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sinaloa, 
Mexico,  situated  about  170  miles  S.  W.  of  Chi- 
huahua, on  the  Fuerte  River.  Population,  about 
3,000.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1891).  The 
name  is  also  written  El  Fuerte. 

FUH-DING.     See  Fu-ting. 

FTJH-NING.     See  Ftj-nins-fu. 

FXJ-KIANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kan-su,  China,  situated  about  30  miles  N.  W.  of 
Tsin-chau.  Station  of  CIM  (1899),  which  has 
not  been  reoccupied  as  a  missionary  residence 
since  the  Boxer  outbreak,  being  now  (1903) 
visited  by  missionaries  at  Tsin-chau. 

FUKUOKA:  The  principal  town  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  Island  of  Kiu-Shiu,  Japan. 
It  is  a  railway  station  and  seaport  65  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Nagasaki,  and  is  divided  into  two 
parts:  the  business  quarter  and  port,  called  also 
Hakata,  and  the  old  feudal  town,  pervaded  with 
the  quiet  and  decorum  of  the  olden  time.  The 
population  is  (1888)  53,800.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1888),  with  (1902)  1  missionary,  2  missionary 
women,  5  native  workers,  men  and  women;  2 
outstations  and  249  professing  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries, 

2  women  missionaries,  13  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  8  outstations,  2  preaching  places,  1 
orphanage,  and  404  professing  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  SBC  (1893),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives  and  2  outstations. 

FUKUSHIMA :  A  town  and  railway  station  in 
the  island  of  Hondo,  Japan,  situated  85  miles 
E.  of  Niigata.  Station  of  PE,  with  supervision 
from  Sendai. 

FUKUYAMA:  A  town  and  railway  station  on 
the  S.  coast  of  Hondo,  the  main  island  of  Japan, 
situated  112  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Kobe.  Popula- 
tion, about  15,000.     Station  of  the  CMS  (1891). 

FXTK-WUfG:  A  city  on  the  E.  shore  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Canton  River,  Kwang-tung,  China. 
Mission  station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society. 


FULLERTON,  Robert  Stewart :  Born  at  Bloom- 
ington,  O.,  November  23,  1821;  graduated  at 
Miami  University,  Ohio,  and  Alleghany  Theo- 
logical Seminary;  ordained  by  Presbytery  of 
Chillicothe,  1850;  sailed  the  same  year  for  India 
as  a  missionary  of  the  Presbyterian  board.  He 
was  stationed  at  Agra  with  his  wife  to  commence 
and  conduct  two  institutions,  a  male  and  a  female 
school.  He  was  relieved  of  the  boys'  school  on 
the  arrival  of  Rev.  R.  E.  Williams.  At  this  time 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Agra,  which  charge  he  continued  to  hold,  and 
also  that  of  the  female  school,  tUl  the  mutiny  in 
1 857  broke  up  both  schools  and  mission.  The  girls' 
school,  which  had  continued  for  five  years,  did 
much  to  elevate  the  tone  of  Christian  feeling 
in  the  East  Indian  community,  and  the  church 
had  grown  under  his  care.  After  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  mutiny  he  went  to  Fattehgarh  to  look 
after  the  scattered  remains  of  the  mission  and  pros- 
ecute the  mission  work.  His  labors  at  Agra,  much 
to  his  regret,  but  necessarily,  had  been  mainly  in 
English.  At  Fattehgarh  he  gave  himself  with 
great  diligence  to  the  native  language,  and  soon 
became  a  fluent  and  effective  speaker.  He 
recommenced,  as  soon  as  practicable,  the  Fur- 
rukhabad  High  School,  and  also  cared  for 
the  native  church  in  the  city,  besides  spending 
much  time  preaching  in  the  bazaars.  Under  all 
his  labors  his  health  at  the  end  of  three  years 
gave  way.  He  went  to  the  Dehra  station 
on  the  hills  in  1864,  laboring  there  faithfully 
till  near  the  end  of  his  life.  A  malignant 
disease  attacked  him,  from  which  he  died,  after 
three  months  of  great  suffering,  October  4, 
1865. 

FU-MUI:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung,  China,  situated  about  15  miles  S.  E.  of 
Hwei-chau-fu.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionarv 
Society  (1885),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  10 
native  workers,  10  outstations,  1  school,  and  397 
professing  Christians. 

FUNG-HWA-HSIEN.     See  Feng-hwa-hsien. 

FU-NING-FU:  A  town  on  the  E.  coast  of  the 
province  of  Fo-kien,  China,  situated  about  70 
miles  N.  E.  cf  Fu-chau.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1882),  with  (1902)  8  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  of  whom  3  are  physicians;  33  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  10  outstations,  14 
day  schools,  1  high  school,  1  training  school  for 
women  workers,  1  hospital,  and  2,041  professing 
Christians. 

FUREEDPORE.     See  Faridpub. 

FU-SAN:  A  treaty  port  on  the  S.  E.  coast  of 
Korea,  situated  on  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Cho- 
sen; terminus  of  a  railway  to  Seoul  now  (1903) 
in  construction.  Station  of  the  PN  (1891),  with 
(1903)  6  missionaries,  men  and  women,  1  of  them 
a  physician.  Station  also  of  the  Woman's  Mis- 
sionary Union  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Victoria  (1891),  with  (1900)  5  missionaries,  men 
and  women.  Station  also  of  the  SPG  (for 
Japanese  residents),  with  1  missionary  and  1 
preaching  place. 

FUTSUKPHAI:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  about  75  miles  east 
of  Canton.  Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1879),  with  (1902)  1  missionary,  10 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  7  outstations, 
4  day  schools,  and  470  professing  Christians. 
Written  by  the  Germans,  Futschukpai. 

FU-SHUN:     A  town  in  the  province  of  Sze- 


Geddle,  John 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


246 


chwan,  China,  situated  on  the  To-kiang  River, 
30  miles  N.  W.  of  Lu-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM 
(1902),  with  1  missionary. 

FU-TSING-HSIEN:  A  town  on  the  east  coast 
of  the  province  of  Fo-kien,  25  miles  south  of 
Fu-chau.  ^  Station  of  the  CMS,  with  (1902)  5 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  one  of  whom  is 
a  physician;  56  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
2  outstations,  19  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and 
5,828  professing  Christians.  Circuit  station  also 
of  the  ME,  with  (1903),  28  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  11  places  of  worship,  18  schools,  1 
high  school,  and  1,555  professing  Christians. 
Also  called  Hok-chiang. 


FUTUNA.     See  New  Hebrides. 

FUTUNAN LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Mela- 
nesian  family,  and  is  spoken  by  a  few  hundred 
people  in  the  island  of  Futuna,  New  Hebrides. 
It  was  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries  of  the 
New  Hebrides  Mission  Society  and  is  written 
with  Roman  letters. 

FU-YIU-TSUW:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China,  situated  about  32  mues  N.  E.  of 
Hsi-ngan-fu.  Station  of  the  BZM  (1898),  closed 
(1903)  since  the  Boxer  outbreak  of  1900. 

FWAMBO.     See  Kawimbe 


GAGAEMALAE :  A  settlement  on  the  island  of 
Savaii,  Samoan  Islands.  Station  of  the  Aus- 
tralian Wesleyan  Mission,  with  (1900)  15  native 
workers,  3  preaching  places,  3  schools  and  104 
professing  Christians. 

GALELA :  A  settlement  on  the  northeast  coast 
of  the  island  of  Halmaheira,  or  Jilolo,  in  the 
Moluccas,  Dutch  E-st  Indies.  Station  of  the 
Utrecht  Missionary  Society  (1866),  with  (1900)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife. 

GALKISSE :  A  town  in  the  outskirtsof  Colombo, 
Ceylon,  East  Indies.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1846), 
with  (1902)  12  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
1  preaching  place,  4  common  schools  and  251  bap- 
tized Christians. 

GALLALAND :  A  country  formerly  of  Abyssinia 
but  now  included,  for  the  most  part,  within  the 
bounds  of  Italian  Somaliland,  Africa. 

The  people,  called  Gallas,  seem  to  form  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  negro  and  the  Semitic 
races.  They  are  intelligent,  vigorous  and  war- 
like. Some  of  the  northern  Galla  tribes  have 
adopted  Abyssinian  Christianity.  The  Gallas 
found  to  the  south  and  southwest  of  Abyssinia 
are  believers  in  fetishism.  Three  dialects  of  the 
Galla  language — the  Shoa,  the  Ittu  and  the  Bar- 
aretta — are  known.  All  attempts  made  by  mis- 
sionaries to  reach  the  Southern  Galla  tribes  have 
failed  through  the  fanaticism  of  the  Arabs  of 
Somaliland  and  the  disturbed  state  of  religion. 

GALLE:  A  town  and  port  on  the  southwestern 
coast  of  Ceylon,  66  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Colombo, 
which  has  superseded  it  as  a  port  of  call  for  mail 
steamers  from  the  Mediterranean  to  China,  Aus- 
tralia, etc.  A  profusion  of  trees — palms,  coco- 
nuts, bread-fruit — grow  along  the  streets  and  the 
bluffs  along  the  shore,  and  give  a  pleasing  appear- 
ance to  the  settlement.  Its  name  means  "rock," 
and  it  is  often  spoken  of  as  "Point  de  Galle." 
Population  (1901),  37,000,  composed  of  many 
races,  including  Singhalese, Hindus, Parsees, Arabs, 
Eurasians  and  Europeans.  Station  of  the  WMS 
(1814),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1  missionary 
woman,  101  native  workers,  men  and  women;  10 
preaching  places,  17  day  schools,  2  high  schools, 
1  theological  class,  1  industrial  school,  and 
184  professing  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
SPG  (1860),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  12  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  a  high  school,  an 
orphanage,  and  167  professing  Christians. 


GA  MATLALE.     See  Matala. 

GAMBIA:  A  British  West  African  Colony  of 
69  square  miles,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia 
River.  The  population  (1901)  is  13,456,  of  whom 
7,707  are  Mohammedan,  5,340  Roman  Catholic 
and  Protestant  Christians,  and  2,209  pagans. 
Besides  the  colony  proper,  the  banks  of  the 
Gambia  constitute  a  British  protectorate,  the  area 
of  which  is  4,500  square  miles,  and  the  population 
76,948.  The  WMS  has  a  missionary  station  at 
Bathurst,  with  about  1,000  church  members. 

GAMPOLA:  A  village  in  the  central  province 
of  Ceylon,  situated  11  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Kandy, 
in  a  lovely  valley.  It  was  once  the  capital  of  the 
island.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1896),  with  (1903) 
3  missionary  women  and  22  native  women 
workers. 

GAWDA  LANGUAGE.  See  Ugandan  Lan- 
guage. 

GANGIRU:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  36  miles  N.  W.  of  Meerut  and  in 
the  district  of  Muzaffarnagar.  Population  (1891) 
about  5,000.  Circuit  station  of  the  ME,  with  22 
native  workers,  16  Sunday  schools,  9  day  schools 
and  790  professing  Christians. 

GAN-K'ING.     See  Ngan-king-pu. 

GAN-REN.     See  Ngan-jen-hsien. 

GANSEE:  A  settlement  in  the  Bush  country 
of  Dutch  Guiana,  S.  America,  situated  on  the 
upper  portion  of  the  River  Surinam.  Station  of 
the  Moravian  Missions  (1848),  with  (1902)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife. 

GAN-SHUN.     See  Ngan-shun-pu. 

GAN-TUNG.     See  Ngan-tung-hsien. 

GARDINER,  Captain  Allen  F. :  Founder  of  the 
South  American  Missionary  Society.  He  was 
born  in  England  in  1794,  and  manifested  even  in 
childhood  the  spirit  that  controlled  his  later  life. 
When  found  sleeping  on  the  floor  rather  than  in 
his  bed,  he  gave  as  the  reason  that  it  was  his  inten- 
tion when  a  man  to  travel  all  over  the  world,  and 
therefore  he  wished  to  accustom  himself  to  hard- 
ship. He  began  active  service  in  the  navy  in 
1810,  when  he  was  16  years  old,  but  resigned  after 
the  death  of  his  wife  in  1834,  and  wholly  conse- 
crated himself  to  his  life-work:  "to  become  the 
pioneer  of  a  Christian  mission  to  the  most  aban- 
doned heathen." 


847 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Fn-tslns-hsien 
Geddie,  JoUu 


He  married  a  second  time,  and  his  family 
shared  with  him  his  trials  and  discomforts  for  a 
long  time.  Never  discouraged,  when  he  found 
the  door  closed  on  one  side  he  turned  another 
way.  At  one  time  he  had  joined  the  missionaries 
to  South  Africa,  but  the  treachery  of  a  Dutch 
trader  forced  them  all  to  flee.  Then  he  tried  to 
secure  an  entrance  to  New  Guinea.  At  last  he 
settled  upon  South  America  as  his  mission-ground, 
went  to  the  Falkland  Islands  as  a  point  from 
which  to  reach  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  from  that 
time  on  his  life  was  one  series  of  persevering  effort 
and  heroic  endurance. 

So  anxious  for  the  formation  of  the  South 
American  Missionary  Society  was  Gardiner  that 
in  1844  he  guaranteed  all  expenses  for  three  years 
and  £100  a  year  thereafter.  It  was  not  until 
1848  that  he  saw  the  mission  undertaken,  and  in 
1851  he  and  his  companions  in  its  pioneer  effort 
died  of  starvation  through  failure  of  supplies. 
Marsh  (J.  W.'),  and  Stirling  (W.  H.),  The  Story  of  Commander 

Allen  Gardiner,  London,  1867;    Story  of  Mission  Work  in 

South  America,  London,   1874;    Young  (R.),  From  Cape 

Horn  to  Panama,  London,  1900. 

GARENGANZE  MISSION.  See  Chhistian  Mis- 
sions. 

GARO  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Tibeto- 
Burman  group  of  languages  and  is  used  by  the 
Garo  tribes,  numbering  some  25,000  souls,  in  the 
hill  country  S.  of  the  Brahmaputra  River  in 
Assam.     It  is  written  with  the  Bengali  characters. 

GARRAWAY:  A  town  and  harbor  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Liberia,  W.  Africa,  situated  N.  W.  of 
Cape  Palmas.  Station  of  the  ME,  with  1  mission- 
ary and  1  missionary  woman.  Also  parish  of  the 
PE,  with  1  missionary,  2  native  workers,  1_  day 
school  and  50  communicants.  Name  written 
also  Graway,  with  subdivisions  Whole  Graway 
and  Half  Graway. 

GAUB:  A  station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society  in  the  northern  part  of  German  South- 
west Africa,  lying  about  300  miles  N.  E.  of  Wal- 
fisch  Bay. 

GAUHATI:  The  largest  town  in  Assam;  situ- 
ated on  the  Brahmaputra  River,  45  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  Shillong.  Climate  unhealthful.  Population 
(1891),  10,800,  of  whom  7,800  are  Hindus  and  the 
remainder  nearly  all  Muslims.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1843),  with  (1903)  8  missionaries,  men 
and  women;  21  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
17  preaching  places,  17  schools,  1  high  school,  and 
778  church  members. 

GAYA:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated  58 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Patna,  among  ridges  running 
out  of  the  Ganges  valley,  and  in  a  region  filled 
with  traditions  of  early  Buddhist  history.  Six 
miles  S.  of  the  town  is  Buddh  Gayaf,  the  dwelling 
place  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism.  There  is 
shown  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  Pipul  tree,  under 
which  he  sat  in  meditation.  The  population  of 
Gaya  is  (1901)  71,288,  nearly  three-fourths  being 
Hindu  and  about  one-fourth  Muslim.  Outstation 
of  the  BMS  (1882)  and  station  of  the  Baptist 
Zenana  Mission  (1890). 

GAYAZA.     See  Gyaza. 

GAZA:  A  town  in  Palestine,  situated  26  miles 
N.  W.  of  Beersheba,  on  the  road  leading  to  Egypt, 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  desert,  about 
three  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  built  partly  on 
the  sides  of  the  steep  hill  which  was  crowned  by 
the  ancient  town  and  partly  on  the  plain  below. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek,  and  also  of  an  Armenian, 


bishop.  It  is  a  station  for  the  caravan  traffic 
between  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  has  a  population 
of  15,000,  mainljr  Arabs.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1878),  with  5  missionaries,  men  and  women,  and 
a   hospital. 

GEDDIE,  John:  Born  at  Banff,  Scotland,  1815; 
brought  up  and  educated  in  Nova  Scotia,  whither 
his  parents  immigrated  in  his  infancy.  They 
were  earnest  Christians,  strongly  imbued  with  a 
missionary  spirit,  and  at  his  birth  dedicated  him 
to  be  a  missionary.  He  received  his  academical 
and  theological  education  at  Dalhousie  College. 
There  being  then  no  organization  in  Nova  Scotia 
to  send  him  to  a  mission  field,  he  was  ordained  in 
1838,  and  settled  as  pastor  of  the  churches  of  Cav- 
endish and  NewLondon,in  Prince  Edward  Island. 
Soon  after  his  ordination  he  wrote  a  series  of  let- 
ters on  foreign  missions,  addressed  to  the  minis- 
ters and  members  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Nova  Scotia,  which  were  published  in  the  provin- 
cial papers,  and  resulted  in  the  commencement  of 
a  foreign  mission  by  the  Synod.  The  field 
selected  was  the  South  Seas,  and  Mr.  Geddie, 
offering  his  services,  was  accepted  as  their  first 
missionary.  He  had  been  settled  seven  years, 
and  had  a  wife  and  three  children.  To  prepare 
himself  more  fully  for  his  work,  he  took  lessons  in 
printing,  and  obtained  some  instruction  in  medi- 
cine. He  left  for  the  South  Seas  in  1846  via 
Cape  Horn,  stopping  at  the  Sandwich  Islands  and 
waiting  two  months  for  a  vessel  for  Samoa. 
There  he  remained  eight  months  waiting  for  the 
"John  Williams"  from  England.  At  Honolulu 
and  Samoa  he  obtained  much  valuable  knowl- 
edge from  seeing  the  working  of  the  London  and 
American  Societies'  missions.  On  the  advice  of 
the  missionaries  of  Samoa  he  chose  for  his  field 
Aneitium  Island,  New  Hebrides,  and  Rev.  Mr. 
Powell,  one  of  the  most  experienced  of  their  num- 
ber, was  appointed  to  assist  in  establishing  the 
mission.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Geddie  had  a  hard  and 
trying  experience  in  dealing  with  a  low  and  savage 
people.  Hurricanes,  diseases  and  deaths  were 
attributed  by  the  natives  to  the  missionaries;  the 
natives  stole  their  property,  threatened  to  burn 
their  houses  and  take  their  lives.  Mr.  Geddie 
had,  however,  great  aptitude  for  so  treating  the 
heathen  as  to  gain  their  confidence,  and  in  his 
efforts  to  dissuade  them  from  the  cruel  custom 
of  strangling  widows  his  success  was  marvel- 
ous. Gradually  several  attended  his  instruc- 
tions, and  in  two  years  forty-five  assembled  on 
the  Sabbath  to  listen  to  his  words  and  to  worship 
God.  Mr.  Geddie  had  great  readiness  in  acquir- 
ing the  native  language,  and  a  remarkably  reten- 
tive memory.  He  made  early  and  extensive  use 
of  the  press;  was  an  excellent  translator  of  the 
Scriptures;  had  great  inventive  power  and  was  fer- 
tile in  expedients :  he  could  turn  himself  with  facil- 
ity to  building  a  church,  translating  a  Gospel, 
printing  a  primer,  administering  medicine, 
teaching  a  class,  or  preaching  a  sermon,  traver- 
sing the  island  on  foot,  or  sailing  round  it 
in  his  boat.  In  1850  some  of  the  chiefs  and  even 
sacred  men  joined  him,  of  whom  one,  Waihit, 
supposed  to  have  power  over  the  sea,  a  man  of 
fierce  and  cruel  temper  and  much  feared  by  the 
people,  had  his  mind  opened  to  the  truth,  and 
showed  great  eagerness  to  impart  to  others  the 
truth  he  had  himself  discovered.  Another  chief 
of  great  authority  in  the  district,  and  who  joined 
the  worshipers,  was  Nohoat.  To  prove  his  sin- 
cerity, which  many  doubted,  he  cut  off  his  long 


Geleb 
Geoerrapliy 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


248 


hair,  abandoned  polygamy,  and,  tho  sixty  years 
old,  attended  the  school  every  morning  and  the 
■worship  on  the  Sabbath.  Official  persons  among 
the  heathen,  whose  craft  was  in  danger,  and 
other  parties,  not  native,  whose  proceedings  were 
interfered  with  by  the  new  teachers,  combined  in 
repeated  attempts  to  rid  themselves  of  the  mis- 
sionary. In  1851  his  house,  in  which  himself 
and  family  were  sleeping,  was  set  on  fire  at  mid- 
night. The  excitement  among  the  friendly 
natives  over  this  dastardly  act,  tho  held  in  check 
by  the  missionary,  convinced  the  perpetrators 
that  such  opposition  could  be  continued  only  at 
their  peril.  Subsequently,  when  the  people  of  a 
heathen  district  planned  to  attack  the  people  of  a 
Christian  village,  the  Christians  from  all  parts  of 
the  island  assembled  to  reason  with  the  hostile 
people,  and  to  persuade  them  to  live  in  peace. 
These  events  rallied  and  strengthened  the  friends 
of  Mr.  Geddie,  and  from  that  day  the  Christian 
cause  triumphed.  In  1852  the  first  converts,  13 
in  number,  were  baptized,  and  a  Christian  church 
formed  on  Aneitium.  In  1854  the  whole  popula- 
tion had  abandoned  heathenism.  Mr.  Geddie 
translated  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  John  and 
most  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul  into  the  Aneitium 
language,  and  printed  them  himself. 

His  health  being  impaired  he  visited  Nova 
Scotia  in  1864,  after  18  years'  absence.  He 
took  with  him  the  Book  of  Psalms,  which  he  had 
translated,  and  had  it  published  at  Halifax.  He 
was  received  at  home  with  great  enthusiasm. 
The  Queen's  University  at  Kingston  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  D.D.,  and  the  Synod 
honored  him  with  the  appointment  of  Moderator, 
which  he  declined.  He  returned  to  the  island  in 
1866.  In  1871  he  went  to  Melbourne  to  carry 
part  of  the  Old  Testament  through  the  press  and 
was  seized  with  paralysis,  but  recovered  sufii- 
ciently  to  be  removed  to  Geelong  in  Victoria, 
where  he  had  left  his  wife  and  children.  There 
he  died,  December  15,  1872. 

GELEB:  A  settlement  in  Eritrea,  Eastern 
Africa,  situated  about  70  miles  N.  W.  of  Mas- 
saua.  Station  of  the  Evangelical  National  Mis- 
sionary Society  of  Sweden  (1874),  with  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives  and  1  missionary 
woman. 

GENADENDAL.     See  Gnadendal. 

GEOGRAPHY  of  the  Expansion  of  Christen- 
dom: At  the  beginning  of  the  geographical  expan- 
sion of  Christianity  we  can,  on  an  ordinary  atlas 
map,  cover  up  all  there  was  of  Christendom  in  the 
world  with  the  point  of  one  finger;  at  the  end 
of  a  century  a  whole  hand  will  not  suffice;  at  the 
end  of  three  centuries  the  whole  Roman  Empire 
must  be  included;  by  the  close  of  the  10th 
century  all  of  Europe,  including  the  Russias, 
has  become  Christian;  while  Persia,  Syria,  Africa 
and  Spain  are  lost  to  Mohammedanism;  the  15th 
century  map  shows  losses  in  Asia  Minor  and  the 
Balkan  regions,  gains  on  the  Iberian  peninsula, 
and  displays  a  new  hemisphere  which  brings  the 
full  extent  of  the  missionary  problem  to  the  heart 
of  Christendom.  From  that  day  the  march 
was  steadily  forward,  until  at  the  close  of  the 
19th  century  every  section  of  the  globe  has 
been  reached  with  more  or  less  effect. 

/.  The  Pentecostal  Church:  The  geographical 
conditions  which  surrounded  the  infant  church 
assembled  in  that  upper  room  in  Jerusalem 
make   very   manifest   the   small   extent   of   the 


known  world.  As  far  as  civilization  was  con- 
cerned, it  was  a  Mediterranean  world.  A  stretch 
of  three  thousand  miles  east  and  west,  and  of 
fifteen  hundred  miles  north  and  south,  contained 
it  all.  Britain  was  still  unconquered.  The  war- 
like Parthian  was  the  greatest  organized  enemy 
of  Rome.  This  Scythian  monarchy  had  learned 
some  of  the  refinements  of  civilization  from  the 
downtrodden  Persians,  but  was  still  essentially 
barbaric.  India  was  known  to  navigators,  and 
caravan  routes  were  open  through  to  China.' 
Travelers  occasionally  brought  in  accounts  of 
strange  lands  and  peoples,  but  all  about  this  con-.^ 
fined  area  of  terra  cognita  lay  the  great  cloudland 
of  terra  incognita. 

The  immediate  task  before  Christianity  was 
the  conquest  of  the  center  of  civilization — the 
Roman  Empire.  The  geographical  characteris- 
tics of  this  Mediterranean  civilization  as  related 
to  the  company  of  Christian  believers  in  Jeru- 
salem deserve  notice.  (1)  It  was  an  empire  of 
cities.  Christianity  must  needs  handle  centers 
of  population,  especially  in  the  West.  From  four 
to  five  thousand  cities  must  be  reached.  (2) 
The  Mediterranean  furnished  easy  access  from 
city  to  city.  It  was  covered  with  sails  employed 
in  a  thrifty  commerce.  (3)  Roman  roads  con- 
nected all  parts  of  the  empire,  so  that  news  was 
carried  rapidly.  Along  these  splendid  highways 
trudged  the  messenger  of  the  Gospel  from  city  to 
city.  (4)  One  hundred  million  people  were  thus 
by  land  and  waterways  compactly  drawn  together 
in  a  territory  containing  less  than  two  million 
square  miles.  Geographically  considered,  no 
portion  of  the  globe  furnishes  so  interesting  a 
field  for  religious  conquest  as  the  territory  of  the 
old  Roman  Empire. 

Roman  civilization  spread  itself  outside  its  own 
regions  by  two  methods — commercial  and  mili- 
tary— and  Christianity  must  needs  follow  in  the 
track  of  armies  and  merchants.  The  caravan 
routes  all  led  into  the  common  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean,  from  Central  Africa  through 
Sahara  by  several  ways,  down  the  Nile;  from 
Yemen  along  the  Red  Sea;  from  the  Persian  Gulf 
through  the  Syrian  desert;  from  Mesopotamia, 
the  center  of  the  trade  of  Central  Asia,  to  which 
came  the  treasures  from  the  Persian  Susa, 
Hyrcania  and  Bactria,  which  in  turn  drew 
upon  China  through  Static  Mercatorum,  and 
from  Hindustan  and  Farther  India  via  Clisobra. 
Turning  to  the  sea  the  routes  are  quite  as  numer- 
ous. The  whole  coast  of  southern  Asia  was 
familiar  to  the  merchants,  and  regular  routes  by 
sea  were  open,  finding  their  natural  termini  in  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  Red  Sea.  Another  thrifty 
line  of  commerce  came  pouring  into  the  outlet  of 
the  Mediterranean  from  distant  Britain,  and 
daring  navigators  pushed  along  the  coast  of  the 
North  Sea  and  penetrated  the  Baltic  lands  in 
search  of  trade.  That  a  little  later  Christianity 
should  be  found  firmly  planted  in  far-away  places 
is  not  surprising.  The  door  was  open,  and  the 
disciples  could  easily  go  in. 

Garrisons  of  Roman  soldiers  were  stationed  all 
along  the  borders  of  the  empire.  These  military 
barracks  soon  became  centers  from  which  Chris- 
tianity spread  outside  the  civilized  world,  and 
these  isolated  spots  along  the  Rhine,  the  Danube, 
the  Euxine  and  the  Euphrates  became  oases  of 
the  faith.  When  the  armies  pushed  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  the  empire,  Christianity  was  sure 
to  go  with  them.     Christian  soldiers  captured 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Geleb 
GeoKrapby 


and  enslaved  by  barbarians  were  the  means  of 
converting  whole  nations. 

Another  geographical  condition  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  Christianity  was  the  wide  extent 
of  territory  over  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages were  spoken.  At  the  opening  of  the 
Christian  era  Hellenistic  Greek  was  the  lingua 
franca  of  the  Roman  world.  Greek  colonies  had 
been  established  all  around  the  Mediterranean, 
and  these  had  determined  the  language  of  com- 
merce. Greek  letters  and  arts  had  conquered 
Rome  more  effectually  than  the  legions  of  the 
republic  had  overcome  the  peninsula  of  Hellas. 
The  New  Testament  was  composed  in  this  uni- 
versal language,  and  all  through  the  early  cen- 
turies Christian  churches  were  Hellenistic. 
Later  on  the  Latin  tongue  took  the  supremacy  in 
the  Western  world,  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  it 
still  remains  the  liturgical  language  of  the  major- 
ity of  Christians.  . 

More  important,  however,  to  the  Christian 
Church  than  any  of  the  conditions  mentioned 
was  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  Hebrew 
race.  Everywhere  synagogs  were  the  early 
preaching  places  of  the  apostles,  and  the  major- 
ity of  the  Christians  of  the  1st  century  were  of 
Jewish  extraction.  Christianity,  as  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  Old  Testament  religion,  naturally 
turned  to  the  believers  in  that  revelation.  Provi- 
dentially, it  seems,  these  seven  millions  of  people, 
with  their  monotheism,  their  nobler  conceptions 
of  God  and  their  purer  ethics  of  life,  had  been 
scattered  broadcast  over  the  Roman  world,  and 
even  beyond  its  boundaries.  There  were  about 
four  million  Jews  in  Syria  and  Palestine  at  the 
opening  of  our  era.  One  million  lived  in  Meso- 
potamia and  down  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
rivers.  One  million  more  were  dwelling  along  the 
Nile  and  in  the  Delta,  Alexandria  having  a  large 
quarter  entirely  devoted  to  this  people.  A  mil- 
lion more  were  estimated  to  have  been  distrib- 
uted elsewhere  about  the  Mediterranean.  Paul 
and  the  other  apostles  found  them  everywhere. 
Most  cities  had  a  Jewish  section.  This  race  was 
especially  numerous  along  the  north  coast  of 
Africa,  in  Spain,  up  the  Rhone  and  about  Rome, 
the  commercial  center  of  the  world.  The  Sibyl- 
line Oracle  says  that  "every  land  and  every  sea" 
was  filled  with  them.  Strabo,  writing  of  the 
century  before  our  era,  says  that  the  Jewish 
people  had  already  come  into  every  city  and 
that  it  was  not  easy  to  find  a  place  in  the  world 
which  had  not  received  this  race  and  was  not 
occupied  by  them.  We  find  them  in  Southern 
Arabia  (Yemen),  Ethiopia  (Abyssinia),  Armenia, 
Parthia,  Iberia,  Crimea,  Hyrcania,  and  even 
China.  Wherever  there  were  Jews  the  door  was 
open  to  the  preachers  of  the  Messiah. 

With  a  Roman  government  to  police  the  world, 
with  highways  and  harbors  facilitating  journeys 
by  land  and  sea,  with  a  universal  language  at 
their  command,  and  with  Jewish  people  and 
prayer-houses  distributed  all  over  the  empire,  the 
apostles  went  forth  to  conquer.  As  the  centu- 
ries went  on  we  shall  find  the  Christian  churches 
most  numerous  and  thriving  where  these  con- 
ditions were  most  favorable. 

//.  The  Apostolic  Church:  At  the  close  of  the 
1st  century  a  very  inadequate  presentation  of  the 
extent  of  the  advance  of  the  Christian  Church  is 
possible.  The  persecuted  Church  was  more  or 
less  in  hiding  for  three  centuries,  and  the  notices 
of  geographical  matters  in  Christian  or  heathen 


literature  are  only  incidental.  Legends  and 
doubtful  traditions  have  thrown  a  haze  over  the 
whole  subject.  By  the  time  of  the  death  of  the 
apostle  John  there  were  Christian  churches  all 
over    Syria,    Asia    Minor,    Macedonia,    Greece 

E roper,  the  islands  and  Italy.  There  seems  to 
e  every  probability  that  Paul  may  have  carried 
out  his  desire  to  visit  Spain  between  the  two 
imprisonments  at  Rome.  Peter  was  probably  at 
Babylon  and  Mark  in  Egypt.  Beyond  this  there 
is  little  certainty.  The  list  of  the  converts  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii:  9-12)  would  lead  us  to 
infer  that  Christianity  got  a  footing  in  Parthia, 
Media,  Elam,  Cappadocia,  Pontus,  Asia,  Phrygia, 
Pamphylia,  Egypt,  Cyrene,  Rome,  Crete,  Arabia 
"and  in  every  nation  under  heaven"  (Acts  ii:  3). 
Ethiopia  (of  doubtful  location)  may  have  learned 
of  Christ  through  the  eunuch  baptized  by  Philip. 
The  apostle  James  familiarly  addresses  "the 
twelve  tribes  which  are  of  the  dispersion."  Peter 
addresses  the  "sojourners  of  the  dispersion  in 
Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia  and  Bithynia." 
He  sends  greetings  from  Babylon  (Rome?  in 
Egypt?  or  on  the  Euphrates? — probably  the  lat- 
ter). The  innumerable  traditions  about  the 
apostles  and  early  disciples  must  be  dismissed  as 
unreliable  and  misleading — such  as  that  of  Paul 
in  Britain,  Lazarus  in  Gaul,  Thomas  in  India, 
Bartholomew  in  Parthia,  Andrew  in  Russia, 
Thaddeus  in  Edessa,  Philip  in  Scythia,  Matthew 
in  Ethiopia  and  Judas  the  Zealot  in  Arabia.  Yet 
these  men  were  certainly  busy  somewhere, 
preaching  the  Gospel  and  building  up  churches. 

This  is  certain — Christianity  found  a  lodgment 
during  the  1st  century  from  Spain  to  Babylon 
(3,000  miles)  and  from  Rome  to  Alexandria.  It 
had  taken  the  whole  Mediterranean  as  its  field  of 
work.  In  30  A.  D.,  at  Jerusalem  there  were  at 
most  500  Christians;  100  A.  D.  there  were  prob- 
ably 500,000.  A  map  of  the  Christian  world  at 
this  date,  containing  only  certainties,  would  not 
give  a  true  impression  of  the  geographical  extent 
of  Christianity.  From  the  unexampled  spread  a 
little  later,  it  may  well  be  inferred  that  there  was 
a  large  growth  in  these  early  times  before  the 
great  persecutions.  The  map  should  show  the 
routes  Paul  took  on  his  missionary  journeys  and 
on  his  way  to  Rome.  The  cities  of  jElia  Capito- 
lina  (Jerusalem  after  70  a.  d.),  Samaria,  Joppa, 
Caesarea,  Ptolemais  (Acre),  Tyre,  Sidon,  Damas- 
cus, Salamis,  Antioch,  Tarsus,  Derbe,  Lystra, 
Iconium,  Antiochia,  Hierapolis,  CoIossk,  Phila- 
delphia, Sardis,  Thyatira,  Pergamum,  Ephesus, 
Smyrna,  Philippi,  Thessalonica,  Bersea,  Corinth, 
Cenchreea,  and  Rome  should  be  plainly  marked. 
The  following  cities  and  countries  should  be  put 
down  as  probable:  Babylon,  Edessa,  Arabia, 
Petraea,  Alexandria,  Cyrene,  Ancyra  (in  Galatia), 
Perga,  Troas,  Athens,  Rhodes,  Crete,  Mileta, 
Puteoli,  Carthage  and  Southern  Spain.  It  is 
possible  that  Dalmatia,  Britain  and  the  Rhone 
valley  should  be  included.  Clement  of  Rome 
(30  A.  D. — 102  A.  D.),  in  his  first  epistle  to  the 
church  at  Corinth  (§  42),  says  there  was  "preach- 
ing everywhere  in  country  and  town." 

The  Apostolic  Church  was  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  a  Greek-speaking  church.  It  was 
largely  drawn  from  the  Jewish  element,  altho 
Gentiles  took  more  and  more  a  prominent  part. 
Christian  prejudice  against  the  Jew  as  a  Jew  had 
not  yet  arisen.  The  hopeful,  buoyant  tone  of  the 
apostolic  letters  indicates  a  growing  success  in 
the  work.     The  churches  do  not  seem  to  have 


Geograpliy 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


260 


been  thoroughly  organized  as  one  church  and 
consequently  there  were  no  internal  geograph- 
ical divisions. 

///.  The  Ante-  Nicene  Church:  The  Church  of 
the  2d  and  3d  centuries  is  under  a  denser  cloud 
than  that  of  the  1st.  The  absence  of  apostolic 
writings  leaves  us  to  rely  upon  the  casual  refer- 
ences of  historians  or  other  indications.  The  era 
of  representative  Church  councils  was  just  begin- 
ning. Justin  Martyr  (105-167),  the  still  more 
reliable  Epistle  to  Diognetus  of  the  same  century, 
IrenjEUS,  bishop  at  Lyons,  on  the  upper  Rhone 
(130-202),and  TertuUian,  who  wrote  in  the  2d  and 
3d  centuries,  unite  in  representing  the  Christians 
as  a  "great  multitude,"  "a  majority  of  every 
state,"  "dispersed  even  to  the  ends  of  the  earth," 
and  including  "every  sex,  age  and  condition,  and 
persons  of  every  rank  also."  Among  nations 
enumerated  are  the  Gaetulians  (Moors),  "all 
the  limits  of  Spain,"  "the  diverse  nations  of 
the  Gauls,"  "the  haunts  of  the  Britons,  in- 
accessible to  the  Romans,  but  conquered  by 
Christ,"  the  Sarmatians,  Dacians,  Germans  and 
Scythians. 

Church  councils  and  martyrologies  furnish 
some  information  concerning  the  spread  of 
Christianity  in  this  obscure  period.  Eight  sav- 
age Roman  persecutions  of  the  Church  took  place 
before  Christianity  won  for  itself  imperial  recog- 
nition, and  the  universality  of  several  shows  how 
widely  the  faith  had  spread.  The  fact  that  the 
wisest  Roman  emperors  ordered  the  severest  per- 
secutions, because  they  feared  the  spread  of  its 
secret  religio-political  cultus,  as  they  considered 
it,  is  another  indication  of  the  numerical  strength 
of  the  Christians.  It  is  estimated  that  by  the 
opening  of  the  4th  century  there  were  10,000,000 
Christians  in  the  Roman  empire,  as  contrasted 
with  the  500,000  at  the  close  of  the  1st  century. 
A  conservative  guess  as  to  the  number  of 
churches  at  the  close  of  this  period  places  them  at 
1,000  Oriental  and  800  Occidental,  but  the  data 
are  very  unsatisfactory.  Important  Church 
councils  were  held  at  Carthage  (254),  Elvira 
(Spain,  305),  Aries  (Gaul,  314),  Ancyra  (Asia 
Minor,  314)  and  Nioasa  (Asia  Minor,  325).  Con- 
temporary documents  give  the  names  of  the  bish- 
ops or  presbyters  who  were  present,  but  not  a 
third  of  the  churches  could  have  been  represented. 
Martyrologies  help  out  somewhat.  The  525  cities 
where  there  were  churches  at  the  time  Christian- 
ity was  coming  out  from  under  persecution  were 
distributed  as  follows:  In  Europe,  188  in  all  (Brit- 
ain 3,  German  lands  3,  Gaul  38,  Spain  45,  Italy 
52,  Southeastern  Europe  37);  in  Asia  214  (Asia 
Minor  136,  Northern  Syria  36,  Palestine  24, 
Arabia  18);  in  Africa  123  (Egypt  and  Lybia  28, 
North  Africa  95).  A  map  indicating  this  con- 
dition of  things  would  be  sprinkled  all  over  with 
,  cities  containing  Christian  churches.  Multiply 
them  by  three  or  four  and  it  becomes  apparent 
why  the  secular  mind  of  Constantine  the  Great 
led  him  to  throw  in  his  lot  with  the  Christians. 
Besides  York,  Lincoln  and  London,  represented 
at  the  Council  of  Aries  (314),  there  were  doubtless 
churches  scattered  all  over  the  land  as  far  north 
as  the  Roman  wall.  All  along  the  Rhine  and 
Danube  frontier  we  see  a  string  of  Christian  for- 
tresses. Roman  soldiers  were  the  missionaries 
in  this  dangerous  region.  The  Euxine  was 
fringed  all  around  with  churches.  Italy,  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  Egypt,  North  Africa,  Southern 
Spain  and  the  Rhone  valley  were  thickly  dotted 


with  churches.  Christianity  is  still  strictly 
municipal,  as  might  have  been  predicted. 

/  V.  The  Imperial  Church  (311-600) :  With  Con- 
stantine's  decree  of  amnesty  to  Christians  (311) 
the  Church  entered  upon  a  new  era.  Christianity 
became  a  state  religion.  The  centers  of  civiliza- 
tion were  won.  Within  the  empire  paganism 
was  slowly  going  to  pieces.  Under  Julian  the 
Apostate  it  made  one  spasmodic  effort  to  regain 
its  ascendancy,  and  then  gradually  disappeared, 
or  was  absorbed  by  the  Church  or  by  some  of  the 
heretical  sects.  At  the  close  of  this  period  there 
were  probably  thirty  or  forty  million  Christians 
in  the  territory  occupied  by  the  empire  when  at 
its  widest  extension.  Besides  the  heretical  sects 
already  mentioned,  some  of  which  did  most  of 
their  work  in  this  period  (Arianism,  Donatism 
and  Manichseism)  are  to  be  noted  the  Nestorians 
at  work  in  the  far  East  early  in  the  5th  century, 
the  Monophysites  in  Syria  and  Egypt  a  little 
later,  and  a  century  after,  the  Monothelites. 

Outside  the  empire,  this  propaganda,  which 
had  been  going  on  for  several  centuries,  non 
came  to  notice  and  was  carried  on  more  system- 
atically. Armenia,  the  battle-field  between 
Roman  and  Persian,  was  the  first  nation,  as  such, 
to  embrace  Christianity,  early  in  the  4th  century. 
The  whole  country  seems  to  have  received  the 
new  religion.  Schools  and  churches  were  built 
and  the  Bible  was  translated.  Since  that  time 
the  Armenian  Church  has  had  continuous  life. 

During  day  s  of  persecution  Christianity  made  its 
way  around  the  border  of  the  Euxine,  pushed  into 
the  interior  of  the  Caucasus  range  and  won  over 
the  Albanian  and  Iberian  tribes.  A  most  inter- 
esting mission  of  this  period  was  to  the  Goths, 
various  tribes  of  whom  had  been  moving  along 
the  north  shore  of  the  Euxine  and  up  the  Danube. 
During  their  inroads  they  penetrated  in  the  3d 
century  as  far  as  Ephesus  and  Athens.  A  large 
number  of  Christian  captives  from  Cappadocia 
were  dragged  northward  across  the  Danube  to  the 
Dacian  rendezvous  of  these  rude  northmen,  and 
thus  the  first  Gospel  seeds  were  planted.  Prog- 
ress must  have  been  made,  for  the  Gothic  bishop 
Theophilus  was  present  at  the  council  of  Nicsea 
(325).  The  apostle  of  the  Goths,  however,  came 
a  little  later  in  the  person  of  Ulfilas,  a  son  of 
Cappadocian  captives.  Beginning  early  in  the 
4tli  century  (313),  his  work  was  spread  over  the 
century.  He  and  his  converts  went  through 
fiery  persecutions  (350  and  370),  but  the  work  of 
conversion  seems  to  have  gone  on  with  increasing 
momentum.  Both  the  East  and  West  Goths 
were  reached  effectually,  and  through  all  their 
wanderings  disseminated  a  more  or  less  helpful 
Christian  faith. 

From  the  first  Christianity  had  been  pushing 
rapidly  eastward.  Mesopotamia  must  have  had 
a  large  Christian  population.  Bishops  came  to 
Nicsea  from  as  far  east  as  Arbela  and  Nisibis. 
Persia  had  been  reached  at  an  early  period. 
During  the  reign  of  Sapor  II.  (390-379)  terrible 
persecutions  indicate  a  large  Christian  popula- 
tion. When  the  Nestorians  were  driven  from  the 
Roman  dominions,  they  commenced  their  mis- 
sionary march  eastward,  making  a  first  lodgment 
in  Persia  in  the  5th  century,  at  a  time  when 
Christianity  was  tolerated,  and  in  the  6th  and  7th 
centuries,  sending  missionaries  southwestward 
into  Arabia,  to  the  southeast  into  India  and  Cey- 
lon, and  eastward  to  China;  but  it  is  impossible 
to  know  the  extent  of  the  spread  of  Christianity 


251 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Geogrrapby 


in  these  vast  regions.  The  St.  Thomas  Christians 
in  India  and  the  Christians  of  the  Syrian  cult  at 
Urmia  in  northwestern  Persia  are  all  that  have 
remained  faithful  up  to  modern  times. 

Turning  to  Africa  there  was  a  most  interesting 
expansion  of  Christianity  in  Abyssinia  during 
this  period.  Under  the  Syrian  missionary,  Fru- 
mentius,  this  great  upland  of  Africa  seems  to  have 
received  the  Gospel.  Axum,  the  capital,  was 
first  reached.  The  Bible  was  translated  into 
Ethiopic,  and  long  before  the  Mohammedan 
invasions  the  whole  nation  had  become  Christian. 
The  king  or  Negus  was  in  communication  with 
the  court  of  Constantinople,  and  at  various  times 
championed  the  cause  of  Christianity  in  Arabia. 
Nubia  and  the  upper  Nile  were  reached,  but  not  as 
effectively  as  the  mountainous  regions  of  Abys- 
sinia proper. 

It  is  not  certain  when  missionary  work  on  the 
peninsula  of  Arabia  began.  Doubtless  the 
deserts  south  and  east  of  Syria  furnished  a  refuge 
to  Christians  during  times  of  Roman  persecu- 
tions, and  the  much-frequented  caravan  routes 
gave  easy  access  to  all  parts  of  the  peninsula. 
Hermits  betook  themselves  to  the  rocky  fast- 
nesses of  Pella  and  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  and  at 
an  early  date  came  in  contact  with  Bedouin 
tribes.  During  the  4th  century  there  were  mis- 
sionaries among  the  Himyarites  in  the  extreme 
southwest  of  Arabia,  and  a  traveling  bishop  fol- 
lowed the  wandering  tribes  of  the  Syrian  desert. 
A  number  of  tribes  were  completely  won  over  to 
Christianity — the  Ghassanites,  the  inhabitants  of 
Najran,  part  of  the  tribes  of  Tay  and  Kudaa,  the 
Rabia,  Taghlab,  Bahra  and  Tunukh  tribes,  as 
well  as  the  Arabs  of  Hira  (Nestorian  influence). 
There  was  also  a  terrible  persecution  of  the 
Christians  of  Najran  by  the  Jewish  usurper,  Dhu 
Nowas.  By  600  Arabia  was  thickly  sprinkled 
over  with  indications  of  Christianity. 

Turning  to  the  extreme  northwest  limit  of  the 
known  world,  we  find  the  Christian  faith  in  this 
period  laying  hold  of  an  island  that  long  before 
it  learned  of  Christianity  was  called  "The  Sacred 
Island."  We  are  told  of  the  anger  of  Druids 
against  Cormac,  a  prominent  monarch  in  Hiber- 
nia  or  Scotia  Major  or  Ireland  about  the  middle  of 
the  3d  centruy,  who  turned  from  them  "to  the 
adoration  of  God."  For  many  years  Christianity 
seems  to  have  quietly  spread  from  individ- 
ual to  individual.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
the  5th  century  that  Christianity  had  any  sub- 
stantial following  in  Ireland.  The  career  of 
Patrick,  a  native  of  Brittany  in  Gaul,  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Ireland  began  early  in  that  century 
and  lasted  probably  until  very  near  its  close. 
Through  his  exertions  the  faith  seems  to  have 
spread  in  every  direction  and  to  have  taken  pos- 
session of  the  island,  altho  paganism  still  lurked 
about.  The  inroad  of  the  pagan  Picts  from  the 
north  of  Great  Britain  and  the  heathen  Angles, 
Saxons  and  Danes  from  the  east,  during  this  cen- 
tury, drove  the  British  Christians  into  the  west- 
ern mountains,  and  thousands  of  them  must  have 
flocked  across  the  channel  to  Ireland.  Thus 
reenforced,  Patrick  made  the  most  substantial 
advance,  so  that  at  his  death  (492?)  the  whole 
island  was  Christian,  altho  the  statement  that  he 
founded  365  churches  in  the  island  must  be 
received  as  legendary. 

Columba,  or  Columbkille  (521-597),  after  a 
rather  impetuous  career  on  his  native  island,  in 
563,  with  twelve    companions    retired  to  lona, 


off  the  Scottish  coast,  and  established  a  monastery 
which  became  a  beacon-light  of  the  faith  in  north- 
we.stern  Europe. 

Britain  proper  was  lost  to  Christianity,  and  the 
heathen  Saxons  and  kindred  tribes  exterminated 
the  faith  except  in  Cornwall,  Wales  and  Cambria. 
The  Isle  of  Man  seems  to  have  been  Christianized 
during  this  period.  Clovis  the  Frank  became  a 
Christian  after  the  Roman  type  and  led  his  fol- 
lowers to  accept  the  Gospel. 

The  German  border  was  in  constant  turmoil 
owing  to  the  ceaseless  invasions  from  the  north 
and  east.  The  Gothic  hordes  that  swept  over  the 
country  had  received  a  crude  sort  of  Christianity, 
and  so  had  the  Vandals;  but  Attila  the  Hun  was 
a  heathen.  Many  of  the  Christian  institutions 
founded  in  the  4th  century  were  swept  away. 
However,  Valentinus  preached  the  Gospel  in  the 
Tyrol  (441),  Paulinus  was  martyred  at  Ratisbon 
(470),  Sever'us,  bishop  of  Treves,  was  making 
efforts  to  spread  the  truth  in  Germany  (435),  and 
Severinus  in  Noricum  and  Pannonia  (453).  The 
Burgundians,  the  Franks  and  the  Lombards  were 
reached  effectively,  as  well  as  the  Alans  and  the 
Suevi.  The  Slavonians  and  Avars  in  lUyria  and 
Mcesia  received  Christianity  about  550. 

Few,  if  any,  Teutonic  or  Slavonic  tribes  were 
converted  during  this  era  Ijefore  they  entered  the 
confines  of  Christendom.  At  the  close  of  this 
period,  however,  all  about  the  borders  of  Chris- 
tendom there  was  a  lacework  of  Christian  mis- 
sions. The  only  striking  loss  was  southern 
Britain,  which  was  soon  to  be  won  back. 

V.  The  Feudal  Church  (600-1095):  Great 
changes  took  place  in  the  geography  of  Christen- 
dom during  the  feudal  period,  gains  and  losses 
balancing  each  other.  The  greatest  organized 
enemy  of  Christianity,  Islam,  began  its  decima- 
ting work  early  in  the  7th  century.  Arabia,  Syria, 
Persia,  Egypt,  the  north  coast  of  Africa  to  the 
Atlantic,  Spain  and  the  Mediterranean  islands 
were  successively  conquered.  Christianity  was 
wiped  out  in  Arabia,  Nubia  and  North  Africa. 
Feeble  churches  remained  in  Persia,  Egypt  and 
Syria.  In  Spain  Christianity  still  was  vigorous. 
The  mountainous  regions  of  the  peninsula  were 
never  wholly  conquered,  and  even  in  the  con- 
quered portions  Christianity  flourished  under  the 
lenient  reign  of  the  Caliphate  of  Cordova.  In  the 
Asturias  and  Navarre  the  Christians  were  inde- 
pendent of  Muslim  rule.  In  Egypt  and  Nubia 
the  monophysite  Christians  for  the  most  part 
turned  traitors,  caring  less  for  orthodoxy  from 
Constantinople  than  fancied  protection  from 
Medina.  Nestorianism  was  cut  in  two  by  the 
conquest  of  Persia  and  already  began  to  decline, 
tho  its  work  went  on  in  the  Far  East.  Timothy, 
Patriarch  of  Syria  (778-820) ,  sent  missionaries  to 
China  and  India.  In  845  Christians  were  pro- 
scribed in  China,  altho  they  had  been  tolerated 
all  through  the  8th  century.  The  Taurus  range 
and  the  highlands  of  Armenia  remained  the  fron- 
tier fortresses  of  the  Eastern  Church  for  many 
centuries,  but  as  this  period  was  closing,  were 
being  successfully  penetrated  by  a  new  scourge 
from  the  East — the  Turk. 

All  through  Europe  missionary  work  made 
substantial  geographical  gains.  Pagan  England 
was  reclaimed  and  thoroughly  Christianized. 
The  heathen  made  a  fierce  struggle,  but  between 
the  Irish  Church  on  the  north  and  west  and 
Augustine  and  his  zealous  followers  on  the  south, 
the  victory  of  Christianity  was  inevitable,  and 


GeoKrapby 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


2S2 


England  with  Ireland,  Scotland  and  Wales,  was 
thoroughly  Christian  at  the  close  of  the  feudal 
period. 

In  the  meanwhile  the  fervid  missionary  zeal  of 
the  Irish  Church  was  at  work  on  a  larger  arena. 
In  the  7th  century  Ireland  was  called  "the 
Isle  of  Saints,"  largely  because  of  its  numerous 
monastic  establishments.  Having  won  over  the 
Picts  and  Scots  to  the  faith,  thousands  of  Irish 
monks  looked  longingly  toward  the  heathen 
wilds  of  the  Continent.  Columbanus  (born 
about  543),  a  disciple  of  Comghall,  Abbot  of  Ban- 
gor, went  from  place  to  place,  and  finally  settled 
among  the  Vosges  Mountains,  on  the  German 
frontier.  St.  Gallus,  his  disciple,  gave  name  to 
an  illustrious  monastery  and  to  a  Swiss  canton. 
Other  Irish  missionaries  set  the  rather  sluggish 
churches  of  the  Continent  examples  of  simplicity, 
piety  and  missionary  zeal  that  electrified  the 
whole  of  western  Christendom.  From  Gaul  went 
forth  Amandus  (died  681  or  684)  and  Eligius 
(died  659),  from  England,  Willebrord  (Clement) 
and  Boniface  (Winfrid),  "the  apostle  of  Ger- 
many." The  Frisians  were  slowly  won  over  from 
an  unusually  savage  paganism.  The  last  and 
overwhelming  argument  came  from  the  sword  of 
Pepin  D'Heristal.  Willebrord  made  a  futile 
attempt  to  reach  the  Danes.  A  century  later 
Ansgar  (800-865)  became  the  apostle  of  Denmark. 
About  this  time  the  sword  of  Charlemagne  com- 
pelled the  stubborn  Saxons  to  cast  away  their 
idols  and  accept  the  Cross.  Sweden  was  reached 
by  Ansgar,  but  the  real  influence  that  brought 
Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway  to  Christianity 
came  somewhat  later  from  England.  Siegfried, 
Trygvason  and  St.  Olaf  were  the  leaders.  In 
912  Rollo  the  Norman  obtained  Neustria  and  was 
baptized  as  Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy. 

While  the  Belgians,  Normans,  English,  Fris- 
ians, Danes,  Swedes,  Norwegians,  Saxons  and 
other  Teutonic  tribes  in  Germany  were  being  won 
over  largely  if  not  exclusively  by  the  Irish,  Eng- 
lish and  Gaelic  missionaries,  the  Roman  Church 
was  fighting  for  life  itself  with  marauders  from 
the  north  and  Saracens  from  the  east  and  south. 
North  Africa  and  Spain  were  entirely  lost. 
Sicily,  Sardinia  and  Corsica  soon  fell  before  the 
crescent.  Later,  as  the  flood-tide  of  Islam  began 
to  subside,  the  missionary  efforts  from  Rome 
became  more  noticeable.  The  heathen  Magyars 
crossed  the  Carpathian  Mountains  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury and  settled  on  the  Theiss  and  Danube.  In 
972  their  leader,  Geyza,  married  a  Christian  prin- 
cess, Sarolta,  daughter  of  the  Transylvanian 
prince  Giula,  who  had  been  converted  during  a 
stay    at    Constantinople.     German    missionaries 

fushed  down  into  the  country  more  and  more. 
n  994  Adelbert  of  Prague  baptized  with  the 
name  of  Stephen  Goyza's  son  Voik,  who  was 
afterward  famous  as  St.  Stephen,  the  patron- 
saint  of  Hungary.  Under  his  lead  Hungary 
became  thoroughly  Christianized  and  has  ever 
been  a  firm  adherent  to  the  Roman  Church. 

Turning  to  the  Greek  Church  we  find  a  more 
promising  field  for  missionary  zeal.  The  Bul- 
garians are  first  heard  of  as  a  race  of  Finnish  or 
Tatar  blood,  living  on  the  Volga.  In  the  7th 
century  a  portion  of  them  moved  southwest, 
crossed  the  Danube  and  spread  over  the  country 
between  that  river  and  the  Balkan  Mountains. 
The  Slavonic  tribes  occupying  this  region  sub- 
mitted to  the  newcomers,  but  in  turn  gave  their 
language    to    their    barbaric    conquerers.     The 


Bulgarians  received  Christianity  during  the  9th 
century.  Cyril,  the  theologian,  and  Methodius, 
the  painter,  both  natives  of  Salonica,  were  the 
apostles  of  this  race.  King  Borogis  was  im- 
pressed by  a  painting  representing  the  Judgment 
Day,  and  the  conversion  of  the  whole  nation  fol- 
lowed. After  a  sharp  contest  between  the  eccle- 
siastical powers  at  Rome  and  Constantinople,  the 
Bulgarians  received  an  archbishop  from  the 
Greek  Church,  and  have  ever  since  been  loyal  to 
that  body.  The  Servians  and  Croats  were 
reached  by  these  same  missionaries. 

Christianity  reached  the  Czechs  of  Bohemia 
and  Moravia,  also  a  Slavonic  race,  a  little  later  in 
this  same  century  (9th).  Methodius  spent  the  last 
years  of  his  life  in  this  work.  The  Czechs  had 
already  been  reached  by  German  missionaries, 
but  not  until  the  baptism  of  Barziway,  the  Duke 
of  Bohemia,  and  his  wife,  and  the  arrival  of 
Methodius,  was  much  progress  made.  Even  then 
there  were  several  reactions.  Under  Boleslas  II. 
Christian  influence  predominated  and  a  bishopric 
was  established  at  Prague  (973) .  A  century  later 
all  traces  of  paganism  had  vanished,  and  in  1092 
the  sacred  forests  were  cut  and  the  last  heathen 
priests  were  banished. 

The  most  important  conquest  of  Christianity 
during  this  period  was  the  conversion  of  the 
Russians  at  Kief.  The  traditions  linking  the 
Apostle  Andrew  to  this  country  must  be  set 
aside  entirely.  During  955  Princess  Olga 
visited  Constantinople,  and  was  so  impressed 
with  the  Christian  ceremonial  that  she  was  bap- 
tized and  adopted  the  Christian  faith.  Return- 
ing to  her  northern  home,  her  attempts  to  spread 
the  faith  were  for  a  long  while  inefi'ective. 
When  her  grandson  Vladimir  came  to  the  throne, 
missionaries  from  Muslims,  Jews,  Roman  and 
Greek  Christians  urged  upon  him  their  respec- 
tive religions.  After  some  superflcial  investiga- 
tion the  decision  was  in  favor  of  Greek  Christian- 
ity, which  brought  with  it  the  hand  of  the  sister 
of  the  Byzantine  emperor  in  marriage.  In  988 
Vladimir,  his  court,  and  all  his  subjects  were  bap- 
tized at  one  time  in  the  river  Dnieper  at  Kief. 
The  story  of  the  spread  of  Christianity  through- 
out the  vast  European  tracts  owned  by  Russia 
to-day  is  obscure.  The  consequences  of  the  con- 
version of  Vladimir,  however,  are  immeasurable. 

Greek  missionaries  from  Moravia  reached 
another  Slav  race,  the  Poles,  early  in  the  10th 
century.  In  966,  their  ruler,  who  had  married  a 
Bohemian  princess,  was  baptized,  and  a  large 
number  of  his  court  and  people  followed  him. 

The  gain  of  territory  that  must  have  aston- 
ished Christendom  most  during  this  period  was 
far  across  the  Northern  Atlantic,  in  Iceland  and 
Greenland.  Iceland  was  visited  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  8th  century  by  Irish  monks,  and  was 
settled  a  century  later  by  Norwegian  pagan  emi- 
grants. Through  their  mother  country  they 
became  acquainted  with  the  Gospel,  and  by  the 
year  1000  Christianity  was  officially  recognized  as 
the  religion  of  the  settlement.  Greenland  was 
discovered  in  the  9th  century  and  two  small 
Christian  settlements  were  established. 

Christendom  also  made  notable  gains  during 
this  period  through  the  checking  of  the  Saracens 
at  Constantinople  by  Leo  III.,  the  Isaurian,  and 
at  Tours  by  Charles  Martel  (752).  Crete  and 
Cyprus  were  soon  won  back  by  the  Byzantine 
Empire.  The  Muslims  were  out  of  place  in 
France,  and  soon  were  driven  out  of  Narbonne, 
Aries  and  Nimes.     In  Spain  Charles  the  Great 


853 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Geography 


pushed  them  back  to  the  Ebro.  In  1017  Sar- 
dinia was  reclaimed  from  the  Saracen,  and,  in 
1050,  Corsica. 

Such  was  the  geographical  status  of  the  feudal 
church.  Altho  it  was  a  dark  age,  and  Moham- 
medanism almost  pressed  out  the  life  of  the 
church,  it  must  be  considered  on  the  whole  an  age 
of  astonishing  progress.  The  dark  age  was  above 
all  a  missionary  age.  It  prepared  the  soil  for  the 
more  substantial  harvests  that  were  to  be  reaped 
in  a  later  and  happier  era.  Its  gains  were 
mainly  superficial  and  so  were  its  losses.  Vital 
Christianity  was  not  swept  away  by  Islam. 

VI.  The  Crusading  Church  (1095-1500):  The 
geographical  gain  of  Christendom  during  this 
period  was  almost  altogether  military  in  character. 
The  appeal  everywhere  was  to  the  sword.  It 
was  a  desperate  fight  for  life  with  Islam  and 
paganism  in  Spain,  Sicily,  Palestine,  Asia  Minor, 
the  Balkan  peninsula,  Russia  and  along  the  Bal- 
tic. 

The  Crusades  did  little  or  nothing  for  the 
expansion  of  Christendom.  They  may,  however, 
have  put  a  check  upon  the  Seljuk  Turk,  which 
gave  Europe  a  respite  before  the  more  serious 
onset  of  the  Ottoman  Turk. 

The  first  crusade  was  proclaimed  by  Pope 
Urban  II.  at  Clermont,  1095,  and  in  1290  Acre, the 
last  Christian  stronghold  in  Syria,  fell,  bringing 
the  Crusades  to  an  end.  The  Crusades  broke  the 
aggressiveness  of  the  Seljuks,  but  the  capture  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Crusaders  weakened  the 
Byzantine  Empire  so  that  it  was  powerless 
against  the  Ottoman  Turks,  who  appeared  on  the 
scene  of  action  during  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury. By  1299  they  were  firmly  established  on 
the  borders  of  the  already  lessening  Byzantine 
Empire,  with  Brusa  as  their  capital.  With  the 
ex:;eption  of  Trebizond,  Cilicia,  the  strip  of 
land  along  the  Bosphorus,  and  a  few  fragments, 
the  Christian  emperors  of  Constantinople  had 
lost  all  their  Asiatic  possessions  by  1340.  The 
well-disciplined  Ottoman  army  entered  Europe 
1354,  and  held  Adrianople  within  seven  years. 
Then  followed  a  rapid  advance  to  the  Danube 
and  down  along  the  Hellenic  peninsula.  Servia 
and  Wallachia  from  being  dependent  states 
soon  became  a  part  of  the  Sultan's  dominions. 
A  momentary  check,  caused  by  the  victory  of 
Tamerlane  over  Bajazet  at  Angora,  1402,  gave 
Constantinople  a  brief  respite;  but  in  1453  the 
last  vestiges  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire  fell 
with  the  capital  city.  The  movement  of  the 
Ottoman  now  was  northward.  The  heroism  of 
the  Christian  nations  of  Southeastern  Europe, 
unaided  to  any  valuable  extent  by  Western 
Europe,  was  of  no  avail  against  the  Muslim 
battalions,  armed  with  the  most  approved 
weapons.  The  whole  southern  shore  of  the 
Euxine  was  gained.  The  remainder  of  the 
Greek  mainland  followed,  with  Albania  and 
Bosnia.  Euboea  fell  and  the  other  islands  fol- 
lowed, the  brave  Knights  of  St.  John  holding  on 
to  Rhodes  to  the  last.  Early  in  the  next  period 
the  Janizaries  crossed  the  Danube,  took  Hungary, 
Transylvania,  Podolia,  and  controlled  the  whole 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  During  the  last  part  of 
the  17th  century  the  tide  turned  and  European 
Christendom  has  ever  since  slowly  but  surely 
been  recovering  its  territory  from  the  Muslims. 

In    the    meanwhile    another    Mongol    horde, 

gagan    as    to    religion,    had    been    penetrating 
hristendom    further    to    the    north.     Genghis 
Khan,    after   spreading    his    rule    through    vast 


regions  in  Asia,  moved  westward  north  of  the 
Caspian,  invaded  Russia,  captured  Moscow, 
Kief,  burned  Cracow  and  defeated  the  German 
armies  under  Henry  the  Pious  at  Wahlstatt 
(1241).  Then  the  Mongols  retired  from  Europe, 
leaving  the  "Golden  Horde"  on  the  lower 
Volga,  which  for  two  centuries  kept  Russia  in 
turmoil.  At  length,  late  in  the  15th  century, 
Moscow  and  Novgorod  and  other  dependent 
Russian  states  threw  themselves  against  the 
several  khanates  into  which  the  "Horde"  had 
been  broken  up,  and,  under  such  leaders  as  Ivan 
the  Great  and  Ivan  III.,  succeeded  in  making 
the  Tatars  dependent.  The  long-drawn  battle 
between  Russian  and  Tatar  (Turk)  still  goes  on, 
and  must  to  the  end.  The  Nestorians  seem  to 
have  been  favored  by  the  Tatars  of  this  time, 
who  accepted  their  missionaries.  The  mysterious 
Prester  John  was  a  Tatar  prince  converted  in  the 
12th  century.  Late  in  this  period  another  Mon- 
gol appears — Tamerlane — a  descendant  of  Gen- 
ghis Khan,  but  a  Muslim  who  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  the  countries  from  China  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  from  the  Volga  to  Egypt.  He 
defeated  the  "Golden  Horde,"  and  thus  indirectly 
helped  the  Russian  Christians,  but  in  his  bloody 
advances  in  Asia  he  made  havoc  with  the  Nes- 
torian  churches  in  the  far  East  and  Central  Asia. 
Christianity  was  almost  completely  blotted  out 
of  those  regions.  A  few  colonies  of  Nestorians 
remained,  which  were  visited  by  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. 
Tamerlane  died  in  1405. 

Turning  to  the  southwestern  corner  of  Europe 
there  were  in  this  period  substantial  geographical 
gains  for  Christendom.  As  in  Russia  so  in  Spain, 
no  outside  forces  were  called  in  during  the  long, 
successful  crusade.  At  the  middle  of  the  14th 
century  the  Moors  were  hemmed  up  in  the  moun- 
tainous retreats  of  Granada.  At  length,  through 
the  joint  efforts  of  the  King  of  Aragon  and  the 
Queen  of  Castile,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the 
last  rampart  was  taken,  and  in  1492  Boabdil,  the 
last  Saracen  ruler,  sailed  away  to  Africa. 

Turning  to  the  land  of  the  Baltic,  a  most  inter- 
esting gain  to  the  territory  of  Christendom  during 
this  period,  came  through  the  valor  of  the  Teu- 
tonic knights.  In  the  11th  century  some  prog- 
ress had  been  made  among  the  Wends,  a  Slavonic 
people  living  on  the  Baltic  between  the  Elbe  and 
the  Vistula.  Gottschalk,  their  ruler,  suffered 
martyrdom  in  1066.  Vicelin  worked  among 
them  in  the  following  century  successfully,  and 
the  Wends  slowly  accepted  Christianity.  In 
1155  Saint  Eric,  the  Swedish  king,  undertook 
the  conquest  and  conversion  of  Finland,  across 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  This  crusade  against 
heathenism  went  on  for  centuries  with  varied  suc- 
cess, but  the  Christianity  of  Finland  was  super- 
ficial until  after  the  Reformation.  The  Knights 
of  the  Sword,  or  Sword-bearers,  conquered  Lap- 
land early  in  the  13th  century,  and  Prussia  was 
gained  by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  or  Knights  of  St. 
Mary,  a  little  later.  Lithuania  and  Pomerania 
were  next  won.  Heathenism  gave  way  to  the 
Cross  at  nearly  every  point,  and  at  last  Russian 
Christianity  was  met  more  than  half  way  by  the 
militant  faith  from  the  west. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  justify  the  calling  of 
this  the  crusading  era  of  Christendom.  Very 
little  missionary  work  of  the  ordinary  kind  was 
done  during  these  stirring  centuries.  In  1265 
mendicant  friars  were  sent  among  the  Moguls  by 
Innocent  IV.     In  1315  a  disastrous  attempt  was 


Geography 

German   ETansellcal 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


S54: 


made  to  convert  Muslims  in  Africa.  Franciscans 
in  Northwestern  Persia  are  said  to  have  had  sev- 
eral thousand  adherents  at  the  close  of  the  14th 
century.  In  1344  the  Canary  Islands,  off  the 
Atlantic  coast,  became  a  fief  of  the  Pope.  The 
Madeiras  (1418-20),  the  Azores  (1432-57)  and  the 
northwest  coast  of  Africa  (1486-97)  received  mis- 
sionaries. The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  reached, 
the  way  to  the  East  Indies  opened  up,  and  a  new 
world  was  discovered  just  at  the  close  of  this 
period  and  the  whole  geographical  problem  that 
faced  the  Christian  Church  began  to  be  under- 
stood. 

VII.  The  Colonizing  Church  (1500-1700): 
Great  as  had  been  the  expansion  of  Christendom 
in  each  of  the  previous  periods,  that  of  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries  was  unexampled.  The  Rus- 
sian Church,  after  the  defeat  of  the  "Golden 
Horde,"  quickly  spread  all  over  the  territory 
now  occupied  by  European  Russia.  In  1580 
Gen.  Yermak  crossed  the  Ural  Mountains,  and 
within  eighty  years  the  Pacific  was  reached  and 
over  4,000,000  square  miles  were  added  to  the 
territories  of  Christendom — the  whole  upper  half 
of  the  largest  continent  in  the  world.  Church 
and  state  went  hand  in  hand.  The  zeal  of  the 
Church  carried  it  over  the  straits  to  Japan,  and 
across  the  arm  of  the  sea  to  Alaska. 

But  the  great  expansion  of  Christendom  took 
place  across  the  Atlantic,  largely  under  the  ban- 
ners of  Spain,  Portugal  and  France,  and  through 
the  instrumentality  of  Dominicans,  Franciscans, 
and    Jesuits.     The    fervid    imagination    of    the 
Church  was  set  on  fire  by  the  great  discoveries 
of  this  peiiod.     The  chivalric  spirit  threw  itself 
into  the  work  of  the  discoverer  and  the  mission- 
ary.     By     1585     Mexico     was     conquered     and 
brought  nominally  to  Christianity,  somewhat  in 
the  same  way  as  the  greater  part  of  Europe  had 
been.     A    little    later    Central    America,    Peru, 
Chile  and  the  rest  of  South  America,  with  the 
exception   of   the   extreme   southern   peninsula, 
were  dealt  with  in  a  similar  fashion.     Paraguay 
was  a  republic  under  the  Jesuits  as  early  as  1586. 
California,  New  Mexico  and  Horida  were  reached. 
The    earliest    attempt    of    Protestants    to    do 
foreign  missionary  work  was  also  colonial  in  qual- 
ity.    Under  the  patronage  of  Coligny  a  mission- 
ary colony  was  undertaken  in  Brazil  in  1555,  but 
the  venture  which,  after  all,  was  more  political 
than   religious   in   its   character,   soon   collapsed 
through  the  treachery  of  the  leader.     In  1559 
Gustavus  Vasa  began  mission  work  in  Lapland, 
and   substantial    progress    was    made.     Another 
attempt    at    planting    a    missionary    colony    in 
America,    made    by    Coligny    under    Ribaut    in 
Florida,   was  unsuccessful,  the  colonists  having 
been  savagely  butchered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the 
so-called  "last  crusade."     In  the  meantime  the 
English  colonies  in  North  America  brought  sub- 
stantial gains  to  the  territories  of  Christendom. 
France   pushed   up   the   St.    Lawrence   and   the 
Jesuit  missionaries  found  their  way  to  the  great 
lakes.     In  the  meantime  actual  missionary  work 
was  pushed  vigorously  in  the  East.     The  Fran- 
ciscans  were   the   vanguard.     The   bishopric   of 
Goa    was    established    in    1520.     In    1528    the 
Capuchin    order    was    founded.     In     1540    the 
Societas  Jesu  was  established  at  Rome.     Francis 
Xavier  went  to  India  and  Japan.     Father  Ricci 
was   in   China.     In    1622   the    Propaganda    was 
organized  at  Rome.     Great  but  ineffectual  efforts 
were  made  to  do  missionary  work  in  Africa,  espe- 
cially on  the  Congo  and  in  Morocco.     In  1688  the 


missionaries  were  expelled  from  Japan,  and  a  ter- 
rible massacre  of  native  Christians  occurred.  The 
Dutch  followed  upon  the  heels  of  the  Portuguese 
in  the  East  Indies.  In  1602  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company  was  chartered.  Ceylon  was 
taken  (1636),  as  well  as  Java,  Formosa,  Amboy- 
na,  Sumatra,  Celebes  and  other  islands.  The 
natives  were  forcibly  Christianized. 

The  map  of  the  globe  by  the  year  1700  was 
fairly  complete.  The  great  discoveries  had  all 
been  made.  The  Christian  world  was  at  last 
fully  aware  of  the  nature  of  the  world-problem. 
Siberia,  South  America,  Central  America  and 
Mexico,  the  West  India  Islands  and  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  in  North  America  were  the  special 
additions  to  the  territory  of  Christendom;  in  all 
fully  12,000,000  square  miles. 

yill.  The  Church  Evangelistic  (1700-  ): 
It  is  not  until  we  enter  this  period  of  the  geo- 
graphical expansion  of  Christendom  that  we  find 
the  Church  pushing  forward  at  all  systematically 
to  the  conquest  of  the  globe  for  Jesus  Christ, 
and  regaining  the  apostolic  principle  that  such 
expansion  only  is  gain  as  carries  with  it  the 
hearts  of  the  people  of  any  territory  newly  occu- 
pied. The  Propaganda  was  founded  at  Rome  in 
1622,  but  during  the  18th  and  19th  centuries  all 
the  religious  bodies  of  Western  Christendom 
have  one  by  one  awakened  to  the  duty  of  over- 
coming paganism  and  Mohammedanism.  With 
experiments  of  the  German  pietists  in  the  Danish 
mission  in  Tranquebar  in  1705,  and  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  little  Moravian  Church  at  Herrnhut  in 
1732,  a  new  spirit  appeared  among  Protestant 
Christians.  A  desire  to  obey  the  command  of 
Jesus  began  to  spread  which  was  not  alloyed  by 
political  aims  or  entanglements.  Men  in  the 
different  denominations  began  to  feel  for  means 
of  securing  the  extension  of  the  kingdom  in  lands 
entirely  closed  to  the  influence  of  the  Gospel. 
Among  these  prophets  of  a  new  era  for  the  Prot- 
estant world,  Carey  stood  almost  alone  in  1792, 
but  his  words  carried  conviction,  and  the  great 
missionary  societies  sprang  up  one  after  another 
and  sent  out  their  messengers  until  the  pagan 
world  is  covered  with  a  network  of  the  agencies 
of  evangelization;  the  Gospel  is  being  preached 
and  printed  in  every  great  language  and  in  num- 
bers of  lesser  dialects;  the  children  and  youth  of 
heathendom  are  having  their  minds  molded  in 
Christian  schools  and  a  new  type  of  manhood, 
purer,  kindlier  and  more  spiritually-minded,  is 
attracting  the  people  to  enquire  whence  it  has 
come.  A  summary  of  progress  and  results  dur- 
ing this  period  will  be  found  in  the  article  Modem 
Missions,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

As  we  look  on  the  map  and  discover  small  par- 
cels of  pagan  territory  like  Hawaii,  Samoa,  Fiji, 
New  Zealand  and  other  islands  of  the  Pacific 
which  have  been  entirely  Christianized  within  a 
century,  and  as  we  see  men  who  were  heathen 
like  the  people  of  these  islands,  like  those  of 
Southern  India,  of  Japan,  of  South  Africa,  of 
Uganda,  who  are  seriously  taking  up  the  work  of 
evangelization,  it  is  clear  that  this  period  of  the 
expansion  of  Christendom  is  to  continue  until  the 
maps  of  the  world  show  no  point  which  has  not 
heard  and  adopted  in  some  sort  the  gracious  laws 
of  the  King  of  Kings. 

GEORGENHOLTZ:  A  settlement  in  the  Trans- 
vaal Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  in  the  Zoutpans- 
berg  region  on  the  River  Pafari.  Station  of  the 
Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1877),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  5  native  workers. 


255 


THE   ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Geography 
German  Evangelical 


GEORGETOWN:  Capital  of  British  Guiana, 
South  America,  situated  on  the  right  banic  of  the 
Demerara  River,  near  its  mouth  and  where  it  is 
nearly  one  mile  wide.  It  has  a  surprisingly  large 
number  of  deaths  from  consumption  every  year, 
due,  it  is  said,  to  overcrowding.  The  population 
is  (1891)  53,200.  The  city  was  formerly  called 
Stabroch.  It  was  occupied  as  a  mission  station 
by  the  WMS  in  1815  and  since  1885  has  been 
under  control  of  the  Eastern  Annual  Conference 
of  the  Wesleyans  of  the  West  Indies,  with  (1901) 
6  missionaries,  men  and  women;  6  outstations, 
8  preaching  places,  6  day  schools  and  about 
2,000  professing  Christians.  In  1903,  by  request 
of  the  Conference  of  the  West  Indies,  the  WMS 
decided  to  resume  the  charge  of  work  in  this  field. 
Station  also  of  the  SPG  (1855),  of  the  Seventh 
Day  Adventists  (1887),  of  the  PB,  of  the  NBC 
(1892)  and  of  the  AME,  the  last  named  societies 
having  together  (1900)  18  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  28  native  workers,  men  and  women;  and 
880  communicants, 

GEORGIAN  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  Ural- 
Altaic  family  of  languages  and  the  Caucasus 
branch.  It  seems  to  stand  aloof  from  other  lan- 
guages, showing  affinity  for  them  solely  by  the 
words  which  it  has  borrowed.  It  is  written  with 
characters  peculiar  to  itself  and  with  the  further 
peculiarity  of  having  two  alphabets,  one  of  which 
is  known  to  the  priests  only  and  is  used  for  sacred 
purposes,  while  the  alphabet  known  to  the  people 
is  considered  too  profane  for  use  in  the  best  litera- 
ture. 

GERLACHSTHAL.     See  SPHmopoNTEix. 

GERMAN  EAST  AFRICA :  A  German  protect- 
orate and  sphere  of  influence,  lying  between 
Portuguese  E.  Africa  and  British  Central  Africa 
on  the  south  and  British  E.  Africa  and  Lake 
Victoria  Nyanza  on  the  north.  It  has  a  coast 
line  on  the  Indian  Ocean  of  about  620  miles,  and 
extends  west  to  Lake  Tanganyika  and  the  Congo 
Free  State.  The  area  is  383,079  square  miles, 
the  population  (estimated)  6,750,000,  mostly 
composed  of  Bantu  negroes.  The  German  E. 
African  Company  in  1888  acquired  a  fifty  years' 
lease  of  the  coast  territor}',  and  in  1890  the  Ger- 
man Government  bought  the  rights  of  the  Sultan 
of  Zanzibar,  by  whom  the  lease  had  been  made, 
thus  acquiring  a  protectorate  over  a  territory 
larger  by  one-half  than  the  entire  German  empire 
in  Europe.  A  convention  with  England  has  fixed 
the  boundaries  between  the  protectorate  and  the 
British  E.  African  territories.  The  seaboard 
(the  Swahili  coast)  is  a  swampy  and  alluvial 
region,  intersected  by  numerous  streams.  The 
climate  is  malarious,  the  rainfall  abundant,  and 
vegetation  luxuriant.  All  the  tropical  plants 
and  several  European  species  flourish.  Moun- 
tain ranges,  toward  which  the  coast  region  gently 
rises,  separate  this  region  from  the  plateaus 
which  form  the  water-shed  between  the  sources 
of  the  seaward  rivers  and  of  those  of  the  Congo 
region.  The  regions  west  of  Usagara  and  Nguru, 
consisting  of  waterless  plains,  have  a  dry  climate 
and  are  largely  sterile.  The  first  of  these  plains 
separates  the  Usagara  from  the  populous  district 
of  Ugogo.  Beyond  that  district  a  second  arid 
plain  is  crossed,  and  the  water-shed,  averaging 
from  4,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  is  reached.  Hence  flows  the  Shimuyu  River 
northward  to  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  whence, 
emerging,  it  becomes  the  Nile.  The  Rufigi  also 
rises  here  and  flows  eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 


and  streams  which  empty  into  Lake  Tanganyika, 
and  thence  find  their  way  to  the  Congo,  have 
their  birth  here.  A  railway  is  open  from  Tanga 
to  Mombo  (82  miles).  There  are  well-kept  roads 
between  the  principal  towns. 

The  principal  inhabitants  of  the  German  Pro- 
tectorate are: 

1.  The  Swahili  (or  coast  tribes),  the  people  of 
the  coast  and  island  of  Zanzibar.  They  are  of 
Bantu  stock,  and,  while  intermingled  with  immi- 
grants from  all  the  neighboring  regions,  have  a 
national  unity  supplied  by  their  profession  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion.  The  Arab  element  has 
enriched  .and  extended  their  langu.age,  modi- 
fied their  usages,  and  developed  their  trading 
instincts. 

The  Swahili  language  is  the  general  medium  of 
intercourse  with  the  tribes  of  the  interior,  and  is 
spoken  of  as  one  of  the  12  most  important  lan- 
guages of  the  world,  with  reference  to  the  vast 
area  over  which  it  is  spoken.  Besides  the  Bible 
and  many  religious  treatises,  it  possesses  already 
collections  of  proverbs,  legends,  poems,  etc.,  and 
its  literature  is  receiving  constant  accessions. 
The  Arabic  alphabet  is  being  replaced  by  the 
Roman. 

2.  The  Wasagara,  inhabiting  chiefly  the 
Usagara  highlands,  which  separate  the  coast 
regions  from  the  interior  plateaus,  have,  in  some 
of  their  clans,  become  more  or  less  civilized 
through  intercourse  with  explorers,  while  other 
clans  remain  in  unrelieved  barbarism.  Their 
language  is  widely  extended.  The  pierced  lower 
lobe  of  the  ear,  which  sometimes  hangs  down  so 
as  to  touch  the  shoulder,  serves  to  hold  tobacco- 
pouches,  instruments,  etc.,  and  is  a  mark  of 
freedom.  Slaves  are  forbidden  to  pierce  or  orna- 
ment the  ears. 

3.  The  Wazaramo  are  coterminous  with  the 
Swahili  tribes  on  the  west.  Contact  with  the 
coast  people  has  had  a  civilizing  influence  upon 
some  of  the  tribes,  who  wear  the  Arab  dress  and 
have  discontinued  many  of  the  ferocious  prac- 
tises which  still  prevail  among  their  kin  in  the 
remoter  districts.  They  do  not  practise  circum- 
cision, tho  in  many  respects  under  Moham- 
medan influence.  Their  possession  of  firearms 
renders  them  formidable  slave-hunters. 

There  are  7  Protestant  missionary  societies 
operating  in  this  region-  the  German  East  Africa 
Mission,  the  Berlin,  the  Leipzig,  and  the  Mora- 
vian societies  and  the  Universities  Mission  and 
the  CMS.  The  whole  number  of  stations  occu- 
pied is  36. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Missions  have  their  head- 
quarters at  Bagamoyo. 

GERMAN  EVANGELICAL  SYNOD  of  North 
America  (1884) :  Previous  to  1884,  all  the  foreign 
missionary  work  of  the  Synod  was  done  through 
European  societies.  Those  interested  in  the  work, 
however,  felt  that  they  should  have  work  of  their 
own,  and  a  monthly  periodical  called  The  Mis- 
sionary was  issued  to  stir  up  the  people  with  this 
end  in  view.  Another  element  in  the  denomina- 
tion, intimately  connected  with  the  Basel  Society, 
the  North  German  Society  (of  Barmen),  etc., 
desiring  that  these  societies  should  be  supported, 
began  the  publication  of  the  Evangelical  Friend 
of  Missions,  to  advocate  their  cause.  Many 
members  of  the  Synod  deprecated  this  course, 
and  a  committee  of  nine  was  appointed  to  consid- 
er the  advisability  of  the  Synod's  undertaking 
an  independent  foreign  work  and  to  report  to  a 
general  meeting  of  the  Synod  in  1883. 


German  Inner 
Oerman  SoathTreat 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


aoe 


Besides  the  above  named  missionary  interests 
an  independent,  union  mission  society  had  been 
organized  during  the  year  1865,  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  by  members  of  various  churches  and 
denominations,  including  Lutherans,  German 
Presbyterians,  Moravians,  German  and  Dutch 
Reformed,  and  Evangelicals.  The  official  name 
of  the  society  was  German  Evangelical  Mission 
Society  in  the  United  States.  It  sent  the  Rev. 
Oscar  Lohr  to  India,  in  1867,  with  instructions 
to  choose  his  special  field  of  labor  according  to 
God's  leading.  Through  the  pleadings  of  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Cooper  of  Nagpur,  on  behalf  of  the 
Chamars  of  Central  India,  he  was  induced  to 
begin  work  among  these  people,  the  first  station 
being  established  at  Bisrampur,  near  Raipur. 
The  work  was  placed  on  a  firm  material  basis, 
inasmuch  as  Mr.  Lohr  was  able  to  buy  a  large 
tract  of  land  (1,926  acres),  upon  which  he  colo- 
nized his  first  converts.  This  tract  is  the  site  of 
Bisrampur  station.  By  1883  two  outstations 
had  been  established  at  Ganeshpore  and  Raipur. 

This  union  organization  having  found  that  it 
could  not  support  the  growing  enterprise  in  India, 
proposed  to  the  General  Conference  of  the  Synod 
that  it  undertake  the  care  and  support  of  this 
work.  The  offer  was  accepted  and  in  1884  the 
mission  was  transferred.  At  that  date  there 
were  but  two  ordained  missionaries  in  this  field. 

The  two  mission  publications  were  merged  into 
the  Deutscher  Missionsfreund,  published  monthly 
in  German.  The  missionary  work  of  the  Synod 
is  controlled  by  a  Board  of  seven  members, 
elected  every  four  years  by  the  General  Confer- 
ence. The  increase  in  the  interest  of  the  churches 
at  home  has  kept  pace  with  the  gradual  expansion 
of  the  work  in  India,  the  direct  contributions 
increasing  from  $8,000  in  1891  to  nearly  $21,000 
in  1902.     The  only  field  of  the  Synod  is  India. 

There  are  (1903)  4  stations  and  44  outstations, 
15  American  missionaries,  119  native  workers, 
and  2,263  communicants.  There  are  also  pri- 
mary schools  and  orphanages,  and  an  asylum  for 
lepers  at  Chandkuri,  with  financial  assistance 
from  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the  East. 

GERMAN  INNER  MISSIONS:  Inner  missions 
embrace  the  whole  work  of  loving  faith  in  Christ 
as  Rescuer,  and  seek  by  the  Gospel  and  its  applied 
truth  in  deeds  of  mercy  "to  renew,  within  and 
without,  the  condition  of  those  multitudes  in 
Christendom  upon  whom  has  fallen  the  power  of 
manifold  external  and  internal  evils,  which  spring 
directly  or  indirectly  from  sin,  so  far  as  they  are 
not  reached  by  the  usual  Christian  offices  with 
the  means  necessary  for  their  renewal."  (Wichern) . 
All  evil  of  every  kind,  in  every  social  form  and 
every  class  of  men,  is  to  be  overcome  (1)  by  the 
fullest,  freest  spreading  of  the  Gospel,  (2)  by 
careful,    comprehensive  Christian  charity. 

History:  While  the  unified  labor  as  well  as  the 
definition  of  Inner  Missions  did  not  begin  before 
Johann  Hinrich  Wichern  (born  1808,  died  1881), 
its  direct  precursors  in  evangelization,  apart  from 
the  indirect  stimulus  of  the  Reformation  and 
Pietism,  were  the  "Christenthums-Gesellschaft," 
founded  by  J.  A.  Urlsperger  (Augsburg,  1780), 
a  union  of  all  living  Christians  to  relieve  the  spir- 
itual destitution  of  the  masses,  the  Bible  societies 
(the  earliest:  Nuremberg,  1804;  Stuttgart,  1812; 
Berlin,  1814),  the  Tract  societies  (Wupperthal, 
1814;  Berlin,  1814;  Hamburg,  1820),  the  Gustav 
Adolf  Society,  to  aid  evangelical  Christians  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries  with  churches  and 
pastors   (founded    November    6,    1832    by   Dr. 


Grossmann  of  Leipzig).  In  social  works  of  mercy 
J.  Fr.  Oberlin  (1740-1826),  the  uplifter  of  the 
Alsatian  Steinthal;  Freiherr  v.  Kottwitz  (1757- 
1843),  the  provider  of  work  for  the  poor  in  Berlin 
(1806);  Johannes  Falk  (1768-1826),  the  founder 
of  the  orphans'  home  at  Weimar;  Christian  H. 
Zeller  (1779-1860),  founder  of  the  Institute  of 
Mercy  and  for  Teachers  among  the  poor  in  Beug- 
gen;  Amalia  Sieveking  (1794-1859),  "the  Tabitha 
of  Hamburg,"  are  to  be  specially  noted. 

In  1833  Wichern  founded  a  home  for  the  rescue 
of  depraved  children  in  Horn,  near  Hamburg 
(Das  Rauhe  Haas),  and  developed  a  brother- 
hood. Independently,  Theo.  Fliedner  (1836)  uni- 
versally renewed  the  female  diaconate.  In  1848, 
at  the  "Wittenberg  Kirchentag"  (diet),  Wichern 
first  aroused  evangelical  Germany  to  enthusiasm 
for  the  whole  work  of  Inner  Missions.  In  his 
"Denkschrift,"  Die  Innere  Mission  der  Deutschen 
Evangelischen  Kirche  (1849),  Wichern  outlined 
the  whole  program  of  Inner  Missions.  It  was 
necessitated  by  special,  epidemic  conditions  of 
sin,  which  could  not  be  met  by  family.  State  and 
Church.  Inner  Missions,  twin-sister  to  Foreign 
Missions,  sought  especially  the  baptized  that  had 
lapsed.  But  in  charitable  work  they  had  a  wider 
scope.  With  the  Church  there  was  to  be  free 
cooperation,  the  churchly  offices  were  to  be 
respected,  the  confessional  limits  were  not  to  be 
disturbed,  but  each  confession  was  to  work  sepa- 
rately in  the  common  spirit  of  Christ's  love.  Of 
the  State  and  its  ecclesiastical  administration 
only  the  right  of  free  association  was  asked.  A 
central  board  and  district  societies  were  to  be 
organized.  The  spiritually  dead  were  to  be 
revived,  the  general  social  condition  was  to  be 
raised  by  Christian  methods  to  be  determined  by 
the  special  needs  and  the  locality.  Wichern's 
program  gave  the  whole  outline  of  Inner  Missions 
and  largely  determined  their  development.  They 
were  at  first  opposed  by  confessional  Lutheranism, 
especially  by  Petri  in  Hanover,  as  leading  to 
wrong  unionism,  checking  the  activity  of  the 
ministerial  office,  and  usurping  the  work  of  the 
church.  But  confessional  Lutheranism  agreed 
with  the  spirit  of  love  begotten  of  faith,  and  in 
Wilhelm  Loehe  in  Neuendettelsau,  Bavaria  (1808- 
1872),  arose  the  promoter  of  Inner  Missions  in 
the  strict  Lutheran  acceptation. 

The  union  of  all  forces  since  1848  caused  such 
developments  as  the  homes  for  laborers  (Perthes 
in  Bonn),  Martha  Homes  for  servants,  the  Chris- 
tian foundling  asylums,  and  the  Christian  care 
of  idiots  and  epileptics  (the  largest  epileptic  home 
is  in  Bielefeld;  Pastor  Bodelsch wingh) .  System- 
atic care  of  the  poor  was  stimulated  by  Pastor 
Shunk  in  Erlangen,  and  by  work  in  Elberfeld. 
Social  cooperation  in  loan  societies  was  promoted 
by  Fr.  W.  Raffeisen  in  Flammersfeld,  while  G. 
Werner  in  Reutlingen  sought  by  "brother-houses" 
to  develop  a  Christian  socialism.  Since  1871 
Inner  Missions  received  scientific  recognition, 
and  are  now  taught  in  the  universities.  In 
practical  work  all  lines  of  evangelistic  and  char- 
itable endeavor  have  been  begun,  but  of  special 
importance  are  the  Christian  social  work  to 
oppose  unchristian  socialism  (Court  Preacher 
Stoecker  of  Berlin),  and  evangelization  (Pastor 
Schrenk). 

Purpose:  The  purpose  of  Inner  Missions  in  the 
evangelistic  branch  is  to  bring  the  Gospel  to  the 
masses,  and  to  care  for  souls  whom  the  regular 
work  of  the  state  church  does  not  reach.  Indi- 
rectly   and    without  criticizing  or  hindering  the 


267 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


German  Inner 
German  Sontbwest 


established  church.  Inner  Missions  spiritualize 
those  who  lack  living  faith.  In  diaconic  worlc 
Inner  Missions  seek  to  perform  the  tasks  of  mercy 
which  rest  upon  family,  state  and  church,  and 
which  these  forms  of  social  organization  ought 
normally  to  undertake  and  accomplish  with  their 
means,  but  which  they  cannot,  or  cannot  yet 
accomplish  because  of  accidental,  historical 
reasons. 

Workers:  As  its  agents,  Inner  Missions  employ 
ministers  as  itinerants,  or  superintendents  of 
institutions  or  city  missions,  trained  male  workers 
like  the  brothers  of  the  Rauhe  Haus,  or  deacons, 
patterned  after  the  service  of  the  ancient  church, 
and  frequently  deaconesses,  who  represent  the 
ancient  female  ministry  of  mercy  (See  Deacon- 
esses). But  in  addition  many  free  laborers  are 
required,  and,  by  emphasis  upon  the  spiritual 
priesthood  of  believers,  all  Christians  are  en- 
couraged to  help. 

The  Work:  This  includes  (1)  training  of  chil- 
dren in  day  nurseries,  Christian  kindergartens, 
Sunday  schools,  orphanages,  or  educational 
societies;  (2)  the  protection  and  education  of  the 
young  in  industrial  schools  for  girls,  homes  for 
servant  girls,  young  women's  and  men's  associa- 
tions, homes  for  apprentices  and  for  traveling 
workmen  (Herbergen  zur  Heimat);  (3)  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  asylums  for  deaf  and  dumb,  blind, 
idiots,  epileptics,  insane,  cripples,  children's 
hospitals;  by  fresh-air  work,  and  through  nursing 
of  the  sick  poor  in  their  homes;  (4)  the  protection 
of  the  endangered,  as  workmen  wandering  from 
place  to  place  with  their  families,  seamen,  and 
emigrants;  (5)  the  reclamation  of  the  lost  in 
refuges  for  neglected  children,  homes  for  Magda- 
lens  and  inebriates,  farm  colonies  for  tramps,  and 
religious  work  among  prisoners;  (6)  efforts  to 
suppress  social  evils  through  city  missions,  parish 
work,  care  of  the  poor,  savings  banks,  loan  soci- 
eties. Christian  socialistic  endeavors;  (7)  evan- 
felizing  the  people  by  free  addresses,  preaching, 
istribution  of  sermons,  tracts.  Bibles,  and 
Christian  literature,  and  by  free  libraries. 

The  Methods  are  determined  with  care  and 
deliberation.  Besides  the  individual  workers 
there  is  a  central  advisory  board,  and  there  are 
district  associations  and  conventions  to  discuss 
the  problems.  To  obtain  what  is  needed,  societies 
are  organized.  The  society  (Gesellschaft)  is 
largely  a  financial  agency  to  secure  regular  con- 
tributions. Above  it  is  the  Association  (Genos- 
senschaft),  which  seeks  to  reach  some  social  bet- 
terment by  common  aid.  It  occurs  in  the  form 
of  building  associations,  workmen's  associations, 
beneficial  organizations,  but  all  on  a  Christian 
basis.  The  highest  associative  form  is  the  fel- 
lowship meeting  (Gemeinschaft).  This  demands 
religious  maturity  of  its  members,  who  unite  for 
prayer  and  edification  in  the  unity  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  danger  is  spiritual  pride,  but  when 
humility  is  retained  the  fellowship  is  the  salt  of 
the  whole  work.  In  addition  to  these  forms  of 
free  association  the  modern  Institution  is  needed 
for  the  helpers  as  well  as  those  helped.  While  the 
Institution  is  not  considered  the  finality,  it  is 
employed  as  the  available  means  for  training 
deacons,  deaconesses,  for  aiding  the  sick  and  desti- 
tute and  for  saving  the  depraved.  While  soci- 
eties and  institutions  appear  to  hinder  family 
life,  and  demand  sacrifice  of  the  workers,  yet  the 
aim  is  to  reestablish  the  home  for  others.  The 
family  altar  is  sought  to  be  reerected  in  homes; 
the  lost,  wherever  possible,  are  restored  to  their 


homes;  masters  and  workmen,  mistresses  and 
servants  are  brought  together  in  common  bonds. 
As  Inner  Missions  attempt  to  uphold  the  family, 
so  they  also  aid  the  state.  By  doing  work 
which  is  the  state's,  by  opening  up  the  popular 
understanding  of  real  needs,  they  induce  the 
state  finally  to  a  larger  and  better  care  of  the 
poor,  the  socially  neglected,  and  the  criminal. 
Better  legislation  is  fostered,  and  the  public 
conscience  aroused.  The  Church  is  the  goal  of 
all  this  work.  Many  workers  are  pastors,  and 
the  spiritual  work  is  directed  into  churchly 
channels.  The  state  church  and  its  governmental 
administration  will  not  allow  the  incorpora- 
tion of  Inner  Missions  in  the  church,  because  they 
would  lose  their  vitality,  become  official  and  fail 
in  interesting  and  finding  support  from  the  com- 
mon people.  But  whenever  occasion  permits, 
and  when  the  work  can  be  carried  on  successfully 
by  the  organized  state  church,  it  is  transferred. 
Still  the  principle  of  free  association  is  main- 
tained as  the  most  effective  stimulus. 

The  efficiency  of  Inner  Missions  is  best  seen  in 
their  development  of  all  works  of  mercy.  Almost 
every  field  has  been  occupied.  The  evangelistic 
work  has  constantly  grown.  The  general  relig- 
ious life  is  sober,  constant  rather  than  inter- 
mittent, sensational,  emotional.  Southern 
Germany,  especially  Wurtemberg,  has  a  larger 
element  of  feeling  in  its  religion.  The  fruitful- 
ness  of  consistent  life  is  not,  however,  larger. 
Least  effective  have  been  the  endeavors  to  meet 
socialistic  ideas  by  Christian  counterorganiza- 
tions  on  the  basis  of  a  Christian  socialism.  The 
ideals  of  Christian  socialism  are  either  too 
advanced  for  the  present  ethical  standard,  or 
unjustly  depreciate  true  individual  ownership 
and  right.  The  response  has,  therefore,  been 
comparatively  small. 

Schaefer  (Theo.),  Leitfaden  der  Inneren  Mission;  Wurster 
(P.),  Die  Lehre  von  der  Inneren  Mission;  Stevenson  (W.  F.),. 
Praying  and  Working;  Paton  (J.  B.),  The  Inner  Mission; 
Williams,  Relifjious  Life  in  Germany;  Wenner  (G.  U.\ 
The  Inner  Mission  of  Germany  (Evang.  Alliance,  1893) ; 
Henderson  (Chas.  R.),  The  German  Inner  Mission  (Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Sociology,  March,  May.  July,  1896). 

GERMAN  SOUTHWEST  AFRICA:  A  German 
dependency  on  the  west  African  coast  which  it 
borders  for  a  distance  of  930  miles  from  the 
boundaries  of  Angola  on  the  north  to  Cape 
Colony  on  the  south.  The  territory  reaches  to 
the  east  as  far  as  the  20th  parallel  and  is  bounded 
east  by  the  British  territory  of  Bechuanaland. 
It  includes  Damaraland  and  Namaqualand. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  326,117  square  miles  and 
the  population  at  250,000,  of  whom  4,674  are 
Europeans,  in  great  part  Germans. 

The  cliffs  stretch  with  greater  or  less  regularity 
parallel  to  the  coast,  and  at  an  average  distance 
inland  of  about  120  miles.  From  the  coast  to 
this  ridge  the  land  is  terraced.  The  land  west  of 
this  ridge  passes  through  deep  depressions  off 
into  the  Kalahari  Desert  and  the  Kubango  basin. 
The  rainfall  is  very  slight,  and  much  of  the  coast , 
is  a  sandy  waste,  tho  on  the  uplands  much 
pasturage  is  afforded,  and  in  the  northern  dis- 
tricts are  vast  fertile  plains.  Rich  copper  ores 
have  been  found  in  many  of  the  plateaus.  The 
population  is  very  sparse,  especially  in  the  south, 
where  droughts  and  famines  have  well-nigh  depop- 
ulated the  country.  Hottentots  occupy  about 
three-fourths  of  the  land,  and  constitute  about 
one-fifth  of  the  population.  To  the  north  are  the 
Bantu  tribes,  Hereros  and  Ovambos,  described 
as  robust,  intelligent,  and  industrious,  but  still 


Germany 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


258 


in  the  pastoral  stage.  The  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society  and  the  Finnish  Missionary  Society  have 
established  themselves  in  this  country.  Mission- 
aries have  great  influence  among  the  people. 
Their  work  commenced  in  1842,  and  they  have 
25  stations  in  the  territory. 

GERMANY ;  Missionary  Societies  in :  The  actual 
names  of  many  of  the  GermanMissionary  societies 
being  unfamiliar  to  English  readers,  search  for 
them  in  their  alphabetical  place  might  prove 
fruitless.  It  has  seemed  best,  therefore,  to  group 
them  in  this  place,  with  mere  reference  to  this 
article  in  their  alphabetical  order.  The  work  of 
the  Basel  Society,  territorially  distinct  from 
societies  established  within  the  German  Empire, 
and  that  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  which  has  an 
international  quality,  wUl  be  found  described  in 
the  alphabetical  place  of  each.  As  to  the  order 
in  which  the  societies  are  named  in  this  article, 
the  alphabetical,  rather  than  the  chronological, 
order  has  seemed  to  oiler  advantages  to  our 
readers;  altho  the  year  book  of  the  General 
Missionary  Conference  of  Saxony,  to  which  we 
are  much  indebted,  follows  the  other  order  of 
arrangement. 

Baptist  Missionary  Societt  {German):  This 
Society  has  relations  with  the  BMS,  but  carries  on 
independent  work  in  the  Kameruns.  Its  offices 
are  in  Berlin,  and  in  1902  it  had  in  the  Kameruns 
5  stations,  14  missionaries,  men  and  women;  40 
native  workers,  47  schools,  and  2,170  professing 
Christians. 
Periodical:    Unaere  Heidenmission,  monthly,  Beriin. 

Berlin  Missionary  Society  (Gesellschaft  zur 
Beforderung  der  Evangelischen  Missionen  uriter 
den  Heiden.  Often  mentioned  in  German  reports 
by  the  name  "Berlin  I."):  The  originator  of  the 
missionary  movement  in  Berlin  was  "Father" 
Janicke  (1748-1827),  a  man  of  honest,  tho  often 
rude,  earnestness,  who  was  an  almost  solitary 
witness  to  the  Gospel  in  a  time  of  little  faith.  He 
founded  in  Berlin  in  the  year  1800  a  school  for 
training  missionaries  which  rendered  noble  serv- 
ice to  the  cause  of  foreign  missions  during  more 
than  25  years. 

It  was  interest  aroused  in  missions  by  the  work 
of  Janicke's  school  which,  in  1823,  led  ten  men, 
including  Neander,  Tholuck,  von  Gerlach,  Lecoq, 
and  others,  to  issue  "An  Appeal  for  Charitable 
Contributions  in  Aid  of  Evangelical  Missions." 
They  next  presented  to  King  Frederick  William 
III.  the  status  for  a  society,  which  received  his 
approval,  and  the  organization  of  the  Berlin  Mis- 
sionary Society  was  completed  in  1824.  An 
effort  was  made,  but  unsuccessfully,  to  unite  this 
with  Janicke's  school.  Nevertheless,  a  few  years 
after  Janicke's  death  the  school  was  discontinued, 
and  the  royal  grant  was  transferred  to  the 
Berlin  Missionary  Society.  For  a  time  the  income 
was  divided  by  the  Society  chiefly  between 
Moravian  and  Basel  mission  work,  but  in  1830 
a  training  institute  on  the  same  general  basis  as 
Janicke's  was  started,  and  in  1834  the  Society  sent 
out  its  own  missionaries. 

Organization  and  Home  Department:  The  man- 
agement of  the  Society  is  in  the  hands  of  a  self- 
perpetuating  committee,  about  18  in  number. 
The  greater  part  of  the  funds  come  from  auxil- 
iary unions,  of  which  there  are  over  300  in  the 
different  states  of  Germany,  and  which  have  been 
combined  in  provincial  leagues.  The  training 
institute  is  the  chief  feature  of  the  Home  Depart- 
ment.    Applicants  must  have  a  good  common 


school  education;  be,  as  a  rule,  20  to  25  years  of 
age;  have  fixed  Christian  character  and  some 
maturity  of  Christian  experience;  have  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  Bible;  show  good  mental  abflity, 
especially  in  the  acquiring  of  languages.  A 
probationary  year  in  Berlin  is  required  and  then 
comes  the  course  of  five  years.  The  studies 
include  the  classics,  English,  Hebrew  and  Ger- 
man, exegesis,  church  history,  history  of  missions, 
theology,  etc.  Special  emphasis  is  laid  on  the 
devotional  study  of  the  Bible. 

An  important  factor  in  aU  the  Gern^an  societies 
is  their  relation  to  the  confessions,  liturgy,  and 
ecclesiastical  order  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The 
Basel  Society  is  very  broad  and  liberal  in  its  rela- 
tions. In  laying  down  the  principles  for  the 
Berlin  Society,  the  following  clause  was  inserted: 
"The  fraternal  cooperation  of  evangelical  Chris- 
tians of  all  confessions,  who  have  preached  the 
Word  according  to  the  Scriptures,  without  human 
additions  and  without  strife  over  unessential  dif- 
erences  of  opinion,  has  won  for  Christendom  much 
fruitful  territory  among  the  heathen  peoples." 

This  principle  has  been  in  spirit  the  ruling  one 
in  the  work  from  the  first,  but  not  without  inci- 
dents that  have  been  sometimes  embarrassing  to 
the  work.  There  was  the  more  variation  because 
the  circumstances  were  novel,  and  new  paths  had 
to  be  marked  out.  The  union  position  in  the 
statutes  in  1824  could  not  be  carried  out  to  the 
letter;  in  1833  the  first  missionaries  that  were 
sent  out  were  directed  to  model  churches  after 
the  Lutheran  plan,  for  the  great  majority  of  the 
supporters  were  of  the  confession.  In  the  years 
following  it  was  repeatedly  declared  that  the 
symbolic  books  of  the  Lutheran  Church  were  the 
basis  of  instruction  in  the  seminary  next  to  the 
Scriptures.  The  ministerial  rescript  of  1842, 
which  regulated  the  examination  and  ordination 
of  the  students  by  the  Consistory,  directed  that 
the  Augsburg  Confession  should  be  the  basis. 
The  instructions  given  to  the  missionaries  in  1859, 
and  again  the  revised  rules  of  1882,  require  of 
them  that  their  belief  and  teaching  shall  be  that 
of  the  "canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, according  to  the  Augsburg  (unchanged) 
Confession  and  the  Luther  Catechism."  These 
directions  are  not  regarded  as  being  in  conflict 
with  the  principles  of  the  statutes,  but  were  occa- 
sioned by  the  necessity  of  the  case.  Instruction, 
church  organization,  preaching,  must,  if  they  are 
to  go  beyond  the  first  principles,  be  in  accordance 
with  some  one  of  the  great  religious  systems.  la 
practise  the  disputed  points  can  be  kept  in  the 
background,  and  the  spirit  of  the  liberal  primciple 
that  was  laid  down  can  be  the  ruling  one. 

In  1850  and  1851,  while,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
mission  was  taking  on  a  more  confessional  char- 
acter, there  was  a  movement  on  the  part  of  a 
minority  of  the  committee  for  a  broader  platform. 
The  majority,  however,  were  against  such  aban- 
donment of  Lutheran  organizations;  the  crisis 
was  reached  when  one  of  the  inspectors  attempted 
to  introduce  ultra-Lutheran  ideas  into  the  sem- 
inary. This  was  intolerable  to  some  of  the 
students  and  committee;  the  withdrawal  of  the 
inspector  upon  his  lapse  to  the  Separated  Luth- 
eran party  restored  peace  to  the  Society. 

An  important  element  in  the  general  policy  of 
the  Society  is  the  aim,  constantly  kept  in  view, 
to  make  the  stations  self-supporting,  and  that 
not  only  through  the  beneficence  of  the  converts, 
but  by  profitable  enterprises  within  the  limits  of 
the  stations. 


S59 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


GermanT 


The  usual  method  of  establishing  a  station  is 
to  acquire  by  purchase  or  by  cession  a  property 
which  may  not  simply  serve  for  a  lot  on  which  to 
erect  the  buildings  of  the  mission  proper,  but  will 
be  large  enough  to  furnish  dwellings  for  the 
native  converts  who  are  to  constitute  the  parish. 
The  community  thus  gradually  grows  in  numbers 
by  settlement  upon  mission  land;  church  and 
dwelling-house  are  erected;  a  school  is  established 
and,  perhaps,  a  store,  a  mill,  or  whatever  enter- 
prises are  fitting,  one  aim  in  it  all  being  to  engage 
the  natives  in  some  civilizing  employment.  If 
the  size  of  the  station  warrants  it,  a  catechist 
comes  to  the  aid  of  the  missionary;  native  helpers 
are  employed;  outstations  are  opened  up,  and 
other  preachinjg  places  in  addition.  These  in 
turn  are  made  independent  of  the  original  one  as 
their  growth  or  prospects  warrant.  In  localities 
where  there  are  German  immigrants  as  well  as 
natives,  the  work  among  the  latter  often  begins 
as  a  branch  of  the  activity  of  the  former  in  their 
own  church. 

Missions:  I.  Africa,  (1)  Oranqe  River  Colony: 
The  first  missionaries  of  the  Berlin  Society  went, 
in  1834,  to  open  work  among  the  Bechuanas  of 
South  Africa.  They  were  unsuccessful  and  three 
of  the  five  men  first  sent  out  founded  a  station 
called  Bethanie  in  Orange  River  Colony.  Other 
stations  founded  in  that  mission  were,  Peniel, 
(1845),  Adamshoop  (1867),  Kimberly,  Bloem- 
fontein  (1875),  and  Beaconsfield  (1885).  The 
opening  of  the  diamond  mines  brought  into  the 
field  a  mass  of  the  worst  elements,  and  a  con- 
troversy with  the  British  Government  as  to  the 
legal  ownership  of  the  land  occupied  by  the 
station  had  a  depressing  influence  on  the  work. 
Of  late  the  situation  has  improved  and  the  mis- 
sion reports:  (1903)  8  stations,  65  outstations,  15 
missionaries,  125  native  helpers,  3,254  commu- 
nicants, 1,084  pupils. 

(2).  Kaffraria:  In  1837  work  was  begun  at 
Bethel,  but  without  much  apparent  success  for 
some  years,  largely  due  to  the  disturbed  political 
condition.  Other  stations  are  Petersburg  (1857), 
Emdizeni  (1864),  Etembeni  (1868).  There  are 
reported  (1903)  5  stations,  9  outstations,  7  mis- 
sionaries, 26  native  helpers,  500  communicants, 
366  pupils. 

(3).  Cape  Colony:  Work  in  this  section  was 
commenced  at  Zoar  (1838)  in  connection  with 
the  South  African  Missionary  Society,  and  con- 
ducted with  varying  fortunes  until  1867,  when 
the  entire  work  was  assumed  by  the  Berlin 
Society.  The  principal  stations  are  Amalien- 
stein  (1856),  Riversdale  (1868),  Herbertsdale 
(1872),  Mosselberg  (1879),  Laingsberg  (1883). 
There  are  reported  (1903)  7  stations,  31  out- 
stations, 20  missionaries,  89  native  helpers,  2,712 
communicants,  1,100  pupils. 

(4).  Natal:  Emmaiis  was  occupied  in  1847; 
other  stations  are  Christianenbere  (1848),  Stendal 
(1860),  Emangweni  (1863),  Hoffenthal  and 
Konigsberg  (1868).  There  are  reported  (1903) 
6  stations,  38  outstations,  10  missionaries,  72 
native  helpers,  1,345  communicants,  390  pupils. 

(5).  Transvaal:  In  1848  the  Society  decided  to 
discontinue  work  that  it  had  undertaken  in  the 
East  Indies,  and  after  some  years  it  enlarged  its 
work  in  Africa,  occupying  the  Transvaal,  with  a 
mission  which  has  become  the  largest  and  most 
prosperous  one  under  its  care. 

The  first  station  was  Gerlachshoop  (1860), 
afterward  destroyed  in  the  tribal  wars.  So  also 
Ehatilolo  (1861)  had  to  be  abandoned  for  some 


years.  Botshabelo  (1865)  grew  rapidly  even 
through  the  English  and  Boer  troubles,  a  printing 
establishment  and  training  school  being  estab- 
lished there.  Other  stations  in  South  Transvaal 
are  Pretoria  (1866),  Wallmansthal  and  Neuhalle 
(1869),  Potchefstrom  (1872,  formerly  under  care 
of  the  WMS),  Heidelberg  (1875),  Wogenthin 
(1876),  Arkona  (1877),  Lobethal  (1877),  Mossegu 
(1880)  and  Johannesburg.  In  the  South  Trans- 
vaal Mission  are  reported  (1903)  13  stations,  112 
outstations,  17  missionaries,  191  native  helpers, 
6,000  communicants,  1,683  pupils,  and  in  the 
North  Transvaal  16  stations,  167  outstations, 
19  missionaries,  198  native  helpers,  2,850  com- 
municants, 1,700  pupils. 

(6).  German  East  Africa:  With  the  partition 
of  Africa  and  the  adoption  of  European  spheres 
of  influence  the  different  German  missionary 
societies  undertook  to  care  for  the  German  sec- 
tions. As  early  as  1891  the  Berlin  Society  occu- 
Eied  Wangemannshoh,  near  the  upper  end  of 
ake  Nyasa,  and  it  extended  its  operations  in  that 
vicinity,  establishing  stations  at  Manow  (1892), 
Muakereri  and  Ikombe  (1893),  and  Bulongoa  in 
1895.  Two  years  later,  with  the  formal  delimi- 
tation of  boundaries,  there  was  a  great  advance, 
and  in  1897  6  stations  were  established — Kidu- 
gala,  Ilembule,  Lupembe,  Mbejela,  Mufindi  and 
Muhanga,  this  last  being  the  farthest  north. 
There  are  reported  (1903)  14  stations,  29  out- 
stations, 25  missionaries,  20  native  helpers,  115 
communicants,  300  pupils. 

II.  China:  In  1846  Giitzlaff,  who  had  been  in 
China  nearly  twenty  years,  most  of  the  time  as  an 
independent  worker,  appealed  to  the  Rhenish 
and  Basel  societies  for  assistance,  and  four  years 
later  by  a  personal  visit  aroused  much  interest. 
Various  unions  were  formed,  but  eventually  con- 
solidated into  two,  at  Stettin  and  Berlin.  The 
three  organizations  worked  on  with  varying 
success  until  the  prosperity  of  the  Berlin  mission 
in  South  Africa  made  it  seem  feasible  for  it  to 
undertake  a  wider  work,  and  in  1882  it  took  over 
the  worlc  in  Canton,  arranging  boundaries  with 
the  Basel  Society,  and  since  then  it  has  been  pros- 
perous. Most  of  its  work  is  in  the  vicinity  of 
Canton,  but  2  stations,  Syn-yin  (1893)  and  Tschi- 
chin  (1898),  are  some  distance  to  the  north. 
There  are  reported  (1903)  11  stations,  88  out- 
stations, 28  missionaries,  140  native  helpers, 
1,418  communicants  and  500  pupils. 

In  sending  out  its  statistics  the  Society  reports 
a  class  of  native  Christians  in  almost  every 
instance  very  nearly  double  the  number  of  com- 
municants. 

The  periodical  publications  of  the  Society  are:  Berliner 
Missionsverichte,  monthly;  Missionsfreund,  monthly; 
Kleiner  Sammler,  quarterly;  Kleiner  Missionsfreund  (for 
Sunday  schools),  monthly:  Hosianna  (for  children), 
monthly.     All  these  are  published  in  Berlin. 

Berlin  Woman's  Missionary  Society  for 
China  ( Berliner  Frauen-Missionsverein  fur  China): 
This  Society,  organized  in  1850,  largely  under  the 
influence  of  Giitzlaff,  has  for  its  special  purpose 
the  care  of  Chinese  girls  who  have  lost  or  been 
separated  from  their  parents,  and  their  training 
into  Christian  workers.  Its  sole  enterprise  is 
the  Bethesda  orphanage  at  Hongkong,  where 
3  missionaries  have  118  girls  under  their  care. 

Periodical,  for  members:  MiUeilungen  dea  Berliner 
Frauenvereins,  etc.,  quarterly. 

Blind  of  the  Female  Sex  in  China;  German 
Mission  TO  the:  This  Society  has  its  headquarters 
at  Hildesheim.     Its  work  has  been  limited  to  the 


Germany 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


2ao 


single  station  of  Tsao-kwong,  near  Hongkong, 
where  it  carries  on  a  school  for  blind  Chinese  girls 
and  where  it  has  2  women  missionaries  and  6 
native  workers,  16  pupils  in  the  school,  and  20 
converts.  It  has  now  (1903)  opened  another 
school  for  the  blind,  in  Kow-long,  the  territory 
on  the  mainland  facing  the  island  of  Hongkong, 
which  has  been  placed  under  the  protectorate 
of  Great  Britain. 
Periodical  :  Tsaukwong,  quarterly,  Berlin. 

Brbklum  Missionary  Socibty  (Schleswig- 
Holsteinische  Evangelisch- Lutherische  Missions- 
gesellschaft  in  Breklum) :  Among  the  churches 
uniting  in  the  North  German  Missionary  Society 
were  a  number  in  the  province  of  Holstein.  After 
some  years  one  of  the  pastors,  Jensen,  who  for  a 
few  years  had  edited  a  paper  in  which  mission 
work  was  a  special  feature,  was  urgent  that  the 
churches  of  that  section  should  have  their  own 
society.  He  did  not  at  first  receivemuchsupport, 
but  went  forward  on  his  own  account  and  in  1876 
bought  the  ground  for  a  mission  institute,  later 
securing  the  endorsement  of  about  fifty  churches. 
A  board  of  twelve  directors,  clergymen  and  lay- 
men in  equal  numbers,  was  appointed,  the  Lu- 
theran Church  Confessions  adopted,  and  the  insti- 
tute was  dedicated  the  next  spring  at  Breklum. 
The  first  missionaries  were  sent  out  from  the 
institute  in  the  winter  of  1882;  two  went  in  the 
service  of  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society,  and 
two  under  the  auspices  of  the  new  organization. 
The  field  to  be  occupied  was  suggested  by  a  mis- 
sionary of  another  society — viz.,  the  kingdom  of 
Bastar,  in  the  Central  Provinces  of  India.  The 
difficulties  in  this  inland  region,  however,  were 
very  great,  and  after  some  delay  the  missionaries 
removed  to  the  Vizagapatam  district  and  formed 
a  station  at  Sahir.  The  work  was  fairly  inau- 
gurated in  1885,  and  since  then  it  has  developed 
until  there  are  (1903)  7  stations,  51  outstations, 
23  missionaries,  70  native  helpers,  3,741  baptized 
Christians,  1,088  pupils. 

Periodicaus  :  Schlesung-Holsteinisches  Miasionsblatt,  month- 
ly ;  Sontaqsblatt  fur's  Haus,  weekly ;  Frauen-Missions- 
blatt,  monthly;  Der  Kleine  Miss-ionsherold,  monthly;  (in 
Danish)  Vort  Missionsblad,  monthly,  Breklum. 

China  Inland  Mission,  German  Branches: 
(1.)  China  Alliance  Mission,  Barmen:  ThisSociety , 
organized  in  1884,  has  7  stations  in  the  provinces 
of  Che-kiang  and  Kiang-si,  China.  In  1902  it 
had  in  the  field  13  missionaries,  men  and  women; 
19  native  workers,  3  schools  and  73  professing 
Christians. 
Organ  :  Der  China^Bote,  monthly.  Barmen. 

(2.)  German  Branch,  LiebenzeU  in  Wiirtemberg: 
It  was  organized  at  Hamburg  in  1899,  and  has  3 
stations  in  the  provinces  of  Kiang-su,  Hunan,  and 
Shan-si,  China.  It  has  (1902)  7  missionaries, 
men  and  women;  1  native  worker,  and  2  schools. 
Organ,  China's  M iUianen,  monthly. 

Deutsche  Orient  Mission:  This  organization 
grew  out  of  sympathy  for  the  needs  of  destitute 
Armenian  survivors  from  the  Turkish  massacres 
of  1895-96.  It  is  under  the  general  direction  of 
Dr.  Lepsius,  its  founder,  and  devotes  itself  chiefly 
to  school  and  orphanage  work  wherever  Arme- 
nian refugees  are  found  in  Bulgaria,  Persia,  and 
Turkey. 
Periodical:   Der  CkristHche  Orient,  monthly,  Berlin. 

Evangelical  Missionary  Society  for  Ger- 
man East  Africa  (Etangelische  Missionsgesell- 
schaft  fur  Deutsche  Ostajrika;  Berlin  III):  This 
Society,  organized  in  1886  by  Pastor  Diestel- 
kamp,  carries  on  an  extensive  work  on  and  near 


the  coast  of  German  East  Africa.  There  are  two 
centers,  Dar-es-Salaam,  just  south  of  Zanzibar, 
and  Tanga,  near  the  border  of  British  East 
Africa,  opposite  the  Island  of  Pemba.  The 
confessional  question  appears  to  have  occasioned 
some  temporary  difficulty,  but  to  have  been 
settled  on  a  broad,  liberal  basis. 

In  the  southern  section  there  are  (1902)  3 
stations,  and  in  the  northern  6  stations  occupied 
in  the  following  order:  Dar-es-Salaam  1887, 
Tanga  1890,  Hobenfriedeberg  1891,  Kisserawe 
1892,  Bethel  (Neubethel)  1893,  Manerumango 
1895,  Vuga  1895,  Bumbuli  1899,  Bungu  1903. 
There  are  reported  (1902)  28  missionaries,  26 
native  workers,  642  native  Christians,  889  pupils 
in  schools. 

Periodicals:  Nachrichten  cnts  der  Osiafrikaniscken  Mistitm^ 
monthly;  Kindergade,  monthly,  Berlin. 

General  Evangblicai,  Protestant  Mis- 
sionary Society  (AUgemeine  Evangelisch- 
Protestantische  Missionsverein)'.  Under  in- 
fluences from  Switzerland  this  Society  wag 
organized  at  Berlin  in  1884,  to  represent  the  more 
liberal  theological  views  in  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  churches.  Its  aim  is  to  labor  partic- 
ularly among  the  upper  classes,  in  the  more  civil- 
ized countries,  and  it  lays  special  stress  upon  lit- 
erary work  and  scientific  instruction.  It  has 
(1902)  2  stations  in  Japan  (Tokio  and  Kioto) 
and  2  in  China  (Shanghai  and  Kiao-chau).  Alto- 
gether in  both  countries  it  has  8  missionaries, 
140  baptized  Christians,  with  180  pupils  in  its 
schools. 

The  Society  publishes  two  monthly  magazines:  Zeifschrift 
ffir  Missionsstunde  und  Religionsvnssen^chaft;  and  Missions- 
blatt  des  ollg.  ev.-prot.  Missionsverein, 

Gossner  Missionary  Society  (Gossnersche 
Missionsgesellschaft,  Berlin  II) :  Johannes  Evan- 
gelista  Gossner  (1773-1858)  was  baptized  and 
educated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
held  a  small  benefice  at  Munich.  He  came  early 
under  the  influence  of  Martin  Boos,  and  gradually 
his  evangelical  tendencies  became  so  apparent 
that  in  1817  he  lost  his  benefice.  But  he  did  not 
publicly  embrace  Protestantism  until  1826.  From 
1829  to  1846,  when  he  retired  as  pastor  emeritus, 
he  had  charge  of  the  Bethlehem  Church  in  Berlin. 

The  missionary  zeal  which  gave  his  life  its 
peculiar  character  of  grandeur  may  have  been 
awakened  by  Martin  Boos,  who,  tho  he  never 
left  the  Church  of  Rome,  was  himself  a  kind  of 
evangelical  missionary,  and  for  that  reason  was 
violently  chased  from  place  to  place  by  the 
Jesuits.  But  otherwise  it  was  a  spontaneous 
outgrowth  of  his  own  nature,  and  he  received  his 
specific  impulse  toward  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel  to  the  heathen  from  his  intimate  connec- 
tion with  Spittler,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Basel  Mission  Society  and  a  representative  of  the 
Pietist  circles  in  Germany,  and  from  the  Moravian 
Brethren,  who  for  a  whole  century  had  been  the 
sole  representatives  of  the  missionary  idea  in 
German  civilization.  He  became,  in  1831,  one 
of  the  directors  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society, 
but  in  1836  withdrew  because  he  could  not  bring 
his  ideas  of  what  a  Christian  missionary  should 
be  into  harmony  with  the  Society's  ideas  of  how 
a  Christian  mission  should  be  worked.  He  had 
his  eyes  fixed  upon  the  Apostle — a  man  driven 
onward  by  the  fire  of  his  faith  and  throwing  all 
his  cares  on  God,  while  the  Society  had  adopted 
the  English  model  of  a  mission — a  thoroughly 
organized  institution,  supported  but  also  gov- 
erned by  the  Christian  community  that  estab- 


261 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Germany 


lished  it.  Gossner  felt  perfectly  certain  that  he 
was  not  wrong,  but  it  was  a  long  time  before  he 
came  to  understand  that  the  Society  was  not 
wrong  either.  He  seems  to  have  given  up  in 
despair,  and  felt  very  much  perplexed  when,  some 
months  later,  eight  young  men,  artisans,  who 
could  and  would  support  themselves  wherever 
they  went  in  the  world,  came  to  him  and  asked  to 
be  instructed  and  prepared  so  as  to  be  sent  out 
by  some  mission  society,  or  to  go  out  on  their 
own  account  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen. 
However,  "this  comes  from  the  Lord,"  he  said  to 
himself,  and  undertook  the  task.  After  about 
six  months'  preparation  these  young  men  went, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  Scotchman,  Dr.  Lang, 
to  South  Australia,  and  in  the  meantime  new 
pupils  had  been  received. 

Then  came  difficulties  with  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  and  the  government,  but  in  1842  the 
Society  received  royal  sanction.  This,  however, 
made  no  essential  change  in  methods,  the  mis- 
sionaries being  transferred  to  other  societies  or 
left  to  their  own  conduct.  Such  a  system  could 
not  continue,  and  Gossner  was  forced  at  last  to 
accept  an  organization  on  a  broader  foundation. 

In  1844  a  number  of  Gossner's  pupils  had  their 
attention  directed  to  the  Kols  of  Chota  Nagpur, 
in  India.  The  race  was  degraded  and  it  was  five 
years  before  a  single  convert  was  baptized.  Then 
came  such  overwhelming  success  that  the  question 
was  not  about  a  more  or  less  slow  progress  by 
single  converts,  but  about  the  conversion  of  a 
whole  people.  "We  will  have  them  all,"  ex- 
claimed Gossner  in  his  enthusiasm;  "every  one 
of  them."  But  it  was  evident  that  in  its  then 
organization — a  loose  association  of  individual 
efforts — the  mission  was  not  able  to  manage  the 
affair.  When  the  missionaries  fell  out  with  each 
other,  Gossner  had  no  other  means  of  setting  them 
right  than  telling  them:  "If  you  don't  agree,  I 
shall  stop  praying  for  you."  Then  two  great 
calamities  befell  the  undertaking — the  Sepoy 
rebellion  and  the  death  of  Gossner.  At  first  the 
rebellion  actually  threatened  to  extinguish  the 
mission.  The  missionaries  fled  to  Calcutta;  their 
houses,  schools,  and  churches  were  demolished, 
and  the  native  members  of  the  congregation  were 
exposed  to  harsh  persecution.  When  this  news 
reached  Berlin,  Gossner  made  an  offer  to  transfer 
the  whole  institution  to  the  English  Church 
Missionary  Society,  in  order  to  secure  its  contin- 
uation. For  some  reason  the  Society  gave  no 
immediate  answer,  and  in  the  meantime  the 
national  feeling  in  Germany  became  thoroughly 
roused  and  sorely  hurt  by  the  idea  that  this 
undertaking,  German  in  its  origin  and  so  promis- 
ing of  success,  should  be  left  to  others  to  be 
carried  through.  Suddenly  Gossner  took  a 
decision  without  waiting  for  the  answer  from  the 
English  Society,  and,  shortly  before  he  died,  he 
transferred  the  mission  and  all  his  personal  prop- 
erty to  a  Curatorium.  From  his  accounts  it 
appeared  that  in  twenty-one  years  he  had 
received  from  others  300,000  marks,  which  he  had 
spent  on  his  mission,  besides  paying  out  of  his 
own  pocket  33,000  marks.  He  left  personal  prop- 
erty worth  150,000  marks,  which  he  wished  to 
have  invested  as  a  permanent  fund.  The  total 
number  of  missionaries  he  had  sent  out  was  141. 

After  the  rebellion  restitution  for  property 
destroyed  by  the  rebels  was  made,  but  proved  a 
bone  of  contention,  resulting  in  the  secession  of 
a  considerable  number  of  the  older  missionaries, 
teachers,  and  helpers,  with  about  7,000  members. 


who  petitioned  the  SPG  to  take  charge  of  their 
interests,  which  it  did.  The  original  Society  has, 
nevertheless,  held  in  its  way  in  Chota  Nagpur, 
and  reports  (1902)  23  stations,  283  outstations, 
46  missionaries,  360  native  helpers,  51,557  bap- 
tized Christians  and  4,978  pupils. 
Periodicai^:  Die  Biene  aita  der  Missionafelde,  monthly;  Die 
Kinderbiene,  monthly,  Berlin. 

Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  {Evan- 
gelisch- Lutherische  Missionsanstalt  zu  Hermanns- 
burg): Louis  Harms  (1808-1865)  was  the  son  of  a 
pastor  at  Hermannsburg,  Hannover,  and  was 
ordained  in  1844  assistant  to  his  father,  whom  he 
ultimately  succeeded.  Always  deeply  interested 
in  foreign  missions,  he  became  a  director  in  the 
North  German  Missionary  Society,  and  was 
offered  a  position  as  teacher  in  its  institute,  but 
declined.  On  the  removal  of  that  Society  to 
Bremen,  he  was  urged  to  form  a  society  more  dis- 
tinctly Lutheran  in  its  character  which  should 
provide  a  means  for  utilizing  the  missionary  zeal 
of  his  church,  and  this  he  did  as  soon  as  he  became 
full  pastor  of  the  church.  From  the  first  it  was 
supported  by  the  peasants,  without  special  can- 
vassing for  funds,  and  the  men  chosen  to  go  out 
as  missionaries  were  from  peasant  homes. 

Good  public-school  training  was  the  only  edu- 
cational qualification  required  for  admission  to 
the  institute  that  was  at  once  established.  The 
course  was  at  first  four  years,  later  lengthened  to 
six.  In  this  school  not  only  books  were  taught, 
but  also  farming,  carpentering,  and  the  like;  for 
one  prominent  feature  of  the  proposed  mission 
was  that  colonization  should  be  united  with  evan- 
gelization. Christianity  and  the  arts  of  Christian 
civilization  should  be  introduced  together.  More- 
over, the  mission  station  should  be  largely  self- 
supporting,  in  order  that  the  home  contributions 
might  be  devoted  chiefly  to  defraying  the  expenses 
of  sending  out  men.  Music  was  emphasized  from 
the  first,  as  is  also  the  case  on  the  field.  Prac- 
tical homiletical  training  was  gained  by  the 
pupils  by  holding  mission  meetings  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. 

In  1853,  the  first  men — eight  missionaries  and 
as  many  colonists — were  ready  to  enter  on  the 
work,  and  they  were  late  in  that  year  sent  out  on 
the  "Candace,"  one  of  the  mission  ships  that  play 
so  important  and  romantic  a  part  in  the  history 
of  missions.  A  printing  establishment  was 
founded  in  1856-7,  and  in  the  latter  year  the 
mission  was  chartered.  It  was  to  remain  a  pri- 
vate affair,  yet  to  be  under  direction  of  the  Han- 
nover Consistory,  in  so  far  as  that  ordination  was 
to  be  by  this  body;  a  report  was  to  be  made  to  it 
annually,  and  the  right  of  inspection  to  be 
yielded  to  it.  An  advisory  committee  of  ten  to 
twelve  persons  was  established,  to  which  the 
property  of  the  mission  was  transferred.  In 
1860  a  second  Mission  House  was  erected,  the 
two  alternating  in  receiving  pupils  for  the  whole 
course.  The  Institute,  drawing  at  first  only 
from  the  immediate  neighborhood,  is  now  so 
widely  and  favorably  known  that  it  is  patronized 
from  all  parts  of  Northern  Germany.  Louis 
Harms  was  succeeded  in  the  Director's  office  by 
his  brother,  Theodore  Harms,  during  whose  term 
of  office  there  was  a  schism  in  the  Hannover 
Church.  This  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the 
"Free  Church  in  Hannover,"  under  the  lead  of 
Harms.  Popular  interest  in  the  mission,  how- 
ever, was  so  great  that  after  Harms'  death  an 
arrangement  was  made  for  cooperation,  each 
church  being  represented  on  the  Board. 


Germany 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Of  special  interest  is  the  policy  of  the  Society, 
carrying  out  that  of  its  founder.  This  was  to 
Christianize  the  land  into  which  his  laborers 
should  go;  not  simply  to  convert  certain  heathen, 
and  attend  to  their  spiritual  welfare,  but  to  infuse 
into  heathendom  the  leaven  of  Christianity,  that 
should  influence  the  whole  land,  and  that  thor- 
oughly. This  was  his  reason  for  sending  out 
colonists;  this  led  him  to  be  satisfied  with  slow 
advance  if  only  his  object  was  reached  in  the  ter- 
ritory already  occupied;  this  led  him  also  to  coun- 
sel the  establishment  of  a  central  station  from 
which  the  new  ones  should  be  supported  and 
supplied — a  veritable  swarming  process.  There 
was  in  his  scheme  not  a  little  touch  of  old  apos- 
tolical fervor:  for  example,  among  the  settlers 
upon  a  station  there  should  be  perfect  community 
of  property;  each  was  to  work  for  the  common 
good,  and  all  acquisition  was  to  be  applied  to 
mission  purposes.  The  ordained  missionaries, 
tho  not  working  for  material  prosperity,  were 
none  the  less  employed  in  mission  work;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  colonists  were  to  be  regarded 
as  of  equal  rank  with  the  clergy,  tho  their 
chief  work  was  to  supply  the  physical  needs  of 
the  community.  There  has  been  from  the  first 
a  most  intense  Lutheran  spirit  in  the  Society. 
Harms  would  have  all  the  ordinances  of  that 
church  introduced  on  the  mission  ground;  liturgy 
and  church  government,  as  well  as  creed,  should 
be  identical  with  the  home  church.  The  stations 
should  have  a  complete  organization,  ecclesias- 
tical and  also  political,  tho  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  modify  the  forms  of  the  churches, 
to  adapt  them  to  the  peculiar  needs  of  mission 
communities. 

In  all  these  respects  the  influence  of  the 
founder  has  maintained  itself,  and  yet  many 
changes  have  been  introduced  in  the  course  of 
the  years  in  the  details  of  practical  management. 
The  stations  were  never  quite  self-supporting. 
Community  of  property  has  been  abandoned; 
it  was  found  impractical,  for  it  was  but  natural 
that  the  farmers  attached  to  the  mission  disliked 
to  be  entirely  destitute  of  property,  while  those 
not  attached  to  the  station  were  making  provision 
for  their  families.  So  long  as  the  colony  remained 
composed  of  unmarried  men  (and  none  others 
were  sent)  life  in  common  could  be  maintained; 
but  so  soon  as  their  brides  were  sent  to  them  from 
home  it  was  found  impossible  to  maintain  the 
custom.  Separate  homes  must  be  established. 
Moreover,  there  was  friction  continually  arising 
between  the  ordained  missionaries  and  the  colo- 
nists as  to  the  division  of  the  work;  the  latter 
demanding  more  assistance  from  the  former  than 
they  were  inclined  to  give,  the  former  asserting 
their  superiority  in  unpleasant  ways:  so  the 
colonist  feature  of  the  work  was  discontinued 
in  1869.  Quite  early  in  the  history  of  the  Society 
superintendents  were  appointed  over  the  various 
sections  of  the  field. 

Missions;  1.  Africa:  The  first  colony  was  di- 
rected to  the  Galla  territory  in  East  Africa,  but 
met  with  such  difficulties  that  the  settlement 
was  made,  not  there  but  in  Natal.  From  this 
the  Zulu  mission  was  developed,  with  stations  at 
Hermannsburg,  Ehlanzeni,  and  various  points  on 
the  Tugela  River.  This  mission  had  some  hard 
experiences. 

After  waiting  in  vain  for  fruit  of  their  hard 
labor,  the  experiment  was  tried  of  requiring  all 
natives  who  were  cultivating  mission  land  to 
send  their  children  to  school,   or  pay  rent,   or 


vacate ;  the  first  they  would  not,  the  second  they 
could  not,  and  the  third  they  did  do,  until,  the 
experiment  thus  proving  unsuccessful,  they  were 
allowed  to  come  back.  Another  more  successful 
scheme  was  the  establishment  here  of  a  seminary 
for  training  native  helpers.  Pupils  came  from 
the  whole  field,  and  their  presence  and  example 
finally  secured  the  interest  of  the  natives.  More 
encouraging  is  the  work  of  the  Bechuana  Mission. 
As  early  as  1857  a  call  came  from  a  Bechuana 
king,  supported  by  a  letter  from  the  Dutch 
authorities,  for  the  undertaking  of  work  in  West 
Transvaal;  the  mission  was  therefore  started, 
tho  quite  foreign  to  the  original  plan.  More- 
over, it  was  with  hesitation  that  the  missionaries 
turned  in  that  direction,  as  for  many  reasons  it 
did  not  promise  well.  It  is  now,  however,  one  of 
the  Society's  most  promising  and  fruitful  fields 
of  labor.  The  colonization  scheme  was  never 
employed  in  this  mission.  Beginning  in  1858, 
gradually  a  network  of  stations  was  formed  over 
the  whole  western  half  of  the  Transvaal 
Colony,  and  extended  also  into  the  British 
Bechuanaland  on  the  west.  This  extreme  west- 
ern section  had  been  occupied  by  English  mission- 
aries, but  they  had  retired  before  the  Dutch 
Boers;  later  the  Hermannsburg  Mission  gave  up 
the  field  to  the  LMS.  There  were  reported  (1900) 
46  stations,  103  outstations,  45  missionaries,  396 
native  workers,  25,400  communicants,  about 
40,000  baptized  Christians  and  6,058  pupils. 

2.  India:  In  1866  an  appeal  came  to  the  Society 
for  work  among  the  Telugus  of  India,  and  men 
were  at  once  sent  out  who  established  a  central 
station  at  Naidupett.  The  work  has  increased 
but  slowly,  and  there  were  reported  (1900)  9 
stations,  13  outstations,  12  missionaries,  91 
native  workers,  1,693  communicants,  870  pupils. 

Other  enterprises  commenced  have  been  sub- 
sequently abandoned.  One  to  New  Zealand  was 
given  up,  and  one  to  Australia  was  handed  over 
to  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Immanuel  Synod  of 
Australia.  A  work  was  also  begun  in  Persia, 
which,  however,  has  not  been  developed. 

Periodicals:  Hermavnsburper  Missionsblatt,  fortnightly; 
Missionsbtatt  fiir  unsere  Hebe  jugend:  Hermannsburg,  Hajl- 
110  ver. 

Jerusalem  Union  in  Berlin  {Jerusalems- 
Verein  zu  Berlin) :  Founded  by  Court-preacher 
Strauss  in  1852.  In  aid  of  German  evangelical 
institutions  in  the  Orient,  in  the  vicinity  of  Jeru- 
salem, this  Society  supports  schools,  hospitals, 
and  hospices,  for  the  inner  and  outer  mission" 
among  the  native  inhabitants  of  that  region,  and 
among  Germans  resident  there.  The  conduct  of 
its  affairs  is  in  the  hands  of  a  committee  of  at 
least  16,  who  elect  their  own  successors. 

The  Union  has,  from  the  first,  enjoyed  rojral 
support,  and  for  long  years  was  under  the  special 
protection    of     Empress     Auguste.     Since    the 

g resent  Emperor's  visit  to  the  Levant,  in  1897,  it 
as  received  special  support  and  encouragement. 
The  chief  activity  of  the  Union  is  in  Jerusalem, 
tho  here  it  has  a  less  distinctively  mission 
character  than  in  other  stations.  Here  the  funds 
are  supplied  to  support  in  part  various  German 
institutions  which  have  a  mainly  national  char- 
acter. It  contributes  to  the  salary  of  the  pastor 
of  the  German  church,  who  makes  quarterly 
visits  to  the  Germans  in  Haifa  and  Jaffa,  and  to 
that  of  the  assistant  preacher,  who  is  also  teacher 
in  the  German  school.  As  early  as  1867  a  collec- 
tion was  made  in  Germany  for  church  building 
in  Jerusalem;  in  1869  the  Prussian  crown  came 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Germany 


into  possession  of  the  Murestan,  the  site  of  the 
old  convent  Santa  Maria  Magna;  the  locality  was 
excavated  and  now  a  fine  church  has  been  erected 
there.  In  connection  with  the  parish  is  a  Men's 
Union,  and  lately  a  Youths'  Union  has  been 
established. 

Other  places  occupied  are  Bethlehem,  Bet- 
iala,  Hebron,  Haifa,  Jaffa,  and,  latest.  Bet  Sahur. 
There  are  2  orphanages,  for  S}'rians  and  Arme- 
nians, an  educational  institution  (Talitha  Kumi) 
for  girls,  a  hospital  under  the  care  of  the  Kaisers- 
werth  deaconesses,  a  leper  asylum,  etc.  There 
were  (1902)  430  pupils  in  the  8  schools. 

Kiel  Mission  to  China:  This  Society  was 
formed  in  1897,  with  headquarters  in  Kiel  but 
with  its  responsible  head  in  the  field.  In  1902 
it  had  3  stations  in  China,  in  the  district  near 
Pakhoi,  with  6  missionaries,  men  and  women;  3 
native  workers,  1  school,  and  33  professing 
Christians. 
OnGAN:   Er  Kommt,  fortnightly,  Kiel. 

Lutheran  Febb  Church  op  Hannover,  Mis- 
sionary Society  of:  This  Society  has  its  head- 
quarters in  Hermannsburg.  It  is  a  branch  of 
the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society,  and 
carries  on  missions  in  Natal  and  Transvaal  in  S. 
Africa.  In  1902  it  had  in  the  field  9  missionaries, 
41  native  workers,  17  schools,  and  4,050  pro- 
fessing Christians  at  8  stations. 
PERIODIC.A.L:      Missionsblatt    der    Hannover*  achen    ev.-luth. 

Freikirche,  monthly,  Hermannsburg. 

Leipzig  Evangelical  Lutheran  Mission 
Society  { Evangelisch- Lutherische  Mission  zu 
Leipzig) :  As  early  as  1819  there  was  in  Dresden 
a  missionary  association  closely  affiliated  with 
and  working  through  the  Basel  Society.  With 
the  development  of  the  confessional  question  and 
the  desire  to  emphasize  distinctively  Lutheran 
creed  and  organization,  the  individualistic 
methods  of  Basel  were  not  altogether  satisfac- 
tory, and  in  1832  the  Dresden  association  estab- 
lished its  own  mission  school,  which  in  1836 
developed  into  a  complete  missionary  seminary, 
and  in  the  latter  year  it  also  constituted  itself  an 
independent  mission  society,  which  was  removed 
to  Leipzig  in  1846. 

In  1844  Dr.  Karl  Graul  became  president  of 
the  Society  and  director  of  its  seminary.  He 
traveled  extensively  in  the  East  and  came  to 
conclusions  which  resulted  in  the  complete  dis- 
solution of  the  connection  between  the  Leipzig 
and  the  Basel  societies.  The  Basel  Society,  in 
accordance  with  all  pietistic  missionary  labor, 
aimed  simply  at  individual  conversions.  Dr. 
Craul,  on  the  contrary,  looked  for  a  national  con- 
version, and  he  consequently  demanded  more 
from  the  missionaries  he  sent  out,  namely,  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  whole  state  of 
civilization, — religious,  scientific,  literary,  polit- 
ical, and  social — among  the  people  to  whom  they 
were  sent.  He  also  wished  to  make  the  Leipzig 
Society  the  center  of  the  entire  missionary 
activity  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  he  gave  its 
labor  a  strictly  Lutheran  character,  which 
imposed  upon  the  laborers  a  certain  reserve 
toward  their  colaborers  of  other  denominations. 

Missions.  1.  India:  As  was  natural,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Society  was  turned  to  India,  and  some 
of  its  missionaries  commenced  work  among  the 
Tamils  in  1840.  This  gave  good  occasion  for  the 
transfer  to  them  of  the  interests  and  property  of 
the  old  Danish-Tamil  Mission  (itself  conducted  on 
high-church  Lutheran  principles),  when  Tran- 
quebar  was  ceded   to   England   in   1845.     Two 


years  later  the  transfer  was  complete,  and  the 
Leipzig  Society  entered  into  the  inheritance  of 
Ziegenbalg  and  Schwartz. 

The  caste  question  at  one  time  threatened  to 
endanger  the  success  of  the  work,  as  the  policy  of 
the  Society  in  regard  to  it  was  rather  too  lenient. 
That,  however,  was  overcome,  and  the  growth 
and  strength  of  the  mission  is  indicated  by  the 
following  figures  (1902):  40  stations,  769  out- 
stations,  41  missionaries,  743  native  workers, 
19,178  communicants,  9,407  pupils. 

2.  Africa:  In  1892  the  Leipzig  Society  joined 
the  number  of  German  organizations  working 
in  Africa,  and  took  charge  of  a  mission  in  British 
East  Africa,  which  had  been  founded  by  a  Ba- 
varian Society.  This  mission,  called  the  Mahamba 
Mission,  has  (1902)  3  stations,  Jumpa  (near 
Mombasa),  Ikutha  (near  Mt.  Kenia),  and  Mul- 
alngo,  with  9  missionaries. 

A  little  later  the  Society  began  a  distinct  mis- 
sion in  the  vicinity  of  Mt.Kilima  N  jaro,  in  German 
territory,  known  as  the  Majagga  Mission.  This 
reports   6  stations,  and  16  missionaries. 

The  Women's  Aid  Societv  of  the  Leipzig  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Mission  [Frauen-Hilfs  Vereine 
der  Evangelische-  Lutherishen  Mission  zu  Leipzig) 
is  auxiliary  to  the  Society,  with  special  reference 
to  its  work  for  women  in  India. 

Periodicals:  Evangehsch-Lutherische  Missionsblatl,  fort- 
nightly; Die  kleine  Missionsglocke  (for  children),  monthly, 
Leipzig. 

Neuendettelsau  Missionary  Society 
(Oesellschafi  fur  Innere  und  Aussere  Mission  im 
Sinne  der  Lutherische  Kirche) :  This  Society  was 
organized  first,  in  1849,  with  special  reference  to 
work  among  Lutherans  in  America,  and,  to  some 
extent,  among  the  Indians.  Later,  in  1885,  in 
connection  with  the  Immanuel  Synod  of  Aus- 
tralia, it  commenced  work  among  the  natives, 
and  the  same  year  celebrated  the  occupation  of 
Kaiser  Wilhelmsland  (New  Guinea)  by  sending 
missionaries  there.  It  reports  (1902)  7  stations, 
15  missionaries,  30  communicants,  90  pupils. 
Periodical:   Freimund'a  kirchliches  und  voliiisches  Wochen- 

blatt,  weekly  (with  supplement  relating  to  work  in  North 

America,  Australia,  and  New  Guineaj. 

Neukirchen  Missionary  Institute  {Neu- 
kirchener  Missionsanstalt) :  This  Society  was 
founded  in  1882  by  Pastor  Doll  of  Neukirchen, 
partly  to  carry  out  a  vow  made  during  a  severe 
illness,  and  partly  to  provide  for  Germany  an 
institution  representing  the  standpoint  of  the 
China  Inland  and  similar  faith  missions.  It 
has,  however,  come  to  be  conducted  on  the  same 
general  principles  as  the  other  societies. 

The  fields  of  labor  are  Java  and  British  East 
Africa.  There  are  reported  (1902),  in  Java,  7 
stations  in  the  two  districts  of  Samarang  and 
Rembang,  9  missionaries,  46  native  helpers,  565 
baptized  adults,  562  pupils.  The  classes  reached 
are  Mohammedans,  Javanese,  Chinese  and  some 
Arabs. 

In  Africa  the  work  among  the  Mohammedans, 
along  the  Tana  River,  has  not  proved  successful, 
but  one  baptized  adult  being  reported  at  Lamu 
after  14  years  of  effort.  Among  the  SwahUi  there 
has  been  better  success.  There  are  (1902)  4 
stations,  8  missionaries,  142  baptized  adults,  171 
pupils. 
Periodicals:    Der  Missions  und  Heidenbote,  monthly,  with 

supplement;    Jugendmission^blaU,   monthly;    Die    Vhren- 

leserin  auf  dem  Missionsfelde,  bi-monthly,  Neukirchen. 

North  German  Missionary  Society  ( Nord- 
deutsche  Missionsgesellschaft) :  As  early  as  1802 
there  was  formed   in  East  Frisia,  in  response  to 


Germany 
Gilbert  Islands 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


264 


influences  from  the  Moravian  and  the  London 
Missionary  Societies,  a  "Mission  Society  of  the 
Mustard  Seed,"  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  funds 
in  aid  of  missions.  Other  similar  unions  were 
formed  throughout  North  Germany,  the  most 
important  being  one  in  Bremen  in'  1819.  The 
collections  were  sent  to  Janicke  in  Berlin  and  to 
Basel,  and  two  men  presenting  themselves  for 
service  aroused  great  interest.  Other  unions 
were  organized  at  Lubeck  (1820)  and  Hamburg 
(1823),  but  no  movement  toward  affiliation  was 
made  until  1834.  In  1836  seven  unions,  Bremen, 
Stade,  Hamburg,  Lauenburg,  Ritzebuttel,  Lehe, 
and  Bremerhaven,  organized  the  North  German 
Missionary  Society,  with  headquarters  at  Ham- 
burg, where  in  1837  a  Missionary  Institute  was 
established. 

From  the  beginning  there  were  in  these  unions 
numbers  of  both  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed 
bodies,  and  this  resulted  both  in  difficulties  on  the 
field  and  divided  counsel  at  home.  Gradually, 
as  the  discussion  grew  sharper,  several  of  the 
more  distinctively  Lutheran  unions  withdrew; 
the  headquarters  were  removed  to  Bremen,  and 
the  Society  gradually  became  largely  Reformed, 
tho  the  union  feature  never  disappeared,  and 
there  are  Lutheran  as  well  as  Reformed  members 
on  its  committtee. 

Missions:  The  first  movement  of  the  Society 
■was  toward  New  Zealand,  where  work  was  com- 
menced in  1842  but  not  developed,  tho  one  of 
the  two  missionaries  remained  for  some  time  and 
continued  to  receive  help.  The  next  year  men 
Were  sent  to  the  Telugus  in  India,  but  that  work 
■was  handed  over  to  the  American  Lutherans,  and 
the  Society  concentrated  its  efforts  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  just  east  of  the  Gold  Coast  (!olony. 
Among  the  principal  stations  are  Accra,  Anyako, 
Keta,  etc.  The  terrible  climate  has  been  a  heavy 
drawback,  but  the  Society  has  persevered  and 
reported  (1902)  5  stations,  37  outstations,  27 
missionaries,  74  native  workers,  2,908  commu- 
nicants and  1,487     pupils. 

Periodical;     Monatshlait     der    Nordd.     Miat.-Oetellschaft, 
monthly,  Bremen. 

Rhenish  Missionary  Society  (Rheinische 
Missions-  Gesellschaft  in  Barmen) :  A  small  mission- 
ary union  of  twelve  laymen  was  formed  in  1799 
in  Elberfeld.  As  it  grew  in  numbers  it  inaugu- 
rated the  Bergische  Bible  Society  and  the  Tract 
Society  of  Wupperthal.  In  1819  a  similar  union 
■was  formed  at  Barmen,  which  worked  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Basel  Missionary  Institute  but 
organized  its  own  school  in  1825.  Three  years 
later  these  two,  joined  by  unions  at  Cologne  and 
Wesel,  formed  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society, 
with  headquarters  at  Barmen.  The  first  mission- 
aries went  to  South  Africa  and  landed  at  Cape 
Colony  in  October,  1829.  In  that  region  40  mis- 
sionaries under  the  direction  of  the  Moravian 
Brethren,  the  London  Missionary  Society,  the 
Wesleyans,  and  the  Scotch  Free  Church  were 
already  at  work  at  30  stations  among  the  Hotten- 
tots, Kafirs,  Negroes,  Bastards,  etc.  Therefore 
the  Rhenish  missionaries  hesitated  where  to  go. 
Finally,  in  the  beginning  of  1830,  they  founded 
their  first  station  at  Wupperthal,  and  in  1832 
they  built  and  consecrated  their  first  church  at 
Unterbarmen. 

In  1834  the  Society  found  that  they  had  more 
missionaries  ready  for  work  than  could  be 
employed  in  Africa,  and,  moved  by  what  they  had 
heard  from  the  American  missionary,  Abeel,  and 
the  LMS  missionary,  Medhurst,  they  decided  to 


open  a  new  field  in  Borneo,  to  which  they  after- 
ward added  two  other  islands  in  the  Dutch  colo- 
nies of  the  East  Indies,  Sumatra  in  1862,  and  Nias 
in  1865.  In  1846  they  also  began  a  Chinese 
mission,  and  in  1887  inaugurated  work  in 
Kaiser  WUhelmsland,  in  New  Guinea.  In  its 
general  character  the  Rhenish  Society  has  fol- 
lowed the  main  lines  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society,  and  carries  the  cordial  support  of  both 
Lutherans  and  Reformed.  It  met  with  financial 
difficulties  in  1881,  which  compelled  the  trans- 
ference of  parts  of  its  Chinese  mission  to  the 
Basel  and  Berlin  societies,  but  it  soon  regained 
lost  ground  and  continued  to  enlarge  its  work. 

Missions.  1.  Africa:  There  are  three  missions 
in  Africa:  Cape  Colony,  Namaqua-Herero,  and 
Ovambo.  The  Cape  Colony  mission  covers  the 
region  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Town,  altho  one 
station,  Carnavon,  is  in  the  center  of  the  colony, 
and  three  others,  Steinkopf,  Concordia,  and 
Komaggas,  are  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  colony. 
The  work  is  among  the  Hottentots,  Negroes,  half- 
breeds,  etc.  The  schools  are  crowded  and  the 
industrial  and  commercial  elements  of  the  work 
are  well  developed.  There  are  (1902)  10  stations 
14  missionaries,  136  native  helpers,  6,547  com- 
municants, 2,547  pupUs. 

The  Namaqua  and  Herero  mission  is  in  Ger- 
man West  Africa,  and  covers  the  entire  territory 
occupied  by  the  Namaqua  Hottentots  and  the 
Herero  Negroes.  There  are  (1902),  24  stations, 
35  outstations,  35  missionaries,  123  native  helpers, 
5,303  communicants,  2,405  pupils. 

The  Ovambo  Mission  is  on  the  border  of  Ger- 
man West  Africa  and  the  Portuguese  district  of 
Angola.  The  youngest  of  the  missions,  it  has 
3  stations,  5  missionaries,  2  native  workers,  35 
communicants,  130  pupils. 

2.  Dutch  East  Indies:  The  work  of  the  Rhenish 
Society  in  Borneo  was  commenced  in  1842  among 
the  Dyaks  of  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
island.  The  first  efforts  met  with  little  success, 
no  convert  being  baptized  in  eight  years.  They 
adopted  two  measures,  both  of  which  miscarried: 
i.e.,  the  ransoming  of  "pandelings,"  or  slaves,  for 
debt,  and  compulsory  attendance  at  their  schools. 
The  Dyak  is  either  very  poor  or  very  rich:  one  has 
not  a  rice-seed  to  eat,  and  another  has  a  gold 
crown  so  heavy  that  he  cannot  bear  it.  Then  the 
poor  man  borrows  of  the  rich,  but  the  rate  of  inter- 
est is  so  outrageous  that  a  very  small  debt  will  in 
a  very  short  time  make  a  man  a  "pandeling."  He 
likes,  of  course,  to  be  ransomed,  but  that  ransom 
cannot  make  him  a  Christian.  By  the  agency  of 
the  Dutch  government  the  Dyak  children  were 
driven  to  the  mission  school,  but  that  was  not  the 
true  entrance  to  Christianity  either.  In  1859  the 
whole  fabric  suddenly  tumbled  down.  The 
Dyaks  rose  in  rebellion,  seven  missionaries  were 
killed,  the  rest  fled  to  Bandjermasin,  the  seat  of 
the  government,  and  all  the  stations  were  burnt 
down.  In  reality,  the  rebellion  was  raised 
against  the  Dutch  government,  but  the  mission- 
aries were  the  sufferers,  and  they  were  not  able 
to  resume  work  until  1866.  From  that  time, 
however,  the  work  has  progressed  steadily  and 
surely.  There  are  reported  (1902)  8  stations, 
16  outstations,  11  missionaries,  42  native  workers, 
1,085  communicants,  688  pupils. 

A  mission  in  Sumatra  was  organized  in  1862, 
and  has  rapidly  developed  into  the  most  impor- 
tant field  of  the  Rhenish  Society.  Circumstance* 
were  propitious.  The  climate  is  much  better 
than  that  of  Borneo,  as  most  of  the  stations  are 


S265 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Germany 
Gilbert  Islands 


situated  at  an  altitude  of  2,000  feet  or  more. 
The  country  is  well  filled  up,  and  the  Battas,  the 
Malayan  tribe  among  which  the  mission  worlds, 
are  possessed  of  some  civilization.  They  have 
themselves  reduced  their  language  to  writing, 
and  they  like  to  read.  Dutch  missionaries  have 
long  ago  mastered  the  language  for  all  scientific 
and  literary  purposes,  and  the  whole  Bible  is 
translated  into  Batta.  Very  fortunate  also  it 
was  that  the  Rhenish  missionaries  early  came  in 
contact  with  the  Battas.  Hence  the  sensitive- 
ness shown  elsewhere  concerning  missions  to 
Islam  was  not  allowed  free  play.  When  the 
Mohammedans  of  Sumatra  petitioned  the  king 
of  the  Netherlands  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Chris- 
tian missionaries,  the  request  was  refused. 

There  are  reported  (1902)  32  stations,  205 
outstations,  60  missionaries,  1,152  native  workers; 
22,524  communicants,  10,902  pupils. 

A  mission  in  Nias  was  commenced  in  1865.  It 
reports  (1902)  12  stations,  12  outstations,  20 
missionaries,  77  native  workers,  3,904  communi- 
cants, 820  pupils. 

The  youngest  mission  of  the  group,  in  the 
island  of  Mentawei,  south  of  Nias,  was  organized 
in  1901,  and  reported  in  1902  1  station,  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  native  worker,  7  communicants,  10 
pupils. 

3.  China:  Since  1846  the  Rhenish  Society  has 
had  a  mission  in  Hongkong  and  vicinity,  and  1 
station,  Tai-ping,  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
the  Kwang-si  province.  The  report  shows  (1902) 
6  stations,  10  outstations,  14  missionaries,  29 
native  helpers,  883  communicants,  296  pupils. 

4.  New  Guinea:  Soon  after  the  formation  of  the 
Colony  of  Kaiser  Wilhelmsland  the  Rhenish 
Society  felt  the  responsibility  for  mission  work 
among  the  Papuans  and  in  1887  opened  a  station 
at  Bogadjim.  There  are  (1902)  4  stations,  7 
missionaries,   128  pupils. 

PFRiODir.\t.s:    Missianshlatt  Barmen,  monthly;    Der  Kleine 
Missionsfreund,  monthly,  Barmen. 

SUD.4.N  Pioneer  Mission:  A  society  formed 
in  1900,  with  headquarters  at  Eisenach.  In  1902 
it  had  in  the  field  1  missionary  and  1  woman 
missionary,  3  native  workers,  and  2  schools,  with 
150  scholars,  all  at  -Assouan,  in  upper  Egypt. 
Oega  -: ;  Der  Sudan-Pionier,  monthly. 

Women's  Society  tor  Christian  Education 
OF  THE  Female  Sex  in  Eastern  Countries 
(Prouen  verein  filr  Chrisiliche  Bildung  des 
Weiblichen  Geschlechts  im  Morgenlande) :  This 
Society,  organized  in  1842,  is  known  also  as  the 
"Berlin  Woman's  Missionary  Association"  and 
the  "Woman's  Oriental  Union."  Its  chief  work 
is  the  sending  out  of  teachers  and  deaconesses  to 
various  fields,  chiefly  India,  who  work  in  connec- 
tion with  other  societies.  Many  of  these  teachers 
are  under  the  CMS.  The  Society  has  for  its  own 
chief  work  a  foundling  asylum  at  Sikandra, 
North  West  Provinces.  In  1900  and  1901  two 
women  were  sent  to  China.  The  principal  of  the 
Talitha  Kumi  orphanage  of  the  Jerusalem  Union 
'  was  sent  out  by  this  Society. 

MiBsiansblatt  des  FrauenvereiTis,  etc.,  monthly,  Berlin. 

The  German  Foreign  Missionary  Societies  have 
united  in  forming  an  "Executive  Committee" 
(Ausschuss  der  deutsc.hen  Evangelischen  Missions- 
gesellschafter) ,  which  has  advisory  functions  when 
called  upon  by  the  societies  to  discuss  questions 
that  affect  the  whole  missionary  interest,  and 
which  represents  the  united  societies  in  all  rela- 
tions with  the  Government.  This  Executive 
Committee  is  composed  of  five  members  elected 


annually,  and  meets,  whenever  necessary,  at  the 
call  of  the  secretary.  The  secretary  for  the  year 
1903-04  is  Rev.  A.  Merenski,  D.D.,  of  the  Berlin 
Missionary  Society. 

GERTRUDSBERG:  A  settlement  in  the 
extreme  north  of  the  Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Zoutspansberg  district,  on  the 
slopes  toward  the  Limpopo  River,  and  among 
the  Bawemba  tribes.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1899). 

GHAZIABAD :  A  town  and  railway  junction  in 
the  United  Provinces  of  India,  situated  15  miles 
E.  N.  E.  of  Delhi,  in  the  district  of  Meerut.  Popu- 
lation (1891),  10,000,  of  whom  about  6,000  are 
Hindus  and  about  half  that  number  Muslims. 
Circuit  station  of  the  ME,  with  (1900)  12  native 
workers,  men  and  women ;  8  day  schools,  and 
1,000  professing  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
CMS  (1894),  with  (1903)  2  missionary  women 
and  a  dispensary. 

GHAZIPUR:  A  city  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  40  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Benares,  on 
the  lowlands  bordering  the  Ganges.  The  district 
of  Ghazipur  is  one  of  the  hottest  and  dampest  in 
this  part  of  India.  The  city  has  a  monument 
to  Lord  Cornwallis,  who  died  there  in  1806.  It 
is  the  center  of  the  government  opium  monopoly 
and  manufactory.  Population  (1891),  45,000,  of 
whom  about  two-thirds  are  Hindus  and  one-third 
Muslims.  Station  of  the  Gossner  (German*)  Mis- 
sion, and  of  the  Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Mis- 


sion. 

GHEG  LANGUAGE. 


See  Albanian. 


GIATWANGAK:  A  settlement  in  British 
Columbia,  situated  on  the  Skeena  River,  about 
120  miles  from  Metlakahtla.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1882),  with  a  constituency  both  among  the 
Indians  and  among  Chinese  employed  in  salmon 
canning  works. 

GIBARA.     See  Jib  aha. 

GIBEON:  A  station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society  in  German  Southwest  Africa,  situated 
about  190  miles  N.  E.  of  Angra  Pequena.  It  has 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native  work- 
ers, one  a  woman;  1  day  school,  and  383  profess- 
ing Christians.  The  people  among  whom  thi» 
station  is  established  are  Namaquas  in  the  main. 

GIFU :  A  town  and  railway  station  on  the  main 
island  of  Japan,  situated  75  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Kioto.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  prefecture  of  the 
same  name,  and  has  a  population  (1898)  of  about 
31,000.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1890),  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  men  and  women,  and  7  native 
workers,  men  and  women.  Two  interesting  fea- 
tures of  the  work  here  are  the  home  for  ex-con- 
victs and  the  school  for  the  blind. 

GIKUKI:  A  settlement  in  Portuguese  East 
Africa,  situated  on  a  high  bluff  overlooking 
Inhambane  Bay.  Station  of  the  ME  (1884), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  9  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  a  printing  liouse  and 
a  high  school. 

GILBERT  ISLANDS:  A  cluster  of  coral  islands 
in  Micronesia,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  equator. 
Population  estimated  at  32,500.  The  climate  is 
equable,  and  tho  warm  is  not  oppressive. 
Tlie  inhabitants  resemble  the  Malays.  Before 
the  advent  of  missionaries  they  were  fond  of  war 
and  prone  to  suicide;  kind  to  their  children,  hos- 
pitalsle,    generous,    and    more    considerate    of 


Gilbert    LianKnase 
Oolaebat 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


women  than  is  usual  among  savages.  They  ate 
human  flesh  occasionally,  but  were  not  habitual 
cannibals.  These  islands  are  now  under  Britain, 
and  missionary  work  at  the  beginning  of  the 
20th  century  is  under  the  Hawaiian  Evan- 
gelical Association  (in  cooperation  with  the 
ABCFM),  greatly  aided  by  the  new  conditions 
which  foreign  control  supplies.  The  training 
school  for  the  Gilbert  Islands  is  at  Kusaie 
(Caroline  Is.),  where  one  of  the  missionaries 
resides.  Literary  work  for  the  islands  occupies 
another  missionary  residing  at  Honolulu,  H.  I. 
A  third  missionary  spends  his  time  in  touring 
from  island  to  island  in  a  vessel  chartered  far  the 
purpose.  One  missionary  and  his  wife  (Hawai- 
lans)  reside  on  the  island  of  Maiana.  On  the 
islands  of  Marakei,  Aranaka,  Kuria,  and  Nonouti 
the  additions  to  the  Church  (in  1901)  numbered 
80.  The  southernmost  islands  of  this  group  have 
been  under  care  of  the  LMS  and  are  virtually 
Christianized. 

GILBERT  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Micro- 
nesian  family  of  languages  and  is  spoken  by  the 
people  of  the  Gilbert  Islands.  It  was  reduced 
to  writing  by  missionaries  of  the  ABCFM  with 
the  use  of  Roman  letters. 

GILL,  William:  Born  January  14,  1813,  at 
Totness,  England;  sailed  April  11,  1838,  as  a 
missionary  of  the  LMS  for  Raratonga;  stationed 
at  Arorangi  in  that  island.  In  1842,  in  the 
absence  of  Mr.  Buzacott  from  Raratonga,  he  took 
charge  also  of  his  station  and  of  the  institution  at 
Avarua.  Between  1843  and  1846  he  visited  the 
other  islands  of  the  Hervey  group,  spending  six 
months  in  Mangaia  and  the  New  Hebrides,  New 
Caledonia,  and  the  Loyalty  Islands,  returning  by 
way  of  Samoa  to  Raratonga.  In  addition  to  his 
evangelistic  and  pastoral  work  he  revised  the 
Raratonga  version  of  the  Scriptures,  and  wrote 
several  books  in  that  language.  His  wife  devoted 
herself  to  the  elevation  of  the  native  women.  In 
1853  he  went  to  England  and  did  not  return  to 
the  mission  field.  Before  his  connection  with  the 
Society  ceased  he  printed  the  second  edition  of 
the  Raratongan  Bible,  besides  other  books  in  that 
language.  In  October,  1856,  he  was  settled  as 
pastor  at  Woolwich,  and  died  at  Blackheath  in 
1878. 

GILLESPIE:  A  settlement  in  Griqualand  East, 
Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  near  Mt.  Avliff. 
Station  of  the  UFS  (1889),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  15  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  12  outstations,  1  day  school,  and  600 
baptized  Christians. 

GILMOUR,  James:  Born  near  Glasgow,  June 
12,  1843.  Died  in  Mongolia,  May  21,  1891. 
With  his  master's  degree  won  at  Glasgow  he 
entered  Cheshunt  College,  near  London,  where 
he  took  a  two  years'  theological  course.  On 
February  22,  1870,  he  sailed  from  Liverpool  as 
a  missionary  of  the  LMS,  and  on  May  18  he 
reached  the  Chinese  capital,  which  was  to  be  the 
headquarters  of  his  future  work,  so  far  away 
over  the  Great  Wall  on  the  Mongolian  highlands. 
He  arrived  in  China  at  the  critical  time  when  an 
anti-foreign  storm  was  on  the  eve  of  breaking 
out  at  Tien-tsin;  but  the  young  missionary, 
within  three  months  after  his  arrival,  started  up 
through  the  famous  South  Pass,  toward  the 
frontier  city  of  Kalgan.  The  Mongolian  field 
stands  as  a  buffer  state  between  Siberia  and 
China  proper,  with  an  area  more  than  one-third 


as  large  as  the  United  States.  Much  of  Gil- 
mour's  missionary  life  was  spent  among  the  agri- 
cultural Mongols;  and  singlehanded  he  addressed 
himself  to  the  work  of  introducing  the  Gospel 
among  2,000,000  of  the  most  superstitious  and 
exclusive  persons  in  all  the  East.  Between  the 
years  1818  and  1841,  the  missionaries  Stallybrass 
and  Swan  had  labored  at  Selinginsk  and  Onagen 
Dome,  with  several  assistants;  and  they  left, 
besides  the  graves  of  some  of  their  number,  a 
Buriat-Mongol  translation  of  the  Bible  and 
several  earnest  converts.  Save  for  a  few  copies 
of  the  Scriptures  found  here  and  there,  preserved 
carefully  by  a  few  native  Christians,  Gilmour 
found  little  to  build  upon;  but  this  itinerant 
evangelist  for  years  was  untiring  in  his  journeys, 
living  usually  with  the  nomadic  tribes  in  their 
tents,  and  witnessing  for  Jesus  as  they  gathered 
about  him  in  the  fields  or  along  the  mountain 
sides.  As  a  lay  physician,  Gilmour  was  greatly 
aided  in  securing  the  confidence  of  the  Mongols; 
and  at  his  street-tent  dispensary  in  towns,  nearly 
300  miles  northeast  of  Peking,  he  blessed  the 
bodies  and  souls  of  hundreds  of  this  rude  people. 
After  1886  he  made  Chao-yang  his  headquarters. 
Mrs.  Gilmour  was  a  genuine  helpmeet  to  her  hus- 
band, and  her  educational  work  among  the 
women  and  children  was  far-reaching  in  its  influ- 
ence. Besides  his  work  far  from  the  cities,  Gil- 
mour labored  also  at  Peking,  Tien-tsin  and  Shan- 
tung; but  on  the  Mongolian  plains  he  loved  most 
to  witness  for  his  Master. 

Gilmour  (J.),  Among  the  Mongols,  1884;    Lovett  (R.),  Gil' 
mouT  of  Mongolia,  London,  1892. 

GISBORNE :  A  town  and  port  of  entry  in  New 
Zealand,  situated  on  Poverty  Bay,  on  the  E. 
coast  of  the  North  Island,  85  miles  N.  E.  of 
Napier.  Population,  about  3,000.  Station  of 
the  CMS,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  mis- 
sionary's wife,  85  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  11  outstations,  2  village  schools,  1  theo- 
logical training  institute  and  4,000  baptized 
Christians. 

GIZ  LANGUAGE :  Giz  is  another  name  for  the 
ancient  Ethiopic  language  of  Abyssinia,  now 
found  in  books  only  and  replaced  by  the  Amharic 
in  ordinary  use.  It  is  written  with  the  same 
letters  as  Amharic  except  that  it  lacks  one  or 
two  letters  added  to  the  latter  language  under 
influence  of  the  Arabic. 

GLEASON,  Anson:  Born  at  Manchester,  Conn., 
May  2,  1797.  In  1822  he  became  an  assistant 
missionary  of  the  ABCFM,  and  in  January,  1823, 
started  for  the  Choctaw  country.  He  traveled 
the  long  journey  on  horseback.  After  eight  years 
of  service  among  the  Indians,  the  health  of  his 
family  obliged  him  in  1831  to  return  north.  He 
then  came  into  connection  with  the  Mohicans 
settled  near  Norwich,  Conn.,  and  a  church  having 
been  formed,  he  was  ordained  as  its  pastor.  For 
a  time  he  was  district  secretary  of  the  ABCFM 
in  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire;  for  ten  years 
he  labored  among  the  Seneca  Indians  near 
Buffalo,  and  he  afterward  became  a  city  mis- 
sionary, serving  with  unabated  interest  until  his 
death,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  February  24,  1885. 

•  GLENDALE:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  S.  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Umvoti  River,  35  miles  N_.  of 
Durban.  Station  of  the  South  African  Mission- 
ary Society. 

GLEN  HAVEN:  A  town  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Jamaica,  W.  I.,  situated  in  Portland,  about  7 


267 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Gilbert 


Golashat 


miles  S.  W.  of  Buff  Bay.  Station  of  the  AFFM 
(1881). 

GLENTHORN:  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony, 
S.  Africa,  situated  near  Linton  in  the  district  of 
Bedford.  Station  of  the  TJFS  (1840),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  2  native  workers. 

GNADENDAL:  The  oldest  mission  settlement 
of  the  Moravians  in  South  Africa.  It  was 
founded  in  1737  by  George  Schmidt.  On  his 
expulsion  from  the  colony  the  work  was  sus- 
pended for  nearly  fifty  years;  it  was  then,  in 
1792,  renewed,  an  old  convert  of  Schmidt's  being 
discovered  still  residing  there,  and  carefully  pre- 
serving a  Dutch  Testament  he  had  given  her. 
The  settlement  is  situated  in  the  district  of 
Caledon,  65  miles  E.  of  Cape  Town,  near  the 
junction  of  a  rocky  glen  called  Barian's  Kloof 
with  the  valley  of  the  Sonderend,  down  which 
it  extends  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half.  The  name 
means  "Valley  of  Grace,"  and  was  chosen,  it  is 
said,  by  one  of  the  old  Dutch  Governors,  who  was 
moved  by  sight  of  the  work  of  the  mission.  It 
has  now  (1901)  14  missionaries,  men  and  women; 
87  native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  preaching 
places,  4  day  schools,  1  theological  seminary 
(founded  1838)  and  740  communicants. 

GOALPARA:  A  town  in  Assam,  British  India, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra,  70 
miles  W.  of  Gauhati.  It  is  a  very  malarious  situ- 
ation, as  unhealthful  for  natives  as  for  Europeans. 
The  civil  officials  live  on  a  hill  250  feet  above  the 
plain.  Population  (1891),  about  5,500,  of  whom 
3,500  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1867), 
with  access  to  the  Garos  and  Rabbhas. 

GOBAT,  Samuel:  Born  at  Cr^mine,  Berne, 
Switzerland,  January  26,  1799.  At  the  age  of 
nineteen,  having  an  earnest  desire  to  be  a  mis- 
sionary, he  entered  the  Basel  Missionary  Institu- 
tion, previously  perfecting  himself  in  the  German 
language.  In  1823  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  study 
Arabic  at  the  Missionary  Institution.  He  stud- 
ied also  Amharic  and  Ethiopic.  At  the  end  of  a 
year,  on  recommendation  of  the  directors  of  the 
Basel  Institution,  he  was  accepted  as  a  missionary 
candidate  by  the  CMS,  and  resided  some  months 
in  the  CMS  College  in  Islington,  devoting  himself 
chiefly  to  Oriental  study.  Appointed  in  1826  to 
commence  a  mission  in  Abyssinia,  he  returned  to 
the  continent,  received  Lutheran  ordination,  and 
sailed  for  Egypt  in  September  of  that  year.  He 
spent  three  months  at  Jerusalem  in  1827  in  mak- 
ing acquaintance  with  the  Abyssinians  at  the 
monastery  in  that  city,  and  from  1830  to  1833 
he  traveled  extensively  in  Abyssinia  proclaiming 
the  Gospel  to  priests  and  people.  His  health 
having  failed,  he  left  for  home  at  the  close  of 
1836,  and  was  associated  in  1839-42  with  the 
Society's  missionaries  at  Malta,  in  superintending 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic,  and  tak- 
ing charge  of  the  printing  press.  He  was 
appointed  vice-president  of  the  Malta  Protestant 
College  in  1845,  and  the  same  year,  visiting  Eng- 
land, was  ordained  deacon  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. After  the  bishopric  of  the  Anglican  Church 
at  Jerusalem  became  vacant  by  the  death  of 
Bishop  Alexander,  Mr.  Gobat  was  nominated  as 
his  successor  by  the  King  of  Prussia  (Frederick 
William  IV.),  and  consecrated  at  Lambeth  July 
5,  1846.  His  work  in  Jersualem  left  a  perma- 
nent mark  on  the  country,  being  notable  for  piety, 
vigor,  tact,  and  good  judgment.  He  died  in 
Jerusalem   May   11,    1879.     He   wrote   A  Jour- 


nal   of     Three    Years    in    Abyssinia    (London, 
1847). 

GOCHAS.     See  Gokhas. 

GODDA:  A  town  in  the  Santal  Parganas,  Ben- 
gal, India,  situated  W.  of  the  Rajmahal  Hills, 
about  140  miles  S.  E.  of  Bhagalpur.  Station  of 
the  CMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
232  native  workers,  one  of  them  a  woman;  7 
outstations,  18  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
1  dispensary,  and  432  baptized  Christians. 

GODHRA:  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
India;  situated  in  the  Panch  Mahals  district, 
about  40  miles  N.  E.  of  Baroda.  The  town  is 
almost  entirely  surrounded  by  jungle.  Popula- 
tion (1891),  14,700,  of  whom  7,500  are  Moham- 
medans and  the  most  of  the  remainder  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1902)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  45  native  workers,  1  orphanage, 
and  522  professing  Christians. 
GOEDE  HOOP.  See  Good  Hope. 
GOED  FORTUIN:  A  settlement  in  British  Gui- 
ana, S.  America,  situated  on  the  Demerara  River, 
about  12  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Georgetown.  Station 
of  the  West  Indies  Wesleyan  East  Conference, 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  5  outsta- 
tions, 5  preaching  places,  4  day  schools,  and  391 
professing  Christians.  This,  with  other  work  of 
the  W.  I.  Wesleyan  Conferences,  was  transferred 
back  to  the  WMS  in  1903. 

GOEDERWACHT  :  A  settlement  in  Cape  Col- 
ony, S.  Africa,  situated  about  35  miles  west  of 
Piquetberg  and  about  90  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Cape 
Town.  The  place  was  originally  a  Hottentot 
settlement  founded  by  a  planter  who  bequeathed 
the  land  to  his  faithful  slaves.  The  name,  mean- 
ing "well  guarded,"  refers  to  the  nature  of  the 
site,  which  is  a  deep  glen  in  a  spur  of  the  Piquet- 
berg, overlooking  St.  Helena  Bay.  Station  of  the 
Moravian  Missions  (1845),  with  (1900)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  25  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  1  chapel,  1  day  school,  and  200  professing 
Christians. 

GOGO  (Gogha) :  A  town  in  Kathiawar,  Bom- 
bay Presidency,  India;  situated  in  the  district 
of  Ahmadabad,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  Gulf  of 
Cambay,  45  miles  W.  of  Broach.  The  climate 
is  temperate  and  healthful.  The  natives  are  con- 
sidered the  best  sailors  in  India.  Population 
(1891),  6,600,  of  whom  3,200  are  Hindus  and  the 
most  part  of  the  remainder  Muslims.  Gujarati 
is  the  language  of  the  district,  but  a  dialect 
peculiar  to  the  Muslims  is  also  used  and  known 
as  Musulmani.  Station  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Ireland  (1843),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife  and  2  native  workers. 

GOGO  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Bantu 
family,  and  is  spoken  by  about  100,000  people 
living  in  the  central  part  of  German  East  Africa, 
west  of  Mpwapwa.  It  was  reduced  to  writing  by 
missionaries  of  the  CMS  and  is  another  case  of 
the  use  of  Roman  letters  by  illiterate  tribes. 

GOKHAS :  A  station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society  in  the  eastern  part  of  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  among  the  Namaquas,  about  300 
miles  S.  E.  of  Walfisch  Bay  and  260  miles  N.  E. 
of  Angra  Pequena.  It  has  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  3  native  workers,  1  day  school,  and 
383  baptized  Christians.  The  name  is  written  by 
the  Society,  according  to  German  rules,  Gochas. 

GOLAGHAT:    A  village  in  Assam,  situated  88 


Golbanil 
Goodell 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


miles  S.  W.  of  Dibrugarh,  in  the  district  of  Sib- 
sagar.  Population,  about  5,000.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1898),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  17  native  workers,  men  and  women;  14 
preaching  places  and  outstations,  2  day  schools, 
1  high  school,  and  900  professing  Christians. 

GOLBANTI:  A  village  in  British  East  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Tana  River,  116  miles  north  by 
east  of  Mombasa.  It  is  also  spoken  of  sometimes 
by  the  name  Borabini.  Station  of  the  United 
Methodist  Free  Churches  (England)  (1885),  the 
mission  being  directed  especially  to  the  Gallas, 
tho  reaching  to  some  extent  the  Pokomo  also. 
It  has  (1903)  1  missionary  and  3  native  workers. 
It  is  preparing  for  industrial  instruction  of  the 
people,  and  owns  an  estate  of  four  miles  frontage 
on  the  Tana  River  and  two  and  a  half  miles  depth. 

GOLD  COAST:  A  British  colony  on  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  having  a  coast  line  of  about  360  miles. 
The  protectorate  that  embraces  Ashanti  and  Adu- 
massi  is  included  with  the  colony  proper  under 
the  general  designation  of  Gold  Coast.  The  col- 
ony proper  has  about  42,000  square  miles,  the 
whole  territory  about  72,500  square  miles.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  1,500,000  negroes, 
chiefly  of  the  Akkra  and  Tschi  (or  Otji)  tribes. 

In  the  Upper  Volta  basin  and  interior  high- 
lands the  aborigines  have  held  their  ground  as 
separate  groups.  But  the  distinctions  of  lan- 
guage, customs,  and  physical  characteristics  are 
rapidly  disappearing.  The  aborigines  are  called 
Potoso,  that  is,  "barbarians,"  by  the  Ashanti 
conquerors.  Their  language  is  the  Gwany,  Nta, 
and  allied  idioms,  which,  tho  unintelligible  to  the 
Ashanti  peoples,  yet  belong  to  the  same  family 
of  languages  as  the  Otji  orGa.  The  Otji  peoples 
include  the  Ashantis,  Dankiras,  Wassaws, 
Akims,  Assins,  and  Fantis,  and  are  the  ruling 
race.  They  are  well  developed  physically,  and, 
perhaps,  owe  some  of  their  characteristics  to 
Berber  and  Arab  blood.  They  are  farmers,  arti- 
sans, merchants,  stock  breeders,  fishermen, 
according  to  their  surroundings.  The  mission- 
aries use  for  their  translation  of  the  Bible,  prayer- 
book,  hymns,  etc.,  the  Akwapem  dialect.  The 
incredible  cruelty  and  carnage  of  Ashanti  power, 
with  human  sacrifices  and  slaughter,  have  largely 
been  stopped  by  the  British  annexation.  A  rail- 
way has  been  opened  from  Sekondi  on  the  coast 
to  Kumasi. 

The  WMS  and  the  Basel,  and  the  North  Ger- 
man Missionary  Society  occupy  22  stations  in  this 
colony. 

Macdonald,  The  Gold  Coast,  Past  and  Present,  London,  1898; 
Reindorf,  History  of  the  Gold  Coast  and  Ashanti,  Ba.'^el, 
1895. 

GOLOVIN  BAY :  A  settlement  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Alaska,  situated  at  the  head  of  Golovin  Bay 
and  about  40  miles  N.  E.  of  Cape  Nome.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Swedish  Evangelical  Mission  Covenant 
of  America  (1892),  with  2  missionaries  and  2 
missionary  women. 

GOND  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  Dravidian 
family,  and  is  spoken  by  1,500,000  people  inhab- 
iting the  Central  Provinces,  India.  It  is  related 
to  both  Tamil  and  Telugu.  It  has  no  alphabet 
peculiar  to  itself,  but  attempts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  the  Hindi  (na(7ari)characters  among 
the  northern  Gonds  and  the  Telugu  characters 
among  those  bordering  on  the  Telugu  country. 

GONDA:  A  town  and  capital  of  a  district  in 
the  United  Provinces,  India;    situated  69  miles 


E.  by  N.  of  Lucknow.  The  name  means  a  "safe 
fold,"  and  is  due  to  the  origin  of  the  settlement, 
which  was  built  about  a  cattle  fold  in  the  center 
of  a  dense  jungle.  Population  (1891),  17,400,  of 
whom  11,600  are  Hindus  and  the  remainder 
chiefly  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1902)  2  missionary  women,  110  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  5  preaching  places,  62  Sunday 
schools,  12  day  schools,  1  orphanage,  and  1,130 
professing  Christians. 

GONDIA:  A  village  in  the  Central  Provinces. 
India;  situated  on  the  railway  about  50  miles 
E.  by  N.  of  Nagpur.  Station  of  the  Pentecost 
Bands  of  the  World  (1899),  with  3  missionaries, 
one  a  man,  and  an  industrial  school. 

GONDS:  A  non- Aryan  race  of  Central  India, 
numbering  some  2,000,000  and  forming  the  lar- 
gest remnant  of  the  Dravidian  aborigines,  so 
called,  who  were  pushed  back  by  the  later  Aryan 
immigration  into  the  mountainous,  ill-watered, 
jungle  covered  region  known  as  Gondwana  (the 
land  of  the  Gonds),  which  is  some  400x300  miles 
in  extent  and  lies  between  18°  40'  and  23°  40'  Lat. 
and  78°  to  82°  Long.,  mostly  within  the  Central 
Provinces,  Bastar  and  Berar.  The  Gonds  are 
thinly  scattered  over  this  region,  sharing  the 
more  accessible  plains  with  the  Hindus.  The 
Rajputs  of  Malwa  early  intermarried  with  the 
Gonds,  forming  the  Raj-Gonds,  who  have 
retained  the  physical  peculiarities,  but  have  laid 
aside  the  rough  habits  of  the  Gonds  and  taken  on 
some  elements  of  Hindu  civilization.  The  wild 
Gonds  form  the  mass  of  the  population  of  Bastar, 
whose  ruler  is  a  Gond.  In  the  north  of  this  state 
they  are  called  Muriyas  (forest  people);  south- 
ward about  the  Godavari  and  Prauhita  valleys 
dwell  a  branch  known  as  Kois  (hill  people),  while 
those  who  live  higher  up  in  the  hills  are  known 
as  Gu-te-koi  (high-hill  people).  The  Khonds, 
another  branch,  are  found  in  Orissa  east  of  Gond- 
wana. The  long-continued  independence  of  the 
Gonds  as  a  race  has  been  due  to  the  arid,  inac- 
cessible character  of  their  country,  but  their  race 
unity  is  now  broken,  and  as  time  goes  on  they  are 
approaching  more  nearly  to  the  language,  cus- 
toms and  religion  of  their  Hindu  neighbors.  The 
Gonds  are  short  in  stature,  have  dark,  nearly 
black  skin,  small  deep-set  eyes,  thick  lips,  thin 
beards  and  long  black  hair,  and  are  strong  and 
hardy.  They  are  of  good  disposition,  compara- 
tively honest  and  truthful,  grateful  for  kindness 
and  hospitality.  A  rag  about  the  loins  and 
strings  of  beads  are  the  chief  articles  of  dress,  and, 
in  the  N.  'V^i.  of  Bastar,  the  women  content  them- 
selves with  abbreviated  aprons  of  leafy  twigs. 
The  sexes  are  intellectually  and  socially  on  an 
equality;  women  are  freely  wooed  and  marry 
usually  after  they  are  sixteen.  A  village  is  a 
straggling  line  of  cultivated  enclosures  with  a 
hut  in  each.  They  are  in  demand  as  mine- 
workers.  The  language  of  these  tribes  is  called 
Gondi.  The  northern  Gonds  speak  also  a  corrupt 
Hindi,  and  the  southern,  including  the  Kois,  use 
Telugu.  The  religion  of  the  Gonds,  allied  to  the 
Bhuta  cult  common  to  the  uncultured  people  of 
South  India,  consists  of  the  worship  of  nature 
and  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  involving  human 
sacrifice  until  its  suppression  by  the  British, 
when  images  of  the  horse  and  food  were  substi- 
tuted as  offerings.  In  religious  ceremonies  the 
rudest  symbols  are  employed,  the  representation 
of  their  chief  deities,  Pharsa-Pen,  Loha-Pen  and 
Bhera-Pen,  being  a  hatchet,  a  nail  and  a  chain. 


869 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Golbantl 
Goodell 


The  priests  exercise  large  power.  The  more 
advanced  Gonds  have  borrowed  from  the 
religion  of  the  Hindus,  worshiping  Siva  and 
Kafi  especially,  and  the  Raj -Gonds  have  devel- 
oped a  system  of  caste  which  is  foreign  to  Gond 
tradition. 

The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  began  in  1845  a 
mission  to  the  Gonds,  under  Rev.  S.  S.  Hislop, 
who  took  into  the  employ  of  the  mission  the 
remaining  members  of  an  earlier  German  effort. 
The  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  Mission, 
with  headquarters  at  Nagpur,  tho  no  longer  dis- 
tinctly a  mission  to  the  Gonds,  now  carries  on  this 
work  for  this  people.  The  "Bhalagat  Mission"  to 
the  Gonds,  begun  in  1894,  had,  in  1902,  some  half 
dozen  European  agents,  who  labored  among  the 
wild  Gonds  in  the  forests,  with  a  center  at  Behir. 
The  Swedish  Evangelical  National  Society  has 
undertaken  work  for  the  Gonds  in  Chindwara  and 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (U.  S.)  at  Sir- 
oncha.  But  the  chief  mission  to  this  people  is 
that  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  which 
established  in  1854  a  station  at  Jabalpur,  in  part 
as  a  basis  for  a  Gond  mission,  with  which,  how- 
ever, the  pressure  of  other  work  seriously  inter- 
fered. Upon  the  initiative  of  two  earnest 
Christian  workers  stationed  in  that  region,  Col. 
Colton  and  Capt.  Haig,  the  mission  to  the  Kois 
was  begun  in  1860,  the  first  fruit  of  which  has, 
however,  been  more  among  other  races  than 
among  the  Kois.  As  a  result  of  the  Conference 
on  non-Aryan  Missions  in  1877  a  Gond  Mission 
was  established  at  Mandla,  to  which  stations  at 
Marpha  and  Patpara  have  been  added.  Five 
hundred  converts  were  enrolled  by  the  CMS  in 
1900,  but  many  of  them  were  not  Gonds,  the  low 
caste  Hindus  proving  more  accessible  and  pro- 
gressive. Thus,  while  the  Gonds  during  a  long 
period  have  been  regarded  as  a  field  of  singular 
promise,  missions  to  them  are  still  in  the  day  of 
small  things.  Gondwana  was  the  most  sorely 
stricken  region  in  India  during  the  famine  of 
recent  years  and  the  missionaries  exemplified  the 
Gospel  by  extensive  relief  work. 

Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India  (Article  Gonds) ;  History  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society:  King  (W.  R.),  Aboriginal 
Tribes  of  the  Nilgiri  Hills,  London,  1870;  Watson  (J.  F.) 
and  Kay  (J.  W.),  Races  and  Tribes  of  Hindustan,  4  vols., 
London,  1868-70. 

GOOD,  Adolphus  Clemens:  Born  December  19, 
1856,  near  Dayton,  Pa.    When  but  a  lad  he  made 

gublic  confession  of  his  faith  in  the  Presbyterian 
hurch.  He  received  his  preparatory  training 
in  Glade  Run  Academy  from  1873  to  1876;  was 
graduated  from  Washington  and  Jefferson  Col- 
lege in  1879  and  from  the  Western  Theological 
Seminary  in  1882.  His  degree  of  Ph.D.  was 
given  by  Washington  and  Jefferson  College  in 
1890.  In  June,  1882,  he  was  ordained  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Kittanning  as  an  evangelist,  pre- 
paratory to  sailing  for  Africa,  having  been  pre- 
viously appointed  a  missionary  by  the  Presby- 
terian Board  of  Foreign  Missions  (N.).  He  chose 
the  Dark  Continent  as  his  field  of  labor  mainly 
because  it  was  a  hard  field  and  because  few  at  that 
time  were  found  willing  to  enter  it.  He  sailed 
for  Africa  September  18,  1882,  and  on  his  arriv- 
al was  assigned  to  Baraka  station,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Gaboon  River.  Being  a  man  of 
fine  linguistic  ability,  he  soon  mastered  the 
Mpongwe  language  and  ten  months  after  landing 
preached  his  first  sermon  in  the  native  tongue. 

It  was  his  chief  delight  to  itinerate  along  the 
river,  carrying  the  Gospel  to  those  sitting  in 
darkness.     In  this  work  he  waa  greatly  blessed. 


For  several  years  there  was  an  almost  continuous 
outpouring  of  the  spirit,  and  hundreds  of  converts 
from  heathenism  were  baptized.  Largely 
through  his  own  instrumentality  the  one  church 
existing  in  1884  multiplied  to  four  before  his 
final  removal  from  that  field  in  1893.  During 
his  last  year  or  two  on  the  Ogowe,  when  bur- 
dened with  the  care  of  the  widely  scattered 
churches,  he  also  revised  the  entire  New  Testa- 
ment in  Mpongwe  and  the  Hymn  Book  then  in 
use,  adding  quite  a  number  of  hymns  to  the  lat- 
ter. During  this  period  and  also  later  Dr.  Good 
made  some  valuable  contributions  to  natural  his- 
tory by  sending  many  choice  specimens  to  the 
Western  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Dr.  Good  made  three  distinct  journeys  into  the 
unexplored  interior,  with  no  companions  save 
native  carriers.  Altho  he  made  light  of  the  dis- 
comfort encountered  and  of  the  danger  to  which 
he  was  exposed,  no  one  can  read  his  unvarnished 
narrative  of  travel  without  being  impressed  with 
the  heroic  spirit  of  the  man.  He  marched  day 
after  day  along  the  beds  and  on  the  edge  of 
streams,  sometimes  through  mud  a  foot  deep, 
his  clothing  constantly  soaked  with  the  dense 
foliage  kept  wet  by  frequent  tropical  showers. 
But  these  were  small  matters  in  his  estimation 
compared  with  the  joy  of  being  able  to  open  a 
pathway  for  the  Gospel  to  the  savage  tribes  of 
the  interior.  The  joy  increased  as  the  range  of 
his  vision  widened  and  he  found  the  Bule  people 
to  belong  to  the  great  Fang  family,  and  to  be  wide- 
spread and  quite  accessible. 

He  was  pushing  exploration  and  translation 
with  all  his  might,  with  the  intention  of  joining 
his  family  in  America  the  ne.xt  spring;  intending 
while  here  to  prosecute  his  literary  work  and  see 
through  the  press  the  Gospels  and  possibly  other 
parts  of  the  Scriptures,  when  his  life  closed  in  1893. 

GOODELL,  William:  Born  in  1792,  at  Temjple- 
ton,  Masst  Graduated  at  Dartmouth  College 
and  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  Appointed 
as  missionary  of  the  ABCFM,  he  sailed  December 
9,  1822,  for  Beirut,  where,  after  a  few  months 
spent  at  Malta,  he  arrived  November  16,  1823, 
expecting  to  proceed  to  Jerusalem,  but  the  dis- 
turbed state  of  the  country  in  consequence  of  the 
Greek  revolution  prevented.  At  Beirut  he  aided 
in  establishing  a  mission  and  pursued  the  study 
of  the  Turkish  and  Arabic  languages.  War 
raging  between  Gr.eece  and  Turkey,  and  persecu- 
tion from  the  ecclesiastics  prevailing,  his  work 
was  interrupted,  and,  consular  protection  being 
withdrawn,  he  was  often  in  great  peril.  In  1828 
he  went  with  his  family  for  a  time  for  safety  to 
Malta.  There  he  issued  the  New  Testament 
which  he  had  translated  into  Armeno-Turkish. 
In  1831  he  was  transferred  to  Constantinople  to 
take  part  in  establishing  the  new  mission  to  the 
Armenians.  His  time  here  was  chiefly  occupied 
in  translating  the  Old  Testament  into  Armeno- 
Turkish.  He  was  full  of  genial  humor,  simple, 
courageous  and  of  deep  spirituality;  among  his 
associates  and  the  natives  of  Turkey  his  influence 
was  weighty.  His  great  work,  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  Armeno-Turkish,  was  completed 
in  1841;  but  so  anxious  was  he  to  secure  perfect 
accuracy  that  it  underwent  repeated  revisions, 
and  the  final  one  was  not  finished  till  1863,  four 
years  before  his  death.  On  the  day  that  he  fin- 
ished it  he  wrote  to  Dr.  John  Adams,  his  teacher 
at  Andover:  "Thus  have  I  been  permitted  by 
the  goodness  of  God  to  dig  a  well  in  this  distant 
land,  at  which  millions  may  drink,  or,  as  good 


Good   Hope 
Governments 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


270 


Brother  Temple  would  say,  to  throw  wide  open 
the  twelve  gates  of  the  New  Jerusalem  to  this 
immense  population." 

In  1851  he  visited  his  native  land,  where  he 
remained  two  years.  In  18.53  he  returned  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  labored  with  enthu- 
siasm and  success  till  1865,  when,  on  account  of 
failing  health,  he  requested  a  release  from  the 
Board,  after  forty-three  years  of  missionary 
work.  He  died  in  1867,  aged  75,  at  the  residence 
of  his  son  in  Philadelphia. 

GOOD  HOPE:  A  settlement  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated 
in  the  Zoutspansberg  district,  about  60  miles  E. 
of  Blauberg.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  105  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  22  outstations,  48  preaching  places,  20 
Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools  and  783  professing 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  Hannover  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Free  Church,  with  (1900)  2  mis- 
sionaries, 2  native  workers,  6  outstations,  2 
schools  and  287  professing  Christians.  The  form 
given  to  the  name  by  the  German  Society  is 
Goede  Hoop. 

GOOTY :  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  50  miles  east 
of  Bellary.  The  place  is  celebrated  in  history 
for  its  very  strong  fort,  captured  by  the  British 
in  1799  from  Mysore.  The  climate  of  Gooty  is 
dry  and  hot.  Population  (1891)  6,600,  of  whom 
4,400  are  Hindus,  who  speak  Telugu.  Station  of 
the  LMS,  opened  at  Nandyal  in  1855  and  trans- 
ferred to  Gooty  in  1881.  It  now  (1902)  has  4 
missionaries,  69  native  workers,  men  and  women ; 
56  outstations,  51  Sunday  schools,  51  day  schools, 
1  theological  school,  1  woman's  training  school 
and  5,000  professed  Christian  adherents. 

GOPALGANJ:  A  village  in  Bengal,  India, 
situated  in  the  Faridpur  district,  about  40  miles 
S.  of  Faridpur  and  on  one  of  the  streams  of  the 
Ganges  Delta.  Station  of  the  Bengal  Evangelis- 
tic Mission  (1894),  with  (1901)  21  native  work- 
ers, 5  preaching  places,  9  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispensary  and 
work  among  lepers. 

GORAKHPTJR :  A  city  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  on  the  Kapti  River,  100  miles  N. 
by  E.  of  Benares,  at  an  altitude  of  256  feet. 
Population  (1901)  64,000,  of  whom  41,000  are 
Hindus  and  22,000  Muslims.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1823),  with  7  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  37  native  workers,  men  and  women;  14 
day  schools,  1  boarding  school  and  orphanage, 
1  college  and  1,042  professing  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Mis- 
sion, with  3  women  missionaries  and  18  native 
women  workers. 

GORDON,  Andrew:  Born  in  Putnam,  N.  Y., 
September  17,  1828;  graduated  at  Franklin 
College,  O.,  1850;  studied  theology  at  Canons- 
burg,  Pa.,  1853;  appointed  by  synod  missionary 
to  Sialkot,  North  India;  sailed  September 
28,  1854.  Dr.  Gordon  was  the  founder  of  this 
mission  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church.  He 
was  a  devoted  and  useful  laborer  with  pen  and 
tongue.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1865  greatly  debilitated,  but  having  gained  suffi- 
cient strength  to  warrant  active  laljor  again,  he 
reembarked  in  1875  and  was  stationed  at  Gurdas- 
pur,  Northern  India.  He  returned  home  the 
second  time  because  of  illness  of  members  of  his 
family,  and  looked  forward  confidently  and 
eagerly  to  a  return  to  his  work  in  India.     After  a 


long  and  painful  illness  he  died  in  Philadelphia,' 
August  13,  1887.  Dr.  Gordon  was  preparing 
a  version  of  the  Psalms  in  the  Urdu  language 
when  he  returned.  He  published  a  valuable 
work,  Our  India  Mission  (1886). 

GORDON,  Marquis  Lafayette,  M.D.:  Born  in 

Waynesburg,  Pa.,  July  18,  1843.  Graduated 
from  Waynesburg  College  in  1868  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1871  and  from 
Long  Island  College  Hospital,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
in  1872.  He  also  studied  in  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons,  in  New  York,  from  which 
he  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  While  securing 
his  education  he  spent  three  years  in  the  army 
during  the  Civil  War.  He  entered  Japan  as  a 
missionary  of  the  ABCFM  in  1872  and  was  sta- 
tioned at  Osaka.  He  early  became  identified 
with  the  work  of  the  Doshisha  at  Kioto  and  was 
soon  recognized  as  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
efficient  of  the  missionaries  of  any  Board  in 
Japan.  Altho  Dr.  Gordon  had  qualified  as  a 
physician,  after  reaching  the  field  he  was  con- 
vinced that  he  could  work  successfully  in  but  one 
profession.  He  chose  the  ministry  of  the  Word, 
gave  up  the  practise  of  medicine,  and  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  evangelistic  and  educational 
work.  Through  his  marked  ability,  his  affection 
for  the  people  and  his  great  tact,  as  well  as  the 
spiritual  power  of  his  life,  he  won  a  strong  posi- 
tion for  himself  in  the  affection  and  the  con- 
fidence of  the  people.  This  position  he  held  to 
the  time  of  his  death.  In  1893  he  published  the 
volume.  An  American  Missionary  in  Japan.  At 
the  time  of  his  death,  in  Auburndale,  Mass.,  on 
the  4th  of  November,  1900,  he  had  in  press  his 
second  volume.  Thirty  Eventful  Years  in  Japan. 
These  two  books  contain  a  comprehensive  history 
of  the  work  and  methods  of  the  American  Board 
in  that  empire.  Dr.  Gordon  was  married  to  Miss 
Agnes  Helen  Donald  at  Andover,  Mass.,  in  1852. 
Two  daughters  of  his  are  now  in  Japan. 

GORDON  MEMORIAL:  A  station  of  the  United 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  in  Natal,  S.  Africa. 
See  Umsinqa. 

GOSHEN:  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  about  7  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Cath- 
cart.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1892), 
with  (1901)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  13 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  1  chapel  and  1 
school. 

GOSPEL  IN  FOREIGN  PARTS;  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of.  See  Society  foh  the  Propa- 
gation OF  THE  Gospel. 

GOSSNER  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY.  See 
Germany;  Missionary  Societies  in. 

GOVERNMENTS;  Relation  of  Missionaries  to: 
This  is  a  matter  of  great  perplexity,  difficulty  and 
importance.  The  missionary  is  in  one  sense  a 
man  without  a  country.  In  another  sense  he  is  a 
man  of  many  countries.  He  does  not  renounce 
his  nationality  or  citizenship.  As  Paul  at  times 
fell  back  on  his  high  position  as  a  Jew  and 
Pharisee,  so  the  missionary  must  often  assert  his 
privileges  of  birth  and  country.  At  the  same 
time  he  is  a  resident  of  foreign  lands  and  inev- 
itably related  to  foreign  governments,  on  his  own 
account,  as  an  individual;  in  behalf  of  the  prop- 
erty and  other  local  interests  acquired  by  his  mis- 
sion, and  in  behalf  of  converts  and  adherents, 
who  rely  on  him  for  advice  and  sympathy  as  to 
enjoying  justice  and  protection  in  secular  things. 
As  Paul  appeared  now  before  Ananias,  the  high- 


iiM 


271 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Good  Hope 
Go'vernmentn 


priest;  now  before  Felix  and  Festus,  Roman 
governors;  now  before  Agrippa,  and  finally 
appealed  to  Csesar,  so  the  missionary  may  find 
himself  tossed  between  different,  often  conflicting, 
sources  of  authority,  seeking  to  reach  some 
supreme  Csesar,  often  finding  only  Herods  and 
Pilates  who  will  make  friendship  over  his  defeat. 
The  relation  which  he  sustains  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country  where  he  works  may  have 
to  be  one  of  virtual  defiance.  Ever  since  the 
Apostles  met  the  prohibition  of  their  persecutors 
by  saying,  "We  ought  to  obey  God  rather  than 
men,"  and  rejoiced  "that  they  were  counted 
worthy  to  suffer  dishonor  for  His  name,"  the  first 
preachers  of  the  Gospel  have  encountered  in 
most  non-Christian  countries  the  hostility  of  the 
powers  that  be.  From  Stephen  to  Bishop  Han- 
nington  they  have  found  hostile  peoples  and 
rulers  arrayed  against  them,  and  yet  have  per- 
sisted in  gentle  defiance  of  threat  and  command 
and  force.  The  first  Protestant  work  in  Japan 
was  in  quiet  disregard  of  hostile  laws,  proclama- 
tions and  penalties.  And  for  years  before.  Cath- 
olic priests  had  been  at  work  sustaining  sup- 
pressed Christianity,  "sleeping,"  as  one  of  them 
expressed  it,  "by  day,  working  by  night."  Long 
have  they  also  done  the  same  in  Korea,  where, 
at  last,  our  own  missionaries  entered  for  the 
understood  purpose  of  establishing  a  prohibited 
religion.  Their  position  at  Seoul,  the  capital, 
afforded  for  some  years  a  most  interesting 
instance  of  the  curious  intermingling  of  possible 
relations  with  different  governments.  As  foreign- 
ers at  an  open  port  they  were  under  the  diplo- 
matic protection  of  their  home  governments. 
As  court  physicians,  heads  of  hospitals,  asylums, 
schools,  etc.,  they  were  under  the  protection  of 
the  Korean  government,  received  distinct 
appointment  as  Korean  officials  of  a  certain 
rank,  and  had  a  kind  of  private  policemen 
-assigned  them  for  protection  and  service.  In 
private  they  were  also  recognized  as  missionaries. 
Yet  in  all  this  public  capacity,  mission  labor  was 
prohibited;  in  any  capacity  it  was  liable  to  be 
stopped  at  any  moment.  The  situation  was  full 
of  complications  both  for  the  judgment  and  the 
conscience.  But  Christianity  has  taken  root  in 
Korea;  it  has  made  progress  more  rapidly  than 
in  Japan  at  the  start  and  it  has  won  for  itself  a 
place  in  the  land. 

In  Japan  one  restriction  long  remained  which 
involved  the  question  of  the  true  relation  of  the 
missionaries  to  the  Japanese  government.  Out- 
side of  the  open  ports,  passports  were  required 
and  could  be  had  for  travel  only  for  purposes  of 
health  and  science.  It  was  often  a  question 
among  missionaries  whether  such  traveling  pass- 
ports ought  to  be  used  for  evangelistic  purposes. 

The  first  missions  to  India  were  in  defiance, 
not  so  much  of  heathen  as  of  Christian  govern- 
ment. The  history  of  the  East  India  Company's 
friendship  with  heathenism  and  hostility  to 
Christian  effort  is  one  of  disgrace,  happily 
relieved,  however,  by  noble  exceptions,  and 
steadily  improved  by  the  pressure  of  the  better 
sentiment  of  England  until,  with  the  assumption 
of  rule  by  the  British  government  in  1857,  the 
present  policy  of  friendly  neutrality  was  adopted. 
At  the  time,  however,  there  was  often  nothing 
for  the  deported  or  prohibited  missionaries  to  do 
but  seek  some  other  country,  like  Burma,  or  cast 
themselves  on  the  help  of  a  friendly  government 
like  that  of  Denmark  at    Serampur,  or  wait  in 


quiet  and  disguise  for  reluctantly  extorted  per- 
mission to  go  on  with  work. 

In  Turkey  the  Christian  laborer  stands  under 
the  protection  of  his  own  government,  with 
explicit  recognition  of  his  character  as  a  mission- 
ary. Yet  so  far  as  his  work  touches  Mohammed- 
anism, he  is  engaged  in  an  endeavor  to  lead 
persons  to  violate  by  a  change  of  religion  the 
most  stringent  provisions  of  the  law  of  the  land. 
This  change  only  the  most  persistent  pressure  on 
the  part  of  Christian  governments  has  induced 
the  Turkish  government  to  relieve,  in  theory, 
from  punishment  by  death.  Practically  it  is 
still  bitterly  opposed  and  severely  punished. 
The  relation  of  a  missionary  to  a  government 
thus  compelled  against  its  will  is  of  necessity 
strained.  He  must  have  constant  dealings  with 
lower  and  higher  officials  who  on  the  most  flimsy 
pretext,  or  with  no  pretext  at  all,  seek  to  close 
his  schools  and  chapels,  stop  his  printing  press 
and  silence  his  native  preachers,  while  the 
unthinking  multitude  are  stirred  up  to  riot 
against  Protestants,  and  wildest  excesses  are 
committed,  until  the  claims  of  humanity  force 
the  powers  at  Constantinople  to  interfere.  The 
censorship  of  the  press  exercised  in  Turkey  and 
especially  directed  against  the  missionaries  is  in 
many  cases  only  more  ignorant  than  it  is  severe. 
To  keep  in  communication  with  hostile  officials, 
to  endure  oppressive  edicts  while  contending  for 
equitable  treatment  promised  by  treaty  or  by 
law,  to  press  important  cases  on  the  attention  of 
the  American  consul  or  minister — these  are 
among  the  great  embarrassments  and  hardships 
of  a  missionary's  life,  not  only  in  Turkey,  but  in 
China,  Korea  and  possibly  to  some  extent  in 
Japan. 

To  specify  one  further  question  that  is  full  of 
embarrassment  to  the  missionary:  When  a  mis- 
sionary is  hampered  by  the  unwillingness  of  local 
officials  to  give  him  rights  secured  by  law,  how 
far  may  he  follow  usages  that  prevail  in  Turkey 
or  in  China  and  secure  his  civil  rights  by  pay- 
ments which  will  induce  the  official  to  do  his 
duty  instead  of  evading  it?  Backshish  is 
expected  and  demanded  in  Turkey  and  Persia. 
Yet  its  influence  is  demoralizing.  How  far  shall 
the  missionary  seem  to  sanction  the  prevailing 
corruption?  How  far  must  he  resist  it?  This 
most  practical  question  repeatedly  recurs.  The 
missionary's  difficulties  are  more  subtly  perplex- 
ing in  case  he  enters  into  anything  like  an  alliance 
with  any  government.  But  these  difficulties  are 
not  peculiar  to  the  foreign  field.  They  must  be 
dealt  with  as  they  are  dealt  with  at  home.  For 
every  such  alliance  is  in  effect  a  union  of  Church 
and  state.  The  failings  of  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sions in  this  respect,  whether  in  North  and  South 
America,  in  Japan,  China,  India,  or  other  coun- 
tries, are  too  well  known  to  be  told.  They  form 
a  most  instructive  part  of  the  history  of  missions. 
France  and  Germany  to-day  are  eager  to  offer 
such  allianee  to  missionaries.  France,  in  particu- 
lar, has  sought  to  advance  its  diplomatic  and 
colonial  interest  through  claiming  to  be  the  pro- 
tector of  all  the  missions  of  the  Roman  Propa- 
ganda. It  has  long  sought  to  gain  political  power 
in  China  by  posing  as  the  patron  of  all  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  of  whatever  nationality. 
It  has  regarded  and  treated  both  Catholic  and 
Protestant  missionaries  as  its  own  emissaries  in 
pushing  its  colonial  schemes.  The  Legion  of 
Honor  medal  has  been  recently  conferred  upon  M 


GovcrnmeiitB 
GrahamstOTrn 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


272 


Casalis,  an  old  French  Protestant  missionary, 
for  "extending  the  influence  of  France  in  Basuto- 
land,"  in  the  sphere  of  British  influence  in  South 
Africa. 

Germany,  too,  has  the  colonial  fever,  and  the 
interest  in  missions  has  been  increased  all  over 
the  land  because  it  is  believed  that,  even  if  mis- 
sionaries are  not  successful  as  Christianizers  of 
heathendom,  they  can  be  used  wisely  as  German- 
izers  of  certain  parts  of  it.  As  a  veteran  mission- 
ary friend  in  Germany  puts  it:  "The  opinion  of 
the  German  African  Society  with  regard  to  mis- 
sionary societies  is  that  they  are  not  unselfish 
attempts  to  spread  the  Gospel,  but  merely  hand- 
maids to  colonial  politics — a  cow  to  give  milk  to 
the  mother-country." 

This  alliance  with  the  government  on  mission- 
ary ground  gives  rise  to  a  new  set  of  hostile  rela- 
tions. France  wants  only  French,  Germany  only 
German,  missionaries.  The  language  and  senti- 
ments of  each  country  must  be  exclusively  taught 
in  the  colonies  of  that  country.  Missionaries  of 
other  nationalities  must  be  excluded,  for  they 
neither  could  nor  would  enter  into  such  alliances 
for  political  and  national  schemes. 

The  missionary  may  be  often  tempted  to 
assume  an  attitude  of  critic  or  mentor  to  half 
civilized  officials  of  the  land  where  he  is  preaching 
the  Gospel.  For  a  large  class  of  questions  is 
added  to  those  which  perplex  the  missionary 
when  he  is  appealed  to  by  native  Christians  to 
secure  government  aid  or  interference  in  behalf 
of  them  and  their  interests.  The  expectation 
and  hope  of  such  aid  and  protection  from  the 
missionary  is  one  of  the  motives  most  damaging 
to  the  sincerity  of  new  converts.  It  harms  the 
missionary,  too,  by  filling  his  time  and  thoughts 
with  civil  matters,  lawsuits,  appeals,  etc. 

For  instance,  in  Travancore,  the  question  of  the 
caste  privileges  of  Christians  comes  up.  They 
are  said  to  be  low  caste,  which  would  shut  them 
off  from  much.  They  claim  to  be  no  caste.  One 
typical  case  decides  many.  The  privileges  of 
entire  communities  are  at  stake;  the  courts  must 
decide,  the  missionaries  must  make  up,  present, 
and  push  the  case.  That  may  keep  them  in  the 
courts  for  years.  Anywhere  in  India  the  right 
of  Christians  to  use  the  village  well  or  fountain 
may  be  denied.  But  the  government  has 
declared  the  wells  free  to  all.  The  missionary 
is  impelled  by  kindly  compassion  to  bring  such  a 
case  before  the  collector. 

In  China  and  in  Turkey  or  Persia  officials  are 
not  strict  observers  of  the  laws.  When  they  op- 
press the  Christians  the  influence  of  the  mission- 
ary is  incessantly  invoked  to  help  his  adherents. 
Natural  sympathy  for  those  in  distress  and  the 
desire  to  see  fair  play  have  made  some  men  allow 
most  of  their  time  for  years  to  be  consumed  by 
such  lawsuits,  whose  result,  of  whatever  sort,  was 
sure  to  be  harmful  to  their  spiritual  work. 

Another  such  connection  with  the  local  govern- 
ment often  appears  to  work  for  good.  From 
their  superior  education  and  ability  missionaries 
are  often  appointed  to  some  official  position. 
Dr.  Verbeck  was  for  some  time  a  state  official  of 
Japan.  President  Martin,  of  Peking,  at  the  head 
of  the  Imperial  College,  was  appointed  by  the 

fovernment  of  China.  Dr.  Allen  and  Mrs. 
lunker  were  the  court  physicians  of  the  King  and 
Queen  of  Korea.  Dr.  McKenzie  at  Tien-tsin 
was  closely  related  to  the  Viceroy  Li  Hung  Chang. 
Others  have  served  for  a  time  as  diplomatic  agents 


of  the  home  government,  like  S.  Wells  Williams  or 
Dr.  Whitney,  of  Tokio.  The  appointment  of 
such  men  to  such  positions  often  prepares  the 
way  for  the  Gospel  and  commends  it  to  strangers. 

Yet  as  a  rule,  contrasting  the  high  calling  of  a 
simple  missionary  with  any  other  position,  one 
might  say  of  some  who  turn  aside  from  the  mis- 
sion to  official  work  what  Dr.  Carey  wrote  regret- 
fully of  his  son :  "Felix  has  shrunk  to  an  ambassa- 
dor." 

The  general  rule  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  as  published  among  its  regulations,  is 
as  follows:  "Every  missionary  is  strictly 
charged  to  abstain  from  interfering  in  the  politi- 
cal affairs  of  the  country  or  place  in  which  he 
may  be  laboring;"  "Never  assume  a  position  of 
hostility  to  the  ruling  powers;"  "Stand  aloof 
from  all  questions  of  political  leadership  and 
political  partisanship;"  "Tribute  to  whom  tribute 
is  due,  custom  to  whom  custom,  fear  to  whom 
fear,  honor  to  whom  honor." 

It  is  not  strange,  when  one  sees  what  a  snare 
is  spread  in  all  dealings  with  magistrates  and 
civil  authorities,  that  many  of  those  who  are 
most  consecrated  and  experienced  should  decide 
that  the  only  safe  plan  for  missionaries  is  that  of 
silent  abstention  in  all  such  matters.  The  best 
they  can  ask  from  any  government  is  to  be  let 
alone,  and  regarded  with  friendly  neutrality. 
The  best  they  can  do  for  the  mission  is  to  lean  on 
no  arm  of  flesh,  invoke  no  aid  of  consul  or  magis- 
trate, but  rely  on  God  and  what  He  may  do  for  His 
servants.  They  are  not  the  foes  of  any  people, 
they  should  not  be  the  political  engines  of  any 
government,  nor  should  they  make  any  govern- 
ment their  engine. 

Another  complication  of  this  question  is  the 
attitude  toward  missionaries  sometimes  adopted 
by  ill-informed  officials  of  the  home  governments. 
Such  officials  sometimes  regard  missionaries  as 
pestiferous  lunatics  whose  object  in  life  is  to  get 
themselves  into  trouble  with  a  view  to  disturbing 
the  peace  of  officials  abroad  who  are  charged 
with  the  protection  of  their  wandering  fellow- 
countrymen.  The  ignorance  which  fosters  such 
opinions  may  be  gauged  by  perusal  of  the  article 
in  this  book  on  The  International  Service  of  Mis- 
sions. We  cannot  better  close  the  discussion  of 
these  delicate  problems  than  by  the  following 
suggestions  prepared  for  this  work  by  the  veteran 
missionary  and  student  of  missions,  Rev.  James 
S.  Dennis,  D.D.,  which  foreshadow,  perhaps, 
opinions  to  be  set  forth  in  the  third  volume  of  his 
Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress: 

"We  shall  not  undertake  to  call  in  question  the 
fact  that  under  exceptional  circumstances,  under 
the  pressure  of  misunderstandings,  or  as  the  out- 
come of  religious  fanaticism,  the  entrance  of 
Christianity  into  non-Christian  lands  has  been 
unwelcome,  and  awakened  more  or  less  opposition. 
This  is  natural,  perhaps  inevitable,  and  nistorical 
precedents  would  lead  us  to  expect  it.  It  seems 
to  be  incidental  to  the  propagation  of  Christianity, 
and  yet  so  long  as  the  missionary  teacher  is  within 
recognized  and  acknowledged  treaty  rights,  and 
does  not  transgress  international  agreements,  he 
is  not  called  upon  to  refrain  from  pursuing  his 
calling  by  fear  of  diplomatic  difficulties.  So 
long  also  as  his  appeal  is  only  to  the  reason  and 
free  moral  nature  of  man,  without  attempting 
to  exact  an  unwilling  adherence  by  any  expedient 
which  forces  the  conscience,  he  is  strictly  within 
the  bounds  of  that  universal  exercise  of  moral 


873 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


GovernmentB 
Grabamsto^TDi 


freedom  which  belongs  to  man  as  man.  It  is  not 
in  fairness  or  justice  within  the  sovereign  rights 
of  any  government,  despotic  or  liberal,  to  exer- 
cise lordship  over  the  conscience  in  the  realm  of 
religious  freedom.  That  would  be  to  usurp  a 
power  which  belongs  to  God  alone  and  which  He 
has  never  delegated  to  human  rulers.  As  a 
religious  teacher  of  God's  truth  and  God's  law  of 
righteous  living,  using  only  the  moral  instrumen- 
talities of  appeal  and  persuasion,  the  Christian 
missionary  has  the  right  of  way  the  world  over. 
Within  his  proper  limitations  he  is  unimpeach- 
able as  a  moral  force  among  men.  The  highest 
authority  which  mankind  is  called  upon  to  ac- 
knowledge has  commissioned  him  to  discharge  a 
duty  which  is  sui  generis  in  history.  He  may  be 
hindered,  opposed,  persecuted  and  martyred,  but 
his  credentials  are  authoritative,  and  cannot  be 
destroyed.  He  may  be  silenced  temporarily,  or 
banished  for  a  time,  but  his  opportunity  is  certain 
to  come,  and  he  is  bound  to  avail  himself  of  it. 

"It  becomes  him  under  these  exceptional  con- 
ditions to  discharge  his  duty  with  meekness, 
patience  and  tact,  to  exemplify  in  his  own  charac- 
ter and  conduct  the  wisdom,  gentleness  and  sin- 
cerity of  the  religion  he  teaches,  and  to  seek  only 
moral  victory  by  legitimate  spiritual  means. 
Where  the  missionary  service  is  rendered  in  this 
spirit  it  is  rarely,  if  ever,  offensive,  and  any  possi- 
bility of  disturbing  goodwill  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. In  fact,  the  charge  which  has  sometimes 
been  made  indiscriminately  that  missions  are  the 
cause  of  international  alienation  has  been  greatly 
exaggerated.  There  has  been  much  misunder- 
standing on  this  point,  and  some  considerable 
misrepresentation.  The  conspicuous  illustration, 
of  course,  has  been  China,  and  on  the  basis  of  a 
false  induction,  a  sweeping  and  railing  accusation 
has  been  made  against  missions  in  general  as  a 
cause  of  trouble  among  the  nations.  While  it  is 
no  doubt  true  that  the  political  assumptions  of 
Roman  Catholic  missions  in  China  are  offensive 
to  the  Chinese  officials,  yet  it  can  be  safely  said 
that  Christianity  as  exemplified  in  Protestant 
missions,  exercising  its  simple  and  legitimate 
function  as  a  teacher  in  the  sphere  of  morals  and 
religion,  is  guiltless  in  the  matter  of  political 
meddling.  In  reference  to  the  Boxer  disturb- 
ance of  1900  in  China,  and  other  similar  out- 
breaks which  preceded  it,  it  is  sufficiently  clear 
that  the  aversion  of  the  Chinese  to  foreigners,  and 
especially  their  resentment  at  foreign  encroach- 
ments upon  official  prerogative,  territorial  integ- 
rity and  native  industries,  are  adequate  explana- 
tions of  the  uprising,  which  has  aimed  at  the 
foreigner  of  whatever  class  as  an  intruder,  but 
chiefly  in  his  official  and  commercial  character 
rather  than  at  the  missionary  as  a  religious 
teacher.  In  fact,  the  missionary,  all  things  con- 
sidered, has  made  it  safer  and  more  possible  than 
it  would  otherwise  have  been  for  all  foreigners 
to  reside  in  China.  Numerous  friendly  acts  and 
proclamations  by  high  officials  of  the  empire, 
since  the  convulsions  of  1900,  have  indicated  a 
specially  kindly  feeling  to  missionaries.  The 
Missionary  Peace  Commission  of  1901  in  Shansi 
is  a  remarkable  evidence  of  the  respect  and  con- 
sideration shown  to  missionaries  by  many  Chinese 
officials  since  the  troubles  of  1900.  The  recent 
opening  of  Hunan  province  by  the  mission- 
aries of  the  London  Society  has  reclaimed  in  a 
measure  an  immense  section  of  China  to  foreign 
residence,  which  will  be  a  boon  both  to  missions 
and  commerce. 

18 


"At  the  Seventh  Annual  Conference  of  Foreign 
Mission  Boards  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
held  in  New  York  City  January,  1899,  a  report 
was  presented  embodying  the  results  of  a  careful 
canvass  of  mission  fields  throughout  the  world  as 
to  the  attitude  of  civil  governments  toward 
Christian  missions  and  missionaries  wherever 
they  had  been  established.  The  report  revealed 
the  fact  that  almost  the  world  over  the  attitude 
of  local  governments  was  friendly  and  helpful, 
with  few  signs  of  friction  and  opposition.  In 
view  of  the  many  regrettable  incidents  in  the 
contact  of  Western  nations  with  Eastern  peoples, 
and  the  objectionable  personal  example  and 
conduct  of  many  foreigners  residing  in  the  East, 
the  outcome  above  indicated  is  especally  sig- 
nificant and  speaks  much  for  the  respect  accred- 
ited to  missions  and  their  representatives." 

GOVERNOR'S  HARBOR:  A  station  of  the 
WMS  in  Eleuthera  Island,  Bahamas,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  24  native  workers,  4  preaching 
places,  1  day  school,  and  593  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

GOVINDPUR:  A  village  in  Chota  Nagpur, 
India,  situated  about  25  miles  S.  W.  of  Ranchi. 
Station  of  the  Gossner  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1900)  2  missionaries,  76  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  37  preaching  places,  2  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  and  8,722  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

GRAAF  REINET:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  in  the  district  of  the  same  name, 
58  miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of  Middleburg,  on  a  small 
plain  nearly  enclosed  on  one  side  by  mountains, 
and  on  the  other  by  a  bend  of  the  Sunday  River. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  colony  and 
is  celebrated  for  its  sulphur  springs.  Station  of 
the  SPG  (St.  James  Parish),  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  1  native  worker. 

GRACEBAY:  A  mission  station  of  the  Mora- 
vians (1797)  on  the  island  of  Antigua,  West 
Indies,  6  miles  west  of  Gracehill. 

GRACEFIELD :  A  town  on  the  northern  coast 
of  Antigua,  West  Indies.  It  is  pleasantly  situa- 
ted close  to  the  sea,  the  cool  Seabreeze  making  it 
one  of  the  healthiest  places  on  the  island.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1840),  with  (1900) 
9  native  workers  and  134  communicants. 

GRACEHILL:  A  town  in  Antigua,  W.  I.,  8 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  St.  Johns.  Station  of  the  Mora- 
vian Missions  (1774),  with  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  17  native  workers,  2  schools,  and 
466  professing  Christians. 

GRAHAM'S  HALL:  A  little  village  in  British 
Guiana,  situated  on  the  Industry  Plantation,  10 
miles  east  of  Georgetown.  The  population  is 
composed  chiefly  of  negroes  from  the  Barbados 
and  some  East  Indian  coolies.  Station  and 
center  of  the  Moravian  Mission  in  Guiana  (1878), 
with  (1900)  35  native  workers,  2  schools,  and 
395  professing  Christians. 

GRAHAMSTOWN:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony, 
S.  Africa,  situated  in  the  district  of  Albany,  55 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  King  William'sTown  on  the 
railway  to  Kimberly  and  at  an  altitude  of  1,800 
feet.  It  is  the  most  important  city  of  the  first 
plateau,  with  extensive  woolen  manufactures. 
It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  Bishop.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1861), 
with  a  missionary  and  a  theological  school. 
Station  also  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  (1900)  48  native  workers. 


Oran    Cliaco 
Greece 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


274 


4  preaching  places,  3  day  schools,  and  492  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

GRAN  CHACO.  See  Argentine  Republic 
and  South  American  Missionary  Society. 

GRAND  CAYMAN:  One  of  the  Cayman  Isl- 
ands, West  Indies,  176  miles  northwest  from  the 
west  end  of  Jamaica.  The  island  is  17  miles  long 
and  4  to  7  miles  broad.  Climate,  tropical;  popu- 
lation, 4,500,  composed  of  English  mulattoes  and 
pure  negroes;  language,  English;  religion,  Protes- 
tant. The  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  has 
(1902)  2  stations  on  Grand  Cayman,  with  2  mis- 
sionaries and  8  native  workers,  and  534  church 
members. 

GRANT,  Asahel,  M.D.:  Born  at  Marshall, 
N.  Y.,  August  17,  1807;  died  April  24,  1844. 
Graduated  in  medicine  at  Pittsfield,  Mass. 
Practised  medicine  at  Bain  trim.  Pa.,  until  the 
death  of  his  wife.  Appointed  medical  missionary 
of  the  ABCFM  among  the  Nestorians  in  1834. 
Arrived  at  Urmia,  Persia,  November  20,  1835. 
The  medical  skill  of  Dr.  Grant  was  at  once  called 
into  active  exercise.  Altho  the  ignorance  and 
superstitions  of  the  people  hampered  his  efforts, 
he  soon  acquired  great  influence.  Patients  came 
from  distant  regions — from  Mesopotamia  or  from 
the  Caucasus;  haughty  Mohammedan  mollahs 
kissed  the  hem  of  his  garments;  in  his  life  in  the 
wild  mountain  regions  he  was  more  than  once 
indebted  for  his  safety  to  recognition  by  some 
patient  who  had  seen  him  in  Urmia. 

Dr.  Grant's  thrilling  adventures  among  the 
Nestorians  of  the  mountains  made  his  name 
famous.  His  work  there  was  broken  up  by  the 
massacres  of  1843.  Two  years  later  he  died. 
His  influence  as  a  physician  opened  the  way  for 
his  successors  and  his  personal  attractiveness 
won  him  friends  who  long  mourned  his  early 
death. 

GRASSMAN,  Andrew:  Born  February  23, 
1704,  at  Senftleben,  Moravia;  called  "to  the 
clearer  light  of  the  Gospel"  through  Christian 
David  in  1725.  Persecuted  in  Moravia,  he,  with 
others  who  sympathized  with  him,  removed  in 
1728,  under  the  leadership  of  Christian  David, 
to  Count  Zinzendorf's  estate  at  Berthelsdorf, 
afterward  called  Herrnhut.  From  1731  till 
1737,  he,  with  some  Moravian  companions,  trav- 
eled, learning  successively  the  Swedish,  Finnish 
and  Russian  languages,  supporting  themselves 
at  their  respective  trades,  and  making  known 
the  Gospel,  as  opportunities  offered,  in  parts  of 
Germany,  Sweden  and  Lapland.  His  attempt  in 
1738  to  reach  the  Samoyedes  in  the  Russian 
Empire  led  to  his  arrest  and  imprisonment  for 
six  months,  followed  by  his  expulsion  from  the 
country. 

Mr.  Grassman  subsequently  labored  as  a  mis- 
sionary in  Greenland.  He  was  made  Bishop  of 
the  Moravian  Church  in  1756.  He  died  March 
25,  1783. 

GREAT  ABACO  ISLAND :  One  of  the  northern- 
most islands  of  the  Bahamas,  with  a  population 
of  3,300.  Circuit  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  23 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  7  preaching 
places,  5  Sunday  schools  and  450  professing 
Christians. 

GREAT  BASSA:  A  town  and  seaport  in 
Liberia,  W.  Africa.  Station  of  the  PE  (1853), 
with  4  native  workers. 

GREAT  BATANGA:  A  settlement  and  district 


in  the  Kamerun  Colony,  W.  Africa,  situated  S.  of 
the  Lokunje  River  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  colony 
and  170  miles  N.  of  the  Gabun.  In  climate,  the 
district  is  one  of  the  healthiest  and  most  agree- 
able on  the  coast,  and  German  and  English 
traders  resort  there.  Station  of  the  PN  (1885), 
with  (1903)  10  missionaries,  men  and  women, 
one  of  whom  is  a  physician;  15  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  10  outstations,  10  day  schools, 
2  boarding  schools  (closed  temporarily),  1  dispen- 
sary and  800  professing  Christians. 

GREAT  SANGI  ISLAND.     See  Sanqi  Islands. 

GREBO  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  negro 
class  of  African  languages  and  is  used  in  the 
regions  inland  from  Liberia.  It  was  reduced  to 
writing  by  missionaries  of  the  PE,  and  is  written 
with  Roman  letters. 

GRECO-TURKISH  LANGUAGE:  The  Turkish 
language  as  written  with  Greek  letters  by  Greeks 
of  Asiatic  Turkey. 

GREECE:  The  Hellenic  Kingdom  embraces  a 
territory  of  about  25,000  square  miles,  and  has  a 
population  of  (1896)  2,433,806,  Greeks  and  Alba- 
nians. Scotland  has  the  same  extent  of  territory 
and  almost  twice  as  many  people.  As  for  wealth 
and  natural  resources,  Greece  is  proverbially  the- 
poorest  country  in  Europe. 

Agriculture  occupies  the  attention  of  the 
majority  (seven-eighths)  of  the  inhabitants. 
Only  seven  cities  can  boast  of  more  than  10,000 
people.  Fifteen  cities  (from  Athens,  114,355,  to- 
Missolonghi,  6,324)  contain  only  250,000  inhabi- 
tants, or  about  one-ninth  of  the  whole  population 
of  Greece.  Nearly  ten  per  cent,  are  shepherds; 
as  many  are  seafarers.  There  are  100,000  Alba- 
nians scattered  about  the  kingdom.  They  began 
migrating  southward  over  four  hundred  years 
ago,  at  the  time  of  the  Turkish  conquest.  These 
people,  who  still  speak  their  unwritten  language, 
have  become  largely  Hellenized,  yet  are  easily 
distinguished  from  the  Greeks  proper.  They  are 
found  mainly  in  Attica,  about  Thebes,  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth,  throughout  ancient  Argolis, 
in  the  southern  district  of  Euboea,  and  in  a  few 
neighboring  islands. 

The  war  of  the  revolution  (1821-9)  left  Greece 
in  a  deplorable  state.  The  Protocol  of  London 
declared  her  a  kingdom  under  the  protectorate  of 
England,  France  and  Russia.  Prince  Otto  of 
Bavaria  ascended  the  throne  January  25,  1833. 
King  George,  son  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  suc- 
ceeded King  Otto  in  1863.  Under  both  these 
reigns  the  kingdom  has  seen  slow  but  steady 
advancement.  Under  the  present  constitution 
(adopted  October  29,  1864)  the  whole  legisla- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  single  chamber  of  repre- 
sentatives, called  the  BouU,  and  the  executive 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  king  and  his  respon- 
sible ministry.  The  fact  that  only  a  fraction  (2 
millions  out  of  8  millions)  of  the  Greek-speaking 
people  in  the  Levant  are  included  in  the  present 
kingdom  of  Greece  keeps  the  ambitious  little 
country  continually  in  a  restive  condition,  and 
the  great  powers  have  frequently  been  obliged 
forcibly  to  compel  the  Greeks  to  keep  the  peace. 
This  restriction  is  received  with  bad  grace  bj^  the 
people.  An  extension  of  the  territory  of  the  king  - 
dom  to  the  north  (1881)  only  whetted  its  appetite 
for  more.  The  island  of  Crete  has  been  in  & 
chronic  state  of  unrest  and  now  looks  toward 
annexation  to  Greece  at  no  distant  day. 

Athens  has  been  the  capital  of  "the  Kingdom 


276 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Gran  Chncw 
Greece 


of  the  Hellenes"  since  1830,  and  has  grown  from 
a  squalid  Turkish  village,  clinging  to  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Acropolis,  to  a  large,  clean  and  beau- 
tiful city,  with  its  palace  and  gardens,  its  fine 
hotels  and  boulevards,  its  cathedral  and  univer- 
sity, its  art  museums  and  its  public  schools.  To 
the  scholar  and  student  of  modern  life  it  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  cities  in  the  world.  The 
city  is  a  busy  hive  of  educational  institutions. 
The  English  Church  and  the  Protestant  Evangel- 
ical Greek  Church  are  to  the  east  of  the  Acropolis, 
near  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus. 
The  British  and  American  schools  for  research  in 
Greece  are  on  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Lyca- 
bettus. 

The  BouU  meets  November  1  (old  style) 
every  year,  and  the  city  thereafter  presents  a 
brilliant  scene,  in  which  the  royal  retinue,  the 
deputies,  the  foreign  ambassadors,  the  military 
classes,  the  church  hierarchy,  the  throng  of  stu- 
dents from  the  whole  Greek  world,  together  with 
foreigners  from  every  clime,  make  the  modern 
city  vie  with  its  ancient  self  in  picturesqueness 
and  interest. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  are  mostly 
adherents  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church. 

The  most  encouraging  thing  about  modern 
Greece  is  its  splendid  system  of  schools.  There 
has  never  been  a  time  when  Greece  has  been  abso- 
lutely destitute  of  educational  facilities.  Even 
during  that  long  period  of  abject  oppression 
under  Turkish  rule — which  lasted  from  the  open- 
ing of  the  1 6th  century  until  the  war  of  independ- 
ence, 1821-29 — the  rudiments  of  an  education 
had  been  taught  by  the  clergy  of  the  Greek 
Orthodox  Church.  Even  during  the  revolution 
schools  were  covertly  carried  on.  When  the 
country  came  out  of  this  baptism  of  blood  the 
national  mind  was  roused  as  only  a  great  struggle 
for  freedom  can  rouse  it,  and  efforts  were  imme- 
diately put  forth  to  put  its  schools  on  a  solid 
foundation.  It  was  necessarily  a  most  difficult 
undertaking.  The  country  was  bankrupt.  At 
that  critical  hour  in  the  nation's  life  the  influence 
of  English,  French  and  American  sympathizers 
was  a  large  factor  in  starting  the  whole  long  and 
interesting  development  of  educational  affairs  in 
Greece.  American  influence  was  felt  especially 
in  two  directions — the  study  of  the  Bible  in  all 
Greek  public  schools,  and  the  education  of  the 
girls  of  Greece.  Two  more  fundamental  results 
could  not  have  been  attained,  and  from  all  appear- 
ances these  would  not  have  been  attained  but  for 
American  impetus.  Since  1863  educational 
affairs  have  moved  on  faster  than  ever.  Teach- 
ing has  become  a  regular  profession,  and  the  old 
age  of  teachers  is  provided  for  by  a  judicious  pen- 
sion system,  regulated  by  the  term  of  service. 
More  than  half  the  teachers  in  the  elementary 
schools  are  women — a  remarkable  fact  when  we 
consider  that  through  the  centuries  of  Turkish 
oppression  the  education  of  woman  was  almost 
entirely  neglected.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
institutions  in  Athens  is  the  "Arsakeion,"  a  girls' 
school,  named  from  its  founder,  M.  Arsakes,  a 
wealthy  merchant,  originally  from  Epirus.  It 
was  the  result  of  the  American  idea  fostered  by 
Dr.  and  Mrs.  Hill.  To-day  it  is  by  far  the  finest 
girls'  school  in  Greece.     'The  institution  is  graded 

carefully  up  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  normal 

department,  taking  a  girl  from  the  age  of  four  or 

M  M  M  M      five  up  to  eighteen  or  twenty.     It  is  a  custom  for 

far-away  villages  to  select  their  brightest  girls. 


collect  money  for  their  expenses,  and  send  them: 
to  the  Arsakeion,  that  they  may  have  efficient 
teachers  for  their  village  girls.  Since  its  start 
this  school  has  scattered  more  than  2,500  gradu- 
ates over  Greece  and  Greek-speaking  lands,  and 
most  of  them  teach. 

The  list  of  private  benevolences  for  educational 
purposes  might  be  indefinitely  increased.  In 
proportion  to  her  size,  population,  and  wealth, 
the  little  Hellenic  kingdom  surpasses  even  open- 
handed  America  in  this  point. 

Mission  Work:  When  the  struggle  for  indepen- 
dence called  the  attention  of  the  civilized  world  to 
Greece,  Christian  work  was  begun  in  the  land  by 
various  churches  of  America.  The  CMS  had 
already  sent  missionaries  in  1815,  their  operations 
being  mainly  confined  to  the  Ionian  Islands. 

The  PE  sent  out  Rev.  J.  J.  Robertson  in  1828 
to  see  whether  Greece  presented  an  encouraging 
field  for  the  efforts  of  this  Church. 

This  mission  was  reenforced  in  1830  by  the 
arrival  of  Rev.  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Hill.  They  went 
first  to  the  island  Tenos,  where  they  spent  six 
months;  then  removed  to  Athens,  the  scene  of 
their  long  and  successful  educational  work,  car- 
ried on  in  the  spirit  of  the  instructions  given,  with 
a  careful  avoidance  of  anything  that  might  look 
like  a  wish  to  proselyte  from  the  Greek  Church. 

In  1828  Rev.  Jonas  King  of  the  ABCFM,  whose 
previous  sojourn  in  Jerusalem  and  Smyrna  had 
given  him  an  opportunity  to  acquire  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  modern  Greek,  and  also  awakened  a 
deep  interest  in  their  spiritual  condition,  was 
chosen  by  a  committee  of  ladies  in  New  York  to 
take  charge  of  supplies  for  the  physical  wants  of 
the  impoverished  Greeks.  His  knowledge  of  the 
language  enabled  him  at  once  to  do  something 
to  meet  their  still  deeper  spiritual  wants,  and  he 
was  permitted  to  remain,  supported  by  these 
ladies,  till  1831,  when  the  American  Board 
decided  to  enter  Greece  as  a  mission  field,  and 
Mr.  King  was  transferred  to  its  service  and 
removed  from  Tenos,  where  he,  too,  like  Dr.  Hill, 
had  begun  his  work,  to  Athens,  where  he  estab- 
lished schools  of  a  high  grade  for  boys,  held 
preaching  services,  and  also  devoted  much  time 
to  the  preparation  of  religious  literature,  for 
which  he  was  particularly  fitted  by  his  great  and 
varied  attainments  as  a  Christian  scholar.  In 
1834  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Elias  Riggs  opened  a  school  at 
Argos,  and  were  subsequently  joined  by  Mr.  Ben- 
jamin. This  station  was  given  up  in  1837,  Mr. 
Riggs  going  to  Smyrna. 

About  this  time  (1837)  the  Rev.  S.  Houston 
and  Rev.  G.  W.  Leyburn  of  Virginia,  also  in  con- 
nection with  the  American  Board,  went  to 
Areopolis,  in  Laconia,  in  response  to  an  earnest 
invitation  of  Pietro  Bey  Mavromihalis.  They 
soon  had  two  schools  for  boys  in  successful  opera- 
tion, in  one  of  which  the  Rev.  M.  D.  Kalopo- 
thakes,  now  so  long  associated  with  evangelistic 
work  for  his  countrymen,  received  his  earliest 
religious  impressions. 

The  Baptists  also  began  a  mission  under  Mr. 
Buel  and  Mr.  Arnold. 

A  printing  establishment  had  been  founded  by 
the  ABCFM  at  Malta,  where  publications  in  the 
various  languages  of  the  East  were  printed. 
Very  soon  there  was  a  much  greater  demand  for 
those  in  Greek  than  in  any  other  language.  In 
1830  the  Rev.  Mr.  Temple,  who  was  in  charge  of 
this  department  of  the  work,  reported  that  the 
previous    year    the    press    had    been    employed 


Greece 
Greek   Church 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


276 


wholly  on  modern  Greek,  to  the  amount  of 
4,670,000  pages,  chiefly  schoolbooks.  The 
demand  for  books  was  such  that  they  rarely 
accumulated  on  the  shelves. 

Those  were  years  of  hope  for  all  who  were 
looking  for  the  renovation  of  the  Greek  Church, 
both  clergy  and  people  seeming  gratefully  to 
appreciate  the  advantages  extended  to  the  com- 
munity. But  soon  a  change  came.  The  mis- 
sionary enterprise  began  to  be  regarded  with 
suspicion  through  the  gross  misrepresentations 
of  the  Greek  press,  both  as  to  the  motives  and 
practises  of  foreigners.  There  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  this  was  brought  about  by  out- 
side intrigues,  working  through  individuals  here 
who  found  it  for  their  interest  to  appear  very 
zealous  for  the  "faith  of  the  fathers." 

Through  the  same  influence  a  change  in  the 
constitution  was  effected,  restricting  the  full 
religious  liberty  which  was  granted  by  the  first 
constitution  to  toleration  of  recognized  religions, 
but  forbidding  proselytism.  The  American 
Board  withdrew  all  its  representatives  except 
Dr.  King,  who  was  unwilling  to  go.  The  Baptist 
missionaries  also  returned  after  a  time  to  Amer- 
ica. 

In  1890-1900  a  new  movement  appeared  for  the 
better  instruction  of  the  clergy  and  for  the  circu- 
lation of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vernacular,  the 
ancient  Greek  being  unintelligible  to  the  common 
people.  This  movement  had  the  support  and 
sanction  of  the  Metropolitan  of  Athens  and 
promised  permanent  and  valuable  results.  But 
now,  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  independence  of 
Greece,  a  conservative  and  ignorant  party  aroused 
the  people  against  the  movement  to  translate  the 
Bible  into  modern  Greek.  There  were  riots  in 
Athens,  and  in  the  end  the  clamor  was  only 
appeased  by  the  stoppage  of  Bible  work  and  the 
expulsion  from  office  of  the  Metropolitan  and  the 
Prime  Minister  supposed  to  be  responsible. 

After  the  Americans  withdrew,  about  1863,  the 
native  element  became  prominent.  Dr.  Kalo- 
pothakes.  Rev.  G.  Constantine  and  Rev.  D. 
Sakellarios  worked  for  some  years  together  under 
the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union. 
Later  there  were  distinct  organizations.  The 
Baptists  were  represented  by  Mr.  Sakellarios. 
The  Congregationalists  sustained  Mr.  Constan- 
tine, who,  besides  preaching,  did  much  valuable 
work  through  the  press. 

The  organization  known  distinctively  as  the 
Greek  Evangelical  Church  was  under  the  care  of 
the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church  during  the 
thirteen  years  previous  to  1886. 

At  the  close  of  188.5  the  Evangelical  Native 
Church  withdrew  its  connection  with  the  South- 
ern Presbyterian  Church  and  became  independ- 
ent. 

Since  that  time  there  has  been  no  "mission 
work,"  so  called,  in  Greece,  except  the  primary 
school  for  poor  children  founded  by  the  late  Mrs. 
Hill,  sustained  by  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  the   United  States. 

There  is  a  school  for  the  better  classes — in  a 
certain  sense  a  continuation  of  Mrs.  Hill's  work — 
on  the  same  premises — under  the  efficient  direc- 
tion of  her  niece,  Miss  Masson. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Sakellarios,  too,  continued  until 
his  death  independently  the  work  he  formerly 
carried  on  under  the  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
of  the  United  States.  So  also  with  the  work  of 
the  native  Greek  Evangelical  Church  with  which 
Dr.  Kalopothakes  is  connected.     This  work,  even 


when  under  the  mission,  differed  to  a  consider- 
able extent  from  other  missions  in  the  fact  that 
it  was  inaugurated  and  carried  on  for  many 
years  through  native  instrumentalities,  so  that 
the  native  element  had  a  training  from  the  first 
calculated  to  develop  the  capacity  of  the  church 
for  active  forms  of  service  and  for  responsi- 
bility, and  through  this  an  inclination  to  inde- 
pendence of  action  which  was  bound  speedily  to 
lead  to  self-support. 

The  Greek  Evangelical  Church  is  Presbyterian 
in  doctrine  and  form  of  government.  A  local 
synod  has  been  organized  called  the  "Synod  of 
the  Free  Evangelical  Church  in  Greece."  It  has 
under  its  care  the  Bible  work  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  colporteurs  em- 
ployed are  all  Christians  who  are  able  to  do  an 
important  evangelistic  work  in  connection  with 
their  sales  of  the  Scriptures.  The  E^vfj-eplc  tuv 
UaWuv  a  monthly  paper  for  children  edited  by 
Dr.  Kalopothakes,  is  now  in  its  twenty-fourth 
year  and  has  an  annual  circulation  of  about 
7,000  copies.  The  Star  of  the  East,  the  weekly 
paper,  was  discontinued  at  the  close  of  1885. 

Through  the  kindly  assistance  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society  of  London  thousands  of  tracts 
are  printed  and  circulated  yearly.  The  work  of 
the  American  Bible  Society  was  for  more  than 
25  years  under  Dr.  Kalopothakes'  care,  and  on 
its  withdrawal  from  Greece  in  1886,  the  agency 
of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  being 
entrusted  to  him,  the  same  assistance  to  the  work 
and  moral  support  comes  through  it. 

Tuckerman  (C.  K.),  The  Greeks  of  To-day,  London  and  New 
York,  1873;  Bent  (J.  T.),  Modem  Lifeand  Thoupht amongst 
the  Greeks,  London,  1891 ;  Guerber  (H.  A.),  The  Story  of 
the  Greeks,  London,  1898. 

GREEK  CHURCH:  Several  names  and  titles 
are  used  by  writers  who  mention  this  church: 
e.  g.,  The  Greek  Orthodox  Church,  The  Eastern 
Church,  The  Orthodox  Imperial  Church,  The 
Greek  Catholic  Church  and  The  Orthodox  East- 
ern Church  of  Christ.  The  name  and  title  pre- 
ferred by  the  Greeks  themselves  and  claimed  by 
them  as  the  most  correct  is  "The  Holy  Catholic 
and  Apostolic  Orthodox  Church  of  the  East," 
("H  'A.yia  KaBoTiiK^  nal  'ArrodToXiKy  'OpSdSo^og ''EtiiAriQia 
T?/g  'Avarolf/^'), 

Adherents:  It  claims  as  its  adherents  those  who 
accept  and  abide  by  the  decisions  of  the  first 
seven  ecumenical  councils,  viz.:  Nice,  1st, 
325,  and  7th,  787;  Constantinople  2d,  381 ,  5th,  553, 
6th,  680;Ephesus3d,431;Chalcedon  4th,  451.  It 
represents  the  state  religion  of  Greece,  Russia, 
Bulgaria,  Servia  and  Rumania,  and  of  the 
larger  part  of  the  Greek  and  Slavic  people  in 
Turkey  and  other  parts  of  the  world.  Its  numer- 
ical strength  is  estimated  at  a  little  less  than 
100,000,000  souls.  These,  in  round  numbers,  are 
distributed  as  follows:  In  Greece,  2,400,000;  in 
Turkey,  5,000,000;  in  other  parts  of  Asia, 
4,000,000;  in  Africa,  3,000,000;  America,  50,000; 
Bulgaria,  2,000,000;  Servia,  2,000,000;  Monte- 
negro, 290,000;  Rumania,  4,800,000;  Austria- 
Hungary,  3,100,000;  Russia,  73,300,000. 

History:  The  claim  of  the  Greeks,  that  this  is  the 
oldest  Christian  Church,  is  founded  on  the  facts 
(a)  that  they  are  the  heirs  of  the  original  Greek 
Empire  of  Byzantium  or  Constantinople;  (b) 
that  they  still  use  in  their  worship  the  Greek  of 
the  Apostles  and  the  liturgy  of  the  early  Fa- 
thers; (c)  that  the  Greek  Fathers  were  in  the 
majority  at  the  first  seven  ecumenical  councils 
(of  the  318  Bishops  at  the  first  council  310  were 


277 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Greece 
Greek  Church 


from  the  East),  the  decisions  made  and  the  doc- 
trines established  being  largely  colored  by  Greek 
philosophy  and  Greek  thought,  and  finally  (d) 
that  their  church  history  begins  in  the  Passion 
week,  or  "The  Great  Week,"  of  our  Lord's  life. 
The  Syrian  Church  claims  the  precedence  because 
(Acts  xi:  26)  "The  disciples  were  called  Christians 
first  at  Antioch."  But  the  Greeks  point  to  John 
xii:  20,  23:  "There  were  certain  Greeks  among 
them,  that  came  up  to  worship,"  and  to  the 
Master's  words:  "The  hour  is  come  that  the  Son  of 
man  should  be  glorified." 

It  is  fair  to  state  that  the  Armenian  Church 
makes  the  claim  (which  the  Greeks  dispute)  that 
these  so-called  Greeks  were  Armenians  sent  from 
their  King  Abgar  and  that  under  the  preaching 
of  the  Apostles  Thaddseus  and  Bartholomew  they 
were  the  first  to  accept  Christianity  as  a  nation. 
Greek  tradition  tells  us  that  the  earthquake  at 
the  time  of  the  Crucifixion  was  felt  in  Athens  and 
that  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  exclaimed:  "Either 
God  suffers  or  the  universe  is  being  destroyed," 
and  that  thus  he  and  certain  others  were  pre- 
pared for  the  preaching  of  Paul. 

The  political  and  organic  history  of  the  Greek 
Church  begins  with  the  conversion  of  Constantine, 
312  A.  D.  This  was  followed  by  the  cessation  of 
persecution  and  the  establishment  of  Christianity 
as  the  state  religion.  A  more  perfect  organiza- 
tion was  secured  by  the  council  of  Nicea  in  325. 
In  this  year  also  was  begun  the  Cathedral  Church 
of  St.  Sophia,  and  the  founding  of  the  first  Chris- 
tian citv,  "New  Rome,"  or  Constantinople,  dedi- 
cated "To  the  service  of  Christ"  May  11,  330. 
The  natural  jealousy  of  Rome,  the  former  impe- 
rial city,  and  the  rivalry  springing  up  between 
the  two  cities,  created  parties  not  only  in  political 
but  in  religious  life  as  well. 

The  Bishop  of  Rome  was  not  ready  to  yield 
precedence  to  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  or 
even  to  acknowledge  the  latter's  equality  with 
himself.  Decisions  of  various  councils  in  regard 
to  this  matter  were  acceptable  to  neither  party. 
(The  Council  of  Constantinople  in  381  declared 
that  the  Bishop  of  New  Rome  should  be  inferior 
only  to  that  of  Old  Rome.)  Seventy  years  later, 
the  equality  of  the  two  was  decreed  at  Chalcedon. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  6th  century  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  claimed  precedence 
over  all  Christian  Churches,  but  in  606  the 
Emperor  Phocas  gave  this  honor  to  Boniface  of 
Rome.  Minor  differences  in  customs  and  in 
forms  of  theological  statement  were  enlarged  as 
the  centuries  moved  on.  There  were  endless  con- 
troversies as  to  methods  and  times  of  fasting,  the 
administration  of  the  Sacraments  and  the  pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Spirit.  While  the  Latins 
declared  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from 
Father  and  the  Son,  the  Greeks  claimed  that  the 
procession  was  from  Father  alone.  Pope  Leo 
III.,  at  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  809, 
approved  of  the  expression  "  Filioque" _  (and  from 
the  Son)  and  soon  after,  in  order  to  give  greater 
authority,  the  canons  of  the  great  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople were  falsified  by  the  interpolation  of 
the  disputed  clause.  This  was  deemed  by  the 
Easterns  the  great  sin  of  the  Western  Church  and 
has  never  been  forgiven. 

As  the  Greek  Empire  decreased  in  power  and 
renown,  the  power  of  the  Papacy  became  more 
deeply  rooted,  and  when  the  Pope  of  Rome,  aim- 
ing at  universal  supremacy,  began  to  interfere 
indirectly    with   the    affairs    of    the    East,    and 


Michael  Cerularius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
protested,  papal  legates  visited  Constantinople 
and  on  the  16th  day  of  June,  1054,  repairing  to  the 
great  church  of  St.  Sophia,  they  there  in  the  name 
of  the  Pope  excommunicated  the  Patriarch  and 
all  his  adherents.  "After  pronouncing  this  dread 
anathema,  they  placed  their  sentence  on  the  High 
Altar  of  the  Church,  and  shaking  the  dust  off 
their  feet  they  left  the  city." 

The  separate  histories  of  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches  may  properly  begin  at  this 
date — June  16,  1054. 

The  great  missionary  work  of  the  Greek  church 
began  in  861,  when  the  brothers  Cyril  and  Metho- 
dius went  from  Thessalonica  to  Bulgaria.  The 
Slavic  alphabet  and  literature,  and  the  Bible  in 
the  vernacular,  are  the  result  of  their  work. 
Thus  the  way  was  opened  for  the  evangelization 
and  instruction  of  the  Servians  and  Rumanians, 
and  in  due  time  of  the  Russians  also.  The  con- 
version of  the  Russians,  following  the  visit  to  St. 
Sophia  of  the  envoys  sent  by  Vladimir;  the  bap- 
tism of  Czar  and  people  in  the  Dnieper  at  Kief;  the 
building  there  of  the  first  Christian  Church  and 
the  marriage  of  Anne,  sister  of  the  Emperor 
Basil,  to  Vladimir  the  Czar  took  place  in  988. 
Kief  remained  the  metropolitan  city  until  its 
destruction  by  the  Mongols  in  1240,  when  the  see 
was  removed  to  Vladimir  and  afterward  trans- 
ferred to  Moscow. 

Church  Government:  The  government  of  the 
Greek  Church  is  Episcopal,  with  orders  of  Patri- 
arch, Bishops,  Piiests,  Deacons,  Sub-deacons, 
etc.  In  the  Turkish  Empire  it  is  divided  into 
four  metropolitan  sees — Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  Each  of  these 
is  presided  over  by  a  Patriarch.  All  have  equal 
rights,  but  special  honor  is  conceded  to  the  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople.  The  latter  presides 
over  the  "Grand  Synod,"  which  is  made  up  of  the 
Bishops  of  the  surrounding  provinces.  It  is 
theirs  to  elect  or  rather  nominate  the  Patriarchs. 
The  full  election  waits  upon  the  approval  and 
confirmation  of  His  Majesty  the  Sultan.  He 
recognizes  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  as  the 
responsible  head  of  the  Church  and  the  medium 
of  communication  between  the  sovereign  and  the 
Greek  people. 

In  Greece  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Church 
is  the  Synod  at  Athens,  which  consists  of  five 
clerical  and  two  lay  members.  Their  former 
dependence  upon  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
ceased  in  1833,  tho  a  few  external  rites  and 
honors  (the  preparation  of  the  anointing  oil,  etc.) 
are  still  reserved  to  that  prelate.  For  six  cen- 
turies the  Russian  Church  was  dependent  on  the 
Patriarchate  of  Constantinople  and  was  governed 
by  Metropolitans,  some  of  them  Greeks  sent 
directly  from  the  Patriarch,  others  Russians  ele- 
vated to  the  office.  Even  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  the  Patriarch  or  Primate  of  Mos- 
cow had  to  have  his  appointment  confirmed  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Peter  the 
Great  in  1712  curtailed  the  authority  of  the  Pri- 
mate of  Moscow  and  substituted  that  of  the 
"Holy  Synod,"  over  which  the  influence  of  the 
Czar  is  supreme.  Thus  the  Czar  became  head  of 
the  Church  as  well  as  of  the  state  in  Russia. 
Without  the  presence  of  the  procurator  of  the 
Czar  the  "Holy  Synod"  can  hold  no  meetings  nor 
are  their  decisions  valid  without  his  consent.  In 
Rumania  the  government  of  the  Church  rests 
with  two  Archbishops,  the  first  of  them  styled 
the  Primate   of   Rumania,  the  second  the  Arch- 


txreek   CHareh 
Ouatemala  la  Nneva 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


278 


bishop  of  Moldavia.  There  are,  besides,  six 
Bishops  of  the  national  Church.  In  Servia,  the 
Church  is  governed  hj  the  Synod  of  Bishops,  all 
the  ecclesiastical  officials  being  under  the  control 
of  the  Minister  of  Education  and  Public  Worship. 
The  Greek  Church  of  Bulgaria  was  dependent 
upon  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  until  April, 
1870,  when  the  various  Bulgarian  sees  were 
united  under  one  chief  bishop  known  as  the  Bul- 
garian Exarch. 

Church  Buildings  and  Services:  The  Eastern 
hierarchy  resembles  the  Jewish  type,  and  the 
Eastern  church  building  is  a  reminder  of  the 
Jewish  temple.  It  has  three  divisions:  (1)  The 
Holy  Place;  (2)  The  Body  of  the  Church,  and  (3) 
the  Narthex  or  Porch.  Above  the  latter  is  the 
latticed  apartment  for  the  women.  The  narthex 
was  originally  set  apart  for  catechumens  or  for 
penitents  under  discipline  and  the  body  of  the 
church  for  the  congregation.  The  Holy  Place, 
separated  by  the  screen  of  wood  or  marble 
covered  with  pictures,  is  for  the  priests  and  their 
attendants  and  for  preparation  of  the  bread  and 
wine  upon  the  "Holy  Table."  The  church 
building  must  invariably  stand  east  and  west. 
The  entrance  is  always  at  the  west,  so  that  the 
worshipers  may  face  the  east.  The  schoolboy 
who  (not  in  a  Sunday  school  but  in  the  ordinary 
primary  school)  is  taught  the  mystical  meaning 
of  all  parts  of  the  church  building,  and  of  each 
portion  of  the  priest's  dress,  tells  us  that  "the 
worshiper  thus  turns  his  back  upon  the  deeds  of 
darkness  and  his  face  toward  the  Sun  of  Right- 
eousness who  is  to  arise  with  healing  in  His 
wings." 

The  Greek  Church  lays  stress  on  its  acceptance 
of  the  first  seven  ecumenical  Councils,  and  on  its 
doctrine  that  the  Sacraments  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  seven,  the  Jewish  symbol  for  complete- 
ness. The  seven  sacraments  are:  Baptism,  The 
Lord's  Supper,  Chrism,  Confession,  Ordination, 
Marriage,  and  the  Anointing  of  the  Sick.  She 
believes  in  baptismal  regeneration  and  at  baptism 
receives  each  child  into  full  church  membership. 
She  uses  candles  and  incense  in  worship;  she 
rejects  images,  but  adores  pictures.  The  wor- 
shiper himself  kisses  the  picture  of  the  saint  and 
lights  a  candle  before  the  shrine.  Such  pictures 
are  found  not  only  in  the  churches,  but  in  the 
homes  of  the  people,  in  hotels  and  in  ships  at  sea. 
Baptism  is  by  three-fold  immersion.  Leavened 
bread  is  used  in  the  Communion,  and  the  laity 
partake  of  the  cup  also.  She  allows  her  priests 
to  be  married  before  ordination,  but  never  after. 
Celibacy  is  limited  to  Bishops  and  monks.  The 
clergy  are  not  allowed  to  shave  or  to  have  the 
hair  cut  after  entering  sacred  orders. 

The  liturgy  of  St.  Chrysostom  (an  abridgment 
of  that  of  St.  Basil)  is  used  each  Lord's  day. 
Instrumental  music  is  not  allowed.  The  music  is 
by  a  double  choir  of  boys  and  men.  Preaching 
has  not  been  common  excepting  in  Lent,  but  it  is 
becoming  more  frequent  in  certain  localities. 
After  the  exaltation  of  the  Host,  and  the  sacred 
procession  about  the  church,  the  people  are 
invited  to  the  Communion  at  each  service,  but 
this  invitation  is  rarely  accepted,  excepting  after 
the  three  longer  fasts  of  the  Church,  viz.:  at 
Christmas,  Easter,  and  the  Fast  of  the  Sleep  of 
the  Virgin,  in  August. 

In  addition  to  the  three  longer  fasts  every 
Wednesday  and  Friday  are  fasting  days,  and 
there  are  other  special  fasts,  in  all  over  200  days 
during  the  year.     In  fasting  the  rule  is  to  abstain 


from  all  animal  food,  including  eggs,  milk,  butter 
and  cheese.  On  certain  special  days  fish  is 
allowed. 

The  Greek  calendar  still  follows  the  old  style, 
and  was  during  the  19th  century  12  days,  and 
since  1900  (which  in  the  Orient  was  regarded  as 
Leap  Year),  13  days  behind  the  new  style  intro- 
duced by  Gregory  XIII. 

SchafF  (P.),  History  of  the  Creeds  of  Christendom,  New  York; 
Ricault  (P.),  The  Present  State  of  the  Greek  and  Armenian 
Churches,  London,  1679 ;  Neale,  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern 
Church,  London,  1848;  Neale,  Paraclete  of  Antioch,  Lon- 
don, 1873;  Palmer  (W.),  Dissertations  Relating  to  the  Ori- 
ental or  Eastern  Catholic  Communion,  London,  1853; 
Clark  (E.  L.),  The  Races  of  European  Turkey,  New  York, 
1878;  Grosvenor  (E.  A.),  Cojistantino-ple,  Bo.'iton,  1895; 
Dwight  (H.  0.),  Constantinople  and  Its  Problems,  New 
York,  1900;  The  Churches  of  Christendom  (St.  Giles  Lec- 
turer), Edinburgh,  1884;  Stanley,  History  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  liOndon  and  New  York,  1884;  Hore  (Canon), 
Eighteen  Centuries  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  i  ondon, 
1899;  Tozier,  Church  in  the  Eastern  Empire,  London,  1888; 
Reply  of  the  Holy  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church  of  the  East 
to  the  Encyclical  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  on  reunion,  Constanti- 
nople, 1895  (Published  in  Greek  and  English) . 

GREEN,  Samuel  H. :  Born  Worcester,  Mass., 
October  10,  1822  ;  practised  medicine  for  a 
while  in  Worcester;  sailed  for  Ceylon  as  a  medical 
missionary  of  the  ABCFM  April  20,  1847; 
returned  home  on  account  of  ill  health  in  1873. 
He  continued  the  preparation  of  medical  works 
in  the  Tamil  language.  Several  standard  vol- 
umes were  prepared  by  him,  covering  in  all 
between  three  and  four  thousand  pages,  and  are 
used  as  text-books  in  India.  Dr.  Green's  name 
stands  a  household  word  among  the  people  of  the 
island  to  whose  interest  he  devoted  his  life.  He 
died  at  Worcester,  May  28,  1884. 

GREENBAY:  A  settlement  on  the  island  of 
Antigua,  W.  I.,  near  St.  John's.  After  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  slaves  in  Antigua,  the  idle,  the 
vicious  and  immoral  gathered  here  and  made  the 
place  notorious  for  vile  deeds  of  every  description. 
The  Moravians  in  1848  opened  a  preaching  place, 
with  such  success  that  in  a  short  time  the  char- 
acter of  the  people  changed  completely.  At 
present  (1901)  there  are  14  native  workers,  men 
and  women,  with  2  preaching  places,  1  school  and 
413  communicants. 

GREENLAND :  An  extensive  region,  including 
46,740  square  miles,  belonging  to  Denmark,  lying 
northeast  of  North  America,  from  which  and  its 
outlying  islands  it  is  separated  by  Davis'  Strait 
and  Baffin's  Bay.  Cape  Farewell,  its  southern 
extremity,  is  a  point  on  a  small  island  from  which 
the  east  coast  extends  northeast  toward  Cape 
Brewster,  where  it  takes  a  more  northerly  course, 
and  stretches  toward  the  Pole  to  an  unknown 
distance.  The  southern  part  of  this  coast  is 
rugged  and  barren,  with  cliffs  and  precipices  visi- 
ble far  out  at  sea.  The  climate  is  very  healthful, 
the  temperature  varying  according  to  the  dis- 
tance from  the  Pole.  Fogs  are  prevalent  most 
of  the  year,  and  but  little  rain  falls.  The  popu- 
lation, except  about  300  Danes,  consists  entirely 
of  Eskimos  who  live  by  hunting  and  fishing,  and 
number  11,895  (1901).  A  few  live  on  the  east 
coast,  where  is  the  only  mission  station  to 
heathen  Eskimos.  All  the  villages  and  settle- 
ments are  on  the  west  coast,  upon  the  lowlands 
along  the  fiords.  Greenland  is  divided  for 
administrative  purposes  into  two  inspectorates. 
North  and  South  Greenland,  each  subdivided  into 
seven  districts,  having  a  director  who  is  assisted 
by  a  parliament  chosen  from  the  principal  men. 
The  crown  of  Denmark  has  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade,  which  is  carried  on  under  the  direction  of 


S79 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Greek  Church 
Guatemala   la    Noevn 


the  Greenland  Trading  Company.  After  years  of 
discouraging  efforts  on  the  part  of  missionaries, 
all  the  natives  have  been  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. The  religious  instruction  of  the  people 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  Church  of  Denmark.  In 
1900  tlie  Moravians,  who  had  several  stations  in 
Greenland,  withdrew,  considering  their  work  was 
done.  The  Eskimos  have  given  up  their  nomadic 
habits  and  enjoy  the  benefits  of  civilization,  while 
they  are  afflicted  with  fewer  of  its  vices  than  are 
the  Indians  who  have  come  into  contact  with  the 
white  man  elsewhere.  Liquor  is  prohibited  in  all 
the  settlements. 

GREENVILLE :  A  town  in  Liberia,  W.  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Since  River  near  its  mouth,  and 
included  in  Since  in  missionary  reports.  Station 
of  the  PE  (1853),  with  (1901)  5  native  workers 
and  57  communicants.  Also  station  of  ME,  with 
(1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  15  native  work- 
ers, 10  outstations,  8  preaching  places,  1  indus- 
trial school,  and  462  professing  Christians. 

GRIFFITHS,  Davis:  Born  December  20, 
1792,  at  Glanmeilwch,  Carmarthenshire,  Wales; 
educated  at  Wrexham  and  Gosport;  sailed  as 
missionary  of  the  LMS  for  Madagascar,  October 
25,  1820.  He  made  the  first  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible  into  the  Malagasy  language,  assisted 
by  Mr.  David  Jones.  In  1834  his  connection  with 
the  Society  was  dissolved,  and  he  returned  to 
England.  Returning  afterward  to  Madagascar, 
he  settled  at  Antananarivo  for  purposes  of  trade, 
'but  made  great  efforts  to  assist  the  persecuted 
Christians.  Returning  to  England  in  1842,  he 
became  pastor  at  Welsh  Hay.  He  published 
History  of  Madagascar  in  Welsh,  revised  the  Mala- 
gasy version  of  the  Bible,  and  prepared  numer- 
ous works  in  the  Malagasy  language.  He  died  at 
Machynlleth,  March  21,  1863. 

GROOT  CHATILLON:  A  settlement  in  Dutch 
Guiana,  S.  America;  situated  on  the  Surinam 
River,  about  12  miles  S.  of  Paramaribo.  Station 
of  the  Moravian  Missions,  with  4  missionaries, 
men  and  women;  1  native  worker,  2  preaching 
places,  1  school  and  a  leper  asylum  known  as 
"Bethesda." 

GROOT  SANGIR  ISLANDS.  See  Sangir 
Islands. 

GUADALAJARA:  A  town  in  Mexico,  the  sec- 
ond in  importance  of  the  republic,  and  capital  of 
the  State  of  Jalisco;  situated  on  the  Santiago 
River  120  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Zacatecas,  and  at  an 
altitude  of  5,000  feet.  It  was  founded  in  1542, 
and  has  many  churches  and  convents,  a  univer- 
sity, a  mint,  and  an  academy  of  painting.  Popu- 
lation (1900),  101,208.  Station  of  the  ABCFM 
(1882),  with  (1902)  6  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  4  native  workers,  5  outstations,  1  girls' 
boarding  school,  1  theological  seminary  and 
training  school.  Station  also  of  the  Interna- 
tional Medical  Association  (Seventh  Day  Advent), 
with  3  missionaries,  1  dispensary,  and  1  hospital. 
Station  also  of  the  MES  (1884),  with  (1901)  6 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  and  1  native 
worker. 

GUADALCANAR  ISLAND.  See  Solomon  Is- 
lands. 

GUAM,  or  GUAHAN:  An  island  of  the  Ladrone 
or  Marianne  group,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  N.  of 
the  Caroline  Islands.  It  is  the  largest  island  in 
the  group  and  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by 
Spain  in  1898.  It  is  about  32  miles  long,  con- 
tains about  200  square  miles,  and  is  surrounded 


by  coral  reefs.  It  is  thickly  wooded,  well 
watered,  and  fertile  in  soil.  The  population 
(1903)  is  estimated  at  about  9,000,  two-thirds 
of  the  whole  number  living  in  Agania,  the  capital. 
They  are  mostly  immigrants  from  the  Philip- 
pines. Spanish  is  the  official  language  and  R,o- 
man  Catholicism  the  religion.  The  first  Chris- 
tian mission  on  the  island  was  established  by 
Luis  Sanoitores,  a  Jesuit,  in  1668.  The  ABCFM 
established  a  mission  in  Guam  in  1900.  It  now 
has  a  station  at  La  Punta,  near  Agania,  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  day  school,  1  boarding 
and  industrial  school,  and  61  professing  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  30  are  communicants. 

GUANA  JAY:  A  town  in  the  island  of  Cuba, 
W.  I.,  situated  about  22  miles  S.  W.  of  Havana. 
Population,  9,500.     Mission  station  of  the  MES. 

GUANAJUATO:  A  town  in  Central  Mexico, 
160  miles  northwest  of  Mexico  City.  A  pleasant 
city,  built  on  both  sides  of  a  narrow  defile  in  the 
mountains  at  an  altitude  of  6,500  feet.  It  lies  in 
a  rich  mining  district,  and  has  a  population  (1900) 
of  41,486.  Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1902)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
11  native  workers,  men  and  women;  2  preaching 
places,  2  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and 
314  professing  evangelical  Cliristians. 

GUANTANAMO:  A  town  in  Cuba,  W.  I.,  situ- 
ated 40  miles  east  of  Santiago,  in  a  very  pro- 
ductive legion  of  sugar  estates.  Population, 
about  24,000.  Station  of  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Missionary  Society  (1899),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife. 

GUARANI  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  South 
American  family  of  languages,  and  is  spoken  by 
the  native  population  (mixed  blood)  of  Para- 
guay.    It  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 

GUATEMALA :  A  republic  of  Central  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Yucatan,  east  by  Brit- 
ish Honduras,  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  and  the 
republics  of  Honduras  and  San  Salvador;  south 
by  the  Pacific,  and  west  by  the  Mexican  State  of 
Chiapas.  Its  greatest  length,  from  northeast  to 
southwest,  is  325  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  about 
300  miles;  area,  about  48,800  square  miles. 
Climate,  excessively  hot  in  tlie  low,  and  cool  in 
the  high,  regions,  is  generally  healthful.  The  soil 
is  exceedingly  fertile,  but  poorly  cultivated. 
Population  (1900) ,  1 ,647 ,300 ;  about  sixty  per  cent, 
are  pure  Indians,  very  few  descendants  of 
Europeans,  and  the  rest  mestizos,  a  mixture  of 
Spanish  and  Indian  blood.  The  Indians  live 
mostly  by  themselves,  and  the  civil  authorities 
immediately  governing  them  are  chosen  from 
tlaeir  own  race.  Indolence  and  licentiousness  are 
the  besetting  vices  of  all  the  people.  Language, 
Spanish;  religion,  Roman  Catholic,  but  all  other 
creeds  have  liberty  of  worship.  The  government 
is  republican;  the  legislative  power  is  vested  in 
a  congress,  and  the  executive  is  a  president, 
assisted  by  three  ministers,  elected  for  four  years. 
The  capital  is  Guatemala,  by  far  the  finest  city 
in  Central  America,  situated  in  a  picturesque 
plateau  in  the  southwest  part  of  the  republic. 
The  missionary  societies  operating  in  Guatemala 
are  the  PN,  with  2  stations,  and  the  Central 
American  Mission,  with  1  station.  The  ABS  also 
has  an  agency  at  Guatemala  city. 

Brigham  (T.),  Guatemala,  New  York  and  London,  1887J 
Sapper  (K.),  Mittelamerikanische  Reisen  und  Studien^ 
Braunschweig,  1902 ;  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol. 
XIV.,  p.  168,  New  York,  1901. 

GUATEMALA  LA  NUEVA:    Capital  of  Guate- 


Guayaquil 
Gumpur 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


280 


mala,  Central  America,  situated  at  an  altitude 
of  4,850  feet  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country, 
50  miles  from  the  Pacific  and  150  from  the  Bay 
of  Honduras.  The  climate  is  very  healthful. 
Population  (1898),  74,000,  of  whom  five-sixths 
are  of  European  origin.  The  houses  are  rather 
low  and  squalid  looking,  being  constructed  with 
a  view  to  escaping  damage  from  earthquakes. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1882),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife.  Station  also  of  the  Central  America 
Mission  (1899),  with  6  missionaries,  men  and 
women.     Agency  of  the  American  Bible  Society. 

GUAYAQUIL:  A  seaport  in  Ecuador,  S.  Amer- 
ica; capital  of  the  province  of  Guayas,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Guayas  River,  35  miles 
above  its  mouth,  and  165  miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of 
Quito.  Population,  51,000,  of  whom  about  5,000 
are  foreigners,  the  most  of  the  remainder 
Indians  and  half-breeds.  Station  of  the  Gospel 
Missionary  Union  (1896)  and  of  the  PB. 

GUAYMAS:  A  seaport  of  Mexico,  situated  on 
the  Gulf  of  California,  275  miles  W.  of  Chihuahua. 
It  is  connected  by  railroad  with  the  United  States 
railroad  system.  Population,  about  7,000.  Sta- 
tion of  the  MES,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife 
and  1  native  worker. 

GUBBI:  A  town  in  Mysore,  India,  situated  50 
miles  N.  W.  of  Bangalore.  Population,  4,000. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  66  native  workers. 

GUDUR:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Nellore, 
Madras,  India,  situated  24  miles  S.  W.  of  the 
town  of  Nellore.  Population,  about  5,000.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Hermannsburg  Mission,  with  (1902) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  10  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  1  preaching  place,  3  outstations,  4 
schools  and  296  professing  Christians. 

GUIANA :  An  extensive  territory  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  South  America,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Atlantic,  on  the  east  and  south  by 
Brazil,  and  on  the  west  by  Brazil  and  Venezuela. 
The  country  slopes  from  the  south,  where  the 
mountains  reach  an  altitude  of  7,000  feet,  to  the 
lowlands  of  the  north.  Six  large  rivers,  whose 
general  trend  is  north,  drain  the  country.  In 
the  lowlands  the  hot  climate  is  tempered  by  the 
easterly  breezes,  which  blow  all  the  year.  Ter- 
rific thunderstorms  often  occur,  and  at  times 
earthquake  shocks  may  be  felt.  The  fertility  of 
the  soil  is  unsurpassed  in  South  America. 

The  three  Guianas  are  the  only  European 
colonies  on  the  Continent,  and  combined  they 
are  not  larger  than  Wyoming  and  Colorado. 

1.  British  Guiana,  formally  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  in  1814,  is  the  largest  of  the  three  colonies, 
and  includes  the  settlements  of  Demerara,  Esse- 
quibo,  and  Berbice,  named  from  the  three  rivers. 
It  extends  from  9°  to  1°  north  latitude,  and  from 
67°  to  52°  north  longitude,  including  an  area  of 
109,000  square  miles.  The  government  is  admin- 
istered by  a  governor,  assisted  by  a  court  of  policy. 
There  are  over  150,000  acres  under  cultivation, 
half  of  which  is  devoted  to  the  raising  of  sugar. 
Population  (1891),  278,477,  composed  of  negroes, 
mulattoes.  East  Indians,  and  Chinese.  For  many 
years  Chinese  immigrants  were  brought  to  work 
on  the  sugar  plantations,  but  about  1870  all 
organized  importation  was  discontinued,  and 
there  are  now  only  about  4,000  Chinese  in  the 
colony.  Of  East  Indians  there  are  115,463. 
There  are  159  schools  which  receive  government 
grants,  with  21,384  pupils.  Georgetown  is  the 
capital  and  principal  city. 


Mission  work  in  British  Guiana  is  carried  on  by 
the  Moravian  Brethren,  the  National  Baptist 
Convention,  the  LMS,  the  SPG,  the  SDA,  and 
the  PB. 

2.  French  Guiana  (Cayenne)  was  acquired  by 
France  in  1626,  and  includes  an  area  of  46,850 
square  miles.  It  is  by  far  the  hottest  of  the 
three  colonies,  is  poorly  cultivated,  and  its  trade 
is  very  insignificant.  Cayenne  is  the  capital  and 
largest  city.  This  is  the  only  country  in  South 
America  untouched  by  Protestant  missions.  Its 
total  population  is  about  35,000. 

3.  Dutch  Guiana  (Surinam)  is  separated  from 
French  Guiana  on  the  east  by  the  river  Maro- 
wijne,  and  on  the  west  from  British  Guiana  by 
the  river  Corantyn.  It  was  first  acquired  by  the 
Netherlands  in  1667  in  exchange  for  New 
Netherlands  in  N.  America,  and  was  finally  sur- 
rendered to  its  possession  by  the  peace  of  Paris, 
1815.  The  area  is  46,060  square  miles,  much  of 
it  consisting  of  flat  and  swampy  land,  while  the 
high  mountains  are  found  toward  the  south. 
The  population  is  (1900)  68,968,  exclusive  of  the 
negroes  living  in  the  forests,  engaged  principally 
in  agriculture.  Sugar  is  the  principal  product. 
Paramaribo  is  the  capital.  The  government  is 
in  the  hands  of  a  governor  and  the  council,  who 
are  nominated  by  the  queen.  Entire  liberty  is 
accorded  to  the  members  of  all  religious  con- 
fessions, and  in  1902  there  were  the  following 
connections:  Reformed  and  Lutheran  church 
members,  9,584;  Moravian  Brethren,  28,027; 
Roman  Catholics,  12,771;  Jews,  1,100;  Hindus, 
11,158;  Mohammedans,  3,918.  Mission  work  in 
Surinam  is  carried  on  by  the  Moravian  Brethren 
(1735). 

GUINEA:  Name  formerly  applied  to  much  of 
the  western  coast  of  Africa  south  of  the  Gambia 
River.  It  is  now  commonly  applied  to  Portu- 
guese Guinea  lying  adjacent  to  Senegambia, 
and  to  French  Guinea  south  of  the  former  and 
north  of  Sierra  Leone. 

Portuguese  Guinea:  A  colony  of  Portugal,  is  on 
the  coast,  entirely  surrounded  on  the  land  sides 
by  French  territory.  It  has  an  area  of  only 
4,440  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  820,000 
(estimated).  It  includes  the  Bissagos  Islands  off 
the  coast.     The  chief  port  is  Bissao,  or  Bissau. 

French  Guinea:  A  colony  of  France  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa,  detached  from  the  colony 
of  Senegal  in  1890,  and  organized  as  a  colony  in 
1893.  It  has  an  area  of  about  95,000  square 
miles,  and  an  estimated  population  of  2,200,000. 
It  extends  from  Portuguese  Guinea  on  the  north 
to  Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia  on  the  south,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  French  dependencies 
behind  Senegal  and  the  Ivory  Coast.  The  coast 
is  low  and  unhealthful. 

GUJARAT :  A  region  in  Bombay,  India.  The 
name  does  not  refer  to  any  political  division  of 
the  Bombay  Presidency,  but  rather  to  the  area 
within  which  the  Gujarati  language  is  the  ordi- 
nary vernacular  of  the  Hindu  inhabitants.  This 
region  is  composed  in  part  of  districts  belonging 
to  the  Bombay  Presidency,  and  in  part  of  the 
territories  of  many  different  native  states.  It 
lies  along  the  shore  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  at  its 
northeastern  angle,  and  between  the  coast  and 
the  Western  Ghats,  which  stretch  along  about  30' 
miles  from  the  sea,  north  and  south.  On  the 
south  it  reaches  to  latitude  20°  north,  some  70 
miles  north  of  Bombay;  its  most  northern  pointy 
where  it  touches  Rajputana,  is  in  latitude  24° 


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Gnayaqnll 
Gmupnr 


45'.  It  includes  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar, 
Kachchh,  the  native  states  of  Baroda,  Cambay, 
those  of  Mahi  Kantha,  Rewa  Kantha,  and  Palan- 
pur,  and  several  other  inferior  chieftainships.  It 
also  includes  five  districts  of  the  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, which  contain  together  a  population  of 
3,000,000.  The  total  area,  including  feudatory 
states,  is  70,038  square  miles,  and  the  total  popu- 
lation about  10,000,000.  The  city  of  Surat  is 
one  of  the  oldest  missionary  stations  in  India; 
it  was  occupied  by  missionaries  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  as  early  as  1815.  In  1846  the 
mission  was  transferred  to  the  Irish  Presby- 
terians, who  now  have  10  stations  in  that  dis- 
trict. The  ME  and  the  CA  have  latterly  estab- 
lished stations  in  this  region  also. 
Jeffrey  (Rev.  R.),  Fijty  Years'  Work  in  Kathiawar  and 
Gujarat,  London. 

GUJARATI  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  Indie 
branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  languages,  and  is 
spoken  by  some  9,000,000  people  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  province  of  Bombay,  India.  It  is 
near  of  kin  to  the  Hindi,  and  is  written  with  the 
Devanagari  letters,  or  with  its  own  peculiar 
letters  derived  from  Devanagari. 

GUJRANWALA:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
40  miles  north  of  Lahore,  in  a  dead  level  plain 
which  lacks  natural  drainage.  Climate,  cool, 
with  frost  in  winter,  extremely  hot  in  summer. 
Population  (1891),  26,800,  of  whom  14,000  are 
Mohammedans  and  9,000  Hindus.  It  is  the 
birthplace  of  Runjit  Singh,  the  organizer  of  Sikh 
nationality.  Station  of  the  UP  (1863),  with 
(1903)  8  missionaries,  men  and  women;  25  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  21  day  schools,  3 
boarding  schools,  1  orphanage  and  industrial 
■  school,  and  about  500  professed  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  PS,  which,  in  1902,  voted  to 
withdraw  from  the  place,  but  the  local  presby- 
tery has  not  agreed  to  this  course. 

GUJRAT:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  North  India, 
between  the  rivers  Chenab  and  Jhelum,  70  miles 
north  of  Lahore.  Climate,  unusually  change- 
able, subject  to  very  severe  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture. The  place  has  abundant  water  and  good 
sanitation.  It  is  noted  for  its  brassware  and 
inlaid  metal  work.  Population  (1891),  18,100, 
of  whom  12,700  are  Mohammedans.  Station  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Mission  Com- 
mittee (1865)  and  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
Woman's  Association  for  Foreign  Missions 
(1877),  with  a  hospital,  dispensary,  orphanage, 
and  17  missionaries,  men  and  women. 

GULBARGA.     See  Kulbabga. 

GULEDGUDD :  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, India,  situated  53  miles  south  of  Bijapur. 
Population,  15,500,  of  whom  13,600  are  Hmdus. 
Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1851), 
with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife, 
21  native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  outsta- 
tions,  6  day  schools,  and  668  professed  Christians. 

GULICK,  Luther  Halsey,  M.  D.:  Born  June 
10,  1828;  died  April  8,  1891.  His  parents  were 
missionaries  in  Hawaii  when  the  subject  of 
this  sketch  was  born,  and  his  boyhood  days  were 
spent  at  Koloa,  with  a  year  at  school  in  Honolulu. 
Then  came  the  trip  to  the  United  States,  the 
country  chosen  by  his  parents  for  better  educa- 
tional advantages.  In  1847  he  entered  the  New 
York  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and 
each  Sunday  found  him  engaged  in  city  mission 
work.     In  1851  the  Hawaiian  Missionary  Society 


was  formed  as  auxiliary  to  the  American  Board; 
and  Mr.  Gulick  learned  that  a  mission  to  one  of 
the  Micronesian  Islands  had  been  projected,  and 
that  the  Hawaiian  Island  Mission  was  to  act 
upon  it  the  following  May.  He  immediately 
offered  himself  to  the  American  Board,  and  the 
intervening  months  were  spent  in  hospital  prac- 
tise in  New  York  City,  in  further  study  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew,  and  in  attendance  upon  lectures. 
On  October  29,  1851,  Dr.  Gulick  was  married 
to  Miss  Louisa  Lewis,  and  on  November  18 
they  sailed  from  Boston  to  the  islands  of  Micro- 
nesia. On  their  way  out  they  spent  several  days 
at  Hawaii,  and  on  September  6,  1852,  they 
reached  the  island  of  Ponape,  the  largest  of  forty- 
eight  islands  which  form  the  Caroline  group,  and 
the  one  by  which  all  Micronesia  had  been  judged. 
Dr.  Gulick's  labors  were  multiform.  He  was  at 
once  physician,  carpenter,  student,  cook,  shoe- 
maker, dressmaker,  and  preacher.  In  1854  he 
was  stricken  with  smallpox,  an  epidemic  of  which 
raged  through  half  the  year.  As  soon  as  he  re- 
covered he  journeyed,  preached  and  translated  for 
his  prostrate  people  as  never  before;  and  they,  with 
renewed  zeal,  began  their  reading,  writing,  and 
Bible  work.  A  year  later  Dr.  Gulick  helped  to 
build  the  schoolhouse,  chapel  and  hospital;  and, 
in  1857,  came  their  first  crude  printing  press. 
In  October,  1860,  after  nine  years  of  continuous 
service.  Dr.  Gulick  left  Micronesia  for  Honolulu, 
and  from  there  he  visited  the  United  States.  In 
1863  he  was  again  in  Hawaii,  having  accepted 
the  position  of  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  the 
Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association.  In  1870  his 
labors  at  Hawaii  ended.  After  twenty- five  years 
of  work  for  the  American  Board  he  received  a 
call  from  the  American  Bible  Society,  and  Japan 
and  China  were  offered  to  him  as  a  field  of  labor. 
In  1 880  he  began  a  new  era  of  Bible  work  in  Japan; 
he  founded  the  Bible  house  at  Yokohama — 
in  his  estimation  one  of  the  great  successes  of  his 
life.  In  1881  the  large  field  of  China  was  assigned 
to  him;  and  from  a  circulation  of  74,800  volumes 
of  the  Bible  in  1878,  the  number  grew  to  252,875 
in  1887.  On  the  plain  gray  granite  monument 
that  marks  the  grave  of  Luther  Halsey  Gulick  at 
Springfield,  Mass.,  are  these  words:  "For  forty 
years  a  foreign  missionary." 

GULICK,  Peter  J.:  Born  at  Freehold,  N.  J., 
March  12,  1797;  graduated  at  Princeton  Col- 
lege 1825,  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
1827;  sailed  November  3,  the  same  year,  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  ABCFM,  with  the  second  reenforce- 
ment  for  the  Sandwich  Islands.  He  was  stationed 
first  atWaimea;  then  Koloa,  on  Molokai,  till  1847; 
then  at  Waialua,  Oahu,  till  1857,  when  he  removed 
to  Honolulu.  In  1874,  after  forty-seven  years  of 
service,  he  went  with  his  wife  and  daughter  to  re- 
side with  his  son,  O.  H.  Gulick,  in  Japan.  He  died 
in  Kobe,  December  8,  1877.  Six  of  his  children 
became  missionaries  of  the  American  Board. 

GUMLA:  A  village  in  Chota  Nagpur,  India, 
situated  about  35  miles  south  by  west  of  Lohar- 
daga.  Station  of  the  Gossner  Missionary  Society, 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  20  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  13  preaching  places,  7  Sunday 
schools,  2  day  schools,  and  1,911  professed 
Christians. 

GUMPUR:  A  town  in  the  Madras  Presidency, 
India,  situated  50  miles  N.  of  Chicacole  in  the 
District  of  Vizagapatam.  Station  of  the  Brek- 
lum  Missionary  Society  (1900),  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife  and  1  native  worker. 


Gnndert 
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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


282 


GUNDERT,  Herman:  Born  in  Stuttgart,  1814. 
Died  in  1893.  He  joined  tlie  Basel  Mission  in 
Malabar,  India,  in  1839,  and  for  twenty-four 
years  he  exerted  a  wide  and  potent  influence  in 
India  and  other  lands.  Dr.  Gundert  was  a  man 
of  great  learning,  and  his  pen  was  a  blessing  to 
the  cause  of  missions.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  Malayalam  books;  his  dictionaries  did 
much  toward  the  development  of  the  language 
and  dialects  of  the  people  among  whom  he  labored, 
and  his  Bible  translations  were  painstaking  and 
scholarly.  His  failing  health  necessitated  his 
return  home,  where  he  became  editorial  secretary 
and  principal  of  the  "Calwer  Verlagsverein." 

GUNNAUR:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Budaon, 
United  Provinces,  India,  situated  about  3  miles 
from  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges.  Population 
(1891)  5,500,  of  whom  3,200  are  Mohammedans. 
Circuit  station  of  the  ME,  with  (1901)  500  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

GUNONG  SITOLI:  A  town  on  the  E.  coast  of 
the  island  of  Nias,  Dutch  East  Indies,  W.  of 
Sumatra.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  missionary's 
wife,  13  native  workers,  men  and  women;  2  out- 
stations,  4  day  schools,  and  853  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

GUNTUR:  A  municipality  and  district  in  the 
Presidency  of  Madras,  India,  situated  in  the 
region  of  the  Kistna,  about  20  miles  W.  of  the 
river,  in  a  region  that  is  quite  healthful  but  rather 
difficult  of  access.  Population  (1891)  23,400,  of 
whom  17,300  are  Hindus.  Station  of  theELGS, 
with  (1902)  18  missionaries,  men  and  women;  62 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  22  preaching 
places,  42  Sunday  schools,  32  day  schools,  1 
college,  1  orphanage,  1  hospital  and  dispensary, 
and  4,848  professing  Christians. 

GURDASPUR:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  North 
India,  44  miles  northeast  of  Amritsar.  Unim- 
portant except  as  a  trading  center  for  the  produce 
of  the  neighboring  villages.  In  appearance  and 
sanitary  arrangements  it  is  fairly  good.  Climate, 
cool  and  pleasant.  Population  (1891)  6,000,  of 
whom  3,000  are  Hindus  and  2,600  Mohammedans. 
Station  of  the  UP  (1872),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  3  women  missionaries,  12  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  39  outstations,  and 
16  village  schools. 

GURZALLA:  A  town  in  the  Madras  Presidency, 
India,  situated  on  the  Kistna  River,  about  85 
miles  S.  E.  of  Haidarabad.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1895),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  23  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  8  outstations,  4  preach- 
ing places,  12  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and 
5,000  professing  Christians,  of  whom  1,800  are 
baptized  adults. 

GUTU'S:  A  settlement  in  Rhodesia,  Central 
Africa,  situated  about  175  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Bulawayo.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1892),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  1  mis- 
sionary's wife,  1  native  worker,  13  outstations, 
12  preaching  places,  and  150  professing  Christians. 

GUTZLAFF,  Karl  Friedrich  August:  Born  at 
Pyritz,  in  Pomerania,  July  8,  1803.  He  early 
showed  great   zeal   in   study,   and   expressed   a 


strong  desire  to  be  a  missionary,  but,  his  parents 
being  too  poor  to  educate  him,  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  saddler  at  Stettin.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  made  known  his  wishes  for  a  missionary  life  in 
a  sonnet  which  he  addressed  to  the  King  of 
Prussia,  which  led  to  his  being  admitted  to  the 
Padagogium  at  Halle,  and  afterward  to  the 
mission  institute  of  Janicke  in  Berlin.  On 
leaving  the  school  he  visited  England,  and  meet- 
ing Dr.  Morrison,  the  Chinese  missionary  and 
scholar,  his  mind  turned  strongly  to  China  as  his 
ultimate  field  of  labor.  In  1826,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society,  he 
sailed  for  Batavia,  where,  by  close  study  and 
intercourse  with  Chinese  residents,  he  made  great 
proficiency  in  the  Chinese  language.  In  1828  he 
severed  his  connection  with  the  Netherlands 
Society,  and  resolved  to  go  on  his  own  account  to 
China.  Between  1831  and  1834  he  made  three 
voyages  along  the  coast  of  China,  Siam,  Korea, 
and  the  Lu-chu  islands.  In  these  he  went  at 
first  in  the  disguise  of  a  Chinaman,  afterward 
as  an  interpreter,  surgeon,  and  chaplain  on  the 
British  ship  "Lord  Amherst."  On  the  death  of 
Dr.  Morrison,  in  1834,  he  was  appointed  interpreter 
and  secretary  to  the  British  ambassador,  and 
finally  superintendent  of  trade,  which  office  he 
held  till  his  death.  During  the  opium  war  and 
the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace  at  Nanking, 
May  29,  1842,  he  rendered  valuable  service  to 
the  British  by  his  knowledge  of  the  language  and 
customs  of  the  people. 

His  medical  skill  and  great  learning  won  the 
respect  and  confidence  of  the  people.  An  attempt 
made  by  him  and  others,  in  1844,  to  spread 
Christianity  by  means  of  native  agents  proved 
premature  and  unsuccessful.  But  his  indefati- 
gable personal  efforts  for  the  cause  of  religion  and 
Christian  civilization  in  China  deserve  to  be  held 
in  grateful  remembrance  by  the  Church.  He 
made  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
Siamese,  and  was  associated  with  Medhurst  in 
translating  the  Bible  into  Chinese  (Wenli).  He 
also,  aided  by  shipwrecked  Japanese  sailors, 
translated  the  Gospel  of  John  into  Japanese  in 
1838.  In  1849  he  visited  England,  Germany, 
and  other  countries  in  Europe,  and  by  his 
addresses  gave  a  new  impulse  to  missionary  effort 
in  China.  He  returned  to  China  in  1851,  and 
died  at  Victoria,  Hongkong,  August  9  of  the 
same  year. 

GWAMBA  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Bantu 
family  of  African  languages.  The  term  is  used 
by  a  subtribe  in  the  Transvaal.  Better  acquaint- 
ance with  them  has  revealed  the  fact  that  the 
name  is  merely  a  local  name  for  the  Tonga  lan- 
guage. 

GWELO:  A  town  in  Rhodesia,  Central  Africa, 
situated  about  100  miles  N.  E.  of  Buluwayo, 
among  the  Matabili.     Station  of  the  SPG  (1895). 

GYAZA:  A  settlement  in  Uganda,  Central 
Africa,  situated  about  15  miles  N.  of  Mengo. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1895),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  119  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  1  preaching  place,  3  day  schools,  and 
2,437  professing  Christians.  The  name  is  also 
written  Gayaza. 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Gnndert 
Haifa 


H 


HAI-CHENG-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province 
«f  Liao-tung,  Manchuria,  China,  situated  about 
32  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Newchwang.  It  was  the 
scene  of  a  defeat  of  the  Chinese  army  by  the  Jap- 
anese in  the  war  of  1894.  Station  of  the  UFS 
(1876),  with  (1903)  a  missionary  and  his  wife,  25 
native  workers,  8  outstations,  5  day  schools,  and 
865  professing  Christians. 

HAIDARABAD :  Capital  of  the  native  state  of 
the  same  name  in  S.  Central  India,  situated  on 
the  Musi  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Kistna,  amid 
wild  and  picturesque  scenery.  Towering  above 
all  other  Duildings  is  the  splendid  pile  of  the 
British  Residency.  The  city  was  founded  in 
1589,  and  its  population,  numbering  (1901) 
448,466,  is  the  most  varied  in  India,  as  well  as  the 
most  turbulent  in  appearance.  The  inhabitants 
are,  for  the  most  part,  Mohammedans,  making 
Haidarabad  the  largest  Mohammedan  city  in 
India  and  second  in  the  world  of  Islam  to  Con- 
stantinople alone.  It  is  a  station  of  the  CMS 
(1901), with  (1902)  1  missionary,  5 native  workers, 
and  30  professing  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
WMS,  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  60  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  4  preaching  places, 
11  day  schools,  and  193  professing  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1902)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  3  women  missionaries,  19  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  8  day  schools,  an 
orphanage,  and  28  professing  Christians.  The 
YWCA  also  has  a  representative  there. 

HAIDARABAD:  A  city  in  Sind,  India.  The 
city  is  a  naturally  and  artificially  fortified  town, 
formerly  the  capital  of  Sind.  It  stands  on  a  low 
limestone  ridge  E.  of  the  Indus,  and  is  noted  for 
its  silks  and  its  manufactures  of  fine  work  in  the 
precious  metals.  Population  (1891)  54,600,  of 
whom  32,000  are  Hindus  and  the  remainder 
nearly  all  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1856)  and  the  CEZ  (1885),  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  3  women  missionaries,  22  native 
workers,  of  whom  8  are  women;  10  day  schools, 
and  1  boarding  school.  There  are  also  356  pupils 
in  the  zenanas. 

HAIDARABAD:  One  of  the  largest  and  most 
important  of  the  so-called  feudatory  states  of 
India,  governed  by  a  native  prince.  The  ruler 
is  called  the  Nizam,  who  is  a  Mohammedan,  the 
descendant  of  the  "Nizam-ul-Mulk,"  or  viceroy 
of  the  Deccan,  who  ruled  the  country  as  viceroy 
of  the  Mogul  emperors  of  Delhi  nearly  two  cen- 
turies ago,  but  in  the  decadence  of  the  Delhi 
power  rebelled  and   set   up   as   an   independent 

Srince.  A  British  resident  is  maintained  at  the 
izam's  court.  This  state  is  often  called  ''the 
Nizam's  Dominions."  Among  the  people  it  is 
popularly  spoken  of  as  "the  Mogalai," — in  allu- 
sion to  the  Mogul  origin  of  its  rulers.  It  lies  in 
the  center  of  the  great  tableland  which  occupies 
almost  all  of  India  south  of  the  Vindhya  Moun- 
tains. The  area  of  the  state  is  about  80,000 
square  miles.  The  population  (1901)  is  11,141- 
142.  Of  this  number  about  10  per  cent,  are 
Mohammedans,  and  as  the  ruling  dynasty  is 
Mohammedan,  persons  of  that  faith  occupy  not 
only  the  principal  positions  of  trust  and  authority 
but  also  pervade  the  lower  ranks  of  both  civil  and 
military  employment.  The  state  lies  just  where 
several  language   areas  meet;   accordingly  there 


is  a  great  diversity  of  dialect  within  its  borders. 
Mar^thi  is  spoken  by  the  Hindu  population  of 
the  west  and  northwest;  Kanarese  by  the  Hindus 
of  the  southwest;  Telugu  by  those  of  the  eastern 
districts;  Hindustani  by  the  Mohammedans 
throughout,  tho  Persian  is  the  court  language; 
and  the  aboriginal  tribes  (Gonds,  etc.)  have,  as 
elsewhere,  each  its  own  tongue.  The  habit  of 
carrying  weapons  is  quite  universal  among 
Mohammedans  throughout  the  state;  to  some 
extent  Hindus  also  adopt  it.  It  is  not  unusual 
to  see,  in  some  village  bazaar,  a  man  with  a  long 
matchlock  musket  over  his  shoulder,  a  curved 
sword  in  his  hand,  two  or  three  daggers  and 
knives  of  different  patterns  stuck  into  his  girdle, 
and  a  shield  of  ancient  pattern  hanging  down  his 
back.  The  presence  everywhere  of  these  walk- 
ing arsenals,  together  with  the  violent  and  bitter 
fanaticism  of  the  average  Mohammedan,  and  the 
feeling  prevailing  in  the  minds  of  the  Muslim 
inhabitants  of  the  Haidarabad  State  that  it  is  a 
territory  sacred  to  their  faith  and  power,  often 
renders  missionary  work  there  difficult,  not  to 
say  dangerous;  no  Christian  preacher  has  ever 
been  actually  assailed,  tho  sometimes  threats 
of  violence  are  made.  While  it  was  considered 
unsafe,  some  years  since,  for  strangers  to  enter 
Haidarabad  City  without  protection,  this  is  not 
the  case  at  present.  In  other  parts  of  the  terri- 
tory life  and  property  are  usually  safe.  Educa- 
tion in  the  Nizam's  state  is  rather  backward,  and 
the  general  condition  of  the  country,  as  shown  by 
its  roads,  postal  system,  and  other  appliances  of 
civilization,  attests  the  inefficiency  and  careless- 
ness of  Oriental  rule.  Yet  the  constant  example 
of  the  British  Government  is  not  lost  upon  the 
leading  men  in  the  Haidarabad  State,  and  the 
government  is  striving,  not  altogether  without 
success,  to  pattern  its  operations  after  the  model 
thus  set  before  it.  Three  lines  of  railway  pass 
through  the  territory,  and  thus  the  capital  city 
is  brought  into  direct  communication  with  out- 
side civilization.  The  WMS,  the  SPG,  the  ME, 
and  the  ABMU  are  the  missionary  societies 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  territory  of  Haidarabad. 
The  whole  number  of  missionaries  in  the  19 
stations  is  54,  both  men  and  women.  They 
carry  on  136  schools  of  all  grades,  and  the  number 
of  communicants  connected  with  these  stations 
is  about  5,500.  The  whole  number  of  Christians 
reported  from  the  Nizam's  territory  by  the 
census  of  1901  is  22,996.  On  the  whole,  altho 
this  Mohammedan  area  in  the  midst  of  terri- 
tories under  the  control  of  an  enlightened  Chris- 
tian nation,  is  still  to  a  degree  benighted,  yet 
rays  of  light  are  beginning  to  dawn  over  it,  and 
civilizing  influences  are  slowly  penetrating  it  from 
all  sides. 

HAIFA:  Also  called  Caiffa;  it  is  the  Scam- 
inium  of  St.  Jerome,  a  seaport  in  Syria,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Carmel,  9  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Acre. 
It  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  from  Damascus  to 
the  coast  through  the  Hauran.  There  is  a  Ger- 
man colony  and  a  colony  of  Russian  Jews  at  this 
place.  Population  about  3,000.  Station  of  the 
Jerusalem  Verein  (1891), with  (1903)  I  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  deaconess,  1  place  of  worship,  and 
1  village  school.  Station  also  of  the  Jerusalem 
and  the  East  Mission  Fund;  outstation  of  the 
CMS,  the  statistics  being  included  in  Acre   (or 


HalK 

Hall,  'William  N. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


284 


Acca) ;  also  outstation  of  the  London  Jews  Society, 
statistics  being  included  with  Safed. 

HAIG,  General  F.  T.:  Born  in  1827.  Died  in 
1901.  General  Haig,  though  not  a  missionary, 
for  many  years  was  an  active  Christian  worker 
in  India,  and  later  in  relation  to  the  North 
Africa  Mission.  In  1883  he  visited  Algeria,  and 
when  the  mission  was  reorganized  later  in  the 
year  he  consented  to  join  the  Council  of  the 
Society.  He  was  a  most  active  member  of  it, 
and  several  times  visited  the  mission  field,  and 
also  by  his  pen  and  his  voice  stirred  up  interest 
at  home.  After  he  retired  from  the  army  his 
thought  was  largely  given  to  mission  subjects; 
and  his  wide  experience  made  him  a  most  valu- 
able adviser  on  almost  every  missionary  topic, 
while  his  self-denying  generosity  forwarded  the 
good  work.  It  was  largely  as  a  result  of  his 
journeyings,  and  at  his  suggestion,  that  the 
North  Africa  Mission  Society  began  work  in 
northern  Arabia  and  Egypt,  and  it  was  through 
a  letter  of  his  that  the  Hon.  Ion  Keith  Falconer 
went  out  to  Aden,  and  the  CMS  sent  Dr.  Harpur 
to  the  Arabian  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  His  work 
in  Upper  Godavari,  Calcutta,  Arabia,  Egypt  and 
other  parts  of  Africa  was  attended  always  by  the 
most  heroic  consecration,  and  one  who  knew  him 
well  said  of  him:  "Of  all  the  men  I  have  met  I 
never  knew  one  who  seemed  more  thoroughly 
true-hearted  and  devoted  in  the  service  of  Christ." 
In  1885  he  published  a  pamphlet  on  the  spiritual 
needs  of  Arabia,  and  wrote  a  number  of  articles 
urging  the  evangelization  of  that  long-neglected 
land. 

HAI-LUNG-CHENG-TING:  Town  in  Man- 
churia, situated  about  130  miles  N.  E.  of  Mukden. 
Station  of  the  UFS  (1897),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  5  outstations, 
4  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  735  professed 
Christians. 

HAINAN:  An  island  lying  off  the  coast  of 
Kwangtung,  China,  between  lat.  20°  81'  N.  and 
lat.  17°  52'  N.  It  has  a  total  length  of  150  miles 
from  north  to  south,  and  a  width  of  100  miles 
from  east  to  west.  It  is  separated  from  the 
peninsula  of  Liuchau  by  the  Strait  of  Hainan, 
which  is  twenty  miles  wide. 

On  account  of  its  insular  position  the  climate  is 
more  moderate  than  that  of  the  mainland;  97°  F. 
is  the  extreme  of  heat  even  during  the  heated  term. 
Its  inhabitants  are  estimated  at  a  million  and 
a  half,  and  consist  of  three  different  elements — 
Chinese  immigrants,  partially  civilized  aborigines, 
and  the  rude  savages.  The  Chinese  language 
used  in  the  island  is  a  dialect  which  has  been 
called  the  Hainanese  and  resembles  the  Fo-kien 
dialect.  It  is  understood  even  by  the  aborigines. 
Many  other  Chinese  dialects  are  also  found, 
among  which  Mandarin,  Hakka,  and  Cantonese 
are  the  most  prominent.  Among  the  aborigines 
numerous  dialects  are  found  which  seem  to  be 
allied  to  those  of  the  Shan  tribes  of  Burma.  The 
people  are  disposed  to  be  friendly  to  foreigners. 
The  island  is  a  political  part  of  Kwangtung  prov- 
ince, and  the  obstacles  to  missionary  work  arise 
from  the  officials  more  than  from  the  common 
people.  The  aborigines  differ  from  the  Chinese 
in  having  higher  cheek-bones;  they  are  of  a  copper 
color,  and  their  eyes  are  not  oblique.  The  cap- 
ital is  Kiung-chau,  on  the  Limu  River,  four  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  is  a  well-built  city  of  100,000 
inhabitants.  Hoi-hau,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
is  the  port.     All  the  thirteen  district  towns  lie  on 


the  coast,  and  the  interior  of  the  island  is  given 
up  mainly  to  the  aborigines. 

Missions:  In  1630  the  Roman  Catholics  com- 
menced a  mission  at  Kiung-chau.  All  that 
remains  of  their  work  now  is  the  cemetery  of  the 
missionaries  and  a  few  hundred  descendants  of 
the  early  converts.  Protestant  missionary  work 
began  in  1881  with  the  medical  and  missionary 
labors  of  Mr.  Jeremiassen,  an  independent  self- 
supporting  missionary.  In  1883  Rev.  B.  C. 
Henry,  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  Mission  (U.  S.) 
at  Canton,  made  a  visit  to  the  island.  In  1884  a 
preaching  place  to  the  Hakkas  was  opened  at 
Nodoa,  a  Hakka  settlement.  In  1886  the  PN 
sent  two  missionaries  who  made  Kiung-chau  the 
center  of  their  work.  During  the  last  decade 
the  Gospel  has  been  preached  in  nearly  every  part 
of  the  island,  several  chapels  have  been  built, 
hospitals  have  been  opened,  schools  have  been 
established,  and  largely  through  medical  missions 
many  have  been  won  to  Christ. 

HAINANESE  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Tai 
group  of  the  Indo-China  family  of  languages, 
being  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of 
Hainan,  South  China.  The  Roman  letters  have 
been  used  in  writing  it  for  missionary  purposes 
by  missionaries  of  the  PN. 

HAI-TAN.     See  He-tan  Island. 

HAITI,  or  HAYTI :  An  island  of  the  West  Indies, 
next  in  size  to  Cuba,  and  lying  between  Cuba  on 
the  west  and  Porto  Rico  on  the  east.  It  is  moun- 
tainous, with  the  ranges  running  from  east  to 
west  throughout  the  island.  The  soil  is  exceed- 
ingly fertile,  and  mineral  wealth  is  supposed  to 
be  considerable.  About  two-thirds  of  the  island 
is  occupied  by  the  Republic  of  Santo  Domingo. 
The  western  part,  comprising  a  little  more  than 
one-third  of  the  whole  area,  belongs  to  the  Repub- 
lic of  Haiti.  The  island  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1492  and  entered  by  Spaniards  in 
1493.  The  western  part  was  occupied  by  French 
buccaneers  in  1632  and  annexed  by  France  in 
1697.  A  century  later  the  slaves  revolted 
against  the  French  and  after  bloody  wars  pro- 
claimed their  independence  in  1801.  The  eastern 
or  Spanish  part  of  the  island  was  conquered  by 
the  Haitians  in  1822-23,  but  revolted  in  1843-44, 
becoming  the  Dominican  Republic.  The  western 
part  of  the  island  was  ruled  by  emperors  for 
some  years  and  finally  adopted  the  republican 
form  of  government.  The  area  of  the  whole 
island  is  28,250  square  miles. 

HAITI,  or  HAYTI,  Republic  of:  An  independent 
territory  in  the  western  part  of  the  island  of 
Haiti.  The  republic  is  of  the  French  type  and 
has  suffered  from  numerous  revolutions  and  wars. 
The  people  are  largely  blacks  (some  10,000  of 
whom  are  immigrants  from  the  United  States) 
and  a  very  few  whites.  The  population  of  the 
republic  was  about  950,000  in  1887;  a  church 
census  in  1901  claims  that  it  is  now  1,294,400. 
The  language  is  a  dialect  of  French,  and  the 
religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  altho  the  voodooism 
of  the  Africans  is  extensively  mingled  with  the 
Christianity  of  the  common  people. 

Protestant  missions  were  begun  in  Haiti  by  the 
WMS  in  1816.  They  received  a  fresh  impulse  in 
connection  with  the  emigration  of  negroes  from 
the  United  States,  in  1824  Many  of  these  were 
Methodists  and  others  were  Baptists.  Several 
preachers  were  among  these  American  negroes, 
and   a   Methodist  Conference   organized  among 


286 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Halgr 
Hall,  William  N. 


them  in  connection  with  the  African  Methodist 
Church  of  the  United  States  continues  to  this  day. 
The  Baptists  also  have  several  churches  in  Haiti 
which  were  established  in  consequence  of  this 
emigration.  The  American  Baptists  maintained 
missionaries  in  three  or  four  places  for  several 
years,  but  gave  up  the  field  to  the  BMS,  and,  at 
present,  the  Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
aids  some  smaller  Baptist  congregations,  the 
general  work  being  under  charge  of  the  Haitian 
Baptist  Union,  composed  of  the  pastors  of 
churches  which  have  no  financial  aid  from 
abroad. 

Colored  Episcopalians  from  the  United  States 
having  emigrated  to  Haiti  in  1861,  the  field  was 
taken  up  by  the  PE,  and  there  are  now  six  regular 
congregations,  superintended  by  a  Bishop,  and 
with  a  theological  seminary  for  training  a  native 
ministry.  The  field  is  very  needy,  since  the 
people  of  the  country  districts  are  ignorant  and 
rather  to  be  classed  as  fetish  worshipers  than  as 
Christians. 

Justin  (J.),  Etude  sur  les  institutions  Haitiennes,  Paris,  1894; 
St.  John  (Sir  Spenser).  Haiti,  or  the  Black  Republic,  Lon- 
don, 1889;  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  VIII., 
n.  179.  See  also  number  for  September,  1903,  Saint  Remi, 
Vie  de  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  Paris,  1850. 

HA  JIN:  A  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  about  30 
miles  north  of  Adana,  in  the  heart  of  the  Taurus 
Mountains.  The  population  is  almost  entirely 
Armenian.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1880),  with 
(1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  women  mis- 
sionaries, 38  native  workers,  men  and  women;  7 
outstations,  4  preaching  places,  2  village  schools, 

2  high  schools,  an  orphanage,  a  Young  Woman's 
Christian  Association,  and  615  church  members. 

HAKA.     See  Fort  Haka. 

HAKKA:  A  distinct  race  found  in  the  Canton 
province,  China,  near  Canton  and  Swatow. 
They  are  of  a  lower  social  rank  than  the  Pun-ti  or 
native  Chinese,  and  speak  a  different  dialect. 
They  are  also  found  in  the  island  of  Hainan. 

HAKKA  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect  spoken  by  a 
peculiar  race  or  tribe  who  inhabit  the  mountains 
of  Kwangtung  province  in  China.  It  is  written 
with  the  Chinese  characters.  Missionaries  of  the 
Basel  Society  have  had  some  success  in  intro- 
ducing the  Roman  letters  as  a  more  convenient 
means  of  writing  it. 

HAKODATE:  A  seaport  on  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  island  of  Yezo,  Japan.  The 
town  is  built  along  the  base  of  a  rocky  headland, 
and  is  not  unlike  Gibraltar  in  its  situation.  A 
landlocked  bay  affords  ample  shelter  and  anchor- 
age for  the  largest  vessels.  The  governor  of 
Yezo  resides  at  Hakodate,  where  there  are  a  gov- 
ernment hospital  and  medical  college.  The  streets 
are  clean  and  well  kept.  Population  (1890) 
55,700.     Station  of  the  CMS  (1874),  with  (1903) 

3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  3  women  mission- 
aries, 23  native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  out- 
stations, 5  preaching  places,  5  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  theological  class,  1  industrial 
school,  1  hospital,  and  675  professing  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1902)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  5  women  missionaries,  41 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  9  outstations, 
15  preaching  places,  2  day  schools,  1  high  school, 
and  749  professing  Christians. 

HALL,  Gordon:  Born  at  Tolland,  Mass., 
April  8,  1784;  graduated  at  Williams  College 
1809  with  the  highest  honors  of  his  class;  studied 
theology  with  Dr.  Porter    (afterward    professor 


at  Andover);  was  licensed  to  preach,  but,  declin- 
ing several  invitations  to  settle,  his  heart  being 
set  on  going  to  the  heathen,  he  entered  Andover 
Seminary  in  1810.  Here  he  was  associated  with 
Mills,  Richards,  and  a  few  other  kindred  spirits, 
who  prayed  and  conferred  in  reference  to  per- 
sonal labor  among  the  heathen.  After  studying 
medicine  he  was  ordained  at  the  same  time  with 
Judson  and  others,  and  sailed  February  18,  1812, 
as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  for  India,  reaching 
Calcutta  August  8.  Peremptorily  required  by 
the  East  India  Company  to  leave  its  territories, 
and  unsuccessful  in  his  attempts  to  obtain  per- 
mission to  establish  a  mission,  he  presented  to  the 
governor  of  Bombay  an  earnest  appeal,  which 
brought  him  official  permission  to  remain.  In 
Bombay  he  labored  thirteen  years,  visiting  the 
temples  and  bazaars  with  the  Gospel  message, 
discussing  with  the  Brahmans  and  translating 
the  Bible.  Having  completed  the  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  into  the  Marathi,  he  left 
Bombay  for  a  preaching  tour  on  the  continent. 
At  Nasik,  a  hundred  miles  distant,  he  found  mul- 
titudes dying  of  cholera,  and  ministered  to  the 
sick  till  his  medicines  were  exhausted.  He  then 
started  to  return  to  Bombay.  At  Durlidhapur, 
spreading  his  mat  in  the  veranda  of  a  heathen 
temple,  he  lay  down  to  sleep.  Rising  at  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning  to  resume  his  journey,  he 
was  violently  seized  with  cholera,  and,  after  eight 
hours  of  great  suffering,  breathed  his  last  at  the 
age  of  forty-two,  March  20,  1826.  The  lads  who 
were  with  him  buried  him  shrouded  in  his  blanket, 
without  a  coffin.  A  stone  with  an  inscription  in 
English  and  Marathi  marks  the  place  of  his  inter- 
ment. "No  missionary  in  Western  India,"  says  one, 
"has  ever  been  more  respected  among  the  Brah- 
mans and  higher  classes  for  his  discussions  and 
pulpit  discourses."  His  tract.  The  Conversion  of 
the  World,  or  the  Claims  of  Six  Hundred  Millions, 
which  he  prepared  in  connection  with  Mr.  Newell, 
was  widely  circulated  in  America  and  England 
and  produced  a  profound  impression. 

HALL,  William  Nelthorpe:  Born  in  Sheffield, 
Yorkshire,  England,  April  19,  1829.  In  1849  he 
was  called  to  the  regular  ministry,  having  already 
been  a  lay  preacher.  But  his  health  failed,  and 
he  went  into  business.  In  1859,  the  Methodist 
New  Connexion  having  decided  to  commence  a 
mission  in  China,  Mr.  Hall  offered  to  go,  and  in 
the  autumn  of  1859  he  sailed  with  the  Rev.  J. 
Innocent  as  a  missionary  of  the  Methodist  New 
Connexion.  On  their  arrival  in  China  they 
remained  for  a  brief  period  in  Shanghai.  Mr. 
Hall  was  anxiously  desirous  of  settling  at 
Su-chau-fu,  which  was  then  in  all  its  glory.  He 
visited  the  place,  then  made  it  the  center  of  his 
operations,  while  Mr.  Innocent  went  to  Tien-tsin, 
which  had  just  been  opened  by  treaty.  The 
Taeping  rebels  devastated  Su-chau,  and  pre- 
vented the  establishment  of  a  mission  there,  and 
Mr.  Hall  went  to  Tien-tsin  and  united  with  Mr. 
Innocent  in  laying  the  foundations  of  a  very  pros- 
perous mission.  During  the  Tien-tsin  massacre 
of  1870  the  Protestant  chapels,  eight  in  number, 
were  ruined  and  the  members  dispersed,  many  of 
them  being  beaten  and  some  of  them  killed.  Mr. 
Hall  remained  in  the  city  during  the  awful  out- 
break, cheering  the  faint-hearted  and  seeking  to 
rescue  those  who  were  in  danger.  The  storm 
exhausted  itself,  quiet  was  restored,  compensa- 
tion was  demanded  and  to  some  extent  made, 
and  the  work  of  the  mission  was  resumed.  But 
it  took  a  long  time  to  retrieve  the  losses  incurred. 


Hamada 
Hannington 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


28d 


In  1873  he  returned  home  on  furlough,  and 
devoted  his  whole  time  to  obtaining  money  to 
support  an  institution  for  the  training  of  native 
preachers.  He  obtained  £3,200,  and  then  re- 
turned to  China  and  built  the  Training  College 
at  Tien-tsin. 

Mr.  Hall  was  pursuing  his  manifold  works  with 
intense  enthusiasm,  when  in  the  spring  of  1878, 
already  weakened  by  his  labors,  he  was  smitten 
by  typhus  fever.  He  died  May  21,  aged  49 
years.  He  was  a  man  of  vigorous  and  cultured 
intellect,  copious  eloquence,  and  undying  energy. 
He  had  an  iron  will  and  dauntless  courage.  His 
one  purpose  found  expression  in  words  which 
were  constantly  on  his  lips — "China  for  Christ." 

HAMADA :  A  town  in  Japan  on  the  west  coast 
of  Honshiu,  200  miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of  Nagasaki. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1895),  with  2  women  mis- 
sionaries and  3  native  workers. 

HAMADAN :  A  city  in  Persia,  supposed  site  of 
the  ancient  Ecbatana;  situated  at  the  E.  base  of 
Mt.  Elvend,  185  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Teheran. 
Altitude,  6,000  feet.  A  trade  center  for  caravans 
between  Baghdad  and  Teheran.  Population, 
50,000.  Station  of  the  PN  (1880),  with  (1903) 
8  missionaries,  men  and  women  (one  a  physician) ; 
25  native  workers,  men  and  women;  5  outsta- 
tions,  4  day  schools,  2  high  schools,  and  186  pro- 
fessed evangelical  Christians. 

HAMLIN,  Cyrus:  Born  near  Waterford,  Me., 
January  5,  1811;  died  at  Lexington,  Mass.,  Au- 
gust 8,  1900.  Left  an  orphan  in  his  infancy,  Cyrus 
Hamlin  was  brought  up  in  poverty  by  a  mother 
who  wrung  a  living  from  a  little  farm  representing 
all  her  property.  He  was  not  a  promising  child, 
and  when  old  enough  was  set  to  learn  the  jewel- 
er's trade  with  a  relative.  A  taste  for  books 
revealed  itself  while  he  was  at  this  work,  and  led 
to  his  decision  to  earn  a  college  education  and 
become  a  minister.  The  carrying  out  of  this 
decision  in  spite  of  utter  lack  of  means  revealed 
an  initiative,  resourcefulness,  self-abnegation,  and 
consecration  to  Jesus  Christ  which  marked  his 
whole  career.  Having  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1834,  and  then  at  Bangor  Theological 
Seminary,  he  sailed  for  Turkey  in  December, 
1838,  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM.  He  there 
acquired  a  literary  knowledge  of  the  Armenian 
and  a  colloquial  knowledge  of  Turkish  and  mod- 
ern Greek,  and  was  entrusted,  in  1839,  with  the 
opening  of  a  boarding  school  for  the  training  of 
preachers  and  teachers  for  the  service  of  the 
mission.  Several  of  Dr.  Hamlin's  high  qualities 
immediately  came  to  light  in  the  energy  and 
ingenuity  by  which  he  overcame  obstacles  put  in 
his  way  by  Mohammedan,  Armenian,  and  Roman 
Catholic  bigotry.  The  school  was  an  experiment; 
its  equipment  was  largely  created  by  Dr.  Hamlin, 
for  in  becoming  its  principal  he  had  undertaken 
in  the  mission  councils  to  build  up  a  theological 
seminary  at  Bebek  out  of  nothing.  The  school 
was  a  success;  the  men  whom  it  trained  for  the 
ministry  are  remembered  among  the  most  sturdy 
pillars  of  the  mission  enterprise  in  Turkey,  and 
other  men  who  were  there  taught  the  nobility  of 
honest  toil  by  Dr.  Hamlin  in  his  stove  factory, 
last  factory,  flour  mill,  bakery,  or  laundry,  have 
been  among  the  most  successful  and  most  hon- 
ored laymen  of  the  Evangelical  Churches  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire.  The  various  industries  just 
named  were  not  carried  on  as  a  part  of  the  work 
of  a  theological  seminary.     The  last  three  enter- 


prises came  into  being  in  connection  with  the 
Bebek  Seminary,  but  with  the  purpose  of  pro- 
viding means  of  livelihood  for  those  destitute 
Evangelical  Armenians  who  had  been  ruined  by 
the  boycott  pronounced  against  them  as  a  part 
of  the  major  excommunication  hurled  at  "free 
thinkers"  by  their  ecclesiastical  chiefs.  There  is 
rarely  to  be  found  in  the  history  of  missions  a 
more  picturesque  spectacle  than  that  of  Dr. 
Hamlin  during  the  Crimean  War  (1854-56), 
observing  the  wounded  English  soldiers  landed  on 
the  quays  of  Constantinople;  abandoning  his 
school  duties  in  order  to  verify  and  remedy  the 
facts;  berating  English  officers  of  every  grade  for 
the  red  tape  that  made  possible  a  criminal  neglect 
of  suffering  soldiers;  finally  taking  contracts  to 
supply  the  hospitals  and  depot  camps  with  eat- 
able bread  and  thoroughly  cleaned  linen,  and 
then  executing  the  contracts  with  brilliant  and 
beneficent  efficiency  by  turning  to  the  work  all  his 
energies  and  those  of  all  of  his  students  and 
teachers,  and  of  scores  of  poor  creatures  who  had 
been  left  without  work  because  of  their  faith. 
And  there  is  hardly  a  more  impressive  figure  of 
self-forgetfulness  among  the  many  devoted  mis- 
sionaries of  the  world  than  that  of  Dr.  Hamlin, 
after  having  carried  this  enterprise  through  by 
his  own  wonderful  and  unaided  abilities,  taking 
the  $25,000  which  fell  to  him  as  his  legitimate 
profit,  and  covering  it  all  into  the  missionary 
treasury  to  be  used  in  aiding  the  little  native  com- 
munities to  build  chapels  and  churches.  The 
whole  episode  of  his  services  to  the  English  army 
was  magnificent  as  an  achievement  and  thrilling 
as  revealing  the  man.  But  the  incipient  theo- 
logical seminarj'  became  almost  obliterated  under 
the  weight  of  the  flour  mill  and  bakery.  While 
the  question  was  under  discussion  of  improving 
the  efficiency  of  the  seminary  for  training  the 
native  agency  needed  by  the  mission.  Dr.  Hamlin 
resigned  his  connection  with  the  ABCFM  at  the 
invitation  of  Christopher  Robert,  of  New  York, 
in  order  to  establish  Robert  College  at  Constanti- 
nople. The  first  class  of  this  college  was  received 
in  1863.  The  enormous  difficulties  in  regard  to 
site,  authorization,  and  construction  of  the  college 
buildings  were  overcome  by  the  same  indomit- 
able energy,  resource,  and  pluck  which  made  Dr. 
Hamlin  inimitable,  and  the  structure  on  the  Bos- 
phorus  hills,  which  is  the  enduring  monument  to 
his  memory,  was  opened  in  the  summer  of  1871. 
In  1873  Dr.  Hamlin  returned  to  the  United  States 
and  his  connection  with  Robert  College  ceased. 
He  excelled  in  works  of  preparation  and  in  deal- 
ing with  initial  difficulties.  Others  could  endure 
better  than  he  the  steady  drudgery  of  organizing 
and  developing  the  College  in  order  to  carry  it 
satisfactorily  forward  into  the  place  assigned  to 
it  in  the  preconceived  plan. 

Dr.  Hamlin  was  professor  of  dogmatic  theology 
at  Bangor  Seminary  from  1877  to  1880,  and 
president  of  Middlebury  College  in  Vermont  from 
1880  to  1885,  and  after  his  retirement  to  Lexing- 
ton, Mass.,  was  much  sought  after  for  lectures  and 
information  for  newspaper  articles. 

He  was  a  most  spiritually-minded  man  and  of 
very  deep  feelings.  A  little  quick  in  temper,  and 
sometimes  disposed,  in  a  land  of  turbulence  Hke 
Turkey,  to  take  the  law  into  his  own  hands  when 
a  hopelessly  irreconcilable  element  needed  to  be 
removed,  he  was  extraordinarily  ready  to  make 
amends,  in  a  tender,  whole-souled  way  that  did 
really  make  amends,  for  any  injustice  done  in 


287 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Hamada. 
Hanninston 


haste.  No  American  missionary,  without  excep- 
tion, ever  gained  such  hold  upon  the  hearts  of 
the  evangelical  native  community  in  Turkey,  nor 
is  regarded  by  them  as  having  accomplished  so 
'  much,  as  Dr.  Hamlin  for  the  spiritual  and  moral 
renovation  of  that  land  of  darkness. 

My  TAfe  and  Times  (autobioRraphy),  Boston,  1804;  Mission- 
ary Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  7888;  Vol.  XV., 
p.  31. 

HANAMAKONDA :  A  town  in  the  native  state 
of  Haidarabad,  India;  86  miles  northeast  of  the 
capital.  Climate,  tropical;  population,  8,000. 
Station  of  the  ABMU  (1879),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  27 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  18  outstations, 
14  day  schools,  1  hospital,  and  513  church  mem- 
bers. 

HAN-CHENG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Shen-si,  situated  on  the  Hoang-Ho  River,  120 
miles  N.  E.  of  Hsi-ngan-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM 
(1897),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
3  women  missionaries. 

HAN-CHUNG-FU :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China,  situated  on  the  Han  River,  225 
miles  N.  E.  of  Cheng-tu-fu,  at  an  altitude  of  2,000 
feet.  It  is  a  center  for  trade  with  Sze-chwan. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1879),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives. 

HANG-CHAU-FU :  A  city  in  the  province  of 
Che-kiang,  China,  situated  at  the  southern  ter- 
minus of  the  Grand  Canal,  and  at  the  head  of 
Hang-chau  Bay,  110  miles  southwest  of  Shanghai. 
Its  beauty  of  location  is  celebrated  in  a  popular 
Chinese  proverb,  and,  with  the  beautiful  western 
lake,  in  which  are  fairylike  islands,  and  around 
which  stand  villas  and  monuments,  with  its  ex- 
tensive circuit  of  twelve  miles, its  well-paved, clean 
streets  and  numerous  public  buildings,  it  well  de- 
serves the  name  of  an  earthly  paradise.  It  is  a 
great  center  of  Chinese  commerce  and  learning. 
Marco  Polo  celebrated  its  beauty  under  the  name 
of  Kinsai,  and  in  a  northeast  corner  of  the  city  is 
the  Nestorian  Church  of  which  he  speaks.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  800,000.  Station  of 
the  PN  (1859),  the  CMS  (1864),  the  CIM  (1866), 
the  PS  (1867),  and  the  ABMU  (1899).  These 
societies  together  report  (1903)  41  missionaries, 
men  and  women;  85  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  26  outstations,  25  places  of  worship,  5 
high  schools,  18  village  schools,  and  1,500  pro- 
fessed Christians.  The  PN  has  a  college  here 
and  a  school  for  training  women  for  evangelistic 
work;  the  ABMU  has  a  printing  house,  and  the 
CMS  has  2  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  a  refuge  for 
opium  victims,  and  some  special  work  for  lepers. 
Besides  these  special  features  of  the  missionary 
enterprise,  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the 
East  has  two  houses  for  the  children  of  lepers. 
In  reports  the  name  is  written  Hangchow. 

HANDS,  John:  Born  December  5,  1780,  at 
Roade,  Northamptonshire;  studied  at  Gosport; 
sailed  May  5,  1809,  as  a  missionary  of  the  LMS, 
for  India.  He  was  first  stationed  at  Bellary. 
In  1829  he  visited  England,  and  returned  to 
India  in  1831.  He  translated  the  whole  Bible 
into  Kanarese,  and  superintended  its  printing. 
He  was  subsequently  appointed  agent  of  the 
Society  in  Ireland,  arriving  in  Dublin  Janua.ry  24, 
1843,  where  he  died  June  30,  1864,  aged  eighty- 
four. 

HAN-KAU:  A  city  in  the  province  of  Hu-pei, 
China,  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  Yangtse 


River,  at  its  junction  with  the  Han,  about  450 
miles  west  of  Shanghai.  It  is  the  largest  commer- 
cial center  of  Middle  China,  was  opened  to  foreign 
trade  in  1858,  and  is  connected  with  Shanghai 
by  regular  steamships.  The  British  settlement 
is  on  the  river  front  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
city,  where  foreign  houses  and  roadways  are  built. 
The  native  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  eighteen 
feet  high  and  four  miles  in  circumference.  It 
contains  a  population  estimated  at  300,000. 
Wu-chang,  the  capital  of  the  province,  is  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Yangtse,  opposite  Han- 
kau,  and  the  two  are  often  spoken  of  together 
with  Han-yang,  which  faces  Han-kau  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Han  River,  as  one  city.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  three  cities  together  is  about  1,200,- 
000.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1861),  the  PE  (1868), 
theWMS,  theCIM  (1889),  the  American  Norwe- 
gian Lutheran  Church  (1891),  and  the  United 
Evangelical  Church  (1900).  These  societies  to- 
gether have  (1903)  35  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  72  native  workers,  men  and  women;  32 
outstations,  11  places  of  worship,  19  day  schools, 
2  boarding  schools,  5  dispensaries,  and  5  hospitals. 
The  WMS  has  special  work  among  the  blind,  and 
the  LMS  has  a  theological  school  and  a  training 
school  for  women  evangelistic  workers.  The 
National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland  has  here  a 
printing  house  under  charge  of  two  agents  (with 
their  wives),  and  27  native  workers.  Name  also 
written  Hankow. 

HANKEY:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Humansdorp  division,  45  miles 
W.  of  Port  Elizabeth.  Population,  about  1,600. 
This  settlement  was  established  by  the  LMS  in 
1828  as  a  refuge  for  freedmen,  upon  land  which 
the  Society  had  purchased.  After  some  years 
the  quality  of  the  negro  population  began  to 
deteriorate,  and  in  1875  the  LMS  ceased  to  pro- 
vide for  their  care  and  spiritual  nurture.  In 
1900  it  took  up  this  work  again  and  established 
a  school  there  for  the  higher  education  of  the 
children  of  colored  Christians  throughout  the 
colony.  It  now  (1903)  has  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  18  native  workers,  3  day  schools, 
1  boarding  school,  and  about  1,600  professing 
Christians,  of  whom  370  are  church  members. 

HANNINGTON,  James :  Born  at  Hurstpierpoint, 
England,  September  3,  1847.  Love  of  nature, 
of  fun,  and  of  adventure  was  phenomenal  with 
Hannington.  He  shrank  from  no  risk  which 
promised  a  view  or  a  specimen.  Averse  to  study, 
he  left  school  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  was  put 
in  his  father's  counting-room  at  Brighton.  To 
whatever  suited  his  tastes  or  habits  he  applied 
himself  with  untiring  perseverance,  never  to  be 
outdone,  and  never  to  be  foiled.  As  captain  of  a 
battery  and  as  commander  of  a  steam  yacht  he 
early  displayed  ability  in  the  control  of  men,  and 
resource  under  exigencies.  But  he  was  as  dis- 
inclined to  business  as  to  study.  In  boyhood  the 
love  of  his  mother  was  the  sheet-anchor  of  his  life. 
He  not  only  never  neglected  the  externals  of 
religion,  but  was  never  wholly  satisfied  with  a 
life  apart  from  God.  About  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  he  decided  to  prepare  for  the  ministry  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  to  that  end,  in  October, 
1868,  entered  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford.  He  soon 
established  an  ascendancy  over  his  fellow-stu- 
dents, which  he  maintained  without  a  rival 
through  his  university  course,  and  this  influence 
was  often  beneficial,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  he 
was  studious,  except  in  the  line  of  his  pursuit  as  a 


Kanninston 
Hawaiian 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


288 


naturalist.  He  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1874, 
and  took  charge  of  a  small  parish  in  Devonshire. 
There  he  experienced  a  new  conversion,  and  in 
1875  a  conversation  on  missions  with  two  ladies 
led  him  to  study  that  subject  thoroughly.  Three 
years  later  the  cruel  death  of  Messrs.  Smith  and 
O'Neil,  two  missionaries  on  the  shores  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza,  in  Africa,  greatly  moved  him. 
Believing  that  he  had  certain  elements  of  charac- 
ter as  well  as  experiences  of  life  that  fitted  him  for 
pioneer  mission  work,  and  obtaining  the  consent 
of  his  wife,  who  could  not  accompany  him,  he 
offered  himself  to  the  CMS  for  the  African  field 
for  five  years.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and  he 
was  entrusted  with  the  leadership  of  a  party 
of  six  to  reenforce  the  Central  African  Mission 
at  Rubaga.  An  appeal  from  him  in  the 
London  Times  for  subscriptions  to  enable  him  to 
take  a  boat  to  navigate  the  lake  was  successful. 
He  sailed  with  his  party  May  17,  1882,  for  Zan- 
zibar. On  the  voyage  he  studied  Swahili,  the 
language  spoken  by  the  natives  on  the  coast, 
and  the  knowledge  so  obtained  was  very  useful  to 
him.  The  party  set  out  for  Uganda  by  the  "old 
route,"  via  Mamboia,  Myui  and  Msalala,  thence 
by  boat  across  Victoria  Nyanza  to  Rubaga.  He 
soon  had  severe  attacks  of  African  fever,  dysen- 
tery and  rheumatic  fever.  His  health  being 
greatly  shattered,  it  was  decided  that  he  must 
return  to  England.  In  January,  1883,  he  started 
for  Zanzibar,  and  embarking  there,  reached  Eng- 
land June  10.  After  his  health  was  restored 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Equatorial  Africa, 
and  in  January,  1885,  returned  again  to  the  Dark 
Continent.  On  reaching  Freretown,  which  he 
intended  to  make  his  home,  he  began  the  visita- 
tion of  every  prominent  mission  station  within 
250  miles  of  the  coast.  To  reach  the  important 
etation  at  Taita,  on  the  mountain  Ndara,  2,500 
feet  above  the  plain,  he  had  to  traverse  swamps 
and  200  miles  of  difficult  and  dangerous  desert. 
He  had  frequently  formulated  in  his  mind  the 
idea  of  opening  up  a  new  route  to  Uganda, 
through  a  shorter,  more  elevated  and  healthier 
region  than  the  one  which  had  shattered  his  con- 
stitution two  years  earlier,  and  early  in  1885,  after 
careful  consultation,  he  started  with  200  porters 
from  Mombasa.  The  party  reached  KwaSundu, 
near  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  after  many  adventures. 
Bishop  Hannington  pushed  forward  with  a  part 
of  his  men  to  Uganda.  On  November  8  word 
was  brought  to  those  left  at  Kwa  Sundu  that  the 
bishop  and  his  party  had  been  killed.  Four  only 
of  the  fifty  escaped  to  bring  the  sad  news  and  to 
tell  the  manner  of  his  death.  The  encroachments 
of  the  various  foreign  powers  on  African  soil  had 
naturally  awakened  suspicion  of  whites,  including 
missionaries.  There  was  a  strong  prejudice  in 
Uganda  against  the  approach  of  foreigners  from 
the  north.  When  Mr.  Thomson  penetrated  to 
Usoga  two  years  before,  his  arrival  occasioned 
new  alarm  and  suspicion.  A  report  of  the  high- 
handed proceedings  of  the  Germans  in  Zanzibar 
added  fuel  to  the  flame,  and  the  chiefs  at  once  coun- 
seled killing  all  the  missionaries,  "who,"  they 
said,  "were  only  the  forerunners  of  invasion." 
At  this  critical  time  the  arrival  of  Bishop  Han- 
nington at  the  north  side  of  the  lake  was  an- 
nounced, and  the  council  decided  that  he  should 
be  put  to  death.  Mwanga  was  at  first  unwilling, 
and  suggested  that  he  should  be  sent  back.  The 
thought  of  booty  decided  the  point.  The  bishop 
was  enticed  from  his  men  by  a  band  led  by  an 
Arab.     He  was  dragged  with  great  violence  over 


the  ground,  and  forced  into  a  filthy  hut,  and,  after 
eight  days,  led  forth  to  be  killed.  His  men  were 
speared  to  death.  He  was  shot  with  his  own 
rifle  October  29,  1885.  lie  died  without  tear, 
and  said  to  the  soldiers  appointed  to  kill  him: 
"Go,  tell  Mwanga  that  I  die  for  the  Baganda,  and 
that  I  have  purchased  the  road  to  Uganda  with 
my  life." 

His  last  words  to  his  friends  in  England, 
scribbled  by  the  light  of  some  camp-fire,  were: 
"If  this  is  the  last  chapter  of  my  earthly  history, 
then  the  next  will  be  the  first  page  of  the  heaven- 
ly— no  blots  and  smiidges,  no  incoherence,  but 
sweet  converse  in  the  presence  of  the  Lamb." 

Dawson  (C.  L.),  James  Hannington,  liondon  and  New  York. 

1888. 

HANNOVER ;  Missionary  Society  of  the  Luth- 
eran Free  Church  of.  See  Germany;  Mission- 
ary Societies  op. 

HAN- YANG:  A  town  in  the  Hupei  province, 
China,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Han  and 
Yangtse  Rivers,  opposite  Han-kau.  It  has 
iron  and  steel  works  of  some  importance.  Popu- 
lation about  400,000.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries,  10 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  1  outstation, 
2  preaching  places,  1  day  school,  1  boarding 
school,  1  dispensary,  and  138  prof essed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  ABMU  (1893),  with  (1903) 
6  missionaries,  men  and  women;  10  native  work- 
ers (one  a  woman),  8  preaching  places,  2  day 
schools  and  531  professing  Christians. 

HAPPY  GROVE:  A  village  7  miles  N.  W.  of 
Kingston,  Jamaica,  W.  I.  Station  of  the  AFFM, 
with  3  women  missionaries. 

HARBOUR  ISLAND:  An  island  lying  at  the  N. 
end  of  Eleuthera  Island,  Bahamas,  W.  I.  Sta- 
tion of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  141 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  8  preaching 
places,  7  Sunday  schools  and  802  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

HARDA:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  48  miles  southwest  of  Hoshangabad. 
Population  (1891)  13,600,  of  whom  10,000  are 
Hindus.  Station  of  the  FCMS  (1882),  with 
(1901)  8  missionaries,  men  and  women;  21  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  4  outstations,  2  places 
of  worship,  3  day  schools,  2  dispensaries,  1  hos- 
pital, 1  orphanage,  1  theological  class  and  1  leper 
asylum.     Name  also  written  Hurda. 

HARMSHOPE:  A  settlement  in  Bechuanaland, 
S.  Africa,  situated  70  miles  N.  of  Mafeking  and 
close  to  the  Transvaal  frontier.  Station  of  the 
Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (known  in 
1865  reports  as  Patu  Letschopa,  given  its  present 
name  in  1876).  It  now  has  about  1,400  professing 
Christians  under  charge  of  1  native  preacher  and 
4  helpers. 

HARPER:  A  settlement  at  Cape  Palmas, 
Liberia,  W.  Africa.  Station  of  the  PE  (1836), 
with  (1901)  10  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
2  places  of  worship,  1  orphanage  and  girls'  school 
and  400  professing  Christians,  of  whom  260  are 
communicants. 

HARPUR:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  23  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Meerut. 
Population  (1891)  15,000,  of  whom  8,500  are 
Hindus  and  6,000  Muslims.  Station  circuit  of 
the  ME,  with  (1902)  23  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  2  preaching  places,  11  day  schools  and 
1,300  professing  Christians. 

HARPUT  {Armenian   Kharpert—Rock   castle): 


S89 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Hannlngrton 
Ha^tvailan 


A  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  near  the 
Murad  Su  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  about  60 
miles  N.  W.  by  N.  of  Diarbekir.  It  stands  at  an 
altitude  of  4,100  feet  on  a  hill  that  overlooks  a 
most  fertile  plain.  The  population  of  the  town 
is  about  12,000,  chiefly  Mohammedans,  but  with 
a  certain  number  of  Armenians  and  a  few  Syrian 
Christians.  At  Mezere,  a  small  village  3  miles 
distant,  is  the  residence  of  the  Governor-General 
of  the  province  of  Mamuret-ul-Aziz  (commonly 
called  the  province  of  Harput).  The  Armenian 
part  of  the  town  and  the  villages  of  the  plain 
were  devastated  in  November,  1895,  and  thou- 
sands of  the  Armenian  inhabitants  massacred 
after  the  authorities  had  first  induced  the  vil- 
lagers to  give  up,  as  a  token  of  loyalty,  what  guns 
they  possessed.  At  the  time  of  the  massacre 
artillery  was  turned  upon  the  Armenian  quarter 
of  the  town,  and  eight  of  the  buildings  of  the 
American  Mission  were  looted  and  destroyed. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1855),  with  (1902)  13 
missionaries,  men  and  women;  119  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  40  outstations,  38 
preaching  places,  58  village  schools,  5  high  schools 
with  industrial  department  and  1,450  evangelical 
Christians.  The  most  important  feature  of  this 
station  is  the  Euphrates  College,  which  offers 
higher  education  to  the  people  of  a  wide  expanse 
of  country  in  the  heart  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  The 
college  has  a  department  for  girls,  which  is  wholly 
separate  from  the  department  for  young  men, 
altho  under  the  same  administration.  In  1901 
there  were  in  all  departments,  from  kindergarten 
up,  1,057  students,  of  whom  476  were  girls,  and 
100  boys  and  girls  were  in  the  four  college  classes. 
The  buildings  burned  in  1895  have  been  rebuilt. 
The  indemnity  paid  by  the  Turkish  Government 
was  not,  however,  enough  to  cover  the  cost. 

HARRISMITH:  A  town  in  the  Orange  River 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  127  N.  W.  of  Pieter- 
maritzburg.  Population  about  2,000.  Circuit 
of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis- 
sion, with  (1900)  60  native  workers  and  586  pro- 
fessing Christians. 

HASBEIYA:  A  town  in  Syria,  Asiatic  Turkey, 
situated  22  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Sidon,  in  a  deep  glen 
on  the  ridge  of  Mt.  Hermon.  It  has  asphalt  pits 
in  its  neighborhood.  Population  about  5,500. 
Station  of  the  British  Syrian  Schools  Committee 
(1866),  with  (1900)  2  women  missionaries,  6 
native  women  helpers,  and  7  day  schools  in  the 
place  and  neighboring  villages. 

HASKELL  LECTURESHIP  for  India.  See 
Barrows  Lectureship. 

HASSAN:  A  town  in  Mysore,  India,  situated 
63  miles  W.  by  N.  of  the  City  of  Mysore.  Popu- 
lation about  6,000.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  54  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  6  places  of  worship,  13  day  schools,  1 
orphanage,  and  169  professing  Christians. 

HASTINGS,  Eurotas  Parmelee :  Born  at  Clinton, 
N.  Y.,  April  17,  1821;  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College  1842,  and  Union  Theological  Seminary 
1846;  ordained  at  Clinton,  October  6,  1846; 
embarked  for  Ceylon,  November  18,  the  same 
year,  as  missionary  of  the  ABCFM.  On  his 
arrival  he  was  appointed  by  the  mission  as  an 
instructor  in  the  Batticotta  Seminary,  where  he 
remained  five  years.  On  a  brief  visit  to  the 
United  States,  he  married.  In  1853  he  reembark- 
ed  for  Ceylon  and  resumed  his  connection  with 
the  seminary  until  it  was  closed  two  years  later 

19 


by  the  deputation  from  the  Board;  he  was  then 
stationed  for  two  years  at  Chavakachcheri,  and 
then  for  twelve  years  at  Manepy.  In  1870  he 
again  visited  the  United  States,  and  engaged 
with  Mr.  Sanders  in  collecting  funds  for  a  college 
in  Jaffna.  Returning,  he  was  appointed  in  1872 
president  of  the  college.  After  occupying  the 
presidency  of  the  college  for  seventeen  years,  he 
retired  in  1889,  on  account  of  increasing  physical 
infirmities,  and  removed  to  the  Manepy  station, 
of  which  he  took  charge.  He  died  July  31,  1890, 
after  an  illness  of  two  or  three  days. 

Altho  Dr.  Hastings  devoted  himself  largely 
to  educational  work,  this  did  not  prevent  his 
preaching.  He  had  the  active  superintendence 
of  several  churches  while  ostensibly  burdened 
with  the  care  of  Jaffna  College. 

HASTINGS:  A  village  in  Sierra  Leone,  situated 
about  12  miles  S.  E.  of  Freetown.  Station  of  the 
WMS,  with  (1903)  33  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  4  preaching  places,  2  day  schools,  and 
319  professing  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
Sierra  Leone  native  church  in  cooperation  with 
the  CMS,  with  (1903)  6  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  2  preaching  places,  2  day  schools,  and 
613  professing  Christians. 

HATHRAS:  A  town  of  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Aligarh,  about 
22  miles  S.  of  that  city.  Population  (1891) 
39,200,  of  whom  33,700  are  Hindus  and  about 
5,000  Muslims.  Station  circuit  of  the  ME,  with 
(1902)  21  native  workers,  men  and  women;  11 
day  schools,  and  about  800  professing  Christians. 

HA  TSCHEWASE :  A  tribal  settlement  in  the 
Transvaal  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  in  the 
Zoutpansberg  District,  about  15  miles  W.  of 
Georgenholtz.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1872),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  15 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  9  outstations, 
and  233  professing  Christians. 

HATTON:  A  village  in  Ceylon,  situated  25 
miles  S.  W.  of  Kandy  and  just  north  of  Adam's 
Peak.     Station  of  the  WMS. 

HAUSA  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  negro 
group  of  African  languages.  It  is  the  medium 
of  intercommunication  between  the  inhabitants 
of  extensive  districts  in  the  Niger  region  in  West 
Africa.  It  is  customary  to  speak  of  "the  Hausa 
people,"  "Hausa  land,"  "Hausa  language,"  etc. 
Since  CMS  missionaries  went  to  live  in  that 
country,  however,  it  has  become  apparent  that 
these  terms  exist  outside  of  Africa  only.  Hausa 
means  "the  language,"  and  the  name  is  applied 
to  the  language  of  the  Habes  race,  which  has 
spread  until  it  is  spoken  by  a  number  of  different 
tribes  within  and  without  the  Fulani  Kingdom. 
Some  of  these  tribes  are  Mohammedans  in 
religion  and  some  are  still  heathen.  The  lan- 
guage has  been  printed  with  Roman  letters  by 
missionaries  of  the  CMS. 

HAVANA:  Capital  of  Cuba,  situated  in  the 
western  part  of  the  island  and  on  the  N.  coast. 
It  has  a  beautiful  harbor.  Population,  225,000. 
Station  of  the  American  Church  Missionary 
Society  (1876),  the  AFFM  (1899),  the  FCMS 
(1899),  the  MES,  and  the  African  Methodist  Epis- 
coppl  Church.  These  societies  have  12  mission- 
aries, men  and  women,  and  11  native  workers. 
The  ABS  also  has  a  depot  in  the  city  in  charge  of 
an  agent. 

HAWAIIAN    EVANGELICAL    ASSOCIATION 


Ha-vralian 
Benzada 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


200 


(1823) :  Less  than  five  years  from  the  landing  of 
the  first  missionaries  on  Oahu  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  a  "General  Meeting"  of  the  missionary 
fathers  was  convened.  This  was  held  annually 
for  thirty-one  consecutive  years,  from  1823-1854, 
with  but  seven  exceptions.  At  the  first  meeting 
the  object  of  the  gathering  was  stated: 

"We,  the  undersigned,  ministers  and  mission- 
aries of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  being  set  for  the  defense  of  the  truth 
and  the  enlightening  of  the  Gentiles,  agree  to 
unite  in  an  association  for  mutual  improvement 
and  mutual  aid  in  laying  the  foundation,  main- 
taining the  order,  and  building  up  the  house  of 
the  Lord  in  these  islands  of  the  sea."  In  1854 
this  General  Meeting  became  the  Hawaiian 
Evangelical  Association;  three  years  before,  in 
1851,  the  Hawaiian  Missionary  Society  of  the 
fathers  had  been  formed,  for  the  purpose  of  coop- 
erating with  the  American  Board  in  its  new 
missions  in  the  island  world;  this  was  continued 
till  1863,  when  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion was  remodeled  by  being  opened  to  represen- 
tatives of  the  native  churches,  and  the  Board  of 
the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association,  commonly 
known  as  the  Hawaiian  Board,  was  formed.  The 
Association  consists  of  "all  ordained  clergymen, 
both  native  and  foreign,  of  the  Congregational 
and  Presbyterian  orders  on  the  various  islands  of 
Hawaii,  and  of  Micronesia  and  the  Marquesas 
Islands,  together  with  such  laymen  as  may  be 
elected  from  time  to  time  by  a  two-thirds  vote, 
and  lay  delegates  appointed  annually  by  the 
local  island  associations;  six  from  Hawaii,  four 
from  Maui  and  Molokai,  four  from  Oahu,  and 
three  from  Kauai  and  Niihau."  This  Associa- 
tion appoints  the  members  of  the  Hawaiian 
Board,  of  whom  twenty-two  are  white  men  and 
eleven  are  natives.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  Board 
to  perform  any  agency  requested  of  it  by  the 
Prudential  Committee  (American  Board),  in 
respect  to  former  missionaries  of  the  ABCFM  at 
these  islands;  and  the  education  of  their  children 
at  the  islands,  and  to  take  charge  of  home  mis- 
sions on  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  the  education  of  a 
native  ministry,  and  of  females  who  may  become 
teachers  and  pastors'  wives;  of  the  preparation, 
publication,  and  circulation  of  useful  books  and 
tracts,  and  also  of  foreign  missions,  so  far  as  the 
conduct  of  them  from  these  islands  shall  be 
found  practicable  and  expedient,  and  shall  take 
charge  of  and  disburse  funds  contributed  for 
these  objects.  The  home  mission  work  of  the 
Hawaiian  Board  consists  of  evangelistic  and 
educational  work  among  the  native  Hawaiians, 
and  the  English-speaking  population,  and  among 
Chinese,  Japanese,  Portuguese,  and  Gilbert 
Islanders  resident  in  the  islands.  Total  expen- 
diture for  home  missions,  $31,801.12,  as  follows: 
home  missions  $7,068.07,  Japanese  missions 
$5,005.20,  Chinese  mission  $9,641.50,  Portuguese 
mission  $5,371.35,  North  Pacific  Missionary 
Institute  $2,435,  Kohala  Girls'  School  $2,280. 

The  foreign  work  of  the  Hawaiian  Board  began 
in  1852,  when  three  Hawaiian  families  went  with 
the  American  Board  missionaries  to  establish 
the  Micronesian  Mission.  A  year  later  a  chief 
from  one  of  the  Marquesas  Islands  landed  at 
Lahaina,  and  asked  that  missionaries  be  sent  to 
his  islands.  Two  Hawaiian  pastors  volunteered 
to  respond  to  the  call,  and  one  of  them  still 
remains  there.  Since  the  beginning  of  its  foreign 
work,  the  Hawaiian  Board  has  sent  more  than 


thirty  Hawaiian  families  to  the  Micronesian  and 

Marquesas  Islands,   and  the  native  church  has 

given,  upon  a  conservative  estimate,  not  less  than 

$112,000  to  this  work 

Total  expenditures  for  foreign  missions  (1901): 

Salaries     $911.10,    publications     $177.31,    fund 

$73.70;     grand     total     $1,162.01.     Publications 

(190;  chiefly  hymn  books  and  Bibles),  $1,931,37. 

Receipts     for     all     purposes     (1901)     $435.71, 

invested  funds  $146,619,  property  $102,800. 

The  organ  of  the  Society  is  The  Friend,  monthly,  Honolulu, 
H.  T. 

HAWAn,  or  SANDWICH  ISLANDS:  A  group 
lying  in  the  middle  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  lati- 
tude 19°  to  22°  north,  and  longitude  155°  to  160° 
west,  about  2,000  miles  from  San  Francisco,  and 
constituting  a  territory  of  the  United  States. 
The  islands  were  discovered  by  Captain  Cook  in 
1778,  and  were  named  by  him  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  but  they  have  always  been  called  Hawaii 
by  the  natives  themselves.  The  principal  islands 
and  their  respective  areas  are:  Hawaii,  4,850 
square  miles;  Maui,  750  square  miles;  Oahu,  700 
square  miles;  Kauai,  780  square  miles;  Molokai, 
170  square  miles;  Lanai,  170  square  miles; 
Niihau,  110  square  miles,  and  Kahulawe,  about 
40  square  miles. 

Almost  the  entire  surface  of  Hawaii  is  com- 
posed of  the  slopes  of  four  volcanic  mountains. 
Mauna  Loa,  13,600  feet  high,  is  one  of  the  few 
active  volcanoes.  Mauna  Kea,  on  the  opposite 
north  side  of  the  island,  is  13,805  feet  in  height 
and  is  the  highest  peak  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
This  island  is  of  historical  interest  as  being  the 
place  where  Captain  Cook  was  killed,  and  a  monu- 
ment is  erected  at  Kealakeakua  Bay.  Maui  has 
also  mountains  of  volcanic  origin,  with  fertile 
valleys  lying  between.  Kahulawe,  together  with 
Lehua,  is  a  large  sheep  pasture.  Molokai  is  formed 
by  a  backbone  ridge,  with  lateral  spurs  enclosing 
ravines.  A  leper  settlement  is  the  only  object  of 
interest  found  on  this  island.  Oahu  is  noted 
for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery.  Peaks,  cliffs, 
ravines,  cascades,  and  tropical  vegetation  unite 
to  please  the  eye.  It  is  traversed  from  southeast 
to  northwest  by  two  parallel  ranges  of  hills.  By 
some  volcanic  upheaval  a  bay  of  the  sea  has  been 
converted  into  a  plain  some  twenty-five  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  and  this  is  the  site 
of  Honolulu,  the  capital  of  the  territory.  Kauai, 
like  the  rest  of  the  islands,  is  mountainous,  but 
has  many  valleys  which  are  very  fertile,  and  the 
north  side  of  the  island  is  the  choicest  land  for 
growing  sugar  in  the  whole  group.  Niihau  has  a 
dry,  fertile  soil,  and  is  used  for  pasturing  sheep. 

The  climate  of  nearly  all  the  islands  is  noted 
for  its  healthfulness,  for,  tho  warm,  it  is  equable, 
and  there  is  very  little  variation  in  temperature 
between  the  winter  and  summer.  Clear  skies 
and  regular  land  and  sea  breezes  combine  to 
render  the  islands  one  of  the  most  delightful 
habitations  in  the  world.  The  rainfall  is  quite 
excessive,  especially  on  the  windward  side  of  the 
larger  islands. 

The  natives  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  belong  to 
the  Malay  race,  as  modified  in  the  Polynesian 
type.  Physically,  they  are  among  the  finest 
races  in  the  Pacific,  and  they  have  shown  con- 
siderable intellectual  capacity.  Previous  to  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  they  were  not  much 
superior  in  moral  character  to  any  of  the  other 
savages  in  the  Pacific.     Polygamy,  infanticide, 


201 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Ha'wallan 
Henzada 


and  polyandry  all  prevailed.  The  idolatry  of  the 
Kanakas,  as  the  natives  are  called,  was  barbar- 
ous and  bloodthirsty,  for  human  sacrifices  were 
frequently  offered  during  the  siclcness  of  a  chief, 
•at  the  dedication  of  a  temple,  or  at  the  inception 
of  a  war.  On  the  other  hand,  the  natives  are 
even-tempered,  light-hearted,  and  a  pleasure- 
loving  race.  When  the  islands  were  discovered 
the  natives  were  estimated  at  400,000,  but  they 
seem  to  be  dying  out,  for  the  census  of  1900  gives 
only  about  30,000  natives,  and  it  is  feared  that 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  total  extinction 
of  the  race  will  ensue.  The  remainder  of  the 
population  consists  of  7,835  half-castes,  28,533 
white  foreigners  and  people  of  foreign  descent, 
58,500  Japanese,  and  25,742  Chinese.  There  are 
restrictions  on  Chinese  immigration.  The  lan- 
guage is  a  branch  of  the  Malao-Polynesian,  and 
can  be  understood  by  New  Zealanders.  It  is  a 
soft,  liquid,  vocalic  tongue,  containing  only  five 
consonants,  k,  I,  m,  n,  p,  an  aspirated  h,  five 
vowels,  and  a  vocalic  w. 

The  former  scanty  costume  of  the  inhabitants 
has  now  given  place  to  modern  European  dress, 
tho  the  women  still  cling  to  the  holoka,  a  loose 
white  or  colored  garment  with  long  sleeves. 

Leprosy  is  prevalent,  and  the  government  has 
established  a  settlement  on  Molokai,  where 
sufferers  from  this  disease  are  isolated. 

Religion:  Since  the  spontaneous  movement  of 
1819-20,  when  idols  and  temples  were  destroyed 
by  the  natives,  the  Gospel  has  been  preached 
until  the  whole  nation  is  now  practically  Chris- 
tian. The  American  missionaries  arrived  in 
1820,  and,  in  addition  to  accomplishing  the  con- 
version of  the  islanders  to  the  Christian  religion, 
they  taught  them  to  read  and  write,  reducing 
their  language  for  the  first  time  to  a  written  form. 
AU  forms  of  religion  are  tolerated.  Roman  Catho- 
lics, Anglicans,  and  Congregationalists  are  the 
principal  denominations.  Schools  are  estab- 
lished all  over  the  island. 

Mission  Work:  The  history  of  the  mission  work 
of  the  ABCFM  in  Hawaii  relates  one  of  the  most 
significant  triumphs  of  the  Gospel.  Its  work  in 
the  islands  has  all  been  passed  over  to  the 
Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association.  The  SPG 
has  carried  on  work  among  the  Chinese  in  the 
islands,  but  upon  the  annexation  of  Hawaii  to  the 
United  States  their  work  was  transferred  to  the 
PE.  According  to  the  census  of  1896  there  were 
26,363  Roman  Catholics  (largely  Portuguese)  in 
the  islands,  23,779  Protestants  of  all  denomina- 
tions, 4,886  Mormons,  44,306  Buddhists,  and 
10,192  not  described. 

Alexander  (W.  D.),  A  Brief  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People, 
New  York,  1892j  Whitney  (C.),  Hawaiian  America,  New 
York,  1899;  Bingham  (H.),  Residence  of  Twenty-one 
Years  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Hartford,  1847;  Brain 
(B.  M.),  Transformation  of  Hawaii,  New  York,  1899; 
Staley  (T.  N.),  Five  Years*  Church  Work  in  Hawaii,  Lon- 
don, 1868. 

HAY  RIVER :  A  trading  post  in  the  Mackenzie 
Territory,  Dominion  of  Canada,  situated  on  the 
Great  Slave  Lake  at  the  mouth  of  Hav  River. 
Station  of  the  CMS. 

HAZARIBAGH:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  capi- 
tal of  the  district  of  Hazaribagh.  It  stands  on  a 
high  plateau  at  an  altitude  of  2,000  feet,  and  is 
picturesquely  situated  among  conical  hills  about 
60  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Gaya.  Population  (1891), 
16,700,  of  whom  12,100  are  Hindus.  Station  of 
the  Gossner  Missionary  Society  (Berlin  II.),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  7  native  work- 


ers, 2  preaching  places,  1  village  school,  and  141 
professing  Christians. 

HEBRON  (Labrador) :  A  village  in  a  sterile  and 
forbidding  region  on  the  E.  coast  of  Labrador. 
Population,  2,000.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mis- 
sions (1880),  with  (1900)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives. 

HEBRON  (Natal) :  Station  of  the  Hermanns- 
burg  Missionary  Society  (1882),  situated  in  the 
E.  part  of  Natal,  near  the  Tugela  River,  and 
about  60  miles  from  Pietermaritzburg.     It  has 

(1902)  1  missionary  and  6  native  workers. 

HEBRON  (Palestine):  A  town  in  Palestine, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  in  a  long,  narrow  valley 
about  20  miles  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  at  an  altitude 
of  about  2,200  feet.  It  has  an  important  relic 
of  antiquity  in  its  "sanctuary"  built  over  a  cave 
traditionally  known  as  the  Cave  of  Machpelah. 
Station  of  the  CA.  Outstation  of  the  Jerusalem 
Verein  of  Berlin.  The  town  is  known  locally  by 
the  title  given  to  Abraham,  El  Khalil:  the  Friend 
(of  God). 

HEBRON  (Transvaal):  Station  of  the  Her- 
mannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1872;  opened  at 
Matlare  in  1866),  with  (1902)  2  missionaries,  1 
missionary's  wife,  5  native  workers,  4  preaching 
places.  There  were  before  the  war  1,044  pro- 
fessing Christians  here,  but  the  present  situation 
has  not  been  reported  by  the  Society.  Hebron 
is  situated  in  the  Transvaal  Colony  about  18 
miles  N.  W.  of  Pretoria. 

HEERENDYK:  A  substation  of  the  Moravian 
Missions  in  Dutch  Guiana,  S.  America.  It  is  one 
of  a  number  of  plantations  situated  on  the  north- 
ern banks  of  the  Comewyne,  where  a  large  num- 
ber of  converts  were  gathered  by  the  traveling 
missionary.  In  1856  a  piece  of  land  was  pur- 
chased, a  church  and  mission  house  erected,  and 
a  regular  congregation  formed.  It  now  has  26 
native  workers  and  about  250  professing  Chris- 
tians. 

HEIDELBERG:  A  town  in  the  Transvaal 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  about  25  miles  S.  E.  of 
Johannesburg.        Station    of    the    WMS,     with 

(1903)  1  missionary,  25  native  workers,  10  out- 
stations,  6  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  1 
day  school  and  530  professing  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1875),  with 
(1903,  as  far  as  can  be  learned  since  the  war)  19 
native  workers  (the  missionary  in  charge  being  in 
Germany),  15  outstations,  1  day  school,  and  828 
professing  Christians. 

HENG-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Hu-nan,  China,  situated  on  the  Hsiang  River,  50 
miles  S.  of  Hsiang-tan.  Station  of  the  PN  (1902) , 
with  2  missionaries  and  1  dispensary.  The  name 
is  sometimes  spelled  Heng-chow. 

HENZADA  (Henthada) :  An  important  and 
growing  town  in  Low-er  Burma,  British  India, 
situated  on  the  Irawadi  River,  100  miles  north- 
west of  Rangoon.  It  is  the  center  of  a  large  rice 
trade.  Population,  19,800,  of  whom  15,000  are 
Buddhists.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1853),  which 
has  two  distinct  fields  of  labor — the  Karens  and 
the  Burmese.  It  now  (1903)  has  7  missionaries, 
men  and  women;  172  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  89  outstations,  81  preaching  places,  63 
day  schools,  3  boarding  schools,  53  Sunday 
schools,  74  organized  churches,  and  about  10,000 
Christian  adherents,  of  whom  3,693  are  church 
members. 


Herbert  sdale 
Ulndnisxn 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


HERBERTSDALE:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony, 
S.  Africa,  situated  about  40  miles  N.  W.  of 
Mossel  Bay,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1  woman 
missionary,  10  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
2  outstations  and  662  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  167  are  communicants. 

HERMANNSBURG :  A  settlement  in  Natal, 
situated  in  the  Umvoti  division,  about  15  miles 
E.  of  Greytown.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg 
Missionary  Society  (1854),  with  (1902)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  10  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  2  outstations,  2  preaching  places,  2  day 
schools  and  625  professing  Christians. 

HERMANNSBURG  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY. 
See  Germany;  Missionary  Societies  in. 

HERMON:  A  village  in  Basutoland,  S.  Africa, 
situated  near  the  W.  frontier,  about  5  miles  E.  of 
Wepener.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Society,  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  22 
native  workers,  8  outstations,  9  preaching  places, 
9  day  schools  and  1,639  professing  Christians,  of 
whom  954  are  church  members. 

HERMOSILLO:  A  town  in  Mexico,  capital  of 
the  State  of  Sonora,  situoted  on  the  Sonora  River, 
110  miles  north  of  Guaymas.  Population  7,100. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1886),  with  (1902)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  3  native  workers  and  21  out- 
stations. 

HERSCHEL:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  in  the  angle  between  Basutoland 
and  the  Orange  River,  22  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Aliwal 
North.  Station  of  the  SPG  (St.  Michael's  parish), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  1,660  professing 
Christians. 

HERVEY,  or  COOK,  ISLANDS:  A  small  group 
in  the  Pacific,  between  18°  and  22°  south  latitude, 
and  157°  and  170°  west  longitude.  The  popula- 
tion consists  mainly  of  emigrants  from  Tahiti  and 
Samoa,  and  numbers  about  12,000.  In  1889,  at 
the  invitation  of  the  chiefs  and  people,  a  British 
protectorate  was  proclaimed,  and  in  1901  the 
islands  were  annexed  to  New  Zealand  and  a 
British  resident  stationed  at  Rarotonga  to  con- 
trol enactments.  Owing  to  the  efforts  and  care- 
ful work  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  whose 
missionaries  commenced  evangelizing  these 
islands  in  1823,  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  now  Christians,  and  take  high  rank  among 
the  converts  in  Polynesia.  The  principal  islands 
are  the  following:  Rarotonga,  20  miles  in  circum- 
ference, with  about  2,000  inhabitants.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  LMS  in  1823,  and  there  are  now 
(1901)  on  the  island  2  missionaries  and  1  mission- 
ary woman,  5  native  worlcers,  5  Sunday  schools, 
6  common  schools  and  524  communicants. 
Mangaia,  with  1,540  inhabitants,  was  occupied  by 
the  LMS  in  1823.  There  are  now  there  1  mission- 
ary, 78  native  workers,  men  and  women;  3  Sun- 
day schools,  5  common  schools  and  562  communi- 
cants. Aitutaki,  12  miles  in  circumference,  has 
1,170  inhabitants.  It  became  a  mission  station 
in  1821.  There  are  now  there  1  missionary,  3 
native  workers,  3  Sunday  schools,  5  common 
schools  and  282  communicants.  Atiu  or  Vati-ii 
has  920  inhabitants.  It  was  entered  in  1823  by 
the  LMS  and  there  are  there  and  in  surrounding 
islets  7  native  workers  and  690  communicants. 

HE-TAN  ISLAND:  An  island  belonging  to 
China  and  lying  off  the  coast  of  the  province  of 
Fo-kien.  The  CMS  has  mission  work  in  Tang-tau 
in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  island. 

HIAI-CHAU.     See  Kiai-chau. 


HIAO-I.     See  Hsiao-yi-hsien. 

HIAO  KIAN.     See  Hsiao-kan-hsien. 

HIAU  KAN.     See  Hsiao-kan-hsien. 

HILL,  John  Henry:  Born  1791;  graduated  at 
Columbia  College,  New  York;  for  several  years 
was  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits;  pursued  a 
theological  course  at  the  seminary,  Alexandria, 
Va.,  and  was  ordained  deacon  and  presbyter  by 
Bishop    Meade   in    Norfolk,    1830.    He   and  Dr. 
Robertson     were   appointed    by    the    American 
Episcopal  Missionary  Society  as  missionaries  to 
Greece.      They     sailed    October,    1830,  landing 
on  the   island   of  Tenos,   where   they  remained 
six  months,  and  then  removed  to  Athens.     In 
1832  Mrs.  Hill,  aided  by  her  sister,  Miss  Mulligan, 
opened    a   female    school    in    their    own   house, 
with  the  Bible  as  a  text-book.    From  the  first  the 
school  was  crowded  and  within  two   years  more 
than   300   children   were    daily    instructed   in  a 
stone  building  erected  for  it.     Three  generations 
of  Greek  women  have  there  received  a  Christian 
education.     Other    schools    for    boys    and    girls 
were  soon  established.     The  schools  of  the  mis- 
sionary were  the  models  for  the  municipal  and 
national  schools  afterward  established,  and  fur- 
nished teachers  for  them.     The  normal  school, 
too,  was  placed  in  charge  of  graduates  from  the 
Hill  institution.     Once  a  week  Mr.  Hill  met  the 
boys  of  all  the  schools  for  the  study  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  which  they  translated  into  modern  Greek 
and  which  he  then  explained.     On  Sunday  the 
scholars  were  taught  the  Gospel  for  the  day,  or 
the    Bible   in   course   containing   the   history  of 
Christ's  life.     Four  years  later  he  wrote:  "When 
we  think  of  our  humble  origin  from  a  dark,  dirty, 
vaulted   cellar   of   an   old   Venetian   tower,   our 
progress  thence  to  an  old  Turkish  house  and  two 
miserable  chambers,  and  gradually  to  our  own 
residence,  and  the  filling  up  first  of  one  room  and 
then  of  another,  and  now  look  at  our  large  and 
commodious  schoolhouse,  the  largest  in  Athens, 
completely  filled  from  top  to  bottom  with  indus- 
trious  children,   numbering  nearly  six  hundred, 
we  are  astonished." 

In  1845  Mr.  Hill  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the 
British  Legation,  and  for  many  years  officiated 
as  such  in  the  English  Chapel  of  St.  Paul  at 
Athens.  The  appointment  was  unsolicited  by 
him,  and  "it  was  justly  due  to  him  for  his  gratui- 
tous services  to  the  English  residents  for  twelve 
years  past."  In  1869,  in  view  of  his  advanced 
years  and  that  of  his  wife,  he  handed  in  his  resig- 
nation to  the  Board.  The  committee  resolved  to 
"provide  for  his  comfortable  support  in  Athens, 
the  city  of  his  adoption  and  life  s  work,  until  his 
death." 

In  token  of  the  appreciation  by  the  nation  of 
his  educational  work.  Dr.  Hill  received  from  the 
Minister  of  Education  an  official  document, 
dated  June  18,  1881,  in  which  occurs  the  follow- 
ing paragraph:  "Upon  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  your  school,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the 
more  systematic  education  of  the  young  women 
of  Hellas,  I  take  pleasure  in  transmitting  here- 
with the  congratulations  of  his  Majesty." 

While  Dr.  Hill's  main  work  was  the  education 
of  the  young,  he  performed  other  useful  labors. 
In  connection  with  Dr.  Robertson  and  others  of 
the  mission  he  translated  valuable  English  text- 
books, secular  and  religious,  into  modern  Greek. 
By  his  preaching,  teaching  and  personal  inter- 
course he  communicated  much  Christian  truth 
to  the  clergy.      He  died  at  Athens  July  1,  1882, 


293 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Herbcrtsdale 
Hludnlsm 


aged  ninety.  The  Greek  Government  gave  him 
a  public  funeral. 

HILL,  Joseph  Sidney:  Born  18.52.  Died  1894. 
Native  of  Barnach,  Swindon;  educated  at  Isling- 
ton C.  M.  College.  On  October  14,  1876,  he  went 
to  Leke,  Lagos,  W.  Africa,  and  in  September, 
1878,  was  stationed  at  Wairoa,  New  Zealand  Mis- 
sion, where  his  connection  with  the  CMS  closed 
in  1882.  In  1883  he  became  chaplain  of  H.  M. 
Prison,  Auckland;  in  1892  was  appointed  Com- 
missary of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and 
Director  of  Niger  Mission,  and  in  the  same  year 
was  made  Bishop-Designate  of  the  Niger.  In 
1893  Durham  University  conferred  on  him  the 
Hon.  D.D.  Degree,  and  in  the  summer  of  this 
year  he  was  consecrated  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral 
second  Bishop  of  the  Niger,  now  named  "Western 
Equatorial  Africa,"  with  two  native  Assistant 
Bishops.  Both  Bishop  and  Mrs.  Hill  died  at 
Lagos  of  fever,  January  .5,  1894.  Bishop  Hill 
combined  the  highest  standard  of  spirituality 
with  a  singularly  forbearing  spirit,  and  his  influ- 
ence left  a  lasting  impression  on  the  Niger. 

HINDERER,  David:  Of  Schorndorf,  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Wiirttemberg.  Missionary  in  Lagos, 
Western  Africa,  under  the  CMS.  He  was  a  grad- 
uate of  the  Basel  Missionary  Training  school. 
After  a  short  time  of  preparation  at  Abeokuta 
he  was  directed  to  go  forward  into  the  further 
interior  and  try  to  reach  the  Mohammedan  Hausa 
people.  This  he  did  not  succeed  in  doing;  but  on 
May  20,  1851,  he  was  the  first  white  man  to  enter 
the  great  town  of  Ibadan,  the  name  of  which  was 
ever  afterward  associated  with  his  own.  In  the 
following  year  he  visited  England  and  married 
Anna  Martin,  whose  missionary  life  was  as  heroic 
and  successful  as  her  husband's.  During  twenty- 
eight  years  of  labor  in  Western  Africa,  Mr.  Hin- 
derer  did  much  pioneer  work;  and  in  1874-5,  when 
he  paid  his  last  visit  to  his  old  field,  he  opened 
up  new  work  to  the  east  of  Lagos,  leading  in  1876 
to  the  occupation  of  Ode  Ondo  by  Charles  Phillips, 
afterward  bishop.  Mr.  Hinderer  died  in  1890, 
and  in  1898  a  new  church  was  completed  at 
Ibadan  as  a  memorial  to  David  and  Anna  Hin- 
derer. 

Mr.  Hinderer's  literary  work  was  in  the  Yoruba 
language,  and  included  a  translation  of  the  book 
of  Isaiah,  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  of  some 
hymns.  He  also  revised  Bishop  Crowther's  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible. 

HINDI  LANGUAGE:  The  language  of  the 
Hindus  in  distinction  from  that  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans of  India.  It  is  based  upon  the  ancient 
Sanskrit,  and  is  called  by  the  literary  class  Pra- 
krit in  contrast  to  the  purer  Sanskrit  of  literature. 
It  is  written  like  Sanskrit,  with  the  Devanagari 
letters.  Traders  and  in  general  the  lower  class 
of  natives  often  write  (and  print)  the  Hindi  in  an 
imperfect  imitation  of  the  Devanagari,  which  is 
called  Kaithi.  The  Hindi  language  is  the  ver- 
nacular of  more  than  fifty  millions  of  people  in 
the  north  of  India,  and  possesses  an  extensive 
literature  aside  from  the  ancie&t  Sanskrit  liter- 
ature. 

HINDUISM :  In  order  to  gain  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  religious  systems  of  India  it  is 
important  to  observe  a  distinction  in  names. 
Brahmanism  and  Hinduism  are  not  interchange- 
able. Brahmanism  properly  denotes  an  earlier 
stage  of  development  in  the  faith  of  the  Hindus; 
Hinduism  denotes  that  more  complete  and  com- 


posite system  wliich  embraced  all  previous  stages, 
and,  like  a  spreading  banian-tree,  covered  all  the 
superstitions  and  philosophies  which  had  been 
known  to  the  Indo-Aryan  race.  If  we  go  back 
to  the  earliest  teachings  of  the  Vedas  and  attempt 
to  characterize  the  faith  disclosed  in  those  ancient 
hymns,  we  may  properly  call  it  Aryanism  or 
Vedism.  It  is  a  simple  and  well-nigh  mono- 
theistic nature  worship,  largely  imported  by  the 
Indo-Aryan  conquerors  from  the  original  cradle 
of  the  Aryan  race  in  the  high  tablelands  of  Central 
Asia.  Nature,  under  the  more  frequent  name  of 
Varuna  or  Purusha,  is  worshiped  as  the  source 
and  the  upholder  of  all  things,  and  is  invested 
with  moral  attributes  and  a  moral  government  of 
the  world.  Some  of  the  hymns  to  Varuna  seem 
truly  devout.  At  that  early  period  we  find  no 
well-defined  polytheism,  though  there  is  a  ten- 
dency toward  it  in  the  disposition  to  address 
separate  powers  of  nature, — the  sun,  the  sky,  the 
dawn,  the  rain,  fire,  etc., — as  embodying  the  one 
deity  who  is  supreme. 

There  is  no  trace  of  idolatry  or  the  worship  of 
images  and  symbols;  there  is  no  developed 
pantheism,  no  system  of  caste,  no  doctrine  of 
transmigration,  no  widow-burning,  nor  author- 
ized infanticide.  The  dead  were  buried  in  that 
early  period  instead  of  being  burned,  and  the 
oppression  of  woman  was  comparatively  mild. 
There  was  no  hint  of  divine  incarnations,  and  no 
Trimurti  or  Hindu  Trinity. 

The  next  development  may  be  called  Brah- 
manism. It  was  a  galling  and  oppressive  sys- 
tem of  sacerdotalism,  instituted  and  enforced  by 
the  Brahman  or  priestly  caste.  It  was  well 
developed  by  about  800  years  B.C.,  and  it  bore 
undisputed  dominion  for  300  years.  It  made 
use  of  such  portions  of  the  Vedas  as  supported, 
or  seemed  to  support,  its  assumptions;  and  by 
comment  and  interpretation,  and  additions  to 
the  sacred  hymns,  it  produced  what  were  known 
as  the  Brahmanas.  These  were  based  upon  such 
allusions  in  the  Vedas  as  were  supposed  to  relate 
to  forms  and  acts  of  worship,  and  they  became, 
under  the  Brahman's  hands,  complete  rituals. 
They  dealt  with  every  question  and  every  interest 
which  concerned  the  Brahman  caste.  They 
traced  its  divine  origin,  set  forth  its  superiority 
and  its  relative  rights.  They  assigned  bounds 
and  limitations  to  the  three  subordinate  classes, 
viz. :  the  Kshatreya  or  soldier  caste,  the  Vaisya 
or  farmer  caste,  and  the  lowly  Sudra  or  the  menial 
caste.  Thcs3  distinctions  were  fixed  immovably. 
Barriers  were  raised  which  might  not  be  passed, 
and  disabilities  were  laid  upon  the  lower  orders 
from  which  there  was  no  escape.  Marriage, 
social  relations,  industries,  and  vocations,  military 
service,  rights  of  property,  laws  of  inheritance — 
every  interest  of  human  life  was  subordinated 
to  the  dominion  of  caste. 

The  privileges  and  exemptions  of  the  Brah- 
mans  involved  an  intolerable  oppression  of  every 
other  caste.  The  life  of  a  Brahman  was  invio- 
lable even  by  kings. 

In  connection  with  this  caste  system  the  most 
absurd  and  burdensome  system  of  sacrifice  sprang 
up.  It  has  been  common  for  the  races  of  man- 
kind to  observe  the  custom  of  offering  sacrifices 
to  deity.  They  have  generally  been  expiatory; 
often  they  were  offerings  expressive  of  gratitude 
or  they  were  free  gifts  made  in  the  hope  of  secur- 
ing favor  and  the  bestowment  of  some  desirable 
boon.      In    Vedic   times   there   were   significant 


Hinduism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


294 


traces  of  vicarious  sacrifice — even  of  a  divine 
and  altogether  voluntary  sacrifice  made  by 
deity  for  the  benefit  of  others.  One  is  reminded 
of  the  Great  Sacrifice  made  once  for  all,  as  set 
forth  in  the  New  Testament;  and  it  has  been 
claimed  by  eminent  Oriental  scholars  that  these 
Vedic  references  denote  strange  traditional  remin- 
iscences of  a  prediction  once  made  to  man  of  the 
"Lamb  slain  from  the  foundation  of  the  world." 

But  under  the  teachings  of  the  Brahmana 
period  the  doctrine  of  sacrifice  became  a  mon- 
strosity. It  was  a  system  of  bargaining  between 
earth  and  heaven.  A  sort  of  tariil  of  values  was 
fixed,  which  the  gods  could  not  disregard.  If 
one  were  rich  enough  in  sacrificial  gifts  he  might 
banlvrupt  the  gods  by  hopeless  obligations.  It 
was  claimed  that  the  sacrifice  of  a  hundred  horges 
might  demand  the  throne  of  India.  Sometimes 
even  demons  placed  the  gods  in  their  power  and 
wrought  anarchy  in  the  universe  by  the  abun- 
dance of  their  sacrifices.  Of  course  the  expla- 
nation of  these  extravagances  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  Brahman  or  priestly  caste  derived  an 
immense  revenue  from  their  bloody  offerings. 
In  a  real  sense  they  ate  what  the  gods  were  sup- 
posed to  eat  in  a  spiritual  sense,  and  in  all  the 
endless  ritual  of  worship  they  were  handsomely 
paid  for  their  services.  Not  only  for  the  living 
but  for  the  dead  were  sacrifices  demanded.  Not 
even  the  Church  of  Rome  in  the  palmy  days  of 
Tetzel  and  Leo  X.  derived  such  revenues  from  the 
doctrines  of  Purgatory  and  Indulgences  as 
accrued  to  the  Brahmanical  priesthood  of  India. 
The  land  was  deluged  with  sacrificial  blood,  the 
people  groaned  under  the  awful  burden,  and  the 
day  of  reclvoning  drew  near. 

About  500  B.C.  the  more  intellectual  classes  of 
India  became  restive;  schools  of  philosophy 
sprang  up;  men  were  led  to  consider  the  great 
mysteries  of  life,  and,  if  possible,  to  solve  the 
problems  of  human  destiny.  They  were  no 
longer  content  to  be  mere  ignorant  slaves  under 
a  galling  sacerdotalism.  Men  rose  up  and  threw 
off  the  system  of  sacrifice  or  greatly  weakened 
its  power.  At  the  same  time  Buddhism  arose 
with  its  protest  not  only  against  caste  and  sac- 
rifice, but  against  the  whole  system  of  supersti- 
tion which  the  Brahmans  had  created.  Tired  of 
the  extreme  religiousness  of  Brahmanism,  it  went 
to  the  opposite  extreme  of  rejecting  all  religion. 
Gautama  became  atheistic.  For  six  years  he 
had  tried  ascetic  Brahmanism  and  found  it  barren 
and  illusive.  He  therefore  taught  a  system  of 
ethics  and  of  self-reliance  and  self-righteousness, 
as  a  substitute  for  the  national  religion. 

The  development  of  Buddhism  and  the  Dar- 
sanas  or  Six  Schools  of  Philosophy  had  been 
preceded  by  the  Upanishads — a  system  of  spec- 
ulative teachings  partly  drawn  from,  and  partly 
reared  upon,  the  philosophic  portions  of  the 
Vedas,  as  the  Brahmanas  had  been  built  up  from 
their  scattered  references  to  ritual.  These  Upan- 
ishads were  the  earliest  sources  of  Hindu  philos- 
ophy, and  from  them  the  weapons  were  first 
drawn  which  crippled  the  power  of  the  Brah- 
mans. 

But  over  against  this  movement  was  a  desper- 
ate effort  of  the  Brahmans  to  resist  its  rational- 
istic influence.  Its  results  are  seen  in  the 
so-called  Dharma  Sastras  or  Code  of  Manu.  It  is 
not  definitely  known  in  what  precise  order  these 
conflicting  movements  of  the  great  minds  of 
India  proceeded.     Strict  chronology  is  the  one 


thing  wanting  in  all  Hindu  literature;  it  has  well 
been  said  that  the  historic  instinct  is  wholly 
unknown  to  the  Hindu  mind.  But  it  is  supposed 
that  the  dangerous  philosophic  tendencies  of 
the  times  specially  stimulated  the  Brahmans  to 
guard  and  buttress  their  assumptions  by  those 
laws  which,  tho  produced  by  different  authors 
and  in  different  periods,  are  thrown  together  in 
the  massive  compilation  ascribed  to  Manu. 

A  brief  account  of  these  various  elements  in 
Hindu  literature  will  set  forth  their  relations 
more  clearly.  The  Vedas,  classified  under  the 
various  divisions  of  Mantras  or  Hymns,  Brah- 
manas or  Rules  of  Ritual,  and  Upanishads  or 
Vedic  Philosophy,  are  known  as  Sruti  or  Direct 
Revelations.  Those  subsequent  works  now  to 
be  considered  are  called  Smriti  or  unrevealed 
teachings  of  eminent  sages. 

The  Darsanas  or  Six  Philosophic  Schools  were 
all  in  agreement  on  certain  points,  such  as  the 
eternity  of  matter  past  and  future;  the  eternity 
of  soul — both  the  infinite  and  the  individuated 
soul;  the  necessary  connection  of  soul  with  matter 
in  order  to  enable  it  to  act  (even  the  infinite  soul 
is  unconscious  until  it  evolves  the  universe  which 
is  its  body) ;  the  attendant  evil  of  all  such  connec- 
tion with  matter,  however  necessary;  the  need  of 
transmigration  in  order  to  throw  off  by  long  dis- 
cipline the  evil  consequences  of  such  connection; 
and  that  pessimistic  doctrine  which  makes  it  the 
great  end  of  human  existence  to  get  rid  of  itself 
by  being  absorbed  into  deity. 

In  their  separate  and  distinctive  characters 
the  Six  Schools  were  these : 

(1)  The  Nyaya,  founded  by  the  Brahman 
Gotama,  and  which  maintained  that  all  the  evils 
of  life  result  from  false  knowledge  or  misappre- 
hension, and  that  the  remedy  is  to  be  found  in 
acquiring  right  methods  of  investigation  and 
reflection.  It  proposed  an  elaborate  classifica- 
tion of  knowledge,  and  framed  a  syllogism  more 
elaborate  than  that  of  Aristotle.  It  was  really  a 
system  of  salvation  by  logic. 

(2)  The  Vaiseshika,  founded  by  Kanada,  was 
an  advance  upon  the  Nyaya,  tho  in  the  same 
direction.  Both  were  analytical.  The  latter 
applied  logical  and  analytical  processes  to  all  the 
facts  of  nature  and  of  life.  It  claimed  to  solve 
the  mystery  of  creation  on  an  atomic  theory  like 
that  of  Lucretius  and  the  extreme  evolutionists 
of  our  day. 

Like  some  more  modern  evolutionists,  divided 
as  to  the  existence  of  a  first  and  moving  Cause,  the 
adherents  of  these  two  systems  resolved  theni- 
selves  into  two  classes:  the  Agnostic  or  Atheistic 
school;  and  those,  especially  of  a  later  day,  who 
recognized  the  being  of  Isvara  (God). 

(3)  Another  important  school  was  ih&Sankhya, 
founded  by  Kapila.  This  was  synthetic  rather 
than  analytic.  It  ascribed  the  origin  of  the 
visible  world  to  an  active  principle,  regarded  as 
the  pre-existing  substance  (hypostasis),  the  sub- 
atomic entity,  the  "rootless  root"  of  all  things. 
In  order  to  the  energizing  or  activity  of  this 
universal  sourc»  of  being  it  must  come  into  con- 
tact or  cooperation  with  soul.  It  is  active,  but 
not  intelligent.  Soul  is  intelligent,  but  inactive 
and  helpless.  Each  supplements  the  other. 
The  existing  substance  called  Prakriti  constantly 
clothes  the  souls  which  it  meets  with  bodies,  and 
invests  them  with  life;  and  so  the  teeming  uni- 
verse is  produced. 

This  dualism  of  Prakriti  and  soul  was  illus- 


295 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Blndnlsm 


trated  among  philosophers  by  the  relation  of  the 
two  sexes,  and  with  the  low  and  unphilosophic 
classes  this  led  to  the  notion  of  the  male  and 
female  principles  in  the  gods,  and  to  the  endless 
corruptions  which  have  been  developed  in  India 
along  these  lines. 

(4)  A  fourth  system  of  philosophy  was  the 
Yoga    by    Pantaljali.     In    one    view    this    was 

rather  a  ritual  than  a  philosophy,  since  it  related 
wholly  to  the  observances  of  the  ascetic  life,  and 
gave  endless  rules  therefor.  But  in  prescribing 
methods  for  ridding  the  soul  of  the  corrupting 
influence  of  matter,  it  dealt  with  subtle  meta- 
physics and  finely  elaborated  processes  of  logical 
analysis,  and  often  evinced  a  marvelous  philo- 
sophic acumen. 

(5)  A  fifth  school  was  the  Maimansa  by  Jai- 
mini.  It  was  a  reaction  against  the  rationalism 
of  the  Nyaya  and  the  Sankhya,  and  aimed  to 
exalt  the  word  and  testimony  of  the  Veda  even 
to  the  place  of  God.  In  its  root-principle  it  was 
a  system  of  book-worship.  It  made  the  Veda 
self-existent  and  eternal;  even  the  sound  of  its 
spoken  words  was  eternal,  and  had  always  been 
audible.  In  its  details  it  was  an  elaborate  ritual 
for  the  right  reading  and  interpretation  of  the 
sacred  hymns.  A  false  syllabic  quantity  in  read- 
ing, or  an  inspiration  where  there  should  have 
been  an  expiration  of  the  breath,  was  a  heinous 
if  not  an  unpardonable  sin.  The  Veda  was  a 
fetish  in  the  fullest  sense. 

(6)  The  sixth  school  was  the  Vedanta,  founded 
by  Vyasa.  This  was  out-and-out  pantheism — 
a  fuller  development  of  it  than  has  appeared  in 
the  Upanishads.  "Brahman  (neuter  noun  for 
the  Self-existent)  is  this  very  universe,  and  he 
has  no  second."  From  him,  in  him,  and  for 
him  all  things  exist.  The  visible  world  and  even 
our  consciousness  are  only  phenomenal  and 
illusory,  as  when  in  his  evening  walk  one  thinks 
he  sees  a  snake  and  makes  it  very  real,  while 
in  fact  it  is  only  a  rope  lying  across  his  path. 
The  Vedanta  school  has  molded  the  intellectual 
■classes  of  India  through  all  subsequent  ages. 
Whatever  superstitions  have  grown  out  of  the 
Sankhya,  and  whatever  extravangces  may  have 
attended  the  asceticism  of  the  Yoga,  the  men  of 
thought  have  been  Vedantists, and  are  to  this  day. 
In  the  famous  Sanskrit  schools  of  Benares  this  is 
the  prevailing  philosophy.  And  it  is  that  which 
chiefly  gives  to  Indian  thought  its  strong  hold 
upon  the  non-Christian  and  naturalistic  minds 
of  all  lands. 

The  Laws  of  Manu:  There  is  some  evidence 
that  the  Laws  of  Manu  preceded  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  Schools  of  Philosophy,  tho  they 
bear  internal  evidence  of  having  followed  the 
Upanishads.  They  do  not  allude  to  Buddhism 
by  name,  tho  certain  references  to  "Atheists" 
a,re  supposed  by  some  to  refer  to  the  followers  of 
Gautama.  The  supposition  is  not  necessary,  as 
there  were  other  Atheists  besides  Buddhists. 
Manu  makes  no  reference  to  the  Trimurti — 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva — nor  to  the  doctrine 
of  Bakti  (faith)  in  relation  to  Krishna.  Both 
that  and  the  doctrine  of  Saktism  (the  worship  of 
the  female  energy)  were  of  later  date.  Manu 
was  severe  in  his  humiliation  of  woman;  yet  her 
position  in  his  time  was  not  so  hedged  or  so  degrad- 
ing as  in  later  days.  Widow-burning  is  not 
alluded  to  in  his  code,  tho  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander's conquest  it  had  been  introduced,  and 
from  327  b.c.   (or  earlier)   to   1829  its  terrible 


cruelties  were  perpetuated  by  the  sanction  and 
even  instigation  of  the  priesthood. 

Sir  Monier  Williams  has  classified  the  contents 
of  the  Code  under  six  heads:  (1)  Its  religious 
teachings,  embracing  doctrines  of  Vedic  revela- 
tion, duties  of  Brahmans,  the  rites  of  Sraddha  or 
offerings  to  dead  ancestors,  etc.  (2)  Its  phi- 
losophy. This  is  supposed  to  have  been  antago- 
nistic to  the  national  tendencies  of  the  times,  and 
yet,  so  far  as  was  consistent  with  its  pronounced 
Brahmanical  theories,  it  was  itself  philosophical. 
Some  of  the  principles  subsequently  evolved  by 
the  schools  it  had  already  presented.  Its  unique 
account  of  creation,  found  in  Book  1st,  represents 
many  subordinate  portions  of  the  creative  work 
as  having  been  deputed  to  eminent  Manus.  Its 
fatalism  is  uncompromising  and  complete.  It 
is  also  pessimistic,  and  finds  the  usual  Oriental 
explanation  of  life's  mysteries  in  the  doctrine 
of  transmigration.  (3)  Its  social  regulations. 
Whatever  relates  to  caste  distinctions  is  here  set 
forth.  Also  the  duties  and  privileges  of  Brah- 
mans, the  regulation  of  trades  and  vocations  of 
the  respective  classes,  the  rites  of  marriage,  and 
the  duties  of  the  householder,  etc.  (4)  Its  penal 
laws  and  rules  of  government.  Aside  from  their 
intense  and  absurd  partiality  toward  the  Brah- 
mans, these  laws  were  in  the  main  just  and  wise. 
The  system  of  taxation  discriminated  in  favor  of 
the  poorer  classes.  The  duties  of  a  king  were 
carefully  prescribed,  and  that  on  just  principles. 
He  should  hold  court  for  the  administration  of 
justice,  accompanied  by  counselors.  The  laws 
of  property,  covering  transfer,  deposit,  entail, 
and  the  rates  of  interest,  were  strict  and  just. 
Even  laws  on  bottomry  were  prescribed.  In 
criminal  law  the  principle  of  the  lex  talionis  was 
applied  generally  and  rigorously.  (5)  Laws  of 
penance.  (6)  Its  doctrine  of  future  recompenses 
by  transmigration.  This  occupies  an  important 
place.  It  was  one  element  of  great  power  in  the 
laws  of  Manu  that  their  penalties  reached  beyond 
the  grave  and  involved  man's  future  estate. 

Two  or  three  points  presented  in  the  Code  of 
Manu  claim  special  attention.  (1)  Its  peculiar 
theory  of  creation.  A  seed  is  said  to  have 
appeared  upon  the  expanse  of  waters,  which 
became  a  golden  egg.  From  this  egg  the  Infinite 
himself,  after  the  elapse  of  a  year,  emerged,  and 
became  the  progenitor  of  the  world.  From  this 
First  Cause,  which  is  indiscernible  and  eternal, 
was  produced  that  male  "Parusha,"  who  is 
known  in  the  world  as  Brahma.  He  divided 
himself  in  halves,  which  became  heaven  and 
earth.  From  himself  also  he  drew  forth  the 
mind,  and  from  the  mind  that  ego  which  has  the 
power  of  self-consciousness;  also  the  soul  and 
the  five  senses.  By  joining  particles  of  the  last 
six  with  particles  of  himself  he  created  the  living 
bodies  of  all  beings.  He  also  created  the  gods, 
who  are  endowed  witli  action. 

(2)  The  fatalism  of  Manu's  theology.  "In 
the  beginning  he  (Brahma)  assigned  names, 
actions,  and  conditions  to  all  beings.  .  .  In  order 
to  distinguish  actions  he  separated  merit  from 
demerit.  To  whatever  course  of  action  the 
Lord  first  appointed  each  kind  of  being,  that  it 
has  spontaneously  adopted  in  each  successive 
creation  (transmigration).  Whatever  he  (Brah- 
ma) assigned  to  each  at  its  first  creation, — nox- 
iousness or  harmlessness,  gentleness  or  ferocity, 
virtue,  or  sin,  truth  or  falsehood, — that  clings  to 
it."— (Manu,  Book  I.,  6-13.) 


Hindnism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


296 


(3)  The  singular  place  assigned  to  austerities. 
Dividing  his  own  body,  the  Lord  became  half 
female.  With  that  female  he  produced  Viraj. 
Viraj,  having  performed  austerities,  produced 
Manu.  Thus  Manu,  speaking  to  the  sages,  says: 
"But  know  me,  O  most  holy  of  the  twice-born, 
to  be  the  Creator  of  this  whole  world,  whom 
Viraj  himself  produced,  having  performed  aus- 
terities. Then  I,  desiring  to  produce  created 
beings,  performed  very  great  austerities,  and 
thereby  called  into  existence  ten  great  sages, 
lords  of  created  beings.  They  created  seven 
other  Manus,  possessing  great  brilliancy,  gods 
and  classes  (ranks)  of  gods,  and  great  sages  of 
measureless  power.  Then  many  other  creations 
are  named.  Thus  was  the  whole  creation  pro- 
duced by  those  high-minded  ones  by  means  of 
austerities,  and  at  my  command." 

(4)  Woman's  sad  estate.  Tho  Manu  is 
exonerated  from  even  a  mention  of  the  Suttee, 
■which  became  a  custom  before  Alexander's 
invasion,  yet  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  influ- 
ence of  his  Code,  by  a  logical  process,  led  on  to  it. 
Ramahai  quotes  many  passages  from  the  Vedic 
literature  which  bespeak  kindness  and  honor  for 
woman,  but  she  adds  many  strong  contrasts  from 
the  Code  of  Manu.  In  strict  accordance  with  the 
fatalism  above  named,  we  read  in  Book  9,  17, 
that  "when  creating  them,  Manu  allotted  to 
women  a  love  of  their  bed,  of  their  seat,  and  of 
ornament,  impure  desires,  wrath,  dishonesty, 
malice,  and  bad  conduct."  Manu  made  woman, 
and  yet  Manu  has  pronounced  upon  her  the  most 
blighting  curse. 

(5)  Transmigration.  To  the  great  sages, 
Bhrigu  sprung  from  Manu,  answered  thus:  "Hear 
the  decision  concerning  this  whole  connection 
with  actions:  Actions,  which  spring  from  the 
mind,  from  speech,  and  from  the  body,  produce 
either  good  or  bad  results.  By  action  are  caused 
the  various  conditions  of  men:  the  highest,  the 
middling,  and  the  lowest.  Know  that  the  mind 
is  the  instigator,  here  below,  even  to  that  action 
which  is  connected  with  the  body,  and  which  is 
of  three  kinds,  has  three  locations,  and  falls  under 
ten  heads.  (These  are  given.)  A  man  obtains 
the  result  of  a  good  or  an  evil  mental  act  in  his 
mind,  that  of  a  verbal  act  in  his  speech,  that  of 
a  bodily  act  in  his  body.  In  consequence  of 
many  sinful  acts  committed  with  his  body,  a  man 
becomes  in  the  next  birth  something  inanimate; 
in  consequence  of  sins  committed  by  speech,  a 
bird  or  a  beast;  and  in  consequence  of  sins  of  the 
mind,  he  is  born  in  low  caste."  The  above  is  a 
verbatim  statement  (Manu,  Book  XII.)  of  the 
threefold  principle  of  all  transmigration. 

The  Fully  Developed  Hindu  System:  Without 
dwelling  longer  on  this  remarkable  code,  probably 
the  most  widely  influential  that  was  ever  promul- 
gated, we  notice  briefly  the  irruption  of  Bud- 
dhism into  the  Hindu  system,  and  its  influence 
upon  it.  Springing  up  about  450  to  500  B.C.,  it 
gained  such  power  within  two  centuries  that  it 
became  the  state  religion  of  India — not  that  it 
supplanted  Brahamanism;  it  merely  dominated 
it.  The  immense  system  of  sacrifices  it  effectually 
crippled,  and  it  rebuked  some  of  the  most  extrava- 
gant assumptions  of  the  priests. 

It  produced  a  more  humane  spirit  toward  man 
and  beast,  and  exemplified  a  higher  code  of 
ethics.  To  some  extent  it  alleviated  the  con- 
dition of  woman.  Above  all,  it  resisted  the 
extreme    rigors  of    caste,    tho    its    theories    of 


human  equality  and  mutual  right  were  forced  to 
compromise  with  a  system  which  it  could  not 
wholly  overthrow.  By  its  more  sympathetic 
character  it  so  won  the  people  that  after  Buddha's 
death  the  Brahmans  as  a  stroke  of  policy  included 
him  among  Vishnu's  incarnations.  Meanwhile 
both  systems  largely  influenced  each  other. 
Brahmanism  embodied  so  much  of  Buddhism  as 
served  its  purpose,  while  it  strongly  opposed  the 
influence  of  the  Sangha  or  Buddhist  order.  Thus- 
it  gradually  superseded  and  finally  persecuted 
the  rival  system,  and  drove  it  from  India.  Never- 
theless, Buddhism  bore  with  it  to  other  lands 
many  fundamental  principles  borrowed  from  the 
Brahmans.  Meanwhile  Brahmanism  had  cap- 
tured the  two  popular  epic  poems  which  cele- 
brated the  military  exploits  of  the  heroes  Rama 
and  Krishna,  and  turned  them  to  its  purpose  by 
interweaving  with  them  many  doctrinal  and 
mythological  elements.  The  popularity  of  these 
heroes,  both  of  whom  belonged  to  the  soldier 
caste,  had  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Brahmans; 
yet  they  could  not  resist  the  tide;  they  must 
utilize  it.  They  therefore  raised  Rama  and 
Krishna  to  the  rank  of  deity,  and  so  brought 
them  within  the  same  lines  of  pedigree  with  them- 
selves. Meanwhile  they  had  gradually  developed 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trimurti  or  Trinity,  of  Brahma 
the  Creator,  Vishnu  the  Preserver,  and  Siva  the 
Destroyer  and  Renovator.  Vishnu  was  the  most 
popular  as  the  preserver  and  sympathizer,  and  it 
was  a  natural  and /easy  device  to  make  all  the 
alleged  deliverers  of  Hindu  tradition  incarnations 
of  Vishnu.  Buddha  was  finally  added  as  the 
ninth  avatar,  and  prophecy  predicted  a  tenth, 
who  shall  yet  come  as  a  spiritual  deliverer  to 
establish  a  kingdom  of  righteousness. 

Thus,  by  an  accretion  of  whatever  was  desired 
of  Vedism,  Brahmanism,  Buddhism,  and  phi- 
losophy, was  developed  the  all-embracing  system 
which  we  may  call  Hinduism.  Its  distinction 
from  the  earlier  sacerdotal  system  known  as 
Brahmanism  will  readily  be  seen. 

It  not  only  embraced  the  systems  above 
named,  but  it  also  borrowed  many  popular  super- 
stitions from  the  Dravidians,  Kols,  Santals, 
and  other  previous  invaders  whom  the  conquer- 
ing Aryans  found  in  the  country.  The  system 
has  been  compared  to  some  old  building  which 
through  a  long  period  has  been  patched  and 
repaired  and  enlarged  by  additions  till  nearly 
every  original  aspect  has  disappeared,  and  the 
result  is  an  entire  hamlet  rather  than  a  simple 
structure.  Certain  elements  of  Mohammedan- 
ism have  been  incorporated  into  Hinduism  since 
the  Mogul  invasion,  and  some  writers  claim  to 
have  found  traces  of  an  influence  borrowed  from 
the  so-called  Syrian  Christians  who  migrated  to 
Malabar  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era.  In  any  case,  it  is  certain  that  in  our  own 
time,  Hinduism  is  borrowing  largely  from  Chris- 
tianity and  the  ethics  and  humanities  of  our 
Christian  civilization.  Under  British  rule,  and 
in  contact  with  the  educational  influence  of 
missionary  and  government  education,  it  has 
thrown  off  some  of  its  most  debasing  customs, 
and  under  the  title  of  Revived  Aryanism  is  now 
proclaiming  Christian  ethics  on  what  claims  to  be 
Vedic  authority. 

As  already  intimated,  it  is  in  the  great  Epics, 
the  Ramayana  and  the  Mahabharata,  that  the 
Trimurti  with  their  incarnations  are  developed 
in  the  most  popular  form.      They  are  ancient  as 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


HlndnlBin 


heroic  poems;  they  are  of  later  date  as  Brahman- 
ized  religious  treatises.  Probably  they  .were 
molded  into  their  present  form  somewhere 
between  the  fourth  and  the  second  century  before 
our  era,  tho  parts  were  added  later. 

The  Bhagavad  Gita:  The  eclectic  poem  known 
as  the  Bhagavad  Gita  was  embedded  in  the  ency- 
clopedic mass  of  the  Mahabharata  probably  as 
late  as  the  first  or  second  century  of  Our  Lord. 
The  interpretation  given  by  the  great  com- 
mentator Sankaracharya  bears  a  much  later 
date. 

The  original  author  evidently  gathered  what 
he  regarded  as  the  pure  honey  from  all  flowers  of 
Hindu  literature.  It  is  certainly  a  remarkable 
production,  and  seems  to  present  many  parallels 
to  the  New  Testament,  till  one  discovers  that  its 
mystical  pantheistic  meanings  are  often  the  very 
opposite  of  Christian  truth,  and  that  the  simi- 
larities are  only  in  phrases. 

Very  much  has  been  made  of  the  alleged 
resemblances  of  certain  passages  in  the  Bhaga- 
vad Gita  and  selected  texts  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Translators  who  have  proceeded  with 
this  theory  in  view,  and  especially  those  who  have 
desired  to  discredit  the  Christian  Scriptures  as  a 
probable  plagiarism  upon  the  Hindu  poem,  which 
claims  to  be  of  an  earlier  date,  have  read  into 
their  translation  many  phrases  and  many  con- 
ceptions borrowed  from  Christianity,  and  of 
which  a  Hindu  translator  would  never  have 
dreamed.  Large  numbers  of  alleged  parallels 
have  been  pointed  out,  most  of  which  are  fanci- 
ful and  strained,  while  others  seem  plausible  till 
we  take  into  account  the  different  ideas  which 
the  same  language  would  convey  to  Hindu  and 
to  Christian  minds  respectively.  "Union  with 
God,"  which  to  a  Christian  means  fellowship, 
would  to  a  Hindu  pantheist  signify  displacement 
of  the  human  ego  by  the  divine.  In  the  one  case 
it  would  imply  loj'alty,  in  the  other  the  removal 
of  all  personal  responsibility.  The  words 
"sin,"  "righteousness,"  "savior,"  "salvation," 
"heaven,"  find  no  corresponding  terms  in  Sans- 
krit which  convey  our  meaning,  and  the  use  of 
these  and  similar  terms  in  translating  Hindu 
literature  is  wholly  misleading. 

The  hero  of  the  Mahabharata  is  Arjuna,  a 
cousin  of  Krishna,  but  in  the  Bhagavad  Gita 
Arjuna  is  eclipsed.  Indeed,  he  becomes  a  humble 
suppliant,  while  Krishna,  a  hero  of  the  old  border 
wars  of  the  Punjab,  a  brave,  large-hearted,  but 
dissolute  leader,  is  made  divine — nay,  the 
Supreme:  He  is  the  One  only  existing  God.  He 
is  Vishnu,  not  the  Vishnu  of  the  Trimurti,  but 
the  sole,  self-existing  and  all-governing  One. 

It  should  be  said  that  under  the  strong  influ- 
ence of  a  surviving  monotheistic  feeling  the  last 
two  representatives  of  the  Trimurti  became  each 
supreme  in  the  worship  of  his  respective  followers, 
and  to  this  day  the  worshipers  of  Vishnu  and  of 
Siva  are  distinct  sects.  Krishna  was  a  further 
development  of  Vishnu  worship. 

In  the  later  Puranas,  dating  not  earlier  than 
the  6th  century  a.d.,  the  mythology  of  Vishnu, 
Krishna,  and  others  runs  wild,  and,  as  has  been 
shown  by  the  late  Dr.  Wilson,  of  Bombay,  the 
character  given  to  those  deities  in  the  Vishnu 
Parana  will  scarcely  bear  the  light. 

In  alluding  to  the  pantheistic  meaning  of  the 
Bhagavad  Gita,  we  have  touched  the  secret 
spring  of  that  rare  subtlety  which  the  mission- 
ary so  often  encounters  in  the  Hindu  mind,  and 


which  enables  it  to  parry  all  attempts  to  find  a 
lodgment  for  the  saving  truth  of  the  Gospel. 

Rev.  Ram  Chandra  liose  has  said  that  the  first 
challenge  which  an  agnostic  foreigner  in  India 
presents  to  the  missionary  is  the  alleged  parallels 
of  the  Bhagavad  Gita  to  the  New  Testament, 
and  generally  with  the  assertion  that  the  former, 
as  being  the  older,  must  be  the  source  of  the 
latter.  The  most  extravagant  laudations  are 
heaped  upon  its  ethics  and  its  philosophy.  The 
Bhavagad  Gita  is  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  some  unknown  author  about  the  beginning  of 
the  2d  century  a.d.,  and  it  was  thenceforth 
embodied  in  the  epic  poem  Mahabharata.  It 
attempted  to  reconcile  the  conflicting  schools  of 
philosophy,  and  to  gather  into  one  dramatic 
production  all  the  loftiest  sentiments  found  in 
previous  literature.  Its  alleged  resemblances  to 
the  New  Testament  are  largely  due  to  the  Chris- 
tian conceptions  which  have  been  read  into  it  by 
modern  translators,  and  by  the  use  of  words 
which  would  convey  to  Hindus  and  Christians 
respectively  entirely  different  meanings. 

Subtle  Influence  of  the  System:  The  practical 
influence  of  Hinduism  on  individual  life  and 
character  presents  a  marked  contrast  with  that 
of  Christianity.  The  life  of  the  high-caste  Brah- 
man is  intensely  religious;  no  other  system  is  so 
exacting  as  his,  and  yet  his  wearisome  service  is 
abortive,  and  even  belittling.  The  code  of  Brah- 
manism  never  deals  with  general  principles  in 
the  regulation  of  conduct,  as  does  the  Gospel. 
It  inculcates  no  such  great  central  motives  and 
sources  of  action  as  faith  and  love.  Instead  of 
prescribing,  as  Christ  did,  the  comprehensive 
law  of  love  to  God  in  supreme  degree,  and  love 
to  our  neighbor  as  to  ourselves,  it  makes  endless 
petty  exactions.  "Unlike  Christianity,  which 
is  all  spirit  and  life,"  says  Dr.  Duff,  "Hinduism  is 
all  letter  and  death." 

The  Infinite,  Brahm,  left  no  thinking  or  judg- 
ing to  be  done  by  man  in  the  sphere  of  religious 
duty,  but  revealed  from  heaven  every  act  and 
observance,  every  posture  and  motion  of  the 
hand  or  turn  of  tlie  eye,  connected  with  worship. 
A  devoted  Brahman  must  in  the  morning  clean 
his  teeth  with  the  twig  of  a  particular  tree,  utter- 
ing at  the  time  a  prescribed  prayer;  and  he  must 
be  specially  careful  in  throwing  away  the  twig. 
He  must  bathe  in  a  particular  kind  of  water,  and 
if  it  be  an  inferior  stream  or  fountain,  he  must 
pray  the  Ganges  "to  be  included  in  this  small 
quantity  of  water,"  by  what  Roman  Catholics 
would  call  a  "real  presence."  He  must  also  sip 
the  water,  sprinkling  it  in  prescribed  directions, 
and  offering  certain  prayers.  Another  of  his 
morning  duties  is  to  salute  the  sun,  which  must 
be  done  with  a  lock  of  his  hair  tied  in  a  particular 
way  on  the  top  of  his  head,  while  a  large  tuft  of 
casa  grass  is  held  in  his  left  hand,  and  three  spires 
of  a  different  grass  in  his  right  hand.  He  must 
also  be  sure  to  sip  water,  and  with  his  wet  hands 
touch  his  head,  eyes,  ears,  nose,  shoulders,  breast, 
and  feet.  Should  he  happen  to  sneeze  or  spit, 
he  may  not  sip  water  till  he  has  first  touched  his 
right  ear.  In  the  Ganges,  especially  amid  the 
crowds  at  Benares,  or  at  the  great  Melas  or  bath- 
ing festivals,  this  sipping  goes  on,  however  filthy 
the  water  may  have  become  by  the  constant 
treading  of  the  multitudes. 

The  whole  life  of  a  Brahman,  if  he  be  supposed 
to  follow  his  ritual,  is  a  slavish  round  of  petty 
observances — sippings,     and     rinsings     of     the 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


mouth;  changes  of  attitudes  and  of  apparel; 
drawings  of  lines  on  the  ground,  and  smearings 
with  clay,  or  meal,  or  cow-dung;  kindlings  of 
fires  to  expel  evil  spirits;  shiftings  of  sacred 
threads  or  hallowed  dishes;  compoundings  of 
herbs,  and  rice,  and  fruit;  wreathings  of  flowers, 
and  repetitions  of  endless  prayers,  and  texts  of 
the  Vedas,  and  sacred  names. 

We  have  given  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
daily  routine,  to  say  nothing  of  the  greater  acts 
of  worship  rendered  to  particular  gods  in  the 
temples.  All  acts  of  life  are  according  to  pro- 
gram. In  marrying,  a  Brahman  must  select 
a  girl  with  neither  too  much  nor  too  little  hair, 
and  it  must  not  be  red.  She  should  not  be 
deformed  nor  talkative,  nor  afflicted  with  an 
unlucky  name. 

This  holy  man  must  be  a  close  student  of  the 
Vedas,  but  should  never  read  them  with  a  sour 
stomach,  nor  with  his  limbs  crossed,  nor  with 
his  feet  on  a  bench.  He  must  not  read  in  a  cow- 
pasture,  nor  in  any  place  of  offensive  odors.  He 
must  close  his  book  if  a  dog  has  barked  or  a 
jackal  howled  or  an  ass  has  brayed.  He  must 
never  cut  his  own  hair,  nor  bite  his  nails,  nor 
step  upon  hair  or  ashes.  He  must  not  look  at 
his  wife  when  eating  or  sneezing  or  yawning. 
He  must  not  stand  under  the  same  tree  with 
idiots  or  washermen.  He  must  never  run  when 
it  rains,  nor  spit  in  a  stream  of  water,  nor  step 
over  the  tether  of  a  calf,  nor  ride  after  oxen  with 
imperfect  horns  or  ragged  tails. 

Reforms  and  changes:  There  have  been  many 
attempts  to  reform  or  to  supplant  Hinduism, 
and  all  except  that  of  Christianity  have  failed. 
The  impression  made  by  Buddhism  was  alto- 
gether the  most  profound,  and  came  nearest  to 
permanent  success.  But,  as  we  have  seen,  after 
centuries  of  contact  and  rivalry  it  failed.  Tho 
its  aggressive  missionary  work,  which  Hinduism 
did  not  attempt  to  emulate,  extended  into  many 
lands,  where  it  still  prevails,  yet  on  the  same  field, 
and  in  what  seems  to  have  been  a  fair  trial  of 
strength.  Buddhism  finally  succumbed  to  its 
older  and  more  subtle  rival.  Hinduism  had  the 
advantage  of  an  appeal  to  the  supernatural, 
toward  which  the  hearts  of  men  naturally  incline. 
Moreover,  it  recognized  the  being  of  God  and  the 
real  entity  of  the  human  soul.  Doubtless,  also, 
it  found  substantial  aid  in  the  entrenchments  of 
caste,  and  in  the  power  of  venerable  custom. 
Each  system  was  greatly  influenced  by  the  other, 
but  the  mastery  remained  with  the  Brahmans. 
Even  in  far-distant  lands  Buddhism  has  always 
recognized,  however  inconsistently,  the  power  of 
Hinduism.  The  twelve  Buddhistic  sects  of 
Japan,  as  we  find  them  in  our  day,  have  one 
thing  in  common — it  may  almost  be  said  only 
one,  viz.,  that  in  all  their  temples  the  images  of 
the  gods  of  Hinduism  are  invariably  found. 
Protesting  as  it  does  against  polytheism  and 
idolatry,  and  virtually  atheistic  as  it  is,  at  least 
in  its  old  orthodox  teachings,  Buddhism  yet 
clings  to  Hindu  polytheism  with  all  its  dumb 
idols. 

Nearly  a  thousand  years  ago  Mohammedanism 
swept  into  India  with  all  the  power  and  prestige 
of  a  conquering  race,  and  a  fanatical  and  every- 
where victorious  faith.  Raised  to  the  seats  of 
arbitrary  power,  and  strong  in  the  clear  and  con- 
sistent monotheism,  which  it  had  borrowed  from 
the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  it  might  have  been 
expected  to  supplant  Hindu  idolatry  as  it  had 


overcome  other  faiths  in  many  lands.  Yet,  after 
more  than  eight  centuries  of  opportunity  and 
power,  it  left  Hinduism  still  triumphant;  and  the 
forty  millions  of  Mohammedans,  less  than  a  fifth 
of  the  total  population,  still  give  evidence  of 
haying  received  from  the  old  Brahmanical  cult 
quite  as  much  as  they  imparted. 

Sikhism  was  another  attempt  at  the  reform  of 
Hinduism.  Nanak,  its  founder,  in  his  disgust 
with  the  pra vailing  idolatry,  hoped  to  effect  a 
compromise  between  Hinduism  and  Islam. 
Upon  the  monotheism  of  the  latter  a  super- 
structure of  the  best  teachings  of  the  Vedas  was 
to  be  reared,  and  an  ideal  faith  thus  secured. 
But  Sikhism  has  also  failed  to  make  any  serious 
impression  on  Hinduism.  For  a  time  it  won 
military  and  political  supremacy  in  the  Punjab, 
but  it  is  little  more  than  the  worship  of  a  book; 
it  knows  nothing  of  the  true  God;  the  essence  of 
Hindu  idolatry  still  remains. 

The  influence  of  the  Somajes  of  our  own  time 
upon  the  heterogeneous,  changeful,  and  yet  ever 
vital  Hinduism  has  not  been  slight.  The  Brahmo 
Somajes  of  Mohun  Roy  and  Chunder  Sen  were 
indeed  disappointing  in  their  results,  yet  they 
promoted  the  disintegration  of  the  old  system, 
and  did  much  to  bring  discredit  upon  the  foul 
corruptions  of  modern  Hinduism.  Like  Moham- 
medanism and  Sikhism,  they  urged  a  return  from 
polytheism  to  the  simple  monotheistic  worship 
of  Vedic  times,  and  they  opposed  the  injustice 
and  cruelty  so  long  visited  upon  woman.  Chunder 
Sen  exalted  the  Messiah  of  the  Christians  as  the 
chief  of  all  the  world's  prophets  and  teachers, 
but  his  system  has  declined. 

The  most  imposing  of  all  these  monotheistic 
movements  at  the  present  time  is  the  Arya  Somaj. 
So  far  as  the  Arya  Somaj  or  any  other  form  of 
revived  Aryanism  hopes  to  regenerate  India,  it  is 
doomed  to  disappointment.  It  cannot  long 
utilize  the  forces  of  Christian  ethics  and  Christian 
civilization  under  Vedic  labels.  The  fraud  will 
be  discovered.  The  world  cannot  be  convinced 
that  this  modern  creed  is  real  Hinduism,  and 
the  reaction  will  be  proportionate  to  the  illusion. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  the  real  teachings  of 
the  Veda  come  to  be  known,  as  they  are  sure  to 
be,  the  emptiness  of  the  old  cisterns  wiU  fully 
appear.  Prof.  Max  Miiller  in  one  of  his  many 
lectures  has  dwelt  upon  the  disappointment  and 
dismay  with  which  intelligent  Hindus  have 
observed  the  disclosures  which  modern  scholar- 
ship has  made  of  the  sterility  of  the  Vedic  liter- 
ature, and  he  ascribes  to  this  cause  the  virtual 
collapse  of  the  earlier  Somajes. 

In  reply  to  the  confident  assumptions  of  the 
leading  Aryas,  Rev.  Martin  Clark,  D.D.,  of 
Amritsar,  has  also  exposed  the  rotten  foundation 
on  which  they  build,  by  publishing  some  literal 
and  damaging  Vedic  translations. 

The  Contrasts  of  Hinduism  and  Christianity: 
Hinduism  has  some  elements  in  common  with 
Christianity  which  it  is  well  to  recognize.  It  is 
theistic;  it  is  a  religion,  as  distinguished  from 
the  agnostic  ethical  systems  of  the  world.  Hin- 
duism recognizes  a  direct  divine  revelation  which 
it  regards  with  profound  reverence,  and  through 
all  its  variations  and  corruptions  it  has  inculcated 
in  the  minds  of  the  Indian  races  a  deeply  religious 
feeling.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  Hindus  are 
the  most  thcroughly  religious  people  in  the  world. 
Like  Christianity,  Hinduism  appeals  to  man's 
intellectual  nature;     it  is  inwrought  with  pro- 


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found  philosophy;  it  has  its  trinity,  its  incarna- 
tions, and  its  predictions  of  a  Messiah  who  shall 
restore  the  truth  and  establish  righteousness. 

But,  compared  with  Christianity,  the  contrasts 
of  Hinduism  are  far  greater  than  its  resemblances. 
First,  as  to  the  nature  of  God.  There  is  an  infi- 
nite distance  between  the  cold  and  unconscious 
Brahm,  slumbering  age  after  age,  without 
thought  or  emotion,  or  any  moral  attribute,  and 
the  God  of  Israel,  Whose  power  and  wisdom  and 
goodness,  Whose  mercy  and  truth  and  tender 
compassion,  are  so  constantly  set  forth  in  the 
Scriptures.  The  latter  compares  Himself  to  a 
father  who  sares  for  his  children,  and  who  has 
redeemed  the  world  by  an  infinite  sacrifice. 
Second,  there  is  a  striking  contrast  in  the  com- 
parative estimates  which  Hinduism  and  Chris- 
tianity place  upon  the  human  soul.  Unlike 
Buddhism,  Hinduism  does  recognize  the  exist- 
ence of  a  real  soul,  but  it  is  only  a  temporary 
emanation,  like  the  moon's  reflection  in  the 
water.  It  resembles  its  source  as  does  the  moon's 
image,  but  coldly  and  in  a  most  unsatisfactory 
sense;  there  is  no  capacity  for  fellowship,  and 
the  end  is  absorption.  On  the  other  hand, 
Christianity  teaches  us  that  we  are  created  in 
God's  image,  but  not  that  we  are  His  image. 
We  are  separate,  tho  dependent;  and  if  reunited 
to  Him  through  Christ,  we  shall  dwell  in  His 
presence  forever.  Third,  the  two  systems  are  in 
strong  contrast  in  the  comparative  encourage- 
ment and  hope  which  they  hold  out  for  the  future. 
The  doctrine  of  transmigration  casts  a  gloom 
over  all  conscious  being;  it  presents  an  outlook 
so  depressing  as  to  make  life  a  burden,  and  the 
acme  of  all  possible  attainment  is  individual 
extinction;  Christianity  promises  an  immediate 
transfer  to  a  life  of  unalloyed  blessedness,  and 
an  endless  growth  of  all  the  noblest  human 
powers  and  capacities.  Hinduism  finds  the 
explanation  of  life's  mysteries  and  inscrutable 
trials  in  the  theory  of  sins  committed  in  a  pre- 
vious existence;  Christianity  recognizes  the  same 
trials,  but  mitigates  them,  with  the  hope  of  solu- 
tions to  be  found  in  a  future  life  of  compensating 
joy.  The  one  turns  to  that  which  is  past, 
unchangeable,  and  hopeless,  and  finds  only  sullen 
despair;  the  other  finds  encouragement  in 
immortal  hope.  Fourth,  Hinduism  has  no 
Savior  and  no  salvation.  It  is,  therefore,  not  a 
religion  in  the  highest  sense,  for  by  the  very 
derivation  of  the  word,  religion  is  the  reuniting 
of  the  soul  to  God;  it  implies  the  ruin  of  sin,  but 
provides  a  rescue  from  it.  That  is  unworthy  of 
the  name  which  presents  no  omnipotent  arm 
stretched  forth  to  save.  Hinduism  provides 
nothing  above  the  low  level  of  unaided  human 
struggle  and  merit,  and  there  is  no  divine  helper, 
no  sacrifice,  no  mediator,  no  regenerating  spirit. 
It  has  no  glad  tidings  to  proclaim,  no  comfort 
in  sorrow,  no  victory  over  the  sting  of  death,  no 
resurrection  unto  life. 

There  are  a  thousand  other  peculiar  principles 
in  Hinduism  whose  subtle  infiuence  is  felt  in 
society  and  in  the  State,  and  to  which  the  faith 
and  influence  of  the  Gospel  present  the  very 
strongest  contrasts. 

Christianity  has  raised  woman  to  a  position  of 
respect  and  honor,  and  made  her  infliience  felt 
as  something  sacred  and  potential  in  the  family, 
in  all  society,  in  the  State.  Hinduism  has 
brought  her  down,  even  from  the  place  which  she 
held    among    the    primitive    Aryans,    to    ever- 


increasing  degradation;     it  has  made  her  life  a 
burden  and  a  curse. 

The  following  impassioned  prayer,  quoted  by 
Ramabai  from  the  lips  of  a  high-caste  woman 
who  had  spent  her  life  from  childhood  as  a  "child 
widow,"  reveals  the  anguish  which  falls  to  the 
lot  of  woman  under  the  Hindu  social  and  relig- 
ious system: 

"O  Father  of  the  world,  haat  Thou  not  created  us^  Or 
has  perchance  some  other  God  made  us!  Dost  Thou  only 
care  for  men?  Hast  Thou  no  thought  for  us  women?  Why 
hast  Thou  cr  ated  us  male  and  female?  O  Almighty  One, 
hast  Thou  not  power  to  make  us  other  than  we  are,  that 
we  too  may  have  some  part  in  the  comforts  of  life?  The  cry 
of  the  oppressed  is  heard  even  in  the  world*  then  canst 
Thou  look  upon  our  victim  hosts,  and  shut  Thy  doors  of 
justice?  O  God  Almighty  and  unapproachable,  think  upon 
Thy  mercy,  which  is  a  vast  sea,  and:  remember  us.  O  Lord, 
save  us,  for  we  cannot  bear  our  hard  lot." 

In  its  broad  influence,  Christianity  has  raised 
the  once  savage  tribes  of  Europe  to  the  highest 
degree  of  culture,  and  made  them  leaders  in  civili- 
zation, and  rulers  of  the  world.  Hinduism  has 
so  weakened  and  humbled  the  once  conquering 
Aryans  that  they  have  long  been  an  easy  prey  to 
every  invading  race.  Christianity  shows  in  its 
sacred  books  a  manifest  progress  from  lower  to 
higher  moral  standards;  from  the  letter  to  the 
spirit;  from  the  former  sins  that  were  winked  at 
to  the  perfect  example  of  Christ;  from  the  narrow 
exclusiveness  of  Judaism  to  the  broad  and  all- 
embracing  spirit  of  the  Gospel;  from  prophecy 
to  fulfilment;  from  types  and  shadows  to  the  full 
light  of  redemption.  The  sacred  books  of  Hindu- 
ism have  degenerated  from  the  lofty  aspirations 
of  the  Vedic  nature-worship  to  the  vileness  of 
Saktism  and  the  Linga,  from  the  noble  praises  of 
Varuna  to  the  low  sensuality  of  the  Tantras,  from 
Vedic  conceptions  of  the  creation  sublime  as  the 
opening  of  John's  Gospel,  to  the  myths  of  the 
divine  turtle  and  the  boar,  or  the  amorous  esca- 
pades of  the  supreme  and  "adorable  Krishna." 

Christianity  breaks  down  all  barriers  which 
divide  and  alienate  mankind,  and  establishes  a 
universal  brotherhood  in  Christ;  Hinduism  has 
raised  the  most  insurmountable  barriers,  and 
developed  the  most  inexorable  social  tyranny 
ever  inflicted  on  the  human  race.  Christianity 
enjoins  a  higher  and  purer  ethic  than  it  has  ever 
found  in  the  natural  moral  standards  of  any 
people;  it  aims  at  perfection;  it  treats  the  least 
infraction  as  a  violation  of  the  whole  law;  it 
regards  even  corrupt  thoughts  as  sins;  it  bids  us 
be  holy  even  as  He  is  holy  in  Whose  sight  the 
heavens  are  unclean;  Hinduism,  on  the  contrary, 
is  below  the  ethical  standards  of  respectable 
Hindu  society.  The  better  classes  are  compelled 
to  apologize  for  it  by  asserting  that  that  which 
is  immoral  and  debasing  in  men  may  be  sinless 
in  the  gods.  The  offenses  of  Krishna  and  Arjuna 
would  not  be  condoned  in  mortals;  the  vile  orgies 
of  the  "lefthanded  worshipers"  of  Siva  would 
not  be  tolerated  but  for  their  religious  character. 
The  murders  committed  by  the  thugs  in  honor 
of  Kali  were  winked  at  only  because  a  goddess 
demanded  them. 

It  is  the  peculiar  distinction  of  India  that  it 
has  been  the  theater  of  nearly  all  the  great  relig- 
ions. Brahmanism,  Buddhism,  and  Mohammed- 
anism have  all  made  trial  of  their  social  and 
political  power,  and  have  failed.  Last  of  all 
came  Christianity.  The  systems  which  preceded 
it  had  had  centuries  of  opportunity,  and  yet 
Christianity  has  done  more  for  the  elevation  of 
Indian  society  in  the  last  fifty  years  than  they 


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THE  ENSYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


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had  accomplished  in  all  the  ages  of  their  domin- 
ion. Neither  Buddhism  nor  Mohammedanism 
had  made  any  serious  impression  upon  caste; 
neither  had  been  able  to  mitigate  the  wrongs 
which  Brahmanism  had  heaped  upon  woman — 
Mohammedanism  had  rather  increased  them. 
The  horrors  of  the  Satti  (Suttee)  and  the  murder 
of  female  infants,  those  bitterest  fruits  of  priestly 
tyranny,  were  left  unchecked  till  the  British 
Government,  inspired  by  missionary  influence 
and  a  general  Christian  sentiment,  branded  them 
as  infamous,  and  made  them  crimes. 

The  sentiment  even  of  the  better  classes  of 
natives  in  India  is  now  greatly  changed  by  these 
influences,  and  the  conventional  morality  is  rising 
above  the  teachings  of  the  national  religion. 
Widow-burning  and  infanticide  belong  almost 
wholly  to  the  past.  Child-marriage  is  coming 
into  disrepute;  and  caste,  tho  not  destroyed,  ii 
crippled,  and  its  preposterous  assumptions  are 
falling  before  the  march  of  social  progress. 

Perhaps  the  very  highest  tribute  which  Hindu- 
ism has  paid  to  Christianity  is  seen  in  the  fact, 
already  noticed,  that  the  modern  Arya  Somaj 
has  borrowed  its  ethics  and  some  of  its  religious 
doctrines,  and  is  promulgating  them  upon  Vedic 
authority.  It  has  renounced  those  corruption* 
of  Hinduism  which  can  no  longer  bear  the  light, 
together  with  such  social  customs  as  caste,  child- 
marriage,  child-widowhood,  and  the  general 
oppression  of  woman.  It  denounces  the  incar- 
nations of  Vishnu  as  mere  inventions,  and,  there- 
fore, cuts  up  by  the  roots  the  whole  Krishna  cult, 
with  its  divine  assumptions.  It  abhors  polythe- 
ism, and  not  only  proclaims  the  supremacy  of 
one  only  true  God,  self-existent,  the  Creator  and 
Upholder  of  all  things,  but  it  maintains  that 
such  was  the  teachi.jg  of  the  Vedas,  and  that 
when  various  names  were  used,  they  all  referred 
only  and  always  to  One  and  the  Same. 

MuUer  (F.  Max),  Sacred  Boohs  of  the  East.  Vols.  I.  and  XV., 
Vol.9.  X.  and  XXXII.;  B.;hler  (G.),  ditto,  Vols.  II.,  XIV. 
and  XXV.;  Bhagadavita,  ditto,  Vol.  VIII.,  London,  1875; 
BoRe(RamChundra),  HinduPhilosophy, Punk  <fe  Wa^nalls, 
New  York,  1884;  Uacdonald  (K.S.),  The  Vedic  Religion, 
London,  1881;  Williams  (Monier),  Brahmanism  and 
Hinduism,  London,  4th  ed.,  1891,  and  BiTiduism,  London, 
1890;  V/ilkins  (W.  J.),  Hindu  Mythology,  Calcutta,  1882; 
Sla'er  (T.  E  ),  The  Higher  Hinduism  in  Relation  to  Chris- 
tianity, London,  190.3;  Hindu  Sacred  Books,  3  vols.,  Caris- 
tjan  Lileraturo'  Society,  Madras,  1903; 

HINDUSTANI  LANGUAGE.     See  Urdu. 

HING-AN.     See  Hsing-ngan-fu. 

HING-I.     See  Hsing-i-fu. 

HING-HUA.     See  Hsing-hwa-fu. 

HING-PING-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Shen-si,  China,  situated  about  30  miles  W.  of 
Hsi-ngan-fu.     Station  of  the  CIM  (1893). 

HINNEN.     See  Hsing-ning-hsien. 

HIRAMPUR:  A  town  in  the  Santal  Parganas, 
Bengal,  India,  situated  about  20  miles  S.  of  Bar- 
hawa.  Pastorate  of  the  CMS,  with  (1903)  8 
native  workers,  5  preaching  places,  3  day  schools, 
and  256  professed  Christians. 

HIROSAKI:  A  town  in  the  main  island  of 
Japan,  situated  about  15  miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of 
Aomori.  Population,  29,100.  Station  of  the 
ME,  with  (1902)  6  missionaries,  men  and  women; 
12  native  workers,  men  and  women;  1  day 
school,  1  boarding  school  for  girls,  1  kindergarten, 
and  218  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of 
the  PE  (1876),  with  (1902)  a  missionary  and  his 
wife  and  1  woman  missionary. 


HIROSHIMA:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  155 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Kobe.  It  is  noted  for  its  great 
temple  of  Miyajima.  Population  (1898),  122,306. 
Station  of  the  MES  (1886),  the  PN  (1887),  the 
CA  (1891),  and  the  CMS  (1896).  These  societies 
report  at  this  place  14  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  24  native  workers,  men  and  women;  19 
outstations,  10  preaching  places,  1  high  school, 
1  day  school,  and  about  550  professed  Christians. 

HISLOP,  Stephen:  Born  in  Scotland;  studied 
at  the  Universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh, 
and  the  New  College.  In  1844  Major-General 
Hill,  stationed  at  Jalna,  in  the  Nizam's  territory, 
presented  to  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  the  sum 
of  £2,500  for  the  founding  of  a  new  mission.  Mr. 
Hislop,  who  had  distinguished  himself  as  an 
accomplished  scholar,  was  secured  for  the  mis- 
sion. He  began  his  work  in  February,  1845,  at 
Kamptee,  ten  miles  from  Nagpur  city,  cordially 
welcomed  by  Captain  Hill  and  other  British  offi- 
cers, who  handed  over  to  him  a  school  which  they 
had  established,  and  otherwise  greatly  encour- 
aged him.  He  was  assisted  by  three  German 
artisans.  In  1846  he  removed  to  the  city  of 
Nagpur,  containing  a  large  Mahratta  population, 
and  opened,  with  thirty  scholars,  a  school  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Rajah's  palace.  The  school  soon 
took  a  high  position  as  a  missionary  institution 
and  for  many  years  sent  forth  annually  between 
250  and  300  pupils.  It  is  called  the  Hislop  Mis- 
sionary College.  The  Central  Provinces  being 
ruled  by  a  heathen  government,  and  the  people 
having  no  desire  for  education,  his  position  was 
a  trying  one.  His  life  was  often  m  peril.  In 
1853,  in  connection  with  caste  prejudices  and  the 
baptism  of  several  natives,  a  serious  riot  occurred, 
and  an  attack  was  made  on  the  mission  house, 
which,  but  for  his  heroic  defense  by  the  native 
Christians,  would  have  resulted  in  the  death  of 
the  missionary.  The  next  year  he  was  attacked 
by  a  fanatical  Mohammedan  mob,  but  rescued  by 
the  aid  of  an  old  pupil  and  some  Sepoys.  He 
was  conveyed  to  the  mission  house  in  an  appar- 
ently dying  state,  ten  deep  gashes  appearing  on 
his  head,  and  his  body  greatly  bruised.  In  1857, 
having  received  information  privately  from  a 
Mohammedan  of  a  combined  plot  of  the  up- 
country  Sepoys  and  the  Mussulmans  of  the  city 
to  massacre  all  the  Europeans  on  a  given  day, 
he  informed  the  authorities,  so  that  the  design 
was  frustrated,  and  the  Madras  and  Bombay 
Presidencies  were  thus  saved  from  the  rebellion. 
This  devoted  missionary  met  with  an  early  and 
tragic  death.  On  September  4,  1863,  he  rode 
into  a  river  in  the  night  and  was  drowned. 

HISSAR:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  situ- 
ated 98  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Delhi.  Population 
(1891),  16,900,  of  whom  10,000  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  SPG,  with  2  women  missionaries. 

HISTORY  OF  MISSIONS:  The  true  history  of 
missions  is  far  more  than  the  mere  record  of  the 
extension  of  Christianity.  It  includes  the  devel- 
opment of  the  mission  idea  within  the  Church  as 
well  as  its  outward  application  in  the  conduct  of 
mission  enterprise.  It  covers,  too,  the  develop- 
ment of  method  and  organization.  The  present 
complicated  machinery  of  miss/ons,  which  seems 
to  many  so  cumbrous  and  so  unlike  the  simple 
evangelization  of  the  apostolic  days,  or  even  of 
the  earlier  missions  of  the  present  era,  is  really 
but  a  growth.  Each  new  wheel  or  band  or  cog  in 
the  mechanism  has  been  added  not  to  meet  a 
theoretical  conception,  but  an  actual  need,  and  no 


801 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Hlndnlsm 
Home   MlBB^ona 


history  can  be  complete  that  does  not  touch  at 
least  upon  this  element  in  mission  progress.  The 
history  of  missions  has  to  do  also  with  the  effect  of 
missions  upon  the  world  apart  from  the  results 
usuall)^  tabulated.  Aggressive  Islam,  reviving 
Hinduism,  Buddhism,  Shintoism,  each  must  be 
dealt  with  in  reckoning  up  the  sum  total  of  results 
of  mission  effort.  It  is  evident  that  so  wide  a 
reach  is  impracticable  within  the  limits  of  this 
work,  which  must  be  content  with  the  more 
common,  if  narrower,  conception  of  a  record  of 
the  extension  of  Christianity  through  the  agency 
of  missionary  enterprise,  merely  indicating  some 
of  these  other  topics  as  suggestive  for  further 
reading  and  study. 

To  facilitate  this,  the  general  topic  is  treated 
under  five  titles:  Geography  of  the  Extension 
of  Christendom,  summarizing  the  article  in  the 
first  edition  on  the  Historical  Geography  of  Mis- 
sions, and  giving  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
extension  of  Christianity  over  the  world  in  the 
different  periods;  Apostolic  and  Early  Chris- 
tian Missions,  giving  a  survey  of  the  general 
character  and  methods  of  the  first  six  centuries; 
Medieval  Missions,  describing  the  movements  and 
influences  that  made  Europe  Christian,  and 
covering  the  period  up  to  the  Reformation; 
Roman  Catholic  Missions,  from  the  Reformation 
to  the  present  day,  and  Modern  Protestant  Mis- 
sions, covering  the  same  period.  These  different 
articles,  of  necessity,  somewhat  overlap,  but  no 
more  than  seems  essential  to  the  accurate  con- 
ception of  each  subject,  and  the  four  periods  are 
so  distinct  that  separate  treatment  is  inevitable. 

HO:  A  station  of  the  North  German  Mission- 
ary Society  (1859)  in  Togoland,  W.  Africa,  situ- 
ated near  the  western  border  of  the  colony,  about 
60  miles  N.  by  W.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Volta 
River.  It  has  (1903)  8  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  31  native  workers,  men  and  women;  18 
outstations,  21  day  schools,  and  1,568  professed 
Christians. 

HOACHANAS :  A  settlement  in  German  South- 
west Africa,  situated  among  the  Namaqua  tribes 
about  230  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Walfisch  Bay.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  work- 
ers, 1  day  school,  and  286  professed  Christians. 

HOBSON,  Benjamin:  Born  January  2,  1816,  at 
Welford,  Eng.;  studied  medicine  in  London; 
sailed  July  28,  1839,  as  a  medical  missionary  of 
the  LMS  for  China.,  reaching  Macao  December 
18.  There  he  was  occupied  with  his  medical 
work  till  the  beginning  of  1843,  when  he  removed 
to  Hongkong,  and,  on  June  1,  opened  a  hos- 
pital. In  1859,  his  health  having  failed,  he 
returned  to  England,  and,  being  unable  to  resume 
work  in  China,  he  retired  after  a  while  from  the 
service  of  the  Society.  Besides  his  labors  in 
Chinese  hospitals,  he  wrote  and  translated  into 
Chinese  treatises  on  anatomy,  surgery,  medicine, 
midwifery,  and  natural  philosophy,  which  have 
had  a  very  wide  circulation.  He  died  at  Forest 
Hill,  near  London,  February  16,  1873. 

HO-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Shan-si, 
China,  situated  about  100  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Tai- 
yuen-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1886),  with  2 
women  missionaries,  6  native  workers,  men  and 
women.  The  work  of  reorganization  after  the 
disasters  of  the  Boxer  outbreak  has  hardly  (1903) 
proceeded  to  the  point  of  definite  information  of 
the  state  of  the  church  members  at  this  place. 

HOFFENTHAL:      A  settlement  in  Natal,   S. 


Africa,  about  40  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Colenso.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1868),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  10  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations, 1  day  school,  and  257  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

HOFFENTHAL,  or  HOPEDALE :  A  settlement 
on  the  east  coast  of  Labrador.  Station  of  the 
Moravian  Missions  (1782),  with  (1900)  6  mission- 
aries, men  and  women;  10  native  workers,  1  day 
school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  70  church 
members. 

HOFFMAN:  A  settlement  in  Liberia,  situated 
at  Cape  Palmas  and  near  Harper.  Station  of  the 
PE  (1856),  with  (1902)  1  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  6  outstations,  2  day  schools,  and  144 
professed  Christians. 

HOH-CHAU.     See  Ho-Chau. 

HOHENFRIEDEBERG:  A  settlement  in  Ger- 
man East  Africa,  situated  in  the  Usambara  region 
about  70  miles  N.  W.  of  Tanga.  Station  of  the 
German  East  Africa  Mission,  with  theological 
and  industrial  schools  and  a  leper  asylum. 

HOISINGTON,  Henry  R. :  Born  at  Vergennes, 
Vt.,  August  23,  1801;  learned  the  printer's  trade 
in  1815  in  Buffalo,  and  pursued  it  in  Utica  and 
New  York.  He  fitted  for  college  under  Dr.  Arm- 
strong at  Bloomfield  Academy;  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1828,  and  Auburn  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  in  1831;  ordained  and  settled  in 
Aurora,  N.  Y.,  the  same  year;  sailed  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  ABCFM  for  Ceylon  in  1833.  In 
1834  he  was  sent  with  Mr.  Todd  to  the  city  of 
Madura  to  establish  a  new  mission.  In  1836 
Mr.  Hoisington  returned  to  Jaffna,  and  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  seminary.  On  account  of  ill- 
health  he  visited  the  United  States  in  1842,  and 
returned  to  Jaffna  in  1843,  but  continued  ill- 
health  compelled  him  to  give  up  his  lifework  as 
a  missionary  in  1849.  Mr.  Hoisington  possessed 
a  vigorous  and  acute  mind,  and  his  work  as 
instructor  of  Tamil  youth  led  him  to  study  pro- 
foundly Hindu  science,  metaphysics  and  theol- 
ogy, aiid  in  the  department  of  higher  Tamil  litera- 
ture he  had,  perhaps,  no  superior  in  Southern 
India.  After  his  return  home  he  wrote  for  the 
American  Oriental  Society  a  syllabus  of  the  Siva 
Gnana  Pothum,  a  Tamil  translation  of  an  old 
Sanskrit  Agama,  which  treats  of  deity,  soul,  and 
matter;  also  an  English  translation  of  the  same 
work,  with  an  introduction  and  notes.  He  pub- 
lished also  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  an  essay  on 
the  tenets  of  philosophical  Hinduism.  He  died 
at  Centre  Brook,  Conn.,  May  16,  1858. 

HO-KAU :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kiang-si, 
China,  situated  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  province 
about  135  miles  S.  E.  of  Kiu-kiang.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1878),  with  3  women  missionaries. 

HOK-CHIANG.     See  Fu-tsing-hsibn. 

HO-KEO.     See  Ho-Kau. 

HOK-SU-HA:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  in  the  hill  country, 
about  135  miles  N.  E.  of  Canton.  Station  of  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society  (1886),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  18  native  workers, 
16  outstations,  11  day  schools  and  429  professed 
Christians.     Name  also  written  Hokschuha. 

HO-LIN-KOH-RI :  A  village  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  in  the  N.  part  of  the 
province,  about  28  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  So-ping-fu. 
Station  of  the  CA. 

HOME  MISSIONS  in  the  United  States:  The 


Home  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


United  States  is  one  of  the  greatest  mission  fields 
of  the  -world.  Ever  since  the  days  when  the  dis- 
covery of  the  New  World  and  the  condition  of  the 
savage  Indians  stirred  up  the  Christians  of  the 
Old  World  to  send  missionaries,  the  history  of 
Christian  effort  in  the  United  States  has  been  one 
of  continual  and  almost  unabated  zeal  and 
earnestness.  The  work  has  gone  through  the 
various  stages  of  evangelistic  and  pastoral  agen- 
cies in  the  older  and  more  settled  districts  of  the 
country,  but  there  are  always  new  regions  to  be 
cared  for  and  new  people  to  evangelize. 

The  urgency,  diversity,  and  magnitude  of  the 
work  of  Christian  missions  in  the  United  States 
can  best  be  understood  by  looking  at  the  different 
elements  which  compose  the  population,  and  the 
influences  which  affect  the  efforts  of  the  church. 

1.  Work  for  the  Native  Population:  Under  this 
head  we  can  consider  the  term  "native"  as 
including  that  part  of  the  people  who  are  native 
born  or  who  have  been  located  in  the  country 
for  a  period  long  enough  to  be  naturalized:  the 
Indians,  the  negroes,  as  well  as  the  native 
Americans.  This  work  will  be  shown  in  the 
detailed  account  of  the  various  Home  Mission- 
ary societies,  which  follows.  The  general  facts 
in  regard  to  this  element  of  the  population  may 
be  dwelt  upon  but  briefly. 

The  development  of  the  great  territories  in  the 
West,  and  the  consequent  migration  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  older  and  more  settled  states,  has 
caused  the  growth  of  mission  work,  and  the 
division  of  Christian  work  into  two  heads,  pastoral 
and  evangelistic.  Pastoral  work  is  carried  on  in 
the  settled  states;  in  the  large  cities  it  is  com- 
bined with  the  work  of  City  Missions  in  order  that 
the  poor  and  the  rich  may  have  an  equal  chance 
to  hear  and  profit  by  the  teachings  of  the  Gospel. 
But,  as  has  been  well  said,  man  is  kept  in  the 
right  path  as  much  from  fear  of  the  censure  of  the 
surrounding  community  as  by  the  desire  and  pur- 
pose to  do  right  for  right's  sake;  and  when  the 
adventurous  ones  leave  the  well-ordered  com- 
munities to  go  where  they  will  be  pioneers  of 
civilization,  they,  too,  often  forget  to  take  their 
religion  with  them;  amid  the  freedom  and  license 
of  the  new  life  the  ungodly  become  more  so,  while 
the  nominal  Christian  soon  loses  even  the  name. 
Then  the  evangelistic  methods  of  the  Church 
must  be  brought  to  bear  upon  these  migratory 
multitudes,  and  the  parent  churches  send  out 
missionaries  to  look  after  the  stray  sheep,  as  well 
as  to  claim  those  who  have  belonged  to  no  fold. 
The  rapidity  with  which  the  Western  states  are 
increasing  in  population  is  phenomenal.  How 
great  a  proportion  of  this  mcrease  is  due  to 
migration,  and  how  much  is  properly  referred  to 
the  arrival  of  emigrants  from  other  countries, 
cannot  be  determined  without  more  data  than 
have  yet  been  furnished  by  the  Census  Bureau; 
but  the  lessening  rate  of  increase  in  many  of  the 
older  states,  such  as  Ohio,  Indiana,  Iowa, 
Missouri,  and  Illinois,  is  distinctly  traced  to  the 
migration  of  the  people.  Hence  a  great  propor- 
tion of  the  rapidly  increasing  population  of  the 
Western  territories  and  states  is  made  up  of 
those  who  have  severed  family,  social  and  relig- 
ious ties  by  moving  into  the  new  districts. 
Must  these  ties  be  left  with  no  new  objects  around 
which  to  cling,  until  they  shrivel  up  and  respond 
but  slowly  to  any  stimulus?  Or  shall  the  Church 
keep  pace  with  the  world  and  supply  new  church 
ties  as  soon  as  the  old  ones  are  severed;  new 
places  of  worship,  ere  the  habit  of  church-going 


ceases  to  exist;  new  influences  for  good  before  the 
careless  or  seared  conscience  fails  to  respond? 
These  questions  indicate  the  nature  of  home  mis- 
sion work  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  what  might  be 
called  the  peculiar  objects  of  the  Church's  care — 
her  own  wandering  sons  and  daughters. 

2.  Work  for  the  Immigrants:  Attracted  by 
visions  of  wealth,  justice,  and  liberty  of  action; 
driven  out  from  their  home-lands  by  poverty, 
increa.se  of  population,  tyranny  and  mi.srule; 
aided  by  cheapness  of  travel  and  the  short  time 
required  for  the  journey,  the  emigrants  of  Euro- 
pean countries  have  poured  in  upon  the  United 
States  in  a  steady  stream.  This  influx  of 
foreigners  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  dangers 
to  the  civil  and  religious  life  of  the  country. 
The  time  is  past  when  the  immigrant  was  hailed 
with  joy.  There  is  now  no  great  urgency  for  his 
labor.  His  morals,  his  socialistic,  anarchistic 
tendencies,  his  conception  of  liberty  as  license, 
his  inability  to  appreciate  the  honor  and  respon- 
sibility which  go  with  the  right  of  franchise — all 
these  make  the  average  European  emigrant  one 
of  the  most  objectionable  of  strangers.  The 
results  of  this  immigration  are  seen  distinctly 
upon  the  statistics  of  crime.  Many  of  these 
immigrants  come  from  Christian  communities, 
but  they  are  influenced  in  the  same  way  as  the 
native  American  is  when  he  changes  his  home; 
but  by  far  the  greater  number  belong  to  the 
bilge-water  of  the  various  ships  of  state  in  the  old 
countries.  The  absorption  and  Americanization 
of  such  immigrants  is  a  herculean  task  thrown 
upon  the  State  and  the  Church.  The  State  is 
devising  means  to  escape  the  conflict  which  is 
imminent  by  stopping  the  inroads ;  but  with 
strange  lack  of  the  sense  of  proportion,  the 
immigration  of  a  few  thousand  Chinese  has  been 
prohibited,  while  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
immigrants  are  yearly  coming  to  our  shores  from 
Southern  and  Eastern  Europe.  The  Church  has 
the  greater  task,  for  many  of  these  immigrants 
come  from  countries  where  they  have  had  little 
religious  instruction;  and  in  addition  to  the  diffi- 
culties which  arise  from  the  nature  of  the  case — ■ 
the  known  character  of  the  people,  the  isolation 
of  their  life — there  are  added  other  factors  which 
complicate  still  further  the  problem.  These  are, 
as  ably  set  forth  in  Strong's  Our  Country, 
Romanism,  intemperance,  Mormonism,  wealth, 
and  the  collection  of  people  in  cities.  Mormon- 
ism has  officially  abolished  polygamy,  but  even 
if  this  were  other  than  a  purely  formal  and  nom- 
inal abolition,  it  is  still  the  foe  to  the  best  inter- 
ests of  the  individual  and  the  state;  of  the  papacy, 
this  is  not  the  place  to  speak;  intemperance  is 
so  well  recognized  as  an  enemy  to  the  Church 
and  the  Commonwealth  that  it  needs  no  words 
of  description;  city  life  and  its  dangers  are  seen 
on  all  sides;  and  the  influence  of  the  inordinate 
desire  for  wealth  is  keenly  felt  by  all. 

This,  in  brief  outline,  is  the  condition  of  affairs 
which  makes  the  field  of  the  Home  Missionary 
societies  one  of  paramount  importance  by  reason 
of  the  enormous  extent  of  territory,  the  number 
of  the  people,  the  interests  at  stake,  and  the  con- 
viction that  the  future  of  this  nation  will  depend 
upon  the  success  with  which  the  Church  fulfils 
the  obligations  thus  imposed  upon  her. 

Home  missions  is  the  name  given  to  the  work 
of  the  church  for  those  in  our  own  country, 
whether  it  be  among  aborigines,  immigrants,  or 
frontier  settlers;  and  every  denomination  is 
actively  engaged  in  this  work,  whether  or  not  it  is 


i  i 


303 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Home  Mtaslona 


made  a  separate  department,  and  classified  and 
reported  separately  from  the  general  work  of  the 
church.  The  ways  are  many,  but  the  end  is  the 
game,  and  the  means  adopted  substantially  agree. 

We  give  here  a  sketch  of  the  work  of  some  of 
the  older  and  larger  bodies  laboring  in  the  Home 
Mission  field  in  the  United  States. 

Baptist:  The  American  Baptist  Home  Mis- 
sionary Society  was  organized  April  27,  1832,  in 
New  York  City, where  it  still  has  its  general  offices. 
Its  object  is  "to  promote  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel  in  North  America."  Until  its  organiza- 
tion, missionary  work  in  the  new  settlements  of 
the  West  had  been  prosecuted  to  a  limited  extent 
by  some  of  the  Baptist  Conventions  of  the  older 
States,  and  especially  by  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  of  Massachusetts,  organized  in  1802. 
This  Society  took  the  initiative  in  the  formation 
of  the  General  Society.  Rev.  John  M.  Peck, 
who  for  many  years  had  rendered  remarkable 
service  as  a  missionary  in  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
and  Rev.  Jonathan  Going,  of  Massachusetts,  who 
was  sent  out  to  confer  with  him,  were  foremost 
spirits  in  the  new  movement.  Dr.  Going  became 
its  first  Corresponding  Secretary,  serving  for  five 
years;  then,  in  succession.  Rev.  Luther  Crawford, 
two  years;  Benjamin  Hill,  D.D.,  twenty-two 
years,  from  1840  to  1862;  Jay  S.  Backus,  D.D., 
twelve  years,  1862-74;  James  B.  Simmons,  D.D., 
seven  years,  1867-1874;  E.  E.  Taylor,  D.D.,  five 
years,  1869-1874,  the  work  being  divided  among 
them  during  the  period  of  their  contemporaneous 
service;  Nathan  Bishop,  LL.D.,  two  years, 
1874-76;  S.  S.  Cutting,  D.D.,  three  years, 
1876-79;  H.  L.  Morehouse,  D.D.,  fourteen  years, 
1879-93;  T.  J.  Morgan,  LL.D.,  nine  years,  until 
his  death  in  1902,  when  Dr.  Morehouse,  who  had 
been  Field  Secretary  for  this  period,  was  recalled 
to  the  general  secretaryship,  and  E.  E.  Chivers, 
D.D.,  was  appointed  Field  Secretary. 

Until  1845  its  constituency  included  Baptists 
of  the  whole  country,  numbering  then  about 
385,000,  fully  half  of  whom  were  in  the  South. 
Then  came  the  disruption  over  the  question  of 
slavery  and  the  withdrawal  of  Southern  Baptists 
to  form  an  organization  of  their  own. 

The  West  was  the  chief  field  of  the  Society's 
operations — Detroit,  Chicago,  and  many  other 
important  points  were  occupied.  Exploring  and 
pioneer  missionaries  traversed  whole  states  and 
territories  by  most  primitive  methods.  In  1845 
its  first  missionaries  went  overland  to  Oregon, 
and  in  1849  via  the  Isthmus  to  California. 
With  the  expansion  of  civilization  in  the  West, 
as  precious  metals  were  discovered,  railroads 
constructed  and  lands  opened  to  settlement,  its 
pioneer  missionaries  were  quickly  on  the  new 
fields.  The  first  year  of  its  history  its  force  of 
laborers  was  fifty;  in  1854,  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five.  For  the  thirty  years  ending  1862 
its  receipts  were  $795,259.  In  that  period  1,242 
churches  were  organized  and  27,911  persons  bap- 
tized. After  the  war  the  Western  work  assumed 
greater  proportions  and  has  continued  to  make 
heavy  demands  upon  the  Society.  In  many 
states  and  territories  nearly  all  the  churches  have 
had  the  Society's  fostering  care.  Of  its  entire 
missionary  force  in  1903  (aggregating  1,310) ,  881 
were  in  the  Western  states  and  territories.  Its 
missionary  expenditures  there  have  been  about 
$4,000,000. 

A  Church  Edifice  department  of  the  Society  was 
contemplated  in  1854  and  a  little  was  done  during 
subsequent    years.     In    1869    it    was    definitely 


organized,  and  by  1875  about  $275,000  had  been 
secured  as  a  loan  fund  to  aid  churches  in  erecting 
houses  of  worship.  By  1879,  chiefly  in  the  West, 
333  churches  were  thus  aided.  In  1881  the  Gift 
Fund  was  established,  and  as  large  contributions 
were  secured  for  it,  the  Society  by  1885  was  aiding 
over  100  churches  annually  in  gifts  and  loans, 
and  within  twenty-two  years  had  helped  in  the 
erection  of  1,866  church  edifices,  chiefly  in  the 
way  of  gifts.  Its  permanent  Church  Edifice 
Loan  Fund  is  $150,000  and  the  Permanent  Gift 
Fund,  the  income  only  to  be  used,  $158,000. 

The  Society's  work  for  the  Freedmen,  began 
in  1862,  expanded  into  a  large  educational 
department,  m  addition  to  the  distinctively  mis- 
sionary efforts  put  fortli  in  their  behalf.  The 
total  expenditures  for  these  purposes  have  been 
about  $4,000,000.  It  aids  wholly  or  in  part 
twenty-nine  schools,  twelve  of  which  are  higher 
and  seventeen  secondary  institutions;  tho  much 
secondary  work  is  also  done  in  the  higher 
institutions.  Most  are  coeducational;  two 
are  for  young  women  only,  viz..  Hartshorn 
College,  Richmond,  and  Spelman  Seminary, 
Atlanta,  the  latter  probably  the  largest 
and  best-equipped  school  of  its  kind  in  the 
world.  There  is  a  high-grade  theological  school 
as  a  department  of  Virginia  Union  University, 
Richmond;  while  in  all  the  other  higher  schools 
considerable  attention  is  given  to  the  training 
of  students  for  the  ministry,  of  whom  between 
400  and  500  are  in  attendance  yearly.  The 
Leonard  Medical  School,  a  department  of  Shaw 
University,  Raleigh,  has  a  thorough  four  years 
course  and  a  strong  corps  of  instructors,  about 
120  being  enrolled  last  year.  Special  attention  is 
given  at  several  points  to  normal  training  for 
teachers,  and  there  are  well-equipped  industrial 
departments  at  several  schools.  The  total  enroll- 
ment for  1902-3  was  6,947.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  total  enrollment  from  the  first  is  quite  80,000. 
A  pronounced  religious  and  missionary  spirit 
dominates  all  these  institutions,  which  have 
powerfully  affected  for  good  not  only  the  two 
million  negro  Baptists  of  the  land  but  multi- 
tudes besides.  The  valuation  of  these  school 
properties  is  approximately  $1,500,000.  The 
Society's  annual  expenditures  for  these  purposes 
is  about  $150,000.  Endowments  are  greatly 
needed,  the  total  funds  of  this  character  being 
only  $288,132.  Many  capable  negro  teachers,  a 
number  as  heads  of  schools,  are  in  the  force  of 
instructors. 

Among  the  foreign  populations  the  Society  in 
1903  had  282  missionaries  laboring  among  fifteen 
nationalities  from  Europe  and  two  from  the 
Orient,  the  total  number  of  nationalities  or 
peoples  among  which  it  labors  being  twenty-one. 
The  work  begun  in  1846  among  the  Germans  has 
grown  to  large  proportions,  the  membership  in 
the  German  Baptist  Churches  of  the  United 
States  being  over  24,000.  Similarly  the  work 
begun  among  the  Swedes  in  1848,  also  among  the 
Danes  and  Norwegians  about  the  same  time,  has 
enlarged  until  now  the  Scandinavian  Baptists 
here  number  over  27,000.  Missions  to  the 
French  Canadians,  chiefly  in  New  England,  since 
1870  have  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  at  least 
3,500  converts  from  Romanism.  In  recent  years 
missions  have  been  undertaken  with  good  results 
among  the  Bohemians,  Poles,  Italians,  Portu- 
guese, Finns,  Hungarians  and  Russians.  The 
enormous  immigration  of  recent  years  has 
afforded  a  great  opportunity  for  the  evangeliza- 


Home  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


304 


tion  of  multitudes  ignorant  of  the  essential  truths 
of  the  Gospel. 

To  the  Chinese,  after  ineffectual  attempts  to 
secure  a  suitable  laborer  sooner,  the  Society 
appointed  a  missionary  at  San  Francisco  in  1870. 
There  were  many  hindrances  to  this  enterprise 
during  the  anti-Chinese  agitation  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  chief  missions  now  are  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Portland,  Seattle,  Spokane,  Butte,  Chicago 
and  New  York  City.  There  is  a  flourishing  mis- 
sion to  the  Japanese  in  Seattle. 

The  North  American  Indians  have  been 
included  in  the  Home  Mission  Society's  field 
since  1865,  when  the  Indian  missions  of  the  Mis- 
sionary Union  were  transferred  to  it.  Contin- 
uously since  then  have  missions  been  maintained 
among  them.  For  many  years  work  was  limited 
mostly  to  the  five  civilized  tribes,  among  whom 
very  gratifying  progress  has  been  made.  Within 
the  last  decade  missions  have  been  established 
among  the  "blanket  Indians,"  with  truly  remark- 
able results  among  the  Kiowas.  The  Society's 
missions  embrace  twelve  Indian  tribes,  among 
whom  there  are  over  4,000  members  of  Baptist 
churches.  There  are  two  excellent  schools  for 
the  Indians,  at  Tahlequah  and  near  Muscogee, 
Indian  Territory.  The  missionary  and  teaching 
force  among  them  in  1903  was  twenty-nine. 

The  Spanish-speaking  peoples  of  this  continent 
and  adjacent  islands  are  part  of  the  Society's 
field.  The  first  evangelical  preacher  to  go  to 
Mexico  was  a  Baptist  minister.  Rev.  James 
Hicke)',  in  1862,  which  led  to  the  organization  of 
a  Baptist  Church  at  Monterey  in  1864.  During 
the  troublous  period  of  the  war  and  the  unsettled 
state  of  affairs  in  Mexico,  until  the  overthrow  of 
the  Maximilian  Empire,  missionary  work  there 
was  difficult.  In  1870  the  Society  appointed  its 
first  missionary  and  has  gradually  extended  and 
strengthened  its  work  in  that  Repubic  until  now 
there  are  ten  churches,  several  having  good 
church  properties,  and  about  600  members. 
The  Society  s  printing  press  at  the  City  of  Mexico 
issues  a  bi-monthly  paper  edited  by  Rev.  W.  M. 
Sloan,  who  also  has  prepared  and  published  a 
Spanish  concordance  of  the  Bible. 

Hardly  had  the  smoke  of  war  with  Spain 
cleared  away  before  the  Society  took  steps  to 
occupy  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  By  an  amicable 
arrangement  with  the  Home  Mission  Board  of  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention,  the  Society  has  the 
two  eastern  provinces  of  Cuba  and  all  of  Porto 
Rico  as  its  field.  In  January,  1899,  missionaries 
were  appointed  to  both  these  islands,  where  the 
work  has  been  wonderfully  prosperous.  There 
are  now  22  Baptist  Churches,  with  over 
1,000  members  and  about  2,000  enrolled  in  Sun- 
day schools,  while  several  valuable  church  pro- 
perties have  been  secured  and  other  edifices  are  in 
process  of  erection  at  a  cost  of  quite  $50,000. 

City  mission  work  in  cooperation  with  City 
Mission  Societies  was  taken  up  in  1896  and  the 
Society  is  now  prosecuting  missions  in  this  man- 
ner in  six  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  land.  In  1903, 
in  response  to  the  expressed  will  of  the  denomi- 
nation, the  Society  undertook  the  organization 
of  a  general  evangelistic  effort  in  cooperation 
with  other  Baptist  missionary  organizations, 
with  promise  of  excellent  results. 

During  its  entire  history  of  seventy-one  years 
the  Society  has  issued  28,117  commissions,  and 
its  laborers  have  reported  5,730  churches  organ- 
ized, 179,107  persons  baptized  and  nearly  as 
many  others  added  by  letter  to  mission  churches. 


Its  receipts  for  all  purposes  have  been  about 
$13,500,000;  its  permanent  invested  funds  of  all 
kinds  are  $876,000,  besides  $516,000  annuity 
funds.  Its  receipts  for  1903  were  $621,387.32. 
For  all  this  vast  and  varied  work  of  three  great 
departments,  Missionary,  Church  Edifice  and 
Educational,  covering  every  state  and  territory, 
Alaska,  some  Canadian  Provinces,  Mexico,  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico,  there  is  one  Board  of  Managers, 
one  Corresponding  Secretary,  and  one  Treasurer, 
with  necessary  assistants,  the  cost  of  administra- 
tion being  only  about  six  per  cent,  of  its  receipts. 

Congregational:  When  the  American  Home  Mis- 
sionary Society  was  organized,  in  1826,  several 
local  organizations  for  home  missionary  work 
were  in  operation,  some  of  which  originated  in  the 
last  century.  The  Society  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  among  the  Indians  and  others  in  North 
America  was  founded  in  1787;  the  Missionary 
Society  of  Connecticut,  and  the  Berkshire  and  Co- 
lumbia Missionary  Society,  in  1798;  the  Massachu- 
setts Missionary  Society  in  1799.  Others  of  a 
later  origin  existed  in  the  other  New  England 
States  and  in  New  York.  Some  of  them  confined 
their  operations  within  their  own  geographical 
limits.  Others  sent  missionaries  to  the  destitute 
in  the  new  settlements  of  Northern  New  England, 
and  the  remoter  wilderness,  even  to  the  banks  of 
the  Mississippi.  But  as  these  societies  acted 
independently  of  each  other,  some  sections  were 
over-supplied  with  laborers  and  others  were  left 
in  utter  destitution.  Moreover,  the  laborers 
sometimes  came  into  competition  and  conflict 
with  each  other,  and  the  funds  contributed  for  ■ 
their  support  were  worse  than  wasted.  It  was 
evident  that  a  more  comprehensive  and  effective 
system  must  be  devised  to  supply  the  destitute 
portions  of  the  country  with  Gospel  ministra- 
tions; but  no  direct  steps  were  taken  toward  the 
solution  of  this  problem  till  1825,  when  plans 
were  formed  which  resulted  in  the  organization 
of  the  American  Home  Missionary  Society. 

The  United  Domestic  Missionary  Society, 
undenominational  in  its  principles  and  spirit,  was 
formed  in  1822.  At  an  important  meeting,  com- 
posed of  eminent  New  England  ministers,  held 
in  Boston  January  11,  1826,  a  resolution  was 
adopted  recommending  that  the  United  Domes- 
tic Missionary  Society  of  New  York  become  the 
American  Domestic  Missionary  Society.  The 
Executive  Committee  of  the  UDMS  cordially 
responded  to  the  overture  from  the  Boston  meet- 
ing and  issued  a  circular  to  friends  of  Home  Mis- 
sions in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  inviting 
them  to  meet  in  New  York  to  form  an  American 
Home  Missionary  Society.  One  hundred  and 
twenty-six  individuals,  representing  thirteen 
States  and  four  denominations,  responded  to  this 
invitation,  and  met  in  New  York  (Brick  Church) 
on  May  10,  1826.  On  May  12,  the  United 
Domestic  Missionary  Society,  in  responding  to 
the  proposition  made  by  the  convention  meeting 
in  the  Brick  Church,  adopted  the  following  reso- 
lution: 

"Resolved,  That  the  recommendation  of  the 
convention  be  adopted,  and  the  UDMS  now 
become  the  American  Home  Missionary  Society, 
under  the  constitution  recommended  by  the  con- 
vention." 

Officers  were  at  once  elected  and  the  work 
begun. 

Its  Constituency:  Of  the  churches  cooperating, 
the  Associate  Reformed  shared  but  little  either 
in   its   labors   or   benefactions.     The   Reformed 


806 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Home   Mlsalona 


Dutch  churches  withdrew  when  their  own  Board 
was  organized  in  1832.  The  New  School  Presby- 
terian churches  continued  to  cooperate  until 
1861,  when  the  General  Assembly  instituted  its 
Presbyterian  Committee  on  Home  Missions. 
Thus  the  AHMS,  without  any  change  either  in  its 
constitution  or  principles  of  action,  became  the 
organ  of  Congregational  churches  only.  On  the 
1st  of  October,  1893,  by  permission  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the  cor- 
porate name  of  the  Society  was  changed  to  "The 
Congregational  Home  Missionary  Society"  and  it 
has  ever  since  been  known  .as  such. 

Its  object  was  "to  assist  congregations  that  are 
unable  to  support  the  Gospel  to  the  destitute 
within  the  United  States."  It  was  to  supply  the 
destitute  everywhere,  but  especially  those  in  the 
new  settlements  on  the  northern,  western  and 
southern  frontiers,  with  the  privileges  of  the 
Gospel  through  the  ministry  of  the  Word  and  the 
Church  of  God. 

Its  method  has  been  to  supplant  the  former 
plan  of  mere  missionary  tours,  pursued  by  the 
Domestic  Missionary  Societies,  by  providing  per- 
manent churches  and  a  permanent  ministry, 
entering  into  partnership  with  each  church  in  sus- 
taining its  minister,  stipulating  that  it  shall  bear 
its  full  share  of  the  burden,  an  annually  increasing 
share,  until  the  church  shall  become  self-sup- 
porting. The  stimulating  effect  of  this  system 
IS  seen  in  the  fact  that,  during  the  last  ten  years, 
about  forty  churches  have  been  annually  brought 
to  self-support;  and  the  average  annual  expen- 
diture for  a  year  of  missionary  labor  has  been 
S300. 

Through  the  Woman's  Department  no  incon- 
siderable portion  of  revenue  has  been  obtained. 

The  estimated  value  of  gifts  sent  in  "mission- 
ary boxes"  during  the  last  twenty  years  has 
e.xceeded  $50,000  annually. 

Its  Foreign  Department:  When  the  Society  was 
organized,  our  population  was  being  increased  by 
only  10,000  immigrants  annually.  In  view  of  the 
peril  to  our  country  involved  in  this  vast  increase 
of  foreign  immigration,  the  Society  in  1883 
entered  upon  a  more  distinct  systematic  effort  in 
behalf  of  this  class  of  our  population.  In  these 
twenty  years  the  work  has  made  rapid  progress, 
and  the  number  of  missionaries  who  have 
preached  in  foreign  languages  during  the  last 
year  (1903)  is  230,  including  German,  Scandina- 
vian, Bohemian,  Polish,  French,  Mexican,  Italian, 
Spanish,  Finnish,  Danish,  Armenian,  Greek  and 
Welsh. 

Summary:  Of  the  5,650  Congregational 
churches  in  the  United  States,  more  than  four- 
fifths  of  the  whole  were  planted,  and  many  more 
have  been  fostered,  by  the  Congregational  Home 
Missionary  Society  and  its  auxiliaries.  Since  its 
organization  in  1826,  507,072  members  have 
been  added  to  churches  under  its  care. 

In  1902-3,  1,907  home  missionaries  were 
employed,  4,946  hopeful  conversions  were 
reported,  8,250  members  were  received  into  home 
missionary  churches,  2,573  churches  and  stations 
were  regularly  supplied  with  the  Gospel,  57 
churches  reached  self-support,  95  new  churches 
were  organized,  72  houses  of  worship  were  built, 
102  parsonages  were  erected,  141,269  Sunday 
school  scholars  were  cared  for,  159  Sunday  schools 
were  organized,  60  young  men  connected  with 
home  missionary  churches  were  preparing  for  the 
ministry,  230  home  missionaries  were  laboring 
among  the   Germans,    Welsh,    French,    Swedes, 

20 


Norwegians,  Danes,  Bohemians,  Spanish,  Indians 
and  Mexicans.  Total  expenditures  in  47  States 
and  Territories,  $569,734.47.  The  work  of 
church  erection  is  carried  on  by  a  distinct  organi- 
zation, the  Congregational  Church  Building 
Society. 

Lutheran:  The  Lutherans  have  been  actively 
engaged  in  missionary  work  in  Alaska  and 
among  the  American  Indians  and  negroes.  As 
early  as  1840  a  house  of  worship  was  erected  at 
Sitka,  the  capital  of  Alaska,  and  the  membership 
at  one  time  numbered  150.  Ethokin,  one  of  the 
governors,  was  a  native  of  Finland  and  a  Lu- 
theran, and  when  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his 
office  he  brought  with  him  a  Lutheran  minister. 
This  work  came  very  near  dying  out.  The  Swe- 
dish Missionary  Union,  composed  of  members 
from  the  Waldstroemian  party,  have  been  sending 
missionaries  to  Alaska  since  1886,  and  the  Swe- 
dish Lutherans  of  America  have  lately  become 
greatly  interested  in  Alaska  as  a  mission  field. 
The  entire  work  of  the  early  Indian  missionaries 
had  only  a  temporary  existence,  and  altho  the 
Lutherans  did  faithful  work  among  the  red  men, 
for  years  they  found  that  congregations  were 
organized  and  schools  were  planted  only  to  be 
disbanded  and  broken  up  in  course  of  time. 
The  onward  march  of  immigration  into  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Indian  and  its  fruits  of  immorality 
and  unjust  treatment  made  the  Indian  suspicious 
of  the  white  man's  dealings.  In  1845,  Vraemer, 
afterward  professor  in  Concordia  College, 
Springfield,  111.,  began  work  among  the  Chippewa 
Indians  by  establishing  a  school  for  children,  and 
largely  through  this  agency  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  language,  and  was  enabled  to  speak  to 
large  assemblies  of  Indians.  The  work  grew, 
and  Baierlein  was  sent  out  from  Germany. 
Baierlein  traveled  about,  visiting  one  tribe  after 
another,  and  he  established  a  station  about  sixty 
miles  from  Frankenmuth,  built  a  log  house  for 
living  and  school  purposes,  which  proved  to  be  a 
center  of  good.  Miessler,  sent  out  oy  the  Leipzig 
Society,  came  to  assist  Baierlein.  In  his  study  of 
the  language,  Baierlein's  reader  and  spelling 
book  in  the  Chippewa  language  was  of  great  serv- 
ice. The  mission  was  eventually  transferred  to 
the  Missouri  Synod.  The  general  uprising  of  the 
Indians  in  defense  of  their  rights  put  an  end  to 
the  station  in  Minnesota  under  the  faithful  super- 
vision of  the  missionary  Cloeter.  The  American 
Norwegians  are  carrying  on  a  successful  work 
among  the  Indians  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wit- 
tenljerg,  Wis.,  where,  in  1885,  they  erected  a 
schoolhouse,  and  under  the  care  of  Rev.  Mr. 
Morstad  the  work  has  prospered.  The  United 
Synods  of  Wisconsin,  Minnesota  and  Michigan 
are  conducting  mission  work  among  the  Apache 
Indians,  and  a  missionary  plant  has  been  estab- 
lished near  San  Carlos,  Arizona.  The  Synods 
have  recently  appropriated  a  considerable  sum 
of  money  to  be  used  in  the  erection  of  houses  for 
missionaries. 

The  Lutherans  are  also  doing  excellent  mis- 
sionary work  among  the  American  negroes. 

Methodist  Episcopal:  The  origin  of  Domestic 
Missions  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was 
in  1812.  Bishop  Asbury  about  this  date  began 
soliciting  funds  for  the  support  of  ministers  upon 
missionary  circuits.  This  was  the  period  of 
vigorous,  aggressive  work  in  the  then  Far  West  and 
in  the  New  England  States.  In  1819  the  Mission- 
ary Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
was  formed,  the  organization  growing  out  of  a 


Home  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


3oe 


revival  among  the  Wyandot  Indians.  In  the 
Preachers'  Meeting  of  New  York,  held  April  5, 
1819,  in  the  Forsyth  Street  Church,  it  was 
"Resolved,  That  it  is  expedient  for  this  meeting 
to  form  a  missionary  and  Bible  Society  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  America." 
Article  XIII,  of  the  Constitution  provided  that 
the  Society  should  be  established  "wherever 
the  Book  Concern  may  be  located,"  and  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  was  authorized  to  insert  articles 
into  the  Constitution  for  such  purpose,  and  to 
make  the  book-agents  treasurers,  and  also  to  pro- 
vide for  the  appropriation  of  funds  within  the 
object  specified. 

The  plan  of  procedure  was  to  organize  auxil- 
iaries in  all  the  principal  cities.  The  first  auxil- 
iary formed  was  the  Female  Missionary  Society  of 
New  York,  about  ninety  days  after  the  parent 
Society  was  instituted,  one  of  the  earliest 
missionary  organizations  of  women  in  the  land. 
The  General  Conference  in  Baltimore,  May,  1820, 
adopted  the  report  of  a  committee  on  organiza- 
tion, and  gave  the  Society  and  the  missionary 
cause  a  great  and  effectual  impulse.  The  exist- 
ence of  the  Society  really  dates  from  this  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  1820.  In  the  autumn  of  1820 
the  Society  actively  began  its  operations,  sending 
Rev.  Ebenezer  Brown  of  the  New  York  Con- 
ference to  labor  among  the  French  people  of 
Louisiana. 

Present  Scope:  The  Domestic  Missions,  as  to  lan- 
guages used,  may  be  classified  as  English-speak- 
ing and  non-English-speaking,  the  latter  including 
work  among  the  Bohemians,  Chinese,  Finns, 
French,  Germans,  Indians  (14  tribes),  Italians, 
Japanese,  Portuguese,  Scandinavians,  and  Welsh. 
The  field  embraces  the  Arizona,  Atlantic,  Black 
Hills,  Gulf,  Kalispell,  Nevada,  New  Mexico  Eng- 
lish, New  Mexico  Spanish,  North  Montana,  North 
Pacific  German,  Pacific  Japanese,  Porto  Rico, 
Utah  and  Wyoming  Missions,  together  with 
those  administered  by  Annual  Conferences.  All 
Domestic  Missions  are  administered  under  the 
direction  of  the  presiding  bishops,  who  (except 
for  Missions  outside  of  Annual  Conferences)  draw 
upon  the  Missionary  Society  for  grants-in-aid  not 
to  exceed  in  amount  sums  fixed  yearly  in  advance 
by  the  "General  Missionary  Committee,"  a  rep- 
resentative body  acting  under  the  authority  of 
the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  Disbursements  for  Domestic  Mis- 
sions in  1902  amounted  to  $482,811.  Appro- 
priations for  1903  amounted  to  $495,297. 

Work  for  Bohemians  is  carried  on  in  five 
Annual  Conferences,  the  Upper  Iowa  Conference 
alone  conducting  Bohemian  missions  in  three  of 
its  districts.  There  are  four  missions  in  Chicago, 
besides  those  in  Baltimore  and  Cleveland,  and  the 
Coke  Mission  of  the  Pittsburg  Conference. 

The  ME  Church  has  missions  for  Chinese  in  sev- 
eral cities  of  California,  with  headquarters  at  San 
Francisco,  besides  the  work  carried  on  in  New 
York,  Boston,  and  Portland,  Ore.  Seven  mis- 
sionaries and  6  local  preachers  are  engaged  in  this 
work. 

For  Finns  the  ME  Church  conducts  special 
work  in  California,  Michigan  and  Minnesota. 

There  are  thriving  Methodist  societies  of 
i^renc/i-speaking  people  in  Worcester  and  Lowell, 
Mass.,  and  in  Dover  and  Manchester,  N.  H.  In 
addition  to  these  the  French  Church  in  Chicago 
reports  37  members  and  probationers,  and  the 
French  Mission  in  Crowley,  La.,  reports  120 
members  and  probationers. 


From  the  time  of  the  conversion  of  WQliam 
Nast,  in  1835,  the  ME  Church  has  labored  among 
German-speaking  people.  There  are  nine  regu- 
lar Annual  Conferences  and  the  North  Pacific 
German  Mission  Conference,  with  a  combined 
membership  of  62,480.  In  charge  of  this  mem- 
bership is  a  corps  of  541  pastors,  266  of  whom 
receive  financial  aid  from  the  Methodist  Mission- 
ary Society. 

Indians:  Twenty-one  Methodist  Episcopal  mis- 
sionaries and  22  local  preachers  are  reaching 
about  12,000  Indians.  At  present  there  are 
Indian  missions  within  the  bounds  of  13  Con- 
ferences, of  which  missions  17  are  in  Michigan, 
5  in  New  York  State,  9  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  1  in 
Minnesota  and  1  in  Wisconsin.  The  tribes 
reached  are  these:  Ukiah,  California  Digger, 
Onondaga,  Oneida,  Chippewa,  Seneca,  Tona- 
wanda,  Ottawa,  Paintes,  Washoe,  Black  Feet, 
St.  Regis,  Klamath  and  Nooksack. 

The  ME  Church  has  missions  among  Italians 
in  Boston,  Buifalo,  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  New 
Orleans,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Providence, 
besides  those  in  smaller  towns. 

The  Pacific  Japanese  Mission  Conference  of  the 
ME  Church  covers  the  work  in  Hawaii  and  the 
Pacific  Coast.  There  are  14  stations,  with  18 
missionaries,  6  local  preachers  and  a  membership 
of  1,100. 

There  are  20  Negro  Conferences  in  the  ME 
Church,  with  a  membership  of  278,000,  cared  for 
by  1,420  pastors,  806  of  whom  receive  financial 
aid  from  the  Missionary  Society.  Those  charges 
which  are  helped  bv  funds  of  the  Missionary 
Society  are  almost  all  in  the  Southern  states. 

Work  among  Portugvese  is  confined  to  the  New 
England  and  New  England  Southern  Conferences. 
There  are  missions  in  East  Cambridge  and  New 
Bedford,  Mass.,  and  in  Providence,  R.  I. 

In  1845  the  work  of  the  ME  Church  among  the 
Scandinavians  was  begun  by  Olaf  G.  Hedstrom, 
a  member  of  the  New  York  Conference.  Since 
that  time  work  has  grown  to  such  an  extent  that 
there  are  4  Annual  Conferences  among  the  Swedes 
and  2  Norwegian  and  Danish  Conferences, 
besides  the  work  carried  on  under  the  adminis- 
tration of  7  English-speaking  Conferences.  Of 
the  218  Methodist  pastors  laboring  among  Scan- 
dinavians, 212  are  supported  in  part  by  the  Mis- 
sionary Society. 

Spanish:  This  work  includes  the  efforts  put 
forth  in  the  New  Mexico  Spanish  and  Porto  Rico 
Mission  Conferences.  In  the  New  Mexico  Span- 
ish Mission  Conference  there  are  46  stations  and 
circuits,  34  of  which  have  church  buildings. 
There  were  2,704  members  and  probationers  in 
1902.  The  work  in  Porto  Rico  was  begun  by 
Dr.  C.  W.  Drees,  formerly  in  the  South  America 
Mission.  He  arrived  in  San  Juan  March  25, 
1900.  There  are  already  19  stations  on  the  island, 
with  17  missionaries,  14  native  workers  and  888 
members  and  probationers. 

Besides  the  work  among  the  classes  mentioned 
above,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  contrib- 
utes, through  its  Missionary  Society,  to  the  sup- 
port of  520  pastors  among  white  people  of  the 
Southern  States,  many  of  whom  are  working 
among  the  illiterate  thousands  in  the  mountains 
of  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  the  Virginias  and  the 
Carolinas ;  to  the  support  of  1 ,758  churches  among 
other  white  people  in  the  United  States,  to  the 
Deaf-Mute  Missions  of  Baltimore  and  of  Chicago, 
to  the  Mission  among  the  Hebrews  of  Boston  and 
other  cities  and  to  the  City  Mission  enterprises 


807 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Home  MlsBlon* 


of  Brooklyn,  New  York,  Jersey  City,  Hoboken, 
Newark,  Paterson,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg, 
Detroit,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  St.  Paul, 
Minn. 

In  addition  to  the  work  above  set  forth,  the 
other  benevolent  societies  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  such  as  the  Board  of  Church 
Extension,  the  Sunday  School  Union  and  Tract 
Society,  the  Board  of  Education,  the  Freedmen's 
Aid  and  Southern  Education  Society,  and 
especialljr  the  Woman's  Home  Missionary  Soci- 
ety, which  is  auxiliary  to  the  parent  board, 
expend  large  sums  on  work  having  a  distinct 
home  missionary  outcome. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South:  By  the  law 
of  the  General  Conference  of  the  Church  each 
annual  conference  is  authorized  to  organize  a 
Board  of  Missions  auxiliary  to  the  General  Board. 
Said  Conference  Board  appoints  its  own  officers, 
regulates  its  own  affairs,  and  has  control  over  the 
missions  it  may  establish  within  its  bounds  and 
of  the  funds  raised  for  their  support,  provided  it 
is  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  such  mis- 
sions, and  provided  it  secures  the  consent  of  the 
Bishop  presiding  over  the  conference.  These 
Conference  Boards  of  Missions  have  work  in  all 
the  cities  of  the  South,  in  factory  towns  and  cen- 
ters, among  mining  populations,  and  in  remote 
rural  districts.  The  number  of  home  mission- 
aries supported  in  part  or  in  whole  for  1902  was 
1,270,  and  the  amount  raised  by  the  several  con- 
ference boards  for  this  purpose  was  $188,259. 

The  General  Board  makes  some  appropriation 
annually  to  the  work  in  the  Western  fields.  No 
greater  moral  heroism  has  been  displayed  in  any 
field  than  by  many  of  those  men  who  have  gone 
to  the  firing  line  at  the  call  of  the  Church.  In 
view  of  the  peculiar  conditions  and  of  the  tremen- 
dous drift  of  population  unreached  by  any  church, 
in  many  eases  lying  along  the  watershed  east  and 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  appropriations  are 
made  to  a  number  of  smaller  conferences  and 
assistance  given  to  those  who  are  entrenching 
Christianity  at  strategic  points.  In  addition  to 
this  the  General  Board  at  its  last  annual  meeting 
in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  face  to  face  with  the  rapid 
growth  of  urban  and  factory  population,  author- 
ized the  adoption  of  a  plan  of  city  missions 
which  looks  not  only  to  the  strengthening  of 
Christian  forces  in  our  cities,  but  to  the  training 
as  well  of  those  who  are  to  become  leaders  in 
evangelistic  work. 

The  Woman's  Home  Mission  Society  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  estab- 
lished in  1886.  The  returns  for  the  year  1902-3 
are  as  follows:  Members,  14,414;  teachers  and 
missionaries,  58;  day  and  night  schools,  11; 
pupils,  1,324;  parsonages  helped,  112;  value  of 
supplies  distributed,  $14,309,  and  total  collec- 
tions, $87,685. 

The  work  of  the  Society  includes  aid  in  build- 
ing parsonages,  both  through  the  local  and  con- 
nectional  organizations,  the  distribution  of  sup- 
plies for  orphanages,  missionaries,  mission  schools 
and  Rescue  Homes,  the  maintenance  of  schools, 
of  which  there  are  three  in  Florida  for  Cuban 
children,  two  for  the  children  of  mountaineers  in 
Kentucky  and  in  North  Carolina,  one  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  for  Chinese  and  Japanese,  a  Rescue 
Home  and  Training  School,  an  annex  to  Paine 
College,  Augusta,  Ga.,  for  the  industrial  training 
of  negro  girls  and  a  school  for  Indians  at  Ana- 
darko,  Indian  Territory.  A  mission  has  also 
been  maintained  among  the  miners  of  West  Vir- 


ginia. The  Society  also  is  interested  in  the 
Scarritt  Bible  and  Training  Scliool  in  Kansas 
City,  Mo.,  where  five  deaconesses  have  been 
trained  and  consecrated  for  work  among  the 
needy.  These  cooperate  with  the  pastors  of 
churches  and  with  the  sixteen  missionaries  and 
twelve  City  Mission  Boards  which  have  been 
formed.  No  missionary  organization  in  the 
church  has  made  greater  progress  and  managed 
its  affairs  more  wisely  than  this  Society. 

While  the  General  Board  of  Missions  appro- 
priates funds  to  the  German  and  Indian  Mission 
Conferences  they  fall  in  the  same  class  with  those 
in  the  remote  West  as  domestic  or  home  missions. 
The  German  work  began  over  fifty  years  ago 
among  the  immigrants  who  were  coming  into 
New  Orleans.  Later  the  mission  extended  into 
Texas  and  in  1890  became  the  German  Mission 
Conference.  The  results  of  this  work  have  been 
most  encouraging.  The  membership  of  11,440 
contributes  annually  for  missions  one  dollar  per 
capita  and  from  eight  to  ten  dollars  for  other  pur- 
poses. A  Joint  Commission  of  representatives 
of  the  other  Texas  Conferences,  with  one  from 
the  German  Conference,  has  done  much  to  inspire 
and  bind  these  German  Methodists  into  closer 
union  with  the  whole  Church. 

The  earliest  missionary  work  of  the  Church 
was  in  behalf  of  the  Negroes  and  Indians.  The 
former  have  been  set  apart  into  the  Colored 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  with  an  independ- 
ent organization  and  presided  over  by  bishops 
of  their  own  race  and  selection.  The  Indiana 
are  still  the  wards  of  the  Church,  but  the  rapid 
influx  of  the  white  population  into  Oklahoma  and 
the  Indian  Territory  has  steadily  driven  them 
in  upon  themselves  until  the  work  has  become 
narrowed  down  to  a  limited  area  where  full- 
bloods  and  "blanket"  Indians  are  preached  to  by 
a  few  of  their  own  men  and  by  white  preachers  of 
the  Indian  Mission  Conference  tlirough  interpre- 
ters. The  policy  which  has  been  pursued  in  the 
Indian  Mission  work  has  not  been  as  wise  nor  as 
effective  as  that  adopted  in  the  foreign  field. 
The  membership  has  become  so  thoroughly  inter- 
mingled with  that  of  the  white  population  that 
it  is  impossible  to  give  correct  statistics. 

Presbyterian:  About  the  time  of  the  founding 
of  the  first  Presbytery  (1700-1705),  the  ministers 
of  the  early  church  followed  the  colonists  wher- 
ever they  went,  and  the  Gospel  was  preached 
along  the  Atlantic  coast,  up  to  the  foot  of  the 
Alleghanies  and  beyond,  not  only  to  English  but 
to  all  settlers  of  whatever  tongue  or  faith.  Mis- 
sions to  the  Negroes  and  the  Indians  were  estab- 
lished. Records  of  the  first  synod  show  that  con- 
tinual demands  were  made  upon  Princeton  Col- 
lege in  its  earliest  days  for  means  to  support  mis- 
sionaries and  open  missions  in  destitute  places. 
An  interesting  item  is  the  fact  that  the  first 
recorded  grant  of  missionary  money  was  made  to 
the  First  Presbyterian  Church  of  New  York  City. 

At  the  first  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly, 
which  was  organized  in  1789,  it  was  resolved  to 
send  forth  missionaries  to  the  frontiers  to  organ- 
ize churches  and  attend  in  general  to  the  religious 
and  educational  needs  of  the  people. 

In  1802  the  work  had  grown  to  such  dimen- 
sions that  the  first  regularly  constituted  Board 
was  formed  under  the  name  of  the  Standing 
Committee  of  Missions.  Nominations  of  mis- 
sionaries were  made  by  it  and  presented  to  the 
General  Assembly  for  Confirmation. 

After   the   War   of    1812    the   Committee   felt 


Home  MissionH 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


unable  to  cope  with  the  increased  needs  and 
opportunities  of  the  work,  and  the  General 
Assembly  in  1816  organized  a  larger  and  more 
comprehensive  body  to  take  up  the  work,  called 
"The  Board  of  Missions."  Its  power  was  such 
as  to  enable  it  to  conduct  the  missions  and  decide 
all  questions  as  to  the  appointment  of  mission- 
aries and  the  payment  of  salaries  without  wait- 
ing for  the  approval  of  the  Assembly;  it  was  fur- 
ther empowered  to  organize  branch  societies, 
and  the  Church  was  urged  to  cooperate  in  such 
organizations. 

Other  churches  felt  the  need  of  evangelizing 
the  masses  seeking  homes  in  what  was  then  the 
West,  and  in  1826  the  American  Honie  Mission- 
ary Association  was  formed.  In  its  directorship 
were  many  Presbyterians,  and  Presbyterian 
Churches  contributed  to  its  support  and  bene- 
fited by  its  aid. 

When  the  division  took  place  in  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  1839,  the  Board  of  Missions 
remained  in  connection  with  the  Old  School 
branch,  and  in  1857  underwent  a  change  in  name, 
being  called  "The  Trustees  of  the  Board  of 
Domestic  Missions  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A.;"  the  New 
School  threw  in  its  allegiance  for  a  time  with  the 
AHMS  (see  above),  but  gradually  separated  from 
it.  The  first  step  in  departure  was  the  organiza- 
tion in  1855  of  the  Church  Extension  Committee, 
which  carefully  disclaimed  all  intention  of  inter- 
fering with  the  work  or  support  of  the  AHMS; 
but  the  differences  grew,  until  finally  in  1861  the 
New  School  Presbyterian  Church  withdrew 
entirely  from  the  AHMS,  organized  a  Presby- 
terian Committee  of  Home  Missions,  which  super- 
seded the  Church  Extension  Committee  and 
which  conducted  the  home  mission  work  of  that 
branch  of  the  Church,  until  finally  in  1870  the 
glorious  reunion  of  the  two  Assemblies  took 
place,  and  the  two  bodies,  the  Presbyterian  Com- 
mittee of  Home  Missions  and  the  Board  of  Domes- 
tic Mission,  were  merged  into  one  Board.  At 
the  time  of  reunion  the  New  School  committee 
had  the  names  of  530  missionaries  on  its  roll 
and  the  Old  School  Board  613.  The  new  Board 
was  incorporated  in  New  York  in  1872. 

Organization:  The  members  of  the  Board  are 
appointed  by  the  General  Assembly,  and  num- 
ber 10  ministers  and  11  laymen;  one  of  the  min- 
isters is  the  president  of  the  Board.  In  addition 
there  are  a  secretary,  two  assistant  secretaries,  a 
treasurer  and  a  superintendent  of  school  work. 
The  Board  reports  annually  to  the  General 
Assembly,  to  which  it  is  responsible  for  its 
actions,  tho  it  has  absolute  jurisdiction  in  the 
interim  between  the  meetings  of  the  General 
Assembly,  but  appeal  can  be  had  to  the  General 
Assembly.  Its  administrative  offices  are  at  156 
Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

The  work  of  the  Board  is  two-fold:  that  of  the 
missionary  pastors  and  the  missionary  teachers. 
The  latter  is  committed  to  the  Woman's'  Board 
and  is  outlined  more  fully  below.  The  former 
resolves  itself  into  two  forms:  (1)  The  salary 
raised  on  the  field  is  supplemented  by  the  Board. 
(This  is  the  case  in  most  of  the  churches  in  the 
States,  the  few  exceptions  being  limited  to  some 
work  among  Indians  or  some  other  unusual 
fields.)  (2)  The  Board  sometimes  assumes  the 
entire  salarj  of  the  minister,  as  in  certain  fields 
in  Alaska,  in  Porto  Rico,  or  in  other  practically 
unformed  localities.  In  every  such  instance 
strong   effort   is   put  forth   to   secure   from   the 


people  part  of  the  pastor's  salary  as  speedily  as 
possible. 

The  Woman's  Board,  organized  in  1878  as  the 
Woman's  Executive  Committee,  and  known  as 
the  Woman's  Board  since  1897,  cooperates  with 
the  Board  of  Home  Missions,  undertaking  no 
work  without  its  approval.  Its  officers  are: 
president,  corresponding  secretary,  young  peo- 
ple's secretary,  editor,  recording  secretary,  treas- 
urer and  corresponding  secretary  Freedmen's^ 
department. 

The  work  of  the  Woman's  Board  is:  (1)  To  raise 
money  for  the  support  of  the  educational  work 
under  the  care  of  the  Board  of  Home  Missions — 
namely,  teachers'  salaries,  school  buildings  and 
equipment — and  for  general  home  mission  pur- 
poses. Mission  schools  are  located  in  Alaska, 
Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  and,  in  the  States,  among  the 
Indians,  Mexicans,  Mormons,  mountaineers  of  the 
South,  and  foreigners. 

As  an  adjunct  to  the  Board  of  Home  Missions 
and  the  Woman's  Board,  vitally  connected  with 
them  both,  stands  the  Young  People's  Depart- 
ment, which  has  for  its  special  care  the  enlistment 
of  the  young  people's  societies  in  home  mission 
work,  the  assignment  of  synodical  "specials"-  and 
the  gathering  and  disseminating  of  information 
concerning  the  mission  fields. 

Self-supporting  Synods:  In  1886  the  Synod  of 
New  Jersey  assumed  charge  of  the  home  mission 
field  within  its  own  bounds.  Other  Eastern 
Synods  have  since  taken  the  same  action  till  in 
1903  the  Board  is  relieved,  wholly  or  in  part,  of 
the  work  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Baltimore,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Iowa. 

Results:  The  whole  work  of  the  Board  for  the 
century  closing  with  1900  may  be  briefly  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

First  Standing  Committee  on  Home  Missions 
appointed,  1802;  Board  of  Home  Missions  organ- 
ized, 1816;  Number  of  commissions  issued  since 
that  time,  each  representing  one  year's  work, 
74,063;  Whole  amount  expended  in  this  work 
from  the  beginning,  $23,000,000;  Number  of 
missionaries  in  1900,  1,371;  Number  of  mission- 
aries aided  by  self-supporting  Synods  in  1900, 
754;  Whole  number  of  missionaries  in  1900, 
2,125;  Whole  number,  including  teachers  in 
mission  schools,  2,373. 

Protestant  Episcopal:  Early  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury home  missionary  work  was  undertaken  to  a 
limited  extent  under  the  auspices  of  voluntary 
societies  in  the  Dioceses  of  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania. These  efforts,  however,  tho  they 
accomplished  much  good  at  the  time,  were  not 
steadily  sustained  or  adequately  supported,  and 
did  not  reach  beyond  the  western  borders  of  the 
States  named.  It  was  not  until  1835,  theyearin 
which  the  principle  was  accepted  that  the  Church 
itself  is  the  divinely  constituted  missionary 
society,  that  aggressive  mission  work  at  home 
was  undertaken  on  any  extended  scale  in  the 
name  of  the  whole  Church.  In  that  year  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Jackson  Kemper  was  elected  the  first 
missionary  bishop  and  was  sent  to  the  West, 
with  a  jurisdiction  covering  the  territory  now 
comprised  in  the  states  of  Indiana,  Missouri, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Minnesota  and  Wis- 
consin. In  truly  apostolic  spirit  Bishop  Kemper 
devoted  himself  to  the  religious  welfare  of  the 
people  in  what  was  then  the  Far  West.  When 
he  began  his  work  he  found  a  few  small  and 
scattered   congregations,   still   fewer  clergy  and 


309 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Home   Missions 


but  a  few  communicants.  In  the  section  over 
which  he  onoe  exercised  supervision  there  are 
to-day  (1903)  13  dioceses,  16  bishops,  586  other 
clergy  and  69,000  communicants.  This  is  but 
one  instance,  tho  perhaps  the  most  striking,  of 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  Far  West  during  the  last  half  of  the 
19th  century. 

The  work  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
is  organized  on  the  principle  that  every  foot  of 
territory  over  which  the  flag  of  the  nation  waves, 
whether  on  the  North  American  Continent  or 
elsewhere,  shall  be  under  the  supervision  of  a 
bishop.  These  areas  of  supervision  in  sections 
of  the  country  where  tlie  Church  is  strongest  are 
known  as  dioceses,  and  support  their  own  bishops. 
In  other  parts  of  the  country  where  the  popula- 
tion is  still  comparatively  scattered  and  tlie 
Church  less  strong,  these  areas  of  episcopal 
supervision  are  known  as  missionary  districts, 
and  the  support  of  the  bishops  is  provided  by  the 
Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society.  The 
dioceses  are  being  steadily  divided  and  sub- 
divided and  number  at  the  present  time  60,  with 
68  bishops.  The  missionary  districts  on  the 
continent  number  18,  with  17  bishops.  There 
are  also  the  extracontinental  districts  of  Porto 
Rico,  Honolulu  and  the  Philippines,  each  with  its 
own  bishop. 

Broadly  speaking,  there  are  three  different 
kinds  of  home  mission  work :  (1)  That  carried  on 
by  the  Church  as  a  whole,  under  the  general 
supervision  of  the  Board  of  Managers  of  the 
Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  and 
known  as  "Domestic  Missions."  (2)  That  car- 
ried on  by  each  diocese  under  the  direction  of  its 
bishop  and  the  local  board  of  missions,  and 
known  as  "Diocesan  Missions."  (3)  That  car- 
ried on,  generally  under  diocesan  supervision, 
among  the  poor  and  the  foreign-speaking  popu- 
lations of  nearly  all  the  large  cities,  and  known 
as  "City  Missions."  It  is  only  of  the  home  mis- 
sion work  carried  on  by  the  Church  as  a  whole, 
that  this  paper  is  supposed  to  treat.  This  gen- 
eral work  naturally  follows  four  lines: 

(I)  Among  White  People:  Missions  among  the 
white  people  are  maintained  in  all  of  the  mis- 
sionary districts,  and  at  the  present  time  in  some 
33  of  the  dioceses,  whose  local  resources  are  not 
sufficient  to  do  all  the  aggressive  work  that 
should  be  done  in  establishing  the  Church  in  new 
centers.  This  work  varies  widely  in  extent  and 
in  character.  Aid  is  given  for  the  maintenance 
of  missionary  work  in  an  old  State  like  Maine,  as 
well  as  in  the  newer  commonwealths  of  the  Middle 
and  Far  West.  It  may  be  carried  on  in  a  New 
England  college  town,  in  the  midst  of  a  Western 
farming  community,  or  among  the  mining  camps 
of  the  mountain  States.  In  all  cases  the  aim  is  to 
build  up  strong  self-supporting  congregations 
which  may  in  turn  give  aid  to  other  places.  In 
some  places  elementary  schools  are  maintained, 
as  among  the  mountaineers  of  North  Carolina 
and  Kentucky.  Again,  aid  is  given  to  boarding 
schools  of  high  grade,  and  in  a  number  of  locali- 
ties excellent  work  is  being  done  through  Church 
hospitals.  The  value  and  success  of  this  home 
mission  work  are  seen  in  the  fact  that  in  a  num- 
ber of  dioceses  and  districts  where  this  aid  is 
given  the  baptisms  and  confirmations  form  a 
much  larger  percentage  of  the  Church  popula- 
tion than  is  the  case  in  many  of  the  older  and 
stronger  dioceses. 


(II)  Among  the  Negroes:  The  Church's  work 
among  the  Negroes  is  done  in  twenty-four  dio- 
ceses, first,  by  providing  opportunities  for  wor- 
ship through  mission  churches  and  chapels  in 
many  country  districts  as  well  as  in  the  larger 
cities  of  the  South;  secondly,  through  90  day 
schools  and  3  general  industrial  schools,  in  which 
latter  training  is  given  the  boys  and  young  men 
in  various  trades,  and  the  girls  and  young  women 
in  domestic  economy;  and  thirdly,  through  3 
hospitals  exclusively  for  colored  people.  One 
hundred  clergy  are  at  present  working  successfully 
among  the  colored  people,  many  of  them  Negroes 
themselves.  There  are  at  present  22,000  baptized 
members  and  about  8,500  communicants  con- 
nected with  the  Negro  congregations. 

(III)  Among  the  Indians:  The  Church  has  been 
exceedingly  successful  in  its  missions  among  the 
Indians,  particularly  in  the  Northwest.  Great 
pioneer  missionaries  like  the  Right  Rev.  Henry 
B.  Whipple,  D.D.,  sometime  Bishop  of  Minne- 
sota, and  the  Right  Rev.  William  Hobart  Hare, 
D.D.,  the  present  Bishop  of  South  Dakota,  with 
great  devotion  have  carried  the  Church  to  these 
aboriginal  Americans  and  have  demonstrated 
how  thoroughly  adapted  it  is  to  meet  their  moral 
and  spiritual  aspirations.  The  strongest  Indian 
missions  are  found  in  Minnesota  and  South 
Dakota,  but  the  work  is  also  carried  on  in  12 
other  dioceses  and  districts.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  in  the  Episcopal  Church  between 
15,000  and  18,000  baptized  Indian  Christians,  of 
whom  about  6,000  are  communicants.  The 
Indian  clergy  number  about  30,  and  services  are 
conducted  by  scores  of  other  Indians,  as  cate- 
chists  and  lay  helpers. 

(IV)  Among  Foreign-speaking  People:  Among 
foreigners  comparatively  little  has  been  done 
by  the  Church  as  a  whole,  missionary  work 
in  this  direction  being  generally  left  in  the  hands 
of  the  local  diocesan  and  parochial  authorities. 
One  general  missionary  is  maintained  among  the 
Swedish  congregation  of  the  East,  and  aid  is 
given  to  a  number  of  smaller  congregations  in  the 
Central  West  and  Northwest.  Aid  is  also  given 
in  the  maintenance  of  the  mission  and  home  for 
Japanese  in  San  Francisco.  In  some  localities 
thorough  work  is  being  done  among  Chinese  by 
the  parishes. 

Four  domestic  missionary  districts  present 
conditions  differing  so  greatly  from  what  is 
usually  known  as  home  mission  work  that  a  few 
words  may  be  said  about  them  individually. 

1.  Alaska:  Nothing  was  done  by  this  Church  in 
Alaska,  beyond  a  preliminary  investigation,  until 
1886,  when  the  Rev.  Octavius  Parker  was 
appointed  to  begin  work  wherever  he  might  find 
it  practicable  among  the  Indians  along  the 
Yukon  River,  the  Presbyterians  already  haying 
excellent  missions  in  the  southeastern  section. 
The  work  thus  begun  has  been  gradually  extended 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  river,  and  as  the 
white  population  increased  missions  were  estab- 
lished in  the  centers  occupied  by  them.  At  the 
present  time  the  Church  in  Alaska  is  ministermg 
to  white  people,  Indians  and  Eskimos.  Day 
schools  and  boarding  schools  are  maintained  at  a 
number  of  Indian  stations  and  four  mission  hos- 
pitals are  now  rendering  valuable  service.  The 
development  of  the  Alaska  missions  is  due  chiefly 
to  the  heroic  work  of  Bishop  Rowe  and  pioneer 
helpers  like  the  Rev.  John  W.  Chapman,  the  Rev. 
Jules  L.  Prevost  and  Dr.  John  B.  Driggs. 


Home  Missions 
Honan-fu 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


310 


2.  Porto  Rico:  Prior  to  the  war  with  Spain 
there  existed  at  Ponce  a  congregation  connected 
with  the  English  diocese  of  Antigua.  When 
Porto  Rico  became  American  territory  this  was 
transferred  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States.  Services  were  also  begun  in 
1898  in  San  Juan  by  an  Episcopal  army  chaplain. 
The  work  has  been  continued  by  the  appointment 
of  regular  missionaries  under  the  leadership  of  the 
Right  Rev.  James  H.  Van  Buren,  S.T.D.,  who 
was  consecrated  Bishop  in  1902.  Stations  are 
now  maintained  at  San  Juan,  Ponce,  Puerta  de 
Tierra  and  in  Porto  Mula,  on  the  island  of 
Viequez.  The  Bishop  plans  to  open  missions 
in  other  points  as  rapidly  as  the  equipment  can 
be  provided. 

3.  Hawaiian  Islands:  Here  again  missionary 
work  had  been  undertaken  by  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land prior  to  the  annexation  of  the  islands  to  the 
United  States.  The  Right  Rev.  Henry  B. 
Restarick,  D.D.,  who  was  consecrated  bishop  in 
1902,  found  that  work  was  already  being  carried 
on  among  the  Hawaiian  and  English-speaking 
people  in  Honolulu  and  vicinity,  as  well  as  among 
the  Chinese  of  the  city.  Two  good  boarding 
schools,  lolani  College  for  boys  and  St.  Andrew's 
Priory  School  for  girls,  established  under  the 
English  mission,  have  been  greatly  strengthened. 
The  work  has  also  been  extended  to  all  of  the 
larger  islands.  It  is  carried  on  not  only  in  the 
towns,  but  in  some  instances  among  the  large 
plantation  communities.  The  work  among  the 
Chinese  has  been  increased  by  additional  Sunday 
schools,  night  schools  and  settlement  work, 
besides  personal  visits  to  the  homes  of  well-to-do 
families.  Similar  work  is  about  to  be  commenced 
among  the  large  Japanese  population,  upon  the 
arrival  of  a  native  clergyman  from  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Mission  of  Japan. 

4.  Philippine  Islands:  The  first  work  of  the 
Church  in  these  islands  was  undertaken  by  army 
chaplains  in  1898.  The  beginning  thus  made  has 
been  steadily  followed  up  by  the  appointment  of 
a  number  of  missionaries,  including  5  clergymen, 
1  physician,  3  nurses,  2  parish  workers  and  1 
kindergartner,  under  the  leadership  of  the 
Right  Rev.  Charles  H.  Brent,  D.D.,  who  reached 
his  jurisdiction  in  1902.  Manila  has  been  made 
a  strong  center,  and  work  has  been  begun  upon 
the  erection  of  the  cathedral  church  and  parish 
house.  Medical,  settlement  and  kindergarten 
work  is  also  carried  on,  and  one  missionary  has 
been  assigned  exclusively  for  work  among  the 
large  Chinese  population.  Outside  of  Manila 
stations  have  been  opened  at  Iloilo  to  the  south 
and  at  Baguio  and  Bontoc  in  the  north.  The 
latter  points  are  centers  of  a  region  peopled 
chiefly  by  the  Igorrote  tribes,  among  whom  no 
other  Christian  work  has  yet  been  attempted. 

The  home  missionary  staff  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  includes  20  bishops,  790  other 
clergymen,  160  laymen  and  225  women. 

The  annual  receipts  of  the  Domestic  and 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  for  home  work  are 
about  $600,000.  In  addition  to  this  amount  it  is 
estimated  that  $350,000  is  given  annually 
through  various  diocesan  channels  for  home  mis- 
sion work  in  the  several  dioceses. 

In  the  sixty-eight  years  since  the  Church  began 
aggressive  home  missionary  work  she  has  grown 
rapidly  both  in  extent  and  influence.  In  1835 
there  were  15  bishops,  763  other  clergy  and 
36,500   communicants.     In    1903  there  were  88 


bishops,   5,000  other  clergy  and  760,000  com- 
municants. 

Reformed  (Dutch):  Until  the  independence  of 
the  American  Reformed  Churches  in  1772,  they 
were  themselves  missionary  ground.  At  the 
close  of  the  Revolution  the  list  shows  85  churches, 
32  ministers  serving  53  of  these  churches,  and  2 
licentiates. 

In  1786  the  General  Synod  took  the  first  action 
on  the  subject  of  church  extension,  and  appointed 
a  committee  to  devise  some  plan  for  sending  the 
Gospel  to  destitute  localities.  They  reported  to 
the  next  Synod,  and  recommended  that  volun- 
tary collections  be  taken  up  in  all  the  congrega- 
tions to  aid  in  the  extension  of  the  church. 
This  was  the  first  effort  made.  The  moneys  col- 
lected were  to  be  transferred  through  the  Classes 
to  the  Synod. 

The  subject  of  church  extension  is  found 
inserted  as  an  item  in  the  regular  business  of 
each  Classis  as  early  as  1790.  A  Classis  at  this 
time  would  collect  from  $50  to  $100  annually. 
At  the  close  of  the  century  all  the  Classes  were 
forwarding  money  (most  of  the  churches  con- 
tributing), except  the  Classis  of  Kingston,  for 
the  cause  of  church  extension. 

The  Synod  of  1800  formally  appointed  the 
Classis  of  Albany  to  take  charge  of  all  the  mis- 
sionary operations  in  the  northern  States. 

1806-1822.  The  Synod  now  appointed  a  com- 
mittee of  ministers  and  elders,  with  plenary 
powers,  to  whom  should  be  confided  all  her  mis- 
sionary operations.  They  were  located  in 
Albany  till  1819,  when  they  were  directed  to 
locate  in  New  York.  They  were  known  as  the 
"Standing  Committee  of  Missions  for  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  in  America." 

The  committee  began  their  operations  on  the 
old  plan — short  tours  by  settled  pastors;  but 
such  efforts  proved  unsatisfactory.  Settled 
ministers  were  wanted. 

With  the  transfer  of  the  committee  to  New 
York  the  mission  to  the  Canadian  churches  was 
abandoned.  Some  of  the  Classes  now  began  to 
retain  their  money  for  their  own  missionary 
necessities.  At  the  suggestion  of  Rev.  Paschal 
N.  Strong  a  number  of  individuals,  in  January, 
1822,  organized  themselves  into  a  society,  to  be 
known  as  "The  Missionarv  Society  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church."  This  act  was  made 
known  to  the  Synod,  and  the  matter  was  referred 
to  the  Committee  on  Missions.  The  birth  of  the 
society  was  hailed  with  joy.  Its  board  of  mana- 
gers was  made  Synod's  Committee  on  Missions, 
and  the  churches  were  exhorted  to  form  auxiliary 
societies. 

1822-1832.  The  policy  of  the  new  Society  was 
to  employ  as  many  of  the  graduates  of  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  as 
were  willing  to  undertake  mission  work,  to  have 
auxiliary  societies  in  every  congregation,  and  to 
take  up  collections  at  the  monthly  concerts  tor 
prayer.  During  the  ten  years  of  its  existence  the 
Society  collected  more  than  $30,000,  aiding  about 
100  churches  or  stations  and  130  missionaries. 
It  also  started,  in  1826,  the  Magazine  of  thi 
Reformed  Dutch  Church,  which,  four  years  later, 
was  transformed  into  the  Christian  Intelligencer. 
In  1833  the  Missionary  Society  became  auxiliary 
to  the  Board,  and  for  nine  years  the  Board 
depended  on  Classical  agents.  In  1837  the  first 
church  of  the  denomination  was  formed  in  the 
then  Far  West  at  Fairview,  III.     In  1841  there 


i  li 


811 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Home   Mlaslona 
Honan-fa 


were  enough  churches  to  organize  the  Classes  of 
Illinois  and  Michigan,  and  ten  years  later  the 
Classie  of  Holland.  Later  the  name  of  the  Board 
was  changed  from  the  "Board  of  Missions"  to  the 
"Board  of  Domestic  Missions  of  General  Synod." 
In  1849  the  Board  was  reorganized,  and  in  1866 
was  incorporated  under  the  name  of  The  Board 
of  Domestic  Missions  of  the  Reformed  Protestant 
Dutch  Church.  In  1870  the  corporate  name  was 
changed  to  the  present  title,  viz.:  The  Board  of 
Domestic  Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America.  Its  administrative  offices  are  at  the 
Reformed  Church  Building,  25  East  23d  Street, 
New  York  City. 

In  1854  the  plan  of  a  Church  Building  Fund 
was  adopted,  the  object  being  to  raise  funds  to 
aid  feeble  churches  by  loans  to  erect  houses  of 
worship  and  parsonages.  In  1882  the  Women's 
Executive  Committee  was  organized  as  an 
auxiliary  to  the  Board.  Beginning  with  the 
specific  work  of  raising  money  for  the  erection  of 
parsonages,  they  have  extended  their  efforts,  till 
now,  besides  furnishing  many  mission  churches, 
providing  comforts  for  pastors'  families  and 
Christmas  boxes  for  Sunday  schools,  they  wholly 
support  missions  and  schools  among  the  Indians 
in  OlUahoma  and  the  mountain  whites  in  Ken- 
tucky. In  the  year  ending  April  30,  1903,  they 
collected  $36,357  for  their  work.  "The  original 
charter  of  the  Board  restricted  its  work  to  "aid- 
ing weak  and  founding  new  churches  of  the 
denomination."  *  In  1900  the  charter  was 
amended  so  as  "to  allow  its  missionaries  to 
engage  in  evangelistic  work  which  may  not 
immediately  eventuate  in  the  founding  of  new 
churches."  In  the  year  ending  April  30,  1903, 
the  Board  had  under  its  care  245  churches  and 
missions  located  in  twenty  States  and  Oklahoma 
Territory,  and  helped  to  support  175  missionary 
pastors,  besides  student  missionaries.  In  that 
year  the  Board  received  and  expended  $98,965. 

Southern  Baptist  Convention:  In  response  to  a 
call  made  for  the  purpose,  by  the  Virginia  Baptist 
Foreign  Mission  Society,  the  Southern  Baptist 
Convention  was  organized  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  in 
1845. 

The  object  of  the  movement  was  declared  in 
the  first  paragraph  of  the  Constitution  adopted, 
which  stated  it  to  be  "for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
into  effect  the  benevolent  intentions  of  our  con- 
stituents by  organizing  a  plan  of  eliciting,  com- 
bining and  directing  the  energies  of  the  whole 
denomination  in  one  sacred  effort  to  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel." 

The  Convention  created  two  boards,  one  for 
Foreign  Missions  located  at  Richmond,  Va.,  the 
other  for  Home  Missions  located  at  Marion,  Ala., 
where  it  remained  until  1882,  when  it  was 
removed  to  Atlanta,  Ga. 

The  Home  Mission  Board  has  been,  and  is 
still,  the  special  agency  for  carrying  forward  the 
purposes  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention  as 
expressed  above.  Its  work,  therefore,  has  been 
largely  along  the  line  of  discovery,  development, 
and  combining. 

The  policy  of  the  Board  from  the  date  of  its 
organization  has  been  that  of  cooperation. 
Under  instructions  from  the  Convention  it  has 
sought  to  form  auxiliary  relationship  with  State 
Conventions,  District  Associations  and  Mission- 
ary organizations.  Its  field  of  labor  has,  during 
these  years,  become  more  clearly  defined  and 
may  be  described  as  follows:   Maryland,   Ken- 


tucky, Indian  Territory,  Oklahoma,  and  all  the 
States  south  of  these,  together  with  the  four 
Western  Provinces  in  the  island  of  Cuba,  the 
Board  having  relinquished  its  work  in  the  two 
Eastern  Provinces  of  Cuba  in  favor  of  the  Home 
Mission  Society  of  New  York. 

The  work  of  the  Board  has  naturally  become 
divided  into  the  following  distinct  departments: 
Frontier  Missions,  which  includes  a  portion  of 
Arlvan.sas,  Texas,  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Terri- 
tory; The  Mountain  Regions,  embracing  a  large 
area  of  territory  extending  from  West  Virginia 
through  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  Tennessee,  Ken- 
tucky and  Georgia  into  Alabama;  Work  in  thpe 
Cities,  such  as  New  Orleans,  Memphis,  St.  Louis, 
Baltimore,  etc.  The  imperative  needs  of  t4iis 
feature  of  the  worl-c  are  being  pressed  upon  tke 
Board  with  renewed  emphasis,  work  among  the 
foreign  population  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the 
most  important  features  of  the  work  of  the  Board; 
Cuba,  in  which  gratifying  progress  has  been  made 
and  which  is  exceedingly  promising  for  the  future. 
The  other  department  of  the  Board's  work  is  that 
of  Work  among  the  Negroes,  to  which  more 
special  attention  is  likely  to  be  directed  in  the 
immediate  future  than  ever  before.  The  spirit- 
ual welfare  of  the  negro,  however,  has  been  a 
matter  of  concern  to  Southern  Baptists  ever 
since  Africans  were  imported  to  this  country. 
During  the  antebellum  days  they  were  baptized 
and  received  into  fellowship  of  the  white  churches. 
Since  their  separation  and  organization  into 
churches  of  their  own  race,  the  Board  has  con- 
stantly aided  them  in  the  proper  formation  of 
church  government,  as  well  as  in  moral  and 
theological  training. 

The  first  annual  report  of  the  Board  showed  the 
appointment  during  that  year  of  six  missionaries, 
one  in  Virginia,  one  in  Florida,  one  in  Alabama, 
one  in  Louisiana  and  two  in  Texas.  The  work 
accomplished  by  the  Board  has  constantly 
increased  until  its  last  Annual  Report  shows  the 
following  summary  of  work: 

Missionaries,  671;  weeks  of  labor,  24,355; 
churches  and  stations,  3,133;  sermons  and 
addresses,  85,335;  prayer  meetings,  12,232; 
religious  visits,  163,587;  baptisms,  8,969;  received 
by  letter,  9,716;  total  additions,  18,690;  churchee 
constituted,  127;  houses  of  worship  built  and 
improved,  280;  Sunday  schools  organized,  494; 
Bibles  and  Testaments  distributed,  17,903; 
tracts  distributed  (pages),  3,044,888. 

Since  its  organization  the  Board  has  had  under 
annual  appointment  an  aggregate  of  10,190  mis- 
sionaries. They  have  reported  222,505  addi- 
tions to  churches,  and  3,504  churches  consti- 
tuted. The  Board  has  been  instrumental  in 
establishing  something  over  17  per  cent,  of  all  the 
white  Baptist  Churches  within  the  bounds  of  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention.  It  has  aided  weak 
churches  in  their  early  struggles  in  the  capital 
city  of  every  State,  save  one,  including  the 
capital  of  the  nation,  as  well  as  nine-tenths  of  all 
points  of  importance  in  the  Southern  States. 

The  constituency  of  the  Home  Mission  Board 
consists  of  1,737,466  white  Baptists,  organized 
into  19,919  churches.  In  the  same  territory  the 
number  of  negro  Baptists  is  estimated  to  be 
1,927,089. 

HONAIT-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Ho- 
nan,  situated  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  province 
about  20  miles  S.  of  the  Hoang-ho.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1902),  with  2  missionaries. 


Honduras 
Hottentot 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


318 


HONDURAS:  A  republic  of  Central  America, 
lying  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  east,  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  San  Salvador  on  the  west,  and 
separating  Nicaragua  from  Guatemala.  It  became 
part  of  the  Central  American  Confederation  in 
1822,  but  asserted  its  independence  in  1838,  and 
is  now  governed  by  a  president  elected  by  popu- 
lar vote  for  four  years.  It  has  almost  the  exact 
area  of  Mississippi,  with  a  population  of  (1900) 
587,500,  the  majority  of  whom  are  aboriginal 
Indians  and  Mestizos,  with  5,000  descendants  of 
the  early  Spanish  settlers,  and  5,000  negroes. 
In  general,  the  country  is  mountainous,  the  Cor- 
dilleras crossing  it  from  north  to  south.  There 
are  many  rivers,  most  of  them  flowing  east.  On 
the  highlands  the  climate  is  pleasant  and  equable, 
but  along  the  Caribbean  coast  it  is  hot  and 
malarious.  The  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  and 
luxuriant,  tropical  vegetation  is  found  along 
the  coast.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  religion  of 
the  country.  The  coming  in  of  North  Americans 
and  other  foreigners  is  introducing  good  roads 
and  improved  methods  of  living,  so  that  a  better 
future  is  before  the  republic.  When  the  Presi- 
dent of  Honduras  visited  the  Bay  Islands  in  1900 
he  invited  the  Protestant  workers  to  come  into 
the  interior,  and  the  invitation  is  being  accepted. 

HONDURAS,  British :  A  crown  colony  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea  south  of  Yucatan,  east  of  Guate- 
mala, and  660  miles  west  from  Jamaica.  It  has 
an  area  of  7,562  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  27,542.  The  capital  is  Belize,  with  5,800 
inhabitants.  Mission  field  of  the  WMS,  the 
SPG,  and  the  Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary 
Society.  Over  2,000  members  are  gathered  in 
35  organizations,  2,500  pupils  are  taught  in  20 
day  schools  and  many  more  in  Sunday  schools, 
and  12  missionaries  are  doing  valiant  service 
throughout  the  colony. 

HONGKONG:  An  island  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Canton  River,  off  the  southeast  coast  of  China, 
about  40  miles  E.  of  Macao  and  90  miles  S.  of 
Canton.  It  is  a  British  possession,  having  been 
ceded  by  the  treaty  of  Nan-king  (1842).  It  is  a 
rocky,  mountainous  island,  nine  miles  long  and 
from  two  to  six  broad,  and  comprises  an  area  of 
29  square  miles.  Previous  to  the  occupation  of 
the  island  by  the  British,  it  was  the  home  of  a 
few  fishermen,  who  oftentimes  changed  their 
occupation  to  that  of  piracy  when  opportimity 
offered.  Now  it  is  one  of  the  most  important 
British  possessions  in  the  East.  Victoria,  the 
capital  and  main  city,  is  on  the  northern  shore 
of  the  island,  by  the  side  of  a  safe  and  ample 
harbor.  Fine  streets  and  terraces  cut  in  the  side 
of  the  mountains,  laid  out  with  the  best  of  engi- 
neering skill,  and,  beautified  with  trees  and  tropical 
plants,  have  changed  the  entire  appearance  of 
this  rooky  island.  Other  settlements  in  the 
colony  are  Aberdeen,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
island,  and  Kowloon,  a  strip  of  land  on  the  penin- 
sula of  that  name,  which  was  ceded  to  the  British 
in  1861,  and  increased  to  an  area  of  376  square 
miles  by  a  lease  of  adjacent  territory  under  the 
treaty  of  1898.  The  healthf  iilness  of  the  colony  is 
as  good  as  any  in  a  like  latitude.  Oppressive 
heat  and  humidity  last  from  May  to  October, 
but  during  the  four  winter  months  the  bracing, 
cool  atmosphere  makes  residence  there  delight- 
ful. Hongkong  is  a  port  of  call  for  the  lines  of 
mail  steamers  from  Europe,  America,  and  Aus- 
tralia.    Daily  steamers  run  between  Victoria  and 


Canton  and  Macao,  while  numerous  lines  ply 
between  Victoria  and  the  coast  ports  of  China. 
The  population  (1901)  is  283,905,  of  whom^,000 
are  white  of  all  nationalities  (only  one-third 
English),  and  233,263  Chinese.  The  government 
supervises  178  schools,  attended  by  7,700  pupils. 
In  these  schools  English  is  taught.  Mission 
work  in  Hongkong  is  identified  with  the  early 
history  of  the  various  missionary  societies  who 
work  in  China.  The  societies  at  present  laboring 
here  are  the  LMS  (1843),  the  Basel  Society  (1852), 
the  CMS  (1862),  the  ABCFM  (1883),  the  WMS, 
the  SDA,  the  Rhenish  Society  (1847),  the  Berlin 
Ladies'  Society,  and  the  German  Mission  to 
Chinese  Blind.  Together,  these  Societies  have 
(1903)  40  missionaries  in  Hongkong,  men  and 
women;  122  native  workers,  men  and  women;  24 
outstations,  18  preaching  places,  4  boarding 
schools,  50  day  schools,  1  orphanage,  1  blind 
asylum,  and  2,500  professed  Christian  adherents. 
The  BFBS  has  an  agent  here,  and  the  YMCA  has 
made  it  a  regular  station  since  1899,  with  a  man 
and  his  wife  to  foster  the  extension  of  the 
YMCA. 

HONOLULU:  The  seat  of  government  and 
principal  seaport  of  the  Hawaiin  Islands,  situated 
on  the  southeastern  coast  of  Oahu,  is  a  fine  com- 
mercial city.  Its  mild  and  equable  climate 
ranges  from  67°  in  January  to  83°  in  August, 
maliing  the  annual  mean  75°,  with  a  variation  in 
either  direction  of  only  7°.  It  is  a  port  of  call 
for  the  steamers  plying  between  San  Francisco 
and  Australia,  and  occasionally  for  the  steamers 
between  San  Francisco  and  Hongkong,  while  it 
is  the  terminus  of  a  line  of  steamers  running 
semi-weekly  to  San  Francisco.  The  inhabitants 
number  39,305,  among  whom  are  a  great  many 
Japanese,  Chinese,  half-breeds,  and  natives  of 
various  islands  of  the  Pacific.  The  P.  E. 
Church  has  a  bishop  at  Honolulu.  There  is 
also  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Mission  work  is 
carried  on  by  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion, and  by  other  denominational  agencies. 
The  ABCFM  (1819)  was  first  in  the  field,  and  the 
Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association  has  taken  up 
its  work.  The  ME,  the  FCMS,  the  PE 
(taking  over  the  work  of  the  SPG),  the  SDA,  and 
the  Peniel  Society  all  have  enterprises  in  Hono- 
lulu, largely  among  the  Japanese,  the  Chinese, 
and  other  immigrants,  many  of  whom  are  Portu- 
guese and  Roman  Catholics. 

HONWAR :  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
India,  situated  about  18  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Bija- 
pur.  Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society 
(1845),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
9  native  workers.  The  name  is  written  Honor 
in  the  Basel  Society's  publications. 

HO-NYEN:  A  village  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  in  the  highland  dis- 
trict not  far  from  Ho-su-van.  Station  of  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society  (1901),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife,  23  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  17  outstations,  8  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  626  professed 
Christians. 

HOOCHOW.     See  Hu-chau-pu. 

HOOGHLY.     See  Hugli. 

HOPE  FOUNTAIN:  A  settlement  in  Rhodesia, 
South  Central  Africa,  situated  about  7  miles  S.  W 
of  Buluwayo.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1860),  with 
(1903)    2    missionaries,    1    missionary's   wife,  3 


313 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Honduras 
Hottentot 


native  workers,  3  day  schools,  1  industrial  insti- 
tute, and  900  professed  Christian  adherents,  of 
whom  15  are  church  members. 

HOPE  VALLEY:  A  settlement  in  the  N.  part 
of  Queensland,  Australia,  situated  on  the  sea- 
coast  near  Cookstown.  Station  of  the  Neuen- 
dettelsan  Missionary  Society  (1886),  with  (1900) 
6  missionaries,  men  and  women. 

HORDEW,  John:  Born  in  1828;  died  in  1893. 
In  1851  left  England  to  work  as  a  lay  missionary 
in  an  extremely  remote  corner  of  Rupert's  Land, 
but  soon  afterward  he  was  appointed  by  the 
CMS  as  missionary  to  Moose  Fort,  Northwestern 
Canada.  In  1852  Bishop  Anderson  visited 
Moose  and  Mr.  Horden  was  ordained  deacon  and 
priest  the  same  year.  When  the  diocese  of 
Rupert's  Land  was  divided  in  1872,  he  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Moosonee,  a  diocese  coexten- 
sive with  the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay,  and  running 
from  300  to  500  miles  inland,  and  as  far  north  as 
human  beings  exist.  Owing  to  the  difficulties  of 
locomotion  his  episcopal  duties  were  confined 
entirely  to  the  south  of  the  bay  until  1879,  when, 
in  visiting  the  northern  portion  of  his  diocese, 
he  had  to  descend  south  for  several  hundred 
miles,  then  go  west  by  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way, through  three  dioceses,  then  take  a  north- 
erly direction  through  Rupert's  Land,  and  finally 
veer  round  to  northeast  to  reach  York  Fac- 
tory. This  journey  required  the  greater  part  of 
the  summer;  and  during  the  winter  his  time  was 
fully  occupied  in  day  school  work,  visiting,  per- 
sonal interviews  with  all  classes  of  the  commu- 
nity, in  learning  the  vernacular  and  in  giving 
instructions  respecting  the  verbal  construction  of 
the  language.  In  February,  1880,  he  took  the 
journey  by  sled  to  Churchill,  when  the  ther- 
mometer averaged  37°  below  zero,  and  he 
remained  there  until  April,  working  among  the 
people  at  the  post  and  among  the  Chipewyans 
and  Eskimos.  In  the  summer  of  this  year, 
amid  the  greatest  difficulties,  he  visited  the 
outstations  of  York  Factory.  "These  visits  were 
very  successful  and  hundreds  turned  from 
heathenism  and  accepted  Christianity.  When 
death  came  to  him  at  Moose,  January  12,  1893, 
he  was  engaged  in  revising  his  own  translations 
and  Dr.  Mason's  Cree  Bible,  after  forty-two 
years'  service  as  missionary  and  bishop.  His 
literary  works  consist  of  Bible  translations, 
prayer  book,  hymn  book.  Gospel  history  into 
the  Cree  languages,  several  translations  into  the 
Saulto,  Eskimo  and  Ojibbeway  languages,  and 
other  minor  translations. 

HOSCHUWAN.     See  Ho-su-wan. 

HOSHANGABAD :  A  town  in  the  Central  Prov- 
inces, India,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Narbada  River,  40  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Bhopal.  It 
is  on  the  high  road  to  Bombay,  having  an  excel- 
lent trade.  Population  (1891),  13,500,  of  whom 
9,910  are  Hindus  and  the  larger  part  of  the 
remainder  are  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the 
FFMA  (1874),  with  9  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  8  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  indus- 
trial school,  and  1  dispensary. 

HOSHIARPUR:  A  town  in  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Punjab,  India,  situated  45  miles 
N.  of  Ludhiana.  Population,  about  20,000. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1867) ;  at  present  (1903)  not 
occupied  by  missionaries.  It  is  in  charge  of  a 
native  worker  with  his  wife  and  1  native  woman 
worker  who  is  a  physician.     There  is  an  orphan- 


age, with  industrial  department,  a  hospital,  and 
1,206  professed  Christians,  of  whom  774  are  com- 
municants. 

HOSTEL:  Some  of  the  missionary  societies 
apply  this  name  to  boarding  houses  for  students 
established  at  a  missionary  station  in  connection 
with  or  near  a  high  school  or  college  which 
attracts  young  men  from  a  distance.  Hostels 
are  sometimes  established  for  Christian  ntudents 
in  order  to  strengthen  them  against  influences  to 
which  they  are  exposed  while  living  at  a  distance 
from  their  Christian  homes.  Others  are  opened 
for  non-Christian  students,  and  such  become  a 
most  effective  method  of  evangelization  in  view 
of  the  influences  which  they  bring  to  bear  on 
heathen  or  Mohammedan  students  who,  during 
their  education,  are  removed  from  the  anti- 
Christian  pressure  surrounding  them  in  their 
homes.  The  SPG  missionaries  in  Delhi,  India, 
for  this  reason  regard  such  a  hostel  as  the  heart 
of  their  Christian  work  in  that  city. 

Hostels  are  being  established  by  some  mis- 
sions in  places  where  they  have  no  higher  educa- 
tional institutions,  and  with  the  direct  purpose 
of  bringing  non-Christian  students  at  secular 
colleges  under  moral  and  Christian  influence. 

HO-SU-WAN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  in  the  highlands 
near  the  headwaters  of  a  branch  of  the  Tung 
River,  about  40  miles  N.  E.  of  Hwei-chau-fu. 
Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1885), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  7  native 
workers,  4  outstations,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  346  professed  Christians.  Name 
written  by  the  Society,  Hoschuwan. 

HO-TSIN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China;  situated  in  the  S.  about  32  miles 
W.  of  Kiang-chau,  and  a  little  above  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Fen-ho  and  Hoang-ho.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife. 

HOTTENTOT-BUSHMAN  RACE:  When  the 
southern  angle  of  Africa  was  first  visited  by  Diaz 
and  De  Gama  four  centuries  since,  as  when  it 
began  to  be  colonized  also  by  Europeans  in  1652, 
it  was  found  to  be  occupied  by  a  somewhat  pecu- 
liar aboriginal  race,  which  soon  came  to  be  known 
as  the  Hottentots.  Out  of  this  parent  stock  have 
come  several  affiliated  groups  known  as  Bush- 
men, Namaquas,  Korannas,  and  Griquas.  The 
Hottentots  called  themselves  originally  Khoi- 
Khoi,  "Men  of  Men."  Prichard  regarded  their 
present  name  as  a  corruption  of  Houteniqua,  the 
name  of  an  extinct  tribe.  But  those  who  know 
the  language,  finding  in  it  no  roots  of  such  a  word, 
prefer  the  opinion  advanced  by  T.  Hahn,  a 
scholar  who  knew  the  language  as  his  mother 
tongue,  having  been  born  and  bred  among  them 
as  the  son  of  a  missionary,  that  the  Dutch  gave 
them  this  name,  Hottentot,  because  of  the  curi- 
ous sounds,  especially  in  the  clicks,  in  which  their 
language  abounds,  as  if  they  stammered  and 
stuttered.  Indeed,  in  Low  German,  the  word 
Hottentot,  or  Huttentilt,  is  found,  meaning,  it  is 
said,  a  "quack."  More  than  two  centuries  since, 
they  were  represented  by  the  traveler,  Dapper, 
as  "speaking  with  clicks  like  Calicut  hens." 
These  clicks,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds,  as 
labial,  palatal,  dental,  or  lateral,  seem  to  have 
had  their  origin  in  the  onomatopoetic  principle, 
in  the  Hottentot  tongue,  and  from  this  to  have 


Hottentot 
HoTvrah 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


314 


been  taken  over  and  adopted  into  some  of  the 
neighboring  languages,  especially  into  Kaffir  and 
Zulu.  The  Hottentot  abounds  also  in  harsh  con- 
sonants and  aspirated  gutturals,  which,  with  the 
clicks,  are  hard  for  a  foreigner  to  acquire.  The 
eminent  comparative  philologist,  Dr.  Bleek,  who 
had  the  best  of  means  for  forming  a  correct 
opinion,  calls  the  Hottentot  a  suffix-pronominal, 
sex-denoting  language,  and  classes  it  with  the 
Hamitic  of  North  Africa.  According  to  T.  Hahn, 
it  is  strictly  monosyllabic,  and  every  root  ends 
in  a  vowel.  It  uses  suffixes  and  postpositions, 
has  three  grammatical  genders  and  three  num- 
bers, four  clicks  and  three  tones.  It  has  an 
extensive  oral  literature  of  songs  and  animal 
stories,  is  highly  developed,  and  anything  but  the 
mere  jargon  which  the  early  Dutch  settlers  fan- 
cied it  to  be. 

Grout,  in  his  Zulu- Land,  says:  "The  geograph- 
ical position  of  the  Hottentot,  from  the  time  he 
was  first  known  to  the  European,  situated  as  he 
was  at  the  southern  extreme  of  the  African  con- 
tinent, and  flanked  from  sea  to  sea  on  his  north 
or  inland  side  by  a  broad  belt  of  people  of  a  very 
different  language  and  appearance,  would  seem 
to  indicate  that  any  search  for  his  pedigree  and 
ancestry,  provided  the  present  be  not  his  original 
home,  must  be  made  in  regions  far  removed  in 
respect  to  both  time  and  place.  Happily,  within 
the  last  few  years,  a  careful  study  of  his  language 
and  a  comparison  of  this  with  the  old  Egyptian 
and  Coptic  tongue  have  given  a  clew  to  his 
ancient  abode.  If  we  may  credit  some  of  the 
most  learned  and  acute  philologists  of  the  present 
day,  and  those  who  have  had  the  best  opportuni- 
ties for  studying  the  Hottentot  and  Bushman, 
together  with  other  African  dialects,  this  Garie- 
pine  tongue  of  the  southern  extreme  belongs  to 
the  same  family  as  the  old  Egyptian  and  Coptic, 
the  Berber,  and  Ethiopic,  in  the  farthest  north 
of  the  continent;  and  what  is  also  highly  inter- 
esting and  important,  this  southern  branch  of  the 
family  is  found  to  surpass  all  the  rest  in  the 
integrity  with  which  it  has  preserved  the  more 
essential    characteristics   of   the   original   stock. 

"Admitting  the  correctness  of  these  views,  we 
can  have  no  doubt  as  to  the  early  ancestry  of  the 
Hottentot  and  Bushman  class,  including  the 
Koranna  and  Namaqua,  and  that  their  origin  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  nations  of  northern 
Africa,  the  old  Egyptian,  and  kindred  tribes, 
including,  perhaps,  the  Libyan  or  Berber  and  the 
Guanches." 

The  likeness  of  the  Hottentot,  in  many 
respects,  to  the  old  Egyptian  family  would  indi- 
cate that  the  former  was  once  a  part  of  the  latter. 
It  follows,  then,  that  these  extreme  southern 
tribes  were  once  sundered  by  some  dividing 
wedge  from  the  extreme  northern,  and  by  this 
new  incoming  power  or  alien  race,  of  a  very 
different  language,  were  driven  on  southward 
from  age  to  age,  till  they  finally  reached  their 
present  abode  in  the  southern  angle  of  the  con- 
tinent, from  which  they  could  be  driven  no 
farther.  The  linguistic  argument  is  supported 
by  the  fact  that  the  appearance,  manners,  cus- 
toms of  the  Hottentots,  differ  in  many  respects 
essentially  from  those  of  the  Bantu  race  on  their 
northern  border,  and  yet  afford  good  ground  for 
classing  them  with  the  old  Egyptian  and  other 
North  African  nations.  Some  of  the  learned  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  have  found  pictures  and 


impressions  among  the  antiquities  of  Egypt  so 
like  the  Hottentot  as  to  make  it  certain,  as  they 
think,  that  the  original  of  these  representatives 
must  have  been  people  of  this  race.  Then 
again,  the  Hottentots  of  South  Africa,  in  days  of 
old,  as  the  early  travelers  in  that  region  and 
their  own  traditions  tell  us,  were  wont  to  wor- 
ship the  moon — the  like  to  which,  the  historian 
tells  us,  was  found  among  the  northern  nations 
of  Africa  in  their  sidereal  worship.  And  yet  we 
find  no  trace  of  this  worship  among  their  neigh- 
bors of  the  Bantu  race.  The  gods  of  the  Zulus 
are  regarded  as  having  their  home  beneath  and 
never  above.  The  northern  nations  of  olden 
times,  like  the  Hottentots  from  time  immemorial, 
made  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  while  the  Zulu 
and  his  neighbors  of  the  Bantu  race  use  the 
spear,  short  sword,  and  war  club.  And  yet  it 
is  in  looking  at  the  more  permanent  and  marked 
feature  of  the  Hottentot,  his  language,  and  its 
likeness  to  that  of  the  old  Egyptian,  that  we  find 
the  strongest  proof  that  he  is  related  to  the  men 
of  North  Africa. 

With  facts  like  these  before  us,  it  is  easy  to 
believe  this  stock,  originally  one,  was,  at  an  early 
age,  split  and  separated  into  the  two  parts  we 
now  find,  one  in  the  extreme  north  and  another 
in  the  extreme  south  of  the  continent,  by  the 
incoming  of  the  sundering  wedge  of  another  race, 
as  the  Bantu,  from  the  northeast.  Eruptions 
from  that  quarter,  in  those  early  ages,  were  not 
uncommon,  as  we  know  from  the  incoming  of 
the  Israelites  and  of  the  Shepherd  Kings.  As  the 
families  in  the  northeast  grew  and  multiplied,  it 
was  but  natural  that  some  of  them  should  press 
to  the  south  and  west,  as  from  the  Euphrates 
into  Egypt.  Finding  Egypt  already  filled  by  a 
previous  family,  some  of  which  had,  doubtless, 
begun  to  move  on  up  the  Nile,  southward,  it  was 
easy  for  the  new  race  to  split  the  old,  and  push 
a  part  before  it,  each  advancing  up  the  Nile  and 
onward  to  the  south,  like  one  wave  after  another, 
till  finally  that  in  the  lead  was  crowded  into  the 
extreme  south  and  flanked  by  the  other  on  its 
northern  border,  the  former  now  called  the  Hot- 
tentot, the  latter  the  Bantu  race,  each  of  them 
continuing  to  keep  up  its  distinctive  aboriginal 
traits  in  a  remarkable  manner. 

In  personal  appearance  the  Hottentot  is  short 
in  stature,  of  a  yellowish  brown  in  color,  like  a 
faded  leaf,  with  high  cheek  bones,  chestnut  eyes, 
nose  flat,  hair  twisted  into  clusters.  When  first 
mentioned  by  the  Portuguese,  Hottentots  are 
described  as  pastoral  in  their  pursuits,  rich  in 
cattle,  scant  in  dress,  living  in  huts,  and  remark- 
able for  the  excellence  of  their  morals.  But 
almost  everything  in  respect  to  their  freedom, 
mode  of  life,  and  morals  was  greatly  changed, 
often  for  the  worse,  by  the  coming  in  of  the 
white  man.  Subsequently,  by  the  introduction 
of  a  better  rule  and  much  missionary  work  in 
their  behalf,  the  condition  of  many  of  them  was 
greatly  improved.  Some  of  the  tribes  have  been 
civilized,  and  many  of  the  people  become  good 
citizens,  intelligent,  steady,  and  industrious,  and 
not  a  few  are  brought  to  embrace  the  Gospel. 
Many  are  in  the  employ  of  the  Dutch  farmers; 
but  their  tribal  home,  so  far  as  they  have  any, 
is  on  the  Orange  River,  from  the  Atlantic  east- 
ward half  across  the  continent. 

Out  of  this  original  Hottentot  stock,  at  an 
early  date,  came  a  large  branch,  the  San  tribe, 
now  called  the  Bushmen.     This  name  is  an  Angli- 


816 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Hottentot 
HoTrrab 


cized  form  of  the  Dutch  Bosjes-men.  Indeed, 
8ome  speak  of  the  original  stock  as  opening  out 
into  two  branches,  the  Khoikhoi  and  the  San, 
the  former  being,  primarily,  given  to  the  pastoral 
mode  of  life,  the  latter  to  hunting.  For  this 
wandering,  hunting,  predatory  kind  of  life  the 
Bushmen  of  to-day  have  the  same  love  as  their 
ancestors,  the  San,  had  when  first  seen  centuries 
ago  by  Europeans.  Their  habitat  is  here  and 
there  among  the  wild  regions  of  the  Orange,  in  the 
bush,  among  the  rocks  and  ravines  of  the  hills, 
or  secluded  recesses  of  the  mountains,  on  the 
outskirts  of  other  tribes.  They  build  no  houses, 
have  neither  flocks,  herds  nor  tents.  They  are 
very  diminutive  in  stature,  of  a  dark  yellow  color, 
their  hair  like  wool  twisted  together  in  small 
tufts.  They  have  no  nationality,  and  it  would 
seem  that  their  religion  consists  chiefly  in  a  few 
superstitious  notions  concerning  evil  demons. 
In  their  unsettled,  wandering  condition  it  has 
been  difficult  to  carry  on  mission  work  among 
them,  tho  some  have  been  induced  to  join  sta- 
tions among  other  tribes,  being  in  this  way 
brought  to  a  knowledge  of  the  Gospel.  They 
speak  essentially  the  same  language  as  the  Hot- 
tentots, and  yet  the  points  of  difference  are  many. 
In  one  respect  they  are  an  enigma,  that  is,  in  the 
"signs  they  have  given  of  intelligence  and  artistic 
skill;  for,"  as  Dr.  Oust  says,  "they  have  exhibited 
a  wonderful  power  of  graphic  illustration.  The 
rocks  of  Cape  Colony  and  the  Drakenberg  have 
everywhere  examples  of  San  drawing,  figures  of 
men,  women  and  children,  animals  characteris- 
tically sketched,  and  as  a  proof  that  the  art  is  not 
extinct,  figures  of  their  enemies,  the  Boers, 
appear  unmistakably.  Rings,  crosses,  and  other 
signs  have  given  rise  to  the  speculation,  quite 
unsupported,  that  they  may  represent  some  form 
of  indigenous  writing,  but  the  facts,  such  as  they 
are,  must  not  be  stretched  beyond  what  they 
actually  evidence,  and  this  is  sufficiently  note- 
worthy." 

Another  tribe  of  Hottentots,  the  Namaquas, 
living  as  nomads  near  the  Atlantic  along  the 
Orange  River,  the  Great  Namaquas  on  the  north 
side  and  the  Little  Namaquas  on  the  south,  speak 
essentially  the  same  language,  have  the  same 
complexion,  kind  of  eyes  and  hair,  as  the  Bush- 
men and  other  Hottentots,  and  yet  are  tall, 
well-proportioned,  and  under  the  training  of  mis- 
sionaries have  come  to  be  somewhat  enterprising 
and  industrious.  Many  of  them  have  been  edu- 
cated and  led  to  embrace  the  Christian  faith. 
Not  unlike  to  these  are  the  Korannas  and  the 
Hottentot  tribes  who  live  also  along  the  Orange, 
to  the  east  of  the  Nam,aquas.  Going  still  farther 
east,  to  a  region  near  to  where  the  Vaal  and 
Modder  enter  the  Orange,  we  come  to  where  the 
noted  Griqua  tribes  began  to  be  gathered  and 
consolidated  with  others  a  century  since.  Being 
a  mixed  race,  many  of  them  the  offspring  of 
colonists  and  Hottentot  women,  they  speak  two 
languages,  the  Hottentot  and  the  Dutch,  tho  the 
latter  is  fast  supplanting  the  former.  Their  well- 
watered  valley,  a  little  north  of  the  Orange,  had 
an  attraction  for  others,  and  soon  became  the 
abode  of  free  blacks  and  Hottentot  refugees  from 
the  Cape  Colony;  and  soon  they  were  joined  by 
two  companies  of  mixed  bands  from  Little 
Namaqualand,  in  the  lead  of  Adam  Kok  and  his 
sons,  all  of  mixed  blood.  Neighboring  clans  of 
Korannas  and  Bushmen  became  a  part  of  the 
settlement.     A    mission     station     was     formed 


among  them  at  Klaarwater,  and  Messrs.  Ander- 
son and  Kramer  began  to  teach  them  the  Gospel, 
how  to  read,  to  cultivate  the  soil,  and  build 
houses  more  substantial  than  mat  huts.  Their 
history  for  all  these  generations,  like  that  of  other 
Hottentot  and  Bushmen  tribes,  has  been  remark- 
ably diversified — in  many  respects  sad,  and  full 
of  wrongs.  Many  of  them,  profiting  by  the 
teachings  of  the  missionaries,  as  the  years  have 
gone  by,  have  become  intelligent,  industrious. 
Christian  men,  while  others  have  continued  to 
prefer  the  savage  life. 

A  negro  race  on  the  west  coast,  north  of  the 
Orange,  having  been  subjugated  by  the  Nama- 
quas and  called  Damara,  or  "conquered,"  tho 
adopting  the  language  of  their  conquerors,  do 
not  really  belong  to  the  Hottentot  race.  Those 
of  the  Damara  who  speak  the  Hottentot  are 
called  the  Hill  Damara,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  Herero,  who  are  of  the  Bantu  race,  and  called 
Cattle  Damara. 

For  all  these  tribes  much  good  mission  work 
has  been  done.  Through  the  patient  endurance 
of  many  trials,  in  face  of  much  opposition  from 
those  who  should  have  been  helpers  together 
with  them,  the  missionaries  laboring  to  raise 
these  benighted,  persecuted  tribes  to  a  better 
plane  of  life  have  seen  their  labors  greatly  blessed, 
have  seen  great  secular,  social,  civil  good  brought 
to  them,  and  souls,  not  a  few,  fitted  for  immor- 
tality. 

Merriman,  Passages  of  Missionary  Life,  London,  1853; 
Moffat  (H.),  Missionary  labors  and  Scenes  in  South  Africa, 
London,  1842;  Fritsch  (G.),  Die  Eingeborenen  Sud-Afrikas, 
Breslau,  1873;  Ridsdale,  Scenes  and  Adventures  in  Great 
Naniairualand,  London,  1883;  Wendland,  Bethanien  in 
Namaland,  Berlin,  1885. 

HOWLAND,  William  Ware:  Born  in  West 
Brookfield,  Mass.,  on  the  28th  of  February,  1817. 
His  father  was  the  fifth  generation  from  John 
Howland,  who  was  one  of  tlie  first  band  of  Pil- 
grims who  sailed  in  the  Mayflower.  Mr.  How- 
land  graduated  from  Amherst  College  in  1841, 
and  from  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  New 
York  in  184.5.  He  reached  Jaffna,  Ceylon,  early 
in  1846  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM,  and  was 
located  at  Batticotta,  where  he  assisted  in 
teaching  a  select  class  in  the  seminary  for  young 
men,  but  he  gave  most  of  his  time  to  preaching 
in  the  vernacular  and  in  village  work.  In  1868 
he  moved  to  Tillipally,  and  for  ten  years  had 
charge  of  the  vernacular  training  and  theological 
institution.  After  the  death  of  "Father  Spauld- 
ing"  in  1873,  Mr.  Howland  became  the  senior 
missionary  in  the  American  Mission  in  Ceylon. 
He  also  succeeded  to  the  title  "Father,"  and 
even  to-day,  among  both  missionaries  and  natives. 
Christian  and  Hindu,  he  is  reverently  known  as 
"Father  Howland."  For  fifteen  years  he  was 
located  at  Oodooville  and  had  charge  of  the  sta- 
tion where  he  died  August  26,  1892,  after  nearly 
half  a  century  of  life  and  labor  among  the  Tamils 
of  Jaffna,  making  only  one  visit  to  the  homeland 
during  the  period.  Mr.  Howland  married  Miss 
Susan  Reed  in  1846,  herself  a  trained  educator. 
Four  of  their  children  entered  missionary  service 
under  the  American  Board.  Dr.  Howland  was 
preeminently  an  evangelist  and  preacher  of  the 
Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 

HOWRAH:  A  large  town  and  important  rail- 
way center  on  the  Hugli  River,  Bengal,  India, 
opposite  Calcutta,  of  which  it  is  practically  a 
suburb.  Population  (1901),  157,594,  about 
three-fourths  of  the  people  being  Hindus    and 


Hsianfir-clienK-liNien 
Home,  Robert  W. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


316 


one-fifth  Muslims.  Station  of  the  BMS  (1821) 
and  BZM  (1881),  with  (1903),  together,  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  1  woman  missionary, 
10  native  workers,  men  and  women;  6  day  schools, 
and  215  professed  Christian  adherents,  of  whom 
60  are  cnurch  members.  Station  also  of  the 
SPG  (1821),  with  (1903)  14  native  workers,  2 
outstations,  3  places  of  worship,  3  day  schools, 
and  299  baptized  Christians,  of  whom  148  are 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  CBZ  (1891), 
with  4  women  missionaries,  14  native  women 
workers,  and  4  day  schools. 

HSIANG-CHENG-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Ho-nan,  China,  situated  about  20  mUes 
W.  by  S.  of  Hsu-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM 
(1892),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 
Name  written  by  the  Society,  Siang-cheng. 

HSIANG-TAN-ksiEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Hu-nan,  China,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Siang  River,  210  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Han-kau. 
It  is  a  mart  for  drugs  and  medicines  for  the  whole 
of  China.  Population,  1,000,000.  Station  of 
the  PN  (1900),  with  (1903)  8  missionaries,  men 
and  women  (two  of  them  physicians);  2  native 
workers,  1  preaching  place,  1  day  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  1  hospital. 

HSIAO-KAN-HSIEN:  A  city  and  railway  sta- 
tion in  the  province  of  Hu-pei,  China,  situated 
about  40  miles  N.  W.  of  Han-kau,  in  a  very 
densely  populated  district.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1880),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  one  of  them 
a  physician;  2  wives  of  missionaries,  27  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  22  outstations,  5  day 
schools  and  1  hospital.  The  number  of  Chris- 
tians is  included  in  the  5,000  reported  in  Han- 
kau  statistics.  There  is  also  a  mission  to  lepers 
aided  by  the  Society  for  Lepers  in  India  and  the 
East.     Name  written  by  the  Society,  Hiau  Kan. 

HSIAO-MEI:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Che- 
kiang,  China,  situated  in  the  S.  of  the  province, 
about  70  miles  W.  of  Wen-chau-fu.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1896);  not  occupied  in  1903. 

HSIAO- YI-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  about  60  miles  S.  W.  of 
Tai-yuen-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1887);  not 
occupied  (1903)  since  the  Boxer  rising  of  1900, 
when  two  missionaries  were  killed  here.  Name 
written  by  the  Society,  Hiao-i. 

HSI-AN-FU.     See  Hsi-ngan-pu. 

HSI-CHAU :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Shan-si, 
China,  situated  about  115  miles  S.  W.  of  Tai- 
yuen-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1885),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife.  Name  written  by  the 
Society,  Si-chau. 

HSIEN-YU-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Fo-kien,  China,  situated  about  25  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Hsing-hwa.  Station  of  the  CMS  and  the 
CEZ,  with  (1903)  together  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  3  women  missionaries,  28  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  18  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  638  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  2  women  mission- 
aries, 64  native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  out- 
stations, 37  j)reaching  places,  1  village  school,  1 
women's  training  class,  and  1,005  professed 
Christians.  Name  written  by  the  Societies, 
Sing-iu. 

HSI-HSIANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Shen-si,  China,  situated  about  30  miles  S.  E. 
of  Han-chung-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1895), 
with   (1903)   2   women  missionaries  and   a  day 


school.  Name  written  by  the  Society,  Si- 
hsiang. 

HSIN-AN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  China,  situated  about  20  miles  W.  of 
Ho-nan-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1899),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  woman 
missionary.  Name  written  by  the  Society,  Sin- 
an-hsien. 

HSIN-CHANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Che-kiang,  China,  situated  about  20  miles  E. 
of   Hu-chau.     Station   of   the   PS    (1892),    with 

(1902)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  1  woman 
missionary,  4  native  workers  (one  a  woman),  1 
boarding  school,  and  100  professed  Christians. 
Name  written  by  the  Society,  Sinchang. 

HSIN-CHANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Che-kiang,  China,  situated  45  miles  S.  W.  of 
Ning-po.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1870) ,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  .and  his  wife.  Name  written  by  the 
Society,  Sin-chang. 

HSIN-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  in  the  central  part  of 
the  province,  about  45  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Tai- 
yuen-fu.  Station  of  the  BMS  (1885),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  and 
6  outstations.     Station  also  of  the  BZM,  not  yet 

(1903)  reoccupied  since  the  Boxer  outbreaks. 
Name  also  written  Hsin-chow. 

HSIN-CHENG:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  China,  situated  40  miles  S.  of  Chang-te. 
Station  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 
(1892),  but  since  1900  an  outstation  of  Wu- 
hwei. 

HSIN  CHOW.     See  Hsin-chau. 

HSIN-FENG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Kiang-si,  China,  situated  about  40  miles  S.  by 
W.  of  Kan-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1899), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries.  Name  written  by 
the  Society,  Sin-feng. 

HSI-NGAN-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China,  situated  in  a  vast  wheat  field, 
S.  W.  of  the  confluence  of  the  Wei-ho  and  King- 
ho  Rivers,  and  at  the  convergence  of  many 
natural  trade  routes.  It  was  founded  in  the 
12th  century,  B.  c,  and  for  2,000  years  was  the 
capital  of  Eastern  China.  Its  environs  are  rich 
in  antiquities.  One  of  the  most  important  relics 
preserved  in  this  city  is  the  tablet  setting  forth 
the  relations  of  Nestorian  missionaries  of  the  8th 
century  to  the  Chinese  government.  The  place 
is  probably  the  same  as  the  Thinai  of  Ptolemy, 
and  it  is  called  Changan  by  Marco  Polo.  The 
town  stands  at  an  altitude  of  1,500  feet,  sur- 
rounded by  high  walls  which  enclose  considerable 
pieces  of  cultivated  land.  The  streets  are 
straight  and  clean.  Population,  about  500,000. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1893),  with  (1903)  4  mis- 
sionaries and  2  wives  of  missionaries,  who  are 
engaged  in  giving  an  impulse  to  the  work 
checked  by  the  Boxer  movement.  Station  also 
of  the  BMS  (1894),  who  have  now  (1903)  no 
missionary  actually  in  the  city.  Station  also  of 
the  Swedish  Alliance  Mission,  and  agency  of  the 
BFBS.     Name  also  written  Singan. 

HSING-HWA-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Fo-kien,  China,  situated  on  the  coast  50  miles 
S.  W.  by  S.  of  Fu-chau.  It  is  built  at  the  foot 
of  hills  looking  out  over  a  fertile  plain  and  over 
the  Hing-hwa  Bay.  An  important  literary  cen- 
ter; it  has  an  examination  hall  seating  3,000 
students.     Station  of  the  ME  (1864),  with  (1903) 


ai7 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


H«lan«-ch  »n  K-h«len 
Hume,   Robert  W. 


1  missionary,  3  women  missionaries,  119  native 
workers,  6  outstations,  48  places  of  worship,  34 
Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools, 
special  work  among  lepers,  1  printing  house,  1 
industrial  school,  and  1,769  professing  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  CMS  (1894),  with  3  mission- 
aries (one  wife  of  a  missionary) ,  2  women  mission- 
aries, 13  native  workers,  9  day  schools,  1  board- 
ing school,  1  theological  class,  1  dispensary,  1 
hospital,  and  661  professed  Christians. 

HSING-I-FU :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kwei- 
chau,  China,  situated  140  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Ngan- 
shun-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1891),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife.  Name  written  by  the 
Society,  Hing-i. 

HSING-MIN-TING:  A  town  in  Manchuria, 
China,  situated  30  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Mukden,  on 
the  Sia-ho  River.  Station  of  the  PCI  (1899), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary,  21  native  workers,  15 
places  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  and  300  church 
members.  Name  written  by  the  Society,  Hsin- 
min-tun. 

HSING-WGAN-FU:  A  town  in  the  S.  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Shen-si,  China.  Station  of  the  CIM 
(1898),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives.     Name  written  by  the  Society,  Hing-an. 

HSING-NING-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  about  78  miles 
N.  W.  of  Swatow.  Station  of  the  Basel  Mission- 
ary Society  (1887),  of  which  the  headquarters 
have  now  (1903)  been  removed  to  Pyang-tong, 
with  2  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife,  6  native 
workers,  5  outstations,  and  429  professed  Chris- 
tians.    Name  written  by  the  Society,  Hin-nen. 

HSI-NING-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kan-su,  China,  situated  on  the  Hsi-ho  River,  35 
miles  E.  of  Lake  Kukunor,  in  a  fertile  and  popu- 
lous district.  It  is  a  center  for  caravan  trade 
with  Lhassa,  Tibet.  Altitude,  7,500  feet.  Pop- 
ulation, 60,000.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1885),  not 
now  (1903)  occupied.  Name  written  Si-ning 
by  the  Society. 

HSIN-MIN-TUN.     See  Hsing-min-ting. 

HSIN-TIEN-TSZE :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Sze-chwan,  China,  situated  about  20  miles  N.  of 
Pao-ning-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1892),  with 
(1903)  2  women  missionaries.  Name  written 
Sin-tien-tsi  by  the  Society. 

HSIN-TU:  A  village  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  China,  situated  about  12  miles  N.  N.  E. 
of  Cheng-tu-fu.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1894),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their 
wives.  Work  was  very  much  broken  up  in  1902 
by  the  renewal  of  Boxer  disturbances.  Name 
also  written,  Sin-tu. 

HSIN-YANG-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  province  of  Ho-nan,  China,  situated 
110  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Han-kau.  Station  of  the 
American  Norwegian  China  Mission.  Name 
written  by  the  Society,  Sin  Yong. 

HSIPAW:  A  city  in  Burma,  situated  90  miles 
N.  W.  of  Mandalay.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1890),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  (a  physician) 
and  his  wife,  8  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
1  hospital,  2  dispensaries,  and  1  boarding  school. 

HSIU-YEN:  A  town  in  Manchuria,  China, 
situated  about  100  miles  S.  E.  of  Mukden.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Danish  Mission  Society  (1898),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  in  charge. 

HSU-CHATJ:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  China,  situated  on    the   Yangtse   River, 


about  125  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Chung-king-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1888),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  who  are  preparing  new  premises 
in  a  different  quarter  of  the  city  from  that 
formerly  occupied.  Station  also  of  the  ABMU 
(1889),  with  (1903)  6  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  5  native  workers,  men  and  women;  29 
places  of  regular  worship,  2  day  schools  and  70 
church  members.  Name  written  Sui-chau  by  the 
missionaries. 

HSUEN-HWA-FU:  A  town  in  Chi-li,  China, 
situated  on  the  Yang  River,  85  miles  N.  W.  of 
Peking.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife.  It  is  also  a  station  of  the 
CA. 

HSiJEN-LANG-KAU :    A  town  in  the  province 

of  Sze-chwan,  China,  situated  38  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Cheng-tu-fu.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1902),  with 
2  women  missionaries. 

HSU-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-su,  China,  situated  160  miles  N.  W.  of 
Nanking.  Population,  about  120,000.  Station 
of  the  PS  (1897),  with  7  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  two  of  whom  are  physicians;  2  native 
workers,  4  preaching  places,  and  1  dispensary. 
Name  written  by  the  Society,  Hsuchou-fu  and 
Chuchow-fu. 

HUACHO:  A  town  and  seaport  of  Peru,  South 
America;  situated  about  78  miles  N.  W.  of  Lima, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  Station 
of  the  PB,  with  1  missionary  and  a  printing 
house. 

HUAHINE :  An  island  of  the  Society  group  in 
the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  lying  120  miles  N.  W. 
of  Tahiti.  The  surface  is  mountainous  and  the 
soil  fertile.  Population,  2,000.  Mission  field  of 
the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society,  with 
576  church  members. 

HUBLI :  A  town  in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay, 
India,  13  miles  S.  E.  of  Dharwar,  on  the  main 
road  from  Poona  to  Hariwar.  The  center  of  the 
cotton  trade  of  the  Marathi  country.  Popula- 
tion (1901),  60,214,  of  whom  about  two-thirds 
are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1839),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  2 
wives  of  missionaries,  16  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  2  outstations,  3  day  schools,  and  472  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Outstation  also  of  SPG,  with 
(1902)  2  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
day  school,  and  116  professing  Christians.  The 
YWCA  has  a  missionary  here  and  a  young 
women's  society. 

HUME,  Robert  Wilson:  Born  at  Stamford, 
Conn.,  November  9,  1809;  graduated  at  Union 
College,  1833,  taking  high  rank  as  a  scholar  in  a 
large  class;  studied  theology  at  Andover  and 
Princeton;  attended  medical  lectures;  ordained 
in  1839,  and  sailed  April  1,  the  same  year,  as  a 
missionary  of  the  ABCFM  for  Bombay.  He  was 
stationed  for  fifteen  years  at  Bombay,  spending  a 
part  of  the  cool  months  making  tours.  For  some 
years  he  was  secretary  of  the  Bombay  Temperance 
Union,  and  editor  of  its  journal,  called  the  Tem- 
perance Repository ,  which  attained  a  high  place 
for  ability  and  usefulness.  For  ten  years  he  was 
secretary  of  the  Bombay  Tract  and  Book  Society. 
It  was  through  his  influence  that,  instead  of 
gratuitous  distributions,  as  had  formerly  been 
the  custom,  colporteurs  were  employed,  who 
went  into  all  the  districts  of  Western  India,  and 
sold  hundreds  of  thousands  of  these  publications. 
One  of  the  Bombay  journals,  referring  to  this 


Hnmplirey 
Iceland 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


318 


Society,  says:  "The  rapid  advance  the  Society 
has  made  of  late  years  has  been  due  mainly  to 
Mr.  Hume's  prudent  and  energetic  management." 
Soon  after  his  arrival  in  India,  a  monthly  maga- 
zine in  the  native  language  was  commenced  by 
the  Mar^thi  missions  with  a  view  to  diffusing  cor- 
rect religious  knowledge.  The  magazine  was 
called  Dnyanodaya,  and  Mr.  Hume  was  the  editor 
for  ten  years,  ft  was  the  only  Christian  journal 
in  any  native  language  in  Western  India.  His 
labors  were  highly  appreciated.  In  1854  he  was 
taken  very  ill,  and  the  physicians  decided  that 
his  life  could  be  saved  only  by  his  going  to  a 
colder  climate.  He  proceeded  in  an  English 
vessel  to  Cape  Town,  but  he  died  November  26, 
in  sight  of  the  coast  of  Africa,  a  week  before  the 
arrival  of  the  ship  at  Cape  Town. 

HUMPHREY,  William  John:  Educated  at 
Queens  College  and  Ridley  Hall,  Cambridge; 
B. A.  in  1884;  M.  A.,  1888;  ad  eundem,  T>\iTham, 
1893.  On  July  17, 1888,  he  was  accepted  as  a  mis- 
sionary by  the  CMS;  in  September,  1890,  entered 
Sierra  Leone  Mission  as  principal  of  Fourah  Bay 
College,  Sierra  Leone;  in  1890  also  in  charge  of 
the  work  at  Cline  Town,  and  after  this  date, 
altho  his  health  was  failing,  he  was  incessant  in 
his  labors.  In  April,  1898,  the  brief  message, 
"Humphrey  killed,"  reached  England  from  Sierra 
Leone.  Early  in  this  year  the  imposition  of  a 
"hut  tax"  by  the  British  Government  upon  the 
natives  of  Sierra  Leone  caused  discontent  and 
revolt  among  the  Temnes  and  other  tribes.  The 
insurgent  chiefs  had  several  encounters  with  the 
British  troops  and  covered  the  country  between 
Port  Lokkoh  and  the  mission  stations  at  Makomp 
and  Ro-Gbere.  On  March  12,  1898,  Humphrey, 
who  had  been  sent  to  Grand  Canary  for  his  health, 
returned  to  Sierra  Leone,  and  immediately,  as 
secretary  of  the  mission,  hurried  to  Port 
Lokkoh  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  mission- 
aries and  their  fellow-workers.  This  first  journey 
was  made  in  safety,  but  on  a  second  occasion, 
as  he,  accompanied  by  two  porters,  was  passing 
through  the  Kassi  country  for  Ro-Gbere,  he  was 
murdered  by  an  insurgent. 

HUNT,  Phineas  R. :  Born  at  Arlington,  Vt., 
January  30,  1816.  From  his  conversion  in  early 
life  he  was  an  active  and  zealous  Christian.  He 
went  to  India  in  1839  as  a  missionary  printer  of 
the  ABCFM,  and  was  stationed  at  Madras.  His 
warm-hearted.  Christian  efforts  among  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking population,  native  and  foreign,  and 
his  generous  sympathy  endeared  him  to  a  wide 
circle  of  friends.  He  had  the  charge  of  the  mis- 
sion press  in  Madras,  and  was  also  treasurer  of 
the  mission,  in  both  of  which  departments  he  dis- 
charged his  duties  with  great  fidelity.  He  great- 
ly improved  the  style  of  Tamil  printing.  The 
Tamil  Bible  and  the  dictionary  of  Dr.  Winslow, 
both  printed  by  him,  are  monuments  of  his  skill 
and  painstaking  efforts. 

On  the  discontinuance  of  the  Madras  mission 
he  went  to  Peking  in  1868,  a  veteran  of  twenty- 
nine  }'ears'  service  in  a  foreign  field,  to  fill  a 
similar  post.  His  labors  were  invaluable  to  the 
mission.  He  established  the  first  printing  office 
in  Peking  in  which  the  foreign  press  and  metallic 
movable  type  were  used.      He  died  May  29,  1878. 

HU-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Che-kiang,  China,  situated  on  the  Tai-hu  Lake, 
90  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Shanghai.  The  climate 
of  the  surrounding  plains  is  malarious.  Popula- 
tion, about  70,000.     Station  of  the  ABMU  (1888), 


with  2  missionaries  (one  a  physician)  and  theit 
wives,  10  native  workers,  men  and  women;  9  out- 
stations,  2  day  schools  and  241  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  40  are  communicants.  Station 
also  of  the  MES  (1900),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  6  native  workers,  5  outstations,  4 
preaching  places,  1  dispensary,  and  158  professed 
Christians.     Name  also  written  Hoochow. 

HUEI-KING:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  China,  situated  110  miles  S.  W.  of 
Chung-tu-fu.  Station  of  the  PCC  (1902),  with 
1  missionary  and  1  native  worker.  Name  is 
sometimes  spelled  Hwai-king  and   Hwei  Ch'ing. 

HUGLI:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name.  It  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Hugli  River,  25  miles  N.  of  Cal- 
cutta. It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1537,  and  the  adjoining  town  of 
Chinsurah  was  a  Dutch  town.  The  population, 
with  Chinsurah  (1891),  is  33,100.  Station  of  the 
LMS  in  1798  and  transferred  to  the  UFS  (1849), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  1  wife  of  a  mission- 
ary, 2  women  missionaries,  124  native  workers, 
50  day  schools,  3  boarding  schools,  and,  including 
Kalna  also,  330  communicants.  Station  also  of 
the  Chinsurah  and  Hugli  Zenana  Mission  (1875), 
with  1  woman  missionary,  10  native  women 
workers,  5  day  schools,  and  100  Zenana  pupils. 

HUMENE:  A  settlement  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  island  of  Nias  (near  Sumatra),  Dutch  East 
Indies.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  20  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  3  outstations,  4  day 
schools,  and  1,458  professed  Christians. 

HUNG-TUNG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Shan-si,  China,  situated  on  the  Pei-ho  River 
about  15  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Ping-yang-fu.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1886),  not  yet  (1903)  reoccupied  as  a 
missionary  residence  since  the  Boxer  rising  of 
1900.  Name  written  Hong-tong  in  reports  of 
the  Society. 

HUN-YtJEN-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  north  of  the  great  wall, 
in  the  E.  part  of  the  province.  Station  of  the 
CIM  (1898),  vacant  (1903)  since  the  Boxer  out- 
break of  1900,  when  the  missionaries  were  killed. 

HURDA.     See   Hahda. 

HURRICANE  HILLS:  A  settlement  in  Assini- 
boia,  Dominion  of  Canada,  situated  30  miles  S. 
E.  of  Regina.  Station  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada,  opened  in  1897  as  an  Indian 
Reserve,  where  are  about  200  souls,  all  pagans. 

HUTA  BARAT  :  A  village  in  the  island  of  Su- 
matra, Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  between  Siboga 
and  Toba  Lake,  about  3  miles  from  Pea  Raja. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society  among 
the  Battaks,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  62  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  10  outstations,  11  day 
schools,  and  3,676  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
1,731   are  communicants. 

HWAI-KING.    See  Huei-king. 

HWAI-NGAN-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-su,  China,  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal, 
100  miles  N.  E.  of  Nanking.  Population,  about 
150,000.  Station  of  the  PS  (1895),  at  present 
(1903)  unoccupied. 

HWAI-YUEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Ngan- 
hwei,  China,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Hwai  and  Ko  rivers,  on  a  low  site  which  is 
flooded  every  three  or  four  yeais.     The  river  is 


319 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Humplirey 
Iceland 


an  artery  of  commerce  for  the  provinces  of  Ngan- 
hwei  and  Ho-nan.  Population  20,000.  Station 
of  the  PN  (1902),  with  4  missionaries  (2  with 
their  wives),  1  woman  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  1  hospital,  and  1  dispensary. 

HWANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shantung,  China,  situated  about  50  miles  N.  W. 
of  Chifu.  Station  of  the  SBC,  with  (1900)  7 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  1  of  whom  is  a 
physician. 

HWANG- YEN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Che-kiang,  China,  situated  about  75  miles  S. 
'  of  Ning-po.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1896),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 13  native  workers,  12  outstations,  and 
1,019  professed  Christians. 

HWEI-CHATI-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ngan-hwei,  China,  situated  97  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Hang-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1884),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  6  native  workers 
and  4  outstations. 

HWEN-YUEN.     See  HuN-yuEN-cHAr. 

HWO-LU-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Chi-li,  China,  situated  218  miles  S.  W.  of  Peking. 
It  is  an  important  commercial  center,  lying  at  the 


foot  of  a  pass  over  the  Shan-si  Mountains,  by 
which  the  road  leads  to  Tai-yuen-fu.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1887),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife  and  1  woman  missionary. 

HWUY-CHAU.     See  HwEi-CHAxr-ru. 

HWUY-LUH.     See  Hwo-lu-hsien. 

HYDE,  Rev.  Charles  McEwen:  Born  in  New 
York,  June  8,  1832.  Died  at  Honolulu,  October 
13,  1890.  Educated  at  Williams  College  and 
Union  and  Princeton  Seminaries.  He  was 
ordained  at  Brimfiield,  Mass.,  in  1862,  and  was 
pastor  there  and  in  Haverhill  until  1876.  On 
May  31,  1877,  he  arrived  at  Honolulu.  Soon 
after  his  arrival  in  the  foreign  field  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  mission  work  among  the 
Hawaiians,  and  as  a  preacher,  a  teacher,  and  an 
organizer  his  influence  was  felt.  He  reorganized 
the  theological  school  at  the  North  Pacific  Mis- 
sionary Institute,  and  until  his  death  he  was  a 
leader,  especially  in  educational  matters,  on  this 
important  field.  He  labored  effectively  among 
the  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Portuguese,  as  well  as 
among  the  Hawaiians. 

HYDERABAD.     See  Haidarabad. 

HYDRABAD.     See  Haidarabad. 


I 


lAIAN  LANGUAGE:  A  language  of  the  Mel- 
anesian  group,  which  is  peculiar  to  Uvea,  the 
most  northerly  of  the  Loyalty  Islands. 

lARINDRANO:  A  district  in  the  province  of 
Betsileo,  Madagascar,  lying  south  of  Fianarautsoa. 
Mission  field  of  the  LMS  (1864),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  320  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  24  Sabbath  schools,  79  day 
schools,  and  2,744  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
918  are  communicants. 

IBADAN :  A  walled  city  in  the  Yoruba  country, 
W.  Africa,  situated  83  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Lagos, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  Popu- 
lation, about  120,000.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1852), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries, 
11  native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  day  schools 
and  984  professed  Christians,  of  whom  351  are 
communicants.  Mohammedans  are  gathering 
many  converts  in  the  country.  Yet  a  few  Moham- 
medans are  converted  to  Christianity  each  year. 
Circuit  station  also  of  the  WMS. 

IBANSH:  A  town  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
Africa,  situated  about  45  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Luebo, 
at  an  altitude  of  about  1,000  feet.  It  is  an 
important  center  of  trade  for  the  Bakuba  tribe. 
Station  of  the  PS  (1897),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, 1  with  his  wife;  10  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  2  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  1  day 
school,  and  600  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
197  are  communicants.  Name  also  written 
Ibanj  and  Ibange. 

IBO  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  negro  group 
of  African  languages  and  is  spoken  by  an  unknown 
number  of  tribesmen  found  in  the  Calabar  region, 
between  the  Niger  and  Cross  rivers  in  W.  Africa. 
It  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries 
of  the  CMS,  Roman  letters  being  used  for  the 


purpose.     Some  beginnings  of  a  literature  have 
appeared. 

IBUWO :  A  settlement  in  Southern  Nigeria,  W. 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Kwa  Ibo  River  not  far 
from  the  coast.  Station  of  the  Qua  Iboe  Mission 
(1887),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  5  native 
workers,  3  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  printing 
house,  1  industrial  farm,  and  525  professed 
Christians.  The  mission  has  also  a  steam  launch 
for  river  touring. 

IBWIJILI:  A  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa  in  the  Chigogo  district,  not  far  from 
Mpapwa.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1901),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native 
workers,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  20  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

ICELAND :  A  large  island  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean,  subject  to  the  Danish  crown,  160  miles 
northeast  of  Greenland  and  600  miles  west  of 
Norway.  Area,  including  adjacent  islands, 
39,758  square  miles,  of  which  16,243  are  habitable. 
Iceland  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  therefore  all  its 
mountains  are  volcanoes.  It  is  remarkable  for 
its  numerous  geysers  and  intermittent  hot 
springs.  The  climate  is  colder  than  when  it  was 
first  settled,  since  great  masses  of  ice  yearly  drift 
from  Greenland  to  its  shores  and  remain  for 
months  encircling  the  island  in  a  compact  mass. 
The  Gulf  stream  makes  the  southern  portion 
warmer  and  more  rainy  than  the  northern.  Pop- 
ulation (1901),  78,470,  who  are  descendants  of 
the  first  Norwegian  settlers,  speaking  the  purest 
Norse.  The  men  are  tall,  fair-complexioned  and 
blue-eyed,  with  frames  hardened  by  frequent 
exposure  to  rough  weather.  Tho  perhaps 
inclined  to  idleness  and  intemperance,  they  are 
strictly  upright,  truthful,  generous,  and  hospit- 


I-chanK-fn 
India 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


320 


able.  The  women  are  industrious  and  chaste. 
Religious  faith  and  the  domestic  virtues  are 
traditional  in  every  household.  Education  is 
universal,  and  it  is  hard  to  find  an  adult  who  is 
unable  to  read  and  write.  Their  church  is  exclu- 
sively Lutheran,  but  lately  three  missionary 
stations  have  been  established  by  the  Roman 
Catholics.  Foreigners  have  the  same  rights  of 
residence,  holding  property,  etc.,  as  natives. 

I-CHANG-FU:  An  important  inland  town  and 
treaty  port  in  the  province  of  Hu-pei,  China,  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Yangtse  River,  165 
miles  W.  of  Hankow  (363  miles  by  river).  Lying 
at  the  outlet  of  the  river  after  it  has  come  350 
miles  through  mountain  passes  and  rocky  ravines, 
the  town  is  exposed  to  considerable  risk  from 
floods,  and  in  1870  many  houses  were  washed 
away.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  steam  navigation 
on  the  Yangtse,  but  access  to  it  is  so  hampered 
by  rocks  that  its  value  for  foreign  trade  is  slight. 
Altitude,  500  feet.  Population,  33,000.  Station 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Missions  and 
Woman's  Committee  (1878),  with  (1900)  10  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women;  14  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  6  day  schools,  1  hospital,  and 
206  professing  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
PE  (1889),  with  4  native  workers.  Station  also 
of  the  CIM  (1895),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife.  Station  also  of  the  Swedish  Missionary 
Society  (1894),  with  a  dispensary  and  a  day 
school. 

I-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Shan- 
tung, China,  situated  220  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Nan- 
king. Station  of  the  PN  (1891),  with  (1903)  11 
missionaries,  men  and  women  (2  of  them  phy- 
sicians) ;  5  day  schools,  2  dispensaries,  2  hospitals, 
1  medical  class,  and  364  church  members.  Name 
written  by  the  Society  Ichow. 

I-CHENG:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Shan-si, 
China,  situated  32  miles  S.  E.  of  Ping-yang-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife. 

IDAIYANGUDI:  A  town  and  district  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  on  the  seacoast  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Tinnevelli,  about  40  miles  S.  W.  of 
Tuticorin.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  of  the 
Shanar  or  Palmyra  rearing  caste,  and  poorer  and 
more  ignorant  than  those  farther  north.  The 
majority  of  the  people  became  Christians  early 
in  the  19th  century,  but  afterward,  through 
neglect,  were  suffered  to  relapse  into  evil  ways 
and  heathenism.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1825), 
with  (1903)  43  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
24  places  of  worship,  12  day  schools,  2  high 
schools,  and  3,082  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
791  are  communicants. 

IDUTYWA:  A  district  or  reserve  in  Cape 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  in  the  Transliei 
region,  some  70  mUes  N.  of  East  London.  Station 
of  the  SPG  (1893),  and  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
Scotland  (1896),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  31 
native  workers,  17  outstations,  12  places  of  wor- 
ship, 17  day  schools,  and  2,800  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  763  are  communicants. 

IGATPURI :  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Nasik,  72  miles 
N.  E.  of  Bombay.  Population  (1891)  7,500,  of 
whom  4,800  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  ME, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native 
workers,  1  preaching  place,  4  Sunday  schools,  1 
day  school,  and  277  professed  Christians. 

IH-YANG.     See  I-yang-hsien. 


IJEBU  ODE:  A  town  in  the  Yoruba  country, 
W.  Africa,  situated  35  miles  N.  E.  by  E.  of  Lagos. 
Population,  about  30,000.  Station  of  the  CMS 
native  Church,  with  (including  Ijebu  Igbo,  1903) 
19  native  workers,  7  day  schools,  and  3,768  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  623  are  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 34  native  workers,  men  and  women;  35 
places  of  worship,  6  day  schools,  and  407  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Name  also  written  Jebu  Ode, 
Ijebu,  and  Ode. 

IKOKO :  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
320  miles  N.  E.  of  Stanley  Pool.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1894),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  mis- 
sionary's wife,  3  women  missionaries,  and  5  native 
workers. 

IKONETA:  A  settlement  in  Southern  Nigeria, 
situated  on  the  Cross  River,  near  Creek  Town. 
Station  of  the  UFS  (1856),  but  now  (1903) 
operated  as  an  outstation  of  Ikorofiong.  Name 
written  by  the  Society  Ikunetu. 

IKOROFIONG:  A  town  in  the  Old  Calabar 
region  of  W.  Africa  (now  called  Southern  Nigeria) 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Cross  River, 
about  12  miles  N.  W.  of  Creek  Town.  Station  of 
the  UFS  (1858),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one 
with  his  wife;  I  woman  missionary,  14  native 
workers,  5  outstations,  11  day  schools  and  88 
professed  Christians. 

IKWEZI  LAMACHI:  A  settlement  in  Alfred 
County,  Natal,  South  Africa,  near  Harding. 
Station  (1877)  of  the  Young  Men's  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society  of  Birmingham,  England 
(YMCA),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  14 
native  workers,  9  outstations,  6  day  schools  and 

2  industrial  schools. 

ILALANGINA:  A  mission  district  in  Madagas- 
car, situated  in  the  Betsileo  province  and  near 
Fianarantsoa,  extending  to  the  N.  E.  from  that 
place.  Occupied  by  the  LMS  in  1870.  It  now 
(1903)  has  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  180  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  20  Sabbath  schools, 
60  day  schools  and  1 ,670  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  480  are  communicants. 

ILESHA:  A  town  in  the  Voruba  country,  near 
the  border  of  Nigeria,  W.  Africa,  situated  about 
155  miles  N.  E.  by  E.  of  Lagos.  Population 
about  40,000.  Station  of  the  CMS  native  Church, 
with  (1903)  8  native  workers,  3  preaching  places, 

3  day  schools  and  845  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  132  are  communicants.  Name  also  writ- 
ten Ilesa.  The  WMS  also  has  a  native  worker 
here,  with  a  growing  congregation. 

ILOILO :  A  town  and  seaport  in  the  Philippine 
Islands,  situated  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  island  of 
Panay.  It  is,  next  to  Manila,  the  chief  port  of 
the  islands.  Its  largest  export  is  sugar.  Popu- 
lation about  11,000.  Station  of  the  PN  (1900), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives  (one 
a  physician),  6  native  workers,  3  outstations,  1 
hospital  and  dispensary. 

IMAD-XJD-DIN,  Rev.  Maulvi,  D.D.:  Born  at 
Paniput,  North  India,  in  1822.  Died  at  Amrit- 
sar,  August  28,  1900.  He  was  a  Mohammedan 
Maulvi,  and  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  famous 
Mohammedan  saint,  Qutub  Jamal,  who  was  a 
descendant  of  the  ancient  royal  house  of  Persia. 
Imad-ud-din  was  educated  at  the  Government 
College  at  Agra;  was  converted  to  Christianity 
as  a  result  of  a  discussion  in  public  between  mis- 


381 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


I-changr-fa 
India 


sionaries  and  Muslim  doctors;  received  into  the 
Church  at  Amritsar,  April,  1866,  and  became  the 
native  preacher  at  Amritsar.  He  was  appointed 
Examining  Chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  Calcutta 
for  Hindustani  candidates,  and  afterward  he  was 
Chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  Lahore.  In  1884  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  was  conferred  on 
him  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  his 
pen  produced  the  following  works:  Hiddyat-ul- 
Muslimin;  Haqiqi  'arfan,  being  12  tracts  on  the 
Christian  Religion;  A  Short  Commentary  on  the 
Book  of  Revelation;  A  Popular  Life  of  Mahomet; 
A  Tract  on  the  Resurrection;  A  Commentary  on 
St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  and  a  number  of  other  able 
works. 

As  a  young  man  Imad-ud-din  was  full  of  Mus- 
lim bigotry  and  fanaticism,  and  he  was  arrayed 
against  Dr.  Pfander  and  Mr.  French  in  their 
famous  discussions  with  Mohammedans  at  Agra. 
It  was  a  wonderful  time.  The  mutiny  had  yet  to 
come,  and  hoary  Islam  had  yet  to  he  humbled, 
politically  as  well  as  spiritually.  The  old  con- 
fronted the  new,  and  who  could  foresee  that  three 
out  of  the  four  leading  opponents  of  Christianity 
would  one  day  bow  the  knee  to  the  Christ  they 
then  despised?  The  fourth,  Maulvi  Rahmat 
UUah,  a  close  friend  of  Dr.  Imad-ud-din's,  fled  to 
Mecca  after  the  mutiny  and  there  died.  The  his- 
tory of  Imad-ud-din's  struggles  before  he 
accepted  Christianity  is  one  of  thrilling  interest. 
Learned  in  all  that  Islam  had  to  teach  and  soul- 
hungry  for  something  higher,  he  turned  to  that 
esoteric  philosophy,  which  as  the  Vedanta,  and  as 
Sufism,  the  Transcendentalism  of  the  East,  pur- 
ports to  offer  to  the  longing  soul  the  peaceful 
vision  of  God  and  communion  with  Him.  For 
many  months  be  obeyed  its  precepts  and 
sounded  its  lowest  depths,  and  finally,  worn  in 
body  and  wretched  in  soul,  he  was  brought  under 
the  influence  of  Rev.  Robert  Clark  in  the  Mis- 
sion Church  at  Amritsar,  where  he  surrendered  to 
the  call  of  Christ,  and  from  that  time  throughout 
his  long  and  eventful  life  he  never  wavered  in 
his  loyalty  to  his  divine  Master.  This  distin- 
guished convert  from  Islam  to  Christianity  was  a 
remarkable  preacher  of  the  Gospel;  but  he  was  a 
more  remarkable  writer  of  Christian  truth.  A 
long  series  of  volumes,  dealing  with  every  type 
and  phase  of  Mohammedan  controversy,  came  in 
rapid  succession  from  his  pen,  and  his  books  have 
found  their  way  to  all  Mohammedan  lands,  and 
their  effect  has  been  felt  in  places  as  far  apart  as 
Java  and  Montenegro.  He  had  the  joy  of  seeing 
his  aged  father  and  younger  brother  enter  into 
the  Christian  life. 

IMPOLWENI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  S.  Africa, 
situated  12  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Pietermaritzburg. 
Station  of  the  UPS  (1872),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations,  6  day  schools  and  381  professed 
Christians. 

IMPUR:  A  village  in  Assam,  British  India, 
situated  in  the  Naga  hills,  near  the  Burman  fron- 
tier. Station  of  the  ABMU  (1876),  with  (1903) 
3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  15  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  8  preaching  places,  9  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school  and  467  professed 
Christians. 

IMVANI:  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Queenstown  district,  about 
20  miles  S.  E.  of  Queenstown.  Station  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  (1854),  with  (1900) 


2  missionaries,  1  woman  missionary,  47  native 
workers,  10  outstations,  12  schools  and  620  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

INANDA  (Lindley) :  A  settlement  in  Natal,  S. 
Africa,  situated  about  15  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Dur- 
ban. Station  of  the  ABCPM  (1847) ,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries,  24  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  7  day  schools  and  1 
boarding  school  for  girls,  with  industrial  depart- 
ment. 

INDIA :  A  region  of  Asia  between  the  Himalaya 

Mountains  on  the  north,  the  Arabian  (or  Indian) 
Ocean  on  tlie  west  and  southwest,  and  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  on  the  east.  Its  extreme  northern  point 
is  in  latitude  35°;  on  the  south  it  stretches  to 
within  8°  of  the  Equator.  North  and  south  its 
greatest  length  is  about  1,900  miles;  east  and  west 
— from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  the  head  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal — the  distance  is  about  as  great. 
Yet  the  shape  of  the  land  is  not  four-sided,  but 
triangular;  its  northern  parts  are  the  broadest; 
toward  the  south  it  narrows  gradually  to  a  point 
at  Cape  Comorin.  Politically,  Assam  and  Burma, 
on  the  east,  tho  peopled  by  races  bearing  slight 
affinities  with  those  of  India  proper,  and  Baluchis- 
tan, on  tlie  west,  are  comprised  in  the  Anglo- 
Indian  empire.  The  area  of  the  whole  vast  terri- 
tory is  nearly  one  and  a  half  million  square  miles, 
and  the  population  (according  to  the  census  of 
1901,  the  last  taken,  which  will  be  the  basis  of 
reference  throughout  this  article)  more  than 
294,000,000.  Three  well-marked  areas,  each 
characterized  by  its  peculiarities  of  physical 
structure,  divide  India  proper  between  thrm. 
These  are:  1.  The  Himalayan  strip,  lying  along 
its  northern  frontier,  and  forming  on  that  side  a 
wall  of  protection  and  demarcation  from  the  rest 
of  Asia.  Much  of  the  Himalayan  territory,  how- 
ever, is  outside  of  the  political  limits  of  India.  2. 
The  great  valley  of  the  Ganges,  of  which  the  Him- 
alayan area  forms  the  northern  slope.  3.  That 
part  of  India  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  valley 
just  mentioned,  on  the  southwest  by  the  Indian 
Ocean,  on  the  east  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  This 
is  for  the  most  part  a  tableland,  of  which  the 
western  edge,  buttressed  by  a  mountain  range 
(the  Western  Ghats)  rising  in  some  cases  to  4,000, 
5,000  and  even  8,000  feet  above  sea-level,  is  about 
2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  slopes  gradually 
eastward  toward  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  India 
presents  to  our  observation  not  a  united  and 
coherent  nationality  pervaded  by  tl'.e  oneness  of 
a  national  life,  but  merely  a  vast  number  of 
peoples,  differing  in  language,  in  religion,  often  in 
race,  and  held  together  by  the  strong  and  external 
pressure  of  British  might.  Physically  also,  tho 
India  can  hardly  be  called  a  continent,  yet  it  is 
certainly  the  epitome  of  a  continent  on  a  very 
large  scale.  Vast  mountain  chains  and  mighty 
rivers,  arid  deserts  and  fertile  valleys,  wild  jun- 
gles, forests  of  tropic  density,  broad  alluvial 
"deltas,  and  plains  rolling  in  gentle  undulations 
over  wide  areas  of  surface,  are  all  found  within 
its  limits.  Its  climate  embraces  the  Arctic  cold 
of  the  Himalayas,  with  their  perpetual  snows 
and  their  glaciers,  which  feed  fertilizing  and 
navigable  rivers,  hot  desert  winds,  deluging  rains, 
atmospheres  now  like  a  vapor-bath  and  now 
like  a  blast  from  a  furnace,  bracing  breezes  from 
the  sea,  and  the  parching  heat  of  unclouded  suns 
falling  upon  treeless  plains. 

This  vast  and  various  territory  is  for  the  most 


India 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


part  under  the  rule  of  the  British  crown  and 
Parliament.  In  many  scattered  portions  of 
Indian  territory  the  original  power  of  native 
rulers  is  still  acknowledged;  these  states  some- 
times cover  large  tracts  of  country,  with  their 
millions  of  inhabitants,  and  sometimes  embrace 
but  a  single  town,  with  its  dependent  villages,  or  a 
bit  of  mountain  jungle  where  the  authority  of 
gome  half-savage  aboriginal  chief  is  owned  by 
the  handful  of  his  tribe.  But  even  these  native 
states  are  under  the  "protection"  and  watchful 
care  of  the  paramount  English  power;  the  author- 
ity of  their  ostensibly  independent  native  rulers 
is  circumscribed  within  definite  limits  at  the  dic- 
tation of  that  power,  while  its  actual  exercise  is 
carefully  superintended,  with  more  or  less  minute- 
ness of  detail,  by  English  officials  appointed  for 
that  purpose. 

Political  Divisions:  Such  a  diverse  territory 
can  be  best  described  in  the  present  work  by 
treating  of  its  separate  political  divisions  in  their 
proper  alphabetical  order  under  separate  head- 
ings. With  the  exception  of  the  native  states, 
all  of  which  come  more  or  less  directly  under  the 
supervision  of  the  paramount  power  through  a 
class  of  officials  known  as  "residents,"  all  of 
India  is  governed,  in  the  name  of  the  British 
sovereign,  by  a  Viceroy,  or  Governor-General, 
assisted  by  a  Council,  whose  seat  is  at  Calcutta. 
For  purposes  of  administration  the  country  is 
divided  into  eight  great  "provinces,"  each  under 
tke  control  of  a  governor,  lieutenant-governor 
or  commissioner,  according  to  rank  of  the 
province. 

These  provinces  are:  Madras,  Bombay,  Bengal, 
United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  Punjab, 
Burma,  Assam,  Central  Provinces.  In  addition 
to  these  provinces  there  are  four  "minor  charges," 
each  under  a  Chief  Commissioner.  These  are 
Coorg,  Ajmere-Merwara,  British  Baluchistan  and 
the  Andaman  Islands.  The  Northwest  Frontier 
Province,  with  seat  of  administration  at  Peshawar, 
is  administered  by  a  military  officer  whose  title  is 
Agent  to  the  Governor-General. 

Population:  The  people  of  India,  with  whom  in 
their  religious  relationships  our  interest  now 
principally  lies,  are  divided  by  race,  by  caste,  by 
language,  and  by  religion  into  many  different 
classes.  The  broadest  division  is  that  by  religion. 
The  census  of  1901  shows  the  distribution  of  the 
population  according  to  religion  (including  the 
native  feudatory  states)  to  be  as  follows:  Of  the 
294,233,345  souls  comprised  in  the  total  popula- 
tion of  the  Indian  Empire,  207,146,422  are 
classed  as  Hindus;  62,458,061  as  Mohammedans; 
9,476,760  are  Buddhists;  8,584,349  are  spirit- 
worshipers  (chiefly  the  aboriginal  tribes); 
2,923,241  are  Christians;  2,195,268  are  Sikhs; 
1,334,148  are  Jains;  94,190  Parsis;  18,228 
Jews;  and  2,686  are  of  other  shades  of  belief 
or  disbelief. 

The  division  of  the  people  into  castes  obtains 
only  among  the  Hindus.  The  ancient  fourfold 
division  is  well  understood  by  every  one  who  has 
ever  heard  of  India.  The  Brahmans  or  priests 
occupy  the  highest  place;  the  second  caste  is  that 
of  the  Kshattriyas,  or  soldiers;  merchants,  or 
Vaisyas,  form  the  third;  while  the  fourth,  inclu- 
ding the  vast  body  of  the  people,  is  that  of  the 
laborers,  or  Sudras.  In  modern  times,  however, 
this  simple  division  has  become  exceedingly  com- 
plicated. The  Brahmans  still  maintain  their 
preeminence  as  the  first  and  highest  caste,  altho 


within  the  limits  of  Brahmanism  there  are  many 
subdivisions,  between  some  of  which  intermar- 
riage is  not  allowed.     The  great  mass  of  agricul- 
turists also  still  acknowledge  themselves  as  mem- 
bers of  the  fourth  or  Sudra  caste.    But,  instead  of 
finding  between  the   castes  of  first  and  fourth 
rank    distinctly    marked    gradations    indicating 
the  limits  of  the  second  and  third,  we  find  a  great 
multitude  of  castes,  partly  formed  of  what  may 
be  regarded  as  the  fragments  of  the  old  soldier 
and  merchant  castes,  partly  the  result  of  inter- 
marriages   between    men    of   higher   grade   and 
women  of  lower  (the  offspring  of  such  marriage* 
occupying  a  social  position  midway  between  that 
of  their  parents),  and  partly  due  to  the  inevitable 
complication  of  social  relations,  as  the  process  of 
social  evolution  went  on.     Among  this  mass  of 
caste  names  the  old  titles  still  exist  of   Kshat- 
triyas and  Vaisyas.     The  Rajputs  of  Northwest- 
ern India  are  descendants  of  the  old  second  or 
soldier   caste;   the   merchants    (in   many   place* 
known   as    Wanis   or    Banyas)    may   usuaUy  be 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  old  third  or  mer- 
chant caste,  tho  its  subdivisions  are  exceedingly 
numerous.     Thus,  while   the   old   nomenclature 
still  exists  with  reference  to  the  Brahmans  and 
the  Sudras,  it  has  been  for  the  most  part  super- 
seded with  reference  to  the  soldiers  and  the  mer- 
chants, owing  to  the  divisions  of  these  old  castes, 
and  the  origin  of  new,  as  the  development  of 
Hindu  society  progressed.     In  addition  to  the 
castes  already  mentioned,  the  followers  of  every 
species  of  trade  and  handicraft  form  a  caste  by 
themselves.     Thus   there   is  the   caste   of  gold- 
smiths, of  tailors,  of  carpenters,  of  blacksmiths, 
of  weavers,  of  shoemakers  and  leather  workers, 
of  potters,  etc.     Some  of  these  castes  occupy  a 
position  above  the  Sudras;  some,  especially  the 
shoemakers   and   potters,    below   them.     Below 
all    these   respectable    castes    of    Hinduism   are 
ranged  the  great  body  of  the  outcaste  population, 
who  are  not  allowed  to  live  within  the  village 
limits,  who  are  sometimes  debarred  even  from 
entering  the  street  in  which  Brahmans  reside, 
who   must   not   draw  water  from  the  wells  or 
streams  used  by  those  of  higher  rank,  and  whose 
very  touch,  sometimes  even  whose  mere  shadow, 
is  pollution.     Yet  they  often  perform  important 
services  in  the  social  life  of  an  Indian  village. 
These  outcastes  are  often  spoken  of  collectively 
as  Pariahs — which  is  the  term  used  to  designate 
them  in  Tamil — tho  all  the  Indian  vernaculars 
possess    words    by    which    individuals    of    this 
description  are  locally  denominated.     The  origin 
of  the  caste  system  is  lost  in  the  dimness  of 
remotest    antiquity.     It    is    probable    that    it 
originated  in  some  such  way  as  this :  The  Aryans, 
who  entered  India  from  the  Northwest  some  fif- 
teen centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  found  the 
land  as  they  advanced  already  in  the  possession 
of  a  previous  population.     This  population,  the 
Aryans    with    their    stronger    character,    higher 
civilization  and  more  cultivated  language  (the 
Sanskrit),  in  process  of  time  overcame.     Grad- 
ually diversity  of  function  within  their  own  body 
gave  rise  to  a  corresponding  diversity  of  social 
position,  or  caste;  the  priests,  the  soldiers  and  the 
merchants  segregated  themselves  into  their  own 
distinct  classes,  the  distinct  existence  of  which 
as  such  was  ensured  by  the  custom  that  the  son 
should  follow  the  calling  of  his  father.     The  for- 
mer inhabitants  of  the  land  seem  for  the  most 
part  to  have  accepted  the  religion,  and  to  some 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


India 


degree— tho  in  an  inferior  form  and  with  many 
corruptions — the  language  of  their  Aryan  con- 
querors, and  to  have  been  relegated  by  the  latter 
to  the  lowest  position  in  the  social  scale,  that  of 
laborers  or  agriculturists.  Thus  the  three 
higher  castes  were  of  Aryan  origin,  while  the 
fourth  or  Sudra  caste,  between  which  and  the 
three  that  range  above  it  there  is  a  much  wider 
gap  than  between  any  two  of  the  higher  them- 
selves, was  composed  of  the  great  body  of  the 
previous  population.  It  is  probable  that  the 
outcaste  bodies  (Pariahs,  Mahars,  Mangs,  Dheds, 
etc.)  represent  early  aboriginal  tribes,  brought 
into  some  dergee  of  union  with  the  new  social 
organism  arising  after  the  Aryan  invasion,  but 
too  low  to  become  actually  incorporated  in  it,  as 
members  in  good  repute,  as  those  composing  the 
fourth  Hindu  caste  were.  Probably  the  tribes 
still  existing  apart  and  usually  spoken  of  as 
aboriginal  tribes  (Santals,  Gonds,  etc.)  are 
descended  from  aboriginal  bodies  who  refused 
to  yield  to  the  Aryan  invaders,  or  to  accept 
the  low  position  to  which  their  brethren — the 
progenitors  of  the  outcastes  of  to-day — were 
consigned. 

Languages:  It  is  exceedingly  probable  that  the 
tribes  which  were  thus  overrun  by  the  Aryans 
had  themselves  overrun,  in  previous  ages, "still 
other  and  inferior  races  who  held  the  soil  before 
them.  Repeated  invasions  and  conquests  must 
have  marked  the  earliest  history  of  India,  as 
they  have  its  later  developments;  and  these 
repeated  processes  of  invasion  have  left  their 
evidences  in  the  strata  of  tribes  and  races  which 
to-day  make  up  the  complex  population  of  Hin- 
dustan. Not  only  can  the  diversity  of  caste  be 
in  part  accounted  for  in  this  way,  but  also  the 
great  diversity  of  language  which  characterizes 
India.  It  is  stated  by  philologists  that  within 
the  limits  of  both  Hither  and  Farther  India 
(meaning  by  the  last  term  that  peninsula  which 
includes  Burma  and  Siam,  of  which  only  a  part 
IS  politically  connected  with  the  Anglo-Indian 
empire)  three  hundred  distinct  languages  and 
dialects  are  in  actual  use  at  the  present  time. 
The  variety  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  already  so 
many  times  alluded  to,  of  which  each  one  has 
usually  its  own  distinct  form  of  speech,  accounts 
m  large  measure  for  the  great  number.  The 
principal  languages  of  India,  each  of  which  is 
spoken  by  millions,  and  which  have  all  received 
more  or  less  literary  cultivation  and  development, 
are  much  fewer  in  number. 

^■V^u  ^°j'^."  languages  can  be  conveniently 
distributed  into  several  groups,  according  to 
their  affinities.  The  first  division  consists  of 
the  most  important  tongues  used  in  northern 
and  western  India.  These  are:  The  Bengali, 
!P0ken  m  the  province  of  Bengal  by  about 
d7,000,000  of  people.  It  is  subject  to  several 
dialectic  variations,  especially  upon  the  borders 
of  its  territory,  where  it  comes  in  contact  with 
ptiier  languages,  by  the  intermingling  of  which 
m  the  speech  of  the  people  the  purity  of  all  is 
corrupted.  About  half  of  those  using  the  lan- 
guage are  Mohammedans;  their  form  of  the  lan- 
guage IS  known  as  Mohammedan  Bengali  and 
Jorms  another  dialect  of  the  language.  On  the 
northeast  of  Bengal,  in  the  Brahmaputra  valley, 
about  2,000,000  of  people  use  the  Assamese! 
wftich  is  most  probably  a  language  allied  to 
ine  Bengali.  Southwest,  in  the  province  of 
unssa,    the    TJriya    tongue    is    used    by    some 


8,000,000  of  people.  The  Hindi  language,  occu- 
pying an  immense  tract  northwest  of  Bengal, 
covering  the  Northwest  Provinces,  and  over- 
lapping on  every  side  into  the  surrounding 
regions,  is  the  most  widely  used  tongue  of  all  of 
the  modern  languages  of  India.  The  number  of 
those  to  whom  it  is  vernacular  is  estimated  at 
80,000,000.  More  than  half  of  these,  however, 
use  the  Hindustani  or  Urdu,  which  is  the  dialect 
forrned  by  the  Mohammedan  conquerors  of 
India,  with  many  Arabic  and  Persian  words  and 
written  with  Arabic  instead  of  Hindu  letters. 
Other  dialectic  variations  are  numerous.  The 
Bengali,  the  Uriya,  the  Assamese,  the  Hindi,  the 
Sindhi,  the  Oujarathi  and  the  Marathi,  with 
their  many  dialects,  are  sister-tongues  of  the 
Aryan  family,  tho  incorporating  into  their  sub- 
stance many  elements  of  grammar,  of  idiom, 
and  of  vocables  from  the  non-Aryan  languages 
with  which  the  spoken  Sanskrit  of  a  former 
period  gradually  became  corrupted.  Of  these 
Aryan  vernaculars  only  three  —  the  Bengali, 
the  Hindi,  and  the  Marathi — have  received 
?iiy  high  degree  of  cultivation,  or  possess  any 
important  literature.  It  is  possible  that  the 
other  languages  of  this  group  may  ere  long 
disappear;  but  these  three  are  widely  prev- 
alent and  cultivated  tongues,  which  seem 
destined  to  permanence. 

The  Hindu  population  of  South  India  present! 
us  with  a  second  great  family  of  languages,  much 
farther  removed  than  those  of  the  north  and  west 
from  the  Sanskrit,  and  owing  to  it  smaller — tho 
important — obligations.  These  languages  are 
usually  spoken  of  as  the  Dravidian  group.  The 
term  "Dravire"  or  "Dravida"  is  found  in  Sans- 
krit literature  as  applied  to  the  part  of  the 
Indian  peninsula  where  the  chief  languages  of  the 
group  are  now  spoken.  The  most  important  of 
them  all  is  the  Tamil,  covering  the  area  from  a 
few  miles  north  of  the  Madras  to  the  extreme 
south  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  and 
running  more  than  half  the  distance  across  the 
peninsula  toward  the  Indian  Ocean.  North  of 
the  Tamil  area,  on  the  east  side  of  Lower  India, 
lies  the  Telugu  country,  along  the  Bay  of  Bengal^ 
and  up  into  Central  India,  untU  it  meets  the 
Uriya  language  along  its  northeastern  edge  and 
the  Marathi  along  its  northwestern.  West  of  the 
Tamil  and  Telugu  areas  lies  that  of  Kanarese, 
which  also  meets  the  Mar&thi  on  the  northwest. 
The  Malayalim  stretches  along  the  western  coast 
of  India  from  Cape  Comorin  northward  nearly 
300  niiles.  The  Tamil,  the  Telugu  (sometimes 
from  its  abundance  of  vowel  and  liquid  sounds 
called  the  Indian  Italian),  the  Kanarese,  and  the 
Malayalim  are  all  cultivated  languages,  possess- 
ing a  literature  and  a  distinctive  alphabetical 
character.  The  Tamil  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant and  richest  of  them  all,  and  is  used  by  the 
largest  number  of  people — nearly  15,000,000  in 
all.  Tamil  is  also  used  extensively  in  Northern 
Ceylon,  and  by  many  emigrants  to  Burma,  the 
Straits  Settlements,  Mauritius  and  the  West 
Indies. 

Besides  the  cultivated  language  of  the  Dravid- 
ian group  just  described,  languages  of  the  same 
family  are  used  by  some  of  the  jungle  tribes 
of  India,  as  the  Gonds  and  Khonds,  the  people  of 
Chota  Nagpur  and  of  the  Nilgiri  Hills  and  some 
others.  The  total  number  of  persons  using 
Dravidian  forms  of  speech  must  De  more  than 
60,000,000. 

Religions:  Regarding  the  religious  condition  of 


India 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


3S4 


the  people,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer  the  reader 
to  the  several  articles  in  this  work  in  which  the 
different  religions  practised  in  India  are  treated 
in  detail;  with  the  remark  that  for  the  most  part 
the  people  cling  to  those  religions  with  the  te- 
nacity— often  an  unthink  ing  tenacity — which  is 
to  be  expected  of  those  who  have  been  educated 
from  their  earliest  years  to  believe  that  adherence 
to  the  customs  of  one's  ancestry,  and  to  the 
religious  rites  practised  by  one's  forefathers,  is 
the  first  and  highest  law  of  life.  In  them  the 
intense  conservatism  of  all  Oriental  nations  is 
thus  reenforced  by  religious  sanctions,  and  is 
exalted  to  the  position  of  religious  obligation. 
Hinduism  has  been  interwoven  with  the  develop- 
ing life  of  the  Hindu  people  for  a  period  of  more 
than  thirty  centuries;  it  has  presided  over  the 
formation  of  their  philosophies,  their  social  cus- 
toms, their  intellectual  habits  and  their  litera- 
ture; and  it  lies  at  the  very  basis  of  their  lives 
in  all  possible  relations  to  a  degree  which  is 
hardly  paralleled  elsewhere.  These  facts  account 
for  the  extreme  difficulty  and  slowness  of  Chris- 
tian progress  among  the  Hindus.  The  Moham- 
medans in  India  do  not  derive  their  religion  from 
ages  so  remote  as  the  Hindus,  and  on  this  account 
their  momentum  along  the  line  of  present  relig- 
ious development  might  be  supposed  to  be  less, 
yet  they  show  fully  as  much  determination  in 
upholding  their  peculiar  tenets  as  the  Hindus  do 
in  upholding  theirs;  they  are  characterized  by 
the  same  intense  conviction  that  they  are  God's 
chosen  people,  commissioned  to  take  and  purge 
the.  earth,  which  has  made  Mohammedan  armies 
so  often  victorious  in  battles,  which  renders  them 
individually  impervious  to  argument  and  reason, 
and  even  leads  thera  to  deeds  of  private,  personal 
violence  in  support  of  their  faith. 

Civilization:  The  people  of  India  have  their  own 
civilization  developed  gradually  through  long 
ages  of  progress,  different  from  that  of  the  West, 
yet  wonderful  to  contemplate,  and  in  many 
respects  admirable  The  main  resource  of  the 
people  being  agriculture,  the  process  of  tilling  the 
soil  and  making  it  yield  its  wealth  have  been  care- 
fully studied;  and  tho  their  implements  are 
clumsy  and  their  methods  those  of  a  bygone  age, 
to  which  they  still  cling  with  that  tenacious  con- 
servatism which  they  show  in  everything,  yet  the 
results  of  their  efforts  are  by  no  means  contempt- 
ible. They  have  especially  constructed  immense 
tanks  and  reservoirs  for  storing  water  and  com- 
plicated sluiceways  and  canals  for  distributing 
it  in  the  dry  season  over  their  fields,  which  in  size 
and  utility  are  remarkable.  These  are  found 
chiefly  in  Central  and  South  India.  The  English 
Government  has  done  much  to  extend  facilities 
for  irrigation  by  the  construction  of  costly  sys- 
tems of  canals,  fed  by  the  rivers,  whose  waters  are 
diverted  into  them  by  finely  constructed  dams. 
Such  works  exist  in  all  parts  of  India,  and  the 
canals  are  sometimes  of  sufficient  size  to  be  avail- 
able for  purposes  of  navigation.  Their  manufac- 
tures— tho  entirely  by  hand — especially  of  cer- 
tain textile  fabrics,  such  as  muslins  and  silks, 
as  also  of  jewelry  and  brass  ware,  have 
long  been  famous  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 
In  the  development  of  social  and  political  life 
they  have  wrought  out  a  system  of  efficient  com- 
munal government  in  their  villages  which  has 
been  the  subject  of  careful  study  by  European 
lawyers  and  historians.  Its  object,  in  a  word, 
was  to  make  each  village  self-supporting  and 
independent,  furnishing  it,  within  its  own  walls 


and  by  means  of  its  own  organism,  with  farmers, 
artisans  and  day-laborers,  in  sufficient  number, 
variety  and  proportion  to  provide  every  article 
of  ordinary  use — both  clothing  and  implements 
of  every  sort — which  the  village  could  need; 
while  the  public  affairs  of  every  village  were 
regulated,  and  all  disputes  between  villages  set- 
tled, by  the  headmen  and  elders  of  the  village,  to 
whom  long  usage  had  relegated  those  duties.  In 
literature  the  Indian  civilization  has  given  to  the 
world  the  Sanskrit  language — one  of  the  most 
copious  and  highly  polished  tongues  with  which 
scholars  have  ever  become  familiar;  poetry  and 
philosophy  have  been  especially  cultivated;  to 
some  degree  also  mathematical  and  astronomical 
science.  In  geography  but  little  has  been  done, 
in  history  nothing;  in  fact  the  historic  sense 
seems  to  be  largely  wanting  in  the  Indian  mind. 
Their  achievements  in  art  are  confined  chiefly  to 
the  department  of  architecture;  in  painting  they 
have  done  nothing;  in  sculpture  they  have 
merely  succeeded  in  fashioning  images  of  their 
gods  and  heroes  of  a  character  hardly  rising  above 
the  level  of  caricature,  and  sometimes  falling  to 
that  of  absolute  hideousness;  sometimes  the 
sculptures  of  a  cave  temple  (for  instance  that  of 
Elephanta  in  Bombay  harbor)  will  be  found  to 
possess  a  considerable  degree  of  dignity  and  artis- 
tic excellence.  But  such  exceptions  to  the  gen- 
eral character  of  grotesqueness  are  not  frequent. 
Numerous  temples — some  cut  from  the  solid 
rock;  some  built  of  stone  with  neither  mortar  nor 
cement;  some  whose  towers  arise  to  imposing 
heights,  like  those  of  Southern  India;  some  merely 
stone-built  shrines,  a  simple  cube  with  a  pyra- 
midal roof;  some  built  last  year,  and  others  in 
various  stages  of  decay  attesting  their  foundation 
centuries  ago;  some  covered  with  rudely  fash- 
ioned images  of  gods  and  of  animals  esteemed 
sacred,  oftentimes  in  various  obscene  attitudes; 
and  some  wholly  plain,  and  with  no  attempt  at 
ornament — are  the  sole  creations  of  their  archi- 
tectural skill.  In  music  the  Indians  have  per- 
fected a  system  of  their  own,  with  notation,  time, 
and  intervals  different  from  those  of  Western 
music,  wholly  destitute  of  harmony,  yet  not 
without  a  certain  plaintive  beauty  in  its  melodies. 
Their  singing  is  apt  to  be  rather  nasal,  and  their 
instrumental  music  seems  to  a  European  nothing 
but  a  discordant  clamor  of  drums  and  screeching 
of  shrill  wind-instruments;  butsome  of  the  stringed 
instruments  in  use  among  them  are  more  pleasing 
in  tone.  For  a  long  time  the  associations  of 
Hindu  music,  being  almost  wholly  those  of  the 
Hindu  temple,  and  the  Hindu  festival  were  con- 
sidered insuperable  objections  to  its  use  among 
Christians.  But  of  late  years,  in  more  than  one 
part  of  the  great  Indian  mission  field,  native  poets 
have  arisen,  who  have  composed  Christian  hymns 
in  the  meters  of  Hindu  prosody  and  have  adapted 
them  to  such  Hindu  melodies  as  seemed  oest 
fitted  for  the  purpose.  In  many  churches  of 
Indian  Christians  these  hymns  and  tunes  are  now 
used  with  most  excellent  effect. 

Preachers  and  street  evangelists  in  the  bazars 
and  villages  find  many  of  these  native  tunes  with 
Christian  words  most  useful  in  gaining  the  ear  of 
the  people  for  the  proclamation  of  Christian 
truth.  This  conversion  of  Indian  poetry  and 
song  to  the  uses  of  Indian  Christianity  was  a 
decided  step  of  progress  in  the  work  of  natural- 
izing Christianity  among  a  people  the  essential 
genius  of  whose  mind  seemed  in  some  respects 
ill  adapted  to  receive  it. 


8S5 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


India 


It  is  difficult  to  describe  in  a  few  words  the 
intellectual  condition  of  the  Indian  people.  In 
some  respects,  and  among  certain  classes,  an 
intellectual  cultivation  has  existed  for  centuries 
whose  twofold  result  is  seen  to-day,  in  a  keen- 
ness of  mind  and  a  faculty  of  profound  specula- 
tive thought  which  is  remarkable,  in  the  philo- 
sophical treatises,  the  commentaries  upon  them, 
the  hymns  and  the  poems  which  compose  the 
body  of  Hindu  classic  literature.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  people  as  a  rule  are  unable  to  read,  and 
are  content  to  live  on,  generation  after  genera- 
tion, with  no  intellectual  progress,  content  if  they 
get  rice  or  other  grain  enough  to  keep  them  from 
starvation,  and  careless  of  mental  or  spiritual  sus- 
tenance. It  is  among  the  Brahmans  that  the 
intellectual  cultivation  of  India  has  reached  its 
fullest  result.  They  have  been  not  only  the 
priests,  the  religious  leaders  of  the  people,  but 
also  the  creators  of  its  intellectual,  philosophical 
and  literary  development,  and  the  depositaries 
of  its  intellectual  wealth.  With  the  exception  of 
an  occasional  lyric  poet  arising  from  among  the 
lower  orders  of  the  people,  whose  homely  verses 
in  the  vernacular  of  his  own  district  would  often 
obtain  an  immense  currency  and  exert  a  vast 
influence,  especially  over  the  class  from  which  the 
poet  himself  had  sprung,  nearly  all  the  thinkers, 
students,  and  authors  of  India  have  been  Brah- 
mans. The  elaborate  grammar  of  the  Sanskrit 
language  is  due  to  their  assiduous  cultivation; 
Indian  theology,  philosophy,  poetry,  and  sci- 
ence have  been  developed  almost  wholly  by 
them.  The  Brahman  intellect  is  keen,  acute, 
subtle,  and  speculative;  but  their  logic  is  apt  to 
be  fallacious  and  their  argumentation  specious 
rather  than  profound  and  thorough.  The  edu- 
cation of  the  merchant  class  consists  of  but  little 
else  than  reading,  writing,  and  such  practical 
operations  of  arithmetic  as  will  make  ready 
and  correct  accountants.  The  royal  and  soldier 
castes  have  been  apt  to  affect  a  lofty  contempt 
for  all  literary  accomplishments,  as  things  fit 
only  for  Brahmans;  and  have  paid  the  penalty 
of  their  folly  in  many  a  case  by  being  compelled 
to  employ  Brahman  secretaries,  prime  ministers, 
and  financiers,  who,  little  by  little,  would  absorb 
the  real  power  of  the  throne,  while  its  nominal 
occupant  was  busy  with  his  elephants,  his  horses 
and  soldiers,  or  else  sunken  in  ignoble  debauch- 
ery. The  great  masses  of  the  people  are  not 
to-day,  and  never  have  been,  able  even  to  read 
their  own  vernacular;  thus  they  have  become  on 
the  one  hand  the  dupes  of  a  crafty  priesthood 
and  on  the  other  the  prey  of  cunning  money- 
lenders on  whose  advances  of  cash  they  are  forced 
to  depend,  but  whose  wiles  and  tricks  they  are 
too  ignorant  to  detect.  Such  education  as  the 
children  of  Hindu  families  enjoyed  before  the 
establishment  of  missionary  and  government 
schools  was  imparted  by  Brahman  schoolmas- 
ters, who  were  wont  to  collect  the  boys  wanting 
instruction  (girls  were  never  taught)  and  to  teach 
them  to  repeat  by  rote  verses  from  the  Sanskrit 
poets,  to  read  and  write  their  own  vernacular, 
and  to  perform  operations  in  simple  arithmetic. 
Brahman  youths  who  wished  for  a  thorough 
training  in  the  sacred  language,  religion,  and 
philosophy  would  attach  themselves  to  some 
noted  scholar  and  would  be  by  him  put  through 
an  elaborate  course  of  instruction,  extending  to 
many  years.  In  this  way  large  numbers  of 
young   Brahmans    would    sometimes    be    found 


attending  upon  the  instructions  of  such  a  learned 
man,  or  guru,  composing  thus  a  sort  of  college. 
But  such  a  course  of  instruction  would  be  con- 
fined, in  its  subjects,  to  the  Sanskrit  language, 
the  practise  of  the  Hindu  religion,  including 
familiarity  with  the  sacred  books,  or  Vedas,  and 
to  skill  in  Hindu  philosophy;  while  its  recipients 
would  not  extend  beyond  the  ranks  of  the  Brah- 
man caste.  Merchants  did  not  need  such  train- 
ing, soldiers  did  not  care  for  it,  and  the  Sudras 
were  deemed  unworthy  of  it. 

Morals:  The  moral  condition  of  the  people 
should  be  described  as  one  of  apathy  or  even 
deadness  rather  than  as  one  of  violent  and 
malignant  opposition  to  virtue.  Their  lives  are 
destitute  of  stimulus  and  incentive.  Their 
religion  furnishes  no  motive  for  the  present  and 
incites  no  aspiration  for  the  future.  The  thought 
of  bettering  their  own  condition,  or  of  doing 
aught  to  benefit  another's,  is  foreign  to  their 
minds.  The  Oriental  doctrine  of  fate  is  ever 
present  to  quench  all  upward  endeavor.  It  is 
their  destiny  to  be  what  and  as  they  are;  and 
who  are  tliey  to  contend  with  destiny?  The 
chief  faults  of  the  people  are  lack  of  truthfulness 
— which,  especially  among  traders,  merchants 
and  money-lenders,  develops  rapidly  and  deeply 
into  manifold  forms  of  cheating  and  fraud — 
and  licentiousness.  Yet  caste  rules  constitute 
some  safeguard  for  the  virtue  of  their  women, 
for  a  female  of  good  caste  detected  in  immorality 
is  apt  to  be  promptly  dealt  with  and  expelled  by 
the  caste  authorities.  Intemperance  is  not 
usually  a  vice  of  the  Hindu  people,  tho  in  recent 
years  the  introduction  of  cheap  foreign  liquors, 
often  miserable  adulterations,  and  the  course  of 
the  government  in  licensing  drinking-places,  has 
stimulated  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors  among 
all  classes.  The  disposition  of  the  people  is  mild, 
and  crimes  of  violence  are  no  more  common 
among  tlaem  than  among  the  people  of  other 
races.  The  ranks  of  the  professional  thieves  and 
bandits  are  largely  recruited  from  certain  of  the 
wild  jungle  tribes,  who  have  been  robbers  from 
time  immemorial. 

Modern  History:  The  Aryans,  entering  India 
some  twenty  centuries  before  Christ,  gradually 
extended  themselves — first  through  the  valley  of 
the  Ganges,  then  into  Southern  India.  They 
have  left  behind  them  no  written  history.  But 
Hindu  princes  of  various  families  founded  dynas- 
ties and  ruled  over  realms  of  greater  or  less 
extent,  until  they  were  in  turn  reduced  to  sub- 
mission by  the  Mohammedans.  These  fierce  and 
relentless  conquerors  entered  India  through  the 
same  northwestern  door  as  those  who  had  pre- 
ceded them.  The  year  1000  may  be  taken  as 
marking  approximately  their  first  appearance  in 
Hindustan.  Mahmoud,  King  of  Ghazni,  a  city 
in  Afghanistan,  was  the  first  Mohammedan  leader 
to  undertake  the  conquest  of  India.  He  made 
twelve  expeditions  into  the  country — the  first  a 
a  few  years  before  the  approximate  date  above 
given.  Mohammedan  power  slowly  grew;  one 
dynasty  after  another  continued  the  work  of 
invasion,  until  first  the  Punjab,  then  the  Ganges 
valley,  and  at  last  all  of  India  was  reduced  to 
Muslim  sway,  tho  the  country  was  never  long  at 
peace.  Rebellions  were  constantly  keeping  the 
land  in  turmoil,  headed  sometimes  by  an  ambi- 
tious Mohammedan  upstart,  sometimes  by  a 
Hindu  whose  limbs  were  galled  by  the  chains  of 
Muslim  rule.     In  the  middle  of  the  17th  century 


India 

Indnatrlal  Trainlns 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


326 


a  Mahratta  chieftain  named  Sivaji  consolidated 
into  a  formidable  power  the  strength  of  the 
Mahratta  race  and  made  great  inroads  upon  the 

fower  of  the  Mohammedans.  He  overran  all 
ndia,  carried  desolation  wherever  he  went, 
and  dynasties  of  Mahratta  houses  were  established 
both  in  North  and  South  India.  But  their  power 
was  broken  at  the  battle  of  Pannipat,  near  Delhi, 
in  1761,  when  they  contended  unsuccessfully 
against  an  army  led  by  Ahmed  Shah  of  Afghan- 
istan. 

The  English  came  to  India  very  early  in  the 
17th  century,  first  as  merchants  in  a  small  and 
humble  way.  Their  mercantile  operations  were 
conducted  by  the  East  India  Company,  whose 
original  charter  was  signed  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
near  the  close  of  her  reign.  Little  by  little  their 
power  and  the  scope  of  their  influence  extended 
itself.  Establishments,  or  "presidencies,"  de- 
fended by  forts  and  armies,  under  the  com- 
mand of  this  company  of  merchants,  were  placed 
at  Madras,  at  Calcutta,  at  Bombay.  From  these 
points  the  authority  of  the  Company  silently  but 
steadily  grew.  When  the  Mahratta  power  fell 
in  1761,  the  English  were  already  strong  enough 
to  step  into  the  first  place  of  power  in  Hindustan; 
in  fact,  the  question  of  English  supremacy  in 
Bengal,  and  by  consequence  in  India,  had  been 
settled  at  the  battle  of  Plassey,  near  Calcutta,  in 
1757,  when  Clive  defeated  the  troops  of  Suraj- 
ud-Daula,  the  Mohammedan  ruler  of  Bengal. 
From  these  small  beginnings  and  along  a  path 
providentially  prepared  for  them  by  the  fall  of 
the  Mahrattas,  the  only  native  race  capable  of 
offering  an  effectual  resistance,  the  East  India 
Company  proceeded  to  its  manifest  destiny  of 
absorbing  and  ruling — not  as  merchants,  but  as 
conquerors  and  princes — the  whole  of  India. 
When  the  great  mutiny  of  1857  burst  upon  India 
— a  movement  fomented  among  the  native  troops 
in  the  employ  of  the  Company,  and  used  by  cer- 
tain dispossessed  heirs  of  old  Indian  princes  in  the 
hope  of  destroying  the  English  supremacy,  and 
regaining  the  lost  control  of  their  own  land — 
English  power  for  a  moment  trembled;  but  the 
result  of  the  mutiny  was  merely  the  transfer  of 
the  supreme  power  in  India  from  the  hands  of 
the  East  India  Company  to  the  direct  control  of 
the  British  crown  and  Parliament. 

More  and  more  have  the  English  rulers  of 
India  realized  that  they  have  a  duty  and  mission 
to  perform  in  that  land.  They  have  governed 
the  country  with  a  stern  and  rigorous  justice, 
with  a  benevolent  and  paternal  despotism.  If 
they  have  not  always  been  conciliatory  toward 
the  natives,  and  have  failed  largely  in  winning 
the  love  of  the  subject  races,  they  have  always 
been  respected  for  their  justice  and  integrity, 
and  their  rule  has  been  prized  for  the  good  order, 
the  peace,  the  prosperity,  which  they  have  given 
to  the  country.  They  have  encouraged  and  fos- 
tered education;  they  have  established  post- 
offices,  post-roads,  railroads,  telegraphs;  they 
have  developed  agriculture,  manufactures,  and 
commerce;  they  have  provided  hospitals  and 
medical  treatment  for  the  diseased,  and  have  fed 
the  multitudes  in  time  of  famine. 

Missionary  work  in  India  is  carried  on  under 
the  strong  protection  of  a  government,  which, 
while  wholly  neutral  in  religious  matters,  under- 
takes to  assure  to  every  one  religious  liberty, 
and  to  protect  all  in  the  exercise  of  it. 

Christianity  in  India:  While  we  may  regard  the 


tradition  that  the  Apostle  Thomas  introduced 
Christianity  in  India  during  the  1st  century  as 
unauthentic,  we  know  that  a  representative  of 
the  Christian  College  at  Alexandria  found  Chris- 
tians on  the  Malabar  coast  before  the  close  of  the 
2d  century  who  were  in  possession  of  the 
Hebrew  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  and  we  leam 
that  a  Bishop  of  India  was  present  at  the  Council 
of  Nicaea  in  a.  d.  325.  In  the  6th  century 
Syrian  missionaries  of  the  Nestorian  faith  propa- 
gated the  Gospel  in  India,  and  Christian  churches 
still  existed  on  the  Malabar  coast  and  in  Ceylon. 
From  the  time  of  Marco  Polo's  visit  to  India,  in 
the  13th  century,  when  he  reported  seeing 
Christians  at  many  points  where  he  touched, 
until  the  dawn  of  the  19th  century,  when  the  era 
of  modern  missions  began,  nearly  every  century 
witnessed  earnest  work  by  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries in  India;  but  in  the  18th  century 
Christianity  had  comparatively  few  consistent 
followers  in  the  land. 

The  King  of  Denmark  began  the  work  of  evan- 
gelical missions  in  India.  Bartholomew  Ziegen- 
balg  and  Henry  Plutschau,  Germans  from  Halle, 
who  were  sent  out  by  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark, 
reached  Tranquebar,  a  Danish  possession,  in 
1706;  and  they  may  be  regarded  as  the  pioneers 
of  the  great  missionary  host  that  wrought  so 
faithfully  during  the  following  century  for  the 
redemption  of  this  great  land. 

The  details  of  the  modern  missionary  history 
of  India  must  be  sought  under  the  titles  treating 
of  the  several  districts,  races  and  missionary 
societies  in  this  land;  but  here  we  may  appro- 
priately refer  to  the  following  interesting  facts: 
As  to  the  societies  doing  Christian  work  in  India, 
America  furnishes  35;  England,  34;  the  Conti- 
nent, nine,  and  the  international  societies  and 
missions  from  other  lands  number  15.  We  are 
impressed  by  the  words  of  Sir  William  Hunter 
in  his  work.  The  Indian  Empire:  "Between  1851 
and  1890  the  number  of  mission  stations  increased 
three-fold,  while  the  number  of  native  Protes- 
tant Christians  has  multiplied  more  than  five- 
fold, the  number  of  communicants  nearly  fifteen- 
fold  and  the  number  of  churches  or  congrega- 
tions sixteen-fold.  This  was  largely  due  to  the 
extended  employment  of  native  agency  in  the 
work.  The  native  ordained  pastors  increased 
from  21  in  1851  to  797  in  1890,  and  the  native  lay 
preachers  from  493  to  3,491." 

The  Statesman's  Year-book  gives  the  following 
facts  concerning  education  in  India:  Number  of 
educational  institutions,  March  31,  1901,  147,344, 
of  which  62,039  are  private  and  unaided;  scholars 
under  instruction,  4,417,422;  number  of  colleges 
for  men,  175,  with  21,615  students;  women's  col- 
leges, li,  with  205  students;  students  matricu- 
lated in  the  5  universities  in  1900,  7,528.  The 
numerical  increase  of  the  evangelical  forces  in 
India  during  the  last  decade  of  the  I9th  century 
should  inspire  gratitude  and  kindle  hope. 

Foreign         Native      Communi-      Pupils 
Year     Mission-     Christians       cants 


1890 

857 

559,651 

182,722 

279,716 

1900 

3,836 

591,310 

376,617 

342,114 

We  may  hope  for  far  greater  blessings  than 
these  to  come  to  India  during  the  opening  decade 
of  this  century  of  our  Lord;  but  if  the  percentage 
of  increase  is  equal  to  that  of  last  decade  the 
year  1910  will  witness  a  Protestant  community 


827 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


India 
Indnstrlal    Training 


of  more  than  one  million  and  a  quarter  in  this 

great  empire. 

Dubois  (AbbJi  J.  A.),  Hindu  Manners,  CtLstoms  and  Cere- 
monies, London.  1817-1S99:  Fuller  (Mrs.  M.  B.),  Wrongs 
of  Indian  Womanhood,  1900;  Hunter  (Sir  W.  W.),  The 
Indian  Empire,  London,  1892-  Ditto,  Th^  India  of  the 
Qlteen,  and  other  Essays,  London  and  New  York,  1903; 
Modak  (S.),  Directory  of  Protestant  Indian  Christians,  2 
vols.,  Calcutta,  1900;  Sherring  (M.  A.),  History  of  Protes- 
tant Missions  in  India  (1706-1881),  London,  1884 ;  Tisdall, 
(W.  St.  Clair),  India:  Its  History,  Darkness  and  Dawn, 
London,  1901 ;  Townsend  (M.\  Asia  and  Europe,  London, 
1901;  Hough  (Jas.),  History  of  Christianity  in  India  from 
the  Commencement  of  the  Christian  Era,  5  vols.,  London, 
1849-60;  Irving  (B.  A.),  Theory  and  Practice  of  Caste, 
London,  1853;  Jones  (J.  P.),  Indians  Problem:  Krishna  or 
Christ,  New  York,  1903. 

INDIAN  HOME  MISSION  to  the  Santhals 
(1867);  This  Missionary  Society  is  not  indigenous 
in  India  and  its  title  may  mislead  some.  It 
should  therefore  be  noted  at  once  that  the  Society 
is  to  be  reckoned  among  Danish  Missionary  Soci- 
eties. It  was  founded  in  1867  by  the  Rev.  H. 
P.  Boerresen  of  Copenhagen  and  the  Rev.  L.  O. 
Slcrefsrud.  The  last  named  missionary,  who 
is  a  Norwegian,  was  sent  out  under  the 
Gossner  Society  in  1863,  and  Mr.  Boerresen 
went  out  the  following  year  with  the  inten- 
tion oi  joining  him  in  the  Gossner  Soci- 
ety's station  in  Purulia,  Chota  Nagpur.  Not 
finding  the  situation  such  as  they  had  expected, 
they,  before  long,  withdrew  and  began  an  inde- 
pendent work  among  the  Santals,  their  design 
being  to  set  up  a  "Home"  which  should  be  a 
center  of  all  those  influences  which  flow  from  the 
home.  The  first  three  Santals  to  be  converted 
were  baptized  in  1869,  one  of  whom  was  after- 
ward ordained.  Schools  were  established  and 
the  pupils  brought  to  the  Middle-vernacular 
standard,  while  also  receiving  manual  training 
after  the  custom  of  the  people.  In  1880  a 
colony  was  started  in  Assam  for  Christian  Santal 
emigrants,  the  soil  being  more  fertile  than  in 
Bengal;  in  1890  the  mission  purchased  a  tea 
garden  near  the  colony  for  its  benefit.  The 
Ebenezer  Missionary  Society  supports  a  work  at 
Dinajpur,  fifty  miles  distant,  in  the  care  of  native 
helpers.  A  mission  press  has  been  established 
at  Ebenezer,  from  which  a  monthly  paper,  The 
Friend  of  the  Santhal,  is  issued,  and  school  books, 
hymn-books,  the  catechism  and  other  Christian 
literature  have  been  printed.  The  Gospels  have 
for  some  time  been  in  circulation,  and  the  whole 
Bible  is  now  being  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
British  Bible  Society. 

In  1902  there  were  10,600  baptized  Santals 
connected  with  this  mission.  There  are  ,5 
stations,  15  outstations,  5  missionaries,  46  native 
helpers,  9  day  schools,  with  375  pupils.  The 
support  of  the  mission  comes  partly  from  its  tea 
plantations  (in  1902  the  tea  culture  brought  in 
30,000  rupees),  and  in  the  main  from  collections 
made  in  Scandinavia  (42,000  rupees),  the  United 
States  (14,500  rupees),  Great  Britain  (2,000 
rupees),  and  India  (500  rupees).  Committees 
exist  to  collect  funds  in  England,  in  Scotland, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  the  United 
States. 

INDO-PORTUGUESE:  A  dialect  of  Portuguese 
found  among  the  descendents  of  the  ancient 
Portuguese  settlers  in  Ceylon  and  other  places  in 
the  Indian  seas. 

INDORE :  A  town  and  capital  of  a  district  in 
the  native  State  of  Haidarabad,  India,  situated  93 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  the  city  of  Haidarabad. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)    1  missionary 


and  7  native  workers,  men  and  women.     Name 
written  by  the  Society  Indur. 

INDORE:  The  capital  of  the  native  state  of 
Indore,  and  Residency  of  the  Governor  General's 
Agent  for  Central  India.  It  is  situated  107 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Bhopal,  in  a  healthful  region, 
at  an  altitude  of  1,786  feet.  Population  (1891) 
83,000,  of  whom  60,000  are  Hindus,  18,000  Mo- 
hammedans, and  2,500  Jains.  Station  of  the 
PCC  (1877),  with  (1903)  10  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  2  of  whom  are  physicians ;  2  dispensaries, 
1  hospital,  1  orphanage,  1  widows'  home,  and  1 
college  affiliated  to  Calcutta  University. 

INDRAMAYXJ:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the 
north  coast  of  Java,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated 
at  the  cape  of  the  same  name,  about  108  miles  E. 
of  Batavia.  Station  of  the  Netherlands  Mission- 
ary Union  (1864),  with  (1900)  1  missionary. 
Name  written  by  the  Society,  Indramajoe. 

INDUSTRIAL  MISSIONS  AID  SOCIETY:  This 
Society  was  established  in  London  in  1897  by 
Mr.  W.  H.  Fry,  and  marks  a  wider  effort  in  indus- 
trial missions.  The  Society  proposes  to  develop 
the  industrial  element  in  missionary  operations  by 
associating,  where  practicable,  agriculture  and 
other  industries  with  the  work  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, financially  separate,  but  linked  in  close 
fellowship.  The  Society  began  by  opening  fac- 
tories at  Ahmednagar  for  the  manufacture  of 
rugs,  metal  work,  etc.,  thus  giving  employment 
to  those  trained  in  the  mission  orphanages  and 
schools  and  to  other  Christians.  It  plans  to  do 
for  missions  generally  such  a  work  as  the  Basel 
Industrial  Committee  is  doing  for  the  adherents 
of  the  Basel  Missions.  It  has  sent  out  to  India 
a  skilled  operator,  whose  business  it  is  to  study 
Indian  products  and  the  world's  markets  that  he 
may  advise  wisely  regarding  the  articles  to  be 
produced  by  industrial  schools  and  plants,  and 
be  able  to  market  the  output  to  advantage. 

An  organization  having  a  similar  purpose  and 
called  the  Foreign  Missions  Industrial  Association 
has  been  organized  by  Mr.  Fry  in  New  York.  It 
was  incorporated  early  in  1904,  and  has  in  con- 
nection with  it  a  Ladies  Auxiliary  Committee. 

INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  IN  MISSIONS :  Indus- 
trial education  and  training  institutions  have  & 
growing  place  in  missions  because  they  are  found 
to  supply  economic  and  moral  deficiencies  and 
necessities  of  converts,  and  to  be  an  effective 
instrumentality  for  the  Christian  regeneration 
of  heathen  communities.  These  economic  neces- 
sities of  the  convert  are  due,  for  one  thing,  to  his 
isolation.  By  allying  himself  with  the  new  relig- 
ion, he  cuts  himself  off  from  his  family,  his  tribal 
relations  and  rights,  his  interest  in  common  land, 
cattle,  implements,  and  cooperative  business 
enterprises;  he  loses  caste;  he  is  precluded  from 
all  low  and  immoral  occupations,  from  parasitic 
dependence  upon  a  rich  or  high-caste  master,  and 
from  the  priesthood  and  all  the  occupations 
associated  with  idols,  superstitions  and  heathen- 
worship.  Because  of  the  ill-will  of  his  former 
coreligionists,  he  is  usually  at  a  disadvantage  in 
legitimate  lines  of  trade,  and  oftentimes  is  shut 
out  from  them  entirely.  The  mission  accom- 
panies, in  many  cases  indeed  opens  the  way  for, 
the  overwhelming  competition  of  Western  trade. 
So  the  missionary  finds  the  convert  in  a  poverty 
deeper  and  more  hopeless  than  that  of  his  heathen 
neighbors,  and  cannot  escape  a  sense  of  respon- 
sibility for  his  condition.     Not  only  so,  but  new 


Indnstrlal   Trainlne 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


328 


wants  and  necessities  are  the  speedy  fruitage  of 
the  Gospel.  Decent  clothing  instead  of  a  loin 
cloth,  decent  housing  instead  of  herding  in  a  one- 
room  hovel,  care  for  health  through  sanitation 
and  medical  treatment,  education  for  the  children, 
a  Bible,  and  at  least  a  few  books,  a  church  and 
minister  are  now  essential  to  him  as  a  man  and  a 
Christian.  He  may  be  unable  to  meet  the 
expense  of  the  old  grade  of  living;  much  more  is 
he  helpless  before  that  of  the  new  ideals,  which 
the  missionary  has  inspired.  Either  the  essen- 
tials of  decent  life  must  be  supplied  him  as  a  gift, 
to  the  sapping  of  his  manhood,  and  to  the 
increasing  burden  of  missionary  treasuries,  or  the 
way  must  be  opened  for  him  to  earn  that  where- 
with he  may  pay  for  them  himself;  and,  more  than 
this,  he  ought  to  be  earning  something  for  the 
extension  of  the  kingdom  among  his  own  people. 
The  embarrassment  is  greater  still  in  the  case  of 
the  thousands  of  orphans  whom  Christian  charity 
has  compelled  the  missionaries  to  shelter  during 
famine,  persecution,  or  other  disasters,  and  whom 
they  cannot  turn  out  again  to  die.  How  shall 
they  be  supported,  and  what  shall  they  do  when 
it  is  time  for  them  to  leave  the  orphanage?  In 
the  first  stage  of  missions,  when  converts  are  few, 
the  most  of  them  may  be  utilized  as  servants  or 
helpers  of  the  missionary  and  as  Christian  workers; 
but  all  are  not  fitted  for  such  service;  false  hopes 
are  engendered  by  the  system,  and  as  the  Chris- 
tian community  grows  larger,  the  proportion 
that  can  be  thus  provided  for  becomes  smaller. 
The  demand  for  clerks,  teachers  and  the  like  is 
very  limited  in  most  missionary  lands,  and  in 
India  the  multiplication  of  over-educated  non- 
producers  is  the  cause  of  serious  alarm  to  the 
authorities.  Under  such  conditions  restlessness 
and  discontent  are  a  natural  result.  Industrial 
helplessness  is  settling  down  upon  the  Christians 
of  India. 

Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training:  The 
solution  to  which  the  working  missionary  early 
tho  reluctantly  came,  was  that  industrial  ed- 
ucation and  work  must  be  provided;  and  the 
theory  of  missions  has  been  adjusting  itself  more 
slowly  to  a  like  conclusion.  This  conclusion 
would  have  seemed  to  impose  an  intolerable 
burden,  had  it  not  been  soon  discovered  that  not 
only  economic,  but  also  moral  and  spiritual,  needs 
are  met  by  industrial  training,  in  which  a  new 
and  effective  instrumentality  is  provided  for 
redemptive  work.  Manual  training  is  now  gen- 
erally recognized  by  educators  as  having  an 
important  educational  value,  fostering  interest 
in  work,  power  of  initiative  and  sustained  effort 
and  constructive  ability,  and,  in  general,  effective 
manhood  and  womanhood.  Industrial  educa- 
tion, as  developed  at  Hampton,  Tuskegee,  and 
other  schools,  has  proved  the  most  promising 
agency  in  the  uplifting  of  the  negro  and  Indian. 
The  mind  of  the  barbarous  and  degraded  heathen 
is  dull  and  sluggish,  encased  in  the  conceit  of 
ignorance  and  indifferent  to  high  things.  But  a 
better  way  to  make  a  board,  a  box  or  a  blanket 
interests  the  dullest,  while  the  wonders  of  the 
workshop,  with  its  powerful  engine  and  its  ingen- 
ious tools,  are  as  stirring  as  a  miracle,  convincing 
him  of  his  ignorance, breaking  down  his  prejudices 
and  making  him  willing  to  hear  upon  other  sub- 
jects the  man  who  can  do  such  marvels  and  teach 
others  to  do  them. 

Industrial  training  dignifies  manual  labor, 
which  is  generally  despised  by  the  inferior  races 


and  by  those  educated  in  a  purely  literary  course. 
Furthermore,  it  discourages  the  dependent  pauper 
spirit,  and  encourages  self-respect  and  self-reli- 
ance by  enabling  the  pupil  to  make  at  least  a 
partial  return  for  the  expense  of  his  education; 
it  is  wholeSbme,  checking  physical  vice;  and  it 
affords  a  test  of  character  by  which  lazy,  ineffi- 
cient pupils  may  be  detected  and  the  motives  of 
those  who  ask  for  help  be  discovered.  Once  more, 
the  native  agents,  ministers,  and  teachers,  upon 
whom  ultimate  evangelization  depends,  need 
such  training  to  fit  them  for  efficient  leadership, 
which  calls,  not  for  visionary,  bookish  individual^, 
but  for  self-reliant,  practical  men,  frugal  them- 
selves, and  able  to  earn  part  of  their  own  support 
if  need  be,  and  to  economically  build  and  admin- 
ister church  or  school.  Industrial  training  more 
often  than  not  is  vital  to  the  accomplishment  of 
the  ultimate  object  of  missions,  for  a  self-sup- 
porting, self-governing  native  church  possessed 
of  initiative  to  propagate  itself  cannot  be  formed 
until  the  members  are  able  to  support  themselves. 
The  problem  of  providing  a  native  ministry  in 
most  fields  is  not  more  that  of  finding  devoted 
preachers  and  pastors  than  it  is  of  developing 
thrifty  layman  to  support  them.  Nor  does  the 
time  given  to  manual  labor  hinder  general  educa- 
tion. Government  examinations  in  India  and 
South  Africa  show  that  pupils  in  schools  with 
industrial  courses  are  on  a  level  in  literary  attain- 
ments with  their  competitors  from  purely  literary 
schools,  the  time  given  to  work  being  compen- 
sated for  by  the  greater  alertness  and  application 
of  the  industrial  pupil.  The  same  testimony 
comes  from  the  schools  for  the  American  negro. 

The  Growth  of  Industrial  Training  in  Missions: 
Under  the  impulse  of  such  motives  manual  indus- 
try has  always  had  some  place  in  the  history  of 
missions.  Our  Lord  and  His  apostles  honored 
labor  and  were  mindful  of  the  physical  and 
material  welfare  of  their  followers.  The  early 
missionaries  to  the  now  Christian  countries  of 
Europe  were  pioneers  of  industry  as  well  as  of 
religion,  introducing  the  ideal  of  peaceful  toil  in 
settled  homes  as  an  offset  to  the  wild  life  of  adven- 
ture and  rapine,  which  was  the  ideal  of  early  bar- 
barism. The  Moravians  from  the  first  sent  out 
artisans  as  well  as  teachers,  and  the  continental 
societies  were  generally  in  advance  of  the  British 
and  American  in  Industrial  mission  work.  Carey 
supposed  that  missionaries  could  support  them- 
selves, and  so  set  an  example  to  their  converts;  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  earliest  missionaries 
of  the  London  Missionary  Society  also  were 
artisans.  Missionaries  have  been  ahead  of 
educationalists  at  home  in  their  appreciation  of 
the  value  of  manual  training,  household  indus- 
tries being  a  usual  feature  of  the  earliest  girls' 
boarding  schools.  Cyrus  Hamlin,  with  his  bakery 
and  his  stove  and  rat-trap  factory,  was  a  genera- 
tion in  advance.  Lovedale  in  Africa  had  been 
doing  its  work  for  the  negro  some  twenty  years 
before  Hampton  was  founded  by  Gen.  Armstrong, 
himself  the  son  of  a  Hawaiian  missionary. 

Much  of  the  industrial  work  of  missions  has 
been  begun  without  aid  from  the  boards  at  home, 
the  cost  incurred  being  met  by  special  contri- 
butions from  individual  philanthropists  convinced 
by  missionaries  who  saw  the  need  of  this  form  of 
effort.  Up  to  the  year  1880  but  29  industrial 
schools  and  classes  were  reported  in  the  whole 
field  of  foreign  missions.  By  1890  there  were 
55.     In  his   "Centennial  Survey"   (statistics  to 


329 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Indnstrlal    TralnlnsT 


1900)  Dr.  Dennis  reports  179  industrial  institu- 
tions and  classes  with  9,074  pupils,  of  whom 
6,622  were  males  and  2,452  females.  Of  these 
schools  63  with  1,845  pupils  were  in  Africa,  and 
62  with  5,288  pupils  in  India  and  Ceylon.  Since 
1900  the  number  of  such  industrial  enterprises 
has  grown  more  rapidly.  Husband's  Protestant 
Mission  Directory  for  1902  enumerating  97  mis- 
sionary institutions  in  India  and  Ceylon  in  which 
trades  were  taught. 

Nature  of  the  Existing  Industrial  Enterprises: 
These  may  be  loosely  classified  as  follows:  (1) 
Schools  with  industrial  features  whose  chief  object 
is  discipline  and  self-help.  An  increasing  num- 
ber of  orphanages  and  boarding  schools  are  of 
this  sort.  At  the  Ecumenical  Conference  of 
1900,  Miss  Barnes  described  such  a  school  in  India, 
in  which  the  girls  cultivate  the  cotton,  spin  the 
cloth,  make  their  clothes,  ten^  garden,  cook, 
keep  house,  and  take  care  of  the  clothing,  food 
and  health  of  the  younger  children,  at  the  same 
time  heading  the  schools  of  the  district  at  the 
Government  examinations.  The  Ramabai 
schools  and  orphanages  at  Poona  and  Mukti  are 
of  this  class.  The  girl  graduates  of  such  schools 
are  in  demand  as  wives  and  are  a  power  in  do- 
mestic and  social  regeneration.  (2)  Schools  where 
trades  are  taught,  aiming  not  only  at  a  disciplin- 
ary education,  but  to  fit  the  pupil  for  a  definite 
life  work.  They  require  a  larger  equipment  and 
expenditure.  Of  these,  the  UFS  institution  at 
Lovedale,  S.  Africa,  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
useful.  Normal  and  theological,  as  well  as  indus- 
trial, courses  are  maintained,  but  all  the  students 
are  given  careful  instruction  in  ordinary  school 
studies  and  in  religion,  and  all  are  required  to  do 
some  kind  of  manual  work  as  a  discipline  and 
contribution  to  self-support.  Its  enrollment 
includes  pupils  from  almost  all  the  South  African 
peoples,  as  well  as  Dutch  and  English,  and  from 
all  denominations,  the  unsectarian  character  of 
the  instruction  being  carefully  guarded.  The 
school  receives  support  from  the  missionary 
funds  and  from  government  grants,  A  full 
course  is  given  in  printing,  book-binding,  black- 
smithing,  wagon-making,  basketry,  carpentry, 
farming,  telegraphy,  and  domestic  science.  At 
least  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  2,000  who  have 
received  its  training  have  led  useful  lives;  very 
few  have  reverted  to  their  former  conditions, 
and  the  majority  have  proved  strong,  energetic 
Christians.     A  large  proportion   of  the  present 

Eupils  are  children  of  the  Christian  negroes  whom 
ovedale  taught  a  generation  ago.  Blythswood 
Institution,  also  in  S.  Africa,  is  an  offshoot,  and 
Livingstonia,  in  Nyasaland,  owes  much  to  its 
assistance.  Another  typical  trade  school  is  the 
Lutheran  Industrial  Mission  at  Muhlenburg, 
Liberia  (1840),  where,  among  other  occupations, 
farming  and  coffee-raising  are  made  a  specialty, 
the  exports  of  coffee  providing  the  school  with  its 
working  capital.  Graduates  have  cleared  a 
group  of  plantations  about  it,  and  established 
settlements,  schools,  and  churches  in  other  parts 
of  Liberia.  The  PN  school  at  Sidon,  Syria,  the 
LMS  school  at  Malua,  Samoa,  which  is  self-sup- 
porting, the  ABCFM  Industrial  School  at  Tilli- 
pally,  Ceylon,  also  self-supporting,  the  CEZ 
industrial  classes  in  spinning  and  embroidery, 
more  than  self-supporting,  and  the  Petit  School 
of  Industrial  Arts,  Ahmednagar,  India,  named 
after  its  Parsi  benefactor  (under  the  ABCFM), 
and  giving  extended  courses  in  wood  work,  metal 


work  and  weaving,  are  further  examples.  The 
trades  taught  in  schools  of  this  class  include 
carpentry  and  cabinet-making,  blacksmithing 
and  metal  work,  printing  and  bookbinding, 
weaving,  tailoring,  shoe-making,  masonry,  and 
embroidery.  The  largest  number  of  such  insti- 
tutions are  in  India,  with  Africa  second,  and 
they  have  been  an  important  agency  in  planting 
Christian  civilization  in  the  South  Sea  Islands 
and  the  New  Hebrides,  and  agricultural  schools 
especially  have  done  much  for  the  aborigines  of 
North  America. 

(3)  The  Industrial  community,  in  which  indus- 
trial establishments  where  Christians  may  find 
temporary  or  permanent  employment  are  added 
to  trade  schools,  is  a  further  development.  The 
classical  example  is  found  in  the  Basel  Society's 
Industrial  Missions,  with  factories  at  Calicut, 
Cannore,  Codacal  in  Malabar,  and  Palghat  in 
Madras.  The  Basel  Society  missionaries  began, 
as  far  back  as  1842,  various  experiments  to  meet 
the  necessities  of  their  destitute  converts,  and 
the  Home  Committee  took  up  the  problem.  A 
circular  issued  in  1854  by  its  Industrial  Commis- 
sion defined  its  object  as  two-fold:  first,  to  lessen 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  remove  the  social  diffi- 
culties which  the  institution  of  caste  opposes  to 
the  missions  in  their  endeavors  to  establish  new 
congregations,  and  second,  what  may  perhaps  be 
called  a  mission  in  itself,  not  by  preaching,  but  if 
possible  by  power  of  example,  by  Christianity  in 
its  practical,  every  day  life,  a  mission  by  the 
exemplification  of  Christian  diligence,  honesty, 
and  respectability.  Later  the  whole  control  of 
the  Industrial  enterprises  was  transferred  to  the 
Basel  Industrial  Committee,  whose  only  connec- 
tion with  the  Committee  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  is  thatsome  members  are  common  to  both, 
and  the  two  committees  work  in  close  cooperation. 
The  funds  for  the  industries  have  been  sufficiently 
supplied  by  donations,  upon  which  the  donors 
receive  five  per  cent,  interest,  and  the  remaining 
profits  are  devoted  to  the  extension  of  the  indus- 
tries, to  charities,  and  to  contributions  to  the 
Basel  Mission.  An  improved  native  product, 
"Basel  Mission  cloths"  (including  the  Khaki 
cloth  now  adopted  for  military  uniforms),  and 
roofing  tiles  of  a  novel  pattern  have  been  the 
most  notable  products  of  the  Basel  enterprise  in 
India.  Large  numbers  of  converts  are  employed 
in  these  works,  but  a  considerable  proportion  now 
work  independently  as  carpenters,  bookbinders, 
and  weavers,  having  been  assisted  by  the  mission 
in  making  a  start  for  themselves.  They  are  even 
employed  in  the  establishments  of  rival  firms 
which  copy  the  Basel  tiles  and  Basel  cloth.  By 
the  last  report  of  the  Basel  Industrial  Missions, 
after  paying  5  per  cent,  on  the  capital  invested 
and  various  donations  to  funds  for  the  support  of 
invalids,  widows,  and  orphans,  $57,780  was 
turned  over  to  the  Evangelistic  work  of  the  Basel 
Society.  Tho  many  difficulties  have  beset 
the  progress  of  the  work  and  reasons  for  discour- 
agement are  not  wanting,  the  supporters  of  the 
mission  are  convinced  that  it  has  done  a  great  good 
and  is  on  the  right  lines.  A  similar  mission  has 
been  maintained  by  the  Basel  Society  in  the  Gold 
Coast  Colony,  Africa,  with  gratifying  results 
ethically  and  financially.  Another  example  that 
will  repay  study  is  Frere  Town,  Mombasa,  East 
Africa,  established  by  the  CMS  as  a  refuge  for 
freed  slaves,  in  whose  well-orderedsettlements  the 
freed  slaves  of  1885  were  received,  cared  for,  fed. 


Industrial   Training 
Intellcctnal  Uplift 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


330 


■clothed,  and  taught  by  the  freed  slaves  of  1875, 
now  baptized  Christians  and  leading  a  life  of  quiet 
industry.  On  the  other  side  of  the  world,  old 
Metlakahtla,  of  the  CMS,  and  New  Metlakahtla, 
established  independently  by  William  Duncan, 
are  illustrations  at  once  of  the  difficulties  and 
benefits  of  industrial  communities.  The  most 
extensive  industrial  mission  undertakings  yet 
attempted  are  in  Central  Africa.  In  1875  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  at  an  initial  expense  of 
$50,000,  sent  out  for  the  founding  of  Livingstonia 
Mission,  on  Lake  Nyasa,  a  company  under  the 
guidance  of  Lieut.  Young,  consisting  of  Dr.  Laws 
and  another  minister,  a  carpenter,  blacksmith, 
engineer,  agriculturist,  and  seaman,  who  first 
established  civilization  at  Cape  McClear  and 
then  at  Bandawe,  where  the  wilderness  has  been 
transformed  into  a  cultivated  field,  and  idle,  war- 
loving  savages  into  an  industrious  Christian  com- 
munity. Those  trained  in  the  mission  establish- 
ment engage  in  trade  and  farming  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  mission,  and  many  others  are  scattered 
widely  over  Central  Africa  in  useful  employment. 
The  Established  Church  of  Scotland  has  developed 
a  like  community  at  Blantyre.  The  Universities' 
Mission  and  the  Nyasa  Industrial  Mission  are 
working  with  success  in  similar  lines.  Newer 
industrial  enterprises  in  missions  are  the  Indus- 
trial Evangelistic  Mission  of  Northern  India, 
founded  in  1902  by  Rev.  and  Mrs.  J.  C.  Lawson  of 
Philibit,  with  Mr.  C.  W.  Cotton  as  the  Secretary 
of  the  London  Committee,  and  the  Scottish  Mis- 
sion Industries' Company,  a  purely  business  enter- 
prise in  relations  with  the  UFS  similar  to  those 
held  by  the  Basel  Industrial  Committee  to  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society. 

Some  principles  of  the  successful  conduct  of 
industrial  missions  have  become  established : 

(1)  The  Object:  The  kingdom  of  God  as  the  end 
of  industrial,  as  of  all  other  forms  of  missions, 
must  ever  be  kept  in  view.  Not  physical  comfort 
of  converts,  not  civilization,  not  economy  in 
missions,  but  the  making  of  Christian  men  and 
Christian  communities  is  the  goal.  In  the  Basel 
Mission  the  greatest  care  is  taken  to  develop  man- 
hood; wages  are  only  paid  for  value  received, 
charity  being  administered  from  a  fund.  Malua 
made  it  a  rule  not  to  sell  any  of  the  products  of 
the  school  farm,  as  this  was  found  to  cultivate 
commercialism  in  the  pupils.  "The  harmonious 
training  of  the  head,  hand  and  heart  is  the  key  to 
the  redemption  of  Africa,"  says  Dr.  Day  of 
Muhlenberg. 

(2)  Adaptation:  Equal  need  does  not  exist  for 
industrial  missions  in  all  fields.  Where  there  is 
a  well-developed  industrial  system,  as  in  China 
and  Japan,  there  may  be  no  need  of  them,  except 
as  a  means  of  self-help  and  discipline,  or  the  need 
may  be  small  compared  with  that  in  the  fields 
where  the  people  are  of  inferior  race  and  where 
Mohammedan  or  Hindu  supremacy  denies  indus- 
trial opportunity  to  the  Christian.  There  must 
be  adaption  of  the  industrial  experiment  to  the 
varying  conditions  of  each  community;  to  the 
genius  and  capacities  of  the  people;  to  the  mate- 
rials at  their  disposal;  to  the  market  available  for 
the  goods  produced,  and  to  the  openings  for  the 
practise  of  various  trades.  The  mission  fields  are 
strewn  with  the  wrecks  of  industrial  enterprises 
and  their  machinery,  resulting  from  the  blind 
imitation  of  useful  institutions  elsewhere.  That 
the  convert  may  overcome  the  prejudice  against 
him  as  a  Christian,  have  permanent  employment, 


maintain  his  self-respect  and  bring  honor  to  the 
cause,  he  must  be  trained  to  be  a  better  workman 
than  his  heathen  competitor  and  the  Christian 
workshop  must  turn  out  the  better  goods.  'The 
same  reasons  advise  the  giving  of  a  more  expensive 
training  in  trades  which  promise  a  reasonably 
sure  and  adequate  return  rather  than  of  short, 
cheap  courses  in  easier  trades  which  can  never 
yielci  enough  to  meet  the  Christian's  enlarged 
necessities.  It  has  been  found  unwise  to  attempt 
the  production  of  articles  in  competition  with 
Western  manufacture,  unless  protected  against 
these  by  distance  or  other  cause.  Either  a  new 
article  or  an  improved  article  for  home  consump- 
tion or  native  products  of  fine  quality  suitable 
for  export  have  proved  most  remunerative.  It 
should  be  added  that  those  who  labor  for  the 
submerged  classes  in  great  cities,  for  the  Amer- 
ican negro  and  Indian,  for  the  African  and  the 
islander,  and  those  who  are  interested  industrially 
in  India,  where  land-owning  and  agriculture  are 
beset  with  peculiar  difficulties,  alike  place  grow- 
ing emphasis  upon  the  soil  as  furnishing  the  most 
wholesome,  permanent,  and  promising  employ- 
ment for  those  whom  they  seek  to  benefit. 

(3)  Equipment  and  Superintendence:  Efficient 
superintendence  and  liberal  capital  and  equip- 
ment are  essential.  The  employment  of  native 
artisans  as  instructors  has  proved  a  failure,  and 
in  few  cases  have  ordained  missionaries  been 
found  competent  as  instructors  or  superintend- 
ents of  industrial  work.  The  successful  super- 
intendent is  a  trained  artisan  with  sufficient 
breadth  and  culture  to  enable  him  to  study  the 
conditions  and  adapt  the  work.  He  will  be  the 
better  for  knowing  something  of  a  variety  of 
trades.  He  might  well  be  apt  to  teach,  but  one 
thing  he  must  be — an  honest  Christian,  who  puts 
the  kingdom  of  God  before  all  else  as  the  purpose 
of  his  mission.  Such  a  man  should  be  placed 
on  an  equality  with  other  missionaries,  and 
experience  has  proved  him  worthy  of  it. 

Industrial  education  is  expensive  at  home  and 
cannot  be  otherwise  in  the  mission  field.  Neces- 
sity for  trained  superintendents  and  for  apparatus 
makes  it  difficult  to  begin  in  a  small  way,  but  the 
most  successful  industrial  enterprises  have 
started  cautiously  and  felt  their  way  to  their 
larger  work.  Usually  the  successful  industrial 
institution  is  the  outcome  of  a  single  devoted  life 
with  genius  for  organization  and  leadership. 
Hamlin  and  Bebek  with  its  mill  and  bakery; 
Amstrong  and  Hampton,  Washington  and  Tuske- 
gee,  Stewart  and  Lovedale,  Laws  and  Living- 
stonia, Duncan  and  Metlakahtla,  Ramabai  and 
Poona — such  linking  of  names  might  be  contin- 
ued indefinitely  to  illustrate  the  ooint.  Having 
granted  that  industrial  training  is  a  necessity  in 
most  mission  fields,  the  discovery  of  the  godly 
man  of  genius  to  plan  and  organize  is  a  first  con- 
dition of  success. 

Mildmay  Conference  Foreign  Missicms,  London,  1878,  pp. 
68-76 ;  Centenary  Conference  on  Foreign  Missions,  London, 
1888,  pp.  402-406;  Ecumenical  Missionary  Conference, 
New  York,  1900,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  147-167;  History  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society,  Vol.  III.;  Report  of  the  Con- 
ference of  Foreign  Missionary  Societies  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  1902.  p.  77;  Missionary  Review  of  the  World, 
XL,  p.  550;  XII.,  500;  XVI.,  686,  689.  758,  788;  XVII., 
Vi  ;  Noble  (F.  P.),  Redemption  of  Africa,  pp.  562-578; 
1899;  Jack  (J.  W.),  Daybreak  in  Livingstonia,  London, 
1900;  Young  (R.),  African  Wastes  Reclaimed,  London, 
1902;  Stewart  (J.),  Dawn  in  the  Dark  Continent,  Keir 
York,  J  903. 

INDWEDWE:  A  town  in  Natal,  S.  Africa, 
situated  about  28  miles  E.  of  Pietermaritzburg. 


331 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Industrial    Training 
Intellectual   Uplift 


Station  of  the  South  Africa  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Church,  with  29  native  workers,  20  outstations, 
2  schools,  and  265  professed  Christians.  Name 
written  by  the  Society,  Endwedwe. 

ING-CHUNG:  A  city  and  district  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Fo-kien,  China.  The  district  begins  125 
miles  southwest  of  Fuchau  and  extends  100 
miles  in  a  northwest  direction.  Its  mountains 
are  high,  its  hill  roads  are  long,  its  villages  sparse, 
and  the  workers  few.  Station  circuit  of  the  ME, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  26  native  workers,  10  preaching 
places,  3  day  schools,  13  Sunday  schools,  and  403 
professed  Christians. 

INGHOK.     See  YuNo-ru-HsiEN. 

INGLE,  James  Addison:  Missionary  bishop  of 
Han-kau,  China;  born  in  Frederick,  Md.,  March 
11,  1866;  died  in  Han-kau,  December  7,  1903. 
After  his  graduation  from  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia in  1888  he  studied  for  the  ministry  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  at  the  Virginia 
Seminary  in  Alexandria.  In  1891  he  received  an 
appointment  as  missionary  of  the  PE  to  China  and 
was  assigned  to  the  charge  of  the  important  station 
at  Han-kau  in  the  province  of  Hu-pei.  For  ten 
years  he  worked  here  with  great  success  and  in 
1902  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  Han-kau. 
During  his  episcopate  of  less  than  two  years  he 
greatly  strengthened  the  work  of  his  Church  in 
Central  China.  He  gave  special  attention  to  the 
training  of  native  clergy,  catechists,  and  teachers, 
and  through  them,  as  well  as  through  his  stafi  of 
American  clergy,  was  enabled  to  carry  on  a 
widely  extended  and  very  successful  evangelistic 
work.  He  also  greatly  developed  the  boarding 
and  day  schools  of  his  district  and  enlarged  the 
service  of  the  mission  hospital. 

INHAMBANE :  A  village  and  seaport  in  Portu- 
guese East  Africa,  situated  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
bay  of  the  same  name,  and  about  230  miles  N.  E. 
of  Lorengo  Marques.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1895), 
with  3  missionaries.  Also  outstation  of  the  Free 
Methodist  (American,  1885),  with  a  day  school. 
The  original  native  pronunciation  of  the  name  is 
Inyambane,  the  name  Inhambane  being  the  Por- 
tuguese spelling  of  the  African  name. 

INNER  MISSIONS.  See  German  Inner  Mis- 
sions. 

INTELLECTUAL  UPLIFT  BY  MISSIONS:   A 

few  preliminary  postulates  must  stand  at  the 
outset  of  even  a  brief  discussion  of  this  topic. 
Thus  it  is  freely  granted  that  in  all  mission  lands 
other  factors  coming  from  without  besides  Chris- 
tianity exert  an  intellectual  influence  upon  the 
people;  and  it  is  often  difficult  to  differentiate 
between  the  work  done  by  missionaries  and  that 
accomplished  by  the  Christian  civilization  which 
enters  with  them,  or  precedes  their  coming. 
Again,  it  is  evident  that  thus  far  Protestant  mis- 
sions, which  are  alone  being  considered  here, 
have  been  numerically  but  a  small  factor  in  the 
life  of  most  non-Christian  nations.  Thus,  in 
China,  in  1900,  there  were  some  140,000  Chinese 
to  every  Protestant  missionary  residing  there, 
and  the  native  Protestant  counted  only  as  one 
to  about  400  of  his  countrymen.  A  third  pos- 
tulate has  to  do  with  the  grades  of  society  affect- 
ed. As  will  be  shown,  the  intellectual  influence 
of  missions  varies  largely  with  the  original  status 
of  the  people  to  whom  missionaries  are  sent. 
Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  very 
aim  of  missions  differs  from  that  of  commerce  or 


political  conquest  in  that  Christianity  has  as  its 
sole  object  the  salvation  and  uplifting  of  the 
community.  The  very  nature  of  the  system  thus 
necessitates  the  elevation  rather  than  the  degra- 
dation of  society.  For  the  present  purpose  a 
threefold  classification  of  mission  lands  will  suffice 
to  show  the  varied  intellectual  effects  of  missions 
upon  non-Christian  peoples. 

I.  The  lower  races,  many  of  them  savage,  and 
the  rest  barbarous,  have  naturally  been  most 
extensively  influenced  on  the  intellectual  side 
through  missionary  effort. 

1.  The  very  presence  of  the  missionary  and  his 
belongings  constitute  an  intellectual  quickening. 
Before  his  ship  reaches  the  land,  if  it  happens  to 
be  an  unvisited  island  of  the  South  Seas,  its 
appearance  suggests  that  he  came  from  heaven 
and  was  borne  on  the  wings  of  the  wind  to  these 
shores,  and  this  gives  rise  to  questionings.  In 
more  advanced  countries,  as  soon  as  he  lands, 
he  is  an  obj  ect  of  intellectual  curiosity.  He  brings 
with  him  the  garb  and  furnishings  of  the  Occi- 
dent, many  of  them  being  new  to  the  natives.  In 
countries  where  there  is  no  native  press,  gossip 
supplies  its  place,  and  hence  the  story  of  his 
possessions  and  their  uses  spreads  through  large 
regions  and  is  everywhere  the  subject  of  remark 
and  wonder. 

2.  His  study  of  the  language  is  a  new  impulse 
to  discussion  and  thought.  He  asks  questions 
concerning  their  native  tongue  which  never 
occurred  to  them.  Other  queries  are  raised  by 
him  which  tax  the  knowledge  of  the  wisest  of 
savage  peoples. 

3.  In  those  races  where  there  is  no  written 
language,  an  unspeakable  impulse  to  intellectual 
development  is  imparted  through  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  alphabet.  In  some  100  languages 
this  wonder-working  process  has  been  wrought 
through  the  missionary;  and  from  the  New 
Hebrides,  where  the  "talking  chip"  with  its 
speaking  characters  aroused  wonder,  to  the  heart 
of  Africa,  where  the  introduction  of  alphabetical 
writing  was  regarded  as  little  short  of  miracle, 
there  is  a  remarkable  impulse  given  to  thought 
through  the  introduction  of  writing.  A  little 
later,  when  the  same  missionary  produces  the 
first  printed  literature  of  a  tribe  or  a  nation,  this 
intellectual  influence  is  widened  and  strength- 
ened. In  this  latter  process,  especially  among 
the  nations  where  there  is  already  a  rude  form 
of  written  speech,  the  language  is  greatly 
enriched  by  new  ideas  and  the  more  systematic 
use  of  an  already  existing  tongue. 

4.  A  concomitant  of  the  two  processes  just 
mentioned  is  the  enlistment  from  among  the 
people  of  a  body  of  the  best  educated  men 
obtainable  as  evangelists  and  teachers.  When 
mental  culture  becomes  indigenous,  it  raises  men 
to  a  position  of  intellectual  predominance  and 
awakens  desires  in  the  minds  of  multitudes  of 
others.  Even  those  who  have  never  studied  an 
hour  feel  the  contagion  of  this  transformation  of 
a  few. 

5.  Education  is  especially  necessary  to  the  pro- 
gram of  missions  among  the  lower  races.  In 
many  cases  it  is  the  very  first  work  of  the  sort 
ever  attempted.  So  simple  a  matter  as  the  use 
of  a  picture  to  enable  the  missionary  to  explain 
what  is  being  taught  those  who  are  studying, 
raises  the  onlookers  far  above  their  former  posi- 
tion of  mental  sluggishness.  Thus,  on  one  of  the 
great  African  lakes,  when  this  process  was  first 
employed,  it  took  much  time  for  the  older  ones 


Intellectual  Uplift 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


to  see  a  picture  and  only  gradually  were  the 
dog,  ox,  etc.,  made  out.  While  education  in 
these  countries  is  usually  elementary,  it  is  for 
that  very  reason  more  widely  pervasive  than  in 
cultured  countries,  since  among  the  lowest  races 
the  only  possibility  for  education  is  found  in  the 
mission  school.  Tho  religious  instruction  is  the 
main  aim,  the  elements  of  science  are  taught; 
and  thus  the  rude  philosophy  of  nature  races, 
which  has  as  its  explanation  the  so-called  super- 
stitions of  animism,  fetishism,  etc.,  is  gradually 
displaced,  and  true  knowledge  for  the  first  time 
shines  upon  the  people. 

6.  The  Bible,  or  those  portions  of  it  which  are 
usually  translated  at  an  early  stage  of  the  enter- 
prise, aside  from  its  religious  value  is,  like- 
wise, a  very  strong  intellectual  stimulus  to  the 
masses.  Its  varied  contents,  its  practical  doc- 
trines affecting  the  daily  life,  and  the  portion  of 
the  earth  which  forms  its  background,  are  a  help 
to  breadth  of  view  and  a  step  toward  interna- 
tional unity.  Just  as  all  western  countries  have 
the  Bible  as  a  common  heritage,  and  as  its  institu- 
tions have  insensibly  influenced  them,  thus 
bringing  them  together,  so  as  an  intellectual 
bond  the  Bible  first  unites  savage  or  uncivilized 
tribes  to  a  higher  civilization. 

7.  The  Christian  boolcs  which  are  numerously 
prepared  act  upon  the  few  as  a  strong  motive  to 
leaven  others.  Teaching  the  alphabet  and  sim- 
ple reading  is  the  key  to  religious  truth,  and 
thousands  gain  possession  of  the  key  who  do  not 
enter  into  the  religious  treasures  which  it  was 
the  primary  purpose  to  open  to  them.  They 
have,  nevertheless,  come  to  a  position  of  intellec- 
tual enlightenment  which  would  not  have  been 
brought  to  them  from  commercial  or  anti-relig- 
ious sources. 

8.  In  these  countries  of  lower  development  it 
frequently  happens  that  the  missionary  is  the 
pioneer  and  abettor  of  commerce  and  trade. 
Elements  of  material  culture  are  thus  indirectly 
the  fruitage  of  his  efforts,  and  there  can  be  no 
large  development  in  this  direction  which  is  not 
at  the  same  time  a  stimulus  to  the  intellect. 
While  it  is  true  that  there  are  dangers  in  this 
direction  such  as  are  seen  in  the  cultured  coun- 
tries of  the  old  world,  they  do  not  so  greatly 
affect  peoples  just  emerging  from  the  savage  or 
barbarous  state. 

9.  The  stimulating  intellectual  forces  above 
named  are  broadly  scattered  in  this  class  of  races. 
Comparatively  few  such  races  have  an  intensive 
work  done  among  them,  but  the  very  fact  that 
the  missionary  found  them  without  a  developed 
mind  has  made  his  presence  a  more  marked  factor 
in  the  national  or  tribal  life. 

II.  The  cultured  races  of  the  old  world  are,  on 
the  one  hand,  less  open  to  the  intellectual  influ- 
ence of  missions  than  the  races  just  named,  while 
at  the  same  time  they  furnish  better  material 
for  development.  Here,  therefore,  the  work  ia 
more  intensive  than  extensive  in  its  character, 
considering  the  amount  done  by  a  single  mission- 
ary. 

1.  The  missionary  brings  not  merely  a  new 
religion  to  these  peoples,  but  also  new  theories 
of  life  which  constitute  the  basis  of  enlarged 
intellectuality.  The  discussion  between  a  mis- 
sionary and  a  Brahman  in  India,  or  between 
representatives  of  Christianity  and  Buddhism  in 
Japan,  quickens  the  thought  of  hundreds  of 
onlookers  who  carry  away  with  them  the  main 
arguments  of  the  disputants.     These  are  in  turn 


talked  over  by  new  groups  of  interested  listeners. 
Moreover,  a  prominent  theory  which  the  mis- 
sionary is  likely  to  defend  is  that  of  the  necessity 
for  knowledge  on  the  part  of  every  believer  of 
the  new  religion.  This  gives  the  first  impulse  to 
the  education  of  women,  and  implants  or 
strengthens  the  desire  to  learn  in  many  from 
lower  walks  in  life. 

2.  A  new  science  brought  to  such  nations  and 
empires  frequently  occasions  a  revolution  in  pre- 
vailing theories.  China's  literati  have  been, 
astounded,  tho  not  outwardly  manifesting  inter- 
est, at  the  rational  explanation  of  an  eclipse  or 
the  arguments  adduced  to  prove  the  rotundity 
of  the  earth.  One  remembers  what  a  revolution 
it  caused  in  the  minds  of  those  boys  who  consti- 
tuted Dr.  Duff's  first  school  in  India,  when  he 
gave  them  their  first  lesson  in  English  based  upon 
the  unimportant  word  O-X.  Upon  those  simplest 
letters  of  the  English  alphabet  he  hung  truths 
which  burst  in  a  moment  the  bonds  of  ignorance. 
Superstition  must  always  abound  until  a  true 
philosophy  of  the  external  world  is  made  known 
to  a  people,  and  the  simpler  explanations  of  its 
phenomena  often  fly  with  great  rapidity  from  lip 
to  lip. 

3.  Missionaries  have  also  carried  into  this  class 
of  countries  new  means  of  intercommunication. 
Tho  their  languages  had  hitherto  been  committed 
to  writing  and  a  considerable  literature  may  have 
existed,  the  missionaries  introduce  ready  imparta- 
tion  of  ideas  through  the  publication  of  periodical 
literature  and  interesting  tracts  and  books. 
Thus  the  Christian  Literature  Society  of  India, 
through  its  present  and  earlier  organization,  has 
stimulated  Hindus  to  similarly  impart  informa- 
tion. Almost  the  sole  influence  in  the  earlier 
history  of  missions  in  China,  India  and  Japan, 
leading  to  the  rapid  development  of  native  peri- 
odical literature,  came  from  the  work  of  missions. 

4.  Such  literary  efforts,  however,  cannot  long 
be  carried  on  without  the  production  of  a 
reformed  language.  Just  as  the  New  Testament 
in  the  early  Christian  Church  enriched  the  classi- 
cal Greek,  and  as  the  literary  efforts  of  Dante 
affected  Italy,  and  Luther's  translation  of  the 
German  Bible  enriched  that  tongue,  so  to-day 
China  is  coming  into  the  possession  of  a  form  of 
the  Mandarin  which  is  hardly  conceivable,  had 
there  been  no  missionaries  in  that  country.  The 
same  is  true  in  all  lands  of  this  class,  since  before 
the  coming  of  the  missionary  there  has  been  an 
aristocracy  of  letters  which  selfishly  kept  to  itself 
a  monopoly  of  learning,  with  the  result  that  the 
language  was  far  above  the  comprehension  of  the 
ordinary  people. 

5.  The  more  rational  method  of  teaching,  and 
the  scientific  material  brought  to  these  nations 
through  the  schools  established,  have  been  an 
impetus  toward  intellectual  life.  Turkey  and 
Egypt  owe  to  missionaries  the  stimulus  which 
compelled  them  in  self-defense  to  establish 
schools  in  great  numbers.  While  in  India  the 
government  has  aided  native  schools,  it  has  done 
it  largely  through  missionaries,  both  by  encour- 
aging them  to  enter  the  work  and  by  its  grants- 
in-aid.  It  is  to  be  remembered  also  that  in  such 
an  empire  as  Japan  the  educational  system  owes 
more  to  a  missionary.  Dr.  Verbeck,  and  to  Joseph 
Neesima,  a  native  apostle  of  Christian  education, 
than  to  almost  any  other  source,  tho  Mr.  Fuku- 
zawa  advocated  it,  in  private  life,  and  in  later 
years  the  Government  assumed  the  guidance  and 
expense  of  educational  reform. 


833 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Intellectual  Uplift 


6.  Only  through  missions  have  the  lowly  and 
despised  classes  in  the  community  been  touched 
intellectually  through  education.  In  Mohamme- 
dan countries,  as  well  as  in  great  empires  like 
India  and  China,  women  and  girls  have  not 
hitherto  been  considered  as  fit  subjects  for  intel- 
lectual culture.  The  Christian  school  aims  to 
reach  these  strategic  factors  in  society  quite  as 
much  as  it  does  to  educate  boys  and  men;  so  that 
in  India  to-day  and  in  Mohammedan  countries  the 
educated  women  and  girls  are  the  product  almost 
wholly  of  missionary  schools. 

III.  Tho  there  is  a  question  in  the  minds  of 
many  authorities  on  missions  about  the  wisdom 
of  conducting  Protestant  missionary  work  in 
nominally  Christian  lands,  most  of  them  Papal 
countries,  missions  do  exist  among  such  peoples. 
Here  the  intellectual  contribution  of  missions  is 
naturally  less  marked  than  in  the  two  classes 
previously  named. 

1.  The  representative  of  Protestantism  who 
comes  in  contact  with  a  perverted  or  less  devel- 
oped form  of  Christianity  must  naturally  spend 
much  of  his  time  in  discussion.  He  must  give  a 
raison  d'Hre  for  his  presentation  of  Protestantism. 
His  opponents  are  often  keenly  intellectual,  and 
even  where  they  are  not  well  educated  they 
strongly  present  the  claims  of  their  ancestral 
faith.  Listeners  are  keenly  alert  and  their 
thought  processes  are  quickened  as  never  before 
by  the  arguments  adduced. 

2.  The  stimulus  coming  to  the  native  press 
through  the  publication  of  Protestant  literature 
in  those  countries  is  helpful  to  all.  Even  in  the 
shadow  of  the  Vatican,  where  the  Scriptures  are 
now  being  published,  in  periodicals  and  in  the 
vernacular,  at  a  low  rate  and  under  Papal  sanc- 
tion, it  is  hardly  probable  that  it  would  have  been 
done  were  it  not  for  the  strong  Methodist  work 
carried  on  in  the  Holy  City.  In  South  America 
and  Mexico  it  has  been  especially  true  that  Prot- 
estantism has  imparted  a  wide  stimulus  to  the 
thought  of  the  people. 

3.  Mission  schools  in  Papal  lands  have  been 
an  unexpected  help  to  education,  particularly  in 
Latin  America.  The  work  done  in  Sao  Paolo, 
Brazil,  has  influenced  education  in  that  extensive 
republic,  and  in  less  degree  other  institutions  in 
South  America,  Mexico,  Austria  and  Spain  have 
been  an  intellectual  blessing  to  the  people. 
Probably  nothing  in  the  latter  country  has  been 
so  helpful  as  an  object  lesson  as  the  Institute 
for  Girls  under  the  charge  of  the  late  Mrs.  Alice 
Gordon  Gulick. 

4.  Protestant  efforts  in  these  lands  have  devel- 
oped a  native  leadership  of  wide  influence.  Diaz 
in  Cuba  is  an  illustration  of  many  who  in  Latin 
America  and  in  the  Philippines  have  come  to  a 
position,  not  only  of  religious  influence,  but  of 
mtellectual  power. 

IV.  A  few  illustrations  of  the  positions  above 
taken  wiU  indicate  the 'extent  to  which  tribes  and 
nations  are  indebted  to  the  intellectual  uplift  of 
missions. 

1.  A  few  instances  are  adduced  of  communities 
which  have  been  most  thoroughly  leavened  by 
the  Gospel  and  its  accompanying  intellectual  life. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands,  now  a  part  of  the 
United  States,  are  both  intellectually  and  spirit- 
ually the  product  of  the  American  Board's  work. 
Schools  were  quite  as  much  emphasized  as  in 
New  England,  and  they  became  the  foundation 
of  present-day  Hawaiian  society  and  the  stepping- 
stones   to   her   present   political    position.     The 


Fiji  Islands,  which  in  the  childhood  of  many  now 
living  were  without  missionaries  and  the  abodes 
of  cannibal  cruelty,  are  not  only  the  banner 
country  of  the  world  in  the  matter  of  church- 
going,  but  in  1901  the  Wesleyans  alone  had  1,473 
schools,  accommodating  28,491  scholars.  At 
that  time  the  entire  population  of  the  colony  was 
only  117,870,  so  that  about  one-fourth  of  the 
entire  number  of  inhabitants  were  studying  in 
the  schools  of  one  Protestant  missionary  society. 
The  Karens  in  Burma  are  another  illustration  of 
a  despised  race,  hardly  deemed  worthy  of  an  edu- 
cation, who,  through  the  efforts  of  the  American 
Baptist  Missionary  Union,  were  brought  to  an 
intellectual  and  spiritual  condition  which  is  most 
remarkable,  the  Karen  schools  of  the  Union  hav- 
ing in  1901  some  13,049  scholars.  Uganda,  too, 
in  the  very  heart  of  Africa,  owes  its  marvelous 
intellectual  progress  of  the  past  few  years  to  the 
educational  work  accomplished  by  the  Church 
Missionary  Society.  An  even  stronger  illustra- 
tion is  derivable  from  the  history  of  missions  in 
Madagascar,  where,  until  recent  times,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  London  Missionary  Society 
have  been  almost  the  sole  educators  of  the  entire 
people. 

2.  Figures  may  give  a  better  view  than  the 
above  illustrations  of  what  is  actually  being 
accomplished  in  intellectual  lines  through  Prot- 
estant missions.  Beach's  Geography  and  Atlas 
of  Protestant  Missions,  the  statistics  of  which  are 
mainly  those  of  1900,  gives  the  number  of  educa- 
tional institutions  conducted  by  Protestant  mis- 
sions as  24,728,  in  which  there  were  1,127,853 
pupils  or  students.  This  included  instruction  in 
a  variety  of  educational  institutions,  from  the 
kindergartens  to  the  full-fledged  universities. 
Dr.  Dennis's  Centennial  Survey  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, which  gives  the  condition  at  the  end  of 
1899,  states  that  the  entire  Bible  had  been  trans- 
lated by  missionaries  into  99  languages  or  dia- 
lects, while  the  entire  New  Testament  had  been 
rendered  into  121  additional  tongues.  Portions 
of  the  Bible  had  been  translated  into  236  other 
tongues,  making  the  total  number  of  missionary 
versions  of  a  part  or  all  of  the  Bible,  456.  There 
were,  according  to  the  same  authority,  159  mis- 
sion publishing  houses  and  printing  presses,  with 
an  output  for  the  year  reported  of  381,166,106 
pages.  This  included  379  periodicals  published 
by  the  missionaries,  which  were  general  or  relig- 
ious in  character.  One  can  imagine  the  intel- 
lectual as  well  as  the  spiritual  value  of  suoh  a 
record  as  the  above.  It  does  not  suggest,  how- 
ever, the  intellectual  stimulus  imparted,  which 
can  best  be  realized  by  a  comparison  of  sections 
of  the  same  country  or  tribe,  which  have  been 
reached  by  missions,  with  other  portions  not  so 
touched.  In  Burma,  the  Karens,  who  are  intel- 
lectually below  the  Burmans,  have  been  so 
benefited  by  the  mental  and  religious  instruc- 
tion received  that  they  now  outstrip  in  many 
respects  their  naturally  stronger  neighbors.  The 
same  is,  to  a  less  degree,  true  of  certain  low  castes 
in  Northern  India,  who,  through  teaching,  have 
become  the  peers  of  those  several  degrees  higher 
in  the  social  scale.  In  China,  the  late  viceroy, 
Li  Hung-chang,  applied  to  a  Christian  educa- 
tional institution  for  all  its  graduates,  promising 
to  permit  them  to  observe  Sunday,  tho  living  in 
a  Sabbathless  land.  These  men  are  from  the 
lower  ranks  in  life,  who  were  desired  merely 
because  of  their  intellectual  attainments,  and 
were  thus  preferred  to  native  scholars  possessing 


International   Medical 
International   Service 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


334 


high  degrees.  Christianity  has  in  mission  coun- 
tries been  especially  a  quickener  of  thought,  so 
that  the  traditions  of  ages  or  generations  are 
replaced  with  the  science  of  the  West,  and  Uvea 
have  been  changed  to  correspond  with  this  new 
light. 

INTERITATIONAL  MEDICAL  MISSIONARY 
AND  BENEVOLENT  ASSOCIATION  (Battle 
Creek,  Mich.,  1893):  While  this  Association  is 
denominationally  connected  with  the  Seventh 
Day  Adventists,  its  work  is  not  sectarian.  The 
object  for  which  it  was  formed  was  to  "erect 
and  manage  homes  for  orphan  children  and  for 
friendless  aged  persons;  hospitals  and  sanitari- 
ums for  the  sick  poor  and  others;  to  establish 
dispensaries  and  medical  missions  at  home  and 
abroad;  to  provide  visiting  nurses;  to  educate 
missionary  physicians  and  nurses;  to  provide  for 
the  needy  poor,  and  to  promulgate  the  principles 
of  health  and  temperance." 

Fields:  India  (1897)  :  2  stations,  1  outstation,  10 
missionaries,  1  hospital.  Africa  (1896) :  4  stations 
and  2  outstations,  13  missionaries,  3  hospitals 
and  dispensaries.  Australasia  (1896):  10  sta- 
tions and  9  outstations,  19  missionaries,  10  hos- 
pitals and  dispensaries.  Oceania  (1893):  4  sta- 
tions, 8  missionaries,  4  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries. Hawaiian  Islands — West  Indies  (1895): 
1  station,  1  missionary;  (1896):  4  missionaries, 
1  hospital  and  1  dispensary.  Guiana  (1895):  3 
stations,  4  missionaries.  Mexico  (1894) :  2  stations 
and  1  outstation,  15  missionaries,  2  hospitals  and 
dispensaries.  Europe  (1900):  1  station,  2  mis- 
sionaries. 

INTERNATIONAL  MEDICAL  MISSIONARY 
SOCIETY  (New  York,  1881):  In  the  spring  of 
1881  a  meeting  was  held  at  the  house  of  Dr.  T. 
A.Sabine,  New  York  City,  to  consider  the  for- 
mation of  an  organization  similar  to  the  Edin- 
burgh Medical  Missionary  Association.  Six  per- 
sons were  present:  the  Rev.  Wm.  M.  Taylor, 
D.D.,  three  physicians,  one  lawyer,  and  a  busi- 
ness man.  Geo.  D.  Kowkoutt,  M.  D.,  explained 
the  character,  scope  and  aim  of  the  proposed 
work,  and  it  was  at  once  decided  to  organize  a 
society  to  aid  and  train  candidates,  of  either 
sex,  for  service  as  medical  missionaries  under  any 
evangelical  missionary  society.  The  society 
thus  organized  has  since  then  served  all  sections 
of  the  Christian  Church  under  a  strictly  inter- 
denominational constitution. 

Besides  the  original  undertaking  of  the  Society, 
the  generosity  of  an  individual  has  enabled  it  to 
establish  a  "Place  of  Rest"  for  missionaries  and 
other  Christian  workers,  together  with  a  summer 
training  school  for  missionary  candidates.  The 
seat  of  the  Society  and  its  home  for  medical 
students  is  in  New  York,  but  the  Place  of  Rest 
and  summer  school  are  on  the  property  belonging 
to  the  Society  at  Goshen,  Mass.,  a  summer  resort 
1,500  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  aid  given  to  medical  students  who  are  pre- 
paring for  missionary  service  is  based  upon  the 
plan  of  aiding  for  last  bills  only,  after  the  student 
and  his  family  or  friends  have  done  what  they 
can  for  his  support. 

Since  the  organization  of  the  Society  nearly 
150  medical  students  whom  it  has  aided  have 
been  sent  to  the  foreign  field  by  various  mission- 
ary societies,  and  its  former  students  are  now 
laboring  in  Syria,  Persia,  India,  Ceylon,  Burma, 
China  and  the  New  Hebrides. 

INTERNATIONAL       MISSIONARY       UNION 


(1884):  The  founder  of  this  unique  organizatioa 
was  the  Rev.  J.  T.  Gracey,  D.D.,  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.  After  assisting  at  a  series  of  missionary- 
meetings  at  the  campground  at  Niagara  Falls, 
Ont.,  where  he  had  stipulated  that  all  the  speak- 
ers should  be  missionaries,  he  conceived  the  idea 
of  an  organization  of  missionaries  of  all  denomi- 
nations the  world  over,  who  should  come  together 
once  a  year  to  talk  over  the  varied  phases  of 
their  work,  compare  notes,  and  profit  by  one 
another's  successes  or  failures.  The  project  was 
laid  before  an  assembly  of  missionaries  who  were 
on  furlough,  and  met  with  an  enthusiastic 
response.  A  simple  constitution  was  drawn  up, 
and  the  title,  "International  Missionary  Union," 
was  given  to  the  new  organization.  Foreign  mis- 
sionaries of  both  sexes,  of  any  evangelical  denom- 
ination, are  eligible  for  membership,  whether  on 
the  active  or  retired  list,  as  well  as  all  mission- 
aries under  appointment.  The  sole  condition  of 
membership  is  that  the  missionary  must  be  in 
good  standing  with  his  Board. 

The  entire  dues  of  the  members  consist  of  an 
initial  fee  of  fifty  cents;  there  are  no  yearly  dues. 

In  1896  the  tfnion  had  grown  so  rapidly  that 
it  became  necessary  to  organize  more  fully,  and 
the  constitution  was  revised.  Its  officers  consist 
of  a  president,  vice-president,  secretary,  treas- 
urer, and  librarian,  with  a  board  of  control  and 
an  executive  committee  appointed  to  act  as 
occasion  may  require. 

For  several  years  the  annual  meetings  of  the 
Union  were  held  at  different  places,  but  in  1890 
Dr.  Henry  Foster,  of  the  Clifton  Springs  Sani- 
tarium, Clifton  Springs,  N.  Y.,  suggested  that 
thereafter  all  the  annual  meetings  of  the  Asso- 
ciation should  be  held  at  that  place,  offering  free 
entertainment  to  all  members  of  the  Union  dur- 
ing the  week  of  the  annual  session.  This  gener- 
ous offer  was  accepted,  and  the  following  year 
Dr.  Foster  erected  a  beautiful  and  commodious 
tabernacle  on  the  sanitarium  grounds  for  the  use 
of  the  Union  so  long  as  it  should  hold  its  meet- 
ings at  Clifton  Springs. 

With  an  initial  membership  of  forty,  the  Union 
now  has  over  1,200  members.  In  1902  many 
young  men  and  women  under  appointment  to  the 
foreign  missions'  field  were  present.  Consequent- 
ly, special  classes  were  held  for  them,  and  oppor- 
tunities arranged  for  them  to  confer  with  experi- 
enced missionaries  from  the  fields  to  which  they 
were  going.  This  proved  so  valuable  that  it  is 
now  to  be  made  a  permanent  feature  of  the 
annual  meetings  of  the  Union.  These  annual 
meetings  are  held  for  one  week,  beginning  the 
first  Wednesday  in  June.  The  Union  has  no 
income;  a  collection  is  taken  on  the  one  Sunday 
of  the  year  when  it  is  in  session,  to  defray  the 
expense  of  the  publication  of  the  annual  report, 
the  International  Missionary  Index,  and  of 
notices,  etc. 

INTERNATIONAL  SERVICE  OF  MISSIONS: 
Missions  were  not  established  to  promote  diplo- 
matic amenities  or  aid  backward  nations  in 
assuming  international  functions.  They  have, 
nevertheless,  accomplished  much  incidentally  in 
these  directions  by  forging  connecting  links  of 
contact  and  intercourse,  cultivating  good  will, 
solving  difficulties,  giving  friendly  advice,  facili- 
tating acquaintance  with  Western  administrative 
systems,  mediating  between  foreign  diplomacy 
and  native  misunderstandings,  encouraging  that 
status    of    mutual    confidence    which    promotes 


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peaceful  relationships,  and  often  ministering  as 
the  almoners  of  international  philanthropy  in 
times  of  calamity  and  distress.  If  these  state- 
ments are  well  founded,  missions  are  proving 
themselves  to  be  among  those  evolutionary  forces 
which  work  for  the  kindly  recognition  of  mutual 
obligations  among  the  nations  of  mankind. 

Illustrations  of  this  can  be  discovered  not  only 
in  modern  times,  but  in  the  history  of  missions 
during  earlier  centuries.  It  is  the  missionary, 
quite  as  much  as  the  political  or  commercial 
motive,  which  seems  to  assert  itself  in  many  of 
those  initial  ventures  which  have  led  on  to  the 
exploration  of  an  unknown  world,  and  the  mak- 
ing and  molding  of  new  nations.  The  apostolic 
age  of  the  Church  was  international  in  the  expan- 
siveness  of  its  evangelistic  aims,  and  in  the  scope 
of  its  missionary  activities.  Subsequent  cen- 
turies bear  witness  to  the  outreaching  touch  of 
Christianity,  bringing  nation  into  contact  with 
nation.  The  Nestorians  pushed  boldly  into 
China  as  early  as  the  7th  century,  and  into  India 
probably  at  a  date  still  earlier,  following  Pan- 
taenus,  who  had  preceded  them  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  2d  century.  Ulfilas  was  a  messenger 
to  the  Goths  in  the  4th  century,  as  were  Cyril 
and  Methodius  to  the  Slavs  in  the  9th.  In  Cen- 
tral and  Northern  Europe,  including  the  British 
Isles,  we  can  trace  the  entrance  of  Columba, 
Augustine,  Columbanus,  Gallus,  Eligius,  Boni- 
face, Willibrord,  Ansgar,  and  many  others  equally 
lealous  tho  less  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of 
those  formative  centuries.  Hans  Egede  linked 
Denmark  with  Greenland  in  the  18th  century. 
The  Moravian  missionaries  followed,  and  from 
that  time  Herrnhut  became  an  active  factor  in 
the  international  contact  of  the  world.  Labra- 
dor was  reached  by  Jens  Haven  in  1764;  Francis 
Xavier  linked  Portugal  with  India  in  the  16th 
century;  Heurnius  was  a  connecting  bond 
between  Holland  and  the  Dutch  East  Indies  in 
the  17th  century;  and  in  the  18th  century  Ziegen- 
balg,  Plutschau,  and  Schwartz  brought  Denmark 
into  spiritual  relations  with  India.  These  were 
all  international  messengers  upon  an  errand  of 
peace,  good  will,  and  friendship. 

The  maritime  discoveries  of  the  15th  century 
were  undertaken,  among  other  motives,  with  a 
definite  and  pronounced  missionary  purpose. 
That  ponderous  work  entitled  The  Jesuit  Rela- 
tions and  Allied  Documents  reveals  to  us  immense 
and  prolonged  contributions  of  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  toward  the  establishment  of  inter- 
national intercourse  between  France  and  America 
for  nearly  two  hundred  years.  The  footsteps  of 
those  indefatigable  missionary  pioneers  can  be 
traced  during  the  17th  century  along  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
on  into  the  Far  West.  They  deflect  southward  into 
Maine,  into  Illinois,  and  even  as  far  as  Louisiana, 
and  penetrate  northward  toward  the  inhospit- 
able, icy  wilderness  of  Hudson  Bay.  The  British 
colonial  establishments  in  North  America,  more- 
over, were  missionary  in  spirit  to  an  extent  which 
makes  them  almost  the  forerunners  of  the  foreign 
missionary  societies  of  a  later  age.  Their  char- 
ters usually  had  a  strong  missionary  clause,  and 
their  noblest  men  were  Christian  pioneers  as  well 
as  statesmen.  They  sought  not  only  religious 
liberty  and  opportunity  for  themselves,  but  they 
were  in  many  conspicuous  instances  intent  upon 
tke  dissemination  of  the  Gospel  among  the  aborig- 
ines.    In  the  first  Charter  of  Virginia,  given  by 


James  I.,  in  April,  1606,  it  was  stipulated  that 
"the  Word  and  service  of  God  be  preached, 
planted,  and  used  as  well  in  said  colonies,  as  also 
as  much  as  might  be  among  the  savages  border- 
ing among  them."  In  a  letter  to  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  referring  to  the  project  of  the  Virginia 
colony,  Hakluyt  writes  expressing  his  pleasure  in 
Raleigh's  plans,  because  "you  meane  to  sende 
some  such  good  Churchmen  thither  (to  Virginia) 
as  may  truly  say  with  the  Apostles  to  the 
Sauvages,  wee  seeke  not  yours  but  you."  Brad- 
ford declared  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Christ  as  one  of  the  great  hopes 
of  his  pilgrimage.  Winthrop  confessed  to  the 
same  motive,  and  in  his  journal  are  numerous 
references  to  his  desires  for  the  conversion  of  the 
aborigines.  The  Charter  of  Massachusetts  Colony 
emphasizes  the  missionary  motive  as  one  of  the 
inspirations  which  prompted  its  establishment. 
Macdonald's  Select  Charters  and  Other  Documents 
Illustrative  of  American  History,  1606-1755 
(Pages  2,  3,  16,  25,  42,  126,  and  184),  gives  the 
text  of  some  of  these  chartered  asseverations  of 
missionary  aims  in  our  early  colonial  history. 

Those  mighty  ties  of  spiritual  interest  which 
now  link  India  with  all  Christendom  are  the  out- 
come of  missions.  In  their  own  sphere  of  moral 
and  religious  influence  missionaries  have  coope- 
rated with  English  statesmen,  and  rendered  a 
service  of  value  both  to  Great  Britain  and  to 
India.  The  strange  and  unwarranted  attitude 
of  the  old  East  India  Company  toward  missionary 
effort  has  long  ago  changed,  and  the  value  of 
missions  to  British  interests  in  India  is  now  freely 
recognized.  Since  the  days  of  the  mutiny  it  has 
become  more  and  more  apparent  that  a  native 
Christian  community  is  a  valuable  ally  of  English 
rule,  and,  so  far  as  its  influence  goes,  a  moral 
guarantee  of  fidelity  and  good  will.  The  sailing 
of  Captain  James  Wilson  and  thirty-six  mission- 
aries in  the  Duff,  which  was  owned  and  sent  out 
by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1796, 
opened  the  South  Pacific  to  those  largesses  of 
light  and  civilization  which  missionary  effort  has 
sent  there  during  the  past  century.  The  west 
coast  of  Africa  first  felt  the  touch  of  Christian 
sympathy  and  helpfulness  when  Peter  Greig,  the 
Scotch  missionary,  went  there  in  1797.  The 
cooperation  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  and  the  United 
Presbyterian  Missions  of  Scotland,  has  contribu- 
ted in  no  small  measure  to  the  opening  up  of  the 
vast  regions  of  the  Niger  Basin,  and  has  been  a 
factor  in  furthering  the  present  political  suprem- 
acy of  Great  Britain  throughout  Nigeria.  The 
marvelous  story  of  African  colonization  during 
the  19th  century  is  indissolubly  linked  with  mis- 
sionary devotion  and  achievement.  Such  names 
as  Vanderkemp,  Philip,  Krapf ,  Rebmann,  Moifat, 
John  Mackenzie,  Livingstone,  and  Bishop 
Mackenzie  of  the  Zambesi,  as  well  as  many  others 
later  in  the  century,  certify  to  the  truth  of  this 
statement.  We  may  almost  reckon  the  Uganda 
Protectorate  as  virtually  the  outcome  of  missions, 
with  that  colossal  achievement  of  a  railway  from 
Mombasa  to  the  Victoria  Nyanza  as  a  necessary 
result.  Khama's  country,  and  the  whole  of 
British  Central  Africa,  including  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Zambesi,  where  the  French  Mission  labors 
among  the  Barotsi,  serve  the  same  purpose  of 
illustrating  an  international  value  in  missionary 
enterprise. 

Turning  to  China,  we  find  Morrison  and  Guti- 


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336 


laff,  the  former  in  the  double  capacity  of  mission- 
ary and  interpreter  for  the  East  India  Company, 
serving  in  international  affairs  before  its  formal 
opening  to  the  foreigner.  The  Rev.  E.  C.  Bridg- 
man  and  Dr.  Peter  Parker  were  associated  with 
the  Hon.  Caleb  Cushing  in  negotiating  the  first 
treaty  which  the  United  States  made  with  China, 
in  1844.  Both  these  men  were  masters  of  the 
Chinese  language,  familiar  with  the  customs  of 
the  country,  and  acceptable  media  of  communi- 
cation. The  aid  which  they  rendered  was 
extremely  useful.  Mr.  Cushing  declared  that 
"they  were  invaluable  as  advisers."  It  was  in 
the  early  British  negotiations  that  Morrison  and 
Gutzlaff  rendered  a  similar  service.  The  former 
was  associated  with  Lord  Amherst  in  1816,  being 
for  some  years  interpreter  and  secretary  to 
the  British  Ambassador,  and  Gutzlaff  was  his  suc- 
cessor in  the  same  position.  When  the  Treaty 
of  Nanking  was  made,  the  latter  participated  in 
the  negotiations  and  rendered  important  aid. 
It  would  thus  appear  that  the  initial  word  of 
friendly  diplomatic  intercourse  between  China 
and  two  great  governments  of  the  West  was 
spoken  through  the  medium  of  missionary  secre- 
taries and  interpreters. 

A  few  years  later,  in  1858,  when  the  notable 
Treaties  of  Tientsin  between  the  four  govern- 
ments of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Russia  were  drawn  up  with  China,  in  the  case 
of  the  United  States  treaty  two  American  mis- 
sionaries whose  services  in  the  negotiations  were 
of  historic  importance  and  value  were  associated 
with  the  Hon.  W.  B.  Reed,  the  minister  who 
represented  the  United  States  on  that  occasion. 
Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams  and  Dr.  W.  A  P.  Martin, 
both  missionary  scholars  and  diplomatists,  took 
an  active  part  in  the  preliminary  conference,  and 
in  fi.xing  the  provisions  of  the  document,  as  well 
as  securing  its  acceptance.  It  was  due  to  Dr. 
Williams  that  the  memorable  Toleration  Clause, 
afterward  included  substantially  in  the  British 
treaty,  was  inserted.  Thus,  to  American  mis- 
sionaries is  due  the  credit  of  securing  a  treaty 
incorporating  the  policy  of  a  tolerant  recognition 
of  Christianity  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment. Dr.  Williams  was  given  to  understand  at 
the  time  that  no  Toleration  Clause  would  have 
been  inserted  in  the  British  treaty  had  it  been 
left  out  in  the  American.  This  concession  had 
not  been  before  included  informal  treaties,  altho 
the  French  Minister,  in  1844,  had  secured  from 
the  Emperor,  Tao-kwang,  an  imperial  rescript 
revoking  persecuting  orders,  and  proclaiming  an 
edict  of  toleration.  This,  however,  was  practi- 
cally a  dead  letter,  and  would  have  been  of  little 
value  so  far  as  any  permanent  international  policy 
was  concerned.  It  should  be  remarked,  also, 
that  the  British  missionaries  at  Ning-po  and 
Shanghai  had  addressed  Lord  Elgin  on  the  sub- 
ject of  toleration  before  the  British  treaty  was 
drawn  up,  but,  judging  from  his  reply,  the  appeal 
was  of  little  avail.  The  treaty  concession  of 
Tientsin  may,  therefore,  be  called  the  Magna 
Charta  of  religious  freedom  in  China.  Dr.  Wil- 
liams, and  in  a  measure  Dr.  Martin  also,  were  its 
sponsors,  and  thus  to  American  missionaries 
belongs  the  high  honor  of  establishing  the  princi- 
ple of  religious  freedom  in  a  permanent  historical 
setting,  before  the  view  of  "almost  the  two  halves 
of  the  human  race."  Dr.  Williams  was  subse- 
quently appointed  to  the  office  of  Secretary  and 
Interpreter  of  the  United  States  Legation  in 
China,   and  served  in  this  capacity — chiefly  at 


Peking — until  his  resignation  in  1876.  It  was 
he  who  secured  official  quarters  for  the  United 
States  ambassadors  in  Peking,  and  his  efficient 
executive  discharge  of  his  duties  was  an  impor- 
tant service  during  those  early  years  of  ministerial 
residence  at  the  Chinese  capital.  He  was,  on 
many  occasions,  left  in  charge  of  the  legation  as 
acting  ambassador. 

Another  Presbyterian  missionary,  the  Rev.  D. 
B.  McCartee,  M.D.,  had  a  long  and  useful  career 
in  diplomatic  positions  both  in  China  and  Japan. 
He  accompanied  Flag  Officer  Stribling,  of  the 
American  Navy,  on  an  expedition  to  treat  with 
the  rebels  at  Nanking  at  the  time  of  the  Taiping 
troubles,  and  through  his  personal  influence  with 
the  Chinese  leaders  he  was  largely  instrumental 
in  securing  a  "sealed  guarantee  of  protection  for 
all  Americans  against  violence  from  the  rebels, 
and  for  all  natives  in  the  employ  or  care  of 
American  citizens."  In  connection  with  his 
services  in  the  Mixed  Court  in  Shanghai,  in  1872, 
he  was  appointed  on  a  special  mission  to  Japan  to 
treat  for  the  return  of  three  hundred  Chinese 
coolies  who  had  been  driven  on  the  Peruvian 
vessel,  Maria  Luz,  by  a  typhoon  into  the  harbor 
of  Yokohama.  The  Chinese  authorities  pre- 
sented him  with  a  gold  medal  and  a  compli- 
mentary letter  in  recognition  of  the  successful 
issue  of  the  mission.  He  subsequently  became 
professor  of  law  and  of  natural  science  at  the 
University  of  Tokio,  and  from  that  time  his 
services,  for  a  period  of  some  twenty-eight  years, 
were  given  to  Japan.  He  was  instrumental  in 
establishing  a  Chinese  embassy  in  Japan,  and 
became  himself  its  foreign  secretary  and  adviser. 
At  the  time  of  General  Grant's  visit  to  Japan, 
when  the  General  was  asked  to  arbitrate  the 
respective  claims  of  China  and  Japan  to  the  pos- 
session of  the  Lu  Chu  Islands,  Dr.  McCartee,  who 
was  .  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  historical 
facts  and  their  diplomatic  bearing,  placed  such 
information  before  General  Grant  that  he  was 
able  to  give  the  matter  his  attention. 

In  those  memorable  negotiations  which  sig- 
nalized the  entrance  6f  modern  Japan  into  the 
comity  of  nations,  at  the  time  of  Commodore 
Perry's  expedition,  we  find  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams 
accompanying,  at  the  special  request  of  the  Com- 
modore, both  the  first  and  second  expeditions, 
in  1853  and  1854.  He  took  an  active  and  influ- 
ential part  in  the  negotiations,  and  it  was  at  his 
suggestion  that  the  "most  favored  nation  clause" 
was  introduced  into  the  Japanese  treaty,  the  first 
compact  of  Japan  with  Western  nations. 
His  serious  and  vivid  appreciation  of  the  historic 
significance  of  his  diplomatic  services  appears  in 
private  letters  and  extracts  from  his  journal. 
He  writes  of  the  scene  in  the  Bay  of  Yeddo:  "It 
was  the  meeting  of  the  East  and  the  West,  the 
circling  of  the  world's  intercourse,  the  beginning 
of  American  interference  in  Asia,  the  putting  the 
key  in  the  door  of  Japanese  seclusion."  Speak- 
ing of  the  presence  of  the  American  ships,  he 
writes:  "Behind  them  and  through  them  lie 
God's  purpose  of  making  known  the  Gospel  to 
all  nations,  and  bringing  its  messages  and  respon- 
sibilities to  this  people,  which  has  had  only  a 
sad  travesty  of  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Christ  Jesus. 
I  have  a  full  conviction  that  the  seclusion  policy 
of  the  nations  of  Eastern  Asia  is  not  according 
to  God's  plan  of  mercy  to  these  peoples." 
Surely  this  missionary-diplomatist,  with  his  faith 
and  foresight,  was  an  instrument  chosen  of  God 
to  participate  in  those  momentous  events  which 


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inaugurated  the  opening  of  both  China  and 
Japan  to  an  era  of  modern  progress  destined  to 
be  the  most  wonderful  in  their  history.  The 
memorial  monument  to  Commodore  Perry  erected 
in  1901  on  the  shores  of  Japan  was  an  appro- 
priate and  graceful  tribute,  but  the  services  of 
Dr.  Williams  most  assuredly  deserve  also  a  grate- 
ful commemoration  on  the  part  of  Christendom. 
The  services  of  several  distinguished  mission- 
aries in  Japan  have  been  of  international  import. 
Dr.  Guido  F.  Verbeck  and  Dr.  S.  R.  Brown  were 
especially  useful  and  helpful  to  the  Japanese 
during  the  critical  period  of  the  reorganization  of 
their  national  life,  since  the  introduction  of  those 
monumental  changes  which  have  characterized 
the  Meiji  era  of  modern  times.  Dr.  Verbeck 
suggested  the  plan  of  the  now  historic  embassy 
sent  by  the  Japanese  Government  to  America  and 
Europe  in  1871,  and  the  project  was  finally  exe- 
cuted, in  large  part  under  his  advice  and  coopera- 
tion. Its  results  proved  to  be  of  decisive  influ- 
ence in  permanently  establishing  the  friendly 
relations  of  Japan  with  the  nations  of  Christen- 
dom, and  was  a  factor  of  practical  moment  in 
securing  that  religious  toleration  which  has  dis- 
tinguished the  Empire  of  Japan  in  the  modern 
history  of  the  East.  It  is  a  matter  of  further 
interest  that  the  recent  revision  of  Japanese 
treaties,  which  has  established  a  basis  of  equality 
with  Western  nations  since  July,  1899,  has  been 
both  favored  and  facilitated  by  resident  mission- 
aries out  of  a  sense  of  justice  and  fairness  to 
Japan.  By  manifestoes,  resolutions,  and  public 
meetings,  as  well  as  by  private  influence,  they 
have  made  it  known  that  they  regarded  the 
aspirations  of  Japan  in  this  matter  with  sym- 
pathy and  favor. 

The  diplomatic  relations  of  the  United  States 
with  Korea  have  been  also  facilitated  by  the 
services  of  Dr.  Horace  N.  Allen,  who  was  the 
first  American  missionary  to  arrive  in  Korea. 
He  went  there  in  1844,  and  was  soon  appointed 
physician  to  the  Court.  He  subsequently,  in 
1887,  accompanied  the  first  Korean  Embassy  to 
Washington  as  its  secretary,  returning  to  Seoul 
in  1890  as  secretary  of  the  United  States  Lega- 
tion. In  1897  he  was  appointed  United  States 
Minister  to  Korea,  a  position  which  he  still  (1904) 
occupies. 

Not  only  have  the  treaty  relations  of  Christian 
nations  with  the  great  Asiatic  governments  of 
China  and  Japan  been  facilitated  by  missionary 
cooperation,  but  diplomatic  negotiations  with 
smaller  tribes  and  kingdoms — especially  in 
Oceania — have  received  aid  from  the  same  source. 
Missionaries  have  often  prepared  the  way  for  the 
establishment  of  such  international  ties  by  initial 
intercourse  and  friendly  residence,  thus  becoming 
pioneer  media  of  information  and  contact.  A 
capital  illustration  of  this  is  New  Guinea,  where 
Chalmers  and  Lawes,  and  other  missionaries  of 
the  London  Society,  became  the  forerunners  of 
the  present  British  protectorate.  The  services 
they  rendered  in  anticipation  of  the  British  occu- 

gation  of  Southern  New  Guinea,  in  1884,  have 
een  cordially  acknowledged  by  Sir  James  E. 
Erskine  and  Sir  Cyprian  Bridge,  both  high  officers 
in  the  British  Navy.  In  the  same  way  mission- 
ary labors  in  New  Zealand  brought  Maori  hearts 
into  touch  with  Christianity  and  civilization  to  an 
extent  which  no  doubt  greatly  facilitated  its 
peaceful  political  attachment  to  the  British 
Empire.  The  earliest  mission  was  especially 
successful  among  the  Ngapuhi  tribe,  and  it  was 
22 


the  chiefs  of  this  important  and  powerful  clan 
who,  in  February,  1840,  at  Waitangi  Falls,  were 
the  first  signers  of  the  treaty  accepting  British 
supremacy.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
Maori  population  had  professed  Christianity  in 
1859.  Marsden,  as  early  as  1814,  and  Selwyn, 
later,  were  all  unconsciously  pioneer  empire- 
builders  in  New  Zealand.  The  peaceful,  and 
even  cordial,  ceding  of  Fiji  to  Great  Britain  by 
its  chiefs  and  people,  in  1874,  followed  long  years 
of  successful  missionary  toil  by  the  English  Wes- 
leyans,  resulting  in  a  marvelous  preoccupation 
of  native  hearts  throughout  the  islands  by  the 
Gospel  which  the  Wesleyans  brought.  A  British 
protectorate  was  established  over  the  Tonga 
group  by  peaceful  negotiations  in  1900,  but  years 
before  that  English  missionaries  had  labored 
there  in  friendly  contact  with  that  proud  and 
vigorous  race.  The  Samoan  Islands,  now  por- 
tioned out  between  Germany  and  the  United 
States,  were  annexed  to  Christianity  half  a  cen- 
tury or  more  before  their  political  destiny  was 
determined.  The  Cook,  or  Hervey,  Islands  were 
Christianized  and  civilized  by  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  over  a  generation  before  the 
British  protectorate  was  established,  in  1888. 
As  early  as  1864  the  natives  petitioned  Great 
Britain  for  annexation,  but  a  protectorate  only 
was  instituted  in  1888,  which  at  the  request, 
again  repeated,  of  the  native  chiefs  was  changed 
to  annexation  to  New  Zealand  in  1900.  Thus  a 
reclaimed  race  was  made  ready  by  missions  for 
relations  of  peaceful  diplomacy  with  a  great 
nation  of  Christendom.  The  Santa  Cruz  group 
— now  a  part  of  the  British  Empire — was  the 
scene  of  the  martyrdom  of  Young  and  Nobbs,  in 
1864,  and  of  John  Coleridge  Patteson,  in  1871. 
Thousands  of  hearts  throughout  Christendom 
have  read  the  story  with  tender  interest,  and 
some  day  no  doubt  a  fitting  memorial  of  Patteson 
will  commemorate  under  the  British  flag  that 
pathetic  incident  which,  as  Gladstone  said  of 
Patteson  himself,  was  a  "  pledge  of  nobler  des- 
tinies." 

The  virtual  preemption  of  the  New  Hebrides,  as 
destined  in  all  probability  to  have  their  political 
future  linked  with  the  British  Empire,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  outcome  of  a  missionary  occupa- 
tion which  has  been  sealed  by  martyrdom,  and 
crowned  by  the  uplifting  transformation  of  sav- 
age tribes  into  aspirants  for  political  order  and 
moral  civilization.  In  1820  two  English  mis- 
sionaries— Ward  and  Burton — endeavored  to 
secure  a  foothold  in  Sumatra  among  the  fierce 
Battaks,  but  were  unable  to  do  so.  In  1832  two 
American  missionaries — Munson  and  Lyman — 
made  another  attempt,  but  were  martyred  by 
cannibals.  Thirty  years  later  a  third  endeavor, 
on  the  part  of  the  Rhenish  Society,  was  successful, 
and  a  region  in  North  Sumatra,  previously 
wholly  inaccessible  to  the  white  man,  was  opened 
by  a  peaceful  missionary  occupation.  From  that 
martyr  seed  has  sprung  a  Christian  population 
of  some  fifty  thousand  native'  Battaks  now  living 
in  a  state  of  peace  and  good  order  which  promises 
a  developed  civilization.  The  Dutch  Govern- 
ment in  the  East  Indies  is  surely  a  debtor  for 
this  missionary  achievement. 

Hawaii,  now  United  States  territory,  was 
largely  molded  and  fashioned  for  her  destiny  by 
missionary  pioneers  whose  labors  have  assumed 
an  importance  which  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  of 
international  interest.  During  the  whole  of  the 
19th  century,  while  by  the  irresistible  growth  of 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


33S 


economic  and  political  ties,  and  the  manifest 
trend  of  history,  it  belonged  in  posse  to  the  United 
States,  missionary  toil  was  fitting  it  for  the  con- 
summation when  it  would  become  so  in  esse. 
Ex-Secretary  of  State  the  Hon.  John  W.  Foster, 
in  his  admirable  volume,  American  Diplomacy  in 
the  Orient  (page  108),  places  a  high  estimate  upon 
the  beneficial  effects,  social  and  political,  of 
American  missions  in  Hawaii.  There  are  other 
groups  whose  political  destiny  is  now  linked  with 
European  nations — the  Gilbert  Islands,  with 
Great  Britain,  and  the  Marshall  and  Caroline, 
with  Germany — which  have  long  been  under  the 
careful  training  of  missionary  teachers  from 
America.  Whatever  opinion  may  be  held  of  the 
political  wisdom  of  the  occupation  of  the  Philip- 
pines by  the  United  States,  there  is  no  valid 
reason  to  doubt  that  beneficent  results  are  most 
assuredly  to  follow  in  those  islands  from  this 
foreign  occupation.  The  recognition  of  mission- 
ary obligation  on  the  part  of  American  Chris- 
tianity is,  moreover,  a  strenuous  and  clearly 
manifest  result,  which,  let  us  hope,  will  be  fruitful 
in  moral  good  and  social  betterment  to  the  people 
of  the  islands. 

Not  only  in  connection  with  diplomacy,  but  in 
times  of  war  and  public  calamity,  the  services 
of  missionaries  have  been  of  benefit.  During  the 
mutinies  and  uprisings  in  Uganda  they  served  in 
defense  of  life  and  property.  At  the  siege  of 
Peking  the  conspicuous  and  brilliant  services  of 
missionaries  in  defense  of  the  Legations  during  the 
perilous  summer  of  1900  were  universally  ac- 
knowledged. The  successful  issue  was  due  in  no 
small  measure  to  the  skilful  and  heroic  participa- 
tion of  missionaries  in  that  victorious  defense. 
Not  only  were  the  lives  of  the  ambassadors  saved, 
but  consequences  were  averted  which  might  have 
precipitated  unparalleled  calamities.  There  is  a 
manifest  international  value,  moreover,  attach- 
ing to  the  efforts  of  missionaries  in  the  sphere 
of  philanthropy.  In  times  of  famine,  earth- 
quake, epidemics,  and  great  disasters,  sympathy 
and  help  are  given,  and  charitable  funds  adminis- 
tered. That  international  scourge  and  scandal 
of  the  slave  trade  has  been  checked  and  all  but 
abolished  largely  through  the  helpful  cooperation 
of  missionaries.  In  the  promotion  and  establish- 
ment of  peace  among  the  nations  there  is  also 
an  undouDted  value  to  the  service  and  influence 
of  missionaries.  They  neither  strive  nor  cry,  nor 
is  their  voice  heard  in  the  streets,  nor  have  they 
the  power  of  diplomats  or  rulers  to  determine 
issues,  but  they,  nevertheless,  do  a  quiet  and 
often  effective  and  unique  service  of  counsel,  con- 
ciliation and  restraint.  The  work  that  they  do 
in  promoting  good  government  is,  moreover,  in 
the  interests  of  peace.  Mission  converts  are  men 
of  peace,  not  the  advocates  of  massacre  and  dis- 
order. They  are  inclined  to  friendliness  and 
forbearance  rather  than  to  treachery  and  vio- 
lence, and  in  the  face  of  some  very  appreciable 
Oriental  perils  they  may  at  times  safeguard,  as 
hardly  any  other  agency  can  do,  both  the  lives 
and  property  of  foreigners.  The  Moravians  in 
their  work  in  Dutch  Guiana,  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  18th  century,  and  until  the  middle  of 
the  19th,  achieved  a  victory  over  the  Bush 
Negroes  which  was  a  boon  to  the  Dutch  Govern- 
ment. The  work  of  early  missionaries  in  South 
Africa  was  an  influential  factor  in  solving  native 
problems  and  promoting  their  peaceful  solution. 
In  times  of  disorder  and  massacre  in  the  Turkish 
Empire   they   have   acted   as   mediators,    pacifi- 


cators, and  saviors  of  lives  and  property,  as  ia 
Mount  Lebanon  during  the  troubles  of  1860,  in 
Bulgaria  in  1876-77,  and  Asiatic  Turkey  in. 
1895-96. 

The  exposition  and  accentuation  of  the  princi- 
ples of  international  law  have  also  been  a  feature 
of  missionary  service.  Verbeck  did  important 
preliminary  work  in  this  direction  in  Japan,  and 
Martin  in  China.  When  the  latter  went  to  reside 
in  Peking  in  1863  he  carried  with  him  a  transla- 
tion into  Chinese  of  Wheaton's  Elements  of 
International  Law.  This  was  welcomed  by  the 
Chinese  Foreign  Office  as  a  timely  guide  amid 
the  perplexities  arising  out  of  the  new  interna- 
tional compacts  into  which  they  had  just  entered. 
Dr.  Martin  supplemented  the  above  translation 
by  Chinese  versions  of  Woolsey,  Bluntschli,  and 
Hall,  on  international  relations.  Chalmers 
taught  the  very  alphabet  of  the  law  of  nations 
to  the  natives  of  New  Guinea,  and  in  1899  Secre- 
tary Wardlaw  Thompson,  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  reported  the  curious  fact  that 
Mr.  Abel,  one  of  their  missionaries  in  New  Guinea, 
was  instructing  the  people,  and  especially  the 
school  children,  "to  repeat  a  brief  statement  of  the 
British  laws  which  has  been  prepared  for  the 
benefit  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  British  New- 
Guinea.  These  simple  rules  of  conduct  are 
learned  as  the  commandments  are  learned,  and 
thus  law  and  order  are  associated  with  religion." 
It  is  certainly  a  novel  feature  of  education  and 
of  religious  worship  to  associate  the  command- 
ments, the  creed,  and  the  laws  of  the  land,  in  an 
all-round  summary  of  human  duty.  Here  seems 
to  be  an  admirable  hint  for  the  reformer  and  the 
earnest  advocate  of  higher  standards  of  citizen- 
ship. 

The  immensely  effective  and  beneficial  influ- 
ence of  Christianity  in  evolving  throughout 
Christendom  that  remarkable  code  of  national 
chivalry — voluntary  in  its  sovereignty  and  sacred 
in  its  dignity — which  we  have  come  to  designate 
as  international  law,  has  been  perpetuated  and 
extended  among  Asiatic  and  other  foreign  peo- 
ples largely  by  the  initiative  of  missionary  teach- 
ers and  statesmen.  They  have  sought  to  intro- 
duce the  humane  provisions  of  the  code  in  times 
of  war,  and  they  have  secured  also,  among  many 
savage  tribes,  the  practical  recognition  of  another 
of  its  requirements — the  safety  of  shipwrecked 
mariners.  On  the  other  hand,  missionaries  have 
not  been  unmoved  spectators  of  infractions  or 
dubious  applications  of  the  international  code  by 
Western  powers  in  their  contact  with  Oriental 
nations.  The  missionary  protest  in  the  face  of 
some  notable  lapses  in  these  respects,  especially 
in  China,  has  been  vigorous  and  uncompromising. 
On  the  subject  of  opium  the  missionary  body  is 
a  unit,  and  this  is  substantially  true  of  their  oppo- 
sition to  the  territorial  dismemberment  of  the 
Chinese  Empire. 

It  would  thus  appear  that  the  messenger  of  the 
Gospel  in  mission  lands  has  long  been  assigned 
an  international  role — not,  to  be  sure,  in  any 
formal  or  official  capacity,  but  as  contributing 
incidentally,  and  sometimes  unconsciously,  to 
the  sum  total  of  good-will  and  friendship  among 
the  nations.  Missionaries  have  borne  their  part 
in  promoting  kind  feeling  between  widely  sepa- 
rated races,  and  in  breaking  down  barriers 
between  distant  and  alien  peoples;  they  have  also 
struck  the  note  of  brotherhood — -stirring  on  the 
one  hand  generous  impulses,  and  on  the  other 
awakening    gratitude.     They     have    facilitated 


339 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


International  Service- 
Ispaban 


diplomatic  relations,  and  aided  in  establishing 
peaceful  and  mutually  beneficial  ties  between  the 
nations.  This  remarkable  service,  it  may  be 
noted,  has  been  coincident  with  monumental 
changes  in  world-politics  and  with  ethnic  inter- 
course brought  about  by  discovery,  colonization, 
and  commercial  enterprise.  Missionary  expan- 
sion has  thus  given  a  certain  impetus,  as  well  as 
kindly  tone,  to  that  interchange  of  intellectual, 
spiritual,  and  material  commodities  wliich  has 
become  the  unique  glory  of  our  age,  and  is  lead- 
ing on  as  much  as  any  other  single  influence  to 
the  goal  of  universal  peace  and  unity.  Imperi- 
alism— the  irrepressible  note  of  the  age — is  given 
an  ethical  significance,  and  directed  toward  a 
sublime  ideal,  by  this  international  leaven  of  mis- 
sions. Paul's  conception  of  the  relationship  of 
superior  to  inferior  races  has  hardly  been  taken 
seriously  among  the  nations.  That  great  mis- 
sionary-apostle and  statesman  regarded  himself 
as  "debtor"  even  to  the  barbarians — an  aspect 
of  inter-racial  obligation  which  has  been  to  a 
surprising  extent  a  negligible  consideration  in  the 
diplomatic  intercourse  of  the  nations.  The 
spu-it  of  missions,  however,  like  a  voice  crying  in 
the  wilderness  of  international  selfishness,  has 
sought  diligently  to  promote  kindly  considera- 
tion, good  will,  and  fair  dealing,  and  has  endeav- 
ored faithfully  to  exemplify  them  in  its  own 
sphere. 

INYATI:  A  settlement  in  Rhodesia,  South 
Central  Africa,  situated  among  Matabele  tribes, 
about  47  miles  N.  E.  of  Buluwayo.  Station  of  the 
LMS  (1860),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  4  native 
workers,  4  day  schools,  and  639  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  60  are  communicants. 

IPOLI:  A  village  on  the  Malay  Peninsula,  situ- 
ated on  the  Kintah  River  in  the  state  or  district 
of  Perak.  The  climate  is  healthful.  Station  of 
the  ME,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  missionary's 
wife,  11  native  workers,  men  and  women;  3  out- 
stations,  2  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and 
287  professed  Christians.  The  work  in  this  place 
is  chiefly  among  the  Chinese,  but  it  also  reaches 
the  Hindu  coolies,  and,  what  is  of  considerable 
importance  in  such  a  mission  field,  it  reaches  the 
English  and  English-speaking  foreigners,  whose 
example  counts  for  so  much  with  the  natives. 
The  BFBS  furnishes  the  ME  funds  for  employing 
a  colporteur  and  2  Bible  women  in  this  district. 

IPOLELA:  A  village  in  Natal,  S.  Africa,  situ- 
ated 46  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Pietermaritzburg. 
Station  of  the  SPG  (1874),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  460  professed  Christians,  of  whom  220 
are  communicants. 

IQTJIQUE :  A  seaport  town  in  Chile,  S.  America, 
situated  on  the  west  coast.  It  is  an  export 
center  for  the  nitrate  trade.  Water  is  very 
scarce  in  the  neighborhood.  Population  (1895), 
33,031,  and  January,  1902  (estimated),  42,498. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  4  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  2  outstations,  3  Sabbath  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  Seamen's  Bethel,  and  342 
professed  Christians.     Station  also  of  the  SDA. 

IRELAND ;  Presbyterian  Church  in.     See  Pres- 

BYTBHIAN  ChURCH. 

IRELAND,  William  B.:  Born  near  Oswesty, 
Shropshire,  England,  December  21,  1821;  grad- 
uated at  Illinois  College  1845,  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  1848;  ordained  the  September 
following;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM 
for  Africa,  October  14,  1848,  being  stationed  at 


Infumi  in  Natal.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  by 
the  mission  to  take  charge  of  the  boys'  seminary 
at  Amanzimtote,  and  for  seventeen  years  he 
devoted  his  heart  and  strengtla  to  its  welfare. 
But  his  impaired  health  prevented  his  bearing  the 
burden  of  so  responsible  a  work.  He  occupied  a 
large  place  in  the  mission,  and  in  the  affections  of 
the  Zulus  and  of  all  who  knew  him.  He  died  in 
Boston,  October  12,  1888. 

IROD.     See  Erode. 

IRUNGALUR:  A  town  in  the  Presidency  of 
Madras,  India,  situated  to  the  N.  of  the  Coleroon 
branch  of  the  Cavary  River  and  about  12  miles 
N.  of  Trichinopoli.  It  was  a  stronghold  of  the 
Jesuits,  who  came  there  in  the  18th  century,  and 
had  influence  enough  to  prevent  Schwartz,  the 
early  Halle  missionary,  from  being  allowed  to 
preach  there.  In  1830  some  16  neglected  con- 
gregations of  the  descendants  of  the  early  con- 
verts of  the  Jesuits  put  themselves  under  the 
care  of  an  SPG  missionary.  The  place  has  been 
occupied  by  the  SPG  since  that  time,  with  (1903) 
62  native  workers,  men  and  women;  17  places  of 
worship,  15  day  schools,  1  girls'  boarding  school, 
and  1,294  professed  Christians,  of  whom  647  are 
communicants. 

IRWIN  HILL:  A  village  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  island  of  Jamaica,  West  Indies,  pleasantly 
situated  on  a  slight  ridge  about  4  miles  from 
Montego  Bay.  Mission  station  of  the  Moravians 
(1828),  at  present  in  charge  of  native  workers. 

ISABEL  ISLAND  LANGUAGE.     See  Bogutu. 

ISFAHAN.     See  Ispahan. 

ISHI-HSIEN:  Town  in  the  S.  of  the  province 
of  Shansi,  China,  situated  about  20  miles  N.  W. 
of  Ki-ai-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1891),  with 
6  missionaries,  men  and  women,  who  are  (1903) 
reorganizing  the  work  broken  up  by  the  Boxer 
uprising. 

ISMID.     See  Nicomedia. 

ISOAVINA :  A  town  and  district  in  Madagascar, 
situated  about  11  miles  E.  of  Antananarivo. 
Station  of  the  LMS  (1867),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  104  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  32  day  schools,  and  4,157  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  1,319  are  communicants. 

ISOTRY:  A  ward  in  the  city  of  Antananarivo, 
Madagascar,  and  a  missionary  district  connected 
with  the  church  in  that  ward,  under  the  LMS. 
It  now  has  11  native  workers,  20  day  schools,  and 
488  professing  Christians,  of  whom  238  are  com- 
municants. 

ISPAHAN:  A  city  of  Persia,  226  miles  south  of 
Teheran,  on  the  Zenderud  River.  It  was  formerly 
capital  of  the  Empire  and  a  great  center  of  trade, 
especially  with  Baghdad.  It  has  never  recovered 
from  the  Afghan  invasion  of  1722.  Like  many 
Oriental  cities,  large  sections  of  it  are  deserted, 
the  people  finding  it  cheaper  and  easier  to  remove 
than  to  rebuild.  The  population,  estimated  at 
80,000,  is  mostly  Persian,  tho  there  are  about 
13^000  Jews  and  some  Kurds.  Connected  with 
the  city  by  bridges  across  the  river  is  the  suburb 
of  Julfa,  which  is  the  real  center  of  missionary 
work  for  Ispahan.  Ispahan  is  the  residence  of 
the  Anglican  bishop,  and  CMS  missionaries  from 
Julfa  keep  up  a  dispensary  also.  Station  also  of 
the  London  Jews  Society  (1847),  with  (1902)  1 
missionary,  5  native  workers,  2  day  schools,  1 
industrial  school. 


ItarHl 
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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


340 


ITARSI:  A  town  and  railway  junction  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  India,  situated  in  the  district 
of  Hoshangabad,  about  10  miles  S.  of  the  town 
of  that  name.  Station  of  the  FFMA  (1893), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  dispen- 
sary, and  2  day  schools. 

ITEMBENI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  S.  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Mooi  River,  about  15  miles  N.  W. 
of  Greytown.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1856),  with  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife. 

IVORY  COAST:  A  French  colony  on  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  West  Africa,  lying  between  Liberia 
and  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  and  joining  on  the 
north  the  French  Military  Territories  and  Sene- 
gambia.  It  has  an  area  of  about  116,000  square 
miles,  and  a  population  estimated  at  2,000,000. 
The  colony  has  vast  valuable  forests  and  gold 


mines  of  unknown  riches.  The  capital  is  Binger- 
ville  (formerly  called  Adjame).  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Tanw6,  Kindjabc,  and  Akba,  the 
last  said  to  be  240  miles  in  length,  affording 
splendid  access  to  the  interior.  The  origin  of 
the  inland  peoples  is  not  definitely  known.  The 
trading  tribes  about  Ebne  Lagoon  are  called  by 
the  English  nickname  "Jack-Jack;"  west  of  the 
Lahu  are  the  Avekvoms,  commonly  called  Qua- 
Quas;  while  farther  west  are  the  Kroomen.  The 
coast  tribes  are  mild  and  trustworthy. 

The  only  Protestant  mission  in  this  territory 
consists  of  3  settlements,  which  fall  within  the 
field  of  the  PE  mission  in  Liberia. 

I-YANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China,  about  180  miles  S.  E.  of  Kiu- 
kiang.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1890),  with  (1902)  4 
women  missionaries.  Name  given  as  Ih-yang  in 
CIM  publications. 


JABALPUR:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  160  miles  northeast  of  Nagpur.  It  stands 
at  an  altitude  of  1,460  feet,  in  a  rocky  basin,  sur- 
rounded b)'  a  series  of  lakes  which  are  shaded  by 
fine  trees  and  bordered  by  rocky  crags.  Its 
streets  are  wide  and  regularly  laid  out.  It  is 
perhaps  the  most  important  railway  center  in  all 
India.  Population  (1891),  84,500,  of  whom 
60,900  are  Hindus  and  19,400  Mohammedans. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1854),  and  CEZ  (1875),  with, 
together  (1900),  4  missionaries,  3  with  their 
wives;  4  women  missionaries,  39  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  3  outstations,  19  elementary 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  137  professed  Chris- 
tians, and  387  Zenana  pupils.  Station  also  of 
the  ME,  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  2  women  missionaries,  46  native  workers, 
4  outstations,  5  day  schools,  and  389  professed 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1900)  2  missionaries,  17  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  4  day  schools,  and  an  orphanage. 

JACKSON,  Bishop  William  Walrond:  Born  in 
Barbados,  January  9,  1811.  Died  at  Ealing, 
November  25,  1895.  Missionary  of  the  SPG. 
Educated  at  the  best  school  in  Barbados;  one  of 
the  first -Candidates  confirmed  by  the  first  Bishop 
of  Barbados;  licensed  as  catechist  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  and  entered  as  the  first  student  of 
Codrington  College,  where,  after  winning  a  scholar- 
ship, he  became  the  Senior  Theological  Scholar. 
From  the  beginning  of  his  ministry  (ordained 
deacon  in  1834  and  priest  in  1835)  he  was  in 
charge  of  important  parishes  in  Barbardos,  Trin- 
idad, and  St.  Vincent.  In  Trinidad  he  roughed 
it  through  the  forests,  visiting  small  stations; 
and  in  St.  Vincent  his  chief  work  was  among  the 
Caribs  and  Negroes.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Governor's  Council  in  Antigua;  exerted  a  strong 
influence  in  legislation,  and  some  of  the  laws  that 
he  had  enacted  were  beneficial  especially  to  the 
poor  man  and  laborer.  On  his  departure  from 
the  diocese  in  1879,  people  of  all  classes  and 
creeds,  in  the  fourteen  islands  under  his  episcopal 
supervision,  gave  him  a  valuable  testimonial  of 
their  loving  esteem. 


JACOBITE:  A  name  given  to  the  Monophysite 
churches  of  the  East,  especially  the  Syrians  resid- 
ing in  Northern  Syria,  Southern  Asia  Minor,  and 
Mesopotamia.  Their  principal  headquarters  are 
at  Mosul,  Diarbekir,  Maadan,  and  Aleppo.  They 
have  also  a  bishop  at  Jerusalem.  Other  impor- 
tant centers  are  Oorfa,  Mardin,  Jazireh,  and  a 
district  of  Jebel  Tour,  east  of  Diarbekir.  They 
have  found  it  difficult  in  many  places  to  cope 
with  the  aggressive  influences  of  the  Roman 
Catholics,  who  have  sent  large  numbers  of  monks 
to  establish  themselves  especially  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, in  the  cities  of  Mardin  and  Mosul,  and, 
having  enticed  many  of  the  priests,  have  suc- 
ceeded also  in  forcing  the  congregations  to  follow 
them  by  refusing  any  of  the  sacraments  except  as 
they  adopted  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

Protestant  mission  work  among  the  Jacobites 
has  been  somewhat  successful,  especially  as  car- 
ried on  from  Mardin,  Diarbekir,  and  Mosul.  The 
relations  between  the  Jacobite  leaders  and  the 
American  missionaries  have  been  quite  cordial, 
and  the  constant  effort  to  come  into  pleasant 
relations  with  them  has  been  productive  of  good 
results.  The  larger  part  of  the  Protestant  com- 
munities of  Mardin,  Jebel  Tour,  and  the  villages 
about  Diarbekir  are  made  up  from  the  Jacobite 
communities. 

JAESCHKE,  Heinrich  August:  Born  in  Herrn- 
hut.  Saxony,  May  17,  1817.  He  was  descended 
from  a  family  of  those  Moravian  exiles  who 
found  refuge  and  freedom  on  the  estates  of  Count 
Zinzendorf  at  the  settlement  of  Herrnhut.  After 
two  years'  study  in  the  theological  seminary  at 
Gnadenfeld  he  was  appointed,  in  1837,  a  teacher 
in  the  boys'  academy  in  Christiansfeld,  where  the 
Danish  language  chiefly  was  used.  He  acquired 
the  language  so  rapidly  that  in  a  short  time  he 
was  able  to  compose  and  preach  in  Danish._  Five 
years  later  he  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the 
Niesky  Pasdegogium,  where  he  instructed  in 
ancient  and  modern  languages.  He  here  began 
the  study  of  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Sanskrit._  He 
was  a  proficient  in  Greek.  He  became  acquainted 
also    with    Hungarian,    Bohemian,    Polish,   and 


341 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Itarsl 
Jala 


Swedish.     His  diary  was  kept  in  seven  languages. 
In  1856  he  joined  Messrs.  Pagell  and  Heyde  in 
mission  work  at  Kailang,  a  village  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Lahoul,  on  the  borders  of  Tibet,  intending 
as  soon  as  the  way  was  open  to  enter  with  them 
and  labor  among  the  Chinese  Mongols.     Having 
acquired  the  language  he  compiled  a  German- 
Tibetan,  and  some  years  later  an  English-Tibetan, 
Lexicon,  both  of  which  are  considered  standard 
authorities.     The  British  Government  published 
the  English-Tibetan  Lexicon  for  the  use  of  Eng- 
lish  officers   in    Kashmir.     He   also    wrote    and 
translated  several  books  and  tracts  for  the  con- 
verts, for  pupils  in  schools,  and  for  distribution 
among  the  people.     He  prepared  also   a  small 
Tibetan  grammar  in  the  English  language  for  the 
use  of  missionaries  and  others.     He  now  began 
the  translation  of  the  Bible,  but  after  ten  years  of 
almost  incessant  labor  his  health  failed,  and  he 
was   obliged   to    return   to    Europe.     There,    in 
great  weakness,  he  continued  the  work,  and  com- 
pleted the  translation   of  the   New  Testament, 
which  was  published  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible   Society.     He   left    materials   which   were 
used  by  Mr.  Redslob  in  the  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament.     He   died   at   Herrnhut,   September 
24,  1883. 

JAFFA:  A  town  in  Syria,  lying  33  miles  N.  W. 
of  Jerusalem,  of  which  it  is  the  seaport  and  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railroad.  It  is  regarded 
as  an  important  center  for  missionary  work, 
because  all  pilgrims  and  visitors  to  Jerusalem, 
whether  Christians,  Jews,  or  Muslims,  naturally 
land  at  Jaffa.  There  are  fourteen  colonies  of 
Jews  from  abroad  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  town,  making  with  those  in  the  town  itself 
a  body  of  some  6,500  Jews.  The  population  of 
Jaffa  is  about  16,000.  It  is  a  station  of  the 
Tabeetha  Mission  Schools  (1863),  of  the  CMS 
(1876),  of  the  Jaffa  Medical  Mission  (1878),  of  the 
London  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christianity 
among  the  Jews  (1882),  of  the  Jerusalem  Union 
(Berlin),  and  of  the  Christian  and  Missionary 
Alliance.  Together  these  societies  have  at  Jaffa 
20  missionaries  and  29  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  with  12  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 

1  industrial  school,  1  hospital,  and  2  dispensaries. 

JAFFNA:  A  town  in  Ceylon,  situated  on  the  S. 
coast  of  the  island  or  peninsula  of  Jaffna,  116 
miles  N.  W.  of  Trincomalee.  It  is  the  district 
town,  and  has  the  administrative  buildings,  a 
college,  and  a  public  library.  The  fort  is  the 
most  perfect  little  military  work  in  Ceylon — a 
pentagon  built  of  blocks  of  white  coral.  Traces 
of  the  Dutch  occupancy  of  the  town  can  still  be 
seen,  and  not  a  few  of  the  churches  date  back  to 
the  time  of  the  Portuguese.  The  industry  of 
the  Tamil  inhabitants  has  changed  the  sandy  soil 
to  a  fertile  district,  with  luxuriant  tropical  vege- 
tation. Its  trade  is  mainly  in  tobacco  and 
Palmyra  timber.  Population  (1891),  43,000. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  3  missionaries, 

2  women  missionaries,  67  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  6  outstations,  21  day  schools,  2 
boarding  schools,  1  college,  and  45S  professed 
Christians.  The  Society  uses  the  name  Pettah 
to  designate  its  station  here. 

JAGATAI  TURKISH  LANGUAGE.     See  Turk- 
ish Langtjage. 
JAGDALI  DIALECT.     See  Multani. 
JAGERS  FONTEIN:  A  village  in  the  Orange 


River  Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  67  miles 
S.  W.  of  Bloemfontein.  Population,  4,000. 
Station  of  the  SPG,  with  1  missionary,  and  of  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary 
Society,  with  23  native  workers,  23  outstations, 
and  340  professed  Christians. 

JAINS:  A  religious  sect  in  India,  who  are 
found  in  Upper  Hindustan,  in  the  provinces  of 
Mewar  and  Marwar,  along  the  Ganges,  and  in 
Calcutta.  They  are  also  found  in  some  other 
parts  of  India,  especially  along  the  Malabar 
coast.  They  are  considered  heterodox  by  the 
Hindus,  and  in  their  belief  they  adhere  to  some 
of  the  tenets  of  Buddhism  and  to  some  of  the 
teachings  of  the  Brahmans.  Like  the  Buddhists, 
they  deny  the  origin  and  authority  of  the  Vedas, 
and  they  worship  some  of  the  same  saints.  Like 
the  Brahmans,  they  recognize  the  distinctions 
of  caste,  and  worship  some  of  the  deities  of  the 
Hindu  pantheon,  tho  they  reject  all  the  rites 
which  cause  the  sacrifice  of  animal  life.  They 
believe  in  final  emancipation,  when  the  vital 
spirit  is  released  from  the  bonds  of  action,  and 
they  define  the  size  of  such  souls,  their  home, 
their  qualities,  their  length  of  life,  and  all  that 
pertains  to  them.  The  Jains  are  divided  into 
two  orders — the  priest  and  the  layman.  The 
former  leads  a  life  of  abstinence  and  general  self- 
denial.  He  carefully  avoids  the  destruction  of 
animal  life,  even  covering  his  mouth  to  avoid 
inadvertently  swallowing  insects.  The  layman 
is  supposed  to  practise  tlie  virtues  of  liberality, 
gentleness,  piety,  and  penance.  He  also  care- 
fully strains  the  water  which  he  drinks,  and 
covers  all  liquids  lest  an  insect  may  be  drowned 
therein.  There  are  other  differences  among  them 
which  govern  their  dress  and  decorations.  They 
worship  a  number  of  deified  saints,  called  Jina, 
to  whom  they  ascribe  attributes  of  the  most 
extravagant  character.  Two  of  these  are  now 
the  principal  objects  of  worship.  The  origin  of 
the  sect  is  lost  in  obscurity,  but  it  probably  was 
subsequent  to  the  rise  of  the  Buddhist  religion. 

JAIPUR:  A  town  in  Chota  Nagpur,  India, 
situated  8  miles  W.  of  Purulia.  Outstation  of 
the  SPG  (1869),  with  (1902)  11  native  workers 
and  831  professed  Christians,  of  whom  399  are 
communicants.     Name  also  written  Jaypur. 

JAIPUR:  A  town  in  the  Madras  Presidency, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Vizagapatam, 
95  miles  N.  W.  of  the  town  of  that  name,  at  an 
altitude  of  2,000  feet.  Population  (1891),  5,000. 
Station  of  the  Breklum  Missionary  Society  (1887), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  7 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  and  750  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  239  are  communicants. 
Name  written  by  the  Society,  Jeypur. 

JAIPUR:  A  city  in  Rajputana,  India,  the  cap- 
ital of  a  native  state  of  the  same  name,  situated 
at  an  altitude  of  1,438  feet,  about  80  miles  E.  N. 
E.  of  Ajmere.  It  stands  in  a  small  plain  which 
seems  to  have  been  the  bed  of  a  lake.  The  city 
was  founded  in  1728  by  Jai  Singh  II.,  and  its 
streets  are  regular  and  wide.  It  is  the  chief 
commercial  center  of  Rajputana.  Population 
(1891),  159,000.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1866), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  3 
women  missionaries,  39  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  11  elementary  schools  and  1  dispensary. 
Name  also  written  Jeypore. 

JALA:  A  town   in  Chota  Nagpur,  India,  situ- 


Jalalpnr 
•Japan 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


343 


ated  about  50  miles  N.  W.  of  Purulia.  Station 
of  the  Gossner  Missionary  Society,  with  (1900) 
1  missionary,  8  native  workers,  and  1  elementary 
school. 

JALALPUR:  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
India,  situated  18  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Surat. 
Station  of  the  German  Baptist  Brethren  Church. 

JALALPUR:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
situated  about  20  miles  N.  of  Wazirabad.  Station 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Missions'  Com- 
mittee (1899),  with  2  missionaries,  5  native 
■workers,  and  1  dispensary  and  hospital. 

JALANDHAR:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
situated  47  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Amritsar.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  67,735,  of  whom  39,000  are  Moham- 
medans and  23,000  Hindus.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1846),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2 
women  missionaries,  41  native  workers,  6  day 
schools,  and  1  boarding  school.  Name  written 
by  the  Society,  Jnillundur. 

JALAPA:  A  town  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz, 
Mexico,  situated  56  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Vera  Cruz 
City,  at  an  altitude  of  4,300  feet.  Jalap  grows 
wild  in  the  vicinity  and  takes  its  name  in  medi- 
cine from  the  town.  Population  about  18,000. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1897),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  1  day  school 
and  755  professed  evangelical  Christians. 

JALAPUR.     See  Jalalpur. 

JALESWAR:  A  town  in  Orissa,  Bengal,  India, 
situated  24  miles  N.  E.  of  Balasore.  Station  of 
the  Free  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1885), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  11 
native  workers,  men  and  women.  Name  also 
•written  Jellasore. 

JALNA :  A  town  in  Haidarabad,  India,  situated 
36  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Aurungabad,  in  arid  land 
but  surrounded  with  fruit  gardens  which  are 
famous.  Altitude,  1,632  feet.  Population,  6,300. 
Station  of  the  UFS  (1862),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, one  with  his  wife;  2  women  mission- 
aries, 51  native  workers,  men  and  women;  13  out- 
stations,  12  elementary  schools,  1  boarding  school 

1  dispensary,  1  hospital  and  268  communicants. 
JALPAIGURI:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situ- 
ated about  50  miles  S.  E.  by  S.  of  Darjiling,  at  an 
altitude  of  270  feet.  Population  (1891)  9,700,  of 
whom  5,700  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  BMS 
(1888),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
6  native  workers. 

JAMALPUR:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
in  Behar,  32  miles  W.  of  Bhagalpur.  Popula- 
tion (1891)  18,000,  of  whom  14,000  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  CEZ  (1894),  with  (1903)  3  women 
missionaries  and  13  native  women  workers. 

JAMMALAMADUGU:  A  town  in  the  Presi- 
dency of  Madras,  India,  situated  in  the  district 
of  Cuddapah,  102  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Bellary. 
Population  (1891)  6,000,  of  whom  4,200  are 
Hindus.     Station  of  the  LMS  (1891),  with  (1903) 

2  missionaries,  3  women  missionaries,  a  dispen- 
sary and  a  hospital.  The  church  statistics  are 
included  in  those  of  Cuddapah. 

JAMMU:  A  town  in  Kashmir,  India,  situated 
about  80  miles  N.  of  Amritsar.  It  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  an  independent  Rajput  kingdom, 
and  possesses  a  citadel  and  a  number  of  exten- 
sive ruins.  The  place  has  been  rated  as  very 
unhealthful  on  account  of  its  bad  water  supply. 
This,  however,  has  been  remedied.     Population 


(1891)  34,800.     Occupied  as  an  outstation  by  the 
SPG  in  1892. 

JANDIALA:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
situated  55  miles  S.  E.  by  E.  of  Amritsar  in  the 
Jalandhar  district.  Population  about  7,000 
Station  of  the  CMS  and  CEZ  (1881),  with  (1903) 
3  women  missionaries,  11  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  12  elementary  schools,  a  hospital,  95 
Zenana  pupils  and  55  professed  Christians. 

JANGAOW :  A  town  and  railroad  station  in  the 
native  state  of  Haidarabad,  India,  situated  about 
48  miles  N.  E.  of  Secunderabad.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1901),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife. 

JANICKE,  "Father":  Born  of  Bohemian 
parents  in  Berlin  in  1748;  died  in  1827.  He  was 
a  weaver  by  trade,  but  having  conceived  an 
ardent  desire  to  possess  a  university  education, 
he  turned  all  his  energies  upon  this,  and  with 
many  interruptions  he  succeeded,  after  enduring 
great  privations,  in  fitting  himself  to  enter 
Leipzig  University,  whence  he  graduated  in  due 
course,  and  in  1779  became  pastor  of  a  Bohemian 
Church  in  Berlin. 

Early  in  life  he  was  much  under  Moravian 
influences,  and  his  own  brother  was  a  missionary 
in  India.  Hence  missions  in  every  form  were 
close  to  his  heart.  He  was  a  very  earnest  man, 
and  had  the  not  uncommon  trait  of  earnest  men 
in  a  brusque  manner  that  aroused  violent  oppo- 
sition among  some  whose  offices  in  the  Church 
ought  to  have  ensured  him  their  sympathy. 

It  was  a  layman,  von  Schnirding,  who  sug- 
gested to  Janicke  the  idea  of  founding  a  training 
school  for  missionaries  in  Berlin.  This  school, 
whose  influence  had  a  large  place  in  the  founding 
of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society,  was  opened  in 
1800.  In  1805  Father  Janicke  founded  a  Bible 
Society,  which  developed  into  the  Prussian  Cen- 
tral Bible  Society.  In  1811  he  founded  a  Tract 
Society  which  has  become  renowned. 

Is  was  characteristic  of  this  great-hearted 
man  that  when  he  opened  his  Training  School 
for  Missionaries,  he  made  its  needs  his  own.  He 
had  in  the  school  seven  scholars,  for  whose  ex- 
penses he  depended  upon  von  Schnirding.  That 
gentleman  suddenly  lost  his  property  and  the 
enterprise  seemed  to  be  doomed.  But  Janicke, 
with  only  47  thalers  in  hand,  decided  to  carry 
on  the  school.  In  spite  of  all  obstacles  and  of 
much  opposition  he  succeeded,  and  in  1820  he 
had  the  gratification  of  receiving  the  sanction  of 
the  King  of  Prussia  to  the  enterprise.  This  gave 
the  school  a  secure  basis.  Up  to  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1827  Janicke  had  trained  for  the  foreign 
field  eighty  missionaries,  some  of  whom  became 
men  of  high  renown  in  the  annals  of  the  English 
and  Dutch  societies  which  sent  them  out  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world. 

JANVIER,  Levi:  Born  at  Pittsgrove,  N.  J., 
April  25,  1816;  graduated  at  Princeton  College 
1835,  Theological  Seminary  1838;  ordained 
December  31,  1840;  sailed  in  1841  as  a  mission- 
ary of  the  PN  for  India;  was  stationed  at  Fateh- 
garh,  Ludhiana,  Ambala  and  Sabathu.  He  was 
much  occupied  in  the  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  was  connected  with  the  press  from  the 
beginning  to  the  close  of  his  work.  After  he  had 
mastered  the  Punjabi  language,  he,  with  his 
cousin.  Dr.  Newton,  of  the  same  mission,  com- 
menced the  preparation  of  a  dictionary  of  that 
language.     It  was  completed    and  published  at 


343 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Jalalpnr 
Japan 


the  mission  press  in  1854,  a  quarto  of  438  pages, 
in  the  Gurmukhi  character.  Dr.  Janvier  pos- 
sessed great  energy  of  character,  and  was  full  of 
xeal  for  the  salvation  of  the  heathen.  He  met 
his  death  March  24,  1864,  at  a  mela  in  Anandpur, 
where  he  was  engaged  in  preaching  and  distrib- 
uting tracts.  In  the  evening  he  was  met  by  a 
fanatic  Silch,  and  felled  to  the  ground  with  a 
club.  He  lingered  insensible  till  morning,  when 
he  died. 

JAO-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China,  60  miles  S.  E.  of  Kiu-kiang. 
Station  of  the  CIM,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife  and  2  native  workers.  Name  written 
by  the  Society,  Rao-chau. 

JAPAN:  The  archipelago  and  empire  of  Dai 
Nippon  (great  dayspring),  called  "Japan"  by 
foreigners,  consists  of  a  chain  of  islands  border- 
ing the  Continent  of  Asia  between  Russia  at 
Kamchatka  and  the  Chinese  coast  opposite 
Formosa  and  the  Pescadores.  It  is  set  in  a  quad- 
rilateral nearly  9,000  miles  wide  and  2,000  miles 
long.  The  most  northern  island  is  Araito  (lati- 
tude 50°  56'),  the  most  southern  Formosa  (lati- 
tude 21°  42'),  the  most  eastern  Shimushiu  (longi- 
tude east  156°  32'),  the  most  western  Yonaku  (lon- 
gitude east  122°  45').  Of  the  great  quadrilateral 
thus  drawn  about  Japan's  extremities,  the  total 
land  area  is  but  150,000  square  miles;  the  remain- 
ing 17,840,000  square  miles  being  ocean  water 
which  surrounds  nearly  4,000  islands  having 
43,000  miles  of  coast  line.  The  largest  island  is 
Hondo  or  Hon-shiu,  that  is,  main  island,  or  main 
country,  and  on  unre vised  maps  is  called  Niphon, 
which  is  the  Dutch  spelling  of  the  name  of  the 
whole  empire,  the  native  common  name  being 
Nippon,  or  Nihon.  Hondo,  Kiu-shiu,  Shikoku 
and  Yezo,  or  Hokkaido, arethefour  largest  islands. 
The  lesser  groups  of  islands,  besides  Riu  Kiu  and 
Chishima,  are  Awaji,  Tsu-shima,  Goto,  Iki,  Oki, 
Sado,  Shichijima,  Ogasawara  (Bonin),  etc.  All 
the  outlying  islands  from  Tsu-shima  to  Sado  are 
on  the  western  side  of  Hondo,  which  is,  in  gen- 
eral, destitute  of  harbors;  while  the  eastern  front 
is  well  indented  and  contains  numerous  places 
suitable  for  anchorage  and  commerce.  The 
general  shape  of  the  main  group  of  islands  is  that 
of  an  archer's  bow  recurved  at  each  end,  the  cord 
or  string  bisecting  the  Sea  of  Japan,  the  arrow- 
rest  being  at  Tokio,  the  capital,  which  is  thus 
almost  exactly  at  the  center  of  the  empire. 

Physical  Features:  Geologically,  Japan  is  part 
of  the  chain  of  volcanoes  stretching  from  Kam- 
chatka into  China,  the  islands  being  the  tops  of 
otherwise  submerged  mountain  plateaus  of  gran- 
ite and  old  schists  and  clay  slates  on  which  late 
and  active  volcanoes  have  superimposed  their 
peaks,  and  the  islets  being  the  fragments  of  the 
great  lines  of  upheaval,  once  long  causeways 
but  now  broken  into  fragments  and  fantastic 
shapes  by  ages  of  wave-action.  The  geograph- 
ical division  of  the  empire  into  nine  do  (circuits 
or  roads)  is  made  in  general  accordance  with  the 
physical  features  of  the  country,  especially  the 
great  lines  of  mountains  and  islands.  The  whole 
surface  of  the  country  consists  of  mountains  and 
valleys,  large  plains  and  great  rivers  being  nearly 
unknown,  while  lakes,  except  Biwa  and  Ina- 
washiro,  are  few  and  small.  The  scenery  is 
rarely  wild  and  imposing,  tho  in  general  beautiful, 
and  in  many  places  exceedingly  lovely.  Most  of 
the  mountains  are  rounded  and  forest-covered. 


Only  about  ten  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  culti- 
vated, which,  however,  is  nearly  all  that  is  avail- 
able, since  the  arable  land  is  almost  wholly  in  the 
valleys  and  river  plains.  Surrounded  on  every 
side  by  the  ocean,  fish  food  is  cheap,  abundant 
and  nourishing.  In  the  tertiary  age  the  Japan- 
ese islands  were  united  to  the  continents  of  Asia 
and  America,  after  which  began  the  great  upheav- 
als which  have  both  separated  and  made  moun- 
tainous this  island-chain.  Not  only  is  the  cli- 
mate of  Japan  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  United 
States  between  the  lower  Mississippi  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  in  the  amount  and  distribution 
of  rain  and  the  variations  of  temperature,  but 
the  flora  of  these  two  portions  of  the  world  are 
closely  related  both  in  general  character  and  the 
large  number  of  plants  common  to  each. 
Extending  through  twenty-seven  degrees  of 
latitude,  there  is  great  difference  in  climate  in 
various  places  and  at  different  altitudes.  The 
monsoon  winds  and  the  Kuro  Shiwo  (black 
stream)  are  the  chief  regulating  factors.  The 
western  coasts,  under  the  influence  of  the  cold- 
water  currents  from  the  north,  have  lower  tem- 
peratures, more  fog,  rain,  snow  and  ice  than  the 
eastern  sides  of  the  country,  which,  being  nearer 
the  gulf  stream,  are  warmer  and  more  free  from 
snow  and  ice.  The  average  temperature  from 
April  to  October  is  68°  F.,  from  June  to  Septem- 
ber 74°.  In  many  parts  of  Yezo  the  winter  lasts 
from  November  to  May,  but  the  cold  rarely  drops 
to  28°.  The  rainy  time  of  the  year  is  between 
March  and  November,  the  wettest  month  being 
September  and  the  driest  January.  The  rainfall, 
tho  in  some  years  reaching  145  inches,  in  Tokio 
had  an  average  during  1876-1888  of  58.33  inches. 
Taken  all  in  all,  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  as 
many  working  days  in  the  year  as  in  the  Caro- 
linas  of  the  United  States. 

The  greatest  plagues  of  Japan  are  typhoons 
and  earthquakes  (to  which  one  writer  adds  rats), 
and  the  phenomena  of  these  are  studied,  as  well 
as  those  of  wind,  temperature  and  moisture. 
Vessels  are  warned  of  coming  typhoons  from 
nearly  fifty  stations.  From  a  study  of  the  cli- 
matology of  Japan  it  is  evident  that  the  con- 
ditions of  the  air,  wind,  temperature  and  mois- 
ture are  very  much  like  those  of  adjacent  coun- 
tries, except  that  the  extremes  of  summer  heat 
and  winter  cold  and  dryness  reached  on  the 
neighboring  continent  are  hardly  known  in 
Japan.  The  frequency  of  earthquakes  seems  to 
be  compensated  for  in  the  comparative  rarity  of 
thunderstorms  and  danger  from  lightning. 
Japan  may  be  safely  called  one  of  the  healthful 
countries  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  and  ordi- 
nary precautions  as  to  choice  of  building-sites 
and  habits  of  life  will  secure  the  same  possibilities 
of  health  as  in  the  same  latitude  in  Europe  or 
America.  The  months  liable  to  the  dreaded 
typhoons  are,  in  a  decreasing  order  of  severity, 
September,  August,  October,  and  July.  Four  or 
five  typhoons  pass  over  Japan  annually,  of  which 
Tokio  receives  about  one.  Occasionally  a 
typhoon  comes  as  early  as  April.  The  native 
houses,  admirable  for  summer  use,  are  not 
usually  habitable  by  Europeans  in  winter.  The 
numerous  mountain  resorts,  and  the  easy  accessi- 
bility of  Yezo,  where  the  climate  is  cooler,  furnish 
Japan  with  sanitariums  for  rest,  recuperation, 
or  prolonged  vacation. 

'The  peculiarities  of  the  climate  of  Japan  are 
reflected  in  its  vegetation.     During  eight  months 


Japan 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


344 


of  the  year  plant  life  is  active,  during  four  almost 
at  a  standstill,  the  herbage  in  early  summer  and 
autumn  being  at  its  best.  Evergreens  are  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  landscape.  Nearly 
all  types  of  vegetation,  temperate,  arctic  a,nd 
tropical,  prevail,  and  the  Mediterranean,  Pacific 
and  north  European  coasts  will  be  recalled  by 
travelers.  These  types  meet,  especially  in  cen- 
tral Japan,  where,  at  the  higher  elevations,  the 
birch  and  the  beech  are  still  common,  while  the 
bamboo  and  the  camphor-laurel  flourish  in  the 
milder  lowlands. 

Japan  is  the  land  of  the  monkey  and  the  giant 
salamander.  Except  the  ass,  sheep  and  goat, 
most  of  the  common  domestic  animals  exist 
here.  The  chief  mammals  are  the  monkey,  bat, 
bear,  badger,  marten,  dog,  wolf,  fox,  squirrel, 
rat,  hare,  wild  boar,  stag,  antelope.  About  400 
species  of  fish  have  been  catalogd,  with  1,200 
species  of  moUusca,  the  seas  being  amazingly 
rich  in  life  of  every  form  able  to  exist  in  salt 
water. 

Population:  In  round  numbers,  the  population 
of  Dai  Nippon  in  1899  was  44,000,000. 

Except  the  Ainus,  in  Yezo,  the  people  are  now 
a  homogeneous  race,  made  up  of  several  stocks. 
The  chief  peculiarities  in  physical  appearance, 
language  and  customs  are  found  in  Lu  Chu  and 
other  outlying  islands.  The  language  spoken  in 
the  capital,  Tokio,  is  now  the  standard,  and  using 
this  a  good  speaker  can  be  understood  easily  all 
over  the  empire,  as  the  variations  in  dialect,  tho 
numerous,  are  comparatively  slight,  and  are 
vastly  less  than  in  China.  In  comparison  with 
China,  India,  Siam  or  indeed  with  any  Asian 
country,  Japan  is  politically  more  of  a  unit,  and 
her  people  the  most  homogeneous  of  any  Asiatic 
nation.  The  Kuazoku,  or  nobility,  includes  the 
members  of  the  imperial  family,  those  persons  of 
the  old-landed  nobility  formerly  called  daimio 
(great  name)  and  others  who  for  talent  or  illus- 
trious services  have  been  ennobled  by  patent. 
The  Shizoku  or  gentry  include  the  former 
samurai  (servants  of  the  emperor)  whose  ances- 
tors served  the  feudal  lords  as  retainers,  or  who 
have  in  various  ways  risen  to  social  rank,  and 
who,  altogether,  under  the  old  order  constituted 
the  military  and  literati  of  the  empire.  The  Hei- 
min,  or  common  people,  were  formerly  divided 
into  several  distinct  classes,  beneath  which  were 
the  eta,  outcasts,  and  hi-nin  (not  human);  but  all 
the  people — farmers,  artisans,  merchants,  etc. — 
are  now  equal  before  the  law,  and  subject 
to  the  same  political  and  social  forces  and  liabili- 
ties. The  agricultural  people  comprise  one-half 
of  the  population,  after  which  in  order  come 
traders  and  artisans. 

In  physical  stature  the  Japanese  are  an  under- 
sized people,  the  average  height  of  the  men  being 
5.5  feet,  and  that  of  the  women  4.5  feet.  Fur- 
ther, the  native  is  not  proportionately  developed. 
The  inveterate  habit,  continued  for  ages,  of  sit- 
ting on  their  knees  without  chairs,  the  hams 
resting  on  the  heels  or  ankles,  has  resulted  in  a 
curious  malformation,  or,  rather,  lack  of  growth, 
by  which  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  dispro- 
portionately longer  than  the  lower.  The  Japan- 
ese do  not  smoke  opium  or  bind  the  feet  of  their 
women,  but  the  use  of  tobacco  in  the  form  of 
smoke  is  almost  universal;  and  the  custom  of 
"drinking"  or  filling  the  lungs  with  the  vola- 
tilized tobacco-vapor  may  be  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  common  lung  diseases  and  flat  breasts  of 


the  men.  The  most  common  fatal  diseases  of 
the  Japanese  are,  in  their  order,  those  of  the  ner- 
vous, digestive  and  respiratory  organs,  tho  skin 
disorders  are  frightfully  common,  and  epidemics 
are  not  rare. 

In  mental  traits  the  Japanese  are  bright,  quick, 
perceptive  and  in  general  clever,  maturing  in 
intellect  probably  earlier  than  the  European, 
and  from  fifteen  to  forty  years  of  age  being  peer, 
probably,  to  any  people  in  the  world,  tho  it 
appears  that  arrested  mental  development  and 
decay  come  earlier  than  with  the  Germanic  races. 
In  universal  courtesy  and  politeness,  the  Japan- 
ese people  have  probably  no  peers,  the  kindly 
greetings  and  gentle  manners  being  common  to 
all  grades  of  society,  even  the  language  (between 
equals,  only)  being  infused  with  the  eminently 
Christian  idea  of  each  esteeming  the  other  better 
than  himself. 

Government:  The  government  is  that  of  a  mon- 
archy, the  chief  ruler,  the  Mikado,  being  heredi- 
tary emperor,  who  is  assisted  by  a  senate,  a  privy 
council,  and  a  cabinet  of  ministers,  each  of  whom 
has  charge  of  a  department.  For  administrative 
purposes  the  empire  is  divided  into  46  ken  or  pre- 
fectures, the  three  large  municipalities,  Tokio, 
Osaka,  and  Kioto,  being  organized  as  /m  or  imper- 
ial cities.  These  ken  consist,  as  a  rule,  of  two  of 
the  old  geographical  divisions  of  kuni  or  provinces 
united,  there  oeing  in  the  empire  85  provinces, 
805  kori  or  districts,  12,185  cities  and  towns,  and 
58,456  villages.  The  sub-prefectures  number 
566,  and  the  towns  and  cities  having  mayors 
number  11,377.  The  smaller  villages  are  under 
the  care  of  a  nanushi  or  head-man,  and  the  entire 
populace  is  arranged  into  responsible  groups  of 
five  households — a  system  which  enables  the 
government  to  keep  the  most  minute  oversight  of 
all  subjects  of  the  Mikado.  For  further  details 
of  the  government,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
constitution  of  Japan,  proclaimed  February  11, 
1889.  This  being  the  culminating  point  of  Jap- 
anese history,  since  it  has  led  to  the  suppression, 
by  consent  of  the  Western  nations,  of  the  extra- 
territoriality clauses  of  the  treaties,  we  now  turn 
to  a  survey  of  the  origin  of  the  people  and  to 
the  condensed  story  of  the  religious  and  political 
development  of  the  nation,  which,  by  adopting 
such  a  constitution,  solemnly  declared  its  purpose 
to  change  its  political  system  from  an  Asiatic  des- 
potism to  a  modern  representative  government. 

Political  History:  The  true  history  of  Japan  is 
now  in  process  of  construction  out  of  the  mate- 
rials obtained  by  a  critical  study  of  geology  and 
cognate  physical  sciences,  languages,  the  native 
legends,  poetry  and  mythology,  and  a  compar- 
ison of  Chinese,  Korean,  and  Japanese  historical 
records.  The  most  ancient  literature  extant  is 
not  older  than  the  8th  century,  and  the  early 
writers  draw  no  clear  line  of  demarcation  between 
myth  and  history.  Hence  there  is  little  to  be 
depended  on  until  the  4th  century. 

At  the  dawn  of  history,  the  archipelago  is 
found  populated.  The  conquerors  from  the 
Asian  highlands,  who,  by  way  of  Korea,  landed 
in  Kiushiu  and  by  gradual  conquest  northward 
established  themselves  in  central  Hondo  near 
Lake  Riwa,  at  Nara  and  Kioto,  found  on  their 
arrival  inhabitants  who  were  hunters  and  fisher- 
men. To  these  the  conquerors  were  a  superior 
race  of  men,  and  they  parceled  out  the  land  among 
themselves,  compelling  the  aborigines  to  be 
their  serfs.  To  this  day,  at  least  two  types  of 
countenance  are  easily  distinguishable,  and  the 


346 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Japan 


characteristics  of  a  mixed  race  appear  in  the 
people.  The  round,  flat,  "pudding  face"  of  the 
lower  classes  and  the  more  oval  countenance  of 
the  aristocrats,  with  its  more  delicate  features 
and  profile,  are  in  noticeable  contrast,  being, 
according  to  some  writers,  types  of  the  Ainu  and 
the  invading  Yamatu,  respectively.  Others 
argue  that  Japan  was  peopled  by  two  different 
streams  of  immigration  from  Korea,  which  sup- 
plied these  types;  and  that,  as  neither  recorded 
history,  nor  tradition,  nor  mythology  shows  any 
traces  of  migration  from  the  southward,  we  are 
to  look  upon  the  Koreans  as  the  nearest  congeners 
of  the  Japanese.  Tho  historically  the  Ainus 
occupied  the  soil  of  Hondo,  it  is  claimed  by  some 
able  writers  that  the  Japanese  and  Ainus  are  as 
distinct  in  race  as  the  whites  and  Indians  in 
North  America. 

From  about  the  year  400,  when  calendars, 
writing,  and  Chinese  appliances  of  civilization 
were  introduced,  Japanese  history  becomes  clear. 

Ancestor-worship  was  the  religion  of  the 
invaders,  and  out  of  their  method  of  deifying 
their  famous  patriarchs  and  heroes  grew  up  the 
Kami-no-Michi,  or,  in  later  Chinese  phrase, 
Shinto  (theos-logos) ,  the  way  or  doctrine  of  the 
gods,  which  is  a  compound  of  the  worship  of 
nature  and  of  deified  human  beings.  This  is  a 
cardinal  feature  of  the  Japanese  system.  The 
Mikado  rules  over  Japan  by  divine  right  from  all 
eternity,  and  the  divine  origin  and  right  of  the 
ruler  is  the  central  doctrine  of  Shinto  as  the 
national  religion.  Upon  this  religion  the  fabric 
of  government  was  built.  What  a  blended  relig- 
ious and  political  system  might  have  developed 
into  we  have  no  means  of  knowing,  but  imme- 
diately upon  the  importation  of  foreign  influences 
from  China,  the  germs  were  planted  for  mighty 
growths  in  politics,  social,  religious,  and  intellec- 
tual life,  which  were  profoundly  to  affect  and 
notably  modify  the  nation  and  its  development. 
From  the  6th  to  the  12th  century  the  history 
of  Japan  includes  on  its  political  side  the  abolition 
of  the  rude  feudalism  of  the  conquerors,  and 
the  gradual  centralization  of  the  government  in 
Kioto,  with  the  adoption  of  codes  of  law,  boards 
or  ministries,  the  division  of  the  empire  into  prov- 
inces, governed  by  officers  sent  out  by,  and  directly 
responsible  to,  the  central  government,  and  the 
gradual  unification  of  the  whole  body  of  tribes 
and  outlying  portions  of  the  population  into  one 
homogeneous  people.  Such  a  result  was  not 
accomplished  without  much  military  energy, 
and  many  bloody  victoiles  of  the  disciplined 
imperial  troops  over  the  brave  but  poorly  armed 
mountaineers  and  distant  tribes.  A  far-reaching 
effect  on  society  was  the  gradual  separation  of 
the  military  from  the  agricultural  class,  the 
physically  strong  and  intellectually  gifted  becom- 
ing permanent  soldiers,  continually  in  camp  and 
clothed  constantly  in  armor  and  helmet.  Such 
a  body  or  bodies  of  men  on  the  distant  frontiers 
were  far  more  likely  to  know,  respect,  believe  in, 
obey,  and  follow  their  favorite  commander  than 
to  heed  the  mandates  of  the  distant  and  shadowy 
court  at  Kioto.  The  foundations  of  a  new  feudal 
system  were  thus  laid.  Out  of  the  military  class, 
or  (mfce,  has  been  evolved  the  samurai,  the  sol- 
dierrscholar,  the  most  picturesque  and  interest- 
ing figure  in  the  national  history.  From  this 
class,  which  now  constitutes  over  one-twentieth 
of  the  populace,  have  arisen  nearly  all  the  great 
warriors,  statesmen,  scholars,  reformers,  Chris- 
tian thinkers,    and    philanthropists  of    modern 


times,  while  the  man  of  the  agricultural  class  is 
still  the  typical  ultra-conservative.  The  buhe 
or  Samurai  were  the  military,  the  huge  or  civil 
court  nobles  and  officers  were  the  civil,  servants 
of  the  Mikado,  who  was  in  theory  the  owner  of 
all  the  land. 

The  further  growth  of  government  in  Japan 
can  best  be  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
relation  of  religion  to  its  development.  We 
therefore  turn  to  the  subject  of  the  religions  of 
the  Empire. 

Religions:  In  religion  the  Ainus  are  fetish-wor- 
shipers, and  the  superstitions  of  fetishism,  sham- 
anism, the  worship  of  the  reproductive  powers 
of  nature,  and  the  veneration  of  ancestors  are 
ingrained  in  the  people  of  the  Nippon  archipelago. 
These  primitive  beliefs  underlie  the  other  national 
religions,  Shinto  and  Buddhism;  the  former  being 
the  possibly  indigenous  cult  based  on  ancestor- 
worship  and  the  deification  of  heroes,  and  the 
latter  having  been  imported  from  India  by  way 
of  China  and  Korea,  with  remarkable  develop- 
ment and  variations  on  Japanese  soil.  Shinto 
is  the  state  religion,  as  has  been  noted  already. 

Buddhism:  In  the  formation  of  the  total  prod- 
uct of  evolution  in  Japan  Buddhism  has  been 
a  most  potent  factor.  Introduced  in  552  a.d. 
from  Korea,  with  its  elaborate  systems  of  ethics, 
ritual,  dogma,  and  scriptures,  it  soon  completely 
overshadowed  the  bald  and  impoverished  cult  of 
Shinto.  Its  complete  victory  was  heralded  when 
Kobo,  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  Japanese 
syllabary,  the  profound  scholar  of  mighty  intel- 
lect, who  had  visited  China  and  mastered  the 
Sanskrit,  proclaimed  in  the  beginning  of  the 
9th  century  his  scheme  of  reconstruction  and  of 
reconciliation,  by  which  the  older  and  indigenous 
faith  was  swallowed  by  the  foreign  religion.  This 
man,  the  Philo  and  Euhemerus  of  Japan,  declared, 
after  revelation  from  the  gods,  that  all  the 
Shinto  deities  were  avatars  or  incarnations  of 
Buddha.  He  therefore  baptized  them  with 
Buddhist  names,  and  in  place  of  the  Shinto  fes- 
tivals appointed  others  to  be  celebrated  accord- 
ing to  the  Buddhist  liturgies.  Having  already 
obtained  a  foothold  in  the  palace,  and  by  its 
influence  turned  the  emperors  into  cloistered 
monks  and  empresses  into  nuns — thus  dealing  a 
blow  at  Shinto  in  its  vitals,  and  by  weakening 
government  prepared  the  way  for  the  decay  of 
the  imperial  authority  and  the  supremacy  of  the 
military  classes — the  victory  of  K5b6's  system 
was  easy.  Further,  the  Buddhist  monks  were 
explorers,  road-makers,  bridge-builders,  improv- 
ers of  diet  and  living,  chaplains  of  the  army, 
almost  the  only  scholars  and  learned  men  apart 
from  the  court,  the  benefactors  of  the  people, 
the  exponents  of  civilization,  and  the  foster- 
fathers  of  art,  of  literature,  and  of  material  devel- 
opment. From  the  6th  to  the  12th  century 
is  the  missionary  era  of  Japanese  Buddhism, 
after  which  for  two  centuries  the  development 
of  doctrine  followed,  in  which  emerged  those  new 
and  startling  forms  of  the  faith  of  Sakamuni 
which  have  made  Japan  the  land  of  dreadful 
heresies  to  the  coreligionists  of  Siam  and  China. 
In  Shin-shiu,  or  "reformed"  Buddhism,  we  see 
the  circle  of  development  complete,  and  the 
beginning  and  the  end  meeting  in  what  seems  a 
caricature  of  Christianity.  Of  the  six  great  sects 
in  Japan,  one  originated  in  India,  one  in  China, 
and  four  in  Japan,  viz.,  the  Shin-gon,  Jo-do,  Shin, 
and  Nichiren.  These  sects  of  purely  native  origin 
are  mainly  developments  of  the  pantheistic  prin- 


Japan 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


348 


ciple  initiated  by  Kobo  and  reenforced  by  local 
and  patriotic  considerations.  The  common 
people,  tho  not  ignorant  of  the  Confucian 
ethics,  have  been  instructed  almost  wholly  in 
Buddhism;  while  the  gentry,  or  samurai,  hostile 
or  indifferent  to  Buddhism,  have  been  nursed  in 
the  virtues  as  well  as  in  the  vices  of  feudalism, — 
the  Chinese  system  fitting  admirably  into  the 
needs  of  a  society  framed  on  the  feudal  basis. 
Now  that  the  feudal  system  has  been  abolished, 
the  samurai,  in  a  sense  not  so  true  of  the  comnion 
people,  is  left  without  a  religion, -^a  sect  which 
may  explain  why  most  of  the  Christian  converts 
thus  far  made,  as  well  as  the  agnostics,  skeptics, 
and  indifferents,  are  samurai,  while  the  mass  of 
the  people  are  still  Buddhist. 

Roman  Christianity:  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
the  religion  of  Japan  is  Buddhism,  and  that  when 
in  1549,  ten  years  after  its  first  sight  by  a  Euro- 
pean, Roman  Christianity  reached  Japan  in  the 
person  of  its  pioneer  and  then  ablest  exponent, 
Francis  Xavier,  the  only  serious  obstacle  to  prop- 
aganda and  conversion  was  the  cultus  imported 
originally  from  India.  Shinto  was  out  of  sight, 
and  buried  in  mythology,  and  the  first  missionary 
efforts  were  aided  rather  than  hindered  by  the 
contemporary  political  condition  of  Japan, 
which  was  that  of  civil  war,  during  which 
Novunaga  humbled  the  pride  and  mightily  dim- 
inished the  power  of  the  Buddhists  by  his  military 
persecution  of  them.  At  Kagoshima,  in  Satsuma, 
Xavier  made  one  hunderd  converts  in  a  year,  and 
labored  for  short  periods  at  Hirado,  and  Yama- 
guchi,  in  Nagato,  having  also  fruitlessly  visited 
Kioto.  Leaving  Torres  and  Fernandez,  his  fel- 
low-missionaries, Xavier  left  for  China,  dying  on 
his  way  thither,  at  Sancian.  In  1553  reenforce- 
ments  arrived,  and  tho  driven  out  of  Yama- 
guchi  by  civil  outbreaks,  the  Portuguese  friars 
assembled  at  Bungo,  Vilela,  visiting  also  Kioto 
and  Sakai  and  gaining  converts.  Some  years  of 
prosperity  followed,  and  in  158.3  a  mission  was 
dispatched  to  the  Papal  See,  headed  by  three 
Japanese  noblemen. 

The  Pagan  Reaction:  When,  however,  in  1587 
the  Taiko  Hid^yoshi  succeeded  to  power  and  sub- 
dued the  southern  daimios  and  provinces,  in 
which  were  most  of  the  Christian  converts  of  rank, 
including  the  famous  generals  Kuroda  and  Kon- 
ishi,  he  issued  an  edict  ordering  the  foreign  mis- 
sionaries to  Hirado,  in  order  to  send  them  out  of 
the  country.  He  hoped  they  would  depart 
peacefully,  and  not  compel  him  to  deport  them 
by  force.  They,  however,  finding  that  the  edict 
was  not  pushed  by  force,  scattered  again,  and 
finding  asylum  in  the  provinces  of  the  daimios 
professing  Christianity,  began  propagating  the 
faith  more  vigorously  than  ever,  even  in  Kioto, 
despite  the  official  ban.  Further,  all  the  mis- 
sionaries thus  far  engaged  in  Japan  were  Jesuits; 
but  in  1590,  in  the  train  of  the  Spanish  envoy 
from  the  Philippine  Islands,  four  Franciscans 
arrived,  who,  despite  the  protests  of  the  Jesuits, 
who  laid  before  them  the  Papal  bulls  excluding 
all  but  Jesuits  from  Japan,  and,  still  more, 
despite  their  solemn  promise  to  Hid^yoshi  not 
to  preach  their  doctrines,  went  vigorously  to 
work  at  the  propaganda.  Hid^yoshi,  now  at 
leisure,  thoroughly  alarmed  at  what  he  consid- 
ered the  treacherous  disobedience  of  the  Portu- 
guese friars,  and  at  the  growing  Christian  party, 
which  threatened  not  only  his  own  future  but 
that  of  the  empire,  determined  to  root  up  the 
foreign  faith,  and  to  do  this  he  laid  two  plans. 


In  the  first  place,  he  declared  war  against  Korea, 
and  sent  armies  of  invasion  thither,  in  which 
were  many  Christian  officers  and  soldiers,  among 
them  Generals  Konishi  and  Kuroda.  No  sooner 
were  the  leaders  of  the  Christians  immersed  in 
war  duties  in  a  foreign  land  than  Hid^yoshi,  the 
next  year,  1.593,  seized  nine  missionaries,  six 
Franciscans  and  three  Jesuits,  in  Osaka  and 
Kioto,  and  sent  them  to  Nagasaki,  where  they 
were  publicly  burned  to  death.  For  the  next 
few  years  the  open  propaganda  was  less  active, 
tho  work  was  secretly  carried  on  and  con- 
verts inultiplied.  The  Jesuit  friars  established 
a  printing  press,  and,  using  type  from  Europe, 
published  a  number  of  interesting  works,  some 
of  which  had  already  circulated  in  manuscript. 
After  Hid^yoshi's  death  the  whole  country  was 
excited  by  civil  troubles  between  the  adherents 
of  ly^yasu  and  of  Hid^yori,  the  son  of  Hid^- 
yoshi,  but  missionary  work  went  on  until  the 
Christians  numbered  over  a  million  and  a  half. 
While  ly^yasu  was  busy  in  subduing  his  enemies, 
he  ignored  Christianity,  an  example  which  the 
lesser  political  lights  followed;  but  on  gaining 
the  victory  over  the  southern  army,  in  which 
were  many  of  the  Christian  leaders,  at  the  battle 
of  S^kigahara  in  October,  1600,  he,  like  Hid^- 
yoshi,  threw  off  the  mask  and  issued  a  decree 
of  expulsion  of  the  foreigners.  Busy,  however, 
with  reorganizing  the  empire  from  his  seat  of 
government  in  the  distant  east  at  Yedo  and 
Fuchiu  (Shidzuoka),  ly^yasu  could  not,  or  did 
not,  press  his  policy  of  expulsion,  and  large 
numbers  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  priests  con- 
tinued to  secure  entrance  into  Japan.  In  1608, 
by  the  Papal  bull,  priests  of  all  orders  were 
allowed  to  reside  in  Japan.  In  1610  the  Dutch, 
and  in  1613  the  English,  secured  a  foothold  at 
Hirado.  At  this  time  there  were  two  hundred 
missionaries,  with  "two  million  converts;"  but 
the  strength  was  apparently  in  numbers  only, 
for  without  leaders  or  men  of  influence  in  the 
state  its  weakness  was  made  apparent  when  in 
Kiushiu,  between  1600  and  1614,  the  daimios 
changed,  adopted,  or  annihilated  popular  Chris- 
tianity at  their  pleasure,  using  it  simply  as  the 
tool  of  their  ambition.  Whatever  may  have 
been  the  motive,  in  1614,  of  the  sudden  and 
fiercely  energetic  action  of  ly^yasu  in  issuing 
that  decree,  which  was  at  once  executed  with 
blood  and  iron, — the  inherent  Japanese  jealousy 
of  foreign  influence,  the  pressure  of  the  Buddhist 
priesthood,  the  intrigues  of  the  Protestant,  Dutch 
and  English,  or  his  own  despotic  purpose  to  secure 
peace,  and  even  national  independence,  by  isolat- 
ing Japan  from  all  the  world, — it  is  certain  that 
his  purpose  succeeded.  From  Sendai  to  Satsuma 
the  Christians  were  compelled  to  renounce  their 
faith,  and,  failing  to  do  so,  were  imprisoned, 
exiled,  tortured,  or  beheaded,  while  the  foreign 
reliqieux  were  deported.  Thousands  of  natives 
fledi  to  China  and  Formosa,  or,  outwardly  recant- 
ing, kept  alive  their  faith  even  until  their  teachers 
from  Europe  returned  in  1858.  By  compelling 
the  owners  of  seaworthy  vessels  to  burn  them 
and  pronouncing  the  death  sentence  alike  upon 
the  Christian  and  the  returned  Japanese 
castaway,  the  ruling  powers  in  Japan  now  kept 
their  country  insulated  from  the  world.  The 
Dutch  merchants  on  their  little  island  in  front  of 
Nagasaki  were  the  sole  exceptions  to  these  rigid 
laws  of  exclusion.  During  two  and  one-half  cen- 
turies the  Dutch  and  the  Japanese  lived  in  har- 


847 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Japan 


mony.  Moreover,  the  intercourse  of  the  Japan- 
ese with  the  little  Dutch  colony  was  a  fertile 
source  of  intellectual  stimulus  and  culture  to  the 
Japanese  mind,  and  prepared  the  way  for  that 
easy  acceptance  of  foreign  ideas  which  has  so 
surprised  the  world  since  the  diplomatic  victory 
of  Commodore  Perry. 

Indeed,  it  will  be  found  on  examination  of  the 
antecedents  of  nearly  every  reformer  and  leader 
in  the  modern  progress  of  Japan,  that  his  first 
enlightenment,  or  motive  to  renovation  of  mind, 
came  from  his  own  or  his  father's  contact  with  the 
Dutch  or  Dutch  learning.  Further,  abundant 
facts  coming  to  the  light  in  these  days,  when  New 
Japan  is  so  busily  engaged  in  building  the  monu- 
ments of  the  martyrs  she  once  imprisoned  and 
beheaded,  show  beyond  doubt  that  the  begin- 
nings of  modern  Protestant,  tho  unorganized, 
Christianity  in  Japan  were  prior  to  the  coming  of 
the  missionaries,  and  sprang  from  the  Dutch. 
Some  of  the  sons  and  grandsons  of  these  inquirers 
or  martyrs  are  now  pastors  of  Christian  churches, 
and  this  wide  area  of  propedeutics  for  modern 
civilization  and  Christianity  gives  strongest  hope 
of  its  reality  and  permanence  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people.  Other  disconnected  events  belong  to  the 
story  of  the  revival  of  ideas  of  progress  in  Japan. 

With  the  opening  of  the  Pacific  to  American 
commerce  and  the  development  of  the  fur  trade 
and  whale-fishery,  the  number  of  rescues  of  Jap- 
anese waifs  became  every  year  increasingly  nu- 
merous. To  return  these  involuntary  exiles  to  the 
land  they  loved  was  dictated  by  humanity.  One 
notable  attempt  of  this  class  was  that  made  by 
the  owners  of  the  ship  "Morrison,"  who,  in  1837, 
shipped  by  their  vessel  to  Japan  seven  Japanese, 
with  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams  and  Dr.  Gutzlaff  as 
interpreters.  The  ship  was  fired  on  at  Uraga, 
July  30,  in  Yedo  Bay,  and  also  repulsed  at 
Kagoshima,  in  Satsuma.  From  these  waifs 
Messrs.  Gutzlaff  and  Williams  in  China  learned 
the  language,  and  translated  into  it  portions  of 
the  Bible.  In  the  gradual  evolution  of  a  com- 
plete version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  Japanese, 
this  work  of  Gutzlaff  and  Williams,  and  that  of 
the  natives  who  translated  from  Dutch  Bibles 
obtained  at  D&hima,  with  that  of  Bettelheim, 
a  missionary  supported  in  the  Lu  Chu  Islands 
by  a  British  Naval  Society  from  1846  to  1854, 
may  be  considered  historical  links.  The  settle- 
ment of  California  and  the  discovery  of  gold 
there  again  called  the  attention  of  the  American 
Government  to  Japan.  By  a  coincidence  that 
suggests  the  hand  of  Providence,  the  present 
Emperor  of  Japan  was  born  November  3,  1852, 
on  the  very  day  that  Perry  was  ready  to  sail  into 
Yedo  Bay.  The  success  of  this  naval  diplomat- 
ist is  matter  of  history,  but  the  treaties  signed  by 
the  Shogun,  or  military  commander-in-chief, 
offended  the  nation.  A  condition  of  anarchy 
followed  which  was  full  of  hostility  to  foreigners. 
This  was  regarded  by  the  Western  nations  as 
wanton  disregard  of  treaties,  which  was  chastised 
by  the  combined  fleets.  Shortly  after  the  Jap- 
anese had  thus  felt  the  power  of  the  West  a  reac- 
tion took  place  in  favor  of  learning  the  secret  of 
this  power.  The  popular  ferment  was  accom- 
panied by  a  determination  to  suppress  the  mil- 
itary form  of  government  which  had  opened  the 
doors  to  the  West.  A  short  civil  war,  in  the 
winter  of  1867-68,  disposed  of  the  Shogun  and 
his  adherents,  and  the  Mikado  or  actual  Emperor 
was  restored  to  his  rightful  supremacy.     Several 


serious  revolts  tested  the  stability  of  the  new 
political  order.  The  most  serious  of  these  began 
early  in  1877  and  continued  during  seven  months. 
Since  that  time  the  progress  of  Japan  has  been 
rapid  and,  one  may  say,  marvelous. 

With  this  revival  of  national  feeling  and  patri- 
otism, the  importance  became  enhanced  of  rela- 
tions between  Japan  and  Korea,  over  which 
country  China  and  Japan  exercised  a  joint-pro- 
tectorate. The  wide  difference  between  Japanese 
and  Chinese  theories,  as  to  progress  and  as  to 
the  reforms  which  Korea  needed  to  adopt  for  its 
own  best  interests,  led  to  friction  and  finally  to 
war  in  1894-95.  After  the  Chinese  troops  had 
been  expelled  from  Korea,  and  her  naval  arm 
broken,  a  peace  was  signed  by  which  the  fortress 
of  Port  Arthur  and  its  immediate  territory  were 
ceded  to  Japan.  At  that  moment,  however, 
Russia  unexpectedly  came  forward  with  a  "recom- 
mendation" that  Japan  restore  Port  Arthur  to 
China.  The  reason  alleged  was  that  the  occu- 
pation of  that  fortress  by  a  foreign  power  would 
be  a  menace  to  the  independence  of  both  China 
and  Korea.  Germany  and  France  supported 
Russia  in  this  view,  and  Japan  was  forced  to 
yield  the  fortress  which  had  been  taken  by  hard 
fighting.  ,..•,, 

Such  forcible  interference  was  enough  m  itself 
to  cause  immediate  attention  by  Japan  to  the 
problem  of  increasing  her  military  and  naval 
equipment.  When,  three  years  later,  Russia,  by 
arrangement  with  China,  occupied  the  fortress 
which  she  had  forced  Japan  to  evacuate,  it 
became  certain  that  sooner  or  later  the  Mikado 
would  cross  swords  with  the  great  Czar.  The 
clash  of  policies  came  in  the  autumn  of  1903,  and 
the  cause  of  dissension  was  the  question  of  secur- 
ing the  independence  of  China  and  Korea,  threat- 
ened by  the  somewhat  equivocal  attitude  of  the 
Russian  authorities  in  Manchuria.  Not  having 
received  what  she  considered  satisfactory  pledges 
on  this  point,  Japan,  on  the  6th  of  February, 
1904,  broke  off  diplomatic  relations  with  Russia, 
and  resorted  to  arms  as  the  champion  of  the 
rights  of  China  and  Korea,  but  with  a  zest  which 
showed  that  the  Port  Arthur  episode  of  1895  had 
not  been  forgotten.  One  feature  of  the  case 
which  should  be  born  in  mind  is  that  in  1902  the 
British  Government  entered  into  an  engagement 
with  Japan  to  support  her  at  any  time  when  the 
integrity  of  either  China  or  Korea  might  be  about 
to  be  destroyed  by  any  hostile  coalition.  This 
agreement  between  the  Asiatic  and  the  Euro- 
pean island  empires  contains  as  much  of  danger  to 
the  peace  of  Europe  as  it  does  of  consolation  to 
Japan  in  undertaking  war  against  Ru.ssia, 

Missions  in  Japan  since  the  Reforms:  The  Roman 
Catholics.  On  the  opening  of  Japan,  missionaries 
of  Greek,  Roman,  and  Reformed  Christianity  at 
once  entered  the  empire,  the  Roman  Catholics  to 
discover  their  brethren  and  continue  the  old 
methods  of  propaganda,  and  the  Russians  or 
Greek  (Orthodox)  and  the  Protestant  mission- 
aries to  break  new  ground.  As  early  as  1846  the 
Pope  had  nominated  a  bishop  and  several  mission- 
aries, who  in  the  Lu  Chu  islands  awaited  the 
opening  of  the  country.  At  Urakami  and 
other  places  near  Nagasaki  there  were  found,  in 
1865,  thousands  of  people  who  possessed  some 
prayers  and  books,  with  many  of  the  old  sacra- 
mental words  of  Latin  origin,  and  practised  some 
of  the  minor  rites  of  the  faith,  besides  abstaining 
from  acts  significant  to  Buddhist,  and  especially 


Japan 
Java 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


34S 


Shinto  worshipers.  Until  toleration  became 
the  fact,  which  was  even  before  it  became  the 
law,  in  1872,  many  of  these  people  were  impris- 
oned, exiled,  and  otherwise  persecuted,  as  indeed 
were  occasionally  even  the  converts  of  Protestant 
missionaries.  Many  interesting  relics  and  sur- 
vivals of  Roman  Christianity  of  the  17th 
century  have  been  discovered  by  the  priests,  and 
here  and  there  small  bodies  of  descendants  of 
former  believers  have  been  more  easily  converted 
because  of  the  sentiment  of  historic  continuity. 
In  the  thirty-one  years  of  their  revived  work, 
making  diligent  use  of  the  methods  peculiar  to 
Roman  Catholic  missionary  operations,  they 
have  again  established  themselves  widely  over 
the  empire,  but  especially  in  Kiushiu.  The  mis- 
sionaries are  mostly  French,  and  their  zeal  and 
consecration  are  worthy  of  praise. 

The  Oreek  Church:  The  missionaries  of  the 
Church  of  Russia  began  operations  at  Hakodate 
in  1870,  and  have  steadily  continued  their  labors. 
A  large  native  ministry  has  been  trained,  the 
Bible  has  been  read,  used,  and  taught,  and  in 
the  freedom  allowed  their  converts  the  Russian 
priests  are  much  like  the  Protestants.  Among 
the  most  magnificent  buildings  in  the  capital  of 
Japan  are  those  of  the  Russian  Church,  the  inde- 
fatigable head  being  the  archimandrite  Nicolai, 
who  is  assisted  by  three  other  Russian  clergy,  and 
having  about  1,700  baptized  converts  and  25,000 
adherents.  In  a  recent  informal  conference  of 
native  Christian  workers  without  reference  to 
the  branches  of  the  Church  universal,  the  Greek 
Church  was  well  represented.  In  some  parts 
of  Japan  where  these  churches  have  been  planted 
they  have  not  held  their  own,  the  weak  converts 
lapsing  into  heathenism  and  the  earnest  Bible- 
readers  passing  into  Protestant  churches. 

Protestant  Missions:  The  gates  of  Japan  were 
first  opened  to  the  world  through  the  influence 
of  Americans,  and  the  first  Protestant  mission- 
aries to  enter  the  country  were  Americans.  The 
Protestant  Episcopal,  the  Presbyterian,  and  the 
(Dutch)  Reformed  Churches  in  the  United  States 
sent  out  missionaries — Williams,  Hepburn,  and 
Verbeck — who  settled  in  1859  at  Nagasaki  and 
Yokohama.  These  missionaries  at  first  obtained 
the  right  of  residence  only  as  teachers  of  English 
in  Japanese  schools;  and  when  Goble,  of  the 
American  Baptists,  came  to  Japan  in  1860,  and 
Ensor,  of  the  CMS,  in  1869,  and  Greene,  Gulick, 
and  Davis,  of  the  American  Board,  in  1871,  they 
were  allowed  at  first  to  work  as  teachers  rather 
than  as  preachers  of  the  Gospel.  This  "silent 
sowing"  continued  until  1873,  when  the  old  edict 
against  Christianity  was  repealed;  and  after  this 
date  many  missionary  societies,  from  America, 
England,  Scotland,  and  Germany,  entered  the 
promising  field.  The  revolution  in  1868  left 
Japan  in  a  state  of  unrest;  and  during  the  next 
fifteen  years,  as  a  witness  of  the  events  narrates, 
the  condition  of  aifairs  is  almost  without  parallel. 
"Missionary  schools  were  crowded  with  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  high  and  low.  A  missionary 
was  called  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  national 
university,  and  to  be  a  general  adviser  of  the 
government.  Statesmen,  men  of  wealth,  govern- 
ors, and  lower  officials  became  the  patrons  of 
Christian  schools  and  sometimes  opened  their 
houses  for  religious  services.  From  all  quarters 
came  requests  to  hold  meetings  in  school-houses 
and  theaters;  audiences  numbering  several  hun- 
dreds,  sometimes   1,000   or  1,500,   were  readily 


got  together,  and  they  would  listen  to  a  succes- 
sion of  speakers  through  four  or  five  hours,  or 
even  longer.  We  have  seen  the  power  of  God 
to-day  was  a  frequent  ejaculation.  Witnesses 
of  those  scenes  will  never  forget  them.  In  every 
three  years  the  Church  was  doubled.  These 
years  of  the  appropriation  and  more  or  less  thor- 
ough assimilation  of  the  best  of  Western  thought 
and  life  were  the  most  momentous  in  the  nation's 
history.  This  period  more  than  all  others  was 
creative  of  the  New  Japan."  Indeed,  until  188& 
Japanese  missions  grew  steadily  in  power;  but 
from  that  time  until  now  the  work  has  been 
marked  by  lessening  progress,  pause,  and  even 
retrogression.  From  1884  until  1889  the  num- 
ber of  adult  evangelical  Christians  rose  from 
5,000  to  29,000;  but  in  1899  it  was  only  about 
41,800.  In  1888  the  number  of  adult  baptisms 
for  the  year  reached  7,700;  but  in  1892  it  was 
only  3,700,  and  now  it  scarcely  keeps  up  to  this 
number.  As  Warneck  says:  "The  rapid  advance 
was  occasioned  far  less  by  a  universal  hunger  and 
thirst  after  righteousness,  than  by  the  coopera- 
tion of  a  number  of  factors  unconnected  with 
religion,  which  wrought  a  change  of  mind  in 
favor  of  Christianity  as  an  educational  and  cul- 
tural force,  particularly  among  wide  circles  of 
the  educated  classes.  The  disestablishment  of 
the  native  religions  of  the  state,  the  new  legis- 
lature, which  paved  the  way  for  Christianity,  and 
the  recommendation  of  it  on  grounds  of  politics 
and  culture  produced  an  atmosphere  favorable 
for  missions,  in  which  the  plenteously  scattered 
seed  of  the  Gospel  was  shone  on  as  by  the  sun." 
The  reaction  that  followed  lasted  until  nearly  the 
close  of  the  last  century;  but  the  period  of  oppo- 
sition seems  to  have  reached  its  culmination. 
Since  the  revision  of  the  treaties,  in  1899,  and  the 
attitude  of  Japan  in  the  Chinese  Boxer  uprising 
of  1900,  a  change  for  the  better  is  apparent,  and 
the  forces  that  make  for  righteousness  are  moving 
forward.  The  latest  statistics  available  give  the 
following  data  for  1900:  Missionaries  757,  stations 
157  (including  many  where  more  than  one  society 
labor,  so  that  the  number  is  too  large  by  about 
fifty);  organized  churches  443,  of  which  95  are 
self-supporting;  church  members  42,451,  native 
ministers  321,  unordained  preachers  and  helpers 
558,  Bible  women  224.  There  are  16  boys' 
boarding  schools,  with  2,270  pupils,  45  girls' 
boarding  schools  with  3,361  pupils,  85  day  schools 
with  6,086  pupils,  949  Sunday  schools, with  36,310 
pupils,  16  theological  schools  with  120  students, 
13  schools  for  Bible  women  with  175  students, 
6  hospitals  and  8  dispensaries,  at  which  2,121 
patients  had  been  treated  during  the  year.  Of 
the  societies  at  work  in  Japan,  there  are  thirty- 
one  from  America  and  Canada,  seven  from 
Great  Britain,  one  from  the  Continent,  and  these 
are  enforced  by  the  work  of  the  Salvation  Army, 
the  Hephzibah  Faith  Mission  and  four  local 
societies. 

Christian  literature  in  the  vernacular  is  one  of 
the  most  powerful  forces  in  the  evangelization 
of  Japan.  From  1895  to  1899  the  Tract  Society 
issued  2,460,000  tracts,  and  the  religious  press 
has  been  busy  in  this  line  of  work. 

The  Bible  in  Japanese:  A  veteran  missionary 
ascribes  one-half  of  all  the  results  of  Christian 
missions  in  Japan  to  the  work  of  the  Bible  soci- 
eties. Of  these,  the  American,  the  British  and 
Foreign,  and  the  National  Bible  Society  of  Scot- 
land have  agencies  in  Japan,  and  have  diligently 


S4g 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Japan 
Java 


prosecuted  the  work  of  publication  and  distribu- 
tion, besides  making  generous  contributions  for 
tiie  expenses  of  translation.     The  work  of  giving 
the  Bible  to  this  nation  was  begun,  as  said  above, 
by  Rev.  Karl  Gutzlaff  and  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams, 
and  vigorously  pressed  forward  by  Rev.  J.  Goble, 
S.  R.  Brown,  D.D.,  and  Dr.  J.  C.  Hepburn  on  the 
opening  of  the  country  by  treaty.     In  1872  all 
the  Protestant  missionaries  were  invited  to  meet 
in  Yokohama  to  form  a  Translation  Committee, 
which  in  June,  1874,  began  its  sittings,  and  on 
the  3d  of  November,  1879,  finished  its  work  of 
translation  and  revision  of  the  New  Testament. 
In  April,  1880,  the  complete  New  Testament  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  native  Christians.     A  few 
months  previously  Rev.   Nathan  Brown,  D.D., 
published  a  version  of  the   New  Testament  in 
which  the  words  relating  to  baptism  were  trans- 
lated, and  not,  as  in  the  union  version,  translit- 
erated, from  the-  Greek.     Plans  for  translating 
the  Old  Testament  were  not  made  until   1876, 
nor  perfected  until  1882.     On  the  3d  of  February, 
1888,  at  a  large  meeting  held  in  Tokio,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  entire  Bible  in   Japanese  was  cele- 
brated.    Besides  many  missionaries  there  were 
in  hearty  and  able  cooperation  with  the  committee 
the    native    scholars,     Matsuyama,    Takahashi, 
ly^mura,    Ibuka,    and   others.     These   brethren 
have  enabled  their  foreign  teachers   to    present 
to  the  Japanese  people  a  version  at  once  scholarly, 
idiomatic,  readable,  rhythmic,  and  destined  in 
all  probability  to  be  the  standard  for  generations 
to  come.     In  the  language  of  this  union  version 
of  the   Holy   Scriptures   special   prominence   is 
'  given  to  the  native  element,  as  against  the  Chi- 
nese-Japanese so  fashionable  during  the  last  half- 
century  or  more. 

Since  January,  1890,  the  total  sales  and  gifts  of 
Bibles  have  been  29,156;  New  Testaments  116,371 
and  portions  749,455,  making  a  total  of  944,000. 
One  Bible  seller  sold  (largely  portions)  during 
the  last  four  months  of  1899,  22,298  volumes. 
While  in  1883  there  were  only  four  religious 
journals,  in  1894  there  were  forty,  and  in  1900 
there  were  ninety-five  reported,  of  which  four 
were  weekly  newspapers  and  seventy  were 
monthly. 

Tokio,  the  capital,  is  largely  the  distributing 
center  of  the  Gospel  in  Japan;  and  here  twenty 
per  cent,  of  all  the  workers  are  located,  and 
institutional  Christianity  has  a  plant  established 
at  this  commercial  emporium  valued  at  1,200,000 
yen,  or  about  $600,000. 

A  notable  meeting  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance 
of  Japan  was  held  at  Osaka  in  April,  1900,  and 
.  it  was  decided  to  enter  upon  special  evangelistic 
work  throughout  the  Empire  at  the  beginning 
of  the  new  century.  The  General  Conference  of 
Missionaries,  which  met  at  Tokio  in  October, 
1900,  appointed  a  committee  of  ten  to  cooperate 
with  the  Committee  of  the  Alliance  in  furthering 
this  special  work  for  Japan's  evangelization. 
These  efforts  have  been  attended  by  blessed 
results.  From  May  12  to  June  30,  1901,  meet- 
ings were  held  in  fifty-two  churches  in  Tokio 
alone,  attended  by  more  than  100,000,  and 
resulting  in  5,307  converts  or  inquirers.  Japan- 
ese students  have  been  deeply  affected  by  this 
evangelistic  movement;  and  in  October,  1901, 
during  the  meetings  held  by  Mr.  John  R.  Mott, 
over  four  hundred,  within  three  days,  decided  to 
become  disciples  of  Jesus  Christ.  Many  are 
praying,  working  and  hoping  for  the  redemption 


of  Japan  during  the  first  generation  of  the 
20th  century;  and  this  blessed  result  depends 
upon  the  faith  and  works  of  the  people  of  God. 

Griffis  (W.  E.),  Japan  in  History,  Folklore,  and  Art,  New 
York,    1892;     The   Mikado's    Empire,    New    York,  1896; 

Verbeck  of  Japan,  New  York,  1899;  Guliok  (S,  L.). 

Evolution  of  the  Japanese,  New  York,  190.3;  The  Ainu  of 
Japan,  London,  1892;  Bi.shop  (Isabella  Bird),  Unbeaten 
Tracks  in  Japan,  3d  ed.,  New  York,  1883;  Gordon  (M.L.i. 
American  Missionary  in  Japan,  Boston,  1892;  Thorpe  (P), 
History  of  Japan,  London,  1885;  Peery  (R.  B.),  The  Gist 
of  Japan,  New  York,  1901. 

JARKEND.     See  Y  ark  and. 

JARO:  A  suburb  of  Iloilo,  in  the  S.  E.  of  the 
island  of  Panay,  Philippine  Islands.  Station  of 
the  ABMU  (1900),  with  1  missionary  and  1  native 
worker. 

JATKI  LANGUAGE.     See  Multani. 

JAUNPUR:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  on  the  Gumti  River,  37  miles 
N.  W.  by  N.  of  Benares.  It  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  a  large  Muslim  kingdom.  It  has  many 
fine  buildings,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  manufac- 
tures of  perfumes.  Population  (1891),  42,000, 
of  whom  26,000  are  Hindus  and  16,000  Moham- 
medans. Station  of  the  Zenana  Bitjle  and  Medi- 
cal Mission,  with  (1900)  3  women  missionaries, 
10  women  native  workers,  6  day  schools  and  a 
dispensary. 

JAVA:  An  island  of  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
situated  in  latitude  5°  2'  to  8°  50'  south,  and 
longitude  105°  12'  to  114°  39'  east,  is  one  of  the 
richest  colonial  possessions  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  in  respect  to  its  population,  its  natural 
beauty,  the  mildness  of  its  climate,  and  the  indus- 
try of  its  people,  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
islands  of  the  archipelago.  The  area  of  the 
island  is  50,260  square  miles.  Its  greatest  length 
is  from  east  to  west,  666  miles,  with  a  breadth 
varying  from  56  to  136  miles.  With  Madura 
included  in  the  official  Java,  its  area  is  50,554 
square  miles.  The  mountain  range  which 
forms  the  central  ridge  is  of  volcanic  nature,  and 
there  are  still  many  active  volcanoes.  The  high- 
est is  Semeru,  12,238  feet.  The  climate  of  Java, 
with  the  exception  of  some  marshy  districts  in 
the  northern  plains,  is  healthful  and  very  salubri- 
ous. The  heat  is  not  intense,  but  the  long  con- 
tinuance of  it  proves  trying  to  European  consti- 
tutions, which  at  first  are  not  affected  by  it.  In 
the  interior  tablelands  the  climate  is  colder  and 
more  bracing. 

Java  is  under  the  government  of  the  Nether- 
lands. The  East  India  Company,  created  by  the 
Dutch  in  1602,  gradually  conquered  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  and  when  the  Company  was  dis- 
solved in  1798  the  mother  country  took  over  the 
control  of  all  its  Dutch  possessions,  and  since 
1830  the  Netherlands  has  been  undisturbed  in 
its  supremacy.  The  island  is  divided  into  residen- 
cies, each  governed  by  a  resident,  who,  with  his 
assistants,  exercises  almost  absolute  control  by 
means  of  a  vast  hierarchy  of  native  officials. 
There  are  22  of  these  residencies,  including 
Madura.  The  population  is  very  dense,  number- 
ing in  1900  28,745,698.  Of  these,  over  50,000 
are  Europeans,  225,500  Chinese,  15,000  Arabs, 
and  the  remainder  natives.  The  natives  belong 
to  the  Malay  race,  and  are  divided  into  the 
Javanese  proper,  the  Sundanese,  and  the  Madur- 
ese. The  Malay  type  is  best  retained  in  the  Sun- 
danese, while  the  Javanese  are  the  most  civilized. 
In  early  times  a  warlike,  ferocious  spirit  must\ 
have  characterized  the  Javanese,  but  now  they '^ 


Java  Comity 
Jews,  the 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


350 


are  peaceable,  docile,  sober  and  industrious. 
Under  Dutch  rule  the  condition  of  the  people  has 
been  most  prosperous,  and  is  improving  rapidly 
under  their  wise  and  judicious  administration. 

Religion:  Nominally  the  natives  are  Moham- 
medans, since  the  Hindu  dynasty  was  over- 
thrown in  the  15th  century  by  the  Mohammed- 
ans; in  former  times  they  were  Buddhists  and 
Brahmans,  as  Hindu  civilization  was  introduced 
early  in  the  Christian  era.  The  result  has  been 
that  fragments  from  all  these  religious  systems 
are  interwoven  with  their  original  spirit-worship, 
and  the  latter  has  absorbed  the  foreign  element 
and  still  remains  the  dominant  faith  of  the  people. 

Language:  Javanese  is  the  prevailing  speech, 
and  is  found  in  two  distinct  styles — the  court 
speech  and  the  plain  talk  among  the  people. 

The  three  principal  towns  of  Java  are  Batavia 
(115,887),  Samarang  (89,286),  and  Surabaya 
(146,944). 

Mission  work  is  carried  on  by  the  Netherlands 
Missionary  Society  in  East  Java,  where  the  Dutch 
Baptist  Society  has  also  one  station.  The  Neth- 
erlands Missionary  Union  has  stations  in  West 
Java.  Besides  these  there  are  the  following 
societies:  The  Protestant  Church  in  Netherlands 
East  Indies,  Java  Comity,  Mennonite  Missionary 
Society,  Ermelo  Missionary  Society,  Christian 
Reformed  Church,  and  the  Dutch  Missionary 
Society.  The  Netherlands  Missionary  Union  has 
at  this  date  (1902)  13  missionaries  employed  on 
the  island,  and  a  church  membership  of  25,000. 
The  chief  station  of  all  missions  on  the  island  is 
Modjowarno,  but  in  connection  with  this  center 
of  missionary  activity  there  are  a  number  of 
churches,  a  seminary  for  native  preachers,  several 
schools  and  a  hospital.  The  (jhristian  commu- 
nity under  the  care  of  these  missionaries  out- 
number 4,000. 

JAVA  COMITE.  See  Netherlands;  Mis- 
sionary Societies  op  the. 

JAVANESE  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the 
Malayan  family  and  is  spoken  by  about  13,000,000 
people  in  the  island  of  Java.  It  has  been  used 
for  literary  purposes  by  missionaries  of  Dutch 
societies,  and  sometimes  written  with  Roman 
letters.  It  is  more  often  written  with  the 
Javanese  characters,  however,  and  sometimes 
with  Arabic  letters. 

JAYPUR.     See  Jaipur. 

JEHLAM:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  on 
the  north  bank  of  Jehlam  River.  Climate,  hot; 
healthful  in  winter.  Population  (1891),  12,900, 
of  whom  7,400  are  Mohammedans  and  4,300 
Hindus.  Station  of  the  UP  (1875),  with  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  4  women  missionaries,  3 
day  schools,  a  medical  class,  and  a  dispensary. 
Name  also  written  Jhelum. 

JELLASORE.     See  Jaleswar. 

JERICHO :  A  settlement  in  the  Transvaal  Col- 
ony, S.  Africa;  situated  28  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Pretoria.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Mission- 
ary Society  (1880),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  native  worker,  and  1  day  school. 

JERUSALEM :  From  the  time  of  the  Crusades 
Jerusalem  has  been  a  special  point  for  missionary 
work.  Each  of  the  different  branches  of  the 
Christian  Church,  European  and  Oriental,  have 
had  their  representatives  there.  The  strongest 
element  has  been  and  still  is  the  Greek,  the 
Greek  Patriarch  receiving  the  support  and 
encouragement    of    the    Russian    Government. 


Next  in  strength  come,  perhaps,  the  Armenians, 
who  have  a  large  convent  and  church.  The  Latins 
have  not  been  very  strong  until  recent  times. 
The  conflicts  between  these  different  branches  of 
the  Church  have  been  such  as  to  excite  the  deri- 
sion and  contempt  of  the  Muslims,  who  have 
been  compelled  to  guard  the  holy  places  by  sen- 
tries in  order  to  prevent  Christians  from  destroy- 
ing each  other  in  the  places  that  they  affect 
to  reverence.  Jerusalem  has  also  been,  natu- 
rally, a  gathering  place  of  the  Jews,  and  numerous 
efforts  have  been  put  forth,  like  the  present  Zion- 
ist movement,  to  establish  this  race  in  their 
ancient  capital.  It  has  seemed,  however,  as  if 
the  very  presence  of  the  Holy  Place  acted  upon 
them  so  as  to  destroy  all  sense  of  religion,  and  the 
Jews  of  Jerusalem  have  been  notoriously  the 
worst  specimens  of  their  race.  Of  late  years, 
however,  with  the  efforts  of  such  men  as  Sir 
Moses  Montefiore,  and  those  who  with  him  have 
sought  to  establish  Jewish  colonies,  not  in  Jeru- 
salem itself,  but  in  the  country,  somewhat  of  a 
change  has  taken  place.  Modern  Jerusalem  is 
the  capital  of  a  detached  district  of  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, the  governor  reporting  directly  to  Constan- 
tinople. A  large,  new  city  has  grown  up  outside 
of  the  walls.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
about  40,000.  Station  of  the  London  Society  for 
Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews  (1823), 
with  (1903)  38  missionaries,  men  and  women;  29 
native  workers,  3  day  schools,  1  industrial 
school,  2  dispensaries,  1  hospital,  and  a  printing 
house.  Station  also  of  the  CMS  (1851),  with 
(1903)  17  women  missionaries,  1  elementary 
school  and  1  hospital.  Station  also  of  the  Berlin 
Jerusalem  Union,  and  of  the  Christian  and  Mis- 
sionary Alliance,  and  of  several  independent  mis- 
sionary enterprises.  When  the  ABCFM  sent  its 
first  missionaries  to  the  Levant  in  1810,  they 
were  expected  to  establish  themselves  at  Jerusa- 
lem and  thence  go  forth  to  other  parts  of  Turkey. 
This  was  quickly  found  to  be  impracticable,  and 
from  that  day  to  this  there  has  been  no  disposition 
on  the  part  of  either  of  the  American  societies 
working  in  Turkey  to  enter  a  place  already  occu- 
pied by  many  missionaries.  AH  the  branches  of 
the  Eastern  Church  have  patriarchs  or  bishops  at 
Jerusalem.  It  is  an  important  ecclesiastical 
center  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  the 
Church  of  England  also  maintains  a  bishop  there. 

JERUSALEM  UNION  (in  Berlin).  See  Ger- 
many; Missionary  Societies  in. 

JEWETT,  Fayette:  Born  at  Newbury,  Vt., 
August  15,  1824;  graduated  at  Vermont  Univer- 
sity 1848;  studied  medicine  and  practised  at 
Nashua,  N.  H.  In  September,  1852,  he  decided 
to  devote  himself  to  the  foreign  mission  work,  and 
being  accepted  by  the  ABCFM,  sailed  for  Turkey 
March  14,  1853.  He  was  first  stationed  at  Tocat, 
then  at  Sivas,  and  in  1858  at  Yozgat,  these 
changes  being  required  by  the  necessities  of  the 
work  and  the  missionary  families.  He  was  a 
pioneer  in  medical  work  in  these  places.  He  was 
ordained  as  an  evangelist  at  Constantinople  May 
28,  1857.  In  1860  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  to  seek  relief  from  a  peculiar  and  distress- 
ing affection,  and  on  the  return  journey  he  died 
at  Liverpool,  June  18. 

JEWETT,  Rev.  Lyman :  Born  in  Waterford, 
Me.,  March  9,  1813;  graduated  from  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1843  and  took  a  course  of  study  at 
Newton  Theological  Institution.  He  was  ap- 
pointed  a   missionary   of   the  ABMU   in  1847. 


S61 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Java  Comity 
Jews,  the 


He  began  his  labors  at  Madras,  afterward  remov- 
ing to  Nellore;  but  in  the  closing  years  of  his  mis- 
sionary service  he  returned  to  Madras,  there  clos- 
ing a  period  of  thirty-eight  years  of  consecrated, 
wise  and  successful  work  in  the  foreign  field.  He 
was  notable  for  a  rare  combination  of  true  humility 
and  great  self-reliance.  For  years  he  was  the  only 
missionary  on  the  Telugu  field,  and  it  was  largely 
due  to  his  self-sacrifice  and  firmness  of  purpose 
that  the  field  was  not  abandoned  by  the  Baptists  of 
America.  He  lived  to  see  the  fruitage  of  his  early 
toil.  He  died  at  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  January  7, 1897. 
JEWS,  The :  Locality  and  Religious  State:  In  the 
time  of  Christ,  Jewish  communities  had  spread 
through  all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Med- 
iterranean, and  only  a  small  part  of  Israel  was 
still  living  in  Palestine.  This  part  was  still  fur- 
ther reduced,  if  not  completely  destroyed,  by 
Titus  in  70,  Hadrian  in  135  and  Heraclius  in  628, 
and  not  until  the  19th  century  did  Palestine 
once  more  become  the  abode  of  a  large  Jewish 
population.  As  civilization  advanced  toward 
the  north,  Jews  became  domiciled  also  in  Central 
Europe.  In  the  middle  ages  they  were  chiefly 
settled  in  Spain  and  Germany.  But  persecution 
drove  many  Spanish  Jews  to  the  other  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  especially  to  Italy,  Asia  Minor 
and  Palestine;  and  for  the  same  reason  many 
German  Jews  moved  toward  the  East,  into  the 
Polish  empire,  at  that  time  reaching  from  the 
Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea.  Still  earlier  some  emigra- 
tions had  taken  place  to  Arabia,  Persia,  India  and 
China;  but  as  those  sporadic  settlements  —  with 
which  must  also  be  reckoned  the  Fallashas  of 
Abyssinia,  who  had  adopted  Judaism — maintained 
no  regular  communications  with  the  main  bulk  of 
the  people,  they  actually  lost  the  knowledge  of 
their  own  religion,  and  the  revival  which  lately 
has  taken  place  among  them  is  due  to  the  exer- 
tions of  the  Jews  in  Europe.  The  Jews  also  took 
part  in  the  European  colonization  of  America, 
going  mostly  to  the  northern  part  of  that  conti- 
nent, less  frequently  to  the  southern  and  central; 
and  recently  both  Australia  and  South  Africa 
have  received  some  smaller  and  less  important 
Jewish  colonies.  The  table  below,  based  on  the 
Jewish  Year  Book  for  1902,  gives  a  general  view 
of  the  distribution  of  the  Jewish  race,  it  being  re- 
membered, however,  that,  as  is  stated  below,  such 
tables  are  estimates  impossible  of  verification: 
Europe: 

Germanv 581,519 

Austria-Hungary 1,868,222 

Russia 5,186,000 

Turkey  in  Europe 132,737 

Rumania 269,015 

Servia 5,012 

Italy 38,000 

Switzerland 12,551 

Greece 5,792 

Denmark 4,080 

Sweden-Norway 3,402 

Great  Britain-Ireland  . . .      230,356 

Holland 103,988 

Belgium 4,000 

Spain 402 

France 80,000 

8,525,076 

Asia: 

Turkey  in  Asia 246,511 

Turkestan 14,000 

Persia 35,000 

China 1,501 

297,012 


Africa: 

Egypt 15,000 

Tunis 45,000 

Tripoli 8,000 

Algeria 57,132 

Morocco 150,000 

Abyssinia 120,000 

America: 

United  States 1,136,240 

Central  and  S.  America.  .  14,780 


395,132 


1,151,020 

Total .  .  10,368,240 

These  ten  and  one-half  million  Jews  are,  as  the 
table  shows,  very  unequally  distributed  over  the 
earth,  and  it  seems  apparent  that  the  missionary 
activity  developed  among  them  should  stand  in 
some  proportion  to  the  density  and  strength  of 
each  single  settlement.  Thus,  as  long  as  there 
are  countries  which  have  only  one  missionary  for 
every  50,000  Jews,  new  mission  stations  should 
not  be  established  in  countries  which  have  a 
much  smaller  Jewish  element  in  their  population. 
Nor  should  the  activity  ever  be  concentrated  to 
such  a  degree  as  is  the  case  in  Palestine,  where 
there  is  a  missionary  for  every  one  thousand 
Jews. 

The  medieval  division  of  the  Jews  into 
Sephardim  or  Spaniards,  Aschkenasim  or  Ger- 
mans, and  Moghrabim  or  North  Africans,  has 
lost  to  some  extent  its  significance.  Other  dis- 
tinctions have  become  more  prominent  than  that 
of  descent.  Nevertheless  in  some  connections 
it  is  still  instructive. 

Sephardim  communities,  numbering  in  all 
hardly  more  than  400,000  members,  are  found  in 
Italy,  Greece,  Turkey  and  sporadically  also  in 
France,  Holland  and  England.  The  Aschken- 
asim, who  form  the  principal  mass  of  the  Jewish 
people  and  number  over  five  millions,  have  tlieir 
cliief  seat  in  Germany,  Austria-Hungary  and 
Russia,  but  make  also  the  larger  part  of  the  Jew- 
ish population  in  France,  Italy,  England  and 
Palestine.  The  North  American  Jews  are  almost 
without  exception  Aschkenasim.  The  Mogh- 
rabim, numbering  about  160,000,  live  in  North 
Africa  and  Palestine. 

On  account  of  their  common  German  descent 
all  the  Aschkenasim  used  originally  the  German 
language,  in  an  old  and  somewhat  mutilated  dia- 
lect, strongly  mixed  up  with  Hebrew  words,  and 
in  Poland  and  Russia  also  with  Slavic  words. 
This  language  was  by  the  Jews  themselves  called 
simply  "Jewish,"  but  by  others  either  Jud£eo- 
German,  or,  by  a  mistake,  "JudEeo-Polish."  In 
Germany  it  has  now  nearly  disappeared.  There, 
as  in  Hungary,  England,  France  and  America,  it 
has,  at  least  among  the  educated  Jews,  been 
wholly  superseded  by  the  language  of  the  land. 
In  Russia,  Poland  and  Galicia,  however,  and 
among  the  numerous  emigrants  thence  to  Eng- 
land, North  America  and  Palestine,  "Jewish"  is 
still  the  common  speech,  and  a  missionary  among 
them  must  understand  it.  The  Sephardim  in  the 
Orient  have  also  retained  their  Spanish  dialect. 
The  Moghrabim  generally  speak  the  Arabic  dia- 
lect common  in  the  land  in  which  they  live. 

All  three  classes  of  Jews — that  is,  so  far  as 
their  members  can  be  designated  as  belonging  to 
the  old  faith — follow  the  rabbinical  law  such  as  it 
has  been  laid  down  in  the  Talmud,  and  after- 
ward codified  in  the  Mischna,  Thora  and  Schul- 


Jews,  tlie 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


8SS 


<;han  Aruch.  Their  form  of  worship  has  a  com- 
mon basis,  fixed  in  Babylonia  between  the  6th 
-and  9th  centuries.  Through  different  additions 
and  clianges  in  the  different  countries,  there 
developed  from  this  common  basis  quite  a  num- 
ber of  different  rituals,  but  most  of  these  have 
afterward  given  way  either  to  that  of  the  Asch- 
kenasim  or  to  that  of  the  Sephardim. 

In  religious  belief,  however,  there  are,  as  above 
indicated,  Jews  of  the  old  faith  and  Jews  of  the 
new  faith.  When  toward  the  close  of  the  ISth 
century  the  Jews  began  in  great  numbers  to  take 
part  in  the  development  of  modern  civilization, 
those  concerned  in  tlie  movement  could  not  fail  to 
recognize  that  the  rabbinical  law  contains  much 
which  is  superstitious  and  inhumane;  that  the 
divine  service  needed  a  reorganization,  espe- 
cially by  the  introduction  of  sermons  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  land;  that  the  youth  ought  to  have  a 
fuller  instruction  in  the  Bible  and  the  elements  of 
doctrine  and  ethics;  and,  actingon  this  conviction, 
the  natural  result  was  that  there  arose  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  Jews  living  in  central  and  west- 
ern Europe,  or  in  the  United  States,  and  the  Jews 
settled  in,  or  coming  from,  eastern  Europe.  The 
latter  retained  Judaism  in  its  old  medieval 
form;  the  former  entered  upon  a  development 
demanded  by  the  times. 

Among  the  Jews  of  the  new  faith  there  must 
further  be  made  a  distinction  between  the  ortho- 
dox party  and  the  party  of  the  reform.  The 
orthodox  follow  the  rabbinical  law,  tho  purged 
from  its  extravagances;  use  Hebrew  in  their  own 
worship,  tho  with  occasional  sermons  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  land;  and  expect,  through  confi- 
dence in  the  promises  of  the  Prophets,  that  all 
Israel  shall  some  day  return  home  to  Palestine. 
The  reformers  reject  the  rabbinical  law,  use  par- 
tially or  wholly  the  language  of  the  land  in  their 
divine  service,  and  consider  themselves  genuine 
citizens  of  the  state  to  which  they  belong.  But 
most  of  them  have  given  up  confidence  in  the 
infinite  development  of  the  moral  and  religious 
truths  contained  in  the  law  and  the  Prophets, 
and  many  of  them  have  lost  all  religious  convic- 
tion, and  become  absorbed  in  mere  materialism. 

In  the  18th  century  there  also  developed  two 
larger  groups  among  the  Jews  of  the  old  faith, 
namely,  the  Peruschim  or  Mithnagdim  and  the 
Chasidim.  The  Peruschim  are  followers  of  the 
Talmud,  the  Chasidim  of  a  later  form  of  the 
mysticism  of  Theosophy.  This  must  not  be 
understood,  however,  as  if  the  Peruschim  stood 
in  no  relation  to  the  Kabbala,  for  the  Kabbala 
has  so  thoroughly  permeated  medieval  Judaism 
that  it  has  left  traces  of  itself  on  every  leaf  of  it. 
Nor  are  the  Chasidim  in  opposition  to  the  Talmud ; 
they  only  wish  to  keep  the  study  of  it  within  cer- 
tain limits,  in  favor  of  prayer  and  contemplation. 
Characteristic  of  them  is  their  reverence  for  holy 
men  who  through  prayer  and  contemplation  are 
said  to  have  come  into  closer  relations  with  God, 
and  thereby  to  be  able  to  give  infallible  counsel 
and  to  confer  heavenly  blessings  on  their  adher- 
ents. 

Violent  controversies  take  place  between  the 
Peruschim  and  the  Chasidim,  between  the  ortho- 
dox and  the  reformers,  between  those  of  the  old 
faith  and  those  of  the  new  faith;  one  party 
accuses  the  other  of  having  dealings  with  Gen- 
tiles (Christians)  and  the  other  turns  off  the  accu- 
sation by  scoffing  at  the  superstitions  of  its 
antagonists.     But  they  all  agree  in  the  profession 


of  belief  in  one  single  God,  with  whose  very 
essence  the  idea  of  a  trinity  is  as  incongruous  as 
that  of  an  incarnation,  and  in  the  conviction  that 
Israel  is  specially  selected  to  represent  this  faith 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  Thus,  while 
the  monotheism  of  the  Old  Testament  is  directed 
against  polytheism,  the  monotheism — or  rather, 
unitarianism — of  modern  Judaism  is  a  protest 
against  Christianity.  No  one  of  the  four  parties 
is  any  nearer  to  Christianity  than  the  other  three. 
The  orthodox  are  prevented  from  accepting  the 
Gospel  by  their  strict  but  superficial  legality,  the 
reformers  by  their  loose  religious  sense,  the 
Peruschim  by  their  hair-splitting  subtlety — the 
result  of  their  Talmudic  studies — and  the  Chas- 
idim by  their  blind  fanaticism. 

Missions  among  them:  The  mission  among 
the  Jews  is  as  old  as  the  Christian  Church, 
and  the  Church  can  never  fully  do  justice  to  the 
last  words  of  the  Savior  without  preaching  the 
Gospel  unto  the  Jews.  Altho  the  cross  was  a 
stumbling  block  to  them,  yet  the  first  Christian 
community  consisted  entirely  of  Jews. 

Commencing  with  the  family  of  Jesus,  Himself, 
we  have  Mary,  Joseph,  with  the  at  first  unbeliev- 
ing brothers,  but  afterward  all  united  with  one 
accord  in  prayer  and  supplication  (Acts  i:  14); 
James  and  Joseph  and  Simon  and  Judas  (Matt, 
xiii:  55);  further,  Mary,  the  wife  of  Cleopas 
(John  xix :  25) ,  and,  then,  the  greater  number  who 
were  converted  by  the  miracles  of  Christ  on  His 
travels  (John  viii:  20;  x:  42).  We  must  not  omit 
Mary  Magdalene  (Luke  viii:  2),  Joanna,  the  wife 
of  Chuza,  Herod's  steward  (Luke  viii:  3;  xxiv:  10), 
Susanna  (Luke  viii:  3),  Salome,  the  mother  of  the 
apostles  John  and  James  (Matt,  xx:  20);  Mary 
and  Martha,  the  sisters  of  Lazarus  of  Bethany 
(John  xi),  and  Mary,  the  converted  sinner. 

In  the  higher  ranks  we  find  Nicodemus,  Jairus, 
one  of  the  rulers  of  the  synagog  (Mark  v:  22); 
the  nobleman  at  Capernaum  with  his  whole 
house  (John  iv:  46);  Zaccheeus,  the  chief  among 
the  publicans  (Luke  xix:  2);  Joseph  of  Arimath- 
Eea,  an  honorable  counselor  (Mark  xv:  43;  Luke 
xxiii :  50) .  To  these  are  to  be  added  the  multitudes 
who  were  healed  by  Christ's  miracles,  and  who 
therefore  believed  in  Him — such  as  blind  Barti- 
maeus  (Mark  x:  46);  the  disciples  of  John,  who 
were  by  him  directed  to  the  Lamb  of  God;  the 
twelve  apostles,  with  Matthias  (Acts  i:  25);  the 
seventy  disciples,  who  were  appointed  and  sent 
forth  after  the  twelve  (Luke  x:).  According  to 
1  Cor.  xv:  6, Christ  was,  after  His  resurrection,  seen 
of  above  five  hundred  brethren  at  once.  When 
Matthias  was  numbered  with  the  eleven  apostles, 
there  were  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation  called  together.  By  the 
preaching  of  Peter  at  the  Pentecost  three  thou- 
sand souls  were  added  (Acts  II.).  By  the  preach- 
ing and  bold  confession  of  Peter  and  John  the 
number  was  increased  to  about  five  thousand, 
when  it  is  said  believers  were  the  more  added  to 
the  Lord,  multitudes  both  of  men  and  women 
(Acts  v:  14),  and  the  number  of  the  disciples  mul- 
tiplied in  Jerusalem  greatly,  and  a  great  company 
of  the  priests  were  obedient  to  the  faith  (Acts  vi: 
7).  At  his  last  sojourn  in  Jerusalem  Paul  finds 
there  "many  thousands  of  Jews,"  or  rather  "tens 
of  thousands"  (Acts  xxi:  20),  which  believed, 
altho  the  greatest  portion  of  the  congregation, 
after  the  murder  of  Stephen,  were  all  scattered 
abroad  by  the  great  persecution,  as  far  as  Phenice, 
Cyprus  and  Antioch  (Acts  viii:  1;  xi:  19). 


39S 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


JeTFR,  the 


The  assistants  of  the  apostles,  who  left  Jeru- 
salem in  order  to  preach  the  Gospel  were:  first, 
Saul,  the  Benjaminite;  then  Joseph  Barsabas, 
surnamed  Justus  (Acts  i:  23);  Joses  Barnabas, 
the  Levite  of  Cyprus  (iv:  36);  Ananias,  the  dis- 
ciple at  Damascus  (ix:  10);  John  Mark  the  Levite, 
evangelist,  son  of  Mary  (xii:  2;  xv:  37);  Timothy, 
son  of  the  Christian  Jewess,  Eunice  (xvi:  1); 
Aquila,  with  his  wife  Priscilla  (xviii:  2);  ApoUos 
of  Alexandria  (xviii:  24);  Zenas,  the  lawyer  who 
preached  the  Gospel  in  Crete  (Titus  III:  13); 
Rufus  and  Alexander,  the  sons  of  Simon  the 
Cyrenian  (Mark  xv:  21;  Rom.  xvi:  13). 

Besides  John,  certain  of  the  number  of  Jewish 
believers  were  prophets  of  the  New  Covenant; 
thus  the  daughters  of  Philip  the  evangelist  (Acts 
xxi :  9) ;  Judas  and  Silas  (xv :  32) ;  Agabus  (xi :  28) ; 
Simon,  Niger  and  Lucius  of  Cyrene  and  Manaen 
(Acts  xiii:  1). 

It  is  stated  that  the  inhabitants  of  Saron  and 
Lydda  turned  to  the  Lord;  one  of  them  was 
Eneas  (Acts  ix:  33).  At  Joppa  many  believed 
in  the  Lord  on  account  of  Tabitha  being  raised 
from  the  dead  by  Peter  (Acts  ix:).  At  Cesarea 
Paul  found  many  believers,  among  whom  were 
Philip  the  evangelist  (already  mentioned)  with 
his  four  daughters,  and  Miiason,  an  old  disciple 
(xxi:  16). 

Beyond  the  boundaries  of  Palestine  we  find 
Christians  in  Antioch  (Acts  xiii :  43) ,  and  a  great 
multitude  of  believers  at  Iconium  (xv:  1).  We 
may  mention  Jason,  Aristarchus  and  Secundus 
at  Thessalonica  (xvii:  6;  xx:  4);  Sopater,  of  the 
flourishing  congregation  at  Berea  (xx:  4);  Gains 
of  Derbe  (Rom.  xvi:  23);  Tyrannus,  who  kept  a 
school  at  Ephesus;  Justus  and  Crispus  and  Sos- 
thenes,  chief  rulers  of  the  synagog  at  Corinth 
(Acts  xviii:  7,  8,  17;  1  Cor.  i:  1),  and  the  numerous 
believing  Jews  at  Philippi  and  Rome  (Acts 
xxviii:  24). 

The  first  nucleus  of  the  seven  apocalyptic 
churches  consisted  also  of  Israelites.  Peter 
wrote  the  first  epistle  in  the  midst  of  a  Jewish- 
Christian  Church  at  Babylon,  and  addressed  it  to 
the  strangers  scattered  throughout  Pontus, 
Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia  and  Bithynia.  James 
also  wrote  his  epistle  "to  the  twelve  tribes  which 
are  scattered  abroad,"  and  this  proves  that  in  the 
most  remote  countries  there  were  believing  Israel- 
ites. 

It  is  but  natural  to  assume  that  these  believing 
Israelites  were  the  means  of  spreading,  if  not  the 
Gospels  as  such,  yet  the  sayings  of  Jesus.  Thus 
these  sayings  found  their  way  into  the  Talmud, 
a  fact  overlooked  by  modern  Jewish  apologists 
who  claim  the  priority  of  the  Talmud  to  the  New 
Testament,  and  make  the  latter  the  copy  of  the 
former. 

According  to  Eusebius,  up  to  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Hadrian  (120)  there  were  fifteen  Jewish- 
Christian  bishops  at  Jerusalem.  Among  the 
teachers  of  the  ancient  church  who  were  of  Jew- 
ish origin  we  may  mention  Hegesippus  (150-180); 
Ariston  of  Pella,  and  especially  Epiphanius, 
Bishop  of  Constantia,  who  also  tells  (  Haeres.  xxx) 
of  the  conversion  of  the  Jewish  patriarch  Hillel, 
a  descendant  of  the  famous  Gamaliel. 

Without  dwelling  on  the  manner  in  which  the 
Christian  Church  developed  itself,  which,  on  the 
one  hand  gave  cause  to  the  Jews  for  complaining 
of  the  great  zeal  of  the  Church  in  converting 
them,  and  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  Church  for 
complaining  of  the  great  obstinacy  of  the  Jews, 


we  will  glance  at  some  of  the  most  famous  con- 
verts prior  to  the  Reformation,  who  were  espe- 
cially animated  to  spread  the  Gospel  among 
their  former  coreligionists.  But  be  it  remembered 
that  these  converts  were  only  samples  of  a  whole 
list  of  witnesses  to  the  power  of  the  truth — 
single  ears  selected  out  of  a  multitude  of  sheaves 
gathered  into  the  garner  of  God. 

Commencing  with  Spain  we  find  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  7th  century  Julian  Pomerius,'  arch- 
bishop of  Toledo  (died  690),  author  of  a  work 
against  the  errors  of  Judaism  concerning  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  entitled:  De  sexta  aetatis 
comprobatione  contra  Judaeos. 

Betweenl066andll08  flourished  Pedro  A  If  ansa, 
formerly  Rabbi  Moses  of  Huesca  in  Aragon, 
physician  to  King  Alfonso  VI.,  and  author  of 
an  apologetical  work  against  the  Jews. 

A  contemporary  of  Pedro  Alfonso  was  Samuel, 
by  birth  an  African,  but  baptized  in  Toledo  in 
1085.  He  returned  to  Morocco,  where  he  held  a 
public  discussion  with  a  learned  Arab  on  the 
truth  of  Christianity.  Of  other  converts  we  men- 
tion John  de  ValladoUd;  also  John  de  Podico  of 
the  14th  century;  Joseph  Hallorki,  called  after 
his  baptism  Hieronymus  de  Sancta  Fide,  of  the 
15th  century,  famous  as  Talmudist  and  physi- 
cian. 

But  the  greatest  of  all  were  Paulus  of  Burgos, 
and  De  Santa  Maria,  formerly  Rabbi  Solomon 
Levi  of  Burgos,  and  baptized  with  his  four  sons 
in  1390.  He  studied  theology  after  his  baptism 
and  received  from  the  LTniversity  of  Paris  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity.  He  was  appointed 
Archdeacon  of  Burgos,  and  subsequently  Bishop 
of  Carthagena  and  lastly  Bishop  of  Burgos,  where 
also  he  died  August  25,  1440.  Of  his  four  sons, 
Don  Alfonso,  who  for  many  years  was  archdeacon 
of  Compostella,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  bishop- 
ric of  Burgos.  He  took  his  seat  at  the  Council  of 
Basel  in  1431,  as  a  representative  of  Castile,  and 
was  treated  with  high  honor  on  account  of  his 
great  talents  and  distinguished  excellence. 

Without  increasing  the  number,  suffice  it  to 
say  that  even  the  Jewish  historian  Graetz,  by  no 
means  a  friend  of  the  Church,  still  less  of  con- 
verts, must  admit:  "By  the  conversion  of  learned 
and  educated  men,  physicians,  authors,  poets, 
Judaism  was  deprived  of  many  talents;  some  of 
them  were  possessed  of  a  zeal  for  conversion,  as 
if  they  were  born  Dominicans."  {Geschichte 
viii:  83.) 

In  France  we  hear,  besides,  oi  Nicolas  de  Lyra, 
professor  of  theology  (1300-1340),  who  was  of 
Jewish  descent;  of  Philipp  D'  Aquin  (died  1650), 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Paris;  Louis  Compiegne  de 
Veil  and  his  brother  Charles;  Pierre  Vignoles 
(died  1640),  for  fifty  years  professor  at  the  Col- 
lege of  Paris. 

In  Italy  the  Jews  had  to  listen,  since  the  time  of 
Gregory  XIII.,  once  a  week  to  a  sermon,  and 
many  a  one  was  thus  led  to  Christ.  Paul  III. 
founded  in  1550  a  special  institute  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Jews.  The  16th  century  is  especially 
rich  in  Jewish  converts,  of  whom  we  mention  the 
following:  Andreas  de  Monte,  Jechiel  Pisaurensis, 
philosopher  and  physician,  and  his  contemporary, 
Paul  Eustachius  de  Nola,  Hebrew  teacher  of 
Thomas  Aldrobrandin,  brother  of  Pope  Clement 


'  For  more  particulars  the  reader  is  referred  to  my  arti  les 
on  this  and  other  converts  in  McClintock  and  Strong's  Theo- 
log.  Cyclop,  including  vol.  xi.,  xii.  forming  the  supplement 
volumes. 


Jews,  the 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


354 


VIII.;  Sixtus  Senensis,  anthor  of  the  Bibliotheca 
Sancta  (Venice,  1566);  Alessandro  di  Francesco, 
friend  of  Clement  VIII.  and  Bishop  of  Forti; 
Fabianus  Fioghi,  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  col- 
lege of  the  Neophites  at  Rome;  Emmanuel 
Tremellius,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  men  of  his 
time  (said  to  have  been  converted  by  Marco 
Antonio  Flaminio),  who  died  in  1580;  Pavlus 
Canossa;  also  Paulus  Paradisus,  professor  of 
Hebrew  (died  1543);  Felix  Pratensis  (died  at 
Rome,  1539),  editor  of  the  First  Rabbinic 
Hebrew  Bible;  Raphael  Aquilino,  John  Baptista 
Elianus,  and  others  too  numerous  to  be  men- 
tioned. 

In  England  the  Jews  had  their  vicissitudes. 
Yet  in  spite  of  the  manifold  troubles  special  care 
was  taken  of  those  who  embraced  Christianity. 
Special  buildings,  converts'  houses,  were  created, 
in  which  the  Gospel  was  not  only  preached  to  the 
Jews,  but  the  converts  were  educated  there,  and 
many  a  dignitary  in  the  State  and  Church  pro- 
ceeded from  these  houses.  We  shall  again  speak 
of  England  in  the  sequel. 

In  Germany  the  Jews  had  to  undergo  many 
sufferings.  The  inroads  of  the  Tatars,  the 
Crusades,  more  especially  the  Black  Death,  were 
causes  for  persecutions.  Compulsory  baptisms 
were  the  only  means  of  escaping  the  fiercest  per- 
secutions, and  it  was  in  vain  that  some  popes,  and 
teachers  like  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  protested 
against  such  compulsory  measures.  Yet  there 
were  not  wanting  such  among  the  Jews  who  could 
not  resist  the  workings  of  the  divine  grace,  and 
who  of  their  own  conviction  joined  the  Church. 
This  we  see  especially  in  the  case  of  Herman  of 
Cappenberg,  who  after  his  baptism  entered  in 
1123  the  order  of  the  Premonstratensians  and 
became  abbot  of  Cappenberg  in  Westphalia.  He, 
too,  protested  against  compulsory  measures,  but 
in  vain.  In  the  19th  session  of  the  Council  at 
Basel  in  1434  it  was  enacted  that  the  bishops 
everywhere  should  see  that  the  Jews  were 
instructed  in  the  Christian  religion.  The  worldly 
powers  showed  a  better  disposition  toward  the 
Jews  by  protecting  them,  altho  this  protection 
was  bought  at  a  great  price.  Yet,  after  all, 
shortly  before  the  Reformation,  a  better  spirit 
seemed  to  prevail  in  Germany,  which  had  the 
good  effect  that  many  a  Jew  was  brought  to  the 
truth  as  it  is  in  Christ,  without  compulsion. 

In  our  rapid  survey  we  have  come  down  to  the 
Reformation  period,  with  which  a  brighter  morn- 
ing came,  tho,  on  the  whole,  the  Reformation, 
whether  in  its  early  days  or  in  later  times,  with 
all  its  great  teachers  and  numerous  adherents, 
effected  little  or  no  change  in  the  disposition  of 
the  Christians  toward  the  Jews.  Luther  ap- 
peared well  disposed  toward  them  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  career  as  a  reformer.  But  afterward 
he  spoke  very  differently  of  the  Jews,  either 
from  indignation  at  some  theologians  of  Witten- 
berg, whom  he  looked  upon  as  infused  with  the 
leaven  of  rabbinism,  or  from  disappointment 
because  the  Reformation,  by  which  he  had  prom- 
ised a  favorable  influence  over  the  minds  of  the 
Jews  and  their  conversion  to  the  Gospel,  found 
no  more  favor  or  assistance  than  Romanism  with 
this  entirely  singular  nation. 

Yet  after  all  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  influ- 
ence which  the  Reformation  exerted,  especially 
by  the  more  careful  study  of  the  Bible  and  its 
translation,  had  a  salutary  effect  on  the  people 
in   general    and    on    the    clergy    especially.     In 


speech  and  in  writing,  the  preachers  and  teachers 
endeavored  to  impress  upon  the  Jewish  mind  the 
truth  as  it  is  in  Christ,  and  in  this  respect  they 
were  assisted  by  the  writings  of  such  Jewish 
Christians  as  Paul  Staff elsteiner,  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Heidelberg;  John  Harzuge,  who  in 
1540  published  his  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  rabbinical  type;  Christian  Gerson  and 
Georg  Philip  Lichtenstein,  both  ministers  of  the 
Gospel;  Victor  von  Carben,  a  priest  at  Cologne; 
Paul  Weidner,  and  others  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

A  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  missions 
among  the  Jews  in  the  17th  century,  especially  by 
the  efforts  of  Esdras  Edzard,  of  Hamburg.  He 
had  studied  at  different  universities  and  had 
especially  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
rabbinic  literature.  Buxtorf,  in  Basel,  and  the 
Jewish  rabbi  of  his  native  place,  Cohen  de  Lara, 
were  his  teachers  in  Talmudic  literature.  In  1656 
he  took  his  degree  as  licentiate  of  theology  at 
Rostock  without  entering  upon  the  academical 
career.  Being  a  man  of  means,  he  lived  as  a  pri- 
vate man  at  Hamburg,  devoting  his  knowledge 
and  time  to  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  a  great  many  Jews  to  Christ. 
He  not  only  preached  the  Gospel,  but  also  helped 
those  in  a  practical  manner  who  had  joined  the 
Church,  and  founded  a  sinking-fund,  the  interest 
of  which  was  to  be  devoted  to  missions  among  the 
Jews.  From  all  parts  of  Europe  scholars  flocked 
to  Hamburg  to  hear  from  him  how  to  converse 
with  Jews  and  how  to  refute  their  arguments. 
After  his  death,  in  1708,  Edzard's  sons  continued 
the  work  of  their  father,  and  the  sinking  fund, 
founded  in  1667,  is  now  under  the  administration 
of  the  Hamburg  Senate,  still  serving  the  original 
purpose.  The  good  seed  sown  by  Edzard  bore 
its  fruit  in  due  season,  and  in  many  places  houses 
were  built  for  the  temporal  relief  of  Jewish  con- 
verts. 

Outside  of  Germany,  the  Christians  of  Holland 
showed  an  especial  interest  for  the  conversion  of 
the  Jews,  to  whom,  toward  the  end  of  the  16th 
century,  permission  had  been  granted  to  settle 
again  in  Holland.  The  Synod,  held  at  Dort  in 
1619,  at  Utrecht  in  1670,  and  at  Delft  and  Leyden 
in  1676and  1678,  passed  resolutions  concerning  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  the  Jews.  Men  like  Hiu/o 
Grotius,  Labbadie,  Isaac  Vossius,  John  Hoom- 
beck,  the  two  Spanhems,  Coccejus,  Episcopius, 
Hulsius,  Witsius,  Serarius,  and  others,  wrote  with 
a  view  of  convincing  the  Jews,  and  many  a  Jew 
was  received  into  the  Church. 

The  Jews,  formerly  banished  irorxiEngland,  were 
again  allowed  to  settle  there  under  Charles  II. 
We  have  already  spoken  of  the  early  missionary 
work  among  the  Jews  in  England.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  after  the  resettlement  of  the  Jews  the 
work  of  converting  them  was  continued.  Of  the 
literary  productions  of  this  period  we  only  men- 
tion Bishop  Kidder's  A  demonstration  of  the 
Messiah,  in  which  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion 
is  defended,  especially  against  the  Jews,  London, 
1684-1700,  and  translated  also  into  German  by 
F.  E.  Rambach,  Rostock,  1751.  Another  mis- 
sionary work  was  Leslie's  A  short  and  easy 
method  with  the  Jews,  London  (1698,  and  after). 

But  we  return  again  to  Germany,  where  with 
the  18th  century  a  new  era  commenced  for  the 
Mission  among  the  Jews. 

The  first  quarter  of  tkfi  18th  century  was  a 
period  of  great  religious  excitement  in  Germany, 


365 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


JetvB)  the 


owing  to  the  indefatigable  labors  of  Spener  and 
A.  H.  Francke  (especially  by  the  "collegia  pie- 
tatis"  of  the  former),  which  quickly  spread  far  and 
wide,  among  high  and  low,  poor  and  rich.  The 
Bible,  which  had  been  entirely  neglected  and  for- 
gotten, was  taken  in  hand  and  read  again;  and 
how  extreme  the  desuetude  into  which  the  word 
of  God  had  fallen  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact 
that  Spener  had  to  procure  a  special  order  from 
the  Elector  for  the  practical  explanation  of  some 
part  of  the  Bible  at  the  universities.  A  fruit  of 
this  new  life  in  the  Church  (for  it  was  a  complete 
regeneration)  was  the  foundation  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Halle.  Bible  and  missionary  societies 
were  also  called  into  existence.  Nor  were  God's 
ancient  people  forgotten.  An  interest  for  the 
Jews  was  evinced  to  a  degree  exceeding  anything 
known  in  former  periods  of  the  Church.  It 
seems  as  if  rulers,  magistrates,  professors,  the 
clergy  had  been  alike  animated  with  zeal  for  the 
conversion  of  Israel,  for  we  find  that  Reineccius, 
in  one  of  his  works,  published  1713,  says:  "The 
general  topic  of  conversation  and  discussion  of 
the  present  day  is  about  the  conversion  of  the 
Jews."  This  new-born  zeal  for  the  Jewish  cause 
was  so  great  that  we  are  told  that  many  Chris- 
tians learned  to  read  Jewish-German  in  order 
to  make  themselves  better  acquainted  with 
Jewish  books  and  more  efficient  for  conversa- 
tion with  Jews.  Professor  Callenberg  lectured 
on  that  language  and  had  an  auditory  of  150 
persons. 

The  Rev.  John  Milller  of  Gotha,  who  very 
often  came  in  contact  with  traveling  Jews,  and 
took  a  lively  interest  in  them,  wrote  a  tract  for 
the  Jews,  entitled  The  Light  of  Eventide,  in 
dialogical  form,  which  was  intended  to  prepare 
the  Jewish  mind  for  the  reception  of  Jesus  Christ 
the  Messiah,  and  through  the  extraordinary 
exertions  of  Dr.  Frommann,  a  physician  and 
Jewish  convert,  it  was  published  in  Jewish-Ger- 
man for  wider  circulation  among  the  Jews.  This 
tract  produced  the  greatest  sensation.  For 
soon  it  was  not  only  reprinted  and  translated  into 
Hebrew,  but  also  a  German  (1736),  Dutch  (1735), 
Italian(1732), French  (1748)  and  an  English  trans- 
lation was  published,  the  latter  by  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  in  the  year 
1734,  and  it  is  still  used  for  missionary  purposes. 
Even  Roman  Catholic  priests  took  an  interest 
in  its  circulation  and  sent  subscriptions  for  pro- 
moting it  to  Prof.  Callenberg.  This  tract  is  the 
more  remarkable  because  it  became  in  part  the 
foundation-stone  for  the  well-known  Callenberg 
Institution,  or  Institutum  Judaicum,  established  in 
1728,  the  object  of  which  was  the  conversion  of 
the  Jews,  and  also  of  Mohammedans.  This  insti- 
tution, however,  was  closed  in  1792.  But  the 
interest  in  behalf  of  the  Jews  was  not  confined  to 
Germany  alone;  it  also  spread  beyond  the  Conti- 
nent, for  the  well-known  Jewish  missionary, 
Stephen  Schultz,  tells  us  in  his  Leitungen  des 
Hochsten  (iv:  74),  that  when  he  visited  England 
in  1749,  he  was  told  that  there  were  many  laymen 
in  London  zealous  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews. 
Next  to  Spener  we  must  mention  the  early 
efforts  made  by  the  Moravian  Brethren.  It  was 
in  the  year  1738  that  Leonhard  Dober,  who  had 
established  the  first  mission  among  the  negroes 
m  the  West  Indies,  felt  an  earnest  desire  to  labor 
for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  repaired  to  Amsterdam  and  hired  a 
lodging  in  the  so-called  Juden-Dork.     In   1739 


Samuel  Lieberktihn  succeeded  Dober  in  Amster- 
dam, who  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  service 
of  the  Jews.  On  account  of  his  knowledge  of 
Hebrew  and  his  love  of  Israel,  the  Jews  called 
him  "Rabbi."  For  thirty  years  Lieberktihn 
labored  among  the  Jews  with  great  success. 

The  Callenberg  Institute,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
closed  in  the  year  1792,  but  in  the  providence  of 
God  soon  another  way  was  to  be  opened  for  the 
mission  among  the  Jews.  It  was  only  a  few 
years  after  the  first  great  thunderclap  of  the 
French  Revolution,  when  three  German  students, 
in  whose  hearts  God  had  begun  a  work  of  grace, 
were  assembled  together  for  mutual  consulta- 
tion and  direction,  in  a  room  in  the  metropolis 
of  Northern  Germany.  They  were  pondering  in 
their  minds  what  they  should  do,  and  whither 
they  should  go,  that  they  might  be  successfully 
employed  in  the  cause  of  missions.  Berlin, 
their  native  metropolis,  was  at  that  time  the 
stronghold  of  rationalism,  the  center  of  religious 
infidelity;  and  evangelical  religion,  or  pietism, 
was  above  all  things  hated  and  almost  universally 
spoken  against.  Where,  therefore,  were  the 
three  German  students  to  go?  Pastor  Jiinicke 
and  some  few  other  pious  Christians  in  Berlin, 
who  had  established  a  seminary  where  six  or 
seven  students  were  trained  for  missionary  enter- 
prise, were  often  in  the  greatest  straits  for  want 
of  funds.  Their  cause  met  with  little  sympathy 
and  they  were  almost  in  despair,  when  one  day 
help  came  in  time  of  need  from  another  great 
metropolis,  with  a  demand  for  three  missionaries 
to  occupy  an  important  missionary  post  among 
the  heathen  tribes  of  Africa.  This  was  in  the 
autumn  of  1801.  Our  three  students  went  to 
London  in  order  to  enter  the  service  of  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society,  and  one  of  these  was  a 
Christian  Israelite,  C.  F.  Frey  by  name,  who 
died  in  1853  in  America,  a  member  of  the 
Baptist  denomination.  During  his  stay  in  Lon- 
don it  was  put  into  his  heart  to  visit  his  brethren 
after  the  flesh.  He  found  them  in  a  state  of  total 
darkness  and  bondage  worse  than  that  of  their 
fathers  in  Egypt.  He  spoke  to  them  of  Christ 
and  His  salvation.  He  engaged  a  few  Christian 
friends  to  feel  a  concern  for  their  spiritual  wel- 
fare. He  made  known  to  the  directors  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  his  earnest  desire  to 
be  permitted  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  his  own 
brethren.  This  application  was  favorably  con- 
sidered by  the  directors;  they  acceded  to  his 
request,  and  some  three  years  having  been  con- 
sumed in  the  needful  preliminary  preparation, 
we  find  him,  in  1805,  commencing  in  earnest 
missionary  work  under  the  auspices  of  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society.  It  was  soon,  however, 
discovered  that  the  work  required  distinctive  and 
peculiar  machinery.  Accordingly,  after  the 
brief  existence  of  a  few  years,  in  1808  a  separate 
society,  which  contemplated  Jews  exclusively  as 
its  object,  the  present  London  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Christianity  among  the  Jews,  was  founded 
in  the  beginning  of  1809.  The  main  promoter 
of  this  Society  was  the  nobleman  Lewis  Way. 
It  was  in  the  year  1808  that  Lewis  Way,  while 
riding  with  a  friend  of  his  in  Devonshire,  passed 
a  park  where  some  very  fine  trees  attracted  their 
attention.  His  friend  told  him  that  the  owner 
of  this  park  in  her  last  will  foibade  the  cutting 
down  of  these  trees  until  "the  Jews  would  again 
have  come  to  Jerusalem."  These  words  so 
deeply  impressed  themselves  on  the  mind  of 
Lewis  Way  that  he  never  forgot  them.     From 


Jevrs,  tlie 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


856 


that  day  he  devoted  his  large  fortune  as  well  as 
his  talents  to  the  conversion  of  the  Jews.  At  the 
first  the  newly  constituted  society  was  composed 
both  of  churchmen  and  dissenters.  In  1815,  by 
an  amicable  arrangement,  the  dissenting  mem- 
bers retired  from  its  management,  and  its  liabili- 
ties having  been  discharged  by  Way's  munificent 
donation  of  £10,000,  it  entered  on  the  present 
phase  of  its  existence  as  a  Church  of  England 
Society  on  the  11th  of  March,  1815.  In  the  year 
1814  the  Dulce  of  Kent,  the  father  of  the  late 
Queen  Victoria  of  England,  laid  the  foundation- 
stone  of  the  Episcopal  Chapel  in  Palestine  Place, 
in  which  up  to  this  day  divine  service  is  held  in 
different  languages.  This  Society,  which  was  so 
small  at  the  beginning,  has  not  only  its  own 
printing  establishment  of  Hebrew  Bibles,  tracts, 
etc.,  but  also  its  stations  in  Europe,  Asia  and 
Africa,  occupying  52  stations,  with  a  staff  of 
about  200  laborers,  of  whom  nearly  100  are 
Christian  Israelites.  It  has  recently  also  opened 
a  station  at  Montreal,  Canada.  We  have  reached 
that  period  in  the  history  of  the  mission  among 
the  Jews  from  which  time  on  mission  woric  is 
carried  on  systematically.  In  speaking  of  the 
missionary  societies  we  must  commence  with 
England,  as  the  motherland  of  the  present 
Protestant  Jewish  mission. 

I.  Great  Britain:  1.  England:  The  London 
Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews, 
founded  in  1809,  has  over  SO  stations,  with  200 
missionaries.  It  employs  nearly  100  Christian 
Israelites,  and  has  its  stations  in  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa  and  Canada.  The  Society  has  different 
institutions,  as  homes  for  inquiring  Jews,  homes 
for  converts,  homes  for  learning  a  trade,  schools, 
hospitals,  churches  and  colleges.  The  "Operat- 
ive Institution,"  founded  in  1831,  has  admitted 
about  1,000  persons,  of  whom  more  than  100 
have  entered  the  missionary  service.  The  Wan- 
derers' Home  has  received  during  the  forty-five 
years  of  its  existence  over  2,500  Jews,  most  of 
whom  were  baptized.  The  Society  records  over 
5,000  Jewish  baptisms;  the  church  record  of 
Zion's  Church,  at  Jerusalem,  the  oldest  evangeli- 
cal church  in  the  East,  shows  nearly  600  Jewish 
baptisms.  The  annual  income  of  the  Society 
amounted  March  31,  1903,  to  over  £48,000.  It 
receives  an  annual  contribution  from  the  Empe- 
ror of  Germany  and  from  India,  Sierra  Leone, 
Australia  and  Canada. 

The  British  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Jews,  founded  in  1842.  It  has 
34  missionary  worlvers  in  18  stations  in  England, 
Germany,  Austria,  Russia,  Turlcey  and  Italy.  It 
has  schools,  medical  missions  and  homes  for  aged 
converts.  Whereas  the  London  Society  distrib- 
utes the  Hebrew  New  Testament  of  Delitzseh, 
the  British  Society  distributes  the  Salkinson- 
Ginsburg  version,  both  Christian  Israelites. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  of  England,  founded 
in  1860,  has  8  missionary  workers  in  London, 
Aleppo,  Corfu,  and  a  medical  mission  at  Morocco. 

The  London  City  Mission  (Jewish  branch) 
employs  8  Hebrew  Christians  as  missionaries  to 
Jews  and  other  foreigners. 

The  Parochial  Missions  to  the  Jews  at  Home 
and  Abroad,  founded  in  1876,  has  10  missionary 
workers  in  London,  Manchester,  Liverpool  and 
Bombay. 

The  Mildmay  Mission  to  the  Jews,  founded  in 
London  in  1876  by  the  Rev.  John  Wilkinson,  has 
67  missionary  workers  in  London,  Odessa,  Minsk, 
Warsaw,   Wilna  and  Lublin.     The   New  Testa- 


ment in  Hebrew  and  Yiddish  is  distributed  every- 
where, and  thousands  of  Jews  in  every  part  of 
the  world  are  thus  supplied  with  the  word  of 
God. 

The  Barbican  Mission  to  the  Jews,  founded  1879; 
The  Hebrew  Christian  Testimony  to  Israel,  founded 
in  1894;  The  Kilburn  Mission  to  the  Jews,  founded 
in  1896;  The  Jerusalem  and  the  East  Mission 
Funds;  The  East  London  Fund  for  the  Jews;  The 
Wild  Olive  Mission;  The  East  End  Mission  to  the 
Jews;  The  Brook  Lane  Mission;  The  Hebrew- 
Christian  Mission  to  Israel;  The  Christian  Chief 
Corner-Stone  Mission  to  the  Jews;  The  Prayer 
Union  for  Israel,  and  other  small  independent 
societies  in  London,  Liverpool,  and  other  English 
cities,  are  all  concerned  about  Israel. 

II.  Scotland:  The  Jewish  Mission  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  founded  in  1840,  employs  40  workers 
in  Smyrna,  Salonica,  Alexandria,  Constantinople 
and  Beirut,  and  has  10  schools. 

The  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  Mission 
to  the  Jews,  founded  in  1843,  employs  80  workers 
in  Edinburgh,  Breslau,  Budapest,  Constanti- 
nople, Safed,  and  Tiberias,  and  has  8  schools. 

The  Scottish  Home  Mission  to  Jews,  in  Glasgow; 
The  Jewish  Medical  Mission,  in  Edinburgh ;  The 
Bonar  Memorial  Mission,  in  Glasgow,  and  some 
small  local  societies  all  do  good  work. 

III.  Ireland:  The  Jewish  Mission  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Ireland,  founded  in  1841,  has 
20  workers  in  Hamburg,  Altona  and  Damascus. 
The  work  in  Hamburg  is  flourishing. 

The  Church  of  Ireland  Jews'  Society,  founded  in 
18S9,  carries  on  work  in  Cork,  Dublin  and  Bel- 
fast. 

IV.  Germany:  Besides  the  Esdras  Edzard 
Fund,  mentioned  already,  we  have: 

The  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among 
the  Jews,  in  Berlin,  founded  in  1822.  It  has  its 
stations  in  Berlin,  Vienna  and  Stanislau. 

The  Central  Organization  of  Evangelical  Luther- 
an Missions  among  Israel,  founded  in  1871,  in 
Leipzig,  is  supported  by  the  Jewish  missionary 
societies  in  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg  and 
Hannover. 

The  West  German  Association  in  Cologne, 
founded  in  1842,  carries  on  its  work  in  Cologne, 
Frankfort  and  Strasburg. 

The  Instituta  Judaica,  one  at  Leipzig,  the  other 
at  Berlin,  help  to  prepare  theological  students  for 
the  work  among  the  Jews  by  making  the  students 
acquainted  with  Rabbinic  and  Jewish  literature. 

V.  Switzerland:  The  Society  of  the  Friends  of 
Israel,  in  Basel,  has  a  station  at  Strasburg  and 
Prague. 

VI.  France:  The  French  Society  for  the  Evan- 
gelization of  Israel  employs  4  workers  in  Paris, 
Oran  and  Algiers. 

VII.  The  Netherlands:  The  Netherlands  Society 
for  Israel,  founded  in  1861,  has  2  missionaries  at 
Amsterdam. 

VIII.  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark:  The  Cen- 
tral Committee  for  Jewish  Missions,  in  Christiania, 
works  in  Braila  and  Galatz. 

The  Evangelical  National  Society,  in  Stock- 
holm, employs  a  missionary  in  Hamburg. 

The  Society  for  Missions  to  Israel,  in  Stockholm, 
has  9  workers  in  Sweden,  Hungary  and  Russia. 

The  Swedish  Missionary  Union  has  2  mission- 
aries in  Algiers. 

The  Society  for  Missions  to  Israel,  in  Copen- 
hagen, supports  a  missionary  in  Stanislau. 

IX.  Russia:  Missionary  work  is  carried  on  by 
Pastor  Faltin,  of  Kischinew. 


867 


X.  Africa,  Asia  and  Australia:  In  Africa  we 
have  the  Alexandria  Jewish  Mission;  in  Asia  we 
have  small  local  societies  in  Bombay,  Calcutta, 
Hebron,  Jerusalem,  whereas  4  missionary  socie- 
ties are  working  in  Australia. 

XI.  America:  There  are  some  30  American 
societies,  denominational  and  undenominational 
or  interdenominational.  As  missionary  work  is 
also  carried  on  by  individuals,  it  is  very  difficult 
to  give  correct  lists. 

Of  the  denominational  societies  we  mention: 

1 .  The  Church  Society  for  Promoting  Christian- 
ity among  the  Jews,  founded  at  New  York  in 
1842.  Its  stations  are  in  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia. 

2.  The  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  founded  in  1871,  has  been  carry- 
ing on  work  among  the  Jews  in  Persia  and  Syria. 

3.  The  Reformed  Presbyterian  Mission  to  the 
Jews,  founded  in  1894  at  Philadelphia. 

4.  Messiah  Mission  of  Chicago,  founded  in 
1896  by  Rev.  Chalmers,  continued  since  1899  as 
Mission  of  the  Women's  Association  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  North  America. 

The  Lutheran  Church  is  represented  by 

5.  The  Norwegian  Zionsforeningen  for  Israels- 
missionen  blandt  Norske  Lutheraneren  i  Am.erika, 
founded  in  1878  at  Minneapolis.  It  has  stations 
in  New  York,  Minsk  and  Odessa. 

6.  Jewish  Mission  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Synod  of  Missions,  Ohio  and  other  States,  founded 
in  New  York,  1885. 

7.  Jewish  Mission  of  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio, 
founded  1892. 

8.  Mission  of  the  German  Lutheran  Synod  in 
Chicago,  founded  in  1894. 

9.  The  Methodists  founded  in  1892  the  New 
York   City   Extension  and  Missionary  Society. 

10.  The  Baptists  founded  in  1887  the  Mission- 
ary Society  of  the  Seventh-Day  Baptists.  Besides 
these  missions,  there  are  a  number  of  independ- 
ent workers  and  societies,  which  makes  it  impos- 
sible to  give  very  accurate  and  complete  statistics. 
Nevertheless,  the  work  goes  on  everywhere.  A 
German  missionary  has  stated  that  during  the 
19th  century  about  300,000  Jews  joined  the 
Church ;  this  number,  if  based  upon  records,  is 
undoubtedly  a  conservative  minimum,  since 
it  is  very  difficult  to  get  access  to  the  church 
records  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
Churches.  Prof.  Heman,  in  the  third  edition  of 
the  Protestant  Encyklopadie,  now  edited  by  Prof. 
Hauck,  of  Leipzig,  estimates  that  among  the 
more  than  10,000,000  Jews  of  the  globe,  more 
than  50  societies  with  about  500  workers  do  mis- 
sionary work.  According  to  the  tables  of  the 
Rev.  L.  Meyer  (see  Appendix)  this  is  a  very  low 
estimate. 

The  Rev.  A.  E.  Thomson,  in  his  book,  "A 
Century  of  Jewish  Missions,"  gives  the  following 
numbers  : 

America         has  47  stations,  with  80  missionaries. 

GreatBritain  "   120         "  "  481  " 

Europe  "     29         "  "     40 

Africa  "       2         "  "2 

Asia  "     13         "  "     43  " 

Australia         "       2         "  "2  " 

Total  213  608 

A  very  interesting  table  is  given  by  Prof. 
Heman,  son  of  the  late  H.  W.  D.  Heman,  an 
excellent  Hebrew  Christian,  and  for  several  years 
the  director  of  the  home  for  Jewish  converts  at 
Basel.     He  says : 

GreatBritain,  with      200,000  Jews,  has  124 workers. 

France,  "         77,000     "         "       5 


lA  OF  MISSIC 

NS 

Jews,  the 

Germany, 
Austriar-Hungary, 

with      568,000  Jews,  has 

24  workers. 

"    1,860,000     " 

17 

Belgium, 

3,000     " 

** 

Denmark, 

4,000     " 

" 

Greece, 

5,800     " 

" 

Holland, 

97,000     •■ 

2 

Italy, 

60,000     " 

3 

Portugal, 

300     " 

—         " 

Rumania 

300,000     " 

11 

Russia, 

"     4,500,000     " 

10 

Servia, 

4,700     " 

—         " 

Bulgaria, 

31,000     " 

1 

Spain, 

2,500     " 

—         " 

Sweden, 
Switzerland, 

3  400     " 
12,500     ■' 

8 
1 

Turkey, 

120,000     " 

21 

Turkey  in  Asia, 

150,000     " 

103 

Persia, 

30,000     " 

10 

Asiatic  Russia, 

40,000     " 

—         *' 

Turkistan  and  Af- 

ghanistan, 

14,000     " 

—         *' 

India  and  China, 

19,000     •■ 

5 

Egypt, 

25,000     " 

12 

Abyssinia, 

50,000     •• 

7 

Tripolis, 

58,000     " 

—         " 

Tunis, 

60,000     " 

12 

Algiers  and  Sahara, 

48,000     " 

2 

Morocco, 

100,000     " 

2 

Transvaal, 

12,000     " 

—         " 

Cape  Colony, 

1,500     " 

—         " 

United  States, 

■•    1,000,000    •■ 

150 

Canada, 

5,000     " 

—         '• 

The  Antilles, 

3,000     " 

—         " 

South  America, 

12,000     ■■ 

—         " 

Australia, 

17,000     " 

2 

It  is  impossible  to  give  an  accurate  estimate 
of  the  Jewish  population  of  the  world. 

Prof.  Dalman,  in  his  Handbook  of  Jewish  Mis- 
sions, published  in  1893,  sets  the  total  down  as 
11,404,250.  In  Israel,  My  Glory,  published  in 
1892,  Rev.  John  Wilkinson  makes  an  independent 
estimate,  the  total  of  which  is  9,706,500.  The 
American  Jewish  Year-Book  for  1901-1902  puts 
the  number  down  at  10,766,749.  A  comparison 
of  the  figures  with  those  of  the  Statesman's  Year- 
Book  for  1903  shows  great  differences.  At  the 
Zionist  Congress,  in  London,  in  August,  1900,  it 
was  stated  that  "according  to  the  latest  statistics 
we  muster  about  12,000,000."  From  all  it  may 
safely  be  stated  that  the  population  is,  perhaps, 
between  11,000,000  and  12,000,000.  But  what- 
ever the  number,  Judaism  is  not  a  unit.  It  is 
divided  and  split  up  in  parties.  The  great  mass 
is  indifferent  and  this  indifference  is  especially 
seen  in  the  number  of  mixed  marriages.  A  Jew- 
ish writer  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  1900  tells 
us  that  during  the  years  1891-1896,2,087  mixed 
marriages  took  place  in  Prussia,  and  985  in 
Berlin  alone.  In  New  South  Wales,  we  glean 
from  another  source,  as  many  as  361  mixed  mar- 
riages took  place,  whereas  1,562  Jews  married 
within  their  own  religion.  Many  Jews  belong 
outwardly  to  Judaism,  but  their  children  are 
brought  up  as  Christians.  The  rich  and  influen- 
tial Jews  have  no  interest  whatever  in  Judaism, 
and  "Zionism"  is  to  the  ones  a  stumbling  block, 
to  others,  foolishness.  What  the  Jews  need  is  the 
Gospel  as  the  only  power  which  can  burst  the 
chains  in  which  their  consciences  lie  stricken, 
and  fill  their  unsteady  hearts  with  that  peace 
which  passeth  understanding. 

The  Jews  like  to  say  that  there  are  no  con- 
verts really  convinced  of  the  truth  of  Christian- 
ity; that  they  were  all  bought,  somehow  or  other, 
etc.  It  would  be  a  waste  of  time  and  of  paper 
and  ink  to  refute  these  assertions.  It  were  a 
very  easy  matter  to  mention  a  host  of  professors, 
ministers,  teachers  and  others,  who  were  blessed 
with  earthly  means,  and  yet  became  followers  of 
Christ.  If  names  count,  we  could  fill  page  after 
page  with  names  of  Jewish  converts  who  dis- 
tinguished  themselves   in   every   sphere  of   life. 


■Jeypnr 
Jiidson 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


368 


We  could  mention  bishops,  translators  of  the 
Bible,  physicians,  statesmen,  church  historians, 
etc.  That  they  thus  became  famous  was  not 
because  they  happened  to  be  born  within  the 
pale  of  Judaism,  but  because  Christianity  gave 
their  lives  a  new  direction.  Modern  Jews,  with 
whom  not  religion,  but  the  race,  is  all,  are  prone 
to  call  these  followers  of  Christ  "apostates'  and 
"renegades,"  but  this  arrogant  and  insulting 
nomenclature  will  neither  disgrace  the  Jewish 
converts  nor  hinder  others  from  joining  the  army 
of  apostates.  We  know  that  there  are  different 
views  concerning  the  mission  among  the  Jews. 
There  are  many  well-meaning  Christians  who 
think  that  the  Jews  should  be  left  alone.  But 
the  command  of  the  Lord  is  still  valid,  and  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  Church  to  be  obedient  to  that 
command,  leaving  the  result  of  the  work  to  Him 
Who  commanded  it. 

JEYPUR.     See  Jaipur. 

JHALOD:  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Panch  Mahals. 
Population  (1891)  6,000,  of  whom  5,000  are  Hin- 
dus. Station  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ire- 
land (1895),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  9  native  workers,  5  day  schools  and  an 
orphanage. 

JHANG  BAR:  A  district  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
lying  along  the  Chenab  River  and  about  100 
miles  west  of  Lahore.  Station  circuit  of  the 
CMS  (1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  13  native 
workers,  1  day  school  and  4,699  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  176  are  communicants.  The 
field  covers  some  5,000  square  miles  and  the 
Christians  are  scattered  in  130  congregations, 
separated  sometimes  by  considerable  distances. 

JHANSI:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  65  miles  south  of  Gwalior.  A  walled  town, 
'strongly  fortified;  surrounded  by  fine  groves.  It 
is  a  military  post  and  a  railway  center.  Climate, 
intensely  hot.  Altitude,  855  feet.  Population 
(1891),  52,000,  of  whom  35,400  are  Hindus  and 
8,100  are  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1886),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
2  women  missionaries,  4  native  workers,  men  and 
women,  and  4  elementary  schools.  Station  also 
of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  7  native 
workers  and  4  outstations.  Station  also  of  the 
Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society  (1898),  with 
2  women  missionaries,  3  native  women  workers, 
1  dispensary  and  1  hospital.  The  YWCA  also 
has  2  women  agents  here  and  a  Young  Woman's 
Christian  Association. 

JHELUM.     See  Jehlam. 

JIAGANJ:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
in  the  district  of  Murshidabad,  on  the  Bhagara- 
thi  River,  about  14  miles  N.  of  Berhampur. 
Population,  with  Azringanj,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  river,  is  13,500.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1892), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  of  whom  one  is  a  physician;  7  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  4  day  schools  and  a 
hospital. 

JIBARA:  A  town  and  seaport  in  the  Island  of 
Cuba,  W.  I.,  situated  70  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  San- 
tiago. Population  26,300.  Station  of  the 
AFFM,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries  and  1  day  school.  Name  also  writ- 
ten Gibara. 

JIKAU :  A  town  in  the  Congo  Free  State,  Cen- 
tral Africa,  situated  on  the  Maringa  River,  600 
miles  from  Stanley  Pool.     Station  of  the  Regions 


Beyond  Missionary  Union  (1889),  with  (1900) 
4  missionaries,  2  with  their  wives;  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 2  native  workers,  1  day  school  and  a 

dispensary. 

JILORE:  A  settlement  in  British  East  Africa, 
among  the  Giriama  tribes,  and  situated  in  the 
valley  of  the  Savaki  River,  about  75  mOes  N.  of 
Mombasa.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1890),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  15  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  13  outstations,  2  day  schools  and  161 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  50  are  communi- 
cants. 

JIMBA.     See  Jumba. 

JODHPUR:  A  town  in  Raj  pu  tana,  India,  cap- 
ital of  the  native  state  of  Jodhpur  (also  called 
Marwar).  It  is  situated  98  miles  W.  of  Ajmere. 
The  town  was  built  in  1549  and  is  surrounded  by 
a  strong  wall  six  miles  in  circuit,  with  seventy 
gates.  The  Maharaja's  palace  stands  on  the 
crest  of  a  hill  overlooking  the  town  several  hun- 
dred feet  below.  Population  (1901)  60,437,  of 
whom  more  than  three-fourths  are  Hindus.  Sta- 
tion of  the  UFS  (1885),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  3  native  work- 
ers, a  dispensary  and  a  hospital.  Name  also 
written  Jodpur. 

JOHANNESBURG:  A  town  in  the  Transvaal 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  30  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Pretoria,  at  an  altitude  of  5,600  feet,  in  the  Wit- 
watersrand  gold  fields.  The  climate  is  pleasant 
and  healthful.  The  European  population  exceeds 
40,000,  and  the  whole  population  is  (1896) 
105,000.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  12 
missionaries,  278  native  workers,  men  and 
women ;  99  preaching  places,  9  elementary 
schools,  1  boarding  school  and  3,029  professed 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  Berlin  Mission- 
ary Society  (1887),  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  11 
native  workers,  7  outstations,  and  395  professed 
Christians.  Also  of  the  ABCFM  (1893),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  woman  missionary. 
Also  station  of  the  South  Africa  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  1  missionary. 

JOHNSON,  Albert  Osborne:  Born  at  Cadiz,  0., 
June  22,  1833;  graduated  at  Jefferson  College, 
1852;  Western  Theological  Seminary,  1855; 
ordained  by  Presbytery  of  Ohio  in  June  and 
sailed  July  17,  same  year,  for  India,  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  PN.  fie  was  stationed  at  Fateh- 
garh.  At  the  commencement  of  the  Sepoy 
mutiny  he  with  others  attempted  to  reach  Alla- 
habad, a  British  station,  but  was  made  prisoner 
and  put  to  death  at  Cawnpur  by  order  of  the 
rebel  chief  Nana  Sahib,  June  13,  1857. 

JOKEA:  A  settlement  in  British  New  Guinea, 
situated  on  the  S.  coast  of  the  island,  about  90 
miles  N.  W.  of  Port  Moresby.  Station  of  the 
LMS  (1894),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  2 
native  workers. 

JOKYOKARTA:  A  town  in  Java,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  55  miles  south  of  Samarang.  It 
is  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  residency.  Popula- 
tion 59,000.  Station  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
the  Netherlands  (1895),  with  (1900)  2  mission- 
aries (one  of  them  a  physician)  and  their  wives,  2 
native  workers,  2  outstations  and  1  dispensary. 
Name  written  by  the  Society,  Djokjokarta. 

JOLOF  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Negro  group 
of  African  languages.  It  is  spoken  by  a  con- 
siderable number  of  tribesmen  inhabiting  the 
region  bordering  on  the  Gambia  River  in  West 
Africa.     It  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  mis- 


369 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Jeypnr 
Judson 


sionaries,  with  use  of  the  Roman  alphabet.      It 
is  also  called  Wolof . 

JROD.     See  Erode. 

JUD^O-GERMAN,  JUDiEO-SPANISH,  etc., 
language :  These  and  similar  compounds  are  used 
to  designate  the  form,  when  written  with  Hebrew 
letters,  of  the  German,  Polish,  Spanish,  etc., 
languages  used  by  Jews  to  whom  these  languages 
(or  some  dialect  of  them)  have  become  vernacu- 
lar. 

JTJDD,  Gerrit  Parmelee:  Born  at  Paris,  N.  Y., 
April  23,  1903;  studied  medicine  with  his  father 
at  Paris,  and  at  the  Medical  College,  Fairfield, 
N.  Y.;  sailed  as  a  medical  missionary  of  the 
American  Board  for  the  Sandwich  Islands,  reach- 
ing Honolulu  March  31,  1828.  In  1840  he  accom- 
panied Captain  Wilkes  in  his  exploring  expedi- 
tion through  the  islands.  After  fourteen  years' 
faithful  missionary  work  his  connection  with  the 
mission  ceased,  and  in  1842  he  became  recorder 
and  interpreter  to  the  Government  of  Kameha- 
meha  III.  When  Lord  George  Paulet  took  pos- 
session of  the  islands  in  1843,  Dr.  Judd  was 
appointed  one  of  the  joint  commission  to  repre- 
sent the  king.  When  the  government  was 
restored  to  Kamehameha  July  31,  1843,  he  was 
invited  by  the  king  to  organize  a  ministry,  which 
he  did,  and  this  was  the  first  Hawaiian  cabinet. 
In  1844  he  became  minister  of  finance,  which 
office  he  held  till  1853.  He  extricated  the 
government  from  its  financial  embarrassments 
and  in  many  ways  was  eminently  serviceable  to 
the  nation.  He  died  at  Honolulu,  January  12, 
1873. 

JUDSOIT,  Adoniram:  Born  at  Maiden,  Mass., 
August  9,  1788;  graduated  at  Brown  University, 
first  in  his  class,  1807.  After  graduating  he 
taught  school  for  a  year,  and  published  Elements 
of  English  Grammar  and  Young  Ladies'  Arith- 
metic. In  1808  he  entered  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  not  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry  or  a 
professor  of  religion,  but  as  a  person  deeply  in 
earnest  on  the  subject,  and  desirous  of  arriving 
at  the  truth.  In  the  seminary  that  year  he  was 
converted.  The  reading  of  Buchanan's  Star  in 
the  East  and  his  association  with  Mills,  Richards 
and  Hall,  who  had  arrived  at  Andover  from 
Williams  College,  led  him  to  resolve  to  become  a 
missionary  to  the  heathen.  The  ABCFM  having 
been  formed  in  1810,  and  its  funds  not  being  suf- 
ficient to  justify  the  appointment  of  the  six 
young  men  who  wished  to  go  on  a  foreign  mis- 
sion, Mr.  Judson  was  sent  to  England  to  secure 
the  cooperation  of  the  London  Missionary  Society 
in  the  support  of  a  mission  in  the  East.  On  the 
voyage  the  English  ship  was  captured  by  the 
French  and  he  was  thrown  into  prison  at 
Bayonne.  Released,  he  proceeded  to  England. 
Unsuccessful  in  the  immediate  object  of  his  jour- 
ney, he  was,  on  his  return,  appointed  by  the 
American  Board  as  a  missionary  to  India  or 
Burma,  and,  embarking  February  19,  1812, 
reached  Calcutta  June  17.  Having  changed 
his  views  with  regard  to  baptism,  he  severed  his 
connection  with  the  Board.  Being  forbidden  to 
remain  in  the  East  India  Company's  territories, 
he  went,  with  his  wife,  to  Mauritius.  Here  he 
.  remained  four  months,  laboring  among  the 
English  sailors  of  the  garrison,  and  then  sailed 
for  Madras.  Fearing  to  remain  in  the  Com- 
pany's territory  he  embarked  for  Rangun,  Burma, 
which  he  reached  July,  1813.     He  and  his  wife 


took  up  their  residence  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Felix 
Carey,  who  was  then  absent,  and  who  afterward 
resigned  his  mission  in  their  favor.  After  six 
years'  labor,  the  first  convert,  Moung  Nau,  was 
baptized.  From  1824  to  1826,  during  the  war  of 
England  with  Burma,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson 
endured  terrible  hardships.  Suspected  of  being 
a  spy,  he  was  arrested  in  his  house  by  an  officer, 
accompanied  by  an  executioner,  who  seized  him, 
threw  him  on  the  floor,  bound  him  fast  with  cords 
and  dragged  him  away  from  his  wife.  He  was 
thrown  into  the  death-prison,  and  for  seventeen 
months  confined  in  the  loathsome  jails  of  Ava 
and  Oung-pen-la,  being  bound  during  this  period 
with  three  and,  during  two  months,  with  five 
pairs  of  fetters.  His  sufferings  from  fever,  heat, 
hunger,  and  the  cruelty  of  his  keepers  were 
excruciating.  Mrs.  Judson  also  suffered,  tho 
not  imprisoned.  By  her  persistent  entreaties 
and  large  presents,  and  finally  by  the  demand  of 
General  Campbell,  he  was,  at  the  end  of  two  years, 
released.  In  1826  the  headquarters  of  the  mis- 
sion were  transferred  to  Amherst.  But  he  was 
soon  called  to  Ava  to  act  as  interpreter  in  the 
negotiation  of  a  new  treaty  between  the  English 
and  the  Burmese.  In  his  absence  his  wife  died. 
In  1829  he  joined  the  Boardmans  at  Maulmain, 
which  became  the  chief  seat  of  the  Baptist  mis- 
sions in  Burma.  Desiring  to  carry  the  Gospel 
to  Central  Burma,  Mr.  Judson  in  1830  made  long 
tours  in  the  interior,  and  spent  three  months  in 
futile  efforts  to  establish  a  mission  in  the  ancient 
city  of  Prome.  Before  returning  to  Maulmain 
he  spent  a  year  in  Rangun.  At  a  great  festival 
here  he  was  applied  to  by  thousands  for  tracts. 
In  1831-32  Mr.  Judson  made  three  tours  among 
the  Karens,  and  with  encouraging  success.  In 
1834  he  was  married  to  Mrs.  Sarah  H.  Boardman. 
During  that  year  he  completed  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  Burmese,  which  he  had  commenced 
seventeen  years  before  in  Rangun.  In  1838  he 
says  there  were  above  a  thousand  converts  from 
heathenism  formed  into  churches.  In  1839, 
threatened  with  pulmonary  disease,  he  took  a 
short  voyage,  returning  to  Maulmain  in  two 
months  with  health  somewhat  improved.  In 
1842  he  commenced,  at  the  urgent  request  of  the 
Board,  the  preparation  of  a  Burman  dictionary. 
In  1845  he  embarked  for  America  for  his  own 
health  and  that  of  his  wife,  accompanied  by  two 
Burman  assistants  to  help  him  in  his  work  on  the 
dictionary.  Mrs.  Judson  died  at  St.  Helena. 
He  reached  Boston  October  15.  Too  weak  for 
public  speaking,  he  addressed  crowded  assem- 
blies through  an  interpreter.  Having  again 
married,  he  returned  to  Burma  in  1846,  and 
soon  resumed  work  at  Rangun  on  the  diction- 
ary. But  the  intolerance  of  the  Burmese  Gov- 
ernment and  the  sickness  of  the  missionaries 
caused  him  to  leave  Rangun  and  return  to 
Maulmain,  which  he  reached  September  5,  1847. 
Here  he  worked  steadily  at  the  dictionary,  which 
he  was  compelled  to  leave  unfinished,  for  his 
health  had  so  utterly  failed  that  in  1850  he  set 
out  for  a  long  sea-voyage  as  the  only  hope  of 
saving  his  life.  He  died  April  12,  1850,  scarcely 
three  days  out  of  sight  of  the  mountains  of 
Burma,  and  his  body  was  committed  to  the  deep. 
Dr.  Judson  was  a  man  of  vigorous  intellect  and 
fervent  piety,  a  close  student,  and  very  thorough 
in  his  work.  He  was  well  known  throughout 
India.  The  Crown  Prince  of  Siam  invited  him 
to    visit    Siam    at    his    expense.     The    English 


JndROn 
Kacltcli 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


360 


authorities  profoundly  respected  him,  and  the 
native  converts  greatly  revered  and  loved  him. 
Numerous  converts,  a  corps  of  trained  native 
assistants,  the  translation  of  the  Bible  and  other 
valuable  books  into  Burmese,  and  a  large  Bur- 
man  and  English  dictionary  nearly  completed 
are  some  of  the  direct  fruits  of  his  thirty-seven 
years  of  missionary  service. 

JUDSON,  Ann  Hasseltine:  Born  at  Bradford, 

Mass.,  December  22,  1789;  taught  for  several 
years  after  leaving  Bradford  Academy;  married 
Dr.  Judson  and  embarlced  with  him  for  Burma 
February  19,  1812,  and  in  July,  1813,  reached 
Rangun.  Her  health  having  failed  in  a  year  and 
a  half,  she  sailed  for  Madras  January,  1815, 
returning  after  an  absence  of  three  months  with 
health  much  improved.  Several  thousands  of 
Siamese  being  in  Rangun,  she  studied  that  lan- 
guage, and  with  the  assistance  of  her  teacher 
translated  into  it  the  Burman  Catechism,  a  tract, 
and  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  She  also  translated 
a  celebrated  Siamese  work  into  English.  She 
had  frequent  meetings  with  the  women.  In  1820 
she  became  seriously  ill,  and  was  taken  by  Dr. 
Judson  to  Calcutta,  partly  for  a  voyage  and 
partly  to  procure  medical  assistance.  She 
returned  with  health  improved,  but  soon  was 
again  prostrated,  and  August  21,  1821,  embarked 
for  America  by  the  way  of  England,  reaching 
home  in  September,  1822.  While  there  a  history 
of  the  Burman  mission,  begun  by  her  in  London, 
was  published  in  England.  With  health  par- 
tially restored  she  returned  to  Burma  with  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Wade,  reaching  Rangun  December  5, 
1823,  and  with  Dr.  Judson  removed  to  Ava. 
There  she  soon  had  a  school  of  native  girls.  But 
on  the  breaking  out  of  war  with  England  she  was 
called  to  share  in  his  sufferings.  While  he  was 
fettered  in  the  death  prison,  she  was  guarded  in 
her  own  house  by  ten  ruffianly  men,  deprived  of 
her  furniture  and  most  of  her  personal  effects. 
Being  released  the  third  day,  she  sought  in 
various  ways  the  comfort  and  release  of  her  hus- 
band. "She  followed  him  from  prison  to  prison, 
ministering  to  his  wants,  trying  to  soften  the 
hearts  of  his  keepers,  to  mitigate  his  sufferings, 
interceding  with  government  officials  or  with 
members  of  the  royal  family.  For  a  year  and  a 
half  she  thus  exerted  herself,  walking  miles  in 
feeble  health,  in  the  darkness  of  the  night  or  under 
a  noonday  sun,  much  of  the  time  with  a  babe  in 
her  arms."  After  a  treaty  of  peace  was  con- 
cluded, Dr.  and  Mrs.  Judson  were  again  at  Ran- 
gun March  21,  1826,  having  been  absent  two 
years  and  three  months.  The  English  having 
made  the  new  town  of  Amherst  their  capital. 
Dr.  and  Mrs.  Judson  established  the  mission 
there.  During  his  absence  at  Ava  as  interpreter 
for  the  English  and  Burmans,  Mrs.  Judson  built 
a  small  bamboo  dwelling-house  and  two  school- 
houses,  in  one  of  which  she  gathered  ten  children; 
in  the  other  she  herself  assembled  the  few  native 
converts  for  worship  on  the  Sabbath.  In  the 
midst  of  these  toils  she  was  attacked  with  fever, 
and,  after  sixteen  days'  illness,  died,  October  24, 
1826,  in  the  37th  year  of  her  age.  She  was  a 
woman  of  mental  endowments,  earnest  piety, 
self-sacrificing  devotion,  great  perseverance, 
unaffected  dignity  and  refinement. 

JUDSOIC,  Emily  Chubbuck:  Born  at  Eaton, 
N.  Y.,  August  22,  1817;  taught  at  Utica;  married 
Dr.   Judson,   and   in   1847   sailed  with  him  for 


Burma.  A  popular  writer,  she  wrote,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  "Fanny  Forester,"  articles  of  prose 
and  poetry  for  various  magazines.  She  wrote  alsa 
several  Sunday  school  books.  While  in  Rangun 
she  wrote  the  memoir  of  Mrs.  Sarah  B.  Judson, 
and  in  Maulmain  composed  several  of  her  best 
poems.  After  her  husband's  death  she  returned 
home  in  1851  with  health  much  impaired,  and 
devoted  herself  to  the  care  of  her  children  and 
aged  parents,  and  to  literary  pursuits.  She  gave 
much  time  to  the  preparation  of  the  papers  for 
President  Wayland's  Memoirs  of  Dr.  Judson. 
She  died  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  June  1,  1854. 

JUDSON,  Sarah  Hall  (Boardman):  Born  at 
Alstead,  N.  H.,  November  4,  1803;  married  Rev. 
George  Dana  Boardman  and  embarked  July  16, 
1825,  for  Burma,  but  was  detained  in  Calcutta  by 
the  war  till  1827.  After  Mr.  Boardman's  death 
she  determined,  tho  urged  by  friends  in  America 
to  return,  to  remain  in  Tavoy,  and  for  three  years 
of  her  widowhood  she  continued  her  husband's 
work,  proclaiming  Christ  to  Karen  inquirers,  con- 
ducting schools  and  making  long  tours,  often  in 
drenching  rains,  "through  wild  mountain  passes, 
over  swollen  streams  and  deceitful  marshes, 
among  the  craggy  rocks  and  tangled  shrubs  of 
the  jungle."  In  April,  1834,  she  was  married  to 
Dr.  Judson.  She  was  familiar  with  the  Bur- 
mese language,  having  acquired  unusual  fluency 
and  power  in  conversation  and  prayer,  and 
writing  it  with  accuracy.  She  conducted  weekly 
prayer-meetings  with  the  female  church-members 
and  another  for  the  study  of  the  Bible.  She 
translated  into  Burmese  the  first  part  of  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  several  tracts,  twenty  of  the  best  hymns 
used  in  the  Chapel  Hymn-book,  four  volumes  of 
Scripture  Questions  for  Sunday  schools  and  a  series 
of  Sunday  cards,  each  containing  a  short  hymn. 
She  learned  also  the  language  of  the  Peguans, 
and  superintended  the  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  and  the  principal  Burmese  tracts  into 
that  language.  Her  health  having  failed,  she 
left  for  home  with  Dr.  Judson  April  26,  1845. 
She  died  on  shipboard  in  the  harbor  of  St. 
Helena,  September  1,  1845  and  was  buried  on  the 
island,  having  spent  twenty-one  years  in  mis- 
sion work. 

JUIZ  DE  FORA:  A  town  in  Brazil,  S.  America, 
situated  on  the  Parahiba  River,  85  miles  N.  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  at  an  altitude  of  2,300  feet. 
Population  (with  the  district)  15,000.  Station 
of  the  MES  (1884),  with  (1900)  3  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  3  women  missionaries,  3  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  8  Sunday  schools,  2  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  theological  training 
school  and  328  professed  evangelical  Christians. 
Also  called  Parahibuna. 

JU-JU,  The  Long:  This  was  a  fetish  jealously 
guarded  by  the  Aro  tribe  at  a  point  not  far  from 
Cross  River  in  Southern  Nigeria.  The  Aro  tribe 
has  long  been  celebrated  for  slave-hunting,  can- 
nibalism, guardianship  of  this  important  shrine, 
and  determined  refusal  to  recognize  the  British 
rule  or  to  permit  foreigners  in  their  land.  In  the 
heart  of  their  country  the  Long  Ju-ju  was  shrouded 
in  mystery.  Fierce  and  bloodthirstv  guards  sur- 
rounded the  place,  in  a  circle  of  villages  where 
all  had  to  settle  who  wished  to  consult  the  Ju-ju. 
Such  visitors  after  some  delay  were  taken  in 
batches,  blindfolded,  and  led  to  the  terrible  place 
which  no  man  of  West  Africa  mentions  without 
a  shudder.     Few  who  trusted  themselves  to  the 


861 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Judaon 
Kaclicli 


guards  of  the  Long  Ju-ju  ever  returned.  Those 
who  did  return  were  worn  and  prematurely  aged, 
stripped  of  all  possessions  and  unwilling  to  speak 
of  what  they  had  seen. 

A  case  reached  the  ears  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment where  800  wretches  from  Nigeria,  who  had 
been  charged  by  their  tribes  with  various  crimes, 
had  sought  to  prove  their  innocence  by  the  weary 
pilgrimage  involved  in  an  appeal  to  the  arbitra- 
ment of  the  Long  Ju-ju.  A  miserable  remnant 
of  136  feeble  and  broken  creatures  was  all  that 
ever  returned,  and  since  the  Aro  country  is  in 
British  territory,  credit  for  the  horrors  of  the 
great  fetish  was  laid  at  the  door  of  the  English. 

After  much  evidence  that  the  place  was  a  cen- 
ter of  infernal  rites  and  beastly  cannibalism,  the 
British  Government  demanded  that  the  Aros 
suppress  these  practises.  The  demand  having 
been  insolently  refused,  a  force  was  sent  into  the 
country  in  1901  which  broke  the  power  of  the 
Aros  and  captured  the  Long  Ju-ju  shrine. 

The  place  of  the  shrine  was  a  narrow  pit-like 
crater  seventy  feet  deep  and  200  feet  long,  sur- 
rounded by  dense  brush.  In  the  bottom  of  the 
crater  was  a  singular,  rent  rock  from  which 
poured  forth  two  large  streams  of  water.  This 
curious  double  stream  pouring  from  rents  in  the 
solid  sock,  was  the  Long  Ju-ju.  It  was  shut  in 
by  a  roof  of  human  skulls  and  veiled  by  a  curtain 
of  cloth  and  matting.  In  front  of  the  double 
water  source  were  two  altars  foul  with  blood  and 
covered  with  votive  offerings  and  the  recently 
stripped  skulls  of  men.  The  water  of  the  great 
double  spring  flowed  away  in  a  stream  of  some 
depth,  and  in  the  water  were  fish.  There  were 
numbers  of  fish — strange,  yellow-eyed  creatures, 
tame  through  confidence  that  abundance  of  blood 
and  offal  from  human  sacrifices  would  continue 
to  fatten  them  as  of  old.  All  the  approaches  to 
this  awful  place  were  bordered  by  piles  of  human 
skulls. 

It  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the  infernal  cult 
of  fetishism  which  insists  on  human  flesh  for  its 
sacrament.     But  one  thing  could  be  done  with  a 


place  of  such  infamy  and  influence,  and  the  Eng- 
lish commander  had  the  place  blown  up  with 
dynamite. 

JULFA:  A  town  in  Persia,  lying  on  the  Zende 
Rud,  opposite  Ispahan,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  bridges  as  a  suburb.  It  is  peopled  largely  by 
Armenians,  the  descendants  of  captives  brought 
by  Shah  Abbas  from  the  Caucasus.  Station  of 
the  CMS  (1875),  with  14  missionaries,  men  and 
women  (including  hospital  nurses);  32  native 
workers,  men  and  women^a  printing  house,  3  day 
schools,  2  hospitals  and  dispensaries  and  245  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Great  extension  has  been 
given  to  medical  work  here,  which  has  offered 
special  channels  of  access  to  Mohammedans. 
There  is  also  a  sub-agency  of  the  BFBS,  with 
branch  depots  at  Yezd,  Shiraz  and  Sultanabad. 

JULLUHDUR.     See  Jalandhah. 

JUMBA:  A  settlement  in  British  East  Africa, 
situated  about  20  miles  N.  W.  of  Mombasa. 
Station  of  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1886), 
with  (1900)  4  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife. 
Name  also  written  Jimba. 

JUNGO:  A  settlement  in  Uganda,  Central 
Africa,  situated  on  the  northern  shores  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza,  about  32  miles  S.  W.  of  Mengo. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1895),  with  (1903)  109 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  1  preaching 
place,  1  day  school  and  2,320  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  423  are  communicants. 

JU-NING-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  China,  situated  in  the  E.  part  of  the 
province,  about  100  miles  east  of  Nan-yang. 
Station  of  the  American  Norwegian  Church  Mis- 
sion Society  (1899),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife  and  1  native  worker.  Name  written  by 
the  Society  Running  Fu. 

JUNNAR:  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
India,  situated  about  50  miles  N.  of  Poona. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1843),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife. 


K 


KABAKADA:  A  settlement  on  the  island  of 
New  Britain,  or  Neu  Pommern,  in  the  Bismarck 
archipelago.  Western  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island,  and 
is  a  station  of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Mission  Society,  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  65 
native  workers,  4  outstations,  21  places  of  wor- 
ship, 23  day  schools,  1  theological  training 
school  and  331  professed  Christians. 

KABANIROE :  A  town  on  the  western  coast  of 
Sumba  Island,  Dutch  East  Indies.  Station  of 
the  Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands  (1892), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers 
and  281  professed  Christians. 

KABAROLE:  A  settlement  in  the  Toro  district 
of  Uganda,  Africa,  situated  170  miles  W.  of 
Mengo.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1899),  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  two  with  their  wives;  2  women 
missionaries,  30  native  workers,  1  village  school, 
1  female  helpers'  training    class,    1   dispensary. 


1  hospital  and  2,209  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  645  are  communicants.  The  Butiti 
Church  statistics  are  included  with  these. 

KABOEROEANG  ISLAND:  The  same  as 
Kabruang  in  the  Talaut  Islands,  Dutch  East 
Indies. 

KABYLE  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Ham- 
itic  famUy  of  African  languages  and  is  spoken  by 
various  tribes  found  in  Algeria  and  Tunis.  It  is 
written  with  Arabic  letters.  It  is  also  some- 
times called  the  Kabail  language,  Kabail  being 
the  plural  of  Kabyle. 

KACHABARI :  A  village  in  Lohardaga,  district 
of  Chota  Nagpur,  Bengal,  India,  situated  20  miles 
southeast  of  Lohardaga.  A  station  of  the  SPG, 
with  9  native  workers,  1  chapel,  3  day  schools 
and  311  professed  Christians. 

KACHCH:  A  native  state  situated  in  the  Bom- 
bay Presidency,  India,  between  Kathiawar  and 
Sindh.     Its  southwestern  border  rests  upon  the 


KachhTTa 
Kamninet 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Indian  Ocean.  Its  habitable  area  is  about  6,500 
square  miles,  and  its  population  (1901)  487,374. 
North  and  east  of  the  state,  covering  an  area  of 
nearly  9,000  square  miles  (making  the  total  area 
within  the  limits  of  Kachch  over  15,000  square 
miles),  stretches  a  salt  desert,  uninhabitable, 
untillable,  and  often  in  the  rainy  season  impass- 
able, known  as  the  "Rann  of  Kachch."  It  is 
believed  to  be  the  bed  of  what  was  once  an  arm 
of  the  sea,  but  which  has  been  raised  above  its 
original  level  and  cut  off  from  the  ocean.  During 
the  rainy  season  it  is  often  inundated,  partly  by 
the  waves  of  the  sea,  driven  against  it  by  strong 
southerly  winds,  and  partly  by  the  rainfall  from 
the  adjacent  region  draining  into  it.  During  the 
dry  season  its  surface  is  often  encrusted  and  glit- 
tering with  salt.  The  surface  of  Kachch  as  a 
whole  is  described  as  treeless,  rocky  and  barren. 
It  is  cut  by  ranges  of  hills,  rising  at  the  highest 
point  to  an  altitude  of  1,450  feet  above  the  sea. 
There  is  a  fair  proportion  of  good  soil,  tho  grain 
figures  among  the  articles  imported.  Kachch 
is  especially  noted  for  its  beautiful  embroideries 
and  for  its  manufactures  of  silverware.  The 
population  is  about  three-fifths  Hindu  and  a 
little  more  than  one-fifth  Mohammedan;  the 
Jains  number  about  67,000.  The  roads  are  poor, 
and  during  the  rainy  months  the  country  is 
nearly  impassable.  Missionary  operations  have 
been  undertaken  by  the  Kurku  Inland  Mission 
at  one  point  (1897),  where  is  now  a  beginning  of  a 
Christian  community. 

KACHHWA:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  about  20  miles  W.  of  Benares. 
Station  of  the  LMS  (1897),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  1  hospital  and  1  dis- 
pensary. 

KADDAVELLY:  A  town  in  the  N.  W.  part  of 
Ceylon,  India,  situated  about  40  miles  S.  of  Jaffna. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  44  native  workers,  7 
outstations,  8  Sunday  schools,  8  day  schools  and 
76  professed  Christians. 

KADING.     See  Kiating. 

KADIRI:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Cuddapah, 
Madras,  India,  88  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Bangalore. 
Population  (1891)  6,000,  of  whom  4,000  are 
Hindus.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1890),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  20  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  11  outstations,  11  Sabbath 
schools,  10  day  schools  and  293  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

KAFIR  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Bantu 
family  of  African  languages  and  is  spoken  in  the 
Transkei  district  of  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa. 
It  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries 
of  the  WMS,  the  Roman  alphabet  slightly  modi- 
fied being  used. 

KA.FIRLAND:  A  region  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Cape  Colony,  South  Africa,  lying  between  the 
rivers  Kei  and  Umzimkulu,  once  occupied  by  the 
Kafirs.  It  was  also  sometimes  called  Cafraria. 
It  is  now  known  by  the  names  of  the  different 
districts  into  which  it  has  been  divided:  Transkei, 
Tembuland  and  Griqualand  East.  The  great 
attractions  of  the  country,  it  being  at  once  the 
most  salubrious,  fertile  and  picturesque  region  of 
South  Africa,  have  helped  to  overcome  the  diffi- 
culties and  dangers  of  colonization,  and  there  is 
now  a  continuous  zone  of  European  settlements 
throughout  the  region. 

KAFIRS:  The  Xosa,  or  Kafirs,  are  a  tribe  of 
Bantu  blood  found  in  the  eastern  part  of   Cape 


Colony.  Their  account  of  themselves  is  that 
they  came  gradually  down  from  the  northeast, 
some  two  or  three  hundred  years  ago,  and  settled 
in  districts  lying  between  the  Kei  and  the 
Umzimkulu,  out  of  which  they  crowded  the 
weaker  Hottentot  and  Bushman  tribes.  The 
name  Kafir,  which  in  Arabic  signifies  infidel,  or 
those  who  do  not  hold  the  Muslim  faith,  was 
first  applied  by  Arabs  to  the  heathen  tribes  with 
which  as  traders  they  came  in  contact,  along  the 
East  Coast  of  Africa,  which  would  seem  to  give 
sanction  to  the  above  historic  saying.  And  then, 
too,  in  the  Kafir's  practice  of  polygamy  and  the 
rite  of  circumcision,  and  especially  in  his  proud 
bearing  and  martial  spirit,  in  his  somewhat  Ara- 
bian features,  and  in  his  hue,  not  generally  so 
dark  as  that  of  the  pure  negro,  many  see  proof 
of  his  having  been  for  a  time  associated  with 
the  Arab  race. 

KAGOSHIMA:  A  town  in  Kiushiu,  Japan,  situ- 
ated on  a  bay  on  the  S.  E.  coast,  opposite  the 
volcanic  island  of  Satawa  Shima,  and  about  88 
miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Nagasaki.  One  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  of  Japan.  It  has  a  large  number 
of  pottery  factories.  Population  50,000.  Sta- 
tion of  the  RCA  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  5  native  work- 
ers, 5  outstations,  1  chapel,  3  Sunday  schools 
and  75  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
CMS  (1895),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  woman  missionary,  3  native  workers,  1 
outstation,  2  Sunday  schools  and  104  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  34  are  communicants.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  ME,  with  (1900)  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 1  native  worker,  1  chapel,  3  Sunday 
schools  and  47  professed  Christians. 

KAI-FENG-FU :  The  capital  of  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  China,  situated  110  miles  E.  of  Ho-nan- 
fu  and  about  9  miles  from  the  right  bank  of  the 
Hoang  Ho.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  empire 
from  1280  to  1405  under  the  name  of  Tung  King. 
It  possesses  the  only  Jewish  colony  in  China, 
with  an  entire  population  of  100,000  people. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  4  missionaries 
and  1  dispensary. 

KAI-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Sze-chwan,  China, 
situated  55  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Kwei-chau-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  1  missionary  and 
4  outstations. 

KAILANG:  A  village  in  the  Punjab,  India, situ- 
ated in  the  Lahoul  region,  45  miles  northeast  of 
Dharmsala.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mission 
(1856),  with  (1900)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives, 
4  native  workers,  10  day  schools,  1  industrial 
school.     Name  sometimes  spelled  Kyelang. 

KAIRWAN:  A  city  in  Tunis,  N.  Africa,  situ- 
ated in  the  center  of  a  vast  plain  31  miles  W.  S. 
W.  of  Susa.  It  was  founded  in  670.  For  two 
centuries  it  was  the  capital  of  successive  Arabian 
dynasties.  It  has  fine  mosques,  of  which  the 
largest  is  460  feet  square.  Population  about 
10,000.  Station  of  the  North  African  Mission 
(1897),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
2  women  missionaries,  and  a  dispensary. 

KAISARIYEH:  A  city  in  Asiatic  Turkey, 
situated  in  the  province  of  Angora  and  about  200 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  the  City  of  Angora.  It  lies  in 
a  fertile  plain  at  an  altitude  of  3,585  feet,  near  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Argeas  {Erjish).  It  was  in  ancient 
times  capital  of  Cappadocia,  and  is  now  the  seat 
of  an  Armenian  bishop.  The  climate  is  dry, 
pleasant    and    healthful,    with    a   tendency  to 


363 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


KacliU'wa 
Kamamet 


extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  however,  owing  to 
the  altitude  of  the  plain.     Population,  72,000, 
of    whom    45,000    are    Mohammedans,     14,500 
Greeks,  9,000  Armenians,  and  about  2,000  Evan- 
gelicals.    The  Christian  part  of  the  population 
furnish  many  enterprising  business  men  who  find 
their  way  into  foremost  places  in  Constantinople, 
Smyrna,  Adana,  etc.,  and  have  even  made  their 
mark  in  mercantile  circles  in  London,  Manchester 
and  New  York.     Evangelistic  work  was  begun 
in  Cesarea  in  1823  by  Mr.  B.  Barker,  Agent  of  the 
BFBS.     The    Scriptures    which    he    distributed 
here   were   as   seed   falling   into   good     ground. 
Later  the  persecution  of  Protestant  Armenians 
in  Constantinople  had  for  one  of  its  incidents  the 
exile  to  Cesarea  in  1839  of  a  preacher,  Hohannes 
der  Sahagian,  and  of  other  Evangelicals  in  1845. 
These   all   preached   the   Gospel   wherever   they 
were,  with  the  result  that  a  number  of  the  people 
of  the  city,  in  1849,  sent  to  the  ABCFM  mission- 
aries at  Aintab  an  earnest  request  for  a  preacher. 
In  1854  the  ABCFM  sent  Rev.  W.  A.  Farnsworth 
and  Rev.  J.  N.  Ball  to  occupy  the  city  as  a  per- 
manent station.     It  now  (1903)    has  3  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  6  women  missionaries,  74 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  35  outstations, 
25  places  of  worship,  31  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,    1    hospital,     1    dispensary,    and    1,088 
evangelical  Christian  communicants.     The  place 
is  commonly  called  Cesarea  by  English-speaking 
people,  the  name  Kaisariyeh  being  the  Turkish 
corruption  of  this. 

KAI-YUEN:  A  town  in  Manchuria,  Chinese 
Empire,  situated  in  the  province  of  Liao-tung, 
68  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Mukden.  Population,  35,000. 
Station  of  the  UFS  (1896),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  17  native 
workers,  4  outstations,  18  Sunday  schools,  1 
hospital,  1  dispensary,  and  838  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

KAKONDA:  A  town  in  Portuguese  West 
Africa,  situated  140  miles  S.  E.  by  E.  of  Benguela 
in  the  district  of  that  name.  Altitude  5,500 
feet.  Station  of  the  FCMS  (1900),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife. 

KALAHASTI:  A  town  in  the  north  Arcot  dis- 
trict, Madras,  India,  60  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Madras, 
on  the  Suvarnamukhi  River.  Population, 
11,800.  The  town  has  large  bazars,  and  is  a 
place  for  pilgrimage,  as  it  contains  one  of  the 
most  famous  temples  of  Siva.  Station  of  the 
Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1873),  with 

(1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  6  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  3  day  schools,  and  198 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  104  are  commu- 
nicants. 

KALASAPAD :  A  town  in  the  district  of  Nellore, 
Madras,  India,  situated  about  62  miles  northwest 
of  Nellore.     A  station  of  the  SPG  (1861),  with 

(1903)  1  missionary,  60  native  workers,  3  chapels, 
53  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  4,732 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,477  are  com- 
municants.    Name  sometimes  spelled  Kalsapad. 

KALGAN.     See  Chang-kia-kau. 

KALIBASI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  S.  Africa, 
33  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Ladysmith.  Station  of  the 
UFS  (1897),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  14  native  workers,  14  outstations,  10  day 
schools,  and  427  professed  Christians. 

KALIMPONG:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situ- 
ated on  the  borders  of  Bhutan  and  Sikkira,  about 
15  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Darjiling,  at  an  altitude  of 


5,000  feet.  It  is  a  strange  meeting  place  of  races 
and  religions.  The  town  has  about  13,000  inhab- 
itants, who  are  Nepalis,  Lepches,  Bhutias,  and 
other  hillmen,  besides  plainmen  of  various 
classes.  In  religion  there  way  be  seen  Buddhists, 
Hindus,  Spirit-worshipers,  Mohammedans,  and 
Christians,  and  all  contrive  to  carry  on  traffic  in 
spite  of  divergences  of  language  and  creed. 
Station  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Mis- 
sions' Committee  (1873),  and  the  C.  of  S. Woman's 
Missions  Committee  (1899),  with,  together 
(1900),  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4  women 
missionaries,  12  native  workers,  men  and  women, 
and  1  dispensary.  Another  name  of  this  place  is 
Dalingkot. 

KALITJERET:  A  town  in  the  island  of  Java, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  30  miles  S.  W.  of 
Samarang.  Station  of  the  Neukirchen  Mission- 
ary Society  (1885),  with  2  missionaries,  11  native 
workers,  10  outstations,  and  2  schools. 

KALKA:  A  village  in  the  Punjab,  India,  23 
miles  S.  W.  of  Simla.  Altitude,  2,000  feet.  Pop- 
ulation, about  5,000.  Station  of  the  BMS  (1888), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife, 
15  native  workers,  men  and  women;  5  outstations, 
and  9  day  schools. 

KALKHAS  LANGUAGE:  A  Mongolian  dialect 
used  in  Chinese  Mongolia.  The  alphabet  is 
nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Manchu. 

KALLAKURCHI :  A  town  in  the  Presidency  of 
Madras,  India,  situated  58  miles  W.  of  Cuddalore. 
Station  of  the  Danish  Missionary  Society  (1894), 
with  2  missionaries  and  2  native  workers.  The 
station  is  called  by  the  Society,  Bethesda. 

KALLAR:  A  village  in  the  E.  part  of  North 
Ceylon,  India,  situated  about  20  miles  S.  E.  of 
Batticaloa.  A  station  of  the  WMS  (1903),  with 
24  native  workers,  12  outstations,  13  chapels,  12 
Sunday  schools,  12  day  schools,  and  121  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

KALMUCKS.     See  Mongols. 

KALMUNAI:  A  town  on  the  E.  coast  of  Ceylon, 
India,situated  about  26  miles  S.  E.  of  Batticaloa. 
Station  of  the  WMS  with  (1903)  2  missionaries, 
1  woman  missionary,  35  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations, 7  chapels,  7  Sunday  schools,  and  178 
professed  Christians. 

KALNA:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Bardwan, 
Bengal,  India,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bhagi- 
rathi  River,  42  miles  N.  of  Calcutta.  Population 
(1891)  9,700,  of  whom  about  8,500  are  Hindus. 
Medical  station  of  the  UFS,  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionary physicians,  4  native  workers  and  4  dis- 
pensaries. The  church  statistics  are  included 
m  those  given  at  Hugli. 

KALUTTURAI :  A  town  in  the  western  part  of 
Ceylon,  situated  about  27  miles  south  by  east  of 
Colombo.  Population,  11,000.  A  station  of  the 
SPG,  with  (1903)  40  native  workers,  3  chapels, 
8  day  schools  and  189  professed  Christians. 
The  WMS  also  has  a  station  at  this  place,  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  35  native  workers,  8  out- 
stations, 8  chapels,  8  Sunday  schools,  12  day 
schools  and  169  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
126  are  communicants.  Name  is  also  sometimes 
spelled  Kalutara. 

KAMAMET:  A  town  in  Haidarabad,  India, 
situated  100  miles  N.  W.  of  Masulipatam.  It  is 
a  station  of  the  CMS  (1888),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  42  native  workers,  1  chapel, 
8  village  schools  and  1,464  professed  Christians, 


Knnibla 
Karaites 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


364 


of  whom  348  are  communicants.  Station  also 
of  the  CEZ  (1889),  with  (1903)  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 28  native  workers,  7  village  schools  and 
1  dispensary.  The  name  is  sometimes  spelled 
Khammamet  and  Khummamett. 

KA.MBIA:  A  town  in  Sierra  Leone,  W.  Africa, 
situated  near  the  frontier  of  French  Guinea  and 
about  25  miles  from  the  sea.  Station  of  the  Pon- 
gas  Mission  (1897),  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife. 

KAMBOLE:  A  settlement  in  British  East 
Africa,  situated  about  25  miles  S.  W.  of  the  south- 
ern end  of  Lake  Tanganvika.  Station  of  the 
LMS  (1894),  with  (1903)  2' missionaries  and  their 
wives,  6  native  workers,  9  schools  and  1  dispen- 
sary. 

KAMERUN:  A  German  protectorate  in  West- 
ern Africa,  lying  between  Nigeria  on  the  north- 
west and  the  French  Congo  on  the  east,  extending 
to  Lake  Chad  on  the  north,  and  having  the  Bight 
of  Biafra  for  its  western  boundary,  with  a  coast 
line  of  199  miles.  Its  area  is  191,130  square 
miles,  with  a  population  estimated  at  3,500,000. 
The  coast  mountains  over  against  the  island  of 
Fernando  Po  rise  at  one  point  to  a  peak  of 
14,000  feet,  surpassed  on  the  African  continent 
only  by  Kenia,  Kilima-Njaro,  Simen  (in  Abys- 
sinia) and  the  lately  explored  Ruwenzori.  Its 
lower  portions  are  covered  with  a  luxuriant  vege- 
tation of  palms,  acacias,  fig-trees,  kokas,  plan- 
tains and  other  trees  and  shrubs.  At  a  height  of 
7,000  feet  are  found  ferns,  grasses  and  heather. 
Springs  are  rare,  none  being  found  above  9,100 
feet.  The  summit  is  bare,  except  for  a  few  trail- 
ing plants  sheltered  in  the  hollows.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  well  watered  by  small  lakes 
and  rivers,  with  their  confluents  and  deltas. 
But  little  of  the  region  has  been  explored  or 
brought  under  the  influence  of  its  European 
masters.  In  the  summer  rainy  season  (May  to 
August)  the  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  and  the  sea- 
son of  the  winter  rains  is  characterized  by  squalls, 
tornados  and  dense  vapors.  The  chief  station 
and  seat  of  government  is  Buea,  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  the  mountain. 

Kameruns  is  a  name  applied  collectively  to  a 
dozen  populous  villages  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Kamerun  estuary. 

The  chief  inhabitants  are  of  Bantu  origin  and 
speech.  These  include  the  lively,  intelligent 
and  daring  but  very  superstitious  Bakwiri, 
between  the  coast  and  the  mountains;  the  indus- 
trious and  equally  superstitious  Bakundu  of  the 
northern  slopes;  the  communistic  Balonga  and 
trading  Abo  east  of  the  Bakundu;  the  tom-tom 
beating  and  well-known  Dualla  of  the  Kamerun 
estuary;  farther  south  the  savage  Bakoko  and  the 
Batanga,  who  are  the  most  skilful  boat-builders 
in  Africa,  and  the  Fangs,  who  are  pressing  to 
the  coast  from  the  interior. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  the  territory  the 
population  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  the 
Sudanese  negroes. 

The  first  missionary  operations  in  this  region 
were  undertaken  by  the  BMS  in  1858,  when  its 
missionaries  were  driven  from  Fernando  Po  by 
Spanish  bigotry.  At  that  time  the  missionaries 
found  danger  from  the  savages  on  the  mainland 
less  than  that  of  the  Europeans  who  ruled  the 
island.  They  transferred  their  work  to  the  Basel 
Missionary  Society  in  1886,  two  years  after  the 
German  Protectorate  was  announced.     The  PN 


(1885)  and  the  German  Baptists  (1891)  also  have 
stations.  There  are  altogether  in  Kamerun  16 
stations  where  missionaries  reside,  with  115 
schools  of  various  grades  and  about  2,500  native 
communicant  Christians. 

KAMPTI:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  8  miles  N.  E.  of  Nagpur,  and  just  below 
the  confluence  of  the  Kanhan  with  the  Pench  and 
Kolar  Rivers.  It  has  considerable  trade  in  tim- 
ber and  grain.  Population  (1891),  43,000,  of 
whom  28,500  are  Hindus  and  11,500  are  Moham- 
medans. Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  14  native  workers,  men  and 
women-  5  day  schools,  an  orphanage  and  83  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

KAMUNDONGA:  A  town  in  Angola,  W.  Africa, 
245  miles  E.  of  Benguela.  Station  of  theABCFM 
(1886),  with  (1901)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  2  women  missionaries,  7  native  workers, 
1  industrial  school,  1  theological  training  class, 
1  hospital,  1  dispensary  and  a  printing  house, 

KANA:  A  settlement  in  the  Transvaal  Colony, 
S.  Africa,  52  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Pretoria.  Station 
of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1867), 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife, 
9  native  workers,  5  outstations,  5  day  schools  and 
1 ,467  professed  Christians. 

KANAUJ:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Farukhabad,  49 
miles  N.  W.  of  Cawnpur,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Kali  Nadi,  formerly  bed  of  the  Ganges.  The 
change  in  the  bed  of  the  river  ruined  the  town. 
Anciently  it  was  a  city  of  importance,  capital  of  a 
great  Aryan  kingdom.  It  was  the  scene  of  sev- 
eral battles  of  the  Turkish  conquerors  of  India. 
Population  (1891)  17,600,  of  whom  10,000  are 
Hindus.  Station  circuit  of  the  ME,  with  (1903) 
14  native  workers,  14  Sunday  schools,  5  day 
schools  and  89  professed  Christians. 

KANAZAWA :  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  the 
W.  coast  of  the  main  island  of  Hondo,  125  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Kioto.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  manu- 
factures of  fans,  pottery,  and  bronze  ware  overlaid 
with  gold  and  silver.  Population  96,600.  Sta- 
tion of  the  PN  (1879),  the  PE  and  the  Methodist 
Church  in  Canada  (1891).  Taken  together  these 
missions  have  (1900)  4  missionaries,  3  wives  of 
missionaries,  6  women  missionaries,  7  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  3  outstations,  3  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  orphanage,  3  indus- 
trial schools,  5  places  of  worship  and  3  Sabbath 
schools. 

KAN-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China,  situated  on  the  Kia-kiang,  213 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Canton.  It  has  somewhat 
important  manufactures  of  Chinese  ink  and  var- 
nish. Station  of  the  CIM  (1899),  with  (1903)  5 
missionaries,  two  of  whom  are  accompanied  by 
their  wives. 

KANDUKUR:  A  town  in  the  Madras  Presi- 
dency, India,  58  miles  N.  of  Nellore.  Population 
(1891)  7,600,  of  whom  6,000  are  Hindus.  Station 
of  the  ABMU  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  9  native  workers,  21  outstations,  2 
places  of  worship,  1  day  school  and  783  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

KAITDY :  A  town  situated  near  the  center  of  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  built  on  the  margin  of  an  arti- 
ficial lake  1,734  feet  above  the  sea,  58  miles  N.  E. 
by  E.  of  Colombo.  It  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  a  kingdom  called  by  that  name,  and  con- 


965 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Kambla 
Karaites 


tains  the  tombs  of  the  Kandian  kings,  together 
with  many  handsome  temples.  Population 
(1891)  20,400.  It  is  the  headquarters  for  mis- 
sion work  and  instruction  in  the  central  part  of 
Ceylon.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1818)  and  CEZ 
(1889),  with  together  (1903)  4  missionaries,  three 
with  their  wives;  6  women  missionaries,  279 
native  workers,  men  and  women:  120  day  schools, 
1  boarding  school,  1  college  (Trinity  College), 
and  5,050  professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,788  are 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  1  woman  missionary,  48 
native  workers,  men  and  women ;  9  outstations, 
9  places  of  worship,  11  Sunday  schools,  12  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  industrial  school  for 
girls  and  223  professed  Christians.  Outstation 
also  of  the  BMS  (1844),  with  a  self-supporting 
church  under  a  native  pastor. 

KANG-HWA:  A  town  situated  on  the  west 
coast  of  Korea,  about  30  miles  northwest  of 
Chemulpo.  A  station  of  the  SPG  (1893),  with 
(1902)  4  missionaries,  6  native  workers,  4  chapels, 
1  high  school  and  24  Christians.  Name  some- 
times spelled  Kang  Hoa. 

KANG-PUI:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung,  China,  45  miles  east  of  Canton.  Station 
of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations, 5  day  schools,  and  239  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  163  are  communicants. 

KANGRA:  A  town  in  Punjab,  India,  situated 
90  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Amritsar.  It  was  formerly 
called  Nagarkot.  Population,  5,200,  of  whom 
4,000  are  Hindus.  It  is  a  station  of  the  CMS 
(1854),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
12  native  workers,  1  chapel,  1  dispensary,  3 
village  schools,  1  industrial  school,  and  99  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  44  are  communicants. 
The  church  statistics  of  Dharmsala  are  included 
in  the  above. 

KANGUNDO:  A  settlement  in  British  E. 
Africa,  in  the  Kikuyu  region,  about  15  miles  from 
the  Ft.  Smith  station  of  the  Uganda  Railway. 
Station  of  the  Africa  Inland  Mission  (1896),  with 
3  missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their  wives. 

KANIGIRI :  A  town  in  the  Madras  Presidency, 
India,  74  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Nellore.  Station  of 
the  ABMU  (1892),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  91  native  workers,  70  outstations,  31 
Sunday  schools,  62  day  schools,  and  8,877  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  3,641  are  communi- 
cants. 

KANNANUR.     See  Cannanore. 

KANO:  A  town  in  North  Central  Africa,  situ- 
ated west  of  Lake  Chad  and  about  320  miles  N. 
N.  W.  of  Lokoja  on  the  Niger.  It  lies  in  the 
territory  of  the  British  Niger  Protectorate,  com- 
monly called  Northern  Nigeria.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  important  commercial  centers  in  Africa, 
having  been  known  as  an  emporium  for  ivory, 
ostrich  feathers  andgum  arable  as  early  as  the  10th 
century.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  ordinary 
currency  used  in  trade  has  consisted  of  slaves. 
Kano  is  often  spoken  of  as  an  important  town  of 
the  "Hausas,"  but  there  is  no  people  called  locally 
by  that  name,  Hausa  being  the  name  of  a  lan- 
guage widely  used  in  trade  by  different  people 
who  are  not  by  any  means  a  coherent  nation, 
altho  the  most  of  the  Hausa-speaking  peoples 
are  dominated  by  Fulani  Mohammedans,  who 
rule  the  land  in  various  independent  states,  of  one 
of  which  Kano  is  the  capital.     In  1903  the  British 


troops,  to  punish  the  Mohammedan  Emir  for  the 
murder  of  a  British  official,  attacked  and  cap- 
tured Kano  and  deposed  the  Emir.  This  break- 
ing of  the  Fulani  yoke  caused  great  rejoicing 
among  the  pagan  majority  of  the  population, 
whom  the  Fulani  Mohammedans  have  long  used 
as  serfs.  Kano  has  a  population  estimated  at 
200,000.  The  CMS  will  establish  a  station  here 
at  an  early  day. 

KANYA:  A  settlement  in  Rhodesia,  South 
Central  Africa,  situated  about  60  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Mafeking.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the  Bang- 
waletsi  tribe  and  residence  of  the  chief,  Bathoen. 
Station  of  the  LMS  (1871),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  40  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  3  schools,  and  2,400  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  642  are  communicants.  Name  written 
by  the  Society,  Kanye. 

KAO-YU-CHAU:  Town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-su,  China,  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal, 
40  miles  N.  of  Chen-kiang-fu.  It  is  the  "Cayu" 
of  Marco  Polo.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1888),  with 
(1903)  4  missionary  women,  3  native  workers, 
1  day  school,  and  1  boarding  school.  Name 
written  by  the  Society,  Kao-yiu. 

KAPASDANGA:  A  village  in  the  district  of 
Nadiya,  Bengal,  India,  situated  20  miles  N.  E.  of 
Krishnagar.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1885),  with 
(1903)  2  women  missionaries,  3  native  workers, 
1  village  school,  and  1  female  helpers'  training 
class.  The  central  station  has  now  been  trans- 
ferred to  Ratnapur.  The  CMS  has  here  (1903) 
8  native  workers,  750  Christians,  1  chapel,  and  4 
day  schools.  The  work  is  now  in  charge  of  the 
local  district  church  council. 

KARACni:  A  town  and  the  capital  of  Sind, 
India,  situated  90  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Haidarabad 
on  a  small  bay  W.  of  the  Indus.  It  carries  on  an 
important  export  trade  in  wheat.  Population 
(1891)  of  98,200,  of  whom  51,400  are  Muslims 
and  42,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1850),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
4  native  workers,  1  chapel,  3  day  schools,  and 
99  professed  Christians,  of  whom  53  are  commu- 
nicants. Station  also  of  the  CEZ  (1880),  with 
(1903)  3  women  missionaries,  18  native  workers, 
7  village  schools.  Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  14  native  workers,  1 
chapel,  3  Sunday  schools,  2  village  schools,  and 
292  professed  Christians,  of  whom  40  are  com- 
municants. 

KARAITES:  A  Jewish  sect,  existing  in  Russia 
(chiefly  in  the  Crimea),  Austria  (Galicia),  Turkey, 
and  other  countries  of  the  East,  are  distin- 
guished by  a  strict  adherence  to  the  Biblical 
books,  and  the  rejection,  except  as  exegetical 
aids,  of  all  oral  traditions  and  Talmudical  inter- 
pretations. They  themselves  trace  their  origin 
to  the  time  of  Shalmanesar,  and  since  he  carried 
the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  to  the  north,  they  hold 
they  must  worship  with  their  faces  to  the  south. 
Karaite  historians  are  now,  however,  greatly  di- 
vided on  the  subject  of  this  origin.  The  Karaites 
have  produced  a  valuable  literature,  not  only  on 
Biblical  interpretations,  dogmatics,  and  other 
religious  topics,  but  also  on  philosophy  and  mathe- 
matics, written  partly  in  Hebrew  or  Arabic, 
partly  in  a  curious  dialect  of  Turkish,  which 
is  a  peculiar  idiom  of  their  own,  in  a  region 
bordering  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  partly  in  the 
languages  of  the  several  countries  which  they 
inhabit.  Their  literature  is,  however,  very  little 
known  to  the  Occidental  world.     Several  of  their 


Karaltlc 
Kaslinilr 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


see 


principal  writings  have  been  published  at 
Eupatoria,  in  the  Crimea.  The  name  is  also 
written  Caraites. 

KARAITIC  TARTAR  TURKISH.  See  Tubk- 
ISH  Language. 

KARAKAL :  A  town  in  South  Kanara,  Madras, 
India,  30  miles  N.  E.  of  Mangalore.  Station  of 
the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1872),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  13  native  workers, 
4  outstations,  5  elementary  schools,  and  188 
professed  Christians.  The  name  as  written  by 
the  Society  is  Karkala. 

KARASS  LANGUAGE :  Name  improperly  given 
to  the  Nogai  dialect  of  Turkish. 

KARATA :  A  settlement  in  Nicaragua,  Central 
America,  in  the  Mosquito  Reservation,  about  140 
miles  north  of  Bluefields.  Station  of  the  Mora- 
vian Mission  (1880),  with  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  wife,  6  native  workers,  men  and  women;  1 
chapel,  and  1  day  schoel. 

KARELIAN  LANGUAGE :  A  dialect  of  the  Fin- 
nish which  is  spoken  in  the  district  of  Tver  in  Rus- 
sia.   It  is  written  with  the  Russian  alphabet. 

KARENS :  The  Karens  include  several  related 
tribes,  scattered  over  various  portions  of  Lower 
Burma,  and  extending  into  Northern  Siam.  All 
told  they  number  probably  not  far  from  one 
million.  Evidence  seems  to  indicate  that  their 
ancestors  came  into  Burma  from  western  China. 
Indeed  they  bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
the  alien  people  of  western  China  to-day,  called 
by  the  Chinese  Ya-yin  or  "wild  people."  The 
language  of  the  Karens  is  of  the  monosyllabic 
class  and  Tibeto-Burman  family.  It  was  un- 
written until  the  coming  of  the  missionaries, 
who  adapted  the  Burmese  alphabet  to  its  use. 
Its  various  dialects  so  far  resemble  each  other  that 
missionary  work  is  carried  on  mainly  through 
the  use  of  two,  the  Sgau  and  the  Pwo  dialects. 
Dr.  Mason  has  grouped  the  various  Karen 
tribes  concisely  under  three  sub-divisions,  viz., 
the  Sgaus,  Pwos,  and  Bghais.  With  the  Sgaus 
proper  he  included  the  Pakus,  Maunephghas, 
and  the  small  tribe  of  the  We-was;  while  the 
Mopghas  are  classed  with  the  Pwos.  The  total 
number  of  Pwos  and  of  Sgaus  has  been  given  as 
310,000  and  260,000,  respectively.  Both  these 
tribes  are  scattered  widely  over  lower  Burma, 
between  the  eastern  and  western  Yoma  mountain 
ranges,  over  the  deltas  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  the 
Salwen,  and  on  the  extreme  south  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Tenasserim.  The  Sgaus  and  allied  tribes 
extend  as  far  north  as  Prome  and  Taung-ngu,  the 
Pakus  being  found  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Taung-ngu  district,  while  the  Maunephghas  are 
east  from  Shwegyin.  The  Pwos  are  possessed  of 
rather  stronger  natural  traits,  and  stand  rather 
higher  in  the  scale  of  civilization  than  the  Sgaus. 
Being  more  Burmanized,  however,  they  are  less 
accessible  to  the  Gospel,  and  the  transforming 
power  of  Christian  education  is  seen  chiefly 
among  the  Sgaus.  These  tribes  are  somewhat 
low  in  stature,  with  olive  complexion,  and  dark 
hair  and  eyes  and  gentle  manner;  attractive 
faces  are  common.  In  the  plains  the  so-called 
villages  are  simply  small  groups  of  houses,  usually 
from  six  to  twenty,  in  the  rice  fields,  a  village  of 
fifty  houses  being  unusual.  The  people  are 
chiefly  agriculturists,  those  of  the  plains  indus- 
triously raising  rice  in  large  quantities. 

The  Bghais,  including  several  minor  tribes,  as 


the  Geckhos,  Padaungs  and  others,  inhabit  the 
mountains  N.  E.  of  Taung-ngu.  They  are  fierce 
and  warlike,  and,  except  where  modified  by 
Christianity,  locate  their  villages  on  elevations 
difficult  of  accesss.  Each  village  consists  of  a 
single  house,  through  which  runs  a  long  hall, 
with  rooms  opening  off  either  side.  The  Red 
Karens,  classed  by  Dr.  Mason  with  the  Bghais, 
receive  their  name  from  the  color  of  their  dress. 
They  occupy  a  territory  N.  E.  of  Taung-ngu, 
separate  from  other  tribes,  and  are  the  most  war- 
like of  the  Karens,  never  having  been  conquered 
by  the  Burmese. 

The  Karens  are  notably  simple-minded,  and 
except  for  the  wilder  hill-tribes,  are  lovers  of 
peace,  and  possess  a  character  that  is  a  curious 
mixture  of  timidity  and  courage.  Timid  and 
retiring  ordinarily,  on  occasions,  as  during  the 
Anglo-Burman  wars,  they  have  risen  to  notable 
heights  of  courage,  showing  complete  indifference 
to  death.  Nevertheless,  the  Red  Karens  aside, 
their  natural  quietness  of  disposition,  together 
with  the  smallness  of  their  numbers,  kept  them 
in  subjection  to  the  Burmese,  prior  to  the  British 
occupation  of  lower  Burma.  With  a  certain 
stoicism  under  misfortune,  they  unite  a  good 
deal  of  natural,  tho  undemonstrative,  kindli- 
ness. They  are  both  obstinate  and  tractable,  it 
being  a  common  saying  that  a  Karen  can  be  led 
anywhere,  but  driven  nowhere.  Petty  lying  ig 
universal,  treachery  rare.  Much  inferior  to  the 
Burmese  in  personal  cleanliness,  they  are  also 
much  less  immoral.  Their  extreme  clannishness 
is  perhaps  an  outcome  of  their  long  oppression 
under  the  rule  of  other  races.  The  Karens  of  the 
plains,  however,  have  largely  adopted  the  Bur- 
mese mode  of  dress,  while  the  use  of  the  Burmese 
language  is  rapidly  on  the  increase,  especially 
among  the  Pwo-Karens.  When  instructed  they 
develop  a  decided  taste  for  music,  excelling  in 
singing.  Under  education,  their  mental  processes 
are  slow,  but  persistent  and  fruitful.  The  orig- 
inal nat,  or  spirit-worship,  prevalent  among  tne 
Karens,  has  been  less  modified  among  the  Bghais 
than  in  any  of  the  others.  God  has  but  little 
active  concern  in  the  world  at  present,  and  noth- 
ing is  to  be  feared  either  from  him  or  from  good 
spirits.  The  Karens  in  general,  therefore,  give 
little  thought  to  either,  but  concentrate  their 
effort  upon  misleading,  or  placating,  a  personal 
devil,  in  whom  they  believe,  and  the  innumerable 
nats  or  evil  spirits  which  swarm  on  every  hand,  in 
mountains,  streams,  trees,  and  in  almost  every 
natural  object.  Idolatry  is  found  only  among 
those  Karens,  chiefly  Pwos,  who  have  adopted 
Buddhism. 

The  remarkable  body  of  precepts  and  traditions 
handed  down  from  the  Karen  elders  has  often 
arrested  attention,  and  has  led  some  to  infer  a 
Jewish  origin  for  this  people,  many  of  the  pre- 
cepts possessing  much  beauty  and  moral  elevation. 
A  few  condensed  extracts  from  the  traditions  are 
here  given: 

"Anciently  God  commanded,  but  Satan  appeared 

deceiving  unto  death. 
The  dragon  beguiled  the  woman  and  Tha-nai. 
A  white  fruit  took  the  great  dragon. 
And  gave  to  the  daughter  and  son  of  God. 
They  kept  not  all  the  law  of  God;  were  deceived — 

deceived  unto  death." 

The  story  of  the  creation  of  woman  from  the 
rib  of  the  first  man,  and  of  the  forbidden  fruit, 
the  woman  first  transgressing,  then  persuading 


367 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Karaitic 
Kaahmlr 


her  husband,   closely   resembles   the   Scripture 
narrative. 

Sense  of  estrangement  from  God,  and  an  almost 
Messianic  hope  mingle  in  the  following: 
"God  formerly  loved  the  Karen  nation  above  all 

others,  but  because  of  their  transgression  he 

cursed  them. 
God   departed   with   our   younger   brother,    the 

white  foreigner. 
When  God  departed,  the  Karens  became  slaves 

to  the  Burmans." 

In  the  midst  of  their  suffering    they  remem- 
bered the  ancient  sayings  of  the  Elders: 
"That  God  would  yet  save  them,  that  a  Karen 

king  would  yet  appear. 
When  he  arrives  there  will  be  but  one  monarch, 
Everything  will  be  happy; 
And  even  lions  and  leopards  will  lose  their  sav- 

ageness  " 

Missionary  work  among  these  people  has  been 
much  helped  by  the  traditions  of  which  these 
lines  are  samples: 
"Our   ancestors    said,    that    when    our   younger 

brothers   come  back, 
The  white  foreigners,  (in  ships  from  the  west). 
Who  were  able  to  keep  company  with  God,  the 

Karens  will  be  happy. 
Hence  the  Karens  longed  for  those  who  were  to 

come  by  water." 

KARIB,  or  KARIF:  The  aboriginal  inhabitants 
of  Dutch  Guiana,  South  America. 

KARIKAL:  A  town  on  the  Coromandel  coast, 
India,  and  a  French  possession,  situated  13  miles 
N.  of  Negapatam.  It  has  an  important  rice 
trade.  Population  (1891)  70,500.  Station  of 
the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1895),  with  3 
native  workers  and  130  professed  Christians. 

KARIMGANJ:  A  town  in  Assam,  28  miles  E. 
of  Sylhet.  Station  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic 
Methodist  Missionary  Society,  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  an 
elementary  school  and  a  dispensary. 

KA.RIMNAGAR:  A  town  in  the  native  state  of 
Haidarabad,  India,  situated  about  85  miles  N.  E. 
of  Haidarabad.  A  station  of  the  WMS,  with  1 
missionary,  45  native  workers,  19  chapels,  28 
Sunday  schools,  23  day  schools  and  1,495  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  373  are  communi- 
cants. 

KARKALA.     See  Kakakal. 

KARKLOOF:  A  village  in  Natal,  S.  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Weenen  district,  10  miles  N.  E. 
of  Weenen.  Station  of  the  Maritzburg  Mis- 
sionary Association,  with  1  missionary  and  480 
professed  Christians. 

KARNAL :  A  to wn  in  the  Punj  ab ,  India,  situated 
50  miles  south  by  east  of  Ambala.  The  citv  is  of 
great  antiquity.  Population  (1891)  22,000,  of 
whom  17,000  are  Hindus.  A  station  of  the  SPG 
(1862),  with  2  missionaries,  1  missionary  woman, 
10  native  workers,  4  day  schools,  and  22  professed 
Christians.     Name  sometimes  spelled  Karnaul. 

KARNUL:  A  town  in  the  Madras  Presidency, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  the  same  name 
on  a  rocky  point  at  the  junction  of  the  Hindri  and 
Tangabhadra  Rivers.  It  is  the  center  of  a  large 
Telugu  population.  Climate  on  the  whole  mala- 
rious. Population  (1891)  24,400,  of  whom 
12,000  are  Muslim.^  a»^d  10,000  Hindus.  Station 
%'.  t^j  AibilU  U^i'O),  CTiih  (1903)  1  missionary 


and  his  wife,  41  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
20  outstations,  10  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools 
and  1,036  communicants.  Station  also  of  the 
SPG,  with  (1902)  1  missionary,  51  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  20  day  schools  and  2  boarding 
schools.     Name  written  by  the  societies  Kurnool. 

KARONGA:  A  post  of  the  African  Lake  Cor- 
poration in  Nyasaland,  Africa,  situated  on  the 
west  shore  of  Lake  Nyasa  at  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  Stevenson  Road.  Station  of  the  UFS, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  59  native 
workers,  24  outstations  and  27  elementary 
schools. 

KARRACHI.     See  Karachi. 

KARS:  A  strongly  fortified  city  of  Turkey  in 
Asia,  historically  important,  and  taken  by  Russia 
from  Turkey  in  the  war  of  1877-78.  Its  popula- 
tion (12,000)  is  largely  Armenian,  and  it  was  suc- 
cessfully worked  as  an  outstation  of  Erzerum 
(ABCFM)  up  to  1879.  After  the  city  became 
Russian  territory  the  Evangelical  Armenian 
Church  was  officially  recognized  and  protected 
by  the  government,  but  the  missionaries  were  not 
allowed  to  visit  it.  The  permanency  and  vitality 
of  the  missionary  church  at  this  place  has  been 
tested  by  this  experience  and  it  has  not  failed 
under  the  test. 

KARSHUN  LANGUAGE.     See  Syriac. 

KARSIUNG:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
12  miles  S.  W.  of  Darjiling.  Station  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  Woman's  Missionary  Com- 
mittee (1896),  with  2  women  missionaries  and  2 
native  women  workers. 

KARUNKODDATIVE:  A  town  on  the  east 
coast  of  Ceylon,  India,  situated  38  miles  S.  S.  W. 
of  Batticaloa.  A  station  of  the  WMS,  with  1 
missionary,  9  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1 
chapel,  4  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools  and  59 
Christians. 

KARUR:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Coimbatore, 
Madras,  India,  situated  about  44  miles  west 
north  west  of  Trichinopoli.  It  is  the  capital  of 
the  ancient  kingdom  of  Chera,  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1801.  Population  11,000,  nearly  all  of 
whom  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  4  missionaries,  38  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations, 5  chapels,  8  Sunday  schools,  13  day 
schools,  1  high  school,  1  industrial  school,  1 
orphanage  and  219  professed  Christians,  of  whomi 
130  are  communicants. 

KASERGOD.     See  Cassbrgode. 

KASHGAR: 
most  western 
capital  of  the 
at  an  altitude 
several  routes 
tion  50,000. 
Union  (1894) 
their  wives,  2 
dispensary. 

KASHING. 


A  city  in  Chinese  Turkestan,  the 
city  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  and 
province  of  Sin-kiang.  It  stands 
of  4,000  feet,  at  the  confluence  of 
of  travel,  in  a  rich  oasis.  Popula- 
Station  of  the  Swedish  Missionary 
,  with  (1900)  3  missionaries  and 
native  workers,  a  day  school  and  a 

See  KiA-HsiNG-FU. 


KASHMIR.     See  Srinagar. 

KASHMIR:  A  native  state  in  India,  lying 
among  the  great  mountains  of  the  Himalaya 
range  north  of  the  Punjab.  Tibet  touches  it  on 
the  east,  and  after  passing  the  great  Karakorum 
range  on  the  north,  one  enters  soon  the  terri- 
tories of  Kashgar,  wholly  outside  the  limits  of 
India.  The  country  is  for  the  most  part  an  ele- 
vated valley,  over  5,000  feet  above  the  sea,  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  mountains.     Total  area,  nearly 


K.asliiniri 
Kereprnin 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


868 


81,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
2,543,952.  The  ruler  is  known  as  the  Maharaja 
of  Kash-Cashmir,  and,  like  the  other  native 
rulers  of  India,  he  is  in  political  subordination 
to  the  British  Government.  The  predominant 
religion  is  Mohammedanism,  Hinduism  being  the 
religion  of  about  one-third  of  the  people.  About 
one  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  Bud- 
dhists. Missions  have  been  conducted  there  with 
the  utmost  difficulty  until  within  very  recent 
times  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the  native 
government  (the  Maharaja  is  a  devout  and 
intense  Hindu)  and  also  because  the  regulation 
debarring  Europeans  from  permanent  residence 
in  the  valley  compelled  the  missionaries  to  break 
off  their  labors  with  the  close  of  the  season  and 
leave  the  country  entirely  for  a  large  part  of  each 
year.  In  1854  and  again  in  1862  explorations 
and  tours  were  made  through  Kashmir  by  mis- 
sionaries of  the  CMS  stationed  in  the  Punjab, 
who  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  establish 
a  permanent  mission  in  1864.  In  1865  Dr. 
Elmslie,  a  Scotch  medical  missionary  in  the  ser- 
vice of  that  Society,  reached  Srinagar,  and  in 
spite  of  all  obstacles  had  made  a  promising 
beginning,  when  his  labors  were  terminated  by 
his  death,  in  1872.  The  Society,  however,  has 
been  able  to  carry  on  the  mission  since,  and  it 
has  been  of  great  benefit  to  the  people,  especially 
during  the  famine  of  1880  and  the  distress  follow- 
ing the  great  earthquake  in  1884,  and  the  cholera 
epidemics  which  sweep  through  the  land  almost 
periodically.  The  CMS  now  has  two  mission 
stations  in  Kashmir. 

KASHMIRI  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Indie 
branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  languages.  It  is 
spoken  in  Kashmir  and  is  written  with  Arabic 
letters  slightly  modified  for  the  purpose. 

KASUR:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  situated 
32  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Lahore.  Population  (1891) 
20,300,  of  whom  15,400  are  Muslims.  Station  of 
the  Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Mission,  with  (1900) 
4  women  missionaries. 

KATANA:  A  village  on  the  west  coast  of  Cey- 
lon, situated  about  25  miles  north  of  Colombo. 
Station  of  the  WMS  (1903),  with  1  missionary, 

12  native  workers,  3  outstations,  5  chapels,  5 
Sunday  schools,  5  day  schools  and  80  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  61  are  communicants. 

KATCHCHI  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Indie 
branch  of  the  Aryan  family,  being  a  dialect  of 
Sindhi,  strongly  affected  by  the  Gujarati.  The 
alphabet  used  is  the  Hindi,  with  some  slight 
modifications. 

KATHIAWAR:  A  peninsula,  nearly  square  in 
shape,  which  forms  the  western  part  of  Gujarat 
(q.  v.). 

KATNI:  Atowninthe  Central  Provinces, India, 
situated  50  miles  N.E.  of  Jabalpur.  Station  of  the 
CEZ   (1897),  with   (1903)  1   woman  missionary, 

13  native  workers,  1  outstation  and  2  village 
schools.  The  CMS  also  has  a  station  here, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1 
outstation. 

KAU:  A  settlement  in  the  island  of  Halma- 
heira,  Moluccas,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  on 
Kau  Bay  in  the  east  central  part  of  the  island. 
Station  of  the  Utrecht  Missionary  Society  (1898). 

KAVALI:  A  town  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Nellore,  33  miles 
N.   of   Nellore  City.     Population    (1891)    5,000. 


Station  of  the  ABMU  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  34 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  20  outstations, 
3  places  of  worship,  4  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  dispensary  and  1,200  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  331  are  communicants. 

KAWATARIA:  A  station  of  the  Australian 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society  on  the 
Trobriand  Islands,  lying  off  the  E.  shore  of  Brit- 
ish New  Guinea,  South  Pacific  Ocean.  It  now 
(1900)  has  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  5  native  workers,  2  outstations,  4 
places  of  worship,  3  day  schools  and  a  theological 
training  class. 

KAWIMBE:  A  village  in  Nyasaland,  Central 
Africa,  situated  at  an  altitude  of  5,300  feet,  about 
21  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  the  southern  end  of  Lake 
Tanganyika.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1887),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries,  1  missionary's  wife,  6 
native  workers,  13  schools  and  1  industrial 
school. 

KAYIN,  or  KAYIKTOCHAU.     See  Kia-ying- 

CHAU. 

KAZAK,  or  KAZAN  TURKI  LANGUAGE.  See 

Turkish  Language. 

KEBOEMEN:  A  town  in  the  island  of  Java, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  about  75  miles  S.  W. 
of  Samarang.  Station  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of  the  Netherlands  (1900). 

KEDIRI:  A  town  in  the  island  of  Java,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  in  a  lovely  valley  60  miles 
S.  W.  of  Surabaya.  Population  16,000.  Station 
of  the,  Netherlands  Missionary  Society  (1849), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  26  native 
worlvers,  15  outstations,  11  day  schools  and  1 
industrial  school. 

KEDOENG  PENDJALIN:  A  town  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Java,  Dutch  East  Indies,  about  45 
miles  N.  E.  of  Samarang.  Station  of  the  Nether- 
lands Mennonite  Board  of  Missions  (1865). 

KEETMANNSHOOP :  A  station  of  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society  in  German  Southwest  Africa, 
situated  180  miles  E.  of  Angra  Pequena,  among 
the  Namaquas.  It  has  now  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, 1  missionary's  wife,  4  native  workers,  1  day 
school  and  1 ,329  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
546  are  communicants. 

KEGALLA:  A  town  in  Ceylon,  situated  20 
miles  W.  of  Kandy.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1880), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries, 
3  native  workers,  7  outstations,  1  village  school 
and  1  high  school.  Name  is  sometimes  spelled 
Kegalle. 

KEHURUKO :  A  station  in  the  Kikuyu  district 
of  British  East  Africa,  situated  near  Ft.  Smith,  on 
the  Uganda  Railway,  about  300  miles  N.  W.  of 
Mombasa.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1883),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  1  woman  missionary,  1 
native  worker,  1  day  school  and  6  Christians. 
The  place  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  Kikuyu. 

KEITH-FALCONER,  Ion:  Born  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  in  1856.  Died  at  Sheikh-Othman, 
Aden,  Arabia,  May  11,  1887.  Born  of  a  noble 
lineage,  surrounded  by  the  most  attractive  social 
advantages,  blessed  by  a  strong  body  and  vigor- 
ous mind,  he,  early  in  life,  dedicated  all  of  hia 
powers  to  the  service  of  his  Lord.  While  pur- 
suing his  brilliant  career  at  Cambridge,  the  niis- 
sionary  spirit  burned  in  him,  and  before  leaving 
his  native  land  for  the  foreign  field  he  entered 


869 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Kashmiri 
Kerepanu 


upon  varied  forms  of  Christian  service.  He 
became  the  leader  of  a  band  of  Christian  students 
who,  in  an  old  theater,  near  Cambridge,  carried 
on  ragged  school  work  and  Gospel  evangelism, 
and  in  after  years  he  joined  Mr.  Charrington  in 
his  Tower  Hamlets  Mission  in  the  East  End  of 
London.  After  he  passed  his  last  examination  at 
Cambridge,  in  1880,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
Arabic,  including  the  Koran,  and  afterward,  in 
order  that  he  might  acquire  the  colloquial  lan- 
guage and  learn  the  temper  of  the  Arabic  mind  in 
following  the  Mohammedan  faith,  he  went  to  the 
Nile,  and  to  Assiout,  residing,  for  several 
months,  with  the  well-known  missionary.  Dr.  H. 
W.  Hogg.  In  the  autumn  of  1885  he  went  to 
Aden  "to  prospect,"  and  as  a  result  he  deter- 
mined to  locate  at  Sheikh-Othman,  within  the 
territory  but  10  miles  from  the  town  of  Aden. 
While  visiting  Scotland  in  1886  he  laid  his  plans 
for  a  large  work  in  Southern  Arabia.  He  decided 
to  establish  a  school,  a  medical  mission  and  a 
depot  for  the  distribution  of  the  Scriptures.  He 
was  willing  to  put  himself  under  a  Scottish  Foreign 
Mission  Board  with  the  understanding  that  he  was 
himself  to  pay  all  costs  of  the  mission.  In  the 
winter  of  1886  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  mission 
premises  and  work,  and  soon  the  impress  of  his 
consecrated  life  was  felt  among  the  Muslims. 
But  the  Aden  fever  proved  a  fatal  foe,  and  in 
May,  1887,  the  "Martyr  of  Aden  entered  God's 
Edeu."  The  Keith-Falconer  Mission  to  Arabia 
has  not  died;  it  is  carried  on  by  the  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  and  since  its  founder  was 
buried  new  impulse  has  been  given  to  the 
attempt  to  carry  Christianity  to  the  land  of 
Ishmael. 

KELE  LANGUAGE:  Of  the  Bantu  family.  It 
is  spoken  by  tribes  found  in  the  Gabun  district 
of  the  coast  region  of  French  Congo,  W.  Africa. 
Missionaries  of  the  PN  have  made  literary  use  of 
it,  writing  it  with  Roman  letters.  Also  called 
Dikele. 

KELLOGG,  Samuel  H. :  Dr.  Kellogg  went  out 
to  India,  as  a  missionary  of  the  American  Pres- 
byterian Board  (N),  in  1864,  sailing  from  Boston 
on  December  20.  He  had  been  graduated  from 
Princeton  College  in  1861,  and  from  the  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  in  1864.  In  1876  Mrs. 
Kellogg  died,  and  he  was  obliged  to  return  home 
on  account  of  his  inability  to  arrange  otherwise 
for  his  four  motherless  little  children,  all  of  them 
under  ten  years  of  age.  Early  in  1877  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Third  Presbyterian  Church  of  Pitts- 
burg, and  in  September  of  the  same  year  suc- 
ceeded Dr.  A.  A.  Hodge  in  the  Western  Theolog- 
ical Seminary.  On  May  20,  1886,  he  became 
gastor  of  the  St.  James  Square  Presbyterian 
hurch  of  Toronto,  Canada,  where  he  exerted  a 
great  influence  until  his  resignation  in  September, 
1892,  when  he  returned  to  India  to  accept  the 
appointment  of  the  North  India  and  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  societies  as  one  of  a  committee 
of  three  to  translate  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures into  Hindi. 

Dr.  Kellogg  was  a  man  of  great  mental  power 
and  notable  scholarship.  In  1891-92  he  was 
Stone  Lecturer  in  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary; and  besides  the  section  of  Leviticus  in  the 
Expositor's  Bible  Series,  a  book  on  the  Jews  in 
History  and  Prophecy,  and  his  last  book  on  Com- 
parative  Religion,  he  had  written  a  great  deal, 
ooth  in  the  way  of  books  and  articles.  In  his 
24  ^ 


death,  by  accident.  May  3,  1899,  the  mission 
cause  suffered  a  profoundf  loss. 

KEMENDINE:  A  village  in  Burma,  British 
India,  situated  4  miles  north  by  west  of  Rangun, 
with  a  population  of  5,000.  Station  of  the  SPG, 
with  (1902)  1  missionary,  35  native  workers,  3 
day  schools,  2  high  schools,  and  1,090  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  183  are  communicants. 

KENDAL:  A  village  on  the  N.  coast  of  Java, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  about  10  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Samarang.  Station  of  the  Neukirchen  Mission- 
ary Society  (1894). 

KENG  TUNG:  A  town  in  Burma,  British  India, 
situated  in  the  Laos  or  Shan  states,  about  240 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Mandalay  and  150  miles  N.  N. 
W.  of  Chieng  Mai, in  Siam.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1901),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
3  native  workers.  Name  locally  pronounced 
Chieng  Toong. 

KENT:  A  town  in  Sierra  Leone,  Africa,  situ- 
ated on  Cape  Shilling  25  miles  S.  of  Freetown. 
The  church  there  has  charge  of  religious  work  in 
the  Banana  Islands.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1819), 
with  (1903)  16  native  workers,  6  outstations,  1 
chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  7  village  schools,  and 
958  professed  Christians,  of  whom  347  are  com- 
municants. The  work,  however,  is  carried  on 
by  the  local  church. 

KEPPEL  ISLAND :  An  island  about  22  miles 
in  circumference  lying  in  the  South  Atlantic  near 
West  Falkland  Island  and  a  little  to  the  N.  of  it. 
The  South  American  Missionary  Society  occupied 
this  island  in  1855  in  order  to  make  of  it  a  base 
for  missionary  operations  in  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
At  the  first  they  did  not  permit  any  natives  to 
land  upon  the  island,  but  after  buildings  had  been 
erected  an  industrial  and  training  school  was 
opened  with  the  purpose  of  preparing  the  Tierra 
del  Fuego  children  for  usefulness  among  their 
own  people.  The  island  is  not  at  present  retained 
on  the  Society's  list  of  stations. 

KERAK:  A  town  in  Syria,  Turkey  (Kir  of 
Moab),  formerly  the  capital  of  Moab.  It  has  a 
citadel  founded  in  1131.  The  town  was  captured 
during  the  crusades,  and  is  now  the  seat  of  the 
bishop.  Population,  8,000,  of  whom  6,000  are 
Muslims.  This  town  is  the  last  on  the  road  from 
Damascus  to  Mecca  where  Christians  may  live. 
It  may  be  seen  from  Jerusalem,  50  miles  away, 
since  it  stands  on  the  mountains  of  Moab.  It 
is  rapidly  growing  in  importance  by  reason  of  the 
Pilgrim  Railroad  now  being  built  to  Mecca.  The 
Turkish  Government  hampers  the  mission  there 
considerably,  with  especial  vigilance  against  the 
entrance  of  Western  ideas.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1894),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
native  worker,  1  dispensary.  The  statistics  are 
included  under  Es  Salt. 

KERBELA:  A  town  in  Mesopotamia,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  situated  about  100  miles  S.  W.  of  Bagh- 
dad. It  is  famous  for  the  tombs  of  Hassau  and 
Hussein,  the  murdered  sons  of  the  Caliph  Ali. 
Since  these  two  men  are  regarded  by  the  Shi'ite 
Muslims  as  martyrs,  the  place  of  their  burial  is 
sacred.  To  the  Shi'ites  Kerbela  is  quite  as  impor- 
tant a  place  of  pilgrimage  as  Mecca. 

KEREPUNU:  A  settlement  on  the  southern 
coast  of  British  New  Guinea,  situated  about  70 
miles  S.  E.  of  Port  Moresby.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1877),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
35  native  workers,  men  and  women;  21  schools, 


Kerman 
Ki-chan 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


870 


and  1,400  professed  Christians,  of  whom  644  are 
communicants. 

KERMAN:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kerman, 
Persia,  situated  225  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Bender 
Abbas.  It  stands  on  a  plain  surrounded  by 
mountains,  just  at  the  confluence  of  several  trade 
routes.  It  is  a  great  trading  emporium  and  has 
many  lofty  and  well-built  bazars.  Altitude, 
5,680  feet.  Population,  40,000.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1897),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  3  women  missionaries,  1  native  worker,  1 
village  school,  1  dispensary,  and  7  professed 
Christians.  The  name  is  sometimes  spelled 
Kirman. 

KERR,  John  G.,  M.D.:  Died  at  Canton,  China, 
August  10,  1901.  Dr.  Kerr  was  born  in  Ohio 
in  1828,  and  was  appointed  bv  the  PN  a  medical 
missionary  to  China  in  1853;  he  remained  on  the 
field  until  1876,  when  he  came  home  to  educate 
his  children.  He  remained  in  the  United  States 
until  1878,  during  which  time  he  was  engaged 
in  missionary  work  among  the  Chinese  in  Cali- 
fornia. He  returned  to  his  work  at  Canton  in 
1878,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  usual  fur- 
loughs in  the  United  States,  he  labored  with 
wonderful  fidelity  and  success  until  his  death, 
completing  a  service  of  over  forty-four  years. 

During  this  period  he  published  twelve  works, 
of  thirty-two  volumes,  in  Chinese,  on  medicine 
and  surgery,  besides  contributing  to  many  other 
lines  of  Chinese  literature.  His  great  work  was 
in  the  Canton  Hospital,  which  he  built  up  from  a 
daily  dispensary.  During  the  last  few  years  he 
was  deeply  interested  in  providing  a  refuge  for 
the  insane,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  had  a 
building  accommodating  fifty  patients. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  brief  sketch  to  give  more 
than  a  glimpse  of  the  life  work  of  Dr.  Kerr.  He 
has  gone  to  his  reward,  but  his  works  will  remain 
as   monuments  to   his  memory. 

KETA:  A  town  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  W. 
Africa,  situated  150  miles  E.  of  Christiansborg. 
Station  of  the  North  German  Missionary  Society 
(1853),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries',  1  with  his  wife; 
3  missionary  women,  17  native  workers,  men  and 
■women;  7  outstations,  9  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  woman's  training  school,  and  710  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

KETI:  A  settlement  in  the  western  part  of 
Madras,  India,  situated  in  the  Nilgiri  Hills,  about 
25  miles  N.  W.  of  Coimbatore.  Station  of  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society  (1846),  with  (1903)  3 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  47  native  workers, 
men  and  women ;  26  outstations,  24  elementary 
schools,  1  normal  school  for  teachers,  1  theolog- 
ical training  class,  and  473  professed  Christians. 

KHADSAWPHRA.     See  Mao-phlang. 

KHAIRAGARH:  A  town  in  the  Central  Prov- 
inces, India,  about  48  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Raipur. 
Station  of  the  Pentecost  Bands  of  the  World 
(1901),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1 
woman  missionary. 

KHAMLA:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  situated  near  Bithron,  about  40  miles  W. 
S.  W.  of  Bhopal.  Station  of  the  Kurku  Indian 
Mission  (1889),  with  (1903)  1  missionary. 

KHAMMAMETT:  A  town  in  the  native  state  of 
Haidarabad,  India,  situated  about  115  miles  E. 
of  the  city  of  Haidarabad.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1888)  and  CEZ  (1889),  with  (together,  1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries. 


50  native  workers,  men  and  women;  10  village 
schools,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary,  and  1,464  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  348  are  communicants. 

KHANDALA:  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, India,  well  known  as  a  sanitarium,  situ- 
ated about  41  miles  N.  W.  of  Poona.  Station  of 
the  Poona  Indian  Village  Mission,  with  3  mission- 
ary women  and  a  dispensary. 

KHANDWA:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  headquarters  of  the  district  of  Nimar,  and 
situated  70  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Indore.  The  climate 
of  Nimar  district  is,  on  the  whole,  good,  tho  the 
jungle  parts  inhabitated  by  the  hill  tribes  are 
extremely  malarious.  Population  (1891)  15,500, 
of  whom  10,000  are  Hindus  and  4,500  Muslims. 
It  was  once  a  famous  seat  of  the  Jain  worship. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  23  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  18  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools, 
1  orphanage,  and  689  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  70  are  communicants. 

KHARAR:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  27 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Ambala.  Population,  5,000. 
Station  of  the  BMS  (1890),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  33  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  16  outstations,  5  Sunday  schools,  16  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school  and  530  professed- 
Christians,  of  whom  281  are  communicants. 

KHARMATAR:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  12 
miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Madhapur.  Station  of  the  PB, 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  an  orphanage. 
Name  written  by  the  missionaries,  Karmatar. 

KHARTUM:  A  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Blue  Nile,  close  to  its  confluence  with  the  White 
Nile,  founded  by  Mohammed  Ali  Pasha,  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  in  1823.  It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  1,273 
feet,  and  has  been  a  center  of  considerable  com- 
merce. For  many  years  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
Egyptian  Sudan,  and  was  the  scene  of  the  tragic 
death  of  General  Gordon  when  it  was  captured 
by  the  Mahdi's  troops  in  1885.  It  was  recaptured 
by  the  Anglo-Egyptian  forces  under  General 
Kitchener,  September  4,  1898,  and  was  then 
found  to  be  in  a  ruined  condition.  It  has  since 
been  recovering  its  lost  prosperity.  Population 
(estimated)  25,000.  Station  of  the  UP  (1900), 
with  2  missionaries,  1  a  physician.  Station  also 
of  CMS  (1902),  with  1  missionary  and  1  day 
school. 

KHASI  HILLS :  A  range  of  mountains  forming 
with  the  Jaintia  Hills  the  border  between  Assam. 
and  Bengal.  These  mountains  are  inhabited  by 
various  hill-tribes, — the  Garos,  the  Khasis,  the 
Jaintias,  Nagas,  etc., — who  were  very  degraded, 
without  books  or  a  written  language,  and  engaged 
mainly  in  hunting,  and  at  times  in  robbery.  In 
1834  the  British  Government  made  a  treaty  with 
the  kings  of  Khasi,  providing  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  military  post  at  Cherra  and  the  con- 
struction of  a  road  to  Assam.  In  1840  the  Welsh 
Calvinistic  Methodist  Missionary  Society  sent  out 
their  first  missionary  to  the  hills,  where  now,  in 
the  seven  districts,  flourishing  churches  have  been 
formed,  with  a  membership  of  over  3,000;  and 
within  the  day  schools  and  Sunday  schools  about 
10,000  pupils  are  gathered. 

KHASIAN  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  abo- 
riginal and  non-Aryan  languages  of  Assam.  It 
was  written  in  the  Bengali  character  by  Dr. 
Carey  in  1827.  Late  missionaries,  and  especially 
those    of    the    Welsh    Calvinistic    Society,  have 


871 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Kerman 
Kl-chao. 


adapted  the  Roman  letters  to  its  uses,  and  have 
taken  steps  toward  the  beginnings  of  a  Khasian 
literature. 

KHATITOLO:  A  village  in  Chota  Nagpur, 
Bengal,  India,  situated  60  miles  S.  W.  of  Lohar- 
daga.  Station  of  the  Gossner  Missionary  Society, 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  72  native  workers,  33 
places  of  worship,  a  day  school,  a  boarding  school, 
and  14,357  professed  Christians.  Name  written 
by  the  Society,  Khutitoli. 

KHED:  A  town  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
India,  situated  22  miles  N.  of  Poona.  Station  of 
the  Poona  Indian  Village  Mission,  with  4  women 
missionaries  and  a  dispensary.  Name  written  by 
the  Society,  Khed-Shiwapur. 

KHERWARA:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situ- 
ated 90  miles  N.  E.  of  Ahmadabad,  in  the  Bhil 
countrv  of  Rajputana.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1880)1'  with  (1903)  1  missionaries,  2  of  them  with 
their  wives;  2  women  missionaries,  15  native 
workers,  11  village  schools,  1  dispensary,  1 
orphanage,  and  169  professed  Christians.  These 
statistics  include  Bilaria  and  Lusaria. 

KHOKAND :  A  territory  in  Western  Turkestan, 
annexed  by  Russia  in  1876,  and  now  called 
Ferghana. 

KHORAI.     See  Kurai. 

KHUDAWANDPUR:  A  station  of  the  Kurku 
Indian  Mission  (1900),  in  the  outskirts  of  Ellich- 
pur,  in  the  Central  Provinces,  India.  It  consists 
of  the  station  buildings  connected  with  an  orphan- 
age and  a  flourishing  industrial  enterprise  for 
the  instruction  and  support  of  the  orphans.  The 
name,  which  means  City  of  God,  was  given  to  it 
by  the  missionaries. 

KHULNA:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  78  miles 
east-northeast  of  Calcutta.  It  is  a  place  of  con- 
siderable importance,  with  a  thriving  trade,  as 
all  the  boat  traffic  for  Calcutta  from  the  E.  and 
N.  E.  passes  by  this  point.  Population  (1891) 
8,700,  of  whom  5,000  are  Hindus  and  nearly 
3,000  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  BMS  (1860), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  37 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  15  outstations, 
23  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dispensary, 
and  1,039  professed  Christians,  of  whom  339  are 
communicants. 

KHUMMAMETT.     See  Kamambt. 

KHURJA:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Bulandshahr,  50 
miles  S.  by  E.  of  Delhi.  It  is  quite  a  center  of 
trade  and  has  a  population  (1891)  of  26,300,  of 
whom  14,800  are  Hindus  and  11,000  Moham- 
medans. Station  circuit  of  the  ME,  with  (1903) 
12  native  workers,  4  places  of  worship,  35  Sunday 
schools,  5  day  schools,  and  1,056  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  490  are  communicants. 

KHUTITOLI.     See  Khatitolo. 

KIA-DING.     See  Kiating. 

KIA-HSING-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Che-kiang,  China,  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal, 
midway  between  Soo-chow  and  Hang-kau.  Built 
in  897.  It  is  an  important  commercial  center, 
celebrated  for  its  rice,  tiles,  and  brass-work. 
Station  of  the  PS  (1895),  with  (1903)  3  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  1  woman  missionary,  5 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 3  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1  dis- 
pensary. 

KIAI-CHAU :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Shan-si , 


China,  215  miles  S.  W.  of  Tai-yuen-fu.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1895),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  4  native  workers, 
and  1  boarding  school.  Name  written  by  the 
Society,  Hiai-chau. 

KIAI-HIU.     See  Kie-hiu-hsibn. 

KIANG-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  on  the  Fen  River  165 
miles  S.  W.  of  Tai-yuen-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM 
(1898),  vacant  as  yet  (1903)  since  the  massacre 
of  missionaries  during  the  Boxer  troubles. 

KIANG-TSIN:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  China,  situated  28  miles  S.  W.  of  Chung- 
king-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife. 

KIANG-YIN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiane-su,  China,  situated  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Yangtse  River,  85  miles  from  Wu-sung. 
Population,  about  200,000.  Station  of  the  PS 
(1895),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  1  native  worker,  4  outstations,  and  4 
places  of  worship. 

KHATING:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kiang- 
su,  China,  28  miles  N.  W.  of  Shanghai.  Station 
of  the  PE  (1882)  and  of  the  MES.  Name  also 
written  Kading  and  Kia-ding. 

KIA-TING-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  China,  situated  82  miles  S.  of  Cheng-tu 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Min  River,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Tung-ho  and  Ya-ho.  It  is  a  center 
of  the  silk-weaving  industry  in  that  province. 
Population,  about  25,000.  Station  of  the  CIM 
(1888),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  4  native  workers,  1  day  school  and 
1  dispensary.  Station  also  of  the  Methodist 
Church  in  Canada  (1892),  with  (1900)  2  women 
missionaries,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  1 
hospital.  Station  also  of  the  ABMU  (1894), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  6 
native  workers,  10  outstations,  and  11  places  of 
worship.  Name  written  by  the  Societies,  Kia- 
ting. 

KIA-YING-CHAU :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung,  China,  among  the  Hakka  people ; 
situated  on  the  Min  River  68  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Swatow.  Population,  about  30,000.  Station  of 
the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1883),  with  (1903) 
3  missionaries  (one  with  his  wife),  7  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women;  4  outstations,  1  boarding 
school  and  357  professed  Christians,  of  whom  261 
are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the  ABMU 
(1890),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  with  their 
wives,  8  native  workers,  men  and  women;  4  out- 
stations, 3  places  of  worship,  3  day  schools,  and 
455  professed  Christians,  of  whom  105  are  com- 
municants. The  name  is  written  by  the  Socie- 
ties Kayintschu  and  Kayin. 

KIBOKOLA:  A  town  in  Angola,  W.  Africa, 
280  miles  N.  E.  of  San  Paolo  de  Loanda.  Sta- 
tion of  the  BMS  (1899),  with  (1903)  3  mission- 
aries and  2  wives  of  missionaries. 

KIBUNZI:  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  W.  Africa,  situated  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Congo  River,  about  20  miles  N.  of  Bansa 
Manteka.  Station  of  the  Swedish  Missionary 
Society  (1887),  with  1  missionary  woman,  12 
native  workers,  15  outstations,  1  boarding 
school,  1  orphanage,  1  dispensary,  and  385  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

KI-CHAU :  A  district  in  the  province  of  Chi-li, 
China,  lying  about  200  miles  S.  W.  of  Tien-tsin. 


Kl-clian 

Kins  William's   Town 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


372 


Station  field  of  the  LMS  (1888),  with  (1903)  4 
missionaries  and  their  wives  (the  missionary  resi- 
dence being  at  Hsiao-chang),  17  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  33  outstations,  2  dispensaries, 

1  hospital,  and  950  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
704  are  communicants.  Name  of  district  written 
by  the  Society,  Chi-chow. 

KI-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Shan-si, 
China,  about  50  miles  west  of  Ping-yang-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1891),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  and  1 
native  worker.  Name  written  by  the  Society, 
Kih-chau. 

KICHELWE:  A  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa,  about  12  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Dar  es  Salaam. 
Station  of  the  Universities'  Mission  (1893),  with 
(1900)  1  native  worker,  2  native  women  workers, 

2  day  schools,  and  160  professed  Christians. 
KIDUGALA:     A  settlement  in  German  East 

Africa,  about  40  miles  N.  E.  from  the  north  end 
of  Lake  Nyasa.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Mission- 
ary Society  (1898),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries. 

KIE-HIU-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  60  miles  S.  W.  of  Tai- 
yuen-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1891),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
and  1  native  worker.  Name  written  by  the 
Society,  Kiai-hiu. 

KIE-YANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung,  China,  25  miles  N.  W.  of  Swatow. 
Station  of  the  ABMU  (1896),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  22 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  26  outstations, 
14  places  of  worship,  7  day  schools,  and  2,600 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  639  are  communi- 
cants. The  name  is  written  by  the  Society  Kit- 
yang. 

KIEL  MISSION  TO  CHINA.  See  Germany; 
Missionary  Societies  in. 

KIEN-CHANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Kiang-si,  China,  42  miles  S.  W.  of  Kiu-kiang. 
Station  of  the  German  China  Alliance  (1898), 
with  2  missionaries  and  a  native  worker.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  PB. 

KIEN-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China,  situated  about  40  miles  N.  W.  of 
Hsi-ngan-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1894),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  woman 
missionary. 

KIEN-NING-FU :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Fo-kien,  China,  situated  90  miles  N.  W.  by  N.  of 
Fu-chau.  Station  of  the  CEZ,  with  (1903)  5 
women  missionaries,  1  native  worker,  and  1  hos- 
pital. The  CMS  also  has  a  station  there  (1874), 
with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  2  of  them  with 
their  wives;  11  native  workers,  1  chapel,  1  board- 
ing school,  2  dispensaries,  1  hospital,  1  institute 
for  lepers,  and  260  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
98  are  communicants.  This  Society  writes  the 
name  Kien-Ning. 

KIEN-PING-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Ngan-hwei,  China,  65  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Nan- 
king. Station  of  the  CIM  (1894),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
and  1  native  worker.  Name  written  by  the 
Society,  Kien-p'ing. 

KIEN-YANG:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China,  95  miles  W.  N.W.  of  Hsi-ngan-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1897),  with  (1903)  1  woman 
missionary. 

KIEN-YANG-HSIEN:    A  town  in  the  province 


of  Fo-kien,  China,  situated  118  miles  N.  W.'of 
Fu-chau.  A  station  of  the  CMS  (1891),  with  3 
women  missionaries.  Name  is  sometimes  writ- 
ten Kien-yang. 

KIFWA :  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
Africa,  situated  about  60  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Stanley 
Pool.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1890),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  (one  with  his  wife),  35  native  work- 
ers, 39  outstations,  4  places  of  worship,  39  day 
schools  and  492  professed  Christians. 

KIH-CHAU.     See  Ki-chau. 

KIH-YAN.     See  Ki-ngan-fu. 

KIKUYU.     See  Kehuruko. 

KILIMANI:  One  of  the  settlements  on  the 
Island  of  Zanzibar,  situated  S.  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  Station  of  the  UM  (1893),  with  4 
missionary  women,  2  native  workers,  a  day 
school  and  a  boarding  school. 

KIMBERLY:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa, 
situated  in  Griqualand  West,  647  miles  by  rail- 
way N.  W.  of  Cape  Town.  It  is  capital  of  the 
Kimberly  District,  and  stands  at  an  altitude  of 
4,000  feet  in  the  midst  of  the  great  diamond 
fields  not  far  from  the  W.  border  of  the  Orange 
River  Colony.  It  is  lighted  by  electric  lights  and 
is  furnished  by  aqueduct  with  good  water.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1875), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  2  missionary  women, 
8  native  workers,  5  outstations,  and  939  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  370  are  communi- 
cants. Station  also  of  the  SPG  (1881),  with  1 
missionary;  also  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Society,  with  (1900)  41  native  work- 
ers, 12  outstations,  9  places  of  worship,  5  day 
schools  and  476  professed  Christians. 

KI-MBUNDU  LANGUAGE.     See  Mbundti. 

KINCAID,  Eugenio:  Born  at  Wethersfield, 
Conn.,  1797,  graduated  at  Hamilton  Literary 
and  Theological  Institution  1822,  in  the  same 
class  with  Rev.  Jonathan  Wade.  Appointed 
a  missionary  of  the  Baptist  Triennial  Convention 
for  Burma;  sailed  May  24,  1830.  On  his  arrival 
in  Burma  he  preached  to  the  English  congre- 
gation at  Maulmain,  but  soon  entered  upon  work 
among  the  natives.  Bold,  ardent,  brave,  he 
determined  to  establish  a  mission  at  the  capital, 
and  in  1833  he  went  to  Ava.  There  he  baptized 
his  first  converts.  In  1837  he  undertook  to  reach 
Assam  by  crossing  the  mountains  between  Burma 
and  that  country,  but  was  forced  to  turn  back, 
and  having  been  repeatedly  taken  prisoner  and 
robbed,  he  reached  Ava  in  extreme  destitution, 
after  a  journey  of  thirteen  days.  After  a  short 
residence  in  Arakan  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
Burma  and  the  missionary  service  on  account  of 
ill-health.  In  1850  he  returned  to  Burma  under 
the  ABMU  and  won  the  confidence  of  the  king, 
who  showed  him  much  favor.  After  his  return 
to  Burma  the  same  year,  he  labored  principally 
at  Prome  until  1863,  when  he  took  his  final  depar- 
ture from  the  mission  field.  He  was  an  energetic 
missionary,  especially  noted  for  his  long  journeys 
into  unexplored  regions  of  heathen  territory. 
He  died  at  Girard,  Kan.,  April  3,  1883. 

KIN-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Manchuria,  China, 
situated  about  75  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Niu-ohwang. 
Station  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland 
(1891),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  2  missionary  women,  27  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  10  outstations,  11  places  of 
worship,   7   day  schools,    1   theological  training 


373 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Kl-chan 
KlnK  William's  TOTrn 


class,  2  dispensaries,  2  hospitals  and  180  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

KINCOLITH:  A  settlement  in  Alaslia  on  the 
W.  side  of  Portland  Canal.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1866),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
2  native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  2  village 
schools,  255  professed  Christians,  of  whom  75 
are  communicants. 

KING,  Jonas:  Born  July  29,  1792,  at  Hawley, 
Mass.  His  father  was  a  farmer  noted  for  his 
love  of  the  Scriptures  and  rigid  adherence  to 
their  teachings.  Under  his  instruction  Jonas 
read  the  Bible-  through  once  between  the  ages  of 
four  and  six,  and  then  once  yearly  until  the  age 
of  sixteen.  His  conversion  occurred  at  the  age  of 
fifteen.  Without  funds  or  aid  he  determined  on 
an  education,  learned  the  English  grammar  while 
hoeing  corn,  read  the  twelve  books  of  the  iEneid 
of  Virgil  in  fifty-eight  days,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  Greek  in  six  weeks.  He  graduated  at 
Williams  College  1816,  and  Andover  Seminary 
1819.  While  in  Andover  his  mind  was  strongly 
drawn  toward  foreign  mission  work,  especially 
in  the  East,  and  he  desired  to  go  to  Europe  to 
study  Arabic,  and  then  enter  whatever  field  of 
labor  should  be  open — perhaps  among  the  Ara- 
bians or  Persians.  He  decided  to  go  to  Paris 
to  study  with  the  celebrated  De  Sacy.  On  the 
eve  of  embarkation  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  in  Amherst  College. 
Advised  to  accept  the  appointment,  and  the 
trustees  approving  his  plan  to  study  abroad,  he 
sailed  for  Paris  August  18,  1821.  While  engaged 
in  this  study  he  received  a  pressing  invitation 
from  Pliny  Fisk — Mr.  Parsons  having  died — 
to  join  him  in  mission  work  in  the  Holy  Land. 
Having  served  during  three  years  in  Syria  and 
Egypt,  he  left  Beirut  for  America  in  1827,  going 
overland  to  Smyrna,  where  he  spent  several 
months  in  the  study  of  modern  Greek.  After 
his  return  home  he  was  invited  by  a  ladies'  com- 
mittee in  New  York  to  go  to  Greece  to  distribute 
aid  to  the  people  suffering  from  Turkish  oppres- 
sion. He  resigned  his  professorship  at  Amherst, 
declined  a  similar  appointment  at  Yale,  and 
went  to  Greece,  reaching  Poros  July  28,  1828. 
He  visited  many  important  places,  everywhere 
preaching,  establishing  schools,  and  relieving 
want.  In  1829  he  married  a  Greek  lady  of  influ- 
ence, who  proved  an  efficient  helper  in  the  mis- 
sion work.  In  1830  the  mission  was  transferred 
to  the  American  Board.  Having  previously 
visited  Athens,  and  arranged  to  reside  there 
after  the  Turks  had  vacated  the  place  in  1831, 
it  became  his  permanent  home.  Here  he  built 
a  school  house,  in  which  he  had  service  in  Greek 
every  Sabbath  till  1860.  The  establishment  of 
schools  was  a  prominent  object  with  Dr.  King, 
and  he  made  it  a  condition  that  in  them  the 
Scriptures  should  be  studied.  At  the  "Evangeli- 
cal Gymnasium,"  which  he  established,  he  gave 
religious  instruction  several  times  a  week  to 
about  seventy  pupils  varying  in  age  from  ten 
to  thirty-five  years.  He  also  formed  a  theo- 
logical class  composed  of  Greeks  and  Italians, 
to  whom  he  gave  regular  and  frequent  instruc- 
tion. Some  of  these  have  occupied  important 
positions  as  teachers  or  in  the  employment  of 
government.  But  the  hierarchy  became  alarmed 
at  the  influence  of  his  preaching,  his  schools,  and 
his  persistent  circulation  of  the  Scriptures.  At 
the  instigation  of  the  Greek  Synod  he  was 
brought  before  the  Areopagus,  the  highest  court 
in  Athens,  charged  with  reviling  the  "mother  of 


God"  and  the  "holy  images."  He  was  not, 
however,  tried.  After  many  threats  against  his 
life,  in  1852  he  was  again  arrested,  put  on  trial 
for  blasphemy  and  condemned  to  imprisonment 
and  expulsion  from  the  country.  This  sentence 
was  quashed  through  the  influence  of  the  United 
States  Government. 

Dr.  King  was  never  free  from  petty  persecu- 
tion until  he  died,  May  22,  1869,  in  his  seventy- 
seventli  year.  He  was  a  thorough  linguist,  hav- 
ing studied  eleven  languages,  and  speaking  flu- 
ently five.  His  original  works  in  Arabic,  Greek 
and  French  were  ten  in  number,  some  of  them 
being  widely  read,  and  translated  into  other 
tongues.  He  revised  and  carried  through  the 
press  eleven  others.  He  distributed  400,000 
copies  of  Scripture  portions,  religious  tracts, 
and  school  books  in  Greece  and  Turkey,  besides 
what  he  scattered  during  his  travels  in  other  parts 
of  Europe  and  in  Palestine,  Syria  and  Egypt. 
He  left  his  impress  on  the  Greek  nation.  To 
him  preeminently  is  it  owing  that  the  Scriptures 
since  1831  have  been  so  extensively  used  m  the 
schools,  and  that  in  Greece  the  Word  of  God  is 
not  bound. 

KI-NGAW-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China,  situated  about  160  miles  S.  W. 
of  Nan-chung-fu,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kan 
River._  Station  of  the  CIM  (1891),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native  worker  and 
1  opium  refuge.  Name  written  by  the  Society, 
Kian-fu. 

KING-CHAXT:  A  town  in  Kan-su,  China,  situ- 
ated on  the  King  River,  about  45  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Ping-hang-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1895), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1 
native  worker. 

KINGSBURY,  Cyrus:  Born  at  Alstead,  N.  H., 
November  22,  1786;  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity 1812;  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
1815;  ordained  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM 
to  the  Choctaws  and  went  to  the  Cherokee  coun- 
try in  1816,  commencing  a  station  at  Brainerd. 
In  June,  1818,  he  left  Brainerd  with  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Williams,  to  commence  the  mission  among  the 
Choctaws.  They  traveled  in  a  wagon  four  hun- 
dred miles  through  the  wilderness,  to  the  place 
afterward  called  Eliot.  In  May,  1820,  a  new 
station  called  Mayhew  was  established,  and  in 
November  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kingsbury  made  it  their 
permanent  home.  Mr.  Kingsbury  continued 
in  the  Choctaw  Mission,  laboring  with  zeal  and 
success  until  the  ABCFM  withdrew  in  1859,  and 
then  continuing  in  the  same  field  in  connection 
with  the  Presbyterian  and  Southern  Presby- 
terian Boards  till  his  death,  June  27,  1870.  His 
period  of  missionary  service  was  fifty-four  years. 

KING-TSE-KWAN  :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  China,  situated  on  the  Tan  River,  about 
95  miles  W.  of  She-ki-chen.  It  is  a  frontier  sta- 
tion, with  a  custom-house.  Population  about 
10,000.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1896),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  native  worker. 

KING  WILLIAM'S  TOWN:  A  town  in  Cape 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  29  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
East  London,  at  an  altitude  of  1,300  feet.  It 
has  been  an  important  center  of  trade  for  the 
Kafirs.  Population,  7,200.  Station  of  the  SPG, 
with  (1902)  1  native  worker  and  280  professed 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  South  African 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission,  with  (1900)  39 
native  workers,  6  outstations,  10  places  of  wor- 
ship, 6  day  schools  and  383  professed  Christians. 


Kin-liTra-fn 
ICodaikanul 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


874 


Station  also  of  the  National  Baptist  Convention 
(1900),  with  1  missionary,  2  native  worlcers  and 

25  professed  Christians. 

KIN-HWA-FU:  A  town  in  Che-kiang,  China, 
75  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Hang-chau.  Climate, 
tropical,  25°— 95°.  Population,  50,000.  Natives 
outwardly  very  prosperous;  morally  low.  Sta- 
tion of  the  CIM  (1875),  now  (1903)  vacant.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  ABMU  (1883),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries (one  with  his  wife),  3  women  mission- 
aries, 8  native  workers,  5  outstations,  3  places  of 
worship  and  354  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
159  are  communicants. 

KINKEL:  A  town  in  Chota  Nagpur,  Bengal, 
India,  58  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Lohardaga.  Station 
of  the  Gossner  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries,  one  having  a  wife;  68  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women;  21  places  of  worship,  2 
schools  and  7,258  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
1,348  are  communicants. 

KINKENGE:  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  10  miles  W.  of  Bansa  Manteke.  Station 
of  the  Swedish  Missionary  Society  (1897),  with 
(1900)  3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their 
wives ;  1  boarding  school  and  1  dispensary. 

KINWHA.     See  Kin-hwa-fu. 

KIOTO:  An  important  city  of  Japan,  situated 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  Hondo,  the  main 
island,  and  329  miles  by  railway  S.  W.  of  Tokio, 
5  miles  from  the  S.  end  of  Lake  Biwa,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  navigable  canal.  It  was 
founded  in  723,  and  until  1868  was  the  capital 
of  Japan.  With  its  schools,  hospitals,  lunatic 
asylum,  prisons,  dispensary,  almshouses,  foun- 
tains, public  parks  and  gardens,  exquisitely 
beautiful  cemeteries,  and  streets  of  almost  pain- 
ful cleanliness,  Kioto  is  the  best  arranged  and 
best  managed  city  in  Japan.  It  is  noted  for 
its  manufactures  of  crape,  bronze  goods,  and 
porcelain.  For  a  long  time  foreigners  were  jeal- 
ously excluded  from  this  sacred  city. 

The  town  and  the  vicinity  are  crowded  with 
objects  of  interest.     The  Mikado's  palace  covers 

26  acres,  and  is  a  collection  of  very  fine  buildings. 
Among  other  objects  of  interest  are  the  temple  of 
33,333  images  of  the  Goddess  of  Mercy,  and  the 
bust  of  Buddha,  58  feet  high.  The  climate  is 
temperate.  Population  (1898)  is  353,139.  Sta- 
tion of  the  ABCFM  (1875),  with  (1902)  5  mis- 
sionaries (three  with  their  wives),  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 15  native  workers,  29  outstations,  18 
Sabbath  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  theological 
class,  1  training  class  for  women  nurses,  1  hos- 
pital, and  an  important  college  known  as  the 
Doshisha.  Station  also  of  the  MES  (1898),  with 
1  missionary  and  his  wife.  Also  station  of  the 
PE,  with  4  missionaries  (one  with  his  wife),  2 
women  missionaries,  a  day  school  and  a  boarding 
school.  Station  also  of  the  UB  (1900),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife.  Also  station  of  the  PN 
(1890),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife 
and  1  woman  missionary.  Also  station  of  the 
German  General  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
(1900),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife.  The 
YMCA  has  also  established  an  agency  there 
(1901). 

KIRCHDORF:  A  village  in  Natal,  S.  Africa, 
near  New  Hanover.  Station  of  the  Lutheran 
Free  Church  of  Hannover  (1892),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  1  native  worker,  1  day  school,  and 
200  professing  Christians. 


See  Turkish 


KIRGHIZ  TURKI  LANGUAGE. 

Language. 

KIRIIT :  A  city  in  Manchuria,  China,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Kirin,  situated  225  miles  N.  E. 
of  Mukden,  in  a  charming  region  encircled  by  hills 
on  the  north  and  by  the  Sungari  River  on  the 
south.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  navigation  on 
this  river,  and  many  junks  are  built  here.  Popu- 
lation, 200,000.  Station  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Ireland  (1894),  with  (1900)  2  mission- 
aries, 1  with  his  wife;  22  native  workers,  10  out- 
stations, 11  places  of  worship,  8  day  schools,  1 
theological  training  class,  a  dispensary,  a  hos- 
pital, and  115  church  members.  The  BFBS  has 
an  agency  here  with  a  Bible  depot. 

KIRMAN.     See  Kbrman. 

KIRWINA.     See  Kawatabia. 

KISAUNI,  or  Frere  Town:  A  village  in  British 
East  Africa  situated  on  the  E.  side  of  the  inlet 
bordering  Mombasa  on  the  E.,  and  2  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Mombasa.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1874),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries,  four  of  them 
with  their  wives;  4  women  missionaries,  15  native 
workers,  1  chapel,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theologi- 
cal class,  1  orphanage,  565  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  208  are  communicants. 

KISMAYU :  A  settlement  in  the  northern  part 
of  British  East  Africa,  situated  on  the  coast  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Juba  River.  Station  of  the 
Evangelical  Swedish  National  Missionary  Society 
(1897). 

KISSARAWE:  A  town  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  30  miles  S.  W.  of  Dar  es  Salaam.  Sta- 
tion of  the  German  East  Africa  Missionary 
Society  (1892),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  1  with 
his  wife;  8  native  workers,  7  outstations,  3  places 
of  worship,  7  day  schools,  1  industrial  school,  1 
theological  training  class,  and  197  professed 
Christians. 

KISSY:  A  town  on  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone, 
Africa,  situated  3  miles  S.  E.  of  Freetown,  with 
a  population  of  2,000.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1816),  with  (1903)  8  native  workers,  4  day 
schools,  and  1,714  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
1,094  are  communicants.  The  congregation  of 
this  station  is  now  under  the  care  of  the  native 
church. 

KITKATLA:  A  settlement  20  miles  S.  by  W. 
of  Port  Errington,  British  Columbia.  Station  of 
the  CMS  (1903),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
2  native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  village 
school,  241  professed  Christians,  of  whom  59  are 
communicants. 

KIT  YANG.     See  Kie-yang-hsien 

KIU-CHAU.     See  Ku-chau-fu. 

KIU-KIANG-FU:  A  city  in  Kiang-si,  China,  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Yangtse,  not  far  from  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Po-yang,  and  135  miles  by  river 
S.  E.  of  Han-kau.  It  was  formerly  the  great 
center  of  the  tea  traffic.  The  climate  is  fairly 
good,  hot  in  the  summer,  but  bracing  and  cold  in 
the  winter.  Opened  to  foreign  trade  in  1861. 
Population,  about  35,000.  Station  of  the  ME, 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  6 
women  missionaries,  19  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  5  outstations,  5  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  a  college,  a  dispensary,  a  hospital,  and 
781  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
CIM  (1889),  which  serves  as  a  center  for  the 
business  transactions  of  the  missionaries  in  the 


875 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Kln-hwa-fn 
Kodalkanal 


province,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives  and  1  native  worker.  Station  also  of  the 
PB;  outstation  of  the  PE,  witli  1  native  worlcer 
and  a  sanitarium  for  the  missionaries  of  the 
Society.    Name  also  written  Ku-kiang. 

KIUNGANI:  A  suburb  of  the  town  of  Zanzibar 
on  the  E.  coast  of  the  island.  Station  of  the 
Universities  Mission  (1870),  with  (1900)  6  mis- 
sionaries, 1  missionary  woman,  23  native  work- 
ers, 1  day  school,  1  boarding  school  and  1  dis- 
pensary. 

KIUNG-CHATJ:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Sze-chwan,  China,  situated  40  miles  S.  W.  of 
Cheng-tu-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1901),  with  2 
missionaries,  one  with  his  wife. 

KIUNG-CHAU-FU:  A  town  on  the  island  of 
Hainan,  China,  250  miles  southwest  of  Hong- 
kong. Population,  about  200,000.  Station  of 
-the  PN  (1885),  with  (1900)  5  missionaries,  3  wives 
of  missionaries,  2  women  missionaries,  5  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  a  dispensary,  and  a 
hospital.  Name  written  by  the  Society,  Kiung 
Chow. 

KIUNKANI  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect  of  the 
Marathi,  which  belongs  to  the  Indie  branch  of 
the  Aryan  family  of  languages.  It  is  spoken  by 
about  1 ,000,000  people  of  the  Bombay  Presidency 
living  in  the  region  between  the  Western  Ghats 
of  India  and  the  shore  of  the  Arabian  Sea.  It 
is  written  with  the  Marathi  or  Modhi  characters. 

KLEIN  POPO.     See  Little  Popo. 

KLEINSCHMIDT,  J.  C. :  One  of  the  first  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Moravian  Church  to  Greenland. 
He  went  to  Lichtenau,  about  40  miles  from  the 
Danish  colony,  Juliannehaapt,  in  1777.  After 
Kleinschmidt  had  worked  in  Greenland  nineteen 
years  he  visited  Europe,  and  after  his  return  he 
completed  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
in  June,  1821.  All  the  missionaries  joined  in 
revising  it,  and  it  was  sent  to  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society. 

KLERKSDORP:  A  town  in  the  Transvaal, 
Africa,  situated  about  123  miles  southwest  by 
west  of  Pretoria,  and  7  miles  north  of  the  Vaal 
River.  It  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  Transvaal  and 
the  center  of  a  small  gold  field.  Population, 
1,500.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 40  native  workers,  34  outstations,  3 
chapels,  9  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  and 
887  professed  Christians,  of  whom  562  are  com- 
municants. 

KLIPDAM:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal  Colony, 
S.  Africa,  situated  25  miles  N.  W.  of  Pietersburg. 
Station  of  the  National  Baptist  Convention,  with 
(1900)  2  missionaries  and  1  missionary  woman. 
Outstation  also  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society, 
its  statistics  being  included  in  Kreuzburg,  two 
miles  distant. 

KNIGHT,  Joseph:  Born  at  Stroud,  Gloucester- 
shire, England;  educated  by  Rev.  Dr.  Williams 
at  Stroud;  ordained  deacon  September  21,  1817, 
and  priest,  1818,  by  Bishop  of  Gloucestershire; 
embarked  as  a  missionary  of  the  CMS  December 
15,  1817,  for  Jaffna,  North  Ceylon;  was  stationed 
at  Nellore.  He  was  probably  unsurpassed,  if  not 
unequaled,  by  any  in  India  in  his  critical  knowl- 
edge of  the  Tamil  language.  He  was  engaged  for 
several  years  in  preparing  a  Tamil  and  English 
dictionary  and  had  made  great  progress  in  it 
when  failure  of  health  required  him  to  leave  for 
England  in  1838.     On  his  return  in  1840  he  died 


at  Colombo,  October  11,  having  been  twenty- 
three  years  in  the  service. 

KOBE:  A  city  on  the  main  island  of  Japan,  22 
miles  west  of  Osaka,  on  a  small  bay  adjoining 
Hiogo  Bay.  It  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce 
in  1878  at  the  same  time  as  Hiogo,  but  owing  to 
more  favorable  harbor  conditions  it  has  attracted 
foreign  commerce  more  than  Hiogo,  and  has 
grown  so  as  to  form  with  Hiogo  one  large  city. 
The  vicinity  is  beautiful  and  interesting.  The 
climate  is  pleasant  and  healthful.  Population  of 
Kobe  and  Hiogo  together,  104,000.  Station  of 
the  ABCFM  (1869),  SPG  (1876),  ABMU  (1881), 
MES  (1886),  PS  (1890),  with  (1902)  all  together 
and  including  outstations,  13  missionaries,  10 
wives  of  missionaries,  17  women  missionaries,  92 
native  workers,  men  and  women:  22  places  of 
worship,  41  Sabbath  schools,  6  day  schools,  5 
boarding  schools,  1  theological  school,  1  training 
scliool  for  women  workers,  1  dispensary,  and 
1,300  professed  Christians.  Special  features  of 
the  missionary  equipment  here  are  the  fine  college 
for  girls  (ABCFM)  and  the  vessel  for  missionary 
touring  of  the  Inland  Sea  (ABMU). 

KOCHANNES :  A  town  of  Eastern  Turkey,  near 
the  border  of  Persia,  in  the  most  inaccessible 
part  of  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  The  seat  of 
the  Patriarch  of  the  Nestorians.  Missionaries  of 
the  ABCFM  and  the  PN  have  frequently  visited 
the  place,  but  the  only  attempt  to  establish  a 
station  there  was  in  1882,  when  Mr.  Wahl,  sent 
out  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  endeav- 
ored to  set  up  a  printing  press  and  establish  a 
school.  There  are  now  (1900)  2  missionaries  of 
the  Archbishop's  mission  there. 

KOCHI:  A  town  on  the  southeast  coast  of 
Shikoku,  Japan,  situated  at  the  head  of  a  beauti- 
ful bay.  Population,  about  40,000.  Station  of 
the  PS  (1885),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  wife, 
1  woman  missionary,  3  native  workers,  27  out- 
stations, 8  Sunday  schools,  and  1,750  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  750  are  communicants. 

KODAKAL:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
in  the  region  formerly  known  as  Malabar,  32 
miles  S.  E.  of  Calicut.  Station  of  the  Basel  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1857),  with  (1903)  4  mission- 
aries, two  with  their  wives;  37  native  workers, 
men  and  women;  7  outstations,  8  day  schools, 
and  1,387  professed  Christians,  649  of  whom  are 
communicants. 

KODAIKANAL  SCHOOL  FOR  MISSIONARY 
CHILDREN :  A  school  at  a  summer  resort  in  the 
Madras  Presidency,  India,  established  in  1902  by 
the  concerted  action  of  missionaries  of  the 
ABCFM  and  the  RCA  and  benevolent  friends  in 
the  United  States.  The  site  is  at  a  mountain 
village,  50  miles  N.  W.  of  Madura,  at  an  altitude 
of  7,000  feet,  where  the  air  is  bracing  and 
unaffected  by  the  intense  heat  of  the  plains. 
The  buildings  belong  to  the  ABCFM,  and  the 
school  is  under  the  management  of  a  joint  com- 
mittee of  the  two  missions  interested.  It  designs 
to  furnish  instruction  for  missionaries'  chil- 
dren between  the  ages  of  ten  and  fifteen  years. 
While  the  school  has  been  established  for  the 
children  of  members  of  the  Madura  mission  and 
the  Arcot  Mission,  children  of  other  missionaries 
will  be  admitted. 

Long  experience  has  shown  that  white  children 
cannot  safely  live  in  the  hot  plains  of  tropical 
India  after  they  are  nine  or  ten  years  old.  This 
fact  and  the  lack  of  suitable  schools  for  American 


Kodnr 
Korapat 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


37S 


children  in  outlying  districts  have  led  to  those 
separations  of  children  in  tender  years  from  their 
parents  which  are  among  the  most  wearing 
griefs  of  missionaries  in  that  land.  But  it  has 
now  been  shown  that  young  children  can  safely 
stay  at  Kodaikanal  during  ten  months  of  the 
year.  By  the  simple  expedient  of  establishing  a 
suitable  school  on  that  height,  the  missionaries 
can  have  their  children  near  them  some  years 
longer  than  has  been  possible  hitherto. 

KODUR:  A  town  in  the  Madras  Presidency, 
India,  situated  85  miles  N.  W.  of  Madras.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 
(1883),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife 
and  10  native  workers. 

KOELLE,  Sigismund  Wilhelm:  Born  at  Klee- 
broun,  Wurttemberg,  in  1822;  died  in  1902.  He 
was  educated  at  Basel  Seminary  and  C.  M.  Col- 
lege, at  Islington,  and,  with  marked  success,  he 
studied  Arabic  under  Prof.  Ewald  at  Tubingen, 
which  university  conferred  on  him  its  Ph.D. 
degree.  He  was  first  sent  by  the  CMS  to  Sierra 
Leone  in  1847,  and  there  he  taught  Hebrew  to 
the  Fourah  Bay  College  students,  with  the  result 
of  enabling  several  negroes  to  read  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  original.  During  his  five  years  on 
the  west  coast  he  collected  the  material*  for  his 
great  work,  Polyglotta  Africana,  in  which  one 
hundred  African  languages  and  dialects  are  com- 

?ared.  This  book  was  submitted  to  the  French 
nstitute,  and  Koelle  was  given  the  Volney  prize. 
In  1855-59  he  was  attached  to  the  Egypt  and 
Palestine  Missions,  and  in  1862  he  joined  Dr. 
Pfander  at  Constantinople  in  the  mission  started 
by  the  Society  after  the  Crimean  War.  He  held 
this  position  for  twenty  years,  receiving  many 
Mohammedan  inquirers  who  came  to  him  by 
night,  and  who  were  generally,  after  a  time, 
caught  by  the  Turkish  police  and  disappeared. 
In  1880  Dr.  Koelle's  name  was  brought  promi- 
nently into  public  notice.  He  and  a  distinguished 
Muslim  Ulema  named  Ahmed  Tewfik,  who  was 
assisting  him  linguistically,  were  arrested  in  the 
street  by  order  of  the  minister  of  police.  Koelle 
was  soon  released,  but  the  Ulema  was  sen- 
tenced to  death.  The  outrage  produced  great 
excitement  in  England,  and  it  was  only  after 
an  ultimatum  had  been  sent  to  the  Porte  and  the 
British  fleet  was  ordered  to  the  Dardanelles  that 
the  Sultan  yielded  and  reprieved  Ahmed  Tewfik, 
who  afterward  embraced  Christianity. 

Koelle  was  one  of  the  greatest  linguists  on  the 
CM  Society's  roll  of  missionaries.  He  was  the 
author  of  Syllabic  System  of  Writing  amongst  the 
Vei  Tribe,  Orammar  and  Vocabulary  of  Vei 
Language,  Grammar  of  Kanuri  or  Bornu  Lan- 
guage, Bornu  Literature  and  Vocabulary,  Poly- 
glotta Africana,  Kanuri  Proverbs,  Food  for 
Reflection,  Life  of  Christ,  Prophecies  Concerning 
Christ,  The  Death  of  Christ  (in  English  and  Turk- 
ish), Translation  of  Book  of  Common  Prayer  into 
Turkish,  and  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism. 
The  last  named  worlc  is  a  very  severe  analysis  of 
the  character  of  Mohammed  as  described  by 
Muslim  writers.  It  is  too  merciless  for  general 
acceptance,  but  is  an  admirable  corrective  when 
taken  with  the  many  works  which  err  upon  the 
side  of  unrestricted  praise  of  the  man  of  Mecca. 
For  this  work  alone  Dr.  Koelle  merits  remem- 
brance. 

KOEOTGSBERG:  A  settlement  in  Natal, 
Africa,  10  miles  S.  W.  of  Newcastle,  and  station 


of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1868),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  12  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  7  outstations  and  places  of  worship, 
and  510  professed  Christians,  of  whom  213  are 
communicants. 

KOFU:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  Hondo, 
the  main  island,  70  miles  W.  of  Tokio.  Station 
of  the  Methodist  Church  in  Canada  (1876),  and 
of  the  Women's  Society  of  that  Church  (1889), 
with  (1900)  3  missionary  women,  8  native  work- 
ers, men  and  women;  15  outstations,  6  places  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  1  boarding  school,  1  train- 
ing class  for  women  workers,  and  360  professed 
Christians. 

KOHIMA:  A  frontier  post  in  the  Naga  hills, 
Assam,  India,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  Brit- 
ish Government  supervising  the  hill  tribes.  It  is 
at  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet,  and  has  a  health- 
ful climate.  Population,  4,000;  language,  Angami 
Naga.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1879) ,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  3  native  workers. 

KOI  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect  of  the  Gond,  one 
of  the  Dravidian  languages  of  Central  India,  and 
spoken  by  about  100,000  people.  It  has  been 
reduced  to  writing  by  natives  under  the  direction 
of  the  CMS,  and  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 

KOIMBATUR.     See  Coimbatoke. 

KOIS.     See  Gonds. 

KOKSTAD:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  Africa, 
lying  in  Griqualand  East,  65  miles  W.  of  Shep- 
stone.  Station  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  (1878), 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  6  native  workers,  3 
outstations,  4  places  of  worship,  1  day  school 
and  396  professed  Christians. 

KOKURA:  A  town  on  Kiushiu  Island,  Japan, 
fronting  on  the  Inland  Sea,  and  situated  10(> 
miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of  Nagasaki.  Population, 
14,000.  Station  of  the  SBC  (1892),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 1  Sunday  school  and  64  professed 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  CMS  (1898) ,  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
6  native  workers,  3  outstations,  1  chapel,  and 
242  professed  Christians,  of  whom  119  are  com- 
municants. 

KOLAR :  A  town  in  the  native  state  of  Mysore, 
India,  situated  39  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Bangalore. 
Population,  11,000.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  8  women  mis- 
sionaries, 37  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
5  preaching  places,  6  day  schools,  and  an  orphan- 
age with  industrial  department. 

KOLHAPUR:  Capital  of  the  native  state  of 
that  name,  Bombay,  India,  situated  about  97 
miles  W.  of  Bijapur,  opposite  a  gap  in  the 
Sahyadri  Hills.  It  is  a  picturesque  town,  and 
quite  a  flourishing  trading-place.  The  people, 
who  are  mainly  high-caste  Hindus,  together  with 
the  aborigines  and  low-caste,  speak  the  Marithi 
and  Hindustani  languages.  There  are  Buddhist 
remains  of  the  3d  century  B.C.  in  the  vicinity. 
Population  (1891),  45,800.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1853).  The  work  was  commenced  by  Mr. 
Wilder,  as  an  independent  enterprise,  and  was 
taken  over  by  the  PN  in  1870;  the  station  has 
now  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  3  women 
missionaries,  13  native  workers,  4  outstations,. 
5  day  schools,  and  1  boarding  school.  Station 
also  of  theSPG  (1870),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries, 
1  woman  missionary,  17  native  workers,  2  day 


877 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


KoAnr 
Korapat 


schools,  and  2  boarding  schools.  The  place  is 
locally  called  Karvir. 

KOLLEGAL.     See  Collegal. 

KOLLUPITIYA:  A  village  in  Ceylon,  situated 

3  miles  southwest  of  Colombo.  Station  of  the 
WMS,  with  26  native  workers,  4  outstations,  4 
chapels,  6  Sunday  schools  and  118  professed 
Christians.  The  name  is  sometimes  spelled 
Kolluputiya. 

KOLO:  A  settlement  in  Basutoland,  S. 
Africa,  10  miles  N.  W.  of  Morija,  and  a  station  of 
the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society,  with  (1903) 
11  native  workers,  men  and  women;  3  outstations, 

4  day  schools  and  533  professing  Christians. 
KOLOGWE.     See  Korogwe. 

KOLS:  Name  of  a  collection  of  aboriginal  tribes 
mainly  occupying  the  mountain  districts  and 
plateaus  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  division  of 
western  Bengal,  India,  and  found  to  a  smaller 
extent  in  Orissa  and  in  some  districts  of  the 
Central  Provinces.  Chota  Nagpur  is  of  about 
the  area  of  England.  Kol  is  a  generic  word  for 
the  whole  group  of  tribes  included  linguistically 
within  the  word  Kolarian,  but  it  is  usually  applied 
to  three  principal  tribes,  the  Mundah  Kols,  of  the 
Lohardaga  District;  the  Larka  ("fighting")  Kols 
or  Hos,  mostly  of  Lingbhum;  and  the  Brumij 
Kols  of  Manbhum,  one  part  of  whom,  however, 
have  been  assimilated  to  the  Mundahs,  and  the 
other  to  the  Hindus.  Another  tribe,  the  Oraons, 
scattered  over  Chota  Nagpur,  thonot  really  such, 
are  classed  with  Mundah  Kols,  as  they  live  in 
amity  and  have  many  customs  and  most  beliefs 
in  common.  But  the  Oraons  will  not  intermarry 
with  the  Kols,  to  whom  they  regard  themselves 
as  superior.  The  census  of  1891  gave  Mundahs 
362,000,  Hos  and  Kols  393,000,  Oraons  482,000, 
out  of  a  population  of  4,628,000  in  Chota  Nagpur, 
the  majority  of  whom  belong  to  diverse  abo- 
riginal tribes.  The  bulk  of  the  Kol  people  live  in 
little  mud-hut  villages,  less  than  five  per  cent, 
of  the  population  of  Chota  Nagpur  dwelling  in 
towns.  They  follow  the  chase,  do  a  very  little  in 
agriculture,  engage  somewhat  in  mining  and 
washing  for  gold  and  many  go  to  Calcutta  and 
Assam  to  labor.  Both  sexes  of  the  Hos  are 
clothed  with  a  loin  cloth,  and  the  women  adorn 
themselves  with  a  profusion  of  beads  and  earings. 
They  eat  anything,  including  carrion.  The 
Mundahs  especially  are  ugly  people,  with  thin, 
flat  faces,  high  cheek  bones  and  tawny  skin. 
Monogamy  is  the  rule,  women  being  married  not 
earlier  than  the  14th  year.  Dancing  in  connec- 
tion with  worship  is  a  national  institution,  and  is 
the  occasion  of  licentiousness  and  drunkenness. 
Cheerfulness  is  a  marked  characteristic,  and  in 
truthfulness  and  honesty  the  Kols  compare 
favorably  with  the  Hindus.  The  Kol  language 
is  a  dialect  of  the  Gond,  and  unwritten  except  as 
the  missionaries  have  elaborated  it. 

The  Kols  are  filled  with  superstitious  fears 
and  worship  evil  spirits.  Belief  in  witchcraft 
is  common  and  witches  are  severely  treated. 
The  Hos  have  the  sun,  moon  and  stars  for  their 
chief  deities.  The  Mundahs  use  no  idols.  Sin- 
bhongu,  the  sun,  is  to  them  the  supreme  being, 
the  beneficial  creator  and  preserver,  to  whom 
they  sacrifice  fowls,  goats  and  buffalos,  but  they 
recognize  secondary  deities,  mostly  malevolent. 
Some  of  the  richer  Mundahs  worship  Kali. 

To  this  rude,  degraded  people,  four  disciples 
of  Pastor  Gossner  of  Berlin  went  in  1845,  and 


established  themselves  at  Ranchi.  The  first 
convert  was  baptized  in  1850,  after  which  the 
expansion  of  the  work  was  most  remarkable, 
700  baptisms  taking  place  in  the  next  seven  years. 
The  Sepoy  rebellion  temporarily  interrupted  the 
work,  and  during  a  dissension  between  the  older 
missionaries  and  the  Society  in  Berlin,  after 
Gossner's  death,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  received  a  party  of  the  missionaries 
and  7,000  of  the  converts  and  occupied  the  Goss- 
ner territory  in  active  rivalry,  which  has  since 
given  way  to  a  tolerable  modus  vivendi.  At 
Ranchi  the  Gossner  Mission  has  a  beautiful,  large 
church,  hospital,  schools,  a  divinity  college  and  a 
large  body  of  workers;  Burju  and  Govindpur 
are  also  important  centers,  and  there  are  many 
outstations  and  a  well-developed  church  in  rapid 
growth.  Among  the  Oraons  a  Christian  move- 
ment has  embraced  the  whole  population  of  many 
villages.  According  to  Warneck  (1901)  68,000 
Christians,  including  candidates,  belong  to 
this  mission.  The  following  year  4,000  baptisms 
were  reported.  A  branch  mission  to  the  Kols 
who  have  emigrated  to  Assam  has  been  estab- 
lished. 

The  SPG,  beginning  in  1869  with  the  Gossner 
defection,  has  worked  mostly  in  the  Ranchi  dis- 
trict, with  some  stations  in  the  Hazaribagh  district 
to  the  north  and  Lingbhum  to  the  south.  Schools 
of  all  grades  are  maintained.  In  1901  the  mis- 
sion enrolled  16,261  Christians,  scattered  in 
some  500  villages. 

The  progress  of  the  Protestant  missions, 
especially  the  SPG,  has  been  hampered  by  the 
violent  prosecution  of  a  Jesuit  counter  mission, 
which  at  one  time  baptized  within  a  few  days 
10,000  heathens  without  preparation,  and  boasted 
of  90,000  Catholic  Kols.  Catholic  sources  in 
1901  reduced  this  number  to  33,155,  including 
5,436  catechumens,  and  little  is  now  heard  of 
the  Kol  mission  of  which  they  formerly  boasted 
so  greatly.  That  so  primitive  and  degraded  a 
race  should  have  been  so  lifted  in  half  a  century  is 
one  of  the  marvels  of  missions,  and  the  promise 
of  the  future  is  bright. 
Imperial    Gazetteer    of  India,    article    Kols;    Two  Hundred 

Yean  of  the  SPG,  London,  1902. 

KOMAGGAS :  A  station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission- 
ary Society  among  the  Nama  or  Namaqua  people; 
situated  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  60  miles  S.  E.  of  Port  NoUoth.  The 
station  was  founded  by  Mr.  Schmelen,  of  the 
LMS,  in  1824  and  was  transferred  to  the  Rhenish 
Society  in  1840.  It  now  (1903)  has  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  1  school,  and  498 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  271  are  commu- 
nicants. 

KONAKRY:  A  station  of  the  Pongas  Mission 
in  French  Guinea,  W.  Africa,  situated  on  a  small 
island  off  the  coast.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
mission  in  1899,  and  has  (1901)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  native  worker  and  2  places  of  worship. 

KONDOWI.     See  Livingstonia. 

KONIGSBERG.     See  Koenigsbebq. 

KONKORDIA.     See  Concordia  Mine. 

KORAPAT:  A  town  in  the  Presidency  of  Ma- 
dras, India;  situated  in  the  District  of  Vizagapa- 
tam,  18  miles  N.  W.  of  Salur.  Station  of  the 
Breklum  Missionary  Society  (1884),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  (1  with  his  wife),  7  native  workers, 
10  outstations,  2  day  schools,  8  places  of  wor- 
ship, and  1,925  professed  Christians. 


Korea 
Koahl 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


878 


KOREA:  The  kingdom  of  Korea,  properly 
called  Cho-sen  (Morning  Calm),  comprises  the 
peninsula  lying  between  Japan  and  the  mainland 
of  China,  together  with  a  multitude  of  adjacent 
islands.  It  is  washed  by  the  Yellow  Sea  on  the 
■west  and  the  Japan  Sea  on  the  east;  on  the  north 
it  is  bounded  by  Chinese  and  Russian  territory. 
Its  surface  is  rugged  and  mountainous,  being 
divided  into  two  watersheds  by  an  irregular  range 
of  mountains  running  from  north  to  south  near 
the  eastern  coast.  The  country  is  well  watered, 
the  largest  rivers  falling  into  the  Yellow  Sea. 
Considering  the  mountainous  character  of  the 
country  it  is  exceedingly  productive.  All  kinds 
of  cereals  are  produced.from  wheat  in  the  north- 
ern part  to  rice  in  the  more  temperate  southern 
provinces.  The  pine  and  fir  grow  almost  side  by 
side  with  the  bamboo.  The  mineral  wealth  of 
Korea  is  very  great;  large  deposits  of  gold,  silver, 
and  coal  have  been  found;  but  the  mineral 
resources  have  not  yet  been  fairly  tested.  A 
few  mining  concessions  have  been  granted  to 
foreigners  during  recent  years. 

Government:  Korea  is  an  absolute  monarchy 
of  the  paternal  type.  There  is  a  written  con- 
stitution which  serves  as  a  guide,  in  a  loose  way, 
to  the  administration  of  government,  but  this 
does  not  include  anything  like  representation  of 
the  people  in  Government  Councils.  While  the 
country  is  nominally  independent,  its  position 
between  China  and  Japan  makes  it  liable  to 
attack  from  either;  and  it  has  many  times  been 
a  vassal  state  of  either  or  both.  It  has  also 
suffered  several  times  as  the  battle-field  on  which 
China  and  Japan  have  settled  their  differences. 

In  1876  Japan  invaded  Korea  and  forced  the 
king  to  sign  a  treaty  opening  certain  ports  to 
foreign  commerce,  and  accepting  in  principle 
certain  reforms  of  internal  administration  held 
to  be  essentials  of  development  to  the  country. 
The  United  States  had  vainly  attempted  in  1870 
to  open  negotiations  with  Korea,  even  going  so 
far  as  to  attack  and  capture  a  number  of  fortified 
ports  in  order  to  punish  officials  who  fired  upon 
the  ships  bearing  the  embassy.  But  the  actual 
opening  of  diplomatic  and  commercial  inter- 
course between  Korea  and  the  Western  nations 
was  secured  by  Japan.  In  1894  China  undertook 
to  encourage  Korea  in  resisting  reform,  and  to 
resume  the  protectorate  which  she  had  formally 
renounced.  Japan  declared  war,  drove  the 
Chinese  armies  from  the  country,  and  having 
thoroughly  broken  the  military  power  of  China, 
dictated  a  peace  by  which  the  independence  of 
Korea  was  secured.  In  1897  the  king  assumed 
the  title  of  Emperor,  the  privileges  of  the  aris- 
tocracy were  abolished,  and  important  reforms 
were  introduced,  among  others  the  adoption  of 
English  and  German  principles  of  law  and  justice. 
A  strong  reaction  against  these  radical  changes 
did  not  fail  to  show  itself;  and  Russia,  which  had 
acquired  railway  interests  in  neigliboring  regions 
in  Manchuria,  in  1900,  began  to  take  advantage  of 
these  reactionary  tendencies  to  become  a  rival 
of  Japan  for  the  privilege  of  serving  as  tutor  to 
the  Emperor.  The  steady,  onward  march  of 
Russian  influence,  interfering  in  Korean  affairs 
at  innumerable  points,  has  been  a  potent  factor 
in  deciding  Japan  to  take  arms  against  such 
encroachments.  The  war  opened  in  February, 
1904,  between  Russia  and  Japan,  whatever  it 
decides,  must  trample  down  Korean  territory 
once  more  and  seriously  retard  the  civilization 


and  development  of  the  country,  that  strangers 
may  settle  their  differences  witla  least  inconve- 
nience to  themselves. 

People:  The  population  of  Korea  is  probably 
about  12,000,000,  altho  the  lack  of  a  proper 
census  renders  an  exact  estimate  impossible. 
This  population  is  distributed  unevenly  over  the 
eight  provinces  composing  the  kingdom,  the  most 
thickly  settled  portions  being  the  southern  and 
western  provinces.  The  people  of  Korea  are  of 
undoubted  Mongolian  origin.  Successive  tribes 
sweeping  down  from  the  north  and  overrunning 
the  country,  together  with  large  numbers  of 
Chinese  who  from  time  to  time  found  in  Korea 
an  asylum  from  the  oppression  of  their  native 
land,  have  produced  a  conglomerate  mass,  of 
whose  origin  it  is  impossible  to  say  more.  The 
affinities  of  the  people  are  Japanese  rather  than 
Chinese.  But  there  is  not  much  affection  for  the 
Japanese  among  the  common  people. 

Language:  The  language  of  the  Koreans  is 
distinct  from  that  of  their  neighbors  in  its  gram- 
matical construction  and  idioms,  but  it  has  bor- 
rowed from  the  Chinese  a  large  number  of  words, 
just  as  English  has  borrowed  largely  from  the 
Latin.  The  Chinese  character  is  used  in  all 
official  and  literary  writing,  and  in  fact  in  all 
writing  on  the  part  of  the  better  class  of  people. 
The  Korean  language  was  reduced  to  writing 
about  three  hundred  years  ago.  It  has  an 
alphabet  whose  simplicity,  flexibility,  and  com- 
prehensiveness compare  favorably  with  those  of 
any  other  known  alphabet.  It  is  as  unlike  the 
inflexible  syllabary  of  Japan  as  it  is  unlike  the 
unwieldy  ideograms  of  China.  The  Korean 
written  language  is  used  only  by  the  lower  classes, 
who  form,  however,  the  vast  majority  of  the 
population. 

Religion:  The  religious  history  of  Korea  may 
be  divided  into  five  periods  or  movements.  The 
first  includes  the  early  centuries  of  the  kingdom, 
and  terminates  about  350  a.d.  Of  the  religious 
history  up  to  that  time  little  is  known.  It  is 
probaijle  that  there  was  no  one  form  of  religion 
prevalent  throughout  the  different  tribes  and 
clans  living  in  the  land,  but  that  each  had  its  own 
religious  observances  and  rites.  But  during  the 
4th  century  a  general  consolidation  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  took  place,  and  at  the 
same  time  Buddhist  missionaries  appeared  and 
taught  their  faith.  It  flourished,  and  in  the 
space  of  a  few  centuries  we  find  Korea  a  Buddhist 
nation,  with  numerous  monasteries  filled  with 
people  from  every  station  in  life.  In  the  course 
of  time  the  teachings  of  Confucius  began  to  have 
their  influence  upon  the  people  and  gradually 
supplanted  the  religion  of  Buddha,  and  for  many 
centuries  past  Confucianism  has  beenholdingsway 
over  the  masses  of  the  people.  Buddhism  still 
exists,  but  is  confined  exclusively  to  a  few  mon- 
asteries, whose  inmates  are  looked  down  upon 
by  the  people  at  large. 

Near  the  close  of  the  18th  century  some  of 
the  members  attached  to  the  Korean  Embassy 
to  Peking  came  in  contact  with  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  and  brought  back  that  faith  to 
Korea.  It  took  root  almost  immediately  and 
spread  with  great  rapidity.  But  the  history  of 
Roman  Catholicism  m  Korea  is  one  of  persecu- 
tions from  the  very  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. In  1864  the  last  king  of  the  Yi  dynasty 
died — a  king  under  whom  the  Romanists  were 
not  only  tolerated,  but  even  allowed  to  obtain  a 


S79 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Korea 
KoBhl 


ereat  deal  of  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the  king- 
aom.  The  reins  of  government  fell  into  the  hands 
of  a  regent  who  was  intensely  opposed  to  for- 
eigners, and  to  the  Romanists  in  particular. 
Soon  after  he  took  the  lead  of  affairs  Bishop 
Berneux  and  eight  of  his  associates  were  seized 
and  put  to  death,  and  an  inquisition  was  insti- 
tuted which  bade  fair  to  exterminate  Christianity 
from  the  land.  It  is  not  known  how  many 
native  converts  there  were  at  that  time,  but 
there  must  have  been  not  less  than  60,000.  Of 
these,  10,000  were  put  to  death.  In  some  local- 
ities whole  communities  and  villages  were  put 
to  the  sword.  The  effects  of  this  persecution 
were  very  widespread  and  permanent,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  power  of  the  Romanists  has 
never  rallied  from  the  stroke  it  then  received. 
The  horrors  of  that  time  implanted  in  the  whole 
people  a  dread  of  foreign  religions  which  is  as 
great  a  drawback  to  Protestant  as  to  Romanist 
mission  work. 

There  is  now  a  strong  force  of  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  in  Korea.  One  of  the  greatest 
benefits  that  they  have  conferred  upon  the  cause 
is  the  compiling  and  publishing  of  a  complete 
lexicon  and  grammar  of  the  Korean  language. 

Protestant  Missions:  The  first  Protestant  mis- 
sion work  for  Korea  was  done  by  the  Rev.  John 
Ross  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scot- 
land. About  1875  he  came  in  contact  with 
Koreans  near  the  border  between  Korea  and 
China.  He  took  up  the  Korean  language,  and, 
altho  never  having  set  foot  upon  Korean  soil, 
he  translated  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament 
into  Korean  and  sent  it  across  the  border, 
together  with  large  numbers  of  Chinese  Bibles. 
He  thus  became  the  means  of  beginning  a  work 
of  great  importance  in  Northern  Korea.  When 
Protestant  missionaries  came  to  Korea  later  they 
found  whole  communities  in  the  north  professing 
Protestant  Christianity,  studying  the  Bible 
among  themselves,  and  only  waiting  for  some 
one  to  come  and  teach  them.  The  treaty  between 
Korea  and  the  United  States  was  signed  in  1882; 
and  then  for  the  first  time  the  eyes  of  the  civil- 
ized world  were  turned  upon  Korea.  The  first 
movement  made  toward  putting  men  in  the 
field  was  the  appointment  by  the  American  Pres- 
byterian Board  of  Dr.  J.  W.  Heron,  M.D.,  as 
medical  missionary  to  Korea  in  the  spring  of 
1884.  His  coming  was  delayed,  and  in  the 
summer  of  the  same  year  Rev.  R.  S.  McClay  of 
the  Japan  Methodist  Conference  was  sent  to  look 
over  the  ground  and  report  on  the  advisability 
of  sending  missionaries.  Before  his  favorable 
report  was  acted  upon.  Dr.  H.  N.  Allen,  M.D.,  of 
China,  was  transferred  from  that  field  to  Korea, 
and  he,  arriving  with  his  family  in  the  autumn 
of  1884,  became  the  first  resident  Protestant  mis- 
sionary. Meanwhile  the  report  of  Dr.  McClay 
had  been  acted  upon,  and  the  Missionary  Society 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  America 
had  appointed  to  the  field  Dr.  Wm.  B.  Scranton 
and  Rev.  H.  G.  Appenzeller,  and  the  Woman's 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  appointed  Mrs.  M.  F.  Scranton. 
In  November  of  the  same  year  the  Presbyterian 
Board  appointed  Rev.  H.  G.  Underwood.  In 
December  of  1884,  before  any  of  these  appointees 
had  arrived  in  Korea,  occurred  the  riot  in  Seoul, 
during  which  Prince  Min  Yong  Ik  was  severely 
wounded.  The  skilful  and  successful  treatment 
of  the  case  by  Dr.  Allen  produced  such  a  favor- 


able impression  that  a  general  government 
hospital  was  founded  by  his  majesty,  and  Dr. 
Allen  was  placed  at  its  head.  In  this  way  a  great 
impetus  was  given  to  the  good  feeling  that  had 
already  begun  to  make  itself  manifest  on  the  part 
of  Koreans  toward  foreigners.  In  the  spring  of 
1885  Rev.  H.  G.  Underwood,  who  had  been 
spending  some  months  in  Jaj)an  studying  the 
Korean  language,  arrived  in  Korea.  For  a  time 
tlie  object  of  his  coming  was  kept  from  the  Korean 
officials  through  fear  that  the  interests  of  the 
missionary  work  might  be  endangered;  but  that 
fear  proved  to  be  groundless,  and  soon  it  became 
generally  known  that  he  had  come,  and  that  the 
object  of  his  coming  was  something  besides  med- 
ical work.  The  Methodist  Mission  was  opened 
the  same  year. 

The  first  Korean  was  baptized  in  the  autumn 
of  1886,  and  from  the  first  the  work  took  on  a 
most  encouraging  aspect.  Large  numbers  of 
inquiries  came  in  from  distant  parts  of  the 
country,  and  it  was  not  long  before  a  little  native 
church  was  organized.  Korea  is  to-day  thrown 
wide  open  to  the  Christian  religion;  the  Emperor 
is  the  open  friend  of  Protestant  missionaries,  and 
while  recently  destroying  thirty  heathen  temples 
in  and  about  Seoul,  and  officially  deploring  the 
money  annually  squandered  upon  the  worship  of 
idols,  he  allows  Christian  churches,  schools  and 
hospitals  to  be  scattered  throughout  the  land. 
Christian  literature  in  the  vernacular  and  several 
mission  periodicals  are  disseminating  the  truth; 
a  Bible  society,  which  sold  70,000  copies  of  the 
Scriptures  in  1900,  has  been  formed;  and  of  the 
70,000  Cathohcs  and  Protestants,  40,000  have 
been  gathered  in  during  the  last  decade.  One  of 
the  Korean  leaders  recently  remarked:  "The  only 
hope  of  the  country  is  in  the  churches.  There  is 
no  moral  character  in  Korea.  It  is  being  created 
in  the  churches.  To  convert  and  educate  the 
common  people  is  the  only  hope  of  the  land." 

Bishop  (Isabella  Bird),  Korea  and  Her  Neighbors,  London  and 
New  York;  Gifford  (D.  L,),  Everyday  Life  in  Korea; 
Gale  (J.  S.),  Korean  Sketches;  alsj.  The  Vanguard,  New 
York,  1904. 

KOROGWE:  A  town  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Pangani  River,  in  the  Usambara 
region,  55  miles  by  railway  from  Tanga.  Station 
of  the  Universities  Mission  (1892),  with  (1900)  2 
missionaries,  7  native  workers,  3  outstations,  4 
day  schools,  and  a  boarding  school. 

KOSHI,  Rev.  Koshi:  Born  in  February,  1825. 
Died  in  November,  1898.  A  Syrian  Christian, 
wlio,  after  his  education  at  Kottayam  College, 
became,  under  the  CMS,  a  catechist,  translator 
and  lay  reader,  being  finally  ordained.  During 
his  useful  career  he  was  stationed  at  Kottayam, 
Trichur,  and  other  places,  and  was  appointed  one  of 
the  examining  Chaplains  to  the  Bishop  of  Madras. 
In  1885  he  was  made  Archdeacon  of  Mavelicara, 
and  in  1891  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  was 
conferred  on  him  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  recognition  of  his  labors  as  a  translator  and 
litterateur.  In  his  early  days  he  was  taught  the 
Malayalam  language,  and  afterward,  under  the 
ablest  teachers,  he  studied  to  make  himself  pro- 
ficient in  this  and  other  tongues.  When  quite  a 
young  man  he  was  offered  the  post  of  Head  Inter- 
preter to  the  Travancore  Government,  a  lucrative 
and  honorable  post,  but  he  chose  the  poorer  and 
more  honorable  work  of  the  mission.  As  pastor, 
as  archdeacon,  and  as  vice-chairman  oftheChurch 
Council,   he  exercised  great  influence    and  did 


Kota 
KrislinaETlrl 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


380 


much  to  develop  the  spiritual  and  intellectual 
life  of  the  native  church;  but  his  great  work  was 
associated  with  the  Malayalam  Bible  Revision. 
He  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  Malayalam 
scholars  in  Travancore,  and  he  was,  for  the  most 
of  the  time,  the  only  native  delegate  on  the 
Revision  Committee.  What  the  late  Mr.  Baker, 
Senior,  was  to  the  Malayalam  CMS  Mission,  from 
a  missionary  point  of  view.  Archdeacon  Koshi 
was  from  the  native — a  valuable  link  with  the 
past — and  one  regrets  that  he  has  left  no  history 
of  the  mission  written  from  his  actual  knowl- 
edge. He  spoke  to  one  of  his  associates  of  the 
early  days  when  portions  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  first  received  at  his  home  on  the  Rani  River. 
The  Syrian  Christians  would  assemble  round  a 
lamp  in  the  house  of  one  who  happened  to  pos- 
sess a  copy  of  the  valuable  document,  and  listen 
while  chapter  after  chapter  was  read  until  the 
night  grew  into  the  morning;  and  then  he  lived 
to  see  the  work  develop  into  an  orderly  diocese 
with  all  the  congregations  ministered  by  pastors 
of  their  own  race,  and  supported,  in  great  part,  by 
native  contributions;  and  himself  as  archdeacon, 
and  vice-chairman  under  the  Bishop,  of  a  church 
Council  embracing  twelve  pastorates  and  more 
than  15,000  Christians.  He  was  the  Chief 
Reviser  on  the  Prayer-book  Committee;  and  it 
was  especially  for  this  work  that  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
D.D.,  on  the  recommendation  of  Bishop  Speechly. 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  his 
translation  into  Malayalam  of  the  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress, James'  Anxious  Inquirer,  Doddridges'  Rise 
and  Progress,  The  Holy  War,  Pulleli  Kunju,  and 
his  many  articles  in  a  periodical  called  The 
Treasury  of  Knowledge,  which  he  conducted  for 
seven  years. 

KOTA.     See  Kotah. 

KOTAGERI:  A  town  in  the  Presidency  of 
Madras,  India,  situated  in  the  Nilgiri  district, 
about  27  miles  E.  of  Utakamand.  Station  of  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society  (1867),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  15  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  8  outstations,  6  day  schools,  and  314 
professed  Christians. 

KOTAH:  A  town  in  Rajputana,  India;  situated 
120  miles  S.  of  Jaipur,  on  the  Chambal  River. 
Population  (1891)  38,600.  •  Station  of  the  UFS 
(1889),  at  present  (1903)  carried  on  by  18  native 
workers,  men  and  women. 

KOTA-KOTA :  A  village  in  the  British  Nyasa- 
land  Protectorate,  Central  Africa,  situated  on  the 
W.  shore  of  Lake  Nyasa.  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
fine  crops  of  rice,  and  was  formerly  an  important 
center  of  Arab  commercial  operations  in  the 
interior.  Station  of  the  Universities'  Mission 
(1894),  with  (1902)  1  missionary,  2  missionary 
women,  5  native  workers,  6  schools,  a  dispensary 
and  378  professed  Christians,  of  whom  92  are 
communicants. 

KOTGARH :  A  village  in  the  Native  Hill  States, 
Punjab,  India,  situated  20  miles  E.  of  Simla.  A 
station  of  the  CMS,  with  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  6  native  workers,  1  chapel,  2  village 
schools  and  58  professed  Christians,  of  whom  28 
are  communicants.  Name  sometimes  spelled 
Kotgur. 

KOTPAD :  A  town  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  the  Vizagapatam  district, 
about  120  miles  N.  W.  of  the  town  of  that  name. 


Station  of  the  Breklum  Missionary  Society  (1885), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries  (one  with  his  wife), 
1  woman  missionary,  23  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  8  outstations,  3  day  schools,  1  orphan- 
age, 1  theological  training  class,  1  dispensary  and 
3,207  professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,657  are 
baptized.     Name  also  written  Kotapad. 

KOTGUR.     See  Kotqarh. 

KO-THA-BYU:  The  first  convert  to  Christian- 
ity from  the  Karens,  a  people  among  whom  the 
labors  of  the  Baptist  missionaries  in  Burma  have 
met  with  remarkable  success.  He  was  a  robber 
and  murderer  in  early  life,  and  was  the  slave  of  a 
Buddhist  Burman  at  Rangun,  when  he  was 
redeemed  and  became  a  servant  in  the  family  of 
Adoniram  Judson.  He  was  converted  after 
some  time  and  was  baptized  by  Rev.  George 
Dana  Boardman  at  Tavoy  on  May  16,  1828. 
He  very  soon  began  to  manifest  a  wonderful  zeal 
and  power  in  winning  his  own  people  to  Christ, 
and  was  constantly  bringing  them  to  the  mis- 
sionaries for  conversation  and  instruction.  He 
traveled  to  remote  portions  of  the  country 
preaching  the  Gospel.  More  than  one  thousand 
persons,  it  is  estimated,  were  converted  as  a 
result  of  his  labors.  He  was  not  highly  educated 
and  his  preaching  was  not  sought  by  the  more 
intelligent  Christian  Karens,  yet  he  had  a  power 
second  to  none  of  his  race  over  a  congregation  of 
untaught  Karens.  He  died  in  1840  in  Arakan, 
whither  he  had  gone  with  the  missionaries 
Abbott  and  Kincaid  to  provide  a  place  of  refuge 
for  the  persecuted  Karens  of  Burma.  He  was 
certainly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  native 
evangelists  that  Burma  has  produced. 

KOTTA:  A  town  in  Ceylon,  India,  situated 
about  6  miles  S.  E.  of  Colombo.  A  station  of  the 
CMS  (1882),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  woman  missionary,  96  native  workers, 
48  village  schools,  3  high  schools  and  1,375  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  315  are  communi- 
cants.    Name  sometimes  spelled  Cotta. 

KOTTA  YAM :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Trav- 
ancore, Madras,  India,  situated  32  miles  S.  E.  by 
E.  of  Cochin,  with  a  population  (1881)  of  11,300. 
A  station  of  the  CEZ  (1871),  with  (1903)  10 
native  workers  and  2  day  schools.  Station  also  of 
the  CMS  (1882),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries 
(three  of  them  with  their  wives),  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 49  native  workers,  1  printing  press, 
5  village  schools,  1*  high  school,  1  theological 
school  and  1  college.  There  are  also  in  the 
Native  Church  Council  of  the  district  172  native 
workers,  90  village  schools  and  20,645  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  5,194  are  communicants. 
Name  sometimes  spelled  Cottayam. 

KOTZEBUE:  A  station  of  the  AFFM  on  the 
N.  shore  of  Kotzebue  Sound,  an  inlet  of  Bering's 
Strait,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Alaska.  The  station 
was  established  in  1897  and  has  a  missionary  and 
his  wife  and  1  woman  missionary. 

KRAPF,  John  Ludwig:  Born  in  Wiirttemberg, 
1810;  educated  in  the  Basel  Mission  House;  sent 
by  the  Church  Missionary  Society  to  join  the 
Abyssinian  Mission  begun  by  Gobat  in  1830,  and 
conducted  by  Isenberg  and  Blumhardt.  Two  or 
three  months  after  his  arrival  they  were  all 
expelled,  through  the  hostile  influence  of  two 
French  Romish  priests,  who  persuaded  the  Prince 
of  Tigr^  that  they  themselves  were  more  in 
accord   with   Abyssinian   Christianity   than  the 


381 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Kota 
Krishnnglrl 


Protestants.     Having  been  invited  by  the  King 
of  Shoa  to  visit  his  country,  Dr.  Krapf  left  Suez 
with  Mr.  Isenberg,  January  27,  1839,  with  the 
hope  of  entering  Abyssinia  by  way  of  Zeila,  and 
after  many  difficulties  reached  in  May  the  king- 
dom of  Shoa,  lying  south  of  Abyssinia,  and  in 
its    widest    sense    including    the    whole    of    the 
Ethiopian  highlands.     The  liing  received  them 
favorably   and  promised  his   protection.     Isen- 
berg went  in  November  to  England  to  prepare 
for  the  press  Amharic  works,  while  Dr.   Krapf 
remained,  studying  the  Galla  language  and  labor- 
ing among  the  Abyssinians.     In  1840  he  accom- 
panied the  king  on  an  expedition  to  the  Gallas, 
a  brave,  vigorous,  and  daring  nation,  inhabiting 
a  vast  extent  of  territory  stretching  southward 
nearly  to  Mombasa,  and  numbering  from  six  to 
eight  millions.     The  slave-trade  was  carried  on 
by   them.     In   a    second    visit   he   noted   three 
places  where  a  Galla  mission  might  be   estab- 
lished and  had  many  opportunities  of  proclaiming 
the  Gospel  message.     The  population  of  Shoa  is 
to  a  large  extent  nominally  Christian,  similar  to 
the  Coptic  Church  in  Egypt,  but  the  Gallas  were 
heathen.     The    committee    were    so    impressed 
with  the  providential  openings,  both  in  Abyssinia 
and  among  the  heathen  Galla  tribes,  that  they 
resolved  to  form  the  Abyssinians  into  a  new  mis- 
sion, to  be  called  the  East  Africa  Mission.     In 
1841  the  people  of  Shoa  expressed  great  desire 
for  the  Word  of  God.     Dr.   Krapf  spent  three 
years  among  them,  but  in   1842  he  was  again 
excluded  through  Romish  influence.     He  greatly 
desired  to  reach  the  Galla  tribes.     He  translated 
the  Gospels  into  their  language.     To   devise  a 
plan  to  reach  them  from  the  Indian  Ocean  he 
sailed  down  the  coast  in  1843,  and  visited  Aden. 
Having  received  the  approval  of  the  committee, 
he  sailed  with  his  wife  for  the  Zanzibar  coast, 
landing  January  3,   1844,   at   Mombasa,  which, 
after  visiting  Zanzilaar,  he  selected  as  the  site  of 
his  mission.     Here  he  and  his  wife  were  pros- 
trated by  fever,  and  in  two  months  she  and  their 
infant  child  died.     He  now  devoted  himself  with 
zeal  to  the  work  of  the  mission,  especially  to 
the  study  of  the  languages  of  that  region.     He 
made  excursions  among  the  Wanika  and  Wa- 
kamba    tribes,    preaching    and    surveying    the 
ground    with    reference    to    future    operations. 
He    found    the    natives     extremely     degraded, 
intemperate,  and  in  the  habit  even  of  selling  their 
children    to    obtain    the    means    of    indulgence. 
He  apphed  himself  to  the  work  of  translation, 
and  in  three  years  after  the  founding  of  the  mis- 
sion had  translated   Acts,    Romans,    Galatians, 
Peter,   1   John  into   the   Swahili   language,   and 
had  completed  a  dictionary  of  10,000  words  of 
the  Swahili,  Wanika  and  Wakamba  languages. 
Repeated  attacks  of  fever  had  greatly  impaired 
his  constitution.     Yet  he  continued  his  mission- 
ary tours,  gathering  valuable  information  con- 
cerning the   interior  tribes   and    preaching   the 
Gospel,  which  the  natives  who  heard  it  would 
repeat  to  others. 

In  1846  he  was  joined  by  John  Rebmann,  and 
together  they  established  the  mission  station  at 
Kisulutini  in  the  Rabai  district,  fifteen  miles 
inland.  They  were  both  laid  aside  for  some 
weeks  with  fever,  and  before  they  had  fully 
recovered  their  strength  they  set  out  for  the  new 
mission.  They  found  the  place  more  salubri- 
ous than  Mombasa,  but  the  people  were  deeply 
sunk  in  ignorance,  superstition  and  sensuality. 


Continuing  their  explorations  in  the  interior, 
they  found  wonderful  openings,  and  came  in 
sight  of  the  Galla  country,  so  long  the  object  of 
Dr.  Krapf's  desire.  Dr.  Krapf  visited  Usambara 
and  Ukamba,  and  sailed  down  the  coast  as  far 
as  Cape  Delgado.  In  1849  he  proceeded  to 
Ukambani,  300  miles  to  the  northwest,  to  visit 
the  Wakamba  tribes,  numbering  about  70,000 
people.  He  went  again  the  next  year  with  the 
view,  as  instructed  by  the  committee,  of  found- 
ing a  mission  among  the  Wakamba  on  the 
heights  of  Yata.  But  the  plan  failed.  In  this 
journey  he  sighted  Mount  Kenia.  On  the  jour- 
ney he  was  repeatedly  in  the  greatest  extremity 
from  hunger  and  thirst,  wild  beasts  and  savage 
robbers.  He  continued  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guage and  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures.  He 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  from  the  Galla  bound- 
ary to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  there  is  one  family 
of  languages,  which  he  calls  the  Swahili  stock, 
which  stock,  he  thinks,  judging  from  specimens 
he  had  received  of  West  African  languages, 
commences  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Gabun 
River.  The  missionaries  in  their  tours  obtained 
much  geographical  information.  In  1850  Dr. 
Krapf  visited  England  and  Germany  and  on  his 
return  explored  the  interior,  penetrating  to 
IJkamba,  but  was  forced  to  return  by  extraor- 
dinary sufferings,  perils  and  enmity  of  the 
tribes.  In  later  years  he  established  and 
directed  the  remarkable  "Pilgrim  Mission,"  in 
connection  with  the  St.  Chrischona  Institute, 
which  was  to  begin  the  "chain  of  missions" 
from  the  north  instead  of  from  the  east.  Twelve 
stations  were  planned,  embracing  Egypt,  Nubia 
and  Abyssinia.  He  afterward  visited  Usam- 
bara and  was  well  received  by  King  Kmeri,  who 
desired  him  to  establish  a  mission  on  a  mountain 
thirty  miles  distant,  offering  him  his  protection. 
In  1855  he  returned  to  Europe,  and  tho  he  went 
again  twice  to  Africa  on  temporary  missions,  the 
great  work  of  his  later  years  was  linguistic,  in 
his  quiet  home  at  Kornthalin  Wiirttemberg,  pre- 
paring dictionaries  of  several  languages  and  trans- 
lating the  Scriptures  into  the  East  African 
tongues.  He  was  found  dead  at  his  home,  on  his 
knees  in  the  attitude  of  prayer,  November  26, 
1881,  and  on  the  30th  his  body  was  buried  in  the 
presence  of  3,000  people,  assembled  from  all  parts 
of  the  country. 
Claus  (Von  W.)  Johann  Ludwig  Krapf,  Basel,  1882. 

KREUZBURG:  A  settlement  in  the  Transvaal, 
S.  Africa,  situated  about  22  miles  N.  E.  of  Pieters- 
burg.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society 
(1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  28  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  11  outstations,  and 
799  professed  Christians. 

KRISHNAGAR:  A  town  in  the  district  of 
Nadiya,  Bengal,  India,  situated  55  miles  N.  of 
Calcutta.  It  has  a  population  of  (1891)  25,500, 
of  whom  17,500  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1831),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  21  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
chapel,  4  day  schools,  3  boarding  schools  and  320 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  119  are  coinmum- 
cants.  The  CEZ  also  has  a  station  there  (1871), 
with  (1903)  7  women  missionaries,  21  native 
workers,  1  high  school,  2  dispensaries,  1  hospital, 
and  39  Zenana  pupils. 

KRISHNAGIRI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India 5 
situated  in  the  district  of  Salem,  53  miles  S.  E. 
of    Bangalore.     Population     (1891),    9,700,    of 


Kroonstad 
Kurds 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


whom  about  7,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
German  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod,  of  Mis- 
souri, Ohio  and  other  States.  The  station  was 
opened  in  1895,  and  it  has  (1900)  2  missionaries 
(one  with  his  wife)  and  3  native  workers. 

KROONSTAD:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  in  the  district  of  the  same  name, 
of  which  it  is  the  capital,  96  miles  S.  S.  W.  of 
Johannesburg.  Population,  2,000.  Station  of 
the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission- 
ary Society,  with  63  native  workers,  37  outsta- 
tions,  3  day  schools,  and  951  professed  Christians. 

KRtfGERSDORP :  A  settlement  in  the  Trans- 
vaal, Africa,  situated  18  miles  northwest  of 
Johannesburg.  A  station  of  the  Berlin  Mission- 
ary Society  (1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  5 
native  workers,  5  outstations  and  78  Christians. 
Station  of  the  WMS  (1903),  with  1  missionary, 
10  native  workers,  11  outstations,  11  places  of 
worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  261 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  173  are  communi- 
cants. 

KUALA  LUMPUR.     See  Kwala  Lumpur. 

KUAN6CHI.     See  Kwang-chi-hsien. 

KU-CHAU-FU:  A  city  in  Che-kiang,  China, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Yangtse  River,  106 
miles  S.  W.  of  Hang-chau.  It  is  a  large  and 
prosperous  place,  and  considered  one  of  the  keys 
to  the  empire.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1872),  but 
as  yet  (1903)  vacant  since  the  Boxer  troubles  of 
1900.     Name  written  by  the  Society,  Kiu-chau. 

KU-CHENG.     See  Ku-tien-hsien. 

KUCHING,  or  SARAWAK:  A  town  in  British 
Borneo,  Malaysia,  capital  of  the  district  of  Sara- 
wak; situated  at  the  head  of  navigation  of  the 
Sarawak  River,  18  miles  from  its  mouth.  Popu- 
lation, 25,000.  A  station  of  the  SPG  (1848), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  11  native  workers,  4 
outstations,  4  places  of  worship,  2  high  schools, 
and  689  Christians. 

KUDAT:  A  station  in  British  North  Borneo, 
Malaysia,  situated  on  an  inlet  running  west  from 
Marudu  Bay.  A  station  of  the  SPG  (1889),  with 
(1902)  5  native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  2 
day  schools,  and  584  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  285  are  communicants. 

KU-DE:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Fo-kien, 
China,  situated  58  miles  N.  W.  of  Fu-chau.  Sta- 
tion circuit  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  45  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  15  places  of  worship, 
20  Sabbath  schools,  10  day  schools,  and  890  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  516  are  communicants. 

KUDELUR.     See  Cuddalore. 

KU-DING:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Che- 
kiang,  China,  situated  about  50  miles  north  by 
west  of  Hang-chau.  A  station  of  the  PS  (1895), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  wife,  4  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  4  places  of  worship,  3 
Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  and  218  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  100  are  communicants. 

KUEI-LIN.     See  Kwei-lin-fu. 

KUENENG:  A  station  of  the  Paris  Evangeli- 
cal Missionary  Society  in  Basutoland,  S.  Africa, 
situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the  territory, 
with  (1902)  10  native  workers,  3  day  schools, 
5  outstations,  and  563  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  336  are  communicants. 

KU-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,   China,   situated  48   miles  E.   N.   E.   of 


Shun-king-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1898),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  woman 
missionary.  Name  written  by  the  Society, 
Ku-hien. 

KUH-TSI-ING.     See  Ku-tsing-pu. 

K'UH-WU.     See  Ku-wu-hsien. 

KULBARGA:  A  town  in  the  native  state  of 
Haidarabad,  India;  situated  on  an  undulating 
plain  in  the  district  of  the  same  name,  of  which 
it  is  the  chief  town,  and  75  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Bijapur.  It  was  the  capital  city  of  a  powerful 
dynasty  from  1347  to  1432,  and  its  chief  mosque 
is  a  copy  of  that  in  Cordova,  Spain.  Its  fine 
palaces,  however,  are  mostly  allowed  to  decay 
uncared  for.  Population,  29,000.  Station  of 
the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  6  native 
workers,  and  an  orphanage. 

KULESA:  A  station  of  the  Scandinavian  Alli- 
ance (U.  S.)  in  British  East  Africa,  situated  30 
miles  N.  W.  of  Witu. 

KULLUKO :  A  village  in  Eritrea,  East  Africa, 
situated  on  the  frontier  of  Abyssinia,  about  135 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Massaua.  Station  of  the 
Evangelical  National  Missionary  Society  of 
Sweden  (1867),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  1 
of  them  accompanied  by  his  wife. 

KUMAGAI:  A  town  on  the  Hondo,  or  main 
island  of  Japan,  situated  about  50  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Tokio.     Station  of  the  PE. 

KUMAMOTO:  A  town  on  the  island  of  Kiu- 
shiu,  Japan,  situated  about  50  miles  E.  by  N.  of 
Nagasaki.  It  is  the  most  populous  city  in  the 
island  and  is  the  center  of  a  large  rice  trade.  It 
has  a  celebrated  fortress  built  of  enormous  stones. 
Malaria  prevails  in  the  region.  Population, 
47,600.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1888),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  (one  with  his  wife),  4  native  work- 
ers, 1  place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  and 
234  professed  Christians,  of  whom  109  are  com- 
municants. The  ELUS  also  has  a  station  there 
(1898),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife.  Also 
station  of  the  SBC,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  Sunday  school,  and 
15  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
ME,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  4  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship,  4  Sunday 
schools  and  160  professed  Christians. 

KUMASE.     See  Kumassi. 

KUMASSI:  A  town  situated  104  miles  north 
by  west  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  in  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony,  Western  Africa.  A  station  of  the  Basel 
Missionary  Society  (^1896),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  5  native  workers,  3  out- 
stations, 4  day  schools  and  80  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  of  the  WMS  also,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  8  native  workers,  35  outstations,  35 
places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  4  day 
schools,  and  55  professed  Christians.  Name  some- 
times spelled  Kumase. 

KUMBAKONAM.     See  Combaconum. 

KUMUKI  DIALECT.   See  Turkish  Language. 

KUNDAKUR.     See  Kandukur. 

KUNDI :  A  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
native  state  of  Rewa,  Central  India,  near  the 
Chota  Nagpur  frontier.  A  station  of  the  WMS, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  13  native  workers,  7 
places  of  worship,  7  Sunday  schools,  7  day 
schools,  and  444  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
57  are  communicants. 

KUimAinCULAM :    A  town  in  the  native  state 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Kroonstad 
KnrdB 


of  Cochin,  India,  situated  about  28  miles  S.  W. 
of  Coimbatore.  A  station  of  the  CMS  (1854), 
with  (1903)  35  native  workers,  4  outstations,  7 
day  schools,  and  97  professed  Christians. 

KUNSAN:  A  village  and  seaport  of  Korea, 
situated  on  the  western  coast,  about  150  milei 
south  of  Chemulpo  and  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Chang-po  River.  Station  of  the  PS  (1896),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their 
wives;  1  missionary  woman,  3  outstations,  1  day 
school  and  1  dispensary. 

KUNSO:  A  settlement  in  Sierra  Leone,  W. 
Africa,  situated  120  miles  N.  E.  of  Freetown. 
St«,tion  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Connexion 
of  America  (1890),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  1  missionary  woman,  5  native 
women  workers,  1  place  of  worship  and  1  print- 
ing house. 

KURAI:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Sagar,  78  miles 
N.  E.  of  Bhopal.  Population  (1891)  6,300,  of 
whom  4,700  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  Evan- 
gelical National  Missionary  Society  of  Sweden 
(1900),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife.  The 
name  is  written  by  the  Society  Khurai. 

KURDS:  To  say  that  the  Kurds  are  the  Car- 
duchi  mentioned  with  painful  reminiscences  by 
Xenophon,  does  not  answer  the  question  of  their 
origin.  Nor  can  one  define  their  relations  by 
saying  that  they  are  the  people  of  Kurdistan. 
No  definite  territory  called  by  that  name  exists, 
and  the  Kurds,  wherever  found,  live  as  detached 
groups  in  the  midst  of  other  races.  They  abound 
in  the  regions  extending  from  the  Russian  border 
at  Erivan  on  the  north  to  the  fig-producing  hills 
of  the  Sinjar  in  Upper  Mesopotamia  and  the 
flower-gardens  of  Shiraz  on  the  south,  and  from 
the  plains  of  Urmia  and  Ispahan  on  the  east  to 
the  Tigris,  the  Euphrates  at  Samosata,  the  Tau- 
rus at  Marash,  and  the  Anti-Taurus  in  Cappa- 
docia  and  Pontus  on  the  west.  The  districts 
where  they  are  most  numerous  include  the  Turk- 
ish provinces  of  Erzerum,  Van,  Hekkiari,  Mosul 
(eastern  portion),  Bitlis,  Diarbekir  and  Mamu- 
riet  el  Aziz  (Harpoot,  eastern  portion),  and  in 
Persia  the  western  portion  of  Azerbaijan, 
Ardilan  and  Luristan.  The  mass  of  the  Kurds 
dwell  to  this  day  within  these  limits,  that  is  to 
say,  near  the  western  end  of  that  mountainous 
highland  which  forms  a  raised  causeway  from  the 
east  to  the  west  of  Asia. 

Any  map  will  reveal  within  these  limits  moun- 
tain chains  running  in  all  directions.  The  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  region  is  west  of  Lake  Urmia 
and  east  of  Tigris.  About  the  size  of  Palestine 
in  its  palmiest  days,  the  part  best  beloved  by  the 
Kurds  is  a  perfect  sea  of  mountains,  with  moun- 
tain peaks  that  vie  with  one  another  in  their 
efforts  to  pierce  the  regions  of  the  upper  air,  and 
rise  from  10,000  feet  to  15,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

The  antiquity  of  the  region  as  the  abode  of 
man  is  attested  by  the  absence  of  forests. 

Out  from  this  system  flow  the  Araxes  and  the 
Halys  on  the  north,  the  one  to  the  Caspian  and 
the  other  to  the  Black  Sea;  and  to  the  south,  the 
Euphrates,  and  the  Tigris,  with  its  tributaries, 
into  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Such  endless  combinations  of  mountains  and 
valleys,  lakes  and  gorges,  rivers  and  plateaus, 
snow-clad  peaks  and  grassy  plains,  render  the 


scenery  beautiful,  grand,  weird,  and  wild  by 
turns. 

The  region  described  above  was  inhabited,  in 
the  times  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  by  a  warrior 
race  named  "Gutu,"  i.  e.,  warrior.  The  Assy- 
rians called  them  Gardu  and  Kardu;  the  Greeks 
later  called  them  Kardokas  (Kardakes).  They 
were  Scythians  or  Turanians.  After  the  sub- 
jugation of  Assyria  the  Gardu  were  absorbed 
by  a  still  more  energetic  race  (the  southern  Kur- 
manj),  who  claim  to  be  lineal  descendants  of 
Madai,  the  son  of  Japheth,  and  of  the  same  stock 
as  the  Medians.  The  Kurds  also  claim  that  one 
of  the  tribes  of  the  "Gutu"  remaining  in  its  early 
habitat  produced  Nebuchadnezzar  and  in  the 
Babylonian  Empire  became  imbued  with  Semitic 
qualities  of  blood.  P'rom  this  stock  sprang  the 
Guran  tribes  of  southern  Kurdistan.  In  a  simi- 
lar manner  emigrations  of  Lurs  from  Persia  and 
of  Wends  from  Afghanistan  brought  in  Aryan 
blood,  so  that  the  eastern  Kurds  have  distinctly 
Aryan  qualities.  These  various  traditions  of  the 
Kurds  conform  to  the  truth  in  one  particular, 
namely,  that  the  Kurds  of  to-day  are  of  mixed 
Aryan,  Semitic  and  Turanian  stock.  But  to  seek 
to  identify  the  various  strains  of  blood  or  their 
source  is  useless  in  a  land  where  the  people  have 
clung  to  their  rocky  heights  while  they  have  been 
trampled  into  many  forms  during  fifteen  centu- 
ries by  conquering  hosts  coming  from  south  and 
north  and  east  and  west. 

The  Kurds  to-day  are  found  in  three  great 
groups,  the  Kurmanj,  the  Guran  and  the  Lur. 
The  Lur  are  found  in  Persia,  and  the  two  first 
named  groups  in  both  Turkey  and  Persia.  The 
language  of  each  group  is  a  separate  dialect,  and 
many  of  the  tribes  of  each  family  have  also  their 
own  dialect. 

For  various  reasons  exactness  in  statements  of 
the  numbers  of  the  Kurds  is  simply  impossible; 
the  following  tabulation  gives  only  approximate 
estimates: 

(  Northern— Turkey 2,000,000 

Kurmanj    4  s„,,,i,pm—  i  Turkey 150,000 

Iboutnem      jpersia 200.000 

/-■   ™„          IT  Turkish  Provinces 200,000 

U,.ran         ^Persian         "          150,000 

w™.i  o„,^  ( Turkish        "         110,000 

Wend  and)  pg^^i^„         ..  g^'opQ 

^"^  i  Afghani.«tan  (southwest  portion) 500,000 

Total,     3,400,000 

As  to  mode  of  life  the  Kurds  are  of  three 
classes:  (a)  Those  who  are  purely  pastoral  are 
nomadic  (called  Gochers)  and  oscillate  between 
the  mountains  and  the  plains,  occupying  the 
former  in  summer  and  the  latter  in  winter.  (6) 
Those  partly  pastoral  and  partly  agricultural 
occupy  fixed  abodes  in  winter,  but  in  summer 
dwell  in  tents  among  pastures  not  remote  from 
their  harvest  fields,  (c)  Those  purely  agricul- 
tural remain  throughout  the  year  in  fixed  abodes. 
Some  Kurds  also  have  taken  up  trades  and  live  in 
cities  as  merchants  and  mechanics.  Generally 
speaking,  one-half,  perhaps  more,  of  the  Kurds 
belong  to  class  a,  while  the  remainder  are  dis- 
tributed between  classes  6  and  c  in  the  propor- 
tion of  2  to  1. 

The  Kurds  of  these  three  classes  are  of  two 
distinct  types — the  northern  and  the  southern. 
The  northern  Kurd  is  bold,  but  not  courageous, 
hospitable  but  full  of  theft  and  treachery,  loud- 
voiced  and  brutal,  lazy  and  ignorant,  fond  of 
intrigue,  feudatory.  He  is  thriftless  and  like- 
wise shiftless  in  regard  to  his  person,  dress  and 


Knrds 
KTvei-tBl-hslem 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


384 


manners.  He  has  black  eyes  and  hair,  is  of  fine 
physique  and  athletic,  is  temperate  and  of  stur- 
dier morals  than  his  Turkish  ruler.  As  a  rule  he 
is  monogamous,  and  treats  his  wife  more  after  the 
manner  of  Europeans  than  of  the  Turk.  He  is 
intellectually  dull,  and  dogged  in  his  commercial 
dealings;  ready  to  owe  and  acknowledge  a  debt, 
but  slow  to  cancel  it.  The  southern  Kurd  who 
has  learned  to  dwell  in  a  fixed  abode  is  not  less 
athletic,  but  of  finer  grain,  more  polite  in  his  bear- 
ing, more  quiet  in  his  manners,  and  more  careful 
of  his  person  and  dress  than  the  northern  type  or 
the  southern  nomad  Kurds.  He  has  a  more 
intellectual  cast  of  features,  and  is  brighter 
looking.  The  organization  of  the  southern 
Kurds  is  more  compact  than  that  of  the 
northern  tribes,  and  there  is  among  them 
the  quiet  consciousness  of  power.  They  obey 
Abdul  Hamid  more  as  Caliph  than  as  Sultan. 
A  considerable  number  of  the  southern  Kurds 
have  been  educated  in  Arabic  and  Persian  litera- 
ture, and  such  are  to  be  found  in  high  office  under 
the  Turkish  Government.  In  general,  Kurds  are 
the  untamed  highlanders  of  Turkey  and  Persia — 
fond  of  freedom,  but  lawless  in  their  use  of  it, 
thereby  occasioning  great  uneasiness  to  both 
those  powers.  Clannishness  and  tribal  feuds  are 
powerful  preventives  of  their  racial  homogeneity 
and  political  power. 

All  Kurds  are  Muslims.  They  are  about 
equally  divided  between  the  Sunni  and  the  Shi'i 
denominations.  The  Shi'i  Kurds  are  the  Lur  and 
Wend  tribes  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  the 
Kurmanj  of  Bohtan,  Sert,  and  Bitlis,  and  the 
Gurans  of  the  Dersim  Mountains  in  Turkey.  All 
Kurds  are  bigoted  and  are  fanatically  attached 
to  their  Sheikhs,  if  not  to  their  religion.  Com- 
paratively few  of  them  have  an  intelligent  grasp 
of  Islam,  which  indeed  is  a  foreign  religion  in  a 
foreign  tongue. 

Missionary  work  among  the  Kurds  does  not 
exist,  because  neither  Turkey  nor  Persia  would 
tolerate  organized  work  in  their  behalf;  and  their 
contact  with  the  evangelistic  efforts  of  the  East- 
ern Turkey  and  West  Persia  missions  for  the 
nominal  Christians  residing  in  their  midst  is  of 
the  sliglitest. 

The  evangelical  churches  of  Turkey  support 
a  "Kurdish  Mission,"  which  is  conducted  from 
Harpoot;  but  it  is  for  Kurdish-speaking  Arme- 
nians, and  not  for  the  Kurds.  In  connection 
with  this  work  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  also  a  small  hymn-book  have  been  pub- 
lished in  Kurmanj  Kurdish. 

Some  effort  for  Kurdish-speaking  Syrians  is 
now  prosecuted  by  the  Mardin  station  of  the 
ABCFM.  It  would  seem  the  intention  of  Provi- 
dence to  use  these  evangelized  Kurdish-speaking 
Christians  as  an  entering  wedge  for  work  among 
the  Muslim  Kurds  when  "all  things  are  ready" 
for  such  a  movement.  The  Persian  Mission  of 
the  PN  and  that  of  the  CMS  are  also  making 
efforts  to  reach  this  neglected  people  in  many 
unobtrusive  ways. 

As  a  rule  those  who  have  come  into  close 
acquaintance  with  Kurds  have  acquired  a  pro- 
found respect  for  their  sturdy  and  admirable 
qualities  of  heart,  their  mental  abilities  and  their 
capacity  for  religious  and  political  development. 
Not  a  few  believe  that  through  their  progress  in 
culture  may  be  found  a  solution  of  the  Eastern 
question. 

KURDISH     LANGUAGE:     Belongs     to     the 


Iranic  branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  languages. 
Its  immediate  relations  seem  to  be  still  unsettled, 
altho  there  is  reason  to  connect  it  with  the  Peh- 
levi.  It  is  found  in  two  distinct  dialects — the 
Kurmanj  and  the  Gurani,  which  are  Western 
Kurdish,  and  the  Lur  and  Wend,  which  are  East- 
ern. These  two  groups  are  broken  into  many 
smaller  dialects  to  the  formation  of  which  there 
seems  to  be  no  limit,  such  as  is  found  in  the  exist- 
ence of  a  literary  class.  Nothing  in  Kurdish 
has  ever  been  printed  except  by  strangers.  The 
Kurds  have  a  vast  collection  of  materials  for  a 
literature,  but  they  have  not  even  an  alphabet 
as  yet,  making  use  of  the  Arabic  alphabet  for 
correspondence,  etc.  Certain  Armenians  who 
speak  Kurdish  use  the  Armenian  alphabet,  and 
missionaries  have  printed  some  books  for  their 
use  in  Kurdish  written  with  Armenian  letters. 

KURNOOL.     See  Karnul. 

KURSEONG.     See  Karsiung. 

KURUMAN:  A  town  and  district  in  the  Bech- 
uana  country  in  the  northern  part  of  Cape  Colony, 
S.  Africa;  situated  100  miles  N.  W.  of  Barkly 
West  and  90  miles  S.  W.  of  Vryburg.  Station  of 
the  LMS  (1818),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  13  native  workers,  14  schools,  and  666 
communicants. 

KUSAIE:  The  easternmost  of  the  Caroline 
Islands,  North  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  used  by  the 
ABCFM  as  a  center  for  work  among  the  Micro- 
nesian  islands.  It  is  also  called  Strong  Island 
and  Ualan. 

KUSAIE  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the  Micro- 
nesian  family.  It  was  reduced  to  writing  by 
missionaries  of  the  ABCFM  working  among  the 
people  of  Kusaie,  one  of  the  Caroline  Islands. 
They  have  done  a  certain  amount  of  literary 
work  in  this  language,  writing  it  with  Roman 
letters. 

KUSHIRO:  A  town  and  the  capital  of  the 
Kushiro  province  in  Hokkaido,  Japan,  situated 
on  the  S.  E.  coast  of  the  island,  about  205  miles 
E.  N.  E.  of  Hakodate.  Its  exports  are  sulphur 
and  coal.    Station  of  the  CMS  (1889),  with  (1903) 

1  woman  missionary,  8  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations,  1  place  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools, 
3  day  schools,  and  321  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  128  are  communicants. 

KUSHTIA:  A  town  in  the  Nadiya  District  of 
Bengal,  India,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  about  60  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Murshidabad. 
Population,  11,200,  of  whom  6,000  are  Muslims 
and  5,000  Hindus.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1901), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  4  native  workers  and 
26  professed  Christians. 

KU-TIEN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Fo-kien,  China,  situated  about  50  miles  N.  N.  W, 
of  Fuchau.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1887),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  60  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  28 
day  schools,  1,780  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
682  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the 
CEZ  (1889),  with  (1903)  3  women  missionaries, 

2  native  workers,  1  boarding  school.  Station 
also  of  the  ME  with  (1903),  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  2  women  missionaries,  44  native 
workers,  6  outstations,  10  places  of  worship, 
10  Sunday  schools,  14  young  people's  societies, 
9  day  schools,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary,  and  939 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  521  are  com- 
municants.    Station  of  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in 


385 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Knrda 
KTrel-t8l-hslen 


India  and  the  East  (1892),  with  1  place  of  wor- 
ship and  1  leper  asylum.  Name  sometimes 
written  Kucheng. 

KU-TSING-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Yun-nan,  China,  situated  68  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Yun-nan-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1889),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  3  women 
missionaries,  and  1  native  worker.  Name  writ- 
ten by  the  Society,  Kuh-tsing. 

KU-WU-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  30  miles  S.  of  Ping-yang- 
fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1885),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  6 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  2  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary and  1  opium  refuge.  Name  written  by 
the  Society,  Kuh-wu. 

KU-Ytf-SHU:  A   town   in   Manchuria,   China, 

situated  about  62  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Kirin.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland  (1899), 
with  1  missionary,  21  native  workers,  4  schools, 
and  170  communicants  (1900). 

KWAGUTL  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  Pacific 
Coast  branch  of  the  North  American  family  of 
languages,  being  spoken  by  Indians  of  Vancouver 
Island.  It  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  mis- 
sionaries of  the  CMS,  the  Roman  alphabet  being 
used  for  the  purpose. 

KWALA  KAPUAS:  A  station  of  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society,  in  Southeastern  Borneo, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  30  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Banjer- 
massin.  The  station  was  opened  in  1866  and 
now  (1903)  has  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  7  na- 
tive workers,  15  Sunday  schools,  6  day  schools, 
and  568  professed  Christians,  of  whom  303  are 
communicants. 

KWALA  LUMPUR:  A  town  in  the  district  of 
Selangsor,  Malay  Peninsula;  situated  near  the 
head  of  the  Klang  River.  It  is  the  capital  of 
the  British  protectorate,  and  is  destined  to  grow 
in  importance  as  time  passes.  Station  of  the 
ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3 
native  workers,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  day  school, 
and  205  professed  Christians. 

KWAMAGWAZA:  A  town  in  Natal,  Africa; 
situated  in  the  district  of  Eshowe,  9  miles  N.  W. 
of  the  town  of  that  name.  Station  of  the  Zulu- 
land  Diocese  of  the  Church  of  England  (1886), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary,  4  women  missionaries, 
and  2  native  women  workers. 

KWAMERA:  A  mission  station  of  the  New 
Hebrides  Missionary  Society,  on  the  southern 
part  of  the  Island  of  Tanna,  New  Hebrides.  It 
was  established  in  1858  and  has  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife  and  2  native  workers. 

KWAMERA  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect  of  the  Me- 
asisi  spoken  in  the  Island  of  Tanna,  New  Hebrides. 

KWAN-CHAU :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Ho- 
nan,  China,  situated  70  miles  S.  E.  of  Ju-ning-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1899),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary. 

KWAN-CHENG-TSZ :  A  town  in  Manchuria, 
China,  situated  in  the  district  of  Kirin,  62  miles 
W.  of  that  city.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
indigo  and  opium.  Population,  70,000.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland  (1891), 
■with  (1900)  4  missionaries  (three  with  their 
wives),  25  native  workers,  men  and  women;  10 
outstations,  11  places  of  worship,  1  day  school, 
1  theological  seminary,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital 
and  120  church  members. 
25 


KWANG-CHI-HSIEN:  A  town  75  miles  south- 
east of  Wu-chang  in  the  province  of  Hu-pei, 
China.  Station  of  the  WMS  (1903),  with  1  mis- 
sionary, 7  native  workers,  5  chapels,  3  Sunday 
schools,  2  day  schools,  and  140  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

KWANG-FENG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Kiang-si,  China,  situated  138  miles  E.  N. 
E.  of  Nan-chang-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1889), 
with  (1903)  4  women  missionaries,  5  native 
workers,  men  and  women,  and  3  outstations. 

KWANG-HSIN-FU :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China;  situated  on  the  Kin  River,  150 
miles  N.  W.  of  Wen-chau  and  135  miles  E.  of 
Nan-chang-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with 
2  women  missionaries.  Name  is  sometimes 
spelled  Kwang-sin-fu. 

KWANG-NING-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Manchuria, 
Chinese  Empire;  situated  in  the  province  of  Liao- 
tung,  about  45  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  New-chwang. 
Station  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland 
(1895),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  (1  with  his 
wife),  27  native  workers,  men  and  women;  24 
outstations,  16  places  of  worship,  4  day  schools, 
1  theological  training  class,  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital, and  300  church  members.  Name  written 
by  the  Society,  Kwangning. 

KWANG-T^-CHAU :  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Ngan-hwei,  China;  situated  138  miles  E.  N.  E. 
of  Nang-king-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1890), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife.  Name 
written  by  the  Society,  Kwang-teh. 

KWANG-YUEN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Sze-chwan,  China;  situated  about  124 
miles  N.  E.  of  Cheng-tu-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM 
(1889),  with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries. 
Name  written  by  the  Society,  Kwang-yuen. 

KWAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Sze-chwan;  situated  on  the  Min  River  at  the 
northwestern  edge  of  the  Cheng-tu  plain  and 
about  70  miles  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Cheng-tu-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1889),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife  and  2  native  workers. 

KWATO:  A  town  at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of 
British  New  Guinea.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1891), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  11  native 
workers,  15  schools,  and  214  communicants. 

KWEI-HWA-CHENG-TING:  A  town  in  the 
province  of  Shen-si,  China;  situated  at  an  alti- 
tude of  3,600  feet  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  prov- 
ince, 50  miles  N.  W.  of  So-ping-fu  and  about  250 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Peking.  The  town  is  divided 
by  gardens  and  public  squares  into  two  sections, 
the  traders  occupying  one  section  and  the  mili- 
tary and  the  religious  bodies  occupying  the  other. 
It  stands  at  the  confluence  of  trade  routes  to  the 
Kokonor  region  and  Eastern  Turkestan,  being 
the  southeastern  terminus  of  a  route  across  the 
desert  of  Gobi.  Population,  about  200,000. 
Station  of  the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance. 

KWEI-K'I.     See  Kwei-tsi-hsien. 

KWEI-LIN-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-si,  China;  situated  at  the  headwaters  of 
the  Kwei  River,  230  miles  N.  W.  of  Canton.  Sta- 
tion of  the  CMS  (1899), with  (1903)  2  missionaries 
(1  with  his  wife)  and  1  dispensary.  The  CA  also 
has  a  station  at  this  place.  The  name  is  some- 
times written  Kwei  Lin. 

KWEI-TSI-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China;  situated  about  90  miles  E.  S.  E. 


KTret-yangr-fn 
LAltlynkot 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


386 


of  Nan-chang-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1878), 
with  (1903)  8  missionary  women,  11  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  8  outstations,  9  places 
of  worsliip,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding  school  and 
246  professed  Christians.  Name  written  by  the 
Society,  Kweiki. 

KWEI-YANG-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwei-chau,  of  which  it  is  the  capital;  situated 


310  miles  S.  W.  of  Chang-te  in  Hunan,  at  the 
sources  of  important  affluents  of  the  Yangtse 
River.  It  has  considerable  commercial  im- 
portance. Station  of  the  CIM  (1877),  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  2  wives  of  missionaries,  2  mission- 
ary women,  and  5  native  workers. 

KYELANG.     See  Kailang. 

KYOTO.     See  Kioto. 


LABRADOR:  The  easternmost  portion  of 
British  America,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  compris- 
ing the  region  draining  into  the  Atlantic  bounded 
northeast  and  east  by  Hudson  Strait  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  southeast  by  the  Strait  of  Belle 
Isle,  and  west  by  Ungava  and  Quebec.  It  is  a 
dependency  of  Newfoundland  and  its  area  is 
about  120,000  square  miles.  The  population  is 
estimated  (1901)  at  3,947.  The  climate  is  very 
cold.  The  coasts  are  rugged  and  forbidding. 
Vegetation  is  scanty,  because  of  cold,  and  only 
stunted  trees,  shrubs,  and  lichens  grow  well 
there.  The  people  are  chiefly  Eskimos,  with 
gome  descendants  of  early  French  adventurers. 
Their  occupations  are  fishing  in  the  summer, 
hunting  and  trapping  in  the  winter.  The  impor- 
tant settlements  are  scattered  along  the  shore  of 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  and  on  the  ocean  coast  to 
Cape  Webeck,  just  north  of  Hamilton  Inlet. 

The  Moravians  are  the  foremost  Christian 
workers  in  Labrador. 

Their  stations  are,  from  S.  to  N.,  the  following : 
Rigolet  (1901),  Makkovik  (1896),  Hopedale 
(1782),  Nain  (1771),  Okak  (1776),  Hebron  (1830) 
and  Ramah  (1871). 

The  Labrador  Medical  Mission  is  also  in  the 
field.  Dr.  Grenfell,  of  the  Medical  Mission,  in 
his  hospital  vacht,  steams  from  point  to  point, 
healing  the  sick  among  the  Eskimos  and  preach- 
ing the  Gospel. 

The  CMS,  through  Mr.  Peck,  has  accomplished 
good  results  in  Labrador. 
Grenfell  (W.  T.),  The  Vikings  of  Today,  1895. 

LABUAN  ISLAND:  A  small  island  off  the  N. 
W.  coast  of  Borneo  and  about  6  miles  distant. 
It  belongs  to  the  British  North  Borneo  Company, 
is  flat,  well-wooded  and  has  extensive  coal  mines, 
and  produces  sago  flour  in  large  quantities.  It 
has  an  area  of  30  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  6,000.     Station  of  the  SPG  (1889),  with  (1903) 

1  missionary,  4  native  workers,  14  outstations, 

2  places  of  worship,  1  day  school  and  114  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  46  are  communicants. 

LA  CAROLINA:  A  village  in  the  S.  part  of 
the  State  of  Maranhao,  Brazil,  S.  America,  near 
the  Tocantins  River.  Station  of  the  South  Amer- 
ican Evangelical  Mission,  with  2  missionaries, 
one  with  his  wife. 

LACCADIVE  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  14  islands, 
only  9  of  which  are  inhabited,  lying  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  about  200  miles  off  the  west  coast  of 
Madras,  India.  Population  (1891),  14,473, 
called  Moplas.  They  are  of  mixed  Hindu  and 
Arab  descent,  and  in  religion  are  Mohammedan. 
The  Malayalam  language  is  spoken,  but  Arabic 


characters  are  used  in  writing.  Coconuts  are 
the  principal  agricultural  product,  and  coir 
forms  the  principal  article  of  trade.  Its  manu- 
facture is  carried  on  mainly  by  the  women.  The 
northern  portion  of  the  islands  is  attached  to  the 
coUectorate  of  South  Kanara,  and  the  remainder 
to  Malabar  district,  for  administrative  purposes. 

LACROIX,  Alphonse  Francois:  Born  May  10, 
1799,  at  Lignieres,  Switzerland;  studied  at  Bakel, 
near  Rotterdam;  ordained  August  11,  1820,  as  a 
minister  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church;  sailed 
for  India,  October  1,  1820,  as  a  missionary  of  the 
Netherlands  Missionary  Society;  was  stationed 
at  Chinsurah  in  the  Dutch  Territory.  On  the 
decision  of  the  Netherlands  Society  to  give  up  its 
missions  in  India  Mr.  Lacroix  in  1827  became  a 
missionary  of  the  LMS,  two  years  later  removing 
to  Calcutta,  the  scene  of  his  life  work.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  effective  vernacular 
preachers  in  India.  He  could  always  secure  a 
large  audience  by  the  charm  of  his  manner  and 
voice,  by  a  felicitous  use  of  idiomatic  Bengali, 
and  by  the  beautiful  imagery  in  which  he 
clothed  his  ideas.  He  conducted  through  the 
press  a  new  edition  of  the  Gospels  of  Matthew, 
Luke  and  John  in  Bengali  for  the  Calcutta 
Bible  Society,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Duff, 
superintended  the  printing  of  Isaiah  in  the 
same  language.  He  also  conducted  a  theological 
class.  After  an  eminent  mission  service  in  Ben- 
gal of  nearly  forty  years,  he  died  July  8,  1859> 
having  just  completed  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age. 
Mullens  (J,),  Life  of  A.F.  Lacroix,  London,  1862. 

LAC  SEUL:  Station  of  the  CMS  in  Keewatin, 
Canada,  with  (1903)  1  woman  missionary,  2 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  4  day  schools  and 
530  professed  Christians,  of  whom  75  are  com- 
municants. 

LADISMITH :  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  Africa, 
situated  65  miles  N.  E.  of  Swellendam.  Station 
of  the  Berlin  Mission  Society  (1856),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  12  native  workers,  6  cut- 
stations,  2  day  schools  and  624  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  288  are  communicants. 

LADRONE  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  about  20 
islands  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  The  islands 
are  of  volcanic  formation,  mountainous,  well 
watered  and  well  wooded.  Magellan  discovered 
these  islands  in  1521,  and  named  them  Ladrones, 
from  the  thievish  disposition  of  the  inhabitants; 
they  were  afterward  called  the  Lazarus  Islands;, 
and  in  1667,  when  the  Jesuits  settled  there,  they 
were  renamed  Marianne,  or  Mariana,  in  honor  of 
the  Spanish  cjueen.  The  islands  formerly 
belonged  to  Spam.     In  1898  Guam,  the  largest 


387 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Kwei-yang-fu 
LiUitlynkot 


of  the  group,  was  ceded  to  the  United  States. 
The  next  year  (1899)  the  remaining  islands  were 
ceded  by  Spain  to  Germany.  The  present  inhab- 
itants of  the  islands  are  immigrants  or  the  descen- 
dants of  immigrants  from  the  Philippines. 
Guam  has  an  area  of  about  200  miles  and  a 
population  of  9,000.  Of  these,  two-thirds  live  in 
Agafia,  the  capital.  The  ABCFM  has  a  station 
here  (1901).  Spanish  has  been  the  language  of 
the  islands,  but  English  is  making  progress  in 
Guam. 

LADYSMITH:  A  village  in  the  Klip  River  dis- 
trict of  Natal,  Africa,  situated  80  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Pietermaritzburg.  Population,  about  300  people. 
Station  of  the  Maritzburg  Missionary  Association 
(1856),  with  1  woman  missionary.  Station  also 
of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis- 
sion Society,  with  77  native  workers,  22  outsta- 
tions,  14  chapels,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  society  for 
young  people,  5  day  schools  and  1,228  professed 
Christians. 

LAGOS:  A  town  in  Lagos  Colony,  West  Africa, 
situated  48  miles  S.  of  Abeokuta,  on  an  island  in 
a  lagoon  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ogun.  It  is  acces- 
sible to  vessels  of  considerable  size,  and  has  water 
communication  far  into  the  interior.  Since  1861 
a  British  possession;  often  called  the  "African 
Liverpool,  on  account  of  its  enormous  exports 
of  palm-oil.  It  is  now  the  capital  of  the  district. 
The  name  is  Portuguese;  the  native  name  is  Ago, 
or  Eko.  Population  (1901),  41,847,  of  whom 
10,636  are  reported  as  Christians  (233  Europeans) 
and  22, OSOMohammedans;  only  9,000  of  the  lowns- 
people  are  reported  as  pagan.  The  city  is  con- 
nected with  Abeokuta  and  Ibadan  by  a  railway 
(122miles).Stationof  the  CMS  (1852), with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  3  women 
missionaries,  36  native  workers,  8  day  schools, 
2  boarding  schools,  1,930  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  932  are  communicants.  It  is  also 
the  field  of  the  native  church  in  connection 
with  the  CMS.  Station  of  the  NBC  (1878), 
with  (1900)  10  missionaries,  5  women  mis- 
sionaries, 4  native  workers,  11  outstations, 
19  chapels,  10  Sunday  schools,  10  day  schools, 
1  theological  class  and  1,600  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  SBC  (1853),  with 
1  outstation,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day 
school  and  1  theological  class.  The  work  is, 
however,  in  charge  of  the  Native  Baptist  Church. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  53  native  workers,  17  chapels,  6 
Sunday  schools,  6  day  schools  and  1,736  pro- 
fessed Christians,  678  of  whom  are  communi- 
cants. 

LAGOS:  A  British  Colony  and  Protectorate  on 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  West  Africa,  between 
Dahomey  and  Southern  Nigeria,  and  northward 
within  undefined  boundaries  to  tlie  French  posses- 
sions on  the  Middle  Niger  The  colony  proper 
comprises  Lagos  Island  and  about  140  miles  of 
coast,  containing  altogether  3,460  square  miles; 
the  protectorate  extends  inland,  with  25,450 
square  miles.  The  estimated  population  of  all 
(1901)  is  1,500,000. 

Missions  were  commenced  in  this  territory  by 
Christianized  negroes  removing  from  Sierra  Leone 
to  Abeokuta  about  1840.  Their  representa- 
tions led  to  the  establishment  by  the  CMS  of 
stations  at  Badagry  (1845),  Abeokuta  (1846), 
Lagos  (1852)  and  Ibadan  (1852).  The  CMS  has 
since  occupied  three  other  stations.  The  WMS, 
the  SBC  and  the  National  Baptist  Convention 


alco  have  missionaries  at  some  of  these  same  sta- 
tions, and  altogether  there  are  89  missionary 
schools  and  about  7,500  native  communicants. 

LAGUBOTI:  A  village  on  the  S.  shore  of  Toba 
Lake,  Sumatra.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one 
with  his  wife;  12  native  workers,  13  outstations, 
10  Sunday  schools,  11  day  schools  and  3,245  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  870  are  communi- 
cants. 

LAHAGU:  A  village  in  the  central  part  of  the 
island  of  Nias,  Dutch  E.  Indies,  situated 
about  20  miles  S.  W.  of  Gunong  Sitoli.  Station 
of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903) 

1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  day  school,  1  Sunday 
school  and  208  professed  Christians,  of  whom  124 
are  communicants. 

LAHORE:  A  town  in  Punjab,  India;  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Ravi  River,  32  miles  W.  of 
Amritsar.  Has  several  fine  mosques  and  a  num- 
ber of  Hindu  temples.  The  surrounding  country  is 
covered  with  vast  ruins,  attesting  the  ancient  mag- 
nificence of  the  city.  Population  (1901),  202,964, 
Muslims,  Hindus  and  Sikhs.  Punjabi  and  Urdu 
are  the  most  prevalent  languages,  but  Pashti  and 
Kashmiri  are  also  spoken.  Mission  station  of 
the  CMS  (1867),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  2 
with  their  wives;  1  woman  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  1 
theological  class,  1  hostel,  and  317  professed 
Ctiristians,  of  whom  130  are  communicants.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  12  native  workers,  2  chapels,  5  Sunday 
schools,  and  620  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
60  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the  PN 
(1849),  with  (1903)  6  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  3  women  missionaries,  15  native  workers, 
10  outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday 
schools,  8  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  col- 
lege, 1  dispensary,  and  215  professed  Christians. 
The  YMCA  (1899)  and  the  YWCA  both  have 
agents  here  with  branches  of  their  respective 
associations.  Station  also  of  the  ZBM,  with 
(1903)  11  women  missionaries,  12  native  workers, 

2  boarding  schools,  and  240  Zenana  pupils. 

LAHUSA:  A  village  on  the  S.  coast  of  the 
island  of  Nias,  Dutch  E.  Indies;  situated  about 
35  miles  S.  of  Gunong  Sitoli.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  witli  his  wife;  6  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 1  Sunday  school,  2  day  schools,  and  311 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  202  are  cem- 
munioants. 

LAI-AN.     See  Lai-ngan-hsibn. 

LAI-NGAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ngan-hwei,  China;  situated  about  20  miles  N. 
by  E.  of  Chu-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1899). 
Name  also  written  Lai-an. 

LAINGSBURG:  A  village  in  the  District  of 
Prince  Albert,  Cape  Colony,  Africa;  situated  on 
the  railroad  to  Kimberly,"213  miles  from  Cape 
Town.  Population,  1,500.  Station  of  the  Ber- 
lin Missionary  Society  (1884),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 11  native  workers,  15  outstations,  2  day 
schools,  and  880  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
284  are  communicants. 

LAITLYNKOT:  A  village  in  Assam,  India;  sit- 
uated 10  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Shillong.  Station  of 
the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Missionary  So- 
ciety, with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  24 
native  workers,  14  outstations,  15  places  of  wor- 


LaoH 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


ship,  10  Sunday  schools,  13  day  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  346  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
99  are  communicants. 

LAKAWN:  A  town  on  the  Me  Wang,  Siam; 
situated  65  miles  S.  E.  of  Chieng  Mai.  Popula- 
tion is  composed  very  largely  of  Laos.  Station 
of  the  PN  (1S85),  with  5  missionaries,  4  with  their 
wives;  1  missionary  woman,  4  native  workers,  3 
outstations,  1  chapel,  4  Sunday  schools,  2  board- 
ing schools,  1  hospital  and  209  professed  Chris- 
tians.    Name   also   written   Lakon. 

LAKEMBA  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  small 
islands  east  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  to  which  they 
politically  belong.  It  is  occupied  by  the  Aus- 
tralian Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  with  (1900) 
2  missionaries,  251  native  workers,  11  outsta- 
tions, 72  places  of  worship,  72  Sunday  schools,  73 
day  schools,  and  2,469  professed  Christians. 
Name  written  by  the  Society  Lakeba. 

LAKHIMPUR:  A  village  is  Assam,  India;  situ- 
ated 55  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Dibrugarh.  Popula- 
tion, 5,000.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1893),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  19  native 
worliers,  7  outstations,  4  chapels,  1  Sunday 
school,  5  village  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  392  professed  Christians. 

LALITPTJR :  A  town  in  the  District  of  Lalitpur, 
United  Provinces,  India;  situated  110  miles  S. 
by  E.  of  Gwalior.  Population  11,300,  8,700  of 
whom  are  Hindus  and  1,600  Muslims.  Station 
of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Foreign  Mission 
Society  (1888),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  1  with 
his  wife;  2  women  missionaries,  17  native  worlcers, 
5  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  5  Sunday 
schools,  2  young  people's  societies,  5  day  schools, 
2  industrial  training  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  med- 
ical class,  1  orphanage,  and  131  Christians. 

LAMBARENE':  A  settlement  on  the  Ogowe 
River,  French  Congo,  Africa;  situated  about  150 
miles  from  its  mouth.  The  PN  opened  a  mission 
station  in  1867,  but  transferred  it  to  the  Paris 
Evangelical  Society  in  1895.  It  now  (1903)  has 
4  missionaries,  3  with  their  wives;  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 5  outstations,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school, 
2  day  schools,  and  1  dispensary. 

LAMU :  A  town  and  the  capital  of  the  District 
of  Tanaland,  British  East  Africa;  situated  on  the 
east  side  of  Lamu  Island.  The  island  is  7  miles 
long  and  separated  from  the  land  by  a  narrow 
channel.  It  lies  off  the  coast  about  150  miles 
N.  W.  of  Mombasa.  The  town  is  a  port  of  call 
for  English  and  German  steamers,  and  is  con- 
nected with  Mombasa  by  telegraph.  It  has  a 
population  of  5,000  people,  and  is  a  mission  sta- 
tion of  the  Neukirchen  Mission  Society  (1889), 
with  (1901)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives  and 
1  boarding  school. 

LAN-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Chi-li, 
China,  about  halfway  between  Tien-tsin  and 
Shan-hai-kwan.  Station  of  the  ME  (1884). 
Altho  the  mission  work  was  broken  up  and  the 
missionaries  driven  out  in  the  Boxer  troubles,  it 
is  now  being  reorganized  and  carried  on  with 
(1903)  16  native  workers,  6  outstations,  and 
744  Christians. 

LAN-CHAU-FU:  The  capital  of  the  province 
of  Kan-su,  China;  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Hwang-ho  in  a  narrow  valley  which  the  town 
fills,  450  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Hsi-ngan-fu.  It  has 
important  manufactures  of  coarse  woolen  goods. 
Altitude,     5,000   feet.     Population,   250,000,  of 


whom  many  are  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the 
CIM  (1885),  with  (1903)  6  missionaries,  2  with 
their  wives;  1  woman  missionary,  1  chapel,  and  1 
dispensary. 

LANDAUR:  A  village  and  sanitarium  in  the 
District  of  Dehra  Dun,  United  Provinces,  India; 
situated  77  miles  E.  of  Ambala.  Altitude,  7,459 
feet.  Population  (1891),  2,000.  Station  of  the 
PN  (1874),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  woman  missionary,  and  1  boarding  school. 
Station  of  the  ZBM,  with  (1903)  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 2  native  workers,  and  81  Zenana  pupils. 
The  name  is  sometimes  spelled  Landour.  The 
place  is  also  called  Woodstock. 

LANG-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China,  situated  115  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Hsi-ngan-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1893),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary and  1  chapel. 

LANGUAGES;    Missions    and    the    Unwritten: 

Christianity  had  its  origin  in  the  midst  of  the 
highest  civilization  of  the  times.  It  was  not 
born  in  some  obscure  corner  of  the  earth.  It 
found  its  way  at  once  into  the  imperial  centers 
of  the  mightiest  empire  of  the  ancient  world.  It 
expressed  itself  at  the  outset  in  tlie  supremest 
language  the  human  race  has  ever  invented.  The 
oracles  out  of  which  it  sprung  had  already  been 
translated  into  this  tongue,  and  the  new  oracles  of 
the  New  Covenant  were  given  in  the  same  speech. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  cannot  be  too  often 
commented  upon  that  Christianity  at  once  con- 
quered the  best  and  possessed  it  for  the  New 
Kingdom.  It  speedily  also  began  to  invade  the 
other  living  languages  of  power  and  influence — 
the  Syriac,  which  reached  out  eastward  to  the 
Euphrates  and  beyond,  and  the  Latin,  which 
was  the  speech  of  the  civilization  of  the  West. 
This  could  not  take  place  without  affecting  the 
very  life  and  forms  of  these  languages,  changing 
their  vocabulary,  enriching  their  content. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  trace  the  influence 
of  Christianity — aggressive,  conquering,  mission- 
ary Christianity — on  these  languages,  already 
the  vehicle  of  polished  thought.  Without  doubt 
the  very  language  of  Greece,  in  which  the  New 
Testament  was  first  given  form,  received  a  new 
imprint  from  these  holy  writings. 

So  too  the  Scriptures,  translated  into  the  Vul- 
gate, the  common  speech  of  the  Latin  peoples, 
had  their  modifying  influences  on  the  language 
of  the  Caesars.  Except,  however,  in  adding 
elevation  of  thought  and  in  the  gift  of  spiritual 
ideals  it  is  doubtful  whether  Christianity  really 
added  anything  to  these  already  classic  languages. 
When  we  come  to  another  class  of  languages 
another  set  of  facts  are  to  be  considered.  Chris- 
tianity, ever  restless  and  moving  outward  from 
its  early  centers,  came  in  contact  in  the  West 
with  peoples  that  had  already  developed  incip- 
ient literatures.  They  had  created  their  alpha- 
bets and  begun  their  progress.  The  new  light  of 
the  Spirit,  however,  proved  a  mighty  leaven,  and 
as  we  trace  these  origins  of  literature  we  find,  as 
in  our  earliest  forms  of  English  literature,  the 
presence  of  the  creative  power  of  the  Christian 
story.  Even  later  in  their  development  it  is  the 
power  of  the  Bible  translated  by  the  missionary 
church  into  their  tongue  that  fixes  it  as  iii  Eng- 
land and  in  Germany,  or  the  power  of  a  mission- 
ary soul  that  lifted  it  to  its  loftiest  possibilities, 
as  Dante,  the  tongue  of  Italy. 


389 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


liakaTvn 
Laos 


But  this  is  not  enough  for  Christianity.  It  is 
not  satisfied  to  vivify  existing  literature,  and  give 
a  mighty  upUft  to  those  in  the  weakness  of  their 
infancy — it  has  created  the  very  forms  of  Utera- 
ture  and  has  made  languages. 

The  language  of  Russia  and  Bulgaria,  and 
Servia,  all  the  languages  however  modified  that 
take  their  origin  from  the  old  Slavic  of  the  early 
centuries,  owe  their  very  letters,  their  alphabet, 
to  missionaries  from  Constantinople:  Cyril  and 
Methodius,  who  in  the  9th  century  went  to  the 
South  Slavic  peoples  and  gave  their  language 
form  in  the  quaint  characters  that  abide  to  this 
day.  This  work  of  missionaries  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury is  being  carried  forward  by  missionaries  in 
the  20th  century.  A  missionary  in  Central 
Africa  has  just  reduced  the  Kairondo  language 
to  writing  and  begun  the  translation  of  the 
Gospel  into  this  speech.  In  the  year  1903  the 
complete  New  Testament  translated  by  the  Rev. 
E.  H.  Richards  was  issued  in  Sheetswa,  the 
speech  of  millions  of  people  on  the  east  coast  of 
Africa  who  had  no  written  language  until  the 
advent  of  the  missionary.  What  is  true  of  these 
African  tribes  is  also  true  of  the  many  peoples 
living  in  the  scattered  islands  of  Micronesia.  In 
1856  the  Rev.  Hiram  Bingham,  the  son  of  one  of 
the  first  missionaries  to  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
left  the  United  States  on  the  Morning  Star.  He 
arrived  in  Apaiang  in  November,  1857.  He 
spent  the  first  eighteen  months  after  his  arrival 
in  acquiring  the  language  and  putting  it  in  writ- 
ing. In  February,  1859,  he  commenced  the  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament,  which  was  not  com- 
pleted until  1873,  and  the  Old  Testament  twenty 
years  later.  The  whole  story  is  a  fascinating  one. 
In  the  translation  nearly  400  foreign  words  had 
to  be  introduced  for  which  there  were  no  equiva- 
lents in  the  new  tongue. 

The  language  of  Ponape,  one  of  the  Caroline 
Islands,  was  also  reduced  to  writing  by  mission- 
aries. Matthew  and  John  were  translated  in 
1859.  This  translation  was  made  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Gulick,  who  had  the  help  of  a  runaway  Por- 
tuguese who  had  been  on  the  island,  and  who  had 
acquired  the  language  and  had  been  converted  by 
reading  the  Portuguese  New  Testament  given 
him  by  a  missionary,  so  that  from  this  incident 
we  see  how  the  Divine  Word  reproduces  itself  by 
giving  shape  to  languages  which  had  no  written 
form  until  the  missionary  influence  came  in  con- 
tact with  it. 

In  the  Marshall  Islands  the  missionaries  reduced 
the  language  to  writing  in  order  to  translate  into 
the  language  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  New 
Testament  was  finally  given  to  these  people  in 
1885. 

What  was  true  of  the  Gilbert  Islands  and  the 
Ponape  and  the  Marshall  Islands  was  also  true  of 
Kusaie  and  the  Mortlock  and  Ruk  languages. 
Another  interesting  group  of  languages  which 
has  been  reduced  to  form  by  missionary  effort  is 
that  of  the  Indians  of  North  America.  It  is  true 
that  the  Cherokee  language  owes  its  alphabet  to 
a  newspaper  enterprise, — a  certain  educated 
Cherokee,  Geo.  Guess,  purposing  to  introduce 
the  "talking  leaf"  to  his  people.  The  mission- 
aries, however,  much  to  his  disgust,  made  use  of 
his  work  for  circulating  the  Scriptures,  and  the 
first  actual  printing  in  type  from  the  letters  orig- 
inated by  the  newspaper  enterprise  was  the  Book 
of  Genesis,  translated  by  the  Rev.  S.  A.  Worces- 
ter, D.D.,  and  published  in  1827. 


The  work  o-f  the  Moravians  among  the  Dela- 
wares  and  of  the  American  Board  missionaries 
among  the  Dakotas  and  among  the  Choctaws,  all 
had  tro  do  with  the  shaping  and  forming  of  these 
languages.  So  much  was  it  realized  that  this 
missionary  work  had  been  an  important  aid  in 
the  civilizing  of  the  tribes  that  in  1887  the  Dakota 
Indians  appealed  from  the  decision  of  the  United 
States  abolishing  the  use  of  the  vernacular  in 
their  schools  on  the  ground  that  the  Vernacular 
Bible  had  been  a  great  and  effective  agency  in 
their  civilization. 

Not  only  has  missionary  effort,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures, 
been  a  creative  power  giving  shape  and  form  to 
many  unwritten  languages,  of  which  the  above 
incidents  are  simply  occasional  examples,  and 
giving  an  elevation  and  dignity  to  those  that 
already  had  been  reduced  to  writing,  but  in  many 
instances  the  work  of  the  missionaries  has  been 
the  only  influence  that  has  given  permanence  to 
these  languages.  In  some  cases  the  only  memo- 
rial of  these  languages  that  exists  is  the  product 
of  the  labor  of  the  missionary. 

LAN-KI-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Che-kiang,  China,  situated  75  miles  S.  W.  of 
Hang-chau.  It  is  an  important  commercial 
center.  Population,  200,000.  Station  of  the 
CIM  (1894),  with  (1903)  3  women  missionaries, 
5  native  workers,  and  1  chapel.  Name  is  some- 
times written  Lan-k'i. 

LAN-TIEN-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shen-si,  China,  situated  28  miles  S.  E.  of  Hsi- 
ngan-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1895),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1 
chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  and  1  day  school.  The 
name  is  sometimes  written  Lan-t'ien. 

LAO-HO-KAU:  A  town  and  river  port  on  the 
Han  River,  in  the  province  of  Hu-pei,  China, 
situated  200  miles  N.W.  of  Han-kau.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1887),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  9  native  workers,  1  outstation,  2 
places  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school, 
and  44  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  Norwe- 
gian Lutheran  China  Mission  (1894),  with  (1900) 
3  missionaries,  2  with  their  wives;  4  women  mis- 
sionaries, 1  day  school,  and  1  boarding  school. 
Station  also  of  the  PB,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife  and  2  women  missionaries.  Name  spelled 
by  the  Society  Lao-ho-k'ou  and  Lao-ho-keo. 

LAO-LING.     See  Le-ling-hsien. 

LAOS:  The  name  Laos  is  the  French  method 
of  writing  the  name  Lao,  given  by  the  Siamese  to 
a  people  of  the  Shan  stock,  often  called  Eastern 
Shans,  and  found  in  North  Siam  and  in  the  French 
territories  of  Indo-China.  The  word  has  become 
naturalized  in  English  through  the  adoption  of 
the  French  spelling  by  writers  in  English.  The 
northern  limits  of  the  Laos  tribes  have  not  yet 
been  fixed,  but  they  are  said  to  form  the  majority 
of  the  population  as  far  north  as  the  southern 
part  of  the  Chinese  province  of  Yun-nan.  The 
hill  tribes  of  the  Chinese  island  of  Hai-nan  also 
speak  a  dialect  which  can  be  understood  by  the 
Laos  of  Siam.  The  general  theory  of  the  Shan 
race  is  that  they  lived  in  China  before  the  Chinese 
appeared,  were  crowded  into  the  hills  first,  and 
so  gained  their  name  Shan  (mountain),  and  were 
next  crowded  gradually  southward,  those  who 
took  the  western  river  valleys  becoming  the  Shans 
of  Eastern  Burma,  and  those  who  followed  the 
eastern  valleys  becoming  the  Siamese  and  Cam- 


Laos 
Lepers 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


bodians,  the  later  comers  becoming  known  to  the 
world  by  the  name  Lao,  applied  to  them  by  the 
Siamese.  They  call  themselves  "Tai,"  which 
means  the  free. 

The  number  of  these  people  is  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  five  to  ten  millions.  Estimate  in 
any  case  is  little  better  than  a  guess,  since  the 
northern  regions  of  their  domains  have  not  been 
fully  explored.  Various  hill  tribes  inhabiting 
the  same  regions  as  the  Laos  are  often  confounded 
with  them  because  those  of  them  who  write  use 
the  Laos  written  characters.  But  they  are  not 
of  Laos  blood  and  their  languages  are  entirely 
distinct  from  the  Laos  dialects.  Of  these  hill 
tribes  several  are  found  in  Siamese  territory,  such 
as  the  Musu,  the  Kamu,  the  Meo,  the  Yao,  and 
Lwa.  The  first  two  of  these  hill  tribes  have  been 
reached  to  some  extent  by  missionaries.  They 
are  worshipers  of  ancestors  or  of  spirits,  and 
some  of  them  are  notable  exceptions  to  the  rule 
of  laziness  which  governs  the  Laos.  They  also 
show  considerable  mechanical  aptitude  in  a  rude 
way. 

In  stature  the  Laos  are  rather  short,  averaging 
about  five  and  a  half  feet  in  height.  In  com- 
plexion they  are  rather  tawny,  with  brown  eyes 
but  blaclc  hair.  In  bearing  they  are  manly,  and 
they  have  considerable  pride  of  race.  The  peas- 
ants are  attached  in  feudal  style  to  some  lord,  but 
with  considerable  liberty  to  change  their  relations 
to  a  lord  less  severe.  For  this  reason,  perhaps, 
the  feudal  lords  are  somewhat  restrained  in 
exacting  labors  from  their  retainers.  Slavery 
exists  to  some  extent  among  the  Laos.  Slaves 
are  handed  down  by  inheritance,  or  purchased, 
or  captured  in  war.  In  their  slavery,  too,  there 
is  some  amelioration  in  the  fact  that  the  slaves 
are  often  allowed  to  live  by  themselves,  merely 
answering  when  called  upon  for  service  for  a  few 
days  or  a  week  at  a  time. 

The  Laos  treat  women  as  equals,  and  upon 
marriage  it  is  quite  common  for  the  husband  to 
leave  his  father  and  mother  and  join  the  family 
of  his  wife.  They  are  hospitable  to  strangers, 
rather  inclined  to  laziness,  and  passionately  fond 
of  gambling.  A  curious  custom  in  reference  to 
the  disposition  of  their  dead,  is  that  the  body  of 
a  deceased  friend  is  embalmed  and  kept  at  the 
house  for  weeks  and  perhaps  months,  as  is  done 
in  some  parts  of  China,  and  the  final  disposition 
of  the  body  is  by  cremation. 

Mission  work  among  the  Laos  of  Siam  was  com- 
menced by  Messrs.  McGilvary  and  Wilson  of  the 
American  Presbyterian  Board  (N.)  in  1867. 
After  a  careful  exploration  of  the  country,  they 
selected  Cheung  Mai  as  the  first  station,  and  from 
the  first  marl'ced  success  met  them.  The  Laos 
mission  of  the  PN  is  now  in  a  very  flourishing 
condition. 

Curtis  (Lillian  J.),  The  Laos  of  North  Siam  Philadelphia. 
Westminster  Presa,  1903:  Missionary  Review  of  the  World, 
Vol.  X.,  214;  XII.,268,  332,  337;  XIV.,  355,  358;  XV.,  349, 
Funk  &  Wagnalls,  New  York;  Picanon  (E.),  Le  Laos 
Francais,  Par  s,  1900. 

LA  PAZ:  A  town  in  Bolivia,  South  America, 
and  capital  of  the  Republic.  It  has  an  altitude 
of  12,300  feet  and  a  population  of  about  57,000. 
Station  of  the  Baptist  Society  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec  (1899),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives  and  1  native  worker. 

LAPLAND :  The  country  where  the  Lapps  live ; 
has  no  longer  a  distinct  political  or  geographical 
existence,  but  is  territory  which  is  included  in  the 
dominions  of  Norway  and  Sweden  and  Russia. 


The  region  belonging  to  Norway  and  Sweden  lies 
in  the  northern  and  northeastern  part  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian peninsula,  and  includes  the  provinces  of 
Norrland  and  Finmark  in  Norway,  and  North 
and  South  Bothnia  in  Sweden.  Russian  Lapland 
lies  in  the  northwestern  districts  of  the  empire, 
and  is  included  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Finlancf  In 
Norway  the  area  of  Lapp  territory  covers  nearly 
26,500  square  miles,  with  5,000  true  Lapps;  in 
Sweden,  50,600  square  miles,  4,000  Lapps;  in 
Russia,  11,300  square  miles,  8,800  Lapps.  In 
addition  to  the  natives,  Finns,  Swedes,  Nor- 
wegians and  Russians  are  found  in  large  num- 
bers. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  climate  is 
severely  cold,  tho  that  of  the  coast  regions  is 
tempered  by  the  Gulf  Stream.  During  July  and 
August  the  sun  never  sets  for  several  weeks  in  the 
northern  districts,  and  the  heat  is  great.  Forests 
of  birch,  pine,  fir,  and  alder  abound,  but  large 
tracts  of  country  are  utterly  barren. 

The  Lapps  or  Laplanders  belong  to  the  same 
branch  of  the  human  race  as  the  Finns  and  Estho- 
nians,  and  physically  are  undersized, with  straight 
blaclc  hair,  somewhat  yellow  skin,  low  foreheads, 
small  eyes,  and  beardless  chins. 

Tho  somewhat  despised  by  their  Nor- 
wegian neiglibors,  they  have  good  mental  powers 
and  are  manually  dexterous.  Honesty,  a  strong 
affection  for  their  native  land,  and  great  religious 
depth  and  constancy  characterize  their  best  men. 

The  Swedish  Church  embraces,  nominally, 
about  the  whole  of  the  population  of  the  country; 
but  a  large  portion  of  the  people,  partly  because 
of  indifference  and  partly  because  of  the  distance 
from  the  churches,  seldom  participate  in  religious 
services.  With  an  area  of  nearly  116,000  square 
kilometers,  and  with  a  population  of  60,000,  only 
seventeen  churches  hold  services  every  Sunday. 

LA  PLATA:  A  town  in  Argentina,  South 
America,  situated  30  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Buenos 
Aires,  and  capital  of  the  province  of  Buenos 
Aires.  Population,  65,000.  Station  of  the  ME, 
with  (1903)  3  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
2  Sunday  schools,  and  123  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  53  are  communicants. 


LARACHE. 
LARAISH. 


See  El  Araish. 
See  El  Araish. 


LARANGEIRAS:  A  town  in  the  State  of  Ser- 
gipe,  Brazil,  19  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Aracaju;  situ- 
ated at  the  head  of  steam  navigation  on  the 
Cotindiba  River.  Population,  3,000.  Occupied 
as  a  station  by  the  PN  in  1884,  and  left  in  care 
of  native  workers  in  1901,  the  missionary  remov- 
ing to  Estancia. 

LARES.  A  town  in  Porto  Rico,  West  Indies, 
situated  50  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  San  Juan,  with  a 
population  of  17,100.  Station  of  the  American 
Missionary  Association,  with  (1901)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  1  Sunday 
school,  and  1  day  school. 

LARNACA:  A  town  on  the  S.  coast  of  Cyprus, 
situated  23  miles  S.  E.  of  Nicosia.  It  is  the  chief 
commercial  port  of  the  island  and  has  many  ruins 
of  antiquity.  It  is  the  ancient  Cilium.  It  is 
occupied  by  the  RP  (1891),  with  (1901)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  3  native  workers,  1 
place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  day  school, 
1  dispensary  and  22  professed  Christians. 

LAS  FLORES:  A  town  in  Argentina,  South 
America,  situated   165   miles  S.   W.  of  Buenos 


891 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


I/aoa 
Lepers 


Aires.      Station  of  the  RBMU,   with   (1901)    1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  Sunday  school. 

LATAKIA:  A  town  and  seaport  of  Syria; 
situated  75  miles  W.  of  Tripoli.  It  has  the 
remains  of  the  ancient  Roman  city  of  Laodicea 
ad  Mare.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the  Nusariyeh 
region.  Population,  12,000.  Station  of  the  RP 
(1859), with  (1901)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives, 
3  women  missionaries,  14  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations,  1  place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1 
society  for  young  people,  1  book-room,  4  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital, and  196  professed  Christians. 

LAVRAS:  A  town  in  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil, 
South  America,  situated  in  the  mountain  dis- 
trict, 200  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Santos.  Climate  is 
healthful  and  dry.  Altitude,  2,900  feet.  Popula- 
tion, 4,000.  Station  of  the  PS  (1892),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  women  mis- 
sionaries, 4  native  workers,  13  outstations,  3 
places  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding 
school,  1  printing  press,  and  110  Christians. 

LEALtJYI.     See  Lialui. 

LEBAK:  A  village  of  Java,  situated  50  miles 
S.  W.  of  Batavia.  Station  of  the  Netherlands 
Mission  Society  (1894),  with  (1901)  1  missionary, 
2  native  workers,  1  outstation  and  1  hospital. 

LEBANON:  A  semi-autonomous  province  in 
Syria  comprising  the  range  of  mountains  of  the 
same  name,  with  an  area  of  2,500  square  miles. 
It  was  given  a  constitution  by  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment, under  pressure  from  the  great  powers 
of  Europe,  who  intervened  to  stop  the  massacres 
of  1860.  The  Governor  of  the  Lebanon  is  not 
removable  by  the  Sultan,  nor  can  any  but  a 
Christian  be  appointed  to  the  post.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  arrangements  it  is  far  more  pros- 
perous and  progressive  than  any  neighboring 
districts  of  Turkey. 

LEGGE,  James:  Born  at  Huntly,  Aberdeen- 
shire, Scotland,  in  1815;  graduated  at  King's 
College  and  University,  1835.  After  studying  at 
Highbury  Theological  College,  London,  he  was 
appointed  in  1839,  by  the  LMS,  a  missionary  to 
China,  and  reached  Malacca  in  December  of  the 
same  year.  In  1840  he  took  charge  of  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  college,  founded  by  Dr.  Morrison  and  Dr. 
Milne.  In  1843  the  Society  decided  to  change 
the  college  into  a  theological  seminary  for  the 
training  of  native  ministers  for  China,  selected 
Hongkong  for  the  seat  of  the  institution,  and 
appointed  Mr.  Legge  as  its  president.  He  did 
some  of  his  best  work  in  this  school,  altho  he 
finally  left  it  because  he  was  not  satisfied  with  the 
result  of  his  work  as  a  teacher.  Some  of  the  best 
and  most  useful  native  workers  in  the  mission 
were  trained  by  Mr.  Legge.  In  1867  he  visited 
England,  and  while  there  was  presented  by  the 
government  of  the  colony  with  a  service  of  plate 
"in  acknowledgment  of  the  many  valuable  ser- 
vices freely  and  gratuitously  rendered."  A 
number  of  the  Chinese  inhabitants  presented  him 
with  a  costly  and  beautiful  silver  tablet,  made 
after  the  Chinese  fashion.  In  1870  he  received 
from  the  University  of  Aberdeen  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Laws.  In  this  year  he  returned  to 
Hongkong.  In  1876  he  was  elected  professor 
of  Chinese  languages  and  literature  at  Oxford 
University.  Dr.  Legge  took  a  prominent  part  in 
1847  in  the  discussion  concerning  the  proper 
rendering  in  Chinese  of  the  words  God  and  Spirit, 
and  published  a  volume  in  1852  under  the  title  of 


"The  Notions  of  the  Chinese  concerning  Ood  and 
Spirits."  The  work  of  preaching  to  the  Chinese 
was  that  which  Dr.  Legge  loved  best.  But  the 
work  which  has  made  him  renowned  over  all  the 
earth  is  the  edition  which  he  brought  out  of  the 
Chinese  classics,  with  the  Chinese  text,  a  transla- 
tion in  English,  notes  critical  and  exegetical,  and 
copious  prolegomena.  For  these  and  translations 
of  other  important  Chinese  works,  he  received,  on 
occasion  of  its  first  award,  in  1875,  the  Julien 

?rize  from  the  Academic  des  Belles  Lettres  et 
nscriptions  of  the  Institute  of  France. 
Mi&sionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vcl.  XI.,  284. 

LEH:  The  capital  of  the  Ladakh  province, 
Kashmir,  India,  situated  about  5  miles  from  the 
Indus  River  and  160  miles  east  of  Srinagar.  It 
is  a  commercial  center  for  trade  between  Punjab 
and  Tibet  on  one  hand  and  Chinese  Turkestan  on 
the  other.  It  is  also  a  market  for  Turkestan 
shawl  wool.  Altitude,  11,530  feet.  Population, 
about  4,000.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Missions 
(1885),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  1  woman  missionary,  1  outstation,  2 
places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  3  day 
schools,  1  printing  press,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital, 
and  17  professed  Christians. 

LEIDENBURG.     See  Lydenbubg. 

LEIPZIG  EVANGELICAL  MISSIONARY  SO- 
CIETY.  See  Germany;  Missionary  Societies  in. 

LE-LING-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  N.  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Shan-tung,  China,  situated  68  miles  N.  by 
E.  of  Tsi-nan-fu.  Station  of  the  Methodist  New 
Connexion  Missionary  Society,  with  3  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  57  native  workers,  159  out- 
stations, 160  places  of  worship,  30  Sunday  schools, 
1  book  room,  28  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools, 
1  female  helpers'  training  class, 1  hospital,  1  med- 
ical class  and  1,883  Christians.  The  name  is 
sometimes  written  Lao  Ling. 

LENAKEL  :  A  village  in  New  Hebrides, 
Oceania,  situated  on  the  W.  coast  of  Tanna 
Island. 

LEON:  A  town  in  the  state  of  Guanajuato, 
Mexico,  situated  31  milesW.  by  N.  of  Guanajuato. 
There  are  considerable  manufactures  in  this 
town.  Altitude,  5,000  feet.  Population,  50,000. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  Sunday  school,  1  place  of 
worship,  and  61  professed  Christians,  of  whom  11 
are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the  SBC 
(1896),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  native  worker  and  1  Sunday  school. 

LEOPOLD VILLE :  A  town  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  Africa,  capital  of  the  Stanley  Pool  District, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Congo  River  at  the 
outlet  of  Stanley  Pool.  It  is  the  most  important 
trading  post  in  the  Congo  Free  State  and  is  used 
as  a  business  center  for  the  missionaries  in  the 
Congo  region.  The  climate  is  good  and  the 
water  supply  excellent.  Station  of  the  RBMU 
(1899),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

LEPCHA  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect  spoken  in 
Sikkim,  north  of  Darjiling  and  on  the  southern 
border  of  Tibet.  It  belongs  to  the  Tibeto-Bur- 
man  linguistic  group,  and  is  written  with  the 
Pahari  alphabet. 

LEPERS;  Special  labor  for:  Previous  to  the 
year  1860  but  little  effort  had  been  made  to 
ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  lepers,  or  to  take 
the  Gospel  to  them  in  their  isolation.  As  early 
as  1812  Dr.  Carey  of  Serampur,  India,  witnessed 


Ijepers 
Likoma  Island 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


392 


the  burning  of  a  leper  and  was  so  impressed  by 
the  helplessness  of  these  outcasts  that  he  estab- 
lished a  hospital  for  them  in  Calcutta,  probably 
the  first  in  all  India.  In  1818  the  Colonial  Gov- 
ernment of  South  Africa,  fearing  the  spread  of 
leprosy,  erected  a  hospital  at  Hemel  en  Aarde, 
and  four  years  later  a  larger  hospital  was  erected, 
and  the  Governor  requested  the  Moravian  Church, 
already  working  among  the  Hottentots,  to  send 
missionaries  to  manage  the  institution  and  look 
after  the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  material  welfare 
of  its  inmates.  In  1846  the  establishment  was 
removed  to  Robben  Island,  and  was  continued  in 
the  care  of  the  Moravians  till  1867,  when  the 
English  Government  appointed  a  chaplain  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  the  Moravians  with- 
drew. 

As  early  as  1840  provision  for  lepers  was 
made  at  Almora,  India,  through  the  efforts  of  a 
government  official,  and  in  1849  the  work  was 
turned  over  to  the  LMS.  In  1855  an  asylum  for 
lepers  was  established  at  Ambala,  Punjab,  by 
missionaries  of  the  PN,  again  aided  and  largely 
supported  by  a  government  official.  But,  with  the 
exception  of  the  one  asylum  in  South  Africa  and 
the  two  institutions  in  India,  practically  nothing 
was  done  for  lepers  during  the  years  previous  to 
1860.  During  the  next  thirty  years  Christians 
were  slowly  but  surely  awakening  to  a  sense  of 
the  pressing  need  of  these  neglected  classes, 
especially  in  India,  where  leprosy  is  so  prevalent. 
Asylums  were  established  at  Chamba,  Rawal 
Pindi,  Sabathu  and  Tarn  Taran,  in  the  Punjab; 
at  Agra,  Allahabad,  Almora,  Banda  and  Chan- 
dag,  near  Pitthoragarh  in  the  N.  W.  (United) 
Provinces;  at  Purulia  in  Bengal,  at  Ujjain  in 
Central  India  and  at  Aleppie,  Mangalur  and 
Neyoor,  in  the  south  of  Hindustan.  The  CMS 
established  a  leper  settlement  on  the  Zanzibar 
coast  in  Africa  and  the  Norwegian  Missionary 
society  began  work  for  lepers  at  two  stations  in 
Madagascar.  In  Jerusalem  the  Moravians 
established  an  asylum  and  home  for  lepers. 

While  the  various  existing  missionary  organi- 
zations were  directly  or  indirectly  working  for 
lepers,  the  expansion  of  the  work  during  this 
period  is  largely  due  to  the  formation  of  the 
society  called  the  "Mission  to  Lepers  in  India 
and  the  East,"  by  Mr.  Wellesley  C.  Bailey,  who, 
while  a  missionary  of  the  American  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  Punjab,  as  early  as  1869  became 
much  impressed  with  the  condition  of  the  lepers 
at  the  Ambala  asylum  of  that  mission.  In  1874 
he  visited  Great  Britain  and  succeeded  in  forming 
a  society  for  developing  this  special  work. 
While  as  an  organization  it  is  independent,  it 
cooperates  with  the  various  societies  engaged  in 
the  work. 

Work  especially  directed  to  lepers  has  greatly 
expanded  since  1890.  At  that  date  organized 
effort  for  lepers  did  not  exist  in  China,  Japan, 
Burma  and  many  other  countries,  and  there 
were  but  twenty  institutions  for  lepers  in  all  the 
mission  fields  together.  Since  1890,  sixty-two 
asylums  and  homes  for  these  afflicted  people 
have  been  established,  more  than  three  times  as 
many  as  in  all  previous  years.  Twenty-two 
prominent  missionary  societies  are  receiving  aid 
in  their  work  from  the  Mission  to  Lepers,  which 
now  has  fifty-five  stations  in  India,  Burma  and 
Ceylon,  ten  in  China,  two  in  Japan,  and  thirty 
asylums  or  hospitals  in  these  countries  owned  by 
the  Mission  to  Lepers  itself,  altho  other  societies 
cooperate  in   the  service  rendered  the  inmates. 


In  addition  to  these,  fourteen  institutions  for 
lepers  owned  by  various  societies,  are  partly  sup- 
porteti  by  the  Mission  to  Lepers.  Fourteen 
homes  for  the  untainted  children  of  lepers  have 
been  established.  Missionary  work  is  also  car- 
ried on  in  the  asylums  established  by  the  British 
Government  in  several  important  cities  of  India, 
and  in  institutions  supported  by  private  benevo- 
lence which  are  found  in  various  parts  of  India. 
Perhaps  the  best  known  among  the  workers  for 
lepers  in  India  is  Miss  Mary  Reed,  of  the  American 
ME  Mission,  who  contracted  the  disease  while 
working  in  India,  and  has  lived  among  the  lepers 
at  Chandag,  with  no  other  associates  than  the 
afflicted  natives,  since  1890. 

The  first  institution  for  lepers  in  Burma  was 
opened  in  1891  at  Mandalay.  At  Singapore,  a 
government  leper  colony  is  regularly  visited  by 
a  missionary.  At  Lakawn,  among  the  Laos 
people,  the  native  Christians  support  twenty 
leper  families.  At  Pak-hoi,  in  South  China,  in 
1891  the  CMS  founded  one  of  the  finest  institu- 
tions for  lepers  in  the  foreign  field,  and  has  since 
opened  work  for  them  at  Hang-chau-fu,  Fu- 
chau-fu,  Kien-ning-fu,  Lo-ngwong  and  Ku-tien- 
hsien.  In  1895  the  first  leper  asylum  in  Central 
China  was  established  by  the  LMS.  The 
American  ME  Mission  has  a  work  for  lepers  at 
Hsing-hwa-fu,  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  U.  S.  A.,  has  begun  work  at  Ngan-king, 
on  the  Yangtse  River.  Work  for  the  lepers  of 
Japan  was  begun  by  the  American  Presbyterians 
in  1894  in  a  suburb  of  Tokio,  and  the  CMS  has  a 
hospital  at  Kumamoto. 

In  Africa,  besides  the  colony  on  Robben  Island, 
the  Moravian  missionaries  work  among  the  lepers 
within  the  bounds  of  their  mission  north  of  Lake 
Nyasa.  In  the  Transvaal,  the  Hermannsburg 
Mission  has  a  work  at  Mosetta.  The  government 
asylum  at  Emjanjana,  in  Kaffraria,  is  visited  by  a, 
missionary  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church. 
Another  leper  colony  is  cared  for  near  the  town  of 
Zanzibar.  In  Madagascar  the  LMS  began  work 
for  lepers  in  1895,  about  four  miles  from  Fian- 
arantsoa.  Manakavaly,  the  leper  village  near 
Isoavina  built  by  the  LMS,  has  been  taken  over 
by  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society. 

The  Norwegian  Missionary  Society  has  a  sta- 
tion for  lepers  at  Antsirabe,  and  another  at  Fian- 
arantsoa.  The  United  Norwegian  Lutheran 
Church  of  America  also  has  a  leper  home  and 
asylum  in  Madagascar.  The  French  Roman 
Catholics  have  two  hospitals  for  lepers  in  the 
island  and  also  work  for  them  at  Port  of  Spain, 
Trinidad,  and  at  Mandalay. 

In  Hawaii  a  leper  settlement  was  established 
by  the  Government  at  Molokai,  in  which  work  is 
carried  on  by  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion and  the  Roman  Catholics.  This  leper 
colony  was  the  scene  of  the  labors  of  Father 
Damien,  who  established  the  Roman  Catholic 
Mission  there  in  1873,  contracted  the  disease,  and 
died  at  his  post  in  1889. 

In  the  New  Hebrides  a  leper  colony  has  been 
established  by  the  Melanesian  Mission  in  one  of 
the  Banks  Islands,  and  the  LMS  began  work  in 
1897  among  the  lepers  of  Belep  Islands. 

The  first  work  for  the  lepers  of  Persia  was  begun 
by  the  American  Presbyterians  at  Tabriz  in  1894. 
In  1896  the  Moravian  Missionary  Society  estab- 
lished an  asylum  at  Surinam,  in  South  America. 
Summary  (1901) — Africa:  6  asylums  and  settle- 
ments, with  840  inmates.  Burma:  2  asylums, 
with  162  inmates;  1  home  for  untainted  children. 


893 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Lepers 
Ziikoma  Island 


with  6  inmates.  Ceylon:  1  asylum,  with  271 
inmates.  China:  11  asylums  and  settlements, 
with  636  inmates;  1  home  for  untainted  children, 
with  5  inmates.  India:  47  asylums  and  settle- 
ments, with  3,302  inmates;  12  homes  for  un- 
tainted children,  with  222  inmates.  Japan: 
2  asylums,  with  43  inmates.  Madagascar:  4 
asylums  and  settlements,  with  377  inmates. 
Malaysia:  2  asylums  and  settlements,  with  25 
inmates.  Oceania:  3  asylums  and  settlements, 
with  1,120  inmates.  Palestine:  1  asylum,  with 
35  inmates ;  1  home  for  children,  with  35  inmates. 
Persia:  1  settlement,  with  150  inmates.  South 
America:  1  asylum,  with  13  inmates. 

Totals:  71  asylums  in  12  different  fields;  6,528 
inmates;  15  homes  for  untainted  children,  with 
268  inmates. 
Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  V,  136;  Vol.  VI.  434; 

Vol,  VUI,  3.58;  Vol.  IX,  37d;  Vol.  X,  346;  Vol,  XI,  330; 

Vol.  XII,  683;  Vol.  XIV,  537, Funk  &  Wagnalls,  New  York. 

LERIBE:  A  village  in  Leribe  district,  in  the 
north  of  Basutoland,  Africa.  Station  of  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Society  (1859),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  20  native  workers,  12 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school, 
13  day  schools  and  1,137  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  752  are  communicants. 

LES  CAYES.     See  Aux  Cayes. 

LEVUKA:  A  town  on  the  island  of  Ovalau,  for- 
mer capital  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  Oceania,  situated 
on  the  E.  coast  and  surrounded  by  hills.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  87  native 
workers,  56  places  of  worship,  103  Sunday 
schools,  123  day  schools  and  1,091  Christians. 
The  SPG  also  has  a  station  there,  with  1  mis- 
sionary. 

LIALTJI:  A  village  in  the  Barotsi  valley,  Rho- 
desia, Africa,  situated  on  a  low  hill,  15  miles  E. 
of  the  Zambesi  River,  with  which  it  is  connec- 
ted by  a  canal  constructed  by  the  Barotsi  chief 
Lewanika.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Society  (1892),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  2 
women  missionaries  and  1  day  school.  The 
name  is  sometimes  spelled  Lealuyi. 

LIANG-CHAU-FU :  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Kan-su,  China,  situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  180 
miles  from  Lan-chau.  The  plain  is  often  flooded 
by  the  Shwan-tai  River.  Altitude,  5,000  feet. 
Population,  20,000.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1888), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  2  with  their  wives, 
and  one  woman  missionary. 

LIANG-SHAN:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  China,  situated  in  the  S.  W.  near  the 
boundary  of  Yunnan,  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains of  the  same  name.  It  is  important  for  its 
deposits  of  a  salt  of  lead  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  porcelain  ware.  It  is  a  station  of  the  CMS 
(1902),  with  1  woman  missionary. 

LIAO-YANG-CHAU :  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Liao-tung,  Manchuria,  China,  situated  40  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Mukden.  It  is  a  mission  station  of 
the  UFS  (1882),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  2  with 
their  wives;  4  women  missionaries,  37  native 
workers,  16  outstations,  13  Sunday  schools,  5  day 
schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  650  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

LIBERIA :  A  republic  on  the  coast  of  Western 
Africa,  including  500  miles  along  the  coast,  with 
an  average  breadth  of  100  miles,  and  an  area  of 
about  35,000  square  miles.  It  lies  between  Sierra 
Leone  on  the  west  and  the  Ivory  Coast  on  the 


east,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  French 
Guinea.  A  colony  of  negroes  from  America  was 
planted  here  in  1816  by  an  American  coloniza- 
tion society,  with  the  object  of  giving  the  negro  a 
chance  for  self-improvement.  An  unfortunate 
selection  of  locality  caused  the  failure  of  the 
attempt,  as  the  climate  was  fatal.  A  treaty 
made  with  the  native  princes  in  1821  secured  a 
more  healthful  locality.  The  land  was  portioned 
out;  settlements  sprang  up,  and  were  named 
Monrovia,  the  capital;  Caldwell,  Edina;  new 
lands  were  acquired;  neighboring  chiefs  were 
received  into  the  colony,  and  hostile  chiefs  were 
conquered,  until,  in  1847,  Liberia  was  declared  an 
independent  government,  with  a  president,  senate 
and  house  of  representatives.  A  property  quali- 
fication restricts  the  right  of  suffrage,  and,  for  the 
time,  whites  are  not  allowed  citizenship.  Great 
Britain  and  other  European  powers  recognized 
the  republic.  The  original  plan  of  the  colony  has 
not  been  fully  carried  out,  since  it  draws  its  peo- 
ple more  from  the  surrounding  districts  and 
native  tribes  than  from  the  emancipated  negroes 
in  North  America.  In  1880  the  kingdom  of 
Medina,  a  rich  and  populous  country,  was 
annexed. 

The  people  are  estimated  at  2,000,000,  of 
whom  60,000  speak  the  Engli.sh  language.  Sugar 
is  the  principal  product  of  agriculture,  tho  farm- 
ing of  all  kinds  is  conducted  with  results  in  crops 
of  cocoa,  coffee,  cotton,  and  rice.  Trade  is  in  gold- 
dust,  ivory,  palm-oil,  coffee,  and  other  products, 
but  is  badly  managed  and  languishes. 

The  inhabitants  are  the  seafaring  Kroos, 
between  Cape  Palmas  and  the  Sinu  River;  the 
Bassas,  the  Barlins,  south  of  the  St.  Paul;  the 
Mandingan  Veis,  agriculturists;  the  fierce  Golas, 
dwelling  along  the  western  affluents  of  the  St. 
Paul;  the  war-like  Pussis  and  Bussis;  and,  in  the 
uplands  of  the  interior,  the  powerful  Mandlngans. 
The  Protestant  faith  prevails  along  the  coast. 
The  PE,  the  ME,  the  ELGS,  and  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  all  have  missions  in 
Liberia. 

Stookwell  (G.  S.).  The  Republic  of  Liberia,  New  York,  1R68; 
Blyden  (E,  W.),  A  Chapter  in  the  History  of  Liberia,  Free- 
town, L892. 

LIEN-CHAU-FU :  A  town  in  the  N.  part  of  the 
province  of  Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  about 
130  miles  N.  W.  of  Canton.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1891),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  2  with  their 
wives;  1  woman  missionary,  7  native  workers,  3 
outstations,  4  places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools 
6  day  schools,  1  boarding  scliool,  1  dispensary,  1 
hospital,  and  207  professed  Christians.  The 
name  is  sometimes  spelled  Lien  Chow. 

LIFU:  The  largest  of  the  Loyalty  Islands, 
Oceania.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1843),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  216  native  workers,  28 
Sunday  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  3,855  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  2,027  are  communi- 
cants. 

LIJDENBTJRG.     See  Lydisnbuhg. 

LIKHOELE:  A  village  in  Basutoland,  Africa, 
situated  about  18  miles  S.  E.  of  Hermon.  Station 
of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
(1886),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
23  native  workers,  7  outstations,  1  chapel,  1 
Sunday  school,  8  day  schools,  and  1,362  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  813  are  communicants. 

LIKOMA  ISLAND :  An  island  5  miles  long  in 
Lake  Nvasa,  Africa.     It  is  the  headquarters  of 


Liquor  Traffic 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


394 


the  UM,  with  5  missionaries,  4  women  mission- 
aries, 7  native  workers,  3  outstations,  1  chapel,  5 
day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theological 
class,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  1  printing  press, 
and  555  professed  Christians,  of  whom  415  are 
communicants. 

LI-LONG :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung,  China,  about  75  miles  S.  E.  of  Canton,  on 
Mirs  Bay.  Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1852),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  2  with 
their  wives;  9  native  workers;  3  outstations,  1 
theological  class,  1  boarding  school,  and  397  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  229  are  communi- 
cants. 

LIMA:  The  capital  of  Peru,  South  America, 
situated  in  a  valley  6  miles  from  Callao.  It  was 
founded  in  1535  by  Pizarro  as  the  capital  of  the 
vice-royalty,  and  is  the  most  handsome  city  in 
South  America,  with  important  buildings  and 
large  manufactures  of  glass  and  gold  laces.  Its 
climate  is  pleasant,  but  not  healthful,  owing  in 
part  to  bad  sanitation.  There  is  little  or  no  rain, 
but  dews  and  fogs  are  abundant  in  winter.  It 
has  an  altitude  of  565  feet,  and  a  population  of 
(1891)  103,000  people.  Station  of  the  ME  (1891), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1 
woman  missionary. 

LIMAO:  A  settlement  in  Bechuanaland, 
Rhodesia,  Africa,  situated  about  10  miles  W.  of 
the  railroad  station  of  Ramoutsa.  Station  of  the 
Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1864),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  work- 
ers, 1  outstation,  1  chapel,  and  2  day  schools. 

LIMON:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Costa  Rica,  Central  America,  situated  about 
80  miles  E.  of  San  Jose.  Station  of  the  Jamaica 
Baptist  Mission  Society  (1888),  with  (1901)  4 
missionaries,  3  with  their  wives;  7  outstations,  7 
chapels,  6  Sunday  schools,  and  367  Christians. 
These  statistics  include  Ebenezer  or  Porvenir. 
The  West  Indies  Wesleyan  Methodist  Conference 
has  there  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  22 
native  workers,  5  outstations,  6  places  of  worship, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  Young  People's  Society,  1  day 
school,  1  temperaifice  society,  and  281  Christians. 
Name  is  also  written  Port  Limon. 

LINARES:  A  town  in  Nuevo  Leon,  Mexico, 
situated  90  miles  S.  of  Monterev.  Population, 
10,000.  Station  of  the  PS  (1887),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  and  2  day 
schools. 

LIN-CHING.     See  Lin-tsing-chau. 

LINDLEY,  Daniel:  Born  August  24,  1801,  in 
Washington  County,  Penn.;  graduated  at  Ohio 
University  and  Union  Theological  Seminary,  Va., 
in  1829.  He  preached  three  years  in  Charlotte, 
N.  C,  and,  in  1834,  was  appointed  missionary  to 
Africa  by  the  ABCFM.  The  disturbed  state  of 
the  country  made  Mr.  Lindley's  first  few  years  in 
Africa  exceedingly  dangerous  and  wearing.  At 
length,  in  1839,  he  established  himself  at  Durban 
(then  called  Port  Natal),  and  labored  among  the 
Zulus  for  thirty-five  years.  He  not  only  preached 
to  them  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  but,  tho  not  a  me- 
chanic, he  showed  the  native  Christians  who 
wished  to  improve  their  modes  of  life  how  to 
make  brick,  build  houses,  construct  implements 
and  furniture.  He  often  defended  the  people 
with  his  rifle  from  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts,  and 
in  sickness  ministered  to  them.  In  1846  five 
commissioners  were  appointed  by  the  Colonial 


Government  to  allot  lands  to  the  natives  and  to 
encourage  them  to  industry.  Mr.  Lindley  was 
one  of  these  commissioners.  He  was  always 
greatly  honored  and  loved  by  the  Zulus.  The 
Dutch  Boers  used  to  say:  "If  there  be  a  human 
name  that  warms  the  heart  of  a  Natal  Teck  Boer, 
it  is  the  ever-to-be-remembered  name  of  Daniel 
Lindley."  He  returned  home  in  ill-health  in 
1874,  and  died  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  September 
3,  1880. 

LIN-KIANG-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-si,  China,  situated  195  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Han-kau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1898),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  1  chapel. 

LINOKANA:  A  village  in  the  Marico  District 
of  the  Transvaal,  Africa,  situated  15  miles  N.  W.  of 
Zeerust.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1859),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  native  worker,  2  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  2  day  schools  and  1,113  professed 
Christians. 

LIN-TSING-CHAU:  A  town  in  Shan-tung, 
China,  situated  on  the  W.  border  of  the  province, 
on  the  Wei-ho  River,  about  75  miles  W.  of  Tsi- 
nan-f  u.  Station  of  the  ABMU.  Altho  the  mission 
work  was  broken  up  by  the  Boxer  outbreak  it  is 
now  (1902)  being  reorganized  and  carried  on  with 
2  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  10  native  workers, 
5  outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday 
schools,  1  day  school,  and  60  Christians.  The 
name  is  sometimes  spelled  Lin-ching. 

LIQUOR  TRAFFIC  AND  MISSIONS:  It  is  an 
axiom  in  physics  that  without  the  application 
of  force  water  will  not  rise  higher  than  its 
source.  In  the  light  of  this  truth  a  glance  at  the 
use  of  ardent  spirits  in  some  Christian  lands  may 
show  us  what  to  expect  in  their  commerce  with 
heathen  tribes.  Belgium  is  a  fair  specimen  of  a 
papal  country,  and  there  70,000,000  litres — a  litre 
=  2.113  pints — are  consumed  annually.  Every 
year  her  6,000,000  of  population  spend  eight 
times  as  much  for  liquor  as  for  public  instruc- 
tion, and  the  amount  that  is  drunk  continually 
increases.  The  net  revenue  from  the  excise  in 
Great  Britain  in  1902  was  £31,597,962,  all  but 
£674,468  of  it  from  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
liquor. 

Such  figures  prepare  us  for  dark  pages  in  the 
records  of  commerce  with  heathen,  and  we  are 
not  disappointed;  the  reality  even  exceeds  the 
expectation.  In  1887,  180,000  gallons  were 
imported  from  Christian  lands  into  Sierra  Leone 
alone,  and  into  the  neighboring  district  of  Lagos 
1,231,302  gallons  were  sent  annually.  Rev.  W. 
Allan  states  that  the  Niger  Company  imported 
220,000  gallons  in  two  years,  and  500,000  gallons 
went  with  him  in  the  ship  Caliban  from  Liverpool. 
The  Hon.  and  Rev.  James  Johnson,  a  native 
member  of  the  government,  who  has  labored 
there  for  eighteen  years,  states  that  packages  of 
gin  and  rum  were  found  everywhere.  Large 
steamers  loaded  with  liquor  lay  at  anchor;  ware- 
houses were  crammed  with  the  article  to  the 
very  doors;  canoes  were  heavily  laden  with  it; 
streets  and  lanes,  highways  and  byways,  the 
river  banks,  and  even  the  bush,  were  littered 
with  demijohns.  The  very  soil  of  Abeokuta 
seemed  composed  of  broken  bottles;  and  at 
Afarjupa,  forty  miles  inland,  the  seats  in  the 
church  were  empty  gin-bo:^es.  The  traders  at 
Bonny  complain  that  cotton  goods  remain  on 
the  shelf,  and  the  only  demand  is  for  rum  and 


396 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


I/Iquot  Traffic 


gin,  which  is  sold  for  four  and  even  threepence 
per  bottle.  Such  prices  seem  fabulously  cheap, 
but  the  following  incident  may  explain  its  cheap- 
ness: A  gorilla  from  the  Gaboon  River  died  on 
board  a  steamer,  and  to  preserve  the  body  it  was 
placed  in  a  cask  of  this  trade  rum;  but  when  it 
was  opened  at  Liverpool,  the  hair  and  skin  were 
found  burned  off  as  by  vitriol,  and  the  flesh  in  a 
state  of  horrible  putrefaction.  And  this  is  the 
kind  of  liquor  sold  to  be  drunk  by  the  natives! 
In  1885  more  than  10,000,000  gallons  of  such 
liquor  was  sent  to  Western  Africa.  Of  this  flood 
of  ruin  England  furnished  311,384  gallons, 
Germany  7,823,042,  Netherlands  1,096,146,  the 
United  States  737,650,  Portugal  91,525,  and 
France,  of  alcohol,  405,944.  Germany  here  enjoys 
a  preeminence  that  is  by  no  means  to  be  envied. 
The  motive  for  such  intense  activity  in  evil  is 
found  in  the  enormous  profits  of  this  trade, 
amounting  in  some  cases  to  700  per  cent.,  and  to 
those  greedy  for  filthy  lucre  700  per  cent,  profit 
is  a  tremendous"  motive. 

These  lists  of  figures  are  full  of  mourning, 
lamentation,  and  woe,  for  while  among  us  some 
can  use  intoxicating  drinks  for  a  long  period 
with  rare  self-control,  it  is  not  so  with  savage 
races.  They  seem  to  lack  the  power  to  resist, 
and  give  themselves  up  at  once  and  without 
reserve  to  the  destroyer.  The  one  thing  they 
seek  is  to  get  drunk,  to  feel  the  thrill  of  intoxi- 
cation; and  soon  property,  health,  and  life  itself 
are  engulfed  in  the  abyss.  The  red  men  of  our 
own  land  are  sad  examples  of  this  tendency; 
and  tho  in  bondage,  the  lack  of  money  and 
the  strong  hand  of  the  master  intent  on  his  own 
gains  held  back  the  black  man  from  this  swift 
decline,  in  Africa  his  tendencies  are  uncontrolled. 
Missionaries  give  some  very  sad  glimpses  of  the 
work  of  ruin,  but  neither  pen  nor  pencil  can  do 
it  justice. 

Rev.  H.  Waller,  F.R.G.S.,  does  not  confine 
himself  to  vague  generalities,  but  sets  the  con- 
crete ruin  before  our  eyes  when  he  testifies  to 
seeing  hundreds  of  young  women  lying  beastly 
drunk  round  the  wagons  of  the  rumsellers.  If 
there  were  women,  there  were  also  men,  and 
here  we  have  all  the  elements  for  a  very  pan- 
demonium of  abominations;  and  if  any  think 
Mr.  Waller's  experience  exceptional,  that  comfort 
is  wrenched  away  from  us  when  Dr.  Clarke  uses 
precisely  the  same  words  concerning  young 
women  in  South  Africa,  only  where  Mr.  Waller 
says  hundreds  Dr.  Clarke  says  thousands.  What 
hope  is  there  for  a  people  in  such  a  vortex  of 
destruction?  It  corroborates  this  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  in  different  fields  when  Mr.  Moir, 
of  the  African  Lakes  Trading  Company,  says: 
"I  have  seen  boys  and  girls  of  fifteen  years  of 
age  getting  their  wages  in  rum," — and  such 
rum  as  has  already  been  described.  Rev.  H.  G. 
Guinness  describes  it  as  "infamously  bad  gin, 
scarcely  fit  to  make  paint  with." 

It  may  be  said  this  is  the  testimony  of  mis- 
sionaries; yes,  and  in  it  they  are  unanimous. 
Christ-like  love  for  men  neither  disqualifies  to 
see  nor  to  describe  the  truth;  but  we  are  not 
confined  to  missionary  testimony.  Sir  Richard 
Burton  states:  "It  is  my  sincere  belief  that  if 
the  slave  trade  were  revived  with  all  its  horrors 
and  Africa  could  get  rid  of  the  white  man  with 
his  powder  and  rum,  she  would  be  a  gainer  by 
the  exchange."  This  is  strong  testimony  from 
one  who  had  himself  seen  the  state  of  things 


which  he  thus  describes.  One  of  these  rum- 
sellers,  without  intending  it  or  perhaps  even 
being  aware  of  his  damaging  concessions,  has 
turned  State's  evidence.  Mr.  Betts,  a  leading 
merchant  of  Sierra  Leone,  tells  thus  his  story: 
"The  liquor  traffic  destroys  body  and  soul.  It  is 
a  greater  evil  than  the  slave  trade.  I  am  myself 
a  large  dealer  in  spirits.  I  have  on  the  road  now 
thousands  of  gallons  of  rum,  and  several  thousand 
demijohns  of  gin.  I  am  by  no  means  insensible 
to  the  evil  this  traffic  does  to  these  lands  and  to 
commerce  itself.  And  I  regret  it  much.  They 
have  become  slaves  to  the  white  man's  rum. 
Rum  and  gin  is  their  incessant  cry." 

The  Rev.  J.  Johnson,  already  quoted,  styles 
this  "a,  criminal  trade,"  and  calls  upon  his  people 
to  protest  with  all  their  might  against  this  deadly 
traffic  of  Europe  with  Africa.  Let  the  guilt  of 
ruining  our  land  for  gain  be  the  guilt  of  strangers 
only,  if  they  persist  in  their  un-Christian  course, 
and  all  good  people  in  Christian  lands  say  Amen. 
Again  he  says:  "There  has  been  no  peace  in 
Africa  for  centuries,  but  this  drink  traffic  makes 
it  worse.  Negroes  have  survived  the  evils  of  the 
slave  trade,  cruel  as  they  were,  but  they  cannot 
withstand  the  terrible  evils  of  the  drink.  If  they 
go  on,  the  extinction  of  the  negro  is  simply  a 
question  of  time." 

Malike,  King  of  Nup6,  wrote  thus  to  Bishop 
Crowther:  "Liquor  has  ruined  our  country.  It 
has  made  our  people  insane.  I  favor  all  trade, 
except  in  liquor.  We  implore  Crowther,  the 
great  Christian  minister,  to  beg  the  great  Priests 
(the  Church  Missionary  Society  Committee)  to 
beseech  the  Queen  of  England  to  keep  liquor  out 
of  this  land.  Let  him  help  us  in  this  for  God's 
sake.     He  must  not  let  our  country  be  destroyed." 

This  evil  is  not  confined  to  Western  Africa, 
nor  is  the  native  opposition  to  it  limited  to  that 
region.  The  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  has  forbidden 
the  traffic,  but  he  has  no  power  to  control  Euro- 
peans, who  are  the  leaders  in  this  wrong,  and  so 
his  own  people  are  becoming  demoralized  in 
spite  of  all  his  efforts. 

The  natives  of  the  diamond-fields  in  South 
Africa  implored  the  Cape  parliament  to  have  the 
saloons  removed  from  among  them, but  their  peti- 
tion was  refused.  The  market  for  British  spirits 
could  not  be  interfered  with,  whatever  misery 
it  brought  to  the  natives. 

Mr.  W.  S.  Caine,  M.P.,  while  traveling  in 
Egypt,  found  more  than  400  saloons  in  Cairo 
with  English  names  and  English  placards,  setting 
forth  the  excellence  of  their  wares,  and  heard  an 
Egyptian  speaker  denounce  in  a  large  meeting 
the  foreigners  who  introduced  the  traffic  into 
his  country. 

Rev.  W.  Allan  conversed  with  some  of  the 
owners  of  two  lines  of  steamships  to  Western 
Africa,  and  they  not  only  did  not  deny  his  state- 
ments, but  informed  him  that  the  whole  of  their 
cargoes  which  they  took  out  from  Hamburg  and 
Rotterdam  consisted  of  nothing  but  rum  and  gin. 
He  had  heard  this  on  the  coast,  and  now  it  was 
confirmed  at  headquarters.  The  Secretary  of 
the  Hamburg  Chamber  of  Commerce,  in  reply  to 
a  letter  from  Rev.  Mr.  Lang  of  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society,  says:  "Merchants here  interested 
in  the  African  trade  are  of  the  opinion  that 
measures  for  limiting  this  traffic  (in  liquors)  are 
injurious  to  the  development  of  trade  with  those 
countries,  and  that  the  importation  of  liquors  as 
carried  on  at  present  has  no  injurious  effect  upon 


Ltlqnor  Traffic 
Literature 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA.  OF  MISSIONS 


399 


the  natives."  We  can  understand  the  first  part 
of  this,  but  how  to  reconcile  the  closing  sentence 
with  truth,  in  the  light  of  the  testimony  of  Mr. 
Uatts,  through  whose  hands  a  part  of  these 
same  liquors  passed  in  Africa,  is  beyond  our 
power. 

Khama,  the  Bechuana  chief,  voices  the  senti- 
ments of  the  Africans  themselves  when  he  says: 
"I  fear  Lo  Bengula  less  than  I  fear  brandy.  I 
fought  with  Lo  Bengula,  and  drove  him  back, 
and  he  never  came  again,  and  God,  who  helped 
me  then,  would  help  me  again.  Lo  Bengula 
never  gives  me  a  sleepless  night,  but  to  fight 
against  drink  is  to  fight  against  demons  and  not 
men.  I  dread  the  white  man's  drink  more  than 
all  the  assegais  of  the  Matabele,  which  kill  men's 
bodies,  and  it  is  quickly  over,  but  drink  puts 
devils  into  men  and  destroys  both  their  souls  and 
bodies  forever;  its  wounds  never  heal."  And 
for  this  reason  he  forbade  European  drinkers  to 
live  in  his  land. 

So  far  our  view  has  been  confined  to  Africa, 
but  the  deadly  fruits  of  this  traffic  are  not  pecu- 
liar to  Africa.  India  also  suffers,  and  that,  too, 
at  the  hands  of  Christian  England.  The  govern- 
ment sells  the  monopoly  of  distilling  and  selling 
liquor  in  its  several  districts,  and  the  purchaser 
urges  his  sales  regardless  of  consequences  to  the 
natives,  and  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the 
better  classes,  so  that,  tho  the  people  were  almost 
entirely  total  abstainers  before  the  British  rule 
began,  the  land  is  becoming  demoralized.  Even 
the  converted  natives  suffer  with  the  rest.  This 
must  exert  a  fearful  power  to  hinder  the  Chris- 
tianization  of  India. 

Mr.  W.  S.  Caine,  M.P.,  gives  some  striking 
instances  of  this  policy  of  the  government.  The 
collector  at  Darjeeling  compelled  a  tea-planter, 
ignorant  of  the  law,  to  open  a  saloon  on  his  farm, 
and  at  Burrisal  the  collector  tried  to  compel  a 
zeminder  to  reopen  a  saloon  which  he  had 
closed  on  his  estate.  The  native  refused,  and 
defeated  the  collector  when  the  case  came  into 
court.  Still  there  remains  the  unspeakable 
shame  of  an  English  official  in  heathen  India 
using  his  authority  to  compel  a  native  to  reopen 
the  saloon  which  his  sense  of  duty  had  led  him 
to  close.  Mr.  Caine  quotes  the  following  from 
Mr.  Westland,  a  member  of  the  vice-regal 
council:  "We  look  hopefully  for  an  increase  in 
the  excise  system  in  Northern  India."  In  other 
words,  he  hopes  that  the  revenue  will  be  increased 
by  increasing  drunkenness  among  the  people. 
In  connection  with  this  it  should  be  added  that 
the  revenue  from  native  spirits  was  then  increas- 
ing at  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent,  annually. 

The  Bombay  Guardian  states  that  the  result 
of  this  govermental  stimulating  of  the  sale  of 
liquor  in  order  to  increase  its  revenue  is  that  the 
number  of  consumers  has  doubled  in  ten  years. 
We  might  trace  the  same  influences  operating  in 
other  heathen  lands,  but  it  would  only  be  repeat- 
ing the  same  things  with  a  change  of  name.  Africa 
has  been  selected,  because  that  continent  at 
present  bears  the  brunt  of  this  attack  on  the  wel- 
fare of  heathen  nations.  India  has  been  referred 
to,  because  there  a  Christian  nation  has  a  glorious 
opportunity  to  bless  the  population  which  the 
Providence  of  God  has  entrusted  to  its  care;  but 
in  other  lands  we  would  only  see  the  same  causes 
operating  only  under  circumstances  less  favorable 
to  success,  tho,  alas!  heathen  countries  can  raise 
few  barriers  against  national  ruin  which  Chris- 


tian nations  cannot  trample  down  when  so  dis- 
posed. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  I,  596;  Vol.  II,  4 12;  Vol. 
jX,  50d,  Funk  &  Wagnalls,  New  York. 

LITERATURE    in    the    Mission    Field:    The 

metliods  by  which  the  missionary  may  deliver 
his  message  and  make  his  power  felt  have  been 
classified  under  three  heacls:  First,  the  words 
of  his  mouth  uttered  in  the  hearing  of  all;  second, 
his  life  lived  in  the  sight  of  all;  and  third,  his 
written  words,  which  persist  after  his  voice  has 
been  silenced  forever.  This  inventory  of  the 
messenger's  means  of  expression  holds  good  in  all 
departments  of  missionary  effort.  Whether  the 
missionary  is  man  or  woman,  whether  preacher, 
house-to-house  visitor,  school  teacher,  physician, 
or  hospital  nurse,  the  means  of  reaching  tiie 
hearts  of  men,  there  to  prepare  the  way  of  the 
Lord;  the  means  ever  accepted  by  the  Ho!y 
Spirit  as  opening  doors  for  His  peculiar  work, 
are  these  three.  Each  of  the  great  departments 
of  missionary  activity  common  in  schemes  of 
missions  depends  upon  use  of  thrse  three  means 
of  influencing  men  for  that  soul-winning  effect- 
iveness which  alone  can  justify  its  presence 
among  the  apparatus  of  aggressive  activity. 
Each  of  them  would  be  one-sided  and  uncertain 
in  exhibiting  to  men  the  perfections  of  Jesus 
Christ,  did  it  not  command  all  three  of  these 
means  of  missionary  expression.  The  place, 
then,  of  the  written  word  of  truth,  that  is  to  say 
of  literature,  in  the  apparatus  of  missions,  is  at 
the  very  foundation,  as  one  of  the  three  means  of 
witness  for  Christ  upon  which  the  enduring 
effectiveness  of  the  whole  enterprise  depends. 

With  respect  to  importance  a  sharp  distinction 
must  be  drawn  between  the  Bible  and  its  sub- 
sidiary literature.  Yet  with  respect  to  place  in 
evangelistic  effort,  all  writings  which  help  the 
understanding  of  God's  love  for  man  and  pf 
man's  need  of  his  Savior,  which  bind  together 
faith  and  practise,  or  which  illuminate  the  steady 
onward  march  of  the  Kingdom,  are  means  of 
expression.  From  these  the  missionary  selects, 
according  to  the  need  of  the  moment,  the  one 
that  will  carry  his  message  beyond  the  range  of 
his  voice  and  penetrate  where  he  cannot  go. 
This  is  true  whether  such  writings  are  his  own 
words  or  those  of  the  Bible  itself.  A  point  to 
be  regretted  in  the  past  and  avoided  in  the  future 
is  that  the  home  churches  and  some  missionary 
societies  have  tended,  because  of  the  supreme 
importance  of  the  Bible,  to  think  the  place  of 
literature  in  the  scheme  of  missions  filled  so  soon 
as  the  Bible  has  been  issued  in  the  language  of 
any  field.  Thus  the  provision  of  a  full  literary 
equipment  for  the  missionary  has  often  been  left 
to  the  independent  action,  for  which  apology  has 
sometimes  been  offered,  of  a  weary  and  over- 
loaded missionary  suddenly  brought  face  to  face 
with  the  fact  that  without  such  an  equipment  he 
is  a  cripple.  Missionaries  now  know  that  on  the 
field  the  primer,  the  text-card,  the  lesson-paper, 
the  exposition  and  comment  and  illustration  are 
as  inseparable  from  the  Sacred  Book  as  the 
candle  which  illumines  its  pages  in  thick  dark- 
ness or  the  lens  which  brings  its  writings  within 
the  range  of  defective  eyesight. 

This  coordination  of  the  Bible  and  other  Chris- 
tian literature,  as  to  place  in  the  equipment  of 
missions,  appears  clearly  in  the  practise  of  the 
pioneers.  Ziegenbalg,  when  making  for  the 
whole  Church  of  Christ  his  tentative  essays  in  the 
science  of  missions  in  South  India,  wrote  home,  in 


397 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


lilqnor  Traffllc 
Literature 


1708,  as  one  of  his  first  discoveries,  "Great 
progress  in  Christianity  cannot  be  expected  until 
the  people  possess  the  Word  of  God  in  their  own 
tongue."  So  Ziegenbalg  straightway  fell  to 
work — upon  translating  the  Bible?  No;  before 
he  began  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament  he 
prepared  a  Tamil  primer  and  grammar  and  dic- 
tionary. For  such  work  no  funds  had  been  pro- 
vided, and  the  missionary  had  much  ado  to  col- 
lect the  money,  part  from  merchants  in  India 
and  part  from  European  scientists  who  could 
appreciate  such  an  addition  to  their  apparatus 
for  linguistic  study.  Henry  Nott  of  Tahiti, 
plain,  uneducated  mechanic  as  he  was,  became 
the  one  mighty  man  in  that  first  band  of  Eng- 
lish missionaries  to  the  South  Seas,  because  he 
alone  saw  the  place  which  literature  must  take  at 
the  very  foundation  of  all  stages  of  missionary 
success.  His  message  reached  a  whole  nation 
because  it  was  written,  and  it  began  with  a  tract- 
primer.  Dr.  Elias  Riggs  of  Turkey  was  preemi- 
nently a  Bible  translator.  Yet  among  his  earli- 
est, as  well  as  his  most  important,  works  were 
primers  and  catechisms  and  hymns.  As  lately 
as  twenty-five  years  ago  missionaries  in  China 
unitedly  pled  for  general  Christian  literature  to 
be  allowed  a  place  by  the  side  of  the  Bible, 
urging  the  Bible  Societies  to  permit  colporteurs 
to  distribute  tracts  and  religious  books  as  well  as 
the  Bible,  and  repeatedly  begging  that  the  Bible 
be  printed  with  notes  needed  to  open  the  Scrip- 
tures to  the  comprehension  of  the  ignorant  and 
non-Christian  reader.  It  was  no  mere  burst  of 
rhetoric  which  led  some  of  the  missionaries  in 
Turkey,  on  issuing  a  primer,  to  print  on  the 
cover  as  its  appropriate  title:  Key  to  the  Bible. 
To  be  properly  equipped  for  work,  every  mis- 
sionary must  have  within  reach  a  printing  press 
which  can  issue  those  essential  works  which 
Bible  Societies  cannot  provide. 

To  the  preacher  the  importance  of  such  litera- 
ture appears  as  soon  as  he  begins  to  preach. 
Men  of  dull  minds  have  listened  to  the  preacher's 
words,  but  drift  away  from  the  congregation  with 
hardly  one  complete  idea  of  what  it  is  all  about. 
If  such  a  one  can  be  overtaken  by  a  tract  which 
repeats  and  explains  words  but  half  understood, 
in  many  cases  that  tract  becomes  the  pivot  on 
which  turns  that  man's  future  relation  to  the 
missionary's  Master.  When  a  number  of  per- 
sons have  become  interested  in  the  message  and 
have  taken  up  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  a  thou- 
sand questions  are  at  once  suggested  to  each  one. 
Alone,  the  missionary  would  be  unable  to  attend 
to  new  cases  because  of  the  multitude  of  these 
questions.  He  is  himself  multiplied,  so  to  speak, 
if  he  has  booklets  to  give  to  inquirers.  The  same 
situation  exists  in  the  work  of  the  medical  mis- 
sionary. One  of  his  greatest  needs  is  an  inven- 
tion for  multiplying  his  means  of  expression  to 
the  people,  who  throng  the  dispensary  or  lie 
through  long  days  in  the  hospital.  Such  an 
invention  is  found  in  the  text-cards,  leaflets  and 
books,  which  speak  while  the  overworked  staff 
are  attending  to  the  bodUy  ailments  of  others. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  woman  evangelist.  A 
woman  visits  people  in  their  houses.  She  leaves 
a  little  book  here,  a  tract  there,  a  picture  card  in 
another  place.  "The  heathen  who  has  had  his 
curiosity  excited  by  one  of  those  little  printed 
works  becomes  instantly  but  unwittingly  a 
worker  for  Christ  by  showing  it  to  some  friend 
and  discussing  with  him  its  strange  message  of 
peace  and  good  wUl.     A  child  in  the  street  or  the 


Sunday  school  receives  a  leaflet  or  an  illustrated 
paper.  He  is  certain  to  carry  it  to  his  parents 
a,nd  to  explain  it  as  far  as  he  has  heard.  With 
lip  and  printed  sheet  together  the  child  becomes 
a  messenger  of  the  Cross  to  a  fortress  garrisoned 
by  superstition  against  any  direct  approach  of 
the  missionary.  In  Uganda  this  office  of  litera- 
ture in  evangelization  used  to  be  fully  under- 
stood. The  phrase  by  which  a  besotted  heathen 
rejected  the  invitation  of  the  Gospel  used  to  be: 
"No,  I  do  not  wish  to  become  a  reader."  To 
read  was  to  commit  oneself  to  respect  the  mes- 
sage of  the  missionary.  Hence,  to  be  a  "reader" 
used  to  be  the  earliest  mark  of  a  follower  of 
Jesus.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  it  is  because  of  the 
free  use  of  the  press  in  that  field  that  the  Uganda 
church  is  now  a  type  of  the  power  of  the  Gospel, 
for,  within  one  single  generation  from  ferocious 
savagery,  it  is  taking  its  little  books  and  evangel- 
izing all  adjoining  regions. 

In  the  Arctic  regions  of  our  own  continent,  the 
Eskimos  of  Blacklead  Island  in  Cumberland 
Sound  have  realized,  perhaps  quite  as  clearly  as 
we,  the  effect  of  the  printing  press  in  multiplying 
preachers,  for  after  having  grasped  the  fact  that 
thought  can  be  conveyed  through  written  words 
they  said,  "Letters  are  as  good  as  men,  because 
they,  too,  can  speak." 

The  fundamental  importance  of  literature  to 
the  educational  work  of  missions  is  particularly 
hard  to  be  realized  in  lands  where  books  seem  to 
grow  of  themselves  like  the  fruit  in  an  apple 
orchard.  In  Christian  lands  the  chief  task 
seems  to  be  to  teach  children  to  read  books.  In 
non-Christian  countries  the  task  of  the  mission- 
ary is  to  teach  the  children  to  read  and  also  to 
make  the  reading  sheets  and  the  primers  and 
many  others  of  the  books  used  in  the  school;  for 
there  books  for  the  young  either  do  not  exist  or 
they  are  as  much  to  be  shunned  and  dreaded  as 
the  heathen  practises  which  they  inculcate. 

Let  us  look  beyond  the  region  of  school  books, 
however.  After  the  people  have  been  taught  to 
read,  what  are  they  going  to  read?  Those  who 
leave  the  schools  in  the  early  part  of  the  course, 
where  their  work  has  been  largely  that  of  the 
memory,  ought  to  have  books  which  it  is  worth 
while  to  remember.  Those  who  have  stayed  at 
school  long  enough  to  gain  some  training  in  the 
comparison  of  facts,  need  to  have  books  which 
contain  facts.  But  on  the  mission  field,  if  litera- 
ture exists,  it  is  saturated  with  superstition,  vice 
and  the  foolish  science  of  the  Dark  Ages.  If  it 
does  not  exist,  to  those  who  leave  school  at  twelve 
or  fourteen  years  of  age  the  world  is  almost  a 
blank  so  far  as  stimulus  to  further  growth  is  con- 
cerned. Men  in  Christian  lands  rely  upon  the 
library  to  be  high  school,  college  and  university  , 
to  the  half-educated  part  of  the  community  and 
even  to  act  as  an  auxiliary  force  for  the  mental, 
moral  and  spiritual  nurture  of  the  families  of  the 
educated.  But  on  the  mission  field  there  are  no 
libraries  for  the  common  people,  and  books  that 
will  foster  development  can  come  from  mission 
presses  only,  until  the  growth  of  the  Christian 
community  shall  have  made  native  Christian 
publishing  houses  possible. 

Such  a  situation  compels  us  at  this  point  to 
face  the  question  of  the  completeness  of  our  plans 
for  forwarding  the  enterprise  of  missions.  Let 
us  not  belittle  the  great  work  that  has  been  done 
for  the  production  of  books  by  the  various 
societies  directly  or  indirectly  missionary  in  aim. 
The  total  number  of  missionary  printing  houses 


lilterotnre 
Llvlnsrstone 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


38s 


found    in    strictly    non-Christian   lands    is    122. 
These  are  distributed  as  follows: 

Angola,  W.  Africa 2 

Arabia 1 

Basutoland 2 

Cape  Colony,  Africa 3 

British  East  Africa 3 

China 22 

Congo  Free  State 5 

Eritrea,  Africa 1 

German  East  Africa 2 

India  and  Ceylon 45 

Japan  and  Formosa 3 

Korea 2 

Liberia,  W.  Africa 2 

Madagascar 4 

Nigeria,  W.  Africa 3 

Nyasaland,  Central  Africa 3 

Oceania 8 

Persia 2 

Portuguese  East  Africa 1 

Siam 2 

Singapore 1 

Turlcey  (including  Syria  and  Bulgaria) 4 

Uganda 1 

The  power  for  good  of  these  printing  establish- 
ments is  incalculable.  It  is  well,  however,  to 
note  in  passing  that  they  do  not  fill  the  need, 
first,  for  lack  of  proper  equipment,  not  more  than 
thirty  of  them  being  on  a  scale  that  would  entitle 
them  to  the  name  of  printing  house  in  civil- 
ized lands;  second,  because  a  number  of  them  were 
opened  in  a  period  when  the  necessity  for 
cooperation  in  such  matters  was  not  understood, 
and  some  of  the  best  equipped  offices  crowd  each 
other  while  populous  regions  are  without  means 
of  publication;  thus  of  the  22  mission  presses  in 
China  14  are  concentrated  in  four  provinces;  of 
the  45  printing  establishments  in  India  seven  are 
in  the  United  Provinces,  and  the  four  presses  in 
Madagascar  are  all  in  one  city.  In  the  third  place, 
the  inability  of  these  122  presses  to  meet  the 
need  of  the  non-Christian  field  is  because  of  the 
vast  number  of  different  languages  which  have 
to  be  dealt  with.  Missionaries  are  at  work  in 
somewhat  over  300  languages,  and  altho  some 
thirty  of  the  missionary  printing  establishments 
are  on  a  scale  that  permits  printing  in  several 
languages,  one  cannot  pretend  that  these  can 
meet  the  needs  of  the  vast  field  of  the  world. 

As  matters  are  at  present,  the  lonely  worker  in 
the  mission  field,  weighed  down  by  the  knowledge 
that  multitudes  are  not  reached  by  his  voice, 
longing  to  use  the  press  as  a  means  by  which  a 
few  can  sway  the  thoughts  of  masses  of  men,  is 
eating  out  his  heart  in  helplessness  because  the 
necessary  means  of  expression  are  grudgingly 
supplied.  The  case  offers  special  justification 
for  the  proposal  of  a  witty  friend  of  missions  for 
the  formation  of  a  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Missionaries. 

Some  desirable  things  which  ought  to  be  done 
to  improve  the  literary  department  of  the  mis- 
sionary enterprise  are:  (1)  For  missionary  societies 
to  select  and  set  apart  qualified  missionaries, 
men  and  women,  for  literary  work.  (2)  To 
increase  the  number  and  especially  to  improve 
the  quality  of  the  periodicals  published  in  native 
languages  by  missionaries  on  the  fields.  These 
periodicals  have  considerable  influence  in  non- 
Christian  lands.  There  are  now  about  three 
hundred  such  periodical  publications,  varying  in 


importance  from  the  Sunday  school  lesson-paper, 
and  the  children's  illustrated  paper,  to  the 
family  weekly  newspaper  and  the  monthly  maga- 
zine. Improvement  in  the  quality  of  these 
periodicals  is  of  very  great  importance  for  the 
increase  of  their  influence.  (3)  Plans  should  be 
made  in  a  large  way  for  the  development  of  a 
permanent  Christian  literature  in  all  non-Chris- 
tian lands.  For  this  purpose  discussion  of  the 
needs  and  the  possibilities  of  the  literary  depart- 
ment should  be  a  permanent  feature  in  the  pro- 
grams of  interdenominational  conferences  of 
missionary  societies  or  of  missionaries.  Much 
can  be  accomplished  by  a  wise  cooperation 
between  existing  presses. 

The  task  of  providing  books  for  masses  of 
people  is  not  so  stupendous  as  it  appears,  since 
one  powerful  and  good  book  in  a  land  where  a 
living  literature  does  not  exist  is  equal  in  point 
of  influence  to  a  hundred  good  books  in  the  lands 
where  each  competes  with  multitudes  of  others 
for  a  hearing.  The  most  sanguine  optimist  can- 
not, however,  claim  tliat  provision  has  been  made 
enabling  mission  presses  to  publish  works  for  the 
nurture  of  communities  already  evangelized 
and  seeking  growth.  The  expenditure  of  great 
sums  for  the  maintenance  of  schools  and  colleges 
is  an  accepted  feature  of  the  scheme  of  missions. 
But  many  a  missionary  revolts  against  teaching 
people  to  read  when  he  must  drop  them,  as  they 
leave  the  school  house  door,  into  the  morasses 
of  doubt  and  corruption  gladly  made  ready  for 
them  by  non-Christian  and  anti-Christian  writ- 
ers. 

Another  unsupplied  need  which  springs  to 
light  in  this  connection  is  the  need  to  train  and 
bring  forward  native  writers  to  be  the  spokesmen 
of  the  native  Christian  element  in  each  nation. 
Such  writers  cannot  be  developed  in  non-Chris- 
tian lands  until  the  missions  have  funds  for 
encouraging  their  efforts  and  fostering  the  crea- 
tion of  an  indigenous  Christian  literature.  Until 
the  missions  receive  a  mandate  from  the  home- 
land to  engage  seriously  in  literary  work  in  non- 
Christian  lands,  Christendom  will  look  in  vain 
for  Eastern  scholars  to  appear  who  can  stand 
forth  as  champions  of  Christ  against  the  men  in 
the  guise  of  Eastern  sages  who  already  wait  by 
the  doors  of  our  churches  to  rehash  for  us  at 
home  ideas  and  arguments  furnished  to  the  men 
of  the  East  by  Western  rationalists. 

Another  point  of  serious  gravity  in  this  situa- 
tion is  that  Christiantiy  should  take  a  command- 
ing position  in  the  revival  of  literature,  already 
begun  in  Japan  and  rapidly  approaching  in 
India,  China  and  the  Mohammedan  countries. 
One  century  ago  representatives  of  Western 
nations  in  all  heathen  lands  confronted  despotic 
rulers,  whose  bearing  toward  Christians  and 
Christendom  was  the  arrogance  of  unassailable 
might.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  the 
sceptre  of  world-sovereignty  passed  to  Christen- 
dom, and  now  every  non-Christian  ruler  through- 
out the  world  is  dependent  upon  the  tolerance 
of  Christian  nations  for  the  privilege  of  main- 
taining a  semblance  of  power.  To  the  Christian 
there  is  solemn  meaning  in  this  change  of  the 
centers  of  domination.  But  has  this  change  not 
been  used  by  the  Almighty  to  bring  the  educated 
Hindu  and  Chinese  and  Japanese  and  Turk  and 
Persian  under  compulsion  to  examine  its  causes? 
Never  before  have  missionaries  in  those  lands 
stood  upon  the  vantage  ground  of  rank  as  repre- 


309 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Iilteratnre 
Iilvinestone 


sentatives  of  the  world's  progress.  If  they  are 
given  means  to  publish,  then  by  virtue  of  intellec- 
tual and  moral  superiority  they  can  hold  that 
position  of  influence  while  they  clearly  set  forth 
the  causes  which  have  lifted  Christian  peoples 
to  supremacy.  If  supplied  with  funds  in  time, 
missionaries  in  all  these  lands  can  take  leadership 
in  the  approaching  revival  of  literature,  injecting 
into  the  thought  of  many  lands  a  strong  Christian 
element  with  all  that  this  means  of  gain  to  the 
people  in  justness  of  vision  and  elevation  of 
national  ideals.  At  such  a  time,  as  Edwin 
Greaves  of  Benares  has  said,  "what  we  need  is  not 
writers  of  Christian  books,  but  Christian  writers 
of  books." 

It  is  true  that  as  at  present  supported  the 
missionary  societies  cannot  assume  the  expense 
of  book  publication  to  the  extent  demanded  by 
the  requirements  of  the  growing  opportunity 
during  years  which  must  elapse  before  the  people 
of  the  various  fields  can  fully  sustain  the  Chris- 
tian publishing  enterprise.  But  some  solution  of 
the  problem  of  providing  literature  essential  to 
the  full  success  of  missionary  effort  should  be 
diligently  and  strenuously  sought  by  all  bodies 
to  which  belong  the  discussion  and  improvement 
of  missionary  methods.  Some  steps  should  be 
taken  of  common  accord,  also,  to  bring  before  the 
almoners  of  great  wealth  at  home  the  fact  that 
in  non-Christian  lands  books  do  not  grow,  but 
for  some  time  to  come  must  be  painfully  provided 
by  the  beneficence  of  those  who  appreciate  their 
permanent  and  penetrating  and  vitalizing  power. 

LITITZ:  A  mission  station  in  the  S.  part  of 
the  island  of  Jamaica,  West  Indies,  situated 
about  7  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  New  Broughton. 
Station  of  the  Moravian  Mission  Society  (1839), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  41  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  2  places  of  worship,  2 
Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  and  602  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

LITTLE-POPO :  A  village  of  Togoland,  Africa, 
situated  10  miles  E.  of  Porto  Seguro.  It  has  a 
strong  Roman  Catholic  mission.  Station  of  the 
WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  14  native  work- 
ers, 11  outstations,  11  places  of  worship,  7  Sun- 
day schools,  6  day  schools,  and  367  profes.sed 
Christians,  of  whom  238  are  communicants.  The 
German  official  name  is  Klein  Popo. 

LIU-HO-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  W.  part  of 
the  province  of  Kiang-su,  China,  situated  about 
20  miles  N.  of  Nan-king.  Station  of  the  AFFM 
(1898),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
woman  missionary,  4  native  workers,  and  1  Sun- 
day school.  Name  is  sometimes  written  Luh- 
hoh. 

LIU-NGAN-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Ngan-hwei,  China,  situated  48  miles  W.  of 
Lu-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1890),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife.  The  name  is  some- 
times written  Luh-gan. 

LIVERPOOL  (Africa).     See  Lukolela. 

LIVINGSTONE,  David:  Born  in  Blantyre, 
Scotland,  March  19,  1813.  Died  May  1,  1873. 
His  parents  were  religious,  and  he  was  early 
impressed  with  the  noble  life  of  Jesus  spent  in 
healing  the  body  and  instructing  the  ignorant. 
At  ten,  part  of  his  first  week's  wages  as  "piecer 
boy"  at  a  loom  bought  a  Latin  grammar.  His 
evening  hours,  often  from  8  o'clock  till  midnight, 
were  spent  in  the  study  of  Latin,  Greek,  botany, 
and  geology.     At  nineteen  he  resolved  to  be  a 


medical  missionary.  By  "plain  living"  and 
"high  thinking,"  working  as  a  spinner  in  the 
summer  and  studying  in  Glasgow  in  the  winter, 
meanwhile  "picking  up  as  much  of  carpentry  and 
other  useful  trades  as  possible,"  he  prepared  him- 
self for  his  future  life.  After  his  acceptance  as  a 
missionary  by  the  LMS  in  1838,  he  studied  the- 
ology, medicine,  and  science  for  two  years  in 
London,  took  his  medical  degree  in  the  Faculty 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  Glasgow,  sailed 
December  8,  1840,  for  Cape  Town;  thence  pro- 
ceeded to  Kuruman,  the  station  of  Moffat  and 
Hamilton.  For  two  years  he  traversed  the 
Bechuana  country,  visiting  the  Bakwains  and 
other  tribes.  In  1843  he  selected  Mabotsa  for  a 
mission  station.  Here  a  lion  crushed  his  arm, 
and  nearly  put  an  end  to  his  life.  A  fearful 
drought  compelled  Livingstone  to  seek  a  more 
favored  region,  and  the  whole  tribe  followed  him 
to  Kolobeng.  While  there  he  visited  the  Boers. 
They  regarded  with  hostility  any  who  treated  as 
men  the  natives,  whom  they  looked  upon  as 
"black  property,"  and  resisted  every  attempt  to 
found  a  mission  near  their  settlements.  The 
river  at  Kolobeng,  which  had  yielded  him  water 
for  irrigation,  gradually  failed,  and  in  the  fourth 
year  disappeared.  Livingstone  had  heard  of 
"a  great  lake,"  surrounded  by  a  manly  tribe, 
ruled  by  Sebituane,  a  powerful  chief,  friendly  to 
strangers.  There  he  hoped  to  find  a  place  for 
future  labors.  Accompanied  by  Oswell  and 
Murray,  English  travelers,  he  crossed  the  Kali- 
hari  Desert,  and  on  August  1,  1849,  he  sighted 
Lake  Ngami,  but  failed  to  reach  Sebituane  through 
the  jealousy  of  a  chief  who  refused  to  transport 
him  across  the  Zouga  River.  A  second  attempt 
failed  owing  to  the  illness  of  his  children.  A 
third,  with  his  family  and  Sech^le,  was  successful. 
In  June,  1851,  Livingstone  reached  the  Zambesi 
River  at  Sesheke  in  E.  longitude  25°.  This  was 
an  important  geographical  discovery,  as  it  had 
been  supposed  to  rise  much  further  east.  His 
family  having  suffered  greatly  from  illness,  he 
decided  to  send  them  to  England  for  two  years, 
himself  explore  the  country  in  search  of  a  healthful 
center  for  mission  work,  also  to  trace  the  Zam- 
besi to  its  source  and  to  the  coast.  On  May  23, 
1853,  he  reached  Linyanti,  on  the  Chobe,  capital 
of  the  Makololo,  was  cordially  received  by  Seke- 
letu,  Sebituane's  son  and  successor,  and  re- 
mained for  some  months,  "preaching  the  Gospel 
and  healing  diseases."  He  proceeded,  Novem- 
ber 11,  tracing  the  course  of  the  Zambesi  and 
its  affluent,  the  Leeba,  to  its  source  in  Lake 
Dilolo.  On  this  hazardous  expedition  he  took 
twenty-seven  men  provided  by  Sekeletu,  partly 
in  the  hope  of  opening  up  a  trade-route  between 
their  own  country  and  the  coast.  They  suffered 
from  extreme  hunger  and  thirst,  fever  and  dysen- 
tery, attacks  of  wild  beasts,  robbers,  and  hostile 
tribes.  Proceeding  from  Lake  Dilolo,  he  arrived. 
May  31,  1854,  at  St.  Paul  de  Loanda,  capital  of 
Angola,  on  the  west  coast. 

In  great  physical  prostration  and  mental 
depression  by  disease,  hunger  and  care,  he  was 
kindly  received  bj'  the  British  Commissioner. 
The  Portuguese  merchants  and  officials  also  were 
most  hospitable  and  courteous.  From  this  place 
he  sent  his  astronomical  observations  to  Maclear, 
royal  astronomer  at  the  Cape,  and  an  account  of 
his  journey  to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of 
England,  which  awarded  him  its  highest  honor, 
the  gold  medal.  Maclear,  speaking  of  the  num- 
ber and  accuracy  of  his  astronomical  and  geo- 


Livingstone 
Loliardasra 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


400 


graphical  observations,  says:  "You  could  go  to  any 
point  across  the  entire  continent,  along  Living- 
stone's track,  and  feel  certain  of  your  position.' 

After  recuperating,  Livingstone  began  his  jour- 
ney av:,ross  the  continent  of  Africa.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1855,  he  discovered  the  famous  Victoria 
Falls  of  the  Zambesi.  He  arrived  March  2,  1856, 
in  an  emaciated  condition,  at  Tete,  the  most 
western  outpost  of  the  Portuguese  East  African 
colony.  He  reached  Quilimane,  on  the  Indian 
Ocean,  May  20,  four  years  from  the  last  depar- 
ture from  Cape  Town,  having  traversed  the  con- 
tinent from  ocean  to  ocean  and  traveled  on  foot 
over  11,000  miles.  He  then  embarked  for  Eng- 
land, December  12,  1856.  He  was  received  with 
great  honor  by  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  the  universities 
of  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  and  by  all  classes  of 
society.  At  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Dublin,  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge  his  addresses  were  heard 
with  great  interest  by  learned  and  unlearned,  old 
and  young.  While  at  home  he  published  his 
Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South 
Africa.  In  his  travels  the  atrocities  of  the  inter- 
nal slave-traffic  had  so  revealed  themselves  to 
him,  and  the  obstacles  it  presented  to  mission- 
work  in  Central  Africa  had  so  impressed  him, 
that  the  question  of  its  suppression  became  "the 
uppermost  idea  in  his  mind."  Hitherto  his  ex- 
plorations had  aimed  solely  at  opening  fields  for 
mission  work;  tlienceforth  they  sought  to  open 
up  the  country  to  legitimate  and  productive  com- 
merce as  a  means  of  superseding  the  destructive 
and  inhuman  traffic  in  flesh  and  blood.  His 
motive  appears  in  these  words:  "The  opening  of 
the  new  central  country  is  a  matter  for  congratu- 
lation only  so  far  as  it  opens  up  a  prospect  for  the 
elevation  of  the  inhabitants.  I  view  the  geo- 
graphical exploration  as  the  beginning  of  the 
missionary  enterprise.  I  include  in  the  latter 
term  everything  in  the  way  of  effort  for  the 
amelioration  of  our  race." 

Having  severed  his  connection  with  the  LMS, 
he  returned  in  1858,  appointed  British  consul  for 
Eastern  Africa  and  the  districts  of  the  interior, 
and  also  leader  of  an  expedition  for  exploring 
Eastern  and  Central  Africa.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  his  brother  Charles,  Dr.  John  Kirk, 
and  others.  At  Cape  Town  he  was  accorded  a 
reception  by  the  people  and  authorities  of  the 
Colony,  the  Governor  presenting  him  with  800 
guineas  in  a  silver  casket,  as  a  testimonial  to  the 
value  of  his  services.  Most  of  the  year  was  spent 
by  the  party  in  exploring  the  Shir6  River  and 
making  the  discovery  of  Lake  Shirwa,  April  18, 
and  Lake  Nyasa,  September  16,  1859.  Around 
the  latter  the  missionary  found  the  slave-trade 
rampant,  "desolating  the  country  and  paralyzing 
all  effort."  Returning  to  Tete  in  1860,  he  ful- 
filled his  pledge  made  three  years  before  to  his 
Makololo  friends  by  taking  them  to  their  homes 
at  Linyanti.  In  1861,  accompanied  by  his 
brother  and  Dr.  Kirk,  he  made  another  trip  to 
Lake  Nyasa,  and  remained,  exploring  for  several 
weeks.  His  wife,  whom  he  had  welcomed  only 
three  months  before,  died  April  27,  1862,  at 
Shapunga,  on  the  Zambesi. 

The  Universities'  Mission  to  Central  Africa, 
proposed  by  Livingstone  in  1857,  was  established 
in  1859,  Archdeacon  MacKenzie  of  Natal  con- 
secrated bishop  for  the  mission  in  1861,  and  the 
mission  was  settled  at  Magomero.  In  July,  1862, 
the  bishop  died  from  exposure  and  fatigue. 


In  the  new  iron  steamer,  the  "Lady  Nyasa," 
the  explorers  steamed  up  the  Shird;  but  before  it 
could  be  carried  over  the  cataracts  his  brother 
and  Dr.  Kirk  were  obliged  by  sickness  to  return 
home.  He  resolved  to  continue  the  explorations 
alone.  An  order  from  home  recalling  the  expe- 
dition, he  set  sail  for  Zanzibar  in  1864  in  the 
"Lady  Nyasa."  Needing  funds  and  desiring  to 
sell  the  vessel  built  with  the  avails  of  his  book,  he 
manned  the  little  craft  with  nine  natives  and  four 
Europeans,  himself  navigating  her  to  Bombay, 
which  he  reached  after  an  adventurous  voyage  of 
a  month.  Thence  he  embarked  for  England.  He 
published  The  Zambesi  and  Its  Tributaries. 
When  urged  by  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  to  relin- 
quish the  missionary  work  and  attend  only  to  dis- 
covery, he  wrote:  "I  would  not  consent  to  go 
simply  as  a  geographer,  but  as  a  missionary,  and 
to  do  geography  by  the  way."  In  this  spirit  he 
accepted  the  commission  of  the  Geographical 
Society  to  ascertain  "the  watershed  of  South 
Central  Africa,"  to  "determine  whether  the  ulti- 
mate sources  of  the  Nile"  were  "among  the  hills  or 
lakes"  south  of  the  point  where  Speke  and  Grant 
saw  that  river  flowing  from  the  Victoria  Nyanza, 
and  also  to  "settle  the  relation  of  the  Nyasa  with 
the  Tanganyika."  He  had  also  the  appointment 
of  British  consul  in  Central  Africa,  but  without 
pay.  From  Zanzibar  he  reached  the  continent 
March  24,  proceeded  up  the  Rovuma  River  as 
far  as  he  could,  and  August  8  reached  Lake 
Nyasa,  a  well-watered,  fertile  region,  but 
largely  depopulated  by  slave-hunters,  the  tokens 
of  whose  barbarities  lay  all  along  their  march. 
Thence,  baffled  by  inundations,  hostile  slave- 
dealers,  treacherous  attendants,  want  of  supplies, 
and  severe  sickness,  he  proceeded  northward 
toward  Tanganyika,  which  he  sighted  April,  1867. 
Two  of  the  men  who  deserted  took  with  them  his 
medicine-chest,  and  he  was  without  means  to  con- 
trol the  attacks  of  fever  and  dysentery  which 
prostrated  him.  When  sufficiently  recovered  he 
passed  westward,  and  in  November  discovered 
Lake  Moero,  and  July  28,  1868,  Lake  Bangueolo, 
or  Bemba,  150  miles  long,  75  wide.  "Constant 
wettings  and  wadings"  prostrated  him,  and  for 
the  first  time  in  nearly  thirty  years  he  was  carried 
on  the  march.  Returning  to  the  Tanganyika,  he 
reached  Ujiji  March,  1869.  On  July  12  he 
started  westward,  and  September  21  reached 
Banbarr^,  a  town  in  Manyuema.  He  struggled 
forward,  accompanied  by  three  faithfuls,  Susi, 
Chuma,  and  Gardner,  but  was  driven  back  to 
Banbarr^  by  sickness.  Disabled  for  three  months 
by  ulcers  on  the  feet,  and  further  delayed  by  the 
treachery  of  natives  sent  from  Zanzibar  with 
supplies,  and  by  slave-hunters,  it  was  only  by 
indomitable  persistence  that  he  reached  the  town 
of  Nyangwe,  an  Arab  settlement,  the  western 
limit  of  his  explorations  of  the  Lualaba.  He  had 
now  traced  the  great  river  which,  rising  as  the 
Chambeze  in  the  uplands  between  Nyasa  and 
Tanganyika,  traverses  a  chain  of  lakes,  issuing 
successively  from  Bangueolo  as  the  Luapala, 
from  Moero  as  the  Luvwa,  from  Kamolondo  as 
the  Lualaba,  and  had  also  suggested  what  later 
investigations  proved  true,  that  it  enters  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  as  the  Congo.  He  had  ascer- 
tained also  that  the  Tanganyika  does  not  belong 
to  the  same  drainage  system  as  the  Nyasa. 

Racked  by  disease  and  tortured  in  spirit  by 
the  horrors  perpetrated  by  the  slave-hunters,  he 
was  forced  back  by  his  affrighted  attendants  from. 


401 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Livingstone 
Loliardaga 


Nyangwe,  "a  ruckle  of  bones,"  as  he  said,  to 
Ujiji,  600  miles,  which  he  reached  October  23, 
only  to  find  that  the  rascal  who  had  charge  of  his 
stores  had  stolen  and  used  them  all.  While  Liv- 
ingstone was  making  this  journey  under  compul- 
sion to  Ujiji  from  the  western  extremity  of  his 
explorations,  Henry  M.  Stanley,  the  traveling 
correspondent  of  the  New  York  Herald,  sent 
from  America  by  Mr.  James  Gordon  Bennett  to 
find  and  relieve  him,  was  urging  his  way  from 
the  east  coast  in  search  of  him,  and  reached 
Ujiji  five  days  later  than  Livingstone.  Not  in 
vain  had  the  missionary  in  his  extremity  recorded: 
"I  commit  myself  to  the  Almighty  Disposer  of 
events."  He  and  Stanlejr  together  visited  the 
north  end  of  the  lake,  and  settled  in  the  negative 
the  long  disputed  question  whether  the  Tangan- 
yika was  connected  with  either  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  or  the  Albert  Nyanza.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  1871  they  journeyed  together  to  Unyam- 
yembe,  where  Stanley  had  left  stores  brought  for 
Livingstone.  Here  they  parted  March  15,  1872, 
Stanley  bearing  with  him  the  precious  journal  of 
six  years,  which  "contained  a  wealth  of  infor- 
mation about  countries  and  peoples  hitherto 
unexplored  and  unknown,"  and  Livingstone, 
with  renewed  health  and  spirits,  ready  to  pursue 
his  work  on  the  arrival  of  reliable  men  from 
Stanley.  He  started,  August  25,  1872,  to  make 
another  exploration  of  the  Chambeze  system. 
To  Mr.  Moffat  he  writes:  "I  set  out  on  this  jour- 
ney with  a  strong  presentiment  that  I  shall  never 
finish  it."  He  was  most  of  the  time  wading 
through  "sponges"  and  wet  with  torrents  of  rain. 
Dysentery  in  aggravated  form  renewed  its 
exhausting  attacks,  and  his  constitution  could  no 
longer  withstand  it.  He  had  to  be  carried  in  a 
litter,  by  turns  suffering  excruciating  pain  and 
for  hours  insensible  or  fainting  from  loss  of  blood. 
Still  he  would  at  times  ask  regarding  distant  hills, 
or  of  the  rivers  crossed,  whence  they  came  and 
whither  they  flowed.  Approaching  Ilala,  on  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Bangueolo,  men  were  sent  in 
advance  to  build  a  hut  for  him,  and  he  was  laid 
upon  his  bed  of  sticks  and  grass.  Next  morning 
Chief  Chitambo  called,  but  he  was  too  ill  to  talk. 
At  about  1  \.u..  May  1,  he  asked  Susi  for  his 
medicine-chest.  Selecting  the  calomel  and  ask- 
ing for  water,  he  added:  "All  right,  you  may  go 
out  now."  Before  dawn  the  boy, who  slept  within 
the  hut  to  be  ready  at  his  call,  found  him  kneeling 
by  the  bed,  his  head  buried  in  his  hands  upon  the 
pillow.  The  spirit  had  departed.  His  faithful 
men,  after  embalming  the  body  as  well  as  they 
could,  wrapped  it  in  calico  and  bark,  and  carried 
it,  with  all  his  papers,  instruments,  etc.,  a  year's 
journey,  to  Zanzibar.  On  April  15,  1874,  accom- 
panied by  Susi  and  Chuma,  it  arrived  in  England, 
and  was  deposited  in  Westminster  Abbey,  the 
arm  which  had  been  crushed  by  the  lion  being  a 
means  of  his  identification.  His  journals  kept 
during  these  last  seven  years'  explorations  were 
published  in  1874  under  the  title  of  The  Last 
Journals  of  David  Livingstone  in  Central  Africa. 
(2  vols.) 

Personal  Life  of  David  Livingstone,  Lonrion,  1880;  Elaikie 
(W,  G.),  David  Livingstone,  Lnndon  end  New  York,  18S1; 
Woel  (R.),  Livingstone  in  Africa,  London,  1895. 

LIVINGSTONIA:  A  settlement  in  Nyasaland, 
British  Central  Africa.  Station  of  the  UFS 
(1875),  with  (1903)  12  missionaries,  3  with  their 
wives;  3  women  missionaries,  32  native  workers, 
1  chapel,  and  87  professed  Christians.     The  sta- 

26 


tion  was  originally  opened  at  the  S.  end  of  the 
Lake,  was  abandoned  in  1883  for  Bandawe  on 
the  W.  shore,  and  later  removed  to  Kondowi, 
nearly  100  miles  N.  of  Bandawe. 

LOANZA:  A  settlement  on  the  W.  shore  of 
Lake  Mweri,  in  the  southern  part  of  Congo  Free 
State,  Africa.  Station  of  the  PB  (1900),  with  2 
missionaries  and  2  missionary  women.  The 
name  is  sometimes  written  Luanza. 

LOBETHAL:  A  settlement  in  Kamerun, 
Africa,  situated  about  20  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Edea 
Falls.  Station  of  tlie  Basel  Mission  Society 
(1892),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  1  with  his 
wife;  17  native  workers,  21  outstations,  21  day 
schools,  1  boarding  scliool  and  962  professed 
Christians,-  of  whom  824  are  communicants. 

LOBETHAL:  A  town  in  the  Transvaal,  East 
South  Africa,  northwest  of  Leydensburg.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Berlin  Mission  Society  (1877),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  14  native  workers,  8  out- 
stations, and  634  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
345  are  communicants. 

LOEWENTHAL,  Isidor:  Born  in  Posen,  Prus- 
sian Poland,  1829,  of  Jewish  parents;  died  at 
Peshawur  in  1864.  At  an  early  age  he  showed 
great  aptitude  for  language  and  philology. 
In  1851  he  became  a  Christian,  and  in  1852 
entered  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Princeton, 
taking  high  rank  in  philology  and  writing  impor- 
tant articles  for  tlie  Biblical  Repertory.  He  was 
tutor  in  Princeton  College  in  1855;  ordained  by 
the  Presbytery  of  New  York  as  an  evangelist,  and 
sailed  in  1856  as  a  missionary  of  the  Presbyterian 
Board  for  Northern  India.  He  acquired  a  knowl- 
edge of  Persian,  Arabic,  Kashmiri,  Hindustani, 
and  the  Pushto,  the  language  of  the  Afghans. 
He  could  speak  Persian  fluently.  He  completed 
a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Pushto,  which  is  now  in  circulation  among  the 
Afghans.  He  was  shot  one  evening  in  1864  in 
his  own  garden  by  his  watchman,  a  Sikh,  who 
alleged  that  he  mistook  Dr.  Loewenthal  for  a 
robber.  He  had  nearly  completed  a  dictionary 
of  the  Pushto  language,  and  left  a  collection  of 
Pushto  works  in  manuscript. 

LOFTCHA:  A  town  in  Bulgaria,  20  miles  south 
of  Plevna,  80  miles  northeast  of  Sofia.  Climate, 
foggy,  damp.  Population,  7,020.  Station  of  the 
ME  (1857),  with  (1903)  4  women  missionaries,  19 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  4  chapels,  6  Sun- 
day schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  189  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  60  are  communicants. 

LOHARA:  A  village  in  the  Central  Provinces 
of  India,  situated  near  the  E.  border  of  Rewa, 
and  about  65  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Bilaspur.  It  is  a 
mission  station  of  the  PB  (1900),  with  3  mission- 
aries, 2  with  their  wives;  1  woman  missionary,  2 
native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  industrial 
school,  and  1  orphanage. 

LOHARDAGA:  A  town  in  the  Chota  Nagpur 
district  of  Bengal,  India,  situated  155  miles  S.  by 
W.  of  Patna.  Population,  7,100.  Station  of 
the  Gossner  Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  with  his  wife;  55  native  workers,  27 
places  of  worship,  19  Sunday  schools,  and  4,137 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  2,029  are  com- 
municants. There  is  also  a  leper  asylum,  a 
home  for  incurables,  1  orphanage,  and  1  dis- 
pensary. The  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  has  1 
chapel  and  1  home  for  untainted  children  of  lepers. 
The  name  is  also  written  Lohardugga. 


LiOlkaTv 

London  Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


402 


LOIKAW:  A  village  in  Burma,  British  India, 
situated  about  100  miles  N.  E.  of  Taung-ngu. 
The  people  are  Karens.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1899),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  26  native  workers,  19  outstations,  20 
chapels,  14  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dis- 
pensary and  3,468  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
132  are  communicants. 

LOKOJA:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Gando, 
Nigeria,  W.  Africa,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Niger,  above  the  confluence  with  the  Benue. 
It  was  occupied  by  the  British  in  1865,  and  a 
strong  force  of  troops  is  kept  there  now.  The 
climate  is  less  unhealthf  ul  than  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Niger.  The  CMS  has  a  mission  station  there 
(1865),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife; 
2  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  chapel,  1  day 
school,  and  179  professed  Christians,  of  whom  27 
are  communicants. 

LO-KONG:  A  village  in  the  highlands  of  the 
province  of  Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  near 
Hsin-ning-hsien.  Station  of  the  Basel  Mission 
(1901),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  7  native 
workers,  2  day  schools,  and  287  professed 
Christians. 

LOLODORF :  A  village  in  the  Ngumba  district 
of  the  Kamerun,  Africa,  and  German  official 
headquarters,  situated  90  miles  N.  E.  of  Great 
Batanga.  It  is  on  the  Government  road  to  the 
interior  and  is  a  station  of  the  PN  (1897),  with 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  boarding  school,  and  1  dispensary. 

LOLOMBOLI :  A  settlement  about  5  miles  from 
Strombu,  on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  the  island  of  Nias, 
Dutch  E.  Indies.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  native  worker,  1  day  school,  and  62  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  36  are  communi- 
cants. 

LOLOWUA:  A  settlement  in  the  center  of  the 
Island  of  Nias,  Dutch  E.  Indies.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  1  out- 
station, 1  Sunday  school,  2  day  schools,  and  584 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  366  are  commu- 
nicants. 

LOMAS  DE  ZAMORA:  A  town  in  Argentina, 
South  America,  situated  near  Buenos  Aires. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  2  native  workers,  2  chapels,  2  Sunday 
schools,  and  260  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
66  are  communicants. 

LOMBOK:  An  island  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
lying  between  Bali  and  Sumbawa,  to  the  eastward 
of  Java.  Its  inhabitants  are  Malays  and  Moham- 
medans, and  no  regular  missionary  work  is  now 
carried  on  among  them. 

LOME:  A  village  on  the  coast  of  Togoland, 
Africa,  situated  near  the  W.  frontier  of  the  colony. 
Station  of  the  North  German  Mission  Society 
(1896),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  with  his 
wife;  8  native  workers,  2  outstations,  4  day 
schools,  1  kindergarten,  and  216  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  104  are  communicants. 

LONAND:  A  village  in  the  Poona  District  of 
Bombay,  India,  situated  about  40  miles  S.  E.  of 
Poona.  Station  of  the  Poona  and  Indian  Village 
Mission,  with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  1  day  school, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  theological  class,  and  1  dis- 
pensary. 

LONDE:    A  village  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 


N.  E.  from  Matadi;  station  of  the  Swedish 
Mission  Society  (1892),  witli  2  missionaries,  1  with. 
his  wife;  2  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding  school, 
1  temperance  society,  1  printing  press,  1  dispen- 
sary, and  64  professed  Cfhristians. 

LONDON     MISSIONARY     SOCIETY     (1795): 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  the 
preaching  of  George Whitefield  and  others  brought 
to  the  Christian  Church  a  realization  of  its  larger 
responsibilities,  and  some  people  dropped  their 
watchword  of  "England  for  Christ"  for  the  larger 
one  of  "the  world  for  Christ,"  and  thus  the  great 
modern   missionary  movement  had  its  genesis. 
An  additional  impetus  was  given  by  Carey's  Essay 
in    1792,    and   his   sermon    on    attempting   and 
expecting  great  things  from  God,  which  led  to  the 
formation   of    the   Baptist    Missionary   Society. 
These  bore  fruit  beyond  the  bounds  of  his  own 
denomination,  and  associations  of  the  Indepen- 
dent churches  began  to  consider  the  question  of 
missionary  duty.     Ministers  belonging  to  several 
denominations  united  in  1793  in    founding  The 
Evangelical  Magazine,  for  the  purpose  of  arousing 
the  Christian  public  from  its  prevailing  torpor, 
and  exciting  a  more  clear  and  serious  considera- 
tion of  its  obligations  to  use  means  for  advancing 
the  Redeemer's  kingdom.     The  principal  editor 
of  the  new  publication  was  an  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, the  Rev.  John  Eyre,  of  Homerton;  the  Rev. 
Matthew  Wilks,  famous  as  the  minister  of  White- 
field's  Tabernacle,  was  also  connected  with  the- 
movement,  and  both  men  were  afterward  prom- 
inent in  founding  the  Missionary  Society. 

Another  clergyman  of  the  Establishment  whose 
writings  aroused  interest  in  missions  was  the 
Rev.  Melville  Home,  at  one  time  chaplain  to  the 
colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  a  quality  which  gave 
practical  weight  to  his  words.  His  views  on 
what  ought  to  be  done  found  instant  response  in 
Dr.  Haweis'  declaration  that  "only  by  a  general 
union  of  all  denominations  can  a  broad  basis  be 
laid  for  missions."  '  Dr.  Haweis  caused  an  offer 
of  £500  to  be  inserted  in  the  Evangelical  Maga- 
zine for  the  equipment  of  the  first  missionaries. 
The  Rev.  Dr.  D.  Bogue,  of  Gosport,  pointed  out 
through  the  same  publication  that  the  Indepen- 
dents alone  were  doing  nothing  in  the  line  of 
foreign  missions,  and  urged  not  only  the  equip- 
ment of  missionaries,  but  also  their  appropriate 
mental  and  spiritual  training  in  a  seminary  estab- 
lished for  this  distinct  purpose.  The  result  of 
this  appeal  was  a  meeting  held  November  4, 1794, 
at  Baker's  Tavern.  The  ministers  who  attended 
it  were  of  various  connections  and  denominations, 
but  "glowing  and  harmonious"  in  their  mission- 
ary zeal.  These  ministers  sent  out,  in  January,. 
1795,  a  circular  to  various  persons  in  which  it 
was  proposed  that  a  meeting  should  be  held  in 
London  the  ensuing  summer  for  the  purpose  of 
organizing  a  missionary  society.  On  the  15th  of 
January  a  number  of  ministers  convened  in  the 
city  of  London,  and  appointed  a  committee  to 
ascertain  the  sentiments  of  ministers  throughout 
the  country  in  regard  to  the  great  plan  under 
consideration.  Accordingly,  a  circular  letter 
addressed  to  ministers  was  drawn  up  acquainting 
them  with  the  plan  and  object  of  the  proposed 
Society;  they  were  requested  to  make  the  matter 
known  to  their  congregations,  and  to  send  dele- 
gates to  the  convention,  which  was  appointed  for 
the  22d,  23d,  and  24th  days  of  September. 

On  the  evening  preceding  the  meeting  a  con- 


403 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


LiOudou  Mlsslunary 


sultation  of  ministers  was  held.  Interesting 
letters  from  ministers  and  "private  Christians" 
were  read,  and  an  address  delivered  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Haweis  of  Aldwinkle.  Dr.  Rowland  Hill 
closed  the  meeting  with  prayer,  and  the  assem- 
bly broke  up  with  feelings  of  delight,  "which  the 
highest  gratification  of  sensuality,  avarice,  am- 
bition, or  party  zeal  could  never  have  inspired." 
The  followmg  day,  September  21,  a  large  con- 
gregation assembled  at  Spa  Fields  Chapel.  Dr. 
Haweis  preached  an  animating  sermon  from 
Mark  xvi:  15,  16,  and  after  the  meeting  a  large 
mimber  of  ministers  and  laymen  adjourned  to  the 
"Castle  and  Falcon,"  Aldersgate  Street,  and 
formed  "The  Missionary  Society."  In  the 
evening  a  sermon  was  preached  by  the  Rev.  G. 
Burder,  and  on  the  three  following  days  successive 
meetings  were  held  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 
The  cause  of  missions  was  pleaded  with  solemnity 
and  earnestness,  and  the  Christian  world  seemed 
to  awake  as  from  a  dream,  wondering  that  it 
could  have  slept  so  long  while  the  heathen  were 
waiting  for  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  For  the 
first  time  Christians  of  all  denominations,  forget- 
ting their  party  prejudices  and  partialities,  assem- 
bled in  the  same  place,  sang  the  same  hymns, 
united  in  the  same  prayers,  and  felt  themselves 
one  in  Christ.  This  unanimity  of  spirit,  which 
time  has  only  served  to  strengthen,  is  found 
embodied  in  the  constitution  of  the  Society, 
which  has  remained  unchanged. 

Constitution  and  Organization:  "The  Missionary 
Society"  was  largely  assisted,  in  its  early  years, 
by  Presbyterians  and  Episcopalians,  but  is  now 
supported  mainly  by  the  Independent  or  Con- 
gregationalists,  the  other  denominations  directing 
their  gifts  in  large  measure  to  the  societies  since 
formed  in  their  own  communions.  But  the 
fundamental  principle  of  the  Society  remains  the 
same  as  at  the  outset,  namely:  "That  its  design  is 
not  to  send  Presbyterianism,  Independency, 
Episcopacy,  or  any  other  form  of  church  order 
and  government  (about  which  there  may  be 
difference  of  opinion  among  serious  persons),  but 
the  glorious  Gospel  of  the  blessed  God,  to  the 
heathen,  and  that  it  shall  be  left  (as  it  ought  to  be 
left)  to  the  minds  of  the  persons  whom  God  may 
call  into  the  fellowship  of  His  Son  from  among 
them,  to  assume  for  themselves  such  form  of 
church  government  as  to  them  shall  appear  most 
agreeable  to  the  Word  of  God." 

The  sole  object  of  the  Society  is  to  spread  the 
knowledge  of  Christ  among  heathen  and  other 
unenlightened  nations. 

The  condition  of  membership  in  the  Society  is 
an  annual  payment  of  one  guinea. 

A  general  meeting  of  members  is  held  annually 
in  London  during  the  month  of  May,  for  the 
purpose  of  appointing  a  treasurer,  secretaries, 
and  directors;  to  receive  reports  and  to  audit 
accounts;  and  to  deliberate  on  any  measures 
which  may  promote  the  object  of  the  Society. 
AH  matters  proposed  are  determined  by  a  major- 
ity vote  of  the  members  present. 

The  management  of  the  Society  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  Board  of  Directors,  annually  chosen  out  of 
the  members  of  the  Society,  not  more  than  one- 
third  of  whom  reside  in  or  near  London.  The 
directors  are  empowered  to  collect  and  receive 
all  moneys  contributed  to  the  Society,  and  to 
expend  the  same  in  its  behalf;  to  select  and 
manage  mission  stations;  to  appoint,  send  forth, 
and  fittingly  maintain  missionaries;  to  make, 
alter,  and  amend  by-laws  for  the  general  conduct 


of  business,  and  otherwise  to  carry  out  in  a  suit- 
able manner  the  object  of  the  Society. 

The  directors  appoint  the  salaries  of  the  secre- 
taries, but  themselves  transact  the  business  of  the 
Society  without  emolument. 

For  greater  facility  and  expedition  in  the 
conduct  of  business  the  directors  are  empowered 
to  subdivide  into  committees,  but  no  proceedings 
of  committees  are  valid  until  ratified  by  the  board. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  experience 
gained  by  this  Society  in  bringing  into  existence 
and  successfully  carrying  on  an  undenominational 
organization  for  missionary  work  led  to  the  foun- 
dation, on  the  same  catholic  basis,  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society,  and  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.  As  the  years  passed  many  local  mis- 
sionary societies  were  formed  in  different  cities, 
and  tlieir  existence  made  it  necessary  that  this 
"Missionary  Society"  have  a  more  definite  name. 
It  soon,  therefore,  became  known  as  the  London 
Missionary  Society. 

The  constituency  of  the  Society  being  largely 
Congregational,  the  plan  was  adopted  in  1889  of 
electing  the  majority  of  the  directors  from  that 
denomination.  In  1891  two  crowded  and  earnest 
meetings  for  conference  and  prayer  were  held, 
with  reference  to  deficiency  of  means  and  conse- 
quently of  men.  The  directors  decided  to  go 
forward,  enlarge  the  existing  missions,  and 
attempt  to  add  one  hundred  new  missionaries  to 
the  working  staff  before  the  LMS  centenary  in 
1895.  An  appeal  for  men  and  money  was  sent 
out,  and  the  response  was  instantaneous,  and  a 
forward  movement  began  by  which  the  debt  was 
paid,  the  work  and  workers  increased,  and  a 
large  balance  remained  in  the  treasury.  Never- 
theless, in  1894  the  Society  again  faced  a  crisis 
and  a  large  deficit.  The  centenary  fund  was  now 
opened,  and  somewhat  relieved  the  situation; 
nevertheless,  the  directors  felt  it  necessary  to 
issue  a  statement  declining  further  offers  of 
service  until  the  finances  improved. 

The  centennial  of  the  Society  was  celebrated 
by  a  meeting  in  the  Mansion  House,  on  Novem- 
ber 3,  1894,  and  on  January  15,  1895,  the  meeting 
at  the  Castle  and  Falcon  Inn  was  also  commem- 
orated. Both  gatherings  were  attended  by 
large  and  most  enthusiastic  audiences. 

In  1902  the  directors  summoned  a  large  and 
representative  committee  to  consider  the  finan- 
cial situation,  which  had  again  become  grave  in 
view  of  the  increasing  pressure  from  the  field  for 
expansion.  This  committee,  after  carefully 
discussing  the  situation,  decided  that  it  is  not 
desirable  that  any  policy  of  withdrawal  should 
be  seriously  contemplated.  At  the  same  time, 
recognizing  that  the  Society  had  got  so  far  in 
advance  of  its  supporters  that  its  position  was 
critical,  the  directors  resolved  that  "the  Board 
give  to  the  constituency  of  the  Society  the  as- 
surance that  during  the  next  five  years  they  will 
not  increase  the  average  expenditure  of  1901-2, 
unless  additional  contrioutions  are  provided,  and 
then  only  to  the  extent  of  such  additional  contri- 
butions." 

Development  of  Foreign  Work:  Soon  after  the 
formation  of  the  Society,  its  members  were 
called  upon  to  decide  in  what  part  of  the  world 
its  work  should  begin.  Like  Carey,  Dr.  Haweis 
had  become  much  interested  in  the  South  Sea 
Islanders  from  Captain  Cook's  "Narrative  of  his 
Voyages  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,"  and  in  an  address 
delivered  at  Surrey  Chapel  drew  such  a  picture  of 
these  "dark  places   of   the  earth"  that   intense 


London  Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


404 


interest  was  excited,  and  tlie  directors  decided  to 
establish  a  mission  at  Tahiti. 

At  the  same  time  attention  was  especially 
called  to  Africa,  where  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  had  during  the  previous  year  made  an 
attempt  to  establish  a  mission.  The  London 
Missionary  Society  joined  with  the  Glasgow  and 
Scottish  Missionary  societies  in  1796  in  sending 
an  expe^'ition  to  Sierra  Leone.  This,  however, 
not  proving  a  success,  and  the  recent  conquest  of 
Cape  Colony  directing  public  notice  to  South 
Africa,  in  December,  f796.  Dr.  Vanderkemp  and 
his  associates  set  sail  for  Cape  Town.  In  1798  a 
missionary  was  sent  to  Calcutta,  where  he  was 
not  allowed  to  stay,  and  there  was  no  definite 
mission  organized  in  India  until  1804,  when 
Messrs.  Ringeltaube,  Crane  and  Des  Granges 
were  stationed  at  Vizagapatam  and  Travancore, 
and  Mr.  Voss  at  Colombo,  Ceylon.  It  was  not 
until  1816  that  the  North  India  Mission  was 
definitely  inaugurated.  In  1800  the  Rev. 
William  Moseley,  an  Independent  minister  at 
Long  Buckby,  Northamptonshire,  pubhshed  a 
valuable  "Memoir  on  the  Importance  and  Prac- 
ticability of  Translating  and  Publishing  the 
Holy  Scriptures  in  the  Chinese  Language."  He 
had  discovered  in  the  British  Museum  a  manu- 
script containing  a  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels, 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  and 
the  first  chapter  of  the  Hebrews  in  Chinese.  It 
was  a  folio  volume,  and  was  lettered  by  mistake 
"Evangelica  Quatuor  Sinice."  On  a  blank  leaf, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  volume,  is  the  following 
note:  "This  transcript  was  made  at  Canton  in 
1737  and  1738,  by  order  of  Mr.  Hodgson,  who  says 
it  has  been  collated  with  care  and  found  very 
correct.  Given  by  him  to  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  Bart., 
in  1739."  It  was  this  Memoir  by  Mr.  Moseley 
which  fir.st  turned  the  attention  of  the  friends  of 
missions  to  China,  and  in  1804  the  Rev.  Robert 
Morrison  was  engaged  by  the  LMS  to  study  the 
Chinese  language.  In  January,  1807,  he  sailed 
from  England  for  Canton,  with  a  particular  view 
to  the  translation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into 
Chinese,  inaugurating  thus  the  work  of  Protestant 
missions  in  China  proper. 

At  the  same  time  (1807)  an  urgent  call  from  a 
West  Indies  planter  gave  the  impulse  for  the 
founding  of  a  mission  in  British  Guiana,  wliich 
afterward  extended  to  Jamaica.  Then  followed 
the  mission  to  Mauritius  (1814)  consequent  on  the 
occupation  of  that  island  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment; and  in  1818  was  commenced  in  Madagascar 
a  work  that  has  been  one  of  the  marvels  of  the 
Christian  church. 

The  Levant  was  not  without  its  interest  for 
England,  and  in  1816  a  missionary  of  the  LMS 
was  stationed  at  Malta  with  a  view  to  work  in 
Greece.  A  few  years  later  the  Ionian  Islands 
were  occupied.  This  effort,  however,  was  not 
continued,  and  the  missionaries  entered  other 
departments  of  labor,  one  of  them  becoming  an 
efficient  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society. 

1818  saw  the  commencement  of  a  mission  to 
Siberia  and  Tatary,  afterward  closed  by  Rus- 
sian edict  in  1840,  and  of  one  to  Malacca  and  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  since  given  over  to  the 
Netherlands  Society. 

Then  followed  a  long  period  during  which 
existing  work  was  strengthened.  The  first  new 
mission  was  really  the  resuscitation  of  an  old  one, 
when  in  1869  the  mission  to  Mongolia  was  estab- 
lished to  reach  Tatary  from  the  east.      In   1879 


the  LMS  responded  again  to  the  call  from  the 
Dark  Continent,  and  established  a  mission  in 
Central  Africa,  taking  as  its  district  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika. This  closed  the  long  story  of  effort  with 
which  the  Society  has  sought  to  girdle  the  earth. 
Single  ventures  there  have  been,  besides,  such  as 
one  to  Buenos  Aires  and  another  to  Prince 
Edward's  Island,  but  they  did  not  result  in  per- 
manent work,  and  are  of  interest  chiefly  as  indi- 
cating the  breadth  of  view  of  the  founders  and 
promoters  of  the  Society,  who  were  resolved  that 
if  possible  no  nation  should  remain  without  the 
Gospel.  The  fields  upon  which  the  Society  has 
concentrated  effort  are  in  Polynesia  and  the 
South  Pacific,  India,  Africa,  China,  and  Mada- 
gascar. 

The  Missions:  1.  Polynesia  (n9G) :  A.  Tahiti, 
Samoa,  etc.:  The  Society  purchased  the  full-rigged 
ship  "Duff,"  of  a  little  less  than  300  tons  burden, 
to  convey  its  first  expedition  to  the  South  Seas. 
Great  public  interest  was  felt  in  the  enterprise, 
and  important  contributions  of  stores,  furnishings 
and  equipment  were  sent  in  by  merchants  and 
others,  while  high  officials  of  government  showed 
in  many  ways  their  good  will.  Captain  James 
Wilson,  a  man  bred  to  the  sea  and  matured  by 
hardsliip  and  by  dangers  of  battle  in  America 
and  the  Ea.st  Indies,  offered  his  services  gratui- 
tously to  command  the  ship.  On  the  morning  of 
August  10,  1796,  the  "DufT"  hoisted  the  mission 
flag — three  white  doves  with  olive  branches  on  a 
purple  field — and  sailed  from  London,  having  a 
crew  of  twenty  men,  and  carrying  a  mission  band 
of  four  ministers,  one  surgeon,  and  twenty-five 
artisans.  The  voyage  proved  prosperous,  and 
after  208  days  the  "Duff"  anchored  safely  in 
Matavai  Bay,  Tahiti.  The  missionaries  were 
welcomed  and  protected  by  the  notoriously 
savage  and  barbarous  king,  Pomare,  and  his  wife, 
Idia,  who  never  withdrew  their  friendly  aid.  A 
large  bamboo  house  was  placed  at  their  disposal, 
and  seventeen  out  of  the  thirty  missionaries  were 
soon  settled  in  this  dwelling.  Everything  seemed 
to  favor  them,  yet  one  may  well  imagine  the 
solemnity  of  the  moment  when  they  realized 
their  position  of  isolation  as  the  "Duff"  sailed 
away  to  the  Friendly,  or  Tonga,  Islands. 

The  "Duff"  arrived  at  Tongatabu,  one  of  the 
so-called  Friendly  Islands,  twelve  hundred  miles 
west  of  Tahiti,  in  April,  1797,  where  nine  unmar- 
ried missionaries  were  landed.  Captain  Wilson 
then  took  one  missionary  to  Santa  Christina,  one 
of  the  Marquesas  Islands,  and  after  leaving  him 
there  revisited  Tahiti,  and  sailed  for  England  by 
way  of  China. 

The  story  of  the  missionaries  thus  left  at 
Tongatabu  is  of  two  and  a  half  years  of  horror. 
The  Lsland  was  overrun  by  released  convicts  from 
Australia,  who  incited  the  savages  to  attack  the 
missionaries  and  steal  their  property.  One  oi 
the  laymen  belonging  to  the  mission  deserted  his 
comrades  and  joined  the  natives.  War  breakmg 
out  among  the  islanders,  one  band  chased  five  of 
the  missionaries,  and  on  capturing  them  stripped 
them  of  all  their  property,  even  to  the  clothing 
which  they  had  on.  Another  band  of  savages 
attacked  the  other  three  missionaries  and  dashed 
out  their  brains.  The  five  survivors  buried  the 
bodies  of  the  three  martyrs  and  contrived  to  live, 
tho  in  unspeakable  wretchedness,  until  they 
attracted  the  attention  of  a  passing  vessel  and 
were  rescued  from  the  island.  This  ended  the 
first  mission  to  the  Friendly  Islands. 

The  missionary  who  single-handed  had  under- 


406 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


London  Missionary 


taken  the  establishment  of  a  mission  at  Santa 
Christina  was  more  Icindly  treated,  but  by  a 
curious  accident  he  was  carried  away  from  tlie 
island  in  an  American  vessel  to  which  he  had 
gone  tor  a  visit,  but  which  was  driven  to  sea  by  a 
gale.  The  Americans  landed  him  on  another 
island  of  the  group.  But  after  working  there 
some  months,  he  took  an  opportunity  of  returning 
to  England  to  plead  with  the  Society  to  give  him 
associates  in  the  work. 

Meanwhile  an  attempt  had  been  made  to 
strengthen  the  Polynesian  Mission  by  sending 
out  the  "Duff"  a  second  time,  in  December,  1798, 
with  thirty  more  missionaries.  But  the  ship  was 
captured  by '  a  French  frigate  off  the  coast  of 
South  America  and  taken  with  all  her  belongings 
as  a  lawful  prize  of  war.  The  missionaries  after 
being  carried  about  the  ocean  for  some  weeks 
were  finally  put  ashore  at  Lisbon. 

The  party  of  missionaries  landed  at  Tahiti  at 
the  first  seemed  to  have  promise  of  great  pros- 
perity. Two  Swedish  sailors,  long  resident 
m  Tahiti,  acted  as  their  interpreters  and 
helped  them  learn  the  language,  while  the  chiefs 
were  won  to  favor  the  mission  by  the  skill  of  the 
artisans.  The  missionaries  encountered  their 
first  serious  trouble  when  a  merchant  ship  came 
to  the  island  and  several  of  her  crew  deserted. 
The  missionaries  tried  to  secure  the  runaways, 
but  natives  interfered  to  prevent  this  and  knocked 
the  missionaries  about  pretty  roughly.  The 
affair  was  not  serious,  but  eleven  of  the  mission- 
aries, panic-stricken,  fled  to  Australia;  only  one 
of  them  with  his  wife  (Mr.  and  Mrs.  Henry) 
afterward  returning.  Of  the  little  group  of  seven 
men  and  one  woman  (Mrs.  Eyre)  who  remained 
at  Tahiti,  one  fell  away  and  left  the  work,  another 
lost  his  health  and  went  back  to  England,  and  a 
third  separated  himself  from  his  associates, 
married  a  native  wife,  and  was  murdered  not  long 
afterward.  Including  the  two  who  returned 
from  the  flight  to  Australia,  but  five  men  and  two 
women  now  remained  of  the  band  of  missionaries 
landed  by  the  "Duff"  at  Tahiti  in  1797.  They 
were  reenforced  in  1801  by  the  arrival  of  nine  new 
missionaries,  and  a  more  hopeful  spirit  prevailed, 
especially  as  Henry  Nott  and  Mr.  Jefferson  had 
now  so  far  mastered  the  language  that  they  could 
preach  in  it,  and,  having  reduced  the  language  to 
writing,  began  making  books,  from  which  the 
children  were  taught  to  read.  But  the  spirit  of 
war  seems  to  have  possessed  the  whole  world. 
Piracy  made  the  long  voyage  from  England 
uncertain  and  dangerous,  and  five  years  passed 
before  either  stores  or  letters  reached  the  mission- 
aries from  England.  Meanwhile  their  clothes 
dropped  to  pieces;  their  shoes  wore  out  and  they 
were  left  barefoot;  their  tea,  sugar,  and  other 
household  comforts  were  exhausted.  They 
seemed  to  be  abandoned  by  their  home  friends,  as 
well  as  by  the  Society  which  sent  them  out. 

Some  things,  however,  had  been  accomplished. 
It  was  a  great  thing  to  have  acquired  the  lan- 
guage and  to  have  reduced  it  to  writing.  But 
they  had  not  won  a  single  soul  to  acceptance  of 
the  Gospel,  and  they  were  in  constant  difficulties 
through  wars  between  different  parties  of  natives. 
King  Pomare  protected  them  as  best  he  could, 
and  so  did  his  son  (also  called  Pomare),  after  the 
death  of  the  old  king.  But  what  made  the 
vicious  young  king  their  friend  was  interest  in 
their  ability  to  write  his  language.  He  wished 
to  learn  to  write,  but  did  not  care  to  hear  the 
Gospel.     His  power,  moreover,  was  not  supreme, 


and  in  1808  he  notified  the  missionaries  that  they 
were  no  longer  safe  under  his  protection.  All  but 
four  single  men  of  the  missionary  band  now  fled 
from  Tahiti  to  Australia,  and  in  the  next  year 
the  rebel  tribes  destroyed  the  mission  house, 
melted  the  type  belonging  to  the  printing  press 
into  bullets,  and  drove  the  four  remaining 
missionaries  from  the  island.  Twelve  years  of 
hardship  for  the  sake  of  these  people  had  resulted 
in  this!  Two  of  the  four  missionaries  now  went 
to  Australia.  The  other  two,  Messrs.  Nott  and 
Hay  ward,  chose  to  remain,  and  took  refuge  in 
the  islands  of  Huahine  and  Eimeo  (now  called 
Moorea).  There  Mr.  Nott  devoted  himself  to 
translating  the  Bible,  which  he  was  certain  that 
the  people  would  sometime  accept. 

The  Society  in  London  began  to  discuss  aban- 
doning so  unprofitable  a  field.  Some  earnest 
friends  of  continuance  of  the  mission  appointed 
a  day  of  prayer  for  the  conversion  of  King  Pomare 
and  the  triumph  of  Christianity.  This  was  in 
July,  1812,  and  at  the  very  same  time  King 
Pomare  came  to  the  missionaries  at  Eimeo, 
asking  to  be  baptized.  The  king's  conversion 
was  the  turning  point.  Altho,  naturally,  the  mis- 
sionaries insisted  that  they  must  delay  his  bap- 
tism until  he  had  received  more  instruction,  he 
was,  from  that  time,  a  changed  man.  Eiglit  of 
the  missionaries  who  had  fled  to  Australia  came 
back  to  Eimeo  on  his  invitation,  and  the  next 
year,  two  of  the  missionaries  having  ventured 
again  to  Tahiti,  found,  to  their  surprise,  two 
Christians  there.  These  men  had  remembered 
the  teachings  of  the  missionaries,  and  together 
had  tried  regularly  to  worship  God  as  the  mis- 
sionaries had  done.  By  the  time  that  Rev.  John 
Williams  and  William  Ellis  arrived  at  Eimeo  in 
1817,  a  church  of  native  believers  had  been 
formed,  the  islands  of  Huahine.  Raiatea,  and 
Tahiti  had  destroyed  their  idols,  not  without 
fierce  opposition  from  the  priests,  and  peace, 
prosperity  and  progress  had  begun  to  rule.  So 
long  as  the  people  were  heathen  they  cared  not 
to  better  their  material  condition.  But  as  soon 
as  they  accepted  the  Gospel,  they  began  to  build 
houses  and  to  learn  useful  arts.  King  Pomare 
built  a  great  church  at  Tahiti,  in  which  he  was  at 
last  baptized.  Little  more  than  a  score  of  years 
after  the  first  missionaries  reached  the  island 
grateful  native  Christians  of  the  Society  Islands 
sent  a  contribution  to  the  LMS  amounting  to 
£1,700. 

Mr.  Williams  now  settled  at  Raiatea,  and 
began  that  splendid  career  of  evangelization 
among  neighboring  islands  which  gave  him  the 
title  of  the  Apostle  to  Polynesia.  Going  out  by 
boat  to  the  next  islands;  sending  out  native 
workers,  who  were  of  like  devotion  with  himself; 
building,  without  tools  or  lumber,  a  little  ship, 
that  he  might  go  the  further,  Mr.  Williams  and 
his  native  co-workers  evangelized  the  Hervey  or 
Cook  Islands,  Samoa,  began  a  work  on  Fiji 
Islands,  and  finally  in  the  midst  of  the  blessed 
work  of  building  up  and  extending  the  kingdom, 
when  he  would  enter  the  New  Hebrides,  1,500 
miles  from  his  Samoan  home,  with  the  Gospel, 
he  was  killed  by  the  cannibal  inhabitants  of 
Erromanga,  November  20,  1839.  In^  twenty- 
two  years  of  arduous  service  he  had  visited  and 
opened  a  great  number  of  islands  of  the  South 
Pacific  to  the  Gospel.  He  also  had  infused  his 
own  devoted  spirit  into  the  converted  islanders 
in  such  a  degree  that  they  were  unfailing  in 
responding  to  calls  for  volunteers  for  dangerous 


liOndon  Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


406 


and  seemingly  impossible  service.  At  his  death 
a  wail  went  up  from  all  parts  of  the  broad  Pacific, 
"Oh  my  father!  my  father!  Williamu!" 

The  devoted  service  rendered  by  the  native 
workers  sent  out  from  the  stations  of  the  LMS, 
in  preparing  the  way  for  the  occupancy  of  the 
New  Hebrides  by  the  Nova  Scotia  Presbyterians 
and  the  present  New  Hebrides  Mission,  has 
already  been  described  elsewhere.  The  same 
heroic  devotion  of  converts  to  Christ  opened  the 
way  for  missionary  occupancy  of  New  Caledonia 
(1841),  the  Loyalty  Islands  (l841),  the  Tokelau 
Islands  (1858),  Niu6  or  Savage  Island  (1830- 
1859),  Ellice  Islands  (1865),  and  Gilbert  Islands 
(1870). 

The  progress  of  the  mission  in  Polynesia  has 
been  injuriously  affected,  as  elsewhere,  by  the 
coming  in  of  European  traders,  bringing  with  them 
liquors  and  arms,  which  it  is  their  determination 
to  induce  the  natives  to  buy,  as  well  as  vicious 
practises  quickly  credited  to  Christianity  by  the 
islanders.  But  its  most  serious  calamity  fell 
upon  it  when  the  French  Government  in  1838-41 
used  force  at  Tahiti  to  make  the  islanders  receive 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  and  in  1841  took 
possession  of  the  islands.  A  similar  attack  by 
the  French  Government  was  made  upon  the 
mission  of  the  LMS  in  Lifu  (Loyalty  Islands)  in 
1873.  A  French  man-of-war  entered  the  harbor 
and  ordered  the  missionaries  to  cease  teaching 
the  people  in  the  native  language,  for  which 
French  must  be  substituted.  When  the  mission- 
aries questioned  the  authority  for  such  orders, 
the  French  marines  destroyed  the  mission  build- 
ings and  the  native  houses  near  them.  The 
indignation  caused  in  England  by  these  proceed- 
ings led  the  French  Government  to  modify  its 
plans,  and  the  work  of  the  missionaries  was 
resumed  and  carried  on  under  restrictions.  The 
suspicion  and  dislike  shown  toward  the  English 
missionaries  led  to  the  transfer  of  the  work  in  the 
Society  Islands  and  in  Mare  (Loyalty  Islands)  to 
the  Paris  Evangelical  Society,  which  now  has 
charge  of  the  field  of  laborious  efforts  of  the  LMS 
during  eighty-nine  years.  In  the  Loyalty 
Islands  something  like  liberty  has  been  granted 
to  the  workers,  and  chapels  have  been  erected 
and  schools  opened,  with  students  eager  for  work. 
The  French  resident  at  Lifu  is  a  Protestant,  in 
full  sympathy  with  the  mission.  Native  workers 
from  the  Loyalty  Islands  are  carrying  on  mission- 
ary enterprises  among  the  savages  of  New  Cale- 
donia, where  the  result  of  the  French  occupation 
prevents  English  missionaries  from  establishing 
themselves. 

During  all  these  years  since  John  Williams 
built  the  first  missionary  ship  of  the  LMS  the 
work  in  the  island  world  has  been  done  in  a  sub- 
stantial vessel,  which,  happily,  bears  his  name. 
The  first  missionary  vessel,  the  "John  Williams," 
was  built  by  the  children,  and  for  twenty  years 
sailed  the  Southern  Seas.  In  1864  she  was  wrecked , 
and  the  following  year  a  second  vessel  was 
launched,  only  to  go  on  the  rocks  at  Niu^  twelve 
months  later.  In  1868  the  third  "John  Williams" 
was  built,  and  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  carried  on 
the  work.  But  a  steamer  was  needed,  owing  to 
the  vast  area  to  be  covered,  and  in  1893  the 
fourth  "John  Williams"  was  sent  out. 

Training  institutions  were  established  at 
Raratonga  in  1839,  and  the  Malua  Institution  of 
Samoa  in  1845,  where  the  native  teachers,  evan- 
gelists and  pastors  receive  efficient  training  for 
their  work. 


B.  New  Guinea:  In  1870  the  LMS  Directors 
sent  Rev.  S.  Macfarlane  of  Lifu  as  a  pioneer  to 
New  Guinea.  At  the  May  meeting  of  the  Loy- 
alty Islands  Mission  eight  native  helpers  were 
consecrated  for  the  work.  In  May,  1871,  Messrs. 
Macfarlane  and  Murray,  with  the  native  helpers 
and  their  families,  sailed  for  the  new  field  of  labor, 
landing  on  July  1  at  Darnley  Island,  where  the 
chiefs  consented  to  try  a  teacher  for  a  year. 
Native  teachers  were  placed  on  other  islands  in 
Torres  Straits  and  near  the  coast  of  New  Guinea, 
Mr.  Murray  taking  temporary  supervision  of  the 
new  work  and  making  his  headquarters  at  Cape 
York,  in  Australia.  In  1875  three  English  mis- 
sionaries began  work  in  New  Guinea  itself,  and 
several  Raratongan  teachers  were  added  to  the 
native  staff. 

An  institution  for  training  Papuan  preachers 
was  opened  at  Murray  Island,  and,  later,  a  similar 
institution  was  established  at  Port  Moresby, where 
in  1881  the  first  church  was  formed  and  the  first 
three  Papuan  converts  in  New  Guinea  were  bap- 
tized. Since  then  other  stations  have  been  occu- 
pied by  missionaries  of  the  LMS,  and  native 
workers  are  laboring  in  several  places  on  the 
southwestern  coast  of  British  New  Guinea.  The 
whole  New  Testament  has  also  been  translated 
into  the  language  most  widely  used.  On  April 
8,  1901,  Rev.  James  Chalmers  and  Rev.  Oliver 
Tomkins,  with  a  native  chief  and  several  native 
youths,  started  out  to  explore  the  Aird  River, 
one  of  the  streams  that  are  like  roads  promising 
to  lead  into  the  interior  of  the  island  from  the 
northwest  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Papua.  Near 
Goaribari  Island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  they 
were  attacked,  killed,  and  eaten  by  cannibals. 
This  terrible  event  made  an  impression  upon 
Christians  at  home  as  profound  as  that  produced 
by  the  murder  of  JohnWilliams  sixty  years  before. 
Plans  were  immediately  made  for  reaching  the 
men,  who  did  this  thing,  with  that  Gospel  of  love 
which  can  change  their  savage  nature.  These 
plans  are  still  under  consideration  and  will  cer- 
tainly be  carried  out  unless  means  fail.  There 
are  now  13  missionaries  in  the  New  Guinea  Mis- 
sion (10  with  their  wives),  114  native  workers, 
6  schools,  and  1,500  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  813  are  communicants. 

In  Polynesia,  as  a  whole,  including  New  Guinea, 
the  LMS  reports  (1903)  57  English  missionaries, 
men  and  women,  and  (including  wives)  840 
native  helpers,  49,920  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  18,605  are  communicants;  272  schools, 
and  11,854  pupils.    Native  contributions,  £5,162. 

2.  Africa.  A.  South  Africa:  Cape  Colony  in 
South  Africa  was  a  settlement  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  commenced  in  1652.  The 
Dutch  settlers  drove  back  the  Hottentots,  making 
slaves  of  a  large  part  of  those  whom  they  did  not 
destroy.  Dr.  Vanderkemp  was  the  first  mission- 
ary of  the  LMS,  sent  to  Africa  in  1789.  He  made 
a  strong  effort  to  establish  a  mission  among  the 
Kaffirs  in  eastern  South  Africa,  but  after  some 
years  was  obliged  to  retire  for  safety  to  Graaf 
Reinet,  where,  meanwhile,  other  missionaries  of 
the  Society  had  settled.  As  soon  as  the  mission 
at  this  place  began  to  be  successful  the  Dutch 
colonists  raised  an  outcry  that  it  was  sheltering 
Hottentot  robbers  and  murderers;  they  even 
went  so  far  as  to  try  to  kill  Dr.  Vanderkemp  for 
his  friendship  to  the  Negroes.  The  English 
Governor  of  Cape  Town  then  advised  him,  in 
1820,  to  establish  his  Hottentots  upon  a  piece  of 
land  which  the  Government  gave  him  near  Algoa 


407 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


tiOndon  Sllaslonary 


Bay  (Port  Elizabeth).  Almost  immediately 
after  this  the  country  passed  again  into  the  hands 
of  Holland,  and  the  Dutch  Governor,  on  hearing 
complaints  that  he  harbored  robbers  and  mur- 
derers, persuaded  Dr.  Vanderkemp  to  give  up  his 
settlement  and  remove  to  another  place  less  fa- 
vorable, -which,  however,  was  called  Bethelsdorp. 
This  experience  was  a  sample  of  what  Dr.  Van- 
derkemp had  to  encounter  during  his  whole  mis- 
sionary life.  He  was  champion  of  the  rights  of 
the  Hottentots  against  grasping  and  conscience- 
less white  settlers,  and,  at  his  death,  after  thirteen 
years  of  work  of  this  nature,  he  had  fairly  won 
the  hearts  of  many  Hottentots  and  Kaffirs  and 
so  had  prepared  the  way  for  those  who  were  to 
follow  him. 

Messrs.  Kicherer  and  Kramer  were  sent  out  by 
the  LMS  at  the  same  time  as  Dr.  Vanderkemp, 
and  they  went  to  the  western  part  of  South 
Africa,  attempting  to  reach  the  Bushmen.  While 
Hottentots  and  Griquas  became  Christians,  the 
Bushmen  would  not  listen  to  the  missionaries, 
and  Kicherer  having  resigned  in  1806  in  order 
to  become  pastor  of  a  local  (Dutch)  church,  the 
mission  was  abandoned.  This  mission  first 
brought  the  Bechuanas  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
Christian  world.  Another  effort  to  reach  the 
Bushmen  was  made  at  Colesberg  in  1814,  and 
with  some  success.  This  excited  the  enmity  of 
the  white  settlers,  and  the  missionaries  were 
ordered  by  the  Government  to  abandon  this  out- 
post and  retire  within  the  limits  of  the  Cape 
Colony,  where  the  work  of  the  Society  was 
steadily  growing. 

Messrs.  A.  and  C.  Albrecht  were  sent  by  the 
LMS  in  1806  to  work  in  Namaqualand,  north  of 
the  Orange  River.  The  region  was  infested  by 
the  outlaws  led  by  Africaner.  This  chief  was  a 
Hottentot  slave,  who,  driven  by  a  mad  desire  to 
be  revenged  for  punishment  inflicted  upon  him 
by  his  master  in  Cape  Colony,  had  fled  to  the 
wilderness;  a  price  was  set  upon  his  head,  and  he 
was  the  terror  of  the  whole  country.  The  mis- 
sionaries settled  at  Warmbad,  about  one  hundred 
miles  west  of  Africaner's  place  of  abode.  The 
outlaw  was  friendly  to  the  missionaries  at  first, 
but  some  other  settlers  at  Warmbad  having  made 
an  expedition  against  him,  he  became  furious, 
and  the  missionaries  were  compelled  to  flee  before 
his  anger. 

The  next  attempt  in  this  direction  was  by 
Rev.  Dr.  Moffat,  who,  in  1817,  established  him- 
self in  the  village  where  Africaner  lived.  It  was 
but  a  short  time  before  this  terrible  chief  became 
a  Christian,  was  baptized,  and  went  with  Dr. 
Moffat  to  Cape  Town  to  express  his  willingness 
to  live  at  peace  with  the  colonists.  This  visit  in 
1818  was  almost  the  first  convincing  evidence 
offered  to  officials  and  colonists  of  the  advantage 
of  missions.  Messrs.  Ander  and  Crane,  two 
other  missionaries  of  the  Society,  founded  a 
station  in  Griquatown  in  1820.  This  place  is 
about  one  hundred  miles  west  of  the  diamond 
fields  of  Kimberly,  in  Griqualand  West.  Their 
labors  among  the  people  were  crowned  with 
success,  but  after  a  few  years  the  Governor  of 
Cape  Town,  having  sent  a  demand  that  the  mis- 
sionaries should  send  the  be.st  of  their  young  men 
to  serve  in  the  army,  the  people  became  suspi- 
cious and  hostile.  This  caused  a  withdrawal  of 
the  missionaries  and  the  work  was  practically 
broken  up. 

To  this  place  Mr.  Moffat  went  in  1820,  and 
reorganized  the  work.     After  seeing  the  enter- 


prise in  good  hands  he  moved  on  to  the  Kuruman 
River,  some  distance  to  the  northwest,  where  a 
LMS  missionary  named  Hamilton  had  been 
working  among  the  Bushmen  tribes  since  1819. 
The  station  took  the  name  of  Kuruman,  which 
it  holds  to  this  day.  The  station  center  was 
moved  about  eight  miles  to  a  better  piece  of  land 
in  1832.  For  several  years  the  people  seemed 
heedless,  and  terrible  wars  kept  both  missionaries 
and  people  in  a  restless  condition.  Mr.  Moffat 
was  not  satisfied  with  his  progress  in  the  language, 
and,  leaving  his  wife  in  his  house,  he  went  in  1827 
to  live  among  the  natives  in  order  to  acquire 
their  language  for  the  sake  of  translating  the 
Bible.  Not  only  did  he  learn  the  language,  but 
he  also  learned  the  ways  of  the  people,  found  his 
way  to  their  hearts,  and  in  1829  the  baptism  of 
six  converts  took  place.  Dr.  Moffat  then  pre- 
pared the  way  for  mission  stations  farther  north, 
m  what  is  now  Rhodesia.  In  1838,  having 
finished  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Bech- 
uana,  he  carried  it  to  London  for  publication, 
and  there  his  influence  was  a  factor  in  the  decision 
of  Livingstone  to  offer  his  services  to  the  LMS,  in 
1840,  to  go  to  Africa.  Meanwhile,  other  stations 
of  the  Society  were  opened  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Cape  Colony,  among  them  one  in  1813  at  Theop- 
olis,  near  Algoa  Bay  and  on  the  border  of 
Kaffirland,  which  was  a  very  successful  station 
until  the  Kaffirs  undertook  to  destroy  it  as  being 
an  outpost  of  the  whites.  The  Hottentots 
resented  this  attack  and  drove  the  Kafiirs  out  of 
the  colony.  The  Government  praised  the  Hot- 
tentots for  their  work,  and  then  rewarded  them 
by  taking  away  tlieir  land  for  the  use  of  white 
settlers.  Another  station  was  opened  on  the 
Caledon  River,  afterward  being  transferred  to 
the  Paris  Evangelical  Society.  Another  station 
was  opened  at  Pacaltdorp,  about  halfway  between 
Cape  Town  and  the  site  where  Port  Elizabeth 
now  is.  This  station  gave  place  to  Hankey  in 
1822,  founded  as  a  refuge  for  freed  slaves.  After 
having  been  abandoned  by  the  society  in  1875, 
Hankey  was  reoccupied  in  1891  as  a  place  for 
training  the  children  of  converts  from  the  north- 
ern tribes  of  Cape  Colony  and  Bechuanaland. 

The  extension  of  the  Society's  work  to  the 
northward  was  prepared  by  Dr.  Livingstone.  He 
settled  in  the  first  instance,  in  1843,  in  Bechuana- 
land (now  the  northern  part  of  Cape  Colony).  _  In 
1846  he  went  northward  to  visit  the  chief, 
Sechele,  who  became  a  Christian  and  had  great 
influence  in  forwarding  the  acceptance  of  Chris- 
tianity among  his  people.  In  1849  Dr.  Living- 
stone moved  still  farther  north  and  discovered 
Lake  Ngami.  Tliis  led  the  way  for  an  advance 
of  the  missionary  forces  into  what  is  now  called 
Rhodesia.  But  this  advance  was  not  accom- 
plished without  serious  losses.  The  mission  was 
broken  up  for  a  time  by  the  Boers,  who  in  1853 
attacked  the  natives  among  whom  Livingstone 
was  working,  and  robbed  the  station,  ordering 
the  missionaries  out  of  the  land.  After  Living- 
stone's resignation  a  party  of  LMS  missionaries 
set  forth  from  Kaffirland  in  1859  to  go  to  the 
Makololo  tribes  in  the  direction  of  Lake  Ngami, 
a  distance  of  about  one  thousand  iniles.  Within 
a  week  after  their  arrival  at  their  destination 
several  were  taken  sick,  and  one  by  one  the  whole 
party  died,  with  the  exception  of  one  man,  who 
returned  to  Kaffirland  alone.  About  the  same 
time  a  party  of  missionaries  led  by  Moffat  were 
sent  to  Matabililand  (Rhodesia)  to  begin  work 
in  that  region,  establishing  stations   at    Inyati 


London  Missionary 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


40S 


and  Hope  Fountain.  One  of  the  most  marked 
results  of  this  mission  is  the  development  of  such 
a  Christian  chief  as  Khama,  whose  influence  for 
good  throughout  South  Central  Africa  has 
been  marked. 

B.  Central  Africa:  Three  years  after  the  death 
of  Livingstone,  in  1873,  means  for  opening  a 
mission  in  Central  Africa  came  to  the  Society 
from  Mr.  Arthington  of  Leeds,  who  gave  the 
Society  $25,000  to  purchase  a  site  for  a  mission 
station  on  Lake  Tanganyika.  The  missionaries 
set  out  from  Zanzibar  to  go  to  Lake  Tanganyika 
in,June,  1877,  but  before  thay  had  marched  much 
more  than  one  hundred  miles,  two-thirds  of  the 
oxen  had  died,  and  it  was  impossible  to  proceed. 
After  enormous  difficulties  they  succeeded  in 
getting  porters  to  carry  their  stores,  and  after  a 
journey  of  fourteen  months  they  reached  Ujiji, 
on  Lake  Tanganyika,  but  not  without  great 
difficulties.  One  of  the  missionaries  gave  up  the 
task  as  too  hard.  Another  was  sent  to  explain 
the  situation  to  the  Society  in  England,  three 
died  within  a  few  weeks  after  reaching  Ujiji; 
fever  attacked  others,  two  of  whom  died,  and  by 
the  middle  of  the  year  1882  one  missionary  only 
remained  alive  at  the  lake.  But  this  was  not 
all.  Dr.  Mullens,  Secretary  of  the  LMS,  on 
learning  of  the  unexpected  difficulties,  arranged 
to  go  to  the  spot  and  study  how  to  overcome 
them,  and  in  1879,  before  he  had  covered  one- 
half  the  journey  from  Zanzibar  to  the  lake,  he 
was  taken  sick  and  died  by  the  roadside.  In  fact, 
all  that  could  be  pointed  to  as  a  result  of  four 
years'  struggle  and  expenditure  at  this  point  was 
that  God  had  been  merciful  in  preserving  the  lives 
of  some  of  the  laborers.  New  workers  reached 
Ujiji  in  1883,  and  a  steamer  was  sent  out  (in  pieces) 
for  use  on  the  lake.  It  was  put  together  and 
began  to  render  its  valuable  service  in  1886. 
Since  that  time  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the 
mission  has  been  uninterrupted,  excepting  in 
1889,  when  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Germans 
and  Arabs,  causing  the  murder  of  one  missionary, 
who  happened  to  be  on  the  road  at  the  time,  and 
cutting  off  all  communication  between  the  Society 
and  the  mission  during  the  next  two  years.  The 
work  now  goes  on  with  success  and  a  promise  of 
permanency.  As  to  the  results  of  the  work  of 
the  LMS  in  Africa  the  Society  began  early  to 
urge  the  native  churches  in  Cape  Colony  to  pre- 
pare for  independent  existence.  The  Congre- 
gational Union  of  South  Africa  was  formed  and 
the  churches  slowly  became  connected  with  it, 
so  that  in  1883  these  churches  ceased  to  appear 
in  the  reports  of  the  Society.  Hankey  alone 
remains  of  the  LMS  stations  in  the  coast  regions 
of  Cape  Colony.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  tell 
exactly  the  number  of  Christians  resulting  from 
the  efforts  of  the  Society,  but  when  the  census  of 
Cape  Colony  was  taken,  in  1891,  seventy  thou- 
sand of  the  native  population  gave  in  their  names 
as  Congregationalists,  the  greater  part  of  whom 
may  be  regarded  as  the  fruit  of  the  labors  of  the 
LMS  missionaries,  from  Vanderkemp  down. 

The  Society  now  has  m  Beohuanaland  8 
stations,  in  Matabililand  5  stations,  and  in  the 
lake  region  4  stations.  At  these  stations  there 
are  50  missionaries,  including  missionaries'  wives; 
155  native  workers,  15,763  professing  Christians, 
of  whom  4,041  are  communicants;  57  Sunday 
schools,  with  3,747  scholars;  89  village  schools, 
with  6,611  scholars,  and  the  contributions  of  the 
natives,  together  with  the  fees  paid  to  the  mission 
Bchools,  amounted  in  1902  to  £1,669. 


3.  North  India  (1798) :  The  first  missionary  of 
the  LMS  in  India  was  Mr.  Nathaniel  Forsyth, 
who  reached  Calcutta  in  1798,  and  who,  not  being 
allowed  to  establish  himself  there,  labored  for 
fourteen  years  in  the  Dutch  settlement  of 
Chinsurah,  a  few  miles  north  of  that  city.  In 
1809  Mr.  May  was  sent  out  to  aid  in  carrying  on 
the  work.  He  was  enthusiastic  in  education  of 
the  children,  and  by  1812  he  had  succeeded  in 
establishing  thirty  schools,  obtaining  from  the 
Government  grants  in  aid  of  their  support. 
These  efforts  at  Chinsurah,  continued  through, 
thirty  years,  were  the  foundations  of  the  splendid 
work  now  carried  on  by  the  UFS  in  that  district, 
the  station  having  been  transferred  to  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1849.  Two  missionaries 
of  the  LMS  were  sent  in  1816  to  work  among  both 
English  and  natives  in  Calcutta.  A  fund  was 
locally  raised  and  the  Union  Chapel  was  built  in 
1821,  which  has  been  a  center  of  Christian  influ- 
ence ever  since.  Five  schools  for  girls  were 
opened  the  same  year.  This  marks  the  beginning 
of  work  for  women  in  India.  A  Miss  Piffard  of 
Calcutta  voluntarily  undertook  the  supervision 
of  these  schools,  and,  what  is  more,  has  defrayed 
their  expenses.  The  work  in  the  city  and  vicinity  is 
now  actively  pressed  in  twenty-one  separate 
centers,  and  has  become  very  important  in  influ- 
ence and  extension. 

A  chapel  was  opened  on  the  road  to  Bhowani- 
pur,  a  southern  suburb  of  Calcutta,  in  1820.  Mr. 
Lacroix  in  1827  took  charge  of  the  work  in  the 
villages  south  of  the  city,  and  in  1837  took  up  his 
place  of  residence  at  Bhowanipur.  He  there 
opened  a  boarding  school  for  boys,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  a  girls'  boarding  school  and  an  English, 
school  for  native  children.  That  English  school 
afterward  was  developed  into  the  present  Bhow- 
anipur Institution.  When  pupils  were  converted 
in  1843,  the  natives,  panic-stricken,  withdrew 
their  children.  But  the  desire  for  English  edu- 
cation outweighed  the  fear  of  Christianity,  and 
in  1845  branch  schools  had  to  be  established,  to 
relieve  the  pressure  on  the  main  institution; 
these  were  located  at  Behala  and  Ballygunge. 
The  present  noble  Institution  building  was  com- 
pleted in  1845,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  £7,000. 
When  conversions  continued  among  the 
pupils,  the  parents  tried  to  force  their  grown 
children  to  hold  to  Hinduism,  and  in  some  cases 
they  sued  the  missionaries  for  abduction.  These 
proceedings  were  resisted  in  the  courts,  and  the 
result  was  that  verdicts  were  given  for  liberty  of 
conscience.  The  native  church  building  was 
built  in  1867  and  paid  for  by  the  people.  Bhow- 
anipur is  now  the  chief  site  of  the  LMS  work  in 
the  city  of  Calcutta. 

Surat,  on  the  western  side  of  the  peninsula  of 
Hindustan,  was  occupied  by  the  LMS  in  1816. 
Messrs.  Fyvie  and  Skinner  translated  the  Bible 
into  Gujarati,  and  Mr.  Skinner  went  to  Bombay 
and  learned  printing  in  order  to  carry  on  a  print- 
ing house.  The  enormous  mass  of  publications 
issued  from  that  printing  house  made  Surat  a 
center  for  Christian  literature  second  to  Carey 
and  Ward's  Serampore  only.  After  thirty  yeara 
of  vigorous  activity  the  mission  there  was  trans- 
ferred in  1847  to  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church, 
which  now  carries  it  on.  Benares  was  occupied 
for  the  LMS  by  Rev.  M.  T.  Adam  in  1819,  who, 
gave  much  of  his  time  to  translation  and  other 
literary  work,  and  the  .station  has  been  the  center 
of  much  effective  influence  up  to  this  time. 

A  station  was  opened  at  Almora  by  Rev.  J.  H 


409 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


liondon  Missionary 


Budden  and  wife  in  1850,  and  from  the  beginning 
school  work  prospered.  Two  orphanages  have 
been  established  there,  but  the  most  striking  fea- 
ture of  the  mission  has  been  the  Lepers'  Asylum. 
Recently  the  work  of  the  station  has  been 
extended  to  Bhot,  in  the  extreme  north  of  the 
district,  where  a  school,  a  dispensary,  and  Zenana 
work  have  been  established  on  the  very  frontier  of 
Tibet.  The  years  that  immediately  followed  the 
Mutiny  marked  the  beginning  of  Zenana  work 
in  North  India  by  Mrs.  Joseph  Mullens,  who  was 
a  pioneer  in  that  work,  if  not  the  very  first  to 
grasp  the  idea  of  its  possibilities  in  missions. 

The  work  thus  begun  has  spread  among  all 
classes  of  the  people,  Hindu,  Mohammedan,  and 
European,  and  includes  medical,  evangelistic, 
and  educational  work,  the  latter  being  particu- 
larly strong. 

There  are  now  in  the  North  India  section  of 
the  LMS  Indian  missions,  9  stations,  58  mission- 
aries, men  and  women,  including  wives  of  mis- 
sionaries; 242  native  workers,  2,996  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  798  are  communicants;  63 
Sunday  schools  with  2,292  scholars,  104  other 
schools  with  5,753  pupils. 

4.  South  India  (1805):  Messrs.  Cran  and  Des 
Granges  of  the  LMS  established  a  station  at 
Vizagapatam  in  1805.  They  began  work  among 
the  English  as  well  as  the  native  population; 
translated  the  Gospels  into  Telugu,  and  estab- 
lished schools.  A  later  missionary  here,  John 
Hay,  laid  the  Church  in  India  under  incalculable 
obligation  by  his  notable  literary  labors.  But 
tho  the  station  is  still  occupied  the  results  have 
not  reached  great  proportions.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Loveless  began  work  in  Madras  in  1805.  This 
beginning  has  been  followed  up  in  .the  city  in 
Blacktown  and  the  suburb  of  Vepery,  and  in  the 
district,  where  are  twelve  outstations.  Mr. 
Hands  established  a  station  at  Bellary  in  1810, 
and  by  1812  he  had  translated  the  first  three 
Gospels  into  Kanarese.  He  could  not  get  per- 
mission to  print  them  until  1819.  By  that  time 
he  had  the  whole  Bible  ready.  His  labors  were 
the  beginning  of  a  strong  and  blessed  work  here. 
Work  was  begun  at  Belgaum  in  Bombay  Presi- 
dency in  1820.  It  has  been  slowly  extending, 
but  the  Society  has  decided  to  give  it  up  to  some 
society  having  other  stations  in  that  region.  In 
the  same  year  missionaries  went  southward  to 
Bangalore  to  open  a  station.  No  real  foothold 
was  gained,  however,  until  1827.  Mr.  Reeves 
then  took  up  the  work  and  the  success  of  the 
station  has  been  steady  and  important.  Ten 
years  later  Mr.  Benjamin  Rice  began  work  at 
Bangalore,  and  for  twenty  years  was  at  the  head 
of  the  Kanarese  Seminary  for  training  native 
workers.  In  1857  the  English  Institution  was 
opened  for  education  of  Hindus  and  Mohammed- 
ans. A  theological  class  was  conducted  in 
connection  with  it,  and  the  work  continues 
quietly  to  progress  to  the  present  time.  Cudda- 
pah  was  occupied  as  a  station  of  the  LMS  by  Mr. 
Hands  in  1822.  Little  fruit  appeared  from  his 
work  until  1851.  Then  suddenly  whole  villages 
renounced  heathenism  and  desired  baptism.  A 
new  station  was  established  at  Nandyal  in  1855, 
which  was  continued  till  1881,  when  the  mission- 
ary force  was  transferred  to  Gooty,  thus  bringing 
the  stations  of  the  LMS  at  Bellary,  Gooty,  and 
Cuddapah  into  line  with  Belgaum  on  the  west 
and  Madras  on  the  east,  and  forming  a  belt  across 
India  from  sea  to  sea.     At  Gooty,  because  of  its 


central  position,  a  training  institution  for  teachers 
and  catechists  has  been  opened. 

South  of  the  Nilgiri  Hills  and  north  of  Travan- 
core  are  three  stations  of  Salem,  Tripatur,  and 
Coimbatore.  The  work  continues  to  gain  in  the 
outlying  districts  year  by  year,  tho  interrupted 
in  1901  at  Tripatur  by  plague  and  other  diseases, 
accompanied  by  famine  of  both  food  and  water. 
School  houses  liave  been  built,  teachers  supplied, 
and  the  missionaries  as  well  as  the  native  evan- 
gelists make  long  tours  from  village  to  village. 
Medical  work  is  successfully  carried  on,  with 
a  well  equipped  hospital  at  Jammalamadugu. 
There  are  (1903)  14  stations  and  382  outstations, 
78  English  missionaries,  including  wives  and 
unmarried  women;  691  native  workers,  27,886 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  2,796  are  commu- 
nicants, and  356  scliools  with  14,534  pupils.  The 
school  fees  paid  by  the  pupils  in  1902  amounted 
to  £3,300  and  other  native  contributions  to  the 
Society  were  £296. 

5.  Travancore  (1806) :  Among  the  missionaries 
of  the  LMS  who  went  out  to  India  in  1804  was 
Mr.  Ringeltaube.  While  his  colleagues  went  to 
Vizagapatam  he  returned  to  Travancore.  He  had 
previously  had  experience  in  work  in  India  under 
the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowl- 
edge. He  studied  Tamil  for  a  time  at  Tranque- 
bar.  In  1806  he  undertook  to  begin  his  mission 
in  the  native  State  of  Travancore.  He  was  not 
permitted  to  reside  in  Trivandrum,  and  therefore 
began  the  Travancore  mission  from  Palamcotta, 
a  CMS  station  in  Tinnevelli.  The  first  foothold 
in  Travancore  was  gained  at  Meiladi,  sixty  miles 
distant,  where  forty  people  were  soon  baptized 
and  the  first  chapel  was  built,  and  by  the  end  of 
1812  Ringeltaube  reported  677  communicants. 
In  1815  he  broke  down  from  overwork,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Mead  in  1818.  The  quality  of 
Ringeltaube's  work  was  such  that,  tho  left  to 
themselves  during  three  years,  the  native 
preachers  and  their  churches  were  in  vigorous 
life  when  the  new  missionaries  came.  Mead  and 
Knill  opened  a  station  at  Nagarcoil  and  the  Word 
grew  mightily  and  prevailed.  In  1822  the 
number  of  Christian  adherents  was  found  to  be 
5,000.  The  field  was  then  divided,  the  eastern 
part  being  worked  from  Nagarcoil,  and  a  new 
station  being  opened  at  Neyoor  as  a  center  for 
the  western  district. 

Quilon,  in  the  north  of  Travancore,  had  been 
occupied  in  1821,  but  the  enterprise  was  not  suc- 
cessful; another  attempt  was  made  in  1827,  with 
some  success  in  educational  work.  The  first 
church  was  formed  in  1837.  Trivandrum  was 
at  last  made  a  missionary  station  in  the  same 
year.  The  progress  of  Christianity  has  been 
steady  and  remarkable  in  Travancore.  There 
was  a  sharp  outburst  of  persecution  in  1827-30, 
renewed  in  1858  and  1859.  The  ostensible  cause 
of  the  persecution  was  the  course  of  Christian 
women  in  covering  the  upper  part  of  the  person 
as  soon  as  their  awakened  sensibilities  made  them 
feel  the  indecency  of  going  without  covering. 
On  the  other  hand,  Hindu  caste  rules  required 
that  the  women  of  the  caste  to  which  these 
belonged  must  wear  nothing  above  the  waist. 
It  is  characteristic  of  the  debasing  effect  of  Hin- 
duism that  even  educated  men  saw  no  weak 
point  in  their  demand  that  Christian  women 
should  not  wear  the  shoulder  cloth.  This  was 
made  the  ground  for  a  great  destruction  of  Chris- 
tian property  and  a  vast  amount  of  brutality 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


410 


toward  Christians.  At  last  the  Travancore 
Government  ordered  that  the  Christian  women  be 
permitted  to  cover  themselves  provided  their 
shoulder  cloths  were  made  of  "coarse  material." 
The  persecution  served  to  spread  knowledge  of 
the  Gospel,  and  great  extension  has  resulted. 

There  are  in  Travancore  (1903)  7  stations,  344 
outstations,  27  missionaries,  men  and  women; 
916  native  helpers,  75,065  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  8,688  are  communicants;  380  schools 
with  16,323  pupils,  local  contributions  amount- 
ing to  £1,948 

6.  China  (1807):  The  pioneer  missionary  of 
the  LMS  and  of  Protestant  Christendom  to  China 
was  Robert  Morrison.  Having  met  a  young 
Chinaman  in  London  he  had  studied  the  language 
with  him,  and  had  made  considerable  progress 
both  in  speaking  and  in  writing.  Landing  at 
Canton  on  the  7th  of  September,  1807,  he  was  at 
once  beset  with  difficulties;  Chinamen  were  for- 
bidden to  teach  the  language  to  foreigners  under 
penalty  of  death;  no  one  could  remain  in  China 
except  for  trade,  and  the  Roman  Catholics, 
already  there,  stood  ready  to  stir  up  the  authori- 
ties against  him.  Amid  untold  deprivations, 
amid  obstacles  and  with  great  physical  suffering, 
Morrison  waited  on  God  for  his  opportunity.  In 
1809  relief  came;  he  was  engaged  by  the  East 
India  Company  as  Chinese  translator,  with  a 
salary  of  £500  a  year.  In  this  capacity  he  could 
go  about  freely  with  a  recognized  standing  while 
in  no  way  diverted  from  his  real  purpose  in  com- 
ing to  the  country.  In  1812  his  grammar  of 
Chinese  was  finished  and  printed;  then  tracts,  a 
catechism,  the  Acts,  and  the  Gospel  of  Luke. 
An  edict  was  then  issued  declaring  the  penalty 
for  such  publications  to  be  death;  but  Morrison 
paid  no  heed,  and  at  the  end  of  1813  the  whole 
New  Testament  was  printed.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Milne  joined  Morrison  and  his  wife  at  Macao  in 
1813,  and  five  days  later  they  were  ordered  to 
leave  within  eight  days.  They  went  to  Canton, 
where  the  Morrisons  followed  them. 

The  next  question  was  to  find  a  secure  place 
for  a  mission  station.  Mr.  Milne  spent  the  next 
few  months  in  exploring  Java  and  the  Malay  Pe- 
ninsula, finally  deciding  to  establish  himself  at 
Malacca.  Morrison  now  formulated  a  scheme 
for  establishing  at  Malacca  an  Anglo-Chinese 
college.  He  himself  contributed  £1,000  to  the 
institution.  Buildings  were  erected  and  stu- 
dents came;  printing  presses  were  set  up,  and  a 
flourishing  work  began.  In  consequence  of  the 
outbreak  of  war  with  England,  nothing  could  be 
done  in  China;  but  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  in 
1842  the  LMS  missionaries  to  the  Chinese  at 
Batavia,  Penang,  Malacca,  etc.,  decided  to  close 
their  work  at  these  scattered  outposts,  and  to 
establish  themselves  at  the  newly  opened  ports 
of  China.  The  Anglo-Chinese  College  at  Malacca 
was  removed  to  Hongkong,  to  serve  as  a  training 
institution  for  native  workers.  Dr.  Hobson 
removed  to  Hongkong  and  opened  a  hospital. 
Mr.  Medhurst  and  Dr.  Lockhart  established 
themselves  in  Shanghai.  In  1844  Messrs.  Stro- 
nach  and  Young  opened  a  station  in  Amoy.  The 
work  progressed  slowly  du  ing  ten  years,  and 
then  came  a  change.  In  th:-  year  1854,  seventy- 
seven  converts  were  baptized.  Outstations  were 
rapidly  established  in  the  outlying  districts,  and 
new  centers  were  established  in  the  large  towns. 
The  church  rose  to  a  sense  of  its  duty  and  became 
earnestly  evangelistic.     The  one  church  grew  to 


eleven,  nine  of  them  self-supporting,  and  the 
work  was  extended  to  a  center  of  vice  at  Pholam, 
up  the  North  River.  In  1851  the  Tai-ping  rebel- 
lion checked  missionary  enterprise.  In  1859  and 
1860  Griffith  John  went  two  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  up  the  Yangtse  River  to  the  headquarters 
of  the  Tai-ping  leader,  at  Nan-king,  where  he 
succeeded  in  getting  a  writ  of  toleration  for  mis- 
sionaries to  work  in  the  districts  where  the  insur- 
gents were  in  power.  He  then  pushed  on  into 
the  interior  and  established  stations  at  Han-kau, 
Wu-chang,  and  Han-yang,  the  three  cities  facing 
each  other  at  the  junction  of  the  Han  and  Yang- 
tse Rivers.  About  the  same  time  Messrs. 
Edkins  and  Lee  began  work  in  Tientsin,  and  Mr. 
Lockhart,  after  twenty  years'  service  in  Shanghai, 
volunteered  to  open  a  station  in  Peking.  It  was 
in  1879  that  the  power  of  the  medical  mission  was 
illustrated  in  Dr.  Mackenzie's  help  to  the  sick 
wife  of  Li  Hung  Chang,  which  won  the  friendship 
of  that  statesman,  which  continued  until  Dr. 
Mackenzie's  death.  The  work  at  Tientsin  pro- 
gressed steadily  until  the  riots  of  1870,  when 
eight  chapels  were  burned,  and  heavy  losses 
affected  the  church,  the  native  Christians  of  most 
profound  convictions  only  coming  through  the  fire 
of   persecution   unscathed. 

During  the  Boxer  movements  of  1900  the 
LMS  in  North  China  suffered  with  the  others, 
one  missionary,  the  Rev.  J.  Stonehouse,  losing 
his  life.  In  Peking  the  East  City  Church  lost 
more  than  one-half  of  its  numbers,  and  two 
chapels  in  Tientsin  were  left  in  ruins.  But  since 
the  outbreak  was  suppressed,  there  has  been  a 
general  advance. 

There  are  in  the  China  mission  of  the  LMS 
(1903)  19  stations  and  208  outstations,  112  Eng- 
lish missionaries,  men  and  women  (including 
wives);  326  native  workers,  17,782  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  9,983  are  communicants; 
113  schools  with  2,904  pupils,  13  hospitals  and 
dispensaries,  native  contributions  to  the  general 
work,  £159,  and  as  fees  to  the  schools,  £857, 
making  a  total  sum  from  the  people  of  £1,016. 
Mongolia:  In  1819  the  LMS  commenced  a 
mission  to  the  Buriat  Mongols  of  southern  Siberia. 
Messrs.  Stallybrass,  Swan,  and  Yuille  were  the 
missionaries  sent  out  for  this  work,  and  they 
established  themselves  at  Selenginsk,  near  the 
Chinese  frontier,  a  little  to  eastward  of  the  south- 
ern end  of  Lake  Baikal.  Russian  territory  was 
chosen  rather  than  Chinese  for  this  enterprise, 
because  of  the  liberal  views  of  the  Czar  Alex- 
ander I.,  then  on  the  Russian  throne.  The  Czar 
not  only  gave  the  mission  a  grant  of  land,  but  a 
considerable  sum  of  money  for  erecting  build- 
ings. Messrs.  Stallybrass  and  Swan  translated 
into  Mongolian  and  printed  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  Gospels.  They  had  a  printing  house, 
schools,  and  regular  services  in  Mongolian,  and 
were  rejoiced  by  several  converts,  among  them 
two  Buriat  nobles,  who  were  Buddhists  before 
conversion.  In  1838  the  Society  reported  satis- 
factory progress  in  the  girls'  school  at  Khodon, 
while  at  Onagen  Mr.  Swan  was  training  ten 
Buriat  youths  "whose  chief  desire"  was  "to 
impart  to  their  countrymen  the  blessings  they  so 
much  prize."  But  after  the  Czar  Alexander's 
death  in  1825,  his  brother  Nicholas  I.  came  to  the 
throne  and  made  a  point  of  destroying  every  ves- 
tige of  the  religious  liberty  which  Alexander  had 
favored.  The  various  evangelical  missionary 
enterprises  established  in  Russia  under  patronage 


411 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


London  BIlSHlonary 
Lonrenco  Marques 


of  the  late  Czar  were  one  by  one  suppressed. 
The  turn  of  this  hopeful  mission  of  the  LMS 
came  in  1841.  The  missionaries  were  curtly 
informed  that  their  work  must  stop  and  they 
must  leave  the  country  "because  tlie  mission  did 
not  coincide  with  the  form  of  Christianity  estab- 
lished in  the  Russian  Empire."  Twenty-two 
years'  accumulation  of  material  was  sacrificed, 
but  we  may  not  believe  that  the  results  of  that 
long  period  of  self-sacrificing  labor  were  utterly 
lost. 

After  a  lapse  of  nearly  thirty  years,  the  new 
relations  established  with  China  made  it  possible 
to  resume  efforts  among  Mongols  from  the 
Chinese  side  of  the  frontier.  The  LMS  in  1870 
assigned  Rev.  James  Gilmour  to  this  work.  Mr. 
Gilmour,  in  the  latter  part  of  that  year,  set  forth 
from  Peking,  crossed  the  desert  of  Gobi,  and 
visited  the  former  stations  near  Selenginsk,  find- 
ing the  graves  of  the  dead  from  the  missionary 
families  the  sole  relic  of  the  enterprise. 

The  people  whom  Mr.  Gilmour  was  to  reach 
were  nomads  and,  therefore,  not  easily  taught, 
and  they  were  Buddhists,  and  therefore  not  easily 
made  to  feel  lacks  in  character  or  mental  equip- 
ment. During  twenty  years  Mr.  Gilmour  had 
for  his  sole  object  in  life  the  evangelization  of 
these  people.  He  made  his  headquarters  at 
Peking,  to  which  he  returned  for  a  part  of  each 
year.  But  his  long  marches  over  the  Mongolian 
plains,  his  life  in  Mongol  families,  and  his  earnest 
efforts  to  conquer  Mongol  suspicions,  were  the 
essentials  of  a  missionary  activity  for  the  most 
part  meeting  with  but  slight  return  from  this  shy 
and  undemonstrative  people.  It  was  not  until 
1884  that  the  first  Mongolian  was  baptized.  The 
eastern  part  of  Mongolia,  where  the  people  led  a 
more  settled  life,  was  the  field  of  operations  after 
that  year,  and  in  1887  Chao-yang  was  occupied 
as  a  permanent  center  of  worlc.  Gilmour  died 
in  1891.  Others  took  up  his  work,  but  the 
effort  to  reach  the  Mongolians  has  practically 
failed.  The  missionaries  in  Eastern  Mongolia 
succeeded  in  collecting  a  Christian  church  of 
about  two  hundred  members,  chiefly  from  the 
Chinese  population.  In  1901  the  LMS  trans- 
ferred this  mission  to  the  Irish  Presbyterian 
Church,  which  has  extensive  missions  in  Man- 
churia, and  withdrew  its  missionaries  to  other 
stations  in  China. 

7.  British  Guiana  (1808):  A  Dutch  planter 
named  Post,  living  on  the  banks  of  tlie  Demerara 
River,  sent  an  urgent  appeal  to  the  LMS  in  1807 
for  some  one  to  instruct  his  negroes  in  Christian 
conduct.  In  response  to  this  appeal  the  Rev. 
John  Wray  was  sent  to  Guiana  the  following 
year.  A  church  and  a  house  for  the  missionary 
were  built,  chiefly  by  contributions  from  the 
planter  and  his  friends,  and  a  very  encouraging 
work  was  begun  among  the  negroes  at  Le  Resouve- 
nir  estate.  The  next  year  Mr.  Post  gave  a  house 
in  Geor^'^town  to  be  used  as  a  school,  and  Rev. 
John  Davies  was  sent  out  to  take  charge  of  it. 
These  proceedings  excited  alarm  among  the 
planters,  who  knew  enough  about  Christianity  to 
know  that  it  h  dangerous  to  give  a  man  Christ's 
teachings  if  freedom  is  not  also  given  him.  The 
history  of  the  mission  during  the  next  twenty- 
five  years  is  one  of  struggle  for  the  right  to  teach 
negro  slaves  against  the  will  of  slave-owners  and 
Government  officials.  There  is  little  in  mission- 
ary literature  more  inspiring  by  way  of  record  of 
fortitude  and  devotion  than  "the  story  of  this 


struggle,  in  which  the  missionaries  Davies  and 
Smith  sacrificed  health  and  life  against  the 
greed  that  made  it  a  crime  for  a  negro  slave  to 
know  the  love  of  God.  The  result  was  to  build 
up  a  strong  body  of  negro  Christians  in  Guiana, 
and  later  among  the  emancipated  slaves  of 
Jamaica.  The  Congregational  churches  of  Ja- 
maica and  Guiana  have  long  been  independent, 
and  the  LMS  now  maintains  but  one  missionary 
in  the  West  Indies.  He  is  stationed  in  Guiana, 
and  his  main  duty  is  to  superintend  the  training 
of  candidates  for  the  ministry. 

8.  Madagascar  (1818):  The  history  of  the 
development  of  this  field  of  the  LMS  is  so  fully 
described  in  the  article  on  Madagascar  that  its 
repetition  in  this  place  is  needless.  The  Society 
now  has  in  that  field  (1903)  17  principal  stations, 
57  missionaries,  men  and  women,  including  mis- 
sionaries' wives;  3,323  native  workers,  72,000  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  24,716  are  communi- 
cants; 630  schools  with  31,770  scholars;  1  hos- 
pital and  dispensarv,  and  local  contributions 
amounted  to  £5,822  "in  1902. 

The  organs  of  the  society  ore:  The  Chronicle,  a  monlhly 
magazine  estal  lis  ed  n  1S13,  an  I  for  young  people;  Newa 
From  Afar,  nonthl  ,  es'abli>hed  in  1845,  under  the  name 
of  The  Juvenile  Missionary  Magazine.  For  fuller  infor- 
mation about  the  Soeiet'-  the  loll  'wi^fr  may  be  consulted: 
Lovett  (J  ),  History  of  the  London  Missionary  Society.  2 
Vols.,  London,  i900;  borne  (S.C),  The  Story  of  the L.  M.  S., 
London,  1894  (a  good  summary). 

LONGHEU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  8  miles  N.  E.  of 
Li-long.  Station  of  the  Basel  Mission  Society 
(1882),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
8  native  worl^ers,  4  outstations,  1  boarding 
school,  and  602  professed  Christians,  of  whom  365 
are  communicants. 

LO-NGWONG:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Fo-kien,  China,  situated  on  the  coast  about  30 
miles  N.  E.  of  Fu-chau.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1889),  with  (1903)  31  native  workers,  12  day 
schools,  and  1,021  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
318  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the 
CEZ  (1893),  with  (1903)  3  women  missionaries, 
3  native  workers,  6  day  schools,  2  boarding 
scliools,  1  dispensary  and  1  hospital.  Station 
also  of  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the 
East  (1891),  with  1  chapel  and  a  home  for 
untainted  children  of  lepers. 

LOOMIS,  Augustus  W. :  Died  at  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  July  26,  1891.  He  first  went  as 
a  missionary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  (N.)  to 
China  in  1844,  and  was  there  until  1850.  In 
1852  he  began  mission  work  among  the  Creek 
Indians,  and  was  with  them  about  a  year.  In 
1859  he  was  called  to  take  charge  of  the  Chinese 
work  in  California,  in  which  department  of  Chris- 
tian missions  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
Dr.  Loomis  published  several  important  works 
in  connection  with  Chinese  missions,  and  his 
whole  work  has  been  of  the  highest  value.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  intellectual  attainments,  and 
his  Board  will  find  it  difficult  to  supply  his  place 
in  their  missionary  force. 

LOURENCO  MARQUES:  A  town  in  Portu- 
guese E.  Africa,  situated  on  the  coast  in  the 
N.  W.  of  Delagoa  Bay,  founded  as  a  trading  post 
of  the  Portuguese  in  1544.  Station  of  the  MR 
(1889),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  3  women  missionaries,  10  native  workers, 
8  outstations,  9  places  of  worship,  9  Sunday 
schools,  1  book  room,  21  day  schools,  and  1,508 
professed   Christians,    of    whom    624   are    com- 


Lovedale 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


41& 


municants.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1894),  with  1 
missionary,  1  woman  missionary,  7  outstations, 
and  475  professed  Christians,  of  whom  101  are 
communicants. 

LOVEDALE:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  Africa, 
700  miles  northeast  of  Cape  Town ,  near  Alice.  ^  It 
is  the  site  of  a  missionary  institution,  which  is  of 
absorbing  interest,  since  its  methods  of  work 
when  it  was  commenced  were  novel,  and  have 
been  proved  to  be  successful — the  Lovedale 
Mission.  In  1841  Rev.  William  Govan  opened 
here  a  missionary  institute,  and  the  place  was 
called  Lovedale,  after  Dr.  Love,  the  fir:>t  serrr- 
tary  of  the  Glasgow  Missionary  Society.  The 
aims  of  the  institution  were  these:  1st.  To  take 
young  men  of  intellectual  and  spiritual  qualifi- 
cations and  educate  them  to  be  preachers.  2d. 
To  train  young  men  and  women  as  teachers  for 
native  mission  schools.  3d.  Industrial  educa- 
tion in  various  arts,  such  as  wagon-building, 
blacksmithing,  printing,  bookbinding,  teleg- 
raphy and  agricultural  work  of  various  kinds, 
was  carefully  to  be  given  to  the  natives  in  order 
that  they  might  be  industrious  and  useful  citi- 
zens. 4th.  To  give  an  education  of  a  general 
character  to  all  whose  course  in  life  had  not  yet 
been  definitely  determined.  The  two  depart- 
ments, industrial  and  educational,  are  carried  on 
in  two  buildings,  one  for  the  males  and  the  other 
for  the  females.  Each  department  has  its  own 
special  aim,  but  the  grand  purpose  of  each  and 
both  is  to  Christianize,  not  merely  to  civilize; 
and  the  conversion  of  the  individual  is  the  great 
aim  and  the  desired  end  of  all  the  work  that  is 
conducted.  The  solution  of  the  problem  how  to 
develop  Christian  character  and  energy  amid  the 
existing  conditions  surrounding  barbarous  and 
indolent  races  is  fraught  with  many  difficulties; 
and  in  order  to  Christianize  successfully,  it  has 
been  proved  of  great  assistance  to  civilize  at  the 
same  time.  The  principles  which  govern  the 
management  of  the  Lovedale  Institution  are: 
(1)  It  is  non-sectarian  and  undenominational. 
The  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  supports  it 
financially,  but  all  denominations  in  the  country 
have  been  represented  in  it  at  one  time  or 
another.  At  Lovedale  among  the  pupils  all 
colors  and  nearly  all  tribes  in  South  Africa  and 
Rhodesia  are  represented.  No  influence  is 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  students  to  join  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  in  preference  to  the 
church  with  which  they  are  connected.  Even  in 
the  theological  course  those  who  are  trained  as 
agents  for  other  bodies  are  not  weakened  in  their 
denominational  ties.  (2)  Broad  Christianity 
does  not  mean  lax  Christianity.  Instruction  in 
the  Bible  and  in  practical  religion  is  the  first 
work  of  the  day  in  all  the  classes.  Morning  and 
evening  worship  is  held  in  the  dining-halls.  At 
noon  every  Wednesday  a  prayer  meeting  is  held, 
and  each  workman  drops  his  tools  and  takes 
part  in  the  meeting,  altho  it  involves  a  pecuniary 
loss  by  reason  of  the  time  taken  from  the  week's 
work.  (3)  Self-support  is  the  theory.  In  the 
trades  departments  especially  this  principle  is 
carried  out. 

In  addition  to  these  general  principles  other 
lesser  ones  are:  The  education  is  practical;  habits 
of  industry  and  activity  are  urged  and  encour- 
aged, and  promotion  in  the  classes  depends  first 
upon  the  moral  character,  then  upon  the  intelli- 
gence and  activity. 

The    curriculum    in    the    educational    depart- 


ments includes  three  courses,  each  of  which  occu-, 
pies  three  years.  These  are :  The  elementary 
school,  the  literary  course  and  the  theological 
course.  The  subjects'  studied  are  those  usually 
taught  in  like  institutions.  In  regard  to  the 
teaching  of  Latin  and  Greek  to  theological  stu- 
dents, there  has  been  some  discussion,  but  the 
tendency  now  is  to  drop  these  studies -from  the 
course  as  not  being  essential  to  the  equipment 
of  the  native  pastor.  The  training  of  native 
teachers  for  elementary  native  schools  is  second 
in  importance.  Teachers  who  hold  certificates 
from  the  educational  department  have  a  higher 
status,  and  can  secure  good  salaries.  A  general 
education  is  given  to  all,  and  men  in  all  the  walks 
of  life  receive  as  much  education  as  may  be  neces- 
sary or  expedient  for  them  to  undertake.  In  the 
industrial  department  various  arts  are  taught. 
The  native  apprentices,  after  a  trial  of  three  or 
six  months,  are  indentured  for  five  or  six  years, 
if  satisfactory.  In  the  evening  they  are  given  a 
part  of  the  studies  of  their  general  education.  In 
addition  to  their  board  and  lodging  they  receive 
pay  at  rates  varying  from  two  to  five  dollars  a 
month,  of  which  a  small  part  is  retained  each 
month  in  trust  for  them,  and  is  paid  to  them  at 
the  end  of  their  apprenticeship.  No  one  is 
allowed  to  be  idle.  Those  who  are  not  appren- 
tices or  engaged  in  other  work  are  employed  in 
manual  labor  about  the  fields  and  gardens. 
There  is  a  farm  of  2,800  acres  connected  with  the 
institution.  So  attractive  is  the  education  pro- 
vided at  this  institution  that  many  Europeans 
have  availed  themselves  of  its  advantages,  and 
mingle  freely  with  the  natives  in  the  classes. 
The  resources  of  the  institution  are  native  fees, 
government  grants,  and  the  produce  of  the  farm 
and  gardens.  The  receipts  from  the  two  first 
sources  in  1902  amounted  to  £7,175,  or 
$34,725.  The  government  grants  amounted  to 
£2,200,  or  a  little  less  than  $11,000.  It  is 
a  mission  station  of  the  UFS  (1841),  with  (1903) 
19  missionaries,  four  with  their  wives;  6  women 
missionaries,  16  native  workers,  5  outstations, 
2  places  of  worship,  4  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  theological  class,  1  hospital,  1  dispen- 
sary, 1  printing  press,  1  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  and  475  professed  Christians. 
Young  (R.),  African  Wastes  Reclaimed,  Lon:.oii,  1902;  Re- 
port of  Mildmay  Conference  on  For.  Missions,  rP-  68-76, 
London,  1878 :  Report  of  Centenary  Conference  on  Missions, 
pp.  402-406,  London,  188S. 

LOWRIE,  Reuben  Post:  Born  at  Butler,  Pa., 
November  24,  1827;  graduated  University  of 
New  York,  1846;  was  tutor  there  in  1849,  attend- 
ing also  a  course  of  lectures  at  Union  Theological 
Seminary;  finished  his  theological  course  at 
Princeton;  was  principal  of  an  academy  at  Wyo- 
ming, Pa.,  1849-51;  was  a  missionary  a  few  months 
among  the  Choctaw  Indians.  He  was  ordained 
1853,  appointed  to  China  as  a  missionary  of  the 
PN  and  sailed  April  22,  1854.  He  was  stationed 
at  Shanghai  1854-60.  He  made  rapid  progress 
in  the  acquisition  of  the  language,  and  within  a 
year  was  able  to  conduct  public  exercises  in 
Chinese.  He  also  devoted  much  time  to  the 
completion  of  a  dictionary  of  the  Four  Books, 
commenced  by  his  brother  Walter.  He  trans- 
lated also  the  Shorter  Catechism  and  a  catechism 
on  the  O.  T.  history.  When,  enfeebled  by  con- 
stant work  and  the  enervating  climate,  he  was 
advised  to  visit  his  native  land,  he  replied  that 
he  would  not  leave  China  "until  he  had  looked 
death  in  the  face."     He  had  nearly  finished  a 


413 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


IjOTedale 

Li11C]£110W 


commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  when 
.  he  died  at  Shanghai  of  chronic  diarrhea,  April 
26,  1860. 

LOWRIE,  Walter  Macon:  Born  at  Butler,  Pa., 
February  18,  1819;  graduated  at  Jefferson  Col- 
lege 1837,  with  the  first  honor;  decided  while  in 
college  to  be  a  missionary  to  the  heathen;  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  1840; 
ordained  November  9,  1841;  sailed  January, 
1842,  for  China  as  a  missionary  of  the  PN.  In 
August,  1846,  he  published  several  essays  in  the 
Chinese  Repository  on  the  proper  Chinese  words 
to  be  used  in  translating  the  name  of  God  into 
Chinese.  His, views  agreed  with  those  of  Drs. 
Boone  and  Brtdgman,  but  differed  from  those  of 
Medhurst  and  others.  He  commenced  also  the 
preparation  of  a  dictionary  of  the  Four  Books, 
and  decided  to  include  also  the  Five  Classics. 
These  books  contain  the  body  of  the  Chinese 
language.  This  work,  he  thought,  would  require 
two  or  three  years  without  interfering  with  more 
direct  and  important  missionary  labors.  His 
plan  would  include  biographical  and  historical 
notices  of  China  from  b.  c.  2100  to  B.  c.  300,  in  a 
large  quarto  volume.  But  he  did  not  live  to 
complete  the  work.  In  1847  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  delegation  for  the  revision  of  the 
Chinese  translations  of  the  Bible.  While  attend- 
ing the  meeting  of  the  revision  committee  at 
Shanghai  he  received  a  message  requesting  his 
immediate  return  to  Ningpo.  On  the  19th  of 
August  while  on  this  journey  they  were  attacked 
by  pirates  armed  with  swords  and  spears.  One 
of  the  boatmen  who  was  near  him  states  that 
while  the  pirates  were  maiming  the  sailors  and 
ransacking  the  boat,  Lowrie  sat  at  the  bow 
reading  his  pocket  Bible,  and  as  they  were  in  the 
act  of  seizing  him,  he  turned  himself  partly  round 
and  threw  his  Bible  on  the  deck.  Three  men 
seized  him  and  threw  him  into  the  sea.  The 
Bible  was  a  copy  of  Bagster's  12mo.  edition  in 
Hebrew,  Greek  and  English,  the  same  copy  he 
had  preserved  with  great  difficulty  in  the  ship- 
wreck of  the  "Harmony."  The  death  of  Mr. 
Lowrie  was  a  great  loss  to  the  missionary  cause, 
since  his  natural  and  acquired  preparation  for 
important  literary  work  in  the  Chinese  language 
was  of  the  first  order. 

LOYALTY  ISLANDS:  A  groui>  in  the  South 
Pacific,  consisting  of  Uvea,  Lifu  and  Mar^, 
besides  some  smaller  islands.  Lifu,  the  largest, 
is  about  50  miles  long  and  25  broad,  and  contains 
a  population  of  about  6,000.  The  island  is  of 
coral  formation,  and  the  thin  layer  of  soil  is  pro- 
ductive of  vegetables  and  fruit.  Mare  has  about 
6,000  people.  Uvea  is  a  circle  of  20  islets  enclos- 
ing a  lagoon  20  miles  wide,  and  has  2,500  inhabi- 
tants. The  islanders  belong  to  the  Melanesian 
race,  and  each  island  has  its  own  tongue.  Chris- 
tianity was  early  introduced  into  the  islands  by 
natives  from  Raratonga  and  Samoa.  In  1841 
the  LMS  sent  its  first  missionaries  to  this  field. 
The  French  Government  instituted  a  comman- 
dant in  the  islands  in  1864,  considering  it  a  depen- 
dency of  New  Caledonia.  Under  French  rule  the 
English  missionaries  were  interfered  with,  but 
an  understanding  has  been  reached  which  per- 
mits freedom  of  worship.  The  work  in  the 
island  of  MarS  was  transferred  by  the  LMS  to  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Society  in  1891.  There  are 
(1902)  two  mission  stations  on  the  island,  Ro 
and  Netche,  with  1  ordained  missionary  and  2 
preaching  places.     The  LMS  has  retained  con- 


trol of  the  work  in  Uvea  (1856)  and  Lifu  (1843), 
having  (1902)  1  missionary  on  the  last  named 
island,  and  on  both  islands  together  182  native 
workers  and  2,300  church  members. 

LUANZA.     See  Loanza. 

LU-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  China,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Yangtse  River  at  the  confluence  of  the  To 
River,  about  146  miles  S.  E.  of  Cheng-tu.  It  is 
an  important  salt  market.  Population  100,000 
(estimate).  Station  of  the  CIM  (1890),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  2  women 
missionaries,  3  native  workers,  1  chapel,  1  Sun- 
day school  and  1  day  school. 

LU-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  China,  situated  near 
Chaohu  Lake,  about  85  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Ngan- 
king-fu.  Station  of  the  FCMS  (1894),  with 
(1900)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  1  native 
worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  society  for  young 
people,  1  book  room,  1  day  school,  1  dispen- 
sary, 1  hospital  and  19  professed  Christians. 
The  Society  spells  the  name  Lu-cheo-fu. 

LU-CHENG-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  about  15  miles  N.  E.  of 
Lu-ngan-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1889),  with 
(1903)  3  women  missionaries,  3  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  2  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  boarding  school  and  2  refuges  for 
opium  victims.  The  name  is  sometimes  written 
Lu-ch'eng. 

LUCHtr  ISLANDS:  A  chain  of  37  islands  in  the 
North  Pacific,  between  Japan  and  Formosa. 
Their  surface  is  very  rugged  and  the  soil  variable, 
but  the  islands  abound  in  grass  and  trees,  and  are 
very  picturesque  and  beautiful.  The  climate  is 
hot,  but  the  heat  is  never  excessive,  tho  there  are 
frequent  injurious  droughts  and  typhoons.  Popu- 
lation, 170,000,  consisting  of  two  races,  the 
Japanese  and  the  Lu  Chuans  proper.  These 
races  are  of  the  same  stock  and  greatly  resemble 
each  other,  tho  the  Lu  Chuans  are  more 
effeminate  and  less  intelligent,  and,  unlike  most 
other  Mongolian  tribes,  wear  a  full  black  beard. 
Their  book  learning  and  religion  are  for  the  most 
part  Chinese,  and  the  higher  classes  are  well 
educated.  Their  principal  occupation  is  agri- 
culture, but  the  mode  of  cultivation  is  primitive, 
the  implements  are  rude,  and  the  soil  is  generally 
tilled  by  hand.  The  land  all  belongs  to  the 
government,  which  lets  it  to  large  tenants,  who 
sublet  it  to  small  farmers.  The  government  is 
administered  in  the  name  of  a  king,  and  is  in  the 
hands  of  an  aristocracy  consisting  (as_  in  China) 
of  the  literary  class,  who  appear  to  live  in  idleness, 
while  the  poor  are  greatly  oppressed.  About  400 
years  ago  the  principal  island  was  divided  into 
three  kingdoms,  which  were  subsequently  united, 
and  became  subject  first  to  China  and  then  to 
Japan.  The  CMS,  the  ABMU,  the  ME,  and  the 
BFBS  carry  on  work  on  these  islands  largely 
through  Japanese  Christians, who  work  under  their 
direction.  Most  of  the  New  Testament  has  been 
translated  into  the  Luchu  dialect.  The  islands 
are  also  called  Riu-kiu. 
Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vcl.  XII.,  p.  622,  Funk  <4: 

Wagn_i.l=!,  New  York,  1899. 

LUCKNOW:  A  city  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  on  the  Gunti  River,  42  miles  from  Cawn- 
pur  and  199  miles  from  Benares.  It  is  the  cap- 
ital of  a  district,  and  formerly  of  Oudh.  ^  Viewed 
from  a  distance,  Lucknow  presents  a  picture  of\ 
unusual  magnificence  and  architectural  splendor,  ': 


Lndd 

Lutheran  Foreign 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


414 


•which  fades  on  nearer  view  into  the  ordinary 
aspect  of  an  Oriental  town.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
one  of  the  most  important  cities  in  India,  and 
many  of  its  streets  are  broader  and  finer  than  in 
most  Indian  towns,  and  the  sanitary  condition 
of  the  city  is  constantly  being  improved.  It  has 
a  celebrated  school  of  Mohammedan  theology, 
manufactures  silver  and  gold  work  and  embroid- 
ery, and  has  extensive  railway  workshops.  Dur- 
ing the  mutiny  of  1857  it  was  besieged  by  the 
rebels  for  six  months,  when  the  garrison  was 
saved  by  Sir  Colin  Campbell.  Altitude,  369  feet. 
Population  (1901),  264,000,  of  whom  146,000  are 
Hindus  and  99,000  are  Mohammedans.  Station 
of  the  CMS  (1857),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries, 
3  with  their  wives;  14  native  workers,  1  out- 
station,  5  village  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1 
dispensary,  and  473  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  174  are  communicants.  Station  also  of 
the  ME,  with  6  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  9 
women  missionaries,  16  native  workers,  2  chapels, 
37  Sunday  schools,  1  printing  press,  17  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  2  colleges,  432 
professed  Christians  and  a  deaconess'  home. 
Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 27  native  workers,  4  chapels,  14  Sunday 
schools,  7  day  schools,  and  98  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  ZBM,  with  (1903)  11  women  mis- 
sionaries, 27  native  workers,  3  day  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  1  hospital. 

LUDD :  A  town  in  Palestine,  situated  about  1}/^ 
miles  S.  E.  of  Jaffa,  on  the  caravan  road  from 
Damascus  to  Egypt.  It  is  the  Lydda  of  the 
New  Testament.  St.  George  is  said  to  have  been 
born  and  buried  here.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1876), 
with  (1903)  1  native  worker,  1  day  school.  Name 
is  spelled  by  this  society  Lydd.  The  Jaffa  Med- 
ical Mission  has  (1898)  2  women  missionaries,  1 
native  worker,  1  Sunday  school,  1  dispensary. 
This  Society  spells  the  name  Lydda. 

LTJDHIANA:  A  town  in  the  Ludhiana  District 
of  the  Punjab,  India,  situated  about  3  miles  S.  of 
Sutlej  River,  and  73  miles  S.  E.  by  E.  of  Amritsar. 
Altitude,  812  feet.  Population  (1891),  46,300, 
of  whom  30,300  are  MusUms  and  13,900  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1834),  with  (1903)  4  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  6  missionary  women,  54 
native  workers,  9  outstations,  9  places  of  wor- 
ship, 40  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  2 
boarding  schools,  1  industrial  school,  1  printing 
press,  and  320  professed  Christians.  Society 
spells  the  name  Lodiana.  Mission  station  of 
the  North  India  School  of  Medicine  for  Christian 
Women  (1895),  with  (1901)  10  women  mission- 
aries, 6  native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  Young 
Woman's  Christian  Association,  1  female  helpers' 
training  class,  5  dispensaries,  2  hospitals,  1  medi- 
cal class,  1  lepers'  asylum. 

LXIEBO :  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
Africa,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lulua 
River  at  its  confluence  with  the  Luebo  River. 
Altitude,  1,350  feet.  The  climate  is  much  better 
than  in  the  lower  lands.  Station  of  the  PS 
(1891),  with  4  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  2 
women  missionaries,  10  native  workers,  3  chapels, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  printing  press,  1  day  school, 
1  dispensary,  and  1,000  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  657  are  communicants. 

LUFILUFI:  A  settlement  in  Samoa,  Oceania, 
east  of  Apia  on  Upolu  Island.  Station  of  the 
Australian  Wesleyan  Mission,  with  (1900)  2  mis- 
sionaries, 101  native  workers,  8  outstations,  20 


places  of  worship,  29  Sunday  schools,  29  day 
schools,  1  theological  class,  and  556  professed 
Christians. 

LU-GAN.     See    Lu-ngan-fu    and    Liu-nqan- 

CHAU. 

LU-GANDA :  The  Bantu  term  for  the  language 
spoken  hy  the  Wa-Ganda;  the  term  might  be 
rendered  into  English  as  Ugandan,  q.  v. 

LXJH  HOH.     See  Liu-ho-hsien. 

LUKANOR  ISLAND.    See  Mortlock  Islands. 

LUK-HANG:  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung,  China,  situated  about  28  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Canton.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Mission 
Society  (1897),  with  (1903)  3  ntissionaries,  29 
native  workers,  19  outstations,  2  day  schools, 
and  769  professed  Christians,  of  whom  549  are 
communicants. 

LUKOLELA  :  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  Africa,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Congo  River,  surrounded  by  dense  forests.  Sta- 
tion of  the  BMS  (1884),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  outstation,  1  day 
school.  The  station  is  also  known  under  the 
name  of  Liverpool. 

LUKUNGA:  a  town  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
Africa,  on  the  Congo  River,  about  midway 
between  the  mouth  and  Stanley  Pool.  Station 
of  the  ABMU  (1882),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  22  native  workers,  19  out- 
stations, 1,022  professed  Christians,  of  whom  511 
are  communicants;  10  chapels,  1  Sunday  school, 
19  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1  dis- 
pensary. 

LULANGA :  A  settlement  in  Congo  Free  State, 
Africa,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lulanga 
River  with  the  Congo,  about  50  miles  N.  of 
Equatorville.  Station  of  the  RBMU  (1889), 
with  5  missionaries,  2  women  missionaries,  1 
native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary.  Society 
spells  the  name  Lolanga. 

LULL,  Raymund:  Born  in  1235.  Died  in 
1315.  From  Zwemer's  biography  of  this  first 
and,  perhaps,  greatest  missionary  to  Moham- 
medans, we  gather  the  following  facts :  Raymund 
Lull  lived  during  a  most  eventful  epoch.  Five 
years  after  his  birth  the  rise  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks  occurred,  and  before  he  was  twenty  Louis 
IX.  had  failed  in  his  crusade,  and  the  Inquisition 
had  begun  in  Spain  to  torture  Jews  and  heretics. 
As  he  was  growing  into  manhood,  the  beneficial 
effects  of  the  Crusades  were  being  felt;  physical 
science  was  struggling  into  feeble  life;  discoveries 
of  distant  lands  were  being  made;  the  Universitv 
of  Oxford  was  founded,  and  the  world,  as  Lull 
knew  it,  was  the  world  of  medieval  legend  and 
classic  lore.  The  Mohammedan  world  was,  with 
all  Europe,  in  a  state  of  ferment,  and  Raymund 
Lull  was  raised  up  to  prove  what  the  Crusades 
might  have  done  if  they  had  fought  for  the  cross 
with  the  weapons  of  the  Prince  of  Peace.  Lull 
was  a  member  of  a  distinguished  Catalonian 
family,  and  when  the  island  of  Majorca  was 
taken  from  the  Saracens  by  James  I.,  King  of 
Aragon,  Lull's  father  was  rewarded  with  large 
estates  in  the  conquered  territory,  for  his  dis- 
tinguished services.  A  succession  of  twenty 
proud  sovereigns  reigned  from  the  year  1035  to 
1516,  and  at  such  r.  court,  probably  in  the  capital 
town  of  Zaragoza  (Saragossa),  Lull  spent  several 
years  of  his  life.      He  was  a  court  poet,  and  a 


415 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Lndd 
Lutheran  Forelgrn 


skilled  musician.  Gifted  with  rare  mental  accom- 
plishments, the  heir  to  large  wealth,  he  was  a  gay 
knight  at  the  banciuets  of  James  II.,  before  he 
became  a  scholastic  philosopher  and  an  ardent 
missionary.  It  was  at  Palma,  when  thirty-two 
years  old,  that  he  made  his  decision  to  forsake 
all  and  become  a  preacher  of  righteousness.  His 
conversion  reminds  one  of  the  experience  of  Saul 
on  his  way  to  Damascus,  and  of  St.  Augustine 
under  the  fig  tree  at  Milan.  He  sold  all  his 
property,  gave  the  money  to  the  poor,  and 
reserved  only  a  scanty  allowance  for  his  wife  and 
children.  He  determined  to  attack  Islam  with 
the  weapons  of  Christian  truth;  and  assuming  the 
coarse  garb  of  a  mendicant,  he  made  pilgrimages 
to  various  churches  in  the  island,  praying  for 
grace  and  assistance  in  the  work  of  his  life.  In 
the  13th  century,  Islam,  the  mistress  of  phi- 
losophy and  science,  had  political  influence  and 
prestige;  and  against  this  mighty  power  this 
knight  of  Christ  was  to  lead  an  attack  with  the 
weapons  of  love  and  learning,  instead  of  the 
Crusaders'  weapons  of  force  and  fanaticism.  He 
entered  upon  a  thorough  course  of  study,  mas- 
tered the  Arabic  language,  spent  much  time  in 
spiritual  meditation,  and  at  about  the  age  of  forty 
he  entered  upon  the  most  useful  part  of  his  life, 
as  author  and  missionary.  His  Ars  Major  was 
completed  in  127.5,  and  under  the  patronage  of 
the  King  of  Majorca  this  first  book  of  his 
Method  was  published.  Soon  after  the  publica- 
tion of  this  work,  he  persuaded  James  II.  to 
found  and  endow  a  monastery  in  Majorca,  where 
Franciscan  monks  should  be  instructed  in  the 
Arabic  language,  and  trained  to  become  able  dis- 
putants among  the  Muslims.  In  1276  such  a 
monastery  was  opened,  and  thirteen  monks  began 
to  study  Lull's  method  and  imbibe  his  spirit. 
Lull  now  longed  for  a  new  Pentecost,  and  for 
world-wide  missions.  Fired  with  apostolic  zeal, 
he  went  to  Rome  and  Paris;  and,  altho  in  his 
fifty-sixth  year,  he  determined  to  set  out  alone 
and  single-handed  and  preach  Christ  in  North 
Africa.  On  arriving  at  Tunis  he  invited  the 
Muslim  literati  to  a  conference.  He  announced 
that  he  had  studied  the  arguments  on  both  sides 
of  the  question,  and  was  willing  to  submit  the 
evidences  for  Christianity  and  for  Islam  to  a  fair 
comparison.  The  challenge  was  willingly  ac- 
cepted, and  after  a  long,  fruitless  discussion 
Lull  advanced  the  following  propositions,  which 
strike  the  two  weak  points  of  Mohammedan 
monotheism:  "Lack  of  love  in  the  being  of 
Allah,  and  lack  of  harmony,  in  his  attributes." 
Some  accepted  the  truth  and  others  became 
fanatical.  Lull  was  cast  into  a  dungeon  by  order 
of  the  Sultan,  and,  at  this  time,  narrowly 
escaped  death.  After  bitter  persecutions  he 
returned  to  Europe;  but  he  made  other  mission- 
ary journeys,  and  in  1307  he  was  again  on  the 
shores  of  North  Africa,  fifteen  years  after  his  ban- 
ishment. Altho  he  was  now  sixty-six  years  of 
age,  despite  the  conditions  of  travel  in  the  Middle 
Ages  we  find  him  visiting  Cyprus,  Syria,  and 
penetrating  into  Armenia,  striving  to  reclaim  the 
various  Oriental  sects  to  the  orthodox  faith.  In 
1307  he  set  sail  again  for  North  Africa,  and  at 
Bugia,  in  a  public  place,  he  stood  up  boldly  and 
proclaimed,  in  the  Arabic  language,  that  Chris- 
tianity was  the  only  true  faith;  and  once  again 
violent  hands  were  laid  upon  him.  He  was  flung 
into  a  dungeon,  and  for  six  months  remained  a 
close  prisoner,  befriended  only  by  some  mer- 
chants of  Genoa  and  Spain,  who  took  pity  on  the 


aged  missionary  of  the  cross.  He  was  banished 
again  from  Africa,  with  threats  that  his  life  would 
be  taken  if  he  ever  returned,  but  with  unabated 
love  and  zeal  he  went  there  again  in  1314.  For 
over  ten  months  this  veteran  of  the  cross  dwelt 
in  hiding,  talking  and  praying  with  his  converts, 
and  trying  to  influence  those  who  were  still  in 
darkness.  Weary  of  seclusion,  he,  at  length, 
came  forth  into  the  open  market  and  presented 
himself  to  the  people  as  the  man  whom  they  had 
e.xpelled,  and  who  desired  still  to  preach  Christ 
to  them.  He  seemed  to  court  martyrdom.  He 
was  seized  and  dragged  out  of  the  town,  and  by 
the  command,  or  at  least  the  connivance,  of  the 
king,  he  was  stoned  to  death.  Lull's  life-work 
was  three-fold:  he  devised  a  philosophical  or 
educational  system  for  persuading  non-Christians 
of  the  truth  of  Christianity,  he  established  mis- 
sionary colleges,  and  he  himself  went  and 
preached  to  the  Muslims,  sealing  his  witness  of 
Christ  with  his  blood.  There  exists  no  complete 
catalog  of  his  books,  but  he  wrote  on  nearly 
every  known  subject,  and  in  the  first  published 
edition  of  his  works  (1721)  two  hundred  and 
eighty  titles  are  given. 

Neander  (I.  A.  W),  Church  History,  Vol.  IV. ;  Maclear,  His~ 
tory  of  Christian  Missions  in  the  Middle  Ages,  London, 
1863;  Zwemer  (S.  M.),  Raymund  Lull,  New  York,  Funk 
&  Wagna  Is,  1902. 

LUMBA5  5A  BOLAN:  A  settlement  in  the 
Toba  Lake  region  of  Sumatra.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Missionarv  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  Sunday 
school  and  1  day  school. 

LUNDU:  A  settlement  in  Sarawak,  Borneo, 
situated  on  Datu  Bay,  about  40  miles  W.  of 
Kuching.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1853),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  3  native  workers,  2  places 
of  worship,  2  day  schools  and  60  Christians. 

LU-NGAN-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  in  the  S.  E.  of  the  prov- 
ince, about  100  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Ho-nan-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1889),  with  2  missionaries, 
3  native  workers,  1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school  and 
35  professed  Christians.  Name  is  sometimes 
spelled  Lu-gan. 

LUNG-CHAU.     See  Lang-chau. 

LUNG-TSUEN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Che-kiang,  China,  situated  about  95  miles  W. 
of  Wen-chau.  Mission  station  of  the  CIM  (1894), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native 
workers,  1  chapel  and  1  Sunday  school.  The 
name  is  sometimes  spelled  Lung-ch'uen. 

LUPEMBE:  The  name  of  a  tribe  found  100 
miles  E.  of  the  north  end  of  Lake  Nyasa  in  Ger- 
man East  Africa,  among  whom  the  Berlin  Mis- 
sion Society  carry  on  work  (1899),  with  (1903) 
3  missionaries,  4  native  workers,  2  outstations, 
1  day  school  and  11  professed  Christians. 

LUTHERAN  FOREIGN  MISSIONARY  SOCI- 
ETIES in  the  United  States:  The  early  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  United  States  was  predominantly 
German,  tho  with  some  Scandinavian  and  Dutch 
elements,  and  was  chiefly  confined  to  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  lack  of  a  regular  ministry  and  the 
heavy  strain  on  a  few  pastors  resulted  in  an 
earnest  appeal  to  Europe  for  help.  Francke,  at 
Halle,  was  much  interested,  and  at  his  request 
Heinrich  Melchior  Muhlenberg,  who  had  been 
intending  to  go  as  a  missionary  to  India,  came  to 
Philadelphia  in  1742.  While  chiefly  absorbed  in 
the  organization  of  the  Church  (which  gave  him 


Ijiitheraii  Porelen 
Lydd 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


416 


the  title  of  Patriarch  Muhlenberg)  he  kept  mis- 
sionary work  among  the  Indians  at  home  as  well 
that  in  foreign  lands  constantly  in  mind. 

The  first  direct  interest  in  foreign  missions 
appears  to  have  been  aroused  by  the  work  of  the 
Rev.  C.  T.  E.  Rhenius.  a  German  Lutheran  mis- 
sionary of  the  CMS  in  India.  In  1821  the  Gene- 
ral Synod  at  its  first  meeting  resolved  to  form  a 
missionary  institute,  and  some  aid  was  sent  to 
the  work  of  Rhenius  in  India.  Contributions 
were  also  made  to  the  ABCFM,  then  a  distinc- 
tively undenominational  organization.  In  1833 
the  General  Synod  urged  the  subject  upon  the  dis- 
trict synods,  and  in  1835  the  Central  Missionary 
Society  was  organized  at  Mechanicsburg,  Pa., 
followed  in  1837  by  the  German  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society  in  the  U.  S.  A.  It  was  hoped  that 
all  would  unite  in  this,  but  the  German  Reformed 
Church  and  several  Lutheran  churches  held 
aloof.  Soon  the  name  was  changed  to  The 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church  in  the  tJ.  S.  A.  From  this 
time  until  1869  the  greater  part  of  the  Lutheran 
churches  contributed  through  this  organization, 
but  in  that  year  the  General  Council  organized 
its  own  board  of  missions  and  since  then  other 
Lutheran  bodies  have  followed  this  example. 

At  first  it  was  a  question  whether  to  begin 
work  among  the  Indians  in  the  United  States  or 
in  India,  but  after  some  deliberation  it  was 
decided  to  commence  operations  in  Southern 
India,  in  connection  with  the  ABCFM,  and  the 
Rev.  C.  F.  Heyer  was  appointed  as  missionary  to 
that  country  in  1840.  A  year  later,  fearing  com- 
plications from  this  proposed  connection,  he 
resigned  and  was  appomted  to  the  same  field  by 
the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania,  which  had  formed  a 
separate  missionary  organization  in  1836.  He 
sailed  from  Boston  October  14,  1841,  and  arrived 
in  India  the  following  spring.  In  June  and  July 
an  exploring  tour  was  made  with  a  view  of  select- 
ing a  field  for  permanent  residence  and  work. 
On  July  31,  1842,  he  reached  Guntur,  where  he 
commenced  the  work  assigned  him. 

At  the  next  meeting  of  the  Foreign  Missionary 
Society,  held  in  May,  1843,  the  proposed  union 
with  the  American  Board  was  given  up,  and 
arrangements  made  with  the  missionary  society 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  to  send  out  another 
missionary  to  cooperate  with  Rev.  Heyer.  Rev. 
Walter  Qunn  received  the  appointment,  and  he 
and  his  wife  reached  Guntur  June  18,  1844. 
They  labored  faithfully  until  July  5,  18.51,  when 
Mr.  Gunn  died.  Mrs.  Gunn  soon  after  returned 
to  the  United  States. 

Meanwhile  a  new  station  had  been  opened  in 
Palnad  in  1849,  and  in  1851  the  North  Ger- 
man Missionary  Society  transferred  the  station 
at  Rajamahendri,  begun  in  1845,  to  the  Ameri- 
can Lutheran  Society,  with  two  missionaries. 
Other  missionaries  were  sent  from  America  to 
reenforce  the  mission,  but  were  soon  obliged  to 
return  home.  In  1857  Mr.  Heyer,  after  14  years 
of  service,  also  returned  to  America.  In  1861 
a  fourth  station  was  opened  at  Samulcotta,  and 
Rev.  Mr.  Long,  who  went  out  in  1858,  was  placed 
in  charge  of  it  and  remained  there  until  1865, 
when  he  was  obliged  to  go  to  Europe  to  recover 
his  health,  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Unangst  was  left 
with  entire  charge  of  the  four  stations — Guntur, 
Palnad,  Rajamahendri  and  Samulcotta.  It 
being  utterly  impossible  for  him  to  give  proper 
attention  to  all,  a  proposition  was  made  to  trans- 


fer the  Rajamahendri  station  to  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society. 

Mr.  Heyer  was  in  Germany  when  he  heard  of 
this,  but  hastened  at  once  to  the  United  States 
and  presented  to  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania  an 
earnest  protest.  Negotiations  with  the  General 
Synod  made  it  evident  that  they  would  be  glad 
to  have  the  field  remain  in  Lutheran  hands,  and 
the  CMS  was  entirely  willing  to  be  relieved  of 
additional  burdens.  Overtures  were  made  to  the 
General  Council,  and  at  its  meeting  in  Chicago, 
November,  1869,  it  formally  accepted  the  respon- 
sibilities. During  the  same  year  the  General 
Synod  effected  a  reorganization  of  its  work 
under  a  new  name. 

General  Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  A. :  Headquarters  of  the 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1005  West  Lanvale 
St.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

The  General  Synod  has  worked  through  its 
own  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  since  the 
arrangement  with  the  General  Council  in  1869. 

1 .  India:  That  arrangement  left  under  the  care 
of  the  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  General 
Synod  the  Guntur  and  Palnad  stations,  embrac- 
ing a  territory  about  one  hundred  miles  in  length 
by  sixty  miles  in  width,  with  a  population  of 
about  1,000,000  souls,  chiefly  Telugus,  among 
whom  practically  nothing  had  been  done  at  that 
time.  Rev.  E.  Unangst  remained  the  only  mis- 
sionary on  this  field  until  1871,  when  he  was 
obliged  to  take  his  family  to  America.  Remain- 
ing there  only  one  year  to  recruit,  he  returned  to 
India  in  1872  without  his  family,  accompanied 
by  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Harpster.  Since  then  the  mis- 
sion has  been  reenforced  at  various  times,  and  a 
large  force  of  native  laborers  has  been  raised  up 
in  the  different  departments  of  work. 

At  the  close  of  1902  there  were  27  mission- 
aries (including  wives),  6  Eurasian  assistants,  220 
native  evangelistic  workers,  including  pastors, 
catechists,  Bible  women,  etc.,  and  286  teachers. 
The  number  of  stations  has  increased  to  7,  while 
449  congregations  assembled  regularly  and  the 
villages  reached  number  618.  The  buildings 
were  7  churches,  157  prayer  and  school  houses, 
11  mission  bungalows,  1  hospital,  1  college  and 
1  printing  house.  The  communicant  member- 
ship was  8,386,  and  there  were  9,163  inquirers  and 
35,525  under  direct  Christian  influence,  the  bap- 
tisms in  a  single  year  numbering  2,551.  The 
Sunday  school  work  has  grown  until  there  are  269 
schools,  with  465  teachers  and  15,965  scholars. 

Closely  associated  with  this  is  the  medical  and 
Zenana  work  carried  on  by  5  missionary  women, 
with  4  assistants  and  52  teachers.  Of  these,  9  are 
specially  engaged  in  the  home  work,  visiting  115 
homes  and  in.structing  150  Zenana  pupils.  In 
the  hospital  there  are  650  patients,  while  the  dis- 
pensary patients  were  15,759. 

In  common  with  other  successful  missions  In 
India,  considerable  attention  is  paid  to  education. 
The  policy  of  the  mission  is  to  educate  the  chil- 
dren as  far  as  the  primary  grade,  when  they  are 
sent  to  the  branch  schools  at  Guntur,  where  are 
the  college  under  the  presidency  of  the  Rev. 
L.  B.  Wolf,  D.D.,  a  boarding  and  training  school 
for  boys,  etc.  The  report  for  1902  shows  in  the 
college  7  Christian,  21  Hindu  and  4  Mohamme- 
dan teachers,  73  Christian,  552  Hindu  and  50 
Mohammedan  pupils,  a  total  of  675.  The  year 
showed  an  increase  of  87  in  attendance  and  an 
income  amounting  to  88  per  cent,   of  total  ex- 


417 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


liiitheran  Farel);n 
L.ydd 


penses  aside  from  the  missionary's  salary.  The 
total  number  of  elementary  schools  is  232,  with 
286  teachers  and  6,700  pupils,  of  whom  3,151 
were  Christians  and  3,549  non-Christians;  4,404 
boys  and  2,296  girls. 

2.  Africa:  In  1859,  through  the  long-continued 
efforts  of  Rev.  Morris  Officer,  a  mission  to  Africa 
was  decided  upon,  and  Mr.,  Officer  was  appointed 
to  superintend  its  establishment,  and,  with  the 
Rev.  Henry  Heigerd,  arrived  in  Liberia  April  5. 
The  location  selected,  and  still  occupied  by  the 
mission,  is  a  high  bluff  on  St.  Paul's  River,  about 
thirty  miles  above  Monrovia.  A  grant  of  one 
hundred  acres  of  land  was  secured  from  the 
Liberian  Government  for  a  mission  farm,  and  a 
reserve  of  two  hundred  acres  more  for  future 
settlers  about  the  mission.  Suitable  buildings 
were  erected,  and  a  short  time  afterward  40 
children  were  secured  from  a  large  number  of 
recaptured  slaves  that  had  been  landed  at  Mon- 
rovia. These  children  were  bound  to  the  mission 
by  the  government,  were  then  named  after  well- 
known  women  in  the  church  at  home,  and  thus 
the  Muhlenberg  Mission  was  begun,  and  tlie  foun- 
dation laid  of  the  Christian  settlement  which  has 
since  grown  up  around  the  mission.  A  native 
Christian  church,  organized  in  1861,  is  self-sus- 
taining, and  there  are  two  other  churches  and 
five  outstations.  The  pastor  was  one  of  the  slave 
children  with  whom  the  mission  was  started  and 
a  corps  of  native  workers  has  been  developed. 
The  industrial  department  has  always  been  one 
of  the  special  features  of  this  mission,  and  its 
coffee  plantation  was  long  relied  upon  to  meet 
many  of  the  current  expenses.  Difficulties  in 
marketing  the  coffee  emphasized  the  mercantile 
side  so  much  that  there  was  a  general  feeling  that 
the  distinctively  missionary  element  was  being 
crowded  out,  and  of  late  the  coffee  farm  occupies 
a  minor  place  in  the  view  of  the  missionaries. 
Meanwhile,  educational  and  general  evangelistic 
work  is  being  pushed  very  vigorously,  both  in 
Liberia  itself  and  in  the  surrounding  districts, 
from  which  come  appeals  for  teachers  and 
preachers. 

A  Woman's  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  the  General  Synod  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States  was  organ- 
ized in  1879  and  carries  on  work  in  India,  Liberia 
and  the  United  States,  employing  12  foreign 
missionaries.  It  publishes  a  children's  mission- 
ary paper,  tracts  and  programs  for  missionary 
meetings.  It  has  20  synodical  and  584  auxiliary 
societies,  with  about  20,000  members.  Its  head- 
quarters are  in  Baltimore,  Md. 

A  number  of  Lutheran  bodies  which  have  no 
separate  missionary  organizations  contribute 
through  the  General  Synod. 

General  Council  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  in  North  America:  Headquarters  of  the 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1522  Arch  St.,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

1.  India:  The  foreign  mission  work  of  the  Gene- 
ral Council  was  commenced  in  1869,  when  the 
stations  of  the  North  German  Missionary  Society 
atRajamahendriand  Samulcotta,  Southern  India, 
were  transferred  to  its  care  by  the  General  Synod. 
The  work  is  now  in  charge  of  the  Foreign  Mis- 
sion Committee  of  the  General  Council,  and 
comprises  the  districts  of  Rajamahendri,  Dow- 
laishwaram,  Samulcotta,  Tallapudi,  Velpur, 
Jagurupad  and  Bhimawaram. 
There  are  (1903)  6  missionaries,  assisted  by  3 
27 


native  pastors  and  140  evangelists,  catechists 
and  teachers.  The  whole  number  of  mission 
.workers  employed  is  157,  of  whom  5  are  Zenana 
Sisters,  2  devoting  their  whole  time  to  dispensary 
and  hospital  work.  Special  attention  is  paid  to 
educational  work  and  there  are  over  4,000  pupils 
in  the  various  schools  established  in  120  villages, 
those  of  higher  grade  being  at  Rajamahendri  and 
Peddapur.  The  extent  of  the  evangelistic  work 
is  indicated  by  the  number  of  baptized  Christians 
(adults  and  children),  given  as  6,159,  in  the  210 
villages  where  preaching  is  conducted. 

2.  Porto  Rico:  In  the  summer  of  1899  the 
Board  undertook  mission  work  in  Porto  Rico. 
Mr.  S.  G.  Swensson  of  the  Augustana  Seminary 
had  gathered  a  small  congregation  in  San  Juan, 
including  several  from  the  Danish  Church  at 
St.  Thomas,  and  his  work  was  taken  up  by  the 
Rev.  H.  F.  Richards  and  wife,  who  have  carried 
it  on  since,  now  with  the  assistance  of  a  woman 
teacher.  There  is  (1903)  a  Spanish  congregation, 
in  addition  to  the  English  one,  and  a  flourishing 
Sunday  school,  and  the  reports  of  success  are 
encouraging.  The  Board  made  a  proposition 
to  the  Home  Board  to  take  up  the  work  as 
more  distinctly  within  its  province,  but  that 
Board  declined  for  lack  of  funds. 
Organ  of  the  So  iety :    MisaioTishote,  monthly. 

A  Woman's  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  has  been  formed  in  connection  with  the 
General  Council  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  in  North  America,  with  its  headquarters 
at  33d  and  Diamond  Sts.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

United  Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  South:  Headquarters  of  the  Board 
of  Missions  and  Church  Extension,  376  Spring 
St.,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

This  society  was  organized  in  1886,  but  did  not 
commence  distinct  foreign  work  until  1892,  when 
a  missionary,  the  Rev.  J.  A.  B.  Scherer,  was  sent 
to  Saga  in  Japan.  There  are  now  (1903)  three 
ordained  missionaries,  one  of  them  being  Rev. 
R.  B.  Peery,  Ph.D.,  author  of  The  Gist  of  Japan, 
etc.  There  are  also  3  native  evangelists  at  work 
in  Saga  and  Kumamoto  and  the  3  Sunday 
schools  are  prosperous.  The  number  of  church 
members  reported  is  77  and  there  are  about  150 
in  the  Christian  community. 

Several  svnods  combine  in  this  work,  as  also 
three  organizations  conducted  by  women. 

LUXOR:  A  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile, 
situated  2  miles  S.  of  Karnak,  on  the  site  of 
ancient  Thebes,  and  having  magnificent  ruins  of 
temples  in  a  rock-bound  valley.  The  name  is 
from  the  Arabic  El  Kusr  (The  Palaces).  Sta- 
tion of  the  UP  (1875),  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  woman  missionary,  11  native  workers, 
5  outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding 
school,  3  day  schools  and  a  boat  on  the  Nile  for 
missionary  tours. 

LYALLPUR:  A  growing  city  in  the  Jhang  dis- 
trict of  India,  situated  about  100  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Lahore.  Station  of  the  Reformed  Presby- 
terian General  Synod,  with  (1900)  1  missionary, 
2  native  workers,  1  outstation,  63  professed  Chris- 
tians, 1  place  of  worship  and  1  Sunday  school. 
Society  spells  the  name  Lyalpur.  Station  of  the 
UP  (1869),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  wife, 
4  women  missionaries,  36  outstations,  4  Sunday 
schools,  4  day  schools  and  110  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

LYDD,  or  LYDDA.     See  Ltjdd. 


Ijydenbnrg- 
MadagraHcar 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


41» 


LYDENBXJRG:  A  town  in  Eastern  Trans- 
vaal, Africa,  south  of  the  Limpopo  River,  north- 
east of  Pretoria.  Population,  2,000.  Station, 
of  the  Berlin  Mission  Society  (1866),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  19  native  workers,  9  outsta- 
tions  and  1,921  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
992  are  communicants.  Name  also  written 
Leidensburg  and  Lydensburg. 

LYMAN,  Henry:  Born  1810,  in  Massachusetts; 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  1829,  Andover 
Seminary  1832;  studied  medicine  and  sailed  with 
Rev.  Samuel  Munson,  1833,  under  the  ABCFM, 
with  instructions  to  explore  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. Landing  at  Batavia,  April,  1834,  they 
visited  Padang  in  Sumatra  and  the  Butu  group 
of  islands,  spending  there  a  month,  and  collecting 
much  valuable  information.  Thence  they  went 
back  to  Sumatra,  intending  if  practicable  to 
visit  the  Battas  of  the  interior.  They  were 
advised,  on  account  of  dangers,  not  to  attempt  it. 


But  as  others  had  visited  the  interior  with  safety 
they  ventured  to  proceed,  and  June  23  set  out 
on  foot  with  a  few  native  assistants,  among  them, 
an  interpreter.  After  five  days'  journey  they 
came  to  Sacca,  a  region  where  war  was  raging- 
between  the  villagers,  and  they  were  soon  sur- 
rounded by  two  hundred  armed  men,  and  Mr. 
Lyman  was  shot  and  Mr.  Munson  pierced  with  a 
spear.  A  terrible  punishment  was  inflicted  on 
the  murderers.  The  people  of  the  neighboring 
villages  having  learned  that  the  strangers  were 
good  men,  who  had  come  to  benefit  the  Batta 
people,  leagued  together,  burnt  the  village  of 
Sacca,  killing  many  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
destroyed  their  gardens  and  fields.  The  death 
of  these  men  produced  a  deep  sensation  through- 
out the  Christian  world.  Mr.  Lyman  was  the 
author  of  Condition  of  Females  in  Pagan  Countries. 
Lyman  (Miss),   The  Martyr  of  Sumatra,  New  York,   1856; 

Thompson  (W.),  Samuel  Munson  and  Henry  Lyman,  New 

York,  1839. 


M 


MABUMBU:  A  village  on  the  highlands  E.  of 
the  Zambesi  valley,  Africa,  situated  13  miles  E. 
by  N.  of  Lialuyi.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Mission  Society  (1899),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 1  native  worker,  and  1  day  school. 

MACAO:  A  town  on  an  island  of  the  same 
name  in  Canton  River,  China,  situated  38  miles 
W.  by  S.  of  Hongkong.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts — Chinese  and  Portuguese.  It  was  here 
that  Camoens  composed  much  of  his  Lusiad  in 
1559.  The  town  was  rented  to  the  Portuguese 
in  1856,  but  the  treaty  was  revoked  in  1868,  and 
the  Portuguese  now  hold  Macao  with  two  adja- 
cent islands  as  a  colonial  possession.  Popula- 
tion (1896),  78,627,  of  whom  74,568  are  Chinese. 
Mission  station  of  the  CA.  The  Canton  College 
(PN)  is  temporarily  established  at  Macao. 

MACASSAR  LANGUAGE:  A  Malayan  dialect, 
spoken  in  the  island  of  Celebes,  Dutch  East 
Indies.  It  is  written  with  characters  special  to 
the  dialect.  The  full  form  of  the  name  is 
Maugkasar. 

MACEDONIA :  Name  given  by  foreigners  to  the 
Turkish  provinces  of  Kosovo,  Monastir,  and  Sa- 
lonica,  in  the  main  coincident  with  a  part  of  the 
ancient  Macedonia.  Mission  work  is  carried  on 
there  by  the  ABCFM,  the  Church  of  Scotland 
missions  to  the  Jews,  and  the  BFBS. 

MACEDONIAN-ROUMANIAN  LANGUAGE:  A 
dialect  of  the  Roumanian,  which  is  spoken  by 
Wallachs  settled  in  European  Turkey.  When 
written,  the  Slavic  (Cyrillian)  letters  in  their 
modern  form,  or  modified  Roman  letters,  are 
used. 

MACFARLAN:  A  town  of  Cape  Colony,  Africa, 
situated  12  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Alice.  Station  of 
the  UFS,  with  (1903)  16  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations,  1  place  of  worship,  7  day  schools,  and 
564  professed  Christians. 

MACKAY,  Alexander  M. :  Born  at  Rhynie, 
Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  October  13,  1849;  a  son 
of  a  minister  of  the  Free  Church.     At  three  years 


of  age  he  read  the  New  Testament;  at  seven, 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  Gibbon's  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  Robertson's  His- 
tory of  the  Discovery  of  America.  His  father 
taught  him  geography,  astronomy,  and  geometry, 
stopping  in  their  walks  to  demonstrate  a  propo- 
sition of  Euclid,  or  illustrate  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  or  trace  the  course  of  a  newly 
discovered  river  of  the  Dark  Continent  with  his 
cane  in  the  sand.  He  listened  with  interest  to 
letters  and  conversations  of  men  of  science,  as- 
Hugh  Miller,  Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  and  others, 
who  were  sometimes  visitors  at  the  manse,  some- 
times in  correspondence  with  his  father.  He 
chose  engineering  as  his  profession,  and  for  some 
time  he  was  draughtsman  and  designer  to  a  large 
engineering  establishment  in  Berlin.  In  1875,  in 
response  to  an  appeal  from  the  CMS  for  a  practical 
business  man  to  go  to  Mombasa,  he  offered  him- 
self, but  another  person  had  been  secured.  Later 
in  the  year  an  oiler  of  a  highly  lucrative  secular 
position  was  made  him,  but  he  declined  it,  that 
he  might  be  ready,  when  the  Lord  should  permit 
him,  to  go  to  the  heathen.  Early  the  next  year 
he  was  appointed  by  the  CMS  to  go  to  the  Vic- 
toria Nyanza,  reaching  Zanzibar  May  29,  1876. 
In  November,  on  the  march  through  Ugogo,  he 
was  taken  very  ill,  and  was  sent  back  by  Dr. 
Smith,  but  recovered  before  reaching  the  coast. 
Instructed  by  the  secretary  not  to  return  before 
the  close  of  the  rainy  season,  he  constructed  230 
miles  of  road  to  Mpwapwa.  In  November,  1878, 
he  reached  Uganda.  Alluding  to  the  kind  treat- 
ment he  had  received  from  the  natives,  he  says: 
"Wherever  I  find  myself  in  Stanley's  track,  I  find 
his  treatment  of  the  natives  has  invariably  been 
such  as  to  win  from  them  the  highest  respect  for 
the  face  of  a  white  man."  Mr.  Mackay  had 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  Swahili  language, 
and  was  able  immediately  to  print  portions  of  the 
Scriptures  (cutting  the  type  himself),  and  to  read 
and  explain  them  to  the  king  and  his  people. 
King  Mtesa  showed  much  interest  in  the  truth. 
In  1884  the  native  church  consisted  of  86  mem- 


419 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Lydeiibnrsf 
Madagascar 


bers.  But  in  that  year  King  Mtesa  died,  being 
succeeded  by  his  son  Mwanga,  who  proved  to  be 
weak  and  vacillating,  lending  himsen  now  to  the 
Mohammedan  and  now  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
party,  persecuting  the  evangelicals,  and  often 
threatening  Mr.  Mackay  with  expulsion.  But 
Mr.  Mackay  held  his  ground,  and  was  allowed  for 
a  time  to  continue  his  work,  his  skill  as  an 
engineer  and  mechanic,  of  which  the  king  often 
availed  himself,  helping  to  secure  his  favor.  In 
1886  the  persecution  broke  out  again,  many 
under  great  tortures  exhibiting  a  Christian  forti- 
tude and  heroism  unsurpassed  in  apostolic  times. 
In  1887  the  Arabs  succeeded  m  persuading 
Mwanga  to  expel  Mr.  Mackay.  Having  locked 
the  mission  premises,  he  embarked  July  20  for 
the  southern  end  of  the  lake,  making  his  abode  at 
Usambiro.  Here  he  remained  for  three  years, 
translating  and  printing  the  Scriptures,  teaching 
the  Christian  refugees  from  Uganda,  instructing 
the  natives  of  the  district,  as  far  as  he  could,  with 
an  imperfect  knowledge  of  their  language,  and 
working  at  house-building,  brick-making,  and 
the  construction  of  a  steam-launch  with  which  to 
navigate  the  lake.  He  was  attacked  with  malarial 
fever,  and  died  February  8,  1890.  Mr.  Mackay 
utilized  the  knowledge  of  both  classical  and 
modern  languages  in  reducing  the  vernacular  of 
Uganda  to  writing.  He  was  a  born  leader  of 
men,  as  gentle  as  he  was  brave.  He  was  no  mere 
industrial  and  civilizing  missionary,  and  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  evangelistic  work  of  the 
mission. 

MACKENZIE,  J.  Kenneth,  M.D.:  A  medical 
missionary  of  the  LMS;  was  first  appointed  to 
Hankau;  he  took  charge  of  the  mission  hospital 
there  till  1878,  when  in  the  autumn  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Tientsin.  A  dispensary  was  opened  in 
the  Viceroy  Li  Hung  Chang's  theater,  with  a 
female  department,  and  large  subscriptions  were 
made  by  the  Viceroy  and  other  high  officers 
toward  the  building  of  a  hospital.  In  1881  the 
hospital,  on  the  premises  of  the  London  Mission, 
was  opened  by  the  Viceroy,  and  plans  were 
adopted  for  a  medical  school,  to  which  the 
students  formerly  sent  to  the  United  States  of 
America  by  the  government  were  sent  to  be 
trained  as  doctors,  and  a  thorough  organization 
of  a  medical  staff  for  the  Chinese  army  and  navy 
was  in  course  of  formation.  Amid  his  arduous 
duties  Dr.  Mackenzie  found  time  to  pursue  evan- 
gelistic work,  both  among  the  poor  patients  and 
those  "in  Caesar's  household,"  for  the  favor  of 
the  Viceroy  secured  him  access  to  many  of  the 
high  officials.  The  work  at  Tientsin  grew  and 
enlarged,  so  that  in  his  last  report,  1887,  he  gave 
the  number  in  attendance  at  the  dispensary  as 
13,799,  in-patients  in  the  hospital  591,  and  9 
medical  students.  He  was  called  suddenly 
away  from  his  work  by  death,  April  1,  1888. 

MACLEAG:  A  settlement  on  Lake  Alexandrina 
S.  E.  of  Adelaide,  South  Australia;  it  was  founded 
in  1858  by  the  Scotchman,  Taplin,  who  translated 
parts  of  the  Bible  into  Narrinyeri,  wrote  a  gram- 
mar of  the  tongue,  and  made  a  careful  study  of  22 
native  dialects. 

MACLEAR:  A  town  of  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  Griqualand  East.  Station  of 
the  Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  (1896),  and 
SPG,  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  5  native  workers, 
3  outstations,  3  chapels,  3  day  schools,  and  116 
Christians. 


MACUATA:  A  settlement  on  the  S.  side  of 
Vanua  Levu,  Fiji  Islands,  situated  near  Cacau- 
drove.  Station  of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Mis- 
sion, with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

MADAGASCAR :  An  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
nearly  parallel  with  the  eastern  coast  of  South 
Africa,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mozam- 
bique Channel,  which  varies  in  width  from  220  to 
540  miles.  Its  northernmost  point  is  in  11°  57' 
30"  south  latitude,  and  the  southernmost  is  in 
25°  38'  55"  south  latitude.  Its  breadth  is  at  the 
widest  point  over  7°  of  longitude.  Its  extreme 
length  is  975  miles,  and  its  breadth  varies  from 
250  to  350  miles.  Its  area  is  about  230,000 
English  square  miles.  It  is  the  third  largest 
island  in  the  world,  ranking  only  below  Borneo 
and  New  Guinea. 

Madagascar  has  a  coast-line  of  over  2,000  miles, 
and  on  the  northwestern,  northern,  and  north- 
eastern coasts  there  are  many  good  and  some 
excellent  harbors;  but  south  of  latitude  19° 
there  are  very  few  roadsteads  where  a  vessel  can 
ride  in  safety,  either  on  the  east  or  west  coast. 

The  island  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  has  many 
extinct  volcanoes  and  some  which,  if  not  now 
active,  have  been  so  within  the  historic  period. 
Its  general  structure  includes  three  or  four  ranges 
of  mountains,  not  parallel,  but  extending  from 
north  to  south,  with  many  spurs;  these  are  in 
the  central  portions  of  the  island,  tho  nearer  to 
the  east  than  the  west  coast.  Some  of  the  ranges 
extend  nearly  to  the  northern  limit  of  the  island, 
and  others  to  the  southern  coast.  This  moun- 
tainous region  constitutes  the  finest  portion  of 
the  island.  Immediately  below  this  region  is  a 
forest  region  varying  in  latitude  from  1,800  to 
4,000  feet,  and  in  breadth  from  30  to  50  miles. 
From  the  forest  belt  to  the  coast  extends  the 
alluvial  region,  flat,  low,  and  marshy,  and  from 
20  to  30  miles  wide  on  the  east  coast,  but  from  40 
to  60  on  the  west  coast.  It  is  sickly  and  hot,  the 
decaying  vegetation  producing  fevers  and  mias- 
matic diseases. 

The  climate  is  temperate  and  healthful  in  the 
highland  provinces,  the  temperature  rarely 
above  85°  F.  or  below  40°  F.,  except  in  the 
mountains,  where  it  sinks  to  32°  at  night  perhaps 
once  or  twice  in  a  year.  In  the  forest  belt,  less 
healthful  and  more  moist,  and  at  times  hot;  in  the 
more  open  timber  the  climate  is  delightful.  In 
the  littoral  region  the  heat  is  intense,  and  the 
Malagasy  fever  prevails,  and  very  often  proves 
fatal  to  those  who  are  not  fully  acclimated. 

Natural  History  and  Products:  Madagascar  is 
remarkable  in  its  zoology.  There  are  no  great 
beasts  of  prey.  The  lemur  takes  the  place  of  the 
various  families  of  monkeys;  there  are  several 
species  of  ant-eaters,  two  or  three  civet  cats,  the 
aye-aye,  an  animal  found  nowhere  else,  and 
there  are  several  rodents.  Reptiles  are  numer- 
ous, but,  except  the  crocodile  and  three  or  four 
species  of  pythons,  are  generally  harmless. 
Birds  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  of  beauti- 
ful plumage.  About  two-thirds  of  the  birds  are 
peculiar  to  the  island. 

The  fish  are  plentiful,  and  many  of  them  of 
edible  species.  Most  of  the  domestic  animals 
have  been  introduced,  and  cattle  and  sheep  are 
raised  and  exported  in  great  numbers.  Wild 
dogs  are  so  numerous  as  to  be  a  pest. 

The  flora  of  Madagascar  is  abundant,  and 
about  700  out  of  3,000  species  are  peculiar  to 
the    island.     Many    of    them    are    of    exquisite 


\  i 


Madagascar 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


420 


beauty.  It  is  a  paradise  for  the  orchids,  more 
and  more  beautiful  species  being  found  here  than 
in  all  other  countries.  The  forests  abound  in 
peculiar  and  valuable  timber. 

Ethnology  and  Tribal  Divisions:  The  origin  of 
the  Malagasy  and  their  race  affinities  with  the 
other  Oriental  nations  have  led  to  great  con- 
troversies among  the  most  eminent  ethnologists. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  original  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island  were  from  some  of  the  African 
races,  and  most  probably  Zulus  or  Kaffirs.  Tho 
■dark,  they  seem  to  have  been  negritos  rather  than 
negroes.  A  small  remnant  of  them  were  still 
living  in  1843,  and  it  is  believed  that  a  few  are 
yet  to  be  found  in  the  southwest. 

In  regard  to  the  present  inhabitants  of  the 
island,  known  as  the  Malagasy,  these  facts  are 
settled:  They  all  speak  the  same  language,  the 
dialects  differing  no  more  than  the  Yorkshire  and 
Lancashire  do  in  England;  and  this  language  is 
of  very  close  kindred  with  the  Malay.  There  is  a 
marked  difference  in  color,  features,  and  hair 
among  the  different  tribes:  some  are  of  fine 
stature  and  physique,  but  very  dark,  with  curly 
or  frizzly  black  hair;  their  features  are  more 
Polynesian  than  negro;  others  are  of  lighter  com- 
plexion, with  straight  or  very  slightly  curled  hair, 
generally  of  good  height,  and  well  formed.  The 
Hovas,  who  have  been  the  ruling  tribe,  are  gen- 
erally somewhat  below  the  middle  stature,  of  a 
light-olive  complexion,  frequently  fairer  than  the 
Spaniards,  Portuguese,  or  Italians.  Their  hair  is 
black,  but  soft,  fine,  and  straight  or  curling; 
their  eyes  are  hazel,  their  figures  erect  and, 
tho  small,  well  proportioned;  the  hands  and  feet 
small,  and  their  gait  and  movements  agile,  free, 
and  graceful. 

The  theory  of  their  origin  which  is  best  sup- 
ported seems  to  be  that  these  tribes  are  of  Ma- 
layan or  Malayo-Polynesian  stock;  that  they 
came  to  the  island  at  different  times,  crowding 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  before  them,  and  in 
the  case  of  the  Betsileo  tribes  south  of  Imerina, 
perhaps,  intermarrying  with  them. 

In  1810  the  principal  tribes  of  Madagascar 
were:  1.  The  Sakalava,  divided  into  the  north- 
ern and  southern  tribes,  occupying  the  western 
coast  and  including  many  smaller  clans;  their 
members  were  estimated  at  1,500,000.  2.  The 
Betsimisaraka,  with  several  clans,  and  including 
the  Betanimena,  occupying  the  east  coast,  about 
1,500,000  more.  3.  The  Sihanaka  and  Tanka- 
rana,  northeast  provinces;  about  500,000.  4.  The 
Bara  and  Tanala  and  some  smaller  tribes,  in  the 
southeast,  500,000.  5.  Imerina,  the  land  of  the 
Hovas,  then  about  600,000;  and  6.  The  Betsileo, 
1,200,000.  The  last  two  were  the  highland 
provinces. 

Social  and  Religious  Conditions:  Tho  discov- 
ered in  medieval  times,  no  effort  was  made  by 
Europeans  to  explore  or  colonize  Madagascar  till 
1506,  when  the  Portuguese,  after  some  explora- 
tion in  1540,  undertook  to  enslave  and  Chris- 
tianize its  inhabitants.  They  made  repeated 
efforts  to  this  end  in  the  next  hundred  years, 
landing  small  colonies  and  establishing  trading- 
posts,  whence  they  sold  the  people  who  came 
under  their  power  as  slaves.  These  natives  were 
Sakalavas,  who  did  not  choose  to  be  the  prey  of 
European  slave-dealers,  and  massacred  the  Por- 
tuguese colonists  and  priests  in  1548,  1585,  1600, 
and  1615.  The  English  and  Dutch  made  several 
attempts  to  plant  colonies  at  various  points  on 


the  coast  of  the  island  between  1595  and  1640. 
Both  nations  were  at  that  time  engaged  in  the 
slave  trade. 

In  1642  the  French  undertook  to  colonize  Mad- 
agascar, and  within  the  next  170  years  they  had 
organized  several  great  companies  or  societies, 
and  planted  many  colonies,  in  which  Lazarist 
and  Jesuit  priests  were  always  conspicuous;  but 
owing  to  their  maintenance  of  the  slave-trade, 
and  their  treacherous  dealings  with  the  natives, 
four  or  five  of  these  colonies  were  attacked  and 
massacred.  The  last  qf  these  societies  was  obliged, 
in  1686,  to  surrender  its  charter  and  its  whole 
property  to  Louis  XIV.,  King  of  France,  who 
claimed,  but  never  exercised,  authority  over  it. 
For  the  next  thirty  or  thirty-five  years  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  was  the  most  for- 
midable rendezvous  of  pirates  who  infested  the 
Indian  Ocean.  They  treated  the  natives  well, 
and  several  of  the  tribes  were  on  friendly  terms 
with  them;  but  their  rendezvous  was  finally 
broken  up  in  1723.  It  was  not  until  1754  that 
another  attempt  was  made  by  the  French  to 
plant  a  colony  in  Madagascar,  and  this  was 
broken  up  by  a  massacre;  and  during  the  war 
between  France  and  England,  in  the  year  1811, 
the  only  two  remaining  trading-posts,  Tamatave 
and  Foule  Point,  with  a  mere  handful  of  men  in 
each,  were  surrendered  to  the  English,  as  the 
sole  possessions  of  France  in  Madagascar. 

In  all  these  170  years  of  French  occupancy 
there  is  no  mention  of  more  than  one  Malagasy 
convert.  He  had  been  taken  to  France  and 
educated,  and  was  killed  by  his  own  countrymen 
with  some  French  priests  murdered  in  1663. 
Tlie  social  condition  of  these  tribes  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century  was  deplorable.  They 
were  in  continuous  war  with  each  other,  taking 
captives  to  sell  as  slaves  to  any  foreign  merchant 
who  was  willing  to  buy.  In  fact,  the  staples  of 
Madagascan  trade  being  slaves  and  rum,  the 
state  of  morals  was  as  low  as  it  could  be. 

The  religious  system  of  the  Malagasy  exercised 
no  influence  on  their  moral  natures,  and  indeed 
made  no  pretense  of  doing  so.  It  was  simply 
supposed  to  confer  upon  them  temporal  benefits; 
why  or  for  what  service  on  their  part  does  not 
appear.  Their  religious  system  was  not  as  arti- 
ficial or  philosophical  as  that  of  many  heathen 
nations.  They  believed  in  a  supreme  being  who 
ruled  over  all;  they  also  had  an  idea  of  subordi- 
nate deities,  who  ruled  over  certain  places,  per- 
sons, or  interests.  They  also  paid  a  sort  of 
homage  to  their  deceased  ancestors,  but  reared 
no  temples  or  statues  to  them.  There  being  no 
idol  temples,  there  were  few  idolatrous  proces- 
sions, no  priestly  class  in  rich  robes  and  exerting 
almost  regal  power. 

In  the  place  of  priests  were  "medicinemen," 
who  were  masters  of  divination,  and  who  pro- 
fessed to  discover  crime  by  the  ordeal  of  admin- 
istering poison  to  the  suspected  one.  As  to 
religious  worship  in  public,  on  certain  great 
feasts,  such  as  the  new  year,  the  curious  fetishes 
which  served  for  idols  were  brought  out  and 
during  five  days  were  carried  about  in  procession. 
Meantime  all  law  was  in  abeyance  and  the  most 
horrible  licentiousness  prevailed. 

The  government  of  the  various  tribes  was  by 
chiefs.  It  was  not  necessarily  hereditary,  tho 
confined  to  the  class  of  nobles  (Andriana),  and 
was  as  often,  perhaps,  in  the  female  as  in  the 
male  line,   and  there  was  much  intrigue,  and 


4S1 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Mada^aacar 


sometimes  bloodshed,  before  the  ruler  was 
selected.  Once  on  the  throne,  however,  the 
chief's  government  was  an  absolute  despotism, 
sometimes  "tempered  by  assassination."  Tliere 
was  no  written  language  in  any  of  the  tribes;  the 
decrees  of  the  sovereign  were  promulgated  by 
heralds.  The  government  was  feudal  in  its  char- 
acter; the  chief  and  the  nobles  held  the  tribe  in 
bondage;  they  owned  all  the  land,  and  the  people 
as  well;  if  either  the  ruler  or  the  nobles  required 
any  work  done,  the  clansmen  were  called  out  and 
required  to  perform  the  service,  providing  them- 
selves with  food  and  clothing  for  the  time 
required.  This  forced  service  was  called  janom- 
poana,  and  it  existed  in  a  modified  form  until 
some  time  after  Madagascar  became  a  French 
colony. 

For  the  most  part,  during  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries,  the  Sakalavas,  who  were  divided  into 
two  great  tribes — the  Northern  and  Southern 
Sakalavas — seem  to  have  been  in  the  ascendancy. 
The  Hovas  and  Betsileos  were  at  this  time 
unlcnown  to  the  outside  world.  Neither  the 
Portuguese,  the  French,  the  Dutch,  nor  the 
English  had  ever  heard  of  them  except  in  terms 
of  contempt.  They  were  the  dogs,  the  slaves  of 
the  Sakalavas.  But  in  1785  an  Andrian,  or 
chief,  of  the  Hovas,  called  Impoinimerina  (the 
desire  of  Imerina),  succeeded  in  uniting  the 
divided  clans  of  the  province  of  Imerina  under 
his  own  authority,  and  by  his  superior  abilities 
and  diplomacy  gained  to  his  cause  several  of  the 
smaller  adjacent  tribes;  but  while  he  proceeded 
to  subdue  most  of  the  forest  tribes,  he  was  yet 
compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Sakalava  of  the 
western  coast.  Between  1808  and  1810  he  died, 
and  his  son,  trained  in  part  by  Arab  teachers, 
and  not  over  17  years  of  age,  was  proclaimed  as 
Radama,  King  of  the  Hovas. 

Radama  was  a  very  remarkable  man.  It  was 
his  purpose  from  the  day  he  ascended  the  throne 
to  throw  off  the  Sakalava  yoke  and  make  himself 
king  of  Madagascar.  To  carry  out  this  purpose 
he  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the  English  Governor 
of  Mauritius,  Sir  Robert  Farquhar,  by  which  in 
return  for  a  promise  to  suppress  the  export  of 
slaves  from  Madagascar,  the  king  was  to  receive 
yearly  from  the  British  Government  money, 
arms,  ammunition,  etc.,  etc.  This  treaty  was 
ratified  after  much  difficulty  October  11,  1820. 
Meanwhile,  early  in  1818,  without  waiting 
for  the  final  ratification  of  the  treaty,  the  LMS 
sent  two  missionaries,  Rev.  S.  Bevan  and  D. 
Jones,  with  their  families,  as  their  first  mission- 
aries to  Madagascar.  Messrs.  Bevan  and  Jones 
landed  at  Tamatave  August  18,  leaving  their 
families  in  Mauritius.  They  were  kindly  received 
by  some  of  the  chiefs,  and  collected  together  a 
number  of  children,  whom  they  taught,  and 
made  some  studies  in  the  language.  Two  months 
later  they  brought  their  families  to  Andovoranto, 
on  the  coast,  where  a  station  was  established. 
But  soon  all  were  attacked  with  the  deadly  Mada- 
gascar fever,  and  before  two  months  had  passed 
_Mr,  Jones  was  the  sole  survivor  of  the  two  fam- 
ilies. Mr.  Jones  was  obliged  to  go  to  Mauritius 
to  recuperate,  and  did  not  return  to  Madagascar 
until  October  4,  1820.  King  Radama  welcomed 
him  cordially,  and  gave  the  fullest  permission  for 
English  Protestant  missionaries  to  settle  at  his 
capital.  The  LMS,  awake  to  their  great  oppor- 
tunity, sent  forward  their  missionaries,  teachers, 
and  artisans  as  rapidly  as  practicable,  and  very 


soon  the  mission  work  was  actively  prosecuted  in 
all  directions.  The  first  work,  of  course,  was  the 
acquisition  of  the  language  and  its  reduction  to 
writing.  The  missionary  teachers  were  prepar- 
ing books  in  the  Malagasy  language;  the  artisans 
were  teaching  the  people  carpentry,  weaving, 
tanning,  and  blacksmith  work;  and  a  printing- 
press  having  been  sent  out,  and  fonts  of  Malagasy 
type  cast  in  England,  they  were  soon  printing 
school-books  and  portions  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
instructing  the  young  and  teachable  Malagasy 
boys  in  the  art  of  printing.  No  missionaries  ever 
worked  harder,  and  none  had  more  evident  mani- 
festations of  tlie  divine  blessing  on  their  labors. 
Necessarily,  the  schools  held  a  prominent  posi- 
tion in  their  work  for  the  first  few  years.  Nearly 
100  schools  were  established  in  the  capital  and  its 
vicinity,  and  between  4,000  and  5,000  pupils  of 
both  sexes  passed  tlirough  them  before  1828, 
having  received  tlie  elements  of  a  good  education. 
The  instruction  in  the  arts  and  trades  was  also 
making  great  progress.  A  church  was  organized 
from  the  English  residents  in  the  capital,  and  tho 
small  in  numbers,  it  was  very  active  in  Cliristian 
work,  and  those  who  understood  the  Malagasy 
tongue  were  encouraged  to  gather  the  young 
Hovas  for  religious  instruction  and  singing.  Two 
congregations  of  natives  for  Christian  worship 
were  formed  in  Antananarivo,  and  very  fully 
attended;  others  were  formed  in  villages  around 
the  capital.  In  January,  1828,  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Luke  m  Malagasy  was  put  to  press,  and  other 
portions  of  the  Scriptures  were  printed  as  rapidly 
as  they  could  be  properly  prepared. 

It  was  at  this  time,  when  the  missionaries  were 
beginning  to  feel  encouraged  at  the  great  success 
which  seemed  to  be  within  their  grasp,  that  King 
Radama  died,  on  the  27th  of  July,  1828.  Rad- 
ama was  not  a  Christian,  and  his  death,  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty-six,  was  undoubtedly  due  to 
his  excesses.  But  he  had  many  good  traits:  he 
was  patriotic,  manly,  and  truthful;  he  was  far- 
sighted;  ambition  led  him  to  desire  the  improve- 
ment and  elevation  of  his  people,  and  without 
any  convictions  of  the  necessity  of  personal  relig- 
ion, he  was  persuaded  that  Christianity  would  be 
better  for  his  people  than  heathenism.  The  loss 
of  such  a  ruler,  at  such  a  time,  seemed  the 
severest  blow  which  could  be  inflicted  upon  this 
infant  mission.  Radama  had  selected  his 
nephew  as  his  successor,  if  he  left  no  son;  but  one 
of  his  twelve  wives  contrived  to  secure  the  throne, 
which  she  ascended  as  Ranavalona  I.  Her  first 
official  act  was  the  putting  to  death  of  all  the 
near  relatives  of  the  late  king,  and  all  the  officers 
who  had  been  most  attached  to  him.  Some  of 
these  were  speared,  but  others  of  the  highest  rank, 
and  among  them  the  mother  and  sister  of  Rad- 
ama, and  the  husband  of  the  latter,  were  starved 
to  death.  No  one  was  left  alive  who  could  con- 
test her  claim  to  the  throne.  The  British  resi- 
dent, Mr.  Lyall,  was  ordered  to  leave  the  country 
at  a  few  hours'  notice,  and  his  family  were  sub- 
jected to  gross  insults.  The  missionaries  and 
their  followers  were  naturally  alarmed  at  these 
indications  of  a  coming  storm  of  persecution. 

In  1829-1831  the  queen  was  engaged  in  war 
with  the  French,  whom  she  defeated.  The  revo- 
lution in  France  prevented  a  renewal  of  the 
invasion,  and  the  queen  turned  her  armies  upon 
the  coast  tribes,  ravaging  their  lands  and 
slaughtering  the  inhabitants  during  three  years. 

During  this  period  she  found  little  time  to 


Madagascar 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


422 


persecute  the  Christians,  among  whom  she 
believed  there  were  very  few  natives;  while  she 
hated  the  missionaries,  she  was  disposed  for  a 
time  to  allow  them  to  improve  the  condition  of 
the  people.  Accordingly,  at  the  end  of  six 
months  after  Radama's  death,  the  missionaries 
were  permitted  to  resume  their  labors,  and  the 
schools,  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  and 
other  books  and  their  printing  went  forward 
rapidly;  the  New  Testament  translation  was 
completed,  and  soon  after,  by  the  aid  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  its  printing 
was  commenced.  Through  the  children  in  the 
schools,  and  those  who  had  gone  out  from  them, 
these  portions  of  the  Scriptures  were  widely  cir- 
culated; and  when  in  1832  all  the  boys  above 
thirteen  years  of  age  in  the  schools  were  drafted 
into  the  army,  large  quantities  of  these  and  other 
good  books  were  widely  circulated.  In  1833  not 
less  than  15,000  copies  of  parts  of  the  Scriptures 
were  finished,  and  upward  of  6,000  of  them  were 
sent  out. 

Meantime  there  were  many  converts.  On  the 
29th  of  May  Mr.  Griffiths  baptized  twenty,  and 
the  first  native  church  was  formed.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  months  there  were  several 
churches  with  nearly  2,000  members.  Then  the 
queen  withdrew  the  permission  to  baptize  con- 
verts, forbade  the  use  of  wine  at  communion,  and 
those  of  her  officials  who  had  been  baptized  were 
put  into  inferior  positions.  Before  1833  the 
attempt  was  made  to  divest  the  education  given 
in  the  schools  of  any  religious  character.  In 
July,  1834,  the  queen  forbade  any  native  except 
those  in  the  government  service  to  learn  to  read 
or  write.  This  and  other  proclamations  indi- 
cated that  the  whole  force  of  the  queen's  dis- 
pleasure was  to  be  visited  on  the  native  Chris- 
tians; and  a  few  who  had  manifested  some 
friendship  for  the  Christians  (tho  not  one  of  those 
who  had  received  baptism)  began  to  withdraw 
from  them,  and  associate  with  the  heathen  por- 
tions of  the  community. 

Ratsimanisa,  who  had  been  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army,  and  about  this  time  became 
prime  minister  to  the  queen,  was  the  chief  per- 
secutor, and  prompted  her  to  greater  cruelties 
than  even  her  brutal  nature  demanded.  It  was 
clear  to  him  that  if  Christianity  was  not  arrested 
the  idolatry  of  the  country  would  be  overturned, 
and  the  customs  of  their  ancestors  forgotten;  and 
in  January,  1835,  at  his  instigation,  a  formal 
accusation  was  made  against  the  Christians, 
before  the  chief  judges  of  the  Hovas,  and  the 
following  charges  were  preferred:  1st.  They 
despise  the  idols;  2d.  They  are  always  praying; 
3d.  They  will  not  swear,  but  merely  affirm;  4th. 
Their  women  are  chaste;  5th.  They  are  of  one 
mind  with  regard  to  their  religion;  6th.  They 
observe  the  Sabbath  as  a  sacred  day.  It  seems 
that  their  enemies  could  allege  nothing  against 
them,  "except  it  were  concerning  the  law  of  their 
God." 

Five  of  the  missionaries  were  now  ordered  to 
leave  the  island  on  the  ground  that  their  permits 
of  residence  had  expired.  On  the  26th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1835,  several  officers,  headed  by  Ratsi- 
manisa, entered  the  chapel  at  Ambatonakanga 
in  the  capital  and  read  a  letter  from  the  queen 
addressed  to  the  missionaries,  forbidding  relig- 
ious worship,  the  rite  of  baptism,  and  the  assem- 
bling of  a  society,  to  her  subjects.  The  Euro- 
peans were  permitted  to  follow  their  own  cus- 


toms and  religious  practises,  but  they  could  not 
be  allowed  to  teach  them  to  the  subjects  of 
Ranavalona.  They  would  be  allowed  to  teach 
such  arts  and  sciences  as  would  be  beneficial  to 
her  subjects,  but  nothing  beyond  these. 

A  great  mass  meeting,  or  kahary,  of  all  the  peo- 
ple was  now  called  for  March  1.  There  was 
firing  of  cannon  and  musketry,  and  the  soldiers 
surrounded  the  multitude  to  inspire  them  with 
terror,  and  then  the  principal  judge  addressed 
the  kahary,  delivering  a  long  message  from  the 
queen,  calling  upon  all  who  had  been  baptized, 
all  who  had  worshiped  and  kept  the  Sabbath,  or 
had  entered  into  a  Christian  society,  to  come 
forward  and  accuse  themselves,  and  confess  such 
crimes,  under  pain  of  death.  Ratsimanisa  re- 
peated the  substance  of  the  queen's  royal  message, 
and  some  of  the  head  men  replied  to  it  with  ser- 
vility. Others  seemed  reluctant  to  make  reply, 
when  Rainiharo,  one  of  the  queen's  chief  officers, 
and  for  twenty-five  years  a  prime  minister,  the 
bitterest  of  persecutors,  said  that  unless  the 
guilty  came  forward  within  a  month  to  accuse 
themselves,  the  officers  and  judges  would  cut  off 
their  heads.  The  queen  reduced  the  time  for  con- 
fession to  a  week.  About  two  thousand  con- 
fessed, and  on  the  9th  of  March,  1835,  she 
pronounced  sentence  on  them.  Some  hundreds 
of  Christian  officers  were  degraded  and  about 
1,600  persons  not  in  government  service  were 
fined,  while  any  Malagasy  seen  in  company  with 
a  missionary  was  ordered  to  be  put  in  chains. 
All  portions  of  the  Scriptures  and  other  religious 
books  were  ordered  to  be  given  up,  under  the 
severest  penalties;  but  many  were  concealed, 
and  gave  comfort  to  the  persecuted  ones  in  after 
years.  All  religious  meetings  were  prohibited, 
and  spies  commissioned  to  hunt  the  Christians 
and  their  forbidden  books. 

Altho  in  June  and  August,  1835,  Messrs.  Cam- 
eron, Freeman,  Chick,  and  Kitching  left  Mada- 
gascar by  order  of  the  queen.  Rev.  Messrs.  D. 
Johns  and  E.  Baker  remained  to  give  what  com- 
fort and  help  they  could  to  the  little  band  of 
faithful  disciples.  They  also  determined  to  com- 
plete the  translation  and  printing  of  the  entire 
Scriptures  and  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress.  Their 
Malagasy  printers  and  compositors  had  been 
compelled  to  leave  them,  but  they  toiled  on  till 
they  had  completed  both  books,  and  printed  an 
edition  of  about  one  thousand  copies,  which  were 
soon  absorbed  by  the  Christians,  who  concealed 
them,  as  far  as  possible,  from  the  government 
spies.  Probably  the  larger  part  were  eventually 
confiscated,  but  a  considerable  number  came  to 
light  after  Ranavalona's  death.  Being  again 
ordered  to  leave  the  island,  Messrs.  Johns  and 
Baker  departed  in  July,  1836,  but  not  till  they 
had  bid  the  converts  an  affectionate  farewell, 
preaching  at  great  risk  in  the  old  chapel  at 
Ambatonakanga  from  the  text,  "Lord,  save  us; 
we  perish."  They  retreated  to  Mauritius,  but 
Mr.  Johns,  at  least,  visited  the  island  more  than 
once,  and  in  1840  penetrated  to  the  capital, 
where  he  found  to  his  sorrow  that  many  of  the 
disciples  had  been  called  to  suffer  martyrdom, 
while  nine  at  the  time  of  his  visit  were  put  to 
death  at  Ambohipotsy.  Mr.  Johns  made  great 
efforts  to  secure  the  escape  of  some  of  the  Chris- 
tian fugitives  to  Mauritius.  A  few  did  escape 
but  the  strict  watch  kept  up  by  the  queen  ren- 
dered it  almost  impossible  for  them  to  evade  her 
spies.     In    1843    Mr.    Johns    again    visited   the 


423 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Madaerascar 


French  island  of  Nosi-B^,  near  the  northwestern 
coast  of  Madagascar,  but  succumbed  to  the 
fever,  and  died  a  martyr  to  his  zeal  for  the 
rescue  of  the  Malagasy  converts. 

Greatly  to  the  astonishment  of  Queen  Rana- 
valona,  her  plan  for  extinguishing  Christianity 
in  Madagascar  signally  failed.  She  had  closed 
the  schools;  prohibited  all  religious  meetings; 
sent  away  all  the  missionaries;  confiscated  all  the 
Scriptures  and  religious  books  she  could  find; 
degraded,  fined,  and  whipped  the  Christians,  and 
"threatened  them  with  severer  punishments;  and 
yet  their  number  was  increasing  every  day.  She 
determined  upon  severer  measures,  for  she  had 
sworn  a  solemn  oath  to  root  out  Christianity  if 
she  had  to  put  every  Christian  to  death. 

Early  in  1836  Rafaravavy,  a  woman  of  high 
Tank,  was  accused  of  Christianity,  and  was  con- 
demned to  death;  but  the  queen,  being  alarmed 
by  a  great  fire  in  the  capital,  spared  her  life,  but 
fined  her  heavily.  The  avowed  executions  for 
professing  Christianity  did  not  begin  until 
August,  1837,  when  a  prayer-meeting  was  dis- 
covered and  broken  up.  The  storm  of  perse- 
cution now  increased  in  violence,  and  a  large 
number  of  Christians  were  condemned  to  death. 
There  were  many  hundreds  of  these  sufferers 
for  Christ's  sake,  but  none  of  them  turned  back 
"to  the  vile  life  of  the  heathen;  and,  what  was 
especially  astonishing  to  the  queen,  there  were 
scores  of  adherents  to  the  new  faith  for  every  one 
whom  she  put  to  death.  The  persecution  raged 
fiercely  in  1839,  1840,  1841,  and  1842. 

The  years  from  1843  to  1848  were  marked  by 
a  decided  lull  in  the  persecution.  The  queen 
was  in  difficulties  with  both  England  and  France, 
and  her  attention  was  diverted  from  the  Chris- 
tians by  the  incidents  of  the  war.  In  this  lull 
of  the  persecuting  spirit  the  Gospel  made  great 
progress.  The  queen's  son,  Rakoto  (afterward 
Radama  II.),  took  a  great  interest  in  the  Chris- 
tians, and  it  is  said  professed  conversion;  Prince 
Ramonja,  his  cousin,  was  already  an  active 
Christian,  and  had  suffered  for  the  faith,  and, 
among  others  of  noble  rank,  the  son  of  Rainiharo, 
the  prime  minister  of  the  queen,  and  the  most 
violent  persecutor  among  the  Hovas,  had  joined 
the  Christians.  The  native  preachers  preached 
and  baptized  almost  openly  in  the  suburbs  of  the 
capital,  and  very  many  were  added  to  the 
churches.  Another  fiery  baptism  came  in  the 
early  months  of  1849.  Some  of  the  Christians 
were  hurled  over  the  cliffs;  some  were  burned  at 
the  stake — many  were  crucified. 

Every  possible  indignity  was  inflicted  upon 
those  who  were  condemned  to  death.  These 
executions  were  continued  till  hundreds  had  per- 
ished. In  addition  to  those  who  endured  the 
extreme  penalty  of  death  by  these  various  modes 
■of  destruction,  a  far  larger  number  suffered  in 
•other  ways,  and  in  very  many  cases  their  suffer- 
ings terminated  in  death  or  helplessness.  Thirty- 
seven  preachers,  with  their  wives  and  families, 
were  consigned  to  a  life  of  irredeemable  slavery. 
Altogether,  in  the  early  spring  of  1849  probably 
more  than  2,000  were  thus  punished  and  tortured 
as  Christians  or  friends  of  Christianity.  This 
cruel  persecution  went  on  for  years.  Num- 
bers fled  to  the  mountains,  or  hid  themselves  in 
the  depths  of  the  neighboring  forests,  eking  out  a 
scanty  subsistence,  until  want  and  exposure  put 
an  end  to  their  lives.  Others  constructed  hiding- 
places  in  their  own  houses,  in  their  rice-pits,  and 


on  their  own  farms,  and  were  there  tended  and 
supplied  with  food  by  their  relatives  for  years, 
reappearing  long  after  they  had  been  accounted 
dead.  All  the  testimony,  both  heathen  and 
Christian,  shows  that  not  only  was  there  no 
recantation  among  these  converts  to  Christianity, 
many  of  whom  were  illiterate  and  but  recently 
brought  to  Christ,  but  that  they  bore  the  gross 
indignities  and  the  cruel  and  terrible  deaths  to 
which  they  were  subjected  with  quiet  heroism 
and  unfaltering  trust  in  God.  "Let  us  go  and 
see  how  these  Christians  behave:  they  are  said 
not  to  be  afraid  to  die,"  were  the  words  of  some 
of  the  principal  officers  of  the  royal  household. 
The  same  officers  said  afterward:  "We  were 
near,  and  saw  all  that  took  place.  The  Chris- 
tians were  not  afraid,  and  did  not  recant." 

Their  fortitude  and  courage  produced  a  deep 
impression  on  the  minds  of  the  people.  Many 
said:  "This  is  the  finger  of  God;  there  must  be 
something  divine  in  this  belief;"  and  they  were 
led  to  become  Christians  notwithstanding  the 
peril  to  which  it  exposed  them. 

This  persecution  continued  with  great  fury 
till  1852,  when  the  death  of  Rainiharo,  the  prime 
minister;  the  influence  of  the  young  prince,  which 
was  exerted  in  favor  of  Christianity;  and  of  his 
cousin  Ramonja,  who  was  an  active  Christian — 
were  instrumental  in  producing  greater  tolera- 
tion. 

During  this  period  of  comparative  quiet.  Rev. 
William  Ellis,  Foreign  Secretary  of  tlie  London 
Missionary  Society,  made  three  visits  to  Mada- 
gascar, in  the  hope  of  bringing  comfort  to  the 
suffering,  faithful  disciples  in  Imerina,  in  1853, 
1854,  and  1856.  In  these  visits  he  was  able  to 
cheer  and  comfort  many  of  the  Christians,  to 
distribute  many  copies  of  the  Malagasy  New 
Testament,  and  in  his  third  visit  to  make  the 
acquaintance  of  the  young  Prince  Rakoto  (later 
Radama  II.).  He  was  also  presented  to  the 
queen,  who  treated  him  courteously,  but  coldly. 
Three  months  after  his  last  visit,  on  the  3d  of 
July,  1857,  the  last  great  persecution  com- 
menced. On  that  day  the  population  of  the 
capital  were  driven  from  their  homes  by  the 
soldiers  to  a  great  National  Assembly.  The 
queen  announced  her  determination  to  stamp  out 
Christianity.  All  suspected  persons  were  impris- 
oned, and  daily  meetings  were  held  in  the  city 
and  its  neighborhood  to  denounce  the  Christians. 
It  was  believed  that  this  was  the  most  fatal  of 
all  the  persecutions.  A  large  number  were  sen- 
tenced to  the  tangena  ordeal,  bj^  which  many 
died,  and  many  more  were  put  in  chains  and 
reduced  to  slavery.  This  persecution  was  main- 
tained for  nearly  three  years.  But  on  the  15th 
of  August,  1861,  the  queen  died.  She  had 
reigned  thirty-three  years,  and  twenty-five  of 
those  years  had  been  marked  by  vain  efforts  to 
root  out  Christianity  from  the  island.  The 
result  had  been  that  those  who  were  persecuted 
"went  everywhere,  preaching  the  Word."  Chris- 
tian life  had  attained  a  depth,  power,  and  reality 
which  would  have  been  impossible  in  a  time  of 
ease  and  prosperity.  Several  thousands  had  been 
put  to  death  in  various  ways.  Yet  the  little 
company  of  believing  men  and  women,  left  as 
sheep  without  a  shepherd  in  1836,  had  multi- 
plied at  least  twenty-fold  in  1861. 

On  the  18th  of  August  in  that  year,  Prince 
Rakoto,  the  son  of  Ranavalona  I.,  succeeded  his 
mother  with  the  title  of  Radama  II.     "The  sun 


TWadagrascar 
Madrafs 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


424 


did  not  set  on  the  day  on  which  Radama  II. 
became  King  of  Madagascar,"  says  Mr.  Ellis, 
"before  he  had  proclaimed  equal  protection  to  all 
its  inhabitants,  and  declared  that  every  man  was 
free  to  worship  God  according  to  the  dictates  of 
his  own  conscience,  without  fear   or  danger." 

Within  a  month  after  the  queen's  decease 
eleven  houses  were  opened  for  the  worship  of 
God  in  the  capital  and  great  numbers  in  the 
adjacent  country,  and  churches  were  being 
erected  everywhere,  and  filled  Sabbath  after 
Sabbath  with  rejoicing  worshipers.  Within  a 
very  few  years  memorial  churches  were  erected 
on  the  chief  places  of  martyrdom.  Thus,  Antan- 
anarivo became  famoiis  alike  for  its  churches  and 
palaces. 

Radama  II.  invited  the  missionaries  of  the 
LMS,  and  especially  his  friend.  Rev.  William 
Ellis,  to  return.  Mr.  Ellis  reached  the  capital  in 
June,  1862,  and  was  followed  by  three  ordained 
ministers,  a  medical  missionary,  a  teacher  and  a 
printer,  who  were  all  soon  busy  resuming  the 
work  laid  down  in  1836.  Christianity  had  tri- 
umphed. The  2,000  adherents  to  the  Christian 
cause,  who  then  braved  the  rage  of  the  persecut- 
ing queen,  had  become  a  host  of  40,000,  only 
about  one-fifth  of  tliem  baptized  believers,  but 
all  witnesses  for  Christ,  and  ready  to  suffer  and 
die  for  Him.  Back  of  these  were  more  than 
100,000  who,  tho  not  believers,  had  rejected 
idols  and  were  ready  to  embrace  Christianity. 

Radama  II.  was  a  man  of  fair  abilities  and 
of  a  kindly  and  amiable  disposition.  He  had, 
in  the  later  years  of  his  mother's  life,  been  very 
heartily  in  sympathy  with  the  Christians,  and 
had  boldly  defended  them,  sometimes  at  the  peril 
of  his  own  life.  He  had  never  united  with  any 
of  the  churches,  nor  did  he  profess  to  be  a  Chris- 
tian after  he  came  to  the  throne.  But  he  cor- 
dially invited  religious  teachers  to  come  to  the 
country,  and  extended  the  invitation  to  foreign 
traders,  at  the  same  time  abolishing  all  export 
and  import  duties.  The  immediate  result  of 
this  was  that  the  cheap,  vile  rum  of  the  Mauritius 
was  poured  into  the  island  in  immense  quantities, 
and  the  great  trade  in  bullocks  and  other  com- 
modities was  paid  for  in  this  horrible  stuff.  The 
king  now  became  intimate  with  a  Frenchman 
named  Lambert,  who  led  him  into  intemperance 
and  other  vices.  While  intoxicated  the  king 
signed  contracts  conceding  to  Lambert  over  one- 
third  of  the  arable  land  of  Madagascar,  the  priv- 
ilege of  working  all  its  mines,  and  of  bringing 
in  as  many  Jesuits  as  he  wished.  The  king  also 
surrounded  himself  with  dissolute  young  men 
who  controlled  appointments  and  really  gov- 
erned the  realm.  The  devotion  of  the  king  to 
these  boon  companions  led  to  a  revolution,  and 
Radama  II.  was  strangled,  being  succeeded  by 
the  queen,  Rabado. 

In  all  her  relations  with  the  missionaries  and 
Christians,  the  queen,  who  took  the  name  of 
Rasoherina,  was  a  good  and  just  ruler,  and  dur- 
ing her  reign  the  churches  prospered,  and  the 
mission  work  went  on.  She  died  April  1,  1868. 
On  the  2d  of  April,  1868,  Ramoma,  a  niece  or 
cousin  of  the  late  queen,  was  proclaimed  Queen 
of  Madagascar  under  the  title  of  Ranavalona  II. 
The  prime  minister,  Rainilaiarivony,  a  man  of 
extraordinary  ability,  was  not,  probably,  at  that 
time  a  Christian,  tho  he  had  been  for  years  a 
student  of  the  Scriptures.  One  after  another 
changes   were   now  made,   and   it  soon   became 


understood  that  Madagascar  was  to  be  a  Chris- 
tian kingdom,  and  that  Ranavalona  II.  was  to 
be  the  first  Christian  queen  of  the  island.  On 
the  3d  of  September,  1868,  the  first  public  occa- 
sion when  the  sovereign  formally  appeared  before 
the  people  took  place.  It  was  celebrated  with 
great  pomp  and  ceremony,  and  prayers  were 
offered  by  one  of  the  native  pastors.  On  the 
19th  of  February,  1869,  the  queen,  following  the 
example  of  former  queens,  was  married  to  the 
prime  minister,  RainUaiarivony.  Two  days  later, 
after  a  very  careful  and  thorough  examination, 
the  queen  and  prime  minister  were  baptized  and 
received  into  the  palace  church  by  Audriambelo, 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  devoted  of  the 
native  pastors.  It  was  the  custom  with  each 
sovereign  of  Madagascar  to  erect  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  reign  some  stately  building,  usually  a 
palace,  in  the  royal  enclosure.  Queen  Rana- 
valona II.  commenced  the  erection  of  a  stone 
church  in  the  palace  enclosure  in  July,  1869. 

The  idol-keepers  and  the  idol-worshipers  of 
Imerina  saw  that  the  power  would  soon  pass  out 
of  their  hands,  and  they  were  enraged.  The 
principal  idol-keepers  came  to  the  palace  and 
demanded  .that  the  queen  should  return  to  the 
worship  of  her  ancestors.  The  language  used 
was  treasonable,  and  after  a  hasty  consultation 
it  was  decided  to  burn  the  idols  of  the  Royal 
Palace.  This  was  done  on  the  8th  of  September, 
1869,  in  the  presence  of  many  witnesses.  The 
people  followed  the  example  of  the  queen,  tho 
with  many  apprehensions  of  evil  and  disaster, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  idols  were  destroyed. 

In  a  few  days  requests  came  from  all  parts  of 
the  island:  "You  have  destroyed  our  gods,  and 
we  know  not  how  to  worship  according  to  the 
new  religion;  send  us  teachers."  So  many 
requests  of  this  sort  came  to  the  prime  minister 
that  he  called  the  missionaries  together,  and  after 
deliberation  126  teachers  were  sent  out,  all 
selected  by  the  missionaries  of  the  LMS. 

Thus  was  the  final  blow  struck  which  insured 
the  supremacy  of  Christianity  in  the  island  of 
Madagascar.  Fifty  years  before  they  were  in 
the  darkest  depths  of  heathenism;  forty  years 
before  there  was  not  a  native  Christian  among 
the  millions  of  the  Malagasy;  now  there  were 
probably  50,000  communicants,  150,000  adher- 
ents, many  thousand  scholars  in  the  schools,  and 
a  population  of  at  least  1,500,000  asking  for 
Christian  instruction.  Outside  of  Imerina,  the 
Sakalava,  the  Bara,  the  Betanimena,  the  Bet- 
simisaraka,  and  many  of  the  smaller  tribes — 
that  is  to  say,  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
population — were  still  savages  and  idolators  of 
the  worst  sort,  liars,  thieves,  bloodthirsty,  and 
lustful;  they  persisted  in  making  raids  for 
plunder  and  slaves,  until  the  queen's  firm  and 
gentle  management  made  them  ashamed.  Even 
of  her  own  Hova  and  Betsileo  people,  nearly 
2,500,000  in  number,  only  about  150,000  were 
nominally  Christians;  and  the  rest,  tho  their 
idols  were  burned,  were  liable  to  lapse  into- 
idolatry  again  if  they  had  a  determined  leader. 

The  queen,  as  soon  as  possible,  sent  mission- 
aries and  teachers  among  these  tribes  who  were 
in  darkness.  Above  all  her  other  acts  of  patriot- 
ism were  those  relating  to  slavery.  She,  by 
severe  edicts,  prohibited  the  importation  or  sale 
of  any  slaves  in  Madagascar;  and,  finding  these 
edicts  evaded,  she  ordered  that  every  Mozam- 
bique slave  should  be  set  free,  and  be  at  liberty 


425 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Madagascar 
Madras 


to  return  to  Africa  or  remain  on  the  island.  As 
there  were  about  150,000  of  these,  the  cost  of  this 
liberation  was  borne  by  her  husband  and  herself 
from  their  own  private  fortunes.  They  had 
previously  emancipated  all  their  own  personal 
slaves.  This  heavy  sacrifice  was  made  for  the 
good  of  her  country,  and  to  please  God. 

It  was  now  settled  that  Madagascar  would 
henceforth  be  a  Christian  country,  ruled  by  a 
most  devoted  Christian.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
go  into  details  of  the  later  history  of  Madagascar, 
or  of  the  attacks  made  upon  it  by  France. 
What  seemed  at  first  an  incredibly  absurd  pre- 
tension, presented  under  the  ill-grounded  influ- 
ence of  Lambert  and  his  Jesuit  friends,  finally 
became  a  stringent  and  formal  demand,  sup- 
ported by  the  military  force  of  a  great  nation. 
Queen  Ranavalona  II.  died  in  July,  1883,  in  the 
midst  of  preparations  to  resist,  by  a  patriotic 
uprising,  the  ultimatum  which  she  deemed  base- 
less, unreasonable,  and  outrageous.  Her  suc- 
cessor. Queen  Ranavalona  III.,  was  an  educated 
and  active  Christian.  She  carried  on  the  war 
during  two  years,  and  then,  defeated  at  all  points, 
in  1885  she  accepted  the  protectorate  of  France 
over  her  country.  In  1896  this  protectorate 
became  annexation  to  the  French  colonial  estab- 
lishment, and  in  February,  1897,  the  queen  was 
deposed  b.y  the  French  Governor  and  the  Mala- 
gasy nationality  ceased  to  be. 

Tho  France  is  not  now  a  professedly  Roman 
Catholic  state,  yet  in  its  intercourse  with  foreign 
nations  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  in  the  adminis- 
trations of  its  colonies,  it  is  represented  by  offi- 
cials who  seem  inclined  to  place  their  whole 
power  at  the  disposal  of  the  Jesuits  and  other 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries.  Consequently, 
there  was  a  period  of  five  or  six  years  when  it 
seemed  as  if  the  evangelical  church  and  school 
buildings  in  Madagascar  would  be  transferred 
like  captured  property  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  their  pastors  and  teachers  treated  as 
public  enemies,  and  their  English  instructors 
expelled.  "This  (French)  occupation,"  says 
Professor  Warneck,  "gave  the  Jesuits,  who  since 
the  end  of  the  fifties  had  been  forcing  their  way 
into  the  country,  the  opportunity  they  desired 
of  turning  the  hatred  felt  by  the  fanatical  French 
colonial  politicians  toward  the  British  to  account, 
in  order  to  procure,  by  skilful  intrigue,  the  sys- 
"  tematic  oppression  of  the  evangelical  missions. 
Under  the  watchword,  'French  is  equivalent  to 
Catholic,'  the  religious  liberty  which  was  pro- 
claimed with  so  much  display  of  rhetoric  has 
been  set  at  defiance.  Evangelical  Christians  and 
native  pastors  have  been  suspected  as  rebels, 
imprisoned  and  put  to  death;  many  evangelical 
churches  and  chapels  have  been  confiscated,  and 
by  the  violent  introduction  of  French  *  *  * 
many  evangelical  schools  have  been  ruined,  not 
to  speak  of  the  numerous  conversions  wrought 
by  violence  and  cunning  among  the  terrorized 
people."  But  there  is  light  in  the  dark  cloud. 
The  Paris  Missionary  Society  has  come  heroically 
to  the  rescue  during  these  trying  times;  the 
Anglicans,  the  Quakers,  and  the  Norwegians 
have  suffered  comparatively  little  from  the 
violent  counter-mission  of  the  Jesuits;  and  a 
change  for  the  better  has  taken  place  in  the 
.  educational  work.  At  the  Ecumenical  Confer- 
ence of  1900,  Mr.  Cousins  uttered  these  encour- 
aging and  significant  words:  "So  far  from  lessen- 
ing the  number  of  workers  in  the  various  Prot- 


estant missions,  the  troubles  of  recent  years  have 
brought  new  workers  into  the  field."  At  this 
writing  there  are  nearly  200  Protestant  European 
missionaries  at  work  in  Madagascar — a  much 
larger  number  than  ever  before;  and  the  socie- 
ties working  on  the  island,  with  their  stations, 
are  as  follows:  Friends'  Foreign  Mission  Associa- 
tion, 5  stations;  London  Missionary  Society,  12 
stations;  Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society,  14 
stations;  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel,  21  stations;  Norwegian  Missionary  So- 
ciety, 23  stations,  and  the  Lutherans  have  8 
stations. 

Lllia  (W.),  History  of  Madagascar,  2  vols.,  London,  1838; 
the  same,  The  Martyr  Church,  London,  1869,  Boston,  lb70; 
the  same,  Madagascar  Revisited.  London,  1 867 ;  Sh:iw  (G. 
A.),  Madagascar  of  To~day,  1  ondon,  1886;  Sibree  (Jas.), 
Madagascar  before  the  Conquest,  London,  lh96;  Keller  (C), 
Madagascar,  Mauritius  and  other  African  Islands,  London, 
19C0;  Cousins  (W.  E.),  Madagascar  of  To-day,  London, 
1895;  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  9,  422; 
Vol.  XI,  67,  148,  225,  272;  VoL  XV,  436,  Funk  &  WagnaUs, 
New  York. 

MADANAPALLI:  A  town  in  the  District  of 
Cuddapah,  India,  situated  45  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Chittur,  with  a  population  of  6,500.  Mission 
station  of  the  RCA  (1865),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  wife,  71  native  workers,  14  outstations, 
12  chapels,  15  Sunday  schools,  3  young  people's 
societies,  13  day  schools,  3  boarding  schools,  1 
dispensary,  and  581  professed  Christians,  of 
whom   170   are   communicants. 

MADARIPTJR:  A  town  and  river  mart  in  the 
district  of  Faridpur,  India,  situated  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Anal  Khan  and  Kumar  Rivers,  40 
miles  S.  W.  of  Dacca.  Population,  13,800,  of 
whom  9,100  are  Hindus  and  4,700  Muslims. 
Mission  station  of  the  BMS  (1886),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  43  native  work- 
ers, 17  outstations,  23  day  schools,  29  Sunday 
schools,  4  young  people's  societies  and  3,394  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  1,071  are  communi- 
cants. 

MADIUN:  A  town  of  about  18,000  inhabi- 
tants in  Java,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  80 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Surabaya.  Mission  station  of 
the  Netherlands  Mission  Society  (1854),  with 
(1900)  1  missionary  and  wife,  3  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  and  1  day  school.  The  Society  spells 
the  name  Madioen. 

MADRAS:  Capital  of  the  Madras  presidency, 
and  the  third  city  in  size  and  importance  in  all 
India,  being  outranked  only  by  Bombay  and 
Calcutta.  It  is  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
peninsula  of  India.  Population  (1901)  509,346. 
The  first  settlement  was  begun  in  1639, 
when  a  grant  of  land  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Francis 
Day,  a  servant  of  the  East  India  Company,  from 
the  Hindu  prince  who  possessed  jurisdiction  in 
that  region.  A  factory  or  mercantile  establish- 
ment of  the  Company  and  slight  fortifications 
were  at  once  erected,  and  the  city  has  grown 
steadily  from  that  beginning.  The  origin  of  the 
name  is  uncertain.  The  word  "Madressa"  sig- 
nifies a  Mohammedan  school,  and  some  scholars 
consider  the  name  of  the  city  to  have  been 
derived  from  that  word.  In  1653  Madras  waa 
made  the  seat  of  the  local  government  or  presi- 
dency of  the  East  India  Company's  territory  in 
South  India.  In  1746,  during  the  time  when  the 
French  power  in  South  India  threatened  to 
eclipse  the  English,  it  was  taken  by  the  French 
commander  La  Bourdonnais,  but  was  restored 
two  years  later  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Within  a  century  of  the  first  settlement  Madras 


Madras 

Blaaras  Presidency 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


426 


had  become  the  largest  city  in  South  India.  Its 
growth  since  then  has  been  less  than  that  of  Cal- 
cutta or  Bombay,  for  its  natural  advantages  are 
far  less  than  those  enjoyed  by  its  sister  cities.  It 
has  no  natural  harbor;  vessels  are  obliged  to  lie 
-off  at  a  distance  of  a  mile,  more  or  less,  from  the 
shore,  and  for  many  years  freight  and  passengers 
were  transported  between  the  shore  and  the  ships 
in  surfboats,  for  the  skilful  management  of  which, 
through  the  surf  which  breaks  unceasingly  on  the 
beach,  the  boatmen  of  Madras  are  famed.  In 
1862  a  pier  was  constructed,  which  extends  out 
300  yards  into  the  sea;  and  more  recently  still  the 
construction  was  undertaken  of  an  artificial  har- 
bor, consisting  of  two  parallel  breakwaters  curv- 
ing toward  each  other  at  the  outer  end.  The 
■city  is  by  no  means  compact,  but  stretches  along 
the  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  for  more  than  9 
miles,  and  its  territory  extends  3  miles  inland. 
Of  the  population  more  than  three-fourths  are 
Hindus.  The  Mohammedans  number  only  one- 
eighth;  Christians  nearly  as  many.  Tamil  is 
spoken  by  more  than  half  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion; Telugu  by  a  litle  less  than  a  quarter. 

Danish  missionaries  had  been  operating  at 
Tranquebar  and  other  points  south  of  Madras  for 
a  number  of  years  early  in  the  18th  century 
before  any  form  of  Christian  work  was  attempted 
in  Madras  itself.  In  the  year  1716,  with  the 
help  of  the  English  chaplain  at  Madras,  they 
commenced  a  Christian  school,  which,  however, 
languished  and  soon  ceased  altogether.  In  1726 
Schultze,  one  of  the  missionaries  at  Tranquebar, 
made  a  journey  to  Madras,  began  the  school  work 
again,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  first  Prot- 
estant mission  in  the  capital  of  South  India.  A  few 
years  afterward  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  Christian  Knowledge,  of  England,  undertook 
its  support,  Schultze  continuing  in  charge  of  it. 
The  missionary  labored  hard,  preaching,  teach- 
ing, translating  and  writing.  Results  were  not 
slow  in  appearing.  In  the  one  year  1729  Schultze 
baptized  140  persons;  by  the  end  of  1736  the 
converts  numbered  415.  The  mission  was 
encouraged  by  the  Madras  Government.  Other 
missionaries  arrived  from  Europe,  and  the  work 
went  on  apace.  In  1746  the  capture  of  the  city 
by  the  French  was  the  occasion  of  much  distress 
to  the  mission;  its  work  was  interrupted,  its 
buildings  destroyed,  and  its  church  used  by  the 
French  conquerors  as  a  magazine.  In  1748, 
when  the  city  was  returned  to  the  English,  the 
missionaries  and  Christians  who  had  fled  during 
the  troubles  came  back,  and  operations  were 
resumed — still  under  the  fostering  care  of  the 
government.  By  the  end  of  the  18th  century 
some  4,000  persons  had  been  received  into  the 
Christian  church.  With  all  this  apparent  suc- 
cess it  may  be  doubted  if  the  real  achievements 
were  very  great.  These  numerical  results  were 
not  carried  over  into  the  present  century;  on 
the  other  hand,  when  the  first  converts  died  off 
there  seemed  to  be  no  vital  Christianity  behind 
them  as  a  basis  for  further  progress.  With  all 
their  devotion  and  industry  the  earlier  mission- 
aries did  not  use  the  best  methods  of  labor. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  began 
the  new  era  of  missionary  work  in  Madras  and 
throughout  all  India.  Of  the  great  missionary 
societies  which  were  formed  near  the  year  1800 
the  London  Missionary  Society  was  first  on  the 
ground  at  Madras  in  1805.  Their  collegiate 
institution  was  begun  in  1852,  and  has  had  a 
most   successful   and   useful   career.     The   CMS 


began  work  in  1814.     From  the  first  this  mission 
paid  much  attention  to  education,  as  well  as  to 
preaching,  and  schools  for  both  sexes  were  carried 
on   with  vigor.     The  CEZ   began  its   work  for 
women    in    1876.     The    WMS    came    in    1816. 
About  the  year  1826 — just  100  years  after  its 
establishment  by  Schultze — the  original  mission 
of  the  Christian  Knowledge  Society  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  care  of  the  SPG.     The  ABCFM 
entered  the  field  in  1836,  but  withdrew  in  1864 
in  order  to  concentrate  its  strength  more  effec- 
tively elsewhere.     The  Leipzig  Society  entered 
Madras    in    1848.     The    Established   Church   of 
Scotland  began  a  mission  in  1837,  and  devoted 
its  energies,  as  in  Calcutta  and  Bombay,  espe- 
cially   to    the    higher    education,    through    the 
medium   of  the   English  language.     The  fervid 
eloquence  of  Dr.  Duff  of  Calcutta  during  his  first 
visit  home  is  said  to  have  been  the  exciting  cause 
of    the    beginning    of    the    Madras    work.     The 
Scotch  institution  was  begun  in   1837  with  59 
pupils,  but  had  277  on  its  rolls  before  the  end  of 
the  following  year.     After  the  disruption  of  the 
Scotch   Church   the    Madras    missionaries   sided 
with  the  Free  Church  and  their  work  is  now  car- 
ried on  by  the  UFS.     In  1843  another  mission 
of  a  similar  character  was  begun  by  the  Old  Kirk, 
and  in   1893  the  Church  of  Scotland  Woman's 
Committee  took  up  work  there.     The  Strict  Bap- 
tists have  a  small  mission  in  Madras,  begun  in 
1866,  and  the  Danish  Lutherans  another  dating 
from  1878.     The  Christian  Literature  Society  for 
India  has  here  its  central  station,  tho  its  schools 
for  the  training  of  teachers  are  in  other  parts  of 
India.     There   is   also   a   mission   especially  for 
lepers,  over  400  of  whom  were  reported  in  the 
census  of  1881.     The  usual  missionary  agencies 
are  reenforced  by  the  Bible  and  Tract  Societies 
and  by  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  Chris- 
tian    Knowledge — the     venerable     organization 
which  so  long  supported  the  mission  started  by 
Schultze,  but  which  now  works  wholly  through  the 
press.     The  ME,  under  the  lead  of  Rev.   Wm. 
Taylor,   began  work  in   1872,   at  first  directing 
its    efforts    especially    to    unevangelized    Euro- 
peans and  Eurasians,  tho  not  neglecting  persons 
of  other  races  who  might  be  brought  under  its 
influence.     The   ABMU    commenced   its   opera- 
tions in  1878.     The  YMCA  and  the  YWCA  also 
have  flourishing  centers  in  the  city.     The  Salva- 
tion Army  has  a  strong  post  here. 

Besides  the  mission  chapels,  the  city  is  well 
provided  with  Protestant  churches  for  the 
accommodation  of  Europeans,  and  with  Roman 
Catholic  churches  for  persons  of  all  nationalities 
who  adhere  to  that  form  of  Christianity.  The 
usual  institutions  of  a  philanthropic  or  literary 
character  which  spring  up  everywhere  in  the 
path  of  enlightened  and  liberal  government, 
such  as  hospitals,  libraries  and  the  like,  are  not 
wanting  in  Madras.  Education  is  in  a  fair  state 
of  progress.  Taking  all  of  the  societies  together 
the  Protestant  missionary  enterprise  in  Madras 
and  its  suburbs  now  (1903)  has  104  missionaries, 
men  and  women;  766  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  36  places  of  worship,  135  day  schools,  18 
boarding  schools  and  higher  educational  institu- 
tions, 2  printing  houses  and  8,551  professed 
Christians,  including  baptized  children  and  4,508 
communicants. 

MADRAS  PRESIDENCY:  One  of  the  general 
divisions  into  which  British  India  is  divided.  It 
is  ruled  by  a  governor  and  council  appointed  by 
the  crown  under  the  governor-general  and  vice- 


427 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Madraa 
Madras  Presidency 


Toy  of  India.  This  presidency  covers  the  south- 
ern portion  of  the  Indian  peninsula — with  the 
■exception  of  the  territory  still  under  native 
princes.  Its  eastern  boundary  is  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  its  western  the  Indian  Ocean.  But  the 
territory  of  the  presidency  extends  along  the 
coast  of  the  former  for  some  1,200  miles,  while 
its  western  shore  line,  along  the  Indian  Ocean, 
extends  only  540  miles.  On  the  north  and  north- 
west it  joins  (proceeding  from  east  to  west) 
Orissa,  a  part  of  the  Bengal  presidency;  then  the 
■Central  Provinces;  then  the  dominions  of  the 
Nizam  at  Haidarabad,  and  finally,  as  its  bound- 
ary line  nears  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  presidency 
of  Bombay.  Near  the  center  of  this  irregular 
triangular  territory  is  the  great  native  state  of 
Mysore,  including  five  smaller  native  states 
which  are  closely  related  to  the  Madras  Govern- 
ment, and  directly  subordinated  to  it.  The 
total  area  of  the  presidency  is  149,092  square 
miles,  and  the  population  (1901)  42,400,000. 
The  presidency  may  be  divided,  as  to  its  physical 
aspects,  into  three  well-marked  areas.  Along 
the  eastern  coast,  between  the  range  of  hills 
known  as  the  Eastern  Ghats  and  the  sea,  is  a 
"broad  strip  of  low  country.  A  similar,  tho 
narrower  and  more  diversified,  strip  of  land 
extends  along  the  western  coast,  between  the 
Western  Ghats  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
interior  consists  of  a  tableland,  supported  on  its 
western  edge  by  the  Western  Ghats  and  sloping 
down  gradually  toward  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the 
•east,  its  boundary  on  that  side  being  the  eastern 
range  just  alluded  to.  Much  of  the  high  interior 
is  occupied  by  the  native  state  of  Mysore.  The 
mountains  rise  to  greater  heights  as  they  go 
south;  the  highest  peaks  of  Southern  India  are 
those  of  the  Nilgiri  and  Anumalai  groups,  several 
of  which  are  between  eight  and  nine  thousand 
feet  high. 

The  population  is  chiefly  Hindu.  37,026,471 
Hindus,  2,732,931  Mohammedans  and  1,934,480 
Christians,  with  673,905  Animists  or  spirit-wor- 
shippers, make  up  the  list  of  religions  in  the 
census  of  1901,  whose  adherents  exceed  30,000. 

The  Hindus  of  this  presidency,  and  some  of 
the  so-called  aboriginal  tribes  also,  belong  to 
the  Dravidian  family,  of  which  the  strongest 
subdivision  is  that  now  known  as  the  Tamil. 
People  of  this  race  appear,  in  prehistoric  times, 
to  have  occupied  the  Gangetic  valley,  and  to 
have  been  pushed  south  by  the  invading  Aryans 
as  they  moved  down  the  valley  and  spread  over 
the  peninsula. 

The  language  of  the  Dravidians  still  persists 
in  the  various  languages  of  South  India.  Of 
these  the  Tamil  is  the  most  important  and  is 
spoken  by  over  12,000,000  in  the  presidency; 
the  Telugu  is  used  by  almost  as  large  a  number; 
the  Kanarese  is  spoken  by  about  1,300,000;  the 
Tulu  is  preserved  only  by  a  remnant  of  the  people 
among  the  mountains  in  the  west  of  the  presi- 
dency and  is  doomed  doubtless  to  disappear  as  a 
spoken  language.  The  Coorg  and  the  Malayalam 
(2,400,000)  also  belong  to  this  stock.  The  lan- 
guages of  the  aboriginal  tribes  above  mentioned 
are  also  Dravidian.  The  original  religion  of  the 
Dravidians,  before  the  coming  of  the  Aryans,  was 
probably  some  form  of  demon-worship,  such  as 
the  jungle  tribes  still  preserve. 

A  word  must  be  said  as  to  the  connection  of 
the  English  with  the  presidency.  Calicut  and 
Cannanore  on  the  west  coast  were  occupied  by 
the  East  India  Company  as  places  of  trade  in 


1616.  The  Company  had  been  preceded  first  by 
the  Portuguese,  and  as  their  power  waned,  by  the 
Dutch.  But  finally  the  former  concentrated 
themselves  at  Goa,  and  the  Dutch  withdrew. 
On  the  east  coast,  Masulipatam,. north  of  Madras, 
was  occupied  by  the  English  traders  in  1611. 
The  first  English  settlement  on  the  site  of  Madras 
City  was  in  1639  (see  Madras  City).  The  French 
occupied  Pondicherri,  south  of  Madras,  in  1672. 
It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  18th  century, 
when  the  English  and  French  powers  were  in 
armed  rivalry  in  Europe,  that  the  thought  of  a 

Eossible  rivalry  for  supremacy  in  India  began  to 
e  realized.  In  1746  Madras  was  overpowered 
and  captured  by  the  French  commander  La 
Bourdonnais,  but  restored  to  the  English  two 
years  later,  at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
But  the  country  was  occupied  with  weak  and 
tottering  dynasties  of  native  princes.  In  their 
contests  among  themselves,  the  English  would 
befriend  one  princeling  and  the  French  another. 
The  strife  between  the  Oriental  principals  could 
not  fail  to  extend  itself  to  the  European  powers 
by  which  they  were  respectively  seconded;  and 
for  half  a  century  the  fate  of  South  India  hung 
undecided  between  the  French  and  English. 
Dupleix  undertook  to  unite  the  native  powers 
into  one  combination  under  French  protection, 
but  his  plans  were  defeated  by  the  military  skill 
first  of  Lord  Clive,  afterward  of  Sir  Eyre  Coote. 
Haidar  Ali,  and  his  son  Tippu  Sultan,  the  only 
members  of  a  Mohammedan  dynasty  which 
erected  itself  on  the  ruins  of  a  Hindu  principality 
in  Mysore,  with.'stood  the  progress  of  English 
power  with  a  fierceness  which  at  one  time 
threatened  to  stop  it  altogether.  But  in  1799 
Tippu  Sultan  died  in  the  breach  at  his  capital, 
Seringapatam,  the  English  entered  the  fort  in 
triumph,  and  military  opposition,  from  what- 
ever quarter,  to  the  English  power  in  South 
India  was  at  an  end.  Since  then  the  English 
Government  has  had  hardly  any  use  for  its 
Madras  army,  save  for  police  purposes. 

To  the  historian  of  Indian  Christianity  the 
Madras  Presidency  is  the  most  interesting  por- 
tion of  India.  Tradition  says  that  the  Apostle 
Thomas  preached  the  Gospel  here,  and  Mount 
St.  Thome,  near  Madras,  is  his  traditional  burial 
place.  Pantanus  found  Christians  in  India  In 
the  2d  century.  A  branch  of  the  Syrian  Church 
settled  on  the  west  coast,  near  Cape  Comorin, 
centuries  ago,  and  this  "Syrian  Church  of  Mala- 
bar" preserves  its  ancient  liturgies,  and  still 
acknowledges  subjection  to  the  patriarch  of 
Antioch.  Here  also  Xavier  preached  and  bap- 
tized in  the  16th  century,  and  the  Jesuit  mission- 
aries of  Madura  in  the  17th.  And  here  was  the 
beginning  of  the  Protestant  missionary  move- 
ment in  India,  by  the  hands  of  two  young  Danish 
missionaries  (Bartholomew  Ziegenbalg  and 
Henry  Plutschau),  in  1705.  Tranquebar  (on  the 
coast  south  of  Madras)  was  the  first  station  occu- 
pied. The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge  in  a  few  years  assumed  support  of  the 
mission.  But  it  was  long  before  a  distinctively 
English  mission  was  founded.  Schultze  came 
in  1719,  and  in  1726  began  the  first  really  suc- 
cessful mission  in  Madras  City.  Kiernander 
came  in  1740;  but  in  1746,  when  the  French 
were  besieging  Cuddalore,  where  he  was  sta- 
tioned, and  rendering  his  operations  there 
impossible,  he  removed  to  Calcutta,  and  became 
the  father  of  Protestant  missions  in  the  Bengal 
presidency.     In  1750  Christian  Frederic  Schwartz 


Madras   Presidency 
Maliitsy 


THE  KNCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


4S8 


landed  in  South  India,  and  until  his  death  in  1798 
labored  uninterruptedly  for  the  good  of  the  people 
and  the  progress  of  the  cause  of  Christ.  No 
better  or  greater  name  adorns  the  history  of 
Protestant  missions  in  India  than  his. 

By  the  labors  of  these  great  and  good  men  and 
their  associates  congregations  were  gathered, 
schools  established  and  churches  founded  at 
Tranquebar,  Madras,  Trichinopoli,  Tanjore  and 
other  places.  Converts  were  baptized  by  the 
hundred  and  the  thousand.  Yet  with  all  their 
excellences  of  character,  their  ability,  their  piety 
and  their  zeal,  these  men  did  not  plant  a  self- 
sustaining,  manly  and  vigorous  Christianity. 
Their  churches  exist,  but  with  diminished  num- 
bers and  enfeebled  strength.  The  churches 
gathered  by  them  have  in  many  cases  been  sur- 
passed by  those  more  recently  organized, 
not  alone  in  numbers,  but  in  aggressive  character 
and  influence.  For  about  a  hundred  years  the 
work  begun  by  the  missionaries  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury was  subsidized  by  the  SPCK,  which  to  a 
large  extent  furnished  the  funds,  while  the  mis- 
sionaries themselves  came  from  Denmark  and 
Germany.  Early  in  the  19th  century  this 
Society  transferred  the  missions  to  the  SPG,  and 
in  due  time  the  ■personnel  of  the  mission  staff 
came  to  be  recruited  wholly  from  the  English 
Church,  even  as  the  money  came  from  the  same 
source. 

The  introductory  labors  of  the  missionaries 
of  the  18th  century  were  followed  by  work  on 
a  larger  scale,  more  sy.stematically  and  ener- 
getically pursued  during  the  19th  century. 
We  record  here  the  principal  agencies  operating 
in  this  more  recent  era.  The  London  Missionary 
Society  leads  the  way.  Two  missionaries  of  this 
Society  occupied  Vizagapatam,  on  the  east  coast, 
far  north  of  Madras,  in  180.5,  during  a  period 
when  the  Indian  Government,  taught  by  the 
directors  of  the  East  India  Company  at  home, 
was  bitterly  opposed  to  the  entrance  of  mission- 
aries in  India.  The  missionaries  at  Vizaga- 
patam, however,  were  not  molested,  and  when 
m  1814  Parliament,  in  the  new  cliarter  granted 
that  year  to  the  company,  inserted  a  clause  favor- 
ing missionary  operations,  and  the  opposition  of 
the  government  ceased  in  consequence,  the  LMS 
was  all  ready  to  establish  a  station  in  Madras 
City.  Bellary,  northwest  of  Madras,  near  the 
boundary  line  now  separating  the  presidency 
from  that  of  Bombay,  had  been  occupied  in  1810, 
and  Coimbatore  was  occupied  in  1830.  The 
Church  Missionary  Society  entered  Madras  City 
in  181.5,  and  took  over  the  Palamcotta  station 
(in  the  Tinnevelli  district)  from  the  Danish  mis- 
sionaries, who  had  planted  it  in  1785,  in  1817. 
In  the  same  year  the  SPG  began  work  at  Cudda- 
lore,  and  assumed,  during  the  years  1820-29, 
charge,  from  the  Society  for  Propagating  Chris- 
tian Knowledge,  of  mo.st  of  the  old  Danish  mis- 
sions. Tlie  Wcsleyan  Missionary  Society 
appeared  upon  tlie  scene  at  Madras  in  1816,  and 
at  Trichinopoli  two  years  later.  The  Basel 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society  began  its  work, 
which  since  has  spread  over  all  the  western  por- 
tion of  the  presidency,  and  into  many  of  the 
Kanarese  districts  of  the  Bombay  presidencjr,  in 
1834.  The  English  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
planted  a  station  in  the  Ganjam  district,  the 
most  northerly  of  those  bordering  on  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  in  1837.  The  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions,  whose  mission 
among  the  Tamil-speaking  people  of  Jaffna,  in 


North  Ceylon,  had  been  begun  soon  after  1820, 
colonized  thence,  first  to  Madura  in  1834  and  to 
Madras  in  1836;  Arcot  was  occupied  by  this 
Society  in  1855,  but  its  work  there  was  a  year  or 
two  afterward  transferred  to  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church  (as  it  was  then  called)  of  the 
United  States,  by  which  church  it  has  since  been 
maintained  with  much  vigor.  The  Church  of 
Scotland  came  to  Madras  in  1837,  and  since  the 
Disruption  in  1843  two  Scotch  missions  have 
worked  there  side  by  side,  and  to  some  extent 
also  in  the  interior.  The  American  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Union  began  its  work — now  of  large  pro- 
portions and  of  extraordinary  success — in  Nel- 
lore  and  other  parts  of  the  Telugu  portion  of  the 
presidency,  in  1840.  The  Leipzig  Lutherans 
came  in  1841  to  Tranquebar  and  adjacent  sta- 
tions, where  the  Lutherans  of  the  preceding  cen- 
tury had  labored  with  such  assiduity.  There  are 
also  small  German  missions  elsewhere  in  the 
presidency — that  of  the  Hermannsburg  Luthe- 
rans at  Nellore  (1865),  of  the  American  German 
Lutherans  in  the  Krishna  district  (1842),  and  an 
independent  tho  successful  German  mission  in 
the  Godavari  Delta,  which  dates  from  183S. 

The  chief  successes  of  this  army  of  Christian 
laborers  have  been  won  in  the  Tinnevelli  district, 
where  the  Christian  churches  and  communities 
are  very  numerous,  and  where  the  native  Chris- 
tians are  numbered  by  thousands.  In  the 
Telugu  districts,  also  under  the  charge  of  the 
American  Baptists,  there  have  been  ingatherings 
of  surprising  vastness  and  power;  the  American 
missionaries  in  the  Arcot  and  Madura  districts 
have  also  been  verj  successful.  Probably  in  no 
other  part  of  India  has  Christianity  taken  so 
firm  a  hold. 

IHADSCHAMK.     See  Majam. 

MADURA:  A  city  (and  district,  the  city  being 
the  capital  of  the  district)  in  the  Madras  presi- 
dency, India,  situated  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Vaigal  River,  about  275  miles  south-southwest 
from  Madras.  The  population  of  the  city  is 
(1901)  105,984,  of  whom  94,000  are  Hindus. 
The  language  of  the  Hindus  is  Tamil,  tho  with 
the  progress  of  education  the  rising  generation  of 
natives  is  more  and  more  familiar  with  English. 
Madura  has  long  been  a  most  important  place. 
It  was  the  seat  of  an  ancient  dynasty  of  Hindu 
kings  (the  Pandyan),  whose  history  stretches 
back  into  prehistoric  times,  and  is  adorned  with 
the  usual  wealth  of  myth  and  legend.  As  the 
Mohammedan  power  stretched  south  in  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries  this  Hindu  kingdom  was  over- 
thrown, tho  no  Mohammedan  dynasty  took  its 
place;  but  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  state  rose 
another  Hindu  dynasty — that  of  the  Nayaks — 
which  culminated  in  the  17th  century,  when 
most  of  the  architectural  works  at  Madura, 
which  still  attest  the  power  and  wealth  of  this 
line  of  princes,  were  completed.  During  the 
political  chaos  of  the  next  century  the  Nayak 
kingdom  in  its  turn  crumbled.  Mahratta  and 
Mohammedan  armies  successively  overran  the 
region,  until  at  last  the  British  came,  and  in  1801 
Madura  passed  into  their  possession.  The  re- 
ligious history  of  the  place  chiefly  concerns  us 
now.  It  contains  one  of  the  most  famous  Hindu 
temples — that  of  the  goddess  Minakshi — in  India. 
The  temple  enclosure  is  847  feet  long  and  744 
feet  broad,  and  contains,  besides  the  shrines  of 
the  goddess  and  of  the  god  Siva,  a  vast  collection 
of    buildings — halls,    bazars,    etc. — occupied  by 


429 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Madras  Presidency 
Mahltsy 


the  priests  and  temple  attendants.  The  con- 
spicuous features  of  the  temple  are  the  great 
towers,  9  in  number,  which  rise  above  its  outer 
■vfalls,  in  one  case  reaching  to  the  height  of  152 
feet. 

The  Christian  history  of  Madura  is  of  much 
interest.  The  famous  Roman  Catholic  mission- 
ary Francis  Xavier  gathered  a  little  church  here 
in  the  16th  century.  In  1606  a  Jesuit  mission 
was  begun  here  by  Robert  de  Nobilis,  who  lived 
as  an  ascetic,  was  renowned  for  his  sanctity  and 
learning,  and  his  complete  mastery  of  the  Tamil 
language.  Following  him  were  men  of  like 
spirit,  notably  John  de  Britto,  who  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom in  1693,  and  Beschi,  who  prepared  the 
first  Tamil  grammar,  and  whose  writings  are 
regarded  as  models  of  pure  Tamil  style.  The 
native  converts  in  the  region  about  Madura  were 
estimated  at  a  million  or  more,  won  largely  by 
the  great  concessions  to  Hinduism  which  the 
missionaries  made.  The  number  of  Catholic 
Christians  now  in  the  district  has  greatly  dwin- 
dled, hardly  70,000  being  returned  in  the  census 
of  1881. 

The  history  of  Protestant  effort  begins  in  1834, 
when  the  place  was  occupied  by  Messrs.  Todd 
and  Hoisington,  connected  with  the  ABCFM 
mission  in  Jaffna,  Ceylon,  which  had  been 
founded  in  1816.  The  work  of  the  American 
missionaries  has  been  carried  on  vigorously  and 
successfully  ever  since.  In  process  of  time  they 
occupied  most  of  the  important  towns  in  the 
district  round  Madura  as  mission  stations,  estab- 
lished schools  of  different  grades,  gathered  con- 
gregations of  Christian  adherents  and  founded 
churches,  composed  of  such  as  gave  credible  evi- 
dence of  piety.  They  have  labored  as  preachers 
on  their  tours  and  in  the  churches,  as  teachers  in 
their  schools,  as  writers,  and  editors  through  the 
medium  of  the  press,  as  physicians  through  their 
labors  in  hospitals  and  dispensaries.  This  So- 
ciety now  (1902)  has  at  Madura  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  3  women  missionaries,  140 
native  workers,  men  and  women;  18  outstations, 
14  preaching  places,  13  day  schools,  3  high-grade 
boarding  schools,  2  hospitals,  2  dispensaries  and 
700  professed  Christians.  It  is  a  station  also  of 
the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1874),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  1  woman 
missionary,  22  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
14  outstations,  10  places  of  worship,  5  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school  and  727  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  697  are  communicants. 
The  SPG  also  has  a  native  evangelist  here. 

MADURANTAKAM :  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  about  50  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Madras. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary, 
46  native  workers,  10  outstations,  13  chapels,  21 
day  schools,  14  Sunday  schools,  1  theological 
class,  and  174  professed  Christians,  of  whom  108 
are  communicants. 

MAEBASHI.     See  Matebashi. 

MAFEKING:  A  town  on  the  railway  to  Bulu- 
wayo,  near  the  Transvaal  boundary,  and  about 
800  miles  N.  E.  of  Cape  Town.  Station  of  the 
WMS,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  118  native 
workers,  23  outstations,  155  chapels,  23  Sunday 
schools,  8  day  schools,  and  1,513  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  1,223  are  communicants. 

MAFUBE:  A  settlement  in  Griqualand  East, 
S.  Africa,  situated  about  90  miles  N.  W.  of  Shep- 
stone.     Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission 


(1884),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  wife,  22 
native  workers,  9  outstations,  1  Sunday  school, 
8  day  schools,  and  1,000  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  637  are  communicants. 

MAGDALA:  A  village  on  the  Mosquito  Coast, 
Nicaragua,  Central  America,  situated  15  miles 
N.  hy  E.  of  Bluefields.  Station  of  the  Moravian 
Missions  (1855),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  7  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  chapel,  and  87  professed  Christians. 

MAGOMERO:  A  settlement  in  British  Central 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Shirfe  region,  about  25 
miles  N.  E.  of  Blantyre.  In  1861  Bishop  Mac- 
kenzie, leader  of  the  tJniversities  Mission,  on  his 
way  up  the  Zambesi  met  a  gang  of  slaves.  He 
liberated  them,  settled  them  at  Magomero,  and 
began  their  education.  The  insecurity  of  the 
region  at  that  time  made  a  change  necessary  in 
the  locality  where  such  waifs  were  to  be  taught, 
and  in  1864  the  whole  colony  was  removed  to 
Mbweni,  on  the  island  of  Zanzibar. 

MAGOYE :  A  settlement  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  the  district  north  of  the  N.  end  of 
Lake  Nyasa,  a  little  to  the  N.  of  Bulongoa,  on 
high  land  free  from  malaria.  Station  of  the 
Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1900),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  1  native  worker,  2  outstations,  1  day 
school,   and  28  professed  Christians. 

MAHABELASHWAR :  A  town  in  Bombay 
Presidency,  India,  situated  on  a  long  ridge  4,500 
feet  high,  and  70  miles  S.  E.  of  Bombay.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Poona  and  Indian  Village  Mission, 
with   (1900)   7  missionaries,   one   with  his  wife; 

2  women  missionaries,  and  a  rest  home. 
MAHAICA:  A  settlement  in  British  Guiana, 

South  America,  situated  on  the  Mahaica  River, 
40  miles  S.  of  Better  Hope.  Station  of  the  West 
Indies  Wesleyan  Eastern  Annual  Conference, 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  outstations,  5 
chapels,  5  Sunday  schools,  6  young  people's 
societies,  3  young  men's  Christian  associations, 
5  day  schools,  1  temperance  society,  and  422 
professed  Christians. 

MAHANORO :  A  town  on  the  E,  coast  of  Mada- 
gascar, situated  about  90  miles  S.  E.  of  Antan- 
anarivo. Station  of  the  SPG  (1884),  with  (1902) 
1  missionary,  1  woman  missionary,  1  native 
worker,  1  day  school,  and  629  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  124  are  communicants.  Society 
spells  the  name  Mahonoro. 

MAHASOARIVO:  A  suburb  of  Antananarivo 
containing  the  normal  school  (for  Imerina)  of 
the  Paris  Mission.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Society  (1899),  with  1  missionary  and 
wife,  1  missionary  woman,  3  native  workers,  and 
1  hospital.  Society  spells  the  name  Mahazoar- 
ivo. 

MAHE  ISLAND.     See  Seychelles  Island. 

MAHERESA:  A  village  in  Madagascar,  125 
miles  W.  of  Fianantsaroa.  Station  of  the  Paris 
Evangelical  Mission  Society  (1898),  with  (1903) 

3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their  wives;  102 
native  workers,  37  outstations,  7  Sunday  schools, 
3  societies  for  young  people,  2  young  men's 
Christian  associations,  2  young  women's  associa- 
tions, 37  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  indus- 
trial school,  1  dispensary,  2  orphanages,  1  theo- 
logical class,  and  850  professed  Christians. 
Society  spells  the  name  Mahereza. 

MAHITSY:  A  village  and  district  in  Imerina, 
Madagascar,  lying  to  the  N.  W.  of  Antananarivo, 
on  the  Majunga  road  about  15  miles  from  the 


Bfaboba 
Malays 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


430 


city.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1902),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife. 

MAHOBA:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  87  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Cawnpur  on 
the  railway  between  Banda  and  Allahabad. 
Population,  8,500.  Station  of  the  CWBM  (1895) , 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  6  women 
missionaries,  3  native  workers,  1  chapel,  2  Sun- 
day schools,  1  day  school,  1  kindergarten,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  orphanage,  91  professed  Christians. 

MAHONORO.     See  Mahanoro. 

MAHOW.     See  Mhow. 

MAIANA.     See  Gilbert  Islands. 

MAIDZURU:  A  town  in  Hondo,  Japan,  situ- 
ated near  the  coast  about  40  miles  N.  of  Kobe. 
Station  of  the  PE  (1895),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 1  native  worker,  4  chapels,  4  outstations, 
and  25  professed  Christians. 

MAIJAM:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
about  30  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Raniganj.  Station 
of  the  PB,  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  wife  and 

1  orphanage.      Society  spells  the  name  Mihijani. 
MAI-MAI-KAI:  A  town  in  Manchuria,  China, 

situated  120  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Mukden.  Station 
of  the  UFS  (1898).  The  work  has  not  been  fully 
reorganized  since  the  Boxer  disturbance,  but  is 
carried  on  (1903)  with  14  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations, 2  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools, 
and  377  professed  Christians. 

MAIMANSINGH :  A  town  of  Bengal,  India, 
situated  by  Nasirabad,  74  miles  N.  of  Dacca; 
capital  of  the  District  of  Maimansingh.  Popula- 
tion, 11,600,  of  whom  6,500  are  Hindus.  Station 
of  the  Victoria  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society 
(1885),  with  1  missionary  and  wife,  3  women 
missionaries,  6  native  workers,  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 2  Sunday  schools,  2  young  people's  societies, 

2  day  schools,  1  orphanage,  and  23  professed 
Christians.    Society  spells  the  name  Mymensingh. 

MAIN:  A  village  in  the  Transkei  District  of 
Cape  Colony,  Africa,  situated  78  miles  N.  of  East 
London.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1876),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  26  native  workers,  12  out- 
stations, 1  place  of  worship,  11  day  schools,  and 
573  professed  Christians. 

MAINPURI:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces 
of  India,  situated  40  miles  W.  of  Fatehgarh; 
capital  of  the  District  of  Mainpuri.  The  town  is 
in  two  sections,  one  of  which  is  called  Mukham- 
anj.  Population,  18,600,  of  whom  13,800  are 
lindus  and  4,000  Muslims.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1843),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  11  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  place 
of  worship,  14  Sunday  schools,  5  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  and  220  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  44  are  communicants.  Society  spells 
the  name  Mainpurie. 

MAIRANG:  Village  in  Assam,  India,  situated 
in  the  Khasia  Hills,  near  Mao-phlang,  with  which 
its  mission  statistics  are  included. 

MA  JAM:  A  village  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Wajaga  region  on  the  slopes  of 
Mt.  Kilima  Njaro,  190  miles  N.  W.  from  the  sea- 
port of  Tanga.  Station  of  the  Leipzig  Mission 
Society  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  7  chapels,  4  day  schools,  1  high  school,  and 
40  professed  Christians,  of  whom  19  are  com- 
municants. Society  writes  the  name  Mad- 
schame. 

MAJAWERAM.     See  Mayavaram. 


H: 


MAKAPAANSPOORT:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  the  Waterberg  district, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sefakaolo  Mountain.  Station 
of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1865),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  13  native  workers,  10  out- 
stations, 1  day  school,  and  487  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  247  are  communicants.  The 
chief,  Lekalekale,  when  the  missionaries  first  took 
up  their  residence  at  the  station,  prohibited  his 
tribe,  on  pain  of  death,  from  intercourse  with 
them,  and  what  success  the  station  has  had  haa, 
been  won  in  the  face  of  great  obstacles. 

MAKAPAN-STADT:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal, 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Aapies  River,  in  the 
Waterberg  district,  about  32  miles  N.  of  Pretoria. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  1  missionary,  9  native 
workers,  14  outstations,  24  places  of  worship, 
14  Sunday  schools,  9  day  schools  and  1,771  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  1,497  are  com- 
municants. 

MAKERE:  A  settlement  in  British  East  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Tana  River,  about  60  miles  N.  of 
Golbanti.  Station  of  the  Neukirchen  Mission 
Institute  (1898),  with  2  missionaries,  one  with 
his  wife,  and  1  day  school. 

MAKOTOPONG.     See  Kreuzburg. 

MAKOULANE:  A  settlement  in  Portuguese 
East  Africa,  situated  in  the  extreme  S.  W.  of  the 
colony,  about  60  miles  S.  W.  of  Lourengo 
Marques.  Station  of  the  Romande  (French 
Switzerland)  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  3  out- 
stations, 4  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools, 
4  day  schools  and  28  professed  Christians. 

MAKOWE:  A  settlement  in  Zululand,  South 
Africa,  about  midway  between  Durban  and 
Lourengo  Marques.  Station  of  the  South  Africa 
General  Mission  (1896),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  1  native  worker, 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school  and  1  day  school. 

MALA :  A  station  of  the  New  Hebrides  Mission 
Society  at  the  southern  end  of  Espiritu  Santo 
Island. 

MALA:  The  island  usually  called  Malayta,  in 
the  Solomon  group,  Melanesia. 

MALABAR,  Syrian  Church  of :  Travancore  and 
its  sister  kingdom.  Cochin,  which  adjoins  it  on  the 
north,  are  famous  as  the  home  of  an  exceedingly 
ancient  branch  of  the  Christian  Church,  usually- 
known  as  the  "Syrian  Church  of  Malabar," 
Malabar  being  the  name  applied  for  many  cen- 
turies to  the  strip  of  coast  embracing  the  king- 
doms named  and  the  British  district  just  north 
of  them.  The  origin  of  this  church  is  doubtful. 
The  traditions  current  amon^  the  people  go  back 
to  the  preaching  of  Thomas,  in  the  middle  of  the 
1st  century;  but  scholars  suppose  that  a  small 
colony  from  Antioch  (Syria)  may  have  landed 
here  in  the  4th  century.  The  church  is  Syrian 
in  doctrine  and  ritual,  maintaining  the  Nestorian 
type  of  Christology,  and  is  subject  to  the  Patri- 
arch of  Antioch,  tho  the  Romanists  have  tried 
hard  to  subject  it  to  the  Pope,  and  did  succeed, 
in  1599,  in  detaching  some  80,000  members  from 
the  patriarch,  and  in  thus  forming  a  Romo- 
Syrian  community,  which  is  still  allowed,  how- 
ever, to  retain  the  Syrian  ritual  and  language. 
The  remainder  of  the  lloman  Catholic  population 
represents  chiefly  the  results  of  Francis  Xavier's 
missionary  activity  in  the  16th  century.  The 
existence  of  this  ancient  Syrian  Church  attracted 


431 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Hahoba. 
Malays 


the  attention  of  Rev.  Dr.  Buchanan  (then  chap- 
lain to  the  East  India  Company  at  Tinnevelli), 
and  at  liis  urgent  suggestion  the"  Church  Mission- 
ary Society,  in  1816,  sent  missionaries  to  labor 
among  its  members.  At  first  the  Syrian  priests 
cooperated  with  them,  but  in  1838  signs  of  hos- 
tility appeared,  which  culminated  in  the  Syrian 
Metran  (or  Metropolitan)  dissolving  all  connec- 
tion with  the  English  missionaries.  Since  then 
the  Church  Mission  has  devoted  its  attention  to 
the  people  at  large,  with  the  most  gratifying 
results,  drawing  their  converts  from  the  old 
church  in  part,  but  very  largely  from  Hindus, 
and  especially  from  certain  low  castes.  Grad- 
ually there  has  arisen  in  the  Syrian  Church  a 
reform  party  which  is  in  close  relations  with  the 
CMS  missionaries  and  appears  to  be  gaining 
influence  for  the  awakening  of  the  long  slumber- 
ing Malabar  church. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  IX,  p.  760;    Funk  & 
Wagiialls,  New  York,  1896. 

MALACCA:  A  portion  of  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments of  Great  Britain,  lying  along  the  western 
coast  of  the  Malay  peninsula  between  Singapore 
and  Penang;  consists  of  a  strip  of  territory  about 
42  miles  in  length  and  from  8  to  24J  miles  in 
breadth.  Its  surface  is  hilly,  but  not  mountain- 
ous, and  it  is  drained  by  five  navigable  rivers, 
making  the  soil  alluvial  and  rich.  The  climate 
is  equable  and  healthful.  In  1901  the  popula- 
tion numbered  95,487,  of  whom  73,833  were 
Asiatics,  74  Europeans  or  Americans  and  1,498 
of  mixed  blood.  There  is  no  mission  station  in 
Malacca. 

MALAGAS:  LANGUAGE:  A  language  of  the 
more  civilized  peoples  of  Madagascar.  It  is  of 
the  Malayan  family  and  was  reduced  to  writing 
by  missionaries,  being  written  with  Roman  let- 
ters. 

HALAN:  A  village  in  the  Transkei  district  of 
Cape  Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  13  miles 
N.  E.  of  Butterworth.  Station  of  the  UFS 
(1875),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  14 
native  workers,  15  outstations,  20  Sunday 
schools  and  655  professed  Christians. 

MALANG:  A  village  in  the  Loanda  district, 
Angola,  Africa,  situated  about  250  miles  W. 
from  San  Paolo  de  Loanda,  on  the  line  of  the 
railway  from  that  place.  Station  of  the  ME 
(1885),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  two  of  them 
with  their  wives;  3  women  missionaries,  1  place 
of  worship  and  6  professed  Christians. 

MALAYALAM  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Dra- 
vidian  family  of  Indian  languages,  spoken  by  the 
people  of  Malabar  and  Travancore  in  the  south- 
west part  of  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan.  It  is 
the  vernacular  of  about  three  millions  of  people 
and  is  written  with  characters  peculiar  to  itself. 
It  is  also  called  Malayalim. 

MALAYAN  LANGUAGES:  A  family  of  lan- 
guages, of  great  simplicity  of  structure  and  of 
sounds,  used  by  the  natives  of  the  Malay  penin- 
sula, of  Madagascar,  of  the  islands  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  the  Philippines,  Polj^nesia  and  New 
Zealand.  The  tribes  in  the  interior  of  the 
larger  of  these  islands  have  languages  generally 
classed  as  of  independent  stock,  and  the  same 
seems  to  be  true  of  the  people  of  the  Mela- 
nesian  Islands,  altho  they  are  often  classed  as 
Malayan.  Australians  have  an  entirely  distinct 
language.  In  the  case  of  those  islands  which  we 
have  named,  the  Malay  characteristics  are  clearly 


evident,  altho  the  various  dialects  are  numerous.. 
The  Malay  language  proper  is  the  lingua  franca 
of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  Its  most  cul- 
tured dialect  is  that  of  the  towns  of  Sumatra  and 
Java.  Its  phonetic  elements  are  simple,  the 
grammatical  structure  is  regular  and  its  vocab- 
ulary, especially  in  nautical  terms,  is  very  copious. 
It  has  the  five  vowels,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  short  and  long,, 
with  one  diphthong.  The  consonants  are  b,  d, 
g,  h,  J,  k,  I,  TO,  n,  h,  p,  r,  s,  t,  w,  y,  ng,  ch.  Malay 
is  a  dissyllabic  language,  with  the  accent  as  a 
rule  on  the  penultimate,  except  where  that 
syllable  is  open  and  short.  Derived  words  are 
formed  by  prefixes,  affixes,  infixes  and  redupli- 
cation. Much  skill  is  displayed  in  the  idiomatic 
use  of  the  hundred  or  more  derivative  forms. 
There  are  no  infiectional  forms  to  distinguish 
number,  gender  or  case.  Number  is  denoted 
only  when  absolutely  necessary  by  the  use  of 
the  adjectives  sagala,  all,  and  banak,  many,  or  by 
sa  or  satu,  one,  with  a  classifier.  As  in  the  Chi- 
nese language,  classifiers  are  numerous,  such  as, 
orang,  used  in  speaking  of  persons;  keping,  piece, 
for  flat  things.  Gender  is  distinguished  by  the 
use  of  auxiliary  words.  Case  is  indicated  by 
position.  Verbs  have  no  person,  number,  mood,, 
or  tense.  Long  sentences  are  avoided,  and  in  a 
sentence  first  comes  the  subject,  then  the  verb, 
followed  by  the  object,  and  qualifying  words, 
follow  the  words  they  qualify. 

The  Arabic  alphabet  is  used  for  writing  Malay,, 
having  been  introduced  at  the  time  of  the 
Mohammedan  conquest.  A  great  number  of 
Arabic  words  have  also  been  introduced  into 
the  vocabulary. 

The  literature  of  the  Malays  consists  mainly 
of  proverbs,  and  love  poems  of  four  lines.  Their 
religious  literature  is  remarkable  mainly  for  its- 
independence,  and  the  fact  that  it  does  not  show 
the  influence  of  Islam. 

The  great  branches  of  the  Malayan  language 
are  the  Polynesian,  found  in  the  islands  of  the 
South  Pacific,  the  Hawaiian,  the  Malagasi  and 
perhaps  the  Fijian,  found  in  the  Fiji  Islands. 
As  said  above,  the  evidence  of  a  Malayan  origin 
for  the  language  of  Fiji  and  the  multitudinous, 
dialects  of  Melanesia  is  not  conclusive. 

The  earliest  recorded  use  of  a  Malayan  lan- 
guage for  evangelistic  writings  was  in  1662,  when 
Brouwers,  one  of  the  Dutch  Church  ministers  in 
Java,  began  a  translation  of  the  Bible,  using 
Roman  letters  in  writing  it.  Roman  letters  have 
become  established  as  the  alphabet  for  writing 
the  Malagasi  and  the  Polynesian  Malayan  lan- 
guages. But  in  the  Malaysian  Islands  the  Arabic 
letters  having  become  naturalized  long  before  the 
date  above  named,  the  use  of  Roman  letters  in 
writing  Malay  has  not  widely  found  favor. 

MALAYS:  1.  In  its  strictest  sense  this  name  is 
given  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Malay  peninsula, 
Penang  and  Sumatra,  who  belong  to  the  Mongol 
race,  modified  by  the  mixture  of  other  blood. 
In  physical  appearance  they  are  of  somewhat 
short  stature;  brown  complexion — not  so  light  as 
the  Chinese  or  so  dusky  as  the  Hindu;  have 
straight,  black,  coarse  hair;  no  beard;  large 
mouthy  flat  nose;  large,  dark  eyes;  somewhat 
thick  lips;  small  hands  and  feet,  with  thin,  weak 
legs.  In  temperament  the  Malays  are  thoroughly 
Asiatic — taciturn,  undemonstrative,  cunning, 
treacherous,  and  at  times  cruel.  Their  passions 
are  easily  aroused,  and  under  specially  exciting 
circumstances,  such  as  love,  jealousy  or  religious 


Malays 
Mandalay 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


432 


fervor,  they  reach  a  height  of  frenzy  during 
which  they  run  "amuck,"  assailing  violently  all 
whom  they  meet. 

We  find  three  principal  classes:  the  Orang 
benua,  "men  of  the  soil,"  or  hill-tribes;  the 
Orang  laut,  "men  of  the  sea,"  who  are  the  daring, 
skilful,  adventurous  seafaring  men  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  the  Orang  Malyeru,  or  Malays 
proper,  the  civilized  class,  who  exhibit  more  of 
refinement  and  are  courteous  and  kind  to  their 
families  and  friends.  The  Malay  sailors  were  the 
formidable  pirates  who  formerly  menaced  com- 
merce and  were  the  dread  scourge  of  the  Indian 
seas.  Their  deeds  of  cruelty,  treachery  and  cun- 
ning, aided  by  their  daring,  brave,  audacious  sea- 
manship, are  still  the  theme  of  stories  of  adven- 
ture. Even  at  the  present  time  few  ship  captains 
care  to  have  a  crew  composed  entirely  of  Malays, 
tho  they  form  the  largest  part  of  the  sailors  on  the 
Indian  and  Chinese  coasts. 

Mohammedanism  was  embraced  by  the  Malays 
in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  the  fierce,  uncom- 
promising, aggressive  spirit  of  that  religion  find- 
ing quick  response  in  their  natural  temperament. 

2.  In  a  wider  sense  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
races  inhabiting  the  Indian  Archipelago  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  embracing  an  area  13,000 
by  5,000  miles,  from  Easter  Island  to  Madagas- 
car and  from  New  Zealand  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
This  wide  dispersion  of  the  race  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  study  and  theory,  but  the  causes  of 
it,  and  proof  as  to  the  fact,  are  not  within  the 
limits  of  this  article.  A  classification  of  this 
wider  definition  is  as  follows:  (1)  Malay.  (2) 
Malay  Javanese:  the  inhabitants  of  the  Ladrones, 
Formosa,  Philippine  Islands,  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  and  Madagascar.  (3)  Melanesia,  Fiji 
Islands,  which,  by  the  way,  is  not  always  ad- 
mitted. (4)  Polynesian  :  The  Hawaiians, 
Marquesas  Islanders,  Tahitians,  Raratongans, 
Samoans,  Tongans,  Maoris.  To  these  Wallace 
adds  the  Papuans,  who  are  the  farthest  removed 
from  tlie  Malays,  yet  whom  he  considers  to  be  of 
the  same  stock.  They  represent  the  extreme 
difference  in  type,  due  to  the  mingling  of  other 
races  with  the  Malays,  and  have  frizzly  hair,  are 
tall  and  black,  bearded  and  hairy-bodied.  The 
mental  characteristics  of  the  Papuan  are  also 
different  from  the  Malay  type,  and  they  are 
impetuous  and  noisy.  Between  the  two  extremes 
every  gradation  is  found,  varying  with  the  pre- 
ponderance of  either  the  Malay  or  Papuan  type. 
In  some  of  the  provinces  of  China,  in  Formosa 
and  Hainan,  the  aborigines,  who  seem  to  have 
affinity  with  the  Shans  and  Laos,  are  also  allied 
to  the  Malays.  Mohammedanism  does  not 
accompany  the  Malays  in  their  dispersion,  and 
low  forms  of  superstition,  of  fetishism  and  of 
demonolatry  take  its  place.  Christianity  has 
made  considerable  headway,  not  only  in  Mada- 
gascar and  Polynesia,  but  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago and  even  among  Mohammedan  Malays. 

MALAYTA  ISLAND :  One  of  the  Solomon 
Island  group  in  Melanesia,  lying  S.  E.  of  Isabel 
Island.  It  has  an  area  of  2,395  square  miles. 
Station  of  the  Melanesia  Mission.  Society  spells 
the  name  Mala. 

MALEGAON:  A  town  in  Bombay  Presidency, 
India,  situated  in  the  District  of  Nasik,  on  the 
Gurna  River,  64  miles  N.  W.  of  Aurangabad. 
Altitude,  1,460  feet.  Population,  15,500,  of 
whom  9,800  are  Muslims  and  5,600  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1848),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 


ary and  wife,  43  native  workers,  2  outstations,  16 
day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  619  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  172  are  communicants. 
Society  spells  the  name  Malegam. 

MALITZI:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  16  miles  N.  W.  of  Pietersburg. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1877), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  9  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations, 2  day  schools,  and  232  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  114  are  communicants. 
Society  spells  the  name  Moletsche. 

MALIYI :  A  settlement  in  the  ShirS  Highlands, 
British  Central  Africa,  situated  about  13  miles 
N.  W.  of  Blantyre.  Station  of  the  Zambesi 
Industrial  Mission,  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  4  Sunday 
schools,  4  day  schools,  1  industrial  farm,  and  10 

Srofessed   Christians.     Society   spells   the   name 
[aliya. 

MALLICOLLO  ISLAND.  See  New  Hebri- 
des. 

MALNA:  A  settlement  in  Upolu,  Samoa,  and 
station  of  the  LMS. 

MALO:  Station  in  southern  part  of  Espiritu 
Santo  Island  in  the  New  Hebrides.      See  Mala. 

MALOKONG :  A  village  in  the  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  about  35  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Pietersburg.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1867),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  11 
native  workers,  15  outstations,  1  day  school,  and 
281  professed  Christians,  of  whom  186  are 
communicants. 

MALTA:  An  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 
south  of  Italy;  a  British  crown  colony,  and  an 
important  naval  station.  Area,  95  square  miles. 
Population,  188,141  (English,  2,138;  foreigners, 
1,097,  the  remainder  natives).  Language,  a 
patois  of  Arabic.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic, 
the  old  laws  of  the  island  for  the  defense  of  that 
church  being  maintained  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment. 

Malta  was  for  many  years  the  most  important 
missionary  station  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  was 
occupied  by  all  the  missionary  societies  seeking 
to  work  in  the  Levant.  The  mission  press  of  the 
ABCFM  was  established  here  prior  to  its  removal 
to  Smyrna,  and  it  was  here  that  Wm.  Goodell  and 
his  associates  studied  the  Turkish  and  Armenian 
before  establishing  themselves  at  Smyrna,  Con- 
stantinople, and  Beirut.  It  is  now  occupied  as 
a  preaching  station  by  several  of  the  Colonial 
Societies  of  England  and  Scotland,  especially  the 
Scotch  Free  Church.  Representatives  of  other 
societies  visit  the  island,  and  the  Bible  has  been 
published  in  Maltese  with  some  acceptance. 

MALVALLI :  A  town  in  Mysore,  India,  situated 
about  30  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Mysore  City.  Sta- 
tion of  the  PB,  with  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  1  woman  missionary,  and  1  orphan 
asylum. 

MAMBA:  A  village  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  on  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Kilima  Njaro,  in  the 
Wajaga  District,  about  10  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Taveta.  Station  of  the  Leipzig  Mission  Society 
(1894),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  4  places  of 
worship,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and 
65  professed  Christians. 

MAMBOIA:  A  town  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Usagara  Hills,  about  130  miles  W. 
b^^  N,  of  Bagamoyo.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1879), 
vih  (1903)  1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries, 


433 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Malays 
Mandalay 


3  native  workers,  4  outstations,  4  places  of  wor- 
ship, 7  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  64  pro- 
fessed Christians,  22  of  whom  are  communicants. 

MAMRE:  A  village  in  the  Malmesbury  District 
of  Cape  Colony,  Africa,  situated  28  miles  N.  of 
Cape  Town,  with  a  population  of  1,500.  Station 
of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1808),  with  3  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  36  native  workers,  1  place 
of  worship,  2  day  schools,  and  511  professed 
Christians. 

MANAGUA:  Capital  of  Nicaragua,  Central 
America,  situated  157  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Teguci- 
galpa, on  Managua  Lake,  and  connected  by  rail 
with  Granada  on  Lake  Nicaragua.  Station  of 
the  Central  America  Mission,  with  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives  and  1  woman  missionary. 

MANAKAVALY :  A  village  of  lepers,  in  Mada- 
gascar, situated  3  miles  N.  of  the  LMS  station  of 
Isoavina,  12  miles  E.  of  Antananarivo.  It  was 
built  some  ten  years  ago  on  the  initiative  of  Rev. 
Mr.  Peake  (LMS),  and  its  preacher  and  inhabi- 
tants are  all  lepers,  maintained  by  the  French 
Government,  cared  for  by  the  deaconesses  of  the 
Paris  Missionary  Society,  but  aided  in  church 
and  school  work  by  the  LMS.  The  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Society  has  there  2  women  missionaries, 
4  native  workers,  and  1  leper  asylum,  belonging 
to  the  French  Government.  There  is  also  a  home 
for  untainted  children  of  lepers.  The  LMS  has 
1  native  worker  and  1  place  of  worship,  with  200 
professed  Christians,  all  lepers. 

MANAMADURA:  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  30  miles  S.  E.  of  Madura.  Station  of 
the  ABCFM  (1864),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  36  native  workers,  36  outsta- 
tions, 14  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  6 
day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  industrial 
school,  and  153  professed  Christians. 

MANAMBONDRO:  A  village  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Madagascar,  situated  about  116  miles  N.  of 
Ft.  Dauphin.  Station  of  the  Norwegian  Mission- 
ary  Society. 

MANANJARY:  A  town  in  Madagascar,  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  Mananjary  River,  on  the  E. 
coast.  Station  of  the  SPG,  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  1  native  worker,  and  796  professed 
Christians.     Society  spells  the  name  Mananjara. 

MANANTENINA:  A  settlement  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Madagascar,  situated  about  62  miles  N.  E.  of 
Ft.  Dauphin.  Station  of  the  Lutheran  Free 
Church  Mission  Society  (1895),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  wife,  10  native  workers,  7  outstations, 
and  1  place  of  worship. 

MANASOA:  A  village  in  Madagascar,  situated 
about  63  miles  E.  of  St.  Augustine's  Bay.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Lutheran  Free  Church  Mission  Society 
(1901),  with  1  missionary  and  wife,  4  native 
workers,  4  outstations,  and  1  place  of  worship. 

MANCHU  LANGUAGE :  The  language  of  Man- 
churia, Chinese  Empire,  and  the  court  language 
of  the  present  Imperial  dynasty  of  China.  It 
belongs  to  the  Tungusian  branch  of  the  Ural- 
Altaic  family,  and  on  the  whole  is  the  best- 
known  of  the  Tungusian  tongues.  It  follows  the 
rule  of  all  Tatar  languages  in  observing  the 
requirements  of  harmony  in  the  vowels  of  words, 
insisting  on  the  division  of  vowels  into  "hard"  and 
"soft"  classes.  Naturally,  it  has  received  and 
adopted  a  certain  number  of  Chinese  words.  It 
is  written  with  an  alphabet  peculiar  to  itself, 
which,  however,  can  be  traced  to  the  letters  of 
the  Syriac  alphabet. 


MANCHURIA:  One  of  the  divisions  of  the 
Chinese  Empire  lying  north  of  China  proper, 
between  latitude  42°  and  53°  north.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  treaty  of  1860  between  Russia  and 
China,  nearly  one-half  of  the  former  territory 
was  given  over  to  Russia,  and  the  present  limits 
are  the  Amoor  on  the  north,  the  Usuri  and 
Sunga-cha  on  the  east,  Korea  on  the  south,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Shan-Alin  range,  and 
on  the  west  the  Khingan  Mountains,  the  Sira- 
Muren  River,  and  the  district  of  Upper  Sungari 
separate  it  from  the  desert  of  Gobi.  Its  area  ia 
about  363,000  square  miles.  The  population 
of  Manchuria  is  estimated  by  the  Chinese  as 
8,500,000.  Physically,  the  country  is  divided 
into  the  mountain  ranges  on  the  north  and 
east,  among  which  lie  numerous  fertile  val- 
leys, and  the  plain  which  stretches  south 
from  Mukden  to  the  Gulf  of  Liao-tung. 
The  climate  varies  from  90°  F.  in  the  summer 
to  10°  below  zero  in  the  winter.  During  four 
months  of  the  year  the  rivers  are  frozen  up;  a 
short  spring  is  followed  by  the  heat  of  summer, 
and  a  few  weeks  of  autumn  usher  in  the  snow  and 
ice  of  the  winter.  Manchuria  is  gradually  losing 
its  native  language  and  system  of  education 
under  the  influence  of  the  Chinese.  Until  Rus- 
sia's interference  in  1900  the  native  Manchus  had 
been  used  to  reenf  orce  Manchu  garrisons  in  China, 
while  a  tide  of  Chinese  had  been  pouring  in. 
Russia  has  changed  all  this.  The  native  Manchua 
are  a  finer  race  physically,  mentally,  and  mor- 
ally than  the  Chmese;  they  are  of  larger  frame, 
lighter  color,  and  have  greater  intellectual  capac- 
ity. Mission  work  in  this  part  of  China  is  carried 
on  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland,  and 
the  UFS  in  the  western  and  central  districts,  and 
the  Danish  Missionary  Society  in  the  coast  regions 
of  the  south.  Since  the  strategic  points  from  Har- 
bin to  Port  Arthur  are  mission  stations,  the  mili- 
tary necessities  of  the  Russian  war  with  Japan 
have  (1904)  interrupted  missionary  work  in  what 
has  hitherto  seemed  to  be  one  of  the  most  prom- 
ising fields  for  Christian  missions. 

Rosa  (J.),  The  Manchus,  London,  1880;  .T.-mes  (H.  E,  M.}, 
The  Lorw  White  Mountain,  "Lo  don,  1888;  Colquhon  (A. 
R.),  The  "Overland"  to  China,  London.  1900;  Hozie  (A  ), 
Manchuria,  Lo  don,  1901;  WilUamf.  (S.  Wells),  The  Mid- 
dle Kingdom  (Chinese  Impire),  2  \'<  1-^.,  new  '  d..  New  York, 
1899;  Williamson  (^ A.),  Journeys  in  North  China,  Manchu- 
ria and  Eastern  Mongolia,  2  vols.,  London,  1870. 

MANDAILUNG  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect  of  the 
Batta  (or  Batak),  spoken  in  Sumatra. 

MANDINGO  LANGUAGE :  An  African  language 
belonging  to  the  Negro  group,  and  spoken  by 
rather  a  large  body  of  people  found  in  French 
Guinea,  West  Africa,  south  of  the  Gambia  River. 
It  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries, 
Roman  letters  being  used  for  the  purpose. 

MANDALAY:  A  town  in  Upper  Burma,  Brit- 
ish India,  situated  386  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Rangoon 
in  a  plain  2  miles  from  the  Irawadi  River.  Part 
of  the  city  is  walled  and  is  now  a  British  military 
post,  called  Fort  Dufferin.  There  are  large  manu- 
factures of  silk  goods.  Population,  168,300,  of 
whom  147,000  are  Buddhists  and  13,700  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  ABMU  (1886),  with  (1903)  4  mis- 
sionaries, three  with  their  wives;  2  woman  mis- 
sionaries, 46  native  workers,  279  professed  Chris- 
tians, 2  places  of  worship,  6  Sunday  schools,  1  day 
school,  and  2  boarding  schools.  Station  also  of 
the  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the  East  (1 890) , 
with  1  place  of  worship  and  1  home  for  untainted 
children  of  lepers.     Station  also  of  the  Missionary 


Mandarl  LansrnaS'e 
MaraUei 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


434 


Pence  Association  (1892),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  outstation,  1  place  of 
worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  and  40  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  SPG  (1868), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  16  native  workers,  1 
day  school,  1  place  of  worship,  1  boarding  school, 
and  283  professed  Christians,  of  whom  160  are 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with 
3  missionaries,  1  woman  missionary,  21  native 
workers,  8  outstations,  6  Sunday  schools,  7  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  temperance  society, 
and  166  professed  Christians,  of  whom  137 
are    communicants. 

MANDARI  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  non- 
Aryan  languages  of  India;  also  called  the  Kol, 
and  spoken  by  the  Kolarian  aborigines  of  Chota 
Nagpur  in  Bengal.  It  has  been  reduced  to 
writing  by  missionaries  with  use  of  the  Roman 
letters. 

MANDOMAI:  A  village  in  the  island  of  Borneo, 
situated  35  miles  N.  W.  of  Banjermassin.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  wife,  1  woman  mission- 
ary, 10  native  workers,  5  outstations,  1  Sunday 
school,  6  day  schools,  and  449  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  288  are  communicants. 

MANDRIDRANO :  A  town  in  Madagascar,  situ- 
ated 50  miles  S.  W.  of  Antananarivo.  Station  of 
the  FFMA  (1888),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and 
wife,  1  woman  missionary,  80  native  workers,  40 
outstations,  250  professed  Christians,  40  places 
of  worship,  40  Sunday  schools,  1  Young  People's 
Society,  and  1   dispensary. 

MANEPY:  A  village  in  Ceylon,  situated  5  miles 
N.  W.  of  Jaffna.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1831), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  41  native 
workers,  4  outstations,  12  day  schools,  and  308 
professed  Christians. 

MANGAIA.    See  Hervet  Islands. 

MANGALORE :  A  town  and  seaport  in  Madras, 
India,  and  capital  of  the  District  of  South  Kan- 
ara,  situated  on  the  W.  coast  of  Hindustan,  at 
the  mouth  of  Netravati  River,  127  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Calicut.  Much  of  the  coffee  grown  in  Coorg 
is  exported  here.  Population  (1891),  41,000,  of 
whom  23,000  are  Hindus,  10,000  are  Christians, 
and  7,600  are  Muslims.  Station  of  the  Basel 
Mission  Society  (1834),  with  (1903)  15  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  3  women  missionaries,  77 
native  workers,  6  outstations,  1  Sunday  school, 
18  day  schools,  1  kindergarten,  1  theological 
class,  1  boarding  school,  and  2,799  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  1,687  are  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India 
(1891),  with  1  leper  asylum.  The  Societies  spell 
the  name  Mangalur. 

MANGAMBA:  A  village  in  Kamerun,  Africa, 
situated  about  10  miles  N.  of  Bonaberi.  Station 
of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1889),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  29  native 
workers,  38  outstations,  29  day  schools,  1  board- 
ing school,  and  442  professed  Christians. 

MANGARI:  A  village  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  near  Babatpur  Station  on  the 
railway,  14  miles  N.  W.  of  Benares.  Station  of 
the  LMS  (1874),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
wife,  28  native  workers,  7  Sunday  schools,  1 
Young  People's  Society,  9  day  schools,  and  19 
professed   Christians. 

MANILA:  The  principal  city  and  capital  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  situated  on  the  S.  W.  coast  of 


Luzon  Island,  at  the  head  of  Manila  Bay.  It  has 
important  suburbs  on  the  N.  bank  of  Pasig  River. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1571,  and  by 
the  U.  S.  in  May,  1898.  It  has  extensive  com- 
merce in  sugar,  hemp,  tobacco,  rice  and  dye- 
stuffs.  It  has  been  many  times  visited  by  earth- 
c[uakes,  and  is  subject  to  typhoons.  The  climate 
is  hot,  damp  and  unhealthful.  Population,  300  - 
000.  Station  of  the  ABS  (1899),  with  1  agent. 
Also  of  the  BFBS,  with  1  agent  and  1  book- 
room.  Also  station  of  the  ME,  with  3  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  3  women  missionaries,  5 
places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  and  1,489 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  597  are  communi- 
cants. Also  station  of  the  PE,  with  4  mission- 
aries. Also  station  of  the  Peniel  Mission  Society,, 
with  2  women  missionaries.  Station  also  of  the 
PN  (1899),  with  3  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife; 
6  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  3  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  360  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Station  also  of  the  United 
Brethren  Women's  Association  (1901),  with  2  mis- 
sionaries. The  YMCA  (1900)  also  has  a  repre- 
sentative here  and  a  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation. 

MANISA:  A  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  about  50 
miles  east  of  Smyrna;  the  ancient  Magnesia. 
It  is  still  an  important  city.  Population  about 
40,000,  Muslims,  Greeks  and  Armenians.  For 
many  years  it  was  a  station  of  the  ABCFM,  used 
as  the  missionary  residence,  on  account  of  the 
heat  of  Smyrna.  It  is  now  (1903)  an  outstation  of 
Smyrna,  which  is  again  the  missionary  center  for 
the  field. 

MANKAR:  A  town  and  railway  station  in  Ben- 
gal, India,  situated  in  the  District  of  Bankura, 
32  miles  N.  W.  of  Burdwan.  Station  of  the 
CEZ  (1895),  with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries, 
6  native  workers,  1  day  school,  and  1  dispensary. 

MANNARGUDI:  A  town  of  Madras,  India, 
situated  24  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Tanjore.  Popula- 
tion (1891),  20,400,  of  whom  19,300  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1897), 
with  (1903)  10  native  workers  and  5  day  schools. 
Church  statistics  are  included  in  Sidambaram. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  3  missionaries, 
73  native  workers,  4  outstations,  7  places  of  wor- 
ship, 12  Sunday  schools,  12  day  schools,  and  201 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  133  are  communi- 
cants. 

MANNING'S  HILL:  A  village  in  Jamaica,  W.  I., 
situated  about  7  miles  N.  W.  of  Kingston.  Sta- 
tion of  the  CWBM,  with  1  missionary,  133  pro- 
fessed Christians,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  day  school,  and  1  Young  People's 
Society. 

MANONA :  An  islet  of  the  Samoan  Islands,  sit- 
uated 2  miles  from  the  W.  end  of  Upolu.  It 
forms  a  natural  fortress  with  the  adjacent  isle  of 
Apolima,  and  has  had  great  importance  in  local 
history.  Station  of  the  Australian  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Society,  with  9  native  workers,  2 
places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  3  day 
schools,  and  67  professed  Christians.  Society 
spells  the  name  Manono. 

MANOW:  A  village  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  about  20  miles  N.  W.  of  the  N.  end  of 
Lake  Nyasa.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1892),  with  1  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  and  37  professed  Christians. 

MANSINAM:  A  village  of  New  Guinea.  Malay- 


436 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Mandarl  Linngnage 
Marakei 


sia,  situated  on  the  W.  shore  of  Geelvink  Bay, 
near  its  mouth.  Station  of  the  Utrecht  Mission 
Society  (1864),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  native  worlcers,  1  day  school,  and  56  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

MANSURA:  A  town  in  lower  Egypt,  situated 
on  the  right  banlc  of  the  Damietta  arm  of  the 
Nile,  about  28  miles  N.  E.  by  E.  of  Tanta. 
It  is  an  important  commercial  town  and  has  a 
population  of  26,900.  Station  of  the  UP  (1866) , 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  woman  missionary, 
and  2  boarding  schools.  Society  spells  the  name 
Monsurali. 

MANUANE:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Marico  District,  about  27 
miles  N.  W.  of  Zeerust.  Station  of  the  Hermanns- 
burg  Mission  Society  (1882),  with  (1901)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  and  1,392  professed 
Christians. 

MANZ ANILLO :  A  town  and  seaport  in  Cuba, 
West  Indies,  situated  on  the  E.  side  of  a  large 
bay  on  the  S.  coast,  85  miles  W.  by  N.  of  San- 
tiago. Population,  34,000.  Station  of  the 
American  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society 
(1899),  with  (1901)  1  missionary,  2  Sunday 
schools,  and  42  professed  Christians. 

MAO-PHLANG:  A  village  in  the  Khasia  Hills, 
Assam,  India,  situated  about  18  miles  S.  W.  of 
Shillong  and  60  miles  N.  W.  of  Karimganj. 
Station  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Mis- 
sion, with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  wife,  51  native 
workers,  114  outstations,  54  places  of  worship, 
87  Sunday  schools,  102  day  schools,  and  2,794 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,084  are  com- 
municants.    Society  spells  the  name  Mawphlang. 

MAORI  LANGUAGE:  The  language  of  the 
aborigines  of  New  Zealand.  It  belongs  to  the 
Polynesian  branch  of  the  Malayan  family,  and  is 
written  with  Roman  letters. 

MAORIS:  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  New 
Zealand,  who  belong  to  the  Malaj^  family  of  man- 
kind. They  claim  to  have  migrated  to  New 
Zealand  500  years  ago  from  "Hawaiki,"  which  is 
supposed  to  be  either  Hawaii  or  Savaii  of  the 
Samoan  Islands.  They  are  a  fine  race,  of  average 
stature,  with  olive-brown  skins,  and  their  heads 
exhibit  a  high  order  of  intellectual  development. 
They  are  beardless,  as  a  rule,  but  that  is  due  in 
part  to  the  custom  of  plucking  out  the  beard  with 
shells.  Most  of  the  race  have  long  black  hair, 
but  some  have  reddish  hair,  and  in  others  it  is 
frizzly.  Large  eyes,  thick  lips,  and  large,  irreg- 
ular teeth  are  characteristic.  The  women  are 
smaller  than  the  men,  and,  generally,  inferior  to 
them.  Tattooing  was  a  universal  practise  pre- 
vious to  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  The 
custom  of  taboo,  which  has  given  a  word  in  uni- 
versal use  among  English-speaking  people,  was 
practised  by  the  priests  to  make  any  person  or 
thing  sacred  and  inviolable.  Such  regard  was 
paid  to  the  sanctity  of  the  taboo  that  even  in 
war  time  tabooed  persons  or  things  were  not 
harmed.  Cannibalism  was  practised  by  the 
heathen  Maoris,  but  has  disappeared,  together 
with  infanticide,  slavery,  and  polygamy,  under 
the  enlightening  influences  of  Christianity. 

The  Maoris,  Hke  most  races  in  tropical  climates, 
marry  young,  but  they  are  not  a  very  prolific 
race.     The  people  are  very  fond  of  music  and 


MAPHOUTSING.  See  Bethesoa  (Basuto- 
land)  . 

MAPLES,  Chauncy:  Second  Bishop  of  Likoma, 
Africa.  Born  February  17,  1852.  Died  1895. 
Sailed  for  Zanzibar  in  March,  1876;  and  in  July, 
1877,  he  left  Zanzibar  for  Masasi,  where,  for  some 
years,  he  was  to  labor.  About  a  year  after 
Maples'  arrival,  a  new  station  was  founded  at 
Newala,  nearer  the  River  Rovuma,  where  a 
number  of  native  Christians  from  Zanzibar  were 
settled;  and  from  these  two  stations  the  mis- 
sionary work  gradually  extended.  From  Newala, 
accompanied  by  a  fellow-missionary  and  ten 
Masasi  men  as  porters,  he  took  a  journey  south 
from  the  Rovuma  River  into  the  unexplored 
country  lying  between  it  and  the  Mozambique, 
a  tract  which  was  an  almost  uninterrupted  blank 
on  the  maps  of  those  days  and  which  he  was  the 
first  European  to  penetrate.  On  the  12th  of  July 
they  reached  the  goal  of  their  journey,  after  a 
walk  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  miles  in  three 
weeks.  On  the  29th  of  July  they  arrived  at  the 
port  of  Lull,  and  thence  they  sailed  north- 
ward by  dhow  and  started  northwest  from 
Kisanga  for  another  three  weeks'  walk,  which 
brought  them  to  Masasi,  after  they  had  accom- 
plished over  nine  hundred  miles  of  difficult 
country  in  sixty-eight  days.  In  the  latter  part 
of  1886  Mr.  Maples  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of 
Nyasa,  and  in  the  Autumn  of  1887  he  left  Likoma 
to  visit  the  wild  Gwangwara  bands  on  the  main- 
land. Among  these  "thieves,  robbers,  and  mur- 
derers," as  he  called  them,  he  labored  heroically, 
and  never  lost  faith  that  "God's  grace  is  able  to 
turn  these  savage  hordes  into  the  children  of 
Christ's  Church."  He  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Likoma  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1895,  and 
without  delay  he  set  out  again  for  Africa,  where, 
nearly  twenty  years  before,  he  entered  upon  his 
missionary  career.  When  he  reached  Fort 
Johnston,  at  the  junction  of  Lake  Nyasa  with  the 
Shire  River,  he  found  a  little  sailing  boat  belong- 
ing to  the  mission,  and,  not  waiting  for  the  Ger- 
man steamer,  he  decided  to  go  by  the  boat  to 
Likoma  at  once,  by  way  of  Kota-kota,  on  the  west 
shore,  where  he  was  to  leave  his  fellow-worker, 
Mr.  Williams.  During  a  violent  storm  the  vessel 
sank,  and  both  Bishop  Maples  and  Mr.  Williams 
were  drowned.  Bishop  Maples  had  a  special 
facility  for  acquiring  languages,  and  in  the  first 
four  years  of  his  sojourn  in  Africa  he  mastered 
Swahili  and  Yao,  and  enough  Makua  to  begin  the 
translation  of  the  New  Testament. 

MAPOON:  A  settlement  on  the  W.  side  of 
Cape  York  Peninsula,  Australia.  Station  of  the 
Federate  Churches  of  Australia,  with  (1900)  2 
missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  1  woman  mission- 
ary, 1  Sunday  school,  2  day  schools.  Station  also 
of  the  Moravian  Missions  (1891),  with  (1900)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school, 
and  8  professed  Christians. 

MAPUTA:  A  settlement  in  Portuguese  East 
Africa,  situated  on  the  River  Maputa,  about  25 
miles  from  its  mouth  in  Delagoa  Bay.  The 
territory  between  Maputa  and  the  Bay  is  called 
one  of  the  most  pestilential  districts  of  Africa. 
Station  of  the  South  African  General  Mission 
(1898),  with  1  missionary,  1  native  worker,  3  out- 
stations, 1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school, 
1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  3  professed 
Christians. 

MARAKEI.     See  Gilbert  Islands. 


Maralcesh 
Marslmiaii,    Josliua 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


43a 


MARAKESH:  A  town  in  Morocco,  N.  Africa, 
situated  about  120  miles  E.  of  Mogador,  the 
southern  capital  of  the  Empire.  Station  of  the 
South  Morocco  Mission  (1891),  with  3  mission- 
aries, 2  with  their  wives;  3  women  missionaries, 
1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  1  hospital.  The 
place  is  also  called  Morocco  by  Europeans. 

MARANHAO.     See  Sao  Luiz  de  Maranhao. 

MARAPJANE.     See  Neu  Halle. 

MARASH:  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Aleppo, 
Asiatic  Turkev,  situated  about  80  miles  N.  of 
Aleppo.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1854),  with 
(1902)  2  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  3  women 
missionaries,  65  native  workers,  15  outstations, 
13  places  of  worship,  17  Sunday  schools,  39  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  theological  class,  1 
college,  2  orphanages,  and  1,582  professed  Chris- 
tians. Site  of  the  Asia  Minor  Apostolic  Institute 
(1895),  with  1  native  worker,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school,  1  boarding  school,  and  1  orphanage. 

MARATHI  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Indie 
branches  of  the  Aryan  family,  spoken  by  a  large 
part  of  the  population  of  the  Bombay  Presidency. 
It  is  a  language  of  culture,  and  is  written  with 
the  Devanagari  characters  slightly  modified.  In 
trade  and  common  life  a  special  set  of  characters 
is  used  called  the  Modhi  character.  The  modified 
Devanagari  character  used  in  writing  Marathi  is 
called  Balbodh.  Missionaries  have  attempted 
to  introduce  the  Roman  letters  for  writing  this 
language,  but  without  great  success. 

MARBURG:  A  village  near  the  E.  coast  of 
Natal,  South  Africa,  situated  70  miles  S.  W.  by 
W.  of  Durban.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg 
Mission  (1867),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and 
wife,  2  native  workers,  1  day  school,  2  places  of 
worship,  and  128  professed  Christians. 

MARDIN:  A  town  in  the  N.  of  Mesopotamia, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  about  50  miles  S.  of 
Diarbekir,  with  a  population  of  15,000.  Station 
of  the  ABCFM  (1858),  with  (1902)  2  missionaries 
and  wives,  1  woman  missionary,  43  native  workers, 
18  outstations,  20  places  of  worship,  12  Sunday 
schools,  21  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  hos- 
pital, and  346  professed  Christians.  The  sem- 
inary furnishes  evangelists  and  teachers  to  the 
CMS  and  the  RCA  in  Arabia. 

MARKAPUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  about 
18  miles  N.  E.  of  Cumbum.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1895),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  23  native  workers,  2(3  outstations,  7  places 
of  worship,  9  Sunday  schools,  10  day  schools,  and 
4,060  professed  Christians,  of  whom  2,700  are 
communicants. 

MARIANNE  ISLANDS.  See  Ladeone  Is- 
lands. 

MARONITES:  The  Maronites  of  Syria  take 
their  name  from  John  Maron,  their  political 
leader  and  first  patriarch,  who  died  in  701. 
During  the  6  th  and  7th  centuries  of  our 
era  the  Monophysite  controversy  was  raging 
throughout  the  Eastern  church.  Armenia,  Syria, 
and  Egypt,  frontier  lands  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  were  deeply  infected  by  the  heresy.  The 
Emperor  Heraclius  (610-640)  was  anxious  to 
reunite  the  church  that  he  might  the  more  effec- 
tually ward  off  the  Saracen  invasion  from  Arabia, 
which  threatened  to  despoil  the  empire  of  its 
southeastern  provinces.  With  the  help  of  Ser- 
gius.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  a  Syrian,  he 
arranged  a  compromise  doctrine  which  he  hoped 
would  put  a  stop  to  the  rancorous  theological 


dispute.  The  statement  proposed  was  that, 
whatever  might  be  said  as  to  Christ  having  one 
(divine)  or  two  (human  and  divine)  natures,  all 
ought  to  agree  that  He  has  but  one  will  (divine, 
and  therefore  sinless).  Honorius,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  assented  to  this  proposition,  and  many 
of  the  Monophysites  agreed  to  accept  it.  But 
no  imperial  decree  could  stop  the  quarrel;  and 
after  a  long  controversy  (during  which  the 
Saracens  conquered  Syria,  Egypt,  and  all  North 
Africa)  the  case  was  decided  against  the  Mono- 
thelites  {monos,  one,  thelo,  to  will),  and  Bishop 
Honorius  (afterward  called  "Pope")  was  de- 
clared   heretical. 

Among  many  who  accepted  the  Monothelite 
heresy  were  Christians  of  Syria  who  fled  to  the 
mountains  before  the  Saracen  invader.  John 
Maron  was  their  leader.  High  up  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  these  vigor- 
ous people  managed  for  five  hunderd  years  to 
maintain  their  independence  in  the  face  of 
Byzantine  Greek  and  Saracen.  Defended  by 
tremendous  ravines  and  snowy  mountain  passes, 
they  were  never  seriously  in  danger.  The  long 
contest  developed  manly  qualities  and  industry. 
They  spoke  Syriac,  and  used  it  in  all  their 
services.  A  sort  of  feudal  system  developed 
itself.  The  government  was  theocratic,  the 
head  of  the  state  being  styled  "The  Patriarch 
of  Antioch  and  all  the  East."  The  episcopal 
dioceses  were  Aleppo,  Ba'albek,  Jebeil,  Tripoli, 
Ehden,  Damascus,  Beirut,  Tyre,  and  Cyprus. 
Village  sheikhs  were  elected,  as  were  all  the 
officers,  secular  and  religious. 

The  Crusaders  brought  to  light  this  interesting 
people,  so  long  cut  off  from  Christiandom. 
William  of  Tyre  and  Jacob  de  Nitry  have  left 
us  accounts  of  the  Maronites,  who  leagued  them- 
selves with  the  Crusaders,  and  in  1182  opened 
communications  with  the  papal  hierarchy. 
They  gradually  dropped  their  heretical  tendencies, 
adopted  the  Arabic  language  as  their  vernacular, 
and  in  1445,  at  the  Council  of  Florence,  were  taken 
entirely  under  the  wing  of  the  Roman  Church. 
They  were  allowed  to  retain  their  Syriac  liturgy, 
the  celebration  of  the  communion  in  both  kinds, 
the  marriage  of  the  lower  clergy,  their  own  fast- 
days,  and  their  own  saints.  In  1596  the  decrees 
of  Trent  were  accepted  by  them;  transubstan- 
tiation,  prayers  for  the  Pope,  and  other  novelties 
were  introduced.  A  special  college  was  estab- 
lished at  Rome  (Collegium  Maronitarum)  for 
investigations  by  Maronite  scholars,  which  gave 
to  the  world  the  learned  Assemani.  Schools 
for  the  clergy  and  printing  presses  were  estab- 
lished in  Syria.  A  papal  legate  was  sent  to 
Beirut,  and  to-day  the  Maronites  are  submissive 
followers  in  the  Latin  Church. 

There  are  about  250,000  of  this  sect  scattered 
all  over  the  Lebanon  range  and  the  Anti-Leba- 
non. They  are  massed  somewhat  in  the  north- 
ern districts  of  Lebanon  (Kesrawan  and  Bsher- 
reh),  and  have  complete  control  of  local  affairs. 
They  are  found  as  far  south  as  Mt.  Hermon,  in 
the  heart  of  the  Druse  country.  The  hostility 
of  Druse  and  Maronite,  fostered  by  the  Turks 
through  policy,  culminated  in  the  massacre  of 
1860,  in  which  thousands  of  the  Maronites  were 
butchered.  European  intervention  compelled 
the  Sultan  to  organize  the  semi-autonomous 
province  of  the  Lebanon,  which  is  under  protec- 
tion of  the  great  powers  of  Europe.  The 
stronghold  of  the  Maronites  in  the  North  Leba- 
non region  is  high  up  on  the  mountains,  with 


487 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Marakesli 
Marshmaii,   JoHhna 


surpassing  views  over  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
west.  It  is  a  bit  of  the  Middle  Ages  left  over. 
The  priests  have  complete  control,  and  the 
people  are  frugal  and  industrious.  They  are 
illiterate  for  the  most  part,  and  only  recently 
began  to  favoi;  schools  as  having  other  value  than 
as  a  means  of  keeping  their  people  from  Protes- 
tant influences.  The  rough  mountain  sides  are 
terraced,  and  every  available  bit  of  soil  utilized. 
The  raising  of  cattle,  silk-culture  and  weaving, 
vineyards,  grain,  maize,  and  potatoes  (Irish) 
occupy  the  attention  of  the  people.  Hundreds 
of  monasteries  are  scattered  over  the  mountains, 
the  most  notable  one  being  the  monastery  of  Ken- 
n6bin,    which    is    romantically    situated    in    the 

forge  of  the  Kadisha  River,  and  is  the  summer 
ome  of  the  Maronite  Patriarch.  At  the  head 
of  this  profound  ravine  is  the  famous  group  of 
400  ancient  cedars,  which  are  carefully  guarded 
as  sacred.  Some  of  them  are  40  feet  in  circum- 
ference and  over  100  feet  high. 

When  the  American  missionaries  entered 
Syria,  in  1823,  the  Roman  Catholic  authorities 
became  alarmed,  and  have  put  forth  every  effort 
to  hold  the  Maronites  to  allegiance  to  the  Pope. 
In  the  early  days  of  this  rivalry  a  young  Maronite, 
Asaad  Shidiak,  who  had  adopted  the  evangelical 
faith, was  imprisoned  in  the  Kennobin  monastery, 
where  he  died  from  rigorous  treatment.  He 
has  been  called  "The  Martyr  of  Lebanon."  The 
Jesuits  and  Lazarists  now  have  in  hand  the  task 
of  holding  the  Maronites  to  the  Latin  faith.  A 
fine  school  for  boys  is  found  at  Antura,  conducted 
by  the  Lazarites,  not  far  from  Bkurkeh,  the 
winter  home  of  the  Patriarch.  The  Jesuit  Col- 
lege at  Beirut  is  an  imposing  institution,  with  a 
fine  library  and  a  very  complete  scientific  appar- 
atus. The  Jesuits  were  forced  to  issue  an  Arabic 
Bible  in  order  to  compete  successfully  with  the 
Protestants,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
they  made  the  translation  from  the  original 
Greek  and  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

At  the  time  of  the  massacre  of  1860  the  Prot- 
estant missionaries  had  the  privilege  of  caring 
for  thousands  of  Maronite  orphans  and  other 
fugitives  in  Sidon  and  Beirut.  But  as  yet  the 
northern  portions  of  the  Lebanon  range  have 
been  impervious  to  Protestant  influence.  Rev. 
Isaac  Bird,  in  the  early  days  of  the  mission,  was 
driven  from  the  region,  and  missionaries  have 
made  no  attempt  since  then  permanently  to 
reside  in  the  Kesrawan  and  in  Bsherreh.  Mis- 
sionaries occasionally  have  summered  in  the 
mountains  above  Tripoli,  and  the  prejudice 
against  them  is  gradually  subsiding.  An  inci- 
dental benefit  of  Mr.  Bird's  attempt  is  that  the 
potatoes  which  Mr.  Bird  left  behind  in  his  garden 
have  spread  all  over  the  mountains,  and  form  a 
staple  of  agriculture  along  with  maize.  Other 
societies  besides  the  Presbyterian  Board  are 
reaching  the  Maronites.  The  Free  Church  of 
Scotland  has  occupied  the  Metu  region  just 
south  of  Kesrawan  for  some  years.  The  English 
schools  for  girls,  established  after  1860,  and 
which  are  scattered  over  the  mountains  to  the 
south,  are  doing  very  efficient  work.  The 
mission  of  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Damascus  is  reaching  the  Maronites  in  that 
region.  In  spite  of  the  great  care  of  the  Pi,oman 
Catholics,  education  is  transforming  the  whole 
sect,  and  evangelical  truth  is  more  and  more 
.winning  its  way  among  them. 
Churc  ill  (C.  H.),  Ten  Years'  Residence  in  Mt.  Lebanon,  4 

vols.,  2d  ed.,  London,  1862  (the  4th  vol.  refers  to  Druses 

and  Maronites). 


MARPHA:  A  village  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  the  Gondwana  District,  20  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Mandla.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1892), 
with  (1903)  4  missionaries  and  1  woman  mission- 
ary.    Further  statistics  included  in  Mandla. 

MARQUESAS  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  France  in  the  South  Pacific,  north- 
west of  the  Society  Islands.  Area,  480  square 
miles.  Population,  5,000.  During  the  last 
forty  years,  mission  work  in  these  islands  has  been 
repeatedly  begun  and  abandoned,  and  the  natives 
have  been  made  to  suffer  greatly  by  this.  They 
have  also  been  injured  by  the  evil  influence 
coming  among  them  from  godless  foreigners. 

The  Paris  Evangelical  Society  now  occupies 
Atuona  and  Puamau,  with  (1902)  1  missionary 
and  1  native  pastor.  The  Hawaiian  Evangelical 
Association  also  has  2  stations  in  the  Lslands,  at 
Atuona  and  Hakehatau. 

MARSHALL  ISLANDS:  Two  chains  of  lagoon 
islands,  in  Micronesia,  called  Ratack  (13)  and 
Ralick  (11);  comprise  an  area  of  1,400  square 
miles,  with  an  estimated  population  of  10,000. 
A  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  is  located  at  Kusaie, 
in  the  Caroline  Islands,  and  the  work  among  the 
various  islands  is  carried  on  by  native  preachers 
and  teachers  under  his  supervision.  Ebon  and 
Jalut  and  nine  other  islands  have  schools  and 
preaching  stations.  The  whole  group  contains 
1 1  churches,  8  pastors,  and  1 5  preachers.  The  Ger- 
man occupation  of  the  islands  has  not  improved 
the  morals  of  the  natives. 

MARSHMAN,  Joshua:  Born  April  20,  1768, 
in  Westbury-Leigh,  Wiltshire,  England.  When 
young  he  showed  a  great  passion  for  reading. 
His  parents  being  poor,  his  school  education 
was  defective,  and  he  followed  the  occupation 
of  a  weaver  till  1794.  Removing  then  to  Bristol, 
he  taught  a  small  school,  and  at  the  same  time 
became  a  student  in  Bristol  Academy,  where  he 
studied  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew  and  Sj^riac. 
Having  decided  to  be  a  missionary  to  the  heathen, 
he  offered  himself  to  the  BMS,  and  in  1 799  was  sent, 
with  three  others,  to  join  Dr.  Carey  in  his  mission 
north  of  Bengal.  As  the  East  India  Company 
prohibited  missions  in  its  territories,  they  were 
advised  not  to  undertake  to  land  at  Calcutta,  but 
to  go  direct  to  the  Danish  settlement  of  Serampur. 
They  reached  Serampur  October  13,  1799,  and 
were  cordially  received  by  the  governor.  Colonel 
Bie.  Carey  soon  joined  them.  Dr.  Marshman, 
finding  the  support  granted  by  the  Society  insuf- 
ficient, with  the  aid  of  his  wife  opened  two 
boarding  schools  for  European  children  and  a 
school  for  natives.  The  income  from  these 
schools  rendered  the  mission  nearl}'  independent 
of  support  from  the  Society.  The  Society  dis- 
approved of  the  course  followed,  and  altho  Dr. 
Marshman  went  to  England  to  make  explanations, 
the  Serampur  mission  was  separated  from  the 
BMS  for  some  years.  This  disturbance  of  pleas- 
ant relations,  the  death  of  his  associate,  Mr. 
Ward,  and  family  afflictions  prostrated  him,  and 
he  died  December  5,  1837.  Dr.  Marshman 
studied  Bengali,  Sanskrit  and  Chinese.  He 
translated  into  Chinese  the  Book  of  Genesis,  the 
Gospels,  and  the  Epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Romans 
and  Corinthians.  In  1811  he  published  A  Dis- 
sertation on  the  Characters  and  Sounds  of  the  Chi- 
nese Language;  The  Works  of  Confucius,  contain- 
ing the  Original  Text,  with  a  Translation;  Clavis 
Sinica:  Elements  of  Chinese  Grammar,  with  a 
Preliminary  Dissertation  on  the  Characters  and 


Marso'van 

Mason,  Rev.  Francis 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


43S 


Colloquial  Mediums  of  the  Chinese.  He  was 
associated  with  Dr.  Carey  in  preparing  a  Sanskrit 
grammar  and  Bengali-English  dictionary,  and 
published  an  abridgment  of  the  latter.  Raja 
Rammohun  Roy  having  assailed  the  miracles  of 
Christ  in  a  work  entitled  The  Precepts  of  Jesus  the 
Guide  to  Peace,  Dr.  Marshman  replied  in  a  series 
of  articles  in  the  Friend  of  India,  afterward  pub- 
lished in  a  volume  entitled  A  Defence  of  the  Deity 
and  Atonement  of  Jesus  Christ.  To  this  Rammo- 
hun Roy  replied.  The  degree  of  D.D.  was  con- 
ferred on  Mr.  Marshman  by  Brown  University 
in  1811. 

MARSOVAN:  A  town  in  the  western  part  of 
the  Province  of  Sivas,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated 
about  130  miles  N.  W.  of  Sivas,  and  60  miles  S. 
W.  of  Samsun,  its  port.  Station  of  the  ABCFM 
(1852),  with  (1902)  4  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  4  women  missionaries,  51  native  workers, 
17  outstations,  12  places  of  worship,  32  Sunday 
schools,  18  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  theo- 
logical class,  1  industrial  institute,  1  dispensary 
and  1  hospital,  and  661  professed  Christians. 
The  educational  center  of  the  Western  Turkey 
Mission.  Anatolia  College,  a  flourishing  institu- 
tion whose  buildings  make  the  mission  premises 
conspicuous  through  all  the  surrounding  district, 
is  the  only  establishment  of  its  high  grade  to  be 
found  within  a  radius  of  250  miles. 

MARTYW,  Rev.  Henry:  Born  at  Truro,  Corn- 
wall, February  18,  1781;  attended  the  grammar 
school  of  Dr.  Carden  in  his  native  town;  entered 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  1797;  received  in 
1801  the  highest  academical  honor  of  "senior 
wrangler,"  and  also  the  prize  for  the  greatest  pro- 
ficiency in  mathematics.  In  1802  he  was  chosen 
fellow  of  his  college,  and  took  the  first  prize  for 
the  best  Latin  composition.  He  was  twice 
elected  public-examiner.  It  was  his  intention 
to  devote  himself  to  the  bar,  but  the  sudden 
death  of  his  father  and  the  faithful  preaching  and 
counsels  of  Mr.  Simeon,  the  university  preacher, 
led  to  his  conversion  and  dedication  to  the  min- 
istry. In  1802  a  remark  of  Mr.  Simeon  on  the 
good  accomplished  in  India  by  a  single  mission- 
ary— William  Carey — and  a  subsequent  perusal 
of  the  Life  of  David  Brainerd,  led  him  to  devote 
himself  to  the  work  of  a  Christian  missionary. 
He  was  ordained  deacon  October  22,  1803,  then 
priest,  and  served  as  curate  of  Mr.  Simeon.  But 
his  heart  was  still  set  on  work  in  heathen  lands, 
and  he  designed  to  offer  himself  to  the  Church 
Missionary  Society.  Financial  disaster  made  it 
necessary  for  him  to  take  a  position  which  would 
give  him  the  means  of  supporting  his  sister,  and 
he  accepted  a  chaplaincy  under  the  East  India 
Company.  In  OctoVier,  1806,  he  went  to  his 
station,  Dinapur.  On  the  boat  he  studied  San- 
skrit, Persian,  and  Arabic,  and  translated  the 
Parables.  At  Dinapur  and  Cawnpur  most  of  his 
work  in  India  was  done  in  the  space  of  four  and 
a  half  months.  He  not  only  labored  among  the 
soldiers  and  English  residents  as  chaplain,  but 
preached  to  the  natives  in  their  vernacular,  estab- 
lished schools,  and  spent  much  time  in  the  work 
of  translation.  He  studied  Sanskrit,  soon  be- 
came fluent  in  Hindustani,  and  had  religious  dis- 
cussions daily  with  the  munshis  and  pundits.  In 
February,  1807,  he  finished  the  translation  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  in  Hindustani,  and,  soon 
after,  a  Commentary  on  the  Parables.  In  March, 
1808,  he  completed  a  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  Hindustani,  which  was  pronounced   by 


competent  judges  to  be  idiomatic,  and  intelligible 
by  the  natives. 

In  April,  1809,  he  was  removed  to  Cawnpur, 
628  miles  from  Calcutta.  He  went  in  a  palan- 
keen in  the  hottest  season.  In  his  journey  of 
400  miles  from  Chunar,  the  intense  heat  nearly 
proved  fatal  to  him.  On  his  arrival  he  fainted 
away.  There  being  no  church  building  at  Cawn- 
pur, he  preached  to  a  thousand  soldiers,  drawn 
up  in  a  hollow  square  in  the  open  air,  with  the 
heat  so  great  that  many  were  overpowered,  tho 
the  service  was  held  before  sunrise.  At  the  end 
of  this  year  he  made  his  first  attempt  to  preach 
to  the  heathen  in  his  own  compound,  "amidst 
groans,  hissings,  curses,  blasphemies,  and  threat- 
enings,"  but  he  pursued  his  work  among  the 
hundreds  who  crowded  around  him,  comforting 
himself  with  the  thought  that  if  he  should  never 
see  a  native  convert,  God  "might  design  by  his 
patience  and  continuance  to  encourage  other 
missionaries."  He  now  translated  the  New  Tes- 
tament into  Hindi  and  the  Gospels  into  Judao- 
Persic.  Having  perfected  himself  in  the  Persian, 
he  prepared,  by  the  advice  of  friends,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  munshi  Sabat,  a  version  of  the 
New  Testament  in  that  language.  His  health 
being  seriously  impaired,  the  doctors  ordered  him 
to  take  a  sea  voyage;  and  his  version  not  being 
sufficiently  idiomatic,  he  decided  to  go  to  Persia 
and  correct  it  with  the  aid  of  learned  natives, 
and  also  revise  the  Arabic  version,  which  was 
nearly  finished.  After  preaching  in  the  new 
church,  whose  erection  he  had  accomplished,  he 
left  Cawnpur  October  1,  1810.  Delayed  at  Cal- 
cutta a  month,  he  left,  January  7,  1811,  for  Bom- 
bay, and  after  a  five  months'  journey  reached 
Shiraz  June  9,  1811,  where,  with  the  help  of 
learned  natives,  he  revised  his  Persian  and  Arabic 
translations  of  the  New  Testament.  He  made 
also  a  version  of  the  Psalms  from  the  Hebrew  into 
Persian.  He  held  frequent  discussions  with  the 
mollahs  and  sufis,  many  of  whom  were  greatly 
impressed.  "Henry  Martyn,"  said  a  Persian 
mollah,  "was  never  beaten  in  argument;  he  was 
a  good  man,  a  man  of  God."  To  counteract  the 
effect  of  these  discussions  and  of  his  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  into  Persian,  the  preceptor 
of  all  the  mollahs  wrote  an  Arabic  defense  of 
Mohammedanism,  to  which  Martyn  replied  in 
Persian.  He  had  also  a  public  discussion  with  a 
professor  of  Mohammedan  law,  and  another  with 
Mirza  Ibrahim,  in  a  court  of  the  palace  of  one  of 
the  Persian  princes  in  the  presence  of  a  large  body 
of  mollahs.  Having  ordered  two  splendid  copies 
of  his  manuscript  of  the  Persian  New  Testament 
to  be  prepared,  one  for  the  Shah  of  Persia,  the 
other  for  Prince  Abbas  Mirza,  his  son,  he  left 
Shiraz  for  the  Shah's  camp  to  present  them. 
The  Shah  refused  to  receive  them  without  a  let- 
ter from  the  British  ambassador,  and  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Tabriz  to  obtain  one  from  Sir  (jore 
Ousley.  On  this  journey  he  suffered  much  from 
fever,  but  after  arriving  at  Tabriz  he  was 
tenderly  cared  for  by  the  ambassador  and  his 
lady.  Being  too  ill  to  make  the  presentation  to 
the  Shah,  Sir  Gore  kindly  performed  this  service, 
and  received  from  his  majesty  a  letter  of  acknowl- 
edgment, with  appreciative  mention  of  the  excel- 
lence of  the  translation.  After  a  temporary 
recovery,  he  found  it  necessary  to  seek  a  change 
of  climate.  On  September  12,  1812,  he  left 
Tabriz  on  horseback, with  two  Armenian  servants, 
for    England    via    Constantinople,    1,300    miks 


439 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


MarBO'van 
Mason,  Rev.  Francis 


distant.  Tho  the  plague  was  raging  at  Tokat, 
he  was  compelled  to  stop  there  from  utter  pros- 
tration, and,  after  a  week's  illness,  died,  October 
16,  1812,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age, 
among  strangers,  with  no  friendly  hand  to  care 
for  his  wants.  His  body  rests  in  the  Armenian 
cemetery.  A  monument  was  erected  over  the 
grave  in  1813  by  Mr.  Claudius  James  Rich,  the 
accomplished  British  resident  at  Baghdad,  with  an 
inscription  in  Latin.  The  East  India  Company 
had  another  constructed,  bearing  on  its  four  sides 
an  inscription  in  English,  Armenian,  Turkish, 
and  Persian.  The  monument  stands  in  the 
Armenian  cemetery. 

He  published  Sermons  Preached  in  Calcutta  and 
Elsewhere  (1812);  Controversial  Tracts  on  Chris- 
tianity and  Mohammedanism  (1824);  Journals  and 
Letters  (1837).  The  great  work  of  Martyn's  life 
was  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  His  versions  of 
the  New  Testament  iu  Hindustani  and  Persian, 
spoken  by  many  millions  of  people,  are  enduring 
monuments  not  only  to  his  scholarship,  but  to 
Ms  Christian  zeal. 

Bell  (C.  D.),  ifenry  Martyn, 'London  and  New  York,  1880: 
Wil  ener  e  (G.),  Henry  Martyn,  His  Journals  and  Letters, 
2  Vols.,  London,  1837:  Sargent  (J.),  Life  of  Henry  Mar- 
tyn, London,  1819  and  ISuT. 

MASASI:  A  village  in  the  fertile  Rovuma 
region  of  German  East  Africa.  Station  of  the 
ITM  (1877),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  18  native 
workers,  12  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  13 
day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1,129  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  942  are  communicants. 

MASQAT:  Town  and  capital  of  Oman,  Arabia, 
situated  on  the  south  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Oman, 
on  a  bay  closed  in  front  by  a  small  island,  and 
bordered  E.  and  W.  by  high  rocks  with  fortifica- 
tions. It  is  an  important  commercial  center  in 
trade  between  Persia,  Arabia,  and  India.  The 
climate  is  very  hot  and  malarious.  Population, 
40,000,  mostly  Arabs.  Station  of  the  RCA 
(1893),  with  1  missionary,  1  native  worker,  and  1 
boarding  school.  Society  spells  the  name 
Muscat. 

MASERU:  A  village  in  Basutoland,  Africa, 
situated  on  Caledon  River  about  100  miles  N.  N. 
E.  of  Aliwal  North.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Society,  with  (1902)  10  native  workers,  2 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school, 
3  day  schools,  and  555  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  351  are  communicants.  Society  spells 
the  name  Maserou.  Also  station  of  the  SPG, 
with  1  missionary. 

MASITSI:  A  village  in  the  S.  part  of  Basuto- 
land, Africa,  situated  near  the  Orange  River,  63 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Aliwal  North.  Station  of  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society  (1886),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  31  native 
workers,  11  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  13  day  schools,  1  industrial 
school,  and  1,660  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
1,106  are  communicants.  Society  spells  the 
name  Massitissi.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1887), 
with  1  missionary.  Society  spells  the  name 
Masiti. 

MASON,  Rev.  Francis:  Born  York,  Eng- 
land, April  2,  1799.  Died  at  Rangoon  March  3, 
1874.  He  was  appointed  by  the  American  Bap- 
tist Missionary  Convention  as  a  missionary 
December  17,  1829,  ordained  May  23,  1830,  and 
sailed  May  26  for  Burma.  After  spending  a 
short  time  at  Maulmain  he  was  st.Ttioned,  Janu- 
ary, 1831,  at  Tavoy.      The  province  contained 


fifty  Burmese  villages.  He  was  met  at  the  wharf 
by  Mr.  Boardman.  He  accompanied  Mr.  Board- 
man  on  his  last  tour  among  the  Karens,  and  wit- 
nessed his  triumphant  death.  Entering  upon 
the  work  in  his  new  field,  he  labored  earnestly 
among  the  Karens,  visiting  them  in  their  jungle 
homes,  preaching,  organizing  churches,  estab- 
lishing schools.  The  rainy  season  was  occupied 
in  translating  the  Scriptures,  and  instructing  in 
the  theological  seminary  established  for  training 
Karen   preachers. 

Mr.  Mason  was  not  only  a  preacher  among 
the  Karens;  he  was  also  a  man  of  science  and  a 
linguist.  He  translated  the  Bible  into  the  two 
principal  dialects  of  the  Karen,  the  Sgau  and 
Pwo.  He  also  translated  Matthew,  Genesis,  and 
Psalms  into  the  Bghai,  another  dialect.  He 
wrote  and  printed  a  grammar  of  the  first  two  for 
the  use  of  missionaries.  Wishing  to  give  the 
pupils  of  his  theological  school  some  scientific 
knowledge,  he  wrote  an  original  treatise  on 
Trigonometry,  with  its  Applications  to  Land  Meas- 
uring, etc.  This  was  printed  in  Sgau  and  Bur- 
mese, and  the  government  paid  for  an  edition  in 
Bghai  Karen.  At  the  request  of  English  resi- 
dents at  Maulmain  he  prepared  and  had  printed 
a  work  on  the  natural  productions  of  the  country, 
entitled  Tennasserim;  or,  Notes  on  the  Fauna, 
Flora,  Minerals,  and  Nations  of  British  Burma 
and  Pegu,  of  which  The  Friend  of  India  says:  "It 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the  kind 
which  has  ever  appeared  in  this  country,  not  only 
for  the  complete  originality  of  its  information, 
but  also  for  the  talent  exhibited  in  collecting  and 
arranging  it."  His  motive  in  investigating  these 
subjects  was  the  more  accurate  translation  of  the 
Scriptures,  having  observed  that  incorrect  ren- 
derings of  words  used  to  designate  natural  objects 
often  made  the  sense  obscure  or  absurd.  He 
studied  medicine  after  reaching  Burma,  and 
wrote  a  small  work  on  Materia  Medica  and  Path- 
ology, in  three  languages.  His  greatest  literary 
work  was  a  Pali  Grammar  with  Chrestomathy  and 
Vocabulary,  which  was  received  by  scholars  with 
great  favor.  In  1842  he  started  a  Karen  peri- 
odical, the  first  native  paper  published  east  of  the 
Ganges,  and  the  next  year  a  similar  monthly  in 
Burmese  at  Maulmain.  The  Karens  had  no 
books  but  many  traditions,  among  which  were 
many  remarkable  Scripture  traditions,  all  of 
which  Mr.  Mason  collected.  Those  relating  to 
Scripture  were  published  in  an  appendi.x  to  his 
Life  of  Ko-Thah-Byu.  In  1846  he  yielded  to 
the  advice  of  the  mission  to  return  for  rest  to 
America.  On  arriving  in  Calcutta  with  health 
improved,  he  concluded  to  return  to  Burma  and 
work  on  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament, 
stopping  at  Maulmain  in  order  to  have  the  advice 
of  the  missionaries  there.  The  translation  was 
finished  in  1853,  and,  returning  to  Tavoy,  he  had 
the  entire  Bible  printed.  In  appreciation  of  his 
marked  literary  and  Biblical  attainments  the 
degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  in  1853 
by  Brown  University.  After  the  printing  of  the 
Karen  Bible  he  took  his  final  departure  from 
Tavoy  for  England  and  America.  On  reaching 
Maulmain  with  health  improved,  he  decided  to 
visit  Taung-ngu,  the  ancient  capital,  and  begin 
a  new  mission.  He  started,  with  Mrs.  Mason,  in  a 
canoe,  and  found  the  people,  who  had  never 
heard  the  Gospel  message,  wonderfully  eager 
listeners.  Dr.  Mason  continued  to  labor  until 
utter    exhaustion    compelled    him  to  leave.    He 


MasRana 
Manritias 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


440 


returned  to  Taung-ngu  in  1857.  There,  living 
next  to  the  printing  office,  he  learned  the  printer's 
trade  after  he  was  sixty  years  old.  In  1874  he 
set  out  for  Calcutta  to  see  one  of  his  works 
through  the  press,  but  was  attacked  with  fever 
at  Rangoon  and  died  after  46  years  of  missionary 
labor. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he  published  a 
memoir  of  his  second  wife,  Mrs.  Helen  M.  Mason, 
Life  of  Ko-Thah-byu,  the  Karen  Apostle,  a  collec- 
tion of  Karen  hymns,  and  The  Story  of  a  Working- 
man's  Life,  an  autobiography. 

MASSAUA:  A  town  and  seaport,  capital  of 
Eritrea,  Africa,  on  a  coral  island  in  the  Red  Sea, 
200  yards  from  the  mainland.  It  is  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  an  embankment,  which 
also  carries  an  aqueduct.  It  is  the  chief  trading 
exchange  for  Abyssinia.  Its  climate  is  un- 
healthful,  dysentery  and  fever  being  prevalent. 
Its  population  is  20,000  and  is  very  mixed.  It 
has  a  strong  Roman  Catholic  mission. 

MASULIPATAM :  A  city  and  seaport  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  the  District  of  Kistna,  143 
miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of  Nellore.  Population,  38,800, 
of  whom  33,500  are  Hindus.  The  name  means 
Fishtown  and  its  port  is  called  Mashlibandar(Fish- 
port).  This  gives  the  official  name  to  the  town, 
which  is  Bandar.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1875), 
with  (1903)  6  women  missionaries,  53  native 
workers,  10  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1 
industrial  school,  1  orphanage,  and  1,072  Zenana 
pupils.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1841),  with  (1903) 
5  missionarie.s,  four  of  them  with  their  wives;  77 
native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  young  men's  Christian  association,  43  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  college,  and  4,675 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  867  are  com- 
municants. 

MATADI:  A  trading  post  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  Africa,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Congo,  oppo- 
site Vivi,  just  below  the  lowest  falls.  It  is  the 
starting  point  of  the  Congo  Railroad.  Station 
of  the  BMS  (1898),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  native  worker,  and  1  day  school. 
Station  of  the  RBMU  (1889)  for  forwarding 
stores  to  other  stations. 

MATAIEA:  A  village  on  the  S.  side  of  Tahiti 
Island.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission 
Society  (1886),  with^  (1902)  1  missionary  and 
wife,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school  and  135 
professed  Christians. 

MATALA:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  about  22  miles  N.  W.  of  Pieters- 
burg.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1865),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  12 
native  workers,  4  outstations,  1  day  school  and 
304  professed  (Christians,  of  whom  116  are  com- 
municants. Society  writes  the  name  Ga  Matlale, 
the  meaning  being  "At  (chief)  Matlale's." 

MATALE:  A  town  in  the  central  province  of 
Ceylon,  situated  12  miles  N.  of  Kandy.  Popula- 
tion, 5,000.  Station  of  the  BMS  (1837),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  5  native  workers,  5  outsta- 
tions and  2  day  schools.  Station  of  the  FFMA 
(1896),  with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his 
wife;  17  native  workers,  4  outstations,  7  places  of 
worship,  6  Sunday  schools,  8  day  schools  and  1 
dispensary. 

MATAMOROS :  A  town  in  the  state  of  Tamau- 
lipas,  Mexico,  situated  on  the  Rio  Grande  del 
Norte,  185  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Monterey.     Popu- 


lation, 13,000.  Station  of  the  AFFM  (1871), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  5  native  workers,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  1  boarding 
school,  1  temperance  society  and  100  professed 
Christians.  Station^  of  the  PS  (1874),  with 
(1903)  1  woman  missionary,  1  native  worker, 
13  outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  1 
boarding  school  and  30  professed  Christians. 

MATANZAS:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the  N. 
coast  of  Cuba,  situated  48  miles  E.  of  Havana. 
It  has  a  large  trade  in  sugar.  Its  climate  is 
malarious.  Population,  27,000.  Near  by  are 
some  very  fine  stalactite  caves.  Station  of  the 
American  Church  Missionary  Society  (1883), 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  4 
women  missionaries,  7  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  1  indus- 
trial class,  1  orphanage.  Station  of  the  MES, 
with  (1902)  1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries, 
1  native  worker  and  1  day  school. 

MATARA:  A  town  on  the  S.  coast  of  Ceylon, 
situated  24  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Galle.  Population, 
8,600.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1841),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  38  native  workers,  6  outstations, 
3  places  of  worship,  7  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school  and  280  professed  Christians,  of  whom  110 
are  communicants.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  2  women  missionaries,  53 
native  workers,  7  outstations,  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 13  Sunday  schools,  15  day  schools,  2 
boarding  schools  and  109  professed  Christians. 

MATATIELA,  or  MATATIELE:  A  settlement 
in  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  in  Griqua- 
land  East,  110  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Pietermaritz- 
burg.  Station  of  the  ECS  (1878),  with  (1900) 
3  missionaries,  18  native  workers,  7  outstations, 
9  places  of  worship,  7  day  schools  and  372  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

MATAUTU:  A  settlement  in  Savaii,  Samoa. 
Station  of  the  LMS. 

MATEHXJALA:  A  village  in  the  state  of  San 
Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  situated  22  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Catorce.  Station  of  the  AFFM  (1889),  with 
(1900)  1  missionary  and  wife,  3  native  work- 
ers, 1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  Young 
People's  Society,  1  printing  press,  1  day  school, 
1  temperance  society  and  30  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

MATHER,  Robert  Cotton:  Born  November  8, 
1808,  at  New  Windsor,  Manchester,  England; 
educated  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Hamerton 
College;  sailed  July  9,  1833,  for  India,  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  LMS.  He  was  stationed  at  Benares 
for  four  years,  and  then  removed  with  his  family 
to  Mirzapur,  founding  a  new  station.  In  1844 
he  went  to  England  for  his  health.  Returning 
in  1846,  he  continued  his  work  in  and  around 
Mirzapur,  and  prepared  Christian  vernacular 
literature.  He  again  visited  England  in  1857, 
where  he  resided  during  three  years,  at  the 
request  of  the  North  India  and  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Societies,  engaged  in  making  a  revi- 
sion, with  marginal  references,  of  the  whole 
Bible  in  Urdu.  This  was  carried  through  the 
press,  and  the  New  Testament  in  English  and 
Urdu  was  reprinted.  He  reembarked  for  India. 
November  20,  1860,  with  Mrs.  Mather.  In  1862 
he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Glasgow.  In  1869  he  left  Mirzapur  for 
Almora,  seeking  to  benefit  his  health.     He  aided 


441 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Mnssana 
MaurltluA 


in  mission  work  while  carrying  on  his  literary 
work,  completing  a  new  edition  of  the  entire 
Bible  in  Urdu  printed  in  Roman  letters.  He 
commenced  work  on  an  edition  in  Urdu  printed 
in  Arabic  characters  with  references.  He 
returned  to  Mirzapur  in  1870.  In  1873  he  left 
India  on  his  final  return  to  England.  At  the 
request  of  the  Religious  Tract  Societies  of  North 
India  and  London,  he  undertook  to  prepare  and 
carry  through  the  press  a  Hindustani  version  of 
the  New  Testament  portion  of  the  Tract  Society's 
Annotated  Paragraph  Bible.  This  was  com- 
pleted in  two  years.  He  then  undertook  the 
preparation  of  a  similar  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment portion  of  the  same  work.  Unable  to 
resume  foreign  missionary  work,  he  thus  con- 
tinued in  England  to  work  for  India  with  his 
pen.  He  died  at  Finchley,  near  London,  April 
21,  1877. 

MATOUTOUENE :  A  settlement  in  Portuguese 
East  Africa,  situated  about  40  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Lourengo  Marques.  Station  of  the  Swiss 
Romande  Mission  (1902),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  7  native  workers,  15  day  schools, 
10  outstations,  and  353  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  46  are  communicants. 

MATSUMOTO:  A  town  in  Hondo,  Japan, 
situated  135  miles  S.  W.  of  Niigata.  Population, 
21,000.  Station  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
Canada  (1894),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  woman  missionary,  4  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  1  female  helpers'  training  class  and 
19  professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
Methodist  Church  in  Canada  (1900),  with  1 
native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school  and  5  professed  Christians. 

MATSUYAMA:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the 
N.  W.  coast  of  Shikoku,  Japan,  situated  155 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Kobe.  Population,  24,600. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1876),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  10 
native  workers,  5  outstations,  3  places  of  wor- 
ship, 6  Sunday  schools,  1  boarding  school  and 
a  hostel  for  girls.  Station  also  of  the  MES  (1888) , 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  wife,  2  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  4 
Sunday  schools,  2  young  people's  societies,  1 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  63  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Station  also  of  the  PE,  with 
(1903)  1  native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sun- 
day school  and  14  professed  Christians. 

MATSUYE :  A  town  on  the  W.  coast  of  the  main 
island,  Japan,  situated  about  70  miles  N.  W.  of 
Okayama.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1891),  with  1 
missionary,  4  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  day  school  and  307  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  174  are  communicants. 

MATTOON,  Rev.  Stephen:  Born  at  Champion, 
N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A.,  May  5,  1816;  graduated  at  Union 
College  1842,  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
1846;  sailed  for  Siam  as  a  missionary  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Board  July  20,  1846,  reaching  Bangkok 
March  22,  1847.  Bitterly  opposed  at  first,  he 
soon  won  the  confidence  of  the  people,  and  car- 
ried forward  the  missionary  work  with  great  suc- 
cess. He  was  the  first  to  translate  the  Gospels 
into  the  Siamese  tongue,  and  his  last  great  work 
before  returning  home  was  the  revision  of  the 
entire  New  Testament  in  that  language.  He 
was  a  leader  in  all  the  enterprises  connected  with 
the  mission,  and  his  prudent  counsel  was  sought 


and  his  advice  accepted  by  all.  He  resided  rnd 
labored  mainly  in  Bangkok,  and  was  pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  in  that  city  from  1860 
to  1866.  In  the  latter  year,  on  account  of  the  fail- 
ure of  Mrs.  Mattoon's  health,  he  returned  home. 
He  was  in  the  pastorate  and  in  educational  work 
in  the  United  States,  never  neglecting  the  oppor- 
tunity to  preach  until  he  died  in  1889. 

MAUBIN:  A  town  in  the  district  of  Thongwa, 
Burma,  British  India,  situated  32  miles  W.  of 
Rangoon.  Population,  5,300,  mostly  Karens, 
and  of  whom  4,500  are  Buddhists.  Station  of 
the  ABMU  (1879),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  27  native  workers, 
17  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  6  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school  and  879  professed 
Christians. 

MAUI:  One  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  between 
Hawaii  and  Oahu.  The  inhabitants,  12,109  in 
number,  are  all  nominally  Christians.  Station  of 
the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Society. 

MAULMAIN:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Salwin  River,  Burma,  British  India. 
Low  hills  run  north  and  south  through  the  town 
with  European  quarters  on  the  west  and  native 
on  the  east  of  the  hills.  Population  (1901) 
58,446,  of  whom  27,000  are  Buddhists  and  13,500 
are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1827),  with 
(1903)  4  missionaries  and  their  wives,  8  women 
missionaries,  125  native  workers,  38  outstations, 
37  places  of  worship,  4  boarding  schools,  ]  dis- 
pensary and  1  hospital,  43  Sunday  schools,  42 
day  schools  and  5,300  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  2,542  are  communicants.  Station  of  the 
SPG  (1859),  with  1  missionary,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 27  native  workers,  2  day  schools,  2 
boarding  schools  and  109  professed  Christians. 
The  name  is  also  written  Moulmein. 

MAULVI  BAZAAR.     See  Mui.vi  Bazab. 

MAURITIUS:  An  island  lying  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  500  mQes  east  of  Madagascar.  Area,  708 
square  miles.  Together  with  its  dependencies, 
the  Seychelles  group,  Rodriguez  and  Diego 
Garcia  (total  area,  172  square  miles),  it  forms  a 
colony  of  Great  Britain.  Climate  tropical,  and 
very  malarious  and  unhealthful  on  the  coast. 
Population  in  1901  was  nearly  376,000;  of  this 
number  261,550  are  Indians,  and  the  remainder 
are  Africans,  mixed  races,  and  whites.  The 
Chinese  number  3,935.  The  people  are  divided 
in  their  religious  belief  as  follows:  Hindus,  206,- 
000;  Roman  Catholics,  113,000;  Mohammedans, 
41,000,  and  Protestants,  6,644.  State  aid  is 
granted  to  both  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 
churches.  English,  French,  and  the  languages 
of  the  different  races  represented  are  spoken  there. 
The  island  was  originally  a  French  colony,  and  a 
stronghold  of  pirates  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  In 
1810  the  English  took  possession  of  it,  and  in  1834 
the  90,000  negro  slaves  were  emancipated.  The 
island  is  one  of  the  foremost  sugar-producing 
places  of  the  globe,  and  the  emancipation  of  the 
slaves  necessitated  the  importation  of  labor  from 
China  and  India,  with  the  resulting  conglomer- 
ate population.  Education  is  conducted  partly 
in  government  and  partly  in  state-aided  schools. 
There  is  also  a  Royal  College.  Missionary  work 
was  commenced  here  in  1814  by  the  LMS.  After 
the  Society  gave  up  the  mission  in  1832  Mr.  Le 
Brun,  their  missionary,  returned  to  the  island 
and  took  the  pastoral  care  of  the  people,  and  the 
church  of  50  members.       When  persecution  in 


ManritlnH 
McAU   Mission 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


4«2 


Madagascar  (1836)  drove  out  both  Christians  and 
missionaries,  one  of  the  latter,  Mr.  Johns,  went  to 
Mauritius,  and  continued  to  labor  among  the 
Malagasy.  A  plot  of  land  was  procured,  and  a 
congregation  of  Malagasy  refugees  was  gathered 
together  in  1845,  after  Mr.  Johns'  death,  and 
theological  instruction  was  given  to  young  men 
from  Madagascar,  to  prepare  them  for  work,  as 
soon  as  the  persecution  ceased.  In  the  mean- 
time Mr.  Le  Brun  continued  his  labors  among  the 
natives,  and  in  1850  there  were  173  church- 
members  at  the  stations  of  Port  Louis  and  Moka. 
The  SPG  and  the  CMS  are  practically  confining 
their  efforts  to  the  immigrants  from  India,  who 
are  engaged  in  work  on  the  sugar  planta- 
tions. These  form  two-thirds  of  the  population. 
The  language  difficulty  is  a  very  serious  one.  A 
missionary  writes  that  a  class  of  thirty  received 
instruction  in  five  languages — the  English, 
French,  Creole,  Tamil,  and  Hindi.  Even  in  this 
difficult  field  harvests  have  been  gathered,  and 
the  CMS  has  received  over  5,000  in  the  course  of 
its  work. 

MAURITIUS-CREOLE  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect 
of  the  French  which  has  become  the  medium  of 
business  in  Mauritius  and  is  the  society  language 
of  the  Creoles  of  the  island. 

MAVELIKARA:  A  town  in  the  native  state  of 
Travancore,  India,  situated  25  miles  N.  of  Quillon. 
Station  of  the  CEZ  (1893),  with  (1903)  2  women 
missionaries,  8  native  workers,  1  young  women's 
Christian  association.  Station  also  of  the  CMS 
(1839),  now  under  charge  of  the  local  Church 
Council,  with  143  native  workers,  78  day  schools, 
and  12,245  jjrofessed  Christians,  of  whom  3,706 
are  communicants. 

MAWLAI:  A  village  in  Assam,  India,  situated 
in  the  Khasi  Hills,  8  miles  S.  W.  of  Shillong. 
Station  of  the  WCM,  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  9  native  workers,  8  outstations,  6 
places  of  worship,  6  Sunday  schools,  and  659 
professed  Christians. 

MAWPHLANG.     See  Mao-phlang. 

MAYA  LANGUAGE:  A  South  American  lan- 
guage, spoken  by  about  half  a  million  Indians  of 
Yucatan.  It  has  been  reduced  to  writing  with 
use  of  the  Roman  letters. 

MAYA V ARAM:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  sit- 
uated in  the  district  of  Tanjore,  28  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Negapatam.  Population  (1891),  23,800,  of 
whom  22,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  Leipzig 
Missionary  Society  (1845),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  39  native  workers,  14  out- 
stations, 9  places  of  worship,  12  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  and  1,370  professed  Christians. 
Society  spells  the  name  Majaweram. 

MAYEBASHI:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  70 
miles  N.  W.  of  Tokio,  having  an  important  silk 
trade,  Mayebashi  silk  being  among  the  best  of 
raw  silks.  Population,  20,000.  Station  of  the 
ABCFM  (1894),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  11  outstations,  4 
places  of  worship,  9  Sunday  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  1  orphanage.  Station  of  the  PE 
(1888),  with  1  missionary,  1  woman  missionary, 
1  native  worker,  2  places  of  worship,  and  46  pro- 
fessed Christians.  The  name  is  also  written 
Maebashi. 

MAYHEW,  Experience:  Born  Martha's  Vine- 
yard, Mass.,  1673.  Died  in  1758.  He  was 
the  oldest  son  of  Rev.  John  Mayhew,  and  great- 
grandson  of  Gov.  Thomas  Mayhew.     In  1694,  at 


the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  began  to  preach  to  the 
Indians,  having  the  oversight  of  six  congrega- 
tions, which  continued  until  his  death,  a  period 
of  sixty-four  years.  He  learned  the  Indian  lan- 
guage in  his  infancy,  and  having  afterward 
thoroughly  mastered  it,  he  was  employed  by  the 
Commissioners  to  make  a  new  version  of  the 
Psalms  and  the  Gospel  of  John.  This  was  accom- 
plished in  1709,  in  parallel  columns  of  English 
and  Indian.  He  was  offered  the  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts  by  Cambridge  University,  which  he 
declined;  but  it  was  conferred  at  the  public  com- 
mencement July  3,  1723.  He  published  in  1727 
Indian  Converts,  comprising  the  lives  of  30  Indian 
preachers  and  80  other  converts;  also  a  volume 
entitled  Grace  Defended. 

MAYOMBO:  A  settlement  in  British  East 
Africa,  situated  8  miles  from  the  Uganda  Rail- 
way station  for  Kikuyu,  about  150  miles  S.  E.  of 
the  railway  terminus  at  the  Victoria  Uganda,  and 
338  miles  N.  W.  from  Mombasa.  It  is  in  a  fine 
forest  district  at  an  altitude  of  6,300  feet,  and  has 
a  bracing  and  healthy  climate.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1901),  with  2  missionaries  and  1  mission- 
ary's wife.  The  station  at  Fort  Smith  has  been 
removed  to  this  place. 

MAZAGAN:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Morocco,  in  a  fertile  district,  which  gives 
it  commercial  importance.  The  climate  is  not 
unhealthy.  Station  of  the  South  Morocco  Mis- 
sion Society  (1891),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries, 
one  with  his  wife,  and  1  dispensary. 

MAZATLAN:  A  town  on  the  W.  coast  of  Mex- 
ico, situated  100  miles  S.  W.  by  W.  of  Durango. 
It  is  a  trade  center  for  the  mining  district  of 
Sinaloa.  The  climate  is  healthy  from  November 
to  May,  but  hot,  wet,  and  unhealthy  the  rest  of 
the  year.  Population,  20,000.  Station  of  the 
MES  (1890),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  wife, 
1  native  worker,  1  outstation,  1  Sunday  school. 

MAZERAS:  A  settlement  in  British  East 
Africa,  15  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Mombasa.  Station 
of  the  United  Methodist  Free  Church  (1893), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  3  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 2  places  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  2 
Sunday  schools,  and  163  professed  Christians. 

MAZIZINI :  A  village  on  the  W.  side  of  Zanzi- 
bar Island;  a  suburb  of  the  town  of  Zanzibar. 
Station  of  the  UM  (1889),  with  (1900)  2  mission- 
aries, 6  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day 
school,  1  boarding  school,  1  theological  class,  and 
10  professed  Christians. 

MBEYELA'S :  A  settlement,  in  Africa,  of  a 
chief  whose  tribe  is  found  about  75  miles  E.  N.  E. 
of  the  north  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika  and  9  miles 
S.  of  Mpangile.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1899),  with  1  missionary  and  19  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

MBUNDU  LANGUAGE:  An  important  African 
language  belonging  to  the  Bantu  family,  and 
spoken  in  Angola,  Portuguese  West  Africa,  and  as 
a  trading  language  over  a  wide  region  to  the 
eastward.  There  are  two  principal  dialects,  the 
Ki-Mbundu  and  the  U-Mbundu;  indeed,  some 
consider  these  as  separate  languages,  whose  dif- 
ferences are  radical  and  permanent.  It  is  to  be 
hoped,  however,  that  they  will  follow  the  general 
laws  of  language  under  civilized  environment, 
and  tend  to  become  one.  The  Ki-Mbundu  was 
reduced  to  writing  by  Roman  Catholic  mission- 
aries in  1642,  and  grammars  and  dictionaries  of 
it  in  Portuguese  have  long  existed.      The  Meth- 


443 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Manrltlna 
McAII  MlBslon 


odist  missionaries  (U.  S.)  have  done  good  work 
in  studying  its  peculiarities  and  establishing  a 
Christian  literature  in  it.  In  Bih6  the  ABCFM 
missionaries  are  doing  the  same  kind  of  work  in 
the  U-Mbundu  branch. 

MBWENI :  A  village  on  the  W.  side  of  Zanzibar 
Island,  a  little  S.  of  Zanzibar  town.  Station  of 
-the  UM  (1874),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  6 
women  missionaries,  15  native  workers,  1  out- 
atation,  2  places  of  worship,  3  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispensary, 
and  456  professed  Christians,  of  whom  268  are 
communicants. 

'  McALL  MISSION:  Known  in  France  as  the 
Mission  Populaire  Evangiligue.  Headquarters, 
36  rue  Godet  de  Mauroy,  Madeleine,  Paris. 
Founded  in  1872  by  the  Rev.  Robert  W.  McAll, 
then  a  pastor  in  Hadleigh,  England,  in  response 
■to  the  remark  of  a  Parisian  workingman  to  the 
effect  that  the  people  of  France  would  have  noth- 
ing to  do  with  "an  imposed  religion  of  forms  and 
ceremonies,"  but  were  "ready  to  hear"  if  any  one 
would  teach  them  "a  religion  of  freedom  and 
earnestness."  These  words,  spoken  August  18, 
1871,  moved  Mr.  and  Mrs.  McAll,  after  taking 
counsel  with  eminent  Parisian  pastors,  to 
devote  themselves  to  the  evangelization  of  the 
working  people  of  France.  The  requisite  per- 
mission was  obtained  from  the  police  commis- 
sioner, and  on  January  17,  1872,  the  mission  was 
opened  in  Belleville,  the  communistic  quarter  of 
Paris.  Its  opportuneness  at  once  became  evi- 
dent. Calls  for  new  stations  came  from  many 
quarters,  and  volunteer  service  was  freely  offered, 
especially  by  French  pastors  and  laymen.  It 
was  several  years  before  any  salaried  worker  was 
added  to  the  staff,  and  Dr.  and  Mrs.  McAll  never 
received  any  stipend  from  the  Mission. 

By  1888  the  number  of  mission  halls  was 
twenty-two  in  Paris  and  its  environs,  and  108  in 
provincial  towns  and  cities,  including  Corsica, 
Tunis,  and  Algiers,  with  20,000  sittings  and  an 
aggregate  attendance  of  1,555,600.  The  number 
of  mission  halls  has  since  been  gradually  reduced 
by  nearly  one-third,  altho  the  number  of  persons 
reached  is  greatly  increased.  The  smaller  num- 
ber of  mission  halls  is  in  part  due  to  financial 
necessity,  but  mainly  to  development  in  the 
activities  of  the  French  Protestant  churches, 
many  of  which  have  taken  over  one  or  more  of 
the  mission  halls.  Thus  the  McAll  Mission  is 
becoming  more  and  more  a  pioneering  agency 
and  feeder  to  the  churches.  Its  halls,  however, 
are  still  centers  of  a  great  variety  of  activities: 
Sunday  and  Thursday  Bible  schools,  mothers' 
meetings.  Christian  endeavor,  temperance  work, 
dispensaries,  lending  libraries,  domestic  visita- 
tion, and  an  extensive  circulation  of  tracts  and 
of  the  Scriptures.  But  all  these  works  are  trib- 
utary to  the  evangelistic  purpose  of  the  mission, 
evangelistic  meetings  being  held  in  every  hall  at 
least  twice,   and  in  many,  seven  times  a  week. 

The  teachings  are  purely  evangelistic,  no 
criticism  or  comment  upon  other  forms  of  teach- 
ing or  worship  being  allowed.  No  effort  is  made 
to  win  converts  from  the  church  of  Rome,  and 
many  who  are  unquestionably  converted  remain 
m  its  communion.  The  majority  of  converts, 
however,  are  from  free  thinking  and  atheistic 
ranks — that  immense  multitude  that  have 
shaken  off  allegiance  to  Roman  Catholicism. 

Except  in  one  or  two  cases  of  extreme  urgency 
the  Mission  invests  no  money  in  buildings  and 


founds  no  churches.  Its  halls  are  hired  shops,  and 
converts  are  sent  to  unite  with  some  neighboring 
church,  with  whose  pastor  they  are  well  ac- 
c^uainted  through  his  regular  work  in  the  mis- 
sion hall.  It  has  often  occurred  that  the  major- 
ity of  new  members  of  a  church  in  any  given  year 
are  from  the  nearest  mission  hall. 

The  expenses  of  the  Mission  (which  average 
less  than  $1,000  annually  per  hall)  are  met  by 
voluntary  contributions  from  Great  Britain,  Ire- 
land, Protestant  Europe,  the  United  States, 
Canada,  the  descendants  of  the  Huguenots  in 
South  Africa,  and,  in  ever  increasing  amount, 
from  the  Protestants  of  France.  The  American 
McAll  Mission  Association,  founded  in  1883  to 
collect  funds  for  the  Mission,  has  67  auxiliaries 
and  provides  more  than  a  third  of  its  income. 

An  important  work  was  carried  on  in  the  three 
exposition  years,  1878,  1889,  1900,  by  the  Mis- 
sion, in  cooperation  with  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  and  the  Religious  Tract  Societies 
of  London  and  Paris.  Halls  were  opened  near 
the  exposition  gates,  with  unceasing  services, 
opportunities  for  religious  conversation,  and  an 
enormous  distribution  of  tracts  and  Scripture 
portions.  In  1890  a  citizen  of  New  York  pro- 
vided 10,000  copies  of  the  "Marked  New  Testa- 
ment" in  French,  which  were  put  to  judicious  use. 
Many  remarkable  conversions  were  due  to  this 
work  in  the  exposition. 

About  1885-1888,  a  missionary  vessel  having 
been  lent  to  the  Mission  by  Mr.  Henry  Cook,  of 
the  English  Seaman's  Mission,  an  important 
work  was  carried  on  in  the  seaboard  towns  of 
Brittany  and  Normandy,  and  up  the  Seine  to 
Paris,  resulting  in  the  founding  of  several  impor- 
tant stations.  The  chief  advantage  of  the 
method  was  that  the  vessel,  being  commissioned 
and  equipped  to  hold  meetings,  encountered  no 
delay  in  obtaining  local  permits  or  suitable  halls 
for  the  purpose.  This  suggested  a  similar  mis- 
sion along  the  inland  water-ways  of  France. 
Two  chapel  boats,  expressly  designed  for  the 
work,  now  carry  the  Gospel  along  these  "silent 
highways."  "Le  Bon  Messager"  was  commissioned 
in  1890,  and  "La  Bonne  Nouvelle"  (mainly  the  gift 
of  an  American  woman)  in  1902.  This  pioneer 
work  has  been  singularly  fruitful.  Municipal 
and  communal  authorities  almost  invariably, 
and  parish  priests  not  unfrequently,  show  hearty 
sympathy.  The  people  come  in  crowds,  making 
necessary  two  and  often  three  successive  services 
evening  after  evening.  An  increasing  number 
of  permanent  works  follow  the  boats,  established 
by  French  Home  Mission  Societies  or  by  resident 
Protestants. 

In  January,  1892,  the  Mission  celebrated  its 
twentieth  anniversary,  and  Dr.  McAll's  seven- 
tieth birthday,  with  many  tributes  of  honor  and 
gratitude.  In  these  the  French  Government 
joined  by  conferring  upon  Dr.  McAll  the  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  On  May  11,  1893,  worn 
out  with  excessive  care  and  labor.  Dr.  McAll 
went  to  his  reward,  being  buried  with  military 
honors  in  the  cemetery  of  Pfere  La  Chaise.  He 
had  already  called  to  the  Honorary  Presidency  a 
prominent  business  man  of  Paris,  M.  Louis  Saut- 
ter, and  to  the  active  direction  of  the  work  the 
Rev.  C.  E.  Greig,  trained  in  the  Mission  under 
his  own  eyes.  Since  then  the  success  of  the 
Mission  has  been  unabated,  its  importance  in- 
creasingly recognized  by  French  Protestants. 
The  most  important  events  of  recent  date  (1903), 
besides  the  growing  success  of  the  boat  work,  ara 


McAll,  Rev.  Robert  W. 
Medical   Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


44i 


a  remarkable  awakening  in  nineteen  mountain 
villages  in  the  south  of  France,  due  to  itinerating 
work  from  Grasse  as  a  center,  and  a  still  more 
notable  revival  in  Corsica,  where,  after  many  years 
of  persecution  of  McAll  missionaries,  the  people 
of  AuU&ne  have  abandoned  the  Church  of  Rome, 
provided  funds  to  build  a  church  and  asked  the 
Government  to  send  them  a  Protestant  pastor. 
McALL,  Rev.  Robert  Whitaker:  The  founder 
of  the  McAll  Mission,  Paris,  began  his  ministry 
in  1848  at  Sunderland,  and  had  successive  pas- 
torates in  Leicester,  Birmingham,  Manchester, 
and  Hadleigh.  Mr.  McAll  was  known  as  a  kocn 
student  of  natural  history,  being  an  accom- 
plished botanist,  and  becoming  a  Fellow  of  the 
Linnean  Society.  The  three  subjects,  architec- 
ture, botany,  and  geography,  were  specially 
interesting  to  him,  and  he  turned  them  all  to 
good  account  in  his  pastoral  work,  and  later  on 
in  his  mission  work  in  France. 

In  the  summer  of  1871  Mr.  and  Mrs.  McAll 
crossed  the  Channel  for  the  first  time  for  a  short 
visit  to  France.  Taking  with  them  a  supply  of 
French  tracts,  they  made  a  point  of  distributing 
them  wherever  they  went,  and  on  the  last  even- 
ing of  their  stay  in  Paris,  August  17,  1871,  they 
found  their  way  to  the  populous  quarter  of  Belle- 
ville, where  the  people  had  so  terribly  suffered 
during  the  Commune,  and  began  to  give  away 
their  tracts  among  the  crowds  of  working  people 
that  were  thronging  the  streets. 

While  Mrs.  McAll  was  giving  the  tracts  around, 
inside  of  a  caf6  on  the  Boulevard  de  Belleville, 
Mr.  McAll  was  accosted  by  an  intelligent  working- 
man,  who  could  speak  a  little  English,  and  who 
came  forward  saying  to  him,  "Are  you  not  a 
Christian  minister,  sir?  I  have  something  to 
tell  you.  Throughout  this  whole  district,  con- 
taining tens  of  thousands  of  workmen,  we  cannot 
accept  an  imposed  religion.  But  if  anyone 
would  come  to  teach  us  religion  of  another  kind, 
a  religion  of  freedom  and  reality,  many  of  us  are 
ready   for  it." 

Could  it  be  that  this  was  a  call  from  God  for 
them  to  go  over  and  try  the  experiment  and  take 
the  Gospel  to  the  people  of  Paris?  After  much 
thought  and  prayer,  and  after  consulting  friends 
at  home  and  in  France,  especially  Pastor  Georges 
Fisch  and  Pastor  Theodore  Monod,  the  import- 
ant decision  was  made,  and  in  October  Mr. 
McAll  resigned  the  pastorate  of  the  church  at 
Hadleigh,  and  December  found  him  in  Paris, 
with  a  small  sum  in  hand  for  current  expenses, 
and  his  slender  patrimony  on  which  to  subsist. 

On  the  18th  of  January,  1872,  the  first  "McAll 
Mission  Hall"  was  opened  on  the  rue  Julian 
Lacroix,  Belleville,  the  first  of  a  long  list.  Friends 
rallied  round  him,  and  Pastors  Fisch,  Monod, 
Bersier,  de  Pressens6,  Appia,  Vallette,  Reoolin, 
Dhombres,  Hollard,  and  many  others  were  his 
warmest  supporters.  The  importance  of  the 
work  accomplished,  from  a  purely  philanthropic 
point  of  view,  was  recognized  by  two  societies 
conferring  medals  on  the  founder,  the  "Soci^t6 
Nationale  d'Encouragement  au  Bien,"  and  the 
"Soci^t^  Libre  d'Instruction  and  d'Education 
Populaire."  The  government  of  the  Republic 
made  Mr.  McAll  a  knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  July,  1892. 

In  1892  Dr.  Mc All's  health  failed,  and  he 
resolved  to  go  to  England  for  a  change,  but  after 
a  winter  of  severe  suffering  he  returned  to  Paris, 
where,  in  his  72d  year,  on  Ascension  Day,  the  5th 
of  May,  1893,  he  peacefully  passed  away. 


McMULLIN,  Robert :  Born  at  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
November  30,  1832;  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  1850,  and  at  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  1854;  ordained  July  27,  1856, 
and  sailed  for  India  September  11,  the  same 
year,  as  a  missionary  of  the  PN.  He  was  sta- 
tioned at  Fategarh.  A  few  months  before  his 
capture  by  the  Sepoy  rebels  he  wrote:  "We  are 
trying  to  be  calm  and  trustful,  but  this  cloud  is 
fearfully  dark.  No  matter  whether  our  lives  be 
prosperous  or  adverse,  God  has  some  gracious 
purpose,  which  will  sooner  or  later  be  made 
manifest."  When  the  mutiny  broke  out  he,  with 
other  missionaries,  endeavored  to  reach  Allaha- 
bad, a  British  station,  but  was  made  prisoner, 
and  put  to  death  at  Cawnpur  by  order  of  the 
rebel  chief,  Nana  Sahib,   June  13,  1857. 

MEDAK:  A  town  in  the  native  state  of  Hai- 
darabad,  India,  situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Man- 
jira  River,  48  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Haidarabad. 
Population,  7,000.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  4  women  missionaries,  14 
outstations,  137  native  workers,  10  places  of 
worship,  27  Sunday  schools,  27  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  1  orphanage, 
1  hospital,  1  industrial  school  and  1,532  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  724  are  communicants. 

MEDELLIN:  A  town  and  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  Antioquia,  Colombia,  situated  at  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Santa  Elena  on  the  Force  River,  150 
miles  N.  W.  of  Bogota.  It  is  a  mining  center 
and  the  supply  depot  for  large  regions.  It  was 
founded  in  1675  and  is  next  to  the  city  of  Bogota 
in  importance.  It  has  railroad  connections  with 
Magdalena  River  at  Porto  Berrico.  Altitude, 
5,000  feet.  Population,  18,000.  Station  of  the 
PN  (1889),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  woman  missionary,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school  and  23  professed  Christians, 

MEDHURST,  Walter  Henry:  Born  at  London, 
England,  1796;  learned  the  trade  of  a  printer; 
was  educated  for  the  ministry,  and,  having 
decided  to  be  a  missionary  to  the  heathen,  was 
appointed  by  the  LMS,  and  sailed  as  its  mission- 
ary in  1816  for  Malacca.  He  was  ordained  there 
in  1819.  In  1822  he  was  established  at  Batayia, 
in  Java,  remaining  there  eight  years,  during 
which  time,  and  for  several  years  afterward,  he 
performed  missionary  work  in  Borneo  and  on  the 
coasts  of  China.  Having  spent  two  years  in  Eng- 
land, he  was  stationed  at  Shanghai  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  war  in  1843.  There  he  remained 
till  his  final  return  to  England  in  1856.  This 
was  the  earliest  Protestant  mission  in  that  city. 
The  fjrinting  press  owned  by  the  LMS,  which  had 
to  this  time  been  worked  at  Batavia,  was  now 
removed  to  Shanghai,  and  was  under  the  charge 
of  Mr.  Medhurst.  The  University  of  New  York 
conferred  on  Mr.  Medhurst  in  1843  the  degree  of 
D.D.  In  1847  delegates  from  several  missions 
convened  in  Shanghai  for  the  revision  of  the 
Chinese  versions  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures. 
After  the  completion  of  the  New  Testament 
Messrs.  Medhurst,  Milne  and  Stronach,  by 
instruction  of  the  directors,  withdrew  from  the 
general  committee,  and  prosecuted  the  work  of 
revision  of  the  Old  Testament.  This  was  com- 
pleted in  1853.  The  result  of  this  revision  was 
virtuall)^  a  new  version  of  the  Bible,_  very  cor- 
rect in  idiom  and  true  to  the  meaning  of  the 
original. 

Dr.  Medhurst  left  Shanghai  in  1856  in  impaired 


445 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


McAll,  Rev.  Robert  W, 
Medical   Missions 


health  for  England,  and  died  two  days  after 
reaching  London,  January  24,  1857.  A  remark- 
able linguist,  he  was  a  proficient  in  Malay,  well 
versed  in  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  Javar°se  and 
other  Eastern  languages,  besides  Dutch  and 
French,  in  all  of  which  he  wrote.  

MEDICAL  MISSIONS:  "The  history  of  Medi- 
cal Missions  is  the  justification  of  Medical 
Missions." 

One  of  the  oldest  Buddhist  writings  recognizes 
the  close  connection  between  body  and  soul, 
and  that  the  doctor  should  also  be  a  missionary. 
We  find  the  following  expression:  "No  physician 
is  worthy  of  waiting  on  the  sick  unless  he  has 
five  qualifications  for  his  office:  1.  The  skill  to 
prescribe  the  proper  remedy;  2.  The  judgment 
to  order  the  proper  diet;  3.  The  motive  must  be 
life  and  not  greed;  4.  He  must  be  content  and 
willing  to  do  the  most  repulsive  office  for  the 
sake  of  those  whom  he  is  waiting  upon;  and  5. 
He  must  be  both  able  and  willing  to  teach,  to 
incite,  and  to  gladden  the  hearts  of  those  whom 
he  is  attending  by  religious  discourse." 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  healing  was  made  so 
prominent  in  the  Apostolic  Church,  we  cannot 
but  wonder  at  the  extent  to  which,  in  the  ages 
after  the  apostles,  it  dropped  out  of  the  Church's 
work. 

The  Roman  Catholics  of  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries  used  medicine  largely  as  an 
aid  to  mission  work.  It  is  to  them  chiefly 
that  we  owe  the  use  of  cinchona,  which  has  ren- 
dered mission  work  possible  in  fever-stricken 
lands;  as  well  as  ipecacuanha  and  many  other 
remedies  which  we  probably  should  not  have 
known  so  soon  had  it  not  been  for  their  labors. 

America  has  been  the  foremost  nation  in  this 
cause.  Her  sons,  and  later  her  daughters,  have 
been  among  the  earliest  to  enter  the  field.  The 
first  medical  missionary  to  leave  the  United 
States  was  Dr.  John  Scudder,  who,  with  his 
wife,  sailed  in  1819  from  New  York  for  India, 
where  he  labored  until  his  death  in  1855.  In 
1849  there  were  just  forty  medical  missionaries 
in  the  world — 26  from  America,  12  from  Great 
Britain,  1  from  France,  and  1  from  Turkey  or 
Arabia,  at  Jaffa.  It  was  not  until  1879  that  the 
value  of  this  agency  for  reaching  the  outcast 
and  depraved  in  our  large  cities  was  realized 
sufficiently  to  lead  to  action.  In  this  particular 
Great  Britain  has  taken  the  lead,  forming  a 
large  number  of  separate  medical  missions. 

In  1876  Dr.  William  H.  Thomson,  with  the 
desire  of  aiding  medical  missionary  students, 
succeeded  in  establishing  seven  scholarships  at 
the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  U.  S.  A. 
In  April,  1879,  Mr.  E.  F.  Baldwin  opened  in 
Philadelphia  the  first  organized  medical  mission 
in  America,  which  was  followed  in  1881  by  the 
International  Medical  Mission  Society  in  New 
York  City. 

The  power  of  medical  missions  is  now  univer- 
sally recognized. 

In  all  the  heathen  world  the  practise  of 
medicine  in  marked  by  the  densest  super- 
stition and  characterized  by  the  most  extreme 
cruelties. 

Even  the  Chinese  have  no  doctors  worthy  of 
the  name;  they  have  absolutely  no  reliable 
knowledge  of  anatomy,  physiology,  chemistry, 
physics,  surgery,  or  of  obstetrical  practise,  and 
their  "doctors"  often  do  more  harm  than  good. 
The  sick  are  often  left  to  die  in  the  streets  and 


not  even  a  drink  of  water  is  given  to  the  wounded 
after  a  battle,  who,  if  unable  to  drag  themselves 
away,  are  abandoned  to  perish.  In  India  charms 
and  incantations  are  a  common  resort,  the  sick 
are  dosed  with  putrid  Ganges  water,  and  patients 
are  suffocated  witli  charcoal-fires. 

The  Arab  resorts  with  the  greatest  confidence 
to  the  most  ridiculous,  severe,  or  disgusting 
remedies.  A  slip  of  paper,  containing  certain 
written  words,  is  swallowed  with  avidity;  a  man 
in  the  last  stages  of  consumption  takes  a  pre- 
scription directing  him  to  feed,  for  a  fortnight, 
upon  the  raw  liver  of  a  male  camel,  and  fresh 
liver  not  being  attainable,  he  continues  the  use 
of  tliis  diet  in  a  putrid  state  until  lie  dies;  while 
the  Arab's  most  common  remedy  for  all  dis- 
eases is  the  "kei,"  or  the  burning  of  the  skin, 
entirely  around  the  seat  of  pain,  with  a  red- 
hot  iron. 

To  every  missionary  a  knowledge  of  medicine 
is  of  essential  importance,  for  he  may  find  himself 
removed  many  days'  journey  from  a  physician, 
even,  as  has  happened  repeatedly,  250  to  800 
miles.  Let  missionaries  possess  medical  educa- 
tion, to  enable  them  (1)  to  look  after  their  own 
health;  (2)  to  relieve  the  physical  suffering 
around  them;  (3)  to  obtain  ready  entrance  for  the 
Gospel;  and  (4)  to  enable  them  to  support  them- 
selves as  far  as  possible.  At  Melange,  in  Africa, 
400  miles  from  the  coast,  Mr.  Heli  Chatelain,  a 
few  days  after  his  arrival,  was  offered  by  a  trader 
a  home  in  his  house  and  $1,200  a  year  to  look 
after  his  family  alone,  and  he  was  assured  that 
others  in  the  town  would  increase  the  sum 
to  $5,000  per  annum  if  he  would  consent  to 
remain. 

Advantages  and  Benefits:  The  benefits  of  medical 
missions  may  be  well  nigh  placed  beyond  com- 
putation in  value.  "It  will  not  strike  you  with 
surprise,"  said  Dr.  J.  L.  Maxwell  of  Formosa, 
"when  I  tell  you  that  again  and  again  the  lives  of 
valued  missionaries  in  China  have  escaped  de- 
struction at  the  hands  of  evil  and  fanatic  mobs 
just  because  they  were  providentially  recognized 
to  be  the  associates  of  the  mission  doctor  at  this 
or  that  missionary  hospital.  During  the  Afghan 
war  the  tribe  of  the  Wazaris  destroyed  the  town 
of  Tank,  and  even  the  government  hospital,  but 
spared  the  mission  hospital  of  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society,  because  of  their  esteem  and 
affection  for  the  medical  missionary.  In  the 
Chinese  village  of  Na-than,  100  miles  to  the 
north  of  Swatow,  a  most  remarkable  work  has 
been  carried  on  without  the  agency  of  a  resident 
missionary.  It  is  the  dwelling-place  of  a  leper 
who,  after  having  visited  the  hospital  at  Swatow, 
where  he  was  converted,  returned  to  his  home 
and  gathered  about  him  a  congregation  of  men 
and  women  whom  he  instructed  in  the  Word  and 
in  the  worship  of  the  living  God.  In  South 
Formosa  I  could  point  to  four  different  congre- 
gatiqfhs  which  lie  far  removed  from  each  other, 
and  at  a  distance  from  the  mis.sion  headquarters, 
each  of  which  sprang  from  men  who  had  received 
their  first  religious  impressions  in  the  mission 
hospital,  and  these  congregations  have  estab- 
lished flourishing  schools." 

We  may  sum  up  these  benefits  as  follows: 

1.  Medical  missionaries,  as  far  as  possible, 
become  self-supporting,  and  go  out  on  an  unsec- 
tarian  basis. 

2.  This  plan  does  not  conflict  with  the  work   ^ 
of  the  regular  mission  boards,  but,  on  the  con-   .: 


Medical  MlBslons 
Medieval  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


449 


trary,  its  purpose  is  to  supplement  their  efforts 
and  pioneer  where  they  may  follow. 

3.  Where  a  dispensary  has  been  located  a 
church  has  soon  been  formed. 

4.  Medical  mission  work  destroys  caste.  In 
the  waiting-room  in  India  may  be  seen,  day  after 
day,  sitting  side  by  side,  the  Brahman,  Sudra  and 
Shanar,  the  Pulayar  and  Pariah,  the  devil-wor- 
shiper, the  worshiper  of  Siva,  the  Moham- 
medan, the  Roman  Catholic,  and  Protestant; 
men,  women,  of  all  castes  and  creeds,  while  wait- 
ing their  turn  to  be  examined,  listening  atten- 
tively to  the  reading  of  God's  Word,  and  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel,  thousands  of  whom, 
otherwise,  would  never  have  an  opportunity  of 
hearing  the  tidings  of  salvation. 

5.  Medical  mission  work  secures  protection 
and  provision.  Dr.  Summers,  with  thirty-six 
carriers,  penetrated  Africa  1,500  miles  in  a  direct 
line,  securing  from  his  grateful  patients  all  the 
means  and  material  which  they  needed  upon 
the  long  and  difficult  tour,  and  during  his  whole 
career  of  three  and  a  half  years  he  did  not  receive 
one  dollar  from  the  Home  Society. 

6.  Medical  missions  are  far-reaching  in  their 
results.  As  many  as  1,200  to  1,400  towns  and 
villages  have  been  represented  in  a  single  year 
among  the  in-patients  of  one  hospital,  who, 
returning  to  their  homes,  carry  with  them  some 
of  the  truth  received. 

7.  Medical  mission  work  is  lessening  the  anti- 
foreign  feeling,  is  diminishing  the  power  of  super- 
stition which  connects  disease  with  evil  spirits, 
and  is  giving  constant  proof  of  the  unselfish  char- 
acter of  the  Christian  religion. 

8.  "One  thing  is  perfectly  certain,"  said  Dr. 
Post  of  Syria,  "namely,  that  medical  mission 
work  never  fails.  Other  work  mav  fail,  but  this 
affording  of  relief  for  physical  sufiering  goes  on 
the  debit  side  of  Christianity  in  all  cases,  and 
opens  the  way  for  other  work  to  follow." 

As  it  is  impracticable  to  notice  in  detail  the 
growing  work  of  medical  missions  in  foreign 
lands,  it  may  be  well  to  give  some  account  of  the 
service  performed  by  these  missions  on  one  or 
two  fields,  thus  illustrating  the  power  and  possi- 
bilities of  this  factor  in  Foreign  Missions. 

The  published  reports  of  1902  show  that  China 
has  the  largest  number  of  medical  missionaries, 
missionary  hospitals  and  dispensaries.  In  that 
land  there  were,  in  1901,  128  hospitals,  245  dis- 
pensaries, which  during  the  year  treated  1,674,571 
patients;  and  more  than  150  foreign  physicians 
were  in  this  service.  In  1895  the  men  doctors 
were  fourteen  per  cent,  of  all  the  missionaries, 
the  women  doctors  were  four  per  cent.,  and  for 
each  doctor  there  were  more  than  4,000,000  of 
the  population  of  China.  The  need  of  medical 
missions  in  this  vast  field  is  appalling.  The  Chi- 
nese doctors  are  quacks  of  the  worst  type;  their 
medicines  are  mostly  decoctions  of  herbs,  mixed 
with  certain  vile  substances;  their  materia  medica 
is,  perhaps,  the  worst  on  earth;  their  ignorance 
of  the  simplest  principles  of  physiology  is  mar- 
velous; and  the  "medicine  man"  is  deceitful  and 
unscrupulous  in  playing  upon  the  credulity  and 
superstition  of  these  people.  While  nearly  all 
diseases  are  common  in  this  thickly  settled 
country,  smallpox  is  the  most  common.  Vac- 
cination was  discovered  during  the  last  decade 
of  the  18th  century;  and,  soon  after  its  discovery, 
Dr.  Alexander  Pearson,  surgeon  to  the  East  India 
Company,  introduced  it  into  China.     It  has  been 


said  of  him  that  he  "opened  China  to  the  Gospel 
at  the  point  of  the  lancet."  But  Dr.  Peter  Parker 
is  known  as  the  first  medical  missionary  of  China, 
and,  commencing  his  work  under  the  American 
Board  in  1835  in  Canton,  he  brought  physical 
blessings  to  at  least  53,000  patients  by  his  own 
hands,  and  many  hundreds  of  thousands  have 
been    blessed   indirectly    by    him.     Dr.    Parker 
said:  "I  have  no  hesitation  in  expressing  it  as 
my  solemn  conviction  that,  as  yet,  no  medium  of 
bringing  the  people  under  the  sound  of  the  Gos- 
pel and  within  the  influence  of  other  means   of 
grace  can  compare  with  the  facilities  afforded 
by       medical       missionary      operations."      Dr. 
Parker's  hospital  at  Canton  still  continues  to  exert 
a   wide   influence   throughout   Southern   China, 
and  until  1899  it  was  under  the  care  of  Dr.  J.  G. 
Kerr.     It  belongs  to  the  Canton  Medical  Mission- 
ary Society,  and,  while  the  largest  hospital  work 
in  China  is  at  Swatow  (English  Presbyterian), 
this  Canton  hospital  comes  first  in  importance, 
for  it  is  the  first  institution  which  combined  the 
alleviation  of  human  suffering  and  the  extension 
of   Christianity,   and   was,  indeed,   the    pioneer 
of  modern  medical  missions.     In  this  hospital, 
during   1898,   more   than   26,000   patients  were 
treated,  and  over  1,000  operations  took  place. 
By   Dr.    Kerr  and  under  his   supervision  some 
700,000  patients  have  been  treated,  and  about 
48,000  operations  performed;  and  in  addition  to 
this    active    practise,    he    published    thirty-two 
books  on  surgery  and  medicine.     The  writer  of 
these  words  concluded,  after  visiting  the  foreign 
mission  fields  in  1895  and  1896,  that  no  institu- 
tion in  China  was  accomplishing  more  good  than 
the  hospital  at  Canton. 

It  was  largely  through  the  influence  of  a  physi- 
cian that  India  was  opened  to  English  trade. 
As  far  back  as  1636  Dr.  Gabriel  Boughton,  an 
Englishman,  while  practising  at  the  court  of  the 
Great  Mogul,  cured  a  princess  who  was  badly 
burned,  and,  as  his  only  reward,  requested  that 
his  countrymen  might  have  the  privilege  of  trade 
with  India.  The  Danes  established  a  medical 
missionary  work  at  Tranquebar  and  Madras  in 
1730-32.  Through  the  skill  of  Dr.  Thomas,  who 
went  out  with  Carey  as  a  medical  missionary, 
Krishna  Pal  was  cured  of  serious  hurt,  was  con- 
verted and  was  the  first  Hindu  baptized.  The 
first  woman  medical  missionary  from  any  land 
was  Dr.  Clara  A.  Swain,  sent  by  the  American 
Methodists  to  Bareilly,  India;  and  they  also 
began  the  first  medical  class  for  women  at  Naini 
Tal  in  1869.  In  1900  there  were  111  missionary 
hospitals  and  255  dispensaries  in  India.  The 
native  practises  are  barbarous;  the  death  rate 
in  British-India  is  almost  twice  that  of  the  United 
States;  cholera  and  small-pox  are  more  or  less 
prevalent  among  all  classes  of  the  natives;  the 
millions  of  demon-worshipers  retard  by  their 
ignorance  and  superstition  the  work  of  the  physi- 
cian; and  it  is  estimated  that  of  the  67,000,000 
of  the  people  who  have  but  little  of  British  super- 
intendence, hardly  two  per  cent,  of  them  live 
within  twenty-five  miles  of  a  European  doctor. 
At  Neyoor,  under  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
is  the  largest  medical  mission  in  the  world.  In 
1901  there  was  here  a  hospital  with  fifteen  dis- 
pensaries, and  eighteen  native  medical  evan- 
gelists; and  in  1899  there  were  109,029  cases 
treated.  In  describing  the  opening  of  a  new 
dispensary  at  Sangli,  a  writer  says:  "The  patients 
began  to  arrive  at  daybreak,  continuing  to  come 


447 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Medical   Mlsslono 
Medieval   MlsHlona, 


till  ten  o'clock,  the  hour  for  dispensing.  A 
native  Christian  assistant  was  secured  as  inter- 
preter and  medical  helper.  He,  aided  by  other 
native  preachers,  taught  and  preached  to  the 
people,  while  they  gathered  and  waited  for  treat- 
ment. Scripture  texts  were  pasted  on  their 
medicine  bottles,  and  tracts  distributed." 

In  all  foreign  lands  medical  missions  are  becom- 
ing more  popular  and  more  powerful.  It  is  an 
interesting  question  whether  any  missionary 
should  be  sent  out  without  some  knowledge,  at 
least,  of  the  healing  art.  The  Christian  physi- 
cian is  honored  and  welcomed  always  and  any- 
where in  foreign  fields;  national  and  religious 
prejudices  vanish  before  him,  and  in  one  year 
he  can  do  what  it  would  take  another  missionary 
many  years  to  accomplish.  It  is  stated  that 
Dr.  Asahel  Grant  had  twenty  times  more  inter- 
course with  the  Mohammedans  of  Persia  than 
the  missionary  who  was  sent  out  expressly  to 
labor  among  them.  Many  who  are  studying 
thoughtfully  the  great  problem  of  the  evange- 
lization of  the  nations  agree  that  the  consecrated 
medical  missionary  and  the  well-equipped  hos- 
pital are  most  important  elements  of  success  in 
the  foreign  field. 

"God  had  only  one  son  and  He  gave  Him  to  be 
a  medical  missionary,"  exclaimed  Dr.  Living- 
stone; and  we  recall  the  impressive  fact  that  this 
Great  Physician  sent  forth  His  first  disciples  to 
heal  as  well  as  to  preach.  Only  a  few  hundred 
Christian  physicians  has  America  sent  forth  to 
the  billion  of  suffering  people  across  the  seas; 
but  we  predict  that  the  first  decade  of  this  cen- 
tury will  witness  a  great  awakening  on  this 
important  question. 

Statistics  of  Hospitals,  Dispensaries  and 
Patients  treated  annually.  From  Survey  of 
Foreign  Missions,  by  Rev.  James  S.  Dennis, 
D.D.: 


Location. 

No.  of 
Hos- 
pitals. 

No.  of 
Dispen- 
saries. 

Total 
Individual 
Patients. 

Total 

No.  of 

Treatments 

43 
3 
1 
7 
10 
4 

128 
3 

111 
8 
8 
3 
3 
2 

if 
6 
7 
3 
6 

10 

107 

4 

4 

9 

11 

10 

245 

3 

255 

17 

15 

9 

7 

6 

2 

21 

13 

11 

5 

17 

13 

139,283 

486,459 

Alaska 

Arabia 

7,380 

22,620 

5,176 

9,324 

685,047 

4,948 

842,600 

35,195 

28,968 

19,349 

8,380 

6,338 

27,525 

13,122 

Canada  &  Labrador 
Ceylon 

10,865 
15,911 

Chinn 

1,674,571 

Formosa 

17,524 

India 

2,453,020 

68,845 

Korea 

74,224 

Madagascar 

Malaysia 

40,277 
47,943 

Mexico 

7,221 

2,885 

Palestine 

72,881 
38,646 
14,644 
2,794 
27,685 
37,778 

184,156 

Persia. . .    . 

120,577 

Siam  and  Laos 

South  America 

25,986 

4,041 

62,877 

■furkey 

88,076 

Estimate     for     45 
hospitals  and  113 
dispensaries    not 

379 

783 

2,009,036 
338,744 

5,426,105 
1,016,322 

Totals 

379 

783 

2,347,780 

6,442,427 

Ecumenical  Miasionary  Conference  Report,  Vol.  II.^pp.  188- 
239,  New  York,  1900;  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  for 
Theory  of  Medical  Missions,  Vol.  III.,  354,  VIII.,  666, 
XII.,  770;  for  Historical  Notes,  VII.,  281;  IX.,  657;  for 
Instances  of  Influence,  III.,  919;  in  Ceylon,  XII.,  641 ,  738; 
India,  XI.    362;  in  Korea,  V.,  58;   XL,  668;   XII.,  296; 


XIV.,  688,  690;  in  Mexico,  XIL,  535,  773;  XV.,  416;  in 
Persia,  XI.,  662:  in  Siam,  XII.,  778;  XV.,  349;  ill 
Syria,  VI.,  641;  IX.,  910;  in  Uganda,  XV.,  407;  for  Sta- 
tistics, Dennis  (J.  S.),  Centenary  Survey  of  Foreign  Missions. 
pp.  192-211,  222-224,  271,  New  York,  1902;  for  General 
Discussion  and  Surveys,  Williamson  (J.  R.),  The  Healinff 
of  the  Nations,  New  York,  1899:  Wanle  s  (W.  J.),  The 
Afcdicai  Afissitm,  New  York,  1901 ;  Penrose  (V.  F.),  Oppor- 
tunities in  the  Path  of  the  Great  Physician,  Westminster 
Press,  Philadelphia,  1902. 

MEDIEVAL  MISSIONS:  From  the  5th  cen- 
tury to  the  Reformation,  the  history  of  missions 
is  practically  confined  to  the  movements  in 
Europe  which  resulted  in  making  that  continent. 
Christian.  The  Eastern  Church,  except  the 
comparatively  minor  work  of  the  Nestorians, 
and  the  vague  rule  of  the  Tatar  Prester  John, 
settled  down  into  the  sleep  from  which  even  the 
shock  of  Islam  could  not  arouse  it.  Altho  Russia 
became  Christian  during  this  period,  that  was, 
hardly  a  conversion — rather  a  political  transition. 
The  Western  Church,  too,  did  very  little  as  a 
Church.  The  record  of  the  middle  and  dark 
ages  in  missionary  activity  is  the  record  of  the 
devotion,  ambition  and  unflagging  patience  and 
energy  of  a  comparatively  small  company  of 
earnest  workers.  The  personal  element  domi- 
nated and  the  story  is  almost  entirely  a  series  of 
biographies. 

The  conversion  of  Ireland  in  the  4th  century 
was  the  real  foundation  of  Medieval  Missions. 
To  Irelaad,  much  more  certainly  than  to  Rome, 
the  Christianization  of  England,  Scotland  and 
Germany  was  due. 

South  Britain,  under  the  Romans,  shared  in 
the  general  Christianity  of  the  Empire;  but  when 
the  heathen  English  came  over  from  northern 
Germany  and  Jutland,  they,  in  their  slow,  stub- 
bornly contested  advance,  swept  the  land  as  clean 
of  its  civilization  and  historical  remembrances 
as  of  its  religion.  The  still  unconquered  Britons, 
retreating  into  the  Welsh  mountains,  with  diffi- 
culty maintained  there  a  Christianity  which  the 
conquering  English  utterly  despised.  And  when, 
in  597,  the  Benedictine  abbot  Augustine,  and  hia 
companions  sent  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great, 
persuaded  the  men  of  Kent  to  accept  the  Gospel, 
which  from  Kent  spread  among  the  West,  East 
and  Middle  Saxons,  the  Middle  and  Northern 
English  remained  but  little  affected.  The  real 
Christianization  of  Northumbria  came  from  Ire- 
land. Columba,  a  youth  of  the  royal  blood  of 
Ulster,  having,  as  a  penance  for  a  civil  war 
kindled  through  his  fiery  Celtic  ternper,  been 
required  to  exile  himself  to  Caledonia,  and  to 
spend  the  rest  of  his  life  in  laboring  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Picts,  founded  the  famous  monas- 
tery of  lona  in  the  Hebrides,  frorn  which  he  and 
his  disciples  poured  out  with  irresistible  zeal  and 
with  complete  success  over  the  lands  of  the 
Northern  Picts,  the  Southern  Picts  being  already 
largely  Christian.  They  were  aided  by  the  fact 
that  western  Caledonia  was  largely  occupied  by 
Christian  Scots  of  Irish  extraction.  The  Scot- 
tish kings,  succeeding  through  intermarriage  to 
to  the  Pictish  throne,  gave  the  name  of  Scotia  to 
the  whole  land,  and  withdrew  it  from  Ireland, 
which  was  the  original  Scotia.  From  lona  came 
the  humble  and  zealous  bishop,  Aidan,  to  North- 
umbria, where  he  labored  with  great  success. 
But  the  full  Christianization  of  the  country  was 
accomplished  through  his  disciple  Cuthbert.  Of 
simple  habits,  dauntless  courage,  strong  sense, 
ready  wit,  tenderness  of  heart,  deep  devotion, 
and  of  a  missionary  zeal  inflamed  by  the  example 


Medieval  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


448 


of  his  Irish  masters,  he  became  the  Apostle  of  the 
North.  The  Mercians  likewise  gave  up  the  old 
gods  with  one  consent,  and  England  was  now 
Christian  from  the  Firth  to  the  Channel,  being 
bounded  by  the  Christian  Scots  on  the  north  and 
the  Christian  Welsh  on  the  west,  which  latter, 
however,  in  their  implacable  animosity  against 
their  conquerors,  had  refused  to  take  the  slight- 
est share  in  the  work  of  conversion. 

In  all  this  Rome  had  comparatively  little  share, 
so  far  as  direct  influence  was  concerned,  and  yet 
her  merits  in  the  conversion  of  England  are  not 
small:  (1)  she  initiated  evangelization  after  the 
earlier  Christianity  was  almost  extinct;  (2)  she 
mainly  converted  the  Saxons,  as  distinguished 
from  the  Anglians;  (3)  she  introduced  the  Gospel 
among  the  Anglians;  (4)  she  undertook  and  car- 
ried through,  with  general  consent  of  the  English, 
that  to  which  the  Irish  were  everywhere  utterly 
incompetent,  namely,  the  organization  and  prac- 
tical conduct  of  the  English  Church,  which  she 
thus  held  in  unity  with  the  general  body  of 
Christendom,  and  preserved  it  from  erratic 
developments  and  from  final  disintegration  and 
anarchy,  such  as  befell  the  Irish  Church,  and 
finally  induced  even  her  to  submit  herself  to  the 
organizing  skill  of  Rome. 

The  Irish  Church  was,  during  the  early  Middle 
Ages,  equally  zealous  and  equally  effective  in  the 
work  of  conversion  on  the  Contment.  She  was, 
indeed,  the  great  Missionary  Church  of  this  era. 
The  reception  of  the  Gospel  in  Ireland,  altho  it 
did  nothing  to  control  the  intertribal  anarchy 
and  to  remove  the  moral  rudeness  of  the  people 
generally,  evoked  unbounded  enthusiasm  in 
thousands  of  elect  spirits,  who  gathered  around 
their  abbots  in  multitudes  of  monasteries,  sur- 
rounded by  pious  families,  and  gave  themselves 
up  to  an  extravagant  asceticism,  but  also  to 
noble  intellectual  pursuits,  and  a  deep  study  of 
"the  Scriptures.  While  Irish  piety  had  a  very 
imperfect  control  over  the  passions  of  anger  and 
wrath ;  was  deficient  in  that  moral  dignity  which 
was  congenial  to  Roman,  and  still  more  to  the 
higher  English  piety;  on  the  other  hand,  it  was 
ethereal,  full  of  tender  and  delicate  sentiment 
and  pervaded  with  the  glow  of  a  fiery  enthu- 
siasm, which,  finding  insurmountable  obstacles 
at  home  in  an  anarchy  which  it  knew  not  how 
to  reduce  into  order,  poured  itself  in  an  irresist- 
ible flood  upon  Western  and  Middle  Europe. 
The  Irish  at  this  time  were  incomparably  supe- 
rior to  the  Romans  in  point  of  knowledge,  while 
the  Irish  temperament  and  the  Irish  mind  had 
an  extraordinary  power  of  communicating  its 
convictions.  The  Irish  monks,  caring  little  for 
the  secular  clergy,  allowed  them  to  marry. 
They  honored  an  abbot  vastly  more  than  a 
bishop.  But  they  themselves,  in  their  unspar- 
ing asceticism,  presented  to  the  wretched  Con- 
tinental populations  of  that  era,  succeeding  the 
fearful  devastations  of  barbarian  conquest,  the 
impressive  spectacle  of  men  living,  by  their  own 
free  will,  a  more  wretched  life  than  the  wretched 
peasants,  and  yet  making  not  the  least  account 
of  this  destitution  of  earthly  comforts.  They 
were  listened  to  with  profoundest  reverence, 
and  contributed  mightily  to  the  fuller  Christian- 
ization  of  their  fellow-Celts  (of  the  Cymric 
branch),  the  rural  populations  of  Gaul,  and  to  the 
rooting  of  the  Gospel  in  Switzerland  and  in 
various  parts  of_ Germany,  especially  the  south. 

The  great  Irish  missionary  on  the  Continent 
■was  Columban  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the 


earlier  Columba,  of  lona),  who  established  his 
monastery  in  590  among  the  Vosges  Mountains 
in  Eastern  Gaul.  His  rule  was  severe  but  prac- 
tical, combining  ascetic  self-discipline,  manual 
labor  in  various  forms  and  study,  especially  of  the 
Scriptures.  He  laid  great  stress  on  the  inward 
state,  and  subordinated  all  observances  to  this. 
But  his  courageous  opposition  to  the  wickedness 
of  Queen  Brunehild  caused  his  expulsion  from 
Frankish  Gaul  into  what  is  now  Switzerland. 
His  enemies,  however,  following  him  up,  expelled 
him  after  three  years  from  his  missionary  labors 
here  also.  He  withdrew  into  Italy,  where  he 
died  in  613,  in  the  monastery  which  he  had 
founded  at  Bobbio,  near  Pavia. 

He  left  behind,  however  (detained  by  sick- 
ness, like  St.  Paul,  among  the  Galatians),  a 
beloved  pupil,  a  young  Irishman  of  good  family, 
named  Gallus.  Gallus  sought  out  a  retreat  in 
the  deep  woods  of  Eastern  Switzerland,  where 
he  founded  the  monastery  famous  for  so  many 
centuries  as  St.  Gall,  the  nucleus  of  the  present 
canton  of  that  name.  It  became  a  great  center 
of  population,  civilization,  learning  and  Chris- 
tianity for  Eastern  Switzerland,  the  Tyrol  and 
Southern  Germany.  Somewhat  later  came  the 
Irish  Fridolin,  laboring  in  Alsace,  Switzerland  and 
Suabia,  and  the  Irish  Thrudpert  (whom  the  Ger- 
mans call  St.  Hubert),  laboring  in  the  Black 
Forest.  The  Irish  Cilian,  after  650,  labored  in 
West  Thuringia,  toward  the  middle  of  Germany. 
And  these  are  only  shining  examples  of  an  end- 
less succession  of  missionary  monks  that  poured 
out  for  two  or  three  centuries  from  Ireland  into 
Gaul,  Switzerland,  Southern  and  Middle  Ger- 
many. Before  Boniface  began  his  labors,  about 
720,  Southern  Germany  seems  to  have  been 
mainly,  and  Middle  Germany  largely,  Christian- 
ized. The  Saxons,  who  filled  the  great  northern 
plain  of  Germany,  gave  not  the  slightest  heed  to 
the  Gospel,  the  acceptance  of  which  they  regarded 
as  the  mark  of  subjection  to  their  rivals,  the 
Catholic  Franks. 

From  of  old,  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube, 
and  even  farther  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  there 
had  been  Christian  congregations.  And  the 
these  had  been  ravaged  and  trodden  down  in  the 
tumultuous  movements  of  the  migration  of  the 
nations  which  overthrew  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, they  still  offered  a  good  many  points  of 
attachment  for  the  Irish  missionaries.  The  most 
illustrious  of  these  were,  on  the  Danube,  Seyer- 
inus,  whom  some  held  to  be  a  North  African 
and  some  a  Syrian,  and,  near  the  Rhine,  Eligius, 
of  an  old  Christian  family  of  the  Franks,  originally 
a  goldsmith,  afterward  a  bishop.  Both  these 
men  distinguished  themselves  by  boundless  com- 
passion and  works  of  mercy,  sometimes  redeem- 
ing captives,  sometimes  interceding  successfully 
for  the  wretched  people  with  their  barbarian  con- 
querors, and  thus  laying  foundations  the  traces 
of  which  still  subsisted  when  the  Irish  mission- 
aries subsequently  began  their  labors.  Eligius, 
indeed,  was  later  than  the  earliest  of  these  mis- 
sionaries. 

There  was,  however,  the  same  difficulty  with 
Irish  missionary  work  on  the  Continent  that  there 
had  been  in  England,  namely,  a  want  of  unity 
and  of  organizing  power.  In  Ireland  itself, 
beyond  a  general  deference  paid  to  the  abbey 
and  bishopric  of  Armagh,  there  was  no  ecclesias- 
tical unity.  The  priests  had  no  defined  parishes, 
the  bishops  no  defined  dioceses.  The  abbots 
were   the    real    ecclesiastical   rulers,    but   every 


449 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Medieval   MisslonB 


abbot  only  of  his  own  monastic  sept.  And  this 
confusion  and  jarring  individualism  was  reflected 
in  the  Irish  work  abroad.  Ireland,  moreover, 
having  been  for  a  long  while  cut  off  by  the  wall  of 
English  heathenism  from  the  rest  of  Western 
Europe,  had  diverged  in  various  particulars,  not 
so  much  of  doctrine  (for  both  parties  stood  on  the 
foundation  of  the  great  councils,  including  the 
Council  of  Orange)  as  of  ecclesiastical  usage  in 
discipline,  worship  and  polity,  points  which 
necessarily  occasioned  a  perpetual  friction. 
Especially  was  it  intolerable  that  while  the 
Romans  had  adopted  a  corrected  Easter  cycle, 
the  Irish  still  adhered  to  the  earlier,  unreformed 
cycle.  Thus,  before  Oswiu  of  Northumbria  had 
wisely  decided  to  accept  the  Roman  discipline, 
the  Northumbrian  kings  had  sometimes  been 
holding  the  Easter  rejoicings  while  their  Kentish 
or  Saxon  queens  were  still  in  the  sadness  of  the 
Passion-week. 

Germany,  therefore,  compelled  like  England 
to  commit  her  Christian  future  either  to  the 
erratic  uncertainty  of  Irish  impulse  or  to  the 
steady,  tho  certainly  much  harder,  hand  of 
Roman  discipline,  decided,  and  doubtless  on 
the  whole  decided  wisely,  for  the  latter.  Many 
free  influences  and  simpler  Christian  apprehen- 
sions were,  it  is  true,  compelled  to  give  way  for 
a  time.  But  in  reality  the  Irish  national  spirit 
was  as  distinctly  alien  from  Germany  as  the 
Roman.  And,  except  in  some  casual  particu- 
lars, the  spiritual  depth  and  evangelical  freedom 
of  the  future  Protestantism  were  no  more 
anticipated  in  Celtic  than  in  Latin  Christianity. 
Protestantism  was,  as  to  its  human  source,  an 
entirely  original  creation  of  the  Teutonic  genius, 
which  first  really  apprehended  the  full  signifi- 
cance of  the  apostolate  of  Paul.  That  Rome 
prevailed,  and  Ireland  gave  way,  in  the  final 
settlement  of  the  German  Church,  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  regarded  on  the  whole  otherwise  than 
as  a  providential  good.  The  more  we  learn  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  the  more  fully  we  become 
aware  that  there  were  never  absent  from  them 
seething  forces  of  spiritual  and  social  anarchy, 
which  Rome  could  hardly  control,  and  which 
Ireland,  herself  anarchical,  could  not  have  con- 
trolled at  all.  There  were,  moreover,  still 
latent  in  the  Saxons  of  Northern  Germany,  and 
yet  more  terribly  in  the  brooding  cloud  of 
Scandinavian  piracy  that  was  one  day  to  burst 
forth  over  Europe,  aggressive  forces  of  heathen- 
ism, which  could  not  have  been  withstood  by 
any  fabric  less  firm  than  that  great  organism 
owning  Rome  as  its  center,  which  finally 
extended  to  the  very  Orkneys,  and  at  last  took 
in  Ireland  herself,  and  grappled  with  the  most 
formidable  enemy  by  incorporating  the  Scan- 
dinavian North.  Neander,  regretfully  as  he 
recounts  the  ultimate  prevalence  of  Rome, 
acknowledges  that  the  rude  nations  needed  a 
rigorous  discipline  of  centuries  before  they 
would  be  ripe  for  spiritual  and  national  inde- 
pendence. 

The  conference  at  York,  in  the  year  664, 
before  King  Oswiu,  between  Bishop  Colman,  of 
the  Irish  use,  and  the  Presbyter  Wilfrid,  of  the 
Roman  use,  decided  the  Northumbrians  and 
Mercians  to  join  with  the  Saxons  and  Jutes  of 
Southern  England  in  accepting  Rome,  rather 
than  lona,  as  their  future  spiritual  metropolis. 
It  decided  no  less  the  ecclesiastical  destiny  of 
Germany.     For  it  was  an  Englishman  that  was 

29 


finally  to  bring  Germany  into  conformity  with 
Rome,  and  away  from  conformity  with  Ireland. 

Winfrid,  as  he  was  properly  called,  was  born 
in  Kirton,  Devonshire,  in  the  year  680.  His 
father,  a  man  of  wealth,  destined  him  for  some 
secular  profession,  but,  humbled  by  a  reverse 
of  fortune,  yielded  at  length  to  his  son's  ardent 
desire  for  a  monastic  life.  In  this  Winfrid 
developed  the  same  qualities  of  fervent  piety, 
deep  disinterestedness,  unquailing  courage,  prac- 
tical skill,  monkish  narrowness  of  mind,  and 
intolerant  orthodoxy  which  distinguished  him 
subsequently  when  acting,  under  the  name  of 
Boniface,  as  the  papally  invested  missionary 
archbishop  of  Germany.  As  a  Saxon  he  had, 
of  course,  an  affinity  of  race  with  the  Germans, 
which  doubtless  came  into  play  in  his  lon^  con- 
test with  the  Irish  missionaries  of  the  Contment. 
To  him  the  Roman  discipline  and  the  Roman 
supremacy  were  of  the  very  essence  of  the  Gos- 
pel. He  was  incapable  of  making  the  slightest 
concession  to  the  Irish  monks,  altho  they  had 
converted  so  much  of  Germany,  for  in  his  eyes 
the  Irish  hardly  deserved  to  be  called  Christians 
at  all,  and  he  suffered  grievous  troubles  of  con- 
science that  he  could  not  altogether  avoid  an 
intercourse  of  social  civility  with  them. 

He  began  his  missionary  labors  in  715,  among 
the  Frisians  of  the  German  coast.  His  elder 
countryman,  Willibrord,  after  twelve  years  of 
study  m  Ireland,  had  begun  a  mission  m  Fries- 
land,  aided  by  various  other  Englishmen. 
Willibrord,  altho  of  Irish  education,  yet,  as  an 
Englishman,  conformed  to  the  Roman  discip- 
line and  visited  Rome  to  solicit  the  papal  sanc- 
tion on  his  new  mission.  He  was  there  ordained 
by  the  pope  himself  bishop  of  Utrecht,  where  he 
died  after  thirty  years  of  not  ineffective  work. 
Winfrid  first  went  to  Friesland  during  one  of  the 
many  intervals  of  adversity  in  the  mission.  He 
afterward,  however,  returned  and  labored  for 
three  years  under  Willibrord  with  encouraging 
results.  Declining  the  aged  bishop's  offer  to 
consecrate  him  as  his  successor,  he  journeyed  to 
Thuringia,  in  Middle  Germany,  where  he  baptized 
two  princesses  and  in  various  visits  admitted  at 
least  100,000  persons  to  the  Church.  In  Hesse, 
his  boldness  in  felling  the  sacred  oak  of  Donar 
(whom  the  Scandinavians  called  Thor)  so 
appalled  the  heathen  that  large  numbers  forsook 
the  worship  of  gods  who  seemed  unable  to  defend 
their  own  honor.  He  had  already  twice  visited 
Rome,  and  at  his  second  visit,  in  723,  had  been 
ordained  regionary  bishop  by  the  pope,  with 
what  we  might  call  a  roving  commission,  taking 
an  oath  of  obedience  and  conformity  to  the 
Apostolic  See,  which  became  the  keynote  of  his 
whole  subsequent  policy.  Turning  away  from 
his  nearest  Glerman  kinsmen,  the  Saxons  (who 
were,  indeed,  at  this  time  wholly  insensible  to 
Christianity),  he  spent  most  of  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  incessant, sincere, intolerant  and  finally  success- 
ful efforts  to  bring  Middle  and  Southern  Germany 
under  the  Roman  obedience.  His  double  contro- 
versy with  Virgil,  the  learned  Irish  abbot,  sub- 
sequently bishop  of  Salzburg,  was,  it  is  true, 
unsuccessful.  Rome,  tho  a  great  admirer  of  her 
servant  Boniface,  decided  both  points  against 
him,  not  without  some  gentle  quizzing  of  his 
hyperbolical  orthodoxy.  But  Virgil  was  willing 
to  come  under  the  new  system,  and  after  his 
death  was  impartially  canonized  by  the  Apostolio 
See. 


Medieval  MIsbIoiih 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


460 


In  738  Boniface  visited  Rome  a  third  time,  and 
received  the  fullest  legatine  powers,  as  arch- 
bishop of  Germany.  He  held  numerous  synods, 
supported  at  length  by  Pepin,  who,  having  been 
authorized  by  Pope  Zachary  to  set  aside  the 
outworn  Merovingian  line  and  to  assume  the 
royal  dignity  for  himself,  was  then,  in  the  pope's 
name,  anointed  by  Boniface,  and  thus  stood 
committed  to  the  closest  union  with  Rome. 
Henceforth  Boniface  had  good  assurance  of 
complete  success  in  his  effort  to  transform  the 
German  Christianity  from  the  Irish  to  the  Roman 
type.  His  veneration  for  Rome,  however,  had 
in  it  nothing  of  the  slavishness  of  modern  Ultra- 
montanism.  He  did  not  apprehend  the  pope  as 
Universal  Bishop,  but  as  the  court  of  highest 
instance  in  a  graduated  scale  of  episcopal  preemi- 
nence. He  himself  meant  to  establish  the  German 
primacy  at  Cologne,  but,  being  disappointed  of 
this  by  an  intrigue,  fixed  it,  less  suitably,  at 
Mentz.  He  also  founded  the  renowned  Benedic- 
tine abbey  of  Fulda,  which  for  1,000  years  was  the 
Monte  Cassino  of  Germany.     In  all  his  organizing 

Elans  and  administrative  acts,  his  unsympathetic, 
eresy-hunting,  Romanizing  orthodoxy  was 
accompanied  by  a  large  forecast  of  cool  states- 
manship, which  in  him  decidedly  prevailed  over 
enthusiasm.  Not  even  his  most  admiring  dis- 
ciples, says  Neander,  ascribed  to  him  a  single 
miracle.     It   is   the   judgment   of   one   who   has 

tiven  much  attention  to  his  course  that  the 
eepest  instinct  of  his  heart  was,  after  all,  not 
that  of  the  ecclesiastical  administrator,  but  of 
the  monastic  missionary.  To  this  his  early  life 
agrees,  and  much  of  his  middle  life,  and,  above 
all,  his  end.  For  in  755,  abandoning  his  great  see 
of  Mentz,  he  set  out  for  his  early  mission  field  of 
Friesland,  and  there,  having  fixed  a  day  on  which 
many  of  his  baptized  converts  should  return  to 
him  for  confirmation,  was,  on  that  very  day,  sur- 
prised by  a  heathen  band,  and,  in  his  seventy- 
fifth  year,  with  many  of  his  companions,  joyfully 
received  the  crown  of  martyrdom. 

It  may  be  disputed,  in  view  of  the  earlier  suc- 
cesses of  Ireland,  whether  we  have  a  right  to 
call  him  the  apostle  of  Germany.  Nor  can  we 
be  blind  to  his  deep  defects,  or  at  least  to  his 
narrow  limitations.  Yet  after  all  abatements 
he  stands  forth  as  one  of  the  great  characters  of 
Christian,  of  German  and  English,  and  of  mis- 
sionary history. 

Germany  was  now  two-thirds  Christian.  Its 
full  Christianization,  in  the  abandonment  of 
heathenism  by  the  mighty  Saxon  race  of  the 
northern  plain,  was  accomplished,  not  by  the 
missionary,  but  by  the  crowned  soldier,  Charles 
the  Great.  His  spiritual  adviser,  the  English 
abbot  Alcuin,  bitterly  remonstrated  against  his 
unevangelical  employment  of  force,  and  against 
his  imposition  of  the  tithe.  But  Charlemagne 
persisted,  being  convinced  that  his  empire  could 
never  have  peace  until  the  Saxons  were  brought 
into  the  national  and  spiritual  communion  of 
his  great  realm.  And  tho  they  were  thus  com- 
pelled into  the  Church,  yet,  so  soon  as  the  national 
Eride  of  their  adherence  to  paganism  had  been 
roken,  they  rapidly  assimilated  Christianity, 
and  soon  became  perhaps  the  most  stanchly 
Christian  of  all  the  German  tribes.  And  when 
the  fulness  of  the  time  had  come,  at  the  Reforma- 
tion, for  the  complete  emancipation  of  the  Gos- 
pel, it  was  in  Northern  Germany  that  the  adult 
Christianity  of  Protestantism  found  its  home. 
Luther  himself,  it  is  true,  tho  called  a  Saxon,  was 


onlv  such  by  that  curious  territorial  lapse  which 
had  transferred  the  ancient  name  from  its  proper 
seat,  and  made  it  the  designation  of  a  Middle 
German  race. 

The  conversion  of  Northern  Germany  laid  the 
basis  for  the  Christianization  of  the  three  Scan- 
dinavian realms.     The  Apostle  of  Scandinavia, 
St.   Ansgar,   is  a  character  of  peculiar  beauty. 
He  was  a  native  of  the  Prankish  kingdom,  having 
been  born  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens,  a.  d.  801. 
The  delicacy  of  his  imagination,  and  the  sweet 
courtesy  of  his  character,  make  it  probable  that 
he  was  a  Roman  rather  than  a  German  Frank;  in 
other  words,  that  he  was  a  Frenchman  proper. 
He   early   became   a   monk   in   the   neighboring 
Corbie,  under  the  abbot  Adalhard  and  the  learned 
teacher,  Paschasius  Radbert.     But  when  Charles 
the  Great   (Charlemagne),  having  forcibly  con- 
verted the  Saxons,  wished  to  instruct  them  in 
their   new   religion,    and   removed    a   colony   of 
monks  from   Corbie   to   the   Weser,   calling  the 
daughter-abbey  Corvey,  Ansgar  was  one  of  the 
colonists.     He    had    early    been    sensible    of    a 
vocation  to  the  missionary  life,  and  his  whole  life 
showed   that   he    "was   not   disobedient  to   the 
heavenly  vision."     The  pious  and  statesmanlike 
Ebbo,  archbishop  of  Rheims,  having  gained  over 
to  Christianity  King  Harold  of  Denmark,  on  a 
visit  to  the  Emperor  Lewis,  deputed  Ansgar  to 
accompany  the  king  on  his  return  to  his  fierce 
heatheif    subjects,     a    journey    then    so    much 
dreaded  that   Ansgar   could   only   find  a  single 
monk,    Authbert,    to   go   with   him,    who,   soon 
dying,  left  him  alone.     After  two  years  of  resi- 
dence, and  some  initial  successes,  he  and  King 
Harold  were  both  expelled.     But  now  better  pros- 
pects began  to  open  in  Sweden.     Seeds  of  Chris- 
tianity had  already  begun  to  germinate  there. 
Ansgar,  therefore,  during  some  two  years'  resi- 
dence found  much  encouragement.      His  favor- 
able report,  on  his  return  from  Sweden,  induced 
the  Emperor  Lewis  to  establish  the  archbishopric 
of  Bremen-Hamburg  as  the  basis  of  the  Northern 
mission,  and  to  dispatch  Ansgar  to  Rome,  where 
he    received    episcopal    consecration    and    was 
invested  with  the  archiepiscopal  pallium.     Dur- 
ing many  years,  from  the  basis  of  his  metropoli- 
tan see,  with  a  flexible  patience  that  knew  no  dis- 
couragement, that  availed  itself  of  every  oppor- 
tunity,  and  recovered   itself   after  every  shock 
of  heathen  aggression,  such  as  once  laid  his  own 
diocese  waste,  Ansgar  steadily  pursued  his  great 
purpose.     He  was  aided  by  suffragan  bishops  in 
Denmark  and  Sweden,   whom  he  supported  a» 
occasion  required  by  personal  visits.     At  last, 
the  heathen  having  already  become   accustomed 
by  many  instances  of  deliverance  after  invok- 
ing  the   name   of   Christ,   to   regard   Him  as  a 
mighty  deity,  Ansgar  visited  the  national  assem- 
bly of  Gothland,  in  the  south  of  the  peninsula, 
and  that  of  Sweden  proper,  in  the  middle,  and 
obtained  from  each  a  decree  that  the  preaching 
and  acceptance  of  the  Gospel  should  be  freely 
permitted.     Ansgar,  having  made  arrangernent* 
for  the  more  effective  prosecution  of  the  missions, 
returned  to  Bremen.     'There  were  many  subse- 
quent vicissitudes,  especially  in  Denmark,  for  the 
Gospel  seemed  to  cohere  more  intimately  with 
the    nature    of    the    milder   and    perhaps   more 
thoughtful    Swedes,    who,    moreover,    are   of  a 
deeply   devotional    turn.     But   the  foundation*      j 
laid  by  Ansgar  remained.     Danish  conquest  in       i 
England,  moreover,  reacted  for  the  evangeliza-       , 
tion  of  Denmark,  especially  through  the  influence      •, 


4S1 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


medieval  Missions 


of  the  mighty  Canute.  The  process  of  conver- 
sion was  slow  but  steady.  By  the  year  1100  it  is 
doubtful  whether  any  traces  of  avowed  heathen- 
ism remained  in  either  Denmark  or  Sweden. 

After  more  than  thirty-four  years  of  labor  for 
the  salvation  of  the  heathen  nations  of  the  north, 
when  past  the  age  of  sixty-four  he  was  attacked 
by  a  severe  fit  of  sickness,  from  which  he  died. 

His  character  seems  to  have  the  effectiveness  of 
Boniface  without  his  hardness,  and  the  zeal  of  the 
Irish  missionaries  without  the  wrathful  impa- 
tience adhering  to  some  of  them — a  most  winning 
embodiment,  certainly,  of  missionary  excellence. 
The  Christianization  of  the  Mongolian  Finns 
resulted  in  part  from  the  conquest  of  Finland  by 
St.  Eric,  the  first  Swedish  king  of  that  name, 
but  still  more  from  the  evangelical  labors  of  St. 
Henry,  the  first  bishop  of  Abo.  St.  Henry's 
Day  is  still  a  conspicuous  festival  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  of  Finland. 

The  introduction  of  Norway  within  the  Chris- 
tian pale  resembles  in  its  earlier  stage  a  chapter 
of  Muslim  and,  in  its  later  stage,  of  Buddhist, 
propagandism  more  than  any  chapter  of  genu- 
inely Christian  missionary  effort.  It  seems  to 
have  had  very  little  root  in  the  religious  instincts 
of  the  people,  altho  genuine  Christian  influences 
are  by  no  means  absent.  But  the  kings  who 
finally  subdued  the  whole  of  Norway  under 
them,  and  rooted  out  the  power  of  the  petty  local 
monarchs,  being  convinced  that  effective  govern- 
ment could  only  rest  on  the  foundation  of  a  wider 
and  richer  civilization,  and  that  this  could  only 
be  supported  by  Christianity,  really  forced 
Christianity  on  their  subjects  at  the  point  of  the 
sword.  And  when  these  were  once  baptized,  the 
Roman  missionaries  unfolded  the  utmost  mag- 
nificence of  their  ritual — here  again  like  the 
Buddhist  missionaries  in  Japan.  And  as  the 
Norsemen,  says  Herder,  had  the  profoundest 
faith  in  the  efficacy  of  magical  rites  and  regarded 
the  Roman  ceremonies  as  merely  a  more  exalted 
and  a  purer  kind  of  magic,  they  finally  surren- 
dered themselves  to  the  new  worship  without  any 
further  thought  of  resistance.  But  the  fact  that 
so  few  Norwegian  kings  or  heroes  have  cared  to 
be  buried  in  the  metropolitan  cathedral  of  Trond- 
jhem,  is  noted  by  Mr.  Froude  as  signifying  that 
they  had  little  heart  in  their  professed  Chris- 
tianity untU  the  Reformation  gave  them  a  form 
of  it  which  they  could  really  believe.  Lutheran 
Norway  is  now  a  genuinely  and  zealously  Chris- 
tian country.  But  the  religious  development  of 
Sweden,  both  under  Latin  and  under  Lutheran 
Christianity,  has  been  (as  is  natural,  in  view  of 
its  much  greater  population)  a  far  richer  and 
more  conspicuous  one.  In  the  14th  century  St. 
Brigitta,  the  widowed  Swedish  princess,  may  be 
regarded  as  "the  bright  consummate  flower"  of 
the  Scandinavian  race,  showing,  it  is  said, 
almost  equal  vigor  of  the  practical,  the  poetical 
and  the  prophetic  instinct,  and,  rnder  the  veil  of 
an  extravagant  devotion  to  the  Virgin,  revealing 
many  deep  evangelical  perceptions,  true  har- 
bingers 01^  the  Reformation.  And  altho  her 
ashes  rest  in  Rome,  and  her  name  stands  in  the 
Roman  calendar,  yet  her  prediction  is  on  record 
that  "the  throne  of  the  pope  shall  yet  be  cast 
into  the  abyss." 

By  this  time  Germany,  France,  Great  Britain, 
Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway  were  all  included 
within  the  pale  of  Latin,  and  Russia  within  that  of 
Greek,  Christianity.  Poland  and  Bohemia  and 
the  other  Slavonian  countries  were  thus  morally 


certain,  sooner  or  later,  to  yield  to  the  irresistible 
influence  of  what  was  becoming  the  religion  alike 
of  Southern  and  of  Northern  Europe.  Moravia 
and  Bohemia,  indeed,  the  two  principal  Slavonic 
countries  of  Middle  Europe,  rather  antedated 
than  followed  the  conversion  of  Scandinavia. 
By  an  unusual  providence,  they  were  Christian- 
ized by  two  Greek  missionaries,  CyrU  and  his 
brother  Methodius.  These  had  already  been 
active  among  the  Bulgarians,  who  also  received 
missionaries  from  the  pope,  but  after  some  waver- 
ing settled  down  under  the  patriarchal  rule  of 
Constantinople.  Cyril  and  Methodius  then 
labored  among  the  Mongolian  Chazars,  in  the 
Crimea,  with  a  good  deal  of  success.  They  then 
came  up  into  Central  Europe,  among  the  Mora- 
vians, not  far  from  the  year  850,  and  therefore 
while  Ansgar  was  still  laboring  in  the  north. 
German  missionaries  sent  out  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Salzburg  had  already  effected  a  good  many 
conversions.  But  their  foolish  obstinacy  in 
adhering  to  the  Latin  liturgy  was  in  the  way. 
Methodius  (for  Cyril  soon  became  a  monk  in 
Rome),  with  his  more  flexible  Greek  character, 
boldly  introduced  the  Slavonian  tongue  into 
worship.  The  German  bishops  murmured;  but 
the  pope,  who  had  already  consecrated  Metho- 
dius Archbishop  of  Moravia,  stood  forth  as  his 
defender.  Bohemia,  then  dependent  on  Mora- 
via, was  Christianized  from  it.  The  Germans 
still  wrangled  with  Methodius  over  his  indepen- 
dent jurisdiction  and  over  his  Slavonic  liturgy, 
so  that  at  last  he  went  to  Rome,  and  seems  to 
have  followed  his  brother  Cyril  into  retirement. 
But  the  Christianizing  impulse  had  now  become 
so  strong  among  the  Slavonians  that,  by  some- 
what obscure  stages,  the  whole  Slavonic  race  from 
Bohemia  to  the  Adriatic  is  found  to  be  Christian. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  after  long  interrup- 
tion, the  use  of  the  Slavonic  liturgy  has  lately 
been  conceded  again,  by  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  to  the 
Slavonic  lUyrians. 

The  propagation  of  Christianity  among  the 
Slavonic  Wends,  between  Bohemia  and  the  Bal- 
tic, is  a  confused  history  of  genuine  missionary 
successes,  of  armed  proselytism  by  over-zealous 
princes,  and  of  violent  and  persecuting  heathen 
reactions.  Yet  ultimately  Christianity  prevailed 
here  also,  by  an  historical  necessity.  Poland, 
like  its  great  Slavonian  sister  and  rival,  Russia, 
was  Christianized  mainly  from  above,  not  far 
from  the  year  1000.  But  while  Russia  took 
Constantinople  for  her  spiritual  capital,  Poland, 
as  might  have  been  expected  from  her  rivalry, 
chose  Rome.  The  Teutonic  order  of  military 
monks  had  much  to  do  with  the  suppression  of 
paganism  along  the  Baltic. 

The  Magyars,  of  Mongolian  race,  who  wrought 
fearful  devastations  in  Germany  in  the  earlier 
Middle  Ages,  but  were  finally  shut  up  to  their 
new  kingdom  of  Hungary,  of  which  they  still 
form  the  dominant  race,  were  found  after  this 
check  not  altogether  inaccessible  to  German  mis- 
sionaries. St.  Adalbert,  Archbishop  of  Prague, 
who  afterward  died  a  missionary  martyr  among 
the  Slavonic  Prussians  (near  Poland),  spent 
some  time  in  Hungary.  Prince  Geisa  and  his 
wife  were  baptized,  but  remained  about  as  much 
pagan  as  before.  Their  son  Stephen,  however, 
(St.  Stephen)  was  a  thorough  and  zealous  Chris- 
tian. He  married  a  German  princess,  received 
the  rank  of  king  from  the  Christian  Emperor 
Otto,  and  succeeded  in  impressing  on  the  king- 
dom of  Hungary  that  deep  character  of  medieval 


Medieval  Missions 
Melanesian  Mission 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


452 


yet  kindly  Catholicism  which  it  still  retains. 
Protestantism  is  there  powerful,  and  honorably 
considered;  but  nowhere  in  Europe  does  the 
ecclesiastical  magnificence  of  the  Middle  Ages 
remain  so  little  disturbed.  The  Archbishop  of 
Gran,  the  Primate  of  Hungary,  is  the  only  pri- 
mate of  actual  jurisdiction  in  the  Latin  Church. 
And  at  a  coronation  the  lines  of  splendid  horse- 
men wearing  the  insignia  of  mitred  abbots  show 
that  in  Hungary  the  illustrious  Benedictine  order 
still  retains  its  ancient  preeminence.  The  Hun- 
garian Christianity,  which  glories  in  the  mon- 
arch's title  of  Apostolical  King,  has  been  the 
anvil  that  has  worn  out  the  Muslim  hammer  of 
the  kindred  Turks.  But  this  Mongolian  Chris- 
tianity has  shown  its  zeal  rather  in  the  field  of 
war  than  of  spiritual  achievement,  in  which  the 
Mongolian  race  has  seldom  been  preeminent. 

The  latest  surrender  of  a  whole  European 
nation  to  the  profession  of  Christianity  took 
place  in  1384,  when  Ladislaus  Jagiello,  Grand 
Duke  of  the  then  very  extensive  and  powerful 
principality  of  Lithuania,  obtained  the  hand  of 
Hedwig,  Queen  of  Poland,  and  went  over,  with 
aU  his  people,  from  paganism  to  the  Church. 

Such  were  the  missions,  proselytizing  crusades, 
and  proselytizing  compacts  of  Catholic  Europe, 
Eastern  and  Western,  between  the  year  500  and 
the  year  1500.  The  principles  of  the  Gospel  seem 
to  have  been  most  thoroughly  carried  out  in  the 
Christianization  of  England,  Scotland,  Switzer- 
land, Southern  and  Middle  Germany  and  Sweden, 
and  to  have  been  the  farthest  departed  from  in 
the  cases  of  Northern  Germany  and  Norway,  the 
former  of  which,  however,  became  soon,  and  the 
latter  ultimately,  sincerely  and  zealously  Chris- 
tian. Not  even  the  Gospel,  accepted  in  this 
wholesale  way  as  a  national  creed,  could  avoid 
large  complications  with  uncivilized  rudeness, 
with  violence,  and  with  selfish  policy.  The 
Reformation  brought  in  that  sifting  process  which 
is  every  day  becoming  more  rapid.  Yet  there  is 
great  occasion  to  thank  God  that  over  so  large  a 
proportion  of  medieval  Europe  so  great  a  number 
of  humble  and  self-devoted  men  of  God  secured 
the  genuine  conversion  of  so  many  individuals 
and  nations  to  the  Gospel  of  Christ. 

While  these  movements  were  winning  Northern 
Europe  for  Christianity,  on  the  south  there  arose 
the  conflict  with  Islam.  The  crusades  were 
scarcely  missions,  and  yet  there  was  a  distinctly 
missionary  spirit  in  the  desire  to  overcome  Islam 
by  Christianity  as  well  as  to  rescue  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  So,  too,  the  monastic  orders  which 
arose  in  this  period.  Augustinian,  Carthusian, 
Cistercian,  Carmelite,  Franciscan,  Dominican  and 
others,  while  specially  organized  for  the  develop- 
ment of  a  devotional  type  of  piety,  had  a  direct 
relation  to  the  centralization  of  the  Church,  and 
were  not  devoid  of  the  missionary  idea,  as 
became  manifest  when  they  came  to  their  full 
fruitage  in  the  succeeding  period.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  when  he  forced  his  way  to  the  presence  of 
the  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  preached  Christianity  in 
his  court,  was  but  the  predecessor  of  Xavier  and 
liis  associates.  There  was,  however,  one  mis- 
sionary of  this  type  who  has  won  a  high  place 
among  the  laborers  for  the  spiritual  extension  of 
the  faith.  The  story  of  Raymund  Lull  is  like  a 
romance  of  modern  missions.  Turning  from  the 
scientific  studies  in  which  he  won  great  renown, 
he  applied  himself  to  the  task  of  overcoming 
Islam.  In  this  work  he  sought  the  aid  of  the 
king  of  Majorca,  of  the  pope,  of  the  Council  of 


Vienne,  of  England.  Every  effort  to  arouse 
the  Church  having  failed,  he  went  himself 
once  and  again  to  Cyprus,  Asiatic  Turkey  and 
Tunis,  where  at  last  his  life  was  a  sacrifice  to 
his  zeal. 

In  considering  the  character  of  this  period  it 
becomes  apparent  that  it  is  but  the  development 
of  the  close  of  its  predecessor.  The  Church  as  a 
whole  had  no  interest  whatever  in  the  extension 
of  Christianity.  A  comparatively  small  number 
of  individuals,  by  superb  devotion,  saved  Europe 
and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  development  in 
the  centuries  that  followed,  in  the  educational 
institutions  to  which  Germany  and  England  owe 
their  preeminence,  in  political  and  intellectual  as 
well  as  spiritual  life.  It  was  the  missionaries  of 
the  Middle  Ages  to  whom  the  modern  European 
owes  much  of  the  best  life  that  he  enjoys.  In  the 
degree  that  Southern  Europe  failed  to  share  their 
influence,  it  fell  below  their  standard. 

So  far  as  methods  were  concerned,  there  was 
little  of  what  may  be  called  popular  influence 
through  these  missions.  The  missionaries  sought 
the  leaders,  relying  upon  them  to  bring  with 
them  their  people.  Even  in  their  educational 
enterprises  it  was  to  the  possible  leaders  that  they 
gave  attention.  The  era  of  the  common  people 
had  not  yet  come. 

So,  too,  the  motive  was  inadequate.  It  was 
very  largely  the  Church,  its  aggrandizement,  its 
victory.  Even  with  Raymund  Lull,  the  great 
ambition  was  not  so  much  the  salvation  of  Mus- 
lims as  the  defeat  of  Islam.  It  remained  for  the 
Reformation  to  find  for  the  individual  soul  his 
proper  place  in  the  scheme  of  a  world's  sal- 
vation. 
Maclear  (G.  F.),  Christian  Missions  During  the  Middle  Ages, 

London,  1863;   ( ),  Apostles  of  Mediaeval  Europe,  New 

York,  1869;  Smith  (T.),  Mediceval  Missions,  Edinburgh, 
1880;  Kingsmill  (J.  .!.),  Missions  and  Missionaries,  Apos- 
tolic, Jesuit  and  Protestant.  London,  1854;  Barnes  (L.  C), 
Two  Thousand  Years  of  Missions  before  Carey,  New  York, 
1901;   Zwemer  (S.  M.),  Raymund  Lull,  New  York,  1902. 

MEDINGEN:  A  village  in  the  Zoutspansberg 
District  of  Transvaal,  Africa.  Station  of  the 
Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1881),  with  1  mission- 
ary, 19  native  workers,  8  outstations,  6  day 
schools,  and  1,121  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
619  are  communicants. 

MEERUT :  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  capi- 
tal of  the  district  of  Meerut,  situated  39  miles 
N.  E.  of  Delhi.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  a  Brit- 
ish military  division,  with  extensive  camps. 
The  mutiny  of  1857  began  here.  Altitude,  737 
feet.  Population  (1891),  73,600,  about  evenly 
divided  between  Muslims  and  Hindus.  Station 
of  the  CMS  (1815),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  2  women  missionaries,  58  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  17 
day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  1,401  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  116  are  communi- 
cants. Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
36  native  workers,  38  Sunday  schools,  1  college, 
10  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1,275  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  480  are  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  RPS,  with  2  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  1  college,  1  Sunday  school,  and 
55   professed  Christians. 

MEESTER  CORNELIS :  A  village  in  the  island 
of  Java,  situated  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Batavia.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society  (1886), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  5  native  workers,  3 
outstations,  3  day  schools,  and  258  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  142  are  communicants. 


463 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Medieval   Missions 
Melaneslan  Mission. 


MEIGS,  Benjamin  Clark:  Born  at  Bethlehem, 
Conn.,  August  9,  1789;  graduated,  1809;  spent 
two  years  and  a  half  at  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary. While  there  he  determined  to  devote 
himself  to  a  missionary  life.  He  was  ordained 
June  21,  1815,  and  sailed  October  23  following 
as  one  of  the  original  founders  of  the  ABCFM  in 
Jaffna,  Ceylon.  There  he  labored  forty  years. 
Failure  of  health  in  1858  compelled  him  to  relin- 
quish the  mission  work.  He  died  in  New  York 
City,  May  12,  1862,  aged  sixty-three. 

MEIKTILA :  A  growing  town,  military  and  rail- 
road station  in  Burma,  British  India,  situated 
80  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Mandalay.  Population, 
7,200  (1902).  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1890), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  3  native  workers,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school, 
1  outstation,  and  14  professed  Christians. 

MELANESIA:  The  name  given  to  that  part  of 
the  islands  of  the  Western  Pacific  Ocean  which 
lie  south  of  the  Equator  and  between  the  Fiji 
Islands  on  the  east  and  New  Guinea  on  the  west. 
The  people  are  a  branch  of  the  Papuan  race,  and 
much  darker  than  the  true  Polynesians.  They 
are  also  more  savage  and  have  less  advancement 
in  such  simple  arts  as  have  been  naturally  devel- 
oped among  the  Pacific  islanders.  The  language 
of  the  various  groups  of  islands  is  one,  with  great 
variation  into  dialects  in  the  different  groups. 
The  islands  are  mostly  of  volcanic  origin,  but 
rest  on  a  coral  foundation,  and  are  sometimes 
surrounded  with  coral  reefs.  The  principal 
groups  included  in  this  division  are  the  Bismarck 
archipelago,  Solomon  Islands,  the  Louisiade 
archipelago,  and  the  New  Hebrides.  New  Cale- 
donia, New  Guinea,  and  the  Fiji  Islands  are  eth- 
nologically  connected  with  the  same  division  of 
Oceania. 

Mission  work  was  begun  in  the  New  Hebrides 
by  the  visit  of  the  Rev.  John  Williams  of  the 
LMS  to  Erromanga  in  1839  at  the  expense  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland.  John 
Williams  was  killed  by  the  islanders,  and  the 
effort  to  evangelize  the  islands  was  continued  by 
the  LMS  through  native  workers  from  Samoa, 
until  1848.  In  that  year  the  Rev.  John  Geddie, 
sent  out  by  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  Nova 
Scotia,  established  himself  on  Aneitium,  and  after 
terrible  hardships  succeeded  in  his  work,  so  that 
over  his  grave  is  written  "When  he  came  to  the 
island  in  1848,  there  was  not  a  single  Christian; 
when  he  left  in  1872,  there  was  not  a  single 
heathen." 

From  that  beginning  the  work  has  spread 
through  more  than  20  islands.  It  is  now  carried 
on  by  a  society  composed  of  a  sort  of  federation 
of  Presbyterian  bodies,  known  as  The  New  Heb- 
rides Mission.  The  organization  now  has  50 
missionaries  in  the  islands.  The  total  of  pro- 
fessed Christian  adherents  is  about  17,000. 

The  northern  part  of  the  New  Hebrides  and 
the  Solomon  and  Santa  Cruz  Islands  are  occupied 
by  the  Melanesian  Mission,  founded  by  Bishop 
Selwyn  in  1849,  and  made  fruitful  by  the  blood 
of  martyrs.  This  mission  has  its  headquarters, 
and  a  fine  training  school  for  native  workers,  at 
Norfolk  Island,  and  has  gradually  extended  its 
■work  through  the  northern  islands  of  Melanesia, 
until  it  now  has  about  25  missionaries  and  a  very 
large  force  of  native  workers,  with  about  15,000 
professed  adherents. 

The  Loyalty  Islands  were  entered  by  the  LMS 
in  1841.    Since  1891  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mis- 


sion Society  has  taken  over  the  work  on  the 
island  of  Mar^,  in  deference  to  the  susceptibilities 
of  the  French  officials.  The  LMS  has  found  it  pos- 
sible to  begin  evangelistic  work  through  native 
workers  in  New  Caledonia,  from  which  its  mis- 
sionaries are  excluded  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment. The  whole  number  of  professed  Christian 
adherents  under  the  LMS  and  the  Paris  Society 
in  this  group  is  about  10,000,  and  the  aggregate 
native  Christian  population  of  Melanesia  is  prob- 
ably over  40,000.  What  this  means,  as  a  testi- 
mony to  the  power  of  the  Gospel,  can  be  realized 
by  those  only  who  know  the  condition  from 
which  these  converts  have  risen. 

MELANESIAN  MISSION:  Headquarters,  Nor- 
folk Island. 

The  diocese  of  the  first  Anglican  bishop  of  New 
Zealand  embraced  a  large  number  of  the  islands 
of  the  South  Pacific,  and  a  suggestion  was  made 
to  Bishop  Selwyn,  on  his  consecration  in  1841,  that 
he  should  establish  an  Island  Mission  apart  from 
that  of  New  Zealand.  He  took  up  the  idea  with 
the  thought  of  making  these  island  regions  a  mis- 
sionary field  that  would  call  out  missionary  spirit 
in  the  colonies.  From  1847  to  1849  Bishop  Sel- 
wyn made  several  voyages  to  neighboring  regions. 
From  year  to  year,  as  his  acquaintance  with  the 
seas  and  the  people  increased,  he  extended  his 
voyages  toward  the  north,  and  most  of  the 
islands  between  New  Zealand  and  the  Santa 
Cruz  group  were  visited,  and  little  by  little  the 
confidence  of  chiefs  and  leading  men  was  gained. 
Thus,  the  islands  of  Melanesia  were  opened  to 
missionary  effort,  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  bishops 
of  Australasia,  held  in  Sydney  in  1850,  this  part 
of  the  island  world  was  adopted  by  them  as  the 
mission  work  of  their  churches. 

By  contributions  from  Australia,  the  "  Border 
Maid,"  a  schooner  of  100  tons,  was  furnished  for 
the  mission;  and  in  1851  Dr.  Tyrrell,  the  Bishop 
of  Newcastle,  New  South  Wales,  who  had  been 
Bishop  Selwyn's  comrade  in  the  Cambridge 
University  boat,  accompanied  him  on  a  voyage, 
seeing  for  himself  the  admirable  way  in  which 
Bishop  Selwyn  dealt  with  the  savages. 

In  1855  the  Rev.  John  Coleridge  Patteson 
joined  the  mission  at  his  own  charges,  in  1861 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Melanesia  and  was 
joined  by  Rev.  R.  H.  Codrington,  of  Oxford. 
The  chief  sphere  of  Bishop  Patteson's  labors  was 
in  the  Northern  New  Hebrides,  the  Banks,  and 
Solomon  groups.  Between  the  latter  are  the 
Santa  Cruz  and  Swallow  Isles,  where  he  eagerly 
sought  openings;  and  it  was  in  the  Swallow 
group  that  he,  with  Rev.  J.  Atkin  and  a  native 
teacher,  was  murdered  in  1871.  Dr.  Codrington, 
while  declining  the  bishopric,  continued  the  mis- 
sion, which  now  owes  more  than  can  be  said  to 
his  labors  in  every  field  of  the  work,  but  especially 
to  his  management  of  the  school  at  Norfolk  Island 
and  to  his  unwearied  researches  into  the  philol- 
ogy of  the  island  languages  and  his  application  of 
them  to  the  practical  work  of  translations.  In 
1873,  Rev.  J.  R.  Selwyn,  a  son  of  the  pioneer 
bishop,  and  Rev.  John  Still  volunteered  for  the 
work,  and  the  former  was,  in  1877,  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Melanesia.  The  present  field  of  the 
Melanesian  Mission  embraces  groups  of  islands 
from  the  northern  part  of  the  New  Hebrides  to 
the  Solomon  Islands. 

From  the  earliest  days  of  the  mission  the 
Bishop  of  New  Zealand  hoped  to  work  these 
islands  by  means  of  native  teachers  and  a  native 
ministry.     To  use  his  own  phrase,    "The  white 


IHelaneslan  Mission 
Methodist  Chnreli. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


464: 


corks  were  only  to  float  the  black  net."  To  carry- 
out  this  purpose,  the  islands  are  divided  into 
districts,  each  headed  by  a  white  clergyman  or 
member  of  the  staff,  and  from  these  districts  boys 
are  brought  every  year  to  Norfolk  Island,  where 
they  are  trained.  The  school  work  breaks  up  in 
April,  when  the  island  voyages  begin,  and  is  not 
taken  up  again  till  they  are  over,  in  November. 
These  winter  voyages  are  the  most  arduous  part 
of  the  work  connected  with  the  mission,  and  are 

Erosecuted  under  circumstances  of  continual 
ardship  and  danger  over  seven  months  of  the 
year  and  18,000  miles  of  sea;  but  without  them 
and  the  mission  vessel,  the  "Southern  Cross," 
the  mission  could  not  be  maintained. 

The  income  of  the  mission  is  derived  from  sub- 
scriptions from  England,  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  and  from  an  endowment  fund,  a  large 
portion  of  which  was  bequeathed  by  Bishop  Pat- 
teson,  and  which  produces  about  £1,500  a  year. 
In  New  Zealand  the  mission  is  adopted  as  a  work 
of  the  Church,  and  collections  are  made  for  it  in 
every  parish.  In  Australia  the  help  is  less  definite, 
and  comes  largely  from  Sunday  schools,  which 
support  scholars  at  the  mission. 

Mission  fields:  1.  New  Hebrides:  As  the  Pres- 
byterian New  Hebrides  Mission  increased  in 
strength  and  enlarged  its  borders  among  these 
islands,  the  Melanesian  Mission  confined  its  labors 
to  the  most  northern  islands,  while  extending  its 
efforts  toward  Santa  Cruz  and  the  Solomon 
Islands.  Its  present  stations  in  the  New  Hebri- 
des are  on  Maewo,  or  Arorae,  Opa  or  Lepeis  Isle, 
and  Arahga  or  Pentecost  Island.  All  were  vis- 
ited by  Bougainville,  who  took  possession  of 
them  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  France,  and  by 
Cook.  All  had  a  bad  reputation,  but  the  recep- 
tion accorded  to  Bishops  Selwyn  and  Patteson 
was,  in  the  main,  friendly,  and  where  there  was 
opposition  or  apparent  enmity,  it  could  be  traced 
to  treachery  or  abuse  by  Europeans. 

2.  The  group  of  islands,  discovered  by  Men- 
dana  in  1568,  and  called  by  him  the  Solomon 
Isles,  because  he  supposed  them  to  be  the  source 
of  King  Solomon's  gold,  ivory,  apes,  peacocks," 
lie  about  200  miles  to  the  northwest  of  the  New 
Hebrides  group.  They  were  first  visited  by  Bishop 
Selwyn  and  Mr.  Patteson  in  1857,  and  from  that 
time  until  his  death,  in  1871,  Bishop  Patteson  put 
forth  every  effort  for  them,  with  the  result  that 
stations  and  schools  are  now  established  upon 
most  of  the  islands  of  the  group.  At  Isabel,  the 
most  northerly  of  the  Solomon  Isles,  there  are 
three  schools,  and  Christianity  has  gained  a  great 
hold  on  the  people.  Other  islands  upon  which 
many  schools  and  churches  have  been  estab- 
lished are  San  Christobal,  Ulawa,    and  Malayta. 

3.  The  Banks  Islands,  lying  to  the  north  of  the 
New  Hebrides,  have  been  the  most  successful 
field.  Mota  is  a  Christian  island,  under  the 
charge  of  a  native  pastor,  as  are  also  Mohlav  and 
Ra.  Schools  well  attended  and  well  taught 
fairly  encircle  the  islands,  so  that  the  people 
almost  everywhere  have  an  opportunity  of  attend- 
ing one  or  other  of  them  within  reasonable  dis- 
tance. The  Santa  Cruz  Islands  have  for  three 
centuries  borne  a  tragic  relation  to  European  life. 
Mendana  in  1595,  Capt.  Carteret's  expedition  in 
1797,  La  Perouse  in  1788,  and  D'Entrecastreaux 
in  1798  all  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  islanders, 
and  it  was  near  them,  while  planning  for  them, 
that  Bishop  Patteson  was  murdered  in  1871. 
Rev.  J.  Alkin  and  a  native  teacher,  and  later 
Commodore  Goodenough,  also  died  by  their  hos- 


tile arrows.     Still  a  hold  has  been  secured  even 
there. 

The  report  of  the  Mission  shows,  in  1900, 28  mis- 
sionaries, about  400  native  workers,  14  stations, 
1,700  communicants,  about  170  day  schools 
with  15,000  pupils,  2  higher  schools  with  280 
pupils. 

MELOLO:  A  settlement  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Sumba  Island,  Dutch  East  Indies.  Station  of 
the  Netherlands  Reformed  Church  (1880),  with  1 
missionary  and  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  out- 
station,  402  professed  Christians. 

MELSETTER:  A  town  and  county  seat  in  S.  E.  • 
Rhodesia,  Africa,  situated  25  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Mt.  Silinda,  and  150  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Beira. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1902),  with  1  woman  mis- 
sionary and  1  day  school. 

MELUR:  A  village  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
20  miles  N.  E.  of  Madura.  Station  of  the 
ABCFM  (1857)  with  1  missionary  and  wife,  31 
native  workers,  10  outstations,  8  places  of  wor- 
ship, 10  Sunday  schools,  8  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  and 
119  professed  Christians. 

MEMIKAN:  A  village  west  of  Urmia,  Persia, 
on  the  border  of  Turkey.  At  various  times  mis- 
sionaries from  Urmia  have  been  stationed  there 
for  work  among  the  mountain  Nestorians,  but 
the  work  is  usually  conducted  by  the  native 
church  and  pastor. 

MENADO :  A  town  in  Minahassa,  the  northeast- 
ern peninsula  of  Celebes,  Dutch  East  Indies, 
noted  as  a  great  coffee  emporium.  From  1830  to 
1874  it  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  Netherlands  Mis- 
sionary Society,  which  worked  with  great  success 
among  the  heathen  Alifures.  Difficulties  arising 
from  the  different  languages  spoken  by  the  Ali- 
fures were  overcome  by  the  introduction  of  the 
Malayan  language  in  church  and  school,  and  in 
the  peninsula  there  are  now  147,000  Christian 
Alifures  as  the  result  of  this  mission.  Lack  of 
money  compelled  the  missionaries  to  enter  the 
service  of  the  state  church  in  1870,  and  the  Soci- 
ety supports  a  printing  house  and  a  few  schools 
only,  the  support  of  pastors,  as  well  as  their 
appointment,  resting  with  the  Colonial  Govern- 
ment. The  I5atavia  Committee  for  the  evangeli- 
zation of  the  Sangir  and  Talaut  islands  use 
Menado  as  a  supply  station  for  their  mission. 

MENDI  LANGUAGE:  An  African  language  of 
the  Negro,  as  distinguished  from  the  Bantu 
group.  It  is  spoken  by  a  small  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Sierra  Leone  in  West  Africa,  and  has 
been  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries  with 
use  of  Roman  letters. 

MENDOZA:  A  town  in  Argentina,  South  Amer- 
ica, capital  of  the  state  of  Mendoza,  situated  95 
miles  S.  of  San  Juan  and  620  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Buenos  Aires.  Its  altitude  is  2,559  feet.  Its 
climate  is  dry  and  temperate.  All  its  finest 
buUdings  were  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1881. 
Population  of  18,000.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  wife,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  73  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  72  are  communicants. 

MENGNANAPURAM:  A  town  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  Tinnevelli  about  25  miles  S.  of 
Tuticorin.  Station  of  the  CMS,  with  (1903)  2 
women  missionaries,  1  Sunday  school,  2  boarding 
schools,  and  23  native  workers.  The  church  is 
entirely  self-supporting  and  independent,  and  its 
statistics  are  no  longer  given  by  the  Society. 


456 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Melaneslan  Mlaalam 
MethodiHt  Church 


MENGO :  A  village  in  Uganda,  Africa,  capital 
of  the  native  kingdom,  which  is  a  province  of  the 
British  Uganda.  It  is  situated  to  the  N.  of  Lake 
Victoria  Nyanza.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1887), 
with  (1903)  8  missionaries,  3  of  them  with  their 
wives;  5  women  missionaries,  223  native  workers, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  theological  class,  1  female 
helpers'  training  class,  1  industrial  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  1  medical  class,  and  12,058 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  3,310  are  com- 
municants. 

MEQUINEZ:  A  town  in  Morocco,  situated  36 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Fez.  It  stands  on  the  side  of  a 
high  mountain  in  a  fertile  valley,  and  is  the  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  Sultan.  Altitude,  1,755 
feet.  Population,  30,000.  Station  of  the  Gospel 
Mission  Union  (1895),  with  (1901)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife.  Station  of  the  PB,  with  (1901)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife. 

MERCEDES:  A  town  in  Argentina,  South 
America,  situated  60  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Buenos 
Aires.  Population,  9,500.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903')  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  8  native 
workers,  3  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1 
day  school,  1  theological  school,  and  164  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  100  are  communicants. 

MERGAREDJA:  A  town  on  the  N.  coast  of 
Java,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  about  140 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  Surabaya.  Station  of  the 
Netherlands  Mennonite  Mission  Society  (1849), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries  (two  of  them  with  their 
wives),  12  native  workers,  4  outstations,  3  places 
of  worship,  4  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1 
dispensary,  and  194  professed  Christians. 

MERIAM,  William  B.:  Born  Princeton, 
Mass.,  U.  S.  A.,  September  15,  1830;  graduated  at 
Harvard  University,  1855;  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1858;  ordained  November  29  of 
that  year;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM 
January  17,  1859,  for  Turkey.  After  spending  a 
few  months  at  Adrianople  in  studying  Turkish, 
he  went  with  Mr.  Clark  to  the  new  station  of 
Philippopolis,  where  he  remained  till  his  death. 
Returning  from  Constantinople  with  his  wife  in 
July,  1862,  he  was  met  by  five  mounted  brigands, 
who  shot  him  as  he  was  alighting  from  his  horse. 
His  death  was  almost  instantaneous. 

MERKARA:  A  town  in  the  native  State  of 
Coorg,  India,  of  which  it  is  the  capital;  situated 
€4  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Mangalore.  Altitude,  3,605 
feet.  The  climate  is  very  damp.  Population, 
7,000,  of  whom  5,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
Basel  Mission  Society  (1870),  with  (1903)  3  mis- 
sionaries (two  of  them  with  their  wives),  6  native 
workers,  4  outstations,  1  day  school,  and  156  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  90  are  communicants. 

MERSINE :  A  town  and  seaport  in  the  province 
of  Adana,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  36  miles  by 
rail  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Adana.  Population, 
«,000,  of  whom  5,000  are  Muslims  and  3,500 
Christians.  Station  of  the  RP  (1883),  with  1 
missionary  and  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  11 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
2  Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  1  dispensary,  and  72  professed  Chris- 
tians. Outstation  also  of  the  ABCFM.  Statis- 
tics included  in  Adana. 

MESOPOTAMIA:  Originally  the  country  "be- 
tween the  rivers,"  i.  e.,  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphra- 
tes. It  is  not  now  a  political  division,  and  the 
term  is  used  differently  by  different  writers,  but 
in  general  it  may  be  said  to  include  the  whole 


plain  of  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  from  Mardin  in 
the  north  to  Bagdad,  or  even  Bassora,  on  the 
south,  and  from  the  Euphrates  on  the  west  to  the 
Zagros  Mountains  of  the  Persian  border  on  the 
east.  The  land  is  extraordinarily  fertile,  and 
even  now,  if  properly  cultivated,  would  yield  a 
wonderful  increase.  The  population  is  chiefly 
Mohammedans  and  Christians  of  the  Jacobite 
and  Chaldean  sects.  Nomad  Kurds,  living  on  the 
mountains,  come  into  the  plains  for  their  winter 
pasturage. 

METHODIST  CHURCH  IN  CANADA;  Mis- 
sionary Society  of  the:  The  Missionary  Society 
of  the  Methodist  Church  was  organized  1824. 
At  that  time,  in  addition  to  work  among  the 
white  settlers,  some  efforts  were  being  made 
to  reach  the  scattered  bands  of  Indians  in  Onta- 
rio with  the  Gospel  message,  and  it  was  with  a 
view  of  extending  the  work  that  the  Society  was 
formed.  There  are  now  six  departments:  Home, 
Indian,  French,  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  British 
Columbia,  and  Foreign.  The  home  work  (called 
Domestic  Missions)  embraces  all  the  dependent 
fields  of  the  Church  among  the  English-speaking 
people  throughout  the  Dominion,  m  Newfound- 
land, and  Bermuda.  These  fields  are  450  in  num- 
ber, with  350  missionaries,  69  assistants  and 
34,826  communicants. 

The  Indian  missions  are  in  Ontario,  the  North- 
west, and  British  Columbia.  They  are  68  in 
number,  with  39  missionaries,  14  native  assist- 
ants, 15  teachers,  and  7  interpreters,  or  a  total 
missionary  force  of  75.  The  number  of  com- 
municants is  5,505. 

The  results  of  mission  work  among  the  Indians 
have  been  of  the  most  encouraging  kind.  Whole 
tribes  have  been  reclaimed  from  barbarism  and 
superstition,  and  many  of  them  walk  worthy  of 
their  high  calling  as  followers  of  the  Lamb.  A 
significant  illustration  of  the  value  of  these  mis- 
sions is  found  in  the  fact  that  not  one  member  or 
adherent  of  the  Methodist  Church  among  the 
Indians,  nor,  so  far  as  is  known,  of  any  Protestant 
mission,  was  implicated  in  the  revolt  that  oc- 
curred a  number  of  years  ago. 

The  French  missions  are  entirely  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec.  They  are  6  in  number,  with  6 
missionaries,  6  teachers,  and  several  colporteurs. 

The  Foreign  work  of  the  Society  is  in  Japan 
and  China.  The  former  was  begun  in  1873,  the 
latter  in  1891. 

The  work  in  Japan  is  in  the  districts  of  Tokio, 
Shizuoka,  Tamanashi,  Kanazawa  and  Nagano. 
There  are  27  stations,  44  missionaries,  1  assistant, 
and  1  teacher.  The  number  of  communicants  is 
2,750.  The  Japan  mission  of  this  Society  has 
been  an  earnest  advocate  of  a  union  of  Methodist 
Missions  in  Japan,  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
Presbyterian  and  Reformed  churches.  The  mis- 
sion in  China  is  located  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  two  stations  being  occupied,  Chentu  and 
Kiating.  While  there  was  temporary  suspension 
during  the  Boxer  troubles,  there  was  little  actual 
loss,  and  the  hospitals  in  the  two  places  were  not 
disturbed.  The  Press  of  the  mission  has  also 
done  excellent  work.  The  ten  missionaries  (men) 
are  devotedly  laboring  in  the  two  stations,  but 
the  Society  does  not  see  fit  to  publish  statistics  of 
their  work  and  its  results.  By  careful  searching 
of  the  reports  one  may  gather,  however,  that  there 
are  2  hospitals,  a  printing  establishment,  some 
Sunday  schools,  and  at  least  60  or  70  professed 
Christians. 
Obgan:    The  Missionary  Outlook,  montUy. 


Methodist  Episcopal 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


456 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IN  U.  S. ; 
Missionary  Society  of  the  (1819):  The  conversion 
of  a  colored  man  by  the  name  of  Stewart,  and  his 
subsequent  work  among  the  Indians,  profoundly 
stirred  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  was 
the  first  impulse  toward  the  formation  of  a  mis- 
sionary society  for  the  whole  Church.  Local 
organizations  had  previously  existed  in  Phila- 
delphia, Boston,  and  possibly  other  places,  when 
at  a  meeting  of  the  preachers  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  in  New  York  City,  held 
in  1818,  the  Rev.  Laban  Clark  proposed  the  organ- 
ization of  a  Bible  and  Missionary  Society  in  the 
church  of  which  they  were  members.  The  sub- 
ject having  been  fully  discussed,  the  formation 
of  such  a  society  was  resolved  upon,  and  Messrs. 
Clark,  Nathan  Bangs,  and  Freeborn  Garrettson 
were  appointed  a  committee  to  draft  a  constitu- 
tion, which  was  approved  by  the  Preachers' 
Meeting,  and  subsequently  submitted  to  a  public 
meeting  of  the  members  of  the  church  and  friends 
of  the  missionary  cause  convened  by  the  Preach- 
ers' Meeting,  and  held  in  the  Forsyth-street 
Church,  on  the  evening  of  April  5,  1819.  As 
organized,  the  Society  had  the  double  character  of 
a  Bible  and  Missionary  Society.  This  met  with 
some  opposition,  and  the  new  organization  had 
but  a  precarious  existence  for  the  first  year.  In 
May,  1820,  at  the  meeting  of  the  General  Confer- 
ence, the  Society  was  heartily  endorsed,  and  the 
constitution  was  amended  so  as  to  make  it  a 
purely  missionary  society. 

Until  1844  the  Society  represented  all  the 
churches  of  the  denomination.  In  that  year, 
however,  a  division  was  made,  and  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  (South)  was  formed,  and 
established  its  own  Missionary  Society.  The 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  (in  the  U.  S.)  is  really  the  Church  itself 
acting  through  its  various  forms  of  organization. 

The  General  Conference  for  the  prosecution 
of  its  missionary  work  appoints  two  bodies,  one 
a  Board  of  Managers,  and  the  other  a  General 
Missionary  Committee. 

The  Missionary  Committee  is  composed  of  the 
bishops,  as  ex  officio  members,  one  representa- 
tive from  each  of  fourteen  districts,  and  the  sec- 
retaries and  treasurers;  also  fourteen  members 
of  the  Board  of  Managers. 

The  Board  of  Managers  is  composed  of  the 
bishops  as  ex  officio  members,  thirty-two  laymen, 
and  thirty-two  traveling  ministers  of  the  church 
elected  by  the  General  Conference. 

The  General  Conference  meets  once  in  four 
years,  the  General  Missionary  Committee  once 
every  year,  and  the  Board  of  Managers  monthly, 
or  oftener,  as  may  be  required.  Honorary  man- 
agers and  patrons,  by  virtue  of  donations,  have 
the  right  of  attending  the  meetings  of  the  Board 
of  Managers,  but  do  not  vote.  The  appropriation 
of  money  and  the  selection  of  fields  rests  entirely 
with  the  General  Missionary  Committee,  except 
that  the  Board  of  Managers  may  provide  for  any 
unforeseen  emergency  that  may  arise  in  any  of 
the  missions,  and  meet  any  demands  to  an 
amount  not  exceeding  $25,000.  Wherever  a  for- 
eign mission  is  organized  into  a  conference  it 
receives  notice  of  appropriations  directly  from 
the  General  Missionary  Committee.  Wherever 
missions  are  not  thus  organized  as  a  conference, 
they  receive  their  information  of  appropriations 
through  the  Board  of  Managers.  For  those  mis- 
sions that  are  organized  as  a  conference,  the 
Board  of  Managers  acts  simply  as  the  executive 


body  of  the  Missionary  Committee.  All  funds, 
however,  for  all  missions  pass  through  the  hands 
of  the  Board  of  Managers,  who  account  to  the 
General  Missionary  Committee,  and  that  body  to 
the  General  Conference. 

Each  mission,  whether  it  be  organized  as  a 
conference  or  not,  is  divided  into  districts,  over 
which  certain  ministers  are  appointed  by  the 
bishop  as  presiding  elders,  who  superintend  the 
work  of  that  district  and  are  in  a  sense  sub- 
diocesan  bishops. 

In  1839  the  Board  of  Managers,  to  celebrate  the 
centenary  of  the  Methodist  Society  in  London, 
collected  a  fund  for  a  mission  house,  and  the  first 
building  in  New  York  City  was  dedicated  in 
January,  1848.  At  the  centenary  of  American 
Methodism  in  1866,  and  the  Missionary  Jubilee  in 
1869,  the  fund  was  greatly  increased,  a  new 
building  secured,  and  in  1887  the  present  building 
on  Fifth  avenue  and  20th  street,  New  York,  was 
erected,  the  Society  owning  one-third,  free  of 
encumbrance. 

Development  of  Work:  The  first  field  entered  by 
the  Society  was  Africa,  in  1833.  Three  years 
later  came  the  opening  of  the  missions  in  South 
America  (1836),  followed  by  China  (1847),  India 
(1856),  Bulgaria  (1857),  Japan  (1872),  Mexico 
(1873),  Korea  (1885),  Malaysia  (1885).  During 
the  same  period  work  was  undertaken  in  a  num- 
ber of  European  countries,  Germany  (1849), 
Norway  (1853),  Sweden  (1854),  Switzerland 
(1856),  Denmark  (1857),  Italy  (1871),  Finland 
(1884). 

The  Missions.  I.  Africa;  (1)  Liberia:  In  1824 
the  General  Conference  decided  as  soon  as  the 
funds  permitted  to  send  missionaries  to  the 
colony  established  by  the  American  Colonization 
Society  in  Africa.  In  1831  the  Rev.  Melville 
Cox  was  appointed  to  Liberia,  his  support  being 
guaranteed  by  the  Young  Men's  Missionary 
Society.  He  sailed  in  1832  and  reached  Sierra 
Leone  in  1833,  welcomed  cordially  by  the  Wes- 
leyan  Missionaries  and  also  by  the  Governor. 
Soon  after  reaching  Liberia  he  succumbed  to  the 
fever;  but  others  followed;  the  next  year  a  more 
healthy  location  was  found,  and  by  1836  the  dif- 
ferent "Methodist  churches  were  recognized  as  the 
Liberia  Annual  Conference.  Three  years  later 
the  Conference  seminary  was  opened,  and  the 
work  extended  to  several  outstations.  Indus- 
trial work  was  encouraged  from  the  very  start. 
In  1851  there  was  reorganization,  both  of  the 
Conference  and  the  seminary,  and  from  1857,  for 
20  years,  no  white  missionary  was  sent  out.  _ 

To  meet  the  difficulty  of  ordination,  Francis 
Burns  was  elected  bishop  and  ordained  in  the 
U.  S.  in  1859.  He  pressed  for  extension  of  the 
work  into  the  interior,  as  did  his  successor.  In 
1876  the  visit  of  a  deputation,  including  Bishop 
Haven  and  Dr.  J.  T.  Gracey,  resulted  in  the 
appointment  of  Rev.  Joel  Osgood  to  press  the 
interior  work.  The  obstacles,  however,  were 
such  that  little  was  accomplished,  and  at  the 
opening  of  1884  there  were  no  foreign  mission- 
aries or  well  qualified  teachers  on  the  field.  The 
school  buildmgs  were  dilapidated,  ministers 
unordained,  and  the  conference  in  need  of  super- 
intendence. 

In  Mav,  1884,  Bishop  William  Taylor  was 
elected  Missionary  Bishop  of  all  Africa.  Bishop 
Taylor  arrived  at  Monrovia  in  January,  1885,  and, 
having  general  jurisdiction,  was  able  to  harmonize 
the  different  enterprises  while  carrying  on  his  own 


457 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Aletbodlst  Elplscopal 


work,  already  begun  in  Angola.  He  made  exten- 
sive journeys  with  special  view  to  the  develop- 
ment of  his  scheme  of  self-supporting  missions, 
and  by  the  end  of  1888  there  were  stations  along 
the  banks  of  the  Cavally  River  for  100  miles. 
The  scheme  of  self-supporting  missions  proved 
impracticable,  however,  and  as  soon  as  this 
became  evident,  it  was  given  up. 

As  now  organized  the  Liberia  Conference 
embraces  the  western  coast  of  Africa  north  of  the 
equator,  and  is  divided  into  tliree  districts :  Cape 
Palmas  and  Since,  Monrovia  and  Bassa,  and  the 
St.  Paul  River  District.  In  Monrovia  there  is  a 
strong  self-supporting  church,  and  the  Methodist 
College  of  West  Africa  is  located  here.  The 
mission  press  is  established  in  the  capital,  from 
which  is  issued  The  New  Africa,  a  thirty-two- 
page  monthly,  and  Sunday-school  literature, 
tracts,  and  other  publications.  There  are  (1903) 
52  stations,  25  American  missionaries,  62  native 
helpers,  2,798  church  members,  2  high  schools, 
with  295  students,  and  25  other  schools  with 
431  pupils. 

(2)  West  Central  Africa:  On  the  20th  of  March, 
1885,  a  company  of  missionaries,  which  num- 
bered more  than  forty,  counting  women  and 
children,  arrived  at  St.  Paul  de  Loanda,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Portuguese  colony  of  Angola,  under 
the  care  of  Bishop  Taylor.  Their  objective  point 
was  the  Tushalange  country,  some  twelve  hun- 
dred miles  inland.  It  was  decided  to  proceed 
slowly,  by  founding  a  chain  of  stations,  beginning 
with  St.  Paul  de  Loanda.  Here  a  site  was  pur- 
chased, and  a  building  erected  for  church,  school, 
and  residence.  Other  stations  occupied  were 
Ndondo,  200  miles  distant,  at  the  head  of  steam- 
boat navigation  on  the  Congo  River;  N'hangue, 
61  miles  over  the  mountains;  Pungo  Ndongo,39 
miles  farther  on,  and  Malange,  60  miles  beyond. 
In  1886  a  new  plan  was  adopted  by  the  bishop, 
who  decided  to  attempt  to  reach  the  Tushalange 
country  by  way  of  the  Congo  and  the  Kassai, 
going  by  the  latter  river  to  the  interior.  He 
secured  a  small  steamer,  but  it  being  found  im- 
practicable at  the  time  to  obtain  portage  around 
the  falls,  the  steamer  was  used  on  the  Lower 
Congo.  J'o  reach  the  Congo  District  from 
Malange,  the  last  station  in  Angola,  involved  a 
march  of  a  thousand  miles  to  Lualuaburg.  Other 
stations  occupied  are  Kimpoko,  at  Stanley  Pool; 
Isangila,  on  the  Lower  Congo;  Vivi,  Natombi, 
Kabinda  and  Massubi. 

With  the  retirement  and  death  of  Bishop 
Taylor  and  the  appointment  of  Bishop  Hartzell 
m  1896,  a  change  was  made  in  the  principle  of 
support,  and  the  burden  of  gaining  a  living  in  a 
savage  country  was  lifted  from  the  missionaries. 
The  other  burden  of  building  has  been  materially 
lightened,  also,  by  regular  appropriations  and 
special  gifts  for  this  purpose. 

In  1900  the  Congo  Conference  was  divided. 
The  West  Central  Africa  Mission  Conference  lies 
on  the  west,  from  St.  Paul  de  Loanda  about  350 
miles  inland;  with  it  are  included  the  Madeira 
Islands.  Organized  in  1902  it  reports  11  stations 
or  circuits,  22  American  missionaries,  25  native 
workers,  87  church  members,  14  day  schools,  with 
205  pupils. 

(3)  East  Central  Africa:  This  Mission  Confer- 
ence includes  the  stations  in  East  Africa  south  of 
the  equator,  and  was  formally  organized  by 
Bishop  Hartzell  in  November,  1901,  at  Umtali, 
Rhodesia.     There  are  two  principal  centers  of 


work  in  Portuguese  East  Africa,  one  at  Inham- 
bane  and  another  at  Beira.  At  Umtali  a  third 
center  has  developed,  with  work  among  the  white 
population.  Here  is  a  self-supporting  academy 
with  five  departments.  An  industrial  mission  is 
proving  helpful  in  the  work.'  There  are  (1902)  7 
stations  or  circuits,  14  American  missionaries,  15 
native  workers,  62  church  members,  1  high  school 
with  95  students,  and  1  day  school  with  75  pupils. 

II.  South  America  (1836):  The  Rev.  Fountain 
E.  Pitts  sailed  July,  1835,  to  South  America  with 
the  view  of  examining  fields,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  missions  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Buenos 
Aires,  where  the  American  and  English  residents 
had  especially  encouraged  the  work.  At  Rio  de 
Janeiro  Mr.  Pitts  formed  a  small  society  of  relig- 
ious people,  with  a  promise  that  a  pastor  should 
be  sent  at  no  distant  day.  Rev.  Justin  Spauld- 
ing,  by  appointment,  went  to  Rio,  sailing  in 
March,  1836,  and  Rev.  John  Dempster,  appointed 
to  Buenos  Aires,  sailed  in  October. 

There  were  indications  of  an  improvement  in 
the  general  conditions.  A  large  English-speaking 
population  welcomed  the  missionaries;  the  Bible 
could  be  distributed,  and  the  American,  and 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Societies  supplied 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  Bibles  and  Testaments, 
the  people  eagerly  receiving  a  book  which,  until 
recently,  had  been  interdicted. 

Mr.  Spaulding  was  joined  by  Rev.  Daniel  P. 
Kidder  and  R.  M.  McMurdy,  who  entered  upon 
extensive  itinerations,  preaching  and  scattering 
Bibles  and  tracts.  In  Rio  tlie  work  grew,  a  Sun- 
day-school was  begun,  and  larger  accommoda- 
tions were  needed.  The  hostility  of  the  Roman 
priests  was  awakened,  and  the  missionaries  sub- 
jected to  every  possible  anno5'ance  and  hindrance. 
But  these  efforts  were  short-lived  and  served  to 
advertise  the  mission.  The  missionaries  claimed 
their  rights  under  the  toleration  act  of  the  consti- 
tution. So  eager  were  the  people  for  the  Scrip- 
tures that  it  was  at  first  feared  there  was  a  gen- 
eral plan  to  secure  copies  to  destroy  them,  but  it 
was  found  that  nearly  every  copy  was  appro- 
priately used.  Work  for  seamen  and  tours 
through  the  country  showed  good  results,  but 
through  financial  embarrassment  the  Board 
abandoned  Brazil  at  tlie  close  of  1841,  and  the 
work  was  discontinued  until  1880,  when  the 
Society  again  entered  the  field,  occupying  Para 
and  later  Maranhao,  Pernambuco,  Bahia  and  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  The  Rev.  (afterward  Bishop)  Will- 
iam Taylor  endeavored  to  inaugurate  self- 
supporting  stations,  but  with  no  great  success. 
Still,  the  work  advanced  and  the  Brazil  Confer- 
ence was  organized  in  1889. 

In  1836  Mr.  Pitts  took  up  the  work  in  Buenos 
Aires,  which  the  Presbyterians  had  left,  and  was 
joined  by  the  Rev.  John  Dempster.  They  could 
only  secure  permission  from  the  governor  to 
preach  to  the  foreign  population,  and  this  restric- 
tion lasted  till  1852.  Meanwhile,  work  had 
begun  in  Montevideo,  and  was  prospering  when 
political  disturbances  caused  orders  to  be  issued 
to  discontinue  the  mission.  An  earnest  protest 
from  the  foreign  residents  and  a  pledge  of  finan- 
cial help  resulted  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  order, 
and  there  followed  a  most  interesting  period 
when  all  religious  restrictions  were  removed,  and 
the  work  took  a  new  start  at  Montevideo  and 
extended  to  Esperanza,  Rosario,  and  Cordova. 
In  1880  the  General  Committee  changed  the 
name  of  the  mission  in  the  Rio  Plata  region  to 


Metbodlst  Episcopal 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


468 


"Southeast  South  American  Mission."  The 
name  "Western  South  America"  was  used  on 
their  lists  for  the  stations  established  by  William 
Taylor  in  Peru,  at  Callao,  Lima,  Mollendo,  Arica, 
and  Tacna,  Iquique,  Pabellon  de  Rico,  and  Hua- 
nillas;  in  Bolivia  at  Antofagasta,  and  in  Chile,  at 
Calendra  Copiapo,  Coquimbo,  Valparaiso,  Talca- 
huana  and  Concepcion.  The  stations  in  the  basin 
of  the  Amazon  and  adjacent  regions  at  Para, 
Pernambuco,  and  Manaos;  and  at  Colon  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  were  known  as  the  "North- 
eastern South  America."  The  name  "South 
America  Mission"  was,  however,  restored  two 
years  later.  Missionaries  made  exploring  tours 
over  an  immense  territory  extending  300  miles 
up  the  Parana  River  and  from  the  Uruguay 
River  to  the  sea,  and  in  1882  Bishop  Foster 
passed  along  the  coasts  of  the  continent  studying 
the  work  at  Buenos  Aires,  Montevideo,  and 
Rosario,  in  its  far-reaching  relation  to  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  continent.  With  the  with- 
drawal of  Bishop  Taylor  from  the  supervision  of 
the  self-supporting  stations  established  by  him, 
in  1884,  they  passed  under  the  control  of  the 
"Transit  Building  Fund  Society  of  Bishop 
Taylor's  Self-supporting  Missions." 

In  1893  the  Transit  and  Building  Fund  Society 
offered  their  entire  property  in  Chile  to  the  Mis- 
sionary Society,  on  condition  that  the  work  be 
still  conducted  on  the  self-supporting  basis.  The 
offer  was  accepted  and  these  stations  passed  into 
the  care  of  the  Society.  The  same  year,  after 
full  discussion  had  taken  place,  all  the  stations 
of  the  Society  in  South  America  were  organized 
into  an  annual  conference.  This  event  marked 
the  close  of  the  first  period  in  the  history  of 
Methodism  in  South  America.  The  newly 
organized  conference  comprised  six  districts  and 
its  work  extended  to  eight  of  the  ten  nations  of 
the  continent.  In  1897  the  conference  was 
divided  into  the  South  America  Conference, 
including  the  republics  of  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
Paraguay,  Brazil,  and  Bolivia  east  of  the  Andes; 
and  the  Western  South  America  Mission  Con- 
ference, including  the  countries  of  South  Amer- 
ica bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  con- 
ference has  two  divisions;  the  Peru  Mission, 
including  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Ecuador,  and  the 
Chile  Mission,  including  the  Republic  of  Chile. 

The  South  America  Conference  has  (1902)  26 
stations  or  circuits,  29  American  missionaries, 
and  139  native  workers,  3,713  church  members, 
5  high  schools  with  387  pupils,  and  14  day  schools 
with  1,182  pupils. 

The  Western  South  America  Conference  has 
18  stations  or  circuits,  43  American  workers,  21 
native  helpers,  1,848  members,  and  32  day  schools 
with  2,839  pupils. 

III.  China  (1847):  As  early  as  1835  the  Mission- 
ary Lyceum  of  the  Wesleyan  University  at 
Middletown,  Conn.,  warmly  advocated  a  mission 
to  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  $1,450  was  raised  as 
the  beginning  of  a  fund  for  such  a  mission.  The 
matter  was  held  in  abeyance,  however,  until  1846. 
In  that  year  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Society 
Dr.  W.  C.  Palmer  proposed  to  be  one  of  thirty  to 
give  $100  a  year  for  ten  years  to  support  a  mission 
in  China.  The  General  Committee  accepted, 
and  the  following  year  Rev.  M.  C.  White  and 
Rev.  J.  D.  Collins  were  appointed  to  China, 
reaching  Macao  in  August.  The  missionaries 
proceeded  to  Fu-chau,  where  the  missionaries 
of  the  ABCFM  welcomed  them"  and  opened  to 
them  a  house  which  had  been  rented  for  one  of 


their  own  missionaries.  Thus,  Methodism  was 
at  last  planted  in  China.  Schools  were  opened 
the  next  year  and  a  church  erected  in  1855.  The 
foreign  population  joined  in  the  movement,  and 
by  1858  the  entire  organization  of  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  was  completed,  with  its  class 
meetings,  quarterly  meetings,  and  collections. 

The  work  of  the  mission  in  1859  began  to 
extend  westward.  This  year  the  To-cheng 
appointment,  about  fifteen  miles  northwest  of 
Fuchau,  began  with  a  class  of  thirteen  members; 
this  year,  also,  native  workers  were  licensed  and 
ernployed.  In  February  more  reenforcements 
joined  the  mission,  notable  among  whom  were 
the  Rev.  and  Mrs.  Stephen  L.  Baldwin.  In 
November  a  school  for  girls  was  established  on  a 
broader  and  more  permanent  basis  than  had 
theretofore  been  atternpted.  Other  places  were 
entered,  among  them  Kiu-kiang  (1867),  Peking 
(1869),  Tientsin  (1874).  In  1881  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  College  at  Fuchau  was  organized,  fol- 
lowed a  few  years  later  by  the  printing  press, 
with  its  publication,  the  Fohkien  Christian 
Advocate;  medical  work  at  Fuchau  (1892),  and  a 
theological  school  at  Hing-hwa,  which  had  been 
made  a  station  in  1885.  In  1901  a  Home  Mission- 
ary Society  was  organized. 

(1.)  The  Fuchau  Conference  is  divided  into 
eight  districts.  There  are  (1902)  45  American 
missionaries,  261  native  workers,  10,572  church 
members,  1  theological  school,  9  high  schools, 
133  day  schools,  2,916  scholars. 

(2.)  The  Hing-hwa  Mission  Conference  (1896): 
This  includes  the  prefectures  of  Hing-hwa  and 
Ing-chung,  in  Fo-kien  Province,  and  continued 
a  part  of  the  Fuchau  mission  till  1896,  when  it 
was  organized  as  a  separate  conference.  The 
theological  school,  boys'  and  girls'  boarding 
schools,  and  graded  schools  are  well  attended. 
The  Hing-hwa  Conference  is  divided  into  five 
districts,  with  12  Amercian  missionaries,  268 
native  workers,  3,823  church  members,  and  8 
day  schools  with  125  scholars. 

(3.)  Central  China  Mission  (1869):  Mission- 
aries connected  with  the  Fuchau  Mission  began 
work  in  Central  China  in  1867,  and  two  years 
later  it  was  set  apart  as  a  separate  mission.  In 
1870  Mr.  Hart  at  Kiu-kiang  was  reenforced; 
others  followed,  circuits  were  organized,  includ- 
ing Hwang-mei,  Nan-kang,  and  Shin-chang;  the 
Fowler  Institute,  at  Kiu-kiang,  was  opened 
(1881);  Wu-hu,  Nan-king,  Chin-kiang,  and  Nan- 
chang  were  occupied.  In  1891  the  anti-foreign 
riots  caused  some  disturbance,  but  resulted  in 
the  work  being  established  on  a  firmer  basis  than 
ever  before.  The  special  feature  of  1892  was 
the  opening  of  a  press  building  on  the  Kiu-kiang 
Institute  premises,  and  the  mission  closed  the 
first  quarter  of  a  century  of  its  history  in  1893 
with  large  encouragement. 

The  mission  suffered  in  common  with  others 
in  the  Boxer  movement  of  1900,  and  this  was 
followed  by  floods  in  the  Yangtse  Valley.  The 
central  station  of  the  Central  China  Mission  is 
now  (1902)  Nan-king.  There  are  30  stations  or 
circuits,  38  American  missionaries,  and  54  native 
helpers,  1,420  church  members,  4  high  schools 
with  299  students,  26  day  schools  with  412  pupils. 
(4.)  North  China  Mission  (1869):  This  Con- 
ference includes  the  Provinces  of  Shan-tung 
and  Ho-nan,  and  all  China  north  of  them.  Work 
was  begun  by  missionaries  from  Fuchun  in  1869. 
The  riots  in  Tientsin  (1871)  did  not  hinder  as 
much  as  was    feared,  and  in  1877  the  work  in 


459 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


MethodlHt  Episcopal 


both  cities  was  well  organized,  and  extended  both 
north  and  south.  The  famine  of  1878,  followed 
by  pestilence,  opened  many  doors,  and  the  illness 
of  the  wife  of  Li  Hung  Chang  led  to  the  firm 
■establishment  of  medical  work  at  Tientsin,  and 
the  opening  of  the  Isabella  Fisher  Hospital  for 
Women  in  1881.  Then  followed  Peking  Univer- 
«ity  (1885),  at  first  known  as  Wiley  Institute, 
And  a  dispensary  at  Tsun-hwa,  the  beginning  of 
the  hospital.  Intermediate  schools  were  estab- 
lished at  Peking,  Tientsin,  Tsun-hwa,  Tai-an, 
and  Lan-chau,  and  day  schools  were  formed 
wherever  possible.  In  spite  of  floods  and 
famines  the  work  progressed.  Yet  appropria- 
tions were  cut  down  until  in  1902  they  were 
"twenty-five  per  cent,  less  than  ten  years  before. 
The  Boxer  movement  paralyzed  the  work,  tho 
fortunately  no  missionaries  of  the  society  lost 
their  lives,  and  the  work  has  been  taken  up 
again  with  renewed  energy.  The  report  (1902) 
jshows  6  districts,  49  stations,  28  American 
missionaries,  91  native  helpers,  2,784  members, 
1  college,  7  high  schools,  and  19  day  schools, 
with  801  pupils  in  all. 

(5.)  West  China  Mission  (1881) :  This  is  con- 
fined almost  wholly  to  the  Sze-chwan  Province. 
When  the  General  Committee  met  in  1880  they 
appropriated  $5,000  to  inaugurate  this  work, 
contingent  on  a  like  amount  being  given.  This 
was  pledged  by  the  Rev.  John  J.  Goucher,  D,D., 
of  Baltimore.  The  Rev.  L.  U.  Wheeler,  D.D., 
accompanied  by  the  Rev.  Spenser  Lewis,  arrived 
in  Chung-king  in  December,  1882.  There  was 
no  difficulty  in  organizing  schools  for  boys, 
while  numerous  applicants  appeared  for  entrance 
to  a  prospective  girls'  school.  Public  preaching 
was  commenced  in  February,  1883;  in  October 
cf  the  same  year  a  girls'  school  was  opened,  and 
a  similiar  one  for  boys  in  1884.  In  consequence 
of  an  anti-foreign  riot,  which  destroyed  the 
buildings  in  1885,  the  mission  was  discontinued 
for  a  year,  but  in  1887  the  Rev.  Olin  Cady 
recommenced  the  work,  which  increased  rapidly. 
In  1890  Chen-tu  was  occupied,  and  tho  cholera 
was  followed  by  the  political  disturbances  cul- 
minating in  the  Boxer  movement,  the  growth 
was  phenomenal. 

There  are  (1902)  11  circuits  or  stations,  25 
American  missionaries,  56  native  workers,  1,252 
church  members,  and  17  day  schools  with  396 
pupils. 

IV.  India  (1856) :  As  early  as  1852  the  General 
Committee  resolved  that  "a  fund  be  created  and 
placed  at  the  discretion  of  the  Board  and  bishops 
for  commencing  a  mission  in  India,"  and  $7,500 
were  appropriated  for  this  purpose.  It  was  not, 
however,  till  1856  that  the  work  was  begun,  the 
Rev.  William  Butler  arriving  at  Calcutta  with 
his  family  in  September.  After  careful  investi- 
gation, Mr.  Butler  located  in  the  Northwest  Prov- 
inces, with  the  Rohilkhand  and  Oudh  as  his  par- 
ticular field.  The  territorv  which  comprised  the 
mission  field  of  the  M.  E.  Church  extended  from 
the  Himalayas  on  the  north,  on  the  west  and 
south  to  the  Ganges,  to  a  point  between  Cawn- 
pur  and  Benares,  and  on  the  east  to  the  boun- 
daries of  Oudh.  To  man  this  district  Mr.  Butler 
asked  for  eight  men  for  Lucknow,  four  for 
Bareilly  and  Moradabad,  respectively,  three  for 
Faizabad,  and  two  for  Shahjehanpur,  Budaon, 
and  Pilibhit  each.  Religious  services  were  at 
once  opened  at  Bareilly,  but  before  much  could 
be  accomplished  the  Sepoy  rebellion  broke  out, 
and  the  work  was  interrupted.     The  headquarters 


at  Bareilly  were  destroyed,  and  when  the  work 
was  resumed  in  1858  Naini  Tal  and  Lucknow 
were  visited  and  became  the  basis  of  operations. 
Services  were  held  in  English  and  Hindustani,  a 
school  for  boys  was  started  in  the  Naini  Tal  Bazar 
and  another  for  girls  in  the  mission  house.  In 
January,  1859,  work  was  begun  in  Moradabad, 
and  the  following  month  Bareilly  was  again 
occupied.  In  July  of  that  year  the  first  convert 
was  baptized.  Reenforcements  were  sent  out, 
who  proceeded  at  once  to  Lucknow,  where  a 
general  gathering  of  the  missionaries  took  place. 
Among  the  newcomers  were  Revs.  James  M.  Tho- 
burn,  J.  W.  Waugh,  E.  W.  Parker,  J.  R.  Downey, 
and  their  wives.  It  was  decided  to  occupy 
Shahjehanpur  and  Bijnaur.  In  1860  a  printing 
office  was  established  at  Bareilly  and  publication 
was  begun — the  foundation  of  the  Book  Concern 
at  Lucknow,  to  which  city  it  was  removed  in 
1866.  Schools  and  orphanages  for  both  boys 
and  girls  were  established,  and  during  the  next 
decade  the  work  was  carried  on  from  nine  cen- 
ters, manned  by  native  preachers,  from  which 
it  spread  to  the  surrounding  villages.  The  Rev. 
J.  T.  Gracey  and  wife  began  work  at  Sitapur  in 
1861,  a  region  not  formally  occupied  by  any  mis- 
sionary society.  In  1869  some  land  lying  on  the 
edge  of  Oudh  was  purchased  for  a  Christian  set- 
tlement, and  by  1875  the  little  village  had  reached 
a  period  of  insured  success.  The  necessity  of 
trained  native  preachers  had  long  been  felt,  and 
in  1872  a  gift  of  $20,000  was  received  for  the 
endowment  of  a  theological  seminary  at  Bareilly. 
In  January,  1873,  the  India  Mission  Conference 
became  an  Annual  Conference,  and  in  1877  the 
Northwest  Province  east  of  the  Ganges  and  the 
province  of  Oudh  were  organized  into  the 

1.  North  India  Conference:  This  includes  the 
districts  of  Bareilly-Kumaon,  Bijnaur,  Garhwal, 
Gonda,  Hardoi,  Moradabad,  Oudh  (with  Luck- 
now), Pilibhit  and  Sambhal.  Reid  Christian 
College  at  Lucknow,  with  479  students;  the 
publishing  house  at  the  same  place,  which  sent 
out  in  one  year  74,600,000  pages;  the  Isabella 
Thoburn  College  and  High  School,  deaconess' 
home,  and  the  theological  seminary  at  Bareilly 
are  indications  of  the  attention  paid  to  education 
and  mental  as  well  as  spiritual  training.  The 
report  (1902)  shows  54  missionaries,  1,379  native 
workers,  30,884  church  members,  451  schools 
with  11,053  pupils. 

2.  Northwest  India:  This  includes  the  districts 
of  Ajmere,  Aligarh,  Allahabad,  Cawnpur,  Kas- 
ganj,  Meerut,  Muttra,  and  the  Punjab.  It  was  in 
this  conference  that  the  great  evangelistic  move- 
ment (1888-1893)  brought  into  the  Church  such 
great  numbers  of  the  sweeper  caste — a  movement 
which  has  steadily  progressed.  At  present  the 
special  outlook  is  toward  the  Punjab,  and  north- 
ward into  Central  Asia.  The  report  (1902) 
shows  38  missionaries,  1,054  native  morkers, 
40,804  communicants,  448  schools  with  10,692 
pupils. 

3.  South  India:  This  conference  includes  the 
districts  of  Godavari,  Haidarabad,  Madras,  and 
Raichur.  It  was  originally  a  part  of  the  Bom- 
bay, Bengal,  and  Madras  Mission  and  was  organ- 
ized in  1876.  The  work  commenced  with  the 
visit  to  India  of  WilUam  Taylor  in  1870,  which 
resulted,  in  connection  with  the  labors  of  other 
missionaries,  in  a  remarkable  revival  through  the 
following  years.  Among  the  special  features  of 
the  mission  work  are  the  Anglo-vernacular  Girls' 
Boarding  School  at  Haidarabad,  and  the  pub- 


Methodist  Episcopal 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


460 


lishing  house  at  Madras.  Zenana  work  under 
the  special  care  of  the  Woman's  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society  has  had  good  fruit.  The  report 
(1902)  shows  37  missionaries,  218  native  workers, 
and  2,206  members. 

4.  Bombay:  This  Conference,  including  the 
districts  of  Bombay  and  Gujarat,  and  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces,  was  set  apart  from  the  Bombay 
and  Bengal  Conference  in  1891.  Then,  as  in 
South  India,  the  work  received  its  impulse  from 
the  visit  of  Mr.  Taylor  in  1870,  and  enjoyed  much 
support  from  the  Rev.  George  Bowen.  As  the 
work  progressed  the  extent  of  territory  covered 
and  the  exigencies  of  superintendence  compelled 
the  division,  so  that  what  was  at  first  one  general 
conference  of  South  India  became  three_  con- 
ferences. The  special  features  of  the  work  in  the 
Bombay  district  are:  the  publishing  house  at 
Bombay,  seamen's  rests  at  Bombay  and  Kimari, 
a  Mission  Institute  at  Nariad,  medical  work  at 
Poona,  and  general  educational  work.  The 
report  (1902)  shows  43  missionaries,  459  native 
workers,  12,576  members,  240  schools,  with 
7,456  pupils. 

5.  Bengal:  This  Conference,  including  the  dis- 
tricts of  Calcutta,  Calcutta  Bengali,  Asansol  and 
Tirhoot,  was  set  off  from  the  South  India  Con- 
ference and  organized  in  1888.  At  first  it 
included  Burma  and  the  Straits  Settlements,  but 
these  were  afterward  separately  organized.  A 
special  feature  of  the  mission  is  the  Methodist 
weekly  paper,  the  Indian  Witness,  which  ranks  as 
the  foremost  religious  paper  in  India.  A  training 
school  for  girls,  orphanages,  a  seamen's  rest, 
boarding  and  day  schools,  as  well  as  general  edu- 
cational and  evangelistic  work,  make  up  the 
record  of  missionary  effort.  The  report  (1902) 
shows  27  missionaries,  121  native  workers,  2,339 
members,  45  schools,  with  2,916  pupils. 

6.  Burma:  This  Conference,  organized  in  1901, 
to  include  the  Burma  district  of  the  Bengal- 
Burma  Conference,  carries  on  its  work  chiefly 
in  Rangoon,  tho  there  are  missionaries  in 
Pegu  and  Thandaung.  In  Rangoon  the  work  is 
among  the  Burmese,  English,  Tamils,  and 
Telugus.  An  English  girls'  high  school  and  an 
industrial  training  school  at  Thandaung  are  doing 
good  work.  The  report  (1902)  shows  13  mis- 
sionaries, 38  native  workers,  583  members,  5 
schools,  with  184  pupils. 

V.  Bulgaria:  In  1854  Rev.  Elias  Riggs,  of  the 
ABCFM  at  Constantinople,  wrote  a  letter  to  the 
Society,  urging  it  to  take  up  work  in  Bulgaria, 
since  there  was  an  opportunity  which  his  own 
Society  felt  unable  to  use.  Accordingly  in  1857 
Rev.  Albert  L.  Long  and  Rev. Wesley  Prettiman, 
M.D.,  were  sent  out  and  opened  stations  at  Varna 
and  Shumla.  Subsequently  Tirnova  and  Tultcha 
were  occupied,  work  in  the  latter  city  reaching 
the  Molokans,  a  body  of  Russian  dissenters.  The 
work  met  with  both  success  and  discouragement, 
and  in  1864  Dr.  Long  removed  to  Constantinople 
and  commenced  the  publication  of  a  weekly 
paper,  the  Zornitza,  which  afterward  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  ABCFM,  and  exerted  a  great 
influence  among  the  people.  In  1871  Dr.  Long 
joined  the  staff  of  professors  in  Robert  College, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death,  always  inter- 
ested in  and  identifying  himself  with  work  for 
evangelizing  and  elevating  Bulgarians.  For  a 
time  the  difficulties  were  so  great  and  success 
apparently  so  little  that  (1871-1873)  the  mission 
was  practically  suspended.     In  1873,  however. 


it  was  taken  up  again  and  extended  so  as  to 
include  all  the  section  north  of  the  Balkans. 
Several  Bulgarians,  educated  in  the  U.  S.,  were 
added  to  the  missionary  force,  and  prospects  were 
brighter,  when  the  Russo-Turkish  war,  following 
on  the  Bulgarian  massacres,  darkened  the  sky. 
The  establishment  of  the  principality  of  Bulgaria 
brought  a  measure  of  religious  liberty,  but 
worked  adversely,  in  that  the  Bulgarians  looked 
upon  those  who  left  the  Bulgarian  Church  as 
traitors  to  the  nation.  Still  the  work  has  con- 
tinued, and  in  1892  a  mission  conference  was 
organized.  Several  times  since  then  there  has 
been  question  of  discontinuing  the  mission,  but 
the  Society  has  held  on,  and  in  1902  reports  4 
missionaries,  42  native  workers,  314  members,  2 
schools,  with  25  pupils.  Especially  encouraging 
is  the  girls'  school  at  Loftcha. 

VI.  Japan:  The  heavy  demands  made  by  other 
missions  delayed  the  General  Conference  in  enter- 
ing on  work  in  Japan,  but  in  1873  a  party,  includ- 
ing Messrs.  R.  S.  Maclay,  John  C.  Davison,  Julius 
Soper,  and  M.  C.  Harris,  arrived  in  Yokohama. 
They  were  followed  by  others  and  in  August  the 
mission  was  organized  in  Yokohama.  The  sta- 
tions at  first  occupied  were  Yokohama,  Tokio, 
Hakodate,  Matsumai  and  Nagasaki.  From  the 
first  there  were  most  cordial  relations  with  other 
missions,  especially  with  that  of  the  Canada 
Methodist  Church,  and  arrangements  were  made 
to  cooperate  so  far  as  possible.  This  has  devel- 
oped until  plans  are  maturing  for  a  union  of  all 
the  Methodist  missions  in  Japan.  In  1882  a  fine 
girls'  school  was  opened  at  Nagasaki,  and  in  1885 
the  Philander  Smith  Bible  Institute  was  com- 
pleted at  Yokohama.  In  1884  the  Mission  was 
organized  as  a  conference,  and  in  1898  divided 
into  two,  the  Japan  and  South  Japan  confer- 
ences. 

1.  The  Japan  Conference  includes  the  districts 
of  Tokio,  Yokohama,  Hakodate,  Hirosaki, 
Nagoya,  Sendai,  Sapporo,  and  Shinano.  The 
mission  has  shared  in  the  various  experiences 
attending  the  work  in  Japan — the  advance,  the 
period  of  depression,  and  the  more  recent  forward 
movement.  The  report  (1902)  shows  47  mission- 
aries, 236  native  workers,  5,272  communicants, 
11  schools,  with  1,427  pupils.  The  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  Bible  Institute  (Aoyama  Gakuin) 
was  259.  The  press  work  shows  9,357,800  pages 
printed  during  the  year,  including  19,114  vol- 
umes, 242,000  tracts,  363,000  S.  S.  periodicals. 

2.  The  South  Japan  Conference  includes  the 
districts  of  Fukuoka  and  Nagasaki.  The  naval 
station  at  Sasebo  and  the  government  works 
at  Mitsu  Bishi  furnish  peculiar  opportunities 
for  work  among  sailors  and  laborers,  and 
the  Chingei  Seminary  at  Nagasaki  is  a  finely 
equipped  school.  The  report  (1902)  shows  20 
missionaries,  31  native  workers,  and  1,289  com- 
municants. 

VII.  Mexico:  In  1873  the  General  Conference 
sent  Dr.  William  Butler,  who  had  served  in  India 
and  as  secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Christian  Union,  to  Mexico.  In  company  with 
Bishop  Haven  he  visited  Vera  Cruz,  Puebla  and 
Mexico  City,  and  finally  located  in  the  capital, 
securing  a  site  originally  occupied  by  a  palace  of 
the  Aztec  sovereign  Montezuma,  and  later  by  a 
Roman  Catholic  monastery,  which  had  been 
seized  by  the  Mexican  Government.  Dr.  Butler 
was  joined  by  others,  some  of  whom,  knowing 
Spanish,  were  able  to  begin  work  immediately. 


461 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Methodist  Elplscopal 


The  success  attending  their  efforts  aroused  the 
bitter  opposition  of  the  Roman  Catholic  priests, 
resulting  in  several  outbreaks,  the  murder  of  Mr. 
Stephens  of  the  ABCFM,  and  of  a  number  of 
Mexican  Protestants,  and  the  destruction  of 
several  of  the  Methodist  buildings.  Still  the 
work  prospered  and  was  extended  so  that  in 
1884  the  mission  was  organized  as  a  con- 
ference. The  report  (1902)  shows  5  districts: 
Central  (Mexico  City),  Oaxaca,  Orizaba,  Hidalgo, 
and  Mountain.  Among  the  special  features  are 
the  Methodist  Institute  and  the  publishing  house 
at  Mexico,  the  medical  work  and  the  schools. 
The  press  issued  over  5,000,000  pages  of  Christian 
literature.  There  are  31  missionaries,  185  native 
workers,  5,592  members,  58  schools,  with  3,553 
pupils. 

VIII.  Korea:  In  1883,  the  year  after  the  treaty 
between  Korea  and  the  U.  S.  was  made.  Dr.  John 
F.  Goucher  offered  to  the  Missionary  Society 
$2,000  for  the  purpose  of  starting  a  mission  in 
Korea,  and  $3,000  toward  the  purchase  of  a  site. 
The  Missionary  Committee  accepted  it,  made  an 
additional  appropriation,  and  in  1884,  Dr.  R.  S. 
Maclay,  who  had  already  been  identified  with 
pioneer  work  in  China  and  Japan,  arrived  at 
Chemulpo,  secured  a  favorable  reception  from 
the  King,  and,  with  Dr.  W.  B.  Scranton  and  Rev. 
H.  G.  Appenzeller,  commenced  the  work  at  Seoul. 
Dr.  Scranton's  medical  skill  proved  most  advan- 
tageous, and  Mr.  Appenzeller  secured  some  pupils 
for  his  school,  which  soon  received  official  recog- 
nition. Later,  the  work  was  extended  to  Won- 
san,  Pyeng-yang  and  Kongju.  Wonsan,  how- 
ever, was  afterward  handed  over  to  the  M.  E. 
Church  South.  Medical  work  is  still  confined  to 
Pyeng-yang,  but  urgent  need  is  felt  of  extending 
it  to  other,  stations.  In  educational  matters 
there  is  cordial  cooperation  with  the  M.  E.  Ch. 
South,  as  there  is  hearty  sympathy  in  other  lines 
of  work.  The  success  attained  by  the  mission  is 
seen  in  the  figures  of  the  report  (1902),  26  mis- 
sionaries, 26  native  workers,  5,855  communicants. 

IX.  Malaysia:  The  Malaysia  Mission  had  its 
origin  in  appeals  that  went  from  Singapore  to  Dr. 
J.  M.  Thoburn  at  Calcutta  in  1879.  He  made 
special  inquiries  and  a  few  years  later  (1884) 
Bishop  Hurst,  at  a  meeting  of  the  South  India 
Conference,  made  such  representations  resulting 
from  a  visit  to  Singapore,  that  the  Rev.  W.  F. 
Oldham  was  appointed  to  commence  work  in 
that  city.  He  reached  his  station  in  the  spring 
of  1885  and  soon  acquired  such  influence  among 
the  Chinese  that  they  contributed  liberally  to 
schools  and  a  church.  Work  was  also  estab- 
lished among  the  Tamil  coolies.  In  1889  the 
mission  was  organized  which  developed  into  the 
Malaysia  Mission  Conference  in  1893,  and  the 
Malaysia  Annual  Conference  in  1902.  In  the  Malay 
Peninsula  the  chief  places  occupied  are  Singapore 
and  Penang,  but  to  these  was  added  the  work  in 
the  Philippine  Islands,  commenced  in  1899. 
Services  are  conducted  in  English,  Malay,  Tamil 
and  Chinese,  and  the  school  facilities  for  all 
classes  are  good.  At  Singapore  there  is  also  a 
mission  press. 

In  the  Philippines  work  has  been  undertaken 
at  Manila,  Malolos,  San  Fernando  and  Gerona. 
There  is  a  small  but  complete  publishing  plant 
and  the  Philippine  Christian  Advocate  has  com- 
menced publication.  The  report  (1902)  shows 
28  missionaries,  72  native  workers,  3,403  com- 
municants, and  8  schools,  with  1,166  pupils. 


X.  European  Missions:  The  work  of  the  Soci- 
ety in  the  Protestant  lands  of  Europe  had  its 
origin  in  the  conversion  in  America  of  some  who 
had  come  from  Europe  as  emigrants,  and  who 
desired  to  return  and  give  to  their  own  people 
the  new  conception  of  spiritual  life  that  had 
come  to  them.  Thus  the  work  in  Norway  and 
Sweden  was  begun  by  Olof  Gustaf  Hedstrom  in 
1845,  and  that  in  Germany  by  Rev.  Ludwig  S. 
Jacoby,  who  landed  at  Bremen  in  1849.  From 
these,  missionary  effort  has  extended  over  the 
whole  of  Northern  Europe.  The  Society  employs 
no  American  missionaries,  but  gives  some  assist- 
ance to  the  native  churches.  The  report  (1902) 
shows  in  North  Germany  63  ordained  and  39 
unordained  preachers,  6,690  communicants;  in 
South  Germany,  75  ordained  and  151  unordained 
preachers,  10,412  communicants;  Switzerland, 
47  ordained,  5  unordained  preachers,  8,803  com- 
municants; Norway,  41  ordained,  68  unordained 
preachers,  5,894  communicants;  Sweden  93 
ordained  and  30  unordained  preachers,  17,077 
communicants;  Denmark,  19  ordained,  21  unor- 
dained preachers,  3,465  communicants;  Finland, 
and  St.  Petersburg,  13  unordained  preachers, 
1,012  communicants.  In  Sweden  are  reported 
a  considerable  number  of  other  helpers,  including 
teachers. 

In  1832  Dr.  Charles  Elliott  commenced  to 
press  upon  the  Methodist  churches  the  feasibility 
of  a  mission  in  Italy.  For  some  years  his  plan 
was  scarcely  treated  seriously,  but  in  1850  it  was 
taken  up  with  some  earnestness.  It  required, 
however,  20  years  more  of  consideration  before 
the  mission  was  fairly  inaugurated,  and  in  1871 
Dr.  Leroy  M.  Vernon  arrived  in  Genoa.  After  a 
careful  survey  of  the  field  he  recommended  Rome 
for  the  headquarters  of  the  mission,  with  other 
stations  at  Naples  and  Genoa.  Then  followed 
an  earnest  protest  from  Father  Gavazzi,  of  the 
Free  Italian  Church,  against  the  introduction  of 
Methodism  into  Italy,  but  in  1872  it  was  decided 
to  proceed,  but  to  make  Bologna  the  head- 
quarters. Subsequently  Rome  was  again  chosen, 
and  has  been  the  center  of  work  ever  since.  In 
1874  an  exceptionally  fine  site  for  a  church  was 
offered  for  sale  and  promptly  purchased,  and  St. 
Paul's  M.  E.  Church  was  erected  and  consecrated 
on  Christmas  Day,  1875.  In  1881,  the  Italy 
Annual  Conference  was  organized,  and  the  work 
steadily  progressed,  not  a  few  representatives  of 
prominent  families  joining  the  churches.  In  the 
Rome  district  is  included  work  in  Northern  Italy 
and  Switzerland.  The  report  (1903)  shows  10 
missionaries,  40  Italian  workers,  2,716  communi- 
cants, and  11  schools. 

Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church:  About  ninety  days 
after  the  organization  of  the  Miss.  Soc.  of  the 
M.  E.  Church  (July,  1819),  a  woman's  auxiliary 
was  formed,  in  New  York  City.  It  was  not  very 
active,  however,  and  by  1855  had  largely  been 
crowded  out  by  other  organizations.  Meanwhile 
(1847)  a  ladies'  China  Missionary  Society  had  been 
formed  in  Baltimore,  but  on  the  organization  of 
the  Women's  Union  Missionary  Society  in  New 
York  in  1860,  a  number  of  Methodist  women 
joined  in  that  Society.  There  arose,  however,  a 
feeling  that  there  should  be  a  church  society,  and 
in  1869  the  present  organization  was  completed. 
The  conduct  of  the  Society  is  in  the  hands  of  an 
Executive  Committee,  which  meets  regularly,  but 
really  has  no  headquarters,  except  an  office  at  150 


Methodist  Episcopal 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Fifth  ave.,  New  York  City,  where  literature  is 
distributed.  The  secretary  is  Mrs.  J.  T.  Gracey 
of  Rochester.  The  funds,  receipts,  and  appro- 
priations are  kept  entirely  distinct  from  those  of 
the  Missionary  Society,  and  the  missionaries  are 
listed  separately.  Thus,  while  there  is  complete 
and  cordial  cooperation,  the  two  societies  are  dis- 
tinct. According  to  the  report  (1902)  the  woman's 
society  has  204  missionaries  _  and  964  native 
workers.  These  are  chiefly  in  China,  Japan 
and  India;  very  few  in  Africa.  They  are  included 
in  the  statistics  given  above  under  each  confer- 
ence. The  total  appropriations  for  the  year  were 
$431,111,  while  the  total  for  Foreign  Missions 
by  the  Missionary  Society  was  $683,942.  It  appears, 
thus,  that  the  WFMS  represents  about  two-fifths 
of  the  foreign  mission  work  of  the  church 

The  work  of  the  young  people  for  missions  has, 
in  the  M.  E.  Church  been  very  fully  developed 
under  the  Epworth  League  organization.  Mis- 
sion study  classes  have  been  organized  at  home 
with  a  view  to  training  up  a  force  of  missionary 
workers  as  well  as  givers.  On  the  field,  too,  this 
organization  has  been  most  effective. 

Obgan:  World  Wide  Missions,  monthly;  Rrid  (J.  M.),  Mis- 
sions and  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  3  vols.,  New  York,  1S06. 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  SOUTH 
(U.  S.  A.) ;  Board  of  Missions :  At  the  first  General 
Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South,  held  in  1846,  a  Home  and  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society  was  organized.  Its  operations  were 
committed  to  a  Board  of  Managers,  who,  in  con- 
junction with  the  Bishops,  determined  the  fields 
that  were  to  be  occupied,  selected  the  mission- 
aries, and  apportioned  the  amount  to  be  collected 
among  the  annual  conferences.  The  home  and 
the  foreign  fields  were  under  the  management  of 
the  same  board. 

In  1866  the  General  Conference  placed  the 
work  of  the  Missionary  Society  under  two  boards, 
one  having  charge  of  the  foreign  and  one  of  the 
home  field.  In  1870  the  missions  of  the  church 
were  again  placed  under  one  board,  and  in  1874 
the  Constitution  was  again  changed,  bringing  the 
work  in  foreign  lands  under  the  Board  of  Missions 
and  the  work  in  the  home  field  under  the  Annual 
Conference  Boards  of  Missions. 

The  General  Board  has  charge  of  the  foreign 
missions  and  all  others  not  provided  for  by  the 
Annual  Conferences.  It  consists  of  a  president, 
vice-president,  two  secretaries,  and  twenty-five 
managers.  The  bishops  and  treasurers  are 
ex  officio  members  of  the  board.  The  Board 
meets  annually  to  determine  what  fields  shall  be 
occupied,  and  the  number  of  persons  to  be 
employed  in  each;  to  estimate  the  amount  that 
may  be  necessary  for  its  missions;  and  to  divide 
the  same  among  the  annual  conferences. 

The  first  work  of  the  Board  was  among  the 
colored  people  and  Indians  of  the  United  States, 
and  then  it  launched  out  into  a  larger  field,  open- 
ing work  in  the  Chinese  Empire. 

1.  China:  The  offer  made  by  Charles  Taylor, 
of  the  South  Carolina  Conference,  in  1843,  to  go  to 
China  as  a  missionary,  was  the  origin  of  the 
action  of  the  first  General  Conference  held  in 
Petersburg,  Va.,  in  May,  1846,  when  it  was 
decided  to  commence  a  mission  to  China.  Mr. 
Taylor  was  appointed,  studied  medicine,  and  in 
April,  1848,  with  his  colleague,  Mr.  Benjamin 
Jenkins,  sailed  for  China  with  their  families. 
Shanghai  was  selected  as  the  best  location  for  the 


mission.  On  arriving  at  Hongkong,  after  a 
four  months'  voyage,  the  illness  of  Mrs.  Jenkins 
prevented  her  from  going  any  further,  and  Dr. 
Taylor  began  work  in  Shanghai  in  September 
alone.  Nine  months  later  Mr.  Jenkins  and  his 
wife  arrived,  and  as  soon  as  a  suflicient  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  had  been  acquired  the  two 
missionaries  opened  a  chapel  for  preaching, 
attracting  many  who  came  in  those  days  through 
mere  curiosity.  Few  Christian  books  were  pub- 
lished in  Chinese  at  that  time  and  the  work  was 
largely  that  of  talking  to  the  people  by  the  way- 
side and  preaching  to  them  m  front  of  temples 
and  as  they  were  gathered  in  street  chapels;  but 
as  the  language  was  acquired  more  perfectly, 
converts  were  made  and  a  nucleus  of  a  church 
was  formed.  The  first  convert  was  providentially 
a  man  from  the  upper  middle  class — Liew  Sien 
Sang.  His  name  has  been  familiar  to  Southern 
Methodists  ever  since.  He  was  an  eloquent  and 
useful  native  preacher  whose  vigorous  mind, 
quick  apprehension,  ready  and  fluent  utterance 
and  noble  piety  made  him  universjilly  beloved 
and  heeded. 

The  mission  was  strengthened  in  1852  by  the 
arrival  of  Rev.  W.  G.  E.  Cunnyngham  and  his 
wife;  but  the  work  and  the  climate  began  to  tell 
on  the  pioneers,  and  Drs.  Taylor  and  Jenkins, 
with  their  families,  were  soon  obliged  to  return 
home.  The  Tai-ping  rebellion  was  in  progress, 
and  in  that  year  Shanghai  was  captured  and 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  insurgents  for 
eighteen  months.  Little  work  could  be  done. 
Fire  and  the  ravages  of  the  contending  armies 
arrested  evangelistic  work;  misfortunes  culmin- 
ated in  the  burning  of  the  only  chapel  and  the 
two  mission  houses. 

The  mission  was  reenforced  in  1854  by  three 
married  missionaries,  Revs.  D.  C.  Kelley,  J.  W. 
Lambuth,  and  J.  L.  Belton;  but  the  war  con- 
tinued, and  the  constant  nervous  strain  and 
unsanitary  conditions  brought  on  sickness,  and 
the  withdrawal  of  two  missionaries.  Despite 
difficulties,  however,  inquiries  increased,  and  sev- 
eral were  received  into  the  church. 

In  1859  two  more  missionaries  were  sent  out, 
and  others  followed  later,  but  several  were  com- 
pelled to  withdraw.  In  1869  the  record  of  the 
mission  during  the  twenty-one  years  of  its  exist- 
ence showed  that  eight  missionaries  with  their 
families  had  been  sent  out;  death  had  removed 
one  missionary  and  two  missionaries'  wives; 
one  had  withdrawn  from  the  work,  four  had 
returned  to  the  United  States,  and  two  were  left 
in  the  field,  Messrs,  Allen  and  Lambuth.  About 
sixty  natives  had  been  baptized,  and  among  the 
converts  were  two  native  preachers  of  great  gifts 
and  usefulness.  In  1870  three  stations  had  been 
occupied — Shanghai,  Soochow,  and  Nantziang, 
of  which  Shanghai  remained  the  principal 
station,  having  substantial  mission  houses  and 
two  chapels.  Faithful  work  was  beginning  to 
have  its  effect  and  the  mission  was  becoming 
strong  and  aggressive.  The  full  significance  of 
this  work  appears  in  the  fact  that  for  ten  years, 
or  from  1860  until  1870,  the  missionaries  were 
not  supported  by  their  Board — the  Civil  War  in 
the  United  States  having  destroyed  the  resources 
of  the  South.  Messrs.  Lambuth,  Allen  and  Wood 
sustained  themselves  as  best  they  could,  the  last 
named  missionary  returning  home  during  the 
decade,  having  lost  his  wife. 

J.  W.  Lambuth,  ably  seconded  by  his  wife,  in 


463 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Metbodlett  ESplscopnl 


addition  to  efforts  at  self-support  by  interpreting 
and  teaching,  bent  his  energies  to  the  strength- 
ening of  the  native  church.  Native  helpers  and 
Bible  women  were  trained  and  put  to  work,  itin- 
erating tours  were  made  into  the  surrounding 
country,  a  church  was  gathered  together  at  each 
of  the  three  stations,  boarding  and  day  schools 
were  opened  and  the  work  grew  in  importance. 
Dr.  Lambuth's  boat  became  a  familiar  object 
within  a  radius  of  fifty  miles  around  Shanghai. 
On  the  streets,  in  the  temples,  or  in  the  little 
rented  chapels  of  Tsing-pu,  Nantziang,  Kia-ting, 
and  many  other  places,  he  could  be  seen,  the 
center  of  a  wondering  crowd.  His  life  was  as 
powerful  as  his  words,  and  to  him  was  due  largely 
the  credit  of  laying  the  foundations  for  the 
extensive  evangelistic  work  which  now  reaches 
far  into  the  interior  of  the  province. 

An  early  and  urgent  need  of  the  mission,  and 
in  fact  of  the  entire  missionary  movement  in 
China,  was  men  capable  of  producing  an  accept- 
able and  effective  literature.  China  is  a  nation 
of  students.  He  who  seeks  to  catch  and  hold  the 
attention  of  her  literati  must  conform  to  their 
high  standard  of  style  and  clothe  his  arguments 
with  the  skill  of  a  master.  Cut  off  from  home 
supplies,  Dr.  Young  J.  Allen,  while  maintaining 
himself  and  famil}'  by  teaching  and  translating 
in  the  Kiang-Nan  arsenal,  was  constantly  thrown 
in  contact  with  that  bright  and  more  advanced 
class  oi  Chinese  offici.als  who  had  been  entrusted 
with  the  management  of^the  difficult  problem  of 
intercourse  with  foreign  nations.  Finding  Dr. 
Allen  a  man  of  wide  and  varied  information  they 
sought  his  counsel  and  gave  him  their  confidence. 
He  conceived  the  idea  of  a  periodical  that  should 
give  the  Chinese  in  their  own  language  the  salient 
facts  of  a  Western  religion,  philosophy,  science, 
and  politics,  and  such  general  information  as 
should,  in  a  measure,  prepare  them  for  the  con- 
stantly increasing  contact  with  Western  civiliza- 
,  tion.  From  this  grew  the  Wan  Kwok  Kong-Pao 
(World's  Magazine).  It  immediately  became 
popular,  and  it  now  circulates  over  the  Straits 
Settlements,  Japan,  Korea,  and  the  Pacific 
Coast,  as  well  as  throughout  China.  In  addition, 
a  number  of  volumes  have  come  from  Dr.  Allen's 
pen.  His  History  of  the  Chinese-Japanese  War 
received  the  acknowledgment  of  three  emperors. 
Kang-yu-wei,  chief  adviser  of  the  Emperor  of 
China  in  the  reforms  of  1898,  and  the  leading 
Chinese  patriot,  while  a  refugee  from  the  Empress 
Dowager,  said,  "I  owe  my  conversion  to  reform, 
and  my  knowledge  of  reform,  to  two  missionaries 
— Rev.  Timothy  Richard  and  Dr.  Young  J. 
Allen." 

The  pressing  demand  for  trained  native 
preachers  was  more  and  more  making  itself  felt 
in  the  mission.  Moreover,  the  children  of  the 
converts  were  growing  up  and  the  missionaries 
were  face  to  face  with  the  necessity  of  providing 
for  them  the  means  of  a  Christian  education.  In 
the  autumn  of  1875  Dr.  A.  P.  Parker,  now  Pres- 
ident of  the  Anglo-Chinese  College  in  Shanghai, 
joined  the  mission.  He  was  appointed  to  Soo- 
chow,  a  newly  opened  station,  and  placed  in 
charge  of  a  few  boys  who  had  already  been  gath- 
ered by  J.  W.  Lambuth  into  a  school  in  Shanghai. 

Soochow,  the  second  station  of  the  mission,  was 
one  of  the  most  important  and  one  of  the  most 
difficult  fields  of  the  Empire.  The  large  number 
of  Confucian  scholars,  literary  chancellors,  vice- 
roys, and    other    high  officials  that  have  gone 


forth  from  its  walls  have  won  it  first  rank  as  a 
literary  center.  Under  the  conditions  of  life 
which  prevailed  there,  and  with  the  deep-seated 
prejudice  encountered  among  the  literati,  it  was. 
necessary  that  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  should 
have  associated  with  it  some  phase  of  Christian 
work  which  should  incarnate  the  spirit  and  min- 
istry of  Christ.  It  was  with  this  purpose  that 
the  Board  of  Missions  decided  to  open  medical 
work  under  Dr.  Walter  R.  Lambuth  in  1882, 
having  associated  with  him  Dr.  W.  H.  Park,  who 
successfully  carried  on  the  medical  mission  after 
his  colleague  was  appointed  to  Japan  in  1886. 

During  1878  the  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  entered  the  field,  sending  out  Miss  Lochie 
Rankin  as  its  first  missionary.  At  a  later  date  a 
hospital  was  opened  in  Soochow  under  its  aus- 
pices. Slowly  a  foothold  has  been  gained  and 
prejudice  overcome.  No  agency  in  the  mission 
has  been  of  more  value  than  the  work  of  the 
women,  especially  in  the  educational  and  medi- 
cal departments. 

The  work  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  South,  owing  to  its 
location  in  Central  China,  suffered  little  from  the 
storm  of  1900.  The  cloud  in  the  north  growing 
out  of  the  Boxer  movement  threatened  destruc- 
tion, but  it  passed  over,  and  renewed  impetus 
seems  to  have  come  upon  the  work.  One  remark- 
able fact  is  worthy  of  note:  While  the  Legations 
were  besieged  in  Peking  the  Chinese  friends  of 
the  medical  and  educational  work  in  Soochow — 
and  among  them  were  some  of  the  highest  offi- 
cials— were  paying  their  subscriptions  pledged  for 
the  establishment  of  the  Soochow  University 
under  the  able  presidency  of  Dr.  D.  L.  Anderson. 

The  statistics  of  the  mission  for  1902  are  as 
follows:  Missionaries,  including  their  wives,  35; 
missionary  women,  17;  native  preachers,  15; 
Bible  women,  66;  communicants,  1,944;  Sunday 
schools,  34;  scholars,  1,809;  Epworth  Leagues, 
22;  members,  725;  organized  churches,  52; 
boarding  schools,  8;  pupils,  476;  day  schools, 41; 
pupils,  1,170;  hospitals,  3;  patients  treated, 
23,700;  total  value  of  mission  property,  $231,- 
409. 

2.  Mexico:  The  work  of  the  M.  E.  Church, 
South,  in  Mexico  is  conducted  in  three  sections: 

(1)  Central  Mexican  Mission  Conference:  The 
conversion  of  an  educated  Mexican  soldier,  Alejo 
Hernandez,  was  the  providential  beginning  of 
the  work  in  Mexico.  Bishop  Marvin,  in  1871, 
appointed  Hernandez  to  the  territory  bordering 
on  the  Rio  Grande  River  between  Laredo  and  its 
mouth.  He  was  reappointed  to  the  same  field 
for  1872.  Bishop  Keener  visited  the  City  of 
Mexico  in  1873,  purchased  property,  organized 
a  mission,  and  sent  Hernandez  to  this  new  field. 
Later  the  Bishop  appointed  Rev.  Joel  T.  Daves, 
of  the  Louisiana  Conference,  Superintendent  of 
the  mission.  In  1879  the  work  had  extended 
from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  the  cities  of  Leon, 
Cuernavaca,  Cuautla,  Toluca  and  Orizaba.  Gua- 
dalajara was  included  in  1883,  and  the  work  was 
carried  well  down  the  western  coast. 

(2)  Mexican  Border  Conference:  This  mission 
was  also  the  outcome  of  the  work  of  Hernandez 
in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  In  1874  there 
were  two  stations,  the  one  at  Brownsville,  Texas, 
and  the  other  in  Rio  Grande  City.  Two  schools 
were  opened  in  1882  under  the  charge  of  mission- 
aries of  the  Woman's  Board,  one  at  Concepcion 
and  the  other  at  Laredo.  The  latter  has  become 
as  large  an  educational  plant  as  is  found  in  any 


Methodist  Episcopal 
Methodist  New 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


464 


mission.  Including  its  day  school  feeders,  there 
were  last  year  over  one  thousand  children  under 
instruction.  By  1883  the  evangelistic  work  had 
extended  two  hundred  miles  south  into^  Mexico, 
and  of  the  twenty-three  places  occupied  nine 
were  in  Texas,  four  were  on  both  sides  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  ten  were  on  the  south  of  it.  In  1886 
the  mission  was  formed  into  an  Annual  Confer- 
ence. 

(3)  Northwest  Mexican  Mission  Conference: 
This  was  organized  in  1890  and  extends  as  far 
north  as  Phoenix,  Arizona,  reaches  down  the 
Gulf  of  California  below  Mazatlan,  and  on  to  the 
east  from  El  Paso,  until  it  touches  the  Mexican 
Border  Conference.  It  also  includes  the  impor- 
tant cities  of  Chihuahua,  Torreon,  and  Durango. 
In  the  first  and  the  last  cities  the  Woman's  Board 
has  two  flourishing  schools.  The  missionaries 
engaged  in  this  field  have  had  the  difficulty  of 
vast  distances  to  travel,  the  inveterate  prejudice 
of  Roman  Catholics  to  encounter,  and  the  cli- 
matic influences  of  life  in  high  altitude.  But  they 
have  wrought  well,  as  the  following  statistics  will 
indicate:  Missionaries,  including  wives,  36;  mis- 
sionary women,  21;  native  traveling  preachers, 
45;  communicants,  5,807;  Sunday  schools,  113; 
scholars,  3,921;  Epworth  Leagues,  42;  members, 
1,462;  organized  churches,  149;  boarding  and  day 
schools,  14;  pupils,  1,020;  Bible  women,  19; 
hospitals,  1;  patieni;s  treated,  1,417;  total  collec- 
tions, $5,871.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing, 
special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  hospital 
work  in  Monterey  under  Dr.  U.  H.  Nixon,  and 
the  Instituto  Laurens,  supported  by  the  "Rose- 
buds" of  Virginia. 

(3)  Brazil:  In  1875  the  Board  of  Missions  con- 
stituted Rev.  J.  E.  Newman,  for  some  years  a 
resident  in  Brazil,  its  first  missionary,  and  early 
in  the  following  year  Rev.  J.  J.  Ransom  joined 
him.  The  province  of  Sao  Paulo  was  first  occu- 
pied, but  in  1877  work  was  begun  in  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro. In  1881  two  missionaries  went  out  under 
the  Woman's  Board,  and  in  1887  an  annual  con- 
ference was  organized,  under  the  Presidency  of 
Bi.shop  John  C.  Granbery. 

The  Brazil  Mission  is  perhaps  the  most  aggres- 
sive and  successful  one  of  the  church.  Notwith- 
standing its  great  area,  its  small  force  of  trained 
workers,  and  meager  appropriations,  very  great 
results  have  been  secured.  In  the  extension  of 
circuits,  in  creating  and  circulating  Christian 
literature,  in  placing  the  educational  work  iipon 
a  secure  basis,  and  in  unceasing  labors  to  reach 
the  people  with  the  Gospel,  no  body  of  men  and 
women  have  accomplished  more  than  these 
workers  in  Brazil. 

The  statistics  for  1902  show  that  this  mission 
has  the  largest  increase  in  membership,  the 
largest  collections  on  the  field,  and  more  self- 
supporting  churches  than  any  other  mission  of 
the  church.  The  new  building  for  Granbery 
College  at  Juiz  de  Fora  is  approaching  completion 
and  when  thoroughly  equipped  will  prove  an 
invaluable  auxiliary.  Already  it  has  gained  an 
enviable  position  in  the  state.  Missionaries, 
including  their  wives,  29;  missionary  women,  16; 
native  traveling  preachers,  19;  communicants, 
3^,895;  Sunday  schools,  74;  scholars,  2,555; 
Epworth  Leagues,  12;  members,  548;  organized 
churches,  55;  churches  self-supporting,  7;  board- 
ing and  day  schools,  12;  pupils,  358;  Bible  women, 
9;  total  collections,  $8,382.00. 

4.  Japan:  In  1886  Bishop  H.  M.  McTyeire,  then 


in  charge  of  the  China  Mission,  appointed  J.  W. 
Lambuth,  W.  R.  Lambuth,  and  0.  A.  Dukes, 
who  were  engaged  in  missionary  work  in  China, 
to  open  a  mission  in  Japan.  On  the  25th  of  July 
Dr.  J.  W.  Lambuth  and  wife  and  Dr.  Dukes 
landed  in  Kobe  and  found  a  field  of  most  inviting 
character  around  the  great  Inland  Sea  open  to 
their  efforts.  Joined  later  on  by  Dr.  W.  R. 
Lambuth,  the  inauguration  meeting  of  the  Japan 
Mission  was  held  on  the  17th  of  September,  1886, 
just  thirty-two  years  after  the  landing  of  the 
senior  Lambuth  in  Shanghai,  China.  At  the 
close  of  the  first  year  six  members  of  the  church 
were  reported,  including  one  Chinese  and  one 
Japanese. 

Dr.  W.  B.  Palmore,  of  St.  Louis,  visited  Japan 
about  this  time,  and  pledged  $100  annually 
for  a  supply  of  sound  religious  literature.  Out 
of  this  gift  grew  the  Palmore  Institute,  which, 
by  influencing  young  men  through  the  teaching 
of  English  and  the  Bible,  has  been  one  of  the  most 
helpful  feeders  of  the  church.  A  Sunday  school 
of  twenty  scholars  was  opened;  a  weekly  collec- 
tion for  a  church  building  was  started.  The 
wives  of  the  three  missionaries  entered  fully  into 
the  work,  and  sixty  women  of  good  families  were 
soon  gathered  for  Bible  reading  and  study.  The 
whole  length  of  the  Inland  Sea  was  repeatedly 
visited.  Circuits  were  mapped  out  and  addresses 
delivered  in  many  towns  from  which  appeals  had 
come  for  instruction.  Incessant  activity  char- 
acterized the  early  years  of  this  mission  and 
tested  the  strength  ancf  resources  of  the  mission- 
aries to  the  utmost.  During  the  first  year  of 
their  work  a  converted  Japanese  pilot,  by  the 
name  of  T.  Sunamoto,  offered  his  services.  He 
had  just  returned  from  San  Francisco  with  his 
heart  yearning  to  bring  his  own  people  to  a 
knowledge  of  Chirst.  Proceeding  to  his  native 
city  of  Hiroshima,  a  Buddhist  stronghold  and  the 
military  center  of  western  Japan,  he  urged  the 
missionaries  to  cooperate  with  him  and  was  the 
means  of  planting  the  Gospel  along  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Inland  Sea  in  the  very  towns  and 
cities  where,  years  before,  he  had  piloted  rice 
junks  in  from  the  sea  and  then  spent  nights  in 
revelry  and  dissipation.  With  his  help,  and  that 
of  two  or  three  others  of  similar  zeal,  the  church 
in  Japan  sprang  quickly  into  a  position  where 
the  open  doors  offered  opportunity  far  exceeding 
the  power  to  occupy. 

The  Girls'  school  in  Hiroshima  is  the  largest 
Christian  school  for  girls  in  the  Empire,  and  com- 
mands an  enviable  reputation  among  all  classes. 
Every  department  is  filled  to  overflowing  and 
applicants  are  constantly  turned  away,  while  the 
Lambuth  Bible  and  Training  School  in  Kobe  is 
doing  an  equally  important  work  in  training 
Bible  women  and  others  for  Christian  service. 
The  Kwansei  Gakuin  at  Kobe,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Rev.  Y.  Yoshioka,  and  the  leadership  of 
Dr.  S.  H.  Wainwright,  has  collegiate  and  Biblical 
departments  which  are  doing  advanced  work. 
The  ideals  held  up  in  this  institution  for  young 
men,  both  as  regards  religious  and  intellectual 
culture,  are  of  the  highest,  and  already  the  college 
has  sent  out  men  into  the  ministry  and  into  pro- 
fessional life,  who  are  contributing  their  influence 
to  the  upbuilding  of  a  Christian  empire.  It  takes 
a  foremost  place  among  the  educational  institu- 
tions in  the  country.  The  statistics  for  1902  are 
as  follows:  Missionaries,  including  their  wives,  39; 
native  traveling  preachers,  14;  communicants, 


466 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Metlioillst  Episcopal 
IMetlioaist  New 


855;  Sunday  schools,  43;  scholars,  2,040;  Epworth 
Leagues,  2;  members,  89;  organized  churches, 
15;  boarding  and  day  schools,  10;  pupils,  1,321; 
total  collection,  $1,429. 

5.  Korea:  At  the  urgent  request  of  the  Vice- 
Minister  of  Education,  Hon.  T.  H.  Yuii,  at  one 
time  a  student  of  Emory  College  and  of  Vander- 
bilt  University,  Bishop  E.  R.  Hendrix  and  Dr. 
C.  F.  Reid  visited  Korea  in  October,  1895.  The 
providential  indications  were  so  plain  that  the 
Bishop  decided  to  open  a  mission,  and  appointed 
Dr.  Reid  Superintendent  and  pioneer  missionary. 
The  latter  moved  from  Shanghai,  China,  in  August, 
1896.  A  large  section  of  country  stretching  from 
Seoul  to  Songdo  was  entirely  unoccupied  by  the 
mission  forces  previously  in  the  field,  and  work 
was  begun  at  Koyang  and  at  Songdo,  a  city  of 
65,000  inhabitants.  A  line  of  stations  was  also 
opened  between  these  points,  and  the  mission 
was  reenforced. 

The  Woman's  Board,  in  the  autumn  of  1897, 
transferred  to  Korea  from  China  Mrs.  J.  P. 
Campbell,  who  was  afterward  joined  by  other 
ladies.  Mrs.  Campbell  has  specific  charge  of  the 
Carolina  Institute  in  Seoul,  a  flourishing  boarding 
school  for  girls.  The  work  so  auspiciously  begun 
in  Koyang  and  Songdo  has  spread  not  only  to 
neighboring  villages  but  to  Wonsan  on  the  east 
coast.  The  spirit  of  self-support  and  self-propa- 
gation characterizes  the  native  converts,  and,  if 
continued, will  develop  a  successful  and  aggressive 
church. 

The  latest  statistics  show:  Missionaries,  includ- 
ing their  wives,  12;  helpers,  25;  communicants, 
454;  Sunday  schools,  15;  scholars,  519;  schools, 
6;  pupils,  82,  and  Bible  women,  10. 

6.  Cuba:  Some  work  had  been  done  on  the 
island  prior  to  the  war  with  Spain,  but  imme- 
diately after  the  close  of  the  war  it  was  necessary 
to  reorganize  the  mission,  which  was  reduced  to 
a  small  congregation  in  Havana,  holding  occa- 
sional meetings  in  a  private  house.  Under  the 
administration  of  Bishop  Candler,  stations  were 
established  one  after  another  in  the  cities  of 
Santiago,  Cienfuegos,  Santa  Clara,  Matanzas, 
and  Havana.  The  work  was  affiliated  with  that 
already  being  carried  on  in  Tampa  and  Key  West, 
where  large  numbers  of  Cubans  were  settled  in 
colonies,  but  in  1898  the  work  on  the  island  was 
brought  under  the  General  Board  of  Missions, 
while  that  on  the  mainland  was  attached  to  the 
Florida  Conference.  Cuba  has  offered  a  wide  and 
fruitful  field  for  intelligent  effort.  The  failure 
of  Roman  Catholicism  morally  and  intellectually 
to  uplift  the  people  has  prepared  the  way  for  a 
presentation  of  the  truth  backed  by  the  personal 
character  of  the  Protestant  missionaries.  So 
convincing  has  this  appeal  been  that  many 
thoughtful  Cubans  have  accepted  the  Gospel  with 
joy  and  thanksgiving.  It  is  the  lifting  of  a  long 
night  of  superstition  and  hopelessness  and  is  a 
prophecy  of  daybreak  everywhere. 

The  statistics  for  1902  are :  Missionaries,  includ- 
ing their  wives,  28;  native  traveling  preachers, 
22;  communicants,  751;  Sunday  schools,  16; 
scholars,  718;  Epworth  Leagues,"  6;  members, 
185;  organized  churches,  12;  schools,  6;  pupils, 
424;  collections,  $3,530. 

^  Summary:  Thirty  years  ago  the  Board  of  Mis- 
sions of  the  M.E.  Church,  South,  occupied  but  one 
foreign  field,  China,  and  had  in  that  field  only 
two  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4native  workers, 
men  and  women,  and  about  30  church  members. 
30 


In  its  six  foreign  fields,  China,  Japan,  Korea, 
Mexico,  Brazil,  and  Cuba,  it  has  now,  including 
66  of  the  Woman's  Board,  241  missionaries,  95 
native  traveling  preachers,  104  Bible  women, 
12,906  church  members,  295  Sunday  .schools, 
with  11,570  scholars;  84  Epworth  Leagues,  with 
3,009  members;  312  organized  churches,  of  which 
17  are  entirely  self-supporting;  101  boarding  and 
day  schools,  with  4,482  pupils;  8  hospitals  and 
dispensaries,  which  have  treated  27,342  patients, 
and  $21,716  has  been  collected  in  the  field  for 
all  purposes. 

The   receipts   of  the   General    Board   from  all 
sources    were    $366,180,    and    of    tho    Woman's 
Board,   $112,458,   making  the  total  receipts  of 
both  Boards  $478,638. 
Organs:  Review  of  Missions,  Wo-men^s  Missionary  Advocate. 

METHODIST  NEW  CONNEXION  MISSION- 
ARY SOCIETY:  The  Methodist  New  Connexion, 
the  earliest  offshoot  from  the  .stem  of  the  parent 
Wesleyan  body  in  1797,  took  its  first  steps  m  mis- 
sionary enterprise  in  1821.  Attention  was  first 
directed  to  Ireland,  and  in  1826  a  mission  was 
established  in  Belfast  and  contiguous  towns. 

In  1835  Canada  was  suggested  as  a  sphere  for 
missionary  operations,  and  in  1837  the  Rev.  John 
Addyman  went  as  the  first  agent  of  the  Con- 
nexion to  tlie  Dominion.  The  mission  expanded 
until  in  1875  it  united  with  the  other  Methodist 
bodies  in  Canada,  and  became  the  Methodkst 
Church  of  that  country.  When  the  union  took 
place  the  Mission  comprised  396  churches,  7.661 
church  members,  167  Sunday  schools,  and  9,259 
scholars. 

In  1859  a  long-cherished  wish  of  the  Connexion 
was  realized  by  the  formation  of  a  mission  to 
the  heathen.  China  was  selected  as  the  field  of 
labor,  and  R,evs.  John  Innocent  and  William  N. 
Hall  were  the  first  agents  of  the  Society  sent 
there.  They  worked  at  Shanghai  for  a  time,  and 
eventually  settled  in  Tientsin. 

In  1862  a  mission  to  Australia  was  commenced 
and  churches  were  raised  in  Adelaide  and  Mel- 
bourne. In  1887,  these  churches  not  having 
developed  resources  to  make  them  independent, 
and  the  energies  of  the  Society  being  demanded 
by  the  increasing  claims  of  the  Chinese  work, 
they  were  given  up.  The  church  in  Adelaide 
united  with  the  Bible  Christians,  and  that  in  Mel- 
bourne with  the  Wesleyans. 

The  Society  is  managed  by  a  committee,  con- 
sisting of  a  president,  a  treasurer,  and  a  secretary, 
with  16  ministers  and  16  laymen,  appointed 
annually  by  the  Conference. 

The  mission  in  China  has  three  circuits.  The 
first  and  earliest,  in  Tientsin,  has  a  fine  estab- 
lishment in  the  British  compound,  consisting 
of  a  college  for  the  training  of  young  men  for  the 
native  ministry,  also  a  female  college  for  the 
education  and  training  of  native  girls  and  women 
for  Christian  work.  There  are  two  chapels  in 
the  city  where  daily  preaching  of  the  Word  is 
carried  on,  and  the  English  Church,  in  which 
united  services  are  held,  stands  on  ground  owned 
by  the  Society.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are  a 
chapel  and  native  church  in  Taku,  and  the  same 
in  Hsing-chi,  a  city  to  the  west  of  Tientsin. 
This  society  was  the  first  to  enter  this  great  city, 
but  it  has  been  joined  since  by  the  agents  of  sev- 
eral other  societies. 

The  second  circuit,  in  the  Shantung  Province, 
resulted  from  the  visit  to  the  mission  of  a  farmer 
from  the  village  of  Chu-chia-tsai,  140  miles  south 


Hethodist  Sfew 
Methods 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


4es 


of  Tientsin.  Under  the  influence  of  a  marvelous 
dream  he  had  traveled  to  the  great  city  to  listen 
to  the  foreign  teachers  of  religion.  He  became 
an  earnest  believer  in  Jesus,  .and  went  to  his  home 
carrying  with  him  Bibles,  hymn-books,  and  other 
Christian  publications.  He  invited  his  neighbors 
to  his  house,  announcing  to  them  his  conver.sion 
and  reading  to  them  the  Bible.  A  great  awak- 
ening took  place  in  the  village,  which  spread  by 
degrees  over  the  district,  with  the  result  that  a 
pressing  appeal  was  sent  to  Tientsin  for  a  mis- 
sionary to  come  down  and  take  charge  of  the 
great  work. 

In  recent  years  a  third  sphere  of  labor  has 
been  occupied  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kai-ping, 
north  of  Tientsin.  Near  this  city  extensive 
mines  are  worked  by  a  syndicate  of  Chinese 
niandarins,  who  applied  to  the  Society  for  a  med- 
ical missionary,  offering  to  afford  facilities  for  the 
teaching  of  Christian  doctrine  among  the  work- 
men. An  extensive  circuit  is  worked  round  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Tang-san  collieries,  extend- 
ing to  Yung-ping-fu,  an  ancient  and  important 
city  near  the  old  wall. 

The  mission  suffered  heavily  at  the  time  of  the 
Boxer  outbreak.  Aside  from  the  one  chapel  in 
the  compound  at  Tientsin,  there  was  not  a  single 
property  left  in  the  Tientsin  circuit  in  which  the 
Christians  could  gather  for  worship,  while  in  the 
Shantung  and  Kai-ping  circuits  the  situation  was 
about  the  same.  In  Tientsin  the  Provisional 
Government  granted  the  mission  the  use  of  a 
Buddhist  temple,  and  afterward  of  a  military 
Yamen  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  In  Tang-shan 
the  mission  suffered  not  a  little  inconvenience 
at  the  hands  of  the  German  troops  who  occupied 
the  premises,  and  seemed  indisposed  to  vacate 
until  appeal  was  made  to  Count  von  Waldersee. 
The  question  of  indemnity  proved  a  difficult  one, 
but  was  in  a  fair  way  of  settlement,  and  the  out- 
look for  this  Society,  as  for  others,  was  most 
encouraging.  The  faithfulness  of  the  native 
workers,  and  the  devotion  of  the  great  majority 
of  the  Christians,  was  an  indication  of  the  sub- 
stantial character  of  the  work  done,  and  an 
earnest  of  future  success. 

The  mission  reports  emphasize  the  necessity  of 
more  attention  to  education  than  has  been  given 
in  past  years,  as  also  to  medical  work.  The  sta- 
tistics of  members  and  probationers  are  also 
spoken  of  as  probably  within  the  truth,  in  view 
of  the  number  who  have  not  yet  had  the  courage 
to  return  to  their  homes.  There  were  reported 
in  1902,  for  the  three  circuits,  8  missionaries, 
93  native  helpers  (with  Sunday  school  workers 
a  total  of  102),  100  churches,  211  chapels  and 
preaching  places,  3,479  members  and  proba- 
tioners. The  school  returns  were  incomplete  on 
account  of  reorganization. 

Headquarters  of  the  Society  :  23  Farringdon 
Ave.,  London.  E.  C,  England. 

METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH;  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions  of  the:  For  many  years  the 
rriissionary  interest  of  this  denomination  was 
directed  to  assisting  the  work  of  other  churches. 
Some  of  the  funds  collected  went  into  the  treas- 
ury of  the  Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society  of 
New  York  and  were  applied  to  the  support  of 
Miss  L.  M.  Guthrie  in  Japan.  Miss  Guthrie,  on  a 
subsequent  visit  to  America,  went  to  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  and  met  some  of  the  ladies  who  had  become 
interested  in  her  work.  The  result  was  the  for- 
mation   of    the    "Woman's    Foreign    Missionary 


Society  of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church,  in 
1879.  Three  years  later  the  General  Conference: 
organized  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  and  the- 
two  societies  have  continued  to  work  together. 

The  interest  first  aroused  in  regard  to  Japan 
made  it  natural  to  establish  the  mission  there,  and 
Yokohama  was  occupied.  Subsequently,  Nagoyi 
and  Shizuoka  were  also  made  stations,  and  the 
work  was  fully  organized. 

The  report  for  1902  shows  19  charges,  served  by 
15  pastors,  4  foreign  and  11  native;  8  churches, 
619  members.  The  Nagoya  Anglo-Japanese 
College  reports  90  students,  more  than  half  of 
whom  are  Christian,  while  none  can  be  called 
anti-Christian.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Conference 
in  1902  action  was  taken  accepting  the  basis  of 
union  proposed  for  the  Methodist  missions  ia 
Japan. 

The  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  ha» 
5  missionaries  in  Japan,  engaged  chiefly  in  educa- 
tional work.  The  school  at  Yokohama  numbers 
70  and  there  is  a  kindergarten  with  about  40. 
Sewing  circles,  mothers'  meetings,  YPSCE  and 
other  organizations  are  developed  in  good 
degree.  The  Society  has  also  established  work 
in  Hu-nan,  China,  at  Chang-te,  and  has  2  mission- 
aries working  in  alliance  with  the  mission  of  th& 
Cumberland  Presbyterians. 

The  headquarters  of  the  Society  are  in  Pitts- 
burg, Pa. 

METHODS  OF  MISSIONARY  WORK:  Methods 
adopted  in  missionary  work  may  be  considered 
as,  1st,  Evangelistic;  2d,  Pastoral.  The  first  has. 
primary  reference  to  the  conversion  of  men,  the 
second  to  their  development  into  a  likeness  to 
Christ. 

To  use  the  language  of  a  secretary  of  the  CMS, 
we  have:  "1.  The  preaching  of  the  Gospel  to  the 
unconverted;  2.  The  building  up  of  the  native 
church  as  it  is  pictured  to  us  in  the  concluding 
chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel,  where  Christ's  ser- 
vants are  represented  in  figure,  first  as  fishers- 
casting  the  Gospel  net,  and  then  as  shepherd* 
feeding  and  tending  the  flock.  Education  is  a 
part  of  each.  For  the  heathen  and  the  Moham- 
medan it  is  undertaken  solely  as  a  means  of 
evangelization.  For  the  Christian  population, 
whether  elementary  for  the  children,  or  profes- 
sional for  the  future  pastor  or  teacher  or  evan- 
gelist, it  is  a  department  of  pastoral  work.  So, 
too,  publication  is  a  department  of  each.  Medi- 
cal work  is  primariljf  evangelistic;  its  benefit  to- 
converts  is  rather  incidental." 

I.  We  now  mention  first  methods  that  are 
common  to  both  evangelistic  and  pastoral  work, 
not  undertaking  to  be  exhaustive  in  the  state- 
ment of  them,  but  rather  to  indicate  the  line* 
along  which  the  missionary  works. 

1.  Personal  Conversation:  The  prime  element 
in  all  missionary  work  is  the  personal.  Men  are 
drawn  to  men.  Just  as  it  was  Christ's  personal- 
ity that  drew  men  to  Him,  so  it  is  largely  the 
personality  of  the  missionary  that  draws  men 
to  him,  and  through  him  to  the  Savior.  Thie 
has  been  most  markedly  shown  in  the  lives  of  the- 
great  leaders,  Henry  Martyn,  Judson,  Livingstone, 
Goodell,  Hannington  and  others.  Indeed, 
almost  all  who  have  had  success  in  missionary 
work  have  found  their  greatest  power  in  the  close, 
intimate  relation  of  personal  conversation,  per- 
sonal contact,  where  the  needy  soul  felt  the  touch, 
of  the  full  soul,  drew  strength  from  it,  and  wa* 
satisfied;  where  the  hard  soul  felt  the  power  of  the 


467 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


MethodlNt  New 
Methods 


magnetic  soul,  and  despite  itself  was  drawn  away 
into  a  higher  life;  where  the  cold,  indifferent  soul 
felt  the  heat  of  a  soul  on  fire  with  the  love  of  God, 
and  expanded  into  a  nature  purer  far  than  it  had 
dreamed  of. 

It  is  no  easy  thing  for  an  Occidental  to  come 
in  contact  with  Oriental  ideas,  prejudices  and 
habits,  and  to  exert  such  influences  as  shall  bring 
about  change  without  doing  harm.  It  is  easier 
to  repel  than  attract,  to  harden  than  to  soften, 
especially  in  public.  Men  are  swayed  by  the 
power  of  the  mass  of  their  fellow-men.  A  single 
soul  in  a  multitude  may  be  overwhelmed;  in  pri- 
vate conversation  it  may  be  developed. 

Thus  the  fundamental  method  of  missionary 
work  in  every  land  is  intercourse  with  persons. 
Not  only  is  this  true  of  the  inception  of  any  work, 
but  also  of  its  continuance.  It  is  just  as  impor- 
tant and  universal  to-day  as  when  mission  work 
was  commenced.  It  is  employed  by  every  dif- 
ferent agency,  foreign  and  native,  missionary, 
pastor,  catechist;  especially  by  Zenana  workers, 
and  almost  exclusively  by  Bible  readers;  it  is 
adapted  to  every  class,  and  is  almost  the  only 
means  of  reaching  some. 

In  the  pastoral  division  of  missionary  work 
the  element  of  personal  influence  is,  if  anything, 
stronger  than  m  the  evangelistic — certainly  so 
far  as  the  missionary  himself  is  concerned;  and 
it  is  here  that  personal  genius  makes  itself  felt 
most  markedly.  It  not  infrequently  happens 
that  to  a  passing  traveler  the  missionary  appears 
to  be  doing  little  missionary  work.  He  seldom 
preaches;  he  may  not  be  an  educator  or  a  trans- 
lator. Hour  after  hour  and  day  after  day  he  is  in 
his  study,  or  among  the  people,  talking,  talking, 
talking.  Could  the  observer  hear  and  under- 
stand the  conversation,  he  would  marvel  at  the 
range  of  topics,  covering  every  department  of 
human  life  and  every  phase  of  religious  doctrine. 
Shall  tithes  be  given?  How  shall  a  church  be 
organized?  What  is  a  Christian's  duty  toward 
an  unjust,  tyrannical  government?  The  follow- 
ing, jotted  down  in  a  few  moments  by  a  mission- 
ary, will  give  an  idea  of  the  keenness  of  the  ques- 
tioners: "Why  has  Christian  civilization  not 
accomplished  in  America  what  you  preachers 
claim  that  it  is  fitted  to  accomplish?"  "Why 
are  your  Indians  so  bitter  against  you,  and 
repressible  only  by  force?"  "If  friends  pray  for 
us  on  earth,  why  should  their  hearts  be  dried  up 
and  their  mouths  be  stopped  when  they  go  to 
heaven?"  "Can  a  man  be  a  believer  who  has  not 
been  an  infidel?  Must  he  not  first  challenge, 
then  establish,  then  believe?" 

Any  missionary  can  give  instance  after  instance 
where  he  has  had  to  call  up  every  line  of  study 
that  he  has  ever  pursued,  to  meet  the  difficulties 
that  occur  to  the  minds  of  those  he  seeks  to  help. 
But  not  only  does  he  have  to  meet  personal  que- 
ries. The  missionary  must  be  a  statesman. 
Church  quarrels  occur  on  mission  ground  as  well 
as  in  Christian  lands,  and  it  is  often  owing  chiefly 
to  the  missionaries'  personal  power  that  they  are 
overcome.  Conflicts  with  persecuting  relatives 
furnish  some  of  the  most  difficult  cases.  But 
instances  need  not  be  repeated  to  show  that  per- 
sonal influence  of  one  who  is  full  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  is  the  effective  instrumentality  in  modern 
as  in  ancient  missions. 

2.  Public  Preaching:  This  is  the  development 
of  personal  conversation — is,  in  fact,  personal 
conversation  on  a  somewhat  extended  scale.     It 


is  not  oratorical,  but  conversational;  not  instruc- 
tive, so  much  as  hortatory.     And  it  is  universal. 
Not  a  few  have  the  idea  that  preaching  is  taking 
a  secondary  place  in  the  importance  of  modern 
mission  work.     In  the  large  cities,  schools,  col- 
leges,  Bible  houses,  printing  presses,  are  often 
more  prominent  than  the  preaching  places,  and 
many  a  traveler  passes  through  and  reports  that 
mission  work,  which  is  primarily  concerned  with 
saving  souls,  has  become  a  means  of  diffusing 
education  and  civilization — all  good  in  its  way, 
but  a  departure  from  fundamental  ideas.     Thus 
a  Cliristian  man  visited  the  city  of  Constanti- 
nople, saw  Robert  College,  the  Bible  House,  the 
American  College  for  Girls,  the  school  and  dis- 
pensary of  the  Scotch  Free  Church  Mission,  etc., 
and  said  he  was  glad  to  see  such  good  work  being 
done,  but  was  sorry  to  see  so  little  preaching! 
The  missionary  said:     "Come  with  me  on  Sun- 
day."    Then  he  took  him  from  one  end  of  the 
city  to  another,  and  in  Stamboul,  Scutari,  Galata, 
Hasskeuy,  showed  him  gathering  after  gathering, 
where  preaching  to  audiences  numbering  from 
7.5  to  300  was  going  on  in  Turkish,  Armenian, 
Greek,  Spanish  and  English.     The  traveler  went 
away,  satisfied  that  missions  had  not  made  a  new 
departure  in  that  line.     The  same  thing  is  true  of 
every  mission  station   in  the  world.     Compara- 
tively few  of  the  missionary  societies  report  the 
numJDer  of  preaching  places,  partly  for  the  reason 
that  accurate   statistics   are   almost     impossible, 
partly  because  there  is  such  a  wide  divergence  of 
usage.     If  we  take  the  term  preaching  place  to 
mean  a  place  where  divine  service  is  held  regu- 
larly, whether  conducted  by  a  pastor,  preacher, 
evangelist  or  catechist,  the  number  will  consider- 
ably exceed  the  number  of  stations  and  outsta- 
tions.     For  there  are  a  large  number  of  places 
where  preaching  services  are  held  with  regularity 
in   connection   with   evangelistic   tours,    and  in 
many  sections  of  India  and  China  there  is  not  a 
little  of  public  street  preaching.     The  fact,  too, 
that  there  are   fully   4,000   to     5,000    ordained 
preachers,  and  a  very  much  larger  number  of 
unordained   evangelists,   catechists,   etc.,   whose 
chief  work  is  preaching,  shows  that  preaching  is 
relied  upon   as   a   chief  means   of  bringing   the 
knowledge  of  the  Gospel  within  the  reach  of  men. 
Passing  to  the  pastoral  division,  we  find  the 
preaching  assuming  more  the  character  of  that 
in  our  home  churches.     It  is  less  conversational, 
more    rhetorical;    less    hortatory,    more    educa- 
tional.    Its  range  of  topics  widens,  and  it  touches 
upon  every  and  all  the  various  needs  of  society 
and  the  nation,  as  well  as  of  individuals.     Yet 
always  and  everywhere,  it  is  intensely  personal; 
the  man  is  never  lost  sight  of  in  the  community. 

3.  Sunday  Schools:  These  need  no  special 
description.  They  are  carried  on  in  much  the 
same  way  as  in  home  lands,  exert  much  the 
same  influence,  and  hold  much  the  same  general 
position,  both  in  their  evangelistic  and  pastoral 
use.  An  idea  of  the  universality  of  their  use  is 
gained  in  the  fact  that  in  the  reports  of  many 
societies  they  are  not  classified  apart  from  the 
churches  and  attendance,  the  rule  being  that 
wherever  there  are  services  there  is  a  Sunday 
school,  with  not  far  from  the  same  average 
attendance.  The  fact  that  they  do  not  appear 
in  most  of  the  reports  is  by  no  means  an  indica- 
tion that  they  are  not  widely  used  as  an  evan- 
gelizing agency.  The  chief  hindrance  lies  in  the 
lack  of  competent  teachers,  but  that  is  constantly 


Methodfi 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


408 


diminishing  in  force.  According  to  Rev.  Dr. 
Dennis'  Centennial  Survey  the  number  of  Sunday 
schools  connected  with  the  Protestant  foreign 
mission  enterprise  throughout  the  world  is 
25,889,  and  the  number  of  attendants  1,227,594. 

4.  Education:  In  the  earlier  stages  of  mission- 
ary enterprise  this  form  of  work  was  not  regarded 
as  a  method  of  evangelization  and  was  often  held 
to  be  inconsistent  with  the  strictly  evangelistic 
aim  of  the  missionary  enterprise.  Later  it 
became  readily  recognized  as  an  essential.  Con- 
verts implied  churches;  churches  needed  pastors, 
and  the  contrast  between  pastor  and  missionary 
must  not  be  so  great  that  the  people  should  not 
be  willing  to  look  to  the  former  as  their  leader. 
Education  as  a  direct  means  of  evangelization, 
as  has  been  shown  in  the  article  on  Education, 
has  come  to  hold  a  more  and  more  prominent 
place  in  the  minds  and  plans  of  missionaries. 

1st.  It  is  an  essential  to  the  reading  and  under- 
standing of  the  Bible,  and  upon  the  knowledge 
of  the  Bible  conversion  must  depend  in  a  great 
degree.  Illiteracy  in  mission  lands  involves  not 
merely  ignorance  of  letters,  but  of  words,  as 
expressive  of  ideas.  The  child  in  a  primary 
school  who  has  learned  to  read  has  a  better  under- 
standing of  Bible  truth  than  his  parents. 

2d.  It  corrects  false  ideas,  thus  opening  the 
mind  to  receive  the  truth.  In  many  cases  it  is 
almost  an  absolute  prerequisite  to  such  apprecia- 
tion of  truth  as  must  precede  conversion. 

3d.  It  secures  a  positive  religious  influence  upon 
the  individual,  whether  child  or  adult,  by  which 
the  old  prejudices  may  be  softened  and  new 
ambitions  and  hopes  aroused.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  in  the  influence  of 
education  as  an  evangelizing  agency. 

Looking  now  at  education  as  it  is  actually 
conducted,  it  is  so  similar  to  that  in  Christian 
lands  as  to  scarcely  need  description.  The  con- 
comitants of  rooms,  seats,  floor,  walls,  windows, 
etc.,  are  often  different;  but  the  text  books  are 
much  the  same,  the  methods  are  very  similar. 
The  kindergarten  has  not  been  confined  to  the 
Occident,  but  helps  the  Orient  as  well,  and  every 
form  of  modern  advance  in  style  of  instruction  is 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  Arabs,  Hindus,  Japanese 
and  Kafirs. 

Grading  is  conducted  on  much  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  in  other  lands.  Small  villages  have 
little  more  than  the  primary  school,  where  chil- 
dren (and  sometimes  grown  people)  learn  to  read 
and  write,  and  get  some  idea  of  the  great  realm 
of  knowledge  that  opens  before  them.  The 
larger  towns  and  the  cities  have  every  grade  up 
to  the  high  school.  Boarding  schools  are  estab- 
lished for  those  who,  having  passed  the  lower 
grades  in  village  schools,  are  anxious  for  higher 
education,  or  may  be  fitted  for  work  as  teachers. 
Colleges,  too,  with  courses  of  study  comparable 
with  those  of  England  and  America,  are  found 
everywhere.  In  the  same  general  line  is  the 
movement  for  Industrial  education. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  nurture  of  the  Christian 
community  that  the  value  of  education  in  mis- 
sions is  seen  in  its  fullest  degree.  Without 
undertaking  to  give  a  detailed  statement  of  the 
extent  to  which  higher  education  is  carried  by  the 
different  societies,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  it 
has  been  developed  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
appreciation  of  this  second  part  of  missionary 
work.  When  it  became  evident  that  the  only 
salvation    for   the    convert    himself    lav    in    his 


opportunity  and  ability  to  grow,  and  that  this 
opportunity  could  not  and  would  not  be  given 
or  the  ability  developed  unless  the  society  lent 
a  helping  hand,  then  the  high  schools  and  colleges 
sprang  up  on  every  side.  The  tendency  now  is, 
also,  to  make  these  higher  schools  more  nearly 
self-supporting. 

We  now  note  some  of  the  advantages  gained 
through  the  higher  educational  institutions  in 
missions.  1.  The  furnishing  of  an  educated 
ministry,  which  not  only  takes  the  place  of  the 
missionary,  leaving  him  free  for  the  work  of 
superintendence,  but  enables  the  churches  to  be 
placed  upon  a  more  substantial  basis  of  develop- 
ment for  aggressive  work.  2.  The  supply  of  sup- 
port to  the  ministry  in  the  form  of  an  educated 
laity,  able  to  hold  its  own  in  matters  of  faith, 
resist  any  undue  desire  for  ministerial  authority 
and  exert  influence  in  the  community  at  large. 
3.  Solution  of  questions  of  social  customs  by 
bringing  the  community  in  contact  with  the  best 
results  of  social  development  in  other  lands. 
This  has  its  dangers  as  well  as  its  advantages, 
yet  it  is  a  positive  necessity.  Customs  of  social 
life  a  people  must  have.  If  heathen  ones  are  dis- 
carded, something  must  be  provided  to  take  their 
place.  It  is  chiefly  through  the  higher  education 
that  the  best  Christian  social  usages  reach  the 
people  of  non-Christian  lands.  4.  The  establish- 
ment of  womanhood  in  proper  relations  in  the 
home,  the  church  and  the  community.  The 
occasion  for  the  development  of  the  American 
College  for  Girls  at  Constantinople  was  the  feeling 
expressed  by  parents  of  the  wealthier  classes,  that 
they  wanted  a  Christian  education  for  their 
daughters,  which  should  fit  them,  not  only  for 
teaching,  but  for  presiding  in  their  homes.  Any 
one  who  would  accurately  judge  the  value  of  the 
work  of  the  institution  should  follow  those  young 
ladies,  not  only  to  the  village  life  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Bulgaria,  but  to  the  more  pretentious  homes 
of  the  cities.  5.  Proving  intelligibly  to  the  great 
mass  of  the  indifferent  in  mission  lands,  that  the 
Gospel  takes  in  the  whole  man  and  develops  the 
best  that  there  is  in  him.  In  these  dajrs  of  the 
telegraph  and  easy  communication,  Christianity 
is  judged  by  its  ability  to  develop  as  well  as  to 
impart.  Islam  and  Buddhism  are  losing  their 
hold  upon  men  largely  by  reason  of  their  failure 
in  this  very  regard,  and  Christianity  is  being 
watched  most  closely  to  see  whether  it  meets  the 
need. 

5.  Publication:  As  an  evangelizing  agency  the 
preparation  and  dissemination  of  Christian  litera- 
ture have  always  held  a  foremost  place.  The  place 
of  the  publication  work  in  the  inission  scheme 
has  been  sufficiently  discussed  in  the  articles 
Bible  Distribution  and  Literary  Work  in  Missions. 
For  evangelistic  work,  tracts,  leaflets,  helps  to 
Bible  study,  hold  a  first  place  next  to  the  Bible 
itself.  The  weekly  papers  and  other  periodicals 
also  have  a  high  value.  They  have  more  of 
secular  matter,  but  are  always  not  merely 
evangelical,  but  evangelistic  in  tone  and  reach 
multitudes  who  hold  aloof  from  direct  missionary 
influences. 

In  pastoral  work,  missionary  publications 
include  theological  and  other  text  books  and 
general  literature.  There  is  not  as  inuch  of  this 
as  there  ought  to  be,  chiefly  because,  in  the  great 
strain  upon  the  time  and  strength  of  mission- 
aries, only  that  is  done  which  at  the  moment  is 
most  essential.     As,  however,  higher  education 


460 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Methods 


provides  mature  minds  among  the  natives,  this 
want  is  being  supplied  more  fully. 

II.  Turning  now  to  those  missionary  methods 
which  are  distinctively  evangelistic  or  pastoral, 
we  notice,  as  belonging  to  the  former  class: 

Attention  to  physical  and  social  needs,  including 
especially  medical  work.  The  relief  of  physical 
suffering,  the  supplying  of  social  wants,  is  a 
department  of  missionary  work  where,  except  in 
the  single  item  of  medical  work,  classification  is 
impossible.  Acting  upon  the  general  principle 
that  the  state  of  the  body  affects  most  vitally  the 
condition  of  the  mind,  missionaries  in  every  land 
have  adopted  the  various  means  now  used  so 
freely  and  successfully  in  the  large  cities  of 
Europe  and  America.  "The  gospel  of  a  clean 
shirt,"  or  even  of  any  shirt  at  all,  has  proved  in 
many  cases  a  most  powerful  one  in  lands  where 
social  customs  were  of  the  lowest.  But,  even  in 
communities  where  that  particular  form  of 
evangelization  was  not  called  for,  there  has  almost 
invariably  been  need  of  more  or  less  attention  to 
these  wants,  in  order  to  secure  entrance  to,  and 
appreciation  of,  divine  truth. 

In  the  earlier  history  of  missions,  far  more 
than  now,  persecution  took  a  form  that  left  the 
convert  without  even  the  means  of  subsistence. 
An  excommunication  that  forbade  the  baker  to 
sell  him  bread,  meant  more  than  trial;  it  meant 
starvation  to  the  man  who  was  bold  enougli  to 
accept  the  new  faith.  In  such  circumstances  the 
missionary  was  compelled  to  meet  the  emergency 
in  such  way  as  he  best  could.  Of  recent  times 
that  has  not  been  so  true;  but  the  need  has  come 
in  the  form  of  widespread  distress  from  deluge, 
famine  and  pestilence.  India,  Turkey,  Persia, 
and  notably  China,  have  repeatedly  furnished 
instances  where  the  supplying  of  material  food 
has  prepared  the  way  for  the  reception  of  the 
spiritual,  and  hunger,  cold  and  nakedness  have 
unbarred  many  a  door  hitherto  held  tight  closed 
by  prejudice  and  hostility. 

Undoubtedly  there  is  danger  in  this,  and  none 
are  so  quick  to  recognize  it  as  the  missionaries. 
How  to  give  help  without  pauperizing,  how  to 
avoid  the  appearance  of  a  bribe  to  accept  Chris- 
tianity, has  required  the  most  careful  judgment. 

Medical  missions  have  come  to  the  front  as  a 
direct  means  of  evangelization  with  a  rapidity 
that  makes  one  wonder  why  tlie  Church  was  so 
slow  to  recognize  their  value  and  power.  Their 
general  character  is  noted  in  the  article  on  Medi- 
cal Missions;  here  we  have  simply  to  mention  the 
various  ways  in  which  they  effect  their  work. 

1.  The  most  important  end  that  they  meet  is 
the  alleviation  of  physical  pain,  so  that  the  soul 
can  comprehend  the  force  of  the  divine  message. 
No  one  who  has  been  in  mission  lands  can  have 
failed  to  see  instance  after  instance  where 
preacher  and  teacher  have  failed,  but  the  doctor 
has  succeeded,  primarily  by  removing  the 
obstacles  inherent  in  a  diseased  body,  and  by  the 
positive  attraction  of  gratitude  for  the  kindness 
rendered. 

2.  The  medical  missionary  is  often  a  pioneer, 
securing  entrance  and  acceptance  where  a 
preacher  or  teacher  would  be  immediately 
rejected.  This  is  especially  true  in  such  countries 
as  China,  where  the  prejudice  against  foreign 
influence  is  so  strong  as  to  yield  to  almost  nothing 
else.  Another  notable  example  is  found  in  the 
history  of  missions  in  Korea. 

3.  The  physician  is   often  able   to   exert   an 


indirect  influence  in  favor  of  evangelical  work  by 
winning  the  favor  of  influential  men.  Notable 
instances  of  this  have  occurred  in  the  Moham- 
medan lands. 

The  distinctively  pastoral  methods  of  mission 
work  are  chiefly  connected  with  organization 
and  superintendence,  and  have  been  treated  in 
the  article  on  the  Church  in  the  Mission  Field. 

The  culture  of  converts,  so  that  their  insensible 
influence  shall  become  a  power,  is  worth  empha- 
sizing in  this  connection.  The  daily  life  of  the 
convert  is  an  instrument  of  evangelization  of 
which  missionaries  should  never  lose  sight. 

Family  life  lias  always  received  the  attention 
on  the  mission  field  which  has  only  recently  been 
given  to  it  in  Christian  countries  as  a  direct 
agency  for  proving  the  truth  of  the  claim  of  the 
Gospel  to  renew  mankind,  and  for  arresting  the 
attention  of  those  who  have  not  heard  of  Jesus 
Christ.  This  is  true  in  almost  every  land,  but 
is  especially  marked  in  purely  heathen  countries. 
The  relations  and  mutual  duties  of  husbands  and 
wives,  parents  and  children,  form  not  only  the 
theme  of  much  earnest  thought  on  the  part  of  the 
missionary,  but  of  much  careful  council.  To 
raise  the  wife  from  the  position  of  a  slave  to  that 
of  an  associate;  to  develop  in  the  husband  and 
father  the  sense  of  responsibility  for  something 
more  than  the  supply  of  the  physical  needs  of 
those  dependent  upon  him;  to  educate  the  chil- 
dren to  a  genuine  reverence  rather  than  the 
obedience  of  fear;  to  give  the  home  character  as  a 
center  of  pure  and  godly  life — these  are  some  of 
the  problems  which  can  only  be  solved  by  recog- 
nizing that  the  fostering  of  a  right  family  life  is  a 
true  agency  of  pastoral  work  for  the  community 
at  large. 

Social  life,  or  the  relations  of  families  with  each 
otlier,  may,  perhaps,  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
problems  rather  than  a  method  of  missionary 
influence.  It  is,  however,  gaining  increased 
inportamce  from  the  latter  point  of  view  in  the 
eyes  of  those  who  are  watching  the  development 
of  Protestant  Christianity  in  foreign  lands.  A 
man  leaves  his  old  faith  and  accepts  the  new  one. 
He  cannot,  however,  break  away  entirely  from 
his  old  associations,  which  may  include  those 
dependent  upon  him — certainly  those  to  whom 
he  has  duties.  He  meets  them  daily  in  home, 
in  business,  in  the  social  circle;  is  bound  together 
with  them  in  many  ways.  He  cannot  if  he 
would  isolate  himself  from  them.  It  is  the  old 
question  of  the  times  of  the  Apostles,  and  creates 
as  much  perplexity  now  as  then.  To  meet  it 
wisely,  and  place  the  settlement  on  a  firm,  endur- 
ing basis,  requires  that  the  missionary  make  a 
specialty  of  its  study  in  all  its  bearings,  and  be 
able,  not  merely  to  show  where  the  old  is  wrong 
or  weak,  but  to  present  something  that  shall 
commend  itself  to  all  as  clearly  preferable.  That 
this  is  being  done  increasingly  is  evident  to  all 
who  watch  carefully  the  discussions  of  mission- 
ary methods. 

Community  and  national  life  are  but  the  devel- 
opment of  the  social.  There  are  fields,  however, 
where  they  involve  questions  of  greater  perplex- 
ity. Wherever  Church  and  State  are  united,  and 
political  privileges  depend  upon  ceremonial 
observances,  such  questions  arise.  In  some  cases 
practically  new  states  have  been  formed,  with 
their  entire  paraphernalia  of  offices  and  officers. 
When  this  has  not  been  the  case,  still  the  new 
Christian  community  has  invariably  had  a  dis- 


Metlakahtla 
Mexico 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


470 


tinct  if  not  a  corporate  existence,  which  has  come 
to  be  recognized  as  having  an  important  influence 
in  rendering  the  position  of  the  Church  complete 
and  permanent.  Here  the  missionary  meets  the 
questions  of  submission  to  unjust  laws  and  the 
demands  of  unchristian  governments.  Each 
case  cannot  be  settled  merely  upon  its  own 
merits:  the  foundations  of  a  Christian's  relation 
to  the  "powers  that  be"  must  be  thoroughly 
thought  out  and  clearly  stated.  Most  marked 
instances  of  the  influence  of  missionaries  in  this 
have  been  given  in  the  article  on  the  International 
Service  of  Missions. 

The  Christian  state,  not  so  much  as  an  accom- 
plished fact,  but  as  an  ideal,  is  a  most  practical 
and  important  element  in  the  methods  by  which 
Christianity  is  to  be  ultimately  established. 

Many  things  will  occur  to  those  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  methods  of  missionary  work 
which  might  have  been  mentioned.  If,  how- 
ever, the  impression  shall  have  been  given  that 
Christian  propaganda  should  be  no  mere  hap- 
hazard carrymg  out  of  a  vague,  altho  noble, 
impulse,  but  a  calm,  determined,  well-considered 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  churches  through  their 
representatives  to  establish  Christian  faith,  wor- 
ship and  life  on  a  permanent  and  natural  founda- 
tion in  every  section  of  the  globe,  the  chief  end 
of  the  writer  will  have  been  attained. 

METLAKAHTLA :  A  village  on  the  W.  coast  of 
British  Columbia,  occupied  by  Christianized 
Tsimsian  Indians.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1856), 
with  1  missionary  and  wife,  4  women  mission- 
aries, 4  native  workers,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary  and  244  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  47  are  communicants. 

MEXICO:  Capital  of  the  republic  of  Mexico. 
It  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  plateau  7,500  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the  Tenochtitlan 
valley,  not  far  from  lake  Tezcuco.  In  the  midst 
of  lofty  mountains,  the  climate  is  temperate  and 
healthy.  The  older  parts  of  the  city,  however, 
being  on  marshy  ground,  are  subject  to  malaria. 
The  streets  are  well  paved,  broad,  and  well 
lighted,  and  raised  paved  roads,  called  paseos, 
which  lead  out  into  the  country,  and  are  shaded 
on  either  side  by  fine  trees,  add  much  to  the 
natural  beauties  of  the  place.  The  Roman 
Catholic  religion  is  the  state  religion,  but  other 
religions  are  tolerated.  In  addition  to  the  many 
churches,  monasteries,  convents,  and  other 
religious  or  benevolent  institutions  are  plentiful. 
Schools  and  colleges,  theaters  and  the  buildings 
for  the  government  offices  give  the  city  an 
attractive  appearance. 

This  city  was  founded  by  Cortez  in  1522  and 
stands  on  the  site  of  a  sacred  Aztec  high  place. 
Population  (1900),  344,721.  Protestant  mission- 
ary worlv  was  begun  in  the  city  by  the  PE  in  1870, 
its  aim  being  care  for  the  spiritual  needs  of  Prot- 
estant resident-s  quite  as  much  as  for  the  native 
Mexicans.  The  PN  followed  in  1872,  the  ME 
and  MES  in  1873,  the  Baptist  Home  Missionary 
Society  in  1883  and  the  SDA  in  1894.  These 
societies  together  have  now  (1903)  in  the  city 
35  missionaries,  men  and  women;  161  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  16  places  of  worship, 
21  elementary  schools,  7  higher  or  special  training 
schools,  1  hospital  and  dispensary,  3  printing 
houses  and  2,172  professed  evangelical  Christians. 
MEXICO:  In  form  Mexico  is  shaped  like  p 
cornucopia,    whose    mouth    opens    toward    the 


United  States.  It  anticipated  the  United  States 
as  a  European  colony  by  about  a  century.  Yet 
eighty  years  ago  it  was  glad  to  copy  our  national 
institutions,  and  from  that  time  to  this,  in  spite 
of  the  restrictions  of  papal  bigotry,  it  has  con- 
tinued to  receive  some  of  its  choicest  blessings 
from  this  country — at  the  same  time,  as  must  be 
confessed,  yielding  up  some  of  its  most  valuable 
territories  by  the  arbitrament  of  war. 

Mexico,  as  it  now  stands,  is  a  country  with 
nearly  6,000  miles  of  coastline,  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  which  are  on  the  Pacific  and  the  great 
Gulf  of  California.  It  has  no  navigable  rivers. 
The  east  coast  is  peculiarly  lacking  in  good 
harbors.  It  is,  moreover,  low-lying,  and  as  a 
rule  insalubrious.  Mexico  can  boast  but  ^few 
islands,  and  those  are  insignificant  in  character 
or  extent.  The  mountain  ranges,  which  seem 
to  form  a  sort  of  vertebral  column  throughout 
this  hemisphere  from  Alaska  to  Patagonia,  are 
prominent  in  Mexico,  tho  cut  off  from  the 
South  American  chain  by  the  low-lying  Isthmus 
of  Darien.  The  high  tableland  intervening 
between  the  eastern  and  western  branches  of 
this  great  mountain  range  constitutes  an  admir- 
able highway  for  railroad  development  and  for 
international  traffic — a  fact  which  did  not  escape 
the  eye  of  the  great  explorer  and  philosopher 
Humboldt.  There  is  a  vast  portion  of  land  in 
the  country  that  can  never  become  arable,  but 
for  this  deficiency  there  are  partial  compensa- 
tions :  first,  in  the  prevalence  of  mineral  resources, 
and,  second,  in  the  fact  that  the  coast  is  every- 
wliere  easily  reached.  With  the  establishment 
of  artificial  harbors  and  breakwaters,  access  can 
be  found  for  maritime  commerce,  both  on  the 
Pacific  and  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Yet  the 
whole  situation  indicates  that  the  chief  commerce 
of  the  country  must  be  carried  on  with  the  United 
States. 

In  the  northern  portions  of  the  republic  there 
are  great  barren  expanses,  which,  tho  suf- 
ficiently level  for  tillage,  are  so  lacking  in  fertility 
as  to  promise  but  a  slender  reward  to  agriculture. 
Farther  south,  and  along  the  east  coast,  however, 
there  is  an  affluence  of  fertility;  and  altho  the 
climate  is  often  unhealthful,  the  fruitfulness  of 
the  country  is  such  as  to  supply  a  large  popula- 
tion, if  need  be,  and  a  lucrative  commerce.  In 
Michoacan  and  other  still  more  southern  States 
there  are  extensive  forests  of  all  the  most  valu- 
able timber-trees. 

The  country  is  in  many  places  volcanic,  and 
from  an  elevated  position  in  the  City  of  Mexico 
one  can  behold  several  greater  or  smaller  cones 
which  are  manifestly  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
near  them  extended  plains  of  flinty  lava.  About 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  mountain 
known  as  JoruUo,  in  the  State  of  Michoacan, 
was  thrown  up  about  1,600  feet  above  the  plain 
by  volcanic  action. 

The  mines  of  Mexico,  especially  those  of  silver, 
have  long  been  regarded  as  the  richest  in  the 
world.  It  is  said  that  for  two  or  three  centuries 
Mexico  has  produced  at  least  one-half  of  the 
entire  yield  of  silver  possessed  by  mankind. 
From  1537  to  1880  the  total  yield  of  this  metal 
is  said  to  have  been  nearly  three  thousand 
millions.  The  yield  of  gold  in  the  same  time  has 
been  nearly  one  thousand  millions  of  dollars. 

The  entire  area  of  the  country  is  763,804  square 
miles.  The  population'  (in  1900)  is  nearly  14,- 
000,000,  of  whom  19  per  cent,  are  of  pure  or  nearly 


471 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Metlakniitia 
MexlcQ 


pure  white  blood,  43  per  cent,  of  mixed  race,  and 
38  per  cent,  of  Indian  race. 

In  speaking  of  the  Indian  population,  an  able 
writer  has  justly  said:  "A  wide  difference  exists 
between  the  Indians  of  the  United  States  and 
British  America  and  the  so-called  Indians  of  Mex- 
ico. They  are  a  different  race.  The  Mexican 
Indians  are  docile  and  industrious;  they  engage 
in  agriculture,  in  mining,  and  in  such  rude  arts 
as  are  practised  in  countries  which  do  not  enjoy 
the  advantages  of  modern  transportation.  In  all 
the  wars  in  which  Mexico  has  been  engaged  the 
Indians  have  constituted  largely  the  rank  and 
Hie  of  her  armies.  They  are  now  enfranchised 
citizens  under  the  laws  of  their  country,  and  to 
the  extent  to  which  they  are  taxed  they  enjoy 
equal  political  rights  with  those  of  the  Spanish 
race.  While  the  Indians  and  the  inhabitants  of 
mixed  blood  comprise  the  menial  class,  yet  from 
the  ranks  of  the  aborigines  have  sprung  men  of 
mark — men  who  have  risen  to  distinction  in 
science,  in  arts,  in  letters,  in  educational  employ- 
ments, in  the  church,  in  military  life,  and  in  the 
conduct  of  state  affairs." 

The  Ancient  Inhabitants:  The  Toltecs,  who 
preceded  the  Aztecs  in  the  valley  of  Mexico, 
are  supposed  to  have  migrated  from  tlie  north. 
Like  other  Indian  races  on  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, they  probably  passed  over  the  narrow 
channel  known  as  Bermg's  Straits  from  northern 
Asia,  and  were  attracted  southward  by  more 
friendly  climates  and  more  abundant  supplies  of 
food.  Ebrard  has  given  good  reasons  for  sup- 
posing that  other  migrations  also  occurred — per- 
haps in  some  instances  by  accident — from  Japan 
across  the  Pacific,  and  from  Europe  and  Africa 
across  the  Atlantic.  The  Aztec  civilization  and 
that  of  the  Mayas  of  Yucatan  have  many  things 
in  common  with  Eastern  cults,  and  particularly 
with  the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  of  ancient 
Egypt. 

The  Toltecs  were  in  some  respects  more  highly 
civilized  than  the  Aztecs,  who  finally  conquered 
them.  Their  strength  lay  in  the  arts  of  peace, 
as  that  of  the  Aztecs  was  developed  by  war. 
The  terrible  system  of  bloody  sacrifice  was  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  the  warlike  spirit  of 
the  Aztec  conquerors.  The  Tezcucans,  who 
entered  into  a  triple  league  with  the  Aholcuans 
and  the  Aztecs,  and  were  finally  betrayed  and 
conquered  by  the  latter,  presented  the  highest 
perfection  of  the  ancient  Mexican  civilization. 
One  of  their  kings  was  one  of  the  grandest  figures 
in  history. 

The  Aztecs  were  characteristically  a  warlike 
race;  and,  like  the  Lombards  in  the  Roman 
Empire,  they  took  on  the  culture  of  the  van- 
quished peoples.  Like  the  Venetians,  who,  when 
driven  by  northern  barbarians  into  the  Adriatic, 
built  upon  the  very  lagoons  and  marshes  a 
mighty  dominion — more  invincible  because  built 
upon  the  marshes — so  the  Aztecs,  harassed  at 
first  by  other  tribes,  took  refuge  upon  a  small 
island  in  the  shallow  lake  of  Tezcuco.  This, 
gradually  enlarged  by  driven  piles  and  the 
dredging  of  their  canals,  became  the  impreg- 
nable stronghold  from  which  they  at  length 
dictated  terms  to  all  their  neighbors,  till  they 
had  built  up  a  great  empire,  extending  from 
sea  to  sea. 

No  chapter  of  history  is  more  pathetic  than  that 
which  describes  the  invasion  of  this  empire  by 
Cortez  and  his  followers  in  the  early  part  of  the 


16th  century.  The  combination  of  prowess  and 
treachery,  and  the  heartless  cruelty  inflicted  in 
the  alleged  service  of  the  Cross,  have  left  an 
indelible  blot  upon  the  Christian  name,  and  the 
Aztecs,  in  spite  of  their  bloody  religion,  have  the 
sympathy  of  manlcind. 

The  three  centuries  which  followed  the  con- 
quest are  historically  a  barren  waste. 

The  Dawn  of  Political  Liberty:  This  condition 
of  arrested  development  continued  until  the 
spirit  of  liberty  and  independence  was  awakened 
in  a  comparatively  recent  period.  It  seems  won- 
derful that  Napoleon  I.  should  have  been  the  man 
to  strike  at  last  the  keynote  of  liberty  among  all 
Spaniards  on  both  hemispheres;  but  so  it  was. 
There  had  been  in  all  the  colonies  a  sort  of  chiv- 
alric  loyalty  to  the  sovereigns  of  Castile,  however 
severe  their  oppression.  But  when  in  1808 
Napoleon  sent  his  armies  into  Spain  and  de- 
throned Ferdinand  VII.,  placing  the  scepter  in 
the  hands  of  a  Bonaparte,  the  spell  of  loyalty  was 
forever  broken.  In  1810  the  standard  of  inde- 
pendence was  raised,  a  patriotic  priest  leading 
the  movement.  By  the  year  1821  the  indepen- 
dence of  Mexico  and  several  other  Spanish- 
American  States  had  been  won,  and  by  the  year 
1828  all  the  Spanish  colonies  on  the  Western 
Hemisphere  had  become  free  republics.  But  the 
work  of  reform  was  as  yet  only  partial — religious 
liberty  had  not  been  achieved.  We  come  now 
to  another  series  of  providences  in  relation  to 
Mexico,  and  those,  too,  which  have  to  do  with 
our  own  history. 

In  the  year  1835  Santa  Anna,  then  President 
of  Mexico,  brought  about  a  coup  d'etat,  by  which 
the  governments  of  the  different  States  were 
abolished,  and  all  the  power  was  concentrated  in 
the  central  government  under  his  dictatorship. 

Yucatan  on  the  south  and  Texas  on  the  north 
at  once  rebelled,  and  so  grave  was  the  Texan 
rebellion  that  Santa  Anna  himself  was  compelled 
to  take  the  field.  His  armies  attacked  and  dis- 
persed the  Texan  Legislature,  and  prisoners  of 
war  whom  they  captured  were  mercilessly  shot 
by  his  orders,  thus  rendering  the  reconciliation  of 
the  people  of  Texas  forever  impossible. 

At  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto,  Santa  Anna  was 
vanquished  and  taken  prisoner  by  General 
Houston,  and  for  nine  years  Texas  mamtamed 
her  independence.  In  1846  Texas  applied  for 
admission  to  our  union  and  was  admitted,  and 
Mexico  thereupon  declared  war  upon  the  United 
States.  The  oppressive  acts  of  the  Mexican 
dictator  were  considered  a  first-rate  pretext. 
And,  besides,  the  fashion  of  our  English  cousins 
in  making  conquered  nations  pay  the  expense 
of  conquering  them  was  also  thought  to  be  the 
right  thing  to  do;  and  so  we  concluded  to  defend 
Texas  all  the  way  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Pacific. 

General  Taylor  appeared  on  the  battlefields 
of  Matamoras  and  Monterey.  General  Scott 
marched  triumphantly  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico 
city.  General  Kearney  was  heard  from  in  Ari- 
zona, and  Fremont  in  California. 

The  Advent  of  Religious  Freedom:  Up  to  the 
year  1867  there  was  no  religious  liberty  in  Mexico. 
It  is  true  that  the  Liberal  party  had  m  1857 
drafted  a  constitution  demanding  liberty  of  faith, 
abolishing  conventual  establishments,  and  con- 
fiscating church  properties  in  mortmain;  but 
they  were  not  able  to  enforce  them. 

As  Napoleon  I.  had  unconsciously  promoted 


Mexico 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


478 


the  political  independence  of  all  the  Spanish- 
American  states  a  half-century  before,  so  Na- 
poleon III.  became  the  unconscious  cause  of  the 
later  movement  for  religious  freedom  and  politi- 
cal consolidation.  He  also  attempted  the  dis- 
pensing of  crowns  and  scepters.  The  War  of  the 
Rebellion  in  the  United  States  had  furnished  the 
opportunity.  A  Swiss  banker  had  an  exagger- 
ated financial  claim  against  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment, which  by  the  adoption  of  the  banker  as  a 
citizen  of  France  furnished  the  emperor  with  a 
pretext.  England  and  Spain  also  had  claims, 
and  an  alliance  was  formed  for  an  armed  inter- 
vention. 

In  1862  the  united  fleets  appeared  at  Vera 
Cruz  with  their  contingents  of  men.  But  Eng- 
land and  Spain  soon  withdrew  from  the  enter- 
prise. The  French  army  under  Generals  Forey 
and  Bazaine  fought  their  way  over  the  Cordil- 
leras to  the  capital,  where  they  established  a 
provisional  government  known  as  the  "Regency 
of  the  Empire."  This  virtually  French  Assembly 
submitted  the  choice  of  a  ruler  to  the  patronizing 
French  emperor,  who  was  politic  enough  to  give 
the  crown  of  Mexico  to  the  house  of  Austria.  The 
Archduke  Maximilian  accepted  and,  with  his 
young  and  accomplished  wife,  prepared  for  a 
changed  destiny.  On  the  10th  of  April,  1864, 
amid  all  the  pomp  of  royalty,  this  ill-starred 
couple  left  their  charming  abode  and  embarked 
for  Mexico.  They  arrived  in  May  at  Vera  Cruz. 
Their  journey  to  Mexico  City  was  one  series  of 
ovations  from  the  clerical  party.  Having  pro- 
ceeded first  of  all  to  the  great  cathedral  to  cele- 
brate mass,  they  were  escorted  to  the  old  vice- 
regal palace,  amid  the  ringing  of  bells  and  the 
rejoicing  of  the  Reactionists  that  the  republic  was 
dead,  and  an  empire  was  once  more  established. 

But  General  Sherman  was  already  on  his  march 
to  the  sea;  and  within  four  months  General 
Grant  received  a  sword  presentation  at  Appomat- 
tox which  attracted  the  attention  of  France,  and 
of  all  the  courts  of  Europe.  From  that  day 
everything  went  wrong  with  the  French  power 
in  Mexico.  It  was  patent  to  all  men  that  the 
empire  would  prove  a  failure;  and  the  French 
people  especially  were  vexed  at  the  stupendous 
blunder  of  their  ambitious  and  meddling  emperor. 

Meanwhile,  Maximilian  and  Carlotta  had  both 
sincerely  endeavored  to  conciliate  the  people — 
he  by  special  franchises,  she  by  indefatigable 
charities. 

But  in  July,  1866,  matters  had  assumed  so 
grave  an  aspect  that  the  young  empress,  then 
only  twenty-six  years  of  age,  set  out  with  a  few 
attendants  to  visit  the  court  of  France  and 
remonstrate  with  Napoleon  against  the  with- 
drawal of  his  support. 

The  spring  of  1867  brought  the  beginning  of 
the  end.  Maximilian's  chief  forces,  with  him- 
self among  them,  were  at  Queretaro  under  siege. 
In  an  attempt  to  escape  he  was  betrayed  by  one 
of  his  generals,  placed  under  arrest,  tried  by  a 
military  tribunal,  and,  with  Generals  Miraraon 
and  Mexia,  was  sentenced  to  be  shot.  Meanwhile 
the  republic  which  for  ten  years  had  existed,  we 
might  almost  say  in  the  person  of  a  single  man — 
Benito  Juarez — returned  from  its  exile  and  took 
the  place  of  the  mushroom  empire. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  republic  under 
Juarez  in  1867  that  religious  liberty  which  had 
been  proclaimed  in  1857  was  fully  realized,  and, 
notwithstanding  the  efforts  and  the  bitter  perse- 


cutions of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  it  has  been 
maintained  till  the  present  time. 

The  Record  of  the  Papacy  in  Mexico:  Even  by 
the  judgment  of  candid  Roman  Catholics,  the 
religion  of  Mexico  from  the  very  beginning  of  the 
Spanish  conquest  has  been  a  mixture  of  Chris- 
tianity and  heathenism,  the  latter  often  pre- 
dominating. For  centuries  no  religion  except 
that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  known 
in  Mexico.  When  the  republic  was  established 
in  1823,  and  thence  onward  to  the  proclamation 
of  religious  liberty  in  1857,  an  express  provision 
in  the  constitution  declared  that  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  was  the  religion  of  the  state,  and 
that  no  other  could  be  tolerated. 

One-third  of  the  real  property  of  the  republic 
came  at  length  into  the  possession  of  the  hier- 
archy. Conventual  establishments  for  either 
sex  were  greatly  multiplied.  Mexico  City  might 
almost  have  been  said  to  be  a  city  of  convents  at 
the  time  when  religious  liberty  was  established. 
The  people,  wearied  with  the  long  dominion  of  an 
unscrupulous  hierarchy,  and  remembering  that 
the  church  had  been  implicated  in  all  the  meas- 
ures designed  to  overthrow  the  popular  liberty, 
carried  reform  to  an  opposite  extreme  of  intoler- 
ance. It  confiscated  a  large  portion  of  the  church 
property,  silenced  the  clangor  of  convent-bells, 
which  the  public  patience  had  so  long  endured, 
ordered  the  long  robes  and  shovel-hats  and  other 
insignia  of  the  priesthood  and  other  sacred  orders 
to  be  laid  aside  when  appearing  upon  the  public 
streets,  and  suppressed  all  public  processions  and 
various  childish  pageants.  The  Jesuits  were  ban- 
ished from  the  country,  as  they  had  been  at 
various  times  from  so  many  nations  of  Europe. 
It  is  difficult  for  any  who  desire  to  be  entirely 
candid  to  decide  whether  the  papacy,  as  it 
existed  in  Mexico  fifty  years  ago,  was  on  the  whole 
a  blessing  or  a  curse. 

It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  altho  the  Virgin 
Mary  was  almost  made  to  take  the  place  of 
Deity,  yet  enough  of  Christ  was  communicated 
to  many  souls  to  save  them  from  sin  and  death. 
Yet  the  influence  of  the  priesthood  was  declared 
by  many  who  were  residents  in  the  country  to  be 
positively  corrupting  to  the  public  morals.  The 
licentiousness  of  their  lives  was  scarcely  disguised, 
and  their  exactions  for  the  performance  of  the 
marriage  ceremony  were  so  oppressive  that  to  a 
large  extent  the  masses  dispensed  with  the  sacred 
rite  altogether,  and,  with  the  poor,  concubinage 
became  the  rule.  The  Bible  was  strictly  kept 
from  the  people,  or  if  found  in  their  possession 
was  burned  as  a  poisonous  and  pestilent  thing. 
In  the  desecration  of  the  Sabbath  the  priesthood, 
by  example,  at  least,  might  be  said  to  take  the 
lead.  The  perfunctory  ceremonies  of  the  morn- 
ing mass  once  over,  they  were  among  the  prompt- 
est and  most  enthusiastic  at  the  bull-fights. 
Gambling  was  a  favorite  pastime  within  the  mon-  ■ 
asteries,  and  that  excessive  wine-drinking  took 
the  place  of  vigils  and  of  fasting  was  too  plainly 
indicated  by  the  rotund  figures  and  sodden 
faces  of  the  padres  whenever  they  appeared 
in  public. 

This  easy-going  life  was  not  inconsistent  with 
the  most  fiery  zeal  for  dogma,  and  the  bitterness 
that  could  persecute  even  unto  death. 

The  priesthood  of  Mexico  was  in  touch  with  the 
priesthood  of  Spain  in  the  palmy  days  of  the 
Inquisition.  This  institution  was  established  in. 
Mexico  by  Philip  II.,  and  the  spirit  of  the  infam- 


473 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


MexicO' 


ous  Torquemada  did  not  fail  to  stamp  itself  upon 
the  new  continent,  as  upon  the  old. 

When  the  Northern  Methodist  Mission  pur- 
chased a  confiscated  monastery  in  Puebla  in 
1872,  and  proceeded  to  adapt  it  to  their  mission- 
ary uses,  they  found  in  the  substructure  skeletons 
of  Christian  martyrs  who  had  been  walled  into 
their  cells  to  perish  from  the  sight  and  memory  of 
men.  Juarez  was  from  the  first  in  favor  of  the 
more  enlightened  influence  of  Protestantism,  and 
every  president  since  1867  has  exerted  his  influ- 
ence for  freedom  of  opinion.  Among  those  of 
liberal  sentiments  there  have  been  two  classes — 
some  undoubtedlj^  mere  freethinkers,  who  cared 
for  no  religious  faith,  but  were  staunch  support- 
ers of  freedom.  Others,  even  tho  Catholics, 
have  advocated  liberty  of  thought,  and  welcomed 
Protestantism,  not  only  because  such  freedom 
is  the  dictate  of  wise  government,  but  because 
they  believe  that  the  disintegration  of  the  one 
dominant  mass  of  the  papacy  is  more  favorable 
to  national  liberty.  Of  this  class  was  General 
Esquibedo,  who  in  1879  was  heard  to  express 
his  satisfaction  at  the  introduction  of  Protestant- 
ism, because  he  believed  that  its  Influence,  even 
its  rivalries,  would  prove  a  benefit  to  the  Mexican 
Catholic  Church,  and  make  it  more  like  the 
Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States. 

The  Present  Status  of  the  Republic:  A  great 
advance  in  industrial  and  commercial  resources 
has  been  made  since  the  more  complete  establish- 
ment of  the  republican  government  in  1867,  at  the 
close  of  the  Maximilian  empire.  The  cause  of 
public  education  has  also  greatly  advanced  since 
the  separation  of  Church  and  State.  It  cer- 
tainly is  not  creditable  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  which  for  more  than  three  centuries  had 
held  dominion  over  the  countrjr,  that  the  break- 
ing of  its  dominion  was  the  signal  for  a  great 
advance  in  the  education  of  the  people.  In  the 
year  1857  the  University  of  Mexico  was  abolished, 
and  was  replaced  by  special  schools  of  law,  medi- 
cine, letters,  agriculture,  mines,  science  and  a 
military  college. 

The  country  has  so  long  been  exempt  from 
serious  political  disturbances  that  the  confi- 
dence of  capitalists  has  been  fully  established, 
and  the  wealth  which  springs  up  with  stable 
government  has  of  itself  become  a  strong  conser- 
vative factor,  and  a  new  warrant  for  future 
prosperity. 

The  capitalists  of  the  country  cannot  afford 
the  luxury  of  the  old-time  pronunciamento,  and 
they  are  now  a  more  influential  class  than  the 
impecunious  adventurers  who  follow  political 
revolution  as  a  profession. 

The  Catholic  party  have  not  ceased  to  reecho 
the  old  cry  of  "patriotism"  as  a  means  of  opposi- 
tion to  Protestant  missions  and  all  American 
influence,  but  the  most  enlightened  statesmen 
have  learned  long  ere  this  that  Protestantism  is 
a  better  friend  ,to  Mexico  than  the  papacy. 
Nothing  is  more  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  Protes- 
tant missions  than  to  promote  annexation  to  the 
United  States.  The  more  free  thought  and  gen- 
eral enlightenment  of  the  people  are  promoted, 
the  better  are  they  prepared  to  maintain  their 
independence.  Such  a  result  is  the  desire  and 
hope  of  all  Protestant  missionaries  for  Mexico. 

_  The  Era  of  Protestant  Missions:  For  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Protestant  movement  we  must  go 
back  to  a  period  anterior  to  the  proclamation  of 
religious  liberty.     The  seed-sowing  of  the  truth 


followed  immediately  the  rude  plowshare  of  the 
so-called  Mexican  war.  The  Bible  was  borne 
into  the  country  by  General  Scott's  army.  This 
divine  talisman,  that  had  wrought  such  marvels. 
in  the  civil  and  religious  institutions  of  the 
Northern  republic,  was  a  stranger  on  Mexican 
soil.  It  was  as  novel  as  a  falling  meteor  from 
another  planet.  The  simple  truths  of  the  Gospel 
were  received  by  the  people  with  a  sort  of  hunger. 

The  American  Bible  Society  had  from  an 
early  period  cherished  a  deep  interest  in  Mexico, 
but  almost  nothing  could  then  be  done  for  the 
spread  of  the  truth.  But  after  the  Mexican  war 
direct  effort  was  made  to  introduce  the  Word  of 
God. 

Rev.  Mr.  Thompson  was  employed  as  a  Bible 
agent  in  Brownsville,  Tex.,  in  1860.  Bible  dis- 
tribution was  carried  on  in  connection  with  the 
missionary  work  of  Miss  Melinda  Rankin  in 
Brownsville,  in  1854.  In  1866  she  established  a 
school  in  Monterey,  Mexico.  As  an  example  of 
the  way  in  which  this  word  found  its  way  and 
began  to  work  like  leaven,  we  may  cite  Ville  de 
Cos,  a  mining  community  in  the  State  of 
Zacatecas. 

An  "ecclesia"  like  those  of  New  Testament 
times  was  formed  in  a  private  house  where  peo- 
pel  met  to  read  the  Word  of  God  in  secret. 
The  proclamation  of  liberty  of  thought  in  1857 
gave  them  courage,  and  the  little  company  grew 
in  numbers  and  in  knowledge.  Sending  to 
Monterey  for  a  clergyman,  they  received  the  rite 
of  baptism,  and  organized  themselves  into  a 
church. 

They  appointed  one  of  their  own  number  to 
conduct  services  and  administer  the  sacraments. 
They  were  instructed  and  variously  assisted 
from  time  to  time  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Provost,  an 
American  physician  of  Zacatecas.  By  the  year 
1872  they  had  erected  a  church,  and  the  number 
of  communicants  had  risen  to  over  a  hundred. 
In  1861,  Rev.  James  Hickey,  a  Baptist  minister 
residing  in  Texas,  being  adverse  to  slavery  and 
unwilling  to  be  drawn  into  the  impending  con- 
flict, crossed  the  Rio  Grande  to  Matamoras, 
where  he  acquired  some  knowledge  of  Spanish, 
and  began  to  preach  to  the  Mexicans.  From 
there  he  went  to  Monterey  in  November,  1862, 
where,  in  January,  1864,  the  first  Baptist  church 
was  organized,  which  to-day  is  one  of  the  strong- 
est evangelical  bodies  in  Mexico.  He  died  in 
1866.  For  about  three  years  the  work  was  main- 
tained by  the  little  body  of  believers  until  1869, 
when  the  American  Baptist  Home  Missionary 
Society  appointed  a  missionary  to  that  field. 
Since  that  time  the  Society  has  prosecuted  its 
work  successfully  in  the  republic,  as  stated  in  the 
article  on  Home  Missions. 

Another  example  of  the  leaven  of  Bible-distri- 
bution was  found  years  later  in  Zitacuaro,  in  the 
State  of  Michoacan.  A  Presbyterian  native 
preacher.  Rev.  Mr.  Forcada,  on  commencing 
missionary  work  at  that  point  in  1877,  learned 
that  a  Bible  depository  had  been  opened  there 
by  a  Mexican  six  years  before,  and  that  four 
hundred  Bibles  and  many  religious  tracts  had 
been  sold.  Thus  the  way  had  been  prepared 
for  an  unexpected  welcome  to  the  missionary, 
and  a  most  gratifying  success.  At  present, 
within  a  radius  of  forty  miles,  there  are  sixteen 
congregations  of  Protestant  Christians. 

Undenominational  Missionary  Work:  Through 
the  influence  of  Miss  Rankin  at  Monterey,  the 


Uexlcu 
Hlldjnay 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


474 


attention  of  Rev.  Henry  A.  Riley  was  called  to 
Mexico  as  a  promising  missionary  field,  and  in 
1869  he  proceeded  to  the  capital,  where  he  found 
the  harvest  ripe  beyond  his  expectations.  He 
began  his  labors  under  the  auspices  of  the 
American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  and  he 
succeeded  in  purchasing  at  a  low  price  a  valuable 
confiscated  church  property.  Meanwhile  an  im- 
portant movement  had  already  begun  in  the  City 
of  Mexico,  where  a  few  prominent  priests  openly 
avowed  their  renunciation  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
dogmas  and  corruptions. 

The  first  was  Francisco  Aguilas,  a  man  of 
great  fervor  and  eloquence.  Alarmed  at  his 
boldness  and  success,  a  fellow-priest,  Manuel 
Aguas,  set  out  to  prepare  himself  to  refute  the 
teachings  of  Aguilas,  who  had  already  been 
joined  and  encouraged  by  Mr.  Riley.  While 
Aguas  pursued  his  investigations  in  search  of 
arguments,  he  himself  became  a  convert,  and  a 
most  successful  preacher  of  the  Gospel.  Unfor- 
tunately for  the  cause  which  they  had  espoused, 
both  of  these  eloquent  men  died  after  a  brief 
career.  The  converts  who  were  gathered  by 
Father  Aguas  were  organized  into  a  church 
based  upon  th3  doctrines  and  order  of  Ameri- 
can Episcopacy,  and  known  as  the  Church  of 
Jesus. 

The  Protestant  influences  that  have  been 
introduced  into  Mexico  have  come  largely  from 
North  America,  and  the  following  societies  have 
accomplished  most  effective  results:  The  North- 
ern and  Southern  Presbyterian  Boards;  the  Asso- 
ciate Reformed  (South);  the  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterian; the  Northern  and  Southern  Methodist 
Boards;  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission 
Society;  Independent  Baptists  of  the  South;  the 
Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the  Southern  Baptist 
Convention;  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Board; 
the  American  Board  (Congregational) ;  the  Chris- 
tian Woman's  Board  of  Missions;  the  Friends' 
Work;  the  American  Bible  Society;  the  Seventh 
Day  Adventists  and  their  medical  work;  and  the 
Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  The 
Plymouth  Brethren  of  Great  Britain,  and  the 
Junta  Misionera,  of  Mexico,  are  also  engaged  in 
active  service  for  the  redemption  of  Mexico. 

Bancrof  (H.  H.)  Resources  and  Development  of  Mexico,  San 
Francisco,  1894;  Butler  (W.),  Mexico  in  Transition,  he .v 
York,  1892;  HaleCS.),  Mercedes,  Louisville,  1895;  .lohnson 
(II.M.), About  Af  exico,  Philadelphia.  1887;Lumini5  (C.F.), 
Awakening  of  a  Nation,  New  Vork,  1898;  Rankin  (M.), 
Twenty  Years  Among  the  Mexicans,  Cincinnati,  1875. 

MEYER,  Philip  Lewis  Henry :  Born  at  Neuwied- 
on-the-Rhine,  Germany,  November  13,  1826,  of 
earnest  Christian  parents.  Died  at  Marburg, 
Germany,  August  2,  1876.  At  his  confirmation 
in  1840  the  love  of  Christ  mightily  took  possession 
of  his  heart.  Successively  a  cabinet  maker,  a 
school  teacher,  a  student  of  medicine,  he  was  thus 
variously  qualified  for  mission  service,  and 
received  a  call  to  South  Africa  in  1854.  He 
reached  Cape  Town  November  3  of  the  same 
year.  He  found  the  mission  station  at  Shiloh 
and  Goshen  in  ashes  by  a  recent  Kafir  war,  and 
commenced  rebuilding  at  once,  studying  the 
Kafir  language,  teaching  the  natives  handicraft, 
and  inculcating  Gospel  truths.  In  1859  he 
founded  a  new  station,  not  far  from  Shiloh,  in  a 
plain  watered  by  the  River  Engoti,  and  called  it 
Engotine.  In  1869  he  received  an  invitation  to 
teach  a  Kafir  tribe  240  miles  from  Engotine.  War 
having  scattered  the  tribe,  Mr.  Meyer  and  his 
family   were  left  alone.     But  he  followed  the 


Kafirs  to  preach  to  them  in  their  mountain  fast- 
nesses. After  peace  was  restored  the  people 
began  to  come  to  the  station  to  hear  the  Gospel, 
and  soon  church  and  school  were  built  and  a 
church  was  organized.  Mr.  Meyer  was  permitted 
to  found  one  more  mission,  but  his  health  failed, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Europe. 

MHOW:  A  town  in  Central  India,  situated  13 
miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of  Indore.  There  is  a  military 
post  1  mile  distant.  Population,  31,800,  of  whom 
three-fourths  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  PCC 
(1877),  with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries,  37 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
3  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  1  industrial 
school,  1  dispensary,  1  orphanage,  and  43  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  5  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  and  35  professed  Christians.  Name 
also  written  Mahow. 

MICRONESIA :  Certain  groups  of  small  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  mostly  north  of  the  equator, 
and  between  the  meridians  of  130°  and  160°. 
This  part  of  the  Oceania  includes  the  Gilbert 
(Kingsmill),  Marshall  (Mulgrave,  theRadackand 
Ralick  chains) ,  and  Caroline  Islands,  the  Marianas 
(or  Ladrones),  and  Bonin  Island,  and  many 
other  small  atolls  and  groups.  With  few  excep- 
tions the  islands  are  low  atolls  of  coral  formation. 
The  groups  vary  in  extent — from  the  single  islet 
half  a  mile  long  to  the  extensive  archipelago 
enclosed  by  a  coral  reef  200  miles  or  more  in 
circumference.  The  depth  of  the  island-studded 
lagoon  thus  enclosed  varies  from  5  to  100  fathoms. 
Some  islands  are  accessible  to  the  largest  ships, 
having  good  channels  through  breaks  in  the  reef, 
and  furnishing  commodious  harbors,  while  some 
have  channels  which  cannot  be  entered  with  the 

Erevailing  winds,  and  others  are  entirely  enclosed 
y  reefs  and  have  no  anchorage.  Ocean  currents, 
with  frequent  calms,  render  navigation  very 
uncertain  and  often  dangerous.  The  area  of  land 
in  any  of  these  atolls  is  insignificant  compared  with 
the  size  of  the  lagoon  or  the  extent  of  the  support- 
ing reef.  The  land,  ranging  in  elevation  from 
5  to  20  feet  above  high-water  mark,  is  composed 
of  coral  rocks  and  sand  washed  up  by  the  waves, 
and  forms  a  series  of  islets  resting  at  varying 
distances  from  one  another  upon  the  reef.  At 
high  tide  the  waves  roll  over  the  reef  at  a  depth 
of  4  to  10  feet  and  between  the  islets  into  the 
lagoon,  while  at  ebb  tide  the  reef  is  bare,  and  fur- 
nishes a  connecting  pathway  from  islet  to  islet, 
except  where  it  is  broken  by  a  channel.  The 
average  area  of  land  in  the  atolls  is  probably  from 
5  to  10  square  miles. 

The  high  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  have 
the  physical  peculiarities  of  the  atolls,  only  that 
the  lagoon  is  replaced  by  elevated  land. 

The  people  resemble  the  brown  Polynesian 
race,  but  they  are  evidently  of  mixed  blood;  and 
their  language  is  not  the  true  Polynesian,  but 
distinct  and  split  up  into  separate  languages  in 
the  different  groups.  They  are  simple  in  con- 
struction, easily  acquired,  yet  quite  difficult  to 
reduce  to  writing  because  of  the  shading  of 
sounds,  and  also  on  account  of  the  presence  of 
close  consonants  at  the  end  of  words.  Five  of 
these  languages  have  been  reduced  to  writing. 
Portions  of  the  Bible,  hymn-books,  and  various 
school-books  have  been  printed.  Some  of  the 
dialects  are  very  expressive,  and  tho  not 
having  extended  vocabularies,  are  rendered 
flexible  by  the  use  of  pronominal  suffixes,  verbal 
directives,  and  terminations  to  indicate  place  and 


476 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Mexteo 
Mlldmay 


to  express  comparison.  Degraded  in  past 
usage,  the  introduction  of  Christian  ideas  means 
resurrection  to  the  language  no  less  than  life  to 
the  people. 

The  religion  of  the  islanders  used  to  be  not 
greatly  unlike  modern  spiritism,  and  their  social 
usages  imposed  no  family  ties.  Polygamy  was 
tolerated  among  the  chiefs,  but  not  very  exten- 
sively practised.  Children  belonged  to  brothers 
and  sisters  of  the  parents  as  much  as  to  the 
mothers. 

The  people  wore  little,  if  any,  clothing,  tho 
the  habits  of  different  groups  show  great  variety. 
In  the  Gilbert  Islands  men  had  no  covering  of 
any  kind;  the  women  wore  a  fringed  skirt  10  or 
12  inches  long,  the  children  being  nude.  In  the 
Marshall  Islands  men  wore  a  fringe  skirt  25  to  30 
inches  long,  and  the  women  two  mats,  about  a 
yard  square  each,  belted  about  the  waist.  Upon 
the  Caroline  Islands  some  covering  was  used. 
The  dwelling-houses  were  mere  shelters  of  sim- 
ple construction,  tho  the  council-houses  were 
large. 

The  forms  of  government  varied,  but  were  all 
founded  on  the  idea  of  the  aggrandizement  of 
the  chief  rather  than  the  good  of  the  subject. 
Human  life  was  slightly  regarded,  and  even  petty 
chiefs  sent  many  a  victim  to  the  executioner. 

Missionary  work  was  begun  on  Ponape  and 
Kusaie  (Caroline  group)  in  1852  by  three  Amer- 
ican missionaries  (L.  H.  Gulick,  A.  A.  Sturges, 
and  B.  G.  Snow)  with  their  wives.  They  were 
accompanied  by  two  Hawaiian  missionary 
helpers  with  their  wives.  The  first  five  years 
were  discouraging.  Many  times  the  enterprise 
seemed  ready  to  fail.  Opposition  of  foreigners 
(self-exiled  and  more  degraded  than  the  natives), 
small-pox  on  Ponape,  insurrection  on  Kusaie, 
disastrous  results  of  contact  with  the  whaling 
fleets,  and  the  dense  paganism  of  the  natives 
themselves  had  all  to  be  overcome  by  the  faith 
of  earnest  men.  The  year  1857  saw  Apaiang 
(Gilbert  Islands)  and  Ebon  (Marshall  Islands) 
occupied. 

During  the  next  five  years  (1857  to  1862)  the 
harvest  began.  During  the  last  twenty  years 
there  has  been  a  constant  increase  of  both  hearers 
and  converts. 

The  changes  which  have  been  wrought  through 
the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  are  truly 
wonderful.  The  transforming  power  of  the  Word 
of  God  has  never  been  more  manifest  than  in  this 
field.  There  has  been  a  marked  development  of 
stability  in  the  character  of  the  natives.  Form  erly 
they  were  dishonest  and  untruthful.  There  was  a 
belief  among  them  that  the  Great  Spirit  used 
deceitful  means  for  the  accomplishment  of  His 
plans  or  for  maintaining  His  authority,  and  the 
people  accordingly  cultivated  deceit.  Ships 
were  often  pillaged  and  the  crews  murdered.  But 
the  Gospel  has  in  many  islands  effected  a  com- 
plete revolution.  Social  ideas  have  been 
changed.  The  family  has  been  built  up,  and  the 
ceremony  of  marriage  is  becoming  more  and  more 
common.  The  practise  of  family-worship  has 
done  much  to  purify  and  crystallize  social  ideas, 
and  a  strong  sentim.ent  of  his  duty  to  guard  the 
household  and  defend  his  family  from  the  lust  of 
even  the  chiefs  is  rising  in  the  mind  of  the  head 
of  the  household. 

Better  dwellings,  greater  personal  cleanliness 
and  tidiness  have  also  followed  the  moral  refbr- 
mation.  Intellectual  progress  is  quite  marked. 
The  schools  are  well  attended.     Native  teachers 


have  done  very  efficient  work.  The  mother- 
tongue  has  become  the  vehicle  of  blessing.  From 
the  first  a  missionary  spirit  has  been  cultivated, 
and  the  young  convert  has  been  taught  to  keep 
in  view  the  prospect  of  becoming  a  teacher  of  the 
new  doctrine  on  his  own  island,  or,  if  need  be,  on 
other  islands.  When  the  work  was  to  be  pushed 
westward  from  Ponape  it  was  done  by  native 
missionaries,  furnishing  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting chapters  in  the  annals  of  missionary  work. 
Going  forth  to  a  people  of  diverse  tongue,  these 
men  and  women  prepared  themselves  for  the 
work,  and  soon  gathered  in  large  numbers  of 
converts. 

The  American  Board  has  training  schools  at 
Kusaie  and  at  Ruk.  There  are  51  churches, 
with  over  6,000  communicants.  The  LMS  has 
a  flourishing  work  in  the  southern  islands  of  the 
Gilbert  group. 

MIDDLEDRIFT:  A  settlement  in  theTransvaal, 
S.  Africa,  situated  on  the  S.  side  of  Limpopo 
River,  about  130  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Pietersburg. 
Station  of  the  NBC  (1897),  with  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  9  outsfcations, 
4  places  of  worship,  9  Sunday  schools,  3  day 
schools,  1  temperance  society,  and  340  professed 
Christians. 

MIDNAPUR :  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
65  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Calcutta,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  canal.  It  is  the  center  of  a  silk  and 
indigo  industry  and  has  a  population  (1891)  of 
32,500,  of  whom  24,700  are  Hindus  and  6,800 
Muslims.  Station  of  the  Free  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society  (1863),  with  (1903)  2  missionanes 
and  their  wives,  3  women  missionaries,  54  native 
workers,  6  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  6 
Sunday  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  16  day 
schools,  1  theological  class,  1  dispensary,  and  213 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  125  are  communi- 
cants.    The   Society  spells  the  name  Midnapore. 

MIDONGY:  A  village  in  Madagascar,  situated 
70  miles  N.  W.  of  Fianarantsoa.  Station  of  the 
Norwegian  Mission  Society  (1894). 

MIEN-CHAU:  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  China,  situated  on  the  Fu-kiang,  62  miles 
N.  E.  by  N.  of  Chengtu-fu.  Population,  70,000. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1894),  with  (1903)  6  mis- 
sionaries, 2  with  their  wives;  2  women  mission- 
aries, 1  native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  day  school,  and  8  professed  Chris- 
tians. A  general  reorganization  after  the  Boxer 
outbreak  is  now  under  way.  The  Society  spells 
the  name  Mien-Cheo. 

MIEN-CHU-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  Province 
of  Sze-chwan,  China,  situated  45  miles  N.  of 
Cheng-tu-fu.  Population,  50,000.  Station  of 
the  CMS  (1894),  with  (1902)  2  missionaries,  1 
with  his  wife;  1  woman  missionary,  and  5  Chris- 
tians.    The  Society  spells  the  name  Mien-Chuh. 

MIHIJAM.     See  Maijam. 

MILDMAY  INSTITUTIONS  AND  MISSIONS: 
The  Mildmay  Conferences  were  inaugurated  in 
1856  by  the  Rev.  William  Pennefather,  Vicar  of 
St.  Jude's,  Mildmay  Park,  at  Bermet.  The  chief 
purpose,  to  persuade  members  of  various  Chris- 
tian Churches  openly  to  acknowledge  their  spirit- 
ual union  in  Christ,  seemed  to  many  fraught  with 
danger  of  an  actual  exhibition  of  disunion  and 
confusion.  In  fact,  they  were  so  successful  that 
in  1869  the  corner-stone  of  a  large  Conference 
Hall  was  laid  at  Mildmay,  and  the  institution 
became  a  center  of  union  for  Christians  of  all 


Mildmay 

Modern  Protestant 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


476 


denominations,  and  has  facilitated  the  prosecu- 
tion of  a  variety  of  evangelistic  and  missionary 
enterprises. 

The  Conference  Hall  is  used  not  merely  for  the 
annual  conferences,  but  for  weekly  evangelistic 
services,  and  there  are  special  rooms  for  Bible 
classes,  mothers'  meetings,  tea  meetings,  etc. 
Closely  connected  with  it  are  a  deaconess  house, 
a  training  home  for  lady  workers  for  home  and 
foreign  missionary  work,  called  "The  Willows," 
a  nurses'  house.  Memorial  Cottage  Hospital  and 
orphanage,  while  a  mission  hospital  at  Bethnal 
Green,  and  a  convalescent  home  at  Ossulston  are 
under  the  same  management.  Special  interest 
attaches  to  the  Pennefather  Memorial  Home  for 
Mildmay  workers  who  are  disabled  by  sickness 
or  age,  and  to  the  mulberry  tree  in  a  corner  of  the 
Park,  under  which  it  has  been  the  custom  to 
gather  afternoon  meetings  during  the  confer- 
ences. 

The  three  departments  especially  connected 
with  foreign  mission  work  are  the  Bible  class  for 
men  in  Conference  Hall,  which  has  sent  out  a 
large  number  of  workers,  ordained  and  lay;  the 
Deaconess  House,  and  the  Willows  Training 
School.  The  Bible  class  is  represented  in  the 
Church  of  England,  Free  Church  pastorates,  on 
the  foreign  fields  in  China,  India,  Persia,  South 
America,  and  Africa,  and  in  work  for  the  Jews. 
The  Deaconess  House  is  the  administrative 
headquarters  for  the  three  branches  of  its  work: 
medical,  home  and  foreign  missions.  The  grad- 
uates are  found  in  every  part  of  city  work  as  well 
as  on  the  foreign  field,  including  some  of  the  most 
difficult  sections,  as  Arabia,  Kashmir  and  Central 
Africa.  For  the  most  part  Mildmay  workers  go 
in  connection  with  the  regular  missionary  socie- 
ties, and  in  the  training  institute  there  is  a 
special  class  in  preparation  for  the  CMS.  The 
organization  is  more  closely  in  charge  of  work 
among  the  Jews,  particularly  in  London  and 
Eastern  Europe,  and  the  Jaffa  Medical  Mission 
and  Hospital  is  closely  affiliated  with  it.  The 
City  Mission  work  includes  rescue  work,  house- 
to-house  visitation  by  the  deaconesses,  and  any 
phase  of  benevolent  effort  that  seems  important. 

The  whole  organization  is  under  the  care  of  a 
board  of  trustees  and  council,  including  represen- 
tatives of  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Free 
Churches. 

MILLER:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Transkei  district,  35  miles  S.  E.  of 
Clarkebury.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1887),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  8  native 
workers,  8  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  4  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and 
37  professed  Christians. 

MILLS,  Samuel  John:  Born  at  'Torringford, 
Conn.,  April  21,  1783,  the  son  of  a  minister.  He 
entered  Williams  College  in  1806  and  graduated 
in  1809.  After  entering  college  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  meet  with  a  few  students  in  a  grove  for 
prayer  and  religious  conference,  and  on  a  mem- 
orable afternoon,  when  driven  by  a  thunderstorm 
to  continue  their  conference  under  a  haystack,  he 
first  suggested  the  idea  of  personal  responsibility 
for  sending  the  Gospel  to  the  benighted  portions 
of  the  earth.  The  young  men  later  formed  a 
society,  whose  object  was  stated  to  be  "to  effect 
in  the  persons  of  its  members  a  mission  to  the 
heathen."  In  1810  Mills  entered  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  where  he  found  Hall,  New^jU, 
Judson,  and  Nott  deeply  interested  in  the  same 


subject,  and  he  proposed  that  they  unite  in  an 
appeal  to  the  General  Association  of  Massachu- 
setts, soon  to  meet  at  Bradford.  This  memorial 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  American  Board. 
Mills,  after  his  graduation,  was  active  in  organiz- 
ing Bible  and  other  benevolent  societies  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  United  States,  and  was  sent  to 
Africa  by  the  American  Colonization  Society  to 
choose  a  site  for  a  colony  of  negroes  from  Amer- 
ica. There  he  contracted  a  fever  from  which  he 
died  on  shipboard  June  16,  1818. 

Tho  not  permitted  to  engage  personally  in  a 
foreign  mission  he  accomplished  much  for  the 
conversion  of  the  world.  From  the  mind  of 
Mills  arose  plans  for  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions,  the  American 
Bible  Society,  the  United  Foreign  Missionary- 
Society,  and  the  African  School  under  the  care  of 
the  Synod  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  beside 
impetus  given  to  Domestic  Missions,  to  the  Col- 
onization Society,  and  to  the  general  cause  of 
benevolence  in  both  hemispheres. 
Dridgman  (E.  C),  Samuel  John  Mills,  New  York,  1864. 

MILNE,  William:  Born  in  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland,  in  1785.  His  fixed  purpose  to  engage 
in  missionary  work  was  formed  in  1805,  at  the 
age  of  twenty.  After  this  he  spent  five  years  in 
securing  a  support  for  his  mother  and  sisters. 
His  early  opportunities  for  education  were  mea- 
ger. Entering  the  missionary  college  at  Gosport, 
he  went  through  the  regular  course  of  study,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Rev.  David  Bogue.  He  was 
ordained  in  July,  1812;  received  his  appointment 
to  China,  under  the  LMS,  arriving  at  Macao  July 
4,  1813,  where  he  was  welcomed  by  Dr.  Morrison. 
China  being  closed  against  missionaries,  and  the 
Portuguese,  who  controlled  the  neighboring 
islands  and  points  on  the  mainland,  being  hostile, 
he  was  ordered  in  ten  days  to  leave  Macao. 

Leaving  Mrs.  Milne  with  Mrs.  Morrison,  he 
went  to  Canton,  almost  the  only  place  in  China 
where  he  could  live  in  safety.  Here  he  remained 
six  months,  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  language. 
The  next  eight  months  he  spent  in  a  tour  through 
the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  distributing  among 
Chinese  residents  copies  of  the  New  Testament 
and  other  books.  After  rejoining  Dr.  Morrison 
at  Canton,  Milne  was  sent  to  open  a  mission  to 
the  Chinese  in  Malacca,  arriving  at  Penang  in 
1815.  He  opened  a  free  school  and  gave  much 
time  to  planning  for  an  Anglo-Chinese  College  at 
Malacca,  which  he  opened  in  1820,  the  idea  and 
much  of  the  early  support  coming  from  Dr. 
Robert  Morrison  of  Canton.  His  main  work 
from  1815  to  the  close  of  his  life  was  the  prepara- 
tion of  religious  literature.  He  aided  Morrison 
in  the  work  of  translating  the  Bible  into  Chinese, 
the  Books  of  Deuteronomy  and  onward  to  Job 
being  translated  by  him.  He  prepared  a  Com- 
mentary on  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesiana,  an 
"Essay  on  the  Soul,  in  two  volumes,  and  fifteen 
tracts,  all  acceptable  to  the  Chinese.  He  had 
great  skill  and  readiness  in  the  use  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  in  addition  to  his  literary  labors  per- 
formed much  evangelistic  work.  His  first  con- 
vert, Leang-Afa,  whom  he  baptized,  was  the  first 
ordained  Chinese  evangelist,  remained  in  the 
service  of  the  LMS  for  many  years,  and  was  the 
teacher  from  whom  the  leader  of  the  'Taifjing 
rebellion  derived  his  respect  for  Christianity. 
Dr.  Milne's  health  failing,  he  took  a  sea  voyage, 
but  returned  weaker,  and  died  in  1822,  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty-seven,  and  when  but  ten  years 
in  the  missionary  work. 


477 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Mlldmay 
Modern  Protestant 


Besides   the   works   mentioned,   he   published 
Retrospect  of  the  Protestant  Mission  in  China. 
PhUip  (n.)>  William  Uilne,  New  York,  1840. 

MILLPORT  HARBOR:  A  settlement  in  British 
New  Guinea,  situated  on  the  S.  coast,  about  80 
miles  W.  of  Kwato.  It  is  a  lovely  situation  on  a 
hill  with  a  bay  on  each  side.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1896),  with  1  missionary. 

MING-CHIANG.     See  Min-tsing-hsien. 

MINGRELIA:  A  district  of  Asiatic  Russia,  in 
the  Caucasus,  lying  between  Tifiis  and  the  Black 
Sea.  Area,  2,600  square  miles.  Surface  gener- 
ally mountainous,  sloping  toward  the  south. 
Climate  warm  and  damp;  fevers  are  prevalent; 
soil  exceedingly  fertile,  and  vegetation  rapid. 
The  mountains  are  covered  with  magnificent 
forests,  and  much  good  land  lies  waste.  The 
district  is  without  external  improvement,  and  has 
a  savage  and  deserted  appearance.  Population, 
240,000,  most  of  whom  belong  to  the  Georgian 
race,  but  are  generally  inferior  in  appearance  to 
the  mountaineers  of  the  Caucasus.  The  domi- 
nant religion  is  that  of  the  Greek  Church.  Min- 
grelia  corresponds  with  ancient  Colchis.  It  was 
long  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Georgia,  was  after- 
ward independent  under  a  long  line  of  native 
princes,  and  became  subject  to  Russia  in  1804, 
but  its  prince  remained  nominally  sovereign  till 
1867,  when  he  sold  all  his  rights  to  the  emperor 
of  Russia  for  1,000,000  roubles. 

There  is  no  distinctive  mission  work  carried 
on  among  the  Mingrelians,  tho  colporteurs  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  go  through 
the  country  occasionally. 

MIN-TSING-HSIEN:  A  village  in  the  province 
of  Fo-kien,  China,  situated  on  the  Min  River  28 
miles  N.  W.  of  Fu-chau.  Station  of  the  ME, 
with  (1903)  3  women  missionaries,  25  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  19  places  of  worship,  17 
Sunday  schools,  14  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  1,457  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
784  are  communicants.  The  Society  spells  the 
name  Ming-chiang. 

MIRAJ:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situated  70 
miles  W.  of  Bijapur  and  32  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Kolhapur,  near  Kistna  River.  Population  (1891) 
26,100.  Station  of  the  PN  (1892),  with  (1903)  5 
missionarieSj  four  of  them  with  their  wives;  2 
women  missionaries,  7  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  2  board- 
ing schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  1  medical 
class,  1  orphanage,  and  37  professed  Christians. 
The  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the  East  sup- 
ports a  leper  asylum  here,  in  connection  with  the 
Presbyterian   Mission. 

MIRAT.     See  Meeeut. 

MIRZAPUR:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
30  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Benares.  Population  of 
(1901)  79,862,  of  whom  five-sixths  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  LMS  (1837),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  with  his  wife;  2  women  missionaries, 
16  native  workers,  1  outstation,  6  Sunday 
schools,  9  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1 
orphanage,  and  137  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  46  are  communicants. 

MITO:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  65  miles  N. 
E.  by  N.  of  Tokio.  Has  a  large  fish  export  trade. 
Population,  19,600.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  wife,  1 
woman  missionary,  5  native  workers,  5  out- 
stations, 3  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools. 


and  93  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
AFFM  (1888),  with  1  missionary  and  wife,^  2 
native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  industrial 
school,  and  30  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  PE  (1901),  with  (1903)  1  missionary, 
1  native  worker,  2  places  of  worship,  1  day- 
school,  and  1   hospital. 

MITSIDI:  A  settlement  in  the  Shird  district  of 
British  Central  Africa,  situated  30  miles  W.  by 
N.  of  Blantyre.  Station  and  plantation  of  the 
Zambesi  Industrial  Mission  (1900),  with  5 
missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their  wives;  1 
woman  missionary,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 2  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  1  industrial 
farm,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  30  professed 
Christians. 

MITYANI:  A  village  in  Uganda,  Africa,  situ- 
ated in  the  district  of  Singo,  40  miles  W.  of 
Mengo.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1893),  with  2 
missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  76  native  workers, 
1  printing  press,  1  theological  class,  1  dispensary, 
and  2,380  professed  Christians,  of  whom  598  are 
communicants.  Society  spells  the  name 
Mityana. 

MIYAZAKI:  A  town  in  Kiushiu,  Japan,  situ- 
ated near  the  E.  coast,  about  100  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Nagasaki.  Population,  5,000.  Station  of  the 
ABCFM  (1894),  with  (1902)  1  missionary,  1 
woman  missionary,  8  native  workers,  25  out- 
stations, 3  places  of  worship,  7  Sunday  schools,  1 
Young  People's  Society,  and  1  orphanage. 

MJOZI:  A  settlement  in  Pondoland,  Cape 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated  near  Mount  Ayliff  and 
about  45  miles  S.  E.  of  Kokstadt.  Station  of  the 
South  Africa  Baptist  Mission  Society,  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  outstation,  1  place  of 
worship,  and  3  professed  Christians. 

MKUNAZINI:  A  village  on  the  W.  coast  of  the 
Island  of  Zanzibar,  Africa,  and  one  of  the  sub- 
urbs of  Zanzibar  town.  The  UM  has  its  head- 
quarters here.     Statistics  given  under  Zanzibar. 

MLANJE:  A  village  in  British  Central  Africa, 
situated  on  a  range  of  hills  25  miles  S.  of  Lake 
Shirwa.  Altitude,  8,000  feet.  Station  of  the 
CSFM  (1887),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  one 
with  his  wife;  7  native  workers,  3  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  4  day  schools, 
1  boarding  school,  1  industrial  school,  and  19 
professed  Christians. 

MLENGANA:  A  parish  in  the  W.  of  Pondoland, 
Cape  Colonv,  Africa.  Station  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  Scotland  (1892),  with  (1902)  2  mission- 
aries, 5  native  workers,  5  outstations,  5  day 
schools,  1  place  of  worship,  and  307  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  112  are  communicants.  The 
Society  calls  the  parish  St.  Barnabas. 

MODERN  PROTESTANT  MISSIONS:  For  two 
centuries  after  the  Reformation  there  was  prac- 
tically no  missionary  activity  in  the  Protestant 
churches.  Erasmus  taught  the  duty  of  world-wide 
evangelization,  but  as  something  for  the  future 
rather  than  the  present.  Luther  seemed  careless 
of  everything  but  the  preparation  of  his  own  com- 
munity for  the  "last  days,"  and  the  settlement  of 
the  violent  controversies  that  were  the  inevitable 
attendant  upon  the  sudden  enfranchisement  of 
individual  opinion.  There  were,  however,  a 
number  of  enterprises,  individual  or  political:  the 
Calvin-Coligny  colonies  in  Brazil  and  Florida 
(1555-64),  more  political  than  religious  in  char- 
acter, and  all  failures;  a  mission  to  Lapland 
(1559)  under  the  auspices  of  Gustavus  Vasa;   an 


Modern  Protestant 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


478 


effort  by  the  Dutch  to  introduce  Christianity 
among  the  natives  of  Java  (1619),  following  the 
establishment  of  a  college  for  the  training  of 
missionaries  at  Leyden  (1612),  and  extending  to 
the  Dutch  colonies  in  India  and  Brazil;  the  early 
efforts  for  the  Indians  of  North  America  by  Eliot, 
the  Mayhews  and  others,  resulting  in  the  grant- 
ing by  the  Long  Parliament  of  the  first  charter 
to  a  missionary  society  "tor  the  promoting  and 
propagating  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  in  New 
England,"  a  society  still  in  existence  under  the 
name,  "The  New  England  Company." 

With  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  com- 
menced a  new  movement,  inaugurated,  not  by  the 
clergy,  but  by  the  laity,  and  including  some 
prominent  jurists  of  Lubeck.  One,  Peter  Selling, 
reached  his  field,  Abyssinia.  In  1664  an  Aus- 
trian baron.  Von  Welz,  issued  an  earnest  appeal 
for  the  conversion  of  the  heathen,  to  which 
Ursinus  of  Ratisbon  responded  that  Greeks  were 
responsible  for  the  Turks;  the  Danes  and  Swedes 
for  the  Greenlanders  and  the  Lapps,  and  that  it 
was  absurd,  even  wicked,  to  cast  the  pearls  of 
the  Gospel  before  the  dogs  of  cannibals. 

Two  years  before  this,  however,  Spener  had 
been  made  pastor  at  Frankfort,  and  with  his 
friend,  Francke,  led  the  German  Pietists  in  giving 
B,  distinctly  missionary  character  to  the  new 
University  of  Halle,  while  in  1700  the  philoso- 
pher Leibnitz  urged  upon  the  Berlin  Academy 
the  duty  of  propagating  "the  true  faith  and 
Christian  virtue  among  the  remote  and  uncon- 
verted nations,"  especially  China.  The  first 
action  under  the  new  impulse  was  the  founding 
of  the  Danish  Tamil  Mission  by  King  Friederich 
IV.,  of  Denmark,  in  response  to  the  representa- 
tions by  Court  Chaplain  Dr.  Liltkens,  and  the 
sending  of  Ziegenbalg  and  Plutschau  to  Tranque- 
bar  in  1705  (see  Danish  Missions). 

The  Danish,  gave  rise  to  the  Moravian  move- 
ment. Count  Zinzendorf,  who  had  given  the 
persecuted  Bohemian  Unitas  Fratrum  a  home 
on  his  estate  at  Berthelsdorf,  visited  Copenhagen 
in  1731,  and  saw  and  heard  of  Foreign  Missions. 
The  result  was  that,  in  1732,  two  Moravians  went 
to  St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  in  1733,  two  more  to 
Greenland,  and  within  four  years  other  Moravian 
missionaries  went  to  Dutch  Guiana,  to  South 
Africa,  to  the  Indians  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Georgia.  This  last  enterprise  became  the  link 
connecting  with  Germany  still  another  chain  of 
missionary  endeavor. 

In  1729  the  Oxford  Club,  of  which  the  Wesleys 
were  prominent  members,  was  founded,  and  six 
years  later  the  two  brothers  went  with  General 
Oglethorpe  to  Georgia,  and  came  in  contact  with 
a  Moravian  missionary.  This  led  to  a  visit  by 
John  Wesley  to  Herrnhut  in  1738,  and  to 
acquaintance  with  Zinzendorf  and  Francke, 
whose  influence  in  Methodism  has  been  great. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  some  time  later  that  the 
distinctively  missionary  feature  of  the  movement 
became  apparent. 

During  this  period,  with  the  exception,  in  a 
degree,  of  the  Moravians,  the  dominant  idea  was 
the  colonial.  England,  Holland  and  Denmark 
had  reached  out  to  enlarge  their  commercial  rela- 
tions. The  needs  of  the  colonists  were  upper- 
most in  the  thought  of  the  home  churches,  and 
the  conversion  of  natives  in  the  colonies  seems 
to  have  been  considered  more  from  the  political 
than  from  the  spiritual  standpoint.  Under  the 
influence,  however,  of  the  revival  spirit  which 
spread  through  England  and  the  United  States, 


and  which  brought  to  the  front  the  Wesleys, 
Whitefield,  Wilberforce,  the  Countess  of  Hun- 
tington, Henry  Venn,  Thomas  Scott,  Philip 
Doddridge,  John  Watts,  Hannah  More,  Jonathaa 
Edwards,  the  Tennents,  and  a  host  of  others, 
a  sterner  sense  developed  of  Christian  duty  toward 
a  world  lying  in  sin.  In  1746  a  prayer  concert 
was  continued  during  seven  weeks,  in  which  Jon- 
athan Edwards  had  a  share.  But  no  practical 
application  of  this  new  conception  was  made  to 
the  work  of  missions  until  Carey's  famous 
"Inquiry,"  and  his  two  sermons,  "Expect  Great 
Things  from  God,"  and  "Attempt  Great  Things 
for  God,"  in  1792.  From  these  resulted  the 
Baptist  Missionary  Society,  which  inaugurated 
the  era  of  aggressive  Protestant  missions. 

From  this  time  on  development  of  the  mission- 
ary idea  was  rapid  and  multiform.  Chronologi- 
cal statement  becomes  confusing,  and  the  topical 
presentation  of  progress  on  the  whole  gives  a 
clearer  view.  Three  divisions  stand  out  promi- 
nently: 1.  The  development  of  the  missionary 
idea  in  the  church;  2.  The  occupation  of  the 
field;    3.  The  results  achieved. 

1.  Development  of  the  Missionary  Idea:  It  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  the  first  influence  of  the 
missionary  spirit  has  always  been  to  subordinate 
differences  of  creed  or  polity.  The  entire  evan- 
gelical element  in  England  felt  the  power  of  the 
initiative  of  the  Baptists,  and  three  years  later 
a  number  of  representatives  from  the  Independ- 
ent (Congregational),  Wesley  an,  Presbyterian  and 
Episcopal  bodies  met  and  organized  "The  Mis- 
sionary Society,"  now  known  as  The  London 
Missionary  Society.  That  afterward  they  sep- 
arated was  due  to  no  lack  of  sympathy  with  each 
other,  but  to  the  simple  fact  that  they  felt  they 
could  accomplish  more  for  the  great  work  by 
developing  their  own  particular  fields.  Thus,  in 
1799,  the  Evangelical  churchmen  formed  the 
Church  Missionary  Society,  in  1814  the  Wes- 
leyans  established  their  own  organization,  and 
later  the  Presbyterians  did  the  same.  But  the 
influence  of  these  societies  was  by  no  means 
confined  to  their  own  circles.  Two  Church  of 
England  organizations,  the  Society  for  Promo- 
ting Christian  Knowledge,  founded  as  early  as 
1698,  and  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  (1701),  which  had  hitherto  confined  their 
attention  almost  entirely  to  the  home  and  colo- 
nial needs,  broadened  their  outlook  and  their 
efforts,  and  became,  in  their  own  spheres,  dis- 
tinctively missionary  societies.  So,  also,  the 
General  Baptists  (Arminian  or  Free  WUl)  fol- 
lowed the  lead  of  their  Particular  (Calvinistic) 
Brethren,  and  in  1816  established  their  own 
society.  The  other  Methodist  societies  did  not 
come  into  existence  until  later,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Bible  Christians'  organization,  which 
dates  from  1821. 

Parallel  with  this  movement  in  England  was  a 
similar  one  in  Scotland.  There,  too,  as  early  as 
1709,  a  society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 
edge had  been  formed,  which  established  a  board 
of  correspondents  in  New  York  in  1741,  and 
assisted  in  supporting  workers  among  the  Indians, 
among  them  David  Brainerd.  Following  on  the 
organization  of  the  Missionary  Society  in  Lon- 
don, similar  societies  were  formed  in  Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow,  from  which  later  grew  the  great 
enterprises  of  the  Established,  Free,  and  United 
Churches. 

It  was  characteristic  of  the  broad  view  of  the 
leaders  in  the  evangelical  and  missionary  move- 


470 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Modern  ProteiitBnt 


ment  that  great  emphasis  was  laid  from  the 
beginning  on  the  necessity  for  the  fullest  of  infor- 
mation and  the  best  direction  of  thought  and 
study.  Besides  the  two  Societies  for  Promoting 
Christian  knowledge  already  mentioned,  there 
were  formed  (1793)  the  Religious  Book  and  Tract 
Society  of  Scotland,  (1799)  the  Religious  Tract 
Society  in  London,  (1804)  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  followed  by  similar  organizations 
in  Scotland,  afterward  united  in  the  National 
Bible  Society  of  Scotland, 

In  America,  up  to  the  time  of  Carey,  the  evan- 
gelistic thoughts  and  action  of  the  churches  had 
been  directed  almost  entirely  to  the  Indians, 
tho  before  the  Revolution  application  was 
made  from  New  England  to  the  Presbyterian 
Sj^nod  of  New  York  for  assistance  in  sending 
missionaries  to  Africa.  The  sailing  of  Carey  and 
the  formation  of  the  LMS  aroused  great  interest, 
and  a  number  of  societies  were  formed  in  New 
York  and  New  England,  in  1796-97,  primarily 
for  work  among  the  Indians,  but  in  some  cases 
with  special  mention  of  the  needs  of  foreign  lands. 
Several  magazines  were  founded  and  funds  were 
raised  to  assist  the  enterprises  started  in  England. 
The  foundation  of  Andover  Seminary  (1806)  had 
special  reference  to  the  preparation  of  preachers 
for  mission  work.  As  in  England,  individual 
enterprise  had  a  great  influence,  and  the  munifi- 
cent gifts  of  Robert  Ralston  and  others,  of  Phila- 
delphia, helped  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the 
churches. 

The  special  initiative  for  active  work  was  fur- 
nished by  three  students  in  Williams  College, 
Samuel  J.  Mills,  Gordon  Hall,  and  James  Rich- 
ards. At  the  famous  haystack  prayer  meeting 
in  1806,  they  pledged  themselves  to  the  work, 
and  on  entering  Andover  Seminary  in  1809, 
pressed  the  matter  upon  public  attention  so 
earnestly  that  the  General  Association  of  Con- 
gregational Churches,  at  a  meeting  in  Bradford, 
Mass.,  considered  the  question  of  a  society.  As 
a  result,  in  June  of  that  year  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  wa= 
organized.  As  in  the  case  of  the  LMS,  different 
denominations,  chiefly  Presbyterian  and  Re- 
formed, united  with  the  Congregationalists. 
The  Baptists  continued  to  send  their  gifts  to 
Serampore,  until  the  news  of  the  change  of  views 
on  the  part  of  Judson  and  Rice  aroused  them  to 
the  opportunity  for  a  work  of  their  own,  and  the 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  was  formed 
in  1814.  The  Methodists  established  their  work 
in  1819,  and  the  American  Bible  Society  (1816) 
was  followed  or  attended  by  various  tract  socie- 
ties united  in  The  American  Tract  Society  in  1823. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  influence  of 
the  movement  in  England  was  felt  at  once  both 
in  Holland  and  in  Germany.  In  Holland  the 
sending  out  of  Van  der  Kemp  by  the  LMS 
occasioned  the  organization  (1797)  of  the  Nether- 
lands Missionary  Society,  at  first  as  an  auxiliary 
to  the  English  work,  but  later  independent  in  its 
labors.  In  Germany  the  missionary  interest  in 
Halle  had  practically  died  out;  a  new  movement 
at  Basel,  in  Switzerland,  however,  took  its  place. 
As  early  as  1780  a  society  had  been  formed  for 
the  development  of  evangelical  life,  and  its  mem- 
bers were  in  close  touch  with  the  movements  in 
England.  This  resulted  in  1815  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Basel  Missionary  Institute.  In 
Berlin,  too,  a  similar  movement  was  inaugurated 
by  Pastor  Janicke,  in  1800,  and  as  a  result  the 
Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1824)  was  organized. 


The  Foreign  Missionary  enterprise  inaugurated 
by  Carey,  and  undertaken  in  the  United  States, 
Holland  and  Germany,  passed  through  a  period 
of  severe  trial.  Early  years  of  such  enterprises, 
are  years  of  seed-sowing  rather  than  of  reaping, 
and  the  new  organizations  had  all  they  could  do 
to  hold  their  own.  After  a  period,  however, 
there  seemed  to  come  a  new  impulse  to  the  work. 
One  after  another  of  the  churches  that  had  been 
content  to  act  the  part  of  assistants  assumed  the 
position  of  principals.  Thus,  in  England,  the 
Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists  (1840),  the  Pres- 
byterians (1847),  Primitive  Methodists  (1842), 
United  Methodist  Free  Churches  (1857),  Method- 
ist New  Connexion  (1859),  and  Friends  (1866), 
established  their  own  work;  while  in  the  Church 
of  England,  the  South  American  Missionary 
Society  (1844),  Universities  Mission  to  Central 
Africa  (1858),  led  the  impulse  toward  special 
work  which  developed  in  a  number  of  minor 
societies.  In  1865  the  China  Inland  Mission 
marked  almost  an  epoch  in  missionary  enthusi- 
asm, and  in  1872  was  formed  the  East  London 
Institute,  since  reorganized  with  some  others  as 
the  Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union. 

In  the  United  States  a  similar  impulse  was  felt. 
The  Episcopalians  (1835),  Presbyterians  (1837), 
Lutherans  (1838),  led  the  way,  and  other 
branches  of  the  Church  followed,  until  scarcely 
any,  even  of  the  smaller  denominations,  are  with- 
out a  regular  missionary  organization. 

The  same  development  occurred  in  Europe; 
and  Germany,  Holland,  Denmark,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Switzerland  and  France  joined  the  ranks 
of  Christian  missions.  (See  articles  on  these  coun- 
tries for  details.) 

It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  activity 
of  the  Church  was  by  no  means  confined  to  what 
may  be  called  its  regular  organizations.  Innu- 
merable associate  movements  were  started.  There 
were  missions  to  the  Jews,  missions  for  seamen, 
missions  in  aid  of  special  branches  of  work  or 
fields  of  labor,  medical  missions,  missions  to 
lepers,  to  the  blind,  for  recovered  slaves,  a  Turk- 
ish Mission  Aid  Society,  an  Association  in  Aid  of 
Moravian  Missions,  organizations  for  the  conduct 
of  schools,  orphanages,  asylums  of  one  kind  and 
another.  The  mere  catalogue  of  the  societies  of 
one  name  or  another  in  England,  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  more  or  less  closely  connected 
with  mission  work,  would  outrun  the  limits  of 
this  article. 

Three  movements,  however,  have  been  so 
prominent  and  so  extended  as  to  call  for  special 
attention:  1.  Work  for  women  by  women;  2. 
Work  for  young  people  by  young  people;  3 
Work  independent  of  the  regular  organizations, 
based  upon  a  belief  or  feeling  that  there  was  too 
much  of  machinery  in  them. 

1.  Women's  Work  for  Women:  The  first  dis- 
tinctively woman's  society  was  formed  in  1825, 
in  England,  for  promoting  education  in  the  West 
Indies.  Nine  years  later,  in  response  to  an  ear- 
nest appeal  by  the  Rev.  David  Abeel,  an  Ameri- 
can missionary  in  China,  the  Society  for  Promo- 
ting Female  Education  in  the  East  was  estab- 
lished. The  next  step  was  the  organization  of 
societies  in  connection  with  those  already  repre- 
senting the  different  churches,  and  there  are  also 
independent  societies,  either  for  specific  depart- 
ments of  work,  or  for  denominations,  but  affilia- 
ted, rather  than  organically  connected,  with  the 
various  general  church  societies.  In  the  United 
States   women   were   directly   interested   in   the 


Modern  Protestant 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIOITS 


480 


work  of  the  Boards,  and  it  was  not  until  1861  that 
the  Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society  was 
organized,  representing  six  denominations.  In 
1868  the  Congregational  Woman's  Board  con- 
nected with  the  ABCFM  was  formed,  and  since 
then  the  movement  has  spread  until  there  is 
scarcely  a  denomination  that  has  not  some  form 
of  organization  in  which  the  women  of  the  church 
combine  either  for  independent  worlc  or  for  assist- 
ance to  the  Board  of  their  own  denomination. 

In  Germany,  the  famous  Kaiserswerth  Dea- 
coness Society  was  organized  for  local  and  home 
work  in  1836,  but  did  not  commence  foreign 
work  until  1S51.  A  woman's  society  for  Chris- 
tian Female  Education  in  Eastern  countries,  in 
Berlin,  dates  back  to  1842,  and  a  similar  society 
for  work  in  China  to  1850,  but  this  covers  the  list 
of  special  organizations  of  this  Ivind.  France  and 
Sweden  report  women's  organizations,  but  in  the 
other  countries  of  Continental  Europe  this 
department  of  missionary  activity  has  not  as 
yet  been  developed. 

2.  Yovng  People's  Work:  The  earlier  organiza- 
tions of  young  people,  including  in  the  term  stu- 
dents, clerks,  etc.,  were  for  the  most  part  dis- 
tinctl}'  local  in  character.  An  exception  was 
found  in  the  different  societies  of  inquiry,  and 
similar  organizations  in  the  seminaries  and  col- 
leges of  the  United  States,  which  resulted  from 
the  one  started  in  Williams  College  in  1806,  and 
transferred  to  Andover  Seminary.  These  all 
had  special  reference  to  the  study  of  missions, 
and  the  claims  of  the  foreign  field.  The  first 
YMCA  was  established  in  America  in  1854,  fol- 
lowing that  in  London  (1844),  and  almost 
immediatelv  there  developed  the  idea  of  confed- 
eration. A  central  committee  (1854)  brought 
together  the  first  world's  conference  (1855).  The 
central  committee  later  became  the  International 
Committee,  which  has  grown  into  one  of  the  larg- 
est and  most  efficient  organizations  for  Christian 
work  in  the  world.  The  college  department 
(1877)  prepared  the  way  for  an  Interseminary 
Missionary  Alliance  (1880),  and  the  Student 
Volunteer  Movement  (1886),  which  has  devel- 
oped a  world-wide  influence  for  serious  study  of 
the  needs  of  non-Christian  peoples  and  for  bring- 
ing forward  recruits  for  the  missionary  service  in 
all  denominations.  The  more  distinctively 
young  people's  societies,  as  the  LTnited  Society  of 
Christian  Endeavor  (1881),  Epworth  League 
(1889),  Baptist  Young  People's  Union  (1891), 
and  others  have  had  an  important  share  in  the 
growth  of  missionary  interest  in  the  different 
denominations,  through  missionary  meetings, 
mission  study  classes,  and  their  affiliation  with 
similar  societies  in  the  mission  field. 

3.  Faith  Missions:  Under  this  popular,  yet 
incomplete  and  in  some  respects  misleading,  title 
are  often  grouped  a  number  of  societies  and 
enterprises,  more  or  less  loosely  organized,  which 
have  found  their  occasion  in  a  feeling  that  the 
mechanism  of  missionary  organization  is  in 
danger  of  dwarfing,  if  not  quenching,  the  spiritual 
element  in  the  conduct  of  missionary  work.  The 
regular  salaries  paid  or  allowances  given  to  the 
missionaries,  the  detailed  control  of  action  on 
the  field  by  committees  at  home,  the  parapher- 
nalia of  executive  offices  and  officers,  have 
seemed  to  some  inconsistent  with  the  apostolic 
type  of  missionary  labor.  With  many,  too,  the 
doctrine  of  the  second  coming  of  Christ  has  fos- 
tered a  conception  of  the  missionary  enterprise 
as  chiefly  heraldic  in  character.     Such  a  con- 


ception tends  to  tell  the  Gospel  to  as  widely 
extended  an  audience  as  possible.  This  has  been 
most  manifest  in  the  China  Inland  Mission,  the 
Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance,  the  Regions 
Beyond  Missionary  Union,  and  the  Gossner 
Missionary  Society.  As  the  work  of  societies  of 
this  class  becomes  effective,  however,  the  neces- 
sity tor  nurture  of  the  spiritual  life  of  converts 
tends  to  lead  it  to  assume  the  form  of  the  older 
and  more  complete  organizations. 

II.  Occupation  of  Mission  Lands:  The  record 
of  missionary  enterprise  in  the  different  countries 
of  the  world  will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  those 
countries  and  the  societies.  Here  it  is  necessary 
only  to  give  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  move- 
ment. 

Previous  to  the  arrival  of  Carey  in  India  (1793) 
the  only  countries  occupied  by  missionary  effort 
had  been:  South  India  by  Zieeenbalg  (1705), 
Greenland  (1721),  South  Africa  (1737),  Surinam 
(1738),  and  Labrador  (1752),  by  the  Moravians, 
aside  from  the  work  among  the  North  American 
Indians;  and  in  no  case  was  the  occupation, 
except,  perhaps,  that  by  the  Danish-Tamil  mis- 
sion, on  any  extensive  scale.  With  the  forma- 
tion of  the  LMS,  however,  a  new  system  was 
inaugurated,  and  both  in  the  South  Seas  (1797) 
and  South  Africa  (1798)  missionary  occupation 
meant  more  aggressive  work. 

With  the  opening  of  the  19th  century  the  CMS 
entered  W.  Africa  (1804),  and  the  LMS  South 
India  the  same  year,  adding  its  Chinese  missions 
in  1807.  Then  commenced  a  marvelous  growth. 
In  rapid  succession,  West  Africa,  Burma,  the 
East  Indies,  New  Zealand,  Syria,  Ceylon,  Mada- 
gascar, the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Egypt,  Greece, 
Siam,  Persia,  Abyssinia,  Asia  Minor,  South 
America,  Malaysia,  the  New  Hebrides,  Assam, 
Central  America,  Melanesia,  Bulgaria,  Japan, 
Formosa,  were  occupied,  while  reenforcements 
poured  into  India,  China,  Africa.  With  the  last 
half  of  the  century  there  seemed  to  come  a  new 
impulse.  Not  merely  the  regular  missionary 
societies,  but  others  less  distinctively  foreign  and 
evangelistic  in  character,  joined  in  the  move- 
ment, until,  by  the  close  of  the  century,  the  world 
field  was  fairly  well  occupied,  as  will  be  evident 
from  the  tables  in  the  appendix. 

America:  The  mission  fields  of  the  northern 
continent  include:  Alaska:  11  societies,  118  mis- 
sionaries, 53  stations  and  outstations.  Canada 
and  Labrador  (Indians  and  Eskimos):  11  socie- 
ties, 329  missionaries,  202  stations.  United 
States  (among  the  Indians):  17  societies,  233 
missionaries,  293  stations.  Mexico:  21  societies, 
210  missionaries,  532  stations.  Central  America: 
11  societies,  102  missionaries,  105  stations.  West 
Indies:  36  societies,  444  missionaries,  814  sta- 
tions. South  America:  36  societies,  672  mis- 
sionaries, 575  stations. 

The  Pacific  Islands:  Oceania:  15  societies,  338 
missionaries,  2,120  stations.  New  Zealand, 
Australia  (aborigines),  New  Guinea:  14  societies, 
135  missionaries,  202  stations.  Malaysia:  26 
societies,  305  missionaries,  659  stations. 

Asia:  Japan:  47  societies,  772  missionaries, 
1,100  stations.  Korea:  11  societies,  141  nais- 
sionaries,  380  stations.  China:  68  societies, 
2,775  missionaries,  3,129  stations.  Siam,  Laos, 
Straits  Settlements,  etc. :  9  societies,  164  mission- 
aries, 69  stations.  Burma:  11  societies,  202  mis- 
sionaries, 586  stations.  Ceylon:  11  societies,  229 
missionaries,  459  stations.  India:  93  societies, 
3,836   missionaries,   6,624  stations.     Persia:     6 


481 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Modern  Protestant 


societies,  85  missionaries,  93  stations.     Turkey: 
31  societies,  637  missionaries,  648  stations. 

Africa:  (The  figures  are  for  the  wliole  conti- 
nent):  95  societies,  3,051  missionaries,  6,838  sta- 
tions. 

Europe:  Roman  Catholic  countries:  27  socie- 
ties, 274  missionaries,  480  stations. 

A  somewhat  detailed  chronological  table  of  the 
extension  of  modern  missions  will  be  found  in 
Appendix  II. 

In  this  extension,  in  the  earlier  history,  avail- 
ability and  popular  interest  seem  to  have  gov- 
erned in  the  selection  of  fields,  rather  than  any 
definite  and  well  considered  plan.  The  wall 
built  around  India  by  the  East  India  Company 
and  the  impenetrability  of  China  compelled  the 
societies  to  look  elsewhere,  while  the  reports  of 
navigators  brought  the  conditions  in  the  Pacific 
islands  and  along  the  African  coast  so  vividly 
before  Christians  as  to  rivet  attention  upon  their 
needs.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  barriers  were 
down,  even  partially,  there  was  a  general  rush 
for  the  countries  that  loomed  so  large  in  the 
public  eye.  The  result  was  inevitably  a  conges- 
tion of  missionary  effort  in  certain  localities, 
especially  the  centers,  while  large  sections 
remained  unoccupied.  This  has  often  been  com- 
mented upon  adversely  as  indicating  a  desire  to 
reap  where  the  harvest  was  easiest,  and  where  the 
brunt  of  the  battle  had  already  been  met  by 
others,  and  the  conduct  of  the  Moravians,  whose 
special  aim  seems  to  have  been  to  go  where 
nobody  else  wanted  to  go,  regardless  of  any  pos- 
sible results,  has  been  commended.  Undoubt- 
edly some  harm  resulted.  Different  ecclesiasti- 
cal systems,  different  nationalities,  have  never 
yet  been  able  to  work  side  by  side  without 
some  unpleasing  rivalry.  It  may,  however,  be 
doubted  whether  on  the  whole  more  good  than 
evil  did  not  result.  Monopoly  may  be  as  unfor- 
tunate in  mission  enterprise  as  in  the  commercial 
world,  and  the  most  conscientious  conduct  of  an 
enterprise  is  not  without  stimulus  from  the 
proximity  of  another  aggressive  agency.  This  is 
no  excuse  for  the  lack  of  comity  (merely  another 
term  for  courtesy);  it  is  but  a  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  the  individualism  of  Protestantism  has 
been  a  factor  in  the  extension  of  missions,  with 
its  advantageous  as  well  as  disadvantageous 
results.  Now  that  there  are  few  new  fields  to 
enter,  and,  it  may  be  hoped,  no  new  societies  are 
to  be  formed  to  enter  them,  the  time  seems  to 
have  come  for  a  careful  coordination  of  the  exist- 
ing forces  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Results:  In  a  sense  this  entire  volume  is  the 
record  of  the  results  achieved  during  a  century 
of  missionary  activity.  It  remains  here  only  to 
indicate  the  lines  in  which  these  results  have 
been  secured. 

At  Home:  There  is  a  very  general  idea  that 
the  churches  organized  on  the  foreign  field  and 
the  number  of  members  represent  all,  or  nearly 
all,  the  results  of  missionary  effort.  In  truth, 
results  are  manifest  fully  as  clearly  in  the  com- 
munities that  send  the  missionaries  as  in  those 
to  which  they  go:  indirectly,  in  their  contribu- 
tions to  science,  commerce,  and  the  general  life 
of  the  nations;  directly,  in  their  influence  upon 
the  Church,  both  in  its  activities,  in  its  spirit- 
ual life,  and  in  confirming  its  faith  in  the  unique 
power  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  Indirect 
results  of  missions  are  suggested  in  the  articles 
Commerce  and  Missions,  Science  and  Missions, 
and  International  Service  of  Missions. 
•SI 


Important  as  are  these  indirect  results,  they 
are  far  less  significant  than  those  manifest  in  the 
life  of  the  churches. 

Of  those,  perhaps,  the  most  prominent  is  the 
organization  of  mission  work.  (See  also  articles 
on  Finances,  on  Study  classes,  etc.)  There  is 
to-day  no  more  thoroughly  organized  enterprise 
in  tlie  world  than  the  work  of  foreign  missions, 
and  not  a  year  passes  but  some  detail  is  per- 
fected in  the  effort  to  bring  not  merely  every 
church,  but  every  member,  and  even  every 
attendant,  into  touch  with  the  work  that  links 
America  and  Europe  to  every  part  of  the  world. 
To  some,  these  boards,  committees,  officers, 
branches,  and  cradle  rolls,  periodicals,  study 
classes,  campaigns,  systematic  and  proportionate 
giving,  cent-a-day  mite  societies,  and  so  on,  savor 
of  too  much  machinery,  yet  not  a  single  factor 
but  has  come  into  existence  because  of  some 
evident  need.  It  was  a  comparatively  simple 
matter  for  the  Baptist  ministers  to  hand  over  to 
William  Carey  their  £13  2s.  6d.  It  is  a  very 
diiierent  thing  to  gather  from  thousands  of 
churches  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  individual 
givers  millions  of  dollars,  and  to  send  them  in 
all  sorts  of  currencies  by  every  conceivable 
means  to  the  farthest  corner  of  the  world,  and  to 
have  record  of  the  use  made  of  every  cent.  Yet 
this  is  but  one  of  the  many  departments  of  the 
home  organization. 

Turning  to  other  departments  of  church  life,  it  is 
noticeable  that  everywhere  the  work  at  home 
has  grown  in  proportion  to  the  work  abroad. 
Home  missions,  in  their  various  phases,  are  the 
result  of  foreign  missions.  This  is,  of  course,  a 
general  statement,  to  which  exception  may  be 
taken  in  details,  but  it  remains  unquestionably 
true  that  the  foreign  missionary  work  of  (he 
Chu'ch  has  led  the  way,  and  marked  the  path  for 
its  activities  in  very  nearly  every  direction. 

Other  results  are  manifest  in  the  number  of 
books',  not  to  speak  of  periodicals,  leaflets,  efc, 
published  each  year,  that  have  a  direct  relation 
to  missions,  either  descriptive  of  them,  or  sug- 
gested by  them,  all  of  which  indicate  what  a 
hold  missions  have  upon  the  public  interest.  The 
early  tract  societies  were  organized  to  supply, 
through  benevolence,  those  books  which  the 
ordinary  publisher  could  not  afford  to  print. 
To-day  the  most  enterprising  publishers  are  glad 
to  get  good  books  on  missions,  or  by  missionaries, 
on  various  questions  of  international  importance. 
Through  this  and  through  travel,  largely  under 
the  lead  of  missions,  the  Church  has  come  into  a 
sane  and  wholesome  relation  and  sympathy 
with  the  people  it  seeks  to  reach  with  the  Gospel. 
The  word  "heathen"  is  fast  following  the  word 
"barbarian"  into  oblivion,  not  because  the  sin 
and  evils  of  heathenism  are  any  less  real,  but 
because  the  individual  heathen  is  coming  to  be 
looked  upon  as  a  man  and  not  as  little  more  than 
a  beast.    (See  International  Service  of  Missions.) 

Even  more  marked,  however,  have  been  the 
results  of  the  foreign  mission  enterprise  upon  1  he 
character  and  life  of  the  Church  at  home.  The 
individual  Christian  has  been  inspired  and  lifted 
into  a  higher  spiritual  life  by  the  influence  of 
those  who  have  gone  as  their  representatives  to 
the  foreign  field.  Brainerd,  Carey,  Judson, 
Livingstone,  Moffat,  Selwyn,  Paton,  Goodell, 
Hannington,  among  the  pioneers,  and  even  in 
recent  years,  the  noble  army  of  martyrs  in 
China  have  been  a  power  for  individual  consecra- 
tion.    The  development  of  such  leaders  as  Henry 


Modern  Protestant 
HoSat,  Robert 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


48i» 


Venn,  Rufus  Anderson,  and  others,  has  been  no 
small  service  to  the  cause  of  Christian  work.  To 
foreign  missions,  too,  is  very  largely  due  expan- 
sion in  the  benevolences  of  the  Church.  It  is 
not  merely  that  they  practically  originated 
organized  systematic  giving  for  work  outside  the 
bounds  of  the  local  community,  but  they  still 
lead  the  way  in  broadened  sympathies  that  seek 
to  mitigate  the  horrors  of  famine  and  pestilence 
in  the  Antipodes. 

The  one  line  of  growth,  however,  which  is  more 
distinctively  the  result  of  foreign  missions  than 
any  other  in  this  field,  is  that  which  abates  the 
rigors  of  rivalry  between  different  branches  of  the 
Church,  promoting  harmonious  and  cooperative 
action.  Differences  in  church  organization  and 
government,  and  even  differences  in  creed,  inevi- 
tably diminish  in  importance  in  the  foreign  field 
before  the  tremendous  problem  of  making  men 
feel  the  need  of  Christ  and  learn  the  beauty  of 
truth,  purity,  and  love.  For  close  contact  with 
sincere,  unselfish  workers  breeds  mutual  respect 
and  fellowship,  and  walls  of  partition  cannot 
remain  barriers  when  mutual  helpfulness  has 
opened  breaches  in  them.  Not  that  missionaries 
have  been  or  are  disloyal  to  their  own,  but  they 
recognize  the  essentials  of  unity  in  Christ.  (See 
Comity.) 

In  fact,  wherever  we  look  in  the  life  and  activ- 
it^r  of  the  Church,  we  find  the  work  of  foreign 
missions  in  its  various  departments  always  iden- 
tified with  progress  and  growth,  until  the  whole 
Church  is  becoming  what  the  Moravian  Church 
has  been  from  its  inception — an  organization  for 
Christian  missions,  using  the  term  in  its  broadest 
sense,  to  denote  the  whole  enterprise  of  building 
up  the  kingdom  of  God  at  home  and  abroad. 

Abroad:  The  most  common  representation  of 
the  results  of  mission  effort  in  foreign  lands  is 
in  the  form  of  tables  of  statistics.  These  statis- 
tics are  found  in  detail  in  reports  of  societies,  and 
an  abstract  of  their  essentials  will  be  found  in  the 
appendix  to  this  work.  Their  most  important 
meaning,  however,  is  not  always  visible  to  a 
casual  reader. 

As  at  home,  so  abroad,  mission  work  is 
thoroughly  organized.  The  mission  organization 
is  not  a  mere  aggregation  of  missionaries  and 
converts — it  is  a  mechanism,  sufficiently  closely 
reticulated  to  give  it  efficiency,  and  yet  so  elastic 
as  to  give  it  unlimited  power  of  adaptation.  In 
this  mechanism  is  now  seen  a  most  important 
result  of  years  of  labor.  The  native  church  is 
becoming  less  a  mere  company  of  converts,  led 
by  the  missionary;  naore  a  responsible  agency 
for  aggressive  work  and  a  center  for  an  inde- 
pendent community,  a  national  life  which  shall 
be  Christian.  (See  Church  on  the  Mission  Field.) 
Another  result  is  that  with  this  broader  concep- 
tion of  the  purpose  and  function  of  missions  has 
come  in  foreign  lands,  as  at  home,  the  adoption 
of  varying  methods,  with  this  significant  differ- 
ence: that,  whereas  in  Christian  lands  very 
much  of  the  general  training  for  citizenship  is 
secular,  in  mission  fields  it  is,  for  the  most  part, 
distinctly  Christian.  The  schools,  industrial 
enterprises,  hospitals,  asylums,  etc.,  are  not 
merely  for  the  purpose  of  mental  and  physical 
development  and  the  relief  of  suffering,  but  for 
all  these  as  assisting  men  toward  Christian  life, 
and  forwarding  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom 
of  God.  These  different  departments  of  labor 
are  described  in  detail  in  other  articles.  Medical 
Missions,   Education,  Literature  in  the    mission 


field,  work  for  the  Blind,  for  Lejpers,  and  Relief 

Work  in  times  of  calamity.  It  is  significant  of 
the  far-reaching  and  statesmanlike  views  of  the 
pioneers  of  missions  that  scarcely  a  feature  of 
modern  evangelistic  work  in  the  foreign  field 
escaped  their  notice  or  failed  of  their  approval. 
The  various  phases  of  work  have  simply  been 
improved  and  developed  into  their  proper  rela- 
tions to  the  general  science  of  missions.  They 
are  not  to  be  viewed  separately.  All  are  but 
parts  of  the  whole:  the  wheels,  cogs,  arms, 
pulleys,  bands  of  a  vast  mechanism,  which  is  a 
result  of  missions,  and  which  is  increasing  ia 
power  and  effectiveness  every  year. 

The  efficiency  of  these  various  departments  of 
missionary  work  becomes  apparent  to  the  most 
casual  observer  on  observing  any  of  their  line* 
of  influence  upon  the  peoples  outside  of  the 
Christian  community  in  the  mission  field.  It  i» 
not  too  much  to  say  that  the  existing  educational 
movement  in  China,  Africa,  the  Pacific  islands, 
Turkey,  India  and  Japan  was  initiated  and  is 
fostered  by  Christian  missions.  The  establish- 
ment of  mission  schools  has  been  in  some  cases 
the  first  glimmer  gained  by  the  people  of  suck 
a  thing  as  culture  and  growth.  In  other  cases 
where  education  was  known  in  theory  but 
neglected  in  practise,  the  opening  of  mission 
schools  has  compelled  the  non-Protestant  com- 
munities to  establish  schools  of  their  own  rather 
than  let  their  children  be  taught  by  strangers. 
Even  where,  as  in  India,  Japan  and  elsewhere, 
governments  have  placed  education  on  a  secular 
basis,  the  original  impulse,  and  not  a  little  of  the 
subsequent  direction,  has  been  provided  by  mis- 
sionaries. It  is  impossible  to  measure  the  results 
in  this  direction  of  the  labors  of  Verbeck  of  Japan, 
Miller  of  India,  Hamlin  of  Turkey,  or  Stewart 
of  South  Africa. 

It  is  another  inestimable  result  of  mission.* 
that  to-day  scarcely  a  people  in  the  wide  world 
has  not  either  in  its  own  vernacular  or  in  some 
kindred  dialect  a  portion,  at  least,  of  the  Bible. 
The  Bible  has  led  the  way  for  other  Christian 
literature,  and  books,  papers  and  leaflets  have 
been  scattered  broadly  where  Christian  teachers 
could  not  go.  To  do  such  a  work,  missionaries 
have  reduced  to  written  and  grammatical  form 
the  illiterate  tongues,  and  have  mastered  the 
languages  whose  literatures  have  classical 
antiquity.  If  it  be  true  that  mission  schools 
have  trained  the  leaders,  it  is  no  less  true  that 
mission  literature  has  helped  to  train  those  whom 
they  have  led,  and  without  whom  their  leadership 
would  have  been  vain.      (See  Intellectual  Uplift.) 

As  in  education,  so  in  intellectual  life  outside 
of  the  schools.  Islam,  Buddhism,  Hinduism 
have  been  stirred  to  their  depths  and  compelled 
to  meet  treatise  with  treatise.  The  intellectual 
seething  of  modem  times  in  Asia  is  to  be  traced 
directly  to  the  influence  of  Christian  missions. 

Another  result  of  missions  is  their  general  influ- 
ence for  genuine  spiritual  life  in  the  surrounding 
communities.  Church  rolls  and  community  list* 
do  not  include  all  those  who  are  truly  Christians. 
Especially  is  this  true  in  lands  like  the  Levant, 
South  America,  Mexico  and  Spain.  The  original 
purpose  there  was  not  so  much  to  organize  a 
Protestant  church,  as  to  assist  those  in  the 
Oriental  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches  to  a  more 
spiritual  life.  This  first  plan  proved  impracti- 
cable, owing  chiefly  to  the  hierarchies,  who 
resisted  the  growth  of  individual  and  independ- 
ent thought.     But  in  all  these  lands,  and  in  each 


483 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Modern  Protestant 
Moffat,  Robert 


church,  there  has  been,  in  consequence  of  the 
missions,  a  growth  in  spiritual  life  which  gives 
good  hope  for  the  future.  In  the  Oriental 
churches  of  the  Levant  there  is  found  to-day 
much  genuine  Christian  preaching,  teaching  and 
living.  The  same  thing  is  true,  in  some  degree, 
in  countries  where  Protestant  missions  have  been 
established  among  Roman  Catholics.  iSot  mere- 
ly do  many  laymen  of  the  Roman  Church,  but 
many  in  tlie  priesthood,  accept  the  essence  of 
evangelical  teaching,  and  are  grateful  for  the 
influence  it  has  exerted  for  a  higher  spiritual  life; 
but  they  remain  in  their  own  communion,  that 
they  may  use  their  best  endeavors  to  spread  the 
same  truth  there.  The  same  thing  is  undoubt- 
edly true,  tho  in  a  less  degree,  in  non-Christian 
communities.  There  are  not  a  few  Muslims, 
Hindus,  Buddhists  and  others  who  at  heart 
accept  the  Christian  faith  and  seek  to  live  its  life, 
but  for  one  reason  or  another  do  not  make  public 

Erofession.  It  is  not  well  to  judge  such  too 
arshly,  as  lacking  in  courage.  It  is  difficult  for 
us  to  realize  what  it  means,  not  merely  to  them- 
selves, but  to  those  they  love  and  who  are 
dependent  upon  them,  to  break  openly  with  a 
faith  inherited  from  ancestors  extending  back  to 
the  earliest  periods  of  history. 

The  existence  of  such  intellectually  convinced 
men  in  the  ranks  of  Hinduism  and  Mohammedan- 
ism recalls  to  mind  the  vast  numbers  of  others 
who  have  partly  adopted  Christian  ideas.  In 
Hinduism  the  Brahmo  Somaj,  the  Arya  Soma] 
and  other  groups  who  are  trying  to  adapt  Chris- 
tian ideas  to  their  conceptions  of  what  their  own 
religion  ought  to  teach,  or  who  have  adopted  the 
doctrine  of  one  only  God  and  are  seeking  to  make 
their  ancient  religious  writings  support  the 
teachings  of  monotheism,  point  to  another  result 
of  missions.  In  Mohammedanism  the  doctrines 
of  the  Babis  and  of  the  liberal  Muslim  party  in 
India,  which  proposes  to  modify  Mohammedan 
worship,  ritual,  fasts,  etc.,  so  as  to  "agree  with 
the  requirements  of  modern  civilization,"  point 
to  the  same  result.  The  long  years  of  mission- 
ary effort  have  brought  us  at  last  to  some  of 
the  identical  fruits  of  Christian  teaching  which 
preceded  the  downfall  of  heathenism  in  the 
Roman  Empire.  There  the  heathen  philosophers 
tried  to  adapt  doctrines  which  they  learned  from 
Christians  to  their  own  uses,  claiming  that  their 
own  religion  had  always  taught  love  and  purity 
and  spiritual  life.  They  did  not  know  that  thus 
they  destroyed  their  own  religion.  The  crowning 
result  of  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel  must  ever  be 
the  undermining  of  the  ancient  and  pagan  beliefs. 
This  crowning  result  of  Christian  missions  is 
beginning  to  appear  in  India,  and,  perhaps,  in 
some  parts  of  China. 

To  pursue  inquiry  into  the  results  of  missions 
through  the  social,  industrial  and  political  life  of 
the  world  would  unmanageably  lengthen  this 
article.  The  elevation  of  woman,  the  suppres- 
sion of  cannibalism,  human  sacrifices,  and  cruel- 
ties like  the  suttee  of  India;  the  loosening  of  the 
chains  of  caste;  the  breaking  of  the  bands  of 
ecclesiasticism,  and  the  opening  up  of  new  oppor- 
tunities through  the  light  that  is  newly  dawning 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Pacific  Islands,  are 
changes  in  which  missions  have  had  an  important 
part,  since  Carey  landed  in  Calcutta,  Van  der 
Kemp  in  Africa,  and  that  first  company  in  the 
South  Seas.  Other  influences  have  had  thf>ir 
share;  missionaries  have  not  held  a  monopoly  in 
the  general  uplift  of  peoples  long  submerged  that 


characterizes  the  opening  of  the  20th  century. 
It  is,  however,  unquestionable  that  in  most 
cases  missions  furnished  the  initial  impulse, 
and  they  have  always  been  in  the  forefront  of 
every  advance. 

Dennis  (J.  S.),  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress,  Volj. 
I.  and  II.     (Vol.   III.  in  preparation),  New  York,   1897, 

1899;    ( ),  Centennial  Survey  of  Foreign  Missions,  New 

York,  1902-  Beach  (H.  P.),  Geography  arid  Atlas  of  Foreign 
Missions,  New  York,  1903;  Warneck  (G.),  History  of 
Protestant  Foreign  Alissions,  translated  by  G.  RobsoQ 
from  7th  German  edition,  Edinburgh  and  New  York,  1901. 

MODIMOLLE:  Native  name  of  the  point  at 
which  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  established 
its  station  of  Waterberg,  in  Transvaal,  South 
Africa. 

MODJO-WARNO :  A  town  in  the  island  of  Java, 
Malaysia,  situated  about  25  miles  S.  W.  of  Sura- 
baya. Station  of  the  Netherlands  Mission 
Society  (1848),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries,  3 
of  them  with  their  wives;  15  native  workers,  10 
outstations,  10  day  schools,  1  industrial  school, 
1  hospital,  1  medical  class  and  1,411  professed 
Christians. 

MOEARA  SIPONGI:  A  village  in  Sumatra, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  in  the  mountains, 
115  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Padang.  Station  of  the 
Netherlands  Mennonite  Mission  Society  (1891), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school  and  30 
professed  Christians. 

MOFFAT,  Robert:  Born  at  Ormiston,  East 
Lothian,  Scotland,  December  21,  1795,  of  humble 
parentage.  Died  at  Leigh,  near  Tunbridge  Wells, 
August  9,  1883.  His  mother  had  carefully 
trained  him  in  the  Bible,  and  told  him  much  of  the 
early  Moravian  Brethren.  Having  resolved  to 
be  a  missionary,  he  offered  himself  at  the  age  of 
nineteen  to  the  LMS,  was  accepted,  and  after 
spending  some  time  in  special  stud}',  sailed  from 
England  for  South  Africa  October  31,  1816,  and 
arrived  at  Cape  Town  in  1817.  His  request  to- 
proceed  inland  being  refused  by  the  governor  of 
Natal,  he  remained  several  months  at  the  Cape, 
studying  in  the  meantime  the  Dutch  language, 
then  much  in  use  among  Europeans  in  South 
Africa.  At  length  Moffat  was  allowed  to  set  out 
for  Namaqualand,  in  the  Orange  River  country, 
and  especially  for  the  district  controlled  by 
Africaner,  a  chief  who  had  been  outlawed  for 
barbarous  crimes,  so  that  his  name  was  a  terror 
to  all  the  region.  But  he  had  become  a  convert 
to  Christianity.  The  farmers  did  not  believe  the 
reported  conversion,  and  predicted  Moffat's 
destruction.  After  incredible  perils  and  difficul- 
ties he  reached  a  mission  station  called  Warm 
Baths,  where  the  native  Christian  teacher  and  the 
people  insisted  on  his  remaining.  But  a  party  of 
Africaner's  men  appeared  and  carried  him  on  to 
the  kraal  of  Africaner,  beyond  the  Orange  River. 
He  arrived  January  26,  1818,  and  was  cordially 
received  by  the  chief,  who  ordered  some  women 
to  build  a  house  for  the  missionary.  In  this  hut 
he  remained  six  months,  maintaining  regular 
day  schools  and  preaching  services;  exposed  to 
the  sun,  rain,  dogs,  snakes  and  cattle;  doing  his 
own  sewing  and  cooking;  often  having  nothing  to 
cook  and  consoling  himself  with  his  violin  and  the 
Scotch  Psalms.  Africaner  was  a  regular  attend- 
ant, and  proved  himself  to  be  a  true  Christian, 
very  docile,  a  firm  friend  and  efficient  helper  of 
the  mission.  In  1819  Moffat  visited  the  Cape  for 
the  double  purpose  of  getting  supplies  and  intro- 
ducing Africaner  to  the  governor.     The  governor 


IM 


Moeadore 
Mohammedanism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


484 


received  Africaner  with  great  kindness,  and 
expressed  his  pleasure  at  seeing  one  who  had  been 
the  "scourge  of  the  country  and  the  terror  of  the 
border  colonists."  He  was  also  much  struck 
with  this  result  of  missionary  enterprise.  The 
colonists, too,  were  much  astonished  at  Africaner's 
mild  demeanor  and  his  knowledge  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. In  1821  Moffat,  having  married,  com- 
menced a  mission  at  Kuruman,  where  for  many 
years  he  labored,  preaching,  teaching,  without 
seeing  the  people  converted.  In  1829  he  visited 
the  Matabele  tribes  living  south  of  the  Zambesi. 
About  1830  he  completed  a  translation  of  Luke, 
and  printed  it  at  Cape  Town,  himself  learning  the 
printer's  art  and  taking  back  with  him  to  Kuru- 
man a  press  and  its  equipment.  After  this  the 
mission  greatly  prospered.  He  made  frequent 
excursions  into  the  interior  to  visit  other  tribes, 
-where,  amid  great  perils  and  strange  adventures, 
he  made  known  the  Gospel,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  other  laborers.  By  1838  the  entire  New 
Testament  was  translated,  and  in  1857  he  com- 
pleted singlehanded  the  translation  of  the  whole 
Bible  into  Bechuana,  which  was  printed  at  his 
press  in  Kuruman.  The  first  church  was  formed 
in  1829,  at  Kuruman.  In  1870,  enfeebled  by 
age  and  work,  Mr.  Moffat  returned  to  England. 
Mrs.  Moffat,  who  for  more  than  a  half  century 
had  been  a  sharer  of  his  labors  and  trials,  died  in 
1871.  In  1872  Moffat  received  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity, 
and  a  testimonial  of  about  £6,000.  When  he 
entered  upon  his  work  Moffat  found  the  people 
murderous  savages.  When  he  died  he  left  them 
with  a  written  language  of  their  own  and  able  to 
appreciate  and  cultivate  the  habits  of  civilized 
life.  It  was  his  genial  humor,  his  heroic  faith 
and  his  strong  will  that  enabled  Moffat  to  over- 
come every  danger  and  every  difficulty. 

Walters  (W.),  Robert  Moffat  London,  and  New  York,  1882; 
Moffat  (J.  S.),  Robert  and  Mary  Moffat,  London  and  New 
York,  1885. 

MOGADORE:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Morocco,  situated  128  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Morocco  City  (Marakesh),  on  a  rocky  promon- 
tory surrounded  by  sandhills.  It  is  in  three  sec- 
tions, lilce  most  Moroccan  towns,  each  enclosed 
by  walls,  one  being  the  city  proper,  another  the 
fortified  official  residence  quarter,  and  the  third 
the  Jews'  quarter.  It  was  founded  in  1760  and 
has  the  export  trade  of  a  large  district.  Popula- 
tion, 19,000,  of  whom  8,000  are  Jews  and  10,000 
Muslims.  Station  of  the  London  Society  for 
Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews  (1875), 
■with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife,  and 
1  native  worker.  Station  of  the  Southern 
Morocco  Mission  Society  (1899),  with  (1901)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary  and 
1  dispensary. 

MOHALLES  HOEK:  A  settlement  in  Basuto- 
land,  S.  Africa,  situated  in  Kornet  Spruit  dis- 
trict, not  far  from  the  Orange  River.  Station  of 
the  SPG,  with  1  missionary  and  300  professed 
Christians. 

MOHAMMEDANISM:  /.  The  Problem:  Islam 
is  the  greatest  organized  opponent  of  Christianity. 
Geographically  it  has  an  unbroken  field  from  the 
Philippine  Islands  in  the  Pacific  to  Sierra  Leone 
on  the  Atlantic,  and  from  the  snows  of  Siberia  to 
the  equator.  It  has  been  successful  with  every 
xace  type — Semitic,  Aryan,  Turanian.  It  has 
wfon  to  its  banners  polytheists,  pantheists,  Jews 
and  Christians.     It  has  steadily  grown  in  war 


and  peace  for  over  a  thousand  years,  and  to-day 
controls  the  religious  life  of  two  hundred  million 
human  beings.  It  has  a  common  religious  lan- 
guage (Arabic),  which  is  rich  and  expressive,  and 
which  is  the  medium  of  a  literature  of  wide  range 
and  enduring  power.  It  is  the  language  of  com- 
merce throughout  two-thirds  of  the  continent  of 
Africa,  and  is  preparing  the  way  for  the  exten- 
sion of  a  Muslim  civilization.  There  is  a  sim- 
plicity of  practise  in  Islam  which  easily  adapts 
itself  to  its  environment  wherever  it  has  gone. 
Altho  politically  Mohammedanism  has  always 
tended  toward  despotism,  there  is  running 
through  it  all  a  democratic  spirit  which  recog- 
nizes the  brotherhood  of  man,  and  which  places 
all  believers  on  a  common  level.  Its  doctrinal 
code  is  lofty  and  pure  as  contrasted  with  all 
extra-Biblical  religions,  being  based  on  the 
Biblical  standards.  The  ethical  theory,  too,  is 
often  put  into  practise  with  quite  as  much  suc- 
cess as  is  found  in  many  degraded  forms  of  Juda- 
ism and  Christianity.  It  develops  strong  indi- 
viduality, and  yet  binds  the  faithful  together  as 
few  religions  have  been  able  to  do  as  effectively. 
In  the  earliest  days  Islam  was  a  political  as  well 
as  a  religious  unit.  As  a  type  of  the  ancient  life 
which  fashioned  the  nation  into  an  engine  for 
conquest,  Islam  was  a  success  for  centuries;  but 
under  the  new  conditions,  when  nations  are  being 
more  and  more  fashioned  on  the  industrial  prin- 
ciple, it  can  never  succeed  politically.  Muslim 
powers  are  steadily  weakening  as  civilization 
advances.  In  the  endeavor  to  imitate  the  vital- 
ity of  the  progressing  nations,  Muslim  rulers 
invariably  impoverish  their  lands  to  the  last 
degree  and  make  industrial  progress  impossible. 
Muslims  flourish  best  under  Christian  rule  or 
under  a  controlling  Christian  influence.  Syria 
under  the  Sultan  is  growing  poorer  every  day, 
while  Egypt  under  English  guidance  is  growing 
richer. 

But  while  the  political  power  of  Islam  is 
weakening,  and  as  far  as  civilization  is  con- 
cerned may  be  counted  as  dead,  the  last  few 
years  have  witnessed  a  great  religious  revival 
in  the  Muslim  world,  especially  in  Turkey,  India 
and  Africa.  Steamship  lines  make  Mecca  more 
accessible,  and  religious  zeal,  fanned  to  a  white 
heat  at  the  pilgrim  festivals,  is  winning  adherents 
to  the  party  that  cries  out  for  union  in  Islam. 
Loss  of  political  power  seems  to  permit  unity  of 
religious  life  to  the  Mohammedan  world,  the  like 
of  which  has  not  been  witnessed  since  the 
Ommeiads  from  Damascus  ruled  an  unbroken 
territory  from  the  Indus  to  the  Atlantic.  Islam 
is  throwing  itself  with  all  its  combined  forces 
upon  the  inferior  races  of  Asia,  Australasia  and 
Africa,  and  is  winning  them  to  its  faith.  It  is  its 
last  opportunity. 

Mohammed,  by  accepting  Jesus  as  the  prom- 
ised Messiah  of  the  Old  Testament,  seems  to  have 
allied  himself  with  Christianity  rather  than  with 
Judaism.  He  professed  to  give  all  credit  to  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  Scriptures,  and  his  rejec- 
tion of  the  crude  tri-theistic  Christianity  about 
him  merely  indicates  the  natural  vitality  of  his 
religious  instinct.  Nevertheless,  he  was  chiefly 
moved  by  Judaistic  influences,  and  every  relig- 
ious reformer  in  Islam  urges  to-day  "return  to 
the  faith  of  Abraham."  The  minutiae^  of 
detailed  ceremonial  in  Islam  were  unquestion- 
ably the  result  of  Jewish  influences.  Probably 
the  same  is  true  of  the  idea  of  making  Muslims 
a  chosen  people,. and  of  the  further  idea  of  the 


485 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Mohaminedanisiiii 


relation  of  conqueror  to  conquered  as  the  ideal 
relation  between  God's  chosen  people  and  all 
other  nations.  The  Jewish  expectancy  of  a 
Messiah  in  the  last  days  made  it  reasonable  that 
Mohammed  should  claim  to  be  the  successor  of 
Jesus  who  failed,  and  to  prove  by  his  triumphs 
that  he  himself  was  the  prophet  foretold  from  the 
beginning.  In  short,  the  genius  of  Mohammed 
coined  the  precious  and  other  metals  at  his  hand 
and  put  his  own  image  and  superscription  upon 
the  mixed  resultant. 

In  627  A.  D.  Mohammed  sent  from  Medina  the 
following  letter  to  Heraclius,  Emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople. It  was  his  first  strictly  foreign  mis- 
sionary effort: 

In  the  name  of  God  the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful. 
Mohammed,  who  is  the  servant  of  God,  and  is  His  apostle, 
to  Hergal,  the  Qaisar  of  Rum ;  peace  be  on  whoever  has  gone 
on  the  straight  road.  After  this  I  say,  verily,  I  call  you  to 
Islam  [submission  to  GodJ.  Embrace  Islam,  and  God  will 
reward  you  twofold.  If  you  turn  away  from  the  offer  of 
Islam,  then  on  you  be  the  sins  of  your  people.  O  people  of 
the  Book,  come  toward  a  creed  which  is  fit  both  for  us  and 
for  you.  It  is  this — to  worship  none  but  God,  not  to  associ- 
ate any  with  God,  and  not  to  call  any  others  God.  There- 
fore, O  ye  people  of  the  Book,  if  ye  refuse,  beware!  But  we 
are  Moslems,  and  our  religion  is  Islam. 

[seal]  Mohammed,  The  Apostle  of  God. 

This  letter  reveals  the  thought  in  the  mind  of 
any  Muslim  sovereign  to-day  as  he  looks  over 
into  the  Christian  lands  of  wealth  and  power.  It 
is  not  unlike  the  letter  sent  by  the  Mahdi  of 
Khartum  to  Emin  Pasha.  It  is  a  thought  of 
peace — an  offer  of  peace — on  condition  of  sub- 
mission to,  or  adoption  of,  Islam,  but  this  kindly 
thought  is  coupled  with  a  grim  suggestion  to 
beware  of  Islam's  sword,  which  those  understand 
who  have  felt  its  edge. 

Happily  in  this  day  none  but  the  isolated  fa- 
natics of  Africa  are  ignorant  enough  to  imagine 
it  expedient  to  indulge  in  such  language  toward 
Christian  governments. 

Mohammed's  admissions  respecting  Jesus  as 
the  "Word  of  God"  and  in  regard  to  the  Scrip- 
tures in  the  hands  of  the  Jews  and  Christians 
form  the  open  door  for  the  Christian  apologist. 
Our  task  is  to  prove  to  these  200,000,000  votaries 
of  Islam  that  we  do  "worship  none  but  God,"  and 
that  we  do  not  "associate  any  with  God"  nor 
"call  others  God."  It  was  a  misconception  from 
the  first  (natural  enough  when  we  consider  the 
phase  of  Christianity  presented  to  Mohammed), 
and  it  is  a  misconception  emphasized  by  a  thou- 
sand years  of  contact  with  half  idolatrous  Cliris- 
tian  sects  in  a  state  of  decadence.  The  problem 
before  the  Christian  Church  is  to  take  away  this 
misconception,  to  present  the  Gospel  in  its  sim- 
plicity and  to  lead  this  great  unitarian  disaffec- 
tion back  to  the  truth.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  vitally  involved,  and  the  Arian  con- 
troversy must  be  fought  all  over  again. 

Recent  controversy  over  the  usefulness  and 
power  of  Islam  has  called  attention  away  from 
the  true  issue.  Muslims  can  never  be  won  over 
to  Christianity  by  a  series  of  wholesale  male- 
dictions, nor  by  a  weak  yielding  of  the  vital 
facts  of  a  true  faith.  The  truths  contained  in 
the  Koran  should  be  readily  acknowledged,  since 
they  are  derived  from  the  Bible;  but  it  must  be 
understood  by  way  of  caution  that  truths  may  be 
80  connected  that  the  result  may  be  a  great  false- 
hood. Good  bricks  may  be  used  m  putting 
together  useless  structures.  Islam  has  happily 
been  characterized  as  a  broken  "cistern'  — so 
badly  broken  that  it  must  be  all  torn  down,  and 
many  new  bricks  added  before  it  may  hold  water; 


but  it  is  a  cistern  still.  There  cannot  be  a  ques- 
tion but  that  Mohammed  and  his  early  followera 
looked  upon  the  Abyssinian  Christians  as  their 
religious  neighbors  and  kinsmen.  From  the 
first  that  peculiar  relationship  has  been  admitted,, 
also,  on  the  Christian  side.  Dean  Stanley  calls- 
special  attention  to  this  when  he  says:  "Springing; 
out  of  the  same  Oriental  soil  and  climate,  if  not 
out  of  the  bosom  of  the  Oriental  church  itself,  in. 
part  under  its  influence,  in  part  by  way  of  reac- 
tion against  it,  Mohammedanism  must  be 
regarded  as  an  eccentric  heretical  form  of  East- 
ern Christianity.  This,  in  fact,  was  the  ancient 
mode  of  regarding  Mohammed.  He  was  con- 
sidered not  in  the  light  of  the  founder  of  a  new 
religion,  but  rather  as  one  of  the  chief  heresiarchs 
of  the  church."  DoUinger  agrees  with  this,  and 
says:  "Islam  must  be  considered  at  bottom  a 
Christian  heresy,  the  bastard  offspring  of  a  Chris- 
tian father  and  a  Jewish  mother,  and  is  indeed 
more  closely  allied  to  Christianity  than  Mani- 
chjeism,  which  is  reclvoned  a  Christian  sect." 
Ewald  calls  it  "the  last  and  most  powerful  off- 
shoot of  Gnosticism."  Jolin  of  Damascus,  who 
did  his  work  early  in  the  8th  century,  at  the  very 
seat  of  the  Ommeiad  dynasty,  did  not  consider 
Islam  a  new  religion,  but  only  a  Christian  heresy. 
The  same  was  true  of  Samonas  of  Gaza,  Bar- 
tholomew of  Edessa,  Peter,  Abbot  of  Clugny, 
Thomas  Aquinas,  Savonarola,  and  most  of  the 
medieval  writers.  Radulfus  de  Columna,  who 
wrote  about  1300  a.  d.,  says:  "The  tyranny  of 
Heraclius  provoked  a  revolt  of  the  Eastern 
nations.  "They  could  not  be  reduced,  because 
the  Greeks  at  the  same  time  began  to  disobey 
the  Roman  Pontiff,  receding,  like  Jeroboam, 
from  the  true  faith.  Others  among  these 
schismatics  (apparently  with  the  view  of 
strengthening  their  political  revolt)  carried  their 
heresy  further,  and  founded  Mohammedanism." 
The  very  errors  in  this  statement  are  instructive. 
Dante  consigned  Mohammed  to  the  company  of 
heresiarchs  in  the  "Inferno."  Turning  to  the 
early  Protestant  confessions,  we  find  similar 
statements  that  regard  Mohammedanism  as  a  mere 
offshoot  from  the  Church.  The  Augsburg  Con- 
fession condemns  as  heresies  Manichseism, 
Valentinianism,  Arianism,  Eunomianism,  Mo- 
hammedanism, "and  all  similar  to  these." 
The  second  Helvetic  confession  condemns  Jews, 
Mohammedans,  and  all  those  heresies  teaching 
that  the  Son  and  the  Spirit  are  not  God. 

Doubtless  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  carry 
this  idea  of  the  identity  between  Islarn  and 
Christianity  too  far,  and  we  are  in  a  reactionary 
period  just  now.  But  without  a  certain  sym- 
pathy and  an  open  acknowledgment  of  the  truth 
m  Mohammedanism,  the  missionary  caii  never 
hope  to  win  Muslims.  When  once  the  principles 
of  higher  criticism  are  understood  in  the  Moham- 
medan world,  Mohammed's  admissions  as  to  the 
inspiration  of  the  original  Christian  Scriptures 
will  be  used  with  effect,  for  we  have  manuscripts 
of  the  New  Testament  older  by  several  centuries 
than  the  rise  of  Islam.  His  admission  of  the 
miraculous  birth  of  Jesus,  of  His  miraculous  power, 
of  His  deathlessness,  and  that  He  will  be  the 
Judge  at  the  last  great  day,  will  also  play  an 
important  part  in  the  controversy.  Already  a 
Muslim  writer  in  India  has  seen  this  and  has 
declared  that  Christianity  cannot  be  overthrown 
until  the  deathlessness  of  Jesus  is  exploded. 

The  great  difiiculty  is  that  Islam  erects  barrier* 
against  sympathy  of  feeling  among  its  adherents 


Holiammedanisin 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


486 


by  making  belief  in  Mohammed  a  condition 
absolute  of  the  brotherhood  of  man.  For  its 
permanent  object  it  holds  up  the  supplanting  of 
Judaism  and  Christianity;  justifying  the  most 
extreme  views  on  this  point  by  claiming  divine 
appointment  and  obligation  to  extirpate  all 
other  religions,  if  need  be  by  force,  that  it  may  be 
alone  in  the  world.  In  its  view  fanaticism  is  an 
essential  quality  of  devotion  to  God.  When  it 
can  have  its  own  way,  not  only  is  it  death  for  a 
Muslim  to  accept  Christianity,  but  for  a  Christian 
to  present  to  a  Muslim  proofs  of  the  true  nature 
of  the  Koran.  It  is  death  for  a  Christian  even 
to  set  foot  on  the  sacred  soil  of  Mecca. 

It  is  into  the  vast  field,  thus  fortified,  that  the 
Christian  Church  is  sent  by  its  Master.  The 
problem  confronted  is  as  various  as  the  sects  and 
nationalities  in  the  Muslim  world.  Patient 
labor,  instruction  in  fundamental  questions  of 
philosophy  and  religion,  the  cultivation  of  an 
historic  sense,  the  example  of  pure  lives  and  a 
Christlike  self-denial  must  at  last  open  to  the 
striving  of  the  spirit  these  hearts  of  flint. 

//.  Pre-Islamic  Arabia:  Arabia,  cut  off  from 
the  rest  of  th«  world  by  deserts  and  seas,  uncon- 
quered  by  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  Persian,  Egyp- 
tian, Greek,  or  Roman,  was  the  last  place  to 
■which  a  prophet  would  have  looked  for  the  rise 
of  such  a  phenomenon  as  Islam.  It  was  not 
always  thus  isolated,  for  the  latest  research  gives 
evidence  of  a  very  ancient  civilization,  which  was 
the  connecting  link  between  Egypt  and  Baby- 
lonia in  the  earliest  periods.  But  up  to  the  time 
of  Mohammed  the  Arabs  had  remained  free.  The 
peninsula,  together  with  adjacent  regions  inhab- 
ited by  Arabs,  covered  about  800,000  square 
miles,  or  an  area  as  large  as  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi.  Throughout  the  early 
centuries  its  inhabitants  probably  averaged 
from  9,000,000  to  10,000,000  people,  divided  up 
into  tribes,  some  of  which  were  nomadic,  while 
the  large  majority  were  settled.  The  southern 
portion  of  the  peninsula  was  well  cultivated,  and 
furnished  many  valuable  articles  of  commerce. 
The  tribes  were  for  the  most  part  independent, 
or  were  loosely  bound  by  confederacies.  There 
was  no  nation  of  Arabs  until  the  genius  of 
Mohammed  welded  together  the  heterogeneous 
mass  and  gave  Arabia  a  distinct  mission,  which 
harmonized  with  a  latent  pride  and  love  of  con- 
quest. 

In  the  earliest  days  commerce  seems  to  have 
been  a  predominant  occupation  in  Arabia.  The 
caravan  trade  furnished  occupation  to  a  large 
proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  At  that  era 
commerce  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
land.  The  influence  of  Rome,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  a  merchant  marine  under  government 
protection  and  patronage,  and  the  disturbed 
condition  of  the  Persian  frontier,  broke  up  the 
monopoly  of  the  Arabs,  and  many  tribes  were 
compelled  to  betake  themselves  to  a  nomad  life. 
We  have  traditions  of  great  emigrations  from  the 
more  crowded  south  northward,  which  occurred 
before  the  historic  period,  which  removals  were 
doubtless  caused  by  the  interruption  of  the 
caravan  trade. 

The  story  of  Arabia  until  the  period  of  Moham- 
med is  confused.  Putting  aside  conjecture, 
which  has  taken  great  license  with  the  mys- 
terious peninsula,  we  learn  of  a  number  of  king- 
doms which  wielded  considerable  power.  The 
Himyarites  in  the  southwest  formed  the  most 
prominent     political     combination     in     Arabia. 


Their  king,  Abd  KelM,  who  reigned  about  275, 
is  said  to  have  been  converted  to  Christianity  by 
a  Syrian  stranger,  and  was  murdered  by  his  sub- 
jects. His  son,  Marthad,  was  famous  for  his 
religious  toleration.  He  is  reported  to  have  said: 
"I  reign  over  men's  bodies,  not  over  their  opin- 
ions. I  exact  from  my  subjects  obedience  to  my 
government;  as  to  their  religious  doctrine,  the 
judge  of  that  is  the  great  Creator."  Constantius, 
the  Byzantine  emperor,  about  the  middle  of  the 
4th  century  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Himyarites, 
wishing  to  strengthen  his  alliance  with  them  and 
to  attract  them  to  Christianity.  Two  hundred 
Cappadocian  horses  of  the  purest  breed  were  sent 
as  a  present,  and  Bishop  Theophilus  undertook 
the  mission  work.  Churches  were  built  at  the 
capital,  Tzafar,  at  Aden,  and  one  on  the  Persian 
Gulf.  Arabian  historians  make  no  mention  of 
this  mission.  A  little  later  the  Himyarites  began 
to  decline,  and  became  a  sort  of  dependency  of 
Abyssinia,  a  Christian  kingdom  across  the  Red 
Sea.  Between  490  and  525  Dhu  Nowas,  in  the 
district  of  Najran,  took  the  reins  of  power  in  his 
hands.  He  was  a  recent  convert  to  Judaism, 
and  persecuted  Christians  bitterly  in  that  region. 
They  were  offered  Judaism  or  death,  and  twenty 
thousand  are  said  to  have  perished.  One 
intended  victim,  Tholaban,  escaped  to  Hira,  and, 
holding  up  a  half  burnt  copy  of  the  Gospel, 
invoked,  in  the  name  of  outraged  Christendom, 
retribution.  Justin  I.  sent  a  message  to  the 
Abyssinian  monarch,  asking  him  to  inflict  pun- 
ishment on  the  usurper.  Dhu  Nowas  was 
defeated  and  the  Najran  became  an  Abyssinian 
dependency.  A  zealous  Christian,  Abraha,  had 
become  Abyssinian  viceroy  somewhat  later  in 
Yemen.  Bishop  Gregentius  was  sent  by  the 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria  to  assist  in  pushing  the 
interests  of  Christianity.  A  cathedral  was  built 
at  Sana,  and  an  attempt  made  to  make  it  the 
Mecca  of  the  peninsula.  The  Meccans  were  dis- 
pleased, and  killed  one  of  the  Christian  mission- 
aries. A  Koreishite  from  Mecca  defiled  the 
cathedral  at  Sana,  whereupon  Abraha  set  out  on 
an  expedition,  about  570,  to  destroy  the  Kaaba. 
His  army  was  destroyed,  and  the  episode  has 
come  down  in  Mohammedan  story  as  the  affair 
of  "The  Elephant."  Mohammed  was  born  a  few- 
months  after.  By  the  aid  of  the  Persians  the 
Abyssinians  were  finally  expelled  in  603,  and 
Southern  Arabia  became  thereafter  loosely  depen- 
dent upon  that  eastern  rival  of  the  Byzantine 
empire,  until  it  was  absorbed,  in  634,  by  Muslim 
conquest. 

Along  the  Persian  frontier  was  another  con- 
siderable political  power — the  kingdom  of  Hira, 
founded  in  the  2d  century  of  our  era,  and  having 
political  autonomy  until  the  spread  of  Islam. 
It  looked  to  Persia  for  help  in  its  various  wars, 
and  tended  more  and  more  toward  a  dependent 
condition.  Along  the  Syrian  border,  and  more 
or  less  under  Byzantine  influence,  was  the  king- 
dom of  the  Ghassanides,  which  early  came  under 
the  influence  of  the  Western  civilization.  Chris- 
tianity had  a  strong  following  in  this  region  from 
the  first,  and  the  whole  kingdom  was  under 
Christian  influence.  The  kingdom  of  the  Kindis, 
in  Central  Arabia,  was  another  political  unit,  but 
much  weaker  than  the  other  three.  At  Mecca 
we  find  the  powerful  Koreish  tribe,  which  had 
control  of  the  Kaaba,  the  religious  center  of 
native  Arabian  religion. 

The  religion  of  Pre-Islamic  Arabia  may  be 
called  heathen,  with  constant  tendencies  in  the 


487 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Aloliamiuedanisi 


nobler  minds  toward  a  conception  of  one  supreme 
God.  Mohammed  speaks  of  the  era  before  him 
as  "the  times  of  ignorance,"  which  he  came  to  do 
away  with.  At  the  Kaaba  there  were  said  to 
have  been  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  images 
of  the  gods,  who  were  looked  upon  as  the  children 
•of  Allah,  the  creator  of  all.  Idols  were  found  in 
every  house,  and  formed  an  important  article  of 
manufacture.  Religion  was  a  sort  of  barter, 
which  the  individual  carried  on  with  the  gods  or 
goddesses  whose  aid  he  desired  or  whose  ven- 
geance he  wished  to  avert.  Festivals  and  pil- 
grimages, punctiliously  attended  to,  made  up  a 
large  part  of  religious  life  and  worship.  There 
was  a  considerable  stir  of  literary  life,  and 
renowned  poets  contested  at  the  annual  fairs 
for  preeminence.  The  successful  poems  were 
displayed  on  the  walls  of  the  Kaaba.  These 
poems,  some  of  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
show  the  lowest  grade  of  morals.  Drunkenness, 
gambling,  gross  love  intrigues,  vengeance,  theft, 
the  loosest  possible  family  ties,  the  degrading 
■of  woman  to  a  mere  animal  existence — all  these 
traits,  common  throughout  Arabia,  make  plain 
the  utter  inadequacy  of  the  prevailing  faith  to 
elevate  the  life.  Add  to  this  the  widespread 
tendency    toward    atheism    and    indifference. 

Such  a  state  could  not  last  long.  Serious 
minds  turned  in  every  direction  for  help.  There 
arose  an  ascetic  fraternity  who  called  themselves 
Hanifs  (penitents).  They  sought  to  go  back  to 
the  simple  faith  of  Abraham,  whom  they  styled 
the  first  Hanif.  They  proclaimed  themselves  as 
seekers  after  truth,  and  adopted  the  life  which 
had  been  set  before  them  for  centuries  by  Chris- 
tian hermits,  whose  rigid  vigils  had  impressed 
the  Oriental  mind.  Among  these  Hanifs  were 
Obeidullah,  own  cousin  of  Mohammed;  Waraqah 
■and  Othman,  cousins  of  Khadijah,  all  three  of 
whom  found  their  way  to  Christianity.  Zaid  ibn 
Amr,  an  aged  Hanif,  was  seen  leaning  against  the 
Kaaba,  and  sadly  stretching  his  hands  upward, 
and  praying:  "O  God,  if  I  knew  what  form  of 
worship  is  most  pleasing  to  Thee,  so  would  I 
serve  Thee;  but  I  know  it  not."  Mohammed 
was  touched  when  this  was  reported  to  him, 
and  said:  "I  will  pray  for  him;  in  the  resur- 
rection he,  too,  will  be  a  community."  It  can- 
not be  said  that  these  Hanifs  were  Jews  or  Chris- 
tians, yet  they  could  not  have  arisen  without 
these  two  religions  as  forerunners.  They  antici- 
pated the  central  idea  contained  in  the  word 
"Islam"  (resignation),  and  their  conception  of 
<jod  was  summed  up  in  the  word  "Judgment." 
We  shall  see  later  how  Mohammed  became  a 
Hanif,  and  gave  shape,  proportion  and  conti- 
nuity to  a  half  faith  which  was  floating  about 
Mecca  and  Medina  (Yathrib),  and  how  he  origi- 
nated a  church  polity  in  closest  union  with  a 
political  organization,  the  combination  of  which 
was  destined  to  make  him  the  moral  ruler  over 
more  human  beings  than  have  ever  been  con- 
trolled by  any  other  man. 

The  whole  question  of  Christianity  in  Arabia 
is  very  obscure.  Christians  fled  for  refuge  from 
the  Roman  persecutions  to  the  fastnesses  of  the 
Syrian  desert  in  the  early  days  of  Christianity. 
Paul  himself  spent  three  years  among  Arabs, 
whether  on  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  or  along  the 
Ijorder  of  the  desert  south  of  Damascus.  A 
local  church  council  at  Bostra  shows  a  large 
growth  of  Christianity  east  of  the  Jordan  before 
the  close  of  the  3d  century.  The  Ghassanides 
were  first  reached,  and  bishops  were  appointed 


to  follow  the  wandering  tribes  in  their  migra- 
tions. The  faith  penetrated  the  desert  south 
and  east  along  caravan  routes,  and  we  may  be 
sure  that  by  the  middle  of  the  3d  century  Chris- 
tianity was  well  known  in  many  parts  of  Arabia. 
We  have  seen  how  the  Himyarites  were  reached 
in  the  succeeding  century.  Hira  and  Kufa, 
along  the  Persian  frontier,  about  the  same  time, 
learned  of  Christianity  through  Nestorian  mis- 
sionaries. A  king  of  Hira  was  converted  in  the 
6th  century.  Other  tribes,  such  as  the  Beni 
Taghlib  of  Mesopotamia,  the  Beni  Haris  of  Naj- 
ran,  the  Beni  Tay,  and  various  tribes  about 
Medina  (Yathrib),  became  nominally  Christian. 
Ali  Saad  sneeringly  said:  "The  Beni  Taghlib  are 
not  Christians;  they  have  borrowed  from  Chris- 
tianity only  the  custom  of  drinking  wine."  In 
the  first  wars  between  the  Persians  and  the  rising 
Muslim  power  the  Christian  Arabs  of  the  north- 
eastern frontier  joined  the  Persians.  But  in 
spite  of  this  spread  of  Christian  knowledge 
throughout  the  peninsula,  it  did  not  seem  to  take 
any  vital  hold.  It  was  swept  away  at  the  first 
onset  of  Islam.  The  nomad  life  in  the  desert 
was  not  conducive  to  Christianity. 

The  legends  of  the  Talmudic  traditions  found 
there  congenial  soil  and  won  high  honor  as 
inspired  Scripture,  so  that  hostile  Judaism  to 
some  extent  neutralized  the  efforts  of  Christian- 
ity. Furthermore,  the  form  of  Christianity 
which  penetrated  Arabia  was  most  inferior. 
Northern  Arabia  was  a  battle  ground  between 
Persian  and  Byzantine.  But  in  the  peninsula 
itself  the  apocryphal  gospels  were  held  as  of 
equal  value  with  the  real  gospels.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  trinity  was  travestied  by  a  crude 
tri-theism,  in  which  the  three  persons  of  the 
Godhead  were  God  the  Father,  God  the  Son,  and 
the  "Virgin  Mary." 

Jacobite  and  Nestorian  influences  predom- 
inated. It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Bible  or  any 
portions  were  put  into  the  vernacular.  The 
haughty  nature  of  the  Arabs  could  with  difficulty 
accept  the  humble  and  forgiving  spirit  of  the 
Gospel.  The  Abyssinians,  altho  making  up  a 
powerful  Christian  kingdom,  were  of  negro  blood, 
and  hence  uninfluential.  "In  fine,"  says  Muir 
in  summing  up  this  subject,  "viewed  thus  in  a 
religious  aspect  the  surface  of  Arabia  had  been 
now  and  then  gently  rippled  by  the  feeble  eiforts 
of  Christianity;  the  sterner  influence  of  Judaism 
had  been  occasionally  visible  in  a  deeper  and 
more  troubled  current;  but  the  tide  of  indigenous 
idolatry  and  of  Ishmaelite  superstition,  setting 
from  every  quarter  with  an  unbroken  and 
unebbing  surge  toward  the  Kaaba,  gave  ample 
evidence  that  the  faith  and  worship  of  Mecca 
held  the  Arab  mind  in  a  thraldom  rigorous  and 
undisputed.  Yet,  even  amongst  a  people  thus 
enthralled,  there  existed  elements  which  a  master 
mind,  seeking  the  regeneration  of  Arabia,  rnight 
work  upon.  Christianity  was  well  known;  living 
examples  of  it  were  amongst  the  native  tribes; 
the  New  Testament  was  respected,  if  not  rever- 
enced, as  a  book  that  claimed  to  be  divine;  in 
most  quarters  it  was  easily  accessible,  and  some 
of  its  facts  and  doctrines  were  admitted  without 
dispute.  The  tenets  of  Judaism  were  even  more 
notorious,  and  its  legends,  if  not  its  sacred  writ- 
ings, were  familiar  throughout  the  peninsula. 
The  worship  of  Mecca  was  founded  upon  patri- 
archal traditions  believed  to  be  common  both  to 
Christianity  and  Judaism.  Here,  then,  was  a 
ground  on  which  the  spiritual  fulcrum  might 


Mo  hamm  e  dan  i  8  m 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


488 


be  planted;  here  was  a  wide  field,  already  con- 
ceded by  the  inquirer,  at  least  in  close  connection 
with  the  truth,  inviting  scrutiny  and  improve- 
ment. .  .  .  The  material  for  a  great  change 
was  here.  But  it  required  to  be  wrought,  and 
Mohammed  was  the  workman." 

Jews  had  made  their  homes  in  the  Arabian 
peninsula  in  the  earliest  times.  From  the  days 
of  Solomon  the  Red  Sea  was  the  avenue  of  a 
thrifty  commerce,  and  Hebrews  had  probably 
located  at  the  trading  ports.  Later  the  conquests 
of  Palestine  by  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Persians, 
Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans  had  sent  waves 
of  Jewish  immigration  into  the  desert.  The  fall 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  rebellion  of  Bar  Cochab  had 
driven  thousands  of  Jews  in  the  footsteps  of  their 
brethren.  A  number  of  native  Arab  tribes 
embraced  Judaism,  and  in  the  time  of  Mohammed 
we  find  this  people  scattered  all  over  the  penin- 
sula, in  small,  compact  colonies.  There  were  a 
large  number  of  colonies  near  Medina,  and  from 
their  teachers  Mohammed  drew  much  of  the 
material  found  in  the  Koran.  At  first  he  hoped 
to  win  them  to  Islam,  and  contemplated  making 
Jerusalem  the  Kibla.  Their  obduracy  changed 
his  temper,  and  in  the  conflicts  that  ensued 
thousands  of  Jews  were  butchered,  and  most  of 
the  others  submitted  to  Islam.  Communities 
of  Jews  are  still  to  be  found  in  Southern  Arabia 
who  have  clung  to  their  faith  all  these  centuries. 

III.  The  Life  of  Mohammed:  Into  this  world  of 
conflicting  dogmas  Mohammed  was  born  in  the 
year  570,  at  Mecca.  This  city,  situated  on  the 
caravan  route  between  Yemen  and  Syria,  had 
for  centuries  been  famous  for  the  Kaaba,  which 
contained  the  sacred  Black  Stone  and  formed  the 
religious  center  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  The 
leading  tribe  had  for  years  been  the  Koreish,  and 
Mohammed  sprang  from  the  Beni  Hashim,  a 
noble  tho  somewhat  waning  branch  of  this  tribe. 
His  father's  name  was  Abdallah.  Returning 
from  a  mercantile  trip  to  Syria,  Abdallah  was 
taken  sick  at  Medina,  and  died  some  months 
before  the  birth  of  Mohammed.  His  mother, 
Amina,  according  to  the  prevailing  custom,  put 
the  infant  out  to  nurse  with  Halima,  a  woman  of 
the  Beni  Sdd,  one  of  the  Bedawin  tribes,  where 
he  remained  four  or  five  years,  acquiring  the  free 
manners  and  the  pure  tongue  of  the  nomads. 
His  Bedawin  nurse  was  more  than  once  alarmed 
by  epileptic  symptoms  in  her  charge,  and  at  the 
age  of  about  five  years  he  was  given  back  to  the 
keeping  of  Amina.  The  following  year,  while 
traveling  toward  Medina  with  her  boy,  Amina 
died,  and  the  orphaned  Mohammed  was  taken  up 
by  his  uncle,  Abu  Talib,  who  became  his  faithful 
guardian.  At  the  age  of  twelve  years  Moham- 
med accompanied  his  uncle  on  a  mercantile  trip 
to  Syria,  when  he  first  came  in  contact  with  the 
rites  and  symbols  of  Oriental  Christianity.  As  a 
youth  he  lived  for  the  most  part  quietly,  keeping 
the  flocks  of  Abu  Tdlib,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
five,  his  uncle  being  poor,  he  entered  the  service 
of  a  rich  widow  named  Khadlja.  He  was  sent 
by  her  on  a  trading  journey  to  Syria,  and  super- 
intended the  caravan.  Khadlja  was  delighted 
with  her  agent's  service,  and  tho  almost  double 
his  age,  soon  became  his  wife.  She  bore  him 
four  daughters  and  two  sons.  Both  sons  died. 
The  youngest  daughter,  Fatima,  married  Ali,  and 
thus  became  the  ancestress  of  all  the  Muslim 
nobility. 

When  approaching  his  fortieth  year  Moham- 
med began  to  retire  from  his  family  for  the  pur- 


pose _  of  meditation.  _  The  gross  idolatry  of 
Arabia  oppressed  his  mind.  He  was  aroused  but 
not  satisfied  by  his  slight  knowledge  of  Judaism 
and  Christianity.  For  days  at  a  time  he  would 
continue  in  a  lonely  cave  on  Mount  Hira. 
Ecstatic  reveries  accompanied  his  meditations, 
and  he  finally  came  to  believe  himself  called  to  be 
the  reformer  of  his  people.  After  a  period  of 
silence  known  as  the  fatrah,  these  revelations 
continued  with  more  or  less  frequency  till  the  end 
of  his  life. 

Khadija  was  his  first  convert.  The  first  three 
years  of  his  preaching  resulted  in  the  conversion 
of  some  forty  of  his  relatives  and  friends,  among 
whom  were  Ali,  Zeid,  Abu  Bekr,  and  Othman. 
His  teaching  against  idolatry  developed  fierce 
opposition,  in  which  Mohammed  was  safe  under 
the  protection  of  Abu  Talib,  but  others  suffered 
persecution,  and  in  615  eleven  men  fled  to  Abys- 
sinia. In  620  Abu  Talib  and  Khadlja  died. 
Mohammed  afterward  married  other  wives,  nine 
of  whom  survived  him.  Proceeding  to  T^lif,  he 
was  unsuccessful  in  his  appeal  to  the  people  there, 
but  returned  strengthened  by  a  dream  of  a  jour- 
ney to  heaven.  In  621  his  cause  was  greatly 
advanced  by  the  addition  of  twelve  pilgrims 
from  Medina,  and  the  following  year  the  band 
was  increased  to  seventy,  who  were  pledged  to 
receive  and  defend  the  prophet  in  Medina.  His 
brightest  hopes  now  centered  about  the  northern 
city.  Abandoning  Mecca,  he  and  150  followers 
in  little  bands  fled  to  Medina.  This  date  marks 
the  era  of  the  H^gira  (migration),  622. 

At  Medina  Mohammed  built  a  mosque,  insti- 
tuted rites  of  worship,  and  declared  war  against 
unbelievers.  The  Jews  rejecting  -  his  claims, 
he  became  their  bitter  foe.  In  623  the  battle  of 
Bedr  resulted  in  a  signal  victory  for  the  Muslims 
over  the  Meccans.  A  year  later  he  was  defeated 
by  the  Koreish  at  Ohod,  and  Medina  was  unsuc- 
cessfully besieged  by  4,000  Meccans.  About  this 
time  the  Beni  Koreitza,  the  last  of  the  Jewish 
tribes  in  the  neighborhood,  surrendered  to  the 
power  of  Mohammed,  and  over  600  men  were 
beheaded  by  his  order.  In  the  sixth  year  of  the 
H^gira,  Mohammed,  with  1,500  followers,  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  but  was  refused  admittance. 
A  truce  was  signed  at  Hodeibia,  near  the  city, 
suspending  hostilities  for  ten  years,  and  granting 
permission  for  a  pilgrimage  the  following  year. 
Discontent  was  allayed  among  the  Muslim  con- 
verts by  an  expedition  against  the  Jews  of 
Khaiber,  yielding  rich  booty. 

His  plans  now  widened,  and  the  same  year  he 
sent  written  demands  to  the  Persian  king, 
Chosroes  II.,  Emperor  Heraclius,  the  Governor 
of  Egypt,  the  Abyssinian  king,  and  several  Arab 
tribes. 

Chosroes  tore  up  the  letter  and  Muta  killed 
the  envoy.  To  revenge  this  insult  Mohammed 
fought  what  proved  to  be  a  losing  battle  at  Muta, 
on  the  Syrian  border,  where  his  friend  Zeid  was 
killed. 

A  breach  of  the  truce  at  this  time  by  the 
Koreish  gave  grounds  for  attack,  and  Moham- 
med at  the  head  of  10,000  men  entered  Mecca  in 
triumph  in  630. 

In  the  course  of  that  year  Taif  submitted,  and 
this  ended  opposition  in  the  peninsula.  In  632 
Mohammed  with  his  wives  and  40,000  adherents 
performed  the  "Farewell  Pilgrimage"  to  Mecca. 
The  rites  of  this  pilgrimage  are  still  scrupulously 
followed.  Three  months  later  Mohammed  fell 
sick  and  died  in  the  house  of  his  favorite  wife, 


480 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Mohammedanism 


Ayesha,  after  having  liberated  his  slaves  and  dis- 
tributed alms  to  the  poor.  He  was  buried  in  the 
rooni  where  he  died,  which  is  now  included 
within  the  Great  Mosque. 

The  person  of  Mohammed  was  attractive. 
Tho  little  above  the  ordinary  height,  his  presence 
was  stately  and  commandmg.  His  expression 
was  always  pensive  and  contemplative.  His 
eyes  and  hair  were  black,  and  a  beard  reached  to 
his  breast.  His  gait  was  quick,  and  is  said  to 
have  resembled  a  man  descending  a  hill. 

As  to  his  character,  up  to  the  end  of  his  life  in 
Mecca  his  sincerity  cannot  be  doubted,  and  his 
conduct  seems  beyond  reproach.  He  believed 
himself  to  be  the  divinely  appointed  messenger 
for  the  overturning  of  idolatry,  and  he  suffered 
for  years  the  taunts  of  a  nation  with  apparently 
no  ulterior  motive  but  the  reformation  of  his 
people.  Secular  history  can  furnish  no  more 
striking  example  of  moral  courage  than  Moham- 
med bearing  patiently  the  scorn  and  insults  of  the 
Koreish.  From  the  beginning  of  life  in  Medina 
temporal  power  and  the  acquisition  of  wealth  and 
glory  mingled  with  the  Prophet's  motives. 
Cruelty,  greed,  and  gross  licentiousness  were 
justified  by  special  "revelations."  His  conduct 
during  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  seems  to  bear 
out  this  estimate  of  his  character,  "that  he  was 
delivered  over  to  the  judicial  blindness  of  a  self- 
deceived  heart." 

IV.  The  Kordn:  Like  Christianity,  Islam  cen- 
ters about  a  book.  This  book  is  the  Koran 
("reading"  or  "that  which  is  to  be  read").  The 
Koran  is  the  foundation  of  Islam.  The  orthodox 
believe  that  the  original  text  exists  from  all  eter- 
nity, or  at  least  was  the  earliest  creation  and  is 
inscribed  in  the  highest  heaven  upon  the  "well- 
guarded  Tablet."  By  a  process  of  "sending 
down,"  one  piece  after  another  was  communi- 
cated to  the  Prophet,  who  in  turn  proclaimed 
them  to  his  immediate  circle  of  followers,  and  so 
to  the  world.  The  angel  charged  with  conveying 
these  portions  is  generally  called  "Gabriel,"  who 
dictated  the  words  directly  to  Mohammed.  This 
being  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  Koran,  all 
Muslims  hold  to  its  absolute  verbal  inspiration, 
and  regard  it  as  the  rule  of  faith  and  practise, 
from  which  there  can  be  no  appeal. 

The  Kordn  as  given  to  the  Muslim  world  is  in 
Arabic,  a  volume  slightly  smaller  than  the  New 
Testament.  It  is  divided  into  114  chapters  or 
suras,  of  very  unequal  length.  This  collection 
constitutes  the  Revelation  proclaimed  by 
Mohammed  as  received  during  the  last  twenty- 
three  years  of  his  life.  The  suras  are  not  spoken 
of  by  number,  but  by  a  title  peculiar  to  each, 
derived  from  its  contents  or  some  special  quality. 
The  heading  of  each  svra,  indicating  whether  it 
was  revealed  at  Mecca  or  Medina,  is  the  work  of 
commentators,  and  forms  no  part  of  the  inspired 
text.  Every  sura  is  in  turn  divided  into  verses, 
tho  these  subdivisions  are  not  numbered  in 
manuscript  copies. 

The  114  chapters  are  arranged  seemingly  in 
a  most  artless  manner,  without  regard  to  chro- 
nology or  doctrine,  the  only  order  discernible 
being  that  the  longest  are  placed  first,  with  the 
notable  exception  of  Sura  I.,  called  the  Fatiha. 
So  far  as  is  known,  Mohammed  himself  never 
wrote  anything  down,  and  if  he  was  acquainted 
with  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing  (which  some 
have  disputed),  it  seems  that  he  found  it  more 
convenient  to  employ  an  amanuensis  whenever 
he  had  anything  to  commit  to  writing.     At  the 


time  of  his  death  the  revelations  existed  only  in 
scattered  fragments,  on  bits  of  stone,  leather  and 
flat  bones.  The  great  repository  of  truth  was  in 
the  minds  of  his  followers.  With  the  marvelous 
tenacity  of  the  Arab  memory,  large  numbers  of 
Muslims  at  the  time  of  their  Prophet's  death 
could  repeat  the  principal  suras,  and  soon  after 
Eome  are  mentioned  who  could  recite  the  whole 
without  an  error.  With  Mohammed's  death  the 
canon  was  closed,  but  up  to  this  time  no  attempt 
had  been  made  to  systematically  arrange  or  even 
to  collect  the  contents.  In  the  second  year  after 
this  event  a  vast  number  of  the  best  reciters  of 
the  Kor4n  were  slain  at  the  battle  of  Yemdna, 
and  Omar  became  convinced  that  the  divine 
revelation  ought  to  be  put  on  a  less  precarious 
footing.  The  attention  of  Abu  Bekr  being 
called  to  the  matter,  he  speedily  appointed  Zeid, 
the  chief  amanuensis  of  the  Prophet,  to  make 
th    collection. 

Zeid  worked  diligently,  and  brought  together 
the  fragments  of  the  Koran  from  every  quarter, 
gathering  them  from  palm-leaves,  stone  tab- 
lets, the  bones  of  sheep  and  camels,  from  bits 
of  leather,  "but  most  of  all  from  the  breasts  of 
men."  The  tablets  of  the  Arab  memory  were 
at  that  time  the  reliable  source  of  much  of  the 
revelation.  The  manuscript  thus  formed  re- 
mained during  the  caliphate  of  Omar  the  stand- 
ard text. 

As  transcripts  of  this  original  were  made 
variety  crept  in,  and  in  the  caliphate  of  0th- 
man,  some  time  a  little  later  than  33  a.h.,  Zeid 
was  appointed  to  make  a  recension  of  his  former 
text.  With  a  committee  of  three  Koreish  to 
act  as  final  judges  in  disputed  cases,  the  new 
collection  was  made  in  the  pure  Meccan  dialect, 
which  Mohammed  himself  used.  The  former 
copies  were  called  in  and  burned,  and  the 
recension  of  Othman  has  remained  down  to  the 
present  day  unaltered.  All  the  facts  warrant 
us  in  supposing  that  the  Koran  as  now  existing 
contains  the  very  words  as  delivered  b}'  the 
Prophet.  Various  readings  are  practically  un- 
known. 

One  source  of  the  Kordn's  power  is  its  sonor- 
ously musical  diction.  Another  is  the  sim- 
plicity of  its  doctrine.  The  unity  of  God, 
Judgment,  and  Islam  (that  is,  submission  to  His 
will)  are  the  fundamental  teachings.  The 
whole  substance  of  the  religion  is  comprehended 
under  two  propositions,  which  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  the  Mohammedan  "Confession  of 
Faith,"  viz.:  "There  is  no  God  but  God,  and 
Mohammed  is  His  Prophet."  The  former 
sweeps  away  idolatrj'',  and  the  latter  at  once 
lends  divine  authority  to  every  precept  of 
Mohammed.  The  portion  of  confession  per- 
taining to  faith  embraces  six  branches:  Belief 
in  God;  in  His  angels;  in  His  scriptures;  in  His 
prophets;  in  the  resurrection  and  the  day  of 
judgment;  in  God's  absolute  decree,  and  pre- 
destination of  both  good  and  evil.  In  practise 
five  things  are  necessary:  (1)  Confession  of 
Faith,  (2)  Worship,  (3)  Alms-giving,  (4)  The 
Fast  and  (5)  a  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

Salvation,  according  to  the  Koran,  is  by  free 
grace  and  is  not  a  thing  to  be  won  by  merit.  But 
the  gracious  gift  from  God  depends  upon  Con- 
fession of  Faith.  Whoever  confesses  belief  in 
God  and  His  Prophet  will  be  finally  saved  from 
hell  altho  his  sins  may  be  punished  there.  On 
the  other  hand,  tho  a  man  confess  belief  in  the 
One  God,  if  he  does  not  declare  belief  in  Moham- 


Mohammedaiiisin 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


490 


med  as  the  Prophet  of  God  he  cannot  be  accepted 
by  God.  The  believer  is  bound  also  to  do  good 
works,  that  is  to  say,  to  observe  the  ordinances 
with  strict  fidelity.  Large  portions  of  the 
Koran  deal  with  the  narratives  of  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  Scriptures,  showing  that  Moham- 
med had  come  in  contact  with  the  corrupt  forms 
■of  these  religions  then  in  Arabia.  The  Old 
Testament  characters,  especially  the  Patriarchs 
and  Prophets,  and  Our  Lord  Himself,  are  re- 
garded with  the  greatest  reverence.  The  narra- 
tives given  in  the  Kordn  are  drawn  from  the 
Talmudic  traditions,  which  Mohammed  perhaps 
supposed  to  be  the  O.  T.  Scripture,  and  from  the 
Christian  apochryphal  Gospels.  It  is  often 
said  that  the  Koran  is  the  most  widely-read 
book  in  existence.  In  one  sense  this  is  true, 
since  the  mere  reading  of  the  book,  without 
understanding,  is  commonly  held  to  exert  a 
magical  influence  for  good.  But  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  Koran  is  not  understood 
by  readers  outside  of  Arabia  (even  where  Arabic 
is  vernacular),  excepting  in  the  limited  circle 
of  well  educated  men. 

V.  The  Hadilh,  or  Traditions:  The  Koran 
prescribes  an  ethical  code  which  is  obligatory 
on  Muslims,  since  all  regard  it  as  the  only  revela- 
tion of  the  Divine  will.  But  along  with  the 
Kor4n,  Mohammedans  receive  well-authenti- 
cated sayings  of  the  Prophet  as  authoritative 
comments  on  religious,  ethical  and  ceremonial 
subjects.  These  traditions  are  in  fact  considered 
as  inspired  sayings,  handed  down  by  men  liable 
to  error.  They  inform  us  not  only  what  Mo- 
hammed said  and  did,  but  what  he  allowed  others 
to  say  and  do  unrebuked.  Mohammed  was 
much  afraid  that  he  would  be  misreported,  and 
commanded  his  adherents  as  follows:  "Convey 
to  other  persons  none  of  my  words  except  those 
ye  know  of  a  surety.  Verily  he  who  represents 
my  words  wrongly  shall  find  a  place  for  himself 
in  the  fire."  How  poorly  this  injunction  was 
followed  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  Abu  Daud 
received  only  4,800  traditions  out  of  500,000. 
Thus  it  appears  why  there  is  such  a  diversity  of 
opinion  among  Mohammedans.  Various  canons 
of  criticism  have  been  laid  down  by  learned 
Muslims  by  which  these  traditions  may  be 
sifted — such  as  the  integrity  of  the  persons  trans- 
mitting the  saying,  the  number  of  links  in  the 
chain  of  narrators,  the  style  of  composition,  etc. 
The  first  attempts  to  collect  these  traditions 
were  made  in  the  8th  century.  The  work  of 
Imam  Malik  is  held  in  the  greatest  esteem.  The 
six  standard  collections  (out  of  1 ,465  in  all)  are 
by  (1)  Mohammed  Ismail  al  Bukhari,  a.h.  256; 
(2)  Muslim  ibnu'l  Hajjaj,  a.h.  261;  (3)  Abu  'Isa 
Mohammed-at-Tirmizi,  a.h.  279;  (4)  Abu  Da'ud 
as-Sajistani,  a.h.  275;  (5)  Abu  'Abdi'r-Rahman 
an  Nasa'i,  a.h.  303;  and  (6)  Abu  'Abdi  'llah 
Mohammed  Ibn  Majah,  a.h.  273. 

All  the  Muslim  sects  receive  the  traditions 
altho  disagreeing  as  to  their  number  and  their 
content.  The  following  are  a  few  character- 
istic sayings   of  Mohammed: 

"I  am  no  more  than  a  man,  but  when  I  en- 
join anything  respecting  religion,  receive  it,  and 
when  I  order  anything  about  the  affairs  of  the 
world,  then  I  am  nothing  more  than  a  man." — 
"I  have  left  you  two  things,  and  you  will  not 
stray  as  long  as  you  hold  them  fast.  The  one 
is  the  book  of  God,  and  the  other  is  the  example 
(Sunna)  of  his  prophet." — "Some  of  my  injunc- 
tions   abrogate    others." — "My    sayings   do   not 


abrogate  the  Word  of  God,  but  the  Word  of  God 
can  abrogate  my  sayings." 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  way  a 
tradition  was  handed  down  in  the  collection 
of  at-Tirmizi: 

"Abu  Kuraib  said  to  us  that  Ibrahim  ibn 
Yusuf  ibn  Abi  Ishaq  said  to  us  from  his  father, 
from  abu  Ishaq,  from  Tulata  ibn  Musarif,  that 
he  said,  I  have  heard  from  Abdu'r-Rahman  ibn 
Ausaja  that  he  said  I  have  from  Bara  ibn  'Azib 
that  he  said  I  have  heard  that  the  prophet  said, 
'Whoever  shall  give  in  charity  a  milch-cow,  or 
silver,  or  a  leathern  bottle  of  water  it  shall  be 
equal  to  the  freeing  of  a  slave.'  " 

VI.  Muslim  Worship:  The  forms  of  wor- 
ship have  so  much  importance  in  Islam,  both 
as  a  means  of  acquiring  merit  before  God  and 
as  shaping  the  religious  ideas  of  the  Muslim, 
that  it  may  be  well  to  illustrate  what  this  wor- 
ship is.  Five  times  every  day  every  Moham- 
medan man  or  woman  must  recite  the  prescribed 
litany  in  Arabic  in  a  specified  manner.  Each 
of  the  five  services  or  exercises  consists  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  "rounds"  or  repetitions  of  the 
litany;  one  service  differing  from  the  other  in 
the  number  of  "rounds"  rather  than  in  variety 
of  the  words  used.  The  example  here  given  is 
the  service  of  morning  worship,  either  in  the 
congregation  at  mosque  or  alone  in  the  house. 
We  condense  the  directions  from  one  of  the 
books  of  instruction  in  use  among  the  Sunnite 
Mohammedans : 

The  morning  worship  consists  of  four  rounds  {rakai),  two 
of  which  are  obligatory  and  two  are  of  usage  (following  the 
custom  of  Mohammed). 

The  worshipper,  having  performed  ablution,  stands  facing 
in  the  direction  of  Mecca. 

1.  He  must  declare  his  purpose  (inaudibly),  saying,  I  pur- 
pose to  perform  the  first  obligatory  (or  usage)  round  of 
morning  worship. 

2.  He  then  lifts  both  hands,  palm  to  the  front,  until  the 
thumbs  touch  the  lobes  of  the  ears;  then  he  says,  "God  is 
most  great!" 

3.  Folding  the  hands  across  the  stomach,  the  right  hand 
over  and  clasping  the  left,  he  says,  "Glory  to  God!  Praised 
and  blessed  be  Thy  name,  O  Most  High,  and  there  is  no  other 
God  but  Thee  I  I  take  refuge  in  God  from  Satan  the  bestonedl 
In  the  name  of  God  the  Merciful  and  the  Compassionate! 
Praise  God  the  Lord  of  all  creatures,  etc.  (the  first  chapter 
of  the  Koran);  "Giod  is  one  God,  the  Eternal;  He  begetteth 
not,  neitlier  is  He  begotten,  and  therg  is  none  like  unto  Him." 

4.  The  worshipper  now  bows,  saying  "God  is  most  great!" 
and,  placing  his  hands  upon  his  knees,  taking  care  to  keep 
the  line  of  his  head  and  back  straight. 

5.  Remaining  in  that  position  he  says:  "Praise  God  the 
Lord,  the  Great  One,"  three  times.  (If  he  is  able  to  say  it 
five  or  seven  times  the  merit  is  greater.) 

6.  Saying  "May  God  attend  unto  his  praise,"  the  wor- 
shipper regains  the  upright  position. 

7.  He  now  drops  upon  his  knees,  sitting  upon  his  heels,  and 
then,  saying,  "God  is  most  great!"  he  toucheshis  forehead 
to  the  ground;  one  hand  being  on  each  side  of  his  head,  palm 
downward  upon  the  ground. 

8.  In  this  prostrate  position  the  worshipper  says  three 
times,  "Glory  t    the  Lord  on  High!" 

9.  Saying  "God  is  most  great!"  he  recovers  position  on 
his  knees. 

10.  Saying  "God  is  most  great,"  he  touches  his  forehead 
to  the  ground  again. 

11.  In  this  prostrate  position  he  repeats  three  times, 
"Glory  to  the  Lord  on  High!" 

12.  Saying,  "God  is  most  great!"  the  worshipper  now 
recovers  position  upon  his  knees  again. 

This  completes  one  round  of  worship,  and  the 
worshiper  rises  to  his  feet  and  begins  the  sec- 
ond round,  which  consists  of  a  repetition  of  the 
first. 

After  the  four  rounds  are  completed,  and 
indeed  at  the  end  of  every  service,  no  matter  of 
how  many  rounds,  the  worshiper,  standing, 
repeats,  "Glory  to  God,"  thirty-three  times,  and 
"Praise  be  to  God,"  thirty-three  times,  and, 
"God  is  most    great,"   thirty-three   times.     He 


491 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Mobammedanism 


may  then,  if  he  chooses,  abandon  the  Arabic 
language,  and  in  his  own  tongue,  as  best  he 
knows  how,  he  may  ask  of  God  anything  that 
his  heart  desires. 

Whatever  the  service  is  (whether  morning, 
noon,  mid-afternoon,  sunset,  or  evening)  must  be 
definitely  expressed  at  the  beginning,  as  well  as 
whether  the  round  is  to  be  obligatory  or  of  usage. 
If  the  worshiper  does  not  do  this,  his  worship 
is  defective.  Whatever  is  prescribed  for  any 
particular  posture  or  any  particular  "round"  of 
worship  must  be  exactly  said.  If  too  much  or 
too  little  is  said,  the  worship  is  defective.  In 
such  cases  the  "round"  must  be  done  over  from 
the  beginning,  or  a  special  form  for  the  correction 
of  defects  must  be  gone  through. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  these 
rules  of  worship  go  for  much  in  that  severance  of 
religion  from  morals  which  one  sometimes 
notices  in  Mohammedans.  The  effect  of  fixing 
the  litany  in  the  Arabic  language,  which  is  not 
understood  by  a  vast  number  of  Muslims,  and 
of  having  the  services  of  worship  consist  of  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  repetitions  of  the  sen- 
tences above  recorded,  is  to  settle  in  the  wor- 
shiper's mind  the  idea  tliat  religion  is  an  out- 
ward form.  The  result  of  malcing  the  accept- 
ableness  of  worship  turn  upon  precision  in  pos- 
ture and  in  utterance,  is  to  turn  the  thought 
during  worship  upon  self  instead  of  upon  God; 
while  the  doctrine  that  the  greatness  of  merit 
is  measured  by  the  number  of  perfect  repetitions 
of  these  sentences,  gives  to  the  worshiper  who 
can  repeat  them  glibly  a  greater  self-complacency 
than  is  found  among  the  adherents  of  any  other 
religion. 

VII. — Islam  and  the  Bible:  Mohammedans 
profess  to  regard  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
Scriptures,  as  well  as  the  KorAn,  as  the  revealed 
Word  of  God.  Mohammed  and  his  immediate 
followers  seem  to  'have  considered  the  Koran 
as  being  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  Bible. 
When  the  antagonism  between  the  two  was 
pointed  out  somewhat  later,  the  learned  Muslim 
doctors  claimed  that  the  current  Scriptures  had 
been  corrupted  since  Mohammed's  time.  They 
claimed  that  the  Kordn  was  in  perfect  accord 
with  the  original  Scriptures  to  which  their 
prophet  had  access.  The  existence  of  texts  of 
the  New  Testament  older  than  Mohammed's 
time  has  seriously  weakened  that  argument. 
When  once  Mohammedans  are  compelled  to 
admit  the  genuineness  and  antiquity  of  these 
manuscripts,  they  will  be  compelled  to  show 
reason  for  the  discrepancies. 

The  Kor&n  gives  a  large  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment history  in  a  garbled  and  legendary  form 
as  tho  from  hearsay.  Adam,  created  out  of 
earth,  the  "chosen  one  of  God,"  was  the  first 
inan.  Eve,  his  wife,  was  created  by  God  from  a 
rib  of  Adam's  left  side.  Iblees  (Satan)  tempted 
them;  they  fell  and  were  cast  out  of  Paradise. 
The  story  of  Abel  and  Cain  is  embellished  with 
rabbinical  additions.  Noah,  "the  Prophet  of 
God,"  is  a  prominent  person  in  the  Kor4n,  and 
the  narrative  of  the  flood  is  told  with  many 
amusing  details.  Abraham,  "the  Friend  of 
God,"  IS  mentioned  very  freely,  together  with 
Ishmael  and  Isaac.  The  story  of  the  conversion 
of  Abraham  is  of  a  high  order.  "When  the 
night  overshadowed  him  he  saw  a  star  and  he 
said.  This  is  my  Lord.  But  when  it  set  he  said, 
I  like  not  those  that  set.  And  when  he  saw  the 
moon  rising  he  said,  This  is  my  Lord;   but  when 


it  set  he  said.  Verily,  if  my  Lord  direct  me  not 
I  shall  assuredly  be  of  the  erring  people.  And 
when  he  saw  the  sun  rising,  he  said.  This  is  my 
Lord.  This  is  greater.  But  when  it  set  he 
said,  O  my  people,  I  am  clear  of  the  objects  which 
ye  associate  with  God.  Verily  I  turn  my  face 
unto  Him  who  hath  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth;  following  the  right  religion  I  am  not  of 
the  polytheists."  The  story  of  his  sojourn  in 
Babylonia  is  given  elaborately.  His  journey 
to  Palestine,  his  dealings  with  corrupt  Lot,  the 
half-miraculous  birth  of  Isaac,  the  destruction 
of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  the  attempted  sacrifice 
of  Isaac,  together  with  apocryphal  incidents, 
are  tediously  set  forth.  Abraham  gives  direc- 
tion to  his  children  as  to  Islam,  the  true  religion, 
and  is  accounted  the  first  "Hanif,"  the  founder 
of  the  Muslim  faith  in  its  present  form.  The 
stories  of  Isaac,  Ishmael,  Joseph,  the  life  and 
bondage  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,  Moses  and 
the  wanderings  in  the  desert,  Joshua  (slightly 
mentioned),  Samuel,  Saul,  David,  Solomon,  Job, 
Elijah,  Elisha,  Isaiah,  Jonah,  Ezra,  are  given 
in  a  prolix  fashion.  Turning  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment we  find  mention  of  Zacharias,  with  John 
the  Baptist,  his  son,  and  Gabriel.  There  is  no 
evidence  in  the  Koran  that  Mohammed  ever  saw 
a  copy  of  the  New  Testament,  but  he  constantly 
mentions  it  as  the .  "Injil  which  was  given  to 
Jesus."  The  Kor^n  says  (Ivii.  27):  "We 
caused  our  Apostles  to  follow  in  their  (i.e. ,  Noah's 
and  Abraham's)  footsteps,  and  We  caused  Jesus 
the  son  of  Mary  to  follow  them,  and  We  gave 
him  the  Injil,  and  We  put  into  the  hearts  of 
those  who  followed  him  kindness  and  compassion, 
but  as  to  the  monastic  life,  they  invented  it 
themselves."  Again  (iii.  2):  "He  has  sent  thee  a 
book  (Kor^n)  confirming  what  was  sent  before 
it,  and  has  revealed  the  Law  and  the  Gospel 
before,  for  the  guidance  of  men."  (See  also 
vii.  156;  iii.  43;  iii.  58;  xlviii.  29;  ix.  112;  v.  50, 
51,  70,  72,  and  110;  xix.  31.) 

Very  full  statements  are  made  concerning 
Jesus  Christ.  He  is  called  Jesus  ('Isa),  Jesus  the 
Son  of  Mary,  the  Messiah,  the  Word  of  God, 
the  Word  of  Truth,  a  Spirit  from  God,  the  Mes- 
senger of  God,  the  Servant  of  God,  the  Prophet 
of  God  and  illustrious  in  this  world  and  the 
next.  Mohammed  taught  that  Jesus  was  mirac- 
ulously born  of  the  "Virgin"  Mary  (Sura  iii.  37- 
43;  xix.  16-21),  who  was  the  sister  of  Aaron. 
The  infant  vindicated  the  chastity  of  its  mother 
miraculously  by  speaking  in  its  cradle  (xix.  22-34; 
xxiii.  52).  Jesus  performed  miracles  in  his 
youth  (Apocryphal  Gospels)  and  in  his  maturity 
(iii.  43-46;  v.  112-115).  He  was  commissioned 
as  a  Prophet  of  God  to  confirm  the  Law  and 
reveal  the  Gospel  (Ivii.  26,  27;  v.  50,  51;  ii.  81, 
254;  Ixi.  6;  vi.  85;  iv.  157;  iii.  44).  The 
Koran  aflirms  that  Jesus  did  not  die,  but  ascended 
to  heaven  miraculously,  and  another  victim 
was,  unknowingly  to  the  Roman  soldiers,  sub- 
stituted for  Jesus  on  the  cross  (iii.  47-50;  iv.  155, 
156).  After  he  left  the  earth  his  disciples  dis- 
puted as  to  whether  he  was  a  prophet,  like 
Moses  or  Isaiah,  or  a  part  of  the  Godhead, 
making  up  the  Trinity  as  "The  Father,  the 
Mother,  and  the  Son.'*  (xix.  35,  36;  iii.  51; 
52;  xliii.  57-65;  ix.  30;  iii.  72,  73;  v.  19;  v. 
76-79;  iv.  169;  v.  116,  117).  The  Traditions 
teach  that  Jesus  will  come  a  second  time,  and 
that  he  will  be  the  Judge  at  the  last  great  day, 
and  that  even  Mohammed  will  be  judged  by  him. 
It  is  claimed  that  he  predicted  one  that  should 


Blohammedanism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


483 


come  after  him  who  should  carry  out  his  mis- 
sion, and  Muslim  theologians  affirm  that  Mo- 
hammed was  that  person.  Mohammed  himself 
calls  himself  "Ahmad"  (Sura  Ixi.  6),  "The 
Praised,"  to  adapt  his  name  to  the  title  used  by 
Christ  which  Muslims  claim  had  been  perverted 
from  "Paraclitos"  to  "Paracletos,"  because  the 
former,  meaning  "the  Praised,"  clearly  desig- 
nated Mohammed  ("The  Praised"). 

Sir  William  Muir  says:  "After  a  careful  and 
repeated  examination  of  the  whole  Koran  I 
have  been  able  to  discover  no  grounds  for  be- 
lieving that  Mohammed  himself  ever  expressed 
the  smallest  doubt  at  any  period  of  his  life  in 
regard  either  to  the  authority  or  the  genuineness 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  as  extant  at 
his  time.  He  was  profuse  in  his  assurances  that 
his  system  entirely  corresponded  with  both,  and 
that  he  had  been  foretold  by  former  prophets; 
and  as  perverted  Jews  and  Christians  were  at 
hand  to  confirm  his  words,  and  as  the  Bible  was 
little  known  among  the  generality  of  his  follow- 
ers, those  assurances  were  implicitly  believed." 

VII.  Mohammedan  Conquests:  At  the  time 
of  Mohammed's  death  (June  8,  632,  in  the  11th 
year  of  the  Muslim  era)  the  whole  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula  had  embraced  Islam,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  southern  tribes  which  preferred 
Moseylema,  the  "false  prophet"  of  the  Nejd. 
The  few  hours  that  succeeded  the  death  of 
Mohammed  were  critical  ones  for  Islam.  Ali, 
the  nephew  and  son-in-law  of  the  prophet,  a 
young  man,  and  Abu  Bekr,  the  old,  stanch  fol- 
lower of  Mohammed,  and  the  father  of  Ayesha, 
the  prophet's  favorite  wife,  were  the  natural 
candidates  for  the  leadership.  Abu  Bekr  was 
at  last  proclaimed  caliph  (Khalifa,  successor) 
and  the  wisdom  of  the  election  was  made  plain 
by  the  vitality  which  characterized  his  reign  of 
two  years.  The  rebellious  tribes  of  Arabia  were 
subdued,  the  government  was  thoroughly  organ- 
ized and  centralized,  and  the  long  career  of 
victory  was  begun.  Under  Khaled  the  armies 
crossed  the  Syrian  frontier,  occupied  Bosrah, 
overran  the  Hauran,  defeated  the  Byzantine 
army  on  the  plains  of  Eznadin,  and  invested 
Damascus.  After  a  seventy  days'  siege  this 
capital  of  Southern  Syria  fell  August  3,  634 
(13  A.H.).  Sweeping  eastward  and  northward, 
Khaled  defeated  a  second  Byzantine  army  at 
Yamook.  In  the  meanwhile  Omar  succeeded  to 
the  caliphate,  August  22,  634.  Jerusalem  was 
conquered,  and  all  Syria  was  in  the  hands  of 
Muslims.  In  the  meantime  an  army  was  push- 
ing across  the  Persian  frontier.  At  the  battle 
of  Kadisiya  the  initial  failure  of  the  Arabs  was 
retrieved,  Ctesiphon  and  Susa  fell,  Mesopotamia 
was  gained,  and  on  the  field  of  Mahavend  (641) 
the  Sassanid  dynasty  of  Persia  received  a  death 
blow.  The  whole  of  Persia,  Khorasan,  Kerman, 
Mekran,  Seistan,  and  Balkh  were  conquered 
and  assimilated.  The  century  had  not  passed 
before  the  Oxus  was  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
caliph's  empire. 

In  641  Amr  invaded  Egypt,  which  fell  with 
hardly  a  struggle,  the  Monophysite  Christians 
throwing  in  their  lot  with  the  Arabs  as  against 
the  Orthodox  Byzantines.  Othman  succeeded 
to  the  caliphate  in  644.  The  armies  steadily 
pushed  westward.  Libya,  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Al- 
geria, and  Morocco  fell  successively.  A  Chris- 
tian civilization  made  a  firm  stand  at  Carthage, 
but  in  the  battle  of  Utica  (698)  the  power  of 
African  Christianity  was  broken,  and  Musa  rode 


to  his  saddle-girths  into  the  Atlantic,  and  with 
raised  sword  took  possession  of  the  regions 
beyond  in  the  name  of  God. 

Othman  had  been  assassinated  in  656,  and 
Ali,  Mohammed's  nephew,  was  at  last  raised  to 
the  caliphate.  A  rebellion  was  put  down  at  the 
battle  of  the  Camel,  fought  at  Basra,  November, 
656.  The  murder  of  Othman  aroused  the 
KoreLshite  faction.  Mo'awiya  of  this  tribe,  the 
Syrian  governor,  did  not  recognize  Ali  as  caliph, 
and  Ali  saw  it  was  a  hopeless  task  to  subdue  him. 
The  strength  of  Ali  was  in  Kufa.  The  Syrians 
gained  the  battle  of  Siffin  by  fastening  copies  of 
the  Koran  to  their  lances  (657).  Disaffection 
arose  among  the  caliph's  forces,  and  he  was 
murdered  in  January,  661,  becoming  a  martyr 
in  the  eyes  of  a  large  part  of  the  Muslim  world, 
and  occasioning  that  great  split  in  the  faith 
which  has  ever  since  divided  Shi'i  (All's  faction) 
from  Sunni  (traditionists).  Mo'awiya  was  pro- 
claimed caliph  by  his  soldiers.  Muslim  Persia 
proclaimed  Hassan,  a  son  of  Ali,  as  caliph;  but 
on  being  defeated  in  battle,  Hassan  retired  from 
the  struggle.  Hussein,  another  son  of  Ali,  was 
not  so  tractable.  The  Syrian  caliph  showed 
great  statesmanship  in  the  management  of  his 
empire,  which  was  expanding  in  every  direction. 
Armenia,  Cyprus,  Cos,  and  Crete  were  conquered, 
and  even  Constantinople  was  invested.  Mo'a- 
wiya died  at  Damascus,  which  he  made  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Ommeiad  dynasty,  of  which  he  was 
the  founder,  680,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Yezid  I.  'This  voluptuous  caliph  ordered  the 
prefect  of  Medina  to  strike  off  the  head  of  Hus- 
sein, a  son  of  Ali,  if  he  would  not  yield.  Hussein 
fled  toward  Kufa  with  all  his  family.  The 
Ommeiad  army  met  him  in  the  plain  of  Kerbela, 
near  Kufa,  and  surrounded  his  little  company. 
Hussein  declared  himself  ready  to  renounce  all 
pretension  to  the  caliphate,  but  on  October 
9,  680  (9lh  of  Moharram,  a.h.  61),  on  his  refusal 
to  surrender  his  person  to  the  enemy,  he  and  all 
his  followers  were  cut  to  pieces.  The  Shi'ites 
observe  the  10th  of  Moharram  as  a  day  of  public 
mourning.  The  news  of  this  bloody  ending  of 
the  son  of  Ali  spread  consternation  far  and  wide. 
Revolts  were  with  difficulty  put  down.  Ali, 
son  of  Hussein,  wisely  refused  to  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  opposition.  Medina  was  plun- 
dered, and  Mecca  was  in  a  state  of  siege,  when 
news  came  of  the  death  of  the  caliph  at  Damascus 
(November  11,  683).  Mo'awiya  II.,  Merwan  I., 
Abd  al  Melik,  al  Walid,  and  the  other  caliphs 
in  the  Ommeiad  dynasty  saw  Islam  extend  in 
every  direction.  Tarik  crossed  the  strait,  ever 
after  called  from  him  Jebel  Tarik  (Gibraltar), 
into  Spain  in  711;  Roderick,  the  last  of  the  Visi- 
gothic  kings,  lost  his  crown  and  life  in  the  ba  b 
of  Xeres;  Malaga,  Granada,  Cordova,  Seville, 
Toledo,  Saragossa,  Barcelona,  and  the  whole 
Spanish  peninsula,  except  a  few  mountain  retreats, 
were  rapidly  conquered.  In  731  Abder- Rahman 
crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  swept  up  as  far  as 
Tours,  where  his  host  was  defeated  by  Charles 
Martel  in  732. 

In  the  meanwhile  the  Ommeiad  dynasty  at 
Damascus  began  to  decline.  Ibrahim,  great- 
grandson  of  Abbas,  the  uncle  of  the  Prophet,  of 
the  house  of  Hashem,  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
a  revolt,  which  under  his  son,  Abd  Allah  Abu- 
Abbas,  the  "Blood-shedder,"  was  successful. 
The  Ommeiad  dynasty  gave  place  to  the  Abbas- 
sides,  and  the  newly  built  city  of  Baghdad  became 
the  capital  of  Islam. 


493 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


AfoUammeclanism 


The  year  750  was  the  turning-point  in  Muslim 
history.  There  were  still  further  conquests  to  be 
made  in  Central  Asia,  India,  and  Central  Africa, 
but  the  unity  of  the  Muslim  world  was  broken 
forever.  The  Abbassides  controlled  affairs  in 
the  east,  but  the  Ommeiads  held  on  in  Spain. 
In  755  Abder-Rahman  founded  the  caliphate 
of  Cordova,  which  ran  a  brilliant  career  until 
1013,  when  Muslim  power  in  Spain  was  broken 
up  into  various  factions.  Christians  were 
treated  with  great  leniency,  universities  were 
established,  libraries  collected,  literature,  science, 
and  art  fostered,  and  from  these  centers  went 
forth  light  which  hastened  the  dawning  of  modern 
civilization.  The  "Mozarabes"  ("Arabs  by 
adoption")  were  Christians  living  under  this 
mild  rule,  who  were  the  instruments  of  this  wide 
diffusion  of  Arab  learning  throughout  Europe. 

The  Saracens  did  not  long  remain  in  France. 
In  760  Pepin  the  Short  drove  them  over  the 
Pyrenees.  Charles  the  Great  (Charlemagne) 
drove  them  back  in  Spain  beyond  the  Ebro. 
By  the  year  1030  the  kingdom  of  Leon  was 
well  established.  Navarre,  Aragon,  Castile, 
and  Portugal  were  gathering  headway.  Sardinia 
in  1017  was  reclaimed  from  the  Arabs,  and 
Corsica  in  1050.  The  Balearic  Islands  were 
won  by  Aragon.  By  the  middle  of  the  14th 
century  the  Saracens  had  nothing  left  in 
Spain  but  the  little  mountainous  kingdom  of 
Granada.  In  1492  the  combined  forces  of  Cas- 
tile and  Aragon,  under  the  lead  of  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic,  extinguished  this  last  faint  glimmer 
of  Muslim  rule  in  Southwestern  Europe,  at  the 
close  of  a  crusade  lasting  eight  centuries. 

With  the  downfall  of  the  Ommeiad  dynasty 
at  Damascus  Arabia  lost  political  power  in  the 
Muslim  world.  The  Abbassides  at  Baghdad 
were  non-Arab  in  tendency.  The  subtle  skep- 
ticism of  Persia  brought  a  looseness  and  indif- 
ference in  sharp  contrast  with  the  strict  and 
fanatical  Arab  type.  Founded  in  750,  this 
dynasty  existed  until  1258.  For  a  hundred 
years  it  ran  a  brilliant  career.  Baghdad  was 
the  resort  of  learned  men  from  every  region. 
Greek  letters  and  philosophy  were  cultivated. 
Haroun  er-Rashid  (768-809)  gathered  at  his 
court  an  assemblage  of  the  wisest  and  wittiest 
minds  in  his  empire.  Arabic  literature  expanded 
under  his  patronage.  He  sent  an  embassy  to 
the  court  of  Charles  the  Great,  and  gathered 
information  from  every  quarter  But  the  first 
century  of  Abbasside  rule  was  toUowed  by  four 
centuries  of  decay.  The  Jiarmathian  revolt 
in  Arabia  greatly  weakened  the  central  organ- 
ization. Turkish  mercenaries  at  Baghdad, 
called  in  as  a  body-guard  of  the  caliph,  acquired 
more  and  more  power,  and  the  last  caliphs 
were  mere  puppets  in  their  hands.  Province 
after  province  was  dismembered.  In  1258 
Hulagu,  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan,  overthrew 
Baghdad  and  extinguished  the  Abbasside  rule. 

In  909  the  Fatimite  dynasty  was  founded 
in  Egypt  by  ObeidaUah,  a  supposed  descendant 
of  Ali  and  Fatima.  Cairo  was  founded  and 
made  the  capital.  The  story  of  the  rule  of  the 
extravagant  Sufi  mysticism  there  is  revolting 
in  the  extreme.  Saladin  put  an  end  to  this 
dynasty  in  1171. 

In  the  meantime  Islam  had  been  pushing 
steadily  eastward.  Large  bodies  of  Turks  and 
Tatars  were  converted.  The  Seljuk  Turks 
appeared  as  an  independent  body  of  marauders 
as  early  as  1035,  conquered  Persia  and  pushed 


south  and  west  to  the  Meditenancan.  They 
then  set  up  a  powerful  kingdom  in  Central  Asia 
Minor,  threatening  destruction  to  the  Byzantine 
empire.  Their  abuse  and  murder  or  enslavement 
of  Christian  pilgrims  to  the  holy  places  about 
Jerusalem  excited  the  Crusades,  which  held 
the  attention  of  Europe  from  1095  to  1291,  and 
which  resulted  in  checking  the  power  of  the 
Seljuk  Turk,  but  left  Syria  a  prey  to  discord. 
A  Httle  later  the  Ottoman  Turk  appeared,  and 
by  1300  had  a  firm  position  on  the  border  of  the 
Byzantine  empire.  After  absorbing  the  Sel- 
jukian  domains  and  all  the  Greek  territory  in 
Asia,  the  Ottoman  armies  entered  Europe  in 
1354;  Constantinople  fell  a  century  later  (1453), 
and  the  whole  Balkan  peninsula  was  under  the 
crescent.  The  armies  of  the  sultans  pressed 
northward  into  Poland  and  westward  as  far_  as 
Vienna,  their  footing  in  Europe  not  becoming 
precarious  until  well  on  into    the    18th   century. 

Islam  obtained  a  firm  foothold  in  India  as 
early  as  1000.  An  attempt  to  conquer  Sindh 
in  the  8th  century  had  failed.  It  was  not  until 
the  Turk  adopted  Mohammedanism  that  Islam 
made  headway.  Seventeen  invasions  and 
twenty-five  years  of  fighting  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  (1001-1030)  had 
rediiced  only  the  western  portions  of  the  Punjab. 
Bengal  was  conquered  in  1203.  By  1306,  as  a 
result  of  the  barbarous  conquests  of  three  cen- 
turies, there  was  a  powerful  Mohammedan  rule 
in  Northern  India.  The  story  of  Isla,m  in  India 
is  one  of  constant  revolts,  or  uninterrupted 
invasions  and  steady  aggrandizement.  There 
were  a  large  number  of  independeni  Moham- 
medan states  when  the  "Mogul"  dynasty  (1526- 
1761)  made  its  appearance.  Babar,  the  Turk, 
(1482-1530),  having  gathered  headway  on  the 
Afghan  side  of  the  Indian  passes,  pushed  through 
in  1526  and  conquered  right  and  left,  until  at  his 
death  his  empire  stretched  from  the  river  Amu 
in  Central  Asia  to  the  delta  of  the  Ganges.  This 
vast  power  began  to  decline  as  early  as  1707. 
Independent  Muslim  kingdoms  were  detached 
from  the  main  body.  The  Mahrattas  grew  in 
power  until  they  were  able  to  break  the  "Mogul" 
Empire  into  pieces.  The  English  East  India 
Company  was  already  at  work  in  India,  backed 
by  the  British  army.  The  first  governor.  Lord 
Clive,  took  the  helm  in  1758.  The  Company 
grew  until  nothing  less  than  a  great  military 
power  could  properly  care  for  the  immense  ter- 
ritory and  the  millions  under  its  control.  Since 
1858  the  Mohammedans  of  India  have  been 
directly  under  English  rule. 

The  spread  of  Islam  in  China,  Australasia  and 
Central  Africa  cannot  here  be  traced  in  detail. 
Having  conquered  the  Mediterranean  coast  of 
Africa  in  the  year  698,  Mohammedanism  pushed 
up  the  Nile  valley  and  across  the  Sahara.  Abys- 
sinia alone  has  been  able  to  withstand  the  Mus- 
lim onset,  and  remains  like  an  island  in  a  sea  of 
Islam.  The  native  terminology  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  all  Northern  Africa  as  far  south  as  the 
equator  is  Arabic.  Misr  (Egypt),  Sahara, 
Sudan,  Bahr  el  Abyad  (White  Nile),  Bahr  el 
Asrak  (Blue  Nile),  Bahr  el  Ghasel,  are  specimen 
names.  The  Arabic  has  penetrated  south  beyond 
the  Zambesi  River,  as  is  shown  in  "Kafir" 
(Caffre),  which  means  infidel  or  unbeliever.  In 
Zanzibar  and  throughout  Central  Africa  the 
Swahili  dialect  of  the  Arabic  is  the  language  of 
commerce.  Islam  has  spread  in  Africa  by  three 
agencies — the  sword,  commerce,  and  the  mission- 


Mohaminedanism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


494 


ary,  but  wherever  it  has  gone  the  principle  of 
action  has  been  the  same — to  ruin  whatever  it 
cannot  rule. 

IX.  The  Extent  of  Islam  To-day:  It  is  impos- 
sible to  estimate  accurately  the  numerical  strength 
of  the  Mohammedan  world.  For  many  years 
it  was  reckoned  at  160,000,000,  but  the  latest 
investigation  pushes  it  up  nearly  to  200,000,000. 
The  following  table  is  drawn  from  the  most 
recent  data: 

Rumania    44,000 

Bulgaria 600,000 

Servia 14,500 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 548,500 

Montenegro 14,000 

Greece 24,000 

Turkey  in  Europe 2,500,000 

Turkey  in  Asia   16,000,000 

Russia 14,000,000 

Persia 9,000,000 

Afghanistan 4,000,000 

India   62,500,000 

Ceylon 250,000 

Baluchistan 770,000 

China 30,000,000 

Malaysia   13,200,000 

Egypt 9,000,000 

Zanzibar 100,000 

Morocco 8,000,000 

Tripoli 1,800,000 

Tunis 1 ,000,000 

Algeria 4,000,000 

Egyptian  Sudan 3,500,000 

Sierra  Leone  and  Nigeria  (British)..  .  7,600,000 

French  Sahara,  etc 8,375,000 

Nyasaland 500  000 

E.  African  Protectorate 500,000 

Uganda 800,000 

German  B.  Africa 750,000 

Somaliland 1,100,000 

Kamerun 2,000,000 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  detached  groups 

of  islands,  America,  etc.,  etc., 60,000 


193,550,000 


Let  us  examine  more  in  detail  the  various 
countries.  Rumania,  Servia,  Montenegro,  and 
Greece  have  nearly  rid  themselves  of  the  Turks. 
Those  who  remain  are  scattered  about  as  land- 
owners and  merchants.  It  is  said  that  they  are 
moving  toward  Asia  Minor  slowly,  and  before 
long  will  not  be  an  appreciable  part  of  the  popu- 
lation. In  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Bulgaria, 
over  a  million  Muslims  still  remain.  Turkey  in 
Europe  has  two  million  Mohammedans,  scattered 
from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Bosphorus.  These  are 
more  stationary,  altho  there  is  a  constant  move- 
ment toward  Asia,  as  European  civilization  more 
and  more  gives  equal  civil  rights  to  unbelievers 
in  the  Balkan  peninsula.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  by  far  the  greater  number 
of  the  Muslims  of  European  Turkey,  etc.,  are  not 
Turks,  but  natives  of  the  land  who  accepted 
Islam.  What  course  they  will  take  is  by  no 
means  certain. 

Mohammedanism  in  European  Russia  is  largely 
confined  to  Southern  and  Eastern  Russia — terri- 
tory which  for  centuries  has  been  occupied  by 
"  Tatars,"  etc.,  who  are  neither  more  nor  less  than 
Turks  of  near  kin  to  the  Ottomans.  There  are 
Baid  to  be  20,000  muftis,  mollahs,  and  other 
teachers  in  European  Russia.  A  majority  of  the 
population    of    the   Transcaucasus    district    are 


Muslims,  as  might  have  been  expected.  As  Rus- 
sia has  pushed  down  toward  the  Persian  and 
Afghanistan  borders  she  has  taken  in  more  and 
more  tribes  of  Mohammedans.  Professor  Ar- 
minius  Vamb^ry,  an  intelligent  tho  not  unpreju- 
diced witness,  in  writing  of  these  Muslim  portions- 
of  the  Russian  Empire,  has  said: 

In  the  cities  of  Central  Asia,  where  Islam  has  taken, 
much  firmer  root  than  in  the  Caucasus  or  the  other  parts  of 
the  Mohammedan  world,  ther  •  can  be  no  probability  of  th& 
old  and  knotty  trunk  of  religious  education  being  soon 
shaken.  On  the  whole,  Islam  stands  everywhere  firmly  oa 
its  feet,  nor  can  Christianity  succeed  in  weakening  it.  In- 
deed, when  subjected  to  Christian  rule,  it  seems  to  become 
stronger  and  more  stubborn,  and  to  gain  in  expansive  force. 
This  we  see  in  India,  where,  in  spite  of  the  zeal  of  the  Chris- 
tian missionaries  and  the  millions  spent  in  their  support,  th& 
conversions  to  Islam  become  daily  more  frequent.  We  see 
this,  too,  in  Russia,  where  statistics  prove  that  the  number 
of  mosques  has  considerably  increased  in  the  course  of  this 
century,  and  that  the  heathen  among  the  Ural-Altaic  people 
are  more  easily  converted  by  the  moUah  than  by  the  pope. 
.  .  .  Bokhara  will  still  long  continue  to  boast  of  being 
the  brightest  spot  in  Islam,  and  her  colleges  will  not  soon 
lose  their  attraction  for  the  studious  youth  among  the  Mus- 
lims of  Inner  Asia. 

The  British  Empire  is  the  greatest  Moham- 
medan power  in  the  world,  in  that  it  rules  over 
more  followers  of  the  Prophet  than  does  anjr 
other  one  sovereignty.  The  statistics  for  India 
are  elaborately  worked  out.  The  figures  given 
in  the  table  are  those  for  1901.  It  is  often  saii 
that  Mohammedanism  is  making  rapid  growth. 
But  the  census  does  not  bear  out  this  theory.  In 
speaking  of  the  growth  of  Islam  in  India,  Sir 
William  Hunter  says:  "Islam  is  progressing  ia 
India  neither  more  quickly  nor  more  slowly  than 
the  rest  of  the  population.  If  you  take  a  hasty 
view  of  India  and  add  up  totals,  you  will  find 
that  Islam  now  has  a  great  many  more  followers 
than  it  had  ten  years  ago.  But  you  will  find  that 
the  whole  population  has  increased."  This 
statement  had  reference  to  1881.  The  increase 
of  Mohammedans  in  India  during  the  decade 
1891-1901  has  been  a  little  less  than  9  per  cent., 
which  is  also  about  the  rate  of  increase  of  the 
population  of  India  as  a  whole. 

The  extent  of  Islam  in  China  must  remain 
conjectural  for  many  years,  but  it  is  probable 
that  30,000,000  of  Muslims  is  a  conservative 
estimate  for  China. 

The  wide  spread  of  Mohammedanism  in  Malay- 
sia is  becoming  more  and  more  evident.  It 
is  spreading  among  the  whole  Malay  race,  and 
assumes  a  peculiar  type.  It  established  itself 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  in  the  14th  century, 
and  crossed  into  Sumatra,  Java,  and  adjacent 
islands  in  the  15th  century,  thus  anticipating 
the  Portuguese  by  only  a  few  years.  There  are 
large  numbers  of  Malay  Muslims  on  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  in  the  native  states,  and  under  the 
English  flag.  Sumatra  has  a  population  of 
whom  70  per  cent,  are  strict  Mohammedans. 
Java  before  1478  was  Hindu  in  religion.  In  that 
year  Islam  overthrew  the  chief  Hindu  princi- 
pality of  Majapahit,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
whole  island  to  Mohammedanism  followed  within 
the  century.  The  Celebes,  with  a  population  of 
over  800,000,  is  largely  Mohammedan  m  religion. 
Islam  had  just  been  introduced  when  the  Portu- 
guese landed  in  1525.  It  spread  in  a  hundred 
years  over  all  the  districts  it  now  occupies.  The 
south  peninsula  is  divided  into  nine  native 
Muslim  states,  which  form  a  kind  of  Bugfs  con- 
federacy. They  are  in  alliance  with  the  Dutch. 
North  of  this  is  a  smaller  Mandar  confederacy  of 
states,  only  partly  Mohammedan.  There  are 
Muslims  also  along  the  north  coast  of  Celebes, 


496 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


MohainmedanlsiA 


altho  we  have  a  Christian  majority  in  the  Mina- 
hassa  peninsula.  Concerning  Islam  in  the 
Dutch  possessions,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Schreiber  of  the 
Rhenish  Missionary  Society  says: 

Wherever  Mohammedans  and  heathen  are  in  contact 
Islam  is  winning  ground,  sometimes  slowly,  sometimes  more 
speedily.  .  ;  .  Only  a  small  portion  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation remains  still  heathen,  and  those  only  small  and  insig- 
nificant tribes  scatt  red  in  the  forests  of  Sumatra  and 
Borneo.  There  are  some  strong  and  unmistakable  signs  of 
the  increasing  vigor  of  Islam  in  Dutch  India.  According  to 
the  official  statements  there  is  a  steady  increase  in  the  number 
of  pilgrims  to  Mecca.  .  .  .  Those  Mohammedan  sects 
whose  well  known  hostile  and  aggressive  tendencies  make 
them  so  dangerous  are  more  and  more  supplanting  the 
more  placable-spirited  folks,  formerly  so  common  among 
the  Mohammedans  of  Dutch  India,  especially  of  Java. 
Another  hardly  less  ominous  sign  is  the  astonishing  growth 
of  Mohammedan  schools.  In  1882  there  were  in  Java 
10,913  of  those  schools,  numbering  164,667  pupils;  in  1885 
we  are  told  there  were  16,760  schools,  with  not  less  than 
225,148  pupils;  thus,  within  three  years,  an  increase  of  not 
less  than  55  per  cent.  Even  in  the  residency  of  Tapanoeli  in 
Sumatra,  where  the  whole  of  Mohammedanism  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  date,  we  find  210  such  schools  and  2,479  pupils. 

Turning  eastward  from  the  Dutch  possessions, 
we  find  Mohammedanism  constantly  pushing 
forward.  The  large  islands  of  Butu  and  Muna 
are  inhabited  by  Muslim  Malays.  The  coast 
villages  of  Buru,  west  of  Ceram,  are  inhabited 
by  semi-civilized  Mohammedans.  In  Ceram  we 
have  villages  nominally  Mohammedan.  In 
Amboyna,  Banda,  Coram,  Manowolke,  Ka,  Mysol 
and  Sumbawa  there  are  considerable  numbers  of 
Mjslims.  Bali  and  Lombok  are  the  only  islands 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago  which  maintain  their 
old  Hindu  religion.  The  Sulu  Archipelago,  be- 
longing to  the  Philippine  Islands,  comprises  150 
islands,  inhabited  by  Mohammedans  of  the 
Malay  race,  speaking  a  peculiar  language,  which 
they  write  with  the  Arabic  character.  Taking 
all  these  facts  into  consideration,  the  figures  set 
down  in  the  table  for  Islam  in  Malaysia  may  be 
too  small. 

Turning  to  Africa,  we  find  ourselves  in  still 
greater  difficulty.  The  data  for  Egypt,  Zanzi- 
bar, Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli  are  correct 
enough.  For  the  interior  we  are  obliged  to  use 
the  guesses  of  oflEicers  engaged  in  pressing  forward 
the  interests  of  the  various  European  govern- 
ments. The  figures  in  the  table  are  no  more 
than  estimates.  It  should  be  said,  however, 
that  the  more  the  Niger  region  is  explored  the 
more  clear  does  it  become  that  we  have  been 
overestimating  the  number  of  Mohammedans 
among  the  tribes,  many  of  whom  are  Moham- 
medan subjects,  but  have  not  even  been  invited 
to  accept  the  Mohammedan  religion.  Crossing 
the  Atlantic  to  South  America,  we  find  the 
Protestant  missionaries  asking  for  Arabic  Bibles 
to  use  with  Muslims  who  have  immigrated  for 
purposes  of  trade. 

X.  Sects  in  Islam:  It  is  related  that  Mohammed 
■aid:  "Verily  it  will  happen  to  my  people  as  it  did 
to  the  children  of  Israel.  The  children  of  Israel 
were  divided  into  seventy-two  sects,  and  my 
people  will  be  divided  into  seventy-three. 
Every  one  of  these  will  go  to  hell  except  one  sect." 
If  the  number  was  put  too  low  for  the  Christian 
iects  (probably  confused  with  the  Jews),  the 
corresponding  number  is  far  too  low  for  the 
Muslim  world,  and  the  bitterness  of  feeling  indi- 
cated by  the  traditional  utterance  of  the  prophet 
holds  true  to-day  in  the  fanatical  world  of  Islam. 
Sheikh  Abdu'l-Kadir  says  there  are  150  sects  in 
Islam;  but  there  are  infinite  shades  between 
them  which  make  them  practically  innumerable. 
5^e  two  grand  divisions  of  the  Muslim  world  are 


Sunnites  and  Shi'ites.  Upon  the  death  of  Mo'- 
awiya  (a.  h.  60),  Yezid  obtained  the  position  of 
Imam  or  caliph  without  the  form  of  election, 
and  hence  arose  the  great  schism,  which  is  aa 
strong  to-day  as  ever,  between  the  Sunni 
and  the  Shi'i  Muslims;  the  Sunni,  being  close 
observers  of  the  traditions  as  to  the  example  of 
Mohammed,  and  the  Shi'i  considering  many  of 
the  traditions  too  uncertain  to  be  binding.  The 
Sunni  Muslims  account  Abu  Bekr,  Omar  and 
Othman  as  legitimate  caliphs.  The  Sunni 
embrace  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  Muslim 
world,  and  this  article  is  written  rather  from 
their  standpoint.  They  are  divided  into  four 
parties  or  sects;  (1)  Hanafiye,  in  Turkey,  Cen- 
tral Asia,  and  Northern  India;  (2)  Shafiye,  in 
Southern  India  and  Egypt;  (3)  MalakiyS  in 
Morocco  and  North  Africa,  and  (4)  Hambaliye  in 
Eastern  Arabia  and  Eastern  Africa.  These  four 
divergencies  of  practise,  however,  are  not  con- 
sidered as  forming  any  break  in  the  unity  of  Islam, 
since  they  have  discussed  and  agreed  that  the 
divergence   is   permissible. 

The  division  between  Sunni  and  Shi'i  is  of  a 
different  nature,  involving  a  bitterness  that  is 
quite  unappeasable,  since  the  Shi'i  reject  the 
first  three  caliphs  and  exalt  Ali,  the  nephew  and 
son-in-law  of  the  prophet,  as  the  only  legitimate 
caliph,  and  as  nearly  the  equal  of  Mohammed  in 
the  sanctity  of  his  calling.  Tht  peculiarities  of 
the  Shi'i  Muslims  must,  however,  be  discussed  in 
a  separate  article. 

Other  sects  of  Islam  are  the  Dervish  orders,, 
who  have  introduced  into  Islam  everywhere 
foreign  elements  from  India,  Greece,  and  Persia 
under  the  name  of  Sufism  {Tesawvmf  or  Theos- 
ophy) ;  and  the  Babis  of  Persia,  who  have  carried 
to  an  extreme  some  of  the  Sufi  doctrines,  and 
used  them  to  exalt  the  doctrine  of  the  Mahdi. 

In  Arabia  we  find  the  Wahhabis,  founded  in 
1691,  by  Mohammed,  son  of  AbduT  Wahhab. 
This  sect  grew  out  of  the  Hambaliya  sect.  Its 
founder  was  the  Luther  of  Mohammedanism, 
calling  Muslims  back  to  the  original  scriptures 
of  Islam.  He  proposed  to  do  away  with  saint- 
worship,  which  permeated  the  Muslim  world. 
The  Wahhabis  call  themselves  "unitarians,"  and 
claim  that  any  man  who  can  read  the  Koran  and 
sacred  traditions  can  judge  for  himself  in  matters 
of  doctrine.  They  forbid  prayers  to  any  prophet, 
wall,  pir,  or  saint.  They  hold  that  at  the  judg- 
ment-day Mohammed  will  obtain  permission  of 
God  to  intercede  for  his  people.  They  forbid  the 
illumination  of  shrines,  or  prayers,  and  ceremonies 
in  or  about  them,  not  excepting  Mohammed's 
shrine.  Women  must  not  visit  graves,  because 
they  weep  so  violently.  This  lect  has  always 
been  fanatical.  The  sword  was  appealed  to. 
Abdu'l  Aziz,  the  leader  after  1765,  pushed  his 
conquest  to  the  limits  of  Arabia.  He  was  assas- 
sinated in  1803.  His  son  Sa'ud  carried  the  vic- 
torious banner  beyond  the  peninsula,  and 
threatened  the  Turkish  empire.  Mecca  was  con- 
quered in  1803.  All  sorts  of  ornaments  and 
pipes  were  burned.  Tobacco  was  prohibited  on 
pain  of  death.  Sa'ud  sent  commands  to  Moham- 
medan sovereigns  in  every  direction  that  pilgrims 
to  Mecca  must  conform  to  these  puritan  regula- 
tions. Missionaries  were  sent  out.  Disturb- 
ances were  occasioned  in  Northern  India.  A 
little  later,  Mohammed  Ali  of  Egypt  sent  a  strong 
force  into  Arabia  under  Ibrahim  Pasha.  The 
Wahhabis  were  thoroughly  subdued,  and  Mecca 
released  from  the  strict  rule  of  this  Protestant 


Mohaminedanlsin 
Molnccn,  Islands 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


496 


phase  of  Islam.  The  sect  since  that  day  has 
made  little  if  any  progress,  altho  its  tenets  have 
found  adherents  among  the  Dervishes  of  the 
Sudan. 

In  India  some  call  Sikhism  a  sect  of  Moham- 
medanism. This  is  hardly  correct,  altho  it  is 
a  mixture  of  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  ideas,  and 
has  its  chief  strongholds  in  the  Punjab.  There 
are,  however,  in  India  several  new  sects  of 
Mohammedans  which  claim  to  be  seeking  to 
improve  the  religion  by  adapting  it  to  modern 
requirements,  like  the  Aligarh  movement. 
In  Africa  the  great  Senoussiye  movement  is  in 
fact  a  new  sect  in  Islam.  To  what  it  may  grow 
is  not  as  yet  clear,  but  it  represents  force,  and 
fanaticism,  and  such  appeal  to  the  consciences  of 
Mohammedans  that  it  has  swept  through  the 
Barbary  states  with  tremendous  vigor  of  popu- 
larity. 

XI.  The  effect  of  Missions  on  Islam:  Such 
being  the  state  of  the  Muslim  world,  what  success 
has  up  to  this  time  attended  the  efforts  of  the 
Christian  Church  to  win  Mohammedans?  We 
must  believe  that  God  has  some  beneficent  aim 
in  view  even  when  He  allows  Islam  to  arise  and 
spread  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic.  Could 
we  fully  understand,  we  should  probably  see 
some  underlying  scheme  of  Providence  which  is 
being  worked  out  before  our  eyes,  even  tho 
the  conversion  of  idolaters  and  fetish-worshipers 
to  Islam  seems  to  fill  them  with  a  perennial  satis- 
faction in  themselves  which  resists  Christianity 
far  more  successfully  than  does  heathendom 
itself.  Mohammedanism  has  undoubtedly  some 
elevating  influence  upon  the  heathen  it  wins.  It 
develops  a  strong  individuality,  it  theoretically 
and  most  frequently  practically  frees  from 
drunkenness,  cannibalism,  and  other  degrading 
heathen  practises.  It  elevates  womanhood  and 
the  family  to  a  certain  degree.  It  gives  a  regular 
order  of  life,  and  has  introduced  letters  to  some 
extent  wherever  it  has  gone.  It  leaves  the  people 
stranded  at  its  own  low  level,  and  its  use  of  the 
sword  to  bring  them  to  that  level  recalls  to  some 
the  method  by  which  Christianity  made  its 
largest  territorial  conquests  in  Germany,  Spain, 
South  and  Central  America,  Siberia,  etc.  The 
answer  to  this  suggestion  is  that  such  conquests 
were  never  universally  approved  in  the  Christian 
Church,  nor  were  they  continued  century  after 
century,  nor  with  the  widespread  and  wilful 
devastation  of  territory  that  has  been  a  usual 
accompaniment  of  Mohammedan  propaganda. 
We  have  only  to  look  at  the  English  government 
reports  from  the  Hausa  and  Fulani  regions  in 
Nigeria  to  discover  that  so  lately  as  1902  the 
Mohammedan  advance,  in  that  part  of  Africa, 
loudly  proclaimed  as  most  peaceful,  is  accom- 
panied by  the  spectacle  of  armies  sweeping 
through  a  peaceful  land  to  carry  off  herds  of 
slaves  for  the  uses  of  the  Mohammedan  territory, 
and  to  force  the  survivors  into  submission  and 
tribute-paying.  Because  of  this  contrast  in 
methods  the  fact  is  startling  that,  altho  Christian 
missions  have  been  in  contact  with  Islam  for  so 
many  years,  so  little  real  progress  has  been  made 
in  winning  individual  Mohammedans  to  Christ. 
The  task  has  appeared  so  formidable,  even  in 
lands  like  India,  under  Christian  control,  that 
no  great  missionary  society  has  been  organized 
with  the  special  object  of  reaching  them,  altho 
we  have  several  societies  for  the  conversion  of 
the  Jews,  who  number  at  most  eight  millions  as 


contrasted  with  two  hundred  million  Muslims. 
The  number  of  Mohammedans  who  have  been 
won  to  Christ  is  comparatively  very  small.  In 
the  Turkish  empire  the  government  uses  its 
whole  power  to  prevent  Muslims  from  embracing 
Christianity.  Nevertheless,  some  have  done  so 
and  have  proved  their  sincerity  by.  useful  and 
unspotted  lives.  A  few  in  Africa  have  become 
Christians,  but  a  larger  number  of  nominal  con- 
verts to  Christianity  have  fallen  away  to  Islam. 
In  Persia,  Mohammedanism  seems  to  be  disin- 
tegrating through  internal  forces.  That  country 
stands  midway  in  the  Mohammedan  world.  Over 
a  hundred  conflicting  Muslim  sects  are  found 
among  the  seven  or  eight  millions  of  Aryan  race 
dwelling  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Persia  is  a  strategic  point  in  Islam. 
If  it  could  be  won  to  Christ,  Asiatic  Islam  would 
be  cut  in  two.  The  naturally  speculative  Persian 
mind  is  open  to  new  influences,  and  a  few  Persian 
Mohammedans  have  become  Christians.  In 
India,  converts  from  Islam  have  been  more 
numerous,  and  in  some  cases  men  of  great  weight 
in  the  community  have  been  converted  and  have 
become  preachers  of  Christ,  with  power.  But  the 
most  interesting  successes  have  been  achieved  in 
the  Dutch  East  Indies,  where  some  40,000 
Muslims  have  become  Christians,  nearly  half 
of  that  number  in  Java  alone. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  in  all  Moham- 
medan lands  thousands  of  copies  of  Scriptures  are 
sold  to  Muslims  every  year,  and  it  is  rare  that  the 
sale  is  due  to  mere  curiosity.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  the  conviction  that  the  Chris- 
tian Church  is  dealing  with  Islam  incidentally. 
The  best  that  can  be  said  is  that  up  to  this  time 
it  has  been  laying  foundations,  and  perhaps  this 
is  all  that  could  have  been  done,  for  the  obstacles 
are  very  great. 

XII.  Obstacles  and  the  means  used  to  overcome 
them:  (1)  The  Mohammedan  religion  contains 
truth  that  has  come  from  God.  The  heart  which 
desires  to  find  God  recognizes  this  truth,  and 
clings  to  the  error  that  goes  with  it  with  all  the 
power  of  a  faith  that  is  hungry  to  be  fed.  (2) 
The  Mohammedan  is  taught  that  God's  decree 
has  made  him  one  of  the  elect  from  the  founda- 
tion of  the  world.  If  he  can  cherish  the  thought 
of  fighting  against  such  a  decree  of  the  Most  High, 
his  pride  in  being  one  of  the  chosen  people  holds 
him  back  from  listening  to  Christians  who  are  not 
given  this  high  favor  by  God. 

(3)  In  every  Mohammedan  land  the  law 
makes  belief  in  Islam  with  fidelity  to  it  a  condi- 
tion of  civil  rights,  of  liberty,  and  even  of  life. 
The  man  who  turns  from  Islam  after  once  having 
believed  in  it  is  an  outlaw,  dead  in  the  eye  of  the 
law,  and  without  a  right  that  any  one  is  bound  to 
respect. 

(4)  Access  to  Mohammedans  is  obstructed 
because  the  Koran  forbids  intimate  relations 
between  Mohammedans  and  Christians.  In 
Muslim  lands  the  government  will  prevent  social 
relations  with  Christians  by  police  interference; 
and  in  lands  where  the  police  cannot  be  used  for 
this  purpose  those  of  a  man's  own  household,  as 
well  as  the  whole  Muslim  community,  will  inter- 
vene to  prevent  the  formation  of  any_  such 
intimate  relation  of  friendship  as  would  imply 
opportunity  for  quiet  conversation  in  private. 

(5)  "The  Mohammedan  religion  as  a  whole 
allies  itself  with  the  natural  and  less  noble 
impulses   of   man.     Its   essence   is   an   outward 


497 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Mohainine(la.nlsin 
Molucca  Islauda 


form;  it  has  a  glittering  theory  of  lofty  ethical 
aims,  and  at  the  same  time  it  regards  God  as  too 
merciful  to  insist  on  putting  these  noble  theories 
in  practise.  Adhesion  to  Islam  solves  for  a  man 
the  problem  of  yielding  to  selfish  and  sensual 
impulses  and  at  the  same  time  retaining  the  favor 
of  God  as  a  model  of  religious  devotion. 

As  to  that  which  has  been  done  toward  over- 
coming these  obstacles:  In  the  first  place  the 
Christian  Scriptures  have  been  put  into  the 
sacred  language  of  the  Kor&n,  and  into  all  the 
other  languages  vernacular  to  any  considerable 
masses  of  Mohammedans.  The  Bible  thoroughly 
circulated  in  Mohammedan  regions  is  far  more 
effective  than  an  army  of  missionaries  sent  forth 
without  the  Book  ready  to  hand.  The  second 
great  agency  for  reachmg  Mohammedans  with 
Christian  truth  is  the  long  array  of  Christian 
colleges  and  schools  of  less  importance,  which  are 
now  scattered  over  the  larger  part  of  the  Moham- 
medan world.  Without  considering  the  per- 
manent effect  of  ideas  implanted  in  the  mmds 
of  the  young,  we  must  give  such  educational 
institutions  credit  for  a  power  of  polemic  that 
is  gauged  by  the  difference  of  level  between  the 
science  of  the  time  of  Mohammed  and  that  of  this 
century.  Mohammedanism  is  hopelessly  entan- 
gled with  the  science  of  the  7th  century.  A 
third  agency  for  reaching  Mohammedans  is  the 
establishment  of  Christian  homes,  and  to  some 
extent  bodies  of  truly  Christian  people,  where 
Mohammedans  are  forced  to  see  them  and  to 
draw  comparisons  and  conclusions.  Of  the 
whole  number  of  Mohammedan  converts  to 
Christianity  it  is  probable  that  nine-tenths  have 
been  convinced  by  the  powerful  example  of  some 
native  Christian  neighbor. 

Without  attempting  to  exhaust  the  catalog 
of  agencies  in  use  in  reaching  Mohammedans, 
we  will  mention  lastly  Protestantism  or  evan- 
gelical Christianity  as  the  only  phase  of  Chris- 
tianity likely  to  be  successful  in  this  great 
work.  Pictures  and  images  used  in  the_  service 
of  the  Greek  Orthodox,  Roman  Catholic,  Cop- 
tic, Nestorian,  Abyssinian,  and  other  decayed 
forms  of  Christianity  are  utterly  revolting  to 
followers  of  Mohammed,  and  churches  using 
these  can  never  hope  to  make  headway  among 
Mohammedans.  The  simple  Gospel  simply  pro- 
claimed must  be  the  effective  weapon. 

On  the  whole,  there  is  everything  to  urge  the 
Western  Christian  Church  to  move  forward  upon 
this  its  greatest  organized  enemy.  In  the  near 
future  the  battle  must  be  squarely  joined.  Civi- 
lization is  slowly  but  surely  opening  the  way. 
Before  long  all  political  opposition  to  the  prop- 
agation of  Christianity  in  Muslim  lands  will  be 
over.  The  followers  of  Christ  never  had  a  more 
serious  undertaking  on  hand  when  looked  at  from 
the  theological,  social,  ethical,  or  political  stand- 
point. It  calls  for  the  keenest  minds  and  the 
most  consecrated  hearts.  We  must  undertake 
the  task  at  whatever  cost.     "Deus  vult." 

Hughes  (T.  P.),  Dictionary  of  Islam,  London,  1885;  Wherry 
(E.  M.),  Commentary  on  the  Koran  (with  the  text),  London, 
1882;  Smith  (R.  B.),  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism, 
New  York,  1889;  Koelle  (S.  W.),  Mohammed  and  Moham- 
medanism, London,  1889.  (This  book  and  that  of  R.  B. 
Smith  are  both  excellent;  but  they  are  diametrically 
opposed  to  each  other.  Neither  should  be  read  without 
reading  the  other.)  Dwight  (H.  O.),  Constantinople  and 
Its  Problems,  New  York,  1901;  Burton  (R.  F.),  A  Pil- 
grimage to  Medina  and  Mecca,  London,  (n.  e.),  1880 
(admirable  for  its  translations  of  Muslim  prayers  and 
liturgy) ;  Geiger  (A.),  Judaism  and  Islam,  London  (Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge);  Tisdall 
32 


(W.  St.  C),  The  Sources  of  Islam  (translated  by  Sir  W. 
Muir),  Edinburgh,  T.  &  T.  Clark;  Zwemer  (S.),  Arabia,  the 
Cradle  of  Islam,  New  York,  1900;  Sell  (Canon  E.),  Histori- 
cal Development  of  the  Quran,  London  (CMS) ;  Essays  on 
Islam,  London,  Simnkln,  Marshall  &  Co.;  Missionary 
Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  758  (worship);  Vol.  X., 
p.  225,  422  (in  Persia);  XI.,  721;  Malaysia),  359;  XII., 
p.  277  (in  China);  764  (a  Muslim's  view);  Vol.  X:iV.,  p. 
130;  XV.,  p.  732  (Africa)-  Islam  and  Christianity  (Ameri- 
can Tract  Society),  New  York,  1902;  Chatelier,  L'Islam 
daTis  VAfrique  Occidental,  Paris;  .lessup  (H.  H.),  Kamil, 
Philadelphia  (Pres.  board  of  Pub.),  1899;  Tisdall  (W.  St. 
Clair),  Manual  of  Mohamtnedan  Objections,  London 
(SPCK). 

MOHULPAHARI:  A  village  in  Bengal,  India, 
situated  in  the  Santal  Parganas,  about  135  miles 
N.  W.  of  Calcutta.  Station  of  the  Indian  Home 
Mission  to  the  Santals,  with  (1901)  1  missionary 
and  2  native  workers. 

MOI-LIN:  A  village  in  China,  situated  85  miles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Swatow.  Station  of  the  Basel  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1889),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  17  native  workers,  8  out- 
stations,  7  day  schools,  and  583  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  437  are  communicants.  The 
Society  spells  the  name  Moilim. 

MO-KAN-SHAN:  A  town  in  the  E.  part  of  the 
province  of  Che-kiang,  China,  not  far  from 
Wen-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1900),  with  1 
missionary   and  his   wife. 

MOKNEA:  A  village  in  Algeria,  Africa,  about 
50  miles  S.  E.  of  Algiers.  Station  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  Mayor  Mission  (1883),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  day  school,  and  1  Sunday 
school. 

MOK-PO:  A  town  and  treaty  port  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  Korea  on  the  Krumsan  River,  about  8 
miles  from  the  mouth.  Station  of  the  PS  (1898), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their 
wives;  1  woman  missionary,  2  native  workers,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  1 
outstation,  1  dispensary,  and  33  professed 
Christians. 

MOLETSCHE.     See  Malitzi. 

MOLOPOLOLE:  A  village  in  the  N.  E.  of  Brit- 
ish Bechuanaland,  Africa.  It  is  the  chief  town 
of  the  Bakwena  tribe  and  residence  of  Chief 
Sebele,  who  is  a  Christian.  Altitude,  4,020  feet. 
Climate,  temperate.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1866), 
with  (1903),  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman 
missionary,  10  native  workers,  4  Sunday  schools, 

3  day  schools,  and  800  professed  Christians. 
MOLOTE:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal,  Africa, 

situated  22  miles  S.  W.  of  Johannesburg.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 
(1895),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4 
native  workers,  4  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 

4  day  schools,  and  688  professed  Christians. 
MOLUCCA  ISLANDS  {also  called  Spice  Islands): 

A  group  of  islands  scattered  over  the  sea  from 
Celebes  on  the  east  to  Papua  on  the  west,  and 
lying  S.  E.  of  the  Philippines.  Area,  42,946 
square  miles.  The  number  of  these  islands  is 
said  to  be  several  hundreds.  Many  of  them  are 
small  and  uninhabited.  The  large  islands  are 
Ceram,  Jilolo  or  Halmaheira,  and  Buru.  Nearly 
all  are  mountainous.  The  climate  is  hot,  but 
not  excessively  so  Population  is  about  430,000 
natives  and  2,600  Europeans.  The  native  popu- 
lation consists  of  two  races,  the  Malays  and  the 
Papuans.  The  Malay  is  the  common  language, 
and  the  Arabic  character  is  employed  in  writing 
it.  Mohammedanism  is  the  prevailing  religion, 
but  some  few  profess  Christianity.     The  lawa 


1   I 


Uombaaa 
Montgomery 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


498 


are  chiefly  founded  on  the  precepts  of  the  Koran. 
The  chief  power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch. 
Missionary  work  was  carried  on  until  1865  by  the 
Netherlands  Missionary  Society.  The  45,000 
Christians  in  Ceram,  Amboina,  Banda,  and 
other  islands  are  now  treated  as  part  of  the  estab- 
lished Church  of  Holland,  and  the  Government 
appoints  and  supports  their  pastors.  The  Gov- 
ernment also  supports  a  theological  school  which 
was  founded  in  1835.  The  Utrecht  Missionary 
Society  has  stations  on  the  islands  of  Halmaheira 
(Jilolo)  and  Buru,  with  about  1,700  professing 
Christians. 

Pfiuger  (A.),  Smaragdinaeln  der  Sudsee^  Bonn,  1901;  Lith 
(Dr.  P.  A.  van  der),  Bncyclopedie  van  Nedert.-Indie,  Lei- 
den, 1895. 

MOMBASA:  A  town  and  seaport,  and  capital 
of  British  East  Africa,  situated  on  the  N.  side  of 
a  small  island,  3  miles  long  and  2  miles  from  the 
mainland.  The  island  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
1331  and  was  visited  by  Vasco  da  Gama  in  1497. 
It  was  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  in  1529.  It 
has  a  considerable  trade  in  ivory,  gums,  and 
produce.  Population,  15,000.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1844),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  2  of  them 
with  their  wives;  5  women  missionaries,  7  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  137  professed  Christians, 
1  place  of  worship,  3  day  schools,  1  dispensary, 
and  1  hospital. 

MONASTIR:  A  town  in  Turkey  in  Europe, 
situated  near  the  ruins  of  ancient  Heraklia,  87 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Salonica.  It  is  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name  and  railway  terminus. 
The  name  is  derived  by  the  Turks  from  a  neigh- 
boring monastery.  The  Bulgarians  call  the 
glace  Bitoli  and  it  is  sometimes  mentioned  by 
Inglish  writers  as  Bitolia.  Altitude  1,700  feet. 
Population,  50,000,  of  whom  20,000  are  Muslims 
and  30,000  Christians  of  various  creeds,  and  Jews. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1873),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
9  native  workers,  3  outstations,  3  places  of  wor- 
ship, 3  Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  79  professed  Christians. 
MONE.     See  Mongnai. 

MONGHYR:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Ganges,  34  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Bhagalpur.  In  has  manufactures  of  firearms 
and  iron  articles.  Population  (1891),  57,000,  of 
whom  44,000  are  Hindus  and  12,000  are  Muslims. 
Station  of  the  BMS  (1816),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, 1  with  his  wife;  5  native  workers,  1  out- 
station,  4  Sunday  schools,  6  day  schools,  and  185 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  25  are  communi- 
cants. Station  also  of  the  BZM  (1870),  with 
(1903)  2  women  missionaries,  6  native  workers,  1 
Sunday  school,  5  day  schools. 

MONGNAI:  A  town  in  Burma,  British  India, 
situatod  175  miles  S.  E.  of  Mandalay.  It  is  the 
chief  town  of  the  Shan  States.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1892),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  with 
their  wives,  1  woman  missionary,  9  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  3  places  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  1 
hospital,  and  60  professed  Christians.  The  name 
is  also  written  Mone. 

MONGOLS:  A  term  given  to  a  large  branch  of 
the  human  family  which  has  been  designated 
Turanian  by  ethnologists.  It  comprises,  in  its 
proper  limitations,  the  tribes  of  Buriats,  Bash- 
kirs, and  Kalmucks,  and,  more  widely,  the 
Chinese,  Indo-Chinese,  Tibetans,  Burmese,  Siam- 


ese, Japanese,  Eskimos,  Samoieds,  Finns,  Lapps, 
Turks,  and  Magyars.  In  very  ancient  times  they 
formed  the  Median  Empire  in  Chaldea,  tho  they 
are  the  characteristic  nomadic  people.  Another 
offshoot  settled  in  the  plains  of  China  at  a  remote 
period.  To  the  Greeks  the  Mongols  were  known 
as  Scythians,  to  the  Romans  as  Huns.  Under 
Genghis  Khan,  in  the  13th  century,  they  overran, 
and  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  and 
Russia  and  Hungary  in  Europe.  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  Turks  weighed  for  much 
in  this  irruption  of  Genghiz.  The  Mongols  proper 
are  divided  into  three  branches:  the  East  Mongols, 
the  West  Mongols,  and  the  Buriats.  Of  the  East 
Mongols  the  Khalkas  inhabit  the  region  north  of 
the  Gobi,  the  Shara  Mongols  are  found  south  of 
the  Gobi  along  the  Great  Wall,  and  the  Shairagut 
are  found  in  Tangut  and  North  Tibet.  The  West 
Mongols  are  found  in  Kokonor,  Kansuh,  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Thianshan  Mountains,  and 
many  of  them  under  the  name  of  Kalmucks  are 
under  the  rule  of  Russia.  The  Buriats  are  in  the 
Russian  province  of  Irkutsk,  around  Lake  Baikal. 
The  original  Mongols  are  thus  described  by 
Dr.  Latham:  "Face  broad  and  flat;  the  cheek- 
bones stand  out  laterally  and  the  nasal  bones, 
are  depressed.  The  eyes  are  oblique;  the  dis- 
tance between  them  is  great,  and  the  carunculae 
are  concealed.  The  iris  is  dark,  the  cornea  yel- 
low. The  eyebrows  form  a  low  and  imperfect 
arch,  black  and  scanty.  The  complexion  is 
tawny,  the  stature  low.  The  ears  are  large, 
standing  out  from  the  head;  the  lips  thick  and 
fleshy,  forehead  low  and  flat,  and  the  hair  lank 
and  thin."  In  the  more  civilized  nations  of 
Mongol  origin  these  original  characteristics  have 
been  modified.  In  the  western  Turks,  for  exam- 
ple, one  seeks  Mongol  features  in  vain. 

MONGOLIA:  The  land  of  the  Mongols  is  a  vast 
part  of  the  empire  of  China,  lying  in  the  interior 
of  Asia,  comprising  1,300,000  square  miles  of 
territory  between  latitude  37°  and  54°  north 
and  longitude  85°  and  125°  east.  On  the  north 
it  is  bounded  by  Siberia,  on  the  east  by  Man- 
churia, on  the  south  by  China  proper,  and  on  the 
west  by  East  Turkestan  ?nd  Jungaria.  Its  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  2,500,000,  one-fifth  of 
whom  are  Chinese.  A  high  plateau,  3,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the 
region.  In  the  center  is  the  Desert  of  Gobi,  where 
sand  and  stones,  dust  in  summer  and  snow  in 
winter,  render  habitation  unbearable.  The 
northern  part  is  occupied  by  ranges  of  mountains 
forming  part  of  the  Altai  chain.  On  its  slopes 
rise  the  Selenga,  the  Kerlow,  and  Onon,  which 
form  the  Amoor.  In  the  south  are  rich  meadow- 
lands,  which  afford  food  for  cattle.  Chinese 
have  introduced  agriculture  to  some  extent. 
Mountain  ranges  are  again  found  on  the  west. 
On  the  east  is  a  strip  of  fertile  land.  On  the 
southeast  of  the  desert  of  Gobi  is  the  mountam 
range  of  Alashan,  which  reaches  in  some  places 
the  height  of  15,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Along 
its  hills  pasture-land  is  found.  The  climate  is 
in  general  cold,  subject  to  sudden  changes,  and 
in  summer  intolerably  hot.  With  the  exception 
of  the  work  of  the  early  representatives  of  the 
LMS,  who  labored  in  the  north,  the  southern 
portion  of  Mongolia  has  been  practically  the  omy 
field  occupied  by  Protestant  missionaries.  The 
ABCFM  is  the  most  prominent  force  on  the  field. 

Gilmour  (.T.),  Among  the  Mongols.  New  York,  1883;  More 
About  the  Mongols,  New  York,  1893. 


499 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Muinbaiia. 
Slontgomery 


MONGOLIAN  LANGUAGES:  A  family  of  lan- 
guages of  a  low  order  of  development  spoken  by 
various  peoples  and  tribes  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Asia,  and  deemed  by  many  sufficiently 
described  by  the  term  Turanian  languages.  They 
certainly  have  the  Turanian  peculiarity  of  never 
obscuring  the  root,  of  vowel  euphony,  and  of 
making  words  by  agglutination.  But  on  the 
other  hand,  their  structure  is  so  rudimentary  that 
this  test  hardly  applies  unless  the  term  Turanian 
is  taken  in  the  wide  sense  of  non-Aryan.  The 
language  of  the  people  of  Chinese  Mongolia,  of 
the  Khalkas  of  the  Gobi  desert,  that  of  Manchuria 
to  some  extent,  and  that  of  the  Buriats  of  Siberia, 
and  the  Kalmucks  of  Eastern  Russia,  is  all 
Mongolian  in  character.  Recent  investigations 
seem  to  point  to  a  closer  relation  between  the 
Mongol  and  Turkish  languages  than  has  been 
commonly  known;  but  the  subject  is  not  clearly 
defined,  and  it  is  safer  to  rate  the  Mongolian  and 
Turkish  languages  as  distinct  until  the  relation 
certainly  existing  between  them  has  been  more 
accurately  defined.  In  general  literature  great 
confusion  has  been  produced  by  the  use  of  the 
term  Mongol  for  any  of  the  languages  spoken  by 
nomads  in  Siberia  and  Mongolia.  There  is  a 
literary  Mongolian  which  is  written  with  charac- 
ters peculiar  to  itself,  of  which  the  Manchu  char- 
acters are  the  most  fully  developed  form.  These 
Mongolian  characters  are  placed  in  perpendicular 
lines,  under  the  powerful  Chinese  influence.  But 
nevertheless  they  are  a  monument  which  has 
endured  more  than  a  thousand  years  to  the 
Christian  missionary  spirit,  being  based  on  the 
Syriac  alphabet  taught  by  ancient  Nestorian 
missionaries  to  these  wanderers  of  northeastern 
Asia. 

MONKULLO:  A  settlement  on  the  mainland 
N.  of  Massaua,  Eritrea,  Africa.  Station  of  the 
Swedish  National  Evangelical  Mission  Society 
(1877),  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  1  native  worker, 
1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  and 
4  professed  Christians. 

MONROVIA:  A  town,  capital  of  Liberia,  Africa, 
situated  on  the  Mesurado  River  near  the  coast. 
Population,  4,000.  Station  of  the  African  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Mission  Society.  Station  also 
of  the  ME  (1833),  with  (1903)  6  missionaries,  4 
of  them  with  their  wives;  1  woman  missionary, 
21  native  workers,  12  outstations,  13  Sunday 
schools,  1  printing  house,  1  boarding  school,  1 
college,  and  1,357  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  PE  (1853),  with  (1903)  4  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  3  places  of  worship,  2 
Sunday  schools,  1  day  school,  1  boarding  school, 
and  178  professed  Christians. 

MONSEMBE :  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  Africa,  situated  about  100  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Equatorville  on  the  Congo  River.  Station  of 
the  BMS  (1891),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  3 
of  them  with  their  wives;  12  native  workers,  1 
outstation,  14  professed  Christians,  2  day  schools 
and  1  dispensary.  Society  spells  the  name 
Monsembi. 

MONSURAH.     See  Mansura. 

MONTEGO  BAY:  A  village  in  Jamaica,  West 
Indies,  situated  on  the  N.  coast,  18  miles  W.  of 
Falmouth.  Station  of  the  West  Indies  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Mission  Conference,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary. 

MONTEMORELOS:  A  town  in  the  State  of 
Nueva  Leon,  Mexico,  situated  52  miles  S.  E.  of 


Monterey.  Population,  10,000.  Station  of  the 
American  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society,, 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  chapel, 
2  Sunday  schools,  1  day  school,  and  83  professed 
Christians.  Station  of  the  PS  (1900),  with 
(1903)  1  woman  missionary  and  1  native  worker. 

MONTENEGRO:  An  independent  principality 
in  the  W.  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  It  is  bor- 
dered on  the  east,  south,  and  southeast  by  Turkey, 
on  the  north  by  Herzegovina.  A  narrow  strip 
of  Austrian  territory  separates  it  from  the  Adri- 
atic on  the  west,  excepting  a  seaboard  of  28  miles 
in  length  on  the  Adriatic.  The  entire  area  is 
estimated  at  3,630  square  miles,  with  an  extreme 
length  of  100  miles  and  a  width  of  80.  The  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  236,000. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy, 
according  to  the  constitution  dating  from  1852. 
The  prince  holds  the  executive  authority,  and 
practically  the  will  of  the  prince  is  law. 

The  religion  of  the  kingdom  is  that  of  the 
Greek  Church,  under  the  direct  influence  of  the 
prince,  who  appoints  the  bishops.  Nominally, 
Church  and  State  are  independentj  but  virtually 
not  so.  The  number  of  adherents  is  222,000;  the 
Mohammedans  number  10,000  and  the  Roman 
Catholics  4,000.  Elementary  education  is  com- 
pulsory and  free,  the  government  supporting  the 
schools.  In  1901,  4,000  male  and  500  female 
pupils  attended  96  elementary  schools. 

The  Montenegrins  are  Slavs  of  the  Servian 
stock,  and  have  many  noble  characteristics.  A 
dialect  of  the  Servo-IUyrian  Slavonic  is  the 
language  spoken.  Agriculture  is  the  leading 
occupation  of  the  people,  and  live-stock  of  all 
kinds  are  reared.  There  are  no  missionary 
societies  at  work  in  Montenegro. 

MONTEREY :  A  town,  the  capital  of  the  State 
of  Nueva  Leon,  Mexico,  situated  240  miles  N.  E. 
by  N.  of  Zacatecas,  on  the  San  Juan  River.  It 
is  surrounded  by  mountains  and  is  the  center  of 
a  silver  mining  district.  It  was  founded  in  1596. 
Altitude,  1,600  feet.  Population,  50,000.  Station 
of  the  American  Baptist  Home  Missionary 
Society,  with  3  women  missionaries,  4  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  1  day  school,  5  Sunday 
schools,  and  215  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  CWBM  (1897),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  1  out- 
station, 15  professed  Christians,  1  day  school. 
Station  also  of  the  MES  (1883),  with  (1903)  3 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  native  workers, 
6  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  8  Sunday 
schools,  1  day  school,  1  theological  class,  1  hos- 
pital, 1  dispensary. 

MONTEVIDEO:  A  seaport  and  the  capital  of 
Uruguay,  South  America,  situated  on  the  N. 
side  of  the  Plata  River,  120  miles  E.  by  S.  of 
Buenos  Aires.  One  of  the  handsomest  cities 
in  South  America,  built  on  the  seaward  side  of 
the  bay,  with  good  light  system,  broad  streets, 
and  good  water.  Exports  live-stock,  hides,  and 
preserved  meats.  It  was  founded  in  1726.  Its 
climate  is  healthy  and  agreeable.  Population 
(1892),  238,000,  including  many  Italians,  Span- 
iards, and  French.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mission- 
aries, 19  native  workers,  3  outstations,  912  pro- 
fessed Christians,  5  places  of  worship,  14  Sunday 
schools,  1  day  school,  and  2  boarding  schools. 
Also  station  of  the  Salvation  Army. 

MONTGOMERY:  A  town  on  the  N.  W.  part  of 


Montgomery 
Moravian  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


500 


Tobago  Island,  West  Indies.  Station  of  the 
Moravian  Society  (1827),  with  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  30  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  and 
610   professed   Christians. 

MONTGOMERY,  Giles  Foster:  Born  at  Wal- 
den,  Vermont,  U.  S.  A.,  November  8,  1835; 
graduated  at  Middlebury  College  1860;  Lane 
Theological  Seminary  1863;  sailed  as  a  missionary 
of  the  ABCFM,  and  reached  Aintab,  Turkey, 
December  23,  1863.  He  was  sent  to  open  a 
station  at  Marash.  Three  times  he  was  driven 
away  with  fierce  violence  by  the  Armenians,  and 
in  1895  he  was  almost  killed.  He  was  a  good 
business  man,  a  powerful  preacher  and  unusually 
successful  in  influencing  men.  After  fifteen  years 
of  labor  at  Marash  he  left  it  for  Adana,  two 
strong,  self-supporting  evangelical  churches  hav- 
ing been  formed  from  the  very  men  who  had 
once  sought  his  life  in  their  blind  outburst  of 
furious  bigotry.  At  Adana  Mr.  Montgomery's 
high  qualities  again  made  themselves  felt  in 
healing  a  breach  in  the  church  and  stirring  up 
the  church  members  to  Christian  work.  In 
1887  a  terrible  famine  threatened  to  decimate 
the  population  of  Adana  and  the  region  round 
about.  Mr.  Montgomery  appealed  for  aid  to 
to  Europe  and  America  and  devoted  himself  to 
its  distribution,  largely  by  means  of  relief  works 
wheie  those  able  to  work  could  earn  their  bread. 
The  tremendous  strain  of  this  work  in  the  hot 
season  was  too  much  for  him,  and  after  a  period 
of  illness  he  died  December  4,  1888.  He  had 
literally  given  up  his  life  for  the  people  of  Adana, 
and  all  sects  and  denominations  mourned  by  his 
grave. 

MONTSERRAT:  One  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
West  Indies,  10,083  inhabitants.  Mission  sta- 
tion of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (Eng- 
land); 3  missionaries,  2  native  teachers,  and  67 
church  members. 

MONYWA :  A  town  in  Burma,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Cliindwin  River,  53  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Mandalay.  Population,  6,300.  Station  of  the 
WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  21  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  2 
Sunday  schools,  6  day  schools,  and  37  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  28  are  communicants. 

MOOSE  FACTORY:  A  post  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  in  Ontario,  Canada,  situated  on 
the  W.  side  of  an  estuary  of  (ho  Moose  River, 
Hudson  Bay.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Bishopric  of 
Moosonee.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1851),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  liis  wife,  7  native  workers, 
3  outstations,  1  day  school,  and  350  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  35  are  communicants. 

MOOSEHIDE:  A  settlement  in  the  Yukon 
Territory  of  Canada,  close  to  Dawson  City,  in 
the  Klondyke  region.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1897),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  and  81  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

MORADABAD:  A  town  in  the  United  Prov- 
inces of  India,  and  capital  of  the  Moradabad 
District,  situated  50  miles  N.  W.  of  Bareilly,  on 
a  ridge  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ramganga  River. 
It  has  manufactures  of  fine  metal  work.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  75,000,  of  whom  39,000  are  M\is- 
lims  and  31,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  ME, 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries  with  their  wives,  3 
women  missionaries,  294  native  workers,  21 
chapels,  178  Sunday  schools,  105  day  schools,  2 


boarding  schools,  and  14,866  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  6,031  are  communicants. 

MORAR:  A  town  in  the  State  of  Gwalior, 
Central  India,  situated  on  the  Morar  River,  in  an 
alluvial  plain,  34  miles  E.  of  Gwalior.  Popu- 
lation (1891),  24,500,  of  whom  18,000  are  Hindus 
Station  of  the  PN  (1874),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife  and  1  native  worker. 

MORAVIAN  HILL:  A  station  of  the  Moravians 
in  Cape  Town,  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa,  estab- 
lished in  order  to  watch  over  the  spiritual  welfare 
of  native  Christians  attracted  to  the  city  by  hope 
of  employment. 

MORAVIAN  MISSIONS  (Missions  of  The  Unitas 
Fratrum,  or  the  Unity  of  Brethren,   1732):  In 
1722    Augustine    and    Jacob    Neisser   and   their 
families,    descendants    of    John    Huss,    followed 
Christian  David  to  Saxony,  where  they  founded 
the   town  of   Herrnhut  on  the  estate  of  Count 
Zinzendorf,  who  had  offered   them   an   asylum. 
Other   descendants   of   the    Brethren   emigrated 
from  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  and  joined  them  at 
Herrnhut.     Count  Zinzendorf  became  the  leading  ' 
Bishop    of   the    resuscitated    Moravian   Church, 
and  gradually  came  to  devote  his  means  as  well 
as  his  time  to  the  spread  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ 
through  the  agency  of  the  Brethren.     He  estab- 
lished  on    the    continent    of    Europe,   in   Great 
Britain   and  in   America    exclusively    Moravian 
settlements,  from  which  the  "world"  was  shut 
out,  arid  in  which  was  fostered  the  highest  form 
of  spiritual  life.     At  the  same  time  members  of 
the  Moravian  body  undertook  extensive  missions 
in  heathen  lands,  established  many  schools  for 
young  people  not  of  their  communion,  and  began 
the  so-called  "Diaspora"  Missions  among  mem- 
bers   of    the    State    churches    of    Europe.     The 
exclusive  system  still  continues  in  Germany  in 
a  modified  form;   in  England,  also,  there  are  a 
few  Moravian  settlements,  but  the  last  vestige 
of    it    in    America    disappeared    in    1856.     The 
following  year  at  a  general  synod  held  at  Herrn- 
hut,  the    constitution    of    the    Unitas   Fratrum 
was  remodeled,  the  new  development  being  com- 
pleted at  the  General  Synod  of  1899.     The  Mo- 
ravian  Church   now  consists  of  four  provinces, 
the    German,    the    British,    and   the   American, 
North  and  South,  which  are  united  as  one  body 
in  regard  to  doctrine,  ritual,  discipline,  and  the 
worl-c  of  foreign  missions.     Each  province  of  the 
Moravian  Church  has  a  synod  as  its  legislative 
body,  composed  of  ministers  and  laymen,  and 
an  executive  board  elected  by  and  responsible 
to  it.     The  executive  boards  of  the  four  prov- 
inces form  the  Directing  Board  of  the  Brethren's 
Unity.     A  General  Synod,  composed  of  elected 
delegates  from  the  several  provinces,  and  certain 
ex  officio  members,  meets  every  ten  years.     In 
this   synod   the   missions   are   also   represented. 
It   supervises  the   life,   doctrines  and  activities 
of  the  entire  Moravian  Church,  which  forms  one 
organic  ecclesiastical  body  throughout  the  world. 
A   Mission   Board,   composed   of   five   members, 
three   of   whom   are   chosen  from  the   German, 
British  and  American  divisions  of  the  Church, 
is  elected  by  the  General  Synod,  and  is  respon- 
sible to  that  body  for  its  administration.     This 
Mission  Board  appoints  and  directs  missionaries 
and  superintendents  and  has  full  charge  of  the 
finances.     Subordinate  officers  are  the  treasurer 
of   missions,   at   Herrnhut,   Saxony-    the  secre- 
taries of  missions,  in  London,  and  America,  and 
the  various  agents  of  missions  in  Germany,  Eng- 


601 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Montgomery 
Moravian  Missions 


land  and  America,  all  of  whom  are  appointed  by 
the  central  body. 

Associated  with  this  Mission  Board  is  the 
Financial  Committee  of  the  Missions,  composed 
of  four  business  men  elected  by  the  General 
Synod,  one  of  whom  is  the  Manager  of  the  Finan- 
cial Office  of  the  Missions.  All  important  finan- 
cial measures,  investments,  etc.,  must  go  before 
this  Committee  before  final  action  is  taken  by 
the  Mission  Board,  which  must  be  guided  by 
them. 

Finally,    the    General  Synod,   constituted    of 
representatives  of  the  entire  Church  and  acting 
by  commission  of  all  its  provinces,  institutes  a 
searching  inquiry  into  the  financial  management 
and  the  entire  administration  of  the  affairs  of 
the   missions.     It   formulates   and    amends    the 
regulations,    determining    the    relations    of    the 
missionaries  to  the  Board;    reviews  and  revises 
the  constitutions  of  the  several  mission  provinces, 
determines    the    principles    governing    salaries, 
furloughs,   retirements,   pensions,   and  the   edu- 
cation  of  missionaries'   children,    and   indicates 
the  general  spirit  in  which  the  mission  work  shall 
be  conducted.     In  the  last  resort,  the  missions 
stand  directly  under  control  of  the  General  Synod, 
and  therefore  also  of  the  entire  Moravian  Church, 
which  may  reaUy  be  looked  upon  as  an  ecclesias- 
tical missionary  society.     There  are  also  several 
auxiliary   organizations:    e.    g..    The    Brethren's 
Society    for    the    Furtherance    of    the    Gospel, 
founded   in   1741,   in   London,    and   constituted 
whoUy  of  members  of  the  Moravian  Church,  the 
British  Provincial  Elders  being  ex  officio  direc- 
tors, provides  for  the  current   expenses  of  the 
mission   in    Labrador,    in   part   by   trade.     The 
Society  of  the  United  Brethren  for  Propagating 
the  Gospel  among  the  Heathen  was  reorganized 
at  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  in  1787,  the  original 
association  having  heen.  founded  at  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1745.     Chartered  in  1788,  its 
directors  are  the  trustees  of  a  fund  bequeathed 
by  Godfrey  Haga  of  Philadelphia  in  1825.     The 
Provincial    Elders    of    the    American    Moravian 
Church,  North,  are  ex  officio  directors,  and  this 
society,  with  the  aid  of  the  American  congrega- 
tions, has  assumed  the  financial  support  of  the 
mission  in  Alaska,  besides  being  speciallj  obli- 
gated to  aid  the  missions  among   the   Indians  of 
North     America.     The     Brethren's     Missionary 
Society  of  Zeist   was   established  in   1793,   and 
devotes   its   energies   especially   to   the   support 
of    the    enterprise    in    Surinam.     The    London 
Association  in  Aid  of  the  Missions  of  the  United 
Brethren  occupies  the  unique  position  of  a  mis- 
sionary  evangelical   alliance    which   devotes   its 
entire  income  to  the  support  of  Moravian  Mis- 
sions.    Established    in     1817    by    friends    who 
sympathized  with  the  Church  in  its  embarrass- 
ment caused  by  losses  sustained  during  the  Napo- 
leonic wars,  it  consists   exclusively  of   members 
of  other  churches  than  the  Moravian.     During 
the  decade  preceding  the  General  Synod  of  1899, 
this     association     contributed     $475,000.     The 
Missionary  Union  of  North  Schleswig,  founded 
in  1843,  has  rendered  aid  especially  to  missions 
in  Danish  colonies.     Besides  these,  there  are  a 
number  of  Women's,  Young  Men's,  and  Juvenile 
societies,  generally  local  in  their  membership. 

Of  these,  two  exercise  administrative  powers  in 
accordance  with  agreements  with  the  Mission 
Board,  the  Society  for  the  Furtherance  of  the 
Gospel  in  London  having  charge  of  the  Labrador 
work,  and  the  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel 


in  Bethlehem  having  charge  of  the  Alaskan  and 
Indian  missions  in  North  America. 

Development  of  Mission  Work:  A  memorable 
day  of  prayer  and  conference  was  held  at  Herrn- 
hut  on  Ferbuary  10,  1728,  when  Zinzendorf  and 
his  brethren  discussed  the  possibility  of  a  forward 
movement.  Distant  lands  were  to  be  won  for 
Christ — Turkey  and  Africa,  Greenland  and 
Lapland.  _  "But  it  is  impossible  to  find  a  way 
thither,"  it  was  objected.  "The  Lord  can  and 
will  give  grace  and  strength  for  this,"  was  the 
reply  of  Zinzendorf.  On  the  following  morning 
twenty-six  unmarried  men  came  together,  and 
solemnly  declared  themselves  ready  to  go,  at  the 
call  of  the  Lord.  The  missionary  purpose  was 
there,  and  already  the  Lord  was  preparing  to 
use  it.  In  July  of  the  same  year  Zinzendorf 
returned  from  a  visit  to  Copenhagen,  accom- 
panied by  a  negro  from  the  West  Indies,  who 
described  the  great  need  of  the  slaves  in  the 
Islands  to  such  purpose  that  two  young  men, 
Messrs.  Dober  and  Leopold,  offered  to  go  to  them 
as  missionaries.  At  the  same  time  the  needs  of 
assistance  for  the  work  of  Hans  Egede,  a  Danish 
Lutheran  missionary  in  Greenland,  were  made 
known  by  two  Eskimos,  and  two  other  young 
men,  Messrs.  Stach  and  Boehnisch,  offered  to  go 
to  his  relief. 

But  Zinzendorf  deemed  it  best  to  delay  their 
departure  that  their  fitness  for  these  undertakings 
might  be  thorougUy  tested.  In  August,  1832, 
Dober  set  out  on  foot  from  Herrnhut,  accom- 
panied by  David  Nitschman.  With  two  ducats 
and  three  thaler  as  their  capital  they  made  the 
journey  of  several  thousand  miles  to  Copenhagen, 
whence  they  sailed  on  October  8,  1732,  arriving 
at  St.  Thomas  on  December  13  of  the  same 
year.  On  April  10,  1732,  Matthew  and  Christian 
Stach,  cousins,  and  Christian  David  sailed  from 
Copenhagen  for  Greenland,  where  they  were 
warmly  welcomed  by  Egede.  About  a  mile 
distant  from  his  colony  they  established  their 
mission,  which  they  called  New  Herrnhut.  The 
following  year  the  new  mission  was  reenfoiced 
by  the  arrival  of  Frederick  Boehnisch  and  John 
Beck. 

Coincident  with  the  preparation  of  the  mission 
in  Greenland,  the  attention  of  Zinzendorf  and  the 
Brethren  had  been  called  to  the  Laps,  but  their 
missionaries  on  setting  out  learned  that  a  Danish 
mission  had  been  begun  among  this  people  in 
Norway.  Accordingly  Andrew  Grasmann,  Dan- 
iel Schneider,  and  John  Nitschman,  Jr.,  spent 
the  winter  of  1734  in  Stockholm,  and  in  the 
spring  went  to  Tornea,  and  thence  inland,  but 
finding  the  people  under  the  nominal  supervision 
of  the  State  Church,  they  at  once  withdrew. 

That  same  year  arrangements  were  made  with 
the  Dutch  Surinam  Company  by  which  the 
Brethren  were  allowed  to  settle  in  Surinam,  and 
Messrs.  Piesch,  Berwig  and  Larish  left  Herrnhut 
March  7,  1735,  their  primary  purpose  being  a 
preliminary  tour  with  a  view  to  a  later  settlement. 
This  led  to  the  founding  of  a  mission  which  was 
placed  on  a  permanent  basis  in  1745.  Duiing 
the  years  1735  and  1738  work  was  begun  among 
the  Indians  and  negroes  in  the  American  colonies, 
a  work  directly  linked  with  the  founding  of  the 
Moravian  Church  in  America.  The  call  to  the 
next  undertaking  came  in  1736,  for  missionaries 
to  work  among  the  Hottentots  in  Cape  Colony. 
As  soon  as  the  call  reached  Herrnhut,  George 
Schmidt  volunteered  to  go.  Within  a  week  he 
started  for  Holland  to  study  Dutch  before  sailing. 


Moravian  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


60i2 


He  left  for  Cape  Town  on  March  17,  arriving 
on  the  9th  of  July,  1737,  and  settled  among  the 
Hottentots  on  the  Zondereind  River,  about  10 
miles  west  of  what  is  now  Genadendal. 

In  1737-38  Messrs.  Grasmann,  Schneider  and 
Miksch  attempted  work  among  the  Samoyedes 
and  other  heathen  tribes  on  the  Russian  shores 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  were  arrested  as  Swedish 
spies,  and  after  an  imprisonment  in  solitary  con- 
finement were  sent  back  to  Germany  with  word 
that  their  services  were  not  needed. 

In  1739  Abraham  Richter  learned  of  the  need 
of  the  slaves  in  Algeria,  and  was  sent  to  them  by 
the  Church,  arriving  in  Algiers  in  1740,  but  in 
less  than  six  months  he  died  of  the  plague.  At 
this  time  prospective  missions  in  Ethiopia,  on 
the  Madras  coast  of  India,  in  China,  in  Persia,  in 
Canstantinople,  and  in  Wallachia  were  discussed. 
A  severe  check  was  received  when  Russia's 
welcome  to  Lange,  Hirschel  and  Kund,  on  their 
way  to  Mongolia  and  China,  took  the  form  of 
imprisonment.  In  1747,  almost  coincident  with 
the  removal  of  their  fetters,  Messrs.  Hocker  and 
Ruffer  went  as  missionaries  to  the  Guebres  in 
Eastern  Persia,  but  found  it  impossible  to  pene- 
trate beyond  Ispahan;  they  learned,  however, 
that  most  of  the  Guebres  had  been  massacred  or 
exiled,  and  so  started  on  their  return  journey. 
Ruffer  died  on  the  way,  but  Hocker  reached  the 
home'  church  in  1750,  and,  undeterred  by  what 
he  had  encountered,  in  1752  he  returned  to 
Egypt  with  the  intention  of  proceeding  to  the 
Copts  of  Abyssinia,  but  political  disturbances 
prevented  his  going  beyond  Cairo.  He  made 
another  effort  in  1758,  taking  passage  with  one 
associate  on  an  Arab  vessel  on  the  Red  Sea. 
Wrecked  on  the  Island  of  Hassani,  the  mission- 
aries lost  all  their  valuable  medical  supplies,  and 
again  the  enterprise  failed.  Eight  years  later 
Hocker  again  sought  Egypt,  accompanied  by 
Messrs.  Danke  and  Antes.  It  was  impossible  to 
proceed  to  Abyssinia,  but  Danke  pushed  on  to 
the  Coptic  settlement  at  Behnesa  in  Egypt, 
where  he  died  in  1772.  In  1782  Hocker  also  died, 
and  the  absolute  inhibition  of  labor  among  the 
Mohammedans  finally  caused  the  abandonment 
of  the  enterprise. 

In  1754  two  members  of  the  Church  in  England 
asked  for  missionaries  to  instruct  their  slaves  on 
the  Island  of  Jamaica,  and,  with  two  companions, 
Z.  G.  Caries  volunteered  for  this  service,  leaving 
for  the  new  field  in  October  of  that  year.  This 
year,  1754,  distinctively  termed  "the  colonial 
year"  by  the  Moravian  writers,  was  of  significance 
_also  for  the  mission  in  Surinam,  which  had 
already  had  a  beginning  in  the  tour  of  explora- 
tion twenty  years  previous. 

In  1760  Messrs.  Volker  and  Butler,  with  eleven 
artisans,  inaugurated  the  Moravian  Tranquebar 
Mission,  with  the  approval  of  the  Danish  Govern- 
ment. They  purchased  a  tract  of  land  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  town,  and  named  the  little  settle- 
ment Briidergarten.  Scarcely  had  the  little 
mission  in  Greenland  begun  to  approach  success 
than  the  Brethren  turned  their  attention  to 
Labrador,  urged  by  the  men  working  in  the 
former  country.  The  proposition  was  not 
approved  by  Zinzendorf,  but  in  1752  merchants 
who  were  members  of  the  London  congregation 
fitted  out  a  ship  for  trade  and  colonization  on  the 
coast  of  Labrador,  and  in  July  of  the  same  year 
the  first  four  pioneer  missionaries  reached  their 
destination,  naming  the  bay  in  which  they 
landed  Nisbet's  Haven,  in  honor  of  James  Nisbet, 


an  active  promoter  of  the  enterprise.  Owing 
to  the  treachery  of  the  natives,  however,  the 
mission  was  abandoned,  and  it  was  not  until 
1770  that  it  was  finally  established  on  a  per- 
manent basis. 

In  1768,  six  Brethren  were  sent  to  establish  a 
mission  on  the  Nicobar  Islands,  more  colonists 
joining  them  the  following  year,  but  owing  to 
the  mortality  the  colonial  project  was  abandoned. 
In  1777  the  work  was  extended  to  Serampur  in 
Bengal,  by  invitation  of  the  Danish  Company, 
and  seven  years  later  a  new  station  was  opened 
at  Patna.  The  whole  mission  proved  so  dis- 
couraging that  in  1786  the  Unity  Elders'  Con- 
ference sent  a  deputation  to  investigate  its  pros- 
pects, with  the  result  that  the  mission  at  Patna 
was  at  once  given  up,  the  Nicobar  Islands  and 
Serampur  were  abandoned  in  1788-1791,  and 
four  years  later,  in  1795,  the  Conference  decided 
to  withdraw  entirely  from  the  East  Indies.  A 
visit  of  two  of  the  members  of  this  deputation  to 
Cape  Town  in  1787  led  to  the  renewal  of  the 
mission  in  Cape  Colony,  which  had  been  aban- 
doned fifty  years  before,  and  in  1792  Messrs. 
Marsveld,  Schwinn  and  Kuhnel  were  sent  out 
to  reestablish  the  station  of  Baviaans  Kloof, 
now  called  Genadendal.  In  1818  a  new  mission 
was  established  four  hundred  miles  east  of  Cape 
Town,  on  the  White  River,  for  work  among  the 
KaflSrs,  and  in  1828  the  first  station  in  Kaffraria 
proper  was  established. 

In  1847  Messrs.  Pfeiffer  and  Reinke  were  sent 
on  an  exploring  tour  to  the  Mosquito  coast  of 
Central  America,  and  reported  so  favorably  that 
a  mission  was  established  in  1849,  at  Bluefields. 
In  1850  the  pioneer  Moravian  missionaries 
arrived  in  Australia,  and  a  station  was  opened 
in  the  Lake  Boga  District. 

From  almost  the  beginning  of  its  missionary 
operations  the  Moravian  Church,  under  tlie  leader- 
ship of  Count  Zinzendorf,  had  looked  toward 
Mongolia  and  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  on  the 
suggestion  of  Dr.  Gutzlaff  it  was  decided  to 
attempt  an  entrance  from  the  west.  In  1853 
the  pioneers  reached  the  CMS  station  of  Kotgarh, 
in  the  Punjab,  and  from  that  place  as  a  base,  in 
1856,  land  was  purchased  near  Kailang,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Bhagar,  in  Lahul,  where  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Himalayan  Mission  to  Tibet 
was  established. 

In  1865  a  leper  asylum  was  established  at 
Jerusalem,  by  a  German  lady,  and  in  1867  the 
Moravians  undertook  its  supervision.  In  1878  the 
emigration  of  West  Indian  negroes  to  British 
Guiana,  South  America,  led  to  the  establishment 
of  a  mission  in  that  colony.  In  1885  a  mission 
was  permanently  established  in  Western  Alaska 
for  the  aborigines  of  the  American  continent. 
In  1887  the  Moravian  Church  received  an  unex- 
pected legacy,  and  about  the  same  time  an  appeal 
from  Mackay  of  Uganda  for  a  Moravian  Mission 
in  Central  Africa  resulted,  in  1891,  in  the  sending 
out  of  four  missionaries,  who  began  work  in  the 
Konde  Highlands  of  German  East  Africa,  north- 
west of  Lake  Nyasa.  In  1896  the  Moravian 
Church  took  over  the  Urambo  Mission  of  the 
LMS,  thus  becoming  responsible  for  the  evangel- 
ization of  the  western  half  of  German  East  Africa, 
south  of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  and  extending 
to  Lake  Tanganyika. 

In  1900,  in  accordance  with  the  desire  of  the 
Danish  Government,  the  Moravian  stations  in 
Greenland  were  transferred  to  the  care  of  the 
Danish  Church,   since   the   people   being  Chria- 


4503 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Mora-rlan  Mlsslona 


tianized,  actual  missionary  worlc  there  was  a 
thing  of  the  past. 

The  Missions:  1.  West  Indies  (1732):  The 
first  two  missionaries  of  the  Moravian  Church, 
Messrs.  Dober  and  Nitschman,  landed  in  St. 
Thomas,  West  Indies,  December  13,  1732,  after 
a  long  and  perilous  voyage  from  Copenhagen. 
For  the  first  four  months  Nitschman  supported 
his  companion  and  himself  by  carpentering,  but 
in  April  he  returned  to  Europe,  and  Dober  was 
in  great  straits,  as  he  was  obliged  to  labor  for  his 
support  while  attempting  to  work  among  tlie 
slaves.  While  on  the  one  hand  a  letter  from 
Anthony,  the  West  Indian  whom  Zinzendorf  had 
met  in  Copenhagen,  had  given  him  a  ready  wel- 
come among  the  blacks,  on  the  other  hand  he 
met  with  great  opposition  from  the  planters.  In 
June,  1734,  Tobias  Leopold  and  seventeen  others 
arrived,  some  of  whom  were  to  take  up  the  work 
he  had  commenced,  while  others  were  to  go  to  St. 
Croix  to  begin  a  second  station  on  the  estates  of 
Count  Pless,  at  his  request.  By  the  end  of  the 
following  January  eight  of  their  number  had  died. 
In  February  eleven  persons  were  sent  to  their 
aid,  but  the  mortality  continued,  and  by  Decem- 
ber 1 ,  1736,  the  last  survivor  from  St.  Croix  returned 
to  St.  Thomas.  The  bitter  opposition  of  the 
planters  was  increased,  when  in  1837,  with  the 
assistance  of  a  friendly  planter,  an  estate  was 
purchased  for  the  mission  known  as  Posaunen- 
berg,  later  New  Herrnhut.  In  1739  Count 
Zinzendorf  visited  the  mission,  and  his  personal 
representations,  with  petitions  from  influential 
friends,  on  his  return  home,  practically  secured 
religious  liberty  from  the  Danish  crown.  In 
1740  the  St.  Croix  Mission  was  reopened  and  the 
following  year  the  work  was  extended  to  St. 
John  Nisky,  in  St.  Thomas,  Friedensthal  in  St. 
Croix,  and  Bethany.  In  February  of  1854  a 
station  was  opened  in  Jamaica  at  the  request  of 
Messrs.  Foster  and  Barham,  two  wealthy  planters, 
who  gave  a  plot  of  ground  for  the  new  mission, 
which  was  called  Carmel.  Mr.  Caries  and  his 
two  companions,  pioneers,  were  reenforced  by 
other  workers,  and  outposts  were  established  at 
Bogue,  Island,  and  Mesopotamia,  three  other 
plantations.  In  1756  the  missionaries  on  St. 
Thomas  commissioned  Samuel  Isles  to  investi- 
gate Antigua  as  a  prospective  mission  field.  He 
was  well  received  by  the  governor  and  planters, 
and  his  first  convert  was  baptized  the  following 
year. 

In  1765  Messrs.  Wood  and  Rittmansberger 
were  sent  to  open  a  mission  in  Barbados.  Within 
a  month  of  their  landing  at  Bridgetown,  Ritt- 
mansberger died  of  fever,  and  Wood,  after  strug- 
gling on  alone  for  a  year,  abandoned  the  enter- 
prise. The  next  year  another  missionary  was 
sent  out,  only  to  die  within  a  week  of  landing.  In 
1767  the  work  was  undertaken  by  Mr.  Brookshaw, 
who  succeeded  in  enduring  the  climate  and  laying 
the  foundation  of  the  mission.  Everywhere  the 
negroes  were  ready  to  listen,  and  the  work  pro- 
gressed rapidly  in  spite  of  some  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  whites. 

Tidings  of  the  happy  results  of  the  mission  in 
Antigua  reached  the  neighboring  island  of  St. 
Kitts,  and  the  planters  desired  missionaries  to 
teach  their  slaves.  At  the  request  of  Mr. 
Cardiner,  Messrs.  Gottwalt  and  Birkby  were 
sent  to  St.  Kitts  in  1777,  and  were  kindly  wel- 
comed. In  1782  the  gift  of  land  on  the  island  of 
St.  John  made  possible  the  founding  of  a  second 
station,  which  was  called  Emmaus. 


The  missionary  work  of  the  Moravians  at 
Tobago  dates  from  1787,  when  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Montgomery,  after  a  visit  to  a  planter  named 
Hamilton,  reported  an  open  field,  and  commenced 
work  in  1790.  The  worlc  was  interrupted  by  a 
fierce  outbreak  of  soldiers  and  people  against  the 
Government  and  by  a  disastrous  hurricane  a 
month  or  two  later.  Before  the  end  of  the  year 
Mrs.  Montgomery  died,  and  soon  after  Mr. 
Montgomery  returned  to  Barbados,  only  to  die. 
For  eight  years  no  attempt  was  made  to  reopen 
the  mission,  chiefly  on  account  of  uncertain 
political  conditions. 

During  the  ensuing  years  the  Moravian  Mission 
in  the  West  Indies  was  intimately  connected 
with  the  movement  for  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
In  May,  1792,  the  Danish  King  fixed  a  date  for 
the  slave  trade  to  cease  in  the  Danish  possessions. 
At  the  same  time  repeated  requests  came  from 
land  owners  on  St.  Thomas  to  the  Unity  Elders' 
Conference  that  the  Brethren  should  assume  the 
religious  and  civil  education  of  the  children  of 
slaves.  The  work  was  greatly  hindered  by 
droughts  followed  by  sickness;  and  the  mission 
premises  at  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John  were  devas- 
tated by  a  tornado  in  1793.  But  in  spite  of 
these  adverse  circumstances  the  work  every- 
where prospered.  In  1801  St.  Thomas  surren- 
dered to  the  British  and  the  other  Danish  Islands 
speedily  did  likewise.  During  the  next  years 
new  stations  were  occupied  and  a  widening  of 
educational  activities  characterized  the  work. 
On  the  Danish  Islands,  on  December  24,  1830, 
the  work  of  the  Brethren  was  put  on  an  equal 
footing  with  that  of  the  State  Church.  At  the 
close  of  1834,  after  a  little  more  than  a  hundred 
years  of  labor,  the  missions  on  the  Danish  Islands 
numbered  10,321  members;  St.  Thomas  1,998, 
St.  Croix  6,682,  St.  John  1,641.  That  same  year, 
by  an  act  of  Parliament,  slavery  was  prohibited 
throughout  tlie  British  colonies.  The  connec- 
tion of  the  missions  with  trade  for  the  support  of 
the  work  was  gradually  dropped.  A  system  of 
education  was  established  by  the  Government, 
and  in  1839  Governor-General  Van  Scholten,  at 
the  instance  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  visited 
Herrnliut  and  laid  before  the  authorities  of  the 
churcli  his  plan  for  elementary  schools,  proposing 
that  a  beginning  be  made  at  St.  Croix,  and  that 
the  mission  supply  the  teachers,while  the  Govern- 
ment erect  the  buildings  and  aid  financially.  In 
1841  the  first  school  was  opened  on  Great  Princess 
Plantation;  others  were  established  on  the  island 
of  St.  John,  and  in  1847  the  system  was  extended 
to  St.  Thomas.  The  same  year  a  normal  school 
was  established  in  Antigua,  a  similar  one  being 
already  in  operation  at  Fairfield,  Jamaica.  In 
1854  a  training  institution  for  women  teachers 
was  established  at  St.  Johns,  in  Antigua.  In 
1856  the  ordination  of  John  Buckley  as  a  deacon 
at  St.  Johns  marked  an  important  step  in  West 
Indian  development,  for  with  him  began  the  line 
of  Moravian  ministers  of  African  blood. 

In  1863  a  General  Conference  was  convened 
at  St.  Thomas,  when  self-support,  a  native 
agency,  local  management,  and  education  were 
discussed.  Jamaica  fell  into  line  except  for  the 
outlay  for  buildings  and  the  traveling  expenses 
of  missionaries.  The  Danish  Islands,  with  St. 
Kitts  and  Tobago,  were  to  have  a  gradually 
decreasing  grant  for  a  decade,  in  the  hope  that  in 
the  interval  local  resources  might  attain  a  suf- 
ficient development.  Antigua  and  Barbados 
were  unable  at  once  to  make  the  change. 


Mopavlam  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


604 


But  such  happy  anticipations  were  interrupted. 
Cholera,  yellow  fever  and  a  hurricane  compelled 
the  missionaries  to  turn  their  houses  into  hos- 
pitals. In  spite  of  these  reverses,  however,  the 
work  went  steadily  on,  and  in  1869  steps  were 
taken  for  the  gradual  emergence  of  the  West 
Indian  congregations  from  the  status  of  missions, 
BO  that  they  might  be  made  a  fourth  federated 
province  of  the  Brethren's  Unity.  Earthquakes 
and  tornados  of  repeated  occurrence  involved 
losses  from  which  it  has  taken  years  to  recover. 
One  important  measure  was  the  founding  of  a 
theological  seminary  at  Fairfield,  in  Jamaica, 
in  1876.  In  1879  a  conference  of  ministers  and 
delegates  met  at  Nisky,  St.  Thomas,  to  take  steps 
preparatory  to  carrying  out  the  legislation  of  the 
General  Synod,  and  which  should  prepare  the  way 
for  provincial  autonomy.  At  this  time  it  was 
decided  to  divide  the  work  into  two  provinces. 
General  mission  conferences  were  appointed  in 
both  missionary  provinces  for  every  five  years, 
at  which  time  three  executive  members  were  to 
be  chosen.  In  each  case  the  election  of  these 
executive  members  must  be  approved  by  the 
Board  of  Missions.  At  this  time  a  second  theo- 
logical seminary  was  opened  in  St.  Thomas. 

In  1884  the  church  in  Jamaica  was  recog- 
nized as  a  body  corporate,  title  to  the  mission 
property  being  vested  in  the  Provincial  Confer- 
ence of  the  island  together  with  the  President  of 
the  British  Provincial  Elders'  Conference  and 
the  Mission  Secretary  in  London.  This  year  the 
one  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniversary  of  Moravian 
missions  in  the  Eastern  islands  was  commemo- 
rated by  the  erection  of  a  memorial  church  at  St. 
Thomas.  In  1899  the  two  provinces  were 
granted  practical  independence  with  certain 
restrictions.  A  fixed  annual  grant,  normally  of 
$3,500,  was  to  be  allowed  each  province  for  ten 
years,  together  with  certain  specific  donations. 
The  cost  of  maintaining  one  theological  seminary 
on  the  islands,  and  the  expenses  of  the  foreign 
Brethren  then  in  the  field,  were  to  be  borne  by  the 
Mission  Board.  Foreign  missionaries  thereafter 
appointed  were  to  receive  one-half  their  expenses 
from  the  Board  and  the  other  half  from  the  prov- 
ince. Since  then  Jamaica  has  averaged  contri- 
butions amounting  to  $41,184,  and  has  drawn 
from  the  general  treasury  $2,534;  the  Eastern 
division  averaged  $40,109  each  year,  and  required 
aid  amounting  to  $3,552.  There  are  (1903)  45 
stations  and  23  outstations,  86  European  and 
American  missionaries,  813  native  helpers, 
40,107  church  members,  108  day  schools  with 
23,368  pupils,  3  other  schools  with  34   students. 

2.  Dutch  Guiana  (1735) :  Arrangements  having 
been  made  with  the  Dutch  Surinam  Company 
for  the  Brethren  to  settle  in  that  country,  a 
preliminary  tour  was  made  in  1735  by  Messrs. 
Piesch,  Berwig  and  Larisch.  Arrawak,  Warrau, 
and  other  Indian  tribes,  free  Bush  negroes,  and 
negro  slaves  made  up  the  bulk  of  the  population, 
while  the  country  was  as  unprepossessing  as  its 
inhabitants.  After  the  exploring  party  returned 
in  1738  Messrs.  Daehne  and  Giiltner  were  sent  out 
by  invitation  of  a  planter  on  the  Berbice  River. 
They  established  JPilgerhut,  about  one  hundred 
miles  inland;  the  following  year  work  was  begun 
at  Paramaribo,  but  such  was  the  hostility  that 
the  missionaries  removed  to  a  small  plantation 
on  the  Cottica,  where  they  remained  till  1745, 
whan  this  was  also  given  up  and  the  working 
force  returned  to  Pilgerhut,  where  in  1748  the 
first  convert  was  baptized.     In  1754  the  good 


will  of  the  authorities  at  Paramaribo  was  secured, 
and  permission  was  given  for  the  founding  of 
mission  colonies.  In  1756  Sharon  on  the  Sara- 
macca,  and  Ephraim  on  the  Corentyne,  were 
successfully  established  for  work  among  the 
Indians.  Repeated  wars,  the  nomadic  tendency 
of  the  tribes  and  their  proneness  to  intoxication 
caused  the  work  to  progress  but  slowly.  In  1761 
and  1763  the  Bush  negroes  rose  in  rebellion  and 
threatened  the  extinction  of  the  Indian  missions. 
In  1766  work  was  begun  among  these  Bush 
negroes.  Slowly  a  congregation  was  gathered, 
and  in  1773  a  settlement  was  formed  at  Bambey, 
in  the  interior.  In  1776  the  first  convert  was 
won  at  Paramaribo,  and  in  1778  the  first  church 
was  built.  In  1785  the  Government  offered  the 
mission  a  tract  of  land,  and  Sommelsdyk  was 
established.  In  1793  permanency  was  given 
to  the  mission  by  the  formation  in  Zeist,  Holland, 
of  the  Zendinggenootschap  der  Broedergemeente, 
for  the  special  support  of  the  Brethren's  work  in 
the  Dutch  Colonies.  The  same  year  the  mission 
at  Hope,  on  the  Corentyne,  was  removed  to  a 
more  fertile  spot  on  Aulibissi  Creek;  industrial 
work  was  vigorously  inaugurated,  and  before 
long  a  mission  boat  was  regularly  used  to  carry 
produce  to  Berbice.  In  1806  Hope  suffered  from 
a  disastrous  fire,  and  later  the  indifference  of  the 
Indians  led  the  missionaries  to  turn  to  the  slaves 
on    the    plantations.     The    opposition    of    the 

Elanters  closed  two  stations.  But  new  estates 
egan  to  be  thrown  open — by  1826  six,  thirteen 
during  the  following  year,  and  ninety  within  a 
decade.  In  1828  the  Dutch  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  among  the 
Negroes  of  Surinam  was  founded.  The  spiritual 
care  of  prisoners  and  slaves  in  the  forts  of  New 
Amsterdam,  at  Paramaribo,  and  the  suburb  of 
Combe  was  transferred  to  the  Brethren.  The 
mission  made  marvelously  rapid  strides.  Station 
was  added  to  station — Worsteling  Jacobs  in  1838, 
Salem  in  1840,  Beekhuizen  in  1843,  Rust-en- 
Werk  in  1844.  Liliendal  became  an  independent 
station  with  the  consecration  of  its  church  in 
1848;  Annaszorg  was  made  a  center  for  work 
among  the  plantations  on  the  Warappa  and 
Mattapica  creeks  in  1853.  In  1855  Catharina 
Sophia  on  the  Saramacca;  Heerendyk  in  1856. 
The  first  attempt  to  train  negro  lads  for  teachers 
was  made  in  1844,  and  in  1851  a  normal  school 
was  successfully  established  at  Beekhuizen.  In 
1856  the  Government  placed  in  the  care  of  the 
Brethren  the  non-Catholic  inmates  of  the  leper 
hospital  at  Batavia.  Then  followed  Beersheba, 
Waterloo  and  Clevia.  In  1861  John  King  was 
baptized  at  Paramaribo,  and  returned  to  Mari- 
postoon  to  do  evangelistic  work  among  his  own 
people,  and  from  this  beginning  he  made  long 
evangelistic  tours  in  all  parts  of  Surinam.  In 
1863  the  slaves  of  Surinam  were  emancipated, 
each  ex-slave  being  required  to  declare  himself 
either  a  Jew  or  a  Christian  to  obtain  the  royal 
favor. 

Education  now  became  a  marked  feature  of 
the  Moravian  missions;  in  1866  the  normal  school 
was  transferred  to  the  capital,  and  supplied  well 
qualified  teachers.  In  1875  a  primary  school 
was  also  established  in  the  capital.  In  1882 
Rust-en- Vrede  was  established,  and  Wanika  in 
1886.  At  this  period  the  "native  helpers"  began, 
a  movement  for  a  higher  standard  of  discipline, 
and  in  1893  the  colonial  government  materially 
aided  the  mission  by  altering  the  laws  which 
had  impeded  true  marriages  of  the  negroes.     The 


605 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Moravian  Missions 


work  spread  among  the  Bush  negroes  of  the 
interior,  tho  it  was  impossible  for  a  white 
man  to  permanently  endure  the  climate.  In 
1891  the  first  Chinese  helper'  was  appointed  for 
worli  among  the  immigrant  Asiatic  heathen;  in 
1897  a  missionary  and  two  deaconesses  were 
appointed  to  work  among  the  Protestants  in  the 
leper  hospital  at  Groot  ChatiUon. 

In  June,  1902,  the  first  native  pastor  was 
ordained,  and  in  November  of  the  same  year  the 
foundation-stone  of  the  training  institution  for 
native  workers  was  laid  at  Paramaribo.  There 
are  (1903)  18  stations  and  25  outstations,  93 
European  and  American  missionaries,  and  364 
native  helpers,  29,200  church  members,  27  day 
schools  with  2,896  pupils,  1  training  school  with 
6  students. 

4.  South  Africa  (1737):  The  first  Moravian 
missionary,  George  Schmidt,  arrived  in  Cape 
Town  in  July,  1737,  and  located  among  the  Hot- 
tentots on  the  Zondereind  River;  but  the  follow- 
ing year  tlie  mission  was  transferred  to  Baviaans- 
kloof  (Genadendal),  where  in  1742  the  first 
convert  was  baptized.  The  following  year 
Schmidt  was  summoned  to  Holland  to  report  as 
to  the  validity  of  his  proceedings,  and  was  not 
allowed  to  return.  In  1748  John  Martin 
Schwalber  volunteered  to  take  up  the  work  at 
his  own  expense,  and  remained  at  Baviaans-kloof 
till  1756,  when  he  died  during  an  epidemic.  In 
1789  Bishop  Reichel  visited  Cape  Colony,  and 
advised  that  another  attempt  be  made.  Accord- 
ingly in  1792  two  men  were  sent  out,  and  the 
Government  donated  the  place  where  Schmidt 
had  labored  for  the  new  mission  premises.  In 
March  a  school  was  commenced,  and  industrial 
work  was  begun.  But  the  Boers  saw  with  alarm 
the  improvement  of  the  people  under  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  Moravians,  and  even  the  friendly 
inspector  yielded  to  the  opposition.  The  Mora- 
vians must  withdraw  to  the  Bush  country.  In 
1794  no  native  was  allowed  to  settle  at  Baviaans- 
kloof  without  written  permission  from  a  Boer. 
Then  a  paper  was  circulated  demanding  the 
expulsion  of  the  missionaries  and  the  enslave- 
ment of  the  Hottentots  and  Bushmen.  A 
climax  was  reached  in  1795  when  the  British 
fleet  took  possession  of  Cape  Colony,  and  the 
missionaries  were  assured  protection.  Then  the 
mission  grew  apace.  In  1800,  after  the  restor- 
ation of  the  Colony  to  Holland,  the  name  of  the 
station  was  changed  to  Genadendal,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  Dutch  governor,  who  was  impressed 
by  the  improved  condition  of  negro  converts. 
In  1808,  two  years  after  the  Colony  had  again 
become  a  British  possession,  a  new  station  was 
established  at  Groenenkloof  (Mamre),  forty  miles 
north  of  Cape  Town.  In  1815  a  third  center  was 
established  at  Enon,  as  a  basis  of  work  among 
the  Kaffirs,  but  owing  to  the  violence  of  the  latter 
the  place  was  abandoned  in  1819.  In  1823  the 
Government  hospital  for  lepers  at  Hemel-en- 
Aarde  came  under  the  care  of  the  Moravians; 
the  following  year  Elim  was  established  about 
forty  miles  southeast  of  Genadendal.  In  1828 
Shiloh  in  Kaffraria  was  occupied,  and  early  the 
next  year  the  first  converts  were  baptized.  In 
1834  slavery  was  abolished,  and  a  remarkable 
revival  occurred  at  Genadendal.  In  1838  the 
corner-stone  for  a  training  school  for  Hottentots 
was  laid,  and  opened  the  following  year  with  nine 
students.  In  1839  the  work  was  extended  to 
some  fugitive  Kaffirs  at  Zitzikamma,  where  in 
1840  a  great  awakening  took  place.     Extension 


became  the  order  of  the  day,  and  in  1845  a 
missionary  society  was  organized  at  Genadendal; 
in  spite  of  frequent  wars  and  famine  new  stations 
were  established.  In  1858  the  work  was  extended 
to  the  Piquetberg  range,  near  St.  Helena  Bay, 
eighty  miles  north  of  Cape  Town,  in  the  valley  of 
Goedverwacht,  but  the  uncertain  tenure  of  the 
land  decided  the  purchase  of  the  neighboring 
farm  of  Wittewater  as  the  center  of  operations. 
During  the  next  years  the  printing  press  came 
to  the  front.  Missionary  periodicals  and  other 
literature  were  published. 

The  gradual  advance  into  Kaffraria  gave 
special  importance  to  a  conference  of  mission- 
aries engaged  in  the  eastern  group  of  stations, 
held  at  Shiloh  in  1863,  a  first  step  in  the  direction 
of  a  separation  into  a  distinct  missionary  province. 
In  1867  the  Moravian  missionaries  withdrew 
from  the  oversight  of  the  leper  hospital,  which 
had  been  removed  to  Robben  Island,  and  it  passed 
into  the  care  of  the  Anglican  Church. 

In  accordance  with  the  resolution  of  the  synod 
in  1869,  the  South  African  Mission  was  divided 
into  the  Eastern  and  Western  Provinces.  In 
the  Western  Province  special  attention  was 
paid  to  the  normal  school  at  Genadendal. 
Mamre,  distinguished  as  the  point  of  extension 
in  the  Western  Province  through  its  sub-station, 
Johanneskerk  or  Pella,  enjoyed  a  deepening  of 
its  religious  life,  and  a  revival  at  Elim  in  1876 
gave  promise  of  a  bright  future.  The  churches 
at  Enon  and  Clarkson  were  enlarged  and  new 
schools  established  at  Mamre  and  Elim,  with- 
out drawing  on  the  mission  treasury. 

In  the  Eastern  Province  the  extension  of  labor 
among  the  "red"  Kaffirs  called  forth  all  energy. 
In  independent  Kaffraria,  Baziya  formed  a 
vantage  point  for  the  extension  of  the  work. 
In  1870  a  mission  was  established  among  the 
Hlubis  at  Emtumasi.  By  August,  1873,  there 
were  thirteen  converts;  outstations  were  soon 
required.  The  following  year,  by  the  request 
of  a  chief,  Entwanazana  was  founded  on  the 
Umtana  River.  But  now  perplexities  thickened. 
The  mission  was  refused  a  grant  of  land  at 
Emtumasi.  Moreover,  the  natives  persisted  in 
regarding  the  work  of  the  missionaries  from  a 
tribal  standpoint.  Then  came  a  Kaffir  uprising 
against  the  British  rule.  But  in  the  meantime 
the  older  stations  in  the  Eastern  Province  were 
taking  a  more  distinctively  Christian  character. 

In  1887  a  theological  department  was  added 
to  the  normal  school  at  Genadendal.  The  Kaffir 
mission,  embracing  the  three  older  posts  in  the 
Colony  proper,  Shiloh,  Goshen  and  Engotini, 
with  the  two  widely  separated  groups  in  Tembu- 
land  and  East  Griqualand,  experienced  fluctua- 
tions, tlio  on  the  whole  expansion  prevailed. 
In  both  divisions  of  the  South  Africa  field  diffi- 
culties arose  in  relation  to  the  title  to  the  stations 
and  mission  property.  Negotiations  began  with 
a  view  to  secure  a  permanent  decision  in  the 
Colonial  Parliament,  and  in  1888  seemed  favor- 
able to  the  mission.  Both  Provinces  advanced 
steadily  toward  self-support.  In  1896  a  training 
school  for  native  teachers  was  established  at 
Muenyane,  in  the  Eastern  Province.  A  theo- 
logical seminary  was  also  established  in  Kaffraria. 
In  1902  the  mission  Board  was  directed  by  the 
General  Synod  to  make  appropriations  for  the 
Western  Province  only  in  case  of  extraordinary 
need.  The  great  work  of  the  missionaries  is 
firmly  to  establish  the  congregations  and  make 
them    self-supporting.     There    are     (1903)     22 


ItforaT^ian  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


60S 


stations  and  26  outstations,  86  European  and 
American  missionaries,  with  483  native  helpers, 
16,645  church  members,  54  day  schools  with 
3,867  pupils,  2  training  schools  with  30  students. 
5.  Labrador  (1770):  In  the  fall  of  1751  Messrs. 
Staoh  and  Drachart,  of  the  Moravian  Mission  in 
Greenland,  urged  a  similar  mission  in  Labrador, 
and  suggested  that  trade  be  combined  with  evan- 
gelization. Zinzendorf  did  not  favor  the  propo- 
sition, but  members  of  the  London  congregation 
took  it  up,  and  in  1752  fitted  out  a  ship  for  trade 
and  possible  colonization  on  the  coast  of  Labra- 
dor, James  Nisbet  promoting  the  scheme. 
Erhardt  and  other  Brethren  took  passage  in  her, 
and  on  July  31  reached  their  destmation,  which 
they  called  Nisbet's  Haven.  Here  four  pros- 
pective missionaries  landed  and  prepared  to 
build  a  house,  calling  it  Hopedale,  while  Erhardt 
sailed  northward,  but  with  his  companions  was 
murdered  by  the  natives,  and  the  captain  of  the 
schooner  persuaded  the  Brethren  at  Hopedale  to 
abandon  their  enterprise.  In  1764  a  second 
attempt  was  made  by  Jens  Haven,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year,  accompanied  by  Drachart,  they 
made  a  tour  of  exploration,  going  some  distance 
into  the  interior.  In  the  autumn  of  1767  turmoil 
in  Labrador  itself  hastened  the  founding  of  the 
mission,  and  in  May,  1769,  an  order  of  Privy 
Council  with  royal  approval  sanctioned  the 
undertaking  and  granted  to  the  resuscitated 
Society  for  the  Furtherance  of  the  Gospel,  which 
had  been  founded  in  London  in  1741  by  Spangen- 
berg,  one  hundred  thousand  acres  of  land  on  the 
coast  of  Labrador.  In  March,  1770,  a  small  brig, 
the  "Jersey  Packet,"  was  purchased,  and  on  May 
5  of  the  same  year  the  missionary  party  sailed 
for  Labrador,  arriving  the  10th  of  August,  and 
locating  about  180  miles  north  of  Hopedale. 
Friendly  relations  with  the  natives  were  soon 
established  and  the  new  station  was  called  Nain. 
In  1773  the  founding  of  two  additional  stations 
■was  sanctioned  by  the  Unity  Elders'  Conference. 
The  following  year  a  tour  of  exploration  was 
made  northward,  which  resulted  in  the  occupa- 
tion of  Okkak,  150  miles  north  of  Nain,  in  1775. 
In  1782  Hopedale  was  reestablished.  At  first 
the  outlook  was  most  discouraging,  owing  to  the 
influence  of  European  traders,  but  in  1804  an 
awakening  began  and  by  1818  six  hundred  people 
were  gathered  around  the  mission  stations. 
During  1836-1837  a  famine  ra^ed  at  Nain,  Okkak, 
and  the  newly  organized  station  of  Hebron,  and 
the  missionaries  strained  every  nerve  to  help 
their  people.  During  the  next  twenty  years 
occasional  tours  were  made  and  preaching 
services  held  in  various  parts  of  Labrador,  but 
the  main  efforts  of  the  missionaries  were  spent 
in  strengthening  the  existing  missions.  In  1864 
the  station  of  Zoar  was  founded,  to  the  south  of 
Nain.  In  1865  an  orphanage  was  established 
at  Okkak.  Two  years  later  another  attempt 
was  made  to  explore  the  country,  and  attempts 
were  made  to  establish  stations  at  Saeglek, 
Nachwak  and  NuUatatok  Bay,  but  in  each  case 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  interfered  and  the 
missionaries  withdrew.  In  1871  a  second  and 
successful  attempt  was  made  at  NuUatatok  Bay, 
the  new  station  being  called  Ramah.  From  the 
beginning  the  Labrador  mission  had  carried  on 
trade  with  the  natives  in  connection  with  the 
regular  missionary  work,  but  the  difficulties 
inevitable  to  a  mingling  of  the  two  led  to  a  com- 
plete separation  between  the  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral administration  in  1866,  and  this  separation 


was  continued  till  1876,  when  a  partial  return  to 
the  old  basis  was  made,  but  the  perplexities  it 
entailed  seriously  handicapped  the  missions. 
In  1893  Zoar  was  abandoned,  and  in  1896 
Makkovik  was  founded,  south  of  Hopedale,  and 
arrangements  were  made  for  another  station  at 
Rigolette,  still  further  south.  There  are  (1903) 
6  stations,  38  European  and  American  mission- 
aries, 38  native  helpers,  1,273  church  members 
and  6  day  schools  with  242  pupils. 

6.  Mosquito  Coast  (1847):  At  the  request  of 
Prince  Schonberg-Waldenberg  the  Moravian 
Church  commissioned  Messrs.  Pf  eiffer  and  Reinke 
of  the  Jamaica  Mission  to  make  a  tour  of  explor- 
ation in  Central  America.  Proceeding  via  Grey- 
town  they  reached  Bluefields  in  May,  1847.  The 
"king"  urged  them  to  establish  a  mission,  offering 
land  for  it  in  Bluefields.  The  Germans  desired 
stated  services  in  their  language  and  the  British 
Consul  promised  hearty  cooperation.  The  new 
mission  was  inaugurated  in  March,  1849,  and  in 
1853  the  first  convert  was  baptized.  In  1855  a 
new  station  was  established  at  Pearl  Key  lagoon, 
called  Magdala,  and  two  years  later  a  church 
was  built  at  Rama  Key.  In  1858  the  work  was 
greatly  helped  by  the  gift  of  a  small  schooner 
from  friends  at  Zeist.  Two  years  later  Ephrata 
was  founded  at  Waunta  Hallorn.  In  addition 
to  this  new  undertaking,  Joppa  was  established 
in  Corn  Island  among  the  negro  population.  In 
1864  Bethania,  at  Tasbapauni,  was  made  an 
independent  station.  The  following  year  a 
terrific  hurricane  devasted  the  Mosquito  coast; 
everywhere  the  missions  suffered,  but  deep 
sympathy  led  to  larger  gifts  from  the  homeland, 
and  the  missionaries  were  enabled,  to  some 
extent,  to  rebuild  and  start  afresh.  In  1871  it 
became  necessary  to  abandon  Joppa,  on  Com 
Island,  chiefly  because  of  the  lack  of  men.  In 
1875  a  gift  was  received  for  the  establishing  of 
Karata,  on  the  Wawa  River,  and  another  out- 
station  was  established  at  Kukallaya,  some 
distance  inland.  In  1876  the  missions  again 
suffered  from  the  violence  of  a  hurricane.  Blue- 
fields,  Rama,  Magdala  and  Bethany  suffering 
severely.  In  May,  1881,  an  awakening  began  in 
Magdala,  which  spread  to  all  the  surrounding 
villages,  as  well  as  to  the  other  stations  of  the 
mission.  Indians,  Negroes,  Creoles  and  Span- 
iards were  alike  aroused;  several  hundred  heathen 
asked  for  instruction  and  baptism;  chapels  were 
erected  in  buildings  not  regularly  occupied,  and 
three  outstations  were  added.  In  1888  the 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Mosquito-Indian  tongue  was  completed  and 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  Herrnhut  Bible 
Society.  The  year  1894  was  critical  in  the 
extreme  for  the  Mosquito  Mission,  when  the 
Reserve  was  wholly  incorporated  into  the  Nica- 
ragua Republic.  Business  was  unsettled,  the 
regulations  altered,  and  the  expenses  of  the  mis- 
sion materially  increased.  Nevertheless,  there 
was  a  steady  advance,  the  number  of  stations 
and  outstations  being  increased  by  five,  and  the 
membership  by  nearly  two  thousand. 

There  are  (1903)  16  stations  and  11  outstations, 
34  European  and  American  missionaries,  99 
native  helpers,  5,433  church  members,  and  9  day 
schools  with  319  pupils. 

7.  Australia  (1849):  The  aborigines  of  Aus- 
tralia claimed  the  attention  of  the  church  in  the 
years  following  the  synod  of  1848.  In  Herrnhut, 
Niesky  and  other  German  congregations,  Aus- 
tralian associations  had  been  formed,  looking 


S07 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Moravian  Missions 


toward  a  future  mission.  Messrs.  Tager  and 
Spieseke  were  sent  out  as  pioneers,  arriving  in 
Melbourne  February  25,  1850,  where  they  were 
cordially  welcomed  by  the  Lieutenant-Governor. 
To  his  influence  mainly  was  due  the  favorable 
negotiations  for  land,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  missionaries  in  their  new  home  in  the  "Mallee' 
or  scrub. 

Permanent  work  was  begun  in  October,  1851, 
on  a  reserve  in  the  Lalce  Boea  District.  In  1856 
the  missionary  superintendent  abandoned  the 
field,  without  consulting  the  authorities  at  home, 
being  in  poor  health  and  tried  by  the  rush  of 
gold  diggers  into  the  district  and  the  resulting 
difficulties.  The  Conference  condemned  this 
hasty  action,  and  two  years  later  the  Moravian 
'  missionaries  were  again  in  the  field,  and  decided 
to  locate  in  the  Wimmera  District,  near  Antwerp, 
a  station  belonging  to  Mr.  EUerman,  who  gave 
land  for  the  new  mission  and  aided  in  every 
possible  manner.  The  new  site  was  called 
Ebenezer.  In  1860  the  first  convert  was  bap- 
tized, and  from  that  time  the  progress  was  rapid. 
This  success  led  the  Presbyterian  Assembly  of 
Australia  to  offer  to  supply  funds  for  another 
station,  if  the  Moravians  would  undertake  the 
work.  On  a  reserve  near  Lake  Wellington,  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  Avon,  the  new  post  was 
founded  in  1863,  and  called  Ramahyuk.  Here 
the  first  convert  was  baptized  in  1866.  A  vig- 
orous school  soon  came  into  existence.  A  third 
station  was  attempted  near  Cooper's  Creek,  in 
the  wilderness,  800  miles  north  of  Ebenezer,  in 
1866,  and  at  Yorke's  Peninsula,  about  100  miles 
west  of  Adelaide,  but  after  varying  success  both 
stations  were  abandoned.  At  Ebenezer  and 
Ramahyuk  industrial  work  proved  a  help  to  the 
mission.  In  1876  an  orphanage  was  established 
at  Ramahyuk,  in  charge  of  native  Christians. 

There  are  (1903)  4  stations,  12  European  and 
American  missionaries,  106  church  members,  3 
day  schools  with  172  pupils. 

8.  West  Himalaya  (1853):  When  on  a  visit  to 
Herrnhut,  in  1850,  Dr.  Gutzlaif,  of  China,  per- 
suaded the  Moravians  to  try  and  enter  the 
Chinese  Empire  from  the  west.  Messrs.  Pagell 
and  Heyde  were  selected  for  the  new  undertaking, 
arriving  in  Calcutta  in  November,  1863;  their 
first  destination  was  Kotgarh,  where  some  time 
was  spent  in  linguistic  study  under  a  Tibetan 
lama.  In  April,  1855,  they  made  an  investigat- 
ing tour;  at  Leh,  in  Ladak,  they  were  most 
unwelcome,  nor  was  the  prospect  brighter  in 
Chinese  territory.  The  following  winter  was 
spent  in  Kotgarh,  and  the  first  station  was 
founded  among  the  Tibetan-speaking  Buddhists 
of  Lahul,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  frontier  of 
Chinese  Tibet.  Land  was  secured  in  1856  in 
the  valley  of  Bhagar,  sixty  miles  from  the  border, 
near  Kailang.  Before  winter  the  mission  house 
was  completed — a  solitary  outpost  of  Christianity 
amid  the  Western  Himalayas,  over  against  the  for- 
tress of  the  Dalai  Lama.  Early  in  1857  the  future 
leader  of  the  new  mission,  Mr.  H.  A.  Jaeschke, 
arrived,  and  a  new  stage  of  work  began.  In 
1859  a  printing  press  was  established,  and 
Jaeschke  began  to  distribute  broadcast  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Harmony  of  the  Gospels.  In  1865 
a  second  station  was  established  at  Poo,  in  Kun- 
awar,  nearer  to  the  border  which  they  wished  to 
cross.  That  year  the  first  convert  was  baptized. 
Meantime,  an  unexpected  opening  came.  Small- 
pox was  making  fearful  ravages  in  Chinese  Tibet. 
In  their  extremity  the  people  of  Tso-tso  sent  to 


Pagell  to  stay  the  scourge  by  vaccination;  but,  his 
work  being  accomplished,  he  was  forced  to  return 
to  Poo,  where  a  second  convert  was  baptized  in 
1868.  At  Kailang  also  a  few  others  were  added 
to  the  little  church,  and  indifferent  tolerance  on 
the  part  of  the  natives  changed  to  bitter  hostility. 
In  1872  an  ex-lama  from  Lhassa  was  baptized, 
and  in  1876  the  conversion  of  a  Mohammedan 
teacher  in  the  school  at  Kailang  was  followed  by 
the  conversion  of  five  of  his  pupils.  Mission 
tours  were  frequently  made,  and  large  numbers 
of  tracts  and  parts  of  the  New  Testament  were 
distributed. 

In  hope  against  hope  the  mission  was  continued. 
In  1886  a  station  was  established  in  Leh,  the 
capital  of  Ladak,  an  important  town  near  the 
western  border  of  Tibet,  permission  being  granted 
when  a  medical  missionary  was  sent  to  care  for 
the  hospital  and  dispensary  in  the  city._  Two 
years  later,  in  1888,  a  church  was  dedicated. 
In  the  meantime  the  entire  New  Testament  had 
been  printed  in  Tibetan,  and  the  Old  Testament 
was  well  under  way.  During  the  closing  years 
of  the  century  occasional  gleams  of  hope  were 
manifest;  new  outposts  were  established  at  Chot 
and  Gui,  near  Kailang,  and  at  Scheh,  near  Leh. 
In  the  schools  some  few  of  the  senior  students 
were  taking  theological  studies,  the  work  of  the 
native  assistants  holding  hope  for  the  future. 

There  are  (1903)  6  stations  and  1  outstation, 
22  European  and  American  missionaries,  9 
native  helpers,  110  church  members,  10  day 
schools  with  266  pupils,  1  training  school. 

9.  British  Ouiana  (1878):  The  migration  of 
West  Indians  to  Demerara  caused  an  extension 
of  the  work  to  this  South  American  colony.  The 
proprietor  of  the  Bel  Air  estate  offered  to  provide 
the  salaries  of  a  missionary  aftd  an  assistant  who 
should  teach  school,  for  five  years.  The  offer 
was  accepted,  and  in  November  of  1878  work  was 
begun  at  Cummings  Lodge.  The  following  year, 
Mr.  Quintin  Hogg,  the  proprietor,  askea  that  a 
missionary  be  sent  to  the  Reliance  Plantation, 
near  the  Essequibo,  and  Mr.  Pilgrim  was  sent 
to  open  the  work  in  April,  1879.  In  1882  a 
further  extension  followed,  when  fifty-seven 
people  who  had  left  the  Congregational  Church 
at  Beterverwachtung  asked  to  be  taken  into  the 
Brethren's  Church,  and  regarded  as  constituting 
an  outstation  of  Graham's  Hall.  Both  these 
stations  grew  rapidly  in  numbers,  while  Reliance 
was  abandoned,  the  work  not  proving  successful. 
At  the  end  of  1884  the  proprietor  gave  notice 
that  he  would  be  unable  as  largely  to  sustain  the 
work  in  Demerara  as  heretofore.  In  1896  a 
new  beginning  was  made  at  Georgetown  and  an 
attempt  was  made  to  work  among  the  coolies 
and  Chinese,  who  were  pressing  into  the  colony. 
In  1902  land  was  purchased  and  a  church  and 
parsonage  erected  in  the  Queenstown  ward  of 
the  City  of  Georgetown. 

There  are  (1903)  2  stations  and  1  outstation, 
29  native  missionaries,  912  church  members,  2 
day  schools  with  203  pupils. 

10.  German  East  Africa  (1890):  This  mission 
originated  in  the  receipt  of  a  large  legacy,  and  an 
appeal  from  Mackay  of  Uganda,  conjointly  with 
Bishop  Parker  of  Equatorial  Africa.  The  di- 
rectors of  the  East  Africa  Colonial  Coinpany  in 
Berlin  promised  cooperation.  Accordingly,  in 
the  spring  of  1890,  Messrs.  Meyer,  Richard, 
Martin,  and  Hafner  set  out  for  the  country- 
north  of  Lake  Nyasa.  Martin's  grave  paved  the 
way  for  the  advance  at  Kararamuka,  but  Rungwa. 


Moravian  MlHslonN 
Morrison,  Robert 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


60B 


was  founded  among  the  Konde  people  in  August. 
Rutenganio  and  Ipiana  were  established  in  1894, 
and  Utengula,  among  the  Safuas  and  Sangos,  in 
1895. 

There  are  (1903)  10  stations  and  1  out- 
station,  41  European  and  American  missionaries, 
63  native  helpers,  9  day  schools  with  562 
pupils. 

11.  Southern  California  (1890):  The  destitute 
condition  of  the  mission  Indians,  former  pro- 
tegfe  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  appealed  to  the 
Woman's  National  Indian  Association,  who 
applied  to  the  Moravian  Church,  and  Mr.  Wcin- 
land  was  sent  to  open  work  among  them.  IIj 
established  at  Potrero  the  "Ramona  Mission," 
and  in  1896  Martinez,  in  the  desert,was  occupied. 
Other  stations  have  since  been  established  at 
Rincon  and  La  Jolla,  and  an  outstation  at  Yuma, 
in  Arizona. 

12.  Alaska  (1885):  At  the  annual  meeting  of 
the  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  Among 
the  Heathen,  held  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  in  1883, 
an  appeal  came  from  Dr.  Sheldon  Jackson  that 
the  Moravians  establish  a  mission  among  the 
Indians  and  Eskimos  in  Alaska.  Messrs.  Wein- 
land  and  Hortmann  were  commissioned  to  make 
an  exploring  tour,  arriving  in  Unalaska  in  May, 
1884,  and  thence  proceeded  across  Bering  Sea 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Nushagak.  Passing  on  to 
the  Kuskokvim,  they  traveled  up  this  river 
beyond  Kolmakovsky.  On  returning  to  Beth- 
lehem they  recommended  that  a  mission  be 
established  on  the  Kuskokvim  River,  about 
eighty  miles  from  its  mouth.  In  the  spring  of 
1885  the  pioneer  band,  consisting  of  Messrs. 
Weinland  and  Kilbuck  and  their  wives,  and 
Hans  Torgersen,  a  carpenter,  were  en  route  to 
Bethel,  as  the  new  station  was  to  be  named.  On 
June  19  they  reached  the  Kuskokvim,  but 
before  their  goods  had  all  reached  the  mission 
Torgersen  was  drowned,  and  the  two  young  and 
inexperienced  couples  were  left  alone  to  face  the 
rigors  of  an  Arctic  winter;  but  they  persevered 
and  by  October  10  had  their  house  built  and 
ready  for  habitation.  In  the  summer  of  1886  a 
second  station  was  founded  on  the  Nushagak 
River,  near  Fort  Alexander,  and  named  Carmel. 
During  the  ensuing  two  winters  the  stations  were 
beset  with  hardships  on  every  hand.  But  dawn 
was  at  hand.  During  Passion  Week,  1888,  the 
Moravians,  in  common  with  the  Brethren  through- 
out the  world,  held  daily  services.  An  awakening 
resulted,  and  in  September  the  first  converts, 
eight  Eskimos,  were  baptized.  The  same  year 
Mr.  Weber  was  sent  to  the  assistance  of  Mr. 
Kilbuck,  Mr.  Weinland  having  been  compelled 
to  retire  because  of  ill  health.  On  the  arrival  of 
Weber,  Kilbuck  started  for  Carmel,  to  consult 
with  the  missionaries  about  the  work,  but  after 
an  absence  of  seventy-three  days  he  returned 
home,  more  dead  than  alive,  suffering  from  the 
extreme  cold.  During  his  absence  his  wife 
became  seriously  ill  from  overwork,  and  it 
seemed  as  tho  she  must  give  up  the  work.  Both 
stations  needed  reenforcements,  and  a  call  was 
sent  out  for  volunteers.  Fully  nineteen  persons 
responded.  In  1889  Mr.  Schoechert  was  sent  to 
Carmel,  and  Miss  Delterer  to  Mrs.  Kilbuck's 
assistance  at  Bethel,  while  Mrs.  Bachman,  with 
h5r  youngest  son,  went  to  the  latter  station  for 
a  year.  By  1899  the  membership  numbered 
987.  Ougavigamute  was  founded,  eighty  miles 
up  the  Kuskokvim  from  Bethel.  The  latter 
station  had  6  outstations,  Carmel  3,  and  Ougavi- 


gamute 2,  while  more  than  20  natives  rendered 
efficient  service. 

There  are  (1903)  3  stations,  18  European  and 
American  missionaries,  11  native  helpers,  596 
church  members,  2  day  schools  with  51  pupils. 

MORELIA :  Ato  wn  and  the  capital  of  the  state  of 
Michoacan,  Mexico,  situated  125  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Mexico  City  in  a  valley  surrounded  by  high 
mountains.  It  has  a  fine  aqueduct  dating  from 
1788.  Altitude,  6,400.  Population,  30,000.  It 
was  formerly  called  Valladolid.  Station  of 
the  SBC  (1894),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  6  native  workers,  5  outstations,  2  places 
of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools  and  112  professed 
Christians. 

MORGENZON:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  Rustemburg  district, 
68  miles  N.  W.  of  Johannesburg.  Station  of 
the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1876), 
with  (1902)  2  missionaries  with  their  wives,  1 
boarding  school.  Society  spells  the  name  Mor- 
gensonne. 

MORIAH:  A  town  on  the  N.  coast  of  Tobago, 
West  Indies,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island. 
Station  of  the  Moravian  Society  (1842),  with 
(1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  26  native  work- 
ers, 1  place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  2  day 
schools,  and  522  professed  Christians. 

MORIJA:  A  village  in  Basutoland,  South 
Africa,  situated  83  miles. N.  N.  E.  of  Aliwal 
North.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission 
Society  (1833),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries  with 
their  wives,  38  native  workers,  17  outstations, 
1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  16  day 
schools,  1  printing  press,  1  college,  and  2,029 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,379  are  com- 
municants. 

MORIOKA:  A  town  on  the  main  island  of 
Japan,  situated  85  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Aomori. 
Population,  23,000.  Station  of  the  RCA  (1887), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native 
worker,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sun- 
day school,  and  79  professed  Christians.  Also 
station  of  the  ME,  with  1  native  worker. 

MORLEY:  A  railroad  station  in  Alberta  dis- 
trict, Canada,  on  the  C.  P.  R.  R.,  882  miles  W.  of 
Winnipeg.  Station  of  the  Methodist  Church  in 
Canada  (1873),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
boarding  school  and  302  professed  Christians. 

MOROCCO:  A  Mohammedan  empire  in  the 
N.  W.  of  Africa,  bounded  north  and  west  by  the 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic,  and  east  by  a  con- 
ventional line  separating  it  from  Algeria.  It 
extends  southward  into  the  desert  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  according  to  the  activity  and  power 
of  the  reigning  Sultan.  Its  area  can  only  be 
estimated  and  is  probably  for  the  most  time  as 
much  as  220,000  square  miles;  the  population, 
also  very  indeterminate  from  year  to  year,  is 
perhaps  6,000,000.  It  consists  of  three  states, 
subject  to  the  Sultan-Sheriff:  the  kingdoms  of 
Fez,  in  the  north,  Morocco  in  the  southwest,  and 
the  oasis  of  Tafilet,  besides  several  semi-inde- 
pendent tribal  territories  of  the  desert.  The 
Atlas  (Deren)  range,  from  4,000  to  13,000  feet, 
traverses  the  country  from  northeast  to  south- 
west. For  the  rest,  the  surface  is  occupied  by 
rolling  steppes  diversified  by  mountain  spurs, 
and  merging  into  the  lowlands  of  the  Sahara 
and  the  Atlantic  shores.  The  rainfall  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  other  Mauritanian    states,  as 


609 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Moravian  Mtrssions 
Morrison,  Robert 


also  the  number  and  size  of  the  rivers,  none  of 
-which,  however,  is  capable  of  floating  any  but 
very  light  crafts.  The  flora  is  that  of  Southern 
Europe,  most  resembling  that  of  Spain.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  animals,  except  the  lion, 
the  panther,  and  the  ostrich,  not  yet  extinct 
in  Morocco.  The  climate  is  mild,  equable  and 
very  salubrious.  The  government  is  an  Oriental 
despotism,  cruel  and  barbarous,  and  the  country 
is  infested  by  lawless  bands.  There  are  no  proper 
means  of  transportation  in  the  interior,  which  is 
largely  unknown  to  Europeans;  agriculture  is  of 
the  most  primitive  kind,  and  the  rich  resources 
of  the  country  remain  undeveloped.  In  Tangier 
there  are  about  5,000  Europeans  and  other  Chris- 
tian residents,  engaged  in  trade  for  the  most 
part,  and,  outside  of  Tangier,  not  1,000  can  be 
found  in  all  of  the  rest  of  the  empire. 

The  Berbers,  original  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try, form  two-thirds  of  the  population,  and  are 
divided  into  several  groups,  as  the  Kabyles  of  the 
north,  the  Shellahas  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Upper  Atlas  range,  the  Haratins  of  the  south. 
The  Shellaha  language  is  that  most  extensively 
spoken.  Arabic  is  also  largely  diffused,  especially 
in  the  north.  The  Arabs  are  called  Moors  in  the 
towns,  where  they  form  the  majority  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  Jews,  still  calling  themselves  "exiles 
from  Castile,"  number  over  100,000.  They 
speak  Spanish  and  to  some  extent  Arabic.  The 
negro  population,  pure  and  half-caste,  are  con- 
stantly recruited  by  the  slave  trade  with  the 
Sudan.  Mohammedanism  is  the  religion  of  the 
empire.  Morocco  ranks  next  to  Arabia  in  the 
Muslim  mind  as  an  orthodox  and  noble  country; 
and  the  Sultan-Sheriff  is  to  the  Western  Moham- 
medans what  the  Turkish  Sultan  is  to  those  of 
the  East.  There  is  great  and  conscientious 
intolerance  toward  all  who  are  not  of  the  state 
religion,  and  travel  in  the  interior  of  the  land  is 
impossible  for  this  reason. 

Missions  in  Morocco  have  been  addressed  to 
the  Jews  in  the  main.  The  North  Africa  Mission, 
the  Gospel  Missionary  Union,  the  Southern 
Morocco  Mission,  and  the  PB,  however,  are 
endeavoring  to  reach  the  Berbers  and  other 
classes  of  the  population.  Medical  work  is  here 
found  an  especially  effective  means  of  access  to 
the  people.  Nevertheless,  little  has  been  accom- 
plished beyond  what  one  missionary  calls 
gathering  up  the  stones"  preparatory  to  seeding 
the  ground. 

Amicis  (E.  de),  Morocco  and  its  People  (translation),  London. 
1879;  Hay  (Si  J.  D.),  Morocco  and  the  Moors,  London, 
1.S96:  Grove  (Lady),  Seventy-one  Days  Campaigning  in 
Morocco,  hoadon,  li;02;  Canal  (J.),  Gi/ographie  Gilnirale  de 
Maroc  Paris,  1902. 

MORRISON,  John  Hunter:  Born  in  Wallkill 
Township,  New  York,  June  29,  1806;  graduated 
at  Princeton  College  1834,  and  Theological  Semi- 
nary 1837;  sailed  for  India  as  a  missionary  of  the 
PN  in  1838.  He  was  stationed  at  Allahabad, 
Agra,  and  other  places.  He  was  characterized 
by  great  earnestness  and  boldness  in  the  presen- 
tation of  truth.  On  account  of  his  fearlessness 
in  dealing  with  men  in  that  fanatical  region,  he 
was  in  mission  circles  styled  "the  lion  of  the  Pun- 
jab." Yet  no  one  was  more  affable  than  he, 
more  genial  in  personal  intercourse.  Dr.  Morri- 
son's name  should  be  cherished,  since  it  was  he 
who,  after  the  Sepoy  mutiny  in  1857,  proposed 
to  the  Lodiana  Mission  to  call  upon  all  Christians 
to  observe  an  annual  week  of  prayer  for  the  con- 
version of  the  world.     That  one  thought  of  this 


missionary  in  India  has  done  more  toward 
breaking  down  denominational  reserve  among 
Christians  than  any  other  influence  in  the  19tE 
century.  He  died  of  cholera  at  Dehra  Dun, 
September  16,  1881,  aged  seventy-six,  and  in  the 
forty-fourth  year  of  mission  work. 

MORRISON,  Robert:  Born  at  Morpeth,  North- 
umberland, England,  January  15,  1782,  of 
humble  Scotch  parentage.  He  was  an  appren- 
tice learning  to  make  lasts  and  he  studied  while 
at  work.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  joined  the 
Scotch  Church.  As  early  as  1801  he  began  the 
study  of  Latin,  Hebrew  and  theology  with  the 
minister  of  Newcastle,  and  after  fourteen  months' 
study  entered  the  Independent  Theological 
Academy  at  Hoxton,  to  prepare  for  the  ministry. 
Soon  after  his  admission  he  decided  to  become  a 
missionary  to  the  heathen.  In  May,  1804,  he 
was  appointed  the  first  missionary  of  the  LMS  to 
China,  and  he  thus  became  the  founder  of 
Protestant  missions  in  China.  Entering  the  Mis- 
sion College  at  Gosport,  he  spent  two  years  not 
only  in  special  preparatory  studies,  but  also  in 
acquiring  Chinese.  He  sailed  for  China  January 
31,  1807,  but  the  Chinese  being  hostile  to  the 
English  on  account  of  the  opium  difficulties,  he 
was  obliged  to  go  via  New  York  instead  of  going 
direct  from  London.  Reaching  Canton  Septem- 
ber 7,  he  adopted  the  Chinese  dress,  diet,  and 
habits,  but  soon  resumed  his  usual  mode  of  life. 
An  edict  being  issued  about  this  time  by  the 
Chinese  Government  prohibiting  the  printing  of 
religious  books  and  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel, 
Mr.  Morrison  set  himself  at  once  to  study  the 
language  and  translate  the  Bible.  His  health 
having  suffered  from  incessant  study  and  too 
rigid  economy,  he  left  Canton  for  Macao,  where 
he  remained  a  year  in  consequence  of  political 
troubles  which  made  residence  in  Canton  unsafe. 
In  1809  he  was  offered  the  position  of  translator 
to  the  East  India  Company  s  factory  at  Canton. 
This  at  last  secured  for  him  a  permanent  resi- 
dence in  China, ready  access  to  some  of  the  people, 
and  time  for  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  and 
preparation  of  his  Chinese  dictionary.  He  held 
this  office  to  the  day  of  his  death — twenty-five 
years.  To  the  end  he  had  the  confidence  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  they  advanced  lar^e 
sums  at  different  times  for  the  publication  of  his 
various  works.  Tho  much  occupied  with  office 
work,  he  found  time  for  Bible  translation  and  the 
preparation  of  religious  books.  In  1810  a 
revised  and  amended  version  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  based  on  his  copy  of  the  manuscript  in 
the  British  Museum,  was  printed — the  first  por- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  in  (Jhinese  printed  by  any 
Protestant  missionary.  In  1812  the  Gospel  of 
Luke  was  printed.  Early  in  1814  the  whole  of 
the  New  Testament  was  ready,  and  the  East 
India  Company  furnished  a  press  and  materials, 
also  a  printer,  to  superintend  its  printing.  In 
this  year,  seven  years  after  his  arrival  in  China, 
he  baptized  Tsai-A-Ko,  the  first  Chinese  convert 
to  Protestant  Christianity,  a  sincere  believer, 
who  continued  stedfast  in  his  faith  till  his  death 
in  1818.  In  1815  a  Chinese  grammar  of  300 
quarto  pages,  prepared  in  1805,  was  printed  at 
the  Serampur  press.  In  1817  he  published  A 
View  of  China  for  Philological  Purposes.  In  this 
year  the  University  of  Glasgow  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity.  In  1818  the 
translation  of  the  entire  Bible  was  completed,  in 
part  with  the  aid  of  Dr.  Miine,  and  was  printed  in 


Morsl 
Motive 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


510 


1821.  This  version  is  said  to  be  too  literal,  and 
not  idiomatic.  But  it  was  the  first  attempt,  and 
the  difficulties  were  enormous.  He  was  con- 
vinced of  the  necessity  of  a  thorough  revision, 
and  hoped  to  be  able  to  revise  the  work.  The 
Old  Testament  formed  21  volumes  12mo.  His 
most  laborious  literary  work  was  the  Chinese 
dictionary,  published  in  1821  by  the  East  India 
Company  at  an  expense  of  £15,000.  Neither 
the  value  and  importance  of  this  work  nor  its 
stupendous  difficulty  in  that  stage  of  the  mis- 
sionary enterprise  can  be  overstated.  In  1824, 
for  the  purpose  of  recruiting  his  health  and 
awakening  an  interest  in  the  mission,  he  visited 
England,  where  he  spent  two  years.  Every- 
where he  was  received  with  distinction  by  civil 
and  religious  bodies.  He  had  an  audience  with 
George  IV.,  to  whom  he  presented  a  copy  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  in  Chinese.  In  1826  he 
returned  to  China.  Tho  not  vigorous,  he  con- 
tinued his  public  labors  for  nine  years  more, 
devoting  himself  more  than  ever  to  the  mission- 
ary work,  preaching,  translating  and  distributing 
printed  works  among  the  Chinese.  He  conducted 
religious  services  on  the  Sabbath,  both  in  Eng- 
lish and  Chinese.  In  1832  he  writes:  "I  have  been 
25  years  in  China,  and  am  now  beginning  to  see 
the  work  prosper.  By  the  press  we  have  been 
able  to  scatter  knowledge  far  and  wide."  He 
accompanied  Lord  Napier  to  Canton  as  interpre- 
ter in  negotiating  a  treaty  with  the  Chinese 
Government,  and  died  there  August  1,  1834. 
Among  the  good  works  of  his  life  was  his  work 
with  Dr.  Milne  in  founding  the  Anglo-Chinese 
College  at  Malacca  (now  at  Hongkong).  For  the 
buildings  of  this  college  he  subscribed  £1,000 
and  for  its  maintenance  £100  each  year. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he  published 
Harm  Sinicce,  being  translations  from  the  popular 
literature  of  the  Chinese,  and  Chinese  Miscellany. 

MORSI:  A  town  in  Berar,  India,  situated  31 
miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of  Amraoti.  Population, 
7,000,  of  whom  5,700  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
Kurku  Indian  Hill  Mission  (1895),  with  (1902) 

1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

MORTLOCK  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  Micro- 
nesian  coral  islands  included  in  the  Carolines. 
They  have  been  partly  Christianized  and  the 
work  there  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 
ABCFM  station  at  Ruk,  and  the  workers  are  in 
the  main  supported  by  the  Hawaiian  Evan- 
gelical Association.  The  largest  island  in  the 
Mortlock  group  is  Lukanor,  where  there  are 
about  900  Christians.  The  Bible  was  translated 
into  the  Mortlock  language  in  1884  by  mission- 
aries of  the  ABCFM. 

MOSCHI:  A  village  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  Majagga  region  on  the  S.  slopes  of  Mt. 
Kilima  Njaro.  Station  of  the  Leipzig  Mission 
Society  (1896),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  one 
with  his  wife;  4  places  of  worship,  1  boarding 
school,  2  day  schools,  1  printing  press,  and  59 
professed    Christians. 

MOSETLA:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Buschveld  about  30  miles 
N.  of  Pretoria.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg 
Mission  Society  (1867),  with  (1901)  1  missionary, 

2  native  workers,  4  outstations,  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 3  day  schools,  and  758  professed  Christians. 

MOSSEL  BAY:  A  town  and  district  capital  in 
Cape  Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  on  Mossel 
Bay,  about  225  miles  E.  of  Cape  Town.     Popu- 


lation, 15,000.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary- 
Society  (1879),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1 
woman  missionary,  11  native  workers,  1  out-, 
station,   and  684  professed  Christians. 

MOSUL:  A  town  in  Mesopotamia,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  capital  of  the  province  of  Mosul,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris  River,  220  miles. 
N.  W.  of  Baghdad.  The  site  of  ancient  Nineveh 
lies  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  The 
climate  is  hot  and  trying  to  Europeans.  Popu- 
lation, 61,000.  It  was  occupied  as  a  station  first 
by  the  ABCFM,  then  transferred  to  the  PN,  and 
by  it  transferred  to  the  CMS,  who  now  have 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 6  native  workers,  3  day  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  76  professed  Christians,  of  whom  2& 
are  communicants. 

MOSQUITIA,  or  MOSQUITO  COAST:  A  depart- 
ment of  Nicaragua,  Central  America,  bordering: 
on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  inhabited  by  Mos- 
quitos,  a  mixed  race  with  both  African  and 
Indian  blood.  For  a  long  time  it  was  known 
as  the  Mosquito  Reservation,  under  the  pro- 
tectorate of  Great  Britain.  It  was  ceded  to 
Nicaragua  in  1860,  but  maintains  the  native 
form  of  government  under  supervision  of  that 
country.  Population  about  15,000.  Missionary 
operations  are  carried  on  by  the  Moravians  at 
14  stations. 

MOTIHARI:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  capital 
of  the  Champaran  district  of  Behar,  situated  on 
Buri  Gandah  River  about  48  miles  N.  W.  of 
Muzaffarpur.  Population,  8,000,  Hindus  and 
Muslims.  Station  of  the  RBMU  (1901),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives. 

MOTIVE  OF  THE  MISSIONARY  ENTER- 
PRISE :  That  the  motives  which  prompt  to  mis- 
sionary effort  are  powerful  is  evident.  No  weak 
motives  would  lead  thousands  of  earnest  men  and 
women  to  spend  their  lives  among  uncongenial 
people,  far  from  the  associations  and  the  oppor- 
tunities of  home  and  country,  nor  would  weak 
motives  induce  the  Christians  of  Europe  and 
America  to  give  millions  of  dollars  annually  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  missionary  enterprise. 
In  fact,  various  motives  are  involved.  Some 
operate  upon  one  class  of  minds  and  some  upon 
another,  and  all  of  them  do  not  appeal  with  equal 
force  to  the  same  person.  For  convenience, 
they  may  be  divided  into  two  main  classes,  pri- 
mary and  secondary,  tho  this  classification  is 
arbitrary,  and  tho  there  may  be  differences  of 
opinion  as  to  the  class  to  which  certain  motives 
properly  belong.  Something  depends  upon  the 
viewpoint. 

1.  The  following  motives,  which  are  influen- 
tial with  many  Christian  people,  may  be  classed 
as  secondary: 

(a)  The  philanthropic  motive:  This  is  stirred 
by  the  consciousness  of  human  brotherhood,  and 
the  natural  desire  to  relieve  the  appalling  suffer- 
ing and  ignorance  which  prevail  throughout  the 
heathen  world.  Christ  is  the  Great  Physician, 
now  as  of  old.  As  we  see  the  prevalence  of  dis- 
ease and  misery,  the  untended  ulcers,  the  sight- 
less eyes  to  which  the  surgeon's  skill  could  bring 
light,  the  pain-racked  limbs  pierced  with  hot 
needles  to  kill  the  alleged  demon  which  causes 
the  sufferings,  and  the  fevered  bodies  which  are 
made  ten  times  worse  by  the  superstitious  and 
bungling  methods  of  treatment,  our  sympathies 
are  profoundly  moved,  and  we  freely  give  and 


511 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Moral 
Motive 


labor  that  such  agony  may  be  alleviated.  Med- 
ical missions,  with  their  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries, strongly  appeal  to  this  motive,  as  do  also 
educational  missions,  with  their  teaching  of  the 
principles  of  better  living.  The  Gospel  itself  is 
sometimes  preached  and  supported  from  this 
motive,  for  it  is  plain  that  the  sufferings  of  men 
are  diminished,  and  the  dignity  and  the  worth 
of  life  increased,  by  the  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  Christianity  to  human  society. 

(6)  The  intellectual  motive:  Missionaries  have 
vastly  increased  the  world's  store  of  useful 
knowledge.  They  have  opened  to  view  hitherto 
vaguely  known  lands.  They  have  probably 
done  more  than  any  other  class  of  men  to  extend 
knowledge  of  the  earth's  surface  and  its  inhabi- 
tants. Geography  and  ethnology,  entomology 
and  zoology,  botany  and  kindred  sciences,  grate- 
fully enroll  the  names  of  missionaries  among 
their  most  successful  explorers,  and  many 
thoughtful  men  appreciate  this  and  give  their 
sympathy  to  the  cause  which  the  missionaries 
represent. 

(c)  The  commercial  motive:  Some  business  men 
frankly  assign  this  as  the  reason  for  their  gifts. 
The  missionary  in  the  typical  heathen  land  is  the 
representative  of  a  higher  civilization.  His 
teaching  and  his  manner  of  living  incidentally, 
but  none  the  less  really,  create  wants  and  intro- 
duce goods.  He  lights  his  house  with  a  lamp  and 
straightway  thousands  of  the  natives  become  dis- 
satisfied with  a  bit  of  rag  burning  in  a  dish  of  vege- 
table oil.  So  foreign  lamps  are  being  used  by 
millions  of  Chinese,  Japanese,  Siamese,  and  East 
Indians.  The  missionary  marks  time  with  a 
clock,  and  German,  English,  and  American  firms 
suddenly  find  a  new  and  apparently  limitless 
market  for  their  products.  He  rides  a  bicycle 
on  his  country  tours,  and  the  result  is  that  to-day 
the  bicycle  is  as  common  in  the  cities  and  many  of 
the  villages  of  Siam  and  Japan  as  it  is  in  the 
United  States.  His  wife  makes  her  own  and  her 
children's  dresses  on  a  sewing  machine,  and  ten 
thousand  curious  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Laos 
are  not  satisfied  till  they  have  sewing  machines. 
And  so  the  missionary  opens  new  marlcets  and 
extends  trade.  He  has  been  one  of  the  most 
effective  agents  of  modern  commerce,  not 
because  he  intended  to  be,  not  because  he  reaped 
any  personal  profit  from  the  goods  which  he 
introduced,  but  because  of  the  inevitable  tenden- 
cies which  were  set  in  motion  by  the  residence  of 
an  enlightened  family  among  unenlightened  peo- 
ple. And  this  appeals  to  some  minds  as  a  motive 
of  missionary  interest.  It  begets  hundreds  of 
addresses  on  the  reflex  influence  of  foreign  mis- 
sions, and  it  undoubtedly  secures  some  support 
for  the  cause  from  those  who  might  not  be 
responsive  to  the  other  arguments. 

(d)  The  civilizing  motive:  This  is  closely  allied 
to  the  preceding  motives.  In  the  ways  that  have 
been  indicated,  and  in  others  that  might  be  speci- 
fied, the  missionary  is  "the  advance  agent  of 
civilization."  As  the  product  of  centuries  of 
Christian  civilization,  with  all  its  customs  and 
ideals,  he  appears  in  a  rude  village  in  Africa.  He 
opposes  slavery,  polygamy,  cannibalism,  and 
infanticide.  He  teaches  the  boys  to  be  honest, 
sober  and  thrifty,  the  girls  to  be  pure,  intelligent 
and  industrious.  He  induces  the  natives  to 
cover  their  nakedness,  to  build  houses,  to  till  the 
soil.  He  inculcates  and  exemplifies  the  social 
and  civic  virtues.  His  own  home  and  his  treat- 
ment of  his  wife  and  daughters  are  an  object 


lesson  in  a  community  which  had  always  treated 
woman  as  a  slave.  The  inertia  of  long-estab- 
lished heathenism  is  hard  to  overcome,  but 
slowly  it  yields  to  the  new  power,  and  the  begin- 
ning of  civilized  society  gradually  appears. 
Volumes  might  be  filled  with  the  testimonies  of 
statesmen,  travelers,  military  and  naval  officers 
to  the  value  of  missionary  work  from  this  view- 
point. Ask  almost  any  public  man  to  speak  at  a 
great  missionary  meeting,  and  he  will  probably 
respond  with  an  address  in  which  he  enlarges 
upon  this  aspect  of  missionary  effort.  The  Brit- 
ish officials  in  India  have  been  outspoken  in 
their  praise  of  the  civilizing  influence  of  mission- 
aries in  that  country.  Darwin's  testimony  to  the 
usefulness  of  missionary  work  in  the  South  Seas 
is  another  classic  illustration,  and  hundreds  of 
others  might  be  cited. 

Dr.  James  S.  Dennis  has  collected  a  vast  mass 
of  facts  bearing  on  this  subject  in  his  noble  vol- 
umes on  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress, 
and  the  cumulative  power  of  this  class  of  evidence 
is  doubtless  a  large  factor  in  the  growing  respect 
for  missions  in  the  public  mind. 

(e)  The  historical  motive:  With  many  people 
of  the  utilitarian  type,  this  argument  from 
results  is  the  most  decisive.  They  want  to  see 
that  their  money  accomplishes  something,  to 
know  that  their  investment  is  yielding  some 
tangible  return.  They  eagerly  scan  missionary 
reports  to  ascertain  how  many  converts  have 
been  made,  how  many  pupils  are  being  taught, 
how  many  patients  liave  been  treated.  To  tell 
them  of  successes  achieved  is  the  surest  method 
of  inducing  them  to  increase  their  gifts.  Mission 
Boards  often  find  it  difficult  to  sustain  interest  in 
apparently  unproductive  fields,  but  compara- 
tively easy  to  arouse  enthusiasm  for  fields  in 
which  converts  are  quickly  made.  The  churches 
are  eager  and  even  impatient  for  results.  For- 
tunately, in  many  lands  results  have  been 
achieved  on  such  a  magnificent  scale  as  to  satisfy 
this  demand.  But  in  other  lands,  not  less  import- 
ant, weary  years  have  had  to  be  spent  in  pre- 
paring the  soil  and  sowing  the  seed,  and  hard- 
working missionaries  have  been  half  disheartened 
by  the  insistent  popular  demand  for  accounts  of 
baptisms  before  the  harvest  time  has  fairly  come. 
'There  is,  apparently,  a  growing  disposition  to 
exalt  this  whole  class  of  motives.  The  basis  of 
missionary  appeal  has  noticeably  changed  within 
the  last  "generation.  Our  humanitarian,  com- 
mercial, and  practical  age  is  more  impressed  by 
the  physical  and  temporal,  the  actual  and  the 
utilitarian.  The  idea  of  saving  men  for  the 
present  world  appeals  more  strongly  than  the 
idea  of  saving  them  for  the  next  world,  and  mis- 
sionary sermons  and  addresses  give  large  em- 
phasis to  these  motives.  We  need  not  and 
should  not  undervalue  them.  They  are  real.  It 
is  legitimate  and  Christian  to  seek  the  temporal 
welfare  of  our  fellow-men,  to  alleviate  their  dis- 
tresses, to  exalt  woman  and  to  purify  society.  It 
is,  moreover,  true  and  to  the  credit  of  the  mis- 
sionary enterprise  that  it  widens  the  area  of  the 
world's  useful  knowledge,  introduces  the  con- 
veniences and  necessities  of  Christian  civilization, 
and  promotes  wealth  and  power;  while  it  is  cer- 
tainly reasonable  that  those  who  give  should 
desire  to  see  some  results  from  their  gifts  and  be 
encouraged  and  incited  to  renewed  diligence  by 
the  inspiring  record  of  achievement.  But  these 
motives  are,  nevertheless,  distinctly  secondary. 
They   are   effects   of   the   missionary    enterprise 


Motive 
Mpntoll 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


612 


rather  than  causes  of  it,  and  the  true  Christian 
would  still  be  obliged  to  give  and  pray  and  work 
for  the  evangelization  of  the  world,  even  if  not 
one  of  these  motives  existed. 

What,  then,  are  the  primary  motives  of  the 
missionary  enterprise?  The  following  may  be 
briefly  enumerated. 

(a)  The  soul's  experience  in  Christ:  In  propor- 
tion as  this  is  genuine  and  deep  will  we  desire  to 
communicate  it  to  others.  The  man  who  ferls 
that  Christ  is  precious  to  his  own  heart  and  1  hat 
He  has  brought  strength  and  blessing  into  his  own 
life,  is  immediately  conscious  of  an  impulse  to 
give  these  joys  to  those  who  do  not  have  them. 
Expansion  is  a  law  of  the  spiritual  life.  The 
inherent  tendency  of  Christianity  is  to  propagate 
itself.  A  living  organism  must  grow  or  die.  The 
church  that  is  not  missionary  will  become 
atrophied.  All  virile  faith  prompts  its  possessor 
to  seek  others.  That  was  an  exquisite  touch  of 
regenerated  nature  and  one  beautifully  illus- 
trative of  the  promptings  of  a  normal  Christian 
experience  which  led  Andrew,  after  he  rose  from 
Jesus'  feet,  "to  find  first  his  own  brother,  Simon, 
and  say  unto  him, '  We  have  found  the  Messiah.'  " 

No  external  authority,  however  commanding, 
can  take  the  place  of  this  internal  motive.  It  led 
Paul  to  exclaim:  "  Woe  is  me  if  I  preach  not  the 
Gospel."  It  made  him  plead  "with  tears"  that 
men  would  turn  to  God;  to  become  "all  things  to 
all  men,  that  he  might  by  all  means  save  some;" 
to  speed  from  city  to  city,  the  burden  of  his 
preaching  evermore,  "We  pray  you  in  Christ's 
stead,  be  ye  reconciled  to  God."  Because  this  is 
one  of  the  primary  motives  of  missions,  the  cause 
chiefly  depends,  humanly  speaking,  upon  the 
piety  of  the  Church.  Other  motives  may  and 
often  do  help  for  longer  or  shorter  periods.  But 
the  real  and  permanent  dependence  must  be  upon 
a  spiritual  experience  with  Christ  so  rich  and 
joyous  that  it  makes  missionary  effort  the  natural 
and  necessary  expression  of  its  lif^ 

(b)  The  world's  evident  need  of  Christ:  The  fact 
that  the  heathen  are  morally  and  spiritually 
debased  is  not,  indeed,  of  itself  sufficient  to  beget 
an  overmastering  and  enduring  desire  to  help 
them.  But  the  fact  that  they  need  Christ,  and 
that  we  have  Christ,  does  beget  such  a  desire  in  a 
rightly  constituted  mind.  If  we  have  any  knowl- 
edge which  is  essential  to  the  welfare  of  our  fel- 
low-man, we  are  under  solemn  obligation  to 
convey  that  knowledge  to  him.  It  makes  no 
difference  who  that  man  is,  or  where  he  lives,  or 
whether  he  is  conscious  of  his  need,  or  how  much 
inconvenience  or  expense  we  may  incur  in  reach- 
ing him.  If  we  can  help  him,  we  must  get  to  him. 
That  is  an  essential  part  of  the  foreign  missionary 
impulse.  We  have  the  revelation  of  God  that 
is  potential  of  a  civilization  which  benefits  man,  an 
education  that  fits  him  for  higher  usefulness,  a 
scientific  knowledge  that  enlarges  his  powers, 
a  medical  skill  that  alleviates  his  sufferings,  and 
above  all,  a  relation  to  Jesus  Christ  that  not  only 
lends  new  dignity  to  this  earthly  life,  but  which 
saves  his  soul  and  prepares  him  for  eternal  com- 
panionship with  God.  "Neither  is  there  salva- 
tion in  any  other."  Therefore,  we  must  convey 
this  Gospel  to  the  world.  Christ  has  commanded 
us  to  go,  but  we  should  have  had  to  go  anyway. 
The  missionary  impulse  in  the  breast  of  every 
true  disciple  would  have  stirred  him  to  spon- 
taneous action.  Christ  simply  voiced  the  highest 
and  holiest  dictates  of  the  human  heart  when  He 
summoned  His  followers  to  missionary  activity 


and  zeal.  We  do  not  hear  so  much  as  our  fathers 
heard  of  the  motive  of  salvation  of  the  heathen. 
That  consideration  appears  to  be  gradually  drift- 
ing into  the  background.  Our  age  prefers  to 
dwell  upon  the  blessings  of  faith  rather  than  upon 
the  consequences  of  unbelief.  And  yet,  if  we 
believe  that  Christ  is  our  life,  it  is  difficult  to 
avoid  the  conclusion  that  without  Christ  is  death. 
Various  statements  and  figures  are  used  in  the 
New  Testament  to  express  the  condition  of  those 
v/ho  know  not  Christ,  but  whether  they  are  inter- 
preted literally  or  figuratively,  their  fundamental 
meaning  is  as  plain  as  it  is  awful.  Jesus  came 
"to  save,"  and  salvation  is  from  something. 
Nothing  is  gained  but  much  is  lost  by  ignoring 
facts,  and  the  appalling  fact  that  men  are  lost 
without  Christ  is  a  motive  of  the  first  magnitude 
for  trying  to  save  them. 

(c)  The  command  of  Christ:  "Go  ye  into  all  the 
world  and  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature." 
If  this  were  the  only  motive,  foreign  missionary 
work  would  be  a  mechanical  performance  of 
stern  duty,  the  missionary  merely  an  obedient 
soldier.  But  taken  in  connection  with  the  pre- 
ceding motives,  it  adds  to  them  the  impressive 
sanctions  of  divine  authority.  For  Christ's  word 
is  not  a  request.  It  is  not  a  suggestion.  It  leaves 
nothing  to  our  choice.  It  is  an  order,  compre- 
hensive, unequivocal,  ending  aU  argument,  si- 
lencing all  cavil — a  clear,  peremptory,  categorical 
imperative  "Go."  Such  a  command  dispels  all 
possible  uncertainty,  removes  any  misgiving, 
and,  for  those  who  need  it,  reduces  the  question 
of  missionary  effort  to  one  of  simple  obedience  to 
our  Lord  and  King. 

These  are  and  ever  must  remain  the  supreme 
motives  of  the  missionary  enterprise.  They  have 
inherent  and  independent  force.  Whether  men 
are  civilized  or  not,  whether  they  trade  with  us  or 
not,  whether  present  results  are  few  or  many,  the 
Christian  Church  must  continue  its  missionary 
work.  The  results  of  a  hundred  years  of  mis- 
sionary effort  are  most  encouraging,  but  if  they 
were  not,  it  would  make  little  difference.  The 
man  who  knows  that  he  is  working  with  God,  for 
God,  and  in  obedience  to  God,  is  not  controlled 
by  worldly  ideas  of  success.  He  is  content  to 
leave  results  with  God,  knowing  that  His  Word 
will  not  return  unto  Him  void.  After  Judson  had 
been  toiling  for  years  in  Burma  without  making 
a  single  convert,  some  one  wrote  to  him  asking 
what  the  prospects  were,  and  he  flashed  back, 
"Ai  bright  as  the  promises  of  God!"  When 
ten  years  of  labor  in  Bechuana  had  tailed  to 
accomplish  any  visible  result,  Mrs.  Greaves,  of 
Sheffield,  wrote  to  Mary  Moffat  asking  what  she 
needed,  and  that  heroic  woman  answered:  "Send 
us  a  communion  service."  Temporary  defeat 
has  no  power  over  the  true  missionary.  With 
Lincoln,  when  taunted  with  the  defeat  of  his  plans, 
he  exclaims,  "Defeat!  if  it  were  not  one  but  one 
hundred  defeats,  I  should  still  pursue  the  same 
unchanging  course."  To  his  own  generation, 
Christ's  life  was  a  failure.  So  was  Paul's,  and 
Peter's,  and  Stephen's.  But  later  generations 
saw  the  rich  fruitage.  Like  them,  the  true  mis- 
sionary toils  from  motives  which  are  independent 
of  present  appearances.  If  Jehovah  is  the  only 
true  God,  the  whole  world  ought  to  be  told  about 
Him.  If  Jesus  Christ  is  our  salvation.  He  can  be 
the  salvation  of  others,  and  it  is  our  imperative 
duty  to  carry  or  send  the  good  news  to  them. 
There  may  be  questions  as  to  method,  but  no 
objection    lies    against    the    foreign    missionary 


613 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Motl-re 
Mpntoll 


enterprise  which  does  not  lie  with  equal  force 
against  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  Christian 
religion. 

The  foreign  mission  cause  is  at  some  disad- 
vantage as  compared  with  the  other  enterprises 
in  which  the  church  is  engaged  in  that  it   cannot 
make  so  strong  an  appeal  to  patriotism  or  self- 
interest.     The    foreign    missionary    impulse     is 
really  the  Christ  impulse.     It  is  prompted  by  no 
selfish  motive.     It  summons  us  to  toil  and  sac- 
rifice for  races  which  are  beyond  our  sight  and 
touch,  and  for  which  we  naturally  feel  but  little 
concern,   especially   as  they   ordinarily   cling  to 
their  old  faiths  and  sometimes  resent  our  well- 
meant  efforts.     In  these  circumstances,  foreign 
missions    can    effectively   appeal   only   to   those 
motives  of  spiritual  experience  and  unselfish  love 
and  glad  obedience  which  prompted  Christ  to 
seek   a  lost   race.     Indeed,   the    Master   plainly 
declared  to  His  disciples:     "As  the  Father  hath 
sent  me  into  the  world,  so  send  I  you  into  the 
world."     But  to  these  motives  it  does  appeal  as 
the  wretchedness  and  guilt  of  old  appealed  to  the 
heart  of  infinite  love.     The  missionary  advocate 
makes  a  grave  mistake  when  he  bases  his  appeal 
solely  on  financial  needs.     The  fact  that  an  enter- 
prise wants  money  is  not  a  sufficient  reason  why 
it  should  receive  it,  nor  is  the  begging  argument 
apt  to  secure  anything  deeper  than  the  beggar's 
temporary   dole.     Our  appeal  should  be   based 
on  those  high  motives  which  center  in  our  relation 
to  the   Savior's  love  and  presence  and  command. 
Paul  said,  "We  preach  not  ourselves,  but  Christ 
Jesus  the  Lord;  and  ourselves  your  servants  for 
Jesus'  sake."     "For  Jesus  sakel"     That  is    the 
spring  of  all  holy  living,  of  all  noble  endeavor,  of 
all  large  achievement.  "For  Jesus'  sake !"  the  mis- 
sionary  goes   into    distant   lands.     "For   Jesus' 
sake"   he  toils  and  prays  for  the  salvation  of  his 
fellow-men.      And   "for  Jesus'  sake"    Christians 
at  home  ought  to  sustain  those  who  go.     The 
searching  and  tender  words  of  Christ  to  Peter 
comprehend  the  whole  matter,"Lovest  thou  me?" 
then  "feed  my  sheep." 
MOUKDEN.     See  Mtjkden. 
MOULMEIN.     See  Maxjlmain. 
MOUNT  ARTHUR:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  the  Glen  Grey  District, 
about  ten  miles  N.  E.  of  Lady  Frere.     Station  of 
the  South    Africa    Wesleyan    Methodists,    with 
(1900)   103    native      workers,    46     outstations, 
1,012  professed  Christians,  25  places  of  worship, 
25  Sunday  schools. 

MOUNT  AYLIFF :  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  Griqualand  East,  105 
miles  S.  W.  of  Pietermaritzburg.  Station  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  (1888),  with  (1903) 

I  missionary,  1  native  worker,  2  outstations,  2 
places  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  and  29  professed 
Christians. 

MOUNT  FRERE :  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  Griqualand  East,  125 
miles  S.  W.  of  Pietermaritzburg.  It  is  also 
called  Mbonda.  Station  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  Scotland  (1890),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  17 
native  workers,  12  outstations,  8  places  of  wor- 
ship, 8  day  schools,  and  598  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  UFS  (1894),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  29  native  workers,  24 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  8  Sunday  schools, 

II  day  schools,  and  760  professed  Christians. 

MOUNT  SILINDA:  A  settlement  on  the  eastern 
33 


edge  of  Matabililand,  Rhodesia,  South  Central 
Africa,  situated  in  Melsetter  district,  about  150 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  the  Portuguese  seaport  of 
Beira.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1893),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries  with  their  wives,  2  native 
workers,  4  outstations,  1  day  school,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  boarding  school,  40  professed  Chris- 
tians, and  1  dispensary.  It  has  also  an  indus- 
trial enterprise  with  27,000  acres  of  land. 

MOUNT  TABOR:  A  settlement  in  Zululand, 
Natal,  South  Africa,  situated  on  the  St.  Lucia 
River,  at  the  entrance  to  St.  Lucia  Lake.  Sta- 
tion of  the  South  Africa  General  Mission  (1899), 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  3 
women  missionaries,  1  native  worker,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  2 
professed  Christians. 

MOYAMBA:  A  village  in  Sierra  Leone,  W. 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Mendi  country,  about  25 
miles  S.  E.  of  Rotifunk,  on  the  railway  from 
Freetown  to  Bo.  Station  of  the  UB,  with 
(1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 2  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  1  Young 
People's  society. 

MOZAMBIQUE:  Formerly  capital  of  Portu- 
guese West  Africa.  It  is  situated  on  a  small 
coral  island  in  latitude  15°  2'  south,  and  was  the 
original  fortress  of  the  Portuguese.  It  has  three 
strong  forts.  Since  the  abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade  its  export  trade,  principally  with  India,  is  of 
little  importance.  Population  about  6,000,  of 
whom  about  300  are  Europeans  and  as  many 
more  Arabs.  Education  and  religion  are  under 
the  control  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  are  at  a 
very  low  ebb. 

MOZAFARPUR.     See   Mtjzaffarpub. 

MPANGILE:  A  station  of  the  Berlin  Mission 
Society  in  German  East  Africa,  situated  about 
35  miles  E.  by  N.  from  the  northern  extremity  of 
Lake  Nyasa.     Statistics  given  under  Mbeyela's. 

MPAPWA:  A  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Usagara  region,  about  52 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Mamboia.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1878),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  with 
his  wife;  10  native  workers,  8  day  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  219  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
66  are  communicants.  Society  has  spelled  the 
name  Mpwapwa,  but,  at  the  request  of  the  local 
officials,  in  1904  adopted  the  spelling  Mpapua. 

MPHOME:  A  town  in  North  Transvaal,  Africa, 
south  of  Limpopo  River.  A  station  of  the  Berlin 
Mission  Society  (1878),  with  (1903)  1  missionary, 
34  native  workers,  15  outstations,  3  day  schools, 
1,801  professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,180  are 
communicants. 

MPONDA'S:  A  village  in  British  Central  Africa, 
situated  in  Nyasaland  at  the  issue  of  the  Shir^ 
River,  from  Lake  Nyasa.  The  climate  is  healthy. 
Station  of  the  UM  (1896),  with  (1900)  4  mission- 
aries, two  of  them  with  their  wives;  2  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  2  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  27  professed 
Christians. 

MPONGWE  LANGUAGE:  An  African  laii^urge 
belonging  to  the  great  Bantu  family,  and  spoken 
bv  a  limited  number  of  people  in  the  coast  regions 
of  the  French  Congo.  It  has  been  reduced  to 
writing  by  missionaries  with  use  of  the  Roman 
letters. 

MPUTOLI:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  South 


Music  and  Mlsslond 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


614 


Africa,  situated  in  the  Transkei  district  on  the 
Indwe  River,  28  miles  S.  E.  of  Queenstown. 
Station  of  the  South  African  Baptist  Mission 
Society,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1 
woman  missionary.  Name  sometimes  written 
Mputola. 

MPWAPWA.     See  Mpapwa. 

MSALABANI:  Station  of  the  UM  in  German 
East  Africa,  situated  in  the  Usambara  region, 
about  30  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Tanga.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  1875  and  has  been  called  Magila.  The 
name  Magila  having  now  been  applied  to  the 
whole  district,  the  station  has  been  renamed 
Msalabani,  which  means  "at  the  Cross."  It 
now  (1903)  has  4  missionaries,  12  elementary  and 
2  higher  schools,  and  1,071  professed  Christians. 

MUAKERERI:  A  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa,  in  the  Konde  District,  N.  of  Lake  Nyasa, 
about  25  miles  N.  W.  of  the  northern  end  of  the 
lake.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society 
(1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  4  native  work- 
ers, 1  day  school,  and  49  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  26  are  communicants.  Name  sometimes 
written  Muakaleli. 

MUANG  NAN:  A  town  in  Siam  in  the  Laos  dis- 
trict, situated  on  the  Me  Nan,  about  125  miles  E. 
of  Cheung  Mai.  Station  of  the  PN  (1894),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  3  native 
workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  dispensary,  1  day 
school,  and  57  professed  Christians.  Name 
sometimes  written  Nan. 

MUANG  PRAA:  A  town  in  Siam,  in  the  Laos 
district,  situated  on  the  Me  Yonz,  about  65  miles 
S.  E.  of  Lakawn.  Station  of  the  PN  (1893),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  work- 
ers, 16  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday 
schools,  1  day  school,  1  boarding  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  and  220  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  120  are  communicants.  Name  some- 
times written  Pre. 

MXJDEN :  A  village  in  Natal,  South  Africa,  sit- 
uated in  the  Weenen  district  on  the  Mooi  River, 
about  12  miles  N.  W.  of  Greytown.  Station  of 
the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1859), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife; 
9  native  workers,  3  places  of  worship,  3  day 
schools,  2  outstations,  and  593  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  178  are  communicants. 

MTJFINDI:  A  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa,  in  the  Heheland  district,  situated  on  the 
Ngololo  River,  about  120  miles  N.  E.  of  the 
northern  end  of  Lake  Nyasa  and  about  420  miles 
S.  W.  of  Dar  es  Selam  on  the  shore  of  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Mission  Society 
(1899),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his 
wife,  and  15  professed  Christians.  The  station 
will  be  removed  soon  to  a  more  populous  district. 

MUHANGA:  A  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Lukosse  River,  about  50 
miles  N.  E.  of,  Mufindi.  Station  of  the  Berlin 
Mission  Society  (1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  4  outstations. 

MUHLENBERG:  A  settlement  in  Liberia,  West 
Africa,  situated  on  the  St.  Paul's  River,  about  46 
miles  N.  E.  of  Monrovia.  Station  of  the  ELGS 
(1860),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries,  two  of  them 
with  their  wives;  2  women  missionaries,  6  out- 
stations, 6  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  industrial  school,  and  110  professed 
Christians. 

MUKDEN:  A  town,  the  capital  of  Manchuria, 
China,  situated  in  the  province  of  Liao-tung,  on 


the  Hun-ho,  110  miles  N.  E.  of  New-chwang.  It 
was  the  former  residence  of  the  present  reigning 
dynasty  of  China,  dating  from  1625.  The 
streets  are  broad  and  straight.  Population,  250  - 
000.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1875),  with  (1903)  5 
missionaries,  three  of  them  with  their  wives;  2 
women  missionaries,  29  native  workers,  17  out- 
stations, 1  place  of  worship,  10  Sunday  schools, 
11  day  schools,  1  female  training  institute,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  1,540  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland  (1889), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  9  native  workers,  4  outstations,  6 
chapels,  1  Sunday  school,  2  day  schools,  1  theo- 
logical college,  and  79  professed  Christiana. 
Work  in  the  college  is  supported  conjointly  with 
the  UFS.  Societies  spell  the  name  Moukden. 
The  BFBS  has  an  agent  at  this  place. 

MUKIMVIKA. :  A  village  in  Angola,  Africa,  sit- 
uated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Congo  River  at  its 
mouth.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1882),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  2  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school,  1  hospital,  and  1  dispensary. 

MUKIMBUNGU:  A  settlement  in  Congo  Free 
State,  Africa,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Congo  River.  Station  of  the  Swedish  National 
Evangelical  Miss.  Association  (1882), with  (1901) 
3  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 17  native  workers,  15  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding 
school,  1  college,  1  dispensary,  and  392  professed 
Christians. 

MULANGO:  A  settlement  in  British  East 
Africa,  not  far  from  Mt.  Kenia.  Station  of  the 
Leipzig  Mission  Society  (1899),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  9  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  day  school. 

MULKI :  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated  in 
the  district  of  South  Kanara  on  the  W.  coast,  13 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Mangalore.  Population,  5,000. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Mission  Society  (1845),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  27  native 
workers,  6  outstations,  7  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  800  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
436  are  communicants. 

MULLENS,  Joseph:  Born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, 1820;  entered  Coward  College,  1837;  grad- 
uated, 1841,  at  the  London  University;  ordained, 
1843,  and  embarked  the  same  year  for  Calcutta 
as  a  missionary  of  the  LMS.  In  1865,  after  visit- 
ing the  missions  in  India  and  Ceylon,  he  sailed 
for  England  to  be  assistant  secretary  with  Dr. 
Tidman.  On  Dr.  Tidman's  death  he  became 
foreign  secretary  of  the  LMS.  In  1870  he  visited 
the  United  States  as  delegate  of  the  London 
Society  to  the  American  Board.  In  1873  and 
1874  he  visited  Madagascar  in  the  interest  of  the 
missionary  work.  In  1875  Dr.  Mullens  accom- 
panied several  missionaries  to  assist  in  the  organ- 
ization of  a  mission  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  Central 
Africa.  But  at  Mpwapwa  he  was  ovrercome  by 
exposure  and  fatigue  and  died  of  peritonitis  July 
10.  The  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  in  1851  by  Williams  College,. 
Mass.,  and  in  1868  by  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  published  Twelve  Months  in  Mada- 
gascar, A  Brief  Review  of  Ten  Years'  Missionary 
Labor  in  India  between  1852  and  1863,  London, 
and  Calcutta  Compared  in  their  Heathenism, 
Privileges  and  Prospects. 

MULTAN:  A  city  in  the  Punjab,  India,  situated 


615 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


MpwapTva 
Music  and  Missions 


190  miles  S.  W.  by  W.  of  Lahore,  about  7  miles 
from  Chenab  River.  The  commercial  center  of 
the  region.  It  has  silk,  cotton  and  carpet  manu- 
factures. A  very  ancient  town  existing  at  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Altitude,  420  feet. 
Climate  warm  and  rainfall  light.  Population 
(1901),  87,394,  of  whom  43,000  are  Muslims  and 
34,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1856), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  4  women  mission- 
aries, 9  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day 
school,  1  boarding  school,  and  115  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  37  are  communicants. 

MTJLTANI  LANGUAGE :  An  Aryan  language  of 
the  Indie  branch,  used  by  the  people  of  Multan 
and  Dernar,  of  Muzaffergarh,  and  of  the  state  of 
Bhawalpur.  It  is  also  spoken  by  the  Khetran 
tribe  in  the  territory  behind  the  Suleimani 
Mountains.  Altogether  about  two  and  a  half 
millions  of  the  people  of  Northwestern  India  speak 
Multani.  They  themselves  call  it  Jagdalli  or 
Jatki,  the  name  Multani  being  given  to  it  by 
neighboring  peoples.  The  language  is  allied  to 
the  Punjabi  and  to  the  Sindhi.  The  Arabic  char- 
acter is  used  in  writing  it. 

MULVI  BAZAAR:  A  village  in  Assam,  India, 
situated  in  Sylhet  district,  about  30  miles  S.  W. 
of  Sylhet.  Station  of  the  WCM,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  15  native  workers,  1 
boarding  school,  and  15  professed  Christians. 
Name  sometimes  written  Maulvi  Bazaar. 

MUNGELI:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  situated  135  miles  S.  E.  by  E.  of  Bilaspur. 
Population,  5,000.  Station  of  the  FCMS  (1887), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  10  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  10  Sunday  schools,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  female  training  school,  1  dispensary, 
1  hospital,  1  medical  class,  1  lepers'  institute,  and 
90  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the  East  (1897), 
with  1  place  of  worship  and  1  lepers'  home  for 
untainted  children  of  lepers. 

MXTNSON,  Samuel:  Born  at  New  Sharon,  Me., 
March  23,  1804;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
1829,  Andover  Theological  Seminary  1832; 
ordained  October  10;  sailed  June  10,  1833, 
as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM,  with  Rev.  Henry 
Lyman,  under  instructions  to  explore  the  East 
Indian  Archipelago,  and  reached  Batavia  Sep- 
tember 30.  In  April,  1834,  they  undertook 
to  visit  the  Batta  country  in  Sumatra,  and  were 
both  killed.  For  an  account  of  their  expedition 
and  death,  see  the  article  on  Mr.  Henry  Lyman. 
MURHU:  A  village  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
in  Chota  Nagpur,  30  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Ranchi. 
Station  of  the  SPG,  with  (1903)  22  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  6  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  and  2,071  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  1,028  are  communicants. 

MURRAYTOWN:  A  village  in  Sierra  Leone, 
Africa,  situated  about  5  miles  W.  of  Freetown. 
Station  of  the  UMFC  (1891),  with  (1901)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  12  native  workers,  1  out- 
station, 2  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools, 
and  311  professed  Christians. 

MUSCAT.     See  Mascat. 

MUSH:  A  city  of  Eastern  Turkey,  83  miles 
southeast  of  Erzroora,  in  a  large  plain,  one  of  the 
most  jjopulous  of  the  whole  section.  The  popu- 
lation is  Kurdish  and  Armenian.  The  Kurds  are 
very  fierce,  and  treat  the  Christinns  most  oppres- 
sively. The  district  of  Sasun,  notorious  as  the 
scene  of  horrible  massacres  of  Armenians  in  1893, 


and  again  in  1904,  lies  S.  W.  of  Mush  in  the 
same  administrative  division.  The  name  is  also 
written  Moosh  and  Moush. 

MUSIC  AND  MISSIONS:  Missions  touch  music 
at  two  points:  1.  The  missionary  as  a  man  of 
culture  studies  the  poetry  and  songs  of  the  people 
among  whom  he  labors.  2.  After  a  mission  has 
become  successful  tlie  newly  formed  churches  are 
helped  in  their  worship,  especially  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Praise,  and  this  demands  a  thorough 
Ivnowledge  of  the  foundation  principles  of  music. 

As  to  the  study  of  the  music  of  savages  by  mis- 
sionaries we  may  cite  some  examples.  Rev.  A. 
L.  Riggs  has  made  a  very  interesting  study  of 
Dalvota  music,  publishing  specimens  of  songs  of 
love  and  war,  songs  of  sacred  mysteries  and 
social  songs.  Tliey  are  extremely  simple,  and 
abound  with  the  repetitions  so  natural  to  un- 
tutored minds.  A  widow's  lament  expresses  the 
deepest  heartweariness  and  despair. 

Their  music  is  also  very  simple.  It  consists 
of  melody  alone,  with  rude  accompaniment, 
mainly  for  marking  time.  The  men  sing,  while 
the  women  sound  one  single  falsetto  note  ai,  at, 
ai,  keeping  time  with  drums.  They  do  not 
appreciate  harmony.  The  minor  key  is  their 
favorite,  tho  the  major  key  occurs  in  their 
war  songs.  Their  instruments  are  the  drum, 
rattle,  and  pipe.  The  drum  is  more  than  a  foot 
in  diameter,  and  from  three  to  ten  inches  deep. 
The  rattle  is  made  of  segments  of  deer  hoops 
tied  to  a  tapering  rod  of  wood.  The  conjurer 
uses  a  gourd  shell  with  a  few  pebbles  inside.  The 
usual  pipe  is  a  sumac  flageolet,  nineteen  inches 
long,  with  a  diameter  of  five-eighths  of  an  inch. 
A  peculiar  partition  forms  the  whistle.  Six 
notes  are  burnt  on  the  upper  side,  and  a  brass 
thimble  forms  the  mouthpiece.  The  pitch  is  A 
Prime,  changed  to  G  Prime  by  a  seventh  hole. 
Sometimes  the  pipe  is  made  of  the  long  wing  or 
thigh-bone  of  a  crane  or  swan.  Dakota  music  is 
rude,  but  its  power  is  measured  by  the  adaptation 
of  its  wild  melody  to  savage  life  in  the  wilderness, 
where  in  the  misty  moonlight  the  night  air  bears 
the  plaintive  sounds,  with  the  hollow  bass  of  the 
drum-beat,  along  the  waste,  full  of  possible  war- 
whoops,  and  where  each  bush  may  hide  an 
enemy. 

Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams  has  given  in  his  Middle 
Kingdom  a  graphic  description  of  Chinese  music 
and  musical  instruments.  However  small  their 
attainments  in  both  theory  and  practise,  no 
nation  gives  to  music  a  higher  place.  Confucius 
taught  that  it  was  essential  to  good  government, 
harmonizing  the  different  ranks  in  society,  and 
causing  them  all  to  move  on  in  unison.  The 
Chinese  have  sought  to  develop  instrumental 
rather  than  vocal  music. 

The  names  of  the  notes,  ascending  regularly 
from  the  first  line  of  the  staff  to  the  third  space 
above  it,  are  as  follows:  first  line,  ho;  first  space, 
sz;  then  i,  chang,  chi,  kung,  fan,  liu,  uit;  first 
space  above,  i,  then  chang,  che,  kung,  fan,  the  last 
being  on  the  third  space  above. 

The  real  tone  cannot  be  represented  by  our 
staff.  The  second  octave  is  denoted  by  affixing 
the  sign  fin,  a  man,  to  the  simple  notes.  No 
chromatic  scale  exists — at  least  no  instrument  is 
made  to  express  flat  and  sharp  notes. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  music  in  China — the 
northern  and  the  southern.  The  octave  in  the 
former  seems  to  have  had  only  six  notes,  while 
the  eight-tone  scale  prevails  in  more  cultivated 
circles.     Music   is   written   for   only    a   few    in- 


Music  and  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


516 


struments,  and  the  notation  good  for  one  is  useless 
for  another,  because  marks  meaning  to  push, 
fillip,  hook,  etc.,  are  added  to  denote  the  mode  of 
playing;  indeed,  the  combinations  are  so  com- 
plicated that  the  Chinese  usually  play  by  ear. 
All  music  is  in  common  time;  no  triple  measures 
are  used.  Of  harmony  and  counterpoint  they 
know  nothing.  Marks  to  regulate  the  expression 
are  unknown,  nor  are  tunes  set  to  any  key. 

No  description  can  do  justice  to  their  vocal 
music,  and  few  can  imitate  it.  Some  notes 
seem  to  issue  from  the  larynx  and  nose;  tongue, 
teeth,  and  lips  having  little  to  do  with  them. 
Singing  is  usually  in  a  falsetto  key,  somewhere 
between  a  squeal  and  a  scream,  and  yet  it  is 
plaintive  and  soft,  and  not  without  a  certain 
sweetness. 

Chinese  musical  literature  is  voluminous.  A 
work  on  beating  the  drum  dates  from  a.  d.  860, 
and  contains  a  list  of  129  symphonies.     Among 

12  instruments  described  in  the  chrestomathy  are 
17  drums  of  various  sizes,  then  gongs,  cymbals, 
tambourines,  and  musical  vases  in  considerable 
variety.  Stringed  instruments  are  not  so  numer- 
ous. They  have  nothing  that  resembles  the  lyre. 
The  kin  or  scholar's  lute  is  deemed  the  finest. 
Easy  Lessons  for  this  lute  is  a  work  in  two  vol- 
umes, explains  109  terms,  and  has  29  pictures  of 
the  position  of  the  hand  in  playing.  The  instru- 
ment itself  is  ancient,  and  is  named  kin,  "to  pro- 
hibit," because  it  restrains  evil  passions.  It  is  a 
board,  four  feet  long  and  eighteen  inches  wide, 
convex  above  and  flat  below,  where  two  holes 
open  into  hollows.  Seven  strings  of  silk  pass 
over  a  bridge  through  the  board  at  the  wide  end, 
and  are  fastened  by  nuts  beneath.  They  are  fast- 
ened to  two  pegs  at  the  smaller  end.  The  sound- 
ing-board is  divided  by  thirteen  studs,  so  placed 
that  the  strings  are  divided  into  halves,  thirds, 
quarters,  fifths,  sixths,  and  eighths,  but  no 
sevenths.  The  seven  strings  enclose  the  compass 
of  a  ninth,  or  two-fifths,  the  middle  one  being 
treated  like  A  on  the  violin,  and  the  outer  ones 
tuned  to  one-fifth  from  that.  The  interval  is 
treated  like  our  octave  in  the  violin,  for  the  com- 
pass of  the  kin  is  made  up  of  fifths.  Each  of  the 
outer  strings  is  tuned  a  fourth  from  the  alternate 
string  within  the  system,  so  that  there  is  a  major 
tone  and  interval  tone  less  than  a  minor  third, 
and  a  major  tone  in  the  fifth.  The  Chinese  leave 
the  interval  entire  and  skip  the  half  tone,  while 
we  divide  it  into  two  unequal  parts;  so  the  mood 
of  the  music  of  the  kin  is  different  from  our  instru- 
ments, and  for  that  reason  none  of  these  can  do 
justice  to  Chinese  airs.  There  are  other  instru- 
ments like  the  kin,  one  with  30  and  another  with 

13  strings.  Som.e  resemble  the  guitar,  lute,  and 
spinet,  with  strings  of  silk  or  wire,  but  never  of 
catgut.  The  pipa,  a  balloon-shaped  guitar,  has 
four  strings,  is  three  feet  long,  with  twelve  frets  to 
guide  the  player.  The  strings  are  tuned  to  the 
intervals  of  a  fourth,  a  major  tone,  and  a  fourth, 
so  that  the  outer  strings  are  octaves  to  each 
other.  The  san  hien,  or  three-stringed  guitar, 
resembles  a  rebeck  in  shape,  but  the  head  and 
neck  are  three  feet  in  length.  The  strings  are  tuned 
as  fourths  to  each  other,  and  their  sound  is  low 
and  dull.  The  yueh  kin,  or  full-moon  guitar,  has 
four  strings  in  pairs  that  are  unisons  with  each 
other,  with  an  interval  of  a  fifth  between  the 
pairs.  It  is  struck  briskly,  and  used  for  lively 
tunes. 

The  two-stringed  fiddle  is  merely  a  bamboo 
split  stuck  into  a  bamboo    cylinder,  with    two 


strings  fastened  on  pegs  at  one  end  of  the  stick 
and  passing  over  a  bridge  on  the  cylinder  to  the 
other  end.  They  are  tuned  at  intervals  of  a 
fifth.  As  the  bow  passes  between  the  two  strings 
much  care  is  needed  in  playing  not  to  scrape  the 
wrong  string.  The  harsh  grating  of  this  wretched 
machine  is  very  popular  among  the  natives. 
The  ti  kin  (crowing  lute)  has  a  coconut  shell  for 
its  body,  and  is  even  more  dissonant  than  the 
last.  The  yang  kin  is  an  embryo  piano,  consist- 
ing of  brass  wires  of  different  lengths,  tuned  at 
proper  intervals,  and  fastened  on  a  sounding 
board.  The  sounds  are  very  attenuated.  The 
sang,  in  like  manner,  is  an  embryo  organ,  a  cone- 
shaped  box,  with  a  mouthpiece  to  blow  in,  and 
thirteen  reeds  of  different  lengths,  inserted  in  the 
top,  the  valves  of  some  opening  upward  and 
others  downward.  They  are  provided  with  holes 
also  that  may  be  opened  or  closed  by  the  player. 
It  is  very  ancient.  Some  think  it  the  organ 
invented  by  Jubal  (Gen.  iv:  21).  The  Chinese 
think  it  more  curious  than  useful. 

Their  wind  instruments  are  numerous.  The 
hwang  tih  (flute)  is  twice  the  length  of  our  pipe, 
made  of  bamboo,  and  pierced  with  ten  holes. 
The  two  near  the  end  are  not  used.  The  mouth 
hole  is  one-third  of  the  way  from  the  top.  The 
shu  tih  (clarionet)  takes  the  lead  in  musical  per- 
formances. It  has  seven  holes,  but  no  keys.  Its 
tones  are  shriU  and  deafening,  and  therefore 
popular.  A  street  musician  fits  a  flageolet,  or 
small  clarionet,  to  his  nose,  slings  a  small  drum 
under  one  shoulder,  hangs  a  frame  of  four  cym- 
bals on  his  breast,  and  with  a  couple  of  monkeys 
sallies  forth,  a  peripatetic  choir  and  orchestra. 

The  stem  of  the  horn  is  retractible,  like  a 
trombone.     There  are  other  varieties,  however. 

The  lo  (gong)  is  the  standard  type  of  Chinese 
music.  A  crashing  harangue  of  rapid  blows  on 
this,  with  a  rattling  accompaniment  of  drums, 
and  a  crackling  symphony  of  shrillness  from 
clarionet  and  cymbal,  is  their  beau  ideal  of 
music.  They  have  heard  good  Portuguese 
music  for  ages,  but  have  never  adopted  either 
an  instrument  or  a  tune. 

A  Chinese  band  makes  the  European  think  of 
Hogarth's  "Enraged  Musician."  Each  per- 
former seems  to  have  his  own  tune,  and  bent  on 
drowning  the  noise  of  all  the  rest;  yet  they  keep 
good  time,  only  no  two  of  them  are  tuned  on  the 
same  key. 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  of  the  American  Syria 
Mission,  found  that  hymns  composed  in  Arabic 
measures  could  seldom  be  sung  in  our  tunes,  and 
our  musicians  were  puzzled  by  the  intervals  in 
Arab  music.  On  the  other  hand,  Arabs  could 
not  repeat  our  scale.  A  treatise  on  Arab  music 
by  Michael  Mishakah  of  Damascus  explained  the 
difficulty;  and  from  that,  with  Rosegarten's  edi- 
tion of  Ispahany's  Book  of  Odes,  and  Faraby  on 
Ancient  Arab  Music,  Dr.  Smith  wrote  a  valuable 
paper  which  was  published  in  the  Journal  of  the 
American  Oriental  Society.  The  principles  are 
quite  near  to  those  of  Persian  and  'Turkish  music 
also.  He  says  that  sounds  are  natuiaUy  divided 
into  groups  of  seven,  rising  one  above  the  other, 
each  the  response  to  the  one  below,  and  the  bass 
of  the  one  above.  The  group  is  called  an  octave, 
diwan,  and  the  octaves  are  composed  of  tones, 
bur],  pi.  buruj.  The  first  is  called  yegdh,  then 
osheiran,  drak,  rest,  dugdh,  sigdh,  and  jehdrg/ih. 
This  is  the  first  octave.  The  second  is  nawa, 
huseiny,  auj,  mdhur,  muhaiyar,  buzrek,  and  mo- 
hurdn.     The   last   is   the   response   to    --^'^—"^ 


61V 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Music  and  Mlsalons 


The  first  of  the  third  octave  is  remel  Hty,  the 
response  to  nawa.  The  next  octave  is  the  re- 
sponse to  the  response  of  nawa,  and  so  on  ad 
infinitum.  So  in  the  first  series  below  yegdh 
they  say  the  base  to  jehdrgdh,  to  sigdh,  and  so 
through  the  list,  then  the  base  to  the  base  of 
jehdrg&h,  etc.  The  intervals  between  these  notes 
are  unequal.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
one  containing  four  quarters  and  the  other  three. 
The  former  are  from  yegdh  to  osheiran,  from  rest 
to  dug&h,  and  from  jehdrgdh  to  nawa.  The  latter 
from  osheiran  to  arak,  from  arak  to  rest,  from 
dugdh  to  sigdh,  and  from  sigdh  to  jehdrgdh.  The 
first  class  then  has  three  intervals  with  twelve 
quarters,  and  the  second  four  intervals  with 
twelve  quarters.  The  modern  Greeks  divide  the 
intervals  into  seconds,  and  make  three  classes. 
One  class,  corresponding  to  the  first  of  the  Arabs, 
divides  the  interval  into  twelve  seconds;  the 
second  class  divides  it  into  nine  seconds,  and  is 
from  dCig&h  to  sigdh,  and  from  huseiny  to  auj. 
The  third  class,  from  sigdh  to  jehdrgdh,  and  from 
auj  to  mahur,  has  seven  seconds  to  the  interval. 
So  their  octave  contains  seven  intervals  and 
sixty-eight  seconds.  The  Arab  and  Greek  scales 
coincide  only  at  four  out  of  the  sixty-eight 
seconds. 

This  is  the  substance  of  only  four  of  the  thirty 
pages  of  the  paper.  Chapter  II.  describes  Arab 
melodies  now  in  use,  and  Chapter  III.  is  devottd 
to  musical  rhythm,  and  Chapter  IV.  to  musical 
instruments,  describing  stringed  instruments  like 
elud  (literally  the  wood,  whence  our  word  "lute") 
the  Arab  guitar,  the  kemenjeh,  or  Arab  fiddle,  with 
a  coconut  shell  for  its  body,  like  the  Chinese  ti 
kin;  the  tambur,  a  kind  of  mandolin,  and  the 
kanun,  corresponding  to  the  yang  kin  of  the 
Chinese  orchestra,  only,  it  would  seem,  a  better 
instrument.  Then  of  wind  instruments,  the  nay 
or  flute,  kerift,  mizmar,  sunndy,  urghan  (organ,  see 
Chinese  sang),  and  jenah. 

In  India,  music  was  formerly  much  more  scien- 
tific than  at  present.  There  idolatry  has  de- 
graded music,  and  the  martial  music  of  the 
country  has  changed  with  its  government.  Its 
religion  now  has  little  to  do  with  music,  except 
in  connection  with  the  dancing  girls  of  the 
temples.  Operas  are  unknown,  and  theatrical 
music  is  of  a  low  order.  Marriages  furnish  the 
chief  occasions  for  musical  display.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  musical  instruments,  as  drums, 
trumpets,  horns,  cymbals,  hautboys,  and  violins, 
but  the  performers  have  little  skill  and  less  taste. 
The  wedding  orchestra  varies  from  six  to  twenty 
performers.  Singing  is  an  accomplishment  of 
women  of  doubtful  morality,  who  are  much 
eniployed  for  this  purpose  by  the  wealthy. 

Chrislianity  is  changing  all  this,  not  gener- 
ally, it  is  true,  but  gradually  and  permanently, 
for  the  native  convert  must  give  vent  to  his  new 
joy  in  songs  of  praise,  and  they  do  this  not  only 
m  the  church,  but  also  in  their  families  and 
when  alone.  Even  before  conversion,  music 
does  much  to  prepare  the  way. 

A  favorite  and  most  successful  mode  of  intro- 
ducing the  Gospel  in  western  India  is  the  kirttan, 
i.  e.,  solo  singing  by  native  evangelists  with 
orchestral  accompaniment.  In  September,  1880, 
Rev.  Mr.  Bruce  of  Satara  visited  Wai  with  his 
kirttan  choir.  The  people  crowded  to  hear,  espe- 
cially as  the  leader  had  been  a  Muslim.  Hun- 
dreds stood  outside  of  the  building  in  the  rain, 
and  listened  for  the  first  time  to  the  way  of  sal- 
vation through  a  Redeemer.     The  whole  city  was 


moved,  and  Christ  was  the  great  topic  of  conver- 
sation for  many  days. 

Rev.  H.  Ballantine,  called  the  Dr.  Watts  of  the 
Mahratta  Mission,  prepared  a  hymnal  for  the 
churches,  and  another  for  the  children,  which  met 
with  great  acceptance  among  the  people. 

Rev.  E.  Webb  was  an  enthusiast  in  his 
researches  into  the  laws  of  Tamil  poetry.  It  is 
extremely  elaborate  in  its  rhythmical  construc- 
tion. In  1853  he  published  a  Tamil  hymn-book, 
containing  hymns  in  our  meter,  children's  hymns, 
and  chants  with  music,  but  the  largest  part  of  the 
volume  was  made  up  of  hymns  in  native  meters. 
Many  copies  were  taken  at  once  by  the  English 
missions  in  Tanjore  and  Tinnevelli,  and  singing 
was  introduced  in  congregations  of  the  American 
missions  in  places  where  it  had  been  unknown 
before.  An  edition  of  2,000  copies  was  soon 
exhausted,  and  a  new  one  was  issued  in  1858. 
Tho  the  people  hear  listlessly  the  most  impor- 
tant truth  in  prose,  they  give  eager  attention  1o 
the  same  truth  when  versified  and  sung.  In 
October,  1860,  Mr.  Webb  gave  an  account  of 
Tamil  versification  to  the  American  Oriental 
Society,  defining  the  two  kinds  of  syllables,  then 
the  feet  and  the  stanzas  in  which  they  were  com- 
bined. Tho  the  natives  could  see  no  measure 
in  our  verses,  or  melody  in  our  music,  yet  hymns 
written  in  their  own  meters,  and  set  to  their  own 
melodies,  are  extremely  popular.  He  read  some 
of  them  in  Tamil  with  elaborate  rhyme  assonance 
and  alliteration.  He  described  also  the  music  of 
the  Hindus,  known  all  over  India  under  the 
same  Sanskrit  titles,  and  indicated  its  relation  to 
our  own  scale.  Ancient  India  excelled  Greece  in 
her  cultivation  of  music;  and  tho  no  new 
tunes  have  appeared  for  centuries,  those  of  the 
best  periods  still  exist,  and  for  these  the  hymns 
were  composed. 

Tho  in  other  missions  there  may  not  have 
been  the  same  zeal  for  native  music,  yet  in  them 
all,  as  soon  as  men  receive  "the  light  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  glory  of  God  in  the  face  of 
Jesus  Christ,"  they  feel  impelled  to  praise  the 
name  of  the  Lord,  and  missionaries  are  glad  to 
assist  the  effort  to  praise  as  soon  as  the  spirit  of 
praise  appears. 

It  is  interesting  to  look  over  the  record  of 
the  beginnings  of  work  on  this  line  in  the  various 
missions.  In  Turkey,  tho  at  that  time  they 
had  few  hymns  ready  for  use,  yet  they  could  not 
wait  to  prepare  more,  but  in  1850  issued  an 
Armenian  hymn-book  of  only  55  pages.  This 
was  followed  in  1853  by  one  in  Armeno-Turkish, 
i.  e.,  Turkish  in  Armenian  letters,  of  112  pages, 
and  the  next  year  saw  an  Armenian  Hymn  and 
Tune  Book  of  300  pages,  so  rapidly  grew  their 
hymnology.  That  same  year  (1854)  the  Greek 
hymn-book  appeared,  of  100  pages,  tho  16 
pages  of  hymns  had  been  printed  as  early  as  1833. 
All  these  were  16mo,  but  in  1855  appeared  a 
work  on  church  music,  in  Armenian,  of  44  pages, 
8vo.  Then  in  the  same  language  a  hymn  and 
tune  book  for  children  was  published  in  1860,  40 
pages  8vo.  This  was  followed  by  24  8vo  pages  of 
additional  hymns  and  music  in  1863.  It  seemed 
as  tho  good  men  kept  on  composing  hymns, 
and,  as  fast  as  they  did  so,  the  churches  could  not 
wait,  but  had  them  printed  for  use  at  once.  Next 
year  (1864)  appeared  a  hymn-book  of  104  ICtno 
pages  in  Arabo-Turkish,  i.  e.,  Turkish  in  Arabic 
type.  The  following  year  four  hymns  were 
printed  on  one  8vo  sheet,  and  in  1866  a  supple- 
ment to  the  Armeno-Turkish  hymn-book,  of  88 


3Insic   and  Missions 
Aablus 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


618 


pages  16mo,  made  its  appearance.  Next  came 
an  Armenian  Sunday-school  hymn-boolc  of  134 
16mo  pages,  followed  next  year  by  a  Sunday- 
school  hymn  and  tune  book  in  the  same  language, 
of  128  8vo  pages.  The  year  1869  saw  a  volume 
of  Armenian  h3'mns  and  prayers  of  192  pages 
16mo.  The  same  year  welcomed  a  Greco- 
Turkish  hymn-book  of  264  16mo  pages,  and  a 
second  cdi  ion  came  out  ten  years  later.  In  1869 
the  Armf  nian  hymn-book  had  grown  to  426 
pages,  and  four  years  later  a  fresh  edition  con- 
tained 430  pages.  This  was  followed  by  a  sup- 
plement of  56  8vo  pages  to  the  Armenian  hymn 
and  tune  book  in  1877,  and  as  tho  that  was  not 
enough,  an  appendix  of  16  pages  more  was  issued 
the  same  year.  Such  a  list  of  publications 
indicates  an  abounding  spiritual  life  that  makes 
what  would  otherwise  be  the  driest  of  statistics 
an  occasion  of  great  joy  to  all  who  love  the  pros- 
perity of  Zion.  In  Bulgarian,  three  pages  of 
hymns  and  tunes  were  printed  in  1861,  the  year 
following  a  hymn-book  of  24  12mo  pages,  and  in 
1865  a  hymn  and  tune  book  of  64  8vo  pages. 
The  hymn-book  in  1872  had  grown  to  154  16mo 
pages.  In  Syria,  while  the  mission  was  still 
under  the  care  of  the  American  Board,  200  pages 
of  versified  Psalms  were  printed  about  1868.  The 
same  year  gave  200  pages  of  children's  hymns  to 
the  Sunday  schools,  and  before  the  mission  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Presbyterians  a  hymn-book 
appeared,  first  of  300  pages,  and  after  that  of  500. 
About  1874  a  hymn  and  tune  book  was  printed, 
containing  an  introduction  teaching  how  to  read 
our  musical  notation.  This  was  afterward 
printed  separately,  30  pages  8vo.  Since  then 
hymns  have  been  prepared  to  suit  the  Arab  tunes, 
and  are  now  published  with  the  tunes.  A  curious 
feature  of  these  hymns  and  tune  books  is  that  the 
music  has  to  be  reversed  to  suit  the  Arabic  system 
of  writing  from  right  to  left.  In  1882  the  Psalms 
in  verse  were  printed  for  the  use  of  the  United 
and  Reformed  Missions,  hymns  alone,  400  18mo 
pages;  with  tunes,  500  12mo  pages;  and  wUh 
tonic  Sol  Fa  notation,  600  12mo  pages.  In  1885 
a  new  8vo  hymn  and  tune  book,  containing  327 
hymns  and  280  tunes,  was  prepared  by  Rev. 
Samuel  Jcssup  and  Rev.  George  Ford,  and  a  sec- 
ond edition  was  called  for  in  1889.  A  hymn- 
book  without  tunes  appeared  in  1885,  of  418 
pages  18mo.  This  advanced  to  a  second  edition 
in  1887,  and  a  third  in  1889,  showing  a  very 
encouraging  demand  for  such  a  work. 

In  the  Persian  Mission  the  hymn-books  have 
gone  through  several  editions.  The  last,  issued 
in  1886,  has  about  300  hymns,  mostly  transla- 
tions, but  adapted  to  1he  expression  of  Christian 
feeling  in  Persia,  and  also  to  the  wants  of  the 
young  in  their   Oriental  homes. 

Music  has  been  taught  by  the  missionaries. 
The  popular  tunes  are  those  used  in  congrega- 
tions m  the  United  States.  The  chants  of  the 
ancient  Syriac  and  ancient  Armenian  are  used 
in  religious  worship,  and  are  very  popular.  The 
words,  of  course,  are  in  the  vernacular,  and  so  the 
congregation  can  join.  They  are  used  espe- 
cially in  chanting  the  Psalms,  and  also  some  other 
portions  of  the  Scripture,  such  as  are  found  in 
books  for  responsive  reading  at  home. 

MUSKOKI   LANGUAGE.     See   Creek. 

MUSSOOREE:  A  town  and  sanitarium  in  the 
United  Provinces,  India,  situated  in  the  district 
of  Dehra  Dun,  78  miles  E.  of  Ambala,  and  7  miles 
N.  E.  by  N.  of  Dehra,  forming  practically  one 


station  with  Landaur.  Population  (1891),  5,100. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1894),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, one  with  his  wife;  1  native  worker,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  day  school,  and  81  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  10  native  workers,  2 
places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  theological 
class,  and  282  professed  Christians,  of  whom  126 
are  communicants.  Societies  write  the  name 
Mussourie. 

MUTTRA:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna 
River,  23  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Bhartpur.  This 
place  was  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as  Modoura  of 
the  gods.  Population  (1901),  60,042,  of  whom 
48,000  are  Hmdus  and  10,500  are  Muslims. 
Station  of  the  BMS  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  10  native  workers,  1  out- 
station,  3  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  and  35 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  18  are  communi- 
cants. Station  also  of  the  CMS  (1878),with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries,  20  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  and  64 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  30  are  communi- 
cants. Sta;ion  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  44 
native  workers,  4  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday 
schools, 8  day  schools  and  731  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  454  are  communicants. 

MUTUNGO:  A  village  of  Uganda,  Africa,  situ- 
ated near  Mengo,  Uganda.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1902),  with  2  missionaries  and  1  industrial 
institute. 

MUTYALAPAD:  A  town  in  Madras,  situated 
30  miles  N.  E.  of  Jamulamadugu,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Penner  River.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1855), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary,  80  na  ive  workers,  43 
places  of  worship,  33  day  schools,  and  2,893  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  951  are  communicants. 

MUZAFFARNAGAR :  A  town  of  Muzaffarna- 
gar  district.  United  Provinces,  India,  situated  30 
miles  N.  of  Meerut.  Population,  18,200,  Hindus, 
Mohammedans,  Jains,  and  a  few  Christians. 
Climate  formerly  very  unhealthy  and  malarious, 
but  lately,  owing  to  modern  sanitary  improve- 
ments, it  has  been  made  much  more  salubrious. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  28  native  workers, 
1  place  of  worship,  4  day  schools,  16  Sunday 
schools,  and  1 ,656  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
319  are  communicants.  Station  of  the  Reformed 
Pr-sbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  with  (1901)  1 
missionary,  3  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  lepers'  asy- 
lum, and  195  professed  Christians. 

MUZAFFARPUR:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  35 
miles  north-northeast  of  Patna.  Population, 
49,000,  of  whom  35,000  are  Hindus.  It  is  well 
built  and  clean,  with  good  schools,  temples,  court- 
houses, and  other  public  buildings.  Has  a  large 
trade.  Station  of  the  Gossner  Mission  Society, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1  native  worker,  1  Sun- 
day school,  1  day  school,  1  orphanage,  and  90  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Society  spells  the  name 
Muzafferpur.  Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903) 
16  native  workers,  3  places  of  worship,  7 
Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  and  328  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  238  are  communicants. 

MVENYANE:  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  Griqualand  East,  23 
miles  W.  of  Kokstadt.  Station  of  the  Moravian 
Missions  (1888),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  two  of 
them  with  their  wives,  18  native  workers,  1  place 


£19 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Music  and  Missions 
Nablna 


of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  3  day  schools,  1 
theological  class,  and  102  professed  Christians. 

MVUMI :  A  settlement  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Chigogo  District,  about  26  miles 
W.  by  N.  of  Mpapwa.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1883), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native 
worker,  2  outstations,  5  day  schools,  and  2  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

MWENA:  A  settlement  in  the  Congo  Free 
State,  Africa,  situated  near  the  headwaters  of 
the  Cualaha,  about  25  miles  S.  W.  of  Lalce 
Mwena.  Station  of  the  PB,  with  2  missionaries, 
one  with  his  wife. 

MWENZO:  A  settlement  in  British  Central 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Stevenson  Road,  about 
100  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Karonga,  on  the  W.  shore 
of  Lalce  Nyasa.     Station  of  the  UFS,  with  (1903) 

1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  4 
outstations,  5  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  14 
professed  Christians. 

MYINGYAN:  A  town  in  Burma,  British  India, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Irawadi  River, 
€0  miles  N.  W.  of  Meiktila,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  railroad.  Population,  19,000,  of 
whom  17,000  are  Buddhists.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1887),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  8  native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  27  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

MYITKYINA:  A  town  in  Burma,  British  India, 
situated  in  the  Kachin  region  at  the  extremitv  of 
the  railway,  75  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Bhamo.  Sta- 
tion of  the  ABMU  (1894),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary with  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  2  outstations, 

2  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding 
school,  1  day  school,  and  150  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  50  are  communicants. 

MYMENSINGH.     See  Maimansing. 

MYNPURI.     See  Mainpuei. 

MYSORE:  A  large  and  important  native  state 
in  South  India.  Its  territory  is  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  the  British  dominions  belonging  to 
the  presidency  of  Madras.  It  lies  at  the  point 
where  the  ranges  of  the  Western  and  Eastern 
Ghats  come  together,  and  most  of  its  territory  is 
on  the  elevated  plateau  lying  between  these 
ranges.  Its  limits  of  north  latitude  are  11°  40' 
and  15°,  and  of  east  longitude  74°  40'  and  78°  30'. 
The  area  is  29,444  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion, 5,539,399,  according  to  the  census  of  1901. 
Its  surface  is  much  broken  by  rocky  hills  and 
ravines;  the  drainage  of  the  country  is  almost 
wholly  to  the  east;  in  the  northwest  one  river 
falls  in  a  fine  cascade  over  the  precipitous  wall  of 
the  Western  Ghats,  and  seeks  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Otherwise  the  streams  all  reach  the  Bay  of  Ben- 
gal through  the  Tungabhadra  on  the  north,  the 


Kaveri  on  the  south,  and  several  smaller  rivers 
between  these  two  more  important  streams. 
These  rivers,  like  almost  all  those  of  India,  while 
useless  for  navigation,  support  large  systems  of 
artificial  irrigation.  Mysore  was  included  in  the 
territories  ruled  from  time  immemorial  by  old 
prehistoric  Plindu  dynasties  of  South  India, 
whose  existence  can  dimly  be  traced  in  the  un- 
certain light  of  early  Indian  times.  The  last  of 
these  dynasties  was  overtlirown  by  the  Moham- 
medans in  1565.  As  the  latter  in  turn  began  to 
lose  their  power  a  Hindu  cliief  seized  the  fort  of 
Seringapatam  in  1610,  and  became  the  founder 
of  the  present  Mysore  principality.  The  Hindu 
rulers  were  displaced  by  Mohammedans  under 
Haider  Ali  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century. 
But  after  the  English  finally  defeated  his  son, 
Tippu  Sahib,  in  1799,  they  replaced  the  old  Hindu 
famdy  on  the  throne  of  Mysore. 

Of  the  entire  population  the  Hindus  amount  to 
nearly  95  per  cent.,  Mohammedans  to  a  little  less 
than  5  per  cent.  The  total  number  of  Christians 
is  given  as  34,402.  Of  these,  28,600  are  native 
converts.  About  one-fourth  of  the  Christians 
are  Protestants,  the  others  Roman  Catholics. 
The  language  almost  universally  used  is  Kan- 
arese.  The  cultivation  of  the  Kanarese  is  greatly 
indebted  to  the  missionaries;  grammars  and  dic- 
tionaries, a  translation  of  the  Bible  and  the  begin- 
nings of  a  worthy  native  literature  are  due  to 
missionary  labor. 

The  first  Protestant  mission  in  Mysore  was 
that  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel,  established  at  Bangalore  in  1817.  In 
1820  the  London  Missionary  Society  planted  a 
station  at  the  same  city.  The  Hindu  govfrn- 
ment  seems  to  have  been  unfriendly  to  the  work 
of  the  missionaries,  and  opportunities  for  preach- 
ing in  Kanarese — the  vernacular  of  the  peopl" — 
were  at  first  greatly  curtailed  by  this  fact.  The 
first  few  years  of  the  mission  were  not  prosperous, 
but  since  its  earlier  difficulties  have  oeen  over- 
come, it  has  had  a  career  of  much  success.  The 
Wesleyans  also  entered  Mysore,  planting  their 
principal  station  in  the  city  of  that  name; 
shortly  after  the  London  Society  entered  Banga- 
lore. Both  these  missions  have  now  many  sta- 
tions throughout  the  state. 

MYSORE:  A  town,  capital  of  the  native  state 
of  Mysore,  India,  situated  10  miles  S.  W.  of  Serin- 
gapatam. In  1542  a  fort  was  built  here.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  68,111.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1892), 
now  temporarily  vacant.  Station  also  of  the 
WMS,  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  three  of  them 
with  their  wives;  11  native  workers,  8  outstations, 
12  places  of  worship,  7  Sunday  schools,  27  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theological  class, 
and  270  professed  Christians,  of  whom  211  are 
communicants. 


N 


ITAAS.     See  Nass. 

NABLUS:  A  town  in  Palestine,  Turkey,  situ- 
ated in  a  verdant  vale,  30  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem 
and  between  Mt.  Ebal  and  Gerizim.  In  stands 
on  the  site  of  Shechem  of  the  Old,  and  Sychar  of 


the  New  Testament  Scripture.  Population, 
16,000.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1876),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
12  native  workers,  4  outstations,  1  hospital,  and 
328  professed  Christians,  of  whom  153  are  com- 


Nadlad 
Nankins 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


620 


municants.  Some  write  the  name  Nabulus. 
Station  also  of  the  BMS  (1888),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  8  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations,  1  day  school,  and  129  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

NADIAD.     See  Naeiad. 

NAGANO:  A  town  in  Hondo,  Japan,  situated 
94  miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of  Niigata.  It  has  a  great 
Buddhist  temple,  which  stands  in  much  the  same 
relation  to  the  town  as  the  temple  of  Diana  did 
to  Ephesus,  since  the  prosperity  of  the  place 
depends  upon  the  number  of  pilgrims  to  the 
shrine.  Population  (1898),  31,319.  Station  of 
the  Church  of  England  in  Canada  (1892),  with 
(1901)  3  missionaries,  1  with  his  wifejl  woman 
missionary,  10  native  workers,  6  outstations,  50 
professed  Christians,  1  place  of  worship,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital.  Station  also  of  Canada 
Methodist  Missionary  Society  (1891),  with  (1901) 
3  native  workers,  4  outstations,  5  places  of  wor- 
ship, 3  Sunday  schools,  and  63  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  RCA  (1894),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native  workers, 

2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  4  Sunday 
schools,  and  80  professed  Christians. 

NAGARKOIL:  A  Christian  village  in  Tra van- 
core,  India,  situated  40  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Tinne- 
velli  and  about  1  mile  from  Kotar.  Station  of 
the  LMS  (1809),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  2  women  missionaries,  163  native 
workers,  77  outstations,  1  printing  house,  89 
day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  college,  1  orphan- 
age, 11,833  professed  Christians,  of  whom  2,055 
are  communicants.  Post  of  the  Salvation  Army 
also.     The  name  is  also  written  Nagercoil. 

NAGASAKI :  A  town  on  the  island  of  Kiu-shiu, 
Japan,  the  principal  seaport  of  the  western  coast. 
It  IS  picturesquely  situated  at  the  head  of  a  small 
inlet  four  miles  long  and  a  mile  wide.  It  has 
thus  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world.  The 
surrounding  hills,  1,500  feet  high,  and  the  nu- 
merous small  islands  with  which  the  harbor  is 
dotted  add  greatly  to  its  beauty.  The  city  is 
laid  out  with  great  regularity,  in  rectangles.  A 
stream  of  water  flows  through  it.  There  is  a 
foreign  concession  separated  from  the  main  city 
by  an  arm  of  the  bay.  For  more  than  200  years 
this  was  the  only  port  where  foreigners  were 
allowed  to  land.  A  hospital  was  established 
here  in  1861 — the  oldest  now  in  Japan,  and 
there  is  a  fine  government  school,  in  which  hun- 
dreds of  young  Japanese  are  instructed  in 
European  languages  and  sciences.  The  city  is 
noted  for  its  temples  and  the  magnificence  of  its 
festivals.  It  is  also  an  important  coaling  station. 
The  climate  is  salubrious,  and  the  city  is  a 
pleasant  one  in  which  to  live.  Population  (1898) 
107,422.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1869),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  women  missionaries, 

3  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding  school,  and  163 
professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  ME 
(1869),  with  (1903)_  2  inissionaries  and  their 
wives,  4  women  missionaries,  12  native  workers, 
3  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theological  class, 
and  570  professed  Christians,  of  whom  366  are 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  RCA  (1859), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  2  women  mission- 
aries, 18  native  workers,  3  outstations,  and  125 
professed  Christians,  1  place  of  worship,  3  Sun- 
day schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  1  college. 
Station  also  of  the  SBC  (1896),  with  (1903)   1 


missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  2  cut- 
stations,  1  Sunday  school,  and  12  professed 
Christians. 

NAGERCOIL.     See  Nagarkoil. 
NAGOYA:  A  city  on  the  main  island  of  Japan, 
situated  on  the  railroad  midway  between  Tokio 
and  Kioto.     It  is  in  the  midst  of  a  broad,  fertile 
plain,  surrounded  by  thriving  towns  and  villages, 
and  is  connected  with  Gifu  by  an  almost  contin- 
ous    street    of    20    miles.     Population     (1898), 
244,145.     It  is  the  central   point   of  the  Nagoya 
district,  and  its  importance  as  a  base  of  operations 
is  fully  recognized.     Such  a  strategic  position  for 
missions  was  early  availed  of  by  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)    Church    (U.    S.   A.),    but   there   is   no 
representative    of    that    mission    there  at  pres- 
ent.     Station  of  the   PS     (1887),    with    (1903) 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women  mission- 
aries, 13  native  workers,  28  places  of  worship, 
11  Sunday  schools,  1  boarding  school,   and   800 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  375   are   commu- 
nicants. Station  also  of  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church  (1885),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  with 
their    wives,    2    women    missionaries,    8    native 
workers,   9  outstations,   1   place  of  worship,   12 
Sunday   schools,    1    theological    school,    and   60 
professed  Christians.     Station  of  the  CMS  (1896), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  6    native    workers,    2    outstations, 
1    place   of   worship,    1    Sunday   school,   2   day 
schools,    and    1    kindergarten.     Station   also   of 
the  ME,  with  3  women  missionaries,  22  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  7  places  of  worship,  11 
Sunday  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  516  pro- 
fessed   Christians,    of   whom   338   are     commu- 
nicants. 

NAGPUR:  City  in  Central  Provinces,  Iiidia,. 
42  miles  east-northeast  of  Bombay.  It  is  a 
large  city,  but  not  a  very  fine  one,  altho  there 
are  many  relics  of  its  former  greatness  still  to  be 
seen,  and  the  handsome  tanks  and  gardens 
outside  the  city  and  the  pretty  scenery  give  the 
place  a  very  attractive  appearance.  Climate, 
healthy.  Population  (1901),  127,734,  of  whom 
99,000  are  Hindus  and  21,000  Muslims.  Station 
of  the  UFS  (1845),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries, 
3  of  them  with  their  wives;  50  native  workers,  5 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  10  day  schools, 
2    higher    institutions,    1    orphanage,    and    240 

Srofessed       Christians.     Name       also       written 
agpore. 

NAHORUOP:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  to  which  has  been  removed  the 
Rhenish  Mission  station  of  Sigompulon.  It 
lies  in  the  Batang  Toru  Valley,  about  20  miles 
E.  N.  E.  of  Siboga.  Station  of  the  Rhenish 
Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  47  native  workers,  7  outstations,  7 
Sunday  schools,  9  day  schools,  and  2,990  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  1,403  are  commu- 
nicants. 

NAIDUPET:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated on  the  Suvarnamukhi  River,  about  15 
miles  S.  of  Gudur.  Station  of  the  Hermanns- 
burg  Mission  Society  (1867),  with  (1903)  3 
missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their  wives ;  21 
native  workers,  9  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
10  day  schools,  1  theological  school,  1  industrial 
school,  and  950  professed  Christians.  Some  write 
the  name  Nayudupeta. 

NAIHATI:  A  municipality  in  Bengal,  India, 
situated  on  the  Hugh  River,  about  25  miles   N. 


esi 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


NadlacI 
Nanking: 


of  Calcutta.  Population  (1891),  29,700,  of  whom 
24,800  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1891), 
with  (1903)  1  woman  missionary,  11  native 
workers,  and  4  day  schools. 

NAIN:  A  town  in  Labrador,  situated  on  the 
E.  coast.  Has  a  good  harbor.  Station  of  the 
Moravian  Missions  (1771),  being  the  first  place 
occupied  by  them  in  Labrador.  It  now  (1901) 
has  4  missionaries  with  their  wives,  16  native 
worlvers,  men  and  women;  1  day  school,  1  place 
of  worship,  and  110  communicant  Christians. 

NAINGOLAN:  A  settlement  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  Malaysia,  situated  on  the  S.  coast 
of  Toba  Island  in  Toba  Lake.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  2  day  schools, 
1  outstation,  1  Sunday  school,  and  43  professed 
Christians. 

NAINI  TAL:  A  town  in  Kumaon  district. 
United  Provinces,  India,  picturesquely  situated 
on  the  banks  of  a  lovely  little  lake  which  nestles 
among  the  spurs  of  the  Himalayas.  Favorite 
sanitarium  and  summer  resort  of  Europeans  from 
the  plains.  Altitude,  6,400  feet.  Population 
(1891),  7,900,  chiefly  Hindus.  Station  of  the 
ME,  with  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  11 
native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2  Sunday 
schools,  3  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1 
society  for  young  people,  1  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association,  and  119  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

NAKANONYI:  A  village  in  Uganda,  Central 
Africa,  situated  30  miles  N.  E.  of  Mengo. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1895),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 103  native  workers,  1  day  school,  and 
2,890  professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,068  are 
communicants. 

NAKAWN:  A  village  in  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
Siam,  situated  near  the  E.  coast  about  500  miles 
S.  of  Bangkok.  Population,  10,000.  Station 
of  the  PN  (1900),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1 
with  his  wife;  3  native  workers,  3  outstations, 
93  professed  Christians,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
dispensary,  and  1  day  school. 

NAKKO:  A  small  group  of  islands  belonging 
to  Nias  Island,  Malaysia,  W.  of  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission, 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  300  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  62  are  communicants. 

NALGONDA:  A  town  in  the  native  State  of 
Haidarabad,  India,  situated  57  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Haidarabad  City.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1890),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  woman  missionary,  34  native  workers,  20  out- 
stations, 1  place  of  worship,  6  Sunday  schools, 
4  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  hospital,  and 
964  professed  Christians. 

NAMAHACHA:  A  sanitarium  and  settlement 
in  Portuguese  E.  Africa,  situated  in  the  Lebombo 
Mountains  and  serving  for  the  missionaries 
occupying  stations  near  the  coast,  as  at  Inham- 
bane,  etc.  Station  of  the  SPG,  with  4  mission- 
aries, 3  of  them  with  their  wives ;  1  native  worker, 
1  boarding  school,  1  day  school,  and  50  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  12  are  communicants. 

NAMAQUA  LANGUAGE:  A  very  difficult 
language  of  the  African  family  and  the  Hot- 
tentot group,  spoken  in  the  German  Southwestern 
Africa,  north  of  the  Orange  River.  The  difficulty 
of  the  language  is  largely  due  to  its  containing 
four  curious  smacking  sounds  which  Europeans 


do  not  readily  understand  or  imitate.  The 
language  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  German 
missionaries  with  use  of  the  Roman  letters. 
Many  call  this  language  the  Nama,  rather  than 
the  Namaqua  language. 

NAMKHAM:  A  town  in  Burma,  British  India, 
situated  among  the  Shans,  56  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Bhamo.  Altitude  2,630  feet.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1893),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1 
with  his  wife;  15  native  worliers,  3  outstations, 
3  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  day 
school,  1  boarding  school,  2  dispensaries,  1  hos- 
pital, and  160  professed  Christians,  of  whom  62 
are  communicants. 

NAN.     See  Muangnan. 

NAN-CHANG-FU :  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Kiangsi,  China,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kia- 
kiang,  173  miles  S.  E.  by  S.  of  Han-kau,  the 
emporium  of  the  porcelain  manufacture  E.  of 
Lake  Poyang.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1898),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  place  of 
worship.  Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  9  native  worlcers,  6  out- 
stations, 6  day  schools,  7  Sunday  schools,  26 
places  of  worship,  and  1,316  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  PB. 

NANDGAON :  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces 
of  India,  situated  in  the  native  state  of  the  same 
name,  of  which  it  is  the  capital,  and  42  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Raipur.  Station  of  the  Pentecost  Bands, 
of  the  World  (1898),  with  (1900)  3  missionaries, 
2  of  them  with  their  wives;  2  women  missionaries, 
2  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  book-room,  1  industrial  school,  1 
orphanage.  Society  writes  the  name  Raj 
Nandgaon. 

NANDIAL:  A  prosperous  town  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Kurnool,  108 
miles  E.  by  N.  of  Bellary.  Population,  10,700; 
Hindus,  5,000;  Muslims,  3,500.  Station  of  the 
SPG  (1854),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  110 
native  workers,  11  places  of  worship,  1  boarding 
school,  1  theological  school,  and  2,251  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  544  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Nandyal. 

NANG-WA:  A  town  in  Fo-kien,  China,  situated 
20  miles  N.  E.  of  Yen-ping-fu.  Station  of  the 
CEZ  (1891),  with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries, 
2  native  workers,  and  1  day  school. 

NAN-KANG-FU :  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Kiang-si,  China,  situated  12  miles  S.  bv  W.  of 
Kiu-kiang.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1887),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  native 
worker.     Some  write  the  name  Nan-k'ang. 

NANKING:  The  "southern  capital"  of  China; 
so  called  from  its  having  been  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment during  the  Ming  dynasty  (1368-1644).  It 
is  situated  m  the  Province  of  Kiang-su,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Yangtse,  which  makes  a 
right  angle,  and  borders  the  city  on  the  north 
and  west,  223  miles  west  of  Shanghai,  and  almost 
midway  between  Canton  and  Peking.  It  for- 
merly possessed  one  of  the  finest  walls  known,  20 
miles  in  circuit,  70  feet  high,  30  feet  wide,  and 
pierced  with  13  gates.  The  interior  of  the  city 
has  much  unoccupied  ground.  The  famous 
Porcelain  Tower,  budt  by  the  Emperor  Yung  Loh 
(1403-28),  was  an  object  of  the  wonder  and  admi- 
ration of  Europeans,  until  it  was  destroyed  by 
the  Tai-ping  rebels  during  their  occupancy  of 
the  city  in  1853-6,  at  which  time  most  of  the 
public  buildings  were  ruthlessly  destroyed.     It 


Nan-pn-liNien 
Native  Agency 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


was  formerly  a  literary  center,  and  was  noted 
also  for  its  industries.  Cotton  cloth,  called 
nankeen,  from  the  name  of  the  city;  satin,  crepe, 
and  pottery  were  all  manufactured.  An 
arsenal  is  located  at  Nanking  under  European 
superintendence,  where  firearms  and  vessels  of 
war  are  manufactured.  Sir  Henry  Pottinger 
signed  here  the  famous  Nanking  treaty  in  1842. 

Not  far  from  the  city  are  the  tombs  of  the 
emperors  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  with  an  avenue 
leading  to  them  guarded  by  gigantic  stone  figures 
of  men  and  animals. 

By  a  treaty  made  with  France  in  1858,  this 
port  was  thrown  open,  but  practically  no  com- 
merce is  carried  on  with  foreigners.  The  climate 
is  warm  and  dry,  and  not  unhealthy.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  22.5,000.  The  importance  of  the 
city  as  a  center  for  educational  work  has  been 
appreciated  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
who  have  established  here  a  university  with  an 
endowment  of  $200,000.  The  Disciples  of  Christ 
are  also  about  to  erect  a  college.  The  medical 
work  in  connection  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Hospital,  said  to  be  the  largest  in  China,  is  most 
important.  The  missionary  societies  at  work 
in  Nanking  and  vicinity  are  the  following:  The 
American  Adventists,  AFFM  (1890),  FCMS 
(1887),  ME  (1867),  and  PN  (1876).  These 
societies  now  (1903)  have  46  missionaries,  men 
and  women;  57  native  workers,  12  places  of 
worship,  16  day  schools,  16  higher  institutions, 
3  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  1  printing  house, 
and  711  professed  Christians.  The  YMCA  has  a 
representative  here. 

NAN-Ptr-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Sze-chwan,  China,  situated  on  the  river,  about 
12  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Pao-ning-fu.  Station  of  the 
CIM  (1902),  with  2  women  missionaries  and  1 
place  of  worship. 

NANUOYA:  A  village  in  the  Central  Provinces 
of  Ceylon,  situated  about  26  miles  S.  of  Kandy. 
Station  of  the  CMS  Tamil  Coolie  Mission,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  87  native  workers,  44  day 
schools,  and  1,140  professed  Christians. 

NANZELA:  A  settlement  in  Northwest 
Rhodesia,  Africa,  situated  in  Barotseland,  about 
60  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Ndala  and  160  miles  N.  of 
Victoria  Falls.  Station  of  the  Primitive  Meth- 
odist Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
any  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  1  outstation, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  dispensary,  1  day  school,  and 
14  professed  Christians. 

WAORANGPUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  on  the  Indravati  River,  about  18  miles 
N.  E.  of  Kotpad.  Station  of  the  Breklum  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1889),  with  (1903)  3  mission- 
aries, 1  with  his  wife;  5  native  workers,  3  out- 
stations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  2 
day  schools,  1  orphanage,  and  728  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  428  are  communicants. 
Name  also  written  Nowrangapur. 

NARIAD:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situated 
in  the  District  of  Kaira,  30  miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of 
Cambay.  It  is  the  center  of  an  extensive  trade 
in  tobacco.  Population  (1891),  29,000.  Station 
of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  103  native  workers,  33  Sunday  schools,  92 
day  schools,  and  5,809  professedf  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Nadiad 

NARAINGANJ:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India, 
situated  on  the  Lachmia  River,  10  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Dacca.     Population,   17,700,  of  whom  9,700 


are  Hindus  and  7,000  Muslims.  Station  of  the 
BMS  (1898),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  hia 
wife,  5  native  workers,  and  18  professed  Chris- 
tians. Society  writes  the  name  Narayangunge. 
NARASARAOPET:  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  in  the  Kistna  District,  about  230  miles 
north  of  the  City  of  Madras.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1883),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  with 
his  wife;  41  native  workers,  121  outstations,  12 
places  of  worship,  30  Sunday  schools,  17  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital, and  4,936  professed  Christians.  Station 
of  the  ELGS  also.  Name  is  also  written  Nursar- 
avapetta. 

NAROWAL:  Town  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
situated  in  the  District  of  Sialkot,  35  miles  N.  of 
Amritsar.  It  is  famous  for  its  leather-work 
Population,  5,000.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1885)^ 
with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries,  9  native 
workers,  1  boarding  school,  2  day  schools,  1 
dispensary,  1  hospital.  Station  also  of  the  CMS 
(1859),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
14  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day 
school,  2  boarding  schools,  and  1,366  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  50  are  communicants. 

WARRINYERI  LANGUAGE:  A  language  of 
the  Papuan  group,  which  is  found  among  the 
surviving  aborigines  of  South  Australia.  It  has 
been  reduced  to  writing  with  use  of  the  Roman 
letters. 

NARSAPUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  in 
the  District  of  Godavari,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  Godavari,  39  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Masu- 
lipatam.  Population,  7,500,  of  whom  6,600  are 
Hindus.  Station  of  the  PB,  with  (1900)  4 
rnissionaries,  1  with  his  wife,  and  5  women  mis- 
sionaries. 

NARSINGHPUR:  A  town  in  the  Central  Prov- 
inces, India,  situated  in  the  District  of  N.,  of 
which  it  is  the  capital,  50  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Jabalpur.  It  is  an  important  trade  center  for 
the  Narbada  Valley.  Population,  10,200  (Hindus, 
7,600).  Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 22  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
22  Sunday  schools,  1  day  school,  and  253  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

NASA:  A  village  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  on  the  east  coast  of  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza,  near  its  S.  extremity.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1888),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  of  them 
with  his  wife;  6  native  workers,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 4  day  schools,  and  78  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  36  are  communicants. 

NASARAPUR:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India, 
situated  in  the  native  State  of  Bhor,  S.  W.  of 
Poona.  Station  of  the  Poona  Indian  Village 
Mission,  with  (1900)  12  missionaries,  5 
women  missionaries,  1  nfitive  worker,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  industrial  schocl,  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital, 2  orphanages. 

NASIK:  An  important  tswn  in  Bombay,  India, 
situated  on  the  Godavari  River,  89  miles  N.  W. 
of  Ahmadnagar.  It  is  a  famous  resort  of  Hindu 
pilgrims,  and  has  considerable  manufactures 
of  metal  wares.  Population,  21,700.  The 
Christian  village  of  Sharanpur  is  one  of  its  out- 
skirts. Station  of  the  CMS  (1832),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  38  native  workers,  1 
place  of  worship,  13  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  industrial  school,  2  orphanages,  1 
widows'  home,  and  519  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  190  are  communicants.     Station  also  of 


923 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Nan-pn-hslen 
Native  Agency 


the  ZBM,  with  (1903)  3  women  missionaries,  18 
native  workers,  1  outstation,  6  day  schools. 

NASIRABAD:  A  town  and  cantonment  in 
Ajmere,  India,  situated  about  18  miles  from  the 
town  of  Ajmere,  on  a  bleak,  open  plain,  which 
slopes  eastward  from  the  Aravalli  Hills.  Station 
of  the  UFS  (1861),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1 
with  his  wife;  3  women  missionaries,  1  outstation, 
'69  native  workers,  7  Sunday  schools,  10  day 
schools,  2  high  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital, 
1  orphanage,  and  99  professed  Christians. 

NASS:  A  settlement  in  British  Columbia, 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nass  River,  50 
miles  N.  E.  of  Port  Simpson.  Station  of  the  MCC 
(1877),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  96  professed  Christians. 
Society  calls  the  station  Naas  River. 

NASSAU:  The  capital  of  the  Bahama  Islands, 
West  Indies,  situated  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island 
of  New  Providence.  Population,  11,000.  Station 
of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  11  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  6  places  of  worship,  7 
Sunday  schools,  6  day  schools,  and  814  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  749  are  communicants. 

NATAL:  A  crown  colony  of  Great  Britain  in 
South  Africa.  It  has  an  area  of  42,000  square 
miles,  now  including  the  Province  of  Zululand, 
annexed  in  1897,  and  about  7,000  square  miles 
taken  from  the  Transvaal  and  annexed  in  1903. 
The  population,  including  the  annexed  areas 
(1901),  is  985,000,  that  of  Natal,  including  Zulu- 
land,  being  925,118.  The  colony  lies  to  the  south 
of  the  Transvaal  and  Portuguese  E.  Africa,  has 
a  coast  line  on  the  Indian  Ocean  of  about  350 
mi^s,  and  is  bounded  south  and  west  by  Basuto- 
land  and  the  Griqualand  dependencies  of  Cape 
Colony.  Utrecht  and  Vryheid,  taken  from  the 
Transvaal,  carry  the  northern  boundary  to  the 
Pongola  River. 

The  Drackenberg  Mountains,  from  9,000  to 
10,000  feet  high,  separate  it  from  Basutoland 
and  the  Orange  River  Colony.  Pietermaritz- 
burg,  one  of  the  most  delightful  cities  in  Africa, 
is  the  capital.  Durban,  the  only  port,  is  1,000 
miles  from  Cape  Town.  The  climate  is  delightful 
and  invigorating.  The  temperature  ranges  from 
56°  to  82°  Fahrenheit.  The  coast  region  is 
semi-tropical,  and  produces  the  sugar-cane,  pine- 
apple, banana,  and  coffee.  Wool,  corn,  and 
sugar  are  the  staple  products.  In  the  northern 
districts  magnificent  coal  deposits  are  found. 
All  the  European  cereals  are  cultivated.  Hippo- 
potami, monkeys,  baboons,  and  crocodiles  are 
to  be  seen.  Antelopes  abound.  There  are 
many  poisonous  snakes.  The  population 
consists  of  whites  (English,  Dutch,  and  Germans), 
Zulus,  and  Asiatic  coolies. 

The  crown  is  represented  by  a  governor  and 
legislative  council  of  12  members,  including  one 
for  Zululand.  There  are  (1901)  626  miles  of 
railway,  including  a  main  line  from  Durban, 
which  connects  with  the  lines  to  Johannesburg 
and  Pretoria. 

Natal  may  be  called  civilized,  tho  there  are 
sections  where  the  old  heathenism  may  still  be 
seen.  The  WMS,  the  UFS,  Wesleyan  Mission, 
the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  the  Norwegian  and 
the  Berlin  Missionary  societies,  the  Hermanns- 
burg  Society,  the  SPG,  the  ABCFM,  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Missions  are  each  and  all  doing 
a  good  work  in  Natal.  The  ABCFM  Mission 
began  in  1835,  and  was  the  first  among  the  Zulus, 
who  were  then  a  savage  people,  with  a  language 


as  yet  unwritten  and  unknown.  The  above 
named  societies  have  23  stations  in  Natal,  with 
about  15,000  children  in  their  schools. 

Brooks  (H.),  Natal  (descriptive),  London,  1887;  Ingram 
(J.  F.),  Natalia  (historical),  London,  1897;  Robinson 
(Sir  J.),  A  Lifetime  in  South  Africa,  London,  1900;  Russell 
(R.),  Natal,  6th  edition,  London,  1900;  Tyler  (J.),  Forty 
Years  in  Zululand,  Boston,  1881. 

NATAL:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Brazil,  capital  of  the  State  of  Rio  Grande  do 
Norte,  160  miles  N.  of  Pernambuco.  The 
harbor  has  a  water  area  of  2  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation, 6,000.  Station  of  the  PS  (1895),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  225  professed 
Christians,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  4 
places  of  worship. 

NATIVE  AGENCY:  The  Native  Agency  in 
mission  work  is  considered  in  this  article  in 
contrast  with  the  Foreign  Agency  necessary  to 
the  beginnings  of  the  Gospel  in  heathen  lands. 
The  complete  evangelization  of  any  country  by 
foreign  agency  alone  is  historically  unknown  and, 
humanly  speaking,  impossible.  When  the 
Apostle  Paul  went  on  his  mission  from  Asia  to 
Europe  his  method  was  not  to  carry  with  him  a 
sufficient  force  of  Asiatic  missionaries  to  supply 
all  the  points  he  desired  to  reach  with  Gospel 
preaching.  He  went  to  the  strategic  centers, 
where,  after  he  had  gathered  bands  of  converts, 
he  organized  churches  over  which  he  placed 
native  pastors  and  teachers,  and  from  which 
were  ultimately  sent  out  native  evangelists. 
When  the  Church  is  once  planted  in  any  country 
these  native  workers  are  the  proper  agents  for 
its  propagation,  because  they  only  possess  the 
identity  of  speech  and  modes  of  thought  which 
are  necessary  to  bring  them  into  touch  with  the 
people,  in  such  a  way  as  fits  them  to  become 
channels  for  the  communication  of  spiritual  light 
and  power. 

The  term  Native  Agency  in  its  widest  sense 
means  the  Native  Church.  The  aim  of  missions 
in  every  land  is  to  establish  churches  that  will 
be  so  filled  with  the  life-giving  spirit  of  God  that 
it  wiU  be  impossible  for  them  to  be  anything  else 
than  agencies.  Such  was  the  Apostolic  Church, 
and  such  have  usually  been  first  churches  estab- 
lished in  new  mission  fields.  But  the  more  of 
this  aggressive  spirit  the  churches  have,  the 
more  they  will  need  various  kinds  of  leaders  to 
direct  it.  The  term  Native  Agency  in  the  tech- 
nical sense  is  usually  applied  to  these  native 
leaders. 

The  first  form  of  native  agency  employed  by 
the  foreign  missionary  is  always  that  of  a  personal 
teacher  or  interpreter;  but  inasmuch  as  the  function 
of  such  native  helpers  is  purely  mechanical,  the 
simple  mention  of  them  is  sufficient  for  the  pur- 
poses of  this  article.  The  forms  of  agency 
specially  to  be  considered  are  those  included  in 
the  term  Native  Ministry,  in  its  two  branches  of 
evangelists  and  pastors.  Among  the  ascension 
gifts  of  Christ  prominent  mention  is  made  of 
these  two.  Therefore,  wherever  Christ  gives  to 
missionary  labor  the  material  for  a  church  we 
may  expect  to  find  included  in  it  the  material 
for  evangelists  and  pastors. 

1.  Evangelists:  Every  foreign  missionary, 
whether  preacher,  teacher,  doctor,  translator  or 
writer  of  books,  is  essentially  an  evangelist,  the 
success  of  whose  work  depends  upon  his  ability 
to  multiply  himself  by  the  native  evangelists  he 
finds,  trains,  and  guides. 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  mission  work  all  native 


Native  Ag-ency 
Native  States 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


em 


agents  employed  by  missionaries  are  naturally 
called  "native  helpers."  This  descriptive  term 
has  persisted  in  missionary  literature  beyond 
the  point  where  it  is  properly  descriptive  of  the 
actual  situation.  In  the  later  stages  of  mission 
work  the  native  agency  becomes  the  main  force, 
and  the  missionary  becomes  the  "helper."  The 
timely  recognition  of  this  change  in  the  relative 
position  of  the  workers  will  always  greatly  con- 
tribute to  the  harmonious  and  successful  prose- 
cution of  their  cooperative  work. 

With  reference  to  finding  evangelists,  it  may 
be  said  that,  being  given  of  Christ,  the  missionary 
can  always  find  as  many  of  them  as  Christ  wishes 
him  to  have  at  any  given  time.  This  implies, 
however,  that  he  seek  the  kind  of  evangelists 
that  Christ  wants,  and  in  the  way  that  Christ 
would  approve.  To  this  end  it  is  essential 
always  to  keep  in  mind  the  real  character  of  the 
end  in  view,  which  is  the  planting  and  extension 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth.  The  mode  of 
propagating  the  kingdom  must  depend  on  the 
nature  of  it,  and  the  evangelist's  qualifications 
must  be  those  that  fit  him  for  that  specific  work. 
If  the  end  in  view  were  the  propagation  of  Western 
civilization  or  Western  ideas  of  government,  a 
certain  character  of  native  agency  would  of 
course  be  required  for  that  purpose.  In  China, 
for  instance,  such  a  man  as  was  the  late  Li  Hung 
Chang,  not  converted,  but  thoroughly  Western- 
ized, would  make  the  best  possible  evangelist. 
But  the  kingdom  of  God  is  "not  of  this  world," 
altho  its  mission  is  to  save  the  world;  to  send 
out  ameliorating  and  regenerating  forces  into 
every  department  of  the  world's  life.  But  to 
do  this  effectively  it  must  be  kept  and  given  to 
the  world  as  the  pure,  spiritual  and  divine  thing 
that  it  is.  This  view  of  the  nature  of  the  kingdom 
gives  us  our  first  suggestion  as  to  the  necessary 
qualifications  of  the  native  evangelist.  He  must 
be,  first  of  all,  a  child  of  the  kingdom,  a  man 
spiritually  alive,  called  out  of  the  world,  and  yet, 
because  of  the  Christ  spirit  in  him,  loving  the 
world  somewhat  as  Christ  did,  and  ready,  as  He 
was,  to  live  and  die  for  its  salvation.  He  should, 
of  course,  be  a  man  properly  taught,  for  other- 
wise he  cannot  be  a  teacher  of  others.  "If  the 
blind  lead  the  blind,  both  will  fall  into  the  ditch." 
He  should  have  the  gift  of  utterance  necessary 
in  all  teachers  to  the  imparting  of  the  knowledge 
they  possess.  He  should  be  a  man  of  strong 
personality  and  force  of  character.  Men  who, 
before  their  conversion,  by  reason  of  possessing 
this  quality  are  natural  leaders  in  their  commu- 
nities, are  sure  to  be,  after  their  conversion,  the 
most  efficient  ones  in  leading  men  to  Christ. 

Social  position  and  literary  culture  will  be 
conducive  to  the  evangelist's  power  and  use- 
fulness, provided  they  are  not  associated,  as  is 
too  often  the  case  in  Oriental  lands,  with  intel- 
lectual pride,  lack  of  sympathy  with  the  common 
people,  and  aversion  to  work.  The  literati  of 
China  are  as  a  class  disqualified  by  these  weak- 
nesses for  making  successful  evangelists,  even 
when  they  are  converted  to  Christianity;  for  it 
usually  requires  not  only  regeneration  but  quite 
a  long  period  of  progressive  sanctification  also  to 
eradicate  these  traits,  characteristic  of  their 
class,  from  their  characters.  The  evangelists 
drawn  from  the  Samurai  class  in  Japan  were 
very  effective  in  reaching  those  of  the  same 
social  grade  to  which  they  belonged.  But  for 
the  evangelization  of  the  common  people  in  Japan 
there  is  now  a  felt  need  for  a  supplementary 


body  of  evangelists,  drawn  from  the  masses,  so 
as  to  be  in  full  sympathy  with  them,  and  so  as  to 
be  free  from  the  class  spirit,  and  trained  to  hard 
work.  The  next  great  step  of  progress  in  evan- 
gelizing Japan  will  probably  be  made  when  a 
supply  of  this  kind  of  evangelists  has  been  pro- 
vided. It  is  probably  for  these  reasons  that  of 
the  original  twelve  chosen  by  Christ  at  least  ten 
were  previously  laboring  men.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  great  evangelist  in  every  country  is 
likely  to  be  a  man  who,  like  the  Apostle  Paul, 
adds  to  high  social  position,  literary  character 
and  intellectual  quality,  a  natural  enthusiasm 
which  pharisaic  formalism  could  not  kill  in  him 
as  it  did  in  the  common  run  of  Scribes  and 
Pharisees.  So  it  is  that  altho  "not  many  wise 
men  after  the  flesh,  not  many  mighty,  not  many 
noble  are  called"  to  this  work,  the  few  of  this 
kind  who  are  called  are  the  ones  who  make  the 
greatest  and  most  successful  leaders  in  the  prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel. 

Owing  to  the  seclusion  of  women  in  the  Orient 
it  is  necessary  to  send  out  women  as  missionaries, 
who  need  native  female  help  for  the  prosecution 
of  their  work.  These  female  native  workers  are 
usually  called  Bible  Women.  They  are  evan- 
gelists for  the  heathen  women  who  could  not 
otherwise  be  reached  with  the  Gospel.  They 
need  the  same  qualifications,  in  a  large  degree, 
as  are  needed  by  the  male  evangelists.  Their 
work  differs  from  that  of  the  male  evangelists 
in  that  is  it  done  almost  exclusively  in  the  home, 
and  by  the  wayside,  rather  than  in  public  assem- 
blies. 

2.  Native  Pastors:  The  Native  Church  is  organ- 
ized by  the  ordination  in  it  of  one  or  more  Native 
Pastors.  The  qualifications  of  native  pastors 
are  given  in  the  Scriptures  with  a  minuteness  and 
detail  that  seem  to  indicate  Christ's  estimate  of 
the  great  importance  of  not  getting  the  wrong- 
men  into  that  office.  It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  these  qualifications  were  laid  down  at  a 
time  when  the  churches  to  be  supplied  with 
pastors  were  in  their  youth.  The  presence  in 
most  of  them  of  Jews  of  the  Dispersion ,  who  had 
had  training  in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures, 
made  it  easier  to  find  men  possessing  these  quali- 
fications than  is  now  the  case  in  young  churches 
organized  in  heathen  lands  of  the  present  day. 
A  very  important  question  is :  What  modification 
should  be  made  in  the  requirements  for  ordina- 
tion to  the  pastoral  office  in  our  modern  mission 
churches  because  of  the  scarcity  of  those  who 
can  fulfil  them  even  in  a  tolerable  degree  ?  Some 
great  and  wise  missionaries  think  that  great 
allowance  should  be  made  for  the  condition 
prevailing  in  any  given  place,  and  that  the 
church  should  be  organized  as  soon  as  possible 
with  the  best  material  for  pastors  to  be  found  in 
it.  Others  hold  that  it  is  better  to  ordain  no 
natives  to  the  office  of  pastor  until  they  have  the 
men  that  are  fitted  for  it,  even  tho  thejr  have  to 
wait  for  the  second  generation  of  Christians  to 
obtain  them.  This  article  is  perhaps  not  the 
proper  place  for  the  discussion  of  this  question. 
It  does  not  admit  of  question  that  so  soon  as 

Croperly  qualified  men  for  native  pastors  can 
e  found,  the  church  should  be  organized  and 
placed  under  their  pastoral  care.  It  must  be 
well,  also,  under  any  circumstances,  to  remember 
the  Scriptural  admonition  to  lay  hands  on  no 
man  suddenly  for  responsible  office  in  the  church. 
It  will  always  be  true  that  novices  clothed  with 
authority  are  in  danger  of  being  lifted  up  with 


5SS 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Native  Agrency 
Native  Stated 


pride  and  thereby  falling  into  the  condemnation 
of  the  devil. 

3.  Training:  The  training  of  native  pastors, 
evangelists  and  other  helpers  is  one  of  the  things 
of  chief  importance  in  the  work  of  the  foreign 
missionary.  When  the  institution  of  the  Chris- 
tian home  has  been  long  enough  established  in 
any  field  to  furnish  the  native  suppljr  of  Timothys 
and  Tituses,  the  problem  of  their  traming  becomes 
practically  the  same  as  that  of  our  home  ministry. 
Mission  schools  should  be  established  at  an  early 
stage  of  the  work  and  their  development  made 
to  keep  pace  with  the  development  of  the  native 
church,  so  that  when  the  time  comes  that  the 
native  church  has  need  of  them,  the  regularly 
organized  Christian  College  and  Theological 
Seminary  may  be  on  hand  to  do  their  necessary 
work.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  work  the 
missionary  home  should  be  made  a  center  around 
which  young  men  and  young  women  may  be 
gathered  for  Bible  studfy.  Much  effective  use 
has  been  made  of  summer  schools  and  institutes, 
where  those  who  have  had  previous  training 
with  the  missionary  have  the  benefit  of  lectures 
and  other  forms  of  oral  instruction.  An  essential 
feature  of  any  good  method  of  training  will 
always  be  that  which  gives  emphasis  to  the 
missionary's  personal  influence.  Jesus  ordained 
the  twelve,  first,  "that  they  should  be  with  him," 
and  then,  "that  he  might  send  them  forth  to 
preach."  Hence  the  supreme  importance  of 
the  missionary  himself  being  the  right  man 
rightly  trained  for  his  work;  for  the  men  he 
trains  are  likely  to  be  spiritually  the  reproduc- 
tion of  himself.  As  he  is  or  is  not,  so  will  the 
native  ministry  he  trains  be  or  not  be,  sound  in 
the  faith,  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,  humble,  meek, 
emptied  of  self  and  full  of  the  power  of  the  spirit 
of  Christ. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  XI.,  265,  288;  World- 
Wide  Evangelization  (Student  Volunteer  Movement),  pp. 
43,  435,  485,  542. 

NATIVE  STATES:  The  collective  term  applied 
to  those  portions  of  India  which  are  not  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  British  Government,  being 
still  ruled  by  native  princes  and  chiefs.  These 
states  are  scattered  over  the  whole  of  India. 
Some  of  them  are  large  and  important  districts, 
covering  thousands  of  square  miles,  with  millions 
of  inhabitants,  with  military  and  civil  depart- 
ments of  administration,  with  mints,  postal 
establishments,  educational  systems,  courts, 
and  aU  the  machinery  of  modern  government; 
some  of  them  are  hardly  large  enough  to  be 
noted  upon  an  ordinary  map,  and  consist  simply 
of  a  village  or  so  with  a  handful  of  inhabitants, 
under  the  control  of  some  petty  descendant  of 
the  chief  of  an  aboriginal  clan.  Between  these 
two  extremes  the  native  states  range  themselves 
in  all  degrees  of  importance.  They  vary  greatly 
with  reference  to  their  populations.  Some  of 
them  consist  almost  wholly  of  Hindus,  under  a 
Hindu  prince.  In  others,  the  ruling  family  will 
be  Mussulman,  tho  the  population  will  consist 
of  persons  of  all  the  races  usually  found  in  the 
districts  of  Hindustan.  Others  again  are  made 
up  almost  wholly  of  aboriginal  tribes,  still  owning 
the  headship  of  the  hereditary  chieftain.  The 
manner  in  which  it  has  come  about  that,  in  the 
midst  of  territory  under  the  authority  of  the 
British  Government,  these  islands  of  native  rule 
should  be  left,  may  be  briefly  and  generally 
explained  as  follows:  The  English  acquired  ter- 
ritory in  India  little  by  little.     As  they  were 


brought   into    contact    and    relations    with    the 
native  chiefs  and  princes,  conflicts  more  or  leas 
bitter  were  natural.     The  result  of  these  con- 
flicts often  was  that  the  territory  of  the  native 
prince  passed  wholly  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
Some  of  these  wars  were  waged  by  the  English 
in  self-defense;  some  of  them,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
had  less  of  justification.     Sometimes  the  terri- 
tories of  a  prince  joining  English  districts  would 
be  so  ill-governed  and  mismanaged  that  this  fact, 
of  itself,  became  a  ground  for  annexation.    Never- 
theless, among  the  native  rulers  with  whom  the 
British  power  has  been  brought  in  contact,  there 
have  been  those  whose  authority  over  hereditary 
domains  there  was  no  valid  reason  for  disturbing. 
Some    such    reigning  families  have  been  allied 
by  treaty  to  the  growing  British  power  for  a 
century  or  two,  and  have  always  been  faithful 
friends    and    allies.     Some    princes    and    chiefs 
have  been  confirmed  in  their  possessions  simply 
because  in  the  absence  of    glaring  reasons  their 
removal   would   provoke   hostility   inconvenient 
to  face.     Thus  it  has  happened  that  while,  as  the 
result   of   conquest,    almost   all   India   has   now 
passed  under  British  rule,  many  purely  native 
governments  still  continue  in  enjoyment  of  their 
ancient  power.     The  control  exercised  over  the 
native    states    varies  in  different  cases,  but  all 
are     bound     by     treaty     to     the     "paramount 
power,"     which     undertakes    to     guarantee     to 
them    protection   against   foreign   enemies.     No 
one    of    them    is  permitted    to   enter  into  rela- 
tions   with    any     other    power    or    with    each 
other,  save  through  the  English  Government,  or 
to    maintain   military    establishments    above   a 
specified  limit.     In  order  to   protect  the  popu- 
lations of    these  states  from  misgovernment,  as 
well  as  to  insure  a  due  degree  of  subjection  to 
the  paramount  power,  they  are  all  closely  super- 
vised by  the  British  Government,  acting  through 
a  class  of  officials  designated  to  that  duty.   These 
officials  are  known  as  "residents,"  or  "political 
agents,"  or  "political  superintendents."     A  resi- 
dent   is    one    appointed    to    reside  permanently 
at  the  court  of  a  native  prince,  and  to  be  the 
medium  of  communication  and  influence  between 
the  prince  and  the  paramount  power.     Political 
agents  and  superintendents  usually  have  super- 
vision over  groups  of   smaller   states   not   large 
and  important  enough  to  require  each  the  services 
of  a  resident.       There   are   many    such    groups 
of   inferior   states    or    chieftainships    connected 
with  all   the  provinces   and   commissionerships. 
The  political  superintendent  wUl   often  be  the 
nearest  British  magistrate,   who  discharges  the 
duties    of    supervision    in    connection    with    the 
general  duties  of  his  official  station  in  British 
territory.     Under  the  supervision  of  these  officers 
the   internal   affairs    of     the   several   states   are 
usually  left  to  be  managed  by  their  own  princes. 
Continuous   and   incorrigible   incompetence   will 
generally  result  in  the  deposition  of  a  prince  by 
the  English  Government;  in  this   case   the  gov- 
ernment of  his  state  will  often  be  administered 
by  the  English  until  his  successor,  if    a   minor, 
be  of  age;   or  some  successor  will  be  at  once 
placed  upon  the  throne. 

The  most  important  native  states — some  of 
which  have  been  made  the  subject  of  separate 
treatment  in  this  work — are  Kashmir,  in  the  far 
north;  Baroda,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency;  the  dominions  of  Holkar 
and  of  Sindia,  in  Central  India;  of  the  Nizam  cf 
Haidarabad,  in  the  Central  Deccan;  of  Mysore, 


Navnloa 
Negrro   Race 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


52& 


in  the  Madras  Presidency,  and  of  Travancore 
and  Cocliin,  at  the  extreme  south  of  the 
peninsula. 

In  some  of  these  states  missionary  operations 
are  carried  on  successfully.  This  is  notably 
the  case  with  Travancore  and  Cochin;  also  with 
Mysore.  In  others  the  degree  of  independent 
action  which  the  chieftain  or  prince  is  suffered 
to  exercise,  united  with  the  fact  that  these 
princes  are  usually  Hindus  or  Mohammedans 
who  consider  themselves  set,  as  it  were,  for  the 
defense  of  their  respective  faiths,  is  sufficient 
to  prevent  any  large  and  effective  evangelistic 
agencies.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  more 
important  native  states  have  become  more  and 
more  tolerant.  Often  some  of  the  smaller  states 
will  be  found  the  most  backward,  the  most 
difficult  to  enter,  and  the  most  impervious  to 
all  new  influences  of  enlightenment. 

NAVULOA:  Settlement  in  the  Fiji  Islands, 
Polynesia,  situated  on  the  S.  E.  coast  of  the 
island  of  Viti  Levu.  Station  of  the  Australian 
Wesleyan  Mission,  with  (1900)  1  missionary, 
297  native  workers,  2  outstations,  32  places  of 
worship,  41  Sunday  schools,  68  day  schools,  and 
1,256  professed  Christians. 

NAYUDUPETA.     See  Naidupet. 

NAZARETH:  Town  in  Palestine,  65  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem,  with  a  history  linked  with 
that  of  the  Christian  Church  from  the  time  of 
Jesus  Christ.  It  is  beautifully  situated  in  a 
valley  surrounded  by  hills  on  all  sides.  The 
houses  are  mostly  well  built  of  stone.  The  popu- 
lation has  a  more  prosperous  appearance  than  in 
most  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  women  of 
Nazareth  are  famous  for  their  beauty.  Popu- 
lation, 7,000,  the  Roman  Catholic  element  bemg 
influential.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1852),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  6  women  mis- 
sionaries, 27  native  workers,  17  day  schools,  1 
outstation,  and  434  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
161  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the 
Edinburgh  Medical  Mission  Society  (1861),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native 
workers,  and  1  dispensary.  The  Turkish  name 
of  the  town  in  Nasira. 

NAZARETH:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated in  Tinnevelli,  about  25  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Palamkotta.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1826),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  91  native  workers,  39 
places  of  worship,  19  day  schools,  8  boarding 
schools,  1  theological  school,  and  6,615  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  2,424  are  communi- 
cants. 

NAZARETH:  A  town  in  Natal,  Africa,  situ- 
ated in  the  valley  of  the  Tugela  River,  about  90 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Durban.  Station  of  the  Her- 
mannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1879),  with 
(1901)  2  missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his  wife; 
3  native  workers,  1  outstation,  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 1  day  school,  and  178  professed  Christians. 

NDEJE:  A  settlement  in  Uganda,  Central 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Bulemezi  District,  20 
miles  N.  W.  of  Gyaza  and  32  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Mengo.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1895),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mission- 
aries, 517  native  workers,  2  day  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  theological  class,  and  4,457  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  1,448  are  communicants. 

NEEMUCH.     See  Nimach. 

NEESIMA,  Joseph  Hardy:  Born  in  Japan, 
February,     1844 — ten  years  before  Commodore 


Perry's  fleet  awaited  in  the  Bay  of  Yeddo  the 
opening  of  Japan  to  the  world.  At  five  years  of 
age  he  was  taken  to  the  Shinto  temple  to  give 
thanks  for  his  life.  When  in  his  teens,  having 
never  seen  a  Christian  nor  heard  of  the  Gospel, 
Neesima  had  some  conviction  of  His  presence 
Who  is  not  far  from  any  one,  and  of  the  vanity  of 
idols.  When  he  met  in  a  Chinese  book  the 
words,  "In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heaven, 
and  the  earth,"  he  said:  "this  is  the  God  for 
whom  I  am  looking;"  "this  is  the  true  God,"  and 
secretly  determined  to  know  more  of  that  God, 
even  if  he  left  all  to  find  him.  These  words  from 
the  Bible  as  he  understood  were  brought  by  an 
American,  and  to  America  he  must  go.  To 
leave  his  country  was  unlawful,  and  punishable 
with  death.  But  this  he  risked,  concealed  him- 
self among  some  produce  in  a  boat,  and  reached 
Shanghai  and  ultimately  America,  working  his 
way  as  a  sailor.  The  owner  of  the  vessel  in 
which  he  sailed  was  the  late  Hon.  Alpheus  Hardy 
of  Boston,  who,  on  his  reaching  America,  received 
him  into  his  family,  and  provided  for  his  educa- 
tion, giving  him  nine  years  in  Phillips  Academy, 
Amherst  College,  and  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  The  elevation  of  his  countrymen 
became  his  absorbing  purpose. 

While  in  his  course  of  study,  the  Japanese 
Embassy  that  visited  this  country  and  Europe 
in  1871,  to  observe  the  condition  of  education 
in  Western  countries,  summoned  Mr.  Neesima 
to  act  as  its  interpreter.  He  replied  that  he  was 
an  outlaw  from  his  country,  and  was  subject 
to  no  ruler  save  the  King  of  Kings.  He  there- 
upon received  formal  pardon  for  leaving  his 
country.  He  visited  with  the  embassy  the 
principal  colleges  and  universities  of  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Europe.  Not  only  was  he 
thus  brought  into  close  and  friendly  relations 
with  Japanese  officials  of  high  character  and 
position  and  of  enlarged  views,  but  his  wish  to 
devote  his  life  to  the  Christian  education  of  his 
countrymen  was  greatly  strengthened.  He  was 
appointed  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Jap- 
anese Mission  of  the  ABCFM  and  was  ordained 
in  1874  in  Mount  Vernon  Church,  Boston.  In 
response  to  his  modest  but  moving  plea  at  the 
meeting  of  the  American  Board  in  Rutland, 
nearly  $4,000  were  pledged  for  the  school  which 
he  proposed  to  establish  in  Japan.  After  ten 
years'  absence,  he  arrived  in  his  native  land,  in 
November,  1874,  "cherishing,"  as  he  says,  "in 
my  bosom  this  one  great  purpose,  i.e.,  the 
founding  of  an  institution  in  which  the  Christian 
principles  of  faith  in  God,  love  of  truth,  and 
benevolence  toward  one's  fellow-men"  should 
"train  up  not  only  men  of  science  and  learning, 
but  men  of  conscientiousness  and  sincerity." 

In  November,  1875,  he  opened  the  Doshisha 
College  at  Osaka.  A  remarkable  revival  occurred 
in  the  Doshisha  in  1884,  during  which  the  strain 
upon  his  health  was  such  as  obliged  him  to  leave 
the  country  for  a  while.  He  revisited  the  United 
States  in  1885.  On  returning  to  Japan  in  1886, 
he  formed  a  plan  for  the  enlargement  of  the 
Doshisha,  so  that  it  might  have  the  rank  of  a 
university.  Not  in  any  wise  concealing  his 
purpose  to  make  it  a  Christian  institution,  he 
yet  appealed  for  aid  to  the  non-Christian  states- 
men and  influential  men  of  Japan.  He  so  won 
their  confidence  that  he  secured  contributions 
from  those  in  high  social  and  official  positions 
amounting  to  nearly  $60,000,  and  also  the  gift 
of  $100,000  from  an  American  gentlemen  for  the 


627 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


TSavulowL 
Negro  Race 


same  purpose.  In  1889  he  received  from 
Amherst  College  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws. 

In  the  fall  of  1889  he  was  in  Tokio  working 
to  interest  leading  men  at  the  capital  and  secure 
funds  for  his  enlarged  plans.  He  took  a  severe 
cold,  and,  renewing  hie  efforts  too  soon,  was 
prostrated.  His  wife  and  other  friends  were 
summoned,  and  pastors,  teachers,  and  students 
flocked  from  east  and  west  to  catch  some  fare- 
well word.  Maps  were  brought  at  his  request 
to  his  bedside,  and  eagerly,  almost  with  dying 
breath,  he  pointed  out  places  which  ought  at  once 
to  be  filled  by  the  Christian  teacher.  He  passed 
away  January  23,  1890.  All  classes  united  to 
attend  his  funeral.  The  governor,  the  chief 
justice  for  the  district,  and  many  other  officials 
were  present.  The  students  from  one  govern- 
ment school  and  one  private  school  were  in  the 
procession.  One  banner  from  Tokio  was 
mscribed  with  one  of  Mr.  Neesima's  own  sen- 
tences: "Free  education  and  self-governing 
churches:  if  these  go  together,  the  country  will 
stand  for  all  generations."  Another  was  in- 
scribed: "From  the  Buddhists  of  Osaka." 

NEGAPATAM:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  chief 
port  of  the  Negapatam  District,  situated  49  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Tanjore,  on  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  It 
was  one  of  the  earliest  Portuguese  settlements  on 
the  Coromandel  coast.  Population  (1901) 
57,190,  of  whom  39,000  are  Hindus  and  14,000 
Muslims.  Station  of  the  Leipzig  Mission  Society 
(1864),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  16 
native  workers,  21  outstations,  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 5  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  419 
professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the' SPG 
(1825),  with  (1903)  8  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  3  day  schools,  and  447  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  233  are  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  3  mission- 
aries, 109  native  workers,  9  outstations,  11  places 
of  worship,  21  Sunday  schools,  25  day  schools, 
and  205  professed  Christians,  of  whom  171  are 
communicants. 

NEGOMBO:  A  town  on  the  west  coast  of 
Ceylon,  20  miles  north  of  Colombo.  Population, 
19,400.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  71  native  workers,  8  outstations,  25 
places  of  worship,  20  Sunday  schools,  22  day 
schools,  and  902  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
631  are  communicants. 

NEGRO  RACE:  Much  ignorance  and  con- 
fusion attend  the  use  of  the  word  Negro,  and 
there  is  much  trouble  in  properly  classifying  the 
race.  In  its  widest  sense  the  term  is  applied  to 
those  sections  of  the  human  race  who  have 
black,  or  distinctly  dark,  skins  as  opposed  to 
those  who  have  yellow  or  brown  complexions. 
In  this  somewhat  ill-defined  use  it  designates 
the  inhabitants  (1)  of  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara, 
(2)  of  the  peninsula  of  India  south  of  the  Indo- 
Gangetic  plains,  (3)  of  Malaysia  and  the  greater 
part  of  Australasia.  In  this  wide  dispersion 
the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  pure  Negro 
have  been  modified  by  contact  with  the  Mongol 
on  one  side  and  the  Caucasian  on  the  other. 

In  a  more  restricted  sense,  the  Negro  race 
includes  two  classes:  the  true  Negro  of  African 
type,  and  the  Papuan,  or  Melanesian,  type. 

/.  African  Negro:  While  it  is  true  that  all 
Negroes  of  this  class  are  Africans,  it  is  not  true 
that  all  Africans  are  Negroes,  and  the  two  terms 
should  not  be  used  synonymously.  The  geo- 
graphical distribution   of   the   true   Negro   race 


includes  all  of  the  west  coast  lying  along  the 
Niger,  the  Senegal,  and  Gambia  rivers,  and  the 
country  between  them,  together  with  parts  of 
the  Sudan.  This  area  is  thus  a  thin  belt  of 
territory  along  the  center  of  Africa,  not  all  of 
which  is  inhabited  solely  by  Negroes,  and  which 
forms  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  whole  continent. 
Here  and  there,  scattered  through  other  sec- 
tions, especially  to  the  south,  occasional  tribes 
of  true  Negroes  may  be  met,  but  the  limits 
above  given  are  in  the  main  correct.  The  home 
of  the  race  in  its  purity  is  in  the  district  between 
the  Volta  and  Niger,  the  Kong  Mountains  and 
the  coast,  where  are  found  remains  of  the  Negro 
kingdoms  of  Benin.  Dahomey,  and  Yoruba, 
while  just  west  of  the  Volta  is  Ashanti.  Dif- 
ferent tribes  are  found  throughout  this  whole 
territory,  such  as  the  Jolofs  and  Mandingoes  in 
Senegambia,  the  Susu  on  the  Rio  Pongas,  the 
Temne,  inland  from  Lagos,  the  Ibo  on  the  Lower 
Niger,  the  Hausa-speaking  tribes  north  of  the 
Niger  confluence,  besides  the  tribes  about  Lake 
Tchad  and  in  the  parts  about  Darfur. 

It  is  the  generally  accepted  opinion  that  the 
Negroes  were  the  aborigines,  or,  at  least,  the 
first  settlers,  in  the  region  they  occupy.  If,  as 
seems  plausible,  they  belong  to  some  branch  of 
the  Hamitic  family,  the  indications  are  that  they 
were  among  the  first  to  come  from  Asia  into 
Africa.  The  Bantu  race  followed,  crowding  the 
Negro  to  the  south  and  west,  and  pushing  the 
Hottentot  Bushmen  ahead  until  the  three 
divisions  of  the  African  races  occupied  their 
respective  localities  as  now  defined.  Within 
these  limits,  however,  the  Negroes  have  been 
subject  to  much  unrest  and  change.  The  slave 
trade  dimished  their  numbers,  and  in  later  years 
the  return  of  the  descendants  of  former  slaves 
has  perhaps  modified  in  a  slight  degree  their 
racial  characteristics. 

Racial  Characteristics:  The  true  Negro  is 
marked  by  an  unusual  length  of  arm;  projecting 
jaws;  small  brain;  black  eye;  flat,  short  nose; 
thick,  red,  protruding  lips;  thick  skull;  short 
woolly  hair;  weak  legs,  prehensile  great  toe,  and 
projecting  heel;  black  or  brown  skin,  thick  and 
velvety,  with  a  strong  odor. 

In  their  native  home  the  race  is  regarded  as 
naturally  inferior  in  mental  development  to 
many  of  the  races  of  the  world.  The  possibilities 
of  development  are  affirmed  and  denied  by 
writers  of  equal  weight.  In  the  aboriginal  state 
the  Negro  is  a  mere  savage.  His  nature  is  sunny 
and  childlike.  Inordinately  susceptible  to  flattery, 
he  can  easily  be  influenced.  While  rendered 
cruel  by  the  lust  for  gold,  he  is  naturally  gentle. 
He  appreciates  the  beautiful,  and  is  fond  of  songs 
and  mirth.  The  victim  of  gross  superstition, 
he  retains  belief  in  a  supreme  being.  He  is 
indolent,  slothful  and  improvident.  If  his  animal 
wants  are  satisfied,  he  is  content.  He  knows 
how  to  conceal  his  real  feelings,  and  can  be  an 
enigma  hard  to  solve  if  he  so  chooses. 

He  responds  quickly  to  kindness,  and  will 
prove  his  gratitude  by  great  devotion.  Morally, 
his  standard  is  very  low.  Polygamy  is  practised, 
but  marriage  ties  are  almost  unknown.  The 
women  are  the  slaves  of  the  men.  Cannibalism 
is  sometimes  indulged  in,  and  human  sacrifices 
have  been  offered  to  the  fetish  objects  of  their 
worship,  some  of  which  are  most  hideous.  Some 
of  the  tribes  have  a  great  degree  of  skill  in  the 
arts  and  manufactures.  Buildings,  metal-work, 
clothes  of  skins, — all  show  a  degree  of  civiliza- 


Ne(Jrro  Race 
Nellore 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


528 


tion  which  is  proof  of  the  capabilities  of  the  race. 
Mungo  Park  found  Sego,  the  capital  of  Bambasa, 
a  city  of  30,000  people,  with  two-story  houses, 
containing  mosques  in  every  quarter,  with 
ferries  over  the  Niger  for  men  and  beasts.  To 
sum  up,  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Cust:  "Many  great 
races  m  ancient  times  have  had  their  day  of 
greatness,  exhausted  the  power  that  was  in  them, 
and  have  been  completely  broken  up,  trodden 
down,  or  utterly  effaced  by  younger  and  more 
powerful  races.  But  this  cannot  be  said  of  the 
Negro  race :  they  are  not  broken,  fewer  in  number, 
or  poorer  in  resources;  tho  pressed  upon  from 
without,  they  have  proved  to  be  the  only  race 
suitable  to  the  climate.  Their  soil  is  wonder- 
fully fertile,  their  minerals  abundant,  their 
power  of  reproduction  exceeding  calculation. 
We  know  now  from  the  instances  of  men  who 
have  had  the  advantages  of  culture  that  they  are 
not  deficient  in  intelligence,  probity,  and  even 
genius,  yet  they  have  left  absolutely  not  a  monu- 
ment to  tell  of  the  material  greatness  of  any 
particular  tribe,  or  of  any  ancient  civilization, 
as  in  Central  America  and  Asia;  not  a  written 
or  sculptured  document;  they  have  but  a  scant 
store  ot  proverbs  and  traditions." 

Language:  The  zone  occupied  by  the  Negro 
presents  a  greater  diversity  of  tongues  than  is  to 
be  found  elsewhere  in  the  world,  except  perhaps 
in  parts  of  America,  in  Melanesia,  or  Caucasia. 
In  the  Cust-MilUer  classification  of  African 
languages  the  Negro  is  one  of  six  divisions, 
and  in  it  are  included  four  sub-classes,  such  as 
the  Atlantic,  Niger,  Central,  and  Nile;  in  the 
entire  group  195  languages  are  recognized  and 
49  dialects.  They  belong  to  the  agglutinating 
type,  and  are  often  characterized  by  intricacy 
of  structure  and  delicate  alliterativeness.  The 
Grebo  language  on  the  coast  of  northern  Guinea 
is  monosyllabic,  and  is  spoken  with  great  rapidity. 
The  Mandingo  language,  spoken  in  Senegal 
and  Gambia,  is  a  smooth  tongue,  with  a  pre- 
dominance of  vowels,  and  a  remarkable  minute- 
ness in  defining  the  time  of  an  action. 

II.  Papuan  Negro:  The  name  Papua  is  a 
Malay  term  meaning  "frizzled,"  and  points  at 
once  to  the  mark  which  distinguishes  the  frizzly- 
haired  Negro  from  the  straight-haired  Malay. 
The  purest  type  of  the  Papuan  is  found  on  the 
western  part  of  the  island  of  New  Guinea  or 
Papua,  but  the  influence  of  the  race  is  felt  through- 
out the  whole  of  Melanesia  and  parts  of  Poly- 
nesia, where  they  mingle  and  amalgamate  with 
the  Malay  or  Mongoloid  race.  In  the  words  of 
Mr.  Wallace:  "The  Papuans  are  well-made,  have 
regular  features,  intelligent  black  eyes,  small, 
white  teeth,  curly  hair,  thick  lips,  and  large 
mouth;  the  nose  is  sharp  but  flat  beneath,  the 
nostrils  large,  and  the  skin  dark  brown."  The 
Polynesians  are  considered  by  some  ethnologists 
as  differing  in  no  fundamental  particular  from 
the  Papuans,  while  others  class  them  with  the 
Malay,  as  an  intermediate  type  between  the 
Malay   and  the   Negro. 

In  their  temperament  and  customs  the  Pap- 
uans show  many  traits  similar  to  those  of  the 
African  Negro.  Their  belief  in  sorcery,  their 
superstitions  in  regard  to  bits  of  wood  and  stone 
as  causes  of  disease,  their  easy-going,  listless 
life,  light-hearted  and  boisterous  moods,  all 
point  to  similarity  of  origin.  In  their  archi- 
tecture, rude  as  it  is,  they  follow  the  Malay 
fashion  of  building  on  piles.  They  show  a 
great  degree  of  skill  in  agriculture.     The  men 


build  the  houses,  hunt,  and  fish,  leaving  the 
heavier  work  to  be  done  by  the  women.  The 
latter  are  more  modest  than  the  rest  of  the 
Polynesian  races.  The  Papuan  languages  form 
a  class  by  themselves,  differing  widely  from  the 
Malayo-Polynesian  languages,  and  split  into 
dialects  by  so  small  an  abstacle  to  intercourse  as 
a  brook. 

III.  Mixed  Races:  The  slave-trade  has  scat- 
tered the  Negro  race  throughout  the  globe.  In 
most  countries  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  the 
Negro  is  lost  in  the  general  population;  and  altho 
a  trace  of  black  blood  is  seen  in  Morocco,  in 
Arabia,  Malabar,  and  Ceylon,  and  in  the  various 
races  lying  between  India  and  New  Guinea, 
where  the  Papuan  type  is  met  with,  they  have 
left  no  distinctive  mark,  and  no  statistics  are 
available  to  indicate  the  number  of  Negroes,  or 
the  proportion  of  the  population  which  they 
form. 

The  degree  of  intermingling  which  has  gone 
on  in  the  western  hemisphere  has  given  rise  to 
many  mixed  races,  with  more  or  less  of  Negro 
blood  in  them.  The  terms  Creole,  Quadroon, 
Octoroon,  or  Mulatto  are  well  known  and  gen- 
erally understood,  but  there  are  other  less  com- 
mon terms,  such  as:  Mestizo,  half-breed,  of 
either  white  and  Negro,  or  Indian  and  Negro; 
Creole,  in  addition  to  the  common  meaning  of 
one  born  in  Spanish  America,  of  European 
parents,  is  also  applied  in  Peru  to  the  children 
of  Mestizoes;  Zambo,  half-breed,  but  usually 
the  issue  of  Negro  and  Indian,  or  Negro  and 
Mulatto;  Zambo  Preto,  progeny  of  Negro  father 
and  Zambo  mother.  In  the  South  American 
countries  these  terms  are  multiplied  until  almost 
every  shade  of  mixture  has  its  appropriate  term. 

Tho  the  slave-trade  is  carried  on  in  a  few 
places  still,  yet  practically  slavery  is  extinct, 
and  the  many  Negroes  who  are  in  the  countries 
to  which  they  have  been  taken  as  slaves  are  now 
freedmen. 

The  American  Negro:  1.  In  the  United  States. — 
From  the  time  of  the  first  arrival  of  Negroes  as 
slaves  in  the  colony  of  Virginia  in  1619  till  the 
Emancipation  Act  in  1865,  Negro  slavery  has 
been  identified  with  and  has  greatly  influenced 
the  history  of  the  nation.  The  final  solution  of 
the  great  question  of  slavery  left  the  country 
with  a  greater  question  confronting  it,  which  is 
called  the  Negro  Question.  During  the  first 
half  of  the  last  century  the  number  of  Negroes 
brought  to  the  United  States  was  from  60,000 
to  70,000  annually,  and  the  number  multiplied, 
until  in  1900  the  Negro  or  colored  element 
numbered  8,840,000,  or  11|  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  population.  Comparatively  few  of  this 
number  are  of  unmixed  blood,  while  many 
retain  but  a  trace  of  Negro  origin,  and  are  in 
their  mental  and  physical  characteristics  almost 
entirely  Caucasian.  In  the  Southern  States, 
the  purer  type  of  Negro  is  found,  and  they 
exhibit  the  characteristics  already  described. 
A  jovial,  light-hearted  race,  fond  of  a  laugh, 
living  only  in  the  present,  contented  with  mere 
animal  pleasures,  full  of  superstition  which  in 
some  has  taken  the  form  of  religious  fervor,  not 
strict  in  their  ideas  as  to  the  rights  of  property, 
possessing  a  low  order  of  cunning  rather  than 
intelligence,  full  of  moral  sentiment  and  lofty 
emotions,  but  prone  to  immoral  actions  and 
low  crimes;  fearing  the  Voodoo  woman  with  her 
fetishes,  and  yet  shouting  amen  in  Christian 
services    with    much    unction — the    Negro,    as 


SS9 


THE  ENCyCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


NeKro  Race 
Nellore 


modified  by  his  environment  in  the  United 
States,  presents  a  mixture  of  good  and  evil,  of 
childlilie  simplicity  and  cunning  secretiveness,  of 
deep  feeling  and  weak  character,  of  hopelessness 
and  of  possibility,  which  may  well  stagger  the 
faith  and  try  the  patience  of  those  who  are 
trying  to  educate  and  Christianize  him.  Notable 
instances  of  full-blooded  Negroes  there  are  who 
have  shown  an  intelligence,  a  strength  of  mind 
and  executive  ability,  a  stedfast  faith  and 
upright  life,  equal  to  that  of  the  Caucasian;  and 
tiiese  instances,  when  viewed  in  connection  with 
their  as  yet  meager  opportunities,  may  fairly  be 
placed  in  comparison  with  the  great  majority 
which  seem  to  give  weight  to  the  opinion  that 
the  Negro  is  mentally  and  morally  mferior  to, 
and  can  never  be  on  an  equality  with,  the  white 
race  which  surrounds  him. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  Negro  is  not  so 
much  immoral  as  non-moral,  for  there  seems  to 
be  such  a  lack  of  the  perception  of  right  and 
wrong  that  a  Negro  will  stop  on  his  way  to  or 
from  a  prayer-meeting,  at  which  he  takes  a 
fervid  part,  to  lift  a  chicken  from  a  neighbor's 
hen-roost.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Tucker,  at  the  Amer- 
ican Church  Congress  in  1883,  brought  out  this 
side  of  the  American  Negro  character  when  he 
spoke  of  Negro  missionaries  who  were  earnest 
and  successful,  unconscious  of  hypocrisy,  but 
who  were  guilty  of  lives  of  the  grossest  immo- 
rality, were  addicted  to  lying  and  thieving,  and 
yet  were  respected  and  heeded  by  their  flocks. 

The  Negro  question  is  looked  at  in  two  distinct 
ways,  not  only  by  the  politician  but  by  the 
Christian,  and  the  difference  is  due  mainly  to 
presence  or  absence  of  perspective.  By  those 
who  live  away  from  the  daily  contact  with  the 
Negro,  who  look  at  him  idealized,  as  a  man 
entitled  to  the  rights  of  men,  to  all  the  privileges 
of  citizenship,  and  to  all  the  yearning  love  which 
a  fallen  image  of  God  should  excite  in  the  Chris- 
tian heart,  the  practical  difEculties  in  the  way 
of  civilizing.  Christianizing,  and  elevating  the 
Negro  to  the  lauded  plane  of  equality  are  often- 
times overlooked,  and  theory  takes  the  place  of 
practise,  sentiment  of  common-sense,  and  faith 
and  hope  overpower  "works."  To  those  who 
live  among  the  Negroes,  who  daily  see  the  defi- 
ciencies in  their  character,  in  their  capabilities, 
in  their  morals,  there  is  an  absence  of  perspective, 
•and  they  take  the  other  extreme  view :  that  little 
can  be  done  for  them,  that  liberty  and  equality 
should  for  some  time,  at  least,  be  mere  words 
without  practical  meaning.  This  is  not  only 
true  of  upright  and  honorable  men  who  are  not 
distinctivel)'  Christian,  but  men  who  are  anxious 
to  save  the  souls  of  the  Negroes  are  just  as 
averse  as  their  political  neighbors  to  contact 
with  Negroes  on  terms  of  equality,  or  to  recog- 
nition of  their  political  rights.  Among  the  men 
who  are  ready  to  keep  the  Negro  from  the  polls, 
by  violence  if  necessary,  are  men  who  are  active 
in  Christian  work.  Between  these  two  widely 
divergent  views  of  the  Negro  there  is,  without 
doubt,  as  in  all  things,  a  middle  ground,  and  to 
that  mean  the  opinion  of  wise  men  is  turning; 
but  as  yet  it  cannot  be  clearly  defined,  nor  is 
the  question  yet  solved. 

While  the  political  part  of  the  Negro  question 
is  taxing  the  thought  of  the  statesmen,  the 
Church  is  doing  her  part  to  aid  in  the  solution. 
In  addition  to  the  missionary  work  of  the  dif- 
ferent churches,  and  that  of  the  American  Mis- 
sionary Association,  there  is  a  large  and  flourish- 
34 


ing  church  among  the  Negroes  themselves.  The 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  organ- 
ized in  1816,  and  in  1880  it  had  a  total  member- 
ship of  over  400,000,  and  supported  a  missionary 
society  which  was  organized  in  1844  as  ^  the 
Parent  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society. 
In  1888  nearly  300  missionaries  were  engaged 
in  the  home  work  of  the  church,  tho  it  has  been 
only  within  the  last  ten  years  that  any  successful 
mission  has  been  established  in  foreign  lands. 
In  addition  to  their  own  church,  the  Negroes 
form  fifteen  conferences  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  (South).  Of  the  Baptists,  a  large 
proportion  in  the  Southern  States  are  Negroes, 
and  many  of  the  ministers  have  been  men  of 
great  power  and  of  great  zeal  in  religious  life. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  number  of  Negroes 
in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  a  certain  number 
are  Roman  Catholics. 

2.  In  Mexico:  It  is  diificult  to  calculate  the 
number  of  Negroes  in  Mexico,  for  there  the 
mixture  is  so  blended  that  Negro  ancestry  is 
hard  to  trace.  Of  the  population  (1900),  13,500- 
000,  the  Negro  element  is  put  at  60,000.  But 
by  the  constitution  of  1824  all  distinctions  of 
race  were  abolished,  and  they  are  virtually 
amalgamated  with  the  rest  of  the  people.  About 
43  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  of  mixed  race, 
Negroes,  Indians,  and  other  races. 

3.  Central  America:  The  number  of  the  colored 
or  Negro  population  in  Central  America  has 
been  estimated  at  50,000.  In  this  section  of 
the  country  intermingling  with  the  Indians  and 
other  races  is  very  great,  and  there  is  little 
social  distinction  between  them. 

4.  South  America:  Brazil  was  the  last  country 
in  America  to  abolish  slavery.  In  1850  the 
slaves  were  estimated  at  2,500,000;  in  1887  the 
slaves  were  given  on  the  official  returns  as 
numbering  723,419,  and  by  a  law  passed  in 
1888  slavery  was  abolished.  The  Negroes  are 
found  principally  in  the  provinces  of  Pernam- 
buco,  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Minas,  and 
according  to  the  census  of  1890  numbered 
2,097,426,  besides  those  of  mixed  blood.  In 
the  other  countries  of  South  America  the  Negroes 
are  so  mixed  with  the  other  races  (as  in  Peru), 
or  form  so  small  an  element  in  the  population, 
that  no  definite  statement  as  to  their  numbers 
can  be  attempted. 

5.  West  Indies:  The  number  of  Negroes  in 
the  West  Indies  is  about  3,000,000.  Slavery 
was  abolished  in  the  British  West  Indies  in  1834, 
in  the  French  possessions  in  1848,  and  in  Cuba 
in  1886. 

The  vitality  of  the  race  is  surprising  and  is 
unaltered  by  their  location,  except  when  they 
leave  the  tropics  or  sub-tropics.  The  farther 
north  they  go,  the  greater  the  mortality,  and 
their  stability  as  a  race,  in  constitution  and 
numbers,  depends  upon  the  restriction  of  their 
habitation  to  the  warm  climates. 

NELLORE:  A  town  in  Ceylon,  situated  about 
30  miles  S.  E.  of  Jaffna.  Station  of  the  CMS, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native 
worker,  1  place  of  worship  and  1  boarding  school. 
Church  statistics  are  included  in  Jaffna. 

NELLORE:  The  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  Madras,  India;  stands  on  the  Tenner 
River,  96  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Madras.  Has 
important  irrigation  works  on  the  river.  Popu- 
lation (1891),  29,300,  of  whom  22,600  are  Hindus. 
Station   of   the   ABMU    (1840),    with    (1903)    3 


Nelson  House 
Netherlands 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  -MISSIONS 


630 


missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their  wives;  5  women 
missionaries,   35  native  workers,   2  outstations, 

3  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  5  day 
schools,  3  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary,  1 
hospital,  and  2,500  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
843  are  communicants. 

NELSON  HOUSE:  A  trading  post  in  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  situated  in  Keewatin  Ter- 
ritory, about  450  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Winnipeg. 
Station  of  the  MCC  (1871),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  outstations,  and  93  professed 
Christians. 

NEMURO :  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  the 
E.  extremity  of  Hokkaido.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1887),  with  (1903)  1  woman  missionary, 

4  native  workers,  5  outstations,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 2  Sunday  schools,  and  86  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

NEPAL :  An  independent  kingdom  lying  along 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  in  North 
India,  and  tho  there  are  treaty  stipulations 
between  its  government  and  that  of  British 
India,  it  is  outside  of  the  immediate  circle  of 
British  influence.  To  the  north  its  territory 
extends  up  the  sides  of  the  Himalayan  range 
until  it  meets  that  of  Tibet,  along  an  unsurveyed 
and  indefinite  frontier.  Its  southern  boundary 
is  usually  about  30  miles  from  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas.  On  the  west  a  small  stream  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  sub-Himalayan  British  province 
of  Kumaon;  and  its  eastern  limit  is  the  small 
mountain  state  of  Sikkim,  north  of  Calcutta.  Its 
greatest  length  northwest  and  southeast  is  512 
miles;  its  breadth  varies  from  70  to  150  miles. 
The  total  area  has  been  computed  at  about 
54,000  square  miles.  No  census  of  population 
has  ever  been  taken.  The  Nepalese  estimate  is 
about  5,500,000;  the  soberer,  and  probably  more 
correct,  opinion  of  Anglo-Indian  officials  places 
the  population  at  4,000,000.  There  are  many 
aboriginal  tribes  in  Nepal,  most  of  whom  seem  to 
be  of  Tatar  origin.  But  the  regnant  tribe  is  that 
of  the  Gurkhas,  who  are  descended  from  the 
Rajputs  of  Northwestern  India,  and  who 
migrated  in  the  12th  century  from  the  original 
home  of  their  people  during  the  early  ascendancy 
of  one  of  the  invading  Mussulman  dynasties. 
Most  of  these  aboriginal  tribes  are  Buddhists, 
but  Buddhism  is  gradually  disappearing  before 
the  stronger  Hinduism  of  the  ruling  race.  Rice 
is  the  staple  food  of  the  people.  The  highest 
known  mountain  in  the  world, — Mt.  Everest, 
29,002  feet  high, — as  well  as  many  Himalayan 
peaks  inferior  only  to  that,  lie  within  the  limits 
of  Nepalese  territory.  Since  the  subjugation 
of  the  country  by  the  Gurkha  dynasty,  several 
bloody  revolutions,  marked  by  the  true  Oriental 
features  of  assassination  and  usurpation,  have 
occurred.  The  last  was  in  1885,  when  the  prime 
minister  and  two  other  prominent  men  were 
murdered  by  the  head  of  a  rival  faction.  The 
murderer  at  once  made  himself  prime  minister. 
Violent  as  the  revolution  was,  it  was  considered 
a  probable  step  toward  much-needed  reforms 
within  the  kingdom.  Nepal  has  never  been  open 
to  the  entrance  of  Europeans,  tho  the  Incfian 
Government  has  usually  maintained  a  resident 
there.  No  missionary  stations  have  yet  been 
permitted.  The  capital  is  Khatmandu.  Popu- 
lation supposed  to  be  about  50,000. 

NEPALESE  LANGUAGE :  An  Aryan  language 
spoken  in  the  kingdom  of  Nepal,  north  of  India, 
and  written  with  the  Nagari  characters.     The 


extent  to  which  it  is  in  use  has  not  yet  been 
learned. 

NESTORIAN  CHURCH:  The  name  is  derived 
from  that  of  Nestorius,   who  was  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  for  three  years  previous  to  his 
excommunication   by   the   Council   of   Ephesus, 
A.D.  431;  but  the  Nestorians  repudiate  the  name, 
and   call   themselves   the   Church   of   the   East. 
Their  separation  from  the  great  body  of  Eastern 
Christians    was    due    mainly    to    political    and 
national   forces.     Christianity    spread    eastward 
very   early.     The  Syriac-speaking  Christians  of 
the  great  Mesopotamian  plains,  with  a  smaller 
number  of  Persian  and  Arab  Christians,  were  the 
subjects  of  the  Parthian,  and  then  the  Sassanian 
kingdom.       Syriac    was    the    ecclesiastical    lan- 
guage of  all.     The  persecuting  zeal  of  the  Persian 
kings   was   increased   by   the  feeling  that  their 
Christian     subjects     were    secret    allies    of    the 
Roman    enemy.     The    school    of    Edessa,    the 
theological  center  of  these  Christians,  was  closely 
associated  with  that  of  Antioch;  and  Theodore 
of    Mopsuestia,    the    true    father    of    Nestorian 
theology,   was  revered.     Hence,   it  was  natural 
for  the  Persian  Christians  to  espouse  the  cause  of 
Nestorius    against    Cyril,     of    Antioch    against 
Alexandria,  and  at  the  same  time  to  gain  greater 
security    by    dissociating    themselves   from   the 
Christians  of  the  Roman  Empire,  in  repudiating 
the  creed  of  Ephesus,    and  erecting   the  See  of 
Seleucia  into  a  patriarchate.     On  their  part,  the 
emperors  hastened  the  schism  by  persecution. 
In   489   the   Persian  school   was   expelled  from. 
Edessa,    in    Roman    territory,    and    established 
beyond    the    Persian    border    at    Nisibis.     The 
great   organizer   of   the   Nestorian   Church   was. 
Barsumas,   Bishop  of  Nisibis.     A  similar  coop- 
eration of  political  and  theological  forces  led,  in 
the   next   century,    to   the   organization  of  the 
other    Syrian    National    Church,    the    Jacobite. 
The  centers  of  Nestorian  population  were  about 
Nisibis,  Mosul,  and  Seleucia,   and  in  Khuzistan, 
in  Southern  Persia,  while  considerable  bodies  were 
found  in  Khurasan,  Armenia,  and  Arabia. 

The  technical  expression  of  the  Nestorian 
Christology  is  "two  natures,  two  hypostases 
(Syriac  qnuma),  and  one  person  (Syriac  parsopo)." 
The  terms  are  difficult  of  definition,  but  qnuma- 
is  defined  in  the  theological  treatises  as  including 
the  generic  attributes,  that  part  of  the  nature 
possessed  by  each  individual,  while  parsopa 
includes  those  that  are  individual.  Thus,  it  is 
said  that  Peter,  Paul,  and  John  are  separate 
qnumas  with  respect  to  common  qualities,  and 
separate  parsopas  with  respect  to  differing  qual- 
ities. It  is  argued  that  nature  implies  such 
individualization  and  is  incomplete  without  it. 
They  conceived  of  the  Incarnation  as  an  indwell- 
ing, the  union  of  the  divine  person  with  an 
individual  hu  man  personality  and  not  with  human 
nature.  A  corollary  is  the  denial  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  of  the  title  Theotokos,  mother  of  God. 

Practically,  this  Christology  served  as  a  badge 
of  separation,  and  had  little  effect  otherwise. 
In  other  regards,  the  Nestorian  Church  differed 
from  other  Oriental  churches  by  way  of  arrested 
development.  Its  liturgy  is  briefer,  and  less 
explicit  in  some  doctrines,  but  it  contains  the 
invocation  of  the  saints  and  prayers  for  the  dead. 
The  cross  is  revered,  but  neither  pictures  nor 
images  are  used.  The  real  presence,  and  the 
sacerdotal  character  of  the  clergy  are  taught, 
but  not  transubstantiation  or  confession  to 
priests.     The    parish    clergy    marry,    but   mon- 


631 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Nelson  Honae 
Netlierlands 


asticism  was  a  powerful  institution,  and  the 
bishops  were  chosen  from  the  monies.  For 
several  centuries  the  episcopal  succession,  con- 
trary to  the  church  canons,  has  become  dynastic, 
usually  passing  from  uncle  to  nephew.  The 
patriarchal  seat  was  first  Seleucia,  then  Baghdad, 
later  Mosul,  and  finally  Kochanes,  in  the  heart 
of  the  Zagros  Mountains. 

The  history  of  this  church  is  checkered  and 
obscure.  The  bloody  persecutions  of  Christians 
by  the  Sassanian  kings  were  previous  to  the  rise 
of  Nestorianism,  but  the  Nestorians  were  harassed 
by  some  of  the  Sassanian  kings,  and  were  out- 
lawed by  the  Roman  emperors.  Islam  at  first 
was  mild  by  contrast,  and  the  Arab  conquest 
was  welcomed.  The  Church  extended  more 
widely  than  ever,  and  Nestorians,  especially  as 
physicians  and  secretaries,  were  in  high  favor 
m  the  Caliph's  court,  while  their  bankers  and 
artisans  amassed  wealth.  They  were  the  trans- 
lators of  Greek  literature,  and  the  transmitters 
of  philosophy  to  the  Arabs.  The  toleration 
extended  was  limited  and  in  the  end  worse  than 
persecution.  The  Christians  were  subject  to 
special  taxes,  and  held  an  inferior  status  before 
the  law.  The  Caliph  exercised  the  right  of 
investiture  of  the  patriarchs,  and  thus  the 
highest  office  became  the  prize  of  bribery  and 
was  secularized.  Along  with  this  went  a  tacit 
acceptance  of  the  prohibition  of  proselyting 
Mohammedans.  The  missionary  spirit  was 
deadened  but  not  extinguished,  and  found  vent 
in  work  for  non-Mohammedans.  Christianity 
had  entered  India  before  the  rise  of  Islam,  and 
bishops  were  still  appointed  to  that  country. 
During  the  8th  Christian  century  active  propa- 
ganda was  carried  on  among  the  pagan  tribes  on 
the  borders  of  the  Caspian,  and  about  630  a.d. 
Nestorian  monks  entered  China.  Christian 
cemeteries,  medieval  travelers,  and  Syriac  his- 
torians testify  to  the  existence  for  several  cen- 
turies (about  800-1300)  of  large  bodies  of 
Turkish  and  Mongol  Christians  in  Central  Asia, 
and  in  Northwest  China,  especially  along  the 
northern  bend  of  the  Yellow  River.  When  the 
Mongol  hordes  overran  Western  Asia,  not  a  few 
Christians  were  numbered  in  their  ranks  and 
some  were  high  in  office.  It  seemed  as  if  the 
opportunity  for  Christian  triumph  had  come, 
but  in  reality  its  downfall  was  near.  The  large 
Christian  population  had  been  decimated  by 
the  anarchy,  famine,  pestilence,  and  war  that 
had  cursed  Western  Asia;  and  finally  the  Nes- 
torian Church  was  well  nigh  exterminated  in  the 
terrible  Mongol  forays  ending  with  the  massacres 
of  Tamerlane.  Since  a.d.  1400  its  history  is 
only  that  of  a  few  shattered  dioceses  of  the 
mighty  line  that  once  spanned  Asia. 

At  present  the  number  of  Nestorians,  including 
those  who  have  seceded  to  other  Christian 
churches,  is  little  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand.  They  live  in  three  distinct  regions, 
the  plains  of  ancient  Assyria,  the  rugged  valleys 
of  the  Zagros  Mountains  in  Turkey,  west  of 
Lake  Urmia,  and  the  plains  in  Persia,  between 
the  mountains  and  the  lake.  The  large  majority 
are  engaged  in  agricultural  or  pastoral  pursuits. 
Those  in  the  mountains,  like  the  Kurds  among 
whom  they  live,  have  maintained  a  precarious 
independence,  but  the  Sultan  is  steadily  sub- 
jecting them  to  taxation,  without,  however, 
maintaining  peace  and  security  in  those  wild 
regions.  Those  in  the  plains  of  the  Tigris,  and 
a  few    elsewhere,    are    Roman    Catholic.     The 


majority  of  those  in  Persia  are  enrolled  as 
members  of  the  Greek  Church.  A  smaller  but 
very  influential  body,  mainly  in  Persia,  are 
Protestant.  Probably  less  than  half  of  the  whole 
number  still  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the 
Nestorian  patriarch. 

The  part  of  Persia  in  which  the  Nestorians 
live  is  closely  united  to  Russia  in  an  industrial 
way.  The  rapid  development  of  Transcaucasia 
has  given  work  to  thousands  of  Nestorians,  while 
many  more  have  gone  farther  into  Russia. 
Almost  every  adult  male  has  at  some  time  spent 
several  years  in  Russia.  This  fact  has  given  a 
sense  of  Russia's  power  and  a  conviction  of  its 
future  supremacy,  while  the  absence  from  home 
has  had  a  disintegrating  religious  and  moral 
effect.  The  increasing  misgovernment  of  Persia 
has  made  the  people  long  for  a  change,  a  temper 
induced  also  by  the  various  missionary  opera- 
tions. All  these  influences  prepared  for  the 
Russian  Mission  of  1898,  that  received  in  Urmia 
an  extraordinary  welcome.  Without  any  re- 
ligious persuasion  almost  all  the  adherents  of 
the  Nestorian  Church  in  the  region  of  Urmia 
renounced  its  teachings  and  professed  their 
acceptance  of  the  Orthodox  faith.  Subsequent 
events  disappointed  the  political  aims  of  the  new 
converts,  but  it  is  safe  to  count  the  mass  of  them 
as  permanent  additions  to  the  Russian  Church. 
Time  must  reveal  the  future  of  this  ancient 
church,  but  the  political  predominance  of  Russia 
makes  very  probable  the  absorption  of  most  of 
the  Nestorians,  in  Turkey  as  well  as  in  Persia,  into 
the  Russian  Church.  The  old  church  has  not 
the  strength  to  stand.  The  only  body  that 
seems  to  have  the  promise  of  a  separate  destiny 
is  the  small  but  vigorous  body  of  Protestant 
Nestorians. 

Badger  (G.  P.),  Nestorians  and  Their  Ritual,  London,  1852; 
Missionary  Review  of  the  World  (Nestorians  and  the  Rus- 
sian Church),  Vol.  XII.,  p.  745. 

NETHERLANDS    MISSIONARY    SOCIETIES: 

The  first  missionary  work  by  the  Dutch  was 
connected  with  their  colonial  extension,  and 
dates  back  as  far  as  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  when  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 
was  formed  (1602).  This  commercial  society 
was  bound  by  its  charter  to  care  for  the  church 
interests  of  the  colonists,  and  also  to  endeavor 
to  teach  the  heathen.  There  were  no  special 
missionaries,  but  the  colonial  clergy  were  relied 
upon  for  work,  and  in  order  to  the  provision  of 
the  right  class  of  men,  there  was  organized  at 
Leyden  (1622)  a  seminary  for  the  training  of 
candidates.  The  seminary  was  not  long  con- 
tinued, and,  tho  some  earnest  and  faithful 
workers  were  sent  out,  for  the  most  part  the 
colonial  clergy  were  very  perfunctory  in  the 
performance  of  their  work.  Some  fairly  good 
work  appears  to  have  been  done  in  the  way  of 
Bible  translation  and  education  of  native  clergy, 
but  work  for  natives,  for  the  most  part,  was 
very  superficial.  This  was  due  partly  to  the 
short  service  of  the  preachers,  partly  to  their 
small  number,  and  chiefly  to  lack  of  interest 
on  the  part  of  the  Government.  The  influence 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Missions,  e.  g.,  in  the 
Moluccas,  was  disadvantageous.  Baptisms  were 
made  by  wholesale,  and  on  such  easy_  terms 
that  at  the  close  of  the  17th  century  it  was 
reported  that  there  were  300,000  Christians  in 
Ceylon,  100,000  in  Java,  and  40,000  in  Amboina. 
The  West  India  Company,  formed  in  1621, 
made  some  attempts  in  the  same  line  in  Brazil, 


Netherlands 
Ne-w  Kngland 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


632 


tho  with  no  practical  result,  but  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  the  Dutch  Church  in  the  American 
Colonies. 

During  the  18th  century  all  these  under- 
takings gradually  fell  into  decay,  and  at  the 
revival  of  missionary  interest  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  century,  there  was  almost  no  missionary 
spirit  in  the  churches  of  Holland.  An  appeal 
from  the  LMS  soon  after  its  organization  stirred 
the  hearts  of  some  clergymen  and  laymen  and 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Netherlands 
Missionary  Society  in  1797.  For  some  time 
they  worked  through  the  LMS,  but  later  estab- 
lished missions  of  their  own.  For  half  a  century 
this  remained  the  only  Dutch  society,  but 
beginning  with  1847  a  number  of  societies  were 
formed  by  those  who  felt  unable  to  accept  the 
somewhat  rationalistic  and  formal  management 
of  the  old  society.  These  included:  The  Men- 
nonite  Union  (1847),  The  Christian  Reformed 
Missionary  Society  (1854),  theJava  Comiti  (1855), 
the  Ermelo  Association  (1856),  Netherlands 
Mission  Union  (1858),  Utrecht  Mission  Union 
(1859).  Of  these,  the  Christian  Reformed 
Missionary  Society  and  the  Netherlands  Reformed 
Mission  united  in  1892  to  form  the  Mission  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  in  the  Netherlands.  There 
is  also  a  society  auxiliary  to  the  Moravian 
Missions  (formed  in  1793),  and  there  are  several 
aid  societies. 

1.  Netherlands  Missionary  Society,  1797: 
( Nederlandsch  Zendehnggenootschap) :  The  oldest 
of  the  Dutch  societies  owes  its  origin  to  the 
influence  of  Dr.  Van  der  Kemp,  who  went  to 
South  Africa  in  the  service  of  the  LMS.  It 
represents  chiefly  the  Established  Church,  tho 
from  the  beginning  it  has  had  relations  with  the 
Reformed  Church,  and  the  General  Synod  has 
no  immediate  control  over  its  conduct. 

The  first  missionaries  of  the  Society  under  its 
own  direction,  Vos,  Erhardt,  and  Palm,  were 
sent  to  Ceylon,  but  they  were  unable  to  accom- 
plish very  much  in  that  field,  owing  perhaps  to 
the  hostility  of  the  Dutch  Consistory  of  the 
island.  In  1812  three  missionaries,  Kam,  Supper, 
and  Bruckner,  were  sent  to  Java.  Mr.  Kam 
established  himself  at  Amboina,  in  the  Molucca 
Islands,  Mr.  Bruckner  at  Samarang,  and  Mr. 
Supper  at  Batavia.  Two  years  later,  Holland, 
having  regained  its  independence  from  France, 
the  Society  reorganized  the  seminary,  and  sent 
out  five  missionaries  to  work  with  Mr.  Kam. 
These  established  themselves  at  Celebes,  Ceram, 
Ternati,  Banda,  and  Timor,  and  found  abundant 
opportunities  for  labor.  In  1833  Mr.  Kam, 
who  had  endured  much  exposure  in  his  efforts 
to  travel  from  island  to  island,  and  had  been 
often  employed,  even  by  the  government,  as  a 
peace-maker  among  the  tribes,  died  from  the 
effects  of  overwork.  In  1826  the  same  Society 
sent  out  Mr.  Gutzlaff  to  China.  A  mission  was 
also  established  at  the  Dutch  colony  of  Surinam 
in  Guiana,  and  Alphonse  F.  Lacroix  was  sent  to 
the  Dutch  territory  in  India.  When  in  1825 
the  Dutch  settlements  on  the  continent  of  India 
were  ceded  to  the  British  Government,  their  four 
missionaries  connected  themselves  with  the 
different  English  societies,  thinking  it  better 
not  to  render  their  time  and  labor  and  knowledge 
of  the  languages  of  the  people  of  no  avail.  The 
fields  at  present  (1901)  occupied  are  Java, 
Celebes,  Sumatra,  and  Savu,  near  Timor.  In 
1900  it  had  24  missionaries,  62  native  helpers 
in   11   stations  and  49  outstations,   1,722    com- 


municants, 42  schools  with  2,707  pupils,  1  phy- 
sician, and  1  hospital,   with   4,000  patients. 

2.  Mennonite  Missionary  Union,  1847  {Doops- 
gezinde  Vereeniging) :  The  Anabaptists  of  Holland 
had  worked  through  the  BMS  of  England,  but 
in  1847  formed  their  own  organization  as  above, 
and  commenced  work  in  Java  and  Sumatra. 
The  report  (1900)  shows  11  missionaries,  26 
native  workers,  occupying  4  stations  and  8  out- 
stations, with  458  communicants,  9  schools, 
with  366  pupils,  1  hospital  treating  2,280  patients. 

3.  Java  Committee  (1855),  (Java  Comite  te 
Amsterdam):  The  first  of  the  societies  organized 
in  protest  against  the  Netherlands  Society  in 
1855.  It  carries  on  work  in  Java,  and  has 
(1900)  6  missionaries,  11  native  workers  in  6 
stations  and  8  outstations;  500  communicants, 
8  schools,  225  pupils. 

4.  Mission  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  the 
Netherlands,  1892  (  Z ending  van  de  Gerefor- 
meerde  Kerken  in  Nederland) :  The  Dutch 
Reformed  Missionary  Society  was  founded  at 
Amsterdam  in  1859  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Schwartz, 
missionary  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  to 
the  Jews  in  that  city.  The  original  intention 
was  to  form  a  society  for  the  propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Jews  living  among  the  heathen 
and  Mohammedans  in  the  Dutch  (Indian)  col- 
onies, and  through  them  to  reach  the  heathen 
and  Mohammedans.  The  government,  however, 
out  of  deference  to  the  Jews  in  Holland,  refused 
to  recognize  the  proposed  society,  and  it  was 
resolved  to  commence  work  among  the  heathen 
and  Mohammedans  in  the  island  of  Java. 
Additional  cause  for  this  resolve  lay  in  dissatis- 
faction with  the  old  Netherlands  Missionary 
Society,  on  account  of  its  rationalism.  Already 
there  had  been  formed  the  "Utrecht  Mission 
Society"  and  the  "Netherlands  Mission  Union," 
neither  of  which,  however,  tho  founded  on 
orthodox  principles,  accepted  the  confession  of 
the  Dutch  Reformed  churches,  and  the  new 
Society  was  therefore  formed  to  act  in  conformity 
with  the  recognized  standards  of  these  churches, 
in  genera]  following  the  Presbyterian  polity. 
In  1892  this  Society  united  with  the  Christian 
Reformed  Union,  under  the  title  as  above.  The 
work  is  in  Java,  and  the  report  (1900)  shows  16 
missionaries,  12  native  workers,  6  stations,  9 
outstations,  and  718  communicants. 

5.  Netherlands  Mission  Union,  1858  (Neder- 
landsche  Z  ending  svereeniging) :  This  Society, 
organized  in  1858,  began  its  work  in  Western 
Java  among  the  Sundanese.  It  had  (1900) 
11  missionaries,  32  native  helpers,  9  stations 
and  19  outstations,  871  communicants,  24  schools 
with  851  pupils. 

The  Utrecht  Missionary  Society,  1859  {Utrecht- 
sche  Z  ending  svereeniging:  It  employs  (1900) 
14  missionaries,  41  native  workers  in  7  stations 
and  43  outstations,  with  246  communicants,  41 
schools  with  1,070  pupils. 

The  Committee  for  the  Mission  to  the  Sangir 
and  Talaut  Islands  (1886):  This  Committee 
collects  aid  for  various  needs  of  the  work  of  the 
13  missionaries  and  210  native  workers.  Their 
salaries  are  assumed  by  the  Dutch  Government. 
The  number  of  communicants  reported  in  the 
islands  is  10,459,  a  very  much  larger  number 
than  is  shown  by  any  other  Dutch  Society  working 
in  that  region.  There  are  also  26  schools  with 
4,184  pupils. 

NEU  BETHEL.  See  Bethel,  German  East 
Africa. 


633 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Netherlandn 
Jiew  Bngrland 


NEITENDETTELSAU  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY. 

See  Germany;  Missionary  Societies  in. 

NEUENKIRCHEN:  A  station  of  the  Hermanns- 
burg  Missionary  Society  in  Natal,  South  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Tugela  valley.  It  has  (1901)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native  workers,  2  places 
of  worship,  1  day  school,  and  58  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  37  are  communicants. 

NEU  HALLE :  A  village  in  the  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  about  80  miles  N.  E.  of  Pretoria. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1873), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  13  native  workers,  4 
outstations,  and  1,008  professed  Christians.  The 
village  was  formerly  called  Marapjane  in  the 
Society  reports. 

NEU  HANNOVER.     See  New  Hanover. 

NEUKIRCHEN  MISSIONARY  INSTITUTE. 
See  Germany;  Missionary  Societies  in. 

NEW  AMSTERDAM :  A  town  in  British  Guiana 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Berbice  River,  near  its 
mouth,  63  miles  S.  E.  of  Georgetown,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  railway.  Station  of  the 
Moravian  Missions,  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  19  native  workers,  3  outstations,  4  places 
of  worship,  2  day  schools,  and  293  professed 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  SDA,  with  2 
missionaries,  1  physician;  church  statistics  in 
Georgetown.  Station  also  of  the  SPG,  with  1 
missionary,  2  native  workers,  1  day  school,  and 
130  professed  Christians.  Station  of  the  West 
Indies  Wesleyan  Methodist  Conference,  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  5  outstations,  4  places  of 
worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  5  day  schools,  and  409 
professed  Christians. 

NEW  CALEDONIA:  An  island  in  Melanesia 
which,  together  with  its  dependency,  the  Loyalty 
Islands,  is  a  French  colonv,  lying  about  720  miles 
northeast  of  Australia,  in  latitude  20°-22°  30' 
south  and  longitude  164°-167°  east.  It  is  200 
miles  long,  30  broad,  with  an  area  of  6,000  square 
miles,  and  a  population  (1901)  of  51,000:  29,000 
natives,  the  remainder  colonists,  soldiers,  and 
convicts.  The  natives  resemble  the  Papuans. 
The  Roman  Catholics  have  established  missions 
at  various  points  on  the  island,  but  so  far  little 
Protestant  work  has  been  undertaken  beyond 
that  which  Christian  natives  of  the  Loyalty 
Islands  are  able  to  do.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1853,  and  has  been  a  penal  settlement 
since  1872. 

NEW  CARMEL:  A  village  in  Jamaica,  W.  I., 
situated  in  the  W.  part  of  the  island,  S.  E.  of 
Savanna  la  Mar.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mis- 
sions (1827),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  28  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of 
worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  Society  for  Young 
People,  and  688  professed  Christians. 

NEWCHWANG:  One  of  the  treaty  ports  of 
China,  in  the  Manchurian  province,  Shing-king; 
situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Liao-ho,  35  miles  from 
the  Gulf  of  Liao-tung,  in  a  vast  alluvial  plain, 
extending  seaward.  The  real  port  is  Ying-tze, 
farther  down  the  river,  to  which  the  name  of 
Newchwang  is  also  applied.  The  port  is  closed 
by  ice  for  four  or  five  months  in  the  year.  The 
product  of  pulse  and  beans  is  the  principal  export. 
Population  about  50,000.  Station  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Ireland  (1869),  with  (1901)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  21  native  workers,  8  out- 
stations, 10  places  of  worship,  1  theological  class, 
and  110  professed  Christians.     Station  also  of 


the   SPG   (1892),   with  a  chaplain  for  English 
residents. 

NEWELL,  Samuel:  Born  at  Durham,  Me., 
U.  S.  A.,  July  24,  1784;  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  and  Andover  Seminary.  He  was  one  of 
that  band  of  young  students  whose  devotion  and 
earnest  entreaty  to  the  ministers  of  Massachu- 
setts called  the  American  Board  into  existence. 
He  married  Harriet  Atwood,  and  sailed  February 
19,  1812,  as  a  missionary  of  the  American  Board 
for  Calcutta.  Forbidden  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany to  remain  in  its  territory,  he  sailed  with  his 
wife  for  Mauritius  to  establish  a  mission  for  that 
island  and  Madagascar.  Mrs.  Newell  died  soon 
after  their  arrival,  and  Mr.  Newell  went  to  Ceylon, 
the  opening  there  for  a  mission  being  favorable; 
but  in  January,  1814,  he  joined  his  former  fellow- 
students  and  his  associates  under  the  ABCFM, 
Hall  and  Nott,  at  Bombay.  Seven  years  later  a 
terrible  epidemic  of  cholera  swept  through  the 
country.  Mr.  Newell  devoted  himself  to  the  sick 
until  he  himself  took  the  disease  from  the  natives 
and  died  May  30,  1821.  His  grave  is  in  the  Eng- 
lish cemetery  at  Bombay. 

NEW  ENGLAND  COMPANY:  Headquarters, 
1  Hatton  Garden,  London,  E.  C,  England.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  17th  century  the  English 
colonists  of  New  England,  headed  by  the  re- 
nowned John  Eliot,  "the  Apostle  to  the  North 
American  Red  Men,"  began  the  work  among 
the  Indians  which  laid  the  foundations  for  the 
New  England  Company.  The  accounts  of  the 
work  among  the  Red  Men,  circulated  throughout 
London  in  writings  called  "tracts,"  aroused  so 
much  interest  in  the  great  city  that  the  needs  of 
the  Indians  were  brought  before  Parliament,  and 
on  July  27,  1649,  an  act  was  passed  withthis  title: 
"  A  Corporation  for  the  Promoting  and  Propa- 
gating the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  m  New  Eng- 
land." In  this  act  was  recognized  the  necessity 
of  work  among  the  Indians  for  the  purposes  of 
evangelization  and  civilization,  and  provision  was 
made  for  the  expenditure  involved  in  the  further- 
ance of  such  work.  The  ordinance  enacted  that 
there  should  be  a  corporation  in  England  con- 
sisting of  a  president,  treasurer,  and  fourteen 
assistants,  and  invested  the  corporation  with 
power  to  acquire  lands,  goods,  and  money. 

History:  Soon  after  the  action  of  Parliament 
and  the  appointment  of  the  members  of  the  Cor- 
poration, a  general  subscription  was  directed  by 
Cromwell,  the  Lord  Protector,  and  nearly  £12,- 
000  was  raised  for  the  purposes  of  the  corpora- 
tion. Commissioners  and  a  treasurer  were  ap- 
pointed in  New  England,  and  work  was  carried 
on  by  itinerant  missionaries  and  school-teachers, 
chiefly  near  Boston.  On  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  in  1660,  the  corporation  created  by 
the  Long  Parliament  became  defunct,  but  through 
the  eff'orts  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle  a  charter 
was  granted  by  the  king.  This  charter  was  com- 
pleted in  1662.  By  it  the  company  was  limited 
to  forty-five  members;  the  first  forty-five  named; 
the  object  defined;  the  name  decided  as  "The 
Company  for  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  New 
England  and  the  parts  adjacent  in  America;"  the 
duties  and  powers  of  the  officers  defined;  and,  in 
fact,  the  complete  constitution  was  made  and 
adopted.  In  1899  a  supplemental  charter  was 
granted  by  Queen  Victoria,  authorizing  the 
expenditure  of  the  whole  of  the  company's  funds 
in  any  part  of  British  North  America. 

The    work   progressed   in   the   New   England 


Weiiv  Guinea 
Newton,  Rev.  C.  C. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


634 


states  until  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  American 
Independence,  when  the  company  was  obliged 
to  cease  its  labors  there.  The  field  was,  there- 
fore, transferred  to  New  Brunswick,  but  after  a 
fair  attempt  was  found  unprofitable,  and  was 
removed  to  Ontario,  where  since  1822  the  work 
has  been  permanently  maintained.  Between 
"the  years  1823  and  1840  large  sums  were  con- 
tributed toward  aiding  the  missions  in  the  West 
Indies,  but  the  increase  of  the  work  in  North 
America  of  late  years  has  necessitated  the  with- 
drawal of  funds  from  that  quarter,  and  all  have 
been  devoted  to  the  missions  of  the  company. 

Present  Work:  The  funds  of  the  company  are 
■derived  from  three  sources,  the  original  charter 
fund  and  two  legacies.  The  money  coming  from 
two  of  these  sources  may  be  used  only  for  work 
among  the  American  Indians  and  work  in 
American  dependencies  of  the  British  crown, 
"while  that  from  the  third  may  be  used  for  spread- 
ing the  Gospel  in  any  British  colonies.  The  work 
tarried  on  now  by  the  company  is  evangelistic 
and  educational  among  the  Indian  tribes  of 
British  North  America.  The  company's  stations 
at  the  present  time  are: 

1.  The  Grand  River  Indian  Reserves,  among 
the  Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Onondagas,  Cayugas, 
Senecas,  and  Tuscaroras,  settled  on  the  banks  of 
the  Grand  River  between  Brantford  and  Lake 
Erie. 

2.  Mohawk  Institution,  Brantford,  Ont.,  an 
industrial  boarding  school  for  Indian  children  of 
both  sexes. 

3.  St.  George's  School,  near  Lytton,  British 
Columbia,  an  industrial  boarding  school  for 
Indian  boys. 

NEW  GUINEA.     See  Papua. 

NEW  HANOVER:  A  town  in  Natal,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  N.  Hanover  district,  22 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Pietermaritzburg.  Station  of 
the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1862), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  3  day 
schools,   and  227  professed  Christians. 

NEW  HEBRIDES  ISLANDS:  A  group  included 
in  Melanesia,  Pacific  Ocean,  lying  between 
latitude  21°  and  15°  south,  and  longitude  171° 
and  166°  east,  about  1,000  miles  north  of  New 
Zealand.  They  were  discovered  and  described 
by  Cook  in  1773.  There  are  about  30  islands 
of  volcanic  origin,  mountainous,  with  wooded 
ridges  and  fertile  valleys,  nearly  all  of  them  inhab- 
ited. Coconut  and  other  magnificent  trees 
grow  in  profusion,  and  the  soil,  like  that  of  most 
volcanic  islands,  is  very  fertile,  and  fruits  and 
vegetables  are  raised  in  abundance.  The  popu- 
lation numbers  perhaps  80,000,  and  belongs  in 
general  to  the  Papuan  race.  The  general  type 
is  rather  ugly,  below  the  middle  height,  fairer 
than  the  typical  Papuan,  with  low,  receding 
foreheads,  broad  faces,  and  flat  noses.  Brace- 
lets, earrings,  and  noserings  made  out  of  shells 
very  often  used  to  be  their  only  clothing,  tho  oil 
and  red  clay  were  smeared  over  the  body  in  some 
of  the  islands.  The  characteristics  and  habits  of 
the  people  differ  greatly  in  the  Various  islands, 
several  islands  having  become  Christianized, 
while  on  some  of  the  other  islands  cannibalism 
is  still  possible.  The  languages  of  the  islands 
are  about  twenty  in  number,  and  sometimes  two 
or  three  are  used  on  the  same  island,  so  that  the 
missionaries  laboring  at  opposite  sides  of  the 
islands  are  unable  to  use  each  other's  books  for 


their  respective  congregations.  These  languages 
are  alike  in  grammatical  construction,  and  belong 
to  the  Melanesian  family.  Many  of  them  have 
been  reduced  to  writing  by  the  missionaries. 

The  history  of  these  islands  furnishes  many 
illustrations  of  the  short-sightedness  of  the 
theory  that  savage  tribes  ought  to  be  given 
civilization  "through  commercial  intercourse" 
rather  than  through  religion.  It  also  offers 
abundant  proof  of  the  power  of  the  Gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ  to  change  and  elevate  the  most 
degraded  races,  and  to  develop  stable  and  noble 
character  in  converts  from  heathenism. 

Traders  were  the  first  Europeans  to  deal  with 
the  inhabitants  of  the  most  of^  the  islands.  The 
aim,  of  course,  of  these  men  was  the  benefit  of  the 
trader,  not  of  the  people  whom  commercial 
intercourse  was  to  civilize  and  elevate.  Just  at 
this  point — of  aim,  and  interest,  and  motive — is 
where  the  expectation  breaks  down  that  savages 
will  be  civilized  through  commerce.  Religion 
only  controls  beneficently  the  dealings  of  men 
with  those  who  are  ignorant  and  unsuspicious  of 
the  powers  which  civilization  confers.  The 
articles  of  barter  of  the  European  traders  were 
largely  weapons  and  liquors,  both  of  which  fed 
the  flames  of  war  among  the  tribes.  But  these 
early  agents  of  "civilization"  used  fraud  and 
deceit;  they  seized,  by  force,  what  they  could 
not  get  by  free  consent;  they  even  carried  off 
men's  wives,  and  later  they  kidnapped  men  to 
sell  as  plantation  laborers,  wherever  there  might 
be  a  market  for  sturdy  muscle  of  chief  or  pe6n; 
and  their  brutality  and  ungovernable  passions 
drove  the  islanders  to  frenzy.  If  the  savages 
were  cruel  and  treacherous,  the  traders  made 
them  more  savage  and  treacherous  and  cruel, 
while  the  loathsome  diseases  these  strangers 
introduced  decimated  the  population  of  the 
teeming  islands,  and  made  it  certain  to  all  that 
white  men  can  cause  disease  and  death.  Thus 
the  New  Hebrides  became  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  and  discouraging  of  mission  fields. 

Beginning  at  the  southern  end  of  the  group 
the  following  are  the  more  important  of  the 
islands:  Aneitium  is  a  very  picturesque,  and 
even  imposing,  island,  with  a  climate  in  general 
good,  and  not  unhealthful  to  those  who  under- 
stand how  to  avoid  the  malaria  of  the  lowlands. 
It  was  visited  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th 
century  by  European  traders  seeking  sandal- 
wood. In  1841  the  LMS  sent  native  converts 
from  Samoa  there  to  teach  the  people.  They 
had  to  flee  for  their  lives,  and,  returning  later, 
were  always  in  jeopardy.  They  were  followed 
in  1848  by  the  Rev.  John  Geddie,  sent  out  by 
the  Presbyterians  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  he,  after 
long  and  perilous  efforts,  won  a  hearing.  The 
inhabitants  are  all  Christians  now,  and  it  is  a 
station  of  the  New  Hebrides  Mission,  with  a 
missionary  physician  and  his  wife  and  about  50 
native  workers  occupied  in  different  parts  of 
this  and  neighboring  islands.  Tanna  contains 
an  active  volcano  which  shines  in  cloud  by  day, 
and  in  fire  by  night — "the  lighthouse  of  the 
South  Pacific,  lit  by  the  finger  of  God."  This 
island  was  occupied  in  1839  by  native  teachers 
from  Samoa,  sent  by  the  LMS.  Two  mission- 
aries of  the  LMS  barely  escaped  from  it  with 
their  lives  in  1848,  and  the  story  of  savagery  and 
hostility  was  repeated  during  ten  years.  At 
last  a  permanent  missionary  settlement  was 
effected  in  1868.  There  are  now  3  missionaries 
of  the  New  Hebrides  Mission  at  Tanna,  with 


635 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


New  Guinea 
Newton,  Rev.  C,  C. 


several  native  workers,  a  printing  house,  and 
about  30  communicants.  At  Fotuna,  the  first 
missionaries  were  Samoan  converts,  sent  by  the 
LMS  in  1841.  They  were  at  once  killed  and 
eaten  by  the  inhabitants.  In  1851  a  convert 
from  Aneitium  was  sent  there  who  succeeded  in 
gaining  the  hearts  of  some  of  the  people.  It  is 
still  treated  as  an  outstation  of  Aneitium,  and 
the  people  have  made  progress  in  adopting 
Christian  principles  of  life.  Aniwa,  like  the 
other  islands,  is  of  volcanic  formation,  but  it  is 
only  300  leet  in  height,  and  is  girt  about  by  a 
reef  of  coral  upon  which  the  surf  is  ever  breaking. 
The  LMS  sent  Samoan  teachers  there  in  1840, 
one  of  whom  was  killed.  Other  teachers  were 
sent  from  Aneitium,  but  little  progress  was  made 
until  Rev.  J.  G.  Paton  arrived  there  in  1866. 
This  was  the  island  of  scanty  water  supply, 
where  the  back  of  heathenism  was  broken  by 
the  tact  of  the  missionary  in  digging  a  well  which 
supplied  the  people  with  water.  It  is  now  a 
station  of  the  New  Hebrides  Mission,  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  missionary  woman, 
5  schools,  and  80  church  members.  Erromango 
was  visited  by  Rev.  John  Williams,  of  the  LMS, 
in  1839.  He  chanced  to  go  toward  a  place 
where  the  natives  were  holding  a  feast.  Traders 
had  seized  the  food  from  such  feasts  in  years 
gone  by,  and  the  natives,  supposing  that  Mr. 
Williams  and  his  companions  were  about  to  do 
the  same,  killed  him  in  self-defense.  The  LMS 
sent  native  converts  from  Samoa  there  in  1840, 
but  they  were  driven  away.  Others  were  sent 
in  1852,  some  converts  were  made,  taken  away, 
and  educated  by  the  LMS  and  sent  back  to 
teach  their  own  people;  and  in  1857  the  Rev.  G. 
Gordon  and  his  wife  were  sent  there  by  the  Nova 
Scotia  Presbyterians.  They  were  both  murdered. 
Mr.  Gordon's  brother  went  out  to  take  up  the 
martyr's  work,  and  he,  too,  was  murdered.  The 
same  year  the  New  Hebrides  Mission  sent  another 
missionary  and  his  wife  to  Erromanga,  and  this 
temerity  has  been  justified,  for  in  1900  there  were 
330  church  members  in  the  island  under  charge 
of  a  missionary  and  his  wife,  and  16  native 
workers.  Efate,  or  Vote,  is  a  beautiful  island 
about  thirty  miles  long,  described  by  the  earliest 
missionaries  as  teeming  with  a  population  of 
noble  aspect  and  gentle  manners.  The  traders, 
with  their  oppression  and  their  brutal  crimes, 
had  driven  these  people  to  fury,  and  the  first 
missionary  teachers,  sent  by  the  LMS  in  1839, 
were  killed  and  eaten.  More  Samoan  teachers 
went  there  in  1845,  and  the  New  Hebrides  Mission 
sent  a  missionary  there  in  1865.  It  now  has 
about  250  church  members.  Nguna  was  first 
entered  by  the  native  teachers  of  the  LMS  in 
1845.  The  people  now  are  all  Christians,  and 
there  are  800  church  members.  Api  was 
another  of  the  islands  on  which  the  LMS  stationed 
teachers  who  were  converts  from  other  islands. 
Missionaries  of  the  New  Hebrides  Mission 
settled  there  in  1882.  It  now  has  480  church 
members.  Ambrym  is  a  small  island  in  the 
central  part  of  the  group,  with  an  active  volcano. 
It  was  occupied  as  a  station  by  the  New  Hebrides 
Mission  in  1892,  after  having  been  visited  by 
native  missionary  teachers.  It  is  now  a  center 
of  work  for  several  neighboring  islands,  with  a 
hospital  and  a  strong  missionary  force.  Mal- 
licolo  is  one  of  the  larger  islands,  being  about 
sixty  miles  long.  It  is  inhabited  by  cannibals 
still.  It  has  3  missionaries  of  the  New  Hebrides 
Mission.     Espirilu  Santo   is  seventy  miles  long, 


and  is  the  largest  of  the  New  Hebrides.  It  waa 
discovered  by  the  Spaniard  Fernandez  de 
Quiros  in  1606.  He  supposed  it  to  be  a  great 
continent,  bestowed  upon  it  the  pious  and  cum- 
bersome name  Tierra  Australis  del  Espiritu 
Santo,  and  sailed  away  to  announce  his  discovery. 
The  name  is  commonly  reduced  in  practise  to 
Santo,  or  at  most  to  E.  Santo.  Cannibals  are 
still  found  on  this  island  also.  The  New  Hebrides 
Mission  has  established  there  several  flourishing 
stations  and  an  industrial  school.  The  northern 
part  of  the  New  Hebrides,  with  the  Banks 
Islands  and  the  Torres  Islands,  is  the  field  of  the 
Melanesian  Mission,  begun  by  Bishop  Selwyn  of 
New  Zealand  in  1859.  This  has  been  a  very 
successful  mission.  In  Mota  the  inhabitants  are 
all  Christians,  and  in  Merelava  and  Motalava 
there  are  strong  Christian  churches  with  some 
hundreds  of  members. 

Taking  the  New  Hebrides  as  a  whole,  probably 
few  mission  fields  have  so  brought  into  promi- 
nence the  splendid  courage  and  devotion  of  both 
missionaries  and  native  workers,  and  the  depth 
and  permanence  of  the  change  produced  in  a 
barbarous  and  heathen  people  by  acceptance  of 
the  leadership  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Armstrong  (E.  S.),  History  of  the  Melanesian  Mission,  New 
York,  1900;  Paton  (J.  G.),  Autobiography,  London,  2  vols., 
1897;  Codrington  (R.  H.),  Melanesians;  Studies  in 
Anthropology,  etc.,  London,  1891-  Inglis  (J.),  In  the  New 
Hebrides,  London,  1886;  Paton  (Mrs.  M.  W.),  Letters  and 
Sketches  from  the  New  Hebrides,  London,  1883;  Montgom- 
ery (H.  H.),  Light  of  Melanesia,  London,  1896. 

NEW  HEBRIDES  MISSION:  This  is  a  syn- 
odical  union  of  missionaries  of  several  different 
Presbyterian  Boards  carrying  on  mission  worlc 
in  the  New  Hebrides  Islands.  The  eight  churches 
supporting  this  mission  are  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada  (formed  by  the  union  in  1876 
of  the  various  branches  of  Scotch  Presbyterians 
in  Canada);  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  the  Presbyterian  Churches  of  Victoria,  New 
Zealand,  Otago,  Tasmania,  South  Australia, 
and  New  South  Wales.  The  Established  Church 
of  Scotland  also  renders  support  in  connection 
with  the  Church  in  Canada. 

The  representatives  of  these  various  branches 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  have  formed  them- 
selves into  one  Synod,  called  the  "New  Hebrides 
Mission  Synod,"  which  meets  annually,  and  is 
the  supreme  authority  in  the  mission  in  all 
general  matters,  each  missionary  being  under 
the  Synod  in  a  general  way,  while  personally 
responsible  only  to  the  church  by  which  he  is 
supported. 

The  first  missionary  was  the  Rev.  John  Geddie, 
sent  out  in  1848  by  the  Secession  Church  in 
Nova  Scotia.  He  was  joined  later  by  the  Rev. 
John  Inglis  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland,  originally  appointed  to  the 
Maoris  of  New  Zealand,  and  followed  in  1857  by 
Rev.  John  G.  Paton  and  Rev.  Josiah  Copeland. 
Then  one  by  one  the  other  churches  came  into 
the  union,  some  sending  workers,  some  con- 
tributing to  the  general  support  of  the  mission. 
The  field  of  the  mission  is  found  in  the  islands  of 
the  New  Hebrides,  excepting  those  farthest  to 
the  north,  which  fall  within  the  field  of  the 
Melanesian  Mission. 

NEW  NICKERIE.     See  Nickeeie. 

NEW  ROTTERDAM.     The  same  as  Nickerie. 

NEWTON,  Rev.  C.  C. :  Missionary  of  the 
Southern  Baptist  Missionary  Convention  to  the 
Yorubas,  Africa.    Born  1844,  died  July  20,  1894. 


NcTTton,  Jotin 
Ngrao 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


636 


His  body  was  buried  in  the  ocean  about  240 
miles  from  Lagos.  He  was  a  laborious,  deeply 
pious,  and  successful  missionary.  His  wife 
preceded  him  to  her  heavenlv  home  only  by  a 
few  months.  Both  died  from  exposure  to  the 
terrible  African  climate.  These  two  have 
a  special  claim  to  remembrance  by  the 
church  to  which  they  belonged,  in  that  they 
helped  greatly  in  the  reestablishment  of  Southern 
Baptist  Missions  in  Africa  after  the  interruption 
caused  by  the  Civil  War  in  America. 

NEWTON,  John:  Bom  about  1811;  appointed 
missionary  to  India,  1835;  died  Muree,  India, 
July  21,  1891. 

Dr.  Newton  went  to  India  as  a  missionary  of 
the  PN  in  1835,  arriving  at  Calcutta  in  June  of 
that  year,  accompanied  by  Rev.  James  Wilson 
and  his  wife.  Setting  out  from  Calcutta  in  a 
native  boat  on  the  Ganges  they  began  their  long 
journey  of  1,200  miles  to  their  chosen  field  at 
Ludhiana. 

His  labors  were  most  various.  Always  fore- 
most with  him  was  the  direct  preaching  of  the 
Word,  and  that  hand-to-hand  effort  by  conversa- 
tion with  individuals  which  he  felt  to  be  one  of 
the  missionary's  most  effective  methods.  He 
was  a  powerful  and  attractive  preacher,  both  in 
English  and  in  the  vernaculars. 

Dr.  Newton  took  with  him  when  he  first  went 
to  India  an  old-fashioned  wooden  printing  press, 
which  he  set  up  in  a  little  house  secured  for  that 
purpose,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  for  that 

Eublishing  establishment  which,  during  the  next 
fty  years,  was  destined  to  issue  about  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-seven  million  pages  in  ten  different 
languages.  In  this  literary  work,  Dr.  Newton 
throughout  his  missionary  career  was  eminent. 
The  Punjabi  language  is  indebted  to  him  for  the 
foundation  of  its  religious  literature.  Besides 
the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Pun- 
jabi and  numerous  tracts  in  that  language,  his 
literary  labors,  with  those  of  his  associate.  Rev.  L. 
Janvier,  included  a  Punjabi  grammar  and  dic- 
tionary, a  commentary  on  Ephesians  in  Urdu,  and 
important  tracts  in  both  Urdu  and  Hindi. 

From  the  Ludhiana  Mission,  of  which  Dr. 
Newton  was  then  the  senior  missionary,  was 
issued  in  1858  that  call  to  the  observance  of  the 
week  of  prayer,  which  has  since  become  so  wide- 
spread and  so  fixed  a  custom  throughout  the 
Christian  world. 

NEW  ZEALAND:  The  colony  of  New  Zealand 
consists  of  three  islands,  viz.,  North,  Middle,  and 
South,  or  Stewart's  Island,  together  with  cer- 
tain small  islets.  The  North  Island  is  44,000 
square  miles,  the  Middle  Island  55,000,  and 
Stewart's  Island  1,000  square  miles.  Thus  the 
area  of  the  three  islands  in  round  numbers  is 
about  100,000  square  miles.  The  principal 
islands  are  separated  by  Cook's  Straits,  and 
Foveaux  Straits  separate  Stewart's  from  Middle 
Island.  The  entire  length  of  the  colony  is  1,100 
miles,  and  resembles  Italy  in  form,  while  in  size 
it  is  somewhat  less  than  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. In  the  North  Island  the  mountains  occupy 
one-tenth  of  the  surface,  and  vary  from 
1,500  to  6,000  feet  in  height.  There  are  a  few 
loftier  volcanic  mountains,  as  Tongariro  (6,500 
feet),  which  is  occasionally  active;  Ruaperhui 
(9,100  feet)  and  Mount  Egmont  are  extinct  vol- 
canoes above  the  snow-line.  In  the  Middle 
Island  Mount  Cook  rises  to  about  13,000  feet  in 
height.     New  Zealand  is  situated  in  the  South 


Pacific  Ocean,  1,200  miles  south  of  the  Australian 
continent,  and  about  8,000  miles  from  San 
Francisco.  The  entire  group  lies  between  34° 
and  48°  S.  latitude  and  166°  and  179°  E.  longi- 
tude. 

The  climate  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  world.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of 
the  different  seasons  for  the  whole  colony  is,  in 
spring  55°,  in  summer  63°,  in  autumn  57°,  and 
in  winter  48°.  In  future  it  will  become  the 
favorite  resort  of  persons  seeking  health  from  all 

fjarts  of  the  world,  possessing,  as  it  does,  within  a 
imited  area,  the  most  charming  scenery  and 
most  desirable  climate.  The  death  rate  is  only 
10.29  per  1,000. 

The  natives  (called  Maoris)  are  of  Malay  origin, 
and  superior  to  other  inhabitants  of  the  Pacific 
intellectually  and  physically.  The  Maori  is  the 
average  size  of  a  European,  viz.,  5  ft.  6  in.,  but 
not  so  well  developed.  Mentally  the  natives 
are  capable  of  very  considerable  development, 
and  may  hereafter  fulfil  Lord  Macaulay's  predic-  ■ 
tion  of  them. 

The  government  is  administered  by  a  Govern- 
or appointed  by  the  crown,  and  a  Ministry,  a 
Legislative  Council  nominated  by  the  crown, 
and  a  House  of  Representatives  elected  by  the 
people.  The  population  is  about  800,000;  of 
these,  40,000  are  Maoris. 

New  Zealand  was  first  discovered  by  Tasman 
in  1642,  and  surveyed  by  Captain  Cook  in  1770. 
Thereafter  it  was  frequently  visited  by  whalers, 
and  Maoris  from  New  Zealand  were  frequently 
taken  to  Australia.  It  was  to  this  circumstance 
that  the  beginning  of  missionary  work  in  New 
Zealand  is  due.  The  apostle  to  the  Maoris  is  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Marsden,  of  the  Church  of  England, 
who  was  chaplain  of  the  penal  settlement  at  Port 
Jackson  in  Australia.  He  was  struck  by  the 
superiority  of  the  Maoris  whom  he  saw,  and  in 
1807  he  persuaded  the  CMS  to  undertake  a  mis- 
sion in  New  Zealand.  Matters  did  not  move 
quicldy,  and  it  was  not  until  1814  that  Marsden 
set  out  with  three  lay  missionaries  in  a  brig  that 
he  had  bought  for  the  purpose.  He  had  with  him 
several  Maoris,  with  whom  he  had  become 
acquainted;  two  of  them  chiefs.  He  landed  his 
party  at  the  home  of  one  of  these  men,  and  on 
Christmas  Day,  1814,  inaugurated  the  mission 
by  an  open-air  service,  the  first  Christian  service 
ever  held  in  New  Zealand;  one  of  the  Maoris 
translating  to  the  people  what  Mr.  Marsden  said 
in  his  sermon. 

The  work  went  on  in  a  marvelous  manner  until, 
the  European  settlers  in  the  islands  having 
greatly  increased  in  numbers.  Bishop  Selwyn  was 
consecrated  as  Bishop  of  New  Zealand  in  1841. 
He  was  amazed  at  what  he  found.  Everywhere 
he  found  the  natives  eager  for  instruction,  meet- 
ing for  daily  prayers,  keeping  Sunday,  learning 
to  read  the  portions  of  Scripture  that  had  been 
translated  into  their  language.  "In  short,"  he 
wrote  home,  "I  seem  to  see  a  nation  born  in  a 
day."  But  not  long  after  this  war  broke  out  in 
the  islands,  largely  due  to  indignation  at  land- 
grabbing  by  English  settlers;  the  "Hau-hau" 
superstition  invaded  the  churches,  and  within 
twenty  years  the  whole  missionary  enterprise 
seemed  doomed,  through  the  rapid  diminution 
of  numbers  of  the  natives. 

Meanwhile,  the  Church  of  England  was  con- 
solidating and  increasing  its  forces  among  the 
European  settlers.  It  sought  from  the  begin- 
ning to  make  the  adjacent  islands  of  the  Pacific 


637 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Ne^vton,  John 
Jigao 


the  field  of  its  own  efforts  at  evangelization,  and 
has  nobly  fulfilled  its  duty.  It  was  Bishop  Sel- 
wyn  who  began  that  work  in  the  New  Hebrides 
which  is  now  the  Melanesian  Mission,  and  as 
early  as  1855  the  martyr  Bishop  Patteson  was 
appointed  over  the  islands,  which  now  form  a 
diocese  of  New  Zealand,  while  New  Zealand 
itself  is  hardly  to  be  called  a  foreign  mission 
field. 

The  WMS  was  the  first  society  to  follow  in  the 
footsteps  of  the  CMS.  It  sent  its  first  mission- 
aries to  New  Zealand  in  1822.  But  disaster  fol- 
lowed the  effort.  In  five  years  no  impression  had 
been  made;  the  mission  station  at  Kaeo,  in  what 
is  now  the  district  of  Auckland,  was  destroyed 
by  hostile  Maoris,  and  the  missionaries,  barely 
escaping  with  their  lives,  retired  to  Australia  early 
in  1827.  But  they  returned  and  opened  a  new 
station  in  New  Zealand  the  same  year.  After 
five  years  more  of  seemingly  fruitless  work  light 
began  to  appear,  and  in  1834  eighty-one  converts 
were  baptized  in  one  day.  In  1855,  when  the 
Australian  Wesleyan  Conference  was  formed  and 
took  the  control  of  the  mission,  there  were  16 
circuits  or  stations,  500  European  and  2,500 
Maori  members,  2,500  European  and  7,500 
Maori  adherents,  40  churches  or  other  places  of 
worship  for  Europeans,  and  nearly  200  for  Maoris. 
Then  the  same  experience  befell  the  Wesleyans 
that  for  a  time  seemed  to  overwhelm  the  Church 
of  England  missions.  War  and  the  revival  of 
superstitions  paralyzed  growth.  The  Maoris 
shot  Whlteley  in  1869,  a  missionary  who  had 
given  his  life  to  their  welfare.  The  whole  enter- 
prise seemed  to  be  coming  to  an  end.  But,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Church  of  England,  so  in  the  case 
of  the  Wesleyans:  the  European  Wesleyan 
churches  of  New  Zealand  grew  and  prospered;  in 
1784  the  Wesleyan  Conference  of  New  Zealand 
was  formed  and  the  local  church  has  since  then 
done  its  share  in  the  work  of  evangelizing  the 
remains  of  the  Maori  people. 

New  Zealand  as  a  Christian  country  has  also 
its  Presbyterian  Church  organization.  The 
Presbyterian  missions  to  the  Maoris  began  in  1841. 
While  the  Presbyterians  of  New  Zealand  have 
done  their  share  of  the  local  work  of  evangeliza- 
tion, their  special  field  has  been  the  New  Heb- 
rides mission,  well  known  to  the  world  through 
the  thrilling  descriptions  of  the  saintly  Paton. 

The  Congregationalists  also  have  local  churches 
in  New  Zealand  and  give  their  funds  for  mission- 
ary work  to  the  LMS,  with  which  they  cooperate. 
The  Baptists  came  late  into  the  field,  but  they 
have  a  vigorous  missionary  organization  and 
besides  work  for  the  Maoris  they  maintain 
missionaries  of  their  own  in  India. 

Work  of  missions  for  the  Maoris  is  thus  seen  to 
be  a  work  of  the  churches  in  a  Christian  land, 
aided  also  by  volunteers  Hke  the  Salvation  Army, 
who  have  come  into  the  islands  and  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Maoris  in  their  own  way. 
New  Zealand  is  no  longer  an  outpost  of  evangel- 
ization, but  a  new  center  whence  the  blessed 
influences  go  forth. 

Meanwhile  contact  with  the  great  outside 
world  has  brought  to  the  natives  a  variety  of 
adverse  influences.  One  notable  example  of  this 
is  a  comparatively  recent  invasion  of  Mormons, 
who,  it  is  reported,  have  won  3,000  native  con- 
verts. Those  who  have  carefully  studied  the 
subject  speak  of  the  Maoris'  future  as  not  prom- 
ising. Christianity  has  striven  to  elevate  the 
natives;  but   so-called    civiUzation,   introducing 


alongside  the  Gospel  message  many  forms  of 
vice,  has  done  much  to  degrade  and  destroy. 

Page  (J.),  Among  the  Maoris,  New  York,  1894;  Shortland 
(E.),  Maori  Religion  and  Mythology,  London,  1882; 
Williams  (W.),  Christianity  among  the  New  Zealanders, 
London,  1866.  See  also  Missionary  Review  of  the  World, 
Vol.  XV.,  p.  326. 

NEYOOR:  A  town  in  Travancore,  India,  22 
miles  N.  of  Cape  Comorin.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1828),  with  U903)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  2  women  missionaries,  229  native  workers, 
71  outstations,  59  day  schools,  61  Sunday  schools, 
1  boarding  school,  7  dispensaries,  8  hosfjitals,  1 
leper  asylum  and  13,259  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  1,699  are  communicants.  Station  also  of 
Mission  to  Lepers  (1887),  with  (1903)  a  home  for 
untainted  children  of  lepers. 

NGANDA:  A  settlement  in  the  French  Congo 
Territory,  Africa,  not  far  from  the  Congo  River. 
Station  of  the  Swedish  Missionary  Society  (1890), 
with  (1901)  3  missionaries,  2  of  them  witii  their 
wives;  2  women  missionaries,  15  native  workers, 
15  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  1  indus- 
trial school,  and  248  professed  Christians. 

NGAN-HSIEN:  A  village  in  the  Province  of 
Sze-chwan,  China,  situated  25  miles  N.  W.  of 
Mien-chau.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1894),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  woman 
missionary,  and  8  professed  Christians.  The 
name  is  also  written  An-hsien. 

NGAN-JEN-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  Province 
of  Kiang-si,  China,  situated  45  miles  N.  E.  of 
Fu-chau-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1889),  with 
(1903)  3  women  missionaries,  4  native  workers, 

3  outstations,  4  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  day  school,  and  66  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Gan-ren. 

NGAN-KING-FU :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Ngan-hwei,  China,  onthe  left  bank  of  the  Yangtsze- 
kiang,  100  miles  S.  W.  by  W.  of  Wu-hu.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1869),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries, 
1  with  his  wife;  3  outstations,  1  Sunday  school, 
1  day  school.  Station  also  of  the  PE  (1894), 
with  3  missionaries,  4  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  2  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  69 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  26  are  communi- 
cants.    Some  write  the  name  An-k'ing. 

NGAN-LU-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Hu-pei,  China,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Han-kiang,  65  miles  N.  E.  of  I-chang.  Popu- 
lation, 50,000.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  7  native  workers,  1  outstation, 
5  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  2  day 
schools,  and  154  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
74  are  communicants. 

NGAN-SHXJN-FU :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kwei-chau,  China,  situated  30  miles  S.  W.  of 
Kwei-yang-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1888),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his  wife; 

4  native  workers,  2  outstations,  3  places  of 
worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  63 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Gan-shun. 

NGAN-TUNG-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province 
of  Kiang-su,  China,  situated  at  the  head  of  the 
estuary  of  the  old  course  of  the  Hoang-ho,  and 
about  23  miles  N.  E.  of  Hwai-ngan-fu.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1893),  with  (1903)  3  women  mission- 
aries and  1  native  worker.  Some  write  the 
name  An-tung. 

NGAO:  A  German  mission  station  in  British 


Tigar.i 
Nlng-po-fu 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


638 


East  Africa,  on  the  Tana  River,  about  12  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Golbanti.  Station  of  the  Neu- 
kirchen  Mission  Institute  (1887),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  outstations,  Iplace 
of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  3  day  schools. 

NGAZI.     See  Vuga. 

NGOGWE:  A  village  in  Uganda,  Africa,  situ- 
ated in  South  Kyagwe  region,  N.  of  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  and  about  26  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Mengo. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  235 
native  workers,  4  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and 
3,795  professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,453  are 
communicants. 

NGOMBE:  A  town  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
West  Africa,  situated  about  60  miles  S.  W.  of 
Leopoldville  and  about  6  miles  from  the  left 
bank  of  the  Congo  River.  Station  of  the  BMS 
(1884),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries,  3  of  them 
with  their  wives;  1  woman  missionary,  166  native 
workers,  6  outstations,  and  467  professed  Chris- 
tians, 1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  2  hospitals. 
Wathen  is  the  name  given  to  the  place  by 
Europeans. 

NGU-CHENG:  A  village  in  Fo-kien  Province, 
China,  situated  22  miles  S.  W.  of  Fu-chau-fu. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  3  women  mission- 
aries, 24  native  workers,  2  outstations,  5  places 
of  worship,  19  Sunday  schools,  2  boarding  schools, 
11  day  schools,  and  2,192  professed  Christians. 

NGUNA :  An  island  in  the  New  Hebrides  group. 
Station  of  the  New  Hebrides  Mission  Society, 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  32 
native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school, 
1  dispensary,  and  820  professed  Christians. 

NIAMKOLO:  A  settlement  in  British  Central 
Africa,  situated  at  the  S.  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika. 
Station  of  the  LMS  (1889),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  14  native  workers,  31  pro- 
fessed Christians,  1  Sunday  school,  4  day  schools, 
1  dispensary,  1  industrial  school. 

NIAS :  An  island  lying  to  the  west  of  Sumatra, 
in  latitude  1°  north.  Area,  2,523  square  miles. 
The  Rhenish  Missionary  Society  has  10  stations 
on  the  island.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
250,000.  They  are  a  lively,  active  people,  fond 
of  dancing  and  of  cutting  off  heads;  and  they 
are  pagans  who  have  so  far  resisted  the  invitations 
of  Mohammedan  missionaries.  These  islanders 
are  in  race  allied  to  the  Battaks  of  Sumatra, 
but  their  language  is  a  dialect  peculiar  to  the 
locality.  The  number  of  Christians  in  the 
island  (1900)  is  4,300,  with  some  2,000  more 
who  are  candidates  for  baptism. 

NICARAGUA:  A  republic  of  Central  America, 
bounded  north  by  Honduras,  east  by  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  south  by  Costa  Rica,  and  west  by 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Area,  about  49,500  square 
miles.  The  principal  mountains  are  in  a  range 
from  10  to  20  miles  back  of  the  west  coast,  and 
running  parallel  to  it,  sometimes  rising  in  high 
volcanic  cones,  sometimes  subsiding  into  low 
plains  or  places  of  slight  elevation;  it  seems  to 
have  been  the  principal  line  of  volcanic  action, 
and  Nicaragua  is  marked  by  some  very  high 
volcanoes.  The  Coco  River,  which  rises  in  the 
Segovia  Mountains,  is  the  longest  in  Central 
America,  its  course  being  about  350  miles.  The 
San  Juan  River,  120  miles  in  length,  is  the  only 
outlet  of  the  beautiful  lakes  Managua  and 
Nicaragua,  and  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
plan  for  an  interoceanic    canal    by  the   Nicara- 


guan  route.  Climate,  except  in  the  very  highest 
portions,  is  essentially  tropical;  the  northeast 
part  is  very  damp;  rainfall  is  moderate.  The 
soil  is  very  rich,  particularly  on  the  Pacific  slope, 
where  all  tropical  fruits  and  plants  thrive  abun- 
dantly. Population  is  about  500,000,  consisting 
of  aborigines,  mulattoes,  negroes,  and  mixed 
races.  The  full-blooded  Indians,  who  are 
civilized,  are  a  sober  and  industrious  race,  but 
the  half-breeds  are  lazy,  vicious,  and  ignorant. 
The  executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Presi- 
dent, elected  for  four  years.  The  legislature 
has  but  one  house.  Education  is  at  a  low  ebb. 
The  state  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  and  other 
religions  are  not  publicly  tolerated.  The  chief 
industry  is  cattle-raising.  The  capital,  Managua, 
has  30,000  inhabitants. 

Mission  work  in  Nicaragua  is  carried  on  by  the 
Moravians  on  the  Mosquito  Coast.  In  1890 
permission  was  given  the  Moravians  by  the 
Nicaraguan  Government  to  follow  their  converts 
into  the  interior,  from  which  the  missionaries 
have  been  jealously  excluded. 

NICKERIE :  A  village  in  Dutch  Guiana,  South 
America,  situated  on  the  estuary  of  the  Corentyne 
River.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mission  (1888), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  9  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1 
day  school,  and  113  communicant  Christians. 

NICOBAR  ISLANDS :  A  small  group  of  islands 
attached  to  British  India,  lying  in  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  northeast  of  Sumatra,  and  south  of  the 
Andaman  Islands.  There  are  8  large  islands 
and  12  small  ones.  Great  Nicobar  is  30  miles 
long  and  from  12  to  15  miles  wide.  The  islands 
are  well  wooded  and  fertile.  Coconuts  are 
raised  in  great  abundance.  The  inhabitants, 
numbering  (1901)  6,310,  are  of  the  Malay  race, 
and  speak  a  form  of  the  Malay  language.  They 
have  been  known  to  history  for  at  least  1,500 
years.  The  Nicobar  swallow  is  the  builder  of 
the  edible  birds'  nests,  so  highly  prized  by  the 
Chinese,  and  these  nests  are  the  principal  exports, 
together  with  b^che-de-mer,  tortoise-shell,  and 
ambergris. 

Mission  work  is  carried  on  in  these  islands 
chiefly  by  the  Danish  Mission  Society. 

NICOMEDIA:  A  town  and  seaport  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  situated  53  miles  E.  S.  E.  from  Con- 
stantinople, at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  the  same 
name.  It  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Bithynia, 
being  built  by  Nicomedes  I.  in  264  B.C.,  and 
during  the  Roman  Empire  it  was  frequently 
used  as  an  imperial  residence.  Under  Turkish 
rule  it  decreased  very  much  in  importance,  but 
has  grown  again  since  the  extension  of  the 
railway  from  Constantinople  to  the  interior  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  has  a  Turkish  navy  yard. 
Population  about  15,000.  Station  of  the 
ABCFM  (1847),  but  now  (1903)  an  outstation 
with  6  native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  4 
Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  and  258  professed 
Christians.  The  Turkish  name  of  the  place  is 
Ismid. 

NIEN-HANG-LI:  A  town  in  Kwangtung,  China, 
situated  about  90  miles  N.  E.  of  Swatow.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1866),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife; 
18  native  workers,  3  outstations,  9  day  schools, 
and  893  professed  Christians,  of  whom  489  are 
communicants. 

NIGERIA:  A  British  possession  and  sphere  of 


ose 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


JigaT.t 
Nlng-po-tn 


influence  in  W.  Africa.  It  comprises  Northern 
Nigeria,  Southern  Nigeria,  and  Lagos.  Its 
southern  limit  is  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  and  it 
extends  northward  to  Lake  Chad  and  the  French 
Sahara.  On  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  Kamerun, 
and  on  the  west  by  Dahomey  and  the  French 
military  territories.  The  whole  area  is  about 
400,000  square  miles,  with  an  estimated  popula- 
tion of  25,000,000,  almost  wholly  native  tribes. 
Much  of  this  territory  was  formerly  administered 
by  the  Royal  Niger  Company,  but  in  1900  that 
company  turned  aU  its  rights  over  to  the  crown. 
The  revenues  are  collected  by  the  coast  ports  of 
Lagos  and  Southern  Nigeria,  and  apportioned  to 
the  provinces  by  the  colonial  secretary. 

Northern  Nigeria,  divided  into  8  administra- 
tive provinces,  has  an  area  of  about  320,000 
square  miles.  The  region  to  the  northward  is 
especially  subject  to  the  raids  of  slave  traders. 
In  1900  the  country  was  ravaged  as  far  south  as 
Jebba  and  Bida.  An  expedition  was  made 
against  the  raiders,  and  as  a  result  of  these  dis- 
turbances the  emirs  of  Bida  and  Kontagora  were 
deposed,  and  new  rulers  acceptable  to  the  natives 
were  appointed.  A  decree  was  issued  making 
aU  children  bom  after  April  1,  1901,  free,  for- 
bidding the  removal  of  domestic  slaves  for  the 
purpose  of  sale,  and  applying  the  penalties  for 
slave  dealing  to  the  entire  protectorate. 

The  Arab  Berbers  constitute  a  portion  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  many  of  the  natives  are  nomadic. 
The  Fulani  race  has  ruled  the  land,  with  head- 
quarters at  Sokoto.  It  is  the  great  Mohammedan 
power  in  all  this  region.  It  has  openly  or  secretly 
opposed  the  British  efforts  to  break  up  the  slave 
trade.  In  1902  and  1903  punitive  expeditions 
under  British  officers  have  done  much  to  bring 
the  Fulani  Mohammedans  to  terms.  The  Hausa 
language  is  the  one  in  general  use  among  the 
tribes  north  of  the  Benue  river.  Missionary 
stations  are  established  at  Gierke  (1903)  north  of 
the  Benue,  and  in  the  regions  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Niger  and  the  Benue  rivers,  in  the  south- 
em  part  of  the  territory. 

Southern  Nigeria,  with  an  area  of  48,000  square 
miles,  with  seat  of  government  at  Old  Calabar,  in 
the  Oil  River  region  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  is 
inhabited  by  the  Jakri,  the  Idzos,  the  Ibos,  and 
other  tribes,  some  of  which  are  more  or  less  can- 
nibalistic. Cannibalism  is,  however,  being  grad- 
ually stamped  out.  Missionary  enterprise  is 
active  in  the  territory.  The  CMS  is  the  society 
occupying  the  most  points  in  Nigeria.  The  UFS 
has  a  strong  mission  in  the  Oil  River  region,  and 
the  Primitive  Methodists  have  missionaries  on 
the  coast.  About  20  points  are  occupied,  all 
but  one  being  in  S.  Nigeria. 

Bacon  (R.  H.),  The  City  of  Blood,  London,  1897;  Bindloss 
(H.),  In  the  Niger  Country,  London,  1899;  Goldie  (H.), 
Old  Calabar  and  Its  Mission,  1890. 

NIIGATA:  A  seaport  and  the  place  of  greatest 
commercial  importance  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
main  island  of  Japan;  situated  on  a  low  strip  of 
land  at  the  mouth  of  the  Shinano  River,  137 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Tokio.  The  city  is  neatly  laid 
out,  the  streets  leveled,  paved  with  gravel,  well 
drained,  cleaned,  and  lighted  with  coal-oil  ob- 
tained in  the  neighborhood.  Many  streets  have 
a  canal  in  the  center.  It  has  a  flourishing 
inland  trade,  and  contains  national  and  private 
banks,  a  government  hospital,  and  a  school  of 
foreign  languages.  Climate  extreme  both  in 
summer  and  winter.  Population  (1898),  53,856. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1883),  with  (1902)  2  mis- 


sionaries with  their  wives,  1  woman  missionary, 
1  native  worker,  13  outstations,  5  places  of  wor- 
ship, 8  Sunday  schools,  and  100  professed 
Christians. 

NIKA  LANGUAGE  {Ki-nika):  Belongs  to  the 
Bantu  family  and  is  spoken  by  some  tribes  in  the 
vicinity  of  Ribe,  British  East  Africa.  It  has 
been  reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries  of  the 
CMS,  and  missionaries  of  the  United  Free  Method- 
ists (of  Britain)  have  also  made  literary  use  of  it. 
It  has  been  written  with  Roman  letters. 

NIMACH :  A  town  of  Central  India,  situated  in 
Gwalior  state,  134  miles  N.  W.  by  N.  of  Indore. 
Altitude,  1,613  feet.  Population  (1891),  6,300, 
of  whom  3,800  are  Hindus  and  1,300  are  Moham- 
medans. Station  of  the  PCC  (1884),  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their  wives;  15 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
3  Sunday  schools,  7  day  schools,  2  dispensaries, 
1  hospital,  1  orphanage,  and  27  professed  Chris- 
tians.    Society  writes  the  name  Neemuch. 

NIMBE:  A  village  in  West  Africa,  situated 
about  25  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Brass  River  in 
the  Delta  of  the  Niger.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1868),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4 
native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2  day  schools, 

1  boarding  school,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispen- 
sary, and  595  professed  Christians,  of  whom  59 
are  communicants.  These  statistics  include  also 
Brass  Tuwon,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Society 
writes  the  name  Brass  Nembe. 

NIMPANI :  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces  of 
India,  situated  in  the  Narbada  division,  18  miles 
S.  of  Hoshangabad.  Station  of  the  Swedish 
Evangelical  National  Society  (1886),  with  (1902) 

2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4  native  workers, 
2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school, 
and  115  professed  Christians,  of  whom  61  are 
communicants . 

NING-HAI-CHAU :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shantung,  China,  situated  on  the  coast  18  miles 
E.  of  Chi-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1896),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 3  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2 
day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  32  professed 
Christians. 

NING-HAI-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Che-kiang,  China,  situated  35  miles  S.  S.  W.  of 
Ning-po-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1868),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 6  native  workers,  1  outstation,  2  places  of 
worship, 1  day  school,  and  57  professed  Christians. 

NING-Kwb-FU :  A  pref ectural  city  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Nganhwei,  China,  92  miles  northwest  of 
Hang-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1874),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  woman 
missionary,  7  native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school,  and  131  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  88  are  communicants. 

NING-PO-FU :  One  of  the  five  treaty  ports  of 
China  opened  to  foreigners  by  the  treaty  of  1842. 
Situated  in  the  province  of  Che-kiang,  east  of  the 
mountains,  in  a  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ningpo  River,  16  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  old 
wall  surrounding  it,  25  feet  high  and  16  feet 
broad,  is  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  There 
are  the  usual  gates  of  all  Chinese  walled  cities, 
north,  east,  south  and  west,  and  two  others, 
besides  two  passages  for  boats,  in  the  5  miles 
circuit.  The  principal  striking  buildings  are  the 
large  ice-houses,  the  pagoda,  160  feet  high,  and 
the  Drum-tower,  built  earlier  than  the  15th  cen- 


Ning-te-lisien 

N.  American  Indians 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


540 


tury.  Temples  and  monasteries  are  numerous 
and  very  handsome.  The  houses  are  mostly 
built  of  brick,  and  are  usually  of  but  one  story. 
The  city  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  the  insur- 
gents during  the  Taiping  rebellion,  when  it  was 
occupied  for  six  months  (1864).  It  has  a  library 
of  50,000  volumes. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Ningpo  is  quite  consid- 
erable. Silks,  cottons,  and  white-wood  carvings 
are  the  principal  products.  It  was  occupied  by 
the  English  forces  on  the  12th  of  October,  1841, 
after  the  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Chinhai 
was  successfully  stormed. 

The  climate  of  Ningpo  is  variable:  the  usual 
range  of  temperature  is  from  20°-100°  F.  The 
rainfall  is  excessive,  and  foreigners  are  subject  to 
malaria.     Population  (1901),  225,000. 

The  following  missionary  societies  carry  on 
various  enterprises  in  the  city  and  adjacent 
region:  The  ABMU  (1843),  CMS  (1848),  PN 
(1854),  CIM  (1859),  and  the  UMFC  (1864). 
These  societies,  together,  now  have  (1903)  45 
missionaries,  men  and  women;  175  native  work- 
ers, 32  day  schools,  7  boarding  schools  or  higher 
educational  institutions,  7  hospitals  and  dis- 
pensaries, and  4,801  professed  Christians. 

NING-TE-HSIEN :  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Fo-kien,  China,  situated  on  the  coast  about  45 
miles  N.  E.  of  Fu-chau.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1896),  with  (1903)  5  women  missionaries,  51 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  12  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  and  1,243  professed  Christians. 
Society  writes  the  name  Nmg-Taik. 

NISBET,  Henry:  Born  September  2,  1818,  at 
Laurieston,  Glasgow,  Scotland;  studied  at  Glas- 
gow University,  Relief  Divinity  Hall,  Paisley, 
and  Cheshunt  College;  sailed  August  11,  1840,  as 
a  missionary  of  the  LMS  to  Tanna,  one  of  the 
New  Hebrides  Islands.  The  natives  were  so  hos- 
tile that  he  went  to  Upolu,  Samoan  Islands,  where 
he  settled  at  Fasitoonta,  and  had  the  charge  of 
ten  villages.  He  spent  much  time  in  visiting 
the  outstations,  and  was  one  of  the  missionaries 
who  accompanied  the  Nova  Scotia  brethren  to 
select  their  station  in  the  New  Hebrides,  on  the 
island  of  Aneitium.  He  was  one  of  the  revisers 
of  the  Samoan  Bible. 

Later  he  had  charge  of  the  Mission  Seminary 
and  of  the  Press  at  Malua.  During  his  residence 
at  Malua  he  prepared  for  the  students  many  lec- 
tures, sermons,  notes  of  Scripture,  etc.,  which 
were  subsequently  published  m  England  under 
his  supervision.  He  spent  some  eight  years  longer 
in  the  mission  field  in  various  departments  of  use- 
fulness, and  died  at  Malua  May  9,  1876.  He 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  University 
of  Glasgow. 

NISKY:  A  town  on  south  coast  of  St.  Thomas 
Island,  West  Indies,  one  and  one-half  miles  from 
St.  Thomas  town.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mis- 
sions (1753),  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  4  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  and 
249   communicant   Christians. 

NIU-CHWANG.     See  New-chwang. 

NIUE  or  SAVAGE  ISLAND:  An  island  lying 
between  the  Hervey  and  Samoan  Isles,  and 
administratively  connected  with  the  former. 
Climate  hot;  temperature  75°-98°  Fahr.  Popu- 
lation, 4,726  stationary  and  363  away  in  ships, 
etc.  Race,  light  copper-colored  Malays,  Poly- 
nesians. Language,  a  combination  of  Tonganese 
and  Samoan.     Missionary  work  was  commenced 


here  in  1849  by  the  LMS.  Out  of  a  population 
of  4,850  about  4,000  are  Christians,  1,650  of  them 
members  of  the  church.  The  natives  of  this 
place  have  lately  maintained  a  certain  number 
of  evangelists  in  New  Guinea,  who  come  home  at 
intervals  to  tell  of  the  blessing  of  God  on  their 
work. 

NKALA:  A  settlement  in  northwest  Rhodesia, 
Central  Africa,  situated  in  Barotsiland  about  125 
miles  E.  of  Lealui.  Station  of  the  Primitive 
Methodist  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  2  plac.es  of 
worship,  1  Sunday  school,  and  4  professed 
Christians. 

NOAKHALI:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
in  the  Noakhali  district,  180  miles  E.  of  Calcutta. 
Population,  5,500,  of  whom  2,800  are  Hindus  and 
2,600  are  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  Queens- 
land Australian  Baptist  Mission  Society  (1889), 
with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  1  woman  missionary, 

9  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  day  school,  and 

10  professed  Christians. 

NODOA:  A  town  on  the  island  of  Hai-nan, 
Chinese  Einpire,  situated  about  90  miles  S.  W.  of 
Hoi-hau.  It  lies  in  a  wide  plain  almost  entirely 
surrounded  by  mountains,  and  has  very  pleasing 
environs.  The  people  are  of  several  distinct 
races,  many  of  them  being  Hak-kas  from  the  prov- 
ince of  Kwang-tung.  The  different  dialects 
found  here  constitute  a  serious  obstacle  to  mis- 
sionary work.  Station  of  the  PN  (1892),  with 
(1903)  9  missionaries,  1  woman  missionary,  6 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  2  places  of  worship, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  2  boarding  schools, 
1  hospital,  3  dispensaries,  1  printing  house,  and 
84  communicant  Christians. 

NOGUGU:  A  settlement  on  Espiritu  Santo 
Island,  New  Hebrides.  Station  of  the  New  Heb- 
rides Mission  Society,  with  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  8  day  schools,  and  24  professed 
Christians. 

NONGSAWLIA.     See  Cherra  Punji. 

NONGOMA:  A  settlement  in  Zululand,  Natal, 
Africa,  situated  about  12  miles  N.  E.  of  Bethel. 
Station  of  the  Zululand  Missionary  Diocese  (1892), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native  workers, 
3  outstations,  2  day  schools,  and  1  dispensary. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND :  An  island  situated  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  between  New  Zealand  and  New 
Caledonia,  about  1 ,200  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Sydney; 
a  dependency  of  New  South  Wales.  Population, 
800.  Headquarters  of  the  Melanesia  diocese  and 
of  the  Melanesia  Mission.  The  training  school 
for  all  the  native  workers  for  the  Solomon  Islands, 
Banks  Islands,  and  the  northern  New  Hebrides 
is  at  Norfolk  Island.  The  other  inhabitants  of 
the  island  are  descendants  of  the  "Bounty" 
mutineers  from  Pitcairn  Island.  The  SPG 
maintains  a  chaplain  at  Norfolk  Island  for  their 
benefit.  The  Melanesia  Mission  has  (1900)  3 
missionaries,  1  with  his  wife;  1  theological  class, 
1  printing  house,  and  a  steamer. 

NORTH  AFRICA  MISSION :  With  the  f aU  of  the 
French  Empire  and  the  establishment  in  its  place 
of  the  French  Republic,  religious  liberty  was 
granted  not  only  to  France,  but  also  to  Algeria, 
which  was  subdued  by  her  in  1830.  Thus  was 
North  Africa  opened  for  the  introduction  of  the 
Gospel.  Mr.  George  Pearce,  who  visited  Algeria 
in  1876,  revisited  it  in  1880,  and  returning  to  Eng- 
land aroused  considerable  interest  in  the  Kabyles, 
or  the  Berber  tribes  inhabiting  the  mountains  a 


641 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


NIn«f-te-li«Ien 
JT.  American  Indians 


little  to  the  east  of  the  city  of  Algiers.  A  mission 
to  these  interesting  people  was  started.  Mr. 
Grattan  Guiness,  who  paid  a  brief  visit  to  Algeria, 
and  Mr.  Edward  Glenny,  who  had  independently 
been  making  investigations  as  to  the  condition  of 
Morocco  and  Algeria,  united  in  forming  a  com- 
mittee for  its   management.     In   November   of 

1881  Mr.  Pearce,  accompanied  by  Mr.  Glenny, 
returned  to  Algeria,  talcing  with  him  two  young 
brethren  to  work  under  Mr.  Pearce's  direction. 
They  settled  at  Djemm^a  Sahrij,  but  met  with  so 
much  difficulty  through  the  suspicion  and 
opposition  of  the  French  local  administrator,  that 
one  of  the  young  men,  a  Syrian,  retired  from  the 
work,  and  the  other  returned  in  the  summer  of 

1882  to  Europe  to  seek  a  fellow-laborer  with  a 
French  diploma  who  might  be  more  favorably 
received  by  the  local  authorities.  After  encoun- 
tering many  difficulties,  which  threatened  again 
and  again  to  destroy  the  whole  work,  the  mission 
was  reorganized  in  1883.  Several  other  friends 
joined  in  forming  a  council,  and  a  fresh  band  of 
workers  was  taken  out  by  Mr.  Glenny,  who  then 
proceeded  to  Tangier,  the  council  having  deter- 
mined to  widen  its  sphere  to  the  other  aboriginal 
or  Berber  races  of  North  Africa.  Since  then  it 
has  step  by  step  extended  its  work,  establishing 
stations  in  various  places  in  Morocco,  Algeria, 
Tunis,  and  Tripoli,  and  a  branch  mission  to  the 
Bedouins  in  Northern  Arabia.  It  now  no  longer 
confines  itself  to  the  Berbers,  but  seeks  to  evan- 
gelize among  all  the  Muslims,  and  is  hoping  to  do 
definite  work  also  among  Europeans  and  Jews. 
There  are  seven  fields  into  which  the  work  is 
divided,  which,  tho  they  are  small,  are  each 
worked  under  distinct  direct  control  from  London. 

The  character  of  the  mission  is  like  that  of  the 
Young  Men's  and  Young  Woman's  Christian 
Associations,  evangelical,  and  embraces  mem- 
bers of  all  denominations  who  are  sound  in  their 
views  on  fundamental  truths.  The  missionaries 
seek,  by  itinerant  and  localized  work,  to  sell  or 
distribute  the  Scriptures  far  and  wide;  and  by 
conversation  in  the  houses,  streets,  shops  and 
markets,  in  town  and  country,  to  teach  Christian 
doctrine,  encouraging  to  profession  of  faith  and 
baptism. 

Educational  work  is  not  a  prominent  feature 
in  this  mission,  but  is  subordinate  to  evangel- 
istic work.  Medical  aid  has  been  found  most 
useful  in  removing  prejudices.  A  hospital  and 
dispensary  are  established  at  Tangier  and  a  dis- 
pensary at  Fez,  but  in  Algeria  much  difficulty  has 
been  experienced  through  the  law  forbidding  the 
practise  of  medicine  without  a  French  diploma. 

The  Mission  in  Algeria  has  stations  at  Djemmaa 
Sahrij,  wi;h  two  missionary  women;  Shershell, 
two  women;  Constantine,  7  missionaries;  Algiers, 
7  missionaries.     Total  in  Algeria,  18,  of    whom 

5  are  men.  In  Morocco:  Tangier,  10  mission- 
aries; Fez,  5  missionaries;  Tetuan,  4  mission- 
aries; Casablanca,  5  missionaries;  El  Araish,  2 
missionaries.     Total,   26   missionaries,   of  whom 

6  are  men.  Tunis:  Tunis,  9  missionaries;  Susa, 
9  missionaries;  Kairwan,  4  missionaries;  Bizerta, 
2  missionaries.  Total,  24,  of  whom  5  are  men. 
Tripoli:  Tripoli,  6  missionaries  (2  men);  Egypt: 
Alexandria,  4  missonaries;  Shebin-el-Kom,  7 
missionaries.  Total,  11  missionaries,  of  whom 
4  are  men.  This  great  preponderance  of  women 
indicates  the  general  type  of  work,  viz.,  house 
to  house  visiting,  with  some  instruction  of 
children  and  women.  It  is  much  like  the  Zenana 
work  in  India. 


NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS:  The  name 
Indian  as  applied  to  the  aborigines  of  America 
perpetuates  the  mistaken  supposition  of  Colum- 
bus that  he  had  landed  upon  the  eastern  shores 
of  India.  While  the  use  of  this  misnomer  has 
continued,  the  people  are  now  generally  desig- 
nated as  American  Indians  or  Red  Indians,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  inhabitants  of  India. 

Origin:  Archeological  investigations  are  bring- 
ing to  light  evidence  that  man  was  on  this  con- 
tinent during  glacial  times,  but  whether  he 
existed  here  at  as  early  a  period  as  in  Europe,  is 
an  unsettled  question.  Nor  is  it  yet  determined 
whether  the  natives  are  autochthons  or  came 
hither  from  Europe  or  Asia.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  during  the  past  ages  there  had  been 
intercourse  between  the  two  continents  by  way 
of  the  islands  of  the  Atlantic,  on  the  one  side,  and 
those  of  the  Pacific  on  the  other,  but  there  is  no 
proof  that  this  intercourse  left  here  any  dominant 
influence,  or  was  potent  in  bringing  about  the 
civilizations  developed  on  the  uplands  of  Peru,  or 
in  the  valleys  and  plateaux  of  Central  America 
and  Mexico.  Whatever  had  been  achieved  in 
North  or  in  South  America  was  the  work  of  the 
same  race  that  was  here  discovered  by  Columbus. 

Culture:  The  aborigines  of  America  suffered  a 
serious  drawback  because  of  the  absence,  upon 
this  Western  continent,  of  animals  capable  of 
domestication.  The  llama  had  been  tamed,  but 
its  habitat  was  limited,  nor  could  it  serve  man  as 
did  the  sheep,  ox,  and  horse  of  the  eastern  con- 
tinent. These  latter  animals  had  given  stability 
to  man's  food  supply,  and,  by  supplementing  his 
strength  in  work,  had  secured  1o  him  both  time 
and  energy  for  the  exercise  of  his  thought  upon 
the  devising  of  means  for  his  individual  and  social 
advancement.  The  native  of  America  was  with- 
out such  animal  assistants.  He  had  to  hunt  and 
fish  and  depend  upon  his  unaided  efforts  for 
whatever  he  possessed.  His  development  of  the 
maize  from  a  tropical  plant  of  slender  capacity  to 
a  productive  staple,  capable  of  being  grown  over 
a  wide  geographic  range,  a  range  which  even  our 
race  has  not  been  able  to  greatly  extend,  was  a 
remarkable  agricultural  achievement,  requiring 
time,  careful  observation,  and  persistent  labor. 
He  had  mastered  the  art  of  irrigation,  which  was 
extensively  used  in  the  semi-arid  regions,  and 
hundreds  of  miles  of  ditches  can  to-day  be  traced 
upon  the  abandoned  plains  of  the  Southwest.. 
Fruits  and  vegetables  were  cultivated  for  food; 
cotton  was  grown  and  woven  into  cloth;  wool  from 
the  buffalo  and  mountain  sheep  was  spun  for 
clothing;  different  vegetable  fibers  and  the  inner 
bark  of  trees  were  woven  into  articles  of  use; 
dyes  were  manufactured  and  employed  for  orna- 
mentation; the  carving  of  stone,  wood,  and  bone; 
pottery-making,  basketry,  and  the  making  of 
implements  and  weapons  were  among  the  wide- 
spread industries  of  the  peoples.  Skill  in  work- 
manship and  beauty  of  design  were  particularly 
noteworthy  in  the  native  baskets,  and  vases. 
Village  life  was  the,  rule.  Habitations  were  of 
stone,  adobe,  wood  and  tanned  skins.  The 
legends  and  folk-tales  recounted  about  the  fire- 
side were  dramatic  in  character  and  contained 
wise  and  witty  sayings,  while  the  myths  and 
rituals  connected  with  the  ceremonies  were 
replete  with  lofty  symbolism  and  touched  with 
poetic  fervor.  Song  accompanied  all  religious 
and  social  gatherings,  as  well  as  the  daily  avoca- 
tions of  the  people;  they  pled  for  the  lover, 
inspirited  the  warrior,  and  sped  the  departed  to 


N.  American  Indians 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


543 


the  spirit  land.  That  the  culture  of  the  tribes 
was  unequal  was,  in  part,  owing  to  their  varying 
environments  and  to  the  isolation  and  enmiti'  s 
caused  by  the  great  diversity  of  languages  upon 
the  continent.  Altho  some  languages  have  dis- 
appeared within  the  last  two  hundred  years, 
there  are  to-day  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States  about  forty  linguistic  stocks,  each  of  which 
contains   several  languages   and  dialects. 

Organization:  The  political  organization  of  the 
people  was  tribal.  Most  of  the  tribes  were  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  clans,  but  in  all,  the  kinship 
group  was  fundamental,  and  to  it  the  rights  of 
the  individual  were  subordinate.  The  ruling 
power  was  vested  in  a  council  of  chiefs  and  leaders, 
b«t  the  duty  of  enforcing  the  traditional  rules  or 
laws  devolved  upon  the  chiefs.  Marriage  was 
generally  exogamous,  that  is,  a  man  or  woman 
could  not  marry  within  his  or  her  kinship  group 
or  clan,  and  in  a  large  number  of  the  tribes 
descent  was  traced  through  the  mother  only.  In 
many  instances  the  tribal  structure  was  elaborate 
in  its  details,  and  among  all  of  the  tribes  the 
religious  ideas  and  symbols  of  the  people  were 
closely  interwoven  with  their  political  organiza- 
tion. 

Religion:  Among  peoples  so  diverse  as  to 
language,  avocations,  and  general  culture,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  generalize  their  religious 
beliefs  and  practises.  Broadly  speaking,  all 
regarded  the  vital  and  formulative  force  of  the 
universe  as  akin  to  that  peculiar  quality  or  power 
of  which  man  is  conscious  within  himself  as 
directing  his  own  acts — as  willing  a  course  to 
,  bring  about  certain  results — in  a  word,  as  a 
deified  will  power.  This  mysterious,  invisible,  ani- 
mating force  manifested  itself  in  all  forms,  each 
of  which  it  had  endowed  with  some  special  gift  or 
capacity.  The  stars,  sun,  moon,  winds,  thunder, 
the  earth,  water,  and  all  living  creatures,  were 
manifestations  of  this  power  and  served  as  inter- 
mediaries through  which  man  could  seek  help 
of  the  mysterious  one.  The  priestly  class — men 
"whose  minds  were  open  to  the  teaching  of  the 
gods" — had  charge  of  the  rites  by  which  these 
intermediaries  could  be  addressed.  Fasting, 
prayer,  acts  of  purification,  and  occasionally  sac- 
rifice, were  observed  in  aU  religious  ceremonies. 
While  the  underlying  thoughts  of  the  native 
religion  were  high  and  reverent  in  character,  the 
overlying  rites  were  sometimes  distorted  by  prac- 
tises arising  from  the  abuse  of  priestly  privilege. 
The  belief  in  a  future  life  was  universal,  and  the 
character  of  a  man's  life  here  was  considered  as 
affecting  his  life  hereafter.  Truthfulness,  hon- 
esty, justice,  and  hospitality  were  persistently 
inculcated  by  priests,  chiefs,  and  leaders. 

Missionary  work  in  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries : 
Protestant  missionary  work  began  soon  after  the 
founding  of  the  colonies.  In  1621  the  "East 
India  School"  was  organized  and  endowed  at 
Charles  City,  Va.  The  uprising  in  the  follow- 
ing year  would  have  been  far  more  disastrous  to 
the  settlers  had  not  the  Christian  and  friendly 
Indians  both  warned  and  protected  the  colonists. 
This  unfortunate  event  checked  all  systematic 
missionary  efforts  by  this  colony  until  near  the 
close  of  the  century,  when,  in  1691,  a  legacy  from 
the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle  was  used  to  form  the 
Brasserton  school,  "that  the  Christian  faith  may 
be  propagated  amongst  the  western  Indians." 
This  school  was  connected  with  the  newly  char- 
tered college  of  William  and  Mary. 

In  New  England  the  natives  were  early  in- 


structed in  the  Christian  religion,  but  no  mission 
work  exclusively  Indian  was  undertaken  until 
John     Eliot,     in     eastern     Massachusetts,     and 
Thomas  Mayhew,  in  Martha's  Vineyard,  began 
their  labors.  In  1641  Thomas  Mayhew  obtained  a 
grant  of  Martha's  Vineyard  and  the  neighboring 
islands,  and  became  both  patentee  and  governor. 
His  son,  Thomas  Mayhew,  Jr.,  was  minister  to  the 
settlers  and  extended  his  work  to  the  Indians 
living     thereabouts,     who     numbered     several 
thousands.     He  mastered  the  native  language,, 
and  soon  had  a  successful  mission.     The  first  con- 
vert, Hiacoomes,  placed  himself  under  Mr.  May- 
hew's   instruction,   and  later  became   a  teacher 
and  afterward  a  preacher  to  his  own  people.     In 
January,  1651,  the  first  school  in  New  England 
for  the  instruction  of  Indians  was  established  by 
Mr.  Mayhew.     In  October,  1652,  the  first  native 
church  was  organized,  with  282  members ;  the  cove- 
nant   was    prepared  by  Mr.  Mayhew  in  the  In- 
dian   language.       In  1657,  when  on  his  way  to 
England  to  solicit  aid  for  his  work,  Mr.  Mayhew 
was  lost  at  sea.     His  father,  the  governor,  altho 
seventy  years  old,  began  at  once  the  study  of  the 
native    language,    and    carried    on    the  mission, 
preaching  at  least  once  a  week  at  some  of  the 
plantations,  "walking   sometimes    twenty  miles 
through  the  woods  to  the  Indians,"  and  continued 
these  labors  until  his  death,  in  his  nine  y-third 
year.     His  grandson,  John,  became  associated  in 
the  work  and  continued  in  it  until  his  death  in 
1688,  when  his  son  Experience  took  up  the  task 
and  continued  to  preach  to  the  Indians  for  thirty- 
two  years.     In  1709  he  translated  the  Psalms, 
and  later  the  Gospel  of  John.     In  1670  the  first 
Indian  church  with  a  native  pastor  was  organ- 
ized, the  adult  Christians  on  the  island  number- 
ing about  three  thousand. 

John  Eliot  was  born  in  Essex,  England,  1604. 
He  came  to  New  England  in  1631,  and  the  next 
year  was  settled  over  the  First  Church  at  Rox- 
bury,  and  continued  in  this  charge  until  his 
death  in  1690.  Soon  after  his  arrival  he  began 
the  study  of  the  native  tongue  and  taught  all  the 
Indians  who  visited  him  from  two  catechisms  he 
had  framed  in  their  language.  In  1647  the 
General  Court  set  apart  a  tract  of  land  at  Nonan- 
tum,  on  the  borders  of  the  present  towns  of 
Newton  and  Watertown,  for  the  use  of  the 
Indians.  As  John  Eliot's  mission  work  pro- 
gressed, he  gathered  the  Christian  Indians  into 
towns,  which  became  known  as  "Praying  Indian 
Towns."  He  established  schools,  taught  the 
natives  various  industries,  and  organized  a  form 
of  government  similar  to  that  proposed  by  Jethro 
to  the  Israelites.  The  first  of  these  towns  was 
located  at  Natick  in  1651  and  six  other  towns 
were  soon  after  established.     Between  1670  and 

1673  seven  more  towns  were  organized,  and  in 

1674  these  towns  contained  one  thousand  one 
hundred  and  fifty  church  members.  In  1675 
King  PhiUp's  war  broke  out.  The  first  warning 
came  from  the  Christian  Indians  who,  in  the  face 
of  fearful  hardships,  rendered  invaluable  service 
to  the  colonists.  The  story  of  the  grievous 
wrongs  done  these  faithful  friends  can  be  read 
in  Mr.  Daniel  Gookin's  narrative,  "An  Historical 
Account  of  the  Doings  and  Sufferings  of  the 
Christian  Indians  of  New  England,  in  the  years 
1675,  1676,  and  1677,  impartially  drawn,  by  one 
well  acquainted  with  that  affair."  In  1658  John 
Eliot  completed  the  translation  of  the  Book  of 
Psalms,  which,  together  with  the  catechism,  was 
printed  at  Cambridge  the  same  year.     No  copy 


643 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


N.  American  Indiana 


is  extant.  In  1661  the  New  Testament  was 
printed  and  two  years  later  the  entire  Bible. 
This  was  the  first  Bible  ever  printed  on  the 
America  continent.  A  new  edition  was  called 
for  and  printed  in  1680. 

In  1734  the  Rev.  John  Sargent,  of  Yale  College, 
opened  a  school  among  the  Housatonnuchs,  and 
in  two  years  had  a  church  with  fifty-two  members, 
which  later  increased  to  two  hundred  and  fifty. 
In  1751  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards  took  a 
double  charge  at  Stockbridge,  of  both  whites  and 
Indians.  When  a  child  he  had  picked  up  the  lan- 
guage of  the  natives,  and  this  knowledge  proved 
of  service  to  him  in  his  work  among  the  Indians 
in  western  Massachusetts. 

When,  in  1657,  John  Eliot  attended  a  council 
held  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  he  preached  to  the 
Podunks,  but  they  utterly  refused  to  receive  a 
missionary,  because  the  English  liaving  "taken 
their  lands  sought  to  make  them  servants." 
Rev.  James  Fitch,  pastor  of  the  church  at  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  being  acquainted  with  tlie  language 
of  tlie  Mohegans,  succeeded  in  establishing  a 
church  among  these  Indians,  with  some  forty 
members. 

The  Moravians  began  work  at  Sharon,  western 
Connecticut,  in  1742.  In  the  following  year 
Rev.  Eleazer  Wheelock,  of  Lebanon,  Conn.,  took 
into  his  family  a  young  Mohegan,  Samson  Occum, 
as  a  pupil.  The  rapid  advance  made  by  this 
Indian  youth  in  English,  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  enabled  him  to  become  a  teacher  at  New 
London,  Conn.,  in  1748,  and  to  be  ordained  to 
the  ministry  in  1756.  Mr.  Wheelook's  success 
with  Samson  Occum  led  to  the  establishment,  by 
the  aid  of  Mr.  Joshua  Moor,  of  the  Moor  Indian 
school  at  New  Lebanon.  In  1765  the  Rev. 
Samson  Occum  went  to  England  to  raise  funds 
for  this  school,  and  succeeded  in  securing  some 
ten  thousand  pounds  from  friends  of  the  cause 
in  England  and  Scotland.  On  his  return,  Dr. 
Wheelock  removed  the  school  from  New  Lebanon , 
Conn.,  to  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  where, 
after  a  time,  it  became  merged  in  Dartmouth 
College.  A  number  of  notable  Indians  were 
trained  imder  Dr.  Wheelock,  who  became 
teachers,  missionaries  and  leaders  among  their 
people. 

Four  chiefs  of  the  Iroquois  of  New  York  visited 
England  in  1708  to  ask  Queen  Anne  that  mis- 
sionaries be  sent  to  instruct  their  people.  Their 
request  was  granted,  and  a  school  was  opened  in 
Albany  among  the  Mohawks,  and  a  portion  of  the 
Scriptures  translated  into  their  language.  The 
mission  prospered,  and  in  1743  Rev.  Mr.  Andrews 
reported  that  but  a  few  remained  unbaptized  in 
the  tribe.  Altho  the  war  of  1744-48  interfered 
with  the  work,  stiU  just  before  the  Revolution, 
the  Rev.  John  Stuart  reported  that  the  Indians 
were  cultivating  their  lands,  learning  trades  and 
were  "as  regular  and  virtuous  in  their  conduct  as 
the  white  people." 

The  Rev.  Samuel  Kirkland,  a  pupil  of  Dr. 
Wheelock's  school,  and  later  of  Princeton,  began 
a  mission  among  the  Oneidas  of  New  York  in 
1760.  He  led  the  people  forward  in  agriculture 
and  in  Christian  living.  Through  the  influence 
of  Mr.  Kirkland  the  Oneidas  remained  neutral 
during  the  Revolutionary  War  or  were  friendly 
to  the  Colonists.  In  1793  the  Hamilton  Oneida 
Academy  was  founded  for  the  higher  education 
of  the  white  and  Indian  youth.  This  academy 
afterward  developed  into  Hamilton  College. 

The  headquarters  of  the  Moravian  Church  in 


America  was  established  at  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  in 
1740.  From  this  center  various  missionary 
enterprises  were  undertaken  among  the  Delaware 
tribes  with  wonderful  results.  The  native  villages 
and  others  which  grew  up  around  the  missions 
became  prosperous  and  orderly,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants Christian  in  their  belief  and  in  their  mode 
of  living.  The  history  of  the  Moravian  missions 
in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  is  a  dark  page  in  our 
annals,  and  presents  a  fearful  record  of  suffering, 
heroism,  and  martyrdom  on  the  part  of  these 
friendly  Christain  Indians.  (Heckewelder's  Nar- 
rative of  the  Missions  Among  the  Delaware  and 
Mohegan  Indians.  Schweinitz:  Life  of  David 
Zeisberger.  Loskiel:  History  of  the  Mission  to 
the  Indians.) 

In  Georgia  the  Moravian  Church  started  a 
mission  on  the  Savannah  river,  but  difficulties 
between  the  Spaniards  and  the  English  resulted 
in  the  breaking  up  of  the  school,  and  the  return 
of  the  missionaries  to  Bethlehem,  Penn.  No 
further  work  was  undertaken  until  the  19th 
centurv. 

While  few  if  any  of  the  mission  stations  estab- 
lished during  the  17th  or  18th  centuries  remain 
at  the  present  day,  this  fact  does  not  indicate 
failure  of  the  Christianizing  work  of  the  mission- 
aries, but  is  due  to  the  great  changes  that  have 
rapidly  followed  the  displacing  of  the  native 
population  by  the  white  race  in  the  settlement  of 
the  country.  The  unselfish  labors  of  the  early 
missionaries  were  not  lost ;  they  have  borne  double 
fruit,  as,  on  the  one  hand,  in  the  improved  con- 
dition of  the  descendants  of  those  Indian  tribes 
who  were  the  subject  of  so  much  care  and  solici- 
tude, and,  on  the  other  hand,  they  tended  to 
foster  in  the  white  race  the  growth  of  a  broader 
view  of  human  relations,  and  a  philanthropy  that 
has  since  found  practical  expression  in  beneficent 
laws  and  generous  government  acts  toward  the 
natives  of  this  country. 

Governmental  Relations:  Among  the  problems 
that  confronted  the  leaders  of  the  American 
Revolution,  none  was  more  pressing  than  that 
of  the  Indian.  On  June  17,  1775,  the  Continental 
Congress  appointed  a  Committee  on  Indian 
Affairs,  with  Gen.  Schuyler  as  chairman.  At  the 
suggesvion  of  this  committee.  Congress  divided 
the  colonies  into  three  departments,  northern, 
middle,  and  southern,  and  appointed  commis- 
sioners to  superintend  each  department.  By 
this  plan  the  tribes  were  to  be  brought  directly 
in  contact  with  accredited  officials  within  their 
own  territory,  and  efforts  made  to  reduce  to  a 
minimum  the  dangers  of  Indian  hostility  to  the 
colonies.  Care  was  also  exercised  to  institute 
measures  looking  to  the  betterment  of  the 
natives.  The  first  direct  connection  between 
the  general  government  and  mission  work 
occurred  April  10,  1776,  when  the  Continental 
Congress  directed  the  commissioners  of  the 
Middle  Department  to  employ  a  minister,  a 
schoolmaster,  and  a  blacksmith  for  the  Delaware 
Indians.  In  September  of  the  same  year,  as  a 
means  of  conciliating  the  friendship  of  the  Ca- 
nadian Indians,  Congress  directed  that  $500  be 
paid  to  Dr.  Wheelock,  president  of  Dartmouth 
College,  to  maintain  the  Indian  youth  under  his 
tuition.  On  July  31,  1781,  Congress  authorized 
the  payment  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
pounds,  "currency  of  New  Jersey,  in  specie,  for 
the  support  and  tuition  of  three  Indian  boys  of 
the  Delaware  nation,  now  at  Princeton  College." 

By  Article   IX  of  the  "Articles  of  Confedera- 


Ti*  American.  Indians 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


544 


tion,"  "the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled" 
were  cliarged  with  the  sole  and  exclusive  right 
and  power  of  managing  all  affairs  with  the 
Indians.  In  1784  "the  Secretary  of  the  War 
Office"  was  directed  to  cooperate  with  the  com- 
missioners when  making  treaties.  Two  years 
later  the  Indian  "departments  "  were  reduced  to 
two,  the  Ohio  River  being  the  dividing  line,  and  a 
euperintendent  placed  over  each  and  made  sub- 
ject to  the  Secretary  of  War.  After  the  adop"  ion 
of  the  Constitution,  and  the  creation  of  a  War 
Department,  August  7,  1789,  the  Indians  con- 
tinued to  be  under  the  charge  of  the  Secretary  of 
War.  By  the  Act  of  March  3,  1849,  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  was  created.  The  Bureau 
of  Indian  affairs  was  transferred  to  this  Depart- 
ment, and  the  Indians  passed  from  military  to 
civil  control.  {Indian  Education  and  Civiliza- 
tion. A.  C.  Fletcher.  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  95. 
48th  Congress  2d  Session.) 

Indian  Land  Tenure :  In  the  proclamation  of 
George  III.,  dated  October  7,  1763,  four  prin- 
ciples of  government  in  Indian  affairs  were  laid 
down  which  have  ever  since  been  in  force:  1st. 
The  recognition  of  the  Indian's  right  of  occu- 
pancy. 2d.  The  right  of  the  Government  to 
expel  white  intruders  on  Indian  lands.  3d.  The 
sole  right  to  purchase  Indian  lands  vested  in  the 
Government,  and,  4th,  The  right  to  regulate  trade 
and  license  traders. 

In  1783  the  "Congress  of  the  Confederation" 
issued  a  proclamation  forbidding  private  pur- 
chase or  gift  of  lands  from  Indians,  or  any  settle- 
ments to  be  made  upon  unceded  Indian  territory. 

Upon  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  in  1789 
the  right  of  eminent  domain  was  vested  in  the 
United  States.  (Article  IV.)  The  relation  of 
the  Government's  right  of  eminent  domain  to  the 
Indian's  right  of  occupancy  was  fully  set  forth 
by  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  decision  rendered 
by  Chief  Justice  Marshall  in  the  case  of  Johnson 
V.  Mcintosh: 

"On  the  discovery  of  this  immense  continent, 
the  great  nations  of  Europe  .  .  .  were  all  in  pur- 
■suit  of  the  same  object.  It  was  necessary, in  order 
to  avoid  conflicting  settlements,  and  consequent 
war  with  each  other,  to  establish  a  principle 
which  all  should  acknowledge  as  the  law  by 
which  the  right  of  acquisilion,  which  they  all 
asserted,  should  be  regulated  as  between  them- 
selves. This  principle  was,  that  discovery  gave 
title  to  the  Government  by  whose  subjects,  or  by 
whose  authority,  it  was  made,  against  all  other 
European  governments,  which  title  might  be 
consummated  by  possession. 

"In  the  establishment  of  these  relations  the 
rights  of  the  original  inhabitants  were  in  no 
instance  entirely  disregarded,  but  were  neces- 
sarily to  a  considerable  extent  impaired.  They 
were  admitted  to  be  the  rightful  occupants  of  the 
soil,  with  a  legal,  as  well  as  a  just,  claim  to  retain 
possession  of  it,  and  to  use  it  according  to  their 
own  discretion;  but  their  rights  to  complete  sov- 
ereignty, as  independent  nations,  were  neces- 
sarily diminished,  and  their  power  to  dispose  of 
the  soil  at  their  own  will,  to  whomever  they 
pleased,  was  denied  by  the  original  fundamental 
principle  that  discovery  gave  exclusive  title  to 
those  who  made  it.  .  .  .  However  extravagant 
the  pretension  of  converting  the  discovery  of  an 
inhabited  country  into  conquest  may  appear,  if 
the  principle  has  been  asserted  in  the  first 
instance  and  afterward  sustained,  if  a  country 
has  been  acquired  and  held  under  it,  if  property 


of  the  great  mass  of  the  community  originates  in 
it,  it  becomes  the  law  of  the  land,  and  cannot  be 
questioned.  So,  too,  with  respect  to  the  con- 
comitant principle  that  the  Indian  inhabitants 
are  to  be  considered  merely  as  occupants,  to  be 
protected,  indeed,  while  in  peace,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  their  lands,  but  to  be  deemed  incapable 
of  transferring  the  absolute  title  to  others. 
However  this  restriction  may  be  opposed  to 
naiural  right  and  to  the  usages  of  civilized 
nations,  yet,  if  it  be  indispensable  to  that  system 
under  which  the  country  has  been  settled,  and  be 
adapted  to  the  actual  condition  of  the  two  people, 
it  may,  perhaps,  be  supported  by  reason,  and  cer- 
tainly cannot  be  rejected  by  courts  of  justice." 

In  the  early  years  of  the  Government  the 
treaties  with  the  Indians  often  defined  a  bound- 
ary line  between  the  "Indian  country"  and  the 
United  States.  At  first  this  extended  from  the 
lower  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  Florida,  and  beyond 
this  line  the  United  States  claimed  no  control,  so 
that  the  citizen  who  ventured  to  pass  over  into 
the  Indian  country  could  claim  no  protection 
from  the  Government.  Gradually  trading  and 
military  posts  were  established,  and  the  land 
adjoining  them  secured  from  the  Indians;  then 
roadways  between  these  stations  were  obtained, 
until  finally  the  Indians  were  hedged  in  by  their 
cessions,  and  were  restricted  to  defined  tracts 
known  as  "reservations."  These  were  estab- 
lished either  by  treaty  or  by  order  of  the  Presi- 
dent. 

The  reservations  held  by  treaty,  Act  of  Con- 
gress, patent,  or  acknowledged  Spanish  grants, 
number  about  110,  and  cannot  be  alienated 
except  by  consent  of  Congress.  They  are  located 
in  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Indian 
Territory,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Montana,  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  New  York, 
North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma, 
Oregon,  South  Dakota,  Washington,  Wisconsin 
and  Wyoming. 

At  the  request  of  the  Indian  Department,  the 
President  is  authorized  to  set  apart  public  lands 
as  Indian  reservations.  (The  Public  Domain, 
1883,  p.  243.)  There  are  between  sixty  and 
seventy  "Executive  Order"  reservations.  This 
class  can  be  restored  to  the  public  domain  by  the 
President  without  an  Act  of  Congress. 

Three  hundred  and  seventy  treaties  have  been 
made  with  Indian  tribes.  The  first  was  with  the 
Delaware,  September  7,  1778,  and  the  last  with 
the  Nez  Perc6,  August,  1868.  The  Act  of  March 
3,  1871,  prohibited  the  making  of  any  future 
treaty  with  Indians;  since  then  "agreements" 
have  been  made  with  the  tribes,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  Congress.  The  first  of  these  "agree- 
ments" was  with  bands  of  the  Sioux,  September 
20,  1871;  the  last ,  with  the  Choctaw  and  Chicka- 
saw, March  21,  1902.  (Report  of  Com'r  Ind. 
Affs.,  1903.) 

All  these  treaties  and  agreements  had  refer- 
ence to  land.  The  payments  to  the  tribes  for 
the  cessions  made  were  sometimes  cash,  but  gen- 
erally in  the  form  of  annuities.  The  bulk  of 
these  annuities  were  in  clothing,  food,  etc.,  with 
perhaps  a  small  payment  of  money.  This  form 
was  more  acceptable  to  the  white  merchants  than 
to  the  Indians,  and  the  interests  of  trade  havs 
predominated  in  determining  the  kind  of  pay- 
ment that  should  be  given  the  Indian  for  his 
lands. 

The  land  within  a  reservation  was  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  tribe,  and  not  subject  to  indi- 


546 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


N.  American  Indians 


vidual  ownership.  This  condition  tended  to  per- 
petuate tribal  relations  and  to  retard  tlie  progress 
of  the  people  along  the  lines  of  the  civilization  of 
the  white  race.  As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  a  number  of  treaties  made  at  that  time 
contained  provisions  for  the  allotment  of  indi- 
vidual holdings  to  Indians,  but  this  policy  did  not 
become  general  until  the  passage  of  the  Severalty 
Act  of  February  8,  1887.  The  provisions  of  this 
act  are  applicable  to  lands  that  are  agricultural 
and  grazing,  but  not  to  lands  that  are  fitted  only 
for  grazing,  or  which  require  irrigation.  This 
law  gives  80  acres  of  agricultural  land  to  each 
member  of  the  tribe,  regardless  of  sex  or  age. 
Where  the  land  is  classed  as  grazing,  the  amount 
is  doubled. 

Section  5  states:  "That  upon  the  approval  of 
the  allotments  provided  for  in  this  act  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  he  shall  cause  patents 
to  issue  therefor  in  the  name  of  the  allottees, 
which  patents  shall  be  of  the  legal  effect,  and 
declare  that  the  United  States  does  and  will  hold 
the  land  thus  allotted,  for  the  period  of  twenty- 
five  years,  in  trust  for  the  sole  use  and  benefit  of 
the  Indian  to  whom  such  allotment  shall  have 
been  made,  or,  in  case  of  his  decease,  of  his  heirs 
according  to  the  laws  of  the  State  or  Territory 
where  such  land  is  located,  and  that  at  the  expira- 
tion of  said  period  the  United  States  will  convey 
the  same  by  patent  to  said  Indian,  or  his  heirs,  as 
aforesaid,  in  fee,  discharged  of  said  trust  and  free 
of  all  charge  and  encumbrance  whatsoever; 
Provided,  That  the  President  of  the  United 
States  may,  in  any  case  in  his  discretion,  extend 
the  period." 

Under  this  act  a  number  of  reservations  have 
been  allotted  to  the  tribes  living  thereon,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  lands  purchased  by  the  Govern- 
ment and  thrown  open  to  white  settlement.  The 
work  of  allotment  is  still  going  on,  and  the  time 
is  not  far  distant  when  the  Indians'  tenure  of 
land  will  have  ceased  to  be  merely  the  right  of 
occupancy,  and  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  white 
land-holders. 

Population:  According  to  the  report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Indian  Affairs  for  1903,  the  Indians 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  exclusive 
of  Alaska,  number  258,665.  These  people  are 
sparsely  scattered  within  the  States  or  Terri- 
tories in  which  their  reservations  lie,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Indian  Territory,  where  their 
numbers  and  location  are  such  as  may  enable 
these  tribes  to  become  a  political  power. 

Citizenship:  Section  6  of  the  Severalty  Act  of 
1887  provides  as  follows:  "That  upon  the  com- 
pletion of  said  allotments  and  the  patenting  of 
the  lands  to  said  allottees,  each  and  every  mem- 
ber of  the  respective  bands  or  tribes  of  Indians 
to  whom  allotments  have  been  made  shall  have 
the  benefit  of  and  be  subject  to  the  laws,  both 
civil  and  criminal,  of  the  State  or  Territory  in 
which  they  may  reside;  and  no  Territory  shall 
pass  or  enforce  any  law  denying  any  such  Indian 
within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the 
law.  And  every  Indian  born  within  the  terri- 
torial limits  of  the  United  States,  to  whom  allot- 
ments shall  have  been  made  under  the  provisions 
of  this  act,  or  under  any  law  or  treaty,  and  every 
Indian  bom  within  the  territorial  limits  of  the 
United  States,  who  has  voluntarily  taken  up, 
within  said  limits,  his  residence  separate  and 
apart  from  any  tribe  of  Indians  therein,  and  has 
adopted  the  habits  of  civilized  life,  is  hereby 
declared  to  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
35 


is  entitled  to  all  the  rights,  privileges,  and  immun- 
ities of  such  citizens,  whether  such  Indian  has 
been  or  not,  by  birth  or  otherwise,  a  member  of 
any  tribe  of  Indians  within  the  territorial  limils 
of  the  United  States,  without  in  any  manner 
impairing  or  otherwise  affecting  the  rights  of  any 
such  Indian  to  tribal  or  other  property." 

About  41  per  cent,  of  the  Indian  population 
are  now  citizens  of  the  United  States,  by  virtue 
of  the  Act  of  1887.  This  percentage  will  be 
largely  increased  in  the  near  future  when  the 
"Five  Civilized  Tribes"  of  Indian  Territory  have 
relinquished  their  separate  form  of  government, 
while  the  number  is  constantly  increasing  as 
allotments  are  made. 

Self-support:  Self-support  is  becoming  more 
and  more  the  rule  and  dependence  upon  the  Gov- 
ernment the  exception.  When  the  rapidity 
with  which  enforced  changes  have  come  upon 
the  tribes  in  regard  to  their  food  supply  are  con- 
sidered, together  with  the  bewilderment  and 
difficulties  which  attend  the  extinction  of  old 
customs  and  habits,  the  progress  that  has  been 
made  is  a  credit  to  the  race,  and  promises  well  for 
the  future  of  the  Indian. 

Education:  One  of  the  earliest  authentic  expres- 
sions from  the  United  States  Government,  in 
reference  to  Indian  education,  occurs  in  the 
instructions  given  to  Brig. -Gen.  Rufus  Putnam, 
who,  in  May,  1792,  was  sent  to  negotiate  with  the 
late  hostile  Indians  near  Lake  Erie: 

"That  the  United  States  are  desirous  of  im- 
parting to  all  the  Indian  tribes  the  blessings  of 
civilization,  as  the  only  means  of  perpetuating 
them  on  the  earth.  That  we  are  willing  to  be  at 
the  expense  of  teaching  them  to  read  and  wrile, 
to  plow  and  sow,  in  order  to  raise  their  own 
bread  and  meat,  with  certainty,  as  the  white 
people  do."  (Amer.  State  Papers,  Ind.  Affs., 
VoL   1,  p.  235.) 

The  first  treaty  provision  was  made  December 
2,  1794,  with  the  Oneida,  Tuscarora,  and  Stock- 
bridge  Indians,  who  had  been  faithful  to  the 
colonists. 

The  first  general  appropriation  for  Indian 
education  was  made  March  3,  1819,  for  $10,000. 
The  policy  to  be  pursued  is  indicated  in  1he 
following  extract  from  the  circular  issued  Sep- 
tember 3,  1819: 

"...  The  plan  of  education,  in  addition 
to  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  should,  in  the 
instruction  of  boys,  extend  to  the  practical 
knowledge  of  the  mode  of  agriculture,  and  of  such 
of  the  mechanical  arts  as  are  suited  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  Indians;  and  in  that  of  the  girls,  to 
spining,  weaving,  and  sewing.  It  is  also  indis- 
pensable that  the  establishment  (of  schools) 
should  be  fixed  within  the  limits  of  those  Indian 
nations  who  border  our  settlements.  Such 
associations  or  individuals  who  are  already 
actually  engaged  in  educating  the  Indians,  and 
who  may  desire  to  cooperate  with  the  Govern- 
ment, will  report  to  the  Department  of  war." 
(Amer.  State  JPapers,  Ind.  Affs.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  201.) 
In  1825  there  were  38  schools  under  the  charge 
of  various  missionary  organizations.  Toward  their 
support  the  Government  contributed  that  year 
$13,620.41,  and  the  Indians  gave  from  their 
annuities  and  by  their  treaty  provisions,  $11,750. 
(Ibid.,  pp.  587,  669.) 

In  1848, 16  manual  labor  schools  and  87  board- 
ing and  other  schools  were  in  operation.  The  fol- 
lowing year  the  Indian  Commissioner  reported 
that   "nearly  the    whole    of  the  large  amount 


7f.  American  Indians 
NorTregrlnn  MlHsionH 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


646 


required  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  the 
schools  now  in  operation  is  furnished  by  the 
Indians  themselves  out  of  their  national  funds." 
And  he  urged  that  the  annual  appropriation  of 
$10,000,  made  in  accordance  with  the  Act  of 
1819,  be  raised  to  $50,000. 

In  1865  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  recom- 
mended: 

"That  Congress  provide  a  civilization  and 
educational  fund,  to  be  disbursed  in  such  mode 
as  to  secure  the  cooperation  and  assistance  of 
benevolent  organizations." 

By  a  treaty  made  with  the  Osage  Indians, 
September  29,  1865,  Article  2  provided  that  the 
proceeds  from  the  sales  of  certain  ceded  lands 
should,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior,  be  applied  to  the  education  and 
civilization  of  Indian  tribes  residing  within  the 
limits  of  the  United  States.  This  fund  amounted 
to  $770,179.42,  and  was  exhausted  by  1882. 

Up  to  1873  Indian  schools  had  been  maintained 
either  wholly  by  missionary  funds  or  jointly  with 
the  aid  of  the  Government,  except  of  those 
schools  supported  entirely  from  tribal  funds  and 
under  the  charge  of  United  States  teachers.  At 
this  time  Government  day  schools  were  estab- 
lished, and  later  boarding  schools,  the  number 
increasing  with  each  year.  During  the  last 
decade  of  the  past  century  all  Government 
financial  support  to  mission  schools  ceased,  and 
at  the  present  time  most  of  the  Indian  schools  are 
under  the  classified  service  of  the  Government. 
Where  mission  schools  exist,  they  are  entirely 
independent  of  the  Government  and  supported 
by  missionary  organizations. 

During  the  year  1903  the  Government  main- 
tained 26  boarding  schools  off  the  reservations. 
These  are  large  industrial  and  manual  training 
schools  located  in  the  midst  of  thrifty  commun- 
ities, and  their  capacities  range  from  90  to  1,000 
pupils.  A  valuable  adjunct  to  these  schools  is 
the  "Outing  System."  This  "System"  was  in- 
stituted and  has  reached  its  highest  development 
in  connection  with  the  Training  School  at  Car- 
lisle, Pa. 

"This  system  consists  in  placing  Indian  boys 
and  girls  .  .  .  out  in  the  families  of  sur- 
rounding farmers,  the  boys  for  general  farm  work, 
and  the  girls  for  various  household  duties. 
They  usually  attend  public  schools  and  are  paid  a 
stipulated  sum  for  their  labor,  thus  learning  the 
value  of  labor  in  dollars  and  cents,  and  the  result- 
ant benefits  of  thrift."      (Rep.  Ind.  Com'r,  1903.) 

The  average  attendance  at  these  schools  for 
1903  was  7,793;  91  boarding  schools  were  in  opera- 
tion on  the  different  reservations,  with  an  aver- 
age attendance  of  11,209;  140  day  schools  were 
in  operation  on  the  reservations,  and  their  aver- 
age attendance  was  4,497. 

These  figures  do  not  include  Indians  attending 
the  public  schools  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  or  those  pursuing  higher  branches  in 
various  institutions  and  colleges,  or  under  mis- 
sionary training. 

The  appropriation  made  for  Indian  education 
by  Congress  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1904, 
was  3,522,950  dollars.  This  sum  does  not  include 
the  full  amount  expended  upon  Indian  schools 
by  the  Government,  for  there  are  several  schools 
on  reservations  which  are  either  wholly  or  in 
large  part  maintained  by  tribal  funds. 

As  a  result  of  education,  Indians  are  to-day  to 
be  found  in  all  avocations — asfarmers,  mechanics, 
laborers,  clerks,  merchants;  in  the   professions. 


as  clergymen,  physicians,  lawyers,  teachers; 
as  authors  and  artists,  and  also  in  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States. 

While  the  favored  have  advanced  and  are  well 
on  their  upward  course,  the  transition  period  is 
still  pressing  heavily  upon  a  large  proportion  of 
the  people.  Their  faith  in  the  ancient  ideas  of 
their  fathers  is  shaken  or  gone,  while  faith  in  the 
new  is  not  yet  established.  The  old  tribal  laws 
and  restraints  no  longer  exist;  old  avocations 
are  closed;  old  social  honors  and  pleasures  have 
disappeared;  the  people  thus  bereft  and  dis- 
traught stand  to-day  in  greater  need  of  the  wise 
missionary  than  ever  before.  While  his  work 
is  difficult  and  more  onerous  than  in  the  past,  it  is 
more  hopeful  and  less  isolated;  its  problems  have 
become  akin  to  those  which  confront  his  fellow- 
workers  in  our  cities  and  rural  districts,  and 
demand  a  similar  treatment. 

General  Information:  Bancroft  (H.  H,),  The  Native 
Races  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  New  York,  1874-76,  5  vols.; 
James  (G.  W.),  The  India-ns  of  the  Painted  Desert,  Boston, 
1903;  Fletcher  (Miss  A.  C.),  Indian  Education  and  Civili- 
zation, Washington,  1888  (Special  report  of  Bureau  of 
Education;  also  in  Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  95,  Forty-eighth 
Congress.  Second  Session) ;  Hailman  (W.  N.),  The  Education 
of  the  Indian,  Albany,  1900  (in  monographs  on  Educationin 
tile  United  States,  Vol.  II.) ;  Walker  (F.  R.),  Indian  Citizen^ 
ship,  New  York,  1878;  Indian  Rights  Association  Reports, 
Philadelphia,  1889-1903;  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs 
Reports  (U.  S.),  Canada;  Superintendent  of  Department  of 
Indian  Affairs'  Reports,  Ottawa,  1885-1901. 

Missions:  Bartlett  (S.  C),  Missions  of  the  ABCFM  amonff 
the  North  American  Indians,  Boston,  1876;  Campbefl 
(Charles),  Historical  Sketch  of  Early  Missions  amoiw  the 
Indians  of  Maryland,  Baltimore,  1846;  Eastman  (Mrs. 
M.  H.),  Dacotah,  New  York,  1849;  Eells  (Myron),  History 
of  Indian  Missions  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  Philadelphia,  1882; 
Everhard  (P.),  History  of  Indian  Baptist  Missions  in 
North  America,  Boston,  1831;  Finley  (J.  B.),  History  of 
the  (ME)  Wyandot  Mission  at  Upper  Sandusky,  Ohio, 
Cincinnati,  1840;  Garret  (J.  B.),  Historical  Sketches  of 
Missions  ajnong  the  North  American  Indians,  Philadelphia, 
1881;  Goode  (W.  H.),  Outposts  of  Zion,  Cincinnati,  1863; 
Gookin  (D.),  Historical  Account  of  the  Doings  and  Suffer' 
ings  of  the  Christian  Indians  of  New  England  in  1675-1677; 
Heckewelder  (J.  G.  E.),  Narrative  of  the  Moravian  Missions 
among  the  Delaware  and  Mohegan  Indiana,  Philadelphia, 
1882;  Jones  (Peter),  History  of  the  Ojibway  Indians,  Lon- 
don, 1861;  Kip  (W.  I.),  Historical  Scenes  from  the  Old 
Jesuit  Missions,  New  York,  1875;  Loskiel  (— ; — ),  History 
of  the  Moravian  Mission  to  the  Indians;  Higgs  (S.  R.), 
Mary  and  I:  Forty  Years  among  the  Sioux,  Chicago,  1880; 
Homer  (H.),  Die  Indianer  und  ihr  Freund  D.  ZiesbergeTr 
Gutersloh,  Germany,  1890;  Whipple  (Rt.  Rev.  Bishop), 
Lights  and  Shadows  of  a  Long  Episcopate,  New  York,  1899. 

NORTH    GERMAN   MISSIONARY   SOCIETY. 

See  Germany;  Missionary  Societies  in. 

NORTH     LAKHIMPUR.        See     Lakhimpur 

(North). 

NORTH  AND  SOUTH  SHEPSTONE:  Towns 
in  Natal,  South  Africa,  situated  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  Umzimkulu  River  at  its  mouth. 
Station  of  the  Swedish  Holiness  Band  (1889), 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives. 
Station  also  of  the  PB,  with  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife.  Societies  write  the  name  Port 
Shepstone. 

NORWEGIAN  MISSIONS:  The  missionary 
activity  of  the  Norwegian  people  began  with 
Hans  Egede.  But  as  Norway  at  that  time  was 
united  to  Denmark,  and  as  Egede  was  supported 
and  controlled  by  the  royal  government  in  Copen- 
hagen, he  has  been  identified  with  _  Danish 
Missions.  Entirely  national  both  in  origin  and 
operation  are  the  three  Norwegian  Mission 
societies  now  at  work — the  Norwegian  Mission 
to  the  Finns,  the  Norwegian  Mission  Society, 
and  the  Mission  of  the  Norwegian  Church  by 
Schreuder. 

The   Norwegian  Mission  to  the  Finns:  Head- 


647 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


IV.  American  Indians 
Nor^vegrlan  MlSHions 


quarters,  Stavanger,  Norway.  On  February  28, 
1888,  Bishop  Skaar  of  Tromso,  to  whose  dio- 
cese the  Finns  who  occupy  the  northern  part 
of  Norway  mostly  belong,  sent  out  an  appeal 
to  the  Norwegian  people  that  missionaries  or 
itinerant  preachers  who  could  speak  the  Finnish 
language  should  be  sent  out  among  them.  This 
appeal  was  promptly  taken  up,  and  by  means  of 
a  yearly  subscription  of  about  4,000  crowns  it 
has  already  been  possible  to  set  two  Finnish- 
speaking  Norwegian  preachers  to  work  among 
them. 

The  Norwegian  Mission  Society  {Det  Norske 
Missions  Selskab):  Headquarters,  Stavanger, 
Norway.  In  the  third  decade  of  the  19th 
century,  after  Norway  had  become  an  indepen- 
dent state  by  the  separation  from  Denmark  in 
1814,  there  were  formed  all  over  the  country, 
but  more  especially  among  the  followers  of  the 
great  revivalist,  Hans  Nilsen  Hauge,  a  number 
of  minor  mission  associations,  the  first  and  the 
largest  among  which  was  that  of  Stavanger,  1826. 
These  associations  sent  their  money  and  their 
missionaries,  if  any  they  had,  to  Basel.  The 
Stavanger  Association,  however,  placed  its  first 
missionary,  Hans  Christian  Knudsen,  in  the 
service  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society.  In  1827 
the  "Norsk  Missionsblad"  was  founded,  and  in 
1845  followed  "Norsk  Missionstidende,"  which 
still  is  the  organ  of  the  mission  to  the  heathen. 
Then,  in  1841,  Jon  Hougvaldstad,  a  small  trades- 
man from  Stavanger,  but  a  personal  friend  of 
Hauge,  and  seventy-one  years  of  age,  went  to 
Germany  to  investigate  mission  societies  and 
missionary  schools;  and  the  result  of  his  journey 
was,  that  August  8,  1842,  all  the  minor  associa- 
tions in  Western  Norway  consolidated  into  one 
society.  In  1843  they  were  joined  by  all  the 
minor  associations  of  Eastern  Norway,  and  thus 
was  formed  the  Norwegian  Mission  Society. 
This  movement  was  carried  on  almost  exclusively 
by.  laymen,  while  the  Norwegian  Church,  in  its 
official  position  as  a  state  institution,  assumed 
a  very  cool  and  reserved  attitude  toward  it — 
a  circumstance  which  later  proved  of  importance 
for  the  formation  of  the  Mission  of  the  Norwegian 
Church  by  Schreuder. 

The  Norwegian  Mission  Society  is  thoroughly 
democratic  in  its  organization.  The  minor 
associations,  numbering  900,  besides  2,300 
women's  societies,  still  exist,  and  have  retained 
a  considerable  proportion  of  autonomy.  They 
form  eight  circles ,  each  circle  holding  a  con- 
ference two  years  in  succession,  in  June  and 
July,  and  the  third  year  the  General  Assembly 
meets.  The  central  administration,  consisting 
of  the  director  of  the  Mission  School,  a  secretary 
and  eight  members  elected  by  the  Conferences, 
has  its  seat  in  Stavanger. 

The  society  receives  some  annual  support 
from  the  Norwegian  churches  in  the  United 
States,  and  owns  a  fund  of  200,000  kroners,  a 
donation  from  Mr.  P.  von  M611er,  at  Helingsborg, 
Sweden,  from  which  it  pensions  old  and  worn- 
out  missionaries,  or  missionaries'  widows  and 
children;  but  its  missionaries  are  not  allowed  to 
marry  without  the  permission  of  the  Central 
Board.  It  maintains  a  mission-school  at  Stav- 
anger, founded  in  1843,  closed  in  1847,  but 
reopened  in  1858,  and  also  owns  a  mission 
steamer,  presented  to  it  by  special  subscription, 
and  usually  stationed  at  Madagascar. 

The  denominational  character  of  the  Society 
is  strictly  Lutheran.     According  to  its  laws  its 


missionaries  must  receive  ordination  from  a 
bishop  of  the  Lutheran  State  Church,  and  a 
license  from  the  king,  which  is  valid  only  for  a 
certain  field. 

The  Society  is  engaged  in  two  different  fields; 
(1)  Zululand  and  (2)  Madagascar. 

(1)  The  Zulu  Mission  was  begun  in  1844  by 
Sciireuder.  To  the  Norwegians,  as  to  other 
missionaries,  Zululand  proved  a  very  hard,  but 
after  the  first  hindrances  were  overcome,  a  very 
promising  field.  The  first  station  was  founded 
at  Umpumulo,  in  1850,  and  in  1858  the  first 
convert,  a  Zulu  girl,  was  baptized  at  Umpumulo. 
When  Bishop  Schreuder  in  1876  transferred  his 
services  to  the  Mission  of  the  Norwegian  Church, 
he  carried  with  him  a  part  of  the  field  already 
under  cultivation;  but  the  Society  continued  its 
labor  with  great  energy  and  considerable  success. 
In  1900  there  were  reported  27  missionaries 
(including  wives),  41  native  workers,  15  stations 
and  73  outstations,  1,016  communicants  and 
2,060  adherents,  32  day  schools  with  714  scholars, 
and  1  of  higher  grade  with  182  pupils. 

(2)  The  Madagascar  Mission  was  begun  in 
1866,  and  soon  assumed  large  proportions, 
including  not  only  the  Hovas  in  the  inland, 
with  a  station  in  the  capital,  Antananarivo,  but 
also,  since  1874,  the  Sakalavas,  on  the  western 
coast,  and  since  1888  some  points  on  the  southern 
coast  never  before  visited  by  Europeans.  In 
1900  there  were  reported  88  missionaries  (includ- 
ing wives),  1,795  native  workers,  23  stations 
and  839  outstations,  34,649  communicants  and 
51,371  adherents,  95()  day  schools  and  4  of  higher 
grade,  with  57,475  scholars,  3  physicians,  and  2 
hospitals. 

The  Norwegian  Church  Mission  by  Schreuder 
(Den  Norske  Kirkes  Mission  ved  Schreuder) : 
Headquarters,  Christiania,  Norway.  Hans 
Palludan  Smith  Schreuder,  born  at  Sogndal, 
Norway,  June  18,  1817;  died  at  Untumjambili, 
Natal,  Africa,  January  27,  1882,  consecrated 
bishop  of  the  Cathedral  of  Bergen  1866,  was  the 
father  of  the  Norwegian  Mission.  His  "A 
Few  Words  to  the  Church  of  Norway,"  1842,  had 
a  great  effect  throughout  the  whole  country.  He 
started  the  Zulu  Mission  under  tremendous 
difficulties,  and  it  is  indebted  for  its  success  to 
his  powerful  personality.  During  the  war 
between  the  English  and  the  Zulus  most  of  the 
English  and  German  mission  stations  were  dis- 
turbed or  fully  destroyed.  But  Entumeni 
was  not  touched,  owing  to  the  deep  respect  of 
King  Cetewayo  for  Schreuder.  The  Madagascar 
Mission  he  also  directed  and  superintended  at  its 
beginning.  Nevertheless,  altho  he  served  the 
Norwegian  Mission  Society  for  thirty  years,  it 
was  always  his  wish  to  be  the  missionary  of  the 
Church  of  Norway,  of  the  official  state  institution, 
and  not  the  missionary  of  any  private  association. 
Accordingly,  in  1873  he  separated  from  the 
Society  and  a  committee  was  formed,  with  Bishop 
Tandberg  at  its  head,  and  representing  the 
Church  of  Norway.  Bishop  Schreuder  took 
Entumeni  with  him,  and  shortly  a  new  station 
was  founded  at  Untunjambili  in  Natal,  where  a 
church  was  built  and  consecrated  in  1881.  After 
his  death  the  mission  was  continued  by  his  pupils, 
among  whom  are  several  natives,  under  the 
direction  of  the  above  mentioned  committee, 
which  has  its  seat  in  Christiania.  In  1900  there 
were  reported  13  missionaries,  8  native  workers, 
3  stations,  323  communicants,  665  adherents,  3 
schools  with  180  scholars. 


Noft,  Henry 
Kusairiyeh. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


548 


In  addition  to  these  there  are  several  minor 
societies:  The  Norwegian  Committees,  in  aid  of 
the  Indian  Home  Mission  to  the  Santals;  the 
Bethany  China  Mission  in  Trondhjem,  assisting 
the  China  Inland  Mission,  and  the  Norwegian 
Lutheran  China  Mission  Association.  These  are 
closely  allied  to  the  State  Church,  but  there  are 
several  that  have  sprung  from  the  spirit  manifest 
in  the  China  Inland  Mission  and  Christian  and 
Missionary  Alliance,  such  as  the  Norwegian  Board 
of  Missions,  organized  in  1889  as  the  Free  East 
Africa  Mission,  which  carries  on  work  in  China 
as  well  as  Africa;  the  Norwegian  China  Mission, 
in  alliance  with  the  CIM,  and  the  Missionary 
Union  of  the  Norwegian  YWCA,  also  in  alliance 
with  the  CIM.  There  is  also  a  Committee  for 
the  Norwegian  Medical  Mission  in  Madagascar, 
and  the  student  movement  has  had  great  influ- 
ence and  accomplished  much  for  the  general 
interest  in  missions. 

NOTT,  Henry:  Born  in  1774;  sailed  in  1796 
under  the  LMS  for  the  South  Seas.  He  was  not 
an  ordained  missionary,  but  a  plain,  godly 
bricklayer,  sent  out  to  instruct  the  islanders 
in  the  trade  of  which  he  was  master.  On  arrival 
he  was  stationed  at  Tahiti.  He  at  once  showed 
superior  traits  of  character.  When  a  panic 
seized  the  missionaries,  and  eleven  of  their 
number  abandoned  the  island,  Nott  was  a  leader 
of  those  who  insisted  on  enduring  yet  longer. 
When  it  was  important  to  explore  the  island 
Nott  was  one  of  the  two  who  made  that  dangerous 
missionary  tour.  When  preaching  to  the  natives 
at  last  began,  after  five  years  of  study,  Nott  was 
one  of  the  two  men  who  had  mastered  the 
language.  And  when  in  1809  a  rebellion  broke 
out  against  King  Pomar^,  and  the  mission 
houses  were  burned,  the  types  from  the  printing 
office  melted  into  bullets,  and  twelve  yea,TS  of 
heroic  effort  seemed  to  have  ended  m  utter 
failure,  it  was  Nott  who  remained  alone  at 
Eimeo,  while  all  his  associates,  excepting  Hay- 
ward,  at  the  neighboring  island  of  Huahine,  fled 
to  Australia.  It  was  the  admission  of  the 
Society,  and  of  Mr.  Nott's  associates,  that  this 
bricklayer  was  the  salvation  of  that  mission. 
It  was  he  who  saw,  as  others  did  not,  that  little 
could  be  done  by  preaching  unless  the  people 
read  the  Bible  in  their  own  tongue.  He  worked 
twenty-seven  years  upon  the  preparation  for  the 
work  and  upon  the  work  itself,  sending  home  in 
the  meantime  for  books  to  enable  him  to  learn 
Hebrew  and  Greek.  When  the  translation  was 
complete  he  broke  down  in  health,  carried  his 
manuscript  to  England  in  1836  that  he  might 
give  it  a  final  revision,  induced  the  BFBS  to 
publish  the  book,  and  in  1838  loaded  3,000  of  the 
new  Bibles  on  a  ship  and  sped  away  to  his  beloved 
island  home.  The  great  work  of  his  life  was 
done.     He  died  at  Tahiti,  May  2,  1844. 

NOWGONG:  A  town  in  Assam,  British  India, 
situated  in  the  district  of  Nowgong,  56  miles  E. 
by  N.  of  Gauhati.  Population,  5,000.  Station 
of  the  ABMU  (1841),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  21  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  5 
Sunday  schools,  13  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  417  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
281  are  communicants. 

WOWGONG:  A  town  in  Central  India,  situated 
in  the  Bundalkhand  region,  15  miles  N.  W.  of 
Chatarpur.  Population,  10,000,  of  whom  6,700 
are  Hindus.     Station  of  the  AFFM  (1896),  with 


(1901)  3  women  missionaries,  4  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  3  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools. 

NOWRANGAPUR.     See    Naoeangpur. 

NSABA :  A  settlement  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony, 
West  Africa,  situated  45  miles  N.  E.  of  Cape 
Coast  Castle.  Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1891),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  2  of 
them  with  their  wives;  28  native  workers,  51 
outstations,  17  day  schools,  and  1,582  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  724  are  communicants. 

NTONDA:  A,  jjlantation  of  1,000  acres  in 
Angoniland,  British  Central  Africa,  situated 
south  of  Lake  Nyasa,  about  100  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Blantyre.  Station  of  the  Zambesi  Industrial 
Mission,  with  (1902)  2  missionaries,  1  with  his 
wife;  6  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  9  Sunday 
schools,  9  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1 
industrial  farm,  and  150  professed  Christians. 

NUBA  LANGUAGE:  A  language  spoken  in 
the  Sudan,  Dongola  and  surrounding  regions  of 
Africa,  belonging  to  the  Nuba-Fulah  group  of 
African  tongues,  and  written  with  Arabic 
characters.  Missionaries  have  tried  without 
success  in  this  language  to  substitute  Roman 
for  Arabic  letters  in  the  favor  of  the  people.  The 
language  is  used  by  about  a  million  people  and 
has  great  vitality. 

NUBA-FULAH  RACE:  A  very  considerable 
number  of  tribes,  some  in  Egyptian  Sudan, 
and  some  over  against  them  on  the  west  coast  of 
North  Central  Africa,  are  found  to  differ  so 
much,  both  linguistically  and  ethnographically, 
from  the  several  races  into  which  the  Africans 
have  been  heretofore  divided,  that  some  of  the 
ablest  recent  writers  on  these  subjects,  such  as 
F.  Mtiller  and  Dr.  R.  N.  Oust,  have  added  a 
new  class  or  group,  with  two  sub-groups,  which 
they  call  Nuba  and  Fulah.  This  twofold  race, 
Nuba-Fulah,  is  evidently  very  ancient — doubt- 
less aboriginal  in  the  lower  basin  of  the 
Nile,  which  still  continues  to  be  the  headquarters 
of  the  Nuba  portion  of  the  general  group.  It 
finally  came  to  have  its  headquarters  in  the 
lower  basin  of  the  Senegal,  and  there  came  to 
be  known  as  the  Filatah,  Fuladu,  Pulah,  or 
Fulah  people,  being  so  called  because  they  were 
of  a  light  brown,  and  thus  in  strong  contrast 
with  the  Negroes  of  a  purer  black  around  them. 
The  present  scattered  or  fragmentary  condition 
of  the  Nuba-Fulah  race,  a.  portion  of  it  being 
found  on  the  east  of  Victoria  Nyanza,  as  the  Kwafi 
and  Masai,  other  portions  on  the  sources  of  each 
of  the  two  Niles,  and  yet  other  portions  in  diiler- 
ent  parts  of  the  Sudan,  aH  the  way  from  Darfur 
to  the  Senegal,  or  in  groups  here  and  there 
among  the  mid-African  tribes,  all  goes  to  support 
the  idea  that  the  original  Nuba-Fulah  race  was 
broken  and  scattered,  as  already  indicated,  by 
the  divisive  and  propelling  force  of  another 
powerful  race,  like  the  Bantu,  at  an  early  age  of 
African  history. 

One  important  branch  of  the  Nuba  stock  still 
has  its  home  in  the  original  abode  of  the  race — 
the  basin  of  the  Nile  from  the  first  to  the  second 
cataract.  The  earliest  account  we  have  of  them 
represents  them  as  a  powerful,  superior  race, 
of  good  features,  not  so  dark  on  the  northern 
border  as  farther  south,  and  quite  distinct  from 
both  the  Egyptian  and  the  Negro.  They  were 
once  Christians,  but  now,  like  all  their  neighbors, 
profess  the  Muslim  faith,  and  speak,  some  the 
Arabic,  and  some  their  own  vernacular  language. 


549 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Nott,  Henry 
Nnsairlyeli 


Some  live  as  nomads  in  tents,  and  some  as  a 
settled,  industrious,  thriving  people,  in  well- 
built  houses.  There  is  also  a  tribe  or  group  of 
tribes,  evidently  related  to  the  Nuba  family  in 
both  blood  and  language,  in  Kordofan  and 
Darfur.  They  differ  from  the  Negroes  around 
them,  believe  in  Islam,  and  speak,  some  of 
them,  what  is  called  the  Koldagi  dialect,  some 
of  them  the  Tumale,  and  some  the  Konjara. 
Other  tribes  of  this  class,  as  the  Kwafi  and 
Masai,  who  call  themselves  Loikob,  and  designate 
their  language  as  the  Enguduk,  are  found  on 
or  near  the  equator.  The  Kwafi  have  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  on  their  west  and  the  Masai 
on  their  south.  Both  tribes,  differing  mate- 
rially, as  they  do,  from  the  Hamitic  race  on  the 
north,  and  from  the  Bantu  on  other  sides,  are 
counted  as  belonging  to  the  Nuba-Fulah  group. 
They  are  represented  as  the  most  savage  of  all 
East  African  tribes.  Still  another  group  of 
tribes,  such  as  the  Berta  and  Kamail,  belonging 
to  the  Nuba-Fulah  race,  has  its  home  on  the 
Blue  Nile,  north  of  the  Gallas  and  west  of  Abys- 
sinia. In  this  race  are  included  also  the  Nyam- 
Nyam,  together  with  the  Golo  and  the  Monbutto 
on  the  sources  of  the  White  Nile  and  the 
Shary. 

Turning  now  and  going  westward  between 
the  10°  and  15°  of  north  latitude,  we  come 
upon  several  families  of  the  sub-Fulah  group, 
scattered  here  and  there  all  along  from  Darfur 
through  the  Hausa  and  Mandingo  countries, 
till  we  come  to  where  they  abound  in  Bundu, 
Futa  Jalo,  and  Futa  Toro,  south  of  Lower 
Senegal,  where  "they  dominate,"  says  Dr. 
Gust,  "as  Mohammedan  foreign  conquerors. 
They  have  placed  their  foot  firmly  down  in  the 
land  of  the  Wolof,  and  the  people  of  the  coast 
have  come  under  their  influence  as  far  as  the 
river  Nunez.  They  are  numerous  and  power- 
ful in  Mandingoland  and  in  the  kingdom  of 
Massina,  south  of  Timbuktu.  The  kingdom  of 
Sokoto  and  Gando  is  their  creation,  including 
the  whole  of  the  Hausa-speaking  territory. 
Far  to  the  east  we  find  them  in  Bornu,  Mandara 
Logon,  Baghirmi,  Wadai,  and  even  in  Darfur. 
Their  tendency  to  expand  is  not  on  the  wane, 
and  they  have  made  a  powerful  impression  on 
the  Negro  population;  from  the  union  of  the 
two  races  a  mixed  population  has  sprung  up 
called  Torodo,  Jhalonki,  Toucouleur,  and  other 
names."  It  is  unnecessary  here  to  detail  their 
history  or  speculate  on  their  origin.  I'heir 
movement  has  been  comparatively  of  late  date, 
by  force  of  arms,  and  coupled  with  the  spread 
of  the  Mohammedan  religion.  They  are  spoken 
of  by  a  recent  writer  as  "an  interesting  Moham- 
medan people  of  the  Western  Sudan  in  Africa, 
remarkable  for  their  enterprise,  intelligence, 
and  religious  zeal.  They  are  a  race,  and  not  a 
nation;  have  many  tribes,  several  shades  of 
color  and  varieties  of  form,  probably  from  the 
fact  that  they  have  blended  with  various  subject 
races.  They  cultivate  Mohammedan  learning 
with  much  enthusiasm..  Their  history  is  quite 
obscure.  Sokoto  is  their  principal  state,  but 
they  are  the  predominant  people  of  many 
countries  in  the  Sudan." 

Very  little  mission  work  of  a  Protestant 
Christian  character  has  been  as  yet  done  or  even 
attempted  for  any  part  of  this  race;  but  the  eyes 
of  not  a  few  are  on  the  great  region  they  occupy, 
with  high  purpose  and  hope  of  reaching  them 
soon. 


NUEVO  LAREDO:  A  town  in  Mexico,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  opposite 
Laredo,  Texas.  Station  of  the  American  Bap- 
tist Home  Missionary  Society,  with  (1900)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  orphanages,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  and  28  professed 
Christians. 

NUKUALOFA:  A  settlement  on  Tongatabu, 
Tonga  Islands.  Station  of  the  SDA  and  of  the 
Medical  Mission  Society  of  the  same  church, 
with  (1900)  3  missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their 
wives;  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
dispensary,  and  10  professed  Christians. 

NUMPANI.     See  Nimpani. 

NUPE  LANGUAGE:  A  language  belonging  to 
the  Negro  group,  and  spoken  in  the  country  W. 
of  Lokoja,  Nigeria,  W.  Africa.  It  has  an  uncer- 
tain constituency,  but  appears  to  be  of  consider- 
able vitality.  Missionaries  have  written  the 
language  with  Roman  letters. 

NURSARAVAPETTA.     See  Narasaeaopet. 

NUSAIRIYEH:  The  origin  of  the  Nusairiyeh 
people  seems  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  antiquity. 
In  asking  one  of  their  chiefs  concerning  their 
origin  the  most  he  could  say  was  that  it  was  very 
ancient.  Another  says  that  they  descended 
from  the  Persians;  others  from  the  Philistines 
or  from  the  tribes  that  Joshua  drove  out  of 
Palestine.  They  have  dwelt  for  hundreds  of 
years  in  the  mountains  of  northern  Syria,  and 
the  regions  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  as 
far  as  the  plains  of  Cilicia.  It  is  probable  that 
the  ethnologists  and  historians  have  taken  little 
or  no  notice  of  them  because  of  their  political 
insignificance  and  low  state  of  civilization. 
However,  their  religious  practises  sustain  the 
theory  tliat  they  are  descended  from  some  of 
the  ancient  heathen  tribes  of  Palestine.  At 
present  they  are  a  mixed  race,  as  are  the  most 
of  the  races  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
owing,  in  this  case  no  doubt,  to  the  Crusades, 
when  many  thousands  of  Europeans  were  lost 
and  became  mingled  with  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country.  This  circumstance  probably  accounts 
for  the  existence  of  so  many  blonde  complexions 
among  these  swarthy  tribesmen.  They  receive 
their  name  from  Nusair,  who,  with  his  son  Abu 
Shai,  was  a  renowned  leader  and  teacher  among 
them  some  centuries  ago.  They  inhabit  North- 
ern Syria  and  Cilicia,  and  number  about  three 
hundred  thousand  souls. 

As  to  their  religion,  they  are  a  branch  of  the 
Shi'ites,  who  separated  under  the  leadership  of 
Nusair;  and  their  religious  system  was  brought 
to  perfection  by  one  of  his  descendants  named 
Khusaib.  Nevertheless,  while  claiming  to  be 
followers  of  Mohammed,  in  private  they  are 
practically  pagans.  They  reject  the  caUphate 
of  Abu  Bekr  and  his  successors  down  to  Abd  ul 
Hamid,  the  present  Sultan-Caliph,  and  claiin 
that  the  succession  belonged  of  right  to  All. 
Tradition  says  that  Abu  Bekr  compassed  the 
death  of  his  rival.  Ah,  by  strategy,  the  circum- 
stances being  that  Ali  was  praying  in  a  mosque, 
and  Abu  Bekr,  learning  of  it,  sent  two  of  his 
retainers  to  simulate  a  deadly  (juarrel  _  outside 
the  mosque,  knowing  that  All,  hearing  the 
disturbance,  would  rush  out  to  separate  the 
combatants.  The  men  would  resent  this  inter- 
ference, and  would  fall  upon  Ali  and  kill  him. 
The  result  was  as  anticipated,  and  the  deadly 
feud  was  begun  which  continues  to  this   day. 


Nnsairiyeli 
Objectlona 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


650 


This  branch  of  the  followers  of  All  devised  a 
religion  of  their  own,  and,  being  in  the  minority 
and  fearing  persecution,  they  bound  themselves 
by  the  most  horrid  oaths  to  keep  it  secret.  None 
are  initiated  into  its  mysteries  under  18  years  of 
age.  The  applicant  for  initiation  to  the  secrets 
of  the  Nusairiyeh  religion  must  bring  twelve 
men  as  security,  and  these  must  be  vouched  for 
by  two  others.  Such  is  their  distrust  of  mankind, 
however,  that  the  situation  is  not  secure  even 
after  this,  and  the  candidate  is  required  to 
swear  by  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  that  he  will 
never  reveal  the  mysteries  about  to  be  made 
known  to  him,  and  that  if  he  violates  his  promise, 
he  will  accept  the  penalty  of  having  his  head, 
hands,  and  feet  cut  off;  the  same  penalty  being 
his  due  if  he  fails  to  complete  the  course  of  study 
now  begun.  For  this  reason  the  Nusairiyeh  are 
extremely  reticent  on  the  subject  of  their  religion. 
To  reveal  it  is  an  unpardonable  sin.  Some  years 
ago  one  of  their  number,  a  certain  Suleiman 
Effendi  of  Adana,  made  some  revelations  respect- 
ing their  mysteries,  in  a  book  which  he  pub- 
lished in  Arabic,  and  which  has  been  used  in 
preparing  this  article.  After  the  publication  of 
the  book,  Suleiman  Effendi  suddenly  disappeared 
and  was  never  heard  of  again.  Doubtless  he 
suffered  the  penalty.  Women  are  not  taught 
religion,  excepting  a  single  prayer,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  effect  in  promoting  purity.  In 
fact,  women  are  held  to  have  a  different  origin 
from  men.  When  mankind  sinned,  Ali  created 
the  devils  out  of  men's  sins.  The  sins  of  the  devils 
were  then  used  as  the  material  from  which 
womankind  was  created. 

The  Nusairiyeh  system  of  religious  belief 
recalls  to  mind  some  of  the  Gnostic  sects,  being  a 
conglomeration  of  almost  all  religions,  ancient 
and  modern,  false  and  true.  They  have  intro- 
duced the  beliefs  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  Jews, 
the  Greeks,  the  Egyptians,  and  Phenicians,  the 
Mohammedans,  and  the  heathen  in  general. 
They  worship  the  Caliph,  Ali  Ibn  Abu  Talib, 
the  prophet  Mohammed,  and  Suleiman  the 
Persian.  They  consider  Ali  the  Father,  Moham- 
med the  Son,  and  Suleiman  the  Holy  Spirit,  but 
they  pay  their  chief  adoration  to  Ali,  ascribing 
to  him  the  divine  nature  and  attributes,  and 
also  creative  power,  and  the  dovout  worshiper  is 
represented  as  supplicating  "his  Lord,  Ali  Ibn 
Abu  Talib,  with  a  reverent  heart  and  an  humble 
spirit,  to  deliver  him  from  his  wickedness." 
They  teach  that  Ali  created  Mohammed,  and 
that  Mohammed  created  Suleiman,  and  that 
Suleimen  created  five  great  angels,  and  that  the 
angels  created  the  universe,  and  that  each  angel 
is  entrusted  with  the  management  of  some  par- 
ticular part  thereof,  viz. :  One  has  charge  of 
thunder,  lightning  and  earthquakes;  another 
of  the  heavenly  bodies;  another,  of  the  winds, 
and  receives  the  spirits  of  men  at  death;  another 
has  charge  of  the  health  and  sickness  of  human 
beings,  and  another  furnishes  souls  for  the 
bodies  of  men  at  birth.  Fatima,  daughter  of 
Mohammed,  and  wife  of  Ali,  is  given  a  place 
very  much  like  that  assigned  by  Roman  Cath- 
olics to  the  Virgin  Mary.  They  consider  that 
the  moon  is  All's  throne,  and  that  the  man  in 
the  moon  is  Ali  with  a  veil  over  his  form,  but  in 
the  hereafter  the  veil  will  be  removed  and  all 
true  believers  will  see  him  as  he  is.  Hence  they 
worship  the  moon.  They  believe  that  the  sun  is 
Mohammed,  and  pay  divine  honors  to  it.  They 
worship  fire,  the  wind,  the  waves  of  the  sea — 


anything  that  manifests  power — the  shades  of 
ancestors,  and  even  living  men  of  influence  and 
renown.  These  last  they  consider  to  be  possessed 
of  the  spirits  of  the  prophets,  it  may  be  of  Ali 
himself.  They  believe  in  the  transmigration  of 
souls,  teaching  that  Muslim  religious  teachers 
after  death  will  enter  the  bodies  of  asses.  'The 
teachers  of  Christians  will  enter  the  bodies  of 
swine,  and  those  of  the  Jews,  the  bodies  of  apes. 
Wicked  Nusairiyeh  are  destined  to  enter  the 
bodies  of  clean  beasts.  Those  who  are  part 
evil  and  part  good  enter  the  bodies  of  those  who 
belong  to  sects  other  than  the  Nusairiyeh, 
while  all  good  Nusairiyeh  enter  the  bodies  of 
Nusairiyeh,  each  one  according  to  his  grade  and 
station.  If  one  of  another  belief  should  unite 
with  them,  they  claim  that  in  past  generations 
he  was  of  them,  but  for  some  sin  he  was  compelled 
to  enter  a  strange  sect  and  remain  a  stated  time 
as  a  punishment,  when  he  was  allowed  to  trans- 
migrate to  his  own  religion.  Should  one  of  the 
Nusairiyeh  apostatize  they  declare  that  his 
mother  committed  adultery  with  one  of  the  sect 
with  which  he  has  united,  and  that  he  has 
returned  to  his  source. 

The  chief  moral  duty  of  the  Nusairiyeh  is 
to  make  a  perpetual  effort  for  the  good  of  their 
religion.  This  sacred  effort  is  divided  into  two 
parts.  The  first  part  is  to  revile  and  curse  Abu 
Bekr,  Omar,  Othman,  the  first  three  caliphs, 
and  utter  imprecations  against  all  who  believe 
that  any  of  the  prophets,  or  Ali,  were  born  of 
women,  had  bodies,  excepting  in  an  illusory 
sense,  or  ate  or  drank,  or  married  as  other  men 
do.  The  second  part  of  this  sacred  effort  consists 
in  keeping  their  religion  secret  from  the  world. 
This  supreme  effort  to  preserve  secrecy  respect- 
ing their  religious  belief  has  cultivated  deceit 
among  the  Nusairiyeh  to  an  astonishing  develop- 
ment. They  will  not  acknowledge  that  they 
believe  in  Ali.  They  will  rather  deny  the  belief 
with  an  oath,  because  admission  of  it  would  be 
to  reveal  a  part  of  their  religion.  For  this 
reason,  too,  this  people  easily  distance  all  com- 
petitors in  hypocrisy.  They  always  accommodate 
themselves  to  their  surroundings,  provided  they 
are  not  able  to  overcome  them.  For  example, 
should  one  enter  a  mosque  with  a  Muslim  he 
performs  the  prostrations  and  genuflexions  like 
his  companion;  but  instead  of  praying  as  does  the 
Muslim,  he  inwardly  curses  Abu  Bekr  and  all  his 
successors,  and  likewise  him  who  bows  at  his  side. 
Their  theory  in  such  a  case  is  that  the  Nusairiyeh 
religion  is  the  body,  while  all  other  religions  are 
clothing  to  be  worn  and  thrown  aside  at  pleasure; 
and  it  matters  not  what  a  man  wears;  it  does  not 
injure  him;  and  he  who  does  not  dissemble  thus 
lacks  good  sense,  for  no  sensible  person  will  walk 
through  the  streets  naked.  The  Nusairiyeh  are 
revengeful,  and  practise  blood  atonement  in 
righting  wrongs  among  themselves.  They  are 
thievish,  and  consider  stealing,  especially  from 
infidels,  a  virtue.  Nevertheless  they  are  cowardly 
and  will  not  attempt  either  revenge  or 
theft  unless  assured  of  personal  safety.  In 
social  relations  they  are  semi-barbarous,  and 
there  are  many  feuds  among  them,  tribe  against 
tribe.  They  often  have  bloody  encounters,  and 
leave  the  bodies  of  the  slain  to  the  hyenas  and 
jackals.  Their  morality  is  low.  All  classes 
practise  polygamy.  Social  purity  is  disregarded 
among  the  upper  classes — as  when  one  chief 
becomes  the  guest  of  another  of  like  rank  the 
host  sends  a  wife  to  share  the  room  of  his  guest. 


S51 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


JTnsalrlyeli 
Objections 


This  abomination  is  not  practised  among  the 
common  people.  Politically  they  are  under 
the  absolute  sway  of  the  Turk,  and  are  therefore 
much  opj)ressed.  A  wall  of  dense  prejudice 
met  the  pioneer  missionaries  at  the  outset;  but 
as  the  continued  dropping  of  water  will  wear 
away  the  adamantine  rock,  so  persistent  effort, 
personal  contact,  uniform  kindness,  and  patient 
forbearance  for  Christ's  sake  wore  away  the 
prejudices  of  the  people,  and  if  the  mission  were 
blotted  out  of  existence  to-day  it  would  be  con- 
sidered a  public  calamity.  By  aiding  the  des- 
titute, by  healing  the  sick,  by  sympathizing 
with  the  sorrowing,  a  way  was  made  for  the 
Gospel  of  peace,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
dogged,  determined,  persistent  opposition  of  the 
authorities,  in  closing  the  schools  and  otherwise 
hindering  the  work,  the  mission  has  enjoyed 
encouraging  success.  Converts  to  Christianity 
have  been  won.  But  such  converts  have  been 
cruelly  maltreated  by  the  Turkish  Government. 
Some  were  imprisoned  and  others  drafted  into 
the  army,  the  authorities  thus  hoping  to  destroy 
the  germs  of  Christianity  that  had  taken  root 
among  the  Nusairiyeh;  and  in  this  they  were 
aided  and  abetted  by  the  chiefs  of  the  people 
themselves,  who  began  to  fear  the  consequences. 
One  of  the  converts,  David  Makhloof,  was  very 
sorely  tried.  He  was  in  the  army  during  the 
Turco-Russian  War.  His  Bible  was  taken  from 
him.  He  was  flogged  and  imprisoned  in  a 
dungeon  with  the  design  of  forcing  him  to  deny 
Christ;  but  with  all  the  fortitude  of  the  early 
Christian  martyrs,  he  stood  firm,  holding  fast  to 
the  profession  of  his  faith  without  wavering.  He 
was  wonderfully  preserved,  having  several  horses 
shot  under  him  while  in  action.  He  was  in  the 
siege  of  Plevna,  but  was  providentially  spared 
to  return  to  his  family,  and  he  is  now  a  burning 
and  shining  light  in  his  own  native  mountains. 
Were  it  not  that  the  Turkish  authorities  place 
every  possible  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  educa- 
tion and  enlightenment  of  these  people,  the 
rising  generation  would  soon  be  brought  under 
power  of  the  Gospel. 

NYASALAND:  This  territory,  also  called  the 
Central  African  Protectorate,  lies  along  the  west 
and  south  shores  of  Lake  Nyasa,  with  a  spur 
extending  southward  toward  the  Zambesi,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Northeast  Rhodesia. 
The  area  is  42,217  square  miles;  the  population 
about  900,000,  of  whom  about  450  are  Europeans. 
Lake  Nyasa  is  about  360  miles  long,  varying 
from  14  to  60  wide,  and  covers  an  area  of  12,000 
square  miles.     It,  like  the  Tanganyika,  is  a  deep 


fissure  in  the  earth's  surface.  Furious  gales 
sweep  over  it,  rendering  care  in  navigation 
necessary.  It  is  drained  by  the  ShirS  River, 
which  sweeps  over  the  Murchison  Falls,  where 
navigation  from  the  lake  is  arrested.  By  means 
of  the  channel  afforded  by  the  Chind6  River, 
navigation  between  Murchison  Falls  and  the 
ocean  is  uninterrupted.  The  lake  is  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  mountains.  The  densest  population 
is  found  at  Karonga,  on  the  northwestern  shore 
of  the  lake.  This  region  is  unhealthful  in  the 
rainy  season,  during  which  the  missionaries 
resort  to  Mombera,  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
valley.  Kota  Kota,  on  the  west  coast,  120  miles 
from  the  southern  extremity,  is  the  main  center 
of  trade,  and  was  a  great  market  for  slaves. 
Kiswahili  is  the  dominant  tongue.  Ninety 
miles  south  of  Lake  Nyasa,  in  the  Shir&  upland, 
is  Blantyre,  founded  in  1876  by  Scotch  mission- 
aries, and  named  after  Livingstone's  birthplace. 
It  has  a  population  of  6,000.  Its  elevation  above 
the  sea  level  is  3,400  feet.  A  telegraph  line  runs 
through  the  territory,  and  steamers  ply  on  the 
lake.  The  traveled  roads  are  kept  in  good 
condition  between  the  principal  towns. 

The  Church  of  Scotland,  the  English  Univer- 
sities Mission,  the  Zambesi  Industrial  Mission,  and 
the  National  Baptist  Convention  all  carry  on 
missionary  enterprises  in  Nyasaland.  Alto- 
gether there  are  (1901)  101  missionaries  and  304 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  established  at 
17  stations,  with  161  schools  and  about  2,000 
church  members. 

Caddick  (Helen),  A  White  Woman  in  Central  Africa,  London, 
1900;  Johnston  (Sir  H.l,  British  Central  Africa,  London, 
1897;  Rankin,  The  Zambesi  Basin  and  Nyasaland,  London, 
1893. 

NYENHANGLI.     See  Nien-hang-li. 

NYLANDER,  J.  C:  Born  in  Germany; 
appointed  missionary  of  the  CMS  to  Sierra  Leone 
in  1806.  Here  Mr.  Nylander  became  chaplain 
of  the  colony  tiU  about  1816,  when  he  went  to 
Yongroo  Pomah,  opposite  Free  Town,  and 
seven  miles  from  it,  where  he  commenced  a 
mission  among  the  BuUoms.  He  labored  among 
this  superstitious  people  with  unremitting  zeal, 
teaching  and  preaching.  He  translated  into 
the  BuUom  language  the  four  Gospels,  the 
Epistles  of  St.  John,  morning  and  evening 
prayers  of  the  Church  of  England,  hymns,  and 
elementary  books.  The  mission  was  abandoned 
on  account  of  the  slave-trade,  but  Mr.  Nylander 
transferred  his  flourishing  school  to  Sierra  Leone, 
taking  his  scholars  with  him.  He  died  in 
1825. 


o 


OBJECTIOITS    AND     CRITICISMS:     If    the 

Church  has  always  contained  and  contains  to-day 
people  who  are  in  no  sympathy  with  missions,  it 
IS  natural  that  there  should  be  objections  to,  and 
criticisms  of  missions  in  as  well  as  outside  the 
Church. 

Much  of  the  criticism  is  due  to  the  failure  to  ap- 
prehend what  Christianity  is.  Men  who  do  not 
believe  in  Christ  as  their  Savior,  and  who  have 
no  personal  understanding  or  experience  of  His 


religion,  cannot  be  expected  to  sympathize  with 
the  effort  to  spread  it  over  the  world,  unless  they 
do  so  on  merely  ethical  or  philanthropic  grounds. 
And  within  the  Church  merely  nominal  Christiana 
who  for  one  reason  or  another  accept  the  form, 
while  ignorant  of  the  power  of  Christianity,  are 
not  likely  to  value  highly  an  effort  to  extend 
what  has  no  vital  meaning  to  themselves  to  the 
people  of  other  lands. 

Beside  the  criticisms  resting  on  these  funda- 


Objections 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


562 


mental  differences  of  view,  there  is,  of  course,  a 
mass  of  unintelligent  objection  springing  from 
ignorance  or  utter  misconception  of  the  facts  of 
the  work,  of  the  operations  of  the  human  mind,  or 
of  the  course  of  history.  The  common  criticism 
of  the  immense  extravagance  of  the  missionary 
propaganda  illustrates  the  first.  Travelers  are 
constantly  expressing  amazement  at  the  vast 
sums  expended  on  foreign  missions,  and  the  good 
that  this  could  do  at  home.  The  total  amount 
spent  by  all  nations  annually  would  not  pay  the 
naval  expenditures  of  Japan  for  one  year,  or  the 
cost  of  maintaining  the  German  army  for  two 
months.  A  different  type  of  ignorance  is  illus- 
trated in  criticisms  like  General  Chaffee's,  to  the 
effect  that  he  did  not  meet  in  Peking  "a  single 
intelligent  Chinaman  who  expressed  a  desire  to 
emiorace  the  Christian  religion,"  as  tho  this  were 
a  fact  that  had  any  bearing  on  the  matter  at  all 
except  a  sorrowful  reflex  implication.  A  great 
mass  of  current  criticism  rests  on  such  sheer 
ignorance  of  the  idea  of  the  propagation  of  re- 
ligion or  the  facts  in  the  case  of  Christianity,  as 
when  a  Hindu  writes  in  an  American  magazine: 
"Notwithstanding  their  (the  missionaries')  great 
efforts,  not  'a  single  true  Aryan  has  been  con- 
verted in  these  three  or  four  hundred  years." 
Such  critics  must  choose  between  the  alternatives 
of  falsehood  and  ignorance. 

But  criticism  of  missions  cannot  be  dismissed 
by  attributing  the  great  bulk  of  it  to  absence  or 
lukewarmness  of  Christian  faith  on  one  hand,  or 
to  ignorance  or  malice  on  the  other.  The  sup- 
porters of  missions  cannot  neglect  objections 
which  spring  from  these  sources.  Such  objec- 
tions may  be  classified  in  four  groups: 

I.  Criticism  of  the  missionary  idea  or  prin- 
ciple. 

II.  Criticism  of  the  methods  of  missions. 

III.  Criticism  of  the  agents  of  missions. 

IV.  Criticism  of  the  results  of  missions. 

I.  Criticism  of  the  Missionary  Idea:  1.  It  is 
objected  that  Christianity  is  not  the  only  true 
religion,  that  the  other  religions  of  the  world 
are  good  enough  for  the  people  professing  them, 
that  Christianity  can  only  claim  to  be  one  of  the 
world's  religions,  and  not  necessarily  the  best 
for  all,  and  that  there  is  salvation  in  other  names 
than  Christ's.  Of  course,  this  involves  elimi- 
nating or  interpreting  away  the  words  of  Christ, 
"I  am  ,the  way,  the  truth  and  the  life.  No  man 
Cometh  unto  the  Father  but  by  Me."  "No  man 
knoweth  the  Son  but  the  Father,  and  no  man 
knoweth  the  Father  save  the  Son,  and  he  to 
whomsoever  the  Son  willeth  to  reveal  Him;"  and 
the  words  of  Peter,  "Neither  is  there  any  other 
name  under  heaven,  that  is  given  among  men, 
wherein  we  must  be  saved." 

It  is  replied  to-day  that  the  truth  of  these 
words  is  not  denied,  but  that  it  is  the  Christian 
God  and  the  essential  Christ  who  are  found  in  the 
non-Christian  religions.  But  this  is  to  raise  a 
simple  question  of  fact:  "Do  the  non-Christian 
religions  produce  the  fruits  of  Christianity?"  In 
reply,  and  as  covering  the  entire  question  of  com- 
parative religion,  it  may  be  said:  (1)  There  are 
good  things  in  the  non-Christian  religions,  but 
(o)  these  are  concealed  and  overlaid,  (6)  they  are 
held  in  distortion,  unbalanced  by  necessary 
counter  truths,  as  the  Muslim  idea  of  the  divine 
sovereignty,  and  the  Hindu  idea  of  immanent 
deity,  and  (c)  the  good  of  all  these  religions  is 
found  in  Christianity  also,  there  rightly  related 
and   perfectly  fulfilled.     (2)    There    is   good    in 


Christianity   which   is   not   found   in   any  other 
religion,  as  indicated  iij  the  modern  larceny  of 
Christian  doctrine  and  moral  ideals  by  all  other 
religions — Hinduism,  for  instance,  having  under- 
gone,   under   missionary   influence,    a   complete 
transformation.      (3)  Each  of  the  non-Christian 
religions  is  full  of  evils  from  which  Christianity  is 
free.     (4)  The  worst  evils  of  heathen  lands  are 
the  products  of  or  are  sanctioned  by  the  non- 
Christian   religions.     All  the   evils   of  Christian 
lands  are  under  the  ban  of  the  Christian  religion. 
(5)  The  best  virtues  of  heathen  people  are,  in  the- 
main,  their  racial  qualities,  unaffected  by  their 
religion.     The  best  virtues  of  Christian  peoples 
are  the  direct  product  of  Christianity.    (6)  Chris- 
tianity is  the  only  purely  moral  religion.     It  alone 
identifies  religion  and  ethics,  demanding  that  per- 
sonal religion  be  expressed  in  personal  ethical  be- 
havior.    In   all   other   religions,   ceremonial  be- 
havior   will    suffice.      (7)    The    sacred    Book    of 
Christianity  is  different  from  other  sacred  books, 
not  in  degree,  but  in  kind.      (8)  The  non-Chris- 
tian religions  grow  worse  and  worse.     The  chasm 
between  their  best  ideal  and  the  actual  reality 
widens   constantly,   save   as   they   borrow  from 
Christianity.     Christianity  alone  has  the  power 
of  self-renovation.      (9)  Christianity  is  the  only 
religion  of  progress,  and  it  alone  can  live  with  the 
spirit  of  progress,  because  it  alone  is  the  truth. 
(10)  The  non-Christian  religions  at  their  best  are 
the  imperfect  aspirations  of  men  toward  God. 
Christianity  is  the  self-revelation  of  God  to  man. 
They  are  religions,  not  of    one,  but  of  different 
classes.     Christianity   is   exclusive   and   unique. 
All  others  stand  together.     As  Mr.  Griffith  John 
says: 

The  offer  of  Christ  to  sinful  men  wherever  they  can  be 
found  is  not  the  offer  of  an  alternative  religion  to  the  n  in. 
the  sense  in  which  Hinduism  and  Taoism  and  Confucianism, 
are  religions.  It  is  the  offer  to  men  of  the  secret  of  life^ 
of  something  that  will  enable  them  to  realize  their  true  selves, 
and  become  men  in  the  true  and  full  sense  of  the  word.  We 
do  our  Master  little  honor  when  we  place  Him  among  a  group 
of  teachers  competing  for  the  acceptance  of  men.  He  is  not 
one  of  the  many  founders  of  religions.  He  is  the  Source 
and  Fountain  of  all,  in  so  far  as  they  have  caught  a  prophetic 
glimpse  of  His  truth,  and  anticipated  something  of  His 
spirit,  and  given  a  scattered  hint  here  and  there  of  His  secret. 
He  is  the  truth,  the  type,  the  saving  grace  of  which  they 
faintly  and  vaguely  dreamed;  the  desire  of  all  nations,  the 
crown  and  essence  of  humanity;  the  Savior  of  the  world, 
who,  by  the  loftiness  of  His  teaching,  the  beauty  of  His 
character,  the  sufficiency  of  His  atoning  sacrifice,  is  able  to 
save  to  the  uttermost  all  who  will  come  to  Him  and  trust  in 
Him. 

2.  It  is  contended  that  all  religions  are  but 
elements  in  the  evolutionary  process,  that  Chris- 
tianity itself  is  a  development,  and  the  one  suited 
to  our  Western  minds;  while  the  non-Christian 
religions  are  the  religious  influences  developed  in 
the  growth  of  these  peoples  as  best  suited  to 
them.  Even  if  this  were  true,  it  is  true  also  that 
since  these  other  nations  develop,  as  they  are 
fast  developing,  into  a  life  which  adopts  the  prin- 
ciples of  Western  civilization,  the  evolutionary 
theory  itself  would  allow  for  a  religious  develop- 
ment also,  and  the  acceptance  of  a  religious 
opinion  and  life  conformable  to  the  new  stage  of 
progress.  As  Mr.  Griffith  John  again  has 
remarked: 

The  nations  called  Christian  are  everywhere  pressing 
hard  upon  all  other  nations.  Western  civilization  in  all 
directions  is  disintegrating  both  the  customs  of  sava^ 
nations  and  the  more  stable  civilization  of  the  East,  and  it 
is  everywhere  being  shown  that  in  this  general  break-up  of 
old  and  effete  orders  there  is  an  imminent  peril.  For  where 
our  civilization  penetrates  without  our  religion  it  is  invari- 
ably disastrous  in  its  effects.  It  never  fails  to  destroy  the 
confidence  of  subject  races  in  their  own  creeds  and  customs 
without  furnishing  anything  in  place  of  their  sanctions  and 


563 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Objections 


restraints.  The  result  is  everywhere  to  be  seen  in  the  way 
in  which  heathen  nations  neglect  our  virtues  and  emulate 
our  vices.  The  advice  sometimes  given  to  the  missionary, 
therefore,  to  leave  the  people  to  whom  he  ministers  to  their 
simpler  faith,  is  beside  the  mark.  These  faiths  are  inevitably 
going;  soon  they  will  be  gone;  and  the  question  presses; 
What  t  en?  If  history  proves  anything,  it  proves  that  a 
nation  without  a  faith  is  a  doomed  nation ;  that  it  cannot 
hold  together;  that  it  inevitably  decays  and  dies.  From 
this  point  of  view  alone,  then,  there  is  a  tremenrlous  responsi- 
bility laid  upon  us.  The  impact  of  our  civilization  is  break- 
ing up  the  fabric  and  undermining  tlie  foundations  of  the 
ethnic  religions.  Without  religion  of  some  sort,  nations  must 
perish.  Therefore,  we  must  see  to  it  that  we  give  something 
in  the  place  of  what  we  take  away,  and  that  something  must 
be  the  Christian  faith  or  it  will  be  nothing. 

But  more  than  this  is  to  be  said.  As  Mr. 
Gulick  has  shown  in  The  Evolution  of  Japan,  it 
is  the  Christian  convictions,  however  veiled, 
which  are  the  really  powerful  forces  in  working 
the  transformation  of  the  backward  nations. 
In  the  development  of  mankind,  the  religious 
force  is  indispensable.  The  evolutionary  hope 
makes  a  demand  for  Christian  missions. 

3.  Some  deny  this  and  would  have  missions, 
as  a  disturbing  factor,  eliminated  from  the  forces 
which  the  West  is  wielding  upon  the  East.  But 
(1)  this  is  to  misunderstand  entirely  the  char- 
acter and  source  of  Western  civilization,  which 
derives  its  power  and  virtue  from  the  altruistic 
stream,  as  Mr.  Kidd  calls  it,  which  poured  into 
humanity  from  the  life  and  cross  of  Christ.  (2) 
It  is  to  surrender  the  heathen  world  to  the  purely 
material,  selfish,  and  often  shamefully  iniquitous 
side  of  our  Western  life.  Commerce  and  diplo- 
macy have  done  an  immense  and  salutary  work  in 
the  non-Christian  world,  but  there  is  room  for 
the  protest  of  an  "Uncommercial  Traveler" 
against  the  idea  that  secular  civilization  is  to 
redeem  the  world: 

I,  too,  have  spent  some  eight  years  away  from  the 
United  States,  during  which  time  I  have  seen  this  flaunted 
foreign  commerce  vying  with  native  merchants  in  corrupting 
the  custom  house  ofl5cials;  seen  fabricated  liquors  fraudu- 
lently sold ;  seen  cheap  goods  with  false  American  trademarks ; 
seen  the  ignorant  Indians  debauched  by  bad  rum,  in  order  to 
swindle  them  in  trade;  seen  hostile  savages  supplied  with 
firearms.  I  have  seen  chafing  boxes  to  polish  off  traces  of 
gold  dust  from  foreign  gold  coin  before  it  is  put  in  circula- 
tion- placer  gold  dust  mixed  with  copper  to  increase  the 
weight;  in  fact,  many  kinds  of  deceit  practised,  but  little  that 
is  elevating  or  good  done  by  foreign  merchants.  It  is  a  well 
known  fact  that  large  firms  in  England  are  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  idols,  which  are  sent  out  to  the  heathen." 

There  is  no  unfairness  in  stating  clearly  that 
the  character  of  Western  commercial  and 
political  intercourse  with  the  non-Christian 
world  has  been  no  unmixed  blessing.  Mr.  Fuku- 
zawa  contended  that  as  to  Japan,  it  would  have 
resulted  in  rupture  had  it  not  been  for  the  mis- 
sionaries. And  (3)  to  demand  the  elimination 
of  missions  is  to  admit  as  to  the  worst  we  possess 
a  principle  denied  as  to  the  best.  How  can  any 
one  justify  a  position  which  results  in  freedom  to 
sell  rum  to  the  world,  but  in  refusal  of  liberty  to 
give  the  Ten  Commandments  and  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  and  the  Story  of  the  Resurrection? 

4.  It  is  objected  that  the  newer  theological 
teachings  of  the  love  of  God  for  all  mankind,  with 
their  consequence  in  universalism,  render  unne- 
cessary a  difficult  and  unappreciated  effort  to 
preach  Christianity  everywhere.  But  what 
makes  it  difficult?  Such  a  character  in  the  non- 
Christian  peoples  as  indicates  their  need  of  the 
very  message  they  do  not  welcome.  How  could 
General  Chaffee's  intelligent  Chinese  be  expected 
to  desire  Christianity,  when  (1)  they  do  not 
understand  what  it  is,  (2)  when  from  the  con- 
duct of  nominally  Christian  nations  they  suppose 
it  to  be  something  quite  different  from  its  real 


character,  and  (3)  when  they  had  just  been  en- 
gaged in  gratifying  that  spirit  of  murder  against 
which  the  Christian  spirit  is  perpetual  protest? 
The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  missions  reveal  the 
world's  need  of  them.  Any  "new  theology" 
would  be  a  poor  substitute  for  the  old  which  was 
deterred  from  doing  its  duty  by  diffitjulties  to 
which  a  more  antiquated  doctrine  refused  to  sur- 
render. _  For  just  in  proportion  as  any  body  of 
men  believe  themselves  to  be  possessed  of  the  best 
doctrine  of  God,  they  will  be  eager  to  spread  it 
over  the  world.  No  amount  of  talk  about  a  lov- 
ing God  will  persuade  the  world  that  those  who 
speak  believe  in  such  a  God  unless  they  show  a 
proportionate  eagerness  to  make  Him  known  to 
all  mankind.  Missions  have  much  to  fear  from 
insincerity,  but  nothing  from  the  love  of  God.  It 
was  that  that  produced  them.  "For  God  so 
loved  the  world."  "For  His  Name's  sake,  they 
went  forth." 

5.  It  is  said  that  the  heathen  will  not  be  lost 
without  the  Gospel;  that  God  would  condemn  no 
man  for  ignorance  of  Christ.  No  one  has  ever 
contended  that  men  would  be  lost  for  not  accept- 
ing a  Savior  of  whom  they  have  never  heard. 
Men  are  lost  because  sin  destroys.  Their  condi- 
tion is  not  a  matter  of  eschatological  speculation. 
They  are  lost,  not  as  heathen,  but  as  sinners,  just 
as  enlightened  people  in  Christian  lands  who 
have  rejected  Christ.  There  is  no  space  here  to 
deal  with  the  question  of  the  future  fate  of  the 
heathen.  Future  destiny  is  only  a  consequence 
of  present  faith  and  character,  and  regarding  this 
enough  has  been  said.  Some  who  are  perplexed 
here,  however,  may  well  read  the  words  of  Mr.  R. 
E.  Welsh  in  his  recent  book.  The  Challenge  to 
Christian  Missions: 

The  heathen  today  are  B.  C.  What  operated  B.  C.  in 
God's  treatment  of  the  Jews  operates  proportionately  in  Asia 
and  ey  ry  continent  and  island  which  is  not  yet  Anno 
Domini.  That  the  Jews  had  fuller  light  and  clearer  symbols 
of  the  Unseen  is  beside  the  point  here.  God's  method  or 
principle  is  the  same  for  all  alike,  when  dealing  with  different 
races  all  of  them  B.  C.  The  grace  which  was  at  least  within 
reach  of  the  humble  hearted  Jew  has  always  been  and  now  is 
within  reach  of  the  Gentile  in  proportion  as  there  is  similar 
response  to  appeals  of  the  Spirit. 

"Our  conception  of  salvation  itself  has  been 
changing  at  the  very  time  when  our  theory  of  the 
heathen  has  been  changing,  and  the  one  comes  in 
aptly  to  interpret  or  correct  the  other.  The  en- 
lightenment which  has  been  enlarging  our  sym- 
pathies has,  in  the  same  process,  been  deepening 
our  insight  into  the  true  nature  of  salvation. 
Here  enters  the  principle,  that  salvation  is  sal- 
vation from  sin,  not  from  destinies.  The  real 
and  urgent  question  is  not  a  matter  of  destinies  at 
all,  one  way  or  the  other.  It  is  one  of  present 
moral  condition  and  character.  It  is  not  what 
we  are  coming  to,  but  what  we  are  becoming,  that 
matters.  Destinies,  good  or  bad,  while  momen- 
tous enough,  hang  entirely  on  the  character 
which  constitutes  their  quality.  The  actual 
problem  is,  not  the  man's  future,  but  the  man. 
Look  at  pagan  peoples  with  the  most  godlike 
eye,  and  there  is  enough  in  their  condition  to 
appall  our  hearts,  if  we  can  see  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  their  natural  content.  However  large 
the  mercy  of  heaven,  they  most  palpably  stand 
in  dire  need  of  being  morally  saved  from  sin's 
degradation,  and  spiritually  enlightened  and 
enfranchised  as  the  sons  of  God." 

6.  It  is  argued  that  the  need  at  home  is  so 
great  that  it  should  first  be  met.  But  (I)  who  is 
responsible  for  this  long  continuance  of  a  great 


Olijectlana 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


664 


need  at  home?  Phillips  Brooks'  reply  is  unan- 
swerable: "  'There  are  heathen  enough  at  home; 
let  us  convert  them  first,  before  we  go  to  China.' 
That  plea  we  all  know;  and  I  think  it  sounds  more 
cheap  every  year.  What  can  be  more  shameful 
,  than  to  make  the  imperfection  of  our  Christianity 
at  home  an  excuse  for  not  doing  our  work  abroad? 
It  pleads  for  exemption  and  indulgence  on  the 
ground  of  its  own  neglect  and  sin.  It  is  like  a 
murderer  of  his  father  asking  the  judge  to  have 
pity  on  his  orphanhood."  (2)  The  acceptance  of 
this  plea  nineteen  hundred  years  ago  would  have 
■condemned  Europe  to  perpetual  heathenism. 
The  agreement  proposed  here  is  tantamount  to 
-an  abolition  of  missions.  There  will  always  be 
need  at  home.  The  tares  will  be  in  the  wheat 
until  the  harvest.  (3)  The  only  way  to  meet  the 
need  at  home  is  to  increase  the  spirit  which  sends 
missionaries  abroad  to  the  heathen. 

7.  The  simple  fact  is  that  the  missionary  spirit 
is  the  Christian  spirit;  that  the  possession  of  good 
is  an  obligation  for  its  transmission.  The  best 
spirit  of  the  modern  world  is  now  permeated  with 
this  conception,  and  we  must  either  give  up  our 
Christianity  as  of  no  use  even  to  ourselves,  or 
share  it  with  the  world.  We  are  debtors.  We 
must  also  be  ready  to  pay. 

II.  Criticisms  of  the  Methods  of  Missions:  It  is 
impossible  to  sympathize  with  criticisms  of  the 
missionary  idea.  That  is  the  essence  of  Chris- 
tianity— even  of  common  honesty  and  courtesy, 
and  fair  and  kindly  dealing  among  men.  To 
deny  this  is  to  display  some  radical  lack  of  char- 
acter, and  an  utter  failure  to  appreciate  the  finer 
side  of  life,  and  the  nature  of  the  Christian 
religion.  But  criticism  of  the  methods  of  mis- 
sions is  a  different  matter.  So  long  as  a  man  is 
earnestly  supporting  missions,  he  may  be  allowed 
liberty  to  criticise  methods  he  disapproves.  But 
the  man  who  is  doing  nothing  for  missions  at  all, 
who  has  no  genuine  sympathy  with  the  idea, 
has  no  right  to  rest  his  disapproval  of  missions  on 
the  methods  pursued. 

No  one  is  more  anxious  than  the  missionaries 
to  discover  the  best  methods,  or  more  ready, 
accordingly,  to  listen  to  sincere  criticism.  Canon 
Isaac  Taylor  justified  his  assault  upon  missions  in 
the  Fortnightly  Review  in  1888  by  the  words  of 
Bishop  Steere,  "Let  me  say  that  all  missionaries 
owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  those  who  call  atten- 
tion to  the  mistakes  and  failures  of  missions;" 
and  Canon  Taylor  said,  in  closing,  that  Mackay 
of  Uganda  had  encouraged  him  to  make  his 
criticism  public. 

1 .  A  common  criticism  is  that  the  cost  of  admin- 
istration is  extravagant,  that  "it  costs  a  dollar  to 
send  a  dollar."  There  never  was  any  ground  for 
this  criticism,  nor  is  there  any.  In  the  absence 
of  any  even  partial  justification,  its  origin  and 
continuance  can  only  be  called  malicious.  The 
cost  of  administration  of  the  great  foreign  mission 
agencies  ranges  from  4  to  10  per  cent.  The 
higher  amount  is  due  largely  to  the  cost  of  collec- 
tion, publication,  deputation  work,  and  other 
measures  for  arousing  interest.  Roughly,  it  is 
accurate  to  say  that  the  cost  of  sending  a  dollar 
to  foreign  missions  is  the  price  of  a  foreign 
postage  stamp. 

2.  It  is  said  that  the  business  methods  of  mis- 
sions are  inefficient.  It  is  not  possible  to  make 
any  better  answer  than  to  say  that  every  mis- 
sionary society  will  welcome  examination  at  this 

goint.     Mr.   John  Wanamaker,   as  successful   a 
usiness  man  as  America  has  produced,  recently 


examined  the  Presbyterian  work  in  India,  and  on 
returning  expressed  this  judgment: 

I  went  out  and  about,  simply  as  an  individual,  saying; 
"I  will  see  for  my  self  exactly  what  this  business  of  foreign 
missions  is,  and  whether  it  is  worth  while  or  not!"  .  ,  , 
By  personal  contact  with  the  work  and  workers,  I  convinced 
myself  that  the  work  of  missionaries — clergymen,  teachers, 
doctors  and  Christian  helpers — was  healthy,  eminently  prac- 
ticable and  well  administered.  In  its  business  administra- 
tion, it  is  quite  as  economically  done  as  any  business  firm 
could  establish  and  support  business  extensions  permanently 
and  successfully  in  lands  far  distant  from  home,  climate  and 
custom  requiring  different  modes  of  living.  No  private  busi- 
ness man,  in  my  judgment,  can  administer  from  the  United 
States,  properties  and'  finances  in  India  more  effectively  for 
less,  as  a  rule,  than  the  Board  is  administering  them  at  this 
time. 

3.  The  missionaries  are  accused  of  living  on  too 
expensive  a  scale,  instead  of  imitating  the  lives 
of  the  fakirs  or  dervishes  or  holy  men  of  the  non- 
Christian  lands.  Mr.  Wanamaker  reported  his 
judgment  on  this  point  also: 

It  is  an  unjust  aspersion  on  the  Church  and  its  heroic 
men  and  women  for  any  fair  person  to  say  that,  because  the 
customs  of  the  country  oblige  missionaries,  if  they  are  to 
maintain  influence  with  the  people,  to  employ  servants  and 
live  in  houses  common  to  hot  climates,  such  as  are  used  by 
other  private  families,  therefore  they  live  in  luxury,  idleness 
or  extravagance.  While  I  saw  homes  of  Christian  workers 
in  large  cities,  bought  from  thirty  to  fifty  years  ago,  for  small 
sums,  now  worth  much  more  than  they  cost — which  is  to  the 
credit  of  the  wisdom  of  the  fathers  and  brethren  of  the 
Missionary  Board — I  failed  to  find  any  extravagant  buildings 
in  use  by  missionaries  or  others  in  the  services  of  the  Board. 
As  to  the  servants,  they  board  themselves,  coming  in  the 
morning  and  going  off  at  night,  for  the  pay  of  ten  to  twelve 
rupees  a  month,  which,  on  an  average,  is  S3. 63  a  month  for 
house  servants.  It  is  impossible  to  find  anywhere  in  the 
world  simpler  and  more  consistent  home  living  than  at  the 
homes  and  tables  of  the  mission  houses. 

4.  The  idea  that  by  adopting  the  ascetic  ideal 
and  living  as  the  natives  do,  the  missionary 
would  increase  his  influence  is  often  advanced  by 
those  who  are  under  precisely  as  much  obliga- 
tion to  pursue  this  course  as  may  rest  on  the 
missionary.  The  conception  that  the  ascetic 
method  will  be  more  fruitful  than  the  general 
method  has  often  been  tested.  George  Bowen 
gave  it  a  fair  trial  in  Bombay.  His  life  was  one 
of  great  value  and  of  large  influence,  but  not  more 
so  than  the  lives  of  scores  of  other  missionaries 
who  never  followed  his  plan,  and  who  were  far 
more  successful  in  winning  converts  and  in 
establishing  self-supporting  churches.  There  is 
room  for  the  ascetic  ideal,  but  it  is  not  the  only 
ideal. 

5.  A  great  many  criticisms  on  the  methods  of 
missions  are  mutually  contradictory.  One  urges 
that  the  native  churches  should  be  sooner  trusted 
and  left  to  themselves.  General  Armstrong  com- 
plained that  this  was  done  too  soon  in  Hawaii. 
One  urges  that  educational  and  medical  work 
should  be  diminished,  and  the  direct  preaching 
of  the  Gospel  absorb  all  the  time  and  strength  of 
the  missionaries.  The  newspapers,  the  diplo- 
mats and  the  wandering  publicists  see  in  those 
forms  of  work  the  only  really  valuable  part  of 
the  missionary  enterprise.  One  complains  that 
the  missionaries  are  timid  and  cautious.  Others 
that  they  are  reckless  and  aggressive,  and  should 
be  confined  to  fixed  stations.  One  regards  the 
attitude  of  solicitude  for  native  customs  as 
wicked;  others  think  that  even  polygamy  and 
ancestor-worship  should  be  tolerated.  And  so 
opinions  vary  on  a  hundred  points  and  correct 
one  another. 

6.  Criticism,  both  just  and  unjust,  has  been 
directed  at  the  confusion  of  missions  with 
politics.  The  Boxer  uprising  brought  the  sub- 
ject forcibly  before  the  world.     While  there  were 


fi66 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Objections 


other  and  far  more  responsible  causes  for  the  out- 
break than  any  connected  with  missions,  the 
interference  of  Chinese  Christians  under  cover  of 
missionary,  and  ultimaltely  consular,  protection, 
And  to  soma  degree  the  interference  of  mission- 
aries themselves  in  Chinese  law  courts,  did  help  to 
increase  the  anti-foreign  feeling  of  the  people,  and 
to  confuse  in  their  minds  the  missionary  propa- 
ganda with  the  political  movement  of  the  West 
upon  China.  Whatever  errors  individual  mis- 
sionaries may  have  made  at  this  point,  the  body 
■of  Protestant  missionaries  has  not  offended  the 
burden  of  guilt  resting  on  the  Roman  Catholics. 

The  whole  discussion  has  been  profitable  as 
defining  more  clearly  the  spiritual  character  of 
the  missionary  enterprise  and  also  as  illustrating 
how  easily  missions  are  criticised  for  adopting, 
however  slightly,  the  principles  of  those  who 
praise  the  benevolence  of  the  movement  but 
deprecate  its  religious  character.  If  missions  are 
valuable  and  justifiable,  as  the  critics  allege, 
solely  because  of  their  philanthropic  spirit,  inter- 
ference in  behalf  of  the  wronged  in  law  suits  would 
be  eminently  proper. 

///.  Criticism  of  the  Agents  of  Missions:  Some 
such  critics  are  foolish  extremists.  Mr.  Sydney 
Brooks  represented  this  class  during  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  relation  of  missionaries  to  the 
Boxer  uprising.  He  declared  that  the  mis- 
sionaries in  China  were  "not  well  educated," 
were  untactful,  careless  of  local  prejudice, 
spoke  a  "bastard  Chinese,"  were  guilty  of 
''blundering  provocation,"  and  ignorant  of  the 
philosophy  they  are  "intent  on  overthrowing,  or 
the  language  which  must  be  their  chief  weapon," 
bigoted  and  sectarian,  and  many  of  them  "enthu- 
siastic girls,  who  scamper  up  and  down  the 
country."  Such  criticism,  of  course,  answers 
itself.  It  is  enough  to  ask  the  critics  the  namgs 
of  the  missionaries  they  know.  This  judgment 
rests  on  no  personal  knowledge,  but  on  the  gossip 
and  talk  of  steamer  saloons  or  clubs  in  the  ports, 
whose  resentment  is  often  due  to  the  fact  that 
their  spirit  and  conduct  are  condemned  by  the 
standard  which  the  missionary  sets  up.  Where 
the  common  criticism  of  the  missionary  does  not 
spring  from  such  a  source,  it  is  due  in  large 
measure  to  a  total  want  of  sympathy  with  the 
mission  idea,  and  to  a  want  of  appreciation  of  the 
Christian  faith. 

Other  critics  are  more  cautious  than  Mr. 
Brooks.     Mr.  Henry  Norman  says  : 

So  '"ar  as  education  goes,  both  men  and  women  among 
the  Protestant  missionaries  are  often  quite  unfitted  to  teach 
at  home,  where  there  would  be  little  danger  of  miaunder- 
fitanding-  in  their  present  sphere  of  woric  they  are  often  not 
too  hardly  described  by  the  phrase  which  has  been  applied 
to  them,  'ignorant  declaimers  in  bad  Chinese.'  .  .  I  am 
well  aware,  of  course,  that  to  some  missionaries  the  world 
is  deeply  indebted  for  its  Icnowledge  of  the  Chinese  language 
and  literature;  and  that  among  the  Protestant  missionaries 
of  the  present  day  there  are  some  men  of  the  highest  charac- 
ter and  devotion,  upon  whose  careers  no  criticism  can  be 
passed.     These,  however,  are  a  small  minority. 

The  profound  scholars  are,  of  course,  a  mi- 
nority, but  the  statement  that  the  men  of  highest 
character  and  devotion,  upon  whose  careers  no 
criticism  can  be  passed,  are  also  a  minority,  is  a 
simple  untruth  due  to  the  writer's  ignorance  of 
the  men  of  whom  he  is  writing,  to  the  difference 
of  standard  prevailing  between  him  and  them,  as 
illustrated  in  his  interest  in  what  the  missionaries 
have  always  ignored  or  deplored  (e.  g. ,  the  Yoshi- 
wara  in  Tokio),  and  finally  to  his  readiness  to 
accept  his  judgments  at  second-hand  from  men 
as  ignorant  as  himself.     In  any  large  body  like 


the  missionary  body  there  will  be  men  of  all 
grades.  But  m  general  it  is  true  to  say  of  them 
that  they  love  and  understand  their  people;  that 
they  know  men  about  them  and  can  talk  with  them 
more  freely  than  any  other  foreigner,  Mr.  Yen,  of 
Shanghai,  even  asserting  that  the  average  mis- 
sionary is  a  more  fluent  and  accurate  speaker  of 
Chinese  than  the  Chinese  themselves;  that  mis- 
sionaries as  a  class  are  the  ablest  and  most  highly 
respected  foreigners  in  Asia,  and  that  without 
their  correcting  influence  the  nauseous  immoral- 
ity of  many  commercial  centers  in  Asia  would  be 
viler  than  it  is.  It  is  not  the  element  of  most 
intelligence  and  character  in  these  cities  and  at 
home  which  attacks  the  missionaries.  Of  mis- 
sionaries in  the  Orient  generally,  the  Hon.  John 
W.  Foster  declares  that  "up  to  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  the  Christian  missionaries  were  an 
absolute  necessity  to  diplomatic  intercourse.'' 
Of  S.  Wells  Williams,  most  prominent  in  this 
diplomatic  service,  U.  S.  Minister  Reed  declared: 
"He  is  the  most  learned  man  in  his  varied  infor- 
mation I  have  ever  met.  .  .  .  He  is  the  most 
habitually  religious  man  I  have  ever  seen."  And 
on  a  visit  to  India  in  1894,  the  Rev.  Francis 
Tiffany,  a  distinguished  minister  of  the  Unitarian 
Church,  bore  the  testimony: 

To  the  missionaries,  decried  and  sneered  at  on  every 
hand,  are  due  the  inception  and  first  practical  illustration  of 
every  reform  in  education,  in  medicine,  in  the  revelation  of 
the  idea  of  com -non  humanity,  in  the  elevation  of  the  condi- 
tion of  woman,  afterward  taken  up  by  the  Government.  It 
seems,  however,  to  be  the  correct  thing  for  t:.e  ordinary 
tourist  to  speak  with  unutterable  contempt  of  missionaries, 
and  then,  to  avoid  being  prejudiced  in  any  way,  carefully  to 
refrain  from  ever  going  within  ten  miles  of  them  and  their 
work.  The  thing  to  take  for  granted  is  that  they  are  narrow- 
minded  bigots,  with  nothing  they  care  to  import  into  India 
but  hell  fire.  To  all  this,  I  want  to  enter  my  emphatic  and 
indignant  protest.  Such  of  them  as  I  have  fallen  in  with,  I 
have  found  the  most  earnest  and  broadminded  men  and 
women  anywhere  to  be  encountered — the  men  and  women 
best  acquainted  with  Indian  thought,  customs  and  inward 
life,  and  who  are  doing  the  most  toward  the  elevation  of  the 
rational  and  moral  character  of  the  nation.  It  has  brought 
tears  to  my  eyes  to  inspect  such  an  educational  establishment 
for  girls  and  young  women  as  that  of  Miss  Thoburn,  in  Luck- 
now,  and  to  see  what  new  heavens  and  new  earth  she  is 
opening  up  to  them.  The  consecration  of  spirit  with  which 
these  young  women  are  dedicating  themselves  to  the  work 
of  getting  ready  to  lift  out  of  the  gulf  of  ignorance  and  super- 
stition their  sister  women  of  India  was  one  of  the  most 
moving  sights  I  ever  beheld. 

Missionaries  might  be  better  and  abler  men  and 
women  than  they  are.  That  could  be  said  of 
any  body  of  men  and  women  in  the  world.  But 
none  wish  this  for  themselves  more  ardently  than 
the  missionaries;  and,  speaking  in  careful  com- 
parison, it  may  be  maintained  that  the  mission- 
aries of  the  Christian  Church  have  been  and  are 
the  best  body  of  men  and  women  who  have  ever 
given  their  lives  to  a  great  cause. 

IV.  Criticism  of  the  Results  of  Missions:  It  la 
said  that  foreign  missionaries  have  accomplished 
nothing,  or  that  they  have  accomplished  nothing 
justifying  the  great  expense  in  money  and  life,  or 
that  they  have  accomplished  too  much  and  done 
more  harm  than  good. 

1.  "They  have  accomplished  nothing":  This  was 
naturally  a  much  more  common  criticism  some 
years  ago  than  to-day.  At  first,  the  work  had  to 
produce  its  results.  Now  that  it  has  produced 
them,  it  is  possible  only  for  ignorance  to  deny 
them.  For  a  time  all  professed  converts  were 
"rice  Christians,"  but  now  there  are  too  many 
millions  who  get  no  rice,  and  there  have  been 
too  many  martyrs.  As  that  severe  but  intelli- 
gent critic,  Mr.  Michie,  says,  "It  is  a  very  grati- 
fying fact,  which  cannot  be  gainsaid,  that  Chris- 
tians of  the  truest  type — men  ready  to  burn  as 


Objections 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


6SS 


martyrs,  which  is  easy,  and  who  lead  'helpful  and 
honest'  lives,  which  is  as  hard  as  the  ascent  from 
Avernus,  crown  the  labors  of  missionaries,  and 
have  done  so  from  the  beginning."  The  mass  of 
testimony  to  the  beneficent  religious,  moral,  and 
social  influence  of  missions  has  become  too  great 
to  deny  any  longer.  Dr.  Dennis'  great  argument, 
in  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress,  is  unan- 
swerable. It  would  be  easy  to  enlarge  this  evi- 
dence.    Two  testimonies  must  suffice: 

"It  is  they"  (the  missionaries\  saya  Sir  H.  H.  Johnston, 
"who  in  many  cases  have  first  taught  the  natives  carpentry, 
joinery,  masonry,  tailoring,  cobbling,  engineering,  book- 
keeping, printing,  and  i-luropean  cookery;  to  say  nothing  of 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  a  smattering  of  general 
knowledge.  Almost  invariably,  it  has  been  to  missipnaries 
th.at  the  nati-s-es  of  interior  Africa  have  owed  their  first 
aC'iuaintance  with  a  printing-prefs,  the  turning-lathe,  the 
mangle,  the  flat-iron,  the  sawmill,  and  the  brick  mould.  In- 
dustrial teaching  is  coming  more  and  more  in  f.avor,  and 
imme:liate  results  in  British  Central  .'Vfnca  have  been  most 
encouraging.  Instead  of  importing  painters,  carpenters,  store 
clerks,  cooks,  telegraphists,  gardeners,  natural  history  col- 
lectors from  LOngland  or  India,  we  are  gradually  becoming 
able  to  obtain  them  amongst  the  natives  of  the  country,  who 
are  trained  in  the  missionaries'  schools,  and  who  have  been 
given  simple,  wholesome  local  education,  haA-e  not  had  their 
heads  turned,  and  are  not  above  their  station  in  life." 

''Whatever  you  may  be  told  to  the  contrary," 
said  Sir  Bartle  Frere,  former  Governor  of  Bom- 
bay, "the  teaching  of  Christianity  among  160,- 
000,000  of  civilized,  industrious  Hindus  and 
Mohammedans  in  India  is  effecting  changes, 
moral,  social,  and  political,  which  for  extent  and 
rapidity  of  effect  are  far  more  extraordinary  than 
anything  that  you  or  your  fathers  have  witnessed 
in  modern  Europe." 

If  any  other  testimony  to  the  efficacy  of  mis- 
sions is  needed  than  tliis  evidence  of  their  gen- 
eral influence,  and  the  undeniable  fact  of  the 
independent  and  self-supporting  Christian 
churches  which  have  been  built  up,  it  can  be 
found  in  the  absolute  transformation  in  Hinduism 
and  Buddhism  produced  by  the  influence  of 
Christian  missions.  The  history  of  the  Brahmo 
Somaj  is  an  illustration.  Fifty  years  ago,  men 
who  wanted  to  come  as  far  as  this  toward  Chris- 
tianity had  to  break  with  Hinduism.  Now  the 
Vedanta  movement  within  Hinduism  allows  men 
who  want  to  hold  Christian  opinions  and  still  live 
Hindu  lives  to  remain  in  their  old  faith.  Outside 
of  the  limits  of  their  converts,  missions  are  trans- 
forming the  world.  Other  forces  are  working 
with  them,  but  none  with  more  power. 

2.  "They  have  accomplished  nothing  justifying 
the  expense":  That  depends  on  the  critic's 
standard  of  value.  The  Congo  River  railway  in 
Africa  is  225  miles  long.  It  cost  4,000  lives. 
The  cause  of  missions  has  cost  but  a  fraction  of 
this.  Is  that  railroad  more  valuable  than  the 
results  summarized  in  Dr.  Dennis'  great  volumes? 
Thearmies  of  Europe  cost  per  annum  $1,046,354,- 
848.  All  the  Protestant  churches  combined  give 
per  annum  $19,598,823  to  foreign  missions. 
Which  expenditure  accomplishes  most  for  the 
world?  The  annual  cost  of  the  government  of 
India  is  $360,000,000  (1901-1902).  The  annual 
cost  of  missions  in  India  is  an  insignificant  frac- 
tion of  this.  Which  is  the  more  beneficent 
expenditure?  Let  Sir  W.  Mack  worth  Young, 
K.C.S.L.late  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  Punjab, 
answer: 

As  a  business  man,  speaking  to  business  men,  I  am  pre- 
pared to  say  that  the  work  which  has  been  done  by  mission- 
ary agency  in  India  e.vceeds  in  importance  all  that  has  been 
clone  (and  much  has  been  done)  by  the  British  Oovernrnent 
in  India  since  its  commencement.  Let  ine  take  the  Province 
which  I  know  best.  I  ask  mvself  what  has  been  the  most 
potent  influence  which  has  been  working  among  the  people 


since  annexation  fifty-four  years  agi,  and  to  that  question  I 
feel  that  there  is  but  one  answer— Christianity,  as  set  forth 
in  the  lives  and  teaching  of  Christian  missionaries.  I  do  not 
underestimate  the  forces  which  have  been  brought  to  bear 
on  the  races  in  the  Punjab  by  our  beneficent  rule,  by  British 
judgment  and  enlightenment;  but  I  am  convinced  that  the 
e^ect  on  native  character  produced  by  the  self-denying  labors 
of  missionaries  is  far  greater.  The  Punjab  bears  on  its 
historical  roll  the  names  of  many  Christian  statesmen  who 
have  honored  (3od  by  their  lives  and  endeared  themselves  to 
the  people  by  their  faithful  work ;  but  I  venture  to  say  that 
if  they  could  speak  to  us  from  the  great  unseen,  there  is  not 
one  of  them  who  would  not  proclaim  that  the  work  done  hy- 
men like  French,  Clark,  Newton  and  Forman,  who  went  in 
and  out  among  the  people  for  a  whole  generation  or  more, 
and  who  preached  by  t  eir  lives  the  nobility  of  self-sacrifice, 
and  the  lesson  of  love  to  God  and  man,  is  a  higher  and  nobler 
work,  and  more  far-reaching  in  its  consequences. 

3.  "  They  have  done  more  harm  than  good":  This 
is  the  current  form  of  criticism.  The  critics  used 
to  call  missionaries  inoffensive  and  their  work 
futile.  Now  they  have  swung  over  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme.  The  missionaries  are  pestilentially 
active  and  effective,  and  are  turning  the  world 
upside  down.  "For  my  own  part,"  says  Mr. 
Norman,  "I  am  convinced  that  if  the  subscribers 
to  Chinese  missions  could  only  see  for  themselves 
the  minute  results  of  good  and  the  considerable 
results  of  harm  that  their  money  produces,  they 
would  find  in  the  vast  opportunities  for  reforma- 
tory work  at  home  a  more  attractive  field  for 
their  charity.  At  any  rate,  in  considering  the 
future  of  China  the  missionary  influence  cannot 
be  counted  upon  for  any  good."  The  omission 
of  a  bill  of  particulars  is  often  a  convenient  over- 
sight for  critics.  "The  minute  results  of  good" 
is  a  judgment  which  time  wiU  reveal  in  its  true 
ludicrousness.  What  are  "the  considerable 
results  of  harm"?  Mr.  Sydney  Brooks  took  up 
this  tale.  He  held  that  the  influence  of  the  mis- 
sionary is  subversive,  and  that  his  propaganda 
will  have  revolutionary  effects.  In  a  sense  this 
is  not  true.  The  missionary's  work  is  not  destruc- 
tive. It  follows  the  lines  of  national  character 
and  qualification.  Christianity  has  adapted 
itself  to  more  peoples,  and  more  diverse  peoples, 
than  any  other  religion,  and  it  is  compatible  with 
any  orderly  and  righteous  government,  of  what- 
soever form.  It  does  not  attack  the  Chinese 
political  system  or  social  life.  Yet,  in  a  sense, 
the  charge  is  true.  Christianity  is  a  power  of 
upheaval  and  renovation.  It  turns  the  world 
upside  down.  It  begets  wrath  against  injustice, 
eagerness  for  liberty,  impatience  with  ignorance 
and  sloth,  and  passion  for  progress.  It  has  done 
this  in  China.  It  wiU  continue  to  do  this  in 
China,  whether  in  war  or  in  peace;  whether  with 
the  sympathy  of  the  Christian  nations  or  with 
petty  criticism  and  futile  opposition  of  newspaper 
publicists.     That  is  its  mission  in  the  world. 

A  larger  and  nobler  and  truer  view  of  the 
influence  of  missions  was  expressed  in  the  speech 
of  President  McKinley  at  the  Ecumenical  Con- 
ference in  New  York  City  in  1900: 

I  am  glad  of  the  opportunity  to  offer  without  stint  my 
tribute  of  praise  and  respect  to  the  missionary  effort,  which 
has  wrought  such  wonderful  triumphs  for  civilization.  The 
story  of  the  Christian  Missions  is  one  of  thrilling  interest  and 
marvelous  results.  The  services  and  the  sacrifices  of  nus- 
sionaries  for  their  fellow  men  constitute  one  of  the  most 
glorious  pages  of  the  world's  history.  The  missionary,  of 
whatever  church  or  ecclesiastical  body,  who  devotes  his  life 
to  the  service  of  the  Master  and  of  men,  carrying  the  torch  of 
truth  and  enlightenment,  deserves  the  gratitude,  the  support, 
and  the  homage  of  mankind,  "rhe  noble,  self-effacing,  will- 
ing ministers  of  peace  and  goodwill  should  be  classea  with 
the  world's  heroes.  .  .  .  "They  count  their  labor  no  sacri- 
fice. "Away  with  t.  e  world  in  such  a  view  and  with  such  a 
thought,"  says  David  Livingstone  "it  is  emphatically  no 
sacrifice;  say,  rather,  it  is  a  privilege."  They  furnish  us 
examples  of  forbearance,  fortitude,  of  patience  and  unyield- 
ing purpose,  and  of  spirit  which  triumphs,  not  by  the  force 


657 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Objections 
Olfazaki 


■of  might,  but  by  the  persuasive  majesty  of  right.  .  .  . 
Who  can  estimate  their  value  to  the  progress  of  nations? 
Their  contribution  to  the  onward  and  upward  marcli  of 
humanity  is  beyond  all  calculation.  They  have  inculcated 
industry  and  taught  the  various  trades.  They  have  pro- 
moted concord  and  amity,  and  brought  nations  and  races 
closer  together.  They  have  made  men  better.  They  have 
increased  the  regard  for  home ;  have  strengthened  the  sacred 
ties  of  family;  have  made  the  community  well  ordered,  and 
their  work  has  been  a  potent  influence  in  the  development  of 
law  and  the  establishment  of  goveriunent. 

But  all  this  is  secondary.  The  supreme  aim 
of  missions  is  the  religious  aim,  but  the  success 
with  which  the  movement  is  realizing  that  aim  is 
evidenced  by  the  affluence  of  its  secondary 
beneficent  results.  And  the  end  of  all  wiU  be 
that  Kingdom  of  God  on  earth — the  Kingdom 
which  is  righteousness  and  peace,  and  toward 
whose  establishment  the  missionary  movement  is 
in  this  age  an  indispensable  agency,  capable  of 
improvement  and  expansion,  but  not  capable  of 
omission  or  abridgment. 

OCHILONDA:  A  village  in  Angola,  W.  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Bih6  region,  about  25  miles  S.  W. 
of  Ghisamba.  Station  of  the  PB,  with  4  mission- 
aries, 3  of  them  with  their  wives,  and  1  woman 
missionary. 

ODUMASI:  A  town  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony, 
W.  Africa,  situated  6  miles  from  the  right  bank 
of  the  Volta  River,  and  about  20  miles  N.  W.  of 
Akropong.  Station  of  the  Basel  Mission  Society, 
(1859),  with  (1903)  6  missionaries,  3  of  them 
with  their  wives;  22  native  workers,  9  outstations, 

1  Sunday  school,  9  day  schools,  1  kindergarten, 
and  683  professed  Christians,  of  whom  288  are 
communicants.     Some  write  the  name  Odumase. 

OETA  RIMBAROE:  A  village  in  Sumatra, 
situated  about  47  miles  S.  E.  of  Siboga.  Station 
of  the  Java  Committee,  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife  and  1  day  school. 

OGBOMOSHO:  A  town  in  West  Africa,  145 
miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of  Lagos.  Climate  tropical, 
tho  not  oppressively  hot;  unhealthy,  but  better 
than  on  the  coast.  Population,  60,000.  Relig- 
ions, idolatry  and  fetishism.  There  are  many 
gods,  but  few  carved  idols;  certain  trees,  nuts, 
shells,  rocks,  etc.,  used  as  symbols.  Social  con- 
dition very  low,  but  improving.  Polygamy  and 
domestic  slavery  common.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1893),  with  (1903)  1  native  worker,  1  day 
school,  and  86  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  SBC  (1856),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  2  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 2  places  of  worship,  2  Sundaj^  schools, 

2  day  schools,  1  theological  class,  1  dispensary, 
and  152  professed  Christians,  of  whom  121  are 
communicants.  Some  write  the  name  Ogbo- 
moso;  also  Ogbomoshaw. 

OHNEBERG,  George:  A  missionary  of  the 
Moravians  to  St.  Croix,  West  Indies.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  of  the  United  Brethren  who 
succeeded  in  establishing  himself  on  this  island. 
He  went  from  the  island  of  St.  Thomas  to  St. 
Croix  in  April,  1751.  The  Christian  negroes 
welcomed  him  with  open  arms,  for  since  the 
mission  was  suspended  m  1742  they  had  received 
only  occasional  visits  from  the  missionaries  at 
St.  Thomas.  He  was  hardljr  settled  there  before 
both  himself  and  the  Christian  slaves  had  to 
endure  many  persecutions  from  the  pagans  by 
whom  they  were  surrounded.  The  huts  of  the 
negroes  were  set  on  fire,  and  sometimes  entirely 
destroyed.  Mr.  Ohneberg's  house  was  burned, 
but  his  furniture  was  saved  by  the  efforts  of  the 
Christian   negroes.     Whan   these   pagan   people 


found  they  could  do  nothing  to  unsettle  Mr. 
Ohneberg,  and  that  he  went  on  with  his  work, 
they  gave  up  their  persecution  and  left  him  in 
peace.  An  estate  of  four  acres  was  soon  pur- 
chased by  the  Brethren,  where  they  built  a 
church  and  dwelling-house,  and  named  the 
place  "Friedensthal."  The  work  increased 
more  and  more  tiU  the  little  church  at  Friedens- 
thal could  not  contain  the  hearers,  and  service 
for  nearly  twelve  months  was  held  in  the  open 
air.  As  many  as  a  hundred  negroes  were 
annually  baptized  into  the  church. 

OITA:  A  town  and  seaport  on  Kiushiu  Island, 
Japan,  105  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Nagasaki.  Silk 
yarn  is  produced  in  large  quantities.  This  town 
was  visited  by  the  Portuguese  adventurer, 
Mendez  Pinto,  in  1543  and  by  the  Jesuit  mission- 
ary St.  Francis  Xavier  about  1550.  Population, 
15,200.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1894),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  2 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools, 
and  51  professed  Christians,  of  whom  25  are 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  MES  (1886), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship,  2 
Sunday  schools,  and  28  professed  Christians. 

OJI:  A  village  in  the  suburbs  of  Tokio,  Japan, 
now  containing  paper  and  cotton  mills,  but  still 
a  favorite  holiday  resort  on  account  of  its  pictur- 
esque scenery  and  especially  in  certain  seasons 
when  flowering  trees  are  in  bloom.  Population, 
3,000.  Station  of  the  Christian  Church  Mission 
Board  (1889),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  woman  missionary,  2  native  workers,  5 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools, 
and  65  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
PE  (1899),  with  (1903)  1  native  worker. 

OKAHANDYA:  A  mission  station  of  German 
Southwest  Africa,  90  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Swakop- 
mund.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society, 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  11 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  4  day  schools, 
and  1,150  professed  Christians,  of  whom  497  are 
communicants.  Some  write  the  name  Oka- 
handja. 

OKAK.     See  Okkak. 

OKAT:  A  settlement  in  the  Oil  River  region 
of  South  Nigeria,  Africa,  situated  near  Kwa  Ibo 
River,  25  miles  from  its  mouth.  Station  of  the 
Qua  Ibo  Mission  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  6  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  5  day  schools,  1  theological 
school,  1  dispensary,  and  43  professed  Christians. 

OKAYAMA:  A  town  in  South  Japan,  100 
miles  west  of  Kobe,  on  the  highway  thence  to 
Hiroshima,  5  miles  from  Inland  Sea.  Climate 
mild,  humid.  ■  Population  (1898),  58,025. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1879),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
6  native  workers,  18  outstations,  6  places  of 
worship,  12  Sunday  schools,  1  industrial  school, 
1  orphanage.  Station  also  of  the  SPG  (1897), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  4  native  workers,  1 
place  of  worship,  and  47  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  25  are  communicants.  Station  also 
of  the  Salvation  Army.  The  Okajrama  Orphan- 
age is  an  independent  enterprise  of  value, 
founded  by  Mr.  Ishii  and  placed  under  a  board 
of  trustees,  composed  partly  of  missionaries. 

OKAZAKI:  A  town  in  Hondo  Island,  Japan, 
situated    85    miles    E.    of    Kioto.     Population, 


Okazeva 
Organization 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


55S 


1J,200.  Station  of  the  PS  (1890),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native  worlcers,  5 
outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  and  80  professed 
Christians. 

OKAZEVA:  A  village  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  about  180  miles  E.  by  N.  of 
Swakopmund.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission 
Society,  with  1  missionary,  3  native  workers, 
1  day  school,  and  49  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  9  are  communicants. 

OKKAK:  A  settlement  in  Labrador,  situated 
on  the  E.  coast,  80  miles  N.  W.  of  Nain.  Station 
of  the  Moravian  Mission  Society  (1776),  wiili 
(1900)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  20  native 
workers,  1  day  school,  1  place  of  worship,  and 
156  professed  Christians. 

OKOMBAHE:  A  mission  station  of  the  Rhenish 
Mission  Society,  in  German  Southwest  Africa, 
about  120  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Swakopmund,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  8  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  3  day  schools,  and  568 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  166  are  communi- 
cants. 

OLD  CAIRO:  A  mission  station  of  the  CMS 
(1899),  and  a  suburb  of  Cairo,  Egypt,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
5  native  workers,  2  day  schools,  1  dispensary, 
1  hospital,  and  60  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
34  are  communicants. 

OLUKONDA:  A  settlement  in  the  N.  part  of 
German  Southwest  Africa,  in  the  territory  of 
the  Ambo  tribes.  Station  of  the  Finnish  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1871),  with  (1900)  3  mission- 
aries, 2  of  them  with  their  wives;  1  woman 
missionary,  9  native  workers,  4  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  kindergarten,  and  142  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

OMARURU:  A  village  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  in  Damaraland,  about  135 
miles  N.  E.  of  Swakopmund.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  7  native  workers,  3  outstations, 

5  day  schools,  and  595  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  150  are  communicants. 

OMBURU:  A  village  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  in  Damaraland,  about  150  miles 
N.  E.  of  Swakopmund.  Station  of  the  Rhenish 
Mission  Society  (1903),  with  1  missionary,  4 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  4  day  schools,  and 
149  professed  Christians,  of  whom  54  are  com- 
municants. 

OMBOLATA:  A  settlement  on  Nias  Island, 
situated  on  the  E.  coast  about  5  miles  S.  of 
Gunong  Sitoli.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission 
Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 

6  native  workers,  3  outstations,  1  Sunday  school, 
5  day  schools,  and  1,411  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  390  are  communicants. 

OMUPANDA :  A  village  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Ambo  region,  near  the 
frontier  of  Angola,  and  about  30  miles  N.  of 
01ukonda._  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission 
Society,  with  2  missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his 
wifef;  1  native  worker,  1  day  school,  and  102 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  28  are  communi- 
cants. 

ONDANGUA:  A  settlement  in  the  N.  part  of 
German  Southwest  Africa,  in  the  Ambo  tribe 
territory,  situated  about  25  miles  N.  W.  of 
Olukonda.  Station  of  the  Finnish  Mission 
Society    (1890),  with  (1900)    1  missionary  and 


his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  5  native  workers, 
3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  and  54  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

ONDJIVA:  A  village  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  in  the  territory  of  the  Ambe 
tribe,  on  the  border  of  Angola,  and  about  40 
miles  N.  of  Olukonda.  Station  of  the  Rhenish 
Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  1  native  worker, 
1  day  school,  and  33  professed  Christians. 

OWGOLE :  A  town  of  9,000  inhabitants  in  the 
Nellore  district,  east  coast  of  Madras,  India, 
half-way  between  Nellore  and  Masulipatam. 
Missionary  work  was  begun  in  the  Nellore  district 
in  1842.  From  8  members  in  1867  the  Christian 
community  increased  to  3,269  in  1877.  Then 
the  famine  came.  Idols  were  prayed  to,  but  in 
vain.  The  missionaries  came  to  the  rescue,  and 
with  the  aid  of  English  relief  money  a  canal  was 
built,  which  will  prevent  the  recurrence  of  any 
similar  famine.  The  grateful  Ongolites  then 
came  in  large  numbers  to  listen  to  the  preaching 
of  their  benefactors.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1866),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  3  women  missionaries,  144  native  workers, 
40  Sunday  schools,  6  boarding  schools,  1  orphan- 
age, 1  college,  1  industrial  class,  and  19,421 
professed  Christians. 

ONICHA:  A  village  and  mission  station  in 
South  Nigeria,  W.  Africa,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Niger  opposite  Asaba.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1857),  -with.  (1903)  2  missionaries,  6  women 
missionaries,  3  native  workers,  4  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
1  industrial  school,  1  hospital,  and  427  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  125  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Onitsha. 

OiraPA.     See  Onyipa. 

ONITSHA.     See  Onicha. 

ONOMICHI:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  in 
Hiroshima  district,  135  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Kobe; 
a  prosperous  town  on  the  Inland  Sea,  noted  for 
its  manufacture  of  ornamental  mats.  Popu- 
lation, 18,700.     Station  of  the  MES. 

ONYIPA :  A  settlement  in  the  N.  part  of  German 
Southwest  Africa,  situated  in  the  territory  of 
the  Ambo  tribe,  about  30  miles  N.  of  Olukonda. 
Station  of  the  Finnish  Mission  Society  (1874), 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2 
women  missionaries,  7  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 1  place  of  worship,  1  printing  house, 
and  101  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name  Oniipa. 

OODOOVILLE:  A  town  in  Jaffna,  North 
Ceylon,  forming  a  suburb  of  Manepy.  Hot, 
but  healthy.  Population,  2,354.  Station  of 
the  ABCFM  (1831),  with  (1903)  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 34  native  workers,  4  outstations,  10 
day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  486  commu- 
nicant Christians. 

OOTACAMUND.     See  Utakamand. 

OPOTIKI:  A  post  town  in  New  Zealand,  situ- 
ated on  the  North  Island,  110  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Napier.  Population,  1,500.  Station  of  the 
CMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  16 
native  workers,  and  1,500  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  102  are  communicants. 

ORAN:  A  seaport  of  Algeria,  Africa,  situated 
70  miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of  Tlemsen.  It  was  in 
Spanish  hands  from  1509  to  1708  and  from  1732 
to  1792,  and  was  occupied  by  France  in  1831. 


659 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Okazeva 
UrKanlzutlon 


At  6  or  7  miles  S.  is  the  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Oran, 
27  miles  long  and  3  to  6  miles  wide.  Population 
(1901),  87,801.  Station  of  the  Algiers  Spanish 
Mission,  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives  and  1  woman  missionary.  Also  station 
of  the  French  Society  for  Evangelizing  the  Jews, 
with  1  missionary. 

ORANGE  RIVER  COLONY:  A  territory  of 
South  Africa,  formerly  the  Orange  Free  State. 
It  was  annexed  to  Great  Britain  May  24,  1900,  as 
a  consequence  of  the  Boer  War.  There  is  a 
governor  over  the  Transvaal,  and  the  Orange 
River  Colony  is  governed  by  a  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor under  him.  The  colony  has  an  area  of 
48,326  square  miles.  The  population  (1900) 
was  207,503,  of  whom  129,787  were  natives. 
It  is  believed  that  the  white  population  has  been 
reduced  in  consequence  of  the  war.  The  colony 
lies  between  the  Transvaal  on  the  north  and 
Basutoland  and  Cape  Colony  on  the  south, 
extending  east  and  west  from  Natal  to  Bechuana- 
land.  The  arable  area  is  small,  pasturage  for 
grazing  furnishing  much  of  its  resources. 

Since  the  British  accession  English  has  become 
the  official  language  and  must  be  taught  in  all 
schools.  The  principal  religious  bodies  are  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church,  with  (1890)  68,940 
adherents,  the  Wesleyans  with  753,  the  Church 
of  England  with  1,353.  There  are  also  Luth- 
erans, Roman  Catholics,  and  a  few  Jews.  The 
natives  are  of  the  Basuto  and  Bechuana 
branches  of  the  Bantu  race,  nearly  allied  to  the 
Kafirs.  The  Berlin  Missionary  Society  has 
4  stations  in  this  colony,  the  SPG  2,  and  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  has 
8  stations,  with  a  considerable  body  of  native 
adherents. 

ORGANIZATION   OF   MISSIONARY   WORK: 

The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  furnish  a 
statement  of  the  different  forms  of  organization 
used  in  mission  work,  and  the  agencies  of  admin- 
istration, employed  both  at  home  and  on  the 
foreign  field. 

1.  At  Home:  Into  the  question  of  the  degree 
of  organization  needed,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
enter  here.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the 
present  forms  have  been  the  direct  outgrowth  of 
the  pressing  needs  of  the  situation.  1.  Mission- 
aries in  foreign  lands  must  be  supported  (the 
instances  of  self-support  being  so  few  and  so 
exceptional  as  to  be  practically  ruled  out  of  the 
question),  and  money  must  be  raised  and  for- 
warded to  them.  2.  It  is  not  every  man  or  woman 
who,  however  willing,  can  advantageously  work 
in  foreign  lands;  there  must  be  some  means  for 
selecting  those  who  are  best  qualified.  3.  In 
the  conduct  of  foreign  work  two  things  are 
essential:  first,  that  expenditures  be  proportioned 
to  receipts;  second,  that  different  sections  of  the 
great  work  shall  not  assume  relatively  undue 
importance.  It  thus  becomes  necessary  that 
there  be  some  central  authority  to  keep,  so  far 
as  practicable,  an  even  hand  over  the  whole 
enterprise.  4.  Those  who  give  for  the  support 
of  missions  have  a  natural  and  righteous  desire 
to  know  what  is  accomplished  by  them,  and 
there  must  be  the  means  of  collecting  and  impart- 
ing information.  5.  As  mission  work  in  most 
instances  involves  the  holding  of  property, 
there  must  be  some  form  of  corporation,  having 
a  recognized  existence  before  the  law. 

The  necessity  of  meeting  these  demands  has 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  missionary  societies 


or  boards,  so  organized  as  to  provide  for  these 
varied  departments.  These  societies  or  boards 
may,  for  convenience'  sake,  be  classified  into 
groups. 

I.  Societies  which  are  engaged  directly  in 
general  foreign  missionary  work  by  sending 
out  missionaries,  and  which  are  not  confined  by 
their  constitutions  to  any  particular  phase  of 
that  work  or  to  any  special  country.  They  are 
either  interdenominational,  i.e.,  drawing  their 
support  from  different  churches,  or  represent 
some  one  of  the  different  denominations. 

II.  Woman's  Boards,  organized  by  women, 
with  special  reference  to  work  among  women, 
and  either  independent,  i.e.,  sending  out  their 
own  missionaries,  or  acting  in  connection  with 
some  general  society. 

III.  Societies  which  are  limited  by  their 
constitutions  to  specific  branches  of  work  or  to 
distinct  territories.  These  include:  (a)  Aid 
societies,  which  merely  collect  funds  to  assist 
other  societies,  especially  from  people  who  are 
interested  in  their  work,  but  are  not  naturally 
included  in  their  constituency.  (6)  Bible  and 
tract  societies,  which  engage  directly  in  foreign 
work  by  the  employment  of  colporteurs  and 
distributing  agents,  (c)  Medical  missionary 
societies,  whose  object  is  to  train  and  furnish 
physicians,  men  or  women,  who  shall  enter 
the  foreign  work,  either  independently  or  in 
connection  with  some  general  society. 

IV.  Individual  efforts  and  miscellaneous  organ- 
izations. We  are  concerned  in  this  article 
chiefly  with  the  general  statement  of  the  organ- 
ization and  its  agencies  of  administration. 

V.  Organized  Missionary  Societies  or  Boards.' 
These  may  be  classed  under  three  general  heads: 
1.  Those  directly  controlled  by  some  ecclesias- 
tical organization.  2.  Those  ecclesiastically 
connected  with  some  denomination,  but  not 
controlled  by  it.  3.  Tnose  independent  of  any 
ecclesiastical  connection. 

1.  Those  directly  controlled  by  some  ecclesi- 
astical organization  include  the  Presbyterian 
Boards;  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  U.  S.  A.;  the  Domestic  and 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States;  the 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Moravian  Church;  and 
most  of  the  Lutheran  Boards  of  America  and 
Europe.  In  them  the  society  or  board  is  a  com- 
mittee appointed  by  and  responsible  to  the  gen- 
eral governing  body  of  the  church  or  denomina- 
tion. These  are:  the  General  Assemblies  of  the 
various  Presbyterian  Churches;  the  General  Con- 
ference of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  the 
General  Convention  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States;  and  the  General 
Synod  of  the  Moravian  Church.  Whenever  there 
are  so-called  members,  directors,  etc.,  the  term 
is  merely  honorary,  indicating  that  such  persons 
have  by  virtue  of  certain  grants  of  money  been 
allowed  certain  privileges,  e.g.,  of  receiving 
regularly  the  Society's  publications,  or  attending 
certain  regular  meetings.  They  do  not  indicate 
any  right  to  vote  upon  any  action  of  the  Society 
or  Board.  Officials  are  required  to  belong  to 
the  denomination,  and  missionaries  must  have 
received  ordination  from  authorities  recognized 
by  the  Church.  In  case  of  difference  between 
the  missions  and  the  board  there  is  an  appeal 
to  the  General  Assembly,  etc. 

2  Those  ecclesiastically  connected  with  some 
denomination,   but   not   directly   controlled    by 


Organization 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


560 


it,  comprise  such  societies  as  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel,  and  various  Baptist,  Methodist,  and 
Wesleyan  Societies  of  England,  the  United 
States,  and  Canada.  In  these  the  societies  or 
boards  are  composed  of  members  of  the  denomi- 
nation which  they  represent,  either  by  virtue 
of  grants  of  money  or  by  appointment  to  rep- 
resent certain  churches.  Their  officials  and 
missionaries  are  members  of  the  denomination, 
and  are  required  to  conform  to  its  customs  and 
discipline.  So  far  as  the  direction  of  the  affairs 
of  the  society  or  mission  is  concerned,  the  author- 
ity of  the  board  itself  is  final — there  is  no 
appeal. 

(3.)  Those  independent  of  ecclesiastical  rela- 
tions include  the  American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Foreign  Missions,  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society,  the  Paris  Evangelical  Society,  the 
Basel  and  Berlin  Missionary  societies,  the  Bible 
societies,  and  most  of  the  special  societies.  Here, 
however,  we  find  again  two  classes:  (1)  Those 
which  are  general  in  their  membership,  and  (2) 
those  that  are  self-perpetuating,  or  close  corpo- 
rations. 

The  first  class  includes  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  the  Bible  Societies,  and  most  of  the 
special  societies.  In  them  the  membership  is 
absolutely  unlimited  in  number,  and  any  person 
can  become  a  member  by  acceding  to  certain 
conditions.  He  then  has  the  right  to  vote  in 
the  annual  or  general  meetings  of  the  Society 
when  the  special  committees  or  boards  are 
elected. 

The  second  class  includes  the  ABCFM,  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Society,  and  the  Basel,  and  the 
Berlin,  and  other  German  independent  societies. 
In  them  the  membership  is  restricted  in  number, 
and  the  right  to  vote  at  any  meeting  of  the 
society  is  confined  to  the  actual  members  of  the 
society,  who  alone  have  the  right  to  elect  other 
members. 

In  neither  class  is  there  any  restriction  of 
denominational  connections  or  of  special  ordina- 
tion and  discipline,  tho,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
both  the  ABCFM  and  the  London  Missionary 
Society  have  become  Congregational  societies. 
The  decision  of  the  general  society  in  every  case 
is  final — there  is  no  appeal. 

VI.  Faith  Missions:  These  in  general  are  mis- 
sion enterprises,  in  which  the  missionaries  go 
to  the  foreign  field  without  the  assurance  of  any 
definite  or  continued  support  from  the  home 
land.  They  usually  claim  to  put  forth  no  efforts 
to  secure  such  support,  beyond  the  offering  of 
prayer  to  God.  In  some  cases  they  seek  to  sup- 
port themselves  by  some  occupation  on  the 
ground;  but  as  a  rule  they  give  themselves 
entirely  to  their  work,  relying  solely  upon  what- 
ever gifts  may  come  to  them  from  friends  at 
home,  or  may  be  given  by  travelers  and  others 
who  visit  them.  For  the  most  part  such  missions 
are  carried  on  by  individuals,  but  occasionally 
they  have  a  more  or  less  elaborate  organization. 
The  most  prominent  instance  of  the  last  named 
type  is  the  China  Inland  Mission.  There  is  no 
forrnal  organization,  but  a  committee  or  council 
receives  and  forwards  funds,  publishes  reports, 
and  renders  accounts.  The  same  thing  is  prac- 
tically done  by  individual  friends  for  all  the 
smaller  Faith  Missions.  PubHc  appeals  are 
seldom  made,  as  in  the  case  of  the  organized 
societies,  and  the  missionaries  are  absolutely 
independent  (in  most  cases)  of  any  ecclesiastical 


direction,  tho  they  are  always   connected  with 
some  religious  body. 

The  agencies  employed  by  the  organized 
societies  for  the  administration  of  the  under- 
taking in  its  different  departments,  viz.,  collection 
and  forwarding  of  funds,  selection  of  mission- 
aries, direction  of  the  foreign  work,  furnishing 
reports,  and  holding  of  property,  are,  1.  A 
committee;  2.  Executive  officers. 

1.  The  Committee:  In  the  case  of  the  societies 
of  the  first  class  enumerated  above,  viz.,  those 
directly  under  the  control  of  an  ecclesiastical 
organization,  the  committee  and  the  board  are 
identical.  In  other  classes  they  are  generally 
appointed  by  the  general  society,  tho  in  some 
cases,  as  in  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union,  the  society  appoints  a  Board  of  Managers, 
which  in  its  turn  appoints  an  Executive  Com- 
mittee. However  appointed  or  however  named, ' 
— Board  of  Managers,  Executive  Committee, 
Prudential  Committee,  Advisory  Committee, 
etc. — its  duties  are  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  the 
society  under  the  general  direction  of  the  soci- 
ety or  the  church.  All  matters  pertaining  to 
the  particular  policy  or  active  operations  both 
at  home  and  abroad  are  discussed  and  decided 
in  its  meetings,  and  it  is  rarely  the  case  that  an 
appeal  is  taken  to  the  general  society  or  church, 
or,  if  taken,  sustained.  In  fact,  these  committees 
are,  for  all  practical  purposes,  the  societies,  the 
latter  doing,  as  a  rule,  little  more  than  mark 
out  general  lines  of  policy.  Each  committee 
appoints  sub-committees  for  the  special  depart- 
ments. These  vary  greatly  in  their  form,  ac- 
cording to  the  differing  customs  of  each  society. 

2.  The  Executive  Officers:  These  are  the  sec- 
retaries, treasurers,  agents,  etc.  Scarcely  any 
two  societies  apportion  their  duties  in  the  same 
way,  but  those  duties  are  so  familiar  that  they 
need  no  special  mention.  They  are  never  voting 
members  of  the  committee,  but  merely  executive 
ofiicers.  The  definition  of  a  few  of  the  terms  in 
general  use  among  such  of  the  societies  as  make 
a  distinction  between  the  different  officers  will 
suffice. 

A  foreign  secretary  has  charge  of  the  corre- 
spondence with  the  missions,  presents  to  the 
committee  all  questions  relating  to  the  conduct 
or  interests  of  the  foreign  work,  and  the  esti- 
mates for  the  missions.  A  home  secretary  has 
general  charge  of  the  home  department,  with 
special  reference  to  the  raising  of  funds,  and  the 
relations  of  the  committee  or  board  to  the 
churches.  In  some  cases  all  applications  for 
appointment  to  the  foreign  field  pass  through 
his  hands;  in  other  cases  they  go  to  the  foreign 
secretaries.  An  editorial  secretary  has  general 
charge  of  the  publications  of  the  society,  edits 
the  jjeriodicals  and  the  annual  reports,  and 
superintends,  when  he  does  not  prepare,  the 
various  leaflets,  tracts,  etc.,  by  which  the 
knowledge  of  the  society's  operations  is  dissem- 
inated. A  field  secretary  is  one  whose  special 
work  it  is  to  visit  the  churches,  attend  meetings 
of  ministers,  and  arrange  plans  for  public  presen- 
tations of  the  needs  of  the  society.  This  work  of 
visiting  is  shared  by  all  the  secretaries,  according 
to  their  time  and  ability.  In  some  cases  there 
is  a  recording  secretary,  as  a  permanent  official, 
whose  special  duty  it  is  to  keep  the  record  of 
all  the  transactions  of  the  committee.  In  other 
cases  that  work  is  divided  up  among  the  o+her 
secretaries.  Some  societies  also  employ  district 
secretaries,  who  have  special  charge  of  certain 


561 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Ors^anization 


sections  of  country,  gather  the  subscriptions, 
arrange  for  visits  and  addresses,  and  report 
10  the  committee,  generally  through  the  home 
or  the  recording  secretary.  The  treasurer  has 
charge  of  all  moneys  and  accounts.  He  receives 
all  remittances,  makes  all  payments,  keeps  all 
accounts,  and  receives  and  disburses  the  appro- 
priations after  the  estimates  have  been  passed 
upon  in  committee.  He  furnishes  to  the 
monthly  periodicals  fuU  statements  of  moneys 
received,  and  his  accounts  are  submitted  to 
auditors  for  careful  examination.  In  some 
instances  the  office  of  treasurer  is  honorary,  the 
regular  work  being  conducted  by  an  assistant 
treasurer  or  a  financial  secretary.  Usually 
there  is  also  a  general  or  business  agent,  who 
has  charge  of  the  publishing  department,  and  the 
purchase  and  forwarding  of  outfits,  supplies, 
etc.,  for  missionaries. 

The  term  honorary  secretary,  etc.,  is  applied 
in  British  societies  to  persons  who  serve  without 
receiving  any  remuneration. 

The  executive  officers  are  the  only  persons 
connected  with  the  society  who  receive  salaries. 
Members  of  committees  or  of  boards  invariably 
serve  gratuitously. 

In  the  case  of  some  of  the  smaller  societies, 
where  the  duties  are  not  numerous  or  heavy, 
they  are  performed,  commonly  without  salary, 
by  some  minister  or  layman,  but  in  all  the  large 
societies,  where  the  duties  require  time,  salaries 
are  paid. 

The  work  of  administration  of  a  missionary 
society  commonly  comprises: 

1.  The  Collection  and  Application  of  Funds: 
The  income  of  a  missionary  society  includes: 

(a)  donations,  collections,  subscriptions,  whether 
by  individuals,  churches,  Sunday  schools,  aux- 
iliaries, bands,  etc.  These  are  sent  either  direct 
to  the  treasurer  or  through  some  local  or  church 
organization,  and  are,  as  a  rule,  applied  to  the 
general  work  of  the  board. 

(6)  Legacies.  These  are  usually  payable  in 
full  by  the  executors  of  a  will,  but  are  in  some 
instances  subject  to  conditions  of  annuity  or 
applicalion  to  some  specific  purpose. 

(c)  The  income  of  invested  funds.  In  some 
cases  these  funds  have  been  dedicated  to  special 
objects  by  their  donors;  e.g.,  the  payment  of 
the  salaries  of  the  executive  officers,  or  the  sup- 
port of  certain  departments  of  mission  work.  It 
has  become  increasingly  the  custom  for  the  large 
societies  to  own  the  premises  where  their  offices 
are  located.  The  original  erection  or  purchase 
of  these  has  been,  in  almost  every  case,  from 
moneys  contributed  for  that  special  purpose,  and 
entirely  apart  from  the  ordinary  donations  to  the 
missionary  work  of  the  society. 

The  remittance  of  money  to  the  field  is  gener- 
ally through  some  well-known  banking-house  of 
New  York  or  London  which  has  commercial 
dealings  with  the  country  where  the  mission  is 
located,  and  is  in  the  form  of  bills  of  exchange  or 
letters  of  credit  such  as  are  issued  to  travelers. 

2.  The  Selection  of  Missionaries:  This  is  one  of 
the  most  difficult  duties  that  devolves  on  a 
mission  board.  The  peculiar  elements  that 
enter  into  foreign  life,  the  strain  of  changed 
climate,  food,  habits  of  life,  the  new  language, 
the  necessity  of  intimate  relations  with  associates, 
the  demands  of  sudden  emergencies,  etc.,  all 
enter  into  the  consideration.  Then,  again,  the 
strange  misconceptions  as  to  nature  of  the 
missionary  work,  the  idea  that  personal  conse- 


cration is  the  only  quality  needed,  often  cause 
great  perplexity  to  the  officers  of  the  board. 
The  subject  of  the  qualifications  necessary  for 
missionaries  has  been  treated  elsewhere.  It 
will  be  sufficient  here  to  indicate  the  course 
pursued  in  their  selection  and  appointment. 

This  course  varies  greatly  in  different  socie- 
ties, and  even  in  the  same  society  there  is  no 
iron-clad  rule.  There  are,  however,  certain 
points  common  to  all.  The  most  important  of 
these  are:  1.  Examination  on  doctrinal  beliefs 
and  ecclesiastical  relations.  In  certain  denom- 
inations this  amounts  to  no  more  than  the  ascer- 
taining of  the  antecedent  action  of  church  author- 
ities (Episcopal  or  Presbyterial  ordination  is 
accepted  as  final),  and  in  all  it  is  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  more  formal  than  minute,  with 
a  view  to  securing  that  the  missionary  shall  be  in 
substantial  harmony  with  those  whose  represen- 
tative he  is,  and  with  those  who  are  to  be  his 
associates.  2.  Physical  examination.  This  is 
with  a  view  to  secure  those  only  whose  physical 
health  is  such  that  there  is  a  reasonable  proba- 
bility that  they  wiU  be  able  to  endure  the  strain 
of  life  in  a  foreign  land,  and  not  be  obliged  to 
return  home  after  all  the  expense  incidental  to 
their  being  sent  out  is  incurred.  3.  The  general 
circumstances  and  fitness  of  the  candidate.  Are 
there  relatives  who  may  be  compelled  to  look  to 
him  for  support?  Is  there  ability  to  acquire 
with  comparative  ease  a  foreign  and  difficult 
language;  such  a  temperament  as  will  make  it 
easy  to  cooperate  with  others;  the  faculty  of 
adapting  oneself  to  circumstances,  etc.?  These 
examinations  are  conducted  with  great  courtesy, 
kindness,  frankness,  and  thoroughness,  as  is 
instanced  by  the  small  number  of  failures  on  the 
foreign  field,  and  the  few  examples  of  those  who 
have  felt  aggrieved  by  the  refusal  of  the  board 
to  grant  an  appointment. 

The  exammations  being  satisfactory,  the 
appointment  is  given,  and  preparations  are  made 
for  the  departure.  In  the  case  of  an  increasing 
number  of  societies,  especially  in  England  and 
Germany,  there  comes  then  a  period  of  special 
training  and  preparation  with  a  view  to  fitting 
the  missionary  for  his  work.  In  America  the 
whole  question  of  the  preparation  of  missionary 
candidates  is  still  under  discussion.  (See 
Training.) 

3.  The  Conduct  of  theForeign  Work:  The  Mission- 
ary Society,  as  indicated  in  the  article  on  Methods 
of  Work,  is:  (1)  A  great  evangelistic  agency, 
employing  hundreds  of  men  and  women  whose 
chief  duty  is  to  preach  the  Gospel.  (2)  A  bureau 
of  education  supplying  every  grade  of  instruction 
to  thousands  who  would  otherwise  be  absolutely 
ignorant.  (3)  A  publishing  society  with  different 
departments  of  translation,  editing,  publication, 
and  distribution.  (4)  A  building  society  for  the 
erection  of  churches,  colleges,  hospitals,  etc. 
(5)  A  charitable  society  for  the  assistance  of  the 
suffering  poor,  thfe  diseased,  the  widowed  and 
orphaned.  All  these  various  departments  that 
in  Europe  and  America  are  divided  among  a 
dozen  different  organizations  are  combined  in 
the  foreign  work  of  every  great  missionary  society. 

As  a  rule,  the  decision  in  regard  to  the  detailed 
conduct  of  the  missions  is  committed  to  the 
missionaries  on  the  field.  Questions,  however, 
are  constantly  arising  which  can  only  be  decided 
by  the  home  authority.  Such  are:  1.  The  ques- 
tion of  expenses  to  be  incurred  in  different 
departments,  and  the  accounting    for  payments 


Orgranlzation 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


563 


made.  2.  The  beginning  of  new  work.  3.  Rela- 
tions between  diSerent  missions  and  different 
societies  in  the  same  field.  4.  General  questions 
of  policy.  These  are  all  perjjlexing  questions, 
and  questions  in  regard  to  which  there  is  much 
division  of  opinion  even  among  those  best 
informed  on  the  field.  Perhaps  the  most  difficult 
one  is  the  first,  which  is  more  fully  treated  in 
the  article  Finances  of  Missions.  To  enter  into 
detail  more  fully  is  beyond  the  limits  of  this 
article.  Enough  has  already  been  said  to  show 
that  the  men  who  meet  weekly  or  oftener  to 
consider  and  decide  such  complicated  questions 
are  no  less  earnest  and  consecrated  in  their  labor 
than  those  who  go  to  the  foreign  field. 

4.  Reporting  to  the  Churches:  This  is  becoming 
more  and  more  an  important  branch  of  the  home 
work  of  the  societies.  There  is  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  societies  in  this  particular.  Some 
societies  publish  very  full  reports,  like  the  CMS 
(which  has  the  services  of  skilled  editors  and 
contributors),  and  some  very  meager.  Some 
most  carefully  arrange  and  index  everything; 
others  give  interesting  general  statements,  but 
are  not  explicit  in  details. 

5.  The  Holding  and  Securing  of  Real  Estate: 
This  has  great  importance  in  the  prosecution  of 
missionary  work.  The  laws  relating  to  the 
holding  of  property  are  very  different  in  different 
lands;  but  whatever  be  the  form  of  title,  the 
actual  ownership  rests  with  the  committee  at 
home. 

II.  On  the  Foreign  Field:  Turning  now  to  the 
organization  of  mission  work  abroad  and  the 
administrative  agencies  employed,  we  find  that 
the  organization  is:  1st,  Territorial;  2d,  Ecclesi- 
astical. The  agencies  are:  1.  Missionaries;  2. 
Native  Pastors  or  local  Ecclesiastical  Bodies. 

A.  Organization:  1st.  Territorial  organisation. 
1.  Missions;  2.  Stations;  3.  Outstations  or  sub- 
stations. 

Missions:  The  word  "mission"  is  used  in  a 
great  variety  of  senses,  denoting  sometimes  a 
single  undertaking;  but,  as  found  in  the  majority 
of  the  reports  of  the  missionary  societies,  it 
indicates  an  organized  (or  simply  associated) 
body  of  missionaries  occupying  a  certain  terri- 
tory, e.  g.,  the  North  Africa,  the  Mid-China,  the 
JapaH  Mission.  It  includes  a  number  of  stations, 
with  their  outstations  and  fields,  and  its  extent 
is  usually  regulated  by  the  ease  of  communica- 
tion between  the  different  parts.  In  the  usage 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Churches  of  the 
United  States  the  mission,  upon  the  forma- 
tion of  a  regular  local  ecclesiastical  organ- 
ization, becomes  a  conference.  The  Wesleyan 
Methodists  of  England  limit  the  use  of  the  word 
so  that  it  is  practically  synonymous  with  district, 
having  {e.g.)  four  missions  in  the  island  of  Ceylon. 
The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
uses  the  term  in  the  most  restricted  sense,  com- 
bining its  individual  missions  in  dioceses.  The 
CMS  passes  over  parts  of  the  supervisory  work 
of  the  mission  to  qualified  local  bodies,  and 
reports  such  work  in  a  separate  category. 

Speaking  now  of  missions  in  the  general 
sense,  as  organizations  or  associations  of  mis- 
sionaries occupying  a  certain  territory  or  working 
for  a  special  race,  we  find  them,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  including  the  Baptist,  Congregational, 
Presbyterian,  Methodist,  and  most  of  the  Epis- 
copal societies,  having  a  more  or  less  complete 
form  of  organization.  They  have  regular 
meetings,   conferences,   or  councils  annually  or 


semi-annually,  with  permanent  officers,  treas- 
urer, secretary,  or  presiding  elder.  Action 
affecting  the  mission  as  a  whole  is  transacted  in 
these  meetings,  and  transmitted  to  the  home 
department  through  the  appropriate  office. 
Thus  the  estimates  arranged  at  the  annu^ 
meeting  are  transmitted  by  the  secretary  of  the 
mission  to  the  foreign  secretary  of  the  board; 
the  appropriations  made  by  the  board  return 
to  the  treasurer  of  the  mission,  who  keeps  all  the 
accounts. 

Stations:  This  word  also  has  varied  meanings. 
Usually  it  denotes  some  city  or  large  town  occu- 
pied by  one  or  more  missionaries,  from  which. 
the  work  extends  to  the  surrounding  territory. 
Sometimes  it  includes  the  whole  field  worked 
from  that  place  as  a  center,  but  the  restricted 
use  is  the  more  common,  and  is  that  usually 
adopted  in  this  Encyclopedia.  In  the  stations, 
too,  there  is,  as  a  rule,  some  organization,  espe- 
cially when  there  are  a  number  of  missionaries,  an 
extended  field,  and  many  departments. 

Outstations  or  Sub-stations:  These  are  places — 
sometimes  an  important  city,  more  often  a  town 
or  village — where  mission  work  is  carried  on  by 
native  workers  alone.  Usually  there  is  a  church 
or  congregation  ministered  to  by  native  preachers, 
and  the  schools  are  under  native  teachers.  It 
is  seldom  the  case  that  an  outstation  is  the 
residence  of  a  missionary.  In  the  usage  of  the 
Methodist  and  some  Baptist  boards,  however, 
there  is  really  no  distinction  between  stations  and 
outstations,  except  as  the  most  important  centers 
of  work  are  called  principal  stations  and  the 
remainder  stations;  the  missionaries  frequently 
reside  at  the  different  stations  in  turn.  They 
also  use  the  term  circuit  in  the  foreign  field  as 
at  home,  to  indicate  what  other  societies  mean 
by  station  field. 

2.  Ecclesiastical  Organization:  This  varies 
greatly  with  the  different  societies,  is  governed 
by  the  rules  of  the  denominations  at  home,  and 
follows  the  lines  of  the  three  classes  mentioned 
above.  Wherever  the  missionary  societies  are 
organically  connected  with  the  church,  the 
missions,  whether  as  Presbyterian  Synods,  Confer- 
ences, etc.,  are  organic  parts  of  the  church. 
They  are  thus  entitled  to  representation  in  the 
governing  body  of  the  church,  and  as  a  matter 
of  fact  are  usually  so  represented. 

In  the  second  class,  where  the  relation  of  the 
board  to  the  church  is  not  organic,  the  mission- 
aries are  under  the  ecclesiastical  discipline  of 
the  church  or  churches  at  home,  by  the  laws  of 
the  Society.  In  the  third  class  individual 
missionaries  are  free  to  arrange  their  own  eccle- 
siastical relations,  entirely  independent  of  the 
board. 

With  regard  to  the  native  churches,  there  is- 
a  wide  difference  of  custom.  As  a  rule  they 
follow  the  lead  of  the  missionaries,  tho,  except 
in  the  Episcopal  Churches,  there  is  no  law  gov- 
erning them;  and  there  is  a  large  liberty  left  by 
almost  all  the  societies  to  their  representatives 
in  the  field  in  regard  to  the  details  of  formal 
organization. 

B.  Administration: 

1.  Foreign  Missionaries  are  the  first  of  the 
administrative  agencies.  These  are  ordained — 
lay,  female,  and  medical. 

The  great  majority  of  foreign  missionaries 
are,  and  except  in  special  instances  always  have 
been,  ministers  regularly  ordained  according  to 
the  laws  of  the  churches  to  which  they  belonged, 


668 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Organization 


Specific  instances  in  the  history  of  the  early 
missions  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  and 
the  Moravians  of  the  sending  out  of  entirely  or 
comparatively  uneducated  parsons,  to  encounter 
the  perplexities,  trials,  and  hardships  of  mission- 
ary life,  made  it  all  the  more  evident  that  the 
rule  must  be  that  a  man  to  be  a  successful  for- 
eign missionary  must  be  a  man  of  education  and 
special  training.  This  was  for  many  years 
synonymous  with  preparation  for  the  ministry, 
and  probably  it  was  due  as  much  to  this  as  to 
the  special  work  of  preaching  that  it  became  so 
decided  a  rule  that  all  missionaries  should  be 
ordained  preachers.  There  were  instances 
where  laymen  went  out  as  printers,  but  that  was 
considered  exceptional,  and  in  some  instances 
they  afterward  received  ordination.  Another 
element  in  the  case  was  the  fact  that  the  people 
of  many  foreign  lands  could  not  understand  how 
a  man  who  was  not  a  "priest"  could  administer 
spiritual  help  and  counsel,  and  they  were  some- 
what unwilling  to  apply  to  any  one  whose  minis- 
terial status  was  not  of  the  highest.  As,  how- 
ever, missionary  work  has  developed  its  different 
departments,  as  education  in  the  home  lands  has 
become  more  general  and  in  foreign  lands  more 
exacting,  as  medical  work  opened  up,  as  the 
general  work  has  extended  to  include  publication, 
treasury  work,  etc.,  the  lay  element  in  mission 
service  became  more  prominent. 

At  the  present  time,  in  all  the  organized 
societies,  lay  missionaries  are  employed  chiefly 
as  business  agents,  printers,  instructors  in  the 
higher  schools  and  colleges,  and  in  medical  work. 
It  isincreasingly  tlie  custom  to  put  a  layman  in 
charge  of  the  treasury,  the  accounts,  and  the 
publication  work  of  the  different  missions.  In 
medical  work  it  is  becoming  increasingly  evident 
that  a  physician  who  is  to  excel  in  his  profession 
cannot  also  be  a  theologian,  and  in  his  practise 
he  finds  less  and  less  need  of  it;  indeed,  it  is  in 
many  cases  a  positive  hindrance  to  be  known 
as  a  preacher  or  priest. 
Women  missionaries  take  an  increasingly  im- 

Sortant  position,  both  in  numbers  and  in  work 
one.  Whether  as  wives  or  as  single  women,  they 
have  done  and  are  doing  some  of  the  best  work, 
both  pioneer  and  constructive,  that  is  found. 
They  are  not  always  mentioned  separately  in  the 
tables  of  statistics,  except  in  the  reports  of  the 
European  societies. 

(a)  Location:  It  has  been  the  custom  in  most 
countries  to  send  and  locate  two  or  more  mission- 
aries and  their  families  together.  The  reasons 
for  this  are  so  obvious  that  they  only  need  to  be 
mentioned:  Mutual  consultation  in  cases  of  per- 
plexity, sympathy  in  trial,  support  in  anxiety, 
social  relief  from  the  strain  of  work,  division  of 
labor.  In  much  the  same  way  as  it  has  been 
found  to  be  wise  for  missionaries,  as  a  rule,  to 
be  married,  so  it  is  wise  for  families  to  be  asso- 
ciated. When  female  missionaries,  whether  as 
teachers  or  Zenana  workers,  are  sent  out,  they 
also,  as  a  rule,  go  "two  and  two"  together,  and 
establish  a  home  of  their  own,  or  else  join  with 
the  families  of  the  stations.  Thus  a  mission 
station  almost  invariably  forms  a  social  circle 
of  educated,  refined  Christian  people,  whose 
individual  labors  are  scarcely  more  important 
than_  their  combined  power  as  a  Christian  com- 
munity. Since  the  mcrease  in  numbers  and 
importance  of  lay  workers,  there  has  risen  a 
'community"  method  of  life  which  is  somewhat 
peculiar.     Without  being  in  any  sense  monastic, 


it  seeks  to  reap  the  advantage  of  association. 
This  is  primarily  economy,  both  of  funds  and  of 
men.  Under  the  community  method  a  number 
of  lay  workers  can  be  supported  for  the  same 
sum  that  it  costs  to  maintain  a  single  missionary 
family.  Another  advantage  lies  in  the  possibility 
it  offers  of  utilizing  agencies  that  otherwise  would 
hardly  be  available.  The  China  Inland  Mission 
and  the  Salvation  Army  have  largely  adopted  it 
and  other  societies  are  considering  it. 

(6)  Manner  of  Life:  It  is  the  universal  custom 
in  foreign  missions  to  provide  for  the  mission- 
aries, so  that  their  manner  of  life  shall  differ  as 
little  as  possible  from  their  home  life.  The 
limitations  of  surrounding  customs,  etc.,  are  of 
course  considered,  and  great  expense  is  avoided; 
but  so  far  as  it  is  practicable  it  is  the  policy  of  the 
societies  to  enable  their  missionaries  to  have  such 
comforts  as  a  family  in  moderate  circumstances 
is  accustomed  to  have  at  home.  These  are : 
a  substantial,  healthy,  dwelling  comfortably 
furnished;  clothing  and  food  adapted  to  the 
climate  and  their  habits  of  life;  service  sufficient 
to  enable  them  to  give  their  whole  time  to  the 
mission  work,  so  much  of  adornment  of  the 
home  as  shall  make  it  home-like.  It  is  primarily 
a  question  of  economy.  To  send  a  man  or  a 
man  and  wife  to  Africa,  India,  or  Japan,  and 
compel  them  to  live  as  the  natives  do,  would, 
in  the  immense  majority  of  cases,  doom  them 
to  early  death,  or  at  least  to  permanent  disability. 
It  pays  for  a  mission  board  to  keep  its  mission- 
aries in  good  health.  But  there  is  an  additional 
reason.  With  rare  exceptions,  a  missionary 
has  influence  in  proportion  as  he  preserves  his 
own  individuality.  In  pioneer  work  it  may  be 
wise  to  conform  to  the  customs  of  the  land,  and 
sink  the  foreigner  in  the  native;  but  after  hia 
position  is  once  established,  the  rule  is  that  his 
own  national  and  racial  individuality  should 
assert  itself.  This  is  matter  of  experience,  as 
well  as  of  theory;  and  notwithstanding  the 
constant  reappearance  of  the  other  idea,  it  has 
a  stronger  hold  to-day  than  ever  before. 

(c)  Method  of  Support:  This  is  usually  by  a 
fixed  allowance,  arranged  either  by  or  in  con- 
sultation with  the  missionaries  themselves,  and 
graded  according  to  circumstances  of  location 
or  of  family.  The  basis  is  an  adequate  support 
from  year  to  year  for  the  missionary  and  his 
family,  without  accumulating  property. 

(d)  Vacations:  It  is  the  custom  in  most  if  not 
all  missionary  societies  to  allow  the  missionaries 
to  return  to  the  homeland  once  in  a  certain 
number  of  years.  This,  too,  is  the  result  of 
experience,  and  is  found  to  be  economy  in  the 
long  run.  It  is  needful  for  the  missionaries: 
first,  for  rest  from  the  unintermitting  strains 
of  missionary  life;  second,  for  recuperation  by 
contact  with  vigorous  life,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  retaining  a  sympathetic  relation  with  the 
churches;  third,  for  the  care  of  children  and 
arrangements  for  their  education. 

2.  Native  Workers:  These  constitute  natu- 
rally the  great  body  of  the  working  force.  Not 
only  is  it  impossible,  but  it  is  undesirable,  for 
the  missionary  to  undertake  to  do  all  the  work 
of  his  field.  His  chief  aim,  next  to  the  conver- 
sion of  individual  souls,  is  the  establishment  of 
the  Christian  Church  on  its  own  distinct  basis, 
with  all  its  different  departments.  As  soon  as 
there  are  converts  they  are  utilized  as  workers, 
each  with  some  responsible  share  in  the  work  of 
the  missionary, — at  first  as  Bible-readers;  then 


Or|?anlzation 
Ouaka 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


564 


as  cateohists,  teachers,  preachers;  and  at  last  as 
pastors,  in  full  charge  of  the  general  work  of  an 
organized  body  of  believers.  The  missionary  is 
the  organizer  and  superintendent,  and  thus,  in  a 
degree,  director;  yet  those  who  in  a  sense  work 
under  him  still  work  with  him,  and  follow  him 
as  leader,  rather  than  obey  him  as  master.  It 
has  been  the  custom  of  many  missionary  societies 
to  keep  the  missionary  and  native  force  entirely 
distinct.  This  has  been  due  not  to  any  lack  of 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  native  work,  or  to 
any  desire  to  exalt  the  missionary,  but  rather  to 
the  feeling  that  it  was  not  advantageous  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  best  development  of  the 
native  churches  to  a  position  of  independence  of 
all  missionary  direction  and  assistance.  In  those 
societies  where  the  work  is  but  the  extension  of 
the  home  church  this  becomes  less  noticeable, 
and  in  them  it  is  frequently  the  case  that  native 
clergy  are  placed  on  the  same  official  basis  as  the 
missionary.  A  marked  instance  of  the  success  of 
this  is  the  great  work  done  by  Bishop  Crowther 
of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  in  Africa.  In 
every  case  there  is  the  fullest  mutual  consultation 
not  only  in  regard  to  plans,  but  estimates;  and 
it  is  very  seldom  a  step  is  taken  by  the  missions 
without  the  full  concurrence  of  the  native 
workers. 

The  question  of  their  support  is  one  of  varying 
difficulty  in  different  fields.  At  first  it  is  usually 
assumed  by  the  mission,  but  as  the  churches 
grow  they  are  urged  to  take  the  entire  support  of 
their  preachers  and  teachers,  and  also  of  those 
who  do  the  aggressive  work.  In  some  missions 
the  custom  is  adopted  of  requiring  that  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  pastor's  salary  be  met  by  the 
people  before  they  can  have  a  distinct  organiza- 
tion. There  is,  however,  no  rule,  different  arrange- 
ments being  made  according  to  circumstances 
of  time,  place,  and  condition  of  the  people.  In 
the  older-established  communities  in  many 
cases  the  entire  running  expenses  of  preaching 
and  teaching  are  met  by  the  nalive  churches, 
the  mission  only  assuming  the  support  of  those 
engaged  in  distinctively  mission  work,  e.g., 
Bible,  book,  and  tract  translation,  oolportage, 
etc.  Even  this  work  is  in  some  cases  assumed 
by  native  organizations,  such  as  the  Bulgarian 
Evangelical  Alliance,  the  Church  Councils  of 
Travancore,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  etc.  In  some  countries, 
notably  in  Japan,  the  churches  commence  their 
life  with  a  good  degree  of  self-support,  and 
such  an  organization  as  the  United  Church  of 
Christ  in  Japan  is  a  wonderful  power  for  good, 
by  reason  of  its  development  of  native  workers, 
identified  with  the  native  church. 

Innumerable  questions  come  up  in  this  con- 
nection with  regard  to  the  amount  of  education 
to  be  given,  the  salaries  to  be  paid,  etc.,  which 
can  only  have  a  mention  here,  with  the  simple 
s+atement  that  whatever  rules  are  adopted  by 
different  societies  working  in  different  fields, 
they  all  have  one  specific  end  in  view — the  train- 
ing up,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  but  not  too  hastily, 
of  a  body  of  workers  native  to  the  land  and  in 
perfect  sympathy  with  their  churches,  so  that 
in  due  time  the  foreign  element  may  retire  and 
take  up  other  work,  confident  that  the  church 
thus  left  dependent  upon  itself  will  grow  stronger 
rather  than  weaker,  until  it  becomes  able  to 
itself  cope  with  the  problems  of  Christ's  kingdom 
in  its  own  land.     (See  Native  Agency,) 

The    classification   of  native    workers   is   not 


essentially  different  from  that  of  Christian 
workers  in  America  or  Europe.  Pastors,  preach- 
ers, evangelists,  catechists,  colporteurs,  Bible- 
readers,  teachers,  are  essentially  the  same,  and 
have  similar  duties  and  relations  wherever  they 
are  found. 

ORISSA:  One  of  the  subdivisions  of  the 
lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  India.  It 
constitutes  the  southwestern  part  of  Bengal. 
The  area  is  9,841  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion (1901),  4,343,150.  Several  tributary  states 
lie  adjacent  to  the  territory  now  described,  and 
are  under  the  political  supervision  of  the  Orissa 
officials.  The  area  of  these  is  15,187  square 
miles,  and  the  population  about  a  million  and  a 
half,  largely  consisting  of  aboriginal  tribes.  This 
native  district  occupies  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  territory,  a  hilly  region,  with  a  sparse  popula- 
tion. British  Orissa  consists  largely  of  fertile 
alluvial  plains  formed  out  of  the  deltas  of  three 
large  rivers — the  Mahanadi  on  the  south,  the 
Baitarani  on  the  north,  and  the  Brahmani  be- 
tween them.  The  people  are  almost  exclusively 
agriculturists;  rice  is  the  staple  food.  Over  95 
per  cent,  of  them  are  Hindus  and  only  2i  per  cent 
Mohammedans.  The  number  of  aborigines  in 
British  Orissa  is  over  130,000,  most  of  them 
being  included  among  the  Hindus;  only  about 
7,000  still  practise  their  ancient  aboriginal 
religion.  Of  the  million  and  a  half  in  the  tribu- 
tary states  a  fraction  less  than  75  per  cent,  are 
Hindus,  and  a  fraction  less  than  25  per  cent,  are 
aborigines,  many  of  whom  have  professed 
Hinduism  tho  still  holding  to  many  of  the  cus- 
toms of  spirit-worship.  The  most  important  of 
these  aboriginal  tribes  are  the  Kandhs,  the 
Savars,  the  Gonds,  the  Bhumijs, '  he  Bhuiyas,  and 
the  Pans;  there  are  also  some  Kols  andSantals, 
who  are  more  numerous  elsewhere.  Some  of  the 
larger  tribes  also  spread  beyond  the  borders  of 
Orissa  into  adjacent  districts  of  the  Central  Prov- 
inces or  the  Madras  Presidency.  A  few  Moham- 
medans, Buddhists,  and  Christians  make  up  the 
rest  of  the  population.  The  aborigines — it  need 
hardly  be  said — for  the  most  part  cling  to  the  hills, 
while  the  Hindus  inhabit  the  valleys  lying 
between.  It  was  among  the  Kandhs  that  the 
practise  of  semi-annual  human  sacrifices  to  their 
ear'h-god  prevailed,  until  the  entrance  of  the 
British  authority  in  1835  put  a  stop  to  it.  Kid- 
naping for  sacrifice — for  the  victims  were  usu- 
ally obtained  by  raids  among  the  quiet  inhabit- 
ants of  the  valleys — was  then  made  a  capital 
offense;  and  the  Kandh  priests  were  induced  to 
substitute  buffalos  for  human  beings  in  their 
sacrificial  rites.  The  Kandhs  are  finely  devel- 
oped and  intelligent  specimens  of  humanity,  pos- 
sessing capabilities  which  it  may  be  confidently 
believed  will  before  long  be  fully  brought  out  by 
Christian  education.  The  language  of  Orissa 
among  the  Hindus  is  the  TJriya,  an  Aryan  dialect 
closely  related  to  the  Bengali;  sometimes  it  has 
been  classed  simply  as  a  dialect  of  that  tongue, 
but  the  latest  scholars  regard  it  as  distinct. 
Among  the  aboriginal  tribes  different  languages 
prevail;  those  of  the  Kandhs  and  the  Gonds 
belong  to  the  Dravidian  family  of  South  India. 
The  Kols,  Santals,  and  Bhumijs  speak  languages 
of  the  Kolarian  family.  Many  dialects  are  in  use 
by  as  many  distinct  tribes  inhabiting  Orissa  and 
other  regions. 

Brahmanical  records  in  the  Great  Temple  of 
Jagannath  profess  to  trace  the  chronology  of  the 
earliest  Hindu  kings  of  Orissa  to  the  year  1807 


666 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Or^anixatfon 
Osaka, 


B.  c.  Little  reliance  can  be  put  upon  these  dates, 
but  this  much  they  malce  clear,  that  for  many 
centuries  before  Christ  Orissa  was  governed  by 
Hindu  rulers.  Doubtless  it  was  under  these 
kings  that  the  Kols,  Gonds,  Santals,  and  Kandhs 
were  pushed  back  from  the  plains  to  the  moun- 
tains. Then  from  about  500  B.  c.  to  the  Chris- 
tian era  is  the  period  of  Buddhist  development 
and  dominion.  Buddhist  caves,  dug  out  during 
this  period,  probably  (tho  some  assign  a  date  as 
low  as  1000)  still  exist  at  Raninur.  Then  followed 
the  period  of  the  Yavana  invasions,  tho  just  who 
the  Yavanas  were  is  not  fully  settled.  They 
came,  however,  from  some  northern  quarter. 
They  were  at  last  expelled,  and  Orissa  was  gov- 
erned by  two  successive  Hindu  dynasties  from 
the  5th  century  of_  our  era  until  well  on  into  the 
16th.  The  worship  of  Jagannath,  which,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  had  long  been  practised  in 
Orissa,  was  restored,  after  the  Buddhist  and 
Yavana  eras,  by  one  of  these  dynasties,  and 
the  present  Great  Temple  at  Puri  built  by  the 
other,  in  the  12th  century.  During  the  16th 
century  the  Mohammedans  came,  and  Orissa 
became  a  part  of  the  Mogul  Empire  of  Delhi.  In 
the  18th  century,  when  the  Mogul  power  faded 
before  the  rising  Marathas,  the  latter  ruled  for  a 
time  over  this  province.  From  them  it  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1803. 

The  Hindus  of  Orissa  are  excessively  religious. 
Temples  and  shrines  abound.  But  the  chief  one, 
and  one  of  the  most  famous  in  all  India,  is  the 
one  sacred  to  Jagannath  ("Lord  of  the  World," 
one  of  the  titles  of  Vishnu),  at  Puri.  To  this 
temple  300,000  pilgrims  have  been  known  to 
come  in  one  year.  The  great  Car  Festival  alone 
sometimes  draws  to  it  as  many  as  a  third  of  that 
number.  The  government  has  done  all  in  its 
power  to  prevent  the  outbreak  and  spread  of 
disease  among  these  crowds,  and  to  enable  the 
pilgrims  to  reach  home  safely.  With  Western 
people  the  general  idea  of  this  great  festival  is 
associated  with  that  of  the  self-immolation  of 
devotees  under  the  wheels  of  Jagannath's  car  as 
it  is  dragged  from  the  temple  to  the  "Summer- 
house"  of  the  god,  a  mile  away.  The  descrip- 
tions of  these  religious  suicides  have  been  exag- 
gerated. The  cult  of  Jagannath  is  opposed  to 
the  sacrifice  of  life,  tho  probably  some  devotees  in 
moments  of  religious  frenzy  have  caused  them- 
selves thus  to  be  destroyed.  But  self-immolation 
during  recent  years  may  be  said  to  be  almost 
wholly  unknown.  The  long  traditional  connec- 
tion of  Jagannath  with  Orissa  helps  to  make  his 
worship  popular  within  the  province  itself;  the 
popularity  of  it  beyond  the  limits  of  Orissa  is 
maintained,  and  within  the  province  is  still 
further  helped  by  the  fact  that  he  is  represented 
as  a  god  of  the  people,  without  reference  to  caste 
or  sect;  he  is  the  "Lord  of  the  World."  In 
short,  the  religious  peculiarities  of  Orissa  are  of 
the  utmost  in+erest;  the  Jagannath  worship 
involves  some  of  the  noblest  as  well  as  some  of  the 
inost  corrupting  features  of  Hinduism;  and  its 
historic  development  is  associated  with  the  mem- 
ory of  some  of  the  noblest  souls  in  all  the  annals 
of  Hindustan. 

Owing  to  the  exposed  situation  of  Orissa  it  suf- 
fers occasionally  from  inundations  from  the  sea. 
Vast  tidal  waves,  impelled  by  the  tremendous 
cyclones  which  sweep  at  times  over  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  accompanied  often  by  heavy  falls  of  rain 
which  aggravate  the  disaster  by  swelling  the 
rivers,   will   devastate   several   hundred   square 


miles  of  low-lying  territory,  and  cause  enormous; 
destruction  of  life  and  property. 

The  Baptist  missionaries  at  Serampore  under- 
took, previous  to  the  year  1820,  evangelistic  work 
in  Orissa,  but  they  withdrew  in  favor  of  the- 
General  Baptist  Society  (formed  in  England  in 
1816),  which  began  work  in  this  province  in  1822. 
Cuttack,  the  chief  city,  was  first  occupied,  and 
later  Puri,  the  seat  of  Jagannath's  temple  and 
worship.  The  BMS  now  carries  on  work  in  these 
and  three  other  stations.  The  American  Free  Bap- 
tist Missionary  Society  entered  the  northern  part 
of  Orissa  in  1835,  and  now  (1900)  has  seven 
stations  in  that  part  of  Bengal.  The  two  Bap- 
tist societies,  together,  have  in  Orissa  about 
8,000  professed  Christian  adherents,  including 
church  members. 

ORIZABA:  A  town  in  Mexico,  situated  in  the 
state  of  Vera  Cruz,  78  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Puebla. 
Altitude,  4,200  feeo.  Population  (1900),  31,512. 
StaLion  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  woman  mission- 
ary, 19  native  workers,  358  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  233  are  communicants;  9  places  of  wor- 
ship, 9  Sunday  schools,  and  7  day  schools.  Sta- 
tion of  the  PB,  with  (1900)  3  missionaries  and 
their  wives  and  1  printing  house. 

OROKOLO :  A  settlement  in  the  Elema  district 
of  British  New  Guinea.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1893),  with  1  missionary  and  8  native  workers. 

GRURO:  A  town  in  Bolivia,  capital  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Oruro;  formerly  capital  of  the  republic; 
situated  155  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  E.  of  La  Paz.  It 
is  the  center  of  a  tin  and  silver  mining  district. 
Population,  8,500.  Altitude,  12,117  feet.  Sta- 
tion of  the  BOQ  (1898),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, one  with  his  wife;  1  woman  missionary,  and 
1  day  school.  The  first  Protestant  church  in 
Bolivia  was  organized  here  in  1902. 

OSAKA:  One  of  the  large  cities  of  Japan,  sit- 
uated on  the  main  island,  25  miles  southwest  of 
Kioto.  It  is  one  of  the  three  imperial  cities;  is 
well  built  and  clean,  and  is  the  center  of  large  tea 
districts.  A  government  college  and  academy 
are  located  here.  The  climate  is  mild.  Popu- 
lation (1898),  821,235.  Its  importance  as  a 
center  of  influence  has  been  fully  recognized  by 
the  missionary  societies,  of  which  eight  are  repre- 
sented in  the  city.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1872), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  3  women  mission- 
aries, 3  native  workers,  10  outstations,  14  places 
of  worship,  20  Sunday  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
1  dispensary,  and  1  printing  house.  Station  also 
of  the  CMS  (1874),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries, 
four  of  them  with  their  wives ;  6  women  mission- 
aries, 17  native  workers,  4  places  of  worship,  3 
day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  745  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  305  are  communi- 
cants. Station  also  of  the  Cumberland  Presby- 
terians (1880),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  with 
their  wives,  2  women  missionaries,  16  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  14  places  of  worship,  4 
Sunday  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  214  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Station  also  of  the  PN  (1881), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missonaries,  9  native  workers,  2  outstations,  3 
places  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  boarding  school, 
1  kindergarten.  Station  also  of  the  MES  (1890), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  3  places  of  worship,  4 
Sunday  schools,  and  121  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  ABMU  (1892),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women  mission- 
aries, 3  native  workers,  10  outstations,  14  places 


Osborn 
Fahandut 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


666 


of  worship,  20  Sunday  schools,  and  1  printing 
house.  Station  also  of  the  FCMS  (1899),  with 
(1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 6  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of 
worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  1 
kindergarten,  and  43  professed  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  PE,  with  (1903)  3  native  workers, 
3  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  2  day 
schools,  and  230  professed  Christians. 

OSBORN:  A  station  of  the  South  Africa  Wes- 
leyan  Methodist  Mission  Society,  situated  in 
Griqualand  East,  Cape  Colony,  about  8  miles  S. 
E.  of  Mount  Frere.  It  has  (1900)  1  missionary, 
68  native  workers,  13  places  of  worship,  11  Sun- 
day school,  14  day  schools,  1  industrial  school, 
and  942  professed  Christians. 

OSCARSBERG:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  Africa, 
situated  42  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Ladysmith.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Church  of  Sweden  Mission  (1878), 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  2 
women  missionaries,  7  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations,  2  places  of  worship,  3  day  schools,  and 
140  professed  Christians. 

OSGOOD,  Dauphin  WilUam:  Born  at  Nelson, 
N.  H.,  November  5,  1845;  studied  medicine  at 
Brunswick,  Me.,  and  Lowell,  Mass.,  graduating  at 
the  University  of  New  York  in  1869;  sailed  as  a 
medical  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  for  Fuchau, 
China,  December,  1869.  He  soon  mastered  the 
intricacies  of  the  Chinese  language,  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  both  the  Mandarin  and  local  dia- 
lects. One  of  his  earliest  efforts  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Fuchau  Medical  Missionary  Hos- 
pital. During  the  ten  years  of  its  existence  medi- 
cal aid  was  given  gratuitously  to  51,838  patients 
among  the  poorer  classes.  He  established  also 
in  connection  with  the  mission  an  asylum  for  the 
victims  of  opium,  and  in  two  years  1 ,500  patients 
received  treatment,  a  large  number  of  whom  were 
cured.  He  was  frequently  called  as  a  consulting 
physician  by  his  medical  confreres. 

Every  hour  he  could  spare  from  the  active 
duties  of  his  profession  for  the  last  four  years  of 
his  life  was  devoted  to  the  translation  into  Chinese 
of  a  standard  work  on  anatomy.  The  finishing 
touches  were  put  to  it  only  on  the  day  before  his 
death.  The  work  has  been  published  in  five 
volumes,  illustrated  by  numerous  plates.  It  is 
the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  Chinese  language,  and 
has  been  much  used  in  China. 

He  died  at  the  sanitarium  near  Fuchau  August 
17,  1880. 

OSHIMA:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  Kiu- 
shiu  Island,  about  10  miles  E.  of  Nagasaki.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Scandinavian  Alliance  Mission,  with 
(1900)  1  woman  missionary. 

OSMANLI  TURKISH:  The  Western  dialect  of 
the  Turkish  language  as  distinguished  from  the 
Eastern.  It  is  used  in  Turkey,  and  the  Eastern 
dialects,  of  which  the  Jagatai  is  the  type,  are  Used 
by  Turks  of  the  main  stock  in  Central  Asia.  The 
term  Osmanli  Turkish  is  needlesslv  used  by  some 
also  to  distinguish  the  Turkish  language  when 
written  with  the  Arabic  letters  from  the  same 
written  with  other  letters.  See  Turkish  Lan- 
guage. 

OSSETIAN  LANGUAGE :  The  language  of  some 
of  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  Caucasus  region  of  the 
Russian  Empire.  It  belongs  to  the  Iranic  group 
of  the  Aryan  family  of  languages.  It  has  no 
alphabet  of  its  own,  but  has  been  written  with 
Georgian  and  also  with  Russian  (Cyrillian)  letters. 


There  are  three  recognized  dialects,  and  probably 
more  than  three. 

OSTYAK  LANGUAGE:  The  language  of  a  peo- 
ple found  in  Western  Siberia  in  the  provinces  of 
Tomsk,  adjoining  the  Altai  Mountains,  and 
Tobolsk,  lying  E.  of  the  Ural  range.  It  belongs 
to  the  Finnic  or  Ugrian  branch  of  the  Ural-Altaic 
family  of  languages  and  has  been  written  with 
Russian  (Cyrillian)  letters. 

OTAKI  DISTRICT:  A  post  in  New  Zealand,  on 
the  W.  coast  of  North  Island,  about  45  miles  N. 
N.  E.  of  Wellington.  Population,  1,500.  Here 
the  CMS  has  (1903)  1  missionary,  14  native  work- 
ers, 1  day  school  and  1,297  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  235  are  communicants. 

OTJIHAENENA.     See  Otyihabnena. 

OTJIMBINGUE.     See  Otyimbingue. 

OTJOSAZU.     See  OTYOSAzn. 

OTJOZONDJUPA.     See  Otyondyupa. 

OTYIHAENENA:  A  village  in  German  South- 
west Africa,  situated  in  the  Herero  country,  about 
230  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Swakopmund.  Station  of 
the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  12  native  workers, 
6  outstations,  6  day  schools  and  481  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  113  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Otjihaenena. 

OTYIMBINGUE :  A  mission  station  of  the  Rhen- 
ish Missionary  Society  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  on  the  railway  about  110  miles 
E.  N.  E.  of  Swakopmund,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  1  outstation, 
1  day  school,  1  Sunday  school  and  764  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  476  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Otjimbingue. 

OTYONDYUPA :  A  settlement  in  German  South- 
west Africa,  situated  in  the  Herero  district, 
about  230  miles  N.  E.  of  Swakopmund.  Station 
of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  7  native  workers,  6 
outstations,  7  day  schools,  and  319  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  131  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Otjozondjupa. 

OTYOSAZU:  A  village  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  in  the  territory  of  the  Herero 
tribes,  about  180  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Swakopmund. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  9  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  4  day  schools,  and  537 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  168  are  com- 
municants. The  Society  writes  the  name 
Otjosazu. 

OUDH:  Formerly  an  independent  native  king- 
dom, annexed  by  England  in  1856.  Now  a  part  of 
the  United  Provinces. 

OUGAVIGAMUTE:  A  settlement  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  Alaska,  situated  on  the  Kuskokvim  River, 
about  125  miles  from  its  mouth.  Station  of  the 
Moravian  Mission  (1892),  with  (1901)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  60  professed  Christians. 
The  name  is  sometimes  written  Ugavigamiut. 

OURO  PRETO :  A  town  and  railway  station  of 
Brazil,  capital  of  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes,  situ- 
ated 180  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The 
city  is  overlooked  by  the  double  peaked  Itacolunii. 
It  owes  its  origin  to  gold  deposits  discovered  in 
1698.  Population,  20,000.  Station  of  the 
"Help  for  Brazil"  Mission. 

OWEN,  Joseph:  Born  at  Bedford,  New  York, 


•667 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Osborn 
Palian<!nt 


June  14,  1814;  graduated  at  Princeton  College, 
1835,  and  theological  seminary  1839;  ordained  as 
an  evangelist  by  the  Presbytery  of  Westchester 
October  2,  1839;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the  PN 
for  India,  August  5,  1840.  Most  of  his  life  was 
spent  at  Allahabad  (1840-68).  His  labors,  like 
those  of  most  missionaries  in  India,  were  various 
— preaching,  teaching,  translating,  and  revising 
former  translations  of  the  Scriptures,  and  prepar- 
ing commentaries  on  different  books  of  the  Bible. 
He  was  president  of  the  Allahabad  Missionary 
College,  and  professor  in  the  Allahabad  Theolog- 
ical Seminary.  After  28  years  of  continuous 
labor  he  left  in  ill  health  for  America  via  Scotland, 
intending,  after  spending  a  few  days  in  Edinburgh, 
to  visit  his  native  land,  and  then  return  to  India, 
but  died  in  Edinburgh  December  4,  1870.  He 
took  high  rank  as  a  scholar.  When  he  left  India 
he  had  just  completed  a  second  revision  and 
edition  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hindi  and  a  com- 
mentary on  Isaiah  in  Hindustani  for  the  Ameri- 
can Tract  Society.  He  wrote  a  new  translation 
of  the  Psalms  in  Hindustani  and  several  com- 
mentaries in  the  same  language. 

OXFORD  MISSION  TO  CALCUTTA:  Head- 
quarters, Calcutta,  India.  The  mission  was 
founded  in  1880  in  answer  to  an  appeal  from 
the  Bishop  of  Calcutta  to  the  University  of 
Oxford  to  "send  out  men  to  work  among  the 
natives  of  that  city  who  have  received  or  are 
receiving  the  advantages  of  the  system  of  educa- 
tion provided  by  the  English  Government."  The 
form  selected  for  the  mission  was  that  which  was 
suggested  by  the  late  Bishop  Douglas  of  Bombay 
— that  of  a  "missionary  brotherhood."  It  was 
decided,  therefore,  that  the  Oxford  Mission  should 


form  a  community  under  a  superior,  altho  its 
members  would  not  be  bound  by  any  vows  for 
hfe,  but  would  be  allowed  to  withdraw  at  pleas- 
ure. The  rules  of  the  community  were  tested  by 
two  years'  work  in  Calcutta,  after  which  ihe 
bishop  incorporated  the  first  members  of  "The 
Oxford  Brotherhood  of  the  Epiphany." 

The  mission  consists  of  8  ordained  and  2  unor- 
dained  members,  all  Oxford  University  men,  who 
carry  on  work  in  Calcutta  and  Patna,  in  three 
lines: 

1.  Interviews  with  the  natives,  lectures,  and 
discussions.  2.  The  conduct  of  a  school  for 
native  Christian  boys.  3.  The  editing  of  a 
weekly  paper  called  The  Epiphany,  in  which  free 
discussion  of  all  religious  questions  is  carried  on 
between  members  of  the  mission  and  inquirers. 
The  brotherhood  also  undertakes  special  work  in 
India,  for  which  funds  are  provided  by  the  SPG. 
There  is  also  a  Ladies'  Association,  organized  in 
1887,  in  aid  of  the  Oxford  Mission. 

OYO:  A  town  in  West  Africa,  situated  180 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Lagos,  in  the  Yoruba  counlrv. 
Population  about  50,000.  Station  of  the  CMS, 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his 
wife;  3  women  missionaries,  3  native  workers,  2 
day  schools,  1  theological  class,  and  142  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  50  are  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  SBC,  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  4  native  workers,  2  places 
of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  43 
professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  WMS, 
with  (1903)  10  native  workers,  6  Sunday  schools, 
5  day  schools,  and  176  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  150  are  commimicants.  Some  write  the 
name  Awyaw. 


PABALLONG:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  Africa, 
situated  in  Griqualand  East,  near  the  border  of 
Basutoland,  and  about  15  miles  S.  of  Matatiela. 
Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary 
Society  (1876),  with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  12  native  workers,  7  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  Sunday  school,  5  day  schools,  and  365 
professed  Christians. 

PABNA:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated  75 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Dacca.  It  has  a  large  indigo 
factory.  Population,  16,500,  of  whom  6,400  are 
Hindus  and  9,000  Mohammedans.  Station  of 
the  Furreedpore  Mission  (1890),  with  (1901)  2 
missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 7  native  workers,  4  day  schools,  and  1  . 
place  of  worship. 

PA-CHAU:  Atown  in  the  province  of  Sze-chwan, 
China,  situated  150  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Chung-king- 
fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1887),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  3  women  missionaries,  2 
native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  47  professed  Christians. 

PACHUCA:  A  mining  town  in  the  State  of 
Hidalgo,  Mexico,  about  56  miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of 
Mexico  City.  Silver  mines  were  worked  here 
before  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  silver  has  been 
extracted  almost  continuously  ever  since.  The 
mines  of  Pachuca  and  the  neighboring  Real  del 


Monte  produce  one-sixth  of  the  aggregate  silver 
mined  m  the  year  in  the  whole  country.  Sta- 
tion of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  women  missionaries,  30  native  workers,  5 
outstations,  8  places  of  worship,  9  Sunday 
schools,  9  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and 
1,494  professed  Christians,  of  whom  508  are  com- 
municants. 

PADANG:  A  town  in  Sumatra,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  on  the  W.  coast.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife  and  64  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  59  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  1  he 
Seventh  Day  Adventists  (1900),  with  (1900)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  boarding  school. 

PAGODA  ANCHORAGE:  A  seaport  in  the 
province  of  Fo-kien,  China,  situated  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  erf  the  Min  River, 
about  18  miles  E.  of  Fu-chau.  Station  of  1he 
ABCFM  (1890),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  60  native  workers,  30  outstations,  30 
places  of  worship,  30  Sunday  schools,  26  day 
schools,  3  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital, and  501  professed  Christians. 

PAHANDUT:  A  village  in  Southern  Borneo, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  about  95  miles  N.  W. 
of  Banjermassin.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mis- 
sion   Society,    with     (1903)    1    missionary   and 


Paharl 
Papeete 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


56S 


his  wife,  3  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  day 
school,  and  75  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
34  are  communicants. 

PAHARI.     See  Santals. 

PAKHOI:  A  town  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Tonkin,  Kwan-tung,  China;  is  a  treaty  port,  with 
a  population  of  25,000.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1886),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  4  women  missionaries,  12  native  workers, 
2  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary,  1 
hospital,  1  lepers'  asylum,  and  173  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  72  are  communicants. 

PAKOKKTJ:  A  town  in  Upper  Burma,  India, 
capital  of  the  district  of  Pak:okku,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Irawadi,  20  miles  N.  E.  of  Pagan. 
Population,  20,000,  of  whom  18,400  are  Bud- 
dhists. Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 19  native  workers,  7  outstations,  7  Sun- 
day schools,  6  day  schools,  and  60  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  51  are  communicanis. 

PAKAUR:  A  town  and  railway  station  in 
Bengal,  India,  situated  in  the  E.  of  the  Santal 
Parganas,  about  160  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Calcutta. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  18  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 

6  Sunday  schools,  5  day  schools,  and  279  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  79  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Pakur. 

PAK0R.     See  Pakaue. 

PALABALA:  A  village  in  the  Congo  Free  State, 
West  Africa,  110  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Congo  River,  and  a  few  miles  from  the  left  bank 
of  the  Congo  River,  near  Matadi.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1878),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  2  of 
them  with  their  wives;  12  native  workers,  7  out- 
stations, 3  places  of  worship,  7  day  schools,  and 
800  professed  Christians,  of  whom  324  are  com- 
municants. 

PALAKONDA:  A  town  of  Madras,  India,  sit- 
uated 70  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Vizagapatam.  Popu- 
lation, 10,400,  of  whom  10,100  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  Canada  Baptist  Convention  of  the 
Maritime  Provinces  (1892),  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  3  native  workers. 

PALAMKOTTA:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated about  5  miles  E.  of  Tinnevelli.  Population, 
5,000.     Station  of  the  CMS  (1820),  with  (1903) 

7  missionaries,  5  of  them  with  their  wives;  6 
women  missionaries,  4  boarding  schools,  1  theo- 
logical class,  1  college,  462  day  schools,  861 
native  workers,  and  54,970  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  13,439  are  communicants  (including 
the  district  of  Tinnevelli  Church  Council).  Sta- 
tion of  the  CEZ  (1881),  with  (1903)  5  women 
missionaries,  66  native  workers,  3  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispens- 
ary, and  1,139  Zenana  pupils.  Some  write  the 
name  Palamcotta. 

PALANI.     See  Palni. 
PALAPYE     See  Rows. 
PALESTINE.     See  Syria. 

PALGHAT:  A  town  in  the  Malabar  district, 
Madras,  30  miles  south-southwest  of  Coimbatore, 
68  miles  east  of  Calicut,  in  a  famous  pass  of  the 
Western  Ghats.  Has  a  large  trade  and  active 
manufactures.  Population,  39,500,  of  whom 
33,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  Basel  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1858),  with  (1903)  3  mission- 
aries, 2  of  them  with  their  wives;  27  native 
workerB,  5  outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  5  day 


schools,  and  443  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
248  are  communicants. 

PALI  LANGUAGE :  One  of  the  Indio  group  of 
the  Aryan  family  of  languages.  It  is  the  fen- 
guage  of  Buddhistic  sacred  literature  in  Ceylon 
and  Farther  India,  and  is  written  with  various 
local  characters.  It  is  classed  as  an  old  collo- 
quial Prakrit,  as  contrasted  with  the  literary  or 
Sanskrit,  but  it  is  not  now  colloquial  in  the 
lands  where  it  is  cultivated  in  literature. 

PALIPI:  A  village  in  the  Toba  Lake  region  of 
Sumatra,  Dutch  East  Indies.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  day  school,  and  7  professed  Christians. 

PALKONDA.     See  Palakonda. 

PALLAM.  A  town  of  Travancore,  India,  sit- 
uated about  4  miles  S.  W.  of  Kottayam.  Station 
of  the  CMS  (1845),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  43  native  workers,  11  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  and,  in  the  district  including  Kot- 
tayam, 188  native  workers,  90  day  schools,  and 
20,645  professed  Christians,  of  whom  5,194  are 
communicants. 

PALMANER:  Town  in  North  Arcot,  Madras, 
India,  near  the  summit  of  the  Magli  Pass,  2,247 
feet  above  the  sea  and  115  miles  W.  of  Madras. 
A  healthy  station,  10°  cooler  than  the  rest  of  the 
district.  Population,  1,931.  There  is  a  busy 
trade.  Station  of  the  RCA  (1857),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  16 
native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  4  Sunday 
schools,  2  day  schools,  1  theological  class,  and 
145  professed  Christians,  of  whom  61  are  com- 
municants. 

PALMIETFONTEIN:  A  settlement  in  the  Klip- 
plaat  region  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  situated 
about  54  miles  S.  W.  of  GraaS  Reinet.  Station 
of  the  Hannover  Lutheran  Free  Church  Mission 
Society  (1896),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  4  native  workers,  4  outstations,  5  places  of 
worship,  5  day  schools,  and  1,500  professed 
Christians. 

PALMUR:  A  town  in  the  native  state  of 
Haidarabad,  India,  situated  about  63  miles  S.  W. 
of  the  city  of  Haidarabad.  Climate  healthy  but 
hot.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1885),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  29  native  workers,  5- 
outstations,  10  places  of  worship,  14  Sunday 
schools,  10  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  and  851  communicant 
Christians. 

PALNI:  A  municipality  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated about  28  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Dindigal.  Pop- 
ulation, 16,900,  of  whom  15,000  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1862),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  34  native  workers,  12 
outstations,  10  places  of  worship,  11  Sunday 
schools,  9  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  169 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Palani. 

PALWAL:  A  municipality  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
in  the  district  of  Gurgaon,  33  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Delhi.  It  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  is  said  tO' 
have  been  restored  by  Vikramaditya  in  57  B.  C 
Population,  11,200,  of  whom  7,400  are  Hindus; 
and  3,700  are  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the 
BZM_(1891),  with  (1903)  6  women  missionaries, 
7  native  workers,  4  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools, 
1  industrial  school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and 
84   Zenana   pupils.     Station    also   of   the    BMS 


569 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Paharl 
Papeete 


(1895),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  8  native  workers,  3  outstations,  6  Sunday 
schools,  3  day  schools,  3  dispensaries,  and  120 
professed  Christiana,  of  whom  59  are  commmii- 
cants. 

PANADURE:  A  village  in  the  Western  Province 
of  Ceylon,  India,  situated  on  the  W.  coast  about 
15  miles  S.  of  Colombo.  Station  of  the  WMS, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  20  native  workers,  7 
places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  5  day 
schools,  and  145  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
126  are  communicants. 

PANAIETI:  An  island  of  the  D'Entrecasteaux 
group  in  Malaysia,  lying  about  40  miles  S.  E.  of 
tiie  extreme  eastern  point  of  New  Guinea.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis- 
sion, with  (1901)  1  missionary,  5  native  workers, 

6  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  5  day 
schools,  and  47  professed  Christians. 

PANCHGANJ:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India, 
situated  22  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Satara.  Station  of 
the  ZBM,  with  (1903)  4  women  missionaries,  7 
native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  boarding  school. 
Some  write  the  name  Panchgani. 

PANGASINAW  XANGUAGE:  One  of  the  lan- 
guages belonging  to  the  Malayan  linguistic  group 
and  spoken  by  about  1,000,000  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Luzon,  P.  I.  It  is  written  with  Roman  letters, 
having  been  reduced  to  writing  by  the  Spanish 
friars. 

PANGALOAN:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  on  the 
Batang  Toru  River,  23  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Siboga. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 84  native  workers,  6  outstations,  1  Sun- 
day school,  8  day  schools,  and  3,700  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  1,665  are  communicants. 

PANGHAREPAK:  A  town  on  the  island  of 
Java,  near  the  head  of  Wynkoop's  Bay,  on  the  W. 
coast  and  about  50  miles  S.  of  Batavia.  Station 
of  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society  (1872), 
with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  7  native  workers,  1 
outstation,  and  166  professed  Christians. 

PANGARIBUAN:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  32  miles  N.  E.  of  Siboga. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  41  native  work- 
ers, 8  outstations,  7  Sunday  schools,  12  day 
schools,  and  1,623  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
748  are  communicants. 

PANG-CHUANG:  A  town  in  Shan-tung,  China, 
53  miles  from  Tsi-nan-fu,  125  miles  south-south- 
west of  Tientsin  and  6  miles  southeast  of  Grand 
Canal.  Natives  poor,  low,  crowded  for  room  in 
which  to  live.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1879), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2 
women  missionaries,  39  native  workers,  24 
outstations,  24  places  of  worship,  24  Sunday 
schools,  8  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1_  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  and  734  professed  Christians. 
"  PANGKOH:  A  village  of  South  Borneo,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  Malaysia,  situated  32  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Banjermassin.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission 
Society,  with  (1903)  1   missionary  and  his  wife, 

7  native  workers,  3  outstations,  3  day  schools, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  271  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  121  are  communicants. 

PANGKUMU:  A  village  in  MallicoUo,  New 
Hebrides,  situated  S.  of  Aulua.  Station  of  the 
New  Hebrides  Missionary  Society,  with  (1900) 
1  missionary,  12  native  workers,  1  outstation,  9 


day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  37  professed 
Christians. 

PANGOMBUSAN:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of 
Toba  Lake.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  29  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  4  day 
schools,  and  206  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
126  are  communicants. 

PANHALA  KODOLI:  A  town  in  Bombay, 
India,  situated  12  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Kolhapur. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1877),  with  (1903)  3  women 
missionaries,  11  native  workers,  6  outstations, 
6  Sunday  schools,  7  day  schools,  1  dispensary, 
and  164  professed  Christians. 

PANSURNAPITU:  A  settlement  in  Sumatra, 
Dutcli  E.  Indies,  situated  in  the  Silindung  Valley, 
about  24  miles  N.  E.  of  Siboga.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  47  native  workers,  2  outsta- 
tions, 4  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  and  2,588 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,257  are  communi- 
cants. 

PANTA:  A  station  of  the  Netherlands  Bible 
Society,  in  the  Island  of  Celebes,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  near  Posso  Lake.  A  missionary 
and  his  wife  are  stationed  here  for  Bible  transla- 
tion work. 

PAO-KING-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Hu-nan,  China,  250  miles  S.  of  I-chang.  It  is  a 
small  but  very  busy  place.  The  missionary  was 
driven  out  by  a  mob  in  1902,  but  later  allowed  to 
return.  Station  of  the  CIM,  with  1  missionary. 
It  is  a  center  for  German  associates  of  the  CIM. 

PAO-NING-FU:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  China,  situated  145  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Chung-king.  It  is  the  center  of  a  large  silk-pro- 
ducing district.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1886),  with 
(1903)  6  missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their 
wives;  6  women  missionaries,  6  native  workers, 
4  outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  1  day  school, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding  school,  1  hospital, 

1  dispensary,  and  162  professed  Christians. 
PAO-TING-FU :  A  town  in  China,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Pe-chi-h,  about  80  miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of 
Peking.  At  this  point  the  missionaries  of  the 
ABCFM,  PN,  and  CIM  were  all  killed  by  the 
Chinese  during  the  Boxer  movement  in  1900. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1873),  with  (1903)  3  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  2  women  missionaries, 
8  native  workers,  9  outstations,  9  places  of  wor- 
ship, 9  Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  2  dispensaries,  1  hospital,  and  234  com- 
municant Christians.  Station  of  the  PN  (1893), 
with  (1903)  5  missionaries,  4  of  them  with  their 
wives;  2  women  missionaries,  3  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  2  day  schools, 

2  dispensaries,  1  hospital,  and  150  communicant 
Christians. 

PAO-TEO  (Mongolia).     See  Pao-ttj. 

PAO-TU:  A  town  in  Mongolia,  China,  situated 
near  the  Hwang-ho  River,  about  335  miles  W.  of 
Peking.  Station  of  the  Scandinavian  Alliance 
of  N.  A.,  with  (1901)  2  missionaries  and  1  woman 
missionary.     Some  write  the  name  Pao-teo. 

PAPEETE:  A  town  in  Tahiti,  on  the  N.  W. 
coast  of  the  island  in  the  small  bay  at  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Papeete,  of  charming  aspect.  _  AH 
the  houses  are  surrounded  by  gardens.  It  is  in 
regular  communication  with  France  by  New 
Caledonia,  with  New  Zealand,  and  San  Francisco. 


Pnpetoai 

Paris  E^-pan^ellcal 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


670 


Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary- 
Society  (1863),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  6  women  missionaries,  4  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  2 
Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
and  293  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of 
the  Seventh  Day  Adventists  (1891),  with  (1901) 
5  missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their  wives;  1 
native  worker,  3  outstations,  2  places  of  worship, 
5  Sunday  schools,  1  printing  house,  and  80  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

PAPETOAI:  A  town  on  the  N.  coast  of  Eimeo 
Island,  in  the  Society  group.  Station  of  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society  (1867),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Sunday-school,  and  100  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

PAPUA,  or  NEW  GUINEA:  Is  the  largest 
island  on  the  globe,  except  Australia  and  Green- 
land. It  is  very  irregular  in  its  outline,  but 
extends  for  about  1,300  miles  between  latitude 
0°  30'  to  10°  40'  south,  and  longitude  131°  to  150° 
30'  east,  and  contains  an  estimated  area  of  312,329 
square  miles.  It  has  not  been  fully  explored  and 
surveyed.  In  general  it  is  a  mountainous  coun- 
try in  the  northern  part,  while  the  southern 
coasts  are  low  and  wooded.  Vegetation  is  very 
luxuriant;  tropical  fruit  trees  are  found  in  abun- 
dance, wliile  the  woods  of  the  interior  produce  fine 
timber  trees.  In  the  cultivated  portions  sugar- 
cane, tobacco,  and  rice  are  raised.  The  climate 
is  healthful,  tho  great  changes  in  temperature 
occur  during  a  very  short  time.  The  inhabitants, 
so  far  as  they  have  been  classified,  are  kin  to  the 
negro  race,  tho  there  are  several  varieties  of 
Polynesians  represented.  In  number  they  are 
estimated  at  800,000.  Of  their  language  the 
only  knowledge  we  have  is  gained  from  the  re- 
searches of  the  missionaries,  who  collected  a 
vocabulary.  This  seems  to  show  that  the 
Papuan  languages  belong  to  a  separate  class  from 
the  Malayo-Polynesian  languages.  The  three 
great  powers  exercise  authority  over  the  coun- 
try as  follows:  British  New  Gumea,  29  per  cent, 
of  the  terri'ory,  the  S.  E.  quarter  of  the  island; 
German  New  Guinea,  23  per  cent.,  its  territory 
north  of  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  Dutch 
New  Guinea,  constituting  48  per  cent.,  the  west- 
em  half  of  the  island.  The  missionary  first 
entered  the  Dutch  portion  of  the  island,  but  the 
communicants  in  the  Dutch  churches  are  few  in 
number.  The  London  Missionary  Society  next 
sent  missionaries  from  the  Loyalty  Islands  into 
British  New  Guinea,  and  ever  since  this  Society 
has  accomplished  the  largest  results  in  New 
Guinea  and  has  had  the  strongest  force.  Aus- 
tralian Anglicans  opened  a  mission  on  the  north- 
east shore  in  1891.  In  German  New  Guinea  two 
German  Societies  are  laboring. 

PARAGUAY:  A  republic  in  South  America, 
situated  between  22°  and  27°  35'  south  latitude, 
and  54°  35'  and  61°  40'  west  longitude,  southwest 
of  Brazil  and  northeast  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 
Area,  91,970  square  miles.  The  country  m  gen- 
eral consists  of  a  series  of  plateaus  with  wooded 
slopes  and  grassy  plains.  The  climate  is  very 
fine,  tho  at  times  the  heat  is  excessive.  The 
mean  temperature  for  winter  is  71°,  and  for 
summer  81°. 

According  to  the  Constitution  of  November, 
1870,  the  government  consists  of  a  president, 
a  Congress  of  two  Houses,  a  Senate,  and  a 
House  of  Deputies.     The  senators  and  deputies 


are  elected  directly  by  the  people,  and  the  presi- 
dent holds  office  for  four  years. 

The  population  (1899)  is  530,103,  besides  100,- 

000  partly  civilized  Indians.  There  are  twice  as 
many  females  as  males.  The  prevailing  lan- 
guage is  Spanish,  but  large  numbers  speak  the 
Guarani;  the  mixture  of  Indian  blood  is  stronger 
in  Paraguay  than  in  other  states. 

The  principal  cities  are  Asuncion  (45,000),  the 
capital,  rapidly  growing  in  population  and  im- 
portance; (Joncepcion  (15,000),  San  Pedro  (8,000). 
One-third  of  the  inhabitants  live  in  the  central 
districts,  containing  the  capital;  one-third  in  the 
districts  of  Villa  Rica  and  Cuasapa,  and  the 
remainder  in  the  cultivated  portion  of  the  coun- 
try. Agriculture  and  the  raising  of  cattle  are 
the  principal  occupations  of  the  people,  and 
Italian,  Spanish,  and  German  colonists  are 
developing  its  resources  in  both  these  directions. 
Railway,  telegraph  and  telephone  lines  are  in 
operation.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  established 
religion  of  the  state,  but  other  religions  are  toler- 
ated. Education  is  free  and  compulsory.  The 
Protestant  Societies  located  in  Paraguay  are 
the  South  American  Missionary  Society  and  the 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States.  The  republic  is 
open  to  Gospel  influences,  and  the  prospect  of 
Christian  missions  is  bright. 

PARAMARIBO :  Chief  town  of  Surinam,  South 
America,  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Surinam 
River.  Population,  31,000.  In  the  year  1835 
the  first  Moravian  missionaries  Ian dedin  Surinam. 
The  object  was  at  first  to  commence  a  mission  in 
Berbice,  making  Paramaribo  the  headquarters. 
Here  a  company  of  five  Brethren  worked  at  their 
trades  in  order  to  support  themselves  and  the 
mission  in  Berbice.  Their  attention  was  soon 
directed  to  the  negroes  in  Paramaribo.  At  first 
they  had  to  face  a  good  deal  of  opposition,  but 
they  gradually  overcame  ill-grounded  prejudice, 
and  were  permitted  to  purchase  a  piece  of  land  in 
the  town.  For  a  considerable  time  their  mis- 
sionary work  continued  very  limited,  but  grad- 
ually it  expanded,  and  Paramaribo  became 
endowed  with  a  vigorous  negro  Christian  church, 
which  has  five  separate  places  of  worship  in  the 
city,  the  branches  being  Rusten  Vrede,  Wanica, 
Combe,  and  Saron.  The  Moravian  Mission  Soci- 
ety has  here  (1903)  21  missionaries,  19  women 
missionaries,  5  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday 
schools,  3  day  schools,  1  kindergarten,  and  3,098 
professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  SDA 
(1887),  with  1  missionary,  3  native  workers,  and 
10  professed  Christians.  The  auxiliary  Inter- 
national Medical  and  Benevolent  Association 
also  maintains  (1901)   1   missionary  here. 

PARANTIJ:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situ- 
ated 31  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Ahmadabad.  Popu- 
lation, 8,800,  of  whom  5,800  are  Hindus.  Station 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  (1897), 
with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  9  native  workers,  1 
place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools, 

1  orphanage,  and  15  professed  Christians. 
PAREYCHALEY:    A   district   in    Travancore, 

India,  situated  between  Neyoor  and  Trivandrum. 
It  is  the  meeting-place  of  the  Tamil  and  Malay- 
alam  languages.  Population  of  the  district, 
130,000.  It  gives  name  to  a  station  of  the  LMS 
(1845),  with  0.903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  175 
native  workers,  85  outstations,  85  Sunday 
schools,  67  day  schools,  and  22,060  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  2,083  are  communicants. 


S71 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Fapetoal 
Paris  BT^anKCllcal 


PARGARUTAN:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  about  50  miles  S.  E.  of 
Siboga.  Station  of  the  Java  Committee,  with 
(1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  day 
school.     Some  write  the  name  Pargaroetan. 

PARIS  EVANGELICAL  MISSION  SOCIETY: 
The  Paris  Society  for  Evangelical  Missions 
among  non-Christian  Nations  (Societi/des  Mis- 
sions evang^ligues  chez  les  Peublesnon-ChrMens, 
Mahlii  h  Paris)  was  formed  in  November, 
1822,  as  a  result  of  the  general  religious  revival 
in  Western  Europe.  Before  this  time  several 
missionary  committees  had  been  organized  in 
Alsace,  in  Southern  France,  and  in  Paris,  which 
now  joined  the  Paris  Society  as  auxiliary  asso- 
ciations. Among  the  founders  of  the  Society 
were  some  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  French 
Protestants.  Its  first  president  was  Admiral 
Count  Verhnel,  and  Jean  and  Frederick  Monod, 
Baron  A.  de  Stael,  and  other  celebrated  men  were 
on  this  first  committee.  Its  first  general  assem- 
bly was  held  in  1824,  and  in  the  same  year  an 
institution  for  training  future  missionaries  was 
established  at  Paris. 

Until  1840  the  work  of  the  Society  went 
steadily  forward;  from  this  time  its  funds  began 
to  diminish,  and  after  the  Revolution  of  1848 
the  want  of  money  forced  the  Society  to  close  the 
training  institute.  Of  the  82  pupils  who  had 
joined  it,  34  were  laboring  as  missionaries  in 
heathen  countries,  17  as  pastors  in  France,  and 
6  as  teachers;  the  mission  work  in  Basutoland, 
South  Africa,  was  still  carried  on  in  spite  of 
difficulties. 

One  of  the  Society's  first  missionaries,  the  Rev. 
E.  Casalis,  returned  to  France  in  1849.  His  mis- 
sionary addresses,  delivered  in  churches  all  over 
the  country,  were  crowned  with  most  remarkable 
success,  and  a  new  love  for  missions  seemed  to 
spring  up  everywhere.  The  yearly  income  soon 
amounted  to  180,000  francs.  In  1856  the  Train- 
ing Institute  was  reopened,  with  M.  Casalis  at  its 
head,  and  new  spheres  of  labor  were  soon  added 
to  that  in  South  Africa.  Missionaries  were  sent 
to  China  (1859)  and  to  Senegambia  (1862).  The 
colonial  policy  of  the  French  Government  being 
hostile  to  non-French  organizations  in  the  colo- 
nies, the  Society  was  called  on  to  take  up  work 
that  had  already  been  started  by  others.  Thus 
in  1863  it  took  over  the  work  of  the  LMS  in 
Tahiti,  and  later  that  of  the  American  Presby- 
terians (in  part)  in  the  Gabun  region.  In  1885  ad- 
ditional work  was  undertaken  among  the  Kabyles 
or  Berber  tribes  living  in  North  Africa,  and  in  1886 
a  long-hoped  for  mission  was  begun  on  the  Upper 
Zambesi.  In  1889  mission  work  was  begun  in 
the  French  territories  on  the  Ogowe  and  Congo 
Rivers.  Until  1887  the  training-school,  being 
dependent  on  hired  rooms,  had  migrated  from 
one  end  of  Paris  to  the  other;  in  that  year  a  mis- 
sion-house admirably  adapted  to  its  purpose  was 
erected  at  102  Boulevard  Arago.  In  1896,  as  a 
result  of  the  French  conquest  of  Madagascar, 
application  was  made  to  the  Society  to  take  up 
at  least  a  portion  of  the  work  there.  Altho  the 
task  seemed  herculean  it  was  met  courageously 
and  successfully,  with  the  result  that  the  other 
societies  laboring  in  Madagascar  were  also  placed 
on  a  better  foimdation. 

The  Paris  Society  is  undenominational.  Its 
management  is  in  the  hands  of  a  council  com- 
posed of  a  president,  two  vice-presidents,  two 
secretaries,  two  auditors,  a  treasurer,  and  twelve 
assessors.     This  council  makes  its  own  laws,  and 


also  the  regulations  to  be  followed  by  auxiliary 
committees  formed  outside  of  Paris.  The  ser- 
vices of  the  council  are  rendered  gratuitously.  A 
feneral  assembly  of  the  whole  membership  of  the 
ociety  is  held  annually. 

The  present  (1903)  fields  of  the  Society  are: 
1.  Basutoland  (Lessonto);  2.  Senegal;  3.  Tahiti, 
Loyalty  Islands;  4.  Zambesi;  5.  French  Congo; 
6.  Madagascar. 

1.  Basuto  Mission:  The  first  three  missionaries 
of  the  Society,  Messrs.  Bisseux,  Lemne,  and 
RoUand,  went,  in  1829,  to  South  Africa  and  set- 
tled in  Wellington  and  at  Kuruman,  in  Bechuana- 
land.  The  work,  however,  progressed  but  slowly, 
and  these  enterprises  were  handed  over  to  the 
LMS  and  the  German  Berlin  Society,  and  the 
Paris  Society  concentrated  its  efforts  in  a  mission 
in  Basutoland,  commenced  in  1833  at  Morija. 
There  were  reported  (1902)  17  missionaries,  8 
teachers,  367  native  workers,  22  stations  and  out- 
stations,  12,676  church  members,  176  schools, 
11,626  pupils.  The  mission  suffered  from  the 
Transvaal  war,  but  has  since  been  rallying 
strength. 

2.  Senegal:  In  1862  the  Society  commenced 
work  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  in  the  French 
colony  of  Senegal.  For  a  number  of  years  St. 
Louis  was  the  only  station  occupied,  but  in  1886 
work  was  inaugurated  at  Kerbala,  80  miles  in- 
land, up  the  Senegal  River.  The  climate  has 
been  very  difficult  to  endure,  but  the  work,  espe- 
cially among  the  children  of  freed  slaves,  encour- 
aging. 

3.  Tahiti  and  French  Polynesia:  The  occupa- 
tion of  Tahiti  by  the  French  in  1845  was  followed 
by  a  request  from  the  LMS  to  the  Paris  Society  to 
send  missionaries  to  that  field.  This  was  done, 
and  in  1865  the  entire  work  was  handed  over  to 
it  by  the  English.  So  thoroughly  Christianized 
are  the  islands  that  they  belong  to  the  home 
rather  than  the  foreign  field.  It  has,  however, 
been  extended  to  Raiatea  (1893),  Atieana,  in  the 
Marquesas  group  (1899),  and  to  the  Loyalty 
Islands,  Mar6  (1891-1900).  The  number  of 
European  missionaries  is  small  (12,  including  6 
teachers),  but  there  are  35  native  pastors  and 
4,451  church  members  in  37  parishes.  In  the 
Loyalty  Islands  there  is  an  interesting  temper- 
ance movement. 

4.  Zambesi:  In  1877  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Franpois 
Coillard,  who  for  many  years  had  labored  among 
the  Basutos  in  South  Africa,  endeavored  to  open 
among  the  Banyai  tribes,  north  of  the  Limpopo 
River,  a  mission  field  for  the  native  churches  of 
Basutoland.  They  were  made  prisoners  by  the 
king  of  the  Matabele,  and  their  project  failed. 
Subsequently  they  traveled  to  the  Upper  Zam- 
besi, and  found  the  tribes  there  had  been  con- 
quered by  the  Basutos,  and  spoke  the  language 
of  their  conquerors.  This  language  being  famil- 
iar to  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Coillard,  and  their  mterest 
in  these  Zambesian  tribes  being  aroused,  they 
decided  to  give  up  home  and  work  in  Basutoland, 
and  to  open  a  mission  where  the  people  were 
unspeakably  degraded,  and  where  no  missionary 
had  ever  penetrated.  In  1880-81  they  visited 
Europe  to  plead  for  this  part  of  Africa.  As  a 
result  the  Evangelical  Mission  to  the  Zambesi  was 
founded.  A  committee  was  appointed  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  to  receive  funds  for  its  support. 

In  1885,  after  a  very  difficult  journey  of  more 
than  1,000  miles  from  Basutoland,  Sesheke,  on 
the  Upper  Zambesi,  the  residence  of  15  chiefs, 
was   reached.     Here   the   missionaries   took   up 


Paris  Evang-elical 
Parsees 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


572 


their  abode,  and  in  the  midst  of  many  hardships 
a  station  was  opened.  In  1886  Mr.  Coillard  left 
Seshelce  and  undertook  the  first  wagon  journey 
ever  made  to  the  Barotsi  valley,  a  distance  of  500 
miles.  After  a  most  toilsome  journey  of  two 
months  he  succeeded  in  reaching  Sefula.  He 
returned  to  Sesheke,  for  Mrs.  C,  who,  in  the  face 
of  great  perils,  went  with  him  to  Sefula,  where  a 
station  was  opened. 

Subsequently  the  mission  was  assumed  by  the 
Paris  Society  and  has  become  one  of  its  most 
interesting  fields,  as  well  as  one  calling  for  great 
effort.  The  climate  has  proved  very  severe,  9 
missionaries  dying  in  three  years  (1899-1901). 
Of  late,  however,  the  work  has  been  more  success- 
ful, and  there  were  reported  (1904)  17  mission- 
aries (11  ordained),  occupying  7  stations.  The 
Society's  reports  are  not  clear  upon  the  details  of 
work  in  this  field. 

5.  French  Congo:  In  1887  the  American  Presby- 
terian Board  of  Missions  asked  from  the  Paris 
Missionary  Society  some  French  teachers  to  help 
in  their  school  work  on  the  Gabun  and  Ogowe 
Rivers,  the  French  Government  having  forbidden 
the  instruction  of  the  natives  in  any  language  but 
French.  Accordingly  three  teachers  and  one 
Industrial  assistant  were  sent  out  in  1888.  In 
1889  two  young  ordained  missionaries  were  sent 
to  the  Ogowe  River  to  visit  the  American  sta- 
tions. 

From  this  developed  a  work  in  the  French 
Congo  which  now  includes  four  stations:  Tala- 
gouga  (1892),  Lambarene  (1893),  Ngoma  (1898), 
Samkita  (1900).  In  this  field  the  Society  is 
making  an  experiment  with  industrial  training, 
following  the  lead  of  the  Basel  Mission.  The 
schools  are  successful.  The  force  of  18  European 
workers  includes  10  missionaries,  3  female 
teachers,  4  artisans,  and  1  assistant. 

6.  Madagascar:  Seldom  in  the  history  of  mis- 
sions has  a  society  met  such  a  crisis  as  faced  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Society  in  Madagascar.  With 
the  occupation  of  the  island  by  the  French  forces 
it  seemed  that  the  power  of  the  Jesuits  would 
crush  out  all  evangelical  work.  Under  the  plea 
that  all  foreign  influence  was  hostile,  and  there- 
fore should  be  eliminated,  they  sought  to  outlaw 
the  churches  founded  by  the  LMS,  the  Nor- 
wegian Society,  and  the  Friends.  The  only 
remedy  was  in  securing  French  evangelical 
workers,  and  an  earnest  appeal  was  made.  Offers 
of  redistribution  of  field  and  work,  on  the  most 
advantageous  terms,  were  made,  and  altho  it 
seemed  as  tho  its  existing  work  was  all  that  the 
Society  could  carry,  it  took  up  work  in  this  field 
courageously.  The  result  has  been  most  happy. 
The  French  churches  have  become  interested  m 
their  new  field;  the  old  Societies  have  been 
enabled  to  continue  their  work,  and  the  French 
Government  has  come  to  recognize  the  value  of 
their  services  to  the  general  interests  of  the  com- 
munity. In  1902  the  President  of  the  Society, 
with  his  wife,  went  to  the  island  for  a  two  years' 
residence,  so  as  to  become  more  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  needs  of  the  work  and  the 
methods  to  be  employed.  The  stations  occupied 
are:  Antananarivo  (1896);  Ambatomanga, 
Ambobibeloma,  Tsiafahy,  Fihaonana,  and  Fiana- 
rantsoa  (all  in  1897);  Anosibe,  Maheresa,  and 
Ambositra  (1898);  Mahasoarivo  (1899);  Ambato- 
lampy  (1900).  The  force  includes  33  Europeans, 
1  French  pastor,  8  missionaries,  9  school  directors, 
5  male  and  7  female  teachers,  2  deaconesses,  1 
assistant  missionary.     An  idea  of  the  nature  of 


the  educational  work  in  which  the  Society  is 
rendering  invaluable  assistance  to  the  government 
is  found  in  the  seven  districts  of  Imerina,  includ- 
ing the  capital.  There  are  275  schools,  with  344 
native  teachers  and  16,000  pupils.  The  thor- 
oughness of  the  drill  is  manifested  in  the  pro- 
portion of  successful  candidates  in  the  official 
examinations.  At  Antananarivo  the  rates  were: 
Paris  Society,  78  per  cent.;  LMS,  64  per  cent.; 
official  schools,  65.5  per  cent.;  Roman  Catholic, 
58  per  cent.  At  Fianarantsoa  the  rates  werer 
Official  schools,  96  per  cent.;  Paris  Society,  90' 
per  cent.;  Norwegian  Society,  72  per  cent.; 
Roman  Catholic,  69  per  cent. 

More  than  once  it  seemed  as  if  the  limit  of 
ability  of  the  French  Evangelical  churches  was 
reached,  but  the  churches  have  always  responded 
to  renewed  appeals,  and  the  other  missions  have 
not  suffered. 

PARLIAMENT  OF  RELIGION:  A  gathering  of 
adherents  of  the  various  religions  throughout  the 
world,  which  met  at  Chicago  from  September  11 
to  27,  1893,  during  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
and  in  one  of  its  buildings.  Such  an  Exposition 
would  bring  men  together  from  different  parts  of 
the  world  and  would  afford  an  opportunity  for 
telling  all  nations  what  place  religion  holds  in 
the  world,  and  what  it  has  done.  In  this  way  it 
seemed  to  be  possible  to  have  at  the  World's 
Fair  what  might  even  be  called  an  Exhibit  of  the 
World's  Religions. 

The  leading  mind  occupied  in  organizing  this 
great  Parliament  was  that  of  Rev.  John  H.  Bar- 
rows, D.D.,  pastor  of  one  of  the  churches  in 
Chicago.  The  aims  of  the  Parliament  as  they 
presented  themselves  to  his  mind  may  be  stated 
as  follows:  1.  To  bring  together  representatives 
of  all  historic  religions;  2.  To  show  what  and  how 
many  truths  all  religions  teach  in  common.  3.  To 
foster  sentiments  of  brotherhood.  4.  To  set 
forth  accurately  the  essentials  of  each  religion. 
5.  To  open  up  the  fundamental  facts  on  which 
rests  the  acceptance  of  Theism,  and  so  to  unite 
all  religions  m  opposing  materialism.  6.  To 
bring  together  full  statements,  from  different  parts 
of  the  world,  of  the  effect  of  the  different  religions 
upon  the  great  problems  of  life.  7.  To  ask  what 
light  each  religion  affords  to  other  religions.  8. 
To  acquire  accurate  information  of  the  present 
conditions  of  each  one  of  these  religions.  9.  To 
learn  what  light  each  of  the  various  religions  has 
to  offer  upon  current  social  and  moral  problems 
of  the  world.  10.  To  aid  in  bringing  nations  into 
a  more  friendly  fellowship  with  each  other. 

The  plan  of  holding  such  a  Parliament  was 
violently  opposed  in  many  quarters.  The  Holy 
Synod  of  Russia  put  its  ban  upon  it;  and  so  did 
the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  forbidding  Mohammedans 
under  his  influence  from  attending  it.  The 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  also  used  his  influence 
against  it.  Official  representatives  were  present 
at  the  Parliament  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  of  America;  from  China;  from  the  Bud- 
dhists of  South  India,  from  the  Brahma  Somaj, 
and  one  or  two  similar  groups  in  India.  But 
altho  aside  from  these,  no  official  representatives 
of  the  various  religions  appeared  at  the  Parlia- 
ment, eminent  individuals  were  there  belonging 
to  all  leading  religions,  except  Islam.  This  last  . 
religion  was  represented  by  some  rather  hereti- 
cally  liberal  adherents,  and  by  an  American  who 
professed  faith  in  Mohammed,  but  was  not  ad- 
mitted by  the  organs  of  the  Caliph  to  be  qualified 
to  speak  for  that  faith. 


578 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Paris  Bvanisellcal 
Parsees 


The  sessions  of  the  Parliament  were  marked  by 
the  most  cordial  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  Chris- 
tians present,  altho  it  sometimes  appeared  that 
foreign     attacks      upon     Christianity     put      a 
heavy  strain  upon  the  patience  of  the  audience. 
Once   only   in  the  whole  seventeen  days  of    the 
Parliament  was  there  any  unseemly  conduct  on 
the  part  of  the  assembly.     This  was  when  Mr. 
Mohammed  Webb  undertook  to  justify  polygamy, 
his  voice  being  drowned  in  a  storm  of  cries   and 
hisses.     The    Parliament,    in   short,    thoroughly 
satisfied  the  expectations  of  its  promoters;  and 
when  at  its  close  a  fine  choir  sang  the  "Hallelujah 
•Chorus,"  in  circumstances  in  which  it  had  never 
been  sung  before,  to  the  excited  minds  of  many 
it  seemed  like   a   prophecy   of   the   triumph   of 
Christianity  over  all  who  now  hesitate  to  accept  it. 
The  Parliament  undoubtedly  did  a  good  work 
in  showing  what  of  truth  there  is  in  some  of  the 
Oriental  faiths  which  are  so  little  known  among 
the  masses  of  people  in  the  Western  lands.     It 
probably  served  a  good  purpose  also  in  leading 
the  various  Christian   denominations  to  realize 
once  more  how  near  they  are  to  each  other.     It 
did  not,  however,  draw  from  the  representatives 
of  non-Christian  religions   the   cordial   goodwill 
which  had  been  hoped  for. 

One  curious  result  of  the  gathering  was  to  con- 
vince many  thinking  men  in  Eastern  countries 
that  the  Parliament  betokened  a  lack  of  faith  in 
Christianity  among  Christians  who  attended  the 
meetings.  Another  somewhat  unexpected  result 
was  to  introduce  to  American  audiences  eloquent 
philosophers,  like  Swami  Vivakananda,  who 
did  not  fail  to  make  the  utmost  possible  use  of  the 
opportunities  which  the  Parliament  suggested  and 
left  to  them  as  a  sequel  to  its  meetings.  On  the 
whole,  one  is  inclined  to  judge  that,  so  far  as 
Orientals  are  concerned,  the  alluring  scheme  of 
holding  such  a  Parliament  of  Religions  was  some- 
what in  advance  of  their  present  stage  of  develop- 
ment. 

Barrows,  (J.  H.),  The  Parliament  of  Beligiona,  2  vols.,  Chi- 
cago, 1893. 

PARKER,  H.  P.:  Died  March  26,  1888,  at  the 
Victoria  Nyanza.  As  Secretary  of  the  CMS  mission 
at  Calcutta  he  accomplished  great  good;  but  he 
left  this  important  post,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
Society,  and  entered  upon  work  at  Mandla, 
among  the  Gonds.  Among  this  people,  in  the 
midst  of  the  most  trying  difficulties,  he  labored 
faithfully  and  effectively  until  he  was  called  to  be 
the  second  bishop  of  Eastern  Equatorial  Africa. 
His  six  years'  service  as  the  Society's  secretary 
at  Calcutta,  and  his  experience  in  the  jungles  of 
Central  India,  prepared  him  for  his  new  position. 
He  landed  at  Frere  Town  on  November  27,  1886, 
and  for  six  months,  like  his  predecessor.  Bishop 
!  Hannington,  he  gave  all  his  energies  to  the  East 
Africa  Missions  proper,  setting  things  in  order  at 
Frere  Town  and  Rabai,  and  visiting  Wray  at 
Taita,  Fitch  in  Chagga,  and  the  native  teachers 
at  other  outlying  stations.  In  June,  1887,  he, 
accompanied  by  Mr.  Blackburn,  started  for  the 
interior,  and,  taking  an  entirely  new  route,  they 
went  direct  from  Rabai  to  Mamboia;  thence, 
passing  westward,  they  reached  the  south  end  of 
Nyanza,  by  the  way  of  Mpapwa  and  Uyui, 
where  they  found  Mackay  in  the  Msalala  district. 
Here  the  first  Missionary  Conference  was  held  in 
the  interior;  and,  largely  through  the  advice  of 
Parker,  wise  conclusions  were  reached  in  the 
Society's  future  policy  toward  the  savage  natives. 
Bishop  Parker  urgpdthe  importance  of  women 


missionaries  for  East  Africa,  and  in  April  5,  1887, 
a  committee  of  the  Society  took  the  initiative 
in  this  important  matter. 

PARKER,  Peter:  Born  at  Framingham,  Mass., 
June  18,  1804.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1831,  spent  two  years  in  Yale  Divinity  School, 
and  took  a  course  of  medical  study,  receiving  the 
degree  of  M.D.  in  1834.  He  was  appointed  medi- 
cal missionary  to  China  by  the  ABCFM,  was 
ordained  at  Philadelphia  May  26,  1834,  and 
sailed  the  next  month  for  Canton.  He  opened  a 
hospital  at  Canton  for  diseases  of  the  eye,  which 
contributed  greatly  to  disarm  prejudice,  and 
furnished  opportunities  for  making  known  relig- 
ious truth.  In  1836  his  eye  infirmary  had 
received  1,912  patients  at  a  cost  of  $1,200,  all  of 
which  was  given  by  resident  foreigners.  In  this 
hospital  he  was  forced  to  receive  patients  suffer- 
ing from  other  than  eye  diseases,  and  became 
famous  for  wonderful  surgical  cures.  He,  using 
the  influence  thus  gained  to  secure  a  hearing, 
preached  to  his  hospital  patients  regularly.  He 
also  educated  Chinese  young  men  in  the  practise 
of  medicine,  one  of  whom  became  an  expert 
surgeon.  The  outbreak  of  war  with  the  English 
in   1840   making  it  necessary  to   close  the   dis- 

?ensary.  Dr.  Parker  visited  the  United  States, 
n  1842  he  returned  to  Canton.  In  1844,  with  the 
hope  thereby  of  aiding  the  missionary  work,  he 
accepted  the  appointment  of  Secretary  and 
Interpreter  to  the  United  States  Legation  to 
China,  and  his  connection  with  the  American 
Board  was  soon  after  dissolved,  tho  he  did  not 
cease  missionary  work,  and  his  labors  in  the 
hospital  continued  till  he  resigned  his  secretary- 
ship on  his  return  to  America  in  1855.  He  often 
acted  during  these  years  as  charg6  d'affaires  ad 
interim.  Soon  after  his  return  he  was  appointed 
United  States  Commissioner  to  China,  with  pleni- 
potentiary powers  for  the  revision  of  the  treaty 
of  1844.  This  service  being  completed  in  two 
years,  he  returned  to  America  with  health 
impaired,  owing  to  the  effects  of  a  sunstroke. 
He  resided  in  Washington,  and  in  1868  was 
elected  Regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
He  died  in  Washington,  January  10,  1888,  aged 
83.  He  published  A  Statement  respecting  Hos- 
pitals in  China,  and  an  account  of  his  visit  to  Lu- 
Chu  Islands  and  Japan. 

PARLA-KIMEDI :  A  municipality  of  Madras, 
India,  situated  75  miles  S.  W.  by  W.  of  Ganjam. 
Population,  16,400,  of  whom  15,900  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  Canada  Baptist  Convention  of  the 
Maritime  Provinces  (1892),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  1  outstation, 
1  place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  95  professed 
Christians. 

PARPAREAN:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  in  the  Toba  Lake  region, 
near  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  lake.  Station  of 
the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  15  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations,  3  day  schools,  and  485  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  200  are  communicants. 

PARRAL:  A  town  in  Northern  Mexico,  200 
miles  east-southeast  of  Chihuahua.  Climate 
even,  healthy.  Population,  6,000.  Station  of 
the  ABCFM  (1884),  with  (1903)  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 3  native  workers,  10  outstations,  3  places 
of  worship,  7  Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  and  277  professed  Christians. 

PARSEES:  A  people  in  India,  numbering  less 
than    100,000,     resident     mostly    in     Bombay, 


Parsees 
Parvatlptir 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


574 


which,  because  of  its  romantic  history,  unique 
religion,  commercial  enterprise  and  fine  char- 
acter, is  of  an  interest  and  importance  beyond 
the  expectation  excited  by  its  numbers.  The 
Parsees,  i.e.,  "Persians,"  are  descendants  of  the 
Zoroastrians  who  flourished  in  Persia  until  the 
7th  century,  when  the  sword  of  the  Moham- 
medans well  nigh  exterminated  them,  less  than 
10,000  of  the  sect,  now  called  Guebres,  surviving 
to-day  in  Persia.  But  a  portion  of  the  Zoroas- 
trians escaped  to  India,  where  they  settled  in 
Gujarat  as  agriculturists  until  Muslim  conquest 
in  India  again  dislodged  them  and  drove  them 
southward.  They  reached  Bombay  between 
1650-1700,  about  the  time  that  this  island 
city  was  ceded  to  the  English  by  Portugal.  The 
contact  with  Europeans,  and  especially  with  the 
English,  caused  a  wonderful  transformation, 
awakening  in  this  hitherto  agricultural  people 
a  genius  for  business  which  has  brought  them 
immense  wealth  and  pres  ige.  They  early 
became  and  have  continued  to  be  the  chief  factors 
in  the  English  trading  houses  in  Bombay,  and 
successful  as  traders,  shopkeepers,  and  con- 
tractors on  their  own  account.  Up  to  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century,  when  the  development  of  the 
great  steamship  companies  changed  conditions, 
practically  the  whole  of  the  trade  of  Bombay 
and  China  passed  through  their  hands.  Much 
of  the  latter  was  in  their  own  ships,  and  the 
business  was  transacted  through  their  own 
houses  in  London  and  the  East.  They  also 
established  themselves  as  dealers  in  European 
goods  in  the  larger  and  in  many  of  the  smaller 
cities  of  India.  A  long  succession  of  master 
builders  in  the  government  shipyards  in  Bombay 
have  been  Parsees;  some  have  achieved  success 
as  army  and  railway  contractors,  Jamshedji 
Dorabji,  tho  without  rudimentary,  and  much  less 
engineering  schooling,  being  the  builder  of  large 
sections  of  the  great  India  Peninsula  Railway, 
and  of  other  public  works  to  the  extent  of  a 
million  sterling;  some  have  established  in 
Bombay  extensive  cotton  and  silk  mills,  while 
others  became  bankers;  and  the  Times  of  India, 
one  of  the  leading  English  papers  in  India,  owes 
its  origin  to  Parsee  enterprise.  In  recent  decades 
they  have  entered  the  learned  professions  and 
held  prominent  positions  in  the  Bombay  govern- 
ment. 

Existing  as  a  community  by  themselves  in 
the  midst  of  the  composite  mass  of  the  Indian 
population,  separated  from  others  by  their 
peculiar  religion  and  customs,  and  with  their  own 
social  organism,  the  Parsees  are  everywhere  well- 
to-do,  intelligent,  and  thrifty.  The  average 
degree  of  wealth  is  probably  higher  among  them 
than  among  any  other  class  in  India.  A  Parsee 
beggar  is  never  seen;  the  Parsee  community 
always  attends  to  the  wants  of  its  own  poor,  and 
suSers  no  members  of  its  race  to  become  a  public 
burden.  Their  dress,  dwellings,  table  appoint- 
ments and  social  usages  are  a  Hindu-European 
combination,  in  which  the  latter  element  tends  to 
increase.  Their  ladies,  handsomely  dressed, 
with  faces  unveiled,  are  seen  driving  in  well- 
appointed  carriages  and  at  public  functions. 
Family  life  among  them  is  generally  happy. 
Formerly  child  marriages  were  a  Parsee  custom, 
but  have  now  been  abandoned,  largely  through 
growing  appreciation  of  education  for  boys  and 
girls. 

Zeal  for  education  is  a  notable  characteristic 
of  the  Parsees.     Up  to  the  time  of  their  contact 


with  the  English,  education  in  their  common 
speech,  Gujarati,  was  rare.  A  smattering  of 
English  was  at  first  acquired  for  business  use, 
but  the  educational  movement  dates  from  the 
early  part  .of  the  19th  century,  when  Parsees 
chiefly  took  advantage  of  the  English  schools 
opened  by  Eurasians.  The  Bombay  Native 
Educational  Society,  founded  in  1820  imder  the 
patronage  of  Governor  Mountstuart  Elphin- 
stone,  was  the  open  door  to  higher  education  for 
the  Parsees  especially.  Upon  the  retirement  of 
this  most  emment  governor  of  Bombay,  the 
Parsees  took  a  leading  part  in  commemorating  his 
services  by  raising  an  endowment  for  the  Elphin- 
stone  Institute  for  the  teaching  of  the  higher 
branches  of  European  sciences  and  literature, 
and  to  this  institution  the  little  Parsee  community 
has  always  supplied  the  majority  of  the  students 
and  in  later  years  occupants  for  important  chairs. 
They  have  also  been  quick  to  take  advantage 
of  the  opportunities  offered  by  the  Jesuit,  and 
the  Scotch  Presbyterian  Missionary  schools  and 
colleges,  and  by  the  English  and  vernacular 
schools,  established  by  the  government  and  by 
private  individuals. 

But  they  have  not  been  merely  recipients  of 
educational  favors.  In  1842,  upon  the  knight- 
ing of  one  of  their  eminent  men  by  the  Queen, 
the  Parsees  celebrated  the  event  by  forming  the 
Sir  Jamshedji  Jijibhoi  Translation  Fund,  to  be 
used  in  the  translation  of  useful  books  into  the 
Gujarati  language,  and  the  knight  and  his  lady 
responded  to  the  compliment  by  founding  the  Sir 
Jamshedji  Jijibhoi  Parsee  Benevolent  Institution, 
with  an  endowment  providing  a  revenue  of  not 
less  than  40,000  rupees  per  annum,  devoted  to  the 
support  of  schools  and  maintenance  of  poor  and 
aged  Parsees.  This  and  other  endowments  have 
provided  a  complete  system  of  schools,  which 
furnishes  an  English  education  for  practically 
the  whole  rising  generation  of  Parsees,  and  many, 
continuing  their  studies  in  the  technical  schools 
of  Bombay  and  in  Europe,  have  attained  dis- 
tinction as  teachers  and  professional  men.  The 
Parsee  Girls'  School  Association  has  made  generous 
provisions  for  female  education.  Gifts  for  edu- 
cation have  been  a  part  of  a  larger  benevolence, 
for  the  Parsees  have  not  only  been  eminent  as 
money-makers,  but  as  money-givers  as  well,  and 
they  have  set  a  good  example  to  Western  donors 
in  making  it  their  habit  to  give  during  their  life- 
time, rather  than  by  legacy.  Bombay  is  so 
dotted  with  roads,  bridges,  wells  and  fountains, 
hospitals,  asylums,  and  colleges  given  by  them 
that  the  city  itself  may  be  said  to  be  their  monu- 
ment. At  the  time  of  his  death  in  1859,  Sir 
Jamshedji  Jijibhoi  bore  the  palm  in  the  history 
of  philanthropy,  having  given  more  than  $1,500,- 
000  to  public  charities,  and  he  by  no  means 
stands  alone  as  a  princely  Parsee  giver.  Their 
philanthropy  has  extended  beyond  their  own 
people,  and  city,  and  country,  as  is  evidenced  in 
their  assumption  of  the  heavy  tax  imposed  by 
Persia  upon  their  fellow-Zoroastrians,  the  Gue- 
bres, and  by  their  gifts  to  various  funds  in  England 
and  to  the  Sanitary  Commission  during  the 
Civil  War  in  the  U.  S.  The  Zoroastrian  or  Parsee 
religion  is  a  monotheism,  recognizing  but  one  God, 
Ahura  Mazda,  or  Ormuzd,  the  Creator,  Ruler,  and 
Preserver  of  the  universe,  without  form  and 
invisible,  and  to  him  all  praise  is  to  be  given  for 
all  the  good  in  this  world  and  for  all  the  blessings 
we  enjoy.  Under  him  are  two  spirits,  Spento 
Mainyush  (the  creator  spirit) ,  and  Angro  Main- 


675 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Parsees 
Parvatipnr- 


yush  (the  destructive  spirit),  througli  whose 
agemcy  and  interaction  he  is  the  cause  of  all 
causes  in  the  universe.  The  Parsee  creed  also 
includes  beUef  in  guardian  spirits  or  angels,  in 
immortality,  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and 
in  rewards  and  punishments.  The  Zend  Avesta 
(the  Zoroastrian  Scripture),  written  in  the 
Bactrian  branch  of  the  Iranian  language,  is  free 
from  immorality  and  cruelty,  both  in  its  char- 
acterization of  deity  and  its  directions  for  wor- 
ship. It  counsels  resistance  to  all  the  activities 
of  the  evil  spirit,  and  predicts  the  final  triumph 
of  good  over  evil. 

Parsee  temples  are  small,  simple  buildings,  and 
contain  no  idcis  or  other  sacred  objects  except 
the  ever-burning  fire.  The  priesthood  is  hered- 
itary. Worship  consists  in  reading  the  Zend 
Avesta,  adoring  the  sacred  fire  as  the  fittest 
symbol  of  Ahura  Mazda,  to  whom,  and  the  good 
spirits,  prayer  is  offered,  sprinkling  with  conse- 
crated water,  partaking  in  common  of  bread 
and  wine,  and  offering  up  the  juice  of  the  Homa 
plant,  which  is  done  not  only  in  the  temples  but 
m  the  houses  twice  a  day.  Magiism  has  influ- 
enced the  development  of  the  religious  system, 
and  astrology  is  practised  in  connection  with  all 
important  events  of  life.  The  Parsees  are  fre- 
quently called  fire-worshipers,  but  they  resent 
this  appellation,  and  claim  that  they  use  fire  as  the 
best  symbol  through  which  to  worship  deity,  just 
as  the  Roman  Catholics  claim  to  use  images,  with 
probably  a  similar  measure  of  truth.  Reverence 
for  the  four  elements,  earth,  air,  fire,  and  water, 
is  a  part  of  their  faith  and  has  induced  that 
peculiar  method  of  disposing  of  the  dead  which 
IS  their  most  commonly  known  peculiarity. 
According  to  their  belief,  a  dead  body,  the  result 
of  the  working  of  the  powers  of  evil,  is  unclean, 
and  must  not  be  allowed  to  contaminate  by  its 

Eresence  any  of  the  elements;  it  can  neither  be 
uried  nor  burnt  nor  thrown  into  the  water,  for 
in  that  way  one  of  the  elements  would  be  defiled. 
It  is  therefore  exposed  in  a  circular  structure 
without  a  roof,  round  the  interior  of  which  runs 
a  shelf  slightly  sloping  toward  an  opening  at  the 
center.  After  being  deposited  in  this  place  the 
vultures  make  swift  work  with  it,  and  the  bones, 
stripped  of  flesh,  are  afterward  swept  down 
through  the  central  aperture  into  a  cavity  below. 
These  structures  are  called  "towers  of  silence," 
and  by  their  use  the  elements  are  saved  from 
contamination  and  sanitation  is  maintained. 

The  study  of  the  Parsee  faith  and  people  invites 
the  judgment  "not  far  from  the  kingdomof  God." 
Their  outward  life  and  demeanor  is  always  respec- 
table and  decorous.  It  is  to  be  feared  that 
their  religion  exerts  but  small  influence  over 
them,  and  that  it  has  deteriorated  to  the  level 
of  a  merely  perfunctory  formalism.  Practically 
they  are  materialists — or  at  least  secularists, 
given  up  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  good  things  of 
this  world  and  satisfied  with  the  practise  of  the 
ordinary  secular  virtues.  And  their  success  in 
securing  riches  and  station  has  induced  a  pride 
that  makes  them  little  accessible  to  the  Gospel. 
The  Parsee  community  was  greatly  stirred  and 
made  formal  protest  to  the  government  when  in 
1839  two  Parsee  youths,  who  afterward  served 
long  as  Christian  ministers,  were  converted 
through  the  teaching  of  Dr.  Wilson.  Tho  this 
resentment  quickly  subsided,  and  gave  place  to 
marked  affection  for  that  distinguished  mission- 
ary, few  Parsees  have  been  converted  since;  and 
because  the  other  inhabitants  of  Bombay  present 


a  so  much  more  promising  field,  little  missionary 
work  has  been  done  among  .them.  But  their 
close  and  intelligent  contact  with  the  people  and 
literature  of  Christendom  has  already  modified 
their  belief.  With  their  readiness  to  profit  by 
the  adoption  of  foreign  usages  in  other  depart- 
ments of  life,  the  hope  is  not  groundless  that  they 
mav  yet,  like  their  M.agi  of  old,  be  drawn  to  Christ 
and  prove  a  power  in  establishing  His  kingdom 
in  the  East. 
Dosabhai  Franji  Karaka's  History  of  the  Parais,  2  vols. 

PARSONS,  Justin  Wright :  Bom  at  Westhamp- 
ton,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A.,  April  26,  1824;  graduated  at 
Williams  College  1848;  sailed  April  24,  1850,  as  a 
missionary  of  the  ABCFM,  for  Turkev.  He  was 
stationed  at  Nicomedia  and  Bardezag.  For 
thirty  years  he  labored  with  unflagging  zeal, 
never  so  well  contented  as  when  upon  tours 
among  the  hills  and  valleys  of  the  district  he 
traversed  so  often,  that  he  might  preach  Christ 
to  the  villagers,  who  learned  to  love  him  and  heed 
his  teachings.  Brave  enough  and  cool  enough 
to  lead  an  army,  he  carried  with  him  no  weapon 
save  the  gospel  of  peace,  and  with  this  he  had 
successfully  disarmed,  through  a  long  series  of 
years,  all  the  opposition  he  met.  He  was  on  a 
missionary  tour  with  Dudukian,  a  native  Chris- 
tian, when  one  evening  in  August,  1880,  they 
camped  for  the  night  on  the  mountain  side. 
During  the  night  some  nomad  Turks  chanced 
that  way  and  shot  the  sleeping  missionary  and 
his  companion  for  the  sake  of  plundering  their 
meager  traveling  kit.  The  outpouring  of  the 
whole  population  at  the  funeral  bore  witness  ta 
the  power  which  the  man's  simple,  devoted  life 
had  among  the  people. 

PARSONS,  Levi:  Bom  at  Goshen,  Mass.,  July 
18,  1792;  graduated  at  Middlebury  College  1814; 
sailed  November  3,  1819,  with  Pliny  Fisk  for 
Smyrna  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM.  After 
spending  some  months  in  Smyrna  and  at  the 
Greek  College  on  the  island  of  Scio  in  order  to 
learn  the  modem  Greek,  Mr.  Parsons  with  Mr. 
Fisk  made  a  tour  of  exploration  through  the 
region  of  the  "Seven  Churches  of  Asia."  This 
was  an  experience  of  considerable  danger  at  that 
time  as  well  as  of  great  interest.  Leaving  Mr. 
Fisk  at  Smyrna,  Mr.  Parsons  went  to  Jerusalem 
in  January,  1821,  to  prepare  for  its  permanent 
occupation.  He  was  the  first  Protestant  mis- 
sionary ever  resident  in  Jerusalem  with  the  inten- 
tion of  making  it  his  field  of  labor.  He  had  let- 
ters to  prominent  Greek  ecclesiastics  there  and 
was  cordially  welcomed.  But  the  outbreak  of 
the  Greek  Revolution  placed  the  Greeks  of  Syria 
in  jeopardy  of  their  lives,  and  Mr.  Parsons  was. 
compelled  to  return  to  Smyrna,  where  in  fact  the 
danger  from  Turkish  fanaticism  was  still  greater. 
After  Mr.  Parsons  and  Mr.  Fisk  met  again,  the 
two  went  together  to  Egypt,  hoping  to  reach 
Jerusalem  safely  from  the  south.  But  Mr.  Par- 
sons sickened  and  died  at  Alexandria  February 
10,  1822,  a  victim  to  his  zeal  to  perform  his  dutiea 
as  a  pioneer  in  that  strange  undertaking  to  carry 
the  Gospel  to  the  people  living  heedless  in  the 
land  where  it  was  first  proclaimed. 

PARUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  British  India, 
situated  in  the  district  of  S.  Arcot,  about  32. 
miles  S.  W.  of  Madurantakam.  Population, 
5,000.  Station  of  the  PB,  with  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife. 

PARVATIPUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,. 
situated  7&  miles  N.  of  Vizagapatam.     Popula- 


Fashtn   Lang-nage 
Peklngr 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


576 


tion,  10,100,  of  whom  9,900  are  Hindus.  Station 
of  the  BerUn  Missionary  Society  (1889),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  19  native  worlc- 
ers,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  3  day  scliools,  1  theological  class,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  G7  professed  Chrisvians. 

PASHTU  LANGUAGE:  The  language  of  some 
5,000,000  people  inhabiting  Afghanistan  and 
adjacent  territory.  Ii  is  also  called  the  Afglian 
language,  or  Afghani.  It  belongs  to  tlie  Iranian 
group  of  Aryan  languages,  and  is  written  wi.h 
Arabic  letters  modified  by  adding  dots,  as  in  Per- 
sian, and  in  a  few  cases  in  a  fashion  peculiar  to 
Pashtu. 

PASUMALAI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  3 
miles  southwest  of  Madras  City,  on  the  railway 
to  Tuticorin.  Climale  healthy;  average  annual 
temperature,  85°  F.;  rainfall,  35  inches.  Station 
of  the  ABCFM  (1845),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries, 
one  with  his  wife ;  36  native  workers,  7  outsta- 
tions, 1  place  of  worship,  9  Sunday  schools,  6  day- 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theological  school, 
1  printing  house,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispensary, 
and  215  professed  Christians. 

PASPUR:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  district  of  Sialkot,  47  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Amritsar.  Population,  9,200,  of  whom  2,400 
are  Hindus  and  6,400  Mohammedans.  Station 
of  the  UP  (1876),  with  (1900)  1  woman  mission- 
ary, 8  Sunday  schools,  5  day  schools,  and  74  com- 
municant Christians. 

PATERSON:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Transkei  region,  about  18 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  Blythwood.  Station  of  the 
UFS  (1868),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  25  native  workers,  14  outstations,  2  places 
of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  11  day  schools,  and 
1,408  professed  Christians 

PATHANKOT:  A  municipality  of  the  Punjab, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Gurdaspur,  about 
68  miles  N.  E.  of  Amritsar,  the  nearest  railway 
station  to  Kangra  and  Dalhousie,  a  sanitary  hill 
etation.  Population,  5,000.  Station  of  the  UP 
(1880),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  woman  missionary,  4  outstations,  1  day  school, 
and  1  Sunady  school. 

PATIALA:  An  ancient  town  in  the  Punjab, 
India,  about  24  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Ambala. 
Population,  5,000.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  15  native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  28 
Sunday  schools,  11  day  schools,  and  474  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  35  are  communicants.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  General 
Synod  of  the  United  States,  with  (1901)  1  woman 
missionary,  5  native  workers,  4  outstations,  60 
professed  Christians,  2  places  of  worship,  1  day 
school,  and  1  dispensary. 

PATNA:  A  city  in  Bengal,  India,  on  the 
Ganges,  320  miles  northwest  of  Calcutta.  The 
town  is  extensive,  but  its  streets  are  narrow  and 
crooked,  audits  houses  irregularly  built,  of  many 
materials.  It  is  on  the  East  Indian  R.  R.,  and 
is  the  center  of  the  opium  trade.  Climate  said 
to  be  unhealthy,  but  the  natives  are  strong  in 
physique  and  give  no  evidence  of  this.  Popula- 
tion (1901)  134,785.  ^  Station  of  the  BMS  (1888), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,.  3 
native  workers,  1  Sunday  school,  and  1  day 
school.  Station  also  of  the  ZBM,  with  7  women 
missionaries,  7  native  workers,  1  day  school,  1 
dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  150  Zenana  pupils. 

PATPARA :  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces  of 


India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Mandla,  42  miles 
S.  E.  of  Jabalpur.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1887), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1 
place  of  worship,  6  day  schools,  1  hospital,  1 
orphanage,  and  576  professed  Christians,  of 
wliom  103  are  communicants  (including  Marpha). 
Station  also  of  the  MLI  (1895),  with  (1903)  1 
leper  asylum 

PATTERSON,  Alexander:  A  native  of  Leith, 
Scotland;  sent  out  by  the  Scottish  Missionary 
Society  to  explore  Tatary  in  1802,  accompanied 
by  Henry  Brunton.  On  arriving  at  St.  Peters- 
burg he  met  so  many  discouragements  that  he 
felt  inclined  to  turn  back,  when  he  unexpectedly 
found  a  friend  in  the  lord  of  the  emperor's  bed- 
chamber, M.  Novassilgoil.  Passports  were  given 
him,  and  full  liberty  granted  to  travel  through 
the  empire,  and  select  any  place  as  a  residence 
agreeable  to  him.  The  government  also  gave 
them  a  large  grant  of  land,  and  permission  to 
keep  under  their  care  and  instruction  any  Tatar 
youths  they  might  ransom  from  slavery  until 
they  were  twenty-three  years  of  age. 

They  chose  a  Mohammedan  village  called 
Karass,  in  the  Nogai  Steppe,  as  the  place  for  the 
commencement  of  their  mission.  Both  the  mis- 
sionaries studied  the  Turkish  language.  As  soon 
as  they  began  circulating  some  tracts  they  had 
written  in  the  language  great  interest  was 
excited,  and  discussions  arose  as  to  the  merits  of 
Christ  and  Mohammed,  and  many  persons  of 
rank  became  interested  in  the  teachings  of  the 
Gospel. 

In  1805  Mr.  Patterson  had  the  joy  of  seeing 
several  of  the  ransomed  youths  embrace  Chris- 
tianity and  be  baptized.  They  also  went  with 
him  on  his  journeys,  acting  as  interpreters.  In 
1810  the  mission  was  making  such  progress 
among  the  people  that  the  Mohammedan  priests 
became  alarmed,  and  aroused  the  bitterest  oppo- 
sition. The  Mohammedan  tribes  south  of  Karass 
were  so  zealous  that  they  threatened  to  kill  all 
who  bore  the  Christian  name.  The  Mohamme- 
dan schools  were  crowded  with  scholars,  who 
were  taught  to  read  that  they  might  defend  the 
faith. 

Ii  1813  the  missionaries  were  obliged  to  move 
to  the  fortified  town  Georghievisk,  about  30  miles 
from  Karass,  on  account  of  the  constant  irruptions 
of  hostile  Turks .  While  here  the  translation 
and  binding  of  the  New  Testament  were  fin- 
ished. In  1814  the  missionaries  again  went 
back  to  Karass.  In  1816  Mr.  Patterson  took 
with  him  one  of  the  ransomed  slaves  and  made 
a  tour  through  the  Crimea,  distributing  tracts 
and  Turkish  Testaments.  The  journey  almost 
cost  him  his  life,  but  he  felt  amply  repaid  in  the 
reception  he  met  from  all  classes  of  people. 

PATTESON,  John  Coleridge:  The  missionary 
bishop  and  martyr  of  Melanesia,  born  London, 
England,  April  2,  1827.  His  father  was  Sir 
John  Patteson,  a  distinguished  English  judge, 
and  his  mother  a  niece  of  Samuel  Taylor  Cole- 
ridge, the  poet.  He  was  educated  at  Ottery  St. 
Mary,  Devonshire,  1835-37;  at  Eton,  1838;  Baliol 
College,  Oxford,  graduating  B.A.,  1845.  In  1849 
he  obtained  a  scholarship  in  Merton  College. 
Through  his  schooldays  he  took  high  rank  as  a 
linguist.  In  ]  852  he  became  a  Fellow  of  Merton 
College.  In  1853  he  was  curate  of  Alfington,  and 
in  1854  was  ordained.  In  1855,  March  29,  he 
sailed  with  Bishop  Selwyn  to  the  Melanesian 
Islands,  in  the  South  Pacific.     During  the  voy- 


677 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP   MISSIONS 


Pashtn  Lanf^nntire 
FekinK 


age  he  acquired  the  Maori  language.  For  five 
years  he  was  assistant  to  the  bishop  in  conducting 
a  training  school  for  native  assistants.  In  1861 
he  was  made  bishop  of  the  Melanesian  Islands. 
He  now  reduced  to  writing  several  of  the  island 
languages,  which  before  this  had  never  been 
written.  He  also  prepared  grammars  of  these 
languages  and  translated  parts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  the  Lifu  language.  His  headquarters 
after  being  appointed  bishop  were  at  Motu,  in 
the  Northern  New  Hebrides,  from  which  he  made 
frequent  excursions  and  voyages  to  the  other 
islands  of  his  diocese  in  the  mission  ship  "The 
Southern  Cross,"  exerting  himself  in  various  ways 
for  the  good  of  the  people.  When  the  mission- 
ary ship,  as  it  cruised  among  the  islands,  ap- 
proached Nakapu  Island,  some  of  the  islanders, 
mistaking  it  for  a  craft  which  had  kidnaped 
some  of  the  islanders,  determined  to  avenge 
themselves.  The  bishop,  unsuspicious,  lowered 
his  boat,  and  went  to  meet  them  coming  in  their 
canoes.  According  to  their  custom,  they  asked 
him  to  get  into  one  of  their  boats,  which  he  did, 
and  was  taken  to  the  shore.  He  was  never  seen 
alive  again.  Immediate  search  was  made,  and 
his  body  found,  pierced  with  five  wounds.  In 
early  life  he  was  a  leader  in  all  athletic  sports. 
The  same  elastic  strength  of  body  and  skill  in 
manipulation  fitted  him  to  be  preacher,  teacher, 
navigator,  friend,  and  exemplar  in  the  useful  arts 
to  the  Melanesian  tribes. 

PAUL,  Samuel:  Born  in  1843.  Died  in  1900. 
A  native  Christian  of  India.  Educated  at  Palam- 
cotta  Preparandi  Institution.  Appointed  by 
the  CMS  catechist  at  Ootacamund,  and  in  1874 
he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Tamil  local  mis- 
sion at  the  same  place.  He  was  the  first  to 
organize  this  mission,  and  after  his  faithful 
service  at  Ootacamund  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Northern  Pastorate,  in  the  city  of  Madras,  where 
he  accomplished  much  for  the  development  of 
the  congregation  at  Black  Town.  Subsequently 
Sachiapuram,  in  the  Tinnevelli  district,  was  his 
headquarters,  and  he  was  appointed  vice- 
chairman  of  the  native  church  council  in  Tinne- 
velli, and  chairman  of  two  important  church 
circles.  Mr.  Paul  did  a  good  work  for  Tamil 
Christian  literature.  He  prepared  for  publica- 
tion a  large  number  of  important  works — origi- 
nal and  translations — which  have  been  widely 
read  by  Tamil  Christians.  The  following  works 
from  his  pen  are  worthy  of  special  mention: 
Edited  (in  Tamil)  History  oj  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land; History  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer; 
Geography  of  the  Madras;  "  Zillah;"  Geography  of 
the  Nilgherries,  and  several  translations  from 
the  Madras  Tract  Society  and  the  Christian 
Vernacular  Education  Society.  Chiefly  for  his 
literary  work  he  was  honored  by  the  Government 
with  the  title  of  "Rao  Sahib"  ("Rao"  is  a 
Hindu  title  for  a  chief  or  prince).  Mr.  Paul  left  a 
deep  impression  for  good  upon  his  native  land. 

PAURI:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Garhwal  about 
25  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Dwarahat.  Station  of  the 
ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
woman  missionary,  60  native  workers,  7  places  of 
worship,  12  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1 
orphanage,  35  Sunday  schools,  and  521  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  218  are  communicants. 

PAYNE,  John:    Born  in    1814;  appointed  in 
1836   by   the    Protestant    Episcopal    Missionary 
Society  in  the  United  States  as  missionary  to 
37 


Africa,  and  sailed  May,  1837,  reaching  Cape 
Palmas,  Liberia,  on  the  4th  of  July  following. 
He  was  consecrated  missionary  bishop  July  11, 
1851.  During  thirty-four  years  he  was  a  faithful 
and  laborious  worker,  both  as  a  missionary  and 
bishop,  in  one  of  the  most  unhealthy  portions  of 
the  globe,  until  the  strain  of  it  left  him  a  mere 
wreck  of  a  man.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1871, 
and  died  at  Oak  Grove,  Westmoreland  Co.,  Va., 
October  23,  1874,  aged  60. 

PEA  RADJA :  A  settlement  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
E.  Indies,  situated  in  the  Silindung  Valley, 
about  25  miles  N.  E.  of  Siboga.  It  is  the  central 
point  of  the  Rhenish  mission  in  the  Silindung 
region,  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  4  women  missionaries,  90  native  workers, 
8  outstations,  8  Sunday  schools,  11  day  schools, 

I  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  8,046  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  3,701  are  communicants. 

PEDDAPUR :  A  town  of  Madras,  India,  in  the 
district  of  Godavari,  87  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Viza- 
gapatam.  Population,  13,700,  of  whom  13,000 
are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  BOQ  (1891),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  24 
native  workers,  7  outstations,  7  places  of  worship, 

II  Sunday  schools,  8  day  schools,  7  places  of 
worship,  and  320  professed  Christians.  Some 
write  the  name  Peddapuram. 

PEDDIE:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  Africa,  situ- 
ated 25  miles  S.  W.  of  King  William's  Town. 
Station  of  the  SPG,  with  1  missionary  and  236 
professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  South 
Africa  Wesleyan  Methodists,  with  1  missionary, 
43  native  workers,  20  outstations,  6  places  of 
worship,  6  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  and 
391  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
Women's  Society  of  the  same  church,  with  1 
woman  missionary  and  1  boarding  school. 
Some  use  the  name  Fort  Peddie. 

PEDI  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Bantu  family  of 
African  languages,  spoken  by  a  number,  not  yet 
known,  of  tribes  inhabiting,  for  the  most  part,  the 
Transvaal  Colony  in  South  Africa.  It  has  been 
reduced  to  writing  by  missionaries,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  Roman  alphabet  has  been  used. 

PEGU:  A  town  in  Burma,  British  India;  the 
former  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Pegu,  40  miles 
northeast  of  Rangoon,  on  the  railroad  to  Man- 
dalay.  The  inhabitants  are  largely  Talaings  or 
Peguans.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1887),  with 
(1903)  2  women  missionaries,  13  native  workers, 
6  outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday 
schools,  3  day  schools,  and  275  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  5 
Sunday  schools,  1  day  school,  and  157  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  39  are  communicants. 

PEI-KAN:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kiang-si, 
China,  situated  56  miles  E.  of  Nan-chang-fu. 
Station  of  ohe  CIM  (1893),  with  (1903)  2  women 
missionaries,  3  native  workers,  2  outstations,  4 
places  of  worship,  and  25  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Peh-kan. 

PEKING:  Capital  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  situ- 
ated on  a  plain  about  12  miles  southwest  of  the 
Pei-ho,  in  latitude  39°  54'  36"  north,  longitude 
116°  27'  east.  Its  name  means  Northern  Capital, 
in  opposition  to  Nanking,  which  was  the  capital 
for  a  time.  It  became  the  seat  of  government 
under  Kublai  Khan  in  1264,  and  has  continued 
to  be  the  capital  ever  since,  except  during  the 
years    when    the    emperors     held    their    court 


Peking 
Persia 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


578 


at  Nanking.  The  city  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
each  surrounded  by  a  wall.  The  inner  or  Manchu 
city,  where  are  the  palace,  government  buildings, 
and  barracks,  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  an 
average  height  of  50  feet  and  a  circumference  of 
14  miles.  Adjoining  this  at  the  south  is  the 
outer  or  Chinese  city,  whose  wall  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world,  being  10  miles  in  circuit,  30 
feet  high,  15  feet  broad  at  the  top  and  30  feet  at 
the  ground,  pierced  with  16  gates,  each  one  sur- 
mounted with  a  many-storied  tower  100  feet  high, 
with  embrasures  for  cannon.  Within  both  walls 
is  enclosed  about  26  square  miles,  and  the  great 
size  of  Peking,  with  the  numerous  public  build- 
ings, the  palaces,  pagodas,  temples,  broad  avenues, 
lofty  gates  and  massive  wall,  has  challenged  the 
wonder  of  all  visitors  since  the  stories  of  Marco 
Polo  gave  him  an  unjust  reputation  as  a  second 
Munchausen.  Within  the  Manchu  city  a  smaller 
enclosure,  of  three  miles  in  circuit,  surrounds  the 
"Forbidden  City,"  containing  the  palaces  of  the 
emperor  and  his  consort.  The  age  of  the  city  is 
not  definitely  known.  It  has  been  buUt  and 
rebuilt  many  times,  and  now  is  not  at  the  zenith 
of  its  magnificence,  which  it  attained  at  the  time 
of  the  Emperor  Kanghi.  It  is  the  best  specimen 
of  a  purely  Asiatic  city  now  existing.  The  popu- 
lation is  of  a  most  varied  character.  Chinese  pre- 
dominate, but  Manchus  are  numerous,  and 
Kalmucks,  Tatars,  Koreans,  Russians,  and  rep- 
resentatives of  almost  every  country  of  Cen- 
tral Asia  are  found  in  the  crowds  that  throng  its 
streets,  and  add  to  the  picturesqueness  of 
its  appearance  by  the  motley  and  diversified 
colors  of  their  dress.  The  number  of  inhabitants 
has  been  variously  estimated  from  1,000,000  to 
3,000,000 — the  mean  between  these  two  esti- 
mates is  probably  correct.  By  reason  of  the  lack 
of  tall  spires  or  buildings,  the  view  from  a  dis- 
tance is  not  imposing,  the  only  prominent  build- 
ings being  the  Clock  Tower,  where  a  water  clock 
measures  the  time,  and  the  Bell  Tower,  whose 
ancient  bell  (cast  in  1406),  the  largest  suspended 
bell  in  the  world  (120,000  lbs.  weight),  tolls  forth 
the  watches  of  the  night.  Of  the  many  noteworthy 
buildings,  none  is  of  such  interest  to  the  mission- 
ary as  the  altars  where  the  emperor  offers  wor- 
ship to  Heaven  and  to  the  Earth.  (See  Confucian- 
ism.) The  Altar  to  Heaven  stands  to  the  left  of  the 
south  gate,  within  the  Chinese  city;  the  Altar  to 
Earth  is  without  the  walls,  to  the  north  of  the 
Manchu  city.  Separated  only  by  a  wall  from  the 
Altar  to  Heaven  is  the  "Altar  of  Prayer  for  Grain," 
often  wrongly  called  the  Temple  of  Heaven,  which 
was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  of  the  East. 
Its  triple,  dome-shaped  roofs  towered  100  feet 
high,  and  were  covered  with  blue  porcelain  tiles. 
Its  base  was  a  triple  terraced  altar  of  white 
marble.  Large  teakwood  pillars  arranged  in  cir- 
cular rows  supported  its  roofs,  and  it  was  enclosed 
with  windows,  shaded  with  blinds  of  blue-glass 
rods.  The  destruction  of  this  temple  by  fire  in 
the  fall  of  1889  was  regarded  by  the  Chinese  as  a 
visitation  of  the  wrath  of  Heaven  upon  the  em- 
peror himself.  Not  only  is  worship  paid  to 
Heaven,  but  the  temples  of  almost  every  form  of 
religious  belief  are  found  here.  Islam  is  repre- 
sented by  the  mosque  outside  of  the  south- 
western angle  of  the  Imperial  city,  in  the  midst  of 
a  number  of  Mohammedans  who  came  from 
Turkestan  over  a  hundred  years  ago.  Not  far 
from  the  mosque,  to  the  southwest,  is  an  old 
Portuguese  church,  and  inside  of  the  Manchu  city, 
west  of  the  Forbidden  City,  is  the  Roman  Catholic 


cathedral.  The  Greek  Church  and  various 
Protestant  churches  also  have  their  respective 
houses  of  worship,  besides  Buddhism  and  the 
pantheon  of  Chinese  gods  or  deified  heroes. 

In  the  limited  space  of  this  article  no  more 
than  a  mere  mention  can  be  made  of  the  Sacri- 
ficial Hall  to  Confucius;  the  monument  to  the 
lama  who  died,  some  say  was  murdered,  at 
Peking;  the  examination  hall,  and  the  parks 
and  artificial  lakes  with  which  successive  em- 
perors have  beautified  the  city.  The  ruins  of  the 
Summer  Palace,  which  was  destroyed  by  the 
allied  French  and  English  forces  during  the 
occupation  of  the  city  in  1860,  lie  to  the  northwest 
of  the  city,  about  7  miles  away.  Here  small  hills 
with  intervening  vales  had  been  beautified  with, 
pleasure-houses  and  bowers  in  the  best  of  Chinese 
style,  and  in  the  various  buildings  were  collected 
the  treasures  of  many  dynasties  and  monarchs; 
a  rich  booty  they  proved  to  the  wanton  pillage  of 
the  soldiers.  Following  the  Boxer  outbreak  and 
the  memorable  siege  of  the  British  Legation,  the 
troops  which  saved  the  beleaguered  foreigners  in 
August,  1900,  similarly  looted  the  palaces  of  the 
Forbidden  City.  The  incidents  of  the  weeks  of 
foreign  occupation  of  Peking  will  not  readily  be 
forgotten  by  any  Chinese. 

The  streets  of  Peking  are  in  general  wide  and 
spacious.  The  center  is  sometimes  paved  and 
is  somewhat  higher  than  at  the  sides.  In  sum- 
mer the  dust  from  the  unpaved  portion,  and  in 
winter  the  mud,  make  them  intensely  disagree- 
able to  the  passer-by.  The  aspect  of  the  city 
entirely  differs  from  that  of  the  other  Chinese 
cities,  where  commerce  brings  a  distinctive 
European  element  and  settlement.  The  climate 
is  healthy,  but  subjtct  to  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold,  and  the  dryness  for  ten  months  of  the  year 
is  hard  to  bear.  Peking  Mandarin,  as  the  lan- 
guage of  the  capital  is  called,  is  the  standard 
language  of  the  empire. 

Missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  Peking  by  the 
following  Societies:  LMS  (1861),  PN  (1863), 
SPG  (1863),  ABCFM  (1864),  ME  (1869),  CA,  and 
the  Mission  to  Chinese  Blind.  These  societies 
together  have  (1903)  57  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  48  native  workers,  24  places  of  worship, 
22  schools,  9  dispensaries  or  hospitals,  2  printing 
houses,  and  1,473  professed  Christians.  Besides 
these  societies  the  YMCA  has  a  local  secretary 
here  and  theNational  Bible  Society  of  Scotland 
maintains  an  agent,  with  8  native  workers. 

PELLA:  A  town  in  the  Transvaal,  South  Africa, 
in  the  district  of  Rustenberg,  and  about  100 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  Pretoria.  Population,  3,000. 
Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 
(1868),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2 
native  workers,  1  outstation,  2  places  of  worship, 
1  day  school,  and  728  professed  Christians. 

PELOTAS:  A  town  and  seaport  of  Brazil,  South 
America,  situated  in  the  State  of  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul,  at  the  S.  W.  of  Lake  Patos.  Popula- 
tion, 33,000.  Station  of  the  American  Church 
Missionary  Society  (1892),  with  (1901)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  outstation,  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Young  People's  Society,  and  93  professed 
Christians. 

PEMBA  ISLAND :  An  island  off  the  E.  coast  of 
Africa,  30  miles  N.  of  Zanzibar,  and  belonging  tO' 
the  British  protectorate  of  Zanzibar.  It  pro- 
duces excellent  timber  and  plentiful  supplies  for 
shipping.  Population,  10,000.  Station  of  the 
Universities   Mission   to   Central   Africa   (1898), 


579 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


PekinpT 
Persia 


with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman 
missionary,  3  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1 
place  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  dispensary,  and  41  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  24  are  communicants. 

PENAWG,  or  PRINCE  OF  WALES  ISLAND :  An 

island  lying  at  the  north  entrance  of  the  Straits  of 
Malacca,  and  one  of  the  Straits  Settlements 
belonging  to  England.  It  contains  106  square 
miles,  reaches  an  altitude,  in  the  hilly  district,  of 
2,922  feet,  and  has  a  rich,  fertile  soil,  where 
tropical  fruits  and  spices  are  cultivated.  The 
climate  is  healthy,  and  rain  falls  every  month  in 
the  year.  Georgetown,  the  capital,  is  at  the  north- 
eastern end  of  the  island.  Population,  including 
Province  Wellesley  and  the  Bindings  (1901), 
248,207,  of  whom  140,102  are  Chinese,  Malays, 
and  other  Asiatics.  The  Europeans  and  Ameri- 
cans number  1,160.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife ;  4  women 
missionaries,  8  native  workers,  1  outstation,  4 
places  of  worship,  10  Sunday  schools,  4  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  242  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  132  are  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  PB,  with  5  missionaries,  four 
of  them  with  their  wives,  and  4  women  mission- 
aries. Station  also  of  the  SPG  (1871),  with 
(1903)  5  native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  2 
day  schools,  and  143  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  25  are  communicants.  The  BFBS  has 
an  agent  residing  here. 

PENDRA  ROAD:  A  railroad  station  in  the 
Central  Provinces  of  India,  situated  about  60 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Bilaspur.  Station  of  the 
CWBM  (1901),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

PERAK:  A  protected  British  state  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  lying  S.  of  Siamese  Kedah  and 
Province  of  Wellesley,  and  N.  of  Selangor.  In 
Perak  is  a  station  of  the  PB,  with  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives  and  1  woman  missionary. 
There  is  a  station  also  of  the  SPG,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  1  native  worker,  2  places  of  worship, 
and  45  professed  Christians. 

PERIAKULAM :  A  municipality  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  44  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Madura. 
Population,  16,400,  of  whom  14,000  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1856),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  52  native  workers,  42 
outstations,  34  places  of  worship,  29  Sunday 
schools,  23  day  schools,  and  996  professed 
Christians. 

PERIE :  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa, 
situated  15  mUes  N.  W.  of  King  William's  Town, 
in  a  well-timbered  region.  Station  of  the  UFS, 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  23  native  workers, 
9  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  9  day  schools, 
and  737  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name  Pirie. 

PERKINS,  Justin:  Born  at  West  Springfield, 
Mass.,  March  12,  1805;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College,  1829;  studied  theology  at  Andover;  em- 
barked September  21,  1833,  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Nestorian 
Mission  at  Urmia,  Persia.  Schools  established 
by  Dr.  Perkins  and  Dr.  Grant  are  now  flourishing 
seminaries.  Dr.  Perkins  translated  the  Scrip- 
tures and  several  religious  books  into  Syriac. 
He  visited  the  United  States  in  1842,  accom- 
panied by  the  Nestorian  bishop.  Mar  Yohannan, 
whose  presence  and  addresses  awakened  a  deep 
interest  in  the  mission.  Returning  to  Persia  in 
1843,  he  labored  successfully    at  his  post,  and 


ably  defended  Protestantism  against  misrepre- 
sentation and  persecution.  In  1869  impaired 
health  compelled  him  to  relinquish  the  work,  in 
which  he  had  been  engaged  for  thirty-six  years. 
He  died  at  Chicopee,  Mass.,  in  the  same  year. 

PERNAMBUCO:  A  city  and  seaport  on  the 
N.  E.  coast  of  Brazil,  S.  America,  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Beberibe  and  Capeberibe.  It  is  the 
greatest  sugar  mart  in  the  country.  The  business 
houses  of  the  city  are  chiefly  built  on  alow,  sandy 
peninsula  called  Recife,  and  the  city  is  often 
spoken  of  as  "Recife"  for  this  reason.  The 
central  part  of  the  city  stands  on  the  island  of 
S.  Antonio,  while  the  finer  residential  districts 
are  at  Boa  Vista,  on  the  mainland.  Formerly 
the  city  was  very  dirty  and  suffered  from  a  lack 
of  water.  This  has  now  been  changed  to  a  great 
extent,  as  prosperity  has  brought  wealth  and 
attracted  Europeans  as  residents.  The  popu- 
lation (1890)  is  111,555,  composed  of  very  mixed 
elements.     Station  of  the  PS  (1873),  with  (1903) 

1  missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  2 
places  of  worship,  1  theological  class,  1  dispensary, 
18  outstations,  and  576  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  SBC  (1889),  with  (19031  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  12  native  workers, 
34  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  5  day  schools, 

2  Sunday  schools,  and  569  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  Help  for  Brazil  Society. 

PERSIA:  The  modern  kingdom  of  Persia, 
called  by  the  natives  Iran,  occupies,  roughly 
speaking,  that  part  of  Western  Asia  lying  between 
the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north  and  the  Persian 
Gulf  on  the  south,  Afghanistan  and  Baluchis  an 
on  the  east  and  Turkey  on  the  west.  Its  exact 
boundaries  have  not  as  yet  been  definitely  locaied, 
but  starting  from  Mount  Ararat  at  the  northwest, 
the  river  Aras  forms  the  greater  part  of  its  bound- 
ary line  between  that  part  of  Russia  lying  west 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  tho  there  is  a  small  strip  of 
country  extending  south  of  the  river  Aras  along 
the  Caspian  Sea  which  does  not  belong  to  Persia. 
East  of  the  Caspian,  Russian  Turkestan  bounds 
it  on  the  north,  tho  the  exact  limits  of  Persian 
territory  have  not  been  accurately  settled,  Rus- 
sian authorities  claiming  more  than  is  allowed 
by  other  European  powers.  On  the  east  the 
boundary  lines  between  Afghanistan  and  Balu- 
chistan have  been  determined  by  British  commis- 
sioners at  different  times,  altho  some  parts  of  it 
are  still  disputed.  Its  southern  and  south- 
western boundary  is  the  coast-line  of  the  Arabian 
Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its  western  boundary 
from  Mount  Ararat  in  a  general  southwesterly 
direction  to  the  Persian  Gulf  is  the  disputed  Perso- 
Turkish  frontier,  for  the  settlement  of  which  a 
mixed  commission,  appointed  in  1843,  labored 
for  25  years,  with  the  result  that  the  disputed 
territory  has  been  defined  rather  than  the  exact 
boundaries  delimited. 

Persia  extends  for  about  700  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  900  miles  from  east  to  west,  and 
includes  an  area  estimated  at  628,000  square 
miles.  The  greater  part  of  this  region  is  an 
elevated  plateau,  almost  a  perfect  tableland  in 
the  center  and  on  the  east,  but  cut  up  by  moun- 
tain chains  on  the  north,  the  west,_  and  the 
south.  More  than  three-fourths  of  its  entire 
surface  is  desert  land,  but  many  of  the  valleys 
between  the  high  mountain  ranges  are  wonder- 
fully fertile  and  exceedingly  beautiful.  Rare 
flowers,  luscious  fruits,  valuable  timber,  and 
mountain  brooks  and  torrents  make  the  land  a 


Persia 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


580 


scene  of  picturesque  beauty  which  is  celebrated 
in  history  and  song,  and  indissolubly  connected 
with  the  ideas  of  Persia.  With  such  a  diversity 
of  physical  characteristics  there  is  of  necessity 
a  diversity  of  climate.  On  the  plateau  the 
climate  is  temperate;  at  Ispahan  summer  and 
winter  are  equally  mild,  and  regular  seasons 
follow  each  other.  At  the  north  and  the  north- 
west severe  winters  are  experienced,  while  the 
inhabitants  of  the  desert  region  in  the  center 
and  on  the  east  of  it  are  scorched  in  summer 
&iid  frozen  in  winter.  Along  the  Caspian  Sea 
"the  summer  heat  is  intense,  while  the  winters 
are  mild,  and  heavy  and  frequent  rainfalls  make 
the  low  country  marshy  and  unhealthy.  In 
the  southern  provinces,  tho  the  heat  in  autumn 
is  excessive,  winter  and  spring  are  delightful; 
and  summer,  tho  hot,  is  not  unpleasant,  since 
the  atmosphere  of  Persia  in  general  is  remark- 
able for  its  dryness  and  purity. 

The  population  of  Persia  is  about  9,000,000. 
The  majority  are  engaged  mainly  in  agriculture, 
and  the  best  wheat  in  the  world,  together  with 
other  cereals,  is  raised,  and  cotton,  sugar,  rice, 
and  tobacco  are  produced  in  the  southern  prov- 
inces. The  wandering  tribes  dwell  in  tents, 
and  move  about  with  their  flocks  and  herds  as 
the  seasons  succeed  each  other,  spending  the 
spring  and  summer  on  the  mountam  slopes  and 
the  winter  on  the  plains.  The  two  principal 
races  are  the  Turks  and  the  Persians.  There 
are  also  Arabs,  Kurds,  Leks,  and  Baluchis. 

The  principal  cities  of  Persia,  with  their  popu- 
lation, are:  Teheran,  250,000;  Tabriz,  185,000; 
Ispahan  and  Meshed,  each  with  80,000;  Kerman 
and  Yezd,  each  wiih  60,000.  It  is  estimated 
that  8,000,000  of  the  population  belong  to  the 
Shiah  faith,  750,000  are  Sunnis,  10,500  Parsees, 
20,000  Jews,  53,000  Armenians,  and  30,000  Nes- 
torians. 

The  government  of  Persia  is  similar  to  that 
of  Turkey.  It  is  a  kingdom  whose  king  is  called 
the  Shah.  He  is  the  absolute  ruler  and  the 
master  of  the  lives  and  goods  of  aU  his  subjects; 
but  tho  his  power  is  absolute,  he  must  not  act 
contrary  to  the  accepted  doctrines  of  the  Moham- 
medan religion  as  laid  down  by  the  prophet  and 
interpreted  by  the  highpriesthood.  The  laws 
are  based  on  the  precepts  of  the  Koran,  and  the 
Shah  is  regarded  as  vicegerent  of  the  prophet. 
A  ministry,  divided  into  several  departments, 
after  the  European  fashion,  assists  him  in  the 
executive  department  of  the  government.  A 
governor-general  is  appointed  over  each  one  of 
the  27  provinces,  who  is  directly  responsible  to 
the  central  government.  The  nomad  tribes  are 
ruled  over  by  their  chiefs,  who  are  responsible  to 
the  governors. 

The  only  instruction  of  the  bulk  of  the  popu- 
lation is  from  the  teachings  of  the  Koran,  but 
there  are  a  great  number  of  so-called  colleges 
supported  by  public  funds,  where  students  are 
instructed  not  only  in  religion,  and  Persian  and 
Arabic  literature,  but  also  in  scientific  knowledge. 
History:  It  is  not  the  province  of  this  article 
to  give  any  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  country 
of  Persia,  but  the  following  dates  of  the  prin- 
cipal epochs  in  its  history  may  be  of  service. 
From  the  earliest  records,  dating  back  to  about 
2,000  B.C.,  the  first  rulers  of  Persia  were  the 
Medes,  who  conquered  Babylonia  and  estab- 
lished a  Medo-Persian  empire,  which  lasted, 
under  the  rule  of  famous  kings — Cyrus,  Cam- 
byses,   Darius,   Xerxes,   and    Artaxerxes — until 


the  conquest  by  Alexander  the  Great,  331  B.C., 
when  the  Greek  and  Parthian  Empire  was  estab- 
lished, which  ended  about  the  middle  of  the 
2d  century.  The  Sassanian  Empire,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  3d  century  lasted  until  about 
the  end  of  the  7th,  when  the  period  of  Arabian 
domination  commenced,  and  gradually  grew  in 
extent  and  influence.  Mohammedanism  com- 
pletely captured  the  life  and  permeated  the 
thought  of  the  people  to  the  very  core.  Persia 
was  at  times  a  province,  and  the  center  of  the 
Arabian  Empire,  under  successive  rulers  of 
Arab,  Turk,  or  Mongol  origin.  The  sway  of 
the  Timurides  and  Turkomans  lasted  from  1405 
to  1499.  From  1499  to  1736  the  Sufi  or  Sufawi 
dynasty  ruled  the  country.  Its  founder  was 
Ismail  Sufi.  With  the  accession  of  Nadir  Shah, 
1736,  the  last  native  Persian  dynasty  passed 
away.  At  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah  in  1747  a 
period  of  anarchy,  followed  by  short  reigns  of 
various  despots,  ensued,  until  in  1794  Agha 
Mohammed  ascended  the  throne — the  first  of 
the  reigning  dynasty  of  the  Kajars.  The  present 
Shah,  Muzaffar-ed-din,  succeeded  his  father  in 
1896. 

Missions  in  Persia:  When  the  religion  of  Christ 
was  accepted  by  Constantine  (312)  it  was  stig- 
matized b}'  the  rival  empire  of  the  East  as  the 
religion  of  the  Romans.  Religious  zeal  and 
national  feeling  united  against  it,  and  bitter  per- 
secutions continued  in  Persia  for  a  century  after 
they  had  ceased  in  the  Roman  Empire.  The 
sufferings  of  Christians  imder  Shaplir  II.,  the 
Sassanian,  were  as  terrible  as  any  experienced 
under  Diocletian. 

In  tlie  face  of  these  obstacles  it  is  clear  that 
the  Christian  faith  had  a  harder  mission  field  in 
Asia  than  in  Europe.  The  3d  century  saw 
Christian  missions  there  advancing  generally  in 
peace.  The  4th  century  was  full  of  conflict  and 
persecution,  with  an  open  door  and  many  adver- 
saries. The  pious  and  zealous  monks  of  Egypt 
and  Syria  were  the  leading  missionaries,  and 
their  labors  are  still  attested  by  the  many 
churches  that  bear  their  names  in  Mesopotamia 
and  among  the  Nestorians.  The  Armenians 
were  largely  converted,  and  the  Georgians.  In 
this  century  also  strong  heretical  sects  took 
shape,  that  have  left  relics  to  the  present  day. 
In  the  5th  century  the  bitter  controversies 
within  the  church  resulted  in  the  separation  of 
the  Eastern  Christians  from  the  West.  The  Nes- 
torian  controversy  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
(431)  resulted  in  a  schism  which  was  carried 
thence  to  Edessa,  and  thence  to  Persia.  The 
separation  of  the  main  body  of  Christians  under 
the  Persian  rule  was  completed  in  a  council  held 
at  Seleucia  499.  There  were  political  reasons 
for  this  separation  as  well  as  theological.  It 
gave  satisfaction  to  the  Persian  Government 
to  have  its  Christian  subjects  break  their  connec- 
tion entirely  with  the  Romans,  and  thus  it  gave 
rest  from  persecution.  In  the  6th  and  7th 
centuries  there  was  much  missionary  activity 
by  the  Persian  Church. 

Under  the  Caliphs:  641-1258.  The  dominant 
religion  of  Persia  from  the  primeval  days  had 
been  the  faith  of  Zoroaster.  Christianity  failed 
to  overthrow  it.  To  this  mighty  religion,  which 
once  seemed  likely  to  supersede  all  others  and 
be  proclaimed  in  the  edicts  of  the  great  king 
over  Europe  as  well  as  Asia,  the  fatal  blow  came 
suddenly,  and  from  a  quarter  least  expected. 
The  Persian  Emperor  received  a  letter  one  day 


681 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Persia 


from  "the  camel-driver  of  Mecca,"  bidding  him 
abjure  the  faith  of  his  ancestors  and  confess  that 
"there  is  no  God  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  the 
prophet  of  God."  The  indignant  monarch  tore 
the  letter  to  pieces,  and  drove  the  camel-drivers 
who  brought  it  from  his  presence.  But  before  ten 
years  had  passed  the  Arab  hordes  had  driven 
the  Persian  from  his  throne.  Persia,  defeated 
in  two  decisive  battles,  reluctantly  gave  up  the 
contest.  The  whole  system  fell  with  a  crash, 
and  the  only  remnants  left  to  perpetuate  its 
rites  are  some  6,000  souls  in  Yezd,  a  city  of  Persia, 
and  100,000  Parsees  in  Bombay. 

The  faith  of  Mohammed  from  that  day  to 
this  has  ruled  in  Persia.  The  Persian  is  the  only 
Arvan  race  that  accepted  Islam. 

'Under  the  Mogul  Tartars:  1258-1430.  The 
Moguls  arose  in  Chinese  Tartary.  The  last  of 
the  race  of  Christian  kings — Christian  in  name, 
doubtless,  more  than  in  reality — was  slain  by 
Genghis  Khan  about  1202.  Genghis  had  a 
Christian  wife,  the  daughter  of  this  king,  and  he 
was  tolerant  toward  the  Christian  faith.  In  fact, 
the  Mogul  conquerors  were  without  much 
religion,  and  friendly  toward  all.  The  wave  of 
carnage  and  conquest  swept  westward  and 
covered  Persia,  and  overwhelmed  the  Caliph 
of  Bagdad  in  1258.  This  change  was  for  a  time 
favorable  to  the  Christians,  as  the  rulers  openly 
declared  themselves  Christians,  or  were  partial 
to  Christianity.  The  patriarch  of  the  Neslorians 
was  chosen  from  people  of  the  same  speech  and 
race  as  the  conquerors — a  native  of  Western 
China.  He  ruled  the  church  through  a  stormy 
period  of  seven  reigns  of  Mogul  kings;  had  the 
joy  of  baptizing  some  of  them,  and  of  indulging 
for  a  time  the  hope  that  they  would  form  such 
an  alliance  with  the  Christians  of  Europe  against 
the  Muslims  as  would  render  all  Asia,  across  to 
China,  a  highway  for  the  Christian  faith.  But 
the  period  of  such  hope  was  brief,  and  soon  ended 
in  threatened  ruin.  The  Christian  faith  was 
thrown  back  upon  its  last  defenses,  and  became 
a  hunted  and  despised  faith,  with  only  a  remnant 
of  adherents  clinging  with  a  death  grip  to  their 
churches  and  worship. 

The  Period  of  Greatest  Depression:  1400-1830. 
Persia  was  torn  by  factions  and  wars  for  a  century. 
As  France  rejected  the  Reformation  and  reaped 
her  reward  in  anarchy  and  blood,  so  Persia  suf- 
fered on  a  larger  scale.  The  Christian  Church 
was  lost — a  buried  and  apparently  lifeless  seed 
only  remaining — and  the  Christian  name  became 
a  by-word. 

The  Sufi  or  Sufawi  kings  (1499-1736)  ruled 
over  large  populations  of  Armenians  and  Geor- 
gians, Nestorians,  and  Jacobites  in  what  is  now 
Russian  and  Turkish  territory.  Meanwhile  the 
Reformation  came  to  Europe,  and  the  revival 
of  the  spirit  of  propagandism  in  the  Romish 
Church.  Toward  the  close  of  the  16th  century 
occurred  some  events  bearing  on  Persian  missions, 
especially  during  the  reign  of  Shah  Abbas  the 
Great  (1582-1627),  the  contemporary  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  One  was  diplomatic  intercourse 
between  England  and  Persia.  The  first  attempt 
was  a  failure,  for  in  1561  Anthony  Jenkinson 
arrived  in  Persia  with  letters  from  Queen  Eliza- 
beth for  Tamasp  Shah.  At  their  interview  the 
Shah's  first  question  was,  "Are  you  a  Muslim 
or  an  infidel?"  He  replied  that  he  was  not  a 
Muslim  nor  was  he  an  infidel.  But  the  Shah 
expressed  his  dissatisfaction,  and  the  English- 
man retired,  and   every  step   of   his  was  imme- 


diately sprinkled  with  sand  and  swept  to  remove 
the  defilement  of  his  contact  with  the  royal 
court.  But  in  1598  Sir  Anthony  and  Robert 
Shirley  had  better  success,  for  they  arrived  in 
Persia  with  a  numerous  retinue,  and  for  many 
years  were  intimately  associated  with  Shah 
Abbas,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  English 
influence  in  the  East. 

Following  upon  the  Sufawi  kings  was  an 
Afghan  invasion  of  Persia,  lasting  through 
seven  years  of  massacre  and  misrule.  Then  arose 
Nadir  Shah,  who  extended  the  Persian  frontier 
far  eastward  and  westward,  and  pillaged  India. 
A  generation  of  anarchy  and  civil  war  followed 
until  the  rise  of  the  present  line  of  kin^s,  called 
the  Kajar  line,  from  the  ancestral  tnbe  from 
which  they  spring.  Since  the  opening  of  the  19th 
century  these  kings  have  ruled,  and  an  era  of 
comparative  peace  has  come.  For  twelve  cen- 
turies Mohammedanism,  in  one  form  or  another, 
has  controlled  the  government,  and  molded 
the  laws  and  morals  and  destinies  of  the  millions 
of  Persia. 

Modern  Christian  Missions:  Manifestly  the 
ancient  and  medieval  missions  in  Persia  have 
failed  to  Christianize  the  nation.  The  way  for 
modern  Protestant  missions  began  to  open  with 
the  opening  of  the  19th  century.  The  Persian 
language,  through  the  Mogul  emperors  and  the 
conquests  of  Nadir  Shah,  became  the  polite  lan- 
guage of  a  large  part  of  India,  and  the  lingua 
franca  of  all  Western  Asia.  The  East  India 
Company  required  their  officials  to  study  the 
Persian,  until  the  time  of  Lord  Macaulay,  when 
English  became  the  official  language.  Persia 
also  from  its  position  has  an  importance  as  a 
political  power  that  was  courted  by  Napoleon, 
by  Russia,  and  by  England.  Thus  it  came  to 
pass  that  splendid  embassies  were  sent  to  Persia 
early  in  the  century,  and  English  influence  most 
of  all  controlled  affairs  for  several  decades.  Henry 
Martyn  was  a  chaplain  in  India,  and  there 
acquired  the  Persian  language.  He  came  to 
Persia  in  1811  to  complete  and  improve  the  Per- 
sian translation  of  the  New  Testament.  No  one 
can  read  his  memoir  covering  the  eleven  months 
that  he  spent  in  Shiraz  and  not  marvel  at  his 
boldness  in  confessing  Christ  and  his  deliverance 
from  the  bigoted  Mollahs.  But  both  his  witness 
and  his  book  were  rejected  with  scorn.  The 
devoted  missionary  left  the  country  without 
knowing  of  a  single  convert.  Nevertheless  his 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  and  the  Psalms 
was  the  lasting  fruit  of  his  labors.  He  wrote  on 
completing  it  this  prayer:  "Now  may  the  Spirit 
who  gave  the  word,  and  called  me,  I  trust,  to  be 
an  interpreter  of  it,  graciously  and  powerfully 
apply  it  to  the  hearts  of  sinners,  even  to  gathering 
an  elect  people  from  the  long-estranged  Persians." 
Many  wonderful  facts  in  later  years  show  that 
this  prayer  is  being  answered. 

The  next  laborer  was  the  Rev.  C.  G.  Pfander, 
of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society.  He  visited 
Persia  in  1829,  and  at  intervals  for  a  few  years 
sojourned  there,  passing  part  of  his  time  in 
Shusha,  Georgia,  where  his  brethren  from  Ger- 
many then  had  a  flourishing  mission.  This 
learned  and  devoted  man  came  near  sealing  his 
testimony  with  his  blood  at  Kermanshah,  in 
Western  Persia,  but  was  preserved  for  protracted 
labors.  He  died  at  Constantinople  in  1869. 
His  great  work  for  Persia  is  "The  Balance  of 
Truth,"  a  book  comparing  Christianity  and 
Mohammedanism.       This     work     and     several 


Persia 
PesJiawar 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


582 


other  treatises  on  the  controversy  with  Islam 
were  published  in  India,  and  are  doing  a  great 
deal  secretly  in  Persia  to  direct  the  thousands 
whose  faith  in  their  religion  is  shaken.  The 
same  works,  perhaps  unwisely  published  in 
Turkey  before  Dr.  Ptander's  death,  led  to  severe 
persecution,  and  to  a  strict  suppression  of  all 
books  aimed  at  the  system  of  Islam.  But  the 
books  still  live,  and  have  their  work  to  do,  for 
they  are  exhaustive  and  unanswerable. 

After  several  such  sporadic  missionary  ven- 
tures in  Persia,  Dr.  Joseph  Wolf,  about  1827, 
visited  Persia.  He  was  a  converted  Jew,  a 
great  traveler,  and  a  voluminous  writer.  To 
this  latter  fact  was  due  the  decision  of  the 
ABCFM  to  send  men  in  1830  to  examine  the 
condition  of  the  Nestorian  Church,  described  by 
Dr.  Wolf.  As  a  result  the  ABCFM  determined 
to  establish  a  mission  to  the  Nestorians.  Rev. 
Justin  Perkins  and  his  wife  embarked  in  the  fall 
of  1833.  They  reached  Tabriz  about  a  year 
later,  and  in  the  summer  of  1835  were  joined  by 
Dr.  and  Mrs.  Grant.  This  little  company  of 
two  missionaries  and  their  wives  arrived  at 
Oroomiah  formally  to  occupy  the  place  as  a 
station  in  November,  1835.  Meanwhile  the 
ABCFM  in  1834  sent  out  the  Rev.  J.  L.  Merrick, 
who  had  specially  prepared  himself  to  explore 
the  Mohammedan  field  of  Persia  and  Central 
Asia.  He  continued  a  missionary  till  1843.  He 
traveled  extensively  in  company  with  Mr.  Haas, 
and  both  came  near  losing  their  lives  in  an 
encounter  with  the  Mollahs  in  Ispahan.  Mr. 
Merrick's  labors  resulted  only  in  teaching  some 
Persian  youths  the  English  language  and  science, 
and  in  translating  the  Shi'ite  traditional  Life  of 
Mohammed.  It  became  evident  that  Provi- 
dence had  not  yet  opened  the  way  to  labor 
directly  for  the  Mohammedans. 

The  roll  of  this  mission  counts  fifty-two  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women,  sent  out  previous  to 
1871.  Time  would  fail  to  tell  of  all  these.  The 
pioneers,  Messrs.  Perkins  and  Grant,  were  enthu- 
siastic and  apostolic  men.  One  of  them.  Dr. 
Grant,  finished  his  career  in  1845.  Thousands 
in  America  and  England  became  familiar  with 
his  work  through  his  letters  and  his  boolv  on  the 
Mountain  Nestorians,  and  his  Memoir,  written 
by  a  colleague  in  the  mountain  work,  Dr.  Laurie. 
His  grave  is  by  the  shores  of  the  Tigris,  while 
the  account  of  his  labors  has  passed  into  the 
annals  of  the  Church's  heroes. 

Justin  Perkins,  D.D.,  was  spared  to  labor  for 
more  than  thirty-six  years,  dying  on  the  last  day 
of  1869.  His  eminent  services  were  seen  in 
pioneer  work,  and  in  making  known  the  Nesto- 
rians. In  his  later  days  he  was  a  real  patriarch, 
with  all  the  venerable  bearing  and  deep  piety  of 
the  best  fathers  of  old. 

The  force  of  missionaries  was  steadily  increased 
from  time  to  time  by  the  arrival  of  other  men. 
The  work  of  the  ABCFM  was  almost  entirely  for 
the  Nestorians,  numbering  about  100,000  souls, 
partly  in  Persia  and  partly  in  Kurdistan,  under 
Turkish  rule.  The  preparatory  work  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  remarkable  ingathering,  and  then 
<;ame  years  of  organizing  and  training. 

The  work  accomplished  was  to  establish  an 
enterprise  with  all  the  appliances  and  parts  of  an 
aggressive  reformation  m  this  old  church,  a 
thousand  miles  east  of  Constantinople,  in  the 
heart  of  Islam — the  press,  the  training-schools 
for  young  men  and  young  women,  a  band  of  over 
fifty  native  pastors  and  evangelists,  an  aggregate 


of  over  eighty  schools  and  congregations.  The 
results  were  great  in  themselves,  and  greater  in 
their  bearing  upon  the  future. 

The  Presbyterian  Board,  1871  to  this  day;  By 
the  union  of  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  1870,  the  New  School  body 
ceased  its  support  of  the  ABCFM,  and  claimed 
a  portion  of  the  mission  as  its  heritage.  "The 
Mission  to  the  Nestorians"  was  transferred  to 
the  care  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  in  1871.  The 
work  has  since  been  widely  extended  into  East- 
ern Persia  and  to  reach  Armenians,  Kurds,  and 
to  some  extent  Persian  Mohammedans.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  work  among  the  Nestorians  has 
been  profoundly  affected  by  the  entrance  of 
Russian  missionaries,  who  have  won  a  large 
proportion  of  the  Nestorian  Church  to  rejoin 
the  Eastern  Church  from  which  their  fathers 
seceded  fifteen  hundred  years  ago. 

A  notable  event  was  the  celebration  of  the  jubilee 
of  this  work  in  1885,  followed  by  prevailing 
revivals  in  many  of  the  congregations.  The 
hope  of  the  work  is  in  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
in  its  convincing  and  renewing  power. 

The  Archbishop's  Mission  to  the  Nestorians 
(the  word  Archbishop  referring  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  in  England)  is  another  enter- 
prise of  a  missionary  character.  No  time  need 
here  be  spent  upon  it,  however,  since  it  has  been 
sufficiently  described  in  another  place. 

The  Mission  of  the  CMS:  In  1869  the  Rev.  R. 
Bruce,  of  the  CMS,  on  his  way  back  to  India 
visited  Persia.  He  found  the  Muslims  of  Ispahan 
so  friendly,  and  the  Armenians  so  anxious  to 
learn  of  the  Christianity  of  the  West,  that  he  de- 
layed to  leave.  His  stay  was  prolonged  year  after 
year ;  Dr.  Bruce  opened  schools  and  found  his  hands 
full  of  work  that  he  had  not  expected  to  take  up. 
Finally  in  1875  the  CMS  decided  to  assume  these 
enterprises  and  prosecute  the  work  so  incidentally 
begun.  Three  other  stations  have  been  occupied, 
and  medical  missions  and  Zenana  missions  have 
been  undertaken.  Moreover,  God  has  given  His 
blessing  to  this  new  enterprise  in  Persia. 

The  following  societies  are  now  at  work  in 
Persia:  The  Presbyterian  Board,  North;  the 
Archbishop's  Mission  to  the  Assyrian  Christians; 
the  London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity 
amongst  the  Jews;  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
and  the  Bible  societies.  Educational  work  has 
received  prominence  from  the  beginning  of 
modern  missions  in  Persia,  and  the  work  of 
medical  missionaries  has  been  highly  appreciated 
by  the  Persians.  The  great  need  of  Persia  was 
suggested  by  Lord  Curzon  in  1892:  "Those  phil- 
osophers are  right  who  argue  that  moral  must 
precede  material  and  internal  reform  in  Persia. 
It  is  useless  to  graft  new  shoots  on  to  a  stem 
whose  sap  is  exhausted  or  poisoned.  We  may 
give  Persia  roads  and  railroads;  we  may  work 
her  mines  and  exploit  her  resources;  we  may 
drUl  her  army  and  clothe  her  artisans;  but  we 
shall  not  have  brought  her  within  the  pale  of 
civUized  nations  until  we  have  got  at  the  core 
of  the  people,  and  given  a  new  and  a  radical 
twist  to  the  national  character  and  institutions." 
This  need  can  only  be  met  by  divine  message, 
borne  to  Persia  by  the  missionary  of  the  cross. 

Barrett  (J.),  Persia,  the  Land  of  the  Imams,  New  York,  1888; 
Benjamin  (S.  G.  W.),  Persia  and  the  Persians,  1  ondonand 
New  York,  1887;  Bird  (Isabella),  Journeys  in  Persia  and 
Kurdistan.  2  vols.,  London,  1893;  Curzon  (G.),  The  Per 
siari  Question,  2  vols..  London,  1892;  Watson  (R.  G.), 
A  Histon/  of  Persia  (1800-1858),  London,  1873;  Landor 
(H.  b.),  Across  Coveted  Lands,  2  vols.,  London,  1902. 


683 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Persia 
Peshawar 


PERSIAN  LANGUAGE:  The  Persian  is  one  of 
the  Indo-Germanic  family  of  Aryan  languages, 
of  sufficient  importance  in  itself  to  be  sometimes 
called  the  Western  Aryan.  It  is  called  Irani  in 
Persian  and  in  the  West  of  Asia  it  is  known  as 
Farsi.  This  latter  name  is  identical  with  the 
well-known  name  Parsee  or  Parsi,  the  people  of 
Western  Asia  often  using  "f"  where  their  eastern 
neighbors  use  "p."  The  ancient  sources  of  the 
Persian  as  it  exists  to-daj''  are  the  Zend,  which 
is  very  near  to  the  Sanskrit; the  Ancient  Persian, 
of  which  few  literary  remains  exist,  some  of  these 
being  found  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  but  which  is 
still  near  to  the  Sanskrit  in  many  particulars, 
and  the  Pehlevi,  or  Sassanian  of  the  first  seven 
centuries  of  our  era.  The  latter  has  a  consider- 
able number  of  Chaldee  words,  and  differs  mate- 
rially from  the  Zend  in  having  few  inflections  and 
terminations  in  comparison  with  the  older  lan- 
guage. A  later  dialect  of  the  Pehlevi  shows  a 
distinct  purpose  to  avoid  the  use  of  other  than 
true  Persian  words  and  to  return  to  the  Ancient 
Persian  forms.  The  modern  Persian  is  very 
simple  in  its  grammar.  In  fact,  it  is  often  said 
to  have  no  grammar  worth  disturbing  oneself 
about.  It  has  no  gender  of  noun,  adjective  or 
pronoun,  except  by  use  of  a  special  word  to  show 
sex.  Its  case  declensions  are  few,  its  plural  is 
regularly  formed  in  every  case,  one  of  the  two 
pluralizing  terminations  being  used  for  animate 
and  the  other  for  inanimate  objects.  In  the 
verb  great  use  is  made  of  auxiliary  combinations. 
At  the  same  time,  and  perhaps  because  of  this, 
the  language  has  a  wonderful  fulness  and  flexi- 
bility. No  other  Asiatic  language  compares 
with  the  Persian  in  elegance  and  in  the  sonorous 
sweetness  of  its  tones. 

Persian  is  widely  cultivated  throughout  Asia 
for  its  literary  qualities  and  its  literature. 
Whether  In  the  East  or  the  West,  in  India  or  in 
Turkey,  the  educated  man  must  as  a  matter  of 
course  know  Persian.  At  the  same  time,  since 
the  Mohammedan  era  it  has  lost  much  of  its 
purity  through  adoption  of  numbers  of  Arabic 
words  which  are  not  always  naturalized — that  is, 
are  not  always  subjected  to  Persian  rules  of 
inflection  and  construction.  In  the  earlier 
periods  of  Persian  writing  the  cuneiform  charac- 
ters were  used  as  well  as  letters  derived  perhaps 
from  the  Syriac.  At  present  the  Arabic  alphabet 
is  universally  used  for  writing  Persian.  Addi- 
tional dots  supplied  to  Arabic  letters  furnish  the 
sounds  which  Arabs  do  not  use,  and  the  Persian 
taste  gives  an  angle  to  the  letters  which  neither 
Arabs  nor  Turks  permit,  but  aside  from  these 
peculiarities  the  Arabic  letters  are  unchanged. 
The  Persian  has  been  used  to  some  small  degree 
for  missionary  purposes.  Its  territorial  expan- 
sion suggests  the  wisdom  of  making  greater  use 
of  it  for  Christian  publications.  Such  use  cannot 
avail,  however,  unless  the  writer  is  a  master  of 
Persian  in  every  sense. 

PERU:  A  republic  of  South  America,  which 
lies  between  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west  and 
Brazil  and  Bolivia  on  the  east,  Ecuador  on  the 
north,  and  Chile  on  the  south.  It  contains  three 
distinctive  physical  divisions — the  coast  region, 
the  region  of  the  Andes,  and  the  tropical  forests 
within  the  valley  of  the  Amazon.  Its  area  is 
695,733  square  miles,  divided  into  eighteen 
departments  and  two  provinces  (Cholos  and 
Zambos).  Every  variety  of  climate  is  found  in 
Peru,  on  account  of  the  difference  in  elevation  in 
various  parts.     The  population  in   1876,   when 


the  last  census  was  taken,  was  2,660,881.  The 
Geographical  Society  made  an  estimate  of  the 
population  in  1896,  which  showed  the  total  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  as  4,600,000,  besides  an 
unknown  number  of  uncivilized  Indians.  In  the 
census  of  1876  the  population  was  composed  of 
whites,  13  per  cent.;  negroes,  1  per  cent.;  Indians, 
58  per  cent.;  26  per  cent,  mixed  blood,  and  2  per 
cent.  Asiatics.  The  chief  cities  are  Lima,  the 
capital  (100,000),  Callao  (16,000),  Arequipa 
(35,000),  and  Cuzco  (20,000).  The  total  working 
length  of  railways  (1902)  is  1,035  miles,  with 
about  45  miles  in  construction.  There  is  also  a 
steamboat  service  on  Lake  Titicaca.  Roads  are 
poor  and  few.  The  constitution,  proclaimed  in 
1856  and  revised  1860,  provides  that  a  president 
and  a  congress  of  two  houses  shall  be  elected 
every  four  years.  The  constitution  prohibits  the 
public  exercise  of  any  other  religion  than  the 
Roman  Catholic,  tho  in  reality  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  tolerance,  since  Anglican  churches 
and  Jewish  synagogues  are  found  in  Callao  and 
Lima.  Education  is  compulsory,  and  is  free  in 
the  municipal  public  schools. 

The  American  Bible  Society  through  its  col- 
porteurs prosecutes  the  only  Protestant  work  so 
far  in  Peru,  by  distributing  the  Bible  translated 
into  Spanish.  The  principal  agent  of  the  Bible 
Society  is  an  Italian  minister,  who  has  been 
holding  church  services  in  Callao,  where  he 
gathered  a  congregation  of  over  a  hundred,  to 
whom  he  preached  in  Spanish.  His  success  in 
making  converts  roused  the  opposition  of  the 
priests,  who  viewed  with  unconcern  the  services 
in  English,  but  saw  that  preaching  in  Spanish 
was  likely  to  prove  a  potent  means  of  enlight- 
ening the  people,  and  on  the  25th  of  June,  1890, 
Mr.  Penzotti,  the  minister,  was  arrested  and  put 
in  prison,  charged  with  violating  the  law.  He 
having  been  acquitted,  his  persecutors  appealed, 
and  finally  carried  the  case  to  the  Supreme  Court. 
They  thus  obtained  an  interpretation  of  the  law 
in  favor  of  Mr.  Penzotti,  and  general  religious 
liberty,  altho  they  had  hoped  for  something 
quite  different.  Again,  in  1895,  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic clergy  tried  to  prevent  Bible  circulation,  and 
the  result  was  a  decree  from  the  Government 
under  which  the  circulation  of  the  Bible  is  freely 
allowed.  The  constitution  prohibits  the  public 
exercise  of  any  religion  but  Roman  Catholicism. 
But  in  fact  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  tolerance, 
and  the  ME,  the  RBMU  and  the  Independent 
Baptist  Missionary  movement  have  5  stations, 
with  both  chapels  and  schools,  in  Peru. 

Markham  (C.  R.),  Peru,  London,  1880;  Adams  (W.  H.  D.), 
The  Land  of  the  Incas,  London  and  Boston,  1883  and  1885; 
Sqiiier  (E.  G.),  Peru,  New  York,  1877. 

PESHAWAR :  A  town  and  British  military  post 
in  the  Northwestern  Frontier  Province  of  India, 
and  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name  which 
was  formerly  a  part  of  Afghanistan.  It  is  situ- 
ated about  88  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  the  great  British 
fortress  of  Rawal  Pindi,  and  18  miles  from  the 
east  entrance  to  the  celebrated  Khaibar  Pass  on 
the  road  to  Cabul.  Under  British  rule  the  pros- 
perity of  the  town  is  reviving  and  the  appearance 
of  the  suburbs  is  much  improved.  The  town 
itself  has  small  architectural  pretensions,  the 
houses  being  generally  built  of  mud  bricks,  held 
together  by  a  frame  of  wood.  Except  the  main 
thoroughfares  the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked. 
Sanitary  arrangements  are  good,  and  water 
plenty.  The  fruit  gardens  of  the  environs  are  a 
favorite  pleasure-ground    of  the  people.     Alti- 


I'etcliatjTiTee 
Pliilippine  Islands 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


684 


tude,  1,180  feet.  Population  (1901)  95,147,  of 
whom  70,000  are  Mohammedans,  17,500  Hindus, 
and  5,500  Sikhs.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1882), 
with  (1903)  5  women  missionaries,  12  native 
worlcers,  3  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  2  dis- 
pensaries, 1  hospital,  and  15  Zenana  pupils. 
Station  also  of  the  CMS  (1885),  with  (1903)  4 
missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their  wives;  4 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  2  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  94 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  35  are  communi- 
cants.    Station  also  of  the  WMS,   with   (1903) 

1  missionary,  3  native  workers,  4  places  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Sunday  school,  and  57  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

PETCHABUREE:  A  town  in  Siam,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  85  miles  southwest  of 
Bangkok,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railroad. 
Has  10,000  inhabitants.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1861),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,   1   woman  missionary,   5  native  workers, 

2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  day  school,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  and  97  professed  Christians. 

PETERSBURG :  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  6  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  King  William's  Town. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1856), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  woman  missionary, 
9  native  workers,  and  478  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  128  are  communicants  (including  Emdi- 
geni  in  these  statistics). 

PETROPOLIS:  A  German  colony  in  Brazil, 
South  America,  28  miles  N.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
It  is  the  summer  residence  of  the  rich  inhabitants 
of  the  city.  Station  of  the  MES  (1895),  with 
(1903)  3  women  missionaries,  49  native  workers, 
2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  3  kindergartens,  and  106  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

PFANDER,  Karl  GottUeb:  Bom,  1803;  died, 
1865.  Prepared  for  his  missionary  work  at  the 
Training  Institution,  Basel,  from  1820  to  1825. 
Pfander,  who  had  a  gift  for  languages,  was  des- 
tined by  the  Basel  Committee  for  Asia,  and  par- 
ticularly for  the  translation  of  the  Bible  mto 
Asiatic  languages.  He  was  first  sent  with 
Zaremba,  the  former  Russian  count,  also  a 
graduate  of  the  Basel  Institute,  to  the  Armenians 
living  in  the  vicinity  of  Shusha,  in  the  region  near 
the  Caspian  Sea,  which  is  now  known  as  the 
Russian  province  of  Transcaucasia.  He  and  his 
associates  were,  soon  after  their  arrival,  in  danger 
of  death  by  starvation,  for  the  Prince  of  Persia 
besieged  Shusha  for  forty  days,  in  1826.  The 
Shusha  Mission  was  intended  to  be  a  work 
among  the  Mohammedan  population,  but  its 
influence  was  felt  among  many  Eastern  Chris- 
tians. Pfander,  only  22  years  old,  had  now  to 
learn  three  languages:  Turkish,  Armenian,  and 
Persian.  The  Turkish  had  not  been  provided 
with  grammar  and  vocabulary  till  the  mission- 
aries used  it.  Tli6  Persian  was  necessary,  that 
he  might  be  able  to  cope  with  learned  Muslims. 
Pfander  also  studied  the  tone  of  the  Moham- 
medan thought,  by  frequently  conversing  with 
the  people,  and  studying  their  books,  especially 
the  Koran.  The  greatness  of  the  problem  of 
attracting,  reaching,  and  saving  the  Moham- 
medans grew  upon  him.  He  was  impressed  by 
the  facts  that  here  was  a  people  who  acknowl- 
edged God  as  their  Master  and  Owner,  but  who 
took  Mohammed  as  their  example;  that  they 
covered  a  large  proportion  of  the  world's  surface; 


that  for  a  thousand  years  they  had  waged  a  bitter 
combat  against  Christianity;  that  they  had  great 
difficulty  in  receiving  the  truths  of  the  Gospel; 
that  their  religious  books  contained  many  sparks 
of  truth,  and  that  the  problem  was  complicated 
by  the  Mohammedans  being  divided  into  sects, 
which  had  been  engaged  in  deadly  combat  with 
each  other.  He  wrote  a  little  book  for  distribu- 
tion among  them,  and  it  was  blessed  mightily  by 
God.  In  1829  he  decided  to  go  to  Baghdad  to 
learn  Arabic,  and  when  the  dangers  of  such  a. 
journey  were  brought  to  his  attention,  he  wrote: 
"I  have  no  care  for  my  life;  it  will  be  preserved 
as  long  as  it  is  needed  for  the  service  of  the 
Almighty."  He  left  Baghdad  after  heroic  work, 
to  visit  Persia,  and  in  1831  we  find  him  in  Ispa- 
han. His  book,  written  in  German,  had  been, 
with  the  help  of  the  natives,  translated  in  Arme- 
nian, Turkish,  and  Persian,  and  one  of  his  objects 
in  the  present  journey  was  to  make  the  Persian 
edition  more  correct.  He  joined  a  caravan,  wore 
native  dress,  and  on  his  journey  he  spoke  to 
Tatars  and  Kurds  of  the  Christian  religion,  and 
distributed  tracts  and  Persian  New  Testaments. 
He  favorably  impressed  Catholic  and  Armenian 
Christians,  and  the  Syiian  archbishop  asked  for 
and  received  a  number  of  Syrian  and  Arabic 
New  Testaments.  His  visits  proved  a  great 
blessing  to  Syrian  Christians,  and  he  greatly 
strengthened  them  by  his  words,  both  spoken 
and  written,  in  their  purpose  to  honor  God.  In 
the  town  of  Kirmanshah  he  had  a  struggle  with 
fanatical  Mullahs.  He  knew  the  danger  of 
declaring  publicly  truths  that  opposed  the  pre- 
vailing thought  of  Mohammedanism;  but,  putting 
his  trust  in  God,  he  answered  boldly  all  of  their 
questions  and  preached  unto  them  Christ.  The' 
enraged  Mullahs  held  a  council  at  night,  and  it 
was  announced  next  day  in  the  mosques  that  his 
books  must  be  destroyed,  and  that  he  must  be 
killed.  A  rumor  that  some  of  his  books  were 
bound  in  pigskin  greatly  disturbed  the  peace  of 
these  followers  of  Mohammed.  He  visited  the 
Prince  of  Kirmanshah,  and  was  protected  from 
further  persecution.  On  his  way  to  Ispahan  he 
distributed  the  Scriptures,  preached  the  Word, 
and  had  the  joy  of  seeing  souls  saved  by  the  grace 
of  God.  From  Shusha  he  visited  and  labored  in 
the  neighboring  towns  of  Shamakhi  and  Baku, 
and  for  eight  years,  having  been  a  pilgrim  in 
missionary  work  among  many  peoples,  he  visited 
Europe,  where  he  spent  a  year.  In  1835  he  and 
his  companions  were  bidden  by  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment to  cease  at  once  and  forever  from  all 
missionary  work  in  the  country,  and  from  March 
to  September,  Pfander  and  Kreiss  were  engaged 
in  a  journey  of  exploration  through  Asia  Minor 
to  Constantinople.  Soon  afterward  they  both, 
received  appointments  under  the  CMS,  started  for 
India  by  the  way  of  Persia  and  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  after  thirteen  months  they  reached  Calcutta. 
He  spoke  of  the  years  from  1837  to  1841  as  a 
waiting  time,  but  he  was  engaged  during  this 
period  in  studying  the  Hindustani,  in  familiarizing 
himself  with  the  customs  and  religions  of  India, 
and  in  making  a  revised  edition  of  his  remarkable 
book.  The  Balance  of  Truth.  Before  leaving: 
Shusha  he  wrote  three  books,  which  treated  of  sin, 
salvation,  the  divinity  of  Christ,  the  Trinity,  and 
the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures.  These  were 
designed  to  remove  stumblmg  blocks  from  the 
way  of  the  Mohammedans — and,  in  India,  they 
proved  to  be  a  power  for  good.  Until  the 
Mutiny  broke  out  in  1857  he  worked  in  Agra  and 


685 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Petchaburee 
Philippine  Islands 


Peshawar,  and  during  this  terrible  uprising  he 
showed  the  firmest  faith  and  the  highest  courage. 
The  Mutiny  over,  he  visited  Europe,  and  in  1858 
he  was  sent  to  Constantinople,  accompanied  by 
Dr.  Koelle.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  his  tongue  and 
pen  were  mighty  forces  in  the  proclamation  of  the 
truth.  This  gifted  missionary,  able  writer,  and 
great  linguist  left  a  permanent  impression  upon 
each  of  the  peoples  among  whom  he  labored, 
while  his  books  struck  Mohammedanism  in  its 
weakest  point,  and  still  exercise  a  powerful  influ- 
ence in  India,  in  Persia,  and  in  Turkey  and 
Egypt. 

PHALANE:  A  settlement  in  the  Transvaal, 
South  Africa,  situated  about  46  miles  N.  W.  of 
Pretoria.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Mission- 
ary Society  (1867),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  4  native  workers,  1  outstation,  2  day 
schools,   and  651  professed  Christians. 

PHALAPYE.     See  Serowe. 

PHILIP,  John:  Born  in  England;  studied  at 
Hoxton  Academy;  was  appointed  as  a  deputa- 
tion with  Rev.  John  Campbell  to  visit  the  sta- 
tions of  the  LMS  in  South  Africa;  sailed  December 
10,  1818,  reaching  Cape  Town  February  26,  1819. 
Accompanied  by  Mr.  Moffat  and  Mr.  Evans,  the 
deputation  visited  the  stations  within  the  colony, 
but  were  prevented  by  the  Kafir  war  from  pro- 
ceeding beyond.  Mr.  Pliilip  returned  to  Cape 
Town.  In  1820  he  received  from  Princeton 
College,  New  Jersey,  U.  S.  A.,  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Divini.y.  The  Deputation  liaving 
completed  their  work.  Dr.  Philip  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  Society's  missions  in  South 
Africa.  He  was  also  pastor  of  an  English  con- 
gregation at  Cape  Town.  In  1826  he  visited 
England  by  invitation  of  the  directors,  his  place 
as  superintendent  being  supplied  by  Rev.  R. 
Miles.  He  earnestly  championed  the  rights  of 
the  Hottentots  as  against  greedyandunprincipled 
settlers,  and  secured  certain  regulations  which 
ameliorated  their  civil  status.  On  his  return  to 
South  Africa  he  was  sued  for  libel  and  made  to 
pay  a  fine  of  £1,200.  Dr.  Philip  died  at  Hankey, 
South  Africa,  August  27,  1851.  His  Researches 
in  South  Africa  were  pubhshed  in  2  vols,  in  Lon- 
don, 1828. 

PHILIPPOPOLIS :  A  city  in  Eastern  Rumelia, 
Bulgaria.  It  is  the  most  important  city  of  the 
southern  province.  Population  (1900),  42,849. 
The  city  stands  upon  and  between  three  isolated 
syenitic  rocks  (the  highest  695  feet)  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Maritsa,  97  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Adrian- 
ople.  It  was  founded  340  B.C.  by  Philip  II.  of 
Maoedon.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1859),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  27  native 
workers,  17  outstations,  12  places  of  worship,  17 
Sunday  schools,  8  day  schools,  1  printing  house, 
and  472  professed  Christians. 

PHILLIPS,  Jeremiah:  Bom  at  Plainfield,  N.  Y., 
January  5,  1812;  attended  Madison  (now  Col- 
gate) University,  but  did  not  complete  his  course 
of  study,  the  Committee  of  the  Missionary  Soci- 
ety desiring  that  he  should  accompany  Dr.  Sutton 
on  his  return  to  India.  He  was  ordained  at  Plain- 
field,  and  embarked  for  Calcutta  in  company  with 
Dr.  E.  Noyes,  September  22,  1835,  under  the 
Free  Baptist  Missionary  Society.  His  field  of 
labor  was  Orissa,  a  region  of  country  hitherto 
wholly  untouched  by  missionary  effort,  which  was 
occupied  in  1836.  Balasor  was  first  occupied  in 
1840   and   a   boarding   school   opened,  with  six 


native  children.  The  same  year  Mr.  Phillips 
commenced  a  new  station  at  Jaleswar  with  some 
of  the  Balasor  boarding  scholars  and  native  con- 
verts. He  was  the  first  to  discover  the  Santate,  a 
race  of  aborigines  previously  unknown  to  mie- 
sionaries.  He  reduced  their  wild  language  to 
writing,  prepared  and  published  a  grammar  and 
dictionary,  and  established  schools  among  them — 
for  the  first  time  in  their  existence,  so  far  as  known. 
As  a  result  of  his  correspondence  and  pubhshed 
articles  in  the  papers  of  India  and  America, 
seven  missions  have  been  establislied,  and  are 
successfully  working  among  them.  He  trans- 
lated the  Gospels  and  other  portions  of  the  Bible 
into  their  language,  and  also  prepared  school- 
books.  The  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  was 
conferred  upon  him  by  Bates  College,  Maine. 
The  India  Government  officially  thanked  Dr. 
Phillips  for  his  great  work  among  the  Santals. 
He  died  at  Hillsdale,  Mich.,  December  9,  1879, 
having  served  43  years  in  India. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  islands 
lying  in  the  Western  Pacific  Ocean,  and  extending 
almost  due  N.  and  S.  from  Formosa  to  Borneo 
and  the  Moluccas,  through  16°  of  latitude  and  9° 
of  longitude.  The  group  contains  nearly  2,000 
islands,  some  of  which  are  mere  islets.  The 
largest  islands  are  Luzon,  with  a  population  of 
3,500,000;  Panay,  735,000;  Negros,  391,777; 
Cebu,  504,000;  Samar,  200,753;  Leyte,  270,- 
491;  Mindoro,  200,000;  Palawan,  70,000,  and 
Mindanao,  600,000.  The  whole  area  of  the 
group  is  estimated  at  122,000  square  miles, 
and  the  population  is  about  8,000,000.  The 
climate  of  the  islands  is  varied,  according  to 
position  and  altitude.  In  general  it  may  be 
described  as  hot,  tempered  somewhat  by  ocean 
breezes,  but  very  moist  and  more  than  ordinarily 
trying  to  American  residents.  One  of  our  people 
going  to  the  islands  in  perfect  health  and  remain- 
ing two  or  three  years  without  taking  regular 
change  of  air  in  the  mountains,  will  find 
his  general  health  seriously  affected.  Vege- 
tation is  luxurious  and  on  the  whole  offers  the 
people  an  easy  support. 

The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  the 
Malay  stock,  now  very  much  mixed.  There  are 
about  25,000  Europeans  in  the  islands,  about 
100,000  Chinese,  in  whose  hands  are  the  principal 
industries,  and  a  considerable  number,  not  yet 
ascertained,  of  wild  tribes,  some  of  whom  seem 
to  be  Negrito  dwarfs.  The  languages  of  the 
people  are  numerous.  Spanish  has  been  the 
official  language  and  is  used  by  educated  Fili- 
pinos, but  has  not  at  all  displaced  the  native  lan- 
guages in  the  households  of  the  people.  It  will 
now  be  quickly  replaced  by  English.  The  chief 
of  the  forty  or  fifty  native  languages  spoken  in 
the  islands  are  the  Tagalog,  the  Pampangan,  the 
Pangasinan,  the  Visayan,  in  two  main  dialects, 
the  Cugnan  and  the  Zambales,  besides  the  Moro 
dialects  of  the  south,  which  have  taken  up  a  cer- 
tain number  of  Arabic  words. 

The  Philippines  were  discovered  and  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards  in  the  16th  century. 
Having  received  a  certain  amount  of  advantage 
from  Spanish  control  and  tutelage  during  350 
years,  and  having  been  ceded  to  the  United 
States  by  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  December 
10,  1898,  they  wait  to  see  whether  the  American 
influence  will  be  more  beneficent  and  stimulating 
than  the  Spanish.  With  the  exception  of  the 
southern  portion  of  Mindanao  and  the  Sulu 
archipelago,  inhabited  by  Mohammedan  Malays, 


Philippine  Islands 
Ping-yangr-lisieii 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


586 


whom  the  Spaniards  called  Moras  (Mohammed- 
ans or  Moors),  the  islands  are  under  civil  govern- 
ment, with  practical  autonomy  in  the  municipali- 
ties, and  with  39  provinces,  each  under  a  gov- 
ernor elected  by  the  people  through  their  munic- 
ipal councilors.  The  law-making  power  rests 
with  a  commission  at  Manila  under  a  Governor 
appointed  and  supervised  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States. 

The  religion  of  the  Philippines,  excepting  that 
of  the  Mohammedan  Sulu  archipelago  and  parts 
of  Mindanao,  is  overwhelmingly  Roman  Catho- 
lic, altho  in  the  mountain  districts  of  the  larger 
islands  paganism  in  the  form  of  ancestor-worship 
and  spirit-worship  also  exists.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  has  divided  the  islands  into 
nearly  900  parishes,  of  which  some  600  have  been 
administered  by  foreign  friars  of  the  Augus- 
tinian,  Dominican  and  Franciscan  orders. 
These  friars  have  had  not  only  the  religious,  but 
in  actual  fact,  the  civil,  control  of  the  islands, 
and  have  used  their  power  for  the  advantage  of 
their  orders  rather  than  of  the  people.  They 
have  acquired  ownership,  for  instance,  of  more 
than  400,000  acres  of  choice  land  in  the  islands, 
besides  holding  title  to  a  great  number  of 
churches  and  other  public  buildings.  Through 
various  causes  needless  to  enumerate  this  body 
of  foreign  friars,  that  is  to  say  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic establishment,  has  alienated  the  affections  of 
the  mass  of  the  Filipinos,  and  as  soon  as  the 
Spanish  power  in  the  islands  was  broken  all  of  the 
friars  were  forcibly  expelled  from  their  parishes, 
saving  their  lives  by  taking  refuge  in  Manila  or 
even  in  foreign  lands.  The  people  have  said: 
"Our  people  have  had  300  years  of  friars'  religion, 
and  now  we  want  a  better  one."  This  does  not, 
however,  imply  a  revolt  from  Roman  Catholi- 
cism, for  most  of  the  people  know  of  no  other 
form  of  religion.  In  some  provinces  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy  still  sharply  control  public  senti- 
ment, but  in  others  there  is  a  tendency  to  form 
a  national  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  has 
been  commenced  by  certain  of  the  native  clergy 
who  have  thrown  off  allegiance  to  the  Pope  of 
Rome.  The  whole  situation  of  Roman  Catholi- 
cism in  the  islands  is  one  which  causes  the  gravest 
inquietude  among  the  august  prelates  at  Rome, 
the  change  which  withdraws  national  support 
from  that  church  and  establishes  schools  outside 
of  the  control  of  the  bishops,  being  one  to  which 
European  Roman  Catholics  cannot  readily  adapt 
themselves. 

In  the  meantime  the  condition  of  the  common 
people  in  the  Philippines  who  are  Christians  in 
name  has  attracted  the  sympathetic  attention  of 
the  Protestant  missionary  societies  of  the  United 
States.  While  there  are  exceptions  among  the 
educated  classes,  the  characteristic  qualities  of 
the  common  Roman  Catholic  Christian  Filipino 
(that  is  to  say,  of  the  mass  of  the  people)  are  the 
following:  There  is  a  strange  lack  of  either 
religious  or  political  fraternity  between  them,  a 
mere  dialect  separating  neighbors  as  widely  as 
the  ocean.  Like  all  Asiatics,  they  look  upon 
representatives  of  Western  civilization  with  an 
instinctive  dislike  and  suspicion,  and  they  hardly 
know  the  meaning  of  lofty  ambitions  or  aspira- 
tions. They  are  immoral,  have  a  rooted  con- 
viction that  all  foreign  clergy  are  immoral,  and 
they  allow  nothing  in  the  religious  teaching  of 
foreigners  to  restrain  them  from  being  idle, 
dissipated,  deceitful,  vacillating  and  essentially 
worthless.       The     two     interests     capable     of 


thoroughly  engaging  their  attention  are,  first, 
cock-fighting  (with  gambling),  and,  second,  gor- 
geous church  processions.  It  is  clear  that  no 
great  future  awaits  such  a  people  unless  through 
a  more  profound  understanding  of  the  Gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

The  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
in  the  United  States  (North)  was  the  first 
Protestant  society  to  establish  a  mission  in  the 
Philippines.  It  first  proposed  to  the  great 
denominational  societies  a  conference  for  such 
arrangements  as  to  comity  and  territorial 
limitations  as  will  prevent  any  impression  of 
rivalry  between  the  denominations.  This  has 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  "The  Evangelical 
Union  of  the  Philippine  Islands,"  each  denomi- 
nation adding  in  brackets  its  distinctive  name. 
Comity  being  settled  upon,  the  PN  established 
Mr.  Rogers  its  first  missionary  in  Manila  in 
April,  1899.  It  now  has  4  other  stations  on  the 
islands  of  Panay  (1900),  Negros  (1901)  and 
Cebu  (1902),  with  10  organized  churches,  several 
schools,  one  of  them  industrial;  2  hospitals  and 
about  500  communicants.  The  CA  has  sent  out 
missionaries  temporarily  working  with  the  PN. 
The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States,  after  Methodist  laymen  had  commenced 
holding  meetings  in  Manila  in  1899  (before  the 
Presbyterian  mission  was  opened),  organized  a 
mission  station  there  in  May,  1900,  taking  for  its 
field  the  northern  section  of  the  island  of  Luzon. 
It  now  has  work  in  27  places,  with  three  central 
stations,  besides  its  station  in  Manila.  It  has 
about  4,000  professing  Christians  under  its  care, 
1,000  of  them  being  communicants.  The  Ameri- 
can Baptist  Missionary  Union  opened  its  first 
station  in  1900  on  the  island  of  Panay,  and  its 
second  in  1901  on  the  island  of  Negros.  It  now 
has  3  organized  churches,  5  places  of  worship 
and  about  400  communicants.  It  has  given 
much  attention  to  printing  and  circulating  the 
Scriptures  and  general  evangelistic  literature. 
The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  has  a  strong 
station  at  Manila  (1902),  where  the  missionary 
bishop  resides,  and  another  in  the  highlands  of 
Benguet  (Luzon),  with  especial  reference  to  the 
untamed  Igorrotes  who  live  there  and  have  never 
known  Christianity  except  as  the  religion  of  the 
men  who  have  guns  and  kill  people.  The  United 
Brethren  in  Christ  have  also  a  mission  station  in 
Manila  (1902)  and  another  in  the  Ilocano  speak- 
ing provinces  (1901)  in  the  N.  W.  coast  of 
Luzon.  The  ABCFM  has  a  station  (1902)  in 
the  island  of  Mindanao.  AU  of  these  missions 
are  working  with  the  hope  of  benefiting  the 
people.  It  is  not  their  aim  to  waste  time  in 
fighting  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  _B 
and  FBS  and  the  ABS  also  have  agencies  in 
the  islands  and  are  pressing  forward  Bible 
translation  and  have  circulated  about  80,000 
copies  per  annum  of  the  Gospels  and  other 
portions  already  printed. 

El  Archipelago  Filipino,  2  vols,  and  atlEis,  Washington,  D.  C, 
1900;  Report  of  the  Philippine  Commineion,  4  vols.,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  1900-1901;  Foreman  (J.),  The  Philippine 
Islands,  2d  ed.,  London  and  New  York,  1899;  Worcester 
(D.  C),  The  Philippine  Islands  and  Their  People,  New 
York,  1898;  Sawyer  (F.  H.),  The  Inhabitants  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  London,  1900.  In  the  Missionary  Review  of 
the  World  are  some  valuable  articles  on  the  Philippines: 
Ethnology,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  821;  Vol.  XV.,  p.  536;  Religion, 
Vol.  XI.,  pp.  517,  520;  XIV.  (with  a  survey  of  mission 
prospects),  pp.  510,  586;   Vol.  XV.,  p.  678. 

PHOKWANE :  A  railway  station  in  S.  Bechu- 
analand,  Africa,  situated  about  70  miles  N.  of 
Kimberly.     Station  of  the  SPG,  with  (1903)  1 


«87 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Philippine  Islands 
Plne-yang-hslen 


missionary  and   905  professed  Christians.     Some 
-write  the  name  Phokoane. 

PHYENG-YANG:  A  town  in  Korea,  about  80 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Wonsan,  beautifully  situated 
on  the  right  or  N.  bank  of  the  Taedong,  50  miles 
-from  the  sea.  The  river  on  which  it  stands  is 
navigable  by  vessels  of  moderate  draught  to 
within  15  miles  of  the  city.  It  is  the  center  of  a 
large  silk  industry.  The  Japanese  defeated  the 
Chinese  at  this  place  in  September,  1894.  Popu- 
lation, 20,000.  Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  three  of  them  with  their  wives; 
3  women  missionaries,  11  native  workers,  17 
•outstations,  18  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday- 
schools,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital, 
and  2,079  professed  Christians,  of  whom  269  are 
■communicants.  Station  also  of  the  PN  (1893), 
with  (1903)  8  missionaries,  seven  of  them  with 
■their  wives;  2  women  missionaries,  51  native 
workers,  185  outstations,  136  places  of  worship, 
40  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dispensary, 

1  hospital,  and  4,358  professed  Christians,  of 
-whom  2,926  are  communicants.  The  name  is 
also  written  Pyeng-yang. 

PIETERMARITZBURG:  Capital  of  Natal, 
Africa,  situated  in  a  fertUe  plain,  2,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  hills,  and  40 
miles  N.  W.  of  Durban.  It  has  an  excellent  cli- 
mate, especially  curative  of  pulmonary  com- 
plaints, and  the  rich  vegetation  of  its  gardens 
and  surrounding  woods  makes  it  one  of  the  most 
delightful  cities  of  Africa.  Its  population,  num- 
bering (1901)  30,000,  is  most  cosmopolitan  in 
character,  consisting  of  Zulus,  Kafirs,  Europeans, 
Hindus,  Chinese  and  Arabs.  Station  of  the 
Swedish  Holiness  Union  (1893),  with  (1901)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary, 
and  1  day  school.  Station  also  of  the  Mission 
Association  for  the  diocese  of  Natal  (1868), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries, 

2  native  workers,  1  theological  class,  1  industrial 
school,  and  215  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  UFS,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
4  day  schools,  and  701  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  South  Africa  Wesleyan  Method- 
ists, with  (1900)  56  native  workers,  14  outsta- 
tions, 14  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools, 
9  day  schools,  and  978  professed  Christians. 

PIETERSBURG:  A  town  in  the  Transvaal, 
South  Africa,  Zoutpansberg  division,  about  140 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Pretoria.  Population,  1,500. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1896), 
■with  (1903)  1  missionary,  10  native  workers,  4 
outstations,  and  304  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  134  are  communicants.  Station  of  the 
SPG,  with  (1903)  1  missionary. 

PILGRIM   MISSION   at   St.    Chrischona.     See 

St.  Chrischona. 

PILKINGTON,  George  Lawrence:  Bom  in  Ire- 
land, 1865.  Died  in  Africa,  1898.  Educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  for  a  short  time  he  was  Assistant 
Master  at  Harrow  and  Bedford  Schools.  Sailed 
January  23,  1890,  imder  the  CMS  to  join  the 
Uganda,  Africa,  Mission. 

On  March  9,  less  than  three  months  after  his 
arrival,  he  had  already,  with  the  help  of  Henry 
Wright  Duta,  translated  almost  half  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  induced  the  natives  to  translate 
Old  Testament  stories  from  Swahili,  and  begun 
to  compile  a  Luganda  grammar.  He  had  com- 
pleted the  grammar  and  vocabulary,  finished  the 


Acts,  and  translated  about  twenty  hymns  by 
the  end  of  May  in  the  same  year.  Of  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  all  but  I.  and  II.  Cor- 
inthians, Hebrews,  James,  I.  and  II.  Peter  were 
translated  by  January,  1892.  The  Gospels  had 
been  translated  previously.  The  New  Testament 
was  finished,  sent  home,  and  printed  by  the  Bible 
Society  by  Christmas,  1893.  The  Old  Testament, 
of  which  he  translated  all  but  some  of  the  minor 
prophets,   was  completed  in   1896. 

Nor  was  Mr.  Pilkington  a  translator  only.  The 
letters  of  that  period  show  that  he  took  his  full 
share  in  teaching  with  the  rest,  and  in  all  the  events 
of  that  troublous  time.  The  prominent  position 
he  toolc  very  early  is  sho-wn  by  the  fact  that  when, 
on  December  27,  1891,  only  a  year  after  Mr. 
Pilkington's  arrival  in  Uganda,  Mwanga,  in  one 
of  his  many  changes,  announced  his  intention  of 
becoming  a  Protestant,  it  was  to  Mr.  Pilkington 
that  the  chiefs  first  took  the  news. 

Early  in  the  year  1898,  while  he  was  engaged  in 
aiding  as  interpreter  the  British  officers  sent  to 
restore  order,  he  was  struck  do%vn  by  the  Sudan- 
ese mutineers.  Mr.  Pilkington's  translations 
make  a  long  list,  and  one  which,  for  a  young  man 
of  thirty-three,  is  amazing.  In  the  forefront  of 
them  all,  he  completed  the  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible  into  Luganda,  in  itself  an  enduring 
monument.  He  also  revised  and  in  part  trans- 
lated the  Prayer  Book,  translated  a  hymn-book, 
catechism,  and  Bible  stories;  wrote  a  small 
work,  Anonyalaba  ("He  that  seeketh  findeth"),  in 
Luganda;  compiled  a  Luganda  grammar,  a 
Lugan da-English  and  English-Luganda  vocabu- 
lary, and  other  smaller  works.  While  at  home 
he  wrote,  aided  by  Mr.  Baslcerville,  a  pamphlet 
called  The  Gospel  in  Uganda  and  made  designs 
for  Central  Africa  for  Christ. 
Harford-Battersby  (C.F).,  Pilkiiigton  of  Uganda,  London  and 

Ne-w  York,  1899. 

PING-LIANG-FU:  A  to^wn  in  the  pro^idnce  of 
Kan-su,  China,  situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
province,  145  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Lan-chau-fu,  and 
a  short  distance  E.  of  the  Liu-pan  pass  over  the 
mountains.  This  is  the  center  for  the  Scandina- 
vian Alliance  Associates  of  the  CIM  (1895),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 2  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
and  r  Sunday  school.  Some  write  the  name 
P'ing-liang. 

PING-TU-CHAU:  A  to^wn  in  Shan-tung,  China, 
situated  about  95  miles  S.  W.  of  Chi-fu.  Station 
of  the  SBC,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  woman  missionary,  5  native  workers,  5  out- 
stations, 10  places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools, 
7  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dispensary, 
and  354  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name  Ping-tu. 

PING-YANG-FU :  A  town  in  the  pro^vince  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Fen-ho,  380  miles  S.  W.  of  Peking,  105  miles 
N.  W.  by  N.  of  Ho-nan-fu.  This  is  one  of  the 
holiest  towns  of  the  empire,  and  one  of  the 
oldest  in  the  world.  It  is  also  one  of  the  places 
which  felt  the  full  force  of  the  Boxer  fury  against 
foreigners.  After  peace  was  restored,  the  people 
for  some  time  held  aloof  from  all  Europeans. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1879),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  2  women 
missionaries,  2  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  89  professed  Christians. 

PING-YANG-HSIEN:  A  to^wn  in  the  province 
of  Che-kiang,  China,  situated  near  the  coast  in  the 


Ping-yao-lisieii 
Poona 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


688 


S.  part  of  the  province,  and'  28  miles  S.  W.  of 
Wen-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1874),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them  witli  his  wife; 
27  native  workers,  24  outstations,  25  places  of 
worship,  2  day  scliools,  2  boarding  schools,  and 
475  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Bing-yae. 

PING-YAO-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Shan-si,  China,  situated  about  37  miles  S.  by  W. 
of  Tai-yuen-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1888).  The 
work  at  this  station  has  been  disorganized  by  the 
Boxer  attaclcs.  It  has  (1903)  4  missionaries, 
two  of  them  with  their  wives;  9  native  workers, 
and  7  outstations. 

PIRACICABA:  A  town  in  Brazil,  South  Amer- 
ica, 86  miles  N.  W.  of  Sao  Paulo,  on  the  river 
Piraoioaba.  Population,  5,000.  Station  of  the 
MES  (1877),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  women  missionaries,  1  native  worker,  2 
outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  scliools, 

1  theological  class,  and  358  professed  Christians. 
PIRIE.     See  Perie. 

PIROZPUR:  A  village  of  Bengal,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  district  of  Bakarganj,  100  miles  E.  of 
Calcutta.  Population,  12,200,  of  whom  8,100 
are  Hindus  and  4,100  are  Mohammedans.  Sta- 
tion of  the  BMS  (1890),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  18  native  workers,  5  outstations,  8 
day  schools,  8  Sunday  schools,  and  304  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  113  are  communi- 
cants.    The  name  is  also  written  Pirojpur. 

PITHORAGARH:  A  village  and  military  post 
in  the  United  Provinces,  India,  situated  near  the 
Nepal  frontier,  32  miles  E.  of  Almora.  Station  of 
the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  woman  missionary,  48 
native  workers,  4  places  of  worship,  15  Sunday 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  391  professed 
Christians. 

PITSANTJLOKE :  A  town  in  Siam,  situated 
east  of  the  Po  River,  about  227  miles  N.  of 
Bangkok.     Station  of  the  PN  (1889),  with  (1903) 

2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4  native  workers, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding  school,  and  1  dis- 
pensary. 

PITZ,  Deaconess  Charlotte:  Bom  November 
19,  1819,  at  Gemund,  in  Eifel,  Germany.  Died 
July  27,  1903,  at  Jerusalem.  She  was  a  veteran 
in  the  German  Evangelical  work  in  the  East,  hav- 
ing labored  for  a  half-century  in  the  Kaisers- 
werth  Deaconess'  enterprise  at  Jerusalem.  She 
began  her  labors  in  1853,  supervising  a  school  in 
which  she  taught  thirty  hours  weekly.  Her 
work  of  teaching  had  many  interruptions.  Dur- 
ing the  Mohammedan  uprising  against  Chris- 
tians in  1860,  she  was  in  great  danger  and  had  to 
have  an  underground  refuge  made  for  the  25 
children  in  her  school.  When  the  smallpox 
raged  she  nursed  the  sick  until  she  was  seized  by 
the  disease.  When  famine  followed  the  locust 
plague,  she  visited  Germany  and  Holland,  and 
secured  money  to  feed  the  sufferers. 

Notwithstanding  such  difficulties,  the  work 
progressed  and  consequently  her  duties  increased. 
The  commodious  new  building  just  outside  of 
Jerusalem,  called  "Talitha  Kumi,"  was  planned 
and  successfully  supplied  with  money  by  her,  and 
in  January,  1868,  it  was  dedicated  to  the  work 
of  educating  girls  to  be  teachers  in  the  Holy 
Land.  In  connection  with  it  was  a  children's 
school,  and  a  Swedish  school  for  boys  and  girls 
was  opened,  and  all  were  placed  under  Sister 
Charlotte's    supervision.     In     1894    a    hospital 


building  was  dedicated  and  given  over  to  her 
charge.  There  men,  women,  and  children  of  all 
nationalities  and  religions  receive  treatment.  In 
1902  there  were  666  Syrians  and  112  other 
patients  in  the  hospital,  cared  for  by  the  eight 
nurses,  who  belonged  to  the  Kaiserswerth  order 
of  deaconesses. 

Sister  Charlotte's  work  was  recognized  in  Ger- 
many as  well  as  in  Jerusalem.  The  Oown 
Prince  of  Prussia  (later  Emperor  Frederick  of 
Germany)  visited  Jerusalem  in  1869,  and  took 
pains  to  go  to  Talitha  Kumi  and  express  to  Sister 
Charlotte  his  pleasure  with  the  work.  The  Em- 
peror William  II.  having  visited  Jerusalem  in 
1898  for  the  dedication  of  the  new  German 
Evangelical  Church  of  the  Redeemer,  also  took 
pains  to  go  to  Talitha  Kumi  and  the  hospital  to 
see  the  work  of  the  deaconesses.  Great  honor 
was  shown  Sister  Charlotte  on  March  25,  1903, 
when  the  members  of  the  German  colony  in 
Jerusalem  met  to  express  their  appreciation  of 
her  work,  and  as  a  token  of  this  appreciation 
they  gave  her  the  duty  of  laying  the  comer- 
stone  of  a  new  school  building.  She  was  pre- 
sented with  a  Bible  from  the  Empress  of  Ger- 
many, and  addresses  were  made  in  behalf  of 
Germany  in  the  name  of  the  colony  in  Jerusalem, 
and  of  the  children  for  whom  she  had  worked. 

PLAISANCE:  A  town  near  the  center  of  the 
Island  of  Mauritius,  about  45  miles  S.  E.  of  Port 
Louis.  Station  of  the  CMS,  with  (1902)  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  with  hiS'  wife;  23  native  workers,  1 
orphanage,  and  392  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  50  are  communicants. 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN ;  Missions  of  the.  See 
Christian  Missions. 

PNIEL:  A  village  of  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  Griqualand  West,  about  5 
miles  N.  W.  of  Kimberly  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Vaal  River.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1845),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1 
woman  missionary,  27  native  workers,  3  out- 
stations, and  1,964  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  1,692  are  communicants. 

PODILI :  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated  27 
miles  W.  \>y  N.  of  Ongole.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1894),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  116  native  workers,  44  day  schools,  1  Jiun- 
day  school,  6  places  of  worship,  and  8,088  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  3,288  are  communi- 
cants. 

POELO  TELLO:  A  settlement  in  the  Butu 
Islands,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  S.  E.  of 
Nias  Island  and  W.  of  Sumatra.  Station  of  the 
Netherlands  Lutheran  Missionary  Society,  with 
1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  day  school. 

POERBOLINGGO :  A  town  in  Java,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  in  the  central  part  of  the  island, 
about  75  miles  S.  W.  of  Samarang.  Station  of 
the  Neukirchen  Missionary  Society,  with  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  of  them  with  his  wife;  5  native 
workers,  5  outstations,  and  1  day  school. 

POERWORED JO :  A  town  in  Java,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  in  the  S.  part  of  the  island, 
about  60  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Samarang.  Station  of 
the  Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands  (1878), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  3 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  3  day  schools,  and 
1    theological   class. 

POINT  BARROW:  A  settlement  in  Alaska,  sit- 
uated on  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  on  the 
most  northerly  point  of  U.  S.  territory.     Station 


S89 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


PlnK-yao-hsien 
Poona 


of  the  Presbyterian  Home  Missionary  Society 
(1890),  with  1  missionary,  1  woman  missionary, 
1  chapel,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  30 
professed  Christians. 

POINT  PEDRO:  A  town  in  Ceylon,  India,  sit- 
uated in  the  Northern  Province  on  the  N.  coast 
of  Jaffna,  about  114  miles  N.  W.  by  N.  of  Tri- 
comali.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 1  missionary  woman,  126  native  work- 
ers, 20  outstations,  25  Sunday  schools,  29  day 
schools,  22  places  of  worship,  1  boarding  school, 
and  204  professed  Christians,  of  whom  97  are 
communicants. 

POLADPUR:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  Kolaba  district,  about  30  miles  S.  of 
Bombay.  Station  of  the  Mission  to  Lepers 
(1894),  with  1  home  for  untainted  children  of 
lepers. 

POLES:  The  Poles  form  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  Western  Slavs.  They  number 
about  10,000,000,  distributed  by  the  division  of 
Poland  in  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.  They 
are  all  Catholics,  except  500,000  Protestants,  and 
they  use  the  Latin  alphabet,  modified  so  as  to 
express  the  sounds  peculiar  to  their  language. 
Their  language  belongs  to  the  western  branch  of 
Slavic  languages,  and  is  divided  into  four  or  five 
dialects,  which,  however,  are  not  very  different 
from  each  other.  The  Polish  language  has  been 
influenced  more  than  any  other  Slavic  language 
by  the  Latin  (which  in  olden  time  was  the  literary 
and  church  language  of  Poland) ,  the  German  and 
the  French.  Its  distinctive  characteristics  are 
the  nasal  expression  or  rhinesmus  of  a  and  6, 
peculiar  to  the  ancient  Bulgarian  or  ancient  Slo- 
venic,  but  which  has  disappeared  from  common 
use  now  among  the  Slavs,  and  that  it  always 
accents  the  penultimate  syllable  of  words.  The 
Polish  language  bears  quite  a  close  resemblance 
to  the  language  of  the  Bohemians  and  the 
Lansatian  Serbs. 

The  history  of  the  ancient  settlements  of  the 
Poles  is  uncertain.  Their  history  becomes  more 
trustworthy  with  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity among  them,  which  took  place  in  965  or 
966.  It  is  deemed  probable  that  the  doctrines  of 
the  Eastern  Church  were  taught  among  them  in 
the  time  of  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius,  the  Slavic 
apostles,  long  before  this  date,  but  were  soon 
supplanted  by  Latin  Christianity.  If  so,  the 
Eastern  form  has  been  so  thoroughly  extirpated 
that  it  has  left  no  traces  in  Polish  literature. 
Along  with  the  introduction  of  Latin  Christianity 
through  German  preachers,  the  Latin  language 
acquired  a  firm  footing  in  Poland,  and  was  the 
language  of  the  learned  and  higher  classes,  as 
well  as  of  the  courts.  Luther's  reformation  pene- 
trated into  Poland,  where  it  found  zealous  and 
ardent  defenders  and  followers;  but,  in  spite  of 
all  the  earnestness  with  which  it  was  defended,  it 
was  overcome  by  the  Roman  Catholic  reaction. 
The  political  history  of  Poland  is  too  long  to  be 
treated  in  detail  here.  We  can  characterize  it  in 
afew  words  by  saying  that  it  was  full  of  political 
vicissitudes,  of  glorious  deeds,  and  of  mternal 
instability.  The  shlahta,  or  nobility,  had  the 
upper  hand,  while  the  common  people  had  very 
little  share  in  the  government.  The  jealousies 
and  the  arrogance  of  the  nobles  was  always  a 
hindrance  to  regular  administration,  and  on  more 
than  one  occasion  the  king's  authority  was  set  at 
naught.  So  the  internal  condition  of  Poland 
grew  worse  and  worse,  internal  dissensions  and 


strifes  tended  to  weaken  the  government,  and 
Poland  fell  a  prey  to  more  powerful  neighbors, 
who  resolved  upon  her  partition,  and  thus  put  an 
end  to  her  independent  political  existence. 

POLFONTEIN:  Village  in  the  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  about  20  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Ma- 
feking.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary 
Society  (1877),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  native  worker,  3  outstations,  3  places  of 
worship,  3  day  schools,  and  540  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

POLONIA:  A  village  in  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  20  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Pretoria. 
Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 
(1883),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  day  school,  and  389  professed  Christians. 

PONAPI.     See  Caroline  Islands. 

PO-NA-SANG:  A  station  of  the  ABCFM  (1849), 
in  the  suburbs  of  Fu-chau-fu,  q.  v.  for  statistics. 

PONCE:  A  station  of  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Mission  Society  (1899)  in  Porto  Rico, 
West  Indies,  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  1  woman  missionary,  1  native  worker,  2 
outstations,  2  Sunday  schools,  and  80  professed 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  Christian  Church 
(1901),  with  2  ; missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his 
wife.  Station  also  of  the  PB,  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife.  Station  also  of  the  Peniel  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  2  women  missionaries  and 
1  outstation.  Station  also  of  the  UB,  with  (1903) 
3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  day  school,  1 
dispensary,  8  places  of  worship,  1  printing 
house  and  73  professed  Christians. 

POO:  A  town  in  Kunawar,  on  the  border  of 
Punjab,  India,  toward  Tibet,  situated  on  the 
Sutlej  River,  about  100  miles  N.  E.  of  Simla. 
Station  of  the  Moravian  Mission  Society  (1865), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native 
worker,  1  outstauion,  2  places  of  worship,  2  Sun- 
day schools,  2  day  schools,  and  13  professed 
Christians.  The  aim  of  the  enterprise  is  to  con- 
vey Icnowledge  of  Christianity  into  Tibet  by 
means  of  Tibetans  who  come  to  these  border 
regions  for  trade.  So  far,  low  caste  people, 
almost  to  be  regarded  as  slaves,  are  the  only  ones 
who  have  been  converted  here. 

POONA :  Capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name 
in  Bombay,  India.  Situated  in  a  plain,  on  the 
Moota  River,  119  miles  by  railway  southeast  of 
Bombay.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Mahratta  power.  The  seven  quarters  of  the 
city  are  named  after  the  days  of  the  week.  Its 
climate  is  very  pleasant  and  salubrious,  making 
it  a  favorite  place  of  resort  during  the  rainy 
season.  Population  (1901)  153,320,  including 
the  garrison  in  the  cantonment  about  two  miles 
northeast  of  the  city.  Marathi,  Gujarati,  and 
Hindustani  are  the  languages  of  the  various 
races  included  in  its  mixed  population.  Station 
of  the  UFS  (1831),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries, 
3  women  missionaries,  27  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 1  place  of  worship,  5  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  orphanage,  1  printing  house, 
and  186  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  Women's  Board  (1841), 
with  (1900)  12  women  missionaries,  38  native 
workers,  8  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital  and  1  orphanage.  Station 
also  of  the  CMS  (1882),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, 23  native  workers,  1  outstation,  9  day 
schools,   1   theological  class,  and  398  professed 


Poor^  Daniel 
Potribo 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


690 


Christians,  of  whom  174  are  communicants. 
Station  of  the  Ramabai  Association,  with  a  home 
for  widows  which  is  called  Sharada  Sadan.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries, 
one  with  his  wife;  2  women  missionaries,  38 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  5  places  of  worship, 
9  Sunday  schools,  17  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  and  2  orphanages.  Station  also  of  the 
Poona  Indian  Village  Mission,  with  3  mission- 
aries, 3  women  missionaries,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  printing  house,  1  dispensary.  Station  also  of 
the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sun- 
day school,  and  35  professed  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  ZBM,  with  (1903)  27  native 
workers,  5  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1 
orphanage.     Station  also  of  the  Salvation  Army. 

POOR,  Daniel:  Bom  at  Dan  vers,  Mass.,  June 
27,  1789;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  1811; 
studied  theology  at  Andover  Seminary;  ordained 
and  appointed  missionary  to  Ceylon  by  the 
ABCFM,  embarking  October  23,  1815,  with  the 
first  party  of  missionaries  sent  to  that  field  by 
the  Board.  He  was  stationed  as  Tillipally  until 
1823;  then  appointed  to  charge  of  Batticotta 
seminarv  for  boys;  transferred  temporarily  to 
the  Madura  mission  in  1836;  returned  to  Tilli- 
pally, 1841;  visited  the  United  States  1848-1851; 
on  his  return  to  Ceylon  was  stationed  at  Manepy 
until  his  death  by  cholera  in  1855,  after  39  years 
of  mission  service  and  in  the  sixty-sixth  year  of 
his  age.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from 
Dartmouth  College  in  1835. 

Dr.  Poor  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
ABCFM  mission  in  Ceylon  and  left  the  impress 
of  his  strong  personality  upon  its  policy,  as  well 
as  upon  the  Madura  mission.  He  was  in  advance 
of  his  age  in  appreciating  the  place  of  higher 
education  in  the  scheme  of  missions.  Conse- 
quently he  had  to  defend  his  views  more 
than  once  or  twice.  He  opened  a  school  at 
Tillipally  shortly  after  his  arrival,  and  the  semi- 
nary for  boys  at  Batticotta,  to  which  all  the  other 
mission  boarding  schools  should  be  feeders,  was 
largely  the  child  of  his  mind  as  well  as  the  con- 
vincing proof  of  the  soundness  of  his  theories  of 
education.  In  the  Madura  mission  also  he  was 
largely  responsible  for  the  establishment  of  some 
35  schools  in  the  first  five  years  of  its  existence. 

He  excelled  all  his  associates  in  the  use  of  the 
Tamil  language,  in  which  he  preached  his  first 
sermon  one  year  after  his  arrival  in  Ceylon. 
His  familiarity  with  the  language  and  his  knowl- 
edge of  Hindu  literature,  his  clear  mind,,  his 
self-command  and  quickness  of  repartee,  coupled 
with  a  rare  courteousness  in  debate,  enabled  him 
to  meet  the  arguments  and  expose  the  sophistries 
of  learned  Hindu  opponents  with  telling  effect. 

During  Dr.  Poor's  visit  to  the  United  States 
in  1848-49  he  was  much  in  demand  among  the 
churches  for  addresses  on  missions,  and  the 
powerful  addresses  which  he  gave  were  cherished 
memories  with  many  who  heard  him. 

POPO  LANGUAGE:  A  dialect  of  the  Ewe,  used 
as  a  vernacular  by  tribesmen  in  Dahomey  and 
Togoland,  living  between  Lagos  and  the  Volta 
River. 

PORAYAR-.  A  suburb  of  Tranquebar,  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  the  district  of  Tanjore,  21  miles 
N.  of  Negapatam,  and  5  miles  N.  W.  of  Karikal. 
Population,  14,500,  of  whom  11,000  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  Leipzig  Mission  Society  (1842), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  21 


native  workers,  7  outstations,  8  places  of  wor- 
ship, 25  day  schools,  4  boarding  schools,  1  indus- 
trial school,  and  2,003  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  921  are  communicants.  The  name  is  also 
written  Poreiar. 

POREIAR.     See  Porayak. 

PORT  ARTHUR:  A  town  and  military  port  in 
Manchuria,  China,  situated  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
Strait  of  Chi-li.  It  was  leased  to  Russia  in  1898 
by  the  Chinese  Government.  Connected  with 
the  trans-Siberian  railway  by  a  branch  line 
through  Manchuria,  which  is  to  become  the  main 
line.  Station  of  the  Danish  Mission  Society 
(1896),  with  (1903)   1   missionary  and  his  wife, 

1  woman  missionary,  2  native  workers,  1  outsta- 
tion,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  dispen- 
sary, and  33  professed  Christians. 

PORT  ELIZABETH:  A  maritime  town  of  Cape 
Colony,  Africa,  situated  in  the  district  of  Port 
Elizabeth,  125  miles  S.  W.  by  W.  of  King  Wil- 
liam's Town,  with  an  open  but  safe  harbor  on 
Algoa  Bay,  in  which  vessels  load  from  and  dis- 
charge into  lighters  and  steam  tugs  plying  from 
two  jetties.  Population,  23,000.  This  was  the 
earliest  landing  place  of  missionaries  destined  to 
the  Zulu  country.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mis- 
sions (1898),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  5  native  workers,  22  professed  (5hristians, 
and  1  place  of  worship.  Station  also  of  the  SPG, 
with  1  native  worker  and  200  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  South  African  Wes- 
leyan  Methodists,  with  56  native  workers,  14 
outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools, 

2  day  schools,  and  509  professed  Christians. 
PORT  LIMON.     See  Limon. 

PORT  LOKKO :  A  town  in  Sierra  Leone,  west 
coast  of  Africa,  35  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Freetown. 
Climate  tropical.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1875), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  7  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school,  and  35  professed  Christians. 

PORT  LOUIS:  Capital  of  Mauritius,  situated 
on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  island,  at  the  head 
of  a  bay.  It  is  open  on  one  side  to  the  sea  and 
enclosed  on  the  other  three  by  picturesque  moun- 
tains. Of  late  years  its  prosperity  has  declined, 
fevers  having  become  so  prevalent  that  many 
have  deserted  it  for  other  parts  of  the  island. 
This  has  enabled  the  Chinese  to  get  possession 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  town.  Population 
(1901),  with  suburbs,  52,740.  Station  of  the 
SPG  (1856),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  2  native 
workers,  and  365  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
125  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the 
CMS,  with  (1903)  1  native  worker  and  353  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  25  are  communicants. 

PORT  MORESBY:  A  station  on  the  southern 
coast  of  New  Guinea,  under  English  authority. 
It  was  founded  in  1873  by  the  LMS  and  has  a 
college  in  which  natives  from  Tahiti,  Rarotonga, 
Samoa,  etc.,  are  educated,  and  from  which  17 
stations  are  provided  with  teachers.  There  are 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  14  native 
workers. 

PORTO  ALEGRE:  A  town  and  seaport  in 
Brazil,  South  America,  situated  in  the  state  of 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  of  which  it  is  the  capital.  It 
is  the  chief  commercial  port  in  S.  Brazil.  Popu- 
lation, 52,421.  Station  of  the  American  Church 
Missionary  Society  (1890),  with  (1901)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  2 
native  workers,  1  outstation,  3  places  of  worship, 


691 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Poor,  Daniel 
Potrlbo 


2  Sunday  schools,  and  133  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  MES  (1890),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations,  4  Sunday  schools,  and  60  professed 
Christians.  Station  also  of  the  SDA,  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife. 

PORTO  NOVO:  A  town  in  Dahomey,  West 
Africa,  under  French  authority,  situated  about 
50  miles  E.  of  Whydah.  Station  of  the  WMS, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  44  native  worlcers,  12 
outstations,  31  places  of  worship,  9  Sunday 
schools,  7  day  schools,  and  417  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  25  are  communicants. 

PORTO  RICO:  An  island  of  the  West  Indies, 
lying  east  of  Haiti.  It  contains  an  area  of  3,550 
square  miles  and  a  population  (1899)  of  953,243, 
of  whom  over  350,000  are  negroes  or  of  negro 
blood.  It  is  described  as  "the  healthiest  of  all 
the  Antilles."  Slavery  was  abolished  by  the 
National   Assembly   on    March   23,    1873.     The 

?rincipal  towns,  with  their  population,  are:  San 
uan,  32,000;  Ponce,  28,000;  San  Germain, 
38,000. 

Porto  Rico  became  United  States  territory  by 
the  treaty  with  Spain  December  11,  1898.  The 
adjacent  islands  of  the  Virgin  group  are  also 
possessed  by  the  United  States  and  contain 
about  6,000  inhabitants. 

PORT  SAID:  A  town  and  seaport  in  Egypt, 
situated  at  the  entrance  to  the  Suez  Canal, 
about  160  miles  E.  of  Alexandria.  Station  of  the 
Peniel  Mission  Society,  with  3  women  mission- 
aries, 1  native  worker,  and  1  day  school.  The 
BFBS  also  maintains  an  agent  here,  with  a  Bible 
depot  and  a  colporteur. 

PORT  SHEPSTONE.  See  North  and  South 
Shepstonb. 

PORT  SIMPSON:  A  town  and  seaport  in  Bril^ 
ish  Columbia,  N.  A.,  situated  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
entrance  to  Portland  Channel.  Station  of  the 
MCC  (1874),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of 
them  with  his  wife;  6  women  missionaries,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding  school,  1 
dispensary,  1  hospital,  1  industrial  school,  and 
404  professed  Christians. 

PORT  OF  SPAIN:  Capital  of  Trinidad  and 
Tobago,  West  Indies.  It  is  one  of  the  handsom- 
est towns  of  the  West  Indies,  with  a  good  harbor 
and  an  active  trade.  Temperature,  70°-93° 
Fahrenheit.  Population,  34,000,  English,  Eng- 
lish and  French  Creoles,  Indian  coolies,  Chinese, 
Spaniards,  and  Portuguese.  Each  race  speaks  its 
own  language,  and  the  Creole  dialects  of  French, 
Spanish  or  English.  Social  condition,  tho  far 
from  good,  is  better  than  in  most  of  the  West 
Indies.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1836),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  outstation,  1  place  of 
worship,  and  250  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  Moravian  Missions,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  22  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 3  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  2 
day  schools,  and  234  professed  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  SDA  (1893),  with  (1900)  2  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  16  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  5  Sun- 
day schools,  1  day  school,  and  220  professed 
Christians;  the  auxiliary  International  Medical 
and  Benevolent  Association  also  has  here  1  woman 
missionary.  Station  also  of  the  African  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  with  1  native  worker. 

PORTUGUESE  EAST  AFRICA:  A  colony  of 
Portugal,  lying  along  the  east  coast  of  Africa  for 


a  distance  of  nearly  1,000  miles,  extending  from 
the  Rovuma  River  and  the  borders  of  German 
East  Africa  on  the  north  to  Amatongaland  on 
the  south,  and  reaching  back  to  Lake  Nyasa,. 
Matabililand,  and  the  Transvaal  on  the  west. 
The  total  area  is  about  297,750  square  miles;  the 
population  about  1,500,000.  It  comprises  three 
districts:  Mozambique,  Zambesia,  and  Louren50 
Marques,  to  which,  however,  must  be  added  the 
district  of  Inhambane,  formed  when  the  admin- 
istrative concession  to  the  Inhambane  Company 
failed  in  1889,  and  the  Gaza  region,  which  consti- 
tutes a  military  district.  Two  trading  com- 
panies, the  Nyasa  and  the  Mozambique  Com- 
panies, administer  certain  regions  under  a  royal 
charter  that  confers  sovereign  powers.  Mozam- 
bique, Beira,  Inhambane,  and  Louren50  Marques 
are  the  most  important  towns.  The  Delagoa 
Bay  railway,  touching  the  coast  at  Lourengo 
Marques,  has  a  length  in  the  colony  of  57  miles, 
and  extends  to  Pretoria.  The  Beira  railway 
extends  in  the  colony  222  miles,  and  is  con- 
tinued in  British  territory  to  Bulawayo.  Tele- 
graphs, with  a  mileage  of  1,850  miles,  connect  the 
principal  towns  and  communicate  with  the 
British  systems.  The  country  far  from  the 
coast  and  from  navigable  rivers  is  still  largely 
unexplored  by  white  men.  The  climate  is  sub- 
ject to  sudden  changes,  but  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  high,  and,  with  moderate  care, 
danger  to  health  is  avoided.  The  whole  region  is 
intersected  by  numerous  rivers,  and  is  very  fer- 
tile, but  the  tsetse  fly  is,  in  some  districts,  very 
destructive.  Valuable  timbers  are  found  in  the 
forests.  The  mineral  resources  (gold,  copper,  iron 
and  coal)  are  of  exceptional  importance.  The 
Chind6  River,  45  miles  south  of  Quaqua,  is  a 
mouth  of  the  Zambesi,  and  furnishes  a  channel 
three  fathoms  deep  and  500  yards  wide,  with 
good  anchorage.  An  ordinary  steamer  can  thus 
pass  directly  into  the  river.  Formerly  goods, 
after  several  days'  journey  up  the  Quaqua,  had  to 
be  carried  eight  miles  over  a  swampy  depression  to 
the  Zambesi,  where  they  were  transferred  to  the 
small  Zambesi  steamers.  The  Tongas  (a  name 
applied  in  a  collective  sense  to  the  tribes  origin- 
ally inhabiting  the  southern  part  of  this  territory, 
are  a  peaceful  and  industrious  people.  Their 
language  has  been  reduced  to  writmg,  and  a 
hymn-book  and  the  whole  New  Testament  have 
been  translated.  The  Zulu  language  is  spoken 
by  a  great  maj  ority  of  the  people.  There  are  two 
other  extensively  spoken  languages — the  Isisena, 
spoken  from  the  Sabi  to  the  Buzi,  the  Isinhlwenga 
south  of  the  Sabi.  North  of  the  Buzi  the  Sena 
language  is  spoken  by  a  people  who  only  occa- 
sionally use  the  Zulu.  Roman  Catholic  Missions 
have  long  existed  in  the  colony,  and  of  Protestant 
Missionary  Societies  the  SPG,  the  Free  Methodists 
of  America,  and  the  Swiss  Romande  Mission  have 
stations  in  the  southern  coast  regions. 
Monteiro  (Rose),  Delagoa  Bay,  Its  Natives  and  Natural  His- 
tory London,  1891 ;  Worsfield  (W.  B.),  Portuguese  Nyaasa- 
land,  London,  1899. 

PORVENIR.     See  Limon. 

POTOANE:  A  village  in  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Aapies  River,  32  miles  N. 
by  E.  of  Pretoria.  Station  of  the  Hermanns- 
burg  Missionary  Society  (1871),  with  (1901)  1 
missionary,  1  native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
day  school,  and  169  professed  Christians. 

POTRIBO:  A  village  in  Dutch  Guiana,  South 
America,    situated   in   the   Connewyne    district. 


Potcliefstroom 
Presbyterian 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


593 


about  30  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Paramaribo.  Station 
of  thie  Moravian  Society  (1896),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  22  native  worlcers,  1 
place  of  worship,  and  129  professed  Christians. 

POTCHEFSTROOM :  A  town  in  the  Transvaal, 
South  Africa,  90  miles  southwest  of  Pretoria. 
Population,  2,000.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1864), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary.  Station  also  of  the 
Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1872),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  13  native  workers,  4  outstations,  and 
1,298  professed  Christians,  of  whom  343  are  com- 
municants. Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with  1 
missionary,  81  native  workers,  38  outstations,  22 
places  of  worship,  22  Sunday  schools,  8  day 
schools,  and  1,582  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
380  are  communicants. 

POWERS,  Philander  O.:  Born  at  Phillipston, 
Mass.,  August  19,  1805;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College,  1830,  and  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary, 1834;  sailed  November  10  the  same  year 
as  missionary  of  the  ABCFM,  arriving  at  Smyrna 
January  12,  1835;  released  from  the  service  of  the 
Board,  1862;  reappointed  in  1866;  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  Broosa,  Trebizond,  Sivas,  Antioch,  Kes- 
sab,  Urfa,  and  Marash.  His  self-sacrificing 
spirit  appeared  in  his  readiness  to  leave  one 
missionary  field  for  another,  never  allowing 
the  comforts  of  home  to  interfere  with  or 
keep  him  from  his  work  at  a  distance.  He  had  a 
fine  taste  for  music.  This  talent,  together  with 
his  skill  in  versification,  made  him  an  excellent 
hymnologist.  Many  of  the  best  hymns  in  the 
Turkish  are  from  his  pen.  He  died  October  2, 
1872,  at  Kessab,  an  outstation  of  Antioch,  in  the 
house  he  had  built,  and  the  funeral  services  were 
held  in  the  large  and  pleasant  chapel,  the  erection 
of  which  he  had  superintended.  His  remains 
rest  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cassius. 

PRASLIN.     See  Seychelle  Islands. 

PRATT,  Andrew  T. :  Born  at  Black  Rock,  near 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  February  22,  1826;  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  1847;  studied  one  year  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  and  two  in 
New  Haven;  pursued  medical  studies  at  the  New 
York  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons; 
ordained  August  6,  1852;  sailed  December  22  the 
same  year  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  in 
Turkey.  His  first  station  was  Aintab,  but  he 
removed  to  Aleppo  in  1856  and  to  Marash  in 
1859.  In  1868  he  was  transferred  to  the  Western 
Turkey  Mission,  and  removed  to  Constantinople, 
there  to  be  engaged,  especially  with  Dr.  Riggs,  in 
the  work  of  revising  the  Turkish  Scriptures,  in  the 
hope  of  securing  a  uniform  version  for  both 
Christian  and  Muslim  readers.  He  died  Decem- 
ber 5,  1872.  His  grammar  of  the  Turkish,  partly 
a  translation  of  a  Turkish  work  and  partly  his 
own,  is  proof  of  his  proficiency  as  a  Turkish 
scholar.  In  fact,  he  was  a  distinguished  scholar, 
with  extensive  general  information.  He  was  fond 
of  music  and  had  a  poetic  taste.  He  was,  there- 
fore, an  excellent  hymnologist,  and  wrote  original 
hymns  in  Turkish,  as  well  as  translating  others 
from  the  English.  He  was  a  good  physician,  and 
trained  several  native  Armenians  as  physicians, 
who  became  useful  in  the  medical  profession. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  CANADA; 
Home  and  Foreign  Missions  of:  In  June,  1875,  the 
four  Presbyterian  churches  of  Canada — two  were 
in  the  Maritime  Provinces  and  two  in  the  Western 
Provinces — met  in  Montreal  and  constituted  the 
"General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 


in  Canada,"  to  take  up  and  prosecute  the  home 
and  foreign  missionary  operations  of  the  several 
churches.  Already,  in  1848,  the  Nova  Scotia 
church  had  sent  Rev.  John  Geddie  to  commence 
work  in  the  New  Hebrides.  For  many  years  this 
New  Hebrides  work  absorbed  the  interest  of  the 
church,  but  in  1869  another  Nova  Scotian,  Rev. 
John  Morton,  commenced  work  in  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  and  three  years  later  George  Leslie 
Mackay,  of  Toronto,  went  to  North  Formosa. 
About  the  same  time  some  Canadian  women  had 
gone  as  missionaries  to  India,  and  when  the 
oiganization  was  completed  these  four  missions 
were  in  operation.  Work  in  China  was  com- 
menced in  1887,  Demerara  1896,  Korea  1898. 
As  early  as  1866  special  efforts  were  made  for  the 
North  American  Indians,  and  in  1891  the  needs 
of  the  Chinese  in  Canada  were  recognized. 

1 .  New  Hebrides:  After  the  efforts  of  the  LMS 
in  the  New  Hebrides,  and  the  martyrdom  of  John 
Williams  at  Eromanga,  work  in  these  islands  was 
confined  chiefly  to  occasional  visits  by  the  LMS 
missionary  ship  until  1848,  when  the  Nova 
Scotia  Presbyterian  Church  sent  Rev.  John  Ged- 
die to  settle  at  Aneityum.  The  Secession  and 
Reformed  Presbyterians  churches  of  Scotland 
had,  for  a  long  time,  a  deep  interest  in  that  field, 
and  sent  Rev.  John  Inglis  and  Rev.  John  G. 
Paton  to  take  up  the  work.  The  Canadian 
Presbyterians  have  been  from  the  beginning  a 
strong  element  in  the  New  Hebrides  Mission 
Synod,  made  up  of  representatives  of  eight  Pres- 
byterian churches.  In  the  apportionment  of 
mission  work,  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
divisions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  these 
islands,  very  naturally,  fell  to  the  Eastern  divi- 
sion. As  its  share  of  the  work  it  reports  (1903) 
on  the  three  islands  of  Santo,  Efate,  and  Ero- 
manga 6  missionaries,  and  3  churches  with  400 
menibers. 

2.  Trinidad  and  Demerara:  In  1869  the  Rev. 
John  Morton,  a  minister  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Nova  Scotia,  who,  having  visited 
Trinidad  for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  noticed  the 
deplorable  condition  of  the  imported  laboring 
people,  and  on  his  return  home  offered  his  ser- 
vices to  go  and  establish  a  mission  for  their  bene- 
fit. In  1871  he  was  joined  by  the  Rev.  Kenneth 
J.  Grant,  who  is  now  at  San  Fernando,  a  con- 
siderable town  on  the  island,  and  from  time  to 
time  the  mission  has  been  reenforced  and  in  1896 
was  extended  to  include  Demerara.  This  also 
is  under  the  care  of  the  Eastern  division,  and 
reports  in  the  two  fields  18  missionaries,  72 
native  workers,  9  churches  with  917  communi- 
cants. Special  attention  is  paid  to  education, 
and  there  are  59  schools  with  5,095  pupils. 

3.  Formosa:  The  Mission  in  Northern  Formosa 
has  been  one  of  the  Church's  most  successful 
enterprises.  It  was  commenced  in  1872  by  Rev. 
George  Leslie  Mackay,  a  native  of  Oxford 
County,  Ontario.  In  1875  he  was  joined  by  Rev. 
J.  B.  Eraser,  M.D. ,  and  subsequently  by  Rev.  Ken- 
neth F.  Junor,  now  of  New  York.  At  present 
the  Rev.  John  Jamieson,  of  Ontario,  is  associated 
with  Dr.  Mackay.  Dr.  Mackay  married  a  Chris- 
tian Chinese  lady,  who  was  very  helpful  to  him  in 
gaining  the  attention  of  the  women  and  in  super- 
intending the  girls'  school.  His  efforts  to  train  a 
native  agency  and  his  custom  of  taking  with  him 
on  his  journeys  his  class  of  young  men  proved 
most  effective,  and,  while  he  had  most  able  asso- 
ciates, the  success  of  the  work,  both  among  the 
Chinese  and  the  Pepohoan,  was  largely  due  to  him. 


593 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Potchefstrooiu 
Presbyterian 


The  4  missionaries  (1903)  and  57  native  workers 
had  the  care  of  27  churches  and  61  outstations, 
with  2,037  communicants.  Oxford  College,  at 
Tamsui,  had  over  50  students. 

4.   Central   India:     Previous   to   the   union   of 
1875,  two  of  the  Canadian  Churches  had  broken 
ground  in  India   by  sending  thither  female  mis- 
sionaries   who  were  associated  with  a  mission  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States.   In 
1875    Rev.    James    Fraser    Campbell,    of    Nova 
Scotia,   was  sent  to   Madras.     About  the  same 
time,  the  Rev.  James  Douglas,  of  Ontario,  was 
sent  to  Indore,  Central  India,  situated  about  four 
hundred    miles    west    by    north    from    Bombay. 
From  that   beginning  the   work   has   developed 
until   (1903)   7  stations  are  occupied  by  47  mis- 
sionaries and  88  native  workers.     There   are  7 
churches  with  418  communicants,  and  in  the  12 
schools  of  all  grades   are  1,152  scholars.     Medical 
work  and  work   among  the   Bhils,   and  for  the 
famine  children,  have  received  special  attention. 
In  4  hospitals  over  20,000  patients   are  treated. 
5.   China:  This  mission  was  begun  in  1888,  by 
the  appointment  of  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Goforth 
and    Rev.    Donald    MacGillivray,    graduates    of 
Knox  College,  Toronto,  the  Rev.  James  Smith, 
M.D.,    of    Queen's   CoUege,    Kingston,    and    Mr. 
William  McClure,  M.D.,  who  was  ordained  as  an 
elder  and  designated  as  a  medical  missionary  to 
this  field.     The  year  following  three  students  of 
the  Presbyterian  College,  Montreal,  were  ordained 
and  set   apart   as   missionaries   to   Ho-nan,  viz., 
Messrs.   Murdoch  Mackenzie,   John   Macdougall, 
and  John  H.  MacVicar,  a  son  of  the  principal  of 
the    college.     The    General    Assembly    of    1889 
authorized   the   formation    of    a    Presbytery    in 
Ho-nan,  which  was  accordingly  constituted  on  the 
5th  of  December  in  that  year.     This  is,  perhaps, 
the  first  instance   of  a  Presbytery  being  formed 
before  its  constituent  members  had  even  reached 
the  field  of  their  prospective  labors.     This  unique 
Presbytery  held  its  first  meeting,  not  in  Ho-nan, 
but  in  the  adjoining  province  of  Shan-tung,  and 
then  and  there  fixed  upon  desirable   points   in 
Ho-nan    at    which    to    commence      missionary 
operations. 

Subsequently  Dr.  MacGillivray  removed  to 
Shanghai  to  take  part  in  the  work  of  the  Society 
for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and  General 
Knowledge.  In  1902,  with  a  view  to  utilizing 
the  wish  of  Chinese  converted  in  Canada  for  work 
among  their  own  people,  a  mission  was  started  in 
Macao.  The  report  (1903)  shows  in  China  32 
missionaries,  with  12  native  workers.  There  are 
200  communicants,  and  in  the  2  hospitals 
2,150  patients  were  treated. 

6.  Home  Work:  Missions  to  the  Chinese  are  car- 
ried on  in  Montreal  and  Toronto,  and  British 
Columbia,  and  to  the  Indians  in  the  Northwest, 
Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Assiniboia.  There  are 
12  missionaries  in  the  former,  and  61  in  the  latter 
work,  reporting  50  and  375  communicants.  In 
the  Indian  work  some  attention  is  paid  to  schools, 
there  being  16  with  370  pupils,  the  great  majority 
being  in  boarding  schools.  The  woman's  work 
of  the  Church  is  carried  on  by  two  Women's  For- 
eign Missionary  Societies,  with  headquarters  at 
Toronto  and  Halifax,  representing  the  Eastern 
and  Western  divisions  of  the  Missionary  Enter- 
prise. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND, 
Foreign  Missions:  The  Presbyterian  Church 
of  England,  virtually  founded  in  1570,  was  the 
legal  form  of  doctrine  in  1641.    After  the  time  of 


Cromwell  it  gradually  became  the  mere  repre- 
sentative of  the  divided  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Scotland,  till  1776,  when  the  congregations  (in 
England)  of  the  Free  and  United  Presbyterian 
Churches  united  and  formed  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  England. 

The  Missionary  Society  was  organized  in  1847, 
and  its  first  work  was  to  send  a  missionary,  Rev. 
Wm.  C.  Burns,  to  China.  In  1865  it  commenced 
work  in  Formosa,  in  1875  in  Singapore,  and 
three  years  later  in  India.  As  the  Scotch 
churches  have  aided  in  the  conduct  of  the 
China  Mission,  so,  in  1902,  it  was  resolved  that 
the  English  churches  should  have  a  share  in  the 
Livingstonia  Mission  in  Africa. 

1.  China:  For  the  first  four  years  after  Mr. 
Burns'  arrival  in  China,  he  worked  at  Hongkong, 
Canton,  and  the  neighborhood,  but  in  1851  he 
visited  Amoy  on  business,  and  was  so  much 
impressed  with  the  needs  of  this  city,  and  the 
opening  it  gave  for  missionary  effort,  that  he 
transferred  his  work  there,  and  made  it  the  first 
center  of  the  organized  labor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  England.  As  the  work  grew,  the 
Society  sent  out,  in  1853,  the  Rev.  James  Johnson 
to  join  Mr.  Burns;  but  in  1855  he  was  obliged 
to  return  home,  and  his  place  was  filled  by  the 
Rev.  Carstairs  Douglas,  who,  with  the  Rev. 
David  Sandeman,  was  sent  out  by  the  Scottish 
branch  of  the  mission. 

The  work  has  since  developed,  until  it  is  now 
carried  on  in  three  districts:  Amoy,  including  the 
stations  of  Amoy,  Yung-chun  (Engchhun); 
Tsuen-chau  (Chinchew),  and  Changpu;  Swatow, 
including  Swatow,  Chao-chau-fu,  and  Sua-bue; 
Hakkaland,  including  Wu-king-fu  and  San-ho 
(Samho). 

By  an  arrangement  with  the  American  Re- 
formed Church,  the  native  churches  in  the  Amoy 
district  are  united  in  one  presbytery,  and  the 
theological  college  represents  both  boards.  The 
founding  of  an  Anglo-Chinese  College  in  1898 
indicates  the  interest  felt  in  education,  while  the 
fact  that  the  9  medical  missionaries,  with  8 
native  assistants  in  the  three  districts,  have 
treated  over  20,000  patients,  shows  the  attention 
paid  to  medical  work.  The  report  (1903)  shows 
16  ordained  missionaries  in  the  three  districts  (11 
married),  9  medical  missionaries  (7  married),  4 
missionary  teachers  (3  married),  25  missionaries 
of  the  Women's  Association  (including  3  physi- 
cians). There  are  180  congregations,  including 
29  native  pastorates,  and  5,666  communicants. 

The  Mission  suffered  from  the  general  dis- 
turbance in  the  Boxer  rebelUon,  but  has  also 
shared  in  the  renewed  interest  manifest  since.  ^ 

2.  Formosa:  This  Mission  was  commenced  in 
1865.  By  arrangement  with  the  Canadian 
Presbyterian  Board,  that  mission  occupies  the 
parts  of  the  island  north  of  a  line  a  little  above 
the  24th  parallel  of  latitude,  while  the  English 
Board  cares  for  the  southern  section.  This  is 
divided  into  6  districts  with  79  congregations,  of 
which  34  have  trained  preachers,  2,325  adult 
members,  and  10,620  candidates  preparing  for 
baptism.  There  are  5  ordained  missionaries 
(3  married),  3  medical  missionaries  (2  married), 
1  missionary  teacher  (married),  3  missionaries  of 
the  Women's  Association.  The  college  at  Tae- 
rian,  with  53  students,  and  the  pressroom  are 
influential  agencies.  Since  the  Japanese  occu- 
pation of  the  island  the  work  of  the  Mission  has 
been  made  easier.  The  Japanese  officials  have 
manifested  interest  in  the  work,  and  the  restric- 


Presbyterian 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


tions  in  regard  to  opium  have  been  helpful.  The 
Mission  in  the  Pescadores  Islands  is  carried  on  by 
the  native  church,  at  its  own  expense,  tho  under 
the  general  supervision  of  the  Mission. 

3.  Singapore:  Work  among  the  Chinese  who 
came  to  the  Straits  Settlements  was  commenced 
in  1875,  but  the  first  ordained  missionary  went 
out  in  1881.  The  work  has  since  developed 
among  the  Babas,  and  there  are  now  under  the 
supervision  of  the  one  ordained  missionary 
(married)  12  congregations,  including  2  pastor- 
ates, with  7  native  preachers,  240  communicants. 

4.  India:  Work  in  Rampur  Bealia,  in  Bengal, 
was  begun  by  the  Rev.  D.  Morrison  in  1878,  and 
has  (1903)  1  ordained  and  2  medical  missionaries 
(1  married).  The  chief  work  is  medical,  nearly 
8,000  patients  having  been  treated. 

The  Women's  Missionary  Association,  organ- 
ized in  1878,  cooperates  with  the  Foreign  Mission 
Committee  of  tlie  Church,  and  there  is  also  a 
Students'  Missionary  Society,  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  England,  organized  in  1878  for  general 
assistance  in  the  work. 
Oegan:    Monthly  Messenger;  of  the  Women's  Association: 

Our  Sisters  in  Other  Lands. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF  IRELAND, 
Foreign  Missions:  Headquarters,  12  May  Street, 
Belfast,  Ireland.  In  1840  the  "Synod  of  Ulster" 
and  the  "Secession  Synod"  became  united  under 
the  name  of  the  "General  Assembly  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Ireland."  Led  by  Dr.  Duff's 
eloquence  and  a  missionary  survey  which  Dr. 
John  Wilson,  of  Bombay  (both  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland),  had  made  of  the  states  of 
Kathiawar,  they  chose  India  for  their  first  field 
and  sent  out  as  their  first  missionaries  the  Revs. 
A.  Kerr  and  J.  Glai3gow.  These  men  had  not 
offered  themselves  for  the  service,  but  had  been 
chosen  and  called  upon  by  the  Assembly's  Com- 
mittee to  undertake  it.  As  this  mode  of  obtain- 
ing missionaries  was  deemed  by  them  preferable 
to  the  ordinary  practise  of  receiving  voluntary 
offers  of  service,  they  recorded  it,  "that  it  may 
serve  to  be  a  precedent  in  all  time  to  come." 

The  missionaries  proceeded  to  Kathiawar  in 
Gujarat,  and  located  in  Rajkot,  one  of  the 
principal  towns.  As  reenforcements  arrived 
other  places  were  occupied,  including  Gogo 
(1844),  Surat  (1846),  Borsad  (1860),  Ahmadabad 
(1861),  Anand  (1877),  Broach  (1887).  In  1900 
there  were  43  missionaries,  251  naJive  workers 
in  13  stations  and  18  outstations,  674  communi- 
cants, 120  schools  with  6,929  pupils.  The  medi- 
cal department  is  carried  on  by  5  physicians,  of 
whom  four  are  women. 

China:  The  work  of  the  Irish  Presbyterian 
Church  in  China  was  begun  in  1879  in  the 
province  of  Manchuria,  North  China.  Their 
earliest  station  was  New-chwang,  from  which,  as 
a  center,  itinerating  journeys  were  made  over  all 
the  province  to  the  far  north.  The  work  is  car- 
ried on  in  close  proximity  to  and  fraternal 
cooperation  with  the  UFS  mission  in  the  same 
regions.  There  were,  in  1900,  28  missionaries, 
195  native  workers,  occupying  9  stations,  and 
93  outstations,  1,589  communicants,  33  schools 
with  375  pupils,  6  physicians  (one  a  woman),  5 
hospitals  and  dispensaries  with    12,761  patients. 

"The  Assembly  has  Jewish  missions  m  Syria 
and  in  Germany;  Colonial  missions  in  Canada, 
Australia,  and  New  Zealand,  and  Continental 
work  in  various  parts  of  Europe. 

The  Women's  Association  for  Foreign  Missions 
to  Women  in  the  East,  headquarters    119  Uni- 


versity Street,  Belfast,  Ireland,  was  organized 
in  1874  and  carries  on  the  women's  work  in  con- 
nection with  the  Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  (North),  U.  S.  A.> 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions:  Foreign  Missions 
were  undertaken  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  at  a  very  early  date.  'The 
"Society  for  Propagating  Christian  Knowledge," 
formed  in  Scotland  in  1709,  estabJished  in  1841  a 
"Board  of  Correspondents"  in  New  York,  by 
whom  the  Rev.  Azariah  Horton,  a  member  of  the 
Presbytery  of  New  York,  was  appointed  to  labor 
as  a  missionary  among  the  Indians  on  Long 
Island.  The  second  foreign  missionary  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  was  David  Brainerd,  who 
was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York, 
then  meeting  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  June  12,  1744. 
In  1763  the  Synod  of  New  York  ordered  a  collec- 
tion to  be  made  in  aU  its  churches  for  the  support 
of  the  Indian  missions,  and  in  1766  sent  the  Rev. 
Chas.  Bealty  and  the  Rev.  George  Duffield  upon 
a  mission  to  the  Indians  on  the  Muskingum  River 
in  Ohio.  In  1796  was  formed  the  "New  York 
Missionary  Society,"  independent  of  any  pres- 
byterial  supervision,  altho  it  consisted  principally 
of  members  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1797 
the  "Northern  Missionary  Society,"  like  its 
predecessor  an  independent  body  and  composed 
m  part  of  Presbyterians,  was  instituted,  ana  both 
prosecuted  missions  to  the  Indian  tribes  for 
several  years.  In  the  year  1800,  however,  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
took  up  the  work  of  foreign  missions  in  a  sys- 
tematic manner.  In  1802  the  General  Assembly's 
Standing  Committee  on  Missions  addressed  a 
circular  to  all  the  Presbyteries  under  its  care, 
urging  collections  for  the  support  of  missions,  and 
making  inquiries  for  suitable  men  to  be  employed. 
In  1803  the  Rev.  Gideon  Blackburn  established 
a  mission  among  the  Cherokee  Indians  in  Geor- 
gia. After  eight  years'  labor  Mr.  Blackburn's 
health  failed,  the  General  Assembly  was  not  able 
to  fill  his  place  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Kingsbury,  act- 
ing under  the  American  Board,  established  him- 
self in  the  Cherokee  country  and  built  up  a 
flourishing  mission.  From  1805  to  1818  the 
General  Assembly  carried  on  work  among  the 
Indians  in  various  directions,  and  with  some 
degree  of  success;  but  in  1818,  a  new  society, 
consisting  of  the  Presbyterian,  Reformed  Dutch, 
and  Associate  Reformed  Churches,  was  formed, 
called  the  "United  Foreign  Missionary  Society," 
whose  object  was  "to  spread  the  Gospel  among 
the  Indians  of  North  America,  the  inhabitants  of 
Mexico  and  South  America,  and  other  portions 
of  the  heathen  and  anti-Christian  world,"  and 
until  1826  all  the  existing  missionary  interests 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  were  merged  in  this 
society.  In  1826,  when  the  Society  had 
under  its  care  nine  missions,  with  a  force  of  60 
missionaries,  the  whole  work  was  transferred  to 
the  ABCFM,  and  the  "United  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society"  ceased  its  operations. 

Many  Presbyterians  desiring  to  prosecute  for- 
eign missions  through  the  Church  of  their  prefer- 
ence, the  S5mod  of  Pittsburg,  which  from  its 
organization  in  1802  had  shown  great  missionary 
zeal,  formed  in  1831  the  "Western  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society,"  intended  not  for  that  synpd 
alone,  but  for  all  others  which  might  wish  to  unite 
with  it. 

Operations  were  at  once  commenced,  and  the 


695 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Presbyterian 


Society,  organized  for  the  purpose  of  "conveying 
the  Gospel  to  whatever  parts  of  the  heathen  and 
anti-Christian  world  the  providence  of  God 
might  enable  it  to  extend  its  evangelical  exer- 
tions," succeeded  in  planting  missions  among 
the  American  Indians,  in  India  and  Africa,  and 
was  contemplating  work  in  China,  when  in  June, 
1837,  a  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  was  estab- 
lished by  the  General  Assembly,  to  which  the 
work  of  the  Society  was  surrendered.  At  this 
point  (in  1838)  the  Presbyterian  Church  was 
divided,  and  the  "Old  School"  Assembly  carried 
on  its  work  tlirough  the  "Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions," while  the  General  Assembly  of  the  "New 
School"  continued  to  prosecute  its  missions  by 
its  "Committee  on  Foreign  Missions"  through 
the  ABCFM.  Upon  the  reunion  of  the  Old  and 
New  School  Assemblies  in  1870,  the  Persian, 
Syrian,  Gabun  and  several  Indian  missions  were 
transferred  from  the  American  Board,  and  since 
that  period  aU  the  missions  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  with  the  exception  of  those  carried  on 
by  the  Southern  churches,  have  been  prosecuted 
through  the  "Board  of  Missions  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church." 

The  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  is  simply  a 
Permanent  Committee  of  the  General  Assembly. 
The  members,  21  in  number,  are  appointed  by 
the  General  Assembly,  which  possesses  exclu- 
sively the  general  authority,  supervision  and  con- 
trol of  i.he  work  of  the  missions,  the  Board  being 
but  a  form  of  its  executive  agency.  From  1838 
to  1870  the  Board  was  composed  of  120  mem- 
bers, from  whom  an  Executive  Committee  was 
appouited  of  persons  residing  in  or  near  New 
York  City,  the  Board's  headquarters.  At  the 
reunion,  the  membership  was  reduced  to  fifteen, 
and  the  Executive  Committee  was  dispensed 
with,  and  in  1900  the  amended  charter  provided 
for  the  present  number. 

Development  of  Work:  On  its  organization  in 
1837,  the  Board  found  one  Presbyterian  mission 
already  established  in  India,  where  the  Rev. 
John  C.  Lowrie  and  the  Rev.  William  Ross  had 
commenced  work  in  Ludhiana  in  1833.  The 
next  fall  (1837)  two  missionaries  were  com- 
missioned to  open  work  for  the  Chinese,  withhead- 
quarters  at  Singapore.  One  of  these,  the  Rev. 
R.  W.  Orr,  spent  a  month  in  Bangkok,  and  sent 
home  an  urgent  plea  for  a  mission  to  Siam, which 
was  accordingly  commenced  in  1840,  tho  by  the 
failure  of  health  of  the  missionary  in  1844,  work 
wasnot  fuUy  established  until  1847.  In  1856  work 
in  South  America  was  fairly  inaugurated  at 
Bogota,  Colombia.  Three  years  later  the  open 
door  of  Japan  was  entered  and  in  1860  the  mis- 
sion to  Brazil  was  established.  The  next  decade 
witnessed  no  new  enterprise,  but  in  1870  on  the 
reunion  of  the  Old  and  the  New  School  branches, 
three  missions  started  by  the  American  Board: — 
Syria  (1819),  Persia  (1833),  and  Gabun  (1842)— 
were  transferred  by  that  society  to  the  Presby- 
terian Board.  In  this  selection  of  the  fields, 
regard  was  had  to  the  special  interest  of 
the  Presbyterian  members  of  the  ABCFM,  as 
well  as  to  the  desire  to  extend  the  interest  of  the 
Church  as  much  as  possible.  In  1872  the  mission 
in  Mexico  was  started,  and  in  1873  the  work  com- 
menced by  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian 
Union  in  Chili  was  taken  over.  Guatemala  was 
occupied  in  1882;  in  1884  the  Korean  mission  was 
started,  in  1897  Caracas  in  Venezuela  received  a 
missionary,  and  in  1899  the  Board  entered  with 
vigor  upon  the  new  opportunities  presented  by 


the  Philippine  Islands.  The  work  among  the 
North  American  Indians  midertaken  at  different 
times  and  in  different  localities  has  been  discon- 
tinued, passed  over  to  local  presbyteries,  or  to 
the  Board  of  Home  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  A. 

Statement  of  Missions.  I.  India:  The  first 
missionaries  of  the  Western  Foreign  Missionary 
Society,  the  Rev.  John  C.  Lowrie  and  the 
Rev.  Wm.  Reed,  reached  Calcutta  in  Novem- 
ber, 1833,  and  decided  to  locate  in  Ludh- 
iana, then  a  frontier  town  of  the  North- 
west Provinces.  Mr.  Reed's  health  failing,  Mr. 
Lowrie  was  left  alone,  but  he  was  soon  reentorced 
and  other  places  were  occupied  until,  when  the 
work  was  transferred  to  the  Assemblv's  Board 
in  1837,  there  were  four  stations,  Ludhiana, 
Allahabad,  Saharanpur,  and  Sabathu.  The 
nature  of  the  foundation  work  is  indicated  by  the 
establishment  of  a  mission  press  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  practical  printer  as  early  as 
1838.  The  Anglo- Vernacular  High  School  here 
was  the  first  started  in  North  India. 

(1.)  Punjab  Mission:  From  the  first  attention 
was  specially  directed  to  the  Punjab,  and  in  1846, 
after  the  first  Sikh  war,  JuUundur  was  occupied, 
followed  in  1848  by  Ambala.  Then  came  the 
second  Sikh  war,  and  almost  on  the  heels  of  the 
British  forces  Messrs.  John  Newton  and  C.  W. 
Forman  entered  Lahore  (1849),  and  commenced 
the  work  with  which  they  were  identified  for 
nearly  half  a  century,  and  one  of  the  fruits  of 
which  is  the  Forman  Christian  College,  with  a 
larger  number  of  students  than  any  college, 
government  or  missionary,  north  of  Calcutta. 
Other  stations  have  since  been  added:  Dehra 
(1853),  with  a  fine  Christian  girls'  boarding 
school;  Hoshyarpore  (1867),  where  the  work  is 
entirely  under  the  control  of  native  workers; 
Mussoorie  (1847),  a  fine  sanitarium  in  Landour, 
chiefly  known  througli  the  Woodstock  School, 
originally  established  for  the  children  of  mission- 
aries, but  later  developed  into  a  college ;  Feroze- 
pore  (1882)  and  Kasur.  This  mission,  originally 
called  by  the  name  of  its  first  station,  Ludhiana, 
is  now  laiown  as  the  Punjab  mission.  Its  medi- 
cal and  leper  work,  as  well  as  its  educational  and 
general  evangelistic  work,  has  been  pressed  for- 
ward, and  from  the  first  it  has  had  the  hearty 
endorsement  of  the  British  officials,  from  Lord 
Lawrence  and  Sir  Herbert  Edwardes  to  Lord 
Curzon.  It  reports  (1903)  38  outstations,  65 
missionaries,  227  native  workers,  20  organized 
churches,  2,109  communicants,  50  schools,  4,878 
pupils,  4  hospitals,  and  8  dispensaries,  with 
41,847  patients. 

(2.)  Furrukhabad,  or  United  Provinces  Mission: 
This  was  started  in  1836,  by  the  Rev.  James 
McEwen,  who  while  on  his  way  to  Ludhiana 
remained  for  a  time  at  Allahabad  to  superintend 
the  replacing  of  some  lost  parts  of  a  printing 
press.  This  remains  the  chief  station  of  the 
mission,  well  provided  with  educational  institu- 
tions, a  blind  asylum,  a  leper  asylum,  as  well  as  a 
printing  press.  Other  stations  are:  Mainpuri 
(1843);  Fategarh,  with  its  native  city,  Furruk- 
habad (1844),  notable  as  the  only  station  where 
missionaries  lost  their  lives  in  the  mutiny  of  1857; 
Fatehpur  (1853);  Etawah  (1863);  Morar,  the 
capital  of  Gwalior,  and  the  only  station  in  a 
native  state  (1874);  Jhansi  (1886);  Etah  (1900) 
and  Cawnpore  (1901).  Aside  from  AUaJiabad 
and  Furrukhabad,  the  work  of  this  mission  i» 
more     distinctively     evangelistic.     The     report 


Presbyterian 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


596 


(1903)  shows  20  outstations,  174  native  workers, 
10  churches,  646  communicants,  89  schools, 
1,779  pupils,  1  hospital,  and  3  dispensaries,  with 
35,951  patients. 

(3.)  Western  India  Mission:  This  mission,  lying 
in  the  Deccan,  soutli  of  Bombay,  was  started  in 
1853  under  the  auspices  of  the  ABCFM,  by  the 
Rev.  Royal  G.  Wilder,  who  located  at  Kolhapur. 
Subsequenjy  on  the  refusal  of  the  ABCFM  to 
approve  some  of  Mr.  Wilder's  educational  plans, 
he  started  an  independent  mission,  whicli  in 
1870,  at  the  vime  of  the  reunion,  was  accepted  by 
the  Presbyterian  Board.  Otlier  stations  are: 
Ratnagiri  (1873),  the  only  station  in  British 
territory;  Kodoli  (1877);  Sangh  (1884);  Miraj 
(1892);  Vengurle  (1900).  The  worlv  of  the  mis- 
sion is  largely  in  the  villages,  and  it  has  done 
much  for  the  sufferers  from  famine.  There  is 
an  industrial  school  with  42  famine  lads  at  Ven- 
gurle, and  the  Brownie  Orphanage,  with  600  chil- 
dren, at  Kodoli,  as  well  as  a  hospital  and  leper 
asylum  at  Miraj.  The  report  (1903)  shows  12 
outstations,  41  missionaries,  68  native  workers, 
7  churches,  1,180  communicants,  34  schools, 
1,554  scliolars,  2  hospitals,  and  4  dispensaries, 
with  31,095  patients. 

The  special  phases  of  work  carried  on  through 
all  the  India  missions  are;  tlie  Zenana  work. 
Christian  literature,  including  Bible  translation, 
commentaries,  periodic  literature,  etc.,  medical 
and  asylum  work,  educational  worl^,  higlier  and 
lower,  work  among  the  outcasts,  and  especially 
the  development  of  a  native  church. 

//.  China:  Three  montlis  after  i.s  organization, 
in  December,  1837,  the  Presbyterian  Board  sent 
two  missionaries.  Revs.  J.  A.  Mitchell  and  R.  W. 
Orr,  to  commence  work  for  the  Chinese  at  Singa- 
pore. Mr.  Mitcliell  died  soon  after  reaching 
Singapore,  and  Mr.  Orr  was  compelled  by  failure 
of  health  to  return  home.  Mr.  McBride,  sent  out 
in  1840,  returned  for  the  same  reason  in  1843. 
In  the  same  year  Dr.  J.  C.  Hepburn  and  Mr. 
Walter  Lowrie  were  sent  out.  Tliey  transferred 
the  mission  from  Singapore  to  Amoy,  reenforce- 
ments  were  sent  to  them,  and  a  most  important 
agency,  the  mission  press,  was  es-  ablished.  A 
special  appeal  for  funds  was  made  by  ihe  Board, 
and  as  a  result  a  large  force  of  workers  was  sent 
to  strengthen  the  mission,  and  Macao,  Amoy 
and  NLngpo  were  occupied  as  sta-  ions.  Amoy 
was  afterward  dropped,  Canton  look  the  place 
of  Macao  as  a  heaclquarters  and  Ningpo  became 
the  first  station  of  the  Ceniral  China  mission. 

(1.)  Central  China-  This  mission  includes 
Ningpo  (1844),  Shanghai  (1850),  Hangchau 
(1859),  Suchau  (1871),  Nanking  (1876)  and 
Hwai-Yuen  (1901). 

Ningpo,  one  of  the  five  ports  opened  in  1842, 
was  entered  in  1844  by  Dr.  McCartee.  A  few 
montlis  later  he  was  joined  by  a  large  force  of 
missionaries,  among  them  the  Rev.  W.  M. 
Lowrie,  who  was  in  1847  killed  by  pirates.  The 
first  convert  was  baptized  in  1845,  and  a  church 
was  organized  later  m  the  same  year.  The  girls' 
boarding  school  dates  from  1846,  the  industrial 
school  for  women  from  1861,  and  the  Presby- 
terial  Academy,  for  the  sons  of  native  Christians, 
and  almost  wholly  supported  by  the  tuition  fees 
and  the  native  churches,  from  1881.  The  boys' 
boarding  school,  organized  early  in  the  mission, 
was  removed  to  Hangchau  in  1877. 

Shanghai,  also  one  of  the  five  por-'s,  was  occu- 
pied by  Messrs.  Culbertson  and  Wight  in  1850. 


While  other  lines  of  work  are  efficiently  prose- 
cuted, the  great  work  of  this  station  is  the  Mis- 
sion Press,  one  of  the  most  powerful  agencies  in 
the  Chinese  Empire.  It  has  furnished  fonts  of 
type  for  other  Chinese  and  European  presses, 
has  done  work  for  the  Bible  and  Tract  Societies, 
published  a  number  of  periodicals,  and  not  only 
meets  all  expenses  but  turns  in  several  thousand 
dollars  a  year  into  the  mission  treasury. 

Hangchau,  visited  by  Dr.  Nevius  (1859),  but 
not  occupied  as  a  place  of  residence  until  1865, 
has  a  fine  college  for  boys  with  about  85  students 
and  a  new  boarding  school  for  girls.     Suchau 
(1871)  has  always  been  the  seat  of   special  hos- 
tility to  foreigners,  but  the  Tooker  Hospital  has 
done  much  to   disarm  this  feeling.     Other  sta- 
tions are  Nanking  (1876)  and  Hwai-yuen  (1901). 
The  report  (1903)  shows  37  outstations,  62  mis- 
sionaries, 121  native  worlcers,  20  eliurches,  1,841 
communicants,   25   schools,   with  961   pupils,   1 
hospital  and  3  dispensaries,  with  3,712  patients. 
(2.)    Canton    Mission:    This    was    started    at 
Macao,  but  Canton  was  occupied  in  1845,  and 
this   was   for    more  than  thirty  years  the  only 
station.     In  1879  a  chapel  was  leased  at  Lien- 
chau,  and  in  1886  Yeung-kong  was  made  a  center 
of  worI%;.     Kong-hau  in  the  Hakka  country  was 
long  visited  by  the  missionaries  and  a  church 
was  organized  in  1890,  but  it  was  subsequently 
deemed  advisable  to  withdraw  the  missionaries 
and  leave  it  under  the  care  of  a  native  pastor. 
The  work  in  Canton  has  been  successful,  a  num- 
ber of  churches  having  been  organized,  both  in 
the  city  and  the  immediate  vicinity.     This  is  the 
seat    of    the  Canton  Christian  College,    founded 
by  Rev.  A.  P.  Happer,  D.D.,  now  under  a  sepa- 
rate Board  of  Trustees,  but  cooperating  with  the 
mission.     It  was  at  Canton  also  that  Dr.  Peter 
Parker  in  1835  gave  the  first  impulse  to  distinc- 
tive medical  missions,  and  there  is  now  a  fine  hos- 
pital owned  by  the  Medical  Missionary  Society  in 
China,  tho  the  physicians  are  supplied  by  the 
Presbyterian     Board.     Other     departments     of 
educational,  philanthropic  and  evangelistic  work 
are  carried  on.     The  report  of  the  mission  (1903) 
shows  60  outstations,  31  missionaries,  117  native 
workers,   20  churches,   with  3,854  members,  32 
schools,  with  892  pupils,  3  hospitals  and  5  dis- 
pensaries, with  41,847  patients. 

(3.)  Hai-nan  Mission:  Mission  work  in  the 
island  of  Hai-nan  was  begun  in  1881  by  Mr.  C.  C. 
Jeremiassen  as  an  independent  enterprise,  but 
was  taken  up  by  the  Canton  Mission  in  1885  and 
organized  as  a  separate  mission  in  1893.  There 
are  three  stations:  Kuing  Chow  and  Nodoa,  both 
occupied  in  1885  and  Kachek  (1902).  The  work 
is  largely  among  the  Loi  tribe,  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants, and  offering  some  special  attractions  to 
missionary  effort.  But  many  Hakkas  from  the 
mainland  are  also  included  in  this  field.  The 
report  (1903)  shows  5  outstations,  21  mission- 
aries, 23  native  workers,  131  communicants,  5 
schools,  with  152  scholars,  1  printing  press,  2 
hospitals  and  3  dispensaries,  with  14,932  patients. 
(4.)  Hunan  Mission:  The  Canton  Mission  for 
many  years  looked  toward  the  province  of  Hunan 
as  one  offering  a  fine  field  for  work,  but  it  was  not 
until  1900  that  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Lingle,  Dr.  H.  W. 
Boyd  and  Dr.  Leila  M.  Doolittle  were  authorized 
to  open  a  station  at  Siang-tau.  Then  came  the 
Boxer  uprising  and  they  were  obliged  to  with- 
draw. They  have  since  returned  and  a  new  sta- 
tion has  been  opened  at  Heng-chau  (1902).  The 
work,  still  (1903)  in  its  infancy,  reports  10  mis- 


597 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Presliyterlan 


sionaries,  2  native  workers,  6  communicants,  1 
school,  witii  12  pupils. 

(5.)  Peking  Mission:  Work  in  Peking  was 
begun  in  1863  by  Rev.  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  who 
withdrew  from  the  mission  in  1869  to  take  the 
presidency  of  the  Imperial  Lung-wen  College, 
but  has  always  been  identified  with  the  mission. 
As  in  the  case  of  Canton,  the  work  for  many  years 
was  confined  to  the  city  of  Peking,  and  was 
developed  successfully  there.  In  1893  a  new  sta- 
tion was  opened  at  Pao-ting-fu.  The  Peking 
mission  suffered  severely  during  the  Boxer 
rebellion.  The  company  of  missionaries  at  Pao- 
ting-fu  were  massacred,  including  Dr.  Taylor, 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Simcox  and  three  children,  and  Dr. 
and  Mrs.  Hodge.  The  buildings  in  both  stations 
were  destroyed.  Since  the  subsidence  of  the 
troubles  the  work  has  been  resumed  with  energy 
and  the  report  (1903)  shows  both  stations  occu- 
pied, 4  outstations,  29  missionaries,  211  communi- 
cants. Both  school  and  medical  work  have  suf- 
fered and  are  not  yet  fully  reorganized. 

(6.)  East  Shantung  Mission,  including  the  sta- 
tions of  Teng-chau,  Chi-fu  and  Tsing-tau. 

(7.)  West  Shantung  Mission,  including  the  sta- 
tions of  Chi-nan-fu,  Wei-hsien,  I-chow-fu  and 
Chining-chow. 

For  many  years  these  two  were  included  in 
one  Shantung  mission,  afterward  divided  for 
convenience  of  administration. 

The  province  of  Shantung,  the  home  of  Con- 
fucius, Laotze  and  other  Chinese  sages,  was  first 
visited  by  the  Rev.  J.  L.  Nevius,  who  opened  the 
station  of  Teng-chau  in  1861  and  that  of  Chi-fu 
in  1862.  The  next  place  entered  was  Chi-nan-fu 
(1872),  followed  by  Wei-hsien  (1882),  I-chow-fu 
(1891),  Chining-fu  (1892)  and  Tsing-tau  (1898). 
Severe  famines  in  1877  and  1889  occasioned  the 
organization  of  relief  work,  which,  under  the 
general  supervision  of  Dr.  Nevius,  who  had 
become  by  extensive  itineration  personally 
known  and  respected  all  over  the  province, 
enabled  the  missionaries  to  gain  a  strong  hold 
upon  the  people.  Dr.  Nevius  made  a  thorough 
study  of  methods  of  mission  work  with  special 
reference  to  the  development  of  the  native 
church,  and  in  this  respect  he  and  his  associates 
were  most  successful.  Educational  and  medical 
work  also  were  pushed,  and  the  Teng-chau  Col- 
lege is  one  of  the  best  in  China.  The  entire  work 
was  disorganized  by  the  Boxer  uprising,  and 
churches  and  hospitals  were  destroyed,  tho  the 
college  was  uninjured.  Thousands  of  native 
Christians  lost  their  lives,  but,  largely  through 
the  skiU  and  energy  of  Mr.  Cornwell,  the  U.  S. 
Consul  at  Chi-fu,  the  entire  missionary  force 
escaped  in  safety  to  Chi-fu.  Since  then  the 
work  has  gradually  resumed  its  former  conditions 
and  the  report  (1903)  shows  for  the  East  Shan- 
tung mission  71  outstations,  30  missionaries,  117 
native  workers,  46  churches,  with  2,038  com- 
municants, 48  schools  with  770  pupils,  1  hospital 
and  2  dispensaries,  with  8,519  patients.  The 
figures  for  the  West  Shantung  Mission  are  not 
complete,  but  as  given  show  158  outstations, 
31  missionaries,  168  native  workers,  15  churches 
with  3,952  communicants,  51  schools  with  565 
pupils,  3  hospitals  and  4  dispensaries  with  28,124 
patients. 

///.  Siam  and  Laos.  (1.)  Siam  Mission:  The 
Rev.  R.  W.  Orr  on  his  way  to  Singapore  in  1838 
spent  a  month  in  Bangkok  and  sent  back  an 
urgent  plea  for  a  missionary  to  work  among  the 
Chinese.     Rev.  W.  P.  Buell  arrived  in  1840,  but 


left  in  1844  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  it  was 
not  until  1847  that  Rev.  Stephen  Mattoon  and 
Rev.  S.  R.  House,  M.D.,  were  permanently  es- 
tablished there.  For  four  years  they  were  obliged 
to  work  very  quietly  because  of  the  bitter  hos- 
tility of  the  king,  but  the  accession  to  the  throne 
in  1851  of  Prince  Somdet  Phra,  who  had  been 
under  the  instruction  of  Rev.  Jesse  Caswell,  of 
the  ABCFM,  made  a  great  change.  From  that 
time  the  mission  work  has  had  the  cordial  sup- 
port of  the  government  and  repeatedly  mission- 
aries have  been  placed  in  positions  of  honor  and 
influence.  Special  attention  has  been  given  to 
medical  and  educational  work  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  Christian  literature,  but  also  to  touring, 
and  a  mission  schooner,  the  Kalamazoo,  is  well 
known  all  along  the  coast.  It  was  difficult, 
however,  to  secure  results  and  it  was  not  until 
1859  that  the  first  Siamese  convert  was  baptized. 
Among  the  most  important  schools  is  one  for 
girls,  which  numbers  among  its  pupils  a  great 
many  from  the  upper  classes. 

Other  stations  are:  Petchaburee,  occupied  in 
1861,  Rajaburee  (1889),  Pitsanuloke  (1889), 
Nakawn  (1900).  In  all  the  stations  there  has 
been  much  earnest  labor,  with  comparatively 
small  visible  results.  The  enervating  climate, 
to  which  so  many  workers  have  succumbed,  the 
mobile,  unretentive  character  of  the  people, 
whose  unthinking  acquiescence  is  more  dis- 
couraging than  opposition,  are  obstacles  to  be 
orercome  only  by  great  faith  and  endurance.  In 
no  mission  of  the  Board  has  the  effort  to  secure 
self-support  among  the  native  churches  met 
with  so  much  opposition.  In  Petchaburee,  the 
boarding  schools  were  closed  and  many  individ- 
uals who  had  been  employed  or  assisted  by  the 
Mission  withdrew  when  obliged  to  depend  upon 
themselves.  The  recent  revival  of  interest  in  Bud- 
dhism does  not  seem  as  yet  to  have  affected  the 
work  greatly.  The  presence  of  some  strong  self- 
supporting  churches  is  a  pledge  of  future  suc- 
cess. The  report  (1903)  shows  7  outstations,  29 
missionaries,  25  native  workers,  9  churches 
with  439  members,  6  schools  with  437  pupils,  a 
printing  press,  3  hospitals,  and  4  dispensaries 
with  7,035  patients. 

(2.)  Laos  Mission:  The  missionaries  in  Siam 
were  led  to  consider  the  claims  of  the  Laos  tribes 
who  occupy  the  hill  country  in  the  north  of  Siam, 
by  encountering  a  settlement  of  Laos  refugees 
near  Petchaburee.  In  1864  a  deputation  visited 
Chieng  Mai  and  three  years  later  Rev.  Daniel 
McGilvary  and  Rev.  Jonathan  Wilson  opened  a 
permanent  station  there.  Success  was  more 
rapid  than  among  the  Siamese  and  there  were 
several  converts  within  a  few  months.  Then 
followed  bitter  persecution  and  the  work  was 
checked,  but  received  a  new  impulse  until  1878, 
when  in  consequence  of  the  bitter  opposition  of 
the  people  to  Christian  marriage  without  the 
usual  ceremonies  of  devil-worship,  appeal  was 
made  to  the  king  of  Siam,  which  resulted  in  a 
proclamation  of  religious  liberty  to  the  Laos. 
From  that  time  the  work  progressed  rapidly. 
The  general  policy  of  the  Mission,  based  on  the 
experience  of  other  missions,  has  been  from  the 
beginning  to  throw  the  responsibility  of  main- 
taining the  work  on  the  people  themselves,  with 
the  result  that  the  evangelistic  work  is  now  vir- 
tually supported  by  Laos  Christians,  including 
a  foreign  mission  to  the  Ka  Mu  tribe  across  the 
Me-kong  in  French  territory.  There  has  also 
been  a  comprehensive  scheme  of  education,  a 


Presbyterian 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


698 


mission  press  established  and  the  medical  work 
has  been  one  of  the  most  effective  agencies  in 
disarming  opposition  and  reaching  the  people. 
Other  stations  occupied  are  Lakawn  (1885), 
Muang  Pr6  (1893),  Nan  (1894),  Chieng  Rai 
(1897).  Lampun  was  occupied  in  1891,  but  on 
account  of  its  proximity  to  Chieng  Mai  it  was 
united  to  that  station. 

The  Mission  is  anxiously  looking  forward  to 
work  among  the  other  Laos  tribes,  particularly 
those  in  French  territory,  but  is  hampered  by  the 
objections  of  the  French  Government.  The 
report  (1903)  shows  23  outstations,  40  mission- 
aries, 28  native  workers,  16  churches  with  2,706 
communicants,  17  schools  with  300  pupils,  4 
hospitals  and  4  dispensaries  with  7,632  patients. 
IV.  South  America:  The  first  mission  work  of 
the  Presb3rterian  Church  in  South  America  was 
undertaken  in  Buenos  Aires  in  1827,  but  was 
soon  abandoned;  another  attempt  in  1853  was 
also  without  permanent  results.  In  1856  a  mis- 
sionary was  sent  to  Colombia,  reaching  Bogota 
in  June.  The  next  step  was  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  in 
1860.  In  1873  work  which  had  been  established 
in  Chile  in  1850  by  the  American  and  Foreign 
Christian  Union  was  assumed  by  the  Presby- 
terian Board,  and  that  again  was  followed  in 
1897  by  the  opening  of  a  station  in  Caracas, 
Venezuela.  The  work  in  Brazil  developed  so 
that  a  division  seemed  best  into  Central  and 
Southern  Brazil  Missions. 

(1.)  Colombia:  The  early  years  of  this  mission 
from  its  commencement  in  1856  were  times  of 
great  difficulty  on  account  of  opposition  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  revolution  in 
1860,  however,  threw  the  government  into  the 
hands  of  the  Liberals;  the  Jesuits  were  banished; 
monastic  orders  restricted,  and  mission  work 
received  a  new  impulse.  The  mission  has  never 
had  the  success  apparent  in  some  of  the  Asiatic 
fields.  Not  only  is  there  bitter  opposition  on 
the  part  of  ecclesiastics,  but  the  intelligent 
classes  are  largely  indifferent  or  skeptical;  the 
poorer  people  very  ignorant.  Bogota  was  the 
only  station  for  a  number  of  years,  then  in  1888 
Barranquilla  was  occupied,  followed  by  Medellin 
in  1889.  The  report  (1903)  shows  16  missionaries, 
11  native  workers,  3  churches,  181  communicants, 
4  schools,  220  pupils. 

(2.)  Southern  Brazil  Mission:  The  first  mission- 
ary to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Rev.  A.  G.  Simonton,  was 
peculiarly  qualified  for  pioneer  work  in  such  a 
country,  and  1o  his  wisdom  and  scholarly  qual- 
ities is  largely  due  the  success  of  the  work.  Three 
years  later  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo  was  occupied, 
and  made  the  center  of  the  educational  and  pub- 
lishing work,  which  have  been  two  of  the  most 
important  departments  of  the  mission.  In 
1886,  Horace  M.  Lane,  M.D.,  was  put  in  special 
superintendency  of  the  educational  work,  and 
under  his  lead  Mackenzie  College  has  been  devel- 
oped into  a  most  influential  institution.  Other 
stations  at  present  occupied  are  Curytiba 
(1885),  Novo  Friburgo  (1891),  Florianopolis 
(1898).  Work  has  also  been  done  in  Rio  (Jlaro 
and  in  Brotas.  The  strongest  churches  are 
those  in  SEo  Paulo,  which  grew  up  under  the 
care  of  Dr.  G  W.  Chamberlain.  But  all  through 
the  mission  there  has  been  excellent  evangelistic 
work  done.  The  report  (1903)  shows  40  out- 
stations, 13  missionaries.  4  native  workers,  29 
churches,  3,107  communicants,  26  schools,  762 
pupils.  (Some  of  these  figures  are  incomplete.) 
(3)     Central  Brazil  Mission:  This  field  includes 


the  states  of  Bahia,  Sergipe  and  parts  of  others. 
The  stations  are :  Bahia  (1871),  Cachoeira  (1873), 
Sergipe  (1886),  Villa  Nova  da  Rainha  (1900). 
Work  in  this  section  has  presented  unusual  dif- 
ficulties, yielding  less  fruit  than  any  other  of  the 
mission  fields  in  Brazil,  owing  partly  to  the 
population,  principally  made  up  of  blacks  and 
their  descendants,  and  partly  to  the  power  of 
the  ecclesiastical  element.  The  hope  is  to  extend 
the  work  into  the  interior  provinces,  inhabited 
exclusively  by  Indians,  some  independent  tribes, 
others  semi-civilized  and  varying  greatly  in 
character.  Appropriations  were  ma(fe  in  1899 
for  this  work,  but  Mr.  George  Witte,  who  was 
assigned  to  it,  and  an  associate,  were  both 
smitten  by  fever,  and  it  was  for  the  time  being 
postponed.  The  report  (1903)  shows  39  out- 
stations, 13  missionaries,  4  native  workers,  7 
organized  churches,  with  467  communicants,  11 
schools  with  400  pupils. 

In  1888  the  missions  of  the  Northern  and 
Southern  Presbyterian  churches  were  united  in 
the  Synod  of  Brazil,  which  meets  every  three 
years  and  is  entirely  independent  of  the  General 
Assemblies  in  the  United  States.  The  Synod 
has  a  vigorous  Home  Mission  Society,  and 
supports  the  theological  seminary  at  Sao  Paulo. 
At  its  triennial  meeting  in  1900  a  membership 
of  7,000  communicants  was  reported,  a  gain  of 
;en  per  cent,  in  the  three  years.  In  view  of  the 
excellent  work  of  this  Synod,  the  American 
societies  are  reaching  out  toward  the  distant 
regions  as  yet  unevangelized. 

(4)  Chile:  The  first  American  missionary  in 
Valparaiso  was  the  Rev.  D.  Trumbull,  represent- 
ing the  Seamen's  Friends  Society,  and  the 
American  and  Christian  Foreign  Union.  He 
labored  chiefly  for  the  English-speaking  people; 
but  others  came  to  enter  upon  Spanish  work. 
A  Spanish  paper  was  established,  and  a  school 
and  orphanage  conducted.  The  Presbyterians 
took  charge  of  it  in  July,  1873.  Oiher  Sja'.ions 
are :  Santiago,  occupied  first  in  1861 ;  Consuiiucion 
(1885),  Concepcion  (1880),  Chilian  (1892), 
Talca  (1896),  Copiapo  (1888).  Aside  from  the 
educational,  publication  and  general  evangelistic 
work,  much  has  been  done  in  the  outlying 
sections,  and  in  the  mining  regions.  The  work 
in  Chile  has  shared  in  the  change  that  has  come 
over  so  many  of  the  South  American  states  in 
the  control  of  Liberals,  and  in  1888  the  mission 
received  a  special  charter.  The  report  for  1903 
shows  34  outstations,  12  missionaries,  29  native 
workers,  10  churches,  522  members,  4  schools, 
560  pupils. 

(5)  Japan:  While  the  Christian  Church  was 
watching  the  opening  of  Japan,  the  Presbyterian 
Board  requested  Dr.  McCartee,  a  missionary  in 
China,  to  visit  that  country  and  make  inquiries 
preparatory  to  mission  work.  He  was,  however, 
unable  to  reach  Japan,  and  as  the  treaty  opening 
the  ports  of  Yokohama  and  Nagasaki  was  to  take 
effect  in  July,  1859,  in  the  previous  April,  the 
Board  commissioned  Dr.  J.  C.  Hepburn  and  wife, 
formerly  of  China,  to  enter  the  country.  They 
reached  Japan  early  in  October  and  settled  at 
Kanagawa,  a  few  miles  from  Tokio.  The  Bud- 
dhist temple  was  obtained  as  a  residence, the  idols 
were  removed,  and  the  people  were  found  to  be 
civil  and  friendly.  There  was,  however,  constant 
surveillance,  and  aggressive  work  was  scarcely 
possible.  Meanwhile,  there  was  opportunity 
for  studying  the  language,  and  Dr.  Hepburn 
devoted  himself  to  it,  laying  the  foundation  for 


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a  translation  of  the  Scriptures  and  a  Japanese- 
English  Dictionary,  the  first  edition  of  which 
was  published  in  1867. 

In  1862  the  station  was  moved  to  Yokohama, 
and  a  dispensary  and  hospital  were  opened. 
Other  missionaries  arrived,  and  gradually  the 
field  of  work  enlarged.  In  February,  1869, 
three  converts  were  baptized.  Durmg  this 
decade,  also,  occurred  the  political  revolution 
which  changed  the  entire  policy  of  Japan  toward 
the  outer  world,  and  which  brought  into  prom- 
inence as  leaders  several  young  men  who  had 
come  under  the  influence  of  Dr.  Hepburn,  and 
Dr.  Verbeok,  of  the  Reformed  Church  m  America, 
and  others. 

In  January  of  1872  a  week  of  prayer  was 
observed  by  all  of  the  missionaries  and  English- 
speaking  residents  of  all  denominations  in 
Yokohama,  and  the  result  was  a  great  manifes- 
tation of  spiritual  life.  Two  years  later  there 
were  still  more  marks  of  divine  favor.  Churches 
were  organized,  and  the  Presbyterian  and 
Reformed  Missions  worked  together  in  cordial 
sympathy.  In  1876  a  movement  was  initiated 
by  these  two  missions,  together  with  that  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  which 
resulted  in  the  organization  of  the  United  Church 
of  Christ  in  Japan,  an  independent  self-govern- 
ing Japanese  Church,  in  which  the  missionaries 
were  only  advisory  members.  An  effort,  in  1889, 
to  unite  the  Congregational  churches  with  this 
body  failed,  and  soon  after  the  term  "United" 
was  dropped  from  the  title. 

In  1877  a  Union  Theological  School  was  organ- 
ized, and  a  Union  College  in  1883.  In  1886 
these  were  united,  and  with  the  special  depart- 
ment then  organized  became  the  Meiji  Gakuin, 
"College  of  the  Era  of  Enlightened  Principles." 
The  unprecedented  advance  of  these  years  was 
followed  by  a  reaction  of  intense  prejudice 
against  foreigners  and  foreign  teaching,  which 
again  was  largely  overcome  by  the  bearing  of 
the  Christians  during  the  war  with  Japan,  and 
has  been  more  recently  followed  by  a  renewed 
increase  of  interest. 

(1)  Eastern  Japan  Mission:  The  work  com- 
menced at  Yokohama  has  resulted  in  two  self- 
supporting  churches.  But  the  headquarters  of 
the  mission  were  changed  in  1869  to  Tokio,  the 
capital,  where  the  first  church  was  organized  in 
1873.  The  mission  work  includes  open-air 
evangelistic  work,  a  Training  School  for  Bible 
Women,  a  Girls'  Boarding  School,  and  a  Training 
School  for  Nurses.  Other  lines  of  work  con- 
nected with  this  mission  include  the  work  in 
Hokkaido  and  the  Kurile  Islands.  The  head- 
quarters of  this  section  are  at  Sapporo  (1887), 
but  several  other  places  are  occupied.  In  one, 
Oiaru,  the  work  began  as  a  Sunday  school  for 
the  fishermen's  children.  There  is  now  a  church 
and  an  excellent  school,  with  two  kindergartens 
and  three  Sundav  schools.  The  report  in  1903 
shows  24  outstations,  31  missionaries,  59  native 
workers,  8  schools  with  882  pupils. 

(2.)  Western  Japan:  The  first  station  occupied 
on  the  Western  coast  was  Kanagawa,  by  Rev. 
T.  W.  Winn,  in  1879.  At  that  time,  so  far  as 
known,  there  was  not  a  single  Christian  living 
in  those  provinces.  To-day  every  important 
city  has  its  groups  of  Christians,  and  a  number 
of  vigorous  churches.  The  next  station  to  be 
occupied  was  Osaka  (1881),  followed  bv  Hiro- 
shima (1887),  Kioto  (1890),  Yamaguchi '(1891), 
Fukui    (1891),    Matsuyama    (1901).     In    all    of 


these  places  the  mission  work  includes  evan- 
gelistic and  educational  departments,  and  Hiro- 
shima is  peculiarly  attractive  for  its  opportun- 
ities for  work  among  the  soldiers  and  sailors. 
Educational  work  at  Kioto  is  especially  inter- 
esting, while  from  Yamaguchi  efforts  are  being 
made  to  reach  the  neighboring  island  of  Kiushiu. 
The  report  for  1903  shows  in  Western  Japan,  29 
outstations,  30  missionaries,  77  native  workers, 
8  schools,  463  pupils.  The  church  statistics  for 
both  missions  are  36  churches,  5,825  communi- 
cants. 

VI.  Africa.  (1.)  Liberia:  Presbyterian  work 
in  Liberia  was  commenced  in  1833  by  Rev.  J.  B. 
Pinney,  especially  for  the  aborigines,  and  stations 
were  established  along  the  Kroo  coast  near  Cape 
Palmas.  The  climate  proved  so  fatal  that  the 
experiment  was  tried  of  sending  colored  ministers, 
but  it  was  found  that  these  were  not  exempt 
from  fever,  and  lacked  the  ability  to  organize 
and  superintend.  Other  white  men  were  sent 
out,  including  Rev.  D.  A.  Wilson,  and  among  the 
colored  men  Rev.  E.  W.  Blyden,  and  several 
new  stations  were  occupied.  In  1857  there  came 
a  great  encouragement  through  a  revival.  As 
the  Methodists,  Lutheran,  and  Protestant  Epis- 
copal churches  have  successful  work  in  that 
region,  the  Presbyterian  Board  in  1894  decided 
to  withdraw,  and  by  1899  had  transferred  all  its 
interest  lo  the  Presbytery  of  West  Africa,  includ- 
ing 15  churches  with  about  400  members. 

(2.)  West  Africa:  In  1842  the  ABCFM  occupied 
the  station  of  Baraka  in  the  Gabun  district, 
sending  out  Rev.  J.  L.  Wilson,  Rev.  Benjamin 
Griswold,  Rev.  Albert  BushneU,  and  Rev. 
William  Walker.  Eight  years  later  the  Pres- 
byterian Board  established  a  station  on  the 
island  of  Corisco,  sending  out  Rev.  J.  L.  Mackey, 
Rev.  C.  De  Heer,  and  Rev.  Ibia  J'Ikenge.  On 
the  union  of  the  old  and  new  school  branches,  in 
1870,  the  mission  of  the  ABCFM  was  transferred 
to  the  Presbyterian  Board,  and  the  two  missions 
became  known  as  the  Gabun  and  Corisco  Mission. 
Subsequently,  on  the  extension  of  the  work  into 
the  interior  among  the  Fang  tribe,  the  name 
was  changed  to  the  West  Africa  Mission. 

The  work  of  the  American  Board  was  extended 
to  several  stations,  and  there  was  good  success 
among  the  Dikele  people,  but  the  occupation  of 
the  coast  by  the  French  jorought  special  restric- 
tions, and  the  unhealthy  climate  and  the  hostility 
of  the  people  combined  to  reduce  the  work  so 
that  there  remained  but  the  one  station  at  Baraka 
at  the  time  of  the  transfer.  Similarly  the  work 
in  Corisco  suffered  from  the  Spanish  Government 
(which  forbade  the  teaching  of  any  religion 
except  the  Roman  Catholic),  the  unhealthy 
climate  and  the  tribal  quarrels,  and  there,  too,  the 
four  stations  were  reduced  to  one,  tho  the  native 
church  is  a  strong  one. 

In  1865  the  Rev.  George  PauU  founded  Mbade 
station  on  the  Benito  River,  north  of  Corsico, 
and  on  his  death,  after  thirteen  months,  the  work 
was  taken  up  by  Rev.  R.H.Nassau,  the  patriarch 
of  the  West  Africa  Mission.  The_  next  field  to 
be  occupied  was  on  the  Ogowe  River,  south  of 
Corisco;  and  Mr.  Nassau  opened  a  station  at 
Belambila  (1874),  which  was  later  (1876)  removed 
to  Kangwe.  In  pursuance  of  a  plan  to  form  a 
line  of  stations  to  the  Congo,  Talaguga  was 
occupied  in  1882  and  three  years  later  Rev.  A.  C. 
Good  entered  upon  his  work.  Several  churches 
were  organized  and  the  mission  was  progressing 
favorably  when  the  interference  of  the  French 


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600 


Government,  forbidding  any  language  but 
French  in  the  schools,  and  hampering  the  evan- 
gelistic work,  became  so  serious  that  the  Board 
decided  in  1892  to  transfer  its  work  to  the  Paris 
Evangelical  Mission  Society. 

Then  came  the  development  on  the  North. 
Batanga,  at  first  an  outstation  of  Benito,  was 
made  a  regular  station  in  1889,  and  to  this 
station  was  transferred  the  work  which  had  been 
commenced  on  the  Ogowe  River.  Under  the 
German  Government  work  has  been  less  difficult, 
and  Dr.  Good's  explorations  and  the  long  experi- 
ence and  faithful  service  of  several  of  the  mis- 
sionaries who  liave  been  identified  with  the 
mission  from  its  beginning  are  bearing  fruit. 
Baraka  and  Benito  still  remain  as  centers  of  work, 
but  the  extension  of  tlie  mission  from  Batanga 
includes  Efulen  (1893),  Elat  (1895),  MacLean 
Memorial  Station,  Lolodorf  (1897).  This  last 
station  is  the  result  of  a  report  by  Dr.  A.  C.  Good 
of  a  visit  to  the  dwarfs.  Miss  Margaret  MacLean, 
of  Glasgow,  Scotland,  had  become  interested  in 
these  people  through  Stanley's  letters,  and  offered 
to  support  a  mission  among  them,  imder  the 
auspices  of  the  Board.  The  work  is  extremely 
difficult  because  of  the  climate,  the  diversity  of 
languages,  and  the  timidity  of  the  little  people. 

The  report  (1903)  shows  58  outstations,  34 
missionaries,  49  native  workers,  13  churches  with 
1,716  communicants,  22  schools  with  984  pupils, 
2  hospitals,  and  2  dispensaries  with  1,900  patients. 
Vll.  Syria:  Mission  work  in  Syria  was  com- 
menced under  the  ABOFM,  by  Pliny  Fisk  and 
Levi  Parsons,  who  went  to  Jerusalem  in  1821, 
but  were  unable  to  stay  there.  In  1823  Messrs. 
Bird  and  Goodell  arrived  at  Beirut,  and  except 
for  a  time  when  (1828-1830)  they  withdrew  to 
Malta  on  account  of  political  disturbances,  this 
has  been  the  center  of  mission  work.  The  other 
stations  occupied  were  Abeih  (1843),  Tripoli 
(1848),  Sidon  (1851).  After  the  transfer  of 
this  mission  from  the  ABCFM  to  the  Presby- 
terian Board  (1870)  an  extension  of  work  into 
the  Lebanon  was  planned  and  the  station  of 
Zahleh  opened  in  1872. 

From  the  very  first  special  attention  has  been 
paid  to  education  and  publication.  Messrs.  Bird 
and  Goodell  brought  with  them  a  printing  press 
and  immediately  commenced  translation  and 
publication.  Dr.  Eli  Smith  commenced  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Arabic  Bible,  completed  by  Dr.  C. 
V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
existence.  Schools  were  established  in  Beirut 
in  1824,  including  one  for  girls.  From  these 
have  grown  seminaries  in  Beirut,  Sidon,  and 
Tripoli,  while  the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at 
Beirut  is  one  of  the  finest  educational  institutions 
in  mission  lands.  Not  organically  connected 
with  the  mission,  it  has  always,  nevertheless, 
been  in  closest  sympathy  with  evangelistic  work. 
Medical  work  under  the  lead  of  Drs.  Van  Dyck 
and  Post  has  from  the  first  had  a  prominent 
place.  The  medical  department  of  the  college 
has  furnished  physicians  for  the  entire  Arabic- 
speaking  sections  of  Western  Asia  and  Northern 
Africa. 

Evangelistic  work  has  been  always  rendered 
difficult  by  the  peculiar  situation  of  the  country, 
the  rivalry  of  the  different  communities,  the 
hostility  of  the  Government  and  of  the  Roman 
Catholics,  especially  the  Jesuits,  who  have  taken 
advantage  of  French  influence  in  Syria  to  hinder, 
so  far  as  possible,  the  work  of  Protestant  missions. 
The  churches  have  suffered  also  from  emigration. 


Still  there  has  been  good  progress  and  the  advance 
in  the  number  of  communicants  from  294  in  1870 
to  2,542  shows  good  results.  The  report  for  1903 
shows  106  outstations,  38  missionaries,  207 
native  workers,  29  churches,  2,542  communicants, 
108  schools,  5,982  pupils,  1  hospital,  and  1  dis- 
pensary with  5,622  patients,  while  the  press 
issued  23,395,410  pages. 

In  this  last  item  appears  a  hint  of  what  ia, 
after  all,  the  greate.st  work  of  the  Syria  Mission. 
As  a  center  from  which  the  whole  Arabic-speaking 
world  may  be  reached,  the  fruits  of  labor  here 
are  found  all  over  Asia  and  Africa,  and  in  the 
East  Indies.  In  scarcely  any  other  mission  in 
the  world  do  the  actual,  immediate  returns,  as 
given  in  statistical  tables,  give  so  meager  a  view 
of  the  real  results. 

VIII.  Persia:  The  first  American  missions  to 
Persia  grew  out  of  a  visit  of  Messrs.  Eli  Smith 
and  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  of  the  ABCFM  in  1829. 
On  their  representations  that  Society  determined 
to  establish  a  mission  in  Persia  for  the  Nestorians, 
and  appointed  Justin  Perkins  the  first  mission- 
ary. He  sailed  in  1833  and  reached  Tabriz  a 
year  later.  In  1835  he  was  joined  by  Dr.  Asahel 
Grant,  and  a  station  was  established  at  Urmia, 
in  November,  1835.  One  of  the  most  intelligent 
of  the  Nestorian  bishops.  Mar  Yohanan,  gave 
Mr.  Perkins  instruction  in  the  language.  A 
school  was  opened  very  soon,  and  other  helpers 
were  added  after  a  few  years,  among  them,  in 
1843,  Fidelia  Fiske,  who  came  to  take  charge  of 
the  Girls'  School.  For  some  years  there  was  con- 
siderable discouragement,  but  then  came  a 
revival,  and  for  twelve  years  it  continued,  the 
number  of  converts  being  very  large.  At  first 
the  effort  was  to  reform  the  old  Church,  but  a. 
separation  became  absolutely  essential,  and  in 
1862  the  first  Conference  was  held,  and  a  con- 
fession of  faith  adopted,  as  also  rules,  discipline, 
etc.  In  1870  this  mission  was  transferred  from 
the  ABCFM  to  the  Presbyterian  Board,  and  then 
commenced  a  policy  of  extension.  Teheran  was 
occupied  in  1872,  Tabriz  in  1873,  Hamadan  in 
1880.  Distance  between  the  stations  and  the 
diversity  of  language  occasioned  the  division 
into  two  missions,  a  Western  and  an  Eastern, 
Urmia  and  Tabriz  constituting  the  former,  and 
Teheran  and  Hamadan  the  latter. 

(1.)  Western  Persia  Mission:  The  work  in 
Urmia  is  chiefly  among  the  Nestorians  of  that 
city,  the  surrounding  plains  and  in  the  Kurdish 
Mountains.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  college,  originally 
established  at  Mt.  Seir,  and  for  which  David 
■Tappan  Stoddard  did  much ;  more  lately  removed 
to  a  fine  location  in  the  plain  near  the  city.  This 
college  has  exercised  a  great  influence  through- 
out the  entire  section.  Fiske  Seminary  also  has 
become  well  known  throughout  that  whole 
region.  The  missionary  press  established  here 
has  been  successful,  and  the  work  of  Bible 
translation  and  the  preparation  of  Christian 
literature  commenced  by  Dr.  Perkins,  and  more- 
lately  carried  on  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Labaree,  has 
been  very  effective.  Medical  work  has  always 
been  prominent.  Originally  started  by  Dr.' 
Grant,  and  carried  to  a  high  success  with  a 
hospital  and  a  training  school  by  Dr.  Cochran, 
it  has  been  one  of  the  most  effective  agencies 
employed.  More  than  once  the  medical  men  of 
the  mission  have  been  its  protectors  in  times  of 
stress.  The  greater  number  of  churches  con- 
nected with  the  Nestorian  work  are  in  the  plain, 
but  there  are  quite  a  number  through  the  moun- 


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tains,  extending  across  the  Turkish  border  into 
Mesopotamia.  For  a  time  the  work  among  the 
Syrians  of  Mosul  was  taken  over  by  the  Pres- 
byterian Board  from  the  ABCFM,  but  was 
afterward  transferred  to  the  CMS  on  account  of 
the  great  distance,  the  difficulty  of  access,  etc. 
The  work  in  Tabriz,  as  also  in  the  outstation  of 
Salmas,  is  largely  among  the  Armenians.  Work 
for  the  Muslims  has  been  carried  on  with  some 
success,  altho  the  number  of  converts  is  not  great. 
The  mission  has  felt  the  hostile  influence  of 
Russian  officials,  as  Russian  political  power  has 
developed  in  North  Persia;  also  the  unfortunate 
effect  of  the  number  of  independent  workers, 
who  have  won  support  from  Plymouth  Brethren, 
German  Lutherans,   and  others. 

The  report  (1903)  shows  117  outstations,  28 
missionaries,  178  native  workers,  21  churches 
with  2,653  communicants,  99  schools  with  2,279 
pupils,  3  hospitals  and  2  dispensaries  with  26,312 
patients. 

(2.)  Eastern  Persia  Mission:  The  city  of 
Teheran  was  occupied  in  1872  by  the  Rev.  Jas. 
Bassett,  after  an  extended  tour,  including  Tabriz, 
Teheran,  and  Hamadan.  Educational  and 
medical  work  has  been  carried  on  successfully, 
and  the  recognition  of  the  physicians  by  the 
Government  has  been  one  element  in  securing  a 
considerable  attendance  of  Mohammedans  in 
the  school  for  boys.  From  Teheran  tours  are 
made  to  Kazvin  and  Resht  (on  the  Caspian)  and 
occasionally  to  Meshed,  one  of  the  Muslim  holy 
cities.  Hamadan  was  first  visited  by  colporteurs 
from  Urmia  in  1869,  made  an  outstation  of 
Teheran  in  1872,  and  a  station  in  1880.  The  work 
in  both  Teheran  and  Hamadan  is  chiefly  among 
the  Armenians;  but  at  Hamadan  there  is  a 
Jewish  church.  The  report  (1903)  shows  5  out- 
stations, 24  missionaries,  44  native  workers,  4 
churches,  244  comm.umcants,  6  schools,  513 
pupils,  1  hospital  and  4  dispensaries  with  8,393 
patients. 

IX.  Mexico:  In  1872  the  General  Assembly 
voted  to  open  work  in  Mexico,  and  in  September 
of  the  same  year  Messrs.  Thomson,  Phillips, 
and  Pitkin,  with  their  wives,  went  to  Mexico 
City.  There  they  found  a  large  body  of  Mexican 
believers  of  anti-prelatical  convictions,  gathered 
in  nine  independent  congregations,  largely  the 
result  of  the  work  of  Miss  Rankin,  Mr.  Riley  and 
others.  Most  of  these  joined  one  or  another  of 
the  different  missions  that  entered  the  country 
and  furnished  the  nucleus  for  their  work.  The  next 
year  Zacatecas  and  San  Luis  Potosi  were  occu- 
pied, then  Saltillo  (1884),  Zitacuaro  (1893), 
Chilpancingo  (1894),  Jalapa  (1897).  The  work 
in  Saltillo  is  the  immediate  successor  of  Miss 
Rankin's  work  at  Monterey.  The  story  of  the 
mission  contains  many  incidents  of  great  heroism, 
in  bitter  persecution,  especially  in  Guerrero  and 
Zitacuaro.  Educational  and  publication  work 
has  had  a  prominent  place,  and  the  press  at 
Mexico  City  has  been  a  most  effective  evangel- 
istic agency.  For  a  time  there  were  two  missions. 
Northern  and  Southern.  In  1884  these  were 
united,  and  the  native  churches  have  been 
organized  in  three  presbyteries,  Zacatecas, 
Mexico  City  and  the  Gulf.  The  Mexican  Home 
Mission  Board,  organized  in  1890  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  the  City  of  Mexico,  supports  two 
evangelists  in  Guerrero  and  Mexico. 

The  report  (1903)  shows  146  outstations,  23 
missionaries,  81  native  workers,  45  churches, 
3,902  communicants,  29  schools,  638  pupils. 


X.  Guatemala:  Work  was  commenced  in 
Guatemala  in  1882  in  response  to  special  appeals 
for  Protestant  teaching  and  the  assurance  by 
President  Barrios  of  sympathy  and  full  freedom 
of  action.  The  first  work  of  the  Rev.  John  C. 
Hill  was  the  organization  of  a  church  for  the 
Europeans  and  Americans.  This  has  since 
become  independent.  A  little  later  work  in 
Spanish  was  commenced.  Rev.  E.  M.  Haymaker, 
formerly  of  Mexico,  assisting  greatly  in  the  under- 
taking. School  work  has  also  been  established. 
While  no  other  station  than  that  at  Guatemala 
City  has  been  opened  much  good  has  been  done 
by  tours  and  in  outstations  among  them 
Quezeltango  and  San  Augustin.  Everywhere 
there  is  the  greatest  opportunity.  There  ia 
absolute  religious  liberty,  and  even  many  loyal 
Roman  Catholics  welcome  Protestant  missions 
as  an  agent  for  the  purification  of  their  church. 
The  report  (1903)  shows  2  native  workers,^  2 
churches  with  85  communicants,  1  school  with 
38  pupils.  The  climate  has  proved  difficult,  and 
the  missionaries  who  have  built  up  the  work  were 
compelled  to  return,  their  places  to  be  filled  soon 
by  others. 

XI.  Korea:  The  first  mission  work  in  Korea 
was  by  Messrs.  Ross  and  Molntyre,  of  the  Scotch 
United  Presbyterian  Mission  in  Manchuria.  A 
number  of  conversions  resulted,  and  it  was 
evident  that  a  good  basis  for  mission  enterprise 
existed.  In  1880  a  Korean  of  high  rank,  repre- 
senting the  Government  in  Japan,  became  a 
Christian  and  begged  earnestly  tor  missionaries 
for  his  country.  In  response  to  this  appeal,  the 
Presbyterian  Board,  in  1884,  appointed  Dr.  H. 
N.  Allen,  then  a  medical  missionary  in  China,  to 
go  to  Korea.  He  was  appointed  physician  to 
the  United  States  Legation  at  Seoul,  and  thus 
was  assured  safety  and  favorable  reception.  His 
influence  soon  became  very  great,  and  he  was 
received  as  physician  to  the  royal  household 
and  placed  in  charge  of  the  Government  hospital. 

Some  months  later  Dr.  Heron  and  Rev.  H.  G. 
Underwood  joined  the  mission.  For  several 
years  the  work  was  chiefly  medical  and  literary. 
The  first  convert  was  baptized  in  1886,  and  the 
first  church  organized  in  1887.  After  1890  the 
advance  was  marvelously  rapid.  In  the  "Pres- 
byterian Council"  including  the  two  Presbyterian 
Missions  from  the  United  States,  the  one  from 
Canada,  and  the  Woman's  Union  of  Victoria, 
the  number  of  catechumens  and  adherents  was 
over  22,000  in  1903.  The  opportunities  for 
direct  preaching  have  so  absorbed  the  energies 
of  all  that  schools  have  been  less  prominent  than 
in  some  other  missions,  yet  there  is  a  well-estab- 
lished sys*em  of  education.  Medical  work  has 
developed  so  that  there  are  three  hospitals  at 
Seoul,  Fusan  and  Phieng-yang,  all  powerful 
evangelistic  agencies.  In  addition  to  the  work 
at  Seoul,  other  stations  have  been  opened  at 
Fusan  (1891),  Phieng-yang  (1893),  Taiku  (1898), 
and  Syen-chun  (1901). 

At  the  time  of  the  terrible  cholera  epidemic 
in  1895,  the  missionaries  of  all  the  Boards  turned 
their  attention  to  hospital  work,  and  were  able 
not  merely  to  save  many  lives,  but  to  overcome 
much  of  the  hostihty  to  mission  work._  The 
work  among  the  women  has  from  the  beginning 
had  phenomenal  success,  and  the  general  indica- 
tions for  permanent  church  life  are  most  satis- 
factory. 

The  report  in  1903  shows  340  outstations,  64 
missionaries,    140   native   workers,    3   organised 


Presbyterian 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


602 


churches  (312  incompletely  organized  churches), 
6,481  communicants,  66  schools,  1,082  pupiils,  2 
hospitals  and  5  dispensaries,  with  2,824  patients. 

The  printing  press  at  Seoul  has  done  most 
excellent  work,  issuing  over  400,000  pages. 

XII.  The  Philippine  Islands:  Immediately 
after  the  Philippine  Islands  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  United  States  the  Presbyterian 
Board  took  up  the  question  of  sending  mission- 
aries there.  The  Rev.  J.  B.  Rodgers,  who  had 
already  had  experience  in  Spanish  work,  was 
sent  to  Manila  in  1899.  Iloilo,  on  the  Island  of 
Panay,  was  occupied  in  1900;  Dumaguete,  on  the 
Island  of  Negros,  in  1901 ;  and  Cebu,  on  the  Island 
of  Cebu,  in  1902.  As  was  natural,  there  was  at 
first  a  marked  interest  in  the  work;  then  followed 
somewhat  of  a  reaction,  but  the  later  reports 
show  that  the  congregations  are  developing 
steadily  in  numbers  and  in  earnestness.  The 
very  general  belief  in  the  unbounded  wealth  of 
the"  United  States  makes  it  a  little  difficult  to 
secure  self-support  in  the  native  churches,  but 
the  progress  is  encouraging  and  the  opportunity, 
as  one  of  the  missionaries  expressed  it,  is  "for  all 
there  is  in  a  man."  Especially  attractive  is  the 
field  among  the  young  men.  Efforts  were  made 
to  arrange  some  apportionment  among  the  dif- 
ferent missionary  societies,  but  not  with  the 
greatest  success.  The  work  done  in  India  and  in 
Japan  by  preachers  from  this  country  led  to  a 
visit  by  Dr.  George  F.  Pentecost  to  the  Philip- 
pines in  1902,  the  results  of  which  are  most 
gratifying,  not  merely  among  the  natives,  but  in 
the  American  community.  The  hostility  or 
lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of  American  officials, 
of  which  something  has  been  made,  has  been 
more  apparent  than  real,  in  consequence  of  the 
peculiar  religious  situation. 

The  report  of  1903  shows  28  outstations,  15 
missionaries,  32  native  workers,  10  churches, 
469  members,  2  schools  with  234  pupils,  2  hos- 
pitals, 635  patients. 

The  foreign  mission  work  of  the  women  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  (North)  is  carried  on  through 
seven  societies,  all  auxiliary  to  the  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  U.  S.  A.     These  are: 

1.  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church:  Headquarters,  501  Wither- 
spoon  Building,  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.;   organized   1870. 

2.  Woman's  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  New  York:  Headquarters, 
156  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City ;  organized  1870. 

3.  Woman's  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Northwest:  Headquarters,  40 
Randolph  Street,  Chicago,  111.;  organized  1870. 

4.  Woman's  Presbyterian  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  Northern  New  York :  Headquarters, 
Auburn,  N.  Y.;  organized  1872. 

5.  Woman's  Occidental  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church :  Headquarters, 
708  Powell  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  organized 
1873. 

6.  Woman's  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Southwest:  Headquarters,  4,020 
Westminster  Place,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  organized 
1877. 


7.   Woman's   North  Pacific  Presbyterian  Board 
__      .  ^        ll(         ~ 

Portland,  Ore.;  organized  1888. 


of    Missions:    Headquarters,    741    Hoyt    Street, 


Reference  should  be  made  to  the  exceptionally 
complete  arrangement  of  the  library  connected 
with  the  Board's  office  in  New  York  City,  and  to 


the  organization  of  mission  study  classes.  In 
both  departments  the  Board  has  the  advantage 
of  the  free-will  service  of  two  gentlemen  of  means. 
The  literature  department  also  is  specially  well 
developed. 

Organ:  The  Assembly  Herald,  Woman's  Work  for  Woman. 
History  :  Howard  (W.  H.),  Origin  of  the  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York,  1872; 
Speer  (R.  E.),  Presbyterian  Foreign  Missions,  Philadel^ihia, 
1901. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES  OF  SCOTLAND; 

Missions  of.     See  Scotland. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES  (South) ;  Executive  Committee  of  For- 
eign Missions  of  the:  The  history  of  the  mission- 
ary work  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the 
southern  portion  of  the  United  States  rung 
parallel  with  that  of  the  northern  portion  up  to 
the  year  1861.  At  that  time,  in  consequence  of 
the  civil  war,  the  synods  of  the  Southern  States 
united  in  the  formation  of  a  separate  body, 
known  as  the  General  Assembly  of  the  "Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  Confederate  States  of 
America,"  which  title,  subsequent  to  the  war, 
was  changed  to  the  "Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States." 

Immediately  on  the  organization  of  the 
Southern  Assembly,  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1861,  a  committee  was  chosen  to  conduct 
the  work  of  foreign  missions,  with  the  Rev.  J. 
Leighton  Wilson,  D.D.,  as  Secretary,  and  the 
Rev.  James  Woodrow,  D.D.,  Treasurer.  Dr. 
Wilson  had  labored  nearly  twenty  years  as  a 
missionary  in  Africa,  but  for  some  time  previous 
to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  had  been  connected 
with  the  Foreign  Mission  Office  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  New  York.  Dr.  Woodrow 
was  a  professor  in  the  theological  seminary 
at  Columbia,  South  Carolina.  The  Committee 
was  located  at  Columbia.  The  first  efforts  of  the 
committee  were  directed  to  the  Choctaws,  the 
Chickasaws,  and  other  tribes  of  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory. During  the  continuance  of  the  war 
more  than  a  dozen  faithful  laborers  were  sus- 
tained in  this  field,  among  them  Drs.  Kingsbury 
and  Byington.  A  number  of  Presbyterian  mis- 
sionaries, natives  of  the  Southern  States,  were 
laboring  in  foreign  lands,  and  invitations  were 
extended  to  these,  who  had  originally  been  sent 
out  by  the  Presbyterian  Board  in  New  York, 
to  become  the  representatives  of  the  Southern 
Church  in  their  respective  fields.  Some  of  these 
labored  in  Africa,  others  in  China,  Japan,  and 
Siam.  As  the  outcome  of  these  negotiations, 
the  Rev.  Elias  B.  Inslee  of  Hang-chau,  China, 
entered  into  a  correspondence  with  the  committee, 
which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  its  first 
mission  in  foreign  lands.  This,  however,  was 
not  until  the  close  of  the  war.  Mr.  Inslee,  who 
was  a  member  of  the  Synod  of  Mississippi, 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1866,  was  for- 
mally appointed,  and  sailed  for  his  field  in  China 
in  June,  1867.  In  August  of  the  same  year  the 
committee  appointed  Miss  Christine  Ronzone,  a 
missionary  under  its  care,  to  Italy.  In  1868  the 
Rev.  G.  Nash  Morton  was  sent  to  Brazil. 

Missions  were  established  in  Mexico  and 
Greece  in  1874,  in  Japan  in  1875,  and  in  the 
Congo  Free  State  in  1890.  In  1889  the  Indian 
Mission  was  transferred  to  the  Home  Mission 
Committee. 

Statement  of  Missions:  I.  China:  (1.)  Mid- 
China:  The  first  station  of  the  mission  was 
Hang-chau,  to  which  Rev.  Mr.   Inslee  returned 


603 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Presbyterian 


in  1867,  and  where  he  was  joined  the  fol- 
lowing year  by  several  associates,  including 
Rev.  M.  H.  Houston.  Others  are  Su-chau  (1872), 
Hsin-chang  (Sinchang)  (1892),  Kiang-yin  (1895), 
Kia-hsing  (l895).  In  common  with  other 
missions  this  one  suilered  interruptions  during 
the  Boxer  ujjrising,  but  less  loss  than  those  in  the 
north.  During  their  enforced  absence  from  the 
interior  stations  the  missionaries  improved  the 
opportunity  to  study  and  work  among  the  sailors 
and  soldiers  at  Shanghai.  Since  their  return 
the  various  departments  of  worlc,  including  the 
girls'  boarding  school  at  Hang-chau,  other  schools 
at  the  different  stations,  and  the  medical  worlv 
have  been  resumed  with  success. 

(2.)  North  Kiangsu:  This  mission  includes 
the  stations  of  Chin-kiang  (1883),  Su-tsin 
(Suchien)  (1894),  Tsing-kiang-pu  (1887),  Hwai- 
ngan-fu  (Whai-an-fu)  (1897),  and  Hen-chau-fu 
(1897).  Here  also  the  missionaries  were  obliged 
to  withdraw  during  the  Boxer  troubles,  but 
native  workers  remained,  and  except  for  a  few 
weeks,  services  were  continued.  Since  the  re- 
opening of  active  work  this  mission  has  shared 
with  others  the  increased  interest  on  the  part  of 
the  natives  and  the  larger  opportunities  for  each 
department  of  work. 

The  report  (1902)  shows  for  the  Mid-China 
Mission  24  outstations,  42  missionaries,  36  native 
workers,  7  churches  with  448  communicants, 
10  schools  with  204  pupils.  North  Kiang-su 
Mission,  6  outstations,  26  missionaries,  10  native 
workers,  1  church  with  95  communicants,  1  school 
with  12  pupils. 

//.  Brazil:  (1.)  Southern  Brazil:  This  includes 
the  stations  of  Campinas  (1869),  Lavras  (1892), 
Araguary  (1895),  Sao  Paulo  (1895),  Sao  Joao  del 
Rei  (1895).  As  in  so  many  cases,  the  early 
history  of  the  mission  was  one  of  patient  labor 
in  the  face  of  great  difficulties,  but  of  late  there 
has  been  considerable  improvement.  The  organ- 
ization of  the  Synod  of  Brazil,  by  the  cordial 
cooperation  of  the  Northern  and  Southern  Pres- 
byterian Churches  in  the  U.  S.,  has  been  a  dis- 
tinct advantage,  and  the  single  theological 
institution  at  Sao  Paulo  for  both  boards  has  been 
very  helpful.  The  development  of  Mackenzie 
College  also  has  made  possible  a  concen- 
tration of  educational  work.  The  16  mission- 
aries, besides  their  care  of  schools  and  press  work, 
superintend  60  outstations,  and  report  1,316  com- 
municants. 

(2.)  Northern  Brazil:  The  work  in  this  mission 
was  commenced  in  1873  at  Recife  (Pernambuco). 
In  1882  Portaleza  or  Ceara  was  occupied,  fol- 
lowed by  Maranhao  (1885),  Parahyba  (1894), 
Natal  (1895),  Caxias  (1896).  An  indication  of 
the  difficulties  encountered  is  found  in  the  state- 
ment in  the  report  for  1902  that  even  at  Pernam- 
buco it  is  still  rare  for  services  to  be  conducted 
in  the  chapel  without  stones  being  thrown  at 
the  building.  The  prevalence  of  gambling  and 
intemperance  makes  work  very  difficult  and  the 
general  poverty  of  the  people  hampers  the  sale 
of  Bibles  and  other  books.  There  are  (1902) 
14  missionaries,  18  native  workers,  17  outstations, 
10  organized  churches,  1,114  communicants,  3 
schools  with  127  pupils. 

///.  Mexico:  The  work  in  Mexico  was  com- 
menced in  1874  at  Brownsville,  Texas,  and  the 
city  of  Matamoros,  just  across  the  Rio  Grande 
River.  It  has  since  been  extended  to  include 
Victoria  (1880),  Linares  (1887),  and  Monte- 
morelos.     The    5    missionaries    and    11     native 


helpers  care  for  the  work  in  53  outstations,  with  10 
organized  churches  and  602  communicants.  As 
the  country  is  sparsely  populated  there  is  a 
large  amount  of  traveling  necessitated.  As  in 
Brazil,  the  churches  connected  with  the  two 
Presbyterian  Boards  (North  and  South)  in 
Mexico  united  in  1901  in  the  Synod  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Mexico.  The  movement  has 
had  the  cordial  support  of  the  Board  and  the 
cliurches  have  already  felt  the  advantage  from 
the  union. 

IV.  Cuba:  In  response  to  an  eiarnest  appeal 
from  Protestant  Christians  in  Havana,  the  Exec- 
utive Committee  sent  Mr.  Graybill  of  the  Mexico 
Mission  to  Cuba  in  the  summer  of  1890.  This 
visit  resulted  in  the  organization  of  two  Pres- 
byterian churches,  one  in  Havana  and  one  in 
Santa  Clara,  a  town  in  the  interior  of  the  island. 
Mr.  Graybill  also  licensed  and  ordained  to  the 
work  of  the  Gospel  ministry  Sr.  Evaristo  Collazo 
of  Havana. 

The  disturbed  condition  of  the  country  seems 
to  have  interfered  with  the  continuance  of  the 
work,  but  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish  War  in  1899 
the  Board  toolc  up  the  field  again  and  placed  a 
missionary.  Rev.  J.  G.  HaU,  at  Cardenas.  Work 
has  also  been  undertaken  at  Caibarien  and 
Remedias.  The  report  (1902)  shows  7  mission- 
aries, 2  native  workers,  1  organized  church,  63 
communicants.  Attention  is  paid  to  education , 
and  in  one  instance  the  missionary  gained  access 
to  a  large  private  school,  with  free  permission 
for  Bible  instruction  in  return  for  lessons  in 
English. 

V.  Japan:  The  first  station  founded  in  Japan 
by  this  Board  was  Kochi  (1885).  Then  fol- 
lowed Nagoya  (1887),  Tokushima  (1889),  Kobe 
and  Okazaki  (1890),  Takamatsu  (1893)  and 
Susaki  (1898).  There  are  also  80  outstations, 
and  the  missionary  force  of  28,  with  35  native 
helpers,  reports  (1902)  4  organized  churches, 
with  1,458  communicants.  These  churches  are 
identified  with  the  Church  of  Christ  in  Japan. 
The  strength  of  the  mission  is  given  to  evan- 
gelistic work,  and  the  20th  century  forward 
movement  under  the  auspices  of  the  Japan 
Evangelical  Alliance  has  had  manifest  good 
results  in  uniting  the  churches,  giving  them 
greater  courage  and  success,  and  emphasizing 
before  the  community  the  essential  unity  of  the 
Japanese  Churches. 

VI.  Africa:  For  many  years  the  Southern 
Presbyterian  Church  had  cherished  a  desire  to 
plant  a  mission  in  Africa.  During  the  lattei 
part  of  his  life,  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  Leighton  Wilson, 
the  father  of  the  mission  work  of  his  Church, 
and  who  had  himself  labored  nearly  twenty 
years  in  Africa,  earnestly  laid  this  matter  before 
the  General  Assembly;  but  various  obstacles 
prevented  the  accomplishment  of  his  heart's 
desire  until  he  had  passed  to  his  rest.  In  the 
mind  of  the  Southern  Church  there  was  an 
abiding  conviction  that  because  of  the  large 
negro  population  within  her  own  bounds  she 
was  specially  called  of  Providence  to  undertake 
this  work.  Accordingly,  at  the  meeting  of  the 
General  Assembly  in  1889,  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee of  Foreign  Missions  was  directed  to  take 
steps  looking  to  the  opening  of  the  long-con- 
templated mission  in  the  "Dark  Continent." 
Ear^  in  1890  the  Rev.  Samuel  N.  Lapsley 
(white),  of  the  Synod  of  Alabama,  and  the  Rev. 
W.  H.  Sheppard  (colored),  of  Atlanta,  Ga., 
were  commissioned  and  sent  forth  with  instruc- 


Ppesbyterinn 
Protestant  JBpiscopal 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


604 


tions  to  found  a  new  mission  in  the  Congo  Free 
State.  The  appointment  of  Mr.  Sheppard  (who 
had  already  proved  to  be  a  most  valuable 
worker)  was  of  special  interest,  since  he  was 
the  first  fruits  of  a  long-cherished  desire  on  the 
part  of  many  in  the  Southern  Church  to  see 
some  of  this  race  bearing  the  Gospel  to  the  land 
of  their  forefathers.  He  was  also  the  first  fruits, 
in  this  direction,  of  the  Theological  Seminary 
in  Tuscaloosa,  Alabama,  which  had  been  estab- 
lished some  years  before  by  the  Southern  Pres- 
byterian Church  exclusively  for  the  purpose  of 
training  a  colored  ministry.  Proccodin<;  first 
to  England,  and  then  to  Brussels  in  Belgium, 
they  received  every  encouragement  and  assist- 
ance in  preparation  for  their  work.  King 
Leopold  himself  granted  Mr.  Lapsley  a  personal 
interview,  in  which  he  expressed  the  deepest 
interest    in    his    mission.     They    have    gone    as 

gioneers,  with  instructions  that  their  station 
e  sufficiently  separated  from  other  missions  to 
give  it  the  character  of  a  thoroughly  independent 
work.  They  were  instructed  to  seek  a  locality 
as  healthy  as  possible,  on  some  highlands 
removed  from  the  coast,  and  yet  not  too  distant 
from  the  basis  of  supplies.  Luebo,  near  the 
southwestern  border  of  the  Congo  State,  and 
the  junction  of  the  Luebo  and  Lubua  rivers,  was 
selected  and  has  been  the  headquarters  of  the 
mission.  In  1897  Ibanzi,  a  short  distance  from 
Luebo  and  a  point  of  convergence  for  the  trade 
of  a  large  section  of  territory,  was  occupied. 
The  missionaries  are  enthusiastic  over  the  out- 
look, hoping  for  results  as  remarkable  as  those 
manifest  in  Uganda,  as  the  tribes  already  reached 
seem  peculiarly  accessible  to  the  Gospel.  The 
report  (1902)  shows  9  missionaries,  20  native 
helpers,  8  outstations,  854  communicants,  226 
pupils  in  the  2  schools.  A  noticeable  fact  is  the 
addition  of  382  members  in  a  single  year. 

VII.  Korea:  The  first  work  of  the  Board  in 
Korea  was  in  1892,  but  the  present  location  was 
not  made  until  1896,  when  the  station  of  Chung-ju 
was  opened,  followed  by  Kunsan  (1896)  and 
Mokpo  (1898),  all  on  or  near  the  west  coast  south 
of  Seoul.  There  are  (1902)  18  missionaries,  and 
special  attention  is  paid  to  medical  work,  one 
of  the  physicians  from  the  Woman's  Board 
reporting  1,250  visits  from  women  patients  at 
Chung-ju.  There  are  3  churches  with  124 
members,  and  one  of  the  most  interesting  features 
is  the  employment  of  a  native  evangelist  by  a  few 
of  the  native  Christians. 

In  1874  work  was  commenced  among  the 
Greeks  at  Athens,  extending  afterward  to  Bolo 
and  Salonica.  Later  it  was  confined  to  the  last 
city  and  finally,  under  pressure  of  need  elsewhere, 
was  passed  over  to  the  care  of  the  ABCFM. 
Women's  work  in  connection  with  this  Board  is 
represented  by  individual  church  societies  and 
Presbyterial  unions. 
Organ:    The  Missionary,  monthly. 

PRESBYTERIANS   OF  WALES;  Missions   of. 

See  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists'  Foreign 
Missions. 

PRETORIA:  Capital  of  the  Transvaal  Colony, 
S.  Africa,  situated  about  280  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Lourengo  Marques.  White  population  about 
10,000.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Evangehcal  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1866),  with  (1903)  1  missionary, 
17  native  workers,  6  outstations,  and  2,628  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  1,232  are  com- 
municants.    Station   also    of    the    SPG    (1870). 


with  (1903)  3  missionaries.  Station  also  of  the 
Swiss  Romande  Mission  (1897),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife;  1 
woman  missionary,  1  place  of  worship,  1  printing 
house,  2  day  schools,  and  36  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  5 
missionaries,  25  native  workers,  5  outstations,  7 
Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  1  theological  class, 
and  680  professed  Christians,  of  whom  412  are 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal   Missionary  Society. 

PRIMITIVE  METHODIST  MISSIONARY  SO- 
CIETY: Publishing  House,  48  AJdersgate  St.,  E. 
C,  London.  The  Primitive  Methodists  are  a 
body  which  arose  in  England  in  1810.  Finding 
themselves  gaining  strength,  they  organized  in 
1843-44  a  foreign  missionary  society,  adopting 
Canada,  New  Zealand,  and  Australia  as  their 
fields  of  labor.  These  fields  were  afterward 
transferred  to  Methodist  bodies  in  those  coun- 
tries, and  the  Society,  aside  from  its  home 
department,  carries  on  foreign  work  in  West 
Africa  (Fernando  Po),  South  Africa  (Cape  Col- 
ony), and  Central  Africa  (Upper  Zambesi).  The 
work  in  Fernando  Po  was  commenced  in  1870,  in 
response  to  an  appeal  by  a  sea  captain  and  car- 
penter who  visited  Santa  Isabel  and  found  a 
small  community  gathered  by  an  English  Baptist 
missionary  who  had  been  driven  away  by  the 
Spaniards.  Spanish  law  having  changed,  the 
Missionary  Committee  of  the  Primitive  Methodist 
Connexion  sent  two  missionaries.  Revs.  R.  W. 
Burnett  and  H.  Roe,  with  their  wives,  to  open  a 
station  at  Santa  Isabel.  They  met  with  a  hearty 
welcome.  In  1871  Rev.  D.  T.  Maylott  joined 
them,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  open  a  new 
station  along  the  west  coast.  The  plan  met  with 
some  difficulties,  but  in  1873  George's  (or  San 
Carlos)  Bay  was  occupied. 

Associated  with  Mr.  Maylott  in  this  mission 
was  the  Rev.  W.  N.  Barleycorn,  one  of  the  first 
converts  of  Santa  Isabel,  and  his  work  among  the 
Bubis  was  very  successful,  the  first  convert  of  the 
west  mission  being  baptized  in  1874.  Since  then 
several  new  missionaries  have  been  sent  out,  and 
stations  have  been  opened  at  Banni,  Bottlenose, 
Idua,  Jamestown,  Urua  Eye,  and  Ikot  Nteka, 
and  schools  have  been  established  in  a  number  of 
towns.  There  are  5  missionaries  and  4  native 
teachers. 

In  1869  an  appeal  for  help  came  to  the  Mis- 
sionary Committee  from  Aliwal  North,  a  town 
and  district  in  Cape  Colony,  bordering  on  the 
Orange  River,  and  in  1870  Rev.  H.  Buckenham 
sailed  for  Cape  Colony  and  settled  in  Aliwal 
North.  He  was  joined  later  by  others,  and  the 
work  grew,  extending  across  the  river  into  Orange 
Free  State.  The  war  disturbed  it  greatly,  but 
since  the  return  of  peace  the  natives  are  return- 
ing to  their  homes,  and  the  work  of  the  Mission 
has  been  resumed.  Aside  from  the  two  mission- 
aries a  native  pastor,  the  Rev.  John  Msikinya,  a 
graduate  of  the  Lovedale  Institution,  is  asso- 
ciated in  the  work  at  Aliwal.  A  training-school 
for  native  youths  has  been  opened,  which  it  is  the 
purpose  of  the  Mission  to  make,  as  far  as  possible, 
self-sustaining. 

It  had  long  been  a  wish  of  the  Missionary 
Committee  to  send  a  missionary  party  to  the 
Upper  Zambesi,  but  owing  to  the  expense  of 
pioneer  work  in  such  a  difficult  region,  they  had 
not  been  able  to  collect  funds  sufficient  for  the 
purpose. 

In  April,  1889,  however,  the  Rev.  H.  Bucken- 


606 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Presbyterian 
Protestant  Episcopal 


ham  (formerly  at  Aliwal  North)  and  Mrs.  Bucken- 
ham,  with  Rev.  A.  Baldwin  and  Mr.  J.  Ward, 
sailed  for  Africa  and  opened  the  way  for  the 
establishment  of  four  stations:  Nkala,  Nanzela, 
Moomba,  and  Walker's  Drift,  besides  several 
•outstations.  It  is  still  largely  pioneer  work, 
•even  in  the  work  of  reducing  the  language  of  the 
rSajobas  to  form.  Schools  are  successful  and 
medical  work  has  brought  many  within  reach  of 
the  preaching. 

There  were  in  the  three  missions  in  Africa,  in 
1900,  39  missionaries  (including  wives),  10  sta- 
llions and  11  outstations,  1,463  communicants, 
and  2,600  adherents.  A  Woman's  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society,  organized  in  1897,  is  auxiliary 
to  the  general  society. 

PRINCE  ALBERT:  The  chief  settlement  of  the 
district  of  Saskatchewan,  Canada,  on  the  North 
Saskatchewan  River,  about  35  miles  above  its 
confluence  with  the  southern  branch.  Station 
of  the  Canada  Presbyterian  Church  (1866),  with 
(1903)  1  woman  missionary,  1  Sunday  school, 
and  1  day  school.  Station  also  of  the  CMS  (1879) , 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  2  native  workers,  3  out- 
stations, 3  day  schools,  1  college,  and  426  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  167  are  communi- 
cants. 

PROME :  A  city  in  the  district  of  Pegu,  Burma, 
India,  on  the  Irawadi,  166  miles  north-northwest 
of  Rangoon.  Climate  temperate,  healthy.  Pop- 
ulation, 30,000,  of  whom  27,000  are  Buddhists. 
Station  of  the  ABMU  (1854),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  15  native  workers,  3  out- 
stations, 3  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools, 
6  day  schools,  and  273  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  192  are  communicants.  Station  also  of 
the  SPG  (1871),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1 
native  worker,  and  57  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  24  are  communicants. 

PROTESTANT  COMMUNITY:  In  Turkey  the 
system  of  civil  administration  requires  each  tribe 
or  race,  or  other  division  of  the  people  to  have  a 
chief  to  whom  the  Turkish  officials  can  look  for 
its  proper  control.  From  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Constantinople  the  religious  heads  of  the 
various  sects  found  in  the  Turkish  empire  have 
been  recognized  as  political  chiefs  of  their  respec- 
tive flocks,  with  certain  official  rights  and  priv- 
ileges. In  1843-47  the  prelates  of  the  Armenian 
Church  withdrew  from  their  friendly  attitude 
toward  the  American  missionaries  and  excommuni- 
cated and  boycotted  those  who  adopted  the  idea 
of  independent  study  of  the  Bible,  using  their 
position  as  political  chiefs  to  turn  the  Turkish 
police  force  upon  the  work  of  extirpating  the 
"heresy." 

To  secure  the  Evangelical  Armenians  against 
such  persecution,  the  British  Ambassador  at 
Constantinople  obtained  from  the  Sublime  Porte 
recognition  of  the  "Protestant  Community"  as  a 
separate  political  body,  having  a  civil  head 
(called  in  Turkish  Vekil,  or  representative),  and 
liberty  of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion  for  all 
who  might  place  themselves  under  protection  of 
the  new  political  organization.  In  1850  an 
imperial  edict  confirmed  these  arrangements, 
placing  the  Protestant  community  upon  the  same 
political  footing  as  the  Greek  Church  or  the 
Armenian  Church. 

This  community  now  numbers  about  100,000 
souls,  adherents  of  the  various  evangelical  de- 
nominations in  different  parts  of  the  empire. 
All  of  these  "Protestants,'    or  evangelicals,  look 


to  their  civil  head,  or  Vekil,  to  represent  them  and 
their  civil  and  political  interests  at  the  palace  of 
the  Sultan,  and  to  inform  them  of  their  sovereign's 
wishes  or  commands. 
Anderson   (R.),   Missions  to  the  Oriental  Churches,  Boston, 

1870;    Dwight  (H.  G.  O.),  Christianity  Revived  in  the  East. 

New  York,  1850. 

PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA:  1.  Domestic 
and  Foreign  Missionary  Society.  2.  American 
Church  Missionary  Society.  The  American 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  being,  in  its  early 
history,^  a  mission  itself,  generations  passed 
before  it  felt  strong  enough  to  found  missions 
on  a  large  scale,  either  within  or  without  its  own 
borders.  In  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century 
interest  in  missionary  work  became  manifest  in 
the  American  Church,  one  of  the  prime  movers 
in  the  cause  being  Bishop  Griswold,  who  in  cor- 
respondence with  the  Secretary  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  suggested  that  an  American 
clergyman  be  sent  out  by  that  Society  into  the 
foreign  field.  The  Enghsh  society,  however, 
(1817)  urged  the  formation  of  an  American 
Board  and  offered  pecuniary  aid.  This  advice 
was  acted  upon,  and  the  Domestic  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  was  instituted  in  1820,  the 
Rev.  J.  R.  Andros  being  the  first  of  the  American 
clergy  to  offer  himself  for  the  foreign  field. 

I.  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society: 
Altho  organized  in  1820  as  a  society  it  was  not 
until  1835  that  it  assumed  its  present  character 
and  became  but  another  name  for  the  Church 
herself.  Previous  to  that  time  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Society's  work  had  been  committed 
to  a  Board  of  Directors,  who  through  its  Exec- 
utive Committee  had  made  several  attempts  to 
found  missions  in  heathen  lands,  but  had  only 
succeeded  so  far  as  to  appoint  a  lay  teacher  in 
Africa  and  two  clergymen  to  China.  They  had, 
however,  sent  two  clergymen  to  Greece  in  1830. 
In  1835  a  change  was  made  in  organization, 
which  provided  that  the  Society  should  be  consid- 
ered as  "comprehending  all  persons  who  are 
members  of  this  Church."  This  action  placing 
general  mission  work  immediately  under  the 
direction  of  the  Church,  was  hailed  with  enthu- 
siasm, the  newly  awakened  interest  being  par- 
ticularly manifested  in  the  marked  increase  in  the 
contributions. 

The  Board  of  Missions  meets  triennially  and  is 
composed  of  both  Houses  of  the  General  Conven- 
tion and  the  Board  of  Managers.  The  Mission- 
ary Council  meets  annually,  except  in  conven- 
tion years,  and  is  composed  of  all  the  bishops,  the 
Board  of  Managers,  such  other  clergymen  and 
laymen  as  the  convention  may  select,  and  one 
presbyter  and  one  layman  from  each  diocese  or 
missionary  district,  to  be  chosen  by  its  conven- 
tion or  convocation.  The  Board  of  Managers, 
elected  by  General  Convention,  consists  of  16 
bishops,  15  clergymen  and  15  laymen.  The 
other  bishops,  and  the  Secretary  and  Treasurer  of 
the  Domestic  and  Foreign  Mission  Society,  and  of 
the  Board  of  Managers,  are  members  ex  officio, 
but  have  no  vote. 

The  first  foreign  field  chosen  by  the  Society 
immediately  on  its  organization  was  Africa,  but 
it  was  not  until  1830  that  work  was  actually 
begun  in  Monrovia,  where  the  American  Coloniza- 
tion Society  had  founded  a  colony  of  free  colored 
people. 

In  1830  Greece  was  chosen  as  a  field  where  gen- 
eral  ChriBtian  intelligence   and  education   were 


Protestant  Episcopal 
Punso  Ntlongo 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


60S 


sorely  needed,  and  Athens  was  decided  upon  as 
the  most  favorable  point  for  location. 

In  1834  the  Society  voted  to  make  China  a 
field  for  missionary  labor,  and  in  1835  Rev.  F.  R. 
Hanson  and  the  Rev.  H.  R.  Lockwood  were 
accepted  as  laborers  for  that  field. 

In  1859  Rev.  Messrs.  C.  M.  Williams  and  J. 
Liggins,  the  first  Protestant  missionaries  to 
Japan,  were  sent  there  by  the  Society  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  America.  In 
1865  a  mission  commenced  by  a  clergyman  four 
years  before  in  Haiti  was  transferred  to  the 
Society  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  and 
became  one  of  their  fields  of  active  labor. 

Africa:  The  mission  work  in  Africa  is  confined 
to  the  Republic  of  Liberia.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  J.  M. 
Thompson  (colored),  residing  at  Monrovia,  were 
appointed  as  missionary  teachers  in  1835,  and 
in  1836  Rev.  Thomas  S.  Savage,  M.D.,  the  first 
foreign  missionary,  landed  at  Cape  Palmas. 
During  the  early  years  of  the  mission  frequent 
difficulties  occurred  between  the  colonists  and 
the  native  "  bushmen,"  and  the  missionaries  and 
mission  property  were  often  in  danger.  In  1843 
troubles  arose  which  compelled  the  missionaries 
at  Cape  Palmas  to  abandon  the  town  and  take 
refuge  on  a  U.  S.  ship,  and  the  school  at  Cavalla, 
an  outstation,  had  to  be  closed.  The  next  year 
found  the  work  going  on  quietly,  but  in  1845  the 
disturbances  again  threatened  the  mission;  still 
in  spite  of  the  political  troubles  there  were  sub- 
stantial proofs  of  the  progress  of  the  mission.  In 
1849  the  corner-stone  was  laid  of  the  first  Epis- 
copal church  edifice  of  Liberia,  and  in  1850  Rev 
John  Payne  was  appointed  Missionary  Bishop  of 
Cape  Palmas  and  the  parts  adjacent.  The  work 
gradually  extended  its  borders  from  this  time, 
with  the  exception  of  the  years  of  financial 
trouble  at  home  during  the  Civil  War,  when, 
owing  to  the  reduced  support,  the  mission  was 
obliged  to  discontinue  work  at  some  of  the  sta- 
•  tions  and  curtail  it  at  others.  The  principal 
native  tribes  reached  by  the  mission  are  the 
Grebos  in  the  northern,  the  Bassas  in  the  central, 
and  the  Veys  in  the  southern  section  of  the 
country. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  mission  is 
divided  into  four  districts:  Cape  Palmas,  Since, 
Bassa,  and  Montserrado,  Monrovia  being  the 
sea  town.  The  report  (1903)  shows  18  clergy- 
men, 69  catechists  and  teachers,  88  places  where 
services  are  held,  1,767  communicants  (1,137 
native  and  630  Liberians),  38  day  schools,  18 
boarding  schools,  1,490  pupils  (including  1,169 
natives). 

Greece:  The  work  in  Greece  was  begun  at 
Athens  in  1830  by  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Robertson  and 
the  Rev.  J.  H.  Hill.  The  principle  on  which  the 
mission  was  established  was  that  of  not  attempt- 
ing to  make  prosely\es,  or  to  withdraw  the  people 
from  their  own  Church,  but  simply  to  spread 
Scriptural  truth  among  them  in  the  expectation 
that  this  would  lead  eventually  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  Church  by  the  Greeks  themselves. 
The  work  was  begun  by  establishing  schools,  and 
a  printing-press  set  up  at  Athens,  which  last,  how- 
ever, was  given  up.  In  1837  a  station  was  begun 
on  the  island  of  Crete,  but  was  occupied  only  a 
few  years.  In  1839  the  Rev.  Dr.  Robertson 
removed  to  Constantinople  with  a  view  to  work- 
ing specially  among  the  Greeks,  but  the  object 
of  the  Mission  was  afterward  extended  to  the 
other  Eastern  Churches.  The  mission  in  Greece 
has  been  wholly  educational,  and  after  the  death 


of  Mr.  Hill  the  Society  ceased  to  consider  it  a 
part  of  its  field. 

China:  The  China  Mission  dates  from  the  land- 
ing at  Canton  of  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Hanson  and 
Lockwood  in  1835.  They  proceeded,  however, 
to  Java,  to  labor  there,  at  Batavia,  among  the 
Chinese.  The  third  missionary,  the  Rev.  W.  J. 
Boone,  M.D.,  reached  Batavia  in  1837.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1840,  he  really  began  work  on  Chinese  soil 
by  the  opening  of  a  station  at  Amoy.  Four 
years  later  he  was  consecrated  as  the  first  bishop 
of  the  Anglican  communion  in  China.  In  1845 
the  mission  moved  from  Amoy  to  Shanghai,  and 
in  1846  Mr.  Kong  Chai  Wong,  afterward  a  clergy- 
man, was  baptized,  the  first  convert,  on  Eas.er 
Day.  In  1868  stations  were  opened  in  Wu- 
chang, capital  of  the  province  of  Hu-pei,  and  in 
Han-kau.  The  work  is  now  divided  into  two 
districts,  Shanghai  and  Han-kau.  The  former 
includes,  as  stations,  Kia-ting  (Kia-ding)  (1882), 
Shanghai  City  and  Tsing-pu  (1902).  The  latter, 
besides  Han-kau  and  Wu-chang,  Shasi  and 
Ichang  (1886),  Han-chiuan  (1892),  and  Wu-hu 
(1891),  Kin-kiang  (1901)  and  Ngan-king. 

Aside  from  the  evangelistic  work  which  is 
pushed  energetically,  St.  John's  College,  at 
Shanghai,  one  of  the  best  in  China,  and  hospitals 
at  Shanghai,  Wu-chang  and  Ngan-king  are  kept 
up  to  a  high  grade  of  efficiency. 

The  missionary  staff  includes  (1903)  3  bishops 
(one,  the  venerable  Dr.  Schereschewsky,  residing 
in  Japan),  34  Presbyters  (19  foreign,  15  Chinese), 
13  deacons  (2  foreign),  8  physicians  (foreign),  21 
missionary  teachers  (foreign),  25  wives  of  mis- 
sionaries, and  157  other  native  workers. 

There  are  56  places  of  preaching,  1,449  com- 
municants, 45  day  schools,  and  9  boarding 
schools,  with  about  1,500  pupils.  English  ser- 
vices are  also  conducted  at  several  places. 

Japan:  This  mission  was  established  in  1859  by 
the  Rev.  Messrs.  C.  M.  Williams  and  J.  Liggins, 
who  were  the  first  Protestant  missionaries  to 
settle  in  the  empire.  The  first  baptism  was 
reported  in  1866.  Until  1874  the  Mission  was 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  China,  but 
in  that  year,  owing  to  the  increased  extent  of  both 
fields,  it  was  decided  to  separate  them  into  two 
dioceses.  Rev.  C.  M.  Williams,  then  Bishop  of 
China,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Japan,  and  anew 
bishop  set  over  China.  With  the  growth  of  the 
work  Japan  was  divided  into  two  dioceses: 
Tokio  and  Kioto.  The  former  includes  the  sta- 
tions of  Tokio  (1873),  Matsuyama,  Takasaki, 
Mayebashi  (1888),  Fukushima  (1893),  Sendai 
(1894),  Hirosaki  (1897),  besides  a  number  of  sub- 
ordinate stations.  The  diocese  of  Kioto  includes 
Kioto  (1889),  Nara  (1887),  Osaka  (1875),  Kanara- 
wa  (1897),  and  a  number  of  subordinate  stations. 

Holy  Trinity  Cathedral,  at  Tokio,  has  a  full  series 
of  services  in  Japanese  and  in  English,  and_  a 
church  house  is  arranged  for  near  the  Imperial 
University,  as  a  center  for  work  among  students. 
There  also  are  Trinitv,  Divinity,  and  Catechetical 
School,  St.  Paul's  College,  and  St.  Margaret's 
School,  all  rapidly  growing.  The  medical  de- 
partment includes  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  Tokio, 
and  St.  Barnabas  Hospital,  Osaka. 

The  missionary  staff  includes  (1903)  3  bishops 
(one,  Bishop  Williams,  retired),  34  Presbyters  (14 
Japanese),  9  deacons  (7  Japanese),  2  physicians, 
39  other  foreign  workers,  including  wives  of  mis- 
sionaries, 138  other  native  workers.  There  are 
74  places  of  preaching,  2,033  Japanese  com- 
municants, 19  schools,  with  1,357  scholars. 


«07 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Protestant  EJplacopal 
PniiKO  NdonKO 


Haiti:  The  Board's  connection  with  Haiti 
dates  from  1865,  when  the  financial  responsibility 
for  the  work  at  Port-au-Prince,  carried  on  by 
Rev.  J.  Theodore  Holly,  was  transferred  by  the 
American  Church  Missionary  Society.  It  was 
conducted  from  that  time  until  1874  as  a  mission, 
when  the  church  in  Haiti  was  recognized  under 
certain  condivions  by  the  General  Convention 
and  Dr.  Holly  consecrated  as  its  first  bishop. 
The  work  has  been  constantly  hindered  by  fire, 
war,  pestilence,  and  famine;  yet,  considering  the 
very  limited  resources  at  any  time  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  bishop,  the  work  has  been  exceed- 
ingly successful.  By  action  of  the  House  of 
Bishops,  taken  in  1883,  the  church  in  Haiti  was 
reorganized  as  an  independent  church,  but, 
nevertheless,  regular  assistance  is  given  by  the 
Society  to  it  as  a  Church  in  communion  with  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 

Aside  from  the  Bishop,  12  clergymen  are 
enrolled  as  missionaries;  there  are  22  places  of 
preaching,  537  French-speaking  and  41  English 
communicants,  9  day  schools  with  185  pupils. 
There  is  also  some  work  among  the  Spanish- 
speaking  people  of  Santo  Domingo. 

Mexico:  The  work  of  the  Society  in  Mexico  is 
carried  on  both  among  Spanish-speaking  and 
English-speaking  people.  Assisting  the  Church's 
representatives  are  10  presbyters  and  7  deacons, 
all  Mexicans,  who  minister  to  871  communi- 
cants.    There  are  also  several  schools. 

The  Philippines:  In  the  fall  of  1901  the  Board 
of  Missions  commissioned  Bishop  Brent  to  take 
charge  of  work  in  the  Philippines,  and  he  arrived 
at  Manila  in  May,  1902.  Already  two  clergymen 
were  at  work  there  and  a  lay  worker.  One  of 
these  was  assigned  to  English  services  and  the 
other  took  up  Spanish  work.  Later  a  missionary 
was  appointed  to  labor  among  the  Chinese  popu- 
lation, who  had  come  from  Amoy.  For  the 
present  the  plan  appears  to  be  to  press  the  work 
among  the  American  colony,  while  making  care- 
ful investigation  as  to  the  possibilities  among  the 
native  tribes. 

The  Woman's  Auxiliary  to  the  Board  of  Mis- 
sions, headquarters  Church  Missions  House,  4th 
Av.  and  22d  St.,  New  York  City,  was  organized 
in  1871,  and  has  been  a  most  efficient  factor  in 
the  work  of  the  Church  in  all  its  departments. 

//.  American  Church  Missionary  Society:  While 
there  was  no  formal  agreement  it  had  been  gen- 
erally understood  that  the  Foreign  work  of  the 
Church  should  be  left  in  the  hands  of  what  was 
known  as  the  Low  Church  party,  while  mission- 
ary work  in  the  U.  S.  was  committed  to  the  High 
Church  element.  In  1850  a  local  society  was 
formed  in  Philadelphia  for  the  purpose  of  collect- 
ing and  distributing  funds  for  the  work  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  West,  on  what  were 
known  as  strictly  evangelical  lines.  Then  came 
a  demand  for  a  general  society  of  the  same  char- 
acter, and  after  several  preliminary  meetings, 
such  a  society  was  organized  at  New  York  City 
in  May,  1860,  for  the  conduct  of  mission  work  on 
a  purely  voluntary  and  independent  basis. 
Various  efforts  were  made  to  effect  some  arrange- 
ment between  the  two  societies,  and  in  1877  an 
agreement  was  reached  by  which  the  American 
Church  Missionary  Society  retains  its  charter  and 
organization,  but  is  recognized  as  an  auxiliary  to 
the  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society. 
It  agrees  not  to  send  missionaries  to  China,  Japan, 
or  Africa,  while  the  Domestic  and  Foreign 
Society  promises  to  send  to  those  countries,  with 


the  approval  of  the  Bishop,  in  each  case,  any 
missionaries  possessing  the  qualifications  required 
by  i^s  rules,  who  shall  be  nominated,  and  whose 
support  shall  be  provided  by  the  American 
Church  Missionary  Society.  In  regard  to  Domes- 
tic Missions,  an  agreement  for  mutual  appoint- 
ment and  approval  of  missionaries  has  been 
made. 

The  foreign  work  of  the  Society  is  in  Brazil. 
There  are  8  clergy,  including  the  bishop,  7 
churches  or  chapels,  488  communicants.  The 
headquarters  of  the  mission  are  at  Port  Alegre, 
and  among  other  places  occupied  are  Pelotas, 
Jaguerdo,  and  Rio  Grande. 

The  Society  has  also  taken  up  work  in  Cuba, 
where  it  occupies  Havana  and  Matanzas  with  5 
clergy,  who  report  256  communicants,  3  schools 
with  250  scholars,  and  1  orphanage  with  58 
inmates. 

Orga-j  of  the  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society:   The 
Spirit  of  Missions,  monthly. 

PROVINCE  WELLESLEY:  A  strip  of  territory 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay  penmsula,  oppo- 
site Penang,  45  miles  in  length,  with  an  average 
width  of  about  8  miles,  including  a  total  area  of 
270  square  miles.  It  forms  part  of  the  British 
Colony  of  Straits  Settlements.  Station  of  the 
SPG  (1879),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  8  native 
workers,  2  places  of  worship,  5  day  schools,  2 
boarding  schools,  and  260  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  75  are  communicants. 

PUBNA.     See  Pabna. 

PTJDUKATTAI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  28 
miles  southeast  of  Trichinopoly ;  is  unusually  clean, 
airy,  well  built;  small,  but  having  a  fine  mosque,, 
a  palace,  and  several  temples.  Population, 
15,384,  Hindus,  Mushms,  Christians.  Station  of 
the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1849),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  24  native 
workers,  7  places  of  worship,  5  day  schools,  3 
boarding  schools,  and  256  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  153  are  communicants.  Station  also  of 
the  SPG,  with  (1903)  28  native  workers,  16  places 
of  worship,  9  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and 
1,591  professed  Christians,  of  whom  621  are 
communicants.  Some  write  the  name  Pudu- 
kotei . 

PUEBLA:  A  city  in  Mexico,  76  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Mexico  City.  The  sacred  city  of 
Mexico,  containing  many  religious  and  chari- 
table institutions.  Population  (1900),  93,521. 
Station  of  the  ME  (1881),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  6  outstations, 
6  Sunday  schools,  and  105  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, 1  of  them  with  his  wife;  3  women  mission- 
aries, 26  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2 
Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools^ 
1  theological  class,  and  414  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  193  are  communicants. 

PUNGO  NDONGO :  A  town  in  Portuguese  W. 
Africa,  a  few  miles  to  the  N.  of  the  Kwanza,  and 
180  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  S.  Paolo  de  Loan  da.  It  is 
the  chief  entrepot  of  trade  with  the  interior 
and  a  Portuguese  military  post.  It  is  one  of 
the  ancient  cities  of  .Angola,  and  a  health  resort. 
It  is  beautifully  situated  in  the  midst  of  masses: 
of  conglomerate  rocks.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  outstation,. 
1  place  of  worship,  1  Simday  school,  1  day  school,, 
and  14  professed  Christians.  Some  write  tbft 
name  Pungo  Andongo. 


Punjmb 
<^nullflcations 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


608 


PUNJAB:  One  of  the  great  provinces  of  British 
India;  its  highest  northern  point  is  in  latitude  35°, 
its  most  southern,  27°  39'.  Its  limits  of  east 
longitude  are  69°  35'  and  78°  35'.  The  area  of 
that  portion  of  it  under  British  administration  is 
97,209  square  miles;  population,  20,330,000. 
But  there  are  34  native  states  whose  territory 
is  intermingled  with  that  of  the  British  posses- 
sions— all  of  which  are  under  the  political  super- 
vision of  the  Punjab  Government,  tho  each  has 
its  own  native  chief  (see  article  Native  S'  a.es, 
where  these  relations  are  explained  more  at 
length),  and  the  area  of  these  swells  the  total  area 
•of  the  Punjab  to  133,741  square  miles,  and  its 
aggregate  population  to  21,000,000.  The  Punjab 
is  governed  by  a  lieutenant-governor,  under  the 
general  supervision  of  the  governor-general  and 
viceroy  of  India.  It  contains  one-fifth  of  the 
Mohammedan  population,  but  only  one  twen- 
tieth of  the  Hindu.  The  name  means  "Five 
Waters,"  and  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  its 
territory  is  intersected  bv  five  great  Himalayan 
rivers;  these  are  the  Sutlej,  the  Beas,  the  Ravi, 
the  Chenab,  and  the  Jhelum.  The  Indus  River, 
into  which  these  all  flow,  and  which  runs  near 
the  western  (political)  boundary,  and  the 
Jumna,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  eastern  (polit- 
ical) boundary,  describe  a  course  outside  the 
territory  to  which  the  name  was  originally  given; 
but  that  name  has  recently  been  made  to  cover  the 
entire  province  placed  under  the  administration 
of  the  local  government.  On  the  north  and  west 
the  Punjab  meets  the  N.  W.  Frontier  Province. 

The  history  of  the  Punjab  is  of  exceeding 
variety  and  interest.  So  extensive  and  so 
various  is  it,  that  it  must  here  be  left  almost 
wholly  untouched.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  here 
was  the  original  Indian  home  of  the  Aryans; 
here  the  Vedic  rites  were  first  practised,  and 
here  probably  the  Vedas  written;  here  Hinduism 
began  its  development;  and  hence  did  the  Hindu 
race,  as  it  swelled  to  larger  size  and  power, 
emerge  for  the  conquest  first  of  the  great  Gan- 
getic  valley,  and  then  of  all  the  Deccan  and 
Southern  India.  The  beginning  of  this  Hindu 
history  cannot  be  later  than  1500  B.C.,  and  may 
be  earlier.  Here  also  the  Mohammedan  power 
in  India  first  took  root.  Lahore  was  the  first 
Mohammedan  capital;  after  a  time  Delhi  was 
occupied  as  their  imperial  city,  and  later  still 
Agra,  by  a  few  of  the  Mogul  emperors  in  the 
16th  and   17th  centuries. 

The  city  of  Delhi,  which  indeed  lies  outside 
of  the  natural  area  of  the  Punjab,  tho  now 
within  its  political  area,  stands  on  the  site  of 
Indraprastha,  a  prehistoric  Hindu  capital,  the 
foundation  of  which  is  said  to  go  back  to  the 
15th  century  B.C.  It  was  in  1849  that  the 
Punjab  was  finally  made  a  part  of  the  English 
dominions. 

Classifying  the  people  by  religions,  nearly  60 
per  cent,  are  Mohammedans;  about  40  per  cent. 
Hindus;  nearly  7  per  cent  Sikhs.  In  round 
numbers,  there  are  11,000,000  Mohammedans, 
8,000,000  Hindus,  and  1,500,000  Sikhs.  There 
are  nearly  38,000  Jains,  and  over  40,000  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  less  than  5,000  were  natives. 
The  preponderance  of  Mohammedans  is  explained 
partly  by  the  fact  of  early  and  long  Moham- 
medan possession  of  the  Punjab  by  rulers  of 
that  faith  (as  just  described),  and  partly  by  its 
propinquity  to  the  Mohammedan  countries  on 
the  northwest,  whence  immigration  is  so  easily 
accomplished. 


The  people  of  the  Punjab  are  largely  agricul- 
turists. A  sixth  of  the  population  of  British 
Punjab  is  thus  returned.  The  commercial  and 
artisan  classes  number  nearly  1,500,000.  The 
rainfall  is  slight;  in  some  par'is  of  the  province 
artificial  irrigation  is  resorted  to  with  good 
results.  The  rivers  swell  with  the  melting  of 
the  mountain  snows,  and  when  they  subside 
leave  well-watered  strips  of  alluvial  land  enriched 
with  the  fresh  deposits  of  each  season.  Educa- 
tion is  in  a  tolerably  forward  state.  It  is  stim- 
ulated somewhat  by  the  existence  of  the  Punjab 
University,  which  dates  only  from  1882,  with 
which  a  number  of  colleges  are  affiliated.  The 
language  of  the  Hindus  is  Punjabi — allied  to 
Hindi.  Hindustani  and  Persian  are  used  by 
the  Mohammedans.     The  Afglians  speak  Pashtu. 

Missionary  work  in  this  province  began  in 
1834.  The  American  Presbyterians  were  first 
on  the  ground,  and  their  earliest  station  was  at 
Ludhiana,  where,  besides  the  usual  work  of  preach- 
ing, schools  were  at  once  begun,  and  a  printing- 
press  established,  from  which  have  since  issued 
multitudes  of  books  and  tracts,  including  Bibli- 
cal translations.  Many  other  places  have  since 
been  occupied.  The  Church  Missionary  Society 
occupied  Amritsar  in  1851.  In  1870  that  Society 
began  a  theological  school  at  Lahore  for  training 
native  preachers,  which  was  the  first  school 
of  the  sort  in  India,  it  is  said,  to  include  Hebrew 
and  New  Testament  Greek  in  the  curriculum  of 
study  for  native  Christian  students.  The  United 
Presbyterians  of  America  have  a  mission  in  the 
Punjab,  in  Sialkot,  and  adjoining  districts.  The 
Church  of  Scotland  has  a  station  at  Chamba. 
Several  leper  asylums  have  been  founded  in 
connection  with  one  and  another  of  these  missions, 
but  these  are  now  managed  by  the  "Mission 
Lepers  in  India." 

The  Moravians,  true  to  their  instincts  of 
selecting  the  most  difficult,  laborious,  and  appar- 
ently unpromising  fields,  started  a  mission  in  1855 
at  Kailang,  far  up  among  the  Himalayas,  tho 
in  British  territory,  among  the  Tibetan  moun- 
taineers. Their  work  has  involved  severe  hard- 
ship and  unusual  self-denial,  but  it  has  not  been 
without  its  direct  results.  Circumstances  have 
impelled  the  Punjab  missionaries  to  labor  among 
Mohammedans  probably  to  a  greater  extent  than 
has  been  attempted  elsewhere  in  India.  More 
than  half  the  population  being  Mohammedans, 
opportunities  have  been  constantly  presented 
for  meeting  them,  which  it  has  not  seemed  right 
to  disregard,  altho  there  has  not  been  hope  of 
great  success.  Several  of  the  missionaries  of  the 
Punjab  have  studied  the  religion  of  Mohammed 
profoundly,  and  have  published  scholarly  works 
m  elucidation  of  it,  while  not  neglecting  the 
preparation  of  other  works  designed  to  commend 
Christianity  directly  to  the  Muslims  themselves. 
Their  labors  have  resulted  in  the  conversion  of 
many  Mohammedans,  some  of  whom  have 
become  able  and  fearless  preachers  of  the  Gospel. 

PUNJABI  LANGUAGE :  A  language  spoken  by 
Sikhs  and  others  in  the  Punjab,  India.  The 
number  using  this  language  is  estimated  at  over 
20,000,000.  The  language  belongs  to  the  Indie 
group  of  the  Aryan  family,  but  it  has  much  prof- 
ited by  borrowing  from  Arabic  as  well  as 
Persian.  It  is  written  with  characters  called 
Gurmukhi  and  derived  from  the  Sanskrit 
Devanagari. 

PURDIE,  Rev.  Samuel  Alexander:  Bom  in  the 


609 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Pnnjab 
(tnallflcatlona 


State  of  New  York  March  5,  1843.  Died  in  San 
Salvador,  Central  America,  August  6,  1897.  In 
1871  he  entered  upon  his  work  in  Mexico,  being 
the  first  foreign  missionary  sent  out  by  the 
American  Friends.  Locating  at  first  in  the 
■ci^y  of  Matamoros  in  the  state  of  Tamaulipas, 
he  gathered  a  church  of  believers,  opened  a 
boys'  and  girls'  school,  established  a  printing 
and  publishing  house,  and  founded  a  monthly 
paper.  El  Ramo  de  Olivo,  which  continues  to  be 
published,  and  is  now  in  its  thirty-first  volume. 
This  paper  has  a  large  circulation,  and  it  has 
gained  entrance  into  nearly  all  Spanish-speaking 
countries  and  islands,  carrying  the  Gospel  where 
the  living  messenger  has  not  come.  Primarily 
to  supply  the  schools  he  compiled  and  printed 
•school-books,  inserting  in  them  passages  from 
the  Bible  and  extracts  from  Christian  books. 
He  translated  and  printed  a  number  of  religious 
books  and  tracts.  His  influence  was  felt  not 
only  through  the  printing  press.  He  traveled 
throughout    the    entire     state     of     Tamaulipas, 

E reaching  in  cities,  towns,  and  ranches.  He 
ad  the  joy  of  seeing  seven  of  his  converts 
become  faithful  ministers  of  the  Gospel.  He 
established  six  regular  churches  and  many 
preaching  places,  all  of  which  he  visited  annually, 
and  some  of  them  more  frequently.  Into  these 
churches  he  received  more  than  six  hundred  by 
baptism.  In  1887,  because  of  the  decline  of 
Matamoros  as  a  business  center  and  the  removal 
of  the  capital  of  the  state  to  C.  Victoria,  he 
removed  to  this  city,  and  hereafter  his  head- 
quarters were  there.  In  1897,  while  visiting  San 
Salvador,  Central  America,  he  died  of  tetanus, 
induced  by  a  slight  injury  to  his  hand,  received 
while  binding  a  book  which  he  had  just  trans- 
lated and  printed. 

PURI:  The  chief  town  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name  in  Orissa,  India;  is  situated  on  the 
coast,  covers  an  area  of  1,871  acres,  and  is  a  city 
of  lodging-houses.  Its  ordinary  population  in 
1891,    28,800,    is    almost    entirely    Hindu,     but 


during  the  great  festivals  of  Jagannath,  which 
are  held  here,  there  are  100,000  pilgrims  added 
to  the  ordinary  residents.  Station  of  the  BMS, 
(1825),  with  (190,3)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  II 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  3  Sunday  schools, 
4  day  schools,  and  645  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  300  are  communicants. 

PURNEAH.     See  Purniah. 

PURNIAH:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  and 
capital  of  the  district  of  Purniah,  50  miles  N.  E. 
by  N.  of  Bhagalpur.  It  has  a  large  jute  trade. 
It  is  subject  to  severe  epidemics  of  fever.  Popu- 
lation (1891)  14,600,  of  whom  9,600  are  Hindus 
and  4,800  are  Mohammedans.  Station  of  the  BMS 
(1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife 
and  2  native  workers.  Some  write  the  name 
Purneah. 

PURULIA:  Capital  of  the  Manbhum  district, 
Chota  Nagpur,  Bengal,  India.  Population, 
5,695.  It  has  good  public  buildings,  a  hospital, 
and  considerable  trade.  An  important  center 
for  mission  work  among  the  Kols.  Station  of  the 
Go.ssner  Missionary  Society,  with  4  missionaries, 
37  native  workers,  7  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  home  for  untainted 
children  of  lepers,  and  1,673  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  870  are  communicants.  Station  of  the 
Mission  to  Lepers  (1887),  aiding  the  leper  work 
carried  on  by  the  Gossner  Society. 

PUTIKI:  A  town  and  port  of  North  Island, 
New  Zealand,  situated  79  miles  S.  E.  of  New 
Plymouth,  on  the  Wanganui  River,  crossed  by 
an  iron  bridge  600  feet  long.  It  is  the  principal 
port  on  the  W.  coast  and  has  sawmills,  wooden- 
ware  factories,  foundries,  flour  mills,  etc.  Near 
the  town  is  a  Maori  college  for  the  education  of 
native  youths.  Population,  5,000.  Station  of 
the  CMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
16  native  workers,  1  day  school,  and  320  pro- 
fessed Christians.  The  district  appears  in  report 
sometimes  as  Wanganui. 

PYENG-YANG.     See   Phyenq-yang. 


QUALIFICATIONS  OF  THE  MISSIONARY:  In 

Missions,  as  in  all  human  enterprises,  the  man  is 
the  central  factor.  "One  Paul  did  more  for  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel  than  the  ten  Apostles." 
That  is  true  and  but  expresses  in  the  concrete  the 
supreme  importance  of  the  selection  of  men. 
Livingstone  wrote :  "The  sort  of  men  wanted  for 
missionaries  are  men  of  education,  standing,  enter- 
prise, zeal,  and  piety.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  any  one,  solong  as  he  is  pious,  will  do  for  this 
office.  Pioneers  in  everything  should  be  the 
ablest,  best  qualified  men,  not  those  of  small  ability 
and  education.  This  especially  applies  to  the  first 
teachers  of  truth  in  regions  which  may  never 
before  have  been  blessed  with  the  name  and 
Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ."  Qualifications  are  more 
important  than  numbers.  "Missionaries  must 
be  weighed  and  not  counted."  He  who  is  to 
represent  Christ  and  the  Church  before  heathen- 
ism, should  be  Christ-loving  and  Christlike, 
should  have  a  passion  for  the  salvation  of  souls, 
and  should  not  hesitate  to  give  up  luxury  and 


life  as  his  Master  did,  in  order  that  the  world  may 
come  to  a  loiowledge  of  the  Gospel  that  saves. 
The  conversion  of  men,  the  spiritual  vitality  of 
converts,  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  of  the 
Home  Church  will  depend  upon  the  quality  of 
the  Church's  representatives  in  the  foreign 
field.  At  no  point  are  carefulness  and  discrim- 
ination more  important  than  at  thfe  selection  of 
candidates,  for  if  a  high  standard  be  not  _mam- 
tained,  defeat  and  disappointment  are  inevitable. 
The  qualifications  that  should  be  expected  in  a 
missionary  do  not  differ  essentially  from  those 
expected  m  any  other  true  minister  of  the  Gospel 
of  Christ  in  any  land.  These  quahfications  have 
been  so  amply  illustrated  in  the  lives  of  eminent 
and  successful  missionaries,  and  so  frequently 
portrayed  in  manuals  and  addresses,  as  to  be 
familiar  to  all  who  are  acquainted  with  mission 
literature.  In  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  especially, 
but  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament  as  well, 
such  prominence  is  given  to  these  qualifications, 
and  they  are  delineated  with  so  much  detail  as 


Qnallflcatlons 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


610 


clearly  to  indicate  their  importance  to  the  future 
church.  The  following  are  some  of  the  character- 
istics specified  as  essential  to  ministerial  useful- 
ness: 1.  A  hishop  must  be  anepileptos  (I.  Tim.  iii: 
2)  or  anegkUtos  (Titus  i  :  7),  both  of  which  are 
translated  "blameless."  These  terms  mean,  that 
his  character  should  have  nothing  upon  which  an 
enemy  can  take  hold,  or  against  which  he  can 
hurl  an  accusation.  2.  He  must  be  "  apt  to 
teach,"  capable,  by  natural  gifts  and  scholarly 
attainments,  of  imparting  instruction  to  others. 
3.  He  must  be  "sober,"  having  a  calm,  well- 
balanced,  judicial  judgment,  that  can  view  a 
subject  from  every  standpoint  and  reach  deliber- 
ate and  wise  conclusions.  4.  "No  Striker,"  a 
man  who  will  not,  under  the  impulse  of  passion, 
be  provoked  to  strike  back;  who,  when  reviled, 
reviles  not  again.  The  experience  of  missions 
justifies  attaching  much  importance  to  this 
feature  of  character.  .5.  "Temperate,"  having 
such  a  control  of  all  powers  of  body  and  mind  as 
can  utilize  them  to  the  best  advantage,  resulting 
in  that  mental  poise,  that  self-reliance  which  is  the 
anticipation  of  victory.  6.  "Vigilant,"  having 
eyes  and  ears  open  to  see  and  hear,  and  turn 
everything  to  good  account.  7.  "Zealous,"  fer- 
vent in  spirit — that  enthusiasm  that  can  concen- 
trate on  one  thing — under  the  constraint  of  love. 
8.  An  affectionate  disposition  (I.  Thess.  ii:  7-12) 
which  wins  affection  in  return  and  secures 
sympathy  for  the  message  he  has  to  give.  Such 
references  as  these  to  missionary  character  are 
scattered  throughout  the  New  Testament,  and 
their  careful  study  and  classification  will  repay 
any  candidate  for  this  sacred  calling. 

Instead  of  more  minute  inquiry  in  that  direc- 
tion, however,  it  may  prove  even  more  profitable 
to  gaze  upon  the  features  of  the  Master  Himself, 
who  was  the  great  missionary  and  is  the  model 
for  all  missionaries.  Certain  salient  character- 
istics of  His  life  may  be  regarded  as  essential  and 
fundamental,  and,  indeed,  inclusive  of  all  others 
that  fill  in  a  complete  equipment. 

1.  Jesus  Christ  was  called  to  the  work.  He 
was  sent  of  the  Father.  "As  the  Father  sent 
me,  even  .so  send  I  you."  How  that  call  is  to  be 
recognized  and  distinguished  is  one  of  the  per- 
plexities of  many  an  earnest  life,  and  an  exceed- 
mgly  important  problem.  With  the  call  of  God 
assured,  to  fall  back  upon,  courage  will  not  fail 
in  the  darkest  hour,  but  without  that  certainty, 
there  will  often  be  misgivings  lest  after  all  there 
may  have  been  a  mistake.  How  can  the  mind  of 
the  Master  be  known  in  this  matter?  To  Paul 
the  call  received  on  the  way  to  Damascus  was 
unmistakable.  Anskar  had  his  \asions  and  com- 
missions. Voices  came  to  him  out  of  the  ineffable 
light,  "Go  hence  and  return  to  me  with  the  mar- 
tyr's crown."  "Fear  not;  I  am  he  that  blotteth 
out  thy  transgressions."  Francis  of  Assisi  heard 
a  voice  amid  the  silence  of  the  Umbrian  hills, 
"My  temple  is  falling  into  ruins,  restore  it."  In 
the  strength  of  that  inspiration  he  not  only  be- 
came a  missionary,  but  sent  forth  an  army  of 
missionaries,  who  counted  it  a  privilege  to  lay 
down  their  lives  for  Christ's  sake.     Some  men, 

Erominent  in  history,  who  were  epoch-makers, 
ave  had  such  calls,  but  ordinarily  men  must 
reach  their  conclusions  by  processes  less  impress- 
ive. No  two  are  cast  in  precisely  the  same  mold, 
and  each  will  be  directed  by  heart  and  intellect, 
according  to  his  own  temperament.  The  weigh- 
ing of  such  considerations  as  health,  education, 
domestic   claims,    relative   needs   of    home    and 


foreign  fields,  may  seem  commonplace  in  com- 
parison with  visions  and  supernatural  voices,  yet 
they  are  the  basis  of  ordinary  human  action,  and 
through  them  the  will  of  God  is,  for  us,  made 
known.  The  man  whose  heart  is  right  with  God, 
who  wishes  to  present  himself  a  living  sacrifice 
and  uses  his  intelligence  calmly  and  unselfishly, 
will  reach  a  decision  as  unmistakably  from  God 
as  was  the  call  of  St.  Patricli  or  Isaiah.  The 
chief  danger  lies  in  the  deceitfulness  of  the  un- 
willing heart.  Jesus  Christ  came  not  to  do  His 
own  will.  He  had  the  single  eye  and  saw  clearly 
His  commission  and  work. 

2.  The  Holy  Spirit  was  given  to  Him  without 
measure.  All  His  faculties  were  formed  and 
developed  in  the  Holy  Ghost.  His  study  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  and  all  His  utterances  were  in 
the  illumination  and  energy  of  the  Spirit.  When 
he  entered  upon  His  public  ministry  there  was  a 
special  anointing,  the  Spirit  descended  as  a  dove 
and  rested  upon  him.  He  was  led  of  the  Spirit 
into  the  wilderness  to  be  tempted  of  the  devil,  and 
in  the  power  of  the  Spirit  He  returned  into  Gali- 
lee. His  miracles  were  performed  in  the  Spirit, 
and  His  last  crowning  act — His  sacrifice  upon  the 
cross — was  done  in  the  Spirit.  "Who  through 
the  eternal  Spirit  offered  Himself  without  spot  to 
God."  That  was  the  ideal  life.  In  the  truest 
and  fullest  sense  the  Spirit-filled  life  was  His. 

Does  the  question  arise  whether  such  a  life  is 
possible  for  His  disciples?  Let  that  question  be 
answered  by  another.  Did  he  not  take  upon 
Him  our  nature,  and  if  so,  are  not  both  subject  to 
the  same  law? 

In  order  to  fulfil  the  purpose  of  His  life  the 
fulness  of  the  Spirit  was  necessary,  as  the  light 
of  the  sun  is  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the 
flower.  It  is  so  with  us.  "Not  by  might  nor  by 
power,  but  by  my  spirit,"  is  the  condition  of 
spiritual  life,  and  of  spiritual  service.  No  com- 
bination of  natural  qualities,  however  distin- 
guished, will  compensate  for  the  lack  of  this  gift. 
Hence  we  are  commanded  to  be  filled  with  the 
Spirit.  "He  giveth  the  Holy  Spirit  to  them  that 
ask  Him."  Altho  our  natures  may  have  been 
starved  and  stunted,  and  have  become  irre- 
sponsive on  account  of  sin,  yet  to  the  humble 
seeker  great  possibilities  are  m  store.  Let  it  be 
declared  with  all  solemnity  and  emphasis,  that 
the  missionary  without  this  gift,  and  without 
a  sense  of  its  supreme  importance,  had  better 
abandon  his  profession.  His  ministry  will  prove 
a  disappointment  and  a  waste. 

3.  Jesus  Christ  was  mighty  in  the  Scriptures. 
In  childhood  that  became  apparent.  He  breathed 
the  atmosphere  of  the  Prophets.  In  the  brief 
record  of  His  earthly  life  preserved  to  us,  so  many 
quotations  are  found  as  to  indicate  familiarity 
with  every  part  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  which 
He  constantly  referred  as  the  Scriptures  that  can- 
not be  broken.  Such  familiarity,  needless  to  say, 
was  not  mere  effort  of  memory,  but  a  profound 
appreciation  of  the  value  and  relations  of  truth, 
the  result  of  habitual  meditation.  They  were 
more  precious  than  gold  or  silver,  and  His  medi- 
tation all  the  day.  To  Him  the  Scriptures  were 
divine  in  origin,  and  the  final  appeal,  "What 
saith  the  Scriptures?"  "Search  the  Scriptures;" 
"The  Scriptures  cannot  be  broken."  "That  the 
Scriptures  might  be  fulfilled."  He  staked  His  all 
upon  their  integrity,  and  instilled  the  same  con- 
fidence into  the  minds  of  His  disciples.  They, 
too,  quoted  freely  in  their  epistles,  and  the 
addresses  of  Peter  at  Pentecost,  and  of  Stephen 


611 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Qnallflcatlons 


before  the  Council  were  but  rehearsals  of  the  Old 
Testament  story.  The  Scriptures  are  the  sword 
of  the  Spirit,  the  weapon  used  by  the  Apostles 
and  by  the  Church  in  all  the  ages.  There  is  no 
other  weapon.  The  success  of  any  Gospel  min- 
istry must  depend  upon  the  ability  to  use  the 
revealed  truth  of  God.  The  missionary  should 
accept  it  as  axiomatic  that  his  mind  must  be 
steeped  in  the  truth,  that  his  whole  nature  must 
be  charged  with  a  sense  of  the  glory  of  the  Mes- 
sage, and  the  magnitude  of  the  interests  at  stake. 
It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  say,  and  yet  men 
need  to  be  reminded  that  this  does  not  consist 
simply  in  a  loiowledge  of  theological  books,  nor 
even  m  an  acquaintance  with  the  mechanism  of 
the  books  of  the  Bible,  all  of  which  may  be  very 
important  in  their  way.  It  is  an  experience  of 
the  heart  and  life,  so  that,  like  the  Apostles,  he 
must  speak  it  out.  "We  cannot  but  speak  the 
things  we  have  seen  and  heard." 

4.  Jesus  Clarist  emptied  Himself.  He  made 
Himself  of  no  reputation,  and  took  upon  Him  the 
form  of  a  servant.  By  right  His  place  was  in  the 
glory,  wliere  from  eternity  He  dwelt  with  the 
Father.  Yet  He  surrendered  His  place  and  on 
earth  had  nowhere  to  lay  His  head. 

He  might  have  delivered  essays  that  would 
have  become  the  literary  classics  of  all  the  ages, 
but  He  emptied  Himself  of  the  right  to  speak  and 
became  an  echo  of  the  Father.  "He  that  sent 
me  is  true,  and  I  speak  to  the  world  those  things 
which  I  heard  of  Him."  By  nature  He  was  the 
brightness  of  the  Father's  glory,  and  yet  that 
glory  was  laid  aside,  and  He  became  obedient 
imto  death.  He  who  knew  that  all  things  were 
given  into  His  hands,  and  that  He  was  come 
from  God  and  went  to  God,  girded  Himself  with  a 
towel  and  washed  the  disciples'  feet.  He  who 
could  have  commanded  twelve  legions  of  angels, 
allowed  Himself  to  be  bound  and  buffeted  and 
scourged.  He  emptied  Himself  of  His  power. 
What  an  emptying  that  was,  that  He  might  in 
due  time  be  exalted!  He  became  the  perfect 
High  Priest  through  suffering,  and  now  is  seated 
at  the  right  hand  of  God,  a  Prince  and  a  Savior. 

This  is  hard  doctrine.  Wlio  can  receive  it? 
The  old  nature  dies  hard.  Yet  it  is  the  parting 
of  the  ways.  The  missionary  who  will  talce  up 
his  cross  and  follow  Christ  m  this  respect  will 
share  with  Him  the  victory,  while  the  otlier  way 
leads  to  failure  and  defeat.  Among  the  sup- 
posed sayings  of  Jesus,  found  in  Egypt,  is  this 
sentence:  "Unless  ye  fast  from  the  world  ye 
shall  not  find  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven."  Whether 
the  saying  is  authentic  or  not  its  testimony  is 
true.  Love  not  tlie  world,  neither  the  things  of 
the  world;  set  your  affections  upon  the  things 
that  are  above  where  Christ  sitteth. 

The  missionary  life  is  exposed  to  peculiar  temp- 
tations in  this  respect.  He  labors  among  a 
people  intellectually  and  morally  beneath  him. 
He  naturally  shrinks  from  the  closest  identifica- 
tion with  such  people  and  craves  the  companion- 
ship of  better  society.  It  is  a  great  temptation, 
but  where  not  resisted,  an  impossible  gulf  is 
fixed  between  him  and  success.  He  must  empty 
Himself  that  he  may  be  filled.  He  must  humble 
Himself  that  He  may  be  exalted.  He  must 
become  all  things  to  all  men  that  He  may  save 
some.  Jesus  made  His  soul  an  oHering  for  sin ;  He 
went  down  to  the  depths  that  He  might  lift 
men  up  to  God.  The  great  Apostle  strove  in  all 
things  to  be  an  approved  minister  of  God,  in  much 
patience,    in    afflictions,    in    necessities,    in    dis- 


tresses. He  endured  hardness  and  cultivated 
the  graces  of  liumility  and  Christian  charity  that 
the  ministry  might  not  be  blamed,  and  that  the 
Kingdom  of  God  might  come.  He  emptied 
Himself  before  receiving  the  crown  of  righteous- 
ness that  fadeth  not  away. 

5.  Jesus  Christ  had  faith  in  the  future.  He 
had  no  misgivings  as  to  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
tlie  Kingdom.  His  hopes  were  built  upon  the 
eternal  promises  that  could  not  fail.  He  saw 
in  vision  Satan  fall  from  heaven,  and  the  judg- 
ment of  this  world,  altho  the  work  had  only 
begun.  The  fulness  of  the  Spirit  clarified  His 
vision  and  enabled  Him  to  see  tlie  end  from  the 
beginning.  The  golden  age  of  the  prophets  of 
old  would  dawn  in  due  time,  and  He  could  leave 
the  times  and  the  seasons  in  His  Father's  hands. 
In  such  a  frame  He  could  never  yield  to  despond- 
ency and  despair. 

Missionaries  are  disposed  to,  and  many  of  them 
are  afflicted  with,  despondency,  and  their  condi- 
tions are  often  extremely  discouraging.  They 
are  few  in  number,  and  seem  so  helpless  among 
so  many.  After  years  of  toil  the  harvest  does  not 
appear.  Sometimes  encouragements  seem  to  be 
at  hand,  when  suddenly  tliey  vanish  as  the  early 
dew.  Converts  are  disappointing,  and  public 
sentiment  is  against  tliem.  Tliey  are  the  objects 
of  unkindly  criticism,  and  sometimes  of  hostile 
attack.  Climatic  and  physical  conditions  are 
depressing,  and  health  is  not  buoyant.  It  is 
natural  that  under  the  strain  body  and  mind- 
should  lose  elasticity  and  hopes  should  die.  Yet- 
when  that  happens  strength  and  usefulness  are 
impaired.  It  should  not  be  so,  and  will  not  be  so. 
if  their  lives  are  anchored  in  the  unchangeable- 
ness  of  the  living  and  true  God.  The  missionary 
is  but  a  small  part  of  a  mighty  movement,  and  his 
contribution  will  not  be  lost.  His  works  will  fol- 
low him.  Otlier  men  may  reap  wliat  he  has 
sown,  but  tliey  will  rejoice  together.  It  is  a  win- 
ning conflict  in  which  the  Church  is  engaged,  and 
the  joy  of  ultimate  victory  should  thrill  and  in- 
spire every  missionary  with  ever-increasing 
energy  and  hopefulness. 

6.  Jesus  Christ  had  power  in  prayer.  Pre- 
vailing prayer  is  c  central  law  of  His  kingdom. 
Indeed,  if  in  anything  He  might  seem  to  be 
chargeable  with  rasli  and  extravagant  statement, 
it  is  in  this  connection.  "If  ye  abide  in  me,  and 
my  words  abide  in  you,  ye  sliall  ask  what  ye  will, 
and  it  sliall  be  done  unto  you"  (John  xv:  7).  "What- 
soever ye  desire,  when  ye  pray,  believe  that  ye 
receive  them  and  ye  shall  have  them"  (Mark  xi: 
24).  This  is  surely  giving  men  an  unlimited 
privilege  of  drawing  upon  infinite  resources,  yet 
it  Is  the  plane  on  which  He  himself  moved.  At 
the  gi\ive  of  Lt-,zarus  He  said  to  the  Father,  "I 
know  that  thou  hearest  me  alwaj-s."  In  that 
confidence  His  requests  were  made  known.  He 
lived  in  tliis  as  in  all  other  respects  up  to  the 
standard  of  His  teaching.  He  understood  the 
secret,  and  without  it,  even  He  would  have 
failed  in  His  mission.  He  so  taught  His  dis- 
ciples. As  Andrew  Murray  quaintly  says.  He 
did  not  teach  His  disciples  to  preach  but  taught 
them  to  pray.  Is  it  not  true  that  they  who  can 
preach  well  are  more  in  number  than  they  who 
can  pray  well?  The  greater  the  gift  the  greater 
the  sacrifice  necessary  to  acquire  it.  Never  will 
the  largest  results  be  reached  until  the  Church 
has  a  ministry  at  home  and  abroad  that  has  been 
divinely  taught  how  to  pray.  Some  men  stand  out 
prominently  in  history  who  had,  and  because 


Q,Ttalifications 
Rajputana, 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


61S 


they  had,  learned  this  art.  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  are  punctuated  with  prayer.  It  is  from 
the  "Prayer  Watch"  that  the  remarkable 
record  of  the  Moravian  Church  sprang.  Louis 
Harms  and  Gossner  and  Fliedner  and  Brainerd 
and  Miiller  and  Hudson  Taylor  are  admonitions 
as  well  as  encouragements  to  the  Church  to  take 
advantage  of  this  power,  which  she  is  invited  to 
exercise.  Tlie  extent  of  the  field,  the  vastness 
of  the  work  to  be  done  and  the  inadequacy  of  the 
forces  at  work,  ought  to  impress  every  thoughtful 
man  and  woman  with  that  absolute  dependence 
of  the  Church  upon  the  help  that  comes  from 
above.  If  men  are  to  be  bom  into  new  life,  it 
must  be  done  through  the  creative  power  of  the 
author  of  life.  He  hears  and  answers  prayer; 
therefore,  pray  without  ceasing. 

7.  One  more  qualification  must  be  mentioned, 
as  the  most  important  of  all.  Jesus  Christ  acted 
under  the  constraint  of  love.  It  was  love  that 
impelled  the  Father  to  give  His  Son.  And  it  was 
love  that  constrained  the  Son  to  give  His  life  a 
ransom  for  many.  Even  as  His  Father  loved 
Him,  so  did  He  love  sinful  men.  That  is  the  one 
motive  that  will  abide.  There  are  many  other 
considerations,  such  as  the  civilizing  power  of 
the  Gospel,  the  moral  and  spiritual  condition 
of  the  heathen,  commercial  and  political  advan- 
tage, the  success  of  Missions — all  of  which  have 
■weight,  but  will  not  make  and  sustain  mission- 
aries, nor  will  they  make  a  missionary  church. 

When  Peter  the  Hermit  aroused  Europe  to 
attempt  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Land  from  the 
hand  of  the  infidel,  his  battle  cry  was,  "It  is  the 
will  of  God."  "It  is  the  will  of  Christ"  is 
our  bp.ttle  cry.  The  constraint  of  tlie  love  of 
Christ  is  alone  strong  enough  to  maintain  this 
conflict. 

Dr.  Griffith  John  says  that  he  often  thought  of 
Paul  and  the  Yang-tsze  together.  The  great  river 
in  its  way  to  the  sea  encounters  many  obstacles 
and  flows  in  varied  channels.  Now  it  dashes 
against  the  rocks  like  a  mad  thing  and  then 
rushes  through  a  narrow  gorge  at  a  wild  race 
speed.  It  then  emerges  into  a  wider  and  more 
even  channel,  and  flows  quietly,  calmly,  and 
majestically,  but  it  flows  on  continuously  and 
irresistibly.  Try  to  turn  it  back,  and  you  will 
find  it  impossible.  Ask  it  to  stop,  and  it  will  tell 
you  it  cannot.  Ask  why,  and  it  will  tell  you, 
"Almighty  law  has  taken  possession  of  me  and  I 
cannot  help  myself.  The  law  of  gravity  con- 
straineth  me."  So  with  Paul,  a  mighty  law,  the 
law  of  love,  took  hold  of  him  and  he  could  not  stop. 
"The  love  of  Christ  constraineth  me." 

The  same  writer  guotes  the  advice  given  to  a 
novice  by  a  senior  missionary  in  China.  "Try  as 
fast  as  possible  to  learn  to  love  the  Chinese  for 
Christ's  sake,  for  you  will  find  it  very  difficult  to 
love  them  for  their  own  sake." 

The  heathen  are  His  and  He  loves  them  and 
for  His  sake  even  the  most  unlovely  can  become 
the  object  of  our  affection.  A  heart  overflowing 
with  much  love  will  not  find  it  hard  to  associate 
with  the  downcast  and  fallen,  and  will  quickly 
elicit  a  response.  Love  is  the  world's  need  and 
hope. 

In  conclusion,  let  it  be  said  there  is  work  for  all ; 
and  missionary  training  should  vary  with  the  class 
of  men  and  the  work  they  are  expected  to  do,  yet 
the  qualifications  specified  above  should  be  com- 
mon to  all.  Certain  attainments  in  scholarship 
may  be  beyond  the  reach  of  some  who,  neverthe- 
less, would  be  useful  in  the  foreign  field,  but  all 


can  acquire  and  none  wiU  be  useful  without  the 
Christ-like  spirit. 

There  are  many  points  of  a  physical,  intellec- 
tual, and  practical  nature  that  deserve  mention, 
and  will  claim  the  attention  of  earnest  candidates, 
but  need  not  here  be  detailed.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  points  that  deserve  notice  in  order 
that  they  may  be  avoided,  which,  tho  in  them- 
selves apparently  trivial,  have  been  stumbling- 
blocks,  and  have  brought  disaster  into  many  a 
mission.  Good  men  have  sometimes  c&me  under 
the  influence  of  peculiar  views  as  to  questions  of 
economy,  or  salary,  or  prophecy,  that  have 
impaired,  if  not  wrecked,  their  usefulness.  Bet- 
ter judgment  might  still  have  entertained  these 
views,  while  not  offensively  obtruding  them  upon 
others,  and  thus  the  loss  of  influence  would  have 
been  avoided.  A  loving,  prayerful  spirit  will 
ever  be  on  the  alert  lest  the  enemy  gain  an 
advantage.  "Lo,  I  am  with  you  always"  is  the 
guarantee  of  wisdom  and  guidance  in  every  time 
of  need.  The  missionary  above  all  men  needs  to 
realize  the  apostle's  prayer :  "To  be  strengthened 
with  might  by  His  spirit  in  the  inner  man,  that 
Christ  may  dwell  in  your  hearts  by  faith,  that  ye, 
being  rooted  and  grounded  in  love,  may  be  able 
to  comprehend  with  all  saints  what  is  the  breadth 
and  length  and  depth  and  height,  and  to  know 
the  love  of  Christ  which  passeth  knowledge,  that 
ye  might  be  filled  with  all  the  fulness  of  God." 

Somerville  (Andrew),  Lectures  on  Missions  and  Evangeliza^ 
Hon,  Student  Volunteer  Movement;  CaU,  Qualifications 
and  Preparation  of  Missionary  Candidates,  New  York,  190i; 
Ecumenical  Conference  on  Foreign  Missions,  Vol.  I.,  pp. 
301-324,  New  York,  1900. 

QUDSHANIS.     See  Kochanes. 

QUEENSTOWN:  A  town  in  British  Guiana, 
South  America,  situated  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Essequibo  River.  Station  of  the 
PB,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  woman 
missionary. 

QUEPE:  A  river  in  Chile,  South  America, 
which  gives  the  name  to  the  Agricultural  and 
Industrial  station  of  the  SAMS  at  Maquehue 
Reserve,  situated  about  30  miles  S.  E.  of  Chol- 
chol,  and  10  miles  S.  of  Temuco.  The  people 
reached  by  this  mission  are  Mapuche  Indians. 
The  station  has  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  native 
worker,  2  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital, 
and  1  industrial  school. 

QtTESSUA:  A  settlement  in  Angola,  West 
Africa,  situated  about  185  miles  E.  by  S.  of  S. 
Paolo  de  Loanda.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1900)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  boarding 
school,  2  Sunday  schools,  4  native  workers,  and 
44  professed  Christians,  of  whom  25  are  com- 
municants. 

QUETTA:  A  town  in  Baluchistan,  India,  situ- 
ated about  190  miles  N.W.  of  Shikarpur,  in  the 
Northwest  Frontier  Province,  India,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  railwaj''.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1886),  with  4  missionaries,  three  of  them  with 
their  wives,  8  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  hospital,  and  42  professed  Christians.  Station 
of  the  CEZ  (1895),  with  (1903)  2  women  mission- 
aries, 10  native  workers,  3  day  schools,  1  board- 
ing school,  1  hospital,  and  50  Zenana  pupils. 

QUEZALTENANGO :  A  town  in  Guatemala, 
Central  America,  situated  about  125  miles  N.  W. 
of  Guatemala  city,  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1902,  and  it  is  not  now  a  missionary 
residence.  Station  of  the  PN  (1898),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  outstation. 


613 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


(tnallflcatlons 
Rajputaiia 


QUICHUA  LANGUAGE:  A  South  American 
language  spoken  by  various  tribes  of  Indians  in 
the  western  and  nortliwestern  part  of  the  con- 
tinent. The  name  is  applied  by  the  Indians  of 
Peru  to  any  mountaineers,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest  the  dominant  race  in  Peru 
being  Quichua  Indians,  the  Jesuit  missionaries 
gave  the  name  to  the  Indian  language.  Quichua 
is  still  spoken  in  parts  of  Peru  distant  from  the 
coast.  It  is  found  also  with  variant  dialects 
among  the  Indians  of  Ecuador,  Colombia,  and, 
perhaps,  in  Bolivia  and  Argentina.  It  is  written 
with  Roman  letters. 

QUIHONGOA:  A  town  in  Angola,  West  Africa, 
situated  about  160  miles  S.  E.  of  S.  Paolo  de 


Loanda.  Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  3  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  1  place  of 
worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  printing  house,  1 
industrial  school,  and  150  professed  Christians. 

QUILON :  An  ancient  town  and  seaport  in  Trav- 
ancore,  South  India,  situated  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  40  miles  N.  of  Trivandrum.  It  had  a 
trade  with  China  as  early  as  851.  Portuguese 
established  a  trading  post  here  in  1503,  which 
was  afterward  seized  by  the  Dutch.  Population, 
35,000.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1821),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  78  native  workers,  20 
outstations,  24  Sunday  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  44  day  schools,  and  2,515  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  472  are  communicants. 


R 


RABAI:  A  town  in  British  East  Africa,  situ- 
ated about  10  miles  N.  W.  of  Mombasa,  on  the 
mainland.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1846),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
15  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  and  839 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  399  are  com- 
municants. 

RAGHAVAPURAM :  A  village  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  between  the  Kistna  and  Godavari 
Rivers,  about  60  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Kamamet. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1872),  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  16  native  workers,  1  place 
of  worship,  15  day  schools,  and  2,608  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  461  are  communicants. 

RAIATEA:  One  of  the  Society  Islands  in  the 
South  Pacific,  situated  N.  W.  of  Tahiti.  It 
played  an  important  part  in  the  early  history  of 
the  LMS  mission  to  Tahiti,  having  yielded 
almost  the  first  encouragement  in  the  depressing 
period  of  early  effort.  Station  of  the  Paris 
Evangelical  Mission  Society,  with  2  mission- 
aries, 4  native  workers,  4  places  of  worship,  1  day 
school,  1  printing  press,  and  646  professed  Chris- 
tians at  four  different  villages  on  the  island. 

RAINY:  A  settlement  in  W.  Pondoland,  Cape 
Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  40  miles  N.  W.  of 
Port  St.  Johns.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1897),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  21  native 
workers,  15  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  12 
day  schools,  and  183  professed  Christians.  Some 
use  the  old  name  Elitubeni. 

RAIPTJR:  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  Chatisgarh  division,  about  150 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Sambalpur.  Population, 
24,948.  Station  of  the  German  Evangelical 
Synod  of  N.  A.  (1880),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  36  native  workers,  16  out- 
stations, 11  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school, 
8  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  1 
orphanage,  and  910  professed  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  22  native  workers,  1  outstation,  2  places 
of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  2 
orphanages,  1  industrial  school  and  524  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  88  are  communicants. 

RAJAMAHENDRI:  A  historic  town  in  Madras, 
India,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Godavari  River,  32 
miles    W.    by    N.     of    Cocanada.     Population, 


24,555.  The  surrounding  country  is  rich  and 
the  people  are  prosperous.  Station  of  the  Gen- 
eral Council,  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in 
N.  A.  (1869),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of 
them  with  his  wife;  2  women  missionaries,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  printing 
house,  2  boarding  schools,  1  industrial  class,  1 
dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  139  native  workers. 
Some  write  the  name  Rajahmundry. 

RAJGANJPUR:  A  town  in  Chota  Nagpur, 
India,  situated  in  the  Ganjpur  state  on  the 
Bengal  and  Nagpur  Railway,  about  78  miles  S. 
W.  of  Chaibasa.  Station  of  the  Gossner  Mission 
Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  39  native 
workers,  2  day  schools,  31  Sunday  schools,  and 
9,192  professed  Christians,  of  whom  194  are 
communicants. 

RAJ  NANDGAON.     See  Nandgaon. 

RAJPUT  ANA:  A  vast  territory  in  the  north- 
west of  India,  which  derives  its  name  from  the 
Rajput  clans  who  inhabit  it.  The  word  "Raj- 
put" means  "son  of  a  king,"  and  the  Rajputs 
trace  their  origin  from  the  princely  families  among 
the  original  Aryan  invaders  of  India.  Some  of 
these  clans  have  had  their  abodes  here  from  time 
immemorial.  The  exact  boundaries  of  Rajpu- 
tana  it  is  difficult  to  give.  In  a  general  way  it 
may  be  said  to  lie  between  Sindh  on  the  west,  the 
Punjab  on  the  northwest,  the  United  Provinces 
on  the  northeast  and  the  Mahratta  states  of  the 
Gaikwar,  Sindhia,  and  Holkar  on  tlie  south.  Its 
limits  of  north  latitude  are  23°  and  30°,  and  of 
east  longitude  69°  30',  and  78°  15'.  Its  area  is 
supposed  to  be  about  127,541  square  miles, 
containing  a  population  (1901)  of  9,723,301  peo- 
ple. The  population  is  prevailingly  Hindu,  only 
about  10  per  cent,  being  Mohammedan  and 
about  half  as  many  Jains.  Those  of  other  faiths 
furnish  a  mere  sprinkling  in  the  total  mass. 
There  are  many  wild  jungle  tribes — especiahy 
Bhils,  of  which  any  exact  enumeration  is  well 
nigh  'impossible;  the  Bhils,  however,  are  sup- 
posed to  number  nearly  200,000,  included  mostly 
among  the  Hindus,  whose  religion  they  follow. 

Much  of  the  territory  of  Rajputana,  especially 
in  the  western  part,  is  mere  desert.  The  south- 
eastern portion  is  more  fertile.  The  chief  city  is 
Jaipur,  capital  of  the  native  state  of  the  same 
name.     Population  (1901),  160,000.     Missionary 


Rakal 

Reeve,  WJlllain 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


614 


work  in  Rajputana  is  chiefly  that  of  the  United 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  and  dates  from  1860. 
The  principal  stations  are  Jaipur,  Ajrnere, 
Nasirabad,  Deoli,  Beawar,  Todgarh,  Udaipur, 
Alwar,  and  Jodhpur.  Much  attention  has  been 
given  to  medical  work,  and  the  diligence  of 
the  missionaries  in  relieving  distress  during  famine 
has  given  them  a  firm  hold  upon  the  hearts  of 
the  people.  There  is  a  mission  press  at  Ajrnere. 
Education  is  making  fair  progress,  the  female 
education  is  neglected.  The  Rajputs,  who  have 
given  their  name  to  the  country,  and  who  consti- 
tute its  aristocracy,  furnish  only  about  half  a 
million  of  the  population. 

RAKAI:  A  town  in  Uganda,  Central  Africa, 
situated  in  the  province  of  Koki,  on  the  west  of 
Lake  Victoria  Nyanza  and  105  miles  S.  W.  of 
Mengo.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1895),  with  (1903) 
2  women  missionaries,  35  native  workers,  1  day 
school,  and  631  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
200  are  communicants. 

RALUANA:  A  settlement  at  the  E.  end  of  the 
Island  of  New  Britain  (now  called  Neu  Pom- 
mern)  E.  of  New  Guinea.  Station  of  the  Austra- 
lian Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission  Society,   with 

(1901)  1  missionary,  83  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations,  29  places  of  worship,  29  Sunday  schools, 
29  day  schools,  1  theological  class,  and  502  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

RAMA  CAY:  An  island  on  the  Mosquito  Coast, 
Nicaragua,  situated  about  15  miles  S.  of  Blue- 
fields.  The  name  comes  from  the  Rama  Indians, 
who  inhabit  the  island.  Station  of  the  Moravian 
Missions  (1858),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  5  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day 
school,  1  Sunday  school,  and  244  professed 
Christians. 

RAMACHANDRAPURAM:  A  town  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  the  Godavari  district,  18  miles 
S.  W.  of  Cocanada.  Station  of  the  BOQ  (1892), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman 
missionary,  27  native  workers,  15  outstations,  12 
places  of  worship,  12  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  28  Sunday  schools,  and  463  professed 
Christians,  and  1  leper  home.  Station  of  the 
Mission  to  Lepers  (1899);  this  Society  aids  the 
asylum  above-mentioned. 

RAMAINANDRO:  A  town  in  Imerina,  Mada- 
gascar, situated  about  55  miles  S.  W.  of  Antan- 
anarivo. The  mission  there  was  sacked  and 
destroyed  bv  rebels  in  1895.  Station  of  the 
SPG  (1882)," with  (1900)  1  missionary,  3  native 
workers,  and  402  professed  Christians. 

RAMALIANE:  A  village  in  the  Transvaal, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  Lichtenburg  district,  45 
miles  N.  W.  of  Klerksdorp.  Station  of  the  Pler- 
mannsburg     Missionary     Society     (1872),     with 

(1902)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  6  native  work- 
ers, 3  outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  6  day 
schools,  and  1,470  professed  Christians. 

RAMALLAH:  A  village  in  Palestine,  Turkish 
Empire,  situated  about  5  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem. 
Station  of  the  AFFM  (1869),  with  (1900)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  22  native  workers,  7 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools, 
4  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary, 
and  .34  professed  Christians,  Station  also  of  the 
CMS  (1877),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  women  missionaries,  2  outstations,  1  day 
school,  and  1  dispensary.  Church  statistics  of 
the  station  are  included  in  Jerusalem  statistics 
of  CMS. 


RAMIAPATAM :  A  town  on  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
India,  about  43  miles  N.  of  Nellore.  Climate  not 
unhealthy,  but  generally  debilitating.  Mission 
station  of  the  ABMU  (1869),  with  (1903)  3  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  1  woman  missionary, 
20  native  workers,  5  outstations,  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 4  Sunday  schools,  5  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  1  theological  class,  and  2,000  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  727  are  communicants.  The 
name  is  also  written  Ramapatam. 

RAMNAD:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
about  65  miles  S.  E.  of  Madura,  near  the  line  of 
islands  stretching  toward  Ceylon,  which  are 
known  as  "Adam's  Bridge."  Of  this  "bridge" 
the  princes  of  Ramnad  used  to  be  the  guardians. 
Station  of  the  SPG  (1825),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 24  native  workers,  3  places  of  worship,  6 
day  schools,  3  boarding  schools,  1  industrial 
school,  and  665  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
217  are  communicants. 

RAMPART  CITY:  A  settlement  in  Alaska, 
within  the  Arctic  circle,  situated  on  Porcupine 
River  at  the  frontier  of  British  Columbia.  Sta- 
tion of  the  PE,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1  native 
worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  hospital,  and  25  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

RANCHI:  A  town  in  Chota  Nagpur,  Bengal, 
India,  capital  of  Lohardaga  division.  Popula- 
tion, 13,000.  Station  of  the  Gossner  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1903)  7  women  missionaries,  93 
native  workers,  38  places  of  worship,  27  Sunday 
schools,  8  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1 
theological  class,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and 
8,200  professed  Christians,  of  whom  4,446  are 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  SPG,  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women 
missionaries,  178  native  workers,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 5  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and 
13,867  professed  Christians,  of  whom  6,209  are 
communicants.  These  statistics  include  the 
district  with  the  town. 

RANGOON:  The  capital  of  Burma,  British 
India,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rangoon 
River,  26  miles  from  the  sea.  It  was  annexed 
by  Great  Britain  after  the  war  of  1852. 
Large  sums  of  money  have  been  expended  in 
improving  the  city,  and  the  European  quarter 
contains  many  fine  buildings,  tho  the  native  town 
is  not  much  improved.  Buddhism  has  here  its 
stronghold,  and  the  city  is  noted  for  the  number 
and  splendor  of  its  temples  and  shrines.  The 
most  magnificent  and  venerated  one  is  the  Shoay 
Dagon,  or  Golden  Dagon  dagoba,  said  to  be  2,300 
years  old.  It  is  heavily  decorated  with  gold,  and 
is  the  receptacle  of  relics  of  the  last  four  Buddhas, 
including  eight  hairs  of  Gautama. 

Much  internal  and  foreign  commerce  is  carried 
on  in  Rangoon,  as  it  has  communication  by  rail 
and  by  water  with  the  upper  provinces.  An 
English  newspaper  is  published  here.  Population 
(1901),  2.34,881.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1813), 
with  (1903)  19  missionaries  and  their  wives,  13 
women  missionaries,  332  native  workers,  29  out- 
stations, 150  places  of  worship,  67  Sunday 
schools,  75  day  schools,  8  boarding  schools,  2 
theological  classes,  1  printing  house,  and  9,196 
professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  SPG 
(1864),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  62  native  workers,  6  day  schools,  4  board- 
ing schools,  and  3,750  professed  Christians.  Sta- 
tion also  of  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1878), 
with  13  native  workers,  7  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  2  boarding  schools,  and 


eie 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Rakat 
Reeve,  William 


325  professed  Christians,  of  whom  272  are  com- 
municants.    Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903) 

2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4  women  mis- 
sionaries, 40  native  workers,  5  Sunday  schools, 

3  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  490  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  218  are  communicants. 
The  YMCA  has  1  missionary  and  1  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  here,  and  the  YWCA  has  2 
women  missionaries  and  1  Young  Woman's 
Christian  Association.  The  BFBS  also  has  an 
agent  here,  with  3  native  Bible  workers. 

RANIGANJ:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
on  the  railway  55  miles  N.  W.  of  Burdwan. 
Population,  19,578.  Station  of  the  Mission  to 
Lepers  (1891),  which  aids  the  leper  work  of  the 
WMS.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, 14  native  workers,  5  outstations,  9 
places  of  worship,  6  Sunday  schools,  7  day 
schools,  1  orphanage,  1  lepers'  asylum,  and  262 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  241  are  com- 
municants. 

RANIPET:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
in  the  N.  Arcot  district,  65  miles  W.  of  Madras 
City.  Station  of  the  RCA  (1856),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
81  native  workers,  35  outstations,  30  places  of 
worship,  24  Sunday  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1 
hospital,  1  dispensary,  and  1,565  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  406  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Ranipettai. 

RAO-CHAU.     See  Jao-chau-fu. 

RAROTONGA.     See  Hervey  Islands. 

RAROTONGAN  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Poly- 
nesian languages,  and  one  of  several  spoken  in 
the  Hervey  or  Cook's  Islands.  It  is  the  dialect 
found  in  those  islands,  selected  by  the  mission- 
aries for  printing,  and  has  been  reduced  to 
writing  in  Roman  letters. 

RATNAGIRI:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  and 
capital  of  the  district  of  Ratnagiri,  situated  82 
miles  N.  W.  of  Kolhapur.  Population,  12,616. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1873),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  8  women  missionaries,  10  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  2  places  of  wor.ship,  5 
Sunday  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  orphanage, 
1  leper  asylum,  and  63  communicant  Christians. 
Station  of  the  ZBM,  with  (1903)  5  women  mis- 
sionaries, 2  native  workers,  and  1  day  school. 

RATNAPUR:  A  village  in  Bengal,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  Nadiya  district,  62  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Calcutta.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1894),  with 
(1903)  7  women  missionaries,  10  native  workers, 
3  outstations,  and  1  hospital.  Station  also  of  the 
CMS,  with  (1903)  12  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  4  day  schools,  and  804  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  111  are  communicants. 

RAWAL  PINDI:  A  town  and  military  post  in 
Punjab,  India,  situated  about  88  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
Peshawar.  Because  of  its  broad,  straight,  hand- 
some streets,  and  its  excellent  drainage  and  sani- 
tary arrangements,  it  is  said  to  present  a  cleaner 
appearance  than  any  other  town  in  Northern 
India.  Trees  have  been  freely  planted,  and  give 
the  place  a  very  pleasing  appearance.  Bishop 
Milman  was  buried  here.  Population  (1901), 
87,688.  Altitude,  1,652  feet.  The  place  is  now 
fortified  in  a  very  elaborate  manner.  Station  of 
the  UP  (1856),  with  (1901)  3  missionaries  with 
their  wives,  3  women  missionaries,  20  outstations, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  college,  1  hospital,  1  orphan- 
age. Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  2  native  workers,   6  outstations,   1 


Sunday  school,  6  places  of  worship,  and  83  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

REBMANN,  John:  Born  in  Germany;  was 
appointed,  in  1846,  by  the  CMS,  to  the  East 
African  Mission.  On  his  arrival  at  Mombasa 
arrangements  were  made  by  him  and  Dr.  Krapf 
for  commencing  a  mission  among  the  Wa-Nikas, 
and  Kisulutini  (Rabai),  fifteen  miles  inland,  was 
selected  for  the  station.  The  people  gave  their 
consent  for  a  mission,  assuring  the  missionaries 
of  their  friendship  and  protection.  They  found 
the  place  more  healthful  than  Mombasa,  but 
the  people  exceedingly  ignorant,  superstitious, 
intemperate,  sensual,  and  cruel.  They  now 
began  the  journeys  in  the  interior  which  led  to 
the  remarkable  Central  African  discoveries. 
They  brought  to  light  a  new  country  highly 
favorable  for  missionary  labor,  and  three  groups 
of  mountains,  from  4,000  to  5,000  feet  high, 
enclosing  the  Taita  country.  In  1847  Mr.  Reb- 
mann  made  a  new  journey  to  Kadiaro  in  the 
Taita  country,  and  in  1848  he  explored  the  coun- 
try beyond  the  Taita,  called  Jagga  or  Chagga, 
300  miles  inland,  the  Switzerland  of  East  Africa, 
traveling  on  foot  for  seven  days  in  a  thorny 
jungle  infested  by  wild  beasts.  On  May  11  he 
discovered  the  magnificent  mountain,  Kilima 
Njaro.  Rebmann  and  Krapf,  tho  giving  much 
time  to  exploration,  were  above  all  missionaries. 
Their  grand  aim  was  the  spreading  of  the  King- 
dom of  God.  Yet  their  regular  work  led  to  great 
results  for  science.  Their  remarkable  journeys 
into  the  interior  were  the  basis  for  many  years  of 
both  missionary  and  scientific  enterprises  in 
East  Africa.  In  1856  Rebmann,  being  alone  at 
Rabai,  was  driven  from  the  place  by  an  incursion 
of  the  Masai,  who  destroyed  the  station  and  dis- 
persed the  Wa-Nika  people.  Retiring  to  Zanzi- 
bar, he  continued  his  linguistic  studies  for  two 
years,  and  then,  returning  to  his  old  station, 
resumed  his  labors.  Until  1875  he  was  there 
alone.  He  finally  became  blind.  When  the  mis- 
sion was  reenforeed  in  1875,  he  returned  home. 
An  attempt  to  restore  his  sight  was  unsuccessful. 
He  toolc  up  his  abode  near  Dr.  Krapf  in  Konthal, 
and  died  October  4,  1876,  after  a  missionary  ser- 
vice of  twenty-nine  years.  Rebmann  translated 
Luke's  Gospel  into  Ki-Swahili,  and  compiled  also 
Ki-Nika  and  Ki-N}'asa  dictionaries  of  great  value. 
After  discovering  tlie  two  snow-capped  moun- 
tains,Kilima  Njaro  andKenia,a  map  was  prepared 
from  native  information,  showing  a  great  inland 
sea  two  months'  journey  from  the  coast,  which 
led  to  the  journeys  of  Burton,  Speke,  and  Grant, 
and  later  influenced  the  travels  of  Livingstone, 
and  the  expeditions  of  Stanley  and  Cameron. 

RECIFE.     See  Pernambuco. 

REEVE,  William:  Born  in  England,  1794; 
studied  at  Gosport;  sailed  April  22,  1816,  as  a 
missionary  of  the  LMS  to  India;  stationed  first 
at  Bellary.  In  January,  1821,  accompanying 
Mrs.  Reeve  to  Madras,  on  her  way  to  England  for 
health,  he  remained  in  Madras,  occupied  in  the 
revision  of  the  Kanarese  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. He  returned  in  October  to  Bellary,  leav- 
ing again  for  Madras  in  Januarv,  1824,  to  arrange 
for  printing  his  Kanarese  and  English  dictionary. 
The  same  year  he  sailed  for  England;  reembarked 
for  India  in  1827,  and  was  stationed  at  Bangalore. 
In  1831  he  went  to  Madras  to  superintend  the 
printing  of  his  Kanarese  and  English  dictionary, 
which,  being  completed,  he  returned  to  Banga- 
lore.    In  1834,  on  account  of  ill-health,  he  left 


Reformed   (Dutch  > 
Reforsued   (German) 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


61S 


with  his  family  for  England.     He  died  at  Bristol 
February  14,  1850. 

REFORMED  (Dutch)  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA, 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions:  As  early  as  1643 
missionary  work  was  carried  on  by  ministers  of 
this  body  among  the  Mohawk  Indians,  and  the 
interest  grew  with  the  years.  In  1816  the  Church 
united  with  the  Presbyterian  and  Associate 
Reformed  Churches  in  forming  the  United  Mis- 
sionary Society,  which  sent  missionaries  to  the 
Indians,  until  1826,  when  it  was  merged  in  the 
ABCFM.  In  1832  the  General  Synod  elected 
"The  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Reformed 
Protestant  Dutch  Church,"  which,  the  operating 
through  the  American  Board,  was  allowed  to 
conduct  its  missions  according  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical polity  of  the  Church.  It  continued  its  con- 
nection with  the  American  Board  until  1857, 
when  an  amicable  separation  took  place,  due  to 
no  dissatisfaction,  but  to  a  growing  conviction 
that  more  would  be  accomplished  if  the  two 
Boards  acted  independently.  In  the  same  year 
the  American  Board  transferred  to  this  Board 
the  mission  at  Amoy,  in  China,  and  the  Arcot 
Mission  in  India,  with  the  individual  missionaries 
composing  them.  The  contributions,  which  were 
in  1857  but  $10,076,  rose  the  next  year  to  $25,- 
034;  and  have  since  gone  on  increasing,  till  in 
1902-3  they  reached  the  sum  of  $158,895. 

Constitution  and  Organization:  The  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America  consists  of  27  members,  ministers  and 
laymen,  of  whom  at  least  one-half  shall  be  min- 
isters, chosen  by  the  General  Synod,  and  regu- 
larly incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of 
New  York.  Its  members  are  chosen  for  three 
years,  and  are  divided  into  three  classes,  so  that 
one-third  of  the  membership  is  elected  each  year. 
In  addition  to  the  regularly  constituted  Board, 
each  Classis  nominates  from  its  own  members  a 
missionary  agent,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
General  Synod,  for  the  purpose  of  advancing  the 
interests  of  foreign  missions  within  the  bounds  of 
the  Classis.  These  agents  are,  by  act  of  General 
Synod,  authorized  to  attend  any  or  all  meetings 
of  the  Board,  and  to  participate  in  its  proceedings. 
This  agency  serves  a  very  useful  purpose  as  a 
medium  of  communication  between  the  Board 
and  the  churches,  and  in  developing  and  fostering 
a  greater  interest  in  missions  throughout  the 
churches. 

In  1875  "The  Woman's  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America"  was 
organized.  In  1880  it  assumed  the  support  of 
the  work  of  the  Church  Board  for  women  and 
children  in  all  its  mission  fields,  including  the 
maintenance  of  several  seminaries  for  girls  in 
China,  India,  and  Japan.  Its  contributions  have 
steadily  increased,  and  have  usually  been  more 
than  sufficient  for  the  purpose  named.  In  1875 
it  received  $2,891;  in  1903,  $,50,911,  and  in  the 
twenty-eight  years  of  its  existence,  $631,691. 

Develojiinent  of  Foreign  Work:  The  foreign  mis- 
sions of  the  Pv,eformed  Church  have  been  six  in 
number,  of  which  five  are  now  maintained.  The 
earliest  mission  was  established  on  the  island  of 
Borneo  in  1836.  Four  missionaries,  with  their 
wives  and  an  unmarried  woman,  sailed  for  Borneo 
in  that  year.  Two  stations  were  established  at 
Sambas  and  Pontianak,  with  schools  and  preach- 
ing services  in  three  languages.  The  first  mission- 
aries were  joined  at  different  times  by  five  others, 
and  part  of  the  force  began  work  among  the 
Chinese  colonies  in  Borneo.     In  1844  two  of  the 


missionaries,  Messrs.  Pohlman  and  Doty,  were- 
transferred  to  the  more  promising  field  of  Amoy; 
others  were  obliged,  from  ill-health,  to  return- 
home,  and  the  mission  was  abandoned. 

China:  The  Mission  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
Amoy  was  the  first  in  that  field.  It  was  com- 
menced by  Rev.  David  Abeel,  in  1842,  when 
Amoy,  at  the  close  of  the  opium  war,  became  an 
open  port,  and  was  reenforced  in  1844  by  Messrs. 
Pohlman  and  Doty,  who  had  been  laboring  among 
the  Chinese  colonists  in  Borneo.  The  district 
occupied  by  it  is  about  60  miles  square,  and  has  a 
population  of  3,000,000.  In  this  district  are  four 
stations  and  forty-three  outstations  and  preach- 
ing places.  There  are  at  present  in  the  mission 
6  ordained  missionaries  and  one  unordained, 
and  16  women  (eleven  unmarried).  The  first 
church  was  organized  with  eleven  members  in 
1851,  and  there  are  now  (1903)  in  the  field  12' 
churches,  of  which  all  are  practically  self-support- 
ing, with  a  total  of  1,389  communicants.  The 
contributions  from  these  churches  during  the 
year  amounted  to  $7,051  Mexican. 

Medical  and  educational  work  is  carried  on. 
During  the  year  1889  a  hospital  was  built  in  the 
station  of  Sio-ke.  Connected  with  the  hospital 
force  is  a  native  helper,  and  to  all  who  come  for 
treatment  and  medicine  the  Gospel  is  preached. 
In  1898,  Hope  Hospital  and  the  Netherlands 
Women's  Hospital  were  opened  at  Amoy,  the 
latter  built  and  supported  by  friends  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, but'  conducted  by  the  Mission.  The 
educational  work  of  the  Mission  is  represented  by 
13  day  schools  with  298  scholars,  a  Bible  school 
where  native  women  are  fitted  to  become  Bible- 
women,  3  seminaries,  one  male  and  two  female, 
and  a  union  theological  seminary,  which  is  carried 
on  by  the  American  Reformed  and  English  Pres- 
byterian Missions  conjointly. 

India:  The  Arcot  Mission  was  organized  in  1853 
by  Revs.  Henry  M.,  William  W.,  and  Joseph 
Scudder,  three  sons  of  Rev.  John  Scudder,  M.D., 
one  of  the  pioneers  of  American  missions  among 
the  Tamils.  The  Mission  occupies  chiefly  the 
Arcot  districts  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  with  an 
area  of  8,333  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
about  2,400,000,  nearly  equally  divided  between 
Tamils  and  "Telugus.  The  people  are  divided  into 
three  general  classes  or  castes,  and  the  intense 
caste  feeling  forms  one  of  the  great  difficulties 
of  the  mission  work.  The  Brahmans,  altho  but  4 
per  cent,  of  the  population,  are  by  far  the  most 
influential  section.  The  Sudras  form  75  per 
cent,  of  the  population  and  are  virtually  the 
people.  They  are,  like  the  Brahmans,  tena- 
cious caste-holders.  The  Pariahs,  or  outcastes, 
form  20  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  are  in  a, 
most  pitiable  condition,  being  little  more  than 
slaves.  Much  of  the  success  of  mission  effort  has 
been  among  this  class. 

The  mission  has  8  stations  and  163  outstations. 
These  outstations  are  placed  under  the  care  of 
native  pastors  and  catechists,  who  also  preach 
in  the  surrounding  villages.  The  catechists  are 
unordained  helpers,  but  perform  the  same  labors 
as  a  pastor,  with  the  exception  of  administering 
the  offices  of  the  Church.  There  are  now  on  the 
field  9  ordained  missionaries,  3  of  whom  are  phy- 
sicians, and  1  unordained,  together  with  16  women  ■ 
(6  unmarried).  The  number  of  churches  is  20, 
and  of  communicants,  2,511,  of  which  number 
105  were  received  last  year.  There  are  in  the 
Mission  8  boarding  schools  (4  male  and  4  female), 
18  caste  girls'  schools,  and  171  day  schools. 


617 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Reformed    (Dntcli> 
Reformed    (German) 


There  is  also  at  Palman^r  a  theological  semi- 
nary, opened  March,  1888,  for  which  a  special 
endowment  fund  of  about  $50,000  was  raised  by 
Rev.  Jacob  Chamberlain,  D.D.,  while  in  the 
United  States  in  1887.  The  Mission  has  also  a 
hospital  and  dispensary  at  Ranipet,  near  Arcot, 
and  the  Mary  Tabor  Schell  Hospital  for 
Women,  at  Vellore.  At  Vellore  is  also  the  Eliza- 
beth R.  Voorhees  College,  with  more  than  1,000 
students. 

A  mission  to  Japan  was  begun  in  1859,  when 
Rev.  G.  F.  Verbeclv  and  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown,  with 
Dr.  D.  B.  Simmons,  sailed  for  that  Empire.  Mr. 
Verbeck  went  to  Nagasaki,  and  Dr.  Brown  to 
Kanagawa,  and  later  to  Yokohama.  In  1889 
the  Mission  was  divided  into  the  North  Japan 
Mission,  having  its  center  at  Tokio- Yokohama, 
and  the  South  Japan  Mission,  with  its  head- 
quarters at  Nagasaki. 

The  North  Japan  Mission  has  a  force  of  20  mis- 
sionaries, six  ordained  men  and  one  unordained; 
seven  married  and  six  unmarried  women.  It 
occupies  five  principal  stations:  Yokohama, 
Tokio,  Nagano,  Morioka,  and  Aomori,  with  24 
outstations  and  preaching-places.  Many  churches 
have  been  gathered  and  organized,  with  thou- 
sands of  communicants,  which  have  no  longer  anj' 
formal  connection  with  the  Mission,  and  of  which 
no  report  can  be  made.  The  churches  or  con- 
gregations at  present  directly  under  its  care  are 
two,  with  498  communicants,  whose  contribu- 
tions, in  1901,  amounted  to  $1,059.  Its  principal 
institutions  are  the  Ferris  Seminary  at  Yoko- 
hama, a  boarding  school  for  girls,  with  96  pupils, 
and  the  Meiji  Gakuin  at  Tokio,  the  support  and 
conduct  of  which  it  shares  with  the  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
This  institution  has  an  academical  department 
with  168  students  and  a  theological  department 
with  12. 

The  South  Japan  Mission  has  its  field  in  the 
large  southern  island  of  Kiushiu.  Eleven  mis- 
sionaries are  connected  with  it,  five  ordained  men, 
two  married  and  four  unmarried  women.  It 
occupies  four  stations:  Nagasaki,  Saga,  Kago- 
shima,  and  Kumamoto.  It  has  4  churches  under 
its  care,  with  339  communicants,  whose  contribu- 
tions amounted  to  $990.  At  Nagasaki  are 
located  the  Steele  College  for  boys  and  young  men, 
having  100  students,  and  the  Sturges  Seminary 
for  girls,  with  54  students. 

The  Arabian  Mission  was  established  as  an 
independent  and  undenominational  Mission  in 
1889  for  special  work  among  Mohammedans.  It 
was  adopted  by  the  Reformed  Church  in  1894. 
Its  stations,  on  the  wesi  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
are  three:  Busrah,  Bahrein,  and  Muscat,  with  two 
outstations  at  Amara  and  Nasariyeh.  In  all  the 
territory  occupied  by  it  there  is  no  other  mission. 
It  has  access  to  a  population  estimated  at  1,600,- 
000.  Its  missionaries  are  13,  seven  men,  of 
whom  two  are  physicians  and  one  unordained; 
four  married  women,  of  wliom  two  are  physicians, 
and  two  unmarried.  During  the  year  1902  were 
sold  4,059  Bibles,  Testaments,  and  Scripture  por- 
tions, in  seventeen  different  languages;  3,362  were 
sold  to  Mohammedans.  The  Mason  Memorial 
Hospital  at  Bahrein,  for  which  a  donation  of 
$6,000  was  received  in  1901,  was  completed  in 
1902,  and  promises  to  be  an  efficient  aid  in  the 
work  of  the  Mission. 

It  was  doubtless  the  original  intention  of  the 
Reformed  Church,  as  expressed  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  its  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  that  Classes 


or  ecclesiastical  bodies  similar  to  those  in  the 
United  States,  and  having  organic  relation  to  the 
Synod,  should  be  organized  at  as  early  a  date  as 
possible  in  each  of  its  mission  fields.  This  pur- 
pose has  been  carried  out  only  in  the  Arcot  Mis- 
sion in  India.  The  Classis  of  Arcot  was  organized 
in  1854.  The  attempt  to  secure  a  similar  organ- 
ization at  Amoy  was  made  in  1857.  It  was  met, 
however,  with  earnest  remonstrance  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  mission,  who  were  closely  associated 
in  sympathies  and  labors  with  the  missionaries  of 
the  English  Presbyterian  Church.  Their  view 
finally  prevailed,  and  the  missionaries  of  both 
churches,  together  with  their  native  pastors  and 
elders,  now  form  a  single  ecclesiastical  body. 

In  1876  the  union  of  the  missionaries  of  the 
Reformed  Church  in  Japan  with  those  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland  and  the 
Presbyterian  Church  (North)  of  the  United 
States  in  the  "Council  of  United  Missions,"  and 
the  formation  of  the  "United  Church  of  Christ  in 
Japan,"  embracing  the  churches  organized  under 
these  missions,  was  approved  by  the  Synod. 

In  1886  the  General  Synod  formally  approved 
the  stand  taken  by  its  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
"on  the  important  subjects  of  Union  and  Coopera- 
tion in  Foreign  Missions,  etc.,"  and  "permitted 
and  advised"  the  Classis  of  Arcot  "to  initiate 
such  measures  as  shall  tend  to  bind  together  the 
churches  of  the  Presbyterian  polity  in  India." 
In  September,  1902,  the  "Synod  of  the  South 
Indian  United  Church"  was  constituted,  by  the 
union  of  the  Classis  of  Arcot,  with  the  Madras 
Presbytery  of  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land. 

The  Reformed  Church,  therefore,  occupies 
advanced  ground  in  relation  to  the  principle  of 
cooperation  in  mission  work,  and  the  establish- 
ment in  each  mission  field  of  a  national,  self- 
governing,  self-supporting,  and  self-propagating 
cliurch,  "that  shall  grow  from  its  own  root." 

OuG.A-\;  The  Mission  Field,  monthly;  The  Mission  Gleaner 
(Woman's  Board),  monthly;  Neglected  Arabia  (Arabian 
Mission),  quarterly. 

REFORMED  (German)  CHURCH  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES;  Foreign  Missions  of  the:  The 

Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States  was 
organized  on  September  29,  1838,  at  Lancaster, 
Pa.  The  suggestion  came  from  the  Home  Mis- 
sionary Society,  and  met  with  a  most  cordial 
response. 

From  1840  to  1865  the  Board  had  no  foreign 
missionary  of  its  own,  but  was  a  regular  con- 
tributor to  the  ABCFM  toward  the  support  of 
Rev.  Benjamin  Schneider,  D.D.,  missionary  in 
Turkey. 

Beginning  with  1860,  the  Synod  became  dis- 
satisfied with  this  method,  and  in  1865  it  decided 
to  establish  its  own  mission,  applying  its  funds  to 
tlie  support  of  the  India  Mission,  and  to  the  work 
among  the  Winnebago  Indians  in  Wisconsin.  In 
the  year  1873  the  Board  was  reorganized,  and 
laid  the  foundation  for  its  present  flourishing 
mission  in  Japan. 

Tlie  first  missionaries,  the  Rev.  A.  D.  Gring 
and  his  wife,  settled  in  Yokohama  in  1879,  but  it 
was  thought  best  to  remove  to  Tokio,  and  there, 
in  May,  1884,  he  organized  the  first  church. 
Other  fields  of  labor  in  Japan  have  been  Fuku- 
shima,  Sendai,  North  and  South  Miyagi,  Yama- 
gata  and  Akita.  The  report  (190i)  shows  19 
missionaries  in  charge  of  about  50  places,  where 
work  is  conducted  in  the  different  fields,  assisted 


Reformed  Presbyterian 
Regions  Beyond 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


ei8 


by  10  ordained  ministers  and  25  evangelists. 
The  church  membership  was  2,142,  and  there 
were  40  schools,  with  130  teachers  and  1,420 
pupils.  The  Mission  suffered  a  serious  loss  in  the 
burning  of  the  girls'  school  building  at  Sendai, 
but  the  result  has  been  enlargement  rather  than 
retrenchment.  The  Industrial  Home  at  Sendai 
is  another  important  feature  in  the  work. 

In  1899  the  Board  commenced  work  in  China, 
sending  out  Rev.  Mr.  Hoy  and,  later.  Rev. 
Frederick  Cromer  to  Yo-chow,  in  the  province  of 
Hu-nan.  A  medical  missionary  and  his  wife,  also 
a  physician,  have  been  more  recently  appointed. 

Auxiliary  to  the  Foreign  Mission  Board  is  the 
Woman's  Missionary  Society,  General  Synod  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S.,  with  head- 
quarters at  Tiffin,  Ohio. 

REFORMED  PRESBYTERIAN  (Covenanter) 
CHURCH  IN  NORTH  AMERICA;  Foreign  Mis- 
sions of  the:  At  a  meeting  of  the  Synod  of  the 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  North  America 
held  in  1818,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  in- 
quire into  the  expediency  of  establishing  a  foreign 
mission.  Nothing  was  accomplished  then,  how- 
ever, and  it  was  not  until  1841  that  the  question 
was  seriously  studied,  and  plans  for  foreign  work 
proposed.  In  1843  a  committee  was  chosen  to 
select  a  field  for  cultivation,  and  the  island  of  St. 
Thomas,  in  the  West  Indies,  was  chosen.  In 
1864  this  spot  was  abandoned  in  favor  of  Haiti, 
and  a  mission  commenced  in  1847,  which,  how- 
ever, was  discontinued  in  1849; 

At  a  meeting  of  Synod,  held  in  1856,  interest 
in  missions  was  revived,  and  it  was  resolved  to 
recommence  foreign  work.  Syria  was  chosen  as 
the  field  of  operations.  The  Rev.  R.  J.  Dodds 
and  Joseph  Beattie  were  chosen  missionaries,  and 
with  their  families  sailed  for  Syria  in  October, 
1856.  After  spending  some  time  in  Damascus 
and  Zahleh,  Latakia,  on  the  Mediterranean,  was 
selected  in  October,  1859,  where  the  mission  was 
permanently  established. 

In  1867,  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland  having  abandoned  its  mission  to  Alep- 
po, Dr.  R.  J.  Dodds  took  charge  of  it  until  his 
death  in  1870.  The  work  was  extended  to 
Suedieh  on  the  River  Orontes  in  1875,  to  Tarsus, 
in  Cilicia,  in  1882,  and  later  to  Mersine.  The 
Latakia  Mission  has  also  undertaken  work  on  the 
island  of  Cyprus.  Within  recent  years  a  Chinese 
mission  has  been  in  progress  in  Oakland,  Cal., 
and  Indian  missions  have  been  established  at 
several  points  in  the  United  States,  and  more 
recently  a  station  has  been  opened  at  Te-tsing- 
chau  (Tak-hing-chau),  in  the  western  part  of  the 
province  of  Kwang-tung,  China. 

The  work  in  Syria  has  been  chiefly  among  the 
Nusairiyeh,  who,  while  nominally  Muslims,  are 
really  a  pagan  people.  They  are  the  lineal 
descendants  in  race  and  religion  of  the  Canaanites 
who  fled  before  Joshua,  and  are  as  yet  almost 
absolutel)'  inaccessible  to  any  Christian  influence. 
Holding  to  their  ancient  faith  with  a  pertinacity 
that  is  wonderful,  yet  compelled  by  a  relentless 
oppression  to  cover  their  belief  under  the  forms  of 
a  hated  religion,  they  have  developed  a  power  of 
deceit  and  dissimulation  probably  not  equalled 
in  the  history  of  any  race.  They  have  repelled, 
in  their  gloomy  isolation,  all  Christian  workers, 
except  the  sturdy  Scotch  Covenanters,  who,  with 
persistency  not  less  dogged  than  their  own,  but 
with  a  faith  wliich  lays  hold  on  the  power  of  the 
highest,  have  commenced  their  attack 

fhc  missionary  force  consists  (1900)  of  20  mis- 


sionaries, 48  native  workers,  in  4  stations  and  9 
outstations,  with  310  communicants,  and  730 
pupils  in  14  schools.  In  China  there  are  (1903) 
8  missionaries  (2  physicians).  The  work  is  yet 
in  its  infancy. 

REGIONS     BEYOND     MISSIONARY    ITNIOir 

( Formerly  known  as  the  East  London  Institute  for 
Home  and  Foreign  Missions) :  In  1873  the  Rev. 
H.  Grattan  Guinness,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister  in 
London,  organized  the  East  London  Institute  for 
Home  and  Foreign  Missions,  for  the  special  pur- 
pose of  training  for  missionary  service  those  anx- 
ious to  enter  it,  but  unable  to  do  so  for  lack  of 
means.  An  old-fashioned  house  on  Stepney 
Green  was  secured,  and  during  the  first  year  32 
students  were  received.  A  second  house  was 
taken,  and  as  the  needs  increased  a  third  was 
added,  as  also  a  wing  to  the  original  building, 
known  as  "Harley  House."  From  the  begin- 
ning the  enterprise  has  been  strictly  undenomina- 
tional, its  property  vested  in  a  board  of  trustees 
representing  different  Christian  bodies,  and  has 
had  the  cordial  support  and  counsel  of  such  men 
as  Rev.  F.  B.  Meyer,  G.  E.  Morgan,  Esq.,  of  The 
Christian;  George  Hanson,  D.D.,  R.  Wright  Hay, 
and  others.  More  than  eleven  hundred  men  and 
women  have  had  a  longer  or  shorter  training  in 
this  institute,  and  have  gone  to  the  foreign  field 
in  connection  with  about  forty  missionary 
societies,  or  as  independent,  self-sustaining  mis- 
sionaries. They  have  represented  various  nation- 
alities :  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and  American, 
French,  German,  Italian,  Spanish,  Swedish, 
Danish,  Russian,  Bulgarian,  Syrian,  Egyptian, 
Kaffir,  Negro,  Hindu,  Parsee,  Kurd,  and  He- 
brew. They  have  gone  into  all  parts  of  the 
world:  to  China,  India,  Syria,  Armenia,  Egypt; 
to  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy;  to  the  east  and 
west  coasts  of  Africa,  Natal  and  Cape  Colony;  to 
Prince  Edward's  Island,  Cape  Breton,  Canada, 
and  the  Western  States  of  America;  to  the  West 
Indies,  Brazil,  and  the  Argentine  Republic; 
Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

In  addition  to  this  foreign  work,  a  large  home- 
mission  work  is  carried  on  in  the  East  London 
district  of  Bromley,  where  students  and  deacon- 
esses receive  practical  training  in  evangelistic  and 
medical  mission  work,  and  a  large  amount  of 
helpful  influence  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
neglected  masses  of  the  great  city. 

For  some  years  the  attention  of  Dr.  and  Mrs. 
Guinness  was  confined  to  the  institute,  but  with 
the  opening  up  of  the  Congo  there  arose  an 
earnest  desire  to  send  the  Gospel  into  the  interior 
far  beyond  the  points  upon  the  coast  thenoccupied. 
Rev.  A.  Tilly,  of  Cardiff,  one  of  the  directors  of 
the  BMS,  turned  to  Dr.  Guinness  and  invited  the 
cooperation  of  the  institute  in  an  attempt  to  send 
a  few  evangelists  right  into  the  interior.  Messrs. 
Cory,  of  Cardiff,  and  Irwine,  of  Liverpool,  prom- 
ised assistance,  and  upon  the  publication  of 
Stanley's  letters,  in  the  fall  of  1877,  it  was  decided 
to  attempt  an  entrance  into  Africa  by  the  new 
route,  the  friends  above  named  forming  them- 
selves into  a  committee  for  the  conduct  of  the 
enterprise,  to  which  was  given  the  title,  The  Liv- 
ingstone Inland  Mission.  The  Mission  was  to  be 
evangelical,  but  undenominational,  and  it  was 
hoped  at  first  that  it  might  be  made  self-support- 
ing; but  this  idea  was  soon  relinquished  by  the 
committee.  Funds  to  start  with  having  been 
contributed  chiefly  by  the  committee,  volunteers 
were  furnished  by  the  Institute.  Mr.  Tilly  acted 
as  Secretary  for  the  first  three  years,  but  in  1880 


ei9 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Reformed  Presbyterian 
Regions  Beyond 


the  work  had  so  increased  as  to  require  more  time 
than  he  could  spare  from  his  pastoral  duties,  and 
Dr.  and  Mrs.  Guinness  were  aslved  to  undertake 
the  sole  responsibility  of  the  Mission  and  its  sup- 
port as  a  branch  of  the  East  London  Institute, 
the  committee  to  resign  all  share  in  its  manage- 
ment, and  act  only  as  an  advisory  council.  Dr. 
and  Mrs.  Guinness  assented  to  this  plan,  and  the 
Mission  was  thus  conducted  for  several  years. 

In  1883  the  ABMU  turned  its  attention  to  the 
Congo,  and  overtures  were  made  to  it  by  the 
Institute  to  take  up  the  work,  which  was  already 
well  established,  and  leave  the  English  organi- 
zation free  to  go  to  the  "regions  beyond."  The 
policy  of  the  ABMU  was  one  of  concentration 
and  radiation  from  a  center,  while  the  idea  upon 
which  the  Livingstone  Inland  Mission  was  organ- 
ized was  a  chain  of  stations  to  reach  far  into  the 
interior.  The  Union  felt  that  the  Livingstone 
Mission,  with  its  extreme  stations,  800  miles 
apart,  would  give  them  room  enough  and  to 
spare  for  several  years  to  come,  and  they  were 
unwilling  to  extend  operations  beyond  the 
equator.  The  directors  of  the  Institute,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  constantly  asl-cing  what  of  the 
region  beyond,  with  its  tens  of  millions  of  people 
yet  to  be  evangelized?  And  at  length,  in  1888, 
they  resolved  to  take  up  the  African  work  again, 
extending  it  farther  up  the  Congo  and  along  the 
tributary  rivers.  Thus  the  Congo  Balolo  Mission 
was  formed  to  be  in  perfect  harmony  with,  but 
independent  of,  the  ABMU. 

The  Swedish  missionaries,  when  the  mission 
passed  under  American  management,  formed  a 
separate  society  and  continued  work  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  cataract  of  the  Congo,  one  of 
their  number,  Nils  Westlind,  translating  the 
entire  New  Testament  into  the  dialect  used  there. 

In  1886  Dr.  Harry  Guinness  became  associated 
with  his  father  and  mother  in  the  work  of  the 
Institute,  and  in  1891  sailed  for  the  Congo  to 
study  the  conditions  and  possibilities  of  mis- 
sionary service  in  Central  Africa.  Subsequently 
he  turned  his  attention  to  Central  and  South 
America.  Gradually  the  scope  of  the  Society's 
work  enlarged  until  in  1899  it  assumed  the  name 
of  "The  Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union,"  by 
which  it  is  now  known;  the  central  thought  being 
to  reach  lands  beyond  those  already  within  the 
sphere  of  missionary  labor.  Dr.  Guinness  visited 
Panama,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chile, 
crossed  the  Andes  and  descended  the  Amazon. 
The  result  was  the  establishment  of  mission 
work  at  Cuzco,  in  Peru,  and  in  Argentina.  The 
last  field  occupied  by  the  Union  is  in  India, 
where  it  commenced  work  in  1899  in  Behar,  one 
of  the  darkest  and  most  needy  sections  of  the 
empire. 

Livingstone  Inland  Mission:  The  pioneer  of  this 
mission,  Mr.  Henry  Craven,  with  a  Danish  sailor, 
who  was  quickly  recalled  as  unworthy,  reached 
Banana,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Congo,  in  February, 
1878.  A  passage  in  a  trading  vessel  was  secured 
to  Boma,  70  miles  up  the  river,  and  by  canoe  to 
Yellala  Falls,  30  miles  farther.  After  the  usual 
African  experience  a  landing  stage  was  built  at 
Matadi,  at  the  end  of  the  lower  river  navigation, 
and  a  station  formed  at  Pala  Vala,  15  miles 
inland  on  a  plateau  1,600  feet  above  the  sea, 
where  the  population  were,  in  the  main,  friendly. 
Two  associates  joined  the  mission  in  the  summer, 
and  seven  more  by  the  end  of  the  year,  and  a  sta- 
tion was  formed  at  Bansa  Manteka.  The  ques- 
tion of  transportation  became   a  most  difficult 


one.  The  natives  were  unreliable,  the  Kroo-men 
from  Sierra  Leone  expensive.  A  well-equipped 
party  from  England  arrived  in  1880  to  find  that 
several  of  the  company  that  preceded  them  had 
died;  but  they  pressed  on  toward  Stanley  Pool. 
In  1881  the  little  steam-launch  "  Living.stone" 
was  sent  out  with  another  band  of  volunteers. 
The  vicissitudes  of  the  work,  the  sickness  of  so 
many,  and  the  loss  by  death  of  five,  led  to  doubts 
as  to  the  wisdom  of  continuing  the  attempt. 
The  experience  of  other  societies,  however, 
encouraged  them,  and  new  stations  were  formed 
until,  when  in  1884  the  mission  was  transferred  to 
the  ABMU,  seven  stations  were  in  working  order: 
Mukimocka,  Palabala,  Bansa  Manteka,  Mukim- 
bunga,  Lukunga,  Leopoldville,  and  Equatorville. 
The  "Henry  Reed"  was  afloat  on  the  Upper 
Congo,  and  twenty  missionaries,  four  of  them 
married,  formed  the  working  staff  of  the  mission. 

Since  the  foundation  of  the  work  nearly  fifty 
had  volunteered  for  it  and  had  been  sent  out. 
A  few  proved  unfit  and  were  recalled,  some  were 
broken  in  health,  and  eleven  had  given  up  their 
lives  on  the  Congo. 

Congo  Balolo  Mission:  Until  early  in  the  19th 
century,  the  dwellers  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Upper  Congo  were  peaceful  members  of  the 
Bantu  race.  At  that  time  a  great  nation  came 
traveling  westward,  and  took  possession  of  the 
left  bank  of  the  stream,  turning  out  the  former 
occupants  and  bringing  in  a  new  language,  cus- 
toms and  people.  The  powerful  invaders  were 
significantly  called  Balolo,  Ironpeople,  or  the 
strong  tribe.  The  country  which  tlie  invaders 
conquered,  and  have  since  kept  and  dwelt  in,  is 
nearly  five  times  as  large  as  England,  and  fills  the 
horseshoe  bend  of  the  Congo — extending  from 
the  Lomami  in  the  east  to  Lalces  Mantumba  and 
Leopold  on  the  west,  and  from  Lopori  on  the 
north  to  tlie  headwaters  of  the  Bosira  and  Jaupa 
on  the  south. 

In  1888  Mr.  John  MoKittrick,  of  the  Living- 
stone Mission,  returned  to  England  on  furlough 
from  the  advanced  outpost  of  the  mission.  Equa- 
tor Station,  with  an  intense  interest  in  the  Balolo, 
and  also  a  living  specimen  of  the  race,  a  Balolo  boy 
named  Bompole.  The  result  of  this  apparently 
accidental  visit  was  the  organization  of  the 
Balolo  mission.  Wlien  the  pioneer  party  for  the 
new  field  was  ready  to  sail  a  farewell  meeting  was 
held  at  Exeter  Hall,  in  March,  1889.  Many 
speeches  were  made — one  at  least  unexpected 
and  unpremeditated.  It  was  spoken  by  Bom- 
pole's  dark  lips,  and  in  his  high,  shrill  voice. 
Hundreds  of  listeners  in  the  great  haU  were 
hushed  into  silence  to  hear  the  few  and  ignorant 
words  framed  into  broken  sentences,  for  Bom- 
pole's  vocabulary  was  very  limited,  and  of  gram- 
mar he  knew  nothing.  The  little  lad  said  his 
people  "wanted  Gospel,"  and  then  asked,  "Isn't 
it  a  shame — sliame  to  keep  Gospel  to  yourself? 
Not  meant  for  English  only!  Isn't  it  a  shame? 
My  people  wanting  gospel!  Isn't  it — isn't  it  a 
shame?"  Was  ever  the  cause  of  foreign  missions 
more  forciblv  put?  The  mission  band  sailed 
from  England  on  the  18th  of  April,  1889,  and 
reached  its  destination  on  the  Lulonga  River  in 
the  middle  of  August— four  months  only  to  ac- 
complish what  ten  years  before  could  not  have 
been  done  at  all!  How  different  the  experience 
of  this  party  from  that  of  the  pioneers  of  the 
Livingstone  Mission  I  The  hearty  cooperation 
of  the  missionaries  already  in  the  field  not  only 
facilitated   the    journey,    but    also    averted   the 


Regions  Beyond 
Relief  Work 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


danger  from  exposure  and  inexperience  to  which 
the  earlier  workers  in  so  many  cases  had  suc- 
cumbed. No  fatal  illness  occurred  on  the  jour- 
ney, and  the  missionaries  have  since  their  arrival 
continued  in  good  health.  Early  in  1890  the 
second  party  arrived,  and  with  them  the  Mission's 
own  steam-launch,  the  "Pioneer,"  which  had 
been  built  in  London,  and  was  to  be  recon- 
structed as  the  "Henry  Reed"  had  been,  at 
Stanley  Pool.  This  was  followed  in  1902  by  the 
"Livingstone,"  a  much  finer  boat  than  its  pred- 
ecessor. Of  the  96  missionaries  who,  in  the 
thirteen  years,  1889-1902,  entered  the  service  of 
'  this  mission,  30  have  died,  35  remain  on  the  mis- 
sion staff,  6  are  in  the  home  work,  8  have  joined 
other  missions,  9  broke  down  in  health  and  re- 
tired, and  8  proved  unsatisfactory.  The  results 
in  the  field  have  not  been  as  apparent  as  in  some 
other  sections,  notably  the  cataract  region,  where 
the  ABMU  and  the  Swedes  are  working;  but 
later  reports  show  spiritual  awakening,  and 
there  are  classes  of  enquirers  numbering  100.  In 
the  schools  there  are  about  1,500  children,  and  to 
tliese  the  missionaries  look  for  the  best  fruit. 

Argentina  and  Peru:  The  work  of  the  Regions 
Beyond  Missionary  Union  in  South  America  was 
the  result  of  the  visit  to  that  continent  of  Dr. 
Harry  Guinness,  after  his  visit  to  Africa.  There 
seems  to  have  been  no  definite  enterprise,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Congo-Balolo  Mission,  but  a  num- 
ber of  those  who  had  graduated  at  Harley  House 
went  out  independentl)^,  and  afterward  were 
gathered  into  two  missions  in  Argentina  and 
Peru,  tho  without  any  very  complete  organiza- 
tion. In  Argentina,  work,  partly  evangelistic, 
partly  educational,  is  carried  on  at  Buenos  Aires, 
Las  Flores,  Coronel  Suarey,  and  Tres  Arroyos, 
in  each  case  under  the  care  of  a  missionary  and 
his  wife,  with  the  assistance  of  native  evan- 
gelists and  teachers.  The  schools  are  on  the  pay 
system  and  the  income  contributes  materially 
toward  the  expense  of  the  mission  work,  the 
RBMU  meeting  deficiencies.  In  Buenos  Aires 
a  group  of  nurses  has  been  established,  especially 
for  maternity  work,  and  access  being  thus  gained 
to  families,  a  wider  influence  is  secured.  Through- 
out the  whole  of  Argentina  the  hearts  of  the 
people  are  becoming  more  open  to  spiritual 
instruction.  School  work  may  not  be  profitable 
from  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  but  is  of  great 
value  for  its  eifeot  upon  the  parents,  as  well  as  the 
children. 

In  Peru  the  work  was  commenced  in  1893  by 
two  men,  Messrs.  Jarrett  and  Peters,  who  secured 
an  entrance  into  Cuzco  despite  the  most  bitter 
opposition.  The  clergy  daily  preached  against 
them  in  all  the  churches,  the  people  passed  them 
with  averted  glance,  and  every  door  was  closed 
at  their  approach.  Their  assassination  was 
advocated  by  some,  and  at  last  they  were  com- 
pelled to  leave  (1895).  Another  attempt  the 
next  year  was  unsuccessful,  but  in  1897  they 
established  themselves.  Opening  a  British  art- 
store  as  the  reason  for  their  residence,  and  sup- 
porting themselves  partly  by  the  sale  of  photo- 
graphs, they  succeeded  in  gaining  the  confidence 
of  the  people  until  after  six  years  they  were  wel- 
comed in  every  part  of  the  city,  and  were  free  to 
speak  the  Gospel  message  wherever  they  chose. 
Two  of  the  missionaries,  Mr.  Newell  and  Mr. 
Peters,  were  even  invited  to  give  instruction  in 
athletics  and  drawing  in  the  Government  schools. 
In  February,  1903,  the  first  evangelical  church 
in  the   interior   of   Peru   was   organized   by   Mr. 


Jarrett  at  Cuzco.  Mr.  Peters  has  been  made  a 
citizen  of  Cuzco  and  been  elected  a  member  of  the 
municipality — a  striking  illustration  of  the- 
change  that  is  taking  place  in  more  than  one- 
South  American  community. 

REHOBOTH:  A  town  in  German  Southwest 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Herero  country,  about  170- 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Swakopmund.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  hot  springs.  Station  of  the  Rhenish 
Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one 
of  them  with  his  wife ;  6  native  workers,  1  Sunday 
school,  2  day  schools,  and  1,209  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  484  are  communicants. 

RELIEF  WORK  OF  MISSIONS  in  Public 
Calamities:  In  the  limits  prescribed,  it  wUl  be 
impossible  to  give  any  history  or  statistics  of 
missionary  relief  work.  This  article  will  treat 
only  the  necessity,  principles  and  wider  results 
of  such  effect. 

/.  Necessity:  The  object  of  Christian  Missions, 
is  to  extend  the  spirit  and  teaching  of  Christ. 
He  taught  by  act  as  much  as  by  word.  He  went- 
about  doing  good.  When  John  the  Baptist,  in 
prison,  sent  for  proofs  of  Jesus'  Messiahship,  he 
was  referred  to  the  acts  of  mercy  which  the 
Christ  was  doing.  Jesus  said  that  He  would 
recognize  His  followers  at  the  day  of  judgment 
by  their  treatment  of  the  hungry,  naked,  sick  and 
homeless.  Works  of  mercy,  considered  meri- 
torious even  under  Mohammedan  and  heathen 
systems,  are  of  the  essence  of  Christianity.  It 
is  the  wiser  and  deeper,  tho  often  unconscious, 
working  of  the  spirit  of  Jesus  that  has  differen- 
tiated Christendom,  through  sentiments,  in- 
stitutions and  laws  for  the  care  of  the  orphan, 
the  blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  sick,  insane, 
and  poor,  and  for  the  humane  treatment  of  eveir 
the  lower  animals.  No  one  who  is  callous  to 
suffering  or  slack  in  its  relief  is  a  fit  representative 
of  civilization,  still  less  a  worthy  herald  of  the 
Good  News.  The  necessity,  therefore,  of  mis- 
sionaries engaging  in  relief  work  in  times  of  great 
public  calamity  does  not  admit  of  argument. 
They  are  under  even  greater  obligation  to  such 
service  than  are  ministers  and  churches  in  the 
homeland.  For  the  missionary  is  often  the  only 
one  on  the  ground  with  knowledge,  ability  and 
character  enough  to  cope  with  the  situation.  The 
wealth  and  sympathy  of  Christendom  would 
have  been  powerless  to  ameliorate  the  sufferings 
of  the  survivors  of  the  Armenian  massacres- 
but  for  the  American  missionaries  who  stood 
at  their  posts  during  those  awful  years,  and  with 
wisdom,  courage  and  fidelity  acted  as  the 
almoners  of  $2,000,000  of  relief  funds  from 
Europe  and  America.  Referring  to  this  service, 
at  the  time  when  all  the  powers  of  Europe  have 
failed  to  fulfil  their  treaty  obligations  to  protect 
the  Christian  subjects  of  Turlcey,  Sir  Philip- 
Currie,  British  Ambassador  at  Constantinople, 
declared:  "The  American  Mission,  through  its 
missionaries,  furnishes  the  only  oasis  in  the 
great  desert  of  calamity  that  marks  this  land." 
Another  ground  of  the  necessity  for  missionaries 
doing  relief  work  is  revealed  in  the  modest 
remark  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Peet  of  Constantinople, 
Treasurer  of  the  Turkish  Missions  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board.  He  says :  "One  good  result  of  the 
relief  work  at  least  was  that  it  made  life  endur- 
able for  our  missionaries  during  those  awful 
years.  I  tell  you  we  could  not  have  lived  there 
if  we  had  not  been  engaged  in  that  sort  of  work." 
It  may,  therefore,  be  concluded  that  there  is  on 


621 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Regions   Beyond 
Relief  Work 


the  part  of  missionaries,  officers  of  boards,  and 
the  Christian  public,  a  firm  and  glad  acceptance 
of  the  proposition  that  philanthropy  is  always  a 
legitimate  feature  of  missions,  and  that  in  seasons 
of  acute  and  wide-spread  distress,  through 
famine,  flood  or  earthquake,  through  pestilence 
or  war,  relief  work  may  rightly,  for  the  time, 
absorb  the  strength  of  an  individual  or  even  of 
a  whole  mission,  to  the  apparent  detriment  of 
the  regular  literary,  educational  or  even  evan- 
gelistic forms  of  service. 

//.  Principles  Governing  Mission  Relief.  1. 
Fidelity:  It  goes  without  saying  that  funds 
placed  in  the  hands  of  missionaries  for  relief 
should  be  not  only  sacredly  guarded,  but  also 
applied  in  accordance  with  the  exact  wishes  of 
the  donors.  It  is  a  great  tribute  to  the  integrity 
of  missionaries  the  world  over  that,  so  far  as  the 
writer's  knowledge  goes,  no  questions  are  raised 
as  to  their  fidelity  in  handling  the  vast  sums  of 
money  that  from  time  to  time  are  thrust  into 
their  hands.  This  is  the  more  striking  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  relief  work  is  with  them  a  self- 
imposed  task,  that  they  are  almost  invariably 
people  with  no  support  except  a  small  living 
salary  paid  them  for  other  less  arduous  services, 
and  that  they  are  under  no  bonds,  nor  any 
supervision  in  the  management  of  the  trust 
committed  to  them.  Because  of  the  confidence 
reposed  in  them,  and  as  a  justification  of  its  con- 
tinuance, missionaries  should  always,  from  the 
outset  of  any  relief  effort,  keep  exact  accounts 
of  all  moneys  received  and  expended,  and  render 
these  accounts,  duly  audited,  to  the  boards,  com- 
mittees, periodicals,  or  individuals  through 
whom  the  funds  have  been  transmitted.  Many 
such  reports  are  remarkable  for  detail  and 
accuracy,  especially  when  we  consider  the  many 
and  pressing  cares  resting  on  those  who  prepared 
them. 

2.  Selection  of  Beneficiaries:  The  first  and,  in 
general,  the  principal  consideration  should  be  that 
of  need.  In  questions  of  life  or  death  no  tests 
of  race  or  creed  should  hold.  Help  should  be 
given  the  starving  Kurd  or  Armenian,  and  to  the 
plague-stricken  Christian  or  Hindu  or  Chinaman 
on  the  same  principle  that  the  Father  "maketh 
his  sun  rise  on  the  evil  and  the  good."  Such 
impartiality  is  especially  imperative  where  relief 
funds  have  been  raised  by  appeals  to  the  general 
public  on  purely  humanitarian  grounds,  to  which 
people  of  all  classes  have  responded.  The 
missionary  should  resist  any  temptation  to  use 
funds  so  given  in  such  a  way  as  to  directly  favor 
the  institutions  or  the  spiritual  results  which  he 
may  have  at  heart.  He  must  be  content  to 
scatter  the  bread  on  the  waters  with  impartial 
hand.  In  so  doing  he  will  discharge  his  plain 
duty  and  may  in  the  end  find  that  he  has  given 
to  blind  and  prejudiced  hearts  the  most  impelling 
proof  of  the  truth  of  his  message.  I  would  not 
modify  the  above  principle  in  spite  of  a  convic- 
tion, based  on  an  experience  of  several  years  in 
raising  popular  funds  for  sufferers  by  the  Arme- 
nian massacres  and  by  the  famines  of  India,  that 
at  least  nine-tenths  of  the  moneys  contributed, 
even  through  purely  secular  committees,  came 
from  Protestant  people  of  a  positively  religious 
character.  Jews  and  Catholics  maintain  splendid 
charities  of  their  own,  but  do  not,  as  far  as  I  have 
been  able  to  ascertain,  contribute  largely  to 
general  relief  funds  of  the  above  character.  But 
while  trying  to  do  good  to  all  men,  the  missionary 
and  his  constituency  at  home  will  also,  natur- 


ally, make  special  provision  for  "them  who  are 
of  the  household  of  faith";  and  after  the  crisis 
of  a  calamity  is  over,  and  the  relief  problem 
ceases  to  be  that  of  saving  life,  the  missionary 
will  be  freer  to  continue  the  relief  on  more  limited 
lines,  both  as  to  its  nature  and  recipients. 
Popular  funds  will  then  dwindle,  and  the  money 
that  continues  to  come  will  be  from  people  who 
are  in  full  sympathy  with  the  aims  of  the  mission 
and  who  will  approve  of  orphanages,  industrial 
schools,  etc.,  which  shade  into  the  regular  work 
of  the  missionary. 

3.  Methods  of  Relief:  In  order  to  know  who 
are  most  in  need,  some  sifting  process  is  necessary. 
This  may  be  done  either  by  actually  going  to  the 
homes  of  the  people,  finding  out  their  exact  cir- 
cumstances, and  giving  them  money  and  pro- 
visions, or,  on  the  other  hand,  by  providing 
remunerative  labor  under  such  conditions  that 
only  those  most  in  need  will  apply  for  it.  The 
latter  method  has  much  in  its  favor.  In  the  first 
place,  it  will  save  much  time  and  expense. 
Secondly,  by  a  process  of  natural  selection  it 
will  eliminate  impostors.  Thirdly,  it  avoids 
pauperizing,  an  evil  second  only  to  the  calamity 
itself.  Fourthly,  it  can  make  relief  funds  go 
further  by  being  used  over  and  over.  For 
instance,  raw  cotton  or  wool  spun  into  thread 
by  one  set  of  poor  people  can  be  woven  into 
cloth  by  another,  made  up  into  garments  by  a 
third,  and  finally  sold  at  reduced  prices  or  given 
to  the  absolutely  helpless.  Fifthly,  the  relief 
work  may  be  so  planned  as,  in  a  measure,  to  fore- 
stall such  disasters  in  the  future.  This  end  may 
be  attained  by  setting  the  people  to  work  digging 
wells,  reservoirs  and  canals,  to  insure  a  better 
water  supply;  or  making  roads  for  better  trans- 
portation; or  by  erecting  buildings  for  orphanages 
and  hospitals;  or  by  teaching  new  and  improved 
arts  and  trades,  by  which  the  people  can  earn 
more  and  not  be  so  largely  dependent  on  agricul- 
ture for  a  living.  The  large  and  excellent  results 
that  have  often  been  achieved  by  missionaries 
with  such  efforts  is  a  splendid  proof  of  their 
administrative  ability  and  practical  wisdom. 
The  first  method  of  seeking  out  the  needy  in 
their  homes  must  also  often  be  followed.  For 
there  are  some  too  ignorant,  others  too  young 
or  feeble  to  come  of  themselves,  and  there  are 
others  prohibited  by  social  station,  caste,  or  sex 
from  public  and  promiscuous  labor.  It  is  just 
these  classes,  often  most  destitute  and  beyond 
the  scope  of  government  aid,  for  whom  wise  and 
sympathetic  special  provision  should  be  made  by 
the  missionary. 

4.  Spirit:  But  the  fidelity,  impartiality  and 
wisdom  emphasized  above  need  to  be  exercised 
in  a  spirit  as  sympathetic  as  it  is  wise,  and 
as  patient  as  it  is  masterful,  if  the  work  is  to  bear 
spiritual  as  well  as  material  fruits.  Even  in 
the  conduct  of  well-organized_  charities  and 
asylums  in  Christian  lands  it  is  necessary  to 
guard  against  a  hard,  sordid,  and  demoralizing 
tendency  among  the  employes.  The  poor,  faint, 
and  distracted  victims  of  disaster  will  appre- 
ciate what  is  done  for  them  all  the  more  if  done 
in  a  gentle  and  kind  way. 

///.  Wider  Results  of  Missionary  Relief  Work. 
1.  On  the  Missionary:  The  first  and  most 
apparent  result  may  be  the  exhaustion  and 
possible  breakdown  of  some  of  the  missionaries 
under  the  great  strain,  physical,  mental,  and 
moral.  This  should  be  foreseen  by  the  Boards 
and  needed  rest  provided  at  the  earliest  moment. 


Relief  TVorli 
Religions  Tract 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


with  a  complete  change  of  scene  if  possible. 
Barring  a  breakdown,  the  missionary  will  find 
himself  better  equipped  than  ever.  The  closer 
intimacy  with  the  people  should  give  him  a  better 
understanding  of  their  conditions  of  life,  senti- 
ments, and  moral  qualities.  Missionaries  have 
frequently  developed  greater  efficiency  through 
the  calling  out  of  latent  faculties  under  the  stress 
of  enlarged  responsibility.  The  need  of  thor- 
oughly practical  and  common-sense  methods  is 
brought  out  by  these  crises,  and  the  lessons  they 
teach  should  be  fruitful  in  correcting  defects  of 
the  missionary  system.  Industrial  schools  and 
manual  training,  now  widely  maintained  with 
enthusiasm  and  success,  are  in  many  cases  the 
direct  outgrowth  of  relief  work.  The  product 
of  these  schools  cannot  fail  to  be  a  more  manly 
and  competent  type  of  convert,  who  will  help  to 
solve  the  problem  of  self-support. 

2.  On  the  Native  Christians:  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  above  influences 
affecting  the  missionary  for  good  are  felt  also  by 
the  native  Christians.  A  despiritualization  of 
the  churches  in  connection  with  the  relief  work 
has  been  reported  in  some  cases.  This  may  be 
true  to  some  degree,  especially  when,  as  in 
Armenia,  the  relief  work  necessitated  by  the 
massacres  was  not  only  so  great  as  very  seriously 
to  interfere  with  the  regular  work  of  the  churches 
and  schools,  but  also  had  to  be  continued  so  long 
as  to  lose  something  of  the  sacred  tenderness 
felt  by  all  at  the  outset.  Jealousies  sometimes 
arise  among  church  members  over  the  selection 
of  distributers  of  relief,  and  the  handling  of 
large  sums  of  money  proves  a  temptation  to 
some,  as  it  does  in  every  land.  Another  unfor- 
tunate result  is  said  to  be  an  impression  that 
the  missionaries  have  unlimited  means  at  their 
command,  and  hence  that  they  should  be  less 
urgent  about  native  contributions. 

3.  Evangelistic  Results:  The  eifect  on  the 
unevangelized  is  generally  reported  to  be  highly 
beneficial.  This  is  the  case  in  proportion  as  the 
people  understand  that  missionary  relief  funds 
are  not  supplied  by  any  government  treasury, 
but  are  free  gifts  from  the  people  of  Christian 
lands,  made  and  dispersed  without  any  prosely- 
tizing, but  in  the  spirit  of  loving  service  person- 
ified by  Christ.  So  conducted,  relief  work  will 
not  encourage  "rice  Christians."  That  no  money 
sticks  to  the  fingers  of  the  missionaries  is  an 
object  lesson  not  lost  in  lands  where  official 
corruption  is  the  rule. 

4.  Reflex  Influence:  The  effect  on  the  con- 
stituencies of  the  boards  is  helpful,  first,  by 
stimulating  sympathy  and  overcoming  the 
selfishness  which  is  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
niggardly  gifts  of  many  to  missions.  There  is 
abundant  evidence  that  relief  funds  are  not 
disadvantageous  to  the  treasuries  of  the  boards. 
The  gifts  of  regular  contributers  are  not  lessened 
by  these  special  appeals,  while  many  whose  first 
gift  is  for  relief  become  interested  in  the  mission- 
aries and  the  support  of  their  regular  work. 
Secondly,  these  crises  are  of  great  educational 
value  through  the  popular  interest  aroused  in  the 
conditions  of  life  and  characteristics  of  races  who 
are  the  objects  of  missionary  effort.  Thirdly, 
the  dark  background  of  a  great  calamity  often 
serves  to  show,  in  strong  relief,  if  only  for  a 
moment,  the  noble  and  truly  great  personality 
of  missionaries  who  by  the  nature  of  their  calling 
must  labor  in  spheres  so  remote  and  humble  as 
to  escape  the  recognition  they  richly   deserve. 


The  effect  on  the  general  public  is  also  most 
salutary,  resulting  as  it  does  in  the  exercise  and 
consequent  strengthening  of  the  noblest  senti- 
ments. Every  relief  effort  is  a  practical  assertion 
of  the  brotherhood  of  man.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  relief  from  one  or  many  lands  to  another  in 
distress  is  productive  of  international  good  feeling: 
and  hastens  the  day  when  the  nations  shall  not 
learn  war  any  more. 

"We  hate  those  whom  we  have  injured,"  said 
a  philosopher  of  heathen  Rome.  It  is  equally 
true  that  we  love  those  whom  we  have  befriended. 
Every  wisely  conducted  relief  effort  may  there- 
fore be  encouraged  both  as  a  cause  and  an  effect 
of  the  coming  of  the  Kingdom. 

Ecumenical  Missionary  Conference  Repmt,  Vol.  2,  pp.  230-250, 
New  York,  1901. 

RELIGIOUS  TRACT  SOCIETY  (1799):  During 
the  outbreak  of  missionary  enthusiasm  that 
marked  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  a  group 
of  practical  Christian  men,  among  whom  were 
Rowland  Hill  and  the  Rev.  G.  Burder,  met  at  St. 
Paul's  churchyard  and  founded  a  society  for  the 
dissemination  of  Christian  literature,  which 
became  known  as  the  Religious  Tract  Society. 
From  the  beginning  it  has  been  unsectarian  in 
principle,  always  selecting  its  committee  from 
churchmen  and  nonconformists  equally.  It 
works  through  its  agents  and  colporteurs,  and  by 
means  of  special  grants  to  missionary  and  tract 
societies  throughout  the  world. 

It  was  not  till  1818  that  the  Society  made  its 
first  grant  for  foreign  work,  to  aid  the  French 
Protestants,  which  led  to  the  founding  of  the 
Paris  Tract  Society  (1820),  and  of  the  Toulouse 
Book  Society  (1835).  In  the  beginning  of  its 
work  most  of  the  foreign  publications  were  pre- 
pared at  the  central  office  in  London,  but  at  an 
early  date  the  greater  part  of  the  work  for  France 
was  transferred  to  Paris  and  Toulouse,  while  the 
decision  as  to  what  should  be  published  still 
rested   with  the  London  committee. 

Assisted  by  the  missionaries  of  the  various  evan- 
gelical denominations,  the  Society  has  printed 
books  and  tracts  in  250  languages,  dialects,  and 
characters;  the  circulation  of  this  literature 
being  carried  on  as  far  as  possible  without  the 
expense  of  agents.  The  sale  of  publications  has 
been  made  to  cover  all  expenses  of  manufacture, 
and  the  whole  amount  of  contributions  has  been 
applied  to  the  circulation  of  publications.  The 
Society  aids  the  various  organizations  engaged 
in  philanthropic  and  missionary  work  in  the 
home  field,  and  makes  grants  to  parochial,  con- 
gregational, and  individual  workers  throughout 
the  country,  and  especially  to  Sunday  and  day 
school  libraries.  Work  is  d,one  also  in  connection 
with  hospitals,  infirmaries,  and  other  institutions, 
and  for  soldiers,  sailors,  fishermen,  hop-pickers 
and  navvies. 

Depots  are  maintained  by  the  Society  upon  the 
Continent  of  Europe,  at  Lisbon,  Madrid,  Buda- 
pest, Vienna,  Gratz,  and  Warsaw.  Publication 
work  at  large  centers,  such  as  Paris,  Toulouse, 
Baden-Baden,  Florence,  Rome,  Berlin,  and  Con- 
stantinople, has  been  aided  by  liberal  grants. 
In  the  mission  fields  of  the  world,  where  the  help 
given  takes  the  form  of  large  grants  of  money, 
printing  paper  and  of  publications,  wherever 
possible,  such  grants  are  made  only  to  auxiliary 
book  and  tract  societies,  under  the  control  of 
committees  representing  the  evangelical  denom- 
inations. Where  there  is  no  such  organization, 
the  Society  aids  individual  workers. 


623 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Relief  'WorU 
Rellgloas  Tract 


In  France  the  Society  makes  grants  in  aid  of 
the  D6p6t  Central,  the  Paris  Tract  Society,  the 
McAll  Mission  and  smaller  grants  to  individual 
Christian  workers.  The  Geneva  Evangelical 
Society  of  Switzerland  and  the  Belgian  Evan- 
gelical Society  of  Belgium  both  receive  small 
grants.  In  Italy  the  depot  at  Rome  and  the 
Italian  Evangelical  Publication  Society,  Flor- 
ence, have  received  annual  grants.  Since  1870 
the  work  of  the  Society  in  Spain  has  been  carried 
on  from  Madrid  as  a  center,  with  subdepots  at 
Barcelona,  Saragossa,  Seville,  and  Gibraltar.  In 
1902  those  at  Saragossa  and  Seville  were  closed. 
Colporteurs  are  employed  to  visit  the  villages  with 
Bibles  and  Christian  literature.  In  Portugal  a 
depot  is  maintained  at  Lisbon,  and  a  subdepot 
at  Oporto,  but  in  1902  it  was  decided  to  discon- 
tinue the  latter.  Colporteurs  are  employed,  and 
the  publications  of  the  Society  are  scattered 
through  the  country.  At  St.  Miguel  (Azores), 
and  S.  Vicente  (Capo  Verde),  depots  are  main- 
tained without  expense  to  the  Society. 

In  Germany  grants  are  made  to  the  German 
Evangelical  Book  and  Tract  Society;  the  Baden 
Christian  Colportage  Union,  the  Society  for  the 
Free  Distribution  of  Holy  Scriptures  and  Relig- 
ious Tracts,  Dresden,  and  several  individuals  are 
aided  in  Christian  worlv.  In  1902  the  committee 
of  the  Society  became  convinced  that  the  time 
had  come  to  place  upon  the  Protestants  of  Ger- 
many the  task  of  carrying  on  their  evangelical 
work,  and  decided  to  reduce  the  annual  grants  to 
German  organizations.  Individual  grants  are 
made  to  Christian  worlcers  in  Holland  and  Den- 
mark, chiefly  for  distribution  among  sailors.  In 
Sweden  the  Society  has  made  an  annual  subsidy 
to  the  National  Evangelical  Society  of  Sweden, 
one  of  the  most  active  centers  of  religious  publi- 
cations in  Europe,  but  in  1903  it  was  decided  to 
discontinue  tliis  grant.  In  Norway  the  Society 
has  assisted  the  Chris  tiania  Home  Mission.  In 
Russia  every  opportunity  for  disseminating 
Christian  literature  has  been  seized,  and  the  com- 
mittee are  ever  on  the  lookout  for  new  openings. 
A  depot  is  maintained  in  Poland  at  Warsaw,  and 
grants  are  made  to  individual  workers;  assistance 
has  also  been  given  the  Bible-Bag  Mission  of 
Finland.  In  Greece  the  only  regular  work  of  the 
Society  for  some  time  has  been  tract  publication 
work  under  the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Kalo- 
pothakes,  of  Athens.  In  Austria  work  is  carried 
on  in  Vienna  in  conjunction  with  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  at  Gratz  and  Buda- 
pest. Subdepots  were  for  many  years  estab- 
lished at  Lemberg,  Trieste,  Bucharest,  and  Bel- 
grade, but  were  discontinued  in  1902.  Aid  has 
been  given  an  active  evangelical  pastor  in 
Prague,  Bohemia.  For  over  35  years  the  Society 
has  had  a  depot  in  Hungary,  but  not  until  1902 
was  it  granted  a  legal  existence  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  able  to  work  openly  without  hindrance. 

In  Turkey  the  Society  has  made  grants  to  the 
publication  work  in  Constantinople  under  the 
American  Board,  to  the  Mission  Institute  in 
Samokov,  Bulgaria,  and  to  individual  mission- 
aries in  Turkey  in  Asia,  especially  at  Aintab  and 
Marash.  Since  1871  the  Society  has  sustained 
an  important  publication  work  through  the 
American  Press  at  Beirut  in  Syria,  and  special 
grants  have  been  made  to  individual  workers  in 
Syria  and  Palestine. 

Since  1813  the  Society  has  made  grants  for  the 
preparation  of  a  vernacular  Christian  literature 
m  India,  and  many  large  auxiliary  tract  societies 


have  been  formed  in  various  parts  of  the  empire, 
all  of  which  have  been  aided  by  tiie  Society. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  of  these  organiza- 
tions is  the  Christian  Literature  Society  for  India, 
which  cooperates  with  the  RTS.  The  Calcutta 
Book  and  Tract  Society  has  been  aided  annually 
since  1831.  The  North  India  Christian  Tract 
and  Book  Society,  AUaliabad,  has  received  grants 
of  money  and  printing  paper.  The  Bombay 
Book  and  Tract  Society,  founded  in  1827,  has 
received  yearly  grants  from  the  Society  since  its 
formation.  The  Gujarat  Tract  and  Book  Society 
and  the  Orissa  Tract  Society  receive  annual 
grants  of  printing  paper.  The  Madras  Religious 
Tract^  and  Book  Society,  the  oldest  existing 
organization  of  this  kind  in  India,  has  received 
grants  since  its  formation  in  1818.  Other  socie- 
ties in  India  receiving  regular  aids  of  money  or 
printing  paper  from  the  RTS  are  the  Bangalore 
Tract  and  Boolv  Society,  the  Malayalam  Religious 
Tract  Society,  the  South  Travancore  Tract  Soci- 
ety, the  Ceylon  Christian  Literature  and  Religious 
Tract  Society,  while  grants  of  stock  have  been 
made  bo  the  depots  in  Burma,  at  Rangoon, 
Maulmain,  and  Mandalay.  Publications  con- 
nected with  the  various  missions  in  India  have 
been  aided  and  grants  have  been  made  to  indi- 
viduals working  in  the  empire.  The  Decennial 
Conference  of  Indian  Missionaries  convened  at 
Madras  in  1902  sent  to  the  Society  an  aclcnowl- 
edgment  of  the  services  it  had  rendered  in  India: 
"Without  the  books,  tracts,  and  leaflets  pub- 
lished with  the  aid  of  this  and  kindred  societies, 
mission  workers  would  be  seriously  crippled." 

In  China  the  Society  cooperates  with  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and  Gem 
eral  Knowledge  among  the  Chinese,  and  works 
through  the  various  auxiliary  organizations  of 
the  empire.  The  Chinese  Tract  Society  of  Shang- 
hai receives  grants  in  aid  of  the  vernacular  pub- 
lication work,  and  in  1899,  with  the  support  and 
encouragement  of  the  London  Committee  of  the 
RTS,  published  an  annotated  Bible  for  the 
Chinese — one  of  the  greatest  works  ever  under- 
taken by  the  missionary  body  in  China."  For 
twenty-six  years  the  Central  China  Religious 
Tract  Society  has  been  at  work,  with  centers  at 
Hankow,  Wuchang  and  Hanyang.  It  is  man- 
aged by  a  committee  representing  four  nation- 
alities and  six  missions,  but  its  mainstay  has  been 
the  RTS,  of  London,  yearly  grants  having  been 
made  for  its  work  ever  since  its  formation. 
Annual  grants  are  made  to  the  Hongkong  Relig- 
ious Tract  Society,  and  to  the  Bible,  Book,  and 
Tract  Depot  in  that  city;  to  the  Religious  Tract 
Society  of  Canton,  Amoy,  and  West  China;  to  the 
North  China  Tract  Society,  and  the  Manohurian 
Tract  Society.  Special  grants  have  been  made 
for  the  colportage  work  of  the  National  Bible 
Society  of  Scotland,  the  China  Inland  Mission, 
and  individual  missionaries  of  other  denomina- 
tions in  China.  In  Japan  the  Society  makes 
large  grants  to  the  Japan  Book  and  Tract 
Society,  located  in  Osaka,  and  made  a  special 
grant  in  1903  to  be  expended  on  Christian 
literature  for  the  visitors  of  the  Osaka  exhibition. 
Few  organizations  have  such  a  far-reaching 
scope  as  the  Religious  Tract  Society.  Besides  its 
work  in  the  larger  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
it  makes  grants  to  workers  in  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments, in  Persia,  in  North  Africa,  Algiers  and 
Tunis;  Eastern  and  Central  Africa,  through  the 
CMS  workers.  In  South  Africa  the  Port  Eliza- 
beth Railway  Mission  is  supplied  with  literature 


Tlelieions  Tract 
Itibeirao  Prelo 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


at  reduced  rates,  the  South  African  Auxiliary  of 
the  Bible  Society  received  grants  of  tracts  for 
hospital  use;  books  were  granted  at  half  price  for 
the  Dutch  Girls'  Home,  at  Cape  Town,  and  for 
Sunday  school  libraries  in  six  or  more  denomina- 
tions, as  well  as  grants  of  pictures,  tracts,  etc., 
for  individual  workers.  In  West  Africa  grants 
of  books,  tracts,  pictures,  electrotypes,  etc.,  have 
been  made  to  missionaries  of  various  creeds  and 
nationalities.  In  Madagascar  a  grant  of  paper 
aids  the  LMS  Mission  Press;  tracts  and  pictures 
have  been  sent  to  Mauritius,  and  a  single  grant 
has  been  made  to  a  worker  on  Ascension  Island 
in  the  South  Pacific.  In  Canada  grants  are  made 
in  aid  of  the  Montreal  Auxiliary  Religious  Tract 
Society,  the  Bible  Society  Auxiliary  of  Quebec 
and  to  individual  workers.  In  Nova  Scotia  the 
British  American  Book  and  Tract  Society  of 
Halifax  receives  annual  grants  of  tracts  and 
favorable  terms  on  books  for  Sunday  school 
libraries,  and  for  colportage  work  on  the  coasts 
of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador.  Special  grants 
have  been  made  to  individual  workers  in  New- 
foundland. A  single  grant  of  tracts  was  made  in 
British  Columbia,  and  to  the  American  Seaman's 
Friend  Society,  at  New  York,  applied  for  by  the 
Secretary. 

In  Mexico  the  United  Tract  Committee  of 
Mexico  City  received  aid  for  Spanish  tract  print- 
ing, and  workers  have  been  aided  in  British  and 
Spanish  Honduras  and  in  Costa  Rica.  In  South 
America  at  British  Guiana,  Brazil,  Argentine 
Republic,  Chile,  and  Colombia,  to  individual 
workers.  In  the  West  Indies  grants  of  books  for 
colportage  work  have  been  made,  for  Sunday 
school  and  day  school  libraries,  and  tracts  for 
general  distribution  at  Jamaica,  Antigua,  Baha- 
mas, and  Bermudas.  In  Australia  the  same 
grants  have  been  made  to  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  South  Australia,  Western  Australia,  and 
Tasmania.  In  New  Zealand  grants  have  been 
made  of  publications  at  reduced  rates  to  the 
Scripture  Gift  Association  of  Auckland;  the 
New  Zealand  Bible  Tract  and  Book  Society 
at  Dunedin  and  Woodville  for  use  in  the  Bush 
country. 

The  LMS  Mission  Press  of  New  Guinea  receives 
grants  of  printing  paper.  In  Samoa  a  like  grant 
is  made.  In  Fiji  the  Wesleyan  Missionary 
Society  has  been  aided  with  literature,  and  in 
Tahiti  a  missionary  of  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Society  has  received  grants  of  French  and  English 
publications. 

During  1903  the  total  circulation  from  the 
Home  Depot,  including  books,  tracts,  periodicals, 
cards,  and  miscellaneous  issues,  was  29,481,210, 
of  which  14,034,350  were  tracts.  The  total 
issues  from  the  foreign  depots  have  been  estimated 
at  20.000,000,  making  about  49,481,210  issues  for 
the  year,  a  grand  total  of  3,540,196,440  since  the 
formation  of  the  Society.  The  receipts  of  the 
Society  from  all  missionary  sources  amounted  to 
£19,501  to  the  General  Fund,  and  £1,474  to  the 
Centenary  Fund.  Grants  of  money,  paper,  elec- 
trotypes, books,  tracts,  and  other  publications  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  £11,175;  similar  for- 
eign grants,  £7,084;  a  total  of  £18,259. 

REWA:  A  settlement  in  the  Fiji  Islands,  situ- 
ated on  the  E.  coast  of  Viti  Levu.  Station  of  the 
Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Soci- 
ety, with  (1900)  1  missionary,  620  native  workers, 
23  outstations,  220  places  of  worship,  480  Sunday 
schools,  527  day  schools,  1  theological  class,  and 
6,729  professed  Christians. 


RHEA,  Samuel  Audley:  Born  at  Blountville, 
Tenn.,  January  23,  1827;  graduated  at  Knoxville 
University,   1847;  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New   York,    1850;   ordained   February  2,   1851; 
sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  March  4, 
same  year,  for  the  Nestorian  Mission.     In  1851 
Mr.   Rhea  went  to  the  new  station  at  Gawar, 
among    the    mountain    Nestorians.     His   health 
broke  down  under  the  strain  of  that  lonely  and 
arduous   life,   and   he   was   obliged   to   visit  the 
United  States  for  recuperation  in  1859.     After 
his  return  in  1860  he  was  stationed  at  Urmia. 
He  was  well  versed  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac;  spoke 
the    modern    Syriac    with    great    accuracy    and 
fluency ;    was    able    to    preach    in    Azerbaijan 
Turkish  with  acceptance  to  the  Armenians  and 
others.     While  at  Tabriz  he  pursued  investiga- 
tions in  the  Eastern  Turkish,  with  the  view  of 
translating  the  Scriptures  into  that  tongue,  hav- 
ing already  rendered  in  it  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount.     While  in  Kurdistan  he  studied  Kurdish, 
and  wrote  a  valuable  synopsis  of  the  grammar. 
He  was  treasurer  of  the  mission,  and  its  business 
agent   in   general.     He   also   had  the   charge  of 
evangelistic  work  in  fifteen  villages,  some  of  them 
very    large.     His    travels    among    the    wilds   of 
Kurdistan  were  often  protracted  and  perilous. 
In  1865  he  fell  ill  as  a  result  of  exposure  while 
touring.     The  next  day  he  appeared  convales- 
cent, and  started  to  return  to  Urmia,  but  died  at 
the  wayside  village  of  All  Shah,   September  2, 
1865. 

RHEES,  Rev.  Henry  Holcombe:  Appointed  a 
missionary  of  the  ABMU  July  15,  1878,  and  went 
immediately  to  Tokio,  Japan,  where  he  built  the 
first  American  Baptist  Mission  house  in  Japan. 
In  1882  he  moved  to  Kobe,  where  the  remainder 
of  his  missionary  life  was  passed.  He  visited 
America  in  1889  and  1891,  and  the  latter  year  he 
received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  from 
Shurtleff  College,  Alton,  111.  The  writer  of  these 
words  met  him  at  Kobe  in  the  year  1895,  and  was 
deeply  impressed  by  his  intelligent  views  on  the 
mission  work  in  .Tapan,  his  indefatigable  spirit, 
and  his  self-sacrificing  service  for  his  Master. 
For  years  he  was  the  senior  missionary  of  the 
Baptist  Mission  in  Japan;  and  the  influence  of 
this  consecrated  servant  of  God  in  all  depart- 
ments of  the  work  was  potent  and  permanent. 
He  fell  in  sleep  at  Kobe,  May  10,  1899. 

RHENIUS,   Charles  Theophilus   Ewald:   Born 

November  5,  1790,  at  the  fortress  of  Gaudens, 
West  Prussia.  He  was  led  to  become  a  mission- 
ary by  reading  the  writings  of  the  Moravians. 
He  sailed  for  India  as  a  missionary  of  the  CMS, 
February  22,  reaching  Madras  July  4,  1814.  He 
soon  proceeded  to  'Tranquebar,  his  appointed 
station.  At  the  end  of  five  months  he  was  sent 
to  Madras  to  found  a  new  mission,  being  the  first 
to  labor  there  under  the  CMS.  During  the  five 
years  of  his  residence  in  Madras  he  was  con- 
stantly employed  preaching  the  Gospel  in  public 
meetings,  conversing  with  individuals,  holding 
discussions  with  Brahmans  or  other  learned  men, 
studying  the  Tamil  and  Telugu,  and  making  fre- 
quent tours  to  various  cities  and  temples.  It  was 
then  decided  by  the  committee  that  Mr.  Rhenius 
should  establish  a  mission  in  Tinnevelli  district, 
and  in  June,  1820,  he  removed  to  Palamcotta,  the 
chief  city  of  the  district.  Mr.  Hough,  the  Eng- 
lish chaplain,  having  left  Palamcotta  in  1821,  Mr. 
Rhenius  held  an  English  service  on  the  Sabbath 
for  English  residents  until  the  arrival  of  another 


S35 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Relii^^lons  Tract 
Rlbeirao  Preto 


•chaplain.  In  1822  a  seminary  was  established 
for  the  education  of  youth,  "which  has  furnished 
catechists  and  schoolmasters  for  the  mission.  A 
■distinguishing  feature  of  this  mission,  largely  due 
to  Mr.  Rhenius,  was  the  formation  and  settlement 
of  Christian  villages.  In  order  to  withdraw  the 
converts  from  the  influence  of  heathenism,  pieces 
of  land  were  purchased,  those  who  forsook  idol- 
atry were  located  on  them,  and  formed  into  a 
Christian  congregation.  A  catechist  was  ap- 
pointed, a  school  established,  and  a  small  chapel 
-erected.  But  when,  in  1826  and  the  following 
years,  the  Christian  villages  had  increased  in  num- 
ber, to  relieve  the  missionary  of  the  burden  of 
their  management  an  association  of  natives  was 
formed  called  "The  Native  Philanthropic 
Society,"  having  for  its  object  the  settling  of 
native  Christians  in  villages,  the  building  of 
.schoolhouses,  the  acquisition  of  grounds,  etc., 
for  these  purposes,  and  the  rendering  of  other 
assistance  to  the  native  Christians  in  their 
■external  affairs.  In  1832  an  unhappy  contro- 
versy arose  between  Mr.  Rhenius  and  the  CMS 
■on  the  subject  of  the  form  of  ordination  to  be 
used  for  native  ministers.  This  led  to  his  dis- 
missal from  the  service  of  the  Society,  and  his 
•continuance  in  the  same  field  as  an  independent 
missionary,  often  at  variance  with  his  former 
missionary  associates.  He  continued  this  inde- 
pendent mission  work  until  June  5,  1836,  when  he 
•died  of  a  stroke  of  apoplexy. 

Mr.  Rhenius  was  one  of  the  greatest  mission- 
.aries  working  in  India  in  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
•century.  He  had  extraordinary  power  over 
those  natives  who  came  under  his  personal  influ- 
ence. The  happy  union  of  cheerful  piety  and 
masculine  energy  with  a  bodily  constitution  ca- 
pable of  great  and  sustained  exertion  rarely 
appears  in  the  missionary  field.  In  addition  to 
this,  Mr.  Rhenius  was  an  accomplished  scholar 
and  a  master  of  the  Tamil  language.  To  him  it 
was  given  to  revise  and  improve  Fabricius'  ver- 
■■sion  of  the  Tamil  Scriptures.  The  New  Testa- 
ment was  printed  in  1828,  but  the  Old  Testament 
was  left  unfinished  at  his  death.  Differences  of 
•opinion  as  to  the  principles  of  translation  led  him 
to  publish  in  1826  a  valuable  essay  of  60  pages  on 
the  Principles  of  Translating  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
He  also  prepared  in  Tamil  a  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels,  which  remains  in  general  use.  Other 
works  in  Tamil  were  The  Essence  of  the  True 
Veda,  A  Summary  of  Divinity,  and  a  very  useful 
Tamil  Grammar. 

RHENISH  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY.  See  Ger- 
many; Missionary  Societies  in. 

RHODESIA:  A  British  territory  and  sphere  of 
influence  in  South  Central  Africa,  comprising  the 
legion  lying  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Trans- 
vaal Colony  and  Bechuanaland,  bounded  on  the 
east  by  Portuguese  East  Africa,  on  the  north  by 
the  Congo  Free  State  and  on  the  west  by  German 
■Southwest  Africa.  Total  area  is  estimated  to 
be  about  600,000  square  miles.  It  is  divided 
by  the  Zambesi  River  into  Northern  and  South- 
■ern  Rhodesia. 

Northern  Rhodesia  was  first  opened  by  David 
Livingstone.  It  is  divided  into  Northeastern 
Rhodesia  and  Northwestern  Rhodesia,  both 
provinces  being  administered  by  the  British 
'South  African  Company,  the  defense  of  the  ter- 
ritory being  assumed  by  the  British  Central 
African  Protectorate.  Northeastern  Rhodesia 
ihas  about  120,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 

40 


of  about  339,000.  It  comprises  the  region  lying 
between  Lake  Nyasa  and  Lake  Mwera,  with  its 
affiuent,  the  River  Luapula,  and  extends  from 
Lake  Tanganyika  nearly  to  the  Zambesi. 

Northwestern  Rhodesia,  or  Barotseland, 
with  an  indefinite  area,  somewhat  larger  than 
Northeastern  Rhodesia,  extends  from  the 
Congo  Free  State  southward  to  the  German  ter- 
ritory and  the  Zambesi,  and  is  bounded  east  and 
west  respectively  by  Northeastern  Rhodesia 
and  Portuguese  West  Africa. 

Southern  Rhodesia,  with  an  area  of  144,000 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  500,000, 
embraces  the  territory  from  the  Zambesi  to  the 
Transvaal  and  Bechuanaland,  extending  west- 
ward from  Portuguese  East  Africa  to  the  German 
territories.  It  includes  Matabililand  and  Masho- 
naland.  It  is  especially  in  the  line  of  the  British 
immigration  and  mining  movements  of  Central 
and  South  Africa,  and  is  fast  being  explored  and 
exploited.  In  Matabililand  about  15,000,000 
acres  of  land,  and  in  Mashonaland  about  12,000,- 
000  acres,  have  been  surveyed.  Townships  to 
the  number  of  12  have  been  organized.  In  1901 
there  were  about  11,000  Europeans  in  the  terri- 
tory. Lines,  of  railway,  built  and  projected, 
connect  the  chief  centers  with  Cape  Colony. 
There  are  about  3,000  miles  of  telegraph.  Tke 
territory  has  deposits  of  gold.  The  vast  tab-le- 
land  of  the  north  and  northeast  has  an  elevation 
of  about  5,000  feet,  and  is  well  watered,  with  a 
rich  soil  and  fine  climate.  The  Matabili,  so 
called  from  an  immense  shield  behind  which  they 
were  "hidden"  in  war,  were  originally  a  band  of 
Zulu  warriors,  whose  ranks  were  recruited  from 
the  lands  they  conquered.  They  are  very  fierce, 
daring,  and  proud.  The  Makalaka  and  Mashona 
were  the  former  masters  of  the  land.  The  former 
were  nearly  exterminated,  the  latter  form  the 
substratum  of  the  northern  population,  and  are 
very  industrious.  The  Banyai  are  distinguished 
by  their  physical  strength,  light  complexion, 
cleanly  habits,  and  by  the  respect  paid  to  women. 

In  1896  there  was  a  native  revolt  in  Matabili- 
land, immediately  followed  by  a  similar  disturb- 
ance in  Mashonaland.  Both  these  were  thor- 
oughly quelled. 

The  Missionary  societies  operating  in  Rhodesia 
are  the  LMS  with  8  stations,  the  SPG  with  7 
stations,  the  Paris  Society  in  the  N.  W.,  the  ME 
and  the  ABCFM,  in  the  extreme  east,  besides  the 
WMS,  the  PB,  the  SDA,  and  the  Berlin  Society. 

Brown  (W.  H.),  On  the  South  African  Frontier,  London,  1897; 
Greswell  (W.  P.),  Geography  of  Africa  South  of  the  Zambesi, 
London,  1S93;  Hensraan  (H.),  History  of  Rhodesia,  Lon- 
don, 1900;  Lenard  (A.  G.),How  We  Made  Rhodesia,  Lon- 
don, 1896;  Powell  (R.  S.  S.  Baden-),  The  Matabele  Cam- 
paign, London,  1901;  Du  Toit  (S.  J.),  Rhodesia,  Past  and 
Present,  London,  1897. 

RIBE :  A  settlement  in  British  East  Africa, 
situated  near  the  coast  about  15  miles  N.  of  Mom- 
basa. It  stands  on  a  high  tableland,  with  a  fine 
view  over  the  ocean.  Station  of  the  United 
Free  Methodist  Churches  (1861).  The  estate 
belonging  to  the  UMFC  Mission  is  about  750 
acres.  There  are  (1903)  2  missionaries,  8  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  2  day 
schools,  5  Sunday  schools,  and  359  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

RIBEIRAO  PRETO:  A  town  in  Brazil,  South 
America,  situated  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo  on 
the  railway,  about  200  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Sao 
Paulo  city.  Station  of  the  MES  (1895),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women 
missionaries,  2  native  workers,  3  outstations,  2 


Riclini'cli*,  William 
Robert  College 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  and  550  professed  Christians. 

RICHARDS,  William:  Born  at  Plainfield, 
Mass.,  U.  S.  A.,  August  22,  1792;  graduated  at 
Williams  College  1819,  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary 1822;  sailed  November  29  same  year  as 
a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  for  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  accompanied  by  four  natives  educated 
in  the  United  States.  He  was  stationed  at 
Lahaina,  on  Maui.  In  1837  he  visited  his  native 
land  with  his  wife  and  six  children,  arriving  in 
May  and  returning  in  November.  In  1838  the 
king  and  chiefs  requested  him  to  become  their 
teacher  in  the  science  of  government  and  laws, 
and  also  their  chaplain  and  interpreter  in  their 
intercourse  with  foreigners.  The  code  of  laws 
adopted  by  the  nobles  and  people  was  translated 
into  Hawaiian  by  Mr.  Richards,  occupying  228 
pages.  From  1842  to  1845  he  was  absent  on  a 
mission  to  secure  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
independence  of  the  islands  by  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  the  United  States.  After  this  recog- 
nition by  foreign  powers,  he  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sador to  England  and  other  courts.  On  his 
return  in  1845  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
public  instruction,  which  office  he  held  till  his 
death,  November  7,  1847.  His  influence  with 
the  king  and  government  was  very  great. 

RICHMOND :  A  settlement  on  one  of  the  small 
islands  of  the  Fiji  group,  S.  of  Viti  Levu  Island. 
Station  of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  228  native 
workers,  11  outstations,  76  places  of  worship, 
150  Sunday  schools,  150  day  schools,  and  2,331 
professed  Christians. 

RIETFONTEIN:  A  settlement  in  Bechuana- 
land,  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  on 
the  frontier  of  German  Southwest  Africa, 
about  320  miles  E.  of  Angra  Pequena.  Station 
of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  2  native  workers,  1  day  school, 
and  420  professed  Christians,  of  whom  168  are 
communicants. 

RIFIAN  LANGUAGE:  The  tribes  inhabiting 
the  Rif-  Mountains  in  the  northern  part  of  Mo- 
rocco use  this  language,  which  belongs  to  the 
Hamitic  group  of  the  African  languages.  It  is 
probably  to  be  classed  as  a  Berber  dialect,  altho 
often  spoken  of  as  a  distinct  language.  So  far 
as  it  is  written  the  Arabic  alphabet  has  been 
used  for  the  purpose. 

RIGGS,  Elias:  Born  at  New  Providence,  N.  J., 
November  19,  1810.  Died  at  Constantinople, 
Turkey,  January  17,  1901.  During  his  early  years 
he  showed  decided  linguistic  talent,  and  while  at 
college  he  applied  himself  especially  to  the 
mastery  of  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Chaldean 
and  modern  Greek,  and  produced  an  Arabic 
grammar  and  Chaldean  manual.  While  he  was 
completing  his  last  year  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  he  was  invited  by  the  American  Board 
to  join  its  mission  in  Greece,  and  on  September 
20,  1832,  he  was  ordained.  With  Mrs.  Riggs, 
on  October  30,  1832,  he  sailed  from  Boston,  and 
three  months  afterward  joined  Rev.  Jonas  King 
at  Athens.  For  six  years  he  labored  at  Argos, 
largely  along  educational  lines,  in  Greece;  and 
in  1844,  because  of  governmental  restrictions,  he 
was  transferred  to  Smyrna,  Turkey,  where  he 
continued  his  work  among  the  Greeks  in  that 
city.  In  1844  he  was  assigned  to  the  Armenian 
branch  of  the  mission;  and  the  greater  part  of  his 
time  from  1845  to  1852  was  engaged   in  the  work 


of  translating  the  Scriptures  into  Armenian.  In 
1853  he  was  transferred  to  Constantinople,  and 
for  three  years  he  was  in  charge  of  the  Greek 
department  and  instructor  in  theology  in  the 
Bebek  Training  School.  He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1856,  and  after  filling  the  position  of 
instructor  of  Hebrew  at  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  he  was  offered  a  professorship  in  that 
institution.  Upon  his  return  to  Constantinople 
he  began  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Bul- 
garian, another  language  he  had  mastered,  and 
the  complete  edition  of  this  work  was  issued  in 
1871.  In  1873  the  American  and  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  societies  appointed  a  committee 
to  revise  the  Turkish  translation  of  the  Bible, 
so  as  to  make  it  acceptable  both  to  the  mass  of  the" 
people  and  to  the  educated.  The  members  of 
the  committee  were  Dr.  W.  G.  SchaufHer,  Rev. 
George  F.  Herrick,  Rev.  Robert  Weakley,  and 
Dr.  Riggs.  In  1878  the  work,  which  has  become 
the  standard,  was  issued  in  both  Arabic  and 
Armenian  characters.  Besides  his  more  import- 
ant translations.  Dr.  Riggs  wrote  numerous 
tracts,  school-books,  and  devotional  books; 
and  he  produced  during  his  long  missionary  life, 
either  as  translations  or  originals,  no  less  than 
four  hundred  and  seventy-eight  hymns  in  the 
Bulgarian  language  alone.  To  give  an  idea  of 
the  linguistic  attainments  of  Dr.  Riggs,  it  may 
be  stated  that  he  had  a  working  knowledge  of 
twenty  languages,  and  was  a  master  of  twelve. 
There  are  four  nations  reading  the  Word  of  God 
as  he  translated  it  for  them;  and  as  Dr.  Herrick 
says:  "The  homes,  the  schools,  the  churches, 
where  Dr.  Riggs'  translations  of  the  Word  of  Lite 
are  read,  and  where  the  hymns  he  has  trans- 
lated are  sung,  are  numbered  by  the  tens  of 
thousands,  anci  extend  from  the  Adriatic  to  the 
Persian  Gulf,  from  the  snows  of  the  Caucasus  to 
the  burning  sands  of  Arabia." 

RIGGS,  Stephen  R.:  Born  Steubenville,  Ohio, 
U.  S.  A.,  March  25,  1812;  graduated  at  Jefferson 
College;  studied  theology  at  Alleghany  Seminary; 
ordained  April  6,  1837;  went  at  once,  with  Mrs. 
Riggs,  under  appointment  of  the  ABCFM  to 
the  mission  among  the  Dakotas.  Here  he 
labored  with  great  zeal  and  success  in  missionary 
and  literary  work  at  various  places  till  tne  Sio^ux 
outbreak  of  1862,  when,  barely  escaping  with 
his  life,  he  fled  to  St.  Paul,  returning  soon  as 
chaplain  of  the  military  forces  sent  to  suppress 
the  outbreak.  After  a  long  and  painful  illness 
he  died,  August  24,  1883,  aged  71,  having  spent 
over  45  years  in  active  and  successful  work 
among  the  Indians.  Dr.  Riggs  reduced  the 
Dakota  language  to  a  written  form,  organizing 
and  adapting  it  to  religious  expression,  and 
translated  into  it  nearly  the  entire  Bible.  He 
prepared  also  a  Dakota  dictionary  of  more  than 
16,000  words,  which  was  published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  Upward  of  50  volumes, 
religious  and  literary,  partly  translated,  partly 
original,  were  prepared  by  him  for  the  use  of 
the  Dakotas  in  their  language.  He  lived  to  see 
ten  churches  organized  and  efficient,  under 
native  pastors.  Of  his  eight  children,  five 
entered  the  missionary  field,  four  among  the 
Indians  and  one  in  China. 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO:  The  capital  of  Brazil 
and  the  most  important  commercial  city  of 
South  America.  It  is  situated  on  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  of  the  world,  75  miles  west  of 
Cape    Frio.     The    bay    is    land-locked     and   is 


627 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Rlcharils,  William 
Robert  College 


entered  from  the  south.  It  extends  inland  17 
miles,  with  a  greatest  breadth  of  12  miles,  and 
is  said  to  be  the  most  spacious  and  secure  bay  in 
the  world.  The  city  itself,  like  Rome,  is  built  on 
seven  hills,  and  the  houses,  with  their  white 
walls  and  red  roofs,  clustering  in  the  valley  or 
extending  along  the  sides  of  the  green  slopes, 
present  a  most  picturesque  appearance  as  one 
approaches  from  the  sea.  The  old  part  of  the 
town  lies  nearest  the  bay,  while  the  elegantly 
built  new  town  is  situated  on  the  west  of  it. 
Here  are  fine  streets,  handsome  public  buildings, 
hospitals,  asylums,  over  fifty  chapels  and 
churches,  and  many  convents  and  nunneries. 
A  national  college,  academy  of  medicine,  theo- 
logical seminary,  and  a  national  library  meet 
the  literary  and  educational  wants  of  the  people. 
A  splendid  aqueduct  conveys  pure  spring-water 
from  a  mountain  three  miles  southwest  of  the 
city.  The  climate  is  tropical,  ranging  from  54° 
in  August  to  97°  in  December.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  about  60  inches,  one-fifth  of  the  whole 
amount  falling  in  February.  The  commerce  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro  is  great  and  steadily  increasing. 
As  Brazil  is  the  greatest  coffee-producing 
country  in  the  world,  Rio  is  the  largest  coffee- 
exporting  city.  The  population  consists  largely 
of  Portuguese,  with  a  mixture  of  negro  blood, 
and  is  estimated  (1900)  at  750,000.  Station  of 
the  MES  (1878),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  1  of 
them  with  his  wife ;  2  women  missionaries,  2 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
4  Sunday  schools,  1  printing  house,  and  345 
professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  SBC 
(1884),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
4  native  workers,  3  outstations,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  printing  house,  and  233  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  SDA  (1891),  with 
(1900)  5  missionaries,  4  of  them  with  their  wives; 

1  woman  missionary,  6  native  workers,  25  out- 
stations, and  697  professed  Christians,  18  Sunday 
schools,  5  day  schools.  The  YMCA  (1892) 
and  the  ABS  (1876)  each  has  an  agent  here 
and  the  BFBS  has  an  agent  and  13  native  Bible 
workers. 

RIO  DE  ORO :  A  possession  of  Spain  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  northwest  Africa,  extending 
from  Morocco  to  Cape  Blanco  in  Senegambia, 
and  irdand  to  the  Sahara.  It  is  governed  by 
a  sub-governor  under  the  governor  of  the  Canary 
Islands.  The  area  is  about  243,000  square 
miles;  population  about  100,000.  In  case  of 
the  future  sale  of  the  territory  the  right  of  pre- 
emption has  been  given  to  Frf,nce.  The  inhab- 
itants are  Moors,  Berbers,  and  negroes,  chiefly 
Mohammedan.  No  missionary  enterprises  have 
been  undertaken  in  this  territory. 

RIO  MUNI :  A  territory  of  Spain,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  having  Kamerun  on  the  north  and 
the  French  Congo  on  the  east  and  south.  Area 
9,000  square  miles.  Population  about  300. 
There  is  one  missionary  station  of  the  PN  in 
this  territory,  situated  on  the  Benito  River  near 
its  mouth. 

RIO  VERDE:  A  village  in  Mexico,  situated  in 
the  state  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  on  the  Rio  Verde. 
Station  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Synod  of  the  South  (1895),  with  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  outstation, 

2  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day 
school,  1  orphanage,  and  23  professed  Christians. 

RIU  KIU  ISLANDS.     See  Lu-CHir  Islands. 

RIVERSDALE:    A    town    in    Cape     Colony, 


South  Africa,  150  miles  E,  of  Cape  Town,  and 
50  miles  W.  of  Mossel  Bay,  on  the  railway  thenc* 
to  Cape  Town.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Evangel- 
ical Missionary  Society  (1868),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  3  women  missionaries,  22  native 
workers,  8  outstations,  4  day  schools,  and  1,417 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  512  are  communi- 
cants. 

ROATAN  ISLAND:  An  island  in  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  Central  America,  about  30  miles  long. 
Population,  3,000.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  38  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations, 22  places  of  worship,  11  day  schools, 
16  Sunday  schools,  and  737  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  575  are  communicants.  The  name  is 
also  written  Ruatan. 

ROBBINS,  Elijah:  Born  at  Thompson,  Conn., 
March  12,  1828;  graduated  at  Yale  College  1856, 
and  East  Windsor  Theological  Seminary  1859; 
ordained  August  3;  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM  September  29  of  the  same  year  for 
the  Zulu  Mission,  where  he  labored  for  nearly 
thirty  years.  He  was  stationed  first  at  Umzumbi, 
but  the  latter  portion  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
connection  with  the  Mission  Training  School  at 
Amanzimtote.  He  died  there  June  30,  1889. 
This  seminary  for  training  Zulu  men  for  the 
mission  is  in  a  great  measure  the  fruit  of  Mr. 
Robbins'  zeal  and  perseverance.  The  quality 
of  the  native  laborers  in  the  field  testifies  to  the 
thoroughness  of  their  teacher. 

ROBERT  COLLEGE,  Constantinople:  Robert 
College  is  an  outgrowth  of  American  missions  in 
Turkey.  It  was  founded  in  1863  by  Christopher 
R.  Robert,  a  merchant  of  New  York,  in  connec- 
tion with  Rev.  C3'rus  Hamlin,  D.D.,  who  became 
its  first  president.  The  aim  was  to  establish  at 
Constantinople  something  as  nearly  as  possible 
like  a  first-class  New  England  college,  thoroughly 
Christian,  but  not  sectarian,  and  open  to  young 
men  of  all  the  nationalities  and  religions  of  the 
East,  with  the  English  language  as  the  common 
ground  upon  which  all  could  meet.  The  College 
was  opened  in  an  old  mission  building  at  Bebek, 
with  four  students,  all  English  or  Americans. 
It  was  transferred  in  1871  to  its  present  location 
on  a  commanding  eminence  on  the  Bospliorus, 
six  miles  from  Constantinople,  wliere  it  owns 
some  fifteen  acres  of  land,  secured  to  it  by  an 
imperial  charter.  It  now  has  three  large  stone 
buildings,  one  of  which  is  used  for  classrooms 
and  dormitories,  a  second  for  scientific  instruc- 
tion and  public  assemblies,  and  a  third  for  the 
preparatory  department.  Besides  these  a  gym- 
nasium is  now  (1903)  in  process  of  erection, 
and  other  buildings  are  projected.  The  College 
also  owns  a  president's  house  and  two  professors' 
houses. 

Incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  it  is  governed  by  a  Board  of  Trustees, 
residing  in  or  near  the  City  of  New  York,  who 
have  charge  of  its  funds  and  appoint  its  president, 
professors  and  tutors.  Local  affairs  are  admin- 
istered by  the  president  and  faculty,  by  whom 
also  all  other  teachers  are  appointed.  Its 
endowment  fund  is  now  about  8250,000,  and  the 
value  of  its  real  estate  at  Constantinople  is  esti- 
mated at  about  the  same  amount.  Of  this  total 
sum  Mr.  Robert  contributed  somewhat  more 
than  8400,000.  Its  board  of  instruction  consists 
of  36  persons,  of  whom  15  are  Americans.  The 
students  now  number  over  300  annually,  repre- 
senting   from    12    to    15    nationalities,    chiefly 


Robert  CoIIepre 
Roman  Catholic 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


638 


Armenian,  Bulgarian,  Greek  and  Turkish.  The 
number  of  languages  which  must  be  taught  in 
the  College  is  eleven,  and  more  or  less  instruction 
is  given  in  half  a  dozen  more.  The  common 
language  of  the  College,  however,  is  English,  in 
which  all  public  exercises  are  conducted  and  in 
which  all  the  students  after  the  third  preparatory 
year  become  proficient. 

There  are  two  departments  in  the  College,  the 
preparatory,  with  a  three  years'  course,  and  the 
collegiate,  with  five  classes.  The  collegiate 
course  is  modeled  on  that  of  the  smaller  Amer- 
ican colleges,  affording  to  the  students  a  certain 
amount  of  choice  between  classical  and  scientific 
or  commercial  studies,  and  leading  up  to  the 
degree  of  A-.B.  or  B.S..  About  20  students  now 
graduate  each  year.  The  aim  of  the  College  is, 
however,  to  give  to  those  who  are  unable  to  take 
the  full  course  a  thorough  general  education  in 
accordance  with  American  ideas  and  Christian 
principles.  As  the  majority  of  them  expect  to 
become  business  men  a  course  has  recently  been 
organized  which,  while  retaining  the  more  import- 
ant liberal  studies,  includes  a  number  of  com- 
mercial subjects,  but  omits  Latin  and  the  more 
advanced  mathematics.  Arrangements  have 
also  been  made  for  more  thorough  instruction  in 
the  physical  sciences.  In  tlie  appointment  of 
instructors  great  care  is  exercised  to  obtain  men 
who  are  in  cordial  sympathy  with  the  Christian 
purpose  by  which  the  founders  of  the  College 
were  animated.  While  there  is  no  interference 
with  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  students,  it  is  the 
earnest  effort  of  the  faculty  to  develop  in  them 
a  manly.  Christian  character.  All  are  required 
to  be  present  at  morning  prayers,  and  all  boarders 
at  the  Sunday  services.  They  also  meet  regu- 
larly for  the  study  of  the  Bible,  and  the  different 
nationalities  have  their  separate  YMCAs,  while 
there  is  one  general  association  whose  exercises 
are  conducted  in  English.  It  is  its  moral,  quite 
as  much  as  its  intellectual,  tone  which  has  given 
the  College  such  wide  renown  throughout  the 
East  and  which* attracts  to  it  Mohammedans  and 
Jews,  as  well  as  members  of  the  Greek  and 
Armenian  churches.  It  has  not  only  sent  out 
many  Christian  men,  but  has  exerted  an  import- 
ant influence  upon  these  churches,  as  well  as  upon 
the  political  and  social  development  of  the 
countries  from  which  its  students  come  and  to 
which  they  return. 

About  2,500  young  men  have  spent  an  average 
of  three  years  in  the  College,  and  it  has  graduated 
in  all  414,  who  have  become  preachers,  teachers, 
government  officials,  judges,  editors,  lawyers, 
physicians,  army  officers,  civil  engineers,  and 
fjusiness  men  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Some 
80  of  them  now  fill  official  positions  in  Bulgaria. 

Since  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Hamlin  in  1877, 
Rev.  George  Washburn,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  who  had 
previously  been  connected  with  the  College  for 
eight  years,  has  been  its  president.  Its  success 
has  been  in  large  measure  due  to  his  eminent 
ability  and  his  thorough  knowledge  of  oriental 
character  and  life.  In  September,  1903,  having 
reached  the  age  of  seventy  years,  he  resigned  the 
office,  and,  on  his  nomination.  Rev.  C.  Frank 
Gates,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  formerly  president  of 
Euphrates  College  at  Harpoot,  was  chosen  to 
succeed  him.  Dr.  Washburn  continues  to  give 
instruction  as  before,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the 
College  may  long  have  the  benefit  of  his  wisdom 
and  his  large  experience. 

The    officers   of   the    Board    of   Trustees    are: 


President,  John  S.  Kennedy;  Secretary,  Rev. 
Edward  B.  Coe,  D.D.;  Treasurer,  Frederick  A. 
Booth. 

ROBINSON,  Rev.  John  Alfred:  Born  in  1859  at 
Keynsham  vicarage,  Somerset.  Died,  1891,  at 
Lokoja.  Educated  at  Liverpool  College,  and  at 
Christ  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
Cams  University  Greek  Testament  Prize.  He 
received  his  B.A.  degree  in  1881,  and  his  M.A. 
degree  in  1884.  During  1882-84  he  was  curate  of 
the  parish  church  at  Trowbridge,  and  from  1884- 
1887  he  was  House  Master  of  Neuenheim  College, 
Heidelberg.  In  1886,  September  13,  he  was 
accepted  as  a  missionary  under  the  CMS;  on 
February  5,  1887,  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
the  Niger  Mission;  and  in  1889  he  was  trans- 
ferred at  his  own  desire  to  the  new  Sudan  and 
Upper  Niger  Mission.  He  devoted  much  of  his 
time  to  the  study  of  the  Hausa  language,  and  left 
contributions  on  the  subject,  with  a  translation 
of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel.  At  the  time  of  his 
death,  he  was  writing  a  new  Hausa  grammar  and 
preparing  a  revision  of  Dr.  Schcjn's  dictionary. 
His  researches  into  the  dialectic  differences  of  the 
Hausa  language  have  brought  to  light  much  that 
is  quite  new,  and  the  results  of  his  studies  have 
been  a  great  aid  to  other  missionaries.  In  a  short 
while  he,  by  his  charm  of  manner,  gained  a  great 
influence  over  the  natives,  and,  as  one  said,  he 
might  have  been  a  Hausa  born,  so  perfectly  was 
he  at  his  ease  among  them.  His  was  a  brief  but 
brilliant  career  as  a  missionary  of  the  Cross. 

ROCK  SOUND:  A  settlement  on  the  E.  of 
Eleuthera  Island  in  the  Bahamas,  lying  50  miles 
E.  of  Nassau.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903) 
4  native  workers,  4  Sunday  schools,  1  place  of 
worship,  and  192  professed  Christians. 

RO  GBERE :  A  village  in  Sierra  Leone  Colony, 
situated  about  45  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Port  Lokkoh. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1896),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  and  2  out- 
stations. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  MISSIONS:  Under  this 
head  are  included  those  missions  which  have  been 
undertaken  since  the  Reformation  by  Roman 
Catholics  as  distinct  from  Protestants. 

AVhile  it  is  probably  true,  in  a  considerable 
degree,  that  the  Roman  Catholic  missions  among 
the  heathen  were  undertaken  to  make  good  the 
losses  of  Rome  from  the  great  Protestant  defec- 
tion, the  prime  motive  was  the  sudden  enlarge- 
ment of  opportunity  offered  by  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  discoveries.  From  the  very  first  the 
Spanish  Church  and  the  Spanish 'State  were 
zealous  to  convert  the  newly  discovered  natives, 
and  to  protect  them  against  the  rapacious  adven- 
turers who  poured  out  from  the  Iberian  peninsula, 
and  both  efforts  were  unremitting  and  slowly 
effective,  tho  not  until  great  multitudes  had  been 
swept  away. 

Rome  has  never  claimed  the  right  to  compel 
unbelievers  to  receive  baptism.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas distinctly  disavows  this  right  for  the  Church, 
and  even  in  Spain  the  bishops  at  various  times 
rebuked  the  zeal  of  the  princes  for  forcible 
proselytism.  But  as  the  rebukes  of  Alcuin  did 
not  deter  Charles  the  Great  from  hi^  policy  of 
forcing  Christianity  upon  the  Saxons,  so  those 
of  the  Spanish  bishops  were  often  equally 
ineffective  to  prevent  the  forcible  proselytizing 
of  Jews  and  Moors.  In  the  south,  as  in  the  north, 
religious  unity  was  esteemed  by  the  rulers  the 
only  certain  foundation  of  civil  unity,  and  the 


629 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Robert  College 
Roman  Catbollc 


State  did  not  allow  itself  to  be  deterred  by  the 
inconsistency  of  forcible  proselytism  with  the 
Gospel,  from  applying  it  where  it  was  likely  to 
avail.  And  the  Roman  Church,  which  maintains 
her  own  right  to  compel  the  baptized  to  remain, 
thereby  broke  the  force  of  her  protest  against 
compelling  the  unbaptized  to  enter.  Latin  Chris- 
tianity, indeed,  being  so  predominantly  an  insti- 
tute, cannot  possibly  be  quite  so  sincerely  dis- 
inclined to  the  ruder  forms  of  conquest  as  Protes- 
tant Christianity,  which  emphasizes  the  necessity 
of  inward  appropriation  of  the  Gospel. 

Spanish  America:  Here  there  appears  to  have 
been  but  little  forcible  proselytism.  The  con- 
querors, indeed,  prohibited  the  pagan  worship  on 
the  ground  that  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  as 
practised  by  Christians  or  Jews,  has  alone  a  right 
to  demand  toleration  of  a  Christian  government, 
but  the  actual  incorporation  of  the  American 
natives  into  the  Christian  Church  was  essentially 
the  work  of  persuasion.  The  conquered  Indians, 
indeed,  except  where  they  retreated  as  untam- 
able tribes  into  the  Andes  or  the  Sierras,  had  little 
reluctance  to  accept  the  forms  of  the  conquering 
religion.  A  French  priest,  however,  declares  that 
the  Mexicans  are  Catholics,  but  are  not  Christians, 
as  Southey  says  of  the  common  people  of  England 
before  the  Wesleys,  who  had  gone  through  two 
religions,  but  were  not  yet  evangelized. 

The  first  Mexican  missionaries  were  Francis- 
cans. They  are  charged  with  ha\'ing  afterward, 
at  least  in  Northern  Mexico,  become  hard  slave- 
holders, who  brought  back  their  runaway  Indians 
with  the  lasso.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  any 
shadow  rests  on  the  nam.es  of  the  early  mission- 
aries. They  came  first  in  1522  from  Ghent.  One 
of  them,  as  Kalkar  relates,  Pedro  de  Musa,  a 
simple  lay-brother,  who  devoted  fifty  years  of 
unwearied  activity  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
interests  of  his  Indians,  reports  in  1529  to  his 
Provincial  that  in  six  years  they  had  incorpo- 
rated 200,000  souls  with  the  Church  of  Christ;  in 
eight  years  the  Archbishop  of  Mexico  is  said  to 
have  been  metropolitan  of  a  million  Christians. 
This  splendid  see  was  refused  by  Musa,  and  also 
by  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth's  near  relative, 
Pedro  of  Ghent,  likewise  a  simple  lay-brother. 
He  writes  to  his  imperial  kinsman:  "Because  the 
people  possess  a  peculiar  skilfulness,  I  can  truly 
say  that  there  are  among  them  good  copyists, 
preachers,  and  singers,  who  might  well  be  cantors 
m  Your  Majesty's  chapel.  In  a  school  and 
chapel  built  here  there  are  every  day  600  boys 
instructed.  A  hospital  has  been  put  up  near  our 
cloister,  which  is  a  great  comfort,  and  a  means  of 
conversion."  "Most  heartily,  and  in  the  true 
evangelical  temper,  he  raised  his  voice  to  plead 
against  all  oppression  of  the  natives."  The 
Mexican  Indians,  however,  unlike  the  West 
Indian  and  the  Peruvian,  were  treated  mildly,  or 
at  least  with  comparative  mildness,  except  in  the 
mountain  mines. 

In  1526  appeared  the  first  Dominicans,  who 
henceforth  furnished  most  of  the  bishops.  Then 
came  Augustinians,  Antony  de  Roa  being  the 
most  distinguished.  In  1572  came  Jesuits,  who 
went  into  New  Mexico,  where  they  have  always 
remained  the  chief  influence.  By  their  skilful 
kindness  they  allured  the  natives  from  the  cliffs 
and  cafions,  and  established  them  in  villages. 

The  Inquisition  was  soon  transplanted  and 
raged  fearfully.  The  Indians,  however,  were  not 
so  much  exposed  to  it  as  the  whites,  partly  from 
their  simplicity,   partly  from   the   contempt   in 


which  their  intellect  was  held  as  hardly  capable 
of  heresy  (tho  sometimes  of  pagan  practises), 
and  partly  from  repeated  royal  edicts  of  exemp- 
tion, lest  haciendas  and  mines  should  be  deprived 
of  their  peons.  The  devotion  of  the  natives  to 
the  sacrament  of  penance  was  most  edifying, 
confession  of  sin  being  a  main  element  of  the 
Aztec  religion.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  said  that 
up  to  the  19th  century  few  of  them  were  thought 
mentally  competent  to  be  admitted  to  the  com- 
munion, altho  a  rite  analogous  to  this  was  also 
found  in  their  old  religion.  Mexico,  converted, 
became,  in  her  turn,  a  basis  of  missions,  par- 
ticularly to  the  Philippines  and  Ladrones. 

The  Indians  of  the  West  Indies,  a  gentle  and 
pleasing  race,  but  of  singular  vileness  of  morals, 
who  turned  their  memorial  visits  to  the  tombs 
into  veritable  orgies  of  lewdness,  met  the  first 
wave  of  Spanish  adventure,  fierce,  cruel,  and 
rapacious,  as  yet  unchecked  by  the  slower  steps 
of  civil  justice  or  religious  benevolence,  and 
were  almost  at  once  swept  away. 

Peru  was  conquered  in  1533,  and  after  twenty 
years  of  disturbances  was  brought  to  tranquil- 
lity in  1555  by  the  viceroy  Mendoza,  who  took 
care  to  provide  the  natives  with  priests  of  good 
conduct.  The  Indians  passed  easily  from  the^ 
mild  paganism  of  sun-worship  into  a  nominal  and 
formal  Catholicism.  Throughout  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  America  little  pains  seems  to  have 
been  taken  to  build  up  an  intelligent  Christianity, 
adapted  to  deeply  influence  the  heart  and  life, 
altho  now  and  then  a  preacher  of  enlightened  and 
energetic  apprehensions  of  evangelical  truth 
exerted  a  marked  influence. 

The  famous  Jesuit  mission  of  Paraguay  was 
established  in  1586,  after  the  intolerable  tyranny 
of  the  Spaniards  had  long  rendered  fruitless  all 
the  attempts  of  the  Franciscans  and  some  lesser 
orders  to  secure  the  conversion  of  the  Indians. 
The  Jesuits,  judging  that  the  Spaniards  needed 
reconverting  first,  turned  their  efforts  toward 
their  reformation,  with  so  good  effect  that  before 
long  the  Indians,  believing,  at  length,  that  there 
must  be  something  in  a  religion  which  could 
change  the  conduct  of  the  whites,  began  to  return 
to  Christianity,  or  to  seek  baptism  for  the  first 
time.  The  Jesuits  were  indefatigable.  There 
was  no  tropical  wilderness  too  intricate  or  wide- 
stretching  for  them  to  traverse,  no  water  too  wide 
for  them  to  cross  in  their  hollow  logs,  no  rock  or 
cave  too  dangerous  for  them  to  climb  or  enter,  no 
Indian  tribe  too  dull  or  refractory  for  them  to 
undertake.  Their  only  weapons  were  the  Word 
of  God  and  the  language  of  love.  The  Jesuit, 
like  a  Christian  Orpheus,  would  often  go  up  and 
down  the  rivers  drawing  the  savages  to  him  by 
the  force  of  music  and  sacred  songs. 

The  missionaries,  apparently  becoming  con- 
vinced that  the  reformation  among  the  Spaniards, 
tho  sufficient  to  set  the  good  work  of  Indian  con- 
version in  motion,  was  neither  extensive  nor  deep 
enough  to  make  them,  on  the  whole,  desirable 
neighbors  for  their  converts,  obtained  from  the 
King  of  Spain  the  right  to  govern  their  200,000 
or  300,000  neophytes  with  entirely  independent 
authority.  Under  their  mild  control  the  Guar- 
anis  enjoyed  a  hundred  and  sixty  years  of  simple 
happiness  until  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  in  1767. 
"rhe  withdrawal  of  personal  and  minute  super- 
vision and  leadership,  as  in  other  Roman  Catholic 
Missions,  resulted  here  in  the  loss  of  all  that  had 
been  gained,  and  the  Indians  relapsed  into  their 
idolatry  and  savagery. 


Roman   Catliollc 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


North  America:  In  1526  Pamphilus  de  Narvaez, 
a  Spanish  explorer,  set  out  to  conquer  Florida. 
Accompanied  by  a  number  of  Franciscan  monks, 
he  landed  at  Pensacola  Bay  April  16,  1528.  Dis- 
heartened by  the  exposure,  suffering,  and  toil  of  a 
few  months,  they  turned  iDack,  and  on  reaching 
the  coast  built  frail  boats,  in  which  they  attempted 
to  reach  Mexico.  They  reached  land,  only  to 
perish  later  on  from  starvation,  sickness,  or  at  the 
hands  of  the  natives.  Little  is  known  of  the 
work  of  these  missionaries  beyond  the  fact  that 
no  regular  organized  mission  was  established. 

In  1545  a  Dominican  Father,  Louis  Cancer  de 
Barbastro,  with  three  associates,  proceeded  to 
the  coast  of  Florida,  where  he  and  two  of  his  asso- 
ciates were  murdered,  and  the  mission  came  to 
naught.  Another  mission  to  Florida  was  at- 
tempted by  a  number  of  Dominicans,  but,  like 
the  preceding  efforts,  ended  in  suffering  and 
death  for  the  missionaries.  From  1566  to  1570 
some  French  Jesuits  sustained  a  mission  near  the 
present  site  of  St.  Augustine.  The  first  success- 
ful mission  to  Indians  in  territories  now  belonging 
to  the  United  States  was  planted  at  St.  Augustine 
in  1573  by  the  Spanish  Franciscans.  This  mis- 
sion continued  until  1763,  and  had  during  this 
time  over  six  hundred  converts. 

In  1539  Father  Marie,  a  Spanish  monk,  at- 
tempted to  reach  the  Zuni  Indians,  but  succeeded 
only  in  planting  a  large  cross  on  the  hill  which 
commanded  the  Zuni  city  of  Cibola.  Of  the 
missionaries  who  went  out  with  De  Soto's  expe- 
dition, every  one  perished  before  the  remnant  of 
the  company  reached  the  coast.  In  1597  Fran- 
ciscan monks  made  a  successful  attempt  to 
establish  a  permanent  mission  in  New  Mexico. 
Thirty  years  later  this  mission  reported  over 
eight  thousand  converts  to  Christianity.  So 
rapid  had  been  the  progress  among  these  missions 
that  large  numbers  of  the  Indians  could  read  and 
write  before  the  Puritans  had  begun  missionary 
work  in  New  England. 

The  first  religious  body  to  do  missionary  work 
among  the  Indians  of  Canada  and  of  the  West 
was  the  French  Jesuits.  In  all  the  early  French 
exploration  the  missionary  idea  was  as  prominent 
as  that  of  the  extension  of  territory. 

Cartier's  commission  authorized  him  to  explore 
"in  order  the  better  to  do  what  was  pleasing  to 
God,  our  Creator  and  Redeemer."  De  Monts 
was  also  required  to  have  the  Indians  "instructed, 
invited,  and  impelled  to  a  knowledge  of  God,  and 
the  light  of  faith  and  Christianity." 

In  1608  De  Monts  planted  his  first  settlement 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Croix,  on  Bonn  Island. 
A  short  time  later  this  mission  was  transferred 
to  the  Nova  Scotia  shore,  where  it  received  the 
name  of  Port  Royal.  This  was  the  first  foothold 
of  France  and  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  North. 

In  1611  two  Jesuit  missionaries  began  work 
among  the  Micmacs  of  Nova  Scotia,  removing 
a  little  later  to  Deer  Island,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  Croix  River,  in  order  that  they  might  work 
among  the  Indians  known  to  the  French  as  the 
Abenaquis,  or  Abnakis,  and  to  the  English  as  the 
Tarantuns.  These  Indians  were  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Algonquin  tribes,  occupying  a 
greater  part  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  State  of 
Maine.  They  were  settled  in  villages,  and 
passed  most  of  their  time  in  hunting  and  fishing. 
This  first  mission  among  them  was  shortly 
attacked  and  destroyed  by  the  English  under 
Argal.  A  little  later  (1619)  the  Recollects,  or 
Reformed  Franciscans,  also  opened  a  mission  in 


Acadia,  but  made  their  principal  station  on  the 
St.  John's  River.  They  continued  their  efforts 
until  1624,  but  no  authentic  account  of  their 
work  remains.  The  real  work  for  the  Abnakis 
of  Maine  began  in  1642,  when  some  of  them  were 
rescued  from  captivity  by  missionaries  at  Sillery, 
near  Quebec.  The  captives  were  sent  back  to 
their  homes  on  the  Kennebec  in  1646,  Father 
Gabriel  Druilletes  accompanying  them  as  far  as 
Norridgewock,the  chief  settlement  of  the  Abnakis. 
Thirty-eight  years  this  devoted  man  spent  in  the 
effort  to  Christianize  the  Abnakis  and  other 
Indian  tribes,  traveling  great  distances  and 
enduring  every  fatigue  and  every  danger.  As 
Father  Druilletes  traveled  to  the  North  and  West 
as  well  as  to  the  South,  the  Abnakis  took  up  the 
habit  of  going  to  Quebec  to  see  him.  Many  of 
them  settled  at  Sillery,  which  station  was  moved 
in  1683  to  the  south  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  at 
the  Chaudiere  Falls.  It  was  not  until  1688, 
seven  years  after  the  death  of  Father  Druilletes, 
that  two  other  missionaries  were  sent  to  Norridge- 
wock.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  most  of 
the  Abnakis  had  become  Christians,  and  at  this 
time  the  Indians  of  the  Jesuit  missions  of  Maine 
were  equal  in  piety  and  devotion  to  the  priests 
of  the  seminary  at  Quebec.  The  wars  between 
the  French  and  English  now  disturbed  the 
progress  of  the  Mission;  the  country  was  devas- 
tated; missionaries  lost  their  lives,  and  after  the 
English  finally  occupied  Quebec  in  1763  the 
Mission  was  abandoned.  In  the  War  of  the  Revo- 
lution the  Abnakis  sided  with  the  Americans. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  a  petition  was  sent  to 
Bishop  Carroll,  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Mary- 
land, asking  for  a  missionary,  and  in  1784  one 
was  sent  from  France,  who  for  ten  years  lived  at 
Oldtown  and  ministered  to  the  Abnakis. 

The  nation  known  to  the  French  by  the  name 
of  Hurons  and  to  the  English  as  Wyandots  occu- 
pied, when  the  French  settled  Quebec,  a  strip  of 
land  to  the  south  of  Georgian  Bay,  about  75  miles 
long  by  25  wide.  They  numbered  about  30,000, 
living  in  18  large,  well-built, and  strongly  defended 
towns.  One  of  the  RecoUects  who  came  out  in 
1615  made  a  visit  to  their  towns,  and  on  his 
return  Father  Le  Caron  began  labors  among  them. 
In  1623  Father  Viel  took  his  place,  but  was 
killed  by  the  Indians  two  years  later.  In  1626 
Father  Brebeuf  began  his  long  and  faithful  ser- 
vice among  them.  War  with  England  resulted 
in  his  being  sent  out  of  the  country  by  the  victors. 
On  the  restoration  of  peace  he  returned  (in  1633), 
and  eighteen  years  after  the  first  missionaries 
entered  the  Huron  country  he  began  to  find 
converts.  In  1649,  however,  the  Iroquois 
devastated  the  Huron  country,  murdered  Father 
Brebeuf  and  his  companion  with  horrible  tortures 
and  put  an  end  to  the  Mission  by  scattering  the 
Hurons  in  every  direction.  Fragments  of  the 
tribe  moved  to  the  vicinity  of  Quebec,  and  were 
gradually  absorbed  in  the  population.  Others 
moved  westward  to  Green  Bay,  finally  settling 
at  Detroit  in  1702.  The  last  Jesuit  missionary 
among  them  died  in  1781.  The  last  remnant^ of 
the  Hurons  ultimately  removed  to  the  Indian 
Territory. 

In  1641  two  French  Jesuits,  Father  Charles 
Raymbaut  and  Father  Isaac  Jorgues,  were  sent 
to  visit  the  Chippewas  on  the  Great  Lakes.  Only 
a  short  visit  was  made  at  this  time,  the  intention 
being  to  return  soon  and  establish  a  mission.  The 
death  of  Raymbaut  prevented  this.  Fifteen  years 
later,  a  flotilla  of  Ottawas  appeared  upon  the  St. 


631 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Roman  CatUoIlC 


Lawrence,  seeking  a  French  alliance  and  asking 
for  French  missionaries.  Two  missionaries 
started  back  with  the  expedition,  but  were  cap- 
tured by  the  Iroquois.  Father  Ren6  Menard, 
altho  then  an  aged  man,  in  August,  1860,  re- 
newed the  attempt,  setting  up  his  little  cabin  one 
hundred  miles  west  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  near 
Keweenaw.  The  following  summer  he  was 
either  murdered  by  hostile  Indians  or  died  of 
exposure.  In  1665  Father  Claude  Allouei  went 
to  take  up  the  Mission  left  vacant  by  the  death  of 
Menard.  After  two  years  of  labor  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Superior,  AUouez  returned  to  Quebec,  stay- 
ing there  only  two  days,  and  returned,  taking 
with  him  Father  Louis  Nicholas  as  an  assistant. 
During  that  fall  and  winter  they  received  into  the 
faith  eighty  converts.  In  the  spring  of  1668  the 
celebrated  Father  Marquette  left  Quebec,  in  com- 
pany with  Father  Le  Boesme,  to  join  the  Ottawa 
mission.  In  1669  Father  Claudius  Dablon  was 
appointed  Superior  of  these  missions,  and 
Allouez  proceeded  to  Green  Bay,  where  he  spent 
the  winter  and  spring  in  ministering  to  the  needs 
of  the  Sac  and  Pox,  the  Pottawatamies,  and  the 
Winnebagoes.  Later,  in  the  early  summer,  he 
went  to  the  Monominees,  and  then  to  the  AVin- 
nebagoes.  In  1670  two  new  missionaries  were 
sent  to  the  Ottawa  tribes  on  the  islands  and 
shores  of  Lake  Huron,  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  In 
the  meantime,  Marquette  had  opened  com- 
munication with  the  Sioux,  but  war  prevented 
work  in  that  direction.  In  1671  Marquette 
established  the  mission  of  St.  Ignatius  at  Michili- 
mackinac.  The  Jesuit  mission  work  in  the 
Northwest  came  to  a  close  in  1781.  It  had  been 
the  fond  hope  of  the  Jesuit  fathers  for  many 
years  to  extend  their  work  to  the  Dakota  or 
Sioux  tribes.  In  1680,  while  Father  Hennepin 
was  ascending  the  Mississippi  on  a  voyage  of 
exploration,  he  was  captured  by  a  band  of  roving 
Sioux,  and  for  several  months  remained  a  captive 
among  them,  acquiring  something  of  their  lan- 
guage, but  accomplished  little  as  a  missionary. 
Other  attempts  were  made  later,  but  the  Jesuits 
never  succeeded  in  planting  a  mission  among  this 
people.  Following  these  efforts  of  the  mission- 
aries for  half  a  century,  the  Indians  of  the 
Northwest  were  engaged  in  war,  and  ultimately 
not  only  the  missions,  but  many  of  the  results  of 
their  work,  were  obliterated. 

The  early  history  of  the  French  Jesuits  who 
went  out  from  Montreal  and  Quebec  to  work 
among  the  Iroquois  is  one  of  terrible  suffering, 
bloodshed,  and  death;  and  yet,  after  all  this,  a 
foothold  for  mission  work  was  finally  obtained 
among  this  warlike  people.  In  1669  Father 
Reffeix  began,  on  a  tract  of  land  opposite  Mon- 
treal, a  mission  for  the  Iroquois.  The  mission 
was  named  St.  Francis  Xavier  des  Pres.  In  1647 
the  village  contained  representatives  not  only  of 
the  five  Iroqouis  tribes,  but  also  of  the  Hurons, 
Mohicans,  Eries,  Abnakis,  and  others.  A  form 
of  government  was  adopted,  and  laws  were 
passed  excluding  from  the  colony  those  who 
would  not  give  up  idolatrous  practises,  drunk- 
enness, and  the  changing  of  wives.  Missionaries 
were  constantly  engaged  in  instructing  the  people 
in  religious  and  secular  things.  In  1676  the  Mis- 
sion, now  numbering  over  two  hundred,  found 
that  it  had  grown  beyond  the  capability  of  the 
land  to  support,  and  emigrated  to  Portage  River, 
where  a  new  start  was  made.  In  1679  an  Iro- 
quois boys'  school  was  begun,  and  in  1680  a 
school    for    girls.     These    schools    rapidly    pro- 


gressed, both  boys  and  girls  learning  to  speak, 
read,  and  write  English.  The  breaking  out  of 
border  troubles  and  the  establishment  of  the 
line  giving  to  the  English  all  territory  south  of 
the  lakes,  including  New  York,  gradually  but 
surely  broke  up  the  French  missions  to  the 
Iroquois. 

Between  1717  and  18.33  twenty  Franciscan 
missionaries  labored  among  the  Indians  of  Texas. 
In  1769  Father  Junipero  Serra,  a  Franciscan 
monk,  founded  a  mission  at  San  Diego,  Cali- 
fornia. Many  of  his  associates  died  during  the 
first  months  of  hardship.  A  mission  at  Mon- 
terey was  founded  in  1770  by  the  same  mis- 
sionaries. Other  missions  were  established,  occu- 
pying the  entire  coast  line  from  San  Francisco  to 
San  Diego.  Into  these  were  gathered  over 
twenty  thousand  Indians,  who  led  regular  and 
industrious  lives.  It  is  said  of  the  Indians  of 
California  that  they  are  devoted  to  Roman 
Catholicism  with  all  their  hearts,  their  highest 
feelings  and  ideals  being  bound  up  with  its 
teachings. 

The  heroism,  both  natural  and  regenerate;  the 
humbleness  and  unswervingness  of  devotion  to 
the  most  dreary  and  unfruitful  field  of  labor,  the 
patience  and  sweetness  of  temper  of  the  heroes  of 
the  Roman  Church,  who  e.xplored  and  sought  to 
reclaim  these  vast  and  pathless  wilds,  form  one  of 
the  noblest  chapters  of  its  history.  Almost  or 
quite  all  the  original  missionaries  died  as  martyrs, 
commonly  under  atrocious  torments,  which  they 
always  foresaw,  but  from  which  they  never 
shrank.  The  heroic  Brebeuf,  before  his  martyr- 
dom, which  he  suffered  conjointly  with  P^re  Lalle- 
mont,  had  baptized  7,000  Hurons.  Even  the 
most  friendly  historians,  however,  lament  the 
measure  in  which  the  Jesuits  accommodated 
themselves,  never  to  Indian  fierceness  or  immor- 
ality, but  too  often  to  the  grossness  of  Indian 
superstition.  But  such  writers  also  condemn 
the  blind  hatred  with  which  the  English  followed 
them  up  in  the  inhospitable  regions  in  which  they 
bore  every  hardship  for  the  love  of  God  and  men. 

India:  The  first  Christians  from  Europe  to  enter 
Hindustan  were  the  Portuguese,  who  landed, 
under  the  lead  of  Vasco  da  Gama,  in  1498,  at 
Calicut,  on  the  southwest  coast.  The  dissensions 
of  the  many  independent  states  opened  the  way 
for  their  conquests,  of  which,  in  1510,  Goa 
became  the  capital.  Here  a  bishopric  was  estab- 
lished, which  was  then  raised  into  an  arch- 
bishopric, still  existent,  whose  incumbent  bears 
the  title  of  Patriarch  of  the  East.  His  metro- 
politan authority  formerly  extended  from  South- 
ern Africa  to  China.  Neither  Archbishop  nor 
Inquisition,  however,  could  accomplish  much 
amid  the  flood  of  sheer  ungodliness  which  poured 
in  from  Europe.  The  reputed  wealth  of  India 
brought  an  innumerable  company  of  adventurers, 
whose  unrestrained  profligacy  moved  the  indig- 
nation and  incurred  the  indignant  rebukes  of  the 
Hindus  themselves.  Meanwhile  the  uncertain  en- 
deavors of  Diego  de  Borba  and  of  Miguel  Vaz,  vicar- 
general  of  Goa,  to  extend  the  Gospel  accom- 
plished little.  They  established  a  school  in  Goa, 
it  is  true,  for  the  Christian  training  of  young 
people  from  India,  China,  and  Abyssinia,  which 
did  good  service  for  many  years,  but  there  was 
lacking  anything  like  a  fixed  plan  of  work.  At 
last  the  right  men  appeared  in  the  Jesuits. 

May  6,  1542,  the  illustrious  Francis  Xavier 
landed  in  Goa.  Of  the  high  nobility  of  Spain, 
distinguished  for  learning  and  for  eloquence,  he  , 


Roman   Catliolic 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


had,  in  Paris,  been  brought  over  by  his  fellow- 
Spaniard  and  fellow-Basque,  Ignatius  Loyola, 
from  visions  of  earthly  glory  to  a  burning  zeal 
for  the  cause  of  Christ  and  of  Rome,  which  in  his 
mind  were  so  absolutely  one  that  there  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  even  the  shadow  of  a 
suspicion  of  any  possible  divergence  between 
them  ever  fell  upon  the  simple  loyalty  of  his 
mind.  Of  Jesuit  astuteness  and  accommodation 
to  a  worldly  standard,  as  they  afterward  devel- 
oped themselves  both  abroad  and  at  home,  there 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  trace  in  Xavier. 
Sunny  frankness  was  the  essence  of  his  char- 
acter. Himself  one  of  the  original  Jesuits,  he 
followed  the  wise  temperance  of  its  policy,  and 
neither  affected  nor  shunned  privations  and 
austerities.  For  the  most  part,  however,  he  trod 
the  way  of  hardship.  He  watched  through  the 
night  with  the  sick;  visited  the  prisons;  trod 
half-shod  the  glowing  sands  of  the  Indian  coast 
to  care  for  the  spiritual  and  the  temporal  wants 
of  the  oppressed  pearl-fishers;  met  their  savage 
oppressors  with  dauntless  courage,  with  only  the 
cross  in  his  hand,  and,  in  the  might  of  the  spirit, 
by  the  simple  power  of  his  rebuke,  inspired  them 
with  such  terror  that  they  fled.  No  wonder 
that,  himself,  as  it  were,  a  visible  Christ,  he  soon 
counted  so  many  thousands  of  converts  from 
among  the  heathen  that  his  voice  often  failed 
for  weariness,  and  his  arms  sank  exhausted  in  the 
act  of  baptizing.  He  had,  indeed,  in  these  rapid 
and  myriad  conversions  to  submit  to  the  neces- 
sity of  leaving  the  greater  part  of  his  neophytes 
very  ignorant  of  Christianity,  altho  he  took  care 
to  have  the  catechism  translated  into  Tamil,  and 
to  supply  the  new  congregations  with  priests  as 
fast  as  possible,  leaving  them  meanwhile  in  the 
care  of  his  most  trusty  laymen.  It  does  not 
appear,  however,  that  Xavier,  whose  labors  were 
spread  over  so  wide  a  field,  both  in  India  and 
Japan,  laid  the  foundations  of  any  very  thorough 
instruction  of  his  converts.  He  might  have  done 
more  had  he  stayed  longer,  but  the  elder  mission- 
aries of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  India  were 
generally  indifferent  to  popular  instruction, 
while  the  modern  missionaries  have  become  con- 
vinced that  they  can  only  break  up  heathen  sup- 
erstition by  a  more  thorough  education,  and  are 
now  behind  none  in  their  zeal  for  it. 

The  results  of  these  early  labors  in  India  were 
scarcely  satisfactory,  even  to  the  friends  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  the  enormous  difficulties  presented 
by  Mohammedanism,  at  that  time  the  imperial 
tho  not  the  prevailing  creed  of  India,  and  the 
immovable  prejudices  of  Brahmanical  caste, 
finally  led  the  Jesuits  into  a  system  of  accommo- 
dation which  met  for  a  while  with  a  brilliant  out- 
ward success,  but  in  the  end  showed  its  hoUow- 
ness  by  its  collapse. 

A  Jesuit,  Robert  de  Nobili,  of  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  families  of  Tuscany,  and  who,  there- 
fore, had  all  the  aristocratic  habitudes  which  fit- 
ted him  to  play  his  new  part  to  perfection,  gave 
himself  out  for  a  Brahman  of  the  West  allied  to 
princes  (the  last  assumption  being  the  truth); 
perfected  himself  in  Sanskrit,  Telugu,  and  Tamil; 
performed  the  usual  Brahmanical  ceremonies; 
suffered  only  men  of  high  caste  to  approach  him, 
andreceived  these  seated  on  a  throne;  produced  a 
Sanskrit  book  which  he  declared  to  be  a  recovered 
fifth  Veda,  and  produced  the  sworn  attestation  of 
his  fellow-Jesuits  that  this  audacious  forgery  had 
been  received  by  them  from  the  god  Brahma,  as 
containing    a    mysterious    wisdom    which    alone 


could  give  life.  The  result  of  this  unscrupulous, 
falsehood  and  accommodation  to  the  ways  of 
heathenism  was  that  in  three  years  he  had  gained 
over  seventy  leading  Brahmans,  who  accepted  the- 
Christian  doctrine  of  God,  creation,  immortality,, 
atonement,  and  the  general  teachings  of  Christian, 
morality,  and  abandoned  their  idols,  but  who- 
retained  all  the  haughtiness  of  caste,  and  were- 
permitted  to  sign  themselves  with  the  sacred- 
ashes,  interpreted,  of  course,  as  having  only  a  so- 
cial significance.  That  they  were  allowed  to 
baptize  their  children  by  the  old  heathen  names 
does  not  signify  so  much,  as  in  the  early  Church  no- 
one  scrupled  to  use  such  names  as  Phcebe,  De- 
metrius, Diotrephes,  Apollo,  Hermes,  and  the  like. 

The  accommodations  of  De  Nobili  and  his. 
followers  did  not  disguise  from  the  Brahmans 
at  large  that  the  sages  of  Rome  proposed  to- 
them  ,a  fundamentally  new  religion.  Angry 
oppositions  arose,  but  before  long  30,000  con- 
verts had  been  gathered.  Separate  churches 
were  built  for  the  higher  and  lower  castes,  the 
latter  being  rigorously  forbidden  to  join  -with 
the  former  in  their  worship,  while  the  pariahs,. 
or  outcastes,  were  forbidden  even  to  approach 
the  priests.  Even  the  last  sacraments  were 
administered  to  them  at  the  end  of  a  staff,  so 
that  the  administrator  might  not  be  defiled. 

One  of  Robert  de  Nobili's  chief  associates  was- 
Juan  de  Brito,  son  of  the  viceroy  of  Brazil. 
He  brought  great  numbers  to  the  faith  in  the 
kingdom  of  Marava,  and  died  a  martyr  in  1693. 
Another  associate,  Veschi,  was  equally  able, 
learned,  successful,  and  heroic,  and  barely  escaped 
martyrdom.  He  lived  to  become  a  mor-tal  antag- 
onist of  the  more  enlightened  Danish  missionaries,, 
dying  in  1747. 

The  accommodations  of  Robert  de  Nobili  and 
the  Jesuits  to  heathenism  could  not  fail  to  arouse 
great  scandal  at  home.  The  rumor  even  spread 
that  De  Nobili  had  apostatized.  His  kinsman, 
the  great  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  himself  a  Jesuit, 
tho  better  informed  than  to  suppose  this, 
expressed  his  grief  over  such  principles  of  pro- 
ceeding, saying:  "The  Gospel  needs  no  such  false 
coloring;  that  Brahmans  are  not  converted  is  of 
much  less  account  than  that  Christians  should  not 
preach  the  Gospel  with  joyful  openness.  The- 
preaching  of  Christ  crucified  was  once  to  the  Jews 
a  scandal,  and  to  the  Greeks  foolishness;  but  St. 
Paul  did  not  therefore  cease  to  preach  Christ, 
and  him  crucified.  I  will  not,"  he  continues,, 
"argue  as  to  individual  points,  but  cannot  refrain 
from  declaring  that  the  imitation  of  Brahmanical 
haughtiness  is  sadly  at  variance  with  the  humility 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  that  the  observance- 
of  their  usages  has  something  exceedingly  dan- 
gerous to  the  faith."  Unhappily  the  pressure 
of  his  order  brought  this  great  and  good  man  at 
length  to  something  very  much  like  a  retraction 
of  these  sound  and  evangelical  principles. 

The  other  orders  were  naturally  scandalized 
over  the  Jesuit  policy.  While,  as  yet,  it  was. 
represented  at  Rome  that  nothing  was  intended 
beyond  an  allowance  of  certain  harmless  national 
usages,  Gregory  XV.,  in  1623,  had  issued  a  bull 
not  unfavorable  to  the  Jesuits.  But  these  took 
occasion,  thereby,  it  is  said,  to  push  their  com- 
pliances farther  and  farther,  until  at  last,  in  1703, 
the  Pope  sent  Cardinal  Tournon  to  India,  where, 
after  thorough  investigation,  he  suggested  the 
decree  by  which,  in  1710,  Clement  XL  rigorously" 
forbade  all  accommodations  whatever  to  heatheik 
usages. 


683 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Roman  Catliollc 


The  Jesuits,  however,  paid  scarcely  the  least 
attention  to  the  decree,  and  soon  obtained  from 
a  later  Pope,  Clement  XII.,  a  virtual  revocation. 
But  Father  Norbert,  of  the  Capuchins,  came  to 
Rome,  and  there  opened  the  matter  with  so  much 
insight  and  unreservedness  that  Benedict  XIV., 
in  the  bull  Omnium  sollicitudimim,  of  October  7, 
1744,  condemned  and  forbade  the  Jesuit  practises 
in  the  most  peremptory  terms.  Nevertheless,  in 
India  the  order  founded  for  the  vindication  of  the 
Papacy  became  its  antagonist,  mocked  at  and 
scorned  the  other  orders,  engaged  in  mercantile 
and  other  secular  undertakings,  until  these  things 
also  did  their  part  in  hastening  its  fall. 

These  conversions  around  Goa,  proceeding  from 
Robert  do  Nobili  as  a  center,  are  to  be  distin- 
guished from  those  in  the  more  southern  parts  of 
the  peninsula,  and  among  the  humbler  classes, 
who  did  not  provoke  so  much  disingenuousness. 
No  such  stain,  happily,  rests  on  the  memory  of 
Xavier,  He  had  his  share  of  Spanish  imperious- 
ness,  but  nothing  of  De  Nobili's  Italian  craftiness. 

The  result  of  the  collapse  of  Jesuit  missions 
in  India  was,  that  more  than  half  a  century 
passed  during  which  the  Roman  Catholic  Chris- 
tians of  India  were  almost  wholly  abandoned  to 
themselves.  Nevertheless,  when  Catholic  mis- 
sions were  resumed  over  a  million  converts,  it  has 
been  claimed,  were  found  to  have  remained  sted- 
fast  to  the  great  truths  of  creation  and  incarnate 
redemption,  tho,  of  course,  their  minds  had 
become  greatly  obscured  as  to  all  secondary 
Christian  doctrine,  and  overspread  with  many 
heathenish  superstitions.  These  numbers,  how- 
ever, must  be  too  large,  as  the  official  statements 
of  the  Church  make  the  number  of  Roman 
Catholic  Christians  (1901)  to  be  only  1,214,415. 
About  100,000  of  these  Roman  Catholics  are 
proselytes  from  the  Syrian  Church  of  India,  not 
from  heathenism.  There  are  also  534,000  so- 
called  Goa  Christians — Catholics  who  have  fallen 
out  of  communion  with  Rome  during  the  long  dis- 
putes between  Portugal  and  the  Pope  over  the 
right  of  nomination  to  the  Indian  bishoprics,  and 
over  the  prerogatives  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Goa. 

There  are  (1901)  7  archbishoprics,  18  bishoprics 
and  4  prefectures,  602  stations,  3,708  churches 
and  chapels,  809  European  missionaries,  349 
native  priests,  2,089  schools,  and  191  orphanages. 
The  Madura  diocese  comes  first  with  206,000; 
then  follow  Colombo,  198,120;  Pondicherry,  133,- 
770;  Quilon,  87,000;  Kumbakonam,  85,000; 
Mangalore,   83,690,   etc. 

Farther  India:  Roman  Catholic  missions 
were  established  in  Ava  and  Pegu  (Burma) 
in  1722,  in  Cochin  China,  1659;  in  Malacca,  1557; 
in  Siam,  1662;  Tonkin,  1627.  These  have 
developed  into  (1901)  1  diocese  and  15  vicariates, 
with  948,820  members,  512  missionaries,  527 
native  priests,  858  churches,  2,787  chapels,  2,342 
schools,  and  250  charitable  institutions. 

Africa:  The  Roman  Catholic  Mission  in  the 
kingdom  of  Congo,  near  the  mouth  of  the  great 
river,  began  as  early  as  1491.  A  vast  number 
of  negroes  were  baptized,  so  that,  as  with 
Xavier,  the  missionaries  could  hardly  hold  up 
their  hands  for  weariness.  P^re  Labat  puts  the 
number  of  .the  baptized  at  100,000!  Of  prelim- 
inary instruction  there  had  been  none;  an  enemy 
at  hand  moved  the  missionaries  to  enroll  as 
many  as  possible  of  those  who  might  soon  fall  in 
battle  in  the  ranks  of  the  regenerate.  The  people 
had  followed  the  example  of  their  king  and  queen. 
Soon,  however,  the  scene  changed.     "The   mys- 


teries of  the  faith,"  says  one  of  the  Dominican 
Fathers,  "were  something  of  which  they  were 
very  willing  to  hear.  But  when  we  began  to 
preach  the  moral  virtues  to  them — that  was  an- 
other matter."  A  persecution  even  unto  death, 
and  headed  by  the  newly  baptized  king,  broke 
out.  But  the  crown  prince  Alphonso,  soon 
coming  to  the  throne,  displayed  a  stedfast  zeal 
for  Christianity.  He  even  became,  tho  not 
a  priest,  yet  a  zealous  preacher.  It  appears, 
however,  that  he  did  not  demand  that  his  sub- 
jects should  forsake  their  polygamy,  but  did 
demand,  on  pain  of  death,  that  they  should  for- 
sake their  idolatry.  That  rude  mixture  of  super- 
stition, Gospel  and  force,  which  is  characteristic 
of  Catholic  medievalism,  was  shown  here  in  its 
perfection. 

Portugal,  with  the  profound  selfishness  which 
distinguishes  all  her  early  dealings  abroad, 
took  advantage  of  this  new  influence  in  Congo 
to  secure  enormous  supplies  of  slaves.  Depend- 
ent as  they  were  on  Portuguese  protection,  the 
priests  made  faint  opposition  to  this  iniquity, 
and  even  became  accomplices  in  it.  Soon  they 
declined  in  zeal,  and  the  princes  and  the  people  in 
interest;  "the  shepherds  became  plunderers;" 
it  is  said  they  quarreled  with  their  bishop,  and 
went  back  to  Portugal  with  great  substance.  Yet 
baptisms  went  on,  and  soon  Congo  was  pro- 
claimed "wholly  Catholic!"  The  court  relapsed 
into  the  deepest  dissoluteness,  which  remained 
proof  against  the  efforts  of  the  few  Jesuits  who 
came  to  Congo  about  1550,  altho  these  did  a 
good  deal,  temporarily,  for  religion  and  educa- 
tion among  the  people.  But  after  150  years, 
Christianity  is  little  more  than  a  shadow.  This 
closes  the  first  period  of  the  Congo  Mission. 

The  second  period  opens  in  1640,  when  the 
Capuchin  friars  arrived,  and  set  about  counter- 
acting the  heresy  of  the  Dutch,  with  the  help  of 
persecution.  They,  however,  fell  into  the  evil 
ways  of  their  predecessors  in  many  respects,  and 
neither  they  nor  the  Benedictines  were  able  to 
accomplish  anything.  In  1816  an  English 
explorer,  Captain  Tuckey,  found  "no  trace  of 
Catholicism,  except  some  crucifixes  and  relics, 
strangely  intermingled  with  the  amulets  and 
fetishes  of  the  country.  A  single  man  claiming 
to  be  a  priest,  with  some  sort  of  a  certificate, 
announced  himself  as  having  a  wife  and  five 
concubines." 

Within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  however, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  done  much  to 
redeem  the  errors  and  failures  of  the  past.  Mis- 
sions have  been  established  in  all  parts  of  the 
continent,  and  the  report  for  1901  shows  53  prov- 
inces (mostly  vicariates  apostolic,  and  prefec- 
tures), with  481,782  members,  1,084  churches 
and  chapels,  1,172  priests,  1,783  schools,  and  287 
charitable  institutions.  The  largest  communities 
are:  Madagascar,  67,500;  Egypt,  56,180;  Vic- 
toria Nyanza  (Uganda),  39,586;  Benin,  16,400; 
the  five  Congo  provinces,  15,081,  etc.  In  this 
work  the  White  Fathers  of  Algeria,  under  the 
lead  of  Father  Lavigerie,  have  been  the  most 
important  factor.  While  there  has  been  frequent 
clashing  between  them  and  the  Protestant  mis- 
sionaries, due  to  political  ambition,  there  has 
been  much  noble  work  done.  In  Madagascar 
especially  is  the  record  of  Roman  Catholic  work 
too  nearly  of  kin  to  the  type  that  caused  the 
failure  of  the  earlier  missions. 

China:  In  1294  the  Pope  sent  the  Franciscan 
John  de  Monte  Corvino  to  Peking,  of  which  Rome 


'Roman  Catliolic 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


634 


afterward  appointed  him  archbishop.  He  was  a 
genuine  missionary,  spared  no  pains  in  giving  the 
people  the  Word  of  God  in  tlieir  own  language, 
and  in  encouraging  the  education  of  the  children, 
as  well  as  training  up  missionaries  from  among 
the  people  themselves.  He  translated  the  New 
Testament  and  the  Psalms  into  the  Mongol  lan- 
guage, and  had  these  translations  copied  in  the 
most  beautiful  style,  and  made  use  of  them  in 
preaching.  .  .  .  He  had,  during  his  residence 
in  this  place,  baptized  from  five  to  six  thousand; 
and  he  believed  that,  had  it  not  been  for  the 
many  plots  laid  against  him  by  the  Nestorians,  he 
would  have  succeeded  in  baptizing  above  thirty 
thousand.  Finally,  however,  the  reassertion  of 
Chinese  independence,  under  the  Ming  dynasty, 
and  the  overthrow  of  the  friendly  Mongols,  drew 
after  it  the  destruction  of  Christianity,  of  which 
■every  trace  seems  to  have  disappeared. 

In  1517,  Europeans,  in  the  persons  of  the 
Portuguese,  reentered  China — this  time  by  way 
of  the  sea.  In  1.556,  for  services  rendered  against 
the  pirates,  who  have  always  been  so  formidable 
on  the  waterways  of  China,  the  Portuguese 
received  the  islands  of  Sancian  (Chang-chwen) 
and  Macao.  It  was  on  Sancian  that,  in  1552, 
Francis  Xavier  closed  his  heroic  and  consecrated 
life.  "Rock,  rock,  when  wilt  thou  open?" 
expressed  the  spirit  of  his  last  sighs,  tho  the 
words  were  those  of  an  earlier  missionary,  in  front 
of  the  frowning  seclusion  of  the  great  heathen 
empire. 

The  first  Roman  Catholic  missionary  who 
came  to  China  in  this  second  era  was  the  Pro- 
vincial of  India,  Nuiies  Barreto,  S.J.,  who, 
traveling  to  Japan  in  1555,  twice  spent  a  short 
time  at  Canton.  Neither  he  nor  his  immediate 
Jesuit,  Franciscan,  and  Spanish  successors,  how- 
ever, were  permitted  to  remain  long.  At  last,  in 
1582-3,  the  Jesuit  Michael  Roger,  after  some  five 
or  six  fruitless  visits  to  China,  obtained,  with  Paes 
and  Matthias  Ricci,  who  was  afterward  so  notable 
in  China,  leave  to  remain,  and  many  privileges 
from  the  viceroy  of  Canton.  The  first  public 
baptism  was  given  in  1584.  In  1586  there  were 
40  Christians,  but  then  persecution  broke  out. 
After  the  Jesuits  had  adopted  the  dress  of  the 
mandarins  they  were  less  annoyed.  In  1598 
Ricci,  already  in  high  repute  for  his  scientific 
attainments,  and  now  the  head  of  the  independ- 
ent Chinese  mission,  was  received  in  Peking,  and 
established  himself  permanently  there  in  1601, 
dying  in  1610.  He  is  accused  of  having  carried 
the  conformity  to  Chinese  usages  to  such  a  length 
as  to  have  dispensed  himself  from  his  vow  of 
celibacy,  and  to  have  married  a  Chinese  woman, 
who  bore  him  two  sons.  But  the  animosity  of 
the  other  orders  toward  the  Jesuits  had  become 
so  great  that  we  are  not  to  be  too  sure  of  the 
justice  of  any  particular  accusation  against  these. 
This  animosity,  which  seems  to  have  been 
strongest  in  the  IDominicans,  had  various  grounds. 
Jesuitism  had  an  alertness  and  flexibility  that 
reached  attainments  in  literature  and  science, 
and  drew  public  favor  to  them,  and  showed  a  wise 
consideration  of  circumstances  which  was  in 
marked  contrast  to  Dominican  practise.  Thus, 
when  the  Dominicans  asked  the  Jesuits  how 
soon  they  intended  to  introduce  the  discipline  of 
fasting  for  their  converts,  the  latter  replied: 
"Not  until  Providence  relieves  them  from  the 
continual  fasts  imposed  by  their  poverty."  In 
the  great  question  of  accommodation,  the  con- 
troversy turned  especially  upon  the  custom  of 


ancestor-worship.  The  Jesuits  argued — and  the 
emperor,  in  a  public  edict,  confirmed  their  posi- 
tion— that  this,  in  China,  is  only  a  civil  and  social 
act,  implying  nothing  in  the  nature  of  religious 
homage.  The  Pope,  however,  and  the  Prote.stant 
missionaries,  after  full  investigation  of  the  oppos- 
ing arguments,  have  decided  that  the  Dominicans 
and  the  other  protesting  orders  were  right  and 
the  Jesuits  wrong. 

In  1617  the  Jesuits  had  about  13,000  converts; 
in  1650  about  150,000;  in  1664,  257,000.  The 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  together  had  hardly 
more  than  10,000.  The  conversions  went  on  in- 
creasing until  toward  the  end  of  the  century, 
when  the  papal  decisions  against  the  accommo- 
dations allowed  by  the  Jesuits,  and  the  bitterness 
with  which  the  other  orders  and  the  papal 
legates  enforced  them,  led  to  violent  persecu- 
tions. One  of  the  legates.  Cardinal  Tournon, 
was  sent  to  Macao,  and  died  in  prison  there. 
Some  even  say  that  the  Jesuits  poisoned  him. 
Many  Christians  were  martyred;  much  greater 
numbers  fell  away,  partly  under  the  terror  of 
death,  and  partly  under  the  exasperation  of 
national  feeling.  Compromises  were  for  awhile 
admitted  by  the  representatives  of  the  Pope, 
which  somewhat  stayed  the  desolation.  But 
Rome  at  last,  in  1742,  in  the  pontificate •  of 
Benedict  XIV.,  issued  a  peremptory  and  irrevoc- 
able decision,  forbidding  every  accommodation 
that  could  be  interpreted  as  a  concession  to 
paganism.  Then  the  persecutions  broke  out 
more  violently  than  ever,  and  the  Christian  faith 
was  almost  rooted  out.  This  stand  of  the  Pope, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  taken  with  such 
haughtiness,  such  a  contempt  of  the  imperial 
representations,  and  such  a  determination  to 
carry  through  the  right  position  by  overbearing 
will,  that  the  emperor,  the  mandarins,  and  the 
people  gathered  the  deep  impression  that  if  they 
would  become  Christians  they  must  cease  to  be 
Chinese. 

At  various  times  the  devoted  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  in  China  underwent  various  perse- 
cutions— banishment,  imprisonment,  scourging, 
and  even  death.  The  first  actual  martyr  was  the 
Jesuit  Francis  Martinez,  murdered  in  1606.  The 
Dominican  Francis  de  Capillas  was  beheaded  in 
1648.  In  1665  five  Christian  mandarins  were 
beheaded.  The  regent  who  commanded  this 
was,  however,  soon  after  punished  by  the  young 
emperor  with  death.  During  the  exasperation 
caused  by  the  decree  of  Benedict  XIV.,  the 
Dominicans,  Peter  Sanz,  Serrano,  Royo,  Alcober 
Diaz,  and  the  catechist,  Ko  (Sanz  being  a  bishop), 
and  the  Jesuits,  Anthemis  and  Henriquez, 
suffered  death  in  1747. 

Only  obscure  accounts  are  accessible  as  to  the 
subsequent  resuscitation  of  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sions in  China.  There  were  still  hundreds  of 
families  in  which  Christianity  had  become  hered- 
itary, and  there  have  doubtless  been  many  con- 
versions in  this  century.  In  1805  there  was  a 
cruel  persecution;  also  in  1816  and  in  1820.  In 
these  later  persecutions  three  or  four  priests 
suffered  death,  one  of  them  being  Vicar  Apostolic 
and  Bishop  in  partibus. 

As  in  Africa,  so  in  China  the  last  few  years 
have  seen  a  great  advance.  Ronaan  Catholic 
missions  now  cover  the  entire  empire,  and  report 
(1901)  720,540  members,  4,126  churches  and 
chapels,  904  missionaries,  471  native  priests, 
and  3,584  schools. 

In  the  Boxer  outbreak    the  Roman  Catholics 


635 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Roman  Catliollo 


suffered  with  the  Protestants  and  maintained  tlie 
early  record  of  faithfulness.  To  what  degree  the 
political  ambitions  of  the  leaders  have  been 
responsible  for  the  troubles  it  is  difficult  to  say, 
but  sometliing  of  the  same  spirit  that  ruled  and 
ruined  formerly  appears  to  have  been  manifest. 
Japan:  Japan  had  scarcely  opened  to  Euro- 
peans when  St.  Francis  Xavier,  with  some  com- 
panions, hastened  thither  to  plant  the  standard 
of  the  Cross.  For  a  long  while  the  preaching 
of  the  missionaries  was  undisturbed,  and  in  less 
than  40  years  there  were  more  than  200,000 
Japanese  Christians,  with  250  churches.  Even 
three  Daimios  were  baptized.  At  last,  however, 
the  Shogun  Taiko,  or  Taikosama,  gradually  be- 
came jealous  of  the  missionaries,  suspecting  them 
of  being  agents  of  Portugal,  and,  after  the  tem- 
porary union  of  the  two  Iberian  crowns,  agents 
of  Spain  for  reducing  Japan  to  dependence. 

Taiko  began  to  persecute  the  Christians  about 
1582.  The  stedfast  chastity  of  Christian  maid- 
ens is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  causes  wliich 
inflamed  the  wrath  of  the  imperial  voluptuary. 
The  inconsiderate  zeal  of  some  Franciscans,  also, 
who  persisted  in  public  preaching  after  the 
Jesuits  had  discontinued  it,  is  said  to  have 
increased  his  displeasure.  On  the  5th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1597,  6  Franciscans,  3  Jesuits,  and  17 
other  Christians  were  crucified.  With  the  sound 
of  psalms  these  heroes  and  followers  of  Christ 
breathed  out  their  souls.  From  1598  till  1611, 
under  a  new  Shogun,  there  was  a  respite.  But 
then  a  fearful  revolution  of  sentiment  in  the  Sho- 
gun's  mind  brought  him  and  his  three  successors 
to  that  persevering  and  concentrated  cruelty 
toward  the  Christians  which  finally  rooted  out 
their  religion.  The  guilt  of  this  is  laid  by  the 
Catholics  on  the  Dutch,  who  revenged  the 
cruelties  of  Spain  toward  tliem  by  stirring  up 
the  slumbering  jealousies  of  the  government 
toward  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  toward  the 
Jesuits,  until  its  rage  was  so  great  that  all  com- 
mon forms  of  torment  being  too  little  for  the 
wrath  of  the  rulers,  they  exhausted  their  ingenu- 
ity in  devising   new  tortures. 

It  has  well  been  said  that  the  Roman  amphi- 
theaters never  witnessed,  in  men,  women,  or 
children,  more  resolute  heroism  of  martyrdom. 
Here  again,  for  a  good  while,  the  blood  of  the 
martyrs  was  the  seed  of  the  Church.  From 
Taikosama's  death  in  1598  to  1614  the  Jesuits 
baptized  100,000  converts,  and  for  many  years 
afterward  they  baptized  several  thousand  yearly. 
Some  apostasies  took  place,  but  in  general  all  the 
Christians — princes,  nobles,  men,  women,  and 
children — went  joyfully  to  their  doom.  "Chil- 
dren endured  the  most  terrible  deaths,  without 
giving  a  sign  of  suffering."  When  any  were  con- 
ducted to  the  crown  of  martyrdom  so  greatly 
desired,  they  would  be  accompanied  by  many 
thousand  Christians,  who  followed  in  triumphal 
procession,  praying,  praising,  and  bearing  lighted 
tapers  in  their  hands.  But  persecution  raged 
incessantly,  and  finally  outstripped  the  increase 
of  the  Church.  At  last,  in  desperation,^  37,000 
Christians  seized  the  fortified  place  Simbara, 
smce  known  as  the  Mount  of  Martyrs,  and  there, 
after  a  long  defense,  were  at  length  slain  almost 
to  the  last  man.  Then  were  published  the  edicts 
forbidding  "the  God  of  the  Christians,  on  pain  of 
death,  to  reenter  Japan."  Then,  too,  was  intro- 
duced the  requirement,  maintained  till  within  a 
few  years,  that  all  the  subjects  of  the  realm 
should,  once  a  year,  trample  on  the  crucifix. 


When  Japan  was  reopened  by  the  Americans 
it  was  discovered  that  there  were  hundreds  of 
concealed  Roman  Catholics  in  one  province.  A 
number  of  martyrdoms  have  taken  place  even 
since  then,  but  are  now,  of  course,  discontinued. 
In  the  absence  of  Bibles,  which  unhappily,  Rome, 
as  usual,  had  neglected  to  provide,  these  secret 
Cliristians  had  even  forgotten  the  baptismal 
formula,  and  used  to  baptize  their  children  "in 
the  name  of  the  Holy  Jerusalem!"  A  Jesuit 
missionary  being  asked  whether  such  a  formula 
would  be  valid,  replied :  "No,  the  Church  must 
have  her  rules.  But  God  is  very  much  kinder 
than  the  Church." 

The  present  number  of  Roman  Catholic 
Christians  in  Japan  (1901)  is  53,400,  and  there 
are  115  missionaries,  32  native  priests,  28  schools, 
and  20  charitable  institutions. 

In  Korea  there  are  reported  (1901)  32,200 
members,  39  missionaries,  9  native  priests,  60 
schools,  5  charities;  in  Java,  49,800  members, 
50  missionaries,  29  schools ;  in  the  Pacific  Islands, 
New  Zealand,  etc.,  219,210  members,  742 
churches  and  chapels,  421  missionaries,  and  479 
schools. 

In  Persia,  Turkey,  and  the  Balkan  States,  the 
work  of  Roman  Catholic  missions  is  confined  to 
the  different  branches  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
They  have  been  somewhat  successful  among  the 
Jacobites  by  methods  which  are  too  distinctly 
political,  but  elsewhere  they  have  not  won  over 
many.  It  is  difficult,  indeed  impossible,  to  give 
statistics,  as  the  figures  in  the  "Missiones  Cathol- 
ictp"  for  those  countries  include  the  Roman 
Cathoho  communities  of  Armenians,  Maronites, 
etc. 

Missionary  Organization  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church:  Rome  divides  the  whole  world  into  two 
great  sections,  terra  catholica  and  terra  jnissionis. 
Within  the  former  her  missionary  organization 
has,  properly  and  ordinarily,  no  application; 
within  the  latter  it  controls  all  ecclesiastical  per- 
sons and  processes  whatever,  archbishops  and 
bishops  themselves  being  subject  to  it. 

Terra  catholica  (perhaps  more  properly  terra 
catholicai)  is  definable  as  including  all  those 
countries  whose  governments  lend  the  support  of 
the  secular  arm  for  the  coercion  of  all  baptized 
persons,  whether  Catholics,  heretics,  or  simple 
schismatics,  into  obedience  to  the  Holy  Roman 
Church;  that  is,  to  the  Roman  Bishopric,  which 
claims  a  maternal  superiority  to  all  other  churches, 
that  is,  bishoprics,  and  claims  the  right  to  instruct 
them,  and  by  inference  to  govern  thern.  All 
schismatics  or  heretics,  therefore,  within  the 
limits  of  any  bishopric,  may  (it  is  held  by  the 
prevailing  opinion)  be  lawfully  compelled  to  yield 
obedience  to  their  CathoHc  bishop,  and  in  him 
to  the  Supreme  Bishopric  of  Rome,  which  possess- 
es throughout  the  Church  both  an  ordinary  and 
an  appellate  authority.  The  latter  is  chiefly  in 
use,  but  the  former  may  at  any  time  be  exercised. 
Wherever,  then,  the  civil  government,  being 
apprised  by  the  Holy  Office  of  the  Inquisitioii  (a 
commission  of  Cardinals,  of  which  the  Pope  him- 
self is  the  Prefect)  that  heresy  or  schism  is  pre- 
vailing within  its  jurisdiction,  lends  its  authority 
to  crush  it,  there,  and  there  only,  is  terra  catholica. 
All  the  rest  of  the  world— Christian,  Muslim,  and 
heathen — is  terra  missionis. 

Thus  in  Europe,  Great  Britain,  Holland,  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Denmark,  Germany,  the  Balkan 
States  and  Greece  are  mission  lands;  in  America, 
Canada,  the  United  States,    British   and   Dutch 


Roman  Catholic 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


639 


Guiana  and  Patagonia;  all  of  Africa,  except 
Algiers  and  Tunis,  and  all  Asia  and  Oceania. 

The  great  political  changes  of  the  past  half 
century  and  the  great  interest  in  the  United 
States,  as  well  as  the  loss  of  the  temporal  power 
of  the  papacy,  have  raised  a  question  as  to  the 
continuance  of  this  system  which  has  manifest 
disadvantages  as  well  as  advantages.  No  deci- 
sion has,  however,  been  reached,  and  as  there  is 
still  a  noticeable  distinction  between  the  two 
regions,  the  popular  and  even  legal  presumption 
commonly  recognizing  Roman  Catholicism  as  the 
predominant  religion  of  the  Catholic  countries, 
Rome  still  thinks  it  prudent  to  maintain  the  dis- 
tinction dissimiilando. 

Rome  has  no  different  agencies  for  proselytism 
of  Christians,  and  for  conversion  of  unbelievers. 
Any  country  which  does  not,  through  its  gov- 
ernment, give  effect  to  its  spiritual  subjection  to 
her,  is  indiscriminately  included  in  the  terra 
missionis.  Even  the  Eastern  Churches,  altho 
their  ordinations  are  acknowledged,  and  altho 
the  prevailing  Roman  theory  concedes  to  them 
spiritual  jurisdiction,  are,  nevertheless,  subject 
to  the  activity  of  the  Propaganda, which,  however, 
does  not  appear  in  fact  to  extend  its  operations 
among  them  except  so  far  as  they  are  in  Muslim 
or  pagan  countries. 

Rome,  however,  makes  very  important  dis- 
tinctions, within  the  terra  missionis,  between 
infideles,  schismatici,  and  heretici.  The  first 
term  includes  all  who  have  never  embraced  the 
faith.  For  the  conversion  of  these,  it  is  held,  the 
only  lawful  means  is  persuasion,  as  they  have 
never  been  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
church.  Heretics,  being  baptized,  are  subject  to 
her  jurisdiction.  For  the  restoration  of  these 
the  lawful  means  are  persuasion  and  coercion, 
the  former  being  preferable.  Schismatics,  who 
are  orthodox,  but  disobedient  to  Rome,  may  like- 
wise, as  occasion  serves,  be  either  persuaded  or 
coerced  into  returning.  Perhaps  the  only  simple 
schismatics  are  the  members  of  the  Greek  Church, 
which  is  not  impeached  by  Rome  of  heresy,  tho 
she  impeaches  Rome  of  heresy,  and  sometimes 
speaks  dubiously  of  her  orders,  and  even  of  her 
baptism.  The  Greek  and  even  the  Monophysite 
and  Nestorian  bishops  appear  to  be  often  recog- 
nized by  Rome  as  the  legitimate  bishops  of  their 
sees,  and  the  few  Greek  bishops,  at  least,  who 
chose  to  admit  the  papal  supremacy  were  re- 
ceived without  difficulty  to  an  equal  suffrage  in 
the  Vatican  Council.  But  in  the  Levant,  if 
Rome  spies  an  advantage,  she  is  very  apt  to 
forget  her  concessions,  and  to  thrust  in  her 
own  nominees  where  she  cannot  secure  the  sub- 
mission of  the  actual  incumbents.  Reordina- 
tion,  however,  of  the  Eastern  clergy  she  does  not 
permit,  even  where,  as  in  Abyssinia,  the  rites  are 
extraordinarily  irregular  and  defective.  The 
succession,  she  says,  is  unquestioned,  and  the 
sacramental  intention  is  sound,  and  sufficiently 
expressed. 

In  the  Protestant  world,  however,  she  is  not 
embarrassed  by  any  question  of  orders  or  of 
jurisdiction.  Only  as  to  the  Anglican  com- 
munion is  there  with  her  even  a  pause  of  thought 
as  to  the  former,  and  since  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth she  has  always  treated  the  Anglican  orders 
as  null,  maintaining  that  the  probabilities  against 
their  valid  transmission  are  so  overwhelming  as 
to  leave  her  under  no  obligations  to  pursue  remote 
considerations  and  abstract  possibilities.  And 
as   to   jurisdiction,    she    declares    even   the    Old 


Catholics  of  Holland,  Germany,  and  Switzerland 
to  be  void  of  this,  altho  she  acknowledges  the- 
validity  of  their  episcopal  succession. 

Protestants,  therefore,  are  held  to  be  destitute- 
of  all  the  ordinary  means  of  grace  except  the 
sacraments  of  Baptism  and  Matrimony.  She 
pursues  her  missions  among  them  almost  as  if 
they  were  heathen.  She  does  not,  however,  as 
often  supposed,  designate  Protestant  countries 
as  partes  infldelium.  Infideles,  as  noted  above,  is. 
the  technical  term  of  Rome  and  of  Trent  for  all 
human  beings  who  are  neither  baptized  nor 
catechumens.  Its  application  to  cover  heretics 
is  casual,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  official.  Partes- 
infidelium  are  those  Mohammedan  regions  whose 
ancient  Christian  cities  now  give  a  titular  dignity 
to  some  three  hundred  Roman  Catholic  bishops 
who  have  no  actual  dioceses.  As  they  are  largely 
employed  in  Protestant  countries,  their  former 
style  of  "bishops  in  partibus"  was  often  mistaken 
as  referring  to  the  place  of  their  residence,  and 
not,  as  it  did  refer,  to  the  location  of  their  nomi- 
nal sees.  To  obviate  this  not  unnatural  mis- 
understanding, the  present  Pope  has  courteously 
directed  that  they  shall  henceforth  be  known  as 
episcopi  titulares. 

All  ecclesiastical  activity  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  within  the  terra  missionis,  whether  of 
proselytism,  conversion,  or  ordinary  administra- 
tion, is  subject  to  the  control  of  the  Congregatio 
de  Propaganda  Fide.  This  great  and  powerful 
congregation  (the  term  Roman  congregation 
signifying  a  committee  of  or  commission  of 
cardinals) — subject,  of  course,  to  the  Pope's 
intervention  at  any  point — exercises  papal 
authority  over  all  Roman  Catholics  throughout 
the  Protestant,  Oriental,  Muslim,  and  pagan 
world.  It  was  instituted  by  Pope  Gregory  XV. 
in  the  year  1622.  This  Pope  was  the  first  pupil 
of  the  Jesuits  who  had  ascended  the  chair,  and, 
therefore,  was  naturally  interested  in  missions. 
The  Congregatio  de  Propaganda  Fide,  familiarly 
called  The  Propaganda,  has  permanent  authority 
of  administration  within  regions  yet  extra- 
Christian,  and  within  Christian  regions  until  they 
become  again  terrce  catholicce.  It  has,  of  course, 
its  seat  at  Rome,  is  composed  of  a  varying  num- 
ber of  cardinals,  some  being  non-resident  cor- 
respondents, having  a  Prefect,  a  Secretary,  and 
Prothonotary,  on  whom  the  practical  business 
mainly  devolves.  There  are  also  consulters  and 
a  large  force  of  officials.  It  also  maintains  a 
training  college  for  pupils  from  almost  every 
nation  under  heaven.  There  are  also  in  Rome  . 
various  national  colleges  and  monastic  training 
houses  for  missionaries.  Yet  the  whole  number 
of  pupils  appears  to  be  small  compared  with 
those  that  are  trained  for  the  priesthood  in 
Protestant  countries  and  other  missionary  juris- 
dictions. 

Where  the  Roman  Catholics  in  a  country, 
being  few,  have  never  been  organized  into  a 
diocese,  or  where  the  bishoprics  have  fallen 
under  Mohammedan  or  heretical  control,  there 
the  Pope,  as  having  ordinary  jurisdiction  through- 
out the  Church,  is  sole  diocesan.  The  first  stage 
of  organization  is  the  appointment  of  a  priest  as 
papal  representative,  with  the  title  of  Prefect 
Apostolic.  He  has  almost  unbounded  authority 
(under  the  Propaganda),  being  empowered  to 
station  priests  at  discretion  within  his  prefecture, 
and  to  grant  dispensations  almost  ad  libitum  from 
every  ecclesiastical  precept  not  included  in  the 
jus  divinum,  from  which  last,  of  course,  the  Pope 


637 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Roman  CutUollo 


Mmself  cannot  dispense.  If  the  mission  flour- 
ishes, and  there  is  a  call  for  a  superintendent,  with 
power  to  ordain  to  the  priesthood,  the  Prefecture 
Apostolic  becomes  a  Vicariate  Apostohc.  The 
•distinction  does  not  appear  to  be  a  hard-and-fast 
■one,  as  there  are  occasionally  Vicars  Apostolic 
that  are  simply  priests,  who  have  to  send  else- 
■where  for  new  clergymen. 

Almost  all,  however,  are  bishops  in  partibus, 
or,  as  they  are  now  called,  titular  bishops. 
Both  prefects  and  vicars  are  movable  at 
pleasure. 

If  the  Church  has  won  or  recovered  such  a 
following  (especially  in  Protestant  countries) 
as  to  warrant  it,  the  Pope  proceeds  to  organize 
a  regular  hierarchy  of  diocesan  bishops,  usually 
arranged  in  metropolitan  provinces,  each  under 
the  presidency  of  an  archbishop,  who,  besides 
his  ordinary  diocesan  authority,  has  a  certain 
right  of  determining  appeals  from  his  suffragan 
bishops,  and  always  presides  in  the  Provincial 
Council,  whose  decrees,  when  ratified  by  the  Pope, 
have  binding  force. 

The  diocesan  bishops  of  England  and  America 
are  not,  like  mere  vicars  apostolic,  removable 
ad  nutum,  but  are  understood  to  enjoy  fixity  of 
tenure,  like  those  of  Catholic  lands.  The 
■cardinal's  rank  enjoyed  by  the  present  Arch- 
bishop of  Baltimore  greatly  increases  his  influ- 
ence, but  adds  nothing  to  his  episcopal  or  metro- 
politan authority.  As  cardinal  he  has  no 
jurisdiction  outside  the  city  of  Rome;  and  as 
belonging  to  a  missionary  jurisdiction,  he,  and 
all  other  American  bishops,  are  still  controlled 
by  the  Propaganda,  due  regard,  of  course,  being 
had  to  the  more  developed  character  of  their  sees. 
The  bishops  enjoy  the  same  powers  as  vicars 
apostolic,  of  dispensing  from  ordinary  canonical 
restrictions.  These  powers,  granted  from  Rome 
for  terms  of  five  years,  are  known  as  the  Quin- 
quennial Faculties. 

Previous  to  the  institution  of  the  Propaganda 
missions  were  pursued  in  a  somewhat  discon- 
nected way.  Each  order  sent  out  its  missionaries 
for  itself,  who  rendered  account  of  their  activity 
only  to  their  own  provincials  and  generals,  these 
latter,  doubtless,  frequently  communicating  with 
the  Holy  See,  and  obtaining  from  it  such  sug- 
gestions, exemptions,  consecrations,  pecuniary 
subventions,  and  other  aids  as  it  might  be  inclined 
to  grant  and  they  to  receive.  But  since  1622  the 
control  of  all  missions  among  heretics,  schis- 
matics, and  pagans  has  lain  in  the  hands  of  the 
Propaganda.  Yet  the  bonds  of  connection  within 
each  monastic  order  are  so  strict,  the  authority 
■of  its  superiors  so  unbounded,  its  policy  and 
spirit,  'and  even  its  doctrinal  tenor,  so  specific, 
and  the  character  attributed  to  each  of  the  elder 
orders  so  sacred,  that  the  comparatively  new 
Congregatio  de  Propaganda  Fide  has,  doubtless, 
to  accommodate  itself  largely  to  this  distinctness 
of  action.  In  what  way,  and  how  far,  the  mission- 
ary operations  of  the  orders,  especially  the 
Jesuits,  have  been  actually  subordinated  to 
the  Propaganda  is  not  clear.  It  must  suffice 
us  to  know  that  every  missionary — Jesuit, 
Benedictine,  Franciscan,  Dominican,  of  what- 
ever order  or  of  the  secular  priesthood — is  sub- 
ject to  the  supreme  and  universal  episcopate 
of  the  Pope  as  ordinarily  exercised  through  the 
Propaganda. 

The  orders,  notably  the  Dominicans  and  Capu- 
chins over  against  the  Jesuits,  have  carried  on 
their  mission,  especially  in  India  and  China,  with 


far  more  bitterness  of  controversy  against  each 
other  than  has  prevailed  between  Protestant 
denominations  the  most  widely  remote.  The 
Jesuits,  indeed,  long  seemed  disposed,  both  among 
pagans  and  Protestants,  almost  to  claim  a  mo- 
nopoly of  conversions,  and  if  any  one  of  another 
order,  especially  among  the  heretics,  was  guilty 
of  a  success,  their  animosity  would  sometimes  go 
to  great  lengths.  These  internecine  wars  came 
near  to  ruining  Roman  Catliolic  missions  in  the 
Far  East,  but  since  the  suppression  and  restora- 
tion of  the  society,  which  has  now  an  almost 
uncontested  right  of  control  in  the  Church,  and 
which,  in  its  turn,  has  doubtless  learned  wisdom 
by  its  tribulations,  these  dissensions  no  longer 
appear.  The  Jesuits,  doubtless,  take  whatever 
fields  of  activity  they  wish,  and  leave  the  rest  to 
others.  There  appear  to  be  among  the  mission- 
aries but  few  secular  priests;  that  is,  priests  who, 
like  the  ordinary  parish  clergy,  are  subject  only 
to  the  general  authority  of  the  Church,  and 
not  to  that  of  any  monastic  order.  The  native 
clergy  from  among  the  heathen  are  probably  for 
the  most  part  seculars. 

The  Propaganda  has  been  richly  endowed,  but 
has  lost  many  of  its  resources,  especially  since  the 
loss  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope,  and  its 
present  (1901)  income,  about  $135,000,  is  barely 
sufficient  to  support  its  personnel,  college,  univer- 
sity, and  printing  establishment.  Roman  Catho- 
lic missionaries  on  the  field  are  expected,  so  far 
as  possible,  to  secure  their  support  among  the 
people  they  are  evangelizing,  but  where  this  is 
impracticable,  they  are  provided  for  through 
charitable  associations  founded  for  this  purpose. 
Of  these  there  are  several,  the  most  important 
being  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith,  with  headquarters  at  Lyons,  France. 
There  are  also:  The  Association  of  the  Holy 
Childhood;  the  Association  of  Oriental  Schools  in 
France;  the  Society  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  in  Aix- 
la-Chapelle;  The  Association  of  St.  Peter  Claver, 
in  Salzburg;  The  Leopoldsverein,  in  Austria;  The 
Ludwigsmissionsverein,  in  Bavaria.  These  all, 
however,  as  well  as  some  others,  are  limited  in 
aim  or  nationality,  the  only  one  which  can,  in 
truth,  be  called  a  general  missionary  society  being 
the  one  at  Lyons,  and  this  deserves  special  men- 
tion. 

The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith:  In 
1815  Bishop  Dubourg,  of  New  Orleans,  during  a 
visit  to  France,  interested  in  his  work  a  widow, 
Mrs.  Petit,  and  suggested  the  founding  of  a  chari- 
table association  to  aid  in  supplying  the  spiritual 
needs  of  Louisiana,  fixing  the  contribution  of 
members  at  twenty-five  cents  a  year.  The  sug- 
gestion was  enforced  by  earnest  appeals  for  aid 
from  missionaries  in  the  East,  and  an  effort  was 
made,  by  the  Seminary  for  Foreign  Mis.sions  of 
Paris,  to  revive  a  union  for  prayer,  which  had 
been  disbanded  by  the  French  Revolution.  The 
benevolence  of  Christians  in  Lyons,  in  1820,  wa» 
thus  turned  to  several  separate  objects.  Two 
years  later  a  visit  to  Lyons  of  the  Vicar-General 
of  Louisiana  excited  special  interest  in  -^.hat  field 
of  labor.  It  then  became  clear  to  those  inter- 
ested in  missions  that  if  an  aid  society  would  be 
permanently  successful  it  must  undertake  to  aid 
all  needy  Roman  Catholic  missions,  and  so  com- 
bine all  interests.  On  this  basis  those  engaged 
in  helping  one  and  another  mission  enterprise 
united,  and  the  "Work  {ceuvre  or  opus)  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith"  was  organized  at 
Lyons,  May  3,  1822.     This  name  is  commonly 


Roman   Catliolic 
Russia 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


63» 


translated  into  English  as  "Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faitli,"  and  so  produces  in  the 
minds  of  Protestant  readers  confusion  with  the 
great  "Congregatio  de  Propaganda  Fide"  at 
Rome.  But  the  duties  of  the  Lyons  "Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith"  have  relation 
to  the  financing,  not  to  the  establishment  or  con- 
trol of  missionary  enterprises,  nor  to  the  choice 
of  missionaries. 

The  Lyons  Society  has  branches  in  various 
parts  of  France  and  of  the  world.  The  seat  of 
the  American  "Societj-  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith"  is  at  Baltimore,  Md.  The  trustees  of 
the  American  branch  are  the  Archbishops  of 
Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  Philadelphia,  and  St. 
Paul,  and  four  other  clergymen.  Members  of  the 
Society  are  called  "Associates"  in  the  work. 
The  conditions  of  membership  are  two:  (1)  The 
recitation  daily,  for  the  assistance  of  Roman 
Catholic  Missionaries,  of  one  Our  Father  and  one 
Hail  Mary,  with  this  invocation;  St.  Francis 
Xavier,  pray  for  us;  (2)  the  giving  of  at  least  five 
cents  monthly,  or  sixty  cents  a  year,  in  alms  for 
the  missions.  The  usual  method  of  collecting 
these  funds  is  one  that  Protestant  missionary 
societies  might  well  consider  and  adapt  to  their 
purposes.  The  associates  are  formed  into  bands 
of  ten,  one  of  whom  is  authorized  to  act  as 
promoter,  with  the  double  duty  of  collecting  the 
offerings  of  the  band  for  the  local  or  central  repre- 
sentative of  the  Society,  and  the  no  less  import- 
ant duty  of  circulating  among  the  members  of  the 
band  the  periodical  Annals  of  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith.  Promoters  are  provided  with  mem- 
bership certificates  to  be  given  new  members,  and 
with  cards  on  which  to  record  collections.  The 
efficiency  of  the  system  and,  in  fact,  the  success 
of  the  whole  work,  rests  upon  the  faithful  dili- 
gence of  the  promoters.  The  Society  has  fixed  a 
day  in  May  and  another  in  December  as  a  time  of 
special  prayer  and  thanksgiving.  Various  popes 
have  granted  benefit  of  indulgences  to  associates 
in  this  work,  and  missionaries  offer  prayers  and 
say  masses  for  the  associates.  In  the  merits  and 
prayers  of  the  missionaries,  and  in  masses  said 
by  them,  both  living  and  dead  associates 
share. 

The  Society  has  two  councils,  chiefly  laymen, 
at  Lyons  and  Paris,  respectively,  and  these,  for 
ordinary  purposes,  divide  the  entire  field  of  mis- 
sion work,  but  act  on  common  consent  in  the 
distribution  of  funds.  No  funds  are  invested, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  each  year  the  entire 
receipts  of  the  Society  for  the  previous  year  are 
distributed. 

In  1822  the  Society,  through  its  central  body 
at  Lyons,  collected  about  $4,000,  of  which  one- 
third  was  sent  to  the  Eastern  missions  and  two- 
thirds  to  Louisiana  and  Kentucky.  Other  dio- 
ceses also  were  aided,  and  up  to  1900  the  Society 
had  expended  nearly  $6,000,000  in  missionary 
work  in  the  United  States.  In  1827  gifts  were 
sent  to  Africa  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  to- 
day it  aids  more  than  300  dioceses,  vicariates, 
and  prefectures  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Its 
total  distribution,  from  1822-1900,  was  $65,690,- 
017.  Of  this  sum  $1,120,420  went  to  the  Society 
from  the  United  States  during  the  same 
period. 

A  list  (see  Appendix)  of  Religious  Orders  and 
Societies  engaged  in  Roman  Catholic  mission  work 
shows  56  such  organizations.  In  addition  to  the 
clergy,  there  are  more  than  30  orders  of  Brothers 
and  125  orders  of  Sisters  working  as  auxiliaries, 


in  addition    to  the  lay-brothers,  catechists,  and 

other  native  helpers. 

Annala  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  bi-monthly,  Lyons,. 
France,  in  French  and  in  many  other  languages.  Ameri- 
can edition  pubUshed  at  Baltimore,  Md. ;  Mieaiones 
Catholicce,  Rome,  1901;  Actee  des  Apotres  Modernes,  Paris, 
1852,  4  vols, ;  Bigot  (J.),  Retation  ,  .  .  la  Miesion 
Ahnaquise,  Paris,  1858;  Daurignac  (J.  M.  S.),  History  o/ 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  translated  by  J.  Clements,  Cincinnati, 
1865,  2  vols.;  Montroud  (IM.  de),  Les  Missions  Catholiques 
dans  tous  les  Parties  du  Monde,  Paris,  1869. 

ROMANDE  MISSION.  See  Switzerland 
(French). 

ROODEPOORT :  A  settlement  in  the  Transvaal, 
S.  Africa,  situated  in  the  Potchefstroom  district. 
Station  of  the  Hannover  Lutheran  Free  Church 
Mission,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  5  out- 
stations. 

ROSARIO:  A  city  of  the  Argentine  Republic, 
South  America,  situated  in  the  province  of  Santa. 
F6,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Parand,  170  miles  N. 
W.  of  Buenos  Aires.  Population  (1901), 
112,461.  It  is  the  second  commercial  city  of  the 
republic,  is  well  laid  out,  with  neatly-paved,  gas- 
lighted  streets,  traversed  by  cars.  It  stands  on  a 
cliff,  80  feet  above  the  river.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate and  healthful.  Station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  17  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  7  places  of  worship,  10' 
Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  and  454  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  293  are  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  South  American  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  1  of  them 
with  his  wife;  15  women  missionaries,  1  native 
worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  2 
boarding  schools;  the  work  of  this  Society  extend- 
ing into  the  suburban  town  of  Alberdi. 

ROSE,  Rev.  A.  T.,  D.D. :  Appointed  missionary 
among  the  Burmans  by  the  ABMU  in  1851,  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1896  he  was  one  of  the 
oldest  missionaries  on  the  staff  of  this  Society. 
Most  of  his  missionary  life  was  spent  at  Rangoon; 
and,  besides  his  influence  as  a  faithful  missionary, 
to  him  is  largely  due  the  development  of  the 
Burman  Bible  Training  School,  which  became 
the  Burman  department  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Insein.  Dr.  Rose  possessed  a 
strong  personality^,  was  a  powerful  preacher,  was 
especially  gifted  in  opening  up  new  work,  and 
especially  wise  in  his  assistance  to  new  mission- 
aries, and  in  educational  matters  he  showed 
marked  ability.  He  passed  from  his  earthly 
labors  at  Rangoon,  July  5,  1896. 

ROSE  BELLE :  A  viHage  in  the  island  of  Mau- 
ritius, situated  about  150  miles  S.  E.  of  Port 
Louis,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1856),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 3  women  missionaries,  1  orphanage,  2  day 
schools,  and  162  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
45  are  communicants. 

ROSS:  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  Tembuland  in  Mganduli 
District,  about  25  miles  E.  of  Clarkesbury. 
Station  of  the  UFS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  25  native  workers,  17  outstations,  14 
day  schools,  and  364  professed  Christians. 

ROTUMA:  An  island  about  300  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  the  Fiji  Islands,  to  which  colony  it  was  annexed 
in  1880.  It  is  16  miles  long  and  4  or  5  miles  wide, 
of  volcanic  origin  and  inhabited  by  about  2,500" 
people,  who  export  a  considerable  quantity  of 
copra.  Mission  work  was  commenced  there  in 
1841  by  the  WMS  missionaries  stationed  at  the 
Fiji   Islands.     The   people   are   now   Christians^ 


639 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Roman  Catholic 
Russia 


with  21  places  of  worship,  37  schools  and  460 
church  members,  and  35  native  workers  in  con- 
nection with  the  Australasian  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odist Missionary  Society. 

ROTUMAN  LANGUAGE:  A  language  spoken 
in  the  island  of  Rotuma,  which  lies  north  of  the 
Piji  Islands.  Is  belongs  to  the  Melanesian  type 
of  languages  and  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by 
missionaries  with  the  use  of  the  Roman  letters. 

ROUMANIA:  A  kingdom  formed  in  1878  from 
the  united  principalities,  Wallachia  and  Moldavia. 
Its  independence  from  Turkey  was  proclaimed 
by  its  people  in  1877,  and  was  confirmed  by  tlie 
congress  of  Berlin  in  1878.  Its  area  is  estimated 
at  48,307  square  miles.  On  the  northeast  it  is 
separated  from  Russia  by  the  River  Pruth  and 
the  Kilia  mouth  of  the  Danube,  which  latter 
river  forms  its  southern  boundary  west  of  Silis- 
tria.  The  Transylvanian  Alps  and  the  Carpa- 
thian Mountains  form  its  western  and  north- 
western boundaries.  That  portion  which  lies 
between  the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea  is  called 
the  Dobrudja,  and  differs  greatly  from  the  rest 
of  the  kingdom.  The  climate  has  great  extremes 
of  temperature;  in  winter  the  cold  northeast 
winds  are  very  trying,  while  in  the  summer  the 
southwest  wind  is  scorching  in  its  intense  heat. 
The  rainfall  is  not  abundant.  Agriculture  is 
the  principal  occupation  of  the  people,  tho  not 
a  few  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised.  The  govern- 
ment is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  and  the  king 
is  assisted  by  a  senate  of  120  members  and  a 
chamber  of  deputies  of  183  members,  all  of  whom 
must  be  Roumanians  by  birth  or  naturalization. 
The  population  of  Roumania  is  of  very  mixed 
origin,  including  (1899)  6,000,000  Roumanians, 
269,000  Jews,  250,000  Gypsies,  200,000  Bulga- 
rians, 70,000  Germans,  60,000  Ma^ars,  7,000 
Armenians,  4,000  French,  2,000  English,  besides 
5,000  Itahans,  Turks,  Poles,  and  Tatars.  The 
population  of  the  Dobrudja  is  estimated  at 
175,000,  and  contains  a  larger  Russian  element 
than  the  other  part  of  Roumania.  The  Ortho- 
dox Greek  Church  is  the  ruling  church,  but 
Roman  Catholics,  Protestants,  Armenians,  Lipo- 
vani  (Russian  heretics),  Jews  and  Moham- 
medans are  also  found.  Education  is  supposed 
to  be  compulsory,  but  there  are  very  few  schools, 
so  that  only  about  three  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation are  able  to  avail  themselves  of  the  free 
instruction.  The  principal  cities,  with  their 
population,  are  Bucharest,  the  capital,  282,000, 
and  Jassy,  78,000. 

Mission  work  in  Roumania  is  carried  on  only 
by  the  colporteurs  of  the  BFBS.  The  entire 
Bible  has  been  translated  into  the  Roumanian 
language,  besides  the  Psalms  and  Isaiah  into 
Polish  for  the  Jews. 

ROUMANIAN  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the 
Grffico-Latin  branch  of  the  Aryan  family.  It  is 
spoken  in  Roumania,  and  is  written  with  Roman 
letters,  somewhat  modified  to  suit  peculiarities 
of  pronunciation.  In  some  respects  it  is 
closely  allied  to  Latin.  Wallachs  from  Rou- 
mania who  have  settled  in  Macedonia  speak  a 
dialect  known  as  Macedonian  Rouman,  which 
is  also  a  written  language. 

ROUMELIA I  Name  applied  by  some  European 
writers  to  European  Turkey  in  distinction  from 
Anatolia,  or  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  usual  Turkish  appellation  of 
European  Turkey:  Rum-ili,  which  means  "the 
Roman   People"    (or   territory).     Eastern   Rou- 


melia  is  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  southern 
part  of  the  principality  of  Bulgaria. 

RUATAN.     See  Roatan  Island. 

RUK,  or  HOGULU,  ISLAND.  See  Caroline 
Islands. 

RUNGWA:  A  settlement  in  German  Central 
Africa,  situated  about  35  miles  N.  W.  of  the  N. 
extremity  of  Lake  Nyasa,  high  up  on  the  moun- 
tain slopes.  The  chief  station  of  the  Moravians 
among  the  Konde  tribe  is  in  this  district  (1891), 
with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their 
wives;  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  boarding, 
school,  1  industrial  school,  and  27  professed 
Christians. 

RUNING-FU.     See  Ju-ning-pu. 

RURKI:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces,, 
India,  22  miles  east  of  Saharanpur.  It  is  a 
modern  manufacturing  town,  and  has  the  most 
important  Engineering  College  in  India.  Alti- 
tude, 887  feet.  The  place  is  rather  malarious. 
Population,  17,400;  Hindus  10,200;  Moham- 
medans 5,600.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1861),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his  wife;  2 
women  missionaries,  19  native  workers,  3  places 
of  worship,  3  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and 
112  professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
Mission  to  Lepers  (1886),  with  an  institiate  for 
lepers.  Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  57  native  workers,  3  places 
of  worship,  40  Sunday  schools,  26  day  schools, 
and  2,187  professed  Christians,  of  whom  826  are 
communicants.  Also  station  of  the  Scottish 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Church,  with  (1900)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  3  out- 
stations,  2  places  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  and 
2  orphanages.     Some  write  the  name  Roorkee. 

RUSSIA;  Empire  of:  A  vast  dominion,  next  to 
Great  Britain  the  largest  in  the  world,  which 
includes  eastern  Europe,  the  whole  northern  part 
of  Asia,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  Central 
Asia.  It  occupies  fully  one-sixth  of  the  land 
surface  of  the  earth,  but  is  peculiar  among  the 
great  empires  of  the  world  in  possessing  no 
colonies  detached  at  any  distance  from  the  main 
mass  of  its  territory.  ■  Its  area  is  860,282  square 
miles  and  its  population  (1897)  about  128,932,173. 

The  purpose  of  this  work  does  not  require  an 
extended  topographical  description  of  the  Rus- 
sian Empire.  In  population  Russia  comprises  a 
greater  variety  of  races  tlian  any  other  European 
state.  While  the  Slavonic  stock  predominates 
in  European  Russia,  the  Finnish  race  is  strong 
in  the  north  and  east,  extending  southward 
throughout  the  length  of  the  Ural  Mountains; 
many  Turkish  tribes  are  found  in  the  valley  of 
the  Volga  and  in  Russian  Asia;  other  tribes  of 
Tatar  origin  are  found  in  the  Crimea  and  the 
regions  bordering  the  Caspian;  Circassians, 
Georgians,  Kurds,  and  Armenians  people  the 
Caucasus  and  Trans-Caucassia,  while  Mongols, 
differing  but  little  from  the  Til^etan  type,  roam 
over  vast  spaces  of  territory  north  and  east  of 
the  Central  Asian  provinces. 

The  government  which  holds  this  vast  collec- 
tion of  races  together  is  an  unlimited  monarchy. 
The  Emperor  or  Czar  of  Russia  is  the  supreme 
head  of  the  church  and  of  the  legislative,  exec- 
utive, and  judicial  systems,  as  well  as  of  the 
military  and  naval  forces  of  the  empire.  The 
Holy  Synod,  composed  of  men  selected  by  the 
Czar  from  among  the  higher  clergy  of  the  Russian 
Church,  has  control  of  the  interests  of  religion 


Russia 

Sabseans 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


640 


throughout  the  empire,  »  procurator,  or  min- 
ister representing  the  Czar  in  its  deliberations, 
and  reporting  its  views  to  the  Emperor  for  assent 
or  otlierwise.  A  council  of  state,  whose  members 
are  chosen  by  the  Czar,  controls  in  a  similar 
manner  the  political  affairs  of  the  State,  a  Sec- 
retary of  State  reporting  to  the  Czar  its  plans 
and  receiving  his  orders.  There  is  nothing 
exactly  corresponding  to  a  cabinet  of  ministers, 
as  the  term  is  understood  in  other  European 
countries.  The  minister  in  charge  of  a  depart- 
ment of  affairs  prepares  all  plans  for  its  admin- 
istration independently  of  other  ministers,  and 
submits  them  to  the  Czar  for  his  supreme  per- 
mission. It  often  happens  that  two  departments, 
for  lack  of  joint  responsibility,  may  pursue  dif- 
ferent and  inconsistent,  and  even  opposing,  lines 
of  policy.  As  to  legislation,  the  Czar's  approval 
must  precede  any  elaboration  of  new  laws;  and 
after  the  council  has  discussed  it,  the  Czar's 
decree  alone  makes  a  new  law  binding.  This 
decree  approving  a  new  law  may  effectively 
issue  even  the  the  council  has  disapproved  it. 
At  the  will  of  the  Czar  the  ordinary  procedure 
of  justice  may  be  suspended  and  a  criminal  may 
be  punished  by  "administrative  process,"  which 
is  resorted  to  especially  in  political  cases.  Not- 
withstanding this  unlimited  autocracy,  a  surpris- 
ing degree  of  self-government  is  permitted  the 
different  village  communes  and  tribal  organiza- 
tions. The  tendency  increases,  however,  to 
centralize  authority  by  taking  away  or  restricting 
such  local  privileges,  and  also  by  supplanting 
languages  that  have  been  recognized  as  a  part  of 
local  privileges.  The  Poles,  the  Jews,  the  Finns 
and  the  Armenians  have  all  suffered  intensely 
from  the  determined  effort  of  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment to  extinguish  their  separate  speech,  and 
separate  historical  traditions,  if  not  their  separate 
religious  belief  and  guaranteed  liberties. 

The  religion  of  Russia  is  that  of  the  Greek 
(Eastern)  Church.  All  existing  religions,  how- 
ever, are  tolerated,  and  refusal  to  profess  the 
State  religion  does  not  disqualify  one  for  office 
or  full  enjoyment  of  civil  rights.  No  one  who 
refuses  to  accept  the  State  religion  is  called  a 
Christian.  From  the  missionary  point  of  view, 
Russia  is  noteworthy  as  the  one  government 
bearing  the  Christian  name  which  permits  in  its 
territories  no  religious  liberty  in  the  sense  of  free- 
dom of  conscience.  No  Russian  subject  may 
leave  the  sect  in  which  he  was  born,  excepting 
that  being  born  outside  of  the  Russian  Church 
he  may  join  that  church,  that  is  to  say,  he  may 
become  a  "Christian."  Any  missionary  propa- 
ganda except  that  of  the  Russian  Church  is 
strictly  forbidden;  and  any  attempt  by  dissenters 
to  teach  religion  to  members  of  the  Russian 
Church  is  a  misdemeanor  punished  most  severely. 
Through  such  laws  Protestant  missionary  opera- 
tions in  Russian  territory  are  made  impossible, 
and  the  heathen  and  Mohammedan  populations 
of  Asiatic  Russia  are  walled  in  against  the  Gospel, 
unless  the  Russian  Church  gives  it  to  them.  It 
often  does,  but  not  very  effectively.  At  the 
same  time  the  Russian  Government  permits  and 
sometimes  aids  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures 
in  certain  prescribed  versions. 

Mission  work  has  been  attempted  at  different 
times  in  different  parts  of  this  empire  by  the 
Basel  and  Moravian  Missions,  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  the  Scotch  Church,  etc.,  but  it 
has  never  been  of  long  duration,  owing  to  the 
repressive   action   of   the   Russian   Government. 


The  American  and  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Societies  have  accomplished  a  good  deal  in  the 
form  of  Bible  distribution. 

Russians:  The  Russians  are  the  most  numerous 
Slavic  nation,  numbering  over  65,000,000.  They 
are  divided  into  three  chief  branches:  Great 
Russians,  Little  Russians,  and  White  Russians. 
The  Ptuthenians  or  Red  Russians,  living  in 
Austria,  are  also  classed  as  a  branch  of  the 
Russians.  The  distinctions  between  these 
various  branches  are  rather  linguistic  than 
national.  While  the  great  mass  of  the  Russians 
belong  to  the  Eastern  Church,  3,108,000  are 
Uniats  (members  of  the  Eastern,  who  have 
united  with  the  Roman  Church),  500,000  Cath- 
olics, and  the  number  of  dissenters  {Raskolniks) 
is  variously  estimated  from  3,000,000  to  11,000,- 
000  and  even  15,000,000. 

The  Orthodox  Russians  use  the  Slavonic  lan- 
guage in  their  church  services;  so  also  do  the 
Uniats  and  the  Dissenters,  while  the  Roman 
Catholic  Russians  use  the  Latin  liturgy.  In 
their  literature  all  the  Russians  use  the  alphabet 
invented  by  Cyril,  the  "Apostle  to  the  Slavs." 
The  Russian  language  belongs  to  the  south- 
eastern branch  of  Slavic  languages,  and  is 
related  to  the  Bulgarian  and  the  Servian.  It  is 
divided  into  three  dialects:  the  Great-Russian, 
the  Little-Russian,  and  the  White-Russian.  The 
first  of  these  dialects  forms  the  Russian  literary 
language  of  the  present  day;  the  Little-Russian 
may  be  considered  as  a  distinct  language,  tho 
related  to  the  Great-Russian,  while  the  White- 
Russian  occupies  a  middle  place  between  Great- 
Russian  and  Little-Russian,  and  contains  ele- 
ments of  both  these  and  of  the  Polish  language. 
The  language  of  the  Ruthenians  in  Austria  is 
Little-Russian. 

The  origin  of  the  Russians  has  been  traced  back 
to  a  group  of  Slavic  tribes  who  inhabited  the 
country  around  Kieff.  They  lived  in  separate 
communities,  and  were  united  into  one  govern- 
ment when  Rurik,  with  his  Varangian  compan- 
ions, came  to  rule  over  them.  During  the  reign 
of  Prince  Vladimir  (972-1015)  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  Russia  from  Byzantium,  and 
with  it  the  productions  of  Byzantine  literature 
found  their  way  into  the  country.  Owing  to 
the  very  close  proximity  then  existing  between 
the  Bulgarian  and  Russian  languages,  the  Rus- 
sians copied  also  several  of  the  productions  of 
the  ancient  Bulgarian  literature.  The  most 
ancient  monument  of  this  literature  is  "Ostro- 
mirov's  Gospel,"  of  1053.  In  1224  the  Mongols 
invaded  Russia  and  ruled  over  her  for  more  than 
two  centuries;  and  altho  their  rule  did  not 
denationalize  the  people,  it  left  its  imprint  upon 
the  civil  administration  of  the  country,  upon 
the  social  condition  of  the  people,  and  upon 
their  language.  The  Mongol  dominion  retarded 
the  onward  progress  of  Russia,  and  it  was  only 
in  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  (1689-1725)  that 
Russia  began  its  emancipation  from  its  semi- 
Asiatic,  semi-barbaric  condition,  and  became  fit 
to  take  rank  among  the  European  powers. 

The  reforms  of  Peter  the  Great  could  not  be 
executed  without  producing  discontent  in  the 
land.  Before  his  reign  the  Patriarch  Nikon,  one 
of  the  greatest  men  on  the  patriarchal  throne  in 
Russia,  roused  the  indignation  of  the  people  by 
attempting  to  revise  the  Bible  and  the  liturgical 
books,  and  to  purge  them  from  the  errors  that 
had  crept  into  them  through  the  ignorance  of 
the   transcribers.     Nikon   was   denounced   as   a 


641 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Rnssla 

Sabseans 


heretic,  his  corrections  were  deemed  sacrilegious, 
and  a  great  many  people  refused  to  accept  the 
revised  books,  and  seceded  from  the  Church. 
These  were  and  are  still  called  Dissenters  {Ras- 
.kolniks),  and  altho  the  points  on  which  they 
■originally  disagreed  with  the  Church  were  puerile, 
they  have  clung  and  do  still  cling  to  their  notions 
with  an  astonishing  pertinacity.  In  their 
eyes  the  present  Russian  Church  is  not  a  true 
■Church,  the  Czar  is  an  antichrist,  and  they  only 
are  the  true  Christians,  because  they  hold  to  the 
old  faith.  The  Russian  Dissent  has  given  rise 
to  a  great  many  sects,  some  of  which  profess 
the  wildest  vagaries.  Nikon's  revision  of  the 
•church  books  is  the  one  used  now  in  the  Russian, 
Bulgarian,  and  Servian  churches,  and  its  lan- 
guage, modified  according  to  the  Russian  orthog- 
raphy, is  known  as  the  Church-Slavonic. 

The  Russian  Church  was  governed  originally 
by  archbishops  or  metropolitans,  ordained  by 
the  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
several  of  them  were  Greeks.  But  after  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453  the  metro- 
politans began  to  be  consecrated  by  a  council  of 
bishops,  and  in  1589  the  chief  metropolitan  was 
raised  to  the  rank  and  dignity  of  a  Patriarch. 
The  Patriarchate  lasted  till  the  time  of  Peter 
the  Great,  who,  in  order  to  curb  the  opposition 
of  the  clergy  to  his  reforms,  abolished  it  and 
replaced  it  by  a  Synod,  whose  head  was  to  be 
the  Czar.  This  is  the  present  system  by  which 
the  Russian  Church  is  governed.  But  tho  the 
Czar  is  the  real  president  of  the  Synod,  he  never 
takes  any  part  in  its  deliberations,  but  is  repre- 
sented by  a  substitute,  usually  a  layman,  who 
bears  the  title  of  ober-prokuror .  The  Synod  can 
do  nothing  without  the  sanction  of  the  prokuror; 
in  fact  he  is  the  Synod.  The  Czar's  preroga- 
tives, however,  are  limited  to  the  administration 
of  the  Church;  his  authority  does  not  extend  to 
matters  purely  spiritual,  and  he  cannot  interfere 
with  the  dogmas  of  the  Church.  The  constitu- 
tion of  the  Synod,  and  of  the  Russian  Church  in 


general,  is  such  that  it  places  the  clergy  under  the 
authority  and  supervision  of  the  government 
and  makes  it  subservient  to  the  interests  of  "the 
powers  that  be."  The  capture  of  the  Nestorians 
of  Persia  by  the  Russian  missionaries  has  been 
mentioned  in  the  article  on  the  Nestorian  Church. 
Politically  and  religiously  Russia  is  aggressive. 

In  recent  years  Russia  has  opened  more  than 
300  schools  in  Syrian  communities,  and  about 
$300,000  is  spent  every  year  on  these.  Russia's 
activity  in  Manchuria  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
Bast  is  attracting  world-wide  attention;  and  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  she  is  playing  an  intelligent 
diplomatic  game,  of  which  the  prize  is  the  control 
of  all  Asia. 

Wallace  (Mackenzie),  Russia,  2  vols.,  London  and  New  York, 
1877;  Hare  (A.  J.  C),  Studies  in  Russia,  London,  18  5; 
Kropotkin  (P.),  Memoirs  of  a  Revolutionist,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1899;  Pobyedonastseff  (K,  P.),  Reflections  of  a  Russian 
Statesman,  London  (Translation),  1898;  Palmer  (F.  E.  H.), 
Russian  Life  in  Town  and  Country,  London,  1901 ;  Norman 
(H.),  All  the  Russias,  London,  1902. 

RUSTENBURG:  A  town  and  district  in  the 
Transvaal,  South  Africa,  situated  52  miles  W.  of 
Pretoria.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Mission- 
ary Society  (1864),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  2  native  workers,  4  outstations,  3  places 
of  worship,  2  day  schools,  and  1,032  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  SPG  (1874),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary. 

RUST  EN  VERDE:  A  part  of  Paramaribo, 
Dutch  Guiana.  The  Moravian  Missions  have  a 
congregation  here,  of  which  the  statistics  are 
included  under  Paramaribo. 

RUTENGANIO:  A  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa,  situated  about  35  miles  N.  W.  of  the  N. 
end  of  Lake  Nyasa.  Station  of  the  Moravian 
Missions  (1894),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  3  of 
them  with  their  wives;  1  place  of  worship,  and 
18  professed  Christians,  "rhe  mission  has  also 
established  a  coffee  plantation  in  order  to  teach 
the  people  to  support  themselves  so  soon  as 
means  of  transportation  give  access  to  markets. 


SABJEASS  or  MAND^SAITS:  An  ancient 
people  of  whom  remnants  are  found  in  the  lower 
Euphrates  and  Tigris  regions  of  Mesopotamia. 
There  is  a  group  of  people  calling  themselves 
Sabseans  in  the  Hauran,  Syria,  but  Chwolsen 
says  they  have  no  real  relation  to  the  Mesopota- 
mian  Sabieans.  As  to  the  Sabseans  of  Meso- 
potamia, they  are  also  called  Nasoreans,  Zabians, 
and  Christians  of  St.  John.  Some  of  their  pecu- 
liarities have  been  expressed  in  theories  formed 
as  to  the  origin  of  their  name.  Gesenius  derives 
the  name  Sabasanfrom  Tsabo^/i  (Heavenly  Hosts), 
because  they  worship  stars;  Noldeke  and  others 
derive  the  name  from  the  Syriac  Subba  (wash, 
baptize),  because  they  practise  baptism  with 
diligence.  They  seem  to  be  entirely  distinct 
from  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mohammedans. 
They  are  isolated  from  other  races,  not  marrying 
outside  of  their  own  body.  They  are  quiet  and 
industrious  people,  occupied  in  raising  cattle, 
and  some  follow  trades  like  boat-building;  some 
of  them,  too,  are  good  silversmiths.  In  physical 
appearance  they  are  tall,  well  made,  with  good 
41 


features  and  fine  black  beards;  the  women  go 
about  unveiled  and  seem  to  be  taller  and  rather 
more  masculine  than  Mohammedan  women. 
On  feast  days  they  all  dress  in  white.  Their 
language,  which  is  known  in  Europe  as  Man- 
daitic,  is  a  dialect  of  Syriac  written  with  charac- 
ters peculiar  to  itself.  Priests  only  read  and 
write  the  language  and  they  refuse  absolutely 
to  teach  it  to  strangers.  Some  Mandaitic 
manuscripts  exist  in  European  libraries  which, 
however,  are  no  more  ancient  than  the  16th 
century.  The  Sabseans  of  lower  Mesopotamia 
were  numerous  when  Mohammedanism  came 
into  being  in  the  7th  century,  and  under  the 
Abasside  Cahphs  they  had  some  four  hundred 
places  of  worship  in  the  regions  about  Baghdad. 
The  Koran  mentions  the  Sabseans  along  with 
Christians  and  Jews,  as  people  who  have  a 
divinely  inspired  book.  They  themselves  have 
a  tradition  that  they  are  descended  from  the 
Egyptians  of  Pharaoh's  host  lost  in  the  Red  Sea. 
Sabseans  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  but  none 
of  the  three  people  there  called  by  this  name  can 


Sabfeans 

Saint  Tliomas*  Mount 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


643 


be  certainly  connected  with  those  in  Mesopotamia. 
During  the  brief  era  of  literary  and  scientific 
activity  among  the  Mohammedans  of  Baghdad, 
many  of  the  philosophers  and  astronomers 
patronized  by  the  Caliphs  were  really  Sabseans, 
according  to  Chwolsen;  it  having  been  the  prac- 
tise of  the  Caliphs  to  bring  together  learned  men 
from  outside  of  the  Mohammedan  fold.  The 
Sabfeans  have  a  sacred  book  which  they  hold 
in  high  veneration.  The  main  points  of  their 
belief  in  regard  to  God  are  that  all  things  pro- 
ceeded from  Chaos  or  "the  Great  Abyss."  With 
Chaos  was  the  "Spirit  of  Glory,"  or  the  King  of 
Light;  he  called  into  being  the  Hayye  kadima, 
"the  primal  life,"  who  is  the  supreme  God 
in  Sabafan  theology.  From  him  proceeded 
Yushamin,  Jehovah,  and  Manda  Hayye,  "the 
Messenger  of  Life."  It  is  from  the  latter  that 
they  derive  the  name  Manda?ans,  and  he  holds 
the  place  in  their  theology  of  mediator  between 
man  and  his  Creator,  but  is  generally  believed 
to  have  been  carnate  in  Abel,  Seth  and  other 
Biblical  characters  down  to  John  the  Baptist. 
The  Saba;ans  also  believe  in  a  host  of  demi-gods 
or  demons  in  the  under-world,  which  has 
numerous  hells  and  vestibules  and  guardians, 
and  from  which  spring  the  evil  of  the  world  and 
the  various  powers  that  control  the  sins  of  men. 
The  polar  star  is  regarded  as  the  central  sun  of 
the  sky,  and  when  the  people  meet  for  prayer 
they  always  face  the  north  star.  They  do  not 
have  fixed  places  of  worship,  but  construct  low 
houses  of  hurdles  for  each  occasion.  As  to 
their  relations  with  other  religions,  they  declare 
that  all  the  prophets  named  in  the  Bible  were 
false  prophets,  including  Jesus  Christ.  They 
have  deep  reverence  for  Abel  and  Seth,  and  they 
hold  that  Abel  was  incarnate  in  John  the  Baptist, 
and  that  he  baptized  Jesus  by  mistake.  They 
hold  that  Mohammed  was  a  false  prophet.  As 
to  religious  rites,  they  observe  Sunday  as  a 
feast-day  and  perform  the  rite  of  baptism 
every  Sunday,  primarily,  somewhat  as  the 
Mohammedans  do,  with  the  idea  of  preparing 
for  worship.  These  Sunday  baptisms  are  by 
immersion.  They  have  several  religious  feasts 
during  the  year,  the  chief  one  lasting  five  days, 
when  all  of  them  are  baptized,  by  sprinkling, 
three  times  a  day.  Their  most  impoTtant  ser- 
vice has  been  described  as  held  at  midnight,  when 
every  one  on  arriving  at  the  appointed  place  goes 
into  the  hurdle  hut  provided  for  the  purpose, 
bathes  in  water  and  puts  on  white  clothes  before 
joinino;  the  circle  of  worshipers.  The  sacred 
book  lies  open  on  the  altar,  the  priest  takes  one 
of  two  pigeons,  holds  it  up  to  the  north  star  and 
sets  it  free,  while  reciting  a  prayer  of  adoration 
of  the  "Living  one."  Then  while  the  assistant 
reads  from  the  book,  the  High  Priest  takes  fresh 
baked  cakes,  and,  cutting  the  throat  of  the  other 
pigeon,  drops  four  drops  of  blood  on  each  cake 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cross;  he  then  puts  a 
cake  into  the  mouth  of  each  worshiper,  saying, 
"Be  marked  with  the  sign  of  the  Living  one." 
The  pigeon  is  then  buried  with  ceremony  behind 
the  altar.  This  curious  people  appears  to  be 
dying  out.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  between 
four  and  five  thousand  living  near  Amara,  Suk- 
es-shiukh,  Basra,  and  Mohammera. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  736;  Noldeke, 
Mandaische  Grammalik .  Halle,  1876;  Prideaux,  Sketch  of 
Sabean  Orammar  (in  Trans.  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,  Vol.  V  ); 
Ainsworth,  Euphrates  Expedition  in  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nioa;  Brandot  (W.),  Mandaische  Schriften,  1895;  Chwolsen, 
Die  Ssabier  und  derr  Ssabismus,  St.  Petersburg,  1856. 


SACHIAPURAM:  A  village  in  Tinnevelli, 
Madras,  India,  situated  N.  by  W.  of  Tinnevelli 
town.     Station  of  the  CEZMS  (1881),  with  (1903) 

2  women  missionaries,  37  native  workers,  11  day 
schools,  and  481  Zenana  pupils.  The  place  is 
called  North  Tinnevelli  by  the  Society. 

SAFED:  A  town,  formerly  of  considerable 
note,  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  western  coast  of 
the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  Asiatic  Turkey,  65  miles 
west  of  Damascus.  Station  of  the  London  Jews 
Society  (1843),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary  and  1  hospitak 
Station  also  of  thelJFS  Jewish  Mission  Committee 
(1889),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  10  native  workers,  3  day  schools, 
and  1  dispensary.     Also  station  of  the  CA. 

SAFFI:  A  town  and  seaport  of  Morocco,  situ- 
ated on  the  W.  coast,  about  70  miles  N.  E.  of 
Mogador.  Population,  9,000.  Station  of  the 
Southern  Morocco  Mission  (1892),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  dispensary. 

SAGA:  A  town  on  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  Japan, 
situated  45  miles  N.  E.  of  Nagasaki.  Population, 
25,000.  Station  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  South  (1893),  with  3  missionaries 
and  their  wives.  Also  station  of  the  RCA  (1895), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  9  native  workers, 
1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  12  out- 
stations,  and  150  professed  Christians. 

SAHARANPUR:  A  town  in  the  United  Prov- 
inces, India,  situated  in  the  Meerut  division,  130 
miles  S.  E.  of  Ludhiana.  A  large  town,  rather 
substantially  built,  and  steadily  improving  in 
appearance  and  increasing  in  importance. 
Owing  to  its  low,  moist  situation  it  was  very 
unhealthful,  but  modern  sanitary  improvements 
have  somewhat  remedied  this  evil.  Station  of 
the  PN  (1836),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  1  woman  missionary,  13  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  6 
day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  theological 
class,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispensary,  2  leper 
institutes,  1  orphanage,  and  101  communicant 
Christians.     Some  write  the  name  Saharanpore. 

SAINT  ANN:  A  town  and  seaport  in  Jamaica, 
West  Indies,  situated  in  the  central  part  on  the 
N.  coast  of  the  island.  Station  of  the  UMFC 
(1838),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  40  native 
workers,  5  places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools, 

3  day  schools,  and  358  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  281  are  communicants.  The  name  is 
sometimes  written  Saint  Ann's. 

SAINT  AUGUSTIN:  A  village  in  Madagascar, 
situated  on  the  S.  W,.  coast,  15  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Tullear.  Station  of  the  United  Norwegian 
Church  in  America,  with  (1900)  5  missionaries, 
1  of  them  with  his  wife;  3  women  missionaries, 
20  native  workers,  18  outstations,  18  day  schools, 
1  boarding  school,  and  100  professed  Christians. 

SAINT     CHRISCHONA     PILGRIM    MISSION 

{Pilger  MissionvonSt.  Chrischonabei Basel):  This 
Society,  organized  first  (1840)  by  Pastor  Spittler 
of  St.  Chrischona,  as  a  mission  school,  developed 
about  1860,  a  well-known  and  rather  ambitious 
project  for  missions  in  Abyssinia,  one  feature  of 
which  was  the  "Apostelstrasse"  (Road  of  the 
Apostles),  consisting  of  a  series  of  stations  which 
were  to  connect  Jerusalem  and  Abyssinia.  The 
selection  included  Alexandria,  Cairo,  Assuan, 
Khartum,  and  Metammeh.  Only  two,  how- 
ever, Cairo  and  Alexandria,  were  occupied,  and 
the  severity  of  conditions  in  Abyssinia   and  the 


643 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Sabaeans 
Sulnt  Thomas'  JMonnt 


Sudan  led  to  the  giving  up  of  the  worlv.  The 
institute  continued,  but  sent  its  graduates  to 
other  societies  and  interested  itself  more  espe- 
cially in  evangelistic  work.  Since  1895,  how- 
ever, it  has  resumed  foreign  work  as  a  recognized 
branch  of  the  China  Inland  Mission.  It  occu- 
pies (1902)  4  stations,  with  5  missionaries,  and 
reports  statistics  through  the  CIM. 
SAINT  CUTHBERT'S.  See  Tsolo. 
SAINT  CROIX:  One  of  the  West  Indies.  It 
has  been  a  Danish  possession  since  1716.  It  has 
an  area  of  74  square  miles  and  an  estimated  popu- 
lation of  18,000.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
free  negroes,  and  are  engaged  in  the  raising  of 
sugarcane  and  the  manufacture  of  rum. 

The  Moravian  Brethren  commenced  their  mis- 
sion to  the  Danish  West  Indies  at  this  island  in 
1754,  and  now  have  stations  at  Friedensthal, 
Friedensberg,  and  Friedensteld.  The  Danish 
Lutheran  Church  has  also  quite  a  membership 
here. 

SAINT  EUSTACHE:  One  of  the  Dutch  West 
Indies,  and  forms  part  of  the  colony  of  Curafao. 
It  contains  a  population  of  3,000  in  its  area  of 
7  square  miles.  Mission  station  of  Wesleyan 
Methodist  West  Indian  Conference. 

SAINT  HELENA :  An  island  belonging  to  Great 
Britain  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  1,200  miles  west 
of  Africa  and  2,000  miles  east  of  South  America. 
Area,  47  square  miles.  Population,  5,000, 
negroes  and  half-breeds.  Mission  field  of  the 
SPG:  3  stations,  St.  Paul's,  Jamestown,  Long- 
wood,  with  450  communicants.  There  are  also 
1  Roman  Catholic  and  2  Baptist  chapels. 

SAINT  JAN,  or  SAINT  JOHN :  One  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  the  West  Indies;  has  an  area  of  21 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  1,000, 
among  whom  the  Moravian  Brethren  com- 
menced work  in  1754,  with  stations  at  Bethany 
and  Emmaus  (see  St.  Thomas).  Mission  field  of 
the   Danish   Missionary   Society. 

SAINT  JOHN'S:  The  chief  town  on  the  island 
of  Antigua,  West  Indies,  situated  on  the  W. 
coast.  It  is  the  seat  of  government  for  the 
British  colony  of  the  Leeward  Islands.  Popula- 
tion, 10,000,  chiefly  pure  negroes  and  mulattoes. 
A  station  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  opened  in 
1756  by  a  missionary  from  the  Danish  Islands, 
who  was  moved  by  the  miserable  spiritual  con- 
dition of  the  negro  population  in  Antigua  to 
come  to  their  assistance.  He  accomplished 
much,  and  his  work  is  now  (1903)  being  carried 
on  by  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  woman 
missionary,  31  native  workers,  2  outstations,  3 
places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  2  day 
schools,  1  theological  school,  and  887  com- 
municant Christians. 

SAINT  KITT'S,  or  SAINT  CHRISTOPHER: 
One  of  the  Leeward  Group  of  the  British  West 
Indies.  Its  greatest  length  is  23  miles,  and  it  con- 
tains an  area  of  65  square  miles,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  45,000.  The  island  is  of  volcanic 
origin,  the  scenery  is  rich  and  beautiful,  and  the 
soil  is  fertile  and  well  watered.  Basseterre,  with 
a  populfition  of  7,000,  is  the  capital.  Mission 
field  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  with  stations  at 
Bethesda,  Basseterre,  Bethel,  and  Eastbridge. 
The  Wesleyan  Method'sts  have  been  for  years 
active  on  this  field. 

SAINT  LUCIA :  One  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
British  West  Indies,  has  an  area  of  122  square 
miles,  with  a  population  about  50,000,  principally 


negroes  and  half-breeds.  Chief  town,  Castries. 
Little  success  in  the  Protestant  Mission  on  this 
island.  A  number  of  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished, with  many  pupils  in  attendance. 

SAINT  MARY'S  ISLAND:  A  large  island  off  the 
coast  of  Gambia,  West  Africa,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Gambia  River,  east  of  Cape  St.  Mary.  The 
principal  city  on  the  island  is  Bathurst.  Mission 
station  of  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  with 
a  force  of  6  missionaries,  40  native  helpers,  6 
chapels,  and  5  schools  containing  about  1,000 
pupils. 

SAINT  PETER'S  (Indian  Settlement) :  A  village 
in  Canada,  situated  on  the  S.  end  of  Lake  Winni- 
peg, apout  40  miles  N.  E.  of  Winnipeg.  Station 
of  the  CMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  17  native  workers,  1,135  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  355  are  communicants;  6  day 
schools,  and  1  Sunday  school. 

SAINT  PAUL  DE  LOANDA:  Capital  of  the 
province  of  Loanda,  in  the  Portuguese  Colony  of 
Angola,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  a  beautiful  landlocked  harbor,  sixty 
miles  by  sea  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Quanza. 
Its  population,  estimated  at  about  20,000,  con- 
sists of  a  few  hundred  Portuguese,  and  the  rest 
are  negroes. 

SAINT  THOMAS:  A  town  on  the  island  of  St. 
T.,  West  Indies.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on 
three  hills  on  the  south  coast,  overlooking  a  fine' 
harbor.  For  many  years  it  was  the  terminuS' 
of  several  steamship  lines,  a  depot  for  the  sur- 
rounding islands,  and  a  port  of  call  for  vessels  of 
all  nations;  but  the  laying  of  West  India  tele- 
graph cable  greatly  changed  these  conditions,  and 
its  commercial  importance  is  rapidly  declining. 
It  is  the  residence  of  the  Danish  governor.  The 
inhabitants  are  largely  negroes.  In  1843  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  who  had  hitherto  confined 
their  labors  to  the  sugar  plantations,  found  it 
necessary  to  provide  instruction  for  the  many 
converts  who  had  come  to  the  town  to  live, 
and  a  place  of  worship  was  procured  near  the 
center  of  the  town,  where  a  school  and  preach- 
ing services  were  held.  In  1882  a  fine  new 
building  was  completed,  and  was  a  memorial 
church  of  the  150th  anniversary  of  the  beginning 
of  Moravian  Missions.  The  Danish  Govern- 
ment provided  schools  and  churches  for  the 
people  at  a  very  early  date  in  their  occupancy  of 
the  island.  The  Moravian  Mission  now  (1903) 
has  there  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  14  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school,  and  421  communicant  Christians.  The 
town  is  also  known  as  Charlotte  Amalie. 

SAINT  THOMAS:  One  of  the  West  India  Islands 
belonging  to  Denmark  (1716);  has  an  area  of  23 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  14,389,  mostly 
negroes.  Sugar,,  and  rum  are  the  products. 
Mission  field  of  the  Moravian  Brethren  (1732), 
with  stations  at  New  Herrnhut,  Nisky,  and  St. 
Thomas. 

SAINT  THOMAS'  MOUNT:  A  town  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  Chengelpat  district,  7  miles 
S.  W.  of  the  Government  House  in  Madras.  It  is 
also  a  military  station.  On  the  summit  of  the 
Mount  is  a  Portuguese  Church,  on  the  spot  where 
in  1547  the  "Mount  Cross"  was  found.  Pop- 
ulation, 13,000,  of  whom  9,600  are  Hindus. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  56  native  work- 
ers, 12  outstations,  3  places  of  worship,  19  Sun- 


Saint  Vinocnt 
Saiig'-yoiis 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


644 


day  schools,  20  day  schools,  and  292  professed 
'Christians. 

SAINT  VINCENT :  One  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
West  Indies;  is  a  British  colonial  possession 
(1763),  under  an  administrator  and  colonial 
secretary.  Its  area  is  122  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation (1888),  46,872,  mainly  negroes  and  half- 
breeds.  Kingston  is  the  capital;  population, 
5,393.     Mission  field  of  the  WMS  and  SPG. 

SAKANJIMBA:  A  settlement  in  Portuguese 
West  Africa  (Angola),  situated  in  Benguella 
about  35  miles  N.  E.  of  IBailundu.  Station  of  the 
ABCFM  (1893),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  woman  missionary,  5  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations,  2  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  kinder- 
garten. 

SALATIGA:  A  town  and  district  in  Java, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  in  the  central  part  of 
the  island,  about  35  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Samarang. 
Station  of  the  Neukirchen  Mission  Institute 
(1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 
Church  statistics  are  included  under  Samarang. 

SALEM:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated  in 
the  Salem  district,  110  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Cud- 
■dalore.  Population  (1901),  70,621,  nine-tenths  of 
whom  are  Hindus.  The  manufactures  of  Salem 
are  carpets  and  cutlery,  the  last-named  being 
famous.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1827),  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  three  of  them  with  their  wives;  2 
women  missionaries,  71  native  workers,  14  out- 
stations,  7  Sunday  schools,  18  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  theological  class,  and  711  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  321  are  communi- 
cants. Also  station  of  the  SPG  (1875),  with 
(1903)  1  native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  and 
205  professed  Christians,  of  whom  90  are  com- 
municants. 

SALEM:  A  settlement  in  Dutch  Guiana,  South 
America,  situated  on  the  seacoast,  about  90  miles 
W.  of  Paramaribo.  Station  of  the  Moravian 
Missions  (1840),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
tis  wife,  25  native  workers,  2  outstations,  3  places 
of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  and  346  professed 
Christians. 

SALMAS:  A  district  in  Persia,  north  of  Lake 
Urmia,  half  way  between  Tabriz  and  Urmia 
and  near  the  eastern  boundary  of  Turkey.  (It  is 
spoken  of  as  a  city,  tho  there  is  really  no  city  of 
that  name.)  Climate  unusually  pleasant  and 
equable.  Population,  35,000,  Armenians,  Mus- 
lims, Nestorians,  Jews,  and  Kurds,  each  speak- 
ing its  own  language,  and  generally  Turkish  also. 
Station  of  the  PN  for  work  among  the  Nestorians. 

SA-LONG :  A  village  in  the  Province  of  Fo-kien, 
China,  situated  about  55  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Fu- 
<:hau-fu.  Station  of  the  CEZ  (1893),  with  (1903) 
3  women  missionaries,  3  native  workers,  1  dis- 
pensary. 

SALONICA:  A  city  and  seaport  in  European 
Turkey,  at  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the 
Gulf  of  Salonica,  which  is  an  inlet  from  the  Greek 
Archipelago.  S.  is  the  leading  city  of  Macedonia, 
having  commercial  importance.  Population, 
105,000:  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Wallachians,  Turks 
and  Spanish  Jews.  Station  of  the  ABCFM 
(1894),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  of  them 
with  his  wife;  26  native  worlcers,  22  outstations, 
12  places  of  worship,  10  day  schools,  23  Sunday 
schools,  and  490  professed  Christians.  Also 
station  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Jewish  Com- 
mittee, with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  day 
schooL 


SALT.     See  Es  Salt. 

SALTILLO:  A  city  in  Mexico,  capital  of  the 
frontier  state  of  Coahuila,  60  miles  W.  of  Mon- 
terey. Climate,  mild,  temperate,  and  healthful. 
Population  (1901),  23,996,  mixed  Spanish  and 
Indian,  speaking  Spanish  and  Indian  dialects. 
Station  of  the  SBC  (1880),  with  (1003)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  7  outstations, 
5  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  2  day 
schools,  and  482  communicant  Christians.  Also 
station  of  the  PN  (1884),  with  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  2  women  missionaries,  18  native 
workers,  6  Sunday  schools,  6  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  and  436  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  MES  (1887),  with  (1903)  3 
women  missionaries  and  1  native  worker. 

SALUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  situated  in  the 
Vizagapatam  district,  about  50  miles  N.  W.  of 
Chicacole.  Population,  10,633.  Station  of  the 
Breklum  Missionary  Society  (1884),  with  2 
missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his  wife;  2  women 
missionaries,  24  native  workers,  5  outstations, 
1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  4  day 
schools,  1  dispensary,  and  326  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  313  are  communicants. 

SALVADOR:  A  republic  of  Central  America, 
bordering  on  the  Pacific  coast  for  160  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Paz  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Goascoran,  in  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca.  Its 
inland  boundaries  are  Guatemala  on  the  west 
and  Honduras  on  the  north  and  east.  It  is  the 
smallest  of  the  Central  American  republics, 
having  an  area  less  than  New  Jersey.  Except 
along  the  coast,  where  there  are  low  alluvial 
plains,  the  country  consists  of  a  high  plateau, 
2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  with  many  volcanic 
mountains.  The  volcanic  forces  are  still  at  work, 
as  shown  by  the  frequent  earthquakes. 

Since  1853,  when  the  union  with  Honduras 
and  Nicaragua  was  dissolved,  the  government 
is  that  of  a  republic,  with  a  president  elected  for 
four  years  by  suffrage  of  all  citizens,  and  a 
congress  of  70  deputies.  The  population  is 
nine  times  as  dense  as  the  average  of  the  other 
Central  American  countries.  The  bulk  of  the 
inhabitants  are  of  aboriginal  or  mixed  races;  only 
12,000  are  whites,  or  descendants  of  Europeans. 
The  natives  are  engaged  principally  in  agricul- 
ture, tho  there  is  much  mineral  wealth  as  yet 
undeveloped.  The  climate  is  mild  and  pleasant. 
Roman  Catholicism  is  the  state  religion,  but 
there  is  tolerance  of  other  religions.  Education, 
which  is  under  the  care  of  the  government,  is 
carried  on  in  free  schools,  attendance  upon 
which  is  obligatory.  Railway,  telegraph  and 
telephone  lines  are  being  built,  and  the  resources 
of  the  country  are  being  developed.  The  ABS 
is  doing  effective  work  in  Salvador. 

SAMARANG:  A  commercial  center  of  great 
importance  in  Java,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated 
on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island  about  150  miles  E. 
by  S.  of  Batavia.  Population  (1900),  89,286, 
of  whom  4,800  are  Europeans,  12,372  are  Chinese, 
1,688  Arabs  and  other  Orientals,  and  70,426  are 
native  Javanese.  Station  of  the  Neukirchen 
Missionary  Institute,  with  (1903)  9  missionaries, 
men  and  women ;  46  native  workers,  46  places  of 
worship,  11  day  schools  and  925  professing 
Christians. 

SAMHOPA.     See  San-ho. 

SAMKITA:  A  village  in  the  French  Congo, 
West  Africa,  situated  on  the  Ogowe  River,  about 


645 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Satnt  Vincent 
Sang-FOiL^ 


15  miles  N.  of  Lambarene.  Station  of  the  Paris 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society,  witli  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  11  outstations,  1  place  of  worsliip, 
1  boarding  school,  and  1  dispensary. 

SAMOA:  A  group  of  islands  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  14  in  number.  The  western 
islands  belong  to  Germany,  and  those  east  of 
the  174th  meridian  to  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica. The  people  are  of  the  finest  Polynesians  to 
be  found  in  the  Pacific.  The  men  are  above  the 
average  height,  with  straight,  well-rounded  limbs 
and  erect  bearing.  The  women  are  slight,  sym- 
metrical and  graceful  in  all  of  their  movements. 
The  people  are  all  nominally  Christians — Prot- 
estants and  Roman  Catholics,  with  a  few  Mor- 
mons. Nearly  all  the  population  over  seven 
years  of  age  can  read  and  write.  In  short,  the 
islands  offer  one  of  the  illustrations  of  the  wonder- 
ful fruits  of  missionary  enterprise. 

German  Samoa:  The  chief  islands  of  German 
Samoa  are  Upolu,  Manono,  Apolima,  and  Savaii. 
There  are  some  smaller  islets.  All  of  these  islands 
are  mountainous,  very  fertile  and  quite  populous. 

Upolu  is  the  second  in  size  of  the  islancls,  with 
a  population  (1901)  of  18,341.  Apia,  the  seat  of 
government,  is  a  seaport  of  this  island,  with  a 
German  Imperial  Governor,  supported  by  a 
native  high  chief  and  council.  The  LMS  began 
its  missions  in  Upolu  in  1836  and  now  (1903) 
has  stations  at  Apia  (3  missionaries,  38  native 
workers,  38  schools,  1  industrial  school,  and 
5,119  professed  Christians);  Malua (3  missionaries, 
9  native  workers,  10  schools,  1  boarding  school 
and  training  institution,  1  printing  house,  and 
2,133  professed  Christians);  Aana  (1  missionary, 
41  native  workers,  21  schools,  and  4,700  pro- 
fessed Christians),  and  Falealili  (1  missionary, 
55  native  workers,  31  schools,  and  4,700  pro- 
fessed Christians). 

Savaii:  Lying  west  of  Upolu,  has  an  area  of 
660  square  miles  and  a  population  (1901)  of 
13,201.  It  was  occupied  by  the  LMS  in  1830, 
which  now  has  in  the  island  stations  at  Faaso- 
leleaga  (1  missionary,  49  native  workers,  33 
schools,  and  4,949  professed  Christians),  and 
Matautu  (1  missionary,  32  native  workers,  30 
schools  and  3,145  professed  Christians). 

Manono  and  Apolima  are  smaller  islands,  with 
a  population,  together,  of  barely  1,000. 

American  Samoa:  This  consists  of  the  islands 
of  Tutuila,  Manua,  and  some  smaller  islets.  The 
whole  taken  together  is  officially  known  as  the 
Tutuila  naval  station.  Tutuila  is  high  and 
mountainous,  of  volcanic  origin,  thickly  popu- 
lated, and  very  fertile.  The  bay  of  Pago  Pago 
is  the  coaling  station  which  made  the  place 
desirable  to  the  United  States.  The  area  of 
Tutuila  is  54  square  miles,  and  the  population 
about  4,000.  Manua  is  a  smaller  island,  with 
about  2,000  inhabitants.  The  LMS  has  (1903) 
on  Tutuila  3  missionaries,  and  on  Tutuila  and 
Manua  together  38  native  workers,  42  schools, 
and  5,366  professed  Christians. 

SAMOKOV:  A  town  in  Bulgaria,  European 
Turkey,  situated  on  a  mountain  plateau  about 
35  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Sofia.  Climate  healthful. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1867),  with  (1903)  4 
missionaries,  3  of  them  with  their  wives;  4 
women  missionaries,  25  native  workers,  9  out- 
stations, 9  places  of  worship,  9  Sunday  schools, 
1  day  school,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theological 
class,  1  college,  1  kindergarten,  1  industrial 
department,  and  300  professed  Christians. 


SAMSOUN:  A  city  on  the  Black  Sea,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  500  miles  E.  of  Constantinople.  Popu- 
lation, Turkish,  Greek,  and  Armenian.  It  is  the 
port  through  which  passes  the  greater  part  of  the 
trade  between  Constantinople  and  northern  and 
eastern  Asia  Minor.  A  carriage  road  has  been 
built  connecting  it  with  the  principal  cities  in 
Eastern  Turkey,  except  Erzerum,  and  the  mis- 
sionaries for  those  cities  as  a  rule  land  at  Samsoun. 
It  is  very  malarious,  and  continued  residence 
has  been  impracticable  for  the  missionaries. 
There  is  a  thriving  native  church  connected  with 
the  Marsovan  station. 

SAMULCOTTA.     See  Chamarlakota. 

SANDOWAY:  A  very  ancient  town  in  Arakan, 
Burma,  on  the  Sandoway  River,  15  miles  from 
its  mouth.  Climate,  except  in  the  town  itself, 
unhealthf ulj  owing  to  mangrove  swamps.  Before 
the  Pegu  province  of  Burma  was  taken  by  the 
English,  Sandoway  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
Bassein  Karen  Mission,  and  thousands  were  bap- 
tized there.  Population  about  2,000.  Station 
of  the  ABMU  (1888),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  42  native 
workers,  19  outstations,  18  Sunday  schools,  6  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  460  communicant 
Christians. 

SANDY  LAKE:  A  settlement  in  Northwest 
Canada,  situated  in  the  territory  of  Saskatche- 
wan, about  50  miles  N.  W.  of  Prince  Albert.  It 
is  also  called  Asisipi.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1875), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1  native  worker,  2  day 
schools,  and  260  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
86  are  communicants. 

SAN  FERNANDO:  A  town  in  Trinidad,  West 
Indies,  on  the  W.  coast,  about  25  miles  S.  by  E. 
of  Port  of  Spain.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1850), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native 
worker,  1  outstation,  2  Sunday  schools,  and  218 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  80  are  com- 
municants. Also  station  of  the  PCC  (1870), 
with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1 
woman  missionary,  13  native  workers,  2  outsta- 
tions, 23  Sunday  schools,  17  day  schools,  1  board- 
ing school,  1  theological  class,  1  college,  and  218 
professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  AME, 
with  1  native  worker. 

SANG-HIA-CHUANG:  A  town  in  Shen-si, 
China,  situated  about  55  miles  W.  of  Hsi-ngan-fu. 
Station  of  th'j  CIM  (1894),  with  (1903)  1  woman 
missionary,  3  native  workers,"  1  place  of  worship, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  2  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Sang-kia-chuang. 

SANGI  or  SANGIR  Islands:  A  group  of  islands 
in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  lying  between  Celebes 
and  Mindanao.  The  area  of  the  group  is  about 
350  miles,  and  the  population  about  45,000. 
The  largest  of  the  islands  is  called  Great  Sangir. 
Its  characteristic  feature  is  the  volcano  of 
Gunong  Abu,  to  which  belongs  a  terrible  history 
of  destruction.  This  island  is  also  the  center  of 
evangehstic  effort  now  supervised  by  the  "Sangir 
and  Talaut  Islands  Committee,"  whose  seat  is  in 
Batavia.  Other  stations  of  this  committee's 
mission  are  in  the  islands  of  Siauw  and  Tagu- 
landang.  Taking  the  Sangir  group  and  the 
neighboring  Talaut  islands  together,  the  number 
of  professed  Christian  adherents  found  there 
(1901)  is  about  44,000. 

SANG-YONG:  A  village  in  Fo-kien,  China,  sit- 
uated about  55  miles  N.  of  Fu-chau-fu.  Station 
of  the  CEZ  (1894),  with  (1903)  3  women  mission- 


San-ho 
Sarawak 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


646 


aries,  5  native  workers,  1  day  school,  and  1 
boarding  school. 

SAN-HO:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung,  China,  situated  alDout  20  miles  N.  of 
Swatow.  Station  of  the  PCE  (1895),  with  (1903) 
3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their  wives;  1 
place  of  worship,  and  1  dispensary.  Some  write 
the  name  Samhopa. 

SAN  JUAN :  A  town  in  the  island  of  Porto  Rico, 
of  which  it  is  the  capital;  situated  on  the  N. 
coast  of  the  island.  Chmate  warm,  but  healthful. 
Population,  32,048.  Station  of  the  Am.  Baptist 
Home  Miss.  Society  (1899),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  1  woman 
missionary,  2  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  and  96  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Also  station  of  the  ELGC 
(1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
woman  missionary,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 2  Sunday  schools,  and  40  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  ME  (1900),  with  4 
missionaries,  three  of  them  with  their  wives;  1 
woman  missionary,  1  outstation,  1  day  school,  1 
boarding  school.  Station  also  of  the  PE,  with  1 
missionary.  Station  also  of  the  Presbyterian 
Home  Miss.  Soc.  (U.  S.),  with  (1903)  3  mission- 
aries, two  of  them  with  their  wives,  and  1  out- 
station. Station  of  the  CA.  The  ABS  also  has 
an  agency  here. 

SAN  LUIS  POTOSI :  A  town  in  Central  Mexico, 
situated  in  the  state  of  the  same  name,  of  which 
it  is  capital,  and  about  200  miles  W.  of  Tampico. 
Climate,  semi-tropical;  elevation,  6,000  feet.  It 
is  an  important  mining  center.  Population  (1900), 
61,019.  Station  of  the  PN  (1873),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native  workers,  8  out- 
stations, 3  day  schools,  17  Sunday  schools,  and 
392  communicant  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
MES  (1883),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  women  missionaries,  1  native  worker,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital. 

SAN-SHUI-HSIEN :  A  town  in  Shen-si,  China, 
situated  70  miles  N.  W.  of  Hsi-ngan-fu.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1897),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries, 
one  of  them  with  his  wife;  2  native  workers,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  Sunday  school. 

SANTA  CRUZ  ISLANDS:  A  group  in  Mela- 
nesia, lying  southeast  of  the  Solomon  Islands 
and  north  of  the  New  Hebrides,  between  longi- 
tude 165°  and  170°  east,  and  latitude  8°  and  12° 
south.  Santa  Cruz  is  the  largest  island.  The 
Melanesian  ilission  has  labored  in  these  islands 
since  1870,  and  now  (1900)  has  2  male  mission- 
aries, 1  female  missionary,  16  native  workers,  11 
in  native  churches,  5  day  schools.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  Bisliop  Patteson  was  mur- 
dered on  one  of  these  islands  in  1871.  The  Mela- 
nesian Mission  lost  4  of  its  agents  (1  missionary 
and  3  teachers,  murdered  by  the  natives)  before 
it  was  able  to  effect  a  lodgment  in  this  group. 

SANTA  MARIA:  A  town  in  Brazil,  in  the  state 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  about  180  miles  W.  of  Porto 
Alegre.  Station  of  the  American  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1900),  with  (1901)  2  mission- 
aries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  1  native  worker, 
1  place  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  and  5  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

SANTALIA :  A  name  sometimes  applied  to  that 
portion  of  Bengal,  India,  which  is  inhabited  by 
Santals,  who  speak  a  distinct  language  called 
Santali.  It  is  in  the  main  coincident  with  the 
district  known  as  the    Santal    Parganas.     It  is 


the  field  of  a  number  of  the  principal  missionary 
societies,  both  European  and  American. 

SANTALS :  A  people  of  British  India,  a  rem- 
nant of  the  pre-Hindu  Kolarian  population,  and 
numbering  (census  of  1901)  1,470,000  in  Bengal, 
and  23,000  in  Assam.  Santalia,  or  the  land  of 
the  Santals,  lies  on  the  extreme  eastern  edge  of 
the  tableland  of  Eastern  India,  where  it  slopes 
down  into  the  Ganges  valley  of  lower  Bengal, 
extending  southward  from  the  Ganges  at  Bhagal- 
pur.  In  this  region  two  distinct  aboriginal 
tribes  reside.  The  Paharis,  of  Dravidian  origin, 
live  on  the  hill  tops,  and  were  a  terror  to  the 
whole  country  until  the  closing  decades  of  the 
18th  century,  when  they  were  subdued  and 
tamed  by  the  young  civil  officer,  Augustus 
Cleveland.  As,  however,  the  Hindus  were  still 
afraid  to  occupy  the  valleys  below  the  Pahari, 
the  government  in  1832  encouraged  the  Santals, 
who  lived  further  south,  to  occupy  them  and  the 
adjoining  lowlands,  marking  off  for  their  use  the 
territory  23°  48'  to  25°  19'  latitude,  and  86°  30' 
to  87°  88'  longitude,  called  the  Santal  Parganas, 
which  became  the  home  of  the  race.  Coloniza- 
tion has  taken  place  to  Assam  and  totheSantal- 
pur  district,  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  250 
miles  northward. 

The  Santals  have  very  dark  skins,  round  faces, 
flat  noses,  large  mouths,  with  protruding  lips, 
and  straight  black  hair.  They  wear  almost  no 
clothing.  They  are  strongly  built,  simple, 
tractable,  devoid  of  caste,  and,  judged  by  the 
standards  of  India,  honest  and  truthful.  They 
are  nomadic  farmers  and  are  in  demand  as 
laborers  on  the  indigo  plantations  and  railways 
of  Bengal,  and  the  tea  plantations  of  Assam. 
The  women  are  notable,  if  not  for  beauty,  for 
grace  of  limb,  tho  laden  with  brass  rings.  They 
are  on  a  higher  plane  socially  than  most  heathen 
women.  It  is  customary  for  each  family  to  live 
by  itself  within  an  enclosure  of  intertwined 
hedge.  Santali  is  a  more  developed  speech  than 
the  other  Kolarian  dialects,  but  was  first  reduced 
to  writing  by  the  missionaries.  Bengali  is  taught 
in  the  schools.  Their  religion  is  ancestor  and 
nature-worship,  human  sacrifices  being  offered 
until  the  extinction  of  the  brutal  custom  by  the 
British  Government  in  1835. 

The  earliest  mission  in  Santalia  was  that  begun 
in  1850  among  the  Pahari,  by  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society,  under  Rev.  E.  Droese,  who  con- 
tinued at  Bhagalpur  for  36  years.  Attention 
was  especially  drawn  to  the  Santals  by  their 
terrible  insurrection  in  1855  against  the  extor- 
tions of  the  Hindu  money-lenders,  which  proved 
a  turning-point  in  their  history.  Commissioner 
George  Yule,  who  restored  order,  encouraged 
Droese  to  open  schools  among  them,  obtaining 
grants  for  this  purpose,  and  he  and  his  successors 
did  much  for  their  material  and  moral  improve- 
ment. The  CMS  opened  a  mission  to  the  Santals  in 
1859.  The  following  year,  E.  L.  Puxley,  a  Brit- 
ish officer  and  Oxford  graduate,  who  had  volun- 
teered for  India,  was  interested  in  the  Santals  by 
officers  whom  he  had  met  en  route.  He  opened  a  sta- 
tion and  erected  buildings  at  Taljhari,  which  he 
presented  to  the  CMS.  In  1868  H.  M.  Shackell 
resigned  the  principalship  of  St.  John's  College 
at  Agra  to  undertake  the  same  work  at  Godda. 
This  repeated  voluntary  effort  for  the  Santals  is 
proof  of  the  hopefulness  of  this  field.  New  sta- 
tions were  opened  in  1878  at  Baharwa  and 
Baghara.  The  stations  named,  all  in  the  N.  E. 
of  Santalia,  together  with  Santalpur,  where  880 


647 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


San-bo 
SaraTvat 


Christian  colonists  are  settled,  constitute  the 
centers  of  the  CMS  Mission  to  the  Santals,  which 
in  1901  reported,  including  Paharis,  4,130  Chris- 
tians. 

"The  Home  Mission  to  the  Santals,"  founded 
in  1867,  and  led  for  35  years  by  Boerreson,  the 
Danish  missionary,  at  Ebenezer,  in  eastern  San- 
talia,  reported  in  1902  11,345  Christians,  who  are 
already  trained  to  a  considerable  degree  of  inde- 
pendent activity. 

The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  entered  the  field 
in  1871,  and  has  three  centers  in  the  S.  W. 
(Pachamba,  Tondee,  and  Chakai),  reporting,  in 
1901,  more  than  1,300  Christians.  The  Bethel 
Mission,  in  the  southern  section,  had  enrolled,  in 
1900,   1,500  Christians.     According  to  Warneck 

(1902)  there  are,  in  connection   with   these   and 
other  small  Santal  missions,  18,000  Christians. 
Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India,  Art.  Santals. 

SANTAL  LANGUAGE:  The  Santals  inhabit  a 
considerable  section  of  Bengal,  India,  lying  north- 
west of  Calcutta.  Their  language  is  not  of  the 
Aryan  family,  and  is  commonly  classified  with 
the  Kolarian  group  of  Dravidian  languages. 

SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA :  A  town  and  seaport  on 
the  E.  coast  of  Cuba,  W.  I.,  formerly  capital  of 
the  island.  Population  (1902),  43,090.  Station 
of  the  Am.  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society 
(1899),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  3  women  missionaries,  3  native  workers,  4 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools, 
1  industrial  school,  1  kindergarten,  and  109  pro- 
fessed Christians.     Station  also  of  the  MBS,  with 

(1903)  2  missionaries,  2  women  missionaries,  1 
native  worker,  1  day  school. 

SANTO  DOMINGO;  Republic  of:  A  country  in 
the  island  of  Haiti,  W.  I.,  also  called  the  Domini- 
can Republic.  It  has  an  area  of  about  18,000 
square  miles,  comprising  about  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  island,  the  republic  of  Haiti  occupying 
one-third  in  the  western  part.  It  was  separated 
from  the  republic  of  Haiti  in  1844,  after  a  bloody 
struggle.  Spain  held  it  from  1861  to  1865.  In 
1869  a  treaty  was  signed  with  the  President  of  the 
United  States  for  its  annexation  to  the  great 
republic,  but  the  treaty  failed  of  ratification  by 
the  United  States  Senate.  It  has  suffered  from 
wars  and  revolutions,  and  is  very  backward  in  its 
civilization.  Its  government  is  after  the  model 
of  that  of  the  United  States,  with  a  President 
chosen  by  an  electoral  coUege,  who  holds  office 
for  four  years.  Its  population  is  estimated 
(1888)  at  610,000,  chiefly  of  mixed  Spanish  and 
Indian  blood,  with  some  pure  negroes  and  mulat- 
toes  and  a  certain  number  of  whites.  The  lan- 
guage is  Spanish.  French  and  English  are  also 
spoken  in  towns.  The  religion  is  Roman  Cath- 
olic, but  all  religions  are  tolerated.  From  the 
time  of  the  revolt  of  Haiti  against  French  con- 
trol until  1864,  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  with- 
drew from  the  island,  which  was  placed  under 
the  ban  of  the  Church.  The  people  reverted  in 
many  instances  to  ancient  heathenish  supersti- 
tions, which  have  considerable  sway  in  the  smaller 
settlements.  Protestant  missions  in  the  Domin- 
ican Republic  are  represented  by  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  U.  S.,  who  have  one 
station  in  charge  of  a  colored  minister  from  Haiti, 
and  by  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  of  the  West 
Indies,  who  have  four  stations;  these  latter  sta- 
tions were  passed  over  to  the  charge  of  the  WMS 
in  1903. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  September,  1903;    Hazard 
(S.),  Santo  Domingo,  Past  and  Present,  London,  1873. 


SANTURCE:  A  town  in  Porto  Rico,  W.  I.,  sit- 
uated about  20  miles  W.  of  San  Juan.  Station 
of  the  American  Missionary  Association  (1898), 
with  4  women  missionaries,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school. 

SAO  JOAO  DEL  REI:  A  town  in  Brazil,  situ- 
ated in  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes,  about  130  miles 
N.  W.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Station  of  the  PS 
(1895),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
native  worker,  and  40  professed  Christians. 

SAO  PAULO:  Capital  city  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name  in  Brazil.  It  is  an  important  city ,  and 
has  developed  much  within  recent  years,  being 
the  most  active  and  enterprising  town  in  the 
country.  It  is  the  center  of  the  railway  system 
of  the  province,  and  is  distant  only  36  miles  from 
Santos,  and  220  miles  S.  W.  from  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
Tho  the  streets  are  narrow,  they  are  well  paved, 
and  are  lighted  with  gas.  Sewers  and  water- 
mains  have  been  constructed.  It  stands  on  a 
high,  but  not  quite  healthful,  plain.  Altitude, 
2,393  feet.  Population  (1900),  125,000.  Sta- 
tion of  the  MES  (1884),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  6 
Sunday  schools,  and  953  communicant  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  PN  (1863),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  1  woman  missionary,  4  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  3  Sunday  schools,  1  day 
school,  1  college.  Station  of  the  PS  (1895), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife.  Also 
station  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention  (1899), 
with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  3  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  1  theo- 
logical class,  and  73  communicant  Christians. 

SAO  PEDRO,  or  RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL:  A 
town  in  Brazil,  situated  in  the  state  of  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul  on  the  sea  coast,  about  40  miles  S.  E.  of 
Pelotas.  Station  of  the  American  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1891),  with  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  3  places  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  1  theological  class,  and  106  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Also  station  of  the  Seventh 
Day  Adventists  Church,  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife.  Church  statistics  included  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro. 

SAPPORO :  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  near  the 
W.  coast  of  Hokkaido  Island  and  about  350 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  Tokio,  95  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Hakodate.  It  is  connected  with  Otaru,  its  port, 
by  railway.  Its  streets  are  wide.  Climate  cold. 
Population,  13,800.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1893), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman 
missionary,  22  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1 
place  of  worship,  5  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
and  1,612  professed  Christians,  of  whom  358  are 
communicants.  Also  station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 11  native  workers,  5  outstations,  7 
places  of  worship,  7  Sunday  schools,  and  468 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  305  are  commu- 
nicants. Station  also  of  the  ABCFM  (1895), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman 
missionary,  10  native  workers,  2  places  of  wor- 
ship, 5  Sunday  schools.  Station  also  of  the  PN, 
with  (1903)  3  women  missionaries,  3  outstations, 
and  1  boarding  school. 

SARAWAK:  A  district  on  the  northwestern 
coast  of  Borneo,  ruled  by  Rajah  Sir  Charles 
Brooke,  under  protectorate  of  the  British  Gov- 
ernment. The  population  is  about  600,000, 
composed  of  Malays,  Dyaks,  Kayans,  and  other 


Sarenpra, 
Scliaufller,  W.  G. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


64S 


tribes,  together  with  Chinese  and  other  settlers. 
The  SPG  has  (1902)  5  stations  in  Sarawak,  with 
about  2,500  baptized  Christians. 

SARENGA :  A  village  of  Bengal,  India,  situated 
in  the  Suri  district,  N.  by  E.  of  Bankura.  Station 
of  the  WMS  (1901),  with  1  missionary,  19  native 
workers,  2  Sunday  schools,  4  places  of  worship, 
6  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  76  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  66  are  communicants. 

SAREPTA:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  about  20  miles  N.  E.  of  Cape 
Town.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
6  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  Sunday  school, 
2  day  schools,  and  565  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  200  are  communicants. 

SARGEANT,  John:  Born  at  Newark,  N.  J., 
1710;  died  July,  1749;  graduated  at  Yale  College 
1729;  was  tutor  1731-1734.  He  was  contem- 
porary with  David  Brainerd,  and  taught  him  the 
Algonquin  language.  In  July,  1735,  he  was 
settled  as  a  missionary  to  the  Indians  on  the 
Housatonic  River  and  the  next  month  ordained 
at  Deerfield  in  presence  of  the  governor  and 
council  and  a  large  number  of  English  and  Indians. 

Mr.  Sargeant  acquired  the  native  language 
with  facility,  and  so  well  that  the  people  said 
he  spoke  it  better  than  themselves.  He  trans- 
lated into  their  language  parts  o£  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  all  the  New  except  the  Book  of 
Revelation.  He  introduced  many  of  the  arts  of 
civilized  life,  interested  them  in  singing,  taught 
them  Biblical  history  and  doctrine,  and  brought 
into  the  mission  school  many  Mohawk  and 
Oneida  children  from  the  province  of  New  York. 
Regarding  the  education  of  the  youth  as  essential 
to  his  success,  he  had  formed  the  plan  of  a  manual- 
labor  school,  in  which  the  pupils  should  con- 
tribute to  their  own  support.  Provision  had 
been  made  for  the  education  of  several  boys, 
land  procured,  a  school-house  built,  and  some 
boys  were  collected;  but  the  death  of  Mr.  Sargeant 
prevented  the  consummation  of  the  plan. 
Mourned  by  the  Indians,  who  loved  him  as  a 
father  and  friend,  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  39. 
Their  improvement  through  his  labors  had  been 
great.  He  found  them  but  50  in  number,  living 
miserably  and  viciously  in  wigwams,  widely 
scattered,  and  roving  from  place  to  place.  He 
left  them  218  in  number,  settled  in  a  thriving 
town,  with  twenty  families  in  frame  houses,  and 
many  having  farms  cultivated,  fenced,  and  well 
stocked.  He  had  baptized  182,  and  42  were 
communicants. 

SARGENT,  Edwin:  Born  at  Paris,  France, 
1815.  Died  October  10,  1889.  Spent  the  early 
part  of  his  life  at  Madras;  went  in  1835  to  Palam- 
cotta,  Tinnevelli,  as  a  missionary  of  the  Church 
Missionary  iSociety;  in  1839  he  went  to  England, 
studied  three  years  in  the  Church  Missionary 
College  at  Islington;  was  ordained  in  1842,  and 
the  same  year  returned  to  his  work  in  Tinnevelli. 
The  first  eight  years  he  was  located  at  Suvise- 
shapuram,  having  charge  of  a  missionary  district. 
In  1850  he  was  transferred  to  Palamcotta,  and 
two  years  later  appointed  principal  of  the  Prep- 
arandi  Institution,  which  had  a  high  character 
for  proficiency  while  he  was  at  the  head  of  it. 
More  than  500  young  men  were  instructed  by 
him,  many  of  whom  are  now  pastors  of  native 
Christian  churches  in  the  towns  and  villages,  and 
many  more  are  catechists  and  schoolmasters. 
In  1874  he  was  nominated  a  suffragan  or  coad- 


jutor bishop  to  the  Bishop  of  Madras,  and  on 
March  11,  1877,  consecrated  in  Calcutta  by 
Bishop  Johnson,  assisted  by  the  bishops  of 
Madras,  Bombay,  and  Colombo.  He  had  charge 
of  eight  of  the  ten  districts  into  which  the 
Society's  Tinnevelli  Mission  was  divided.  In 
these  districts  were  51,000  Christians,  66  native 
pastors,  and  many  catechists  and  schoolmasters, 
all  under  his  care.  During  the  first  fifty  years 
of  the  bishop's  missionary  service,  the  number 
of  villages  containing  Christians  in  the  Church 
Missionary  Society's  portion  of  Tinnevelli  rose 
from  224  to  1,018,  the  Christians  and  catechu- 
mens from  8,693  to  56,287,  and  the  native  clergy 
from  1  to  68.  In  the  earlier  period  native  Chris- 
tians did  nothing  for  the  support  of  the  Gospel 
among  themselves;  at  the  later  peribd  their 
contributions  for  church  work  amounted  to  over 
33,000  rupees  annually.  The  affairs  of  the 
church  are  now  managed  to  a  very  large  extent 
by  the  Christians  themselves,  and  no  native- 
clergyman  draws  his  stipend  from  the  Missionary 
Society.  The  success  of  church  work  is  due 
very  largely,  under  God,  to  the  practical  wisdom, 
untiring  zeal,  and  loving  labor  of  Bishop  Sargent. 
He  had  a  remarkable  knowledge  of  the  vernac- 
ular. 

SARON:  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  about  25  miles  S.  E.  of  Piquetburg. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with. 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  14  native 
workers,  1  day  school,  1  Sunday  school,  and  1,879' 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  876  are  communi- 
cants. 

SARON  (Dutch  Guiana) :  Part  of  Paramaribo. 

SART  LANGUAGE :  A  dialect  of  the  Eastern, 
Turkish,  spoken  by  the  dwellers  in  cities  of  the 
parts  of  Central  Asia  S.  of  the  Aral  Sea.  It  is. 
but  little  different  from  the  Uighur,  or  Turkish 
of  culture,  in  these  Eastern  regions. 

SATTANAPALLI :  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  in  the  Kistna  district,  about  63  miles- 
N.  by  E.  of  Ongole.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1895), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman 
missionary,  15  native  workers,  9  outstations,  5 
places  of  worship,  6  day  schools,  and  2,940  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  1,112  are  communi- 
cants. 

SATTELBERG:  A  settlement  in  German  New 
Guinea,  situated  on  high  land  near  the  E.  coast 
and  about  10  miles  N.  W.  of  Simbang.  Station 
of  the  Neudettelsau  Missionary  Society  (1892), 
with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his 
wife;  1  woman  missionary,  1  day  school,  and  1 
place  of  worship. 

SATTHIANADHAN,  William  Thomas:  A  na- 
tive of  India,  of  the  Vishnuvite  Sudras.  Died 
at  Sinthupunthurai,  Tinnevelli,  February  24, 
1892.  Educated  at  the  native  English  school 
and  Palamcotta  Preparandi  Institution.  He 
was  stationed  in  North  Tinnevelli,  and  after- 
ward had  charge  of  the  Southern  pastorate  at 
Madras,  and  was  Chairman  of  the  Madras  Native 
Church  Council.  In  1881  he  formed  the  Chin- 
tadrepetta  Christian  Association;  in  1884  he  was 
elected  Fellow  of  the  University  of  Madras,  and 
in  1885  he  received  B.D.  degree  from  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  Bishop  of  Madras,  in  recognition  of  his 
linguistic  and  other  labors.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  Church  History  in  English  and  Tamil,  and  he 
edited  a   Tamil  Commentary  on  the  New  Testa- 


649 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


ScUanfller,  W.  G. 


ment.  He  also  ably  conducted  two  periodicals, 
and  the  power  of  his  pen  was  felt  among  a  large 
circle_  of  readers.  Mrs.  Satthianadhan  had  the 
superintendence  of  a  large  school  for  high-caste 
women,  and  carried  on  Zenana  work  for  many 
years  in  connection  with  the  CEZMS  and  Female 
Education  Society. 

SATTJPAITEA:  A  settlement  in  the  Samoan 
Islands,  situated  on  the  S.  side  of  Savaii.  Station 
of  the  Australia  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society, 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  164  na- 
tive workers,  7  outstations,  24  places  of  worship, 
28  Sunday  schools,  28  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  1,050  professed  Christians. 

SAVAGE  ISLAND.     See  Niue. 

SAVAII:  The  westernmost  of  the  Samoan 
Islands.  Area,  700  square  miles.  Population, 
13,000.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1830),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  44  native  workers,  1  outstation,  63 
Sunday  schools,  63  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  and  5,555  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
2,539  are  communicants. 

SAVAS:  An  island  of  the  East  Indies,  south- 
west of  Timor  Island,  southeast  of  Java;  has 
estimated  population  of  16,500,  more  than  half 
of  whom  are  nominally  Christians.  They  are 
visited  twice  a  year  by  the  Dutch  Government  as- 
sistant pastor  residing  at  Kupang,  Timor. 

SAWYERPURAM :  A  village  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  in  Tinnevelli  district,  a  short  distance 
S.  of  Palamcotta.  Founded  in  1814  by  Mr. 
Sawyer,  an  English  trader,  who  bought  the  land 
in  order  to  make  a  refuge  for  persecuted  converts. 
Station  of  the  SPG  (1826),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 57  native  workers,  21  places  of  worship,  10 
day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  2,789  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  1,027  are  communi- 
cants 

SCHAUFFLER,  William  Gottlieb:  Born  in 
Stuttgart,  Germany,  August  22,  1798.  Died 
January  26,  1883.  His  early  life  was  spent  at 
Odessa,  in  Russia,  where  he  worked  at  his 
father's  trade  as  a  turner.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  he  confessed  his  faith  in  Christ.  He  early 
became  interested  in  foreign  missions;  and  in 
1826,  meeting  the  famous  missionary.  Dr.  Joseph 
Wolff,  his  enthusiasm  was  further  kindled.  Find- 
ing, however,  the  plans  of  Dr.  Wolff  impracticable, 
he  went  to  Constantinople,  and  thence  to  Smyrna, 
where  he  met  Rev.  Jonas  King,  who  induced  him 
to  go  to  America  for  an  education.  He  entered 
the  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  where  he 
remained  five  years,  studying  often  fourteen  and 
sixteen  hours  a  day.  He  says:  "Aside  from  the 
study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  general  classical 
reading,  I  studied  the  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic, 
Samaritan,  Rabbinic,  Hebrew-German,  Persian, 
Turkish,  and  Spanish;  and,  in  order  to  be  some- 
what prepared  for  going  to  Africa,  I  extracted 
and  wrote  out  pretty  fully  the  Ethiopic  and 
Coptic  grammars.  For  some  years  I  read  the 
Syriac  New  Testament  and  Psalms  for  my  edi- 
fication, instead  of  the  German  or  the  English 
text."  He  also  aided  the  professors  in  their 
translations.  He  was  ordained  November  14, 
1831,  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM  to  the  Jews  of 
Turkey.  He  studied  Arabic  and  Persian  with 
De  Sacy,  and  Turkish  with  Prof.  Kieffer  in  Paris, 
and  then  went  to  Constantinople.  There  he 
preached  in  German,  Spanish,  Turkish,  and  Eng- 
lish. In  1838  he  visited  Odessa,  chiefly  on  Mrs. 
Schauffler's  account,  and  was  much  engaged  in 


evangelistic  work,  resulting  in  many  conversions. 
He  translated  the   Bible  into   Hebrew-Spanish, 
that  is,  Spanish  with  a  mixture  of  Hebrew  words 
and  written  with  Hebrew  characters,  for  the  Jews 
in  Constantinople,  descendants  of  those  who  had 
been  driven  from  Spain.     Dr.  Schauffler,  besides 
being  a  translator,   was  an  earnest   evangelical 
preacher,   his   Sunday   services   in   English   and 
German  for  local  residents  being  greatly  blessed. 
He  delivered  in  Constantinople  a  series  of  dis- 
courses, which  were  published  in  a  volume  by  the 
American  Tract  Society,    entitled    "Meditations 
on  the  Last  Days  of  Christ."     In  1835  the  first 
Jewish  convert,  a  German  whom  he  had  known 
sixteen  years  before  in  Russia,  not  being  allowed 
by  the  Government  to  profess  Christianity  except 
as  a  member  of  the  Greek  Church,  went  to  Con- 
stantinople and  was  by  him   baptized.     In  1839 
he  went  to  Vienna  to  superintend  the  printing 
of  the  Hebrew-Spanish  Old  Testament.     There 
he  resided  three  years,  and  many  striking  con- 
versions occurred  through  his  labors.     He  pre- 
sented to  the  emperor,  in  a  private  interview,  his 
printed  Bible,  on  which  he  had  bestowed  great 
labor.     The  Jews  having  pronounced  a  favorable 
verdict  upon  it,  a  second  and  larger  edition  was 
printed.     Journeying    from     Vienna    he    spent 
ten  days  in  Pesth,  where  many  of  the  better  class 
of  Jewish  families  embraced  the  Christian  faith. 
The  Jewish  Mission  having  been  relinquished  in 
1855,    he    was    requested    by    the    Scotch    Free 
Church,  to  which  it  had  been  transferred,  to  take 
charge  of  the  work,  but  he  declined.    He  declined 
also  the  proposal  to  enter  the  Armenian   field. 
About  this  time  he  was  appointed  by  the  Mission 
to  lay  before  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  soon  to 
meet   at   Paris,   the   great   question   of   religious 
liberty  in  Turkey,  and  to  urge  the  Alliance  to 
memorialize   the    sovereigns    of    Europe    to    use 
their   influence   with   the   Sultan   to   secure   the 
abolition  of  the  death  penalty  for  Muslim  con- 
verts to  Christianity.     The  result  was  seen  in  the 
triumph  of  Sir  Stratford  Canning.     The  morning 
he  left  Paris  the  news  of  Sebastopol's  fall  was 
proclaimed  on  the  streets,  and  in  Stuttgart,  his 
native  city,  he  addressed  an  immense  audience 
on  the  Crimean  War.     After  this  war  the  way 
seemed   open   for   missionary   work    among   the 
Turks,  and  Dr.  Schauffler,  with  the  approval  of 
the  miss'on,  decided  to  enter  that  field.     To  fit 
himself  for  this  new  work,  he  applied  himself  to 
the  Turkish  language  anew.     In  1857  a  paper  on 
the  Turkish  and  Bulgarian  work,   prepared  by 
Drs.  Schauffler  and  Hamlin,  was  sent  to  the  Pru- 
dential    Committee,     and     Dr.     Schauffler     was 
deputed  by  the  mission  to  present,  in  America 
and  England,  the  claims  of  the  new  mission  to 
the  Turks.     Afte-  thirty-one  years  of  absence  he 
set  sail  for  home.     His  appeals  met  with  a  gen- 
erous    response.     The     Prudential     Committee, 
however,  decided,  after  the  Turkish  Government 
refused  liberty  of  conscience  to  Muslims,  not  to 
continue  the  separate  mission  to  Mohammedan 
Turks,  but  to  have  the  Armenian  Mission  cover 
the  whole  field.     This  decision,  and  the  entrance 
of  the  SPG  into   Turkey,  led  Dr.  SchauflSer  to 
resign  as  a  missionary  of  the  Board,  but  he  pur- 
sued his  Bible  translation  in  the  employ  of  the 
American  and  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Socie- 
ties.    His  great  work  was  the  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible  into  the  literary  Turkish,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  books  as  distinguished  from  that 
of    the    common    people.     This    occupied    him 
eighteen  years.     He  published  an  ancient  Spanish 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


650 


version  of  the  Old  Testament,  revised  by  himself, 
with  the  Hebrew  original  in  parallel  columns,  a 
popular  translation  of  the  Psalms  into  Spanish,  a 
grammar  of  the  Hebrew  language  in  Spanish,  a 
Hebrew-Spanish  Lexicon  of  the  Bible.  He  con- 
tributed also  articles  in  Spanish  to  a  missionary 
periodical  in  Salonica.  He  was  a  remarkable 
linguist,  able  to  speak  ten  languages  and  read  as 
many  more.  His  rare  scholarship,  and  especially 
his  translation  of  the  Bible  into  literary  Turkish, 
led  the  Universities  of  Halle  and  Wittenberg  to 
confer  upon  him  the  degrees  of  D.D.  and  Ph.D., 
and  Princeton  College  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Laws.  For  his  great  services  to  the  German 
colony  of  Constantinople  the  King  of  Prussia 
conferred  upon  him  a  decoration.  He  left  Con- 
stantinople m  1874,  and  went  to  New  York  with 
his  wife  to  live  with  his  two  youngest  sons.  He 
was  in  the  active  missionary  work  for  nearly 
fifty  years. 

SCHEMACHI:  A  large  and  important  city  of 
Eastern  Transcaucasia,  Russia.  Population 
about  25,000,  of  whom  a  large  number  are  Arme- 
nians. As  a  result  of  the  work  of  the  Basel  Mis- 
sionary Society,  a  congregation  of  evangelical 
Armenians  was  organized  here,  which  did  not  lose 
its  power  after  the  missionaries  were  obliged  to 
leave.  Its  leader  received  some  education  at 
Basel  Seminary,  and,  by  his  rare  skill  and  earnest 
piety,  succeeded  in  keeping  his  little  band 
together.  Notwithstanding  the  law  of  Russia, 
which  insists  that  proselytes  shall  join  the  Greek 
Church,  the  Protestants  grew  in  numbers  and  in 
strength,  until  they  became  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential communities  in  that  section  of  the  Caucasus. 
From  Schemachi  the  work  spread  to  Shusha, 
Lenkaran,  and  Baku,  in  each  of  which  places  con- 
gregations were  gathered,  which  now  form  a 
recognized  body  of  Christians. 

SCHIALI.     See  Shiyali. 

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN  Missionary  Society 
in  Breklum.  See  Germany;  Missionary  Socie- 
ties OP. 

SCHMELEN,  John  Henry:  Missionary  of  the 
LMS  in  South  Africa.  Born  in  Germany,  1777; 
died  at  Komaggas,  Little  Namaqualand,  July  26, 
1848.  Mr.  Schmelen  arrived  at  his  field  of  labor 
in  1811,  and  opened  the  stations  at  Steinkopf 
and  Pella,  south  of  the  Orange  River,  spending 
some  time  in  exploring  the  regions  about  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and  on  its  north  side,  toward 
Damaraland.  In  1814,  on  invitation  of  the 
Namaquas,  he  crossed  the  Orange  River  and 
opened  a  new  station  at  Bethany,  200  miles  north 
of  Steinkopf.  Here  he  laboriously  carried  on  his 
most  difficult  work  of  reducing  the  Namaqua 
speech  to  writing,  and  translating  the  Gospels 
into  that  language.  In  one  of  his  long  tours  he 
encountered  Mr.  Barnabas  Shaw, of  tlieWMS,who 
was  sent  out  to  establish  a  mission  in  the  Nama- 
qua country.  It  was  characteristic  of  the  man 
that  he  at  once  put  himself  at  the  disposal  of  the 
new  missionary,  took  him  to  the  Kamiesberg 
country,  introduced  him  to  the  tribesmen  there, 
and  then,  having  seen  him  properly  settled,  went 
on  to  his  own  field,  distant  four  weeks'  journey. 
In  1824  he  visited  Cape  Town  to  see  his  Namaqua 
Gospel  througli  the  press,  and,  that  accomplished, 
he  spent  some  time  exploring  the  coast  regions 
of  Little  Namaqualand,  finally  establishing  a  new 
station  at  Komaggas.  There  he  completed  the 
translation  of  the  Gospels,  and  took  them  to 
Cape  Town  to  be  printed.     In  the  meantime  he 


was  growing  old,  and  called  in  vain  for  an  asso- 
ciate to  take  up  his  work.  His  associate  came 
at  last  in  1840,  a  missionary  of  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society,  the  LMS  having  transferred 
its  Namaqua  work  to  that  Society.  The  closing 
years  of  his  life  were  thus  gladdened  by  the  privi- 
lege of  helping  with  his  experience  and  counsel 
the  missionaries  of  the  new  group,  who  were  to 
press  forward  the  work  for  his  beloved  Namaqua 
people. 

SCHNEIDER,  Benjamin:  Born  at  New  Han- 
over, Pa.,  January  18,  1807.  Died  September 
14,  1877.  Graduated  at  Amherst  College,  1830; 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1833;  ordained 
October  2;  sailed  for  Turkey  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM  December  12,  1833,  tho  supported  by 
Reformed  (German)  Churches.  He  was  stationed 
first  at  Brousa,  where  he  preached  the  first  evan- 
gelical sermon  ever  preached  in  the  Turkish  lan- 
guage. In  1849  he  removed  to  Aintab,  where  he 
laid  the  foundation  of  two  flourishing  churches. 
After  the  death  of  his  wife  in  1856  he  visited  the 
United  States,  and  on  returning  to  Turkey  in 
1858,  was  again  stationed  in  Brousa.  His  health 
failing,  he  made  a  second  visit  home  in  1872.  A 
call  for  help  in  Turkish  and  Greek  work  in  the 
theological  seminary  at  Marsovan  induced  him, 
tho  advanced  in  years  and  in  feeble  health,  to 
return,  reaching  Marsovan  March,  1874.  But 
from  nervous  prostration  he  was  compelled  to 
relinquish  the  work,  and  in  1875  he  left  first  for 
Switzerland,  thence  for  his  native  land. 

For  more  than  forty  years  he  was  connected 
with  the  Turkey  missions,  laboring  in  almost 
every  department  of  missionary  service — preach- 
ing, translating,  preparing  young  men  for  the  min- 
istry. Few  have  traveled  more  extensively  as 
pioneers;  few  have  more  cheerfully  endured  the 
privations  of  the  service;  few  are  the  native 
churches  in  Turkey  where  his  name  is  not  known 
and  revered.  Even  amid  the  intense  sufferings 
of  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  his  eye  would 
brighten  and  glow  with  delight  at  the  bare  men- 
tion of  the  missionary  life.  He  acquired  lan- 
guages with  great  facility.  He  spoke  German, 
Greek,  and  Turkish,  almost  as  if  each  were  his 
vernacular,  the  latter  with  an  ease  and  fluency 
seldom  equaled  by  foreigners.  Even  natives 
wondered  at  his  marvelous  flow  of  thought  in 
idiomatic  phrases,  easily  understood  by  all;  for 
he  chose  simplicity  of  style,  tho  at  home  in  the 
higher  and  more  complicated  forms  of  expression. 

He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Franklin 
and  Marshall  College,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1850. 

SCHREIBER,  August:  Born  at  Bielefeld, 
Westphalia,  August  11,  1839;  died  at  Barmen, 
Germany,  May  22,  1903.  After  graduating  at 
Gutersloh,  he  studied  theology  at  Halle  and 
Erlangen,  returning  to  Gutersloh  for  two  years' 
further  study,  and  for  theological  examinations. 
Having  decided  to  become  a  missionary  in  the 
foreign  field,  he  spent  a  year  in  London  and 
Edinburgh,  studying  church  organization  and 
missionary  methods  used  by  the  different 
societies.  He  also  took  a  short  course  in  medi- 
cine. In  1865  he  offered  himself  to  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society  and  was  appointed  missionary 
to  Sumatra  by  that  Society,  m  1866.  Since  he 
had  found  means,  before  going  out,  to  study  the 
Batta  language  he  was  able  to  enter  the  active 
work  almost  as  soon  as  he  arrived  on  the  field. 
He  was  compelled  to  leave  Sumatra  and  return 
to  Germany  by  his  wife's  illness  in  1873.     During 


«51 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Schemachl 
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the  seven  years  of  his  missionary  career  in 
Sumatra  he  was  occupied  with  organizing  a  better 
system  of  training  native  helpers,  and  also  with 
translating  the  Scriptures  into  Batta.      He  oom- 

?leted  the  translation  of  almost  the  whole  New 
'estament  before  he  returned  to  Germany.  On 
arriving  at  Barmen,  Dr.  Schreiber  was  usefully 
occupied  in  the  Rhenish  Mission  House,  and,  in 
1884,  he  became  second  "Inspector"  of  the 
Rhenish  Missionary  Society.  In  1889  he  was 
made  first  "Inspector"  (Foreign  Secretary)  of 
the  Society.  Dr.  Schreiber  represented  his 
Society  at  the  London  Interdenominational  Con- 
ferences of  1878  and  1888.  He  made  extended 
visits  to  the  fields  of  the  Society  in  South  Africa 
and  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  China.  In  1900 
he  represented  sixteen  German  Missionary 
societies  at  the  Ecumenical  Conference  on  Foreign 
Missions,  held  in  New  York.  Many  who  were 
present  at  that  Conference  long  carried  in  their 
memory  the  spare  figure  of  Dr.  Schreiber,  with 
his  bright,  genial  manner,  and  the  lucid  and 
effective  method  of  his  addresses,  as  he  took  part 
in  several  of  the  discussions  of  the  Conference. 
Dr.  Schreiber  was  a  man  of  learning,  of  good 
judgment,  and  of  the  broadest  sympathies.  He 
believed  in  missions  most  heartily  as  the  great 
practical  proof  of  the  vigor  and,  therefore,  of  the 
sincerity  of  Christendom. 

SCHWARTZ,  Christian  Friedrich:  Born  in 
Sonnenburg,  Prussia,  October  28,  1726.  Died 
February  13,  1798.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he 
went  to  the  Halle  University,  where  he  became 
established  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  and  resolved 
to  devote  himself  wholly  to  Him.  Dr.  Schultz, 
who  had  left  India  from  failure  of  health,  was  at 
this  time  preparing  to  print  the  Bible  in  Tamil, 
and  advised  Schwartz  to  learn  that  language  in 
order  to  assist  him.  Professor  Francke,  hearing 
of  his  great  success  in  acquiring  the  language, 
proposed  to  him  to  go  as  a  missionary  to  India. 
He  decided  to  go,  declining  an  advantageous 
position  in  the  ministry  at  home.  He  was  or- 
dained at  Copenhagen,  with  the  view  of  joining 
the  Danish  Mission  at  Tranquebar,  where  he 
arrived  July  30,  1750.  In  four  months  he 
preached  his  first  sermon  in  Tamil  in  the  church 
of  Ziegenbalg.  From  the  first  he  devoted  much 
time  and  attention  to  the  religious  instruction 
of  the  young. 

In  twelve  years  Schwartz  had  baptized  1,238 
in  the  city.  He  labored  also  faithfully  for  the 
English  garrison,  for  which  no  religious  instruc- 
tion was  provided.  The  salary  of  £100  which 
he  received  as  chaplain  of  the  garrison,  from  the 
Madras  Government,  he  devoted  the  first  year  to 
the  building  of  a  mission  house  and  an  English 
Tamil  school,  and  afterward  gave  a  large  part  of 
it  in  charity. 

In  1776  he  went  to  Tanjore  to  found  a  new 
mission,  and  here  he  spent  the  remaining  twenty 
years  of  his  life.  Even  in  this  favorite  abode 
of  the  Hindus,  where  was  the  most  splendid 
pagoda  oif  India,  he  had  great  success,  two 
churches  having  been  established  in  1780.  He 
won  the  high  esteem  of  the  English  Government, 
which  employed  him  in  important  political 
transactions  with  the  native  princes.  When  the 
powerful  and  haughty  Hyder  Ali  of  Mysore 
refused  to  receive  an  embassy  from  the  English, 
whom  he  distrusted,  he  said  he  would  treat  with 
them  through  Schwartz.  "Send  me  the  Chris- 
tian," meaning  Schwartz;  "he  will  not  deceive 
me."     Urged  by  the  government,  he  consented 


to  undertake  the  mission.  Through  his  inter- 
cession Cuddalore  was  saved  from  destruction 
by  the  savage  hordes  of  the  enemy.  On  his 
return  a  present  of  money  was  forced  upon  him 
by  Hyder,  which  he  gave  to  the  English  Govern- 
ment, requesting  that  it  be  appUed  to  the 
building  of  an  English  orphan  asylum  in  Tanjore. 
Tho  a  Mohammedan,  Hyder's  regard  for  Schwartz 
was  so  great  that  he  issued  orders  to  his  officers, 
saying:  "Let  the  venerable  padre  go  about 
everywhere  without  hindrance,  since  he  is  a  holy 
man,  and  will  not  injure  me."  While  Hyder 
was  ravaging  the  Carnatic  with  an  army  of  a 
hundred  thousand,  and  multitudes  were  fleeing 
in  dismay  to  Tanjore,  Schwartz  moved  about 
unmolested.  In  the  famine  caused  by  the  war 
more  than  800  starving  people  came  daily  to  his 
door.  He  collected  money  and  distributed  pro- 
visions to  Europeans  and  Hindus.  He  also  built 
there  a  church  for  the  Tamil  congregation.  The 
rajah  a  few  hours  before  his  death  requested 
Schwartz  to  act  as  guardian  to  his  adopted  son 
Serfogee.  The  trust  was  accepted  and  faithfully 
discharged. 

After  a  protracted  and  severe  illness,  during 
which  he  delighted  to  testify  of  Christ  and  to 
exhort  the  people,  he  expired  in  the  arms  of  two 
of  his  native  converts.     At  his  funeral  the  effort 
to  sing  a  hymn  was  suppressed  by  the  noise  of 
the   wailing  of  the  heathen,   who  thronged  the 
premises.     Serfogee    lingered,    weeping,    at    the 
coffin,  covered  it  with  a  cloth  of  gold,  and  accom- 
panied the  body  to  the  grave.     The  small  chapel 
m  which  he  was  interred  outside  of  the  fort  has 
been  demolished,  and  a  large  one  erected.     The 
grave  is  behind  the  pulpit,  covered  with  a  marble 
slab  bearing  an  English  inscription — 
To  the  memory  of  the 
REV.  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH  SCHWARTZ; 
Bom  Sonnenburg,  of  Neumark,  in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia, 
The  28th  October,   1726, 
And  died  at  Tanjore  the  13th  February,  1798, 
In  the  72d  year  of  his  age. 
Devoted  from  his  early  manhood  to  the  office  of 
Missionary  in  the  East, 
The  similarity  of  his  situation  to  that  of 
The  first  preachers  of  the  gospel 
Produced  in  him  a  peculiar  resemblance  to 
The  simple  sanctity  of  the 
Apostolic  character. 
His  natural  vivacity  won  the  affection 
Aa  his  unspotted  probity  and  purity  of  life 
Alike  commanded  the  reverence  of  the 
Christian,  Mohammedan,  and  Hindu: 
For  sovereign  princes.  Hindu  and  Mohammedan, 
Selected  this  humble  pastor 
As  the  medium  of  political  negotiation  with 
The  British  Government; 
And  the  very  marble  that  her  '  records  his  virtues 
Was  raised  by 
The  liberal  affection  and  esteem  of  the 
Rajah  of  Tanjore, 
Maha  Rajah  Serfogee. 

Another  beautiful  monument  was  erected  to 
his  memory  by  the  East  India  Company  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary,  Madras,  part  of  the  inscrip- 
tion on  which  is  as  follows: 

On  a  spot  of  ground  granted  to  him  by  the  Rajah  of 
Tanjore,  two  miles  east  of  Tanjore,  he  budt  a  house  for  his 
residence,  and  made  it  an  Orphan  Asylum.  Here  the  last 
twenty  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  the  education  and 
religious  instruction  of  children,  particularly  those  of  indigent 
parents— whom  he  gratuitously  maintained  and  instructed; 
and  here,  on  the  13th  of  February,  1798  surrounded  by  his 
infant  flock,  and  in  the  presence  of  several  of  his  disconsolate 
brethren,  he  closed  his  truly  Christian  career  in  the  72d  year 
of  his  age. 

SCHWIFAT.     See  Shwifat. 

SCIENCE ;  Contributions  of  Missions  to :  It  has 
been  the  custom  of  the  old  and  thoroughly 
established  Mission  Boards  to  send  out,  for   the 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


650 


most  part,  only  men  of  the  broadest  university- 
training.  Tliese  iiave  gone  into  regions  of  the 
eartli  where  educated  Americans  or  Europeans 
have  but  seldom  if  ever  penetrated.  The  earlier 
missionaries  were  in  many  countries,  and  in  some 
sections  of  all  countries,  the  pioneers.  Not  a 
few  of  these  regions  were  entirely  unexplored. 

Moreover,  the  missionaries  entered  these 
countries  for  permanent  residence.  There  they 
established  their  homes.  They  mastered  the 
vernacular  of  the  country  and  thus  put  at  their 
disposal,  to  aid  in  their  investigations,  all  the 
wisdom  the  people  themselves  possessed.  In 
this  way  they  became  identified  with  the  people 
and  the  country.  The  facilities  of  the  mission- 
aries, therefore,  for  careful,  accurate,  and  contin- 
uous investigation  of  the  scientific  phenomena 
all  about  them  were  unsurpassed.  Many  mission- 
aries have  been  in  regular  correspondence  with 
the  leading  scientists,  who  have  made  suggestions 
which  the  missionaries  have  carried  out,  and  in 
turn  the  missionaries  have  reported  the  results  of 
their  observations  and  investigations  to  scholars 
connected  with  American  and  European  universi- 
ties, who  have  sent  back  their  interpretations. 

The  missionaries  have  not  given  their  time  and 
strength  to  scientific  pursuits  as  an  end  in  them- 
selves. In  some  cases  a  particular  branch  of 
investigation  has  been  the  recreation  of  a  hard- 
working missionary;  in  other  cases,  independent 
scientific  investigation  has  been  a  part  of  the 
regular  work  in  the  training  in  the  missionary 
colleges  abroad,  while  in  a  majority  of  instances 
perhaps  the  most  valuable  scientific  results  have 
come  from  the  observations  and  investigations 
made  in  the  interests  of  positive  missionary  oper- 
ations, or  are  the  direct  results  of  different  phases 
of  missionary  work. 

In  this  article  space  does  not  permit  of  citation 
to  any  extent  of  specific  cases.  Such  exhaustive 
citations  would  greatly  increase  the  value  of  the 
article,  but  it  would  also  necessarily  add  to  its 
length  many  fold.  We  can  but  state  the  facts, 
leaving  the  illustrations  to  be  supplied  by  the 
reader. 

Geography:  Probably  no  other  department  of 
science  owes  more  to  the  missionaries  than  does 
geography.  The  missionaries  have  been  the 
pioneers  in  most  countries.  The  interests  of 
their  work,  as  well  as  the  necessity  of  making 
intelligent  reports  to  their  committees,  boards 
and  constituencies,  demanded  that  accurate 
information  be  given  regarding  the  physical 
condition  of  the  countries  occupied.  The  first 
communications  of  the  exploring  missionai'ies  in 
all  countries  have  been  full  of  geographical  data, 
which  have  nece.ssarily  been  the  beginning  of  all 
the  concrete  information  we  to-day  possess  about 
these  countries. 

Franciscan  and  Jesuit  missionaries,  more  than 
six  centuries  ago,  traveled  through  Central  and 
Eastern  Asia,  and  even  into  China,  and  described 
the  topography  of  the  country.  They  prepared 
the  best  maps  of  those  countries  then  known, 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  missionaries  contributed 
much  of  the  first  knowledge  of  Africa  and  America. 
They  wrote  the  first  accounts  of  the  Congo  and 
Abyssinia.  The  Danish  missionaries  gave  us  our 
first  and  best  accounts  of  Greenland  and  Iceland. 
It  is  impossible  even  to  catalog  the  names  of 
the  societies  and  distinguished  missionaries  who, 
previous  to  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century, 
made  large  and  important  contributions  to  the 
science  of  Geography. 


During  the  19th  century  the  missionaries  have 
been  not  less  active  in  their  explorations.  The 
Sandwich  or  Hawaiian  Islands  were  opened  to 
the  world  and  explored  and  mapped  out  oy  them. 
The  South  Sea  Islands  are  known  to  us  largely 
through  the  initial  work  of  missionaries  who 
explored  for  the  sake  of  missionary  operations. 
Africa  and  Australia  were  first  made  known  to 
the  scientific  world  through  the  report  of  mission- 
aries published  in  missionary  magazines,  in 
independent  books  or  in  the  columns  of  the 
various  geographical  societies.  The  most  valu- 
able contributions  to  the  geography  of  Syria, 
were  made  by  a  missionary,  and  the  interiors  of 
Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia  and  Persia  were  explored 
for  us  by  resident  missionaries.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  last  century  the  world  was  intro- 
duced to  India  as  a  country,  apart  from  its 
resistance  to  foreign  invasion  and  its  value  to 
commerce,  through  the  extended  reports  of 
missionaries  regarding  the  country,  its  outlines, 
products  and  people.  China  was  a  missionary 
country  in  its  first  introduction  to  the  world.  In 
1856,  when  the  British  fleet  bombarded  Canton, 
its  action  was  directed  by  a  map  of  the  city  and 
suburbs  prepared  by  a  missionary.  The  best 
work  on  China,  which  is  still  a  classic  on  the 
Middle  Kingdom,  was  prepared  by  a  missionary. 

Undoubtedly  the  files  and  libraries  of  the 
missionary  societies  which  have  been  in  operation 
for  half  a  century  or  more  contain  a  more  abun- 
dant supply  of  facts  regarding  the  countries  of 
the  world,  outside  of  North  America  and  Europe, 
than  can  be  found  in  the  non-missionary  part  of  the 
archives  of  all  the  geographical  societies  taken 
together.  The  missionary  societies  in  their 
regular  periodicals  have  published  much  of  this 
material,  so  that  the  foreign  missionary  maga- 
zines really  belong  in  the  libraries  of  the  geograph- 
ical societies. 

Rev.  Dr.  William  Adams,  of  New  York,  has  said: 
"I  believe  more  has  been  done  in  philology, 
geography,  and  ethnology  indirectly  by  our 
missionaries  than  by  all  the  Royal  and  National 
societies  in  the  world  that  devote  themselves 
exclusively  to  these  objects."  The  Princeton 
Review  says  (Vol.  38,  p.  622):  "Our  missionaries 
have  rendered  more  real  service  to  geography 
than  all  the  geographical  societies  in  the  world." 
Carl  Ritter,  the  prince  of  geographers,  confessed 
that  he  could  not  have  written  his  magnum  opus, 
the  Erd  Kunde,  without  the  aid  and  material 
collected  and  transmitted  by  missionaries.  Mr. 
L.  H.  Morgan  in  his  Preface  of  the  Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge,  Vol.  XVII,  says: 
"No  class  of  men  have  earned  a  higher  reputa- 
tion as  scholars  or  philanthropists  than  our  mis- 
sionaries. Their  contributions  to  history, 
ethnology,  philology,  geography  and  religious 
literature  form  their  enduring  monument."  Mr. 
G.  M.  Powell,  of  the  Oriental  Topographical  Corps, 
in  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Institute, 
1874,  says:  "Probably  no  source  of  knowledge  in 
this  department  has  been  so  vast,  varied  and 
prolific  as  the  investigations  and  contributions  of 
missionaries." 

Philology:  The  study  of  the  languages  of  the 
people  to  be  evangelized  is  the  first  work  of  the 
missionary.  The  successful  missionary  may  have 
but  a  slight  knowledge  of  the  geography  or  the 
history  of  the  country,  but  he  can  accomplish 
little  or  nothing  unless  he  makes  himself  master 
of  the  spoken  vernacular.  Language — and  that 
of  the   people   among  whom  he  works — is  the 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


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instrument  by  which  the  race  is  to  be  won.  Hence 
Philology  is  also  distinctly  a  missionary  science. 

In  order  to  make  missionary  effort  permanent, 
it  has  been  necessary  to  reduce  to  writing  all 
languages  not  so  reduced,  and  to  prepare  gram- 
mars and  lexicons  of  the  same  in  order  to  teach 
the  people  themselves  the  proper  and  scientific 
use  of  their  own  tongue.  Upon  this  basis  a 
literature  has  been  built  up.  This  is  the  natural 
and  only  method  of  missionary  conquest  in  every 
uncivilized  country  of  the  world. 

The  cases  are  few,  indeed,  where  men  other 
than  missionaries  have  ever  mastered  an  unwrit- 
ten foreign  tongue,  reducing  it  to  writing  and 
preparing  for  it  a  grammar  and  lexicon.  To 
mention  the  languages  so  reduced  by  mission- 
aries would  require  more  space  than  is  allotted 
to  this  part  of  the  subject.  In  the  first  six 
volumes  of  the  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 
.Society  out  of  a  total  of  2,927  pages  1,215  are 
filled  by  47  missionaries,  and  that,  too,  chiefly 
as  to  subjects  connected  with  philology.  Prof. 
Whitney,  in  his  Language  and  the  Study  of 
Language,  says:  "The  extraordinary  activity 
of  missions  in  Africa  within  a  few  years  has 
directed  study  towards  African  dialects.  A 
great  mass  of  material  has  been  collected  and 
■examined  sufficiently  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the 
distribution  of  races  in  this  continent." 

Next  to  the  value  of  discovering  and  crystal- 
lizing the  language  of  a  people  in  a  scientific 
classification  and  arrangement,  is  the  production 
of  a  common  literature  in  the  spoken  tongue.  In 
this  way  dialectic  differences  in  the  language 
.spoken  by  the  same  races  in  different  parts  of  the 
same  country  have  been  broken  down  and  the 
spoken  tongue  of  the  entire  race  has  been  unified. 
The  philological  unification  of  races  and  nations 
by  the  production  of  a  general  Christian  literature 
in  a  pure  form  and  in  the  spoken  language  of  the 
masses  of  the  people,  has  been  one  of  the  greatest 
scientific  triumphs  of  the  last  century  of  modern 
missions.  It  has  unified  the  people,  made  wider 
and  more  general  literature  possible,  and  opened 
the  way  for  the  scientific  classification  of  the 
languages  themselves.  Comparative  philology 
•owes  far  more  to  the  work  of  missionaries  than  to 
any  other  class  of  people.  They  are  the  masters 
of  the  science. 

Ethnology:  The  missionary  has  been  the  dis- 
coverer of  peoples.  For  this  he  was  commis- 
•sioned  and  sent  out  into  strange  lands.  The 
limits  of  this  article  would  be  exceeded  if  an 
attempt  were  made  to  even  enumerate  and  briefly 
•describe  the  different  races  that  have  been  intro- 
duced to  the  world,  studied,  and  classified  by 
foreign  missionaries.  The  very  work  the  mission- 
ary is  sent  to  accomplish  has  compelled  him  to 
do  this.  No  one  else  has  ever  had  such  oppor- 
tunities for  observation  and  study  and  no  one 
else  has  been  impelled  to  this  work  by  such  a 
permanent  incentive.  Whenever  a  missionary 
hears  of  a  strange  and  unknown  race  or  people, 
there  he  is  immediately  drawn.  He  cannot 
•cease  from  his  study  until  he  learns  aU  he  can  of 
the  physical,  mental,  social,  moral  and  religious 
characteristics  of  the  people  in  his  new  found  field 
of  observation  and  operation.  The  chances  are 
that  he  will  take  up  his  residence  in  the  midst 
•of  that  people  and  give  his  life  to  understanding 
them,  in  o-rder  that  he  may  adapt  to  their  pecu- 
liar conditions  and  needs  the  Gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

If  we  should  eliminate  from  our  English  liter- 


ature all  that  has  been  inspired  and  written  by 
foreign  missionaries  in  the  line  of  descriptions 
of  tlie  peoples  of  Africa,  Asia,  South  America, 
parts  ot  Europe,  and  the  islands  of  the  seas,  we 
would  quickly  discover  how  little  remains  upon 
which  we  can  place  any  dependence.  The 
missionaries  have  been  the  collectors  of  data, 
patiently  recording  the  facts  as  they  observed 
them.  It  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  others  to  collect, 
classify,  and  compare  this  large  array  of  material 
and  draw  conclusions  more  far-reaching  than 
those  reached  by  many  missionaries.  The  indi- 
vidual missionary  has  observed  and  dealt  with 
one,  two  or  may  be  three  different  races  or 
people.  Beyond  them  his  personal  observations 
have  not  extended,  but  within  these  he  stands 
without  a  peer.  The  results  of  his  studies  are 
given  to  the  world  and  from  this  data  the  most 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  races  of  the  world  has 
come.  Ethnology  and  Philology  are  kindred 
sciences, and  both,  inapeculiar  sense,  are  mission- 
ary sciences,  owing  almost  everything  to  the 
discoveries  of  the  missionaries. 

Natural  History  and  Geology:  The  contribu- 
tions of  missionaries  to  the  sciences  of  Geology, 
Botany,  and  Natural  History  have  been  consider- 
able. By  the  aid  of  native  students  extensive 
collections  of  specimens  have  been  made,  some 
of  which  can  be  found  in  the  best  known  muse- 
ums of  the  world.  A  missionary  prepared  the 
best  existing  work  on  the  flora  of  Syria;  and  the 
collections  of  fresh-water  mollusks  of  the  Hawai- 
ian Islands,  which  stands  to-day  as  the  most 
valuable  collection  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  was 
made  by  a  missionary.  The  same  is  true  of  a 
collection  of  the  moths  and  butterflies  of  Japan. 
Another  missionary  received  an  honorary  degree 
for  distinguished  researches  in  geology  in  the 
Balkan  Peninsula. 

Archceology:  Missionaries  not  a  few  have 
become  archaeologists  of  no  little  repute.  There 
are  few  museums  in  Europe  and  America  that  do 
not  possess  objects  discovered  by  missionaries, 
and  in  many  cases  these  finds  have  been  inter- 
preted by  them  and  given  to  the  world.  In  the 
last  fifty  years  a  greater  part  of  the  archEeological 
discoveries  of  Asia  Minor  have  been  made  by 
missionaries  who  have  been  residents  there.  As 
discoverers  of  rock  inscriptions,  ancient  cities, 
coins,  cylinders,  manuscripts,  and  an  endless 
variety  of  other  objects,  all  of  which  have  a  dis- 
tinct archasological  value,  the  missionaries  have 
a  place  uniquely  their  own. 

They  have  had  facilities  for  doing  this  that  is 
enjoyed  by  no  one  else.  With  their  residence  in 
the  country,  having  under  their  tuition  a  large 
numlaer  of  young  men  in  collegiate  training,  and 
compelled  in  the  regular  routine  of  their  opera- 
tions to  cross  and  recross  the  country  by  unfre- 
quented routes,  it  is  not  strange  that  they  should 
learn  of  the  existence  of  inscriptions,  manu- 
scripts, and  ruins,  and  should  take  pains  to  visit 
the  same  and  make  careful  record  of  all  they 
discovered.  As  soon  as  the  people  become 
acquainted  with  the  fact  that  the  missionaries 
are  interested  in  these  things,  they  bring  all  sorts 
of  portable  antiquities  to  them  and  report  to 
them  the  location  of  what  cannot  be  transported. 
In  multitudes  of  cases  antiquities  which  the 
natives,  for  superstitious  reasons,  conceal  from  a 
stranger  seeking  them,  are  freely  exhibited  to  the 
missionary,  who  is  well  known  and  thoroughly 
trusted.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  contribu- 
tions of  missionaries  to  the  archaeological  wealth 


Science 
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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


664 


and  knowledge  of  the  world  are  large  and 
valuable. 

Medical  Science:  The  practise  of  medicine  has 
constituted  an  important  part  of  the  missionary 
operations  of  all  the  regular  Mission  Boards. 
This  has  been  especially  true  in  the  pioneer  work 
of  those  societies.  For  the  Medical  Department 
of  mission  operations  the  best  trained  physicians, 
both  men  and  women,  have  been  sent  out. 
These  have  opened  dispensaries,  built  and 
equipped  hospitals,  and  conducted  a  general 
medical  practise  among  the  natives  of  all  coun- 
tries where  mission  work  has  been  carried  on 
during  the  last  century.  The  initial  develop- 
ment of  the  modern  science  of  medicine  in  China, 
Japan,  India,  Turkey,  Africa,  and  the  Pacific 
Islands  has  been  accomplished  almost  entirely 
by  the  missionaries. 

Medical  schools  have  been  opened  and  con- 
ducted according  to  modern  principles  of  medical 
and  surgical  practise,  and  the  youth  of  those 
countries  have  been  taught  the  science  and  are 
to-day,  by  the  thousands,  practising  the  same 
among  their  own  people.  To  accomplish  this, 
text-books  have  been  prepared  in  the  vernacular 
of  the  people  for  the  use  of  students  not  familiar 
with  the  English  language.  In  connection  with 
the  mission  hospitals,  training  classes  for  training 
native  nurses  have  been  opened  and  they  consti- 
tute one  of  the  popular  departments  of  medical 
work. 

Medical  missionaries,  owing  to  their  location 
among  hitherto  unknown  people  and  in  climatic 
conditions  unknown  to  the  medical  fraternity  of 
England,  Germany,  France,  and  the  United 
States,  have  made  extended  and  continuous 
observations  upon  diseases  that  are  entirely 
unknown  in  the  countries  mentioned.  The 
reports  of  these  observations  have  been  widely 
published  in  the  medical  journals,  and  have  added 
materially  to  the  sum  total  of  medical  knowledge. 
While  studying  unknown  diseases  the  missionary 
physicians  have  also  sought  for  proper  remedies 
in  the  countries  themselves,  and  in  cases  not  a 
few  they  have  been  eminently  successful.  It  is 
well  known  that  not  a  few  of  the  common  reme- 
dies now  in  constant  use  in  our  most  civilized 
countries  were  discovered  by  medical  mission- 
aries and  given  to  the  world.  Medical  work  has 
now  been  so  thoroughly  established  that  the  work 
of  the  foreign  medical  missionary  is  now  supple- 
mental, and  in  some  countries  is  taken  up  and 
carried  on  in  a  large  measure  by  thoroughly 
trained  native  physicians. 

Social  Science:  The  social-settlement  method  of 
reaching  certain  classes  of  people  in  our  larger 
cities  is  the  application  to  English  and  American 
life  of  foreign  missionary  methods  of  operation 
that  have  been  in  vogue  ever  since  that  work 
began.  The  foreign  missionary  enters  upon  the 
work  for  life,  and  is  usually  located  in  a  section 
of  country  where  he  is  expected  to  devote  his 
life  to  the  civilization,  education,  and  Christian- 
ization  of  the  native  peoples  all  about  him.  The 
missionary  establishes  his  home  among  these 
people  to  whose  elevation  he  has  given  his  life. 
His  home  becomes  a  well-recognized  place  of 
refuge  for  those  who  want  sympathy,  comfort 
and  instruction.  The  natives  come  and  go 
freely.  The  missionary  identifies  himself  with 
the  life  of  the  people,  with  their  politics,  and  their 
ambitions  and  trials.  They  learn  to  recognize 
him  as  one  who  is  interested  in  whatever  interests 
them  and  as  suffering  under  conditions  that  bring 


afflictions  upon  them.  In  famine  and  plague,  in 
war,  pestilence,  and  massacre,  the  missionary 
remains  at  his  post,  and  not  infrequently  lays 
down  his  life  in  his  endeavor  to  shield  and  help 
the  people  whom  he  serves.  Civilized  countriesi 
seldom  witness  such  examples  of  self-surrender 
carried  to  such  conclusions  as  we  witness  to-day 
in  actual  operation  in  every  country  of  the 
world  where  foreign  missionaries  are  operating. 
They  were  the  pioneers  of  this  method  of  reaching 
a  people,  and  by  them  the  science  has  been  mar- 
velously  developed  during  the  past  century. 
In  the  face  of  what  missionaries  have  done  and 
are  accomplishing  by  this  means,  our  American 
and  English  operations  seem  but  child's  play, 
and  the  results  obtained  almost  too  meager  for 
record.  Missionaries  are  the  masters  of  this 
science,  and  are  in  a  position  to  demonstrate  its 
value  to  the  world.  Because  of  the  circumstances 
here  outlined,  questions  of  class,  caste,  poverty 
and  wealth,  employer  and  employed  and,  in  fact, 
all  questions  that  arise  in  the  social  life  of  vari- 
ous peoples,  come  before  the  missionaries  and 
compel  to  some  practical  solution.  They  con- 
stantly aim  to  change  for  the  better  all  social 
conditions  and  to  set  in  operation  forces  that  will 
eventuate  in  a  completely  reformed  society. 

Dr.  James  S.  Dennis  embodies  extended 
observations  and  research  in  this  line  in  his  mas- 
terly work.  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Prog- 
ress. He  says :  "It  may  not  be  in  harmony 
with  the  current  naturalistic  theories  of  social 
evolution,  yet  it  is  the  open  secret  of  missionary 
experience  that  the  humble  work  of  missions  is  a 
factor  in  the  social  progress  of  the  world  which  it 
would  be  intellectual  dishonesty  to  ignore  and 
philosophic  treason  to  deny.  The  entrance  of 
missions  into  the  modern  life  of  ancient  peo- 
ples is  a  fact  of  the  highest  historic,  as  well  as 
ethical  and  religious,  significance.  They  are  the 
heralds  of  a  new  era  of  beneficent  progress  to  the 
less  favored  nations  of  the  earth.  The  social 
scientist  who  discounts  Christian  missions  as  of 
no  special  import  is  strangely  oblivious  to  a  force 
which  has  wrought  with  benign  energy  and  unex- 
ampled precision  in  the  production  of  the  best 
civilization  we  have  yet  seen  in  the  history  of 
mankind." 

Diplomacy:  The  missionaries'  part  in  shaping 
the  diplomatic  relations  now  existing  between 
the  civilized  and  the  non-civilized  countries  of  the 
world  has  been  large  and  important.  In  most 
cases  missionaries  have  preceded  the  consul,  min- 
ister, and  ambassador.  When  later  the  official 
representative  of  the  missionary's  government 
appeared,  the  missionary  of  long  residence,  not 
infrequently  well  versed  in  the  language  and  con- 
ditions of  the  country,  has  been  compelled  to 
advise,  in  no  small  measure,  the  official  represen- 
tative of  his  country  and,  in  fact,  shape  the 
diplomatic  relations  of  the  two  countries.  The 
Protestant  missionary  influence  in  the  settle- 
ment of  diplomatic  questions,  and  in  the  drafting 
of  treaties  for  the  control  of  future  relationship, 
has  always  been  conciliatory  and  liberal.  They 
have  been  from  the  beginning,  and  in  all  coun- 
tries not  a  few  are  to-day,  confidential  and 
trusted  advisers  of  the  accredited  representatives 
of  the  great  powers  in  delicate  international 
questions.  As  much  of  the  diplomatic  influence 
of  the  missionary  has  been  in  the  role  of  con- 
fidential adviser,  it  would  be  most  undiplomatic 
to  make  any  public  record  of  the  same,  but  it  is 
safe  to  state  that  the  work  of  the  missionaries  in 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Science 
Scotland 


aid  of  wise  and  conservative  diplomatic  relations 
among  the  nations  of  the  world,  civilized  and 
uncivilized,  has  been  emphatic  and  invaluable. 

Philanthropy:  The  missionary's  legitimate  pro- 
fession is  not  one  that  is  primarily  philanthropic 
in  any  limited  use  of  the  term.  He  does  not  take 
up  his  residence  in  distant,  unknown  countries 
for  the  purpose  of  distributing  charity  to  the 
people  who  seem  to  be  in  need  of  it.  And  yet, 
durmg  the  last  century  of  modern  missionary 
enterprise,  probably  no  one  class  of  philanthro- 
pists have  been  called  upon  to  administer  larger 
relief  funds  than  have  the  foreign  missionaries. 
Famine  and  pestilence,  plague,  war,  and  massacre 
have,  at  different  times,  swept  over  countries 
where  missionaries  have  been  living,  and  they 
were  the  only  trustworthy  people  upon  the  ground 
both  able  and  willing  to  distribute  the  funds  that 
were  raised  abroad  for  the  relief  of  the  suffering 
people.  Consequently,  missionaries  have  so  sys- 
tematized methods  of  benevolence  as  to  reduce  to 
a  minimum  the  pauperizing  effect  of  the  same 
upon  the  people  who  received  the  aid.  They 
have  undoubtedly  demonstrated  to  the  world 
that  relief  funds  can  be  distributed  to  a  people 
desperately  in  need,  while  leaving  upon  the 
people  the  impression  that  the  aid  received  has  been 
earned  by  their  own  labors.  The  science  of 
philanthropy  must  be  studied  largely  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  experiences  of  the  foreign  mis- 
sionary, in  order  to  be  understood  in  its  widest 
and  most  important  relations  to  the  moral  char- 
acter of  the  people  and  the  fullest  development 
of  industry  and  thrift. 

Comparative  Religion:  One  of  the  chief  studies 
of  missionaries  has  been  the  religions  of  the  peo- 
ple among  whom  they  live.  As  they  have 
been  sent  out  to  change  the  religion  of  the 
people,  and  to  lead  them  to  accept  Christianity 
in  place  of  that  which  they  had,  it  is  clear  that,  in 
order  to  accomplish  this,  the  missionaries  must 
understand,  as  far  as  possible,  their  present 
beliefs  and  religious  practises.  All  missionaries 
have  not  given  the  same  attention  to  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  people  for 
whom  they  are  to  work.  But  many  of  the  most 
intelligent  and  observing  of  the  missionaries  of 
the  leading  Boards  of  the  world,  by  a  care- 
ful study  of  whatever  religious  literature  the 
people  may  possess,  by  most  painstaking  obser- 
vations of  their  religious  customs  and  habits 
and  by  continual  inquiries  of  the  most  intelligent 
devotees,  have  gathered  together  a  mass  of  thor- 
oughly trustworthy  material  that  has  become  the 
basis  for  the  general  science  of  religion. 

There  are  many  tribes  and  races  whose  religion 
would  not  be  known  now  were  it  not  for  the  infor- 
mation given  by  missionaries  living  among  them. 
The  fundamental  beliefs  and  practises  of  the 
great  ethnic  religions  would  be  little  known  to- 
day were  it  not  for  the  mass  of  information  fur- 
nished by  the  missionaries  who  have  given  a  life- 
time, even  to  the  second  and  third  generation,  to 
a  thorough  and  exhaustive  study  of  these 
religions,  upon  the  ground  and  amid  their  daily 
practises.  The  results  of  these  studies  and 
observations  have  not  always  been  gathered  into 
book  form,  but  they  have  been  more  frequently 
embodied  in  letters  and  reports,  and  in  articJes 
published  in  missionary,  scientific,  and  popular 
magazines,  and  other  periodicals.  It  is  not 
exaggeration  to  say  that  missionary  literature 
has  done  more  for  general  education,  in  the  line 
of  the  religious  practises  and  beliefs  of  the  people 


of  the  world,  than  all  other  sources  combined. 
In  fact,  it  is  impossible  for  this  subject  to  be 
studied  now  with  any  degree  of  thoroughness 
and  accuracy  without  the  free  use  of  the  material 
furnished  by  the  missionaries.  One  has  but  to 
glance  through  missionary  articles  in  the  maga- 
zines, as  well  as  books  they  have  published,  to  be 
convinced  of  the  measureless  value  of  the  contri- 
butions of  foreign  missionaries  to  the  science  of 
Comparative  Religion. 

But  space  will  not  permit  a  citation  of  indi- 
vidual cases.  In  short,  educated  missionaries 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  during  the  last  century 
have  been  active  and  valued  contributors  to 
nearly  every  scientific  subject  that  has  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  scholars  of  the  last  century. 

SCOTLAND;  Missions  in  the  Presbyterian 
Churches  of:  These  will  be  considered  under  the 
four  heads,  viz.: 

1.  Established  Church:  Committee  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  espe- 
cially in  India.  Headquarters,  22  Queen  St., 
Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

2.  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland:  Foreign 
Mission  Committee.  Headquarters,  15  North 
Bank  St.,  Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

3.  United  Original  Secession  Synod:  Foreign 
Mission  Committee.  Headquarters,  Shawlands, 
Glasgow,  Scotland. 

4.  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland:  Foreign  Missions  Committee.  Head- 
quarters, Paisley,  Scotland. 

General  History:  In  contrast  to  Luther,  John 
Knox,  in  the  first  confession  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  (1560),  recognized  the  message  of  mis- 
sions. In  1647  the  General  Assemblj^  recorded 
the  desire  for  "a  more  firm  consociation  for 
propagating  it  (the  Gospel)  to  those  who  are 
without,  especially  the  Jews,"  and  on  the  occasion 
of  the  Scotch  expedition  to  Darien  (1699)  the 
assembly  counseled  the  ministers  who  went  with 
it  to  labor  among  the  heathen.  Ten  years  later, 
the  Society  in  Scotland  for  Propagating  Christian 
Knowledge  was  founded,  having  cliiefly  in  mind 
the  needs  of  the  Highlands.  Later  it  enlarged  its 
scope  somewhat  to  include  work  in  America, 
Africa,  and  India.  In  1724  Robert  Millar,  a 
Presbyterian  minister  in  Paisley,  published  a 
History  of  the  Propagation  of  Christianity  and 
the  Overthrow  of  Paganism,  in  which  he  urged 
prayer  as  the  first  of  nine  means  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  heathen  world.  Then  came  the  first 
Secession  in  1733,  followed  by  that  of  the  Relief 
Church  in  1761,  while,  in  the  meantime  (1746), 
there  went  from  Scotland  and  England  to  America 
the  plea  for  united  prayer. 

The  effect  of  Carey's  sermons  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  BMS  and  the  LMS  was  manifest  at 
once  in  Scotland,  when  two  societies  were  organ- 
ized in  1796,  the  Scottish  (later  called  the  Edin- 
burgh) Society  and  the  Glasgow  Society.  In 
both  of  them  the  Established  and  Secession 
churches  were  represented,  and  to  the  Scottish 
Society  belongs  the  honor  of  sending  out  the 
first  martyr  missionary  of  modern  times,  Peter 
Greig,  a  gardener,  and  a  member  of  the  Secession 
Church  of  Donibristle,  Inver-Keithing,  who  was 
murdered  in  the  Fulah  country  in  West  Africa. 
The  same  society  undertook  a  mission  to  the 
'Tatars  at  Karass,  in  the  Caucasus.  This  was 
stopped  by  the  Russian  Government,  and  the 
Society  turned  its  attention  to  India  and  the 
West  Indies,  afterward,  in  1835  and  1847,  trans- 
ferring them  to  the  Established  and  the  United 


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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


656 


churches,  and  passing  out  of  separate  existence. 
The  Glasgow  Society  joined  the  Scottish  Society 
in  Sierra  Leone,  but  not  successfully,  and  in  1821 
it  started  a  work  in  Kafraria,  which  developed 
well.  At  the  time  of  the  Voluntary  Controversy 
(1837)  two  presbyteries  were  formed,  of  which 
one,  in  1844,  joined  the  Free  Church,  and  the 
other,  in  1847,  the  United  Church. 

/.  Missions  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland: 
While  the  Scottish  (Edinburgh  and  Glasgow) 
Societies  were  carrying  on  their  work,  tho  not 
very  effectively,  a  strong  effort  was  made,  led  by 
Thos.  Chalmers  and  Dr.  Inglis,  to  secure  action  by 
the  Church.  In  1825,  Dr.  Inglis,  then  convener, 
succeeded  in  persuading  the  General  Assembly 
to  appoint  a  foreign  mission  committee  of  ten 
men,  but  little  interest  was  aroused  until  in  1829, 
when,  largely  through  the  influence  of  Chalmers, 
Alexander  Duff  was  sent  to  Calcutta  as  head- 
master of  an  educational  institution  of  which  Dr. 
Inglis  had  succeeded  in  persuading  the  Assembly 
to  approve.  From  that  time  the  interest 
increased.  In  1835  the  Mission  established  by 
the  Scottish  Society  in  Western  India  by  John 
Wilson,  J.  Murray  Mitchell,  and  others  was  taken 
over  by  the  Church  Mission,  and  on  the  earnest 
appeal  of  Duff  work  was  commenced  in  Madras. 

In  1843  came  the  Disruption,  and  the  entire 
body  of  missionaries,  led  by  Duff  and  Wilson, 
gave  in  their  allegiance  to  the  Free  Church. 
Thus  the  Established  Church  found  itself  with  a 
large  amount  of  property  and  one  missionary — a 
lady.  As  soon  as  possible  others  were  sent  out, 
and  before  long  the  institutions  in  the  three  pres- 
idencies were  running  on  the  same  basis  as  before. 
In  1874  the  Church  commenced  work  in  East 
Africa,  and  in  1878  in  China. 

1.  India:  From  1845  until  the  Mutiny,  the 
work  in  India  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  three 
centers  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay.  Then, 
however,  as  with  other  societies,  a  new  impulse 
was  given,  and  stations  were  opened  in  the  Pun- 
jab, and  afterward  in  Independent  Sikkim,  on 
the  border  of  Tibet.  This  last  work  has  been 
carried  on  in  close  affiliation  with  a  missionary 
association  of  the  four  Scotch  universities.  The 
work  at  Bombay  was  afterward  given  up,  and 
the  educational  work  of  higher  grade  developed 
in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Sialkot. 

The  report  (1903)  shows  26  missionaries  (not 
including  wives)  of  the  Church  Board  and  38  of 
the  Women's  Association,  a  total  of  64;  189 
native  workers  (aside  from  teachers),  17  stations, 
2,309  communicants,  3  colleges,  and  185  schools, 
with  8,187  scholars. 

2.  Africa:  In  response  to  the  earnest  appeal 
from  Livingstone  the  Established  Church  started 
a  mission  at  Blantyre,  south  of  Lake  Nyasa,  in 
1874.  Other  stations  near  by  were  also  occupied, 
and  in  1884  Domasi  and  Zomba,  while  in  1901 
work  was  commenced  in  the  Kiku'yu  country, 
British  East  Africa.  In  the  African  missions 
special  emphasis  is  laid  upon  medical  and 
industrial  work.  The  report  shows  25  mission- 
aries (of  both  boards),  57  native  workers,  623 
communicants,  35  schools   with  10,446  scholars. 

3.  China:  A  mission  started  in  China  at  I-chang 
in  1878  has  (1903)  in  4  stations,  8  missionaries, 
15  native  workers,  857  communicants,  6  schools 
with  218  scholars. 

The  Church  also  has  a  Colonial  Committee, 
which  provides  chaplains  for  a  number  of  com- 
munities in  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  colonies;  and 
s,   Jewish    Mission   Committee,    which   conducts 


schools  in  Alexandria,  Beirut,  Constantinople, 
Smyrna,  and  Salonica;  10  in  all,  with  2,337 
scholars. 

Church   of  Scotland   Women's    Association  for 
Foreign  Missions:   In  1837  a  Ladies'  Association        ' 
for  Foreign  Missions,  including  Zenana  work,  was 
organized.      This  afterward  became  "The  Scot- 
tish Ladies'  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Female    Education    in    India;"    then,    in    1883, 
"The   Church  of  Scotland  Ladies'  Association  for 
Foreign    Missions."     More    recently    the    above 
title  has  been  adopted.     The  Association  works 
in  connection  with  the  Church  Foreign  Mission         j 
Committee,  employing  49  missionaries,  17  assist-       t 
ants,    134  native  teachers,   28   Bible  women,  9         ' 
nurses,  and  59  other  agents.     It  has  3,316  pupils         ^ 
on  the  rolls  of  51  schools,  and  carries  on  medical 
work  in  all  the  fields  occupied  by  the  Church 
Missions. 

2.  Missions  of  the  United  Free  Church  of 
Scotland.  A.  The  Free  Church:  Immediately  upon 
the  organization  of  the  new  body  the  missionaries 
set  about  reestablishing  their  work.  A  merchant 
in  America  sent  Duff  £500,  a  physician  in  Cal- 
cutta gave  him  £500,  and  other  large  gifts  fol- 
lowed, and  by  January  4,  1845,  he  had  a  larger 
school  building  than  before,  free  of  debt,  and 
more  pupils — 1,257.  As  gifts  came  to  him  he 
sought  to  share  them  with  the  mission  stations 
in  Bombay  and  Madras,  but  they  were  not 
needed.  Even  before  reaching  Scotland  on  his 
furlough,  Wilson  wrote:  "We  must  enlarge  our 
work,"  and  a  new  mission  was  established  at 
Nagpur,  to  which  a  British  official  in  Madras  gave 
£500.  Soon  after  (1844)  the  Committee  took 
over  the  South  African  Mission  of  the  Glasgow 
Society.  At  a  time  when  the  resources  of  the 
Free  Churches  were  strained  to  the  utmost  to  pro- 
vide for  home  needs  they  gave  more  liberally  to 
missions  than  ever  before.  The  very  next  year 
the  gifts  of  the  Free  Church  alone  exceeded  those  i 
of  tlie  entire  church  before  the  Disruption  by 
about  £3,600,  and  there  has  been  a  steady 
advance  since. 

In  India,  to  the  work  in  Calcutta,  Bombay, 
and  Madras  was  added  Nagpur,  with  Hislop  Col- 
lege, on  a  par  with  the  institutions  in  the  other 
cities,  and  a  work  among  the  Santals  of  Bengal. 
In  Arabia  the  Society  took  charge  of  the  Keith 
Falconer  Mission  at  Aden  (Sheikh  Othman).  In 
Africa  it  added  to  its  work  in  Kafraria,  received 
from  the  Glasgow  Society,  work  in  Natal  and 
among  the  tribes  of  Lake  Nyasa.  It  established 
a  mission  in  Syria,  shared  with  the  Presbyterians 
of  Canada  work  in  the  New  Hebrides,  while  not 
neglecting  work  at  home,  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe,  among  the  English  communities,  and  for 
the  Jews  in  numerous  cities  of  the  Levant.  In 
1900  the  Free  Church  joined  the  United  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  mission  work  of  the  united  body 
was  put  in  the  hands  of  a  committee  of  the 
General  Assembly,  representing  each  branch. 

B.  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland:  In 
1847  the  Secession  and  Relief  Churches  united 
in  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  churches  which 
retained  their  organization  as  the  United  Original 
Secession  Church. 

The  first  mission  undertaken  was  that  started 
by  the  Scottish  Socie'ty  in  Jamaica  in  1835,  which 
had  already  developed  so  that  the  colored  people 
inaugurated  a  work  for  their  fellows  in  Africa, 
and  helped  to  found  the  Calabar  Mission  on  the 


1657 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Scotland 


"West  Coast;  and  in  Trinidad,  where  two  stations 
were  occupied.  Tlie  division  in  tlie  Presbytery 
•of  Soutli  Africa,  started  by  tiie  Glasgow  Society, 
had  resulted  in  one  section  joining  the  Free 
'Church  in  1844,  and  the  other,  on  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  United  Church  in  1847,  identified 
itself  with  that  movement.  The  events  of  the 
Mutiny  in  India  (1857)  led  the  Church  to  open 
work  in  Rajputana  and  the  Northwest  (United) 
Provinces.  It  prospered  from  the  beginning, 
.and  the  founding  of  the  first  station,  Beawar, 
was  followed  by  that  of  Nasirabad  (1861), 
Ajmere  (1862),  Todgarh  (1863),  Jaipur  (1866), 
-and  several  others.  The  next  step  was  into 
'China.  A  medical  missionary  of  the  UP  Church 
worked  (1862-1870)  in  Ningpo,  and  then  Dr. 
Alex.  Williamson  opened  a  station  at  Chi-fu. 
The  great  work  of  the  Church  in  Eastern  Asia, 
"however,  has  been  that  in  Manchuria,  com- 
menced by  Rev.  John  Ross  and  Rev.  John 
Maclntyre  in  1873.  The  first  stations,  New- 
ehwang,  Hai-chung,  and  Liao-yang,  were  followed 
by  Mukden  and  several  others.  The  work  in 
China  proper  was  given  up  that  this  might  be 
, strengthened.  Japan  also  was  entered  in  1863, 
but  on  the  organization  of  the  United  Church  of 
Christ  in  Japan,  and  in  view  of  the  presence  of  so 
many  other  societies,  the  Church  withdrew  its 
iorce  and  focused  its  efforts  on  other  fields. 

C.  The  United  Free  Church.  1.  India:  The  five 
missions,  Bengal  (with  its  Santal  branch),  West- 
ern India,  Nagpur,  Madras,  and  Rajputana, 
report  (1903)  158  missionaries,  257  native 
workers,  28  organized  churches,  114  outstations, 
3,076  communicants.  The  educational  work 
shows  4  colleges,  with  1,871  students,  and  344 
other  schools,  899  teachers,  17,485  scholars. 
The  colleges  are  Duff  College,  at  Calcutta;  Wilson 
College,  at  Bombay;  Hislop  College,  at  Nagpur, 
and  the  Madras  College.  There  are  21  medical 
missionaries,  with  66  assistants,  232  hospital 
beds,  and  24 dispensaries.  Over  160,000  individual 
cases  were  treated,  while  the  number  reached 
by  preaching  was  over  420,000.  The  mission  has 
fallen  heir  to  a  branch  of  the  work  founded 
by  Carey  in  the  old  Dutch  town  of  Chinsurah, 
and  finds  much  encouragement  in  its  work  among 
the  Santals  and  in  the  village  districts  of  the 
other  fields.  Special  reference  is  made  to  the 
excellent  results  of  the  addresses  by  Drs.  Barrows, 
Fairbairn,  and  Cuthbert  Hall,  especially  among 
the  students.  A  feature  of  the  Scotch  Missions 
in  India  has  always  been  the  attention  paid  to  the 
preparation  and  dissemination  of  Christian  liter- 
ature. Dr.  Murdoch,  as  Secretary  of  the  Madras 
Branch  of  the  Christian  Literature  Society  and 
the  Madras  Religious  Tract  Society,  reports  the 
issues  of  both  societies  for  the  year  as  nearly 
2,500,000,  while  £5,608  ($28,000)  was  realized 
from  the  sale  of  books. 

2.  Arabia:  The  Mission  in  South  Arabia, 
founded  by  the  Hon.  Ion  Keith  Falconer  at 
Sheikh  Othman,  Aden,  in  1885,  works  especially 
among  the  Mohammedans  and  Somalis  in  the 
vicinity,  but  has  done  good  work  for  Galla  cap- 
tives released  from  the  slavers.  There  are 
reported  3  missionaries  and  5  native  workers. 
The  work  is  still,  to  a  considerable  degree,  pioneer 
in  its  character,  and  the  small  number  of  conver- 
sions (7  communicants)  has  not  warranted  the 
organization  of  a  church.  The  school,  with  its 
16  pupils,  is  a  nucleus  for  good;  but  the  great 
'evangelistic  work  is  in  the  medical  department, 
in  which  4,600  patients  were  treated  by  the  2 


medical  missionaries  and  2  assistants,  while  the 
audiences  at  the  medical  services  numbered 
nearly  20,000. 

3.  China:  The  Manchuria  Mission  suffered 
heavily  during  the  Boxer  outbreak,  but  chiefly 
in  the  general  disturbance  of  work.  The  mis- 
sionaries in  Hai-cheng,  Liao-yang,  Mukden, 
Kai-yuen,  Lie-ling,  and  Mai-mai-kai  reached 
New-chwang  in  safety,  while  those  in  Ashiho 
escaped  to  Vladivostock.  The  two  native  pastors  ' 
escaped,  tho  several  evangelists  and  alarge num- 
ber of  the  native  Christians  lost  their  lives. 
Churches,  hospitals,  mission  houses,  schools,  and 
a  great  many  private  homes  were  destroyed,  and 
there  was  much  suffering,  as  well  as  complete  dis- 
organization of  work.  With  the  return  of  peace 
the  missionaries  were  able  to  go  back  to  their 
stations,  and,  after  two  years,  the  work  has 
resumed  its  normal  character.  In  the  fall  of 
1902  the  severe  trial  of  the  Church  was  followed 
by  a  special  spiritual  revival,  with  a  new  spirit  of 
consecration. 

The  report  (1903)  shows  37  missionaries,  97 
native  workers,  12  organized  churches,  75  out- 
stations, 5,994  communicants.  The  college  at 
Mukden  has  106  students,  including  16  in  the 
theological  department,  and  in  30  other  schools 
there  are  349  pupils.  In  the  medical  depart- 
ment the  10  missionaries  and  8  assistants  treated 
over  4,000  cases,  reaching  nearly  twice  that  num- 
ber by  their  services. 

The  future  of  this  mission  will  be  watched  with 
much  interest  as  Russian  power  in  Manchuria 
grows  stronger. 

4.  Africa:  (1)  South  Africa,  including  3  mis- 
sions: Kafraria,  Transkei,  and  Natal. 

The  first  Scotch  missionaries  to  South  Africa 
accompanied  a  Glasgow  colony  in  1821,  and 
started  work  on  the  Chumie  River.  In  less  than 
two  years  five  Kafirs  were  baptized,  and  the  work 
progressed,  new  stations  being  occupied,  the 
most  important  being  Lovedale  (1830).  In  1844 
came  the  transference  of  the  work  to  the  Free 
Church,  and  every  department  received  a  new 
impulse.  The  Kafir  war  (1846)  broke  up  the 
mission  temporarily,  but  a  new  start  was  made 
and  after  some  years  two  missions  were  formed : 
Kafraria,  south  of  the  Kei  River,  while  that  on 
the  North  was  called  the  Transkei  Mission.  Still 
later  (1847),  in  response  to  a  special  appeal  from 
Dr.  Duff,  who  visited  the  field,  another  mission 
was  established  in  Natal.  Among  the  important 
stations  are  Kafraria,  Lovedale,  Burnshill,  Pirie, 
Macfarlan,  etc.;  Transkei,  Cunningham,  Pater- 
son,  Buchanan,  etc.;  Natal,  Pietermaritzburg, 
Impolmeni,  Gordon  Memorial,  etc. 

The  best  known  work  of  these  missions  is  that 
of  the  Lovedale  institution,  which  has  furnished 
the  model  or  the  inspiration  for  a  great  many 
efforts  in  mission  lands  to  develop  industrial 
training  in  the  Christian  communities.  Its  prin- 
cipal, Rev.  Robert  Stewart,  D.D.,  has  been  a 
leader  in  this  department  of  mission  activity. 
Lovedale,  however,  is  far  more  than  a  mere 
industrial  school.  It  is  a  college  and  a  theo- 
logical seminary  as  well,  and  being  distinctively 
non-sectarian,  it  is  a  great  power  in  all  the  mission 
fields  of  South  Africa.  The  kindred  institution  at 
Blythswood,  in  the  Transkei  Mission,  was  estab- 
lished at  the  earnest  request  of  the  natives,  who 
themselves  contributed  £4,500  for  it. 

The  three  missions  reported  (1903)  96  mis- 
sionaries, 146  native  workers,  28  organized 
churches,  32  outstations,  14,895  communicants, 


Scotland 

Scurtder,  John,  Jr.,  M.D. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


658 


262  schools,  with  13,062  pupils.  The  Lovedale 
Institute  has  8.30  pupils,  and  the  Blythswood 
219.  Medical  work  is  carried  on  to  some  extent, 
but  not  to  the  degree  as  in  India  and  China. 

(2)  West  Africa.  Old  Calabar  Mission:  In  1846 
the  Rev.  Hope  M.  Waddell,  with  three  associates, 
commenced  work  at  Creek  Town,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  but 
specially  representing  the  negroes  of  Jamaica. 
To  some  extent  the  hope  that  the  West  Indies 
would  conduct  this  work  has  been  realized,  but 
the  control  of  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
Scotch  Society,  and  in  the  union  with  the  Free 
Church  it  became  a  part  of  the  united  work. 
The  first  missionaries  were  made  welcome  by  the 
native  chiefs,  reduced  the  language  (Efik)  to 
writing,  established  schools,  and  despite  the  fact 
that  the  section  is  one  of  the  hardest  for  evan- 
gelistic work  in  Africa,  there  has  been  good 
success.  There  are  (1903)  41  missionaries,  36 
native  workers,  8  organized  churches,  13  out- 
stations,  750  communicants,  32  schools,  with  611 
scholars.  There  is  a  training  institution,  with 
114  pupils,  and  medical  work  is  represented  by  2 
physicians,  4  assistants,  and  4  dispensaries. 

(3)  CentralAfrica.  Livingstonia  Mission:  In  187 5 
the  Free  Church  responded  to  the  appeal  of  Dr. 
Livingstone  by  sending  a  band  of  missionaries  to 
occupy  the  lands  around  Lake  Nyasa  and  half 
way  north  to  Lake  Tanganyika.  The  first  set- 
tlement was  made  at  Cape  Maclear.  The  Liv- 
ingstonia Institution  was  later  removed  to 
Kondowi,  a  more  eligible  site.  The  mission 
extended  to  Bandawe,  Karonga,  and  particu- 
larly into  Ngoniland,  among  a  tribe  of  Bantus. 
Notwithstanding  the  wild  character  of  the  people 
there  has  been  exceptional  success  in  the  work. 
There  were  (1903)  32  missionaries,  4  native 
workers,  7  organized  churches,  2,027  com- 
municants, 207  schools,  with  15,765  scholars. 
The  medical  work  is  more  fully  developed  than 
in  the  other  Africa  missions,  and  with  excellent 
results. 

5.  New  Hebrides  Mission:  Here  the  United 
Free  Church  reports  as  its  share  of  the  work  of  the 
Synod  4  missionaries,  2  native  pastors,  3  churches, 
7  outstations,  168  communicants,  30  schools, 
348  scholars. 

6.  West  Indies.  (1)  Jamaica:  The  first  work  of 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  in  1847  was  to 
take  over  from  the  Scottish  Missionary  Society 
the  work  commenced  in  Jamaica  in  1835,  and 
which  had  already  developed  until  four  stations 
were  occupied.  The  work  suffered  from  pesti- 
lence, hurricanes,  stc,  and  for  some  little  time 
was  not  pressed,  owing  to  the  demands  in  other 
fields.  With  the  impulse  to  work  in  West  Africa, 
there  came  new  life  into  the  mission,  and  the 
report  (1903)  shows  37  missionaries,  29  native 
workers,  64  organized  churches,  22  outstations, 
12.066  communicants,  64  schools,  7,130  scholars. 
There  is  a  complete  church  organization,  includ- 
ing 6  presbyteries,  and  the  work  is  scarcely  foreign 
mission  work,  except  in  its  history. 

(2)  Trinidad:  This  island  was  first  occupied  in 
1835  at  Port-of-Spain.  Later  stations  were 
opened  at  Arouca  and  San  Fernando.  There 
were  (1903)  4  missionaries,  1  native  pastor,  4 
churches,  668  communicants. 

In  1839  the  Free  Church  sent  some  mission- 
aries to  Syria,  who  located  at  Shweir  in  the  Leb- 
anon, and  developed  a  considerable  educational 
work  in  connection  with  the  Lebanon  Schools 
Society.     In  1901  this  work  was  transferred  to 


the  Presbyterian  Church  (North)  in  the  U.  S.  A., 
tho  Dr.  Carslaw  remains  on  the  roll  of  mission- 
aries of  the  United  Free  Church. 

Women's  Foreign  Mission  of  the  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland:  Headquarters,  15  North 
Bank  St.,  Edinburgh.  The  Woman's  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land, organized  in  1843  to  carry  on  the  work 
begun  by  the  Ladies'  Society  for  Female  Educa- 
tion in  India  and  Africa  in  1837;  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland  Zenana  Mission 
(1880),  and  the  Ladies'  Kaffrarian  Society, 
originally  organized  (1839)  in  connection  with 
the  Glasgow  Society,  have  all  been  merged  in  the 
United  Free  Church  in  the  one  society,  with  title 
as  above. 

///.  The  United  Original  Secession  Church: 
Headquarters,  Shawlands,  Glasgow,  Scotland. 
The  few  churches  that  declined  to  join  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  in  1847  established 
in  1872  a  station  at  Seoni,  in  the  Central  Prov- 
inces of  India.  They  report  (1901)  3  mission- 
aries, 20  native  workers,  3  outstations,  20  com- 
municants, 2  schools,  325  scholars. 

IV.  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland: 
Headquarters,  Paisley,  Scotland.  A  few  churches 
preserving  the  principles  of  the  Covenanter 
Church  have  joined  with  the  Reformed  Presby- 
terian Synod  of  Ireland  in  the  conduct  of  mission 
work  in  Syria. 

SCOTLAND ;  NATIONAL  BIBLE  SOCIETY  OF: 
Headquarters,  5  St.  Andrew  Square,  Edinburgh, 
Scotland.  The  National  Bible  Society  of  Scot- 
land was  formed  by  the  union,  in  1861,  of  the 
Edinburgh  and  the  Glasgow  Bible  societies, 
founded  respectively  in  1809  and  1812,  together 
with  other  leading  Bible  societies  of  Scotland. 

The  Society  carries  on  a  large  work  both  at 
home  and  in  foreign  countries.  The  Home 
Mission  supplies  large  numbers  of  the  Scrip- 
tures annually  at  reduced  rates  to  the  poor  and 
to  various  missionary  and  benevolent  associa- 
tions; it  circulates  the  Gaelic  Bible  throughout 
the  Highlands  and  islands  of  Scotland  and  in 
the  regions  of  North  America  where  Gaelic  is 
spoken,  and  aids  the  distribution  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  Ireland.  As  a  Colonial  Mission  it  dis- 
tributes the  Scriptures  throughout  all  the  British 
colonies  and  dependencies.  As  a  Continental 
Mission  it  works  in  nearly  all  European  countries. 
As  a  more  distinctively  Foreign  Mission  the 
National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland  publishes  in 
the  vernacular  and  distributes  by  means  of  col- 
porteurs the  Scriptures  in  Africa,  China,  India, 
Japan,  South  America,  and  Turkey.  It  has  dis- 
tributed thousands  of  Scriptures  among  the 
Tatar  tribes  of  Mongolia,  and  it  was  the  first  to 
establish  regular  colportage  in  Korea. 

The  Society  has  recently  published  the  Bible 
in  the  Efik  for  Old  Calabar,  Africa;  the  New 
Testament  in  one  of  the  Malay  dialects  and  in 
Chinyanja,  the  language  spoken  by  500,000  in 
Central  Africa;  translations  in  the  Tannese  (New 
Hebrides),  Motuan  (New  Guinea),  and  Mandarin 
(China)  are  also  in  preparation,  and  the  Society 
has  had  its  share  in  the  Japanese  version  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  in  the  Wen-li  version  in  China. 

This  Society  has  not  carried  on  its  work  chiefly 
through  specially  appointed  agents,  but  has 
worked  in  connection  with  the  various  mission- 
ary societies,  finding  this  method  productive  of 
good  results,  especially  in  view  of  the  principle 
and  practise  of  allowing  its  colporteurs  to  circulate 
unsectarian  tracts  together  with  the  Scriptures  in 


669 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Scotlana 
Scndner,  Jolin,  Jr.,  M.D. 


Roman  Catholic  and  heathen  countries.  It  was, 
however,  the  first  Society  to  appoint  a  special 
agent  for  Japan,  Mr.  Robert  Lilley,  who  served 
there  for  ten  years,  and  it  has  taken  a  prominent 
share  in  the  arrangements  by  which  the  three 
Bible _  Societies  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
America  carry  on  the  work  there  conjointly. 
The  circulation  for  1902  was: 

Bibles.  Testaments.  Portions.  Total. 

Foreign 42,382        112,828  788,606  943,815 

Colonies 15,942            7,585  1,432  24,959 

Home 66,331          55,166  29,119  150,566 

Total 124,655        175,529        819,156     1,119,340 

More  than  half  the  entire  distribution  was  in 
China,  562,869,  the  great  majority  being  portions. 
Next  to  China  came  India,  112,089;  Japan, 
48,844,  while  in  Germany[56,213  were  distributed, 
and  in  Spain,  33,281. 

SCOTTISH  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  Foreign 
Mission  Agency:  Formerly  the  Episcopal  Church 
of  Scotland  collected  funds  for  the  Church  of 
England  Missionary  Societies,  but  upon  the  con- 
secration of  Bishop  Cotterill  as  Bishop  of  Edin- 
burgh the  contributions  of  the  churches  in  the 
seven  Scottish  dioceses  were  devoted  to  missions 
in  India  and  South  Africa  through  their  own 
Society — "The  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the 
Scottish  Episcopal  Church,"  the  new  form  of 
their  "Association  for  Foreign  Missions."  The 
SPG  even  went  so  far  as  to  hand  over  to  the 
Scottish  Society  contributions  from  Scotland 
over  and  above  a  fixed  amount  each  year.  This 
latter  arrangement,  however,  was  annulled  in 
1900.  Bishop  Cotterill,  having  labored  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  CMS  in  India  for  twelve  years,  and 
for  another  twelve  in  South  Africa — Kaffraria — 
where  he  had  been  consecrated  bishop,  felt  a 
peculiar  interest  in  those  two  fields  of  his  former 
efforts,  and  organized  a  permanent  union  with 
them.  This  board  sends  out  contributions  every 
year  to  Kaffraria  for  the  general  purposes  of  the 
diocese  of  Independent  Kaffraria,  now  called 
St.  John's,  and  also  many  sums  to  be  devoted  to 
special  objects  in  connection  with  the  various 
churches  and  schools  there.  The  Board  also  pro- 
vides the  funds  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  ^  missionary  schools  at  Chanda,  in  Central 
India,  which  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Bishop 
of  Calcutta,  and  forwards  sums  entrusted  to  it  for 
any  mission  work  being  carried  on  by  the  Church 
of  England,  or  any  Church  in  communion  with 
her. 

SCOTTISH  MISSION  INDUSTRIES  COM- 
PANY (1903) :  This  is  not  a  missionary  society  nor 
a  benevolent  society  in  any  sense.  It  is  a  joint 
stock  company  organized  by  friends  of  the  UFS, 
with  a  capital  of  $.50,000  (.$30,000  paid  in),  estab- 
lished in  order  to  foster  industries  in  mission 
fields,  by  which  famine  orphans  and  persecuted 
converts  may  find  a  livelihood.  It  is  not  in  any 
sense  a  training  school,  employing  those  whom 
the  missions  have  already  trained.  The  stock- 
holders will  receive  5  per  cent,  interest  on  their 
stock,  and  they  are  pledged,  after  a  reserve  has 
been  established  equaling  one-half  of  the  paid-up 
capital,  to  have  all  surplus  profits  paid  over  to 
the  UFS. 

Of  course  only  such  business  as  promises  return 
will  be  taken  up.  The  Company  has  com- 
menced operations  by  undertaking  the  working 
of  the  UFS  presses  at  Poona  and  Ajmere  in  India, 
which  will  be  conducted  on  a  business  basis. 

SCUDDER,  Henry  Martyn :    Dr.   Scudder  was 


the  son  of  the  famous  pioneer  missionary.  Rev. 
John  Scudder,  M.D.,  and  was  born  on  the  Island 
of  Ceylon,  February  5,  1822.  After  graduating 
at  New  York  University  in  1840  and  Union 
Seminary  in  1843,  he  was  appointed  mi,?sionary 
of  the  ABCFM,  and  embarked,  with  his  wife,  for 
Madras,  India,  May  6,  1844.  The  Missionary 
Herald  stated  at  the  time  that  "this  is  the  first 
instance  in  which  the  son  of  a  missionar}'  has  been 
sent  forth  as  a  preacher  to  the  heathen."  He  was 
connected  with  the  Madras  Mission  till  1851, 
when,  after  his  exploration  of  the  Arcot  district, 
he  was  assigned  to  work  there,  his  medical  skill 
giving  him  facility  of  access  to  the  people.  The 
Arcot  Mission  was  detached  from  the  Madras 
Mission  in  1853,  and  was  carried  on  wholly  by  the 
Scudder  family,  consisting  of  five  brothers  and 
their  wives  and  one  sister.  In  1857  this  mission 
was  transferred  to  the  Board  of  the  Reformed 
Dutch  Church.  In  1864  Dr.  Scudder  returned 
to  America,  and  was  pastor  of  prominent  churches 
in  San  Francisco,  Brooklyn,  and  Chicago.  In 
1887  he  joined  his  son  and  daughter  in  Japan  and 
here  he  rendered  excellent  service  for  three  years. 
He  died  at  Winchester,  Mass.,  June  4,  1895.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  abilities,  of  fine  address,  and 
of  commanding  power  in  the  pulpit. 

SCUDDER,  John:  Born  at  Freehold,  N.  J., 
September  13,  1798;  graduated  at  the  College  of 
New  Jersey  in  1811,  and  at  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons  of  New  York  City  in  1815. 
While  in  professional  attendance  on  a  lady  in 
New  York  he  took  up  in  the  anteroom  and  read 
the  tract,  The  Conversion  of  the  World,  by  which 
he  was  led  to  give  his  life  to  the  missionary  work. 
He  sailed  June  8,  1819,  under  the  ABCFM,  for 
Ceylon.  He  was  ordained  in  1821  by  the  breth- 
ren of  the  Mission,  Baptist  and  Wesleyan  mission- 
aries taking  part  in  the  service.  In  1836  he  was 
transferred  to  Madras  to  found  a  new  mission 
with  Dr.  Winslow.  From  1842  to  1846  he  was 
in  the  United  States.  In  1854,  his  health  having 
failed,  he  went  by  medical  advice  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  When  on  the  point  of  returning  to 
Madras  he  was  stricken  with  apoplexy,  and  died 
at  Wynberg,  South  Africa,  January  13,  1855, 
having  been  in  the  m.issionary  work  36  years. 
He  was  constant  in  labors,  devoting  much  time 
to  evangelistic  itinerancy.  In  his  visit  to  America 
in  1843  he  addressed  a  hundred  thousand  chil- 
dren. His  eight  sons,  two  grandsons,  and  two 
granddaughters  have  been  members  of  the  Arcot 
Mission  in  India. 

SCUDDER,  John,  Jr.,  M.D.:  Born  October  29, 
1835.  Died  May  23,  1900.  Dr.  Scudder  came 
to  America  from  Ceylon,  where  his  parents  resided, 
to  obtain  his  education,  studying  first  at  Hudson, 
Ohio,  where  he  united  with  the  church,  and  at 
once  determined  to  give  his  life  to  the  missionary 
work.  He  graduated  from  Rutgers  College  in 
1857,  and  from  the  Theological  Seminar}^  at  New 
Brunswick  in  1860.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
and  ordained  the  same  year.  He  received  his 
medical  degree  from  the  Long  Island  Medical 
College,  and  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity 
froin  Rutgers  College  in  1896.  Having  early 
in  life  decided  upon  his  course,  he  had  Christian 
service  in  foreign  lands  in  view  during  his  college 
life,  and  when  he  left  this  country  as  a  missionary 
of  the  RCA  he  was  well  equipped  for  his  work. 

In  1861  Dr.  Scudder  sailed  for  India,  arriving 
on  the  field  in  July.  He  labored  successively  as 
follows:    Chittur,  '1861-1863;    Arni,    1863-1865; 


Scndder,  Wniiam  W. 
SelTFyn,  George  A. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


660 


Arcot,  1865-1876;  Vellore,  1876-1877.  In  1878, 
with  Mrs.  Scudder,  he  returned  to  America,  after 
seventeen  years  of  continuous  service  on  the  field, 
and  took  up  his  residence  for  four  years  in 
Nebraska.  In  1882,  returning  to  India,  Mrs. 
Scudder  following  a  year  later.  Dr.  Scudder  was 
stationed  as  follows:  Arni,  1882-1885;  Tindi- 
vanum,  1885-1892,  building  there  the  commodi- 
ous mission  house  and  church;  Vellore,  1892- 
1894.  In  this  latter  year  he  and  Mrs  Scudder 
made  their  second  journey  to  America,  taking  up 
their  residence  for  three  years  in  New  Brunswick. 
In  1897  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Scudder  returned  to  India 
.and  were  again  stationed  at  Vellore.  It  was  in 
connection  with  this  portion  of  the  field  that  Dr. 
.Scudder's  last  work  was  done.  Dr.  Scudder's 
children  have,  with  a  single  exception,  followed 
his  footsteps  into  the  ministry,  and  three  of  them 
into  missionary  service. 

SCUDDER,  William  W. :  Born  in  1823.  Died 
March  4,  1895.  Son  of  Dr.  John  Scudder,  who 
gave  seven  sons  and  two  daughters  to  the  mission 
work  in  India.  Coming  to  this  country  in  his 
boyhood,  he  was  converted  during  a  revival  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  in  the  winter  of  1835-36.  In 
1839  he  united  with  the  Presbyterian  church  at 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.  Entering  the  College  of  New 
Jersey,  at  Princeton,  he  graduated  in  1841.  Then, 
entering  the  Theological  Seminary  at  that  place, 
he  pursued  the  regular  course  of  study  for  two 
years.  By  special  permission,  he  devoted  the 
third  year  to  studies  most  adapted  to  fit  him  for 
the  missionary  work.  In  1846  he  returned  to 
Ceylon,  under  appointment  by  the  American 
Board,  where  he  continued  until  1851,  meantime 
being  stationed  at  three  different  places.  After  a 
brief  visit  to  America,  he  sailed  for  India  in  1852, 
and  with  two  of  his  brothers,  Henry  Martyn  and 
Joseph,  established  the  Arcot  Mission  of  the  RCA 
and  organized  the  Classis  of  Arcot.  He  remained 
in  India  for  twenty-two  years,  diligently  doing 
his  work  and  occupying  in  turn  several  stations 
of  the  mission.  In  1873  family  circumstances 
seemed  to  make  a  return  to  this  country  necessary, 
and  in  December  of  that  year  he  accepted  a  call 
to  the  Congregational  church  at  Glastonbury, 
Conn.,  which  he  served  for  eleven  years.  In 
1885,  tho  over  sixty  years  of  age,  the  way  being 
opened  for  a  return  to  India,  he  sailed  thither, 
laboring  there  for  nine  years,  first  at  Madan- 
apalle,  relieving  Dr.  Chamberlain;  and  then  at 
Palmaner,  as  General  Synod's  professor  of  the- 
ology in  the  seminary  in  the  Arcot  Mission. 

SEAMEN;  Missions  to:  As  early  as  the  latter 
part  of  the  17th  century  some  sermons  were 
preached  in  England  on  behalf  of  work  for  sea- 
men, but  it  was  not  until  1780  that  a  society  was 
organized,  at  first  called  "The  Bible  Society," 
whose  special  field  was  the  army,  but  which  soon 
was  made  to  include  the  navy,  and  became 
"The  Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society."  In 
1814,  prayer  meetings  for  sailors  were  started  in 
London,  and  in  March,  1817,  the  first  Bethel 
flag  (a  white  dove  on  blue  ground)  was  unfurled 
on  the  "Zephyr"  of  South  Shields.  The  next 
year  saw  the  Port  of  London  Society  formed,  and 
1819  the  Bethel  Union  Society.  The  Sailors' 
Magazine  was  started  in  1820,  yet  still  so  strong 
-wa.'i  the  prejudice  against  the  work  that  even  in 
1828  the  King  was  petitioned  to  abrogate  an 
order  by  the  Lord  High  Admiral  prohibiting  the 
distribiition  of  tracts  in  the  navy. 

Existing  seamen's  missionary  societies  in  the 


empire  of  Great  Britain,  distinct  from  local  organ- 
izations, which  limit  the  prosecution  of  work  to 
their  own  ports,  are:  (1)  The  British  and  Foreign 
Sailors'  Society  (at  Sailors'  Institute,  Shadwell, 
London,  England),  (2)  The  London  Missions  to 
Seamen  (Established  Church  of  England),  whose 
operations  are,  for  the  most  part,  carried  on 
afloat.  Its  chaplains  are  at  fifty-two  English 
and  eight  foreign  seaports.  Local  English  socie- 
ties for  seamen  are  at  Liverpool  (formed  in  1821), 
Glasgow,  and  at  other  ports. 

Evangelical  Lutheran  missions  to  seamen  are 
prosecuted  by  societies  with  headquarters  in 
Scandinavian  countries,  whence  come  in  our  day 
the  larger  number  of  sailors  for  the  world's 
mercantile  marine. 

The  Norwegian  Society — Foreningen  til  Evan- 
gelists Forkyndelse  for  Skandinaviske  Somond  i 
fremmede  Havne  (or,  in  English,  the  Society  for 
the  Gospel's  preaching  to  Scandinavian  Seamen 
in  Foreign  Harbors) — was  organized  at  Bergen, 
Norway,  1864,  and  does  an  extended  work. 

The  Danish  Seamen's  Mission  Society  also  has 
stations  in  different  countries,  employing  or- 
dained pastors;  there  are  missions  for  seamen 
connected  with  several  of  the  Swedish  and 
Norwegian  societies;  and  there  is  a  specific  Sea- 
man's Society  in  Finland. 

American  Missions:  The  first  Society  for  Sea- 
men in  the  U.  S.  was  formed  in  Boston  in  1812, 
but  did  not  continue  long.  A  movement  was 
started  in  New  York  City  in  1816  which  resulted 
in  1817  in  The  Marine  Bible  Society.  The 
Society  for  Promoting  the  Gospel  among  Sea- 
men in  the  Port  of  New  York,  commonly  known 
as  the  New  York  Port  Society,  a  local  organ- 
ization, was  formed  in  1818,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tions oif  the  first  mariners'  church  erected  in  the 
United  States,  in  1820.  These  movements  led  to 
similar  organizations  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  (1819); 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  (1819);  Portland,  Me.,  and 
New  Orleans,  La.  (1823);  at  New  Bedford,  Mass. 
(1825),  and  elsewhere.  In  the  latter  year  there 
were  in  the  United  States  seventy  Bethel  Unions, 
thirty-three  Marine  Bible  Societies,  and  fifteen 
churches  and  floating  chapels  for  seamen. 

In  1828  there  was  organized,  in  New  York  City, 
the  American  Seamen's  Friend  Society,  which 
broadened  the  scope  of  such  work  to  include,  not 
merely  the  spiritual,  but  moral  and  physical,  well- 
being  of  the  sailors.  Its  object,  as  stated,  is  to 
secure  this  "by  promoting  in  every  port  board- 
ing-houses of  good  character,  savings-banks, 
register-offices,  libraries,  museums,  reading- 
rooms  and  schools,  and  also  the  ministration  of 
the  Gospel  and  other  religious  blessings."  It 
commenced  foreign  work  very  early,  sending 
Rev.  David  Abeel  to  Canton,  China,  in  1830. 
Since  then  it  has  extended  its  work  all  over  the 
world,  having  chaplains  and  bethels  in  various 
ports  of  Europe  and  South  America,  India  and 
Japan,  as  well  as  in  the  U.  S. 

There  is  also  a  Seamen's  Friend  Society  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  for  a  time  auxiliary  to  the  New 
York  Society,  but  since  1888  independent.  The 
Church  Missionary  Society  for  Seamen  in  the 
city  of  New  York  represents  the  work  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  The  other  societies 
are  undenominational.  Mention  should  be  made 
also  of  the  extended  work  of  the  WCTU,  and  of 
a  large  number  of  Seamen's  Rests  and  Bethels 
under  private  management.  The  various  tract 
societies  also  assist  in  furnishing  libraries  for  use 
on  ships.     Especially  since  the  war  with  Spain 


661 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Scudder,  William  W. 
Selwyii,  George  A. 


the  International  Committee  of  the  YMCA  has 
had  a  most  successful  work  of  this  kind.  The 
YPSCE  and  similar  organizations  have  also  had  a 
share  in  the  work. 

SEBAPALA:  A  settlement  in  Basutoland, 
South  Africa,  situated  to  the  S.  of  the  Orange 
River,  about  53  miles  S.  E.  of  Morija.  Station 
of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
(1885),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
31  native  workers,  19  outstations,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Sunday  school,  22  day  schools,  and  795 
professed  Christians. 

SECHUANA  LANGUAGE:  Belongs  to  the 
Bantu  family  of  African  languages.  It  is  used 
by  the  Bechuana  tribes  forming  a  large  portion 
of  the  native  population  of  South  Central  Africa, 
from  the  Orange  River  to  the  Zambesi.  It  is 
written  with  Roman  letters. 

SECUWDERABAD :  A  military  cantonment  in 
the  native  state  of  Haidarabad,  India;  situated 
6  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Haidarabad,  and 
covering  19  square  miles  of  territory.  The 
largest  military  station  in  India.  Climate  during 
rainy  season  very  unhealthy;  at  other  times  hot, 
but  not  insalubrious.  Altitude,  1,787  feet. 
Population  (1901),  including  troops,  74,000.  Sta- 
tion of  the  SPG  (1842),  with  (1903)  14  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  2 
boarding  schools,  and  788  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  297  are  communicants.  Station  also  of 
the  ABMU  (1875),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  3  women  missionaries,  18  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship,  6  Sun- 
day schools,  1  boarding  school,  4  day  schools,  and 
210  professed  Christians,  of  whom  195  are  com- 
municants. Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife.  Station  also  of  the  WMS, 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  1  woman  missionary, 
36  native  workers,  3  outstations,  3  places  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Sunday  school,  8  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  368  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
213   are   communicants. 

SECUNDRA:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  5  miles  N.  of  Agra;  contains 
many  historical  remains,  among  which  is  the 
tomb  of  the  Emperor  Akbar  (1566),  agrandsonof 
Baber,  Turkish  conqueror  of  India.  Station  of 
the  CMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
28  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  9  day 
schools,  1  industrial  school,  1  orphanage,  and 
484  professed  Christians,  of  whom  76  are  com- 
municants. 

SEFULE:  A  village  in  British  Central  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Barotsi  region,  about  15  miles 
N.  E.  of  Nalolo,  on  the  chain  of  hills  bordering 
the  Barotsi  plain.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Missionary  Society  (1886),  with  (1903)  3 
missionaries  and  1  dispensary.  Some  write  the 
name  Sefula. 

SELANGOR:  A  state  in  the  Malay  Peninsula 
belonging  to  the  group  of  Federal  States  under 
British  protectorate.  It  lies  south  of  Perak,  and 
has  an  area  of  about  3,500  square  miles  of  terri- 
tory. The  capital  is  Kwala  Lumpur.  Station  of 
the  PB,  with  (1900)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives  and  2  women  missionaries.  Station  of  the 
SPG,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries. 

SELEPENG:  A  settlement  in  the  Bechuana- 
land  Protectorate,  South  Africa,  situated  on  Fati 
River,  about  23  miles  N.  W.  of  Francistown 
station  on  the  Bulawayo  Railroad.  The  people 
belong  to  the  Baharotse  tribe,  who  are  somewhat 


inclined  to  move  the  sites  of  their  villages,  to  the 
discomfort  of  mis.sionaries,  whose  homes  are  less 
portable.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1899),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  day  schools,  1 
Sunday  school,  11  native  workers,  and  487  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  115  are  communicants. 

SELWYN,  George  Augustus:  Born  at  Hamp- 
stead,  England,  in  1809;  died,  April  11,  1878. 
Studied  at  Eaton;  graduated  at  Cambridge 
University  in  1831.  It  was  the  fine  vigor  of  his 
life  that  made  him  one  of  the  oarsmen  in  the  first 
University  boat  race  in  1829.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1833,  and  took  the  curacy  of  Boveney; 
ordained  priest  in  1834;  became  curate  of  Wind- 
sor in  1839;  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  New  Zea- 
land in  1841 ;  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  the  same 
year,  from  both  Cambridge  and  Oxford;  sailed  for 
his  see  December  26,  1841.  He  early  saw  a  great 
truth,  too  often  neglected  by  missionaries,  which 
he  later  expressed  in  this  form;  "The  surest  way 
to  spread  the  Gospel  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the 
earth  is  by  buildmg  up  the  Colonial  churches  as 
missionary  centers."  His  whole  heart  was  in  the 
work  to  which  he  was  called,  and  he  became  at 
once  a  tower  of  strength  for  the  evangelization, 
of  New  Zealand  and  all  the  surrounding  regions. 
When  he  preached  his  farewell  sermon  before 
leaving  England,  his  words  deeply  impressed  a. 
boy  of  fourteen  who  was  present,  named  John  C. 
Patteson.  In  1855,  when  Bishop  Selwyn  re- 
turned to  Auckland,  after  a  visit  to  England,  he 
had  with  him,  as  a  missionary,  the  fruit  of  that 
early  sermon  in  the  person  of  Mr.  Patteson,  after- 
ward the  martyr  Bishop  of  Melanesia.  >< 

Bishop  Selwyn  arrived  at  Auckland  in  1842, 
and  in  1843  he  established  there  St.  John's  Col- 
lege for  the  education  of  a  native  ministry.  On 
the  voyage  out  he  had  spent  much  of  his  time  in 
compiling  from  the  Rarotonga,  Tahiti,  and  Maori 
New  Testament  a  comparative  grammar  of 
these  three  dialects.  He  was,  therefore,  some- 
what prepared  to  supervise  the  work  of  educating 
a  native  ministry.  Here,  again,  he  was  far  in 
advance  of  many  missionaries  of  that  time,  in 
realizing  the  vital  necessity  of  using  native 
laborers  for  pioneer  work,  who  had  been  trained 
by  foreigners.  It  was  a  maxim  of  his  that  in 
missions  one  must  "use  black  nets,  with  white 
corks."  From  the  very  outset,  too,  St.  John's 
College  gave  instruction  in  medicine  and  surgery. 

On  the  voyage  to  New  Zealand,  Bishop  Sel- 
wyn's  active,  inquiring  mind  led  him  to  study 
navigation,  with  the  captain  of  the  ship  as  his 
teacher.  This  stood  him  in  good  stead  when, 
besides  attending  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  his 
colonial  diocese,  he  extended  his  field  into  Mela- 
nesia, navigating  his  own  ship,  "The  Southern 
Cross,"  in  his  visitation  voyages.  When  after 
twelve  years  of  absence  he  visited  England 
in  1854,  he  had  made  seven  such  voyages  through 
the  Melanesian  Islands,  had  visited  fifty  islands, 
and  from  ten  of  these  he  had  induced  fifty  youths 
to  go  to  the  college  to  prepare  for  work  as  evan- 
gelists. He  was  deeply  impressed  on  finding  at 
some  of  the  southern  Melanesian  islands  mission- 
aries from  Nova  Scotia.  The  discovery  filled  him 
with  zeal  for  carrying  out  his  doctrine  about 
making  the  colonies  centers  of  missionary  effort. 
He  toolv  a  prominent  part  in  organizing  the 
Australian  Board  of  Missions  with  the  adoption 
by  the  Church  in  Australia  of  the  Melanesian 
Mission  as  its  peculiar  field. 

Bishop  Selwyn's  talents,  character,  and  ser- 
vices  placed   him   at   the   head   of  the   colonial 


SeranipTir 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


bishops  at  the  Lambeth  Conference,  in  1867, 
wliicli  he  attended.  While  from  his  social 
position,  talents,  and  acquirements  he  might 
have  commanded  the  highest  ecclesiastical 
appointments,  he  chose  the  obscurity,  peril, 
privation,  and  drudgery  of  a  missionary  life 
among  degraded  savages  for  the  sake  of  his 
Master.  He  thus  spent  27  years  among  the 
heathen,  content  if  by  any  means  he  might  save 
some.  At  last,  on  the  earnest  request  of  the 
Archbishop,  he  accepted  the  bishopric  of  Lich- 
field in  1868.  He  twice  visited  the  United 
States,  and  exercised  a  powerful  influence  by  his 
impressive  addresses. 

In  1878  he  was  taken  ill,  was  soon  partially 
paralyzed,  and  continued  to  fail  until  the  11th  of 
April,  when  the  end  came.  He  died  saying, 
"It  is  all  light." 

SENANGA:  A  settlement  in  British  Central 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Barotsi  region  on  the 
Zambesi,  about  210  miles  N.  W.  of  Shesheke.  It 
stands  in  a  picturesque  region  at  the  point  where 
the  mountains  leave  the  river  and  open  to  view 
the  great  Barotsi  plain.  A  great  population  is 
found  in  scattered  villages  in  the  region.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
(1898),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

SEKDAI:  A  town  on  the  main  island  of  Japan, 
situated  on  the  N.  E.  coast,  12  miles  from  its  port, 
Shiogama,  and  200  miles  N.  of  Tolcio.  It  is  the 
chief  city  of  the  region.  Population  (1898), 
83,325.  Mission  station  of  the  ABMU  (1882), 
ABCFM  (1885),  Christian  Church  (1887),  FCMS 
(1891),  ME,  PE,  and  ROUS,  with  all  together 
(1903)  25  missionaries,  men  and  women';  12 
women  niissionaries,  70  native  workers,  55  out- 
stations,  23  places  of  worship,  51  Sunday  schools, 
4  boarding  schools,  and  2,366  professed  Chris- 
tians. The  girls'  boarding  school  of  the  RCUS 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1902,  but  has  been 
rebuilt. 

SENEGAL :  A  French  colony  in  W.  Africa,  lying 
between  the  Sahara  and  the  river  Gambia.  With 
its  adjacent  inland  protectorate  it  has  an  area  of 
about  80,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
about  1,180,000.  It  is  a  fertile  country,  rich  in 
natural  products.  There  are  4  communes  and  9 
"circles,  all  represented  in  the  French  parlia- 
ment by  one  deputy.  There  is  a  transport  service 
on  the  Senegal  River  for  460  miles  from  Saint 
Louis.  The  negro  races,  which  form  the  bulk 
of  the  population,  include  the  Wolofs,  very  black, 
brave,  and  superstitious,  mostly  Mohammedans, 
inhabiting  most  of  the  territory  bounded  by  the 
Senegal,  Fal^me,  Gambia,  and  the  seacoast;  the 
Serers,  akin  to  the  Wolofs,  and  on  their  southern 
borders;  the  vSarakoles  of  the  Middle  Senegal, 
akin  to  the  Mandingans,  of  a  wild  disposition 
and  an  important  element  in  the  population. 
Senegal  has  520  miles  of  railway  and  1,400  miles 
of  telegraph  lines.  Tlie  principal  language  of 
Senegal  is  the  Wolof,  which  is  the  language  of 
commercial  intercourse,  and  has  grammars,  dic- 
tionaries, etc.;  the  related  Gereres,  the  Mandin- 
gan,  and  tlie  Fulah.  The  French  Protestant 
Church  and  the  Roman  Catholics  have  mission 
worlv  in  Senegal. 

SENEGAMBIA:  A  territory  or  sphere  of  influ- 
ence of  France  in  Western  Africa,  lying  on  the 
upper  Senegal  River,  and  in  the  bend  of  the 
Niger.  The  nortliern  regions  were  formerly 
included  in  French  Sudan,  a  terminology  no 
longer  used.     A  permanent  delegate,  represent- 


ing the  French  home  government,  resides  at 
Kayes.  A  railroad  is  being  constructed  from  Kayes 
eastward  to  the  Niger. 

SENGELPAT.     See  Chenqalpat. 

SEONI:  A  town  in  Central  Provinces,  India, 
situated  in  the  Hoshangabad  district,  24  miles 
S.  W.  of  Hoshangabad.  Seoni  contains  large 
public  gardens,  a  fine  market-place,  and  a  hand- 
some tank.  Climate  healthful;  temperature  mod- 
erate. Population,  10,000.  Station  of  the 
United  Original  Secession  Church  (1872),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  16  places  of  worship,  2  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  orphanage.  Also 
station  of  the  FFMA  (1890),  with  (1903)  3  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  1  woman 
missionary,  9  native  workers,  2  outstations,  3 
places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools,  4  day 
schools,  1  industrial  school,  1  dispensary,  and 
1  orphanage.  Some  write  the  name  Sioni 
Malwa. 

SEOUL:  Capital  of  Korea,  situated  about  30 
miles  E.  by  N.  from  its  port,  Chemulpo,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Han  River,  in  a  hollow  sur- 
rounded by  rocky  hills.  It  was  founded  in  1392 
by  the  first  king  and  founder  of  the  present  ruling 
dynasty  of  Korea,  who  chose  the  site  for  the 
beauty  and  strength  of  its  situation.  The  city  in 
shape  is  an  irregular  oblong,  and  lies  lengthwise 
in  a  valley  whose  trend  is  from  northeast  to 
southwest.  The  dimensions  of  the  city  are, 
roughly  stated,  3  by  2^  miles.  On  the  north  is 
a  succession  of  magnificent  granite  hills,  cul- 
minating in  granite  peaks  3,500  feet  high.  On 
the  south  side  is  a  chain  of  hills  reaching  the 
height  of  1,.500  feet.  The  most  striking  work  of 
art  in  the  landscape  is  the  city  wall,  which  crosses 
river,  plain,  and  hills,  and  climbs  the  mountains 
on  the  south,  encircling  the  whole  city  proper. 
At  intervals  are  massive  and  imposing  gates,  all 
appropriately  named,  and  through  the  largest  of 
which  the  great  highroads,  starting  from  the 
royal  palace,  run  to  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  In 
the  military  system  of  the  country  this  walled 
city  is  the  center  of  a  group  of  fortresses  which, 
before  the  days  of  rifled  cannon,  were  strong  and 
trustworthy.  The  scenery  from  the  walls  of  the 
city,  and  indeed  from  many  points  within  the 
city,  is  magnificent,  and  the  natural  situation  is 
one  of  the  best  for  health  and  safety.  An  afflu- 
ent of  the  Han  River,  with  branches  that  run  into 
nearly  every  part  of  the  city,  traverses  Seoul  from 
east  to  west,  and  is  utilized  as  a  drain  and  for 
washing  clothes. 

To  most  travelers  the  aspect  of  Seoul  is  unin- 
teresting, shabby,  and  squalid.  Nevertheless, 
the  gay  costumes,  full  of  varied  color,  clean  and 
brilliant  with  starch,  and  the  peculiar  gloss  which 
the  Korean  women  contrive  to  confer  upon  the 
male  garments,  make  the  streets  in  fair  weather 
wear  a  very  bright  and  animated  appearance  The 
houses  are  about  8  or  9  feet  high,  built  of  stone 
and  mortar,  and  mostly  roofed  with  tiles.  The 
windows  are  under  the  eaves.  A  long  street, 
about  200  feet  wide,  divides  the  city  into  nearly 
two  equal  portions.  In  the  northern  half  are  the 
walled  enclosure  containing  the  king's  palace,  and 
the  more  important  public  buildings.  The  main 
entrance  gates  face  the  south  and  are  three  in 
number.  From  the  central  and  principal  gate 
runs  a  street  60  feet  wide  into  the  main  street, 
intersecting  it  at  right  angles  and  dividing  the 
northern  section  of  the   city  into  eastern  and 


663 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Senan;sra 
Serampur 


western  quarters.     This  point  of  meeting  of  these 
two  streets  is  regarded  as  the  center  of  the  city. 
Plere  stands  an  imposing  pavilion,  the  Chong-kah, 
or  belfry,  in  which  is  hung  a  large  bell  over  seven 
feet  in  height,  which  is  rung  every  morning  and 
evening.     The  street  leading  from  the  bell  to  the 
Great  South  Gate  is  as  wide  as  the  main  street. 
It  was  at  the  corner  of  this  bell-tower  that  the 
regent,  in  1866,    erected  an  inscribed  stone  de- 
nouncing as  traitors  to  their  country  all  Koreans 
who    were    friendly    to    European    intercourse. 
Another  feature  in  this  center  of  the  city  is  the 
rows  of  large  warehouses,  two  stories  in  height, 
the  lower  portions  of  which  are  divided  into  small 
shops  opening  into  a  central  court,  instead  of  into 
the    streets.     These    large    storehouses    are    not 
private  property,   but   are   owned  by  the  great 
trading  guilds,  which  enjoy  a  notable  monopoly. 
Along  most  of  the  main  streets  there  are  thou- 
sands of  pedlers'  booths  erected,  at  which  most  of 
the  retail  trade  of  the  city  is  done.   These  shabby- 
looking,   temporary  structures  greatly  mar  the 
effect  and  narrow  the  space  of  the  great  thor- 
oughfares.    Outside  of  the  buildings  in  the  royal 
enclosure  there  are  three  palaces — two  belonging 
to  the  king  and  one  to  his  father.     The  dignitv 
of  the  several  mansions  is  shown  in  the  relative 
amount  of  land  occupied.     The  offices  of  the  six 
ministries,     or     government     departments,     are 
small    houses,    differing    but    slightly   from    the 
better  sort  of  dwellings.     Since  the  residence  of 
foreigners  in  Seoul  a  number  of  the  native  dwell- 
ings have  been  altered  into  good-looking  houses, 
the  Korean  house  lending  itself  more  easily  to  the 
convenience  of  Western  people  than  the  Japan- 
ese.    Many   Japanese,   apart  from   the   legation 
people,  and  probably  a  larger  number  of  Chinese, 
live  in  Seoul,   engaged  in  commercial   pursuits. 
No  other  city  in  Korea  has  so  large  a  number  of 
natives  of  the  official  class,  including  retainers 
of  the  nobles  and  office-holders.     Nevertheless, 
the  main  part  of  the  city  is  celebrated  for  the 
narrowness   and   filthiness   of   the   streets.     The 
population  within  the  walls  is  estimated  at  200,- 
000,  with  about  50,000  living  outside  the  walls. 
It  was  here,  in  the  capital,  that  the  Chinese  cos- 
tume and  coiffure  of  the  Ming  period  (1368-1628) 
was  introduced,  and  became  the  still  fashionable 
and    national    Korean    dress.     In    June,    1592, 
Seoul  was  evacuated  by  the  king  and  court,  and 
occupied   during   parts  of  several   years  by  the 
Japanese  during  the  war  from  1592-97.     In  1637 
the    Manchu  Tartars  captured  Seoul,  compelled 
the  king  and  his  ministers  to  perform  kow-tow,  or 
the   nine   prostrations,    and   to   set   up   a   great 
memorial  stone  commemorating  the  clemency  of 
the  Manchu    general.     In   1653   Hawel  and  his 
fellow-Dutchmen    visited    Seoul  as  shipwrecked 
prisoners,    finding    other    Hollanders   there.     In 
1777   Christianity   entered   Seoul   through   some 
members  of  the  embassy  to  and  from  Peking;  in 
1794   the   first   Chinese   Jesuit   priest,    who   was 
beheaded  in  1801;  in  1836  the  first  French  priest, 
Maubant,  followed  by   Bishop  Imbert,   who,  in 
1839,  shepherded  9,000  believers,  and  was  decap- 
itated September  21   in  that  year.     In  March, 
1866,  nine  French  priests  were  executed  on  the 
river  flats  in  front  of  the  city,  and  on  March  25 
from  the  French  war-vessels,    "D6roul6de"    and 
"Tardif,"  piloted   by   an  escaped  French  bishop 
and  native  Christians,  the  flag  of  France  floated, 
causing  a  cessation  of  all  business  for  several  days. 
The  French  invasion  took  place  in  October,  when 
two  native  Christians  were  beheaded  and  their 


blood  poured  into  the  river  over  the  place  of  the 
anchorage  of  the  French  ships.  The  riot  and 
attack  on  the  Japanese  I-egation  July  23,  1882, 
the  coup  d'Hat  and  battle  of  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese  troops  December  4  to  7,  1884,  and  the 
funeral  of  the  ex-queen,  a  spectacle  of  unprece- 
dented magnificence  of  the  Korean  sort,  on  an 
autumn  day  of  1890,  are  among  the  notable  his- 
toric events  in  Seoul.  The  following  missionary 
societies  have  establishments  in  Seoul:  PN 
(1884),  with  (1903)  10  missionaries  and  their 
wives  and  4  women  missionaries,  20  native 
workers,  men  and  women ;  43  places  of  worship  in 
the  district,  10  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1 
dispensary,  1  hospital,  1  printing  house,  and  1,430 
professed  Christians;  ME  (1885),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  6  women  mission- 
aries, 8  native  workers,  3  places  of  worship,  7 
outstations,  1  printing  house,  and  624  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  433  are  communicants;  SPG 
(1890),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  2  places  of 
worship,  and  37  professed  Christians,  of  whom  13 
are  communicants;  MES  (1896),  with  (1901)  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women  mission- 
aries, 2  native  workers,  9  outstations,  7  Sunday 
schools  and  262  professed  Christians.  The 
BFBS  has  an  agency  here  employing  20  native 
workers.  The  YMCA  has  established  an  agent 
here  (1901). 

SERAMPUR:  A  city  in  Bengal,  India,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Hugli,  some  13  miles  above  Calcutta, 
tho  on  the  opposite  (west)  bank  of  the  river. 
Serampur  was  long  a  Danish  station,  but  in  1845 
all  the  possessions  held  by  the  Danes  in  India 
were  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company.  It  was 
to  Serampur  that  Carey,  Marshman,  and  Ward, 
the  great  Baptist  missionaries  of  the  early  part 
of  thel9th  century,  retreated;  and  there,  under  the 
Danish  flag,  they  found  an  asylum  from  the 
opposition  of  the  English  authorities  at  Calcutta, 
who,  until  the  intervention  of  Parliament  in  1814, 
were  unwilling  that  missionaries  should  find  a 
foothold  in  their  possessions.  The  new  charter 
contained  a  clause  legalizing  the  residence  in 
India  of  missionaries  and  philanthropists.  The 
Baptist  missionaries  not  only  worked  diligently 
in  preaching  the  Gospel  in  Serampur  and  sur- 
rounding towns,  but  established  a  press,  printed 
books  and  tracts,  assembled  their  translators  from 
many  parts  of  India,  prepared  and  published  ver- 
sions of  the  Bible  in  the  principal  languages  of 
Hindustan,  and  even  in  Chinese.  These  ver- 
sions were  afterward  found  to  be  of  compara- 
tively small  value,  owing  to  the  haste  with  which 
they  were  prepared,  and  the  inadequate  facilities 
enjoyed  for  correct  translation  into  the  idiom  of 
the  various  Indian  tongues;  but  nothing  can  bet- 
ter illustrate  the  diligence,  zeal,  and  energy 
which  have  made  the  Baptist  Mission  at  Seram- 
pur famous  in  the  annals  of  modern  missions 
than  the  fact  that  they  were  made  at  all.  A 
church,  college,  schools  of  lower  grade,  and  a 
good  library  were  established  at  Serampur,  and 
the  mission  is  still  in  active  and  successful  opera- 
tion. The  wide  influence  of  this  mission  has 
been  well  summarized  as  covering  the  following 
points  of  development : 

India  owes  to  the  Serampur  mission,  besides 
the  first  translation  of  the  Bible  into  many  of  its 
northern  dialects,  the  first  newspaper  in  Bengali; 
the  first  steam-engine,  paper-mill,  and  large 
printing  press;  the  first  efforts  at  education  of 
native  girls  and  women,  the  first  savings  bank, 
and  many  other  benefits  directly  or  indirectly  the 


SeroTve 
Sliang^liai 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


664 


result  of  the  labors  of  Carey,  Marshman,  Ward, 
and   their   associates. 

Station  of  the  BMS  (1799),  with  (1903)  3  mis- 
sionaries, two  of  them  with  their  wives;  17  native 
workers,  3  Sunday  schools,  1  day  school,  1  theo- 
logical class,  1  boarding  school,  and  222  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  62  are  communicants.  Also 
station  of  the  BZM  (1S73),  with  (1903)  1  woman 
missionary,  7  native  workers,  3  Sunday  schools, 
3  day  schools      Some  write  the  name  Serampore. 

SEROWE:  A  town  in  Bechuanaland,  South 
Africa,  the  principal  center  of  the  Bamangwato 
tribe,  which  formerly  had  its  chief  town  at  Sho- 
shong,  and  later  at  Palapye.  In  1902  the  tribe 
suddenly  decided  to  move  to  Serowe  and  did  so, 
abandoning  Palapye.  The  new  town  is  on  a  high 
upland,  about  40  miles  N.  W.  of  Palapye,  and  32 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  the  Palapye  road  railway 
station.  Population,  26,000.  Station  of  the 
LMS  (1862),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  woman  missionarj',  9  native  workers,  33 
day  schools,  25  Sunday  schools,  and  5,360  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  697  are  communi- 
cants 

SERVIA:  A  kingdom  in  Europe,  bounded  by 
Austria  on  the  north,  Rumania  and  Bulgaria  on 
the  east,  Turkey  on  the  south,  and  Bosnia  on  the 
west.  In  general,  the  surface  is  mountainous 
and  covered  with  dense  forests.  The  Danube 
and  several  other  large  rivers  drain  the  country. 
Its  total  area  is  18,85.5  square  miles,  of  which  over 
half  is  under  cultivation.  Cereals  and  grapes  are 
the  principal  products. 

The  independence  of  Servia  was  secured  by 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  and  since  January, 
1889,  it  has  been  a  kingdom.  The  legislative 
authority  is  exercised  by  the  king,  together  with 
the  national  assembly,  which  is  composed  of 
deputies  elected  by  the  people,  indirectly  and  by 
ballot.  Personal  liberty,  liberty  of  the  press 
and  conscience  are  guaranteed.  Population  in 
1902,  2,600,000. 

The  Servians,  or  Serbs,  belong  to  the  most 
spirited  of  the  Slavonic  races,  and  are  noted  for 
the  love  of  freedom  and  bravery.  Poverty  is 
rarely  seen,  for  even  the  poorest  have  some  sort 
of  freehold  property.  Thus  97  per  cent,  of  the 
country  population  are  engaged  in  agriculture. 
The  Greek  Church  is  the  state  religion  of  Servia, 
but  in  1902  there  were  9,000  Catholics  and  1,200 
Protestants. 

Education  is  conducted  in  elementary  schools, 
maintained  by  the  municipalities,  and  various 
technical  schools  and  schools  for  highei  educa- 
tion, which  are  supported  entirely  by  the  State. 
Attendance  is  compulsory,  and  no  fees  are  re- 
quired from  the  pupils.  The  main  mission  work 
in  Servia  is  that  which  is  carried  on  by  the  col- 
porteurs of  the  BFBS 

Servians:  The  Servians  form  an  important 
branch  of  the  Eastern  Slavs,  or,  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  the  South  Slavs.  They  inhabit  the 
kingdom  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina, 
and  part  of  Hungary.  They  number  about 
4,000,000,  and  belong  "to  the  Eastern  or  Ortho- 
dox Church,  with  the  exception  of  about  half  a 
million  Mohammedan  Servians  in  Bosnia. 

The  Servians  settled  in  the  first  half  of  the  7th 
century  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  their  set- 
tlements spread  over  an  extensive  tract  of  land, 
comprising  the  present  Servia,  Montenegro, 
Herzegovina,  Bosnia,  and  the  Dalmatian  coast. 
These  various  communities  were  ruled  over  by 


separate  independent  rulers  called  "Cans"  or 
"Zhoopans,"  who  were  under  the  nominal  author- 
ity of  the  "Great  Zhoopan"  residing  at  Rassa 
(Novi-Bazar),  and  all  of  whom  originally  were- 
vassals  to  the  Byzantine  Emperor.  Christianity 
was  first  introduced  among  the  Servians  by  the- 
Roman  Church  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century,, 
but  this  first  introduction  did  not  succeed;  and  it 
was  only  in  about  868-870  that  the  Orthodox 
Church  was  established  by  Greek  ecclesiastics- 
sent  by  the  Emperor  Basil. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  the 
Servians  revolted  against  the  Sultan  to  regain 
their  political  independence,  and  after  a  great 
many  vicissitudes  and  strusgles  they  succeeded 
in  establishing  a  semi-independent  principality, 
under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan. 

The  Servian  Church  is  ruled  over  by  a  Metro- 
politan residing  at  Belgrade,  and  bearing  the  title 
of  "Metropolitan  of  all  Servia."  He  is  also  the 
president  of  the  Synod,  who  act  as  his  coun- 
cilors and  advisers;  but  the  power  of  the  Metro- 
politan and  the  Synod  does  not  extend  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  Servian  kingdom.  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops 
nominated  by  the  Greek  Patriarchate,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  Austrian  Government.  The 
Servians  living  in  Austria-Hungary,  and  who  also- 
belong  to  the  Orthodox  Church,  have  a  Patriarch 
residing  at  Carlovitz,  who  is  chosen  by  a  council 
and  approved  by  the  Austrian  Government.  He 
bears  the  title  of  Patriarch  as  an  honoiable  title 
in  continuation  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Ipek,  who 
ruled  over  the  Servians  in  former  days.  AU  the 
Servians  belonging  to  the  Orthodox  Church  use 
the  Church-Slavonic  language  in  their  churches 
and  the  alphabet  invented  by  Cyril  in  their  liter- 
ature. Their  language  belongs  to  the  Eastern 
branch  of  Slavic  languages,  and  is  akin  to 
the  Bulgarian,  from  which  it  differs,  however, 
considerably  in  its  vocal  sounds.  Many  Turkish, 
Greek,  and  Albanian  words  have  entered  into 
the  formation  of  the  modern  Servian  language. 
Under  the  influence  of  their  ecclesiastics  and  their 
ecclesiastical  literature,  the  Servians  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century  used  in  their  literature 
a  language  called  Slavonico-Servi.nn,  a  mixture  of 
Church-Slavonic  and  Servian,  with  the  elements 
of  the  former  predominating.  But,  thanks  to  the 
genius  and  efforts  of  Verk  Karadjitch,  a  self- 
made  man,  the  Servian  alphabet  was  modified  to 
a  certain  extent  to  suit  the  pronunciation  of  the 
spoken  language  of  the  people,  which  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  a  literary  language.  In  this  way 
the  Servian  orthography  became  the  most  pho- 
netic of  all  Slavic  orthographies,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  opposition  the  reforms  of  Karadjitch  met 
with,  they  were  officially  sanctioned  by  the  gov- 
ernment in  1868,  and  accepted  by  all  thie  Servians- 
who  use  the  Cyrillian  alphabet.  Karadjitch 
translated  also  the  New  Testament  into  the  com- 
mon language  of  the  people,  while  some  years 
later  Danitehitch,  a  well-known  Servian  philolo- 
gian  and  a  follower  of  Karadjitch,  did  the  same 
thing  for  the  Old  Testament;  and  both  these  ver- 
sions have  been  accepted  and  are  used  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

SERVIAN  LANGUAGE:  The  Servian,  which 
belongs  to  the  Slavonic  branch  of  the  Aryan- 
family,  is  spoken  in  Servia,  Bosnia,  Herzego- 
vina, Montenegro,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Dalmatia,. 
etc.,  and  is  more  akin  to  the  Russian  and  Wend 
than  to  the  Bohemian  and  Polish  languages.  It 
is  rich  in  vowels,  and  free  from  the  accumulationi 


666 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Sepow© 
Shanghai 


of  consonants  which  render  the  other  Slavonic 
tongues  so  harsh  to  the  ear  of  a  foreigner.  Its 
sound  is  very  soft,  and  one  of  the  tiest  Slavic 
scholars  of  our  age,  Prof.  Schafarik,  in  comparing 
the  different  dialects  of  the  Slavonic  family, 
makes  the  following  remark:  "Servian  song 
resembles  the  tone  of  the  violin;  Old  Slavonic 
that  of  the  organ;  Polish  that  of  the  guitar.  The 
Old  Slavonic  in  its  psalms  sounds  like  the  loud 
rush  of  the  mountain  stream;  the  Polish  like  the 
bubbling  and  sparkling  of  a  fountain;  and  the 
Servian  like  the  quiet  murmuring  of  a  streamlet 
in  the  valley."  The  Servian  is  written  with  the 
Slavic  (Cyrillian)  alphabet,  and  is  beginning  to 
possess  a  modern  literature  of  its  own. 

SESHEKE:  A  settlement  in  British  Central 
Africa,  situated  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  that  region, 
on  the  Zambesi  River,  about  ^00  miles  W.  of 
Salisbury  in  Rhodesia.  The  climate  is  very  try- 
ing to  Europeans  because  of  malaria.  Station 
of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
(1885),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them 
with  his  wife;  1  woman  missionary,  1  place  of 
worship,  and  1  boarding  school. 

SEYCHELLES :  A  group  of  islands  in  the  Indian 
Ocean;  a  dependency  of  the  British  colony  of 
Mauritius.  Missions  are  carried  on  by  the  SPG 
(1843),  with  1  native  male  teacher  and  136  Chris- 
tians in  native  churches.  At  Mah6  the  CMS  has 
a  mission  station,  and  works,  mainly  by  its 
schools,  among  the  creole  negroes. 

SHAFTESBURY:  A  settlement  in  the  N.  W.  of 
Canada,  situated  on  Peace  River,  in  the  S.  W.  part 
of  Athabasca.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1888),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  1  native  worker,  1  day 
school,  and  26  professed  Christians,  of  whom  10 
are  communicants, 

SHAH JAHANPUR :  A  town  in  the  United 
Provinces,  India,  situated  in  the  Rohilkhand 
division,  about  55  miles  N.  W.  of  Sitapur.  Manu- 
factures much  sugar.  Population  (1901),  76,458, 
of  whom  37,000  are  Mohammedans  and  36,000 
Hindus.  Station  circuit  of  the  ME,  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  woman  mission- 
ary, 42  native  workers,  5  places  of  worship,  1 
boarding  school,  1  orphanage,  15  day  schools,  29 
Sunday 'schools,  and  385  professed  Christians. 

SHANGHAI:  The  most  important  emporium  in 
China,  and  the  city  which  shows  more  of  Western 
civilization  than  any  other  settlement  of  Euro- 
peans, except  Hongkong.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Wu-sung  River  in  the  Province  of  Kiang-su, 
about  14  miles  from  the  sea.  There  are  two 
entirely  distinct  parts  to  the  city:  (1)  The 
Native  City;   (2)   The  Foreign  Settlement. 

(1)  The  Native  City  is  very  old.  The  first 
mention  of  it  is  found  to  be  in  1015.  In  1360  it 
became  a  district  city.  The  British  captured  it 
in  June,  1843,  and  it  was  the  fifth  of  the  treaty 
poits  thrown  open  to  foreign  commerce.  During 
the  Taiping  rebellion  it  was  captured  by  the 
insurgents  and  occupied  by  them  for  17  months, 
and  when  they  were  driven  out  in  1860  the  east- 
ern and  southern  suburbs  were  almost  entirely 
destroyed.  By  virtue  of  its  position  it  is  the  out- 
let for  a  vast  territory.  The  Wu-sung  and 
Hwang-pu  rivers,  the  latter  emptying  into  the 
Wu-sung  at  Shanghai,  give  it  communication 
with  Su-chow,  Che-kiang,  and  all  the  region  of 
the  Grand  Canal;  while  the  Yangtse,  only  a  few 
miles  distant,  makes  it  the  outlet  for  the  great 
Yangtse  valley.  The  city,  walled,  three  miles 
in  circuit,   stands  in  a  large  and  fertile  plain. 


Along  the  water  front  are  vessels  which  carry 
goods  to  and  from  the  interior.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  paved,  the  houses  built  of  brick,  and 
shops,  eating-houses,  and  the  usual  temples  and 
Buddhist  shrines  common  to  all  Chinese  cities  are 
found  here  in  abundance,  but  none  of  the  public 
buildings  or  temples  are  peculiar  to  this  city  any 
more  than  to  other  cities  of  the  empire.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  420,000,  but  probably 
the  estimate  is  low.  The  climate  varies  greatlj 
— from  an  intense  heat  in  summer  to  freezing  cold 
in  winter,  and  great  changes  of  temperature  in  24 
hours  are  common  in  the  spring  and  autumn.  The 
mean  temperature,  like  that  of  Rome,  is  59°  (F.). 
Heavy  rainfalls  occur  in  the  summer,  but  from 
September  to  May  the  climate  is  delightful. 

(2)  The  Foreign  Settlement  is  a  municipality, 
and  is  divided  into  the  English  (and  American) 
and  French  concessions,  is  governed  by  munici- 
pal officers,  and  there  is  a  mixed  court  where 
cases  involving  natives  and  foreigners  are  tried 
before  both  Chinese  and  English  officials.  Spa- 
cious docks  line  the  river  front  for  three  miles. 
The  streets  are  broad,  overhung  with  trees, 
lighted  with  electric  light,  and  nearly  all  the  com- 
forts of  modern  civilization  are  to  be  found 
Jinrikishas,  together  with  the  native  sedan  chairs 
and  wheelbarrows,  provide  abundant  means  of 
transportation,  and  horses  and  equipages  of  the 
latest  European  style  are  to  be  seen  on  the  streets, 
especially  along  the  Bubbling  Well  Road,  the 
fashionable  drive.  Hundreds  of  native  boats  ply 
for  hire  on  the  river,  and  with  the  shipping,  the 
steam-tugs,  and  small  boats,  the  water  presents 
a  most  animated  appearance.  The  land  of  the 
concessions  belongs  really  to  the  Emperor  of 
China,  to  whom  a  mere  nominal  rental  is  paid. 
The  domestic  and  foreign  mails  are  handled  at 
seven  post  offices — at  the  consulates — in  connec- 
tion with  the  Chinese  customs.  Clubs,  libraries, 
museums,  in  addition  to  the  various  mission 
estabhshments,  present  attractions  to  the  visitor. 
Telephone  service  is  provided.  The  great  north- 
ern line  of  telegraph  was  connected  with  the  set- 
tlement in  1871,  and  the  city  is  now  in  cable  com- 
munication with  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  first 
railroad  in  China  was  opened  in  1876  between 
this  city  and  Wu-sung,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river; 
the  Chinese  Government  bought  it  the  ensuing 
year,  tore  it  up,  and  sent  the  material  to  For- 
mosa; it  has  been  rebuilt,  nevertheless,  and  has 
been  in  use  since  1898. 

From  this  port  is  carried  on  the  most  impor- 
tant trade  in  China,  the  value  of  it  having  risen 
from  65,000,000  taels  in  1868  to  240,000,000  taels 
in  1901.  It  is  the  center  for  the  export  of  tea 
and  silk. 

According  to  the  census  of  1890,  the  popula- 
tion of  the  municipality,  exclusive  of  the  French 
concession,  was  168,129;  of  the  French  conces- 
sion, 34,722;  the  foreigners  numbered  onlv  4,265, 
of  whom  444  were  in  the  French  quarter.  _  Such 
a  wide  range  of  nationality  is  seldom  found  in  any 
Oriental  settlement;  while  the  bulk  of  the  foreign 
population  is  British,  American,  French,  and 
German,  yet  twenty-one  other  nationalities  are 
represented  in  varying  numbers.  Together  with 
the  estimated  population  of  the  native  city,  the 
total  population  of  Shanghai  is  (1901)  620,000. 

Shanghai  is  the  literary  center  of  the  foreigners 
in  China.  Here  is  pubUshed  the  best  English 
daily  paper,  together  with  a  considerable  number 
of  the  missionarv  pubHcations  in  China  At  the 
Presbyterian  Mission  Press  books  are  printed  in 


SliJinj^poong 
Sliefia,  John   H. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


66e 


Chinese — not  only  religious,  but  scientific;  and 
the  Chinese  Religious  Tract  Society  issue  from 
here  their  periodicals  in  Chinese,  and  the  Chi- 
nese Recorder  and  the  Mesf^enger  are  published  in 
English.  On  account  of  its  central  location,  the 
beauty  of  its  situation,  the  hospitality  of  the  for- 
eign community,  it  has  been  the  place  of  meeting 
for  the  great  Missionary  Conferences. 

Its  importance  as  a  center  for  religious  work 
was  early  appreciated,  and  a  larger  force  of  mis- 
sionaries, or  representatives  of  more  denomi- 
nations, are  probably  not  met  with  elsewhere  in 
China.  Mission  societies  now  represented  at 
Shanghai,  with  the  last  available  statistics,  are: 
LMS  (184,3),  CMS  (1845),  PE  (1848),  Seventh- 
Day  Baptists  (1847),  MES  (1848),  PN  (1850), 
CIM  (1854),  AVU  (1881),  FCMS  (1891),  and 
German  General  Protestant  Missionary  Society 
(1886);  altogether  these  societies  now  (1903)  have 
106  missionaries,  men  and  women;  180  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  46  places  of  worship, 
6  hospitals,  with  dispensaries;  3  printing  houses, 
and  1,921  professed  Christians.  The  BFBS  and 
the  ABS  have  each  a  center  for  their  Bible  work. 
The  YMCA  (1898)  also  has  an  agency  here,  with 
(1901)  2  men  and  their  wives  and  a  Young  Men's 
Christian   Association. 

SHANGPOONG:  A  village  and  district  in 
Assam,  situated  in  the  Jaintia  Hills.  Station  of 
the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  31  native 
workers,  57  outstations,  57  places  of  worship,  52 
Sunday  schools,  57  day  schools,  and  2,683  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  677  are  communicants. 

SHANG-TSING:  A  town  in  Kiang-si,  China, 
situated  68  miles  S.  E.  of  Nan-chang-fu.  The 
Taouist  pope  resides  here.  Station  of  the  CIM 
(1893),  with  (1903)  1  woman  missionary,  5  native 
workers,  2  places  of  worship,  1  day  school,  and  36 
professed  Christians. 

SHAN  STATES:  A  name  given  to  some  of  the 
hill  provinces  which  lie  on  either  side  of  the 
boundary  between  Burma  and  Siam,  and  are 
tributary  to  the  one  or  to  the  other.  They  are 
inhabited  by  the  Shans,  Laos  and  other  tribes. 

SHANS:  The  Shans  are  now  principally  found 
on  the  mountain  plateaux  between  the  Salwen 
River  and  the  great  Burman  plain.  They  are  one 
division  of  the  great  Tai  family,  which  extends 
from  Tonquin  on  the  east  to  the  confines  of 
Assam  on  the  west,  and  from  Southwest  China 
on  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Siam  on  the  south. 
The  kingdom  of  Siam  is  the  only  independent 
representative  of  this  family.  The  differences  of 
language  are  more  of  a  broad  dialectic  character 
than  of  distinct  tho  cognate  languages. 

The  original  home  of  the  Tai  people  was 
undoubtedly  Southwestern  China  in  Sze-chwan, 
and  the  country  south  of  the  Yangtsze-kiang. 
Until  E.  c.  250  the  Chinese  Kingdom  did  not 
have  its  subsequent  compact  character,  and  its 
rule  did  not  have  any  permanent  hold  south  of 
that  river.  Doubtless  at  that  date  the  Chinese 
began  to  press  southward  and  slowly  pushed  the 
Tai  people  into  Yunnan,  where  they  resisted  the 
advance  of  the  Chinese  for  a  long  time.  As  early 
as  the  first  half  of  the  7th  century  a  strong  Tai 
state.  Nan  Chao,  had  arisen,  which  maintained 
itself  as  the  kingdom  of  Tali  until  it  was  over- 
thrown by  Kublai  Khan  in  the  13th  century. 

The  migration  of  the  Tai  into  Burma  was  bj' 
the  branch  which  we  know  under  the  name  of 
Shans,   and  probably   began  about  2,000  years 


ago,  at  which  time  the  Chinese  commenced  to 
push  their  conquests  south  of  the  Yangtsze-kiang. 
Shan  and  Burman  tradition  places  the  beginning 
of  the  migration  still  earlier,  and  this  tradition 
may  be  correct,  tho  of  no  political  importance,  as 
the  restlessness  of  the  nature  of  the  Shans  has 
always  led  them  to  frequent  changes  of  residence. 
But  the  wars  of  Chinese  aggression  must  be  respon- 
sible for  the  great  migration  which  found  its  first 
home  in  the  valley  of  the  Shweli  River,  and 
thence  spread  over  plateaux  southwest  of  China, 
and  across  the  northern  part  of  the  plains  of 
Burma  to  Assam,  and  to  the  headwaters  of  the 
Irawadi.  As  the  oldest  branch  of  the  Tai 
family,  the  Shans  have  always  been  called  Tai 
Long,  or  Great  Shans,  by  the  other  branches  of 
the  family. 

In  the  7th  century,  out  of  this  migration  grew 
a  large  Shan  kingdom,  with  a  capital  at  Mong 
Maw  Long  in  the  Shweli  valley.  This  kingdom 
maintained  itself  for  several  centuries  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  prosperity,  until  Anawratta,  the 
Burman  King  of  Pagan,  by  a  victorious  military 
career,  established  Burman  supremacy  for  a  time 
over  much  of  the  territory  of  the  Shan  princes. 
After  the  death  of  Anawratta,  the  Shan  kingdom 
regained  power,  and  later,  in  the  times  of  Sam 
Kham  Hpa  and  Sam  Long  Hpa,  extensive  mil- 
itary campaigns  increased  the  territory  of  the 
kingdom  to  a  size  that  it  had  never  attained 
before.  The  prosperity  of  the  Shan  kingdom 
soon  began  to  wane.  From  the  14th  to  the  16th 
century  there  was  a  gradual  decadence  of  power. 
Distant  dependencies  shook  off  its  suzerainty. 
Wars  with  Burma  and  China  were  frequent  and 
weakened  the  central  authority,  and  in  the  con- 
fusion many  of  the  stronger  principalities  became 
semi-independent.  In  1604  the  Shan  royal  line 
ended.  From  that  time  Shan  principalities 
became  tributary  to  Burma,  and  Shan  history 
merges  into  Burman  history. 

It  was  an  evil  day  for  the  Shans  when  Burman 
suzerainty  was  established.  In  the  Shan  prin- 
cipalities west  of  the  Irawadi  and  the  moun- 
tains bordering  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Burman 
plain,  successful  efforts  to  Burmanize  the  people 
by  the  destruction  of  Shan  books  and  the  enforce- 
ment of  study  of  the  Burmese  language  in  the 
monasteries  were  put  forth  by  the  Burman  gov- 
ernment for  many  decades.  The  Shan  lingers  as 
a  patois  in  many  country  places  in  these  regions, 
but  the  Burmese  language  has  become  so  thor- 
oughly the  language  of  the  people  that  mission 
work  must  be  carried  on  in  the  Burmese  language. 
The  Shan  language,  however,  maintains  itself  in 
the  interior  mountain  regions. 

Another  cause  of  decadence  was  the  frequent 
desolation  of  both  border  and  interior  principal- 
ities by  war.  The  Shans,  always  restive  under 
Burman  rule,  engaged  in  frequent  rebellions  put 
down  by  the  Burmese  with  merciless  cruelty, 
and  also  in  civil  wars  fostered  by  Burman  policy. 
These  wrought  such  a  great  loss  of  life  that  the 
interior  principalities  became  sparsely  populated, 
except  in  a  few  important  centers.  With  the 
decline  in  population,  for  a  century  the  wave  of 
Kachin  migration  has  moved  from  the  Himalaya 
region  southeastward  as  far  as  Hsenwi  and 
Mong-Mit,  and  has  driven  the  Shans  from  much 
mountain  country  between  Burma  proper  and 
China. 

The  Shans  show  their  Chinese  affinities  in  their 
physical  characteristics  and  language.  They 
have  the  Chinese  type  of  face.     Their  complexion 


667 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Shaiispoons 
Sliedd,  Jolin  H. 


is  light,  and  the  eyes  are  almost  almond-shaped. 
There  are  a  goodly  number  of  common  roots  in 
the  two  languages.  The  grammatical  construc- 
tion of  sentences  is  the  same  as  in  Chinese,  and 
has  a  great  difference  from  that  of  tlie  Tibeto- 
Burman  family.  There  is  an  elaborate  tonal 
system  like  that  of  the  Chinese. 

The  Shans  are  a  thrifty  people.  They  are 
good  agriculturists,  but  they  excel  in  trading,  for 
which  purpose  they  visit  Burma,  Siam,  and 
Western  China.  In  this  way  they  supply  them- 
selves with  food  and  merchandise  not  obtainable 
in  their  mountainous  country.  In  time  of  peace 
they  are  clieerful  and  hospitable,  but  in  time  of 
war  they  are  cruel  and  vindictive,  not  only 
seeking  to  put  to  the  sword  all  men  of  a  hostile 
region,  but  slaughtering  male  children  who  fall 
into  their  hands. 

The  Shans  are  zealous  Buddhists.  Current 
legends  about  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  are 
manifestly  untrustworthy.  The  looser  Bud- 
dhism of  the  Northern  Vehicle  was  doubtless  the 
first  form  of  that  religion  to  be  introduced  into 
Upper  Burma  from  Northern  India.  At  the 
time  of  Anawratta's  succession  to  the  throne  of 
Pagan,  if  Buddhism  was  so  exceedingly  corrupt 
in  doctrine  and  in  practise,  it  must  have  been  as 
bad,  if  not  worse,  in  the  more  northern  Shan 
kingdom.  Anawratta  became  a  zealous  religious 
reformer  and  introduced  the  stricter  doctrine  and 
practise  of  the  Southern  Vehicle.  Wherever 
Burman  influence  has  predominated  in  the  Shan 
principalities,  the  people  have  become  strong 
Buddhists,  proud  of  their  religion  and  tenacious 
in  adhesion  to  it. 

This  strong  adherence  to  their  ancestral  religion 
makes  mission  work  among  them  slow  and  diffi- 
cult. Buddhism,  as  held  and  practised  by  them, 
does  not  have  much  unpleasant  restraining  power 
over  their  lives.  Every  male  child  must,  by 
religious  law  and  by  inflexible  custom,  be 
placed  for  a  time  in  a  monastery,  where 
the  tenets  of  Buddhism  are  diligently  instilled 
into  his  mind.  His  mind  thus  becomes 
strongly  possessed  with  Buddhist  ideas  and 
feelings,  and  when  adult  age  is  reached, 
there  is  at  first  little  readiness  to  listen  to  a  mis- 
sionary, as  they  consider  that  it  is  one  of  the  five 
great  sins  to  do  anything  to  bring  about  a  schism 
in  the  body  of  Buddha.  But  when  Shans  become 
Christians  they  are  generally  decided  in  their 
attachment  to  their  new  faith. 

The  first  missionary  work  for  the  Shans  was 
confined  to  immigrants  into  Lower  Burma,  who 
had  fled  from  the  oppression  of  the  native  princes. 
It  was  impossible  at  that  time  for  a  missionary  to 
live  in  the  Shan  country.  Since  the  annexation 
of  the  whole  of  Burma  to  the  British  Empire, 
mission  stations  have  been  opened  successfully  at 
Hsipaw,  Mongnai,  Nam  Kham,  and  Kengtung  in 
the  Shan  principalities,  and  a  goodly  number  of 
converts  have  been  made.  The  Bible  has  been 
translated  into  the  Shan  language,  and  some 
Christian  literature  prepared.  The  prospect  is 
one  of  quiet,  steady  growth,  rather  than  one  of 
rapid  development. 
Elias  (N.),  History  of  the  Shans,  Calcutta,  1876;  Colquhon 

(A.  R.),  and  Hallett  (H.  S.),  Amongst  the  Shans,  London, 

1885. 

SHAN-TAU.     See  Swatow. 

SHAO-HSING-FU:  A  city  in  Che-kiang,  China, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Bay  of  Hang-chau,  about 
60  miles  W.  by  N..  of  Ningpo.  Its  climate  is 
warm  and  somewhat  malarious.     Surrounded  by 


a  fertile  and  prosperous  country,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  150,000,  it  is  one  of  the  important  cities 
of  Che-kiang.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1866),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women 
missionaries,  12  native  workers,  7  outstations,  8 
Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
and  326  professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
ABMU  (1869),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  11  native  workers,  7  outstations,  5 
places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  1  day  school, 

1  theological  class,  and  48  communicant  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  CiVIS  (1870),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  3  women 
missionaries,  6  native  worlcers,  1  outstation,  1 
place  of  worship,  3  day  schools,  1  dispensary, 
and  53  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name  Shaow-hing. 

SHAO-WXJ-FU:  A  town  in  Fo-kien,  China,  sit- 
uated 240  miles  N.  W.  by  W.  of  Fu-chau.  Sta- 
tion of  the  ABCFM  (1877),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, 1  with  his  wife;  3  women  missionaries, 
28  native  workers,  22  outstations,  17  places  of 
worship,  8  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1 
theological  class,  1  dispensary,  and  513  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

SHA-SHI-HSIEN :  A  town  in  Hu-pei,  China, 
situated  on  the  right  banlc  of  the  Yangtse  at  the 
nearest  point  of  that  river  to  the  Han-ho,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  canal.  It  is  an  important 
trade  center.  Population,  100,000.  Station  of 
the  PE  (1889),  with  (1903)  10  native  workers,  3 
outstations,  3  places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools, 
3  day  schools,  and  276  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  103  are  communicants.  Station  also  of 
the  Swedish  Mission  Society  (1896),  with  (1901) 

2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  native  worlcers, 
1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school, 
and  250  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name  Shasi. 

SHEBIN  EL  KOM:  A  village  in  lower  Egypt, 
situated  about  40  miles  N.  W.  of  Cairo.  Station 
of  the  North  Africa  Mission  (1899),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  day  school,  and  1 
Sunday  school. 

SHEDD,  John  H. :  Missionary  of  the  American 
Presbyterian  Board  (N.).  Died,  Urmia,  Persia, 
April  12,  1895.  The  first  years  of  Dr.  Shedd's 
missionary  life  were  spen*  in  pioneer  work.  His 
youthful  energies  seemed  to  know  no  limit  in  the 
tasks  assumed.  He  shrank  from  no  hardships. 
Given  some  special  work  to  be  done  requiring 
vigorous  action,  self-denial,  large  resourcefulness, 
and  he  was  pretty  sure  to  be  in  it.  His  tours  in 
the  wild,  rugged  mountains  of  Kurdistan  year 
after  year  marked  weil  his  character  as  a  mis- 
sionary, resolute,  devoted,  wise.  Restricted  as 
to  times  and  seasons  between  the  pathless  win- 
ters and  the  fever-breeding  summers,  he  would 
push  in  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  of  spring, 
abandoning  his  mule  when  he  found  the  roads 
still  closed,  and  with  a  Kurd  as  a  porter  to  carry 
his  quilt  and  a  small  change  of  clothing,  he 
marched  upon  the  snow  crust,  over  the  perilous 
passes  and  down  through  the  valleys,  visiting  the 
little  congregations,  counseling  and  strengthen- 
ing them  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  And 
scarcely  had  he  returned  home  when  he  was 
ready  to  move  with  his  family  bade  again  to  the 
outer  bounds  of  the  mountains  for  the  summer, 
drawing  the  native  workers  around  him  for 
additional  instruction  and  training. 

After  his  first  ten  years  of  service  in  Persia, 
Dr.    Shedd   returned    to   the    United    States  on 


Sliefamer 
Slii'ite 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


668. 


furlough.  There  he  received  a  call  to  a  pro- 
fessorship in  Biddle  University,  which  he  ac- 
cepted in  view  of  conditions  of  health  in  his  fam- 
ily which  forbade  his  returning  to  the  mission 
field,  and  for  a  few  years  he  threw  all  his  energies 
into   the   freedman's   work. 

Upon  his  return  to  Persia  he  was  put  at  the 
head  of  the  college  at  Urmia,  taking  a  large 
share,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  supervision  of  the 
church  work.  In  both  these  relations  his  re- 
markable abilities  for  organization  found  ample 
scope.  He  came  to  be  looked  upon  by  the  native 
preachers  as  a  leader  whom  they  could  safely 
follow.  On  one  occasion,  when  taunts  were 
freely  flung  at  the  native  Protestants  because 
they  lacked  a  bishop  or  head,  one  of  the  foremost 
pastors  hurled  back  the  answer,  "Tell  them  we 
have  in  Dr.  Shedd  priest,  bishop,  and  patri- 
arch." His  revised  Confession  of  Faith  and 
Manual  of  Church  Worship  and  Government  are 
a  monument  to  his  thorough  study  and  broad- 
minded  views  of  the  needs  of  the  nascent  Church 
of  Christ  in  Persia. 

Dr.  Shedd's  last  year  of  service  will  be  remem- 
bered by  his  associates  as  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant in  his  life  in  connection  with  his  conspicuous 
efforts  in  organizing  and  carr3'ing  through  the 
Missionary  Conference  in  Hamadan.  In  his  com- 
prehensive outlook  upon  the  Persian  field,  with 
his  bright  faith  in  God's  gracious  purpose  for  the 
redemption  of  that  land  to  Christ,  he  conceived 
it  of  pressing  importance  to  gather  a  repre- 
sentative conference  of  the  missionary  workers 
to  study  the  divine  leadings.  The  high  standard 
of  spiritual  interest  and  power  which  character- 
ized the  deliberations  of  the  conference  more  than 
met  his  expectations.  Out  of  his  gratified  soul 
he  wrote  at  the  close,  "All  are  full  of  faith  that 
God  is  to  bless  this  land.  There  is  an  uplift  in  all 
our  hearts  toward  a  closer  union  with  our  Lord." 

SHEFAMER:  A  village  in  Palestine,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  situated  about  7  miles  S.  W.  of  Acca. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1899),  with  (1903)  2  women 
missionaries,  1  day  school,  and  1  dispensary. 

SHEIKH  OTHMAN:  A  village  in  the  southwest 
part  of  Arabia,  10  miles  from  Aden,  and  within 
the  British  lines.  It  is  on  high  ground,  and  is 
used  as  a  residence  for  escape  from  the  intense 
heat  of  the  town  of  Aden.  Station  of  the  UFS, 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  with  his  wife;  8 
native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  1  boarding 
school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  7  professed 
Christians. 

SHELLA:  A  small  town  of  5,000  people  in  the 
Khasia  hills,  Assam,  which  gives  name  to  a  dis- 
trict of  the  mission  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic 
Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  32  native  workers,  23  outstations,  37 
places  of  worship,  34  Sunday  schools,  34  day 
schools,  and  1,631  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
614  are  communicants. 

SHEMLAN:  A  village  in  the  Lebanon,  Pales- 
tine, Turkey,  situated  about  10  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Beirut.  Station  of  the  British  Syrian  Mission 
Schools  (1858),  with  (1900)  2  women  mission- 
aries, 2  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  day 
school,  and  1  boarding  school. 

SHEPSTONE.     See  North  and  South  Shep- 

BTONE. 

SHERBORO  ISLAND:  An  island  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Sierra  Leone,  West  Africa,  about  70 
miles  S.  of  Freetown.     Station  of  the  CMS  (1822) . 


The  care  of  this  field  passed  to  the  local  church  in 
1860.  The  UB  also  has  a  work  here,  of  which 
statistics  are  given  under  Bonthe.  The  Sierra 
Leone  CMS  also  maintains  a  mission  here,  with  8 
native  workers,  8  day  schools,  and  220  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  WMS,  with  26 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  6  places  of  worship, 
3  Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  and  346  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  281  are  communi- 
cants. 

SHERRING,  Matthew  Atmore:  Born  at  Hal- 
stead,  Essex,  England,  September  26,  1826; 
studied  at  University  College,  London,  and  Cow- 
ard College;  ordained  December  7,  1852;  sailed 
as  a  missionary  of  the  LMS  the  same  year  for 
Benares.  He  took  the  superintendence  of  the 
Central  School,  with  which  he  was  identified  dur- 
ing much  of  his  life;  also  engaging  in  bazar 
preaching  and  itinerating,  and  the  pastorate  of 
the  native  church.  On  Sunday,  August  8,  1880, 
he  went  through  his  usual  services  in  Hindu- 
stani and  English  in  apparently  good  health. 
At  2  o'clock  Monday  morning  he  was  at- 
tacked with  cholera,  and  on  the  10th  passed 
gently  away.  The  same  evening  native  Chris- 
tians carried  his  body  to  the  grave,  among  them 
his  first  convert,  baptized  twenty-four  years 
before,  a  Brahman,  and  now  vernacular  head- 
master in  the  institution  at  Benares.  Combining 
high  culture  and  strong  common  sense  with  a 
gentleness  of  disposition  almost  womanly,  Mr. 
Sherring  endeared  himself  to  all  with  whom  he 
came  in  contact.  "I  make  it  my  rule,"  he  would 
say,  "to  try  to  please  every  one  if  possible."  In 
the  twofold  work  of  high-class  education  and  of 
preaching  in  the  vernacular  he  found  ample  scope 
for  his  superior  talents. 

SHERSHEL:  A  town  in  Algeria,  situated  60 
miles  W.  S.  W  of  Algiers.  Station  of  the  North 
Africa  Mission  (1890),  with  2  women  mission- 
aries, 1  Sunday  school,  1  dispensary.  The  French 
spelling  of  the  name  is  Cherchel. 

SHIGAR:  A  town  in  Kashmir,  India,  situated 
about  110  miles  N.  E.  of  Srinagar.  Station  of 
the  Scandinavian  Alliance  of  N.  A.  (1895),  with 
(1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mis- 
aries,  1  day  school,  and  1  industrial  institute. 

SHIGATINI:  A  settlement  in  German  East 
Africa,  situated  on  the  S.  side  of  Mt.  Kiliraa 
Njaro.  Station  of  the  Leipzig  Missionary 
Society  (1900),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  day  school. 

SHIH-TS'  UEN.     See  Shi-tsuen-hsien. 

SHI'ITE  MOHAMMEDANISM:  Tho  there  are 
many  different  Mohammedan  sects,  yet  these 
may  all,  or  nearly  all,  be  summed  up  under  two 
heads — those  which  are  generally  known  as 
Sunni  and  Shi'ah,  respectively.  Shi'ite  doc- 
trines are  held  almost  exclusively  in  Persia, 
where  it  is  rare  to  find  anyone  who  will  venture 
to  confess  himself  as  a  Sunni.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Arabia  a  Shi'ite  is  not  allowed  to  live 
unless  he  conceals  his  faith.  Most  Mohammed- 
ans in  Oudh  are  Shi'ites,  but  in  the  rest  of  India 
the  latter  are  not  nearly  so  numerous  as  their 
rivals.  In  the  Caucasus  the  Shi'ites  are  esti- 
mated to  number  about  800,000.  The  whole 
population  of  Persia  is  variously  estimated  at 
8,000,000  or  10,000,000.  Including  the  Babis, 
claimed  to  number  1,000,000,  the  total  number 
of  Shi'ites  in  the  world  probably  falls  below 
20,000,000. 


669 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


aneiamer 
Shl'ite 


History  and  Origin:  In  earlier  times  Shi'ite 
doctrines  were  by  no  means  confined  to  Persia, 
Under  the  Caliphs  we  find  them  again  and  again 
asserting  themselves  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  and 
Mesopotamia.  But  whenever  this  occurred  it 
was  due  to  Persian  influence.  It  is  not  too  much 
io  say,  therefore,  that  Persia  is  the  original  home 
of  Shi'ite  belief,  and  that  the  enmity  subsisting 
between  Sunnites  and  Shi'ites  is  the  continuation 
■of  the  ancient  hostility  between  Arab  and  Persian 
(Arab  and  Ajem — which  may  be  compared  with 
Greek  and  Barbarian)  on  the  one  side,  and  on  the 
■other,  Persian  and  Turk  {Iran  and  Turan),vfho,  in 
the  Persian  traditions,  have  always  been  mortal 
enemies.  These  feelings  were  still  more  excited 
on  both  sides,  and  especially  on  that  of  the 
Persians,  when  the  Arabian  conquest  of  their 
country  (642-643)  compelled  them  to  save  their 
lives  by  outwardly  professing  Islam.  Further- 
more, skepticism  and  mysticism  are  natural  to 
the  Persian  character,  but  alien  to  Arabian  con- 
servatism and  devotion  to  the  literal  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Koran  and  Tradition.  It  is  no  won- 
der, therefore,  that  the  two  races  have  developed 
■differences  in  creed. 

Another  historical  cause  of  the  schism  between 
Sunnites  and  Shi'ites  may  be  found  in  the  rivalry 
between  the  Hashimite  and  the  Ommayite 
houses.  Both  Hashim  and  Ommayah  were 
descended  from  a  common  ancestor,  Abd-ul- 
Manaf,  father  of  the  former  and  grandfather  of 
the  latter.  Even  before  Mohammed's  time  the 
descendants  of  these  two  men  had  been  rivals  in 
Mecca;  and  when  Mohammed  arose  as  a  prophet, 
none  of  the  Koreish  opposed  him  so  bitterly  as 
Ommayah's  family.  When  the  caliphate  fell  to 
the  lot  of  the  latter,  under  Othman,  the  rivalry 
which  had  apparently  been  laid  aside  during  the 
conquest  under  Abu  Bekr  and  Omar,  burst  out 
with  renewed  energy,  owing  to  the  disappoint- 
ment of  All,  who  stood  at  the  head  of  the 
Hashimites,  at  failing  to  be  made  Caliph  on 
Omar's  death  (644).  Othman's  unfairness  in 
conferring  all  important  posts  on  the  Ommayite 
faction,  coupled  with  his  evident  weakness  of 
character,  still  further  aroused  the  enmity  of  the 
Hashimite  party.  Ali,  on  his  part,  tacitly 
encouraged  the  rebels  who  murdered  Othman, 
-and  then  he  succeeded  him  as  Caliph.  But 
Mu'awiyyah,  governor  of  Syria,  representing  the 
Ommayah  party,  was  ultimately  successful 
in  securing  All's  deposition  and  obtaining 
the  coveted  dignity  for  himself.  Ali  refused  to 
acknowledge  Mu'awiyyah's  claim,  but  was  mur- 
dered by  a  Khariji  assassin.  His  profligate  son 
Hasan,  surnamed  the  Divorcer,  succeeded  him, 
but  after  a  reign  of  five  or  six  months  was  forced 
to  resign  his  pretensions  in  favor  of  his  powerful 
rival,  and  some  eight  years  later  was  poisoned 
by  one  of  his  many  wives.  When  Mu'awiyyah 
died,  Husein,  the  younger  brother  of  Hasan,  and, 
like  him,  son  of  Fatimah,  Mohammed's  daughter, 
laid  claim  to  the  caliphate,  tho  he  had  previously 
sworn  allegiance  to  Yezid,  Mu'awiyyah's  son  and 
heir.  But  Husein,  with  two  of  his  sons,  six  of  his 
brothers,  two  of  Hasan's  sons,  and  six  other 
descendants  of  Abu  Talib,  All's  father,  was  slain, 
fighting  bravely  at  Kerbela  (680)  under  circum- 
stances of  especial  atrocity.  This  event  forever 
put  an  end  to  all  hope  of  harmony  between  the 
house  of  Ommayah  and  that  of  Hashim.  Husein's 
tragic  death  evoked  sympathy  for  his  surviving 
descendants,  and  there  gradually  grew  up  the 
belief  that  Ali  should  have  succeeded  Moham- 


med as  temporal  and  spiritual  ruler  of  the  Moham- 
medan world.  It  was  natural  that  national  and 
racial  hostility  to  the  Arabs  should  have  led  the 
Persians  to  adopt  this  view,  and  thus  range 
themselves  on  the  Hashimite  side,  as  opposed  to 
that  of  the  Ommayite  party.  But  this  develop- 
ment was  not  clearly  evident  until  some  genera- 
tions after  All's  death. 

The  more  moderate  Shi'ite  party,  which  is  that 
now  prevailing  in   Persia,   and  with   which  this 
article   deals   except   where   sects   are   specified, 
gradually  grew  in  numliers  and  influence  until  it 
became  supreme  in  Persia  in  the  10th  century  of 
the  Christian  era.     The  Mongols  in  the  1.3th  cen- 
tury at  first  showed  no  inclination  to  interfere 
with  the  religious  views  of  the  conquered  Per- 
sians.    Mohammed    Khudabandeh     (1303-1316) 
professed  himself  a  Shi'ite.     A  period  of  depres- 
sion afterward  ensued,  but  Shah  Ismail  I.,  the 
descendant  of  the  seventh  Imam,  Musa,  founded 
the  Safevi  dynasty  in  1499,  and  was  a  warm  sup- 
porter of  Shi'ite  views.     His  war  with    Selim  I. 
of  Turkey  was  undertaken  to  avenge  the  slaugh- 
ter   of   some    40,000    persons    for    rejecting    the 
Sunnite  in  favor  of  the  Shi'ite  creed.     The  other 
sovereigns    of    the    Safevi    line    supported    the 
Shi'ite  faith  as   the    established    religion    of   the 
country.     The  Afghan  conqueror,  Mahmud ,  was  a 
Sunnite,  and  Nadir  Shah,   who  delivered  Persia 
from  the  Afghan  yoke  and  founded  a    new    dy- 
nasty, declared  that  the  Sunnite  teachings  must 
be   accepted   by   his   subjects    (1736).     But   the 
founder  of  the  Kajar    dynasty  which  now  rules 
in  Persia,  Aga  Mohammed,  when  he  assumed  the 
crown  in  1796,  undertook  to  uphold  the  Shi'ite 
creed,  and  his  successors  have  continued  to  do  so. 
Characteristic    Features:   Turning   now   to   the 
distinctive  views  of  the  Shi'ites,  we  find  the  great 
matter  in  which  the  Sunnites  and  Shi'ites  differ 
to  be  a  question  as  to  the  person  who  should  be 
regarded  as  Mohammed's  successor.     The  Sun- 
nites hold  that  Abu  Bekr,  Omar  and  Othman, 
each  in  turn,  became  "Vicegerent  of  the  Apostle 
of  God"  (generally  abbreviated  into  Vicegerent — 
Khalifah — and  corrupted  in  English  into  Caliph). 
The  Shi'ites,  on  the  other  hand,  hold  that  these 
three   men  usurped  the  position  which  belonged 
to    Ali.     The    Shi'ites   think   it   a   sacred    duty, 
therefore,  to  curse  bitterly  the  memory  of  the  first 
three  Caliphs,  and  to  refuse  to  acknowledge  any 
Caliph  except  Ali  himself.     After  Ali's  death,  his 
authority  was  transmitted,  they  hold,  to  his  sons 
Hasan  and  Husein,  and  so  on  through  the  line  of 
their  descendants.     But  they  style    Ali   and   his 
eleven    successors,    not    Caliphs,    but    Imams — 
the  word  Imam  denoting  a  leader  in  religious 
worship.     The    twelve    Imams    are:   1.     Ali;  2. 
Hasan;  3.   Husein;  4.  Ali-ul-Asghar    (the    less); 
5.    Mohammed-ul-Baqir;  6.     Jafar;  7.     Musa;  8. 
Ali-ur-Riza;  9.   Mohammed-ul-Jawwad;   10.   Ali- 
Askari;   11.    Hasan-ul-Khamt;   12.    Mohammed- 
ul-Mahdi. 

It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  rigid 
Shi'ites  regard  the  government  of  the  Shah  of 
Persia  as  a  u,surpatiori,  holding  that  all  temporal 
as  well  as  spiritual  power  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  the  Imam  in  this  technical  sense;  and  when 
there  is  no  visible  Imam,  it  should  be  given  to  the 
Mullas  and  other  religious  authorities. 

Europeans  are  inclined  to  think  the  difference 
between  Sunnite  and  Shi'ite  very  unimportant, 
since  tile  reason  for  the  schism  is  the  question 
whether  the  Caliphs  or  the  Imams  were  Moham- 
med's rightful  successors,  and  this  does  not  in- 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


670 


volve  any  real  difference  of  doctrine.  But  if  we 
wish  to  understand  the  importance  of  the  schism 
from  the  Muslim  point  of  view,  let  us  imagine 
the  way  in  which  the  two  sections  of  the  Roman 
Church  would  regard  each  other  had  the  medi- 
eval schism  in  that  body,  which  afforded  the 
spectacle  of  rival  Popes,  lasted  until  our  own 
time.  The  Sunnis  speak  of  the  Shi'ites  as  dogs, 
and  the  latter  retort  by  calling  their  enemies 
swine. 

The  Shi'ite  movement  may,  from  an  intellec- 
tual point  of  view,  be  regarded  as  an  Aryan 
revolt  against  a  Semitic  faith  forced  upon  the 
people  of  Persia  at  the  point  of  the  swora.  Islam 
is  utterly  destitute  of  proof,  and  the  Persians  are 
naturally  intellectual  and  skeptical,  tho  at  the 
same  time  very  much  inclined  to  mystical  and 
pantheistic  conceptions,  like  their  brethren,  the 
Aryans  of  India.  Mysticism,  increasing  super- 
stition, credulity,  and  fanaticism  have  played 
an  important  part  in  the  history  of  the  Shi'ite 
system.  It  was  largely  opposition  to  the  "ortho- 
dox" doctrines  upheld  by  the  Ommayad  Caliphs 
that  led  the  Per.sians  to  ally  themselves  with  the 
Hashimite  partisans  of  Ali.  It  was  convenient 
to  protect  and  to  develop  the  Manichaean, 
Dualistic,  Gnostic,  Pantheistic,  and  other  doc- 
trines that  still  lingered  in  the  East  when  Islam 
arose,  under  the  form  of  an  Islamic  school  of 
thought.  Thus  the  strong  political  party,  which 
was  gradually  formed  to  maintain  the  claims  of 
Ali  and  his  house,  became  committed  to  alliance 
with  this  whole  medley  of  doctrines;  and  hence 
we  find  that  the  person  now  revered  under  the 
name  of  Ali  is  rather  a  mystical  character  than 
the  historical  person  of  the  name.  This  will  be 
especially  noticeable  in  examining  the  views  of  the 
extreme  Shi'ite  sects. 

To  the  ordinary  Mohammedan  profession  of 
faith,  '"There  is  no  god,  but  God;  Mohammed  is 
the  Apostle  of  God,"  the  Shi'ites  often  add  the 
words  "and  Ali  is  (God's  appointed)  governor." 
Theoretically  Mohammed  should  be  accounted 
superior  to  Ali,  but  practically  Shi'ites  have  put 
Ali  in  his  place.  Ali  is  invoked  in  Persia  twenty 
times  as  often  as  Mohammed. 

Obliged  to  make  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  at 
least  once  in  his  life,  if  at  all  possible,  the  pious 
Shi'ite,  when  prevented  from  doing  so,  visits 
instead  the  supposed  tomb  of  Ali  at  Najaf,  or 
that  of  Husein  at  Kerbela,  or  that  of  Ali  Riza  at 
Meshhed,  or  that  of  Fatimah  al  Masumah, 
daughter  of  the  seventh  Imam,  at  Kum.  Per- 
haps the  Shi'ites  reverence  these  and  other  saints 
more  than  the  Sunnites  do  the  saints  in  their  own 
calendar.  At  any  rate,  the  real  religion  of  the 
great  mass  of  Persians  of  the  present  time  con- 
sists in  belief  in  and  what  we  might  almost  call 
adoration  offered  to  the  saints.  Long  caravans 
may  frequently  be  seen  bearing  dead  bodies  to 
be  buried  near  the  tomljs  of  such  saints  as  those 
we  have  mentioned,  in  the  fond  hope  that  at  the 
Resurrection  the  saint  may  intercede  for  his 
devotees. 

The  Seyyids,  or  descendants  of  Ali,  are  much 
more  highly  honored  by  the  Shi'ites  than  by  the 
Sunnites,  and  any  one  falsely  claiming  such 
descent  is  liable  to  very  severe  punishment. 
The  proper  dress  of  the  Seyyids  among  the  Sun- 
nites is  green,  or  at  least  their  turbans  are  of  that 
color,  whereas  in  Persia  the  Seyyids  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  wearing  black  turbans. 

'The  Shi'ites  offer  nearly  the  same  Arabic 
prayers  as  do  the  Sunnites,  their  hours  and  their 


direction  of  prayer  are  the  same,  but  they  are  far 
more  particular  in  their  strict  observance  of  the 
Ramazan  fast-month  than  the  generality  of 
Sunnites.  Like  the  latter,  they  observe  the 
"Feast  of  Sacrifice"  {Id-i-Kurhan),  but  the 
Shi'ites  devote  the  greater  part  of  Moharrem,  and 
particularly  the  first  ten  days,  to  mourning  for 
the  deaths  of  Hasan  and  Husein.  On  the  tenth 
day  of  that  month  mournful  recitations  (Taziyehs) 
descriptive  of  that  sad  scene  are  given  before 
great  crowds  of  people  in  all  places  where  the 
Shi'ites  are  to  be  found  in  any  numbers,  and  the 
wailing  and  beating  of  the  breast  which  then  take 
place  are  very  moving,  even  to  non-Muslim 
spectators.  Religious  fanaticism  is  easily  ex- 
cited on  such  occasions,  and  outbursts  against 
Babis,  Jews,  and  Christians  are  liable  to  occur. 
In  Bombay  the  police  have  to  take  extreme  care 
to  prevent  the  Sunnites  and  the  Shi'ites,  both  of 
whom  have  processions  on  that  day,  from  attack- 
ing one  another. 

In  recent  times,  and  especially  during  the  last 
few  years,  the  Mullas  in  Persia  have  endeavored 
to  increase  the  number  of  festivals  observed  by 
the  Shi'ites,  with  a  view  to  keep  up  their  interest 
in  their  faith.  Yet  none  can  be  said  to  be  gen- 
erally recognized,  except  the  two  already  named. 
There  is  also  the  great  secular  festival  of  New 
Year's  Day  {Nauruz),  on  which  newly  appointed 
governors  enter  upon  their  duties.  This  is  cele- 
brated with  pomp  in  Persia,  and  attempts  have 
been  made  to  give  it  a  religious  significance  as  the 
day  on  which  Mohammed  is  said  to  have  named 
Ali  as  his  successor.  But  it  is  a  national  Persian 
festival  of  great  antiquity,  and  the  effort  to  con- 
nect it  with  Islam  cannot  be  said  to  have  suc- 
ceeded. 

The  Sheikhu-'l  Islam  has  not  nearly  the  same 
authority  and  influence  among  the  Shi'ites  that 
the  holder  of  the  same  title  possesses  among  the 
Sunnites.  In  Persia  every  large  city  has  such  a 
functionary,  but  he  is  in  many  cases  completely 
overshadowed  by  some  other  Mujtehid,  not  infre- 
quently the  Imam  of  the  chief  mosque  in  the  city. 

Properly  speaking,  Islam  recognizes  no  atone- 
ment for  sin.  But  the  instinctive  yearnings  of 
the  human  heart  are  too  strong  to  permit  this 
great  lack  to  remain  entirely  unsatisfied.  The 
Shi'ites,  therefore,  hold  that  the  deaths  of  Hasan 
and  Husein  were  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  true 
believers.  This  is  a  matter  of  no  little  impor- 
tance, as  it  enables  the  Christian  missionary, 
when  dealing  with  Shi'ites,  to  find  common 
ground  on  which  to  show  the  need  of  an  Atone- 
ment, and  to  urge  belief  in  that  of  Christ. 

From  the  number  of  Imams  the  Shi'ites  call 
their  religious  community  that  of  the  Twelve. 
Theterm  Shi'ah,  applied  by  their  enemies  to  them, 
means  a  sect.  Shi'ites,  nevertheless,  do  not 
regard  its  use  as  an  insult,  and  sometimes  use  it 
themselves  as  more  convenient  and  more  gener- 
ally understood  than  the  longer  term.  Tho 
the  Sunnites  derive  their  name  from  their  rever- 
ence for  the  traditional  law  {Sunnah),  yet  it  is  a 
mistake  to  fancy  that  the  Shi'ites  reject  tradition. 
They  reject  the  six  great  collections  of  tradition 
accepted  by  the  Sunnites,  but  in  their  stead 
acknowledge  the  following  five  others:  1.  The 
Kafi  of  Abu  Jafer  Mohammed.  2.  The  Man  la 
Yastahzirah-ul-Fakih  of  Sheikh  Ali.  3.  The 
Tahzib  of  Sheikh  Abu  Jafer  Mohammed.  4.  The 
Tsfihsar  of  the  same  author,  and  5,  the  Nahj-id- 
Belaghah  of  Sayyid  Razi. 

Morality  in  all  Mohammedan  lands  is  low,  and 


671 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Shl'lte 


it  would  be  hard  to  prove  that  the  Shi'ites  are  in 
this  respect  worse  than  the  Sunnites.  But  the 
former  have  two  especially  demoralizing  doc- 
trines which  the  latter  repudiate,  at/ least  in 
words.  These  are  the  dogma  known  as  Kitman 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  legality  of  temporary 
(mni'ah)  marriages. 

The  doctrine  of  Kitman  i  din  (concealment  of 
faith)  is  that  a  man  is  justified  in  concealing  and 
even  denying  his  belief,  whenever  confession 
would  endanger  life  or  property.  When  a  Shi'ite 
makes  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  he  professes  him- 
self a  Sunnite,  and  to  prove  it  shows  the  greatest 
reverence  for  the  first  three  Caliphs,  whom  he 
really  believes  it  a  meritorious  act  to  curse  every 
day. 

The  result  of  such  a  doctrine  has  been  to 
change  the  ancient  Persian  reverence  for  truth 
into  utter  disregard  for  it,  and  to  raise  lying 
almost  to  the  dignity  of  a  fine  art.  No  Shi'ite 
will,  for  a  moment,  dream  of  trusting  another's 
most  solemn  assertions  or  oaths. 

Mut'ah,  or  temporary  marriage,  for  a  month,  a 
week,  or  even  a  shorter  period,  is  sanctioned  by 
Shi'ite  religious  law.  Consequently,  very  large 
numbers  of  women  make  their  living  by  contract- 
ing such  unions,  especially  with  the  pilgrims  who 
visit  the  "holy"  cities.  In  Persia  the  term  used 
to  denote  such  a  marriage  is  Sigheh.  A  great  part 
of  the  wealth  of  the  highest  of  the  Mohammedan 
clergy  in  the  places  of  pilgrimage  is  obtained  by 
officiating  at  these  marriages.  To  realize  in  any 
degree  the  moral  degradation  of  Islam  in  this 
respect,  we  must  try  to  force  ourselves  to  imagine 
the  higher  clergy  of  the  Church  drawing  their 
income  in  considerable  measure  from  sanctioning 
such  connexions,  and  the  nation  at  large  as  being 
60  degraded  in  moral  sense  as  to  have  no  revul- 
sion of  feeling.  While  the  Sunnite  law  regards 
such  unions  as  unlawful,  the  Sunnites  of  Central 
Asia,  and  of  some  other  regions,  permit  them. 
Shi'ites  and  Sunnites  both  appeal  to  authoritative 
traditions  in  support  of  their  respective  views  of 
Mut'ah  marriages. 

Sects:  Even  in  All's  lifetime  a  Jewish  convert  to 
Islam,  named  Abdullah  Ibn  Sauda  or  Ibn  Saba, 
coming  from  Southern  Arabia,  proclaimed  Ali  to 
be  an  incarnation  of  the  Deity.  In  653  this  man's 
followers,  in  spite  of  All's  denunciation  of  their 
doctrines,  were  numerous  enough  to  cause 
sedition  in  Basra,  Kufa,  and  Syria,  whence  the 
sect  spread  to  Egypt,  as  well  as  to  Persia.  Ibn 
Sauda  taught  that  Mohammed,  like  Christ,  would 
come  again,  and  that,  meanwhile,  Ali  was  his 
representative.  An  allegorical  interpretation 
began  to  be  given  to  the  Koran,  and  this  is  still 
a  common  feature  with  the  Shi'ite  party  _  Even 
in  very  early  times  the  Shi'ites  divided  into  a 
number  of  sects,  each  holding  one  or  other  of  All's 
descendants  in  peculiar  reverence,  but  all  agreed 
in  looking  forward,  with  large  numbers  of  Sun- 
nites also,  to  the  coming  of  a  Mahdi  or  guide  to 
lead  men  back  to  the  truth  before  the  last  day. 
One  of  the  most  important  sects  of  the  Shi'ites  of 
the  early  times  was  that  of  the  Ismailites.  Its 
founder  was  a  Persian  called  Abdullah  Ibn 
Maimun,  who  appeared  about  the  year  850.  The 
sect  took  its  name  from  Ismail,  eldest  son  of 
Jafar,  the  sixth  Imam,  and  Ismail's  son  Moham- 
med was  declared  to  be  the  founder  of  the  new 
religion.  Abdullah  taught  that  there  had  been 
six  preceding  dispensations,  those  of  Adam, 
Noah,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  and  Mohammed, 
each  of  these  Prophets  having  been  an  incarna- 


tion of  the  Divine  Reason.  The  last  and  most 
perfect  dispensation  was  that  of  Mohammed  Ibn 
Ismail,  who  was  also  an  incarnation.  All  these 
prophets,  therefore,  are  one  and  the  same 
"Divine  Reason"  or  "Universal  Reason,'''  con- 
ceived of  as  being  produced  by  the  will  of  God. 
This  doctrine  is  almost  identical  with  that  held  by 
the  Elkhesaites  in  the  second  half  of  the  2d 
century,  except  that  in  the  Book  of  Elkhesai  no 
mention,  of  course,  is  made  of  Mohammed  or  of 
the  founder  of  the  Ismailites,  Christ  being  called 
the  one  true  prophet,  who  previously  appeared  as 
Adam,  Enoch,  Noah,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
and  Moses.  The  Ismaihtes  added  Mohammed 
and  their  own  founder  to  the  list,  but  still  held  to 
the  doctrine  that  the  Divine  Immanence  or  Incar- 
nation was  found  from  age  to  age  in  the  special 
Prophet  of  each  time.  One  division  of  the 
Ismailis  was  the  Karmati  sect,  called  after  their 
leader  Karmat,  who  committed  fearful  excesses 
in  the  reign  of  the  Caliph  Mutazid.  The  Druses 
are  also  of  Ismaili  origin,  their  leading  tenet 
being  that  Hakim,  the  notorious  Fatimite  Caliph 
of  Egypt,  was  a  divine  incarnation.  The  sect  of 
the  "Assassins"  (Hashishin)  was  the  Ismailite 
body  best  known  in  Europe.  It  was  founded  by 
a  Persian  named  Hasan  Sabbah,  who  is  said  to 
have  adopted  Ismailite  doctrines  at  the  court  of 
the  Egyptian  Caliph  Mustansir  (1261-1262). 
This  sect  was  almost  exterminated  by  the  Mon- 
gols in  the  13th  century,  but  small  numbers  of 
Ismailites,  who  are  generally  inoffensive,  still 
exist  in  India,  Persia,  and  other  countries. 

Sufism  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  connected  with 
Islam  at  all,  since  the  views  of  tliose  who  hold  to 
this  mystic  and  pantheistic  system  of  thought — 
so  far  as  it  can  be  called  a  system — are  utterly 
opposed  to  Mohammedanism.  It  has  had  very 
extensive  influence  in  Persia,  so  much  so  that 
nearly  every  thoughtful  and  educated  Persian  is 
a  more  or  less  Sufi.  Such  men  outwardly  profess 
to  be  Shi'ites,  but,  in  confidence,  acknowledge 
that  they  absolutely  disbelieve  every  tenet  of 
Islam. 

Less  important  Shi'ite  sects  are  (1)  the  Akh- 
baris,  who  treat  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
and  many  others  as  merely  allegorical;  (2)  the 
Ali-ilahis,  who  deify  Ali  and  worship  him  as  God; 
(3)  the  Sheikhis,  who  hold  what  is  known  as  the 
Rukn-i-Rabi  (fourth  column)  doctrine,  to  the 
effect  that  there  must  ever  exL^t  an  intermediary 
between  the  twelfth  Imam  (the  Mahdi)  and  his 
votaries.  This  Imam  is  said  to  have  vanished 
most  mysteriously  in  874  and  the  popular  belief 
is  that  he  disappeared  down  a  well,  where  he  still 
lives.  A  message  sent  bj'  him  out  of  the  well  in 
1892  was  so  universally  believed,  that,  in  accord- 
ance therewith,  the  Shah  of  Persia  was  obliged  to 
abolish  the  Tobacco  Regie  monopoly,  which  he 
had  granted  to  foreign  companies.  But  it  is 
believed  that  after  his  disappearance  in  874  the 
Imam  Mahdi  once  more  appeared  for  a  time  in 
940,  only  to  vanish  again  for  an  indefinite  period. 
During  his  "lesser  disappearance"  (874-940)  he' 
communicated  with  the  faithful  by  means  of  four 
persons  in  succession,  each  of  whom  bore  the  title 
of  Bah  (Gate).  Mirza  Ah  Mohammed  of  Shiraz, 
founder  of  the  modern  Babi  sect  (1844),  claimed 
the  title  of  Bab  in  this  sense.  This  sect  is, 
therefore,  an  offshoot  of  the  Sheikhi  sect  from 
the  then  leader  of  whom  (Sayyid  Kasim  of 
Resht)  Mirza  Ali  Mohammed  at  first  received 
instruction.  But  persecution  has  rendered  the 
Babis  so  hostile  to  the  Shi'ites  that  it  is  hardly 


sunte 
Sliiiitoism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


67a 


correct  to  regard  them  as  any  longer  Shi'ites 
themselves. 

Missionaries  and  Shi'ites:  It  remains  for  us  to 
inquire  what  is  the  attitude  of  the  Shi'ite  sect 
toward  Christianity,  and  what  way  the  Gospel 
may  be  most  effectively  brought  to  bear  upon 
them. 

Like  all  Mohammedans,  a  Shi'ite  holds  that 
the  Gospel  was  at  one  time  intended  to  be,  as  the 
Koran  styles  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
"a  light  and  a  guidance  to  mankind."  But  he 
believes  that  it  has  been  abrogated  by  the 
descent  of  the  Koran  upon  Mohammed,  and  he 
also  holds  that  the  Bible  has  been  wilfully  cor- 
rupted by  the  Jews  and  Christians.  Neither  the 
Koran  nor  the  Traditions,  however,  give  the  very 
slightest  support  to  such  ideas,  and  this  fact  must 
be  insisted  on  in  urging  Muslims  to  accept  the 
Bible.  It  may  be  shown  from  the  Koran  itself 
that  the  Bible  could  not  have  been  corrupted 
before  or  during  Mohammed's  time,  while  the 
existence  of  versions  more  ancient  than  that  time 
proves  that  the  Bible  we  now  have  is  identical 
with  that  which  the  Koran  mentions.  Strangely 
enough,  the  Mohammedans  endeavor  to  adduce 
from  the  present  text  of  the  Bible  prophecies  in 
support  of  Mohammedan  claims.  It  is  necessary 
for  the  missionary  to  prove  that  such  passages  do 
not  bear  the  meaning  thus  attributed  to  them. 
In  all  controversy,  however,  it  is  important  to 
remember  Bengel's  rule:  "Never  enter  upon  con- 
troversy without  knowledge,  without  love,  with- 
out necessity."  The  truths  that  are  contained 
in  the  Mohammedan  faith  should  be  frankly  and 
thankfully  acknowledged  and  taken  for  a  basis 
of  agreement,  and,  in  some  sort,  a  foundation  for 
what  has  to  be  proved;  but  it  should  be  pointed 
out  that  these  truths  are  taught  in  the  Bible  and 
borrowed  from  it  by  Islam,  and  that  Christianity 
alone  can  reveal  how  much  deeper  such  truths  are 
than  the  Muslims  conceive. 

Besides  the  great  truths  of  the  Unity  of  God, 
the  After-life,  Future  rewards  and  punishments, 
the  fact  of  Revelation  and  others  held  by  all  true 
Muslims,  the  Shi'ite  faith  also  recognizes  (1)  the 
need  of  an  Atonement,  and  (2)  the  possibility  of  an 
Incarnation  in  some  sense.  In  preaching  the 
Gospel  to  Shi'ites,  therefore,  the  Christian  doc- 
trine should  be  shown  to  inculcate  both  these 
truths,  but  in  a  manner  more  logical  and  more  in 
accordance  with  the  moral  sense  of  humanity 
than  their  own  mystical  speculations.  The  Suji 
longing  after  union  with  God  can  be  shown  to  be 
provided  for  in  the  Gospel,  which  teaches  how 
man  may  become,  not  identical  with  God,  but  a 
child  of  God,  through  spiritual  union  with  Jesus 
Christ.  Above  all  is  it  necessary  to  endeavor  by 
prayer  and  teaching,  under  the  guidance  of  God's 
Holy  Spirit,  to  convince  the  inquirer  of  sin,  the 
heinousness  of  which  no  Muslim  realizes  from  the 
teachings  of  his  own  faith.  The  missionary 
should  endeavor  to  remove  misconceptions  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  to  show  that  its  foundation  is  belief  in 
the  Unity  of  God.  Other  misconceptions  also 
must  be  met  by  careful  reference  to  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. It  must  be  clearly  shown  that  we  abhor 
idolatry  and  priestcraft,  at  least  as  much  as 
Muslims  do,  and  that  we  have  no  sympathy 
whatever  with  corruptions  of  Christianity. 

In  brief  outline  this  is  the  method  which  expe- 
rience in  the  Persian  field  has  shown  to  be  the 
best  for  the  missionary  to  follow  in  preaching  the 
Gospel  to  the  Shi'ites.     In  life  and  word  Christ 


must  be  exalted  that  He  may  draw  men  into 

Himself. 

In  .studying  the  Shi'ite  doctrines  all  so  situated  as  to  be  able 
to  do  so  should  consult  the  original  sources,  e.  g.:  The 
Koran  in  the  original;  the  five  collections  of  Traditions 
named  above;  the  History  of  Ibn  ul  Athir;  Katib  id 
Wakidi,  and  Shi'ite  commentaries  and  controversial  works 
in  general.  For  the  Babi  sect,  one  should  consult  the 
Ikan,  the  Bayan,  and  the  Kiiabi  Akdas. 

General  readers  will  find  the  following  useful:  Muir  (Sir  "W.), 
The  Caliphate;  Osborne  (MajOr  Da  ie),  IsJam  under  the 
Khalifs  of  Baghdad;  Sell  (E.),  The  Faith  of  Islam;  Kughea 
(Hev,),  Dictionary  of  Islam;  Browne  (Dr.  J.  F.),  History 
of  the  Bab:  Tisdall  (D,-.  W.  St.  Clair),  The  Religion  of  the 
Crescent  (S.  P.  C.  K.). 

For  dealing  with  Shi'ite  inquirers,  Tisdall  (Dr.W.  St.  Clair), 
Manual  of  Mohammedan  Objections,  London  (S.  P.  C.  K.). 

Articles  of  value  on  Babism  will  be  found  in  the  Missionary 
Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  XV  pp.  771  and  775,  and  on 
Persian  Mohammedan  Women,  the  same.  Vol:  XIV,  p.  886. 

SHILLONG:  A  town  in  Assam,  India,  situated 
in  the  Khasia  Hills,  42  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Gauhati. 
It  is  an  administrative  center  and  a  charming 
spot,  commanding  extensive  views  of  the  Brah- 
maputra valley.  Station  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Unitarian  Association,  with  (1900)  1 
native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school, 
and  1  Sunday  school.  Station  also  of  the  Welsh 
Calvinistic  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries,  441 
native  workers,  80  outstations,  36  places  of  wor- 
ship, 59  Sunday  schools,  70  day  schools,  and 
4,192  professed  Christians. 

SHILOH:  A  village  in  the  southern  portion  of 
Basutoland,  South  Africa,  about  62  miles  N.  E. 
of  Aliwal  North.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Missionary  Society,  with  13  native  work- 
ers, 3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  4  day  schools,  and  978  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  .562  are  communicants.  Some 
write  the  name  Siloe. 

SHIMOGA:  A  town  in  Mysore,  India,  situated 
on  the  Tunga  River,  87  miles  N.  E.  by  N.  of 
Mangalore.  Population,  12,000.  Station  of  the 
WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 37  native  workers,  6  outstations,  7  Sun- 
day schools,  10  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
and  90  professed  Christians,  of  whom  81  are 
communicants. 

SHINTOISM:  The  origin  of  Shintoism  is 
involved  in  more  or  less  obscurity,  but  the 
translation  of  the  Kojiki,  which  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  sacred  record  and  exposition  of  the 
system,  has  thrown  much  light  upon  its  doctrines. 
It  is  an  embodiment  of  the  crude  superstitions  of 
the  early  Japanese,  their  nature-worship,  spirit- 
worship,  ancestor-worship,  and  hero-worship,  in 
fantastic  combination.  It  is  dimly  monotheistic 
in  its  very  earliest  references.  It  presents  the 
idea  of  one  supreme  being,  from  whom  all  things 
spring,  but  of  whom  nothing  beyond  this  can  bo 
known.  He  was  not  a  real  Creator.  This  mys- 
terious and  unrevealed  being  is  known  in  Shinto- 
ism as  the  "Central  and  Supreme  God  of  Heaven." 

Tradition  relates  that  when  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  separated  from  that  confused  relation  in 
which  they  had  been  intermingled  in  the  original 
chaos,  this  supreme  god  came  forth  and  appeared 
uplifted  between  them,  but  he  had  existed,  the 
unrevealed,  from  all  eternity.  This  system  also 
presents  the  idea  of  a  second  and  a  third  deity, 
subordinate  to  the  first,  but  self-existent.  From 
these  deities  two  emanations  proceeded,  namely, 
Isaname  (female),  and  Isanagi  (male);  from  the 
fecundity  of  these  sprang  all  things.  They  were 
the  Adam  and  Eve  of  Shintoism.  Several  other 
subordinate  gods  were  produced. 


673 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Shl'ite 
Slilutolsm 


The  process  of  creation  ascribed  to  the  divine  . 
pair  was  very  unique:  standing  on  a  bridge  of 
heaven  and  loolcing  earthward,  they  stirred  the 
■ocean  with  a  long  spear.  From  the  end  of  the 
spear  dropped  some  fecundating  substance,  from 
which  sprang  up  the  islands  of  Japan,  and  in  the 
islands  thus  composed  was  the  potency  of  all 
things;  vegetable  and  animal  life  sprang  up 
;spontaneously.  Shintoism  does  not  recognize  a 
real  creation  out  of  nothing.  It  claims  only  a 
■development.  The  universe  is  regarded  as 
eternal.  God  and  man  and  all  things  are  of  one 
•essence.  The  system,  therefore,  is  in  a  sense 
Pantheistic. 

The  development  of  the  sun  myth  appears  in 
Japan  as  in  so  many  other  countries.  The  male 
and  female  deities  above  named  produced  a 
■daughter  of  most  resplendent  beaut)',  repre- 
■sented  by  the  sun.  While  this  fair  maiden  was 
embroidering  beautiful  textures — thus,  perhaps, 
symbolizing  the  beautiful  work  of  nature  in  ver- 
dure and  in  flowers — her  churlish  brother  spoiled 
her  work  by  covering  it  with  defilement;  the 
brother  representing  the  principle  of  evil,  and 
thus  establishing  a  dualism  which  has  been  found 
in  so  many  nations.  The  maiden,  thus  insulted, 
is  represented  as  having  withdrawn  herself  in 
sulkiness  to  a  dark  cave,  leaving  the  world  in 
.gloom.  The  legends  represent  the  forlorn  inhabi- 
tants of  the  world  as  having  resorted  to  various 
■expedients  to  bring  her  forth  from  the  cave. 
Three  of  these  appear  to  have  been  successful. 
One  was  to  gather  as  many  cocks  together  as 
possible,  from  all  quarters,  and  place  them  near 
■the  cave's  entrance,  that  at  the  proper  hour  of 
cock-crowing  their  clamor  might  excite  her 
womanly  curiosity,  and  bring  her  out.  A  second 
•expedient  was  to  institute  a  dance  of  beautiful 
goddesses  before  the  cave.  Becoming  jealous  of 
the  praises  which  she  heard  lavished  on  them, 
she  would  certainly  come  out  and  reveal  her 
charms. 

Another  plan,  quite  as  successful,  was  that 
of  constructing  a  mirror,  which  was  so  placed 
before  the  mouth  of  the  cave  as  to  reflect  to 
the  goddess  her  own  beautiful  form.  This  three- 
fold appeal  to  her  curiosity,  her  jealousy,  and  her 
vanity  succeeded.  She  came  forth,  whereupon 
means  were  immediately  taken  to  prevent  her 
return.  The  sunlight  of  her  presence  again 
bathed  the  world,  and  filled  all  nature  with 
delight.  This  sun-goddess  married  at  length, 
and  became  the  mother  of  the  whole  line  of 
mikados,  and  from  her  to  the  present  incumbent 
of  the  throne  there  has  never  been  a  break;  the 
succession  for  thousands  of  years  is  claimed  to  be 
complete. 

There  are  imposing  ceremonies  connected  with 
the  worship  of  this  goddess,  almost  wholly  of  a 
cheerful  tone;  and  it  may  be  said  in  general  that 
of  all  races,  perhaps  the  Japanese,  before  the 
advent  of  Buddhism,  had  the  most  light-hearted 
type. of  faith.  In  the  springtime  there  are  still 
festivals  designed  to  hail  the  springing  of  the 
fruits  and  flowers,  and  ceremonies  in  imitation 
of  planting  and  sowing  are  performed.  Here  is  a 
vocation  for  the  Shinto  priests,  and  one  far  more 
grateful  than  offering  bloody  sacrifices  or  in  any 
way  striving  to  appease  gloomy  deities.  This 
sun-goddess,  the  ancestor  of  the  mikados,  is  a 
genial  being,  and  she  is  symbolized,  not  by 
cruelty  and  death,  as  in  the  case  of  Moloch,  the 
fiery  sun-god  of  the  Phoenicians,  but  by  all  benign 
influences,  and  her  only  sacrifices  are  offerings  of 
43 


rice  and  fish  and  flowers.  It  is  scarcely  necessary 
to  say  that  the  original  supreme  deity,  who  never 
revealed  himself,  and  of  whom  nothing  is  known, 
is  removed  very  remotely  from  the  practical  inter- 
ests of  life,  and  that  the  great  mother  of  the 
mikados  is  the  really  supreme  object  of  worship. 

Shintoism  in  its  essence  is  ancestor-worship 
combined  with  worship  of  nature  as  having  pro- 
ceeded from  the  earliest  ancestors  of  the  Jap- 
anese. The  Emperor  is  the  head  of  the  reUgious 
system  as  a  lineal  descendant  from  the  sun-god- 
dess. The  system  is  a  vast  Pantheon  of  demi- 
gods. The  names  of  the  heroes  of  Japanese 
history,  fierce  warriors  and  successful  generals, 
and  rulers  are  on  the  list,  which  is  ever  increasing. 
Dead  statesmen  and  heroes,  even  in  modern 
times,  are  deified  by  decree.  A  great  general 
who  won  renown  in  the  Chinese  war  of  1895  was 
given  such  an  apotheosis  by  decree  when  he  died. 
Every  Shinto  temple  may  thus  be  regarded  as  a 
sort  of  Westminster  Abbey  for  perpetuating  the 
fame  of  the  great  dead. 

The  literature  of  Shintoism  is  not  extensive. 
Such  as  it  is,  it  found  its  source  in  the  fables 
and  folk-lore  of  the  earliest  and  rudest  times. 
These  were  preserved  by  minstrels.  In  the  3d 
century  Chinese  legends  were  introduced,  and 
some  of  these  myths  were  committed  to  writing. 
It  was  in  712  that  the  Kojiki,  or  "ancient  record," 
was  compiled.  This  is  the  sacred  Bible  of  Shinto 
priests.  It  is  also  the  earliest  Japanese  history. 
It  is  most  unique  in  its  style,  resembling  nothing 
else  that  has  ever  been  published  in  any  land. 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  agglutination  of  long 
compound  names  and  expressions.  But  altho 
Shintoism  cannot  compare  with  Buddhism  in  its 
literature,  or  in  its  intellectual  influence,  yet  it 
does  not  wholly  neglect  the  instruction  of  the 
people.  There  is  more  or  less  preaching  on 
ethical  subjects,  and  the  ethics  thus  presented  are 
pure  and  salutary.  Even  this  custom  may  have 
been  borrowed  from  Buddhism.  During  the  long 
centuries  in  which  Shintoism  and  Buddhism  have 
coexisted  side  by  side,  or  rather  have  been  more 
or  less  intermingled,  the  Buddhist  influence  has 
done  most  to  promote  the  intellectual  growth 
of  the  people,  very  little  effort  having  been  made 
by  the  Shinto  priests  to  emulate  the  Buddhist 
culture.  Buddhism  has  not  only  proved  educa- 
tional in  its  influence :  it  has  inculcated  a  higher 
moral  feehng,  and  especially  in  the  direction  of 
benevolence  and  humanity. 

It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  or  not  Shinto- 
ism is  to.  be  regarded  as  idolatrous:  no  idols 
appear  in  the  temples,  even  of  the  sun-goddess. 
Statues  of  heroes  are  not  invoked  in  prayer,  and 
yet,  undoubtedly,  they  receive  something  akin  to 
worship;  and  the  Japanese  temples  are  never 
closed  against  any  object  which  seems  even  to 
approach  the  supernatural.  In  every  Shinto 
temple  a  mirror  is  seen.  This  may  be  a  mere 
reflection  from  the  idea  which  leads  Chinese 
Taouists  to  make  use  of  mirrors — that  evil  spirits 
dare  not  approach  one,  since  it  will  show  them  as 
they  are.  But  Shintoists  explain  that  the  mirror 
symbolizes  the  divine  man  that  is  in  us,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  is  a  vivid  representative  of  one's 
conscience  and  judge.  The  thought  is  that  a 
man  within  the  sacred  temple  precincts  is  brought 
face  to  face  with  himself,  and  that  in  one  sense 
what  it  most  concerns  him  to  know  is  himself  as 
he  really  is.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  this  is  a 
forcible  conception.  Next  to  the  prayer  of  the 
Psalmist,  that  the  Spirit  of  God  may  search  the 


Sliintoism 
Slam 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


674 


petitioner  and  try  his  heart,  is  that  means, 
whatever  it  be,  which  brings  a  man  face  to  face 
with  himself  in  the  solemn  presence  of  real  or 
supposed   deity. 

It  is  declared  by  some  Japanese  that  Shintoism 
is  not  a  religion,  but  simply  a  means  of  culti- 
vating a  patriotic,  nationalistic  spirit.  The 
enduring  tenet  of  the  system  is,  nevertheless, 
admitted  to  be  devotion  to  the  Emperor.  The 
will  of  the  sun-goddess  and  of  the  Emperor  are 
necessarily  the  same.  The  essential  requirement 
of  the  system  is  perfect  obedience  as  the  essence 
of  moral  conduct.  But  Shintoism  is  a  religion  in 
so  far  as  it  recognizes  the  relations  of  man  to  a 
higher  power,  as  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  prayer 
is  a  resource  constantly  resorted  to.  It  is  offered 
to  a  supreme  something,  which  is  supposed  to 
cherish  an  interest  in  all  creatures.  At  funerals 
and  elsewhere  prayers  are  offered  for  the  dead  as 
well  as  for  the  living.  There  is  in  Shintoism  a 
resemblance  to  the  ancient  cult  of  the  Aryans, 
both  in  its  dread  of  death  and  of  all  that 
belongs  to  death.  A  corpse  is  looked  upon 
as  polluting,  and  one  should  have  as  little 
as  possible  to  do  with  it;  no  people  except 
the  Zoroastrians  carried  this  matter  so  far. 
It  is  closely  connected  with  sun-worship  in 
both  cases. 

Relations  of  Shinto  to  Buddhism:  Buddhism 
entered  Japan  in  the  year  552.  The  Shinto 
levity  and  thoughtlessness  opened  the  way  for  a 
system  which  was  of  a  more  melancholy  tone  and 
spirit,  and  which  took  a  more  earnest  hold  upon 
the  future  life.  For  a  thousand  years,  according 
to  Kodera,  there  existed  a  strange  partnership 
between  the  two  religions.  By  common  consent 
the  Shinto  priests  officiated  at  all  marriages  (with 
which  Buddhist  monks  were  supposed  to  be  little 
in  sympathy),  while  Buddhist  priests  took  charge 
of  the  funerals,  from  which  Shinto  priests  were 
only  glad  to  be  exempt.  At  the  present  time 
marriage  is  a  civil  rite  only.  So  intimately  inter- 
woven did  these  two  systems  become,  that  the 
Government  at  length  began  to  dread  the  influ- 
ence of  Buddhism,  which  had  proved  the  stronger 
element.  And  in  order  that  Shintoism,  with  its 
traditions  of  imperial  descent  and  the  prestige 
which  it  thus  afforded,  might  not  lose  its  supreme 
place,  a  decree  was. passed  declaring  it  to  be  the 
religion  of  the  State;  and  this  is  still  the  theory 
of  the  Government.  Yet  so  closely  had  the  two 
systems  long  been  blended,  that  it  is  said  that 
nine-tenths  of  the  people  consider  themselves  as 
belonging  to  both.  Like  other  Oriental  systems, 
Shintoism  is  easy-going,  and  in  a  negative  sense 
charitable  toward  Buddhism;  both  have  long 
been  accustomed  to  represent  their  position  by 
the  maxim:  "Men  may  ascend  Fujiama  on  any 
one  of  many  sides,  but  when  once  on  the  summit 
the  same  glorious  moon  is  visible  to  all.  So  with 
the  religions." 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  early  myth- 
ology of  Shintoism  exerted  a  disastrous  influence 
upon  the  morality  of  the  people.  The  legend 
which  represents  the  goddesses  as  dancing  in  an 
almost  nude  condition  before  the  cave  in  which 
the  sun-goddess  was  hidden  has  presented  a  poor 
example  to  the  generations  of  Japanese  peasants, 
and  one  cannot  greatly  wonder  that  in  decency  and 
vice  have  known  less  restraint  than  in  almost  any 
other  land.  Under  the  influence  of  Shintoism 
immorality  has  scarcely  been  considered  a  vice. 
The  late  Dr.  S.  R.  Brown,  after  years  of  observa- 
tion, could  scarcely  find  any  element  of  moral 


restraint  in  the  system,  and  was  slow  to  accord 
to  it  the  name  of  religion. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  comparison 
with  this  childish  system  of  nature-worship  and 
mere  natural  impulse  Buddhism  has  been  a 
blessing  to  Japan.  Rev.  K.  C.  Kurahara  has 
summed  up  the  beneficial  influences  of  Bud- 
dhism in  Japan  as  follows: 

(1)  It  has  taught  the  people  a  vivid  realization 
of  future  rewards  and  punishments — thus  min- 
istering both  inspiration  and  restraint,  and 
giving  to  life  a  higher  dignity  and  solemnity. 

(2)  It  has  presented  a  high  conception  of  our 
common  humanity,  without  caste  or  slavery. 

(3)  It  has  enjoined  a  higher  grade  of  ethics, 
and  much  more  of  self-restraint. 

(4)  It  taught  the  people  temperance,  even 
prohibition. 

(5)  It  has  emphatically  enjoined  benevolence 
and  pity  to  all  beings. 

(6)  It  has  stimulated  an  intellectual  activity 
not  known  before.  It  has  introduced  philosophy 
and  poetry,  and  all  literature. 

(7)  From  the  12th  century  until  the  year  1868 
Buddhist  priests  were  the  only  educators.  All 
schools  were  due  to  their  influence. 

(8)  The  Buddhist  doctrines  have  greatly  en- 
kindled the  powers  of  imagination,  pathos,  and 
lofty  aspiration. 

(9)  The  introduction  of  Buddhism  has  led  to 
increased  foreign  intercourse,  and  has  brought  in 
its  train  the  literatures  not  only  of  China,  but 
of  India. 

(10)  Buddhism  has  given  great  impulse  to 
architecture,  landscaping,  gardening,  and  aU 
ornamental  arts.  Of  this  the  peerless  bronzes, 
lacquers,  and  the  sweet-toned  temple-bells  are 
proofs. 

(11)  By  its  support  of  a  priestly  and  yet  a 
thoughtful  class.  Buddhism  furnished  many  men 
of  leisure,  who  gave  themselves  to  literature,  and 
were  promoters  of  a  higher  national  culture.  Were' 
the  Buddhist  element  eliminated  from  Japanese 
literature,  there  would  be  but  little  left. 

(12)  Altho  Budd'hism  weakened  the  divine 
autocracy  of  the  Mikado,  and  thus  perhaps 
facilitated  the  introduction  of  the  rival  power  of 
the  Shoguns,  yet  nevertheless  it  exerted  a  power- 
ful restraint  upon  cruelty  and  oppression. 

(13)  It  taught  rulers  the  duty  of  respecting  the 
claims  of  the  people,  and  of  promoting  their  good. 

Confucianism  has  been  credited  with  imparting 
to  the  Japanese  nation  a  higher  degree  of  moral 
earnestness  than  either  Shintoism  or  Buddhism. 
To  the  ethics  of  Confucius,  it  is  claimed,  is  due 
whatever  of  loyalty  to  government  and  to 
country  has  been  found  in  public  officials  and 
the  higher  classes. 

As  to  the  special  obstacles  which  Shintoism 
offers  to  Christianity,  we  see  at  once  that  a  system 
which  openly  deifies  men,  blunts  the  sensibilities 
as  to  the  sinfulness  of  wrong-doing.  The  Chris- 
tian preacher  who  calls  upon  men  everywhere 
to  repent  speaks  a  language  unintelligible  to  the 
Shintoist.  Belief  that  they  are  descended  from 
the  gods  satisfies  the  Japanese  that  they  can  do  no 
wrong.  They  require  no  moral  code  because 
they  have  it  in  their  nature.  The  barrier  which 
self-righteousness  ever  offers  to  Christianity  is 
especially  repellant  in  Japan. 

At  the  same  time,  the  weakness  is  clear  of  a 
religious  system  that  becomes  indistinguishable 
from  political  loyalty  to  a  human  leader.  Shinto- 
ism in  its  modern  and  secularized  form  cannot 


675 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Shintolsm 
Siam 


long  satisfy  its  adherents.  The  fruits  already 
seen  to  result  from  conversion  to  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ  must  increase  such  dissatisfaction.  For 
the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  has  imparted  more  of 
noble  impulse,  secured  a  greater  degree  of  moral 
and  intellectual  advancement,  in  twenty-five 
years  than  all  the  other  religions  have  realized  in 
Japan  in  the  centuries  of  their  dominion. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  Wot-W,  Vol.  X.,  650;  Peery  (R.  B.), 
The  Gist  of  Japan,  New  York.  1898;  Griffis  (W.  E.), 
Religions  of  Japan,  New  York,  1895. 

SHIRA:  A  settlement  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  on  the  W.  slope  of  Mt.  Kilima  Njaro, 
about  190  miles  N.  W.  of  Tanga.  Station  of  the 
Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1899),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  1  place  of  worship,  and  1  day  school. 

SHIRAZ:  A  town  in  Persia,  situated  100  miles 
N.  E.  of  Bushire  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  a 
place  famous  as  the  birthplace  of  many  great 
Persians,  and  has  considerable  commercial 
importance.  Population  about  50,000.  Station 
of  the  CMS  (1900),  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife  and  1  day  school. 

SHIRWAL:  A  town  in  Bombay  Presidency, 
India,  situated  about  14  miles  S.  of  Poona. 
Station  of  the  Poona  Indian  Village  Mission,  with 
(1900)  4  women  missionaries,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school,  and  1  dispensary. 

SHI-TSUEN-HSIEN :  A  town  in  Sze-chwan, 
China,  situated  among  high  mountains,  about  45 
miles  N.  W.  of  Mien-chau.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1895),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1 
native  worker,  1  outstation,  and  5  professed 
Christians.     Some  write  the  name  Shih-Ts'uen. 

SHItJ-HSING :  A  town  in  Kwang-tung,  China, 
situated  about  30  miles  W.  of  Canton.  Station 
of  the  CMS,  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  5 
women  missionaries.  Church  statistics  are  in- 
cluded in  Canton.  Station  also  of  the  SBC,  with 
1  woman  missionary. 

SHIYALI:  A  village  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
about  16  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Tranquebar.  Station 
of  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society,  with  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  48  native  workers,  4 
places  of  worship,  9  day  schools,  4  boarding 
schools,  and  1,201  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
1,027  are  communicants.  Some  write  the  name 
Schiali. 

SHIZUOKA :  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  the 
S.  coast  of  the  main  island,  about  90  miles  S.  W. 
of  Tokio.  Population  (1898),  42,172.  Station 
of  the  MCC  (1874),  with  (1900)  4  native  workers, 
1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  and  322 
professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the  Metho- 
dist Protestant  Church,  with  2  women  mission- 
aries, 4  native  workers,  7  outstations,  1  boarding 
school,  1  kindergarten,  and  118  professed  Chris- 
tians. Also  station  of  the  SPG  (1897),  with 
(1903)  1  native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  and 
38  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the  UB 
(1896),  with  (1903)  1  place  of  worship,  23  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  and  26  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

SHOLAPUR:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  280 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Bombay,  on  the  Bombay  and 
Madras  Railroad.  Temperature  50°  to  110°  F. 
It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  1,800  feet,  in  the  cen- 
ter of  a  wide  plain.  It  is  an  important  trade 
center  and  manufactures  silk  and  cotton.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  75,288.  Languages,  Marathi,  Hin- 
dustani, Kanarese.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1864), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his 


wife;  2  women  missionaries,  48  native  workers, 
15  outstations,  9  places  of  worship,  28  Sunday 
schools,  18  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  kinder- 
garten, 1  orphanage,  2  boarding  schools,  and  174 
professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the  Mission 
to  Lepers,  which  supports  the  leper  asylum  of 
the  ABCFM. 

SHOSHONG:  The  former  capital  of  the  Baman- 
gwato  tribe  of  Bechuanas,  situated  in  Bechuana- 
land.  South  Africa,  about  30  miles  N.  W.  of  the 
Shoshong  Road  station  on  the  railroad.  Station 
of  the  LMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife. 

SHUN-KING-FU:  A  town  in  Sze-chwan,  China, 
situated  about  90  miles  N.  W.  of  Chung-king-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1896),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  2  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  and 
25  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Shun-k'ing. 

SHURMAN,  John  Adam :  Born  in  Westphalia, 
Germany,  1810.  Died  October,  1852.  Studied 
at  Berlin;  sailed  for  India,  July  9,  1833,  as  a 
missionary  of  the  LMS;  stationed  at  Benares, 
February  17,  1834.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
educational  department  and  to  Bible  translation. 
With  others  he  labored  in  preparing  the  Urdu  and 
Hindustani  versions  of  the  Scriptures.  In  April, 
1842,  he  went  to  Calcutta  to  superintend  the 
printing  of  the  Urdu  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Returned  to  Benares  in  June,  1843,  and 
left  in  October  for  England.  He  arrived  at 
Benares  February  20,  1846,  on  his  return  to  his 
work,  remaining  there  until  his  death,  six  years 
later. 

SHWE-GYIN:  A  town  in  Burma,  on  the  branch 
of  the  Si-taung  River,  100  miles  N.  E.  of  Ran- 
goon. Climate,  tropical.  Population,  7,519. 
Race  and  language,  Burmese.  Religion,  Bud- 
dhism. The  Karens,  however,  predominate  in 
the  surrounding  regions.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1853),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2 
women  missionaries,  36  native  workers,  59  out- 
stations, 50  places  of  worship,  10  Sunday  schools, 
28  day  schools,  4  boarding  schools,  and  5,200  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  2,165  are  communi- 
cants. 

SHWIFAT:  A  village  in  the  Lebanon  district, 
in  Syria,  Turkey  in  Asia,  situated  about  3  miles 
S.  E.  of  Beirut.  Station  of  the  Miss  Proctor's 
Schools  (1885),  with  (1900)  3  women  mission- 
aries, 11  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  Sunday 
school,  4  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dis- 
pensar}',  and  22  professed  Christians. 

SIALKOT:  A  town  in  Punjab,  India,  situated 
in  the  Amritsar  district,  about  70  miles  N.  W.  of 
Amritsar.  It  has  some  commercial  importance, 
and  is  handsome  and  well  built.  Population 
(1901),  57,956.  Station  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land Foreign  Mission  Com.  and  Woman's  Board 
(1857),  with  (1901)  2  missionaries  with  their 
wives,  5  women  missionaries,  46  native  workers, 
22  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  29  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  college,  1  dispensary, 

1  hospital,  and  257  professed  Christians.  Also 
station  of  the  UP  (1855),  with  4  missionaries,  two 
of  them  with  their  wives;  6  women  missionaries, 
58  outstations,  36  Sunday  schools,  24  day  schools, 

2  dispensaries,  1  hospital;  the  number  of  Chris- 
tians is  not  named  by  the  Society. 

SIAM:  The  kingdom  of  Siam  lies  at  the  south- 
east corner  of  Asia,  occupying  the  central  and 


Siazn 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


676 


principal  portion  of  the  peninsula  of  Indo-China. 
It  has  Burma  on  the  west  and  northwest,  and  the 
French  possessions  of  Cambodia,  Annam,  and 
Tonkin  on  the  east  and  northeast.  It  stretches 
along  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  within  four  degrees 
of  the  equator.  The  area  is  uncertain,  but  is 
estimated  at  about  236,000  square  miles,  of 
which  60,000  square  miles  lie  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula. 

Physical  Features:  The  physical  contour  of  the 
country  may  be  best  understood  by  remembering 
that  both  its  mountain  chains  and  its  rivers  have 
a  general  north  and  south  direction.  Of  river 
systems  there  are  two — that  of  the  Me-nam  in 
the  west,  and  that  of  the  Me-kong  on  the  eastern 
frontier.  In  their  lower  courses  the  rivers 
traverse  immense  alluvial  plains,  which  are,  to  a 
large  e.xtent,  overflowed  during  a  portion  of  the 
year.  In  the  upper  country  the  mountain  walls 
on  either  side  approach  each  other  in  some  places 
so  closely  as  to  leave  only  a  narrow  gorge,  while 
in  others  they  recede,  enclosing  fertile  plains 
varying  in  width  from  10  to  50  miles.  Nearly  all 
the  navigable  streams  are  broken  by  rapids, 
which  render  water  communication  between  the 
lower  and  upper  courses  difficult. 

Climate:  Altho  Siam  lies  wholly  within  the 
tropics,  the  climate  is  not  so  hot  as  that  of 
Southern  India.  The  temperature  at  Bangkok 
ranges  between  57°  and  99°  F.,  with  a  mean 
annual  temperature  of  80°.  The  periodical 
monsoons  of  the  Indian  Ocean  divide  the  year 
into  two  seasons  of  about  equal  length — the  rainy 
season,  extending  from  May  until  October,  and 
the  dry  season,  covering  the  rest  of  the  year. 
Owing  to  the  tropical  heat,  the  abundant  rainfall, 
and  the  annual  overflow  of  the  rivers,  Siam  is  a 
very  fertile  country. 

Population:  The  population  of  Siam  is  uncertain, 
the  latest  (1899)  foreign  estimate  placing  it  at 
5,000,000.  The  Siamese  and  their  near  kinsmen, 
the  Laos,  make  up  three-fourths  of  the  whole;  the 
other  fourth  is  composed  of  Chinese,  Malays, 
Peguans,  and  Burmese,  the  first-named  being  the 
most  numerous  and  important.  The  Siamese 
and  Laos  are  alike  members  of  the  Shan  race, 
which  at  one  time  (14th  century)  dominated  the 
greater  part  of  Indo-China. 

Physical  Characteristics:  The  Siamese  are  a 
people  of  medium  stature,  well  formed,  with 
brown  skins,  straight,  black  hair,  which  is  worn 
short,  except  by  the  Laos  women;  and  slightly 
flattened  noses.  Their  eyes  are  not  set  obliquely, 
as  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  In  disposition 
they  are  gentle,  lively,  hospitable,  kind  to 
children  and  to  the  aged,  fond  of  amusements, 
but  lacking  in  energy;  deceitful,  unstable,  and 
conceited.  The  Laos  and  Independent  Shans  are 
superior  to  the  Siamese  proper  in  strength  of  body 
and  stability  of  character.  The  civilization  of 
the  Siamese  strongly  resembles  that  of  China,  but 
is  of  a  lower  grade,  as  they  have  not  the  patient 
industry,  the  inventive  skill,  nor  the  literary 
taste  of  the  Chinese.  Much  of  the  trade  of  the 
country  falls  into  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  and 
Burmese.  The  Chinese  in  many  cases  marry 
Siamese  women,  and  the  children  of  such  unions 
make  one  of  the  most  promising  elements  in  the 
population,  combining  the  superior  energy  of  the 
Chinese  with  the  vivacity  and  quiclvness  of  the 
Siamese. 

Language:  The  language  is  broken  into  several 
local  dialects,  e.  g.,  the  Siamese,  the  Laos,  and  the 
Shan  proper. 


This  tongue  is  properly  a  monosyllabic  lan- 
guage, and,  like  the  Chinese,  has  an  elaborate 
system  of  tones,  by  which  words  otherwise  iden- 
tical are  given  different  meanings.  There  are  six 
tones  in  common  use.  The  chief  difficulties  of 
the  language  for  the  foreigner  lie  in  the  recog- 
nition and  accurate  reproduction  of  the  tones. 
The  main  obstacles  to  be  overcome  in  translation 
are  the  lack  of  connective  particles,  the  native 
love  for  multiplying  synonyms,  and  the  observ- 
ance of  a  proper  mean  between  the  simplicity  of 
the  vernacular  and  the  stilted  style  adopted  in  the 
sacred  books  of  Buddhism.  It  should  be  added 
that  besides  the  difference  in  written  character 
between  Siamese  and  Laos  dialects,  there  are  also 
slight  but  important  differences  of  vocabulary, 
of  tone,  and  of  idiom — e.  g.,  so  common  a  word 
as  "not"  is  in  Siamese  mi,  in  Laos  baw. 

Social  Customs:  In  their  social  customs  the 
Siamese  present  several  points  of  interest  to  the 
student  of  missions.  The  position  of  woman  is 
high  for  an  Oriental  people.  No  attempt  is  made 
to  seclude  her,  but  she  moves  freely  among  men, 
engages  in  business,  holds  property  in  her  own 
name,  and  is  in  general  the  equal  of  man.  Mon- 
ogamy is  the  rule,  except  among  the  nobility;  and 
even  among  them  the  principle  of  monogamy  is 
recognized  in  the  preeminence  given  to  one,  gen- 
erally the  first,  wife.  Child  marriage  is  not  prac- 
tised; widows  may  remarry;  divorce  is  easy.  The 
position  of  woman  is  due,  in  part,  doubtless,  to 
the  humane  teachings  of  Buddhism,  and  in  part 
to  the  social  custom  which  ordains  that  a  man  on 
marriage  shall  become  a  member  of  his  wife's 
family.  Children  are  kindly  treated,  and  the 
adoption  of  children  by  childless  couples  is  com- 
mon. Great  respect  is  paid  to  distinctions  of  age 
and  rank.  There  are  separate  sets  of  pronouns 
which  must  be  used  with  regard  to  superiors, 
inferiors,  and  equals. 

Religions:  Two  religions  obtain  among  the 
vSiamese  peoples — Buddhism  and  the  worship  of 
evil  spirits.  The  one  is  a  historic  religion,  with 
ancient,  sacred  books,  costly  temples,  a  numerous 
priesthood,  and  the  support  of  the  states;  the 
other  is  an  unorganized  worship,  without  liter- 
ature, priesthood,  or  temples,  but  in  many  por- 
tions of  the  country,  particularly  among  the  Laos 
tribes,  it  rivals,  if  it  does  not  exceed.  Buddhism 
in  its  hold  upon  the  popular  mind  and  its  influ- 
ence over  the  affairs  of  life.  Buddhism,  as  held 
and  practised  in  Siam,  constitutes  a  formidable 
barrier  to  the  progress  of  Christianity.  Simply 
as  the  ancient  religion  of  the  country,  it  is  strongly 
entrenched  in  the  popular  regard.  "It  is  not  the 
custom  of  our  ancestors"  is  often  considered  a 
sufficient  reply  to  the  best-constructed  argument 
for  Christianity.  Buddhism,  too,  is  interwoven 
with  the  whole  social  life  of  the  people — scarcely  a 
family  but  has  or  has  had  a  member  in  its  priest- 
hood. Its  fetes  furnish  the  principal  oppor- 
tunity for  social  pleasures.  Vast  sums  of  money 
have  been  invested  in  its  temples,  pagodas,  and 
monasteries,  and  in  support  of  its  priests.  It 
makes  strong  appeal  to  the  self-righteous  tenden- 
cies of  the  human  heart.  It  operates  powerfully 
to  deaden  the  conscience,  and  to  discredit  the 
possibility  of  a  vicarious  atonement  for  wrong- 
doing. 

Side  by  side  with  Buddhism,  and  to  a  large 
degree  intermingled  with  it,  is  the  religion  of 
demon-worship.  This  is  but  one  form  of  that 
Shamanism  which  prevails  so  largelj'  in  Asia  and 
Africa.     What  gives  it  interest  is  the  extent  to 


677 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Slam 


which  it  affects  the  lives  of  the  people.  The 
spirits  or  demons,  some  of  which  may  be  said  to 
correspond  to  the  elves  and  fairies  of  Western 
superstitions,  but  the  majority  of  which  are  be- 
lieved to  be  in  greater  or  less  degree  malevolent, 
are  of  several  different  kinds.  Some  are  local 
genii — spirits  of  the  forests,  the  mountains,  the 
streams,  the  caves.  Others  preside  over  certain 
natural  phenomena — as  thunder,  rain,  wind;  or 
over  particular  operations — as  plowing,  sowing, 
reaping,  house-building,  or  certain  situations  in 
human  experience — notably  birth,  marriage, 
sickness,  death.  A  vast  multitude  also  are 
spirits  of  deceased  persons.  This  burden- 
some superstition  finds  its  natural  climax  in  the 
belief  which  refers  misfortune  or  sickne.ss  to 
witchcraft.  Persons  adjudged  to  be  witches  are 
driven  from  their  homes,  their  houses  burnt,  and 
their  gardens  uprooted.  There  are  in  the  Laos 
provinces  cities  where  the  whole  population  con- 
sists of  such  persons  and  their  families. 

Potent  as  this  demon-worship  is  in  its  influ- 
ence upon  the  people  of  Siam,  and  especially  of 
the  Laos  provinces,  it  is  less  serious  than  Bud- 
dhism as  a  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  the  Gos- 
pel. Since  disease  in  its  various  forms  is  largely 
attributed  to  the  influence  of  demons,  medical 
missionary  practise  does  much  to  weaken  this 
superstition.  So  does  the  mission  school,  with 
its  rational  explanations  of  natural  phenomena. 
And  so  heavy  is  the  incubus  of  fear  which  this 
belief  lays  upon  its  adherents,  that  they  are 
prepared  to  hail  as  good  tidings  a  religion  that 
promises  relief. 

Early  Missionary  History:  It  was  as  a  possible 
door  of  entrance  to  China  that  Siam  first  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Protestant  Christians. 
In  the  year  1828,  Dr.  Karl  Gutzlaff,  who  had 
gone  to  Singapore  under  the  Netherlands  Mis- 
sionary Society,  accompanied  by  Rev.  Mr. 
Tomlin  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  visited 
Bangkok.  Convinced  that  here  was  an  open 
door  for  missionary  effort,  these  brethren  sent  an 
appeal  to  the  American  churches  for  men  to 
occupy  the  field.  This  appeal  was  brought  to 
America  by  the  same  trading  vessel  which  brought 
the  famous  "Siamese  Twins."  In  response  the 
American  Board  instructed  the  Rev.  David 
Abeel,  then  stationed  in  Canton,  to  visit  Siam, 
with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  a  mission 
there.  Meanwhile  Gutzlaff  and  Tomlin  had  been 
earnestly  at  work.  While  their  attention  was 
principally  given  to  the  Chinese,  whom  they 
found  numerous  in  Bangkok,  Dr.  Gutzlaff  pre- 
pared a  tract  in  Siamese,  and  made  a  translation 
of  one  of  the  Gospels.  But  the  death  of  his  wife 
compelled  him  to  leave,  and  Mr.  Tomlin  shortly 
went  away  also. 

Besides  the  appeal  to  the  American  churches, 
Gutzlaff  and  Tomlin  had  sent  one  also  to  the 
American  Baptist  Mission  in  Burma.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  in  this  connection  that  the  very 
earliest  effort  on  the  part  of  a  Protestant  for  the 
evangelization  of  the  Siamese  was  made  by  Mrs. 
Ann  Hasseltine  Judson,  who  had,  by  the  help  of  a 
Siamese  resident  in  Rangoon,  learned  something 
of  the  Siamese  tongue,  and  had  translated  into  it 
the  catechism  just  prepared  by  Dr.  Judson  for 
the  Burmans,  also  a  tract  and  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew.  The  catechism  was  printed  (1819)  on 
the  mission  press  at  Serampur,  and  is  believed 
to  be  the  first  Christian  book  ever  printed  in 
Siamese.  The  Baptist  missionaries  in  Burma 
sent  Rev.  J.  T.  Jones  to  Siam  in  answer  to  Gutz- 


laff's  appeal.  He  labored  there  from  1833  until 
his  death  in  1851. 

The  attempt  of  the  ABCFM  to  establish  a 
mission  in  Siam  began  with  the  dispatch  of  Rev. 
David  Abeel,  in  1830,  and  ended  with  his  break- 
ing down  in  health,  and  consequent  departure  in 
1832.  It  was  renewed  by  the  sending  out  of 
Messrs.  Johnson  and  Robinson,  who  reached 
Bangkok  in  1834.  They  were  joined  a  year  later 
by  Daniel  B.  Bradley,  M.D.,  who  arrived  in  the 
same  vessel  with  Mr.  Dean  of  the  Baptist  Mission. 
These  two  men  were  destined  to  enjoy  long 
periods  of  missionary  service.  Dr.  Dean  con- 
tinued his  labors  for  the  Chinese,  with  sundry 
interruptions,  until  1885.  Dr.  Bradley  was 
ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1838.  He  was  a  man 
of  versatile  powers,  and  left  an  abiding  mark  on 
the  Siamese  nation.  Lilce  the  Baptists,  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  American  Board  at  first  carried  on 
missions  both  to  the  Chinese  and  the  Siamese,  but 
with  the  opening  of  China  proper  the  laborers 
engaged  among  the  Chinese  were  withdrawn. 
The  mission  to  the  Siamese  was  maintained  until 
1849,  when  it  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
departure  of  Rev.  Asa  Hemenway,  the  Board's 
only  remaining  missionary. 

As  yet  but  slight  results  had  been  obtained, 
either  by  the  missionaries  of  the  American  Board 
or  by  their  Baptist  brethren,  in  the  conversion  of 
the  Siamese.  But  much  had  been  accomplished 
in  other  directions.  The  missionaries,  by  their 
blameless  and  self-denying  lives,  and  especially 
by  their  success  in  healing  the  sick,  had  won  the 
esteem  of  the  native  community.  By  preaching 
and  teaching,  and  by  translating,  printing,  and 
distributing  portions  of  the  Scriptures  and 
Christian  tracts,  they  had  brought  the  truth  into 
contact  with  a  multitude  of  minds;  and  espe- 
cially ought  we,  in  estimating  their  labors,  to  be 
mindful  of  the  influence  which  one  of  their  num- 
ber, the  Rev.  James  Caswell,  was  permitted  to 
exercise  when  the  providence  of  God  threw  into 
his  hands  the  daily  instruction  during  eighteen 
months  of  the  future  king  of  the  country. 

One  other  of  the  American  churches  was  to 
have  a  share  in  the  work  of  missions  in  Siam. 
This  was  the  Presbyterian  Church  (North).  In 
1848  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
sent  to  Bangkok  the  Rev.  William  Buell  and  his 
wife.  After  three  years  of  service  they  were 
compelled  by  the  ill-health  of  Mrs.  Buell  to  leave 
the  field.  The  work  was  then  suspended  until 
1847,  when  it  was  renewed  by  Rev.  Stephen 
Mattoon  and  Samuel  R.  House,  M.D.  This  mis- 
sion continues  until  the  present,  and  is  now  the 
only  Protestant  agency  for  the  evangelization  of 
the  Siamese.  The  first  convert,  Nai  Chune,  was 
baptized  in  1859 — twelve  years  after  the  per- 
manent establishment  of  the  mission.  In  1902 
the  number  of  church  members  among  Siamese 
and  Laos  together  was  over  4,000. 

In  1861  the  Mission  opened  a  new  station  in 
Petchaburee,  which  has  now  become  a  center  of 
Christian  influence,  not  only  for  the  province  in 
which  it  is  situated,  but  also  for  the  provinces 
lying  to  the  south,  along  the  Gulf  of  Siam. 

Another  important  step  was  taken  in  1867  in 
the  est.abUshment  of  a  mission  to  the  Laos  tribes. 
Interest  in  the  evangelization  of  these  tribes  was 
first  awakened  through  the  presence  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Petchaburee  of  a  large  colony  of  Laos, 
whose  ancestors  in  a  time  of  political  disturb- 
ance had  put  themselves  under  the  protection 
of  the  King  of  Siam,  who  had  assigned  them  a 


Sians-eUVng 
Sikhs 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


678 


residence  in  the  province  of  Petchaburee.  In 
1863  Messrs.  McGilvary  and  Wilson  of  the  Petcha- 
buree Mission  made  a  tour  of  exploration  to 
Chieng  Mai,  the  capital  of  the  most  powerful  Laos 
province.  This  important  city  is  situated  on  the 
river  Me  Ping,  about  500  miles  north  of  Bang- 
kok. In  1867  Mr.  McGilvary  removed  thither 
with  his  family,  and  Mr.  Wilson  and  his  wife  fol- 
lowed him  a  year  later.  The  labor  of  the  mis- 
sionaries was  soon  rewarded  by  the  baptism  of 
their  first  convert.  Nan  Inta,  a  man  of  more  than 
usual  ability,  and  learned  in  the  Buddhist  religion. 
His  faith  in  Buddhism  was  first  seriously  shaken 
by  the  verification  of  the  prediction  made  by  the 
missionaries  of  the  eclipse  of  August  18,  1868. 
His  conversion  was  followed  within  a  few  months 
by  that  of  six  others. 

The  Laos  converts  at  first  suffered  persecution, 
but  since  the  issue,  in  1878,  of  a  proclamation 
of  religious  liberty  for  the  Laos,  the  persecuting 
spirit  has  been  held  in  check.  The  edict  of 
toleration  was  issued  in  response  to  an  appeal 
from  the  missionaries  in  Chieng  Mai  on  behalf 
of  two  native  Christians  who  wished  to  be  mar- 
ried in  Christian  fashion,  without  making  the 
offerings  to  spirits  customary  on  such  occasions. 
Their  heathen  relatives  attempted  to  prevent  the 
marriage,  and  were  supported  in  their  attempt 
by  the  authorities;  so  there  was  nothing  left  for 
the  missionaries  but  to  appeal  to  Bangkok. 

Medical  missionary  work  was  begun  in  Chieng 
Mai  in  1875,  with  the  opening  of  a  dispensary, 
since  developed  into  a  hospital.  A  boarding 
school  for  girls  was  opened  in  1878,  and  one  for 
boys  in  1888. 

In  the  Laos  states  the  people  have  shown 
great  readiness  to  accept  the  Gospel,  and  here  we 
find  seven  times  as  many  Christians  as  in  Siam, 
tho  the  field  has  been  occupied  only  a  little  more 
than  half  as  long.  The  PN  has  sole  care  of  the 
work  among  the  Laos.  The  press  and  medical 
missions  are  agencies  of  great  usefulness  in  this 
field,  and  the  training  of  the  native  Christians 
and  the.  encouragement  of  the  churches  toward 
self-support  are  among  the  leading  features  of 
the  Laos  Mission. 

SIANG-CH'ENG.     See  Hsiang-cheng-hsien. 

SI  ANTAR:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  near  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  Tol:>a 
Lake.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society, 
with  (1902)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his 
wife;  25  native  workers,  4  outstations,  1  Sunday 
school,  6  day  schools,  and  705  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  217  are  communicants. 

SIAO-MEI.     See  Hsiao-mei. 

SIAR:  A  village  in  German  New  Guinea,  situ- 
ated on  the  coast  near  Prinz  Heinrich  Hafen. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  day 
school. 

SIBOGA:  A  town  of  Sumatra,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  on  the  W.  coast,  about  210  miles 
N.  W.  of  Padang.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mis- 
sion Society,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  37  native  workers,  14  outstations,  4  Sun- 
day schools,  15  day  schools,  and  1,804  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  647  are  communicants. 

SIBSAGAE  :  A  town  in  Assam,  India,  situated 
about  40  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Dibrugarh,  at  an  alti- 
tude of  333  feet  on  the  Dikhu  River,  nine  miles 
from  the  Brahmaputra;  the  seat  of  the  river 
trade;  once  a  very  important  place,  as  proved  by 


the  ruins  of  a  magnificent  tank,  with  temples  and 
palaces  along  its  border,  and  still  interesting  on 
account  of  its  tea-gardens.  Population,  5,200, 
of  whom  3,000  are  Hindus  and  1,500  Muslims, 
Station  of  the  ABMU  (1841),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  11  native  workers,  11 
outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools, 
4  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1,200  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  639  are  communi- 
cants. 

SIDAMBARAM.     See  Chilambaram. 

SIDON:  A  town  and  seaport  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  as  a  port  of  Phoenicia,  and  now  called 
Saida  in  the  local  languages.  It  is  situated  on 
the  coast  of  Syria,  Asiatic  Turkey,  about  30 
miles  S.  of  Beirut,  standing  in  a  plain  encircled 
by  mountains.  The  population  is  about  11,000. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1851),  with  (1903)  4  mission- 
aries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 52  native  workers,  27  outstations,  16 
places  of  worship,  20  Sunday  schools,  26  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  industrial  school, 
1  orphanage,  and  805  professed  Christians. 

SIENG-IU,  or  SIENG  lU.   See  Hsibn-yu-hsibn. 

SIERRA  LEONE :  A  colony  and  protectorate  of 
Great  Britain,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  lying 
between  French  Guinea  on  the  north  and 
Liberia  on  the  south  and  east.  The  area  of  the 
colony  proper,  which  extends  from  the  coast 
inwards  from  7  to  20  miles,  is  about  4,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  76,665,  of  whom 
40,790  were  reported  as  Protestants  (1901). 
The  protectorate  has  an  area  of  about  30,000 
square  miles,  and  a  population  estimated  at 
1,000,000. 

The  peninsula  of  Sierra  Leone,  which  is  com- 
pletely surrounded  by  water  in  the  rainy  season 
by  the  junction  of  Waterloo  and  Calmont  creeks, 
covers  an  area  of  about  290  square  miles.  It  is 
mostly  occupied  by  a  range  of  gently  rounded 
hills  rising  in  places  to  a  height  of  3,000  feet. 
The  rainfall  in  the  whole  territory  is  heavy; 
copious  streams,  rising  in  the  Niger  watershed, 
flow  south  and  west.  The  climate  is  equable, 
ranging  from  78°  to  86°.  The  rainy  season  com- 
mences in  April  or  May  and  declines  in  October, 
November,  and  December.  January,  February, 
and  March  are  almost  rainless.  The  mean  annual 
rainfall  is  134  inches.  The  marshy  exhalations 
during  the  rainy  season  render  the  climate 
insalubrious.  The  death  rate  is  high.  Vegeta- 
tion is  luxuriant. 

Freetown,  on  Cape  Sierra  Leone,  is  the  capital. 
The  dominant  race  is  the  Timne  (about  200,000), 
on  the  plains  between  the  Rokelle  and  Little 
Sarcie  rivers.  Their  language  is  wide-spread. 
Several  books,  religious  and  educational,  have 
been  translated.  The  people  are  very  super- 
stitious and  suspicious.  The  Los  Islands  and 
adjacent  coasts  north  of  the  Mallecory  River  are 
occupied  by  the  Bagas  and  the  courteous  Su-Sus, 
whose  speech,  a  Mandingan  dialect,  is  the  domi- 
nant one  in  the  whole  region,  and  possesses  the 
Bible  and  several  other  translations. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society  undertook  its 
mission  in  Sierra  Leone  in  1804,  and  has  enjoyed 
encouraging  success.  The  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missionary  Society  comes  next,  with  nearly 
equal  statistics;  the  United  Methodist  Free 
Churches,  the  United  Brethren  of  Ohio  (Ameri- 
can), the  Wesleyan  Methodists  of  America,  the 
CA,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  also  pursue  mis- 
sionary work  there.     The  Christian  schools  are 


679 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Slang-cli'ens 
Slkba 


denominational,  conducted  by  the  missionary 
societies.  There  are  also  Mohammedan  schools 
subsidized  by  the  Government. 

Crooks,  A  Short  History  of  Sierra  Leone,  Dublin,  1901; 
Ingham,  Sierra  Leone  after  a  Hundred  Years,  London,  1894 ; 
Pierson,  Seven  Years  in  Sierra  Leone,  London,  1897 ;  Poole, 
Life,  Scenery  and  Customs  in  Sierra  Leone  and  the  Gambia, 
London,  1850;  Sibthorp,  History  of  Sierra  Leone  ana 
Geography  of  Sierra  Leone,  London,  1881. 

SI-GAN.     See  Hsi-ngan-fu. 
SIGOMPULAN.     See  Nahoruop. 

SI  GUMPAR:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  on  the  W.  coast  of  Toba  Lake. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  82  native  workers, 
13  outstations,  14  day  schools,  and  1,997  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  953  are  communi- 
cants. 

SIH-CHAU.  See  Hst-chau 
SI-HSIANG.  See  Hsi-hsiang-hsien 
SIKHS:  A  sect  of  British  India,  numbering  (in 
1901)  2,195,268,  of  whom  2,102,896  were  resi- 
dent in  the  Punjab,  where  they  form  about 
8  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  where  six 
tributary  states  are  under  Sikh  rulers.  Their 
founder,  Baba  Nanak  (1469-1539),  born  near 
Lahore,  was  a  contemporary  of  Luther,  and,  like 
him,  a  religious  reformer.  As  a  youth  he  was  of 
a  pious,  contemplative  disposition,  and  devoted 
his  early  manhood  to  a  study  of  the  rival  creeds 
prevailing  in  India :  the  Hindu  and  Mohammedan. 
Not  finding  satisfaction,  he  became  a  pilgrim  in 
search  of  truth,  but  returned  to  his  own  country 
in  the  conviction  that  he  had  failed  to  find  God 
in  any  of  the  creeds.  Laying  aside  the  character 
of  an  ascetic,  he  led  an  ordinary  life,  reared  a 
family,  and  preached  the  one  invisible  God,  the 
Creator,  calling  upon  people  of  all  religions  to 
seek  knowledge  of  God,  to  worship  Him,  to  find 
salvation  in  living  righteously,  and  in  doing  good 
works,  as  God  desires,  and  to  be  tolerant  of  the 
failings  of  others.  By  what  he  deemed  unim- 
portant concessions,  he  endeavored  to  reconcile 
the  essentially  diverse  Monotheistic  and  Panthe- 
istic creeds  of  Muslim  and  Hindu,  thus  showing 
that  he  had  never  really  mastered  either.  He 
left  behind  him  an  unsullied  reputation,  and  a 
company  of  zealous  followers,  whom  he  called 
Sikhs,  i.  e.,  Disciples,  mostly  of  Jat  origin,  like 
himself,  but  with  an  admixture  of  Hindus  and 
Mohammedans.  He  was  succeeded  by  nine 
other  Gurus,  or  teachers,  the  first  of  whom,  Angad, 
was  of  Nanak's  own  choosing,  and  was  the  author 
of  the  first  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Sikhs,  the 
Adi  Grunth,  made  up  of  the  life  and  sayings  of 
Nanak,  with  additions  by  Angad.  The  fourth 
Guru,  Ram  Das,  gave  permanent  expression  to 
Sikhism  by  establishing  Amritsar  as  its  central 
seat,  and  building  there  its  Golden  Temple  in  the 
midst  of  the  Tank  or  Pool  of  Immortality.  So 
far  the  counsel  of  Nanak,  to  avoid  political  com- 
plications, had  been  followed,  but  Arjun,  the 
fifth  Guru,  systematized  the  theocracy,  collected 
taxes,  and  assumed  something  of  the  state  of  a 
secular  ruler.  The  unity  of  the  Sikhs  was  further 
cemented  and  strengthened  by  the  growing 
enmity  with  the  Muslim  power,  which  persecuted 
them  bitterly.  Finally,  their  tenth  and  last  Guru, 
Govind,  at  the  close  of  the  17th  century,  organ- 
ized the  Sikhs  into  a  military  brotherhood,  the 
Khalsa,  and  said  his  followers  should  no  longer 
be  called  Sikhs,  but  Singhs,  i.  e.,  lions,  or  fighters. 
He  relaxed  the  restrictions  regarding  food,  per- 


mitting them  to  eat  meat,  instituted  an  initiatory 
rite  of  baptism,  forbade  the  cutting  of  hair  or 
beard,  gambling  and  smoking,  taught  disregard 
of  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  Scriptures,  priests, 
and  ceremonies,  and  instilled  into  the  people 
a  spirit  of  hostility  which  made  the  Punjab, 
durmg  the  next  hundred  years,  an  arena  of 
bloodshed.  The  fortunes  of  the  Sikhs  were 
various  until  the  decline  of  the  Mogul  dynasty, 
and  the  rise,  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century, 
of  their  great  leader,  Runjeet  Singh,  who  brought 
all  the  region  from  the  Sutlej  to  the  Himalayas 
under  his  sway.  He  abandoned  fierce  intoler- 
ance for  indifference  to  religion,  except  in  so  far 
as  religious  zeal  was  useful  to  his  political  ends. 
Every  male  Sikh  was  enrolled  as  a  soldier.  He 
was  ever  true  to  his  alUance  with  the  English, 
and  the  Sikh  regiments  were  an  invaluable  aid  in 
putting  down  the  Sepoy  rebellion.  After  Run- 
jeet Singh's  death,  the  Sikhs  entered  upon  war 
with  the  English,  and,  being  defeated,  Sikh 
dominion  disappeared  in  English  sovereignty 
over  the  Punjab.  The  Sikh  regiments,  true  to 
their  history,  now  constitute  the  best  and  bravest 
soldiers  in  the  Anglo-Indian  army,  but  the  major- 
ity of  the  Sikhs  have  returned  to  agriculture  and 
other  peaceful  pursuits,  and  are  the  most  indus- 
trious race  in  the  Punjab,  where,  despite  their 
relatively  small  numbers  and  their  lagging  behind 
other  races  in  taking  advantage  of  educational 
opportunities,  they  exercise  a  leading  influence. 
They  are  a  people  marked  by  their  symmetry, 
comeliness,  and  courage;  simple,  sincere,  and 
warm-hearted;  lovable,  receptive  to  kindness, 
and  they  render  loyal  service  to  those  whom  they 
trust.  They  are  on  a  par  with  the  rest  of  the 
population  in  morality,  and  are  free  from  caste 
prejudice.  Drunkenness  is  a  prevalent  vice, 
especially  among  the  upper  class.  The  subjuga- 
tion and  pacification  of  the  Punjab,  which  ended 
the  Sikh  dominion,  was  accomplished  by  that 
company  of  great  Christian  soldiers  and  civilians, 
Hardinge,  Edwardes,  Cust,  William  Martin,  and 
the  brothers  John  and  Henry  Lawrence.  It  pre- 
sents the  one  conspicuous  instance  in  Indian  his- 
tory of  a  body  of  British  rulers  going  to  work 
definitely  as  Christian  men,  confessing  Christ 
before  the  world,  and  not  shrinking  from  ener- 
getic action  for  the  evangelization  of  the  people, 
tho  never  false  to  those  great  principles  of  relig- 
ious tolerance  which  the  government  professes. 
It  was  they  who  first  established  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  the  Punjab,  the  officers  raising 
a  subscription  as  a  thank-offering  for  victory,  and 
supporting,  with  large  contributions,  their  appeal 
to  the  CMS  to  enter  the  field.  Amritsar  wag 
occupied  as  a  station  in  1852,  and  other  points 
soon  after,  the  officers  building  church,  school, 
and  mission  house,  and  two  converted  Sikhs 
being  employed  as  evangelists.  At  the  time  of 
the  mutiny,  Lawrence  sent  to  the  siege  of  Delhi 
a  regiment  made  up  of  Sikhs  of  the  sweeper  caste, 
much  despised  by  their  coreligionists,  and  usually 
of  a  turbulent,  degraded  character.  When  the 
city  was  taken,  some  of  them  found  Christian 
books  among  the  spoils,  and  on  reading  them, 
asked  the  English  officers  for  Christian  instruction. 
They  were  referred  to  the  CMS  missionaries  at 
Amritsar,  and  as  a  result  several  received  bap- 
tism. It  looked  at  one  time  as  tho  a  whole 
regiment,  and  perhaps  two,  would  become  Chris- 
tians, but  the  opportunity  was  lost  through  the 
interference  of  the  Calcutta  authorities,  who  for- 
bade the  officers  to  further  the  conversion  of 


Sipolkolon 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


680 


natives.  After  the  first  Sikh  war  the  mission  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  (North)  in  the  U.  S. 
advanced  from  its  Cis-Sutlej  station  at  Ludhiana 
to  Jullundur  and  Lahore  in  the  Punjab,  and 
other  societies  followed.  There  are,  however, 
no  missions  specifically  to  the  Sikhs,  and  cannot 
be,  since  they  are  thinly  scattered  among  the 
other  populations,  especially  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts, and  are  indefinitely  divided  among  them- 
selves into  various  kinds  of  Sikhs.  They  are 
often,  however,  not  separated  by  a  very  sharp 
line  from  other  Hindus.  The  breaking  of  their 
national  unity  and  their  wide  dispersion,  the 
diminishing  grants  by  the  government  for  the 
support  of  their  temples,  their  reverence  for  the 
Brahman  priests,  who  are  employed  to  officiate 
at  birth,  marriage,  and  death,  coupled  with  the 
fact  that  Sikhism  is  not  a  hereditary  but  an 
elective  religion,  being  entered  by  a  rite  of  bap- 
tism, seldom  taken  till  adult  years,  are  influences 
tending  steadily  to  lessen  the  number  of  Sikhs, 
and  bring  about  a  general  reversion  to  dominant 
Hinduism.  In  districts  remote  from  Amritsar 
there  is  now  little  to  distinguish  Sikh  from 
Hindu.  This  transition  period  is  an  opportunity 
that  should  be  made  the  most  of  in  the  effort  for 
their  evangelization.  Baptisms  among  them 
have  not  been  frequent,  tho  probably  as  large  in 
proportion  to  their  numbers  as  among  other 
classes.  They  average  well  as  Christians  in  com- 
parison with  other  converts,  and  have  produced 
some  fine  specimens  of  Christian  manhood. 
Cunningham,  History  of  Sikhs,  1849;  Hughes  (T.  P.),  Dic- 
tionary of  Islam,  (article  on  Sikhs),  London,  1885. 

SIKKIM:  One  of  the  Indian  feudatory  states, 
lying  in  the  Himalayas,  on  the  north  of  the  Brit- 
ish district  of  Darjiling.  It  is  bounded  on  the  E. 
by  Bhutan,  on  the  W.  by  Nepal,  and  on  the  N.  by 
the  Chumbi  district  of  Tibet.  The  estimated 
area  is  2,818  square  miles,  and  the  population 
(1901)  is  59,401.  The  Bhutias  are  the  masters 
of  the  land.  They  are  of  Mongol  race,  and  have 
come  into  the  country  from  Tibet.  The  Lepchas 
are  of  quite  another  type,  and  have  a  language  of 
their  own.  They  seem  to  be  the  aborigines  of 
the  country,  and  call  themselves  "Rong,"  the 
name  Lepcha  being  given  to  them  by  their  neigh- 
bors. They  are  treated  almost  as  serfs  by  the 
Bhutias.  The  Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Mis- 
sions Committee  established  a  mission  in  Sikkim 
in  1886,  of  which  the  working  force  consisted  in 
1901  of  2  missionaries,  with  22  native  workers, 
14  day  schools,  and  94  professed  Christians. 

SIKONGE :  A  settlement  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  the  district  of  Ngulu,  about  100  miles 
S.  E.  of  Urambo.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mis- 
sions (1902),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
1  place  of  worship. 

SI  LAITLAIT:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  a  little  S.  of  Toba  Lake. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society,  with 
(190.3)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  52  native 
workers,  10  outstations,  1  Sunday  school,  11  day 
schools,  and  1,490  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
639  are  communicants.  The  station  head- 
quarters have  been  transferred  to  Butar. 

SILCHAR:  A  town  in  Assam,  India,  situated 
on  the  lowlands,  about  60  miles  E.  of  Sylhet. 
Connected  by  railroad  with  Chittagong.  Station 
of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Missionary 
Society,  with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2 
women  missionaries,  7  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  5  day  schools,  1  dis- 


pensary, and  108  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
58  are  communicants. 

SILOAM.     See  TiHUKOViLnR. 

SILOE.     See  Shiloh  (Basutoland). 

SI  MANOSOR:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  near  the  W.  coast  23. 
miles  S.  E.  of  Siboga.  Station  of  the  Rhenish 
Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his. 
wife,  11  native  workers,  8  outstations,  3  day 
schools,  and  155  professed  Christians,  of  whom. 
40  are  communicants. 

SI  MATORKIS:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  near  Padang  Sidempuan, 
about  23  miles  S.  E.  of  Siboga.  Station  of  the- 
Java  Committee  (Netherlands),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife  and  1  day  school. 

SIMBANG:  A  village  in  Kaiser  Wilhelms- 
land.  New  Guinea,  situated  on  the  sea  coast,  oa 
the  easternmost  point  of  the  German  colony. 
Station  of  the  Neuendettelsau  Mission  Institute 
(1886),  with  (1901)  3  missionaries,  two  of  them 
with  their  wives,  and  1  day  school. 

SIMLA:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India,  170 
miles  north  of  Delhi,  situated  in  the  Ambala 
division,  among  the  foot-hills  of  the  Himalayas. 
Chief  sanitarium  and  summer  capital  of  India. 
A  very  pleasant  place,  except  for  its  inadequate 
water  supply.  Climate  cool,  exhilarating,  health- 
ful, tho  for  several  reasons  the  difficulties  of  drain- 
age are  considerable.  Population  averages  12,000, 
changing  with  the  season.  Station  of  the  CMS 
(1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3 
native  workers,  and  87  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  29  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the 
Moravian  Missions  (1900),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife  and  1  day  school.  Also  station 
of  the  SPG,  with  (1903)  3  women  missionaries,  3 
native  workers,  2  day  schools.  Station  also  of 
the  YWCA,  with  2  women  agents  of  the  Society. 

SIMONTON,  Ashbel  Green:  Born  at  West  Han- 
over, Pa.,  January  20,  1833.  Died  December 
9,  1867.  Graduated  at  Princeton  College,  1852; 
taught  two  years,  and  graduated  at  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  18.58;  ordained  by  th& 
Presbytery  of  Carlisle;  appointed  the  first  mis- 
sionary of  the  PN  to  Brazil,  and  reached  Rio  de 
Janeiro  August  12,  18.59.  While  acquiring  the 
language  he  preached  in  English  to  Americans 
and  other  foreigners.  He  soon  became  an 
effective  preacher  in  Portuguese,  and  his  ministry 
was  remarkably  blessed.  At  almost  every  com- 
munion additions  were  made  to  the  church, 
mostly  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  knew  how 
to  use  the  press  as  an  important  auxiliary.  He 
translated  th«  Shorter  Catechism  and  other  works 
into  Portuguese.  He  edited  also  the  "Imprensa 
Evangelica,"  a  religious  monthly,  in  which  his 
own  articles,  which  were  often  of  rare  value,  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  readers  among  the  edu- 
cated classes.  As  he  had  been  pioneer  in  this 
mission,  so  to  the  end  he  was  one  of  its  leading- 
members.  Master  of  the  language,  and  possessing 
unusual  prudence  in  planning  and  tact  in  execu- 
ting, he  was  relied  upon  by  his  associates. 
Necessity  alone  could  lead  them  to  take  any 
important  step  without  first  hearing  his  counsel. 

SIMORANGKIR:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch, 
East  Indies,  situated  in  the  Silindung  Valley 
district,  about  5  miles  E.  of  Pea  Radja.  Station 
of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  44 
native  workers,  6  outstations,  5  Sunday  schools. 


681 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Sikkim 
Sipoliolon 


8  day  schools,  and  3,191  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  1,599  are  communicants. 

SIN-AN.     See  Hsin-an-hsien. 

SINCHANG.     See  Hsin-chang-hsien. 

SIND:  A  part  of  the  Northwest  Frontier  Prov- 
ince of  India.  It  occupies  the  lower  part  of  the 
Indus  valley,  including  the  delta  of  that  river. 
West  of  it  lies  Baluchistan,  east  Rajputana,  and 
south  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  Rann  of  Kachchh. 
It  has  an  average  density  of  population  of  only 
about  50  to  the  square  mile.  The  country  is 
largely  destitute  of  trees,  flat  and  uninteresting 
in  appearance.  Its  soil  is,  in  many  places, 
strongly  impregnated  with  salt.  Mohammedans 
preponderate,  over  three-quarters  of  the  popula- 
tion being  of  that  faith.  Hindus  constitute  only 
an  eighth,  Sikhs  about  5  per  cent.,  aboriginal 
tribes  about  3  per  cent.,  Christians  over  7,000, 
Jains  and  Parsees  a  thousand  or  more  each.  The 
Sindis  represent  the  original  Hindu  population, 
but  are  now  Mohammedans,  having  been  con- 
verted under  the  reign  of  early  Mohammedan 
rulers.  The  history  of  the  province  is  com- 
plicated, and  not  of  special  interest.  For  many 
centuries  it  was  ruled  alternately  by  Hindu  and 
by  Mohammedan  dj'nasties.  As  English  power 
on  the  coast  became  stronger,  entanglements 
with  outlying  native  rulers  were  inevitable.  At 
times  the  use  of  armed  force  against  them  was 
necessary  for  self-defense  or  for  retaliation;  and 
at  other  times  treaties  for  trade  and  commerce 
would  be  made,  and  very  likely  broken,  which 
again  was  supposed  to  render  necessary  military 
measures.  As  a  result  of  such  relationships, 
Sind  was  conquered  in  1843  by  an  army  under 
Sir  Charles  Napier,  and  formally  annexed  to 
British  dominions.  Karachi  is  the  chief  town;  it 
lies  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Indus  delta,  and 
by  the  erection  of  elaborate  harbor  works  it  has 
been  made  one  of  the  most  important  seaports  in 
Western  India. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society  occupied  Kara- 
chi in  1850  and  Haidarabad  in  1857.  The  suc- 
cess has  been  small.  The  American  Methodists 
began  work  in  Karachi,  largely  among  unevan- 
gelized  Europeans,  in  1872  or  1873.  Education 
has  made  rapid  progress  since  the  advent  of  Brit- 
ish power.  In  1859-60  there  were  only  20  gov- 
ernment schools;  in  1883-84  there  were  340,  with 
23,273  pupils.  There  are  also  priv.ate  scliools, 
not  included  in  the  government  figures.  The 
last  census  shows  a  gratifying  number  of  men  and 
women  who  can  read  and  write.  The  language 
in  principal  use  is  Sindhi,  one  of  the  Sanskrit 
family. 

SINDHIA'S  DOMINIONS:  A  name  sometimes 
applied  to  the  state  of  Gwalior,  India;  ruled  under 
British  protection  by  one  of  the  old  Mahratta 
famihes  known  as  that  of  the  Maharaja  of 
Sindhia. 

SIN-FENG.     See  Hsin-feng-hsien. 

SINGAN,  or  SI-NGAN-FU.     See  Hsi-ngan-fu. 

SINGAPORE:  An  ksland  about  27  miles  long 
by  14  wide,  containing  an  area  of  206  square 
miles;  situated  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Malay  peninsula,  from  which  it  is  separated  Ijy  a 
strait  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide.  It  is 
a  part  of  the  crown  colony  of  Great  Britain 
named  the  Straits  Settlements.  A  number  of 
small  islands  adjacent  to  it  are  also  included 
in  its  territory.  The  population  is  composed  of 
Europeans,    Malays,    Chinese,    and    natives    of 


India.  Singapore  town,  at  the  southeaistern  part 
of  the  island,  is  the  seat  of  government  for  the 
Settlements,  has  a  well-defended  harbor,  and  has 
12J  miles  of  tramway.  The  climate  is  warm,  but 
not  unhealthful. 

SINGAPORE:  A  town  in  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments, Malaysia,  situated  on  the  S.  side  of  Singa- 
pore Island.  It  is  a  depot  for  commerce  E.  and 
W.,  and  is  the  most  southern  point  of  Asia.  The 
streets  are  wide,  e.xcept  in  the  Chinese  and  Malay 
quarters.  Population,  186,600,  of  whom  1,200 
are  Europeans.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1861),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  15  native  workers,  2  places 
of  worship,  1  day  school,  and  350  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  PCE,  with  (1900) 
2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife;  10 
native  workers,  10  outstations,  10  places  of  wor- 
ship, and  419  professed  Christians,  of  whoni  240 
are  communicants.  Station  of  the  PB,  with  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women  mission- 
aries. Also  station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  8 
missionaries,  five  of  them  with  their  wives;  4 
women  missionaries,  49  native  workers,  2  places 
of  worship,  4  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1 
college,  and  283  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  CEZ  (1900),  with  (1903)  2  wonien 
missionaries,  1  native  worker,  and  1  boarding 
school.  Also  agency  of  the  BFBS,  with  2  men 
and  4  women  engaged  in  Bible  work. 

SING-IU.     See  Hsien-yu-hsien. 

SINKUNIA:  A  village  in  Sierra  Leone,  West 
Africa,  situated  near  the  N.  border  of  the  Pro- 
tectorate, in  the  region  of  the  Yalunka  tribes. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1897),  which  is  temporarily 
without  a  resident  missionary,  with  (1903)  6' 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  2  day  schools. 

SI-NING.     See  Hsi-ning-fu. 

SIN-TIEN-TSI.     See  Hsin-tibn-tsze. 

SIN  TU.     See  Hsin-tu. 

SINYONG.     See  Hsin-tang-chatt. 

SIOKE:  A  town  in  Fo-kien,  China,  situated 
about  40  miles  W.  of  Amoy.  Station  of  the 
RCA  (1887),  with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives, 
15  native  workers,  7  outstations,  11  places  of 
worship,  3  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  and  367  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Sio-khe. 

SIONI  MALWA.     See  Seoni. 

SIPAHUTAR:  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  in  the  Toba  Lake  region. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  31  native  work- 
ers, 8  outstations,  9  day  schools,  1  Sunday  school, 
and  995  professed  Christians,  of  whom  446  are 
communicants. 

SIPIONGOT :  A  village  in  Sumatra,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  in  the  Batang  Toru  district, 
about  62  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Siboga.  Station  of 
the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  14  native  workers,  11 
outstations,  9  day  schools,  and  551  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  138  are  communicants. 

SIPIROK:  A  village  of  Sumatra,  situated  in  the 
valley  of  the  Batang  Toru,  about  40  miles  S.  E. 
of  Siboga.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  26 
native  workers,  6  outstations,  10  day  schools,  2 
Sunday  schools,  and  1,102  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  442  are  communicants. 

SIPOHOLON:   A   village   in   Sumatra,    Dutch 


Sirombu 
Slavs 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


082 


East  Indies,  situated  in  tlie  Silindung  region  S.  of 
Toba  Lake,  and  about  5  miles  N.  W.  of  Pea  Radja. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
(.1903)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women 
missionaries,  68  native  workers,  9  outstations,  10 
day  schools,  and  4,269  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  1,723  are  communicants. 

SIROMBU:  A  village  on  Nias  Island,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  on  the  S.  W.  coast,  about 
25  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Gunong  Sitoli.  Station  of 
the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  7  native  workers,  1  out- 
station,  1  da}'  school,  1  Sunday  school,  and  636 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  350  are  com- 
municants. 

SITAPUR:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  in  Oudh,  about  55  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Lucknow.  Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
39  native  workers,  3  places  of  worship,  35  Sun- 
day schools,  2  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools, 
and  449  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name  Sitapore. 

SITKA:  A  town  and  seaport  in  Alaska,  situ- 
ated on  the  W.  coast  of  Baranoff  Island.  Cap- 
ital of  Alaska  Territory.  Population,  1,200. 
Station  of  the  Presbyterian  Home  Missionary 
Society  (1877),  with  (1900)  6  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  6  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  day  school,  1  boarding  school,  and  349  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Station  also  of  the  PE,  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sun- 
day school,  and  60  professed  Christians. 

SIUT.     See  Asyut. 

SIVAS :  A  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Sivas;  situated  on  the  Kizil  Irmak 
{anc.  Halys)  River,  at  an  altitude  of  about  4,000 
feet,  and  500  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Constantinople. 
Population  about  43,000,  of  whom  30,000  are 
Muslims.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1851),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women 
missionaries,  39  native  workers,  11  outstations,  5 
places  of  worship,  10  Sunday  schools,  26  day 
schools,  3  boarding  schools,  2  orphanages,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  industrial  school,  and  320  communi- 
cant Christians. 

SKAGUAY:  A  town  in  Alaska,  situated  at  the 
head  of  Lynn  channel.  Terminus  of  a  railroad 
over  the  mountains  to  Whitehorse.  Station  of 
the  Peniel  Missionary  Society,  with  (1900)  3 
women  missionaries.  Also  station  of  the  PE, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  2  women  missionaries, 
1  place  of  worship,  1  hospital,  and  41  professed 
Christians. 

SKIDEGATE:  A  settlement  on  Graham  Island, 
British  Columbia,  N.  W.  America,  situated  on  the 
southern  coast  of  the  island,  on  the  inlet  separa- 
ting it  from  Queen  Charlotte's  Island.  Station  of 
the  MCC  (1883),  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  and  141 
professed  Christians. 

SLAVE  TRADE  AND  MISSIONS:  One  would 
fain  forget  the  unspeakable  horrors  of  "the 
middle  passage,"  where,  in  the  stifling  hold  of  a 
small  vessel,  human  beings  were  packed  like  dead 
freight,  that  neither  eats,  nor  drinks,  nor  breathes. 
Yet  it  is  worth  while  to  recall  that  missionaries 
have  exerted  no  small  influence  in  bringing  to  an 
end  the  traffic  in  human  flesh  in  its  last  strong- 
holds of  Africa.  The  system  is  not  dead,  but 
great  expanses  of  territory  have  been  forever 
closed  to  the  Muslim  slave-raider.     The  voice  of 


the  missionary  has  ever  been  powerful  to  arouse 
the  public  to  the  duty  of  holding  the  slaver  in 
check,  because,  as  a  pioneer  of  a  religion  of  love, 
he  notes  and  reports  the  horrors  practised  where 
pure  selfishness  rules. 

Livingstone,  in  his  Last  Journals,  gives  some 
account  of  brutalities  which  he  saw  on  the  road. 
June  19,  1866,  he  passed  a  woman  tied  by  the  neck 
to  a  tree  and  dead;  she  could  not  keep  up  with 
the  rest,  and  in  order  that  she  should  not  become 
the  property  of  another  she  was  thus  despatched. 
Dr.  Livingstone  saw  others  tied  up  in  the  same 
way,  and  one  lying  in  the  path  in  a  pool  of  blood. 
June  26  he  passed  another  woman  lying  dead  in 
the  road.  Bystanders  told  how  an  Arab  had 
killed  her  early  that  morning,  in  anger  that  he 
must  lose  the  money  paid  for  her,  because  she  was 
too  exhausted  to  walk  any  further.  His  Last 
Journals  gives  an  account  of  a  merciless  and 
unprovoked  massacre  of  hundreds  of  native 
women  and  others. 

We  learn  something  from  the  pages  of  other 
modern  travelers  of  the  slave  trade  as  carried 
on  by  Muslim  Arabs.  November  24,  1883,  H. 
M.  Stanley  was  steaming  up  the  Congo  on  his  way 
to  Stanley  Falls,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Werre,  as  it  comes  in  from  the  north;  he  looked 
for  the  town  of  Mawembe,  which  he  had  passed 
in  his  first  voyage  down  the  river.  The  site  was 
there,  the  clearing  in  the  forest,  and  the  white 
paths  up  the  banks,  but  not  a  house  or  living 
thing  was  to  be  seen.  The  palisade  had  disap- 
peared. The  leaves  of  the  banana  trees  were 
scorched  and  their  stems  blackened,  showing  the 
effects  of  the  fire  that  had  wiped  out  the  town  a 
few  days  before.  Three  days  later  he  sent  a  boat 
to  ascertain  what  slate-colored  object  was  floating 
down  stream,  and  found  the  bodies  of  two  women 
bound  together  with  cords.  This  tragedy  had 
taken  place  only  twelve  hours  before.  Soon 
after  he  came  in  sight  of  the  horde  of  banditti,  300 
strong,  with  a  like  number  of  domestic  slaves  and 
women.  Sixteen  months  had  they  been  engaged  in 
their  work  of  slaughter.  They  had  desolated  a 
region  of  34,570  square  miles,  2,000  square  miles 
larger  than  Ireland;  118  villages  in  43  districts 
had  been  destroyed,  containing  at  least  118,000 
people,  and  all  they  had  to  show  as  the  result  of 
these  sixteen  months  of  slaughter  over  so  exten- 
sive a  region  was  a  wretched,  ragged,  and  starving 
crowd  of  2,300  women  and  children,  with  not  one 
grown-up  man  among  them.  Five  expeditions 
in  all  had  already  carried  as  many  captives  away 
as  these  possessed.  To  obtain  these  2,300  they 
must  have  shot  2,500  men,  while  1,300  more  had 
perished  by  the  way  from  hunger  and  despair. 
On  an  average,  six  persons  had  been  killed  to 
obtain  each  puny  child  in  the  encampment.  The 
slaves  were  fettered  in  groups  of  twenty  chained 
together;  such  fruits  as  could  be  found  were 
thrown  down  before  each  gang,  to  fight  for  as 
they  might,  and  the  odors  and  abominations  of 
the  crowded  camp  were  simply  horrible.  The 
bones  of  many  stared  through  the  skin,  that  hung 
in  flabby  wrinkles.  He  adds,  "How  small  a 
number  of  them  will  see  the  end  of  their  journey, 
God  only  knows!"  The  process  of  their  capture 
was  as  horrid  as  their  condition,  when  Mr. 
Stanley  saw  them,  was  full  of  misery.  The 
Arab  stole  up  stealthily  at  midnight  through  the 
darkness  to  the  doomed  town:  no  sound  save  the 
chirping  of  insects  disturbs  the  sleepers,  till  sud- 
denly the  torch  was  applied  on  all  sides,  and  in 
the  light  of  the  flames  of  the  grass  roofs  of  the 


683 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Sirombn 
Slavs 


houses  the  deadly  musket  shot  down  the  men  as 
fast  as  they  appeared.  Many  might  succeed  in 
reaching  the  shelter  of  the  woods,  but  the  women 
and  children  were  seized  and  carried  off.  Mr. 
Stanley  estimated  that  the  gain  of  the  Arabs 
from  the  slaughter  was  only  2  per  cent,  of  the 
previous  population,  and  that  even  that  was 
reduced  to  1  per  cent,  before  the  raiders  reached 
their  destination. 

This  account  of  the  great  explorer  is  supported 
by  masses  of  testimony  from  the  missionaries  of 
the  Nyasa  region,  who  had  many  terrible  expe 
riences  with  the  slave  dealers.  Rev.  J.  A.  Bain, 
at  Maindu,  35  miles  northwest  of  Lake  Nyasa,  on 
the  Kiwira  River,  wrote  as  follows  in  1889:  "At 
daybreak,  March  15,  we  were  awoke  by  a  number 
of  shots  fired  in  rapid  succession;  we  were  told  it 
was  Mereri  with  two  bands  of  Arabs.  The  sur- 
prise was  complete.  More  than  thirty  women 
with  babes  and  several  girls  were  captured.  The 
men,  only  half  awake,  tried  to  defend  their  wives 
and  children,  but  were  driven  back  by  the  mur- 
derous firing.  The  Arabs  entrenched  themselves 
in  a  bamboo  stockade,  then  glutted  their  lust  on 
their  captives.  Two  children,  whose  weeping 
over  the  dead  bodies  of  their  mothers  disturbed 
the  orgies,  were  flung  into  the  flames  of  a  burning 
house.  The  two  following  days  were  spent  in 
plundering  and  destroying  the  villages.  The 
cattle  are  Mereri's.  The  women  are  claimed  by 
the  Arabs,  who  will  sell  them  when  they  tire  of 
them.  They  left,  after  burning  everything  that 
could  be  burned." 

Another  English  missionary  at  Kibanga,  on 
Lake  Tanganyika,  wrote  in  1888:  "At  night  we 
could  see  the  villages  everywhere  in  flames,  the 
people  fleeing  for  refuge  to  the  lake,  and  the 
brigands  leading  away  the  women  and  children  in 
long  files.  A  poor  old  woman  as  she  was  led  away 
caught  hold  of  the  clothing  of  the  missionary  .ind 
begged  him  to  save  her,  but  she  was  hauled  away 
by  the  rope  that  was  round  her  neck;  another 
received  a  wound  from  the  butt  end  of  a  pistol. 
Where  yesterday  we  sought  to  impart  instruction 
and  comfort,  now  reigns  the  silence  of  a  desert." 
The  Rev.  (afterward  Bishop)  Chauncey  Maples, 
of  the  Universities  Mission,  during  a  residence  of 
six  or  seven  years  never  went  70  miles  from 
Masasi  without  meeting  a  caravan  of  slaves.  One 
of  them  numbered  2,000,  and,  according  to  Mr. 
Stanley,  that  number  must  represent  an  amount 
of  butchery  and  an  extent  of  territory  turned 
from  populous  villages  into  a  desert  that  is 
appalling  to  think  of. 

Dr.  Kerr  Cross  wrote  from  Karonga  in  April, 
1889:  "For  five  weeks  the  Arabs  have  harassed 
us  constantly.  They  hide  in  the  woods  and  mur- 
der men  as  they  pass  to  and  from  their  gardens. 
A  few  days  since  a  party  of  Wankond^  were  thus 
attacked;  one  was  killed  and  another  wounded. 
The  Arabs  cut  off  the  head  of  their  victim  and 
fled  home,  and  it  is  now  stuck  on  a  pole  in  their 
stockade.  Another  was  in  the  woods  cutting 
trees  for  a  house,  when  Arabs  fired  on  him,  pierc- 
ing his  shoulder.  Again  a  band  of  our  men  were 
fired  on  by  Arabs  hidden  in  the  long  grass;  only 
one  was  shot,  and  he  was  brought  in  and  soon 
died.  A  week  ago  we  were  awoke  at  midnight  by 
a  volley  fired  quite  near  our  home.  In  a  few  min- 
utes every  man  was  at  his  post  on  the  stockade, 
but  only  one  old  woman  was  killed;  three  bullets 
had  gone  through  her  body.  What  would  be  the 
fate  of  these  poor  villagers  should  the  mission- 
aries be  driven  off?" 


The  turmoil  in  Uganda  before  British  control 
was  established,  and  the  insurrection  of  the 
Sudanese  troops  in  which  Pilkington  lost  his  life, 
may  be  traced  directly  to  the  Arab  slave-raiders, 
whose  business  was  hampered  by  the  presence  of 
Christians  and  missionaries.  The  same  is  in 
some  degree  true  of  the  career  of  Mahdism  in  the 
Sudan.  Each  was  a  clash  of  the  system  that  now 
stands  alone  in  fostering  slavery  with  the  system 
which  proclaims  the  brotherhood  of  man  as 
taught  in  the  Gospel.  Because  Christianity 
spoiled  their  trade,  the  Arabs  attempted  to  crush 
out  the  rising  Christian  power  in  the  upper  Nile 
region. 

As  to  the  guilt  of  Mohammedans  in  connection 
with  the  slave  trade.  Cardinal  Lavigerie  was  very 
outspoken,  and  for  years  he  was  in  constant  inter- 
course with  them.  He  once  remarked:  1.  "I  do 
not  know  in  Africa  a  Muslim  state  whose  ruler 
does  not  permit,  and  often  himself  practise  on  his 
own  subjects,  and  in  ways  barbarously  atrocious, 
the  hunting  and  sale  of  slaves. 

2.  "It  is  only  Muslims  who  ravage  Africa  by 
slave  raids  and  slave-trading. 

3.  "Where  the  slave  trade  is  prohibited  by 
Christian  powers,  I  do  not  know  a  Mohammedan 
who  does  not  advocate  slavery  and  declare  him- 
self ready  to  buy  or  sell  negro  slaves. 

4.  "I  know  personally  in  Asiatic  Turkey  and 
in  that  part  of  Africa  under  the  Ottoman  Sultan, 
many  places  where  the  slave-trade  and  the  pass- 
age of  the  sad  caravans  take  place  with  the  com- 
plicity of  Turkish  authorities. 

5.  "Never  to  my  knowledge  has  any  mufti  or 
teacher  of  the  Koran  protested  against  this  in- 
famous traffic.  On  the  contrary,  in  their  con- 
versation they  recognize  it  as  authorized  by  the 
Koran  for  true  believers  as  regards  infidels. 

6.  "Never  to  my  knowledge  has  any  cadi  or 
Muslim  judge  pronounced  a  judgment  which 
implied  the  condemnation  of  slavery,  but  all  have 
sided  with  the  teachers  and  expounders  of  the 
Koran." 

In  conclusion,  we  cannot  more  than  barely 
allude  to  the  unutterable  beastliness,  as  well  as 
cruelty,  of  these  Muslim  slave-traders,  in  con- 
nection with  the  mutilation  of  boys,  for  tho  the 
vast  majority  die  after  the  operation,  yet,  as  the 
market  value  of  the  survivors  is  greater  on 
account  of  it  than  would  have  been  the  price  of 
the  whole,  the  horrid  work  goes  on  wherever  the 
Muslim  power  is  still  unchecked. 

The  great  center  of  the  slave-trade  is  now  in  the 
regions  of  the  Niger,  in  the  Fulani  territories,  and 
the  Sokoto  Empire.  British  power  is  slowly 
advancing  and  enforcing  its  prohibition  of  slave- 
raiding  in  those  regions,  and  this  infamous  com- 
merce must  soon  come  to  an  end,  never  to  be 
revived  while  Christianity  lives. 

SLAVS :  The  Slavs  belong  to  the  Aryan  or  Indo- 
European  family,  and  the  group  in  which  they  are 
classed  is  commonly  called  the  Slavo-Germano- 
Lithuanian  group. 

The  primitive  history  of  the  Slavs  and  date  of 
their  immigrations  into  Europe  are  covered  with 
the  veil  of  darkness,  like  those  of  many  other 
nations.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  they 
appeared  in  Europe  after  the  Germans,  and  that 
their  original  settlements  extended  between  the 
sources  of  the  rivers  Don  and  Dnieper,  and 
beyond  the  Dnieper  toward  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  Baltic  Sea  and  the  river  Vistula,  and  toward 
the  south,  not  farther  than  the  River  Pribet. 
But  in  the  Sd  and  4th  centuries  they  are  found 


Slavs 
Smith, 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


684r 


occupying  a  district  the  approximate  boundaries 
of  which  were:  from  the  river  Niemen,  as  far  as 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Duna;  from  the  Gulf  of 
Riga  over  the  Valdai  Heights  as  far  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Oka;  on  the  east,  a  line  stretching  from 
the  Oka  to  KielT,  and  from  there  to  the  River 
Boug,  while  on  the  west  the  line  extended  to  the 
Carpathian  Mountains  and  the  upper  Vistula. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  5th  or  beginning  of  the  6th 
century  the  Slavs  occupied  the  northern  banks 
of  the  Danube;  they  soon  crossed  over  and  took 
possession  of  its  southern  banks,  whence  they 
spread  themselves  as  far  down  as  Albania, 
Thessaly,  Epirus,  and  even  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity  among  the 
Slavs  is  the  epoch  from  which  their  history  takes 
a  more  definite  form.  This  momentous  event 
was  brought  about  by  the  combined  efforts 
of  two  brothers,  Cyril  and  Methodius,  natives 
of  Salonica,  whom  all  the  Slavs  venerate 
as  their  apostles  and  "illuminators,"  and  whom 
they  worship  as  saints.  Cyril,  the  younger 
brother,  was  a  man  well  versed  in  all  the  learning 
that  Byzantium,  at  that  time,  could  impart, 
and  on  account  of  his  erudition  he  was 
honored  with  the  title  of  "philosopher."  Giving 
up  all  the  honors  and  emoluments  to  which  they 
might  have  easily  attained,  the  two  brothers 
went  to  Pannonia  at  the  request  of  Prince 
Rostislav,  to  preach  Christianity  among  the 
Slavs  of  Pannonia. 

Here  they  devoted  themselves  to  the  spread- 
ing of  the  Gospel  and  the  translation  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  the  most  essential  liturgical 
books.  Cyril  devised  a  Slavic  alphabet,  con- 
structed on  the  basis  and  model  of  the  Greek, 
which  is  still  known  by  the  name  of  "Kyrillitza" 
(Cyril's  alphabet).  It  consisted  of  38  letters,  24 
of  which  were  the  24  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
while  14  others  were  devised  by  Cyril  to  express 
sounds  peculiar  to  the  Slavic  speech,  and  for 
which  there  were  no  corresponding  Greek  letters. 
In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  German  clergy, 
Cyril  and  Methodius  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
approbation  of  the  Pope,  and  he  allowed  them  to 
use  the  Slavonic  language  in  the  church  services. 
During  a  visit  to  Rome,  in  869,  Cyril  died,  aged 
43  years;  while  Methodius  returned  to  Moravia, 
having  been  appointed  its  bishop  by  the  Pope. 
But  he  soon  found  his  position  shaken  by  the 
virulent  opposition  of  the  German  clergy,  was 
dispossessecl  of  his  bishopric,  and  died,  it  is  said, 
in  prison,  in  885. 

The  total  number  of  the  Slavs  is  estimated  at 
about  90,000,000,  distributed  in  round  numbers 
as  follows;  Russians,  over  60,000,000;  Bulgarians, 
4,000,000;  Serbo-Croats  and  Slovenes,  about 
7,000,000;  Czecho-Moravians  and  Slovaks,  7,- 
000,000;  Poles,  about  10,000,000;  and  Serbo- 
Lansatians,  about  150,000.  According  to  their 
reUgious  denominations,  about  68,000,000  Slavs 
belong  to  the  Eastern  Church,  20,000,000  to  the 
Roman  Catholic,  1 ,500,000  to  the  Protestant, 
and  about  800,000  are  Mohammedans.  To  the 
Eastern  Church  belong  the  Russians,  the  Bul- 
garians, and  the  Servians;  to  the  Catholic  Church 
lielong  the  Poles,  the  Czecho-Moravians  and 
Slovaks,  the  Croats,  and  the  Slovenes.  The 
Protestant  Slavs  are  distributed  as  follows: 
Slovaks,  640,000;  Poles,  500,000;  Czecho-Mora- 
vians, 150,000;  Serbo-Lansatians,  130,000;  Slo- 
venes, 15,000;  Servians,  13,000;  Bulgarians, 
5,000.  The  Mohammedan  Slavs  are  found 
chiefly  in  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  (500,000),  and 


Bulgaria  (about  250,000),  who,  however,  have  \  \ 
retained  and  speak  their  respective  Slavic, 
dialects.  The  Slavic  languages  are  divided  inta 
two  branches:  (1)  Southeastern,  including  the-  i  > 
Russian,  the  Bulgarian,  the  Servian,  the  Croat, 
and  the  Slovene,  with  all  their  local  dialects. 
(2)  Western,  including  the  Bohemian,  the  Polish, 
and  the  Serbo-Lansatian,  with  all  their  local 
dialects.  The  Roman  Catholic  Slavs  use  the- 
Latin  language  in  their  church  services  and  the 
Latin  alphabet  in  their  literature,  while  the  Slavs- 
of  the  Eastern  Church  use  the  Kyrillitza,  with 
some  partial  modifications,  in  their  writing,  and  i  •, 

the  "Church-Slavonic"  in  their  churches.  This 
"Church-Slavonic"  language  is  the  paleo- 
Slavonic  of  Cyril's  translation  of  the  Scriptures, 
modified  according  to  Russian  orthography  and 
grammatical  construction.  The  most  ancient 
manuscript  of  the  Kyrillitza  which  bears  any 
certain  date  is  the  "Ostromirov  Gospel," 
written  in  1053  for  a  Russian  prince  named 
Ostromir.  Other  manuscripts,  written  in  another 
alphabet,  known  as  the  "Glagolitza,"  however, 
probably  date  as  far  back  as  this,  or  perhaps  are- 
even  older. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  even  in  the  9th  and 
the  10th  centuries  various  Slavic  dialects  existed, 
just  as  we  find  them  now;  but  these  dialects  were 
nearer  to  each  other  than  at  present.  This: 
explains  how  the  work  accomplished  by  Cyril 
and  Methodius  was  accessible  to  all  the  Slavs  in 
the  9th  century,  and  how  the  literary  productions 
of  one  Slavic  tribe  could  be  very  easily  tran- 
scribed and  appropriated  by  another.  But  in 
the  course  of  time  these  various,  Slavic  dialects 
have  tended  to  diverge  more  and  more  from  each 
other,  until  at  the  present  time  they  form  quite 
distinct  languages.  The  common  Bulgarian  or 
Servian  of  to-day  can  hardly  understand  the 
spoken  or  literary  language  of  the  Pole  or  the  ;   ; 

Bohemian,  nor  can  the  Slovak  or  the  Slovene 
comprehend  the  Russian.  In  grammatical  forms- 
and  construction  all  the  modern  Slavic  dialects, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Bulgarian,  have  re- 
tained a  close  resemblance  to  the  paleo-Slovenic 
language,  and  one  well  acquainted  with  the  latter- 
will  not  find  much  difficulty  in  mastering  and 
understanding  the  various  Slavic  dialects. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  say  that  many  fanciful 
derivations  and  examples  of  the  word  "Slav" 
have  been  given.  The  most  probable  one  is  that 
the  word  is  derived  from  Slovo,  which  means 
"word"  or  "speech,"  and  the  name  in  its 
ancient  orthography  is  Slovyanin.  Slovyanin 
means  "man  of  speech,"  while  the  Germans,  the 
nearest  neighbors  of  the  Slavs  in  olden  time, 
were  and  are  still  called  by  the  Slavs,  Nyemtzi,, 
from  "nyem,"  meaning  "dumb." 

SLOVAKS:  The  Slovaks  are,  strictly  speaking, 
only  a  branch  of  the  Bohemian  race,  and  their 
language  may  be  considered  as  a  dialect  of  the 
Bohemian  language.  But  of  late  years  a  sepa- 
ratist movement  has  arisen  among  them,  and  they 
are  trying  to  form  a  literature  of  their  own  and  to 
be  treated  as  a  nation  apart  from  the  Bohemians. 

The  Slovaks  inhabit  the  northwest  of  Hungary,, 
and  number  over  two  millions.  The  greater  mass 
of  them  (1,583,000)  belong  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic, and  640,000  to  the  Protestant  Church. 
They  settled  in  the  territory  thev  now 
occupy  toward  the  end  of  the  5th  century,  and 
shared  the  fate  of  the  Bohemians  and  Moravians; 
in  many  historical  catastrophes.  Christianity 
was  introduced  among  them  before  the  first  half 


«86 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Slavs 
Smith,  tut 


of  the  9th  century  by  German  preachers;  and 
later  on  in  the  same  century  Methodius,  the 
■Slavic  apostle,  introduced  among  them  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Eastern  Church,  together  with  the 
Slavic  liturgy.  But  this  form  of  Christianity 
could  not  be  maintained  for  long,  and  after  the 
death  of  Methodius  (885)  it  was  replaced  by  Latin 
Christianity  and  the  Latin  liturgy.  In  907  the 
Hungarians  put  an  end  to  the  existence  of  the 
great  Moravian  kingdom,  which  had  united  under 
one  scepter  the  Slavs  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
and  the  Slovaks.  In  999  the  country  of  the 
Slovaks  was  conquered  by  the  Poles,  but  soon 
.after  they  fell  again  under  tlie  Hungarians,  who 
practically  put  an  end  to  their  political  inde- 
pendence. They  preserved,  however,  their  local 
liberties  and  national  immunities  for  a  long  time, 
and  in  the  15th  century  the  doctrines  of  Huss 
found  waim  adherents  and  followers  among  them. 
The  dispersion  of  the  Hussites  and  the  emigration 
of  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  brethren  strength- 
ened still  more  the  Slovak  reformed  party;  and 
the  Bohemian  language,  along  with  Bohemian 
books,  was  established  among  them.  Luther's 
reformation  likewise  found  an  entrance  among 
the  Slovaks — not  only  among  the  common  peo- 
ple, but  also  among  the  nobility.  But  a  Roman 
Cathohc  reaction,  which  manifested  itself  as  far 
back  as  the  16th  century,  gradually  put  down 
Protestantism  among  the  larger  part  of  the 
Slovaks.  The  efforts  of  the  Hungarians  to  im- 
pose upon  the  Slovaks  the  Hungarian  language, 
.about  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  provoked  a 
counter-movement  on  the  part  of  the  Slovaks, 
who  defended  their  nationality  and  language 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Hungarians  by 
developing  a  national  literature  of  their  own, 

SLOVENES:  The  Slovenes  inhabit  the  districts 
of  Carinthia,  Kraina,  Styria,  and  Istria  in  Austria, 
and  number  about  one  and  one-third  millions. 
They  are  classed  among  the  Southeastern  Slavs, 
and  their  language  is  one  of  the  South  Slavic 
dialects.  It  bears  a  strong  relationship  to  the 
rSerbo-Croatian  language,  and  in  its  lexicology  has 
a  great  resemblance  to  the  Bulgarian.  The 
Slovenes  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
with  the  exception  of  about  15,000  Protestants, 
and  they  all  use  the  Latin  alphabet,  with  some 
shght  modifications,  in  their  literature.  The 
.Slovenes  settled  in  these  parts  of  Europe  in  the 
6th  century,  and  about  the  end  of  the  8th  they 
fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Franks  in  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne.  Their  petty  princes  were 
allowed  to  rule  over  them  as  vassals  of  the 
Franks  until,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  country 
was  entirely  subjugated  to  German  rulers,  and 
ever  since  has  formed  a  part  of  Austria.  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  among  the  Slovenes  in  the 
7th  century  by  preachers  who  came  to  them  from 
Aquilea  (in  Italy)  and  from  Salzburg;  but  in  the 
isecond  half  of  the  8th  century,  and  especially 
after  the  Prankish  conquest  of  the  country,  the 
Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  Virgilius  (known  as  the 
apostle  of  the  Slovenes),  succeeded  in  establishing 
Christianity  among  the  Slovenes  through  his 
German  preachers.  That  the  Slavic  apostles, 
Cyril  and  Methodius,  ever  labored  among  the 
Slovenes  is  doubtful;  still  there  are  some  very  high 
authorities  on  the  Slavic  languages  who  claim 
that  the  language  in  which  the  original  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  was  made  by  SS.  Cyril  and 
Methodius  was  the  language  of  the  Slovenes,  and 
not  that  of  the  Bulgarians.  Hence  they  call  it 
paleo-Slovenic    in    distinction     from     the    neo- 


Slovenic.  The  most  ancient  linguistic  remains 
of  this  old  Slovcnic  language  are  the  so-called 
"Freisinger  E.xtracts,"  found  in  an  old  Latin 
manuscript,  and  referred  to  the  9th  century.  Up 
to  the  16th  century  the  Slovenic  language  seems 
to  have  been  almost  lost,  and  to  have  been 
replaced  by  the  Latin  and  German.  This  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  literature  was  exclusively  in 
the  hands  of  the  clergy.  But  when  the  Reforma- 
tion found  its  way  among  the  people  a  movement 
was  made  to  bring  the  vernacular  of  the  people 
to  the  front  as  a  means  of  their  enlightenment 
and  instruction.  Primus  Truber  (1508-1586) 
was  the  most  active  laborer  for  the  spread  of  the 
new  ideas  among  his  people,  and  for  the  elevation 
of  the  national  idiom.  He  found  many  followers 
and  adherents,  and,  thanks  to  his  labors  and 
theirs,  a  translation  of  the  whole  Bible,  the  first 
one  in  Slovenic,  was  published  in  1584,  the  New 
Testament  having  been  translated  by  Tiuber 
himself.  Unfortunately  this  reformatory  move- 
ment did  not  last  long,  and  in  the  first  half  of  the 
17th  century  it  was  suppressed  by  a  Roman 
Catholic  reaction,  which  violently  raged  against 
the  reformed  party,  banishing  those  who  refused 
to  return  to  the  Roman  Church,  confiscating 
their  propeity,  and  burning  the  books  and  pub- 
lications of  Truber  and  his  followers  with  such 
zeal  that  few  are  now  to  be  found.  This  perse- 
cution put  a  stop  to  religious  and  literary  progress 
among  the  Slovenes,  so  that  literary  activity 
remained  at  a  standstill  tiU  the  end  of  the  18th 
century.  But  in  the  general  revival  of  the  Slavic 
dialects  and  nationalities  that  began  early  in  the 
19th  century  the  Slovenes  also  have  cultivated  a 
national  literature  in  their  national  tongue,  and 
this  movement  has  gone  on  increasing,  especially 
since  1860. 

SMITH,  Azariah:  Born  at  Manlius,  N.  Y., 
February  17.  1817;  died  June  3,  1851,  at  Aintab, 
Turkey  Graduated  from  Yale  College  in  the 
class  of  1838.  After  studying  medicine  and 
theology,  he  was  sent  to  Turkey,  November, 
1842,  as  missionary  of  the  ABCFM.  After  learn- 
ing the  Turkish  language  he  spent  five  years  in 
visiting  the  various  stations  of  the  Board  in 
Turkey,  giving  to  each  the  advantage  of  a  "med- 
ical department"  for  a  time.  Wherever  cholera 
appeared,  there  Dr.  Smith  also  appeared;  and  in 
many  a  city  in  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  and  Meso- 
potamia, Muslims  and  Christians  learned  to  bless 
the  missionary  who  seemed  miraculously  to  heal. 
The  preparation  widely  used  in  the  United  States 
in  1849  as  "Dwight's  Cholera  Mixture,"  and 
more  lately  famous  as  "Hamlin's  Cholera  Mix- 
ture," was  a  prescription  devised  by  Dr.  Azariah 
Smith.  In  1848  Dr.  Smith  was  definitely  sta- 
tioned at  Aintab,  and  to  the  people  there  he 
became  deeply  attached.  He  published  valuable 
papers  on  the  archeology,  meteorology,  and 
natural  history  of  Turkey  at  a  time  when  such 
papers  were  rare. 

SMITH,  Eli:  Born  at  Northford,  Conn.,  Septem- 
ber 13,  1801;  graduated  at  Yale  College,  1821; 
taught  in  Putnam,  Georgia,  for  two  years;  grad- 
uated at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1826; 
ordained  May  10,  same  vear;  left  for  Malta  under 
appointment  of  the  ABCFM,  May  23  1826,  as 
superintendent  of  a  missionary  printing  estab- 
lishment. In  1827  he  went  to  Beirut  to  study 
Arabic.  The  missionaries  being  obliged  to  leave 
Syria  on  the  general  outbreak  of  the  war,  after  the 
battle  of  Navarino,  Mr.  Smith,  in  1828,  returned 


Smith,  BlI 
S.  P.  C.  K. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


686 


to  Malta.  He  traveled  through  Greece  in  1829, 
with  Rev.  Dr.  Anderson.  In  1830,  with  Rev. 
H.  G.  O.  Dwight,  he  set  out  from  Constantinople 
for  an  extended  and  adventurous  exploring  tour 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  Western  Persia,  and  the 
Caucasus.  The  tour  occupied  a  whole  year,  and 
secured  the  information  on  which  was  based  the 
establishment  of  the  Board's  missions  to  the 
Armenians  and  the  Nestorians.  Returning  to 
the  U.  S.  in  1832  he  published  the  report  of  these 
explorations  under  the  title  Researches  in  Arme- 
nia (2  vols.,  Boston,  1833),  also  a  small  volume  of 
Missionary  Sermons  and  Addresses.  In  1833  he 
embarked  for  Syria,  accompanied  by  Mrs.  Smith, 
formerly  Sarah  Lanman  Huntington,  whose  brief 
but  bright  missionary  career  of  only  three  years 
was  terminated  by  her  death  at  Smyrna,  Septem- 
ber 30,  1836.  In  1837-38  and  1852  he  was  the 
companion  and  coadjutor  of  Prof.  E.  Robinson  in 
his  extensive  explorations  of  Palestine.  By  his 
experience  as  an  Oriental  traveler,  his  tact  in 
eliciting  information,  and  his  intimate  knowledge 
of  Arabic  he  contributed  largely  to  the  accuracy, 
variety,  and  value  of  the  discoveries  of  Biblical 
geography  recorded  in  Dr.  Robinson's  celebrated 
Researches.  At  the  same  time  these  travels,  in 
close  relations  with  the  people  of  the  country, 
added  to  his  own  information,  and  prepared  him 
for  the  literary  work  in  Arabic  which  was  the 
great  and  enduring  fruit  of  his  missionary  career. 
He  visited  the  United  States  again  in  1838  and 
1845,  for  reasons  of  health.  During  these  visits 
he  traveled  extensively  in  the  United  States, 
speaking  on  "Missions"  and  preaching  with 
great  acceptance.  He  also  took  the  opportunity 
while  passing  through  Europe  to  study  the 
methods  of  Arabic  typography  there  in  use,  and 
gathered  information  which  enabled  him  to  make 
his  printing  house  as  complete  as  possible.  For 
he  was  all  this  time  pressing  on  the  work  of 
publication  of  books  and  tracts.  Among  his 
qualifications  as  translator  as  well  as  editor  was 
his  ripe  scholarship.  His  learning  was  extensive 
and  accurate.  To  the  ancient  classics  he  added 
an  acquaintance  with  French,  Italian,  German, 
and  Turkish.  With  the  Hebrew  he  was  very 
familiar,  and  the  Arabic,  the  most  difficult  of  all, 
was  to  him  a  second  vernacular.  Not  only  did 
his  learning  fit  him  for  the  difficult  office  of  editor, 
but  by  long  practise  and  close  attention  to  the 
business  of  printing  in  all  its  branches,  he  acquired 
an  unusual  skill  in  managing  the  minutest  details. 
He  not  only  wrote  himself  in  Arabic,  but  devoted 
much  time  and  labor  to  correcting  and  editing 
works  written  or  translated  by  others.  For  many 
years  he  carefully  read  the  proof-sheets  of  nearly 
everything  that  went  through  the  mission  press. 
He  spent  also  much  time  and  intense  labor  in 
superintending  the  cutting,  casting,  and  per- 
fecting of  various  fonts  of  new  type  made  from 
models  which  he  had  himself  drawn  with  the 
utmost  accuracy.  This  work  was  done  at  Leipzig 
in  the  celebrated  establishment  of  Tauchnitz.  It 
was  in  1847  that  Mr.  Smith  devoted  himself  to  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.  To  this 
task  all  his  studies  and  all  his  previous  work  had 
been  made  to  serve  as  preparation.  After  eight 
years  of  incessant  toil  he  completed  the  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament,  the  Pentateuch,  the 
minor  Prophets  from  Hosea  to  Nahum,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Isaiah. 

In  1856  failure  of  health  compelled  Dr.  Smith 
(he  had  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity 
from  Williams  College)  to  suspend  his  labors  for  a 


time.  He  prayed  often  and  earnestly  that  he 
might  recover  and  be  permitted  to  complete  his 
work  of  translating  the  Scriptures.  But  it  was 
not  to  be.  He  died  at  Beirut  January  II,  1857. 
During  all  his  labors  in  the  literary  branch  of 
the  mission.  Dr.  Smith  never  forgot  that  he  was  a 
messenger  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  he  entered  with  all 
his  heart  into  every  plan  for  the  spread  of  divine 
truth.  Being  a  fluent  speaker  of  colloquial 
Arabic,  it  was  ever  his  delight  to  preach  the 
Gospel  in  the  family,  by  the  wayside,  and  in 
public  assemblies. 

His  work  of  Bible  translation  was  taken  up  by 
his  associate,  Rev.  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  D.D.,  and 
carried  to  a  full  and  admirable  completion. 

SMYRNA :  A  city  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  at  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna,  about  200  miles  southwest 
of  Constantinople.  Population  about  150,000, 
of  whom  a  little  more  than  half  are  Mohammed- 
ans and  the  remainder  Greeks  (40,000),  Arme- 
nians (10,000),  Jews  (15,000),  and  Europeans. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  trying,  the  summer  being 
very  oppressive.  The  general  appearance  of  the 
city  from  the  sea  and  also  from  the  Acropolis  is 
very  attractive,  many  of  the  houses,  especially  in 
the  Christian  quarters  and  along  the  quay,  being 
of  stone  and  well  built.  As  a  business  center 
Smyrna  has  grown  rapidly  in  importance,  espe- 
cially since  the  establishment  of  two  lines  of  rail- 
way connecting  it  with  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor. 
European  customs  and  influence  have  also  been 
largely  predominant,  and  the  intimate  connec- 
tion of  the  large  Greek  population  with  Greece 
and  the  islands  of  the  jEgean  has  helped  to  make 
it  a  center  of  far  greater  commercial  activity  even 
than  Constantinople.  It  has  also  derived  con- 
siderable importance  from  the  fact  that  it  is  the 
only  Turkish  city  which  the  fleets  of  Europe  and 
America  can  visit,  and  during  the  cooler  months 
there  is  seldom  a  time  when  one  or  more  war- 
ships are  not  anchored  in  the  roadstead.  The 
colloquial  Turkish  name  of  the  city  is  Giaour 
Izmiri  (Infidel  Smyrna). 

As  a  center  for  missionary  work  Smyrna  has 
been  prominent  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
interest  of  its  name  as  the  home  of  Polycarp,  and 
as  one  of  the  Seven  Churches  addressed  by  the 
Apostle  John,  naturally  drew  attention  to  it; 
but  even  more  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
at  the  commencement  of  the  19th  century  it 
was  the  only  city  of  Turkey  that  was  really  open 
to  missionaries,  and  with  which  there  was  direct 
communication  from  European  and  American 
seaports.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
early  established  an  agent  here,  and  the  first  mis- 
sionaries of  the  ABCFM  to  the  Levant  were 
located  here. 

At  present  the  missionary  societies  working  in 
Smyrna  are  as  follows:  ABCFM  (1820),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries,  two  with  their  wives;  6 
women  missionaries,  46  native  workers,  men  and 
women;  5  outstations,  7  day  schools,  1  kinder- 
garten, 2  boarding  schools,  1  college,  and  203  pro- 
fessed Christians;  London  Jews  Society  (1829), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  4 
native  workers;  Church  of  Scotland  Jewish  Mis- 
sion, with  (1900)  6  missionaries,  men  and  women; 
2  schools,  a  dispensary,  and  a  hospital;  Kaisers- 
werth  Deaconesses'  Institute  (1853),  with  (1903) 
14  deaconesses  and  assistants,  1  boarding  school, 
1  orphanage,  and  1  sanitarium  for  deaconesses; 
FCMS  (1891),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  1  woman  missionary,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
day  school,  and  14  professed  Christians.     There 


687 


THE  .  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Smith,  FAi 
S.  P.  C.   K. 


is  also  a  Sailors'  Rest,  which  serves  as  a  center 
for  work  among  foreign  sailors,  and  also  for 
native  inquirers. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  developments  of 
missionary  worlt  has  been  the  formation  and  the 
growth  of  the  Greek  Evangelical  Alliance.  It 
originated  in  the  effort  of  Rev.  Geo.  Constantine, 
D.D.,  a  native  Greek  educated  in  America,  to 
place  the  work  among  the  Greeks  on  a  firm  basis 
of  self-support.  Dr.  Constantine  commenced  a 
series  of  sermons  in  the  hall  connected  with  "The 
Rest,"  and  by  his  eloquence  drew  large  crowds. 
A  profound  impression  was  made,  and  the  hier- 
archy saw  that  they  were  in  danger  of  losing  their 
power.  The  volatile  nature  of  the  Greeks  ren- 
dered it  easy  to  stir  a  tumult.  Threats  were 
uttered,  stones  were  thrown  at  the  windows  of  the 
hall,  and  on  one  Sunday  a  mob  attacked  the  place, 
seeking  especially  for  Dr.  Constantine.  Not 
finding  him,  they  turned  and  went  to  his  house, 
which  they  assaulted. 

The  priests  soon  saw  that  such  proceedings 
chiefly  injured  their  own  church.  The  result 
was  a  greater  interest  in  Christian  life  than  at  any 
time  before.  The  Alliance  grew  until  it  has 
become  a  most  potent  influence,  not  only  in 
Smyrna,  but  in  many  other  Greek  communities 
of  Asia  Minor. 

SMYTHIES,  Charles  Alan:  Bishop  of  Zanzibar 
and  Missionary  Bishop  in  East  Central  Africa. 
Born  August  6,  1844.  Died,  1894.  He  was  con- 
secrated in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1883,  and  left 
England  the  first  of  the  following  year  for  his 
work  in  Africa,  arriving  in  Zanzibar  on  February 
25,  1884.  In  1885  he  paid  his  first  visit  to  Lake 
Nyasa,  and  during  this  visit  he  secured  a  site 
on  the  island  of  Likoma,  a  convenient  and  com- 
paratively healthful  center  for  the  Universities 
Mission  work  on  the  lake.  This  mission  settle- 
ment on  the  lake  showed  a  steady  increase;  in 
four  years  the  staff  had  more  than  doubled;  and 
the  little  steel  vessel,  built  in  England  and  sent 
out  in  four  hundred  packages,  enabled  the  mis- 
sionaries to  found  station  after  station  on  the 
lake  shore.  Under  the  supervision  of  the 
bishop,  the  work  at  Zanzibar  steadily  grew  in 
power.  At  Kiungani,  where  Bishop  Smythies 
resided,  a  theological  college  was  formed,  which 
was  the  heart  of  the  mission.  In  1889,  and  again 
in  1891,  the  bishop  visited  every  station  under 
his  jurisdiction;  and  in  1890,  on  his  trip  home, 
he  conferred  with  the  German  Chancellor,  in 
order,  if  possible,  to  remove  the  possibility  of 
friction  with  the  German  agents  on  the  East  Coast 
of  Africa,  since  by  a  recent  treaty  the  Magila 
stations  remained  within  the  sphere  of  German 
influence.  The  interview  was  entirely  successful, 
and  the  effect  of  this  visit  was  most  beneficial  to 
the  cause  of  missions  in  and  around  Zanzibar.  In 
the  completion,  equipment,  and  opening  of  the 
hospital  at  Zanzibar,  Bishop  Smythies  saw  the 
fruit  of  years  of  earnest  labor,  and  it  has  proven 
to  be  an  institution  of  increasing  usefulness. 
Bishop  Smythies  was  buried  at  sea,  May  7,  1894. 

SOCIETY  FOR  PROMOTING  CHRISTIAN 
KNOWLEDGE :  This  Society  is  the  oldest  organ- 
ization for  Christian  work  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. It  was  founded  in  1698,  and  has  since 
carried  on  its  work  in  ever-widening  spheres  of 
activity,  and  with  ever-increasing  expenditure  of 
fimds.  Its  history  has  not  been  furnished  us, 
and  the  meager  outline  which  can  be  gained  from 
its  report  must  suffice  instead  of  the  lengthy 


notice  which  is  its  due,  both  on  account  of  its 
age  and  its  wide-spread  usefulness. 

The  Society  is  composed  of  persons  who  must, 
of  necessity,  be  members  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land or  some  church  in  full  communion  with  it. 
New  members  are  received  on  recommendation 
of  the  existing  members,  after  which  they  are 
elected,  and  on  payment  of  a  certain  annual  sum 
are  entitled  to  full  privileges.  Persons  who  make 
subscriptions  are  entitled  to  some  privileges  in 
the  form  of  receiving  books  and  tracts;  thus  the 
Society  is  a  close,  .self-perpetuating  organization, 
with  mtimate  connection  with  the  Church  of 
England,  tho  apparently  responsible  to  no  one 
except  its  own  elected  authorities. 

His  Majesty  the  King  of  England  is  the  patron 
of  the  Society.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  is 
the  president,  and  there  are  numerous  vice- 
presidents,  comprising  mainly  the  other  arch- 
bishops and  bishops  of  the  Church  of  England, 
together  with  like  dignitaries  of  any  church  in 
full  communion  with  the  Church  of  England,  who 
may  be  members  of  the  Society.  There  are  four 
treasurers,  two  general  secretaries,  and  two  wlio 
are  designated  organizing  secretaries.  A  general 
committee  of  administration  called  the  Standing 
Committee  is  assisted  by  special  committees, 
such  as  the  Committee  of  Finance,  of  Foreign 
Translation,  of  General  Literature,  the  Tract 
Committee,  etc. 

Under  one  broad  comprehensive  title,  the 
Society  combines  the  work  of  many  departments, 
each  of  which  might  well  be  the  work  of  a  single 
society.  In  its  endeavor  to  aid  Christian  work 
of  any  kind  throughout  the  world  it  is: 

1.  The  Bible  and  Prayerhook  Society  of  the 
Church  of  England:  In  this  branch  of  the  work  is 
included  the  producing  and  circulating  of  these 
books  or  portions  of  them  not  only  in  England 
but  throughout  the  world.  The  publication  is  in 
seventy-five  or  more  different  languages.  By 
grants  of  money  or  books;  by  supplying  these 
publications  at  cost  or  less;  by  assisting  transla- 
tion and  publication  committees  in  various 
foreign  lands,  the  work  is  carried  on,  and  during 
the  year  1900  about  60,000  books  and  tracts 
were  circulated  in  non-Christian  lands. 

2.  A  Tract  and  Pure  Literature  Society:  It  pro- 
duces and  circulates  distinctively  religious  works, 
together  with  works  by  able  writers,  on  science, 
history,  and  topics  of  general  interest  and  utility, 
including  fiction  of  an  elevating  character.  In 
connection  with  this  branch  of  the  work,  grants 
of  books  are  made  to  churches,  reading-rooms, 
missions  of  every  kind,  seamen,  soldiers,  etc. 

3.  A  Home  Church  Mission  and  Education 
Society:  In  addition  to  the  general  Home  Mission- 
ary work  carried  on  along  the  lines  already  men- 
tioned, there  are  the  following  distinctive  objects 
of  its  care ; 

(a)  A  college  (St.  Katherine's)  at  Tottenham, 
England,  where  school-mistresses  are  trained, 
(b)  A  training  college  for  lay-workers  maintained 
in  the  east  of  London,  (c)  Money  is  given 
toward  the  building  and  fitting  up  of  church 
institutes,  and  the  building  and  renting  of  Sun- 
day schools,  together  with  other  purposes  in  con- 
nection with  church  education,  such  as  the  pro- 
viding of  lecturers  on  church  history,  the  prepara- 
tion of  lectures,  and  magic-lantern  slides,  to  be 
rented  out  at  low  rates  to  churches  or  districts 
desiring  such  means  of  educatuig  the  masses,  and 
many  other  plans  along  the  same  general  lines. 

4.  A  Foreign  and  Colonial  Missionary  Society: 


S.  p.  C.  K. 
S.   P.  G. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


688 


This  work  is  accomplished  in  various  particular 
ways: 

(a)  Churches,  chapels,  and  mission-rooms  are 
built  or  aided  in  dioceses  of  the  Church  the 
world  over,  (b)  Native  clergy  and  lay  mis- 
sion agents  are  trained  for  the  work,  (c)  Medical 
missions  are  maintained  or  established,  and  med- 
ical missionaries,  both  men  and  women,  are 
trained,  (d)  Funds  are  provided  for  the  support 
of  clergymen  called  to  work  in  destitute  regions, 
(e)  As  mentioned  above,  Bible  translation  and 
other  work  of  similar  character  has  been  aided, 
and  books  of  many  varieties  have  been  donated, 
or  the  work  of  publication  assisted.  In  connec- 
tion with  this  work,  the  Translation  Committee 
is  assisted  by  vernacular  sub-committees  in 
Madras  (Tamil  and  Telugu),  Punjab,  Sind,  Bom- 
bay, and  Calcutta.  Depots  for  the  Society's 
publications  have  been  established  at  many 
places  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

5.  Emigrants'  Spiritual  Aid  Society:  An  impor- 
tant and,  in  some  respects,  unique  feature  of  the 
work  of  the  Society  is  the  care  which  it  exercises 
over  the  many  emigrants  who  annually  leave  the 
shores  of  Great  Britain  for  other  lands.  These 
emigrants  are  watched  over  both  spiritually  and 
temporally;  chaplains  attend  them  on  their 
departure,  and  letters  are  given  to  the  Society's 
representatives  in  foreign  lands,  who  meet  the 
emigrants  on  their  arrival,  give  them  aid  in 
locating  in  their  new  homes,  besides  protecting 
them  from  the  wiles  of  those  who  are  ready  to  take 
advantage  of  their  ignorance  and  strangeness. 
In  many  cases  chaplains  are  deputed  to  accom- 
pany a  shipload  of  emigrants,  and  a  matron  is 
sent  to  look  after  the  single  women.  During  the 
voyage — a  long  one  when  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
or  South  America  is  the  objective  point — the 
Gospel  is  preached,  church  ordinances  are  admin- 
istered, and  the  weary  days  whiled  away  by  lec- 
tures which  deal  with  the  country  of  their  destina- 
tion, in  regard  to  which  many  of  the  emigrants 
are  sadly  ignorant.  At  the  principal  ports  of  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Tasmania,  Australia, 
South  Africa,  South  America,  and  New  Zealand 
representatives  of  the  Society  meet  emigrants  on 
arrival  to  render  any  needed  service. 

These,  briefly  stated,  are  the  various  branches 
of  the  important  work  of  the  Society.  Two  facts 
of  this  work  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  all  inter- 
ested in  Foreign  Missions:  1st.  This  Society 
aided,  and  at  last  entirely  supported,  during 
nearly  one  hundred  years,  the  Mission  (Danish- 
Halle)  in  South  India,  founded  by  the  King  of 
Denmark  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 
2d.  The  Society  has  furnished  translations  of 
Holy  Scripture  and  other  religious  literature — 
particularly  the  Prayer  Book — in  many  insignifi- 
cant or  transitory  dialects  of  obscure  tribes.  The 
number  of  volumes  or  copies  of  tracts  issued  at 
home  and  abroad  by  the  Society,  each  year,  is 
about  14,000,000. 

SOCIETY  FOR  THE  PROPAGATION  OF  THE 
GOSPEL  IN  FOREIGN  PARTS:  From  the  time  of 
Cranmer  (1534)  the  different  movements  for  Eng- 
lish colonization  recognized,  more  or  less  clearly  in 
principle,  the  necessity  of  Christian  work,  but  the 
performance  fell  so  far  short  that,  in  1675,  an  in- 
quiry was  instituted  by  the  authorities  of  the 
Church  of  England  into  the  situation.  One  result 
was  the  organization,  in  1698,  of  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  The  limited 
scope  of  this  Society  did  not  meet  all  the  need, 
and  in  1701  a  special  committee  was  appointed 


in  the  Lower  House  of  the  Convocation  of  the 
Province  of  Canterbury  to  inquire  "into  ways  and 
means  for  Promoting  Christian  Religion  in  our 
Foreign  Plantations."  The  result  was  a  petition 
to  the  King,  granted  by  William  III.,  on  which  a 
charter  was  drawn  up,  and,  in  its  turn,  granted 
by  the  King.  The  first  meeting  was  held  at 
Lambeth  Palace,  June  27,  1701,  the  "letters 
patent"  presented,  officers  elected,  and  steps 
taken  for  full  organization  of  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts. 

The  organization  of  the  Society,  as  completed 
by  supplemental  charter  in  1882,  includes:  1.  In- 
corporated members  (1900),  about  6,000  in  num- 
ber, elected  by  the  corporation,  in  virtue  of 
donations  to  the  Society's  funds,  or  special 
service  rendered. 

2.  A  Standing  Committee,  including  certain 
members  ex  officio  (the  President,  Vice-Presi- 
dent, Treasurer,  and  Secretary),  24  members 
elected  by  the  Society  out  of  the  incorporated 
members  (six  retiring  annually),  and  Diocesan 
Representatives  (two  for  each  diocese  in  England 
and  Wales,  and  four  each  for  Armagh  and  Dublin, 
in  Ireland)  also  elected  from  resident  incorpo- 
rated members. 

3.  The  President  is  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  the  Archbishop  of  York  and  the 
Bishops  of  the  Church  of  England  holding  sees 
in  England  and  Wales  are  Vice-Presidents.  The 
Lord  Almoner  and  Dean  of  Westminster,  the 
Dean  of  St.  Paul's  and  Archdeacon  of  London, 
and  the  two  Regius  and  two  Margaret  Professors 
of  Divinity  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  are  mem- 
bers ex  officio. 

Aside  from  certain  special  duties  reserved 
for  the  Society,  the  entire  management  rests  with 
the  Standing  Committee,  ten  members  forming  a 
quorum.  The  Society  meets  once  a  month,  but, 
aside  from  some  routine  business,  these  meetings 
are  distinctly  missionary  in  their  character.  At 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Society  for  the  election 
of  members,  officers,  etc.,  all  incorporated  mem- 
bers are  entitled  to  vote,  absentees  being  allowed 
the  use  of  voting  papers.  Only  once  has  a  poll 
of  the  entire  Society  been  taken  in  this  manner 
(1894). 

The  Society  depends  for  most  of  its  support 
upon  the  regular  diocesan  and  parish  organiza- 
tions of  the  Church  of  England,  but  it  has  kept 
pace  with  modern  development  by  the  formation 
of  children's  associations,  and  has  also  junior 
clergy  missionary  associations.  The  most  effi- 
cient agency,  however,  is  the  Women's  Mission 
Association.  This  was  first  suggested  in  1866, 
approved  by  the  Society,  and  the  complete 
organization  effected  on  May  11  of  that  year. 

The  original  title  was  "Ladies'  Association  for 
Promoting  the  Education  of  Females  in  India  and 
other  Heathen  Countries  in  Connection  with  the 
Missions  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel."  This  was  altered  in  1895  to  "Women's 
Mission  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Female 
Education  in  the  Missions  of  the  SPG,"  and  its 
objects  defined:  "(1)  To  provide  missionary 
teachers  for  the  Christian  instruction  of  native 
women  and  girls  in  such  countries  by  sujjporting 
abroad  and  selecting  and  preparing  m  this  coun- 
try. Church  women  well  qualified  for  the  work; 
(2)  to  assist  female  schools;  (3)  to  employ  other 
methods  for  promoting  Christian  education;  (4) 
to  assist  generally  in  keeping  up  an  interest  in 
the  work  of  the  Society."  Tho  independent  of  the 
Society  as  regards  its  funds,  its  methods  of  work 


689 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


S.  p.  C.  K. 
S.  P.  G. 


were  m  entire  harmony  with  the  plans  of  the 
Society,  and  it  entered  no  fields  without  its 
approval.  The  development,  however,  was 
so  rapid,  and  its  system  of  diocesan  and  parochial 
associations  so  parallel  with  that  of  the  Society, 
that  it  was  deemed  best,  in  1903,  to  secure  a  still 
closer  arrangement.  This  went  into  effect  Jan- 
uary 1,  1904.  (1)  The  WMA  Committee  became 
the  Committee  of  Women's  Work  (SPG);  (2) 
WMA  branches  became  local  associations  of 
SPG;  (3)  WMA  workers  became  SPG  workers; 
(4)  the  WMA  general  fund  was  amalgamated 
with  the  SPG  general  fund;  (5)  where  a  special 
interest  is  preferred  contributions  may  be  so 
designated.  Provision  was  also  made  for  in- 
creased representation  of  subscribers,  and  each 
diocese  has  the  right  to  send  a  representative  to 
the  committee,  also  everj^  woman  subscriber  to 
SPG  may  vote  at  the  election  of  new  members  to 
succeed  those  retiring,  under  the  by-laws,  at  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  Society. 

By  the  terms  of  the  charter  the  object  of  the 
Society  was  (1)  to  provide  maintenance  for  an 
orthodox  clergy  in  the  plantations,  colonies,  and 
factories  of  Great  Britain  beyond  the  seas,  for  the 
instruction  of  the  King's  loving  subjects  in  the 
Christian  religion;  (2)  to  make  such  other  pro- 
vision as  may  be  necessary  for  the  propagation 
of  the  Gospel  in  those  parts;  (3)  to  receive, 
manage,  and  dispose  of  the  charity  of  His  Majes- 
ty's subjects  for  those  purposes.  The  first  action 
was  an  inquiry  as  to  the  religious  state  of  the 
colonies;  the  second  the  raising  of  a  fund.  As 
to  the  scope  of  the  Society's  work,  it  was  inter- 
preted at  first  as  being  primarily  the  interests  of 
'our  own  people,"  then  the  "conversion  of  the 
natives;"  but  in  1710  it  was  laid  do^vn  by  the 
Society  that  that  branch  of  its  design  which 
related  to  the  "conversion  of  heatliens  and 
infidels  ought  to  be  prosecuted  preferably  to  all 
others."  While  this  exclusive  policy  was  not 
pursued,  the  Society  has  never,  even  from  the 
beginning,  lost  sight  of  this  part  of  its  missionary 
character  and  duty. 

North  America:  For  the  greater  part  of  the  18th 
century  the  colonies  of  Great  Britain  in  America, 
together  with  the  negroes  and  Indians,  consti- 
tuted the  principal  field  of  the  Society.  Its  first 
missionary.  Rev.  Geo.  Keith,  originally  a  Presby- 
terian, afterward  a  Friend,  and  then  a  member 
of  the  Church  of  England,  landed  in  Boston 
June  11,  1702.  The  next  move  was  to  South 
Carolina,  where  Rev.  S.  Thomas  landed  at 
Charleston,  December  25,  1702.  Other  sections 
were  occupied,  and  considerable  work  was  done 
among  the  Indians,  as  well  as  for  the  colonists. 
In  the  political  disturbances,  in  1776,  the  Society's 
missionaries,  numbering  77  in  all,  were  loyal  to 
the  Crown,  and  were  nearly  all  forced  to  retire 
from  their  missions,  altho  a  few  eventually 
took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  republic.  The 
result  of  the  war,  "while  it  almost  destroyed  the 
Church  in  the  'United  States,'  set  her  free  to 
obtain  that  gift  of  the  Episcopate  so  long  denied." 
In  1785  the  Society  formally  withdrew  from  the 
mission  field  in  the  United  States,  in  which  it 
had  employed  309  missionaries  among  6  Euro- 
pean-Colonial races,  negroes,  and  14  Indian 
tribes,  conducting  its  work  in  8  languages. 

Other  fields  were  taken  up  in  North  America  as 
follows:  Newfoundland,  1703-5,  again  in  1726; 
the  Bermudas,  1822;  Nova  Scotia,  1728-43,  1749; 
Quebec,  1759-64;  New  Brunswick,  1783;  Ontario, 
1784;  Cape  Breton,  1785;  Printe  Edward  Island, 
44  ' 


1819;  Manitoba  and  Northwest  Territories,  1850; 
British  Columbia,  1859. 

In  all  of  these,  921  central  stations  have  been 
occupied,  and  1,597  ordained  missionaries  (Euro- 
pean and  Colonial)  employed  among  the  12 
European-Colonial  races,  31  Indian  tribes,  as  well 
as  negroes,  Cliinese,  Japanese,  and  mixed  races, 
using  12  languages.  At  the  time  of  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Society  there  were  500  (estimated) 
church  members  and  2  clergy.  In  1900  there 
were  666,175  members  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  1,310  clergy,  inoluduag  169  in  the  employ  of 
the  SPG. 

In  1902  the  General  Synod  of  a  Missionary 
Society,  consisting  of  members  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  Canada,  was  formed  for  the  special 
prosecution  of  missionary  work  among  the 
Indians,  Eskimos,  etc. 

West  Indies:  Tlie  SPG  made  grants  of  books 
and  passage  money  to  clergymen  going  to  the 
West  Indies  as  early  as  170.3,  but  didnot  under- 
take special  work  in  that  field  until  1712,  when  it 
came  mto  possession  of  the  Codrington  estates  in 
Barbadoes,  willed  to  the  Society  for  the  special 
purpose  of  maintaining  "Monies  and  Mission- 
aries to  be  employed  in  the  Conversion  of 
Negroes  and  Indians."  Plans  were  immediately 
made  for  a  college,  but  the  building  was  not  com- 
pleted until  1745.  On  the  abolition  of  slavery 
the  compensation  money  was  invested  by  the 
Society  for  the  benefit  of  the  college.  The  in- 
come of  late  years  has  considerably  fallen  off,  but 
there  are  still  several  scholarships,  and  there  is 
also  connected  with  it  a  Mission  House  for  train- 
ing workers  for  Africa.  It  has  been  affiliated  with 
the  University  of  Durham.  The  hurricanes  that 
have  devastated  the  islands,  and  more  recently 
the  terrible  eruption  at  St.  Vincent,  have 
heavily  taxed  the  Society's  ability  to  help  the 
weak  churches. 

The  Bahamas  were  occupied  by  a  representa- 
tive of  the  Society  in  1733,  but  the  work  was 
cliiefly  among  the  settlers,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  abolition  of  slavery  in  1835  that  any  special 
forward  movement  was  made.  In  that  year  work 
was  commenced,  with  special  reference  to  the 
negroes  in  Tobago,  the  Leeward  Islands,  and 
Jamaica,  and  the  next  year  in  Trinidad.  The 
Society  has  been  specially  interested  in  the 
Jamaica  Church  Theological  College,  founded 
in  1883. 

Central  America:  In  1742  the  Society's  atten- 
tion was  drawn  to  the  needs  of  the  Indians  of  the 
Mosquito  Coast,  and  six  years  later  a  missionary 
was  sent,  but  comparatively  little  was  done  there 
or  in  British  Honduras,  occupied  temporarily  in 
1844,  and  again  in  1877,  and  1892.  In  1883  the 
Society  sent  a  chaplain  to  Panama  to  care  for  the 
laborers  who  went  in  companies  from  Jamaica 
and  other  islands,  and  in  1896  it  sent  a  chaplain 
to  Costa  Rica. 

South  America:  The  Society's  labors  in  South 
America  have  been  chiefly  in  British  Guiana,  tho 
a  missionary  was  maintained  for  a  few  years 
(1860-7)  in  the  Falkland  Islands.  In  Guiana  the 
work  has  been  chiefly  among  the  aboriginal  Indian 
tribes,  Arawaks,  Waranos,  etc.,  and  among  the 
Chinese  and  East  Indian  coolies.  Especially  suc- 
cessful has  been  the  work  in  the  Pomeroon 
River,  where  there  are  good  schools,  churches, 
and  parsonages.  The  Church  of  England  chap- 
laincies in  South  America  are  under  the  general 
supervision  of  the  South  American  Missionary 
Society. 


p.  p.  G. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


690 


Africa:  The  Society  entered  the  African  field 
on  the  West  Coast  in  1752;  South  Africa,  1820; 
the  Seychelles,  1S32;  Mauritius,  1836;  St.  Helena, 
1847;  Madagascar,  1864.  In  all  these  sections 
the  work  embraced  native  as  well  as  European 
races.  In  North  Africa  it  has  had  some  chap- 
laincies among  the  English  communities. 

West  Africa:  Tlie  Royal  African  Company,  in 
1720,  made  application  to  the  Society  to  recom- 
mend chaplains  for  their  factories,  but  it  was  not 
till  30  years  later  that  an  accredited  representa- 
tive went  as  a  missionary.  Rev.  Thomas 
Thompson,  a  graduate  of  Cambridge,  who  had 
served  in  New  Jersey,  resolved  to  devote  himself 
to  work  in  Guinea,  and,  receiving  appointment, 
arrived  at  the  river  Gambia  in  January,  1752.  He 
went  to  Sierra  Leone,  passed  into  the  mterior  and 
met  with  not  a  little  success,  sending  three  boys 
to  London  for  training,  one  of  whom,  Philip 
Quaque,  returned  to  work  among  his  people, 
being  the  first  of  a  non-European  race  to  receive 
Anglican  ordination  (1765).  There  were  no 
great  results  of  the  work,  and  he  remained  the 
sole  missionary  for  a  considerable  part  of  the 
time,  serving  as  chaplain.  After  his  death  (1816) 
for  eight  years  two  chaplains  were  commissioned  to 
superintend  the  free  schools,  but  from  1824  to 
1851  the  Society  had  no  permanent  connection 
with  West  Africa,  altho  it  gave  some  assistance 
at  Bathurst  and  Fernando  Po. 

In  1851  the  churches  in  Barbados  turned  their 
attention  to  Africa,  and  organized  a  society  in 
connection  with  the  SPG,  which  the  Society 
assisted  with  funds.  Care  was  taken  to  avoid 
collision  with  other  societies  in  the  region,  and, 
finally,  a  location  was  decided  upon  at  Rio 
Pongas,  130  miles  north  of  Sierra  Leone,  among 
the  Susus  and  Mohammedans.  Since  1864  the 
entire  work  has  been  in  the  hands  of  native 
missionaries,  and  has  not  developed  largely. 

South  Africa:  The  first  work  of  the  Society  in 
South  Africa  was  specially  directed  to  the  needs 
of  the  English  colonists,  by  the  appointment  of 
three  chaplains  in  1820,  supported  chiefly  by  the 
Government,  but  directed  by  the  Society. 
Schools  were  established,  some  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  children  of  emancipated  slaves.  The 
first  Bishop  of  Cape  Town  was  appointed  in  1847, 
and  then  commenced  a  more  aggressive  work  for 
the  different  classes,  especially  the  Kaffirs.  Then 
two  more  dioceses,  Grahamstown  and  Natal,  were 
created,  the  scattered,  individual  efforts  became 
united,  and  work  among  the  natives  was 
extended,  until  it  assumed  the  first  place  in  the 
Eastern  section,  the  colonists  being  able  to  pro- 
vide for  themselves.  Thus,  while  in  Cape  Town 
the  SPG  clergy  are  all  working  among  colonists, 
in  the  dioceses  of  St.  John's  andZululand  all  (47) 
are  missionaries,  working  among  the  natives;  in 
Grahamstown,  14  out  of  21;  in  Natal,  11  out  of  21; 
in  Mashonaland,  7  out  of  9;  in  Bloemfontein,  9 
out  of  16  are  toissionaries  to  the  heathen.  This 
work  has  been  very  successful.  Special  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  education,  the  institutions 
of  the  Society  mcluding  a  college  at  Zonnebloem, 
an  institution  at  Grahamstown,  a  normal  college 
at  Keiskama  Hock,  a  training  college  at  Maritz- 
burg,  a  college  for  boys  at  Balgowan,  Natal;  St. 
John's  College,  Umtata;  McKenzie  Memorial 
College  at  Isandhlwana,  St.  Mary's  Training 
College  in  Basutoland,  and  others  at  Pretoria  and 
Bloemfontein. 

The  policy  of  the  Society  in  educating  and 
ordaining  natives    and  placing  them  on   a  par 


with  the  white  clergy  has  given  it  a  certain 
advantage,  and  has  drawn  to  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land a  considerable  number  who  have  felt  that 
the  other  denominations,  particularly  the  Dutch 
Church,  did  not  recognize  them  to  the  full. 

A  survey  of  the  special  fields  shows  that  in 
Western  Cape  Colony  (1821-1900)  the  Society 
employed  112  ordained  European  missionaries  in 
57  stations  among  the  colonists;  in  the  Eastern 
Division  (1830-1900),  95  European  and  10  native 
missionaries  in  56  stations  among  the  colonists, 
Kaffirs,  and  Basutos;  in  Kaffraria  (1855-1900), 
52  European  and  19  native  missionaries  in  30 
stations  among  the  colonists,  half-castes,  Kaffirs, 
Basutos,  Fingoes,  Hottentots,  Griquas,  etc.;  in 
Griqualand  West  (1870-1900),  21  European  mis- 
sionaries in  6  stations  among  colonists,  Kaffirs, 
Zulus,  Matabeles,  etc.;  in  Natal  (1849-1900),  85 
European  and  9  native  missionaries  in  38  stations 
among  colonists,  Kaffirs,  East  Indians,  etc.;  in 
Zululand  (1859-1900),  13  European  and  1 
native  missionaries,  in  9  stations,  among  colo- 
nists and  Zulus;  in  Swaziland  (1879-1900),  4 
European  missionaries  at  1  station,  among  col- 
onists and  Swazis;  in  Tongaland  (1895-1900),  2 
European  missionaries,  itinerants,  among  the 
Zulu-Kaffirs;  Portuguese  E.  Africa  (1894-1900), 
6  European  missionaries  in  6  stations,  among 
colonists  and  natives;  in  the  Transvaal  (1864- 
1900),  49  European  missionaries,  in  32  stations, 
among  colonists,  Africans,  and  East  Indians;  in 
Orange  River  Colony  (1850-1900),  23  European 
and  1  native  missionaries,  in  6  stations,  among 
colonists  and  natives;  in  Basutoland  (1875-1900), 
16  European  missionaries  in  5  stations,  among 
colonists  and  natives;  in  Bechuanaland  (1873- 
1900),  5  European  missionaries  in  5  stations 
among  colonists  and  natives;  in  Matabele  and 
Mashonaland  (1893-1900),  24  European  and  1 
native  missionaries,  in  6  stations  among  colo- 
nists and  natives;  in  Central  Africa  (1879-1881), 
1  European  and  1  native  missionary  at  1  station 
among  natives. 

The  Society  has  carried  on  work  also  in  Mau- 
ritius and  the  Seychelles  (1832-1900),  in  St. 
Helena  (1847-1900),  in  Tristan  d' Acunha  (1850- 
56,  1881-9),,  and  in  Madagascar  (1864-1900). 
With -the  exception  of  Madagascar  the  work  has 
been  chiefly  for  colonists  and  for  coolies — East 
Indians,  Cliinese,  etc. 

In  Madagascar  the  entire  force  of  12  European 
and  22  native  missionaries  are  primarily  engaged 
in  work  for  the  Malagasy  and  Creoles,  tho  they  do 
not  neglect  the  foreign  population.  St.  Paul's 
College  at  Ambatoharanana  is  a  flourishing 
institution. 

Australasia:  The  work  of  the  SPG  in  this  sec- 
tion of  the  world  commenced  in  1793  with  the 
appointment  of  four  schoolmasters  to  New  South 
Wales,  two  for  Sydney,  and  two  for  Norfolk 
Island,  where  a  penal  colony  had  been  estab- 
lished. Application  was  made  for  a  clergyman, 
especially  for  work  among  the  convicts,  but  for 
one  reason  and  another  none  was  sent  until  1841. 
References  were  made  at  diilerent  times  to  the 
needs  of  the  natives,  but  practically  the  entire 
effort  of  the  Society  has  been  directed  to  the 
colonists.  The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  Victoria 
(occupied  1838),  tho  something  there  was  done  for 
the  Chinese  coolies.  In  Queensland,  on  the  con- 
trary (1840),  considerable  attention  was  paid  to 
the  South  Sea  Islanders,  who  came  there  in  num- 
bers, as  well  as  to  the  aborigines  and  Chinese 
coolies.     The  sam5  is  true  of  the  work  in  South 


691 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


S.  p.  G. 


and  West  Australia  (1836).  In  Tasmania  (1835) 
the  Society's  work  has  been  entirely  colonial. 
Moore  College,  Sydney;  Christ's  College,  Tas- 
mania, and  St.  John's  Theological  College,  N.  S. 
W.,  have  been  assisted  by  the  Society. 

■To  New  Zealand  the  SPG  sent  chaplainsin  1840 
to  take  up  work  among  the  colonists,  some  of 
which  was  the  direct  result  of  the  labors  of  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Marsden  and  of  the  CMS.  As  the 
Maori  Christian  community  developed,  the 
Society  gave  assistance  in  the  local  and  mission- 
ary work  until  1880,  since  which  time  it  has 
limited  its  aid  to  grants  in  favor  of  the  theolog- 
ical college  and  a  few  churches.  The  connection 
between  the  SPG  and  the  Melansian  Mission  {q.  v.) 
was  very  close  from  the  time  of  the  appointment 
of  Bishop  Selwyn  in  1841;  but  its  special  work 
is  dated  from  1849  and  continued  until  1885, 
when  the  Australasian  church  assumed  respon- 
sibility, except  so  far  as  the  Melanesian  Mission 
itself  carried  on  the  work.  Closely  associated 
with  this  was  the  care,  for  a  few  years  (1853-6),  of 
the  Pitcairn  Islanders. 

Asia:  The  great  work  of  the  SPG  in  Asia  has 
been  in  India,  dating  from  1820.  It  has  also, 
however,  maintained  missions  in  Borneo  (1848), 
Straits  Settlements  (1856),  China  (1863),  Korea 
(1889),  Japan  (1873),  and  at  different  times  and 
for  limited  periods  in  Western  Asia. 

India:  While  the  first  direct  work  of  the  Society 
in  India  commenced  in  1820,  the  influence 
exerted  by  its  organization  largely  influenced  the 
starting  of  the  Danish-Tamil  Mission  of  Ziegen- 
balg  and  Plutschau  in  1705.  When  grants  in  aid 
of  that  mission  were  later  made  by  the  SPCK, 
the  SPG  shared  in  making  them,  subsequently, 
as  in  America,  assuming  the  place  of  principal. 
Until  early  in  the  19th  century,  however,  little 
interest  seems  to  have  been  felt  in  England  for 
missions  in  that  land.  Commencing  with  1806, 
emphasis  began  to  be  laid  at  the  Society's  anni- 
versaries on  the  need  of  work  in  India,  and  as  the 
first  step  it  was  urged  that  a  bishopric  be 
established.  Finally,  through  the  urgent  repre- 
sentations of  the  SPCK,  and  of  Mr.  Wilberforce, 
the  Rev.  T.  P.  Middleton  was  consecrated  the 
first  bishop  of  Calcutta  ui  the  chapel  of  Lambeth 
Palace  on  May  8,  1814.  It  is  significant  of  the 
power  of  the  opposition  to  Christian  work  in  the 
East  that,  altho  the  change  in  the  charter  of  ^  the 
East  India  Company  had  been  made  the  previous 
year,  and  missionaries  of  other  organizations 
were  already  in  the  field,  tliis  consecration  was 
private,  and  the  sermon  was  suppressed.  It  was 
four  years  later  that  the  SPG  decided  to  take  up 
work  in  India,  and  it  was  not  until  1820  that 
Bishop's  College  was  founded  at  Calcutta.  The 
Bible  Society,  SPCK,  CMS,  and  SPG  united  in 
securing  scholarships,  and  the  development  of  the 
college  in  the  direction  of  Bible  translation,  the 
preparation  of  Christian  literature,  and  the  edu- 
cation of  students  for  Christian  work. 

The  work  of  the  SPG  in  the  Madras  Presidency 
dates  from  1825,  when,  m  response  to  a  special 
appeal  by  Bishop  Heber,  it  took  up  the  work 
which  the  Danish  Mission  had  commenced,  but 
which  had  been  suffered  to  languish.  Here,  as  in 
Calcutta,  the  first  efforts  were  educational. 
"Bishop  Heber's  Seminary"  was  not  long- 
lived,  but  subsequent  efforts  were  more  success- 
ful. The  first  appointment  of  a  missionary  to 
Bombay  was  in  1830,  but  it  .was  several  years 
later  that  work  was  really  inaugurated.  The 
Northwest  Provinces  were  entered  at  Cawnpore 


(1833)  in  response  to  a  special  request  from  the 
English  residents,  and  Debroghur,  in  Assam,  was 
occupied  by  a  missionary  in  1851,  as  the  result  of 
the  appointment  of  a  government  chaplain  to 
Assam  in  1842.  The  work  of  the  Society  in  the 
Punjab,  commenced  at  Delhi  in  1854,  was  in 
response  to  the  urgent  request  of  residents,  sup- 
ported by  the  influences    of   the  lieut. -governor. 

The  general  work  of  tlie  Society  in  India,  as  in  ^ 
Africa,  combines  the  interest  of  tlie  foreign  resi- 
dents, the  conversion  of  natives,  the  establish- 
ment of  the  ecclesiastical  organization  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  of  education  for  all 
classes  in  various  directions.  The  diversity  of 
these  enterprises  makes  it  practically  impossible 
to  do  more  than  give  summaries.  These,  again, 
in  the  absence  of  certain  statistics,  lose  mucli  of 
their  value. 

In  Bengal  (1820-1900)  the  Society  was  repre- 
sented by  75  European  and  44  native  ordained 
missionaries  in  32  stations;  in  Madras  (182.5-1900), 
by  112  European  and  127  native  missionaries, 
in  78  stations;  in  Bombay  (1830-1900),  by  42 
European  and  7  native  missionaries  in  15  sta- 
tions; in  the  United  (NW)  Provinces  (1833- 
1900),  by  28  European  and  6  native  missionaries, 
in  5  stations;  in  the  Central  Provinces  (1846- 
1892)  by  2  European  missionaries  in  2  stations; 
in  Assam  (1851-1900),  by  9  European  and  2 
native  missionaries  in  4  stations;  in  Punjab  by 
32  European  and  4  native  missionaries  in  5 
stations;  in  Kashmir  (1866-7,  1893-1900)  by  1 
European  and  1  native  missionary  at  1  station; 
in  Burma  (1859-1900)  by  35  European  and  21 
native  missionaries  in  17  stations;  in  Ceylon 
(1840-1900)  by  39  European  and  31  native  mis- 
sionaries in  31  stations. 

Among  the  more  important  educational  insti- 
tutions are:  Bishop's  College,  Calcutta;  St. 
Stephen's  College,  Delhi;  St.  John's  College, 
Rangoon;  Trichinopoly  College;  St.  Peter's  Col- 
lege, Tanjore;  Christ  Church  College,  Cawnpore; 
St.  'I'homas'  College,  Colombo,  besides  a  number 
of  training  institutions,  seminaries,  etc. 

The  statistics  from  the  different  dioceses  not 
being  prepared  with  reference  to  any  comparison 
of  the  tables,  it  is  difficult  to  summarize  them. 
There  appear  to  be  not  far  from  50,000  communi- 
cants and  about  100,000  baptized  persons  con- 
nected with  the  missions  of  the  SPG  in  British 
India. 

Borneo:  Mr.  James  Brooke,  a  naval  cadet,  who, 
while  traveling  for  health  became  interested  in 
the  suppression  of  piracy  in  the  Malay  Archipel- 
ago, fitted  out  a  ship,  and  in  1838  landed  at 
Kuching  in  Sarawak,  in  Borneo,  and  made  him- 
self master  (or  Rajah)  of  the  province.  As  soon 
as  he  had  established  his  rule,  he  invited  the 
Church  of  England  to  establish  a  mission.  The 
SPG  felt  unable  to  assume  the  work,  but  con- 
tributed to  a  committee  which  -v{S^  organized  for 
the  purpose  in  1846.  The  first  missionaries  went 
out  in  1851,  and  two  years  later  the  SPG  took 
charge  of  the  mission.  The  mission  suffered 
severely  at  different  times,  from  rebellions  and 
wars,  but  on  the  whole  its  work  among  the  Dyaks 
prospered,  and  subsequently  (1861)  it  extended 
rts  efforts  to  the  Straits  Settlements.  In  all  41 
European  and  7  native  missionaries  have  worked 
in  28  stations.  Among  the  stations  occupied  in 
the  Straits  Settlements  are  Singapur,  Penang, 
and  Perak;  in  Sarawak,  Kuching,  Quop,  Skerang, 
and  Undup,  and  in  North  Borneo,  Labuan, 
Kudat,  and  Sandakan.     In   1902,  15  clergymen 


S.  p.  G. 
Sonierville 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


conducted  work  in  78  villages;  there  were  12 
churches  and  32  chapels;  1,781  communicants 
and  4,850  baptized  persons,  21  schools,  with  35 
teachers  and  913  scholars. 

China:ln  1843  the  Society  appealed  for  funds 
fo-r  a  chaplain  for  the  English  residents  in  Hong- 
kong, but  it  was  not  until  1863  tliat  its  first  mis- 
sionary, specially  commissioned  for  work  among 
the  Gliinese,  reached  Peking.  Other  stations 
have  been  occupied  as  follows:  Chefu,  1874;  Tai- 
yuen-fu  and  Ping  Yi.i,  1879;  Yung-ohing  (orig- 
mally  founded  by  CMS,  1869),  and  Lung-hua- 
lien,  1880;  Tien-tsin,  1890;  Pei-tai-ho  and  AVei- 
hai-wei,  1900.  In  all,  24  European  and  1  native 
missionaries  have  been  employed  in  9  stations, 
their  work  being  distinctively  for  the  Chinese. 

Japan:  As  early  as  1859,  when  Japan  was  first 
opened  to  missions,  the  Society  reserved  a  sum 
of  money  for  work  there,  but  placed  its  first  mis- 
sionaries in  Tokio  in  1873.  Other  stations  occu- 
pied were  Kobe  (1870),  Awaji  (1878),  and  Yoko- 
hama (1889).  There  is  also  some  work  on  the 
Bonin  Islands.  There  have  been  in  all  21  Euro- 
pean and  10  native  missionaries  in  14  stations. 
In  1902  there  were  12  clergy,  11  churches,  606 
communicants,  and  1,170  baptized  persons. 

Korea:  One  of  tlie  founders  of  the  SPG  Mission 
in  Japan  urged,  in  1880,  that  work  be  taken  up  in 
Korea.  At  that  time  it  was  deemed  premature, 
but  some  years  later  Bishop  Scott  of  North 
China  and  Bishop  Bickersteth  of  Japan  pressed 
the  matter,  and  in  1889,  Rev.  C.  J.  Corfe  was  con- 
secrated the  first  missionary  bishop  of  Korea. 
He  reached  Seoul  in  1890  with  several  associates. 
The  plan  of  work  contemplated  several  years  of 
preparation  before  direct  evangelistic  worlv  should 
be  undertaken;  but  in  1896  aggressive  work  was 
indicated  by  the  enrollment  of  a  class  of  catechu- 
mens. Other  places  occupied  are:  Chemulpo 
(1891),  Mapo  and  Kanghoe  (1893).  In  1902  the 
reports  showed  5  clergy,  4  churches,  117  com- 
municants, and  204  baptized  persons. 

Western  Asia:  The  Society's  work  has  been 
chiefly  confined  to  ocnasional  assistance  to  tlie 
Anglican  Bisliop  of  Jerusalem,  the  English  com- 
munities in  Smyrna  and  Cyprus,  and  to  work 
among  the  Assyrian  Christians  (sje  Archbishop's 
Mission). 

Europe:  In  its  early  history  the  (Society  assisted 
in  the  building  of  churclies  in  various  places,  and 
in  providing  service  for  English  communities,  but 
to  no  great  extent  until  1841,  when  the  see  of 
Gibraltar,  including  the  English  congregations  of 
Southern  Europe,  was  founded,  a  grant  in  aid 
being  made  from  the  Society's  fund.  After  the 
Crimean  War  (1854-56)  it  assisted  in  erecting  the 
Crimean  Memorial  Church  in  Constantinople^  and 
maintained  a  cliaplain  in  charge  of  it.  Since  then 
it  has  added  a  number  of  chaplaincies  in  different 
parts  of  Europe. 

The  Society  lias  always  paid  special  attention 
to  the  preparation  and  dissemination  of  literature, 
including  not  only  Bibles  and  prayer-books,  but 
general  religious  literature.  It  has  assisted  to 
establish  libraries  in  the  different  colleges  in 
which  it  has  been  interested,  and  among  its  gifts 
is  noted  one  to  Harvard  College,  Boston,  Mass., 
in  1764,  on  the  occasion  of  a  disastrous  fire.  Its 
list  of  publications  includes  the  entire  number  of 
languages  which  its  missionaries  have  used  in 
their  labors. 

Ohgans  :  The  Mission  Field,  monthly;  The  East  and  the  West, 

quarterly. 
Pasooe  (C.  F.),  Two  Hundred  Years  of  the  SPO,  London,  1901. 


SOCIETY,  or  TAHITI,  ISLANDS :  A  group  in  the 
South  Pacific,  between  latitude  16°  and  18°  south 
and  longitude  148°  to  155°  west.  There  are  13 
islands  and  several  small  islets,  divided  by  a  chan- 
nel 60  miles  wide  into  two  groups,  originally 
called  the  Georgian  Islands  and  the  Society 
Islands.  The  principal  islands  are  Tahiti,  Moorea 
or  Eimeo,  Titiaroa,  Maitea,  Raiatea,  Tubuai, 
Moru,  Huahine,  Tahaa,  ^nd  Bora-Bora.  Tahiti, 
by  far  the  largest  of  these  islands,  has  an  area  of 
600  square  miles.  Moorea  has  50  square  miles. 
The  general  physical  characteristics  are  the  same 
for  nearly  every  one  of  the  group.  There  is  a 
mountainous  interior,  with  low,  rich  plains  slop- 
ing down  to  the  coast.  Coral  reefs  surround 
them.  The  water  supply  is  abundant,  tropical 
fruits  and  vegetables  grow  in  great  abundance, 
and  a  salubrious,  temperate  climate  is  universal. 
The  natives  belong  to  the  Malay  race,  and  re- 
semble the  Marquesans  and  Rarotongans  in 
appearance,  but  differ  greatly  from  them  in  their 
customs.  The  dialect  is  one  of  the  softest  lan- 
guages in  Oceania.  Agriculture  is  in  a  rather 
backward  state,  except  in  Tahiti  and  Moorea, 
where  7,000  acres  are  under  cultivation,  produ- 
cing cotton,  sugar,  and  coffee.  The  population  ia 
about  15,000. 

The  Society  Islands,  together  with  the  Mar- 
quesas, Tuamotu,  Gambler,  Tubuai,  the  island 
of  Rapa  the  Wallis  or  Uea,  and  Howe  Islands, 
form  what  is  called  the  French  Establishment  in 
Oceania,  under  the  control  of  a  commandant- 
general,  who  resides  in  Tahiti.  Tahiti  was  taken 
possession  of  in  1844,  and  the  various  other  islands 
were  gradually  encroached  upon  by  the  French 
until,  in   1880,  they  became  French  possessions. 

Missions  in  the  Society  Islands:  In  1797  the 
LMS  sent  out  its  missionary  ship  "Duff,"  and 
the  missionaries  arrived  at  Tahiti  in  March  of  that 
year.  From  that  time  until  the  French  occupa- 
tion in  1844  great  success  attended  the  labors  of 
the  missionaries,  whose  influence  over  the  con- 
verted islanders  was  exerted  for  their  best  tem- 
poral and  spiritual  good.  In  1818,  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  LMS,  the  Christian  king  Pomare 
originated  and  formed  a  Tahitian  Missionary 
Society.  In  1839,  just  previous  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  French  protectorate,  the  following 
testimony  to  the  good  effects  of  missionary  labor 
was  given  by  the  captain  of  a  whaling  vessel: 
"This  is  the  most  civilized  place  that  I  have  been 
at  in  the  South  Seas.  It  is  governed  by  a  digni- 
fied young  lady,  about  25  years  of  age.  They 
have  a  good  code  of  laws,  and  no  liquors  are 
allowed  to  be  landed  on  the  island.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  gratifyi:ig  sights  the  eye  can  witness  on 
a  Sunday  to  see  in  their  church,  which  holds  about 
5,000,  the  queen,  near  the  pulpit,  with  all  her 
subjects  around  her,  decently  appareled,  and  in 
seemingly  pure  devotion."  With  the  institution 
of  'the  French  protectorate  the  people  were  cor- 
rupted by  the  combined  influence  of  rumsellers 
and  other  foreigners.  The  LMS  Mission  was 
embarrassed  and  broken  up,  and  withdrew  from 
Tahiti  and  Moorea  in  1852.  At  that  time  there 
were  1,870  church  members  in  those  two  islands. 
Huahine  was  first  reached  by  the  missionaries  in 
1808,  and  the  history  of  the  mission  there  is  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  Tahiti  and  Moorea.  The  islands 
were  practically  Christianized,  missionary  socie- 
ties were  organized,  and  in  1852  there  were  962 
church  members  in  Huahine,  Raiatea,  Bora- 
Bora,  and  Maupiti.  Since  the  French  occupa- 
tion of  the  islands  the  work  in  Tahiti  and  Moorea 


693 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


S.  p.  G. 
Somerville 


has  been  under  the  care  of  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Society,  which  has  continued  the  good  work  done 
by  the  LMS  in  the  face  of  two  great  difficulties — 
the  traffic  in  liquors  and  the  Romish  propaganda. 
Tahiti  is  divided  into  two  sections,  north  and 
south,  and  in  the  former,  which  includes  the  town 
of  Papeete,  there  are  several  missionary  stations 
which  are  under  the  care  of  native  pastors,  and  in 
the  latter  there  are  eight  stations,  each  with  a 
native  pastor,  all  under  the  supervision  of  Euro- 
pean missionaries.  Bora-Bora  and  Maupiti  have 
each  one  native  ordained  pastor  under  the  LMS. 
SOEMBER  PAKEM:  A  village  in  Java,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  situated  105  miles  S.  E.  of  Surabaya. 
Station  of  the  Java  Committee's  Mission,  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  day  school. 

SOGAE  ADU:  A  village  on  the  Island  of  Nias, 
Sumatra,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  on  the  N.  E. 
coast,  about  20  miles  S.  E.  of  Gunong  Sitoli. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  8  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  2  day  schools,  and  401  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  231  are  communicants. 

SOH-P'ING.     See  So-ping-fu. 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS:  A  group  in  the  South 
Pacific,  consisting  of  a  double  chain  extending 
from  northwest  to  southeast,  between  5°  and  10° 
54'  south  latitude,  and  154°  40'  and  162°  30'  east 
longitude.  They  were  first  discovered  in  1567, 
but  as  yet  have  not  been  explored  to  any  great 
extent.  Since  1886  the  northerly  part  of  the 
group,  including  the  islands  of  Bougainville, 
Choiseul,  Isabel  or  Mahaga,  together  with  various 
smaller  islands,  with  a  total  area  of  57,000  square 
miles,  has  been  seized  by  Germany.  The  popu- 
lation of  this  part  is  estimated  at  80,000.  The 
principal  other  islands  are  San  Cristoval,  Guad- 
dalcanal,  Malanta,  and  Bouro.  The  climate  is 
damp  and  unhealthful  on  the  coast,  tho  the  high 
lands  are  probably  more  salubrious.  Thenatives 
belong  to  the  Melanesian  race,  and  the  language  is 
of  Melanesian  type,  but  with  dialects  differing  in 
different  islands.  Of  their  religion,  habits,  and 
customs  little  is  known,  tho  they  resemble  the 
other  Melanesians  in  most  things,  and  are  known 
to  be  cannibals  to  some  extent.  Mission  work  is 
carried  on  in  these  islands  by  the  Melanesian 
Mission. 

SOMALILAND  (French) :  An  African  possession 
cf  France,  including  the  colony  of  Obock,  lying 
between  Abyssinia  and  the  Strait  of  Bab-el 
Mandeb,  bounded  north  by  Eritrea  and  south  by 
Italian  Somaliland,  touching  also  British  Somali- 
land  on  the  east.  It  has  46,000  square  miles  of 
area  and  200,000  inhabitants  (estimated).  The 
natives  are  Gallas  or  Danakil.  The  capital  and 
chief  port  is  Jibutil,  where  two  French  mission 
schools,  one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  were 
opened  in  1902,  under  government  grants. 

SOMALILAND  (Italian):  A  protectorate  of 
Italy  in  Africa,  lying  on  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
bounded  landward  by  Abyssinia,  French  Somali- 
land  and  British  Somaliland  on  the  north,  by 
British  East  Africa  on  the  .southwest,  and  by  the 
Egyptian  Sudan  on  the  west.  The  area  is 
about  100,000  square  miles,  the  population  about 
400,000,  chiefly  Somalis.  The  country  away 
from  the  coast  is  mountainous,  and  largely  unex- 
plored by  Europeans.  As  a  mission  field  it  is 
thus  far  unoccupied.  The  Mohammedan  faith 
and  the  pagan  religions  still  wholly  prevail. 

SOMALILAND    Protectorate:    A    British   pro- 


tectorate in  Africa.  It  adjoins  Abyssinia  on 
the  southwest  of  that  state,  having  Italian 
Somaliland  on  the  south;  comprises  68,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  about  500,000,  all 
Mohammedans,  and  largely  nomadic.  This  ter- 
ritory has  been  the  scene  of  operations  of  "The 
Mad"  Mullah,"  as  he  is  called.  Military  opera- 
tions by  Great  Britain  for  tlie  pacification  of  the 
interior  of  the  country  have  been  going  on  for 
some  years.  Some  account  of  the  "Mad  Mul- 
lah" is  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  prob- 
lem of  introducing  and  maintaining  missions  in 
this  region.  The  name  of  the  man  is  Mohammed 
Abdullah.  He  belongs  to  a  section  of  the 
Ogaden  tribe  in  the  southwest  of  Somaliland,  and 
married  a  girl  of  the  Ali  Gheri,  one  of  the  Dolba- 
hanta  tribes  in  the  southeast  of  the  British  pro- 
tectorate. By  his  marriage  he  extended  his 
influence  from  Abyssinia  on  the  west  to  the 
borders  of  Italian  Somaliland  on  the  east.  The 
Ali  Gheri  were  his  first  followers.  These  were 
presently  joined  by  two  sections  of  the  Ogadens. 
He  set  himself  forward  as  a  champion  of  Moham- 
medan puritanism,  paying  great  attention  to  the 
rites  of  religion,  making  several  pilgrimages  to 
Mecca,  and,  as  is  the  custom  with  religious  revival- 
ists in  Islam,  advocating  the  free  use  of  the  sword 
to  purify  the  earth.  Every  visit  to  Mecca  added 
to  his  reputation  and  increased  his  influence. 

In  1899  the  Mullah  openly  incited  the  tribes  to 
rebellion  against  the  British  authority,  and  soon 
afterward  he  began  to  resort  to  force  to  gain  sup- 
porters. His  methods  were  primitive  but  effect- 
ive, and  he  continued  to  gain  adherents. 

It  was  in  August,  1899,  that  the  first  serious 
alarm  over  the  activity  of  the  Mullah  was  felt. 
He  appeared  at  Burao  with  5,000  men,  marched 
to  within  fifty  miles  of  Berbera,  where,  tho  the  two 
British  gunboats  kept  him  from  the  city,  he  was 
clever  enough  to  use  them,  for  he  told  his  fol- 
lowers their  searchlights  were  the  eyes  of  God 
looking  on  them  with  favor. 

Since  then  it  has  been  frequently  reported  that 
he  has  met  with  "crushing  defeat,"  but  he  has 
always  turned  up  again  as  strong  and  menacing 
as  ever. 

Besides  the  bravery  and  fanaticism  of  the  Mul- 
lah's followers,  the  British  officers  have  also  had 
to  contend  against  the  cowardice  of  the  native 
Somali  levies. 

It  has  been  found  necessary  to  bring  Indian 
troops  to  carry  on  the  war  against  this  redoubt- 
able fanatic.  Meanwhile  the  devastation  of  the 
country  by  the  Mad  Mullah  and  his  followers 
continues,  and  there  is  as  yet  no  possibility  of 
missionary  enterprise  in  that  region. 

SOMERSET  EAST:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony, 
Africa,  80  miles  northwest  of  Grahamstown. 
Population,  2,231.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1869), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  5  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  14  Sunday  schools,  3  day 
schools,  and  149  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Church,  with  (1901)  25  native  workers,  15  out- 
stations, 4  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  7 
day  schools  and  335  professed  Christians. 

SOMERVILLE:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S. 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Transkei  region,  18  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Maclear.  Chm ate  sub-tropical.  Sta- 
tion of  the  UFS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  28  native  workers,  17  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  14  day  schools,  and  695  com- 
municant Christians. 


Sonff-cliin 
Somth    American 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


b-94 


SONG-CHIN:  A  town  in  Korea,  in  the  district 
of  Phyeug-j-ang,  al)out  50  miles  W.  of  Wen-san. 
Station  of  tlie  PCC  (1901),  with  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  3  native  workers,  1  dispensary,  1 
hospital  and  60  professed  Christians,  of  whom  14 
are  communicants. 

SONGDO:  A  town  in  Korea,  also  called  Kai- 
seng,  situated  40  miles  N.  W.  of  Seoul.  Popula- 
tion, 60,000.  _  Station  of  the  MES  (1897),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 3  native  workers,  9  outstations,  2  Sun- 
day schools,  and  279  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  79  are  communicants. 

SONG-YANG.     See  Sung-y.\ng-hsien. 

SOOCHOW.     See  Su-chau-fu. 

SO-PING-FU:  A  town  in  Shan-si,  China,  sit- 
uated about  220  miles  W.  of  Peking.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1895),  but  the  work  has  not  been  reor- 
ganized since  the  Boxer  rising,  when  all  the  mis- 
sionaries were  killed.  Some  write  the  name 
Soh-p'ing. 

SOPO:  A  mission  station  of  the  German  Bap- 
tists of  Berlin,  situated  in  Kamerun,  Africa, 
about  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Euea,  with  (1900)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,!  nati'\'e 
worlver,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  board- 
ing school,  and  67  professed  Christians. 

SORABJI  KHARSEDJI:  Died  August  14,  1S94. 
A  Parsee  of  Bombay.  Amid  the  bitterest  per- 
secutions he  confessed  his  faith  boldly  and  clearly 
at  the  police-office,  where  he  was  under  police 
protection  ;  before  the  magistrates  and  a  great 
company  of  Hindus,  Par.sees,  and  Mohammedans. 
To  escape  from  the  abuse  to  which  he  was 
exposed  in  Bombay,  he  accepted  service  under 
the  SPG  at  Ahmedabad  in  the  summer  of  1842. 
Later  he  entered  the  CMS  divinity  class  at  Nasik, 
and  was  engaged  in  conducting  the  orphanage 
and  building  the  Christian  settlement  of  Sharan- 
pur.  In  1878  he  was  admitted  to  deacon's 
orders  at  Agra;  and  from  1882  he  resided  at 
Poona,  serving  as  an  honorary  missionary.  He 
was  familiar  with  the  two  gre.at  Zoroastrian  lan- 
guages, the  Zend  and  Pehlevf,  to  the  mysteries 
of  which  only  Parsee  high  priests  are  admitted. 
And  this  has  made  his  book  on  The  Comparison  of 
Zoroastrianism  and  Christianity  a  valualilo  ad- 
dition to  Parsee  literature.  His  works,  entitled 
Zoroaster  and  Zoroastrianism,  and  Life  of 
Christ,  were  left  by  him  unfinished.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Gujarati  Bible  Revision  Com- 
mittee; and  the  New  Testament  portion  of  his 
work,  and  all  of  his  work  on  the  Old  Testament, 
except  one  book,  were  finished  just  before  his 
labors  ceased.  His  heroic  death,  as  well  as  his 
consecrated  life,  was  the  means  of  the  spiritual 
awakening  of  many  Parsees  and  Hindus  of 
Poona.  The  booklet  (CMS),  How  a  Native 
Clergyman  Died,  written  by  his  daughter,  is  an 
impressive  work. 

SOUTH  AFRICA  DUTCH  REFORMED 
CHURCH  MISSION  TO  BRITISH  CENTRAL 
AFRICA:  Headquarters:  Sea  Point,  Cape  Town, 
Cape  Colony. 

In  1884  the  ministers  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  of  the  Cape  Colony  decided  to  form  a 
Ministers'  Mission  Union,  with  a  view  to  support- 
ing their  own  ordained  representative  in  the 
foreign  mission  field.  They  undertook  to  con- 
tribute each  from  $25  to  $,50  per  annum,  out  of 
their  private  salary,  for  this  purpose.  While 
looking  out  for  a  field  in  which  to  work,  they  were 


generously  invited  by  the  Livingstonia  Mission 
of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  to  come  to  the 
region  we,st  of  Lake  Nyasa,  and  share  their 
extensive  field  there.  In  1888  the  Rev.  A.  C. 
Murray,  an  ordained  minister  of  their  church, 
after  an  eighteen  months'  course  of  medical 
training  in  Scotland,  left  South  Africa  as  their 
first  representative  in  that  field.  The  following 
year  he  w;,s  joined  by  another  missionary  from 
South  Africa,  and  they  selected  the  district  to  the 
S.  AV.  of  Lake  Nyas;-,  as  their  sphere  of  labor. 

The  first  station  was  Mvera,  in  what  is  now 
the  British  Central  Africa  Protectorate.  Gradu- 
ally the  work  extended,  until  in  1899  the  staff 
consisted  of  sixteen  workers  (including  three  mis- 
sionaries), working  at  three  main  stations — 
Mvera,  Kongwe,  and  Mkoma. 

In  1897  the  Synod  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  of  the  Orange  Free  State  decided  to  start 
their  own  mission  work  in  Central  Africa,  and 
sent  out  two  men,  who  proceeded  from  Mvera 
farther  to  the  west,  and  planted  their  first  station 
at  Magwero,  in  the  district  of  N.  E.  Rhodesia,  near 
Fort  Jameson.  This  work,  altho  carried  on  unin- 
terruptedly all  the  time,  could  not  be  extended 
owing  to  the  South  African  war,  but  within  a 
year  after  peace  was  made  the  Orange  River 
Colony  Synod  decided  to  send  out  three  more 
men  (one  being  an  agriculturist),  and  a  new  sta- 
tion was  started  at  Madzimoyo.  In  1899  the 
chairman  of  the  Cape  Colony  Mission,  Dr.  An- 
drew Murray,  urgeci  upon  the  committee  defi- 
nitely to  pray  for  a  doubling  of  the  stations  and 
workers  in  Nyasaland  within  five  vears.  To 
many  friends  of  the  Mission  this  seemed  too  much 
to  ask  for,  the  more  as  within  six  months  the 
devastating  war  broke  out.  But  within  four 
years  there  were  thirty-four  workers  instead  of 
sixteen,  and  six  stations  instead  of  three.  The 
first  two  converts  were  baptized  in  1894,  but  no 
others  were  admitted  into  the  Church  till  1897, 
when  thirty  adults  were  baptized.  Since  then 
the  number  has  steadily  increased,  till  in  1901 
there  were  in  all  close  upon  three  hundred  church 
members,  and  at  the  end  of  1903  over  seven 
hundred.  The  district  occupied  by  the  above 
Mission  in  Nyasaland  (not  counting  N.  E. 
Rhodesia)  contains  about  300,000  natives.  With 
two  more  stations  it  will  be  sufficiently  occupied 
and  can  then  be  worked  by  means  of  native 
evangelists  and  catechists.  There  are  over  one 
hundred  outschools  under  native  teachers,  with 
an  attendance  of  7,000  children,  while  about 
10,000  natives  are  continually  under  religious 
influence  and  instruction.  The  conditions  of 
baptism  are  rather  strict,  as  the  candidate  must 
have  been  at  least  one  year  in  the  catechumen 
class,  and  have  manifested  a  thorough  breaking 
with  all  heathen  customs  during  that  time. 
Consequently  cases  of  discipline  are  rare. 

There  are  seven  unmarried  women  workers  in 
this  field,  who  are  supported  by  the  Women's 
Mission  Union  {Vrouwcn  Zending  Bond)  of  the 
same  church.  This  union  also  supports  women 
workers  in  other  mission  stations  m  the  Cape 
Colony,  Transvaal,  Bechuanala.nd,  and  Mashona- 
land.  Hoadquarturs:  Huguenot  College,  Well- 
ington, Cape  Colony. 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY: 
Captain  Allen  Gardiner,  the  founder  of  the  South 
American  Mi.^isionary  Society,  first  visited  South 
America  with  a  view  of  establishing  a  mission  in 
1 838.  For  yci.rs  the  great  aim  of  his  life  had  been 
to  become  "the'  pioneer  of  a  Christian  mission  to 


695 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


8ong-ohin 
South  Auiericazi 


the  most  abandoned  heathen."  With  this  object 
steadily  in  view,  he  went  through  a  series  of 
travels  and  adventures  for  some  years,  taking  his 
wife  and  children  with  him  on  long,  perilous 
journeys.  After  repeated  disappointments  in 
other  countries,  he  was  led  to  direct  all  his  efforts 
toward  the  natives  of  South  America.  His  at- 
tempts to  reach  the  mountain  tribes  were 
defeated  by  the  jealousy  of  the  Roman  Catholic 

Eriests.  At  last  he  thought  that  not  even  the 
panish  priesthood  would  consider  it  worth  while 
to  interfere  with  anything  he  might  attempt 
among  the  poor  savages  at  the  desolate  southern 
corner  of  the  great  continent,  and  by  beginning 
with  them  he  hoped  to  reach  in  time  the  nobler 
tribes. 

In  1830  Captain  (afterward  Admiral)  Fitzroy 
had  been  sent  by  the  British  Government  to  sur- 
vey the  coasts  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  On  his  return 
to  England  he  took  with  him,  for  a  visit,  three 
native  lads  and  a  girl  of  nine  years.  They  were 
kindly  treated,  and  found  capable  of  learning 
a  good  deal.  When,  a  year  later,  Captain  Fitzroy 
took  them  back  to  their  own  land,  he  was  accom- 
panied by  a  Mr.  Williams,  who  hoped  to  remain 
in  Tierra  del  Fuego  as  a  missionary.  A  very  few 
days  sufficed  to  show  the  danger  of  this  attempt; 
he  returned  to  the  vessel,  and  all  thought  of  mis- 
sionary work  in  this  region  was  abandoned  until 
Captain  Gardiner  took  it  up.  His  hope  was  that 
the  natives  who  had  visited  England  might  be 
still  alive,  and  that  one  of  them — called  "Jemmy 
Button" — if  he  had  not  forgotten  all  his  English, 
might  act  as  interpreter  and  friend.  But  he 
found  great  difficulties  in  the  way.  England, 
while  warmly  supporting  missions  to  other  parts 
of  the  world,  seemed  utterly  indifferent  to  the 
fate  of  South  America.  After  much  effort  he  suc- 
ceeded, in  1844,  in  forming  a  society  called  the 
Patagonian  Missionary  Society;  soon  after,  he, 
with  a  few  companions,  attempted  to  establish  a 
mission  in  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Owing  to  the  hos- 
tility of  the  natives  it  was  a  complete  failure. 
The  Society  in  England  was  much  discouraged; 
"not  so  the  brave  captain."  The  funds  necessary 
were  secured  and  on  September  7,  1850,  he  again 
sailed  from  England.  With  him  were  Mr. 
Richard  Williams,  a  surgeon  in  good  practise; 
Mr.  Maidment  of  the  Church  of  England  YMCA, 
a  ship  carpenter  who  had  gone  on  the  previous 
expedition,  and  who  volunteered  his  services 
for  this  second  attempt,  saying  that  to  be  with 
Captain  Gardiner  was  "like  a  heaven  upon 
earth,"  and  three  Cornish  fishermen.  Christian 
men,  who  readily  offered  themselves  for  the 
"forlorn  hope,"  tho  plainly  warned  of  its  dangers. 
They  took  with  them  provisions  for  six  months, 
and  arranged  that  more  should  be  sent  by  the  first 
Dpportunity. 

On  the  5th  of  December  the  "Ocean  Queen" 
anchored  in  Banner  Cove,  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and 
on  the  ISth  she  sailed  away,  with  many  cheerful 
messages  to  friends  at  home  from  the  brave  men 
left  behind.  The  journals  of  Gardiner  and  Will- 
iams, preserved  almost  by  miracle,  tell  the  painful 
story  of  the  next  nine  months.  Misfortunes  and 
disasters  rapidly  succeeded  one  another.  In  a 
heavy  storm  an  anchor  and  both  small  boats  for 
landing  were  lost;  by  an  oversight  almost  the 
whole  supply  of  powder  and  shot  had  been  left  on 
board  the  "  Ocean  Queen,"  leaving  them  without 
the  means  of  obtaining  game,  and  also  without 
power  to  defend  themselves  from  the  attacks  of 
the  natives.     Later,  a  terrible  gale  made  a  com- 


plete wreck  of  the  "  Pioneer."  At  Garden  Island 
they  buried  several  bottles,  placing  above  them 
boards  of  wood  on  which  were  written,  "Look 
underneath."  Each  bottle  contained  a  written 
paper:  "We  are  gone  to  Spaniard  Harbor;  we 
nave  sickness  on  board.  .  .  .  Our  supplies  are 
nearly  out,  and  if  not  soon  relieved  we  shall  be 
starved."  They  also  painted  on  the  rocks  in  two 
places,  "You  will  find  us  in  Spaniard  Harbor." 
Then,  with  the  last  remaining  boat  they  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  Spaniard  Harbor.  The  fright- 
ful Fuegian  winter  began  in  April,  and  from  the 
terrific  storms  of  wind  and  snow  the  deep  cav- 
erns in  the  rocks  formed  their  best  refuge.  Their 
efforts  to  catch  game  and  fish  met  with  little 
success;  they  grew  weaker  and  wealcer;  the  sailor, 
John  Badcock,  was  the  first  to  die.  Mr.  Williams 
seems  to  have  realized  that  the  still  expected 
"ship"  would  arrive  too  late  for  his  relief,  and  his 
journal  contains  many  farewell  messages  to 
beloved  friends  at  home.  One  by  one  the  little 
band  p.assed  away;  it  is  probable  that  the  brave 
Gardiner  himself  was  the  last  survivor.  The  last 
entry  in  his  diary  is  September  5;  a  little  note  was 
also  found,  dated  September  6.  The  long-looked- 
for  vessel,  owing  to  strange  mistakes  and  delays, 
did  not  reach  the  coast  until  the  end  of  October. 
Following  the  directions  written  on  the  rocks,  the 
boat  was  found,  with  one  dead  body  on  board, 
and  another  on  the  shore,  while  books,  papers, 
etc.,  lay  scattered  around.  "The  captain  and 
sailors  cried  like  children  at  the  sight."  A  vio- 
lent gale  arising,  they  dared  not  remain  longer, 
but  put  out  to  sea  at  once,  carrying  the  sad  news 
to  Montevideo.  By  this  time  friends  in  England, 
greatly  alarmed,  had  applied  to  the  government 
for  aid,  and  the  frigate  "Dido"  was  sent  to  search 
for  the  lost  missionaries,  reaching  the  coast  in 
January.  Guided  by  the  writings  on  the  rocks, 
the  officers  soon  completed  the  sorrowful  discov- 
eries. In  Spaniard  Harbor  they  saw  on  a  rock 
the  verses  from  Psalm  Ixii:  5-8,  "My  soul,  hope 
thou  in  God,  for  my  expectation  is  from  Him," 
etc.,  with  the  drawing  of  a  hand  pointing  to  the 
spot  where  the  wreck  of  the  "Pioneer"  and  the 
bodies  of  Maidment  and  Gardiner  were  found. 
All  the  remains  of  the  martj'rs  were  reverently 
collected,  and,  after  the  reading  of  the  burial 
service  of  the  Church  of  England,  were  buried  in 
one  grave  beside  the  "Pioneer."  The  colors  of 
the  "Dido"  were  lowered,  and  three  volleys 
fired,  as  in  honor  of  an  officer's  funeral.  The 
heroic  death  of  Gardiner  and  his  companions 
accomplished  what  in  life  they  had  failed  to  do. 
The  Christian  public  of  England  soon  resolved 
that  the  dying  wishes  and  prayers  of  the  martyrs 
should  not  have  ascended  to  heaven  in  vain.  The 
last  directions  of  Captain  Gardiner,  so  wonder- 
fully preserved,  were  acted  upon;  the  Society  was 
re-formed  according  to  his  plan,  and  a  Christian 
mission  firmly  established  in  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
and  the  South  American  Missionary  Society  is 
rapidly  extending  its  agencies  over  many  regions 
of  the  great  continent. 

According  to  the  plan  of  Captain  Gardiner,  the 
South  American  Missionary  Society  should  have 
the  threefold  object  of  supplying  the  spiritual 
wants  of  "his  own  fellow-countrymen,"  the 
Roman  Catholics,  and  the  heathen  in  South 
America.  On  this  general  basis,  the  work  of  the 
Society  has  now  four  departments:  1.  Missions 
to  the  heathen.  2.  Evangelistic  (including  educa- 
tional, work.  3.  Chaplaincies.  4.  Work  among 
seamen. 


Sonth   American 
Sontliern  Baptist 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


696 


7.  Missions  to  the  Heathen.  (1)  Southern  Mis- 
sion: This  is  the  direct  successor  of  Capt.  Gard- 
iner's work,  and  is  especially  for  the  Yaligans  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego.  It  was  commenced  in  1854, 
when  the  missionary  schooner  "Allen  Gardiner" 
sailed  for  tlie  Falkland  Islands.  The  place  dis- 
creetly chosen  for  a  base  of  operations  wag 
Keppel  Island,  a  small  uninhabited  island  lying 
north  of  the  west  island  of  the  Falklands.  From 
there,  in  1856,  a  cautious  intercourse  was  com- 
menced with  the  Fuegians,  and  they  were  encour- 
aged to  visit  the  mission  station  at  Keppel  in 
small  parties.  After  much  toil  of  preparation  a 
Fuegian  family  from  one  of  the  larger  islands 
near  Cape  Horn  was  brought  to  Keppel  by  Mr. 
Allen  Gardiner,  son  of  Capt.  Gardiner,  in  1858. 
The  man  was  Jemmy  Button;  he  was  still  able  to 
speak  broken  English,  and  from  him,  at  this  early 
date,  the  missionaries  learned  sometliing  of  the 
Yahgan  language.  Much  pains  were  taken  to 
gain  the  confidence  of  these  natives,  and  to 
impart  to  them  some  religious  knowledge.  So 
friendly  did  tliey  seem  that  in  1859  the  mission- 
aries thought  they  might  venture  to  take  the  first 
step  toward  the  establishment  of  a  missionary 
station  in  their  Island  home.  Forming  their 
judgment  partly  from  their  visitors  at  Keppel 
Island,  and  partly  from  others  on  the  Fuegian 
coast,  they  believed  that  the  ferocity  of  tlie 
natives  had  been  overstated.  Accordingly,  they 
sailed  for  Woolya,  in  Navarin  Islandf.  Mr. 
Philips  was  the  leader  of  the  little  band  of  mis- 
sionaries, and  he  was  fearlessly  supported  by 
Captain  Fell  of  the  "Allen  Gardiner."  Their 
first  reception  was  friendly,  and  on  Sunday,  the 
6th  of  November,  tliey  went  ashore  to  conduct 
divine  worship.  While  thus  engaged  they  were 
attacked  and  massacred.  One  Yahgan  was 
taken  back  by  the  ship  which  went  in  search  of 
the  missionaries,  and  through  him  the  language 
was  learned,  so  that  when  another  attempt  was 
made  in  1863,  by  Bishop  Stirling,  it  proved  more 
successful.  The  people,  however,  gradually  dwin- 
dled in  numbers,  until  there  is  now  (1903)  but  a 
handful  left.  The  "Allen  Gardiner"  was  sold 
(1900)  and  lost  (1902).  There  remained  three 
stations,  Tekenika,  on  Hoste  Island,  Ushudia,  on 
the  mainland,  and  Keppel  Island,  each  under 
care  of  a  missionary. 

(2)  The  Paraguayan  Chaco:  The  mission  to 
this,  in  the  western  part  of  Paraguay,  was  com- 
menced in  1888.  There  are  (1902)  2" central  and 
4  outstations,  19  missionaries  (including  wives). 
The  work  is  carried  on  by  itinerating  and  by 
schools  for  the  Indians.  The  report  of  Bishop 
Every  (1902)  speaks  of  the  spiritual  results  among 
the  Indians  as  most  encouraging,  as  also  the  prog- 
ress in  the  scliools.  A  significant  event  was  the 
assembling  of  the  first  native  church  council  in 
August,  1902.  The  prayer  services  conducted  by 
the  natives  were  very  impressive. 

(3)  The  Araucanian  Mission:  This  was  begun 
in  1894  as  a  Jubilee  Memorial.  The  first  station 
occupied  was  Cholchol,  and  the  second,  Quepe. 
The  staff  (1902)  consisted  of  one  clergyman,  7 
laymen,  8  women  and  1  Mapuche  chief.  The  work 
is  chiefly  among  the  Mapuche  tribe  of  Indians, 
who  have  not  as  yet,  except  some  of  the  younger 
men,  come  under  the  influence  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  They  seem  anxious  to  learn, 
and  the  schools,  particularly  the  industrial 
school  at  Quepe,  are  crowded.  Medical  work,  as 
elsewhere,  is  an  invaluable  adjunct  in  winning 
the  svrapathy  of  the  people. 


II.  Evangelistic  Work:  This  is  carried  on  at 
Palermo,  Buenos  Aires  (1898),  and  Alberdi, 
Rosario  (1896).  At  Palermo  there  are  a  boys' 
school,  with  6  teachers,  a  girls'  school,  with  7 
teachers,  an  infant  school,  with  4  teachers,  an 
older  girls'  school,  with  3  teachers,  and  an  indus- 
trial and  trades'  institute,  with  3  teachers.  Con- 
nected with  this  station,  at  Maldonado,  are  two 
schools,  one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  and  at 
General  Urquiza,  a  mission  hall  and  schools,  the 
latter  not  directly  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  missionary.  At  Alberdi  there  is  a  home  and 
school.  The  whole  number  of  employed  workers 
is  54,  besides  9  honorary  helpers  and  several  phy- 
sicians, who  render  gratuitous  service. 

///.  Chaplaincies:  These  are  located  at  Sao 
Paulo  and  Santos,  Brazil;  Fray  Bentos,  Uruguay; 
Welsh  Colony,  Chubut,  Patagonia;  Sandy  Point 
(Punta  Arenas),  Straits  of  Magellan;  Villa  Rica, 
Paraguay;  Quino  and  Coquimbo,  Chile.  In  con- 
nection with  several  of  these  there  are  schools, 
and  not  a  little  general  evangelistic  work  is  done. 
IV.  Work  for  Seamen:  This  includes  a  Sailors' 
Home,  Rio  de  Janeiro;  a  Seamen's  Mission, 
Santos,  and  sailors'  homes  at  Buenos  Aires  and 
Rosario. 

In  all,  the  Society  occupies  19  stations  and  35 
outstations,  with  12  clergy,  61  laymen,  and  58 
female  workers. 

SOUTHERN  BAPTIST  CONVENTION:  The 
Southern  Baptist  Convention  was  organized  in 
the  city  of  Augusta,  Georgia,  in  May,  1845.  It 
originated  in  a  withdrawal  of  the  Southern 
churches  from  union  and  cooperation  with  "the 
General  Convention  of  the  Baptist  Denomina- 
tion in  the  United  States,"  popularly  known  as 
the  Triennial  Convention.  (See  article  on 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union.)  The  con- 
stitution of  this  convention,  as  well  as  the  history 
of  its  proceedings  from  the  beginning,  conferred 
on  all  the  members  in  good  standing  of  the  Bap- 
tist denomination,  whether  at  the  North  or 
the  South,  eligibility  to  all  appointments  ema- 
nating from  the  convention  of  the  Board.  Unmis- 
takable indications,  however,  led  the  Alabama 
Baptist  State  Convention  in  1844  to  adopt  a 
preamble  and  resolutions  which  were  submitted 
to  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Triennial 
Convention,  to  which  a  frank  and  explicit  answer 
was  returned,  that  "if  any  one  having  slaves 
should  offer  himself  as  a  missionary,  and  insist  on 
retaining  them  as  his  property,  we  could  not 
appoint  him.  One  thing  is  certain,  we  can  never 
be  a  party  to  any  arrangement  that  would  imply 
approbation  of  slavery." 

When  this  reply  was  made  known,  the  Board 
of  the  Virginia  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
addressed  a  circular  to  the  Baptist  churches  of 
Virginia,  suggesting  that  a  convention  be  held 
at  Augusta,  Georgia,  for  conference  as  to  the  best 
means  of  promoting  the  Foreign  Mission  cause, 
and  other  interests  of  the  Baptist  denomination 
in  the  South.  Both  at  the  North  and  the  South 
a  separation  seemed  inevitable.  At  the  North 
it  was  desired  by  many,  regretted  by  a  few,  and 
expected  by  all. 

Before  the  proposed  convention  in  Augusta 
could  meet,  the  Home  Mission  Society  at  its 
meeting  in  Providence,  in  April,  had  virtually 
declared  for  a  separation,  and  recommended  that 
as  the  existing  Society  was  planted  in  the  North, 
and  had  there  its  Executive  Board  and  charter, 
which  it  seemed  desirable  to  preserve,  it  be 
retained  by  the  Northern  churches,   and  those 


697 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Sontli  American 
Southern  Uaptist 


sympathizing  with  them  as  to  the  appointment 
of  slave-holders. 

At  the  call  of  the  Board  of  Managers  of  the 
Virginia  Foreign  Mission  Society,  there  assem- 
bled in  Augusta,  May  8,  1845,  310  delegates 
from  the  States  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Louisi- 
ana, Kentucky,  and  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Owing  to  the  short  notice  of  the  meeting,  other 
States  were  represented  only  by  letter.  The 
committee  appointed  for  the  purpose  presented 
a  resolution,  "That  for  peace  and  harmony,  and 
in  order  to  accomplish  the  greatest  amount  of 
good,  and  for  the  maintenance  of  those  Scriptural 
principles  on  which  the  General  Missionary  Con- 
vention of  the  Baptist  Denomination  of  the 
Untied  States  was  formed,  it  is  proper  that  this 
convention  at  once  proceed  to  organize  a  society 
for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel."  Then  fol- 
lowed the  adoption  of  a  constitution  which  was 
"precisely  that  of  the  original  union;  that  in 
connection  with  which,  throughout  his  mission- 
ary life,  Adoniram  Judson  lived,  under  which 
Ann  Judson  and  Boardman  died.  We  recede 
from  it  no  single  step.  We  use  the  very  terms, 
and  we  uphold  the  true  spirit  and  great  object  of 
the  late  General  Convention." 

Thus  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention  claims 
to  be  the  real  and  proper  successor  and  con- 
tinuator  of  that  body  which  "at  a  special  meet- 
ing, held  in  New  York,  November  19,  1845,  was 
'dissolved,'  and  the  American  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Union,  with  an  entirely  new  constitution  and 
a  "different  basis  of  membership,  was  organized 
in  its  stead." 

A  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  was  appointed, 
to  be  located  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  and  one 
for  Domestic  Missions,  to  be  located  in  Marion, 
Alabama.  In  1882  the  location  of  this  Board 
was  changed  to  Atlanta,  Georgia,  and  its  name 
was  changed  to  the  Home  Mission  Board.  It  has 
had  a  career  of  great  usefulness. 

A  Sundav-school  Board  was  organized  in  1891, 
with  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Frost,  D.D.,  as  corresponding 
secretary.  The  work  of  this  Board,  or  publish- 
ing house,  located  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  has 
steadily  grown. 

Thus  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention  has 
gathered  around  itself  the  enthusiastic  support 
of  the  Baptist  churches  of  the  South;  and  the  wis- 
dom of  its  formation  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
while  Southern  Baptists  contributed  to  the 
Triennial  Convention  in  31  years,  from  1814- 
1845,  $212,000,  during  the  34  years,  from  1845- 
1879  (covering  the  period  of  the  war),  their  con- 
tributions for  Foreign  Missions  alone  were  S939,- 
377.  From  1880  to  1890  the  contributions  were 
$812,662,  and  from  1890  to  and  including  a 
part  of  1903,  contributions  to  the  Foreign  Mission 
Board  were  $1,778,583;  for  the  single  year 
1902-3,  $218,752.62,  or  more  than  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  entire  Southern  States  to  the  "Trien- 
nial Convention"  prior  to  its  dissolution. 

Development  of  Work:  Immediately  after  the 
organization  of  ^he  Board  they  were  instructed 
to  correspond  with  the  Bost,->n  Board  with  regard 
to  mutual  claims;  and  were  authorized  to  make 
any  equitable  and  prudent  arrangement  with  that 
Board,  to  take  a  portion  of  its  missions  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Convention.  At  the  suggestion 
of  the  Boston  Board,  through  Dr.  Francis  Way- 
land,  it  was  agreed  that  "the  property  and 
liabilities  of  the  General  Convention  should 
remain  with  that  body,"  and  that  "the  mission- 


aries should  have  the  choice  of  the  associations 
with  which  they  would  be  connected." 

Under  this  arrangement  Rev.  J.  L.  Shuck,  the 
first  American  Baptist  missionary  to  China,  and 
Rev.  I.  J.  Roberts,  who  had  followed  Mr.  Shuck 
in  1836,  gave  in  their  adherence  to  the  Southern 
Convention.  Rev.  S.  C.  Clopton  and  Rev. 
George  Pearcy  were  commissioned  to  join  them, 
and  the  missions  of  the  new  Board  were  fairly 
inaugurated. 

Coincident  with  the  establishment  of  the  China 
mission,  it  was  determined  to  commence  work 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  where  missions  of  the 
Northern  Board  were  already  in  operation,  and  in 
1847  stations  were  formed  in  Liberia  and  in 
Sierra  Leone,  and  in  1850  in  Central  Africa. 

As  early  as  1850  the  attention  of  the  Board 
was  directed  to  South  America  as  an  important 
field,  but  it  was  not  until  1860  that  the  oppor- 
tunity was  afforded  for  carrying  out  the  plans 
of  the  Board.  The  Rev.  T.  j.  Bowen,  who  had 
been  obliged  to  leave  Africa  on  account  of 
ill-health,  volunteered  for  the  South  American 
field;  he  was  gladly  sent,  and  a  station  was 
founded  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  from  which  point  the 
work  has  rapidly  spread. 

In  1859  the  needs  of  Japan  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Board,  and  in  1S60  four  missionaries, 
two  ministers  and  their  wives,  were  sent.  All 
were  lost  at  sea  before  reaching  their  field  of 
labor.  The  enterprise,  tho  deferred,  was  never 
abandoned.  In  1889  four  missionaries  were  sent 
out,  who  founded  the  present  mission. 

The  duty  of  Baptists  to  send  the  pure  Gospel 
into  the  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  was  felt 
by  the  Board  from  the  very  beginning,  and 
France  was  chosen  as  a  field  for  missionary  labor; 
but  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  Victor  Emmanuel 
in  1870  opened  Italy  to  missionary  work,  and 
drew  attention  thither,  and  in  1871  Rome  became 
a  center  of  operations,  which  have  spread 
throughout  the  peninsula,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  a 
portion  of  Austria. 

In  1903  the  Board  began  a  new  mission  in 
Buenos  Aires,  Argentine  RepubUo,  sending 
thither  several  missionaries. 

Statement  of  the  Missions.  China:  The  work  of 
the  Southern  Convention  in  China  is  carried  on 
under  three  missions,  South  China,  with  Canton 
as  a  center,  but  extending  to  the  interior;  Central 
China,  with  Shanghai  as  a  center,  and  the  Shan- 
tung province.  In  1846  the  work  was  begun  in 
Canton  by  the  Rev.  George  Pearcy  and  Rev. 
Samuel  Clopton.  The  work  has  progressed  since 
that  time  with  little  or  no  interruption,  and 
Canton  has  been  the  largest  center  of  the  work  in 
China.  The  Mission  now  includes  13  churches 
and  46  stations,  in  which  labor  20  foreign  mis- 
sionaries and  50  native  helpers;  the  church  mem- 
bership is  2,464. 

Shanghai  was  chosen  as  a  station  at  the  same 
time  as  Canton,  being  situated  in  a  central  posi- 
tion on  the  coast.  It  is  a  city  of  great  impor- 
tance for  missionary  operations,  since  the  Chi- 
nese come  here  from  all  parts  of  the  empire,  the 
number  of  transient  inhabitants  being  estimated 
at  above  100,000.  During  the  Tai-ping  rebellion 
in  1854  the  mission  property  was  destroyed,  but 
on  the  seizure  of  the  city  by  the  Imperialists,  full 
restitution  was  made,  and  the  work  renewed. 
The  Tai-ping  movement  was  strictly  religious 
and  iconoclastic  in  its  origin,  and  proved  in  the 
end  a  benefit  to  the  mission,  for  it  roused  the 
moral  sense  of  the  people  and  offered  a  blow  at 


Sontliern   na]>tist 
Staoli,  MattlieTV 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


698 


the  great  curse,  idolatry,  and  the  preaching  of  the 
missionaries  was  decidedly  more  effective  after 
than  before  the  insurrection.  The  Shanghai,  or 
Central  China,  mission  has  now  6  churches,  6  out- 
stations,  21  missionaries,  8  native  helpers,  and 
204  members. 

The  mission  in  Shantung,  a  northern  province 
of  China,  was  begun  in  1860,  immediately  on  the 
conclusion  of  the  treat)'  of  Tien-tsin,  the  stations 
chosen  being  Tung-cho  and  Chi-fu.  Some  oppo- 
sition was  experienced  at  first  from  the  gentry 
of  Tung-cho,  but  the  common  people  showed 
great  interest.  At  the  outset  the  Shantung 
reports  and  statistics  were  included  in  those  of 
the  Shanghai  mi.ssion,  altho  the  fields  were  500 
miles  apart;  but  in  1866  Tung-cho  was  set  off  as 
an  independent  mission,  and  has  continued  to  be 
so  regarded.  There  are  now  in  the  North  China 
Mission,  Shantung,  22  stations,  22  foreign  mis- 
sionaries, 10  churches,  and  733  church  members. 

Africa:  One  of  the  first  fields  chosen  by  the 
Southern  Convention  was  Africa.  In  1846  work 
was  begun  by  Rev.  John  Day  in  Liberia,  where 
the  Northern  Board  had  already  established  a 
mission,  but  in  1856  they  withdrew,  and  the 
Southern  Board  alone  carried  on  the  work  of 
Baptists  in  the  Dark  Continent.  The  field  was 
found  to  be  one  of  great  promise,  and  in  1850  the 
work  was  extended  by  the  formation  of  a  mission 
in  the  Yoruba  country,  and  in  1855  a  station  was 
opened  in  Sierra  Leone  in  connection  with  the 
Liberian  mission.  For  four  years,  from  1860  to 
1864,  war  raged  among  the  native  tribes  of 
Central  Africa,  and  the  missionaries  of  the 
Yoruba  country  were  driven  to  the  coast,  and  the 
mission  had  to  be  suspended.  Soon  after  this, 
the  money  pressures  and  panics  attendant  upon 
the  Civil  War  at  home  rendered  it  necessary  to 
withdraw  support  from  the  African  mission  for  a 
time,  and  from  1866  to  1874  the  worlv  was  carried 
on  by  the  missionaries  without  aid  from  the 
Board.  In  1875,  the  native  war  being  ter- 
minated and  the  Yoruba  country  again  opened 
to  missionary  operations,  and  the  finances  of  the 
Board  by  this  time  permitting,  laborers  were  sent 
to  occupy  that  field.  The  Liberian  mission  was 
closed  and  Lagos  chosen  as  a  center  from  which 
work  could  be  extended  to  Central  Africa.  The 
report  of  the  Board  for  1902  gives  the  following 
statistics:  6  stations,  Lagos,  Abeokuta,  Og- 
bomosho,  Shaki,  Oyo,  and  Salate,  with  a  number 
of  outstations,  10  foreign  missionaries,  21  native 
assistants,  389  pupils  in  schools,  and  544  church 
members. 

South  America:  The  mission  in  South  America 
was  begun  in  1860  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  the  Rev. 
T.  J.  ]3owen  and  his  wife.  The  health  of  the 
former,  which  had  caused  his  transfer  from 
Central  Africa,  compelled  him  to  again  give  up 
his  work,  and  with  his  return  the  mission  in 
South  America  was  suspended.  For  twelve 
years  nothing  was  done,  at  the  end  of  which 
time,  at  the  urgent  request  of  a  church  of  settlers 
in  Brazil  from  the  Southern  United  States,  the 
Board  again  renewed  its  operations.  The  Board 
has  many  stations  in  Brazil,  including  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  on  the  coast,  in  the  southeast;  Pernam- 
buco,  on  the  coast,  in  the  northeast;  Bahia,  mid- 
way between  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Pernambuco; 
Maoeio,  south  of  Pernambuco;  the  city  of  Juiz  de 
Fora  in  the  mining  district  of  Minas  Geraes,  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  country;  Para, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  and  Manaos, 
more  than  a  thousand  miles  interior.     There  are 


21  foreign  missionaries  at  work,  18  native 
preachers,  16  native  assistants,  48  churches,  and 
75  stations;  church  membership  over  3,000. 

As  previously  stated,  the  Board  has  begun  very 
recently  operations  in  the  Argentine  Republic. 
At  the  time  of  this  writing  (January,  1904)  four 
missionaries  have  been  appointed,  but  only  one 
has  reached  his  field  of  labor.  Indications  point 
to   a   prosperous   mission. 

Italy:  In  1850  the  Board  began  deliberations 
with  regard  to  work  in  the  Catholic  countries  of 
Europe,  but  no  mission  was  begun  until  1870, 
when  Rev.  Wm.  N.  Cote,  M.D.,  who  was  secre- 
tary of  the  YMCA  of  France,  was  appointed  mis- 
sionary of  the  Southern  Convention.  On  the 
opening  of  Italy  for  evangelistic  work,  by  the 
victory  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  operations  were 
immediately  begun  in  that  city,  and  from 
there  have  spread  throughout  Italy.  There  are 
now  25  churches  and  37  stations  of  the  Southern 
Convention  on  the  peninsula,  including  Rome, 
Milan,  Venice,  Modena,  Carpi,  Bari,  Naples,  and, 
besides  others,  as  Cagliari  and  Iglesias — on  the 
i-sland  of  Sardinia;  and  a  station  in  Trieste, 
Austria,  and  Cannes,  France,  operated  in  con- 
nection with  the  Italian  Mission.  There  are  4 
foreign  missionaries,  27  native  workers,  and  a 
total  membership  of  661. 

Mexico:  The  missions  of  the  Southern  Baptist 
Convention  in  Mexico  are  divided  into  two 
groups.  North  Mexico  and  South  Mexico.  North 
Mexico  takes  in  the  cities  of  Saltillo,  Torreon, 
Durango,  and  Chihuahua,  besides  outstations, 
and  the  South  Mexican  Mission  includes  the  cities 
of  Guadalajara,  Morelia,  Toluca,  and  Leon, 
besides  outstations.  There  are  in  all  Mexico 
17  missionaries,  12  ordained  and  7  unordained 
native  helpers,  43  churches,  with  1,251  members, 
32  stations,  13  houses  of  worship,  18  schools, 
including  both  Sunday  schools  and  day  schools, 
with  628  pupils.  A  number  of  the  Mexican 
churches  are  self-supporting  in  whole  or  in  part. 

Japan:  In  1860  the  Board  appointed  three 
missionaries  to  Japan;  two  of  them  were  pre- 
vented by  the  outbreak  of  the  war  from  going 
out.  The  third,  J.  Q.  A.  Rohrer,  with  his  wife, 
set  sail  from  New  York  on  August  3,  1860,  in 
a  vessel  which  was  never  heard  of  afterward,  and 
the  mission  to  Japan  was  then  abandoned  until 
November,  1889,  when  two  missionaries  and  their 
wives  were  sent  out.  There  are  now  12  mis- 
sionaries doing  successful  work.  Their  fields  of 
labor  are  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  island 
of  Kiushiu,  but  include  such  cities  as  Fukuoka, 
Nagasaki,  Kokura,  Kumamoto,  and  Kagoshima. 

The  work  of  the  Foreign  Mission  Board  has 
steadily  advanced,  through  all  the  years  since 
its  birth  in  1845,  and  that,  too,  in  spite  of  the 
desolations  of  the  Civil  War  in  this  country  and 
the  disheartening  years  that  followed.  During 
more  than  fifty  years,  J.  B.  Taylor,  D.D.,  and 
H.  A.  Tupper,  D.D.,  were  the  able  secretaries. 
In  all  the  great  countries  where  its  missionaries 
are  laboring  the  work  is  going  forward  with 
quickening  pace,  and  in  the  homeland  the  spirit 
and  liberality  of  Southern  Baptists  give  evidence 
of  a  day  of  even  greater  things. 

SOUTH  SYLHET.     See  Sylhet. 

SOUTH  VILLAGES:  Name  applied  by  the 
BZM  to  a  group  of  a  score  or  more  villages  in 
Bengal,  India,  lying  south  of  Calcutta,  in  the 
district  occupied  by  the  BM8  between  Port 
Canning    (Mutlah)    and   Diamond   Harbor,   and 


699 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Sontliern  Baptist 
Stuck,  MattlieTT 


including  the  24  Pargannas.  Lakikantopvir  is 
the  village  where  the  2  women  missionaries  of  the 
BZM  reside  (1903),  giving  regular  religious 
instruction  in  11  other  villages.  They  have  31 
native  workers  and  9  day  schools  under  their 
care. 

SPALDING,  Henry  H.:  Born  at  Bath,  N.  Y., 
1804;  graduated  at  Western  Reserve  College, 
1833,  and  Lane  Theological  Seminary,  1835; 
ordained  August  the  same  year;  appointed  by 
the  ABCFM  in  1836  missionary  to  the  Nez  Perces 
Indians,  with  his  wife.  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Whitman, 
and  William  B.  Gray.  In  a  company  of  fur- 
traders  they  traveled  on  horseback  nearly  2,200 
miles  beyond  the  Missouri  River,  to  Fort  Walla- 
Walla,  a  trading  post  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company,  which  they  reached  September  3, 
1836,  being  four  months  and  six  days  on 
the  journey  from  Liberty,  Mo.,  to  that  place. 
The  mission  was  broken  up  by  the  massacre 
of  Dr.  Whitman  and  others  in  1847.  Mr. 
Spalding,  who  was  in  the  vicinity,  providentially 
escaped.  Themurderers  were  on  his  track.  Hiding 
by  day,  he  made  his  way  night  after  night,  bare- 
footed, over  sharp  rocks  and  thorns,  until,  almost 
dead,  he  reached  a  place  of  safety.  Then,  with 
his  family,  he  left  the  mission  field  for  a  time.  In 
1862  he  resumed  his  work,  but  remained  only  a 
few  years.  In  1871  he  renewed  his  labors  under 
the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  in 
which  he  continued  till  his  death,  which  occurred 
at  Lapnor,  Idaho,  August  3,  1874.  Tho  his  labors 
were  interrupted,  he  accomplished  a  great  work 
among  the  Indians.  Over  900  of  the  Nez  Perces 
and  Spokanes  were  added  to  the  church  through 
his  instrumentality.  He  prepared  a  translation 
of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  and  a  collection  of  Nez 
Perces  hymns.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  had 
a  translation  of  the  Acts  well  advanced. 

SPAULDING,  Levi:  Born  at  Jaffrey,  N.  H., 
August  22,  1791.  Died  June  18,  1874.  Gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College,  1815,  and  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  1818;  sailed  for  Ceylon, 
June  8,  1819,  under  the  ABCFM.  He  labored  at 
Manepyfor  several  years.  In  1833  he  removed  to 
Oodooville,  and  with  Mrs.  Spaulding  took  charge 
of  the  girls'  boarding  school,  which  was  under 
their  care  for  nearly  forty  years.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  accurate  Tamil  scholars  in  Southern 
India,  having  so  mastered  the  language  as  to  use 
it  with  great  facility  and  power.  More  than 
twenty  Tamil  tracts  were  prepared  by  him,  and 
many  of  the  best  lyrics  in  the  vernacular  hymn- 
book  were  from  his  pen.  He  prepared  two  dic- 
tionaries, one  Tamil,  the  other  English  and  Tamil, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revision  of  the 
Scriptures.  He  furnished  an  excellent  transla- 
tion of  Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  compiled  a  Scrip- 
ture History,  which  is  used  in  the  schools.  School- 
books,  hj'mnbooks,  tracts,  and  Gospels  passed 
through  his  hands  for  revision  and  proofreading. 
But  he  was  far  from  being  chiefly  occupied  with 
these  tasks.  In  season  and  out  of  season,  to 
merchants  on  their  verandas,  or  seated  with  way- 
farers under  the  hedge,  to  the  poor  and  the 
maimed,  in  lanes  and  highways,  and  to  the 
children  in  the  school  or  the  street,  wherever  he 
met  a  native,  he  ceased  not  to  preach  and  to  teach 
Jesus  Christ.  His  fluency  in  the  colloquial  lan- 
guage, his  apt  quotations  from  Hindu  books,  his 
original  illustrations,  and  ready  and  racy  sallies, 
combined  with  his  genial  humor,  gave  him  great 
influence  with  the  natives. 


Mrs.  Mary  Chrystie  Spaulding,  his  wife,  ren- 
dered equally  conspicuous  services  to  the  mission 
in  another  line.  The  care  of  the  girls'  boarding 
school  was  her  special  duty  for  almost  forty 
years.  Her  sympathetic  services  to  natives  and 
to  missionaries  alike,  when  there  was  suffering  to 
be  alleviated  or  sorrow  to  be  borne,  gave  her  the 
affectionate  title  of  "Mother  Spaulding."  She 
died  at  Batticotta  one  year  after  her  husband 
finished  his  labors. 

SPRINGFONTEIN:  A  village  about  40  miles 
N.  W.  of  Bethulie,  in  Orange  River  Colony,  S. 
Africa.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society 
(1894),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  13  native 
workers,  and  639  professed  Christians. 

SRINAGAR:  Capital  of  Kashmir,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Jhelum  River, 
about  175  miles  due  N.  of  Amritsar  in  the  Punjab. 
It  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  boats  on  which 
are  a  principal  means  of  conveyance  between 
different  parts  of  the  town.  Canals  extend  this 
use  of  boats.  The  place  is  picturesque  in  general, 
but  indescribably  filthy  in  detail.  Population 
(1901),  122,618.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1863), 
with  (1903)  5  missionaries,  three  of  them  with 
their  wives;  2  women  missionaries,  3  native 
workers,  1  day  school,  1  boarding  school,  1  indus- 
trial school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  1  lepers' 
asylum,  and  35  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
10  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the  CEZ 
(1888),  with  (1903)  3  women  missionaries,  6  native 
workers,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1 
dispensary. 

Mrs.  Bishop  (better  known  as  a  traveler  and 
writer  by  her  maiden  name  of  Isabella  Bird)  has 
given  money  to  build  a  woman's  hospital  here, 
as  a  memorial  to  her  late  husband,  Dr.  John 
Bishop.  The  Maharajah  gave  an  excellent  site. 
SRIPERUMBUDUR:  A  village  in  Madras, 
India,  situated  in  the  N.  Arcot  region,  about  22 
miles  S.  E.  of  Chittur.  Station  of  the  Leipzig 
Missionary  Society  (1898),  with  (1903)  2  native 
workers,  8  outstations,  8  places  of  worship,  and 
10  day  schools.  Station  also  of  the  UFS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary,  20  native  workers,  9  out- 
stations, 1  place  of  worship,  11  day  schools,  and 
105  professed  Christians. 

STACK,  Matthew:  Born  at  Maukendorf,  Mo- 
ravia, March  4,  1711.  Died,  December  21,  1787. 
In  his  early  youth  he  had  deep  religious  impres- 
sions, and,  leaving  Moravia,  he  went  to  Herrnhut, 
in  Saxony.  Soon  after  his  conversion  he  received 
from  Count  Zinzendorf  an  impression  of  the 
condition  of  the  Greenlanders  which  led  him  to 
devote  himself  to  work  among  the  heathen.  He 
set  out  with  his  cousin.  Christian  Stack,  and  Chris- 
tian David  for  Copenhagen,  January  19,  1733. 
On  their  arrival  they  found  that  the  mission  under 
Egede  was  about  to  be  abandoned,  communica- 
tion with  Greenland  closed,  and  their  project  was 
regarded  as  romantic  and  ill-timed.  They 
applied  to  Count  Von  Pless,  the  king's  chamber- 
lain, who  fully  stated  the  difficulties.  "How 
will  you  live?"  he  asked.  "We  will  cultivate 
the  soil,  and  look  for  the  Lord's  blessing." 
"There  is  no  soil  to  cultivate — nothing  but  ice 
and  snow."  "Then  we  must  try  to  live  as  the 
natives  do."  "But  in  what  will  you  live?"  "We 
will  build  ourselves  a  house."  "But  there  is  no 
wood  in  that  country."  "Then  we  will  dig  holes 
in  the  ground  and  live  there."  "No,"  said  the 
Count,  seeing  their  faith,  "you  shall  not  do  that. 
Here  are  $50  to  help  you:  take  wood  with  you." 


Stronacliy  John 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


700 


Other  persons  aided  them.  The  king  decided  to 
reopen  communication  with  Greenland,  and  gave 
them  a  letter  to  Egede,  commending  them  to  his 
kind  attention. 

Matthew  Stack  embarked  with  his  two  friends 
April,  1733,  and  after  a  six  weeks'  voyage  reached 
Ball's  River,  where  he  selected  a  place  for  a  mission 
and  called  it  New  Herrnhut.  In  commencing 
his  work  Matthew  Stack  encountered  great 
obstacles.  The  language  was  difficult  of  acqui- 
sition; the  natives  not  only  refused  to  listen  to  him 
but  were  positively  hostile,  in  various  ways 
annoying  and  persecuting  him.  They  mimicked 
his  reading,  praying,  and  singing;  interrupted  his 
devotions  by  hideous  howling  and  beating  of 
drums.  They  stoned  him,  destroyed  his  goods, 
attempted  to  send  his  boat  out  to  sea,  and  even 
sought  to  take  his  life.  He  was  often  in  straits 
for  provisions,  and  obliged  to  buy  seals  from  the 
Greenlanders,  who  sometimes  refused  to  sell 
them  at  any  price.  Often  he  had  to  live  on 
shell-fish  and  sea-weed,  a  little  oatmeal  mixed 
with  train  oil,  and  even  old  tallow-candles.  But, 
nothing  daunted,  he  toiled  on,  when,  after  five 
years  of  privation  and  suffering,  he  had  the 
reward  of  his  patient  endurance.  As  one  of  his 
associates  was  copying  a  translation  of  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew  some  natives  from  South 
Greenland  passing  by,  stopped,  and  asked  what 
was  in  that  book.  On  the  missionary's  reading 
the  story  of  God's  love  and  the  sufferings  of 
Christ  to  save  us,  Kajarnak,  one  of  the  savages, 
said  with  much  earnestness:  "How  was  that? 
Tell  me  that  once  more,  for  I,  too,  would  fain  be 
saved."  He  became  a  Christian,  was  baptized, 
labored  faithfully  for  Christ,  and  died  in  the  faith 
the  following  year.  His  companions  through  his 
efforts  were  converted,  and  soon  three  large 
families  pitched  their  tents  near  the  missionary, 
that  they  might  hear  more  of  the  Gospel.  After 
forty  years  spent  in  the  Greenland  Mission,  he 
went,  in  1771,  to  Wachovia,  in  North  Carolina, 
and  for  years  devoted  himself  to  teaching  the 
children  in  Bethabara,  N.  C.  In  1783  he  united 
with  the  Salem  Congregation  in  celebrating  the 
semi-annual  centennial  jubilee  of  the  Greenland 
Mission.  In  1785  he  was  rendered  helpless  by  a 
fall.  When  told  that  the  Master  would  soon 
come  and  call  for  him,  he  raised  his  clasped  hands 
and  said,  with  deep  emotion,  "Yes,  dearest 
Savior,  come  soon,  come  soon."  He  died  De- 
cember 21,  1787,  in  the  77th  year  of  his  age. 

STALL YBRASS,  Edward:  A  missionarv  of  the 
LMS  to  Siberia  from  1817tol839.  His  first  station 
was  Irkutsk.  In  1819  he  commenced  a  station 
at  Selenginsk.  The  early  time  of  his  residence 
here  was  spent  in  exploring  the  southeast  of  Lake 
Baikal  with  Mr.  Rhamn,  and  later  with  Mr.  Swan 
among  the  Chorinsky  Buriats.  On  his  return 
from  a  visit  to  England  he  made  his  home  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  for  some  time  was  engaged  in  the 
revision  of  the  Mongolian  Scriptures.  In  1840 
the  Siberian  Mission  was  suppressed  by  the  Rus- 
sian Government,  and  he  returned  to  England. 
He  died  at  Shooter's  Hill,  Kent,  July  25,  1884, 
aged  91. 

STANLEY:  A  settlement  in  the  N.  W.  of  Can- 
ada, situated  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  Athabasca. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1850),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 1  native  worker,  2  outstations,  1  day  school, 
and  731  professed  Christians,  of  whom  190  are 
communicants. 

STANLEY  POOL:  A  settlement  in  the  Congo 


Free  State,  Africa,  situated  at  the  expansion  of 
the  Congo,  just  above  the  rapids.  Altitude,  920 
feet.  Station  of  the  BMS  (1882),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  Sunday 
school,  1  day  school,  and  5  professed  Christians. 
Some  use  the  name  Arthington  for  this  station. 

STANN  CREEK:  A  town  in  British  Honduras, 
situated  on  the  coast,  40  miles  S.  of  Belize. 
Station  of  the  SPG  (1894),  with  2  missionaries 
and  450  professed  Christians,  of  whom  100  are 
communicants.     Also  station  of  the  AVMS,  with 

13  native  workers,  2  outstations,  4  places  of 
worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  and 
277  professed  Christians,  of  whom  200  are 
communicants. 

STEINKOPF:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  Africa, 
a  little  south  of  the  Orange  River,  56  miles  E.  of 
Port  NoUoth.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1903)   1  missionary  and  his  wife, 

14  native  workers,  2  outstations,  2  day  schools, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  1,171  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  375  are  communicants. 

STELLENBOSCH :  A  town  in  Cape  Colony, 
South  Africa,  25  miles  by  rail  east  of  Cape  Town. 
Population,  3,173.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mis- 
sionary Society,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  1  woman  missionary,  IS  native 
workers,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  2,915 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,260  are  com- 
municants. 

STERN,  Rev.  Henry  Aaron,  D.D. :  Born  in  1820 
at  Unterreichenbach.  Died  in  1885.  His  pa- 
rents were  zealous  and  orthodox  in  the  Jewish 
creed.  It  was  their  hope  that  he  might  become  a 
doctor,  and  to  that  end  they  sent  him  to  a  school 
at  Frankfort.  While  there  he  developed  a  taste 
for  commerce.  When  seventeen  years  old  he  got 
a  situation  in  Hamburg.  While  there  he  used 
to  pass  the  house  of  Mr.  Moritz,  one  of  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  London  Society  for  the  Jews,  who 
had  a  glass  case  by  his  door  in  which  were  open 
Hebrew  and  German  books.  Through  reading 
these  from  time  to  time  he  became  convinced  that 
Christianity  was  more  rational  than  Judaism. 
In  1839  he  went  to  London,  and  one  Sunday  a 
young  friend  suggested  they  should  go  to  Pales- 
tine Place  Chapel  to  see  the  "apostates."  Dr. 
McCaul  was  preaching,  and  his  words  impressed 
him  so  much  that  he  began  to  read  the  New  Tes- 
tament, which  led  him  to  exclaim,  "If  there  be  a 
Savior,  it  must  be  Jesus."  Now  came  the  strug- 
gle, as  he  gradually  came  out  of  death  into  life. 
He  had  to  suffer  for  Christ's  sake  and  the  Gospel. 
At  last  he  was  baptized,  March  15,  1840.  For 
two  years  he  remained  in  the  Operative  Jewish 
Converts'  Institution,  when  he  entered  the 
training  college  of  the  London  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christianity  among  the  Jews.  In 
1844  he  began  missionary  work  at  Baghdad, 
previously  being  ordained  in  Jerusalem  by  Bishop 
Alexander.  His  great  work  in  Persia  was  done 
by  means  of  long  missionary  journeys,  distrib- 
uting the  Scriptures,  reaching  Jews  who  had 
rarely  or  ever  been  visited  by  Christians. 

Later  on  his  dauntless  nature  and  Christian 
zeal  led  him  to  undertake,  dressed  as  a  native, 
a  most  perilous  journey  throughout  Arabia  Felix, 
where  his  terrible  experiences  were  similar  to 
those  of  St.  Paul  as  told  in  II.  Cor.  xi.  23-27. 
But  his  greatest  work  was  that  among  the  Fa- 
lasha  Jews  of  Abyssinia  in  1859,  and  again  in 
1862.  Owing  to  political  difficulties  between 
England  and  the  King  of  Abyssinia,  the  latter 


701 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Stallybrass,  Edward 
Strunacli,  John 


determined  to  vent  his  rage  on  Mr.  Stern,  and 
for  four  years  and  a  half  kept  him  and  his  fellow- 
workers  in  prison  and  in  chains.  Nothing  but 
the  mighty  power  and  faithfulness  of  God  could 
have  sustained  them  during  those  years  of  agony 
and  suspense.  When  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala 
relieved  them,  some  of  his  officers  brought  the 
captives  into  a  tent,  and  all  knelt  down  and 
thanked  God  for  their  wonderful  deliverance. 
He  then  became  head  of  the  London  Mission. 
In  1881  the  Lambeth  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity 
was  conferred  upon  him.  His  deeply  lamented 
death,  in  1885,  closed  a  life  of  faithful  service. 

STEWART,  Robert  "Warren:  Born  March,  1850. 
Died  August  1,  1895.  He  was  accepted  by  the 
CMS  Committee  for  service  abroad  in  1875,  and 
in  1876,  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  he  was  ordained. 
In  the  September  following  his  ordination  he 
sailed  for  China.  For  several  years  he  was 
principal  of  the  divinity  school  at  Fuchau, 
where  Chinese  evangelists  and  pastors  are 
trained.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Stewart  called  forth, 
almost  entirely  by  their  personal  influence,  a 
noble  band  of  women  from  England  and  Ireland, 
who  worked  in  the  Fu-kien  province,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Cliurch  of  England  Zenana  Society. 
Some  years  before  his  death  Mr.  Stewart  left  the 
college  and  took  charge  of  the  interior  district  of 
Kucheng;  but  severe  illness  drove  him  home. 
While  at  home  he  supervised  the  printing  of  the 
Romanized  edition  of  the  Fu-chau  Colloquial 
New  Testament;  and  in  1891  he  was  appointed 
by  the  CMS  to  accompany  Mr.  Eugene  Stock  to 
the  colonies.  On  his  return  to  China,  in  1893,  he 
was  appointed  to  Ku-cheng  city;  and  he  threw 
himself  energetically  into  the  opening  of  day 
schools — a  form  of  mission  work  that  was  very 
dear  to  his  heart.  His  ideal  of  a  native  church 
was  one  entirely  supported  by  thn  natives;  and 
to  this  end  he  exerted  his  potent  influence.  This 
devoted  missionary  of  the  Cross  was  murdered 
at  Hwa-sang. 

STODDARD,  David  Tappan:  Born  at  North- 
ampton, Mass.,  December  2,  1818.  His  early 
education  was  at  Round  Hill  Academy.  He 
studied  at  Wilhams  College;  graduated  at  Yale 
College,  1838,  taking  high  rank  as  a  scholar,  espe- 
cially in  the  physical  sciences.  In  1843  he  sailed 
for  Turkey  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM, 
assigned  to  the  Nestorian  mission  in  Persia. 
Before  going  to  Urmia  he  visited  several  mis- 
sion stations  in  Turkey.  After  learning  Turkish 
he,  on  reaching  his  station,  commenced  Syriac, 
that  he  might  preach  and  also  might  assist  Dr. 
Perkins  in  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into 
modern  Syriac.  In  five  months  he  was  able  to 
instruct  a  class  of  Nestorian  youths,  and  the  male 
seminary  was  reorganized  and  committed  to  his 
care.  Into  this  work  he  threw  himself  with 
intense  delight.  In  1847,  Mr.  Stoddard's  health 
being  impaired,  he  went,  by  medical  advice,  to 
Erzerum  and  Trebizond,  where  his  wife  died  of 
cholera  in  1848.  With  consent  of  the  Board  he 
took  his  orphan  children  home,  returning  to  his 
field  in  1851.  Soon  he  began  to  instruct  his  older 
pupils  in  theology,  to  prepare  them  for  preach- 
ing to  their  countrymen.  Besides  his  other  work, 
he  prepared  a  grammar  of  Modern  Syriac,  pub- 
lished in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society  in  1855.  His  theological  lectures,  embra- 
cing a  full  course  of  doctrinal  theology,  were 
deHvered  in  Syriac.  His  labors  were  arduous, 
and  for  recreation  he  turned  to  astronomy  and 


meteorology,  making  observations  which  brought 
him  into  relations  with  Sir  John  Herschel  and 
other  eminent  scientists  of  that  period.  His 
varied  talents,  his  energy  and  activity,  his 
devoted  piety,  his  winning,  genial  manner,  made 
Mr.  Stoddard  a  man  of  mark,  respected  by  all 
and  loved  by  those  who  knew  him.  In  1856  the 
Persian  authorities  undertook  to  liamper  the 
liberties  of  the  mission,  and  Mr.  Stoddard  was  the 
one  naturally  chosen  to  go  to  Tabriz  to  secure 
redress.  On  his  return  from  this  successful 
errand  he  was  attaclced  by  typhus  fever  and  died 
January  22,  1857. 

STONE,  Seth  Bradley:  Born  at  Madison,  Conn., 
April  30,  1817.  Died  June  27,  1877.  Graduated 
at  Yale  College,  1842,  LTnion  Theological  Semi- 
nary, 1850;  embarked  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM  for  Africa,  October  14,  1850;  was  sta- 
tioned among  tlie  Zulus.  His  health  having 
failed,  he  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1875. 
He  was  a  faithful,  hard-working  missionary  for 
twenty-four  years  among  the  Zulus.  A  close 
student  of  the  Zulu  language,  he  translated  por- 
tions of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  He  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  church  history  in  Zulu;  also  a 
summary  of  general  history.  Thirty-nine  of  the 
hymns  in  the  Zulu  hj'mn-book  were  translated 
or  composed  by  him. 

STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS:  A  crown  colony  of 
Great  Britain,  comprising  Singapore,  Penang,  and 
Malacca,  all  of  which  are  treated  of  in  separate 
articles.  In  1886  the  Keeling  or  Cocos  Islands,  a 
small  group  1,200  miles  southwest  of  Singapore, 
owned  by  an  English  family,  were  placed  under 
the  government  of  the  Straits  Settlements,  and  in 
1888  an  uninhabited  island,  200  miles  southwest 
of  Java,  named  Christmas  Island,  was  also 
added  to  the  Straits  Settlements. 

STRONACH,  John:  Born  at  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, March  7,  1810;  studied  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity and  Theological  Academy,  Glasgow;  was 
ordained  August  10,  1837,  with  his  elder  brother 
Alexander,  and  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the 
LMS  for  China,  reaching  Malacca  March  2,  1838. 
In  May,  1847,  Mr.  Stronach  removed  to  Shang- 
hai, having  been  appointed  one  of  the  delegates 
for  the  revision  of  the  Chinese  version  of  the  New 
Testament.  On  the  completion  of  that  work  he 
returned  to  Amoy  in  1853.  On  March  17,  1876, 
lie  left  Amoy,  and,  after  visiting  Japan,  pro- 
ceeded via  America  to  England,  arriving  January 
6,  1877.  In  1878  he  retired  from  foreign  mission- 
ary service.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A., 
October  30,  1888,  after  forty  years'  uninterrupted 
labor  in  China.  His  powers  were  of  no  common 
order.  He  stood  well  in  his  university,  and  made 
a  great  mark  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Chinese,  known  as  the  Delegates'  Version.  He 
was  a  most  idiomatic  master  of  Chinese,  and  it 
was  a  charm  to  hear  him  speak.  His  literary 
ability  did  not  cease  with  Bible  translation.  One 
of  his  tracts  called  the  "Hek  bun"  (Inquirer)  was 
a  masterly  setting  forth  of  the  difficulties  felt  by  a 
literary  Chinaman,  and  the  answers  of  the  mis- 
sionary. He  assisted  in  revising  Dr.  Douglas' 
dictionary  of  the  Amoy  dialect.  He  was  greatly 
blessed  as  an  evangelist  in  Amoy,  and  labored 
indefatigably  in  starting  stations,  appointing 
native  ministers  and  working  with  them.  ^  With 
all  this  he  was  overflowing  with  high  spirits  and 
had  an  unfailing  fund  of  humor,  which  served  him 
well  when  opposers  became  annoying  during  hia 
street  preaching. 


Stutlent  Volunteer 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


708 


STUDENT  VOLUNTEER  MOVEMENT  for 
Foreign  Missions :  /.  Origin:  The  Student  Volun- 
teer Movement  originated  at  tlie  first  inter- 
national Conference  of  Christian  college  students, 
which  was  held  at  Mount  Hermon,  Mass.,  in  1886. 
Of  the  250  delegates  who  attended,  twenty-one 
had  definitely  decided  to  become  foreign  mission- 
aries when  the  conference  opened.  Of  this  num- 
ber, Wilder  of  Princeton,  Tewksbury  of  Harvard, 
and  Clark  of  Oberlin  had  come  with  the  deep 
conviction  that  God  would  call  from  that  large 
gathering  of  college  men  a  number  who  would 
consecrate  themselves  to  foreign  missions. 
(  Before  the  conference  closed  one  hundred  of  the 
delegates  put  themselves  on  record  as  being 
"willing  and  desirous,  God  permitting,  to  become 
foreign  missionaries."  At  the  Conference  it  was 
decided  that  a  deputation  should  be  sent  among 
the  colleges,  and  four  students  were  selected  for 
this  purpose.  Of  the  four  selected,  Robert  P. 
Wilder  of  Princeton  was  alone  able  to  go,  and 
John  N.  Forman,  also  of  Princeton,  was  induced 
to  join  him.  Messrs.  Wilder  and  Forman  visited 
176  institutions,  including  a  majority  of  the  lead- 
ing colleges  and  divinity  schools  of  Canada  and 
the  United  States.  During  the  second  year, 
1887-88,  the  movement  was  left  to  itself,  it  was 
unorganized  and  had  no  leadership  or  oversight. 
'  //.  Organization:  About  fifty  volunteers  at- 
tended the  student  conference  at  Northfield  in 
the  summer  of  1888.  It  was  then  decided  that 
some  organization  was  necessary  in  order  to  con- 
serve the  results,  and  a  committee  was  appointed 
by  the  volunteers  present  to  effect  such  an  organ- 
ization. This  committee  met  in  December,  1888, 
and  an  organization  was  effected,  taking  the 
name  of  the  Student  Volunteer  Movement  for 
Foreign  Missions.  An  Executive  Committee  of 
three,  consisting  of  John  R.  Mott,  Robert  P. 
Wilder,  and  Miss  Nettie  Dunn,  was  appointed, 
each  member  representing  one  of  the  three  then 
existing  Christian  organizations  among  students. 
In  January,  1889,  the  new  Committee  began  its 
work.  In  1898,  the  work  having  assumed  so 
much  larger  proportions,  it  was  found  desirable 
to  enlarge  the  membership  of  the  committee  to 
six  members,  so  that  it  now  consists  of  John  R. 
Mott,  J.  Ross  Stevenson,  W.  Harley  Smith,  H.  P. 
Andersen,  Miss  Susie  Little,  and  Miss  Bertha 
Condd.  John  R.  Mott  is  the  chairman,  J.  Ross 
Stevenson  the  vice-chairman,  and  Fennell  P. 
Turner  the  general  secretary  and  treasurer.  In 
order  to  transact  the  ordinary  business  of  such  ari 
organization,  it  is  incorporated  under  the  laws 
of  the  State  of  New  York.  There  is  a  Board  of 
Trustees  and  an  Advisory  Committee. 

///.  Purpose:  The  Student  Volunteer  Move- 
ment is  in  no  sense  a  missionary  board.  It  never 
has  sent  out  a  missionary,  and  never  will. 
Those  who  become  student  volunteers  are 
expected  to  go  out  as  missionaries  of  the  regular 
missionary  organizations  of  the  Church.  The 
Student  Volunteer  Movement  is  simply  a  recruit- 
ing agency.  It  does  not  usurp  or  encroach  upon 
the  functions  of  any  other  missionary  organiza- 
tion. It  is  unswervingly  loyal  to  the  Church, 
and  has  received  the  endorsement  of  every  leading 
missionary  board  on  the  continent.  Its  purpose, 
as  stated  by  the  Executive  Committee,  is  as 
follows:  "(1)  To  awaken  and  maintain  among  all 
Christian  students  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  intelligent  and  active  interest  in  foreign 
missions;  (2)  to  enroll  a  sufficient  number  of 
properly  qualified  student  volunteers  to  meet  the 


successive  demands  of  the  various  missionary 
boards  of  North  America;  (3)  to  help  all  such 
intending  missionaries  to  prepare  for  their  life- 
work  and  to  enlist  their  cooperation  in  developing 
the  missionary  life  of  the  home  churches;  (4)  to 
lay  an  equal  burden  of  responsibility  on  all 
students  who  are  to  remain  as  ministers  and  lay 
workers  at  home,  that  they  may  actively  pro- 
mote the  missionary  enterprise  by  their  intelli- 
gent advocacy,  by  their  gifts  and  by  their 
prayers." 

/  V.  Membership:  The  membership  is  drawn 
from  those  who  are  or  have  been  students  in 
institutions  of  higher  learning  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Only  those  are  entitled  to 
become  student  volunteers  who  sign  the  "declar- 
ation" of  the  Movement,  which  is  as  follows:  "It 
is  my  purpose,  if  God  permit,  to  become  a  foreign 
missionary."  The  meaning  of  this  declaration, 
as  interpreted  by  the  Executive  Committee,  is  as 
follows: 

"This  declaration  is  not  to  be  interpreted  as  a 
'pledge,'  for  it  in  no  sense  withdraws  one  from 
the  subsequent  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  It 
is,  however,  more  than  an  expression  of  mere 
willingness  or  desire  to  become  a  foreign  mission- 
ary. It  is  the  statement  of  a  definite  life  purpose, 
formed  under  the  direction  of  God.  The  per- 
son who  signs  this  declaration  fully  purposes  to 
spend  his  life  as  a  foreign  missionary.  Toward 
this  end  he  will  shape  his  plans;  he  will  devote  his 
energies  to  prepare  himself  for  this  great  work;  he 
will  do  all  in  his  power  to  remove  the  obstacles 
which  may  stand  in  the  way  of  his  going;  and  in 
due  time  he  will  apply  to  the  Boards  to  be  sent 
out.  Only  the  clear  leading  of  God  shall  prevent 
his  going  to  the  foreign  field.  While  it  is  the 
duty  of  every  Christian  to  face  this  question,  no 
one  should  decide  it  without  careful  thought  and 
earnest  prayer.  Having  confronted  the  ques- 
tion, no  one  should  leave  it  until  a  decision  pleas- 
ing to  God  has  been  reached.  'Understand 
what  the  will  of  the  Lord  is.'  " 

V.  Watchword:  The  watchword  of  the  Volun- 
teer Movement  is  "The  Evangelization  of  the 
World  in  this  Generation." 

VI.  Field:  The  field  for  the  cultivation  of 
which  the  Movement  considers  itself  responsible 
embraces  all  colleges,  universities,  and  other 
institutions  of  higher  learning  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  There  are  fully  1,000  such 
institutions,  in  which  are  matriculated  over 
200,000  students.  From  these  institutions  come 
the  leaders  in  all  the  influential  walks  of  life.  No 
work,  therefore,  can  be  more  important  than  that 
of  making  the  student  centers  strongholds  and 
propagating  centers  of  missionary  intelligence, 
enthusiasm,  and  activity. 

VII.  Methods  of  Cultivation:  The  secretaries  of 
the  Movement  are  a  General  Secretary,  an  Assist- 
ant Secretary,  an  Educational  Secretary,  and  the 
Traveling  Secretaries.  The  position  of  trav- 
eling secretary  is  usually  held  for  one  year  by 
a  student  volunteer  ready  to  go  to  the  mission 
field.  Returned  missionaries  also  have  been 
employed.  In  a  few  cases  the  secretaries  have 
held  the  position  two  years.  The  size  of  the 
stafi  of  traveling  secretaries  is  determined  by  the 
funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  Executive  Committee, 
and  by  the  number  of  available  candidates.  The 
traveling  secretaries  visit  the  colleges  and  deliver 
addresses  on  missions,  meet  with  missionary  com- 
mittees and  volunteer  bands,  organize  mission 
study  classes,  and  in  every  way  possible  promote 


703 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


student  Volunteer 


the  missionary  activities  of  the  colleges — but  the 
chief  object  of  their  work  is  by  public  address  and 
personal  interview  to  lead  students  to  give  their 
lives  to  missionary  service.  The  student  volun- 
teers in  an  institution  are  organized  into  a 
volunteer  band.  The  objects  of  the  volunteer 
band  are  to  deepen  the  missionary  purpose  and 
spiritual  lives  ot  the  members,  to  secure  other 
volunteers,  and  to  promote  missions  in  the 
college  and  in  the  college  community.  Con- 
nected with  each  Young  Men'sor  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association  in  the  college  there  is  a 
missionary  committee  whose  duty  is  to  culti- 
vate the  missionary  life  of  the  institution.  The 
educational  department  of  the  Movement,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Educational  Secretary,  has  to 
do  with  the  conduct  of  the  mission  study  classes 
in  the  colleges.  The  Movement  in  conjunction 
with  the  Student  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation publishes  during  the  academic  year  a 
magazine  called  The  Intercollegian,  which  circu- 
lates among  the  students  and  is  a  valuable 
agency  in  keeping  the  volunteers  in  touch  with 
the  aims,  methods  and  results  of  the  Movement, 
and  in  keeping  the  Movement  before  the  Church. 
The  Movement  publishes  pamphlets,  mission 
study  text-books,  and  such  other  literature  as 
may  serve  its  purpose.  The  sales  of  these  publi- 
cations amount  to  more  than  25,000  copies  per 
year. 

The  volunteers  in  cities  which  are  large  student 
centers,  and  in  some  States,  are  organized  into 
unions.  The  purpose  of  these  Unions  is  to  pro- 
mote the  missionary  interest  in  the  different 
colleges  represented  in  them.  In  the  United 
States  and  Canada  there  are  held  each  year  seven 
student  conferences  for  men  and  five  for  women. 
At  each  one  of  these  conferences  special  attention 
is  given  to  developing  the  missionary  life  and 
activity  among  students.  At  these  conferences, 
missionary  institutes  are  held  to  train  the  leaders 
of  volunteer  bands,  of  mission  study  classes,  and 
other  missionary  activities  of  the  institutions 
represented.  Once  in  four  years  an  international 
convention  is  held.  Four  such  conventions  have 
been  held,  the  attendance  being  as  follows: 

Year 1891  1894  1898  1902 

Total  Number  Delegates 680  1,325  2,221  2,957 

Institutions  Represented ISO  294  461  465 

Student  Delegates 558  1,082  1,598  2,226 

Members  of  Faculties 37  119  247 

Foreign  Missionaries 32  63  89  107 

Representatives  Mission  Boards      33  54  87  82 

VIII.  Results:  1.  The  work  of  the  Movement, 
through  visitation,  summer  conferences,  con- 
ventions and  correspondence,  has  reached  more 
than  800  institutions.  In  more  than  half  of 
these  institutions  nothing  was  being  done  in  the 
interests  of  missions  prior  to  the  effort  put  forth 
by  this  Movement,  or,  at  its  initiative,  by  the 
Student  Young  Men's  or  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Associations.  In  many  colleges  where  there 
has  been  for  years  more  or  less  missionary  inter- 
est, it  has  been  the  testimony  of  professors  and 
of  others  who  are  in  a  position  to  know  that  the 
Movement  has  greatly  increased  that  interest. 
Each  year  the  traveling  secretaries  bring  to  the 
attention  of  thousands  of  students  the  needs  of 
the  non-Christian  world  and  the  claims  of  mis- 
sionary service. 

2.  The  Movement  has  been  a  principal  factor 
in  the  recent  remarkable  development  in  the 
scientific  study  of  missions,  not  only  in  the 
colleges  and  theological  seminaries,  but  also  in 


churches  and  young  people's  societies.  In  its 
early  years  the  Movement  simply  recommended 
subjects  and  books  for  study;  later  it  outlined 
courses  of  study.  In  1894  the  Educational 
Department  was  organized,  and  D.  Willard  Lyon 
was  appointed  Educational  Secretary.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Harlan  P.  Beach  in  1895.  When 
the  department  was  organized,  there  were  about 
a  score  of  mission  study  classes  in  all  the  colleges, 
universities,  and  theological  seminaries  in  North 
America.  Since  then  the  text-book  literature  of 
the  Movement  has  been  created,  and  the  reports 
for  the  year  1902-1903  show  that  there  were  6,700 
students  enrolled  in  544  classes  in  319  institu- 
tions. 

3.  Since  its  inception  the  Movement  has  never 
ceased  to  press  upon  students  the  claims  of 
foreign  missionary  service  as  a  life  work.  Up  to 
the  beginning  of  1904  the  names  of  over  2,400 
student  volunteers  have  been  reported  as  having 
reached  the  mission  field,  going  out  in  connection 
with  more  than  fifty  different  missionary  agencies, 
and  scattered  throughout  all  parts  of  the  non- 
Christian  world.  A  large  number  of  volunteers 
who  have  been  hindered  from  going  to  the  foreign 
mission  field  have  taken  up  mission  work  in  the 
home  field. 

4.  As  a  result  of  the  work  of  the  Movement,  the 
gifts  of  students  for  missions  have  steadily 
increased;  in  the  academic  year  1902-03  over 
$68,000  was  contributed  for  missions  by  institu- 
tions reporting.  The  Movement  has  e.xerted  a 
mighty  reflex  influence  on  the  religious  life  of  the 
colleges  and  theological  seminaries.  If  the  vol- 
unteers and  all  that  pertains  to  the  work  of  the 
Movement  were  taken  from  the  institutions  of 
higher  learning  they  would  suffer  great  loss. 
The  traveling  secretaries,  through  their  addresses 
and  conversations,  exert  a  great  spiritual  influ- 
ence. The  missionary  idea  has  been  emphasized 
in  meetings  and  in  mission  study  classes,  thus 
widening  the  horizon,  enlarging  the  sympathies, 
and  stimulating  the  zeal  of  students.  Missionary 
intelligence,  missionary  activity,  and  the  mission- 
ary spirit  have  done  far  more  than  is  generally 
realized  to  counteract  the  evil  and  subtile  influ- 
ences of  pride,  selfishness  and  rationalism,  as 
manifested  in  student  communities. 

5.  The  Movement  has  been  an  increasing 
factor  in  promoting  the  missionary  life  of  the 
churches,  confining  its  activities  chiefly  to  work 
among  the  young  people.  The  volunteers  in  all 
parts  of  the  continent  have  taken  a  leading  part 
in  the  work  of  local  societies  of  young  people  in 
their  vicinity.  The  principal  result  in  this 
direction  has  been  in  the  organization  of  the 
student  campaign  in  connection  with  different 
denominations.  The  first  and  most  successful 
effort  of  this  kind  was  made  by  the  Methodist 
Church  of  Canada. 

Within  the  past  few  years  the  students  of 
twelve  other  denominations  have  inaugurated 
similar  movements,  with  varying  degrees  of 
success.  The  leaders  of  the  Volunteer  Movement 
have  helped  by  counsel  at  every  stage  of  this 
development.  In  most  cases  the  leaders  of  these 
movements  have  been  volunteers.  In  the  path- 
way of  the  work  of  student  campaigners  thou- 
sands of  young  people  have  been  stirred,  mis- 
sionary committees  have  been  organized,  mis- 
sionary Hbraries  have  been  established,  mission 
study  classes  and  reading  circles  have  been 
instituted,  and  the  young  people  have  been 
influenced  to  form  the  habit  of  systematic  giving. 


study  Classes 
Sadnn 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


704 


Many  churches  have  been  led  to  support  their 
own  missionaries.  Intercession  on  behalf  of  mis- 
sions has  been  greatly  promoted,  and  the  spiritual 
life  of  young  people's  societies  has  been  quick- 
ened and  strengthened.  The  recent  organiza- 
tion of  the  Young  People's  Forward  Movement, 
the  purpose  of  which  is  to  promote  missionary 
activities  among  the  young  people  of  all  denomi- 
nations, is  a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  work  of  the 
Student  Volunteer  Movement  among  young 
people. 

/  X.  The  Volunteer  Movement  in  Other  Coun- 
tries: The  Volunteer  Movement  has,  under  differ- 
ent names,  become  world-wide,  largely  as  a 
result  of  its  direct  influence  on  the  students  of 
other  lands.  In  Great  Britain  the  Student  Vol- 
unteer Missionary  Union  commands  the  confi- 
dence of  the  British  missionary  societies.  They 
have  held  three  missionary  conferences,  which 
have  been  the  largest  and  most  notable  student 
conventions  ever  held  in  Europe.  The  Volun- 
teer Movement  in  Germany  and  the  one  in 
Scandinavia  have  made  most  encouraging  prog- 
ress. They  have  materially  increased  the  num- 
ber of  missionary  candidates,  and  have  done 
much  to  promote  the  scientific  study  of  missions. 
A  conference  of  the  German  Movement  was  held 
at  Halle  in  April,  1901.  The  Movement  in 
France  and  French-speaking  Switzerland  has  not 
made  as  marked  progress  as  the  other  European 
Movements,  but  it  has,  nevertheless,  accom- 
plished a  most  useful  work.  An  organization  has 
also  been  effected  in  Holland.  The  Movement 
in  Australasia  received  a  great  impetus  from  the 
missionary  conference  held  in  Australia  and  in 
New  Zealand  in  1903.  An  organization  has  been 
effected  in  India  and  Ceylon,  which  gives  much 
promise  for  the  cause  of  missions  in  India,  and  a 
similar  Movement  will  soon  develop  in  China  and 
in  Japan.  The  organizations  in  different  coun- 
tries are  related  to  each  other  through  the 
World's  Student  Christian  Federation. 

STUDY  CLASSES  on  Missions:  Henry  Venn, 
Secretary  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
defined  the  aim  of  Foreign  Missions  as  to  plant  a 
native  church  that  should  be  self-supporting,  self- 
governing,  and  self-extending.  Such  a  con- 
summation cannot  be  hoped  for  abroad,  unless 
supported  in  the  Church  at  home  by  an  interest 
that  shares  the  three  qualities  named.  We  need 
an  interest  that  is  self-sustaining — not  a  smolder- 
ing spark  that  bursts  into  flame  only  after  pro- 
tracted use  of  the  bellows;  an  interest  that  is  self- 
directing — that  understands  where  to  find  and 
how  to  use  its  own  fuel;  an  interest  that  is  self- 
propagating — that  spreads  and  kindles  the  brush- 
heaps  all  about  it. 

It  is  surprising,  in  view  of  this  obvious  need, 
that  the  systematic  and  wide-spread  study  of  Mis- 
sions has  been  so  long  delayed.  The  methods 
upon  which  we  have  relied  in  the  past — an  occa- 
sional sermon  or  address,  a  meeting  once  a  month, 
desultory  mention  in  the  home — would  in  secular 
work  be  trusted  to  bring  forth  only  the  poorest 
kind  of  wild  grapes.  We  do  not  trifle  with  the 
subject  of  American  history  in  any  such  way. 
For  that  we  admit  the  need  of  well-prepared  and 
adapted  text-books,  of  trained  teachers,  of  serious 
study,  of  many  and  frequent  recitations.  To 
grasp  definitely  and  permanently  the  vastness, 
variety,  and  perspective  of  any  subject,  its  prob- 
lems and  lessons,  we  judge  painstaking  work  a 
necessity. 

The  study  of  Foreign  Missions  by  individuals 


and  isolated  groups  has  existed  for  many  years. 
Suggestions  for  didactic  meetings  have  been  pub- 
lished. But  the  first  attempt  to  provide  a  sys- 
tematic course  of  study  for  classes  was  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Student  Volunteer  Movement.  It 
had  become  increasingly  apparent  to  the  leaders  of 
this  organization  that  the  effects  of  their  stirring 
appeals  would  be  short-lived  unless  nursed  and 
fed.  From  the  Volunteer  Bands  came  the 
demand  for  guidance  in  systematic  study.  Altho 
Prof.  Wood,  of  Smith  College,  had  previously  pub- 
lished a  series  of  suggestions,  the  present  system 
may  be  said  to  have  been  inaugurated  by  out- 
lines published  in  The  Student  Volunteer,  begin- 
ning in  February,  1893,  prepared  by  Messrs.  Lyon, 
Beach,  Wishard,  and  Adams,  and  Miss  Wilson. 
In  the  winter  of  '94-'95,  text-books  were  for  the 
first  time  taken  up,  the  first  being  George 
Smith's  Short  History  of  Missions.  In  the 
spring  of  1895,  Mr.  D.  Willard  Lyon  prepared  the 
first  text-book  written  specially  for  this  course, 
a  sketch  of  the  History  of  Protestant  Missions  in 
China.  In  the  fall  of  the  same  year.  Rev. 
Harlan  P.  Beach,  now  Educational  Secretary  of 
the  Movement,  published  the  first  of  those  text- 
books to  which  the  student  world  owes  so  much, 
The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident,  a  study  of 
India.  Since  that  time  the  Movement  has  pre- 
pared or  provided  text-books  every  year,  usually 
issuing  courses  on  three  different  subjects.  The 
reason  for  this  has  been  the  demand  that  as  many 
phases  of  the  subject  as  possible  should  be  pre- 
sented within  the  short  college  generation. 
Special  mention  should  be  made  of  Beach's 
Geography  and  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions,  a 
unique  presentation  of  the  mission  field  at  the 
present  day.  Every  year  these  courses  have 
been  studied  by  an  increasing  number  of  college 
men  and  women,  n on- volunteers  as  well  as 
volunteers. 

At  the  Ecumenical  Conference  of  1900,  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Women's  Boards  of  North 
America  planned  a  course  for  their  constituencies 
to  be  known  as  the  United  Study  of  Missions 
Series.  In  the  fall  of  1901,  the  first  text-book 
was  published,  written  by  Miss  Louise  M.  Hodg- 
kins —  Via  Christi,  an  introduction  sketching 
missions  from  apostolic  times  down  to  Carey. 
The  sale  of  35,000  copies  during  the  first  year 
showed  that  the  time  was  ripe  for  such  a  plan. 
The  second  volume.  Lux  Christi,  published  a  year 
later,  treats  India;  the  third  takes  up  China. 
Among  the  young  people's  societies  a  desire  was 
expressed  for  something  more  elementary  in 
character  than  the  text-books  of  the  Student 
Volunteer  Movement,  which  were  written  with 
the  college  sophomore  in  view.  This  has  led  to 
the  Forward  Mission  Study  Series,  the  first  of 
which.  The  Price  of  Africa,  by  Mr.  S.  Earl 
Taylor,  was  out  in  July,  1902.  This  ten- 
dency to  adapt  to  specific  needs  is  a  very  hopeful 
sign,  but  there  is  still  much  to  be  done.  We  need 
as  many  grades  in  text-books  for  the  study  of 
Foreign  Missions  as  for  that  of  geography  or  his- 
tory. 

In  addition  to  these  courses  several  of  the 
denominations  have  prepared  or  recommended 
text-books,  or  have  furnished  outline  studies  in 
magazines. 

The  methods  of  the  mission  study  class  have 
varied.  The  college  classes  have,  for  the  most 
part,  met  weekly,  and  employed  prevailingly  the 
question  method.  Many  classes  outside  the 
colleges  have  followed  the  same  plan.     Among 


705 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Study  ClaHses 
Sudan 


the  women  the  tendency  is  stronger  to  meet  only- 
monthly,  and  to  have  the  subject  presented  by 
papers.  The  lecture  method  is,  fortunately, 
least  in  vogue,  altho  it  has  its  preparatory  uses  m 
sluggish  communities.  In  general,  the  effort  to 
include  an  entire  church  organization  in  the  study 
class  tends  toward  less  frequent  sessions  and  less 
thorough  work.  The  best  quality  of  work  has 
been  obtaiiied  in  small  groups  meeting,  at  least, 
weekly,  which  is  only  what  the  laws  of  pedagogy 
would  lead  us  to  expect.  It  is  also  obvious, 
especially  where  the  course  is  traversed  in  a  few 
sessions,  that  the  profit  of  the  class  depends 
largely  on  the  leader.  A  skilful  teacher  will 
discover  means  of  impressing  a  very  few  of  the 
most  important  points  permanently,  of  impl.int- 
ing  an  interest  in  the  subject,  a  desire  to  study 
it  further  and  an  enthusiasm  to  bring  others 
under  its  influence.  No  need  is  more  urgent  than 
that  for  prayerful  trained  leaders.  For  some 
years  the  Student  Volunteer  Movement  has  cor- 
responded with  its  class  leaders,  and  furnished 
them  with  printed  suggestions  on  methods  of 
leading.  In  this  it  has  been  followed  by  several 
of  the  denominations,  so  that  the  helps  grow 
yearly  in  volume. 

As  the  most  effective  way  of  collecting  a  class 
has  been  found  to  be  personal  solicitation,  so  that 
of  propagating  classes  is  the  personal  contact  of 
traveling  secretaries,  student  campaigners  or 
district  workers.  The  growth  resulting  in  some 
of  the  metropolitan  centers  from  well  organized 
efforts  along  this  line  has  been  very  marked. 

We  may  confidently  look  for  a  great  extension 
in  the  quantity  and  improvement  in  the  quality 
of  this  work  during  the  next  few  years,  and  for 
a  consequent  broadening  and  deepening  of  mis- 
sionary interest. 

STURGES,  Albert  A.:  Born  at  Granville,  Ohio, 
November  5,  1819.  Died,  September  4,  1887. 
Graduated  at  Wabash  College,  1848;  Yale  Divin- 
ity School,  1851;  embarked  January  11,  1852,  as  a 
missionary  of  the  ABCFM  for  Micronesia, 
reaching  Ponape  the  following  September.  He 
labored  most  happily  for  thirty-three  years 
at  his  missionary  station  on  Ponape.  He  showed 
great  tact  in  his  relations  with  the  natives,  and 
skill  in  drawing  out  the  activities  of  the  church 
members.  Much  of  his  time  was  given  to  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  he  had  the  joy 
of  seeing  the  New  Testament  completed  and  in 
the  hands  of  the  people.  In  1885  his  health 
required  him  to  return  home,  where,  tho  in  much 
physical  weakness,  he  carried  on  the  work  of 
translation. 

SUA-BUE:  A  town  in  Kwang-tung,  China, 
situated  on  the  S.  coast  about  80  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Swatow.  Station  of  the  PCE  (1893),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives.  Other 
statistics   are  included  with   Wu-king-fu. 

SUCHAU:  A  town  in  Kiang-su,  China,  regarded 
by  the  Chinese  as  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
beautiful  in  China.  It  is  situated  on  a  cluster  of 
islands  in  Ta-hu,  "Great  Lake,"  70  miles  north- 
west of  Shanghai,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  network  of  streams  and  canals.  Its  walls  are 
10  miles  in  circuit,  and  the  suburbs  extend  for 
many  miles  around,  while  an  immense  popula- 
tion lives  in  boats.  The  rebels  captured  it  in 
1860,  and  left  it,  when  recaptured,  in  1865,  a 
ruined  city.  The  beauty  of  the  women,  and  the 
picturesqueness  of  its  location,  with  the  many 
ane  buildings,  cause  it  to  be  celebrated  in  proverb 
45 


and  poetry.  Its  silk  manufactures  are  of  espe- 
cial note,  but  all  Chinese  manufactures  are  pro- 
duced in  great  abundance  and  of  superior  quality. 
Several  channels  connect  it  with  the  Yangtsze- 
kiang,  and  small  steamers  at  high  tide  reach  the 
many  important  villages  and  towns  in  the  sur- 
rounding districts.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  500,000,  and  from  the  top  of  one  of  the  high 
pagodas  can  be  seen  an  area  containing  a  popula- 
tion of  5,000,000.  Station  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  (South),  (1863),  with  (1900)  7 
missionaries,  six  of  them  with  their  wives;  6 
women  missionaries,  24  native  workers,  4  places 
of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  2  boarding  schools, 
1  theological  class,  1  college,  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital, 1  medical  class,  and  101  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  PN  (1871),  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  three  of  them  with  their  wives;  17 
native  workers,  2  outstations,  5  places  of  worship, 
3  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary,  and  68  professed 
Christians.     The  name  is  also  written  Soochow. 

SU-CHIEN.     See  Su-tsien-hsien. 

SUDAN:  A  territory  in  Africa  adjacent  to  the 
Sahara.  Taken  in  its  broader  dimensions,  or  as 
spoken  of  by  the  Arabs  and  earlier  European 
geographers,  together  with  the  additions  claimed 
by  Eg}'ptian  rulers  in  late  years,  Beled-es-Sudan, 
or  the  "Country  of  the  Blacks,"  extends  from 
west  to  east  along  the  southern  border  of  the 
Great  Desert  from  the  Atlantic  and  Senegal  to  the 
Red  Sea  and  Abyssinia,  and  southward  from 
the  desert  to  Upper  Guinea  on  the  west,  and  to 
the  equatorial  and  lake  regions  on  the  east,  being 
some  3,500  miles  in  length,  from  east  to  west,  and 
in  its  broader  parts  on  the  east  some  1,600  in 
width,  and  comprising  a  population  estimated  at 
50,000,000.  It  is  thus  almost  a  fourth  of  Africa, 
both  in  extent  of  country  and  in  the  number 
of  its  inhabitants. 

The  Western  Sudan  from  Wadai  to  the  Atlan- 
tic is  now  comprised  and  described  as  belonging 
to  the  more  recently  created  colonies  and  pro- 
tectorates and  spheres  of  influence  of  France,  or 
to  Northern  Nigeria,  which  has  fallen  to  Great 
Britain.  The  extreme  northern  part  of  Kamerun 
also  falls  in  this  general  region. 

Eastern  or  Egyptian  Sudan,  to  which  the  eyes 
of  the  world  have  been  chiefly  turned  during 
recent  years,  lies  along  each  side  of  the  Nile,  from 
Assouan  or  the  first  cataract  to  Uganda  and  the 
Congo  Free  State,  extending  some  1,100  miles 
or  more  from  north  to  south,  while  its  width, 
from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  eastern  limits  of  Wadai, 
is  from  twelve  to  fourteen  hundred  miles. 

The  extensive  additions  to  his  own  territories, 
which  the  distinguished  viceroy  of  Egypt, 
Mehemet  Ali,  made,  more  than  half  a  century 
since,  included  all  the  country  on  the  Blue  and 
White  Niles,  for  great  distances  east  and  west  of 
them,  and  for  several  degrees  south  of  the 
equator;  and  in  after  years  his  grandson,  Ismail, 
the  first  Khedive  of  Egypt,  claimed  that  he  had  a 
right  to  extend  his  borders  as  far  as  the  Juba 
River  on  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Sudan  as  now 
constituted  (1903)  comprises  eight  provinces, 
viz.:  Khartum,  Gezira,  Dongola,  Berber,  Kassala, 
Sennar,  Kordofan,  and  Bahr  el  Ghazal,  and  three 
administrative  districts,  Wadi  Haifa,  Suakin,  and 
Fashoda.  The  present  area  is  about  950,000 
square  miles;  the  population  is  estimated  roughly 
at  3,500,000.  Khartum,  the  capital  of  this  vast 
region,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  two 


Sadnn 
SufiNxa 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


709 


Niles,  Blue  and  White;  and  Suakin,  on  the  Red 
Sea,  is  its  chief  seaport. 

This  section  of  Africa  is  chiefly  inhabited  by 
two  distinct  races.  From  the  eleventh  degree  of 
latitude  northward  the  people  are  almost  wholly 
Arab  in  their  origin.  They  are  chiefly  nomads, 
and  are  professedly  Mohammedan.  Being  ex- 
ceedingly emotional  and  superstitious,  they  have 
the  greatest  regard  for  their  sheikhs  or  spiritual 
guides,  ascribe  to  them  a  kind  of  supernatural 
power,  and  venerate  them  almost  more  than  they 
do  the  Prophet  himself.  The  country  south  of 
the  11th  degree  of  latitude  is  peopled  by  negroes, 
chiefly  of  a  sedentary  and  agricultural  mode  of 
life,  who,  while  classed  as  Mohammedans,  are  in 
reality  but  slightly  changed  pagans.  The 
mingling  of  Arab  and  negro  blood  has  produced 
a  third,  hybrid,  Arab-speaking  class,  who  are 
found  in  the  more  fertile  parts  of  the  Sudan,  espe- 
cially in  Darfur.  A  small  yet  very  distinct  race, 
said  to  have  descended  from  the  ancient  Nubians, 
is  found  in  the  northern  province  of  Dongola; 
and  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  not  far 
from  Suakin,  there  is  still  another  distinct  and 
ancient  tribe,  who  speak  a  language  of  their 
own. 

The  history  of  the  Sudan,  since  the  expulsion 
of  the  French  from  Egypt  by  the  English  in  1801, 
has.  been  turbulent  and  more  or  less  dramatic. 
Mehemet  Ali,  a  poor  fisherman  of  Greek  descent, 
a  shrewd  and  active  leader,  who,  with  a  band  of 
followers,  had  aided  the  English  and  Turks  in 
expelling  the  French,  succeeded  in  securing  the 
appointment  from  the  Porte,  in  1806,  as  viceroy 
of  Egypt.  He  proved  himself  to  be  a  general, 
a  statesman,  and  man  of  affairs,  and  met  with 
great  success  for  many  years.  Finding  the 
Mamelukes,  whom  he  had  used  as  a  stepping- 
stone  to  power,  a  hindrance  to  his  rule,  and  a 
plague  to  the  country,  he  massacred  a  great  part 
of  them  in  1811;  others  escaped  and  fled  to  New 
Dongola,  but  they  were  followed  and  flnally 
exterminated  in  1820.  Mehemet  Ali  then  made 
himself  master  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  by  him  the 
Egypt  of  to-day  was  virtually  founded.  His 
rule  extended  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
equator,  and  hereditary  succession  was  estab- 
lished forever,  according  to  Mohammedan  law,  in 
the  eldest  of  his  blood.  Ismail,  the  fifth  viceroy 
of  Egypt,  and  a  grandson  of  Mehemet  Ali, 
enlarged  his  army,  extended  his  sway  southward 
over  regions  which  Mehemet  Ali  had  nominally 
taken,  so  as  to  recover  and  include  the  Upper  and 
White  Nile,  together  with  the  equatorial  and 
lake  provinces,  and  pushed  his  victories  into  the 
Darfur  regions.  But  in  levying  enormous  taxes 
upon  the  people  he  laid  the  train  for  revolt.  The 
revolt  took  definite  form  in  the  summer  of  1881. 
It  was  led  by  Ahmed  Mohammed,  an  Arab  of 
African  birth.  An  air  of  mystery  surrounded 
Mohammed,  and  he  styled  himself  the  Mahdi, 
claiming  to  be  that  prophet  or  reformer  of  Islam 
whose  coming  had  been  awaited  for  many  cen- 
turies. Emerging  from  seclusion,  he  and  his 
motley  army  took  several  large  towns,  and  in 
July,  1882,  he  overpowered  and  massacred  a 
force  of  about  6,000  Egyptian  soldiers,  together 
with  the  commanders  of  the  army.  An  English 
officer.  General  Hicks,  was  now  sent  to  take  com- 
mand of  the  Egyptian  forces  at  Khartum.  After 
some  successes,  he  marched  in  pursuit  of  the 
Mahdi  with  an  Egyptian  force  of  about  10,000 
men  in  the  autumn  of  188.3.  Through  the  treach- 
ery of  a  guide  he  was  led  into  a  defile  not  far  from 


El  Obeid,  where  the  Mahdi  fell  upon  him  and  left 
"not  a  man"  of  all  his  army  to  tell  the  tale. 

The  fate  of  General  Hicks'  expedition  aroused 
in  England  a  deep  interest  in  the  Sudan  war.  The 
Mahdi's  lieutenants  appeared  with  strong  forces 
before  Suakin  on  the  Red  Sea.  England's  route 
to  India  was  in  danger;  a  fleet  was  sent  to  Sua- 
kin, and  troops  were  sent  thence  to  drive  off  the 
Sudanese.  Defeat  of  the  English  enterprise  and 
massacre  was  the  only  result.  Stung  to  action 
by  these  disasters,  the  British  Government  dis- 
patched troops  to  Suakin,  and  having  now  become 
concerned  for  the  safety  of  Egypt,  proposed  to 
abandon  the  Sudan.  As  a  first  step  to  carrying 
out  this  policy.  Gen.  Gordon,  who  had  formerly 
been  Governor-General  of  the  Sudan,  was  sent 
to  Khartum  in  1884.  He  was  to  tranquilize  the 
hostile  tribes  and  prepare  a  means  by  which 
English  and  Egyptian  officers,  civil  functionaries, 
and  soldiers  might  withdraw  from  that  turbulent 
and  unprofitable  region.  But  the  Mahdi  won 
over  Gordon's  trusted  Egyptian  troops,  found 
entrance  to  Khartum,  and  killed  Gen.  Gordon, 
so  that  the  English  forces,  sent  tardily  in  the 
latter  part  of  1884  to  his  relief,  found  naught,  on 
arriving  near  the  city,  but  desolation  dominated 
by  the  green  flag  of  Islam. 

For  eleven  years  after  the  fall  of  Khartum  the 
Sudan  was  ruled  by  the  Mahdi,  and  after  his 
death,  in  1885,  by  his  successor  {Khalifa  or 
Caliph).  These  new  rulers  held  the  country 
under  a  desolating  and  blood-thirsty  despotism, 
for  they  considered  themselves  divinely  appointed 
reformers.  Prosperous  districts  were  reduced  tO' 
barren  wastes.  The  river  populations,  reduced 
to  small  numbers,  were  little  better  than  slaves. 

In  1898,  however,  the  increasing  power  of  the 
Khalifa  led  to  a  serious  interposition  on  the  part 
of  Great  Britain,  and  under  Lord  Kitchener's 
direction  the  combined  British  and  Egyptian 
forces  broke  the  power  of  the  Khalifa,  recovered 
Khartum  and  finally  destroyed  the  last  vestige 
of  Mahdism,  by  the  death  in  battle  of  all  its  most 
prominent  leaders. 

The  Sudan  is  now  a  condominion  of  Egypt  and 
Great  Britain,  an  arrangement  having  been  made, 
in  January,  1899,  between  the  two  governments 
for  the  appointment  of  a  Governor-General  by 
Egypt,  with  the  assent  of  Great  Britain,  who  rules 
under  general  principles  agreed  upon  by  both 
governments. 

The  prosperity  of  the  Sudan  is  slowly  reviving. 
A  primary  school  system  is  now  in  operation. 
Gordon  College,  an  institution  proposed  by  Gen. 
Kitchener  for  teaching  Western  sciences  to 
Mohammedans,  by  Mohammedans,  or,  at  least, 
without  Christian  taint,  was  opened  at  Khartum 
in  1902,  with  an  endowment  of  about  $500,000. 

Direct  missionary  work  for  Moharnmedans  is. 
under  prohibition  (1903)  in  the  Sudan,  the  mil- 
itary authorities  fearing  its  results  upon  the 
fanaticism  of  the  people.  Medical  missions  have 
been  authorized,  under  certain  restrictions,  and 
the  CMS  has  a  station  at  Omdurman,  and  the  UP' 
a  station  at  Khartum.  The  last-named  Society 
has  also  undertaken  missionary  work  among  the 
pagan  population  (Shillahs)  on  the  Sobat  River, 
540  miles  south  of  Khartum.  The  British  Gov- 
ernment will  probably  consent  to  the  opening 
of  schools  by  missionaries  without  much  more 
delay. 

Alford  (H.  S.)  and  Sword  (W.  D.),  The  Egyptian  Sudan:  Its 
Loss  and  Recovery,  London,  1898;  Bennett  (E.  N.),. 
Downfall  of  the  Dervishes,  London,  1898 ;  Boulger  (D.  C.)» 


707 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


b  attain 
Snflam 


Life  of  Gordon,  London,  1897;  Churchill  (W.  C),  The 
River  War:  The  Reconquest  of  the  Sudan,  London,  1902; 
Lady  Duff  Gordon,  Letters  from  Egypt,  new  ed.,  London, 
1902;   Fenn  CG.  M.),  In  the  Mahdi's  Grasp,  London,  1899; 


Fowler  (MJ,  Christian  Egypt,  London,  1900;  Mardon 
(H.  W.),  Geography  of  Egypt  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan, 
London,    1902;     Neufeldt    (C),   A    Prisoner   of  Khaleefa, 


London,  1899;  Steevens  (G.  W.),  With  Kitchener  to  Khar- 
toum, Edinburgh,  1898;  Slatin  Pasha,  Fire  and  Sword  in 
the  Sudan,  New  York,  1895.  Also  the  Travels  of  Schwein- 
furth  (1868-71),  Speke  (1863),  Grant  (1864),  Jephson 
(1887-88),  Baker  (1867-68),  etc. 


SUDAN  PIONEER  MISSION. 

Missionary  Societies  in. 


See  Germany; 


SUDHARAM :  Town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
in  Noakiiali  district,  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
Ganges  Delta,  and  about  60  miles  N.  W.  of  Chit- 
tagong.  It  has  some  commercial  importance, 
but  is  unhealthful  and  disagreeable  as  a  residence. 
Population  about  5,000.  Station  of  the  Queens- 
land Baptist  Missions  (1889),  with  (1901)  1 
woman  missionary,  6  native  workers,  1  outstation, 
1  day  school,  and  10  native  communicants.  Also 
called  Noakhali. 

SUFISM:  A  theosophy  or  mystical  philosophy 
found  among  Mohammedans,  altho  branded  as  of 
heretical  tendency  by  the  Ulema  or  regular  hier- 
archy of  Muslim  theologians.  Upon  it  is  based 
the  "secret"  or  "mystery"  of  the  orders  of 
Dervishes,  each  order  having  its  own  practise  and 
method  of  applying  the  philosophy  of  man's 
relation  with  God  proposed  by  Sunsm. 

The  name  Sufi  is  variously  derived  by  Persian 
and  Turkish  writers,  some  holding  that  it  comes 
from  Sof,  wool;  woolen  garments  being  worn  by 
ascetics.  Others,  more  correctly,  perhaps,  con- 
nect the  word  with  the  Greek  sophos,  a  sage.  The 
body  of  doctrine  and  rules  as  to  practise  followed 
by  Sufis  is  called  the  science  of  tesavmmf,  a  word 
formed  by  regular  Arabic  rules  from  "Sof."  It  is 
perhaps  worth  noting,  however,  that  this  word 
IS  spelled  with  the  letters  which  might  be  used 
(with  different  vowel  points)  to  represent  the 
word  "Theosophy." 

Sufism  has  been  chiefly  taught,  and  most 
extravagantly  also,  in  Persia,  where  the  stimulus 
of  its  aspirations  has  fostered  imagination, 
clothed  its  teachings  in  beautiful  literary  garb,  and 
changed  every  philosopher  into  a  poet. 

Sufism  first  attracts  attention  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury. Under  the  Abbaside  Caliphs,  at  Baghdad, 
it  flourished  among  the  men  of  genius  brought  to- 
gether to  grace  the  Golden  Age  of  Mohammedan 
intellectual  activity.  The  time  was  a  critical 
one  both  for  Islam  and  for  the  principle  of  free 
thought  which  theologians  sought  to  suppress. 
The  assimilation  by  Islam  of  the  mass  of  men  of 
various  religions  and  philosophies  who  had  been 
forced  into  Mohammedanism,  was  not  complete. 
It  had  produced  in  Islam  itself  various  heretical 
schools  of  thought.  These  schools  of  philosophy 
were  gradually  crushed  out,  and  Sufism,  with  its 
careful  reverence  for  Mohammedanism  in  teach- 
ing secret  and  inward  explanations  of  visible 
and  outward  things,  seems  to  have  become  a 
refuge  for  all  who  revolted  against  chaining  the 
mind  to  dogmas  and  formulas.  It  gave  hos- 
pitable welcome  to  everything  in  the  way  of  doc- 
trine that  the  world  has  ever  heard,  since  "aU 
paths  lead  to  God." 

The  "Sincere  Brethren,"  found  in  Baghdad  in 
the  10th  century,  seem  to  have  been  imbued  with 
the  principles  of  Sufism.  Their  mysteries 
made  their  bond  of  union,  and  in  the  secrecy  with 
which  they  surrounded  their  real  creed  they 
resembled  some  orders  of  the  Dervishes  of  to-day. 


So  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  their  literary 
remains,  the  chief  subject  of  their  investigation 
was  that  knowledge  of  divine  things  which  is 
taught  imperfectly  by  all  religious  systems. 
They  held  the  central  Sufi  doctrine,  that  the 
essence  of  every  existing  thing  is  derived  from  one 
supreme  mind.  All  knowledge,  therefore,  aids 
understanding  of  the  One  Source  of  all,  and 
everything  may  turn  to  the  benefit  of  the  soul  in 
leading  it  to  the  knowledge  of  God.  The  highest 
attainment  is  such  separation  from  worldly 
things  as  will  permit  life  with  God  and  knowledge 
of  His  counsels.  In  this  pursuit  the  poorest  may 
be  the  richest,  and  all  seekers  may  recognize  a 
brotherhood  bond  which  makes  each  ready  to  aid 
the  other. 

Sir  William  Jones  gives  the  central  idea  of  the 
Sufis  as  follows:  "Nothing  exists  absolutely  but 
God.  The  human  soul  is  an  emanation  from  His 
essence,  and  will  finally  be  reunited  with  it.  The 
highest  possible  happiness  will  arise  from  this 
reunion,  and  the  chief  good  in  this  world  consists 
in  as  perfect  a  union  with  the  Eternal  Spirit  as  the 
encumbrance  of  a  mortal  frame  will  allow." 

The  great  Sufi  writers  give  telling  illustrations 
of  their  view  of  the  nature  of  the  essential  unity  of 
the  spirit  of  man  witli  God.  Says  one  (translation 
by  Ubicini):  "You  say  'the  sea  and  the  waves,' 
but  in  this  utterance  you  do  not  signifiy  distinct 
objects;  for  the  sea  when  it  heaves  produces 
waves,  and  the  waves  when  they  settle  down 
again  become  sea.  In  the  same  way  men  are  the 
waves  of  God,  and  after  death  return  to  His 
bosom.  Or,  you  trace,  with  ink  upon  paper,  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  'a,  b,  c;'  but  these  letters 
are  not  distinct  from  the  ink  with  which  you 
write  them.  In  the  same  manner  the  creation 
is  the  alphabet  of  God,  and  is  lost  in  Him." 

Sufism  has  features  which  recall  the  doctrines 
of  the  Gnostics,  who  had  not  yet  vanished  from 
Asia  when  Islam  put  forth  its  sword  to  rid  the 
world  of  all  formulas  of  belief  save  the  formula  of 
allegiance  to  the  Prophet  of  Mecca.  Like  the 
Gnostics,  the  Sufis  attach  an  important  mystic 
meaning  to  light,  as  symboUzing  the'  Supreme 
Power.  So,  too,  the  Sufis  believe  in  Aeons  ruling 
the  world  through  a  whole  hierarchy  of  under 
dignitaries  (the  Kuth,  the  Ghaios,  etc.),  and 
showing  the  power  of  (jod  in  thaumaturgic  dis- 
plays. Like  the  Gnostics,  too,  the  Sufis  divide 
mankind  into  two  classes:  on  the  one  hand  are 
spiritual  men,  understanding  all  things,  initiated 
into  the  councils  of  God — thoroughly  ripened 
souls  who  are  free  from  all  law,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  fleshly  men — immature  creatures  still 
struggling  with  the  desires  of  the  body  and 
burdens  of  law,  and  of  the  endless  rites  of 
religious  observance. 

Neo-Platonism,  too,  is  preserved  like  a  fossil  in 
its  matrix  by  Sufism  in  the  use  which  it  makes  of 
the  doctrine  of  man's  unity  of  essence  with  the 
Creator.  Sufis  hold  that  man  may  cease  to  be 
himself — that  is  to  say,  individual^while  in  the 
body;  and  he  may  thus  identify  himself  with  the 
Absolute  and  Infinite  Truth.  This  intuitive 
grasp  or  vision  of  the  Infinite  is  not  subject  to  any 
effort  of  will.  But  by  an  effort  of  will  man  can 
concentrate  his  mind  for  the  contemplation  of 
God  to  such  an  extent  that  God  gives,  in  return, 
the  inspiration  or  enthusiasm  of  vision  which  is 
infinitely  precious,  altho  transient  in  consequence 
of  the  rnortal  frame  in  which  the  soul  of  man  is 
chained. 

Sir  William  Jones  translates  from  Ferhad  and 


Sufi.sin 
Suiiiiitra 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


708 


Shirin  a  passage  illustrating  various  allegories 
in  nature  which  invite  the  soul  to  desire  to  ap- 
proach God:  "There  is  a  strong  propensity  which 
dances  through  every  atom  and  attracts  the 
individual  particles  to  some  particular  object. 
Search  the  universe  from  base  to  summit,  from 
fire  to  air,  from  water  to  earth,  from  all  below  the 
moon  to  all  above  the  celestial  spheres,  and  you 
will  not  find  a  corpuscle  destitute  of  natural  at- 
tractabilit}'.  The  very  point  of  the  first  thread 
in  this  apparently  tangled  skein  is  no  other  than 
the  principle  of  attraction,  and  all  principles 
beside  are  devoid  of  real  basis.  From  such  a 
propensity  arises  every  motion  perceived  in 
heavenly  or  in  terrestrial  bodies;  it  is  the  disposi- 
tion to  be  attracted  which  taught  hard  steel  to 
rush  from  its  place  and  rivet  itself  to  the  magnet; 
it  is  this  quality  wliieh  gives  every  substance  in 
nature  a  tendency  toward  some  other,  and  an 
inclination  forcibly  directed  to  a  determinate 
point." 

The  Sufis  speak  in  very  warm  terms  of  their 
devotion  to  God.  "We  are  not  afraid  of  Hell," 
says  one,  "neither  do  we  desire  Heaven,"  Asked 
by  a  scandalized  follower  what  he  meant  by  so 
blasphemous  a  speech,  he  replied,  "Our  devotion 
is  for  love  of  God  only.  To  God  belongs  the 
right  to  put  us  either  in  Heaven  or  in  Hell.  And 
may  God's  commands  be  executed  agreeably  to 
His  blessed  will!" 

M.  Garcin  de  Tassy  brings  the  attractive  utter- 
ances of  the  Sufis  to  their  true  level  by  the  follow- 
ing remarks  in  his  translation  of  one  of  their  finest 
poems:  "Placed  between  the  Pantheism  of  the 
Indian  Yogis  and  tlie  Koran  (which  is  sometimes 
an  informal  copy  of  the  Bible)  the  Mohammedan 
philosophers  called  Sufis  have  established  a 
Pantheistic  school  appropriate  to  Islamic  ideas — 
a  sort  of  esoteric  doctrine  of  Islamism,  which 
must  be  distinguished  from  Indian  Pantheism, 
tho,  indeed,  it  presents  only  errors  of  the  Ve- 
danta  and  the  Sankhya.  Pantheism  as  a  moral 
doctrine  leads  to  the  same  conclusions  as  ma- 
terialism— negation  of  human  liberty,  indiffer- 
ence to  actions,  and  the  legitimatizing  of  temporal 
enjoyments.  In  this  system  all  is  God  except 
God  Himself,  for  He  thereby  ceases  to  be  God. 
The  spiritualism  of  the  Sufi,  tho  contrary  to 
materialism,  is  in  reality  identical  with  it.  But 
if  this  doctrine  is  not  more  reasonable  it  is  at  least 
more  elevated  and  more  poetical." 

There  is  a  special  Sufi  vocabulary  of  the  expe- 
riences of  the  seeker  after  God.  God  is  the 
Truth —  Hakk.  The  devotee's  attraction  to 
God  is  called  Jezb.  The  intuitive  knowledge  of 
Divine  things,  which  the  soul  seeks  to  acquire,  is 
marifeh  (knowledge — gnosis).  That  state  of  self- 
effacement,  which  removes  the  obstacle  of 
individuality  from  the  path  of  union  with  God,  is 
called  ifna  (annihilation)  and  the  attainment  of 
the  sense  of  union  with  God  is  visal  (the  term  used 
in  speaking  of  a  lover's  gaining  access  to  his  mis- 
tress). The  resulting  ecstasy  of  joy  is  Wejd.  A 
special  meaning  attaches  to  many  other  words  in 
the  mouths  of  Sufis.  This  must  be  borne  in  mind 
in  order  to  avoid  reading  Christian  or  other  pre- 
conceptions into  the  writings  of  these  philoso- 
phers, as  has  been  done  by  the  one  seductive 
translator  of  Omar  Khayyam.  The  meaning 
conveyed  to  a  Sufi  by  the  name  of  God  has  al- 
ready been  hinted.  He  furthermore  considers 
God  to  be  the  author  of  evil  as  well  as  of  good. 
Hence  there  is  no  moral  quality  in  God,  and  moral 
distinctions  are  obscured  for  men.  "Love  of  God," 


"Desire  for  God,"  "Union  with  God,"  entrain  no 
moral  responsibility  in  the  man  who  has  them 
for  his  object  in  life.  "Knowledge  of  God,"  too, 
is  merely  apprehending  His  existence  by  some 
mechanical  or  other  means  which  concentrates 
attention  upon  the  fact.  The  aim  of  the  seeker 
after  knowledge  of  God  is  neither  a  clearing  of  the 
mind  nor  a  purification  of  the  affections  and 
desires.  It  is  simply  personal  enjoyment  of  an 
ecstasy,  artificially  produced  and  transitory, 
whose  highest  value,  aside  from  the  nervous 
orgasm,  is  its  power  to  make  the  Sufi  oblivious 
of  the  closely  linked  relations  to  other  men 
which  characterize  life.  In  social  matters  the 
Sufi  holds  an  attitude  like  that  of  the  stylite 
monks  of  early  Eastern  Christianity  who  could 
perceive  nothing  in  the  world  more  worthy  of 
effort  than  personal  advancement  in  what  they 
were  pleased  to  call  "saintliness." 

Sufism  has  never  been  free  from  the  attacks  of 
Mohammedan  theologians.  The  heretical  sects 
of  the  early  centuries  of  Islam  have  disappeared. 
The  "Sincere  Brethren"  have  likewise  gone. 
Sometimes  one  gets  a  glimpse  of  the  methods  of 
this  removal  of  heresy  in  the  record  of  the  flaying 
alive  of  a  poet  or  a  teacher  for  some  pantheistic 
utterance;  and  in  modern  times  the  persecution 
of  Babism  in  Persia  (which  is  but  one  of  the  man- 
ifestations of  Sufism)  is  familiar  to  all.  Such 
practical  obstacles  to  free  development  have  led 
the  Sufis  to  announce  loudly,  and  some  of  them 
honestly,  their  dependence  upon  the  Moham- 
medan faith.  They  draw  from  the  Koran  proof 
texts  which  they  use  at  their  fuU  value.  One  of 
such  texts  is,  "It  is  not  given  to  man  that  God 
should  speak  to  Him;  if  he  does,  it  is  by  inspira- 
tion, or  through  a  veil."  By  this  text  the  Sufis 
prove  that  their  teachings  are  authorized;  they 
merely  follow  the  Koran  in  making  strenuous 
efforts  to  raise  the  veil  by  annihilation  of  the 
individuality  which  separates  man  from  the 
Divine  essence.  Another  text  which  they  use  to 
justify  their  doctrine  is  the  fourth  verse  of  the 
Vth  Sura  of  the  Koran:  "God  made  all  creation 
as  an  emanation  from  Himself,  and  will  after- 
ward cause  it  to  reenter  within  Himself." 

Ubicini  points  out,  however,  the  essential 
antagonism  between  Sufism  and  the  Moham- 
medanism to  which  it  professes  to  conform.  It 
has  "two  schools,  the  one  public,  which  precedes 
initiation;  and  the  other  secret,  for  adepts  only. 
A  strict  observance  of  religion  and  all  the  social 
virtues  is  required  of  the  candidate  for  initiation. 
Later,  when,  by  a  long  suite  of  proofs  and  morti- 
fications (under  a  teacher  to  whom  absolute 
obedience  has  been  vowed)  and,  above  all,  by 
the  absolute  annihilation  of  his  individuality  the 
novice  is  supposed  to  have  arrived  at  the  desired 
degree  in  which  he  may  behold  the  truth  face  to 
face,  the  veil,  until  then  spread  over  his  vision, 
suddenly  falls,  and  the  teacher  makes  known  to 
his  pupil  that  the  Prophet  in  his  book  has  only 
presented  under  the  veil  of  allegory  maxims  and 
political  precepts;  that  the  Koran  without  mys- 
tical interpretation  is  only  an  assembly  of  words 
void  of  sense;  and  that  once  the  habit  of  mental 
devotion  acquired,  one  can  abandon  all  forms  and 
outward  ceremonies  of  religion,  and  reduce  wor- 
ship to  a  purelv  inward  and  spiritual  exercise." 
But  a  Mohammedanism  which  has  abandoned 
its  forms  of  worship  has  ceased  to  be  Moham- 
medanism. Great  injustice  is  done  to  Islam  by 
hasty  writers,  who  represent  Sufism  as  an  enia- 
nation  from  Mohammedanism  that  explains  its 


709 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Snflsiu 
Sumatra 


essentials.  In  fact,  Sufism  is  a  force  opposed  to 
Islam,  which  will  one  day  destroy  it  oy  sub- 
stituting pantheism  for  monotheism  in  the 
Mohammedan  theology.  The  strength  of  Islam 
resides  in  its  truth,  tho  that  be  linked  to  a 
phenomenal  falsehood.  When  that  truth  of  one 
personal  God  has  been  replaced  by  the  pagan 
conception  which  Sufism  seductively  offers,  the 
religion  of  Mohammed  will  be  found  to  have  van- 
ished from  the  face  of  the  earth. 

On  perceiving  the  pantheistic  taint  in  every 
utterance  of  the  more  advanced  Sufis  respecting 
God,  one  cannot  avoid  a  sense  of  disappointment, 
for  many  of  their  really  beautiful  sayings  seem 
to  offer  a  bridge  by  which  the  system  may  be 
connected     with     mystical     Christianity.     The 
Christian  as  well  as  the  Sufi  may  join  with  the 
Hindu  in  saying    "There  is  One  only — and  there 
is  none  else."     But  the  Sufi  parts  company  with 
the  Christian  to  follow  his  Hindu  teacher.     The 
great  poet  Jellal-ed-din  Rumi  said,  in  a  moment 
of  exaltation,  "Oh,  my  master,  you   have   com- 
pleted my  doctrine  by  showing  me  that  you  are 
God — that   aU   things   are   God!"     Because   the 
Christian  finds  Scripture  teaching  that  the  Spirit 
of  God  will  lead  him  who  consents  to  be  led,  and 
that  he  who  is  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God  is  a  son  of 
God,  he  can  join  with  the  Sufi  in  declaring  that, 
"To    lose    self  in  God  is  the  one  object  toward 
which  men  should  strive."     But  this  the  Chris- 
tian understands  as  a  call  to  subject  self-will  to 
the  control  of  God,  with  a  change  of  desires  that 
places  him  in  harmony  of  purpose  and  action  with 
God,  enabling  him  to  make  kindly  helpfulness  to 
others  the  God-like  characteristic  of  his  life.    The 
Sufi,  however,  finds  in  his  desire  to  seek  God  no 
stimulus  toward  moral  elevation;  and  his  broth- 
erly feeling  toward  others  is  but  the  bastard  kind- 
liness of  the  mutual  admiration  society  which 
rates  the  masses — those  who  do  not  belong  to  the 
aristocracy  of  the  instructed  ones — as  accursed. 
Even  for  his  own  brethren  he  gains  little  from  his 
quest   after   the    Divine.     Saadi   sets   forth   the 
barrenness  of  this  quest,  so  far  as  benefit  to  others 
is  concerned,  in  one  of  his  quaint  parables  in  the 
Gulistan:   "A    Dervish    being    questioned   as  to 
what  gift  he  had  brought  back  to  his  brethren  out 
of  the  garden  of  delights  to  which  he  had  gone, 
repHed,   'I  intended  on  arriving  at  that  rose-tree 
(the  vision  of  God)  to  fill  the  skirt  of  my  robe 
with  roses,  so  as  to  offer  them  to  my  brethren. 
But  when  there,  the  scent  of  t'le  roses  so  intoxi- 
cated my  senses  that  the  skirt  '  (  my  robe  escaped 
from  my  hands.'     The  tongro   of  that  man  is 
silenced  who  has  known  God." 

Setting  on  the  one  hand  this  conception,  that  God 
countenances  a  man's  content  to  bless  himself 
tho  his  fellows  are  left  without  participation;  and 
placing  upon  the  other  side  John's  great 
elucidation  of  the  purpose  of  God's  revelation 
of  Himself  to  men — "He  that  abideth  in  me  and  I 
m  him,  the  same  beareth  much  fruit" — we  touch 
the  central  point  in  the  contrast  between  the  two 
systems.  Sufism,  hke  all  error  which  has  power 
to  enthrall  men,  is  based  on  a  great  truth,  mis- 
understood and  elaborated  by  darkened  minds. 
The  missionary's  approach  to  the  Sufi,  then, 
should  be  cautious  until  he  has  mastered  this 
curious  eclectic  philosophy,  and  has  prepared 
in  some  way  to  show  clearly  the  truth  which  it  has 
obscured  and  perverted. 

TJbicini  (M.  A.),  Letters  cm  Turkey;  Misiri  (Mohammed), 
Turkish-  Ilm  i  Tesawwuf  (The  Science  of  Sufism),  Con- 
stantinople, 1854;    translated  also  by  Brown  (J.  P.),  in 


The  Dervishes,  London,  1868;  Gobineau  (J.  A.  de),  Lett 
Religions  et  les  Philosophies  darts  I'Asie  Centrate,  Paris, 
1865;  Blochet  (E.),  Etudes  sur  I'esoterisme  Mussulmane, 
in  Journal  Asiatique,  Vols.  19  and  20,  Paris,  1902;  Tho- 
luok  (F,  A.  D.),  Ssufismus,  Berlin,  1821 ;  Wafa  ibn  Moham- 
med Wafa,  Refutation  of  the  ignorant  follies  of  the  Sufis 
(Arabic),  Cairo,  1876;  Bjerregard  (C.  H.  A.),  Sufi,  Inter- 
pretations of  the  Quatrains  of  Omar  Khayyam  and  Fitz- 
Gerald,  New  York,  1902;  Safi  of  Sainarcand,  Tieahihat  i 
Ain  i  Hayat  (Rills  from  the  Fountain  of  Ijife),  1504; 
Turkish  translation  from  the  Persian  by  Arifi,  1585; 
printed  Constantinople,  1850. 

SUHIN  STATION:  A  station  of  the  SAMS  in 
the  Grand  Chaco  of  Uruguay,  South  America, 
situated  near  the  Pilcomayo  River,  about  150 
miles  N.  W.  of  Asuncion.  Station  established 
(1899),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries. 

SUI-CHAU:  A  town  in  Hu-pei  province,  China, 
situated  about  110  miles  N.  W.  of  Wu-chang-fu. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries, 
8  native  workers,  7  outstations,  8  places  of  wor- 
ship, 2  day  schools,  and  157  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  127  are  communicants.  Some  write 
the  name  Sui-chou. 

SUI-FU.     See  Hsu-chau. 

SUI-TING-FU:  A  town  in  Sze-chwan,  China, 
situated  in  the  N.  B.  part  of  the  province.  Sta- 
tion of  the  CIM  (1899),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries 
with  their  wives,  2  women  missionaries,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  dispensary. 

SUIYANG.     See  Sui-chau. 

SULTANPXJR:  A  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  situated  about  30  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Faiza- 
bad.  Station  of  the  ZBM,  with  (1903)  5  women 
missionaries,  5  native  workers,  1  day  school,  and 
1  orphanage. 

SULU  ISLANDS :  An  archipelago  lying  between 
Mindanao,  the  southern  island  of  the  Philippines, 
and  the  northeast  extremity  of  British  Borneo. 
By  the  treaty  of  peace,  December,  1898,  these 
islands  were  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Spain, 
and  they  are  included  in  statistical  reports  with 
the  Philippine  Islands.  There  are  over  fifty  islands, 
the  largest  of  which  is  thirty-six  miles  long 
and  twelve  broad.  The  population  of  the 
Sulu  Islands  is  entirely  Mohammedan  in  religion, 
and  no  missionary  work  has,  as  yet  (1903),  been 
attempted  among  them. 

SULURPETA:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated near  the  coast,  about  50  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Madras  city.  Station  of  the  Hermannsburg 
Missionary  Society  (1866),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  8  native  workers,  2  outstations, 
1  place  of  worship,  5  day  schools,  and  206  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  197  are  communicants. 
SUMATRA:  One  of  the  largest  and  richest 
islands  of  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Archipelago. 
It  extends  1,047  miles  from  northwest  to  south- 
east, lying  between  latitude  5°  40'  north  and 
latitude  5°  59'  south.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
160,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  (1900) 
at  about  3,000,000.  The  island  belongs  to  the 
Dutch  Government,  tho  some  of  the  interior  dis- 
tricts have  not  been  brought  under  complete  sub- 
jection. Throughout  the  whole  length  of  the 
island  extends  a  range  of  lofty  mountains,  which 
lies  nearer  the  western  coast  than  the  eastern; 
hence  on  the  eastern  slope  there  are  several  large 
rivers,  but  the  watercourses  on  the  western  slope 
are  comparatively  short.  Sugar-cane,  coffee, 
rice,  and  spices  are  the  principal  products,  tho 
much  fine  timber  and  many  tropical  fruits  are 
found  in  abundance.  The  greater  part  of  the 
population   are   Mohammedan    in    rehgion   and 


STiniatra 

Sniiport   of  Missions 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


710 


belong  to  the  Malay  race,  but  it  is  probable  that 
they  have  absorbed  many  aboriginal  tribes,  a  few 
remnants  of  which  are  found  in  the  interior,  such 
as  the  Kubus,  who  seem  to  have  a  mixture  of 
Negrito  blood,  and  the  Battaks.  These  latter  are 
pagans  and  differ  in  many  points  from  the  Malay 
type.  They  are  somewhat  undersized,  with 
broad  shoulders  and  rather  muscular  limbs. 
Their  eyes  are  large  and  black,  with  heavy  brown 
eyebrows.  These  people  inhabit  a  region  running 
northward  from  Padang  on  the  W.  coast  of  the 
island  to  Toba  Lake,  and  beyond,  as  far  as  Deli 
on  the  E.  coast  of  the  island.  Their  language 
contains  words  of  Sanskrit  origin,  and  has  evi- 
dently been  affected  by  Javanese,  Malay,  Ma- 
cassar, Sundanese,  and  Tagal  influence.  Another 
peculiar  tribe  are  the  Redjangers,  who  use  dis- 
tinctive characters,  which  they  cut  on  bamboo 
with  their  short  kreeses  or  daggers.  The  posses- 
sions of  the  Dutch  Government  in  the  island  of 
Sumatra  are  divided  into  the  Residencies  of  the 
West  Coast,  the  East  Coast,  Benkulen  (the 
extreme  southwestern  coast),  Lampongs  (south- 
eastern coast),  Palembang  (southeastern  and 
central),  and  Atjeh,  the  northern  extremity.  The 
principal  towns  are:  Padang,  on  the  west  coast, 
about  latitude  1°  south,  the  residence  of  the 
governor,  with  a  population  of  14,000,  including 
a  Chinese  settlement  and  a  European  quarter; 
Benkulen,  the  capital  of  the  Residency  of  that 
name,  with  11,000  inhabitants;  Palembang,  in 
the  Residency  of  Palembang,  has  52,000  inhab- 
itants, with  barracks,  hospitals,  one  of  the  finest 
mosques  in  the  Dutch  Indies,  and  a  tomb,  said 
to  be  that  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Included  in 
the  Dutch  possessions  of  Sumatra  are  various 
islands  which  are  contiguous  to  it.  On  the  west 
coast,  under  the  Residency  of  that  name,  are  the 
Banyak  Islands,  Nias,  Butu  Islands,  Nassau 
Islands,  and  Engano.  On  the  east  are  Bengkalis, 
Rhio-Lingga  Archipelago,  and  Banka.  The  lat- 
ter is  separated  from  Palembang  by  Banka  Strait, 
and  has  an  area  of  about  5,000  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  106,305. 

Missionary  operations  in  the  interior  of  Suma- 
tra have  been  chiefly  among  the  Battak  tribes. 
The  Battak  tribes  hold  to  a  belief  in  demons,  their 
religious  rites  showing  traces  of  ancestor- worship, 
and  being  accompanied  by  cannibalism.  The 
BMS  sent  Messrs.  Burton  and  Ward  to  Sumatra 
about  1820,  but  the  mission  was  shortly  after- 
ward given  up.  The  ABCFM  attempted  a  mis- 
sion among  these  people  in  1834.  The  enterprise 
came  to  an  end,  however,  with  the  murder  of  its 
two  missionaries,  Munson  and  Lyman.  A 
private  enterprise  in  Ermelo,  Holland,  sent  out 
missionaries  in  1856,  and  the  Netherlands  Bible 
Society,  in  1859,  published  a  translation  of  the 
Gospel  of  John  in  one  of  the  Battak  dialects.  Two 
years  later  (1861)  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society 
took  up  this  enterprise,  and  has  had  a  marvelous 
success.  It  now  has  32  stations  in  the  Battak 
country  (1903),  101  missionaries,  men  and 
women;  1,153  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
207  outstations,  242  schools,  and  51,585  pro- 
fessed Christians.  The  larger  part  of  the  con- 
verts are  from  the  heathen  Battaks,  and  the 
Sirindung  district  is  entirely  Christianized.  But 
the  missionaries  are  pressing  forward  among  the 
Mohammedan  Battaks,  and  some  6,000  of  the 
number  of  converts  given  above  have  been  won 
from  the  Mohammedans.  Besides  the  Rhenish 
Societv,  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society,  the 
Java  Committee  (Holland),  and  the  Netherlands 


Mennonites  have  opened  stations   on   the   east 
coast  and  in  the  interior. 

SUNDANESE  LANGUAGE:  This  is  a  difficult 
and  even  perplexing  language  of  the  Malayan 
family,  and  is  spoken  by  about  4,500,000  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Java,  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  It 
is  less  polished  than  the  Javanese,  but  has  long 
been  written,  the  Javanese  alphabet  being  used 
for  the  purpose.  Arabic  letters  are  also  used  for 
writing  Sundanese,  and  some  of  the  Dutch  mis- 
sionaries have  tried  to  introduce  the  Roman 
alphabet  for  the  purpose  among  the  unlettered 
sections  of  the  people. 

SUNDAY  SCHOpL  UNIONS:  The  different 
Missionary  Societies,  with  few  exceptions, 
include  the  organization  of  Sunday  schools  as 
part  of  their  regular  work.  The  M.  E.  Church 
Missionary  Society  particularly  emphasizes  this 
feature.  Early  in  the  19th  century,  about  the 
same  time  as  the  Bible  societies,  societies  were 
organized  for  the  specific  purpose  of  extending 
the  Sunday  school  work.  The  first  of  these  was 
The  Sunday  School  Union,  formed  in  England  in 
1803,  which,  however,  devoted  itself  distinctively 
to  home  work.  In  1817  a  similar  society  was 
formed  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  which  developed  in 
1824  into  the  American  Sunday  School  Union. 
That,  however,  like  the  English  Society,  gave  its 
special  attention  to  the  home  field,  and  it  was 
left  to  a  layman,  Mr.  A.  Woodruff,  to  give  the 
impulse  for  the  foreign  phase  of  this  branch  of 
Christian  effort.  As  early  as  1856  he  commenced 
the  efforts  which  resulted  in  the  organization  of 
the  Foreign  Sunday  School  Association,  incor- 
porated in  1878.  Meanwhile,  during  a  visit  to 
England  in  1864,  Mr.  Woodruff  pleaded  the 
cause  of  the  Sunday  School  as  a  missionary 
agency  so  effectively  before  the  Sunday  School 
Union  that  a  separate  department  was  created, 
called  The  Sunday  School  Union's  Continental 
Mission.  Of  these  three  organizations,  the 
largest,  the  American  Sunday  School  Union,  still 
does  very  little  for  the  foreign  field  except  occa- 
sionally by  grants  to  Sunday  schools  or  publish- 
ing societies  on  the  foreign  field.  The  Sunday 
School  Union's  Continental  Mission  (head- 
quarters, 56  Old  Bailey,  London,  England,)  car- 
ries on  work  in  Norway,  Holland,  Belgium, 
Prance,  Germany,  Bohemia,  Italy,  Spain  and 
Portugal,  and  even  to  a  limited  degree  in  Russia. 
In  Sweden  its  missionaries  have  organized  over 
2,000  Sunday  schools;  in  Norway  one  formed  160 
new  schools  in  four  years;  in  Germany  the 
750,000  Sunday  school  scholars  are  very  largely 
the  fruit  of  the  Society's  labor. 

The  Foreign  Sunday  School  Association 
(headquarters,  67  Schermerhorn  St.,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A.)  is  more  distinctly  a  foreign  mis- 
sionary organization.  It  emphasizes  work 
among  the  Spanish-speaking  peoples,  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  foreign  mission  societies, 
especially  assisting  in  the  publication  of  Sunday 
school  papers.  Among  them  are  six  illustrated 
papers  for  children:  Olad  Tidings,  in  Japanese; 
El  Amiga,  in  Spanish;  O  Amiga,  in  Portuguese; 
La  Feuille  du  Dimanche,  in  French;  Die  Sonntag 
Schule,  in  German;  and  II  Amico,  in  Italian. 
Last  year  13,000  subscriptions  were  paid  for 
these  papers.  Several  books  have  been  pub- 
lished. One,  Christie's  Old  Organ,  will  illustrate 
the  diffusion  of  tliis  work.  First  published  in 
1877,  it  has  been  translated  into  sixteen  differ- 
ent languages,  and  more  than  30,000  copies  were 


711 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Sumatra 
Support  of  Missions 


circulated  in  Germany,  Hungary,  Bulgaria,  Bel- 
gium, Portugal,  Greece,  Syria,  Japan,  Bombay, 
Ceylon,  Bohemia,  France,  Italy,  Asia  Minor,  and 
China. 

SUNG-YAWG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Che-kiang, 
China,  situated  25  miles  W.  of  Chu-chau-  Sta- 
tion of  the  CIM  (1896),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, 4  native  worlcers,  3  outstations,  2  places  of 
worship,  and  20  professed  Christians.  Some 
write  the  name  Song-yang. 

SUNTH :  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situated  in 

'  the  district  of  Rewa,  Kantha,  about  75  miles  E.  by 

N.  of  Ahmadabad,     Station  of  the  PCI  (1899), 

with   (1900)   1   missionary  and  his  wife    and   1 

orphanage. 

SUPPORT  OF  MISSIONS;  Principles  and  Meth- 
ods used:  It  is  proposed  in  the  first  place  to  indi- 
cate the  total  and  per  capita  contributions  of  the 
churches  for  foreign  missions;  second,  to  partially 
account  for  the  smallness  of  the  contributions; 
third,  to  suggest  an  effective  financial  system  and 
describe  the  working  of  the  same  in  a  local  church ; 
fourth,  to  discuss  the  policy  of  the  support  of 
specific  objects  which  has  been  adopted  by  many 
churches  in  a  number  of  leading  denominations 
and  which  has  been  endorsed  by  some  of  our 
largest  and  most  representative  Missionary 
Boards. 

/.  The  Contributions  of  the  Churches:  The  most 
recent,  reliable  and  complete  exhibit  of  the  contri- 
butions of  the  churches  of  Christendom  for  foreign 
missions  is  the  compilation  of  the  Rev.  James 
Dennis,  D.D.,  in  his  remarkable  encyclopedic 
work  entitled  Christian  Missions  and  Social 
Progress.  From  this  exhibit  it  appears  that  at 
the  close  of  the  century  the  annual  income  from 
home  sources  of  the  537  denominational  and 
independent  societies  and  their  auxiliaries  was 
$17,284,363,  a  little  more  than  three  and  one-half 
million  pounds  sterling.  It  is  next  to  impossible 
to  ascertain  the  per  capita  gifts  represented  by 
this  amount,  but  they  are  not  far  from  30c.  a 
year.  The  per  capita  gifts  of  American  Chris- 
tians are  more  certainly  ascertainable  because 
our  church  census  returns  are  more  complete  than 
those  of  most  countries.  The  annual  income 
from  home  sources  of  all  American  Missionary 
Societies  at  the  close  of  the  century  was 
$5,199,497.  The  total  membership  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Churches  of  the  United  States  in  the  year 
1900  was  17,837,147,  from  which  it  appears  that 
after  a  century  of  missionary  appeal  the  average 
American  Christian  has  become  interested  in  the 
greatest  work  in  the  world  only  to  the  extent  of 
an  investment  of  29c.  per  year.  He  is  still  set- 
tling his  missionary  obligations  in  small  silver  and 
copper  coin.  This  pitiable  showing  would  be 
rendered  even  more  pitiable  were  we  able  to 
compile  the  large  gifts  of  a  small  number  of  gener- 
ous wealthy  persons  with  the  legacies  and  the 
product  of  endowment  funds,  and  then  compare 
this  total  with  the  total  gifts  of  the  rank  and  file 
of  our  church  membership. 

Another  illustration  of  the  low  scale  of  mis- 
sionary giving  is  furnished  by  the  following  table 
of  the  contributions  of  the  living  members  of 
four  of  our  greatest  and  wealthiest  American 
denominations  during  the  twenty- five  years 
closing  with  1901: 

Per 

Capita. 

$0.27 

.27 

.23 


Year. 

Aggregate 
Membership. 

Aggregate 
Amount. 

1877 
1878 
1879 

4,527,262 
4,666,015 
4,759,362 

81,204,177 
1,254,442 
1,094,884 

Year. 

1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 


Aggregate 
Membersliip. 

5,002,252 
4,976,517 
5,126,869 
5,161,180 
5,360,684 
5,460,650 
5,662,902 
5,981,924 
6,271,105 
6,479,991 
6,636,735 
6,882,669 
7,085,337 
7,323,933 
7,666,584 
7,929,538 
8,110,933 
8,264,070 
8,553,800 
8,631,833 
8,752,398 
8,858,563 


Aggregate 
Amount. 

$1,373,915 
1,378,234 
1,396,488 
1,531,346 
1,581,457 
1,715,098 
1,893,685 
1,931,728 
1,956,191 
1,950,645 
1,972,270 
2,316,045 
2,785,000 
3,168,608 
2,656,195 
2,263,941 
2,421,957 
2,166,116 
2,235,371 
2,430,772 
2,487,605 
2,482,293 


Per 

Capita. 

$0.27 
.27 
.27 
.29 
.29 
.31 
.33 
.32 
.31 
.30 
.29 
.33 
.39 
.43 
.34 
.28 
.29 
.26 
.26 
.28 
.27 
.28 


It  is  worthy  of  special  remark  that  the  ex- 
traordinary fiuctuations  which  characterize  the 
above  annual  incomes  cannot  be  accounted  for 
by  the  financial  conditions  prevailing  in  the  dif- 
ferent years,  because  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
per  capita  contributions  in  1893,  the  first  year  of 
the  panic,  were  43c.,  and  in  1894,  the  second  year 
of  the  panic,  34c.,  whereas  in  1899, 1900  and  1901, 
three  of  the  most  prosperous  years  in  the  coun- 
try's history,  the  per  capita  contributions  were 
respectively  28c.,  27c.  and  again  28c.  It 
would  probably  be  impossible  to  account  for 
the  decrease  of  16c.  per  capita  from  1893  to  1900 
by  the  decreased  financial  ability  of  the  churches. 

//.  Explanation  of  Fluctuations  in  Contribu- 
tions: There  seems  to  be  a  general  agreement 
among  those  who  are  engaged  in  supplying  the 
missionary  treasuries  that  the  most  widely 
tested  of  all  financial  methods  has  run  its  course. 
Reference  is  made  to  the  annual  church  collec- 
tion. It  is  evident  that  however  efficient  this 
method  may  have  been  in  other  days  when  there 
were  very  few  causes  appealing  for  support,  it 
can  no  longer  compete  successfully  with  the 
definite,  persistent,  ingenious  methods  of  finan- 
cial appeal  which  are  now  resorted  to  by  the 
legion  of  causes  whose  advocates  make  their 
appeal  every  week  by  letter  and  in  person.  The 
weakness  of  the  annual  collection  consists  in  its 
infrequency,  its  indefiniteness  and  its  unexpected- 
ness. A  man  who  is  appealed  to  only  once  a 
year  cannot  be  made  to  believe  that  the  cause  is 
as  important  as  one  whose  claims  are  repeatedly 
urged.  The  vague,  all-embracing  indefiniteness 
which  marks  the  two  minutes'  appeal  from  the 
pulpit  on  the  day  of  the  annual  offering  has  no 
chance  whatever  in  competition  with  the  earnest, 
direct,  persistent  appeal  of  the  financial  represen- 
tative of  an  educational  or  philanthro{)ic  institu- 
tion. Moreover,  the  annual  offering  is  in  very 
many  cases  entirely  unexpected  and  therefore 
unprepared  for.  Even  if  it  was  announced  the 
preceding  Sabbath  the  announcement  was  only 
one  of  a  half-dozen  or  more  reminders  and  notices 
and  was  probably  not  carried  with  the  hearer 
through  the  church  door;  so  the  collection  basket 
found  him  unprepared  the  following  Sunday  and 
he  was  obliged  to  choose  between  the  stray  piece 
of  silver  or  copper  on  the  one  hand  or  the  smallest 
biU  in  his  pocketbook  on  the  other,  which  hap- 
pened on  that  occasion  to  be  $5.00,  and  his 
decision  had  to  be  made  while  the  collection 
basket  made  its  way  from  the  front  of  the  church 
to  his  pew.  A  man  thus  hedged  in  will  settle 
with  the  Board  upon  the  silver  or  copper  basis 


Support   of  ^lissionN 
Sasa 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


712 


ninety-nine  times  out  of  a  hundred,  whereas  if  he 
had  been  given  a  fair  opportunity,  such  as  is  given 
men  every  day  in  business  and  otlier  philanthro- 
pies to  make  a  pledge  to  be  discharged  in  instal- 
ments, or  even  in  one  payment  six  months  or  a 
year  hence,  he  would  very  likely  have  pledged 
the  $5.00,  and  probably  much  more.  The  time 
fails  to  fully  discuss  this  method  in  an  encyclo- 
pedia article;  it  is  sufficient  that  it  be  judged  by 
its  fruits,  that  is,  by  the  depleted  treasuries  of  the 
churches  and  the  failure  of  the  Church  after  a 
hundred  years  of  modern  missions  to  get  more 
than  one-tenth  of  the  way  around  the  population 
of  the  non-Christian  world. 

///.  The  Successful  Syatem:  It  is  that  which  is 
elastic  enough  to  adapt  itself  to  the  great  variety 
of  people  who  compose  the  membership  of  any 
single  congregation.  Such  a  system  must  take 
account  of  those  who  meet  their  benevolent  finan- 
cial obligations  upon  the  same  principles  which 
daily  characterize  their  commercial  dealings,  who 
do  not  hesitate  to  "promise  to  pay;"  who  will, 
in  other  words,  make  a  pledge.  It  must  also 
adapt  itself  to  those  who  wish  to  meet  their 
pledges  in  instalments  semi-annually,  quarterly, 
monthly  or  even  weekly.  It  must  also  recognize 
those  who  will  not  at  the  outset  consent  to  be 
troubled  with  instalment  payments,  but  who 
insist  upon  paying  their  pledges  in  one  lump  sum 
at  some  subsequent  time.  It  must  also  reckon 
with  those  who  "will  not  make  a  pledge  from 

Erinciple"  (notwithstanding  they  do  it  daily  in 
usiness),  or  will  not  make  a  pledge  because  they 
are  ashamed  to  put  down  in  black  and  white  the 
small  sum  they  intend  to  contribute  and 
therefore  insist  on  making  a  cash  contribution. 
Moreover,  the  system  must  have  regard  for  all  the 
various  lines  of  beneficence  which  run  out  from 
the  church  and  it  must  not  push  one  cause  to  the 
detriment  of  others.  Furthermore,  it  must 
satisfy  those  who  prefer  to  apportion  their  own 
contributions,  and  also  those  who  magnify  the 
policy  of  supporting  specific  personsor  objects  on 
the  home  and  foreign  mission  fields;  also  those  who 
know  so  little  or  care  so  little  about  the  mission- 
ary enterprise  in  detail  that  they  prefer  for  this 
or  some  other  reason  to  have  a  committee  appor- 
tion their  gifts.  In  a  word,  the  system  must  be 
as  many  sided  as  possible.  Such  a  system  as  the 
above  is  in  successful  operation  in  a  well-known 
suburban  church,  and  it  is  worth  remarking  in 
describing  the  system  that  it  has  increased  the 
city,  home  and  foreign  mission  contributions  of 
the  church  over  tenfold.  The  method  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

(1)  The  Church  Committee  decides  to  raise  a 
definite  minimum  amount  during  the  year,  say 
$10,000. 

(2)  On  the  first  Sunday  in  December  the  pastor 
announces  the  budget  recommended  by  the  Com- 
mittee and  urges  the  people  to  give  universally, 
weekly  and  proportionately.  He  urges  the  neces- 
sity of  some  large  gifts  like  $20,  or  $10  or  $5  a 
week.     This  is  Scriptural,  see  I.  Cor.  xvi.,  1-2. 

(3)  Pledge  cards  are  put  into  the  hands  of  the 
people  immediately  and  all  are  asked  to  make 
definite  pledges  to  be  paid  in  weekly  instalments 
through  the  year.  Fully  three-quarters  of  the 
people  are  now  using  the  pledge  card. 

(4)  Envelopes  are  placed  in  the  people's  hands 
and  are  returned  every  Sunday  with  the  contri- 
butions. 

(.5)  The  Chvirch  Committee  recommends  a  sj'S- 
tem  of  apportionment  to  those  who  prefer  not  to 


make  their  own  apportionment,  but  concedes  to 
each  person  this  privilege. 

(6)  Every  month  a  special  free-will  offering  is 
taken  over  and  above  the  foregoing  contributions. 
A  special  envelope  handsomely  embossed  is  dis- 
tributed the  preceding  Sunday  with  the  object 
printed  thereon.  These  monthly  collections  are 
devoted  to  the  various  church  boards  and  a  few 
other  important  causes.  In  this  way  the  person 
who  will  not  make  a  pledge  but  will  make  an 
annual  contribution  has  his  opportunity.  More- 
over, many  persons  who  have  made  pledges,  but 
who,  because  of  increased  prosperity  or  other  rea- 
sons, wish  to  make  a  special  thank  offering  have 
the  opportunity  to  do  so. 

(7)  Once  a  year  a  specific  foreign  missionary 
appeal  is  made  for  the  support  of  the  church's 
missionary  in  the  Philippines.  The  appeal  is 
made  the  Sunday  before  the  offering  and  special 
envelopes  are  furnished  for  use  on  the  following 
Sunday.  This  offering  constitutes  the  third 
opportunity  given  the  church  to  contribute  to 
foreign  missions,  inasmuch  as  one  of  the  monthly 
offerings  is  devoted  to  this  cause,  and  25  per  cent, 
also  of  the  money  collected  in  the  weekly  envel- 
opes. 

(8)  Considerable  loose  cash  is  contributed 
every  Sunday.  On  the  annual  missionary  day 
this  is  applied  to  the  church's  missionary;  on  free- 
will offenng  day,  once  a  month,  it  is  devoted  to 
that  cause;  the  balance  of  the  Sundays  it  is  added 
■to  the  fund  composed  of  the  weekly  instalment 
contributions. 

(9)  A  collection  is  never  taken  for  a  special 
cause  the  day  the  appeal  is  made,  but  on  the  fol- 
lowing Sunday.  While  an  immediate  collection 
may  enlist  more  from  those  who  are  easily  stirred 
by  an  appeal,  experience  has  shown  that  those 
who  give  after  reflection  and  prayer  more  than 
offset  what  is  lost  from  the  former  class. 

Would  not  the  universal  adoption  of  this  sys- 
tem fill  the  mission  treasuries,  fill  our  fields  with 
missionaries  and  overfill  our  church  members 
with  the  blessing  of  giving,  which  is  more  blessed 
than  that  of  receiving? 

IV.  The  Support  of  Specific  Objects:  More  than 
fifty  years  ago  President  Wayland  warned  the 
churches  against  a  peril  which  to-day  assails  the 
foreign  mission  enterprise,  when  he  declared 
"the  tendency  will  be  more  and  more  for  churches 
to  turn  over  their  missionary  obligations  to  socie- 
ties, for  societies  to  turn  it  over  to  boards,  for 
boards  to  turn  it  over  to  executive  committees, 
and  executive  committees  to  secretaries,  so  that 
in  the  last  result  the  chief  responsibility  for  the 
great  work  will  rest  on  the  shoulders  of  a  dozen 
men."  The  late  Rev.  Dr.  A.  J.  Gordon,  one  of 
the  foremost  missionary  pastors  of  his  generation, 
corroborated  the  opinion  of  President  Wayland 
when  he  said:  "The  greatest  problem  that  con- 
fronts us  for  the  opening  century  is  that  of  dis- 
tributing the  missionary  responsibility  which  has 
become  congested  in  official  centers."  That  this 
peril  and  problem  are  actually  upon  us  no  one 
will  deny  who  is  engaged  in  trying  to  rally  the 
churches  and  their  individual  members  for  the 
discharge  of  their  obligation  to  the  missionary 
cause.  The  discovery  of  a  method  which  will 
create  a  spirit  of  individual  obligation  for  the  suc- 
cess of  missions  will  constitute  the  capital  event 
in  the  final  era  of  world  evangelization.  There  is 
ground  for  hoping  that  such  a  method  is  in  sight. 

The  method  is  simply  this:  That  every  church 
which  is  able  to  do  so  extend  its  parish  boundary 


713 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Support  of  Missions 
Susa 


SO  as  to  embrace  a  definite  section  of  some  mis- 
sion field  and  support  a  missionary  there  wlao  shall 
sustain  to  the  home  pastor  the  relation  of  asso- 
ciate or  co-pastor;  in  other  words,  let  the  church 
have  its  foreign  mission  and  sustain  its  foreign 
missionary,  just  as  many  churches  have  their 
own  city  mission  and  sustain  their  own  city  mis- 
sionary. This  method  has  been  a  distinguishing 
feature  in  the  splendid  work  which  the  women  of 
several  leading  denominations  are  doing.  Every 
one  of  the  nearly  200  unmarried  women  on  the 
Congregational  mission  field  is  supported  by 
funds  specifically  pledged.  The  same  is  true  of 
practically  every  woman,  both  single  and  married, 
connected  with  the  mission  fields  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  the  United  States. 

This  policy  has  been  adopted  by  several  of  the 
leading  missionary  societies  in  Great  Britain, 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  the  United  States. 
This  method  is  one  of  the  most  notable  features 
which  characterize  the  marvelous  advance  move- 
ment which  the  Church  Missionary  Society  made 
during  the  last  decade  of  the  19th  century.  Fully 
four  hundred  missionaries  were  specifically  pro- 
vided for  by  churches,  families,  individuals,  and 
societies  in  response  to  the  appeal  of  that  mis- 
sionary society. 

The  Board  which  follows  closest  upon  the 
record  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  is  that 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States, 
which  has  approximately  650  of  its  force  of  800 
missionaries  supported  by  funds  specifically  con- 
tributed by  churches,  young  people's  societies, 
Sunday  schools,  women's  auxiliaries,  and  indi- 
viduals. 

The  Congregational  Churches  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  are  supporting  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  ordained  missionaries  by  specific 
funds  than  any  other  denomination.  After  test- 
ing the  method  for  years  in  several  representative 
churches  the  American  Board  unanimously 
recommended  the  adoption  of  the  policy  as  a  per- 
manent educational  and  financial  measure  at  its 
annual  meeting  in  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  in  1898, 
and  appointed  a  committee  which  it  empowered 
to  elect  representatives  to  exploit  the  movement 
throughout  the  denomination.  The  reports  of 
the  committee  have  led  the  Board  for  four  suc- 
cessive years  to  recommend  the  continuance  of 
the  policy.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  not  a 
single  Congregational  Church  in  which  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  Board  has  had  a  suitable  oppor- 
tunity to  present  the  method  has  failed  to  sub- 
scribe money  sufficient  for  the  salary  of  a  mis- 
sionary. 

The  third  most  notable  illustration  of  this 
policy  is  furnished  by  the  Missionary  Committee 
of  the  SouthernPresbyterian  Church,  under  whose 
direction  over  75  salaries  were  provided  by 
specific  churches  within  a  year,  and  over  100 
other  churches  made  pledges  for  the  support  of 
specific  phases  of  work  in  the  different  foreign 
missionary  fields  occupied  by  the  denomination. 
The  Missionary  Society  of  the  Canadian 
Methodist  Church  has  also  endorsed  the  policy 
and  commended  its  Young  People's  Movement, 
whose  work  has  largely  consisted  in  enlisting 
young  people's  societies  in  the  support  of  mis- 
sionaries. 

Among  other  notable  endorsements  of  the 
policy  may  be  mentioned  that  of  the  American 
Baptist  Missionary  Union,  as  well  as  the  action 
of  certain  congregations  of  the  Church  of  the 
Disciples,  the  United  Brethren,  etc. 


Experience  has  fully  shown  that  the  churches 
which  have  their  own  representatives  on  the 
foreign  fields  are  better  informed  than  the  aver- 
age church  concerning  the  work  of  missions,  this 
information  being  secured  from  correspondence 
and  also  by  the  home  visits  of  the  missionary. 

It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  this  policy  enlists 
a  church  in  assuming  and  maintaining  a  specific 
obligation.  Long  experience  and  extended  in- 
quiry have  failed  to  discover  a  better  method  of 
persuading  a  church  which  is  giving  $100  or  $200 
a  year,  and  is  well  able  to  give  S800or  $1,000,  to 
give  the  large  sum  and  renew  it  annually. 

The  financial  significance  of  this  policy  is. 
forcibly  set  forth  in  the  last  report  of  the  Forward 
Movement  Committee  of  the  American  Board. 
In  the  report  a  comparison  is  made  between  the 
increased  contributions  of  the  144  churches 
which  the  committee  had  enlisted  in  assuming 
the  salaries  of  missionaries  or  the  expenses  of 
other  special  objects  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  increased  contributions  of  all  the  balance 
of  the  contributing  churches  in  the  denom- 
ination on  the  other.  This  comparison  shows 
that  the  Forward  Movement  churches  con- 
tributed in  1902  $32,988  more  than  in  1898, 
the  year  before  the  Movement  was  launched, 
whereas  the  balance  of  the  churches,  about 
3,400  in  number,  only  contributed  $24,372 
more  in  1902  than  in  1898.  In  other  words,  the 
Forward  Movement  churches,  which  constitute 
one-twenty-fourth  of  all  the  contributing 
churches,  made  an  increase  of  over  $7,000  above 
the  increase  of  the  remaining  twenty-tbree- 
twenty-fourths  of  the  churches;  the  average 
increase  of  the  144  Forward  Movement  churches 
was  $229,  whereas  the  average  increase  of  the 
balance  of  the  contributing  churches  was  only 
$8,  or  one-twenty-seventh  of  the  average  in- 
crease of  the  former.  This  exhibit  is  con- 
sidered a  final  argument  in  favor  of  contribution* 
for  specific  objects.  In  the  light  of  this  report 
the  question  may  well  be  raised  whether  or  not 
every  church  should  not  constitute  itself  a  mis- 
sion station  and  support  its  own  outstation. 

SURAT:  A  town  in  Gujarat,  Bombay,  India, 
situated  on  the  Tapti  River,  about  15  miles  from 
its  mouth.  In  the  center,  facing  the  river,  is  an 
old  castle  (1540),  now  serving  as  a  public  office 
building.  An  ancient  moat  encloses  the  city  on 
the  land  side.  Among  its  interesting  features 
are  old  Parsee  temples  and  the  tombs  of  the 
earliest  European  settlers.  In  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries  Surat  was  of  more  commercial  impor- 
tance than  Bombay.  Its  population  in  1797  was 
800,000,  but  it  had  fallen  to  80,000  in  1847.  The 
city  has  revived  again;  it  received  its  stimulus  to 
growth  from  the  American  Civil  War  of  1861-65, 
and  it  now  (1901)  has  a  population  of  119,306,  of 
whom  about  80,500  are  Hindus,  21,000  JIuslims 
and  5,000  Jains.  The  climate  is  hot,  malarious, 
and  unhealthful.  Station  of  the  PCI  (1846),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  women  mis- 
sionaries, 29  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  1  printing 
house,  15  day  schools,  3  orphanages,  and  86 
communicant  Christians. 

SURINAM:  A  name  sometimes  applied  to 
Dutch  Guiana,  S.  America. 

SUSA:  A  town  in  Tunis,  North  Africa,  situated 
on  the  E.  coast  about  23  miles  E.  by  N.  of  the 
sacred  city  of  Kairwan.  Station  of  the  North 
Africa    Mission     (1896),   with   (1900)   2  mission- 


Su.salci 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


714 


aries  and  their  wives,  4  women  missionaries,  1 
native  worker,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship, 

1  dispensary. 

SUSAKI:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  Tosa 
Bay,  on  the  S.  side  of  Shikoku  Island,  about  20 
miles  S.  W.  of  Koohi.  Station  of  the  PS  (1898), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 

SUSU  LANGUAGE:  The  Susu  is  spoken  by 
some  of  the  negroes  living  near  the  coast  of 
French  Guinea  in  West  Africa.  It  belongs  to  the 
negro  group  of  African  languages  and  has  been 
reduced    to  writing   with  use  of  Roman  letters. 

SUTO  LANGUAGE:  This  language,  also  called 
Lesuto,  belongs  to  the  Bantu  family  of  African 
languages.  It  is  the  language  of  the  Basuto 
tribes.  It  is  spoken  in  Basutoland,  South  Africa, 
and  is  also  found  in  adjacent  regions  in  the  Trans- 
vaal and  Orange  River  Colonies  and  among  some 
of  the  tribes  northward  toward  the  Zambesi.  It 
has  been  reduced  to  writing  with  use  of  Roman 
letters. 

SU-TSIEN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Kiang-su,  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal,  about  40 
miles  N.  W.  of  Hwai-ngan-fu.  Station  of  the 
PS  (1894),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives  and  1  woman  missionary.  Some  write 
the  name  Su-chien. 

SUTTON,  Amos:  Born  at  Sevenoaks,  Kent, 
England,  1798.  Died  August  17,  1854,  at  Cut- 
tack,  Orissa.  Having  studied  theology  with 
Rev.  J.  G.  Pike,  he  was  ordained  at  Derby,  and 
sailed  in  1824  for  Orissa,  India,  as  a  missionary 
of  the  General  Baptist  Missionary  Society.  He 
was  stationed  most  of  the  time  at  Cuttack.  He 
preached  in  Uriye  and  in  English,  taught  in  the 
mission  academy,  and  was  superintendent  of  the 
orphan  asylums.  He  translated  the  whole  Bible 
into  Uriye,  and  made  a  second  revision  of  the 
New  Testament.  He  visited  England  and 
America.  He  returned  to  his  mission  from 
America  in  1835,  in  company  with  Rev.  Dr. 
Phillips,  who  was  sent  to  the  same  field  by  the 
American  Free  Baptist  Missionary  Society.  Dr. 
Sutton,  besides  translating  the  Scriptures,  pub- 
lished an  Uriye  dictionary,  grammar  and  lesson- 
book,  wrote  three  volumes  of  tracts  in  that  lan- 
guage, and  translated  many  English  books  for  his 
scholars  and  converts. 

SUVA:  A  town  in  the  Fiji  Islands,  Polynesia, 
situated  on  the  S.  coast  of  Viti  Levu  Island,  of 
which  it  is  the  capital.  European  population, 
1,073;  native  population  uncertain.  Station  of 
the  SPG  (1880),  with  1  missionary  and  a  chap- 
Iain.  Also  station  of  the  Seventh  Day  Advent- 
ists  (1895),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,   1   woman  missionary,   2  native  workers, 

2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  printing 
house,  1  day  school,  and  23  professed  Christians. 
Also  station  of  the  Australian  Wesleyan  Mission- 
ary Society,  with  (1900)  1  woman  missionary,  1 
day  school,  and  1  Sunday  school. 

SWAHILI  LANGUAGE:  Amoni^  the  people 
inhabiting  the  parts  of  East  Africa  adjoining 
Zanzibar,  where  the  Arab  influence  has  been  very 
strong,  and  extending  northward  to  Somaliland,  a 
mixed  language  has  been  developed,  called  the 
Swahili  or  coast  language.  It  belongs  to  the 
Bantu  family  and  has  a  wide  range  westward 
from  the  coast  toward  Equatorial  Africa.  At 
the  same  time  it  has  adopted  a  large  number  of 
Arabic  words  and  forms  because  it  has  served  as  a 
means  by  which  Arabs  of  the  coast  and  negro 


tribesmen  from  the  interior  could  understand 
each  other.  It  is  written  with  Arabic  letters, 
but  missionaries  have  succeeded  to  some  degree 
in  introducing  the  Roman  letters  for  the  purpose. 
Quite  a  beginning  of  Christian  literature  exists 
in  Swahili. 

SWAN,  William:  Born  June  21,  1791,  at  Bal- 
gonie.  New  Brunswick.  Died  January  1,  1866. 
Studied  at  the  Theological  Academy  of  Glasgow; 
sailed  July  1,  1818,  for  Siberia  as  a  missionary  of 
the  LMS.  His  chief  work  was  among  the  Buriat 
Tatars  found  on  the  frontiers  of  Siberia  and  Chi- 
nese Tatary,  east  of  Lake  Baikal.  For  eight  years 
he  itinerated  with  Mr.  Stallybrass  in  the  Selin- 
ginsk  region,  but  in  1828  made  his  permanent 
home  at  Onon.  During  these  years  he,  in  con- 
junction with  Mr.  Stallybrass,  completed  the 
Mongolian  version  of  the  Scriptures.  For  the 
printing  of  this  version  Mr.  Swan  succeeded,  by 
personal  entreaty,  in  obtaining  permission  from 
the  Russian  Government.  After  twenty-two 
years  of  arduous  service  in  the  inhospitable 
wastes  of  Transbaikalia  Mr.  Swan  and  his  com- 
panion were  summarily  informed  one  day  in  1840 
that  their  mission  was  suppressed  by  order  of  the 
Czar.  Mr.  Swan  therefore  returned  to  Scotland 
in  1841,  and  shortly  afterward  withdrew  from  the 
service  of  the  Society. 

SWAROE:  A  town  in  Java,  situated  130  miles 
S.  E.  of  Samarang.  Station  of  the  Netherlands 
Missionary  Society  (1869),  with  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  4  native  workers,  6  outstations,  1  place 
of  worship,  5  day  schools,  and  2,093  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  169  are  communicants. 

SWATOW  (Shan-tau):  A  seaport  town  of 
Kwang-tung  province,  China,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Han  River,  about  5  miles  from  the 
sea.  Its  houses  are  mostly  built  of  concrete, 
which  has  been  rammed  between  molding  boards, 
the  boards  being  afterward  taken  away.  It  is  a 
treaty  port  and  has  some  foreign  trade.  The 
climate  is  healthful.  Population  about  30,000. 
Station  of  the  ABMU  (1843),  with  13  mission- 
aries, men  and  women ;  62  native  workers,  men 
and  women;  58  outstations,  32  places  of  worship, 
11  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theological 
school,  and  2,050  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
128  are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  England  (1856),  with 
(1903)  17  missionaries,  men  and  women;  73 
native  workers,  men  and  women  (in  district);  51 
day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  woman's  train- 
ing class,  1  theological  class,  1  medical  class,  1 
printing  house,  2  dispensaries,  2  hospitals,  and 
3,466  professed  Christians,  of  whom  2,250  are 
communicants. 

SWEDISH  MISSIONS:  The  first  missionary 
work  undertaken  by  Protestant  Sweden  was 
among  the  Lapps,  or  Finns,  who  in  scattered 
nomadic  tribes  occupy  the  whole  northern  part 
of  the  country.  That  mission  has  on  its  records 
several  names,  as  for  instance  that  of  Peer  Fjell- 
str6m  (1697-1764),  which  are  still  remembered 
with  gratitude;  but  unorganized  and  unsystem- 
atized as  it  was,  all  its  exertions  and  sacrifices 
were  of  no  avail  for  a  thorough  success. 

In  1630  a  Swedish  colony,  "Nya  Svearike," 
afterward  called  "Vinland,"  now  Pennsylvania, 
was  founded  on  the  Delaware  in  North  America, 
and  the  Swede  Campanius,  who  in  1642  began 
to  preach  to  the  Delaware  Indians  and  compiled 
a  dictionary  of  their  language,  was  the  first 
Protestant  missionary  to  enter  the  new    world. 


715 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Snsalcl 
Swedish  Missions 


The  colony  was  afterward  transferred  to  Hol- 
land, then  to  England,  and  finally  to  William 
Penn;  but  up  to  1831  it  continued  to  be  served 
by  Swedish  pastors. 

Meanwhile  the  powerful  impulse  which  Prot- 
estant _  missions  received  from  England  in  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  made  itself 
felt  also  in  Sweden.  In  1818  a  mission  paper  was 
established,  and  in  1829  the  first  small  mission 
society  was  founded  at  Goteborg.  It  was  fol- 
lowed in  1835  by  the  Swedish  Mission  Society, 
and  in  1845  by  the  Mission  Society  of  Lund.  In 
1855  the  latter  was  absorbed  by  the  former,  and 
in  1876  the  Swedish  Mission  Society  united  with 
the  Swedish  Church  Mission  (founded  in  1874), 
tho  it  was  not  wholly  absorbed  by  it.  Two 
other  large  societies  were  organized — the  Evan- 
gelical National  Institution  in  1856  and  the  Swe- 
dish Mission  Union  in  1878.  Besides  these  four 
great  associations,  quite  a  number  of  minor  ones, 
still  in  their  infancy,  have  sprung  up. 

/.  The  Swedish  Mission  Society  {Svenska  Mis- 
sionssalskapet) :  Headquarters,  Stockholm,  Swe- 
den. Very  soon  after  its  foundation,  January  6, 
1835,  the  Society  was  able  to  send  out  its  first 
missionary  to  the  Finns,  Carl  Ludwig  Tellstrom, 
a  painter,  whose  cordial  interest  in  the  people 
was  aroused  by  his  summer  visits  to  their  camps. 
Next  year  he  was  joined  by  two  other  young 
men,  and  they  visited  the  tents,  preached,  and 
gave  some  general  instruction. 

A  young  Finnish  girl,  Marie  Magdalene  Mads- 
daughter,  through  the  preaching  of  the  mission- 
aries, had  come  to  see  and  understand  the  misery 
in  which  her  race  lived.  She  learned  Swedish 
that  she  might  be  able  to  speak  to  the  king,  and 
in  1864  walked  two  hundred  miles  to  Stockholm. 
She  picked  out  in  the  street  the  first  lady  who  to 
her  eyes  seemed  to  look  trustworthy,  and  in  a 
short  conversation  she  made  that  lady  her 
patroness.  Next  day  she  had  an  audience  with 
the  king,  and  after  talking  with  a  number  of 
influential  men  during  a  stay  of  a  few  days,  she 
walked  back  to  her  native  place  with  money 
enough  to  build  a  house  or  an  asylum,  or,  as  it  is 
called,  a  "Children's  Home,"  to  which  she  could 
invite  the  children  of  her  race  to  come  and  stay 
for  some  time  and  be  instructed  in  that  which  is 
necessary,  and  also  in  something  of  that  which  is 
useful.  The  Society  provided  her  "Home"  with 
teachers,  and  so  successfully  did  the  plan  work 
that  it  has  now  a  number  of  such  institutions 
among  the  Finns. 

A  considerable  portion  of  its  annual  revenue 
the  Society  draws  from  the  so-called  Five-cents 
Circles.  It  also  has  invested  funds  to  the  amount 
of  about  150,000  kroner.  Its  missions  to  the 
Finns  it  directs  independently,  and  since  its 
union  with  the  Swedish  Church  Mission  in  1876 
pays  the  surplus  to  that  Society,  and  partakes 
proportionally  in  the  direction  of  its  mission  to 
the  heathen. 

//.  The  Evangelical  National  Society  {Den 
Evangeliska  Fosterlandsstiftelsen) :  Headquarters, 
Stockholm,  Sweden.  The  Evangelical  National 
Institution  was  founded  in  1856  by  Pastor  H.  I. 
Lundborg,  as  a  consequence  of  a  revival  within 
the  Swedish  Church,  produced  by  the  lay- 
preacher  Rosenius.  Propositions  of  union  were 
made  to  it  in  1875  by  the  Swedish  Church  Mis- 
sion, but  declined.  It  preferred  to  make  itself  the 
organ  of  all  such  free  and  spontaneous  mission 
movements  as  may  arise  among  the  Swedish 
people.     It  consists  of  a  great  number  of  minor 


societies,  generally  called  "Ansgar  Societies,"  or 
"Evangelical  Lutheran  Societies,"  having  a  com- 
mon head  in  their  annual  conference,  which 
assembles  in  Stockholm. 

In  1863  it  established  a  missionary  seminary 
at  Johannelund,  on  Lake  Malar,  a  little  outside 
of  Stockholm,  originally  intended  only  for  home 
mission  work.  In  1861  it  extended  its  activity 
also  to  foreign  missions,  and  it  now  works  in  two 
different  fields — among  the  Gallas  in  East 
Africa  and  among  the  Gonds  in  Hither  India. 

The  mission  to  the  Gallas  in  East  Africa  was 
begun  in  1865,  on  the  advice  of  Dr.  Krapf  and 
Bishop  Gobat,  but  the  great  sacrifices  and  enor- 
mous exertions  it  has  cost  do  not  seem  to  have 
brought  proportional  results.  The  difficulties  do 
not  arise  from  the  character  of  the  people,  for  the 
Gallas  have  on  many  occasions  showed  some 
sympathy  for  Christianity,  but  from  difliculty  of 
access.  From  the  north,  through  Abyssinia,  the 
door  is  closed.  To  the  east,  and  along  the  coast, 
live  the  Somalis,  and  they  and  the  Gallas  are 
instinctively  enemies.  Notwithstanding  these 
obstacles  there  were  reported  in  1900,  32  mis- 
sionaries and  28  native  workers,  7  stations,  5  out- 
stations,  206  communicants,  502  adherents,  14 
schools,  305  pupils,  1  physician  and  1   hospital. 

The  mission  to  the  Gonds,  begun  in  1877,  on  the 
advice  of  Dr.  Kalkar,  in  the  Central  Provinces  of 
India,  reported  (1900)  36  missionaries,  37  native 
workers,  8  stations,  9  outstations,  257  communi- 
cants, 826  adherents,  9  schools,  500  pupils,  1 
higher  school  and  considerable  medical  work. 

///.  The  Swedish  Church  Mission  {Svenska 
Kyrkans  Mission) :  Headquarters,  Stockholm, 
Sweden.  In  1868  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Swedish  Church  ( Kyrkomotet)  laid  before  the 
king  a  petition  that  the  whole  missionary  activity 
should  be  organized  by  law  as  a  function  of  the 
Church,  the  state  institution;  and  September  11, 
1874,  the  king  authorized  the  establishment  of 
the  Swedish  Church  Mission,  under  a  board  of 
seven  directors,  with  the  Archbishop  of  Upsala 
as  its  permanent  president.  Negotiations  for  a 
union  with  the  other  mission  societies  already 
existing  did  not  succeed,  but  the  Church  Mis- 
sion, nevertheless,  immediately  began  work.  It 
draws  its  revenue  from  a  general  collection  taken 
up  on  a  certain  day  in  aD.  Swedish  churches,  and 
maintains  a  mission  among  the  Zulus  in  Africa, 
and  a  mission  among  the  Tamils  in  India. 

The  Zulu  Mission  was  begun  in  1876,  on  the 
advice  of  Bishop  Schreuder,  who  had  long 
wished  to  see  the  whole  energy  of  all  Scandina- 
vian mission  societies  united  into  one  comnion 
effort,  made  possible  by  the  close  relation 
between  the  languages  and  the  fundamental 
unity  of  the  confessions.  An  estate,  "Rorke's 
Drift,"  was  bought  in  Natal,  just  on  the  bound- 
ary of  Zululand,  and  the  Mission  had  in  1900  25 
missionaries,  28  native  workers,  5  stations,  34 
outstations,  631  communicants,  19  schools,  281 
pupils,  and  1  hospital. 

The  Tamil  Mission,  also  begun  in  1876,  in  close 
connection  with  the  Leipzig  Mission,  in  Tranque- 
bar,  was  located  at  Madura,  but  has  become  prac- 
tically identified  with  the  Leipzig  Mission. 

IV.  The  Swedish  Mission  Union  {Svenska  Mis- 
sionsforbundet) :  Headquarters,  Christinehamn, 
Sweden.  The  Swedish  Mission  Union  was 
formed  August  2,  1878,  in  Stockholm,  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  Waldenstrom  faction,  which 
separated  from  the  Evangelical  National  Society 
because  the  latter  clung  rigorously  to  the  Augsburg 


STTitzerland 
Syria 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


7ie 


Confession.  The  Union  consists  of  over  900  minor 
associations  and  is  managed  by  a  committee  of 
seven,  which  has  its  seat  in  Stockholm  and  is 
elected  by  the  annual  assembly  of  delegates 
from  the  associations. 

The  Union  maintains  a  mission  school  at 
Christinehamn  and  carries  on  work  in  Africa 
(Congo  and  Algeria),  Russia  (Ural),  Persia, 
China,  and  Chinese  Turkestan.  Work  com- 
menced in  Alaska  has  been  handed  over  to  the 
Swedish  Mission  Union  in  America. 

A  mission  was  begun  in  1880  among  the  Finns, 
and  in  the  same  year  in  Russia.  The  latter  mis- 
sion, however,  has  principally  the  character  of 
revival  work,  tho  at  the  station  on  the  south- 
eastern frontier  the  missionaries  come  in  close 
contact  with  heathendom.  The  Congo  Mission 
was  started  in  1881  and  labored  for  some  time 
in  connection  with  the  Livingstone  (see  Regions 
Beyond  Missionary  Union)  Inland  Mission. 
There  were  reported  (1900)  40  missionaries,  62 
native  workers,  1,573  communicants,  8  stations, 
62  outstations,  101  schools,  3,606  pupils,  7  dis- 
pensaries, and  20,000  patients.  These  figures 
seem  to  include  the  work  in  Algeria  among  the 
Jews,  which,  however,  is  not  large. 

Similar  in  character  to  this  last  movement  are 
a  number  of  minor  societies,  most  of  them  affil- 
iated with  the  China  Inland  and  Christian  Alliance 
Missions.  These  include  the  Swedish  Mission  in 
China  {Svenska  Missionen  Kina),  founded  in 
1887  by  E.  Folke;  The  Holiness  Union  (Helgelse- 
forbundet),  founded  in  1890  by  a  mill  owner  in 
Nerike,  and  which  sends  missionaries  to  China 
and  South  Africa;  a  Scandinavian  Alliance  Mis- 
sion, on  the  same  lines  as  the  Christian  Alliance, 
which  has  sent  out  a  number  of  untrained  work- 
ers to  China,  Japan,  the  Himalayas,  and  Swazi- 
land, but  with  little  evident  result.  There  are 
also  the  Jonkoping  Society  for  Home  and  Foreign 
Missions,  which  aids  other  societies;  Friends  of 
the  Lapps  Mission;  the  Female  Missionary 
Workers  (Kvinriliga  Missions  Arbetare) ,  organized 
in  1894,  which  absorbed  a  Swedish  Women's 
North  Africa  Mission,  and  is  practically  the  foreign 
department  of  the  Swedish  YWCA.  It  carries 
on  work,  particularly  for  children,  in  a  great 
variety  of  fields,  including  Lapland,  the  Cau- 
casus, Tibet,  India,  China,  Mongolia,  North 
Africa,  the  Congo,  and  France. 

SWITZERLAND  (French) ;  Mission  of  the  Free 
Churches  of:  {Mission  des  £glises  Libres  de  la 
Suisse   Romande) . 

In  the  year  1874,  the  Synod  of  the  Free  Evan- 
gelical Churches  of  the  Swiss  Canton  of  Vaud 
(Presbyterian)  resolved  to  create  a  mission  of  its 
own  among  the  heathen,  and  accordingly  two 
young  missionaries,  Messrs.  Ernest  Creux  and 
Paul  Berthoud,  were  sent  to  South  Africa.  They 
remained  for  some  time  with  the  missionaries  of 
the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society  in 
Basutoland,  and  in  1875  chose  a  mission  field  for 
themselves  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Transvaal 
Republic,  among  the  Tonga  negroes.  The  work 
has  extended  to  the  Ronga  tribes  living  to  the 
east  of  the  Transvaal,  on  the  Limpopo  River, 
and  on  the  coast  of  Delagoa  Bay.  The  New 
Testament  and  portions  of  the  Old  have  been 
translated  into  the  Tonga  and  Ronga  languages, 
and  the  work  at  all  the  stations  has  been  very 
successful. 

For  nine  years  this  mission  was  under  the  care 
of  the  Free  Church  in  the  Canton  of  Vaud ;  in  1883 


the  Free  Churches  of  Neuchatel  and  Geneva 
(both  Presbyterian)  formed  a  federation  with  the 
Free  Church  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud,  and  the  mis- 
sion has  since  been  under  their  joint  direction. 

The  report  (1902)  shows  53  missionaries,  50 
native  workers,  9  stations,  30  outstations,  958 
communicants,  46  schools,  with  1,604  pupils. 

SYLHET:  A  town  and  capital  of  a  district  in 
Assam,  India,  situated  about  62  miles  W.  of 
Silchar.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  railway  to- 
Cherrapunji,  in  the  hill  country.  Station  of  the 
Welsh  Calvinistio  Methodists,  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  2  women  missionaries, 
8  native  workers,  6  outstations,  5  places  of  wor- 
ship, 3  Sunday  schools,  4  day  schools,  and  43 
professed  Christians. 

SYN-YIN:  A  mission  station  of  the  Berlin  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  Kwang-tung,  China,  about  140 
miles  N.  E.  of  Canton  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 18  native  workers,  9  outstations,  1  day 
school,  and  493  professed  Christians,  of  whom  452 
are  communicants. 

SYRIA:  The  geographical  term  "Syria"  seems 
to  have  originated  with  the  early  Greek  traders, 
who  designated  by  it  the  land  whose  chief  com- 
mercial city  was  Tsur,  Sur,  or  Tyre.  When  the 
Arabs  came  into  the  land  in  the  7th  century'  they 
called  Damascus  Dimishk  esh-Sham,  and  named 
the  provinces  of  which  they  made  it  the  capital 
Bar  esh-Sham.  The  Christian  inhabitants  of  the 
land  still  call  it  "Suriyeh."  The  term  "Pales- 
tine" comes  from  Pelesheth  (ntJ*?!) — "land  of 
wanderers"),  and  refers  probably  to  the  nomadic 
tendencies  of  the  early  inhabitants.  No  form  of 
the  word  "Palestine"  (Philistia,  Palestina,  etc.) 
is  at  present  in  common  use  in  the  country.  The 
term  is  historical  rather  than  political,  and  defines 
that  part  of  Syria  which  stretches  from  Dan  (near 
Mount  Hermon)  to  Beersheba,  and  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Syrian  desert. 

Geography:  Syria  in  its  widest  extent,  not  now 
locally  recognized,  however,  extends  about  400 
miles  from  the  Taurus  mountains  on  the  north 
(latitude  37°)  to  Egypt  (latitude  28°),  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Syrian  desert,  an  aver- 
age width  of  less  than  200  miles,  and  contains 
70,000  square  miles.  It  is  nearly  conterminous 
with  the  "Promised  Land"  and  the  kingdom  of 
David.  It  is  about  the  size  of  New  England, 
Palestine  east  and  west  of  the  Jordan  being  of  the 
size  of  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  and  very 
similarly  situated.  Mountains  on  the  north,  the 
sea  on  the  west,  and  deserts  south  and  east  give 
the  land  a  somewhat  remarkable  geographical 
unity.  The  mountain  ranges  and  river  basins 
run  parallel  with  the  coast,  rendering  access  easy 
from  north  to  south.  The  Taurus  Mountains 
send  a  spur  off  to  the  south  not  far  from  the  coast. 
This  is  broken  by  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Orontes 
(El-'Asi)  River.  The  range  takes  a  new  start  in 
the  beautiful  peak  of  Mount  Casius,near  Antioch, 
and  stretches  down  along  the  coast,  receiving 
various  names  at  different  points.  Between 
Antioch  and  Tripoli  it  is  called  from  the  people 
who  inhabit  its  slopes  the  "Nusairiyeh"  range, 
which  terminates  in  Jebel  el  Husn.  A  low  saddle 
in  the  hills  comes  next,  and  then  the  Lebanon 
range  springs  suddenly  up  to  the  height  of  over 
10,000  feet;  and  twenty  miles  across  the  plain  tO' 
the  east  the  almost  equally  massive  Anti- 
Lebanon  starts  off  to  follow  its  mate  down  the 
coast  for  a  hundred  miles.     Lebanon  gradually 


?17 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


S^vitzerland 
Syria 


tapers  down  from  10,000  feet  to  8,000,  to  5,000, 
to  2,000,  until  it  drops  into  the  hills  of  Galilee, 
and  reaches  almost  sea-level  in  the  Esdraelon 
plain.  Anti-Lebanon  holds  its  own  for  over  half 
its  length,  then  drops;  but  gathering  in  power,  as 
a  final  effort,  throws  up  its  southern  peak  of 
Mount  Hermon  (Jebel  esh  Shaykh)  10,000  feet 
into  the  air.  Between  these  two  magnificent 
ranges  runs  the  fertile  valley  of  Caelo-Syria  (El 
Bukaa) ,  from  ten  to  twenty  miles  in  breadth  and 
averaging  over  2,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
Orontes  drains  the  northern  part  of  the  Bukaa, 
while  the  Litany  (rising  not  far  from  the  sources 
of  the  Orontes)  flows  southward  and  breaks 
through  to  the  sea  in  the  latitude  of  Mount 
Hermon.  At  the  foot  of  this  mountain  rises  the 
Jordan  ("the  descender").  This  strange  stream 
is  delayed  in  the  great  marsh  called  El  Huleh 
{Lake  of  Merom)  at  about  sea-level.  Breaking 
away  from  this  it  tumbles  down  in  a  few  miles 
over  600  feet  below  sea-level  into  the  sea  of 
Oalilee  (Bahr  Tabariyeh).  After  lingering  for 
16 J  miles  at  this  level  it  next  plunges  down  667 
feet  in  a  distance  (as  the  crow  flies)  of  66  miles, 
but  winding  about  200  miles  until  it  throws  its 
muddy  waters  into  the  Dead  Sea  (Bahr  Lut), 
1,300  feet  below  the  Mediterranean.  To  this 
phenomenal  sea  (46  miles  long-  and  5  to  15  miles 
broad)  there  seems  to  be  no  outlet.  Altho  there 
is  a  geological  depression  from  its  southern  end  to 
the  Akabah  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  altho  there 
are  indications  that  its  waters  were  once  on  a 
higher  level,  the  Dead  or  Salt  Sea  could  not  have 
been  connected  with  the  ocean,  because  there  is  a 
rise  of  ground  of  781  feet  above  sea-level  in  its 
way. 

West  of  the  Jordan  and  south  of  the  Esdraelon 
valley  the  hills  of  Ephraim  slowly  rise,  forming 
the  great  backbone  of  Palestine.  A  sharp  spur  is 
thrown  off  to  the  northwest,  which  ends  in  the 
rocky  headland  of  Mount  Carmel.  But  to  the 
south  the  trend  is  continually  upward  past  Sa- 
maria, Nablous,  Shiloh,  Bethel,  Jerusalem,  Bethle- 
hem, until  Hebron  is  reached.  Thence  the 
hUl-country  of  Judea  falls  away  into  the  Sinaitic 
desert.  Deep  wadies  run  off  gradually  to  the 
Mediterranean,  but  to  the  east  sharp  gorges 
plunge  precipitately  down  into  the  Jordan  valley 
a  thousand  or  so  feet  below  sea-level. 

South  of  Mount  Hermon  and  to  the  east  of  the 
Jordan,  Anti-Lebanon  gives  place  to  a  moderately 
high  mountain  wall,  for  the  most  part  precipitous 
on  its  western  side,  but  sloping  away  into  the 
Hauran  region  and  toward  the  desert  beyond. 
The  mountains  of  Gilead  merge  into  the  moun- 
tains of  Moab  and  are  continued  southward  to  the 
Arabian  border.  The  Hauran  has  indications  of 
volcanic  action,  and  has  a  number  of  interesting 
mountain  peaks.  A  few  oases  in  the  desert, 
such  as  Tadmor  (Palmyra),  belong  geograph- 
ically to  Syria. 

Population:  The  population  of  Syria  is  in  the 
neighborhood  of  2,000,000,  and  may  be  roughly 
divided  as  follows: 

Mohammedans  (Sunnites  and  Metawileh) 1,000,000 

Nuaairiyeh 250,000 

Maronites 250,000 

Orthodox  Greeks 235,000 

Papal  Sects 80,000 

Jews 40,000 

Ismailiyeh,  Gypsies,  etc 30,000 

Armenians 20,000 

Jacobites 15,000 

Druzes 100,000 

Protestants 7,500 

Bedouin  Arabs 60,000 


The  larger  cities  are  Damascus  (200,000),  Aleppo 
(120,000),  Beirut  (100,000),  Jerusalem  (35,000), 
Tripoli  (with  its  port,  25,000),  Homs  (20,000), 
Hamath  (20,000),  Zahleh  (15,000),  Nabloua 
(15,000),  Sidon,  Nazareth,  Acre,  Hebron,  Jaffa 
(each  10,000),  and  Antioch  (6,000).  The 
western  slopes  of  Mount  Leijanon  are  the  most 
densely  populated  parts  of  the  country  outside 
of  cities. 

Race:  From  the  earliest  times  there  has  been  a 
notable  mixture  of  races  in  Syria,  yet  all  along 
the  Semitic  type  has  prevailed  with  a  persistence 
truly  remarkable.  Flood-tides  of  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  Romans,  Kurds,  Armenians,  Persians, 
Teutons  and  Mongols  have  swept  the  country 
repeatedly,  only  to  be  as  repeatedly  driven  out. 
The  bad  blood  of  many  nations  has  soaked  into 
the  soil,  and  reappears  in  many  channels;  but  the 
original  race  type,  tho  modified,  lias  absorbed  the 
remnant  of  many  nationalities  so  effectively  that 
there  is  a  typical  Syrian  resultant,  which  differs 
widely  from  the  surrounding  peoples.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Bedouin  Arab  of  the  southeast, 
the  Kurds  of  the  northeast,  the  Turkish  officials, 
the  Armenian  merchants,  and  the  so-called 
Franks,  or  foreign  residents,  the  Syrian  type  is 
universal,  modified,  it  is  true,  by  hereditary 
religious  customs  and  convictions,  but  holding 
its  own  through  the  centuries.  It  is  character- 
ized by  a  certain  calculating  shrewdness  covered 
with  an  exterior  of  extreme  politeness.  The 
race-type  is  saturated  with  the  despotic  idea, 
which  appears  in  everj'  grade  of  society.  Manual 
labor  is  counted  ignoble.  Religious  differences 
have  bred  a  mutual  suspicion.  Credit  is  almost 
unknown.  Trade  is  a  matter  of  sharp  haggling 
over  prices.  The  typical  Syrian  is  proud,  am- 
bitious, loves  display  of  ornament,  cannot  be 
trusted  to  obey  to  the  letter,  has  a  temerity  of 
action  on  the  basis  of  slight  information,  quickly 
yields  to  fear  in  the  face  of  real  calamity,  and  is 
thoroughly  immersed  in  a  gross  materialism.  A 
millennium  of  Muslim  dominion  and  centuries  of 
Turlcish  oppression  have  accentuated  these  faults. 
But  wherever  an  opportunity  has  been  given,  a 
native  force  of  character  has  come  to  the  surface, 
so  that  even  the  precipitous  slopes  of  Lebanon 
have  been  terraced  thousands  of  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  a  restless  desire  to  better  their  con- 
dition has  sent  whole  colonies  of  Syrians  across 
the  oceans  to  Australia,  South  America  and  to  the 
United  States.  Common  school  and  higher  edu- 
cation is  having  a  marked  effect  upon  the  country, 
but  the  seeds  of  disunion  and  mutual  hatred  were 
planted  too  long  ago  to  be  materially  affected 
during  the  short  period,  comparatively,  in  which 
Western  Christian  influences  have  been  brought 
to  bear  on  Syria. 

Languages:  With  the  Arabs  in  the  7th  century 
came  the  Arabic  tongue,  which  immediately 
became  the  language  of  trade.  It  was  thus 
inevitable  that  it  should  become  universal  in  the 
land.  The  older  Syriac,  a  closely-allied  Semitic 
dialect,  slowly  succumbed,  leaving  behind  broad 
marks  of  influence  in  the  colloquial  Arabic,  so 
that  a  man's  speech  betrays  the  locality  from 
which  he  comes.  In  the  extreme  north  of  Syria, 
in  the  region  of  Aleppo,  the  Turkish  language 
begins  to  be  heard  among  the  common  people,  and 
Arabic  is  not  generally  used  north  of  that  city. 
The  offlcial  language  for  the  whole  country  is 
Turkish,  while  everywhere  Muslims  of  all  nation- 
alities use  Arabic  as  their  language  of  worship. 
Syriac   remains   the   liturgical   language   of   the 


Syria 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


718 


Maronites  and  the  Jacobites.  North  of  Damascus 
there  are  several  villages  in  which  Syriac  is  still 
the  vernacular.  Hebrew  is  heard  frequently  in 
Jerusalem.  Linguistically,  then,  Syria  is  a  unit 
and  is  closely  allied  in  this  particular  with  the 
Euphrates  region,  Arabia,  and  Egypt. 

Commerce:  The  centers  of  commerce  in 
Syria  are  Damascus  (which  means  "seat  of 
trade"),  Aleppo,  Alexandretta,  Tripoli,  Beirut, 
Haifa,  Nablous,  and  Jaffa.  Homs,  Hamath,  and 
Jerusalem  might  also  be  mentioned.  The  Hau- 
ran  is  the  granary  of  the  country.  Olives,  figs, 
licorice,  oranges,  grapes,  and  apricots  are  impor- 
tant crops.  Maize,  tobacco,  and  white  potatoes 
are  freelj'  raised — America's  gift  to  Syria.  Soap 
from  olive  oil  is  made  in  quantities  at  Haifa  and 
elsewhere.  The  silk-worm  is  busy  all  over.  Mt. 
Lebanon  and  the  villages  on  the  eastern  slopes 
are  alive  with  domestic  weaving  establishments. 
Bethlehem  is  the  seat  of  work  in  olive-wood  and 
pearl  utensils  (souvenirs).  Jerusalem  is  now,  as 
it  always  has  been,  a  caravansary  for  pilgrims 
from  every  clime. 

Political  Divisions:  Syria  (in  its  widest  extent) 
is  divided  by  the  Turkish  government  into  three 
vilayets  —  Adana,  Aleppo,  Syria  (proper; 
called  in  Turlcish  Suriyeh),  and  two  mutassarif- 
liks  or  districts — Jerusalem  and  the  Lebanon. 
Since  1860  the  Lebanon  region  has  been  under  the 
protection  of  foreign  powers  and  is  governed  by 
a  Christian  mutassarif  under  special  foreign  over- 
sight. The  center  of  political  danger  to  the 
Turk  in  Syria  is  in  the  Hauran  district,  where  the 
Bedouin  Arabs,  settled  and  nomadic,  have  never 
consented  to  do  military  service  in  the  Turkish 
army  and  are  exceedingly  jealous  of  official  inter- 
ference. However,  the  telegraphic  service  has 
been  extended  everywhere,  even  to  these  remote 
districts,  and  Turkish  soldiers  have  easily  put 
down  incipient  revolts.  The  Porte  has  ruled 
Syria  by  skillfully  playing  off  one  religious  sect 
against  another,  so  that  there  is  not  the  remotest 
danger  of  Nusairiyeh  and  Maronite  and  Druze 
striking  hands.  French  influence  since  1860  has 
been  pervasive  in  the  land.  Trade  has  been 
opened,  schools  have  been  fostered,  and  religion 
has  been  watched  by  the  French  officials  in  the 
land  with  a  care  that  betokens  a  desire  at  some 
time  to  control  the  country.  Russia  is  jealous  of 
this  French  propaganda,  and  under  Muscovite 
auspices  Jerusalem  is  being  surrounded  by 
towers,  churches  and  hospices,  and  at  present 
Russian  schools  are  being  founded  in  all  the 
coast  cities.  The  Turkish  method  of  governing 
Christian  sects  is  to  use  the  church  organization 
in  administering  them.  Each  sect  commits  its 
affairs  into  the  hands  of  the  head  man  of  the 
body,  who  intermediates  between  the  people  and 
the  Turkish  officials.  Woe  to  a  man  who  falls 
out  with  his  church!  In  effect  he  becomes  an 
outlaw.  Hence,  when  the  missionaries  entered 
the  country  in  1821,  hoping  to  regenerate  the 
decayed  Christian  Churches,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  start  a  Protestant  Community  so  that 
those  who  accepted  evangelical  truth  could 
have  the  protection  of  the  law,  such  as  it  was. 
For  when  a  Maronite  was  led  to  accept  the 
Gospel  statement  of  redemption  through  Christ 
alone  he  was  not  allowed  to  remain  in  that 
communion.  He  was  driven  forth.  His  neigh- 
bors could  wantonly  take  his  property  and 
maltreat  him  without  let  or  hindrance. 

Socially:  The  feudal  system  has  not  entirely 
disappeared   from    Syria,   and   princely  families 


have  until  lately  exercised  great  influence.  The 
prince  is  patriarchal  in  his  relations  to  his  house, 
and  thus  many  of  the  evils  of  the  system  are 
mitigated.  But  the  mass  of  the  people  are  ple- 
beian. The  clergy  exercise  great  social  power, 
as  would  be  gathered  from  the  preceding  para- 
graph. The  marriage  of  the  secular  clergy  is 
almost  universal  among  the  Oriental  Christian 
sects;  and  in  the  cases  where  these  sects  have 
been  won  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  this 
custom  has,  by  special  stipulation,  been  retained. 
The  status  of  woman  has  been  low. 

History:  Syria  has  been  from  time  immemo- 
rial the  battle-field  of  nations,  and  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  give  in  this  .statement  even  a  chron- 
icle of  the  great  events  that  have  taken  place 
within  its  boundaries.  It  and  its  people  have 
had  a  mission  to  perform  for  the  civilized 
world,  second  to  the  mission  of  no  other  land 
and  people.  The  Phoenician  and  the  Hebrew 
stand  for  the  two  important  elements  in  aU  civ- 
ilization— commerce  and  religion.  As  history 
dawned,  the  Phoenicians  were  the  traders  of  the 
world,  and  had  a  strong  rule  along  the  coast. 
Innumerable  warring  tribes  divided  up  the  rest 
of  the  land  among  themselves.  The  Hebrews 
appeared  as  a  nation  in  the  15th  century  B.C., 
and  in  the  11th  century,  under  David,  con- 
quered the  whole  of  the  territory  called  Syria 
to-day,  with  the  exception  of  Phoenicia.  After 
the  division  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom  (975  B.C.) 
the  new  power  of  Syria  arose,  with  its  capital  at 
Damascus.  In  the  8th  century  (721  B.C.) 
Assyria  conquered  Northern  Syria  and  over- 
whelmed the  northern  tribes.  Later  Jerusalem 
fell  before  the  Babylonian  power  (583  B.C.)  and 
Judah  went  into  captivity.  Persia  absorbed 
Babylon,  and,  until  the  conquests  of  Alexander 
the  Great  (323  B.C.),  controlled  the  land  along 
the  eastern  Mediterranean.  After  the  death  of 
the  great  conqueror,  Ptolemy  and  the  Seleucidse 
were  rivals  in  Syria,  the  power  of  the  latter  from 
their  capital  of  Antioch  being  finally  successful. 
The  Jews  rose  in  rebellion  against  the  attempt 
to  Hellenize  their  nation,  and  the  heroic  era  of 
the  Maccabees  resulted  (168-37  B.C.).  The 
Romans  were  irresistibly  being  pushed  east- 
ward, and  were  obliged  to  add  Syria  to  their 
growing  empire.  The  country  was  ruled  by 
native  kings  and  Roman  governors  until  it  was 
thoroughly  amalgamated  in  the  Eastern  or 
Byzantine  empire.  The  grand  duel  between 
Byzantine  and  Persian  (Sassanidae)  under  the 
Emperor  Heraclius  weakened  the  Roman  power, 
so  that  in  the  7th  century  the  armies  of  Islam 
made  easy  work  in  conquering  the  land.  The 
Ommeiad  dynasty  from  Damascus  ruled  the 
Muslim  world  from  661  to  750.  Several  cen- 
turies later,  as  the  Abbasside  dynasty  was 
breaking  up  at  Baghdad,  Syria  was  a  prey  to 
factions.  The  Seljuk  Turk  appeared,  reversing 
the  mild  treatment  the  Christians  had  received 
at  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  hitherto,  and  per- 
secution, imprisonment,  and  butchery  aroused 
the  knighthood  of  Christian  Europe  to  undertake 
the  Crusades  (1095-1291).  After  the  failure  of 
the  Crusades,  Syria  was  again  the  scene  of  Muslim 
misrule  at  the  hands  of  the  Mameluke  sultans  of 
Egypt,  and  of  fiercer  raiders  from  Tatary. 
Early  in  the  15th  century  Tamerlane  carried  his 
annihilating  hordes  as  far  south  as  Damascus. 
In  1517  the  whole  land  was  conquered  by  Selim 
I.,  the  Ottoman  Turk,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
the  brief  time  during  which  Ibrahim  Pasha  held 


719 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Syria 


Syria  (1832-1841),  has  been  controlled  success- 
fully by  the  Porte. 

The  first  Christian  church  was  at  Jerusalem, 
and  at  Antioch  the  name  "Christian"  arose. 
The  Apostles  and  their  followers  carried  the 
Gospel  to  every  portion  of  Syria,  and  the  faith 
took  root  everywhere.  The  scattering  of  the 
Jews,  as  a  result  of  the  great  rebellions  against 
Roman  dominion  in  70  and  130,  changed  the 
type  of  Christianity  in  Syria  materially,  but  the 
Faith  advanced  successfully  and  at  the  time  of 
Constantine  we  find  the  land  dotted  with  Christian 
churches. 

Some  of  the  greatest  church  fathers  either 
were  born  or  lived  in  Syria, — Ignatius,  Justin 
Martyr,  Eusebius,  and  Jerome, — missionary 
influences  went  out  on  every  side,  the  Bedouin 
Arabs  were  reached,  and  Frumentius,  a  Syrian, 
was  the  apostle  of  the  Abyssinians.  Constantine 
and  his  mother,  Helena,  were  drawn  to  the  land 
made  sacred  by  so  many  associations.  Jerusa- 
lem became  attractive  to  pilgrims.  The  ascetic 
spirit,  so  widespread  in  those  days,  took  posses- 
sion of  this  veneration  for  the  sacred  places. 
Monasteries  sprang  up  all  over  the  land.  Her- 
mits swarmed  among  the  wild  gorges  of  the 
Judean  desert,  and  when  Chosroes,  the  Persian 
conqueror,  swept  over  the  country  he  slaughtered 
Christian  monks  by  the  thousands.  Then  came 
the  Arab,  who  treated  the  Christians  mildly. 
The  Church  of  St.  John  in  Damascus,  it  is  true, 
was  converted  into  a  mosque;  but  Omar  at  Jeru- 
salem left  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  to 
the  Christians,  as  well  as  the  Church  of  the  Nativ- 
ity at  Bethlehem.  But  Christianity  dwindled. 
Islam  attracted  many  Syrians  into  its  ranks. 
At  the  time  of  the  Crusades  the  whole  number 
of  Christians  in  the  land  was  probably  not  more 
than  half  a  million.  The  Roman  pontiff  had 
long  been  desirous  to  win  the  Oriental  churches, 
which  for  the  most  part  refused  to  acknowledge 
the  universal  supremacy  of  the  Pope.  During 
the  Crusades  the  Maronites  threw  in  their  lot 
with  the  Western  Christians,  and  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Church  of  Rome,  which  has  grown 
closer  every  century. 

Protestantism:  Into  this  seething  little  world 
of  fierce  religious  propaganda — Mohammedan, 
Oriental,  and  Papal — the  new  force  of  Protes- 
tantism came  in  the  third  decade  of  last  century. 
The  Turkish  Government  rather  favored  it  than 
otherwise — considering  it  a  new  tool  by  which 
it  could  work  confusion  to  its  enemies.  Rev. 
Pliny  Fisk  and  Rev.  Levi  Parsons  landed  at 
Smyrna  in  1819.  In  1821  Mr.  Parsons  went  to 
Jerusalem  to  make  that  the  headquarters  for  the 
work  in  Syria.  In  1823  Mr.  Fisk  and  Dr.  Jonas 
King  summered  on  Mt.  Lebanon,  and  later 
made  Beirut  the  center  for  work.  In  the  same 
year  Rev.  Wm.  Goodell,  Rev.  Isaac  Bird,  and 
their  wives  landed  at  that  city.  Shortly  after 
both  Mr.  Parsons  and  Mr.  Fisk  died,  but  the  work 
moved  on.  In  1828  violent  persecution  (ending 
in  the  death  of  Asaad  Esh  Shidiak,  "the  martyr 
of  Lebanon"),  political  and  warlike  agitations, 
the  forcible  closure  of  schools  at  Beirut,  Tripoli, 
and  elsewhere,  led  the  missionaries  to  go  to  Malta 
and  wait  until  the  storm  should  blow  over.  In 
1830,  however,  they  returned  and  took  up  their 
labors  with  redoubled  energy.  A  printing  press 
was  established  at  Malta,  and  later  removed  to 
Beirut  by  Rev.  Eli  Smith;  tracts  and  books  were 
published,  a  translation  of  the  Bible  undertaken, 
and  the  land  was  more  fuUy  explored  for  favor- 


able stations.  In  1843  it  appeared  that  greater 
concentration  would  make  the  work  more  effec- 
tive, and  Jerusalem  was  handed  over  to  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  of  England.  As 
already  stated,  the  missionaries  were  compelled 
to  organize  a  separate  church  to  give  protection 
to  their  followers  under  Turkish  laws.  Abeih 
and  Hasbeiya  were  special  centers  for  work.  The 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic  (see  Arabic 
Version)  went  on.  The  Syrian  Protestant  College 
was  founded  at  Beirut  in  186.5,  having  been  in- 
corporated in  1863  by  the  Legislature  of  New 
York.  A  medical  class  was  formed  in  1867. 
In  1873  the  present  buildings,  situated  on  Ras 
Beirut,  were  first  occupied. 

But  before  this,  in  1870,  when  the  Old  and  New 
School  Presbyterians  of  the  United  States  were 
united,  the  American  Syrian  Mission  was  handed 
over  by  the  ABCFM  to  the  PN,  because  up  to 
this  date  the  New  School  Presbyterians  had  cor- 
tributed  largely  to  the  ABCFM.  The  mission- 
aries found  that  the  work  would  not  be  mate- 
rially affected  by  the  change.  In  fact,  a  new 
impetus  came  to  the  mission,  and  the  progress 
since  1870  has  been  very  great,  in  twenty  years 
more  than  trebling  the  resources  of  the  mission 
as  well  as  the  number  of  native  adherents.  The 
translation  of  the  Bible  was  carried  on  to  com- 
pletion by  Dr.  Van  Dyck  after  the  death  of  Dr. 
Eli  Smith.  Stations  are  located  at  Beirut,  in 
the  Lebanon,  Tripoli,  and  Sidon. 

During  these  years  a  large  number  of  native 
Syrian  Protestants  have  arisen  who  have  done  a 
great  work  for  their  land.  Among  them,  besides 
the  martyr  Asaad  Esh  Shidiak,  may  be  men- 
tioned Gregory  Wortabed,  Butrus  Bistany,  Dr. 
Meshakah  of  Damascus,  and  a  large  number  of 
men  are  to-day  taking  the  places  of  these  good 
and  learned  men  whose  names  will  never  be  for- 
gotten. 

The  CMS  commenced  work  in  Palestine  in  1851. 
It  occupies  the  field  from  Acre  to  Hebron  and  Gaza 
and  from  Mt.  Ilermon  to  Moab  east  of  the  Jordan. 
It  has  pushed  forward  under  great  discourage- 
ments, but  has  made  steady  progress.  It  has 
stations  at  Jerusalem,  Nablous,  Jaffa,  Gaza, 
Ramleh,  Nazareth,  Haifa,  Es  Salt,  etc.  It 
has  a  number  of  successful  schools.  In  1899 
education  among  women  received  the  special 
attention  of  the  CMS,  and  medical  missions  have 
been  fostered. 

The  London  Jews'  Society  has  missions  at 
Jerusalem,  Jaffa,  Damascus,  Aleppo  and  other 
places.  The  Established  Church  of  Scotland  has 
a  mission  to  the  Jews  at  Beirut.  At  Tiberias 
there  is  another  Scotch  mission  to  the  Jews. 

The  Irish  Presbyterian  Mission  in  Damascus 
was  founded  in  1843.  The  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  United  States  was  interested  in 
this  work  for  many  years,  but  has  of  late  concen- 
trated its  mission  endeavors  in  Egypt. 

The  press  at  Beirut,  under  Presbyterian 
management,  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
Arabic-speaking  world,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  following  report :  The  number  of  pages  printed 
during  the  year  1900  was  24,882,680,  making  the 
total  since'  the  beginning,  667,974,597,  and  of 
these  pages,  17,884,000  were  Arabic  Scriptures, 
and  of  these,  58,500  were  bound;  8,193  copies 
were  sold  in  Syria  and  34,657  in  Egypt.  The 
entire  number  of  books  and  tracts  sold  was 
83,749,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that,  owing  to 
alterations  and  repairs,  the  presses  were  idle  for 
more  than  two  months.     The  total   number  of 


Syria 
'Tai-lcu 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


720 


Scriptures  sold  to  the  Russian  schools  in  Syria 
and  Palestine  during  1900  was  4,026.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  they  have  bought  7,893  volumes 
of  scientific  and  educational  works. 

The  British  Syrian  schools  and  Bible  Mission 
were  established  in  1860  by  Mrs.  Bowen  Thomp- 
son. Since  her  death  her  sister,  Mrs.  Mott,  has 
had  charge  of  the  work.  It  comprises  about  30 
schools,  mostly  for  girls,  in  which  over  3,000 
pupils  are  gathered.  The  principal  schools  are 
at  Beirut,  Damascus,  Zahleh,  Baalbec,  Hasbeiya, 
and  Tyre.  The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  has  a 
mission  in  the  Metn  district  of  Mt.  Lebanon 
under  the  care  of  Rev.  W.  Carslaw,  M.D. 

The  Society  of  Friends  in  England  has  mission 
work  at  Brumana,  on  Mt.  Lebanon,  and  the 
American  Friends  at  Ramallah,  northwest  from 
Jerusalem.  The  German  Evangelical  missions 
include  the  German  Deaconesses  of  Kaiserswerth, 
the  Jerusalem  Verein  of  Berlin,  and  the  work  of 
German  chaplains  in  Beirut  and  Jerusalem. 
The  Kaiserswerth  Deaconesses  came  to  Syria 
after  the  terrible  Druze  massacres  in  1860,  estab- 
lished orphanages  in  Jerusalem  and  Beirut,  and 
soon  became  connected  as  nurses  with  the  Johan- 
niter  Hospital  in  the  last-named  city.  The  Jeru- 
salem Verein  has  work  in  Jerusalem  and  also  in 
Bethlehem.  There  are  girls'  schools  at  Bethle- 
hem, Nazareth,  and  Shimlan  under  the  care  of 
a  society  of  English  women.  Miss  Taylor's 
(Scotch)  school  at  Beirut  for  Druze  and  Muslim 
girls  is  very  successful. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  special  societies  or 
private  enterprises. 

Bible  work  is  carried  on  in  Syria  by  the  Ameri- 
can Bible  Society, with  its  headquarters  at  Beirut, 
whence  it  sends  Arabic  Scriptures  over  the  whole 
world.  Palestine  is  occupied  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  tract  societies  of 
America  and  England  have  given  most  substan- 
tial help  to  the  mission  in  its  effort  to  supply  the 
whole  Arabic-reading  world  with  Christian  litera- 
ture. The  interesting  item  about  ail  these 
numerous  Protestant  societies  at  work  in  Syria 
and  Palestine  is  the  fact  that  they  are  all  working 
in  substantial  harmony.  There  is  no  more  diffi- 
cult mission  field  in  the  world.  Jerusalem  is  the 
worst  city  in  the  world,  not  because  of  gross 
licentiousness,  but  because  of  spiritual  pride;  and 
the  whole  land  partakes  of  the  same  spirit. 
Syria  is  at  present  in  a  most  depressed  state, 
agriculturally  and  commercially.  The  last  fifty 
years  have  seen  a  leap  ahead  intellectually,  and 
roads  and  the  telegraph  are  binding  the  country 
together.  In  the  end,  the  simple  Gospel  must 
prevail  in  the  land  that  gave  it  birth,  but  many 
generations  must  come  and  go  before  Islam  will 
yield,  and  before  the  stubborn  oriental  rites,  as 
well  as  the  papal  votaries,  will  give  up  the  mean- 
ingless and  injurious  human  elements  that  have 
entered  into  their  worship. 

SYRIAC  LANGUAGE :  It  belongs  to  the  Semitic 
family  of  languages.  The  ancient  Syriac,  as  used 
in  the  Peshito  and  other  ancient  versions  of  the 
Bible,  is  at  present  a  purely  ecclesiastical  and 
literary  language,  tho  oi  great  importance  to  the 
Biblical  scholar. 

The  modern  Syriac,  a  much  corrupted  form  of 
the  ancient  language,  is  the  spoken  tongue  of  the 
Chaldean,  Nestorian,  and  Syrian  Christians  living 
in  Turkey  and  Persia.  It  is  written  with  Syriac 
letters,  but  is  found  in  many  different  dialects. 
A  version  of  the  Arabic  Bible  has  been  printed 


with  Syriac  letters  and  is  known  as  the  Karshuni 
version.  It  is  intended  for  those  Syrians  who 
have  lost  their  own  language.  The  scattered 
condition  of  the  Syriac-speaking  peoples  has  led 
to  the  growth  of  dialects,  some  of  which  present 
marked  peculiarities. 

Little  was  known  of  the  modern  Syriac  among 
Western  scholars  until  1826,  when  versions  of 
some  books  of  Scripture  were  brought  to  Europe 
by  Dr.  Joseph  Wolff. 

When  the  American  missionaries  began  their 
labors  among  the  Syrian  Christians  in  Urmia  in 
1834,  no  literature  was  known  to  exist  in  this 
language,  and  Dr.  Perkins,  with  his  colleagues, 
proceeded  to  reduce  it  to  writing  and  to  issue 
from  the  press  religious  and  educational  works. 
Later  on  a  few  manuscripts  were  discovered, 
dating  a  hundred  years  back,  written  in  the 
Elkosh  dialect  spoken  in  the  vicinity  of  Mosul. 
These  proved  to  be  unscholarly  paraphrases  of 
the  Gospels,  or  rude  poetical  renderings  of  Gospel 
history.  They  possess  little  interest  save  as 
throwing  light  on  the  development  of  the  lan- 
guage. The  whole  number  of  people  now  using 
the  modern  Syriac  is  estimated  at  about 
100,000. 

SYRIAN  PROTESTANT  COLLEGE:  This  col- 
lege, established  at  Beirut,  Syria,  in  1866,  is  one 
of  a  number  of  important  educational  institu- 
tions in  non-Christian  lands  which  are  the  out- 
growth of  successful  missionary  effort.  It  is 
chartered  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  its  corporate  name  in  America  being  "The 
Trustees  of  the  Syrian  Protestant  College." 
Morris  K.  Jesup  of  New  York  is  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees.  This  Board  owns  the  col- 
lege buildings  and  the  land  on  which  they  stand, 
consisting  of  about  forty  acres  in  the  most 
prominent  situation  in  the  city  of  Beirut. 

The  work  of  the  College  commenced  in  the 
autumn  of  1866,  a  preparatory  class  having  been 
formed  the  previous  year.  A  medical  depart- 
ment was  opened  in  1867,  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment in  1871,  and  a  commercial  in  1900.  The 
number  of  students  in  1866  was  16;  in  1903  it  was 
650.  The  number  of  teachers  in  1866  was  6;  in 
1903  it  was  40.  During  the  37  years  of  its 
existence  the  college  has  had  under  its  instruc- 
tion 2,763  students;  it  has  graduated  203  bach- 
elors of  art,  189  physicians,  87  pharmacists  and 
462  preparatory  students.  Many  of  these  stu- 
dents graduated  elsewhere,  but  remain  loyal  to 
their  Alma  Mater. 

The  College  draws  its  students  from  all  the 
Christian  sects  of  the  East,  and  not  a  few  from 
the  Druzes,  the  Jews,  and  the  Muslims.  The 
geographical  area  from  which  the  650  young  men 
now  in  the  College  have  come  extends  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Sudan  and  from  Greece  to 
Persia — a  region  as  large  as  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  languages  spoken 
by  the  students  are  Arabic,  Turkish,  Persian, 
Coptic,  Hebrew,  Yiddish,  Armenian,  Greek, 
English,  German,  and  French.  Their  instructors 
are,  in  nationality,  American,  English,  Arab, 
German,  Swiss,  and  French. 

The  College  is  Christian  but  non-sectarian.  It 
educates  young  men  from  numerous  denomina- 
tions, and  from  the  fields  of  a  score  of  different 
missionary  societies.  There  is  a  flourishing 
YMCA  among  the  students  which  occupies  itseS 
with  the  culture  of  the  student  body,  neighbor- 
hood teaching,  and  close  study  of  the  Bible. 


721 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Syria 
Tal-]£a 


This  Association  affords  a  ground  on  which  mem- 
bers of  liturgical  and  non-liturgical  churches  can 
meet  and  engage  together  in  religious  work. 
The  graduates  of  the  College,  as  well  as  students 
who  have  taken  a  partial  course  only,  occupy 
positions  of  commanding  influence  as  civil  func- 
tionaries, merchants,  ministers,  teachers,  civil 
and  military  physicians,  lawyers,  judges,  editors, 
and  authors.  A  number  of  them  are  in  the  mili- 
tary and  consular  service  of  the  United  States 
Government. 

The  influence  of  such  a  body  of  men,  edu- 
cated according  to  American  methods,  on  the 
progress  and  elevation  of  the  East  is  obvious. 
The  significance  of  this  great  college  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  existence  and  zeal  of  Protestant  mis- 
sions is  also  worthy  of  note.  The  fact  that  these 
missions  seem  to  culminate  in  such  institutions 
of  admitted  utility  has  stirred  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  Greek  Churches  to  rrresd  activity.  France, 
Italy,  and  Austria  have  poured  in  men  and  lav- 
ished money  that  they  also  may  found  churches 
and  schools,  printing  presses  and  publishing 
houses,  primarily,  doubtless,  for  the  benefit  of 
those  of  their  own  communion,  but  also  for  the 
promotion  of  their  national  and  ecclesiastical 
interests.  Russia  has  done  the  same  in  the 
interests  of  its  politics  and  the  religious  advance- 
ment of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church.  All  these 
efforts  unite  with  those  of  Protestant  missions 
in  contributing  effectively  to  the  general  advance- 
ment of  a  higher  civilization. 


The  same  fact  as  to  the  relation  of  the  college 
to  the  general  missionary  movement  from  which 
it  sprang  is  seen  in  the  healthy  stimulus  which  it 
becomes  to  all  native  communities.  This  is  seen 
not  only  in  the  praiseworthy  efforts  of  native 
Protestants  in  the  support  of  the  institutions  of 
the  Gospel  and  the  educational  work  inseparable 
from  these  institutions.  It  can  be  noted  in  all 
the  native  Christian,  and  after  a  little  while  in  the 
non-Christian  sects,  taking  the  form  of  a  general 
rivalry  in  matters  of  humanitarian  and  educa- 
tional enterprise.  The  existence  of  the  college 
stimulates  the  increase  of  Protestant  schools. 
The  example  of  Protestant  schools  has  caused  the 
Greeks  and  the  Maronites  to  found  common 
schools  and,  subsequently,  colleges.  It  has  led  the 
Jesuits  to  found  the  University  of  St.  Joseph  at 
Beirut,  with  preparatory,  collegiate,  commercial 
and  medical  departments.  It  has  stirred  the 
Turkish  Government  to  establish  and  enlarge 
primary  and  higher  schools  for  boys,  culminating 
in  the  Rushdiyeh  and  Idadiyeh  Turkish  Colleges 
of  Beirut.  But  the  most  surprising  result  has 
been  the  general  diffusion  of  female  education. 
Each  of  the  Christian  sects  has  its  complete  series 
of  girls'  schools,  with  a  collegiate  institution  at 
its  head.  And,  most  wonderful  of  all,  this  has 
led  to  the  foundation  of  a  society  of  Muslim  men 
to  promote  female  education  and  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  for  Muslim  girls  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Syria. 

SYU-YIN.     See  Stn  Yin. 


TABASE:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Umtata  River,  16  miles 
S.  W.  of  Tsolo.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mis- 
sions (1873),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  7  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  3  day 
schools,  and  57  professed  Christians. 

TABRIZ:  One  of  the  oldest  and  most  impor- 
tant cities  of  Persia,  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Azerbaijan,  situated  in  a  valley  4,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  about  360  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Teheran. 
A  large  commerce  is  carried  on  here,  as  it  is  the 
center  of  the  trade  between  Persia,  Russia  and 
Turkey,  and  it  is  on  the  line  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean telegraph  from  London  to  Bombay. 
There  are  few  noteworthy  public  buildings,  tho 
■  •  •  numerous  mosques,  baths  and  shops  are  found 
throughout  the  city,  and  one  mosque  is  especially 
noted.  The  population  is  180,000,  chiefly 
Turks  and  Armenians,  the  true  Persians  being 
very  few  in  number. 

Station  of  the  PN  (1873),  with  (1903)  4  mis- 
sionaries, three  of  them  with  their  wives ;  5 
women  missionaries,  7  native  workers,  9  outsta- 
tions,  2  places  of  worship,  1  day  school,  2  board- 
>  *  *  ing  schools,  2  dispensaries,  1  hospital,  and  65 
professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the  Swe- 
dish Mission  Society,  with  1  missionary,  1  woman 
missionary  and  1  day  school. 

TA-CHIEN-LU.     See  Ta-tsibn-lu. 
j  TAHITL     See  Society  Islands. 

T'AI-AN,  or  TAI-AN-FU.     See  Tai-ngan-fu. 

TAI-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Che-kiang,  China, 
46 


situated  about  70  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Ningpo. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1867),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  13  native 
workers,  13  outstations,  14  places  of  worship, 
1  boarding  school,  1  hospital,  and  504  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  CMS  (1892), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  33 
native  workers,  13  day  schools,  and  1,222  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  449  are  communi- 
cants.    Some  write  the  name  T'ai  Chow. 

T'AI  CHOW.     See  Tai-chau-fu. 

TAI-HO-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Ngan-hwei, 
China,  situated  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  province 
about  20  miles  N.  W.  of  Yeng-chau-fu.  Sta- 
tion of  the  CIM  (1892),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  5  native  workers,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  19 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
T'ai-ho. 

TAI-KANG-HSIEN :  A  town  in  Ho-nan,  China, 
situated  about  25  miles  N.  of  Chen-chau-fu. 
The  missionaries  having  been  driven  out  in  1900, 
a  Chinese  layman  acted  as  leader  of  the  Chris- 
tians and  kept  the  church  together  until  it  was 
safe  for  the  missionaries  to  return.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1895),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  Sun- 
day school,  and  43  professed  Christians.  Some 
write  the  name  T'ai-k'ang, 

TAI-KU:  A  town  in  Korea,  situated  about  100 
miles  N.  W.  of  Fu-san,  on  the  Naktung  River. 
Former  capital  of  the  southeastern  kingdom,  and 


Tfti-lcn-lisien 
Tangier 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


723 


the  chief  city  of  a  most  fertile  and  prosperous 
region.^  Station  of  the  PN  (1898),  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries,  three  of  them  with  their  wives; 
3  native   workers,   2   outstations,    1   dispensary, 

1  hospital,  and  4  professed  Christians. 

TAI-KU-HSIEN:  A  town  of  Shan-si,  China, 
situated  10  miles  S.  of  Tai-yuen-fu.  The  Chris- 
tians hereabouts  were  attacked,  and  many, 
together  with  almost  all  the  native  woikers,  were 
killed  in  1900.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1883), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native 
workers,  1   Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  1  dis- 

gensary,  1  boarding  school,  and  40  professed 
hristians.  Some  write  the  name  Tai-ku. 
TAINAN:  A  town  and  seapost  in  Japan,  situ- 
ated on  the  island  of  Formosa,  on  the  S.  W. 
coast.  Population,  100,000.  Station  of  the 
PCE  (1865),  with  (1903)  7  missionaries,  four  of 
them  with  their  wives;  3  women  missionaries,  1 
boarding  school,  1  theological  class,  2  dispensar- 
ies, 1  hospital,  1  medical  class,  38  places  of  wor- 
ship, 58  native  workers,  and  4,331  professed 
Christians.  This  includes  the  church  statistics 
of  Tai-chu.  Some  write  the  name  Tainanfu. 
TAINANFU.  See  Tainan. 
TAI-NGAN-FU:  A  town  in  Shantung,  China, 
situated  35  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Tsi-nan-fu.  Station 
of  the  North  China  Mission  (SPG  auxiliary) 
(1878),  with  (1900)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them 
with  his  wife,  and  1  native  worker.  Also  station 
of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 

2  women  missionaries,  19  native  workers,  8  out- 
stations, 10  places  of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools, 

3  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary, 
and  304  professed  Christians,  of  whom  100  are 
communicants.  Station  also  of  the  Independent 
Baptist  Mission  Movement,  with  7  missionaries, 
five  of  them  with  their  wives,  and  1  woman  mis- 
sionary. Some  write  the  name  Tai-an  or 
Tai-au-fu. 

_  TAI-PING-FU:  A  town  in  Ngan-hwei,  China, 
situated  on  the  Yangtse  River,  about  35  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Nan-king.  Station  of  the  Hauges 
China  Mission  (1897),  with  (1900)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  day  school,  1  outstation.  Also  station 
of  the  ME,  with  1  native  worker,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Sunday  school,  and  30  professed  Chris- 
tians.    Some  write  the  name  Tai-ping-tien. 

TAI-PING-FU:  A  town  in  Kwang-si,  China, 
situated  in  the  S.  part  of  the  province  on  the  Tso 
River.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3 
native  workers,  3  outstations,  3  day  schools,  and 
177  professed  Christians,  of  whom  156  are  com- 
municants.    Some  write  the  name  Taiping. 

T'AI-P'ING.     See  Tai-ping-hsien. 

TAI-PING-HSIEN:  A  town  of  Che-kiang, 
China,  situated  near  the  E.  coast,  about  50  miles 
N.  E.  of  Wen-chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1898), 
with  (1900)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  8  places  of  worship,  2  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  368 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
T'ai-p'ing. 

TAI-PING-TIEN.     See  Tai-ping-ftj. 

T'AI-YUAN-FU.     See  Tai-tuen-pu. 

TAI-YUEN-FU:  A  town  in  Shan-si,  China, 
capital  of  the  province  and  important  for  manu- 
factures.    Situated  in  the  center  of  the  province 


about  250  miles  S.  W.  of  Peking.  Station  of  the 
BMS  (1878),  v,'ith  (1903)  4  missionaries,  three  of 
them  with  their  wives;  6  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations, 3  day  schools  and  130  professed  Chris- 
tians. Also  station  of  the  BZM  (1898),  with 
(1903)  no  occupant.  Agency  also  of  the  BFBS, 
with  1  agent.  Some  write  the  name  T'ai-yuan-fu' 
or  Tai  Yuen  Fu. 

TAKAMATSU:  A  town  on  the  island  of  Shi- 
koku,  Japan,  situated  on  the  inland  sea,  N.  W.  of 
Tokushima.  Population,  34,625.  Station  of  the 
PS  (1893),  with  2  missionaries  and   their  wives. 

TAKARMA:  A  village  in  Chota  Nagpur,  Ben- 
gal, India,  situated  in  Lohardaga  District,  55 
miles  S.  W.  of  Ranchi.  Station  of  the  Gossner 
Mission  Society,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  46 
native  workers,  26  places  of  worship,  22  Sunday 
schools,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and 
5,389  professed  Christians,  of  whom  3,646  are 
communicants. 

TAKASAKI:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  the 
main  island,  about  ten  miles  S.  W.  of  Mayebashi. 
Station  of  the  PE  (1900),  with  (1903)  1  native 
worker  and  1  woman  missionary. 

TAKAYAMA:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  the 
main  island,  about  40  miles  S.  of  Toyama.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Scandinavian  Alliance,  with  1  mission- 
ary and  1  woman  missionary. 

TAK-HING-CHAU.     See  TE-TSiNG-CHAtr. 

TA-KU-SHAN:  A  town  in  Manchuria,  China, 
situated  in  the  district  of  Liao-tung,  on  the  coast 
of  Korea  Bay,  about  35  miles  W.  of  the  Yaku 
River.  Station  of  the  Danish  Missionary  Society 
(1896),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them 
with  his  wife;  1  woman  missionary,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  dispensary,  and  8  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Da-gu-san. 

TA-KU-TANG:  A  town  in  Kiang-si,  China, 
situated  on  the  Yangtse  River,  about  10  miles 
E.  of  Kiu-kiang-fu.  It  is  used  as  a  sanitarium 
for  missionaries  working  in  the  Yangtse  valley. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1873),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  day  school,  and  8  professed  Christians. 

TALAGOUGA:  A  village  in  the  French  Congo 
State,  West  Africa,  situated  on  the  Ogowe  River, 
about  175  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  people  in 
the  country  about  are  chiefly  Fangs,  or  Pahouin, 
as  they  are  called  by  the  French.  Station  of  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society  (1892),  with 
(1903)  4  missionaries,  three  of  them  with  their 
wives ;  2  women  missionaries,  21  native  workers, 
11  outstations,  2  day  schools,  and  341  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  72  are  communicants. 

TALAUT  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  small  islands 
belonging  to  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  lying  N.  E.  of 
Celebes  and  about  150  miles  S.  E.  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  Cabruang  and  Carkelang  are  the 
two  largest  of  the  group.  The  Talaut  and  the 
Sangir  Islands  are  being  evangelized  through  a 
missionary  committee  formed  at  Batavia,  Java, 
for  the  purpose.  There  are  about  45,000  pro- 
fessed Christians  on  the  two  groups  taken 
together. 

TALATSCHERI.     See  Tbllicherri. 

TALCA:  A  town  in  Chile,  South  America,  and 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
about  180  miles  by  railroad  N.  of  Concepcion. 
Population  (1901),  29,112.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1876  and  1897),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 


723 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Tai-kn-lislen 
Tangier 


his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  1  native  worker, 
3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1 
boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  61 
professed  Christians. 

TA-LI-FU:  A  prefectural  city  in  the  northern 
part  of  Yunnan,  China,  northwest  of  Yunnan 
City.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1881),  with  (1903) 
3  missionaries  and  1  place  of  worship. 

TALJHARA:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
in  the  Raj-mahal  region,  about  45  miles  east  of 
Bhagalpur.  The  people  are  mostly  Santals. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1861),  with  3  missionaries, 
one  of  them  with  his  wife;  46  native  workers, 
1  place  of  worship,  9  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  theological  class,  and  997  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  352  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Taljhari. 

TALLAPUDI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  Godavari  District,  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Godavari  River,  W.  of  Rajahmahendri. 
Climate,  hot  and  malarious.  Station  of  the 
Evangelical  Lutheran  General  Council  (U.  S.), 
with  1  missionary,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day 
school,  1  Sunday  school,  and  192  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

TAMAR:  A  village  in  Chota  Nagpur,  Bengal, 
India,  situated  30  miles  S.  E.  of  Ranchi.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Gossner  Mission  Society,  with  1  mis- 
sionary, 27  native  workers,  2  day  schools,  10 
Sunday  schools,  and  1,546  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  1,497  are  communicants. 

TAMATAVE:  The  principal  port  of  Madagas- 
car, situated  on  the  east  coast,  on  a  point  about 
350  yards  wide.  It  is  quite  cosmopolitan  in  its 
character,  as  representatives  of  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal European  and  Asiatic  nationalities  live 
within  its  limits.  A  low  estimate  of  the  foreign 
residents  make  their  number  1,200.  Most  of 
them  are  Creoles  from  Mauritius,  and  natives  of 
India  of  various  religions  and  castes.  Not  more 
than  50  are  pure  British  and  French.  French 
influence  prevails,  as  there  is  a  French  Resident, 
■  controller  of  the  customs,  and  Roman  Catholic 
priests,  who  teach  and  preach  in  French.  The 
native  population  of  about  4,000  is  composed  of 
Hovas  from  the  interior,  Taimoro  from  the  south, 
Tanosy  from  St.  Marie,  and  Betsimisaraka  from 
the  surrounding  districts.  The  latter  are  an 
exceptionally  ignorant,  superstitious  tribe,  who 
have  been  further  debased  by  contact  with  the 
cargoes  and  crews  of  the  various  trading  vessels 
from  Mauritius  and  Reunion  which  stop  at  the 
small  ports. 

Station  of  the  SPG,  with  3  native  workers. 
Church  statistics  included  in  Andovoranto,  where 
the  missionary  resides. 

TAMEANGLAJANG:  A  village  in  Borneo, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  about  120  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Banjermassin.  Station  of  the  Rhen- 
ish Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  3  outstations, 
4  day  schools,  1  Sunday  school,  and  192  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  104  are  communicants. 

TAMI:  An  island  off  the  E.  coast  of  German 
New  Guinea.  Station  of  the  Neuendettelsau 
Mission  Society  (1889),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife  and  1  day  school. 

TAMPICO:  A  town  and  seaport  in  the  state  of 
Tamaulipas,  Mexico,  situated  on  the  River 
Paranco,  near  its  mouth,  and  220  miles  N.  of 
Mexico  City.     Population,  5,000,  Indians,  Span- 


iards, Creoles.  Station  of  the  Associate  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Synod  of  tlie  South  (1880),  with 
(1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 5  native  workerj,  10  outstations,  4 
places  of  worship,  1  boarding  school,  1  day  school, 
1  industrial  school,  and  253  professed  Christians. 

TAMSUI:  A  town  and  treaty  port  in  Japan, 
situated  in  the  island  of  Formosa,  on  the  W. 
coast  and  in  the  N.  part  of  the  island.  Popu- 
lation, 100,000.  Station  of  the  PCC  (1872), 
with  (1901)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  79 
native  workers,  56  outstations,  5  places  of  wor- 
ship, 6  day  schools,  1  college,  1  hospital,  and 
1,891  professed  Christians. 

TANABE:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  in  the  N. 
of  the  main  island,  about  40  miles  N.  E.  of 
Aomori.  Station  of  the  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian Missionary  Society  (1885),  with  (1901) 
1  woman  missionary,  1  native  worker,  1  place  of 
worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  and  64  professed 
Christians. 

TANAH-ABANG :  A  settlement  in  the  island  of 
Java,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  about  12  miles 
W.  of  Batavia.  Station  of  the  Netherlands  Mis- 
sionary Union  (1902),  with  the  outstations  for- 
merly connected  with  Tang-geran.  It  has  (1903) 
1  missionary,  5  native  workers,  7  outstations,  4 
day  schools,  and  170  professed  Christians,  A 
considerable  proportion  of  the  Christians  here 
are  Chinese  coolies. 

XANANA:  A  settlement  in  Alaska,  situated  on 
the  Yukon  River,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Tanana.  Station  of  the  PE,  with  (1901)  1  mis- 
sionary, 1  native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
day  school,  1  printing  house,  and  52  professed 
Christians. 

TANDIL:  A  town  in  the  Argentine  Republic, 
South  America,  situated  about  180  miles  S.  by 
W.  of  Buenos  Aires.  Station  of  the  Missionary 
Pence  Association  (1895),  with  (1900)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  Sunday  school,  1  boarding 
school,  and  32  professed  Christians. 

TANDSCHAUR.     See  Tanjore. 

TANETTEIJA :  A  town  on  the  island  of  Celebes, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  on  the  S.  coast  about 
40  miles  S.  E.  of  Macassar.  Station  of  the 
Utrecht  Missionary  Society  (1897),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native  workers,  1  day 
school,  and  8  professed  Christians. 

TANGA:  A  town  and  seaport  in  German  East 
Africa,  situated  30  miles  N.  of  Pangani.  It  is  tlie 
terminus  of  the  railroad  to  Korogwe.  It  has  a 
German  Government  School.  Population,  5,000. 
Station  of  the  German  East  Africa  Missionary 
Society  (1890),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  1  native  worker,  2  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  day  school,  and  66  professed 
Christians. 

TANGAIL:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
near  the  Madhupur  jungle  and  about  50  miles  N. 
W.  of  Dacca.  Station  of  the  Victorian  Baptist 
Foreign  Mission  Society  (1895),  with  (1900)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  missionaries, 
5  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  daj'  school, 
1  theological  class,  and  8  professed  Christians. 

TANGIER:  A  town  and  seaport  of  Morocco, 
situated  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Strait  of  Gib- 
raltar, 38  miles  southwest  of  the  Rock.  Popu- 
lation, 10,000.  Station  of  the  NAM  (1884), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his 
wife;  5  women  missionaries,  4  native  workers,  1 


T'ang-slian 

Taoism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


724 


place  of  worship,  3  day  schools,  2  hospitals,  and 
12  professed  Christians.  Station  also  of  the 
Mildmay  Mission  to  the  Jews  (1889),  with  (1900) 
2  missionaries  and  1  woman  missionary.  The 
BFBS  also  has  an  agent  and  book  depot  here, 
with  5  colporteurs. 

T'ANG-SHAN.     See  Tong-shan. 

TAWG-TAU:  A  town  on  the  island  of  He-tan, 
China,  situated  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  island. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1902),  with  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 7  native  workers,  men  and  women,  and 
4  schools. 

TANG-TAU.     See  Ang-tau. 

TANG-UN.     See  Tung-ngan-hsien. 

TA-NING-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Shansi,  China, 
situated  about  50  miles  W.  N.W.  of  Ping-yang-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1885),  with  (1900)  2  women 
missionaries,  5  native  workers,  2  outstations,  3 
places  of  worship,  1  boarding  school,  and  145 
professed  Christians. 

TANJORE:  a  town  in  Madras,  South  India, 
and  the  capital  of  Tanjore  District,  situated 
about  46  miles  W.  of  Negapatam.  It  contains 
a  pagoda  which  is  rated  by  some  as  the  finest  in 
India.  It  is  noted  for  artistic  manufactures  of 
repouss6  work,  copper  ware,  jewelrv  and  curious 
models  in  pith.  Population  (1901),  about  57,870. 
Station  of  the  SPG  (1825),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 1  woman  missionary,  24  native  workers,  5 
places  of  worship,  12  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  1  college,  and  883  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  534  are  communicants.  Also  station  of 
the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (1858),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife; 
2  women  missionaries,  38  native  workers,  13  out- 
stations, 12  places  of  worship,  11  day  schools, 
7  l:)oarding  schools,  and  1,029  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  559  are  communicants.  Germans  write 
the  name  Tandschaur. 

TAWNA.     See  New  Hebrides, 

TANTA:  A  town  and  railway  junction  in  lower 
Egypt,  situated  60  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Cairo. 
Population,  ,33,725.  Station  of  the  UP  (1893), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  women 
missionaries,  23  native  workers,  1  dispensary, 
1  hospital,  2  boarding  schools,  9  day  schools  and 
1  Sunday  school.  The  number  of  professing 
Christians  is  commonly  omitted  from  the  pub- 
lished station  reports  of  this  Society. 

TAOISM :  Laotze  the  philosopher  is  said  to 
have  been  born  in  the  year  604  B.  c,  tho  there  has 
been  some  question  whether  he  was  or  was  not  a 
real  character.  The  fact  that  the  names  of  his 
\'illage  and  county  and  state  or  province  seem  to 
be  allegorical,  like  the  names  in  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress, has  led  to  a  doubt  on  this  subject.  But 
some  allowance  should  be  made,  probably,  for  the 
tendency  among  the  Chinese  to  deal  in  allegorical 
names.  Even  tlie  shops  of  the  chief  cities  some- 
times bear  upon  their  signs  names  which  excite 
a  smile  in  a  foreigner. 

Laotze's  history,  all  things  considered,  seems 
real.  It  is  said  that  he  left  a  son,  who  won  dis- 
tinction in  public  office. 

Laotze's  birth  occurred  about  a  half  century 
before  the  birth  of  Confucius;  they  were  there- 
fore contemporaries.  Both  are  said  to  have 
been  the  sons  of  very  old  men. 

The  condition  of  China,  or  of  that  particular 
province  in  which  Laotze  lived,  corresponding  to 
a  portion  of  the  present  Shantung  province,  was 


greatly  disturbed  by  border  wars  and  intestine 
revolts  and  intrigues.  There  was  scarcely  a 
vestige  of  morality,  and  the  political  condition 
of  the  country  was  chaotic.  Both  Laotze  and 
Confucius  aimed  at  reform.  Both  appear  to 
have  been  disinterested  and  high-minded.  Both 
were  rather  impatient,  however,  with  the  stolidity 
and  degradation  of  the  people,  and  with  the  vices 
and  corruption  of  the  reigning  princes. 

Jjaotze  appears  to  have  held  for  a  time  an 
office  as  keeper  of  the  archives,  as  the  old  records 
express  it;  but  his  mind  drifted  toward  philosophy 
and  political  reform,  and  the  position  he  held  was 
far  from  meeting  his  ambition:  political  engage- 
ments were  irksome  to  him. 

Comparatively  little  is  known  of  this  truly 
profound  thinker  or  reformer.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  poor,  and  for  that  reason  perhaps 
the  more  keenly  conscious  that  his  nation  and 
his  age  failed  to  appreciate  him.  He  was,  in 
short,  too  morbid  in  spirit  to  make  the  best  use 
and  secure  the  greatest  results  of  his  rare  gifts. 
He  formed  no  school  of  followers,  and  wrote  no 
books.  On  the  contrary,  he  withdrew  himself 
from  men,  was  too  proud  to  teach  or  write,  dis- 
liked display  of  any  kind,  and  was  in  fact  a 
recluse. 

Confucius,  on  arriving  at  manhood  and  enter- 
ing upon  his  career,  sought  an  interview  with 
Laotze,  with  a  hope  of  profiting  by  his  great 
ability,  his  observation  and  his  experience.  He 
was  received  coldly,  however,  and  with  severe 
criticism  instead  of  sympathy.  Much  as  the 
two  men  were  alike,  they  had  wide  differences 
of  character,  and  these  were  increased  by  the 
fact  that  Laotze  was  already  an  old  man  when 
Confucius  appeared  before  him.  He  was  in  no 
attitude  of  mind  to  approve  or  even  tolerate  what 
he  considered  the  gushing  enthusiasm  and  crudity 
of  Confucius.  He  looked  upon  him  as  an  ambi- 
tious, blustering  agitator,  sounding  brass  and  a 
tinkling  cymbal,  and  he  predicted  the  failure  of 
his  pretentious  efforts  at  reform. 

Confucius,  on  the  other  hand,  was  astonished 
at  the  churlishness  of  the  old  reformer,  was  per- 
plexed at  his  involved  and  incomprehensible 
theories  and  mystical  speculations,  and  he  could 
only  compare  him  to  the  "incomprehensible 
dragon." 

At  last,  in  old  age,  Laotze's  despair  at  the 
condition  of  the  country  became  overmastering. 
He  had  dire  forebodings  of  calamity,  revolution, 
bloodshed,  political  chaos,  and  destruction.  He 
had  become  more  and  more  unpopular  as  he  had 
grown  more  and  more  reproachful  toward  his 
countrymen. 

He  dreaded  to  witness  the  ruin  which  he  was 
sure  was  coming  upon  the  land,  and  he  fled  into 
voluntary  exile,  passing  westward  through  the 
Hankow  Pass  into  the  province  of  Honan.  He 
was  induced  to  stop  for  a  time  with  the  keeper 
of  the  Pass,  and  instruct  him  in  the  principles  of 
his  philosophy.  This  gate-keeper  seems  to  have 
realized  that  no  ordinary  person  was  before  him, 
and  he  was  unwilling  that  a  man  who  was  too 
morbid  and  impracticable  to  write  any  book  or 
organize  any  class  of  disciples  should  pass  from 
the  knowledge  of  men  without  leaving  some  sub- 
stantial results  of  his  thinking.  He  appears  to 
have  taken  down  from  dictation  the  main  prin- 
ciples of  the  reformer's  teaching.  This  record  is 
known  as  the  Tao  Teh  King.  It  embraces  all 
that  is  known  of  Laotze's  doctrines. 


72B 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


T'aiigf-sliaA 
Taolam 


After  leaving  the  Hankow  Pass  for  the  west, 
Laotze  passed  into  obscurity,  and,  so  far  as  is 
known,  nothing  was  ever  heard  of  him  after- 
ward. Many  legends  sprang  up  around  the 
history  of  Laotze  like  the  young  shoots  at  the 
root  of  a  dying  tree.  One  of  these  relates  that 
upon  leaving  the  Pass  for  his  voluntary  exile  he 
parted  with  his  servant.  The  latter,  learning 
the  plan  of  his  master,  was  unwilling  to  accom- 
pany him,  and  in  the  settlement  charged  an 
exorbitant  sum  as  back  wages;  but  as  Laotze 
had  by  a  spell  kept  him  alive  far  beyond  his 
appointed  time,  he  withdrew  the  spell,  and  the 
servant  became  a  dry  skeleton.  However,  at 
the  request  of  the  gate-keeper,  who  interceded 
for  the  servant,  he  restored  him  to  life,  and  then 
found  him  reasonable  in  his  price.  Other  absurd 
legends  are  preserved,  one  of  which  is  that  Laotze 
was  miraculously  born  at  the  age  of  eighty,  and 
that  he  was  known  as  the  "Old  Boy."  He  was 
gray-haired  at  birth.  Certain  legends  similar  to 
those  which  are  related  of  Gautama,  and  which 
may  have  been  copied,  are  also  given — as  that 
Laotze  leaped  into  the  air  as  soon  as  he  was  born. 
Some  of  his  followers  have  claimed  that  he  was 
a  spiritual  being,  and  not  an  actual,  ordinary 
man. 

The  Character  of  Laotze:  Laying  aside  all 
legends,  and  contemplating  the  actual  life  of 
Laotze,  so  far  as  scanty  materials  enable  us  to 
do,  we  find  him  a  man  above  reproach  in  morals, 
tho  living  in  a  dissolute  age.  The  parallels 
between  his  severe  type  of  philosophy  and  that 
of  the  great  names  of  Greece  are  quite  remark- 
able. He  was  uncompromising  and  exacting 
in  his  standards  of  right  and  wrong,  morose  and 
despondent  in  temperament,  proud  and  imprac- 
ticable in  his  relations  to  men,  and  having  little 
tact  in  approaching  them.  He  was  too  much  of 
a  quietist  to  be  a  successful  reformer.  He  had 
been  soured  by  disappointment  and  he  died  in 
despair.  His  system  had  brought  him  no  com- 
fort, he  had  seen  no  improvement  in  the  con- 
dition of  society.  He  regarded  his  life  as  a  fail- 
ure, and  yet  he  seems  to  have  come  very  near  to 
the  truth  in  many  respects. 

He  approached  the  sublime  ethics  of  our 
Savior  more  nearly  than  any  of  his  contem- 
poraries, tho  they  were  among  the  greatest 
names  in  history,  for  Laotze,  Confucius,  Pythag- 
oras, Gautama,  and,  according  to  Monier 
Williams,  Zoroaster,  are  supposed  to  have  lived 
within  a  century  of  each  other.  Laotze  taught 
that  real  virtue  is  a  spiritual  and  interior  excel- 
lence, and  not  outward  doing  or  speaking.  In 
this  respect  he  fought  much  the  same  battle 
with  the  objectivity  of  mere  formal  and  immov- 
able customs  as  our  Savior  did  in  His  dealings 
with  the  Pharisees,  and,  like  Him,  he  urged  the 
law  that  is  written  within,  and  of  which  the  out- 
ward world  knows  nothing.  He  taught  also 
that  he  who  foregoes  and  yields  up  and  forbears 
is  the  one  who  really  finds  and  succeeds,  and  that 
he  who  humbles  himself  is  really  exalted. 

In  general,  like  our  Savior,  he  exalted  the 
quiet  and  passive  virtues,  and  he  taught  the 
duty  of  doing  good  even  to  those  who  injure  us. 
In  this  respect  he  stood  in  strong  contrast  with 
Confucius,  whose  position  more  nearly  resembled 
that  of  the  old  Jewish  dispensation,  which 
required  "an  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a 
tooth."  The  justice  of  that  dispensation  was  as 
high  as  Confucius  felt  called  to  go  in  his  dealings 
with  men;  no  one  placed  greater  emphasis  than 


he  upon  justice,  but  he  could  not  understand  the 
duty  of  doing  good  in  return  for  evil.  Some  terse 
expressions  from  the  lips  of  Laotze  show  the  deep 
subjectivity  of  character  as  he  conceived  it.  "It 
is  not  necessary,"  he  said,  "even  to  peep  through 
the  window  to  see  the  celestial  Tao."  At 
another  time  he  said,  "There  is  a  purity  and 
quietude  by  which  one  may  rule  the  world." 
Again,  "Lay  hold  of  Tao  (wisdom)  and  the  whole 
world  will  come  to  you."  Again,  "One  pure  act 
of  resignation  is  worth  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand  exercises  of  one's  own  will."  The 
moral  elevation  of  character  that  is  set  forth  in 
these  utterances  is  certainly  remarkable.  It  is 
worthy  of  a  place  in  Christian  ethics. 

There  were  some  points  in  which  Laotze 
seemed  to  be  at  one  with  Gautama.  He  taught 
that  even  in  this  life  it  is  possible  to  completely 
possess  Tao,  and  that  thus  the  creature  may 
become  one  with  the  creator  by  the  annihila- 
tion of  self,  it  being  understood  that  to  possess 
Tao  is  in  another  sense  to  be  possessed  by  Tao 
as  an  indwelling  principle  or  lite,  all  of  which 
implies  a  near  approach  to  the  Pantheistic 
absorption  in  deity  which  Hinduism  also  teaches. 
A  general  difference  between  the  spirit  of 
Laotze's  teaching  and  that  of  Confucius  may  be 
expressed  thus:  Confucius  would  say,  "Practise 
virtues,  and  call  them  by  their  right  names." 
Laotze  would  say,  "Practise  them  and  say 
nothing  about  it."  Altho  he  had  great  rever- 
ence for  the  ancients,  he  did  not  idolize  them  as 
did  Confucius,  and  as  he  has  led  the  Chinese 
nation  to  do. 

There  seems  to  have  been  in  the  interviews  of 
the  two  sages  some  little  controversy  on  this  point 
in  which  Laotze  told  Confucius,  by  way  of  sub- 
duing his  romantic  enthusiasm,  that  the 
"ancients  were  only  so  many  bundles  of  dry 
bones;  wisdom  did  not  die  with  them."  He 
illustrated  the  grace  of  quietness  and  the  safety 
which  it  secures  by  saying  that  "the  leopard  by 
his  brilliant  colors,  and  the  monkey  by  his 
frivolous  activity,  only  draw  the  arrows  of  the 
archer,"  and  to  the  loud-mouthed  reformer  he 
would  say,  "You  are  like  a  man  who  beats  a  drum 
while  hunting  for  a  truant  sheep." 

One  point  in  which  Laotze  was  far  in  advance 
of  his  age,  and  abreast  with  some  of  the  best 
political  thinking  of  whatever  age,  was  his 
maintenance  of  the  theory  that  kings  exist  for 
the  good  of  the  people  and  not  for  their  own  sel- 
fish ends,  which  ends  the  people,  like  so  many 
dumb  beasts,  are  designed  to  subserve.  "Kings, 
according  to  Laotze,  "should  rule  so  quietly, 
and  hold  the  reins  so  lightly,  that  the  people 
may  forget  them  as  kings,  and  only  think  of 
them  as  superiors."  There  should  in  all  gov- 
ernment, as  he  insisted,  be  a  minimum,  and  not 
a  maxirpum,  of  government.  Surely  these  prac- 
tical and  lofty  political  principles  stamped  Laotze 
as  a  man  of  prophetic  genius. 

Confucius  said  much  more  than  he  concern- 
ing government:  more,  certainly,  in  the  number 
of  details;  but  no  counsels  of  his  are  so  laden 
with  sublime  principles  as  those  of  his  rival,  and 
none  of  his  teachings  are  more  in  accord  with  the 
truth. 

The  Philosophy  of  Laotze:  It  is  as  a  philoso- 
pher that  Laotze  most  inspires  our  respect  and 
honor.  Tao,  which  was  his  ideal  of  the  all-cc  m- 
prehending  and  eternal  essence  of  things,  means 
Reason,  as  nearly  as  it  can  be  translated;  but  it 
means  more  than  that  word  represents  to  us.     It 


Taoism 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


728 


is  the  Infinite  Reason,  in  such  a  sense  that  it 
embraces  all  excellence  and  glory;  it  corresponds 
very  nearly  to  the  word  Wisdom  as  it  is  used  in 
the  Book  of  Job  and  the  Ecclesiastes.  Tao  was 
deified  by  Laotze,  tho  in  no  superstitious  sense; 
and  yet  it  was  impersonal;  it  was  apprehended  by 
him  in  a  pantheistic  sense.  Thus  he  says:  "All 
things  originate  with  Tao,  conform  to  Tao,  and 
return  to  Tao." 

Tao  exerts  its  influence  in  a  very  quiet  manner; 
its  influence  is  still  and  void,  and  yet  it  "encircles 
everj'thing  and  is  not  endangered;"  it  is  ever 
inactive,  and  j'et  leaves  nothing  undone;  name- 
less, it  is  the  origin  of  heaven  and  of  earth.  It  is 
not  strange,  perhaps,  that  with  so  vague  a  concep- 
tion of  the  supreme  force  in  the  world  the  Chinese 
mind  should  have  lapsed  into  a  mere  general 
conception  of  Deity,  and  that  the  prayers  of  the 
emperors  have  for  ages  been  addressed  to 
heaven. 

Professor  Douglas,  of  the  London  University, 
has  summarized  the  elements  of  Tao  as  follows: 
(1)  "It  is  the  Absolute,  the  Totality  of  Being  and 
Tilings.  (2)  The  Phenomenal  world  and  its 
order.  (3)  The  ethical  nature  of  the  good 
man,  and  the  principle  of  his  action."  One  is 
reminded  of  various  philosophic  schools  of 
ancient  and  modern  times.  The  "totality  of 
being  and  things"  is  about  equivalent  to  the 
pantheistic  conception  of  the  Indian  Vedanta.  It 
does  not  differ  materially  from  the  "absolute 
substance  of"  Spinosa  or  the  "absolute  intelli- 
gence" of  Hegel.  It  must  be  confessed  that 
Laotze  was  a  profound  philosopher.  He  has 
rarely  been  excelled  in  the  history  of  philosophy, 
for  in  view  of  his  comparatively  isolated  position 
we  must  regard  him  as  eminently  original.  His 
system  was  wholly  his  own;  he  was  the  father  of 
Chinese  philosophy.  In  profundity  of  thought 
he  far  exceeded  Confucius,  tho  he  was  less  prac- 
tical. Confucius  was  not  a  philosopher  in  the 
strictest  sense;  he  was  only  a  skilful  and  emi- 
nently practical  compiler  of  ancient  wisdom. 
He  did  not  claim  to  be  more  than  this,  and  with 
laudable  modesty  he  spoke  of  himself  as  only  an 
editor.  But  the  Tao  Teh  King  of  Laotze  came 
from  his  own  brain. 

There  is  a  seeming  contradiction  in  the  teach- 
ings of  Laotze  in  reference  to  the  past.  While 
Confucius  carried  his  reverence  for  ancient 
authorities  to  an  extreme  which  scarcely  seemed 
to  admit  the  possibility  of  anything  new  in  the 
■world,  Laotze  took  issue  with  him  sharply,  and 
even  poured  a  degree  of  contempt  upon  his 
extreme  reverence.  At  the  same  time,  tho  he 
admitted  no  age  of  antiquity  as  necessarily 
authoritative,  he  looked  back,  in  a  general  way, 
to  a  golden  age  of  simplicity  and  virtue  which 
had  passed  away,  and  his  whole  idea  was  to 
return  from  the  complex  wisdom  and  civiliza- 
tion which  he  regarded  as  only  a  curse,  to  the 
better  days  when  men  had  few  wants  and  lived 
quietly. 

He  was  in  accord  with  Confucius  on  one  point, 
namely,  the  uprightness  and  dignity  of  man's 
original  nature.  They  recognized  no  doctrine 
of  human  apostasy  which  assumed  hereditary 
form.  In  logical  consistency  they  both  main- 
tained that  every  man  is  born  without  evil  bias, 
and  is  sound  at  the  core.  The  continued  influ- 
ences of  demoralizing  example  were  supposed 
to  account  for  the  evils  which  these  great  sages 
found  in  the  world  about  them. 

Like  the  ancient  Druids,  Laotze  propounded 


his  great  principles  of  life  in  triads,  and  the 
three  precious  virtues  which  he  cherished  were 
compassion,  economy  and  humility,  all  of  a 
quiet  type.  He  did  not  believe  in  intellectual 
brilliancy  of  any  kind,  much  less  in  any  show 
and  pomp  of  conscious  power,  and  he  had  little 
to  say  of  prowess;  his  ideals  were  not  the  great 
and  ambitious  and  mighty,  as  men  are  reckoned 
to  be  mighty,  but  those,  rather,  who  represented 
the  passive  virtues,  the  gentle  and  retiring  graces 
of  human  life. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  Laotze's 
idea  of  God.  Professor  Douglas  thinks  that  he 
had  no  conception  of  a  personal  divine  being, 
at  least  that  he  recognized  no  such  being;  but 
on  the  other  hand,  Professor  Legge  of  Oxford 
seems  confident  that  the  supreme  "heaven"  or 
God  in  heaven  was  involved  in  his  idea  of  Tao. 
He  maintains  that  Laotze  often  spoke  of  heaven 
in  a  non-material  sense,  and  that  in  one  instance 
he  calls  the  name  of  God  itself. 

One  thing  is  certain:  whether  Laotze  regarded 
Tao  as  personal  or  not,  he  assigned  to  it  provi- 
dential oversight  and  care  and  all  forms  of 
beneficent  interest.  Says  Professor  Legge:  "Tao 
does  more  than  create.  It  watches  over  its  off- 
spring with  parental  interest.  It  enters  into  the 
life  of  every  living  thing.  It  produces,  nour- 
ishes, feeds,  etc." 

Laotze's  doctrine  of  creation  seems  a  little 
vague.  He  says:  "That  which  is  nameless  is 
the  beginning  of  heaven  and  earth.  Tao  pro- 
duced One,  the  first  great  cause;  One  produced 
Two,  the  male  and  female  principles  of  nature; 
Two  produced  Three,  and  Three  produced  all 
things,  beginning  from  heaven  and  earth." 
This  strikingly  resembles  the  Shinto  notion  of 
the  origin  of  all  things,  according  to  which  there 
is  one  absolute  tho  unknown  being,  from  whom 
emanated  two,  male  and  female,  and  from  these 
the  world  of  beings  was  produced.  Both  Con- 
fucius and  Laotze  speak  of  heaven  both  as 
material  and  as  personified. 

According  to  Professor  Douglas,  Laotze  would 
agree  with  the  Darwinians  as  to  the  creative 
indifference  of  the  Deity  or  deified  influence 
which  is  characterized  as  heaven.  "It  has," 
he  says,  "no  special  love,  but  regards  all  existing 
beings  as  'grass  dogs'  made  for  sacrificial  pur- 
poses." "Yet,"  he  adds,  "it  is  great,  and  com- 
passionate, and  is  ever  ready  to  become  the 
Savior  of  men." 

If  the  question  whether  Laotze  was  really 
religious  in  his  thought  were  dependent  on  such 
statements  as  this,  we  should  be  compelled  to 
answer  in  the  affirmative,  for  the  being  or  power 
which  is  regarded  as  "great  and  compassionate 
and  ever  ready  to  become  the  Savior  of  men"  is 
an  object  of  religious  contemplation,  surely. 

As  to  the  physical  laws  of  the  world,  Laotze 
maintained  that  the  earth  is  held  together,  not  by 
gravitation,  but  by  Tao.  In  a  sense  this  was 
true,  supposing  Tao  to  represent  the  infinite 
force,  for  gravitation  is  but  a  second  cause. 
The  expression  "the  earth  is  held  together  by 
Tao"  is  nearly  equivalent  to  the  declaration 
that  "God  holdeth  the  earth  in  His  right  hand." 
Something  like  the  Buddhist  idea  of  an  eternal 
round  of  life  and  death  seems  to  be  intended  by 
Laotze's  doctrine  that  existence  and  non-exist- 
ence constantly  originate  each  other. 

We  have  alluded  to  some  similarities  between 
the  teachings  of  Laotze  and  those  of  Christ, 
especially    in    the    gentle    virtues    of    kindness, 


7S7 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Taoism 


humility,  forbearance,  etc.  The  differences, 
however,  wliich  appear  are  more  striking  than 
tlie  resemblances. 

Christ  showed  a  balance  of  truth.  He  taught 
the  passive  virtues,  but  also  the  active  ones, 
which  Laotze  did  not.  He  commended  modesty 
and  secrecy  in  prayer,  and  yet  the  duty  of  active 
influence.  "Let  your  liglit  so  shine,"  etc. 
This  was  not  for  self,  but  for  others.  Confucian- 
ism was  active,  Taoism  passive,  Cliristianity  was 
both.  The  fatal  defect  in  Taoism  was  its  lack 
of  divine  recognition  and  divine  power.  Its 
ethics  were  higli,  but  it  had  no  love  for  God,  and 
therefore  none  for  man. 

The  Tao  Teh  King:  This  is  a  short  treatise, 
already  referred  to,  embracing  the  sayings  of 
Laotze  which  were  recorded  by  the  keeper  of 
tlie  Hankow  Pass  as  the  great  teacher  was  about 
to  go  into  exile.  It  is  very  brief,  only  about  the 
length  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  In  its  gene- 
ral character  it  is  exceedingly  intricate,  and  often 
obscure.  The  best  scholars  feel  little  confidence 
in  their  interpretations  of  it.  Here  is  a  specimen  : 
"There  was  something  chaotic  and  complete 
before  the  birth  of  heaven  and  earth.  How  still 
it  was  and  formless,  standing  alone  and  under- 
going no  change,  proceeding  everywhere,  and  in 
no  danger  of  being  exhausted.  It  ma^  be 
regarded  as  the  mother  of  all  things."  In  its 
real  spirit  and  meaning  this  passage  corresponds 
remarkably  with  one  found  in  the  Rig  Veda,  in 
which  the  original  chaos  is  described  as  being 
brooded  over  by  the  infinite  Brahm,  the  "Only 
Existing  One,"  breatliing  quietly.  The  vague- 
ness of  the  philosopher's  conception  is  well  set 
forth  in  this  passage:  "I  do  not  know  the  name, 
but  designate  it  tlie  Tao  (the  way)  and  forcing 
myself  to  frame  a  name  for  it,  I  call  it  the  Great. 
Great,  it  passes  on  in  constant  flux;  so  passing  on 
it  becomes  remote;  when  remote  it  comes  back." 

Modern  Taoism:  There  could  hardly  be  a 
stronger  contrast  than  that  which  is  presented 
between  the  ancient  and  the  modern  Taoism. 
Laotze  was  virtually  rationalistic,  but  the  present 
system  is  the  most  irrational  of  the  great  existing 
religions;  it  is  a  mass  of  superstitions  of  the  lowest 
type.  It  is  onlv  the  name  of  Taoism  applied  to  a 
mixture  of  Buddhism  and  the  ancient  ancestor- 
worship  and  other  superstitions  of  China. 
Speculation  seems  to  have  spent  itself  in  the  few 
centuries  which  followed  tlie  life  of  Laotze. 
Having  first  run  wild  in  theories,  it  degenerated 
into  low  superstitions.  The  principle  in  Laotze's 
teachings  which  seems  to  have  suggested  the 
prevalence  of  spirits  and  ghosts  in  all  nature, 
animate  and  inanimate,  was  his  declaration  that 
the  presence  of  Tao  is  universal.  He  gave  it  a 
pantheistic  omnipresence  and  indwelling  in  all 
beings  and  things.  He  little  thought,  probably, 
that  this  would  lead  to  the  notion  that  every 
object  in  nature  is  haunted,  and  thus  cause  the 
land  to  swarm  with  polytheism.  A  Taoist  is 
afraid  of  his  shadow.  In  the  woods  or  in  dark 
ravines  he  imagines  he  is  about  to  be  pounced 
upon  by  sprites  or  demons.  The  trees  have 
souls,  the  very  air  is  laden  with  a  mysterious 
influence.  Telegraph  wires  cannot  pass  through 
the  open  spaces  nor  steeples  be  reared  without 
disturbing  "fung-shui,"  nor  can  the  earth  be 
excavated  for  the  purpose  of  mining  or  the  intro- 
duction of  any  modern  improvement  without 
great  risk  that' this  omnipresent  something  shall 
be  disturbed. 

Taoism  continued  to  be  a  philosophy  for  some 


time  after  the  death  of  Laotze,  but  it  was  a 
changed  and  ever-varying  series  of  speculations. 
In  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Legge,  it  did  not  become  a 
religion,  strictly  speaking,  until  after  the  intro- 
duction of  Buddhism  in  the  1st  century.  It  had 
a  priesthood  and  abundant  superstitions,  but 
it  was  sorely  in  need  of  being  reenforced  by  some- 
tliing  higlier.  So  far  as  history  informs  us,  no 
successor  of  Laotze  seemed  to  correctly  interpret 
or  propagate  his  teachings.  His  standard  was 
too  high.  Ills  theories  were  above  the  reach  of  his 
successors,  his  ethics  and  his  transcendentalism 
alike  failed  to  l^e  appreciated.  Professor  Douglas 
has  a  very  different  estimate  of  the  followers  of 
Laotze  from  that  ascribed  to  the  immediate  suc- 
cessors of  Confucius.  While  the  latter  drew 
multitudes  of  tlie  best  men  of  the  age  about  him, 
Laotze's  camp  was  a  Cave  of  Adullam  to  which 
the  discontented  and  erratic  resorted.  His 
teachings,  therefore,  were  left  in  the  worst  of 
hands. 

Among  the  most  influential  Taoists  in  the 
next  generation  was  Leitsze,  who  argued  Laotze's 
quietism  into  a  general  Epicurean  license.  "Lay 
aside  aspiration,  and  live  for  to-day;  live  in  the 
freedom  of  the  beast,"  would  express  his  general 
view.  Laotze  had  said:  "Lay  aside  pomp  and 
circumstance;  live  simply  and  with  little  pre- 
tense." Leitsze  carried  the  idea  to  extremes. 
He  also  gave  a  licentious  interpretation  to  the 
pantheism  of  Laotze,  assuming  that  "if  Deity 
lives  and  acts  in  us,  then  we  are  Deity,  and  are 
above  restraint;  we  are  as  free  as  the  gods." 

The  development  of  this  extreme  logical 
sequence  of  pantheism  has  not  been  confined  to 
Taoists  or  to  any  particular  country.  The 
Upanishad  pantheism  of  the  Hindus  led.  to  the 
same  results  by  the  same  logical  process;  men 
came  to  regard  the  soul  as  beyond  the  reach  of 
sin  or  stain.  Even  in  the  extreme  fanaticism 
which  sometimes  attaches  to  Christian  doctrine, 
notions  of  liberty  and  perfection  lead  to  the 
abandonment  of  law,  and  to  general  laxity  of  life. 

Leitsze  attached  great  importance  to  dreams. 
They  constituted  one  mode  of  his  teaching.  He 
represented  the  emperor  Hwangte  as  dreaming 
that  he  was  in  a  world  where  men  lived  in  the 
freedom  of  perfect  indifference;  nothing  troubled 
them.  These  wonders  led  to  the  art  of  conjuring, 
and  Leitsze  wrung  from  Yin  He,  the  Hankow 
gate-keeper,  his  assent  to  these  arts,  and  his 
endorsement  of  them  on  the  alleged  authority 
of  Laotze.  In  all  this  Leitsze  wholly  misrepre- 
sented the  great  philosopher  and  his  principles. 
As  a  result  of  these  frauds  there  swept  in  that 
flood-tide  of  juggleries  which  swamped  the  prin- 
ciples of  Taoism,  and  opened  the  way  for  the  old 
national  superstitions. 

Leitsze  did  not  fail  to  encounter  the  r'sing  Con- 
fucianism. He  tried  the  old  tactics  of  his  master 
Laotze;  he  endeavored  to  put  down  Confucianism 
with  ridicule.  He  had  no  better  weapons  than 
those  of  borrowed  sarcasm.  As  it  seemed  neces- 
sary to  his  prestige  that  he  assume  the  role  of  a 
philosopher,  he  developed  a  theory  of  the  universe, 
but  it  was  puerile  and  failed  to  win  respect.  His 
favorite  method  of  argument  was  that  of  dialogue, 
in  which  his  view  was  always  made  to  triumph. 
He  was  forever  fighting  men  of  straw  of  his  own 
manufacture.  In  one  of  these  the  superior  wis- 
dom of  pursuing  sensual  enjoyments  while  one 
can  is  shown  to  the  best  advantage.  Yet  this 
man,  by  his  intellect  and  vigor,  won  great  influ- 
ence for  a  time. 


Taoism 
Tartar 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


738 


He  was  followed  by  Chwangtze.  He  was 
inclined  to  return  from  Leitsze  to  a  position  more 
like  that  of  Laotze.  He  discoursed  on  the  vanity 
of  life,  and  bitterly  opposed  the  superfluous 
homilies  and  showy  benevolences  of  Confucian- 
ism. "Sages,"  he  said,  "turn  round  and  round 
to  be  benevolent  and  kick  and  struggle  to 
become  rigliteous,  and  the  people  suspect  their 
very  earnestness.  They  bow  and  distort  them- 
selves in  their  endeavors  to  act  with  propriety, 
and  tlie  empire  begins  to  break  up."  The  satire 
which  underlies  all  tliis  is  keen,  and  has  a  meas- 
ure of  trutli. 

Tliere  are  some  resemblances  between  the 
theories  of  Chwangtze  and  the  Vedanta  philoso- 
phy of  India.  He  treated  wakeful  and  con- 
scious life  as  an  illusion,  and  doubted  the  sub- 
stantial reality  of  all  things.  And  to  this  day 
there  is  a  belief  among  Taoists  tliat  there  is  an 
inner  and  invisible  soul  in  all  objects;  the  unseen 
appears  to  be  quite  as  real  as  the  visible.  As  an 
illustration  of  this  doubt  as  between  the  tangible 
and  tlie  invisible,  he  related  a  dream  in  which  he 
seemed  to  be  a  butterfly,  flitting  about  in  tlie  air, 
and  lie  felt  no  little  surprise  on  waking  to  find 
that  he  was  no  butterfly,  but  Chwangtze.  "But 
then,"  he  says,  "the  thought  came  to  me,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  that  really  a  dream,  or  am  I  now 
dreaming  that  I  am  Chwangtze  and  not  a  butter- 
fly?" 

In  the  3d  century  before  Christ,  Taoism  had 
gained  such  influence  that  the  reigning  emperor 
ordered  a  general  conflagration  of  all  sacred 
books  except  those  of  the  Taoists,  but  the  doe- 
trine  as  then  held  was  not  that  of  Laotze.  It 
had  undergone  successive  changes  until  it  had 
become  a  system  of  childish  superstitions.  It 
was  believed  that  immortality  might  be  gained 
by  cliarms  and  spells.  The  emperor  Chwangtze 
believed  this,  and  also  that  in  the  western  seas 
there  were  happy  isles  where  genii  dispensed  the 
elixir  of  immortality  to  all  who  came.  Tliis 
emperor  sent  expeditions  to  these  imaginary  isles 
to  bring  bade  tlie  elixir.  The  period  of  his  reign 
was  a  great  harvest-time  for  all  Taoistic  frauds. 
The  priests  claimed  the  most  astonishing  of  occult 
arts. 

Taoism  was  now  neither  a  philosophy  nor  a 
religion;  it  was  a  system  of  jugglery.  Under  the 
reign  of  tlie  emperor  Wu  of  the  Han  dynasty, 
who  also  became  an  implicit  believer,  the  system 
still  flourished,  even  down  to  about  100  b.  c.  This 
emperor  also  sent  expeditions  to  the  happy 
islands;  alchemy  and  the  quest  for  the  elixir  of 
life  were  at  their  height.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  in  Europe,  also,  similar  fanaticisms  have  at 
various  times  been  rife;  but  the  wildest  of  them 
never  equaled  that  of  the  Taoists  of  China  in  the 
reign  of  Wu.  From  the  emperor  down,  all  classes 
were  seeking  this  elixir.  Business  of  every  kind 
was  for  a  time  neglected  and  the  fields  were 
unfilled.  Only  the  astrologists  and  priests  were 
thrifty.  Tlie  emperor  lavished  fortunes  on  tlieir 
wild  schemes. 

Under  these  fanatical  emperors  Confucianism 
was  bitterly  persecuted.  Many  distinguished 
Confucian  philosophers  were  burned  alive,  and 
all  their  books  were  burned.  But  at  the  death  of 
Wu  a  great  reaction  toolc  place  and  Confucianism 
was  revived  and  reinstated. 

In  the  1st  century  the  first  high-priest  or  pope 
of  the  Taoists  was  appointed,  and  the  office  has 
descended  in  his  clan  to  this  day.      He  is  elected 


by  the  priests  of  the  clan;  he  is  not  bound  by 
rules  of  celibacy  or  any  particularly  ascetic 
requirements. 

Taoism  became  a  religion,  strictly  speaking, 
soon  after  the  advent  of  the  Buddhists,  some- 
where about  the  close  of  the  1st  century.  Like 
Buddhism,  it  had  great  powers  of  absorption, 
and  from  having  been  at  first  a  philosophy  and 
then  a  system  of  jugglery  it  now  borrowed  cer- 
tain religious  elements  from  Buddhism.  The  two 
systems,  both  of  which  were  rather  absorbent 
than  catholic  and  charitable,  entered  into  kindly 
relations  with  each  other.  They  at  length  came 
to  have  so  much  in  common  that  their  priests 
united  in  the  same  services,  and  it  is  stated  by 
Prof.  Legge  that  an  emperor  of  the  Chi  dynasty 
strove  to  unite  them  by  ordering  Taoist  priests 
to  adopt  the  practise  and  the  habit  of  the  Bud- 
dhists. Some  were  put  to  death  for  refusing  to 
conform.  Taoists  have  persistently  refused  to 
submit  to  the  full  ritual  of  Buddhism,  and  their 
monks  have  withstood  the  requirement  of  celi- 
bacy. Low  and  degraded  as  Taoism  had  long 
been,  it  never  sank  into  idol-worship  until  it 
came  into  contact  with  Buddhism.  Neither  had 
the  followers  of  Confucius  or  Laotze  ever  wor- 
shiped an  image  until  tlie  custom  was  borrowed 
from  the  Buddhists.  Now  the  temples  of  Tao- 
ists vie  with  those  of  the  Buddhists  in  this 
respect. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  effects  of  Buddhism 
upon  the  Taoist  system  is  seen  in  the  adoption 
by  the  latter  of  a  trinity.  Buddhism  had 
images  in  its  temples  representing  Buddha,  the 
Law  and  the  Sangha,  tho  at  a  later  day  they  cams 
to  be  regarded  as  representing  Buddha  past, 
present  and  to  come.  At  length  there  appeared 
in  tlie  Taoist  temples  a  trinity  of  colossal  images, 
representing  the  Perfect  Holy  One,  the  Higliest 
Holy  One,  and  the  Greatest  Holy  One.  Monas- 
teries and  nunneries  were  unknown  among  the 
Taoists  until  after  the  introduction  of  Buddhism; 
the  doctrine  of  transmigration  was  also  derived 
from  the  same  source.  The  Buddhist  notion 
that  women  distinguished  for  virtue  and  charac- 
ter shall  be  rewarded  at  the  next  birth  by  being 
born  as  men,  was  also  adopted  by  Taoists. 

In  one  view  a  doctrine  of  esohatologj^  seems 
out  of  place  in  Taoism,  since  it  maintams  that 
rewards  and  punishments  are  received  in  the 
present  life.  For  example:  the  so-called  "Book 
of  Rewards"  makes  punishments  consist  almost 
invariably  in  shortening  the  period  of  the  present 
life;  immortality  is  spoken  of,  but  it  is  something 
treated  as  of  little  account.  Nevertheless,  in  each 
provincial  temple  of  the  Taoists  may  be  seen 
what  is  called  a  Chamber  of  Horrors — a  Purga- 
tory. This,  doubtless,  is  an  esoteric  conception, 
and  is  borrowed  from  Buddhism. 

The  real  spirit  of  Taoist  superstition  is  seen  in 
the  writings  of  an  old  author  of  the  4th  century 
named  Ko  Hung.  He  says  that  "mountains  are 
inhabited  by  evil  spirits  who  are  more  or  less 

Powerful,  according  to  the  size  of  the  mountain, 
f  a  traveler  has  no  protection  he  will  fall  into 
some  calam-ity.  He  will  see  trees  move,  tho  not 
by  the  wind,  and  stones  will  fall  from  impending 
rocks  without  any  apparent  cause;  he  will  be 
attacked  by  sickness  or  pierced  by  thorns,"  etc. 
A  mirror  should  be  carried,  since  the  mischievous 
elves  are  afraid  to  approach  him  thus  equipped, 
lest  their  true  character  should  be  discovered. 
Taoism    has    experienced    great    vicissitudes. 


789 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Taulsm 
Tartar 


During  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Whan,  147-165, 
great  favor  was  shown  to  this  system,  and  the 
custom  of  oSering  imperial  sacrifices  to  Laotze 
at  Kocheen,  his  birtliplace,  was  begun.  Many 
attempts  were  made  to  save  life  by  cliarms,  and 
in  order  to  increase  their  power,  legends  borrowed 
from  Buddliism  were  assigned  to  Laotze. 
Among  otlier  things  it  was  claimed  that  after  he 
left  tlie  Hanlsow  Pass  he  spent  three  niglits  under 
a  mulberry  tree  under  temptation  of  the  Evil 
One;  lovely  women,  also,  were  his  tempters. 

The  system  again  sank  into  neglect  in  the  reign 
of  Taikeen,  569-583.  Orders  were  issued  against 
both  Taoist  and  Buddhist  monasteries,  and  no 
doctrine  could  be  taught  but  Confucianism. 
Again,  under  the  Wei  dynasty.  Buddhism  and 
Taoism  were  reinstated.  In  the  reign  of  Tai 
Wute  there  was  a  return  to  the  notion  of  an  elixir 
of  life,  and  the  emperor  became  a  Taoist.  In 
this  reign  Buddhist  asceticism  began  to  be  copied 
by  Taoists.  The  emperor  Tai  Ho,  477-500,  built 
temples  and  monasteries  for  this  sect. 

The  emperor  Wu,  566-578,  abolished  Bud- 
dhism and  Taoism  because  their  jealousies  and 
strifes  created  disturbance,  but  Teing,  580-591, 
reinstated  the  two  religions  on  equal  grade. 
Under  the  Tang  dynasty  Taoism  again  held  for  a 
century  the  ascendancy  over  Buddhism,  and 
Laotze  was  canonized.  In  625-627,  the  Taoists, 
having  become  insolent,  were  banished  to  the 
provinces  of  Kwang-tung  and  Kwangsi,  but  under 
Hwuy  Chang  they  were  reinstated,  and  Buddhism 
was  stigmatized  officially  as  a  foreign  religion. 
Under  the  Sung  dynasty,  960-976,  Taoist  priests 
were  forbidden  to  marry.  Hweitsung  ordered 
the  Buddhist  priests  to  adopt  Taoist  names  for 
their  orders.  The  Manchu  dynasty,  following 
next  in  order,  persecuted  the  Taoists,  but  Jenghis 
Khan  promoted  them;  also  Kublai  Khan,  in  the 
13th  century.  Hung  Che,  1488-1506,  was  very 
hostile.  The  present  Manchu  dynasty  has  also 
been  hostile,  and  has  passed  various  edicts 
against  Taoist  jugglery. 

The  sacred  book  of  Taoism,  known  as  the 
"Book  of  Rewards,"  inculcates  ethics  which  are 
,  on  the  whole  commendable.  The  precepts  are 
generally  in  negative  form,  but  notwithstanding 
the  morality  of  the  "Book  of  Rewards,"  the 
moral  grade  of  modern  Taoism  is  extremely  low. 

Among  the  virtual  deities  at  the  present  time 
are,  first  of  all,  Laotze,  who  is  supremely  rever- 
enced. But  a  god  of  providence  having  general 
charge  of  human  affairs  is  found  to  be  necessary, 
and,  accordingly,  Yunwang  Shangti,  or  the 
Precious  Imperial  God,  is  assigned  to  that  place. 
The  constellation  of  the  Great  Bear  is  also  wor- 
shiped as  a  representative  of  the  sidereal  powers ; 
also  various  forces  of  nature,  as  the  Mother  of 
Lightning,  the  Spirit  of  the  Sea,  the  Lord  of  the 
Tides,  etc.  The  dragon  is  a  great  object  of  wor- 
ship with  Taoists.  His  images  are  everywhere; 
serpents  are  his  living  representatives.  Even 
Li  Hung  Chang,  great  statesman  as  he  was,  wor- 
shiped a  serpent  which  crept  into  a  temple  in 
Tientsin  in  time  of  a  flood  in  1874.  Chang  Chun, 
a  disembodied  sage  of  the  past,  is  now  worshiped 
as  a  god  of  literature;  a  great  hero  of  the  past  is 
worshiped  as  the  god  of  war,  and  a  third  deity  is 
the  god  of  medicine.  But  altogether  the  most 
popular  is  Tsaichin,  the  god  of  wealth.  Every 
store  and  shop  has  a  little  altar  for  burning 
incense  to  him.  This  suits  the  average  Chinaman 
better  than  the  transcendentalism  of  Laotze,  or 
the  lofty  ethics  of  Confucius,  or  the  nirvana  of 


Buddhism.  The  boasted  millions  of  Buddhists 
in  China  all  believe  supremely  in  Tsaichin. 

The  polytheism  of  China  is  still  further  rami- 
fied under  the  influence  of  Taoism,  embracing 
gods  of  the  sea,  of  the  village,  of  the  hearth,  of 
the  kitchen,  and  demigods  to  represent  all  vir- 
tues; in  other  words,  deified  men,  heroes,  schol- 
ars, etc. 

A  remarlcable  influence  has  been  produced  by 
these  superstitions  upon  the  Buddhism  of  China, 
as  shown  in  the  fact  that  the  Buddhist  temples 
are  full  of  the  same  images  of  ideals,  of  virtues, 
and  of  heroic  men.  In  the  great  Buddhist  temple 
of  Honan  in  Canton  there  are  hundreds  of  full- 
sized  figures  of  deified  men. 

The  facts  of  Taoism  which  press  most  weightily 
upon  the  missionary  are:  (a)  Its  vague  ideas  of  a 
Supreme  God,  which  leave  the  people  practically 
without  such  a  conception;  (6)  Its  substitution 
for  God  of  a  multitude  of  spirits  of  various  quali- 
ties and  purposes,  and  endowed  with  Icnowledge, 
activity  and  power;  (c)  The  absence  of  the  idea 
of  Divine  love  in  any  form  or  of  human  love  to 
the  Creator  and  Preserver,  and  the  certainty 
which  it  cultivates  that  the  spirits  to  whom  the 
worshiper  loolcs  are  without  sympathy  even  wlien 
they  are  not  malicious  toward  man;  (d)  The  con- 
centration of  attention  upon  devices  for  thwarting 
or  placating  the  spirits  so  as  to  make  ingenuity 
more  important  than  conduct;  (e)  The  filling  the 
future  life  with  an  anarchy  of  spirits  that  repels 
as  much  as  death  itself.  With  all  this  there  is  an 
occasional  help  to  moral  excellence  in  men  in  the 
wise  saws  that  contain  principles  of  right 
intended  for  immediate  use. 

Chalmers  C-J.),  The  Speculuiions  of  the  Old  Philosopher, 
Laotze,  London,  1868;  Douglas  (R.  K.),  Confucianism  and 
Taoism,  New  York,  1879;  Legge  (J.),  Religions  of  China, 
New  York,  1881. 

TARKASTAD:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  Tarka  district,  Kaffraria, 
about  40  miles  W.  of  Queenstown.  Station  of 
the  UFS  (1869),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  3  outstations,  1  day  school,  1  Sunday  school, 
and  96  professed  Christians. 

TARN  TARAN:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
situated  about  15  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Amritsar.  It 
is  a  very  sacred  place  to  the  Sikhs  and  a  holy  fair 
is  held  there  every  month.  Population,  6,000. 
It  was  terribly  visited  by  the  plague  in  1902. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1885),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  9  native  workers,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, and  521  professed  Christians,  of  whom  44 
are  communicants.  Station  also  of  the  CEZ 
(1888),  with  (1903)  5  women  missionaries,  12 
native  workers,  3  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
1  dispensary  and  1  hospital. 

TARPUM  BAY:  A  station  of  the  WMS,  on 
Eleuthera  Island,  Bahamas,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 15  native  workers,  3  Sunday  schools,  3 
places  of  worship,  and  539  professed  Christians. 

TARSUS :  A  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  in 
the  province  of  Adana,  20  miles  from  Mersine. 
The  birthplace  of  the  apostle  Paul.  Population, 
Turks,  Armenians  and  Nusairiyeh.  In  1889  an 
institution  called  St.  Paul's  Institute  was  founded 
here  with  the  financial  support  of  Mr.  Elliott  P. 
Shepard  of  New  York,  and  has  done  good  work  in 
educating  young  men  for  business  and  for  serv- 
ice as  teachers,  etc.  The  institute  is  now  under 
care  of  the  ABCFM,  and  serves  as  a  preparatory 
school  for  the  Central  Turkey  College  at  Aintab. 

TARTAR:  A  corruption  of  the  name  Tjitar,  a 


Tasik  Malajn 
Te-iig-aii-fn 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


730 


"Word  derived,  according  to  some,  from  the  Mongol 
tribal  name,  Ta-ta.  Turks  accept  this  deriva- 
tion, merely  adding  that  the  tribal  name  should 
be  followed  by  ar  or  er  (man)  so  as  to  make  full 
sense.  The  word  Ta-ta-ar  (man  of  the  Ta-ta 
tribe)  would  thus  be  the  identical  word  now  in 
use.  The  form  Tartar  is  a  play  on  words  intro- 
duced by  those  sufferers  of  the  Middle  Ages  who 
could  imagine  no  source  but  Hell  or  Tartarus 
for  the  hordes  who  stripped  them.  The  term 
has  been  loosely  applied  to  any  inhabitants  of 
Central  Asia,  and  does  not  carry  with  it  any 
ethnological  or  political  significance.  Many 
writers  discard  it  altogether.  It  seems  better, 
however,  to  use  it  in  a  wide  sense,  including  both 
Mongol  and  Turkish  tribes,  since  these  are  allied, 
yet  not  the  s.ame.  As  things  now  are  the  term 
Mongol  is  made  to  do  double  duty,  describing 
the  genus  as  well  as  the  species.  Silence  were 
better  than  loose  speech  that  confuses.  The 
word  "Tartars"  as  applied  by  popular  writers  to 
the  Tatars  of  Western  Asia  (the  Kazan,  Astrakan, 
Kipchak,  Nogai  and  Crimean  Tatar)  means 
neither  more  nor  less  than  "Turks."  As  applied 
to  the  Siberian  nomads  and  those  of  North 
Turlcestan,  it  means  "Mongols."  See  Mongols 
and  Turks. 

TASIK  MALAJA :  A  town  in  Java,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  about  50  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Cheribon.  Station  of  the  Netherlands  Mission- 
ary Union  (1898),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1 
native  worker,  1  day  school,  and  24  professed 
Christians. 

TASMANIA:  A  British  colony  in  Australasia, 
formerly  called  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  includ- 
ing the  island  of  that  name  and  several  smaller 
ones  lying,  for  the  most  part,  in  Bass  Strait. 
Area,  26,215  square  miles.  The  estimated  popu- 
lation, about  150,000,  is  composed  of  Tasmanians, 
English,  Australasians,  Chinese  and  Germans. 

The  island  is  traversed  by  mountain  ranges 
with  fertile  valleys.  The  climate  is  mild  and 
not  subject  to  extremes.  It  was  made  a  penal 
settlement  in  1804,  but  transportation  of  crimi- 
nals ceased  in  1853.  The  aborigines  are  entirely 
extinct.  Hobart,  the  capital,  had  a  population 
of  21,118  in  1881,  and  Launceston  had  12,752. 

The  people  are  now  nominally  Christian,  the 
majority  belonging  to  the  Church  of  England, 
the  remainder  being  Roman  Catholics,  Wesleyan 
Methodists,  Presbyterians  and  others. 

The  SPG  maintains  a  mission  here,  and  the 
Wesleyan  Methodists  have  several  hundred 
churches  in  Victoria  and  Tasmania  together. 

TA-TSIEN-LU:  A  town  in  Sze-chwan,  China, 
situated  68  miles  W.  of  Ya-chau-fu.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1897),  with  3  missionaries  and  1  place 
of  worship.     Also  written  Ta-chuen-lu. 

TA-TUNG-FU:  A  town  in  Shan-si,  China, 
situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Pai-ho,  170  miles  W. 
of  Peking.  All  the  missionaries  in  this  region 
were  killed  in  1900  and  the  work  is  slowly  being 
ta,ken  up  again.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1886), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1 
day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  18  professed  Chris- 
tians.    Some  write  the  name  Ta-T'ung. 

TAUNG-NGU:  A  town  in  Burma,  India,  170 
miles  from  Rangoon  by  railroad.  It  has  very 
extensive  suburbs  and  a  sheet  of  water  more 
than  a  mile  long  lies  within  its  walls.  It  was  for- 
merly the  seat  of  an  independent  king.     Altitude, 


181   feet.     Population,   17,500,  nearly  all  being 
Buddhists. 

Station  of  the  ABMU  (1853),  with  (1903)  3 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women  mission- 
aries, 255  native  workers,  87  outstations,  161 
places  of  worship,  73  Sunday  schools,  68  day 
schools,  5  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hos- 
pital, and  17,000  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
4,849  are  communicants.  Also  station  of  the 
SPG  (1873),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  one  of 
them  with  his  wife;  108  native  workers,  6  day 
schools,  4  boarding  schools,  and  2,903  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  2,868  are  communicants. 
Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife.     Some  write  the  name  Toongoo. 

TAUNGS:  A  town  in  Bechuanaland  protec- 
torate, South  Africa,  situated  on  the  Hart  River, 
40  miles  S.  of  Vryburg.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1868),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
8  native  workers,  5  day  schools,  and  2,000  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  130  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Taung. 

TAURANGA:  A  town  in  New  Zealand,  situated 
on  North  Island  on  the  N.  coast,  about  90  miles 
S.  E.  of  Aucldand.  Station  of  the  CMS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  29  native  work- 
ers, and  1,100  professed  Christians,  of  whom  158 
are  communicants.  Grants  of  the  CMS  to  the 
New  Zealand  native  congregations  ceased  in 
1902. 

TAVETA:  A  settlement  in  British  East  Africa, 
situated  S.  E.  of  Mt.  Kilima  Njaro,  about  60 
miles  S.  W.  of  Tsavo  on  the  railroad  from  Mom- 
basa to  Uganda.  It  is  a  wild  country  where  a 
part  of  the  missionary's  duties  consists  of  shoot- 
ing the  lions  and  leopards  tliat  attack  the  people. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1893),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  1  woman  missionary,  6 
native  workers,  1  outstation,  121  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  41  are  communicants;  1 
place  of  worship,  3  day  schools,  1  industrial 
class,  1  dispensary,  and  1  printing  house. 

TAVOY:  A  town  in  Burma,  India,  situated  in 
Tenasserim,  on  the  Tavoy  River,  30  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  town  lies  low,  and  its  north- 
western and  southern  portions  are  flooded  at 
high  tide  and  swampy  during  the  rains.  It  is 
laid  out  in  straight  streets,  and  the  houses  are 
generally  built  of  timber  or  bamboo,  thatched 
with  palm-leaves.  Its  trade  is  of  little  impor- 
tance.    Population,  13,372,  mostly  Buddhists. 

Station  of  the  ABMU  (1828),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  1  woman  missionary, 
50  native  workers,  23  outstations,  24  places  of 
worship,  24  Sunday  schools,  20  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  and  1,172  professed  Christians. 

TA-YE:  A  village  in  Hu-pei,  China,  situated 
about  45  miles  S.  E.  of  Wu-chang-fu.  Station 
of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  11  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  2  day  schools,  11  places  of 
worship,  and  130  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
105  are  communicants. 

TE  AUTE:  A  settlement  in  New  Zealand,  situ- 
ated on  the  North  Island  in  the  Hawkes'  Bay  dis- 
trict, about  24  miles  S.  W.  of  Napier.  Station  of 
the  CMS,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them 
with  his  wife;  29  native  workers,  1  college,  and 
1,450  professed  Christians,  of  whom  130  are  com- 
municants. The  native  congregations  in  this 
region  are  under  the  charge  of  the  local  church, 
grants  to  which  ceased  in  1902. 

TEGWANI:  A  settlement  in  Rhodesia,  Africa, 


781 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Taslk  Malaja 
Te-iiB"aii-fn 


situated  about  70  miles  S.  VV.  of  Bulawayo.  Sta- 
tion of  tlie  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  5 
native  workers,  15  outstations,  15  places  of  wor- 
ship, 4  day  schools,  and  130  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  22  are  communicants. 

TEHERAN:  The  capital  of  Persia,  situated  due 
S.  of  the  Caspian  Sea  in  latitude  35°  40'  north, 
longitude  51°  25'  east.  It  is  a  walled  city,  with 
narrow,  ill-paved  streets,  tho  here  and  there 
Parisian  boulevards  and  European  houses  present 
striking  contrasts  to  the  native  quarters.  The 
water  supply  is  good  and  abundant,  and  public 
baths  are  numerous.  The  population  of  250,000 
consists  of  Persians,  Turks,  Armenians,  and  a 
few  Jews  and  Parsees.  The  government  estab- 
lished a  polytechnic  school  here  in  1849,  with  a 
certain  number  of  European  professors.  Its 
students  receive  a  liberal  education.  There  is 
also  a  militarj'  school  and  Civil  Service  school,  the 
latter  opened  in  1900. 

The  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia  has  its  chief 
offices  in  Teheran.  It  is  an  English  establish- 
ment. Russian  capital  has  also  established  two 
banking  houses  there.  There  is  a  railway  of  six 
miles  length  leading  out  of  the  city,  and  two 
carriage  roads  of  about  ninety  miles  length  each. 
Station  of  the  London  Jews'  Society  (1888), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native 
workers,  2  day  schools.  Also  station  of  the  PN 
(1872),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  three  of  them 
with  their  wives;  17  native  workers,  3  outsta- 
tions, 1  place  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  2  dis- 
pensaries, and  40  professed  Christians. 

TEKENIKA:  A  settlement  on  Hoste  Island, 
about  65  miles  N.  W.  of  Cape  Horn.  This  is 
almost  the  last  existing  settlement  of  the 
Yahgans,  who  are  becoming  extinct.  Station 
of  the  SAMS  (1892),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  place  of  worship,  1  boarding 
school,  1  orphanage,  and  50  professed  Christians. 
TEKKALI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
in  the  district  of  Vizagapatam,  about  30  miles 
N.  E.  of  Chicacole.  Station  of  the  BMP  (1898), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary,  16  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  5  Sunday  schools,  5  places  of  wor- 
ship, 7  day  schools,  and  72  professed  Christians. 

TELLICHERRI:  A  town  and  seaport  on  the 
Malabar  Coast,  Madras,  India,  43  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Calicut.  A  healthful  and  picturesque 
town  built  upon  a  group  of  wooded  hills  running 
down  to  the  sea,  protected  by  a  natural  break- 
water of  rock.  It  has  a  good  harbor  and  an 
excellent  trade.  Population,  26,410,  Hindus, 
Muslims,  Christians. 

Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1839), 
with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  three  of  them  with 
their  wives;  52  native  workers,  6  outstations,  8 
day  schools,  3  boarding  schools,  and  591  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  324  are  communicants. 
The  name  is  written  by  Germans  Talatsoheri. 

TELUGUS:  A  non-Aryan  or  Dravidian  race 
inhabiting  the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula  of 
Hindustan,  India,  north  of  the  city  of  Madras 
and  south  of  the  Godavari  River,  and  extending 
nearly  200  miles  westward  from  the  coast  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  The  language  of  the  Telugus  is 
refined  and  has  been  called  the  Italian  of  Hindu- 
stan. The  number  of  Telugus  is  placed  at  about 
20,000,000  by  the  census  of  1901. 

TEMBE:  A  settlement  in  Portuguese  East 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Tembe  River,  about  20 
miles  S.  of  Lourengo  Marques.     Station  of  the 


Swiss  Romande  Mission  (1898),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary, 
7  native  workers,  7  places  of  worship,  7  Sunday 
schools,  7  day  schools,  and  417  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  102  are  communicants.  This 
place  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  Tlie  Tembe. 

TEMOHON:  A  village  in  the  island  of  Celebes, 
Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  in  the  Minahassa 
district  near  Menado.  Station  of  the  Nether- 
lands Missionary  Society  (1819),  with  (1902)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  theological  class. 

TEMPLE,  Daniel:  Born  December  23,  1789, 
at  Reading,  Mass.  Died  August  9,  1851.  The 
perusal  of  Dr.  Buchanan's  Christian  Researches 
m  India  at  his  conversion  led  him  to  the  decision 
to  become  a  missionary  to  tlie  heathen.  He 
studied  at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover;  Dart- 
mouth College,  and  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary. He  was  ordained  October  3,  1821,  and 
embarked  January  2,  1822,  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM  for  Syria,  reaching  Malta  February  22. 
Here  he  remained  till  1833,  the  political  condition 
of  Turkey  and  Syria  rendering  it  unsafe  for  a 
missionary  family  to  settle  there.  He  prepared 
books  and  tracts  for  circulation  in  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Turkey,  which  were  printed  on  the  press 
he  took  with  him,  widely  distributed,  and  well 
received.  In  1828,  by  invitation  of  the  Pru- 
dential Committee,  he  visited  the  United  States, 
and  engaged  in  an  agency  for  the  Board  for  two 
years,  returning  to  Malta  in  1830.  In  addition 
to  the  superintendence  of  the  press,  he  had  during 
almost  his  whole  residence  here  two  services  on 
the  Sabbath  in  English  in  his  own  house,  a 
Sabbath  school  which  he  taught  himself,  and 
also  a  lecture  Friday  evening.  In  1833,  by 
direction  of  the  Society,  he  removed  the  Greek 
and  Armenian  part  of  the  press  plant  to  Smyrna. 
From  1822,  when  the  press  was  established  in 
Malta,  to  the  time  of  its  removal,  were  issued 
350,000  volumes  containing  21,000,000  pages. 
Nearly  the  whole  had  been  circulated,  and  addi- 
tional supplies  of  some  of  the  works  were  urgently 
demanded.  The  arrival  at  Smyrna  of  a  vessel 
with  presses  and  printing  materials,  and  an 
ordained  missionary,  aroused  the  fanaticism  of 
the  Greeks,  and  Mr.  Temple  was  ordered  by  the 
governor  to  leave  the  city  in  ten  days.  But  after 
some  correspondence  with  the  consul  the  storm 
passed  away.  The  Greek  Ecclesiastical  Commit- 
tee broke  up  eight  schools,  containing  from  six 
to  eight  hundred  children,  and  forbade  the  teach- 
ers to  remain  with  the  missionaries,  threatening 
them  with  imprisonment  or  banishment  if  they 
refused  to  obey.  In  1837  Mr.  Temple  com- 
menced the  publication  of  a  monthly  magazine  in 
Greek,  The  Repository,  which  met  with  much 
favor.  The  Greek  patriarch  forbade  all  his 
church  members  to  read  any  of  the  missionaries' 
translations  of  the  Scriptures  in  Turkish,  Arabic, 
Servian,  Bulgarian  or  Slavonian.  During  this 
year  the  plague  raged  with  terrific  violence  at 
Smyrna.  The  Board  shortly  afterward  decided 
to  abandon  the  specifically  Greek  department  of 
the  mission.  This  left  Mr.  Temple  no  option  but 
to  return  to  the  United  States,  which  he  did  in 
1844.  He  preached  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  and  at 
Phelps,  N.  Y.,  but  resigned  his  pastorate  on 
account  of  ill-health  December  27,  1849. 

TE-NGAN-FU:  A  town  in  Hu-pei,  China,  situ- 
ated about  60  miles  N.  W.  of  Han-kau.  Station 
of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1  woman 
missionary,   7   native   workers,    1    outstation,   6 


Te-tsing-cliaTi 
Tibet 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


733! 


places  of  worship,  1  day  school,  and  160  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  120  are  communicants. 
Some  w  rite  the  name  Tehngan. 

TE-TSING-CHAU:  A  town  in  Kwang-tung, 
China,  situated  on  the  Hsi-kiang,  about  90  miles 
W.  of  Canton.  Station  of  the  Reformed  Presby- 
terian Missionary  Society  (1897),  with  (1900) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife  and  2  native  workers. 
Some  write  the  name  Tak  Hing  Chau. 

TETTJAN:  A  town  belonging  to  Spain,  in 
Morocco,  situated  on  the  N.  coast,  about  50  miles 
S.  of  Gibraltar.  Station  of  the  NAM  (1889), 
with  (1903)  4  women  missionaries,  1  Sunday 
school,  2  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  10  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

TENG-CHAU-FU:  A  city  in  Shantung,  China, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Chi-li,  55  miles  north- 
west of  Chi-fu.  This  city  is  one  of  the  most 
healthful  places  for  Europeans  in  China.  Station 
of  the  PN  (1861),  with  (1903)  8  missionaries, 
seven  of  them  with  their  wives ;  2  women  mission- 
aries, 55  native  workers,  19  outstations,  10  places 
of  worship,  20  Sunday  schools,  1  printing  press, 
20  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  college,  1 
dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  1  medical  class,  and 
657  professed  Christians.  The  college  is  to  be 
removed  to  Wei-hsien.  Also  station  of  the  SBC 
(1860),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  with  their 
wives,  2  women  missionaries,  6  native  workers, 
5  outstations,  4  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday 
schools,  3  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  220 
professed  Christians. 

TEZPUR:  A  town  of  Assam,  India,  on  the 
Brahmaputra,  75  miles  above  Gauhati.  The 
town  is  built  on  a  plain  between  two  low  ranges 
of  hills,  upon  which  the  houses  of  the  European 
residents  are  built.  It  is  an  important  seat  of 
trade,  where  the  river  steamers  touch  to  take  on 
board  tea,  and  to  leave  stores  of  various  kinds  to 
be  distributed  among  the  neighboring  tea-gar- 
dens. Of  late  years  the  character  of  the  houses 
and  sanitary  condition  of  the  town  have  been 
much  improved.  Population,  2,910.  Station  of 
theSPG  (1862),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  24 
native  workers,  6  places  of  worship,  17  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  783  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  110  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Tezpore. 

THABA  BOSIGO:  A  village  in  Basutoland, 
South  Africa,  situated  18  miles  N.  E.  of  Morija. 
Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary 
Society  (1837),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  3  women  missionaries,  20  native  workers, 
13  outstations,  14  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
and  2,029  professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,379 
are  communicants.  Some  write  the  name 
Thaba-Bossiou. 

THABA  MORENA:  A  village  in  Basutoland, 
South  Africa,  situated  about  20  miles  S.  of  Mor- 
ija. Station  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission 
Society  (1862),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  21  native  workers,  10  outstations,  11  places 
of  worship,  10  day  schools,  and  1,382  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  896  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Thabana-Morena. 

THABA' NCHU,  or  THABA  NCHU:  A  settle- 
ment in  the  Orange  River  Colony,  South  Africa, 
situated  about  30  miles  E.  of  Bloemfontein. 
Station  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missionary  Society,  with  (1901)  1  missionary,  105 
native  workers,  6  places  of  worship,  6  Sunday 


schools,  12  day  schools,  57  outstations,  and  2,774 
professed  Christians. 

THABOR:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
in  the  district  of  Salem,  about  15  miles  N.  of 
Salem.  Station  of  the  Danish  Mission  Society 
(1883),  with   (1901)   1  missionary  and  his  wife, 

1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  outstation , 
and  35  professed  Christians. 

THARAWADI :  A  town  in  Burma,  situated  ia 
the  district  of  Pegu,  about  20  miles  E.  of  Hen- 
zade.     Station  of  the  ABMU  (1876),  with  (1903). 

2  women  missionaries,  64  native  workers,  37  out- 
stations, 27  places  of  worship,  10  Sunday  schools,, 
15  day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1,924  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  962  are  communicants.. 
Some  write  the  name  Tharrawaddy. 

THARRAWADDY.     See  Thahawadi. 

THAYETMYO:  A  town  on  the  Irawadi 
River,  Burma,  25  miles  from  Prome.  In  the 
rains  the  place  looks  fresh  and  green,  but  during 
the  dry  season  it  presents  a  dreary  appearance. 
Climate  healthful,  but  excessively  hot.  Popula- 
tion, 8,379,  who  are  mostly  Chins.  Station  of 
the  ABMU  (1887),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  7  native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  2  day  schools,  and  170  professed 
Christians. 

THLOTSE  HEIGHTS:  A  settlement  in  Basuto- 
land, South  Africa,  in  the  district  of  Leribe,  near 
the  Orange  River,  and  about  15  miles  E.  of 
Ficksburg.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1876),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  1  college,  and  154  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

THOBURN,  Miss  IsabeUa:  The  first  missionary 
appointed  by  the  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  the  ME  Church  after  its  organization 
in  March,  1869.  She  was  appointed  to  India 
and  assigned  to  Lucknow,  where  she  opened  a 
boarding  school  for  girls,  beginning  with  one 
pupil.  Before  she  died  she  saw  completed  and 
paid  for  the  commodious  building  which  now 
houses  the  great  college  for  girls  which  has  grown 
out  of  that  humble  beginning 

Altho  Miss  Thoburn's  work  was  largely  educa- 
tional, her  energies  were  not  limited  to  that 
department.  She  was  a  born  leader,  encouraged 
and  aided  Zenana  work,  Sunday  school  work,  and 
other  forms  of  city  missions,  and  made  her  home 
a  place  of  recourse  to  the  tired  worker  and  the 
poor,  the  weak  and  the  fallen  She  had  a  mighty 
influence  among  all  classes.  Christian  and  non- 
Christian,  and  through  this  influence  on  her 
scholars  she  impressed  upon  them  her  own  spirit 
in  a  marked  manner. 

THONG-THAU-HA:  A  village  in  Kwang-tung, 
China,  situated  about  50  miles  S.  E.  of  Canton. 
Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 2  native  workers,  1  day  school,  and  125 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  110  are  communi- 
cants. 

THONZE:  A  town  in  Burma,  India,  situated 
in  the  district  of  Pegu,  about  6  miles  S.  of  Thara- 
wadi.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1855),  with  (1903) 
1  woman  missionary,  7  native  workers,  3  outsta- 
tions, 4  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day 
school  and  379  professed  Christians.  Some 
write  the  name  Thongze. 

THURSTOW,  Asa:  Born  at  Fitchb'irg,  Mass., 
October  12,  1787.  Died  at  Honolulu  March  11, 
1868.     Graduated  at  Yale  College  1816,  Andover 


733 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Te-tslns-cliaa 
Tibet 


Theological  Seminary  1819;  embarked  as  a  mis- 
.sionary  of  the  ABCFM  1819,  with  others,  who 
formed  the  first  band  of  missionaries  for  the 
.Sandwich  Islands.  As  a  missionary  Mr.  Thurs- 
ton ever  labored  with  great  usefulness  and  suc- 
cess. His  knowledge  of  the  native  language  and 
character  was  most  thorough;  and  as  a  preacher 
he  was  much  beloved  by  the  native  Hawaiians. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  mission  his  labors  as  a 
translator  were  arduous  and  successful.  He 
was  stationed  at  Kailua,  the  ancient  residence  of 
the  Hawaiian  kings,  and  there  for  more  than 
40  years  he  continued  to  reside  and  to  labor  as  the 
honored  pastor  of  a  large  and  very  important 
parish.  He  was  the  instructor  for  a  time  of 
toth  Kamehameha  II.  and  Kamehameha  III., 
and  his  influence  over  them,  especially  the  latter, 
was  great.  Never  once  leaving  the  islands  for 
48  years,  he  was  honored  by  natives  and  foreign- 
ers alike  as  a  faithful,  patient,  persistent  worker. 
Only  when  advanced  age  and  repeated  strokes  of 
paralysis  had  rendered  him  incapable  of  service 
•did  he  consent  to  resign  his  pastorate  at  Kailua, 
that  he  might  spend  the  closing  years  of  his  life 
in  Honolulu. 

TIBERIAS,  or  TUBARIYE:  A  village  in  Pales- 
tine, Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  on  the  W.  shore  of 
the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  about  35  miles  E.  by  S.  of 
Acre.  Station  of  the  UFS  Mission  to  the  Jews 
(1884),  with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  13  native 
workers,  1  Sunday  school,  2  day  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  1  hospital. 

TIBET :  One  of  the  possessions  of  China,  claimed 
to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 
It  is  a  country  of  which  very  little  is  definitely 
known.  Surrounded  by  high  mountains,  it  has 
teen  to  a  great  degree  isolated  from  the  rest  of 
the  world.  Tibet  is  a  corruption  of  the  Chinese 
name;  the  people  themselves  call  it  the  "land 
■of  Bod."  The  Kwanlun  Mountains  bound  it  on 
the  north ;  on  the  east  are  the  Chinese  provinces 
of  Sze-chwan  and  Yunnan;  the  Himalaj'a  Moun- 
tains bound  it  on  the  south,  and  Kashmir  on  the 
west.  Little  Tibet  does  not  properly  belong  to 
Tibet,  tho  it  is  claimed  by  Chinese  geographers. 
The  greater  part  of  the  surface  consists  of  high 
tableland  (elevation  11,510  feet),  divided  into 
three  parts  by  mountain  ranges:  the  valley  of  the 
Indus  on  the  west,  between  the  Hindu  Kush  and 
Himalaya  Mountains;  the  high  desert  land, 
almost  "  uninhabitable  and  wholly  unknown, 
lying  between  the  Kwanlun  and  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains; and  the  basin  of  the  Yaru-tsangbu  on  the 
«ast,  consisting  of  high  ridges  and  deep  gorges, 
mountains  and  valleys.  Numerous  peaks  of  per- 
petually snow-capped  mountains  are  here  found, 
of  which  Mt.  Kailasa  (26,000  feet)  is  the  highest. 

The  principal  river,  the  Yaru-tsangbu,  drains 
the  whole  of  southern  Tibet  between  the  first 
and  second  ranges  of  the  Himalayas,  and  is 
supposed  to  empty  into  the  Brahmaputra,  tho 
explorations  have  not  yet  been  extensive  enough 
to  decide  the  truth.  The  Indus,  the  Yangtse, 
the  Brahmaputra  and  other  large  rivers  of 
Southern  and  Eastern  Asia  find  their  source  in 
Tibet.  In  the  central  part  are  numerous  lakes. 
The  climate  is  varied,  but  in  general  the  air  is 
pure  and  excessively  dry.  Snow  and  ice  last  for 
most  of  the  year,  but  in  the  middle  of  summer  the 
valleys,  even  between  the  snowy  mountains,  are 
excessively  hot.  In  the  southern  part  moisture 
and  vegetation  are  found,  and  sheep,  goats  and 
yaks  are  raised. 


The  government  is  conducted  by  two  high 
commissioners  appointed  at  Peking,  but  these 
confer  witli  and  are  guided  by  the  two  grand 
officers  of  the  Tibetan  hierarchy,  the  Dalai- 
Lama  and  the  Teshu-Lama:  the  former,  known 
generally  as  the  Grand  Lama,  is  usually  a  child 
(supposed  to  be  a  reincarnation  of  the  soul  of  the 
last  Grand  Lama)  who  is  not  suffered  to  live  more 
than  seven  or  eight  years  in  his  high  office ;  and 
the  latter  being  a  regent  who  rules  during  the 
minority  of  the  little  Dalai-Lama.  The  power  is 
practically  in  the  hands  of  the  priests  or  lamas, 
whose  number  is  so  great  as  to  give  Tibet  the 
name  of  the  "kingdom  of  priests."  The  southern 
frontier  is  strongly  fortified,  and  communication 
between  Tibet  and  India  or  the  intervening 
states  is  forbidden.  On  the  Chinese  frontier  the 
same  strictness  is  exercised,  for  the  policy  of 
exclusion  is  fostered  alike  by  the  lamas  and  the 
Chinese — the  one  because  they  wish  to  preserve 
their  religious  supremacy  and  fat  offices,  the 
other  because  they  wish  to  retain  their  political 
power,  faint  tho  it  be.  The  present  Dalai-Lama, 
as  an  exception  to  the  policy  of  the  last  hundred 
years,  has  been  permitted  to  live  to  maturity  and 
to  rule  without  a  regent.  He  seems  to  derire 
independence  of  Chinese  control,  and  for  this 
reason  to  foster  political  relations  with  Russia. 
Both  Russia  and  the  British  Indian  Government 
have  tried  to  open  relations  with  Tibet  for  some 
fifteen  years  past.  In  1901  it  became  known 
that  Russia  had  secured  from  the  Grand  Lama 
rather  exclusive  privileges  by  a  secret  treaty. 
The  British  then  demanded  execution  of  a  com- 
mercial agreement  with  India  to  which  China  and 
the  lamas  had  already  agreed.  The  British 
Commissioner  was,  however,  refused  a  hearing 
and  was  sent  back  to  India.  Late  in  1903  he 
went  to  Tibet  again  to  insist  upon  a  favorable 
answer.  This  time  he  was  escorted  by  troops. 
The  Tibetans  refused  to  negotiate,  and  finally  in 
March,  1904  attacked  the  embassy  with  armed 
force.  Tlius  began  a  war  with  the  British  which 
can  only  result  in  destroying,  at  last,  the  barriers 
erected  by  this  strange  people  against  tlie  world. 

Lhassa,  the  capital,  has  only  once  been  visited 
by  an  Englishman — Thomas  Manning,  in  1811 — 
and  its  location  has  but  recently  been  agreed  upon 
to  be  approximately  in  latitude  29°  45'  N.  and 
longitude  91°  55'  E.  It  stands  in  a  fertile  plain, 
at  an  altitude  of  11,700  feet,  encircled  by  moun- 
tains. It  is  noted  for  the  number  of  its  monas- 
teries, bonzes  and  lamas,  filtliy  streets  and  mean 
buildings.  The  population  is  estimated  at  from 
40,000  to  80,000,  and  the  population  of  the  whole 
of  Tibet,  while  unknown,  is  estimated  at  6,000,000. 
The  people  belong  to  the  Mongol  race,  and  they 
are  intensely  religious.  Their  religion  is  of  two 
kinds:  the  old  original  religion  called  the  "Bon," 
of  which  little  or  nothing  definite  is  known,  and 
that  form  of  Buddhism  called  Lamaism.  The 
social  customs  of  the  people  differ  greatly  from 
that  of  their  neighbors  on  the  east  and  south, 
particularly  in  tlie  position  which  women  hold. 
Here  polyandry  is  the  custom  instead  of  polyg- 
amy, the  wife  being  usually  espoused  by  brothers. 
In  general,  education  is  restricted  to  the  priests, 
but  the  women,  who  conduct  most  of  the  traffic, 
learn  writing  and  arithmetic.  In  some  of  the 
northern  provinces  the  chieftainship  is  held  by 
the  women. 

The  language  of  Tibet  is  derived  from  the 
Sanskrit.  It  is  alphabetical,  and  reads  frorn  left 
to    right.     Thirty    consonants    are    recognized, 


Tibet 

Tirupatnr 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


734 


with  four  additional  vowel  signs.  Tibetan  litera- 
ture, as  well  as  Tibetan  customs,  have  been 
influenced  to  a  great  degree  by  China, 

Missions  are  not  permitted  in  Tibet.  In 
former  times  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  made 
noble  efforts  to  enter  the  forbidden  land,  and 
was  for  a  time  successful.  In  1330  tlie  apostle 
of  Tartary,  Odoric  Forojuliensis,  traveled  in 
Tibet  and  found  missionaries  already  in  the  city 
of  Lhassa,  who  had  gone  there,  it  is  supposed, 
early  in  the  preceding  century.  In  the  17th 
century  a  mission  was  commenced  from  India, 
and  the  reigning  prince  was  favorable  to  the  new 
religion;  but  his  apostasy  was  made  the  pretext 
for  his  overthrow.  Various  attempts  at  evan- 
gelization have  been  made  since  that  time.  The 
most  noteworthy  one  was  in  1845,  when  Fathers 
Gabet  and  Hue  penetrated  to  Lhassa  after  a 
journey  of  eighteen  months,  only  to  be  arrested 
by  the  Chinese  officials,  who  sent  them  prisoners 
to  Canton.  From  that  time  the  Roman  Catholic 
Missions  have  made  numerous  attempts  both  by 
way  of  India  and  China  to  enter  the  kingdom; 
but  after  suffering  persecution  and  the  massacre 
of  their  priests  they  have  given  up  the  effort, 
and  occupy  now  only  the  confines  of  Tibet, 
where  they  work  among  the  Chinese  and  such 
Tibetans  as  are  there  found. 

The  Moravian  Brethren  occupy  three  stations 
In  Little  Tibet — Leh,  Poo  and  Kailang — where 
they  are  waiting  for  opportunity  to  enter  Tibet. 
One  or  two  attempts  have  been  made  at  great 
risk,  but  have  proved  ineffectual.  They  have 
studied  the  Tibetan  language,  and  there  are  now 
several  works  which  will  aid  the  future  mission- 
aries to  Tibet  when  the  country  is  opened.  A 
Tibetan-English  grammar,  a  Tibetan  grammar, 
and  a  New  Testament  in  Tibetan  have  all  been 
published.  A  prayer  union  has  been  formed 
among  the  Moravians,  whose  object  is  to  pray 
for  the  opening  of  the  land  of  priests  to  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel.  The  members  of  the 
Tibetan  band  of  the  China  Inland  Mission,  work- 
ing on  the  eastern  frontier,  in  the  province  of 
Sze-chwan;  the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance, 
located  in  Kansu,  on  the  northeastern  border; 
the  Scandinavian  Alliance  Mission  of  North 
America;  the  Church  of  Scotland,  the  LMS,  the 
CMS,  and  the  Assam  Frontier  Mission  have  all 
made  preparatory  efforts  to  enter  this  field. 
There  is  now  some  prospect  that  the  Forbidden 
Land  may  soon  be  open  to  missionary  enterprise. 

Hue  (LAbbn  E.  R.),  Travels  in  Tibet,  Tartary  and  China 
(Translated  from  the  French),  2  vol;.,  London,  1898; 
Bower  (H.),  Diary  of  a  Journey  Across  Tibet,  London, 
1894;  Wadclell  (L.  A.),  The  Buddhism  of  Tibet,  London, 
1895;  Landor  (A.  H.  S.),  In  the  Forbidden  Land,  London, 
1899;  Riinhart  (S.  C),  With  the  Tibetans  in  Tent  and 
Temple,  London,  1891';  Cr-ry  (W.),  and  Taylor  (Miss  A.), 
Travel  and  Adventure  in  Tibet, 'London,  1^02;  Das  (Sarat 
Chandra),  Journey  to  Lhassa  and  Central  Tibet,  London, 
1902. 

TIEN-TAI-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Che-kiang, 
China,  situated  about  18  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Tai-chau-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1898),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  8  native  work- 
ers, 4  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  2  day 
schools,  and  107  professed  Christians. 

TIENTSIN:  One  of  the  most  important  cities 
of  North  China,  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Grand  Canal  with  the  Pei  Ho,  30  miles  from  the 
sea  and  80  miles  southeast  of  Peking.  It  is  the 
port  of  and  "key"  to  the  capital,  and  is  famous  as 
the  place  where  in  18.58  the  treaties  were  made, 
and  where  in  1900  the  allied  forces  encountered 


long  and  fierce  resistance  on  attempting  to  move 
for  the  relief  of  the  Legations  in  Peking.  As  a 
result  of  the  fighting  at  this  place  a  considerable- 
part  of  the  native  city  was  destroyed.  The  walls 
of  the  city  were  razed  to  the  ground  and  fine  roads 
constructed  in  their  place.  Since  the  restoration 
of  peace  the  foreign  settlements  at  Tientsin  have- 
been  much  increased,  and  the  place  made  into- 
quite  a  handsome  town.  Climate  healthful  and 
pleasant;  maximum  temperature  100°  Fah.  Popu- 
lation, 900,000. 

Foreign  missions  entered  the  town  in  1859, 
when  the  Methodist  New  Connexion  sent  their 
first  representatives  there.  These  were  followed 
by  the  ABCFM  (1860);  LMS  (1861);  ME;  CIM 
(1888);  Church  of  England  (SPG);  North  China. 
Mission  (1890);  the  Scandinavian  Alliance,  and 
the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance.  These 
two  societies  last  named  do  not  publish  clear 
statistics.  The  other  societies  named  above  have- 
(1903)  in  Tientsin  and  dependencies  37  mission- 
aries, 45  native  workers,  25  places  of  worship, 
12  day  schools,  7  boarding  or  special  schools, 
2  hospitals,  5  dispensaries,  and  718  professed 
Christians.  The  YMCA  has  an  agency  here,  and 
the  BFBS  and  the  National  Bible  Society  of  Scot- 
land have  agents  and  a  large  force  of  colporteurs. 

TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO :  An  archipelago  at  the 
extremity  of  South  America,  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  The  islands- 
are  divided  into  three  groups:  East  Fuegia, 
including  one  large  island  200  miles  long  from 
north  to  south;  South  Fuegia,  a  triangle  of  numer- 
ous small  islands,  with  Cape  Horn  at  the  apex;, 
and  West  Fuegia.  The  climate  of  most  of  the 
archipelago  is  cold  and  disagreeable,  and  fogs 
and  high  winds  make  navigation  difficult.  A 
line  from  Cape  Espiritu  Santo  due  south  to 
Beagle  Channel  divides  the  archipelago  between 
the  Argentine  Republic  on  the  east  and  Chile  on 
the  west.  Three  races  are  recognized  among  the 
inhabitants:  the  Onas,  the  Alacalufs,  and  the 
Yahgans.  They  are  all  on  a  low  scale  of  mental 
and  moral  life;  they  wear  little  or  no  clothing,  kill 
the  old  women  and  eat  them,  throw  their  children 
overboard  to  propitiate  the  storm  spirits,  and 
indulge  in  other  barbaric  customs.  The  language 
has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  the  missionaries, 
and  is  said  to  contain  30,000  words.  The  South 
American  Missionary  Society  works  among  the 
Yahgans  almost  exclusively,  from  LTshuaia,  a 
station  on  Beagle  Channel,  on  both  sides  of 
which  this  race  is  found.  The  Yahgans  are 
rapidly  dying  out,  and  while  there  are  many 
interesting  cases  of  conversion  and  many  prom- 
ising children  in  the  mission  schools,  the  future 
does  not  seem  to  offer  permanency  of  results. 

TIFLIS :  A  town  in  Asiatic  Russia  and  capital 
of  Transcaucasia,  on  the  Kur  River.  It  is  a  mix- 
ture of  Asiatic  and  European  architecture,  the 
old  part  being  built  of  sun-dried  brick,  and  con- 
taining all  the  bazars  and  business  life  of  Tiflis, 
the  modern  part  resembling  any  European  city. 
Tiflis  was  for  centuries  a  stronghold  of  refuge  for 
Eastern  Christianity  when  attacked  first  by  the 
Persians  and  later  by  Islam.  Its  population  is 
now  (1903)  largely  made  up  of  Armenians.  Its 
situation  is  extremely  picturesque,  forming  a 
depression  surrounded  on  all  sides  except  the 
north  bv  mountains.  Altitude,  1,350  feet. 
Population  (1892)  146,790.  Station  of  the 
Swedish  National  Missionary  Society  (1882), 
with  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1  place  of 


735 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Tibet 
Tirupatur 


worship,  3  day  schools,  and  1  Sunday  school. 
The  restrictions  of  Russian  law  against  mission- 
ary effort  prevent  much  work  outside  of  the 
recognized  Protestant  families.  Climate  hot  and 
unhealthful,  but  the  place  is  popular  on  account 
of  the  warm  mineral  springs  in  the  vicinity. 

TIFOE:  A  village  on  the  island  of  Burn, 
Moluccas,  Dutch  East  Indies,  situated  on  the  S. 
coast  of  the  island.  Station  of  the  Utrecht  Mis- 
sion Society  (1888),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  9  native  workers,  11  outstations,  10  day 
schools,  and  1,748  professed  Christians. 

TIKARI:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated  in 
the  Gaya  district,  50  miles  S.  W.  of  Patna.  Sta- 
tion of  the  BZM  (1885),  with  (1903)  2  women 
missionaries,  10  native  workers,  2  Sunday  schools 
and  3  day  schools. 

TILLIPALLY:  A  large  town  in  Ceylon,  East 
Indies,  on  the  north  shore  of  the  peninsula  of 
Jaffna,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island. 
Climate  tropical,  damp,  but  very  healthful  for 
young  children.  Population,  21,698.  Caste  rule 
IS  rather  relaxed  here,  so  that  one  is  not  expelled 
from  his  class  on  becoming  a  Christian.  Station 
of  the  ABCFM  (1831),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  54  native  workers,  5  outstations,  29 
day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  365  professed 
Christians. 

TINANA:  A  settlement  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  Griqualand  East,  about  12 
miles  N.  W.  of  Fletcherville.  Station  of  the 
Moravian  Mission  Society  (1875),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  20  native  workers,  2 
outstations,  3  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools, 
5  day  schools,  and  338  professed  Christians. 

TINDIVANAM :  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  lying 
about  25  miles  N.W.  of  Pondicherri  and  75  miles 
g.^  W.  of  Madras.  _  Station  of  the  RCA  (1868), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  89  native 
workers,  men  and  women;  39  common  schools, 
34  Sunday  schools,  1  high  school,  38  outstations, 
and  629  professing  Christians. 

TINNEVELLI:  A  district  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Madras  Presidency,  in  India.  It  contains 
an  area  of  5,381  square  miles,  at  the  southeastern 
point  of  Hindustan,  bounded  on  the  south  and 
east  by  the  sea,  on  the  west  by  the  Ghats,  which 
separate  it  from  Travancore,  and  on  the  north  by 
the  district  of  Madura.  The  history  of  the  dis- 
trict is  involved  with  that  of  Madura.  After 
centuries  of  Hindu  rule  the  Mohammedans  came, 
and  after  them  came  a  half-century  of  anarchy, 
which  was  ended  in  1801  by  the  cession  of  the 
whole  region  to  the  English.  The  population  of 
thedistrict  (1891)  is  about  1,916,000.  Christianity 
has  taken  firmer  root  here  than  in  any  other  dis- 
trict in  India.  Statistics  show  that  between  1871 
and  1881  the  Hindus  lost  2 J  per  cent.,  while  the 
Mohammedans  gained  nearly  6  and  the  Chris- 
tians over  37  per  cent.  The  number  of  baptized 
Christians  connected  with  the  SPG  and  CMS  mis- 
sions was  59,203  at  this  time,  of  whom  13,265  were 
communicants.  There  were  also  about  40,000 
more  under  instruction  for  baptism.  Ninety- 
five  per  cent,  of  them  belong  to  the  Shanar  caste, 
who  live  by  the  culture  of  the  Palmyra  palm. 
Protestant  missionary  work  was  begun  in  the 
town  of  Tinnevelli  about  140  years  ago,  by  the 
Danish  missionaries  at  Tranquebar,  who,  with 
their  native  preachers,  made  occasional  tours  to 
the  south.  But  no  Christian  preacher  seems  to 
have   resided    there    permanently    before    1771, 


when  a  native  preacher  took  up  his  residence  in 
Palamkotta,  three  miles  from  the  town  of  Tinne- 
velli; no  European  missionary  was  stationed  there 
until  the  year  1788,  when  Rev.  J.  D.  Jaenicke  was 
sent  there.  He  died  in  1800.  The  missionary 
Schwartz  also  traveled  in  the  district.  The 
SPCK  maintained  the  mission  at  Palamkotta 
until  1816,  when  it  was  passed  over  to  the 
Church  Missionary  Society,  and  in  1825  it  trans- 
ferred its  work  in  the  town  of  Tinnevelli  to  the 
SPG.  These  two  societies  have  since  divided 
the  work  in  the  district  between  them.  Chris- 
tianity had  begun  to  exert  no  small  degree  of 
influence  at  the  time  the  work  was  transferred 
to  the  societies  that  now  conduct  it,  and  since 
then  the  work  of  conversion  has  proceeded  with 

great  vigor.  About  the  year  1877  Rev.  R. 
aldwell,  D.D.,  of  the  SPG,  and  Rev.  E. 
Sargent,  D.D.,  of  the  CMS,  were  consecrated 
bishops  assistant  to  the  Bishop  of  Madras,  for  the 
purpose  of  affording  better  episcopal  supervision 
to  the  work  of  their  respective  societies  in  that 
district.  In  1896  the  Bishopric  of  Tinnevelli 
and  Madura  was  instituted,  and  the  supervision 
was  thus  simplified. 

The  CMS  (1816),  the  SPG  (1825)  and  the  CEZ 
(1874)  are  working  in  the  Tinnevelli  district, 
with  (1903)  38  missionaries,  men  and  women  ; 
1,497  native  workers,  men  and  women;  607  day 
schools,  26  boarding  schools,  1  orphanage,  1 
theological  training  school,  2  colleges,  and 
80,813  baptized  Christians.  Among  the  special 
lines  of  work  may  be  mentioned  the  schools  for 
the  blind  carried  on  by  the  CMS  and  the  Palam- 
kotta School  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  established 
by  the  CEZ. 

TINNEVELLI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  the 
capital  of  Tinnevelli  district,  situated  about  40 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Tutioorin.  Population, 
23,221.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1820),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  and  in  the  district  681 
native  workers,  413  day  schools,  1  college,  and 
54,970  professed  Christians,  of  whom  13,493  are 
communicants.  The  congregations  in  the  sur- 
rounding district  are  united  in  a  Native  Church 
Council,  of  which  the  chairman  is  the  CMS  mis- 
sionary. 

TIRUKOVILUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  in  the  S.  Arcot  district,  50  miles  N.  W. 
of  Cuddalore.  Station  of  tlie  Danish  Mission 
Society  (1869),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  1  woman  missionary,  9  native  work- 
ers, 2  places  of  worship,  2  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  and  402  professed  Christians.  Some  give 
to  this  place  the  name  Siloam. 

TIRUMANGALAM :  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  about  10  miles  S.  W.  of  Madura.  Sta- 
tion of  the  ABCFM  (1838),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 59  native  workers,  50  outstations,  24 
places  of  worship,  29  Sunday  schools,  19  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1,560  professed 
Christians. 

TIRTJPATI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
about  77  miles  S.  E.  of  Cuddapa.  Station  of  the 
Hermannsburg  Missionar)'  Society  (1877),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  36  native  work- 
ers, 2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  3  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  160  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  144  are  communicants. 

TIRUPATUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated in  Salem  district,  about  65  miles  N.  E.  of 
Salem.     Population,     14,278     (Tamil).     Station 


Tirnvnlnr 
Tongra  Ifetlantls 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


73e 


of  the  LMS  (1861),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  26 
native  workers,  11  outstations,  5  Sunday  schools, 
11  day  schools,  and  197  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  123  are  communicants.  Some  write  the 
name  Tripatoor. 

TIRUVALUR:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  North  Arcot  division,  about  24  miles 
W.  of  Madras.  Station  of  the  Leipzig  Mission- 
ary Society,  with  (1903)  26  native  worlcers,  15 
places  of  worship,  20  day  schools,  14  outstations, 
and  1,914  professed  Christians,  of  whom  707  are 
communicants.  Also  station  of  the  WMS,  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  2  women  missionaries,  118 
native  worliers,  27  outstations,  44  places  of  wor- 
ship, 64  Sundaj'  schools,  72  day  schools,  2  board- 
ing schools,  1  hospital,  and  920  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  484  are  communicants. 

TIRUVANNAMALAI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  in  the  S.  Arcot  district,  about  50  miles  S. 
of  Vellore.  Station  of  the  Danish  Missionary 
Society  (1899),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  5 
native  workers,  1  day  school,  and  32  professed 
Christians. 

TIRUWALLUR.     See  Tiruvalur. 

TIRUWELLA:  A  town  in  Travancore,  India, 
situated  20  miles  S.  E.  of  Allepie.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1849),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  62  native  worlcers,  40  day  schools,  2  board- 
ing schools,  and  7,000  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  1,997  are  communicants.  The  churches 
in  this  vicinity  are  joined  in  a  Church  Council  of 
their  own. 

TJIDERES:  A  village  in  Java,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  about  50  miles  S.  E.  of  Cheribon. 
Station  of  the  Netherlands  Mission  Union  (1878), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  3  native  workers,  1  out- 
station,  1  hospital,  and  191  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  79  are  communicants. 

TOBAGO :  An  island  in  the  West  Indies,  lying 
northeast  of  Trinidad,  of  which  it  is  a  dependency. 
It  is  a  rocky  mass  rising  abruptly  to  a  height  of 
900  feet.  There  are  several  good  harbors.  It 
was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  16.54,  taken  by  the 
French  and  finally  by  the  English  in  1763.  Area, 
114  square  miles.  Population  (1892)  19,594. 
Missions  are  carried  on  in  the  islands  by  the 
Moravians  (1790). 

TOBELO:  A  village  on  the  island  of  Halma- 
heira  (Jilolo),  Moluccas,  situated  in  the  N.  part 
of  the  island.  Station  of  the  Utrecht  Missionary 
Society  (1897),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  14  native  workers,  10  day  schools,  and  21 
professed  Christians. 

TODAS:  These  people,  who  live  in  the  Nilgiri 
hills  in  India,  are  generally  looked  upon  as  a 
remnant  of  the  primeval  race  of  Mysore,  existing, 
like  driftwood,  on  the  heights  above  a  changeful 
world.  They  belong  to  the  Dravidian  race 
which  has  peopled  the  land  from  time  immem- 
orial. A  description  of  their  characteristics  is 
given  by  one  of  tlie  missionaries  as  follows:  The 
Toda  is  striking  in  appearance,  with  well-marked 
features,  hazel  eyes,  and  an  abundant  growth  of 
wavv  hair,  hanging  to  its  full  length  in  well-oiled 
ringlets.  The  single  unbleached  cloth  which 
envelops  him  often  presents  a  study  in  sepia,  as 
he  never  washes  his  cloth,  and  rarely  himself, 
from  birth  to  death.  Tho  fine  in  physique,  the 
tribe  is  numerically  small;  yet  not  so  small  as  to 
preclude  the  existence  of  at  least  five  castes, 
observing  the  usual  social  restrictions.  The 
form   of  marriage  known  as  polyandry  is  still 


prevalent,  one  woman  marrying  all  the  brothers 
of  a  family.  Only  eighty  years  have  passed  away 
since  the  barbarous  custom  of  female  infanticide 
was  discontinued,  through  the  moral  influence  of 
the  first  English  who  penetrated  these  benighted 
regions. 

The  odorous  abode  of  the  Todas  consists  of 
scattered  "munds"  or  villages  of  from  three,  to 
five  pent-roofed  huts,  fashioned  after  a  style  of 
architecture  peculiar  to  the  tribe.  The  hut, 
twelve  feet  square,  has  a  capacity  which  is  truly 
marvelous,  for  the  accommodation  of  relatives  of 
both  sexes  and  all  ages.  The  only  ventilation  is 
derived  from  the  diminutive  doorway,  two-and- 
a-half  feet  by  one-and-a-half;  and  the  mode  of 
ingress  and  egress  can  scarcely  be  called  dig- 
nified. 

It  has  been  said,  in  regard  to  the  religion  of  the 
Todas,  that  there  exists  "a  partiality  to  the 
regard  of  light — apart  from  fire — as,  par  excel- 
lence, the  manifestation  of  deity."  The  bell 
worn  by  a  succession  of  sacred  cows  is  revered  as 
the  "chief  god."  Only  members  of  the  priestly 
clan  are  permitted  to  tend  the  sacred  buffalos, 
and  officiate  as  "pujaris"  or  priests  to  the  Bell- 
god,  assuming  the  title  of  "sons  of  the  gods."  Of 
recent  years  the  simple  faith  of  their  forefathers 
has  become  adulterated  with  Hinduism  and 
assumes  the  form  of  the  worship  of  spirits  which 
are  feared  as  capable  of  evil. 

Content  if  he  may  know  enough  to  tend  his 
father's  buffalos  in  the  pastures,  the  Toda  recks 
not  of  personal  improvement  or  social  duties.  In 
true  Eastern  placidity  he  lives,  in  hope  that,  at 
the  end,  the  "Lord  of  life"  will  receive  him  into 
"the  other  district,"  as  he  calls  the  unseen  world. 
There  he  believes  he  will  dwell  under  conditions 
similar  to  the  present,  for  the  buffalos  slain  at 
his  decease  are  supposed  to  supply  him  with 
milk  and  ghee  in  the  new  life;  and  the  coins  burnt 
with  the  body  are  intended  for  the  keeper  of  the 
thread-bridge,  which  the  soul  must  pass  on  its 
pilgrimage — tho  they  mostly  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  more  mundane  village  sweeper. 

A  curious  feature  of  the  Toda  social  system  is 
their  custom,  still  preserved  in  some  degree,  of 
demanding  and  receiving  a  dole  of  grain  at  har- 
vest from  the  surrounding  farmers.  The  grain 
is  demanded  as  tribute  for  the  use  of  the  land. 
But  it  is  now  given  as  charity. 

The  name  of  this  curious  people  is  sometimes 
written  Todar  and  Todawar. 

TOGOLANT):  A  German  possession  in  West- 
Africa,  lying  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  having  an 
area  of  33,160  square  miles  and  a  population 
estimated  at  from  one  to  two  millions.  The 
coast  line  is  but  32  miles,  the  country  widening 
to  several  times  that  dimension  in  the  interior. 
It  is  situated  between  the  French  colony  of 
Dahomey  on  the  east  and  the  British  Gold  Coast 
Colony  on  the  west,  and  extends  back  from  the 
coast  some  250  miles.  It  was  declared  a  German 
protectorate  in  1884.  The  coast  chmate  is 
unhealthful  for  Europeans;  the  interior  hilly  and 
well  watered  with  streams.  Good  roads  con- 
nect Lome,  now  regarded  as  the  capital,  with 
Misahohe  and  Atalcpame,  and  there  is  a  narrow 
gage  railway  between  Lome  and  the  Little  Popo. 
Telegraphs  connect  the  chief  towns  and  extend 
into  Dahomey  and  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  thus 
providing  cable  communication  with  Europe. 
The  German  Government  is  represented  by  the 
Hamburg  and  Bremen  traders,  settled  in  the  sea- 
ports,  who  cannot  as  yet  vie  with  the  village 


737 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Tlrnvnlnr 
Ton^a  Islands 


chiefs  and  fetish  priests  in  influence  over  the 
people. 

The  tribes  between  the  Ogun  and  Volta  Rivers 
belong  to  the  Ewe  family,  and  from  them  the 
region  takes  the  name  "Eweme." 

The  North  German  Missionary  Society  has  4 
stations  in  Togoland  and  the  Basel  Society  1  and 
the  WMS  1.  The  whole  force  of  missionaries  and 
native  workers  is  170,  with  69  schools  and  about 
3,500  communicants. 

TOKAT:  A  town  in  the  province  of  Sivas, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  about  70  miles  S.  of 
Samsun.  Henry  Martyn  died  and  was  buried 
here.  Population,  10,000.  Outstation  of  the 
ABCFM.  Statistics  given  under  Sivas.  Station 
of  the  FCMS  (1884),  with  (1900)  1  missionary, 
4  native  workers,  5  outstations,  3  places  of  wor- 
ship, 4  day  schools,  5  Sunday  schools,  and  233 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Tocat. 

TOKELAU  ISLANDS:  A  group  of  small  islands 
in  Polynesia,  N.  of  the  Samoan  Islands,  southeast 
of  the  EUice  group.  These  islands,  together  with 
the  Ellice  and  Gilbert  groups,  are  visited  annually 
by  missionaries  of  the  LMS  at  Samoa.  Native 
ministers  are  doing  excellent  work  among  a 
church  membership  of  3,374  (1903)  in  the  three 
groups,  and  several  thousand  pupils  are  in  the 
Sunday  and  day  schools. 

TOKIO:  Capital  of  Japan,  formerly  called 
Yeddo.  It  is  situated  in  the  center  of  a  great 
plain,  which  extends  back  from  the  water  to  the 
mountains  for  a  distance  varying  from  twenty  to 
sixty  miles,  and  borders  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of 
Tokio  for  about  a  hundred  miles.  There  is  thus 
no  want  of  land  over  which  the  city  may  extend. 
Already  it  occupies  about  28  square  miles,  and 
as  far  as  the  extent  is  concerned,  it  is  second  only 
to  London.  The  city  lies  at  the  northwest  end  of 
the  Bay  of  Tokio.  Through  the  city  runs  the 
0-gawa,  or  Great  River,  dividing  it  into  an  east- 
ern and  a  western  part.  Numerous  canals  pene- 
trate the  city  at  various  points,  and  on  the  east 
is  another  river,  Naka-gawa.  The  city  is 
divided  into  various  sections  for  purposes  of 
government  and  postal  delivery.  Here  are  found 
the  numerous  palaces  and  public  buildings  of 
the  government;  the  temples  of  Buddha,  Con- 
fucius, and  various  Japanese  deities  representing 
the  old  civilization  and  the  old  religion;  but  side 
by  side  with  these  stand  the  distinctively  Chris- 
tian buildings,  together  with  the  Imperial  Uni- 
versity, School  of  Engineers,  and  the  numerous 
other  institutions  of  learning,  whose  influence  is 

[  [  rapidly  lessening  the  number  of  worshipers  at 
the  ancient  shrines,  so  that  a  few  years  from  now 
they  will  probabh'  be  museums  of  antiquities 
rather  than  temples  to  which  worshipers  are 
drawn  through  fear  and  superstition.  The  rapid 
strides  which  European  civilization  is  making  in 
Japan  can  be  seen  nowhere  better  than  in  this 
city.  Alongside  the  old  stone  wall,  surround- 
ing the  palace  grounds,  with  its  moat — one  tor- 

'  '  tuous  ribbon  of  variegated  colors  from  the  lotus 
flowers,  which  bloom  there  in  summer-time — 
are  seen  the  electric  wires  for  the  telegraph  and 
telephone.  The  puffing  smoke  of  the  railway- 
engine  overcomes  the  pungent  odor  of  the 
incense  in  the  temples;  gas  is  used  for  lighting 
streets  and  shops,  and  each  year  civilization, 
with  its  attendant  conveniences  and  luxuries,  is 
thoroughly  permeating  the  life  and  habits  of  the 

i   i      citizens.     Not  only  is  Tokio  within  easy  reach 
47 


of  Yokohama,  10  miles  away  by  rail,  but  it  is 
an  important  railway  center.  One  of  the  numer- 
ous bridges  which  span  the  watercourses  of  the 
city  is  considered  the  topographical  center  of  the 
empire,  from  which  all  distances  are  reckoned. 
The  population  (1898)  is  1,440,121. 

Missionary  societies  commenced  their  work  in 
Tokio  almost  as  soon  as  the  empire  was  opened 
to  the  outside  world.  At  present  the  societies 
engaged  in  work  in  Tokio  and  its  surroundings 
are  the  following,  with  the  date  of  their  entrance 
upon  work  in  the  city  :  PN  (1869) ;  ME  (1872) ;  PE 
(1873) ;  SPG  (1875)";  ABMU  (1874);  CMS  (1874); 
RCA  (1876) ;  EvangeUcal  Association  (1877) ;  MCC 
(1879);  ECUS  (1880);  General  Evangelical  of 
Germany  (1885);  AFFM  (1885);  Christian  Church 
(1888);  PB  (188S);  Universalist,  U.  S.  (1890); 
ABCFM  (1890);  FCMS  (1891);  UB  (1895);  SDA 
(1896);  Methodist  Protestant  (1900);  ELUS; 
Scandinavian  Alliance;  Synod  of  the  Norwegian 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  of  N.  A.  The 
YMCA  also  has  an  agency  here,  with  two  men 
and  their  wives;  the  Salvation  Army  has  a  post, 
and  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India  and  the  East 
cares  for  a  leper  hospital.  Connected  with  these 
societies  there  are  (1903)  in  the  aggregate  in 
Tokio  and  its  outstations  168  missionaries,  men 
and  women ;  361  native  workers,  men  and  women; 
102  places  of  worship,  23  day  schools,  25  board- 
ing or  special  schools,  2  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries, 4  publishing  houses  and  7,937  professed 
Christians,  including  baptized  children. 

TOKUSHIMA:  A  town  in  Shikoku  Island, 
Japan,  situated  on  the  E.  coast.  Population, 
59,969.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1888),  with  (1903) 
2  women  missionaries,  7  native  workers,  and  205 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  103  are  communi- 
cants. _  Also  station  of  the  PS  (1889),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives  and  2  women  mis- 
sionaries. 

TOKYO.     See  Tokio. 

TOLEDO:  A  village  in  British  Honduras,  situ- 
ated on  a  small  bay  about  60  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Belize.  Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary, 8  native  workers,  2  outstations,  6  places 
of  worship,  4  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  and 
72  professed  Christians,  of  whom  69  are  com- 
municants. 

TONG-AN.     See  Tung-ngan-hsien. 

TONGA  ISLANDS  (Friendly  Islands) :  A  group 
in  the  South  Pacific,  extend.ing  from  18°  5'  to 
22°  29'  south  latitude,  and  from  173°  52'  to  176° 
10'  west  longitude,  was  discovered  by  Tasman 
in  1643,  and  named  Friendly  Islands  by  Captain 
Cook,  but  is  now  called  Tonga,  after  the  prin- 
cipal island.  There  are  about  150  islands  in  three 
separate  groups,  comprising  a  total  area  of  374 
square  miles.  Part  of  these  are  of  volcanic 
nature,  but  a  majority  of  the  islands  are  level  and 
covered  with  rich,  productive  soil.  The  principal 
island  is  Tonga  or  Tongatabu,  128  square  miles 
in  area,  on  which  is  situated  the  capital,  Nuku- 
alofa. Earthquakes  are  frequent,  and  at  times 
volcanic  eruptions  have  taken  place.  The  cli- 
mate, like  that  of  Fiji,  is  warm  and  humid. 
Southeast  trade-winds  blow  except  for  a  few 
months  in  the  winter.  The  islands  are  now 
Christianized,  and  are  governed  by  a  Christian 
king  under  the  protectorate  of  Great  Britain. 
Formerly  Tonga  was  noted  for  cannibalism, 
infanticide  and  other  crimes  characteristic  of 
savages.     The   people   are   intellectually   far   in 


Tonprareva 
Training   Seliools 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


738 


advance  of  most  of  the  Polynesian  race,  and  have 
at  one  time  and  another  conquered  many  of  the 
surrounding  islands.  Nearly  every  one  can  read, 
and  they  are  industrious  farmers,  as  well  as 
skilful  sailors.  They  number  (1901)  19,000,  of 
whom  300  are  Europeans.  The  triumphs  of  the 
Gospel  in  Tonga,  the  devoted  zeal  of  the  king, 
and  the  proud  position  which  Tongan  converts 
have  held  as  pioneers  of  Christianity  to  Fiji  and 
other  Polynesian  groups  are  striking  testimonials 
to  the  civilizing  and  regener.ating  power  of  Chris- 
tian missions.  In  these  islands  colleges  have 
been  established,  where  young  men  and  women 
are  being  trained  for  Christian  service. 

The  evangelization  of  the  Tonga  Islands  is  one 
of  the  fruits  of  the  effort  of  the  WMS.  The 
Tonga  churches  are  now,  however,  a  district  in 
connection  with  the  Australasian  Methodist  Mis- 
sionary Society. 

TONGAREVA,  or  PENRHYW  ISLAND :  A  small 
island  in  Polynesia,  east  of  the  Tokelau  Islands, 
west  of  the  Marquesas,  and  north  of  the  Society 
Islands.     It  is  visited  from  Rarotonga. 

T'ONG-CHI.     See  Tung-chi-hsien. 

TONGOA :  A  settlement  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the 
island  of  Espiritu  Santo,  New  Hebrides.  Station 
of  the  New  Hebrides  Missionary  Society,  with 
(1901)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife; 
1  woman  missionary,  28  native  workers,  3  outsta- 
tions,  2  places  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  theo- 
logical class,  and  730  professed  Christians. 

TONG-SHAN:  A  town  in  Chi-li,  China,  situated 
about  70  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Tientsin,  on  the  road 
to  Manchuria.  Station  of  the  Methodist  New 
Connexion  Society  (1884),  with  (1901)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  25  native  workers,  43  out- 
stations,  44  places  of  worship,  8  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  hospital,  and  541  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  PB,  with  (1901) 
3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their  wives,  and 
1  woman  missionary.  Some  write  the  name 
T'ang-shan. 

TONKIN  (Tonquin) :  A  French  colony  in  Asia, 
on  the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin,  lying 
between  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Kwang-tung 
and  Yunnan  on  the  north  and  Annam  on  the 
south  and  west.  It  was  annexed  by  France  in 
1884,  and  is  divided  into  fourteen  provinces, 
with  an  estimated  population  of  9,000,000. 
Hanoi,  the  chief  city,  is  a  union  of  many  villages, 
with  an  aggregate  population  of  150,000.  The 
Roman  Catholics  are  at  work  in  Tonkin,  and 
claim  a  large  membership. 

TOONDEE :  A  village  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
about  40  miles  S.  of  Mandhupur.  Station  of  the 
UFS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  12  native  work- 
ers, 1  boarding  school,  7  day  schools,  1  dispensary 
and  1  printing  press.  The  church  statistics  are 
included  under  Santalia. 

TOONGOO.     See  Taung-ngu. 

TORREON:  A  town  and  railroad  junction  in 
Mexico,  situated  in  the  State  of  Coahuila,  close  to 
the  border  of  Durango,  near  Lerdo.  Station  of 
the  SBC  (1890),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  5  native  workers,  22  outstations,  6  places  of 
worship,  6  Sunday  schools,  1  theological  class, 
and  471  professed  Christians. 

TOTTORI:  a  town  in  Japan,  situated  near  the 
N.  coast  of  the  main  island,  about  90  miles  N.  W. 
of  Kioto.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1890),  with 
2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife;  5  native 


workers,  2  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  3  Sun- 
day schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  62  professed 
Christians. 

TOY,  Robert:  A  missionary  of  the  LMS  to 
Madagascar  from  1862  to  1880;  stationed  at 
Antananarivo.  In  1863  he  took  charge  of  the 
native  church  at  Ambohipotsy,  in  the  capital,  and 
of  the  connected  country  churches.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1868,  the  Memorial  Church  at  Ambohipotsy 
was  opened,  of  which  he  took  charge,  and  besides 
his  other  duties  was  occupied  in  a  revision  of  the 
Malagasy  version  of  the  Bible  and  other  literary 
work  in  the  Malagasy  language.  The  theological 
seminary  for  native  ministers  was  founded  by 
Mr.  Toy  in  1869,  with  the  efficient  aid  of  Mr.  G. 
Cousins.  His  health  failing,  he  went  to  England 
in  1870.  Returning  in  1873,  he  resumed  his 
work  in  the  theological  institution,  and  in  addi- 
tion assisted  in  the  revision  of  the  Malagasy 
Bible.  In  1877  the  church  at  Faravohitra  and 
its  surrounding  districts  was  added  to  his  college 
work.  In  1879,  his  health  having  seriously 
failed,  he  again  sailed  for  England,  and  died  on 
the  voyage,  April  19. 

TOYOHASHI:  A  town  on  the  main  island, 
Japan,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  S.  coast  and  on  the 
railroad  between  Nagoya  and  Shizuoka.  Sta- 
tion of  the  CMS  (1896),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary,  2  native  work- 
ers, and  38  professed  Christians,  of  whom  14  are 
communicants.  Also  station  of  the  ME,  with 
(1903)  1  native  worker. 

TOZER,  William  George :  Universities'  Mission; 
Bishop  of  Central  Africa.  Born  in  Devonshire, 
1829.  Died,  1899.  He  was  consecrated  on  Feb- 
ruary 2,  1863,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  in  the 
summer  of  that  year  he  arrived  in  the  Shir6  dis- 
trict. Zanzibar  was  selected  as  the  most  favor- 
able point  from  which  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  the 
tribes  of  Central  Africa. 

All  the  principal  towns  of  the  East  African 
coast  are  situated  on  islands;  and  Bishop  Tozer 
appreciated  the  fact  that  Zanzibar,  the  chief  com- 
mercial center  of  East  and  Central  Africa,  would 
afford  special  advantages  for  a  settlement  of 
European  missionaries.  He  arrived  here  in 
August,  1864,  and  from  the  beginning  of  his 
work  he  foresaw  the  necessity  of  training  up  a 
native  ministry  in  Central  Africa,  where,  in  less, 
than  forty  years,  the  mission  lost  six  bishops, 
twenty-seven  members  of  the  clergy  and  forty- 
six  lay  workers.  To  this  work  he  addressed  his 
best  energies.  Having  somewhat  organized  the 
work  on  the  island,  Bishop  Tozer  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  mainland,  and  there  he  had  the  privi- 
lege of  first  planting  the  Church.  The  country  of 
Usambara,  north  of  Zanzibar,  with  its  ports 
of  Pangani  and  Tanga,  seemed  to  be  the  most 
accessible  and  favorable  district,  and  here  he 
established  flourishing  mission  stations.  The 
success  of  the  mission  at  Zanzibar  was  inter- 
rupted in  1868  by  cholera,  and  in  1872  a  terrible 
hurricane  "left  everything  a  complete  wreck." 
All  the  mission  party  were  safe,  and,  led  by  the 
Bishop,  order  was  soon  restored,  and  the  mission 
work  resumed.  For  six  years  Bishop  Tozer, 
enfeebled  in  health,  made  his  home  in  London;  in 
1879  he  attempted  episcopal  work  in  the  dioceses 
of  Jamaica  and  Honduras,  and  in  1888  he  became 
vicar  of  South  Ferriby,  with  the  hope  of 
regaining  his  health.  The  end  came  after  twO' 
strokes  of  paralysis. 

TRACY,   William:   Born   at   Norwich,   Conn.^ 


739 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Tongareva 
Training  Schools 


June  2,  1807;  studied  at  Williams  College  and  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary;  was  ordained 
April  12,  1836;  sailed  November  23,  1836,  for 
India  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCPM,  and,  after 
spending  a  few  months  at  Madras,  reached 
Madura  October  9,  1837.  He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1851  and  1867.  At  Tirumangalam  he 
opened  a  boarding  school  for  boys.  From  that 
day  he  was  largely  engaged  with  the  educational 
work  of  the  district.  By  1842  the  boarding 
school  had  grown  to  a  high-grade  seminary.  In 
1845  it  was  removed  to  Pasumalai,  where  twenty- 
two  years  of  Mr.  Tracy's  life  were  spent.  More 
than  250  young  men  passed  through  the  course 
of  study.  Few  classes  left  him  in  which  nearly 
all  were  not  Christians,  a  large  number  of  them 
engaging  in  evangelistic  worlc  and  others  occu- 
pying honorable  posts  in  government  service. 
Mr.  Tracy  was  an  efficient  member  of  the  Revision 
Committee  of  the  Tamil  Bible.  He  died  at 
Tirupuvanam,  South  India,  November  28,  1877, 
aged  seventy,  and  in  the  forty-first  year  of  his 
missionary  service. 

TRAINING  SCHOOLS  for  Missionaries :  Every 
young  man  and  woman  who  is  physically  fit  to  be 
sent  to  the  mission  field  has,  upon  a  life  insurance 
basis,  reason  to  expect  at  least  twenty-five  years 
of  active  service.  How  to  make  every  one  of 
these  years  most  effective  is  the  problem  both  for 
the  individual  and  the  society  which  commissions 
him.  His  preparatory  work  must  be  done  partly 
at  home  and  partly  after  his  arrival  at  his  station. 
The  whole  of  his  equipment  cannot  be  secured 
before  reaching  the  field.  But  it  is  surely  advis- 
able to  get  in  the  homeland  as  thorough  a  train- 
ing as  possible  in  those  subjects  and  methods 
which  are  essential  to  the  best  work. 

Adequate  Preparation  is  a  needed  watchword  in 
the  missionary  movement.  It  is  easily  conceiv- 
able that  a  year  of  special  training  may  double 
the  missionary's  power  in  every  one  of  those 
twenty-five  or  more  years  of  service;  two  years 
may  quadruple  it.  To  neglect  or  belittle  this 
truth  is  foolish  and  hurtful.  That  it  has  been  too 
lightly  esteemed  in  the  past  is  admitted  by  those 
most  skilled  in  the  science  of  missions  and  most 
experienced  in  their  operation.  Dr.  Gustav 
Warneck  said  in  the  Ecumenical  Conference  of 
1900:  "What  we  need  beside  expert  mission 
directors  is,  above  all,  missionaries  really  capable 
for  their  great  work.  *  *  *  *  The  petition  that 
the  Lord  of  the  harvest  should  send  forth  laborers 
into  His  harvest  has  also  reference  to  their  qual- 

If  appeal  be  made  to  the  missionaries  now  in 
action,  most  of  them  will  complain  that  however 
much  general  education  they  may  have  received, 
they  lacked  training  to  meet  most  effectively  the 
conditions  existing  in  their  fields  of  labor. 

In  order  to  raise  materially  the  standard  of 
missionary  qualifications  two  things  are  essential : 
stimulus  and  machinery.  The  former  must  be  fur- 
nished mainly  by  the  societies  which  decide  upon 
the  qualifications  of  candidates.  These  may,  at 
will,  raise  the  standard  of  requirements  for 
obtaining  commissions.  The  latter  must  consist 
of  schools  managed  and  equipped  according  to 
the  best  science  and  strength  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

Missionary  training  schools  are  numerous.  A 
comprehensive  list  of  them  may  be  found  in  Dr. 
Dennis'  Centennial  Statistics.  Most  of  these  are 
of  great  service  to  the  men  and  women  who  seek 
their  aid  to  qualify  for  mission  work,  city,  home 


or  foreign.  Do  these  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  time  and  the  cause?  No  invidious  distinc-' 
tions  shall  here  be  drawn  nor  dogmatic  opinion 
expressed.  A  noted  secretary  of  one  of  the  larg- 
est American  Foreign  Mission  Boards  writes: 
"The  ideal  school  that  we  have  in  our  minds  hag 
not  as  yet  been  realized.  *  *  *  We  feel  the 
need  of  some  institution  that  will  train  our  young 
women  and  laymen  satisfactorily  and  also  give 
some  opportunities  for  finishing  off  young  men 
from  the  theological  schools." 

An  attempt  is  here  made  to  indicate  what  "the 
ideal  school"  must  give  to  those  purposing  to  join 
the  missionary  ranks.  All  will  agree  with  Dr. 
Warneck  when  he  says:  "Spiritual  equipment 
is,  of  course,  the  chief  consideration."  This  is  a 
matter  that  cannot  readily  be  included  in  a 
scheme  of  subjects.  In  one  sense  too  much 
emphasis  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  prepara- 
tion of  heart;  yet  this  further  statement  from  the- 
same  eminent  authority  is  no  less  weighty:  "The^ 
experience  of  more  than  a  hundred  years  should 
prevent  us  from  falling  into  the  mistake  of  think- 
ing that  this  alone  suffices  without  a  thorough 
training." 

Quality  of  the  Preparation:  The  special  training 
needed  by  missionaries  is  indicated  by  the  abnor- 
mal conditions  of  the  masses  of  the  people  to 
whom  they  are  sent.  Asia  and  Africa  are  the 
great  missionary  continents;  most  of  the  world's 
people  inhabit  them.  In  what  respects  are  they 
abnormal,  differing  from  the  masses  of  Chris- 
tendom? (1)  They  are  religiously  misguided, 
debased  and  lost,  i.  e.,  they  cannot  find  the  way 
to  their  Father  and  their  Home.  They  can- 
not find  righteousness.  (2)  They  are  socially 
dwarfed  and  demoralized.  Tested  by  their 
treatment  of  the  weak — women,  children,  the 
aged,  the  sick — by  their  domestic,  civic  and 
international  relations,  they  are  in  or  near  bar- 
barism. (3)  They  are  educationally  illiterate. 
Leaving  out  Japan,  probably  not  five  per  cent, 
of  them  can  read  books.  Their  science  is  false, 
their  minds  warped.  (4)  Medically  they  are 
ignorant.  Their  treatment  of  diseases  and 
wounds  is  distressingly  inadequate.  (5)  Hygi- 
enically  they  are  unsanitary.  Cholera,  plague 
and  smallpox  run  along  avenues  of  uncleanly 
living.  (6)  Industrially  and  economically  they 
are  backward.  Famine  is  a  common  condition. 
Poverty  is  the  general  state,  because  land  is  over- 
populated;  improved  methods  and  machinery  are 
lacking  and  thrift  is  very  feebly  possessed.  The 
true  missionary  cannot  help  strivmg  to  cure  all  of 
these  abnormal  conditions.  In  his  preparation 
he  should  take  them  definitely  into  account  and 
fit  himself  as  far  as  possible  to  handle  them. 
These  conditions  indicate  generally  the  following 
special  requirements  for  the  missionary  candidate : 

The  candidate  should  have  special  training  in: 

1.  His  own  religion  and  non-Christian  relig- 
ions. (1)  Comprehensive  Bible  study,  including 
introduction.  (2)  The  Christian  system  of  the- 
ology and  evidences.  (3)  History  and  compari- 
son of  religions.  Is  there  any  sufficient  reason 
why  all  women,  male  physicians  and  other  lay 
workers  should  not,  as  well  as  ordained  men, 
obtain  a  good  knowledge  of  these  subjects? 

2.  Elementary  and  practical  Sociology:  A 
study  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  society  with  its 
various  institutions;  of  the  perversions  of  mar- 
riage, family  life,  social  intercourse,  labor  con- 
ditions, government,  etc.,  and  of  the  remedies  for 
these  ills. 


Training-  Schools 
Trebizond 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


740 


3.  History  of  Missions  and  the  principles  on 
which  they  are  conducted. 

4.  Psychology  and  Pedagogy:  Most  mission- 
aries teach  or  supervise  schools.  Many  must 
train  native  teachers.  There  are  100,000 
pupils  in  mission  boarding  and  training  schools, 
most  of  whom  are  preparing  to  be  teachers. 
They  should  have  the  best  training.  All  who 
deal  with  the  abnormally  ignorant  classes  have 
special  need  of  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of 
mind  and  of  teaching.  Kindergarten  training  is 
most  helpful.  Rev.  J.  L.  Barton,  D.D.,  Secre- 
tary ABCFM,  has  said:  "I  heartily  believe  in  a 
pedagogical  course  for  the  most  of  our  mission- 
aries." 

5.  Elementary  medicine,  surgery  and  nursing: 
There  are  special  schools  for  regular  physicians 
and  nurses.  The  Missionary  Training  School 
should  give  to  all  other  students  such  training  as 
will  fit  them  to  render  intelligent  "first  aid"  to 
the  sick  or  injured. 

6.  Principles  of  Hygiene,  or   Health   Lectures. 

7.  Technical  crafts  and  business  methods: 
Women  should  learn  domestic  economy;  men 
should  have  training  in  carpentry,  photography 
and  stereopticon  management,  agriculture  or  at 
least  gardening,  book  manufacture,  and  even  in 
blacksmithing.  Both  men  and  women  should 
have  drill  in  bookkeeping  and  in  modern  methods 
of  filing  correspondence  and  other  documents. 

8.  Music. 

9.  Language  of  the  people  to  be  reached:  It  is 
not  practicable  to  teach  many  oriental  vernacu- 
lars m  the  home  schools.  But  such  comprehen- 
sive languages  as  Arabic,  Chinese,  Hindustani 
and  Turkish  might  be  given.  As  showing  that 
such  a  scheme  is  not  impracticable  two  actual 
courses  are  here  given,  one  for  men,  the  other  for 
women. 

I.  Church  Missionary  Training  College  at 
Islington.  In  addition  to  regular  instruction, 
university  and  theological,  a  course  is  given  in 
(1)  Elementary  Medicine  and  Surgery;  (2) 
Principles  and  Practise  of  Teaching;  (3)  Vocal 
Music;  (4)  Carpentering,  Bookmaking,  Printing, 
Tinsmithing  and  Blacksmithing;  (5)  Religious 
Systems  of  the  pagan  world; 

//.  The  Training  Institute  for  Women  of  the 
UFS,  Edinburgh,  gives  instruction  in  (1)  The 
Study  of  Scripture;  (2)  Christian  Doctrine;  (3) 
Introduction  to  the  Bible;  (4)  The  Hindustani 
Language;  (5)  Theory  of  Education,  Kinder- 
garten Principles,  Nature  Studies,  Class  Teaching 
and  School  Visiting;  (6)  Voice  Culture  and  Sing- 
ing; (7)  Account  Keeping;  (8)  Drill  Exercises; 
(9)  Nursing;  (10)  Care  of  Health;  (11)  History  of 
Missions;  (12)  Non-Christian  Religions;  (13) 
Sociology,  from  the  missionary  standpoint;  (14) 
Evangelistic  Theology. 

"Missionaries  must  be  weighed,  not  merely 
counted,"  says  Dr.  Warneck.  "Thorough  train- 
ing" is  his  prescription  for  their  need.  The  vital 
question  presses:  have  the  17,000  missionaries  in 
the  foreign  mission  service  the  weight  obtain- 
able through  a  practicable  preparation?  The 
ordained  men  number  more  than  6,000.  Has 
the  theological  school  given  a  training  specific 
enough  for  their  needs?  The  physicians,  men 
and  women,  are  more  than  700.  Have  they 
been  fitted  most  effectively  to  minister  to  the 
darkened  spirits  in  the  sick  bodies?  Unor- 
dained  men,  not  physicians,  to  the  number  of 
about  3,500  are  in  the  ranks;  unmarried  women, 
an   equal   number;    married   women,    more  than 


4,000.  How  many  of  these  are  lamenting  the 
lack  of  "thorough  training?"  The  best  prepara- 
tion is  none  too  good  for  the  missionary;  it  will 
not  be  wasted  upon  the  Master's  work  for  the 
heathen. 

TRANSVAAL  COLONY:  A  colony  of  Great 
Britain  in  S.  Africa,  conquered  from  the  Boers, 
who  governed  it  as  the  South  African  Republic 
prior  to  1900.  At  the  date  of  annexation  the 
area  was  119,139  square  miles,  but  in  1903  about 
7,000  square  miles,  constituting  the  provinces  of 
Vryheid  and  Utrecht  and  a  part  of  the  Wak- 
kerstroom  district,  were  annexed  to  Natal.  The 
State  Almanack  of  the  Transvaal  for  1898  gives 
the  population  at  1,094,156,  of  which  245,397 
are  returned  as  whites.  The  population  has 
undoubtedy  decreased  in  consequence  of  the 
war. 

The  colony  lies  between  Matabililand  on  the 
north  and  Natal  and  the  Orange  River  Colony 
on  the  south,  and  extends  east  and  west  from 
Portuguese  East  Africa  to  Bechuanaland.  It 
lies  about  50  miles  from  the  ocean  at  Delagoa 
Bay,  and  has  a  mean  altitude  of  over  3,000  feet. 
The  upland  region  drained  by  the  Vaal  River 
(Hooge  Veld),  from  4,000  to  7,000  feet  high, 
includes  most  of  the  richest  mineral  districts, 
and  has  a  healthful  climate.  The  eastern  ter- 
race lands  (Banken  Veld)  include  Swaziland  and 
the  Upper  Maputa  Valley.  These  lands  are  low- 
lying,  some  being  not  more  than  2,000  feet  high. 
Bosch  Veld,  the  inner  plateau,  3,000  to  4,000  feet 
high,  is  largely  steppe  land,  and  suitable  for  graz- 
ing. On  the  whole,  the  climate  is  invigorating. 
Along  the  river  valleys  and  in  the  low-lying  dis- 
tricts fever  is  endemic.  The  rainfall  is  unequally 
distributed.  The  land  is  fertile.  The  settlers 
have  chiefly  busied  themselves  with  stock  raising, 
tho  the  tsetse  fly  proves  very  destructive  in  the 
river  tracts  and  terrace  lands.  A  tsetse  belt  40 
miles  wide  along  the  Limpopo  bars  the  progress 
of  settlement  in  that  direction. 

The  missionary  societies  operating  in  the 
Transvaal  are  the  Berlin  Mission  Society,  the 
Mission  Romande  (French  Switzerland),  the 
Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society,  the  WMS,  the 
SPG,  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
the  National  Baptist  Convention,  the  South 
African  Baptist  Society,  and  the  ABCFM. 
These  societies  occupy  35  stations,  of  which 
24  are  stations  of  the  Berlin  Society.  The  ag- 
gregate working  force  is  611  missionaries  and 
native  workers,  men  and  women,  with  61  schools 
of  various  grades  and  about  5,000  communicants. 

Bryce  (J.),  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  3(i  ed.,  London, 
1899;  Cloete  (H.),  History  of  the  Great  Boer  Trek,  London, 
1899;  Colquhon  (A.  R.),  The  Renaissance  of  South  Africa, 
London,  1900;  Amery  (L.  S.),  "The  Times"  History  of 
the  War  in  South  Africa,  London,  1903. 

TRANQUEBAR :  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  on 
the  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  about  150  miles 
south  of  Madras.  It  is  situated  in  the  delta  of 
the  Caveri  River,  22  miles  N.  of  Negapatam. 
The  town,  with  a  small  area  of  country,  was 
obtained  by  the  Danish  East  India  Company  in 
1616,  and  held  by  the  Danes  until  1845  (with  the 
exception  of  a  few  years),  when,  with  Serampur 
in  Bengal,  it  was  sold  by  them  to  the  English. 
Under  Danish  rule  it  was  a  place  of  some  political 
and  commercial  importance,  which  in  recent 
years,  by  the  diversion  of  business  to  other 
centers,  it  has  almost  wholly  lost.  The  popu- 
lation is  about  5,000,  chiefly  Hindus.  The  great 
interest  which  Tranquebar  possesses  for  us  con- 


741 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Training  Seliools 
Trebizond 


sists  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  earliest  Protestant 
Missionary  station  in  India.  Here  Bartholomew 
Ziegenbalg  and  Henry  Plutschau,  the  pioneers 
of  the  great  army  of  Protestant  evangelists,  set- 
tled in  1706.  They  labored  under  the  greatest 
difficulties,  and  yet  within  three  and  a  halt  years 
a  Christian  community  had  been  gathered,  num- 
bering 160  persons,  which  rapidly  grew.  The 
Eublication  of  books  was  begun  at  once.  Ziegen- 
alg  completed  the  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  in  1711,  and  when  he  died  in  1719  he 
left  behind  him  a  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  far  as  the  Book  of  Ruth.  A  church  was 
built  by  his  efforts,  which  is  no  longer  in  exist- 
ence, its  site  having  been  undermined  by  the 
sea.  The  mission  was  manned  for  many  years 
by  men  of  superior  attainments  and  character, 
among  whom  was  the  great  Schwartz,  and  exerted 
a  profound  influence  in  South  India.  For  a  long 
time  it  received  pecuniary  aid  from  England 
through  the  Society  for  Propagating  Christian 
Knowledge.  In  1847  the  mission  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Leipzig  Evangelical  Lutheran  Mis- 
sion. Station  of  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Society 
(1841),  with  (1903)  6  missionaries,  4  of  them 
with  their  wives;  28  native  workers,  4  outsta- 
tions,  4  places  of  worship,  4  day  schools,  1  board- 
ing school,  1  printing  house,  and  759  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  411  are  communicants. 
The  name  is  also  written  Trankebar. 

TRAVANCORE:  A  native  state  in  India,  oc- 
cupying the  extreme  southwestern  portion  of 
the  peninsula.  Its  limits  of  north  latitude  are 
8°  4'  and  10°  22',  and  of  east  longitude  76°  12' 
and  77°  38'.  Its  boundaries  are,  on  the  north, 
the  native  state  of  Cochin;  on  the  east,  the 
British  districts  of  Madura  and  Tinnevelli, 
belonging  to  the  Madras  presidency,  from  which 
districts  it  is  separated  by  a  mountain  range; 
on  the  south  and  west,  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
length  of  Travancore  from  north  to  south  is  174 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  75.  It  embraces 
an  area  of  6,730  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  2,952,157  in  1901;  73  per  cent,  were  Hindus, 
about  21  per  cent.  Christians,  and  a  trifle  over  6 
per  cent,  were  Mohammedans.  The  Christian 
population  includes  a  large  number  of  adherents 
of  the  old  Syrian  Church  of  Malabar — more  than 
half  of  the  whole ;  nearly  a  third  are  Romanists 
and  the  remainder  Protestants.  As  to  language, 
Malayalim — a  Dravidian  tongue  allied  to  Tamil — 
is  used  by  about  four-fifths  <  f  the  people,  and 
Tamil  by  the  rest.  The  chief  town  and  capital 
is  Trivandrum,  with  a  population  of  41,173. 
Travancore  has  been  ruled  from  time  immemor- 
ial by  Hindu  princes  of  app:  oved  orthodoxy. 
It  has  never — like  all  the  rest  cf  India — come  at 
any  time  under  the  sway  of  the  Mohammedans. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  it  was  at- 
tacked by  Tippu,  Sultan  of  Mysore,  but,  with  the 
aid  of  the  English,  it  successfully  resisted  him. 
Treaties,  made  early  in  the  19th  century  with  the 
English,  have  firmly  cemented  this  old  connection 
and  made  English  influence  powerful  within  its 
borders,  tho  there  was  armed  opposition  in  1809. 
An  English  resident  is  maintained  at  the  court 
of  the  Maharajah  of  Travancore,  and  an  annual 
tribute  is  paid  to  the  "paramount  power."  The 
Government  of  Travancore,  tho  Hmdu,  is  intel- 
ligent, efficient,  and  progressive.  Its  native 
rulers  have  studied  to  good  advantage  the  ex- 
ample set  them  by  the  English  rulers  of  adjacent 
regions.  There  is  a  good  system  of  education  in 
vogue,  as  a  result  of  which  the  people  of  Travan- 


core show  about  as  high  an  average  of  intelligence 
and  as  large  a  proportion  of  persons  able  to  read 
and  write  as  many  British  provinces  in  India. 
The  people  are  chiefly  agricultural;  rice,  the 
coconut  palm,  and  pepper  are  the  principal 
productions,  and  the  exports  are  largely  derived 
from  the  coconut  tree,  tho  pepper,  ginger, 
cardamom,  timber,  and  some  other  articles  are 
included  among  them. 

The  forms  of  Hindu  worship  usual  throughout 
India  are  practised  in  Travancore,  mingled, 
however,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  with  the 
rites  of  demon-worship,  which  prevail  exten- 
sively in  South  India  and  Ceylon,^  especially 
among  the  aboriginal  tribes.  Missionaries  in 
Travancore  have  had  to  encounter  among  their 
converts  far  more  of  the  degrading  power  of 
these  old  habits  and  associations,  rooted  in  this 
ancestral  demonolatry,  than  their  fellow-laborers 
among  Hindus  in  other  regions. 

Mission  work  was  commenced  in  this  state  in 
1816  by  the  CMS.  The  plan  was  to  work  in 
alliance  with  the  old  Syrian  Church  of  Malabar, 
but  the  plan  failed,  and  twenty-five  years  later 
the  Society  turned  its  attention  to  the  people  at 
large,  with  great  success. 

The  London  Missionary  Society's  operations 
in  Travancore  began  in  1806.  Rev.  Mr.  Ringel- 
taube,  a  German,  joined  one  of  the  first  com- 
panies which  this  Society  sent  to  India.  He 
labored  in  Travancore  until  1816,  when  a  Chris- 
tian community  of  900  persons  had  been  formed. 
Mr.  Ringeltaube's  health  then  broke  down  and 
he  left  the  country. 

In  1818  the  Society  sent  out  other  missionaries. 
Col.  Munro  was  then  resident,  and  continued  the 
aid  of  the  mission  which  his  predecessor  had 
begun;  without  such  aid  from  the  representative 
of  British  power  it  is  hard  to  see  how  the  mission 
could  have  started  in  the  face  of  Hindu  oppo- 
sition on  the  part  of  the  Brahmans  and  the 
Hindu  Government.  The  converts  rapidly  in- 
creased— largely  from  among  the  low-caste 
Shanars.  From  1827  to  1830  violent  persecution 
was  experienced,  and  the  low-caste  people  in 
Travancore  have  never,  unless  perhaps  recentlv, 
been  admitted  to  the  privileges  of  the  public 
schools  maintained  by  the  government.  The 
progress  of  the  mission  in  late  years  has  been 
rapid  and  its  usefulness  great.  In  1838  it  was 
allowed  to  begin  a  station  at  Trivandrum,  the 
capital;  and  since  1844  it  has  drawn  many  con- 
verts from  the  higher  castes.  Rev.  Samuel 
Mateer,  one  of  its  most  distinguished  members, 
published,  in  1871,  a  full  account  of  the  country 
and  people  of  Travancore,  with  historical  sketches 
of  missionary  work  within  its  borders,  under  the 
title  "The  Land  of  Charity." 

TREBIZOND :  Seaport  and  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince in  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  on  the  lilack 
Sea.  By  reason  of  its  location,  it  has  been  an 
important  center  for  the  trade  from  Persia  and 
Central  Asia  to  Europe.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate, and  its  location  is  picturesque.  The 
city  is  divided  into  the  old  quarter,  inhabited  by 
Mohammedans;  the  more  modern,  or  Christian, 
quarter;  and  the  commercial  quarter.  Behind 
the  city  is  the  rocky  height  with  flattened  top 
which  gave  the  place  its  ancient  name  of  Trap- 
ezus.  At  this  point  Xenophon  reached  the 
Black  Sea  on  his  retreat  with  the  famous  ten 
thousand.  From  1203  until  nearly  the  end  of 
the  15th  century  Trebizond  was  an  independent 
and  autonomous  power.      Population  said  to  be 


Tricliinopoli 
Tsi-ning-clian 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


748 


about  35,000,  of  whom  18,000  are  Mohammedans 
and  15,200  Christians.  Station  of  the  ABCFM 
(1835),  with  (1903)  11  native  workers,  1  day 
school,  and  148  professed  Christians. 

TRICHINOPOLI :  A  town  or  municipality  in 
Madras,  India,  on  the  Caveri  River,  56  miles 
from  the  sea,  186  miles  southwest  of  Madras 
City.  It  is  a  place  of  much  historic  interest, 
having  been  the  scene  of  many  sieges.  Besides 
the  fort  and  cantonment  it  consists  of  seventeen 
separate  villages.  Inside  of  the  fort  is  the  holy 
rock  of  Trichinopoli,  which  rises  273  feet  above 
the  street  at  its  foot  and  which  has  on  its  sum- 
mit a  small  temple.  Numbers  of  pilgrims  always 
attend  the  annual  festival.  It  is  well  known 
for  its  cigars,  and  for  its  peculiar  and  beautiful 
gold  jewelry.  Heber,  the  Protestant  Bishop  of 
Calcutta,  is  buried  here  (1826),  and  the  place  is 
the  scene  of  great  missionary  activity.  Popula- 
tion (1901),  104,721,  of  whom  about  72,000  are 
Hindus,  17,000  Christians  and  10,000  Muslims. 

Station  of  the  SPG  (1825),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  1  woman  missionary,  28  native 
workers,  5  places  of  worship,  7  day  schools,  and 
301  professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
Leipzig    Missionary  Society  (1864),  with  (1903) 

1  missionary  and  his  wife,  14  native  workers,  6 
outstations,   7   places  of  worship,  6  day  schools, 

2  boarding  schools,  and  745  professed  Christians. 
Station  also  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 1  woman  missionary,  52  native  workers,  5 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  15  Sunday 
schools,  16  day  schools,  and  267  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  168  are  communicants. 
Germans  write  the  name  Tritschinopoli. 

TRICHUR:  A  town  in  Cochin,  India,  situated 
at  the  head  of  a  chain  of  canals  and  inland 
waterways  which  give  safe  navigation  for  small 
boats  as  far  as  Trivandrum.  It  is  a  great 
stronghold  of  Brahmanism.  Station  of  the  CEZ 
(1881),  with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries,  35 
native  workers,  7  day  schools,  and  1  female 
helpers'  training  class.  Also  station  of  the  CMS 
(1842),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  47  native 
workers,  8  day  schools,  and  3  boarding  schools. 

TRINIDAD:  An  island  belonging  to  Great 
Britain  in  the  West  Indies,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Gulf  of  Paria,  off  the  northeast  coast  of  Ven- 
ezuela, north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco. 
Area,  1,754  square  miles.  Population,  255,148 
(1901).  Temperature,  70°  to  86°  Fahrenheit. 
Soil,  fertile.  Capital,  Port-of-Spain.  Mission 
field  of  the  UFS,  the  PCC,  the  SDA,  and  the  Mora- 
vian Missions,  with  stations  at  Port-of-Spain, 
Arouca,  and  San  Fernando — 3  churches,  379 
church-members,  600  scholars.  There  are  191 
schools,  16,000  pupils,  under  the  Government 
grant  of  £16,783.  The  Queen's  Royal  College 
has  65  students.  The  Roman  Catholics  have 
also  a  college  with  220  students. 

TRINITARIAN  BIBLE  SOCIETY:  Head- 
quarters, 7  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  London,  E. 
C.,  England.  The  Trinitarian  Bible  Society  was 
organized  in  1831,  for  the  circulation  of  the 
Word  of  God,  translated  from  the  originals  only, 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  versions  from  the  Vulgate. 
No  person  is  admitted  to  the  management  of  the 
Society  who  denies  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity 
and  the  Atonement.  The  work  of  the  Society  is 
chiefly  in  those  countries  in  which  the  Vulgate 
or  Roman  Catholic  versions  most  abound.  It 
has  prepared  a  Spanish  Bible  in  several  editions, 
and   a   Portuguese   Bible   with  references.     The 


first  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Breton 
language  for  the  Breton  Evangelical  Mission  was 
printed  by  the  Society;  also  Salkinson's  Hebrew 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  of  which 
100,000  copies  have  already  (within  three  years) 
been  distributed  among  Jews  in  all  countries. 

The  Society  avoids  colportage  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, its  work  of  distribution  being  mainly 
carried  on  by  agents  of  other  societies. 

TRIPOLI :  A  province  of  the  Turkish  Empire 
in  North  Africa.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north- 
west by  Tunis,  on  the  east  by  the  Nubian  Desert, 
which  separates  it  from  Egypt,  and  it  includes 
within  its  southern  border  the  oases  of  Kufra, 
Fezzan,  etc.  It  covers  an  area  of  about  400,000 
square  miles,  and  has  a  population  variously 
estimated  at  from  800,000  to  1,300,000.  The 
dervish  order  of  the  Senoussis,  whose  capital 
used  to  be  Jarabub,  in  the  Fared  Ghah  Oasis,  in 
the  Libyan  Desert,  is  the  dominant  power  in  the 
whole  country.  It  has  15  stations  in  Morocco, 
25  in  Algeria,  10  in  Tunis,  66  in  Tripoli,  and  17 
in  Egypt.  The  Sultan  of  Wadai  is  one  of  the 
most  fervent  adherents  of  the  sect.  It  does  not 
confine  itself  to  the  white  race;  the  blacks  have 
also  been  drawn  into  its  numerous  schools, 
founded  in  the  Sudan,  which  have  extended  their 
influence  from  Senegambia  to  Timbuktu,  Lake 
Tchad,  Bahr-el-Ghazel,  and  even  to  the  country 
of  the  Danakils,  the  Gallas,  and  the  Somalis. 

Tripoli  is  naturally  divided  for  administrative 
purposes  into  four  provinces.  The  country  is 
made  up  of  vast  sandy  plains  interrupted  by 
rocky  ranges,  with  a  fertile  strip  adjacent  to  the 
sea,  and  here  and  there  in  the  desert  a  depression, 
where  the  springs  of  water  are  sufficient  for  a 
few  inhabitants  and  their  groves  of  date  palms. 
The  principal  products  are  corn,  barley,  olives, 
saffron,  figs,  and  dates.  The  climate  is  variable, 
resembling  that  of  southern  Europe,  and  gen- 
erally salubrious.  The  population  consists  of 
Arabs,  Berbers,  Negroes  (brought  from  the 
interior  as  slaves),  Turks,  and  Jewish  and 
European  (Maltese)  traders.  A  few  uninflu- 
ential  Coptic  groups  are  found.  The  North 
Africa  Mission  has  1  station  in  Tripoli. 

TRIPOLI:  A  seaport  town  of  Syria,  situated 
2  miles  from  Mina  its  seaport,  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, 40  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Beirut.  It  owes  its 
name  to  its  three  separate  sections  distinguished 
in  remote  history.  Many  remains  of  ancient 
buildings  are  still  found  there.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Crusaders  in  the  12th  century,  at  which 
time  its  library  was  burned.  It  is  one  of  the 
neatest  towns  of  Syria,  and  is  surrounded  by 
many  gardens  and  groves  of  orange  and  other 
fruit  trees,  but  the  ground  in  the  neighborhood 
is  marshy,  and  the  climate  is  unhealthful  at 
certain  seasons.  Population,  26,000,  one-half 
Greek  Catholics.  Station  of  the  PN  (1848),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women 
missionaries,  43  native  workers,  18  outstations, 
13  places  of  worship,  20  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  724  professed 
Christians. 

TRIPOLI:  Capital  of  the  Turkish  province  of 
T.  in  Africa,  called  by  Turks  Tarabulus-i-Gharb. 
It  is  the  starting  point  of  caravans  for  the  Sudan 
as  far  west  as  Timbuktu  and  a  center  of  a  flour- 
ishing slave-trade  which  is  protected  by  Turkish 
officials.  It -is  a  picturesque  town;  population 
(estimated),  40,000.  Station  of  the  North  Africa 
Mission  (1889),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  with 


743 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Trlchlnopolt 
Tsl-nlng-cUau 


their  wives,  2  women   missionaries,  and   1   dis- 
pensary. 

TRIVANDRUM:  A  town  and  capital  of  Trav- 
ancore,  India,  situated  about  38  miles  S.  E.  of 
Quilon.  It  is  a  stronghold  of  Brahmanist  in- 
fluence, which  centers  in  the  fort  where  the 
palaces  of  the  reigning  family  are  found,  besides 
the  chief  pagoda  and  the  residence  of  many 
high-caste  people.  The  English  resident  and 
other  foreigners  live  among  gardens  outside  the 
fort.  Population  (1901),  57,882.  Station  of 
theLMS  (1838),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
-their  wives,  127  native  workers,  64  outstations, 
60  Sunday  schools,  74  day  schools,  2  boarding 
schools,  1  hostel,  1  dispensary,  1  lepers'  asylum, 
and  14,751  professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,975 
are  communicants.  Also  station  of  the  CEZ 
(1862),  with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries,  28 
native  workers,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  1 
boarding  school,  which  is  in  an  old  palace  in  the 
fort,  the  gift  of  the  Maharajah.  Some  write 
the  name  Trevandrum. 

TROWBRIDGE,  Tillman  Conklin:  Born  in 
Michigan,  January  28,  1831.  Died  at  Marash, 
Turkey,  July  20,  1888.  Studied  at  Romeo, 
Mich.;  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  Union 
Theological  Seminary.  Appointed  missionary 
of  the  ABCFM  in  1856,  and  sailed  for  Constan- 
tinople. After  learning  the  language  he  engaged 
in  itinerating  among  the  Armenians  of  Eastern 
Turkey.  Returning  to  Constantinople  in  1861, 
he  married  a  daughter  of  Dr.  Elias  Riggs.  He 
had  charge  of  the  city  work  of  Constantinople 
for  six  years,  and  in  1868  was  transferred  to 
Marash  to  assist  in  the  instruction  of  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  In  1872  he  visited  England 
and  America  to  raise  funds  for  the  Central 
Turkey  College  at  Aintab.  In  1876  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  college.  From  that 
time  to  his  death,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief 
visit  to  England,  he  devoted  himself  with  energy 
to  promoting  its  interests,  as  well  as  to  the 
material,  moral,  and  religious  improvement  of 
the  people  of  Turkey.  His  well-known  good 
judgment,  his  quick  and  contagious  sympathy, 
his  unfailing  cheerfulness  and  optimism,  his 
ready  pen  and  persuasive  tongue,  united  to  give 
him  a  wide  influence,  and  the  Central  Turkey 
College  owes  to  his  energetic  labor  a  large  share 
of  its  present  position  and  power. 

TSAKOMA:  A  settlement  in  the  Transvaal, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  Zoutpansberg  District, 
about  100  miles  N.  E.  of  Pietersburg.  Station  of 
the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1874),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries,  9  native  workers,  3  outstations, 
1  day  school,  and  206  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  89  are  communicants.  Some  write  the 
name  Tschakoma. 

TSAO-SHIH:  A  town  of  Hu-pei,  China,  sit- 
uated about  50  miles  W.  of  Han-kau  on  a  little 
lake  connected  with  Han  River.  Station  of  the 
LMS  (1880),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  of  them 
with  his  wife,  and  1  dispensary.  Church  statis- 
tics are  included  with  Han-kau. 

TSCHAKOMA.     See  Tsakoma. 

TSCHI-CHIN :  A  town  in  Kwang-tung,  China, 
situated  about  130  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Canton. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1898), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  14  native  workers,  11 
outstations,  1  day  school,  and  803  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  359  are  communicants. 

TSCHOMBALA.     See  Chombala. 


See       TSONG-HANQ- 


TSCHONGHANGKANG. 

KUNG. 

TSCHONGSTSHUN.     See  Tsong-shun. 

TSCHOU-TONG-AU:  A  town  in  Kwang-tung, 
China,  situated  about  80  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Can- 
ton. Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society 
(1891),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  18  native 
workers,  8  outstations,  1  day  school,  and  352 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  356  are  commun- 
icants. 

TSHABO.     See  Berlin,  Cape  Colony. 

TSIAFAHY:  A  town  and  district  of  Mada- 
gascar, situated  in  the  Imerina  province  about 
15  miles  S.  of  Antananarivo.  Station  of  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society  (1897),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  113  native 
workers,  4  Sunday  schools,  55  day  schools,  2 
boarding  schools,  and  900  professed  Christians. 

TSI-HO :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Hu-pei, 
China.  Station  of  the  Hauges  Synod's  China 
Mission  (1900),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  place  of  worship,  2  day  schools.  Some 
write  the  name  Tsze-ho. 

TSI-NAN-FU:  A  town  in  Shan-tung,  China, 
situated  175  miles  S.  of  Tien-tsin.  It  is  walled. 
Its  trade  is  in  silks  and  in  imitation  precious 
stones.  Temperate,  healthful.  Population,  150,- 
000,  Mongolian  Chinese  chiefly.  Station  of  the 
PN  (1872),  with  4  missionaries,  three  of  them 
with  their  wives;  3  women  missionaries,  1 
native  worker,  2  outstations,  2  places  of  worship, 
12  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  2  hospitals, 
and  573  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name  Chinanfu. 

TSIN-CHAU:  A  prefectural  city  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Kan-su,  China,  situated  62  miles  S.  E.  of 
Kung-chung-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1878), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  4  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
2  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  and  51  professed 
Christians. 

TSING-CHAU-FU:  Town  in  the  province  of 
Shantung,  China,  160  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Chi-fu. 
It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  province,  and 
has  still  a  large  silk  mdustry.  Station  of  the 
BMS  (1877),  with  7  missionaries  and  their  wives, 
82  native  workers,  98  outstations,  1  dispensary, 
1  hospital,  24  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools, 
and  1,618  professed  Christians.  Also  station  of 
the  BZM  (1893),  with  (1903)  4  women  mission- 
aries, 1  boarding  school,  and  15  day  schools. 
Some  write  the  name  Ching-chow. 

TSING-KIANG-PU:  A  town  in  Kiang-su, 
China,  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal  about  10 
miles  N.  W.  of  Hwei-ngan-fu.  Station  of  the 
CIM  (1869),  with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries, 
5  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  2  day  schools,  and  26  professed  Christians. 
Also  station  of  the  PS  (1887),  with  (1900)  3 
missionaries  and  their  wives. 

TSING-NING-CHAU:  A  town  in  Kan-su, 
China,  situated  about  100  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Lan- 
chau-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM^  (1897),  with  1 
missionary  and  1  place  of  worship. 

TSI-NING-CHAU:  A  town  in  Shantung, 
China,  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal  in  the  S. 
part  of  the  province,  150  miles  S.W.  of  Tsi-nan-fu. 
Station  of  the  Independent  Baptist  Movement 
Mission,  with  (1901)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives.  Also  station  of  the  PN  (1892),  with 
(1903)  3  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife; 
21  native  workers,  2  day  schools,  1  dispensary. 


TsiTig--tao 
Tnuis 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


744 


1  hospital,  and  159  professed  Christians.  Some 
write  the  name  Chining  Chow. 

TSING-TAO:  A  town  in  Shan-tung,  China, 
situated  in  the  German  district  at  the  N.  side  of 
the  entrance  to  Kiao-chau  Bay.  It  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  German  Shan-tung  Railway.  Station 
of  the  General  Evangelical  Protestant  Mission- 
ary Society  (German)  (1898),  with  (1903)  3 
missionaries,  2  of  them  with  their  wives;  1  out- 
station,  10  native  workers,  1  day  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  and  1  place  of  worship. 
Also  station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society, 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  22  native  workers, 
1  woman  missionary,  2  outstations,  and  233  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  186  are  communi- 
cants. These  statistics  include  Kiao-chau. 
Station  also  of  the  PN  (1898),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his  wife;  2  out- 
stations, 2  places  of  worship,  17  day  schools,  and 
100  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Tsingtau  or  Tsing  Tau. 

TSIN-YUN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Che-kiang, 
China,  situated  55  miles  N.  W.  of  Wen-chau. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1898),  with  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  and  2  professed 
Christians. 

TSIVORY:  A  town  in  Madagascar,  situated 
in  the  S.  part  of  the  island,  about  55  miles  N.  W. 
of  Port  Dauphin.  Station  of  the  Lutheran  Free 
Church  (IT.  S.  1901),  with  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  native  workers,  and  2  outstations.  Some 
write  the  name  Tsivoro. 

TSOLO:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa, 
situated  in  Pondoland  West,  50  miles  N.  W.  of 
Port  St.  John's.  Station  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  Scotland  (1865),  with  (1903)  6  mis- 
sionaries, 2  missionary  women,  46  native  workers, 
27  outstations,  4  places  of  worship,  23  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1,673  professed 
Christians.  Statistics  are  also  included  in  the 
SPG.  Some  use  the  name  St.  Cuthbert's  for 
this  station. 

TSOMO:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Transkei  region,  about  55 
miles  S.  E.  of  Queenstown.  Station  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  (1899),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  17  native  workers,  17  outstations, 
17  day  schools,  and  753  professed  Christians. 
Statistics  are  included  in  the  SPG  also.  Station 
also  of  the  NBC,  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  1 
woman  missionary,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  and  80  professed  Christians.  Also 
station  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odist Missions,  with  (1900)  1  missionary.  111 
native  workers,  16  outstations,  26  places  of 
worship,  6  Sunday  schools,  21  day  schools,  and 
1,462  professed  Christians. 

TSONG-HANG-KUNG:  A  town  in  Kwang- 
tung,  China,  situated  about  50  miles  S.  E.  of  Can- 
ton. Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society 
(1883),^  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  of  them 
with  his  wife;  9  native  workers,  5  outstations, 
3  day  schools,  and  388  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  262  are  communicants.  Some  write  the 
name  Tschong-hang-kang. 

TSONG-SHUW:  A  village  in  Kwang-tung, 
China,  situated  about  100  miles  N.W.  of  Swatow. 
Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1864), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his 
wife;  16  native  workers,  7  outstations,  8  day 
schools,  and  676  professed  Christians,  of  whom 


380  are  communicants.  Some  write  the  name 
Tschongtshun. 

TSOU-PING-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Shan-tung, 
China,  situated  about  45  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Tsi- 
nan-fu.  Station  of  the  BMS  (1889),  with  (1903) 
8  missionaries,  7  of  them  with  their  wives;  54 
native  workers,  208  outstations,  13  Sunday 
schools,  2  dispensaries,  1  hospital,  and  2,117 
professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the  BZM 
(1894),  with  (1903)  2  women  missionaries,  3 
outstations,  3  day  schools,  and  4  native  workers. 
Some  write  the  name  Chow  Ping. 

TSO-YUN-HSIEN:  A  town  of  Shan-si,  China, 
situated  18  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  So-ping-fu.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1895),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries,  3 
native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school, 

1  Sunday  school,  and  14  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Tso-yuin. 

TSIT:  A  station  in  Japan,  of  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Board,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries 
and  their  wives,  2  native  workers,  3  outstations, 

2  places  of  worshijj,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  theological  class,  and  172  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  PE,  with  (1901) 
2  missionaries,  3  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday 
schools,  and  22  professed  Christians. 

TSUEN-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Fo-kien,  China, 
situated  near  the  coast  about  45  miles  N.  E.  of 
Amoy.  _  Station  of  the  PCE  (1866),  with  (1903) 
10  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  dispensaries, 
2  hospitals,  and  1  medical  class.  Some  write  the 
name  Chinchew. 

TSUN-I-FU:  A  town  of  Kwei-chau,  China, 
situated  85  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Kwei-yang-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  2  missionaries, 
1  of  them  with  his  wife,  and  1  dispensary. 

TUAMOTU  ISLANDS:  A  cluster  of  small 
islands  east  of  the  Society  Islands,  Polynesia. 
They  were  acquired  by  France  in  1880,  together 
with  the  Gambler  Islands,  and  form  part  of  the 
French  establishments  in  Oceania.  The  two 
groups  have  an  area  of  390  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  5,946.  The  people  are  many  of 
them  Roman  Catholics,  and  there  are  a  few  Mor- 
mons at  Anaa.  The  Paris  Evangelical  Society 
missionaries  tour  among  the  islands  in  their 
missionary  cruiser.  The  Southern  Cross,  and 
they  have  stationed  a  preacher  at  Anaa. 

TUBETUBE:  An  island  of  the  D'Entrecas- 
treaux  group,  about  50  miles  off  the  S.  B.  point 
of  New  Guinea.  Station  of  the  Australian  Wes- 
leyan Methodist  Missionary  Society,  with  (1901) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  6  native  workers,  1 
outstation,  6  places  of  worship,  6  day  schools,  5 
Sunday  schools,  and  55  professed  Christians. 

TUCAMAN :  A  town  in  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, South  America,  situated  about  700  miles  N.W. 
of  Buenos  Aires.  Population  50,000.  Station 
of  the  PB,  with  2  missionaries,  1  of  them  with  his 
wife.     Some  write  the  name  Tucuman. 

TUCKER,  Miss  Charlotte  Maria:  Born  in  1821. 
Died  at  Amritsar,  India,  December  2,  1893. 
Miss  Tucker  (better  known  as  A.  L.  O.  E.)  was 
famous  as  a  writer  of  captivating  stories  before 
1875,  when,  at  the  age  of  fifty-four,  and  at  her 
own  expense,  she  went  to  India  as  a  missionary. 
She  studied  Urdu  before  going  out  to  India,  and 
almost  from  the  first  day  of  her  arrival  there 
she  turned  her  thoughts  to  writing  parables  and 
stories  for  the  natives;  with  wonderful  ease 
adopting  their  modes  of  thought  and  style  of 


745 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Tsinff-tao 
Tunis 


language,  and  entering  into  their  prejudices  and 
difficulties.  Thousands  of  her  tracts  and  books 
were  soon  circulating  in  many  parts  of  India. 
At  the  special  request  of  the  Christian  Vernac- 
ular Education  Society  for  India,  she  wrote  a 
volume,  explanatory  of  our  Lord's  Parables, 
entitled  "Pearls  of  Wisdom,"  and  it  was  pub- 
lished also  in  separate  tracts,  to  enable  the  poor- 
est to  purchase  it.  She  first  entered  upon  her 
missionary  work  at  Amritsar,  but  soon  went  to 
Batala,  where  she  labored  among  the  large 
Mohammedan  population.  She  did  much  evan- 
gelistic work  from  house  to  house.  She  would 
find  her  way  to  a  zenana,  and,  on  gaining  admit- 
tance, would  seat  herself  on  the  floor  with 
true  Oriental  ease  and  grace,  the  native  occu- 
pants of  the  dwelling  gathering  round,  curious 
and  expectant;  and  then  she  would  fix  their 
attention  by  a  pleasing  story  or  beautiful  pic- 
tures, until  she  drove  home  some  helpful  Gospel 
truth.  She  took  a  special  interest  in  the  High 
School  for  Boys,  and  for  some  years  she  lived 
in  the  school-building,  which  was  formerly  the 
palace  of  Maharaja  Sher  Singh.  She  taught 
the  boys  the  Bible,  literature,  and  history;  and 
from  her  own  private  resources  she  extended  the 
influence  of  this  and  other  institutions  of  learn- 
ing. Miss  Tucker  showed  active  pity  for  the 
Mihtars  (sweepers),  who  are  the  very  lowest 
caste  in  society — the  opposite  end  of  the  social 
Bcale  to  the  Brahmans;  and  she  made  an  effort 
to  carry  the  Gospel  to  the  thousands  of  convicts 
on  the  Andaman  Islands,  but  the  plan  had  to  be 
abandoned,  as  the  Government  could  not  sanction 
religious  proselytising  among  the  political 
prisoners.  One  of  the  last  projects  in  Batala 
which  received  Miss  Tucker's  sympathy  and  aid 
was  the  new  CEZMS  Dispensary.  For  eighteen 
years  this  consecrated  woman,  who  resolved  to 
spend  the  "sunset  of  her  life"  among  the 
women  of  the  Punjab,  labored  far  from  her 
earthly  home  until  she  entered  her  heavenly 
home. 

TUCUMAN.     See  Tucaman. 

TUH-SHAN.     See  Tu-shan-chau. 

TULBAGH:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa, 
75  miles  northeast  of  Cape  Town.  Population, 
660.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  12  native 
workers,  1  Sunday  school,  2  day  schools,  and  881 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  350  are  communi- 
cants. 

TULLIAR:  A  town  in  Madagascar,  situated 
on  the  W.  coast,  north  of  St.  Augustin  Bay. 
Station  of  the  Norwegian  Missionary  Society 
(1874).     Some  write  the  name  Tulear. 

TUMKUR:  A  town  in  Mysore,  India,  situated 
40  miles  N.  E.  of  Bangalore.  Population,  11,170. 
Station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  1  missionary, 
2  women  missionaries,  98  native  workers,  11 
places  of  worship,  8  Sunday  schools,  24  day 
schools,  1  boardmg  school,  and  253  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  232  are  communicants. 

TUNAPUNA:  A  villag»  in  Trinidad,  situated 
10  miles  E.  of  the  Port  of  Spain  in  the  plantation 
district  where  East  Indian  coolies  are  found  in 
numbers.  Station  of  the  PCC  (1881),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  wonian  mis- 
sionary, 11  native  workers,  2  outstations,  16 
day  schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  150  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  SPG,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary,  2  native  workers,   3  outstations. 


and  3,500  professed  Christians,  of  whom  657  are 
communicants. 

TUNG  AN.     See  Tunq-ngan-hsibn. 

TUNG-CHAU:  A  city  in  Chi-li,  China,  at  the^ 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Peiho,  13  miles  east 
of  Peking.  Population,  50,000.  Station  of  the 
ABCFM  (1867),  with  (1903)  7  missionaries,  6 
of  them  with  their  wives;  2  women  missionaries, 
9  native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  4  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theological  class, 
1  college,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  213 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Tung-cho. 

TUNG-CHAU-FU:  A  town  of  Shen-si,  China, 
situated  about  65  miles  N.  E.  of  Hsi-ngan-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1891),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  4  women  missionaries,  5  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  2  places  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  1  boarding  school,  1  dispensary,, 
and  25  professed  Christians. 

TUNG-CHI-HSIEN:  A  town  of  Kan-su,  China, 
situated  in  the  E.  part  of  the  province,  about 
50  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Ping-liang-fu.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1899),  but  there  has  been  no  resident 
missionary  since  the  troubles  of  1900.  Some 
write  the  name  T'ong-chi. 

TUNG-CHO.     See  Tung-chau. 

TUNGKUN.     See  Tung-kwan-hsien. 

TUNG-KWAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Kwang- 
tung,  China,  situated  about  35  miles  S.  E.  of 
Canton.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission  Society,, 
with  4  missionaries,  3  of  them  with  their  wives; 
6  native  workers,  3  day  schools,  and  314  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  250  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Tungkun. 

TUNG-LU:  a  town  of  Che-kiang,  China,  sit- 
uated about  30  miles  S.  W.  of  Yen-chau-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  1  missionary. 

TUNG-NGAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Chi-Ii,  China, 
situated  about  30  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Tien-tsin. 
Station  of  the  LMS  (1897),  with  (1901)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  12  native  workers,  2  places 
of  worship,  1  dispensary,  and  180  professed 
Christians.     Some  write  the  name  Tung  An. 

TUNG-NGAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Fo-kien, 
China,  situated  about  25  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Amoy. 
It  is  a  walled  town,  with  a  large  population  in  its 
suburbs  outside  the  walls.  Station  of  the  RCA 
(1895),  with  (1903)  1  woman  missionary,  11 
native  workers,  9  outstations,  11  places  of  wor- 
ship, 2  day  schools,  and  290  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Tong-An. 

TUNI :  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated  in 
the  district  of  Vizagapatam,  about  40  miles  N.  E. 
of  Cocanada,  Station  of  the  BOQ  (1878),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman 
missionary,  22  native  workers,  7  outstations,  3 
places  of  worship,  16  Sunday  schools,  7  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  183  professed 
Christians. 

TUNIS:  A  protectorate  of  France  in  Africa, 
lying  on  the  Mediterranean,  which  bounds  it 
north  and  east,  with  Algeria  on  the  west  and 
Tripoli  on  the  east.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
51,000  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
1,900,000,  mostly  Bedouin  Arabs  and  Kabyles. 
The  French  population  (1901)  is  38,889,  includ- 
ing soldiers  and  sailors  of  tlie  ships  and  garrisons. 
There  are  about  60,000  Jews.  The  physical  and 
climatic  conditions  are  much  the  same  as  in 
Algeria.     Protestant  missions  are  carried  on  ia 


Tunis 
Turkey 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


746 


Tunis  by  the  North  African  Mission  and  the 
London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity 
among  the  Jews,  with  4  stations. 

TUNIS:  Capital  of  the  country  of  the  same 
name  in  Africa,  is  situated  on  the  western  side 
of  a  very  shallow  lake  which  separates  it  from 
its  port,  Goletta.  A  deep-water  canal  7  miles 
long  runs  through  the  lake,  allowing  sea-going 
vessels  to  come  up  to  Tunis.  The  ancient  city 
of  Tunis  contains  several  historically  interesting 
buildings,  as  the  Kasha,  a  castle  formerly  used 
as  a  prison  for  Christian  captives  and  now  occu- 
pied by  the  French  garrison,  and  the  palace  of 
the  Bey,  etc.  This  part  of  the  city  is  separated 
by  the  Bab  el  Bahr  (sea  gate)  from  the  European 
quarter,  known  among  foreigners  as  La  Marine. 
Tunis  is  commonly  called  a  healthful  town,  but 
typhoid  fever  and  diphtheria  are  very  common. 
Population,  145,000,  of  whom  45,000  are  Jews, 
11,000  French,  and  8,000  Maltese  and  other 
foreigners.  Station  of  the  London  Jews'  Society 
(1833),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women 
missionaries,  8  native  workers,  1  place  of  wor- 
ship, 1  Sunday  school,  and  2  day  schools.  Also 
station  of  the  NAM  (1885),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries and  their  wives,  5  women  missionaries, 
1  native  worker,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  12  professed  Christians. 

TURA:  A  village  among  the  Garo  Hills,  Assam, 
73  miles  S.  E.  of  Kuch  Behar.  Climate  hot  and 
unhealthful.  Altitude  1,300  feet.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1876),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  2  women  missionaries,  125  native 
workers,  92  outstations,  93  places  of  worship,  63 
Sunday  schools,  87  day  schools,  1  boarding 
school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  1  printing  house, 
and  5,545  professed  Christians,  of  whom  3,835 
are  communicants. 

TURKESTAN  AND  TARTARY:  These  are 
terms  which  have  been  loosely  applied  to  all  that 
part  of  Central  Asia  which  lies  east  of  the  Cas- 

gian  Sea,  south  of  Siberia,  west  of  Manchuria  or 
hina,  and  north  of  Tibet,  India,  Afghanistan, 
and  Persia.  The  name  Tartary  is  a  barbarism 
which  is  gradually  falling  into  disuse  as  the  for- 
merly unknown  plateaus  and  steppes  of  Central 
Asia  are  being  more  thoroughly  explored,  but 
the  term  Turkestan  can  still  be  retained  as  apply- 
ing to  that  part  of  Central  Asia  which  includes 
three  divisions:  (1)  West  Turkestan,  (2)  East 
Turkestan,  and  (3)  Jungaria. 

West  Turkestan  includes  in  its  territory  the 
highlands  of  Thian  Shan,  the  plains  of  the  Bal- 
kash,  and  the  lowlands  between  the  Aral  and  the 
Caspian  Seas.  It  comprises  Russian  Turkestan, 
the  provinces  of  Samarcand,  Fergana,  Semi- 
rechensk,  Syr-Daria,  Khiva,  Bokhara,  and  Kokh- 
and;  the  Chinese  oasis  of  Kulja,  and  some  parts 
of  Afghan  Turkestan.  It  includes  an  area  of 
about  1,600,000  square  miles,  with  a  population 
estimated  at  8,500,000,  of  which  793,032  square 
miles  are  in  the  Russian  provinces  or  depend- 
encies, having  a  population  of  over  3,500,000. 
The  physical  features  of  this  large  area  vary 
greatly — from  mountain  peaks  of  perpetual 
snow  to  deep  gorges  and  valleys,  with  every 
variety  of  climate  and  vegetation.  Prairies  and 
lowlands  alternate  with  deserts,  over  which  the 
dry  winds,  at  times  scorching  hot  and  then 
again  icy  cold,  blow  sand  or  snow,  and  blight 
all  vegetation.  The  population  of  this  territory 
is  very  mixed.  Aryans  and  Mongols  are  both 
found,  the  former  principally  in  the  cities,  while 


the  latter  are  wandering  tribes.  To  the  Tu- 
ranian group  belong  the  Turcomans,  Kirghiz, 
Uzbegs,  and  Sarts.  The  Mongolians  include  the 
Kalmucks  and  Torgoutes.  To  the  Aryan  race 
belong  the  Tajiks,  who  are  Sunnite  Moham- 
medans, Persians,  British  Indians,  and  Russians. 
The  principal  cities  are  Kokhand,  Marghilan, 
Tashkend,  Khojend,  Bokhara,  and  Khiva.  The 
two  latter  have  each  from  30,000  to  100,000  in- 
habitants. 

East  Turkestan  includes  that  large  depression 
in  the  plateau  of  Eastern  Asia  which  lies  between 
Western  Turkestan  and  those  parts  of  Asia 
which  have  received  distinctive  names,  and 
whose  boundaries  have  been  defined.  Its  boun- 
dary on  the  northwest  is  the  Thian  Shan  range; 
on  the  southwest  and  south  the  Kuenlun  moun- 
tains; on  the  southeast  to  Lake  Lob-nor,  the 
Altyn-Dagh,  and  on  the  northeast  the  moun- 
tains which  run  east-northeast  from  the  Thian 
Shan  range.  It  includes  a  territory  of  about 
465,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  1,000,- 
000,  of  which  431,800  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  580,000,  is  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 
The  climate  is  severe;  there  is  no  great  fertility 
of  the  soil,  and  consequently  the  whole  district 
is  very  sparsely  populated.  The  few  inhabitants 
are  representatives  of  both  the  Aryan  and  Tu- 
ranian groups  of  the  human  race.  The  Mongol 
element  predominates  toward  the  northeast. 
Turkish  mixed  with  Chinese  is  the  prevailing 
tongue.  Yarkand  and  Kashgar,  in  Chinese 
Turkestan,  are  the  chief  towns,  and  here  the 
Swedish  Society  {Svenska  Missionsforbundet) 
has  stations.  Tho  the  first  representatives  of 
the  Swedish  Society  came  in  1891,  work  was  not 
regularly  organized  until  1894.  The  Bible  has 
been  translated  into  the  Kashgarian  language, 
medical  work  has  begun,  and  the  good  seed  is 
bringing  forth  fruit. 

Jungaria  or  Songaria  lies  to  the  north  of  East 
Turkestan,  and  is  a  deep  valley  leading  from  the 
lowlands  to  the  central  plateau.  It  includes 
147,950  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  600,- 
000,  and  is  a  dependency  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

There  are  no  missionary  societies  at  work  in 
West  Turkestan.  The  only  Protestant  work  that 
is  carried  on  is  that  by  the  BFBS.  The  Scrip- 
tures in  whole  or  in  part  have  been  translated 
into  several  local  dialects  of  Turkish  which  are 
■\'ery  nearly  alike  but  have  different  names  on 
the  Bible  Society  lists. 

TURKEY:  The  Turkish,  or  Ottoman,  Empire 
covers  extensive  territories  of  Southeastern 
Europe,  Western  Asia,  Northern  Africa,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  and 
jEgean  Seas.  Certain  of  the  provinces  in  Europe 
and  Africa,  however,  are  only  nominally  a  part 
of  the  Empire,  being  either  autonomous  or  under 
the  general  supervision  of  European  governments. 

Taking  first  the  Empire  in  its  fullest  sense,  we 
notice, 

Turkey  in  Europe:  This  extends  from  the 
Adriatic  Sea  on  the  west,  across  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,  to  the  Black  Sea  on  the  east,  and 
includes  Albania,  the  three  provinces  corre- 
sponding in  general  with  ancient  Macedonia, 
Adrianople,  and  the  Principality  of  Bulgaria, 
with  Eastern  Rumelia. 

Turkey  in  Asia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Black  Sea,  on  the  east  by  Russia  (Trans- 
Caucasia)  and  Persia,  on  the  south  by  Arabia 
and  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Mediterranean  and  ^gean  Seas  and  the  straits 


747 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


TnniB 
Tnrkey 


of  the  Dardanelles  and  Bosphorus.  Both  east- 
ern and  southern  boundaries  are  somewhat 
vague,  the  former  because  the  two  empires  have 
mot  succeeded  in  drawing  a  satisfactory  line 
through  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  the  latter 
because  of  the  uncertain  limits  of  the  Sultan's 
authority  in  Arabia  outside  of  the  coast  prov- 
inces of  Hejaz  and  Yemen. 

Turkish  Possessions  in  Africa:  These  consist 
of  Tripoli  with  the  Fezzan,  and  Egypt,  which 
is  Turkish  by  virtue  of  paying  an  annual  tribute 
to  the  Sultan. 

Islands  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  include 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  Crete  and  Cyprus. 
All  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  except  Crete 
and  Samos,  are  included  in  the  tables  among  the 
Asiatic  possessions.  Samos  is  a  tributary  prin- 
cipality, with  an  area  of  210  square  miles. 
Cyprus,  with  3,670  square  miles,  is  under  the 
British  Government,  which,  however,  pays  an 
annual  tribute  to  the  Turkish  Government. 
Crete,  with  an  area  of  3,326  square  miles,  is  ruled 
by  a  prince  under  supervision  of  the  European 
powers,  altho  still  (1903)  nominally  a  province 
of  Turkey. 

Tabulating  the  whole  we  have  the  following: — 

Immediate  Possessions  of  the  Empire: 


Europe, 

Asia, 

Africa, 

Square  Miles 

63,850 
729,170 
398,873 

Tributakt  States: 
Europe, 
Africa, 
Mediterranean, 

37,860 

400,000 

3,880 

1,191,893 

441,740 

Total, 

1,633,633 

It  should  be  remembered  that  estimates  as 
■prepared  by  different  authorities  differ  very 
widely,  owing  partly  to  the  diverse  views  held 
in  regard  to  the  political  relations  of  the  vario'-s 
sections,  and  partly  to  the  absence  of  absolutely 
accurate  measurements. 

Population:  Following  the  same  general  di- 
visions as  above,  we  find  the  totals  as  follows: 

Immediate  Possessions  op  the  Empire- 


Europe, 

Asia, 

Africa, 

Tributary  States: 
Europe, 
Africa, 
Mediterranean, 


4,790,000 

16,133,900 

1,000,000 


21,923,900 


3,154,375 

6,817,265 

276,156 


10,247,796 
Total,  32,171,696 

Here,  too,  mere  estimates  are  possible.  A 
census  in  the  East  is  in  a  great  degree  an  anom- 
aly, and  altho  the  Turkish  Government  has 
taken  two,  its  efforts  have  not  been  crowned 
with  the  greatest  success.  The  fact  that  in  some 
provinces,  especially  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  the 
males  were  reported  as  20-50%  in  excess  of  the 
females,  indicates  the  great  difficulty  of  the 
census-taker.  For  a  division  of  these  totals 
among  the  different  races  and  religions,  see 
below. 

Physical     Characteristics:      Albania,     Arabia, 


Bulgaria,  Egypt,  and  Syria  are  described  under 
their  several  heads. 

European  Turkey  is  for  the  most  part  a  moun- 
tainous region  belonging  to  the  same  physical 
system  as  Albania.  The  province  of  Adrianople, 
however,  includes  the  great  plains  extending 
from  the  Rhodope  to  Constantinople. 

Asiatic  Turkey  is  largely  occupied  by  the 
western  extremity  of  the  vast  belt  of  mountains 
and  high  plateaus  which  extends  from  east  to 
west  through  the  whole  continent  of  Asia.  South 
of  this  region  lie  the  great  plains  of  Mesopotamia 
with  the  higlilands  of  Syria  shutting  them  off 
from  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  northern 
Asiatic  provinces  the  country  is  mostly  a  high 
tableland,  covered  with  ranges  of  mountains. 
The  tableland  is  highest  on  its  eastern  and 
southern  sides,  diminishing  in  altitude  as  it 
approaches  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west  and 
the  Black  Sea  on  the  north.  Egypt  is  one  un- 
broken plain,  and  in  Tripoli  the  rocks  and  desert 
seem  to  vie  with  each  other  as  to  which  shall 
possess  the  land. 

Climate:  The  Turkish  Empire  has  every 
variety  of  climate,  from  the  severe  cold  of  the 
Balkans  and  the  highlands  of  Armenia  to  the 
almost  equatorial  heat  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Bagh- 
dad. In  the  greater  portion,  however,  it  is 
temperate,  not  varying  very  much  from  that  of 
corresponding  sections  of  the  United  States.  In 
general,  Mesopotamia  and  the  Syrian  coast  may 
be  called  hot,  and  the  sections  bordering  upon 
them  are  affected  in  a  great  degree  by  the  winds 
that  blow  over  their  plains.  Central  Asia 
Minor  is  temperate,  its  great  plains  being  warm 
in  summer  and  cold  in  winter,  but  day  and  night 
generally  equalizing  the  temperature.  The  same 
is  true  of  European  Turkey,  where  the  coast 
regions  about  Salonica  are  the  only  parts  that 
have  a  notably  warm  climate. 

The  climate  is  undoubtedly  greatly  affected 
by  the  almost  entire  absence  of  trees  over  the 
great  plains  and  even  most  of  the  mountains. 
The  soil  having  to  a  great  degree  been  washed 
down  into  the  plains  and  valleys,  the  hills  and 
mountain  sides  are  barren,  and  the  reflection  of 
the  sun  from  them  in  summer  is  intense.^  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  in  some  places,  as  Aintab, 
iJrfa,  Mardin,  and  Erzerum,  where  the  summers 
are  very  hot. 

Soil  and  Productions:  The  Turkish  Empire 
includes  probably  some  of  the  most  fertile  land 
on  the  globe.  From  the  plains  of  Bulgaria  to 
the  valleys  of  the  Nile  and  the  Tigris  the  soil 
is  wonderfully  rich.  The  people  of  a  section 
of  the  great  central  tableland  of  Asia  Minor 
near  Cesarea  have  a  proverb:  "If  the  world  is 
hungry,  the  Bozok  region  can  satisfy  it,  but  if 
the  Bozok  is  hungry  the  world  is  not  sufficient." 
The  wheat  of  Bulgaria  and  Rumelia  is  well 
known  in  the  markets  of  Europe,  and  America 
is  finding  rivals  in  Asia  Minor  and  Mesopotarnia, 
as  improvements  in  means  of  communication  give 
these  regions  an  outlet.  Mesopotamia  is  espe- 
cially rich,  and  any  one  who  goes  down  the 
Tigris  by  raft  and  watches  the  line  that  marks 
the  depth  of  the  rich  loam  in  the  river  banks 
will  not  wonder  that  empires  succeeded  each 
other  with  such  rapidity  in  that  whole  section, 
or  that  the  mountaineers  of  Persia  looked  with 
such  longing  eyes  on  the  fields  of  Assyria.  Aside 
from  wheat  there  is  a  large  amount  of  barley 
raised,  and  in  Eastern  Turkey  a  good  deal  of 
millet.     Near  the  coast  in  Northern  Syria,  and 


Turkey 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


748 


within  Asia  Minor,  cotton  is  raised  to  some  ex- 
tent, and  on  the  plains  of  Western  Asia  Minor 
there  are  large  fields  of  poppies  for  the  opium 
trade.  The  common  vegetables  are  rice,  cab- 
bage, onion,  turnip,  and  okra,  but  the  potato 
is  being  widely  introduced.  Tobacco  is  culti- 
vated everywhere,  the  best  coming  from  North- 
ern Syria,  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Black  Sea 
coast  and  Macedonia. 

Turkey  is  especially  rich  )n  fruits,  many  of 
which  originate  in  that  territory.  Grapes, 
melons,  figs,  olives,  peaches,  pears,  quinces, 
pomegranates,  dates,  etc.,  are  of  the  finest. 

In  European  Turkey  and  the  western  parts  of 
Asiatic  Turkey  are  large  vineyards,  and  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  wine  is  made.  This  is 
generally  pure,  and  is  very  largely  exported  to 
Italy,  France,  and  Austria,  where  it  is  fortified, 
and  exported  again  under  French  and  German 
names. 

Olive  groves  are  especially  abundant  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  fig 
orchards  of  Smyrna  are  famous.  Oranges 
abound  in  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  and  on 
the  coast  of  Syria.  Dates  are  not  found  in 
any  quantity  north  of  Egypt. 

The  only  forests  in  Turkey  are  on  the  Rhodope 
and  Balkan  mountains  in  Europe,  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea,  the  Zagros  mountains  about 
Bitlis  and  Van,  and  a  portion  of  the  Taurus.  In 
these  forests  there  is  still  much  fine  timber — oak, 
walnut,  and  sycamore — but  elsewhere  almost  the 
only  trees,  aside  from  the  fruit  trees,  are  the 
cypresses  of  the  Muslim  cemeteries,  and  the 
poplars  and  willows  that  line  the  streams  and 
watercourses  near  cities  and  villages. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  Asiatic  Turkey  is 
pasture-land,  and  wherever  one  goes  he  sees 
immense  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Turkey  is  very  great, 
but  has  never  been  developed,  so  that  it  remains 
still  an  unknown,  scarcely  even  an  estimated, 
quantity.  Iron,  copper,  silver,  baryta,  coal, 
etc.,  are  mined  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  but 
mostly  in  a  crude,  imperfect  way.  Foreign  cap- 
ital would  gladly  take  up  the  business,  but  the 
hostility,  not  only  of  the  government,  but  of  the 
people,  is  an  almost  insurmountable  obstacle. 

Means  of  C omnmnication:  Previous  to  the 
Crimean  war,  almost  the  only  roads  in  Turkey 
were  bridle  paths,  trodden  smooth  by  the  cara- 
vans of  centuries.  In  a  few  places  remnants 
could  be  seen  of  old  Roman  causeways,  but  the 
huge  blocks  of  stone  and  the  intervening  pit- 
falls were  shunned  by  all,  except  as  the  mire  by 
the  side  was  so  deep  as  to  be  really  impassable. 
In  a  few  instances  the  Sultans,  both  Seljuk  and 
Ottoman,  made  efforts  to  repair  these  causeways, 
but  they  were  seldom  successful,  and  caravans 
were  forced  to  find  their  own  way  over  plains 
and  mountain  passes  as  best  they  might.  Every- 
thing was  carried  on  horses,  mules,  or  camels,  and 
such  a  thing  as  a  cart  or  carriage  was  unknown. 
As  the  country,  however,  was  opened  up  to 
foreign  enterprise,  one  of  the  first  things  at- 
tempted was  the  building  of  roads  over  the  great 
routes  of  travel.  Of  these  there  were  five,  four 
connecting  the  western  coast  with  Baghdad,  and 
one  from  Trebizond,  on  the  Black  Sea,  to  Persia. 
The  course  they  took  was  1.  Constantinople,  via 
Nicomedia,  Angora,  Sivas,  Diarbekir,  Mardin, 
and  Mosul.  2.  Samsoon  (on  the  Black  Sea)  via 
Amasia,  Sivas,  etc.  3.  Smyrna,  via  Konia, 
Cesarea,  Diarbekir.     4.  Alexandretta,  via  Aleppo, 


Urfa,  Diarbekir.  5.  Trebizond,  via  Erzerum 
and  Van,  to  Khoi,  and  Tabriz.  Along  all  of 
these  lines  work  was  commenced  in  sections,  but 
the  sections  seldom  connected,  owing  to  tha 
difl^culty  and  expense  of  carrying  the  roads  over 
the  mountain  passes,  and  the  result  was  that  the 
paths  remained.  Then  a  new  element  came  in. 
After  the  overthrow  of  Schamyl  (1859),  the 
great  Circassian  leader,  multitudes  of  Circassians 
found  their  way  into  Asia  Minor,  bringing  with 
them  the  rough  carts  they  had  used  in  the  Cau- 
casus. These  made  roads  for  themselves,  and 
gradually,  as  renewed  pressure  was  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  Turkish  Government,  road  build- 
ing was  recommenced,  so  that  now  there  are 
fairly  good  carriage  roads  from  Trebizond  to 
Erzerum,  and  from  Samsoon  to  Diarbekir  and 
Mardin,  with  branches  to  all  important  cities. 

The  first  railroad  in  Asiatic  Turkey  was  from 
Smyrna  to  Aidin.  That  was  followed  by  one 
from  Smyrna  to  Manisa,  and  from  Constantinople 
to  Nicomedia,  and  one  from  Mersine  to  Adana. 
The  railway  from  Constantinople  to  Nicomedia 
has  been  extended  to  Angora  and  Konia  (Icon- 
ium),  with  branches  connecting  with  the  lines 
running  out  of  Smyrna.  It  is  shortly  to  be  car- 
ried on  toward  the  Euphrates  valley  and  Bagh- 
dad. In  European  Turkey  the  first  railroad 
connected  the  Danube  with  the  Black  Sea  at 
Kustendji;  that  was  followed  by  one  between. 
Varna  and  Rustchuk,  connecting  with  one  to 
Bucharest  and  Vienna;  one  from  Constantinople 
to  Adrianople  and  Philippopolis,  now  extended 
to  Sofia,  Pirot,  Alexinatz,  Belgrade,  Pesth,  and 
Vienna;  and  one  from  Salonica  to  Uscup,  and 
so  joining  the  last  named  line. 

Postal  and  Telegraph  Arrangements:  These  are 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Turkish  Government, 
so  far  as  the  interior  is  concerned,  the  mails 
being  carried  in  wagons,  under  the  escort  of  an 
armed  guard.  Both  mail  and  telegraph  are 
under  a  rigid  censorship,  which  sometimes  vio- 
lates letters,  and  always  refuses  "code"  or  cipher 
telegrams. 

The  foreign  postal  service  is  a  curious  anomaly 
resulting  from  the  peculiar  treaty  relations  be- 
tween Turkey  and  the  various  powers.  So 
long  as  there  was  no  regular  Turkish  service 
an  independent  foreign  postal  service  was  an 
absolute  essential,  and  the  English,  French, 
Austrian,  Russian,  Italian,  and  Greek  Govern- 
ments established  post-offices  of  their  ov/n  ia 
the  various  seaports,  and  sent  their  own  bags 
of  mail  matter.  As  the  international  postal 
system  came  into  vogue,  each  post-office  took 
mail  matter  for  every  countrv  in  the  Postal 
Union.  By  that  time  the  Turkish  Government 
also  had  organized  a  complete  postal  system, 
and,  as  it  had  been  admitted  to  the  Postal  Union, 
it  pressed  its  claim  that  the  foreign  post-offices 
should  retire.  This  has  not  been  found  possible, 
owing  to  the  Turkish  claim  of  a  right  to  read 
letters  passing  through  the  mails. 

Social  Conditions:  To  describe  in  detail  the 
mode  of  life  of  the  people  of  Turkey  is  scarcely 
within  the  province  of  this  work.  The  city  life 
approaching  so  nearly  in  its  buildings,  its  cus- 
toms, its  dress,  and  food  to  that  of  Europe;  the 
country  life,  with  its  adobe  houses,  sometimes 
with  a  single  room,  sometimes  more  pretentious 
with  its  upper  chambers;  the  tent  life  of  the 
Kurds, — have  all  been  described  over  and  over 
again.  A  few  general  statements  will  suffice 
here. 


749 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Turkey 


Except  in  the  poorest  parts  of  the  Kurdish 
mountains  and  in  some  of  the  villages  of  northern 
Syria  or  Mesopotamia,  the  people  live  in  com- 
parative comfort.  To  be  sure,  what  is  ample 
for  them  seems  to  the  foreigner  a  very  meager 
supply,  but  it  is  still  true  as  a  rule  that  they  are 
in  comifort  so  far  as  the  supply  of  bodily  needs  is 
concerned.  Their  food  is  simple,  but  it  is 
wholesome,  and  there  is  ordinarily  enough  of  it. 
It  is  rarely  the  case  that  they  suffer  from  hunger, 
except  as  drought  and  poor  transportation  cause 
famine.  It  is  very  seldom  that  the  traveler  fails 
to  find  bread,  rice,  milk,  and  some  meat  in  even 
the  smallest  hamlet  or  the  poorest  hut.  The 
houses  are  rough,  the  furniture  scanty,  the 
bedding  and  clothing  coarse,  but  they  serve 
usually  to  keep  the  people  warm.  It  is  when 
sickness  and  old  age  bring  weakness  and  distress 
that  the  discomforts  principally  appear.  Taken 
as  a  class,  the  Turkish  peasant,  whether  Muslim 
or  Christian,  probably  fares  as  well  as  the  peasant 
class  of  any  non-Christian  land ;  in  some  respects 
he  is  better  off.  There  are  few,  if  any,  in  Tur- 
key, even  in  the  great  cities,  as  wretched  as  are 
the  miners  of  Europe  or  many  of  the  poor  of 
London. 

If  we  look  now  to  the  relations  of  the  different 
classes,  we  find  them  exceedingly  democratic. 
There  is  no  hereditary  aristocracy  in  Turkey. 
There  is  absolutely  nothing  to  hinder  a  farm- 
hand or  a  pedler  from  becoming  Grand  Vizier, 
if  he  be  a  Muslim;  or  Patriarch,  if  he  be  Arme- 
nian or  Greek;  and  should  he  thus  rise  he  will 
never  find  his  low  birth  a  cause  of  shame  or 
regret.  The  castes  of  India  are  unknown.  In 
every  part  of  the  Empire  there  is  the  freest  inter- 
communication between  the  different  races,  and 
between  the  different  parts  of  the  same  race. 
Not    that    this    inter-communication    invob^es 

Sood  feeling.  The  Turk  despises  the  "dog  of  a 
hristian;"  the  Armenian  hates  the  Greek;  and 
the  Jew,  Nusairiyeh  and  Yezidi  are  the  con- 
tempt of  all.  Intermarriage  between  Muslims 
and  Christians  is  unknown,  except  as  Christian 
girls  are  drawn  into  the  harems  of  wealthy 
Turks.  There  is  no  social  intercourse  of  the 
families  of  different  races,  yet  business  relations 
and  social  courtesies  between  the  men  are  com- 
mon, and  in  that  one  is  in  most  cases  just  as 
good  as  another. 

Races:  The  population  of  the  Turkish  Empire 
presents  some  very  interesting  features  to  the 
student  and  especially  to  the  missionary.  To 
trace  back  through  the  centuries  the  influences 
that  have  converged  from  all  the  surrounding 
countries,  and  have  resulted  in  the  races  of 
to-day,  would  be  beyond  the  limits  of  this  article. 
We  can  only  give  the  barest  sketch  of  the  peo- 
ples now  before  us. 

In  a  general  sense,  the  inhabitants  of  Turkey 
are  either  Mohammedan  or  Christian,  and  if  we 
a.5sume  the  population  of  the  direct  possessions 
of  the  empire  to  be  about  22,000,000,  we  shall 
have  about  16,000,000  Mohammedans  and  6,000,- 
000  Christians.  Both  Mohammedans  and  Chris- 
tians, however,  include  widely  different  races. 
Greeks  and  Armenians  are  hardly  more  diverse 
than  are  Turks  and  Albanians;  Jacobites  and 
Bulgarians  are  as  little  alike  as  are  Kurds  and 
Kabyles.  This  great  diversity  gives  rise  to 
much  of  the  misconception  in  regard  to  the 
country,  its  history,  and  its  political  relations. 
We  note  now  these  different  races  very  briefly. 

I.  The    Mohammedans    comprise    the    Turks 


proper,  or  Ottomans  or  Osmanlis,  as  they  cal 
themselves.  The  word  Turk  is  a  general  term 
applied  almost  indiscriminately  to  the  general 
Tatar  races  that  from  different  sections  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  and  at  different  periods,  have  poured 
in  upon  the  richer  countries  of  Asia  Minor  and 
southeastern  Europe.  They  include  the  Otto- 
mans, Seljuks,  Turkomans,  etc.  We  have  to 
do  now  with  that  tribe  called  Ottomans  or 
Osmanlis,  from  their  first  sovereign,  Othman  or 
Osman,  whose  tomb  is  one  of  the  sacred  places 
of  the  city  of  Broosa.  As  has  been  said,  only 
estimates  are  possible,  but  if  the  number  of  Otto- 
man Turks  be  put  at  9,000,000,  it  is  probably  not 
far  from  the  truth.  They  are  found  chiefly  in 
Asia  Minor,  comparatively  few  living  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  or  in  Kurdistan,  Mesopotamia,  or 
Syria.  The  so-called  Turks  of  European  Turkey 
are  mostly  Albanians  or  Slavs  who  have  accepted 
Islam;  those  of  Kurdistan  are  Kurds,  or  Chris- 
tians forced  to  become  Muslims  in  one  of  the 
massacre  periods,  and  the  same  is  true  of  "Turks" 
in  Syria.  This  fact  should  be  distinctly  kept  in 
mind  in  forming  an  estimate  of  the  Ottoman 
Turk.  "The  unspeakable  Turk"  of  the  Batak 
massacres  in  Bulgaria  was  a  Muslim  Bulgarian 
(Pomak);  of  the  Druze  massacres  of  Syria,  an 
Arab.  The  Ottoman  peasant  of  Asia  Minor  is  a 
man  far  different  from  the  ordinary  conception. 
As  a  rule  quite  peacefully  inclined,  a  hard  worker, 
a  faithful  servant,  courteous  and  dignified  in 
his  bearing,  rather  proud  of  his  assumed  supe- 
riority to  the  "meannesses  of  his  Christian  fel- 
lows," there  is  still  an  inherent  element  of 
ferocity  in  his  nature,  and  when  religious 
fanaticism  is  roused,  he  is  a  most  dreaded  enemy. 
The  Ottoman  of  the  city  is,  however,  quite  a 
different  man;  with  as  much  Christian  as  Tatar 
blood  in  his  veins,  influenced  by  the  strife  of 
Western  with  Eastern  civilization,  studiously 
polite,  easily  adapting  himself  to  the  circum- 
stances of  his  associates,  he  develops  a  power  of 
intrigue,  a  facility  for  deception,  an  unblushing 
delight  in  bribery  that  makes  him  the  scorn  of 
his  sturdy  compatriot  of  Anatolia.  There  are 
notable  exceptions,  but  as  a  rule,  and  this  is  the 
testimony  of  those  who  have  traveled  most  in 
the  interior  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  native  un- 
adulterated Ottoman  Turk  is  a  man  with  many 
noble  characteristics,  and  presenting  great  pos- 
sibilities for  Christian  influence.  Of  the  other 
elements  making  up  the  Muslim  population  the 
most  important  races  in  Asia  are  the  Arabs  and 
Kurds,  m  Europe  the  Albanians.  These  races 
have  been  described  under  separate  heads.  As 
a  rule  they  are  hostile  to  the  Turks,  feeling  that 
the  latter  are  oppressors,  and  even  their  recog- 
nition of  the  Sultan  or  Caliph  is  weakened  by 
race  enmity  and  the  sense  of  subjection.  Next 
to  them  in  importance  are  the  Circassians, 
including  the  Circassians  proper  and  the  Ab- 
khazes  who  have  emigrated  from  the  Caucasus 
to  Asia  Minor.  They  furnish  a  most  turbulent 
element  of  the  population,  and  by  far  the  greater 
amount  of  the  depredations  committed  in  Asia 
Minor  are  by  them.  There  are  also  large  num- 
bers of  Turkomans  (another  Turkish  race), 
chiefly  found  in  northern  Syria.  The  Druzes 
and  Nusairiyeh  of  Syria  and  the  Yezidis  of  Meso- 
potamia probably  represent  the  small  remnant 
of  the  ancient  paganism  of  the  Levant  which  has 
accepted  the  form,  tho  not  the  spirit,  of  Moham- 
medanism. The  original  races  of  Asia  Minor  are 
represented    among    the    Mohammedans    by    a 


Turkey 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


76a 


number  of  tribes,  of  somewhat  uncertain  extent 
and  character,  found  chiefly  in  the  mountains 
of  the  western  part.  Such  are  the  Yuruks  of 
Bithynia,  and  the  Zeibeks  of  the  region  of 
Smyrna.  The  Kabyles  of  Tripoli  in  Africa,  of 
the  Berber  race,  are  scarcely  recognized  as  Tur- 
kish subjects. 

II.  The  Christians  include  the  Armenians, 
Greeks,  Syrians,  Jacobites,  Copts,  Bulgarians 
and  Protestants.  The  Armenians  are  a  race  by 
themselves,  as  distinct  to-day  as  at  any  time  in 
their  history.  Formerly  occupying  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  they  have  spread 
until  they  are  found  all  over  Asia  Minor.  The 
Greeks  are  found  chiefly  in  Western  Asia  Minor 
and  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  They, 
too,  have  kept  their  race  distinction,  and  retain 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  their  ancestors 
who  founded  the  Pontic  and  Doric  colonies. 
Sharp,  keen  in  enterprise  and  speculation,  the 
commerce  of  Turkey  is  largely  m  their  hands, 
while  the  traders  and  bankers  are  chiefly  Arme- 
nians. The  Greeks  of  the  interior  are  of  a  higher 
grade  of  character  than  those  at  the  seaboard. 
The  term  Jacobite  is  distinctive  of  the  remnants 
of  the  Monophysite  sects  found  in  northern  Syria 
about  Urfa  (Edessa)  and  through  Mesopotamia. 
The  term  Syrian  is  often  a  very  indefinite  one, 
applied  generally  to  all  the  Christians  of  Syria 
and  Mesopotamia.  Specifically  it  refers  to  those 
churches  in  communion  with  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  such  as  the  Maronites,  the  United 
Greeks  of  Syria,  and  sometimes  the  Chaldeans, 
who  are  Jacobites  that  have  left  their  old  com- 
munion for  the  Romish  Church.  The  term 
Syrian  is  also  applied,  tho  incorrectly,  to  the 
Assyrians  or  Nestorians  who  are  found  in  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan.  The  Copts  are  found 
only  in  Egypt.  The  Bulgarians  are  a  Slavic 
people  inhabiting  European  Turkey.  They  be- 
long to  the  Orthodox  or  Greek  Church,  but  are 
independent  of  the  Patriarch.  Of  the  Christian 
peoples  of  Turkey  the  only  ones  whose  race  dis- 
tinctions have  been  preserved  are  the  Armenians, 
Greeks,  and  Bulgarians.  The  rest  are  not  races, 
properly  speaking,  but  religio-political  divisions 
of  the  descendants  of  those  of  the  original  inhab- 
itants who  accepted  Christianity  under  the  rule 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  The  religions  of  the 
Turkish  Empire  have  been  specially  noticed 
under  the  articles  Armenian  Church,  Greek 
Church,  Maronites,  Mohammedanism,  Nusairi- 
yeh,  Yezidis.  It  remains  here  to  add  a  few 
words  as  to  the  political  relations  of  the  Greek, 
Roman  Catholic,  and  Protestant  Churches. 

The  Greek,  or  "Orthodox,"  Church  is  the  direct 
descendant  of  the  Byzantine  Church.  In  general 
doctrine,  as  found  in  the  creeds  and  confessions, 
it  is  in  sympathy  with  the  Protestant  Church, 
and  only  separated  from  the  Armenian  by  a  dis- 
tinction so  shadowy  that  it  is  claimed  by  some 
Armenians  that  the  theological  difference  was  a 
pretext,  rather  than  an  occasion,  for  the  separa- 
tion, the  real  reason  lying  in  the  effort  of  the 
Byzantine  church  to  compel  the  Armenians  to 
use  the  Greek  liturgy.  However  that  may  be, 
it  is  certain  that  the  age  of  theological  contro- 
versy between  the  different  Oriental  churches  has 
passed.  The  question  now  is  not  of  "one  Nature 
or  two,"  "one  Will  or  two,"  but  of  nationality. 
Under  the  rule  of  the  Muslim  Caliph  every 
Christian  sect  has  become  a  nationality,  and 
every  apostate  is  also  a  traitor.  The  position 
of  the  Greek  Church  in  Turkey  is  thus  primarily  I 


political.  In  its  religious  aspect  it  is  practically 
on  a  par  with  its  fellows,  and  a  stranger  could 
hardly  tell  the  difference  between  the  services  of 
any  two  sects. 

Ecclesiastically,  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople is  the  head  of  the  Church  in  all  its  different 
branches,  but  the  Holy  Synods  of  Russia,  Greece, 
and  Servia  practical!)^  ignore  him,  while  the 
Exarch  of  Bulgaria  is  ignored  by  him.  In  fact, 
the  Greek  Church  of  to-day  is  split  up  into  frag- 
ments, each  fragment  claiming  absolute  inde- 
pendence, and  each  characterized  by  the  same 
formalism  and  absence  of  spiritual  life. 

The  Roman  Catholics  of  Turkey,  aside  from 
the  Maronites,  include  sections  of  the  Arme- 
nians, Greeks  (Uniats),  and  Syrians  or  Chaldeans, 
who,  chiefly  for  political  reasons,  have  made 
their  peace  with  the  Papacy.  They  have  suc- 
ceeded, by  special  dispensation  from  the  Pope, 
in  preserving  the  use  of  their  national  language 
in  their  liturgy,  in  return  for  their  political  al- 
legiance to  Rome,  and,  except  in  the  dress  of 
their  priests,  are  not  distinguishable  from  their 
fellows  of  the  old  faiths.  France  is  the  recog- 
nized protector  of  all  Roman  Catholics  in  Turkey. 

The  Protestanism  of  Turkey  needs  no  special 
description,  following  as  it  does  closely  in  the 
lines  of  the  evangelical  churches  of  America  and 
England.  Except  in  rare  cases  there  is  little 
emphasis  laid  upon  creeds.  Of  the  doctrines, 
perhaps  the  one  that  is  most  prominent  is  the 
one  that  Luther  pressed  so  hard — Justification 
by  Faith — and  for  the  same  reason.  There  has 
been  no  effort  to  establish  new  dogmas.  The 
new  church  was  a  civil  even  more  than  a  religious 
necessity.  See  Protestant  Community.  In  most 
cases  every  effort  has  been  made  to  avoid  antag- 
onism to  the  old  churches,  in  the  belief  that  the 
emphasis  laid  upon  truth  would  crowd  out  the 
error.  The  Protestant  Churches  of  Turkey  are 
distinguished  from  the  old  churches  rather  by 
their  conception  of  sin,  its  character  and  hein- 
ousness,  the  absolute  necessit}'  of  a  change  of 
heart,  and  the  idea  of  individual  communion 
with  Christ,  as  a  personal  Redeemer  and  Savior, 
lihan  by  elaborate  creeds  or  confessions.  Church 
services  take  on  the  non-liturgical  form,  partly 
because  that  has  been  the  habit  of  the  mission- 
aries, partly  because  of  the  natural  repulsion  of 
the  soul,  awakened  to  a  sense  of  its  personal 
need,  to  a  ritual  where  personality  was  lost  in 
forms  that  had  practically  lost  their  meaning. 

Government:  The  Government  of  Turkey  is 
often  called  "Theocratic."  In  the  sense  that 
the  Sultan  as  Caliph  is  the  head  of  the  Muslim 
religion,  as  well  as  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  and 
that  all  civil  authority  centers  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical, this  is  correct.  Mohammed  claimed  to 
derive  his  power  from  God  by  special  dispensa- 
tion through  the  archangel  Gabriel,  and  com- 
mitted his  authority  to  the  Caliphs.  The  Sultan, 
as  Caliph  or  "successor"  of  the  Prophet,  has  for 
one  of  his  titles  "the  Shadow  of  God  on  Earth." 
But  as  for  any  personal  relations  between  the 
Sultan  and  Deity,  they  are  no  more  than  those 
of  the  meanest  of  his  subjects.  He  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  divine  authority,  but  by  no  means 
its  medium. 

Both  theoretically  and  practically  the  Sultan 
is  the  head  of  the  government.  He  has  the 
usual  number  of  Ministers,  but  none  is  inde- 
pendent in  responsibility  for  the  minutise  of  his 
special  department  of  Foreign  Affairs,  the  In- 
terior, Finance,  Commerce,  War,  Marine,  Public 


761 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Turkey 


Instruction,  or  Evkaf.  The  Cabinet  meetings 
are  presided  over  by  the  Grand  Vizier;  but  any 
question  must  be  referred  to  the  Sultan,  and  he 
keeps  his  eye  on  all  the  different  lines  of  govern- 
mental policy.  So,  too,  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam  and 
the  Ulema  guide  tlie  affairs  of  the  church,  but, 
whether  in  civil  or  ecclesiastical  affairs,  the  Pal- 
ace is  constantly  the  most  potent  factor,  liable 
at  any  moment  to  interfere  with  the  best-laid 
plans  of  subordinates,  and  assume  direct  control 
even  of  the  minutia;  of  administration.  That 
administration,  in  its  civil  department,  is  in 
general  on  much  the  same  plan  as  that  of  the 
European  governments,  at  least  in  the  cities  of 
the  seaboard.  The  interior  is  divided  into  prov- 
inceS;  whose  boundaries  are  constantly  modified 
to  suit  political  exigencies  of  many  kinds. 

Side  by  side  with  the  civil  administration  are 
the  judicial  and  ecclesiastical,  and  the  three  are 
often  so  intermingled  that  it  is  impossible  to 
distinguish  between  them.  The  judicial  is  based 
in  some  respects  upon  the  Code  Napoleon,  but  in 
others  on  the  Canon  Law  derived  from  the 
Koran.  Where  one  ends  and  the  other  begins 
it  is  often  impossible  to  decide.  The  Canon  Law 
alone  applies  in  questions  affecting  real  estate. 
Landed  properties  in  Turkey  are  divided  into 
three  categories,  the  miri,  or  royal  domain,  the 
mulk,  or  unlimited,  and  the  vacouf,  or  dedicated 
property.  Mulk  property  corresponds  very 
nearly  to  freehold,  but  the  vacouf,  which  com- 
prises a  very  large  per  cent,  of  all  real  estate  in 
cities,  is  dedicated  to  some  mosque  or  other 
"pious  foundation"  to  wliich  it  pays  a  small 
annual  rent,  and  to  which  it  reverts  on  the 
failure  of  direct  heirs  of  the  holder.  Title  to 
mulk  property  is  transferable  in  full,  but  that  of 
vacouf  property  only  on  condition  of  perpetual 
payment  of  the  annual  rent  and  perpetual  obli- 
gation to  surrender  the  title  on  the  failure  of 
direct  heirs.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  this 
arrangement  prevents  the  transfer  of  such 
property  to  corporations,  since  such  a  transfer 
would  prevent  ultimate  reversion  of  the  land 
to  the  mosque.  It  also  gives  for  the  same  reason 
opportunity  for  local  officials  to  hinder  or  pre- 
vent the  erection  of  church  or  school  upon 
vacouf  land.  That  so  many  such  buildings  have 
been  erected  in  Turkey  is  a  marked  evidence  of 
the  wisdom  and  patience  of  the  missionaries 
who  have  gained  the  permission  for  their  con- 
struction. 

Relations  of  the  Turkish  Government  with  its 
Christian  subjects  and  with  unbelieving  foreign- 
ers residing  in  Turkey  are  peculiar.  When  the 
Mohammedan  conqueror  captured  Constanti- 
nople the  question  became  grave  of  the  attitude 
which  it  was  most  expedient  for  him  to  take 
toward  those  of  the  vanquished  population  who 
refused  to  accept  his  creed.  To  put  them  to  the 
sword  was  quite  proper  under  the  Canon  Law, 
if  he  thought  best.  But  to  do  this  would  depop- 
ulate the  land,  and  would  deprive  the  Govern- 
ment of  much  income  as  well  as  of  the  services 
of  useful  artisans  whose  places  could  not  be  filled 
by  Turks.  Yet  aliens  in  religion  could  not  be 
admitted  to  the  privileges  of  citizenship  in  a 
divinely  guided  nation  whose  laws  are  an  ex- 
pression of  divine  justice. 

In  this  emergency  the  Sultan  adopted  the 
practise  of  the  Roman  Empire  toward  religious 
dissenters  and  aliens.  The  unbelievers  were  told 
that  in  all  relations  between  themselves  and  in 
matters  of  which  their  eoclesiaetical  law  took  cog-  I 


nizance  they  must  get  along  as  best  they  could 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  own  church  author- 
ities. Their  religious  chiefs  thus  received  recogni- 
tion as  civil  functionaries  of  the  empire  and  respon- 
sible representatives  of  their  spiritual  flocks. 
With  them  the  sovereign  held  communication 
through  the  officials  charged  with  the  manage- 
ment of  foreign  affairs.  The  result  was  that  the 
Christian  subjects  of  Turkey  became  national- 
ities distinct  from  each  other  and  from  the  Mus- 
lim population  whose  privileges  were  denied  to 
them.  As  relations  with  foreign  nations  became 
more  frequent,  the  same  rule  was  applied  to  the 
relations  of  foreign  residents  in  Turkey  to  the 
Turkish  Government.  Such  residents  were  not 
entitled  to  the  privileges  of  Mohammedan  law, 
and  were  left  under  the  control  of  their  own  laws, 
being  made  amenable  to  their  own  consular 
officials  only.  Tliis  system,  which  places  the 
persons  and  property  of  foreign  residents  in 
Turkey  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  Turkish  offi- 
cials, was  consecrated  in  agreements  and  treaties 
known  as  "the  Capitulations"  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury and  later.  The  resulting  condition  of 
''extra-territoriality"  protects  foreign  residents 
in  Turkey  in  some  degree  from  the  inequitable 
religious  partisanship  of  Mohammedan  Canon 
Law,  and  especially  from  the  arbitrary  and  law- 
less exactions  of  corrupt  officials.  It  is  in  fact 
an  essential  condition  of  business  stability  and 
even  of  personal  safety  to  foreign  residents  in 
Turkey.  This  "extra-territoriality,"  first  applied 
as  a  stigma  of  inferiority  to  foreigners  and  to 
Christian  subjects  living  under  the  rule  of  the 
Sultans,  has  become  a  precious  privilege  which 
it  is  the  constant  effort  of  recent  Turkish  rulers 
gradually  to  obliterate  that  all,  like  the  Muslims, 
may  be  under  control  of  the  Canon  Law  courts  and 
may  be  forced  to  satisfy  the  greed  of  Turkish 
officials. 

History:  The  history  of  Turkey  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  student  of  Christian 
missions.  Only  by  a  careful  survey  of  it  from 
the  time  when  the  Byzantine  Empire  commenced 
to  decay  can  he  understand  how  tiae  present 
condition  is  but  the  crystallization  of  conditions 
that  existed  many  centuries  ago.  The  capture 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  internal  regulations  of  the  empire 
on  the  basis  of  an  absolute  union  of  church  and 
state,  or  rather  of  an  absorption  of  the  state  by 
the  church  (for  not  only  the  Muslim,  but  the 
Christian)  acted  upon  the  social,  civil,  and  relig- 
ious condition  of  the  land,  as  Mohammedanism 
always  acts  upon  the  lands  that  it  conquers,  lilce 
a  sudden  petrifying  power.  When  the  19th 
century  opened  it  found  a  country  which  had 
practically  slept  for  nearly  four  centuries.  The 
modern  era  of  Turkish  history,  which  is  all 
that  space  and  the  general  purpose  of  this 
article  will  allow,  commences  with  the  reign  of 
Mahmoud  II.  (1808).  More  than  any  of  his 
predecessors,  Mahmoud  realized  the  value  of 
modern  progress,  and  he  understood  very  clearly 
the  situation  in  which  he  found  his  empire. 
Napoleon  had  just  uttered  his  famous  prediction 
that  Europe  was  destined  to  be  either  all  Cos- 
sack or  all  republican.  The  French  Revolution 
on  the  west,  Russian  aggression  on  the  east, 
were  influences  that  must  be  fatal  unless  they 
could  be  checked.  Internally  there  was  com- 
motion. The  Janissaries  had  ruled  so  long  that 
the  upturning  of  their  kettles  was  a  more  serious 
affair  than  a  death  in  the  Palace.     The  feudal 


Tnvlcey 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


752 


chiefs  of  Asia  Minor  were  growing  more  and  more 
arrogant,  and  the  army  was  in  danger  of  dis- 
organization, through  their  refusal  to  send 
recruits  to  tlie  order  of  the  Sultan.  Greece  was 
feeling  the  impulse  of  the  strife  for  freedom. 
Mohammed  Ali  was  laying  the  foundation  of  his 
power  in  Egypt,  while  Albania  was  practically 
independent  under  Ali  Pasha  of  Janina.  A  less 
vigorous,  clear-headed  man  would  have  suc- 
cumbed, and  the  Cossack  would  have  carried 
the  day.  Mahmoud  set  himself  to  his  task  with 
courage,  but  the  forces  against  him  were  too 
strong.  He  succeeded  in  overpowering  the 
Janissaries,  reorganized  his  army,  and  suc- 
cessfully withstood  an  attack  from  Russia; 
but  England  and  France  interfered  and  forced 
upon  him  the  Treaty  of  London,  1827,  and  the 
Treaty  of  Adrianople,  1829.  Greece  was  de- 
clared free,  and  the  Danubian  principalities  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  were  placed  under  the 
protection  of  Russia.  Meanwhile  Mohammed 
Ali  was  increasing  in  power.  The  traditional 
hostility  of  England  and  France  manifested 
itself  more  and  more  in  the  Mediterranean. 
France  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Pasha,  while 
England  supported  the  Sultan.  The  rivalry 
became  open  war,  and  the  Albanian  leader 
threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  Turkish 
Empire.  Just  at  this  crisis  Mahmoud  died  (1839), 
leaving  the  Caliph's  sword  to  his  oldest  son,  Abd 
ul  Medjid,  an  amiable  but  weak  and  irresolute 
man.  England  and  France  saw  at  once  that 
the  danger  foreseen  by  Napoleon  was  upon  them. 
The  "Cossack"  was  an  immediate  probability, 
the  "republican"  (Louis  Philippe  was  then 
reigning)  a  remote  possibility.  Accordingly 
they  united  their  forces,  and  by  the  treaty  of 
1841  confirmed  Mohammed  Ali  in  the  possession 
of  Egypt  as  vassal  to  the  Sultan,  and  assumed 
a  European  protectorate  over  the  Turkish 
Empire. 

No  sooner  was  this  settled  than  intrigues 
opened  again.  England,  realizing  the  necessity 
of  the  situation  as  affecting  her  relations  with 
India,  placed  one  of  her  strongest  men  at  Con- 
stantinople. Sir  Stratford  Canning  (afterward 
Viscount  Stratford  de  Redcliffe)  was  an  able, 
far-sighted.  Christian  man.  Not  only  did  he 
comprehend  the  general  political  bearings  of  the 
situation,  but  he  understood  clearly  their  social, 
civil,  and  religious  relations.  He  realized  that 
for  the  Christian  races  of  Turkey  it  was  in  a  sense 
a  choice  between  two  evils — the  despotism 
of  a  weak  Sultan  amenable  to  influence  and  under 
obligation  to  Christian  nations,  or  that  of  the 
Czar,  secure  in  his  position  and  utterly  beyond 
the  reach  of  any  motives  except  those  of  ag- 
grandizement and  supremacy.  With  marvelous 
patience  and  skill  he  set  himself  to  his  task  of 
strengthening  his  hold  upon  the  Sultan.  French 
and  Russian  ambassadors  alike  had  to  yield  to 
the  great  "  Elchi,"  as  he  was  called.  One  after 
another,  reforms  were  introduced.  The  Hatti 
Sherif  of  Gulhan^  announced  the  speedy  estab- 
lishment of  institutions  "which  should  insure  to 
all  the  subjects  of  the  Sultan  perfect  security 
for  their  lives,  their  homes,  and  their  property, 
a  regular  method  of  collecting  the  taxes,  and  an 
equally  regular  method  of  recruiting  the  army 
and  fixing  the  duration  of  service."  But  proc- 
lamation was  one  thing,  enforcement  another. 
Palace  intrigues  supplemented  those  of  Russia. 
The  Turkish  officials  saw  their  opportunities  for 
oppression  and  bribery  disappearing,  and  offered 


to  the  new  reforms  an  Oriental  shrug  when  they 
did  not  positively  refuse  obedience.  Genuine 
advance  was,  however,  made.  Torture  and  the 
death  penalty  for  apostasy  from  Islam  were 
abolished,  and  the  bastinado  was  forbidden  in 
the  schools  and  finally  in  the  army.  Christian 
evidence  in  courts  of  law  was  rendered  legal, 
if  not  always  actual,  and  there  appeared  possi- 
bilities for  the  future  where  hitherto  there  had 
been  absolutely  no  hope.  Then  came  the  stir- 
ring scenes  of  1848  and  1849.  Kossuth  and 
some  associates  took  refuge  with  the  Porte, 
which  refused  to  give  them  up  to  the  power  that 
had  crushed  the  Magyar  Government.  Nicholas, 
flushed  with  his  victory,  looked  forward  to  the 
speedy  extinction  of  Turkey,  and  in  1853  pro- 
posed to  the  British  ambassador  at  St.  Peters- 
burg a  plan  for  the  division  of  "the  Sick  Man's" 
inheritance  as  soon  as  he  should  expire,  and 
claimed  the  right  of  a  protectorate  over  the 
Greek  Christian  subjects  of  the  Sultan.  This 
was  naturally  objected  to  by  the  Porte,  and  was 
followed  by  the  entrance  of  the  Russian  army 
into  the  Danubian  principalities.  England 
took  up  the  side  of  Turkey,  and  France,  angered 
by  the  effect  of  Russian  championship  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  a  contest  between  Latin  and 
Greek  priests  in  Jerusalem,  added  her  forces  to 
those  of  the  Sultan,  while  Sardinia  took  her 
place  for  the  first  time  as  one  of  the  powers  of 
Europe.  The  victory  of  the  allied  powers  in  the 
Crimea  resulted  in  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  which 
affirmed  the  neutrality  of  the  Black  Sea,  the 
independence  and  integrity  of  Turkey,  abol- 
ished the  Russian  protectorate  over  the  Dan- 
ubian principalities,  closed  the  Bosphorus  and 
Dardanelles  to  foreign  ships  of  war,  and  reasserted 
and  emphasized  the  principles  of  the  Hatti 
Sherif  of  Gulhan^,  guaranteeing  complete  relig- 
ious liberty  and  the  execution  of  the  reforms 
already  promulgated. 

The  most  fruitful  result  of  the  Crimean  War, 
however,  was  its  destruction  for  a  large  part  of 
the  Turkish  people  of  the  illusion  that  a  Mo- 
hammedan nation  must  be  superior  in  knowl- 
edge and  power  to  all  Christian  nations.  Scien- 
tific knowledge  possessed  by  the  masterful  allies 
of  Turkey  was  seen  to  be  good,  notwithstanding 
the  Mohammedan  dogma  that  all  useful  knowl- 
edge centers  in  the  Koran.  Government  schools 
were  established  to  instruct  Mohammedans  in 
Western  science  out  of  books  translated  from 
Western  languages,  and  to  teach  the  languages 
of  the  infidels  which  gave  young  Muslims  access 
to  the  literature  of  the  West.  By  such  icono- 
clastic results  the  Crimean  War  undertaken  by 
Europe  in  order  to  bolster  up  for  selfish  reasons 
the  failing  Mohammedan  power,  must  be  re- 
garded in  its  outcome  as  the  most  deadly  blow 
ever  given  to  Mohammedanism. 

England  and  France  and  Italy  now  made  the 
mistake  of  ceasing  to  try  to  lead  Turkey  into  a 
wise  use  of  the  opportunity  which  they  had  won 
for  the  Sultan  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  For- 
mal interference  with  Turkey  in  its  execution 
of  the  promised  reforms  was  forbidden  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris.  The  Western  powers  desisted 
from  informal  influence,  and  left  the  field  clear 
for  Russia,  whose  one  policy  since  that  day  has 
been  to  encourage  Turkey  in  following  every 
path  that  leads  to  national  suicide. 

In  1858  Lord  Stratford  was  replaced  by  Sir 
Henry  Bulwer,  and  English  influence  at  the 
Porte  rapidly  lessened.     Then  commenced  a  time 


753 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Tarkey 


of  national  extravagance.  Hitherto  Turkey 
had  been  an  almost  unknown  factor  in  the 
stock  markets  of  Europe,  but  now  investors 
began  to  crowd  in.  The  adoption  of  the  Code 
Napoleon  in  civil  courts,  and  the  introduction 
of  customs  revenues,  etc.,  necessitated  the 
employment  of  numbers  of  Europeans,  who 
looked  upon  the  Turks  as  legitimate  prey. 
Financial  propositions  of  every  sort  were  made; 
loans  were  offered  upon  Treasury  bonds,  and 
the  government  was  launched  upon  a  financial 
career  to  the  management  of  which  it  was  an 
utter  stranger.  When  Abd  ul  Medjid  came 
to  the  throne  he  had  reversed  the  usual  custom 
of  his  ancestors,  and  spared  the  life  of  his  brother, 
Abd  ul  Aziz;  and  he,  on  the  death  of  Medjid,  in 
1861,  became  Sultan.  A  morose,  selfish  man, 
bent  upon  gratifying  every  whim  of  the  mo- 
ment, he  lent  a  ready  ear  to  the  adventurers  that 
thronged  Constantinople.  Palaces  and  public 
buildings  of  various  kinds  sprang  up  on  every 
hand.  A  fleet  was  necessary  and  it  was  furnished, 
while  contractors  in  every  department  grew 
rich  at  the  expense  of  the  government,  which, 
elated  by  the  hitherto  unheard  of  possibility  of 
borrowing  unlimited  sums  of  money,  went  into 
the  wildest  extravagancies.  Meanwhile  the 
Druze  massacres  of  1860  had  resulted  in  the 
French  occupation  of  Syria.  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia  united  in  the  principality  of  Rou- 
mania,  and,  like  Servia,  became  autonomous 
provinces.  The  Russian  Embassy  was  prac- 
tically supreme,  Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  Sir  Henry 
Austin  Layard,  and  Sir  Henry  Elliott  being 
utterly  unable  to  cope  with  Count  Ignatieff. 
The  year  1869  saw  the  completion  of  the  Suez 
Canal,  intensifying  England's  interest  in  keeping 
her  connections  with  India  clear,  and  the  col- 
lapse of  France  in  the  war  of  1870  made  it  pos- 
sible for  Lord  Beaconsfield  to  secure  from  the 
spendthrift  Khedive  a  controlling  money  inter- 
est in  that  great  waterway. 

The  internal  administration  of  Turkey  be- 
came worse  and  worse.  Two  parties  became 
clearly  developed,  the  Young  Turkey  party, 
favoring  reform  and  looking  to  England  for 
moral  support,  and  the  Old  Turkey  party, 
opposed  to  reform  and  warmly  supported  by 
Russia  because  a  reactionary  policy  must 
destroy  the  Turkish  Empire.  Numerous  efforts 
were  made  by  the  AVestern  powers  to  secure  real 
reform,  but  in  vain.  Revolt  broke  out  in  Bos- 
nia and  Herzegovina  (1875),  and  produced 
disquietude  and  plots  of  sedition  in  Bulgaria, 
which  were  repressed  by  terrible  massacres  that 
aroused  all  Europe  (1876). 

Mithad  Pasha,  a  leading  member  of  the 
Young  Turkey  party,  now  contrived  a  plot  to 
replace  the  Sultan  Abd  ul  Aziz  by  his  nephew 
Murad.  The  Sultan  had  proved  himself  by  his 
senseless  extravagance  to  be  incapable,  and  the 
revolution  was  easily  carried  through.  Sultan 
Murad  V.  was  placed  upon  the  throne  in  May, 
1876,  and  was  pledged  to  introduce  constitu- 
tional government  in  the  Empire  with  real 
equahty  of  civil  rights  for  Christians.  He  was 
quickly  adjudged  insane,  perhaps  because  of 
his  liberal  views,  and  three  months  later  was 
deposed,  giving  place  to  his  brother  Abd  ul 
Hamid  II.,  the  present  (1903)  Sultan.  Mithad 
and  his  companions  were  promptly  exiled,  con- 
veniently dying  shortly  after,  and  the  Old 
Turkey  party  remained  in  triumphant  ascend- 
ancy. 
48 


Servia  now  declared  war  upon  Turkey,  and 
the  European  powers  consulted  together  in  con- 
ference at  Constantinople  as  to  a  means  for 
pacifying  the  Balkan  provinces.  The  Sultan 
in  vain  proclaimed  a  constitution,  and  later 
convoked  a  parliament.  Neither  measure  sat- 
isfied Europe,  and  both  were  promptly  abolished 
when  the  hope  of  that  result  was  seen  to  be  vain. 
The  objections  of  Turkey  to  real  reform  gave 
Russia  a  pretext  for  declaring  war  in  1877. 
England  held  aloof,  stipulating  the  neutrality  of 
Egypt.  Austria  had  received  her  price  in  a 
promise  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and  Russia 
met  Turkey  alone.  The  campaign  of  the  Bal- 
kans resulted  in  placing  Constantinople  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Czar,  and  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano 
made  Russia  supreme  in  the  Balkan  peninsula, 
and  gave  her  a  strong  hold  on  Eastern  Turkey. 
This  was  more  than  England  and  Austria  could 
stand.  The  British  fleet  entered  the  Marmora, 
covering  with  its  guns  the  Russian  camp  at  San 
Stefano.  Austria  gave  tokens  of  hostility,  and 
Russia,  ill  prepared  for  a  general  European  war, 
consented  to  the  Conference  of  Berlin.  This 
granted  the  independence  of  Roumania  and 
Servia,  each  under  a  king  of  its  own;  made  Bul- 
garia an  autonomous  principality  with  a  relation 
of  tribute  only  to  the  Sultan,  handed  over  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  to  Austria,  enlarged  the  bor- 
ders of  Greece,  and  guaranteed  internal  reforms, 
especially  for  the  Armenians. 

Since  then  there  have  been  no  great  territorial 
changes  except  that  Eastern  Rumelia  was 
joined  to  Bulgaria  in  1885,  and  Prince  Alexander, 
who  proved  not  as  amenable  to  Russian  influ- 
ence as  was  desired,  was  seized,  forced  to  abdi- 
cate, and  was  replaced  by  Prince  Ferdinand. 
Later,  Crete  followed  the  manifest  destiny  of 
abused  Turkish  provinces  and  was  given  auton- 
omy under  a  prince  of  Greece. 

The  "Eastern  Question,"  which  after  all  is 
nothing  more  than  the  question  of  securing  some 
means  of  living  in  peace  while  a  Turkish  neighbor 
holds  to  religious  principles  that  demand  war, 
still  exists  in  all  of  its  disturbing  aggressiveness. 
The  present  (1903)  situation  in  Turkey  may  be 
briefly  summed  up: 

Ruling  influences  among  the  Turks  represent 
neither  of  the  parties  of  a  few  years  ago.  Taking 
as  his  motto  "Muslim  Turkey  for  Muslim  Turks, 
the  Sultan,  with  a  persistence,  patience,  and 
skill  that  place  him  among  the  greatest  of  the 
rulers  of  Turkey,  is  endeavoring  by  every  means 
in  his  power  to  strengthen  the  Mohammedan 
and  weaken  the  Christian  elements  of  the  popu- 
lation. Every  concession  of  political  equality 
or  civil  rights  not  contemplated  by  the  Koran 
for  unbelievers  living  under  Muslim  rulers  has 
been  wrung  from  Turkey  by  force.  The  prin- 
ciple followed  by  a  Muslim  ruler  in  such  a  case  is 
to  serve  the  interests  of  Islam  by  granting  the 
demand  when  he  cannot  meet  force  with  force, 
and  then  to  serve  Islam  again  by  withdrawing 
the  concession  so  soon  as  circumstances  permit. 
In  obedience  to  this  rule  many  of  the  concessions 
granted  by  the  Hatti  Humayoun  of  1856  (for- 
mally recognized  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  that 
year)  have  been  gradually  withdrawn.  Christian 
Pashas  have  been  allowed  to  die  out,  Christian 
officials  have  been  weeded  out  from  all  positions 
of  administrative  responsibility.  _  Since  the 
argument  for  Christian  representation  in  gov- 
ernment office  has  been  the  large  proportion^  of 
Christians  in  certain  sections,  a  feverish  activity 


Turkey 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


754 


has  been  shown  in  introducing  Mohammedan 
colonists  into  Christian  districts  in  Asiatic  Tur- 
key. Circassians  from  Russia,  Pomalcs  from 
Bulgaria,  Tatars  from  Roumania,  and  Kurds 
from  Persia  have  been  offered  inducements  to 
remove  to  points  in  Turkey  where  their  presence 
will  affect  the  balance  of  power.  The  right  to 
establish  schools  at  will,  which  was  guaranteed 
to  Christians  by  the  Hatti  Humayoun,  has  been 
quietly  withdrawn,  and  existing  Christian  schools 
are  restricted  in  their  course  of  study  and  closed 
on  trivial  pretexts.  At  the  same  time  the  great- 
est energy  is  displayed  in  increasing  the  number 
of  fanatically  Mohammedan  schools  whose 
expenses  are  largely  borne  by  special  taxation 
of  Christians  "for  education,"  m  which  they 
cannot  participate.  The  number  of  outrages 
committed  by  Muslims  upon  Christians  has  been 
notably  increased,  and  the  punishment  of  such 
outrages  is  more  than  ever  difficult.  In  fact, 
capital  punishment  for  murder  of  Christians  by 
Muslims  has  been  done  away,  an  imprisonment 
for  fifteen  years  having  taken  its  place,  with  the 
understanding  that  at  least  one-third  of  such  a 
sentence  will  be  remitted  by  imperial  clemency. 

It  is  not  a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  Chris- 
tian populations  of  Turkey  have  become  restive 
under  such  conditions.  In  1895  the  European 
powers  undertook  to  interfere  in  behalf  of  the 
six  provinces  of  Asiatic  Turkey  where  Arme- 
nians are  most  numerous.  The  Sultan  granted 
the  demands  of  Europe.  That  very  week  a 
series  of  massacres  began  which  destroyed  the 
flower  of  the  Armenian  population  of  every  city 
and  of  many  of  the  villages  in  each  one  of  the 
six  provinces.  Insurrectionary  tendencies  were 
alleged  as  a  reason  for  these  massacres,  in  which 
at  least  40,000  Armenians  fell  victims.  It  has 
not,  however,  been  shown  that  anything  worse 
than  deep  dissatisfaction,  or  at  most  plans  for 
organization  which  might  have  been  checked  by 
a  few  arrests,  existed  among  the  Armenians. 
The  massacres  ended  every  pretense  at  reform. 
An  attempt  of  Bulgarian  patriots  to  excite  insur- 
rection in  Macedonia  in  1903,  for  the  sake  of 
compelling  Turkey  to  grant  reforms  long  since 
promised,  led  to  similar  demands  on  the  part 
of  European  powers,  and  the  granting  of  these 
demands  was  followed  by  a  similar  systematic 
and  terrible  massacre  of  Bulgarian  inhabitants 
of  Macedonia.  Whether  this,  as  in  the  case  of 
Armenia,  will  be  allowed  to  terminate  the  val- 
idity of  the  promise  of  reforms,  it  is  not  our 
province  to  prophesy.  All  that  can  be  said  is 
that  the  same  internal  conditions  which  have 
kept  the  Eastern  Question  alive  in  the  past 
remain  active  to-day  in  Turkey,  and  are  likely 
to  remain  so  until  Mohammedans  are  willing  to 
admit  that  their  mission  in  the  world  is  other 
than  the  subjugation  and  plunder  of  unbelievers. 
Meanwhile,  certain  influences  are  at  work  among 
all  classes,  modifying  each,  sometimes  silently, 
but  not  the  less  surely;  often  unnoticed,  yet 
which  at  no  distant  day  may  be  most  potent 
factors  in  the  political  situation. 

Of  these  the  most  prominent  perhaps  is  edu- 
cation. The  presence  of  Robert  College  on  the 
Bosphorus,  the  American  College  for  Girls  in 
Scutari,  the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beirut, 
and  the  many  American  and  European  colleges 
through  Asia  Minor  have  had  a  mighty  influence 
in  stirring  the  popular  demand,  until  there  is  not 
a  citv  in  the  Empire,  scarcely  a  town  or  village, 
where  there  is  not  a  certain  amount  of  education. 


This  education  is  not  always  thorough  or  com- 
plete, but  it  is  opening  the  eyes  of  the  people  to 
truths  that  have  hitherto  been  unrecognized, 
and  no  efforts  of  ecclesiastics  or  government 
officials  can  close  them.  The  wide  use  of  the 
French  language  has  occasioned  a  great  influx 
of  French  literature  and  French  phrases,  and 
it  is  not  infrequent  to  hear  some  Armenian,  Greek, 
or  even  Turk,  boast  of  being  a  "fibre  penseur." 
Free-thinking  is  spreading,  and  with  it  the  ideas 
of  modern  socialism.  As  yet  confined  chiefly 
to  the  cities  of  the  seaboard,  these  are  spreading 
into  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  interior,  and  are 
exerting  an  influence  which  it  is  impossible  to 
measure,  but  which  is  not  less  potent. 

Next  to  education  as  a  very  positive  element 
in  influencing  the  political  condition  of  all  classes 
of  the  Empire  is  the  introduction  of  European 
modes  of  life.  The  change  in  this  respect  is 
most  marked;  and  tho  detailed  notice  is  out  of 
place  here,  the  fact  that  the  Oriental  simplicity 
of  manners,  from  which  has  come  in  no  small 
degree  the  vigor  of  the  Ottoman  race,  is  fast 
becoming  a  thing  of  the  past  is  of  most  practical 
import.  Parallel  with  these  is  the  growth  of 
infidelity.  This  will  be  especially  noticed  below, 
under  the  head  of  Mission  Work,  but  it  should 
be  mentioned  here  as  a  most  important  element 
in  politics.  The  condition  of  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire, as  regards  both  Muslim  and  Christian  in- 
habitants, is  rapidly  assuming  the  complexion 
of  the  later  Roman  Empire.  Religion  is  a  good 
thing  for  the  masses,  but  for  the  educated,  the 
leaders,  it  continues  only  as  a  political  bond.  In 
the  consciousness  of  this  among  the  more  sincere 
Mohammedans  of  Kurdistan,  Arabia,  and  Africa 
lies  the  ground  for  such  movements  as  those  of 
the  Mahdi,  and  of  the  rebellious  Arabs  of  Yemen, 
who  declare  that  the  Caliph  has  fallen  from  his 
high  estate  and  no  longer  deserves  to  hold  his 
position. 

The  subject  races,  divided  among  themselves, 
grasping  at  anything  that  seems  to  offer  them 
any  help,  are  waiting,  sometimes  patiently, 
sometimes  impatiently,  for  the  action  of  the 
European  powers,  or  for  the  action  of  this  slow, 
disintegrating  force  in  Islam  itself. 

Mission  Work:  The  general  history  of  mis- 
sions in  the  Turkish  Empire  is  sufficiently  noted 
in  the  articles  on  the  missionary  societies  named 
below.  It  is  needful  here  to  give  merely  an 
outline  of  the  work  as  a  whole,  and  show  its 
relations  to  the  peculiar  problems,  political, 
social,  and  religious,  of  this  interesting  field  of 
foreign  missions. 

The  territory  of  the  Turkish  Empire  is  well 
covered  by  the  mission  societies.  The  ABCFM, 
the  oldest  in  the  field,  also  occupies  the  largest 
territory — the  whole  of  European  Turkey, 
together  with  Bulgaria  south  of  the  Balkans, 
Asia  Minor,  Eastern  Turkey,  and  Mesopotamia. 
These  fields  have  constituted  for  many  years 
about  one-fourth  of  the  entire  territory  occupied 
by  this  Board  throughout  the  world.  The  Pres- 
byterian Church  (North)  occupies  Syria  and  a 
portion  of  Eastern  Turkey,  where  Nestorians  are 
round  in  Kurdistan.  The  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  has  its  work  in  Bulgaria,  north  of  the 
Balkans.  The  Reformed  Presbyterian  (Cove- 
nanter) Church  of  America  has  its  stations  in 
Northern  Syria  and  Southern  Asia  Minor.  There 
are  also  some  congregations  under  the  care  of 
the  Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society  (Dis- 
ciples) in  Asia  Minor,  and  a  few  Baptist  churches, 


755 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Tnrkey 


at  one  time  under  the  care  of  the  American 
Baptist  Publication  Society.  The  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  has  a  flourishing  work  in  Pales- 
tine, the  Friends  of  England  have  a  mission  in 
Syria,  and  a  single  medical  missionary  among 
the  Armenians  of  Constantinople.  The  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  has  a 
station  at  Damascus  and  one  at  Idlib,  near 
Antioch,  and  the  North  Africa  Mission  one  at 
Hums  in  Syria.  There  are  also  a  number  of 
schools  in  Syria  supported  by  the  Lebanon 
Schools  Committee  and  British  Syrian  Schools 
Association.  The  missions  to  the  Jews  of  the 
various  English  and  Scotch  societies  at  Constan- 
tinople, Smyrna,  Adrianople,  and  in  Palestine, 
are  specially  noted  in  the  article  on  the  Jews. 

The  Bible  work  of  the  Empire  is  carried  on 
by  the  American  and  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Societies,  and  the  National  Bible  Society 
of  Scotland.  The  American  Bible  Society 
occupies  the  territory  covered  by  the  American 
mission  societies,  except  Bulgaria,  while  the  BFBS 
works  in  European  Turkey,  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  Palestine.  Constantinople  and 
Smyrna  are  shared  by  the  two  societies.  The 
National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland  has  a  depot 
at  Salonica  in  European  Turkey.  In  Asiatic 
and  European  Turkej'  there  are  thirty-one 
societies  at  work.  Nme  of  these  are  Amer- 
ican, nineteen  are  British  and  two  are  German. 

If  we  turn  now  to  the  population,  we  find  that 
the  work  for  the  Armenians  is  carried  on  chiefly 
by  the  ABCFM;  for  the  Greeks  by  the  ABCFM; 
for  the  Bulgarians  by  the  ABCFM  and  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  for  the  Maronites 
and  Syrians  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  (North) 
and  the  various  English  and  Scotch  societies 
and  committees;  while  the  Nusairiyeh  are  the 
chosen  field  of  the  sturdy  Scotch  Covenanters. 
The  Turks,  Arabs,  Kurds,  Yezidis,  etc.,  have 
been  the  care  of  all  the  societies,  tho  the  CMS  is 
the  only  one  that  has  made  a  special  effort 
to  establish  mission  work  distinctively  for 
Muslims. 

Not  merely  is  the  territory  thus  provided  for 
as  a  whole,  but  it  is  well  covered  in  its  different 
parts.  True  to  the  best  policy,  the  missionaries 
have  from  the  beginning  sought  the  centers. 
Not  always  the  largest  cities  on  the  basis  of  a 
census,  but  those  which  for  one  reason  or  an- 
other furnish  most  opportunities  for  reaching 
the  widest  circle  of  people. 

There  are  of  course  sections  where  there  is 
comparatively  little  accomplished,  but  those 
are  few.  In  the  main,  the  Turkish  Empire  is 
well  covered,  and  it  may  be  truly  said  that  there 
is  scarcely  a  village,  except  in  the  mountains 
of  Kurdistan  and  some  parts  of  Mesopotamia 
and  Syria  bordering  on  Arabia,  that  does  not 
have  at  least  occasionally  the  opportunity  to 
hear  the  Gospel,  while  in  some  cities,  notably 
Aintab,  Marash,  Harpoot,  the  evangelical  ele- 
ment is  so  strong  as  to  be  a  very  important 
factor  in  the  general  life  of  the  people.  Mission 
work  in  the  Turkish  Empire  thus  has  passed 
the  exploring,  introductory  stage  and  reached 
that  of  development.  It  is  no  longer  experi- 
mental; it  has  settled  down  to  the  same  prob- 
lems that  meet  the  Church  in  other  lands,  affected 
yet  by  the  fact  that  it  is  still  rejected  totally  by 
the  immense  majority  of  the  people,  and  looked 
upon  with  varying  degrees  of  distrust  by  the 
greater  part  of  the  remainder. 

We  will  look  now  at  the  relations  that  mission 


work  in  Turkey  holds  to  the  different  classes 
of  people  whom  it  seeks  to  influence. 

/.  The  Jews:  When  the  first  missionaries 
entered  the  Levant  in  1819,  their  special  mes- 
sage was  to  the  Jews.  Not  many  years  passed, 
however,  before  that  branch  of  the  work  was 
given  up  by  them  as  manifesting  less  oppor- 
tunity for  success  than  others.  At  present  it  is 
chiefly  educational.  Large  schools  are  sup- 
ported by  the  Scotch  and  English  societies, 
especially  in  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Salonica, 
and  Jerusalem.  There  are  also  numerous 
preaching  services,  and  there  is  enough  of  success 
manifested  in  the  Christian  life  of  converts  to 
keep  the  laborers  from  being  discouraged  in 
their  work  or  giving  up  the  hope  of  a  redeemed 
Israel,  apart  from  their  faith  in  the  promises  of 
the  Scriptures.  Mission  work  among  the  Jews 
is,  however,  so  distinctively  sectional,  and  con- 
fined to  them  as  a  race,  that  it  enters  as  a  com- 
paratively unimportant  factor  into  the  question 
of  the  conversion  of  the  Empire  as  a  whole. 

11.  The  Oriental  Churches:  When  missionaries 
first  turned  their  attention  to  the  Christian 
churches  of  Turkey,  their  one  idea  was  to  secure 
reform  within  the  churches  themselves.  So 
close  to  the  creeds  and  confessions  of  the  Refor- 
mation were  those  of  the  Armenians,  Greeks, 
Nestorians,  that  it  seemed  to  them  a  compar- 
atively easy  task  to  show  the  incompatibility 
between  those  confessions  and  the  actual  prac- 
tises of  the  church.  Thus  every  effort  was  made 
to  come  into  cordial  relations  with  the  people,  and 
all  idea  of  a  separate  communion  was  specially 
disclaimed.  This  course  was  favored  also  by  the 
eagerness  with  which  these  churches  looked  for 
foreign  sympathy  and  aid  in  their  bitter  struggles 
with  their  Muslim  rulers. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  ecclesi- 
astics saw  that  the  new  ideas  would  inevitably 
result  in  loosening  and  ultimately  destroying 
their  control  over  their  followers.  Then  they 
massed  their  power  against  the  new  doctrines. 
An  excommunicated  man  had  no  rights  that  a 
Turkish  court  could  recognize.  He  was  nobody; 
could  neither  marry  nor  be  buried;  could  not 
buy,  sell,  or  employ.  He  had  absolutely  no 
status  as  a  citizen.  The  result  was  that  the  for- 
mation of  a  Protestant  civil  community  became 
absolutely  essential  to  the  very  life  of  Protes- 
tants. Then  other  influences  began  to  come  in. 
The  introduction  of  Europeans  into  the  com- 
mercial and  governmental  affairs  of  the  Empire 
brought  with  it  the  introduction  of  French  and 
German  thought.  With  increased  ease  of  access 
to  Europe  more  and  more  the  Armenian  and 
Greek  youth  sought  education  in  Paris  and 
Vienna.  Returning,  they  brought  with  them  the 
free-thinking  of  the  day,  and  the  grip  of  the 
Church,  not  only  on  their  belief  but  their  life, 
began  very  perceptibly  to  loosen,  and  the 
ecclesiastics  began  to  think  that  perhaps  they 
had  not  been  absolutely  wise  in  their  repulsion 
of  evangelicalism.  In  the  meantime  it  became 
evident  that  these  Protestants  were  no  less 
national  in  their  feeling  than  the  orthodox: 
indeed,  had  an  even  clearer  conception  of  what 
a  true  national  life  was.  Here  was  clear  proof 
that  the  study  of  the  Bible  did  not  make  a  man 
or  woman  less  capable  of  good  work  for  his  peo- 
ple. The  result  has  been  that  in  very  many 
sections  of  the  Empire  there  is  a  constantly  grow- 
ing cordiality  between  the  evangelical  and^  the 
orthodox     communities.     Bishops     and     priests 


TTii-key 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


756 


are  preaching  Gospel  sermons;  in  some  cases 
Sunday-schools  and  Bible  classes  are  started,  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  growing  desire  for  religious 
instruction.  With  infidelity  staring  them  in 
the  face,  the  leaders  of  the  old  churches  are 
coming  more  and  more  to  look  upon  the  mis- 
sionaries and  the  native  evangelical  churches  as 
allies   rather  than   enemies. 

The  problem  of  missions  in  Turkey,  in  their 
relations  to  the  old  churches,  is,  on  the  one 
hand,  so  to  establish  the  evangelical  churches 
in  faith  and  life  that  when  a  reunion  with  the 
others  comes  they  shall  not  be  borne  away  and 
swallowed  up;  on  the  other,  to  convince  the  old 
churches  that  their  one  aim  is  to  establish  the 
kingdom  of  God,  not  a  temporal  organization, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  set  forth  in  the  evangel- 
ical churches  as  clear  and  accurate  an  idea  as 
possible  of  what  constitutes  a  true  church 
life. 

///.  Mohammedanism:  The  general  relations 
of  evangelical  missions  to  Mohammedanism  are 
fully  set  forth  in  the  article  on  that  subject.  It 
is  needful  here  to  note  only  such  points  as  are 
specially  brought  out  in  the  Turkish  Empire. 

The  first  feeling  of  the  Muslims  of  Turkey 
toward  the  new  sect  was  one  of  amused  and 
rather  tolerant  indifference.  Indeed,  in  not  a 
few  instances  Turks  who  saw  the  simplicity  of 
the  evangelical  worship,  the  absence  of  ritual, 
of  pictures  and  priestly  rule,  the  stress  laid  upon 
spiritual  worship,  said:  "Why,  these  are  Mus- 
lims." The  use  of  the  Bible  in  distinction  from 
the  creeds  of  the  Church  compared  favorably 
in  their  eyes  with  the  position  they  accorded  to 
the  Koran,  and  a  Kurdish  chief  once  said: 
"Why  do  not  the  Bible  Societies  print  and  bind 
the  two  books  together?  then  we  should  have  the 
complete  revelation."  For  a  while  this  cordial 
feeling  for  Protestants  as  distinct  from  the 
Eastern  Church  rather  increased,  except  when 
the  influence  of  ecclesiastics  secured  special  hard- 
ships for  those  who  had  dared  to  brave  the  power 
of  the  Church.  The  missionaries  had  great  in- 
fluence, because  the  Turkish  officials  recognized, 
in  many  cases,  their  freedom  from  political 
motives.  Little  by  little,  however,  this  changed. 
Shrewd  MoUahs  saw,  as  Armenian  and  Greek 
bishops  had  already  seen,  that  these  new  people 
were  exerting  an  influence  for  stimulating  men- 
tal processes  among  the  people,  and  that  an 
intellectual  awakening  must  in  time  cut  the 
ground  entirely  from  under  their  whole  system 
of  belief  and  government.  Then  commenced  a 
most  determined  and  liitter  opposition.  Not 
in  appearance, — that  was  in  most  cases  friendl)', 
— but  in  the  form  of  hindrance.  Censorship  of 
publications  was  made  increasingly  stringent. 
The  necessary  permits  for  buildings,  churches, 
schools,  and  even  private  dwellings  were  refused 
or  delayed  as  long  as  possible.  Any  Turks  who 
manifested  a  leaning  toward  or  an  interest  in  the 
Bible  were  quietly  arrested  on  some  fictitious 
charge  and  spirited  away.  Spies  were  every- 
where. Occasionally  some  Mohammedan  more 
bold  than  his  fellows,  or  feeling  more  secure  in 
his  position  and  relations  with  Porte  or  Palace, 
would  give  expression  to  his  feeling  that  the 
work  of  the  missionaries  was  really  a  good  thing 
for  the  Empire,  but  means  were  generally  found 
to  neutralize  the  effect  of  such  a  statement.  In 
not  a  few  instances  laws  were  promulgated 
especially  directed  against  the  missionaries. 
Vexations  upon  vexations  were  put  upon  them. 


The  result  has  been  that  there  have  been  very 
few  conversions  of  Muslims  to  Protestant  Chris- 
tianity. There  have  come,  however,  from  every 
side  constantly  increasing  testimonies  to  the 
hold  that  Christianity  is  getting  upon  the  people 
of  the  land.  The  number  of  Scriptures  sold  to 
Muslims  indicates  a  profound  interest  in  the 
Bible,  which  cannot  fail  to  bring  forth  fruit  in 
Christian  life. 

Islam  in  its  historic  inception  was  in  a  great 
degree  a  protest  against  a  devitalized  polytheis- 
tic Christianity.  If  Muslims  are  to  be  brought 
to  Christ,  it  must  be  largely  through  the  example 
and  influence  of  a  living  Christian  church.  The 
problem  of  missions  in  Turkey  in  their  relation 
to  Mohammedanism  is  that  of  developing  a 
native  church  freed  from  the  political  quality  of 
the  old  churches,  strong  in  its  belief  in  the  unity 
of  God,  manifesting  in  its  daily  life  an  educated 
Christian  faith. 

In  meeting  this  problem,  missions  in  Turkey 
rely  upon  five  special  agencies:  (1)  Evangelical 
preaching;  (2)  Bible  distribution;  (3)  Education; 
(4)   Publication;  (.5)  Social  influence. 

1.  The  Evangelical  preaching  of  Turkey  is 
very  largely,  in  most  cases  almost  entirely,  in  the 
hands  of  the  native  pastorate.  The  pastors,  edu- 
cated in  the  different  seminaries  and  colleges,  are 
taking  a  position  of  constantly  increasing  impor- 
tance. Men  of  large  views,  earnest  Christian 
spirit,  they  have  done  much,  not  only  to  build  up 
the  native  evangelical  churches,  but  to  convince 
others  that  Protestant  Christianity  is  a  genuine 
power  in  the  world  for  good.  Not  only  in  the 
larger  cities  but  in  the  smaller  places  they  are 
doing  a  great  tho  often  unheralded  work,  laying 
foundations  in  Christian  character  for  future 
building. 

2.  Bible  Distribution:  There  is  probably  no 
mission  field  where  this  department  of  mission 
work  is  more  thoroughly  organized  so  as  to 
reach  periodically  every  portion  of  it  than  the 
Turkish  Empire.  This  has  been  already  spoken 
of  in  the  articles  on  the  American  and  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Societies. 

3.  Education  in  connection  with  the  mission- 
ary work  has  been  a  normal  growth.  Free 
primary  schools  were  first  started.  Schools, 
called  theological,  to  educate  native  ministers 
and  teachers  soon  followed,  and  were  free  to  the 
class  for  which  they  were  designed.  Girls' 
boarding-schools  were  also  established  early,  the 
first  in  1840.  All  this  work  was  rudimentary. 
In  1863  Robert  College  was  opened  on  the  Bos- 
phorus,  and,  almost  simultaneously,  the  Syrian 
Protestant  College  at  Beirut.  These  institutions 
mark  the  begiinin'g  of  serious  educational  work 
in  Turkey  on  the  basis  of  requiring  pupils  to  pay 
reasonably  fcr  their  instruction,  and  on  a  plan 
of  thorough  training  with  an  ample  and  well- 
prepared  curriculum. 

They  had  much  to  contend  against  in  the  as 
yet  feebly  developed  desire  among  even  the 
people  of  the  seaboard  for  a  college  education. 
They  had  also  to  meet  the  opposition  of  many 
Christian  men — missionaries  and  supporters  of 
missions — who,  in  their  zeal  for  the  largest  de- 
velopment of  the  evangelistic  work,  were  jeal- 
ous of  an  elaborate  course  of  collegiate  training. 
The  first  years  of  those  colleges  were  marked  by 
a  slow  growth.  Classes  of  five,  three,  two,  in  one 
case  of  only  one,  were  graduated. 

In  the  course  of  a  decade  of  years  the  increase 
was  abnormal.     There   was   a  plethora   of  raw 


757 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  MISSIONS 


Turtey 


material  which  had  to  be  in  part  eliminated  that 
what  remained  might  be  assimilated. 

The  institution  at  Scutari,  Constantinople, 
now  known  as  the  American  College  for  Girls, 
was  started  at  this  time,  and  struggled,  in  its 
inception,  through  difficulties  and  limitations 
similar  to  those  from  which  the  college  on  the 
Bosphorus  had  emerged. 

Between  1871  and  1875  two  colleges  in  the 
interior  of  the  country  were  projected,  and  in 
the  latter  year  were  opened,  viz.,  the  Central 
Turkey  College,  at  Aintab,  south  of  the  Taurus 
Mountains,  and  the  Armenia — now  Euphrates — 
College,  at  Harpoot,  east  of  the  Euphrates  River. 
These  colleges  show  points  of  resemblance  and 
of  unlikeness  to  each  other  and  to  Robert  College. 
Their  course  of  study  is  not  quite  so  full  as  that 
of  the  colleges  on  the  seaboard.  German  and 
Italian  are  not  needed  in  the  interior,  and  much 
better  work  is  done  at  Robert  College  in  the 
physical  sciences  and  in  chemistry  than  is  yet 
possible  in  an  interior  college.  But  the  colleges 
of  the  interior  have  the  advantage  of  being  in 
closer  touch  with  the  races  to  be  reached  and 
molded  by  them. 

This  growth  of  education,  especially  within 
the  last  seven  or  eight  years,  has  developed  the 
following  noteworthy  results: 

a.  The  youth  of  Turkey  can  pay  for  their 
education,  where  terms  are  made  light,  accord- 
ing to  location  of  the  college,  and  such  propor- 
tion of  aid  is  given,  through  scholarships  and 
by  furnishing  work,  as  is  done  in  the  colleges  of 
this  country. 

6.  This  securing  of  the  privilege  of  Christian 
education  through  strenuous  exertion  on  the 
part  of  pupils  and  their  friends  is  one  of  the 
most  essential  conditions  of  realizing  that 
growth  in  manly,  self-reliant,  aspiring  character 
and  that  establishment  of  a  vital,  self-propagat- 
ing Christianity,  without  which  education  is 
nowhere  a  blessing.  The  plan  of  education 
now  adopted  has  already  yielded  excellent 
results  in  this  way.  The  more  men,  or  races  of 
men,  are  held  down  by  the  incubus  of  poverty, 
the  more  urgent  is  the  necessity  of  rousing  the 
will-power  to  self-help,  by  every  right  device 
and  pressure. 

c.  It  is  the  stand  taken  and  the  work  done 
by  Americans  in  the  recent  years  in  the  matter 
of  education  which  has  won  the  confidence  of 
the  best  men  of  all  races  in  Turkey. 

d.  It  is  this  influence  alone  which  can  fit  the 
several  races  for  their  future,  and  hold  in  har- 
monious relation  one  to  another  all  those  whose 
vital  interests  are  identical. 

e.  These  American  colleges  furnish  in  large 
part  the  models  in  education  for  all  the  Christian 
communities  in  Turkey,  and  train  large  numbers 
of  the  teachers.  It  was  after  Americans  gave 
the  signal  that  Armenians,  Greeks,  and  Bul- 
garians established  for  themselves  any  schools 
worthy  of  the  name.  The  Turks  have  ideal 
capacity  for  establishing  excellent  schools  on 
paper,  and  ideal  incapacity  for  establishing 
them  in  any  other  way.  They  also  are  already 
recognizing  the  American  leadership. 

/.  All  discussion  among  missionaries  and  their 
supporters  relative  to  the  utility  of  education 
and  to  the  comparative  value  of  educational  and 
evangelistic  work  has  ceased. 

4.  Publication:  There  are  two  centers  of 
missionary  publication  in  the  Turkish  Empire: 
Constantinople  and  Beirut.     The  work  at  Beirut 


is  entirely  Arabic;  that  at  Constantinople  includes 
Turkish,  Armenian,  Greek,  Bulgarian,  Judseo- 
Spanish,  Kurdish,  etc.  In  each  place  some  of 
the  best  of  missionary  strength  has  gone  into 
the  work  of  providing  not  only  the  Bible  and 
religious  books,  but  periodical  literature,  educa- 
tional works,  and  such  general  literature  as  a 
growing  Christian  community  is  constaritly 
demanding,  and  in  ever-increasing  quantity. 
Aside  from  the  work  of  Bible  translation  in 
these  different  languages,  the  work  done  in 
Turkey  is  telling  all  over  the  Empire  in  the 
correction  of  erroneous  views,  not  by  antagoniz- 
ing their  errors,  but  by  presenting  the  truth. 

5.  Social  Injluence:  This  is  an  ever-increasing 
power  in  Turkey.  The  ready  access  gained  to 
all  classes  of  people,  the  power  of  personal  pres- 
ence and  actual  acquaintance,  has  done  and  is 
doing  a  great  deal  toward  preparing  the  way 
for  the  entrance  of  the  Gospel.  Many  old-time 
prejudices  against  those  that  "having  turned 
the  world  upside  down,  are  come  hither  also," 
have  quietly  but  absolutely  disappeared  before 
the  presence  in  an  Armenian,  Greek,  Maronite, 
and  Turkish  home  of  a  simply  dressed,  unas- 
suming Christian  lady.  Many  an  ecclesiastic 
has  found  it  impossible  to  harangue  against  one 
whom  he  knew  from  personal  acquaintance  to 
be  a  Christian  gentleman.  ' 

In  the  Turkish  Empire  the  gates  are  open.  It 
is  only  necessary  to  hold  the  vantage-ground 
gained  and  to  make  steady  advance,  in  order  to 
solve  the  deepest  problems  of  the  Ea.stern  Ques- 
tion, by  building  up  the  kingdom  of  God  in  the 
lands  where  it  was  first  established. 

As  we  dwell  upon  past  achievement  and 
present  encouragement,  we  feel  that  the  future 
of  Christian  missions  in  Turkey  is  hopeful.  The 
words  of  Dr  Jessup  point  to  the  light  in  the 
cloud:  "Protestant  missions  have  given  the 
entire  population  the  Bible  in  their  tongue; 
have  trained  hundreds  of  thousands  of  readers; 
published  thousands  of  useful  books;  awak- 
ened a  spirit  of  inquiry;  set  in  motion  educa- 
tional institutions  in  all  the  sects  of  all  parts  of 
the  Empire,  compelling  the  enemies  of  education 
to  become  its  friends,  and  the  most  conservative 
of  Orientals  to  devote  mosque  and  convent 
property  to  the  founding  of  schools  of  learning. 
Protestantism  has  forced  Oriental  patriarchs, 
bishops  and  priests  to  modify,  if  not  aban- 
don, their  arbitrary  oppressions  and  exactions. 
Protestantism  has  made  ignorance  unfashionable 
and  persecution  disgraceful.  It  has  broken 
the  fetters  of  womanhood,  created  directly  and 
indirectly  the  system  of  female  education 
spreading  over  the  Empire  and  let  light  into 
unnumbered  homes  where  women  before  had 
been  consigned  to  ignorance  and  inferiority. 
Every  evangelical  church  is  a  provoca- 
tion and  stimulus  to  the  old  sects,  a  living 
epistle  to  the  Mohammedans  with  regard  to  the 
true  nature  of  original  apostolic  Christianity. 
The  Protestant  translation  of  the  Bible'  into 
Arabic  by  Drs.  Eli  Smith  and  Cornelius  Van 
Dyck  forced  the  Jesuit  Father  Von  Ham  to 
make  another  translation  based  on  the  Vulgate. 
Encouraged  by  the  spirit  of  reform  and  modern 
progress,  even  the  Mohammedan  doctors  of 
Constantinople  have  issued  orders  that  all 
editions  of  old  Mohammedan  authors  which 
recount  the  fabulous  stories  of  Mushni  saints 
and  Welys  are  to  be  expurgated  or  suppressed 
and  not  to  be  reprinted." 


Tnrlvish  T^mignagre 
Uclnyaffiri 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


758 


The  number  of  foreign  missionary  workers  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire  is  637.  Proportion  of 
these  missionaries  to  the  population  is  1:37,416.8. 
The  statistical  summary  for  1903  is  as  follows: 
Ordained  men,  128;  unordained  men,  108; 
missionaries'  wives,  123;  other  missionary 
women,  278;  native  workers,  both  sexes,  1,805; 
stations  where  missionaries  reside,  122;  out- 
stations  or  substations,  526;  communicants, 
18,367;  adherents  not  communicants,  51,244; 
day  schools,  767;  pupils,  36,719;  higher 
institutions,  51;  students  in  same,  3,251 ;  foreign 
male  physicians,  35;  foreign  women  physicians, 
3;  hospitals  or  dispensaries,  63;  patients 
reported  during  year,  189,737. 

Creasy  (Sir  E.  S.),  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  new  ed., 
London,  1S82  ;  Freeman  (E.  A.),  The  Ottoman  Power  in 
Europe,  London  and  New  York,  1887  ;  Haurmer-Purgstall 
(J.  von),  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reiches,  1st  ed.,  10 
Aols.,  Pesth,  1827-35  (a  translation  in  French  can  also  be 
had)  ;  Poole  (S.  L.),  Turkey  (in  Story  of  the  Nations 
series),  London,  1889  ;  Holland  (T.  E.),  The  European 
Concert  in  the  Eastern  Question,  Oxford,  1897  ;  Garnett 
(Lucy),  The  Women  of  Turkey  and  their  Folk  Lore,  London, 
1890  :  Doris  (G.),  Abd  ul  Ilamid  (translation).  New  York, 
1901  ;  Amicio  (E.  de).  Constantinople  (translation),  New 
York,  1896  ;  Hamlin  (C),  My  Life  and  Times,  Boston, 
1893  ;  Dwight  (H.  O.),  Constantinople  and  its  Problems, 
New  York,  1901  ;  Cuinet  (V.),  La  Turquie  d'Asie  (Geog- 
raphy and  Statistics),  5  vols.  Paris,  1900,  1901  ;  Harris 
(I.  R.  and  H.  B.),  Letters  from  the  Scenes  of  the  Recent 
Massacres  in  Armenia,  London,  1897  ;  Turkey  in  Europe, 
by  (Ddysseus,  London,  19U0. 

TURKISH  LANGUAGE :  This  is  an  important 
member  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family  of  languages. 
It  is  thoroughly  typical  of  the  family  (1)  in  tol- 
erating no  change  or  obscurement  of  the  root 
through  inflection,  (2)  in  adding  syllables  or 
particles  to  the  root  for  purposes  of  inflection, 
and  (3)  in  giving  the  leading  vowel  of  the  root 
domination  over  the  vowels  and  even  conso- 
nants of  such  added  syllables  so  as  to  secure 
euphony  in  the  whole  combination. 

In  etymology  the  Turkish  is  remarkable  for 
the  regularity  of  its  declensions  and  conjugations, 
and  for  the  abundance  of  the  forms  of  the  verb, 
especially  in  the  Osmanli  Turkish.  There  is, 
properly  speaking,  but  one  conjugation  of  verbs. 
The  verb  is  conjugated  in  great  fullness  of  moods 
and  tenses,  with  abundance  of  participial  forms 
and  verbal  nouns.  Moreover,  by  the  incorpora- 
tion of  certain  particles  the  simple  verb  may  give 
rise  to  new  verbs  signifying  a  reflexive  and  a 
reciprocal  quality  of  action.  Another  particle 
gives  causative  significance  to  the  origmal  or 
the  derived  verbs.  And,  finally,  by  use  of  the 
appropriate  particle  with  each  of  the  verbs  of 
the  three  series,  each  one  is  made  to  produce  a 
new  verb  with  a  negative  and  one  with  an  im- 
possible signification.  Each  verb  may  be  con- 
jugated in  all  the  moods  and  tenses  and  in  the 
active  and  passive  voices  exactly  on  the  model 
of  the  simple  verb,  producing  some  20,000 
tense,  number,  and  person  forms  from  each  sim- 
ple verb.  The  variety  and  compactness  of  ex- 
pression thus  secured  is  extraordinary. 

The  principle  of  agglutination  has  its  applica- 
tion also  in  the  formation  of  adjectives,  adverbs, 
and  nouns,  giving  great  breadth  of  expression 
in  the  use  of  the  somewhat  limited  vocabulary. 
Most  pronouns  and  all  prepositions  in  Turkish 
are  used  in  accordance  with  the  same  principle, 
following  the  noun  which  they  limit  as  suffixes  and 
having  a  regular  place  in  the  building  of  the  word. 

The  Turkish  language  lacks  the  relative  pro- 
noun and  the  article.  It  has  neither  gender  nor 
declension  of  adjectives,  and  is  defective  in  the 
comparison  of  adjectives. 


In  syntax  the  characteristic  of  Turkish  is  that 
while  the  subject  occurs  at  or  near  the  corn- 
mencement  of  a  paragraph,  the  sense  is  held  in 
suspense  while  qualifying  phrases  and  partic- 
ulars of  the  most  diverse  description  are  brought 
in,  the  verb  of  the  predicate,  which  stands  at 
the  very  end  of  the  paragraph,  serving  as  the 
key  to  the  whole  enigma. 

The  Eastern  Turks  of  Turkestan  and  Mon- 
golia once  had  an  alphabet  derived,  perhaps, 
from  the  Syriac  taught  by  early  Nestorian  mis- 
sionaries. At  present,  however,  Arabic  letters 
are  used  for  writing  Turkish,  a  dot  or  two  being 
added  to  five  of  them  in  order  to  express  con- 
sonant sounds  not  found  in  Arabic.  This  al- 
phabet, being  without  vowels,  is  quite  unsuited 
to  writing  Turkish.  Various  attempts  have 
been  made  without  success  to  introduce  Western 
alphabets.  The  Bashkir  Turks  of  the  Volga 
have  adopted  the  Russian  alphabet  to  some 
extent.  Christians  living  in  Turkey  who  have 
adopted  the  Turkish  language  use  the  alphabets 
of  their  ancestors  in  writing.  Hence  we  meet 
with  Greco- Turkish  and  Armeno-Turkish,  which 
are  merely  Turkish  written  with  Greek  or  with 
Armenian  letters. 

The  Turkish  vocabulary  is  of  limited  extent, 
suggesting  the  limited  range  of  ideas  of  pastoral 
peoples.  All  the  dialects  borrow  freely  from 
the  Persian  and  Arabic  languages.  In  the 
Osmanli  Turkish,  used  in  the  Turkish  Empire, 
this  appropriation  of  Persian  and  Arabic  words 
has  been  carried  to  a  greater  extent,  and  in  the 
literary  usage  has  borrowed  phrases  and  gram- 
matical forms  to  a  degree  which  has  raised  its 
literature  far  above  the  comprehension  of  the 
unlearned,  and  has  even  threatened  to  destroy 
the  very  basis  of  the  language. 

Of  late  years,  however,  a  strong  movement 
has  set  in  at  Constantinople  for  rejecting  the 
use  of  unnaturalized  Persian  and  Arabic  words 
and  phrases.  This  tends  to  bring  the  literary 
Turkish  back  within  the  comprehension  of  the 
masses,  and  promises  important  results. 

The  domain  of  the  Turkish  language  is  remark- 
able for  its  extent.  Turkish  is  spoken  in  vary- 
ing universality  of  use  in  a  wide  belt  extending 
from  Chinese  Mongolia  westward  to  the  Adriatic 
Sea.  Its  dialects  are  numerous,  but  on  the 
whole  may  be  classed  as  Eastern  and  Western, 
the  dividing  line  being  the  Caspian  Sea.  The 
Eastern  Turkish  shows  the  language  in  its  earlier 
stages  of  development,  still  preserving  in  Chinese 
Turlcestan  the  words  added  to  roots  in  lieu  of 
declension  of  nouns,  which  have  become  in  the 
Western  Turkish  mere  case  endings.  The 
TJighur  of  Kashgar  and  the  Uzbek  or  Jagatai 
of  Bokhara  and  Khiva  are  dialects  closely 
related  to  the  Osmanli  or  Ottoman  Turkish, 
but  not  easily  intelligible  to  the  Ottomans 
because  of  grammatical  differences  and  a  curious 
substitution  of  related  consonants,  as  "f"  and 
"b"  in  the  west  for  "p"  and  "m"  in  the  east, 
etc.  The  Azerbaijan  Turkish,  found  in  Persia 
on  the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  Nogai 
Turkish  and  the  Krim-  (Crimean)  Tatar  dialect 
spoken  in  Russia  between  the  northern  end  of 
the  Caspian  and  the  Black  Sea,  are  so  closely 
allied  to  the  Osmanli  or  western  language  that 
Turkish  newspapers  published  in  the  Crimea 
have  subscribers  in  Constantinople.  The  Ku- 
mukhi  dialect,  spoken  in  Daghestan,  and  the 
Kazan  Turkish,  spoken  in  the  plains  of  the 
Volga,  belong  rather  to  the  eastern  type.     At 


758 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


TnrklHli  Language 
Vdayasirl 


Kazan,  by  the  way,  is  the  present  center  of 
literary  activity  in  the  Eastern  Turlvish.  As 
we  proceed  northward  we  find  in  the  Ural 
mountam  regions  the  Bashkir  Turkish  and  the 
Chuvash,  which  are  strongly  tinged  with  Finnish 
words.  In  the  extreme  northeast  of  Siberia, 
along  the  Lena  River,  the  Yakut  Turkish  is 
strongly  Mongolian  in  its  affinities.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  Kirghiz  dialects  used  by  the 
nomads  of  the  steppes. 

Shaw,  Sketch  of  the  Turkish  Language  as  Spoken  in  Eastern 
Turkestan,  Calcutta,  1878-80;  De  Courteille,  Dictionnaire 
Turc-Orientale,  Paris,  1870;  Radloff,  Die  Alt-Turkische 
Inschriflen  der  Mongolei,  St.  Petersburg,  1879;  Wells, 
Practical  Grammar  of  the  Turkish  Language,  London, 
1880 ;  Redhouse,  Lexicon  of  the  Ottoman.  Turkish  Language, 
Constantinople,  1884;  also  English-Turkish  Dictionary, 
Constantinople,  1861;  also  Turkish-English,  English- 
Turkish  Dictionary,  London,  1880;  Gibb,  History  of  Turk- 
ish Poetry,  2  vols.,  London,  1902;  Turkish  Literature  in 
World  s  Great  Classics,  London,  1901 ;  Poole,  Storv  of 
Turkey,  New  York,  1888. 

TURNER,  Rev.  George:  Born  January  22, 
1818.  Died  May  19,  1891.  A  prominent  mis- 
sionary of  the  LMS.  His  heroic  labors  in  the 
South  Seas,  amid  the  daily  peril  of  life  among 
the  people  who  had  recently  been  the  murder- 
ers of  John  Williams,  form  a  thrilling  chapter 
in  the  annals  of  missions.  In  1882  he  left  Samoa. 
The  establishment  of  the  Malua  Institution  for 
training  native  evangelists  was  mainly  due  to 
his  influential  labor;  and  from  this  institution 
have  gone  forth  many  well-equipped  preachers 
of  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  Dr  Turner  was  not  only 
a  devoted  missionary  of  the  Cross,  but  from  his 
pen  the  people  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  received 
a  large  supply  of  Christian  literature.  After  his 
retirement  his  literary  labors  for  the  benefit  of 
Samoa  continued  until  his  last  brief  illness,  when 
he  left  a  manuscript  on  the  claims  of  this  people, 
which  was  printed  by  the  LMS. 

TURTON,  William:  A  native  of  Barbados,  who, 
after  serving  for  a  time  as  a  minister  in  the 
colonies  on  the  American  continent,  returned 
to  the  West  Indies  in  1785,  and  devoted  his 
life  to  working  for  the  negro  slaves,  first  at  St. 
Bartholomew  and  afterward  at  New  Providence 
in  the  Bahamas.  He  encountered  bitter  oppo- 
sition from  planters  and  from  clergy  of  the  estab- 
lished Church  because  he  was  a  Methodist. 
Having  collected  a  congregation  in  St.  Bar- 
tholomew he  induced  the  WMS  to  place  it  on 
their  list  of  stations.  He  then,  in  1801,  began  a 
similar  work  in  New  Providence,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  influence  of  those  who  sought  to 
impede  his  labors,  met  with  great  success  until, 
worn  out  with  exposure  and  privation,  he  was 
obliged  to  call  on  the  WMS  to  send  men  to  his 
aid.  Thus  this  humble  worker  was  the  founder 
of  two  of  the  stations  of  that  society  in  the 
West  Indies. 


TU-SHAN-CHAU:  A  town  of  Kwei-chau, 
China,  situated  in  the  extreme  S.  E.  of  the  prov- 
ince near  the  borders  of  Kwang-si.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  place  of  worship,  1  woman  mission- 
ary, and  10  professed  Christians.  Name  also 
written  Tuh-shan. 

TUTICORIN:  Town  on  the  coast  of  Madras, 
India,  35  miles  E.  lay  N.  of  Tinnevelli.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  place  and  its  neighborhood  is 
very  unattractive,  since  in  parts  the  subsoil  is 
so  shallow  that  no  plants  or  trees  will  grow,  and 
elsewhere  there  is  nothing  but  heavy  sand,  with 
palmyra  palms  and  a  few  bushes.  During  the 
southwest  monsoon  the  dust  is  intolerable.  In 
value  of  its  foreign  trade  Tuticorin  is  second  in 
Madras  and  sixth  in  all  India.  Its  harbor,  tho 
shallow,  is  secure.  Population,  25,100,  of 
whom  15,000  are  Hindus.  Station  of  the  SPG 
(1878),  with  (1903)  22  native  workers,  6  places 
of  worship,  6  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools, 
and  1,590  professed  Christians,  of  whom  504  are 
communicants. 

TUTUILA:  An  island  of  the  Samoan  group 
belonging  to  the  United  States.  Station  of  the 
LMS  (1836),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  women  missionaries,  38  native  workers, 
2  boarding  schools,  42  Sunday  schools,  34  day 
schools,  1  dispensary,  and  3,841  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  1,525  are  communicants. 

TUTURA:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Transkei  region  S.  of 
Butterworth.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1885),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  29  native 
workers,  12  outstations,  5  places  of  worship,  10 
Sunday  schools,  13  day  schools,  and  500  professed 
Christians. 

TYLER,  Josiah:  Born  July  9,  1823.  Died 
in  rege.  Entered  Amherst  College  in  1841, 
where  he  graduated  in  1845.  While  he  was  tak- 
ing his  theological  course  at  East  Windsor 
Seminary  he  decided  to  enter  the  foreign  field. 
He  was  ordained  in  1849,  and  soon  afterward, 
with  his  wife,  he  sailed  from  Boston  for  Cape 
Town.  He  was  associated  with  Messrs.  Wilder, 
Lindley,  Aldin  Grout  and  Lewis  Grout  in  the 
Zulu  Mission.  Dr  Tyler  labored  forty  years  in 
Natal,  and  his  "Forty  Years  Among  the  Zulus" 
is  a  standard  and  most  interesting  record  of 
missionary  life  and  labor.  He  founded  the 
Esidurnbini  station,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
which  was  celebrated  in  1901. 

TYRE,  or  ES  SUR:  A  town  in  Syria,  situated 
on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  20  miles 
N.  by  E.  of  Acre.  Station  of  the  British  Syrian 
Mission  Schools  (1869),  with  (1903)  2  women 
missionaries,  9  native  workers,  4  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  4  day  schools,  1  dispensary. 


u 


UDAIPUR:  A  town  and  capital  of  the  state 
of  the  same  name  in  Rajputana,  India,  situated 
about  140  miles  S.  of  Ajmere.  Population, 
38,143.  Station  of  the  UFS  (1877), with  (1903) 
2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife;  30 
native  workers,    1  outstation,    4  day  schools. 


1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  1  orphanage,  and  124 
professed  Christians. 

UDAPI.     See  Udipi. 

UDAYAGIRI:     A    town    in    Madras,    India, 
situated   in  the   district  of   Nellore,   about   50 


TTdipi 

United   Brethren 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


760 


miles  W.  of  Kavalli.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1885),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
19  native  workers,  11  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  day  school,  1 
boarding  school,  1  dispensary,  and  334  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  325  are  commun- 
icants. 

UDIPI:  A  town  in  South  Kanara,  India,  sit- 
uated near  the  W.  coast,  about  35  miles  N.  of 
Mangalore.  Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  (1854),  with  (1903)  6  missionaries,  four 
of  them  with  their  wives;  44  native  workers,  10 
outstations,  10  day  schools,  and  1,857  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  1,040  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  IJdapi. 

UDUPITTY :  A  settlement  in  the  Jaffna  district 
of  Ceylon,  about  12  miles  N.  of  Chavakacheri. 
Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1847),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  43  native  workers,  2 
outstations,  18  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
and  165  professed  Christians. 

UEN-CHAU.     See  Yuen-chau-fu. 
UE-WU.     See  Yu-wu-hsien. 

DGANDA:  A  British  protectorate  in  Central 
Africa,  lying  at  the  northern  end  of  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  German 
East  Africa  and  by  the  1st  degree  of  S.  latitude 
(on  the  lake);  on  the  east  by  a  line  drawn 
through  the  middle  of  Lake  Rudolf  and  by  the 
British  East  African  Protectorate;  on  the  west 
by  the  Congo  Free  State,  and  on  the  north  by  the 
5th  degree  of  N.  latitude,  at  the  frontier  of  the 
Egyptian  Sudan.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
80,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
4,000,000  natives,  one-fourth  of  whom  belong 
to  the  Bantu  race,  who  call  themselves  Baganda. 
There  are  about  300  Europeans  in  the  pro- 
tectorate. For  administrative  purposes  it  is 
divided  into  five  provinces,  of  which  the  kingdom 
of  Uganda  forms  the  southernmost.  This  king- 
dom is  recognized  by  the  British  as  a  native 
kingdom  under  a  ruler  called  a  Kabaka,  and 
entitled  to  be  addressed  as  "Highness."  The 
present  Kabaka  is  a  grandson  of  Mtesa,  and  is  a 
baptized  Christian  named  Daudi  Chua.  Since 
he  is  a  minor,  a  regency  rules  the  land.  In  all 
five  of  the  provinces  the  British  encourage  the 
native  chiefs  to  govern  their  own  subjects. 
Mengo  is  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Uganda, 
and  Entebbe,  about  20  miles  from  Mengo,  is  the 
seat  of  the  British  administration.  LTganda  is 
connected  by  railway  with  Mombasa.  Steamers 
on  the  Nile  ascend  from  Khartum  to  Gondokoro, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  protectorate,  and  the 
Uganda  post  oflnce  has  been  admitted  to  the 
universal  Postal  Union.  The  soil  is  very  fertile, 
for  the  most  part,  and  the  climate  agreeable. 
The  altitude  of  the  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza  is 
3,800  feet. 

The  history  of  Uganda  illustrates  in  some 
degree  the  service  rendered  by  missions  in 
pioneer  work  for  civilization.  The  country  was 
first  visited  by  Henry  M.  Stanley,  who,  in  1875, 
sent  word  to  England  that  King  Mtesa  of 
Uganda  was  anxious  to  have  missionaries  sent 
there.  The  CMS  at  once  sent  a  party  of  mis- 
sionaries, who  landed  in  East  Africa  in  1876. 
The  leader  and  one  other  member  of  the  party 
were  killed  almost  at  once,  but  the  mission  was 
established  in  Uganda  in  July  of  1877.  There  is 
no  question  that  their  arrival  decided  the  destiny 
of  the  land.     In  1879  a  party  of  Roman  Catholic 


missionaries  arrived,  and  the  Arab  traders  and 
slave-dealers  endeavored  to  thwart  both  parties 
by  inducing  the  king  to  become  a  Mohammedan. 
The  situation  was  one  suited  to  rivalries  and 
intrigues,  and  these  did  not  fail  to  appear.  In 
1884  King  Mtesa  died,  and  his  successor,  Mwanga, 
was  soon  taught  suspicion  of  the  CMS  mission- 
aries. He  caused  Bishop  Hannington  to  be 
murdered  in  1885,  and  persecuted  the  Protestant 
native  Christians  with  great  cruelty.  The 
Mohammedans  saw  an  opportunity  in  these  pro- 
ceedings, and  in  1888  they  drove  Mwanga  and 
the  Roman  Catholic,  as  well  as  the  Protestant, 
missionaries  out  of  the  country.  The  Christians, 
however,  stood  firm,  and  one  year  later  drove  off 
the  Mohammedans,  and  brought  Mwanga  back 
by  armed  force.  The  missionaries  returned  with 
Mwanga,  and  the  power  of  the  Christian  party 
increased,  and  its  peaceful  development  made 
steady  progress.  The  British  East  Africa 
Trading  Company  now  appeared  on  the  scene, 
where  mission  influence  had  so  far  been  the  sole 
civilizing  force.  A  sort  of  supervision  of  the 
government  was  established  by  the  Trading 
Company  in  1890,  but  failed  to  prevent  intrigues 
and  strife  among  the  three  religious  denomina- 
tions, and  a  condition  of  anarchy  threatened, 
owing  to  the  time-serving  vacillations  of  the 
King  Mwanga.  A  British  protectorate  was 
declared  in  1894.  In  1897  King  Mwanga  fled 
from  his  capital  with  the  intention  of  freeing  him- 
self from  British  control.  He  was  at  once  de- 
clared deposed,  and  the  infant  Chua  was  pro- 
claimed king.  In  the  same  year  the  Sudanese 
Mohammedan  troops  in  British  employ  mutinied 
and  for  a  time  the  whole  foreign  colony  was  in  the 
greatest  danger.  After  some  sharp  fighting,  in 
which  the  Christian  Ugandans  rendered  efficient 
aid,  the  mutiny  was  quelled.  The  British  Gov- 
ernment now  maintains  an  armed  force  in 
Uganda  of  Indian  troops  and  native  levies  under 
British  officers. 

During   the    whole    of    this    period    the    CMS 
mission  has  been  making  steady  growth.     It  now 
(1903)  has,  in  Uganda,  24  stations,  76  mission- 
aries, men  and  women;  2,221  native  workers  of 
all   grades   and    of   both    sexes,    49    schools,    an 
industrial  school,  a  printing  house,  a  hospital,  5 
dispensaries,  and  38,844  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  11,145  are  communicants.     The  character- 
istic of  the  Uganda  Christians  is  their  readiness  to 
labor  for  the  extension  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  their  eagerness  to  possess  and  read 
the  Bible.      Of  course,  among  so  large  a  number 
of  professed  Christians  many  are  in  a  low  stage 
of     development.     Yet     the     development     of 
Christian  character  is  remarkable,  seeing  that  the 
first  convert  was  baptized  only  in  1882. 
Ansorge    (W.    J.),    Under  an  African  Sun,    London,    1899; 
Ashe  (R.  P.),  Two  Kings  of  Uganda,  2d  ed.,  London,  1897; 
Johnson   (Sir  Harry),    The    Uganda  Protectorate,   2  vols., 
London,  1902;    Kollman  (P.),  The  Victoria  Nyanza,  Lon- 
don, 1900;    Stanley  (H.  M.),  Through  the  Dark  Continent, 
London,  1878. 

UGANDAN  LANGUAGE :  Belongs  to  the  Bantu 
family,  and  is  spoken  by  the  people  of  Uganda, 
Central  Africa.  It  has  been  reduced  to  writing 
by  missionaries  of  the  CMS,  and  is  written  with 
Roman  letters.  The  beginnings  of  a  literature 
have  already  been  created.  Some  writers  speak 
of  this  language  as  the  "Ganda"  or  the  "Lu- 
ganda."  Since  Uganda  has  become  the  accepted 
name  of  the  protectorate,  there  appears  to  be  no 
reason  for  confusing  English  readers  by  forcing 
them  to  form  the  name  of  the  language  of  that 


761 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


uaipi 

Vnlted  Brethren 


country  by  Bantu,  instead  of  by  English,  gram- 
matical rules. 

UIN-HO.     See  Yun-ho-hsien. 

TJJJAIN:  A  town  in  Central  India,  situated 
about  35  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Indore.  A  very 
sacred  city  to  the  Hindus,  who  reclcon  longitude 
from  here.  Population,  32,932.  Station  of  the 
PCC  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  women  missionaries,  7  native  worl^ers,  1 
place  of  worship,  5  day  schools,  1  boarding  school, 
1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  27  professed 
Christians. 

UKHRUL.     See  Ukrul. 

UKRUL:  A  village  in  Assam,  India,  situated 
in  the  state  of  Manipur,  in  a  salubrious  position 
among  the  lower  Naga  hills  about  40  miles  S.  E. 
of  Kohima.  Station  of  the  ABMU  (1896),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native 
worker,  1  day  school,  1  place  of  worship,  and  16 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Ukhrul. 

ULTJ:  A  settlement  on  Duke  of  York's  Island, 
in  the  Bismarck  Archipelago.  Station  of  the 
Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missions,  with 
(1901)  1  missionary,  99  native  workers,  7  out- 
stations,  28  places  of  worship,  40  Sunday 
schools,  41  day  schools,  1  theological  class,  and 
822  professed   Christians. 

ULUBARIA:  A  town  in  Bengal,  India,  situated 
W.  of  Calcutta,  and  in  its  suburban  region. 
Station  of  the  Churches  of  God  (1889),  with 
(1901)  1  woman  missionary,  5  native  workers, 
5  outstations,  1  day  school,  and  5  professed 
Christians. 

UMBALLA.     See  Ambala. 

UMHLANGENI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
colony,  about  8  miles  S.  W.  of  S.  Shepstone. 
Station  of  the  Hannover  Lutheran  Free  Church 
(1900),  with  (1901)  2  missionaries,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  and  100  professed  Chris- 
tians. 

UMSINGA:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  N.  part  of  the  colony, 
about  35  miles  E.  of  Ladysmith.  Station  of  the 
UFS,  with  3  missionaries,  2  women  missionaries, 
49  native  workers,  22  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  21  day  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital, 
and  642  professed  Christians.  Some  use  the 
name  Gordon  Memorial  for  the  station. 

UMTALI:  A  town  in  Rhodesia,  Africa,  situ- 
ated on  the  railroad,  about  160  miles  N.  W.  of 
Beira  and  170  miles  S.  E.  of  Salisbury.  The 
present  is  the  second  new  Umtali,  the  town 
having  been  twice  removed  by  the  Government. 
Station  of  the  SPG  (1891),  with  (1903)  1  native 
worker  and  54  professed  Christians.  Also  sta- 
tion of  the  ME,  with  6  missionaries,  four  of  them 
with  their  wives;  1  woman  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  industrial  school  and 
farm,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  16  professed 
Christians.     Some  use  the  name  New  Umtali. 

UMZINTO:  A  village  in  Natal,  South  Africa, 
situated  near  the  coast  about  45  miles  S.  W.  of 
Durban.  Station  of  the  South  Africa  General 
Mission  (1899),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  3  native  workers,  2  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  40  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Some  use  the  name  Dumisa 
for  this  station. 


UMZUMBI:  A  settlement  in  Natal,  South 
Africa,  situated  about  70  miles  S.  W.  of  Durban, 
on  the  Umzumbi  River.  Station  of  the  ABCFM 
(1861),  with  (1901)  2  women  missionaries,  19 
native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  6  day  schools, 
and  1  boarding  school.  Some  write  the  name 
Umzumbe. 

UNALAKLIK:  A  settlement  in  Alaska,  situ- 
ated on  the  W.  coast  of  Norton  Sound,  about  170 
miles  S.  E.  of  Cape  Nome.  Station  of  the 
Swedish  Evangelical  Mission  Covenant  (1888), 
with  (1901)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1 
woman  missionary,  3  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  and  87  professed  Christians. 

UNDUP:  A  settlement  in  Sarawak,  Borneo, 
situated  on  the  Batang  lupar  River,  about  40 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1863) 
with  (1903)  1  mi.ssionary,  .'S  native  workers,  9 
places  of  worship,  1  boarding  school,  and  1,164 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  481  are  com- 
municants. 

UNG  KUNG.     See  Yang-kang. 

UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST;  Home, 
Frontier,  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the: 
The  first  missionary  work  undertaken  by  the 
United  Brethren  in  Christ  was  in  the  home  field, 
but  in  1853  a  society  was  organized  for  the  prose- 
cution of  home,  frontier,  and  foreign  work.  Its 
first  foreign  mission  field  was  Sheiigeh,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  in  the  colony  of  Sierra 
Leone,  where  worlc  was  begun  in  1855.  Later  a 
temporary  mis.sion  was  commenced  in  China, 
and  in  1895,  after  the  disastrous  revolt  in  Sierra 
Leone,  work  was  begun  in  Japan,  which  has 
developed  into  a  most  successful  mission.  In 
1900  the  Society  established  a  station  in  Porto 
Rico. 

The  Mission  in  Africa  from  the  first  had  many 
trying  experiences,  as  did  also  the  Mendi  Mission 
of  the  American  Missionary  Association,  also  in 
Sierra  Leone.  The  trying  climate,  the  unsettled 
political  conditions  combined  to  hinder  the  work, 
but  notwithstanding  everything,  it  prospered. 
In  1883  the  American  Missionary  Association 
withdrew  from  its  foreign  work,  and  transferred 
the  Mendi  Mission  to  the  United  Brethren.  A 
revolt  on  the  hut  tax  question,  by  the  interior 
tribes,  brought  heavy  loss,  and  for  a  time  there 
was  question  as  to  the  Society's  continuing  its 
African  work.  It  decided  to  do  so,  and  as  a 
result  (1903)  4  missionaries  and  16  native 
workers  report  8  organized  churches,  witli  321 
communicants  in  9  stations,  each  one  of  which 
has  a  circuit  subjoined.  There  are  8  day  schools, 
with  464  scholars,  and  every  department  shows 
decided  gain. 

In  Japan  there  are  6  missionaries,  11  native 
workers  in  Tokio  and  Kioto,  1  organized  church, 
130  communicants.  A  considerable  amount  of 
evangelistic  work  has  been  carried  on  in  the 
district  about  Kioto,  special  emphasis  being  laid 
upon  temperance,  in  connection  with  represen- 
tatives of  the  World's  Woman's  Temperance 
Union. 

In  Porto  Rico  a  commodious  church  building 
has  been  dedicated,  and  the  four  missionaries 
speak  very  hopefully  of  the  outlook.  The 
Woman's  Missionary  Association  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ  has  its  headquarters  at  Day- 
ton, Ohio,  and  is  a  most  efficient  organization. 
The  Young  People's  Union  is  also  a  strong 
auxiliary. 


Unitert  MetUodist 
United   Provinces 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


768 


UNITED  METHODIST  FREE  CHURCHES' 
FOREIGN  MISSIONS:  The  Missionary  Society  of 
the  United  Methodist  Free  Churches  of  England 
was  formed  in  1857,  by  a  union  of  the  Wesleyan 
Association  with  certain  churches  of  the  Wes- 
leyan Reformers.  The  Wesleyan  Association  had, 
at  the  time  of  the  union,  several  missions  in 
Jamaica  and  the  Australian  colonies,  continued 
by  the  united  body,  which  also  opened  in  a  few 
years  missionary  operations  in  the  new  fields  of 
New  Zealand,  East  and  West  Africa  and  China. 

In  the  West  Indies,  after  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  the  work  progressed,  and  in  1902  there 
were  in  Jamaica  and  at  Bocas  del  Toro  11  mission- 
aries, 379  native  workers,  3,559  church  members, 
10  stations,  37  schools.  The  work  in  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  has  been  merged  in  that  of 
the  Australian  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society. 

The  admission,  in  1859,  of  a  body  of  native 
Christians  of  Sierra  Leone  into  the  missionary 
connection  turned  the  attention  of  the  Society  to 
Africa.  Accordingly  the  Rev.  Joseph  New  was 
sent  out,  and  shortly  afterward  Rev.  Charles 
Worboys.  The  work  of  these  two  men  was  of 
short  duration,  but  their  places  in  the  mission 
were  not  long  left  vacant,  and  many  noble  men 
have  been  found  willing  to  risk  the  climate,  so 
unfavorable  to  Europeans,  and  have  carried  on 
the  work  with  much  success.  The  report  (1902) 
shows  7  missionaries,  276  native  workers,  3,358 
church  members,  8  stations,  and  5  outstations 
in  the  Mendi  field. 

The  Rev.  Chas.  Cheetham  of  Heywood  brought 
before  his  denomination  the  necessities  of  East 
Africa,  as  represented  by  Dr.  Krapf,  and  so  inter- 
ested his  brethren  in  the  object  of  his  own 
attention,  that  in  1861  the  Methodist  Free 
Churches,  who  were  then  seeking  to  send  out 
missionaries  to  a  heathen  field,  applied  to  Dr. 
Krapf  for  advice'  as  to  a  sphere  of  labor.  He 
promptly  replied,  suggesting  the  Ribfe  region,  and 
volunteered  to  conduct  thither  and  establish 
firmly  there  four  young  missionaries,  if  the 
church  would  send  them;  and  so,  in  that  same 
year,  the  Revs.  Thomas  Wakefield  and  James 
Woolner,  accompanied  by  two  young  Swiss, 
sailed  for  Africa.  Ere  long  the  failing  health 
of  Drs.  Krapf  and  Woolner  made  their  return 
home  necessary,  and  the  two  Swiss  shortly  fol- 
lowed them.  Thus  Dr.  Wakefield  was  left  alone 
until  the  latter  part  of  1862,  when  he  was  joined 
by  the  Rev.  Charles  New.  In  1874  Mr.  New 
attempted  to  open  a  mission  on  the  Tana;  was 
cruelly  treated  by  a  savage  chief,  and  died  alone, 
when  trying  to  return  to  Rib6,  before  any  one 
■could  come  to  his  assistance.  Then  followed  an 
attempt  to  work  among  the  Wa  Nyika  race, 
dwelling  near  Rib&  and  along  the  coast  of 
the  Indian  Ocean,  which  met  with  disaster,  but 
others  took  the  place  of  those  who  had  fallen, 
and  on  the  Tana  the  misision  among  the  Gallas 
was  pushed  forward,  notwithstanding  the  unset- 
tled state  of  the  country. 

The  East  Africa  work  is  now  carried  on  in  two 
districts,  Rib^  and  Tana,  in  6  stations,  with  3 
missionaries,  11  native  workers,  and  361  church 
members. 

The  China  mission  was  opened  in  1864  by  the 
Rev.  Wm.  Fuller,  at  Ningpo.  Here  he  was 
joined  after  a  short  time  by  Rev.  John  Mara  and 
the  Rev.  F.  W.  Galpin.  Later  a  station  was 
opened  at  Wenchow,  and  altho  there  was  much 
hostility,  through  fear  of  foreign  influence,  the 
■work  was  pushed  until  5  outstatiohs  were  occu- 


pied.    The  report  (1902)  shows  6  missionaries, 
200  native  workers,  and  5,257  church  members. 

Headquarters  of  the  Society,  4  Newton  Grove, 
Leeds,  England. 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH;  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions:  The  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  dates 
from  the  organization  of  that  Church  by  the 
Union  of  the  Associate  and  Associate  Reformed 
Churches  in  the  city  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  May  26, 
1858.  It  had  its  beginnings  in  the  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  which  each  of  these  churches 
had  before  the  union.  Its  constitution  was 
issued  by  the  General  Assembly  in  May,  1859. 
It  was  formally  organized  in  Philadelphia,  June 
15  of  that  year,  and  was  incorporated  by  the 
Legislature  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  April 
12,  1866,  under  the  title  of  "The  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  North  America." 

This  Board  consists  of  nine  members,  each 
elected  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  church 
for  a  term  of  three  years.  The  Corresponding 
Secretary,  who  is  also  appointed  by  the  Assem- 
bly for  a  term  of  four  years,  is  a  member  of  the 
Board  ex  officio. 

For  a  number  of  years  this  Board  had  under 
its  care  missions  in  Trinidad,  Syria,  China, 
Egypt,  and  India.  At  length  it  concentrated, 
under  the  direction  of  the  General  Assembly,  its 
whole  foreign  work  upon  the  latter  two  of  these 
fields — Egypt  and  India. 

India:  This  mission  was  commenced  at  Sialkot 
in  1855  by  Rev.  Andrew  Gordon.  The  work 
(1902)  occupies  12  districts:  Sialkot,  Pasrur, 
East  and  West  Gujranwala,  Gurdaspur,  Pathan- 
kot,  Jhelum,  Zafarwal,  Khangah  Dogran, 
Bhera,  Rawal  Pindi  and  Lyallpur.  There  are  69 
missionaries,  303  native  workers,  23  organized 
congregations,  209  other  preaching  places,  9,493 
church  members,  13,810  adherents.  There  is  a 
theological  seminary  at  Jhelum  and  a  college  at 
Rawal  Pindi;  also  4  boarding  schools,  2  industrial 
and  134  day  schools,  with  a  total  of  8,752 
scholars;  7  dispensaries  and  hospitals,  and  2 
sanitariums.  Zenana  and  other  departments  are 
fully  equipped. 

Egypt:  The  mission  was  begun  by  the  arrival 
in  Cairo  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  McCague  and  his 
wife,  on  November  15,  1854,  and  in  December  of 
the  same  year  they  were  joined  by  Rev.  James 
Bamet,  who  had  been  laboring  in  Damascus  for 
several  years  in  connection  with  the  same  Church. 
It  was  a  favorable  time  for  establishing  a  mission 
in  Egypt,  as  Said  Pasha  was  well  disposed 
toward  European  civilization,  and  seemed  not 
the  least  afflicted  with  that  jealousy  and  hatred 
of  Europeans  so  common  among  Mohammedan 
officials.  For  some  years  little  was  accomplished 
in  mission  work,  except  the  opening  of  a  school 
for  girls  and  another  for  boys,  and  the  conducting 
of  regular  divine  services  on  the  Sabbath,  at 
which,  however,  very  few  attended.  In  1856 
Rev.  Julian  Lansing  and  Miss  Sarah  B.  Dales 
also  removed  from  Damascus  to  Egypt.  Later, 
the  work  carried  on  at  Alexandria,  under  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  and 
Miss  Pringle's  girls'  school,  supported  by  the 
Ladies'  Society  of  Paisley,  Scotland,  both  passed 
over  to  the  American  United  Presbyterian  Mis- 
sion, together  with  two  missionaries.  Dr.  Philip 
and  Mr.  John  Hogg.  Up  to  the  year  1860  the 
missionary  operations  of  the  United  Presby- 
terian Mission  were,  for  the  most  part,  confined 


763 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


United  Methodist 
United  Provinces 


to   Cairo    and    Alexandria.     A   few   evangelistic 
trips  for  the  sale  of  Scriptures  and  other  religious 
books,  and  for  preaching  the  Gospel  in  an  infor- 
mal way,  had  been  made  both  north  and  south 
of  Cairo,   and   unsuccessful   attempts  had   been 
tried  to  open  regular  mission  work  at  Benisouef, 
Luxor,  and  Assiout.     At  Assiout,  Muslim  hatred 
broke    out    against    the    mission's   native    agent 
there,   and  thirteen  Muslims   were  imprisoned  a 
year    for     beating    him    in    open    court.      The 
Coptic  hierarchy  had  begun  to  traduce  and  malign 
the  missionaries   and   decry  their  labors;   while 
excommunication    was   threatened    against    any 
Copts    who    were    disposed    to    read    Protestant 
books,  or  meet  with  those  who  had  joined  the 
little  Protestant  church,  and  all  who  had  pro- 
fessed openly  their  belief  in  Protestant  principles 
were  made  the  subjects  of  the  church's  anathe- 
mas.     In  1860,  and  from  that  time  onward  for 
several  j'ears,  other  recruits  from  America  joined 
the  mission.     The  work  began  to  prosper,   the 
schools   grew  in   the   number   of   pupils   and   in 
efficiency;  the   attendance  at  divine  service  on 
Sabbath  steadily  increased,  the  property  at  the 
"mouth"  of  the  Mooski,    given  by  Said   Pasha, 
was  repaired  and  fitted  up  as  mission  premises, 
containing   residences  for  the   missionaries   and 
rooms  for  the  schools,   and  a  comfortable   and 
commodious   place   for   religious   services.     The 
central  position  of  these  premises,  separated  but 
not  distant  from  the  Coptic  quarter,  and  in  the 
very  line  of  traffic  and  travel,  helped  to  swell  the 
number  of  visitors  and  inquirers;  persons  from 
all  parts  of  the  country  visited  the  mission  book- 
depot    on    the    Mooski    on    week-days,    and   the 
mission  chapel  on  the  Sabbath.     Additions  by 
profession  of  faith  were  made  every  few  months. 
A     commencement      was      made      in     training 
young    natives    for    mission    service.     Sabbath- 
school  work  was  prosecuted  with  vigor  and  suc- 
cess,  and   the   organization   of   the   first   native 
Protestant  church  was  effected  in  Cairo  in  the 
year  1863. 

Assiout  was  occupied  in  1865;  Koos,  near  Luxor, 
in  1865;  Medinet  el  Fayoom,  and  Mansura,  in  the 
Delta,  in  1866;  Esneh  and  Erment,  south  of  Luxor; 
Kosair,  on  the  Red  Sea,  in  1876;  Manfaloot  in 
1878;  Minieh  and  Tanta,  in  1880;  Benisouef,  in 
1882;  Zagazig,  in  1885;  Assouan,  at  the  First 
Cataract,  in  1887.  With  the  capture  of  Khartum 
by  the  British,  the  mission  sought  to  enter  the 
Sudan.  For  a  time  they  were  much  hindered  by 
the  refusal  of  the  Government  to  allow  any 
mission  work  in  that  region.  Still  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Giifen  were  located  at  Omdurman,  and  found 
work  in  caring  for  their  own  people  who  had 
come  for  trade,  and  gradually  the  restrictions 
were  removed,  and  in  February,  1902,  permission 
was  given  to  occupy  a  station  on  the  Sobat 
River,  in  the  Fashoda  district  of  Sudan. 

Special  emphasis  is  laid  upon  school  work,  book 
distribution,  evangelistic  and  Zenana  work.  It 
has  been  the  policy  of  the  mission  to  leave  to  the 
natives  themselves  the  primary  education  of  their 
children,  and  in  consequence  a  large  number  of 
parochial  or  free  schools  have  been  established, 
supported  entirely,  superintended,  and  taught 
by  them.  The  mission  restricts  its  operations  in 
the  line  of  education  for  the  most  part  to  the 
training  of  teachers,  and  to  giving  instruction  in 
the  higher  branches.  Most  of  the  teachers  in  the 
parochial  schools  were  taught  in  the  Mission 
Training-school  or  College  at  Assiout.  There  are 
also  academies  and  seminaries  for  boys  and  girls 


at  Alexandria,  Mansura,  Cairo,  and  Assiout, 
where  instruction  and  training  are  given  sufficient 
to  enable  pupils  to  prepare  for  school-teaching,  or 
for  taking  positions  in  the  government  service. 
In  these,  as  in  all  the  mission  schools,  an  hour 
every  day  is  devoted  to  religious  instruction,  in 
addition  to  the  opening  exercises  in  the  morning. 
The  Training-school  or  College  at  Assiout  has  a 
good  corps  of  American  and  native  professors. 
The  theological  classes  are  taught  in  Cairo.  The 
mission  has  given  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the 
distribution  of  religious  literature,  educational, 
practical,  and  controversial,  and  to  this  end  haa 
opened  depots  for  the  sale  of  books  in  a  number 
of  places,  and  employs  a  large  number  of  col- 
porteurs, making  special  arrangements  with  the 
British  and  American  Bible  Societies. 

The  general  type  of  the  Mission's  educational 
work  has  won  from  Lord  Cromer,  the  British 
resident,  the  heartiest  commendation,  and  was 
probably  the  basis  of  the  permission  to  establish 
stations  in  the  Sudan. 

The  report  for  1902  shows  74  missionaries,  495 
native  workers,  52  organized  congregations,  171 
other  preaching  places,  6,800  church  members, 
25,000  adherents,  170  schools,  12,942  scholars,  3 
hospitals  and  dispensaries. 

The  Women's  General  Missionary  Society  of 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America  is  auxiliary  to  the  General  Board  of  the 
church.  It  was  organized  in  1883  and  has  done 
a  notable  work  in  Zenana,  educational,  and 
medical  missions.  It  is  represented  in  India  by 
30  missionaries  and  in  Egypt  by  19. 

UNITED  PROVINCES:  One  of  the  great  divi- 
sions or  provinces  of  the  Anglo-Indian  Empire. 
Its  ruler  is  a  lieutenant-governor,  who  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  viceroy  and  governor-general  of 
India,  to  whom  he  is  directly  subordinate.  The 
former  kingdom  of  Oudh  is  included  in  the 
United  Provinces.  The  territory  extends  from 
north  latitude  23°  52'  to  31°  7',  and  from  east 
longitude  77°  5'  to  84°  41'.  It  reaches  from 
Bengal  on  the  southeast  to  the  Jumna  River  on 
the  northwest.  On  the  northeast  the  independ- 
ent kingdom  of  Nepal  forms  part  of  the  boundary, 
while  farther  west  the  area  extends  clear  up  into 
the  Himalayas  themselves,  and  impinges  at  last 
on  Tibet.  Near  the  southern  edge  r;ins  the  great 
Ganges,  tho  some  of  the  territory  of  the  province 
lies  south  of  that  river.  Thus  a  vast  extent  of 
the   Upper  Ganges   valley  is  included   in   these 

grovinces,  and  the  great  tributaries  of  that  river 
ow  through  them.  The  area  of  the  provinces  is 
107,164  square  miles.  The  population  is  (1901), 
47,691,782.  The  country  is  largely  flat,  sloping 
gradually  toward  the  southeast.  In  the  extreme 
northwest,  however,  it  becomes  mountainous  as 
it  approaches  the  Himalayan  region,  and  several 
mighty  peaks  of  that  great  range  lie  within  the 
limits  of  these  provinces,  the  highest  being 
Nandi  Devi  (25,661  feet).  In  this  vicinity  are 
located  several  sanitaria  and  favorite  places  of 
European  resort  and  residence.  In  this  same 
region  also,  at  the  locality  known  as  Haridwar, 
far  among  Himalayan  defiles,  the  Ganges  takes  its 
rise.  This  is  a  famous  point  of  Hindu  pilgrimage, 
as  being  the  source  of  their  most  sacred  river. 
On  the  mountain  slopes  hereabouts  tea  is  grown 
in  large  quantities;  this  industry  is  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  Europeans  and  supported  by  European 
capital.  The  Jumna  River  has  its  rise,  like  the 
Ganges,  in  the  Himalayas;  and,  after  describing  a 
southerly,  takes  a  southeasterly,  course,  nearly 


Uniied  Provinces 
■Unoccupied  Fields 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


764 


parallel  to  the  Upper  Ganges,  tho  gradually 
approaching  it;  and  farther  west  it  joins  the 
greater  river  at  Allahabad,  which  is  now  the  capi- 
tal city  of  the  province.  This  point  of  union 
is  another  famous  place  of  Hindu  pilgrimage. 
The  district  enclosed  between  these  two  rivers 
(known  as  the  "Doab,"  or  Two  Waters),  is  the 
granary  of  tlie  Northwest.  The  rainfall  of  the 
whole  territory  is  only  twenty-five  inches  a  year, 
and  confined  within  three  or  four  months.  This 
fact  renders  artificial  irrigation  necessary  to 
ensure  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  government 
has  supplemented  the  smaller  labors  of  the  native 
husbandmen  in  this  direction  by  establishing 
large  canal  systems  fed  by  the  great  rivers  of  the 
pro\'inces,  and  often  large  enough  to  be  of  use  for 
navigation  as  well  as  for  irrigation.  Besides 
wheat  and  the  other  cereals  usual  to  Indian 
agriculture,  large  quantities  of  opium  are  grown 
near  Benares,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  provinces, 
and  in  Oudh.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
acres,  or  six  per  cent,  of  all  the  land  under 
cultivation,  was  reported  a  few  years  since  as 
devoted  to  opium.  It  is  a  government  monopoly 
here,  as  elsewhere  in  India. 

The  population  is  largely  Hindu. 

Historically,  these  provinces  present  many 
points  of  great  interest.  Of  the  very  earliest 
inhabitants  few  remnants  now  are  left;  the 
aboriginal  tribes  (Kols  and  others  of  this  and 
adjacent  regions)  are  almost  certainly  their 
representatives.  The  Aryan  invasion,  pouring  in 
from  the  northwest  through  the  Punjab,  dis- 
possessed the  former  dwellers  on  the  soil,  founded 
great  cities,  of  which  the  ruins  of  some  remain 
(such  as  Hastinapur  and  Kanauj),  and  estab- 
lished kingdoms  and  dynasties,  whose  wars  and 
achievements  form  the  basis  of  fact  for  the  great 
Hindu  poem  of  the  Mahabharat.  At  Kapila,  in 
Oudh,  Gautama  Buddha  was  born  early  in  the 
6th  century  before  Christ,  and  at  Kasia  he  died 
half  a  century  later.  The  territory  of  this  prov- 
ince formed  a  part  of  the  realms  of  the  great  King 
Asoka,  who,  in  the  3d  century  before  Christ,  gave 
his  political  support  to  Buddhism,  and  made  it 
the  prevailing  religion  of  Hindustan.  In  the  1 1th 
century  after  Christ,  the  Mohammedans  began  to 
invade  the  land,  through  the  same  northwestern 
door  as  the  Aryans  before  them.  The  upper  por- 
tion of  thesfe  provinces  became  a  few  centuries 
later  the  central  seat  of  their  power;  tho 
the  city  of  Delhi,  their  greatest  capital,  once  just 
within  the  northwestern  boundary  of  the  North- 
west Provinces,  has  more  recently  been  transferred 
to  the  Punjab.  Late  in  the  last  century,  when 
the  great  Mogul  power  had  sensibly  declined,  and 
was  disintegrating  into  weak  and  petty  prin- 
cipalities, the  English  authority,  then  firmly 
established  in  Bengal  ufider  Warren  Hastings, 
began  to  creep  up  the  Ganges.  Benares  became 
theirs  in  1775;  a  part  of  Oudh  was  ceded  in  1801; 
other  districts  followed;  but  the  details  we  need 
not  here  repeat.  A  Briti.sh  cantonment  was  estab- 
lished at  Cawnpur  as  early  as  1778,  which  became 
the  nucleus  of  the  present  great  city.  The  dis- 
tricts thus  annexed  to  the  English  territory  were 
first  governed  from  Bengal;  but  in  1833  the  plan 
was  formed  of  erecting  them  into  a  fourth  presi- 
dency; this  plan  was  abandoned  two  years  later 
in  favor  of  that  still  in  force,  by  which  they  con- 
stitute a  province  of  similar  rank  to  the  province 
of  Bengal,  and,  Vil<e  that,  governed  by  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  subject  to  the  governor-general.  In 
1856  the  continued  misgovernment  of  the  King 


of  Oudh  caused  that  territory  to  be  annexed  and 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  chief-commissioner. 

The  great  Indian  mutiny  of  1857  raged  more 
fiercely  within  the  borders  of  this  province  than 
elsewhere  in  all  India.  It  was  at  Mirat,  in  its 
northwestern  part,  that  a  native  regiment  of 
cavalry  broke  into  open  and  violent  rebellion  on 
the  10th  of  May,  1857.  After  massacring  their 
officers  and  many  others,  they  started  for  Delhi. 
There  the  native  infantry  joined  them.  The  city 
was  seized  by  them,  the  old  Mogul  Empire  was 
proclaimed,  and  the  fire  of  rebellion  spread 
rapidly  over  the  whole  province.  In  September 
of  the  same  year  Delhi  was  recaptured,  and  Luck- 
now  was  relieved  the  ne.xt  March.  The  rebellion 
was  wholly  quelled  before  the  end  of  1858.  But 
the  siege  of  Delhi,  the  defense  of  Lucknow,  under 
Lawrence  and  his  little  band,  with  its  subsequent 
relief  by  Havelock,  and  the  massacres  at  Cawn- 
pur, are  destined  to  perpetual  memory. 

Hindi  is  the  principal  language,  subject  in 
different  localities  to  marked  dialectic  variation. 
The  Mohammedans  mostly  use  Urdu  or  Hindus- 
tani, as  they  do  generally  throughout  India — a 
fact  which  constitutes  that  form  of  speech  the 
lingua  franca  of  India. 

Christian  missionary  work  dates  back  to  1807, 
when  Rev.  Mr.  Corrie,  chaplain  of  the  East  India 
Company,  was  stationed  at  Chunar,  and  under- 
took a  little  evangelistic  work  in  addition  to  his 
regular  duties;  and  to  1809,  when  Henry  Martyn, 
also  a  chaplain,  residing  at  Cawnpur,  made  full 
proof  of  his  ministry  among  the  natives.  But  no 
regular  missionary  work  by  any  agency  specially 
existing  for  that  purpose  was  undertaken  until 
1811,  when  the  Baptist  Society  undertook  to 
occupy  Agra. 

The  BMS,  CMS,  American  Presbyterian, 
American  Methodist,  and  the  LMS  have  been 
actively  at  work  for  years;  and  a  German  mission 
has  accomplished  great  good.  Education,  pro- 
moted by  government  and  mission,  is  making 
progress. 

UNITY  OF  BRETHREN  (Brfider-Unitat).    See 

Moravian. 

UNIVERSITIES'  MISSION  to  Central  Africa: 

The  Universities'  Mission  to  Central  Africa  was 
proposed  by  David  Livingstone  in  1857,  and 
undertaken  in  1859,  after  a  second  appeal  by 
Robert  Gray,  Bishop  of  Cape  Town.  In  1861 
Charles  Frederick  Mackenzie,  Archdeacon  of 
Natal,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  mission,  and 
by  him,  under  the  guidance  of  Livingstone,  the 
mission  was  started  at  Magomero,  south  of  Lake 
Nyasa,  a  colony  of  released  slaves  forming  its 
nucleus.  The  place  chosen  being  found  unsuit- 
able, on  account  of  the  climate,  the  site  was  twice 
changed,  but  both  places  proving  too  unhealthful 
for  the  European  missionaries.  Bishop  Tozer,  who 
succeeded  Bishop  Mackenzie  in  1862,  then 
resolved  to  settle  in  Zanzibar,  and  there  to  devote 
himself  to  the  training  of  released  slave  children, 
in  the  hope  of  forming  with  them  Christian 
settlements  on  the  mainland  at  a  later  date. 

About  ten  years  of  quiet  preparatory  work 
was  carried  on  in  Zanzibar,  under  Bishop  Tozer 
and  Dr.  Steere,  in  the  education  of  rescued 
slaves,  the  preparation  of  grammars  and  diction- 
aries, and  the  translation  of  portions  of  the 
Scriptures. 

In  1874  Bishop  Steere  succeeded  Bishop 
Tozer,  and  in  1875  a  station  was  opened  at 
Magila  (Msalabani),  in  the  Usambara  region,  on 


765 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Unlled  Provlneefs 
Unocctipied  Fields 


the  mainland  northwest  of  Zanzibar,  by  a  colony 
of  released  slaves  trained  by  the  naission.  With 
a  view  to  the  formation  of  stations  in  the  interior, 
a  half-way  station  was  made  at  Masisi,  in  the 
Rovuma  region  far  to  the  south  of  Magila,  in 
1876,  and  in  1879  the  Rev.  W.  P.  Johnson  settled 
alone  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Nyasa,  but  was 
expelled  in  1881  by  the  chief  of  the  district.  In 
1882  a  station  was  opened  on  the  east  shore  of 
Lake  Nyasa,  at  Chitiji's,  and  was  maintained  for 
eighteen  months  under  great  danger,  owing  to  the 
repeated  attacks  of  the  natives. 

_  In  1883  Charles  Alan  Smythies  was  appointed 
bishop.  In  1884,  owing  to  the  efforts  of  the  Rev. 
W.  P.  Johnson,  a  steamer  was  purchased  for  the 
use  of  the  mission  on  Lake  Nyasa,  and  in  1885  a 
station  was  begun  on  the  island  of  Likoma,  in  the 
lake,  where  are  now  the  headquarters  of  the 
Nyasa  Mission. 

The  work  is  now  carried  on  in  two  dioceses — 
Zanzibar  and  Likoma — and  in  the  two  outlying 
districts  of  Usambara  and  Rovuma,  in  German 
East  Africa.  The  two  dioceses  are  in  constant 
relations  with  those  of  Mombasa  and  Uganda, 
and  there  is  in  anticipation  the  formation  of  a 
West  African  province,  which  shall  more  thor- 
oughly unify  the  work  of  the  Church  of  England 
in  that  section. 

Educational  work  is  kept  well  provided,  a  new 
industrial  house  having  been  established  at 
Zanzibar,  completing  the  general  scheme,  with 
St.  Marks  Theological  College  at  the  highest 
grade.  A  new  steamer  has  been  added  to  the 
lake  service,  and  special  attention  is  paid  to 
evangelistic  work  on  the  shores  of  the  lake.  In 
■  providing  for  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  schools, 
so  far  as  practicable,  native  customs  are  pre- 
served. Considerable  difficulty  is  experienced 
from  the  unfriendliness  of  the  Port\iffuese 
officials  and  their  disregard  of  justice  in  dealing 
with  the  natives.  The  Mission  staff  (1902)  con- 
sists of  two  bishops,  33  English  and  16  African 
clergy,  22  laymen,  52  women,  and  204  native 
readers  and  teachers.  In  the  schools,  homes, 
and  workshops  there  are  gathered  nearly  5,00^) 
children,  800  being  supported  by  the  Mission. 
The  number  of  communicants  is  over  3,700,  and 
of  adult  catechumens  baptized,  etc.,  over  12,000. 

UNOCCUPIED  FIELDS:  This  phrase  is  mis- 
leading, since  there  is,  on  the  one  hand,  no 
land  in  which  evangelical  religion  has  not  some 
representatives,  while  on  the  other,  scarcely  a 
country  among  those  where  many  missionary 
societies  are  found  has  more  than  a  handful 
of  workers, — so  meager  a  proportion  of  laborers 
that  not  more  than  the  corners  of  great  harvest 
fields  are  being  touclied. 

I.  Considering  first  the  lands  where  work 
is  established  but  in  which  few,  comparatively, 
are  affected  by  it,  the  following  countries  may 
be  placed,  the  order  being  that  of  populations 
as  yet  unreached.  Lowest  in  the  li.st  are  such 
countries  as  Persia,  Mexico,  Central  America, 
and  the  islands  of  Borneo,  New  Guinea,  Sumatra, 
and  Madagascar.  For  years,  or  in  some  cases 
decades,  these  countries  have  been  the  objects 
of  missionary  endeavor,  but  for  various  reasons 
few  have  heard  the  Gospel  message.  Save 
in  New  Guinea  there  is  no  sufficient  excuse 
for  such  a  state  of  affairs.  South  America 
is  truly  a  "Neglected  Continent,"  yet  the 
portion  of  its  inhabitants  that  is  most  neglected 
is  the  one  which  in  a  sense  most  needs_  the 
Gospel, viz.,  the  more  than  six  millions  of  Indians, 


who  constitute  about  sixteen  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  population.  These  are  usually  open  to 
the  missionary,  so  far  as  any  governmental 
opposition  is  concerned.  As  for  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese-speaking  populations  of  South 
America,  they,  too,  have  been  largely  neglected, 
except  for  the  presence  of  a  few  mission  stations 
along  the  coast;  so  that  the  number  of  mission- 
aries of  the  Protestant  faith  are  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  to  54,985  of  the  entire  population. 
The  Dark  Continent  comes  next  in  the  number 
of  those  who  are  unreached  by  missions.  Neglect- 
ing the  vast  expanse  of  the  Sahara,  which  is 
so  sparsely  inhabitated  that  it  need  not  be 
considered,  there  are  the  adjacent  stretches 
of  the  Sudan,  in  most  sections  densely  peopled, 
where  a  population  two-thirds  as  great  as 
that  of  the  United  States  cannot  reach  a  Prot- 
estant mission  station.  In  other  sections  of  the 
continent  there  are  extensive  regions  without 
a  single  missionary  or  native  Christian.  India, 
the  oldest  mission  field  of  the  world  of  any 
great  size,  comes  next  in  the  numbers  that 
are  beyond  the  influence  of  the  missionary. 
Here  there  are  about  seventy-four  thousand 
to  every  Protestant  worker  from  foreign  lands. 
While  in  most  cases  the  nearness  of  mission 
stations,  especially  in  South  India,  and  the  ease 
of  reaching  a  Christian  center  because  of  railroads, 
etc.,  seem  to  place  a  larger  responsibility  on 
tlie  unevangelized,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  poverty  and  the  obstacles  due  to  the 
caste  and  to  the  village  sy.stem  militate  against 
such  a  quest.  As  China  is  the  mo.st  populous 
empire  in  the  world,  so  within  her  confines 
is  found  the  largest  number  practically  beyond 
the  pale  of  Christian  influence.  One  Protestant 
missionary  to  146,260  Chinese,  and  the  fact 
that  the  province  where  mission  stations  were 
nearest  together  in  1898  gave  each  station 
a  territory  larger  than  Rhode  Island,  suggest 
how  largely  unoccupied  this  great  empire 
is,  and  that,  too,  when  there  exists  no  govern- 
mental obstacle,  nor  any  serious  difficulty 
in  the  way  of  climate,  or  in  the  attitude  of 
religions  and  the  people. 

II.  Turning  to  those  fields  where  scarcely 
a  beginning  of  missionary  effort  has  been  made, 
the  most  extensive  area  is  found  in  Siberia. 
In  a  territory  of  nearly  five  million  square 
miles,  or  about  as  much  as  would  be  contained 
in  forty  United  Kingdoms,  the  population 
is  so  sparse  as  to  lack  nearly  a  million  of  equaling 
that  of  Greater  London.  It  is  true  that  the 
Russian  Church  is  nominall}^  active,  but  its 
influence  is  nil  on  that  portion  of  the  population 
most  needing  the  Gospel.  Shamanism  is  the 
practical  religion  of  the  people  in  the  north, 
and  vices  are  hurrying  the  aboriginal  peoples 
to  their  grave.  Such  characteristics  as  the 
burial  alive  of  widows  or  motherless  children, 
the  exposure  of  helpless  old  people,  who  in 
exceptional  cases  have  been  eaten  by  their 
own  offspring,  and  the  fearful  cruelty  of  men 
who  slay  their  enemies  in  revenge,  are  by  no 
means  universal;  but  they  display  a  nature  which 
sadly  needs  the  principles  of  love  and  common 
humanity,  not  to  speak  of  other  \'irtues. 
Southward  from  this  Russian  territory  lies 
Central  Asia,  including  Turkestan.  All  this 
territory  is  under  Russian  influence,  tho 
in  the  eastern  portion  China  is  a  more  prominent 
factor  in  the  life  of  the  inhabitants.  Moham- 
medanism  and   a  weak   form   of   Confucianism 


UnoceTii»ie(l  Fields 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


76ft 


are  the  main  religious  stays  of  the  people. 
As  these  races  are  nomadic  and  predatory, 
they  constitute  a  confessedly  difficult  population 
to  reach.  Tibet,  the  almost  inaccessible 
pinnacle  of  Asia,  is  even  more  isolated  because 
of  the  exclusive  policy  which  for  decades  has 
succeeded  in  keeping  from  her  territories  all 
save  a  mere  handful  of  adventurous  travelers 
and  equally  brave  missionaries.  Lamaism, 
which  even  in  Mongolia  has  proven  so  great 
an  obstacle  to  missions,  is  here  found  entrenched 
against  all  other  religions,  and  the  serious 
problem  of  living  at  so  great  an  altitude,  added 
to  the  isolation  which  must  always  be  the 
lot  of  missionaries  in  that  land,  will  further 
work  against  the  missionary  occupation  of 
Tibet.  The  adjacent  countries  of  Afghanistan 
and  Baluchistan  are  as  fanatically  Muslim 
as  Tibet  is  Lamaistic,  even  in  that  portion  of 
the  territory  under  British  influence  or  control. 
Hatred  of  Christianity  is  the  prime  article 
in  the  creed  of  the  bulk  of  the  people,  and 
this  will  always  be  a  serious  difficulty;  tho 
mission  work  along  the  India  boundary  has 
shown  that  even  the  Afghans  are  open  to  its 
benevolent  and  salvatory  influences,  Arabia 
is  sufiiciently  cut  off  by  sandy  wastes  on  the 
north  to  merit  the  appellation  of  the  natives, 
who  call  it  "The  Island  of  the  Arab."  Its 
area,  equaling  one-third  that  of  Europe,  or  that 
part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
IS  contained  in  the  world-zone  of  maximum 
heat,  and  it  boasts  the  two  great  high-places 
of  the  Muslim  world, — both  facts  constituting 
serious  obstacles  to  missionary  occupation. 
The  southern  and  southeastern  seaboard,  how- 
ever, are  so  largely  under  British  influence 
that  Muslim  interference  and  persecution  are 
not  much  to  be  feared.  As  containing  the  Holy 
Land  of  the  Mohammedans,  this  peninsula 
in  a  peculiar  manner  challenges  the  Christian 
Church,  despite  the  fact  that  it  has  but  little 
more  than  eight  million  inhabitants.  Asia's 
southeastern  peninsula,  French  Indo-China, 
while  under  •  European  control,  is  yet  in  great 
religious  need.  Upward  of  twenty-two  millions 
of  people  are  without  any  regular  Protestant 
missionary  work,  except  as  Bible  colporteurs 
and  a  few  individuals  bring  the  Gospel  to  their 
knowledge.  India's  earlier  influence,  which 
at  one  time  was  so  dominant,  is  yielding  to 
the  ancestor-worship  and  Confucian  ethics 
from  China. 

A  little  is  being  done  for  these  lands;  yet 
what  are  the  labors  of  four  societies  and  their 
twenty-seven  representatives  among  populations 
aggregating  nearly  fifty  millions?  Naturally 
most  of  the  work  done  has  been  of  an  elementary 
character,  or  else  has  been  very  limited  in 
its  territory.  The  Bible,  particularly  in 
Russian  and  French  possessions,  has  been 
the  great  dependence.  Unaided  by  any  human 
factor,  this  book  has  proven  the  power  of  God 
unto  the  salvation  of  a  few,  thus  planting 
the  tree  of  healing  in  lands  of  death.  Kusaian 
non-conformists  in  Siberia  are  an  evangelical 
factor  that  counts  for  more  than  all  that  is 
being  done  by  missionary  societies  elsewhere 
in  the  lands  here  under  consideration.  If 
Professor  G.  Frederic  Wright's  estimate  in 
1901  is  correct,  the  half  million  non-conformists 
will  do  much  for  Siberia's  various  provinces, 
and  this  portion  of  his  prophecy  may  be  realized: 
"The    conditions    of    a    new    country    rapidly 


filling  up  with  settlers  are  so  favorable  to  the 
adoption  of  new  customs  and  the  reception 
of  new  light  that  the  coming  century  may  see 
Siberia  leading  the  whole  Empire  into  purer 
and  more  spiritual  religion."  Medicine  in 
Kashgaria  and  Arabia  is  proving  an  entering 
wedge  of  great  value.  It  leads  to  not  a  few 
cases  of  "double  cure,"  as  it  does  also  at  the 
Tibetan  outpost  of  Leh.  Tibet  is  becoming 
encircled  with  missions,  which  are  able  to  send 
in  through  natives  of  the  country  the  Tibetan 
Scriptures  and  the  still  better  gift  of  a  few 
lives  charged  by  the  dynamics  of  the  Gospel. 
Were  it  not  for  the  recent  Russo-Chinese  treaty, 
hope  for  Tibet's  future  would  be  bright. 
Its  third  article,  however,  is  ominous,  not 
merely  for  this  country,  but  also  for  all  other 
regions,  especially  North  China,  where  Russia's 
influence  is  felt.  The  first  sentence  reads 
thus:  "Entire  liberty  in  what  concerns  Russian 
Orthodox,  as  well  as  Lamaist,  worship  will  be 
introduced  in  Tibet;  but  all  other  religious 
doctrines  will  be  absolutely  prohibited."  In 
that  portion  of  French  Indo-China  adjoining; 
the  Laos  country,  the  work  is  being  taken  up 
by  the  native  church,  a  fact  of  considerable 
significance    and    hope. 

III.  Some  of  the  obstacles  to  missionary 
enterprise  in  the  lands  named  are  serious,. 
tho  some  of  them  are  not  insurmountable. 
Not  considering  the  countries  which  contain 
numerous  missionaries  but  whose  territory 
is  far  from  occupied,  the  health  obstacles  in  the 
others  are  not  to  be  compared  with  what  has 
been  overcome  in  certain  coastal  regions  of 
South  America  and  Africa,  where  fevers  have 
been  exceedingly  deadly.  Even  Indo-China 
is  healthful  compared  with  some  other  sections 
of  the  missionary  world  fully  occupied. 
Sparsity  of  populations  is  characteristic  of 
some  of  the  unoccupied  fields;  but  this  is  not 
more  than  has  confronted  missionaries  in 
Greenland,  in  some  portions  of  British  America 
and  Alaska,  in  the  southern  extremity  of  South 
America,  and  elsewhere.  The  ferocity  of  the 
inhabitants  of  these  lands  is  no  more  marked 
than  it  has  been  in  many  parts  of  Oceania, 
notably  New  Guinea  and  the  New  Hebrides, 
where  missionaries  have  brought  the  work 
to  a  happy  stage  of  progress.  Religious  fanati- 
cism, it  is  true,  is  a  problem  in  such  countries 
as  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan  and  Arabia,  while  the 
attitude  of  the  state  religion  in  Siberia,  Indo- 
China,  and  Tibet  is  an  obstacle  which  is  most 
serious.  In  the  last  named  countries  a  wide- 
spread missionary  movement  is  at  present 
impracticable. 

A  serious  question  may  be  raised  here,  namely, 
that  of  the  wisdom  of  expending  force  in  overcom- 
ing the  difficulties  connected  with  all  these 
lands,  except  possibly  Arabia,  when  the  mission- 
ary contingent  is  so  meager  and  is  needed 
so  sorely  in  countries  where  there  is  perfect 
freedom  of  action  and  greater  numbers  with- 
out the  Gospel.  Thus  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
Persia,  and  China  are  really  far  more  strategic 
and  actually  needy  fields  than  are  the  practically 
unoccupied  lands  where  it  is  so  difficult  to 
carry  on  missionary  work.  It  is  not  to  be 
forgotten  that  parts  of  a  great  continent  having 
in  other  regions  a  goodly  number  of  missionaries 
may  be  more  truly  an  unoccupied  field  than 
is  French  Indo-China,  or  Arabia.  Such  an 
instance  is  found  in  the  Sudan,  already  spoken 


767 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Fnoccnpled  Field* 
Uruguay 


of,  which  IS  really  the  greatest  unoccupied  field 
of  the  present  day,  and  one,  too,  which  has 
m  it  nearly  all  the  elements  called  for  in  a 
strategic  position  of  the  highest  importance. 
While  these  counter  considerations  are  not  to 
be  forgotten,  the  world -encompassing  com- 
mission of  Jesus  Christ  demands  that  the  less 
important  unoccupied  fields  should  not  be 
entirely  forgotten.  The  angel  of  God  still 
calls  upon  men  to  turn  away  from  white  harvest 
fields  and  "go  toward  the  south  unto  the  way 
that  goeth  down  from  Jerusalem  unto  Gaza: 
the  same  is  desert."  To  minister,  as  did 
Philip,  unto  a  single  man,  has  a  place  in  the 
Divine  purpose  which  cannot  be  neglected  in 
the  wide  scheme  of  preaching  the  Gospel  to 
the  whole  world. 

IV.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  in  considering 
the  unoccupied  fields,  that  there  are  certain 
portions  of  the  population  that  are  often  un- 
reached, tho  scattered  widely  in  lands 
where  missionaries  are  laboring  in  force.  Thus 
the  Mohammedans  are  scarcely  thought  of 
in  China,  where,  according  to  the  "Statesman's 
Year-Book,"  some  30,000,000  of  them  are 
found,  mostly  in  the  northeast  and  southwest. 
The  same  is  largely  true  of  Mohammedans 
in  Africa.  While  there  may  be  a  valid  excuse 
for  neglecting  these  religionists  in  the  Turkish 
Empire  and  Persia,  there  certainly  is  even 
less  reason  for  passing  by  those  resident  in 
China  than  in  British  India,  where  Mohammedan 
missions  are  so  fruitful.  Neglected  classes  are 
no  less  worthy  of  special  consideration  than 
are  unoccupied  lands. 

UWTUNJAMBILI:  A  settlement  in  Natal, 
South  Africa,  situated  N.  of  Tugela  River,  about 
25  miles  N.  W.  of  Eshowe.  Station  of  the  Nor- 
wegian Church  Mission  of  Schreuder,  with  (1901) 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 3  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
day  school,  1  boarding  school,  and  118  pro- 
fessed Christians. 

UNWANA:  A  settlement  in  Southern  Nigeria, 
West  Africa,  situated  on  Cross  River,  about  85 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Creektown.  Station  of  the 
UFS  (1888),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  2 
women  missionaries,  4  native  workers,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital. 

UPOLU.     See  Samoan  Islands. 

URAMBO:  A  district  in  .German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Unyamwezi  country,  about  175 
miles  E.  of  Ujiji  on  Lake  Tanganyika.  It  was  for- 
merly a  station  of  the  LMS,  but  was  transferred  to 
the  Moravians  after  they  opened  stations  in  Ger- 
man East  Africa.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mis- 
sionary Society  (1897),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives  and  1  place  of  worship. 
Some  use  the  name  Kilmani  for  this  station. 

URAWA:  A  town  in  Japan,  situated  on  the 
main  island,  about  10  miles  N.  of  Tokio.  Station 
of  the  PE  (1903),  1  missionary,  1  native  worker, 
1  Sunday  school,  and  23  professed  Christians. 

URDU  LANGUAGE :  A  language  which  arose 
from  the  mingling  of  races  produced  by  the 
Mohammedan  conquest  of  India.  It  is  closely 
aUied  to  the  Hindi,  but,  being  used  by  the  Moham- 
medans, where  Hindi  is  the  language  of  the  Hin- 
dus, it  is  very  much  farther  from  the  Sanskrit 
than  even  the  Hindi.  It  has  a  large  number  of 
Arabic  and  Persian  words.  It  is  the  official  lan- 
guage in  Western  India,  and  serves  as  a  medium   | 


of  general  intercourse  between  different  races.  It 
is  written  with  the  Arabic  letters.  The  name  Urdu 
means  "camp"  and  is  applied  to  the  language  as. 
the  "language  of  the  camps"  of  the  time  of  the 
Mogul  conquerors  of  the  11th  century  and  their 
followers.     It  is  also  called  Hindustani. 

URIPIV :  A  mission  station  of  the  New  Heb  ■ 
rides  Missionary  Society,  on  Mallicolo  Island. 

URIYA  LANGUAGE:  The  language  of  about 
8,000,000  inhabiting  the  province  of  Orissa, 
India.  It  belongs  to  the  Indie  branch  of  the 
Aryan  family  of  languages,  and  is  closely  related 
to  the  Bengali.  Sometimes,  in  fact,  it  has  been 
classed  as  a  dialect  of  Bengali.  Reasons  exist, 
however,  for  regarding  it  as  a  distinct  language. 
It  is  written  with  the  Uriya  character. 

URMIA:  A  town  in  Persia,  situated  in  the  N. 
W.  part  of  the  country  near  Lake  Urmia,  480 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  Teheran.  It  is  the  reputed 
birthplace  of  Zoroaster.  Population,  35,000. 
Station  of  the  PN  (1835),  with  (1903)  8  mission- 
aries, four  of  them  with  their  wives;  4  women 
missionaries,  164  native  workers,  112  outstations, 
53  places  of  worship,  63  Sunday  schools,  86  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  theological  class, 
1  college,  and  2,719  professed  Christians;  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  1  printing  house.  This  sta- 
tion was  founded  by  the  ABCFM  in  1835  and 
transferred  in  1871.  Also  station  of  the  Arch- 
bishop's Mission  to  the  Assyrians,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  2  native  workers,  1  boarding  school, 
and  1  theological  class.  Some  write  the  name 
Urumia. 

URUGUAY:  The  smallest  republic  of  South 
America,  is  situated  on  the  east  coast,  and  is 
bounded  by  Brazil  on  the  northeast,  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  La  Plata  River  on  the  south,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Uruguay  River,  which  sep- 
arates it  from  the  Argentine  Republic.  The 
country  is  divided  into  19  provinces,  with  a  total 
area  of  72,110  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
about  750,000.  Seven  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion are  native-born,  consisting  principally  of 
half-breeds;  the  remainder  are  Spaniards,  Italians, 
French,  Brazilians,  and  Argentines.  Montevideo, 
the  capital,  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  river 
La  Plata,  has  a  good  harbor  and  roadstead,  and  a 
population  of  nearly  150,000.  Uruguay  was 
formerly  a  part  of  the  vice-royalty  of  Spain,  then 
became  a  province  of  Brazil,  but  declared  its  in- 
dependence in  1825,  which  was  recognized  by  the 
treaty  of  Montevideo  (1828).  By  the  terms  of  the 
constitution,  adopted  1830,  a  president,  elected 
for  four  years,  and  a  parliament,  composed  of  two 
houses,  constitute  the  government  of  the  republic. 

The  territory  is  one  vast  pasture-land.  On 
the  rolling  plains  great  numbers  of  cattle  and 
sheep  are  raised,  and  the  principal  wealth  and 
exports  of  the  country  consist  of  live  stock  and 
the  resulting  products.  Agriculture  is  carried  on 
to  a  limited  extent.  The  climate  is  in  general 
healthful.  In  the  coast  districts  there  are  no 
great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold;  in  the  interior 
the  thermometer  ranges  from  86°  in  summer  to 
35°  in  winter.  Extensive  roads,  more  than  a 
thousand  miles  of  railway,  an  active  commerce, 
and  a  good  climate  are  doing  much  for  the 
advancement  of  Uruguay. 

The  state  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  but 
there  is  complete  toleration,  and  the  general  con- 
dition of  education  is  very  satisfactory. 

Uruguay  is  blessed  with  a  prosperous  branch 


Xlslmala 
Van  Dyck 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


768 


of  the  Waldensian  Church,  and  pastors  in  German 
and  Swiss  colonies  are  caring  for  the  religious 
needs  of  their  countrymen.  The  Methodist 
Board  North  is  doing  most  of  the  regular  mis- 
sionary worlc,  with  its  headquarters  in  Monte- 
video. In  different  parts  of  the  city  is  a  group 
of  six  churches,  and  from  these  there  is  a  chain 
of  interior  stations,  which  are  themselves  centers 
of  usefulness. 

USHUAIA:  A  settlement  in  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
S.  America,  situated  on  the  S.  coast,  on  Beagle 
Channel.  Station  of  the  SAMS  (1869),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  1  place  of  worship. 

UTAKAMAND:  A  village  and  sanitarium  in 
the  Nilgiri  Hills,  Madras,  India,  situated  about  12 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Coonoor,  its  railroad  station. 
It  is  the  resort  of  the  Madras  Government  during 
several  months  of  the  year.  Population,  12,000. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1870),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  39  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations,  13  day  schools,  1  boarding  school.  Also 
station  of  the  CEZ  (1885),  with  (1903)  4  women 
missionaries,  24  native  workers,  1  outstation,  7 
day  schools,  1  boarding  school.  Also  station  of 
the  WMS,   with   (1903)    1   missionary,   9  native 


workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sun- 
day school,  1  day  school,  and  120  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  109  are  communicants.  Some 
write  the  name  Ootacamund. 

XJTENGULE:   A  settlement  in   German  East 

Africa,  situated  about  60  miles  N.  W.  of  the  N. 
extremity  of  Lake  Nyasa.  Station  of  the  Mora- 
vian Missionary  Society  (1895),  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  his  wife,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
day  school,  and  4  professed  Christians. 

UTUROA:  A  village  on  the  island  of  Raiatea, 
Society  Islands.  Station  of  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Association  (1893),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  outstation,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  printing  house,  1  day  school, 
181  professed  Christians. 

UVEA:  One  of  the  Loyalty  Islands. 

UWAJIMA:  A  tovsm  in  Japan,  situated  on  the 
island  of  Shikoku,  about  45  miles  S.  W.  of 
Matsuyama.  Station  of  the  MES  (1888),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  native 
worker,  2  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  2  Sun- 
day schools,  and  80  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
53  are  communicants. 


VACAOS:  A  town  in  Mauritius,  situated  about 
25  miles  by  railway  S.  of  Port  Louis.  Station  of 
the  CMS,  with  (1903)  1  woman  missionary. 

VAKADU:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated  in 
the  District  of  Nellore,  about  16  miles  E.  of  Gudur. 
Station  of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 
(1871),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
5  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship,  3  day  schools 
and  90  professed  Christians,  of  whom  76  are 
communicants. 

VALDEZIA:  A  settlement  in  Transvaal,  South 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Zoutspansberg  District, 
about  80  miles  N.  E.  of  Pietersburg.  Station  of 
the  Swiss  Romande  Mission  (1875),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  and  their  -naves,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 10  native  workers,  5  outstations,  6 
places  of  worship,  6  Sundaj'  schools,  6  day  schools 
and  505  professed  Christians,  of  whom  120  are 
communicants. 

VALPARAISO:  An  important  city  of  Chile, 
S.  America,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name. 
It  is  the  chief  Chilean  seaport.  It  has  many 
institutions  of  learning;  the  streets  are  narrow, 
but  usually  well  paved,  and  the  houses  present  a 
gay  appearance  with  their  bright  colors  and  over- 
hanging balconies.  A  railroad  connects  it  with 
Santiago.  Population  (1895)  122,435.  Station 
of  the  FN  (1873),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  2  native  workers,  3  outstations,  1 
place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  printing 
press,  1  day  school  and  133  professed  Christians. 
Also  station  of  the  SDA  (1894),  with  (1903)  3 
missionaries,  3  women  missionaries,  5  native 
workers,  12  outstations,  11  Sunday  schools,  1 
printing  press  and  160  professed  Christians. 
Also  station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  7  native  workers,  7  Sunday  schools 
and  517  professed  Christians. 


VAN :  A  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  east 
shore  of  Lake  Van,  145  miles  southeast  of 
Erzroom,  350  miles  southeast  of  Trebizond. 
Climate  mild,  healthful;  elevation  5,500  feet. 
Population,  30,000,  Armenians,  Kurds,  and  Turks. 

It  is  now,  as  it  always  has  been,  the  center  of 
Armenian  influence  in  Eastern  Turkey.  On 
the  picturesque  rock  behind  the  city  are  a  large 
number  of  inscriptions  in  cuneiform,  dating  back 
even  earlier  than  many  of  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions, and  relating  to  a  kingdom  that  preceded 
the  Armenian  occupation.  Near  Van  is  the 
island  of  Aghtamar,  the  seat  of  an  Armenian 
Catholicos,  whose  spiritual  rank  is  equal  to  that 
of  the  Catholicos  of  Etchmiadzin.  His  influence, 
however,  is  small.  Station  of  the  ABCFM  (1872), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  1 
woman  missionary,  25  native  workers,  2  out- 
stations, 2  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools, 
3  day  schools,  2  boarding  schools,  1  industrial 
school,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary  and  63  professed 
Evangelical  Christians.  It  has  not  been  the 
policy  of  the  missionaries  to  advise  Armenians  to 
join  the  Evangelical  Church  if  they  adopt  evan- 
gelical ideas. 

VANDERKEMP,  John  T.:  Born  in  1747  at 
Rotterdam,  Holland,  where  his  father  was  pastor 
of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church;  studied  at  the 
University  in  Leyden;  spent  16  years  in  the 
army,  where  he  was  captain  of  horse  and  lieu- 
tenant of  dragoons.  After  leaving  the  army 
he  went  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  became  distin- 
guished for  his  attainments  in  the  natural  sciences 
and  modern  languages.  He  then  returned  to 
Holland  and  practised  medicine  with  great 
success.  He  was  converted  as  a  result  of  ike 
death  of  his  wife  and  child  by  a  shocking  accident. 
He  then  offered  himself  to  the  LMS  for  service  In 


769 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Van  DycU 


South  Africa,  was  ordained,  and  in  1798  he  sailed 
with  three  others  for  Africa,  in  a  convict  ship. 
On  the  voyage  he  and  his  companions  ministered 
to  the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  temporal  wants  of 
the  convicts.  Arriving  at  Cape  Town  in  March, 
1799,  Dr.  Vanderkemp  commenced  at  once  to 
labor  among  the  natives  while  at  the  same  time 
he  awakened  a  deep  interest  in  missions  among 
the  Europeans.  In  May  he  left  Cape  Town  for 
the  interior.  ^  After  some  weeks  he  reached  the 
Great  Fish  River,  where  he  obtained  permission 
from  the  native  king  Geiha  to  open  a  school. 
The  king  ordered  him  to  leave  a  year  later,  and 
with  some  60  followers  he  retired  to  Graaf  Reinet, 
arriving  there  early  in  1801.  His  work  was 
especially  among  the  Hottentots,  of  whom  he 
soon  collected  a  congregation  of  over  200.  His 
efforts  in  behalf  of  this  despised  race  aroused  the 
enmity  of  the  colonists,  but  by  his  wise  concilia- 
tory policy  they  were  pacified,  and  he  continued 
his  work  unmolested.  Buildings  were  erected  and 
Graaf  Reinet  was  made  a  permanent  station,  but 
the  privileges  afforded  to  the  natives  at  that 
station  bade  fair  to  stir  up  another  rebellion,  and 
Dr.  Vanderkemp  saw  the  necessity  of  removing 
the  Hottentots  to  a  place  of  safety,  where  they 
would  form  a  colony  by  themselves.  The  gov- 
ernor gave  the  mission  a  grant  of  land  near  Algoa 
Bay,  to  which  the  missionaries  removed  in  1802. 
The  station  of  Bethelsdorp  was  founded  in  1803, 
and  in  1810  the  number  of  people  who  assembled 
there  for  worship  was  fully  a  thousand. 

The  cruelties  which  the  Hottentots  had  so 
often  suffered  at  the  hands  of  their  Boer  masters 
excited  the  deepest  pity  in  the  heart  of  the  doc- 
tor, and  it  is  said  that  in  the  course  of  three  years 
he  paid  no  less  than  85,000  for  the  redemption 
of  slaves  from  bondage,  and  by  his  exertions, 
with  the  help  of  other  missionaries,  the  Hotten- 
tots were  finally  set  free.  Almost  the  last  public 
service  which  the  doctor  was  able  to  render  that 
people  was  in  testifying  in  the  courts  at  the  Cape 
to  the  wrongs  practised  upon  the  Hottentots. 

He  died  on  the  15th  of  December,  1811,  in  the 
midst  of  active  preparation  to  enter  upon  a  new 
field  of  work  in  Madagascar.  It  was  said  of  him 
that  as  combining  natural  talents,  extensive 
learning,  elevated  piety,  ardent  zeal,  disinterested 
benevolence,  unshaken  perseverance,  unfeigned 
humility,  and  primitive  simplicity,  Dr.  Vander- 
kemp has  perhaps  never  been  equaled  since  the 
days  of  the  Apostles.  As  Mr.  Moffat  wrote 
about  him:  "He  came  from  a  university  to  teach 
the  alphabet  to  the  poor,  naked  Hottentot  and 
Kafir;  from  the  society  of  nobles  to  associate 
with  beings  of  the  lowest  grade  of  humanity; 
from  stately  mansions  to  the  filthy  hovel  of  the 
greasy  African;  from  the  army  to  instruct  the 
fierce  savage  in  the  tactics  of  a  heavenly  warfare 
under  the  banner  of  the  Prince  of  Peace;  from  the 
study  of  medicine  to  become  a  guide  to  the  Balm 
of  Gilead  and  the  Physician  there;  and,  finally, 
from  a  life  of  earthly  honor  and  ease  to  be  exposed 
to  perils  of  waters,  of  robbers,  of  his  own  country- 
men, of  the  heathen,  in  the  city,  in  the  wilderness." 

His  period  of  service  was  short.  His  work 
was  the  most  difficult  sort  of  pioneer's  work,  for 
its  enemies  were  nominal  Christians  quite  as  often 
as  heathen  savages.  But  his  work  remained. 
Those  who  later  built  on  the  foundations  prepared 
by  Vanderkemp  were  the  first  to  acknowledge  the 
value  r,i  the  influence  of  this  devoted  man. 

VAN  DYCK,  Cornelius  Van  Alan:  Born  in 
49 


Kinderhook,  Columbia  County,  New  York, 
August  13,  1818.  Died  Novembei  13,  1895.  He 
secured  a  medical  education  at  Jefferson  Medical 
College  in  Philadelphia,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  was  appointed  medical  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM  in  Syria.  Only  one  medical  missionary, 
Dr.  Asa  Dodge,  had  preceded  him  in  Syria,  and 
Dr.  Dodge,  who  arrived  in  February,  1833,  died  in 
Jerusalem  January,  1835,  so  that  for  five  years, 
until  the  arrival  of  Dr.  Van  Dyck,  there  was  no 
American  physician  in  this  land. 

Dr.  Van  Dyck  arrived  in  Beirut  April  2,  1840, 
and  spent  the  month  of  May  in  a  tour  in  Northern 
Syria  with  Messrs.  Thomson  and  Beadle,  going  to 
Tripoli,  Hums,  Hamath,  Antioch,  Latakia  and 
Aleppo. 

In  July  he  went  to  Jerusalem  with  three  of  the 
missionary  families,  and  in  his  absence  Beirut 
was  bombarded  by  the  allied  English  and  Aus- 
trian fleets.  In  January,  1841,  he  returned  to 
Beirut  and  spent  the  summer  in  Deir  el  Komr, 
with  Dr.  Eli  Smith  and  Mr.  Wolcott,  opening  a 
school  for  the  sons  of  the  Druze  chiefs.  In  June, 
1843,  he  removed  to  Abeih,  with  Dr.  Thomson, 
remaining  there  for  eight  years,  teaching  in  the 
newly-founded  Abeih  Seminary,  making  journeys 
to  Southern  Lebanon,  Merj  Aiyun,  and  Hasbeiya, 
attending  the  sick  in  all  parts  of  the  field,  trans- 
lating and  writing  text-books  for  the  schools  in 
Arabic,  and  studying  the  Arabic  language  with 
constant  assiduity  and  enthusiasm.  In  the  wars 
of  1840  and  1845  he  was  called  to  attend  the 
wounded  and  suffering. 

On  January  14,  1846,  he  was  ordained  in  Abeih 
to  the  Christian  ministry. 

During  the  year  1847  a  committee  on  behalf 
of  the  mission  prepared  and  sent  to  the  United 
States  an  appeal  in  behalf  of  undertaking  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  in  the  Arabic  language, 
the  work  to  be  entrusted  to  Dr.  Eli  Smith.  The 
document  is  long,  and  now  of  great  historical 
value. 

The  work  of  Bible  translation  was  begun  in 
1848-49  by  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  who  continued  the 
preparatory  work  for  eight  years,  until  his  death, 
January  11,  1857,  but  stated  before  his  decease 
that  he  was  only  willing  to  be  responsible  for  the 
translation  of  the  first  ten  chapters  of  Genesis, 
which  had  been  corrected  and  printed  under  his 
own  direction. 

In  1851  Drs.  Thomson  and  Van  Dyck  were 
transferred  to  the  Sidon  station,  having  the  care 
of  the  Hasbeiya  and  Tyre  districts.  Dr.  Van 
Dyck  stated  that  he  wished  to  "give  himself  now 
more  fully  to  the  ministry  of  the  Word."  For 
the  following  six  years  his  labors  were  abundant, 
and  Dr.  Thomson  stated  that  their  "station  was 
on  horseback."  A  church  was  organized  in 
Hasbeij'a,  a  Bible  class  was  maintained  in  Sidon, 
attended  by  large  numbers  of  the  people.  At 
this  time  his  well-known  Arabic  geography  was 
published. 

In  1853  he  visited  the  United  States  with  his 
family.  In  July,  1854,  he  returned  to  Syria,  and 
on  the  decease  of  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  in  January,  1857, 
he  was  called  by  the  unanimous  voteof  his  mission 
and  the  Missionary  Board  to  take  up  the  great 
work  of  the  Arabic  translation  of  the  Scriptures. 

God,  in  His  wise  providence,  had  been  preparing 
him  for  seventeen  years  for  this  work.  He  had 
read  and  mastered  a  whole  library  of  Arabic 
books,  poetry,  grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  history, 
geography  and  medicine;  had  published  Arabic 


Vaniyaiubadi 
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THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


770 


books  on  algebra,  geometry,  higher  mathematics, 
geography,  logic  and  prosody,  besides  religious 
tracts  and  sermons;  and  in  the  colloquial  Arabic 
he  was  without  an  equal.  Using  Dr.  Smith's 
work  as  a  basis  he  began  the  work  de  novo,  and 
after  two  and  a  half  years  of  labor  the  Reference 
New  Testament  was  printed,  March  29,  1860. 
The  printing  of  the  Old  Testament  was  finished 
on  August  22,  1864,  and  the  printing  of  the  whole 
Arabic  Bible  was  finished  in  March,  1865. 

The  event  was  celebrated  in  the  old  American 
Press  building,  and  in  the  upper  room  where  Dr. 
Smith  had  labored  on  the  translation  eight  years, 
and  Dr.  Van  Dyck  eight  years  more,  the  assem- 
bled missionaries  gave  thanks  to  God  for  the 
completion  of  this  arduous  work. 

The  printing  of  the  Arabic  Scriptures  was  now 
carried  on,  but  the  press  could  not  keep  up  with 
the  demand,  and  Dr.  Van  Dyck  went  to  New 
York  in  1865  and  spent  two  years  in  electro- 
typing  the  royal  octavo  edition  of  the  Bible,  and 
during  his  stay  gave  instruction  in  Hebrew  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary. 

On  his  return  to  Beirut,  in  the  fall  of  1867, 
he  superintended  the  electrotyping  of  various 
editions  of  the  Arabic  Bible,  conducted  the 
weekly  Arabic  journal,  and  entered  upon  his 
duties  as  professor  in  the  medical  department  of 
the  Syrian  Protestant  College,  continuing  his 
connection  with  it  in  abundant  labors,  in  teaching 
the  theory  and  practise  of  medicine  and  chemistry, 
founding  the  Astronomical  Observatory,  and 
witnessing  the  growth  and  development  of  the 
institution,  and  the  graduation  of  12  medical 
classes,  until  his  resignation. 

His  labors  in  the  St.  John's  and  the  Greek 
hospitals  are  too  well  known  to  need  more  than 
mere  mention  here.  He  labored  in  Syria  over 
55  years. 

VANIYAMBADI:  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  in  the  N.  Arcot  District,  about  40  miles 
S.  E.  of  Vellore.  Station  of  the  German  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Synod  of  Missouri,  etc.  (1897), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native 
workers,  and  3  day  schools. 

VAN  LENNEP,  Henry  John:  Born  at  Smyrna, 
Turkey,  April  18,  1815.  Died,  January  11,  1889. 
He  came  from  an  old  Dutch  family  long  con- 
nected with  the  Levant  trade.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  was  sent  to  America  for  an  education. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1837,  and 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1839;  was 
ordained  at  Amherst,  and  embarked  for  Turkey 
the  same  year  as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM. 
He  was  stationed  first  at  his  native  city,  removed 
in  1844  to  Constantinople,  and  in  1854  was  sent 
as  a  pioneer  missionary  to  Tokat,  Asia  Minor. 
In  1863  he  was  again  stationed  at  Smyrna,  where 
he  remained  till  his  final  departure  for  America. 
His  main  work  was  preaching  and  education.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  linguist,  preaching  accept- 
ably in  four  foreign  languages — French,  Arme- 
nian, Greek,  and  Turkish.  He  was  a  proficient 
in  music,  drawing,  and  painting,  which  were  his 
favorite  sources  of  recreation.  He  excelled  as  an 
instructor  of  youth.  Numbers  of  the  most 
successful  professional  men  among  the  evangelical 
Armenians  and  Greeks  of  Constantinople  and 
Asia  Minor — ministers,  physicians,  and  instruc- 
tors of  youth — were  his  pupils.  After  retiring 
from  his  work  abroad  he  secured  to  twenty-five 
Asiatics  facilities  for  education  in  the  United 
States.     His    warm   sympathy  with  the  people 


among  whom  he  worked  won  their  respect  and 
love  to  a  marked  degree. 

Dr.  Van  Lennep  was  honored  with  the  degree 
of  D.D.  by  his  Alma  Mater,  Amherst  College,  in 
1862. 
VATE  LANGUAGE.  See  Efate  Language. 
VATORATA:  A  settlement  in  British  New 
Guinea,  situated  on  the  S.  W.  coast,  about  40 
miles  S.  E.  of  Port  Moresby.  Station  of  the 
LMS  (1894),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  11 
native  workers,  4  outstations,  6  day  schools,  and 
169  professed  Christians. 

VAYYURU:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
in  the  Kistna  delta,  about  16  miles  N.  W.  of 
Masulipatam.  Station  of  the  BOQ  (1891),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 32  native  workers,  12  outstations,  23 
places  of  worship,  24  Sunday  schools,  15  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  1,234  professed 
Christians.     Some  write  the  name  Vuyyuru. 

VELLORE:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situated 
in  the  N.  Arcot  district,  82  miles  W.  of  Madras. 
It  was  the  scene  of  a  massacre  of  English  soldiers 
by  native  mutineers  early  in  the  19th  century. 
The  SPCK  founded  a  Christian  Church  here  in 
1796.  This  was  neglected  after  1803  during 
about  20  years,  until  the  care  of  the  district  was 
transferred  to  the  SPG  in  1835.  In  1855  the 
chapel  was  sold  to  the  RCA,  and  since  1885  the 
SPG  has  had  no  mission  there.  Population, 
38,032.  Station  of  the  RCA  (1854),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  women  missionaries, 
142  native  workers,  24  outstations,  27  places  of 
worship,  30  Sunday  schools,  28  day  schools,  1 
boarding  school,  1  college,  and  1,397  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  504  are  communicants. 
Also  station  of  the  Loventhals  Mission  (Danish), 
(1872),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife  and 
3  native  workers. 

VENEZUELA:  The  most  northerly  of  the 
South  American  republics,  lies  between  British 
Guiana  and  Colombia  on  the  east  and  west,  with 
Brazil  to  the  south  and,  the  Caribbean  sea  to  the 
north.  In  size  it  is  larger  than  France  and  Ger- 
many taken  together,  and  is  about  equal  to  the 
Gulf  States  plus  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  and 
Tennessee,  and  is  divided  into  eight  states,  two 
national  settlements,  and  eight  territories.  In 
1899  it  was  decided  to  restore  a  former  division 
into  twenty  states,  and  this  work  is  still  in  prog- 
ress (1904).  Its  estimated  population  is  between 
2,000,000  and  3,000,000.  The  government  is 
modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  with  more  freedom  given  to  the  pro- 
vincial and  local  governments.  Education  is  com- 
pulsory and  gratuitous,  and  illiteracy  is  fast 
decreasing.  The  state  religion  is  Ronian  Cath- 
olic, and  tho  other  religions  are  tolerated,  they  are- 
not  permitted  any  external  manifestations.  The 
people  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  cattle  and 
sheep  raising,  and  mining;  there  are  very  rich 
deposits  of  gold  and  silver,  copper  and  iron. 
Caracas,  the  capital,  has  a  population  of  about 
75,000.  Altho  the  American  Bible  Society  com- 
menced the  work  of  the  distribution  of  Bibles  in 
Venezuela  in  1876,  but  little  progress  was  made 
until  1886,  when  Mr.  Milne  and  Mr.  Penzotti  can- 
vassed the  republic.  Emilio  Bryant,  who  came 
from  Spain  to  Caracas  in  1884,  may  be  called  the 
pioneer  of  missions  in  this  land;  and  his  heroic  life 
did  much  for  the  cause  of  truth.  Workers  of 
the  Brethren  and  of  the  Christian  and  Missionary 
Alliance  have  accomplished  much  good  by  their 


771 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Vanlydiubadl 
Vinton 


faithful  ministrations.  The  PN  and  the  Scandi- 
navian AlUance  of  America  also  have  missionaries 
in  Venezuela. 

VENGURLA:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  Konkan  region,  about  30  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  Goa.  St„tion  of  the  PN  (1900),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  women  mis- 
sionaries, 1  native  worker,  1  day  school,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  orphanage,  and  15  professed  Chris- 
tians.    Some  write  the  name  Vengurle. 

VENKATAGIRI:  A  town  in  Madras,  .  India, 
situated  about  30  miles  S.  W.  of  Gudur.  Station 
of  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (1869), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  10  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  4 
day  schools,  and  198  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  104  are  communicants. 

VERBECK,  Guide  Fridolin:  Born  January  23, 
1830,  in  the  province  of  Utrecht,  Netherlands. 
Died  March  9,  1898.  On  May  7,  1859,  he  sailed 
from  New  York  for  Japan  as  a  missionar}'  of  the 
RCA,  and  on  the  following  November  he  arrived 
at  Nagasaki.  From  this  time  until  his  death, 
nearly  forty  years  afterward,  his  life  was  identified 
with  the  progress  of  Protestant  Missions  in  Japan. 
It  was  while  living  in  Nagasaki  that  he  came  in 
contact  with  Wakasa,  the  Japanese  officer  who, 
while  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  at  Naga- 
saki in  1854,  picked  up  a  floating  copy  of  the 
New  Testament  in  English,  became  interested  in 
the  life  and  teachings  of  Christ,  and,  in  1866, 
was  baptized  by  Dr.  Verbeck. 

During  a  part  of  his  residence  in  Nagasaki  he 
taught  two  classes  of  young  Samurai,  the  "  two- 
sworded."  These  young  men  afterward  became 
prominent  in  the  new  government  which  suc- 
ceeded the  revolution  of  1868.  Remembering 
their  instructor,  they  summoned  him  from 
Nagasaki  and  sought  his  aid  and  advice  in 
framing  their  new  institutions,  and  in  1869  he 
removed  to  Tokio,  or  Yedo,  as  it  was  then  called. 
For  nine  years  thereafter  he  remained  in  close 
connection  with  the  government,  giving  shape  to 
and  supervising  the  government  university  and 
the  system  of  education  as  at  first  established. 
He  accompanied  the  first  deputation  of  Japanese 
to  the  outside  world,  on  their  tour  among  the 
nations  of  Europe.  In  recognition  of  his  serv- 
ices in  this  and  other  directions,  he  received 
from  the  government  the  decoration,  of  the  third 
class,  of  the  Rising  Sun,  which  entitled  him  to 
appear  at  all  public  and  court  receptions. 

In  1889-90  Dr.  Verbeck  visited  the  United 
States,  and  his  addresses  on  the  evangelization  of 
Japan  made  a  deep  impression.  In  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  he  bore  a  conspicuous 
part;  but  he  took  most  pleasure  in  lectures  and 
evangelistic  preaching.  He  did  much  toward 
the  planting  of  Christianity  and  the  development 
of  a  new  civilization  in  the  "Sunrise  Kingdom." 

VICTORIA  (Kamerun) :  A  trading  station  on 
the  coast  of  the  Kamerun  Colony,  West  Africa, 
situated  about  35  miles  W.  of  Kamerun  River. 
It  has  a  botanical  garden,  is  connected  with 
Buea,  the  capital,  by  telephone,  and  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  railway  to  Lisoka.  Station  of  the 
Basel  Missionary  Society  (1886),  with  (1903)  2 
missionaries  and  their  wives,  5  native  workers, 
5  outstations,  6  day  schools,  and  115  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  85  are  communicants.  Also 
station  of  the  German  Baptists  of  Berlin  (1891), 
with  (1903)  1  native  worker  and  1  place  of 
worship. 


VICTORIA  (Mexico).     See  Ciudad  Victoria. 

VICTORIA  FALLS:  A  settlement  in  Rhodesia, 
situated  on  the  Zambesi  at  Victoria  Falls.  Sta- 
tion of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
(1898),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife. 
The  station,  also  called  Mosi  oa  Thunya,  is 
merely  a  place  of  transit  for  all  the  upper  river 
country. 

VIKARABAD:  A  suburb  of  Haidarabad,  the- 
capital  of  the  native  state  of  Haidarabad,  India. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  14  native  workers,  5  Sunday  schools,  2 
day  schools,  and  158  professed  Christians,  of 
whom  79  are  communicants. 

VIKTORIA.    See  Victoria  (Kamerun). 

VILLUPURAM:  A  town  and  railroad  junction 
in  Madras,  India,  situated  in  South  Arcot, 
about  35  miles  by  railway  from  the  French  port 
of  Pondicherri.  Station  of  the  Leipzig  Missionary 
Society  (1875),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one 
of  them  with  his  wife;  17  native  workers,  7  out- 
stations, 11  places  of  worship,  8  day  sclicols,  2 
boarding  schools,  and  669  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  322  are  communicants.  Some  write  the 
name  Wulupuram. 

VINTON,  Justus  Hatch:  Born  at  Willington, 
Conn.,  February  17,  1806.  Died  at  Rangoon, 
Burma,  March  31,  1858.  Graduated  at  Hamil- 
ton Literary  and  Theological  Institution,  1828; 
appointed  in  1832  missionary  to  Burma  by  the 
ABMU;  studied  with  Dr.  Wade  and  two  native 
converts,  a  Burman  and  a  Karen,  who  were  then 
in  the  United  States;  sailed  with  Mrs.  Vinton 
July,  1834,  reaching  Maulmain  in  December. 
Having  studied  the  language  at  home  and  on  the 
voyage,  they  began  their  worlc  at  once.  Within 
a  weelc  they  left  for  the  jungles,  traveling  for 
three  months  from  village  to  village,  making 
known  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  Mr.  Vinton's  labors 
were  not  confined  to  the  Karens.  He  studied 
Burmese  that  he  might  preach  to  the  Bur- 
mans.  During  the  rainy  season,  when  travel  is 
impossible,  he  labored  among  the  English  sol- 
diers in  garrison,  preaching  and  distributing 
tracts  among  the  Burmans,  and  translating  the 
New  Testament  into  Karen,  or  writing  his  com- 
mentary. In  six  weeks  he  distributed  8,000 
tracts,  and  his  labors  among  the  troops  resulted 
in  the  conversion  of  many,  both  among  the  com- 
mon soldiers  and  the  officers.  In  Maulmain 
Mrs.  Vinton  had  in  her  school  pupils  who  had 
come  200  miles  for  the  sake  of  learning  to  read 
God's  Word  in  their  own  language,  threading  the 
forests  by  night,  not  daring  to  travel  by  day. 

The  failure  of  Mrs.  Vinton's  health  made  a  visit 
to  America  necessary  in  1847.  On  their  return  to 
Burma  in  1850  Rangoon  was  chosen  as  the  center 
of  his  operations.  War  between  Burma  and 
England  broke  out  in  1852,  and  the  Burmans 
wreaked  their  vengeance  for  defeat  upon  the 
Karen  Christians.  As  soon  as  the  English  had 
captured  Rangoon,  Mr.  Vinton  went  there  and 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  work  of  aiding  the 
persecuted  Karens,  and  restoring  confidence 
among  them.  During  this  work  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Vinton  had  to  provide  for  the  sick  in  an  epidemic 
of  smallpox.  All  this  devotion  to  the  interests 
of  the  needy  won  the  hearts  of  the  Karens,  and 
ensured  the  success  of  the  new  station  established 
at  Kemmendine,  in  the  outskirts  of  Rangoon. 
In  1854,  at  Mr.  Vinton's  suggestion,  the  Karens 
of   the   Rangoon   district   organized   the    Karen 


VinnU  on<1n 
Wafeelleia 


IHE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


773 


Home  Missionary  Society,  the  first  cf  the  kind 
ever  formed  in  Burma,  designed  for  aggressive 
work  among  the  heathen,  the  natives  already 
supporting  their  own  pastors  and  schools.  In 
May,  18.55,  the  corner-stone  of  a  church  was  laid 
by  Mr.  Vinton  in  the  presence  of  a  large  assembly 
of  native  and  English  friends.  A  substantial 
church  of  brick  was  erected,  with  funds  contrib- 
uted in  America,  England,  and  Burma,  at  Kem- 
mendine,  on  land  given  to  the  mission  by  Lord 
Dalhousie,  Governcr-General  of  India.  In  the 
mission  premises  at  Kemmendine  Mr.  Vinton 
noAv  had  the  work  of  training  young  men  for  the 
ministry.  He  also  toured  among  the  villages  in 
the  mountains,  and  in  one  of  these  tours  con- 
tracted the  fever  which  caused  his  death.  Mr. 
Vinton  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  zealous  and 
successful  missionaries  ever  sent  to  heathen  lands 
by  the  Baptists  of  the  United  States. 

VINUKONDA:  A  town  in  Madras,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  district  of  Kistna  about  43  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Ongole.  Station  of  the  ABMU 
(1883),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  1  woman  missionary,  56  native  workers, 
49  outstations,  2  places  of  worship,  34  day 
schools,  1  boarding  school,  and  3,878  professed 
Christians.     Also  station  of  the  ELGS. 

VIZAGAPATAM :  A  town  and  seaport  in  Ma- 
dras, India,  situated  about  100  miles  N.  of  the 
Godavari  delta  and  about  half  way  between 
Madras  and  Calcutta.  Population  (mainly  Telu- 
gus),  30,291.  Station  of  the  LMS  (1806),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his  wife; 
2  women  missionaries,  22  native  workers,  3  out- 
stations, 7  day  schorls,  3  Sunday  schools,  and 
108  professed  Christians,  of  whom  78  are  com- 
municants. 

VOGELSTRUISKNOP:  A  settlement  in  the 
Transvaal  Cclony,  S.  Africa,  situated  in  the 
district  of  Lichtenburg.  Station  of  the  Hannover 
Lutheran  Free  Church  Mission,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary  and  4  outstations. 

VOHEMAR:  A  town  and  seaport  in  the  N.  part 
of  Madagascar,  situated  on  the  E.  coast.  Station 
of  the  Lutheran  Free  Church  (U.  S.  A.)  (1898), 
■with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  4  native 
workers,  4  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  and  37 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Vohimary. 

VOLUNTEERS  OF  AMERICA,  THE:  A  philan- 
thropic and  religious  organization,  inaugurated 
in  March,  1896,  by  Commander  and  Mrs.  Balling- 
ton  Booth  in  response  to  numerous  requests  on 
the  part  of  American  citizens.  It  is  organized  in 
military  style,  having  as  its  model  the  United 
States  Army,  but  in  conjunction  with  military 
discipline  and  methods  of  work  it  possesses  a 
thoroughly  democratic  form  of  government, 
having  as  its  ideal  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  of  America. 

The  organization  is  under  the  command  of 
Ballington  and  Mrs.  Booth,  who  are  elected  by  its 
•directors  as  President,  and  by  its  members  as 
Commanders-in-chief.  The  national  headquar- 
ters are  at  No.  38  Cooper  Square,  nearly  opposite 
Cooper  Institute,  New  York  City.  The  Volunteers 
have  six  regiments,  under  the  command  of  six 
territorial  and  regimental  officers  and  their  wives. 
These  embrace  nine  companies  or  central  socie- 


ties   that    have    met    the    higher    requirements 
before  becoming   chartered   by  the  corporation, 
and  nearly  100  self-supporting  posts  or  societies 
throughout  the  country,  not  including  outposts. 
Some  of  the  statistics  gathered  at  the  close  of 
the  fiscal  year  in  the  month  of  September,  1903, 
may   furnish   some  larger  idea  of  the   excellent 
results  of  the  Volunteers'  mission  to  men.     It  has 
philanthropic  institutions  in  Chicago,  Joliet,  Aus- 
tin, Fort  Dodge,  Kansas  City,  Pueblo,  Worcester, 
Boston,  Lynn,  Maiden,  Toledo,  Erie,  Pittsburg, 
Buffalo,  Newcastle,  Philadelphia,  Newark,  Flush- 
ing, New  York  City,  and  other  centers.     During 
the    year    closing    September,    1903,    over    400 
women  have  been  cared  for,  and  over  3,000  beds 
have   been   provided   for   young   women   in   the 
Homes  of  Mercy.     There  have  been  479  children 
received   into   and    cared   for   in   the   children's 
homes,  and  3,400  children  have  been  helped  with 
clothing.     The    Volunteer   officers    and    workers 
have  visited  and  aided  29,084  families  during  the 
year  in  and  around  the  poorer  sections  of  the 
large    cities    where    they    labor.     No    less   than 
180,555  persons  were  lodged  during  the  year  in 
the    Homes    and    institutions    for    working   and 
destitute    men    and    women,    not    counting   the 
many  hundreds  sheltered  during  the  floods  in  St. 
Louis,    Kansas   City   and   other   centers.     There 
were  275,428  persons  fed  with  substantial  meals 
at    a    nominal    cost    in    these    institutions,    and 
81,900  persons  were  given  temporary  relief  and 
food.     Over    4,000    quarts    of    fresh    milk    were 
donated,  principally  to  sick  children. 

Over  14,000  prisoners  living  reformed  lives 
have  been  enrolled  in  the  Volunteers'  Prison 
League.  Mrs.  Ballington  Booth  has  the  entire 
oversight  of  this  branch  of  the  work.  They  are  in 
touch  by  correspondence  and  services  with  28,- 
000  men  within  the  walls.  Tens  of  thousands  of 
poor  people  and  children  were  given  an  outing 
into  the  fresh  air  during  the  year  through  the 
organization.  The  Volunteers  attracted  1,077,- 
965  persons  to  their  Sunday  and  week-night 
services  inside  their  halls,  and  despite  the  almost 
unprecedented  wet  season  2,537,349  to  their 
13,664  open-air  services  during  the  year.  In 
addition  to  the  Volunteer  Reading  Rooms, 
thousands  of  copies  of  Christian  literature  are 
circulated  in  States'  prisons,  jails,  hospitals, 
soldiers'  homes,  and  children's  homes.  Not  by 
any  means  least,  as  an  evidence  of  the  perma- 
nence of  the  work,  $97,068.40  were  contributed 
by  the  poor  people,  irrespective  of  the  national 
receipts,  in  support  of  their  own  Volunteer 
societies  and  local  cause. 

If  the  foregoing  figures,  taken  from  the  reports 
of  the  field  commanders,  do  nothing  else,  they 
justify  the  existence  of  the  Volunteers  of  America, 
and  are  in  themselves  eloquent  testimony  to  the 
work  accomplished  in  one  year. 

VUGA:  A  settlement  in  German  East  Africa, 
situated  in  the  Usambara  region,  about  53  miles 
E.  by  N.  of  Tanga.  Station  of  the  German  East 
Africa  Mission  (1895),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries, 
three  of  them  with  their  wives;  1  woman  mission- 
ary, 1  native  worker,  2  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  and  108  professed  Chris- 
tians. Some  write  the  name  Wuga,  and  call  the 
same  place  Ngazi. 

VUYYURU.     Se«  Vaytubu. 


773 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Vinnlconda 
Wakefield 


w 


WADAI :  A  native  state  of  Africa  under  tlie  pro- 
tection of  France,  lying  between  tlie  Egyptian 
Sudan  and  the  Lake  Chad  basin,  containing 
170,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
2,000,000.  The  state  is  semi-civilized.  It  is  a 
rigidly  Mohammedan  region,  with  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  destroy  any  person  dissenting  from 
Islam.  No  missionary  has  ever  visited  Wadai 
unless  in  disguise  or  with  military  force. 

WADAL:  An  ancient  city  in  Bombay,  India, 
26  miles  northeast  of  Ahmadnagar.  It  was 
formerly  of  some  political  importance.  Station 
of  the  ABCFM  (1855),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  43  native  workers,  15  outstations, 
12  places  of  worship,  16  Sunday  schools,  1  board- 
ing school  and  237  professed  Christians.  Some 
write  the  name  Wacfale. 

WADE,  Jonathan:  Born  at  Otsego,  N.  Y., 
December  10,  1798.  Died  at  Rangoon,  Burma, 
June  10,  1872.  Graduated  at  Hamilton  Literary 
and  Theological  Institution  1822;  ordained  Feb- 
ruary, 1823;  embarked  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABMIJ  for  Burma,  June  22,  1823;  reached  Ran- 
goon December  5  following.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  first  Burmese  war,  soon  after  his 
arrival,  he  and  Mr.  Hough  were  arrested,  impris- 
oned, and  put  in  irons,  then  dragged  to  the 
place  of  execution,  and  compelled  to  kneel  before 
a  Burmese  executioner,  who  had  received  orders 
to  smite  off  their  heads  at  the  discharge  of  the 
first  British  gun  on  Rangoon.  Panic-stricken 
at  the  sound  of  the  cannon,  the  executioner, 
alarmed  for  his  own  safety,  left  his  prisoners  and 
fled.  They  were  afterward  seized  by  the  Bur- 
mese officials,  but  rescued  by  the  advancing 
British  troops.  They  went  to  Calcutta,  remain- 
ing till  the  close  of  the  war.  Mr.  Wade  occupied 
himself  during  this  interval  in  the  study  of  the 
language,  translation  of  books,  and  superin- 
tending the  printing  of  useful  works.  He 
preached  also  m  English  in  the  Circular  Roads 
Baptist  Chapel.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
returned  to  Burma,  making  Amherst  his  home 
until  the  transfer  of  tlie  mission  to  Maulmain, 
where  he  labored  thirteen  years.  In  1830  he 
returned  to  Rangoon.  In  1831  he  visited  Kyouk 
Phyoo  in  Arrakan,  and  began  the  work  which 
was  continued  by  Mr.  Coms  ock  and  others. 
He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1852  from 
Madison  (now  Colby)  University.  In  the  absence 
of  Dr.  Binney  in  the  United  Stages  he  had  charge 
of  the  theological  seminary  for  Karens  at  Maul- 
main. In  addition  to  preaching  the  Gospel,  ho 
reduced  to  writing  the  two  Karen  dialects,  Sgau 
and  Pwo,  and  prepared  important  theological 
and  educational  works — among  them  a  Karen 
Thesaurus,  a  work  in  5  volumes,  the  last  volume 
completed  in  1850.  This  he  designed  to  be  for 
the  Karen  language  what  Dr.  Judson's  Dictionary 
was  for  the  Burmese,  and  to  its  revision  he  devoted 
his  powers  as  long  as  he  was  able  to  work.  He 
visited  the  U.  S.  twice,  returned  to  Maulmain 
from  the  second  of  these  visits  in  1852,  and 
during  twenty  years  more,  tlio  suffering  from 
an  incurable  malady,  he  continued  his  literary 
labors  for  the  Karens.  Only  six  days  before  his 
death  did  he  lay  down  his  pen. 

WADHWAN:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situ- 
ated in  the  Gujarat  region,  about  65  miles  S.  W. 


of  Ahmadabad.  Station  of  the  PCI  (1895), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  6  native 
workers,  2  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  1 
orphanage  and  17  professed  Christians. 

WAHIAJER:  A  settlement  in  Assam,  India, 
situated  in  the  Jaintia  Hills,  S.  E.  from  Jowai, 
and  giving  access  to  the  Mikir  and  Bhoi  hill 
tribes.  Station  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Meth- 
odist Mission,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  22  native 
workers,  17  outstations,  28  places  of  worship, 
18  Sunday  schools,  32  day  schools  and  1,055  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  344  are  communi- 
cants. 

WAX:  A  town  in  Bombay,  India,  situated 
about  20  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Satara.  Station  of 
the  ABCFM  (1872),  with  (1903)  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 14  native  workers,  1  outstation,  3 
places  of  worship,  6  Sunday  schools,  1  boarding 
school  and  22  professed  Cliristians. 

WAIKTHLATINGMANGYALWA:  A  station 
of  the  SAMS  (1892)  in  the  Chaco,  Paraguay, 
South  America,  situated  about  57  miles  W.  of 
the  Paraguay  River  and  140  miles  N.  W.  of 
Asuncion.  It  has  now  (1903)  4  missionaries  with 
their  wives,  1  place  of  worship  and  1  day  school. 
It  is  also  called  the  Central  Station  of  the  Chaco 
Mission. 

WAKAYAMA:  A  town  and  seaport  in  Japan, 
situated  on  the  main  island  about  40  miles  S.  W. 
of  Osaka.  Station  of  the  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian Mission  (1877),  with  (1903)  1  missionary 
and  his  wife,  4  native  workers,  1  outstation,  2 
places  of  worship,  2  Sunday  schools,  1  dispensary 
and  142  professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the 
PE,  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school  and  28  professed 
Christians. 

WAKEFIELD,  Thomas:  Born  at  Derby, 
England,  June  23,  1836.  Died  December,  1901. 
In  the  year  1861  he  was  accepted  by  the  Meth- 
odist Free  Church  for  pioneer  missionary  service 
in  Eastern  Africa.  The  district  of  Rib6,  eighteen 
miles  from  Mombasa,  was  decided  upon  for  the 
first  mission  station;  and  here,  for  six  months, 
Mr.  Wakefield  bravely  grappled  with  the  difficul- 
ties of  a  pioneer  missionary  in  the  Dark  Continent 
entirely  alone.  Besides  accjuiring  the  Kiswahili 
and  Kinyika  languages,  and  preaciiing  the  Gospel 
among  the  scattered  peoples  around  RiM  amid 
many  discouragements,  Mr.  Wakefield  in  1865 
made  a  most  interesting  journey  across  the  plains 
to  the  Galla  country,  and  his  experience  on  this 
trip  was  published  in  a  work  entitled  Footprints 
in  Eastern  Africa.  The  Galla  Mission  was  estab- 
hshed  at  Golbanti  in  1884;  but  the  Masai  warriors 
came  down  upon  the  station  on  May  3,  1886,  and 
besides  putting  to  death  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Houghton, 
the  missionaries  settled  there  by  Mr.  Wakefield, 
massacred  several  native  Christians,  who  had 
volunteered  to  reside  there  that  they  might  assist 
in  the  establishment  of  the  mission.  In  1887, 
having  completed  twenty-five  years  of  service 
for  the  East  Africa  Mission,  he  returned  to 
England,  and  during  the  following  year  he 
received  the  highest  honor  his  denomination 
could  confer  upon  him,  being  elected  to  the 
Presidency  of  the  Assembly  at  its  annual  gather- 
ing.    For  many  years  he  was  a  member  of  the 


"Wei-hTvei 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


774 


Missionary  Committees,  and  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  and  of 
the  Royal  Historical  Society.  In  the  year  1891 
he  reofiered  himself  for  Eastern  Africa,  and  he 
would  have  returned  to  his  adopted  land  if  his 
medical  advisers  had  consented  for  him  to  do  so. 
The  Annual  Assembly  of  his  Church  in  an  Appre- 
ciation on  his  life  gave  utterance  to  these  words: 
"He  not  only  laid  the  foundation  of  our  East 
African  Mission;  he  also  lifted  the  missionary 
ideal  of  our  churches  to  a  high  standard." 

WALAJABAD:  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  in  Chingleput  Division,  about  6  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Conjeveram.  Station  of  the  UFS, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  80  native  workers,  10 
outstations,  72  professed  Christians,  1  place  of 
worship,  10  day  schools,  1  dispensary  and  1 
hospital. 

WALFISH  BAY:  A  settlement  on  the  coast  of 
German  S.  W.  Africa,  which  belongs  to  Great 
Britain,  together  with  the  land  immediately 
commanding  the  bay.  Population,  31  Europeans 
and  700  negroes.  Station  of  the  Rhenish  Mission- 
arj"  Society,  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  3  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  2  day  schools,  1  Sunday 
school  and  512  professed  Christians,  of  whom  216 
are  communicants.  Some  write  the  name  Wal- 
fischbei. 

WALLINGER,  Miss  Amelia  Anne:  Born  in 
England,  November  13,  1839.  Died  in  India, 
March  3,  1894.  Miss  Wallinger  was  the  only 
daughter  in  a  home  of  refinement  and  wealth, 
and  after  the  death  of  her  parents,  having  an 
abundant  income  at  her  command,  she  com- 
menced her  home  charitable  work  among  the 
orphan  daughters  of  professional  men.  From 
1870  to  1882,  entirely  at  her  own  expense,  she 
made  her  house  the  home  and  school  for  a  large 
number  of  girls  of  gentle  birth,  whose  means  were 
not  sufficient  to  educate  them  for  the  position  to 
which  they  belonged.  Afterward,  she  entered 
into  active  home  mission  work,  and  under  her 
supervision  were  held  mothers'  meetings,  chil- 
dren's sewing  classes,  and  missions  for  the  lowest 
classes  of  society.  Altho  advanced  in  years,  she 
decided  to  give  up  her  English  home  and  its  ties 
of  friendship,  and  go  to  the  foreign  field.  She 
set  out,  as  a  missionary  of  the  CEZ,  for  Utaka- 
mund.  South  India,  in  1886.  Not  only  did  she 
go  at  her  own  charges,  but  she  bore  the  expense 
of  another  missionary  who  accompanied  her. 
After  remaining  in  Utakamund  for  a  year,  she 
and  her  colleague,  Miss  Ling,  made  a  tour  in  the 
Wynaad,  a  wild  country  inhabited  largely  by 
Malayalim,  Tamil,  and  Kanarese-speaking  people, 
and  having  as  its  principal  towns  Gudalore  and 
Devala.  Plans  were  formed,  not  only  to  do  mis- 
sionary work  in  the  lower  plateau  of  the  Wynaad, 
but  also  among  a  remnant  of  an  ancient  race  in  the 
heights  of  the  Nilgiri  Hills.  The  chief  tribe  of 
this  race,  the  Todas,  are  believed  to  have  been 
the  Lords  of  the  Hills,  and  Miss  Wallinger  and 
Miss  Ling  were  the  first  women  evangelists  to 
these  neglected  men  of  the  jungles.  She  and  her 
companion  would  creep  on  hands  and  knees 
through  the  entrance-holes  of  the  houses  of  these 
wild  tribes;  and  amid  indescribable  degradation, 
they  would  tell  the  story  of  Divine  love.  During 
a  visit  to  England,  the  year  before  her  death,  she 
awakened  a  new  interest  in  the  Nilgiri  work,  and 
almost  all  of  the  developments  of  this  mission 
were  at  her  instigation  and  largely  assisted  by  her 
means.     Her   last   two   periods   of   residence   in 


India  were  spent  in  Coonoor,  and  by  the  special 
request  of  the  native  Christians,  they  were 
allowed  to  carry  her  body  to  its  last  resting-place 
in  the  Coonoor  churchyard. 

"WANGEMANNSHOH:  A  settlement  in  German 
East  Africa,  situated  in  the  Konde  region  N.  of 
Lake  Nyasa.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary 
Society  (1891),  with  (1903)  8  missionaries,  of 
whom  5  are  laymen  and  colonists  to  be  sta- 
tioned later;  7  native  workers,  2  outstations,  I 
Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  53  professed 
Christians. 

WAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Sze-chwan,  China, 
situated  on  the  Yangtsze  River,  65  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Sui-ting-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1888),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  mis- 
sionary, 1  native  worker,  I  outstation,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  day  school,  and  23 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Wan-hien. 

WANICA:  A  station  of  the  Moravian  Mission 
(1886)  in  Paramaribo,  Dutch  Guiana,  South 
America.  Statistics  are  included  under  Para- 
maribo. 

WANIYANKULAM:  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
situated  in  Malabar,  20  miles  W.  of  Palghat. 
Station  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society  (1886), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them  with  his 
wife;  27  native  workers,  4  outstations,  1  Sunday 
school,  3  day  schools,  and  170  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  94  are  communicants. 

WANNARPONNAI:  A  station  of  the  WMS  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  Jaffna,  Ceylon. 

WARD,  William:  Born  at  Derby,  England, 
October  20,  1769;  died  at  Serarapur,  India, 
March  7,  1823.  Mr.  Ward  was  a  printer  by 
trade.  Having  studied  for  the  ministry,  he  was 
appointed  missionary  to  India  of  the  BMS,  and 
sailed  in  May,  1799,  with  the  second  party  sent 
out  by  that  Society.  Owing  to  the  opposition  of 
the  East  India  Company,  the  missionaries 
established  themselves  at  the  Danish  settlement 
of  Serampur,  on  the  Hugli  River  above  Calcutta. 
Here  they  were  joined  by  Carey  and  Thomas, 
who  had  preceded  them  to  India,  and  in  March, 
1800,  Mr.  Ward  printed  the  first  page  of  Carey's 
Bengali  translation  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
work  of  giving  the  Bible  to  the  people  proceeded 
with  astonishing  rapidity.  According  to  Mr, 
Ward's  report  in  1809,  besides  the  whole  Bengali 
Bible,  parts  of  the  Bible  had  been  printed  in 
Sanskrit,  Uriye,  Hindustani,  Marithi,  Sikh,  and 
blocks  had  been  cut  for  the  Gospel  of  Matthew 
in  Chinese.  The  printing  office  was  finely 
equipped  with  type  for  Arabic,  Persian,  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Englisli,  besides  the  languages  named 
above.  The  building  used  for  the  printing  house 
was  200  feet  long. 

The  tremendous  energy  of  this  first  of  mission- 
ary printing  offices  was  shown  when,  in  March, 
1812,  the  whole  establishment,  with  twelve  fonts 
of  Indian  type,  stores  of  books,  printed  sheets, 
paper,  etc.,  was  destroyed  by  fire.  Fifty  thou- 
sand dollars  was  a  low  estimate  of  the  loss.  The 
matrices  for  casting  type  were  saved.  Recover- 
ing the  melted  type-metal  from  the  ruins,  the 
missionaries  began  casting  type  at  once.  In  two 
weeks'  time  Mr.  Ward  was  able  to  begin  printing 
the  Scriptures  again  in  one  language.  In  two 
months  the  fonts  of  type  were  so  far  restored  that 
the  printing  was  resumed  on  a  large  scale,  with 
presses  going  day  and  night. 


776 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Walajabad 
Wei-liwei 


This  catastrophe  was,  in  fact,  a  blessing  to  the 
mission.  It  not  only  won  instant  sympathy  for 
the  men  who  could  derive  new  energy  from  mis- 
fortune, but  it  made  the  mission  and  its  beneficent 
work  widely  known,  and  brought  help  from  every 
quarter. 

Mr.  Ward  was  not  a  mere  printer,  but  a  his- 
torian of  the  mission,  and  a  true  missionary  in  the 
general  work.  After  twenty  years  of  such  service 
his  health  became  impaired,  and  he  returned  to 
England  for  rest  in  1819.  In  1821  he  was  again 
at  his  post  in  Serampur,  but  his  work  was  done, 
and  two  years  later  he  passed  away. 

WARDHA :  A  town  in  the  Central  Provinces  of 
India,  and  capital  of  the  district,  situated  about 
50  miles  by  railway  S.  W.  of  Nagpur.  Station  of 
the  Mission  to  Lepers  (1896),  with  (1903)  1 
lepers'  institute.  Also  station  of  the  UFS,  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  18  native 
workers,  4  outstations,  5  day  schools,  2  dis- 
pensaries, and  1  hospital. 

WARMBAD:  A  village  in  German  S.  W.  Africa, 
situated  in  the  S.  part  about  25  miles  N.  of  the 
Orange  River,  and  70  miles  N.  E.  of  Steinkopf; 
terminus  of  the  railway  to  Port  Nolloth.  It  was 
first  occupied  as  a  mission  station  by  Dutch 
missionaries  in  1806.  Station  of  the  Rhenish 
Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  1  native  worker,  1  outstation,  1  day 
school,  1  Sunday  school,  and  310  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  156  are  communicants. 

WARREN,  Charles  Frederick:  Born  at  Margate, 
Kent,  1841.  Died  at  Fukuyama,  June  8,  1899. 
In  1873  was  sent  to  the  Osaka  Mission,  Japan, 
under  the  CMS.  The  first  missionary  at  Osaka, 
he  was  principal  of  the  theological  college  at  that 
place.  For  a  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  min- 
istry of  St.  John's,  Ashbourne,  on  account  of  the 
illness  of  Mrs.  Warren;  but  after  her  death  he 
returned  to  Japan,  in  1888,  as  Secretary  of  the 
Mission.  He  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Osaka 
and  Central  Japan.  Mr.  Warren  exerted  a  great 
influence  in  the  Foreign  Concession  of  Osaka,  in  the 
municipal  council  of  which  he  was,  for  years,  the 
president;  and  his  ability  was  recognized,  more  or 
less,  throughout  the  Japanese  Empire,  and,  owing 
to  his  previous  residence  and  work  in  China,  in  the 
Far  East  generally.  He  was  a  prominent  member 
of  several  committees  for  the  translation  orrevision 
of  the  Bible,  prayer-book,  and  hymn-book;  and 
as  one  of  the  originators  of  the  Christian  Con- 
ference (on  Keswick  lines)  at  Arima,  his  ripe 
experience  and  wise  counsel  proved  most  helpful. 
Under  the  blessing  of  God  he  lived  to  see  the 
fruit  of  his  twenty-five  years'  life  at  Osaka  in  the 
organized  work  of  the  CMS,  in  the  development 
of  the  Osaka  Settlement  into  the  model  of  a 
Christian  civilized  community,  and  in  the  better 
understanding  of  all  Christians  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  Japan.  He  was  author  of  Family 
Prayers  for  a  Week,  in  Chinese;  Scripture  Cate- 
chism of  Faith  and  Duty,  in  Japanese;  Book  of 
Prayers  for  Family  and  School  Use,  in  Japanese; 
and  he  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the  prayer- 
book  into  Japanese,  and  a  member  of  the  revising 
committee  for  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  Japanese. 

WARTBURG:  A  town  in  Cape  Colony,  situated 
in  Kaffraria,  about  10  miles  N.  of  Stutterheim. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1855), 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  8  native  workers,  3 
outstations,    1    day    school,    1    Sunday   school. 


and  387  professed  Christians,  of  whom  163  are 
communicants. 

WATERBERG:  A  village  near  the  railway, 
between  Pretoria  and  Pietersburg,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Waterberg  Mountains,  on  the  S.  slope  of 
which  is  Warmbad,  with  its  hot  spring.  The 
mountains  give  name  also  to  a  mission  of  the 
WMS,  of  which  statistics  are  given  under  Maka- 
pan.  Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society 
(1867),  with  (1903)  1  missionary,  16  native 
workers,  7  outstations,  and  498  professed  Chris- 
tians.    Some  call  the  station  ModimoUe. 

WATERLOO:  A  town  in  Sierra  Leone,  West 
Africa,  situated  15  miles  S.  E.  of  Freetown. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1819),  with  (1903)  23  native 
workers,  10  outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
Sunday  school,  9  day  schools,  and  1,374  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  600  are  communi- 
cants. Also  station  of  the  UMFC  (1879),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  32  native 
workers,  3  places  of  worship,  and  283  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  192  are  communicants. 
Also  station  of  the  WMS,  with  (1903)  12  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  8  places  of  worship,  3 
Sunday  schools,  3  day  schools,  and  434  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  345  are  communicants. 

WATERLOO:  A  settlement  in  Dutch  Guiana, 
South  America,  situated  about  10  miles  S.  of 
Nickerie.  Station  of  the  Moravian  Mission  Society 
(1859),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  22 
native  workers,  2  places  of  worship,  1  day  school, 
and  224  professed  Christians. 

WATHEN.     See  Ngombe. 

WAZIRABAD:  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
situated  about  30  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Sialkot.  The 
town  is  comparatively  new,  and  has  only  recently 
risen  to  importance.  It  is  much  better  and  more 
regularly  built  than  most  native  towns,  altho  the 
houses  are  mostly  made  of  sun-dried  or  kiln- 
burned  bricks.  Population,  16,462.  Station  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Missions  (1863), 
with  (1901)  1  missionary,  15  native  workers,  8 
outstations,  4  day  schools,  and  25  professed 
Christians. 

WEASISI:  A  station  in  the  northern  part  of 
Tanna,  New  Hebrides. 

WEI-HAI-WEI:  A  seaport  and  military  post  in 
Shan-tung,  China,  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Straits  of  Chili,  and  temporarily  occupied  by 
Great  Britain  under  lease.  Station  of  the  PB, 
with  (1900)  3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their 
wives. 

WEI-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Shan-tung,  China, 
situated  about  150  miles  S.  W.  of  Teng-chau-fu, 
an  important  center,  which  will  be  a  station  on 
the  German  road  from  Kiao-chau.  Population, 
100,000.  Station  of  the  PN  (1882),  with  (1903) 
4  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4  women  mission- 
aries, 88  native  workers,  124  outstations,  20 
places  of  worship,  48  day  schools,  9  boarding 
schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  and  3,000  pro- 
fessed Christians.  The  college  from  Teng-chau- 
fu  is  to  be  removed  to  this  place.  Some  write  the 
name  Wei  Hien. 

WEI-H WEI :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Ho-nan, 
China,  situated  on  the  Wei  River,  about  50  miles 
S.  by  W.  of  Chang-te-fu.  Station  of  the  PCC 
(1903),  with  3  missionaries,  1  place  of  worship,  1 
dispensary,  and  37  professed  Christians.  This 
town  takes  the  place  of  Hsin-cheng  in  the  list  of 
the  Society's  stations.  This  latter  place  is  now 
an  outstation  of  Wei-hwei. 


Weipa, 

Wesleyan   Me<lio<li.st 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


776 


WEIPA :  A  set  I  lement  on  the  W.  coast  of  Cape 
York  Peninsula,  Australia.  Stat, on  of  the 
Mission  of  Federated  Churches  of  Australia  and 
Tasmania,  witli  (1901)  2  missionaries,  one  of  them 
with  his  wife,  and  1  woman  missionary.  Station 
of  the  Moravian  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman  missionary, 
and  1  place  of  worship. 

WELSH  CALVINISTIC  METHODISTS,  Foreign 
Missions  of  the:  The  Calvinistic  Methodists  of 
Wales  began  to  take  an  interest  in  missionary  work 
at  the  time  when  the  London  Missionary  Society 
was  established.  They  contributed  liberally  to  its 
funds,  and  several  of  the  most  useful  missionaries 
of  that  Society  had  been  trained  in  their  churches. 
But  the  growing  desire  that  the  connection 
should  have  a  mission  of  its  own  led  ultimately 
to  the  organization  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic 
Methodist  Foreign  Missionary  Society  in  Liver- 
pool in  January,  1840.  In  1834  the  British  Gov- 
ernment completed  a  treaty  with  the  chiefs  of  the 
Khasi  Hill  tribes  in  the  extreme  northeastern  part 
of  Hindustan,  and  a  military  post  was  to  be 
established  at  Cherrapunji,  and  a  road  made 
across  the  Khasi  Hills  to  the  British  territory  in 
the  Brahmaputra  valley.  AVhen  the  Welsh  For- 
eign Missions  were  planned  in  1840  the  attention 
of  the  directors  was  called  to  the  Khasi  Hills  as  a 
new  and  promising  field.  Accordingly,  the  plan 
seeming  wise,  the  first  missionary  of  the  Society, 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Jones,  left  for  Cherrapunji  in 
November,  1840.  Missionaries  were  also  sent  out 
in  1842  and  again  in  1845;  but  at  times,  owing  to 
various  circumstances — defection,  illness,  and 
death — only  one  or  two  men  were  left  to  carry  on 
the  work,  and  the  progress  for  some  years  was 
but  small,  if  reckoned  by  the  number  of  converts, 
which  reached  but  fourteen  in  the  first  decade. 

In  1846  a  new  station  was  established  at 
Jowai,  the  chief  village  in  the  Jaintia  Hills,  and  in 
subsequent  years  the  work  was  extended  to 
various  other  parts  of  the  hill  country.  In  1849 
the  Rev.  W.  Pryse  commenced  operations  at 
Sylhet,  in  the  plains  of  the  Barak  River  region. 
Tho  the  work  was  carried  on  vigorously,  and  not 
without  some  degree  of  success,  circumstances 
occurred  which  made  it  advisable  to  limit  the 
operations  of  the  mission  to  the  hill  country,  and 
until  1887  the  large  district  around  Sylhet  was 
left  unoccupied,  when  in  that  year  the  mission 
was  again  enabled  to  resume  its  work  there. 
The  mission  field  in  India  is  divided  into  15  dis- 
tricts: 10  in  the  hills,  and  5  in  the  low  country  to 
the  southward,  which  was  transferred  from 
Bengal  to  Assam  in  1879.  Day  schools,  evan- 
gelistic work,  publishing,  and  medical  work  are 
all  features  of  the  mission. 

An  indication  of  the  growth  of  the  work  is 
given  by  the  fact  that  the  districts  have  doubled 
since  1890.  There  are  now  (1902)  439  preaching 
stations,  against  136;  331  Sunday  schools  and 
16,161  scholars,  against  140  schools  and  7,294 
scholars.  There  are  now  5,616  communicants, 
while  the  total  attendants  at  churches  number 
16,659.  There  are  10  ordained  missionaries  in 
the  hills  and  2  women  missionaries,  and  in  the 
plains,  5  ordained  and  5  women  missionaries. 

Recently  work  has  been  commenced  in  the 
Lushai  Hills,  in  the  extreme  southwest  of  Assam. 
Two  missionaries  are  located  here,  but  their 
enterprise  is  still  in  its  infancy.  There  are  13 
native  ministers,  and  48  preachers  who  have  been 
admitted  to  the  presbytery,  some  of  them  being 
pastors  and  others  in  charge  of  schools.     There  is 


a  theological  institution  at  Cherra,  and  there  are 
401  day  schools,  with  8,241  scholars  (2,809  girls), 
and  a  medical  mission  in  the  Jaintia  Hill  district. 

In  1842  the  Society  organized  mission  work 
among  the  Bretons  in  Western  France,  and  still 
has  a  small  mission  work  in  Brittany.  There  are 
3  stations,  each  with  1  missionary,  5  churches, 
74  converts,  and  71  adherents  not  admitted  to 
membership.  The  influence  of  the  work,  how- 
ever, extends  far  beyond  the  immediate 
Protestant  community. 

There  is  also  a  woman's  branch  of  this  Society, 
with  headquarters  at  20  Sherlock  Street,  Liver- 
pool, which  aids  in  the  collection  of  funds,  but 
does  not  carry  on  independent  work. 

WEN-CHAU-F0:  A  town  and  treaty  port  in 
Che-kiang,  China,  situated  about  160  miles 
S.  S.  E.  of  Hang-chou,  China.  Population  (1901) 
80,000.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1867),  with  (1903) 
2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  4  women  mis- 
sionaries, 17  native  workers,  22  places  of  worship, 
1  day  school,  1  boarding  school,  and  448  pro- 
fessed Christians.  Also  station  of  the  UMFC 
(1877),  with  (1903)  5  missionaries,  three  of  them 
with  their  wives;  156  native  workers,  6  out- 
stations,  6  day  schools,  7  Sunday  schools,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  hospital,  and  3,294  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  1,294  are  communicants.  Some 
write  the  name  Wenchow. 

WEN-LI :  Name  applied  to  the  classical  or  book 
language  of  China,  as  distinguished  from  the 
colloquial.  To  write  in  the  same  natural  way  as 
one  would  talk  is  contrary  to  Chinese  teaching 
and  practise;  and  the  classical  book  style  so 
abounds  in  stilted,  condensed,  epigrammatic 
phrases,  that  a  man  who  has  not  mastered  the 
literary  style  is  unable  to  understand  the  sense, 
even  tho  he  may  be  able  to  recognize  the  char- 
acters or  ideograms.  A  variation  of  the  Wen-li 
is  the  Easy  Wen-li,  which  is  not  so  severely  inde- 
pendent of  the  spoken  dialect. 

WEN-SAN,  or  GEN-SAN:  A  town  and  seaport 
in  Korea,  situated  on  the  E.  coast,  about  120 
miles  N.  E.of  Seoul.  Station  of  the  PCC  (1893), 
with  2  missionaries  and  tlieir  wives,  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 1  native  worker,  1  outstation,  1  place 
of  worship,  2  day  schools,  1  Sunday  school,  and 
125  professed  Christians,  of  whom  77  are  com- 
municants. Also  station  of  the  MES  (1900), 
with  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  2  women  mis- 
sionaries, 1  dispensary,  and  205  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  55  are  communicants.  The  sta- 
tion of  the  ME  was  transferred  to  the  MES  in 
1902. 

WEN-TENG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Shan-tung, 
China,  situated  about  12  miles  S.  of  Wei-hai-wei. 
Station  of  the  PB,  with  (1900)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife. 

WESLEYAN  METHODIST  MISSIONARY 
SOCIETY:  History:  The  first  distinctively  for- 
eign missionary  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  was 
Dr.  Coke.  As  early  as  1744,  through  the 
efforts  of  Whitefield,  special  hours  of  prayer 
for  the  outpouring  of  the  spirit  of  God  upon 
all  Christian  churches  and  upon  the  "whole 
inhabited  earth"  were  observed,  and  John  Wesley 
went  to  North  America  to  preach.  From 
that  time  onward  missions  in  the  British 
possessions  in  North  America  were  carried 
on,  and  numerous  preachers  were  sent  out. 
These  missions,  however,  were  mainly  intended 
for  the  lienefit  of  British  colonists,  and  missions 
to  the  heathen  were  not   undertaken  until  1786, 


777 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Weu>a 
Wesleyan  Metlioilist 


when  Thomas  Coke,  destined  by  the  Methodists 
in  England  for  Nova  Scotia,  was  driven  to 
the  British  West  Indies,  where  a  mission  to  the 
negro  slaves  was  at  once  commenced.  In 
his  hand  the  conduct  of  the  Wesleyan  missions 
was  mamly  placed  until  1804,  when,  upon  his 
departure  for  America,  a  committee  of  three 
was  appointed  by  the  Conference  to  undertake 
the  management  of  the  work.  It  was  at 
Dr.^  Coke's  instigation  that  a  mission  to  West 
Africa  was  undertaken  in  1811,  and  after  crossino- 
the  Atlantic  eighteen  times,  when  he  was  76 
years  old,  he  again  sailed,  with  six  other  mission- 
aries, December  31,  1813,  to  Ceylon  to  found 
there  the  third  Methodist  mission.  His  death, 
early  in  the  following  year,  made  necessary 
other  arrangements  for  carrying  on  the  work; 
the  Society  was  accordingly  reorganized,  and' 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  was  placed  on  its 
present  permanent  footing. 

The  management  of  the  missions  and  the 
collection  and  disbursement  of  funds  are  en- 
trusted to  a  committee  appointed  annually 
by  the  Conference,  as  are  also  the  general 
secretaries  and  two  treasurers,  a  minister  and 
a  layman. 

Development    of    Work:    Before    the    death    of 
John  Wesley,  his  teachings  had  been  extended 
into     Ireland,     Scotland,     the     Shetland     Isles, 
and   the   Channel   Islands;   and   the   first   years 
of    the    new    century    saw    the    Methodists    at 
work  among  the   French   prisoners  in   England 
and    in    the     French     prisons.     As     early     as 
1807  a  society    of  seventy  persons  was  reported 
at     Arras,     France,     and     Methodism     rapidly 
extended  to  other  parts  of  the  country.     Work 
was  begun  in  Germany  in  1830  by  Christopher 
Gottlob  Muller,  who  had  been  converted  through 
the    instrumentality    of    a    Wesleyan    minister; 
in  Switzerland  in  1839,  by  the  Wesleyan  mission- 
aries already  at  work  in  the  south   of   France; 
at   Gibraltar  in   1809,  from   whence   Spain   and 
Portugal   were   reached;   and   in   Italy   in    1860, 
after   the    revolution    in    the    civil    government 
had   allowed   a  measure   of  religious  liberty   to 
the  people.     In  1766  the  first  Methodist  sermon 
was  preached  in  America  by  a  Mr.  Embury  at  his 
house  in  New  York  City.     In  1780  Methodism  was 
carried    to    Canada    by    a    local    preacher,    and 
not  long  after  missions  were  established  among 
the  Indians  in  Canada,   and,   later,   in   Hudson 
Bay  Territory,   British  Columbia,   Nova  Scotia, 
New   Brunswick,   Prince    Edward's  Island,   and 
Newfoundland.  Upon  Dr.  Coke's  recommendation 
a  missionary  was  sent  to  the  Bermudas  in  1799. 
The  mission  to  India  at  Ceylon  was  undertaken  by 
Dr.  Coke  in  1813.     The  first  scheme  for  the  estab- 
hshment  of  a  mission  to  West  Africa,  devised  by 
Dr.  Coke  in  1769,  proved  a  failure,    but   in  1811 
a  second   attempt   was   made   at   Sierra   Leone, 
which    was    eventually    successful;    in    1821     a 
second  station  was  opened  on  the  river  Gambia, 
and  in  1834  a  mission  to  the  Gold  Coast  was 
undertaken.       In    the    year    1814    the    Society 
sent    the    Rev.    John     McKenny    to     Southern 
Africa    as    its    first    missionary.     A    little    later 
a  station  was  established  in  Little  Namaqualand, 
and   from   this   point   the     work     extended     by 
degrees  throughout    Southern    Africa.     In    1812 
the    committee    received    an    appeal    from    two 
schoolmasters  who  were  teaching  in  New  South 
Wales,    by    order   of   government,    to   send    out 
Wesleyan    preachers    to    undertake    a    mission   | 


arnong  the  convicts,  and  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Leigh  went  for  this  purpose  to  Sydney  in  August, 
1815.  Missionaries  were  sent  to  Tasmania  in 
1821,  to  Victoria  in  1838,  and  to  Queensland 
in  1850.  The  mission  to  the  cannibals  of 
New  Zealand  was  commenced  in  1822;  in  the 
same  year  a  missionary  was  also  sent  to  the 
Friendly  Islands,  but  it  was  not  until  1820 
that  a  mission  was  established  there.  As 
soon  as  this  work  was  on  a  firm  basis,  the 
missionaries  endeavored  to  do  something  for 
Fiji,  but  some  years  elapsed  before  the  mission 
to  Fiji  became  an  actual  fact.  Work  in  China 
was  undertaken  in   1853. 

As  a  result  of  this  development  the  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary 
Society  are  classed  in  three  departments: 

A.  Missions  originated  by  the  Society  but 
now  entirely  independent  and  under  the  direction 
of  Colonial  Conferences:  Canada,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

B.  Missions  under  the  immediate  direction 
of  local  Conferences  but  aided  by  the  Society: 
Ireland,  France,  West  Indies,  and  South  Africa 
(Cape    Colony,    Natal,    Orange    River    Colony). 

C.  Missions  still  under  the  immediate  direc- 
tion of  the  British  Conference:  Europe  (Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Gibraltar,  Malta,  Cairo): 
Ceylon;  India  (North  and  South);  China;  South 
Africa  (Transvaal,  Swaziland,  Rhodesia);  West 
Africa  (Sierra  Leone,  Gold  Coast,  Lagos); 
Western  Hemisphere  (Bahamas,  Honduras  and 
the  West  Indies). 

A.  Missions  originated  by  but  now  independ- 
ent of  the  WMMS. 

Canada:  The  work  in  this  country  was  from 
the  first  chiefly  colonial,  and  the  organization 
of  the  Canadian  Methodist  Missionary  Society 
in  1824  early  took  the  care  of  the  work  among 
the  Indians  from  the  parent  Society. 

Australia:  It  is  perhaps  doubtful  whether 
a  mission  was  ever  commenced  in  any  part  of 
the  world  under  more  discouraging  circum- 
stances than  was  that  of  the  Wesleyan  Society 
to  Austraha.  New  South  Wales  was  chiefly 
a  community  of  convicts,  with  wandering  tribes 
of  savage  natives  on  its  borders.  The  free 
settlers  and  squatters,  widely  scattered  and 
entirely  destitute  of  religious  instruction,  were 
only  a  few  degrees  above  the  convict  population. 
Up  to  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  first  Wesleyan 
missionary  the  government  had  been  occupied 
in  erecting  jails,  barracks,  and  other  public 
buildings  necessary  for  the  civil,  military, 
and  convict  establishment,  but  very  little  had 
been  done  for  the  religious  and  moral  improve- 
ment of  the  people.  Indeed,  the  whole  aspect 
of  affairs — the  state  of  societ}',  the  mode  of 
government,  the  discipline  adopted  in  the 
management  of  convicts,  and  the  temper  and 
spirit  of  everything  and  everybody — appeared 
cold,  cruel,  and  repulsive  in  the  extreme.  Never- 
theless, Mr.  Leigh  (1815),  having  secured  the 
countenance  and  protection  of  the  colonial 
government,  began  to  arrange  his  plans,  and 
mapped  out  a  wide  circuit  in  which  to  itinerate. 
From  Sydney  he  extended  his  labors  to  Para- 
matta, where  he  met  the  Rev.  Samuel  Marsden, 
one  of  the  four  chaplains  appointed  to  minister 
to  the  troops  and  convicts,  and  afterward 
identified  with  missions  to  New  Zealand.  Assist- 
ance was  given  by  Methodists  in  Australia, 
reenforcements    were    sent    from    England    and 


"Wesleyan  Metliodisit 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


778 


the  work  prospered.  In  1864  funds  were 
secured  for  a  Wesleyan  College  at  Sydney,  and 
the  formation  of  the  Australasian  Methodist 
Missionary  Society  (organized  in  1822  as  an 
auxiliary  and  in  1855  as  a  separate  Society) 
relieved  the  parent  Society  of  responsibility 
for  work  in  that  section  of  the  world.  The 
fields  specially  under  the  care  of  this  Austral- 
asian Society  are  Samoa,  Fiji,  New  Britain, 
New  Guinea,  China,  the  Chinese  in  Victoria, 
New  South  Wales,  and  Queensland;  and  the 
Indi<in  Coolies  of  Fiji.  In  1900  the  Bible 
Christians  of  Australia  united  with  the  Methodist 
churches,  and  the  combined  forces  (1898) 
represented  55  missionaries,  3,903  native 
workers,  in  22  principal  and  1,411  outstations, 
with  100  organized  churches  and  35,275  com- 
municants. 

New  Zealand:  In  I8I8  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Marsden  persuaded  Mr.  Leigh  to  take  a  trip 
to  New  Zealand,  and  as  a  result  on  a  visit  to 
England  he  laid  before  the  committee  a  proposal 
for  the  commencement  of  a  mission  to  the 
cannibals  of  New  Zealand.  The  Society  was 
at  that  time  laboring  under  a  heavy  debt, 
but  Mr.  Leigh,  by  forcible  appeals  to  the  friends 
of  missions  in  many  parts  of  England,  obtained 
contributions  of  goods  of  various  kinds,  which 
in  New  Zealand  would  be  more  valuable  than 
money  itself,  and  the  Society  undertook  to 
commence  the  new  mission  without  delay. 
About  this  time  two  Maori  chiefs  arrived  in 
London  with  Mr.  Kendall  of  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society;  their  appearance  gave  a  new 
impetus  to  the  plans  for  New  Zealand;  the 
necessary  preparations  were  soon  completed, 
and  the  party  of  missionaries — consisting  of 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Leigh,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Horton, 
appointed  to  Tasmania,  and  Mr.  Walker — 
sailed  from  England  on  April  28,  1821.  Work 
was  commenced  at  Wangaroa  in  1822.  Up 
to  1830  the  mission  met  with  no  success,  and 
for  a  time  the  work  was  broken  up.  Then 
there  came  a  change  and  the  advance  was 
most  marked,  and  when  in  1855  the  work 
was  passed  over  to  the  Australian  Conference 
there  was  a  large  community  of  European 
and  Maori  Wesleyans.  Subsequently  the  Maori 
church  was  greatly  depleted,  but  after  the 
establishment  of  the  New  Zealand  Conference 
(1874)   it  revived. 

South  Seas:  These  missions  include  those 
in  the  Friendly  Islands,  Samoa,  Fiji,  and  New 
Britain  (Neu  Pommern).  In  June,  1822, 
about  twenty-two  years  after  the  last  surviving 
agent  of  the  LMS  had  escaped  from  the  Tonga 
or  Friendly  Islands,  the  Rev.  Walter  Lawry, 
with  his  family,  sailed  from  Sydney,  and  in 
the  following  August  anchored  off  Tonga. 
Among  the  hundreds  of  natives  who  came 
off  from  the  shore  in  their  canoes  was  one 
Englishman,  named  Singleton,  who  had  lived 
sixteen  years  on  the  island,  being  one  of  the 
survivors  of  the  ill-fated  "Port-au-Prince," 
whose  crew  had  been  massacred  in  1806.  He 
had  become  a  thorough  Tonga  man  in  manners 
and  language,  but  became  very  useful  to  Mr. 
Lawry  as  an  interpreter  and  in  other  ways, 
and  before  long  himself  accepted  the  Gospel. 
Mr.  Lawry  was  kindly  welcomed  by  chiefs 
and  people,  and  tho  the  habitual  fickle- 
ness of  the  people  manifested  itself,  there  was 
some    success    and    in    1826    other   missionaries 


were  sent  out  by  the  Society.  Urgent  calls 
come  from  other  islands,  and  at  Vavau,  Hapai 
and  Mau  the  progress  was  phenomenal.  Special 
attention  was  paid  to  education  and  the  prep- 
aration of  Christian  literature,  and  in  1870, 
it  was  affirmed  that  not  a  single  heathen  remained 
in  the  Tonga  Islands. 

One  of  the  results  of  the  revival  in  the  Friendly 
Islands  in  1834  was  the  commencement  of  a 
mission  to  Fiji,  which  was  undertaken  by  the 
missionaries  (one  of  whom,  Mr.  Watkin,  went  to 
England  to  plead  there  the  cause  of  "poor  Fiji  "), 
seconded  by  King  George  and  some  other  zealous 
disciples  from  Tonga.  The  Fijians  at  that  time 
were  atrocious  cannibals,  even  exceeding  the 
people  of  New  Zealand,  the  New  Hebrides,  and 
other  islands  in  this  and  in  war,  polygamy, 
adultery,  murder,  suicide,  deception,  fraud, 
theft,  and  many  other  crimes.  In  October,  1835, 
Messrs.  Cross  and  Cargill,  with  their  families, 
several  converted  Friendly  Islanders,  and  a  few 
Fijians  returning  to  their  own  country,  embarked 
in  a  small  schooner,  the  "Blackbird,"  and,  landing 
at  Lukemba,  commenced  the  work  destined  to  be 
so  hard  and  perilous,  but  also  so  blessed.  Per- 
haps there  never  was  a  harder  struggle  between 
light  and  darkness,  truth  and  error,  than  that 
which  took  place  in  the  course  of  the  Fiji  Mission, 
but  the  missionaries  persevered  and  pushed  for- 
ward, and  had  their  reward  in  the  victory  which 
crowned  their  efforts  at  last.  The  cession  of  the 
islands  to  Great  Britain  in  1874  facilitated  the 
work,  which  has  been  continued  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Australasian  Society. 

As  the  mission  to  Fiji  was  the  outgrowth  of  the 
work  in  the  Friendly  Islands,  so  that  in  New 
Britain  resulted  from  the  work  in  Fiji.  Com- 
menced in  1875  by  a  company  largely  made  up 
of  native  teachers  from  Fiji,  there  were  the  usual 
experiences  of  hostility  and  bloodshed,  but  the 
courage  of  the  little  band  never  faltered,  the 
places  of  those  who  had  fallen  were  soon  filled 
and  the  work  has  grown  under  the  care  of  the 
Australasian  Society.  The  Society  has  also  some 
work  in  Savaii  and  the  adjacent  islands,  com- 
menced in  1835,  tho  never  developed  as 
fully  as  that  of  the  LMS. 

B.  Missions  aided  by  the  Society:  Those  in 
Ireland  and  France  are  chiefly  among  Roman 
Catholics,  altho  the  English  communities  are  not 
neglected. 

West  Indies:  In  January,  1758,  Mr.  Wesley 
preached  in  the  house  of  Nathaniel  Gilbert,  Esq., 
the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Assembly  in  Antigua, 
who  was  at  that  time  residing  in  England. 
Several  of  Mr.  Gilbert's  negro  servants  were  also 
present  and  appeared  much  affected  by  the 
sermon.  Later  on,  two  of  these  slaves  were 
baptized  by  Mr.  Wesley.  Mr.  Gilbert,  too, 
became  identified  with  the  Methodist  people,  and 
upon  his  return  to  Antigua  commenced  at  once 
to  hold  religious  meetings  for  his  own  people  and 
those  of  the  surrounding  estates,  and  in  every 
possible  way  labored  for  their  good  until  his 
death.  Two  of  the  slaves  kept  up  the  work,  and 
a  Mr.  Baxter,  a  shipwright  and  a  Methodist  local 
preacher,  did  what  he  could.  Repeated  appeals 
were  made  to  England,  but  it  was  not  until  1786 
that  Dr.  Coke,  driven  out  of  his  course  to  Nova 
Scotia  by  a  storm,  landed  at  Antigua,  became 
interested  in  the  situation  there  and  in  the 
neighboring  islands.  The  result  was  that  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  out  in  1787  and  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  almost  every  colony  was  reached. 


770 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Wesleyan  Itfethodlst 


In  1885  the  British  Conference,  contrary  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Missionary  Committee,  decided 
that  the  time  had  come  for  a  West  Indies  Con- 
ference, and  accordingly  the  entire  work  of  the 
Society  in  that  section,  excepting  Bahamas  and 
Honduras,  was  so  set  apart.  Two  conferences 
were  found,  a  Western,  including  Jamaica, 
Haiti,  San  Domingo,  Panama  and  Costa  Rica, 
and  an  Eastern,  including  Antigua,  St.  Kitts, 
St.  Vincent,  Barbados,  Trinidad,  and  British 
Guiana.  All  of  these  sections  have  suffered 
heavily  in  recent  years,  and  while  the  churches, 
notably  in  Guiana,  have  been  ordinarily  pros- 
perous, the  general  situation  is  such  that  (1903) 
it  has  been  decided  to    bring  them  back  under 

'  the  care  of  the  British  Conference. 

South  Africa:  In  1815  the  Rev.  Barnabas  Shaw 
was  appointed  to  commence  a  Wesleyan  Mission 
in  Cape  Colony.  Permission  to  preach  was 
refused,  but  he  took  matters  into  his  own  hands 
and  preached  without  the  governor's  sanction. 
His  congregations,  however,  were  composed  prin- 
cipally of  soldiers,  and  his  greatest  desire  being 
to  preach  Christ  to  the  heathen,  he  gladly  availed 
himself  of  an  opportunity  which  offered,  through 
Mr.  Schmelen  of  the  LMS,  to  go  to  Great  Nama- 
qualand.  In  September,  1815,  Mr.  Schmelen 
and  Mr.  Shaw,  with  their  families,  attendants, 
and  supplies,  set  out  on  their  long  journey.  On 
the  4th  of  October,  after  crossing  the  Elephant 
River,  Mr.  Shaw  unexpectedly  found  his  sphere 
of  labor  in  meeting  the  chief  of  Little  Namaqua- 
land,  accompanied  by  four  men,  on  his  way  to 
Cape  Town  to  seek  for  a  Christian  teacher,  so  that 
his  tribe,  like  others,  might  have  the  advantages 
which  he  had  seen  follow  the  introduction  of  the 
Gospel.  Mr.  Shaw  agreed  to  go  with  the  chief 
to  his  mountain  home  and  to  remain  with  him 
and  his  people,  while  Mr.  Schmelen  continued  his 
journey  to  his  own  station  in  Great  Namaqua- 
land.  About  three  weeks  later  the  chief  and  his 
party  reached  Lily  Fountain,  on  Kamiesberg, 
the  principal  home  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe  of 
Little  Namaquas.     They  were  met  by  a  party  of 

i  natives  who  had  come  out  to  welcome  them,  and 

from  that  introduction  the  work  prospered,  and 
was  extended  by  tours  into  Great  Namaqualand 
and  Damaraland.  An  attempt  to  establish  a 
mission  north  of  Orange  River  resulted  in  the 
murder  of  the  company  of  missionaries  and 
native  teachers,  but  another  effort  was  more 
successful.  Subsequently,  on  the  entrance  of 
German  societies,  the  work  beyond  the  Orange 
River  was  transferred  to  the  Rhenish  Society. 

In  the  year  1820  a  second  attempt  was  made 
to  start  a  Wesleyan  Mission  in  Cape  Colony,  and 
Mr.  Edwards  was  directed  to  proceed  thither  from 
Little  Namaqualand.  With  the  cordial  per- 
mission of  the  governor  to  preach  to  and  instruct 
the  slave  population  of  the  town  and  neighbor- 
hood, he  began  his  work,  which  he  for  some  time 
prosecuted  with  success,  and  in  which  he  was 
succeeded  by  other  missionaries  sent  out  from 
England.  Chapels  were  built  in  various  parts  of 
Cape  Town,  with  which  were  connected  pros- 
perous day  and  Sunday  schools.  The  work  has 
extended  also  into  the  Grahams  Town  and 
Queenstown  districts.  Mission  work  was  com- 
menced in  Bechuanaland  in  1822,  tho  it  was  some 
little  time  before  it  was  successful.  In  1841  a 
Wesleyan  missionary  accompanied  the  British 
troops  into  Natal,  and  after  a  time  of  service  for 
the  English  and  Dutch  inaugurated  a  work  for 
the  natives.     The  churches  in  the  whole  section, 


English  and  Kafir,  grew  rapidly,  and  in  1882  the 
South  African  Conference  was  organized  and 
assumed  the  entire  care  of  the  mission  work  in 
South  Africa,  excepting  that  in  the  Transvaal, 
Swaziland,  and  Rhodesia,  which  remained  under 
the  direction  of  the  parent  Society. 

C.  Missions  under  the  British  Conference. 
1.  Western  Hemisphere.  (1)  Honduras:  In  Brit- 
ish Honduras  four  stations  are  occupied:  Belize, 
Corozal,  Stann  Creek,  and  Toledo.  In  Spanish 
Honduras  the  stations  are  Roatan  and  San 
Pedro  Sula.  The  work  is  among  the  foreign 
population  and  among  the  natives,  including 
the  mahogany  and  logwood  cutters.  There  are 
(1903)  32  chapels,  17  other  preaching  places,  8 
missionaries  and  assistants,  41  teachers,  48  cate- 
chists  and  local  preachers,  1,737  communicants, 
26  schools,  1,453  scholars  (including  S.  S. 
scholars,  2,254),  attendants  on  services,  6,180. 

(2)  Bahamas:  The  work  here  was  commenced 
in  1803  by  Rev.  William  Turton,  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies,  at  New  Providence.  It  has  been 
extended  until  there  are  stations  at  Nassau, 
Rock  Sound,  Tarpum  Bay,  Governor's  Harbor, 
Harbor  Island,  Great  Abaco,  Andros  and 
Bimini,  and  Key  West.  The  report  shows  (1903) 
29  chapels,  9  other  preaching  places,  12  mission- 
aries and  assistants,  7  teachers.  111  local  preach- 
ers, 3,561  communicants.  The  number  of  day 
schools  is  small — 4,  but  special  attention  is  paid 
to  Sunday  schools,  which  number  30,  with  3,795 
scholars;  attendants  on  services,   11,520. 

(3)  West  Indies:  As  m.entioned  above,  the 
British  Conference  is  now  taking  charge  of  this 
work,  for  some  time  cared  for  by  local  Conferences. 

2.  Ceylon:  Notwithstanding  repeated  appeals, 
the  Society  did  not  feel  willing  to  undertake 
work  in  India,  until  Dr.  Coke  offered  to  lead  the 
enterprise  and  to  provide  the  necessary  initial 
expense,  to  the  amount  of  £6,000.  In  1813  he 
and  six  young  missionaries  started.  Dr.  Coke 
died  on  the  voyage,  but  his  colleagues  resolved 
to  carry  through  the  undertaking.  They  reached 
Colombo,  Ceylon,  were  kindly  received  by  the 
governor,  and  several  places  were  named  to  them 
as  greatly  in  need  of  the  Gospel  and  of  schools 
for  the  training  of  native  children.  It  was  de- 
cided to  open  stations  at  Colombo,  Galle,  and 
Matura  in  the  south,  among  those  of  the  native 
population  who  speak  Sinhalese,  and  at  Jaffna 
and  Batticaloa  in  the  north,  where  the  Tamil 
language  is  in  common  use.  In  a  very  short 
time  the  missionaries  were  able  to  preach  to  the 
natives,  and  also  to  Dutch  and  Portuguese  col- 
onists. Schools  were  organized,  a  printing- 
press  was  set  up  at  Colombo,  a  Sinhalese  grammar 
and  dictionary  were  prepared,  and  the  work 
flourished  in  all  its  departments — literary,  evan- 
gelical, and  educational.  In  addition  to  those 
already  mentioned,  important  stations  were 
established  in  Southern  Ceylon,  at  Negombo, 
Kandy,  Caltura,  Pentura,  Seedua,  Morotto, 
Wellewatta,  and  other  places;  while  in  North 
Ceylon,  where  the  Tamil  language  had  been  con- 
quered and  several  native  teachers  trained  for 
the  work,  chapels  and  schools  were  established, 
not  only  in  the  villages  adjacent  to  Jaffna,  but 
also  at  places  at  a  considerable  distance,  which 
were  afterward  occupied  as  separate  stations. 
As  at  present  organized  the  work  is  divided  into 
four  districts:  Colombo,  Kandy,  Galle,  and 
Jaffna. 

There  are  two  colleges,  Wesley  College,  at 
Colombo,  and  Richmond  College,  at  Galle.    There 


■^VeNleynn  Metliodist 
"West  Indies 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


780 


are  also  several  industrial  schools  and  medical 
work  is  developed,  while  the  system  of  day 
schools  is  well  arranged.  Considerable  attention 
is  paid  to  the  needs  of  the  English  and  Portuguese 
communities,  but  the  chief  work  is  in  the  Tamil 
and  Sinhalese  languages.  The  report  (1903) 
shows  tor  the  four  districts  69  chapels,  245  other 
preaching  places,  68  missionaries  and  assistants, 
4,738  communicants,  986  day  school  teachers  in 
379  schools,  with  29,031  pupils,  and  about  15,000 
attendants  on  services. 

3.  India:  The  first  Wesleyan  mission  work  in 
India  was  begun  in  Madras  in  1817.  It  has  since 
developed  until  there  are  eight  districts,  Madras, 
Negapatam,  Haidara,bad,  Mysore,  Calcutta, 
Lucknow,  Bombay,  and  Burma.  Special  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  education:  witness  Royapettah 
College,  in  Madras,  and  Findlay  College,  at 
Mannargudi;  also  training  institutions  and  gen- 
eral schools  in  the  different  districts.  Street 
preaching  in  Madras  and  tours  through  the 
villages  of  Haidarabad  have  brought  good 
results.  Medical  work,  too,  has  been  pressed. 
In  Burma  the  chief  work  is  at  Mandalay.  In  all, 
work  for  the  English  residents  takes  an  important 
place.  The  report  shows  for  the  8  districts  152 
chapels,  267  other  preaching  places,  130  mission- 
aries and  assistants,  224  local  preachers,  8,035 
communicants,  570  day  schools,  with  27,886 
scholars,  and  more  than  20,500  attendants  at 
services. 

4.  China:  In  1852  Mr.  Piercy,  who  had  for 
some  time  labored  in  China  at  his  own  expense, 
offered  his  services  to  the  Wesleyan  Society,  was 
accepted  by  them,  and  appointed  to  Canton, 
where  he  remained  until  the  war  between  Eng- 
land and  China  forced  him,  with  other  mission- 
aries, to  take  refuge  in  Macao.  During  the  two 
years  spent  there  he  continued  the  study  of  the 
language  with  unabated  zeal,  and  upon  the 
restoration  of  peace,  in  1858,  reoccupied  Canton, 
as  a  station  of  the  Society.  In  1860,  upon  the 
receipt  of  a  legacy  intended  expressly  for  the 
India  and  China  missions,  the  Committee  was 
enabled  to  largely  extend  its  work.  The  staff  of 
workers  was  increased  in  numbers,  and  a  new 
station  was  commenced  at  Fat-shan.  In  1862  a 
mission  for  North  China  was  established  at  Han- 
kau.  Later  Wu-chang,  Han-yang,  Sui-chow, 
Wu-hsueh  and  other  stations  were  occupied,  and 
more  recently  a  station  has  been  opened  in  Hu- 
nan at  Chang-sha.  In  this  work  the  Society  has 
the  assistance  of  the  Central  China  Wesleyan  Lay 
Mission.  In  the  two  districts,  Canton  and 
Wu-chang,  including  Hu-nan,  the  report  (1903) 
shows  79  chapels,  27  other  preaching  places,  34 
missionaries  and  assistants,  51  local  preachers, 
2,597  communicants,  and  52  teachers  in  42  day 
schools,  with  1,011  scholars. 

5.  South  Africa:  The  missions  in  South  Africa, 
retained  under  the  care  of  the  British  Wesleyan 
Conference  and  thus  controlled  by  the  Missionary 
Society,  include  the  Transvaal  and  Swaziland, 
and  Rhodesia  districts.  The  former  is  divided 
into  the  central  section,  Johannesburg,  Pretoria, 
Middleburg,  etc.;  the  northern  and  eastern  sec- 
tion, Zoutpansberg,  Swaziland,  Delagoa  Bay, 
etc.;  the  southwestern  section,  Potchefstroom  and 
Klerksdorp;  British  Bechuanaland  section,  Mafe- 
king.  The  Rhodesia  district  is  divided  into  the 
Mashonaland  and  MatabiHland  sections.  The 
report  (1903)  shows  in  the  two  districts  151 
chapels,  282  other  preaching  places,  53  mission- 
aries   and    assistants,   559    local    preachers,   51 


catechists,  9,683  communicants,  61  day  schools, 
with  56  teachers  and  2,970  scholars.  Especially 
in  the  Transvaal  section  it  is  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  work  for  English  and  Dutch 
and  that  for  the  natives. 

6.  West  Africa.  (1)  Sierra  Leone  and  Gambia: 
Dr.  Coke's  first  scheme  (1769)  for  the  civilization 
of  the  Fulas,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sierra  Leone, 
proved  a  failure.  Some  of  the  company  sent  out 
died  of  fever  before  reaching  their  destination, 
others  absconded,  and  the  rest  returned  home. 
In  the  year  1811  the  Rev.  George  Warren  and 
three  school  teachers  were  sent  to  Sierra  Leone. 
Upon  their  arrival  in  the  colony  they  found 
about  one  hundred  persons,  chiefly  free  blacks 
from  Nova  Scotia,  who  had  received  the  Gospel  at 
the  hands  of  Wesleyan  missionaries  there. 
They  had  already  built  a  chapel,  and  had  sent 
repeatedly  to  England  for  a  missionary.  After 
eight  months  of  labor  Mr.  Warren  died  of  fever, 
and  for  many  years  there  was  much  loss  of  life 
from  the  climate.  Eventually,  however,  this 
was  to  a  good  degree  overcome,  the  work  was 
developed  into  the  surrounding  country,  in- 
cluding a  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia. 
The  principal  stations  are  Freetown,  Wellington, 
Waterloo,  Sherbro,  etc.,  in  Sierra  Leone,  and 
Bathurst,  in  the  Gambia  section. 

(2)  Oold  Coast:  The  work  of  the  Society  in  this 
section  commenced  in  an  effort  to  provide  for 
some  native  boys  who  had  learned  to  read  the 
Bible  in  the  Government  school.  In  1845  the 
Rev.  Henry  Wharton,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies, 
went  out,  and,  vnth  the  help  of  several  native 
missionaries  and  some  Europeans,  the  founda- 
tions for  a  successful  work  were  laid.  Stations 
were  formed  at  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Accra,  and  a 
number  of  other  places,  while  the  Lagos  region, 
including  Abeokuta,  Yoruba  Interior,  Porto  Novo, 
etc.,  was  set  apart  as  a  separate  mission  district. 
The  report  (1903)  shows  in  the  three  districts 
212  chapels,  787  other  preaching  places,  61  mis- 
sionaries and  assistants,  109  catechists,  777  local 
preachers,  214  teachers  in  159  day  schools,  with 
11,748  pupils,  and  19,180  communicants. 

7.  Europe:  (1)  Italy:  The  work  of  the  Society 
is  carried  on  in  three  sections:  the  northern  at 
Rome,  Spezia,  Parma,  Bologna,  Padua,  Milan, 
Luino,  Simplon,  etc.;  the  southern  at  Naples, 
Salerno,  Potenza,  etc.;  the  Sicily  at  Palermo, 
Messina,  Catania,  etc. 

(2)  Spain:  Barcelona,  Palma  de  Mallorca  and 
Minorca. 

(3)  Portugal:  Lisbon  and  Oporto. 

(4)  Mediterranean:  Gibraltar,  Malta,  and  Cairo. 
A  considerable  amount  of  the  European  work 

is  for  English  residents,  and  of  that  at  Malta  and 
Gibraltar  for  the  soldiers. 

The  report  for  the  European  Missions  (1903) 
shows  24  chapels,  75  other  preaching  places,  44 
missionaries  and  assistants,  19  catechists,  62 
teachers  in  42  day  schools,  with  2,325  scholars, 
and  2,199  communicants. 

The  Wesleyan  Society  emphasizes  Sunday 
school  work,  and  in  most  cases  the  number  of 
Sunday  school  scholars  exceeds  the  number  of 
those  in  the  day  schools. 

The  Women's  Auxiliary  of  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Missionary  Society,  organized  in  1858, 
carries  on  its  work  in  closest  connection  with  the 
general  society. 

The  Central  China  Wesleyan  Lay  Mission, 
which  for  some  years  represented  a  number  of 
independent  workers  along  the  lines  of  the  CIM, 


781 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


AVcsleyan  Methodist 
West  Iiidles 


was,  in  1899,  merged  in  tlie  general  Society,  tho 
in  some  oases  the  funds  remain  distinct. 

*  "WEST,  Henry  S. :  Born  at  Bingliamton,  N.  Y., 
January  21,  1827.  Died  at  Sivas,  Turkey,  April 
1,  1876.  He  studied  at  Yale  College  and  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  New  York 

;         City.     After  practising  medicine  for  some  time, 

'  he  was  appointed  by  the  ABCFM  a  missionary  to 
Turkey  and  sailed  in  January,  18.59.  He  was 
stationed  at  Sivas,  at  the  western  edge  of  the 

,  Armenian  highlands;  but  he  journeyed  far  in 
every  direction  to  heal  the  sick.  In  fact  his 
missionary  career  of  17  years  was  remarkable. 
His  surgical  skill,  combined  with  his  willingness 
to  ride  a  hundred  miles  to  help  a  desperately  sick 

'■  man,  made  him  famous.  The  blind  eyes  which 
he  opened  were  past  counting;  the  deformed, 
the  crippled,  the  diseased  who  were  relieved  or 
cured  by  him  would  make  a  great  host  if  assem- 

(  bled  together.  His  operations  in  lithotomy 
alone  were  150  or  more,  with  barely  half  a  dozen 
unfavorable  results.  Wherever  he  went  the 
diseased,  the  halt,  the  blind  thronged  him,  for 
they  thought  his  powers  miraculous,  like  those  of 

*  Jesus.  Probably  no  physician  in  the  Turkish 
Empire  enjoyed  an  equal  reputation  among  the 
whole  people.  In  addition  to  ceaseless  labors  of 
this  sort  he  trained  quite  a  body  of  skilled  native 
physicians,  who  in  the  main  did  credit  to  their 
teacher.  While  Dr.  West  treated  the  poor  with 
great  and  sympathetic  liberality,  he  always 
insisted  on  proper  payment  from  Pashas  and 
ethers  able  to  pay.  But  for  himself  he  received 
nothing  but  his  missionary  salary,  paying  over 
all  his  professional  earnings  into  the  treasury  of 
the  mission.  In  all  of  his  career  he  was  a  warm- 
hearted, sincere  and  earnest  Christian  and  a 
faithful  missionary.  He  never  showed  nervous- 
ness in  the  most  difficult  operation,  and  he  never 
flinched  from  duty.  His  devotion  to  duty  cut 
short  his  life.  It  was  while  attending  one  of  the 
very  poor  in  Sivas  that  he  contracted  the  typhus 
fever  which  resulted  in  his  death. 

WEST,  Maria  Abigail:  Miss  West  was  born  in 
Palmyra,  New  York,  March  27,  1827.  She 
embarked  from  Boston  under  the  ABCFM  for 
Turkey  December  22,  1852,  being  appointed  to 
Constantinople.  She  had  charge  of  the  female 
boarding  school  at  Hasskeuy  in  that  city  for 
about  ten  years.  After  a  visit  to  America  she 
was  stationed  at  Constantinople,  at  Marsovan, 
and  at  Harpoot,  engaged  in  all  of  these  places  in 
work  for  women  and  girls,  and  for  a  time  was  in 
charge  of  a  female  seminary  at  Harpoot.  She 
was  a  woman  of  great  energy  and  rare  ability. 
Her  book  on  the  Romance  of  Missions;  or,  Life  and 
Labor  in  the  Land  of  Ararat,  is  based  upon  her 
experiences  in  various  parts  of  Turkey,  and  has 
had  great  influence  in  developing  missionary 
zeal  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  The  first 
primer  in  the  Armenian  language  for  children  in 
the  mission  schools  was  written  by  Miss  West, 
and  has  been  widely  used  for  more  than  a  genera- 
tion in  many  of  the  schools  using  Armenian  in 
different  parts  of  Turkey.  After  leaving  the 
service  of  the  ABCFM  she  organized  coffee-houses 
in  Smyrna  and  Constantinople  for  sailors  and 
others.  She  was  preeminently  a  pioneer,  with 
great  power  of  initiative  in  all  of  her  missionary 
life.     Miss  West  died  in  London  June  28,  1894. 

WEST  INDIES :  This  group  of  islands  extends 
in  a  rude  bow-like  form  from  the  coast  of  Florida, 


U.  S.  A.,  to  the  coast  of  Venezuela  in  South 
America.  The  larger  and  more  important 
islands  belong  to  one  or  other  of  the  great  Euro- 
pean nations,  with  the  exception  of  Haiti,  and  this 
political  division  will  be  followed  in  the  more 
detailed  account  of  the  islands,  while  some  facta 
which  are  true  of  all  will  serve  as  a  preface  to  the 
specii  '  description  of  them  as  English,  Danish, 
Dutch,  Spanish,  or  French  possessions. 

The  population  of  these  islands  is  composed  of 
Europeans  and  Americans,  together  with  negroea 
and  other  Africans,  Hindus  and  Chinese.  Diver- 
sity of  tongue,  of  character,  and  of  life  is  conse- 
quently so  great  that  there  is  little  attempt  at 
cohesion  or  federation,  even  where  the  islands  are 
under  the  same  flag.  In  the  years  ju.st  subse- 
quent to  their  discovery,  evil  of  the  most  pro- 
nounced character  was  the  business  of  the  men 
who  invaded  these  shores,  and  all  that  selfish 
greed  and  fiendish  cruelty  could  suggest  was  done 
to  exterminate  the  mild  aborigines.  Hardly  a 
trace  of  them  is  now  to  be  found. 

Then  the  islands  became  the  battlefields  of  the 
rival  powers  of  Europe.  Piracy  was  rife,  and 
the  commerce  of  Europe  suffered  from  the  ma- 
rauding buccaneers,  who  smarted  from  the  wrongs 
they  suffered  and  retaliated  on  the  innocent  as 
well  as  the  guilty.  The  slave  trade  had  its 
origin  here,  and  the  hardly  less  cruel  importation 
of  coolies  lias  left  its  curse  on  the  lands.  The 
occupation  of  the  West  Indies  has  afforded  the 
material  for  a  black  chapter  in  the  history  of  the 
conquests  of  European  nations.  Harmless 
savages  were  put  to  death  in  the  name  of  Christ. 
Into  this  moral  sewer  was-  swept  the  refuse  of 
Europe.  Hundreds  of  Hindus  and  Chinese  were 
lured  to  this  region  of  faithless  promises.  The 
African  was  dragged  here  to  die  of  pestilence.  No 
wonder  that  the  burden  of  debt  which  weighs 
down  the  different  administrations  is  the  despair 
of  statesmen. 

Patient  and  heroic  hands  early  planted  the 
Gospel  in  this  miry  soil.  From  the  earliest  time 
when  Christians  saw  the  image  of  God  in  the 
sable  body,  to  the  present  day,  the  conflict 
between  the  forces  of  good  and  the  powers  of  evil 
has  been  fierce  and  bitter.  Prejudices  of  the 
white  and  superstitions  of  the  black  races  united 
to  render  the  work  excessively  difficult.  The 
faithful  preacher  of  Christ  was  never  free  from 
all  the  persecutions  that  malignity  and  hatred 
could  devise  or  ignorance  and  superstition  suggest. 
Even  his  own  lace  insulted,  beat,  and  imprisoned 
the  missionary,  and  the  people  he  came  to  succor 
Ijetrayed  him  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 

The  results  now  seen  in  the  islands  are  but 
additional  proof  that  the  Gospel  is  suited  alike 
to  the  moral  and  the  immoral,  to  the  wise  and 
the  foolish,  to  the  black  as  well  as  to  the  white 
man. 

Porto  Rico:  This  island  lies  at  the  Eastern 
extremity  of  the  chain  of  the  Greater  Antilles. 
It  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Spain  in 
1998  It  has  an  area  of  about  3,668  square  miles 
and  its  population  (1899)  is  953,243. 

Cuba  is  the  largest  and  one  of  the  richest  of  the 
islands  in  its  natural  resources. 

The  island  of  Haiti  is  divided  between  the  two 
republics  of  Santo  Domingo  and  Haiti.  The 
republic  of  Santo  Domingo  was  founded  in  1844, 
and  includes  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island. 
The  religion  of  the  state  is  Roman  Catholic,  but 
other  forms  of  worship  are  permitted. 


■West  Indies 
Wliltiuan 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


78» 


Haiti  became  a  republic  in  1867.  It  occupies 
the  western  portion  of  the  island,  with  an  area  of 
10,204  square  miles.  The  inhabitants  are 
negroes  and  mulattoes.  The  capital.  Port  au 
Prince,  has  a  fine  harbor.  The  religion  is  nom- 
inally Roman  Catholic. 

British  West  Indies. — The  Bahamas:  These 
are  twenty  inhabited  and  many  uninhabited 
islands  off  the  southeast  coast  of  Florida.  The 
total  area  is  5,450  square  miles.  The  principal 
islands  are  New  Providence,  which  has  been 
notorious  as  the  home  of  buccaneers,  pirates,  and 
blockade-runners,  and  San  Salvador,  supposed 
to  be  the  island  first  discovered  by  Columbus. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  island  are  quite  a  number 
of  intelligent  Africans.  Eleuthera  is  over  200 
miles  long.  Great  Abaco  is  the  most  northerly 
island.  Andros  is  the  largest  of  the  group,  with 
a  length  of  90  miles  and  a  breadth  of  40  miles  at 
its  widest  part.  The  remaining  islands  are: 
Great  Bahama,  Harbor  Island,  Long  Island, 
Mayaguana,  Great  Inagua,  Ragged  Island,  Rum 
Cay,  Fortijne  Island,  Exuma,  Crooked  Island, 
Bimini,  Acklin's,  and  Berry.  The  population 
is  (1901)  54,358.  The  government  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  governor  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council 
of  9,  a  Legislative  Council  of  9,  and  an  Assembly 
of  29  representatives. 

Jamaica:  The  island  of  Jamaica  is  about  150 
miles  long,  with  an  average  width  of  50  miles. 
On  account  of  its  mountainous  character  the 
scenery  is  beautiful,  and  there  is  abundance  of 
fresh  water.  The  sagacity  of  Oliver  Cromwell 
saw  the  future  value  of  this  island,  and  secured 
it  to  the  British  Government.  Its  area  is  4,200 
square  miles,  with  a  population  (1902)  of  770,242, 
of  whom  500,000  were  blacks.  The  capital  is 
Kingston  (46,542),  and  some  of  the  other  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Spanish  Town,  Montego  Bay, 
and  Port  Maria.  Attached  to  Jamaica  for  admin- 
istrative purposes  are  the  following  smaller 
islands:  Turk's  and  Caicos  Islands,  area  224 
square  miles,  population  5,000;  Cayman  Islands — ■ 
Grand  Cayman,  Little  Cayman,  and  Cayman 
Brae — with  a  total  population  of  3,500,  the 
Morant  Cays  and  Pedro  Cays. 

Barbados  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Windward 
Islands,  and  has  an  area  of  166  square  miles. 
It  abounds  in  varied  and  beautiful  scenery,  and 
almost  the  entire  island  is  under  cultivation. 
Population  (1901)  195,000,  of  whom  115,000 
were  blacks.  Bridgetown,  the  capital,  has  a 
population  of  30,000,  and  is  beautifully  situated 
on  the  shores  of  the  bay.  The  English  began  to 
exercise  authority  here  in  1645.  Since  1885  it 
has  been  separated  from  the  Windward  Is- 
lands, to  which  administration  it  formerly 
belonged,  and  has  now  a  government  of  its 
own. 

Leeward  Islands  lie  to  the  north  of  the 
Windward  Group  and  southeast  of  Porto  Rico. 
The  islands  are:  Antigua,  170  square  miles; 
Barbuda  and  Redonda,  62  square  miles;  Virgin 
Islands,  58  square  miles;  Dominica,  291  square 
miles;  St.  Kitt's  or  St.  Christopher,  65  square 
miles;  Nevis,  50  square  miles;  Anguilla,  35 
square  miles;  Montserrat,  32  square  miles.  Pop- 
ulation (1901)   127,434. 

Windward  Islands:  These  islands,  with  their 
area  and  population,  .are:  Grenada,  120  square 
miles,  64,288;  St.  Vincent  (q.  v.),  122  square 
miles,  41,000;  and  the  Grenadines.  The  princi- 
pal cities  are:  Kingston,  the  capital  of  St.  Vincent; 


Castres,  the  chief  town  of  St.  Lucia,  and  St. 
George,  the  capital  of  Grenada. 

Trinidad  lies  immediately  north  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco.  It  is  an  island  of  extreme  beauty 
and  great  fertility.  In  1802  it  was  finally  handed 
over  to  British  rule  by  the  peace  of  Amiens.  Ita 
area  is  1,754  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
(1901)  255,148.  Port-of-Spain  is  the  capital 
(54,100).  Tobago  was  annexed  to  Trinidad  on 
January  1,  1889.  It  has  an  area  of  114  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  18,750. 

The  chain  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  includes,  besides 
the  British  Islands  already  mentioned,  St.  Thomas 
and  its  dependencies,  belonging  to  Denmark, 
Guadaloupe  and  Martinique,  with  several  smaller 
islands,  belonging  to  France.  These  islands  col- 
lectively have  an  area  of  1 ,207  square  miles,  and 
a  population  (1901)  of  416,420.  Like  the  other 
islands  of  this  chain  these  are  of  volcanic  origin. 
Martinique  was  the  scene  of  the  terrible  eruption 
of  Mt.  Pelge  in  May,  1902. 

In  addition  to  the  lines  of  missionary  work 
actively  prosecuted  by  the  Moravians  and  British 
and  American  societies  among  the  three  races  on 
the  islands,  those  of  European  birth  or  descent  are 
not  being  neglected.  The  Wesleyans  and  the 
Jamaica  Church  of  England  Home  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  are  especially  interested  in  this 
growing  class;  and  the  latter  is  largely  doing  this 
work  through  the  agency  of  catechists,  superin- 
tended by  about  100  clergy,  who  are  one-third 
Englishmen-born  and  two-thirds  Jamaica-born. 
The  past  and  present  influence  of  Romanism 
among  the  peoples  of  these  islands  is  one  of  the 
greatest  hindrances  to  the  spread  of  evangelical 
truth;  but  as  in  Protestant  Jamaica,  we  may  hope 
that  ere  long  the  Bible  may  be  the  book  most 
commonly  found  throughout  the  islands. 

WHATELY,  Mary  L.:  Born  at  Halesworth, 
Suffolk,  England,  the  second  daughter  of  Arch- 
bishop Whately.  Died  March  9,  1889.  After 
the  father's  appointment  to  the  See  of  Dublin  the 
family  removed  thither.  She  was  given  the  high- 
est educational  training,  mental,  moral,  and 
religious,  by  her  parents,  and  from  her  childhood 
was  distinguished  for  uncommon  activity,  energy, 
and  intelligence.  She  early  gave  herself  to  the 
service  of  Christ  in  works  of  kindness  to  the 
needy.  After  the  Irish  famine,  she  and  her 
mother  and  sisters  spent  most  of  their  time  in  the 
ragged  schools  in  Dublin.  Subsequently,  hav- 
ing acquired  Italian,  she  was  much  occupied 
with  teaching  and  visiting  the  poor  Italians, 
who  were  numerous  in  that  city.  In  1858  she 
visited  Cairo  and  the  Holy  Land,  and  in  1860 
was  ordered  by  her  physician  for  her  health  to  a 
southern  climate.  In  Cairo  she  opened  a  school 
for  neglected  Muslim  girls,  the  first  attempt  of  _ 
the  kind  in  Egypt.  Taking  with  her  a  Syrian 
Protestant  matron,  she  went  into  the  streets  and 
lanes  near  her  home,  and,  persuading  the  mothers 
to  let  their  girls  come  to  learn  to  read  and  sew, 
she  gathered  nine  little  ones  into  her  school. 
Later,  home  duties  required  her  return,  and 
while  at  home  she  read  to  her  father  the  proof- 
sheets  of  her  second  volume  of  Ragged  Life  in 
Egypt.  Her  father  having  died,  she  returned  to 
Cairo.  She  soon  opened  a  boys'  school  also.  In 
1869,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
Ismail  Pasha  gave  her  a  site  just  outside  the  city 
walls,  and  friends  in  England  aided  her  in  the 
erection  of  a  spacious  building.  The  school 
increased  to  six  hundred,  half  the  boys  and  two- 


783 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


West  Indies 
Whitman. 


thirds  of  the  girls  being  Muslims,  the  rest  Copts, 
Syrians,  and  Jews.  All  were  taught  to  read  and 
write  Arabic,  and  all  learned  the  Scriptures  and 
Christian  doctrine.  In  addition  the  boys 
received  an  excellent  secular  education,  and  the 
girls  were  taught  plain  and  fancy  needlework. 
Two  branch  schools  have  also  been  established. 
Pupils  of  the  boys'  school  are  found  all  over  the 
country,  filling  important  positions  in  the  rail- 
way and  telegraph  offices,  mercantile  houses, 
places  under  government,  and  in  other  situations 
of  trust.  In  1879  a  medical  mission  was  added 
to  the  schools,  and  with  her  own  private  means 
Miss  Whately  built  a  dispensary  and  patients' 
waiting-room,  where  several  thousands  of  siclc 
and  suffering  poor  have  been  treated  gratuitously 
and  where  she  herself  daily  read  and  expounded 
the  Scriptures  to  such  as  were  willing  to  listen. 

Miss  Whately's  schools  are  now  carried  on  bv 
the  CMS. 

WHEELER,  Crosby  Howard:  Born  September 
8,  1823.  Died  October  11,  1896.  Entered 
Bowdoin  College  in  1843;  graduated  in  1847; 
entered  Bangor  Theological  Seminary  in  1849, 
completing  his  course  in  1852.  In  1857  he  and 
his  wife  sailed  for  Turkey  as  missionaries  of  the 
ABCFM.  In  July,  1857,  Mr.  Wheeler  and  Mrs. 
Wheeler,  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  O.  P.  Allen,  entered 
upon  their  work  at  Harpoot,  and  there  they 
labored,  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  H.  N.  Barnum,  for 
thirty-nine  years.  After  the  Turkish  massacres 
in  1895  the  circle  was  broken,  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Wheeler  returning  to  the  homeland.  Dr. 
Wheeler  mastered  the  Armenian  language  with 
unusual  speed;  shortly  after  entering  the  Harpoot 
field  he  mingled  freely  among  the  Turks,  Arme- 
nians, Syrians,  and  Kurds,  scattering  the  seeds 
of  truth;  and  he  was  early  impressed  by  the  need 
of  schools  for  boys  and  girls.  In  the  basement  of 
their  hired  house  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Wheeler  began 
a  school,  and  immediately  discussions  and  con- 
troversies arose  on  every  side,  and  much  bitter 
opposition  was  shown,  especially  by  the  Gregorian 
clergy;  but  the  pupils  increased  in  number.  For 
nearly  twoscore  years  he  worked  for  the  multi- 
plication of  schools,  and  the  improvement  of  their 
grade,  and  when,  broken  in  health,  he  returned 
to  this  country,  he  was  president  of  Euphrates 
College,  which  had  grown  up  under  his  leadership, 
in  which  there  were  over  five  hundred  pupils  of  all 
grades,  over  one  hundred  of  whom  were  in  the 
collegiate  department,  and  about  half  of  whom 
were  girls.  At  this  time  there  were  in  Harpoot 
alone  over  eleven  hundred  pupils,  and  in  the  ter- 
ritory covered  by  the  station  nearly  five  thou- 
sand. Soon  after  reaching  Armenia,  Dr.  Wheeler 
insisted  that  "native  pastors  must  be  ordained 
over  native  churches  and  supported  by  them, 
and  native  churches  must  be  ultimately  self- 
governing  and  self-perpetuating."  He  gave 
the  best  thought  and  effort  of  his  long  missionary 
life  to  this  policy;  and  by  his  book,  Ten  Years  on 
the  Euphrates,  he  did  much  toward  impressing 
this  important  principle  upon  the  mission 
boards  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Dr.  Wheeler 
was  a  man  of  remarkable  versatility.  He  was  a 
preacher  of  unusual  power;  he  possessed  fine 
executive  ability;  he  was  an  impressive  teacher, 
and  successful  organizer  of  schools;  and  as  a 
practical  man  of  affairs  he  proved  to  be  a  most 
useful  factor  in  the  pioneer  work  at  Harpoot. 
He  planned  and  erected  some  thirty  different 
buildings  during  his  missionary  experience;  and 
he  did  on  a  small  scale  a  publishing  business,  pre- 


paring himself  a  variety  of  text-books  in  both 
English  and  Armenian  for  the  schools.  As  Dr. 
Creegan  well  says  of  his  work  for  Harpoot:  "He 
found  chaos  and  disorder;  he  left  a  fairly  well- 
organized  Christian  school  system  for  both  boys 
and  girls;  a  group  of  self-supporting,  self- 
governing,  self-propagating  Christian  churches; 
a  strong  Home  Missionary  Society  among  the 
native  churches  for  work  in  Kurdistan,  and  a 
college  that  is  deeply  entrenched  in  the  confidence 
and  affection  of  all  classes,  crowded  with  stu- 
dents, and  yet  unable  to  meet  the  demands  that 
come  from  all  sides  for  teachers  in  the  lower 
schools." 

Creegan  (C.  C),  Pioneer  Missionaries,  New  York,  1903. 

WETI:  A  village  on  Pemba  Island,  East 
Africa.  Mission  station  of  the  University 
Mission. 

WHAI-AN-FU.     See  Hwai-ngan-fu. 

WHITMAN,  Marcus:  Born  at  Rushville  (Gor- 
ham),  N.  Y.,  September  4,  1802.  Died  Novem- 
ber 29,  1847.  Studied  with  private  tutors  and  at 
Berkshire  Medical  College;  appointed  by  the 
ABCFM  missionary  physician  to  Oregon.  He 
left  home  February,  1835,  on  an  exploring  tour 
with  Rev.  Samuel  Parker,  arriving  at  St.  Louis  in 
April,  Council  Bluffs,  May  30;  crossed  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  reaching  Green  River,  a  branch 
of  the  Western  Colorado,  a  rendezvous  of  the  fur- 
traders,  previous  to  August  17.  The  prospect 
for  missionary  labor  among  the  Nez  Percys  and 
Flathead  Indians  seemed  so  favorable  that  it  was 
deemed  expedient  for  Dr.  Whitman  to  return  and 
procure  associates  before  establishing  a  mission 
among  them.  For  this  purpose  he  directed  his 
way  homeward  August  27.  Dr.  Whitman  estab- 
lished himself  at  Waiilatpu,  among  the  Kayuses, 
25  miles  from  Walla  Walla.  Having  frequent 
occasion  to  visit  the  post  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  at  that  place,  he  perceived  that  it  was 
designed  to  hold  that  immense  and  valuable  ter- 
ritory as  a  British  possession.  In  part  to  forestall 
that  design,  and  in  compliance  with  a  resolve  of 
the  mission,  he,  in  October,  1842,  crossed  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  midwinter  on  horseback, 
arriving  at  St.  Louis  February,  1843,  with  fingers, 
nose,  ears,  and  feet  frost-bitten,  in  spite  of  furs 
and  buffalo  robes.  He  visited  Washington, 
called  on  Mr.  Webster,  Secretary  of  State,  and 
President  Tyler,  and  by  his  earnest  representa- 
tions prevailed  upon  them  not  to  cede  Oregon  to 
the  British  Government.  A  personal  friend  of 
Mr.  Webster  remarked :  "It  is  safe  to  say  that  our 
country  owes  it  to  Dr.  Whitman  and  his  asso- 
ciate missionaries  that  all  the  territory  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  as  far  south  as  the 
Columbia  River,  is  not  now  owned  by  England, 
and  held  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company."  A 
sharp  controversy  has  arisen  over  the  verity  of 
the  incidents  which  give  this  importance  to  Dr. 
Whitman's  foresight.  The  balance  of  evidence, 
nevertheless,  favors  the  substantial  correctness 
of  the  statements  made  above.  Dr.  Whitman 
wrote  from  Fort  Walla  Walla  November  1,  1843: 
"I  do  not  regret  having  visited  the  States,  for  I 
feel  that  this  country  must  be  either  American,  or 
foreign  and  mostly  papal.  If  I  never  do  more 
than  to  establish  the  first  wagon-road  to  the 
Columbia  River,  and  prevent  the  disaster  and 
reaction  which  would  have  followed  the  breaking 
up  of  the  present  emigration,  I  am  satisfied." 
While  at  the  East  he  published  a  pamphlet 
describing  the  climate  and  soil  of  the  Western 


•Wilrter,  Royal  G. 
Williams,  Rev.  S.  T. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


784 


region,  and  its  desirableness  for  American  col- 
onics. After  a  liurried  visit  to  Boston,  lie  was 
back  again  on  the  Missouri  in  March,  and  con- 
ducted more  than  a  thousand  emigrants  in 
wagons  over  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Dr.  Whitman,  Mrs.  Whitman,  two  adopted 
children,  and  ten  other  persons,  American  emi- 
grants, who  had  stopped  at  the  station  to  winter 
there,  were  cruelly  murdered  by  the  Kayuse 
Indians,  November  29,  1847,  and  the  mission  was 
thus  broken  up. 

WILDER,  Royal  Gould:  Born  at  Bridport,  Vt., 
October  27,  1816;  graduated  at  Middlebury  Col- 
lege, 1839;  graduated  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1845;  sailed  for  India  as  a  missionary 
of  the  ABCFM  in  1846.  He  was  stationed  for  six 
years  at  Ahmadnagar.  The  seminary,  contain- 
ing from  50  to  80  boys,  was  put  under  his  care  by 
tlie  mission.  In  1852  he  went  to  Kolhapur.  On 
his  arrival  the  Brahmans  petitioned  for  his  ban- 
ishment, but  he  continued  at  his  post,  and  after 
five  years  had  one  convert.  When  he  went  there 
he  found  in  a  population  of  44,000  only  one 
school,  in  a  back  street,  with  twelve  boys.  When 
he  left  in  1857  there  was  a  government  college, 
costing  8200,000,  and  he  was  requested  to  make 
the  opening  address.  In  the  years  1854-56 
occurred  a  controversy  between  Dr.  R.  Anderson 
and  the  missionaries  concerning  the  place  of 
education  in  the  missionary  enterprise.  Mr. 
Wilder,  in  common  with  all  his  associates,  was  a 
strong  advocate  of  schools  for  the  Hindus;  was 
in  favor  of  employing  even  heathen  teachers,  if 
Christians  could  not  be  obtained,  and  refused  to 
abandon  his  schools,  or  curtail  educational  work, 
as  required  by  Dr.  Anderson.  Mr.  Wilder's  health 
having  failed  from  the  severe  labor  and  exposure 
involved  in  founding  the  new  station  at  Kolhapur, 
he  embarked  in  1857  for  America,  the  day  after 
the  Sepoy  mutiny  broke  out.  His  health  having 
improved,  he  offered  in  1858  to  return  to  his 
station,  but  was  informed  by  Dr.  Anderson  that 
the  Prudential  Committee  had  voted  to  discon- 
tinue the  Kolhapur  Mission.  His  Presbytery  and 
friends  approving  his  course,  he  returned  to 
Kolhapur  in  1861,  and  established  an  independent 
mission.  On  reaching  his  Indian  home  he  found 
his  beautiful  church  had  been  sold  and  turned 
into  a  Mohammedan  mosque.  He  received  gen- 
erous aid  for  a  second  church.  There  he  con- 
tinued to  labor  for  twelve  years,  receiving  no  aid 
from  any  society,  but  sustained  by  voluntary 
gifts,  Sir  Bartle  Frere,  Governor  of  Bombay,  and 
other  English  people,  as  well  as  natives,  con- 
tributing to  the  work.  From  1861  to  1869  he 
contributed  many  articles  to  the  Bombay  Times 
and  Gazette  on  the  subject  of  the  system  of 
national  education.  He  also  took  'a  prominent 
part  in  memorializing  Parliament,  and  inducing 
the  Indian  Government  to  establish  the  present 
system.  In  1871  he  transferred  the  Kolhapur 
Mission  to  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions,  and  was  a  missionary  of  that  Board  till 
1875,  when,  partly  for  his  health  and  partly  to 
educate  his  children,  he  left  India  and  returned 
home,  having  been  engaged  in  mission  work  for 
thirty-two  years.  During  that  time  he  had 
preached  in  3,000  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  had 
distributed  3,000,000  pages  of  tracts,  had  gath- 
ered into  schools  3,300  pupils,  of  whom  300  were 
girls.  Besides  this,  he  had  served  on  committees 
for  the  translation  and  revision  of  the  Bible,  and 
had  written  and  published  commentaries  on 
three   Gospels,   and  had   edited   and  translated 


many  books.  The  vessel  which  brought  his  lug- 
gage by  sea  was  wrecked  off  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  among  his  goods  that  were  lost  was  his 
manuscript  history  of  the  Kolhapur  kingdom, 
with  full  diary  of  his  missionary  work.  His 
later  years  were  spent  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  In 
1877  he  started  the  Missionary  Review,  which  he 
edited  with  ability  and  success.  He  longed  to 
return  to  India,  and  when  the  Review  was  pro- 
vided for,  he  determined,  tho  a  great  sufferer 
from  an  internal  malady,  to  sail  for  Kolhapur. 
But  liis  work  was  done,  and  on  the  day  when  the 
Review  was  transferred  to  other  hands,  and  he 
had  sent  to  the  printers  proofs  of  the  closing 
number  of  the  last  volume,  he  was  called  away. 
He  died  in  New  York  October  8,  1887. 

WILLIAMS,  John:  Born  at  Tottenham,  near 
London,  England,  June  29,  1796.  Died  at 
Erromanga  November  20,  1839.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen,  while  an  apprentice  to  an  ironmonger, 
he  showed  great  taste  for  mechanics,  and  ac- 
quired considerable  experience  in  mechanical 
work.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  offered  himself  to 
the  London  Missionary  Society  as  a  missionary, 
and,  after  some  special  training,  was  ordained, 
and  sent  with  his  wife,  November,  1816,  to  the 
South  Sea  Islands.  He  was  first  stationed  at 
Eimeo,  one  of  the  Society  Islands,  where  he  soon 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  native  language. 
Thence  he  went  to  Huahine,  where  he  found  the 
natives  had  generally  renounced  idolatry.  At 
the  invitation  of  the  King  of  Raiatea,  the  largest 
of  the  Society  group,  he  went  to  that  island, 
which  became  his  permanent  headquarters.  His 
success  here  was  remarkable,  not  only  in  Chris- 
tianizing the  people,  but  with  Christianity  intro- 
ducing the  arts  and  habits  of  civilization.  In 
1823  he  visited,  with  six  native  teachers,  the 
Hervey  Islands,  and  after  several  days'  search 
discovered  Rarotonga,  the  largest  of  this  group. 
Remaining  here  for  some  time,  he  founded  a 
mission,  which  was  greatly  successful,  not  only 
Rarotonga,  but  the  whole  group  of  the  Hervey 
Islands  being  Christianized.  He  helped  the  peo- 
ple at  their  own  request  to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws 
for  civil  administration.  He  made  great  use  of 
native  teachers  whom  he  had  trained.  The  work 
accomplished  by  him  on  both  of  these  islands  for 
the  secular  as  well  as  the  religious  welfare  of  the 
natives  was  useful  and  permanent.  He  reduced 
the  language  of  Raiatea  to  writing,  translated 
with  Pitman  and  Buzacot  the  New  Testament  into 
it,  and  prepared  books  for  the  schools  he  had 
established.  Rarotonga  being  out  of  the  way  of 
vessels,  he  built  one  in  which  he  might  visit  other 
islands.  The  boat  was  named  the  "Messenger 
of  Peace."  In  this  vessel,  during  the  next  four 
years,  he  explored  many  groups  of  the  South  Sea 
Islands.  In  1830  he  set  out  in  his  vessel  to  carry 
the  Gospel  to  the  Samoan  Islands, which  he  had 
planned  to  do  in  1824,  but  was  deterred  by  the 
great  distance — 2,000  miles — and  the  ferocious 
character  of  the  people.  In  1832  he  made  a 
second  visit  to  the  Samoans,  and  found  the 
people  waiting  for  the  Gospel.  In  less  than 
twenty  months  an  entire  change  had  taken  place 
in  the  habits  and  character  of  the  Samoans. 
Chapels  had  been  built,  and  everywhere  the 
people  seemed  waiting  to  receive  instruction. 
Having  completed  the  object  of  his  voyage,  and 
visited  all  the  islands  ,of  the  Samoan  group,  he 
returned  to  his  family.  With  health  impaired, 
after  seventeen  years  of  toil  and  hardship,  he 


786 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


wilder.  Royal  G, 
WlUlaniM,  Rev.   S.  T. 


sailed  in  1833  for  England,  where  he  remained 
four  years.  During  this  time  he  had  the  Raro- 
tongan  New  Testament  published  by  the  Bible 
Society,  raised  £4,000  for  the  purchase  and  out- 
fit of  a  missionary  ship  for  Polynesia,  wrote  and 
published  a  Narrative  of  Missionary  Enter- 
prises in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  prepared 
plans  for  the  establishment  of  a  college  for  the 
education  of  native  teachers,  and  for  a  high 
school  at  Tahiti.  In  1838  he  and  his  wife  again 
embarked,  accompanied  by  ten  other  mission- 
aries. After  visiting  the  stations  already  estab- 
lished by  him,  and  several  new  groups,  he  pro- 
ceeded with  one  companion  to  the  New  Hebrides 
with  the  view  of  establishing  a  mission,  but  was 
met  by  hostile  natives  at  Erromanga,  by  whom 
he  was  killed.  A  portion  of  his  bones  was  re- 
covered from  the  cannibals.  It  is  supposed  they 
were  provoked  to  the  deed  by  the  ill  treatment 
they  had  received  from  the  crew  of  a  vessel  which 
a  short  time  before  had  landed  there. 

WILLIAMS,  Samuel  Wells:  Born  at  Utica, 
N.  Y.,  September  22,  1812.  Died,  February  16, 
1884.  Graduated  at  the  Rensselaer  Institute  in 
Troy,  1832.  While  there,  he  was,  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  invited  by  the  ABCFM  to  join  a  party 
about  to  start  for  China,  as  superintendent  of  the 
mission  press,  having  learned  to  some  extent  the 
art  of  type-setting  in  his  father's  publishing 
house.  He  accepted  the  invitation,  and  June  15, 
1833,  sailed  in  the  ship  "Morrison"  for  Canton, 
China.  Drs.  Abeel  and  Bridgman  were  the  only 
Americans  to  welcome  him.  He  rapidly  gained 
a  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language,  and  became 
editor  of  The  Chinese  Repository,  begun  the  year 
before  by  Dr.  Bridgman,  to  which  many  able 
writers  contributed,  he  himself  furnishing  140 
distinct  articles.  The  Celestial  Empire,  pub- 
lished in  Shanghai,  says  :  "The  Repository, 
extending  through  20  volumes,  is  looked  upon  as 
of  pricelesss  worth,  and  the  name  of  the  editor  will 
be  long  and  honorably  remembered  by  sinologues 
in  connection  with  it."  In  1835  he  completed  at 
Macao  Medhurst's  Hokkeen  Dictionary.  In  1837 
he  was  one  of  a  party  sent  to  Japan  to  restore 
seven  shipwrecked  seamen  to  their  home.  They 
were  fired  upon  from  batteries  of  two  ports,  and 
returned  with  the  men  to  Canton.  Taking  some 
of  these  sailors  into  his  own  house,  he  learned 
their  language,  translated  for  them  the  Book  of 
Genesis  and  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  had  the 
joy  of  seeing  them  embrace  Christianity.  This 
knowledge  of  the  language  thus  providentially 
acquired  led  to  his  being  appointed  interpreter 
for  Commodore  Perry,  who  was  sent  by  the 
United  States  Government  to  Japan  fifteen  years 
later.  Soon  after  the  press  was  established  at 
Canton,  Chinese  interference  with  his  native 
helpers  compelled  him  to  remove  it  to  Macao; 
thence,  later,  it  was  transferred  to  Hongkong, 
and  established  again  afterward  in  Canton, 
where,  in  December,  1856,  his  own  dwelling 
and  the  entire  establishment,  comprising  three 
presses  and  many  fonts  of  type,  with  7,000 
printed  books,  were  destroyed  by  fire.  In  1844 
he  returned  to  the  United  States.  During  the 
three  years  spent  at  home  he  delivered  a  course 
of  lectures  on  Chinese  subjects,  which  were  after- 
ward enlarged  and  published  under  the  title  of 
The  Middle  Kingdom.  With  the  proceeds  of 
the  lectures  he  secured  from  Berlin  a  font  of 
movable  Chinese  type.  Soon  after  the  publica- 
tion of  The  Middle  Kingdom  the  trustees  of 
50 


Union  College  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of 
LL.D. 

Restrictions  forbidding  foreigners  to  bring 
their  wives  to  Canton  having  been  removed,  he 
was  married,  and  with  his  wife  sailed  in  1848  for 
Canton,  taking  with  him  the  new  font  of  type. 
On  arriving  at  Canton  he  found  to  his  great  joy 
regular  public  services  in  Chinese.  His  remark- 
able success  as  an  interpreter  led  to  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  diplomatic  service  of  the  United 
States,  with  which  he  was  connected  from  1858 
to  his  resignation  in  1876.  In  1857  he  was  Sec- 
retary of  the  United  States  Legation  in  Japan. 
In  1858  he  aided  William  B.  Reed  in  negotiating 
the  treaty  of  Tientsin.  In  1860-61  he  revisited 
the  United  States,  and  delivered  lectures  before 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  elsewhere, 
returning  to  China  in  1862  as  Secretary  of  the 
United  States  Legation  at  Peking.  Besides  the 
Chinese  Repository,  which  for  twenty  years  occu- 
pied much  of  his  time,  he  published  Easy  Lessons 
in  Chinese  (1841);  An  English  and  Chinese  Vocab- 
ulary in  the  Court  Dialect  (1843);  The  Chinese 
Commercial  Guide  (1844);  A  Tonic  Dictionary  of 
the  Canton  Dialect  (1856) ;  A  Syllabic  Dictionary  of 
the  Chinese  Lariguage  (1874),  containing  12,527 
characters.  On  this  dictionary,  a  work  of  great 
philological  value,  he  spent  eleven  years.  His 
Middle  Kingdom,  the  best  work  e.xtant  on  Chinese 
government,  geography,  religion,  and  social  life, 
reappeared  in  1883  in  a  revised  and  enlarged 
edition.  Retiring  from  the  service  of  the  gov- 
ernment in  1876,  he  returned  to  the  United 
States,  took  up  his  residence  in  New  Haven,  was 
appointed  professor  of  Chinese  at  Yale  College, 
and  in  1881  was  elected  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Bible  Society.  To  the  end  of  his  life  he  was, 
by  himself  and  in  his  words,  a  witness  of  the 
dignity  and  inspiration  of  the  missionary  calling. 

WILLIAMS,  William  Frederic :  Born  at  Utica, 
N.  Y.,  January  11,  1818.  Died  at  Mardin, 
Turkey,  February  14,  1871.  Studied  at  Yale 
College,  and  was  subsequently  engaged  in  various 
employments,  mostly  in  engineering,  till  1844, 
when  he  entered  Auburn  Theological  Seminary 
to  prepare  for  the  ministry.  In  November, 
1846,  he  offered  himself  to  the  ABCFM  for  the 
missionary  work,  in  which  his  elder  brother, 
Samuel  Wells  Williams,  was  engaged  in  China. 
Was  ordained  in  1848;  sailed  January  3,  1849,  for 
the  Syria  Mission.  In  the  summer  of  1850  he  was 
designated  to  Mosul.  There  he  remained  till  1859, 
when  he  commenced  the  station  at  Mardin. 

He  had  a  fine  knowledge  of  Arabic.  His  clear 
mind  had  been  carefully  cultivated  and  his 
acquisitions  were  very  exact.  However  much 
he  distrusted  his  own  judgment,  his  associates 
confided  in  it  largely.  Few  missionaries  have 
secured  the  affection  of  the  people  for  whom  they 
labor  as  he  did.  He  was,  in  a  sense,  the  main- 
stay of  the  mission  work  among  the  Arabic- 
speaking  peoples  of  Northern  Mesopotamia  dur- 
ing years  of  trial  and  perplexity  when  it  seemed 
often  as  if  the  mission  would  be  compelled  to 
withdraw,  and  to  his  patient,  wise  perseverance 
is  very  largely  due  the  success  that  is  now 
attending  the  labors  of  the  missionaries  in  that 
field. 

WILLIAMS,  Rev.  S.  T. :  A  missionary  of  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention;  born  in  Floyd 
Co.,  Va.,  February  12,  1862;  died  in  Canton, 
China,  April,  1903.  His  work  lay  among  the 
Hakka  people,   where  his    labors    were  greatly 


Williamson,    Alex. 
Wolff,  Joseph 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


786 


blessed.  His  was  pioneer  work,  done  amid  great 
difficulties.  It  extended  the  missions  of  his 
society  in  the  South  China  field  some  250  miles 
into  the  interior. 

WILLIAMSON,  Alexander:  Born  at  Falkirk, 
Scotland,  December  5,  1829.  Died  at  Shanghai, 
China,  August  28,  1890.  Studied  at  Glasgow; 
ordained  April,  1855;  sailed  as  a  medical  mission- 
ary of  the  LMS  May  21  for  China,  arriving  at 
Shanghai  September  24;  was  stationed  for  two 
years  at  Shanghai  and  Ping-hu.  His  health 
failing,  he  returned  to  England  in  1858,  and  his 
connection  with  the  Society  soon  terminated. 
After  some  years  spent  in  Scotland,  he  returned 
to  China  as  the  agent  of  the  Scottish  Bible 
Society,  and  in  connection  with  the  United 
Presbyterian  Mission.  He  was  at  first  stationed 
at  Chefu,  and  traveled  extensively,  making 
adventurous  journeys  into  unknown  and  distant 
regions.  Much  valuable  information  was  ob- 
tained, which  in  1879  was  published  in  two 
volumes.  He  was  afterward  settled  in  Shanghai, 
where  he  established  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Christian  and  General  Knowledge  among  the 
Chinese.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
North  China  Daily  News. 

WILLIAMSON,  Thomas  S.:  Born  in  Union 
District,  S.  C,  March,  1800.  Died  at  St.  Peter, 
Minn.,  June  24,  1879.  He  graduated  at  Jefferson 
College,  Penn.,  and  at  Yale  Medical  School,  and 
practised  medicine  for  ten  years  in  Brown 
County,  Ohio.  After  spending  one  year  in  Lane 
Theological  Seminary,  he  was  licensed  and  or- 
dained by  the  Presbytery  of  Chillicothe,  and  in 
1835  left  Ripley,  Ohio,  as  a  missionary  of  the 
ABCFM,  with  his  family,  reaching  Fort  Snelling, 
in  the  country  of  the  Dakotas,  in  May.  He 
remained  in  connection  with  the  ABCFM  for 
thirty-six  years,  until  1871,  when  he  and  his  son, 
Rev.  John  P.  Williamson,  transferred  themselves 
to  the  care  of  the  Presbyterian  Board. 

He  fully  believed  in  the  capability  of  Indians 
to  become  civilized  and  Christianized,  and  also 
that  God  had  by  special  providences  called  him 
to  this  work.  His  great  life-work — that  of 
translating  the  Bible  into  the  language  of  the 
Sioux  Nation — was  continued  through  more  than 
twoscore  years,  and  was  only  completed  in  1889. 
In  this,  as  in  most  things,  he  worked  slowly  and 
carefully.  He  lived  to  read  the  plate-proofs  of 
all,  and  to  know  that  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  were  in  the  language  of  the 
Dakotas. 

WILSON,  John :  Born  at  Lauder  in  Berwickshire, 
Scotland,  December  11,  1804.  Died  December 
1,  1875.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  went  to  the 
Edinburgh  University,  where  he  graduated  in 
1828,  taking  a  high  place  in  the  classes  of  physical 
science,  and  in  the  last  two  years  studying  anat- 
omy, surgery,  and  the  practise  of  physic.  The 
reading  of  the  reports  of  the  Bible  Society,  he 
said,  first  awakened  him  to  the  importance  of 
missions,  and  led  him  to  resolve  to  devote  him- 
self to  a  foreign  field  He  was  ordained  in  1828, 
and  sailed  August  30  of  the  same  year  for  India, 
under  the  Scottish  Missionary  Society,  reaching 
Bombay  February,  1829.  He  gave  himself  to 
the  acquisition  of  the  vernaculars  of  a  varied 
population — the  Mar^thi,  Gujarati,  Hindustani, 
Hebrew,  Portuguese,  with  Persian,  Arabic,  and 
Sanskrit  in  reserve  for  the  learned  classes.  All 
these  he  acquired  and  fluently  used.  Almost 
his  earliest  work  in  Bombay  was  the  preparation 


of  a  Hebrew  and  Marathi  grammar  for  the  Jews, 
known  there  as  Ben  Israel.  He  also  spoke  the 
Portuguese  with  fluency.  He  was  thus  able 
early  to  influence  the  Hindu,  Mohammedan, 
Parsee,  Jewish,  and  Portuguese  communities. 
His  advance  in  Sanskrit  was  parallel  with  his 
acquisition  of  Marathi,  so  that  he  was  able  to 
confute  the  Brahmans  out  of  their  own  sacred 
books.  He  soon  commenced  a  series  of  discourses 
on  Christianity  with  Hindus,  Mohammedans,  and 
Parsees.  Having  mastered  the  languages,  he 
mingled  with  the  people  who  spoke  them,  and 
made  many  tours  to  Nasik,  Poona,  the  caves  of 
EUora,  and  other  prominent  places.  Tho 
aware  that  for  some  time  his  toil  must  be  that  of 
preparation,  he  worked  for  and  expected  converts 
from  the  first.  So  in  February,  1831,  he  formed 
in  Bombay  a  native  church  of  eight  members. 
In  1833  was  established  in  Bombay  an  English 
college  for  the  Christian  education  of  native 
youth  among  Parsees  and  Hindus,  and  Dr.  Wilson 
threw  the  whole  weight  of  his  culture  and  energy 
into  the  new  institution.  Organizing  this  college 
was  the  great  work  of  his  life,  and  its  effectiveness 
caused  him  to  be  reckoned  one  of  the  great  bene- 
factors of  India.  In  1836  he  received  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Divinity  from  Edinburgh  University. 
In  1839  he  baptized  two  Parsee  youths, — the  first 
proselytes  from  the  faith  of  Zoroaster, — who 
afterward  became  ordained  ministers  in  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  and  the  Baptist  Church. 
In  1842  he  resigned  the  presidency  of  the  Bombay 
branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  which  he 
had  filled  for  seven  years.  In  1843,  after  four- 
teen years  of  hard  work  in  India,  Dr.  Wilson  left 
for  his  native  land. 

In  the  disruption  of  the  Scottish  Church  Dr. 
Wilson  joined  the  Free  Church  and  on  his  arrival 
he  was  received  with  great  honor.  In  September, 
1847,  he  returned  to  India.  In  1857  he  was 
appointed  by  the  government  Vice-Chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Bombay,  and  was  examiner 
in  Sanskrit,  Persian,  Hebrew,  Marathi,  Gujarati, 
and  Hindustani.  He  was  twelve  years  secretary 
to  the  different  translation  committees  of  the 
Bombay  Bible  Society.  The  fortieth  anniver- 
sary of  his  arrival  in  India  was  made  the  occasion 
of  a  remarkable  demonstration  of  the  respect  and 
gratitude  felt  for  him  by  all  classes  of  the  people. 
The  Governor  presided  at  a  great  meeting  in  the 
Town  Hall  to  present  him  with  a  token  of  regard. 
The  citizens  of  Bombay  in  general  also  presented 
him  with  an  address,  and  the  Asiatic  Society 
reviewed,  with  high  commendation,  his  great 
services  for  India.  The  same  year  he  returned 
to  Scotland.  While  there  he  was  elected  Moder- 
ator of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Church. 
In  his  closing  address  before  the  Assembly  on 
the  foreign  mission  work,  he  said  that  notwith- 
standing his  forty-one  years'  connection  with 
India,  if  he  lived  to  the  age  of  Methuselah  he 
would  consider  it  a  privilege  to  devote  his  life  to 
its  regeneration.  He  returned  to  India  in  187.1. 
Increasing  ill-health  compelled  him  finally  to  give 
up  work  in  1875,  and  to  go  for  recuperation  to  a 
health  resort.  But  it  was  too  late;  he  died  on  the 
way. 

WILSON,  John  Leighton:  Born  in  Sumter  Co., 
S.  C,  March  28,  1809.  Died  July  13,  1886. 
Graduated  at  Union  College  1829,  and  Theological 
Seminary  of  Columbia,  S.  C,  1833;  ordained  the 
same  year  by  Harmony  Presbytery,  and  set 
apart  as  a  missionary  to  Africa.  In  the  summer 
of  1833  he  studied  Arabic  at  Andover  Seminary, 


787 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


WlIIlaiiiBoii,  Alex. 
Wolfl,  Josepb 


and  in  the  autumn  went  to  Western  Africa  to 
explore  the  coast,  returning  in  the  spring,  and  on 
the  24th  of  November,  1834,  sailed  as  a  missionary 
of  the  ABCFM  for  Cape  Palmas,  Liberia,  arriving 
in  December.  He  was  received  with  demon- 
strations of  joy  by  the  natives,  and  found  the 
frame  house  which  he  had  taken  out  on  his  first 
visit  erected  on  the  spot  he  had  selected.  In 
1836  he  made  three  tours  of  exploration  in  the 
interior,  journeying  mostly  on  foot.  He  had, 
while  at  Cape  Palmas,  where  he  remained  seven 
years,  a  boarding-school  numbering  fifty,  a  fourth 
of  whom  were  females;  a  church  of  forty  members, 
180  youths  had  been  educated,  the  Grebo  lan- 
guage was  reduced  to  writing,  a  grammar  and 
dictionary  of  the  language  published,  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew  and  John  translated  and  printed, 
besides  several  other  small  volumes.  In  1842 
he  removed  to  the  Gabun  River,  1,200  miles 
south  of  Cape  Palmas,  and  commenced  a  new 
station  among  the  Mpongwe  people.  This 
language  also  he  reduced  to  writing,  and  pub- 
lished its  grammar  and  vocabulary;  he  also  trans- 
lated and  published  portions  of  the  Bible.  In  1853 
he  returned  home  on  account  of  failing  health,  and 
became  Secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  in  New  York,  editing  also  the 
foreign  department  of  the  Home  and  Foreign 
Record.  He  served  as  Secretary  till  the  com- 
mencement of  the  civil  war.  when,  returning  to 
his  Southern  home,  he  organized  for  the  Southern 
Church  a  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  of  which  he 
was  appointed  Secretary,  holding  the  office  till 
1885.  He  established  and  edited  The  Missionary, 
a  monthly  magazine.  He  organized  also  the 
Board  of  Sustentation.  In  1854  he  published  a 
volume  of  500  pages  on  Western  Africa,  its 
history,  condition,  and  prospects,  which  was 
pronounced  by  Dr.  Livingstone  the  best  work  on 
that  part  of  Africa  ever  written.  He  published 
also  many  articles  in  the  Southern  Presbyterian 
Review.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from 
Lafayette  College  in  1854. 

WINSLOW,  Miron:  Born  at  Williston,  Vt., 
December  11,  1789.  Died  at  Cape  Town,  S. 
Africa,  September  1,  1864.  Studied  at  Middle- 
bury  College,  Vermont,  and  at  Yale  College; 
studied  theology  at  Andover  Seminary.  He 
was  appointed  missionary  to  Ceylon  by  the 
ABCFM.  At  his  ordination  on  November  4, 
1818,  in  the  Salem  Tabernacle,  in  company  with 
Messrs.  Spaulding,  Woodward,  and  Fisk,  Pro- 
fessor Moses  Stuart  preached  the  sermon,  which 
was  widely  circulated  among  the  churches.  In 
the  same  edifice,  February  6,  1812,  had  been 
ordained  the  initial  band  of  American  foreign 
missionaries — Messrs.  Judson,  Hall,  Newell, 
Nott,  and  Rice.  With  Messrs.  Spaulding, 
Woodward,  and  Scudder  he  sailed  for  India  June 
8,  1819,  arriving  at  Oodooville,  Ceylon,  on  July 
4.  He  remained  there  till  1833,  conducting 
the  boarding  and  day  school,  laboring  and 
preaching  in  the  neighborhood,  and  performing 
a  large  amount  of  literary  work.  He  was  the 
pioneer  American  missionary  of  his  day  in  charn- 
pioning  the  idea  that  education  must  go  hand  in 
hand  with  preaching  in  missionary  operations. 
He  carried  out  this  idea  in  the  Batticotta  Sem- 
inary (1823).  After  the  death  of  Mrs.  Winslow 
in  1833  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  where 
he  remained  two  years.  In  August,  1836,  he 
established  the  ABCFM  Mission  in  Madras,  the 
scene  of  his  labors  for  the  remaining  twenty- 
eight  years  of  his  life. 


At  an  early  period  of  liis  labors  m  Madras  Mr. 
Winslow  was  engaged  in  translating  the  Bible 
into  Tamil,  and  as  late  as  1850  he  was  mucli 
occupied  with  improvements  and  revisions  of 
portions  of  the  translations.  When  not  thus 
engaged,  he  was  occupied  three  hours  daily  on 
the  Tamil  and  English  dictionary.  In  November, 
1850,  he  announced  that  the  prmting  of  the  new 
version  of  the  Tamil  Scriptures  was  completed. 
He  published  "occasional  reports"  of  the  Madras 
Mission.  He  received  from  Harvard  College  the 
degree  of  D.D.,  which  his  Alma  Mater  supple- 
mented with  LL.D.  upon  the  reception  m  this 
country  of  copies  of  his  Tamil  lexicon,  which  was 
the  great  literary  work  of  his  life.  Its  title-page 
reads  thus:  "A  Comprehensive  Tamil  and  English 
Dictionary  of  High  and  Low  Tamil,  by  the  Rev. 
Miron  Winslow,  D.D.,  etc.,  as.sisted  by  com- 
petent Native  Scholars:  in  part  from  manuscript 
materials  of  the  late  Rev.  Joseph  Knight  and 
others.  Madras:  Printed  and  Published  by  P. 
R.  Hunt,  American  Mission  Press."  The  splendid 
quarto  of  976  pages,  three  colums  to  a  page,  with 
11  additional  pages,  attested  the  ability  of  the 
mission  press  to  execute  the  highest  grade  of 
printing.  With  the  exception  of  Wilson's 
Sanskrit  lexicon,  this  work  is  the  most  elaborate 
and  complete  dictionary  of  the  languages  of  India, 
containing  67,452  words  with  definitions,  of 
which  30,551  for  the  first  time  take  their  place  in 
Tamil  lexicography.  The  publication  of  the 
dictionary  called  forth  hearty  expressions  of 
commendation  and  of  gratitude  from  scholars 
and  missionaries,  as  well  as  from  the  government 
officials  of  India. 

Dr.  Winslow  sailed  for  the  United  States,  very 
much  broken  in  health,  in  August,  1864,  but  his 
strength  was  not  equal  to  the  long  voyage,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  stop  at  Cape  Town,  where  he 
found  a  grave. 

WITTE  BERGEN:  A  district  in  Orange  River 
Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  about  120  miles 
N.  E.  of  Bloemfontein.  Station  circuit  of  the 
South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary 
Society,  with  1  missionary,  44  native  workers,  14 
outstations,  8  places  of  worship,  5  Sunday  schools, 
7  day  schools  and  825  professed  Christians. 

WODEHOUSE  (Forests):  A  district  in  Cape 
Colony,  South  Africa,  situated  in  the  Transkei 
region  between  the  Great  Kei  and  Tsomo  Rivers. 
Station  of  the  South  African  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missionary  Society,  with  (1901)  44  native 
workers,  28  outstations,  10  places  of  worship,  10 
Sunday  schools,  8  day  schools  and  443  professed 
Christians. 

WOGENTHIN:  A  village  in,  the  Transvaal,  S. 
Africa,  situated  about  15  miles  S.  of  Heidelberg. 
Station  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (1884), 
with  (1902)  1  missionary,  11  native  workers,  3 
outstations  and  919  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
395  are  communicants.  Some  write  the  name 
Woyentin. 

WOGUL  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Finnish 
group  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family  of  languages, 
rather  closely  allied  to  the  Hungarian  and 
spoken  by  a  small  group  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Western  Siberia.  It  is  written  with  the  Russian 
character.     The  name  is  also  pronounced  Vogul. 

WOLFF,  Joseph:  Born  in  Bavaria,  Germany, 
1795,  of  Jewish  parentage,  the  son  of  a  rabbi; 
early  became  a  Christian;  was  baptised  in  1812 
at  Prague  by  a  Benedictine  monk,  tauglit 
Hebrew   for    a   time    at    Frankfort    and    Halle, 


Wolff,  Josepli 
WonianUood 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


788 


studied  at  Munich,  Weimar,  and  Vienna;  went 
to  Rome  in  1815,  to  be  educated  as  a  missionary. 
He  entered  first  the  CoUegio  Romano  and  in 
1817  the  College  of  the  Propaganda.  While 
in  Rome  he  spent  his  time  in  studying  the  Orien- 
tal languages.  Suspected  by  the  Inquisition  of 
heresy,  he  was  sent  in  1818  to  Vienna,  then 
to  a  monastery  in  Switzerland,  and  finally 
dismissed  as  incorrigible.  He  went  to  London, 
joined  the  Church  of  England,  and  through 
the  influence  of  Charles  Simeon  and  others, 
who  perceived  his  fitness  for  mission  work  among 
the  Jews,  he  entered  Cambridge  University, 
where  for  two  years  he  continued  his  Oriental 
studies  under  Professor  Lee.  He  then  com- 
menced his  career  as  a  traveler,  visiting 
Malta,  Egypt,  Palestine,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia, 
Bassorah,  and  Persia,  and  returning  home 
by  the  way  of  Circassia,  Constantinople,  and 
the  Crimea,  reached  Dublin,  May,  1826.  In 
these  travels  he  became  acquainted  with  learned 
men  of  all  ecclesiastical  relations,  everywhere 
professing  Jesus  as  the  Christ,  and,  altho 
he  had  been  imprisoned  and  his  life  often 
endangered,  showing  in  all  undaunted  courage 
and  great  presence  of  mind.  In  1827  he  married 
Lady  Georgiana  Walpole,  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Oxford,  who  accompanied  him  on 
his  second  missionary  tour  as  far  as  Malta. 
In  April  he  proceeded  to  Smyrna,  the  Ionian 
Islands,  and  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  poisoned 
by  some  Jews,  and  just  escaped  death.  On 
recovering  he  set  out  for  Bokhara  by  way  of 
Persia,  encountering  on  the  journey  the  plague; 
was  repeatedly  robbed,  taken  prisoner,  and  sold 
as  a  slave,  but  finally  reached  Bokhara.  After 
laboring  there  three  months  in  mission  work 
among  the  Jews,  he  went  to  India,  visited  the 
Punjab,  Lahore,  Ludhiana,  Simla,  Delhi,  Be- 
nares, Lucknow,  and  reached  Calcutta  March, 
1833.  He  preached  everywhere  in  different 
languages,  distributed  the  Scriptures,  and 
interested  the  most  prominent  men  and  women 
in  his  behalf.  From  Calcutta  he  went  to 
Haidarabad,  visited  the  Jews  at  Cochin  and 
Goa,  proceeded  to  Bombay,  whence  he  sailed 
for  Arabia,  and  returned  to  England  in  1834. 
In  1836  he  made  a  second  visit  to  Abyssinia, 
■\\  hence  he  sailed  for  Bombay,  and  there  embarked 
for  America,  reaching  New  York  August,  1837. 
He  was  ordained  as  deacon  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  by  Bishop  Doane  of  New 
Jersey,  visited  the  principal  cities,  preached 
before  Congress,  and  returned  to  England 
January  2,  1838.  Having  received  priest's 
orders,  he  was  settled  as  curate  in  Lengthwaite, 
and  then  for  his  wife's  health  he  went  to  York, 
where  he  remained  five  years.  In  1843,  the 
news  of  the  imprisonment  of  Colonel  Stoddart 
and  Captain  ConoUy  at  Bokhara  having  reached 
England,  Dr.  Wolff  set  out  to  attempt  their 
release  or  ascertain  their  fate.  Before  reaching 
Bokhara  he  learned  that  they  had  been  beheaded. 
He  himself  was  made  a  prisoner  and  condemned 
to  death,  but  through  the  intervention  of 
the  Persian  Ambassador  he  made  his  escape. 
Reaching  England  in  1845,  he  was  settled 
in  the  parish  of  Isle  Brewers,  Somersetshire, 
where  he  labored  till  he  died.  May  2,  1862. 
The  most  interesting  of  his  publications  are 
Travels  and  Adventures  of  Rev.  Joseph  Wolff 
(2  vols.  1861). 

WOLKENBERG,  Rev.  Marcus :  Born  of  Israelite 
parentage  in  Russia  in  1834,  he  was  converted  to 


Christianity  in  1856,  and  educated  in  the  Malta 
Protestant  College.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
by  the  London  Society  for  the  Jews  to  labor 
at  Jassy  (in  Roumania),  and  subsequently  at 
Bacau  and  London.  In  1876  he  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  Northern  division  of  the  Home 
Mission,  which  post  he  continuously  held  for 
a  quarter  of  a  century  and  up  to  the  time  of 
his  death.  Mr.  Wolkenberg  will  be  remembered 
as  one  of  the  ablest  missionaries  of  the  London 
Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among 
the  Jews  in  the  present  age.  Bishop  Ryan,  at 
one  of  the  anniversaries,  gave  him  a  most  remark- 
able public  testimonial;  and  Pastor  de  le 
Roi,  in  his  history  of  Jewish  missions,  speaks 
of  him  as  possessing  a  more  sober  and  better 
judgment  concerning  the  needs  and  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Jewish  mission  than  many  of  his 
contemporaries.  He  was  certainly  distinguished 
for  good  intellectual  powers,  sound  classical 
and  Hebrew  learning,  and  a  masterly  ability 
in  preaching  special  sermons  to  the  Jews  and 
for  the  Jews.  In  private  conversations  or 
controversies  with  individual  Jews,  he  had 
the  talent  of  winning  the  attention  and  respect 
and  often  the  admiratian  and  love  of  his  hearers. 
Had  he  enjoyed  better  health,  he  would  have 
been  considered  a  great  preacher.  Mr.  Wolken- 
berg rendered  good  service  to  the  Missionary 
Publications'  Sub-Committee  in  their  prep- 
aration of  new  tracts  and  pamphlets,  his 
keen,  critical  intellect  being  of  the  greatest 
value.  His  English  literary  works  testify 
to  his  learning  and  ability  as'an  author,  especially 
The  Pentateuch  according  to  the  Talmud  (a 
translation  of  Hebrew  with  a  very  learned 
introduction).  Mr.  Wolkenberg  wrote  also  the 
following  tracts:  Alienation  of  Jews  from  Judaism; 
General  Aspect  of  Judaism;  Israel's  Mission 
to  the  World,  When  and  How  Fulfilled;  Judaism 
and  Christianity  on  the  Threshold  of  Eternity; 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Judaism  and  Christianity; 
and  also  contributed  excellent  papers  to  the 
Conferences  on  Jewish  Missions  held  in  South- 
port,  1875,  and  in  London,  1899. 

WOMANHOOD;  its  debt  to  Missions:  To  Rer. 
David  Abeel,  D.D.,  an  American  missionary  to 
China,  must  be  conceded  the  honor  of  suggesting 
to  Christian  women  the  importance  of  a  dis- 
tinctive mission  for  heathen  women.  During 
his  missionary  career  he  realized  that  the  greatest 
hindrance  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  lay  in 
the  fact  that  heathen  homes  were  the  strongholds 
of  Satan.  Womanhood  itself,  synonymous  with 
ignorance  and  superstition,  was  trampled  under 
brutal  feet.  Women  throughout  the  Orient 
were  unwelcomed  at  birth,  unloved  and  oppressed 
in  life,  and  unwept  at  death.  Hoary  customs 
precluded  the  possibility  of  reaching  them 
through  ordained  ministers,  and  only  by  the 
undivided  efforts  of  Christian  women  aglow 
with  gratitude  for  their  elevation  through 
Christ,  could  they  be  approached. 

Dr.  Abeel's  burning  zeal  awakened  a  responsive 
chord  in  the  hearts  of  consecrated  women  in 
England  and  America,  resulting  in  1834  in  the 
organization  of  the  Society  for  Female  Education 
in  the  East  in  England,  and,  seconded  by  the 
appeals  of  Mrs.  Francis  B.  Mason  of  Burma, 
in  the  establishment  in  1860  of  the  Woman's 
Union  Missionary  Society  of  A  merica  for  Heathen 
Lands.  Thus  these  two  Societies  in  England 
and  America  were  the  pioneers  of  woman's 
organized  distinctive  work  for  women. 


789 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Wolffl,  JosepU 
Wouiuiiliood 


Pitiful  as  is  the  position  of  all  Oriental  women, 
in  no  land  is  it  so  peculiarly  painful  as  in  India. 
Since  the  Mohammedan  dominion  in  1001  A.  d. 
the  custom  of  the  zenana  has  prevailed  {zen 
means  woman),  whereby  millions  of  women 
having  no  contact  with  the  outside  world 
become  literally  prisoners.  Missionaries  give 
these  results  of  wide  experience: — "The  more 
I  see  of  woman's  lot  in  India,  the  more  I  know 
that  no  account  of  her  degradation,  darkness 
and  suffering  can  be  exaggerated."  "No  one 
realizes  the  depths  of  suffering  borne  by  the 
women  of  India,  and  the  longer  I  am  here 
the  more  terrible  I  see  it  is.  As  they  often 
tell  us,  we  do  not  begin  to  suspect  what  goes 
on  behind  the  scenes,  even  in  the  shelter  of 
their  own  homes.  We  know  their  only  hope  is 
in  the  Savior's  redeeming  love,  of  which  they 
know  nothing." 

Pundita  Ramabai,  the  foremost  Hindu  reformer 
of  Indian  women,  states:  "Distrust  and  a 
low  estimation  of  woman's  character  is  at 
the  root  of  the  custom  that  secludes  women.  I 
have  never  read  any  sacred  book  in  Sanskrit 
literature  without  meeting  this  deplorable 
sentiment." 

Among  many  questions  on  this  subject  trans- 
scribed  by  Manu,  the  law-giver  of  the  Hindus, 
these  occur:  "What  is  the  chief  gate  to  hell? 
A  woman.  Who  is  the  wisest  of  the  wise? 
He  who  has  not  been  deceived  by  women, 
only    to    be    compared    to    malignant    fiends." 

This  low  estimate  of  woman  induced  the 
deplorable  custom  of  child  marriage,  whereby 
girls  of  tender  years  are  doomed  to  responsibilities 
for  which  immaturity  unfits  them.  Following 
in  the  ascending  scale  of  misery  is  the  condition 
of  child  widows.  A  recent  census  gives  38,- 
000,000  girls  under  fifteen,  of  whom  24,000,000 
are  widows;  nearly  14,000  are  four  years  of 
age.  Rigid  custom  forces  these  tiny  children 
to  undergo  all  the  penalties  of  widowhood. 
The  luxuriant  hair,  the  pride  of  the  Oriental 
woman,  is  forever  shaved,  and  one  white,  coarse 
garment  is  the  badge  of  the  household  drudge, 
for  whom  nothing  is  too  severe.  Allowed 
but  one  meal  a  day  of  the  simplest  character, 
often  obliged  to  observe  rigorous  fasts,  is  it 
any  wonder  that  death  is  eagerly  sought, 
to  end  untold  misery  and  often  manifold 
temptations? 

In  such  conditions  began  what  may  be  called 
a  social  and  religious  revolution  in  India.  Attract- 
ive fancy  work  was  the  bait  which  opened  the 
doors  sealed  for  generations.  Visiting  where 
the  patriarchal  system  of  living  pertains,  large 
numbers  of  women  were  reached.  Children 
from  this  same  secluded  class  were  gathered 
into  schools,  where  the  vital  truths  of  the 
Gospel  formed  the  prominent  teaching.  Native 
Bible  women  were  trained  as  evangelists  to 
reach  the  masses  in  718,000  Indian  villages, 
orphanages  were  established  to  rescue  the 
victims  of  famines,  and  hospitals  were  endowed, 
where  gifted  women  physicians  could,  while 
mitigating  suffering,  lead  to  Christ — the  only 
remedy  for  the  ills  accumulated  under  ages 
of  heathenism.  Books  also  have  been  written 
or  translated  especially  suited  to  women  and 
girls,  thus  creating  a  Christian  literature  for 
a  class  hitherto  excluded  from  every  avenue 
for  mental  culture.  Richest  results  have  fol- 
lowed these  varied  methods  of  service,  and 
thousands    of    heathen    women    have    emerged 


from  utter  darkness  and  degradation,  to  become 
in  Christian  homes  centers  of  light  and  influence. 

Often  is  the  flippant  comment  made — "The 
religions  of  the  F^ast  are  well  suited  to  the 
people — why  disturb  their  belief?"  What  can 
be  said  of  religions  which  doom  half  of  the 
human  race  to  degradation  inconceivable, 
dwarf  aspirations  and  stifle  sympathies,  robbing 
life  of  every  joy,  and  the  future  of  every  hope? 

We  hear  from  a  gifted  missionary  in  China, 
"One-fifth  of  all  the  women  of  the  world  are 
waiting  in  China  for  the  Savior,  Who  so  long 
has  waited  for  them.  What  a  burden  of  re- 
sponsibility does  this  lay  on  the  women  of 
Christendom!" 

Through  girls'  schools  established  bj^  Christian 
women  in  Japan  has  the  Empire  realized  the 
possibilities  of  women  trained  and  elevated 
through  education.  The  establishment  of 
Government  schools  from  which  religion  is 
excluded  does  not  diminish  the  obligation  in 
this  direction  resting  on  Christian  women. 
Elevated  solely  by  the  Cross  of  Christ  to  the 
enviable  position  which  they  as  Christian 
women  occupy  in  the  Occident,  and  believing 
that  the  Redeemer  died  for  the  whole  world, 
and  not  for  a  favored  few,  can  they  dismiss 
responsibility  without  an  effort  to  mitigate  a 
doom  incident  on  heathen  birth  which  but  for 
the  grace  of  God  might  have  been  theirs? 

It  is  not  only  individual  women  in  Asia  and 
Africa  who  have  been  blessed  by  Christian 
Missions:  it  is  Womanhood  as  a  whole  which 
is  being  lifted  up  and  given  a  position  of  dignity 
and  influence.  The  very  first  effect  of  a  mission 
in  any  Mohammedan  or  pagan  community 
has  ever  been  to  force  into  the  minds  of  men 
the  fact  that  Christians  consider  girls  and 
women  capable  of  absorbing  book  knowledge 
altho  they  themselves  have  classed  them 
with  cows.  Upon  the  one  enterprise  of  the 
education  of  women.  Christian  philanthropy 
has  applied  a  persistant  energy  which  has  amazed, 
aroused,  perplexed  and  at  last  won  the  support 
of  men  who  are  neither  Christians  nor  philan- 
thropists. What  it  means  for  womanhood  in 
India,  for  instance,  to  have  a  large  section 
of  the  population  now  stand  forth  as  ardent 
defenders  of  the  capacities  and  rights  of  women, 
needs  not  to  be  detailed.  Such  a  change  in 
the  place  given  womanhood  in  the  thoughts 
of  men  is  the  direct  outcome  of  Christian 
teaching  and  practise  gradually  and  insensibly 
permeating   the   community. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  abolishment  of  debas- 
ing customs  and  crimes  against  womanhood 
in  both  Asia  and  Africa.  Long  after  the 
African  slave-trade  had  been  abolished  by 
Europe  and  America,  Moliammedan  activity 
in  slave-raids  continued.  The  object  of  these 
raids  was  not  to  secure  laborers,  but  to  capture 
women.  This  determined  and  brutal  purpose 
to  degrade  and  destroy  womanhood  was  revealed 
to  the  world,  and  the  passion  to  end  it  was 
aroused  by  Christians,  and  in  great  measure 
by  Christians  who  were  missionaries.  The 
abolition  of  the  Suttee  in  India  was  but  languidly 
pressed  until  Carey  and  his  companions  and 
many  later  missionaries  made  the  halls  of 
Parliament  ring  with  their  indignant   protests. 

The  successful  agitation  in  Travancore  (1827- 
30  and  1858-59)  against  degradation  of  woman- 
hood throiigh  caste  denials  of  the  right  of 
low-caste     women     to     cover     their      persons. 


"Woman's  Union 
Woman's    Work 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


790 


is  another  instance  of  the  debt  of  womanhood 
to  missions.  So,  too,  is  the  strong  sentiment 
now  seen  among  progressive  Hindus  against 
child-marriages  and  the  oppression  of  widows. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  growing  sentiment 
of  Chinese  against  foot-binding.  Wlierever 
we  loolc,  the  effect  of  Gospel-teaching  is  to 
loose  the  bands  of  the  captives  and  to  lift  up 
those  who  stand  in  the  mire  that  they  may- 
sit  among  the  princes  of  the  people. 

WOMAN'S  UNION  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY  of 
America,  for  Heathen  Lands:  Headquarters, 
67  Bible  House,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A. 
This  Society  was  organized  in  New  York  City 
January  15,  1861,  as  the  result  of  an  address 
by  a  missionary  from  Burma  at  a  parlor  meeting 
the  week  previous.  Its  first  membership  in- 
cluded representatives  of  six  denominations, 
and  it  has  remained  strictly  undenominational. 
Its  immediate  conduct  is  in  the  hands  of  an 
executive  committee  of  women  representing 
the  different  denominations  residing  in  or  near 
New  York  City.  In  May,  1861,  a  Philadelphia 
branch  was  organized,  and  branches  and 
auxiliaries  have  been  established  in  different 
parts  of  the  country. 

The  first  missionary,  Miss  Marston,  went  in 
November,  1861,  to  Burma,  and  in  1863  Miss 
Brittan  (Episcopalian)  went  to  Calcutta.  Later 
work  was  commenced  in  Shanghai,  China,  and 
Yokohama,  Japan.  The  work  in  Burma  has 
been  dropped. 

In  India  the  great  work  of  the  Society  has 
from  the  first  been  Zenana  work.  It  is  carried 
on  in  Calcutta,  where  it  is  known  as  "The 
American  Doremus  Mission,"  in  honor  of  Mrs. 
Doremus,  the  first  President  and  really  the 
founder  of  the  Society.  Other  stations  are 
Allahabad,  Cawnpore  and  Jhansi.  In  Calcutta 
there  are  15  missionaries  and  57  native  workers; 
in  Allahabad,  12  missionaries  and  24  native 
workers;  in  Cawnpore  9  missionaries  and  21  native 
workers;  in  Jhansi  4  missionaries  and  2  native 
workers,  a  total  in  India  of  40  missionaries  and 
104  native  workers.  The  Broadwell  Memorial 
School  at  Calcutta,  the  Woman's  Home  at  Alla- 
habad, and  the  Mary  A.  Merriman  Orphanage  at 
Cawnpore,  besides  other  homes  and  rescue  work, 
supplement  the  Zenana  work. 

In  Shanghai  the  work  of  the  Union  includes 
the  Margaret  Williamson  Hospital,  with  4  physi- 
cians, and  the  Bridgman  Memorial  School,  besides 
the  evangelistic  work,  in  which  there  are  engaged 
2  missionaries  and  5  native  workers.  The 
work  for  1902  shows  472  patients  admitted 
to  wards  and  34,743  cases  at  the  dispensary,  of 
which  22,570  were  new.  There  were  m  addition 
208  visits  to  homes,  while  over  47,000  pre- 
scriptions were  filled. 

At  Yokohama  the  boarding  school  has  58 
pupils,  and  the  3  missionaries  find  excellent 
openings  for  educational  and  evangelistic  work. 

WOMAN'S  WORK  FOR  WOMEN:  The  activity 
of  Christian  women  in  support  of  early  foreign 
mis.sions  is  a  fact  often  overlooked.  The  records 
of  the  missionary  movement  at  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century  show  that  an  astonishing  pro- 
portion of  the  necessary  money  was  collected  by 
societies  of  women.  These  early  societies  were 
separate  local  bodies  differing  from  the  modern 
woman's  missionary  society  in  lacking  provision 
for  permanence,  in  taking  no  responsibility  for 
definite  work,  in  assuming  an  auxiliary  position 


to  the  general  missionary  societies  as  collectors  of 
money  only,  and  especially  in  undertaking  no 
enterprises  of  their  own  in  the  mission  field. 

The  following  list  of  the  operations  of  Women's 
Foreign  Missionary  Societies  in  America  in  the 
first  half  of  the  19th  century  shows  the  character 
of  these  early  missionary  efforts  by  women.  The 
list  was  derived,  like  the  most  of  the  material 
used  in  this  article,  from  a  paper  by  Miss  Ellen  C. 
Parsons,  editor  of  Woman's  Work  (PN). 

1800  "Boston   Female   Society  for   Missionary 

Purposes."  (Baptist  and  Congrega- 
tional.) 

1801  "Boston   Female   Society   for   Promoting 

the  Diffusion  of  Christian  Knowledge." 
(Congregational.) 
1808     "Female   Mite   Society,"    Beverly,   Mass. 
(Baptist.) 

1811  "Salem    Female    Cent    Society,"    Massa- 

chusetts.    (Baptist.) 
About  this  time,  1808-1812,  "Cent  a  Week" 
societies  were  common  among  women  of  differ- 
ent denominations  in  Eastern  Massachusetts. 

1812  The   "Female    Foreign    Missionary    Soci- 

ety" of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  contributed 
to  the  American  Board  $177.09. 

1813  First    legacy    to    the    American     Board 

$345.83  out  of  an  estate  of  $500,  left 
by  Sally  Thomas,  of  Cornish,  N.  H.,  a 
domestic,  whose  wages  had  never  ex- 
ceeded fifty  cents  a  week. 

1814  April  11,  a    woman's    missionary   society 

was  organized  in  the  Fayette  Street 
Baptist  Church  in  New  York  City. 

1815  Legacy    from    Mrs.     Norris     of     Salem, 

Mass.,  was  realized  to  the  American 
Board — $30,000,  the  largest  received  up 
to  that  time  or  for  many  years  there- 

1816  "Female    Charitable     Society"     of   Tall- 

madge,  Ohio,  contributed  $20  to  the 
American  Board — the  first  received  by 
the  Board  from  west  of  the  Alleghenies, 
save  one  dollar  from  a  pastor's  pocket. 

1818  Woman's   Missionary   Society   formed  in 

Derry,  Pa.     (Presbyterian.) 

1819  July  5,     a  society    was    formed    in    the 

Wesleyan  Seminary,  Forsyth  Street, 
New  York  City.  It  issued  its  last 
annual  report  in  1861.  During  forty 
years  it  had  contributed  to  the  mission- 
ary treasury  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  the  sum  of  $20,000. 

1821  There  were  250  societies  in  existence 
(formed  from  1812-1820),  all  contribu- 
ting to  the  American  Board;  many  of 
them  were  composed  exclusively  of 
women. 

1823  A  society  "For  the  Support  of  Heathen 
Youth"  was  organized  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  and  existed  until  1874.  (Presby- 
terian.) 

1835  A  society  "For  the  Evangelization  of  the 
World"  was  organized  in  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church,  Newark,  N.  J. 
During  the  first  ten  years  it  contributed 
$2,344.76  to  the  American  Board.  The 
Society  still  lives  (having  joined  the 
new  movement),  and  celebrated  its 
jubilee  in  1885,  one  of  its  original 
members  and  20  descendants  of  mem- 
bers participating  on  that  occasion. 

1838  A  society  was  formed  in  the  First  Church, 
AUegiieny,    Pa.   (United  Presbyterian), 


791 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


■Woman's  Union 
■Woman's    Work 


and  has  celebrated  its  jubilee.  The 
original  secretary  was  still  holding  the 
position. 
1839  More  than  680  "Ladies'  Associations," 
ha-ving  nearly  3,000  local  agents  of 
their  own  membership,  were  collecting 
funds  for  the  American  Board.  One 
of  these  associations  met  in  Brookline, 
Mass.,  at  the  house  of  Mr.  Ropes,  and 
made  regular  contributions  for  Japan, 
altho  that  empire  was  then  sealed 
against  foreigners.  The  amount  which 
they  forwarded  expressly  for  Japan  was 
8600,  which,  with  the  accruing  mterest, 
became  $4,104.23  before  the  American 
Board  opened  its  mission  to  Japan,  of 
which  the  first  expenses  were  paid  from 
the  Brookline  fund. 

1847  "The      Free      Baptist      Female      Mission 

Society"  was  formed  in  Sutton,  Ver- 
mont. It  continued  in  operation  for 
over  twenty  years,  and  was  never 
formally  dissolved. 

1848  The   "Ladies'  China  Missionary  Society" 

(Methodist)    of     Baltimore,    Md.,    was 
formed.     It  was  a    thriving  Society  in 
1871,  when  it  merged  itself  as  a  branch 
of  the  wider  organization  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church. 
The  modern  uprising  of  women  in  behalf  of 
foreign  missions  must  be  emphasized  as  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  missions.     It  had  its  motive  in 
the  social  systems  of  the  East.    It  was  primarily 
the  purdah  and  the  latticed  window,  the  zenana 
and  the  harem,  that  roused  the  women  of  Chris- 
tendom to  attempt  an  errand  of  mercy  to  their 
sister-women  of  the  heathen  world.     Experience 
proved  that  no  nation  can  be  elevated  until  its 
women     are    regenerated;  also    that    no     man, 
whether  clerical  missionary  or  even  physician,  can 
carry  the  Gospel  to  the  jealously-guarded  women 
of  Oriental  households.     When  the  degradation 
and  sufferings  of  Asiatic  women  and  the  darkness 
of  their  future  were  revealed  to  the  Western  world 
the  conscience  of  Christian  women  was  aroused. 
The  Gospel  had  developed  them  and  given  them 
honor,   security,   moral   power,   and   intellectual 
freedom.     They  recognized  the  claim  of  their  less 
happy  sisters  to  the  same  blessings. 

David  Abeel,  missionary  of  the  American 
Board,  was  the  first  to  suggest  action  for  this  end. 
On  his  way  home  from  China  in  1834  Mr.  Abeel 
told  the  people  of  England  the  facts,  which  had 
hitherto  been  imperfectly  known,  concerning  the 
condition  of  women  in  India  and  China.  He 
showed  that  the  missionaries'  wives,  who  had 
always  done  what  they  could  for  women  arid 
children  about  them,  were  neither  sufficient  in 
numbers  nor  sufficiently  free  to  assume  the 
burden  of  lifting  up  their  sex.  Effort  so  strenu- 
ous and  continuous  would  be  necessary  as  to 
demand  the  entire  consecration  of  many  lives, 
and  he  urged  unmarried  women  to  volunteer  in 
Christ's  name  for  this  new  form  of  service.  He 
also  declared  that  women  of  the  Church  at  home 
should  organize  to  render  their  labors  permanent. 
Little  did  Mr.  Abeel  know  what  a  force  he  was 
evoking.  The  Spirit  of  God  winged  his  words. 
That  same  year  the  first  society  was  formed  in 
England,  The  Society  for  Promoting  Female 
Education  in  the  East;  and  upon  whatever 
others,  in  the  progress  of  years  and  under  divine 
control,  the  burden  of  leadership  may  seem  to 
fall,  this  Society  is  ever  to  be  had  in  reverence, 


as  the  one  that  ventured  first  and  led  the  way. 
Others  followed  speedily  in  Great  Britaip:  those 
connected  with  the  Free  Church  and  the  Estab- 
lished Church  of  Scotland  in  1837,  the  Indian 
Female  Normal  School  and  Instruction  Society 
in  1852,  and  the  Wesleyan  Auxiliary  in  1859; 
the  German  Society  for  Christian  Education  of 
Women  in  the  East  in  1842,  but  none  of  these 
was  much  known  across  the  Atlantic. 

Meanwhile  Mr.  Abeel  had  brought  his  plea  to 
America,  but  hearts  were  not  ready  for  it.  At 
last,  in  1861,  Mrs.  Doremus,  of  New  York  City, 
was  able  to  carry  out  her  cherished  longing,  and 
the  Union  Missionary  Society  was  launched. 
Women  of  six  denominations  composed  its  mem- 
bership, and  it  stood  alone  in  America  for  eight 
years.  This  was  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  in 
the  republic,  and  in  the  absorbing  demands  of 
that  struggle  Christian  women  had  no  leisure  to 
undertake  new  departures  in  missions,  but  at  the 
same  time  they  were  acquiring  a  training  for  it  in 
the  future.  By  combining  as  they  did,  on  a  large 
scale,  for  work  in  soldiers'  hospitals  and  in  the 
Sanitary  Commission,  they  learned  the  possi- 
bilities and  the  power  of  organization.  In  1868 
the  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  (Congregational) 
of  Boston  was  organized.  From  that  time  the 
process  of  organization  went  on  until  nearly 
every  denomination  has  its  Woman's  Home  and 
Foreign  Missionary  societies,  working  in  cooper- 
ation with  the  general  missionary  societies  of  the 
denomination. 

Organization:  All  the  main  features  of  organiza- 
tion necessary  in  each  separate  Woman's  Board 
of  Missions  may  be  included  in  three,  and  in 
England  two  are  often  made  to  answer. 

First:  There  is  the  local  or  parish  society,  made 
up  of  individuals  from  a  single  local  church,  or, 
as  often  occurs  in  America,  women  of  two  or 
more  churches  of  the  same  denomination  in  one 
large  town  unite  to  form  one  Missionary  Society. 
This  local  society  is  usually  called  an  Auxiliary. 
It  has  its  own  constitution  and  officers,  and  is 
independent  in  its  management;  but  when  it 
undertakes  to  carry  out  its  purpose  of  sending 
forth  missionaries  and  funds  to  sustain  various 
forms  of  missionary  work  at  a  distance,  it  does 
not  try  to  act  alone,  but  under  its  Woman's 
Board,  of  which  it  thus  becomes  an  "auxiliary," 
or  helper.  An  annual  fee  is  the  usual  requisite 
for  membership. 

Second:  These  auxiliaries  are  grouped,  and 
thus  constitute  what  are  usually  called  Branches. 
This  relation  is  sectional.  Adjacent  auxiliaries, 
sometimes  to  the  number  of  not  more  than  20, 
sometimes  covering  a  county,  sometimes  a  whole 
State  containing  several  hundred  auxiliaries, 
combine,  with  a  set  of  officers  elected  from  the 
whole  territory  represented  by  the  Branch.  This 
stands  between  the  Board  and  its  auxiliaries. 
It  voices  the  wishes  of  the  Board  to  the  auxil- 
iaries, and  expresses  the  sentiment  of  the 
latter  to  the  Board.  A  Branch  assumes  the 
responsibility  for  some  missionary  enterprise, 
and  its  auxiliaries  share  it  among  themselves 
proportionally. 

Third:  The  Board  includes  all  the  Branches, 
and  requires  its  own  officers.  A  legal  charter 
is  requisite  for  a  Board,  but  not  for  auxiliaries 
and  Branches.  Auxiliaries  usually  hold  their 
meetings  monthly  or  oftener;  Branches  quar- 
terly; but  the  Board  meets  annually,  or,  at  most, 
two  or  three  times  a  year.  Business  of  the  Board 
is  transacted  throughout  the  year  by  its  officers. 


WoniJin's  Work 
Wood,  Georgre  AV. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


792 


who  are  elected  by  the  delegates  of  annual 
meeting.  The  delegates  are  chosen,  not  from 
auxiliaries,  but  from  Branches.  The  Board  or 
Society  (whichever  name  is  given  to  the  inclusive 
organization)  has  supervision  over  an  area  which 
varies  according  to  circumstances.  If  the  So- 
ciety is  undenominational,  like  the  English 
Society  for  Promoting  Education  in  the  East,  or 
the  Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society  in  Amer- 
ica, it  may  have  its  constituency  in  any  part  of 
the  country.  If  the  Society  cooperates  with  a 
Board  of  some  denomination,  its  territory  will 
depend  upon  the  form  of  organization  of  that 
Church.  The  Society  within  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  America,  for  reasons  which 
are  apparent,  is  indivisibly  one  all  over  the 
country.  But  the  geographical  spaces  are  so 
great  in  America  that  in  many  cases  it  is  found 
more  practicable  to  have  several  coordinate 
boards  in  one  church.  The  area  of  each  Board 
is  geographically  determined.  The  Congrega- 
tional women  are  massed  distinctly  under  East- 
ern, Middle,  and  Western  Boards,  the  Baptist 
women  under  the  East,  the  West,  and  the  Pacific 
Coast  Boards. 

The  advantage  of  one  great  undivided  Board 
is  offset  in  the  case  of  several  coordinate  Boards 
by  the  following  results: 

a.  A  far  greater  number  of  responsible,  official 
workers  are  secured. 

h.  The  work  of  each  Board  does  not  become 
unmanageably  large  for  its  officers. 

c.  Interest  throughout  the  constituency  is 
augmented  by  nearness  to  headquarters. 

d.  It  is  possible  for  a  vastly  greater  number 
of  members  to  afford  the  expense  of  the  journey 
to  attend  the  annual  meeting  where  the  Board 
is  a  local  center  than  where  it  is  a  national 
center. 

While  organization  always  begins  at  the  top, 
with  the  Board  the  real  germ  is  the  auxiliary,  and 
this  is  the  place  of  growth.  Enlargement  of  an 
auxiliary  by  addition  of  members,  one  at  a  time, 
an  auxiliary  formed  in  a  local  church  by  gathering 
a  few  picked  individuals  into  a  little  monthly 
meeting — this  is  the  unobtrusive  way  in  which 
Boards  grow.  Societies  of  young  ladies  and 
children's  bands  are  regarded  as  only  phases  of 
the  auxiliary,  but  the  officers  of  the  Branch  are 
responsible  for  the  work  undertaken  both  by 
young  ladies  and  cliildren  within  its  domain. 

The  existence  of  more  than  30,000  auxiliaries 
and  bands  in  America,  with  a  membership  of 
several  hundreds  of  thousands,  speaks  volumes 
for  the  patient,  persevering,  enthusiastic  efforts 
of  the  women  of  the  Church  for  foreign  missions; 
but  it  after  all  represents  the  efforts  of  only  a 
fraction  of  them.  Many  of  the  Societies  cover  not 
more  than  one-fifth  of  the  church  membership  of 
the  denomination. 

Terms  Employed:  In  Great  Britain  the  name 
"Ladies  Association,"  or  "Ladies  Society"  is 
employed,  while  in  America  "Woman's  Board" 
or  Society"  is  preferred.  Also  many  societies 
in  Great  Britain  dispense  with  the  "auxiliary" 
and  appoint  "collectors"  of  funds  from  the 
churches;  others  do  not  u.se  the  term  "Branch," 
but  "District  Auxiliary"  in.stead.  "Presby- 
terial  societies"  and  "Associations"  and  a 
variety  of  other  terms  take  the  place  of  those 
explained  above. 

In  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  America  "Pres- 
byterial  Society"  corre.sponds  to  the  term 
"Branch."    tho    "Synodical   Society"    is   intro- 


duced in  some  places.  The  Protestant  Episcopal 
Society  is  itself  called,  not  a  Board,  but  "Auxil- 
iary;" and  its  constituent  societies,  not  auxil- 
iaries, but,  respectively,  diocesan  and  parish 
branches. 

In  Great  Britain,  societies  often  have  long  lists 
of  honorary  officers.  Such  are  scarcely  known  in 
America,  where  names  heading  the  official  list  are 
those  of  the  actually  responsible  leaders,  who 
conduct  public  meetings  and  control  the  affairs 
of  their  societies.  The  committees  of  gentlemen 
which  some  societies  in  the  old  country  appoint 
are  also  unknown  in  America,  the  office  of  Audi- 
tor of  Accounts  being  the  only  one  ordinarily 
filled  by  a  man. 

Meetings:  Under  the  auspices  of  a  single  one 
of  many  of  these  women's  societies  hundreds  of 
meetings  are  held  eyery  year.  Meetings  for  both 
business  and  prayer  are  convened  at  the  head- 
quarters of  most  Boards,  at  stated  times,  besides 
farewell  meetings  upon  the  departure  of  mission- 
aries, and  other  meetings  specially  called;  and  an 
annual  meeting  is  universal;  but  in  both  char- 
acter and  conduct  of  them  great  diversity  exists. 

Breakfast  and  tea  meetings,  and  working  par- 
ties for  the  purpose  of  making  clothing  for 
native  children  in  orphanages  and  schools,  for 
filling  Christmas  boxes  and  preparing  embroidery 
patterns  for  classes — all  these  are  much  men- 
tioned in  English  reports,  but  are  comparatively 
infrequent  in  America.  In  Europe  a  limited 
number  of  Christmas  boxes  are  sent  to  the  mis- 
sions, but  the  general  purpose  of  meetings  in 
America  is  either  the  transaction  of  business  or 
the  imparting  of  information  in  order  to  arouse 
interest  in  missions.  Whatever  its  object,  the 
missionary  meeting  is  always  partly  a  devotional 
service  and  sometimes  strictly  such.  Many 
societies  have  a  by-law  requiring  the  opening  of 
all  meetings  with  devotional  exercises;  and  altho 
many  printed  reports  make  no  allusion  to  prayer 
meetings,  it  is  not  supposable  that  societies  often 
exist  without  them.  Where  the  organization 
extends  to  parishes  the  number  of  meetings  is 
vastly  multiplied.  An  "auxiliary"  is  generally 
understood  in  America  to  mean  a  company  of 
ladies,  who,  among  other  things,  hold  a  meeting 
every  month,  in  the  morning,  in  cities,  for  prayer 
and  deliberate  study  of  missions;  in  the  afternoon 
in  the  country;  and  perhaps,  on  Sunday,  in  rural 
districts  where  people  live  widely  scattered. 

A  Branch,  or  Presbyterial  meeting,  means  a 
quarterly  meeting,  often  lasting  all  day,  which 
is  held  in  one  or  another  town  by  invitation.  It 
is  thus  brought  at  some  time  within  the  reach 
of  every  member  of  the  Branch.  Those  of 
adjacent  towns  who  can  conveniently  attend  go 
by  carriages  or  train  to  the  quarterly  meeting, 
and  a  hearty  sight  it  is  on  pleasant  days,  in  a 
country  town,  to  see  the  ladies  driving  up  from 
every  direction,  all  their  horses'  heads  pointed 
toward  the  church.  There  they  spend  the  day. 
A  little  Branch  business.  Scripture-reading,  and 
frequent  prayer  and  song,  wideawake,  practical 
papers,  inspiring  talks,  often  from  missionary 
ladies  on  a  furlough,  with  a  hospitable  lunch 
between  morning  and  afternoon  sessions — these 
are  quarterly  meetings.  Perhaps  their  place  is 
most  nearly  filled  in  Great  Britain  by  "deputa- 
tion meetings,"  where  some  speaker  is  sent  out  to 
a  certain  locality  by  the  secretary  and  holds 
an  appointed  meeting,  generally  in  connection 
with  one  managed  by  the  parent  society. 

In  the  old  country,  also,  annual  meetings  are 


783 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Woman's    Work 
■Woodt  George   W. 


often,  but  not  always,  presided  over  by  gentle- 
men, and  sometimes  no  ladies  speak  on  their  own 
platforms.  Such  a  thing  is  unknown  in  America. 
It  IS  there  very  exceptional  for  a  gentleman  to 
preside,  altho  occasionally  one  is  invited  to 
speak;  and  while  in  the  early  days  of  the  societies 
they  were  rigorously  excluded  from  the  audience, 
gentlemen  are  now  absent  chiefly  because  there 
is  not  room  for  them.  Annual  meetings  of  the 
larger  Boards  now  occupy  two  or  three  days,  and 
attendants  upon  them  are  quite  familiar  with  the 
sight  of  a  large  church  packed  with  women. 

Children's  Societies:  Beyond  occasional  men- 
tion of  contributions  from  "pupils"  of  some 
lady,  or  "from  a  Bible-class"  or  "Sunday- 
school,"  the  reports  of  women's  societies  in  the 
old  country  seldom  have  anything  to  say  of  the 
children's  part  in  the  modern  missionary  crusade. 
But  in  America  they  are  a  great  factor — both  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  children 
are  organized  into  Bands,  of  which  they  are 
themselves  officers,  altho  superintended  by  some 
skilful  leader;  and  they  read  their  little  reports 
with_  quite^  as  much  gravity,  accumulate  their 
offerings  with  equal  enthusiasm,  and,  in  general, 
march  to  the  music,  if  with  a  somewhat  broken 
step,  as  happily  as  their  seniors.  One  of  the  first 
momentous  duties  of  a  band  is  to  name  itself,  and 
the  English  language  has  been  explored  for  the 
purpose.  There  are  the  Carrier  Doves  and  Look- 
out Guards,  Snowflakes  and  Mayflowers,  Busy 
Bees,  Steady  Streams,  Mustard  Seeds,  King's 
Cadets,  Up  and  Readys,  Little  Lights,  Pearl 
Seekers,  Acorns,  The  Drum  Corps,  Do  What  You 
Can  Band,  and  so  on,  in  endless  variety.  As  one 
has  said,  "Each  dainty  or  suggestive  name  looks 
out  from  the  record  like  the  growing  face  of  a 
child."  And  no  mean  sum  in  hard  cash  do  these 
children  send  to  the  foreign  mission  treasury. 

And  what  have  the  children  not  done  to  fill 
their  mite-boxes?  They  have  tithed  what  was 
given  for  Christmas  and  Fourth  of  July;  they 
have  hemmed  towels  by  the  mile,  and  practised 
scales  by  the  half  day;  they  have  foregone  sweets 
and  even  butter;  they  have  picked  blackberries 
in  the  sun;  they  have  "minded"  baby,  and  sub- 
mitted to  have  their  teeth  drawn,  and  "buttoned 
papa's  boots,  who  can't  stoop  over  because  he's 
so  fat;"  they  have  bunched  flowers  and  shoveled 
snow;  raised  vegetables  and  poultry;  and  after 
earning  their  money  some  of  them  have  divided 
with  little  brother,  so  that  he  might  share  the  glory 
of  giving.  One  little  girl  had  her  music-box, 
"which  plays  with  a  handle,  right  by  my  bank, 
and  I  play  a  tune  whenever  I  put  some  money  in, 
so  I  like  to  put  the  pennies  in  oftener  than 
before." 

Meetings  of  these  Bands  are  held  statedly,  and 
the  inventiveness  of  the  most  skilful  leader  is 
taxed  to  arrange  programs  which  are  at  once 
instructive  and  entertaining.  The  children  are 
taught  numerous  hymns  and  Scripture  passages 
and  many  learn  to  pray  in  the  meetings.  They 
draw  maps,  recite  dialogues,  hold  African  palav- 
ers, and  Indian  pow-wows  in  costume,  and  give 
facts  about  missionary  lands  in  one-minute 
reports  or  five-minute  papers.  They  quiz  their 
parents  and  teachers,  and  ransack  the  library 
and  search  the  atlas  for  information,  because 
they  are  "on  the  committee."  Sometimes  exer- 
cises take  a  different  turn,  and  they  make  scrap- 
books  or  dress  dolls  for  a  missionary  school,  or 
pick  lint  and  roll  bandages  for  a  hospital.  In  a 
great  variety  of  ways  their  childish  energies  and 


sympathies  are  directed  into  missionary  chan- 
nels, and  they  are  becoming  both  grounded  in  the 
principles  of  giving,  and  through  graphic  stories 
and  letters,  exhibitions  of  curios,  and  talks  from 
missionaries,  they  are  growing  up  in  the  churches 
of  America,  familiarized  with  missions  as  their 
parents  never  were;  so  that,  much  as  the  little 
people  now  accomplish,  it  is  as  nothing  compared 
with  what  may  be  expected  from  them  when  they 
come  to  years  of  maturity. 

Results  of  the  active  entrance  of  women  into 
Missionary  work:  What  has  already  been  said  of 
the  influence  of  the  women  in  cultivating  the 
missionary  spirit  among  children  suggests  one 
important  branch  of  these  results.  Christian 
women  have  taken  a  leading  place  in  arousing 
interest  in  missions  and  in  securing  systematic 
study  of  this  branch  of  the  worlc  of  the  Church. 
Theirs  is  the  scheme  for  united  study  which  has 
brought  forth  in  America  a  series  of  valuable 
works  used  by  study  classes  in  all  denominations. 
The  first  three  volumes  of  this  series  have  found 
sale  for  120,000  copies.  To  the  activity  of  the 
women,  also,  must  be  ascribed  a  notable  increase 
of  funds  devoted  to  the  missionary  enterprise. 
Without  the  women's  societies  there  would 
always  be  devout  women  in  the  churches  desirous 
of  contributing  to  the  support  of  missions.  But 
the  mass  of  women,  without  these  societies  and 
the  methods  which  they  use,  would  never  be 
sufiiciently  in  touch  with  missions  nor  sufficiently 
informed  upon  the  details  of  their  beneficent 
infiuence  to  make  sacrifices  for  their  support. 
Through  the  energy  of  the  women's  societies  it 
has  come  to  pass,  however,  that  a  very  large 

Eroportion  of  the  funds  which  they  collect  must 
e  reckoned  as  a  gain,  not  otherwise  possible,  to 
the  resources  of  foreign  missions. 

The  most  far-reaching  and  weighty  result  of 
the  entrance  of  women  upon  the  mission  enter- 
prise is  found  on  the  mission  field.  The  mis- 
sionary woman  is  not  a  preacher,  but  she  is  an 
evangelist.  She  is  also  a  teacher,  and  often  she 
is  a  physician  of  the  highest  ability.  She  may 
be  also  a  skilled  writer,  and  a  linguist  of  talent 
that  finds  its  field  even  in  translation  of  the 
Bible.  Missionary  women  not  only  thus  reen- 
force  other  workers  in  all  the  great  departments 
of  the  missionary  enterprise,  but,  being  women, 
they  gain  effective  access  to  that  half  of  the 
population  which  no  man  can  hope  to  reach  in 
any  but  the  most  superficial  and  unsatisfactory 
way.  It  is  their  entrance  among  the  women  of 
non-Christian  lands  and  their  many-sided  ac- 
tivity for  the  culture  of  true  womanliness  tliat 
has  made  the  period  of  the  uprising  of  the 
women  of  Christendom  in  behalf  of  missions  the 
dawn  of  a  new  era  in  missionary  history. 

WONG-BUANG:  A  village  in  Fo-kien,  China, 
situated  30  miles  N.  of  Fu-chau-fu.  Station  of 
the  CEZ  (1893),  with  (1903)  3  women  mission- 
aries, 6  native  workers,  and  4  day  schools. 

WONSAN.     See  Wbn-san. 

WOOD,  George  W. :  Born  in  Haverhill,  Mass., 
February  14,  1814.  Died  in  Geneseo,  N.  Y., 
July  17,  1901.  He  was  educated  at  Dartmouth 
College  and  Princeton  Seminary;  ordained  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  in  1837;  mission- 
ary of  the  American  Board,  Singapore,  1838; 
transferred  to  Constantinople,  1842;  returned 
home,  1850;  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board,  resident  in  New  York,  1852-1871; 
then  reentered   upon   missionary   work  in   Con- 


Woodstock; 
WusTieli 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


794 


stantinople  and  continued  for  fifteen  years  until 
his  state  of  health  required  his  return  to  America, 
after  48  years  of  service  of  the  Board.  Dr.  Wood 
was  accomplished  in  the  art  of  dealing  with  men, 
and  was  the  author  of  tracts,  periodical  articles, 
and  books  in  Armenian,  the  latter  including  com- 
mentaries on  several  of  the  New  Testament 
epistles  and  on  the  Book  of  Revelation. 

WOODSTOCK.     See  Landaur. 

WOOSUNG.     See  Wit-sung. 

WORCESTER:   A  town  in  Cape   Colony,   60 

miles  N.  E.  of  Cape  Town.  Station  of  the 
Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  32  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  2  day  schools,  and  4,000 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  1,680  are  com- 
municants. 

WORCESTER,  Samuel  Austin:  Born  at  Worces- 
ter, Mass.,  January  19,  1798;  graduated  Univer- 
sity of  Vermont,  1819;  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1823;  ordained  August  25,  1825;  left 
as  a  missionary  of  the  ABCFM,  August  31,  for 
the  Cherokees,  reaching  Brainerd,  Ga.,  October 
21,  1825.  Through  his  labors  and  those  of  other 
missionaries,  the  Indians  made  great  progress  in 
Christian  knowledge  and  the  arts  of  civilized  life. 
They  had  become  largely  a  nation  of  farmers  and 
artisans,  had  organized,  with  the  advice  of  the 
United  States  Government,  a  regular  and  credit- 
able government,  were  to  a  considerable  extent 
supplied  with  schools  and  religious  institutions, 
and  many  were  members  of  Christian  churches. 
In  1831  the  missionaries  became  involved  in  a 
controversy  with  the  State  of  Georgia  in  con- 
sequence of  the  passage  of  a  law  restricting  their 
privileges,  and  which  they  deemed  unconstitu- 
tional.^ Mr.  Worcester  and  his  two  companions 
were  arrested.  After  sixteen  and  a  half  months' 
imprisonment  they  were  released,  January  14, 
1833,  returned  to  their  stations,  and  resumed 
their  missionary  work.  Mr.  Worcester  removed 
in  April,  1835,  with  the  mission  press  to  Dwight, 
and  spent  the  summer  among  the  Cherokees  of 
Arkansas,  mostly  in  making  arrangements  for 
printing.  He  afterward  was  stationed  at  Park 
Hill,  in  the  Indian  Territory,  to  which  the 
Cherokees  had  been  removed.  Here  he  died 
April  20,  1859. 

WORLD'S  WOMAN'S  CHRISTIAN  TEMPER- 
ANCE UNION:  The  United  States  Woman's  Chris- 
tian Temperance  Union  was  organized  at  Cleve- 
land, O.,  in  1874,  as  a  result  of  the  great  Woman's 
Temperance  Crusade  of  the  previous  winter. 
Soon  after  the  completion  of  the  national  organ- 
ization the  suggestion  was  made  of  an  Inter- 
national Union.  At  the  Detroit  Convention 
(1883)  Miss  Frances  E.  Willard  urged  the  project, 
and  in  1884  the  Union  was  fully  established,  with 
Mrs.  Margaret  Bright  Lucas,  of  England,  as  first 
President.  From  1890  to  1898  Miss  Willard  was 
President,  and  since  then  Lady  Henry  Somerset 
has  held  the  office. 

At  the  first  delegated  convention  of  the 
World's  Union  at  Boston,  1891,  the  following 
Declarations  of  Principles  and  Pledge  were 
adopted: 

"We  believe  in  the  coming  of  His  Kingdom, 
whose  service  is  the  highest  liberty,  because  His 
laws,  written  in  our  members,  as  well  as  in  nature 
and  in  grace,  'are  perfect,  converting  the  soul.' 

"We  believe  in  the  Gospel  of  the  Golden  Rule, 


and  that  each  man's  habits  of  life  should  be  an 
example  safe  and  beneficent  for  every  other  man. 

"We  therefore  formulate,  and  for  ourselves 
adopt,  the  following  pledge,  asking  our  brothers 
of  a  common  danger  and  a  common  hope  to 
make  common  cause  with  us,  in  working  its 
reasonable  and  helpful  precept  into  the  practise 
of  every-day  life: 

"I  hereby  solemnly  promise,  God  helping  me, 
to  abstain  from  all  Alcoholic  Liquors  as  bever- 
ages, whether  distilled,  fermented,  or  malted; 
from  opium  in  all  its  forms,  and  to  employ  all 
proper  means  to  discourage  the  use  of  and  traffic 
in  the  same." 

In  pursuance  of  this  pledge,  the  plan  includes 
education  of  the  young,  the  development  of 
public  sentiment,  the  reform  of  drunkards,  and 
the  general  work  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Christ. 

The  conduct  of  the  Union  is  in  the  hands  of  an 
executive  committee,  consisting  of  the  officers. 
Presidents  of  National  Societies,  Superintend- 
ents of  World's  Departments,  and  others  who 
may  be  selected.  There  are  two  secretaries,  one 
in  England  and  one  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  and  the  head- 
quarters of  the  U.  S.  Union  are  practically  those 
of  the  World's  Union. 

According  to  the  report  (1903)  there  are 
auxiliaries  in  60  countries  (including  6  in  Aus- 
tralia), scattered  all  over  the  world:  11  in  Asia, 
15  in  Europe,  7  in  Africa,  etc.  There  are  37 
departments,  including  a  Young  Woman's 
Branch,  Scientific  Education,  Systematic  Giving, 
Anti-Narcotics,  Opium — Gambling;  Penal,  Char- 
itable and  Reform  work;  Purity,  Franchise, 
Peace  and  International  Arbitration,  etc. 

Statistics  of  such  a  work  are  scarcely  possible. 
An  idea  of  its  extent  is  given  by  the  fact  that 
official  papers  are  published  in  the  U.  S.  A., 
England,  Canada,  Australia,  New  South  Wales, 
South  Australia,  Transvaal,  Japan,  Tasmania, 
India,  Burma,  Cape  Colony,  and  New  Zealand. 
An  extensive  work  is  carried  on  also  among 
soldiers  and  sailors.  Cordial  cooperation  is  given 
by  missionaries  of  all  societies  in  every  land,  who 
look  upon  the  organization  as  an  effective 
agency  for  advancing  the  Kingdom. 

WOTYAK  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Finnish 
group  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family  of  languages, 
spoken  west  of  the  Ural  Mountains  and  in  the 
provinces  of  Viatka  and  Orenburg,  in  Eastern 
Russia.  It  is  written  with  the  Russian  alphabet. 
The  name  is  also  pronounced  Votyak. 

WOYENTIN.     See  Wogbnthin. 

WRAY,  John:  Missionary  of  the  LMS  to 
British  Guiana,  South  America,  from  1807  to 
1837.  He  was  sent  to  Demerara  in  1808,  at  the 
request  of  a  wealthy  planter,  and  made  his  home 
on  the  plantation.  Here  his  labors  were  so  much 
blessed  that  a  great  reformation  took  place  among 
the  negroes,  not  only  on  this  estate,  but  also  on 
the  surrounding  ones.  They  changed  their  ways 
of  living,  and  became  earnest  and  attentive  lis- 
teners to  his  preaching.  The  local  government 
of  Demerara  was  not  in  sympathy  vrith  the  relig- 
ious work  among  the  negroes,  and  it  placed  so 
many  obstructions  in  the  way  of  the  missionaries 
that  Mr.  Wray  was  sent  to  England  to  obtain,  if 
he  could,  a  modification  of  the  laws  of  the 
country.  He  partially  succeeded,  and  returned 
to  Demerara  in  1811. 

In  1813  he  began  work  among  the  crown 
negroes    at    the    stations    of    Georgetown    and 


795 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIOxNTS 


IVoodstock 
"Wusueli 


Berbice.  The  laws  which  he  had  secured  for  the 
amehoration  of  the  condition  of  the  negroes 
being  misunderstood,  or  not  carried  out,  he  found 
it  necessary  to  go  a  second  time  to  England  in 
their  behalf.  Still  negroes  were  hindered  in  their 
religious  worship.  Their  books  were  taken  from 
I  them,  and  overseers  accompanied  them  to  the 
''  meetings  "to  judge  of  the  doctrines  held  forth 
to  the  negroes." 

Such  persecutions  irritated  them  beyond 
endurance,  and  a  serious  insurrection  broke  out, 
many  of  them  leaving  the  plantations  and  going 
into  the  back  country.  On  Mr.  Wray's  return 
to  Berbice  he  was  requested  by  the  governor  to 
explain  to  the  slaves  the  new  laws,  so  that  there 
might  be  no  further  trouble.  He  seems  to  have 
succeeded,  and  quiet  was  restored  in  his  mission, 
where  he  remained  for  13  years,  when,  worn  out 
with  his  work,  he  with  his  wife  sought  rest  and 
health  in  England.  In  1832  he  returned  to  Ber- 
bice and  continued  his  work  for  eight  years  longer, 
when  he  died  of  yellow-fever  at  New  Amsterdam. 

WRIGHT,  Austin  H.:  Born  at  Hartford,  Vt., 
November    11,    1811.     Died   January    14,    1865. 

ti  He  studied  at  Dartmouth  College  and  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  and  in  the  medical 
department  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  Char- 
lotteville,  preaching  during  his  term  of  study 
to  the  destitute  population  of  the  "Ragged 
Mountains;"  sailed  March  9,  1840,  as  a  mission- 
ary of  the  ABCFM  for  the  Nestorians,  to  take 
the  place  in  Urmia  of  Dr.  Grant,  whose  impaired 
health   and  large  plans  for  the  Mountain   Nes- 

|-  torians  led  him  to  seek  a  residence  in  one  of  the 
mountain  districts  of  Kurdistan.  His  perfect 
acquaintance  with  the  Turkish,  Syriac,  and 
Persian  languages,  coupled  with  his  knowledge  of 
medicine  and  his  kind,  gentle  courtesy  of  man- 
ner, gave  him  much  influence  among  all  classes 
of  the  people,  and  the  business  connected  with 
the  authorities,  and  intercourse  with  the  higher 
classes,  was  to  a  great  extent  in  his  hands,  or 
carried  on  through  him.  The  Persian  officials 
and  other  gentlemen  appreciated  very  highly 
the  courteous,  dignified,  yet  simple  ease  and 
grace  with  which  he  met  them. 

In  1860  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  but, 
the  feeble,  he  engaged  in  labors  for  the  Nestorians. 
In  the  early  part  of  1863  he  began  the  revision  of 
the  New  Testament  in  Syriac,  preparatory  to  its 
being  electrotyped  and  printed  by  the  ABS  in 
pocket  form.  To  this  the  Psalms  were  added, 
and  he  took  back  with  him  on  his  return  in  1864 
the  first  few  copies,  which  were  hailed  with 
delight  by  the  people.  A  short  time  before  this 
it  was  determined  to  undertake  the  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  Turkish  for  the  Mohammedan 
population  of  Azerbaijan.  This  work  was 
assigned  to  Dr.  Wright  in  conjunction  with  Mr. 
Rhea,  and  he  entered  upon  it  with  great  enthu- 
siasm. But  in  three  months  he  was  called  to  a 
higher  service. 

WU-CHANG-FU:  A  town  and  capital  of  Hu- 
pei,  China,  situated  on  the  Yangtsze,  opposite 
Han-kiang  and  Han-kau.  Population  about 
100,000.  With  the  other  two  cities  together  the 
population  is  estimated  at  1,200,000.  It  is  a 
great  center  of  Chinese  culture,  and  there  are  also 
manufactures.  The  following  societies  have 
mission  stations  there:  LMS  (1867);  PE  (1868); 
WMS;  Swedish  National  Society  (1890);  Scandi- 
navian Alliance;  CA;  with,  altogether  (1903),  32 
missionaries,  men  and  women ;  22  native  workers. 


men  and  women;  12  places  of  worship,  10  day 
schools,  2  boarding  schools,  and  314  professed 
Christians. 

WU-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Kwang-si,  China, 
situated  in  the  E.  part  of  the  province,  on  the 
West  River,  about  125  miles  E.  of  Canton.  Pop- 
ulation (1901),  52,000.  Station  of  the  WMS, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  6  native  workers,  1 
place  of  worship,  3  day  schools,  1  hospital,  1  dis- 
pensary, and  22  professed  Christians.  Station 
also  of  the  CA.  The  BFBS  has  an  agency  and 
book  room  here.  The  place  is  sometimes  called 
Wu-chow. 

WUCHEO  and  WU-CHOW.    See  Wu-chau-fu. 

WUCIEH.     See  Wu-hsi-hsien. 

WUGA.     See  Vuga. 

WU-HSI-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Kiang-su,  China, 
situated  on  the  Grand  Canal,  about  30  miles 
N.  W.  of  Su-chau-fu.  Station  of  the  MES,_with 
1  missionary.  Also  station  of  the  PE,  with  1 
native  worker,  1  day  school,  1  boarding  school,  2 
Sunday  schools,  and  10  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Wu-sih. 

WU-HSUEH:  A  town  in  Hu-pei,  China,  situ- 
ated on  the  Yangtsze  River,  about  35  miles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Kiu-kiang.  Station  of  the  WMS, 
with  (1903)  1  missionary,  8  native  workers,  4  out- 
stations,  6  places  of  worship,  and  102  professed 
Christians,  of  whom  69  are  communicants. 
Some  write  the  name  Wusueh. 

WU-HU-HSIEN:  A  town  and  treaty  port  in 
Ngan-hwei,  China,  situated  on  the  Yangtsze 
River,  about  60  miles  S.  W.  of  Nan-king.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  102,116.  Station  of  the  FCMS 
(1890),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  woman  missionary,  4  native  workers,  1  out- 
station,  2  places  of  worship,  1  day  school,  and  90 
professed  Christinas.  Also  station  of  the  CIM 
(1893),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  3  native  workers,  1  outstation,  2  places  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  and  61  professed  Chris- 
tians. Station  also  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  3 
missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their  wives;  1 
woman  missionary,  6  native  workers,  5  Sunday 
schools,  5  day  schools,  and  384  professed  Chris- 
tians, of  whom  184  are  communicants.  Also 
station  of  the  PE  (1894),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary, 5  native  workers,  3  outstations,  1  day  school, 

1  boarding  school,  4  places  of  worship,  and  53 
professed  Christians.  Also  station  of  the  CA. 
Some  write  the  name  Wuhu. 

WU-KING-FU :  A  town  in  Kwang-tung,  China, 
situated  about  45  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Swatow, 
among  the  Hakka  people.  Station  of  the  PCE 
(1865),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  2  women  missionaries,  16  native  workers, 

2  boarding  schools,  1  dispensary,  1  hospital,  1 
medical  class,  1  theological  seminary,  1  printing 
house,   and   1,304  professed  Christians. 

WU-LUPURAM.     See  Villupuram. 

WUN-CHAU.     See  Wen-chau-fu. 

WUPPERTHAL:  A  village  in  Cape  Colony, 
South  Africa,  situated  in  the  Doom  River  dis- 
trict, about  70  miles  N.  of  Tulbagh.  Station  of 
the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  with  (1903)  1 
missionary,  8  native  workers,  3  outstations,  3  day 
schools,  and  1,721  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
355  are  communicants. 

WU-SIH.     See  Wu-hsi-hsien. 

WUSUEH.     See  Wu-hsueh 


Ya-diau-fn 
Yezidis 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


79S 


YA-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Sze-chwan,  China, 
situated  about  70  miles  S.  W.  of  Chen-tu-fu. 
Station  of  the  ABMU  (1894),  with  (1903) 
3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with  their  wives;  3 
outstations,  1  place  of  worship,  1  day  school 
and  52  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Yachau. 

YAFA.     See  Jaffa. 

YAKUSA :  A  village  on  the  upper  Congo  River, 
Congo  Free  State,  70  miles  N.  W.  of  Stanley 
Falls.  It  has  trade  relations  with  five  different 
tribes.  Population  1,200.  A  railroad  is  now 
being  built  thence  to  Lake  Tanganyika.  Station 
of  the  BMS  (1895),  with  (1903)  4  missionaries, 
one  of  them  with  his  wife;  1  outstation,  1 
dispensary,  1  industrial  school,  and  1  day  school. 
The  name  is  sometimes  written  as  Yakusu,  or 
Sargent  is  used  to  indicate  the  same  place. 

YANG-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Kiang-su, 
China,  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal,  about 
15  miles  N.  of  the  Yangtsze  River.  Population 
about  150,000.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1868), 
with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives, 
3  women  missionaries,  8  native  workers,  1 
outstation,  2  places  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school,  and  36  professed  Christians.  The  main 
work  of  the  station  is  the  training  home  for 
newly  appointed  missionary  women.  Also 
station  of  the  SBC  (1891),  with  (1903)  1  mission- 
ary and  his  wife,  2  outstations,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  Sunday  school,  1  dispensary,  and 
23  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Yang-chow. 

YANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Shen-si,  China, 
situated  in  the  S.  part  of  the  province  on  the 
Han  River  about  51  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Han- 
chung-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1896),  with 
(1903)  2  women  missionaries,  1  outstation, 
and  18  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name    Yang-hien. 

YANG-KANG :  A  town  in  Kwang-tung,  China, 
situated  in  the  northern  environs  of  Swatow, 
about  10  miles  from  the  city.  Station  of  the 
ABMU  (1893),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and 
their  wives,  2  women  missionaries,  31  native 
workers,  20  outstations,  8  places  of  worship,  and 
618  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the 
name    Ung-kung. 

YANG-KAU-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Kiang-si, 
China,  situated  a  little  to  the  S.  E.  of  Kwan- 
hsin-fu,  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  province. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1890),  with  (1903)  3  women 
missionaries,  3  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 

I  Sunday  school,  and  68  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Yang-k'eo. 

YANG-KIANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Kwang-tung, 
China,  situated  on  a  little  bay  about  150  miles 
S.  W.  of  Canton.  Station  of  the  PN  (1893), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  two  of  them  with 
their  wives;    20  native  workers,  4    outstations, 

II  places  of  worship,  1  day  school,  1  hospital, 
1  dispensary,  and  279  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Yueng-kong. 

YAO  LANGUAGE:  One  of  the  Bantu  family 
of  African  languages,  spoken  by  a  number 
(not  yet  ascertained)  of  tribes  inhabiting  the 
Eastern  shores  of  Lake  Nyasa,  in  Portuguese 
East  Africa,  and  found  also  in  the  Shir^  region 


south  of  the  lake.  It  has  been  reduced  to 
writing  by  missionaries  with  use  of  the  Roman 
letters. 

^  YARKAND :  A  town  in  Chinese  Turkestan, 
situated  on  the  Yarkand  River,  about  200  miles 
S.  E.  of  Kashgar.  Population  about  60,000, 
mostly  Turks,  who  speak  Turkish  of  the  Eastern 
dialect.  They  are  Mohammedans  in  religion. 
Station  of  the  Swedish  National  Missionary 
Society  (1895),  with  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
1  place  of  worship,  and  1  day  school.  Some  write 
the  name  Jarkend. 

YATES,  Rev.  M.  T. :  Missionary  of  the  Southern 
Baptist  Convention,  born  in  Wake  County, 
N.  C,  January  8,  1819;  died  in  Shanghai,  China, 
March  18,  1888.  He  was  born  of  humble  but 
intelligent  and  pious  parents.  Their  poverty 
forbade  them  to  give  him  the  education  they 
desired  him  to  have,  and  for  which  his  own 
soul  yearned.  He  therefore  made  his  own 
way  through  school  and  college  with  the  assist- 
ance of  his  brethren  who  at  various  times 
became  interested  in  his  struggles.  His  remark 
to  his  father  upon  setting  out  to  prepare  him- 
self for  college  has  been  an  inspiration  to  many 
lads  in  the  Southern  States: — "I  will  go  to 
school  if  I  have  to  make  bricks  by  moonlight 
to  pay  my  way."  It  was  also  characteristic 
of  the  steady  determination  and  self-reliance 
of  the  man. 

He  graduated  from  Wake  Forest  College, 
N.  C,  in  1846,  was  appointed  a  missionary 
August,  1846,  married  Miss  Eliza  Moring  of 
Chatham  Co.,  N.  C,  September  27, 1846,  sailed  for 
China  April,  1847,  and  arrived  in  Shanghai  Sept. 
13,  1847,  shortly  after  it  had  been  made  a  treaty 
port  by  the  treaty  of  1846.  There  in  Shanghai 
and  its  environs  he  labored  for  more  than 
forty  years,  in  spite  of  wars,  famines,  perils, 
sickness,  and  manifold  trials.  Always  he  was 
cheered  and  supported  by  his  devoted  wife 
and  at  intervals  by  other  missionaries  sent  out 
to  reenforce  him.  A  part  of  the  time  he  supported 
not  only  himself,  but  also  other  missionaries 
by  his  labor  as  Vice-Consul  and  his  judicious 
investments  of  frugal  savings  and  the  small 
patrimony  of  his  wife.  Largely  in  this  way 
the  Central  China  Mission  of  the  Southern 
Baptist  Convention  was  preserved,  during 
the  great  Civil  War  in  America  and  for  some 
years  after,  when  the  Board  which  sent  him 
to  China  was  crippled  and  all  but  destroyed. 
He  grew  in  power  and  usefulness  in  spite  of 
overwhelming  difficulties,  until  he  became  a 
master  missionary. 

His  work  was  that  of  laying  good  and  true 
foundations.  He  made  himself  such  a  master 
of  the  spoken  Chinese  language  and  so  thoroughly 
learned  the  Chinese  manners,  modes  of  thought 
and  customs  that  he  was  regarded  by  the 
Chinese — like  Verbeck  in  Japan — as  one  of 
their  own  number.  Besides  useful  religious 
works  he  translated  the  New  Testament  into 
the  Shanghai  dialect,  he  organized  churches 
and  built  houses  of  worship,  established  schools, 
and  otherwise  built  up  what  has  come  to  be 
the  Central  China  Mission  of  the  SBC. 

His  personality  was  great  and  inspiring.  The 
man  had  a  tremendous  influence  both  in  China 


797 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Ya-chan-fn 
Yeiiidls 


and  America  and  among  all  Christian  people. 
By  some,  if  not  all,  of  Ms  compeers  he  was 
regarded  (as  a  Presbyterian  brother  expressed 
it)  as  "head  and  shoulders  above  any  missionary 
in  China."  Certainly  his  towering  form,  his 
learning,  force,  manners,  and  all  that  goes  to 
make  personality — all  conspired  to  make 
him  a  mighty_  factor  in  the  world's  evangeliza- 
tion. Tho  his  body  has  slept  in  the  grave 
for  more  than  fifteen  years,  his  influence  is 
powerful  in  all  the  Southern  States  to-day. 
Once  in  the  dark  hours  of  war  and  reconstruction 
his  imposing  influence  inspired  the  hearts  of 
the  brethren  with  fresh  courage  and  enthusiasm, 
and  that  influence  "still  in  the  world  endures." 

'^"J-JS?  Q9-  ?-^'  ^f"  °f  ^-  ^-  Yates,  Sunday  School  Board 
SBC,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

YATES,  "William:  Born  at  Loughborough, 
Leicestershire,  England,  December  15,  1792. 
Died  July  3,  1845.  Educated  for  the  ministry  at 
Bristol  College;  ordained  August,  1814,  and 
sailed  for  Calcutta  as  a  missionary  of  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  April  16,  1815.  He  joined 
the  mission  at  Serampur,  devoting  himself  to 
preaching  and  assisting  Dr.  Carey  in  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures.  Because  of  the  contro- 
versy of  Dr.  Carey  and  his  companions  at  Seram- 
pur with  the  BMS,  Mr.  Yates,  with  three  asso- 
ciates, separated  from  the  Serampur  Mission.  They 
established  themselves  at  Calcutta  in  1817.  His 
special  work  at  Calcutta  was  the  preparation  of 
books  and  the  organization  of  the  new  printing 
establishment,  which  was  soon  self-supporting. 
Mr.  Yates  visited  England  and  the  United  States 
in  1827-29,  and  while  he  was  in  England  the  un- 
happy breach  was  healed  between  the  Serampur 
mission  and  the  BMS.  On  his  return  to  India  he 
was  again  stationed  at  Calcutta.  He  translated 
the  whole  Bible  into  Bengali,  the  New  Testament 
into  Hindi  and  Hindustani,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  large  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  into 
Sanskrit.  He  was  engaged  in  preparing  the 
latter  for  the  press,  and  a  large  part  had  been 
already  printed.  He  hoped  by  the  close  of 
another  year  to  complete  the  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  into  this  sacred  and  learned  language 
of  the  East.  But,  his  health  failing,  he  sailed 
for  England  in  1845,  and  died  on  the  passage  up 
the  Red  Sea. 

YELAMANCHILI :  A  town  in  Madras,  India, 
about  35  miles  by  railway  S.  W.  of  Vizagapatam. 
Station  of  the  BOQ  (1890),  with  (1903)  1  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  9  native  workers,  1  out- 
station,  1  place  of  worship,  7  Sunday  schools,  1 
day  school,  1  dispensary,  and  50  professed 
Christians. 

YELANDUR :  A  town  in  Central  India,  situated 
S.  of  Raipur  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Jagdalpur. 
Station  of  the  ME,  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and 
his  wife,  5  native  workers,  6  Sunday  schools,  1 
day  school,  1  place  of  worship,  1  outstation,  and 
77  professed  Christians,  of  whom  64  are  com- 
municants.    Some  write  the  name  Yellandu. 

YELLAMANCHILE.     See  Yelamanchili. 

YELLANDU.     See  Yelandur. 

YEN-CHAU:  A  town  in  Che-kiang,  China,  situ- 
ated on  the  river,  about  60  miles  S.  W.  of  Hang- 
chau.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  1  mis- 
sionary and  1  place  of  worship. 

YEN-CHENG:  A  town  in  Ho-nan,  China,  situ- 
ated on  the  Hoang-ho,  and  destined  to  become  an 
important    center,  as    the    railroad    is    to    pass 


through  it.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1902),  with  1 
missionary  and  his  wife  and  1  place  of  worship. 

YEN-SHAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Chi-li,  China, 
situated  about  80  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Tien-tsin  and 
35  miles  from  Tsang-chau.  Station  of  the  LMS 
(1878),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives.  The  station  residences  have  now  been 
transferred  to  Tsang-chau.  Some  write  the 
name  Yen-san. 

YEOTMAL:  A  town  in  Berar,  Central  India, 
about  55  miles  S.  E.  of  Amraoti.  Station  of  the 
Free  Methodist  Church  in  America  (1892),  with 
(1900)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  women 
missionaries,  5  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
2  Sunday  schools,  2  day  schools,  1  industrial 
school,  and  20  professed  Christians. 

YEZD :  A  town  in  Persia,  situated  in  the  central 
part  of  the  country,  about  300  miles  S.  E.  of 
Teheran.  Population  about  53,000.  There  is  a 
small  Parsee  colony  here,  and  many  of  the  Moham- 
medans belong  to  the  Babi  sect.  Station  of  the 
CMS  (1898),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries  and  their 
wives,  3  women  missionaries,  9  native  workers, 
2  day  schools,  1  hospital,  1  dispensary,  and  42 
professed  Christians,  of  whom  12  are  com- 
municants. 

YEZIDIS :  The  Arabs  who  accepted  Mohammed 
called  those  who  did  not  el  johaleen,  i.  e.,  the 
ignorant  ones.  Among  the  latter  was  Yezid  ben 
M'awe,  who  refused  to  accompany  M'awe,  his 
father,  who,  as  an  attendant  upon  his  person, 
followed  the  fortunes  of  Mohammed.  Many  of 
"the  ignorant  ones"  rallied  around  Yezid,  and  he 
became  the  nucleus  of  the  sect  which  appropri- 
ated his  name.  The  Yezidis  possess  a  lineage  tree 
by  means  of  which  they  trace  their  religious 
origin  back  to  him. 

They  seem  to  have  existed  as  a  very  loose 
organization  until  about  1106,  when  there  arose 
among  them  an  elder  called  Sheikh  Hadi,  from 
the  region  of  Damascus.  He  removed  to  the 
district  of  Hakkiari  in  Kurdistan,  and  dwelt  in 
Mount  Lalish,  which  is  eleven  hours  from  Mosul. 
He  died  in  1162,  and  his  tomb,  called  Sheikh  Adi, 
is  hard  by  the  village  of  Ba'adri,  where  also  is 
the  temple  of  the  Yezidis.  This  place,  as  their 
religious  center,  is  by  them  esteemed  superior  to 
Mecca. 

Sheikh  Hadi  gave  more  consistency  to  their 
religious  system — still  very  confused  and  illogical 
— and  greater  stability  to  its  organization,  by 
commiting  to  writing  its  tenets  and  traditions. 
His  work,  which  is  the  authority  for  their  belief, 
is  named  El  Jilweh  (the  Revelation) .  The  orig- 
inal is  the  only  copy  existing,  and  it  is  esteemed 
as  most  holy,  and  is  guarded  at  Sheikh  Adi  with 
the  most  scrupulous  care.  It  is  in  Arabic,  and 
speaks  in  this  wise  of  the  origin  of  the  Yezidis: 

'O  angels,'  said  the  great  God,  'I  am  going  to 
create  Adam  and  Eve.  They  will  become  man- 
kind, and  from  the  lines  of  Adam's  palm  (?)  shall 
proceed  Shehr  ben  Jebr,  and  of  him  a  separate 
community  will  appear  upon  the  earth,  that  of 
Azazael,  i.  e.,  of  Melek  Taous,  which  is  the  sect  of 
the  Yezidis.'  Then  he  sent  Sheikh  Hadi  ben 
Musaffer  from  the  land  of  Damascus,  and  he  came 
and  dwelt  in  Mount  Lalish."  Sheikh  Hadi  was 
an  Arab,  and  was  held  in  high  repute  for  his  piety 
and  devotion.  He  holds  among  the  Yezidis  the 
same  place  that  is  given  to  Moses  by  the  Jews, 
and  that  is  claimed  by  the  Muslims  for  Moham- 
med. 

This  degraded  yet  interesting  people  number 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


79» 


probably  about  200,000  souls,  but  they  are  scat- 
tered over  a  belt  of  territory  300  miles  wide, 
extending  in  length  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Aleppo  in  Northern  Syria  to  the  Caucasus  in 
Southern  Russia.  The  mass  of  them,  however, 
are  to  be  found  in  the  mountains  of  Northern  and 
Central  Kurdistan,  and  among  the  Sinjar  hills  of 
Northern  Mesopotamia. 

Tho  the  mysteries  of  their  religion  are  in  the 
Arabic  language,  Kurdish  is  more  generally 
spoken  by  the  Yezidis  than  Arabic,  both  lan- 
guages being  used  by  those  living  in  the  Sinjar 
hills  and  in  the  region  of  Mosul. 

The  Yezidis  are  an  agricultural  people  and  live 
in  fixed  abodes.  As  a  rule  they  are  neater  and 
cleaner  in  their  homes,  and  in  respect  to  person 
and  dress,  than  either  Arab  or  Kurd;  while  their 
style  of  dress  follows  the  fashions  of  the  people  by 
whom  they  are  surrounded,  except  that  the  shirt 
has  a  square-cut  opening  in  front. 

Generally  speaking  they  are  quiet  and  indus- 
trious, but  in  the  regions  of  Redwan  and  Midyat 
they  are  given  to  house-breaking  and  highway 
robbery,  and  also  hire  themselves  to  Muslims  and 
Christians  for  the  commission  of  deeds  of  blood, 
so  that  they  are  the  terror  of  those  districts.  In 
the  Sinjar  hills,  where  they  constitute  almost  the 
entire  population,  they  are  restive  and  refractory. 
Everywhere  they  entertain  a  deep-seated  hatred 
of  Muslims,  whether  Arabs  or  Kurds,  who  treat 
them  in  return  with  contempt  and  oppression. 
Polygamy  is  allowed  among  them  to  the  limit  of 
six  wives,  but  its  practise  is  not  so  general  as  with 
the  Muslims,  limited  to  four  wives.  The  drink- 
ing of  raki  (a  mild  arrack)  is  enjoined  as  a 
religious  rite  in  connection  with  the  worship  of 
Melek  Taous,  and  accordingly  intemperance  is 
common. 

They  are  recognized  by  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment as  a  distinct  religious  community.  Their 
civil  head  is  an  Emir  whose  title  is  hereditary,  and 
who  is  of  royal  blood,  if  El  Jilweh  is  to  believed. 
It  says:  "Then  Melek  Taous  came  down  to  earth 
for  our  sect,  i.  e.,  the  Yezidis,  the  disturbed,  and 
appointed  kings  for  us,  besides  the  kings  of 
ancient  Assyrians,  Nisroch,  etc.  .  .  .  And 
after  that  we  had  two  kings — Shaboor  (Sapor) 
First  and  Second — who  reigned  150  years;  and 
our  Emirs,  until  this  day,  have  descended  from 
their  seed." 

The  Emir  never  marries  outside  of  this  royal 
line.  He  is  lord  of  the  persons  and  affairs  of  the 
Yezidis,  and  his  power  over  them  is  absolute. 
His  person  is  considered  holy,  and  all  his  acts  are 
regarded  as  righteous.  To  him  belongs  admin- 
istrative power  and  dignity,  as  well  as  ecclesi- 
astical, and  all  the  dealings  of  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment with  the  Yezidis  are  through  him.  For 
this  reason  he  resides  most  of  the  time  in 
Mosul. 

The  Yezidis  have  written  laws  and  statutes 
which  are  read  and  interpreted  only  by  the  mem- 
bers of  one  family — that  of  Mella  Haider,  sur- 
named  El  Bussowi.  The  secretary  of  the  Emir  is 
always  chosen  from  this  family. 

Doctrine:  The  Yezidis  believe  in  God  as  the 
supreme  deity  and  the  first  cause  of  all  things; 
but  they  have  nothing  to  do  with  Him  either  in 
the  way  of  worship  or  service. 

They  believe  in  one  Melek  Taous  (King  Pea- 
cock), who  is  eternal,  an  emanation  from  God, 
became  incarnate  as  Lucifer,  deceived  Adam  and 
Eve  as  Satan,  is  one  of  the  seven  gods  who,  in 
turn,  rule   the  world  for   10,000   years,  and   he, 


having  now  governed  it  for  the  6,000  years,  has. 
yet  4,000  years  in  which  to  reign. 

They  believe  in  one  Sheikh  Hadi,  called  also  in 
ElJilweh  'Abd  Taous  (servant  of  Taous).  They 
say  that  he  is  the  god  of  that  which  is  good,  of 
day  and  of  life;  that  he  is  descended  from  the 
divine  nature,  or,  at  least,  is  so  honored  of  God 
that  whatever  Sheikh  Hadi  wills  comes  to  pass; 
and  that  he  revealed  to  his  disciples  revelations, 
secrets,  a  knowledge  of  the  unseen  and  of  proph- 
ecies. In  his  book  he  claimed  to  be  sent  both  of 
God  and  of  Melek  Taous.  The  second  assertion 
of  El  Jilweh  is:  "He  (Melek  Taous)  sent  'Abd 
Taous  to  this  world  that  he  might  separate  truth 
from  error,  and  make  it  known  to  his  people;  and 
the  first  step  to  that  is  by  tradition,  and  after- 
ward by  this  book  El  Jilweh,  which  the  unin- 
itiated must  neither  read  nor  behold."  His 
claim  to  have  been  sent  of  God  is  made  farther- 
on  in  the  sentence  quoted  at  length  when  stating 
the  origin  of  this  sect.  They  also  say  of  him, 
"The  Yezidis'  god  descended  in  this  era  and  both 
taught  and  established  us."  Sheikh  Hadi  asso- 
ciated himself  with  God  in  stating  farther  on  in 
his  book  that  "He  afterward  came  and  dwelt  in 
Lalish."  Is  there  in  Sheikh  Hadi  an  effort  at  the 
reconciliation  of  God  and  Melek  Taous,  or  the 
union  of  the  two  eternal  principles  (according  to 
Zoroaster)  of  good  and  evil,  in  order  to  secure 
a  reconciliation  of  man  with  each,  and  with  both 
together,  through  worship  at  the  shrine  of  on& 
who  stood  for  both? 

They  believe  in  six  other  gods.  El  Jilweh 
says:  "He  created  six  gods  from  himself  and 
from  his  light;  and  their  creation  was  as  one 
lights  a  light  from  another  light."  This  recalls 
the  Zoroastrian  doctrine  of  Ahura  Mazda  and  his 
six  gifts. 

They  accept  Christ  as  the  "Light  of  God," 
and  say  that  He  cannot  die;  also  that  He  is  a 
Savior  and  will  come  again.  But  all  these  are 
evidently  accommodations  to  the  Christian  sects, 
with  whom  they  are  brought  into  contact.  In 
the  same  way  the  Yezidis  about  Redwan  have 
attempted  to  accommodate  their  tenets  to  the 
Christian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

They  hold  to  the  Transmigration  of  Souls,  but 
subject  to  the  caprice  of  Melek  Taous,  for  El 
Jilweh  says:  "I  (Melek  Taous)  will  not  allow  one 
in  this  wretched  world  longer  than  the  time 
determined  by  me;  and  if  I  desire  it  I  send  him  a 
second  or  a  third  time  into  this  world,  or  some 
other,  by  the  transmigration  of  souls."  When 
righteous  souls  return  they  enter  into  men,  but 
wicked  spirits  are  sent  back  to  reside  in  the 
beasts.  Yet  along  with  this  they  hold  to  a  Res- 
urrection, when  Sheikh  Hadi  will  carry  all  the 
Yezidis  to  paradise  on  a  tray  borne  upon  his  head. 
They  hold  to  a  future  judgment  and  punishment 
for  all — except  the  Yezidis.  El  J ilweh  say s:  "I 
(Melek  Taous)  punish  in  other  worlds  those  who 
do  contrary  to  my  laws."  They  have  Islamic 
notions  of  paradise  as  a  place  of  eating  and  drink- 
ing, together  with  the  pleasures  of  physical  love. 
They  claim  to  receive  the  Old  Testament,  the 
New  Testament,  and  the  Koran,  but  reverence 
the  Old  Testament  more  than  either  of  the  others. 
This  acceptance  is,  however,  a  qualified  one,  for 
El  Jilweh  says:  "The  books  of  those  who  are 
without  I  accept  in  a  sense,  i.  e.,  those  that  agree 
with  and  conform  to  my  statutes.  Whatsoever 
is  contrary  to  these  they  have  altered." 

The  Yezidi  ecclesiastical  polity  has  the  form  of 
a  religious  oligarchy,  is  composed  of  six  orders 


799 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  MISSIONS 


Yezldi* 


besides  the  Emir,  which  are  chiefly  hereditary 
and  confined  to  as  many  distinct  families 
These  orders  are: 

(1)  The  Sheikh:  He  i^  called  Sheikh  Mengah, 
which  IS  the  name  of  a  district  comprising  the 
regions  of  Mosul,  Amadieh,  and  Zakho.  He  is 
the  chief  ecclesiastic  of  the  sect.  He  ranks  next 
to  the  Emir,  who  is  the  religious  as  well  as 
political  head,  even  as  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam  in 
Turkey  ranks  next  to  the  Sultan,  who  is  the 
Cahph.  The  Sheikh  is  the  guardian  of  the  tomb 
of  Sheikh  Hadi.  The  insignia  of  his  office  are  a 
kind  of  girdle  which  is  worn  about  the  body  and 
a  netting  of  catgut  which  is  carried  in  the  hand. 
He  is  supposed  to  prophesy,  and  has  paradise  in 
his  flowing  sleeves,  sections  of  which  he  is  willing 
to  dispose  of  to  purchasers  according  to  the  sums 
received.  Whenever  the  Sheikh  appears  among 
the  people  they  submit  themselves  to  him  in 
lowly  reverence  and  humility. 

(2)  Sheikhs:  This  order  was  founded  by  Sheikh 
Hadi.  Every  Sheikh  traces  his  lineage  back 
through  a  regular  succession  to  a  Patriarch  who 
is  regarded  not  only  as  the  bestower  of  the  office 
of  Sheikh,  but  also  as  the  assistant  and  advocate 
of  those  in  his  line  who  exercise  the  office,  and  as 
the  avenger  of  all  injuries  inflicted  upon  them. 
For  this  reason  no  Yezidi  dares  to  return  the 
smiting  of  an  ecclesiastic.  Each  Sheikh  has  the 
privilege  of  doctoring  a  special  disease.  The 
Sheikhs  frighten  their  followers  into  giving 
presents  and  alms  according  to  their  will  by 
threatening  to  punish  them,  upon  refusal,  with 
pestilence,  fever,  distress,  sickness,  and  pains, 
or  the  control  of  their  enemies  over  them — such 
power  being  supposed  to  reside  in  each  Sheikh. 

From  this  order  comes  the  Mella,  who  is  the 
instructor  of  youth,  the  guardian  of  "the  book," 
of  religious  mysteries,  and  of  the  interests  of  the 
sect.  He  is  also  the  secretary  of  the  Emir,  and 
in  his  family  alone  are  reading  and  writing 
allowed.     The  office  is  hereditary. 

(3)  Pirs:  They  are  the  Nazarites,  who  take 
vows  of  celibacy  and  devote  themselves  and 
their  property  to  Sheikh  Hadi.  To  them  apper- 
tains the  conduct  of  hair-dressing  and  of  the 
fasts  and  feasts.  They  are  also  intercessors,  and 
perform  their  function  upon  certain  heaps  of 
stones  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sheikh  Adi,  where 
they  continually  reside. 

(4)  Kuchiks:  The  word  is  Kurdish  and  signifies 
dancer.  These  attend  to  the  service  of  the 
tambourines,  praises  and  songs.  They  order  and 
conduct  the  sacred  dance  upon  the  feast-days. 
They  praise  the  gods  Hadi  and  Taous  with  tam- 
bourine and  fife  until  they  swoon  in  a  trance, 
when  they  utter  strange  sounds  and  language. 
They  declare  what  is  revealed  to  them  in 
dream,  trance,  and  vision,  and  are  reckoned  as 
prophets.  They  are  said  to  have  the  power  of  life 
and  death — probably  through  the  influence  of 
magic. 

(5)  Kowals:  These  are  the  priests  proper,  to 
whom  pertain  the  duties  of  imparting  religious 
instruction  to  the  people,  and  of  sepulture.  All 
instruction  is  oral,  in  which  they  profess  to  be 
guided  by  an  "inner  light"  to  which  all,  even  the 
Emir,  must  give  heed.  Whenever  a  Yezidi  is 
about  to  die  he  is  visited  by  a  Kowal,  or  his  agent, 
who  removes  the  dying  man's  sins  by  transferring 
them  to  himself.  They  divide  with  the  Pirs  the 
function  of  intercessors,  and  to  them  belongs  the 
privilege,  each  year,  of  bidding  for  the  concession 
of  conducting   the    "Sanjak   Taous"   among  the 


Yezidi    villages.     They   never  use  a  razor  upon 
their  heads. 

(6)  Fakirs:  These  constitute  the  lowest  order 
of  the  priesthood.  They  are  entrusted  with  the 
instruction  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  tambourine, 
in  dancing,  and  religious  evolutions.  They  are 
married,  have  a  salary,  live  in  Sheikh  Adi,  and 
are  the  janitors  of  that  holy  place. 

The  Yezidis  worship  Melek  Taous  through  his 
"Sanjak,"  or  symbol,  which  is  a  sacred  brazen 
cock,  one  eye  of  which  is  marked  over  by  a  cross. 
They  also  adore  Sheikh  Hadi,  who  is  still  a  god 
tho  his  body  be  dead,  and  who  receives  divine 
honors  at  his  tomb  in  Sheikh  Adi.  Forasmuch 
as  he  was  also  sent  of  Melek  Taous,  the  sacred 
cock  stands  for  him  also,  so  that  he  is  worshiped 
at  the  same  time  with  Melek  Taous,  and  at  his 
tomb  the  "Sanjak"  of  Melek  Taous  is  revered 
equally  with  the  tomb.  The  two  eternal  prin- 
ciples have  thus  equal  honor,  and  by  this  arrange- 
ment no  one  can  worship  the  one  without  equally 
worshiping  the  other.  Here  again  there  seems 
to  be  an  attempt  to  accommodate  something  to 
their  needs  from  the  Parsee  religion.  In  the 
Vendidad  the  cock  is  a  sacred  bird — the  bird  of 
Sraosha,  who  is  Obedience  to  the  law  of  Mazda 
and  chief  of  the  Yazatas  and  their  leader  against 
the  leader  of  the  demon  host,  ^shna  Deeva.  The 
Yezidis  seem  to  combine  the  two  principles  and 
so  make  the  cock  represent  both. 

These  two  gods  are  the  chief  objects  of  their 
worship,  and  the  tomb  of  one  and  the  sanjak  of 
the  other  are  the  symbols  employed  to  bring 
them  before  the  worshipers. 

The  sun  is  regarded  as  an  exalted  spirit  with- 
out whom  there  would  be  no  stability  to  the 
universe,  and,  therefore,  also  worthy  of  respect 
and  worship.  Fire,  more  especially  as  lightning 
and  flame,  is  considered  a  sacred  element,  and  is 
worshiped  by  adoration.  They  have  also  a 
bronze  image  of  an  ox  which  they  worship  at  a 
festival  in  November. 

The  tombs  of  departed  Sheikhs  are  regarded 
as  holy,  and  in  religious  rites  conducted  at  them 
the  assistance  of  those  entombed  therein  is 
specially  invoked. 

The  Yezidi  worship  has  a  certain  fixed  ritual 
difficult  to  understand.  When  the  "Sanjak 
Taous"  is  carried  to  a  village  it  is  accompanied 
by  Kowals,  who  march  before  it  with  timbrel 
and  pipe.  It  must  remain  in  tlie  village  over 
night,  and  the  Yezidis  must  drink  "raki"  in  its 
presence.  Its  worshipers  approach  it  upon  their 
knees,  kiss  it,  mutter  prayers,  deposit  their  con- 
tributions in  a  box  by  its  side,  rise  and  walk 
away  with  their  face  toward  it.  Meanwhile  a 
candle  burns  on  either  side  of  the  Iioly  bird. 
They  have  no  liturgy,  nor  do  they  pray  audibly, 
believing  that  all  prayer  should  be  with  the  heart 
only.  They  say  God  does  not  require  them  to 
fast,  save  during  Ramazan,  when  they  fast  three 
days  instead  of  thirty.  This  fast  must  be  begun 
and  ended  in  the  presence  of  either  Sheikh  or  Pir. 
It  is  ended  by  a  participation  in  holy  wine  1hat  is 
considered  to  be  the  blood  of  Christ.  The  cup 
containing  it  is  held  in  both  hands,  after  the  sac- 
rificial manner  of  the  East,  and  if  a  drop  should 
fall  it  is  gathered  with  religious  care. 

The  Yezidi  feasts  are  the  following:  1.  On  the 
first  Wednesday  in  April,  which  is  the  beginning 
of  their  year.  2.  August  1,  continuing  three 
days,  in  honor  of  Melek  Fukhr  ed  Deen.  3. 
September  22,  continuing  eight  days,  to  Sheikh 
Hadi.     This  is  called    "et   towafat" — i.  e.,   the 


Ylngr-chan-fTl 
Young  Men's 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


800 


floods.  4.  November,  called  the  Naheevi.  (This 
feast  is  especially  observed  by  the  Yezidis  of 
Jebel  Toor,  at  which  the  sacred  ox  is  worshiped  in 
connection  with  Babylonian  orgies.)  5.  January 
1,  lasting  three  days,  in  honor  of  Shems  ed  Din 
At  all  these  feasts  there  is  much  singing  in  con- 
nection with  the  religious  dances.  They  have  a 
hymn-book  called  "Zemboor,"  the  hymns  _  of 
which  are  in  Arabic.  They  have  also  songs  which 
are  in  Kurdish,  and  are  sung  to  Kurdish  tunes. 

So  long  as  the  Turkish  Government  continues 
to  draft  Yezidis  into  the  army  it  will  not  allow 
them  to  be  Christianized.  Another  formidable 
obstacle  is  found  in  a  requisition  of  their  religion 
that  no  one  shall  learn  to  read  or  have  any  dealing 
with  books  except  the  family  of  Sheikh  ul 
Bussowi,  as  stated  above,  the  custodians  of  the 
sacred  book.  Nevertheless,  there  have  been 
instances  where  Yezidis  have  seemed  to  be 
touched  by  the  Gospel,  and  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that,  with  freedom  to  learn,  the  Yezidis 
may  yet  come  forth  from  their  strange  super- 
stitions to  follow  Him  who  is  the  Light  of  the 
World. 

YING-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Ngan-hwei, 
China,  situated  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  province, 
on  the  Sha-ho.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1897), 
with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  one  them  with 
his  wife;  2  native  workers,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  day  school,  1  Sunday  school  and  3  professed 
Christians.     Some  write  the  name  Ying-chow-fu. 

YING-SHAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Sze-chwan, 
China,  situated  about  40  miles  S.  E.  of  Pao-ning- 
fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1898),  with  (1903) 
3  women  missionaries,  1  native  worker,  1  place 
of  worship  and  15  professed  Christians. 

YO-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Hu-nan,  China, 
situated  a  little  S.  of  the  Yangtsze  River,  used 
by  the  LMS  as  a  point  of  entrance  to  the  province. 
After  a  short  period  of  observation  the  station 
residences  were  transferred  to   Heng-chau. 

YOH-YANG.     See    Yo-yang. 

YOKOHAMA:  One  of  the  most  important 
of  the  treaty  ports  of  Japan.  It  is  situated  on 
a  plain  by  the  side  of  the  bay  of  Tokio,  on  the 
S.  coast  of  the  main  island,  and  is  shut  in  by 
hills.  It  occupies  an  area  of  a  square  mile, 
about  one-fourth  of  which  is  a  foreign  settle- 
ment. The  climate  is  variable,  the  thermometer 
ranging  from  95°  to  43°  F.,  and  the  rainfall 
is  quite  great.  The  harbor  is  a  wide  and  com- 
modious one,  well  protected  by  a  breakwater. 
Yokohama  is  a  port  of  call  for  the  lines  of 
steamers  between  San  Francisco  and  Hong- 
kong. Other  lines  connect  it  with  Shanghai, 
as  well  as  numerous  steamers  which  run  from  it 
to  points  in  Japan  and  China.  A  line  of  steamers 
from  Vancouver  to  Hongkong  stops  there 
regularly.  A  railway  connects  it  with  Tokio, 
and  was  the  first  railway  opened  in  Japan 
(1872).  It  is  also  the  terminus  of  a  railroad 
which  runs  to  Kioto. 

Population  (1898)  is  193,762;  many  Europeans 
and  numerous  Chinese  are  included  in  the  total. 
The  following  Societies  have  mission  stations 
here:  RCA  (1859),  PN  (1859),  WU  (1871), 
ABMU(1872),  ME^  Methodist  Protestant  (1879), 
Salvation  Army,  Hephizabah  Faith  Mission, 
Zion  Catholic  Christian  Church.  All  together 
they  have  44  missionaries,  men  and  women; 
155  native  workers,  men  and  women;  22  native 
workers,    8    day    schools,    10    boarding    schools 


and  1,921  professed  Christians.  The  ABS  (1876) 
and  the  BFBS  each  have  an  agency  and  a 
book  depot  in  Yokohama. 

YORK:  A  town  in  Sierra  Leone,  West  Africa,  i  i 
situated  on  the  seacoast  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Whale  River  16  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Freetown. 
Station  of  the  CMS  (1822),  with  (1903)  4  native 
workers,  3  outstations,  1  place  of  worship, 
1  Sunday  school,  2  day  schools,  and  261  pro- 
fessed Christians,  of  whom  83  are  communicants. 
Also  station  of  the  UMFC  (1860),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  36  native  workers, 
1  outstation,  2  places  of  worship,  2  Sunday 
schools,  and  430  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
217  are  communicants.  Station  of  the  WMS 
also,  with  (1903)  25  native  workers,  4  outstations, 
7  places  of  worship,  3  Sunday  schools,  3  day 
Fchools  and  355  professed  Christians,  of  whom 
316  are  communicants. 

YORUBA:    N.ame  of  a  people  inhabiting  the 
country  inland  from  Lagos,  West  Africa. 

YORTJBAN:  A  language  belonging  to  the 
Negro  group  of  African  languages.  It  is  found 
in  several  dialects  among  the  tribes  occupying 
the  Lagos  protectorate  and  ths  terrritory  from 
Dahomey  to  the  west  bank  of  the  Niger,  behind  >  >  > 
the  seacoast  belt.  The  people  are  intelligent 
and  enterprising  and  the  language  is  suited 
to  the  development  of  the  people.  It  was 
reduced  to  writing  by  CMS  missionaries  in 
the  early  part  of  the  19th  century,  and  is  written 
with   Roman   letters.  ,    ,  , 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION:  '  '  ' 
Organizations  of  Christian  young  men  for 
mutual  improvement,  and  for  more  or  less 
of  religious  activity,  have  probably  existed  in 
almost  every  age  of  the  Church.  There  is 
historical  record  of  such  societies  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Charles 
I.  They  maintained  a  continuous  existence  for 
nearly  one  hundred  years,  through  the  revolutions 
under  Cromwell  and  King  William,  attaining 
their  highest  prosperity  in  the  reign  of  the 
latter.  The  chief  object  of  these  societies  was 
the  promotion  of  personal  piety  among  their 
members,  but  they  gave  rise  in  1691  to  the 
"Societies  for  the  Reformation  of  Manners," 
which  had  for  their  aim  the  suppression  of  vice 
through  legal  means.  These  were  called  into 
being  by  the  low  state  of  public  morals,  which, 
notwithstanding  the  better  attitude  of  the  court 
of  William  and  Mary,  had  little  mended  since  <  <  < 
the  dissolute  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  early 
efforts  of  these  reform  societies  were  favored 
by  the  civil  courts,  and  they  flourished  for 
about  forty  years.  They  had  become  extinct, 
however,  in  1757,  and  an  effort  to  revive  them 
by  members  of  Wesley's  and  Whitefield's 
congregations  was  defeated  through  the  in- 
difference if  not  actual  hostility  of  the  authorities. 
In  the  19th  century,  between  1823  and  1838, 
David  Nasmith,  of  Glasgow,  formed  about 
seventy  Young  Men's  Societies  in  as  many 
cities  of  the  United  Kingdom,  France,  and 
America.  In  Germany,  as  early  as  1832, 
similar  associations  of  young  men  were  formed, 
closely  connected  with  the  established  churches 
and  their  pastors.  But  while  all  these  were 
societies  for  young  men,  with  a  distinctively 
Christian  purpose  and  activity,  they  did  not 
seek  broadly  to  promote  the  physical  intellectual 
and  social  as  well  as  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
young  men;  develop  or  train  a  special  class  of 


801 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Yin^-clian-fu 
Youngr  IMen'H 


executive  officers  or  acquire  property  in  the 
form  of  buildings  which  made  them  locally 
permanent.  They  did  not  band  themselves 
together  m  district,  national,  international 
and  world  s  conferences,  altho  some  of  them, 
notably  those  of  Germany,  are  now  part  of  the 
brotherhood  forming  the  World's  Conference  of 
the  Associations.  The  present  Glasgow  and 
Cincinnati  Associations  claim  to  have  orig- 
inated quite  independently  of  suggestion  from 
London;  but  it  seems  beyond  dispute  that  the 
movement  which  has  resulted  in  the  present 
world-wide  brotherhood  can  be  traced  to  the 
parent  English-speaking  association  which  was 
organized  in  London  by  George  Williams,  June 
6,  1844. 

But  while  the  origin  and  early  growth  of  the 
movement  took  place  in  Great  Britain,  the 
larger  development  and  expansion  of  the  work 
has  been  wrought  out  by  the  American  Associa- 
tions. A  knowledge  of  the  London  Association 
and  its  work  led  to  the  formation  of  Associa- 
tions in  Montreal,  Canada,  December  9,  1851, 
and  in  Boston  the  29th  of  the  same  month, 
neither  city  having  any  knowledge  of  the 
other's  action.  Other  cities  followed,  till  some 
twenty-five  similar  organizations  were  known 
to  be  in  existance  at  the  date  of  the  first  con- 
vention, which  met  in  Buffalo,  June  7,  1854, 
followed  by  the  first  World's  Conference  in 
Paris,  August  19,  1855.  Here  the  following 
declaration,  since  known  as  the  Paris  Basis, 
or  the  Basis  of  1855,  was  adopted:  "The  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  seeks  to  unite  those 
young  men,  who,  regarding  Jesus  Christ  as 
their  God  and  Savior,  according  to  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  desire  to  be  His  disciples  in  their 
doctrine  and  in  their  life,  and  to  associate  their 
efforts  for  the  extension  of  His  kingdom  among 
young  men."  Upon  this  rests  the  affiliation  of 
the  Associations  of  all  lands,  represented  since 
1855  by  a  triennial  World's  Convention,  and 
since  1878  by  a  Central  International  Com- 
mittee, with  headquarters  at  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land. This  declaration  was  ratified  by  the 
American  International  Convention  at  Montreal 
in  1856,  and  at  Detroit  in  1868  was  added  what 
is  known  as  the  "active  membership  test,"  by 
which  in  the  American  Associations  only  those 
in  full  communion  with  an  evangelical  church 
are  admitted  to  voting  and  office-bearing 
membership.  At  the  Portland  Convention  the 
following  year  this  action  was  unanimously 
reaffirmed,  the  meaning  of  the  term  "evangelical" 
was  defined,  and  representation  at  the  Inter- 
national Convention,  from  all  Associations 
thereafter  organized,  made  conditional  upon 
this  test  being  embodied  in  their  constitutions. 

In  April,  1860,  the  Associations  of  North 
America  had  about  25,000  members.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  large  numbers  of 
their  young  men  entered  the  armies  on  both 
sides,  and  the  Associations  naturally  followed 
them  with  efforts  for  their  welfare  and  that  of 
their  comrades.  At  the  instance  of  the  New 
York  Association  a  special  convention  was 
called  November  14,  1861,  which  resulted  in 
the  organization  of  the  United  States  Christian 
Commission,  the  work  of  which  largely  absorbed 
the  energies  of  the  Northern  Associations  during 
the  remainder  of  the  war.  With  the  return  of 
peace,  however,  the  Associations  took  up  their  old 
Work  with  renewed  zeal,  advanced  ideas,  and 
better  methods.  From  about  this  time  dates 
51 


the  beginning  of  that  unparalleled  growth 
which  has  marked  the  past  three  decades. 
The  formal  adoption  of  the  evangelical  test 
secured  the  active  sympathy  of  the  churches; 
a  clearer  conception  of  the  work,  as  distinctively 
for  and  by  young  men,  focalized  thought  and 
effort,  and  rapidly  developed  both  methods 
and  men;  this  called  for  better  facilities,  which 
were  readily  furnished  as  the  practical  character 
of  the  work  was  recognized;  the  work  demanded 
systematic  supervision,  and  the  paid  secretary- 
ship was  developed;  the  Associations  increased  in 
number,  spread  over  the  country,  and  grew 
multiplex  in  their  departments  of  work,  and 
State  organization  and  a  comprehensive  general 
supervision  became  a  necessity;  broadened 
methods  and  appliances  in  the  local  work  asked 
for  larger,  better  adapted  and  permanent 
quarters,  and  buildings  sprang  up  by  the  score, 
till  to-day  the  Associations  are  a  universally 
acknowledged  force  in  the  religious,  educational, 
and  social  life  of  the  country. 

In  government  the  individual  Associations 
are  independent,  except  as  to  the  single  item  of 
the  active-membership  test,  each  society  con- 
ducting its  business  affairs  through  a  board  of 
directors  as  the  corporate  management,  and 
with  a  paid  executive  officer  styled  a  general 
secretary;  but  they  are  united  in  a  thorough 
system  of  general  organization,  embracing 
delegated  conventions,  executive  committees, 
and  visiting  agents,  the  decisions  and  advice  of 
which,  tho  in  the  main  only  advisory,  are 
very  generally  accepted  and  followed.  With 
the  Associations  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  this  system  embraces: 

1.  A  Biennial  Convention  (annual  previous 
to  1878),  composed  of  delegates  from  all  the 
Associations,  representation  being  based  upon  the 
active  membership.  The  ad  interim  powers  of 
this  convention  are  vested  in  an  executive 
board,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  by 
classes  at  the  biennial  sessions.  Since  1866  the 
headquarters  and  a  working  quorum  of  this 
body  have  been  located  in  New  York,  and  in 
1883  it  was  incorporated  as  the  International 
Committee,  a  name  by  which  it  had  for  years 
been  known.  The  scope  of  the  committee's 
work  is  broad,  including  (a)  supervision  and 
extension — generally  of  all  the  work,  in  fuli 
when  there  is  no  State  organization,  and  very 
largely  of  such  special  departments  as  the 
college,  railroad,  German,  and  foreign  work; 
the  State  organizations  owe  their  existence  and 
early  nurture  to  the  act  and  care  of  the  Inter- 
national Convention  and  its  committee;  (6) 
securing,  training,  and  recommending  general 
secretaries;  (c)  advising  and  assisting  regarding 
the  plans,  location,  and  methods  of  building  and 
the  management  of  property;  (d)  securing  funds 
for  its  own  work  and  aiding  State  and  local 
Associations  in  raising  money  for  State  work,  for 
new  buildings,  to  place  secretaries  in  new  fields, 
and  in  special  financial  emergencies;  (e)  arranging 
for  the  International  meetings,  assisting  in  plan- 
ning many  State  and  special  conventions,  and 
sending  official  representatives  to  all;  (/)  con- 
ducting an  extensive  correspondence;  (?)  a 
publication  list  of  tracts  and  books,  several 
annuals  and  periodicals,  including  the  "Year- 
Book;"  (A)  through  the  systematic  efforts 
of  the  committee,  the  American  Associations 
have  observed  annually,  since  1866,  a  day  and 
week  of  prayer  in  November,  and  since    1875, 


TTonns  Men's 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


802 


by  act  of  the  World's  Conference,  the  Associa- 
tions of  other  lands  have  j  oined  in  this  observance ; 
(i)  in  times  of  overwhelming  calamity  by  fire, 
flood,  fever,  or  disaster,  the  Associations  have 
often  rendered  communities  effective  help 
through  this  committee,  as  their  agent,  in 
gathering  and  distributing  such  relief. 

2.  State  Organizations:  modeled  after  the 
international,  and  doing  a  like  work,  so  far  as 
needed,  in  their  respective  fields. 

The  organization  and  work  of  the  typical 
American  Association  may  be  thus  described: 
(a)  A  dual  membership:  (1)  Active — men  who 
are  members  of  evangelical  churches,  and  who 
constitute  its  voting,  ofBce-bearing,  and  working 
force;  (2)  Associate — young  men  of  good  moral 
character,  who  join  usually  for  the  secular 
privileges.  The  total  membership  of  the  1,736 
Associations  reporting  in  1903  is  350,455.  (6) 
A  business  organization,  with  constitution,  legal 
incorporation,  officers,  board  of  management, 
and  well-ordered  system  of  committees,  (c)  A 
paid  secretary,  to  supervise  and  direct,  under 
the  local  board,  and  to  develop  workers,  rather 
than  to  attempt  too  much  detail  work  himself, 
leaving  that  mostly  to  assistants.  The  total 
number  of  general  secretaries,  physical  directors, 
and  assistants  in  the  various  departments  of 
the  local  work  is  1,729.  A  school  devoted  chiefly 
to  the  training  of  young  men  as  general  secretaries 
and  gymnasium  instructors,  opened  in  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  in  1885,  has  (1903)  an  enrollment  of 
about  100,  while  a  school  of  like  character 
organized  in  1891  at  Chicago  has  about  150 
students,  and  there  are  several  well-constituted 
summer  schools,  notably  those  at  Lake  Geneva, 
Wis.,  and  at  Silver  Bay,  Lake  George,  N.  Y. 
(d)  A  building  of  its  own,  usually  comprising 
reading-room,  library,  parlors,  recreation-room, 
offices  for  secretaries  and  directors,  large  and 
small  lecture-rooms,  class-rooms,  gymnasium, 
including  bowling-alley,  baths,  and  dressing- 
rooms;  a  kitchen  and  janitors'  quarters.  There 
are  460  such  buildings,  valued  at  $24,016,415— 
a  good  index  of  the  estimate  put  upon  the  work 
by  Christian  business  men,  and  a  strong  guarantee 
of    its    permanency,     (e)    An    organized    work: 

(1)  Religious — consisting  of  Bible-classes, 
evangelistic  and  for  Christian  young  men; 
workers'  training-classes;  evangelistic  and 
devotional;  meetings  for  young  men;  special 
work  in  the  interests  of  personal  purity,  temper- 
ance, etc.;  systematic  invitation  work;  the 
distribution  of  religious  literature;  and  a  directly 
personal   work,   which   is   specially   emphasized. 

(2)  Educational — reading-rooms;  circulating 
and  reference  libraries;  evening  classes  in 
practical  and  liberal  branches,  book-keeping, 
penmanship,  stenography,  mathematics,  drawing, 
languages,  history,  literature,  political  science, 
music,  etc.;  literary  societies,  and  educational 
lecturers.  (3)  Social — attractive  rooms  for 
resort,  with  companionable  supervision,  music, 
recreative  games,  and  a  variety  of  social  gather- 
ings and  entertainments.  (4)  Physical — 
facilities  for  artificial  exercise  of  every  descrip- 
tion, and  under  instructors  competent,  from 
both  a  scientific  and  practical  training,  to  make 

'physical  examinations  and  prescribe  safe  and 
helpful  work;  baths  and  open  athletic  grounds 
for  field-sports,  and  clubs  for  boating,  swimming, 
rambling,  etc.  (5)  Economics — employment 
bureau,  boarding-house  register,  savings-bank, 
medical  club,  visitation  of  the  sick,  and  similar 


service.  (6)  Junior  department,  in  which,  under 
special  supervision  and  with  separate  rooms, 
a  more  or  less  full  line  of  work  is  carried  out  for 
boys,  and  from  which  they  graduate  into  the  senior 
departments. 

The  International  Committee,  with  head- 
quarters at  3  W.  29th  St.,  New  York  City,  has 
43  members  aside  from  the  officers,  and  15 
advisory  members,  besides  Board  of  Trustees 
of  15  members.  Most  of  the  members  live 
in  New  York  or  vicinity,  but  there  are  representa- 
tives from  different  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  There  are  also  52  corresponding 
members  representing  different  States  and 
foreign  countries. 

For  active  work  the  staff  is  divided  into 
14  departments: 

The  Office,  Publication,  and  Business  Depart- 
ments have  charge  of  the  general  correspondence, 
literature,  and  financial  management.  The 
Field  Department,  occupied  with  the  extension, 
development,  equipment  and  trained  leadership 
of  the  Association  work  in  the  cities  and  towns, 
and  also  the  strengthening  of  the  work  of  the  State 
and  provincial  organizations.  There  are  7  secreta- 
ries, 1  in  New  York ,  the  others  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.  The  Railroad  Department  organizes  Asso- 
ciations among  railroad  men,  provides  rooms, 
libraries,  buildings,  and  all  the  usual  features 
of  an  Association.  For  a  time  it  was  rather 
frowned  upon  by  railroad  authorities,  but  of 
late  years  they  have  come  to  recognize  its 
value  and  have  aided  materially  in  its  develop- 
ment, contributing  liberally  in  the  erection 
of  buildings  and  assisting  in  many  ways  to 
make  it  easy  for  men  to  attend  the  meetings,  etc. 
An  illustration  is  the  Missouri  Pacific  system, 
where  13  well-equipped  Associations  were 
organized  within  four  years.  There  were  in 
1903,  198  Associations,  with  a  membership 
of  63,000,  an  increase  of  50  per  cent,  in  two 
years.  There  are  79  buildings,  valued  at 
ll, 129, 050,  owned  by  Associations,  8  under 
construction  valued  at  $159,500,  and  35  others 
set  apart  by  the  cempanies  for  their  use,  valued 
at  $541,000.  Work  among  street  employes 
is  being  organized  and  plans  are  under  considera- 
tion for  extending  the  system  into  the  countries 
of  Europe.  The  Industrial  Department  is  the 
most  recently  organized  (1902)  and  resulted 
from  a  study  of  Association  work  among  the 
4,500,000  men  employed  in  the  various  indus- 
trial enterprises  of  the  continent.  It  looks  forward 
to  the  erection  of  buildings  or  the  equipment  of 
rooms  in  connection  with  the  great  factories. 

The  Students'  Department  has  (1903)  635 
Associations  among  students  (exclusive  of 
colored  and  Indian  departments);  of  these,  48 
are  in  the  theological  seminaries,  72  in  the 
medical  and  other  professional  schools,  and 
the  remainder  in  universities,  colleges,  and  nor- 
mal and  preparatory  schools.  Special  emphasis 
is  placed  on  Bible  study,  and  in  1902  there 
were  16,042  enrolled  in  the  Student  Bible  Classes, 
while  the  secretary  in  charge  was  in  correspond- 
ence with  1,808  Bible  class  leaders.  Student 
Conferences  for  the  training  of  leaders  are  held 
at  Northfield,  Mass.';  Lake  Geneva,  Wis.;  Ashe- 
ville,  N.  C.r,  Pacific  Grove,  Cal.5  Gearhart, 
Oregon,  and  Lakeside,  Ohio.  The  spiritual 
effect  of  the  work  is  seen  in  the  conversion 
of  over  3,000  young  men  in  the  year.  Ten 
student  secretaries  are  employed  by  the  In- 
ternational    Committee,    some     in     office    and 


808 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


YonnK  Men's 


superintendence    work    and    others    in    visiting 
colleges,  etc. 

The  Army  and  Navy  Department  received  a 
special  impulse  during  the  war  with  Spain  and 
has  been  developed  steadily.  It  has  received 
the  most  cordial  support  of  officials,  and  the 
membership  of  enlisted  men  steadily  increases. 
A  Soldiers'  Bible  and  Prayer  League  and  a 
Temperance  Union  have  added  over  1,000  names 
in  a  single  year.  There  are  1 50  traveling  libraries 
,  in  constant  circulation,  and  75  tons  of  stationery, 
reading  matter,  games,  etc.,  were  shipped  from 
the  office  in  New  York  for  the  different  posts. 
There  are  31  buildings  in  the  U.  S.,  14  in  Cuba, 
1  in  Porto  Rico,  4  in  the  Philippines,  1  in  China, 
and  4  in  Alaska.  Bible  classes,  religious  meet- 
ings, and  entertainments  are  held  at  269  different 
points. 

In  the  Naval  Department  branches  are  open 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Norfolk,  Va. ;  Newport, 
R.  I.';  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  and  at  Manila, 
Cavite,  and  Olongapo,  in  the  Philippines.  Over 
1,000  sailors  and  marines  are  members.  A 
striking  feature  is  the  savings  department, 
which  in  six  months  handled  nearly  $150,000 
for  the  men.  Over  1,600  men  joined  the  Naval 
Temperance  League  during  the  year  (1903). 

The  Colored  Department:  Of  the  103  Associa- 
tions in  this  department  69  are  in  educational 
institutions  and  34  in  cities,  with  a  member- 
ship of  over  7,000.  Two  Conferences  at  Dan- 
ville, Va.,  and  Montgomery,  Ala.,  were 
well  attended.  Seventeen  secretaries  give  their 
entire  time,  2  in  New  York  and  15  in  the 
Associations. 

Boys'  Department:  The  growth  in  this  depart- 
ment has  been  very  great.  The  576  Associa- 
tions report  45,000  members,  or  if  those  holding 
senior  tickets  were  included,  80,000.  There 
are  over  100  boys'  work  specialists,  1,500  rooms 
used,  120,000  in  attendance  on  Bible  classes, 
while  between  3,000  and  4,000  are  admitted 
to  the  evening  classes. 

The  Indian  Department:  This  reports  47 
Associations,  with  a  membership  of  over  2,000, 
in  Manitoba,  Ind.  Ter.,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Nortli 
Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  and 
South  Dakota. 

Religious  Work  Department:  In  this  the 
special  effort  has  been  to  secure  quality  rather 
than  quantity,  yet  8,016  volunteer  workers 
have  been  registered  in  the  year,  while  31,300 
have  attended  the  1,711  Bible  classes,  and  the 
total  attendance  at  religious  meetings  of  all 
kinds  was  3,230,000.  In  1903,  18,613  con- 
versions were  reported. 

The  EducationalDepartment:  In  the  different 
schools,  clubs  and  lectures,  30,600  students 
were  enrolled,  while  1,200  more  men  reached 
the  Physical  Department.  This,  too,  has  had 
great  success,  634  Associations  reporting  attention 
to  it,  93,983  men  making  use  of  the  gymnastic 
and  athletic  features.  There  are  545  gymnasmms, 
while  464  Associations  report  out-door  games 
and  sports. 

Foreign  Department:  This  organization  rep- 
resents the  foreign  missionary  interests  of 
the  American  Associations.  It  arose  as  a 
result  of  investigations  begun  by  Mr.  Luther 
D.  Wishard,  who,  in  1889,  began  a  three  years 
tour  of  mission  lands  with  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing the  conditions  of  young  manhood  in  non- 
Christian  countries.  As  a  result  of  that  tour 
and  of  the   subsequent  study   and   experience 


of  Mr.  John  R.  Mott  and  others,  work  has  been 
established  in  India,  Japan,  China  and  Hong- 
kong, Ceylon,  Brazil,  Argentina,  Mexico,  and 
Korea.  A  total  of  31  secretaries,  most  of  them 
with  families,  are  laboring  in  the  countries 
named.  These  men  have  organized  or  aided 
in  the  organization  of  some  300  Associations 
in  those  fields,  about  one-half  of  which  are  what 
are  known  as  Student  Associations  in  institu- 
tions of  higher  learning.  Tliey  have  a  total 
membership  of  14,000,  of  whom  3,600  are  active. 
Eiglit  periodicals  are  published  in  their  interest 
abroad,  and  they  have  14  buildings,  valued  at 
$400,000. 

The  reasons  which  have  led  to  the  inaugura- 
tion and  prosecution  of  this  enterprise  are  as 
follows:  (1)  In  non-Christian  lands,  where 
moral  ideals  are  largely  wanting  and  where 
temptations  are  omnipresent,  there  is  no  class 
which  so  mucli  needs  the  oversight  and  religious 
incentives   of   Christianity   as   the   young   men. 

(2)  In  some  of  these  countries,  notably  Japan 
and  India,  young  manhood  holds  a  strategic 
relation    to    tlie    progress    of    their    countries. 

(3)  Most  of  the  young  men  reached  are  educated 
and  the  process  of  education  has  alienated 
them  from  the  superstitions  of  their  fathers, 
thus  leaving  tliem  a  prey  to  the  skepticism  of 
the  West  and  to  the  materialism  of  a  semi- 
foreign  environment.  (4)  Tlie  achievements  of 
the  Association  in  Christian  countries  have 
led  missionaries  in  all  the  lands  where  the 
foreign  Associations  are  doing  their  work  to 
strongly  appeal  to  the  initiation  of  tlie  enterprise. 
They  have  done  so  because  they  believe  that 
an  Association  fosters  Christian  unity,  deals 
with  a  difficult  class  in  a  most  effective  way, 
and  trains  them  for  Christian  discipleship, 
as  no  other  agency  is  able  to  do.  (5)  The 
achievements  of  the  Association,  tho  not  re- 
ducible to  any  large  statistical  exhibit,  have 
more  than  justified  the  anticipations  of  the 
missionaries  who  have  urged  the  foundation 
of  these  asylums  for  the  tempted,  and  training 
schools  for  an  active  evangelical  propaganda. 
The  branches  of  the  World's  Student  Christian 
Federation  established  in  India,  China,  and 
Japan  owe  their  existence  and  effectiveness 
to  the  foreign  Associations.  Those  in  China, 
India,  and  Japan  are  associated  as  national 
organizations,  under  committees  consisting  of 
prominent  missionaries  and  Christian  workers 
long  resident  in  those  lands. 

The  following  is  a  general  summary  of 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  organizations  in  all  lands: 

America:  United  States  and  Canada,  1,736; 
Mexico,  1;  West  Indies,  3;  Bermuda,  2;  Argentina, 
1;  Brazil,  7;  Chile,  1;  Guiana  (Dutch),  2; 
Uruguay,  3. 

Europe:  Austria,  87;  Belgium,  34;  Bulgaria, 
3;  Denmark,  270;  England,  Ireland  and  Wales, 
935  (including  some  church  Associations); 
Finland,  28;  France,  103;  Germany,  1,784 
(including  540  Associated  Unions);  Greece,  1; 
Hungary,  27;  Iceland,  5;  Italy,  58;  Luxem- 
burg, 1;  Netherlands,  314;  Norway,  30;  Portugal, 
10;  Rumania,!;  Russia,  11;  Scotland,  243;;  Spain, 
5;  Sweden,  125;  Switzerland,  470;  Turkey 
(European),  6. 

Asia:  Asia  Minor,  Syria  and  Palestine,  13; 
Ceylon,  14;  China,  43;  Dutch  Archipelago,  1; 
India,  151,  Japan,  54;  Persia,  2;  Tonkin,  2. 

Africa:  Madagascar,  1;  North,  West  and 
Central  Africa,  11;  South  Africa,  8. 


Toons  People's 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


804 


Oceania:  Australia  and  Tasmania,  15;  New 
Zealand,  3. 

YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  SOCIETY  OF  CHRISTIAN 
ENDEAVOR  in  Mission  Fields:  Immediately 
upon  the  founding  of  the  Christian  Endeavor 
society  by  Rev.  Francis  E.  Clark,  February  2, 
1881,  the  missionary  cause  was  placed  in  the 
forefront  of  its  interests.  Missionary  com- 
mittees were  organized,  regular  missionary 
meetings  were  held  and  books  were  written  for 
the  use  of  the  committees  planning  for 
missionary  meetings.  Many  societies  estab- 
lished missionary  libraries  and  organized  mission 
study  classes.  The  missionary  giving  of  the 
Endeavorers  has  largely  increased.  The  two- 
cents-a-week  plan  has  added  largely  to  the 
treasuries  of  the  boards,  and  the  Tenth  Legion 
(the  Christian  Endeavor  organization  for  the 
promotion  of  tithe-paying)  has  enrolled  more 
than  twenty  thousand  members.  The  mission- 
aiy  sessions  of  Christian  Endeavor  conventions 
are  always  rich  with  instruction  and  emotion. 
Hundreds  of  Endeavorers  have  been  led  to  give 
their  lives  to  missionary  service.  The  principle 
of  the  support  of  some  definite  missionary 
worker,  in  addition  to  the  general  gifts,  has 
been  widely  adopted,  societies  and  individuals 
adopting  the  plan  being  enrolled  in  what  is 
kr  own  as  the  Macedonian  Phalanx.  The  various 
boards  have,  almost  without  exception,  recog- 
nized the  young  people  by  applying  their  gifts 
to  the  support  of  certain  missionaries,  the 
building  of  certain  churches,  and  the  carrying 
on  of  other  enterprises.  Some  denominations 
have  thus  built  dozens  of  Christian  Endeavor 
churches  and  sent  out  scores  of  Christian 
Endeavor  missionaries.  All  these  activities, 
when  multiplied  by  the  64,380  societies  now 
in  existence  (January,  1904),  attain  a  very 
large  and  influential  aggregate,  more  important 
in  their  promise  for  the  future  than  even  in 
their  present  accomplishment. 

The  strongest  missionary  influence  that 
has  come  to  Christian  Endeavor  societies, 
however,  is  a  result  of  their  wide  spread  among 
all  nations  and  races.  Endeavor  conventions 
are  cosmopolitan,  and  Endeavorers  have  become 
familiar  with  the  thought  that  all  men  are 
their  brothers  through  the  knowledge,  brought 
to  them  in  many  ways,  that  their  own  society, 
its  prayer-meeting  subjects,  its  committees, 
its  pledge,  its  constitution,  is  beloved  by  Japs 
and  Germans,  Hindus  and  Hottentots,  Brazil- 
ians and  Norwegians,  New  Zealanders,  Chinese, 
Armenians  and  Copts.  In  many  ways  this 
world-wide  bond  of  Christian  Endeavor  has 
proved  itself  a  very  real  tie,  and  the  power  it 
may  exercise  in  coming  years  is  illustrated  by 
the  following  brief  survey  of  Christian  Endeavor 
around   the   globe: 

In  the  United  States  there  are  now  44,360 
societies,  and  hundreds  of  these  consist  wholly 
of  foreigners,  including  German,  Chinese, 
Indian,  Japanese,  Greek,  Swedish,  Bohemian, 
French,  Italian,  Armenian.  Societies  are  found 
in  many  parts  of  Alaska,  even  at  Point  Barrow, 
where  is  the  most  northern  society  in  the  world, 
and  some  of  them  have  served  for  months, 
before  the  arrival  of  missionaries,  as  the  only 
religious  centers  for  Indians  and  white  miners 
in  wide  regions.  In  Canada  there  are  4,047 
societies,  and  here  also  many  of  the  societies 
are  formed  of  Endeavorers  from  other  lands, 
especially,  in  the  West,  from  China  and  Japan. 


Mexico  has  111  societies,  banded  together 
in  a  strong  national  union,  and  possessing  a 
Spanish  Christian  Endeavor  organ.  El  Esfor- 
zador  Mexicano.  The  Mexicans  are  very  earnest 
in  the  work;  two  of  them,  for  instance,  once 
walked  more  than  200  miles  to  attend  an 
Endeavor  convention.  They  are  evangelistic 
in  their  temper  always,  and  at  one  session  of 
a  Mexican  Endeavor  convention  thirty  Catholics 
were  converted. 

Many  islands  of  the  West  Indies  have  received 
the  Christian  Endeavor  movement.  Porto  Rico, 
where  the  society  was  introduced  by  an  American 
soldier,  now  has  4  societies;  the  Bermudas  7, 
Trinidad  10,  the  Barbados  and  Grenada  2  each, 
Cuba  11.  An  American  soldier  founded  the 
flrst  society  in  Cuba,  leading,  with  two  Cubans, 
the  first  meeting,  which  lasted  two  hours  and 
three-quarters.  In  Jamaica  the  society  was 
started  through  the  influence  of  a  copy  of 
The  Christian  Endeavor  World  sent  by  a  Boston 
lady  to  a  sick  sailor  in  a  Jamaica  hospital,  and 
now  there  are  236  societies  in  the  island,  organ- 
ized in  flourishing  unions,  and  conducting  their 
own  paper.  The  Christian  Endeavor  Gem. 

Guatemala  formed  in  1896  the  first  Christian 
Endeavor  society  in  Central  America — the  "Lone 
Star"  society.  There  are  now  two  others  in  the 
country,  and  Costa  Rica  has  10.  One  Spanish 
society  in  Guatemala  City,  with  only  thirty-five 
members,  prints  tracts  on  its  own  press,  has 
circulated  many,  and  has  sent  into  the  home 
mission  field  seven  of  its  own  number. 

Half  of  the  43  societies  in  South  America  are 
in  Brazil,  where  there  is  a  National  Christian 
Endeavor  Union,  which  is  rapidly  growing,  and 
a  National  Endeavor  paper,  O  Esforco  Christao. 
The  meetings  are  conducted  in  Portuguese,  and 
the  native  name  for  the  society,  translated, 
is  "the  Society  of  Christian  Effort."  One 
Brazilian  society  meets  in  an  old  Catholic 
Inquisition  hall,  and  one  of  its  first  fruits  has 
entered  the  Protestant  ministry.  Christian 
Endeavor  meetings  often  take  an  evangelistic 
turn,  and  these  gatherings  are  often  held  in  the 
open  air  where  many  Catholics  can  be  reached 
with  the  Gospel.  Elsewhere  in  South  America 
the  society  is  flourishing;  in  Chile,  where  a 
Christian  Endeavor  paper  is  published  and 
where  the  Spanish  Protestants  have  enjoyed 
the  society  for  many  years,  tho  at  first  they 
had  much  difficulty  in  finding  any  one  who 
would  rent  them  a  room  for  their  meetings, 
there  are  6  societies,  11  in  British  Guiana,  and 
5  in  Colombia. 

In  Hawaii  was  organized  the  first  Christian 
Endeavor  society  formed  outside  of  the  United 
States,  the  date  being  1884.  Now  there  are 
28  societies,  organized  in  a  union  which  holds 
vigorous  conventions  and  reaches  out  among 
the  Chinese,  Japanese,  Hawaiians,  English, 
and  Americans  on  the  Island. 

In  all  parts  of  the  Pacific  the  society  has 
found  a  home.  There  are  some  12  societies 
in  the  Loyalty  Islands,  where  the  organization 
was  introduced  in  order  to  safeguard  the  results 
of  a  revival.  There  are  in  the  Marshall  Islands 
21  societies,  with  3,000  Endeavorers,  who  take 
the  name  "Imitators  of  Christ."  There  is  a 
notable  society  in  the  New  Hebrides,  established 
by  Dr.  Raton's  son.  New  Zealand  has  a  strong 
Christian  Endeavor  union,  which  in  three  years 
sent  out  from  their  number  15  ministers  and  39 
foreign  missionaries.     The  Gilbert  Islands  have 


805 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


YonnK  People's 


4  societies,  the  Tokelaus  2,  the  Carolines  3,  the 
EUice  Islands  6,  Samoa  19.  The  pioneer  society 
in  Samoa  was  a  remarkable  one,  having  estab- 
lished sixteen  others.  It  has  250  corresponding 
members,  and  has  sent  out  from  its  own  number 
more  than  100  missionaries,  more  than  half 
of  them  to  the  deadly  climate  of  New  Guinea. 
Since  the  United  States  has  gained  possession 
of  the  Philippines,  Christian  Endeavor  has  been 
introduced,  and  already  there  are  6  societies  on 
the  islands.  One  society  has  130  corresponding 
members  among  the  soldiers.  The  first  native 
society  had  12  members  at  the  start,  and  they 
all  took  part  at  the  very  first  meeting.  Chris- 
tian Endeavor  has  also  made  a  beginning  in 
Guam,  where  the  society  consists  wholly  of 
converted  Catholics. 

Australia  possesses  3,960  Christian  Endeavor 
societies,  and  has  a  very  active  union  which  sup- 
ports two  papers,  The  OoldenLink  and  TheRoll  Call. 
Its  conventions  are  among  the  most  important 
religious  gatherings  held  in  tlie  southern  hemi- 
sphere. The  Australian  Endeavorers  are  greatly 
interested  in  missions.  Large  numbers  of  the 
young  people  have  become  missionaries,  and 
their  money  and  time  are  spent  with  especial 
liberality  on  behalf  of  the  aboriginals. 

The  first  Christian  Endeavor  society  was 
formed  in  Japan  in  1891,  in  the  Girls'  School 
at  Okayama.  Two  years  later  the  National 
Christian  Endeavor  Union  was  formed,  which 
now  numbers  115  societies,  and  supports  a 
national  magazine  and  a  paid  secretary,  who 
gives  his  whole  time  to  the  organizing  of  societies. 
The  president  of  the  Japanese  Union,  Rev. 
Tasuk^  Harada,  renounced  his  hereditary 
privileges  as  a  samurai  and  became  a  commoner, 
the  better  to  preach  Christ.  Japan  has  a 
number  of  especially  interesting  societies,  such 
as  those  in  the  navy,  that  among  the  employes 
of  the  Sendai  post-office,  those  in  the  Okayama 
Orphan  Asylum.  At  Nagasaki  is  an  admirable 
institution,  the  Christian  Endeavor  Seaman's 
Home — a  Christian  place  of  entertainment 
for  sailors  whose  ships  touch  at  that  port. 
Christian  Endeavor  marines  on  board  the 
U.  S.  S.  Charleston  established  the  home,  and 
now  it  has  become  self-sustaining. 

In  Korea  the  first  Christian  Endeavor  society 
was  formed  in  1900,  and  now  there  are  twelve 
of  these  societies,  tho  Korea,  on  account  of 
the  earnestness  of  the  native  Christians,  has 
less  need  of  the  society  than  many  mission  lands, 
for,  as  Dr.  Underwood  declares,  "Every  church 
in   Korea  is   a   church   of   Christian   endeavor." 

After  Hawaii,  the  first  country  to  take  up 
Christian  Endeavor  outside  of  the  tjnited  States 
was  China,  where  the  first  society  was  formed 
in  1885,  in  Fu-chau.  It  was  called  the  "Drum- 
around-and-rouse-up  Society."  Now  there  are 
in  China  188  societies,  organized  in  a  national 
union,  which  holds  conventions  that  have 
brought  together  as  many  as  1,000  native 
Christian  Endeavorers.  There  are  also  local 
unions,  such  as  that  of  Canton.  Just  before 
the  Boxer  massacres  the  North  China  Union 
was  formed,  and  during  that  terrible  time  it 
lost  half  of  its  members.  In  one  society  53  out  of 
65  members  were  murdered.  Many  deeds  of 
heroism  are  recorded  of  these  brave  Endeav- 
orers. The  World's  Christian  Endeavor  Union 
supports  a  traveling  Christian  Endeavor  sec- 
retary for  China — Rev.  Geo.  W.  Hinman. 

In  southern  <Sia??i  we  know  of  only  two  societies, 


but  among  the  Laos  there  are  29.  These 
Laos  Endeavorers  hold  rousing  conventions, 
and  publish  a  paper  in  the  native  language. 
Burma  has  15  societies.  It  belongs  to  the 
India  Christian  Endeavor  Union — a  vigorous 
body  with  600  societies.  There  are  sectional 
unions,  such  as  those  for  South  India  and  the 
Punjab.  Large  and  enthusiastic  conventions 
are  held,  and  The  India  Endeavourer  is  published. 
An  organizing  secretary  is  supported,  with  the 
aid  of  the  World's  Christian  Endeavor  Union, 
and  he  gives  all  his  time  to  the  work,  greatly 
aiding  the  missionaries  of  all  the  denominations. 
In  India,  as  everywhere  else,  the  missionaries 
find  the  Christian  Endeavor  society  an  invaluable 
auxiliary  in  their  labors  among  the  natives, 
as  it  furnishes  precisely  the  training  school 
needed  for  undeveloped  Christians.  Indeed, 
some  of  the  missionaries  in  India  have  formed 
Endeavor  societies  (we  cannot  call  them  Christian 
Endeavor  societies)  among  those  that  are  still 
unbelievers  in  Christianity,  but  are  being  led 
by  their  Endeavor  work  into  close  acquaintance 
with  our  religion.  Ceylon  has  many  zealous 
Endeavorers.  Christian  Endeavor  literature  has 
been  translated  into  all  the  great  languages 
of  India.  Much  evangelistic  work  is  done  by 
the  native  Endeavorers — outdoor  preaching 
with  the  magic  lantern,  personal  work  on  the 
railroad  trains,  going  from  coach  to  coach, 
outdoor  services  for  beggars,  and  similar 
endeavors. 

Persia  has  35  societies,  most  of  them  springing 
from  a  single  earnest  society  in  a  boarding- 
school,  whose  members  carried  the  Christian 
Endeavor  seed  as  they  returned  home.  In 
1902  a  national  union  was  formed,  which  held 
its  first  convention  three  days  long.  In  one 
Hamadan  society,  Jews,  Armenians,  and  Muslims 
are  mingled.  One  Teheran  society  uses  in  its 
meetings  English,  Persian,  Armenian,  and 
Hebrew.  During  a  terrible  plague  of  cholera 
in  1893,  when  the  Jewish  and  Muslim  doctors 
fl'ed  and  20,000  died  in  the  city,  the  members 
of  this  society  bravely  aided  the  American 
missionaries  in  their  hospital  work,  serving  as 
nurses.  ' 

Turkey  has  75  societies,  in  spite  of  Turkish 
oppression,  which  will  not  allow  constitutions 
to  be  signed,  badges  to  be  worn,  or  even  the 
word  "society"  to  be  used.  The  Caesarea 
Society  was  obliged  at  one  time  to  burn  its 
records.  The  members  are  all  Armenians, 
and  they  suffered  terribly  during  the  Armenian 
massacres.  The  young  men  and  young  women 
meet  in  separate  societies,  as  everywhere  through- 
out the  Orient.  Some  of  the  most  active 
societies  are  in  Macedonia.  In  addition  to 
these  75  societies,  there  are  16  in  Syria.  Jeru- 
salem itself  has  an  active  Christian  Endeavor 
society. 

Of  Africa's  141  societies,  Egypt  has  only  5, 
but  they  are  decidedly  cosmopolitan.  One  of 
them  has  among  its  members  Italians,  Syrians, 
Armenians,  Copts,  Hindus,  Germans,  English, 
and  Americans.  There  are  some  societies  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  especially  a  vigorous 
one  in  Yorubaland,  which  started  out  with  five 
members  and  now  numbers  200.  Most  of  the 
African  societies  are  in  the  south,  where  there 
is  a  strong  South  African  union,  publishing  a 
paper.  The  South  African  Endeavourer.  Andrew 
Murray  is  active  in  the  work  there.  There  are 
many  Zulu  societies,  especially  in  Cape  Colony 


YoniiR-  People^s 
Zanzibar 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


808 


and  Natal.  The  Boers  have  entered  heartily 
into  Christian  Endeavor  activities.  During  the 
war  there  were  8  societies  in  the  Boer  prison 
camp  on  St.  Helena,  with  800  members;  700 
Endeavorers  in  8  societies  in  the  Ceylon  camp, 
600  in  the  Bermudas,  and  others  in  the  Portugal 
camp.  After  their  return  from  prison,  200 
Boer  Endeavorers  took  up  active  service  as 
missionaries. 

In  1892,  30  Christian  Endeavor  societies 
were  reported  to  Christian  Endeavor  head- 
quarters from  Madagascar,  tho  previous  to 
that  time  it  was  not  known  in  America  that 
a  single  society  existed.  When  last  heard 
from,  the  Madagascar  societies  numbered  93. 
Christian  Endeavor  has  also  got  a  start  in 
the  Island  of  Mauritius. 

Passing  to  Europe,  we  find  Christian  Endeavor, 
at  least  in  its  initial  stages,  in  all  European 
countries,  while  in  some  of  them  it  is  very 
flourishing.  Portugal  possesses  only  3  societies, 
for  the  movement  is  a  new  one  there.  The 
pioneer  society  is  in  Lisbon,  the  capital.  One 
of  its  endeavors  was  the  opening  of  a  mission 
in  the  slums.  In  Spain  the  first  society  was 
founded  in  1888  in  the  American  Girls'  School 
conducted  by  Rev.  and  Mrs.  W.  H.  Gulick, 
and  as  the  girls  returned  home,  new  societies 
were  started  in  many  places,  until  now  Spain 
has  47  societies,  and  more  Mothers'  Christian 
Endeavor  Societies  than  any  other  country. 
The  Spanish  Christian  Endeavor  paper,  Esfuerzo 
Cristiano,  is  published  in  Madrid.  It  has  been 
assailed  by  much  Catholic  persecution.  The 
first  Spanish  national  convention  was  held  in 
1900  in  Madrid  in  spite  of  persecution.  There 
were  200  delegates. 

There  are  96  societies  in  France,  most  of 
them  in  Paris  and  its  vicinity  and  in  Southern 
France.  Paris  has  a  large  and  flourishing 
Christian  Endeavor  union.  The  French  societies 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  Reformed  churches 
and  the  McAU  missions. 

Switzerland  has  13  societies,  chiefly  in  the 
western  or  French-speaking  cantons.  These 
Endeavorers  publish  an  attractive  Christian 
Endeavor  paper,  L' Activite  Chretienne.  Geneva 
has  a  Christian  Endeavor  union. 

The  beginning  of  Christian  Endeavor  interest 
in  Germany  was  Dr.  Clark's  visit  in  1894.  The 
first  societies  were  refused  the  churches  as 
meeting  places,  and  compelled  to  meet  in  barns 
and  inns.  Now  there  are  252  societies,  largely 
in  the  national,  or  Lutheran,  churches.  There 
is  a  national  union,  which  supports  two  secreta- 
ries, each  German  Endeavorer  contributing  half 
a  mark  (12  cents)  a  year.  There  are  6  provincial 
unions,  and  admirable  conventions  are  held. 
There  is  an  able  Christian  Endeavor  organ. 
Die  Jugend-Hilfe.  The  United  Society  of 
Christian  Endeavor  helped  the  work  by  annual 
grants  of  money  for  years,  but  now  the  German 
Endeavorers  are  independent  and  contribute 
to  the  work  in  newer  countries.  They  are 
also  supporting  German  missionary  work  in 
the  Caroline  Islands.  The  German  name  for 
the  Christian  Endeavor  Society,  translated,  is 
"The  Society  for  Decided  Christianity." 

There  are  seven  Italian  societies,  with  a  regular 
Christian  Endeavor  department  in  a  leading 
paper,  L'ltalia  Evangelica.  There  are  societies 
in  Rome,  Florence,  and  other  famous  cities. 
Bulgaria,  with  its  five  societies,  has  already 
formed  a  union.     The  same  step  has  been  taken 


by  Hungary's  three  societies.  In  Austria  there 
are  six  societies,  found  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 
Sweden  has  70  societies,  one  of  them  fifty-five 
miles  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  with  an  evening, 
once  a  year,  fourteen  days  long  in  which  to  hold 
a  meeting.  Norway  has  5  societies,  Denmark  4 
and  Belgium  and  Holland  each  have  3.  Russia 
also  has  3,  the  first  society  having  been  formed 
by  a  young  Scotch  drygoods  clerk  in  St.  Peters- 
burg who  went  home  on  a  visit,  and  on  his 
return  brought  Christian  Endeavor  with  him. 
Finland  has  7  societies.  When  Dr.  Clark 
visited  that  land,  expecting  to  find  it  virgin  soil, 
to  his  amazement  he  learned  that  4  societies 
already  existed  there. 

In  Great  Britain  the  first  society  was  formed 
in  August,  1887,  being  inspired  by  the  account 
of  a  young  Englishman  who  had  visited  Dr. 
Clark's  society  in  Portland.  Now  Great  Britain 
has  a  national  union  next  in  strength  to  that 
of  the  United  States,  and  numbering  9,716 
societies.  Branch  unions  with  vigorous  con- 
ventions are  found  in  Ireland,  Scotland  and 
Wales.  Three  able  Christian  Endeavor  papers 
are  published — the  national  organ,  The  Christian 
Endeavour  Times,  with  The  Irish  Endeavourer 
(printed  patriotically  on  green  paper),  and 
The  Church  of  England  Endeavourer,  which 
represents  the  rapidly  growing  societies  of  the 
Anglican  Church.  The  largest  city  Christian 
Endeavor  union  in  the  world  is  that  of  London, 
with  its  more  than  700  societies.  Philadelphia 
comes  next,  with  625  societies. 

In  the  majority  of  the  lands  thus  passed  in 
review,  Christian  Endeavor  is  young,  the  society 
having  been  established  only  four  or  five  years. 
Everywhere,  howerer,  it  is  full  of  energy  and 
enthusiasism,  and  it  is  certain  that  this  great 
international  brotherhood,  laboring  together 
"for  Christ  and  the  Church,"  will  prove  year 
after  year  a  constantly  growing  power  for  the 
upbuilding  of  Christ's  Kingdom. 

YO-YANG :  A  town  in  Shan-si,  China,  situated 
35  miles  N.  E.  of  Ping-yang-fu.  Station  of  the 
CIM  (1896),  with  (1903)  2  missionaries,  4  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  2  places  of  worship  and 
51  professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Yoh-yang. 

YUEN-CHAU-FU:  A  town  in  Hu-nan,  China, 
situated  in  the  E.  part  of  the  province  on  the 
Yuen  River  about  80  miles  S.  W.  of  Chen-chau- 
fu.  Station  of  the  CMS  (1903),  with  1  mission- 
ary and  1  place  of  worship.  Some  write  the 
name  Yuin-cheo. 

YUENG-KONG.     See  Yang-kiang-hsien. 

YUH-SHAN.     See  Yu-shan-hsien. 

YUIN-CH'ENG.     See  -YnN-CHENG. 

YULU:  A  settlement  in  Nicaragua,  Central 
America,  situated  in  the  N.  part  of  Mosquito 
Reserve  about  30  miles  from  the  E.  coast. 
Station  of  the  Moravian  Missionary  Society 
(1884),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
11  native  workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of 
worship,  1  day  school,  1  Sunday  school  and  80 
professed  Christians. 

YUN-CHENG:  A  town  in  Shan-si,  China, 
situated  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  province  about 
15  miles  N.  E.  of  Kiai-chau.  Station  of  the 
CIM  (1888),  with  (1903)  3  missionaries,  two  of 
them  with  their  wives;  5  native  workers,  1  place 
of  worship,  1  Sunday  school  and  40  professed 
Christians.     Some  write  the  name  Yuin-ch'eng. 


807 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Young  People's 
Zanzibar 


YUN-HO-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Che-kiang,  China, 
situated  in  tlie  S.  part  of  the  province 
about  70  miles  W.  of  Wen-chau-fu.  Station 
of  the  CIM  (1895),  with  4  women  missionaries, 
3  native  worlcers,  1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday 
school  and  6  professed  Christians.  Some  write 
the  name  Uin-ho. 

YTJNG-CHING.     See  Yung-tsing-hsibn. 

YUNG-CHUN-CHAU:  A  town  in  Fo-kien, 
China,  about  80  miles  S.  W.  of  Fu-chau-fu. 
Station  of  the  PCE  (1894),  with  (1903)  2  mis- 
sionaries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  3  women 
missionaries,  16  native  workers,  12  outstations, 
2  dispensaries,  1  hospital  and  1  boarding  school. 
Some  write  the  name  Engchhun. 

YUNG-HSm-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Kiang-si, 
China,  situated  on  a  branch  of  Kan  River, 
45  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Ki-ngan-fu.  Station  of 
the  CIM  (1899),  with  (1903)  3  women  mission- 
aries and  1  place  of  worship.  Some  write  the 
name  Yung-sin. 

YUNG-KANG-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Che-kiang, 
China,  situated  about  25  miles  S.  E.  of  Kin- 
hwa-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1882),  with  (1903) 
1  missionary  and  his  wife,  3  native  workers, 
1  place  of  worship  and  40  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Yung-k'ang. 

YUNG-Sm.     See  Yung-hsin-hsien. 


YUNG-TSING-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Chi-li,  China, 
on  the  Hun  River,  about  40  miles  N.  W.  of 
Tien-tsin.  Station  of  the  SPG  (1880),  with^  2 
missionaries  and  2  native  workers.  Some  write 
the  name  Yung-ching. 

YUN-NAN-FU:  A  town  in  Yun-nan,  China, 
capital  of  the  province,  situated  about  650 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  Canton.  Station  of  the 
Bible  Christian  Missionary  Societ}^  (1885),  with 
(1903)  2  missionaries  and  their  wives,  2  native 
workers,  1  dispensary  and  2  professed  Christians. 
Also  station  of  the  CIM  (1882),  with  8  mission- 
aries, three  of  them  with  their  wives;  2  places  of 
worship  and  3  professed  Christians. 

YU-SHAN-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Kiang-si,  China, 
situated  in  the  E.  part  of  the  province  near  the 
border  of  Che-kiang,  and  about  40  miles  S.  W. 
of  Ku-chau-fu.  Station  of  the  CIM  (1877), 
with  (1903)  7  women  missionaries,  10  native 
workers,  2  outstations,  3  places  of  worship,  1 
boarding  school  and  101  professed  Christians. 
Some  write  the  name  Yuh-shan. 

YU-WU-HSIEN:  A  town  in  Shan-si,  China, 
situated  about  65  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Ping-yang-fu. 
Station  of  the  CIM  (1896),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries, one  of  them  with  his  wife;  2  native  workers, 
1  place  of  worship,  1  Sunday  school  and  71 
professed  Christians.  Some  write  the  name 
Ue-wu. 


ZACATECAS:  A  town  in  Mexico,  capital 
of  the  state  of  the  same  name.  The  place  is 
not  attractive  in  its  appearance,  owing  to 
its  wild,  arid  surroundings,  and  the  streets  are 
uneven  and  badly  paved.  Population  (1900), 
32,856,  pure-blood  Indians,  mixed  Indians 
and  Spaniards.  Station  of  the  PN  (1873),  with 
(1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife,  1  woman 
missionary,  5  native  workers,  4  Sunday  schools, 
1  day  school,  5  outstations  and  984  professed 
Christians.  Also  station  of  the  SBC,  with 
(1900)  5  native  workers,  3  places  of  worship, 
1   day  school   and   193  professsed   Christians. 

ZAFARWAL :  A  town  in  Punjab,  India,  situated 
about  20  miles  S.  E.  of  Sialkot.  Station  of  the 
UP  (1866),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his 
wife,  2  women  missionaries,  29  Sunday  schools, 
9  day  schools,  8  outstations  and  1  boarding 
school. 

ZAGAZIG:  A  town  in  lower  Egypt,  situated 
50  miles  E.  of  the  Suez  Canal  at  Ismailieh. 
Population  (1897)  35,715.  Station  of  the  UP 
(1894),  with  (1903)  1  missionary  and  his  wife 
and  1  woman  missionary.  Some  write  the 
name  Zakazik. 

ZAHLEH:  A  town  in  Syria  and  mission 
station  of  the  PN  (1872),  with  (1903)  2  mission- 
aries and  their  wives,  2  women  missionaries. 
Church  statistics  included  under  Mt.  Lebanon. 
Also  station  of  the  British  Syrian  Schools, 
with  (1901)  2  women  missionaries,  8  native 
workers,  5  outstations,  1  place  of  worship  and 
5  day  schools. 

ZAKAZIK.     See  Zagazig. 


ZANZIBAR:  A  town  on  Zanzibar  Island, 
E.  coast  of  Africa.  Station  of  the  Universities 
Mission  (1864),  with  (1903)  7  missionaries, 
14  women  missionaries,  1  outstation,  2  places 
of  worship,  1  printing  house,  2  day  schools, 
2  dispensaries  and  256  professed  Christians. 
Some  use  for  this  place  the  name  Mkuna- 
zini,  which  is  a  suburb  where  missionaries 
reside. 

ZANZIBAR  PROTECTORATE:  A  British 
protectorate  comprising  the  island  of  Zanzibar 
off  the  east  coast  of  Africa  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
and  about  30  miles  from  the  mainland,  having 
an  area  of  640  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  150,000,  and  the  island  of  Pemba,  a  little 
further  from  the  coast  and  to  the  north  of 
Zanzibar,  having  an  area  of  380  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  50,000.  The  ruler  of  the 
islands  under  British  protection  is  the  Sultan 
Ali  bin  Hamoud  bin  Mohammed.  The  authority 
of  the  Sultans  formerly  extended  to  the  coast 
of  the  mainland  and  indefinitely  into  the  interior, 
but  leases  and  arrangements  with  Germany 
and  Great  Britain  have  resulted  in  the  transfer 
of  sovereignty  of  all  the  mainland  to  those  powers, 
and  they  are  now  included  in  German  East 
Africa  and  British  East  Africa. 

The  religion  of  the  country  is  Mohammedan, 
the  natives  being  mostly  Sunnis  of  the  Shafi 
school,  tho  many  are  still  pagans.  The 
town  of  Zanzibar  is  a  station  of  the  Universities 
Mission,  which  also  has  some  work  on  Pemba  I. 
The  BPBS  and  the  Anti-Slavery  committee 
of  the  Friends  also  have  missionary  enterprises 
on  the  islands. 


Zazef^a 
Zinzendorf 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


808 


ZAZEGA:  A  town  in  Eritrea,  N.  E.  Africa, 
situated  about  95  miles  W.  of  Massaua.  The 
people  are  Tigr^-speaking  Abyssinians.  Station 
of  the  Swedish  Evangelical  National  Society 
(1891),  with  (1900)  1  missionary,  2  native 
workers,  1  outstation,  1  place  of  worship,  2 
day  schools  and  58  professed  Christians. 

ZEHNDER,  J.  L.:  Died  at  Lundu,  Borneo, 
February  10,  1898.  Missionary  of  the  SPG 
for  nearly  thirty-three  years.  In  the  report 
of  the  SPG  he  is  spoken  of  as  an  accomplished 
linguist,  writing  and  conversing  in  many 
European  and  Oriental  languages.  In  trans- 
lation work  his  services  were  specially  valuable. 
At  Lundu,  where  several  races  meet  after  the 
services  on  Sunday,  the  people  who  had  come 
from  a  distance  would  congregate  in  the  veranda 
of  the  mission-house  for  refreshment  and  con- 
versation; and  an  eye-witness  declares  it  was 
a  sight  to  be  remembered  to  see  the  old  missionary 
going  from  group  to  group — Sebuyaus,  Selakaus, 
Laras,  Chinese  and  Malay — with  words  of  cheer 
and  inspiration  for  each  in  his  own  tongue. 
Thus  "speaking  to  every  man  in  his  own  lan- 
guage," his  influence  wag  wide-spread,  and  the 
impressions  left  by  the  spoken  and  written 
Word  were  deep  and  lasting. 

ZEISBERGER,  David:  Born  at  Zauchtenthal, 
Moravia,  April  11,  1721 ;  died  November  17,  1808. 
His  progenitors  belonged  to  the  ancient  Church 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  founded  sixty  years 
before  the  Reformation  by  the  followers  of 
John  Huss.  When  David  was  five  years  old, 
his  parents  fled  to  Herrnhut,  in  Saxony,  a  colony 
of  Moravian  emigrants.  In  1736  his  parents 
joined  the  colony  in  Georgia,  which  James 
Oglethorpe  had  established  three  years  before, 
leaving  their  son  at  Herrnhut  to  be  educated  by 
the  Moravians.  From  thence  he  went  to  Holland 
and  lived  in  a  Moravian  settlement  called 
Herrendyk,  joining  his  parents  in  America  in 
1738.  In  1740  he  went  North,  and  with  others 
founded  Bethlehem  and  Nazareth  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1745  he  began  his  work  among  the 
Indians,  and  was  soon  arrested  as  a  spy  of  the 
French  by  the  colonial  government  of  New 
York,  and  was  imprisoned  for  seven  weeks. 
Released  by  Governor  Clinton,  he  labored  till 
1750  among  the  Delawares  at  Shamokin  (Sun- 
bury,  Pa.)  and  the  Iroquois  at  Onondaga,  where 
the  Six  Nations  made  him  a  sachem,  and  "keeper 
of  their  archives."  In  1750  he  visited  Europe  in 
behalf  of  the  mission.  In  1752  he  returned  to 
Onondaga,  but  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Beth- 
lehem at  the  opening  of  the  French  and  Indian 
war.  Between  1755  and  1762  he  visited  North 
Carolina  and  the  New  England  Provinces, 
labored  among  the  Indians  of  Canada,  and 
acted  as  interpreter  for  Pennsylvania  in  the 
treaty  with  Teedyuseung  and  his  allies.  In  the 
time  of  the  Pontiac  conspiracy  he  ministered 
to  the  Christian  Indians  who  had  found  refuge 
in  Philadelphia,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  he 
led  the  survivors  of  the  converts  to  Wyalusing, 
Bradford  County,  Pa.,  on  the  Susquehanna.  In 
1767  he  established  a  mission  among  the  Monsey 
Delawares  on  the  Allegheny  River,  Venango 
County,  and  three  years  later  began  the  station 
which  he  called  Friedenstadt,  on  Beaver  Creek, 
in  what  is  now  Lawrence  County.  In  1772  he 
went  to  Central  Ohio,  and  commenced  a  town 
called  Schoenbrunn,  on  the  Tuscarawas,  ten 
miles  from  the  site  of  Canal  Dover,  where  he  ' 


was  soon  joined  by  all  the  Moravian  converts 
from  Pennsylvania.  He  built  two  more  towns, 
other  missionaries  came,  and  many  converts 
were  added.  Early  in  the  Revolution  the  Dela- 
wares were  accused  of  favoring  the  American 
side,  and  the  converts  were  forced  to  leave  their 
towns  and  come  within  the  British  lines.  In 
1781  the  settlements  were  destroyed  by  a  band 
of  Wyandotte  warriors  at  the  instigation  of  the 
commandant  of  the  British  post  at  Detroit;  the 
missionaries  were  tried  as  spies,  and  the  Christian 
Indians  removed  to  Sandusky.  The  next 
year  ninety-six  of  them  returned  from  Sandusky 
to  the  Tuscarawas  to  gather  their  corn,  and 
were  massacred  at  Gnadenhutten  by  a  party 
of  colonial  militia.  Disheartened  by  this  catas- 
trophe, Zeisberger  in  1782  led  a  small  remnant 
to  what  is  now  Michigan,  and  built  an  Indian 
town  on  the  Clinton  River.  In  1786  he  went 
back  to  Ohio,  and  founded  New  Salem,  one 
mile  from  Lake  Erie.  Thence  the  hostility  of 
other  Indians,  after  four  years'  rest,  compelled 
them  to  emigrate  to  Canada,  where  they 
founded  Fairfield.  In  1798  he  returned  to  the 
Tuscarawas  valley,  where  Congress  had  granted 
to  his  Indians  their  former  lands,  and  built  a 
town,  calling  it  Goshen.  There  he  labored  for 
ten  years,  to  the  close  of  his  life.  He  was  a 
missionary  among  the  American  Indians  for 
sixty  years.  He  established  thirteen  Christian 
towns,  and  tho  scarcely  one  remained,  yet 
he  had  many  converts,  and  his  character, 
motives,  and  efforts  are  "an  honor  to  the  Mora- 
vian Church,  and  to  our  common  humanity." 
Zeisberger  was  a  thorough  scholar.  He 
mastered  several  native  tongues,  especially  the 
Delaware  and  Onondaga.  He  left  in  manu- 
script a  German  and  Onondaga  lexicon  in 
seven  volumes  quarto,  a  grammar  of  the 
Onondaga  language  in  German  and  English,  a 
Delaware  grammar  and  dictionary,  and  several 
vocabularies.  All  of  these  are  deposited  in 
the  Library  of  Harvard  College,  and  in  the 
Library  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society 
in  Philadelphia.  His  Diary,  translated  by 
Eugene  H.  Bliss,  was  published  in  two  octavo 
volumes  in  1885. 

ZENANA  BIBLE  AND  MEDICAL  MISSION, 
or  Indian  Female  Normal  School  and  Instruction 
Society:  Headquarters:  2  Adelphi  Terrace,  Lon- 
don, W.  C,  England.  This  society  was  first 
organized  under  the  second  name  in  1852,  as  a 
general  missionary  society,  with  the  special 
purpose  of  cooperating  with  other  societies, 
particularly  the  CMS,  BFBS,  and  others. 
Later  there  was  a  distinction  made  between 
Zenana  and  educational  work,  and  the  scope  of 
the  society  was  enlarged  and  its  present  organiza- 
tion was  effected.  Its  special  object  is  to  help 
the  women  of  India  by  sending  female  mission- 
aries to  relieve  sickness,  promote  education, 
establish  hospitals,  schools  and  such  other 
institutions  as  may  be  needed.  The  Executive 
Committee,  of  not  more  than  24  nor  less  than 
18  members,  is  self-perpetuating.  While  more 
closely  connected  with  the  Church  of  England, 
it  cooperates  with  any  orthodox  Protestant 
Missionary  Societies;  holding  that  the  work 
which  it  does  need  not  be  denominational. 

Its  work  is  in  India,  at  32  stations  in  the 
Bombay  and  Madras  Presidencies,  the  United 
Provinces,  and  the  Punjab.  According  to  the 
report  (1903)  there  were  104  European  and  53 
assistant   missionaries,   275   native   workers,   64 


809 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Zanesa 
Zlnzendorf 


schools  with  3,208  pupils  and  226  under  training 
in  Normal  Schools,  The  hospital  shows  1,892 
in-patients  and  21,083  out-patients  in  5  hospitals 
and  dispensaries,  with  a  total  of  72,921  attend- 
ances at  dispensaries.  In  the  Zenana  work  4,375 
houses  were  visited  and  2,728  pupils  instructed. 

ZENANA  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY    (Church  of 
England).     See  Chtjkch  of  England. 

ZIEGENBALG,  Bartholomew:  Born  June 
24,  1683,  in  Pullsnitz,  Saxony.  Died  at  Tran- 
quebar,  India,  in  1719.  King  Frederick  IV. 
of  Denmark,  aroused  to  his  duty  to  give  the 
Gospel  to  those  under  his  sway  in  India  by 
his  chaplain.  Dr.  Liitken,  directed  him  to 
seek  men  suitable  for  missionary  service.  Ziegen- 
balg  and  Plutschau,  then  students  at  Halle, 
young  men  of  talent,  learning,  and  Christian 
zeal,  were  appointed,  and  embarked  at  Copen- 
hagen in  1705.  After  a  long  and  dangerous 
voyage  they  arrived,  July,  1706,  at  Tranquebar, 
a  Danish  possession  on  the  Coromandel  coast 
of  Hindustan.  After  several  day's  delay  the 
governor  received  them  with  great  harshness. 
Ziegenbalg  obtained  a  room  near  the  heathen 
and  Portuguese  quarters,  and  began  his  work 
not  only  among  hostile  heathen,  but  with  a 
governinent  openly  opposed,  and  a  European 
population  absorbed  in  business,  addicted  to  vice, 
and  determined  at  all  hazards  to  be  rid  of  these 
earnest  men.  Ziegenbalg,  having  no  grammar 
or  dictionary  to  help  him  in  learning  the  language, 
persuaded  a  native  schoolmaster  to  bring  his 
school  to  the  mission  room,  and,  sitting  down 
with  the  children,  he  imitated  them  in  mak- 
ing the  letters  in  the  sand  till  he  had  become 
familiar  with  their  form.  He  then  found  a  Brah- 
man who  knew  a  little  English,  and  with  his  help 
was  able  in  eight  months  to  speak  Tamil  intelli- 
gibly. The  teacher,  however,  was  loaded  with 
irons  by  the  rajah  and  thrown  into  prison.  Some 
of  the  Europeans  owning  slaves,  Ziegenbalg 
obtained  their  consent  that  "these  poor  outcasts 
might  meet  for  two  hours  daily  for  instruction." 
In  less  than  a  year  five  slaves  were  baptised. 
A  native  built  a  church  at  his  own  expense, 
and  at  the  dedication  Ziegenbalg  preached  in 
Tamil  and  Portuguese  to  a  large  congregation 
of  Christians,  Hindus,  and  Mohammedans. 
In  the  second  year  he  made  extensive  preaching 
tours.  In  1708  he  visited  Negapatam,  and  the 
Dutch  magistrate  invited  the  most  learned 
Brahmans  to  a  friendly  conference  with  the 
missionary  on  religious  subjects.  The  dis- 
cussion lasted  five  days,  and  much  informa- 
tion concerning  the  origin,  history,  and  doctrines 
of  Christianity  was  diffused  among  the  native 
population. 

Ziegenbalg  had  so  far  mastered  the  language 
that  in  two  years  after  his  arrival  he  began 
Scripture  translation,  and  a  year  later  could 
speak  Tamil  with  as  much  facility  as  his  native 
German.  He  soon  began  the  preparation  of  a 
grammar  and  two  lexicons — one  of  prose,  the 
other  of  poertical  words.  In  1711  he  finished 
the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Tamil 
— the  first  into  any  language  of  India — and  a 
large  part  of  the  Old  Testament.  Not  only  to 
Hindus,  but  to  the  half-breed  Portuguese  and  to 
the  slaves  of  Tranquebar  he  preached  the  Gospel. 
He  had  also  a  German  service  weekly,  which 
was  largely  attended. 

In  1714  his  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  Danish  Liturgy,  and  German  hymns. 


with  thirty-three  Tamil  works,  including  a 
dictionary  he  had  prepared,  were  printed. 
His  health  failing,  he  returned  to  his  native 
land  in  1715.  His  account  of  the  Hindus  and 
his  missionary  work  created  great  interest  in 
Germany  and  England,  vast  crowds  being 
moved  by  his  glowing  appeals,  and  kings,  princes, 
and  prelates  giving  liberally  to  the  cause.  He 
returned  to  India  in  1719,  but  died  soon  after, 
at  the  early  age  of  thirty-six,  having  in  the 
brief  period  of  thirteen  years  as  the  pioneer  of 
modern  missions  in  India  accomplished  a  remark- 
able work.  Three  hundred  and  fifty  converts 
and  a  large  body  of  catechumens  mourned  his 
death. 

ZINZENDORF,  Count  Nicolaus  Ludwig:  Born 
in  Dresden,  May  26,  1700.  Died  May  9,  1760. 
While  a  school  boy  at  Halle  he  heard  of  the 
mission  established  in  the  East  Indies  by  the 
King  of  Denmark,  and  occasionally  he  met 
missionaries  returning  from  the  field.  His 
young  heart  was  fired  by  the  missionary  spirit, 
and,  moved  by  the  desire  of  aiding  the  work  of 
the  world's  evangelization,  he  founded  the 
famous  "Order  of  the  Grain  of  Mustard  Seed," 
composed  originally  of  five  lads,  who  pledged 
themselves  to  "give  the  Gospel  to  all,  Jews  and 
heathen  ahke."  In  1715  he  joined  with  his  friend, 
the  Baron  Frederick  von  Watteville,  in  a  covenant 
to  introduce  the  Gospel  of  salvation  especially 
among  those  heathen  to  whom  no  one  else 
would  go.  Hoping  that  he  would  fit  himself 
for  a  diplomatic  career,  his  relatives  matricu- 
lated him  as  a  student  of  law  at  the  University 
of  Wittenberg;  and  there,  amid  worldly- 
minded  associates,  he  made  a  deep  religious 
impression.  His  passion  for  souls  became  more 
intense  as  he  grew  toward  manhood;  and  despite 
the  efforts  made  by  his  family  to  "take  the 
nonsense  out  of  him,"  he  never  swerved  from 
his  noble  purpose.  While  on  his  travels  he 
visited  the  gallery  at  Dusseldorf,  and  as  he 
looked  upon  the  Ecce  Homo  of  Sternberg, 
under  which  was  the  inscription: 

"Hoc   feci   pro   te; 

Quid  facis  pro  me?" 

he  renewed  his  consecration  vows  and  deter- 
mined, without  reserve,  to  dedicate  himself  to 
the  service  of  his  Lord.  On  September  7,  1722, 
he  was  married  to  the  Countess  Erdmuth 
Dorothea,  and  on  their  wedding  day  they 
covenanted  to  put  aside  all  favors  of  rank,  to  win 
souls,  and  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness  to  go, 
without  delay,  wherever  the  Lord  might  call 
them.  Soon  after  he  attained  his  majority,  he 
waived  his  rights  to  large  estates  rather  than 
go  to  law,  and  modestly  settled  at  Berthelsdorf, 
near  Gross-Hennersdorf,  hoping  to  make  it 
a  model  Christian  village.  In  1723,  with  Rothe, 
Schaefer  and  Frederick  von  Watteville,  he 
formed  the  "League  of  the  Four  Brethren," 
which  had  as  its  object  the  promulgation  of  the 
Gospel  among  all  peoples,  and  soon  new  channels 
of  service  were  opened  before  him.  The  Moravian 
Church,  founded  in  1457  by  the  proscribed 
followers  of  John  Huss,  seemed  nearly  extinct 
at  the  close  of  the  17th  century,  but  there 
remained,  scattered  through  Bohemia  and 
Moravia,  little  communities  of  secret  disciples 
known  as  the  "hidden  seed."  When  Zinzen- 
dorf  and  Watteville  made  their  memorable 
covenant  (1715),  these  heroic  Christians  were 
entering   upon  new  life,   under   the   quickening 


Zinzendorf 
Zulns 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


810 


influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  and  soon  afterward 
the  great  Protestant  awakening  occurred,  followed 
by  bitter  persecutions.  Driven  from  Moravia 
and  led  by  Christian  David,  these  refugees  found 
an  asylum  in  Berthelsdorf.  Soon  after  Zinzen- 
dorf settled  in  his  estate,  he  came  in  sympatlietic 
touch  with  these  heroes  of  the  faith;  and  under 
his  guidance  they  adopted  certain  rules  and 
regulations  for  their  government.  Zinzendorf 
was  now  impressed  that  he  was  called  of  God 
to  become  the  leader  of  this  people;  and  he 
formed  bands  and  societies,  from  among  them, 
for  effective  and  systematic  Christian  work. 
As  the  communion  grew  in  spiritual  power, 
unmistakable  signs  of  divine  approval  were 
placed  upon  it;  and  on  August  13, 1727  (regarded 
as  the  spiritual  birthday  of  the  renewed  Moravian 
Church),  while  the  people  were  assembled  to 
partake  of  the  Communion,  the  Holy  Spirit 
manifested  Himself  in  a  wonderful  way,  and 
the  power  of  the  revival  that  followed  this 
awakening  is  felt  until  now.  Zinzendorf  now 
gave  his  life  entirely  to  the  one  work  of  the 
development  and  organization  of  this  "Church 
within  the  Church,"  fitting  it,  under  God, 
for  its  world-wide  mission.  To  quote  another: 
"Under  his  guidance  a  firm  and  stable  form 
of  government  was  established  in  Herrnhut. 
Men  of  loose  views  and  worldly  tastes  were 
weeded  out,  and  none  but  true-hearted  Christians 
allowed  to  remain.  The  women  gave  up  their 
brilliant  Bohemian  dress  and  adopted  a  simple 
costume,  consisting  of  a  plain  dress  and  cap  tied 
with  ribbons,  the  color  of  which  indicated  their 
position  in  life — widows  wearing  white,  wives 
blue  and  maidens  red.  And  order  of  worship, 
with  many  beautiful  customs,  including  the 
far-famed  Easter  service,  was  introduced,  and 
the  constant  use  of  sacred  song  became  one  of 
their  marked  characteristics.  Under  the  new 
regime,  life  at  Herrnhut  became  grave  and 
serious,  but  happy  and  prosperous,  combining 
joyous  religious  experience  with  the  faithful 
performance  of  daily  tasks."  Before  Zinzen- 
dorf and  the  brethren  God  was  unfolding  plans 
for  the  evangelization  of  peoples  in  distant 
lands.  In  1731,  while  Zinzendorf  was  attending 
the  coronation  of  Christian  VI.  at  Copenhagen, 
he  met  two  Eskimos  who  had  been  converted 
through  the  influence  of  Hans  Egede,  and  he 
learned  that  Egede  was  about  to  abandon  his 
mission.  During  the  same  visit,  the  attendant 
of  Zinzendorf  became  acquainted  with  Anthony, 
a  negro  servant  of  Count  de  Laurwig,  who 
told  them  of  the  slaves  in  the  West  Indies,  who 
had  no  one  to  tell  them  of  the  true  God.  Count 
Zinzendorf's  appeal  to  his  people  at  Herrnhut 
and  the  visit  of  the  negro  Anthony  stirred 
mightily  the  congregation,  and  two  young  men 
offered  themselves  as  missionaries  to  the  West 
Indies,  and  two  others  decided  to  carry  the 
Gospel  to  Greenland.  Thus  was  begun  Moravian 
Missions;  and  at  the  time  of  their  first  jubilee  in 
1782,  ten  years  before  Carey  preached  his  epoch- 
making  sermon,  they  occupied  27  stations 
and  supported  a  force  of  165  missionaries. 
In  the  meantime,  under  the  direction  of  Zinzen- 
dorf, the  Brethren  at  home  were  indefatigable 
in  their  work.  They  visited  the  countries  of 
Europe,  founded  new  settlements,  and  began 
the  Diaspora  work,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
awaken  and  foster  spiritual  life  by  the  forma- 
tion of  societies  of  prayer.  Relentless  opposition 
and    persecution    followed    Zinzendorf    as    his 


influence  arose  and  his  work  increased  in  power, 
and  in  1736,  owing  to  the  misrepresentations  of 
his  enemies,  he  was  banished  from  Saxony. 
In  1739  he  visited  the  mission  at  St.  Thomas, 
and  in  1741,  accompanied  by  his  daughter, 
the  Countess  Benigna,  he  visited  the  English 
colonies  in  North  America.  For  more  than 
a  year  he  labored  among  the  North  American 
Indians  and  others  in  the  colonies  and  established 
the  church  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.  Before  return- 
ing home,  he  did  missionary  work  in  England 
and  Holland;  and  in  all  of  his  travels  he  sought 
to  quicken  the  zeal  of  Christians  in  the  cause 
of  missions.  In  1749  Zinzendorf  was  entirely 
vindicated  of  all  charges  preferred  against  him, 
and  the  Saxon  Government  repealed  the  edict 
of  banishment  and  requested  him  to  form 
other  communities  like  Hernnhut  in  Saxony. 
The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  peacefully 
at  Berthelsdorf;  and  his  body  was  borne  to 
the  grave  by  thirty-two  missionaries  and  preach- 
ers from  Holland,  England,  Ireland,  North 
America,  and  Greenland. 

Bovet  (F.),  translated  W  J.  Gill,  The  Banished  Count,  Lon- 
don, 1865;  Tietzen  (H.),  Der  Graf  von  Zinzendorf,  Guters- 
loh,  1888;  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  XIII., 
pp.  329,  647,  715,  New  York,  1900. 

ZITACUARO:  A  town  in  Mexico,  situated 
70  miles  W.  of  Mexico  City.  Station  of  the  PN 
(1893),  with  (1901)  1  missionary  and  his  wife, 
7  native  workers,  5  day  schools,  6  Sunday 
schools  and  464  professed  Christians. 

ZOROASTRIANISM:  The  form  of  religion 
supposed  to  have  been  inculcated  by  Zoroaster 
(Persian,  Zardusht),  long  the  state  religion  of 
Persia,  but  now  professed  by  a  mere  handful 
of  followers  in  two  districts  in  Persia  (Kirman 
and  Yezd),  and  by  the  Parsees  of  India,  whose 
name  bears  witness  to  their  Persian  origin.  If 
Zoroaster  was  a  historical  character,  as  seems  to 
have  been  the  case,  he  probably  lived  in  the 
east  of  Iran,  in  the  region  known  as  Bactria, 
now  sometimes  called  Balkh.  His  date  cannot 
be  ascertained;  some  Greek  writers  put  him 
5,000  years  before  the  siege  of  Troy!  Modern 
scholars  place  him,  some  1,000  years  before 
Christ,  and  some  1,500;  at  the  best  all  is  con- 
jecture, but  he  certainly  lived  before  Cyrus. 
Monier  Williams  thinks  that  he  was  nearly 
contemporary  with  Confucius.  That  he  was 
the  leader  of  schism  in  the  old  Aryan  race  seems 
to  rnany  probable.  As  the  result  of  this  the 
religion  of  one  branch  of  the  race  developed 
into  Vedism  and  Hinduism  in  India,  and  that 
of  the  other,  which  settled  in  Persia,  into  the 
dualistic  system  which  still  bears  the  name 
of  Zoroaster. 

According  to  this  system,  the  world  is  the 
battle-field  of  two  contending  spirits,  eternal  in 
their  origin  and  possessing  the  power  of  crea- 
tion. The  one  is  Ahuro-mazda  (the  wise  god), 
who  is  the  source  and  author  of  all  that  is  good; 
the  other  is  Angro-mainyash  (the  spirit  enemy), 
who,  evil  in  his  nature,  ever  strives  to  neutralize 
the  beneficent  activities  of  the  first.  These 
two  names  have  become  corrupted  by  long  use 
into  the  shorter  forms  now  common,  Ormuzd 
and  Ahriman.  But  the  conflict  between  these 
two  powers,  tho  now  conducted  on  terms 
which  are  apparently  pretty  nearly  equal,  is  not 
hopelesss,  and  is  not  destined  to  be  perpetual. 
In  due  time  Ormuzd  is  to  summon  all  his  power, 
and  enter  upon  the  last  and  decisive  phase  of 
the  struggle.     The  might  of  Ahriman  is  to  be 


811 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Zlnzendorf 
Zulus 


broken  forever,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  good 
established;  Ahriman  with  his  defeated  followers 
is  to  be  cast  into  hell,  and  to  remain  there, 
destitute  of  power  to  disturb  the  progress  and 
enjoyment  of  the  good,  who  are  to  be  rewarded 
and  to  prosper,  unvexed  by  evil,  as  citizens  of 
the  good  kingdom. 

iVIodern  Zoroastrianism  recognizes  the  exist- 
ence of  vast  hierarchies  of  good  and  evil  spirits, 
doing  the  will  and  fulfilling  the  purposes  respec- 
tively of  Ormuzd  and  of  Ahriman.  To  what 
extent  these  elaborate  systems  of  angelology 
and  demonology  influenced  Jewish  thought,  and 
through  them  Christian  thought,  is  a  question 
still  undetermined.  The  sacred  books  of  Zoro- 
astrianism are  spoken  of  collectively  as  the 
Zend-Avesta.  The  term  is  not  wholly  accurate: 
the  proper  designation  is  Avesta,  the  word  Zend 
signifying  "interpretation,"  with  reference  to 
the  commentaries  on  the  original  books.  The 
Avesta  itself  is  written  in  an  ancient  form  of 
Aryan  speech,  allied  to  the  Sanskrit,  known 
popularly  as  the  Zend,  and  possessing  no  other 
extant  literature.  The  "interpretation"  is  in 
Pahlavi,  a  more  modern  (tho  ancient  and  now 
dead)  language,  which  prevailed  formerly  in 
Persia.  The  Avesta,  as  at  present  known,  is 
but  a  fragment,  and  not  a  large  fragment,  of 
the  original  sacred  literature  of  Zoroastrianism. 
Like  the  Old  Testament,  it  is  not  a  book,  but  a 
collection  of  books — a  literature  developing  in 
and  with  the  life  of  the  people.  Parts  of  it  may 
date  back  to  Zoroaster,  but  much  of  it  consists 
of  the  accretions  of  later  years.  A  collection  of 
hymns  or  "Gathas"  is  the  oldest  part  of  it,  and 
may  be  said  to  form  the  kernel  of  the  whole; 
these  alone  claim  to  be  the  ipsissima  verba  of 
Zoroaster.  The  remainder  consists  of  liturgical 
matter,  and,  what  is  called  by  some  (borrowing 
a  phrase  from  Old  Testament  scholarship),  the 
"priestly  code"  of  Zoroastrianism. 

The  light,  the  sun,  the  fire,  are  considered 
by  the  Zoroastrians  the  symbols  of  Ormuzd. 
Therefore  in  their  temples  the  sacred  fire  is  con- 
tinually burning,  night  and  day,  year  after  year. 
For  this  reason  at  evening,  when  they  recite 
the  prayers  of  the  Avesta,  the  faces  of  Zoroastrian 
worshipers  are  turned  westward,  toward  the 
setting  sun.  Hence  they  are  often  spoken 
of  as  "sun-worshipers"  and  "fire-worshipers," 
tho  they  themselves  reject  the  imputation 
which  is  thus  involved;  they  do  not  pray  to  the 
sun  or  to  the  fire,  they  say,  but  to  that  good  and 
shining  one  whose  presence  and  character  are 
symbolized  by  the  light,  and  the  sources  of  it. 

The  Zoroastrian  religion  developed  and  flour- 
ished in  Persia,  through  the  vicissitudes  of  declen- 
sion and  revival  incident  to  all  religious  history, 
from  the  time  of  its  origin  to  the  Mohammedan 
invasion.  During  that  time  it  saw  and  sur- 
vived the  political  changes  and  dynastic  revolu- 
tions to  which  Persia  was  subject,  but  which 
need  not  be  recounted  here.  Mohammed  died 
in  632.  It  was  but  a  few  years  after  his  death 
that  Persia  was  invaded  by  armies  of  his  fol- 
lowers, who,  under  the  fierce  lead  of  the  early 
caliphs,  were  just  beginning  that  astonish- 
ing career  of  conquest  which  within  a  century 
carried  the  crescent  over  Western  Asia,  North- 
ern Africa  into  Spain,  across  the  Pyrenees, 
and  almost  to  the  shores  of  the  British  Channel. 
The  Persian  army  was  ignominiously  defeated, 
the  king  dethroned,  and  his  realms  taken  pos- 
session  of  in   the  name   of  the   Prophet.     The 


people  embraced  the  new  religion.  The  fire 
went  out  on  the  Zoroastrian  altars,  and  the 
Avesta  was  dropped  for  the  Koran.  A  hand- 
ful merely  of  tlie  Persians  refused  to  be  con- 
verted and  sought  refuge  among  the  mountains. 
There  for  a  time  they  were  suffered  to  remain, 
but  soon  after  the  year  700  they  were  subjected 
to  such  a  violence  of  Muslim  persecution  that 
many  of  them  were  constrained  to  abandon 
Persia  and  look  for  a  refuge  beyond  the  sea. 
The  story  of  the  wanderings  and  sufferings  of 
this  company  of  Zoroastrians  forms  a  pathetic 
episode  in   the  religious  history  of  the  race. 

Through  all  their  wanderings  and  ship- 
wrecks the  sacred  fire  was  studiously  kept 
alive.  About  the  year  720  of  the  Christian 
era  they  landed  on  the  western  coast  of  India 
near  the  city  of  Surat,  some  150  miles  north 
of  where  Bombay  now  stands,  and  craved  per- 
mission from  the  Hindu  prince  then  ruling  in 
that  region  to  settle  among  his  people,  and 
to  practise  the  religion  of  their  fathers.  The 
permission  was  granted, — so  tradition  says, — 
with  a  few  easily  observed  conditions,  among 
which  was  this,  that  they  should  adopt  the 
dress  and  language  of  the  country  where  they 
were  to  make  their  home.  These  conditions 
were  accepted,  and  ever  since  the  language  of 
this  Indian  branch  of  the  race  has  been  the 
Gujarati,  the  vernacular  of  the  district  where 
they  landed,  with  such  dialectic  variations  aa 
would  naturally  arise  in  the  use  of  a  new 
tongue  by  foreigners  whose  customs  and  religion 
differed  so  greatly  from  those  of  the  land  where 
the  language  had  developed.  The  Parsees — 
as  these  Persian  dwellers  in  India  came  in 
course  of  time  to  be  called — do  not  appear 
prominently  in  Indian  history  until  the  English 
era.  They  faithfully  maintained  the  practise 
of  their  religion,  jealously  guarded  the  sacred 
fire,  and  preserved  inviolate  the  purity  of  their 
race.  When,  under  English  rule,  the  city  of 
Bombay  grew  from  a  cluster  of  fishermen's 
huts  into  a  great  commercial  mart,  the  Parsees 
appear  as  keen-eyed  men  of  business,  and 
founded  great  commercial  houses.  There  are 
said  to  be  about  8,500  Zoroastrians  still 
remaining  in  Persia. 

Darmesteter  (J.),  In  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  Vols.  4  and  23, 
The  Zend  Avesta,  London,  1879;  ditto,  Ormazd  et  Ahri- 
man, Paris,  1877 ;  Murray  (J.  M.),  The  Zend  Avesta  and  the 
Religion  of  the  Parsis,  London,  1884. 

ZULUS:  The  Zulus,  according  to  tradition 
and  the  testimony  of  generations  that  have  but 
lately  passed  away,  came,  something  more  than 
a  century  since,  from  the  north  and  took  ujs 
their  abode,  first  on  the  Imfolosi  and  Umhlatusi 
rivers,  and  then  farther  south  as  far  as  the  Um- 
zimkulu,  and  farther  east  in  the  vicinity  of 
Delagoa  Bay.  Not  to  go  back  beyond  a  some- 
what definite  knowledge  of  them,  we  find  them 
a  small  tribe  under  the  chieftain  Usenzangakona, 
son  of  Jama,  and  father  of  Chaka.  Chaka, 
born  in  1787,  was  a  chieftain  of  great  enterprise 
in  his  way,  of  great  ambition,  military  prowess, 
and  success.  Starting  out  at  the  head  of  a 
small  army,  he  assailed  and  subdued  tribe 
after  tribe,  and  incorporated  all  into  his  own, 
till  he  had  mastered  a  considerable  territory 
and  made  himself  feared  by  the  Dutch  and 
English  at  the  Cape,  the  tribes  on  the  west, 
and  other  far-distant  tribes  on  the  north  and  east. 
Finally,  in  1828,  he  was  assassinated  through 
the   jealously   of   two   brothers,   one   of   whom, 


XuluB 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


812 


Dingan,  took  his  place  in  power.  During 
Dingan's  reign,  or  rather  at  the  close  of  it, 
which  came  through  a  war  with  the  Boers,  as 
a  result  of  which  he  was  chased  out  of  the 
country  and  died  of  his  wounds  in  the  wilder- 
ness, his  kingdom  was  divided,  in  1840,  and 
the  southern  half  of  it,  called  the  Natal  District, 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  and  then, 
in  1842,  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  and  so 
became  a  British  colony;  while  the  northern 
half,  which  has  since  gone  by  the  name  of  Zulu- 
land,  came  under  the  rule  of  Umpande,  brother 
of  the  two  previous  kings.  Umpande  continued 
nominally  at  the  head  of  affairs  till  the  day  of 
his  death,  in  October,  1872,  when  his  son  Ketch- 
wayo  was  installed  king.  He  held  office  till  the 
English-Zulu  war  in  1879,  when  he  was  taken 
captive  and  carried  to  Cape  Town  and  thence 
to  England.  The  British  Government,  now  pro- 
fessing to  have  a  kind  of  moral  protection  and 
authority  over  the  Zulu  realm,  divided  it  into 
thirteen  sections,  and  over  each  appointed  a 
kind  of  petty  chief  or  kinglet,  the  result  of  which 
was  confusion,  strife,  and  anarchy.  Then 
Ketchwayo  was  carried  back  to  Zululand  and 
reinstated  king,  January  31,  1883,  over  at  least 
a  part  of  his  former  realm,  but  soon  died,  some 
say  of  heart  disease,  some  of  grief  and  dis- 
appointment, while  others  think  he  was  poisoned 
by  his  late  antagonist. 

The  division  of  the  country  into  sections 
under  native  chiefs  continued  for  some  years 
in  Zululand  proper.  But  in  1897  Zululand 
was  made  a  part  of  Natal,  with  the  Governor  of 
Natal  in  control,  and  with  Zululand  represented 
in  the  legislative  body  of  the  Province.  The 
negro  population  of  Natal,  including  Zulu- 
land  and  the  recently  annexed  districts  of 
Vryheid  and  Utrecht,  in  1901  amounted  to 
836,912  souls. 

The  Zulu  is  a  man  of  many  marked  and  ready 
parts,  self-respecting,  sometimes  haughty,  of  a 
martial  spirit,  quick-witted,  a  studious  and  keen 
observer  of  men  and  things,  and,  within  all 
lines  of  his  own  observation  and  experience,  a 
good  judge,  a  good  logician,  a  good  reader  of 
character,  and  a  good  narrator  of  facts  and 
events.  One  of  them,  having  heard  his  mission- 
ary tell  of  the  great  power  and  goodness  of  God, 
how  He  hates  sin,  and  how  the  race  was  beguiled 
to  their  ruin  through  the  temptations  of  the 
adversary,  promptly  challenged  his  teacher  with 
the  sharp  inquiry,  "But  why  didn't  God  kill  the 
devil  at  once  and  stop  all  that  mischief  in  the 
beginning?"  Another  Zulu,  being  once  asked 
by  his  missionary,  "What  is  the  best  color  for 
man?"  replied,  "For  you  Americans  no  doubt 
white  is  the  best,  but  for  us  Africans  there  is 
nothing  better  than  a  good,  clear,  shiny  black, 
with  just  a  little  of  the  red  in  it."  The  famous 
Zulu  chief  Pakade,  who  used  to  come  now  and 
then  into  sharp  collision  with  the  English,  was 
once  visited  by  Bishop  Colenso,  who  tried  to 
interest  him  in  his  translation  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  into  Zulu;  but  right  in  the  midst  of  the 
Bishop's  laborious  effort,  he  was  suddenly  pulled 
up  by  his  pupil's  breaking  in  upon  him  with  the 
remark,  "Yes,  yes,  that  is  all  very  good,  but 
how  do  you  make  gunpowder?" 

The   dress,   habitations,    and   pursuits   of   the 
,  Zulus   are   all   in   accord   with   what   should   be 
looked  for  among  a  people  living  for  ages  in  a  trop- 
ical   climate    and    without    refining,  quickening 
influences. 


In    their    untutored    condition    the    woman's 
dress  is  a  half  cow-hide,  tanned  soft,  dyed  black, 
bound  about  the  loins,  and  coming  down  about 
to  the  knees.     And  when  it  is  old,   and  worn, 
and  torn,  as  it  will  be  in  time,  she  goes  to  one 
bush  and  tears  off  the  bark,  and  to  another  for 
a   thorn,    punches   a   hole   here,    another   there, 
puts  in  the  string  and  sews  up  the  rent.     The 
man's  wardrobe   is  only  about   a  fourth  part  as 
much  as  that  of  the  woman,  and  the  little  he  has 
is  generally  from  the  fur  of  wild  beasts;   while 
the   children   are  left  to  go  for  some   years  as 
on    the    day    they  were    born.     But    all — men, 
women,  and  children,  young  men  and  maidens — 
are  fond  of  ornaments,  such  as  beads  and  brass 
bangles    or    charms,    of    wood    or   bark,    bones, 
horns,    hoofs,    teeth,    and    claws    of    birds    and 
beasts.     The  distinguishing  mark  of  the  married 
man  is  a  head  smooth  shaved,   all  but  a  ring 
of  blackened  hair  around  the  crown;  while  the 
married  woman's  head  is  also  smooth  shaved,  all 
but  a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown  colored  with 
red   ochre.     Under   pure   native   rule   the   Zulu 
could  never  marry  or  build  himself  a  house  or 
kraal  till  he  had  served  his  king  as  a  soldier  for  a 
term  of  years,  got  his  discharge,  and  with  his 
discharge  a  piece  of  ground  on  which  to  build. 
Having  a  right  to  build,  he  selects  a  dry,  oval 
spot  for  his  kraal,  which  consists  of  a  circular 
enclosure  for  his  cattle;  and  around  this  a  circular 
row  of  houses,  one  for  himself  and  one  for  each 
of  his   wives   and   her   children.     The  house   is 
hemispherical  in  shape,  seven  or  eight  feet  high, 
with  a  diameter  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet.     The 
frame   consists   of   wattles   about   the   size   and 
length  of  fishing-rods,  over  which  is  laid  a  thick 
coating  of  long  thatch  grass  for  covering.     On 
one  side  is  a  door  two  feet  high  and  eighteen 
inches   wide.     The   floor   is   made   of   hardened 
clay  or  earth  from  the  ant-heap;  near  the  center 
is  a  shallow  basin,  saucer-like  in  shape,  for  the 
fire.     There   is   no   chimney,    nor   is   there   any 
opening  for  light  and  air,  save  the  door.     A  por- 
tion of  the  border  of  this  one  room  is  set  apart 
for  a  calf  or  goat  for  the  night,  and  the  rest  is 
used   as  a  place  for  stowing  wood,  bedding,  mill- 
stone, calabashes,  earthern  pots,  and  spears  and 
shields  for  hunting  and  fighting.     The  rest  of  the 
hut,  or  central  portion,  serves  as  a  place  for  cook- 
ing, eating,  sitting,  and  sleeping. 

The  house  is  built  chiefly  by  the  women,  the 
enclosures  by  the  men.  In  times  of  war  the 
men  are  engaged  in  war.  In  times  of  peace  they 
are  expected  to  prepare  the  fields,  if  need  be, 
for  the  pick,  and  either  fence  them  or  watch 
them  against  cattle  and  wild  beasts.  The 
men  tan  the  hides  for  their  wives'  dresses;  they 
and  the  boys  herd  the  cattle  and  milk  the  cows; 
they  hunt,  smoke,  bask  in  the  sun,  drink  beer, 
make  offerings  to  their  divinities,  the  shades  of 
the  dead,  and  institute  interminable  suits  at  law. 
In  their  heathen  state  the  women  keep  the  house, 
so  far  as  it  is  kept  at  all,  do  all  the  drudgery, 
carry  the  burdens,  and  cultivate  the  fields. 
With  their  baskets  and  heavy,  clumsy  picks 
they  do  the  digging,  planting,  harvesting — the 
work  of  the  plow,  harrow,  cart,  ox,  and  horse. 
When  the  corn  or  other  ^rain  is  gathered  and 
dry,  they  do  the  threshing,  winnowing,  and 
grinding;  or  if  the  grain  must  go  to  the  market 
ten  or  twenty  mile's  away,  they  must  carry  it 
there  in  baskets  on  their  heads. 

The  matrimonial  affairs  of  the  Zulus  are  based 
upon    a    belief    in    polygamy    and    correspond 


813 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Znlns 


to  their  faith.  Native  law  prescribes  no  limit 
to  the  number  of  wives  a  man  may  have,  pro- 
vided he  can  find  them,  and  has  the  means — 
five  or  ten  head  of  cattle  each — with  which  to 
obtain  them. 

The  Zulu  who  would  woo  has  great  confidence 
in  the  subduing,  winning  potency  of  certain 
medicinal  preparations.  The  more  common  way 
would  be  to  prepare  a  delicate  powder  and  send 
it  by  the  hand  of  some  unsuspected  person,  to 
be  given  in  a  pinch  of  snuff  or  sprinkled  upon 
thfc  person  whose  will  is  to  be  changed  or  affec- 
tions won.  The  engagement  made  and  the  wed- 
ding at  hand,  the  parents  and  friends  of  the 
bride,  all  in  their  best  attire,  make  up  a  party 
and  escort  her  to  the  home  of  the  bridegroom. 
Arriving  there,  they  begin  to  sing  and  dance; 
nor  is  it  long  before  the  young  men  of  the  kraal 
join  them.  At  length  the  master  of  the  kraal 
slaughters  an  ox,  and  all  give  up  dancing  and 
singing  for  feasting  and  carousing.  And  so, 
after  an  exchange  of  presents  and  other  exer- 
cises of  a  joj'ous  character,  the  man  and  woman 
become  husband  and  wife  after  the  manner  of  a 
Zulu  marriage. 

Missionary  Work  for  Zulus:  The  first  mission- 
ary enterprise  among  the  Zulus  was  that  of 
Capt.  Allen  Gardiner,  who  afterward  lost  his 
life  in  an  attempt  to  establish  a  mission  in 
Patagonia.  He  went  to  Zululand  in  1835  and 
obtained  permission  from  the  Zulu  chief  Dingan 
to  establish  a  mission  near  Port  Natal  (now 
Durban).  He  then  induced  the  CMS  to  send  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Owen  to  Natal.  Mr.  Owen  established 
himself  at  Dingan's  kraal  in  1847,  but  the  outbreak 
of  a  war  of  reprisals  between  Zulus  and  Boers 
forced  him  to  retire.  Work  has  been  carried  on 
by  the  Church  of  England  diocesan  initiative 
among  the  Zulus  ever  since,  aided  by  the  SPG  to 
some  extent.  The  SPG  now  has  in  Natal  16  mis- 
sionary stations,  with  8,588  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  2,714  are  communicants.  It  also  has  in 
Zululand  proper  5  stations,  with  4,982  professed 
Christians,  of^whom  1,522  are  communicants. 

The  ABCFM  was  urged  by  Dr.  Philips  of  the 
LMS  as  early  as  1833  to  open  a  mission  to  the 
Zulus.  It  sent  out  six  missionaries.  Rev. 
Messrs.  Alvin  Grout,  Champion  and  Adams,  M.D., 
for  Zululand,  and  Rev.  Messrs.  Lindley,  Venable 
and  Wison,  M.D.,  for  the  Matabili.  The  two 
parties  reached  Cape  Town  in  1835,  and  the 
party  for  Matabililand  established  themselves 
m  1836  at  Mosiga  Valley,  about  100  miles  west 
of  the  spot  where  Pretoria  was  afterward 
built.  Within  six  months,  however,  an  irruption 
of  Boers  destroyed  the  people  of  Mosiga  Valley 
and  compelled  the  missionaries  to  withdraw. 
The  missionaries  made  their  way  to  the  coast 
and  joined  their  colleagues,  who  meanwhile 
had  become  established  near  Port  Natal  with 
the  consent  of  the  chief,  Dingan.  In  1838, 
however,  the  war  between  Dingan  and  the 
Boers  broke  up  the  mission  and  drove  the  mission- 
aries to  less  troubled  regions.  Altho  work 
was  resumed  when  the  country  became  more 
quiet,  the  Board  decided  in  1844  to  close  the 
mission,  and  was  only  prevented  from  doing 
so  by  the  conviction  of  its  missionaries  on  the 
ground,  led  by  Dr.  Adams  and  supported  by 
official  and  clerical  opinion  at  Cape  Town,  that 
this  would  be  a  mistake.  In  1847  the  mission 
was  reenforced  and  the  stations  of  Amanzimtote, 
Ifume  and  Inanda  in  Natal  were  permanently 
occupied.     It   was    only   about   this    time,    ten 


years  after  the  work  began,  that  the  first  Zulu 
convert,  an  old  woman,  was  baptised.  Con- 
nected with  the  ABCFM  mission  are  now  (1903) 
23  self-supporting  churches  of  Zulus,  with 
14,000  professed  Christians,  of  whom  3,256 
are  communicants.  These  churches  support 
their  own  pastors  and  carry  on  home  missionary 
work  at  their  own  expense. 

The  WMS  was  the  next  to  establish  a  mission 
among  the  Zulus.  Rev.  Mr.  Archbell  of  that 
Society  came  from  Kaffraria  into  Natal  in 
1841.  The  mission  grew  and  prospered  until, 
with   changed   conditions,   the  whole   work   was 

gassed  over  in  1882  to  the  South  African Wesleyan 
onference  as  an  indigenous  church.  There 
are  at  hand  no  data  for  separately  enumerating 
the  Zulu  members  among  the  95,000  members 
who  form  the  Wesleyans  of  South  Africa  to-day. 

The  Norwegian  Missionary  Society  under 
Schreuder  established  a  station  near  Verulam  in 
Natal  in  the  year  1845.  At  present  this  Society 
has  three  stations  and  988  professed  Christians, 
of  whom  323  are  communicants. 

The  Berlin  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
commenced  its  work  in  Natal  in  1847,  Messrs. 
Posselt  and  Dohne  being  its  first  missionaries. 
Mr.  Posselt  founded  the  station  of  Emmaus, 
near  the  sources  of  the  Tugela  River,  and 
Christianenburg,  near  Pinetown,  ten  miles  west 
of  Durban.  The  mission  afterward  opened 
stations  in  the  northern  part  of  Zululand, 
but  were  driven  out,  and  changed  tlie  line  of 
their  expansion  to  the  Orange  Free  State  and 
the  Transvaal.  The  society  has  now  four 
stations  in  Natal,  ■with-2,752  professed  Christians 
and  1,457  communicants.  It  has  in  the  Transvaal 
and  the  Orange  River  Colony  38  stations,  with 
28,704  professed  Christians,  of  whom  13,804 
are  communicants. 

The  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  opened 
a  station  at  Hermannsburg  in  Natal  in  1854 
and  afterward  extended  its  work  into  Zulu- 
land  and  westward  to  the  Transvaal  Marico 
region,  among  the  Bechuanas.  This  Society 
now  has  in  Natal  and  Zululand  15  stations, 
with  3,709  professed  Christians,  of  whom  2,092 
are  communicants. 

The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  began  its  per- 
manent establishment  in  Natal  in  1857,  taking 
up  the  work  at  Pietermaritzburg  and  Empolweni 
commenced  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Allison,  who  had 
been  laboring  under  the  WMS.  The  UFS 
has  now  in  Natal  4  stations,  with  a  full  comple- 
ment of  workers,  both  native  and  foreign,  and 
with  2,241  communicant  church  members. 

The  Swedish  Church  Missionary  Society 
has  two  stations  in  Natal  and  Zululand,  where 
it  has  gathered  about  350   communicants. 

The  Boers  have  often  been  charged  in  mass 
with  hostility  to  mission  work  among  the  negroes. 
It  is  a  case  of  judging  the  mass  by  the  conduct 
of  some.  As  a  body  they  are  working  earnestly 
for  the  evangelization  of  the  Zulus  who  live 
with  and  around  them.  They  do  this  not  by 
organized  missionary  societies,  but  as  individuals, 
families,  committees,  ministers,  and  laymen. 
Quite  a  number  of  Zulus  have  been  formed  into 
churches  in  connection  with  the  Dutch  Church, 
but  statistics  on   this  point   are   not   at   hand. 

Brooks  (B..)  Natal,  London,  1887;  Russell  (R.),  Natal,  the 
Land  and  Its  Story,  6th  ed.,  London,  1900;  Baynes  (A.  H.), 
My  Diocese  durina  the  War,  London,  1900:  Tyler  (J.), 
Forty  Years  in  Zululand,  Boston,  1891;  Stewart  (J.), 
Dawn  in  the  Dark  Continent,  London  and  New  York,  1903 ; 
MissioTiary  Review  of  the  World,  Vol.  II.,  p.  738. 


APPENDICES 


APPEl^DICES 


PAGE 

I.      DiRECTOHY  OF  FOREIGN  MISSIONARY    SOCIETIES 817 

II.  Chronological  Table  of  the  Extension  op  Protestant  Missions  from 

THE  Time  of  Carey 824 

III.  List  op  Bible  Versions 826 

IV.  Missionaries  Who  Have   Made   Translations   or   Revisions   op  Holy 

Scripture 830 

V.     Statistical  Tables 835 

VI.     Roman  Catholic  Foreign  Missions 848 


APPENDIX    I 


DIEECTORY   OF   FOREIGN   MISSIONARY   SOCIETIES 


Aborigines  Protection  Society  ( 1837) ;  Headquarters : 
Broadway  Chambers,  Westminster,  London,  S.  W.,  Eng- 
land; Secretary,  H.  R.  Fox  Bourne,  Esq. 

African  (South)  Dutch  Reformed  Ministers  Union  (Predi- 
kanten  Zending  Vereeniging).  See  South  African  Dutch 
JEleformed  Ministers  Union. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church;  Home  and 
Frontier  Mission  Society  of  the;  Headquarters:  Birming- 
ham, Ala.;    Secretary:  Rev.  A.  J.  Warner. 

African  Training  Institute  (1S89);  Headquarters:  African 
Institute,  Colwyn  Bay,  North  Wales;  Secretary:  Rev.  W. 
Hughes. 

Atrica  Association.     See  Germany. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (1847) ;  parent  Home 
and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the;  Headquarters:  61 
Bible  House,  New  York;  Secretary:  Rev.  H.  B.  Parks; 
Treasurer : 

American  Advent  Missionary  Society  (1866);  Head- 
quarters: 160  Warren  Street,  Boston,  Mass.;  Secretary: 
Mr.  A.  C.  Johnson ;  Organ :  Prophetic  and  Mission 
Quarterly. 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  (1S14);  Headquar- 
ters; Tremont  Temple,  Boston,  Mass.;  Secretaries:  Rev. 
H.C.Mabie,  Rev.  T.S.  Barbour;  Treasurer:  C.  W.  Perkins, 
Organ:  Baptist  Missionary  Magazine.  "Woman's  Baptist 
Foreign  Missionary  Society;"  Headquarters:  Tremont 
Temple,  Boston,  Mass.;  Secretaries:  Mrs.  H.  G.  Safford, 
Mrs.  N.  M.  Waterbury;  Treasurer:  Miss  A.  E.  Stedman. 
"Woman's  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  West ;'' 
Headquarters:  1535  Masonic  Temple,  Chicago,  III.;  Secre- 
taries: Mrs.  F.  Clatworthy,  Miss  J.  L.  Austin;  Treasurer: 
Mrs.  M.  E.Kline;  Organ  of  the  Woman's  Societies:  The 
Helping    Hand. 

American  Bible  Society  (1816);  Headquarters:  Bible 
House,  New  York;  Secretaries:  Rev  John  Fox,  Rev.  W.  I. 
Haven;  Rev.  E.  P.  InfcersoU;  Treasurer:  William  Foulke; 
Organ:  Bible  Society  Record. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions 
(1810);  Headquarters:  Congregational  House,  14  Beacon 
Street,  Boston,  Mass.;  Secretaries:  Rev.  Judson  Smith, 
Rev.  J.  L.  Barton,  Rev.  E.  E.  Strong;  Treasurer:  F.  H. 
Wiggin;  Organ:  Missionary  Herald.  "Woman's  Board  of 
Missions;"  Headquarters:  14  Beacon  Street,  Boston, 
Mass.;  Secretaries:  Miss  E.  H.  Stanwood,  Miss  Kate  G. 
Lamson,  Miss  A.  M.  Kyle;  Treasurer:  Miss  S.  Louise  Day. 
"Woman's  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Interior  ;"Headquarters : 
40  Dearborn  Street,  Chicago,  111.;  Secretary:  Miss  M.  D. 
Wingate;  Treasurer:  Mrs.  S.  E.  Hurlbut;  Organ:  Mission 
Studies.  "Woman's  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Pacific;" 
Headquarters:  1275  Sixth  Avenue,  Oakland,  Cal.;  Secre- 
tary: Mrs.  W.  J.  Wilcox;  Treafurer:  Mrs.  S.  M.  Dodge; 
Organ  of  the  Women's  Boards  of  Missions :  Life  and  Light 
for  Women. 

American  Christian  Convention.      See  Christian  Church. 

American  Church  Missionary  Society  (1860);  Aux.  to 
P.  E.  Dom.  and  For.  f)i;;  .  Soc. ;  Headquarters:  281  Fourth 
Avenue,  New  York;   Secretary:  Eugene  M.  Camp. 

American  Friends  Foreign  Mission  Society  (1894) ;  Head- 
quarters: Richmond,  Ind.;  Secretary:  Mrs.  Mahalah  Jay; 
Treasurer:  James  Carey,  Jr.,  838  Park  Avenue,  Baltimore, 
Md.;  Organ:  The  American  Friend.  "Woman's  For.  Miss. 
Union,"  Carmel,  Ind.;    Secretary:  Sarah  J.  King 

American  Missionary  Association  (1846) ;  Headquarters: 
287  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York;  Secretaries:  Rev.  A.  F. 
Beard,  Rev.  F.  P.  Woodbury,  Rev.  C.  J.  Ryder;  Treasurer: 
H.  W.  Hubbard;  Organ:  American  Missionary. 

American  Ramabai  Association.  See  Ramabai  Asso- 
ciation. 

American  Tract  Society  (1825) ;  Headquarters:  150  Nas- 
sau Street,  New  York;  Secretaries:  Rev.  G.  W.  Shearer, 
Rev.  John  H.  Kerr,  Rev.  Wm.  W.  Rand;  Treasurer;  Louis 
Tag;     Organ:  American  Messenger. 

American  Unitarian  Association  (1825) ;  Headquarters; 
25  Beacon  Street,  Boston,  Mass.;  Secretary:  Rev.  Samuel 
A.  Eliot.  ^  .        T,        XT 

Anglo-Continental  Society  (1853);    Secretaries:  Rev.  H. 


J.  White,  Weston  College,  Oxford  England,  and  A.  Lar 
pent,  Esq.,  Vicarage,  Kensing,  Sevenoaks,  England. 

Arabian  Mission;  Under  Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the 
Reformed  Church  of  America. 

Archbishop's  Mission  to  Assyrian  Christians  (1884) ; 
Secretary:  Rev.  A.  H.  Lang,  Church  House,  Dean's  Yard, 
Westminster  Abbey,  London,  S.  W.,  England. 

Arnots'  Gareaganze  ^Mission.  See  Christian  Mission 
(Brethren). 

Asia  Minor  Apostolic  Institute  (1892);  Headquarters: 
1301  Divinity  Place,  West  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Principal. 
Rev.  H.  S.  Jenanyan;  Treasurer:  G.  S.  Hickok,  National 
Pa-!c  Bank,  New  York. 

Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian  Synod  of  the  South 
(1875);  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the:  Headquarters: 
Due  West,  South  Carolina;  Secretary:  Rev.  W.  L.  Pressly, 
D.D. 

Australian  Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Association ; 
Headquarters:  381  George  Street,  Sydney,  New  South 
Wales;    Secretary:  Rev.  George  Brown. 

Australian  Board  of  Missions;  Secretary:  Rev.  John 
Dixon,  St.  Thomas'  Rectory,  Balmain  West,  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales. 

Balaghat  Mission  (1893);  Secretary:  Miss  Adehn  Lam- 
pard,  114  Clapham  Common,  London,  N.  E. 

Baptist  Conventions  of  Canada.  See  Canada;  Baptist 
Conventions  of. 

Baptist  Industrial  Mission  of  Scotland.  See  Scotland; 
Baptist  Industrial  Mission  of. 

Baptist  Missionary  Society;  Headquarters:  19  Furnival 
Street,  Holborn,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Gen.  Secretary: 
Alfred  Henry  Baynes;  Treasurer:  William  Richard 
Rickett;  Organ:    The  Missionary  Herald. 

Baptist  Mission;    Strict.     See  Strict  Baptist. 

Baptists,  German,  in  Berlin.     See  German  Baptists,  etc. 

Baptist  Zenana  Mission  (1867);  in  connection  with  BMS; 
Hon.  Secretaries:  Miss  Angus,  Miss  E.  A.  Angus,  Miss  H. 
C.  Bowser,  5  EUerdale  Road,  Hampstead,  London,  N.  W., 
England;  Treasurer:  Mrs.  A.  Pearce  Gould,  10  Queen  Anne 
Street,  Cavendish  Sq.,  London,  W.,  England. 

Baptists  in  Berlin,  Missionary  Society  of  the.  See  Ger- 
many. 

Basel  Evang.  Miss.  Society.     See  Switzerland. 

Bengal  Evangelistic  Mission  (1874);  Headquarters; 
Calcutta,   India. 

BerUn  Ladies'  Miss.  Society  for  China.     See  Germany. 

BerUn  Missionary  Society  (1S24).     See  Germany. 

Bethel  Santal  Mission  (1875);  Secretary:  Mrs.  J.  Morris, 
care  Gostling  &  Morris,  9  Meadow  Street,  Bombay,  India. 

Bible  Christian  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
(1821);  Headquarters:  44  Brandram  Rd.,  Lee,  Lewisham, 
London,  S.  E.,  England;  Secretary;  Rev.  I.  B.  Vanstone. 
The  Woman's  Missionary  League  is  auxiliary  to  the  above. 

Bible  Lands  Missions'  Aid  Society  (1856)  ;  Headquarters; 
7  Adam  Street,  Strand,  London,  W.  C,  England ;  Secretary  : 
Rev.  W.  A.  Essery. 

Bible  Translation  Society  (1840);  Headquarters:  19 
Furnival  Street,  Holborn,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Secre- 
tary: Rev.   F.   D.   Waldock. 

Blind  in  China,  German  Mission  to.     See  Germany. 

Breklum  Missionary  Society.     See  Germany. 

Brethren  in  Christ  (River  Brethren) :  For.  Miss.  Bd.  of 
(1896);   Secretary:  Elder  W.  O.  Baker,  Louisville,  Ohio. 

Brethren  Church,  Gen.  Mission  and  Tract  Com.  See 
German  Baptist  Brethren  Church. 

Brethren;  Mission  of  the.     See  Christian  Mission. 

Brethren's  Society  (Moravian)  for  the  Furtherance  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Heathen.     See  Moravian  Missions. 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (1804);  Headquarters: 
146  Queen  Victoria  Street,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Secre- 
taries: Rev.  John  Sharp,  Rev.  J.  H.  Ritson,;  Organ: 
Bible  Society  Reporter.  ,„         ,  ,  /-.o^m 

British  Society  for  Prop,  of  Gospel  among  Jews  (1842); 
Headquarters;  9  Great  James  Street,  Bedford  Row,  Lon- 
don  W  C,  England;  Secretary:  Rev.  Isaac  Levinson. 

British  Syrian  Schools  Society  (1860) ;  Headquarters:  29a 


Appendix   I 


THE  ENCn^CLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


818 


High  Street,  Wimbledon,  London,  S.  W.,  England;  Secre- 
tary iiVlisa  Wilmot. 

Calvinistic  Methodist  Church  of  America;  Miss.  Society 
of  the  (1869);  Secretary:  Kev.  W.  iviachno  Jones,  Lake 
Crystal,  Minn. 

Cambridge  Mission  to  Delhi  (1867);  Secretary:  G.  M. 
Edwards,  Esq.,  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  England. 

Canada:  Baptist  Convention  of  the  Maritime  Provinces 
(1846);  Foreign  Misaion  Board  of  the;  Headquarters:  85 
Germain  Street,  St.  John,  iNew  Brunswick;  Secretary  and 
Treasurer:  Rev.  J.  W.  Manning,  Women's  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Union;  Headq  arters:  St.  John,  N.  B.;  Secretary: 
Mrs.  C.  H.  Martell,  Great  Village,  N.  S. 

Canada  :  Baptist  Convention  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  (1873) ; 
Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the;  Headquarters:  177  Albany 
Avenue,  Toronto,  Ontario;  Secretary:  Rev.  J.  G.  Brown; 
Treasurer:  Hev.  E.  T.  Fox;  Organ:  Canadian  Missionary 
Link.  Women's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  Ontario; 
Headquarters:  165  Bloor  Street,  E.,  Toronto;  Secretary: 
Miss  Jane  Buchan.  Women's  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
of  Eastern  Ontario  and  Quebec;  Headquarters:  Montreal; 
Secretary:  Mrs.  H.  H.  Ayer,  350  OUvier  Avenue,  West- 
mount,  Montreal. 

Canada:  Congregational  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
(1881);  Headquarters:  2367  St.  Catherine  Street,  Mon- 
treal, Canada;   Secretary,  Rev.  Edward  Munson  Hill. 

Canada:  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of 
the  Church  of  England  in  (1883) ;  Headquarters:  Kingston, 
OntTario;    Secretary:  Rev.  Canon  Spencer. 

Canada :  Foreign  Missionary  Committee  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  (1844) ;  (Western  Division)  Headquarters: 
89  Confederation  Life  Building,  Toronto,  Ontario;  Secre- 
tary: Rev.  R.  P.  Mackay;  (Eastern  Division)  Headquar- 
ters: 108  Granville  Street,  Halifax,  N.  S.;  Secretary:  Rev. 
E.  A.  McCurdy.  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society; 
(Western  Division)  Headquarters:  Toronto,  Ontario;  Sec- 
retary: Miss  B,  MacMurchy,  133  Bloor  Street,  E.,  Toronto, 
Ontario;  (Eastern  Division)  Headquarters:  Halifax,  N.  S.; 
Secretary:  Miss  B.  McGregor. 

Canada:  Mission.  Society  of  the  Methodist  Church  in 
(1824);  Headquarters:  33  Richmond  Street,  W.,  Toronto, 
Ontario;  Secretary:  Rev.  A.  Sutherland;  Organ:  Mission- 
ary Outlook. 

Canada:  Presbyterian  Mission  to  East  Indians  in  Trini- 
dad (etc.  in  W.  I.);  Under  Foreign  Mission  Committee  of 
the  Presbyterian  C^hurch  in  Canada,  Eastern  Division. 

Canada:  Missionary  Dept.  of  the  Sunday  School  and 
Epworth  League  Board:  Secretary:  Rev.  A.  C.  Crews,  9 
Wesley  Buildings,  Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada. 

Canadian  Church  Missionary  Association  (1894);  Secre- 
tary: Rev.  T.  R.  O'Meara,  467  Parliament  Street,  Toronto, 
Ontario,  Canada. 

Central  American  Mission  (1890);  Secretary:  Rev.  C.  I. 
Scofield,  Dallas,  Texas. 

Central  Morocco  Medical  Mission  (1894);  Secretary  and 
Treasurer:  Mr.  Grahame  Wilson,  191  Meadowpark  Street, 
Dennistown,   Glasgow,   Scotland. 

Ceylon  and  India  General  Mission  (1893) ;  Secretary  and 
Treasurer:  Mr.  David  Gardiner,  46  Beresford  Road,  High- 
bury, London,  N.,  England.     Organ:  Darkness  and  Light. 

Children's  Special  Service  Mission  (1868) ;  Headquarters : 
13a  Warwick  Lane,  Paternoster  Row,  London,  E.  C., 
England;  Secretary;  Mr.  Henry  Hankinson;  Organ:  Our 
Oum  Magazine. 

China  Inland  Mission  (1865);  Headquarters:  Newington 
Green,  Mildmay,  London,  N.,  England ;  Secretary :  F. 
Marcus  Wood;  Organ:  China's  Millions.  U.  S.  Branch: 
Secretary;  Rev.  W.  J.  Erdmann,  D.D.,  702  Witherspoon 
Building,     Philadelphia. 

China  Mission,  Hauge's  Synod,     See  Hauge's  Synod. 

China,  Murray's  Mission  to  the  Blind  and  Ilhterate  in 
(1887);  Secretary;  John  Grant,  Esq.,  care  Grant  &  Wylie, 
204  St.  Vincent  Street,  Glasgow. 

Chinese:  Soc.  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and  Gen. 
Knowledge  among  the  (1887);  Rev.  Timothy  Richard,  41 
Kiangse  Road,  Shanghai,  China;  British  organization 
(Christian  Literature  Society  for  China);  Hon.  Secretary: 
Rev.  J.  Gumming  Brown,  Balgoni'',  Hampstead  Sq.,  Lon- 
don, N.  W.;  Organ:  China,  quarterly. 

Chota  Nagpur;  Dublin  University  Mission  to.  See  Dub- 
lin University  ,  etc. 

Christian  Church  (1886);  Mission  Board  of  the;  Head- 
quarters: 1231  West  Fifth  Street,  Dayton,  Ohio;  Secre- 
taries: Rev.  J.  G.  Bishop,  Rev.  W.  H.  Dennison;  Treasurer: 
Mr,  A.  M.  Kerr;  Organ:  Christian  Missionary.  Woman's 
Board  for  Foreign  Missions:  Headquarters:  Dayton,  Ohio; 
Secretaries:  Miss  A.  E.  Batchelor,  Miss  Annie  Libby; 
Treasurer:  Miss  Mary  J.  Batchelor. 

Christian  and  Missionary  AUiance  (1887) ;  Headquarters : 
692  Eighth  Avenue,  New  York;  Secretary:  Rev.  A.  E. 
Funk;  Treasurer:  Mr.  David  Crear;  Organ:  Christian  and 
Missionary  Allixince. 

Christian  Endeavor  Society.     See  United  Society  C.  E. 

Christian  Literature  Society  for  India  (1858) ;  Headquar- 
ters: 7  Adam  Street,  Strand,  London,  W.  C.,  England; 
Secretary:  Rev.  George  Patterson. 


Christian  Faith;  Soc.  for  Advancing  the  (1691);  Secre- 
tary: "Harry  W.  Lee,  Esq.,  The  Broad  Sanctuary,  West- 
m.inster,  London. 

Christian  Knowledge,  Society  for  Promoting  ( 1698) ; 
Headquarters:  Northumberland  Ave.,  London,  W.  C, 
England;  Secretaries:  Rev.  W.  O.  B.  Allen,  M.A.,  Rev. 
Edmund  McClure. 

Christian  Mission:  (England;  Mission  of  the  Brethren) 
(1827);  Treasurer:  J.  L.  McLean,  M.D.,  10  Widcombe 
Crescent,  Bath,  England;  Organ:  Echoes  of  Service. 

Christian  Unity  Association  (1896);  Secretary:  Rev.  W. 
D.  Fowler,  Hawleyville,  Conn. 

Christian  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  (Disciples)  (1874); 
Headquarters:  152  East  Market  Street,  Indianapolis,  Ind.; 
Secretary  and  Treasurer:  Mrs.  Helen  E.  Moses;  (^rgan: 
Missionary  Tidings. 

Church  Missionary  Society,  American.  See  American 
Church  Missionary  Society. 

Church  Missionary  Society  for  Africa  and  the  East  (1799) ; 
Headquarters:  Church  Missionary  House,  Salisbury  Sq., 
London,  E.  C. ;  Secretaries :  Rev.  Prebendary  Henry 
Elhott  Fox,  Mr.  Eugene  Stock,  Rev.  B.  Baring-Gould, 
Rev.  George  Furness  Smith,  Mr.  David  Marshall  Lang; 
Medical  Department  Secretary:  H.  Lankester,  M.D.; 
Women's  Department  Secretaries:  Miss  G.  A.  GoUock, 
Miss  M.  C.  Ciollock;  Organ:  Church  Missionary  Intelli- 
gencer ;  Church  Missionary  Gleaner ;  Mercy  and  Truth 
(Medical  Missions). 

Church  of  England  Zenana  Missionary  Society;  Head- 
quarters: Lonsdale  Chambers,  27  Chancery  Lane,  London, 
W.  C,  England;  Secretaries:  clerical,  Rev.  G.  Yonge;  Cent. 
Association,  Miss  Mulvany;  lay,  J.  B.  Braddon,  Esq.; 
Organ:  India's  Women. 

Church  of  Scotland  For.  Miss.  Com.    See  Scotland,  Ch.  of. 

Churches  of  God;  Woman's  Gen.  Miss.  Soc.  of  (1890); 
Miss  Ella  Jeffries,  El  Pasco,  Woodford  Co.,  111. 

Colonial  and  Continental  Church  Society  (1823);  Head- 
quarters: 9  Serjeants  Inn,  Fleet  Street,  London,  E.  C, 
England;  Secretary:  Rev.  Canon  Hurst. 

Colonial  Miss.  Society  (1836) ;  Headquarters:  22  Memor- 
ial Hall,  Farringdon  Street,  London,  E.  C,  England; 
Secretary:  Rev.  D.  Burford  Hooke. 

Colwyn  Bay  Training  Institute.  See  African  Training 
Institute. 

Congo  Balolo  Mission.  Now  Regions  Beyond  Miss. 
Union. 

Countess  of  Huntingdon's  Connexion  Sierra  Leone 
Mission  (1842);  Secretary:  Rev.  Joseph  Bainton,  Ash- 
bourne, Derbyshire,  England;  Treasurer:  Mr.  E.  Dolby 
Shelton  Ely,  Cambridgeshire. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  and 
Church  Erection  (1852);  Headquarters:  Holland  Building 
Annex,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Secretary:  Mr.  J.  M.  Patterson; 
Treasurer:  Mr.  J.  C.  Cobb;  Organ:  Missionary  Record. 
Woman's  Board  of  Missions;  Headquarters:  Evansville, 
Ind.;  Secretaries:  Mrs.  M.  E.  Dyer,  Mrs.  D.  F.  Clarke; 
Treasurer:  Miss  L.  M.  Durham;  Organ:  Missionary  Record. 

Danish  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  (United)  in  Amer- 
ica (1896);  Headquarters:  Blair,  Nebraska;  Secretary: 
Rev.  A.  M.  Andersen. 

Danish  Missionary  Society  (1821)  (Danske  Missions- 
selskab) ;  Secretary:  Rev.  T.  Loegstrup,  Fredericia,  Den- 
mark;  Organ:  Danske  Missions- Blad. 

Danish  Loventhal's  Mission.     See  Lgventhal's  Mission. 

Danish  Mission  to  the  Santhals.  gee  Indian  Home 
Mission  to  the  Santhals. 

Deaconess'  Society:  Rhenish  Westphalian.  See  Ger- 
many. 

Delhi,  Cambridge  Mission  to.  See  Cambridge  Mission 
to  Delhi. 

Disciples  of  Christ.  See  For.  Ch.  Miss.  Society]  also 
Christian  Woman's  Board  of  Miss. 

Dubhn  University  Mission  to  Chota  Nagpur  (1891); 
Secretary:  Rev.  Newport  J.  D.  White,  Marsh's  Library, 
St.  Patrick's,  Dublin. 

Dunkards.     See  German  Bapt.  Brethren  Church, 

Dutch   Mission  Societies.     See   Netherlands. 

Dutch  Reformed  Church  of  S.  Africa.  See  South  Africa 
Ministers'  Union. 

Edinburgh  Medical  Missionary  Society  (1841);  Head-, 
quarters:  Mission  House,  56  George  Sq.,  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land;  Secretary:  E.  Sargood  Fry;  Organ:  Quarterly  Paper. 

Egypt:  Association  for  Furtherance  of  Christianity  in 
(1883);  Headquarters:  7  Dean's  Yard,  Westminster 
Abbey,  London,  S,  W.,  England;  Secretary:  Rev.  R. 
Milburn  Blakiston. 

Egypt  General  Mission  (1898);  Headquarters:  Kings- 
court,  Belfast,  Ireland;  Hon.  Secretary:  Mr.  Wm.  J. 
Roome;  Organ;  E.  O.  M.  News,  occasional. 

Egypt:  Mission  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in- 
See  Netherlands. 

England:  Foreign  Missions  Com.  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  (1847):  Headnuarters:  7  East  India  Avenue. 
London,  S.  E.,  England;  Secretary;  Rev.  W.  Dale,  New 
Barnet,  London;  Organ:  Monthly  Messenger.  Women's 
Missionary    Association ;   Secretaries :   Mrs.    Matthews,   25 


819 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix   I 


Christ  Church  Avenue,  Brandesbury,  London,  N".  W.; 
Mrs.  Voelcher,  20  Upper  Philiraore  Gardens,  Kensington, 
London,  W.;  Organ:  Our  Sisters  in  Other  Lands.  Mission 
tn  the  Jews;  Headquarters:  7  East  India  Avenue,  London, 
E.G.;  Gen.  Secretary:  Rev.  J.  Thoburn  McGaw;  iinancial 
Secretary:  Mr. -ohn  Leggat. 

Epworth  League  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
(1889);  Headquarters:  57  Washington  Street,  Chicago, 
IIL;  Office  Secretary:  Mr.  R.  IC.  Diffendorfer. 

Epworth  League  of  the  Methouist  Episcopal  Church 
South  (1889);  Headquarters:  Nashville,  Tenn.;  Secretary: 
Rev.  H.  M.  DeBose. 

Erraelo   Missionary  Association.     See  Netherlan-Is. 

EvangeUcal  Association  (lS76);  Missionary  Society  of 
the;  Headquarters:  2G5  Woodland  Avenue,  Cleveland, 
Ohio;  Secretaries:  Rev.  H.  Mattill,  Rev.  T.  C.  Meckel; 
Treasurer:  Rev.  Yost;  Organ:  Evangelischer  Missiov.s- 
hoie.     Woman's     Missionary     Society ;  Headquarters : 

Cleveland,  Ohio;  Secretaries:  Miss  A.  E.  Rickert,  Miss  M. 
Grimm;  Treasurer:  Mrs.  H.  Mattill;  Organ:  Missionary 
Messenger. 

EvangeUcal  Lutheran  Churches.    See  Lutheran  Churches. 

Furreedpore  Mission  (Australian  Baptist)  (1864);  Head- 
quarters: King  William  Road,  Hyde  Park,  South  Aus- 
tralia; Secretary:  Rev.  John  Price;  Treasurer:  A.  S.  Neill, 
Palmer  Place,  North  Adelaide,  South  Australia;  Organ: 
Missionary  Echo. 

Female  Education  in  Eastern  Countries;  Woman's 
Society  for.      See  Germany. 

Finnish  Missionary  Society  (1859);  (Finska  Missions- 
Salskapet) ;  Headquarters:  Observatoriigatan  18,  Helsing- 
fors,  Finland;  Secretary:  Director  Rev.  Lector  Jos  Mus- 
takalir. 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society  (Disciples)  (1875) ; 
Headquarters:  15  East  Seventh  Street,  Cincinnati,  Ohio; 
Secretaries:  Rev.  A.  McLean,  Rev.  F.  M.  Rains;  Treas- 
urer: S.  M.  Cooper;  Organ;  Missionary  Intelligencer.  See 
also  for  Woman's  Work,  Christian  Woman's  Board  of 
Missions. 

Foreign  Missions  Industrial  Association  of  America;  Head- 
quarters: 105  East  22d  St.,  New  York;  Secretary  and  Treas- 
urer, C.  N.  Talbot,  34  Pine  St.,  New  York;  Organ:  Indus- 
trial Missions  Magazine. 

Foreign  Sunday  School  Assoc,  of  the  U.  S. ;  Secretary: 
Rev.  H.  C.  Woodruff,  67  Schermerhorn  Street,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y. 

France :  French  Methodist  Mission  among  the  Kabyles 
(Mission  Methodiste  Francaise  en  Kabylie)  (1886);  Secre- 
tary:  

France :  French  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
(Alliance  des  Unions  Chn'tiennes  de  Jeunes  gens  de 
Franc e-Comiti^  National)  (1867);  Headquarters:  14  Rue 
de  Trevise.  Paris;    Secretary:  Mr.  Emmanuel  Sautter. 

France:  McAIl  Mission  (Mission  Pouplaire  Evangt'lique 
de  France,  1872);  Headquarters:  36  Rue  Godot  de  Mau- 
roy,  Paris,  France;  Secretary:  M.  W.  Soltau;  Gen.  Secre- 
tary for  the  United  States:  Miss  M.  Harvey,  759  St. 
Nicholas  Avenue,  New  York. 

France:  Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society  (Sociot^ 
des  Missions  ^Ivangt'liques  chez  les  Peuples  non-Chr^^tiena, 
(^tabhe  h  Paris,  1822) ;  Headquarters:  Maison  des  Missions, 
102  Boulevard  Arago,  Paris,  France;  Secretary:  M,  le 
Pasteur  A.  Boegner:  Organ:  Le  Journal  des  Missions 
^vanqiliques,  monthly. 

Friends.     See  also  American  Friends  For.  Missions. 

Friends'  Foreign  Mission  Association  (1886);  Head- 
quarters: 15  Devonshire  Street,  Bishopsgate,  Without, 
London,  E.  C,  England;  Secretary:  Dr.  Wilham  Wilson; 
Organ :  Our  Missions. 

Free  Baptists  (1833);  General  Conference  of;  Head- 
quarters :  Auburn,  Rhode  Island ;  Secretaries :  Rev. 
Arthur  Given,  Rev.  H.  M.  Ford;  Treasurer:  Rev.  Arthur 
Given.  The  Free  Baptist  Women's  Missionary  Society; 
Secretary:  Mrs.  S.  C.  S.  Avery. 

Free  Methodist  Church  of  North  America  (1882);  Gen- 
eral Missionary  Board  of  the;  Headquarters:  14-16  North 
May  Street,  Chicago,  111.;  Secretary:  Rev.  Benjamm  Win- 
get;  Treasurer:  S.  K.  J.  Chesbro.  Woman's  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Free  Methodist  Church;  Head- 
quarters: 14  N.  May  Street,  Chicago,  111.;  Secretaries: 
Mrs.  E.  L.  McGeary,  Greenville,  111.;  Mrs.  H.  H.  Jones, 
Jackson,  Mich.;  Treasurer:  Mrs.  L.  C.  Jensen.  Chicago,  111.; 
Organ:   Missionary    Tidings. 

Friends:  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Union.  See 
American  Friends.  ^       -        ,,-     •  o 

Friends  of  Augsburg,  Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  See 
Lutheran  Free  Church,  Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  ^ 

Garenganze  Mission:    Under  Christian  Brethren  Mission 

German'  Baptist  Brethren  Church  (Dunkers)  (1884); 
General  Mission  and  Tract  Committee;  Headquarters: 
Elgin,  111.;  Secretary:  Mr.  G.  B.  Royer;  Organ:  The  Mis- 
sionary Visitor.  ,       ,^    ^,„,^v       c^        i. 

German  Baptist  Mission  (England)  (1845);  Secretary: 
Rev.  Wm.  Sears  Oncken,  Wragby  Road,  Lincoln,  England. 


German  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  Ohio  and  Other 
States:  India  Mission  of  tne  (1896);  Headquarters:  Reeds- 
burg,  Wisconsin;  Secretary;  iie\'.  A.  J^ohrlacii, 

German  EvangeUcal  Synod  of  Worth  America  (1867); 
Headquarters:  1920  G.  Street,  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C; 
Secretary:  Rev.  Paul  A.  Menzel;  Treasurer:  P.  L.  Kohl- 
mann,  1135  Gath  Avenue,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Organ;  Deutacher 
Missions  Freund. 

Germany :  Africa  Association  ( Evangelischer  Africa- 
verein) ;  Headquarters:  Blucher  Strasse  53,  Berlin,  S.; 
Gen.  Secretary;  Pastor  Ericli  otto;  Organ:  Afrika. 

Germany:  Berlin  Missionary  Society  (Gesellschaft  zur 
Beforderung  der  evangelischen  Missionen  unter  den  heiden 
zu  Berlin,  Berlin  I,  1824);  Pleadquarters:  Georgenkirch- 
strasse  70,  Berlin,  N.  O.,  Germany;  Missions  Director: 
Past  Superintendent  CJenischen;  Mission  Inspector: 
Pastor  F.  WencUand;  Past  Superintendent  A.  Merensky; 
Pastor  Sauberzweig-Schmidt;  Organ:  Berliner  Missions- 
berichte,  monthly;  Mission sfreund,  monthly. 

Germany:  Berlin  Woman's  Mission  Society  (Berliner 
Frauen  Alissionsverein,  1860) ;  Headquarters :  Berhn, 
(jermany;  President:  Fmulein  Julie  von  Buddenbrock; 
Inspector:  Pastor  Sauberzweig-Schmidt,  Georgenkirch- 
strasse  70 ;  Organ :  Mitteilungcn  des  Berliner  Frauen- 
vereins  fur  China,  quarterly. 

Germany :  BUnd  in  China :  German  Mission  to  the 
(  Deutsche  Blindenmission  unter  dem  weiblichen  Geschlecht 
in  China,  1890) ;  Headquarters:  Hildesheira,  Germany; 
President :  Pastor  Fr.  Borchers,  Sibbesseb,  Hildesheim ; 
Lady  President  and  Acting  Treasurer:  Frl.  Luise  Cooper, 
Sedanstrasse  33,  Hildesheim ;  Organ :  Tsaukwong,  quar- 
terly. 

Germany:  Breklum  Missionary  Society  (Schleswig-Hol- 
steinische  evang.  luth.  Missionsgesellschaft  zu  Breklum, 
1877) ;  Headquarters:  Breklum,  Reg-Bez,  Schleswig; 
President:  General  Superintendent  D.  Wallroth,  Kiel ; 
Inspector:  Pastor  Bahnsen;  Secretary:  Pastor  Dittmer; 
Professor  of  Missions:  Pastor  Bracker;  Organ;  Sihlesvig- 
H olsteinisches  Missionsblatt,  monthly.  (In  Danii^h)  V ort 
Missionsblad,  monthly. 

Germany:  Woman's  Society  for  Education  of  Women  in 
the  East:  (Frauen  Vercin  fur  Christliche  Bildung  dea 
Weiblichen  Geschlechts  im  Morgenlande,  1842) ;  Head- 
quarters: Berlin,  Germany;  President:  Fraulein  Julie  von 
Buddenbrock;  Organ:  Missionsblatt  des  Frauenvereins,  etc 

Germany:  German  Baptists  in  BerUn,  Missionary  Society 
of  the  (Missionsgesellschaft  der  Deutschen  Ba-ptisten  in 
Berlin,  1890);  Headquarters:  Schutzenstrasse  53,  Steg- 
letz  bei  BerUn;  Inspector:  K.  Mascher;  Organ:  Blvien 
und   Fruchte,  quarterly;    Unsere   Heiden  Missioii,  monthly. 

German  East  Africa:  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 
for  ( Evangelische  Missionsgesellschaft  fur  Deutsch-Osi- 
A/riA;a,— Berlin  ///,  1886);  Headquarters:  Grosslichter- 
feld  bei  Berlin,  Germany;  Inspectors:  Pastor  W.  Michaelis, 
Pastor  W.  Trittelvitz;  Organ:  Nachrichten  avs  der  Ost~ 
Afrikanischen  Mission. 

Germany:  General  Evangelical  Protestant  Missionary 
Society  ( A  llgemeine  Evangelische- Protestantische  Missions- 
verein,  1884);  Headquarters:  Berlin,  Germany;  President: 
Prediger  D.  Kind,  Kronenstrasse  70,  Berlin  W.,  8,  Germany; 
Inspector:  Prediger  Lempfuhl,  Scharrnstrasse  11,  Berlin 
C;  Organ:  Zeitschrift  fur  Missionslcunde  und  Religions- 
wissenschaft,  monthly;  Missionsblatt  des  Allg.  ev.-Prot., 
etc.,  monthly. 

Germany:  Gossner  Missionary  Society  (Gossnerische 
Mission — Berlin  II,  1836) ;  Head  uarters:  Handjery- 
strasse  19-20,  Friedenau-Berlin,  Germany;  President: 
Gen.  Sup.  D.  Braun;  Inspector;  Dir.  P.  Kausch,  P.  Romer; 
Organ:  Die  Biene,  monthly. 

Germany:  Hannover  Free  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church 
Missionary  Society  (Mission  der  Hannoverischen  ev.-Luih. 
Freikirche  in  H ermannsburg ,  1892);  Headquarters:  Nettel- 
kamp,  Hannover,  Germany;  President:  Pastor  Heutze; 
Organ :  Missionsblatt  der  Hannoverischen  ev.-Luth.  Frei- 
kirche, monthly. 

Germany:  Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society  (Her- 
mannsburger  Missionsgesellschaft,  1849) ;  Headquarters: 
Hermannsburg,  Hannover,  Germany;  Director:  Egm. 
Harms;  Assoc.  Director:  Pastor  Georg  Haccius;  Organ: 
Her  mannsburger  Missionsblatt,  fortnightly. 

Germany:  Jerusalem  Society  (Jerusalem-verein  in  Ber- 
lin, 1852);  Headquarters:  Berlin;  President:  Count  von 
Zieten  Schwerin,  Wustrau,  Kreis  Ruppin;  Secretary: 
Pastor  D.  Weser,  Bischofstrasse  4-5,  Berlin  C,  2,  Germany ; 
Agent:  Pastor  Pflanz,  Neu  Ruppin;  Organ:  Neueate 
Nachrichten  aus  dem  Morgenlande,  annual. 

Germany :  Kiel  China  Mission  ( Kieler-Chijia- Mission, 
1879);  Headquarters:  Missionshaus,  Kiel,  Germany; 
Conductor:  Pastor  Witt,  at  present  in  China;  Organ:  Er 
Kommt,  semi-monthly, 

Germany:  Leipzig  Missionary  Society  (Evangelisch- 
Lutherisch  Mission  zu  Leipzig,  1836) ;  Headquarters: 
Carolinenstrasse  19,  Leipzig;  President:  Geh.  Oberkirchen- 
rat  D.  Bard;  Mission  Director;  D.  V.  Schwartz;  Inspectnr: 
Dr  Siedel;  Organ;  Missionsblatt;  Women's  Auxiliary:' 
(Frauen  Hilfa  Vereine),  same  address. 


Appendix   I 


TPIE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


820 


Germany:  Neu  Dettelsau  Missionary  Society  (Missions- 
Anstali  in  Neucn  Deiielsau;  also  called  Bayerische  Mis- 
sions-Gesellschaft,  1SS6);  Headquarters:  Neuen-Dettelsau, 
Bavaria;  President :  Pastor  Stirner,  Kothenburg;  Inpector: 
Mr.  Deinzer;  Organ:  Freimund's  Kirchliches  und  Polit- 
isches^  T^^oc/i enb^a^^  with  Supplement  on  Church  work  in  N. 
America,  Australia,  and  British  Guinea. 

Germany:  Neukirchen  Missionary  Institute  ( Neukirch- 
ener  Missions  Anstali,  1881);  Headquarters:  Neukirchen 
bei  M._-rs,  Dusseh.lorf,  Germany;  Inspector:  Pastor  Sturs- 
berg;  Organ:  Der  Missions-und  Heidenbote,  monthly,  with 
supplement. 

Germany :  North  German  Missionary  Society  (  Nord- 
deutsche  Missions  Gesellschaft);  Headquarters:  Ellhorn- 
strasse  26,  Bremen,  Germany;  President:  I.  Schroeder; 
Inspector:  Aug.  W.  Schreiber;  Organ:  Monaishlatt  der 
Nordd.    Miss.     Gesellschaft,    monthly. 

Germany:  Rhenish  Missionary  Society  {Rheinische  Mis- 
sions Gesellschaft) ;  Headquarters:  Rudolf strasse  129, 
Barem,  Germany ;  Presi(.lent :  Th.  Gunrlert ;  Inspector. 
Pastor  I.  Spiecher;  Organ:  Missionshlait, Barmen,  monthly. 

Germany:  Sudan  Pioneer  Mission  {Sudan  Pionier 
Mission,  1900) ;  Headquarters:  Eisenach,  Germany; 
President :  Pastor  Ziemendorf,  Emserstrasse  12,  Wies- 
baden, Germany;  Treasurer:  P.  em.  Dammann,  Eisenach; 
Organ:  Der  Sudan  Pionier,  monthly. 

Germany:  Unity  of  Brethren,  or  Brudergemeine.  See 
Moravian  Rlissions. 

Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts:  Society  for  the  Propagation  of. 
See  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 

Gossner's  Evang.  Missionary  Society.     See  Germany. 

Gospel  Missionary  Union  (1S91);  Mr.  George  S.  Pischer, 
415  Oak  Street,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Hannover:  Evang.  Lutheran  Free  Church  of.  See  Ger- 
many. 

Hauge's  Synod  China  Mission  ( Hauaes  Synodes  China 
Mission,  1S91);  Pleadquarters:  298  Williams  Street,  St 
Paul,  Minn.;    Secretary:  Rev.  Charles  O.  Brohaugh, 

Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association  (1863) ;  Headquarters: 
Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Island;  Secretary:  Rev.  O.  P.  Emer- 
son; Treasurer:  Theodore  Richards;  Organ:  The  Friend. 
Woman's  Board  of  Missions;  Secretary:  Miss  M.  S. 
Seelye. 

Hephzibah  Faith  Home  Association  (1892);  Secretary: 
Mrs.  H.  W.  Kelley,  Tabor,  Iowa;    Organ:  Srnt  of  God. 

Hermannsburg  Evangelical  Lutheran  Missionary  Society. 
See  Germany. 

Highways  and  Hedges  Mission.  See  South  Arcot  High- 
■svays,  _etc. 

Holiness  Union.     See  Sv/eden. 

Ikwezi  Lamaci  Mission  (1877);  Secretary:  Rev.  Samuel 
Aitchison,  Harding,  Alfred  County,  Natal,  South  Africa. 

India:  Christian  Literature  Society  for.  See  Christian 
Literature  Society. 

Indian  Home  Mission  to  the  Santhals  (1867);  Treasurer: 
J.  Shroeder,  Copenhagen,  Denmark;  Secretary:  Rev.  L.  O. 
Skrefsrud,  Ebenezer,  Bengal,  India. 

Industrial  Missions  Aid  Society:  Secretary:  Mr.  W.  H.  J. 
Hatch,  10  Paternoster  Row,  London,  E.  C,  England. 

Industrial  Missions  Association  of  America-  See  Foreign 
Mi'^sions  Industrial  Association. 

International  Medical  Missions  and  Benevolent  Associa- 
tion.    See  Seventh  Day  AdA'entist  General  Conference. 

International  Medical  Missionary  Society  (1881);  Head- 
quarters: 288  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York;  Secretary: 
George  D.  Dowkontt,  M.  D.;   Treasurer:  J.  E.  Giles,  M.  D. 

Ireland:  Foreign  Missions  Com.  of  the  Reformed  Pres. 
Church  of  (1871) ;  Secretary:  Rev.  Wm.  Russell,  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Manse,  Balla,  Ireland. 

Ireland:  Presbyterian  Church  in,  Foreign  Missions  of  the 
(1840);  Secretary:  Rev.  George  McFarland,  12  May  Street, 
Belfast,    Ireland. 

Ireland:  Jewish  Missions  of  the  Pres'^yterian  Church  in 
(1841);  Secretary:  Rev.  George  R.  Buick,  (JuUeybackey, 
County  Antrim,  Ireland. 

Ireland:  Presbyterian  Church  in;  Mission  to  the  Jungle 
Tribes  (1890) ;  Secretary:  Rev.  Henry  Montgomery,  Upper 
Crescent,  Belfast,  Ireland. 

Jaffa  Medical  Mission  and  Hospital  (1878);  Secretary: 
C.  E.  Newton,  Esq.,  Mickleover,  Derby,  England. 

Jaffa  Tabeetha  Mission.     See  Tabectha  Mission. 

Jamaica  Baptist  Union  (1849);  Secretary:  Rev.  P.  Wil- 
liams, Bethel  Town  P.  O.,  Jamaica;  Secretary  Missionary 
Society  (1855);  Rev.  E.  J.  Hewett,  Anchovy  P.  O., 
Jamaica. 

Jamaica  Church  of  England:  Home  and  Foreign  Miss- 
ionary Society  (18C1);  Secretary:  I.  R.  Latreille,  Esq., 
3  Duke  Street,  Kingston,  Jamaica. 

Jamaica:  Congrefrational  Union  of  (1876);  Secretary: 
Rev.  Jas.  Watson,  Whitefield,  Porus,  Jamaica. 

Jamaica:  Foreign  Missions  Com.  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  (1824);'  Secretary:  Rev.  W.  Y.  Turner,  M.D., 
Christiana  P.  O.,  Jamaica. 

Jamaica:  United  Methodist  Free  Church,  Missionary 
Committee ;  Secretary ;  Rev.  Francis  Bavin,  Kingston, 
Jamaica. 

Java  Committee,  Amsterdam.     See  Netherlands. 


Jerusalem  and  the  East  Mission  (1888) ;  Secretary:  Rev. 
W.  Sadler,  Dembleby  Rectory,  Folkingham,  England. 

Jerusalem:  Union  for  the  Syrian  Orphange  at  (1889); 
Secretary:  Mr.  Adolf  Mess,  Cologne,  Germany. 

Jerusalem  Company  ( Jerusalem- verein).     See  Germany, 

Jews:  Church  of  Scotland  Conversion  of  the.  See 
Scotland  Church  of,  etc. 

Jews,  London  Soc.  for  Promoting  Christianity  among. 
See  London  Soc,  etc. 

Jews,  Pres.  Church  of  England's  Mission  to.  See 
Presbyterian  Church  of  England,  etc. 

Jews.     See  Brit.  Soc.  for  Prop,  of  Gospel  among. 

Kabyles,  French  Methodist  Mission  among  the.  See 
France. 

Kaiserswerth  Deaconesses.     See  Germany, 

Keswick  Mission  (1896);  Secretary:  Rev.  John  Harford- 
Battersby,  Ridley  Hall,  Cambridge,   England, 

Kurku  and  Central  Indian  Hill  Mission  (1890);  F,  W, 
Howard  Piper,  Beechwood,  Highgate,  London,  N.,  England. 

Lebanon  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  London  Committee  for 
the  (1896);  Headquarters:  35  Queen  Victoria  Street,  Lon- 
don, E.  C,  England;  Secretary:  Mr,  Francis  C.  Brading; 
Treasurer:  Sir  Ptichard  Tangye. 

Leipzig  Evangelical  Lutheran  Missionary  Society.  See 
Germany. 

Lepers  in  India  and  the  East,  Mission  to  (1874) ;  Head- 
quarters: 17  Greenhill  Place,  Edinburgh;  Secretary:  Wel- 
lesley  C.  Bailey,  Esq.;    Organ:  Without  the  Camp. 

London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the 
Jews  (1809);  Headquarters:  16  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields, 
London,  W.  C,  England;  Secretaries:  Rev.  W.  T.  Gidney 
and  Rev.  F.  L.  Denman. 

London  Missionary  Society  (1795);  Headquarters:  30 
Gray's  Inn  Road,  London,  W.  C,  England;  Secretaries: 
Rev.  R.  Wardlaw  Thompson,  Rev.  George  Cousins. 

LOventhal's  Mission :  Pres.  of  Com, Rev.  P,  J.  St.  Riemann 
Faxe,  Prastegaard,  Denmark, 

Lutheran  Church  in  America  (Danish).  See  Danish 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  etc. 

Lutheran  Church:  Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Synod  of  Iowa  and  other  States  (1854); 
Headquarters:  Charles  City,  Iowa;  Secretary:  Rev,  E.  H. 
Casselmann. 

Lutheran  Church:  Foreign  Missions  Committee  of  the 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio  and  other 
States  (1884);  Headquarters:  48  E.  Frankfort  Street, 
Columbus,  Ohio;  Secretary:  Rev.  J.  H.  Schneider. 

Lutheran  Church:  Foreign  Missions  CJommittee  of  the 
German  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  Missouri,  Ohio 
and  other  States.  See  German  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Synod,  etc. 

Lutheran  Free  Church:  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
(1895) ;  (formerly  called  Friends  of  Augsburg) ;  Headquar- 
ters: Minneapolis,  Minn.;  Secretary:  Prof.  Geo,  Sverdrup; 
Treasurer:  J.  H.  Blegen.;  Organ:  Gasseren. 

Lutheran  General  Council:  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
of  the  General  Council  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church 
in  North  America  (1867)  ;  Headquarters:  1522  Arch  Street, 
Philadelphia;  Secretaries:  J.  M.  Snyder,  Conrad  Itter, 
Rev.  W.  Ashmead  Schaeffer;  Treasurer:  William  H. 
Staake;  Organ:  Missions- Bote.  Woman's  Home  and 
Foreign  Miss.  Soc;  Secretary:  Mrs.  A,  Woll,  33d  and 
Diamond  Streets,  Philadelphia. 

Lutheran  General  Synod:  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
the  General  Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in 
the  U.  S.  (1841);  Headquarters:  19  W.  Saratoga  Street, 
Baltimore,  Md. ;  Secretaries:  Rev.  M.  J.  Kline,  Rev.  George 
Scholl;  Treasurer:  O.  F.  Lautz;  Organ:  Lutheran  Mission 
Journxxl. 

Lutheran  Church  in  the  South  (1886);  Board  ot  Foreign 
Missions  and  Church  Extension  of  the  United  Synod  of 
the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  the  South;  Head- 
quarters; Strasburg,  Va.;  Secretary:  Rev.  L.  L.  Smith; 
Treasurer:  J,  W.     Eberly. 

Lutheran  Church  in  America  (Norwegian).  See  Nor- 
we<Tian  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  etc. 

McAU  Mission.     See  France. 

Medical  Missionary  Association,  London  (1878);  Head- 
quarters: 49  Highbury  Park,  London,  N.,  England;  Sec- 
retaries: Henry  Soltau,  L,  R.  C.  P.  and  S.,  Edin.,  James 
L.  Maxwell,  M.D.;  Organ:  Medical  Missions  at  Home  and 
Abroad. 

Melanesian  Mission  (1849);  Secretary:  Rev.  Geo.  Mac- 
Murray,  St.  Mary's  Vicarage,  Auckland,  New  Zealand. 

Mennonite  Mission  Board  (1882) ;  Headquarters:  Quaker- 
town,  Pa.;    Secretary:  Rev.  A.  B.  S'lelly, 

Mennonite  Union,  etc.,  for  the  Netherlands  Possessions 
beyond  the  Sea.     See  Netherlands. 

Methodist  Church  in  Canada.  See  Canada;  Miss  Soc.  of 
Meth.  Church  in. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church:  Missionary  Society  of  the 
(1819);  Headquarters:  150  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York; 
Secretaries:  Rev.  A.  B.  Leonard,  Rev,  H.  K.  Carroll,  Rev. 
S.O. 'Benton;  Treasurer;  Homer  Eaton;  Organ;  World 
Wide  Missions.  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  Headquarters:  150  Fifth 
Avenue,  New  York;  Secretary:  Mrs.  J.  T.  Gracey. 


821 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  I 


f??.®'M^li«\^?;^''°P^  Church  (South);  Board  of  Missions 
of  the  (1846);  Headquarters:  Nashville,  Teiin.;  Secretaries: 
Rev.  Walter  R  Lambuth,  Rev.  J.  H.  Pritchett;  Treas- 
urer: J.  p.  Hamilton;  Organ:  Review  of  Missions.  Woman  s 
Board  of  Missions;  Headquarters:  Nashville,  Tenn  ■  Secre- 
taries: Mrs  S.  C.  Truehart,  Nashville,  Tenn  •  Mrs  M  L 
Hargrove,  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Treasurer,  Mrs.  H.  N  Mc- 
Tyeire;   Organ:  Woman's  Missionary  Advocate 

Methodist  Free  Church.     See  United  Methodist 

Methodist  New  Connexion  Miss.  Soc:  Secretary  Rev 
George  Packer,  3  St.  John's  Ter  ace,  Belle  Vue  Road, 
Leeds,  England;  Organ:  Gleanings  in  the  Harvest  Field 
Woman  s  Auxiliary  for  China;  Miss  Stacey,  Ranmoor, 
Sheffield,  England. 

Methodist  Protestant  Church:  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions of  the  (1888);  Headquarters:  Greensboro,  N  C  • 
Secretary  and  Treasurer:  Rev.  T.  J.  Ogburn.  Woman's 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  Methodist  Protestant  Church; 
Headquarters:  Greensboro,  N.  C. ;  Secretaries:  Mrs.  D.  S. 
Stephens,  Kansas  City,  Kansas:  Mrs.  H.  Hupfield,  Balti- 
more, Md.;  Treasurer:  Mrs.  J.  D.  Anderson,  Bellevue,  Pa.; 
Organ:  Woman's  Missionary  Record. 

Mildmay  Institute  and  Missions  (1856);  Headquarters: 
The  Conference  Hall,  Mildmay  Park,  London,  N.,  England; 
Treasurer  and  Superintendent:  Col.  J.  F.  Morton.  Mildmay 
Mission  to  the  Jews  (1876);  Headquarters:  79  Mildmay 
Road,  London,  N.,  England;  Secretary:  Rev.  John  Wil- 
kinson. 

Missionary  Pence  Association:  Headquarters:  Rooms 
21-22  Exeter  Hall,  Strand,  London,  W.  C,  England; 
Secretary:  Mr.  William  Roger  Jones. 

Miss  Taylor's  Schools,  Beyrout  (1868);  Headquarters: 
35  Great  King  Street,  Edinburgh,  Scotland;  Secretary: 
Mrs.  Sandeman. 

Moravian  Missions  (Missions-Werk  der  Evangelischer 
BrUder  Unitnt,  1732);  Headquarters:  Berthelsdorf, 
Herrnhut,  Saxony ;  Director :  Rev.  Dr.  C.  Buchner ; 
Secretaries  of  Missions  (in  Berthelsdorf) :  Rev.  Leonard 
Tietzen;  (inLondon)  Rev.C.  J.  Klesel;  (in  Bethlehem,  Pa., 
U.  S.)  Rev.  Paul  de  Schweinitz;  Organ:  Missionsblatt  der 
Brudergemeine . 

Morocco :  Medical  Mission  in.  Central ;  See  Central 
Morocco  Medical  Mission. 

National  Raptist  Convention:  Foreign  Mission  Board  of 
the  (1880);  Headquarters,  71SW.  Walnut  Street,  Louisville, 
Ky.;  Secretary:  Rev.  L.  G.  Jordan;  Treasurer:  Rev.  C. 
H.  Parrish;     Organ:  Mission   Herald. 

National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland.  See  Scotland; 
National  Bible  Society  of. 

Netherlands  Bible  Society  (1814);  Rev.  C.  F.  Grone- 
meijer,  Vossiusstraat  15,  Amsterdam,  Holland. 

Netherlands:  Committee  in  support  of  the  Salatiga 
mission  in  Java  {Comiti'  tot  understeuning  van  de  Zendel- 
ingen  der  Salatiga-  Zending  op  Java,  gevestigd  te  Utrecht, 
1887);  Secretary:  Rev.  M.  Mooij,  Varsseveld,  Holland. 

Netherlands :  Ermelo  Missionary  Association  ( Ermel- 
osche  Zendingsgemeenie,  1856) ;  Secretary:  Mr.  H,  W. 
Mooij,  Ermelo,  Holland. 

Netherlands :  Java  Committee  (Java  Comitc,  1855) ; 
Headquarters:  Boerhaavestraat  5,  Amsterdam,  Holland; 
Secretary :  Rev.  L.  Kooperus ;  Organ :  Het  GeillustreeTd 
Zendings  blad;  Mededeelingen  van  het    Z ending sv eld . 

Netherlands:  Mennonite  Union  for  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  the  East  Indian  possessions  of  the  (1847) ; 
Secretary :  Rev.  W.  I .  Leendertz,  Reizersgracht  194, 
Amsterdam,  Holland. 

Netherlands  Missionary  Society  (1797);  Headquarters: 
Rechter  Rottekade  57,  Rotterdam,  Holland;  Secretary: 
Rev.  J.  W.  Gunning,  Jr.;  Organ:  Maandherichten,  monthly; 
Mededeelingen,  quarterly. 

Netherlands:  Mission  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  the 
(1892);    Dr.  J.  Hania,  Steenwijk,  Netherlands. 

Netherlands  Missionary  Union  (is;r,f^;,) ;  Headquarters: 
Stationweg  7,  Rotterdam,  Holland;  Secretary:  Rev.  F.  A. 
van  der  Heijden. 

Netherlands:  Union  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
in  Egypt  ( Vereeniging  tot  uithreiding  van  het  Evangelie  in 
Egypt,  1886);  Secretary:  Rev.  J.  H.  Van  Noort,  Nassau- 
kade,    ^^2,   Amsterdam,    Holland. 

Netherlands:  Utrecht  Missionary  Union  (  Utrechtsche 
Zendingsvereenigino,  1859);  Headquarters:  Utrecht,  Hol- 
land;  Secretary:  Rev.  M.  A.  Adrian),  Janskerhof,  Utrecht. 

Neukirchen  Missionary  Society.     See  Germany. 

New  England  Company  (1649);  Headquarters:  1  Hatton 
Garden,  Holborn,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Secretary: 
W.  W.  Venning,  Esq. 

New  Jerusalem  in  U.  S.  A. :  Board  of  Home  and  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  General  Convention  of;  Headquarters:  16 
Arhngton  Street,  Boston,  Mass.;  Secretary:  Rev.  Willard 
H.  Hinkley;  Treasurer:  Dr.  E.  A.  Whi.^ton. 

New  South  Wales,  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of 
(1892);  Secretary:  Rev.  F.  Hibberd,  "Sarum,"  Carhng- 
ford,  New  South  Wales,  Australia. 

New  South  Wales,  Pres.  Church  in;  Secretary:  Rev.  John 
Walker,  Woollahra,  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  Austraha. 

New  Zealand  Baptist  Miss.  Society:  Secretary:  Mr.  H. 
Driver,  "Chaucer's  Head,"  Book-room,  Dunedin,  New 
Zealand. 


New  Zealand,  For.  Miss.  Com.  of  the  Pres.  Church  of 
(1869);  Convener:  Rev.  Wm.  Hewitson,  Dunedin,  New 
Zealand.  Maori  Missions  Committee  of  the  same;  Con- 
vener: Rev.  D.  Gordon,  Marton,  N.  Z. 

North  Africa  Mission  (1881);  Secretary:  Dr.  C.  L.  Terry, 
34  Paternoster  Row,  London,  E.  C.,  England;  Organ: 
North  Africa. 

North  China  Mission  (1874) ;  Secretary :  Rev.  Mackwood 
Stevens,  Addington  Uectory,  Winslow,  Bucks,  England. 

North  German  Missionary  Society.     See  Germany. 

North  India  School  of  Medicine,  London  Committee  for 
(1894);  Secretary:  Miss  Mabel  AV.  Brown,  120  St.  James 
Road,  West  Croydon,  Surrey,  England. 

Norwegian  Board  of  Missions  (1889);  Secretary  and 
Treasurer:  Mr.  Gustave  Andersen,  Kronprinsensgade  No. 
1,  Christiania,  Norway. 

Norwegian  Church  Mission  of  Schreuder  (1877);  Secre- 
tary: Rev.  Paul  Vilhelm  Skaar,  ilelgesensgo  44,  Chris- 
tiania, Norway;  Organ:  Missionshlad. 

Norwegian  Lutheran  China  Mission  Association  (Dct 
Norske  lutherske  Kina  m-lssions  forlmnd),  1S91;  Secretary: 
Mr.  Johannes  Brandtzaeg,  Fraranes,  Norheimsund,  Nor- 
way. 

Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  in  America;  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions  of  the  United  (i..58);  Secretary:  Rev. 
Peter  Dreyer,  Harmony,  Fiilraore  ('Vmnty,  Minnesota. 

Norwegian  Missionary  Society  (1S42);  Secretary:  Rev. 
L.  Dahle,  Stavanger,  Norway. 

Nyassa  Industrial  Mission  (189:^-);  Headquarters:  4 
Paternoster  Buildings,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Secretary: 
Rev.  Alfred  Walker,  Sandrock,  Sevenoaks,  Kent. 

Nyassaland  Mission.     See  South  Africa  Ministers  Union. 

Open  Brethren,  Garenganze  Mission.  See  Christian 
Mission  (England). 

Palestine  and  Lebanon  Nurses'  Mission  (1865);  Hon. 
Secretary:  Miss  Lloyd,  22  Al  ert  Square,  Clapham  Road, 
London,  S.  W.;    Organ:  Open  Doors,  quarterly. 

Paris   Society  for  EvangeUcal  Missions.     See  France. 

Pentecost  Bands  of  the  World  (1S97);  Secretary:  Mr. 
Geo.  E.  Bula,  Indianapolis,  led. 

Pilibhit  Industrial  and  Evangelistic  Mission  (1902) ; 
Superintendent:  Rev.  J.  C.  Lawson,  Pilibhit,  U.  P.,  India. 

Pongas  Mission.     Under  S.  P.  G. 

Poona  and  Indian  Village  Mission  (1895) ;  Director: 
Chas.  F.  Reeves;  Secretary:  A,  Leigh,  Nasarapur,  Bhor 
State,  Bombay. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (North) :  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions  of  (18o7);  Headquarters:  156  Fifth  Avenue, 
New  York;  Secretaries:  Rev.  F.  F.  EUinwood,  Mr.  R.  E. 
Speer,  Rev.  A.  J.  Brown.  Rev.  A.  Halsey;  Treasurer:  Chas. 
W.  Hand;  Organ:  Assembly  Herald.  Woman's  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  _  the  Presbyterian  Church  (North) ; 
Headquarters:  156  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York;  Treasurer: 
Miss  H.  W.  Hubbard.  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  (North);  Headquar- 
ters: Witherspoon  Building,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Treasurer: 
Miss  E.  H.  Eldridge.  Woman's  North  Pacific  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions;  Headquarters:  Portland,  Ore- 
gon; Treasurer:  Mrs.  H.  C.  Campbell.  Woman's  Occi- 
dental Board  of  Foreign  Missions;  Headquarters:  920 
Sacramento  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  Treasurer:  Mrs. 
E.  G.  Dennison.  Woman's  Presbyterian  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions  of  the  Southwest;  Headquarters:  1516 
Locust  Street,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Treasurer:  Mrs.  Wm.  Burg. 
Woman's  Presbyterian  Board  of  Missions  of  the  North 
West ;  Headquarters :  LeMoyne  Block,  Chicago,  III. ; 
Treasurer:  Mrs.  C.  B.  Far  well.  Woman's  Presbyterian 
Foreign  Missionary  Society,  Northern  New  York;  Hea'l- 
quarters:  78  First  Street,  Troy,  N.  Y.;  Treasurer:  Mrs.  B. 
Arnold;  Organ  of  these  seven  Societies:  Woman's  Work 
for  Woman. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (South) :  Executive 
Committee  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  (18G1);  Headquar- 
ters: Chamber  of  Commerce  Building,  Nashville,  Tenn.; 
Secretary:  Rev.  S.  H.  Chester;  Treasurer:  Mr.  Erskine 
Reed;      Organ:    The   Missionary. 

Presbyterian  Church  of  England.  See  England,  Pres. 
Church  of. 

Primitive  Methodist  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (1896);  Head- 
quarters: Plymouth,  Luzerne  Co.,  Pennsylvania;  Secre- 
tary: Rev.  Daniel  Savage.  Auxiliary  to  the  Prim. 
Methodist  Miss.  Society  of  London. 

Primitive  Methodist  Miss.  Soc.  (1842);  Secretary:  Rev. 
R.  W.  Burnett,  71  Freegrove  Road,  HoUoway,  London,  N., 
England;  Organ:  Primitive  Methodist  Missionary  Maga- 
zine. 

Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  Soc.  for.  See  Chris- 
tian Knowledge,  Soc.  for,  etc. 

Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  Society  for 
the.     See  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A. :  Domestic 
and  Foreign  Mission  Society  of  the  (1835);  Headquarters: 
281  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York;  Secretaries:  Rev.  A.  S. 
Lloyd,  Rev.  .1.  Kirober,  Mr.  John  W.  Wood;  Treasurer: 
George  C.  Thomas;    Organ:  Spirit  of  Missions. 

Pundita  Ramabai  Mission  (1887);  (See  Ramabai  Asso- 
ciation) ;  Directors :  The  Pundita  Ramabai,  Sharada 
Sadan,  Poona,  India. 


Appendix   I 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


822 


Pure  Literature  Society  (1854);  Secretary:  Mr.  R. 
Turner,  11  Buckingham  Street,  Acielphi,  Strand,  London, 
W.  C,  England. 

Qualboe  Mission  (1887);  Secretaries:  Mr.  H.  B.  Niblock, 
Mr.  James  Hamilton,  Scottish  Provident  Building,  Belfast, 
Ireland;    Organ:  Occasional  Paper. 

Queensland  Baptist  Association  Foreign  Missions  (1887); 
Secretary:  Mr.  Sidney  G.  Martin,  295  Queen  Street,  Bris- 
bane, Queensland. 

Queensland  Pres.  Church  Mission  to  the  Heathen  (18S2) ; 
Rev.  D.  F.  Mitchell,  The  Manse,  So.  Brisbane,  Queensland, 
Australia. 

Ramabai  Association,  American  (180S);  Secretary:  Mrs. 
George  H.  I^IcGrew,  715  Case  Ave.,  Cleveland,  O.;  Treasurer: 
Mr.  (Curtis  Chipman,  222  Boyi.'ston  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Ranaghat  Medical  Mission  (1893);  Director:  C.  G. 
Monro,  Ranaghat,  Nuddea,  Bengal. 

Reformed  Church  in  America :  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
of  the  (18.32);  Heado.uarters:  25  East  22d  Street,  New 
York;  Secretaries:  Rev.  C.  L.  Wells,  Rev.  J.  L.  Ferris, 
Rev.  H.  N.  Cobb,  Rev.  J.  W.  Conklin;  Treasurer:  Chas.  H. 
Harris;  Organ:  Mission  Field.  Woman's  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions;  Headquarters:  25  East  22d  Street,  New 
York;  Secretaries;  Miss  O.  H,  Lawrence;  Treasurer:  Mrs. 
F.  S-  Douglas;   Organ:  Mission  Gleaner. 

Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (German) :  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  i\lissions  of  the  (1881);  Headquar- 
ters: 1306  Arch  Street,  Philadelphia;  Secretary:  Rev.  Allen 
R.  Bartholomew;   Treasurer:  Rev.  J.  S.  Lemberger. 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States:    Board 
of   Foreign   Missions   of   the    (1894);      Headquarters:  2630 
North  12th  Street,  PhiUidelphia,  Pa.;   Secretary:  Mr.  H.  S. 
'  Sinamon;    Treasurer:    R.?v.  C.  F.  Hendricks. 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  Kingdom: 
Punjab  Mission  of  the  (1900);  Secretary:  Rev.  John  An- 
derson, 20  Minet  Avenue,  Harlesden,  London,  N.  W., 
England. 

Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  N.  A. :  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions  of  the  General  Synod  of  the  (1S36);  Head- 
quarters: 2102  Spring  Garden  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa.; 
Secretary:  Rev.  David  Sceele. 

Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  N.  A, :  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions  of  the  Svnod  of  the  (1856);  Headquarters: 
325  West  Fifty-sixth  Street,  New  York;    Secretary:  Rev. 

R.  M.  Sommerville,  D.D.;    Treasurer: ;    Organ:  Olive 

Trees. 

Reformed  Pres.  Church  of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  For. 
Miss.  Com.  of.     See  Ireland,  Scotland   etc. 

Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union  (1899);  Headquarters: 
Harley  House,  Bow  Roail,  London,  E.  England;  Secre- 
tary: Rev.  H.  Grattan  Guiness,  M.D.;  Organ:  Regions 
Beiiond. 

Rehgious  Tract  Society  (1799);  Headquarters:  56 
Paternoster  Row,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Secretary:  Rev. 
R.  Lovett. 

Rhenish  Missionary  Society.     See  Germany. 

River  Brethren.     See  Brethren  in  Christ. 

Romande  Mission.     See  Switzerland;  Mission  Romande. 

Sacred  Mission,  Society  of  the  (1891);  Director,  Rev. 
Herbert  Kelley,  House  of  the  Saered  Mission,  Kelham, 
Newark,  England. 

Saint  Chrischona  Pilgrim  Mission.     See  Switzerland. 

Salatiga  Mission  in  Java.     See  Netherlands. 

Salvation  Army  (1S65) ;  International  Headquarters:  101  ■ 
Queen  Victoria  Street,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Director, 
Rev.   William  Booth. 

Santals,  Indian  Home  Mission  to.  See  Indian  Home 
Mission    to    Santhals. 

Scandinavian  AlUance  Mission  in  North  America  (1891); 
Headquarter.^:  81  Ashland  Boulevard,  Chicago,  111.;  Sec- 
retary: Rev.  C.  T.  Dyrness;  Treasurer:  Prof.  F.  Ri.sberg. 

Scotland;  Baptist  Industrial  Mission  of  (1895)  ;  Secretary: 
Rev.  W.  J.  Millar,  40  St.  Enoch  Square,  Glasgow,  Scotland. 

Scotland :  Conversion  of  the  Jews  Committee  of  the 
Church  of  (1840) ;  Secretary:  John  A.  Traill,  Esq.,  17  Duke 
Street,  Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

Scotland;  Foreign  Missions  Committee  of  the  Church  of 
(1829);  Headquarters:  22  Queen  Street.  Edinburgh, 
Scotland;  Secretary:  Rev.  John  McMurrie.  Woman's  Asso- 
ciation for  Foreign  Missions  (1837);  Secretary:  Miss  Ruth- 
erf  urd. 

Scotland;  National  Bible  Society  of  (I860);  Head- 
quarters: 224  West  George  Street,  Glasgow;  Edinburgh 
office:  5  St.  Andrew  Square;  Secretaries:  Wm.  J,  Slowan, 
Esq.,  Glasgow;  Rev.  J.  S.  Nia  et,  Edinburgh;  Organ: 
Record. 

Scotland;  Foreign  Missions  Committee  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  of  (1871);  Secretary:  Rev.  John 
McKee,  Wishaw,  Scotland.     See  also  Ireland. 

Scotland,  United  Free  Church  of.  Foreign  Missions  (1900) ; 
Headquarters:  15  North  Bank  Street,  Edinburgh;  Secre- 
taries, Rev.  James  Buchanan,  George  Smith ;  Organ : 
Monthly  Record. 

Scottish  Episcopal  Church  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
(1872);  Secretary:  Mr.  W.  W.  Farquharson,  13  Queen 
Street,     Edinburgh,     Scotland. 

Scripture  Gift  Mission  (1862) ;  Secretary:  Mr.  W.  Waters, 
15  Strand,  London,  W.  C,  England. 


Scriptures,  Association  for  Free  Distribution  of  the 
(1874);  Secretary:  Mrs.  A.  E.  Pridham,  6  Cannon  Place, 
Hampstead,  London,  N.  W. 

Seventh  Day  Adventist  General  Conference ;  Foreign  Mis- 
sion Committee  of  the  (1887);  Headquarters:  222  N. 
Capitol  Street,  Washington,  D.  C.;  Secretary;  W,  A.  Spicer; 
Treasurer:  I.  H.  Evans;  Organ:  The  Advent  Review  and 
Sabbath  Herald.  International  Medical  Mission  and 
Benevolent  Association:  Headquarters:  The  Sanitarium, 
Battle  Creek,  Michigan;  Secretary:  John  F.  Morse,  M.D. 

Seventh  Day  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1842);  Head- 
quarters: Westerley,  R.  I.;  Secretary:  Rev.  O.  U.  Whit- 
ford;  Treasurer: . 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Parts  (1701);  Headquarters:  19  Delahay  Street,  West- 
minster, London,  S.  W.,  England;  Secretary:  Rt.  Rev. 
H.  H.  Montgomery,  D.D. 

South  Africa  General  Mission  (1889);  Secretary:  Arthur 
Mercer,  Esq.,  17  Homefield  Road,  Wimbledon,  London, 
S.  W.,  England. 

South  African  Dutch  Reformed  Church  Ministers'  Mis- 
sionary Union  (Predikanten  Zendingyereeniging;also  called 
"  Nyasaland  Mission "  (1886)  Chairman :  Rev.  Andrew 
Murray,  D.D.;  Secretary:  Rev.  J.  du  Plessis,  Sea  Point, 
Cape  Colony,  South  Africa. 

South  African  Missionary  Society  of  the  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odist Church  (1883);  Secretary:  Rev.  Geo.  Weaver,  Cape 
Town,  South  Africa. 

South  American  Evang.  Mission  (1895);  Secretary:  Mr. 
Bryce  W.  Ranken,  23  Overton  Street,  Edgehill,  Liverpool, 
England. 

South  American  Missionary  Society  (1884);  Head- 
quarters: 1  Clifford's  Inn,  Fleet  Street,  London,  E.  C., 
England;  Secretary:  Capt.  Edward  Poulden;  Organ: 
South  American  Missionary  Magazine. 

South  Arcot  Highways  and  Hedges  Mission  (1885);  Sec- 
retary; Miss  C.  M.  S.  Lowe,  8  Childevert  Road,  Upper 
Tooting,  London,  S.  W.,  England. 

South  Australia,  Foreign  Missions  Com.  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  (1872);  Secretary:  Rev.  James  Lyall, 
Adelaide,  South  Australia. 

Southern  Baptist  Convention  (1845);  Foreign  Mission 
Board  of  the;  Headquarters:  1103  Main  Street,  Richmond, 
Va.;  Secretaries:  Rev.  R.  J.  Willingham,  Rev.  E.  E.Bomar; 
Treasurer:  J.  C.  Williams;  Organ:  Foreign  Mission  Journal. 
Woman's  Missionary  Union;  Headquarters;  233  N.  Howard 
Street,  Baltimore,  Md.;  Secretaries:  Miss  A.  W.  Armstrong, 
Miss  Nellie  Martein;  Trea.surer:  Mrs.  W.  C.  Lowndes. 

Southern  Morocco  Mission  (1888);  Director:  Mr.  John 
Andersen,  64  Bothwell  Street,  Glasgow,  Scotland.  Organ: 
The  Reaper,  monthly;  Ladies' Auxiliary;  Secretary,  Miss 
Kerr,  Paisley. 

Stirling  Tract  Enterprise  (1848);  Manager:  Mr.  John 
Macfarlane,  Drummond's  Tract  Depot,  Stirling,  Scotland. 

Strict  Baptist  Mission  (1860);  Secretary:  Mr.  W.  S. 
Millwood,  Edward  House,  Leison  Grove,  London,  N.  W., 
England. 

Student  Volunteer  Missionary  Union  (1893);  Head- 
quarters: 22  Warwick  Lane,  London,  E.  C,  England. 

Student  Volunteer  Movement  (1888);  Headquarters:  3 
West  29th  Street,  New  York;  Secretary:  H.  P.  Turner; 
Treasurer: . 

Sunday  School  Union  (1803);  Headquarters:  55  and  56 
Old  Bailey,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Secretary:  Rev. 
Carey  Bonner;  Secretary  of  India  S.  S.  Mission,  and  Chair- 
man of  Continental  S.  S.  Mission:  Charles  Waters. 

Sweden;  Evangelical  National  Society  in  {Evangeliska 
Fosterlands-Stiftelsens,  1856) ;  Headquarters :  Stockholm, 
Sweden :  Director :  Rev.  A.  Kolmodin,  Johannelund, 
Stockholm ;  Organ :  Missionstidning. 

Sweden;  Female  Mission  Workers  (Kvinliga  Missiona- 
Arbetare,  1894);  Headquarters:  Stockholm,  Sweden;  Sec- 
retary: Miss  Ellen  Palmstierna,  Birga  Jarlsgatan  14. 

Sweden;  Holiness  Union  ( Helgesefdrbundet,  1890);  Sec- 
retary: Rev.  A.  Kihlstedt,  Kumla  (auxiliary  to  CIM). 

Swedish:  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (Sallskapei  Svenaka 
Baptist  Missionen,  1889) ;  Headquarters :  Stockholm, 
Sweden;  Secretary;  Rev.  Wilhelm  Lindbloom  Walhalla- 
vagen  57,  Stockholm;  Organ: . 

Swedish;  Church  Mission  (Svenska  Kirkans  Missions-^ 
tyrelae,  1874);  Headquarters:  Upsala,  Sweden;  Secretary: 
Rev.  Gudmar  Hogner;  Organ:  Missionstidning.  Women's 
Missionary  Society,  auxiliary  to  the  above. 

Swedish  Evangelical  Mission  Covenant  of  America  (1885) 
Headquarters:  Noth  Park  College,  Chicago,  111.;  Secre- 
tary:  Prof.    D.    Nyvall. 

Swedish  Missionary  Union  (Svenska  Missionsfdrbiindeta, 
1879);  Headquarters:  Stockholm;  Secretary:  Rev.  E.  J. 
Eckman,  Hollandaregatan  27. 

Swedish  Mission  in  China  (Svenska  Missionen  i  Kina, 
1887);  Secretary;  Rev.  Josef  Holmgren,  Lastmakaregatan 
30,  Stockholm,  Sweden  (associated  with  CIM)._ 

Switzerland:  Basel  Evangelical  Missionary  Society  (Evan- 
gelische  Missionsgesellschaft  zii  Basel,  1815);  Headquarters: 
Basel,  Switzerland;  President:  Pfarrer  Ernest  Miescher; 
Inspector:  Th.  Oehler;  Organ:  Der  Evangelische  Heidenbotet 
monthly. 

Switzerland;    St.   Chrischona    Pilgrim   Mission    (PilgW' 


828 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  I 


ms3mnaufSt.  Chrzschona,  1840  and  1895) ;  Headquarters: 
St.  Chnschona  Basel;  Inspector:  Rev.  6.  H.  Rappard 
(auxiliary  to  China  Inland  Mission) ;  Organ:  Der  Glaubens- 
bote,  monthly. 

Switzerland;  Romande  Missionary  Society  (Mission 
Komande,  oeuvre  d  evanfjelisation  chez  les  parens,  dirigee  par 
les  ^ghses  Libres  de  Vaud,  Neuchatel  et  Geneve,  1875)  • 
Headquarters:  Lausanne,  Switzerland;  Secretary  Rev  A 
Grandjean,  Chemin  des  Cc'dres,  Lausanne,  Switzerland; 
Organ:  Bulletin. 

Syrian  Schools  Soc,  British.  See  British  Syr.  Schools 
Soc. 

Tabeetha  Mission,  Jaffa  (1863);  Secretary:  Miss  E. 
Walker  Arnott,  24  St.  Bernard's  Crescent,  Edinburgh. 

Trinidad;  Canadian  Pres.  Mission  to  E.  Indians  in.  See 
Canadian  Pres.,  etc. 

Unitarian  Association,  American.  See  American  Uni- 
tarian Association. 

Unitarian  Assoc,  British  and  Foreign  (1825);  Head- 
quarters: Essex  Hall,  Essex  Street,  Strand,  London,  W.  C, 
England;  Secretary:  Rev.  W.  Copeland  Bowie. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ;  Home,  Frontier  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  of  the  (1853) ;  Headquarters:  Cor.  Main 
and  Fourth  Streets,  Dayton,  Ohio;  Secretaries:  Rev.  Wm 
Bell,  Rev.  C.  Whitney;  Treasurer:  Rev.  W.  McKee;  Organ: 
The  Searchlioht. 

Unity  of  Brethren  (Briider  Unitiit).  See  Moravian 
Missions. 

United  Danish  Evang.  Lutheran  Church  in  America.  See 
Danish  Ev.  Luth.,  etc. 

United  Evangelical  Church  Missionary  Society  (1899); 
Headquarters:    Myerstown,    Pa.;    Secretary:    Rev.   A.   M. 

Sampsel,    Reading,    Pa.;    Treasurer: ;    Organ: . 

Woman's  Missionary  Society;  Headquarters: ;  Sec- 
retary: Mrs.  S.  P.  Remer,  628  Market  Street,  Williamsport, 
Pa.;  Treasurer:  Mrs.  W.  E.  Detuhler,  Carlisle,  Pa.;  Organ: 
Missionary  Tidings  (of  Harrisburg,  Pa.). 

United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  For.  Mission  Board.  See 
Scotland;  United  Free  Chu  ch. 

United  Methodist  Free  Ch.,  Home  and  Foreign  Miss. 
(1857);  Secretary:  Rev.  H.  T.  Chapman,  4  Newton  Grove, 
Leeds,  England. 

United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North  America  (1859); 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the:  Headquarters:  Wither- 
spoon  Building,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Secretary;  Rev.  Chas. 
R.  Watson;  Treasurer:  Mr.  R.  L,  Latimer;  Organ:  United 
Presbyterian  Church  Record.  Woman's  General  Missionary 
Society;  Secretaries:  Mrs.  S.  Yourd,  Carnegie,  Pa.;  Mrs.  W. 
J.  Reid,  Pittsburg,  Pa.;  Mrs.  E.  M.  Hill,  Pittsburg,  Pa.; 
Treasurer:  Miss  E.  J.  Sloan,  5150  Liberty  Avenue,  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.;  Organ:  Women's  Missionary  Magazine. 

United  Society  for  Christian  Endeavor  (1885);  Head- 
quarters: Tremont  Temple,  Boston,  Mass. 

Universahst  Gen.  Convention  (1890);  Secretary:  Rev.  G. 
L.  Demarest,  Manchester,  N.  H. 

Universities  Mission  to  Central  Africa  (1858);  Head- 
quarters: 9  Dartmouth  Street,  London,  S.  W.,  England; 
Secretary:  Rev.  Duncan  Travers. 

Utrecht  Mission  Union.     See  Netherlands, 


Victorian  Raptist  Foreign  Mission  (1885);  Secretary: 
Rev.  J.  H.  Goble,  Footscray,  Melbourne,  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia. 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists'  Foreign  Missions  (1840); 
Headquarters:  10  Pearl  Buildings,  St.  John's  Lane,  Liver- 
pool, England;  Secretary:  Rev.  R.  J.  Williams. 

Wesleyan,  Central  China  Lay  Mission.  See  Central 
China. 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Connection  of  America;  Missionary 
Society  of  the  (1890);  Headquarters:  316  E.  Onondaga 
Street,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.;  Secretary:  Rev.  W.  H.  Kennedy. 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society  (1813);  Head- 
quarters: Wesleyan  Miss.  House,  17  Bishopsgate  Street, 
Within,  London,  E.  C,  England;  Secretary;  Rev.  W.  H. 
Findlay;  Organ:  The  Foreign  Field,  monthly.  Woman's 
auxiliary  of  the  W.M.S.;  Hon.  Foreign  Secretary;  Mrs.  Wise- 
man, 25  Queens  Ave.,  Muswell  Hill,  London  N.;  Home  Sec- 
retary, Miss  A.  M.  Hellier,  20  Gloucester  Road,  Finsbury 
Park,  London,  N.,  England. 

West  Indies;  Eastern  Annual  Conference,  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Missions;  Secretary;  Rev.  E.  Donald  Jones, 
Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad. 

West  Indies;  Wesleyan  Methodist  Home  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Western  Annual  Conference 
(1884) ;  Secretary:  Rev.  John  A.  Mcintosh,  Wesley  House, 
Duncans,  Jamaica. 

Woman*s  Union  Missionary  Society  of  America  for 
Heathen  Lands  (1860);  Headquarters;  67  Bible  House, 
New  York;  Secretary:  Miss  S.  D.  Doremus;  Assistant 
Treasurers:  Miss  M.  S.  Stone,  Miss  E.  B.  Stone;  Organ 
Missionary  Link. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association;  International  Com- 
mittee of  the  (1SS9);  Headquarters:  3  West  29th  Street, 
New  York;  Secretaries:  Rev.  Richard  C.  Morse,  Mr.  H  .  A 
Black;  Organ:  Association  Men. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Assoc,  Colonial  and  Interna- 
tional Dep't  of  Eng.  National  Council  of  (1890);  W.  H, 
Mills,  Esq.,  Exeter  Hall,  Strand,  London,  W.  C,  England, 

Young  Men's  Christian  Assoc,  Students'  Theol.  Section 
of,  Mr.  S.  Earl  Taylor,  3  West  29th  Street,  New  York. 

Young  Men's  For.  Miss.  Society  (1877);  Mr.  Edwin  A. 
Page,  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Needlers  Alley,  Birmingham,  England. 

Young  People's  Missionary  Movement;  Headquarters:  156 
Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  City;  Secretary:  Charles  V.  Vickery. 

Y.  P.  S.  C.  Endeavor.     See  United  Soc.  Chr.  Endeavor. 

Young  Women's  Christian  Assoc,  American  Dep't  (1894) ; 
Headquarters:  74  W.  i24th  Street,  New  York;  Secretary: 
Miss  R.  F.  Morse. 

Young  Woman's  Christian  Assoc,  World's;  Miss  Ethel 
Stevenson,  26  George  Street,  Hanover  Square,  London, 
W.,  England. 

Zambesi  Industrial  Mission  (1892);  Headquarters:  6 
Colonial  Avenue,  Minories,  London,  England;  Secretary: 
Mr.  Robert  Caldwell. 

Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Mission  (1852) ;  Headquarters: 
2  Adelphi  Terrace,  Strand,  London,  W.  C,  England; 
Secretaries:  Rev.  A.  R.  Cavaher,  Mrs.  Firth. 

Zenana  Missionary  Society.  See  Church  of  England 
Zenana  Miss.  Society. 


APPENDIX    II 


CHEONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  EXTENSION  OF  PROTESTANT 
MISSIONS  FROM  THE  TIME  OF  CAREY 


Note.— There  is  not  a  little  confusion  of  dates  in  the  records.  It  is  not  always  practicable  to 
distinguish  between  the  date  when  a  mission  was  decided  upon,  and  that  when  the  missionaries 
started,  or  actually  commenced  the  work.  The  object  of  this  table  is  not  so  much  scientific  accuracy 
as  the  attainment  of  a  bird's-eye  perspective  of  the  stages  by  which  the  missionary  enterprise  of  the 
Church  has  reached  out  to  cover  the  earth.  Extension  from  one  district  to  another  in  the  same 
country  is  not  noted  unless  some  special  feature  seems  to  call  for  mention. 


1793     India,  Serampore BMS 

New  South  Wales SPG 

1796     Pacific  Islands,  Tahiti LMS 

1789     South  Africa,  Zulus LMS 

India,  Calcutta LMS 

1804     West  Africa,  Sierra  Leone CMS 

1806  Ceylon BMS 

1807  China,  Hongkong LMS 

1813  Java Netherlands  MS 

West  Indies BMS 

India,  Calcutta CMS 

India,  Bombay ABCFM 

Burma ABMU 

1814  South  Africa,  Zulus WMS 

New  Zealand CMS 

Ceylon CMS 

1815  Levant,  Malta CMS 

Levant.  Malta LMS 

1816  India,  Bengal Gen.  Baptist  (now)  BMS 

Ceylon ABCFM 

1817  India,  Bengal WMS 

1818  Ceylon CMS 

Madagascar LMS 

1819  Syria ABCFM 

Egypt CMS 

Hawaiian  Islands     ABCFM 

1820  West  Indies ME 

South  Africa,  Cape  Colony SPG 

1821  India,  Calcutta SPG 

South  Africa,  Zulus Scottish  M.  S.Cnow)  UFS 

West  Africa,  Liberia ABMU 

1822  India,  Calcutta SoottishM.S.  (now)  UFS 

New  Zealand WMS 

1827  West  Africa,  Liberia B 

1828  Greece ABCFM 

Siam LMS 

1829  Persia Basel 

India,  Bombay CSFM 

South  Africa,  Zulus Rhen. 

South  Africa,  Zulus P 

1830  China,  Canton. ABCFM 

West  Africa,  Liberia PE 

East  Africa,  Abyssinia CMS 

Greece PE 

1831  Turkev,  Constantinople ABCFM 

1832  Mauritius SPG 

1833  China,  through  Bangkok ABMU 

India,  Northwest  Provinces PN 

Per,sia ABCFM 

West  Africa,  Liberia ME 

1834  India,  Madras B 

Siam ABCFM 

Java Rhen. 

South  Africa,  Zulus ABCFM 

South  Africa,  Bechuanas Ber. 

1835  China,  Shanghai PE 

India,  Bengal Free  Bapt. 

West  Africa,  Liberia PN 

West  Indies,  Trinidad,  Scottish  M.  S.  (now)UFS 
Australia WMS 

1836  Borneo RCA. 

India,  Telugus ABMU 

India,  North PB 

South  America,  Buenos  Aires ME 

1837  India,  Northwest  Provinces RP 

Borneo SPG 


1838  Malaysia PN 

1839  New  Hebrides LMS 

1840  India,  Central  Provinces Luth.  MS.,  U.  S.  A. 

Madras Leipz. 

Siam PN 

New  Zealand SPG 

1841  India,  Bombay PCI 

India,    North WCM 

New  Hebrides LMS 

1842  China,  Shanghai CMS 

China,  Amoy RCA 

Ceylon SPG 

Borneo Rhen. 

New  Hebrides PCC 

1843  South  Africa,  Zulus Norweg. 

India,  Telugus N.  Ger. 

1844  China,  Canton PN 

East  African  Coast CMS 

India,  Central GM 

South  America,  Tierra  del  Fuego SAMS 

1845  China,  Shanghai CMS 

Tahiti P 

1846  China,  Canton Rhen. 

West  Africa,  Gold  Coast UFS 

1847  China,  Fuchau ME 

China,  Amoy PCE 

China,  Canton Ber. 

China,  Canton SBC 

West  Africa,  Angola No.  Ger. 

West  Africa,  Congo SBC 

Melanesia MM 

1848  China,  Shanghai MES 

Malaysia,  Singapore. .  .  ._ SPG 

1849  Central  America,  Mosquito  Coast Mor. 

Syria RP 

1850  India,  Punjab CMS 

1851  China,  Canton WMS 

Borneo SPG 

1852  Palestine JU 

Micronesia ABCFM 

1853  India,  Arcot RCA 

1854  Egypt UP 

1855  India,  N.  W.  Province ME 

India,  N.  W.  Province UP 

Ladakh  (Little  Tibet) Mor. 

West  Africa,  Liberia UB 

1856  Dutch   East   Indies Erm. 

Madagascar CMS 

South  America,  Colombia PN 

1857  Bulgaria ME 

West  Africa,  Nigeria CMS 

1858  Bulgaria ABCFM 

1859  China,  Shantung BMS 

Japan PE 

Jap.an RCA 

Japan PN 

Burma SPG 

New  Zealand Mor. 

1860  Japan FB 

West  Africa,  Liberia ELGS 

1861  Siam SPG 

India,  Tamils DM 

Straits  Settlements SPG 

East  Africa,  Mombasa Utr 

West  Indies,  Haiti PE 

1862  India,  Bengal PCE 


8S6 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  II 


1862  Sumatra Rhen. 

Australasia ',.!,.  SPG 

West  Africa,  Senegambia P 

1863  China,  Manoliuria UFS 

China,  Peking BPG 

Siam,  Laos PN 

India,  Calcutta WU 

Java Neth 

Tahiti P 

1864  Dutch  East  Indies Utr 

Madagascar SPG 

China,  Che-kiang UMFC 

1865  China CIM 

Japan PCE 

Formosa PCE 

South  Africa,  Zulus Swed.M 

1866  India,  N.  W.  Provinces FFMA 

Straits  Settlements PB 

1867  China,  Canton PS 

China,  Peking ME 

India,  Central  Provinces GES 

Madagascar FFMA 

Madagascar Nor. 

1868  India,  Telugus BOQ 

German  Southwest  Africa FMS 

1869  China,  Manchuria PCI 

Japan ABCFM 

Japan CMS 

India,  Central  Provinces ELGC 

India,    North Mission  to  Lepers 

Persia,  Ispahan CMS 

Syria FFMA 

South  America,  Brazil P.S 

1870  South  Africa,  Cape  Colony PMMS 

Mongolia LMS 

West  Indies,  Trinidad PCC 

Mexico PE 

1871  Japan MCC 

Japan WU 

New  Guinea LMS 

Mexico AFFM 

1872  Japan ABMU 

Japan ME 

Formosa PCC 

West  Indies MES 

Mexico ABCFM 

Mexico PN 

1873  Japan SPG 

Mexico ME 

Mexico MES 

1874  New  Guinea LMS 

British  East  Africa CMS 

British  Central  Africa UFS 

Congo  Free  State Swed.  N 

Mexico PS 

China,  Hongkong SPG 

Turkey  (Greeks) PS 

1875  Burma CIM 

Siam PCE 

South  Africa,  Zulus MR 

1876  Japan M,,„ 

West  Indies FCMS 

South  America,  Brazil MES 

1877  India,  Madras PCC 

Japan CP 

Turkey SDA 

British  Central  Africa ,  J^ 

1878  West  Africa,  Liberia J^i^S^r 

Congo  Free  State ••  •■  ..RBMU 

1879  Japan, Reformed  (German)  U.S. 

Turkey     ^  CMS 

Congo  Free  State BMS 

1880  Japan ,- fSr.-n^. 

Portuguese  West  Africa,  Benguella ABCFM 

Mexico -;  ■  ■  v.  ■ ;  ■  '^^i?      1  s 

Mexico  Associate  Reform  (South) 

1881  China,  Shanghai WU 

Algeria NAM 

Congo  Free  State,  Garenganze ^St,,, 

West  Indies AFFM 

1882  China,  Hongkong Per 

India,  Central  Provinces .    .  .  .  F  OMb 

j^.^g^       Neukirchen  Inst. 

Central  America,  Guatemala PN 

South  America,  Brazil SSbo 

1883  Japan a  d\>tt 

Congo  Free  State       A  §rFM 

East  Equatorial  Africa ■  •  ;*-t>^^  ™ 

1884  India,  Central  Provinces ^''%'JU™  ^^ 


Korea. 


..PN 


1884  Congo  Free  State CA 

1885  India UMFC 

Siam ME 

China UB 

Korea ME 

Japan PS 

Japan AFFM 

Japan GES 

Japan MES 

South  Africa,  Cape  Colony UMFC 

South  America PCC 

New    Guinea Neuendettelsau 

1886  China AFFM 

China FCMS 

Japan MES 

Persia,  Nestorians Archbishop's  Mission 

Arabia,  Aden UFS 

Central  America SDA 

German  East  Africa German  E.  Africa  Sec. 

1887  Japan CC 

New  Guinea Rhen. 

South  America SDA 

1888  China,  Honan PCC 

Japan PB 

Mexico CP 

South  America,  Paraguay SAMS 

1889  China UB 

India,  Central  Provinces CA 

Korea SPG 

Malaysia ME 

West  Africa,  Gabun P 

1890  China AFFM 

China,  Hunan CA 

Japan SBC 

Japan Universalist 

Turkey,  Syria CA 

Arabia,  Bahrein RCA 

Mexico PB 

Central  America. Cent.  America  Miss.  Soc. 

South  America,  Brazil PE 

1891  China MCC 

China Miss,  to  Lepers 

Congo  Free  State PS 

1892  Japan ELGS 

Japan Canada  Ch.  of  Eng. 

Korea PS 

Madagascar Norwegian  Luth.  (U.S.) 

German  East  Africa Leipz. 

1893  Japan Mis.  tc  Loe's 

Korea PCC 

India SDA 

1894  Japan CA 

Mexico SDA 

Central  America West  Indies  Wesleyaiis 

1895  India German  Bapt.  Bretli 

Japan UB 

Japan UMFC 

Syria PCC 

South  America RBMU 

1896  China DMS 

Japan SDA 

Korea MES 

India AFFM 

Ceylon AFFM 

Madagascar ME 

Madagascar P 

1897  China RP 

Mexico FCMS 

1898  China CP 

India ECS 

Burma Leipz. 

West  Indies UB 

South  America BOQ 

1899  Philippines PN 

Porto  Rico,  W.I PN 

Porto  Rico,  W.  I PS 

Porto  Rico,  W.  I AMA 

Porto  Rico,  W.  I FCMS 

Porto  Rico,  W.I ELGC 

1900  China MP 

China UE 

Philippines ABMU 

Philippines ME 

PhiHppines PB 

Philippines SDA 

Philippines Miss,  to  Lepers 

1901  Philippines UB 

China  North FMS 

West  Indies CC 

1902  PhiUppines ABCFM 


APPENDIX    III 


LIST  OF  BIBLE  VERSIONS 


LANGUAGE  rnr- a  ttt-c-  SOURCE   OF 

DIALECT  LOCALITY  TRA3ISLATI0N 

AiMARA Bolivia,  S.  America BFBS 

Ainu' Japan   BFBS 

Akkaway Dutch  Guiana,  SPCK 

South  America. 
Akra,  or  Ga Basin  of  Volta,  BFBS 

W.  Africa. 
Albanian: Albania,  Turkey 

1.  Tosk.orS BFBS 

2.  Gheg,  or  N BFBS 

Alibut Aleutian  Is.,  Alaska RBS 

Alifur Celebes  Island Neth.  BS 

Amharic Abyssinia BFBS 

Amot  dialect Fo-kien,  China ABS 

Aneityum  Island New  Hebrides BFBS 

Aniwa  Island New  Hebrides BFBS 

Annam Indo-China BFBS 

API New  Hebrides BFBS 

1.  Baki 

2.  Bieri 

3.  i  a;vo 

4.  Tasiko 

Arabic  : Turkey,  Syria 1 

1.  Standard Mesopotamia,  Arabia       I 

Egypt,  Tripoli,  [ABS 

Algeria,  Morocco,  f  BFBS 

Zanzibar, 

2.  Malta Maltese  J 

Arapahoe U.  S.  A ABS 

Arawak S.  America ABS 

Dutch  Guiana SPCK 

Armenian  : 

1.  Ancient OV 

2.  Ararat  (E.)   .  .  .  .Trans-Caucasia BFBS 

3.  Modern  (W.).--  Turkey  (Asia  Minor)    -  ■  {^bq^ 
AsHANTi : W.  Africa, 

1.  Fanti Cape  Coast  Castle  ColonyBFBS 

2.  Akwapem. Ashanti BFBS 

Assamese Assam ^  BFBS 

AzERBiJAN See  Turkish. 

Badaga Mysore,  S.  India BFBS 

Bali Java Neth.  BS 

Baluchi Baluchistan BFBS 

Bashkir See  Turkish. 

Basque: France,  Spain. 

1.  French Pro  v.  of  Pyrenees 

(France) BFBS 

2.  Spanish Prov.  of  Biscay BFBS 

3.  Guipuscoa Prov.  of  Guipuscoa BFBS 

Batta: 

1.  Toba Sumatra {  BFBS"^^ 

2.  Mandailing BFBS 

Beaver Canada,  BFBS 

Atha  asca SPCK 

Bbnga W.Africa ABS 

Bengali:  Gabun  Colony 

1.  Standard |  n^n„ci   Tr^Aia  J  1-  Serarapur 

2.  Mohammedan  ..  (Bengal,  India.  .  .  . -j  g,   bFBS 

liERBER Algeria BFBS 

Berber Rifian BFBS 

BrcoLAN Philippine  Islands BFBS 

BiLiN,  or  Bogos Abyssinia BFBS 

Blackfoot Canada, 

Prov.  Alberta BFBS 

Bohemian,  or  Czech  ..  .Austria,  Bohemia OV 

BoNDEi German       East      Africa, 

Usambara BFBS 

Breton France,  Brittany BFBS 

BuGi Celebes  Island |  BFBS^^ 

Bulgarian Turkej^  in  Europe BFBS 

Bulgaria ■  ■  •  ■  ABS 

Bullom Sierra  Leone,  W.Africa.  .BFBS 


LANGUAGE  SOURCE  OP 

dialect  L.UI.AA.LL  Y  TRANSLATION 

BuNDA,      or      Mbunda, 

or  Ki-Mbunda.  .  .  .Angola,  Africa BFBS 

Burmese Burma,  Brit.  India ABMU 

Cakchiquel Central  America BFBS 

Cambodian Cochin  China -j  ^rs 

Chagga German  E.  Africa BFBS 

Chamba Punjab,  India BFBS 

Chau-Chau,     or     Swa- 

taudialect Kwang-iung,  China  ,  ,  .  .BFBS 

Cheremisi Russia  (European), 

Kazan  and  Simvirsk, .  .RBS 

Cherokee United  States ABS 

Chipewan Canada,  Athabasca BFBS 

Cnof  TAW U.  S.  America ABS 

Chuana S.  Africa,  Bechuanaland 

and  Matabeleland BFBS 

Chuvash Russia         (European), 

Kazan,      Nijni-Nov- 
Cree:  g  e,  and  Orenburg  ...  .RBS 

1.  E.,    or    Hudson 

Bay Canada BFBS 

2.  W.,  or  Moosonee  Hudson  Bay  Ter BFBS 

DaKOTA,  or  Sioux U.S.  America ABS 

Delaware U.  S.  America ABS 

DiKELE See  Kele. 

DoBu Brit.  New  Guinea BFBS 

D  u ALLA Kamerun,  W.  Africa  ....  BTS 

Duke  of  York's  Bismarck 

Island Archipelago WMS 

Dutch Holland     and     Cape  of 

Dyak:  Good  Hope  Col OV 

1 .  Standard Island  of  Borneo Neth.  BS 

2.  Sea SPCK 

Ebon  Island Marshall  Islands ABS 

Efik Old  Calabar,  W.Africa..  .NBS 

English; Gt.   Brit,    and    Ire.,    and 

1.  Standard      Brit.  Subject-Do- 

minions   OV 

U.  S.  of  N.  America OV 

2.  Negro  of  Surinam,West  Indies BFBS 

Eromanga New  Hebrides BFBS 

Eskimo: Greenland,   DBS 

1.  Greenland Labrador,    and    Provs.BFBS 

2.  Labrador of  Hudson  Bay BFBS 

3.  Hudson  Bay. 

EsTHONiAN Russia     (European), 

1.  Dorpat,  or  Werro  Provs.  Esthonia BFBS 

2.  Reval and  Livonia OV 

Ethiopig,  or  Giz Abyssinia OV 

Ewb: BFBS 

1.  Anlo Dahomey,  W.Africa BFBS 

2.  Popo 

Falasha-Kara Abyssinia  (Jews) BFBS 

(Di.  of  Agau)  ' 

Fang Gabun,  W.  Africa BFBS 

Fanti See  Ashanti 

Fanting Ambi-ym,  New  Hebrides  .  .BFBS 

Fate: 

1.  Erakar New  Hebrides BFBS 

2.  Havannah  Har.. 

Fijian Fiji  Islands.  . BFBS 

Finn Finland,  Russia 

(European) OV 

FiOTi ConffoF.  S BFBS 

Flemish Belgium   OV 

Florida  Island Solomon  Islands SPCK 

Formosa Formosa  (Japan) PCC 

French: France,     French    Cols. 

1.  Standard    Channel       Isl.,       Can-OV 

2.  Vaudois ada,     Belgium,     Swit- 

3.  Provengal zerland    (French    Can- 

tons),      Italy       (Sub- 
montane Prov.)  BFBS 

4.  Mauritius Mauritius  Isl BFBS 


887 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  119 


1.  Standard  , 


LANGUAGE  LOCALITY  SOnECE  OF 

DIALECT  TKAN8LATION 

Fris Holland BFBS 

Fu-Chau  DIALECT Fo-kien,  China BFBS 

FuTuNA New  Hebrides.  .  .  .  BFBS 

Gaelic Highlands  of  Scotland .  .  .  OV 

Galla: E.  Africa, 

1  •  Shoa Gallaland 1 

2-  Ittu IbFBS 

3.  Bararetta ) 

Galwa French  Congo, 

W.Africa BFBS 

Ganda Uganda,  Africa BFBS 

G^«o A^^'^"^ ]  BFBS 

Georgian Russia  (Asia) 

Trans-Caucasia OV 

German: Germany,    Austria, 

1.  Standard Switzerland,       Kussia, 

2.  Judaio — Ger-  France OV 

man  (Yiddish) BFBS 

Gilbert  Islands Micronesia ABS 

GlETAMA East  Africa BFBS 

Gitano,       or      Spanish 

Gypsy Spain BFBS 

Gor;o Ugogo,  E,  Africa BFBS 

Gond Cent.  Provs.,  India BFBS 

Grebo LiLeria,  Africa ABS 

Greek : 

1.  Ancient OV 

2.  Modern,  or  RomaicGreece,  Turkey BFBS 

GuARANi Paraguay,  S.  America  .  .  .BFBS 

Gu  JAR  ATI: 

1.  Standard  I  t!„„k„„  t„.i;„  J  BFBS 

2.  Parsee..  .  f Bombay,  India {  g^gg 

Hai-nan Hai-nan,  China BFBS 

Hakka Kwang-tung,  China BFBS 

Hausa Upper      Basin    of      the 

Niger,  W.  Africa BFBS 

Hawaiian Sandwich  Islands ABS 

Hebrew OV 

Herero German  East  Africa BFBS 

Hindi  : North  India . 

J  BFBS 
iBMS 

2.  Hindustani,      or 

Urdu BFBS 

3.  Dakhani BFBS 

4.  Kumaoni,       or 

Pahari BFBS 

5.  Marwari,  or  Cen- 

tral   ABS 

6.  Guhrwali BFBS 

HiNG-HWA China ABS 

Hydah Brit.     Columbia,     Queen 

Charlotte  Island CMS 

Ibo S.  Nigeria,  W.  Africa BFBS 

1.  Lower 

2.  Upper 
Icelandic: 

1.  Standard Iceland Inpa 

2.  Faroe Faroe  Island j-ui^b 

Idzo S.  Nigeria,  W.  Africa  ..  .  .CMS 

Igaea S.  Nigeria,  W.  Africa  ....  CMS 

I'gbira S.  Nigeria,  W.  Africa BFBS 

Ijo,  see  Idzo 

Ilocano Philippine  Islands ABS 

Irish,  or  Erse Ireland O  V 

Ikoquois N.  America, 

Que.  ec  and  Ontario.  .  .BFBS 
Isabel,       or      Bogotu 

Island Solomon  Islands    SPCK 

Italian  : Italy ;        the        Levant ; 

1.  Standard    Ionian      Islands;      Isl- 

and    of  Malta;     Adri- 
atic Provs. (Aus.)  .....OV 

2.  Piedmont Italian     Cantons     (Swit- 

zerland)   BFBS 

Jaghatai See  Turkish. 

(ABS 
Japanese Japan •<  BFBS 

(nbs 

Jatki,  see  Punjabi 

-                                             T  J  Neth.BS 

Javanese Java -j  bfbq 

JoLOF Senegambia,  W.  Africa  . .  BFBS 

Kabyli Algeria BFBS 

Kafir,  or  XosA Kaftraria,  S.  Africa  •  ■  ■  -j  jj^.  BS 

Kaguru Usagara,  , 

German  EastAfnca.  .  .BFBS 

Kanarese Mysore,  S.  India BFBS 

Kara-Kirghiz See  Turkish. 

Kaeel Russia  (Asia), 

Karen:  Prov.  ofTver EBS 

1.  Bghai")  fABMU 

2.  Sgau    )- Bvirma,  Brit.  India <  ABMU 

-    -  J  (.ABMU 


3.  Pwo 


Kurdish Turkey  (Asia) ,  Persia . 

KUSAIAN 


language  LrCALITY  SOURCE  OF 

DIALECT  translation 

Karib Dutch  Guiana,  S.  Am.  . .  .  Edin. 

Cent.  America BFBS 

Karshan Mesopotamia BFBS 

Kashgar,  Turkish  . .  ..See  Turkish. 

K.vSH.iiEi Kashmir,  N.  India BFBS 

K.'Vtchi,  see  Sindhi 

KAzAK-Kinoiiiz See  Turkish. 

Kazan-Turkish See  Turkish. 

Kele Gabun,  W.  Africa ABS 

K'lASi A.^sam BFBS 

Kikuyn British  E.  Africa BFBS 

Kin-hwa  dialect Prov.  Clie-  iang,  China:.  BFBS 

Koi Madras,  India BFBS 

Kol Chota  Nagpui-,  India BFBS 

Kongo Kongo    I'ree    State, 

Africa BMS 

KopTic Egypt OV 

Koranko Sierra  Leone BFBS 

Korean Korea j  BFBS 

Kroat Austria BFBS 

Provs.  Kroatia  and  Dal- 

matia 

KuANYAMAN German   S.    W.   Africa 

(Ovambo) BFBS 

KuMUKi-TuRKiSH See  Turkish. 

BFrS 
ABS 
,  Strong     Island,      Micro- 
nesia   ABS 

Kwagutl Brit.  Cnlumliia, 

Vancouver  Islmd BFBS 

Kwang-tung,  or  \v„,„„„  t„„„  r\,i„„  fBFBS 

Canton  dialect  j  Kwang-tung,  Chma.  .  .  .  j^gg 

^^°^ Siam {  ABMU 

Lapp: 

1.  Norse,  or  Quan.. Lapland,    Norway,    and 

2.  Russian Sweden 

3.  Swedish 

Latin Rom.Cath.Ch OV 

Lepcha Sikkim,  Brit.  India BTS 

Lett N.     Russia     (Europe), 

Livonia      and       Cour- 

land OV 

LiFO Loyalty  Islands BFBS 

Lithuanian Russia,     Germany,     Bal- 

1.  Standard tic  Prov OV,RBS 

2.  Samoghit,      or 

Zemait RBS 

LivoNiAN Prov.        W.        Courland, 

Russia  (Europe) BFBS 

LoLO Congo  Free  State BFBS 

fspcK 
BFBS 

LusHAi Assam BFB,S 

Macassar Celebes  Island Neth.BS 

Madurese Madura,    Dutch    E. 

Indies BFBS 

Mafur New  Guinea Neth.BS 

Maghadi Prov.  Behar,  India BFBS 

Magyar,        or        Hun- 
garian    Hungary OV 

Makua Portuguese  East  Africa  .  .UMS 

Malagasi Madagascar BFBS 

Malay  : OV 

1.  Standard Pen.  of  Malacca BFBS 

2.  Low  Malay,  or  Sumatra BFBS 

Surabaya. 

Malay alam Travancore,  India BFBS 

M  ALisEET New  Brunswick,  Can BFBS 

Mallikollo  Island  .  .  .New  Hebrides BFBS 

Malo New  Hebrides BFBS 

Malto,  Pahari, 

or  Rajmahali,  ..Hill  tribes    of    Rajmahal, 

or  Maler Bengal,  India BFBS 

Mambwe N.  E.  Rhodesia,  Africa  .  .  BFBS 

Manchu Manchuria,  N.  China  . . .  .BFBS 

Mandari,  or  KoL Cent.  Provs.,  India BFBS 

Mandarin  : 

1.  N.,  or  Peking.   \p^:^.  fBFBS 

2.  S.,  or  Nanking    ;'-'i'°'i JABS 

Mande,  or 


Mandingo Gambia,  W.  Africa  . . 


(BFBS 


lABS 

Manipur Cent.  Provs.,  India BFBS 

Manx Isle  of  Man,  Gt.  Britain.  .OV 

Maori   New  Zealand BFBS 

Marathi  : 

1.  Standard  1  t, u„„  t„^;„  /ABS 

2.  Konkani.  |  •  •  •   Bombay,  India JbFBS 

Mare Loyalty  Islands BFBS 

Marqu^san Marquesas  Islands BFBS 

Marwari,  see  Hindi  .... 

Mashona So.  Africa BFBS 

Maya Yucatan,  Cent.  Amer.  . .  .  BFBS 


Appendix   III 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


828 


LANGUAGE 
DIALECT 


LOCALITT 


eOTTRCE   OF 
TRANSLATION 


Mbundu,    see    Bundu 

and  Umbundu 

Mend^; Sierra  Leone,  W.Africa  .  .BFBS 

Mbr Murray  Islands, 

New  Guinea BFBS 

Mexican,  or  Aztec  .  .  .  .Mexico BFBS 

Mik-Mak  : 

1 .  Standard Nova  Scotia BFBS 

2.  Ahenaqui N.America ABS 

Mohawk U.S.  America BFBS 

MoN,  or  Pegu Burma,  Brit.  India BFBS 

Mongol; Russia  (Europe), 

1.  Literary Basin  of  Volga; 

2.  N.  (Buriat)     ....     Russia  (Asia), 

3.  S.  (Kalkhas) China, 

4.  W.  Kalmuk.  .  .  .  Provs.  Mongolia BFBS 

Mordwin: Provs.    of    Nijni-Nov- 

1.  Erza gorod  and  Kazan, 

2.  Mokshia Russia  (Europe), RBS 

MoRTLOCK  Island Mortlock  Island ABS 

Mosquito Mosquito  Coast, 

Nicaragua Mor. 

Mota  Island Banks  Islands BFBS 

MoTU New  Guinea BFBS 

MusKOKi,  or  Creek.  .  .  .U.  S.  America ABS 

Nahuatl Mexico ABS 

Nama,  or  Hottentot  .  .S.  Africa,    Cape    Colony 

and  Namaqualand .  .  .  .BFBS 

Narrinteri S.  Australia BFBS 

Nepali Nepal,  Brit.  India BFBS 

New  Britain  Island  .  .  Bismarck  Archipelago  .  .  .BFBS 
New  Guinea, 

South      Cape       dia- 
lect  New  Guinea BFBS 

Nez  Perces,       or 

Sahaptin U.S.  America ABS 

Ng UNA  Island New  Hebrides BFBS 

NiAS Nias Island .BFBS 

NicoBAR Nicobar      Island,      Brit. 

India BFBS 

NiNG-PO  DIALECT Che-kiang,  China BFBS 

NisHKAH British  Columbia CMS 

NiUB Savage  Island BFBS 

Nkondi Nyasaland BFBS 

NoGAi-TuRKiSH See  Turkish. 

NoGOGu New  Hebrides BFBS 

Norwego-Danish Norway  and  Denmark.  .  .OV 

Nubian Sudan,  Nubia BFBS 

NuPE Nigeria,  W.  Africa BFBS 

Nyamwezi German  E.  Africa BFBS 

Ntanja Nyasaland,  Africa NBS 

Nyika E.    Africa,    Wa-Nyika 

Tribe BFBS 

Ntoro Uganda  Protectorate BFBS 

Ojibwa,  or  Canada  W.  of  Lake      ..(ABS 

Chippewa Superior  and  U.  S.  A..  .  i  SPCK 

(BFBS 

Osset Prov.   Cis-Caucasia, 

S.  Russia  (Asia) RBS 

OsTTAK Prova.        Tobolsk        and 

Tomsk,    Russia  (Asia)  BFBS 

OvAMBO German  S.  W.  Africa BFBS 

Pahouin  (Fang) French      Congo, 

W.Africa BFBS 

Pali ., Ceylon BFBS 

Palittan  (Paulician)  .  .  Hungary NBS 

Pampangan Philippine  Islands ABS 

Panaicti New  Guinea BFBS 

Pangasinan PhiUppine  Islands BFBS 

Pastu Afghanistan j  giy-g 

Pedi Transvaal,  S.Africa BFBS 

Perm Provs,  Perm    and    Arch- 
angel, Russia,  (Europe) RBS 

Persian Persia;  Afghanistan OV 

Piedmontese.     See 
Italian. 

PoKOMo    British  East  Africa    BFBS 

Pole Polish       Provinces      of 

Russia,    Germany   and 
Austria OV 

PoNAPfe Caroline  Islands ABS 

PoNGWE Gabun,  W.  Africa ABS 

Popo.     See  Dahomey. 

Portuguese: 

1.  Standard Portugal;   Brazil;  OV 

2.  Indian Ceylon  ..  .. BFBS 

Punjabi,  or  Sikh Punjab,  India 

1.  Standard "1 

2.  Dogri 

3.  ChambaU [  BFBS 

4.  Multani,  or 

Jatki J 

QuECHUA Peru,  S.  America ABS 

Quiche Central  America BFBS 

Rarotongan Hervey  Islands BFBS 


LANGUAGE 
DIALECT 


LOCALITY 


SOURCE  OP 
TEANSIiATION 


.CoireBS 


RoMANSCH,  or  Ladin.  Switzerland,  Engadine. 

1.  Upper OV 

2.  Lower. .  .  ( 

3.  Oberland  f 

RoNGA Portuguese  E.  Africa.  .  ..BFBS 

RoTUMA-^ Roturaa  Island BFBS 

Rouman; Roumania; 

1.  Standard Austria,  Hungary BFBS 

2.  Macedon Transylvania        Buko- 

wina BFBS 

Russian Russia  (Europe) OV 

RuTHENiAN N.       Russia       (Europe), 

Austria,  Gahciako- 

wina,  Transylvania  .  .  .  OV 

Saibai  Island N.  Guinea,  Torres  Sts.  . .  .  BFBS 

Sambara Ger.  E.  Africa BFBS 

Samoan Samoa  Islands BFBS 

Samogitian.         See 
Lithuanian. 

Sangir  Island Dutch  E.  Indies BFBS 

Sanskrit Inrlia BTS 

Santal Santalia,  Bengal,  India  .  .BFBS 

Sena Port.  E.  Africa BFBS 

Seneca U.S.  America .ABS 

Servian Austria, 

Hungary,  Bosnia, 

Herzegovina        Servia ; 

Montenegro BFBS 

Shan Indo-China, 

Shan  States BTS 

Shang-hai  dialect  ....  Kiang-su,  China J  FBS 

Sheetswa Port.  East  Africa ABS 

Shilha,  Riff Morocco BFBS 

Shimbhian British  Columbia CMS 

Siamese Siam ABS 

SiNDHi: Prov.  of  Sindh,  India BFBS 

1.  Standard  I  -dt?"dc! 

2.  Katchi..  \ ^^^^ 

Sinhalese Ceylon BFBS 

Slave Canada, 

Mackenzie  River BFBS 

Slavonic Greek     Church,     Russia, 

Austria         Northern 

Balkan  Peninsula OV 

Slovak Austria-Hungary BFBS 

Sloven Austria,     Provs.     Karni- 

ola  and  Karinthia BFBS 

SoGA Uganda  Protectorate  .  .  .  .BFBS 

Spanish: Spain,     Cent,      and     So. 

1.  Standard     America        (except       .  .OV 

2.  Catalan    Brazil) ;  W.  Indies BFBS 

3.  Judseo-Spanish BFBS 

4.  Curacoan Neth.B 

Su-CHAU  DIALECT Kiang-su,  China BFBS 

SuKUMA Ger.  E.  Africa BFBS 

SuNDANESE Java Neth.B 

Susu Senegambia,  W.  Africa  .  .  SPCK 

SuTO Basutoland,  So.  Africa  .  .BFBS 

SwAHiLi E.Africa BFBS 

Swedish Sweden O  V 

Syriac  : 

1.  Peshito,      or 

Ancient Syria O  V 

2.  Syro-Chaldaic, 

or  Modern  .  .  .  Persia ABS 

Syryin,  or  ZiR Vologda,         Russia 

(Europe) RBS 

Tabili Rhodesia BFBS 

Tagalog Philippine  Islands BFBS 

Tahitan Society  Islands BFBS 

Tamil India,  Madras,  Ceylon . .  1  T)gg 

Tanna-kwamera Tanna,  New  Hebrides  . .  .  BFBS 

Tanna-weasisi Tanna,  New  Hebrides  . .  .BFBS 

Tavara New  Guinea BFBS 

Teke Congo     Free     State, 

W.Africa ABMU 

Telugu Madras,  India BFBS 

Tbmne Sierra  Leone,  W.  Africa .  .  BFBS 

Tibetan Tibet,  Lahul,  N.  India.  .  .BFBS 

TiGRE E.  Abyssinia BFBS 

Tinne Hudson  Bay,  Canada. .  .  .BFBS 

ToARipi New  Guinea BFBS 

Toda S.India BFBS 

Tonga Portuguese      E.      Africa 

and  North  Transvaal ,  .  SPCK 

Tongan Tonga,  or  Friendly  Is.   . .  .BFBS 

TuDUKH Alaska - BFBS 

TuLU Madras,  India BFBS 

Turkish  : 

Azerbaijan N.  W.      Persia,     Russian 

Trans-Caucasia BFBS 

Bashkir Ufa,  Russia  (Europe)  .  . .  BFBS 

Jaghatai Trans-Caspian       regions, 

Russia  in  Asia BFBS 

Kara  Kirghiz S.  Siberia BFBS 


829 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  III 


LANGUAGE 
DIALECT 


LOCALITY 


BOURCB  OF 
TRANSLATION 


Turkish: 

Kashgar_.  .... 
Kazak  Kirghiz., 

Kazan 


Kumukhi 

Nogai,  East 

Nogai,  Crim 

Osmanli 

Arabic  letters . .  . 
Armenian  letters 
Greek  letters 

Uzbek 


Yakut 

Ulawa 

Umbundu 

UnDti.     See  Hindi. 
Uriya 

UvEAN 

Uzbek  


Chinese  Turkestan BFBS 

Orenburg, 

European  Russia BFBS 

Kazan,    European 

Russia BFBS 

■  Daghestan, 

European  Russia  . .  .  BFBS 
,Cis-Caucasia,  Russia  .  .  .  .BFBS 
.Crimea,  Russia OV 

1  ( BFBS 

>•  Turkish  Empire < 

i  |abs 

. . .  .  Khiva,    Bokhara, 

Turkestan BFBS 

.N.E.Siberia BFBS 

.Solomon  Islands BFBS 

.Benguella,  W.  Africa ABCFM 

.  Orissa,  India BFBS 

.  Loyalty  Islands BFBS 

.See  Turkish. 


LANGUAGE 
DIALECT 

Vaudois.  See  French 

ViSAYAN:Cebu 

Visayan:  Iloilo 


source  of 
translation 


Philippine  Islands ABS 

Philippine  Islands •'^^"a 

Voc.uL       "      ^-  Siberia BFBS 

VoTYAK Viatka     and     Orenburg, 

European  Russia ^^  ^ 

Wedau New  Guinea S??° 

■Welsh  Wales ^JV 

Wend:  Saxon Germany Pruss.Bb 

Prussian (BFBS 

Wen-li:  Standard.  ..  (China         (book        'an-Kgg 

Easy f     guage) j  bmS 

Wind  :  anc.  Slovenian  . .  Hungary  Styria S'^SI 

WuN-CHAU,  dialect  ... Chc-kiang,  China -Si^Sg 

Yahgan     Tierra  del  Fuego Bi'Bb 

Yakut See  Turkish. 

Yalunka W.  Africa  BFBS 

Yao  Bnt.  Cent.  Africa Bi  Bb 

Yohuba  '.'.'.' Lagos        Protectorate, 

W.  Africa BiBb 

Zulu Natal      and      Zululand, 

S.  Afnoa t  .ABS 


APPENDIX    lY 


MISSIONARIES    WHO    HAVE    MADE    TRANSLATIONS    OR 
REVISIONS    OF    HOLY    SCRIPTURE 


Non-Christian  nations  will  one  day  know  their  peculiar  indebtedness  to  missionaries  whose 
laborious  scholarship  brought  the  Holy  Scriptures  within  their  reach.  It  has  seemed  worth  while 
to  gather  from  the  records  of  the  19th  century  and  to  preserve  from  oblivion  the  names  of  such 
missionaries  of  all  nations.  We  have  now  to  admit,  however,  that  difficulties  of  compilation  mark 
the  following  list  as  merely  tenative.  We  give  it  in  hope  that  it  may  serve  as  a  foundation  on  which 
a  permanent  and  accurate  record  will  be  built  up. 


Abel,  Rev.  C.  W. 


.LMS  . 


Adams,  Rev.  Tho3.  ..WMS.  . 

Adger,  Rev.  J.  B ABCFM 

Ainslee,  Rev.  Geo..   ..PN 

Allcgret,  Rev.  E P 

AUey.Rev.J.A CMS... 

Alvarez,  Rev. T.  S CMS.  .  . 

Ammann,  Rev.  F.  .  .  .  B 

Anderson,  Rev.  W.  G.ZIM  . .  . . 


Andrews,  Rev.  L ABCFM 

Andrus,  Rev.  A.  N.. .  .ABCFM 
Appen2eller,Rev.H.G.ME .... 

Arbousset,  Mr P 

Armour,  Rev.  Andrew 


AshcRev.R.P CMS..  . 

Ashmore,  Rev.  Wm.  .ABMU. 

Avederanian,  Rev.  Hohannes 
Swed.U. 

Bailey,  Rev.  Thos BMS. .  . 

Bain,  Rev.  J.  A FCS.... 


LANGUAGE  DATE 

,  Suan,  N.  Guinea ...  1901 
Tavara,N.  Guinea.  .1898 
Tonga  or  Friendly  1 .1861-60 

Armenian 1842-45 

■  NezPerces 1876 

Pahouin 

(Fang-Congo)  .  . .  1900 

Temn^ 1895 

.  Yalunka,W.  Africa.  1902 

.Tulu 1847-58 

Nyanja 1900 

Sena  (Brit.  Cent. 

Afr.) 1897 

Hawaiian 1828 

Kurdish 1892 

Korean 1885-1902 

.Suto  (Basutoland) .  1881 
.  Indo-Portuguese  .  .1819 

Sinhalese 1817 

Ganda  (Uganda) . .  .  1888 
Swatau 

(Chauchau) 1879 


Ballantine,  Rev.  H.  ..ABCFM 

Barff,  Rev.  Chas LMS.  .  . 

Bassett,  Rev.  J PN  . . .  . 


Batchelor,  Rev.  J CMS  .  .  , 

Bate,  Rev.  J BMS. .  . 

Bateman,  Rev.  R.  .  .  .  CMS  .  .  . 

Bail,  Rev.  Andreas. .  .Mor. .  ,  . 


Baumann,  Rev.  C CMS.  .  . 

Be:iuchamp,Rev.E.B.CMS.  .. 
Bell,  Mi.s3 CSFM.  . 

Bentloy,  Rev.  W.  H.  .BMS.  .. 
Bettelheim,  Dr Neth. . . 

Belz,  Rev.  M Rhen.  .  . 

Bevereley,  Rev,  J.  E,  . .  CMS  .  .  . 

Bickneil,  Rev.  James  .HEA  .  . 
Bingham,  Rev. Hiram  ABCFM 
Bingham,  Rev. 

Hiram,  Jr ABCFM 

Bink,  Rev.  G.  L Utr.  .  .  . 

Bishop,  Rev.  A ABCFM 

Blaioh,  Rev.  J CMS.  .. 

Blodget,  Rev.  H ABCFM 


Boardman, Mrs. Sarah.  ABMU. 

Bedding,  Rev.  P.O...  DS 

Bomf ord.  Rev.  T CMS . .  . 


.Kashgar-Turkish . 
Uriya  (Orissa)  ... 
.Wanda  (Lake  Tan^ 

ganyika) 

Marathi-Standard  . 

Samoan 

Jaghatai-Turkish 

(Tekke  Turcoman) 
Ainu  (Japan)..  .  . 

Hindi 

Punjabi  Urdu 

(.Musalroani)  .  . 
Negro-English 

(Surinam)  .... 

Bengali 

Canton 

Manganja 

(Nganja) 

Congo  t  ree  State 

Japanese  

Luchuan  

.Batt.a  or  Battak 

Mandaling.  .  .  . 
GofTO 

(Ger.  East  Africa) 

Marqu'san 

Hawaiian 

Gilbert  Islands  .... 
Mafur  (N.  Guinea) 

Hawaiian  

Santali 

Chinese    Mandarin- 
Peking  

Easy  Wenli 


Bompas.Rt.Rev.W.C.  CMS . . 


Talaing  (Pegu)  . 

.Santali 

Punjabi-Urdu 

(Musalmani) 
.Tinne  (Slave) 
N.Am 


1898 
1899 

1897 
1845 
1850 

1880 
1887 
1883 

1894 

1846 

1883-96 

1896 

1897 
189.3-96 
1855 
1849 

1873 

1900 

1853-57 

1828 

1860-93 

1888 
1856 
1888 

1872-90 
1886 

1900 
1847 
1900 


1894 
.1871 


NAME  SOCIETY 

Bowen,  Rev.  A.  J.  .  .  .RBMU. 


Bower,  Rev.  H 

Bowley,  Rev.  W.  . .  . 
Braches,  Rev.  F.  E.  , 
Bradley,  Dr.  D.  B.  . 
Brayton,  Rev.  D.  L., 
Brett,  Rev.W.  H.  .. 

Bridges,  Rev.  Thos. 
Bridgman,  Dr.  E.G.. 


.SPG..  . 
.CMS... 
.Rhen...  . 
.PN  ...  . 
.ABMU. 
.SPG... 

.SAMS.. 
.ABCFM 


Brincker,  Rev.  H.  .  .  .Rhen. . 

Brincker,  Rev.  P.  H.  .Rhen. . 

Bromilow,  Rev.  W.E.  AWM. . . 

Brower,  Rev.  D Neth.  . .  . 

Brown,  Rev.  Geo AWM.  . 

Brown,  Rev.  J 

Brown,  Rev.  Nathan  .ABMU.  . 

Brown,  Rev.  S.  R.  .  .  .RCA 

Bruce,  Rev.  R CMS  .  .  .  , 

Bruckner,  Rev.  G.  . .  .  Neth. . .  . 
Brunton,  Rev.  Henry  .CSFM. . 

Bryer,  Miss CEZ  ... 

Buckley,  Rev.  J.  B.  ..ABMU.. 
Buckner,  Dr.  H.  F.. . .  ABHMS 

Budd,  Rev.  H CMS 

BQhrer,  Rev.  A B 

Burden,  Rt.  Rev.  J.S 


Burn,  Rev.  A..  . 
Burton,  Rev.  R. 


.CMS. 


Bushnell,  Rev.  Albert  ABCFM 


Buzacott,  Rev.  A.  .  . . 
Cain,  Rev.  J 

Cain,  Mrs.  J 

Caldwell,    Rt.    Rev. 

Robert 

Calvert,  Rev.  Jas. . .  . 


LMS.. 
CMS.. 


CMS. 


Campbell,    Rev.    An- 
drew  


SPG  .. 
WMS. 


FCS.. 


Campbell,  Rev.  Wm.  . 

Carey,  Dr.  Felix 

Carey,  Rev.  Dr.  Wm.. 


PCE  .  . 
BMS.. 
BMS.. 


Carmichael,  Rev.  T..  .CMS. 

Carter,  Rev.  Chas.  ..  .BMS. 
Chalmers,  Rev.  J LMS. 


LANGUAGE  DATE 

.Mongo  (Congo 

Balolo) 1897 

.Tamil 1868 

.Hindi 1826 

.Dyak  (Standard)  .  .1858 

.  Siamese 1846 

.  Pwo  Karen 1853-62 

.  Akkaway 1864 

Arawak 1856 

.Yahgan 1881 

.  Wenli-Classical 

Chinese 1852-62 

.Herero  (German 

S.W.Africa^ 1877 

.Kwanyama  (Ger- 
man S.  W.  Africa).  1893 
.  Dobu  (N.  Guinea) . .  1895-98 

.Malay,  Java 1688 

.  Duke       of        York 

Island 1882 

.  Chuana,  S.  Africa . .  1901 

.Assamese 1850 

Japanese 1878 

.  Japanese 1888 

.Persian 1871-81 

Javanese 1831 

.  Nogai  Turkish 

(Eastern) 1807-13 

.  Kien-ning  Chinese  .1896 

Uriya  (Orissa) 1844 

Muskokee  (Muskoki 

or  Creek) 1867 

Cree- Western 1876 

.Tulu  (Mysore) 1847 

Chinese  Mandarin- 
Peking 1872 

Easy  Wenli-Low.  .  .  1890 
Sindhi-Standard. .  .  1883-89 
Batta  or  Battak 

(Toba) 1820 

Dikele  (Kele) 1879 

Mpongwe 1850 

.  Rarotongan .1830 

.  Koi  (Godavari  re- 
gion, India) 1891 

,Koi 1891 

.Tamil 1890 

.Fiji 1883-92 

Rotuma 1885 

.Kortha  (Bengal, 

India) 1894-97 

.  Formosan 1889 

.  Burmese 1817 

.Bengali 1801 

Hindi-Standard  . .  .  1809-18 

Khasi 1824 

Marathi-Standard  .  1820 
Palpa  (Obsolete). ..1832 

Uriya  (Orissa) 1811-19 

.  Hindi-Garhwali 

(Tehri) 1895-1901 

.Sinhalese 1860-98 

.Motu,  New  Guinea.  18S2 


831 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  IV 


NAME  SOCIETY 

Chalmers,  Rev.  Jno 

Chamberlain,        Rev. 

Jno BMS... 

Chater,  Rev.J BMS 

Christalles,  Rev.  J.  G.  B 

Christie,  Rev.  Dr.  J. . .  CSFM . . 

Clark,  Rev.  E.  W ABCFM 

aarke,  Rev.  Jno. BMS . .  . 

Clark,  Rev.  R CMS .  .  . 

Clough,  Rev.  Benj WMS  .  . 

Codding,  Mr.  R.  C CA 

Codrington,  Rev.R.H  MM 


Cole,  Rev.  F.T CMS..  . 

Cole,  Rev.  H CMS... 

Coles,  Rev.  S CMS..  . 

Coolsma,  Rev.  S Neth. . . 

Copeland,  Rev.  Jos.  . .  NHM  . . 
Copleston,  Rt.  Rev.  ..SPG  .  .  . 
Cosh,  Rev.  James ....  NHM  . . 
Cousins,  Rev.  W.  E.. .  LMS. .  . 
Cowie,  Rev.  H PCE .  .  . 

Cran,  Rev.  Geo LMS. .  . 

Creagh,  Rev.  and  Mrs. 

S.M LMS..  . 

Crowther,     Rt.     Rev. 

Sam CMS. .  . 

Culbertson,  Rev.  M.S.  PN 


Cushing,  Dr.  J.  N ABMU. 

Banks,  Rev.  B AWM. . 


Dawson,  Rev.  J FCS 

Dean,  Rev.  Wm ABMU. 


Deas.Rev.E UPS... 

Dencke,  Rev.  C.  F..  .  .Mor 

Denniger,  Rev.  E.  .  .  .Rhen  .  . 
Dennis,  Rev.  T.  J.  .  .  .CMS  .  .  . 
Desgranges,  Rev.  AugLMS.  .  . 
De  Silva,  Rev.  C.  W.  .  WMS  .  . 

Dibble,  Rev.  S ABCFM 

Dittrioh,  Rev.  A.H...B 

Dixon,  Rev.  R WMS  .  . 

Doane,  Rev.  E.  T.  .  .  .ABCFM 


Dobinson,  Arch- 
deacon H.  H.. 
Drake,  Rev.  J.  .. 
Droese,  Rev.  E. 


LANGUAGE  DATE 

Chinese,  Wenli 
(Classical  or  High)  1890 

.Bruj-bhasa  (Obso- 
lete)    1822-32 

.Burmese 1815 

Sinhalese 1817 

.Ashanti-Otshi 1870 

•  Judfflo-Spanish..  ..1878 

.  Hawaiian 1833-39 

.  Fernandian 

(Adiyah) 1846 

.Pashtu 1857 

.  Indo-Portuguese. .  .  1827 

Sinhalese 1823 

.  Koranko,  Sierra 

Leone 1899 

Florida,  Solomonls.1882 
Isabel,  or  Bogotu  . .  1887 
Motu,  Banks  Is.  . .  .1885 

.Santali 1881-88 

.Gogo  (Ger.  East 

Africa) 1890 

.Sinhalese 1865-1901 

.  Sundanese 1878-82 

.Futunese 1869-76 

.Sinhalese 1901 

.Fat(;orEfatese.  .  ..1871-75 

.Malagasy 1888 

.  Amoy  dialect, 

Chinese 1853-73 

.Telugu 1812 

.Mar^,  Loyalty  13.1866-1902 

.Yoruban 1850 

.  Wenli-Classical 

Chinese 1859 

.  Shan  (Burma) . . .  1871-1902 
.Duke  of  York 

Island 1887 

.Gond 1872 

.  Wenli-Classical 

Chinese 1865 

.Umon  (S.Nigeria)  .1895 
.  Delaware-Munsee. .  1818 

.Nias 1875 

.  Ibo  (Nigeria) 1893-1901 

.Telugu 1828 

Sinhalese 1860 

Hawaiian 1828 

.Armenian-Ararat .  .  1835 
Jolof  Gambia, 

West  Africa 1882 

,  Ebon  (Marshall 

Islands) 1860-  63 

Ponape 1887 


.CMS. 
.KIM. 

.CMS. 


Duffus,  Rev.  Wm.  .  .  .PCE . 


Dunlap,  Rev.  E.  P.. .  .PN  . .  .  , 
Dwight,  Rev.H.O.  ..ABCFM 
Edkins,  Rev.  J LMS. .  . 


Edwards,  Rev.  J.  .  . 

Egede,  Paul 

Ella,  Rev.  Sam 

EUenberger,  Mr. .  . . 
Elliott,  Rev.  W.  A.. 

..ABCFM 
..DMS... 
..LMS..  . 
..P 

Ellis,  Rev.  R.J 

Esser,  Dr.  J.  P 

..BMS... 
..Neth... 

Fabricius,  Johann 
Phil 

..DMS... 

Ibo,  Nigeria 

Kurku 

Malto  (Pahari,  Rai- 

mahali  or  Maler) 
Swatow  dialect, 

Chinese 

Siamese 

Turkish 

Mongol-Southern 

or  Kalkhas 

Wenli-Classical 

Chinese 1890- 

Choctaw 

Eskimo-Greenland . 

Uvea 

Suto  (Basutoland). 
Tabele — Matabele 

tribes .- 

Bengali -Musalmani 
Madura  Island 

(Java) 


1893 
1900 

1880- 89 

1877 
1846 
1886 

1872 

1900 

1852 

1766 

1868-79 

1880 

1901 

1877 

1895 


Fanggidaej,  Rev. 

Johannes 

Farler,  Archdeacon, 

Rev 

Fellows,  Rev.  S.B... 
Fielde,  Miss  A.  M 


Fitch,  Rev.  G.  F. 


.Malayalam 1813 

Tamil 1782 

.Rotti 1894 


Fletcher,  Rev.  R.  . . 
Fletcher,  Rev.  Wm. 
Fountain,  Rev.  Jno. 

Fox,  Rev.  W.  B 

Frazer,  Rev.  Chas.  . 


UM Bondei 1888 

.AWM. .  .  Panaieti(N.Gumea)1895 
ABMU.  .Swatau  Chauchau 

dialect,  Chinese  .  1879 
PN Suchau 

dialect,  Chinese  .1881 
WMS  .  ..Maya  (Yucatan). . .  1865-70 

WMS  .  . .  Rotuma 1870 

BMS  ...  Bengali-Standard.  .1832 
WMS.  . .  Indo-Portuguese. . .  1826 
CSFM. . .  Kazak  or  Orenburg 

Turkish 1818 


Fraser,  Rev.  R.  M.  . . . 
Freeman,  Rev.  Mr.. .  . 
Fyson,  Rt.  Rev.  P.  K 

Fyvie,  Mr.  Wm 

Gale,  Rev.  J.  S 

Garrioch.Rev.  A.  C. 
Geddie,Rev.  John  . 
Geissler,  Rev.  J.G.. 
Geniihr,  Rov.  J. . .  . 
Gericke,  Rev.  Dr.  C 
Gibson,  Rev.  J.  C. . 


Gill,  Rev.  W.  Wyatt  . .  LMS . .  . 

GiUan,  Rev.  John NHM  . , 

Goddard,  Rev.  Josiah  ABMU. 
Goddard,  Rev.  J.  K.  .ABMU. 

Goldie,  Rev.  Hugh.  .  .UPS. .  . 
Gomes,  Rev.  W.  H.  .  .SPG  ..  . 
Good,  Rev.  A.  C PN 


GoodeU,  Rev.  W ABCFM 

Gordon,  Rev.  E.G.... CMS..  . 


Gordon,  Rev.  John. .  .LMS. . 
Gordon,  Rev.  G.  N.  .  .NHM  . 
Gordon,  Rev.  J.  D. .  .  .  NHM  . 
Gough,  Rev.  F.  F CMS.. 

Grashuia,  Rev.  G.  J..  .  Neth. . 
Graves,  Rev.  R.  H.. .  .SBC  .  . 


Gravius,  Rev.  Mr NSM . . . 

Gray,  Rev.  Wm NHM  .. 

Green,  Rev.  J.  S ABCFM 

Greene,  Rev.  D.  C 

Greiner,  Rev.  G.  B.  .  ,B 

Griffiths,  Rev.  Dawd.LMS. .  . 
Grunwald,  Mr Mor.  .  . . 

Guilford,  Rev.  E CMS .  .  . 

GuUck,  Rev.  L.  H ABCFM 

Gundert,  Rev.  H B 

Gunn,  Dr.  Wm NHM  .. 


Gurney,  Dr.  A.  K. 
Gutzla£f,  Dr.  Karl. 


Gybbon-Spilsbury, 

Rev.  J.  H 

Hadfield,  Rev.  J.  . . 
Hahn,  Rev.  F 


Haigh,  Rev.  H 

Hall,  Rev.  A.  J 

Hall,  Rev.  Gordon  .  . 
Hall,  Rev.  Sherman . 

HamUn,  Rev.  J 

Hands,  Rev.  John. .  . 
Hanson,  Rev.  Ola. .  . 
Hardeland,  Dr.  A.  .  . 
Harris,  Rev.  T.S..  .  . 
Harrison,  Rev.  C. . .  . 


HasweU,  Rev.  Jas ABMU. 

Hay,  Rev.  J LMS... 

Hazelwood,  Rev. 

David WMS  .  . 

Henderson,  Rev.  Alex  BMS. .  . 


Hepburn,  Dr.  J.  C PN 

Herbert,  Rev.  E.  P.  . .  CMS  .  .  . 
Hermann,  Rev.  H..  .  .Neth.  . . 
Herrick,  Rev.  G.  F.  .  .ABCFM 
Hetherwick,  Rev.  A.  .CMS  .  .  . 


SOCIETY  LANGUAGE  DATE 

.NHM...Epi-Baki 1886 

.SPG....  Mohawk 1700-41 

Japanese 1878-  88 

LMS   .  .  .  Gujarati 1820-  23 

Korean 1895 

CMS Beaver 1886 

NHM  . .  .  .Aneityum 1854 

Utr Mafur  (N.Guinea)    1871 

Chinese  Easy  Wenli  1890 

.Neth.  .  .  .Javanese 1831 

.  PCE Chinese  Swatou 1879 

Easy  Wenli 1900 

Rarotongan 1884 

MalUkolo 1893 

Ningpo  Chinese. . .  .  1853 
Ningpo  Chinese. .  1860-1900 

Classical  Wenli 1865 

Efik 1862 

Malay-Standard.  . .  1890 
,Bulu  Gabun, 

West  Africa 1895 

Turkish 1819-31 

,  Sukuma  (Southern 
coast  of  Lake  Vic- 
toria Nyanza).  .  .  1895 

Telugu 1828 

Eromangan 1865 

Eromangan 1865 

Ningpo  dialect, 

Chinese 1868 

Sundanese 1866 

Canton  dialect. .  .  1895-1900 
WenU-Simple    or 

Low 1900 

Formosa 1661 

Weasisi,  Tanna 

(New  Hebrides)  .1889-96 

.  Hawaiian 1839 

Japanese 1878-88 

Tulu,  Mysore 1834 

Malagasi 1835 

Moskito  (Nicara- 
gua)   1864 

Punjabi 1899 

Ponape 

(Micronesia)  ....  1862 

.  Malayalam 1868 

Futuna 

(N.Hebrides)  ...1888-94 

.ABMU.  .Assamese 1889 

.  Neth. . . .  Wenli-Classical  or 

High 1835 

Siamese  (Tai) 1828 

Japanese 1839 

.SAMS...Quechua 1880 

.LMS Uvean  (Loyalty  Is.)  1897 

.GM Kurukh  (Chota 

Nagpur) 1895-96 

.WMS  .  ..Kanarese,  Mysorel898-1901 
.CMS KwagutKVan- 

couvers  Island)  .  .  1882 

ABCFM. Marathi 1826 

.MCC Ojibwa  (Chippewa)  1856 

.CMS Maori,  N.  Zealand. .  1868 

.LMS.  .  .  .Kanarese,  Mysore  .1821-32 
.ABMU.  .Kachin,  Burma. .  1896-1901 

,Rhen..  .  .  Dyak,  Borneo 1846-58 

.  ABCFM .  Seneca  Indians 1829 

.CMS Hydah,  Queen 

Charlotte's  Isl., 

Brit.  Columbia  ..1891 
Talaing  (Pegu), 

Burma 1847 

.  Telugu,  Madras 1874-91 


Heyde,  Rev.  A.  W Mor 

Hill,  Rev.  S.J LMS... 

Hinderer,  Rev.  David  CMS.  .  . 
Hoare,  Rev.  J.  C CMS..  . 

Hodberg,  Rev.  L.  E.  .  Swed.  U 
Hodgson,       Archdea- 
con F.R UM  .. .  . 

Holmes,  Rev.  J.  H.. . .  LMS. .  . 

Howe,  Rev.  Wm LMS. .  . 

Hubbard,  Rev.  E.  H..CMS. .  . 


Fiji 1854 

Moskito 1846 

Carib,  Honduras. .  .  1847 

Japanese 1881 

Gond 1899 

Alifur  (Celebes) 1852 

Turkish 1883-1902 

.  Yao,  Brit.  Central 

Africa 1889-1901 

Tibetan 1901 

Bengali-Musalmani  1856 
Yoruba,  W.  Africa  .1880 
Ningpo  dialect, 

China 1900 

Kashgar  Turkish  . .  1898 

SwahiU 1892 

Toaripi 1901 

Tahiti 1848 

Sukuma, 

Victoria  Nyanza.  1895 


Appendix    IV 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


832 


*JAME  SOCIETT 

Hughes,  Rev.  Griffith, "WCM.  . 
Hughes,  Rev.  T.  P....  CMS.  .  . 

Hunt,  Rev.  John WMS  .  . 

Hunter,     Archdeacon 

Jas CMS.  .  . 

Hutchison,  Rev.  J. .  .  .  CSFM .  . 
Inglis,  Rev.  John  ....  NHM  . . 

Isenberg,  Rev.  C.  W. .  CMS  .  .  . 
Isenberg.Rev.C.W.H.C.iJS.  .  . 

Ivens,  Kev.  W.  G MM..  .. 

Jaeger,  Rev.  G B 


LANGUAGE  DATE 

.  Khasi,  Assam 1892 

Pashtu,  or  Afghani.  1874 
Fiji 1843 


Jansz,  Rev.  P Neth.M, 

Janvier,  Rev.  L PN  . .  .  . 

Jaschke,  Rev.  H.  A. .  .Mor..  . . 

Jens,  Rev.  W.  L Utr.  .  .  . 

Jeremiassen,  Mr.  C.  C.  PN.  .  .  . 
Jewett,  Rev.  Lyman  .  ABMU. 
John,  Rev.  Griffith.  .  .LMS.  .  . 


Johnson,   Archdeacon 

H CMS. 

Johnson,   Archdeacon 

W.P UM.. 


Cree-Western 

.Punjabi  (Chamba) . 

Aneityum, 

N.  Hebrides 

Tigrr,  Abyssinia.  .  . 

Sindhi 

.Ulawa,  Solomon  Is. 
.Accra,  Gold  Coast 

Colony 

.  Javanese 

.Punjabi 

Tibetan  (Bhutian)  . 
.  Mafur,  N.  Guinea  .. 

.  Hainan,  China 

.Telugu .  . 

.Mandarin-Nanking 
or  iSouth 

Wenli-Easy 


1876 
1878 

1864 
1842 
1864 
1900 

1901 

1885-90 

1902 

1859 

188.3 

1891-96 

1885 

1886 
1883-86 


Johnson,  Rt.  Rev.  JasCMS  .  . 
Jones,  Rev.  David  .  .  .LMS.  . 
Jones,  Rev.  D.P LMS.. 

Jones,  Rev.  G.  H ME.  .  . 

Jones,  Rev.  J LMS.  . 

Jones,  Rev.  J.  T PN  .. . 

Jones,  Rev.  Thoa WCM.. 

Joseph,  Rev.  Thos. . .  .  LMS .  . 

Jowett,  Rev.  W CMS.  . 

Judd,  Rev.C.  H CIM  .  . 

Judson,Mrs.A ABMU 

Judson,  Rev.  A ABMU 

Jukes,  Dr.  A CMS.  . 

Junod,  Rev.  H MR..  . 


Keasberry,  Rev.  B.P.  LMS. 
Keen,  Rev.  J.  H.  ...CMS. 
Kelling,  Rev.  F GM.. 


Kellogg,  Rev.  S.  H.  ..PN... 

Kennedy,  Rev.  Jas 

King,  Rev.C ACM. 

King,  Rev.  T CMS. 

Kingdon,  Rev.  J JB... 

Kirby,  Arch.  W.  W. . .  CMS . 

Kllnkert ,  Rev.  H.  C. .  Neth. 


Knowles,  Rev.  J.  H..  .CMS  . . 
Knudsen,  Rev.  Mr. . . .  Rhen. . 

Koelle,  Rev.C B 

Konym ,  Rev.  W NSM . . 

Kraft,  Rev.  A Neuk. . 


Krapf,  Rev.  J.  L.. 


CMS. 


Kronlein,  Rev.  G Rhen 


ICrothe,  Rev.  C Ber.  .  . 

Kugler,  Mr.  C CMS.  . 

Laman,  Rev.  K.  E.  .  .SwedN 


Lamb,  Rev.  R NHM  . 

J.jambert,  Rev.  J.  A. ..LMS.  . 
Lambrick,  Rev.  J.  D..CMS.  . 

Landels,  Rev.  S NHM  . 

Last,  Rev.  J.  F CMS.  . 

Laughton,Rev.  J.  F.. .  SPG  . . 

Laws,  Rev.  W.  G LMS. . 

Laws,  Rev.  R FCS  .. 

Lee,  Rev.  W LMS.. 

Leggatt,  Rev.  T.  W..  .NHM  . 

Leupolt,  Rev.  C.  B.  .  .CMS.  . 

Lewis,  Rev.  A CMS.  . 

Lewis,  Rev.  C.  B BMS. . 

Lewis,  Rev.  Edwin. .  .LMS.  . 

Lewis,  Rev.  W WCM. , 

Ling,  Miss  C.F CEZ.. 


.Nupf',  W.  Africa.  .  .1886 

.Nyanja  (Brit.  Cent. 

Africa) 1895 

.Yoruba 1900 

.Malagasi 1835 

.Mambwe, 

Tanganyika 1894 

.  Korean 1902 

.Marr  (Loyalty  Is)  .1867 

.Siamese  (Tai) 1846 

.  Khasi,  Assam 1846 

.Tahiti 1838 

.Maltese 1822 

.Mandarin 

(Shantung) 1894 

.  Siamese  (Tai) 1819 

.Burmese 1817 

.Jakti 1894 

.  Tonga,  Delagoa 

Bav 1894 

.Malay-High 1863-  75 

.Hydah 1899 

.  Sangir, 

Dutch  E.  Indies  1879 
.Hindi-Standard...  1883-99 
.Hindi-Standard  .  .  .1855 
.Wedau,  N.  Guinea  .1897 
.Yoruba,  W.  Africa  .1850 
.  Maya,  Yucatan. .  .  .  1862 
.  Chipewan 

(Chipewyan) ....  1878 
.  Malay-High  or 

Standard 1872-  89 

Malay-Low  1888 

.Kashmiri 1900 

.  Namaqua  Hotten- 
tot   1860 

.  .Accra,  Gold  Coast 

Colony 1901 

.Sinhalese 1739 

.  Pokomo  (Brit. 

E.Africa) 1900 

.  Amharic 

(Abyssinia) 1879 

GaUa-Shoa 1872 

Kamba 1851 

Nyika(Mombasa)    .  1848 

Tigrai(Tigre) 1865 

.Namaqua,   Hotten- 
tot  1866 

.  Pedi  (Transvaal)  .  .  1888 

.Tigre 1865 

.  Fioti  (Congo  Free 

State) 1901 

.Fanting,  Ambrym  .1899 

.Hindi 1886-99 

.Sinh.^lese 1833-34 

.Malo,  N.  Hebrides..  1896 
.  Kaguru,  Ger.  E. 

Africa 1885 

.  Carib-Honduras  . .  .  1896 
.Motu-N.  Guinea  . .  .  1882 
.  Nyanja,  Brit.  Cent. 

Africa 1886 

.Telugu 1812-28 

.Mallicolo, 

N.  Hebrides 1894-97 

.Hindi-Standard 1855 

.Baluchi 1885 

.  Bengali-Standard . .  1867 

.Telugu 1891 

Khasi,  Assam 1870 

.  Toda 1896 


NAME  SOCIETY 

Loewenthal,  Rev.  I..  .PN 


Logan,  Rev.  R.  W..  .  .ABCFM 


Long,  Rev.  A.  L ME 

Lord,  Rev.  E.C ABMU. 


Lorrain,  Rev.  J.  H.. .  .Ind.  .  .  , 

Louis,  Rev.C.  W Rhep.  . 

Lowndes,  Rev.  I LMS .  .  . 

Luke,  Rev.  Jas UPS  .  .  . 

Lund,  Rev.  Eric ABMU. 

Lutze,  Rev.  W B 

Lyth,  Rev.  R.  B WMS  .. 

MabiUe,  Mr.  A P 

Macbrair,  Rev.  R.  M..  WMS... 

McClure,  Rev.  W.  G.  .PN 

McCullagh,  Rev CMS  .  .  . 

Macdonald,  Rev.  Dav.NHM.  . 

McDonald,     Archdea- 
con Rob't CMS..  . 


MacFarlane,  Rev.  Dr. 
S LMS. 


McGilvary,  Mrs.Danl.FN... 
McGilvary,  Rev.  E.B.PN.. . 
Macgowan,  Rev.  J...  .LMS. 

Macgregor,  Rev.  J 

Maclntyre,  Rev..  J.  L. 
Mackay,  Rev.  Alex. . . 
McKean,  Dr.  J.  W..  .  . 
Mackenzie,  Rev.  H.  L. 
Mackenzie,  Rev.  J.  W 
Mackichan,Rev.Dr.D. 
Maclagan,  Rev.  P.  J.  . 

Maclay,  Rev.  R.  S 

Macmahon,  Miss 

McMinn,  Rev.  R.  D... 


CMS.. 
PN...  . 
PCE.  . 
■  NHM. 
FCS. . . 
PCE .  . 


ME.. 
FCS.. 


Maddox,  Mr.  H.  E..  .  .CMS.  . 
Maples,  Bp.Chauncey  SPG... 
Marling,  Rev.  A.  W..  .PN.. .  . 
Marshman, Rev. Josh.  BMS.. 

Marten,  Rev.  J.  L 

Martin,  Rev.  W.  A.  P.PN 

Martyn,  Rev.  Henry.. SPG... 


Mason,  Dr.  Francis. .  .ABMU. 

Mason,  Rev.  M.C ABMU. 

Mason,  Rev.  W CMS.  .  . 

Mateer,  Rev.C.  W....PN 

Mather,  Dr.  R.  C LMS..  . 

Mattoon,  Rev.  S PN 

Maunsell,  Rev.  Robt.  CMS.  .  . 

Maxwell,  Dr.  James  L 

Mayer,  Rev.  T.  J.  Lee. CMS  .  .  . 


Medhurst,  Rev.  W.  H.  LMS. . 


Meeker,  Mr.  JonathanABHMS 

Meller,  Rev.  T.  W WCM..  . 

Michelsen,  Rev.  O..  .  .NHM... 
Miller,  Dr.  W.R.S.. ..CMS... 

Milne,  Rev.  Peter  ....  NHM.. . 
Milne,  Rev.  Wm LMS. .  . 

Moericke,  Rev.  Wm...B 

Moffat,  Rev.  Robt.. .  .LMS. .  . 


Moffet,  Rev.  S.  A PN 

Molony,Rev.H.J....CMS.. 
Moody,  Rev.  Andrew  FCS.  . . 


Moore,  Rev.  Joseph.... 
Morrison,  Re  V.Donald 
Morrison,  Rev.  Robt  . 
Morton,  Rev.  Alex.. ,  . 
Moulton,  Rev.  Jas.  E. 

Muirhead.Rev.W 

Murray,  Rev.  Chas.  .  . 
Murray,  Rev.  A.  W. .  . 
Murray,  Rev.  W.  B  .  . 
Newcombe,  Miss  B.  .  . 
Newell,  Rev.  Saml.. . . 
Newstead,  Rev.  Robt 
Newton,  Rev.  John.. . 


LMS. .  . 
NHM... 
.LMS.  .  . 
NHM... 
WMS.... 
LMS. .  . 
NHM... 
LMS. .  . 
NHM... 
CEZ...  . 
ABCFM 
WMS.... 
PN  . .  .  . 


LANGUAGE  DATE 

Pashtu  (Pushtu  or 

Afghani) 1863 

Mortlock 1880 

Ruk 1893 

.Bulgarian 1864 

.  Wenli-Classical 

or  High 1859 

.Lushai 1899 

.Canton  dialect 1867 

.  Greek-Modern 1808 

.  Akunakuna.  ......  1897 

.  Visayan  or  lloilo 

(Bisayan) 1899 

,  .Kanarese-Badaga  .1852 

.Fiji 1854 

.Suto  (Basutoland)..1837 
.  Mandingo  (Mande)  1837 

.  Siamese  (Tai) 1846 

.Ne.«hga(Niskkah)  .1900 
.  Fat^,  Havannah 

Harbor 1877 

.  Ojibwa,  Mackenzie 

River 1875-86 

Tukudh,  Alaska 1874-  84 

.Lifu,  Loyalty  Is 1868 

Murray  Island, 

Torres  Straits 1886 

Saibai 1883 

.Laos 1887-91 

.Laos 1895 

.Amoy 1887-1901 

.Amoy 1853-73 

.Nupe,  Nigeria 1886 

.  Ganda  (Uganda). .  .  1888 

.Laos 1901 

.  Swatow  dialect ....  1882 
.  Fatr  or  Etatese. .  .  .  1866 

.Marathi 1883-93 

.  Swatow  dialect ....  1882 

.Japanese 1878-88 

.Malay-Low 1891 

.  Chitonga, 

Brit.  E.Africa...  1900 

.Toro,  Uganda 1900 

.  Nyanja 1895 

.Fang 1893 

.Wenli-Classical. .  .  .1822 

.Malay-Low 1878 

.  Mandarin-Peking .  .  1872 

.  Hindustani 1814 

Persian 1812 

Arabic 1816 

.  Karen-Sgaw-Karen  1843 

.  Garo,  Assam 1875-  1900 

.  Cree-Eastern 1860 

.  Mandarin-Peking .  .  1896 
.  Hindi-Hindustani. .  1870 

.  Siamese 1 860 

.Maori 1858-68 

.Amoy  dialect 1863-84 

.Baluchi 1893 

Pashtu,  Afghan 1880 

.Shanghai 1846 

Wenli-Classical.  .  .  .1836-52 

Malay-Low 1833 

.  Ottawa 1841 

.  Khasi,  Assam 1870 

.Epi,  N.Hebrides..  .1892 
.  Hausa-Gierko  in  N. 

Nigeria 1900 

.Nguna 1882-99 

.  Shanghai 1846 

Wenli-Classical 1814-22 

.Kanarese-Badaga, 

Mysore 1852 

,  Chuana, 

Bechuanaland. . .  1831-56 

.Korean 1902 

.Gond 1899 

.  Palityan  (Paulician) 

Hungary 1899 

■  Tahiti 1848 

.  Fate  or  Efatese. .  .  .  1866 

.Wenli-Classical 1814-23 

.Mallicollo 1894 

.  Tonga,  Friendly  Is .  1861 
.Shanghai  dialect. .  .  1886 
.Ranon,  N.  Hebridesl899 

Samoan 1841-70 

Ranon, N.Hebrides  1899 
Kien-ning,  Chinese  1896 
Marathi-Standard. .  1826 
Indo-Portuguese. .  .  1826 
Punjabi  (Gurmuk- 
hi  character) ....  1850 


833 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix   IV 


.SPG.. 


.  Rhen. 


Newton,  Rev.  E.  P.  . 

Niebel,  Rev.  C.  J 

Nihill,  Rev.  Wm.  .  .  . 

Nommenson,  Rev. 
R.J.L 

Nott,  Rev.  Henry. .  . 
Nottrott,  Rev.  C.  A.. 


Noyes,  Rev.  Eli BMS.. 

Nylander,  Rev.  G  R.  CMS  .  . 
O'Meara,  Rev.Dr.FA.SPG.. . 
Ormerod,  Rev.  R.  M. .  UMFC 


SOCIETY  LANGUAGE 

.PN Punjabi  (Gurmulc- 

hi  character) .  -  - 
.Ind Lepcha,  Siklcim 


.Lifu,  Loyalty  Is... 
Mare,  Loyalty  Is. 


DATE 

.  1894-99 
.1874 
.1855 
.1867 


.LMS. 


.Batta,  Toba, 

Sumatra 1875-79 

.Tahiti 1818-38 

GM Mandari  (Kol)Chota 

Nagpur,  India  . .  1876-96 

.Uriya  (Orissa) 1844 

.Bullom 1815 

.Ojibwa 1S54 

..Galla-Southern  or 

Bararetta 1890 

Marathi-Konkani.  .  1886 


Ott,  Rev.  P B 

Ousley,  Rev. Benj ABCFM.Sheetswa,  Port,  E 

Africa      and      N. 

Zululand 1891 

.LMS Hindi-Standard  ...  1855 

.ME Suchau  dialect 1881 

.  BMS. .  .  .Hindi-Standard..  .  .  1868 

.LMS.        ~  ---       - 

.NHM 


Owen,  Rev.  Joseph. . 

Parker,  Rev.  A.  P 

Parsons,  Rev.  J 

Paterson,  Rev.  J 

Paton,  Rev.  F.  H.  L. 


Paton,  Rev.  F.  J. 


.NHM.. 


Paton,  Rev.  John  G... NHM.. 


-Bengali-Musalmani. 1855-56 
.Lenakel, 

N.Hebrides 1900 

.Mallicollo, 

Pangkumi 1891 

.  Aniwa,  N.  PIebrides.1877 
Tanna,  N.  Hebrides.1869 
Patteson,     Rt.     Rev. 

J.C CMS Lifu 1868 

Payne,  Rev.  John..  .  .PE Grebo 1848-56 

Pearse,  Rev.  A LMS.  .  .  .  Keapara.N.Guinea  .1892 

Pease,  Rev.  E.  M ABCFM.Ebon  (Marshall  Is.)  .1862 

Peck,  Rev.  E.J CMS Eskimo,  Cumber- 
land Sound 1897 

PeUssier,  Rev.  J.  P....P Suto,Basutoland....l837 

Penny,  Rev.  A MM Florida,  Solomonls.  1862 

Percival,  Rev.  P WMS. ..  .Tamil,  India 1868 

Perham,  Arch.  J SPG Malay-High 1890 

Perkins,  Rev.H.  E.  . .  CMS  ....  Hindustani 1892 

Punjabi  Gurmukhi.1899 

Perkins,  Rev.  Justin.. ABCFM.Syriac-Modern 1846 

Pershore,  Mr Dyak-Sea,  Borneo  .1879 

Pettigrew,  Rev.  W.  .  .  ABMU.  .Manipuri,  Assam..  .  1896 


Pfander,  Rev.  C.  G.  . 
Phillips,  Rev.  E.G... 
Phillips,  Rev.H.  S... 
Phillips,  Mrs.  H.S.. 


B Turkish-Azerbaijanl826 

ABMU.  .Garo,  Assam 1875 

'  Kien-yang  dialect. ..1899 


Pierson,  Rev.  G ABCFM.Ebon  (Marshall 

Islands) 1862 


Pike,  Rev.  J.  G BMS 

Pilkington,  Mr.  G.  L...CMS 


Pitman,  Rev.  Chas. 
Pratt,  Rev.  George. 

Pratt,  Rev.  A.  T.... 
Preston,  Rev.  I.M.. 
Price,  Rev.  F.M... . 
Price,  Rev.  J.C. 


.XJriya  (OrLssa) 1899 

.Ganda,  Uganda./ .  .1896 

Sukuma 1895 

.  Rarotonga 1830 

.Nine 1863 

Samoan 1837 

.ABCFM.  Turkish 1870 

.PN Dikele,  Gabun 1879 

.  ABCFM. Ruk,  Micronesia.  .  .1893 
CMS.  .  .  .Gogo,  Ger.  E.Africal887 


.LMS.. 
.LMS.. 


Price,  Rev.  Roger Chuana,  So.  Africa.  1901 


Telugu 1828 

.Maori, 

New  Zealand 1868 

.Santali 1868 

.Muskokee,  or 

Creek 1893 

.Maliseet 1870 

.Ibo,  Old  Calabar.  .  .1899 
.  Swahili-Zanzibar  . .  1862 
.Kalana.  Rhodesia.. .1902 

.Tinne,  Slave 1871 

.  Kanarese,  Mysore.. .1821-32 


Pritchett,  Rev.  E LMS. 

Puckey,  Rev  W.  G.  .  .  CMS . , 

Puxley,  Rev.  E.  L. .  .  .  CMS  .  . 
Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  R 

Rand,  Rev.  S.T 

Rattray,  Dr.  P UPS .  . 

Rebmann,  Rev.  John  CMS  .  . 
Reed,  Rev.  G.  C.  H. .  .LMS.  . 
Reeve,  Rt.  Rev.  W.D  CMS .  . 

Reeve,  Rev.  Wm LMS..---    -  .     . 

Reynolds,  Rev.  W.  D Korean 1898 

Rheuius,  Rev.  C.T.E  .CMS .  .  .  .Tamil 1813 

Richards,  Rev.  E.  H..ME Tonga,  Port  E.  Af... 1888-90 

Richards,  Rev.  W ABCFM. Hawaiian 1828 

Richards,  Rev.  R.  H. .  AWM .  . .  Duke  of  York  Is ...  1887 

New  Britain 1893 

Ridley,  Rt.  Rev.  Wm   CMS . .  \  Shimshi,      . 

Ridley,  Mrs.  Wm /     orTsimshi      1885 

Riggs,      Rev.      Ellas  ABCFM.  Armenian-Modern  .1835-45 

Bulgarian 1855-64 

Turkish 1883-86 

Riggs,  Rev.  S.  R ABCFM.  Dakota  (Sioux) ....  1839 

Rinnooy,  Rev.  N Utr Matur,  N.  Guinea. ..1873 

Robb,  Rev.  A UPS ....  Efik,  Old  Calabar.. .  1862 

Roberts,  Rev.  H WCM.  .  .Khasi,  Assam 1846 

Robertson,Rev.H.A...NHM...  .Eromanga 1879 

Robin,  Rev.  L.  P MM Torres 1900 

Robinson,  Rev.  Canon  . 

C  H  .  .  CMS Hausa,  N.  Nigeria. .  1899 

Robinson,  Rev.  Wm..BMS Malay-Low,  Java^.  1814 

Roehl,  Rev.  Karl Shambala,   Ger.  E. 

Africa 1901 


LANGUAGE 


DATE 


Roepstorff,  Rev.  F.A, 

Rood,  Rev.  I 

Rooney,  Rev.  I 

Rose,  Mrs.  A.  T 

Roskott,  Mr 

Ross, Rev.  John 

Rouse,  Rev.  G.  H 

Rowling,  Rev.  Frank 

Rudland,  Rev  .W.  D. 
Ruskin,  Rev.  A.  E.. . , 


ABCFM 
AWM.  . 
ABMU. 


UPS  . 
BMS. 
CMS. 


CIM.... 
RBMU. 


Saker,  Mr.  A BMS..  , 


Savidge,  Mr.  F.  W..  .  .Ind.  .  .  . 
SaviUe,  Rev.A.  T..  ..LMS.  .  . 

Schaub,  Rev.  M . 

Sohauffler,  Rev.  W.  G.ABCFM 


Schereschewsky, 
Rev.  S.I.  J..  .. 


Rt. 


.PE. 


Sohlenker,  Rev.  C.  F..CMS . 
SchmeUn,  Rev.  Mr...  .LMS. 
Schmidt,  Dr.  Jas Mor.  . 


Schneider,  Rev.  F.  E 

Schoa,  Rev.  J.F CMS. 

Schopf,  Rev.  J B.  .. 


Schuler,  Rev.  Eugen..B 

Schultze,  Rev.  Benj .  .  Danish- 
Halle... 


Schtitz,  Rev.  C Rhen. 


Scott,  Rev.  D.C CSFM. 

Scott,     Rev.  H.   (and 

Mrs) LMS.. 


Scranton,  Dr.  W.  B 

Seaman.  Rev.  Wm.  .  .CSFM. 
Shaw,  Rev.  T.  F LMS.. 


Sheffield,  Rev.  D.  Z..  .ABCFM 

Shellabear,  Rev.  W.GME 

Shirt,  Rev.  G CMS..  . 

Sieboerger,  Rev.  W..  .Mor. .  .  . 

Sikemeier,  Rev.  W...  .B 

Skinner,  Rev.  Jas  ....  LMS.  .  . 

Skrefsrud,  Rev.  L.  O .  .DS 

Sleigh,  Rev.  Jas LMS.  .  .. 

Smaill,  Rev.  T NHM. .  . 

Smith,  Rev.  EU ABCFM. 

Smith  Rev.  G PCE 

Smith,  Rev.H.  C....CA 

Snow,  Rev.  B.G ABCFM 


Soothill,  Rev.  W.  E..  .UFMC. 
Sparham,  Rev.  C.  G...  LMS.  .  . 
Spaulding,  Rev.  H.H.  ABCFM 
Spence,  Rev.  D.  B..  .  .CSFM 
Stallybrass,  Rev.  Ed    LMS. . 

Start,  Rev.  Wm Ind... 


Steere,  Rt.  Rev.  E.  .  .  UM. . 
Steggall,  Rev.  A.  R. .  .CMS . 

Steller,  Miss  Clara 

Stenberg,  Rev.  Dr.. 


.  .Scand. 


Stewart,  Rev.  R .  W.. .  CMS  .  .  . 
Stronach,  Rev.  J .LMS. .  . 

Sturges,  Rev.  A.  A.. .  .ABCFM 
Sunderland,  Rev.  J.  P.  LMS.  . 
Sundermann,  Mr.  H.  .Rhen.  . 

Sutton,  Rev.  A ABMU. 

Swan,  Rev.  Wm LMS. .  . 


Swanson,  Rev.  W.  S 

Sykes,  Rev.  W LMS. 


.Nicobar 1879 

Zulu 18S9(R) 

Duke  of  York  Is....  1882 

Pwo- Karen 1853 

.Malay-High 1877 

.Korean 1885 

,  Bengali-Standardl867-1900 

.Uganda 1900 

Usogan 1899 

Tai-ohau 1892 

Lolo,  Congo  Free 

State 1901 

,  Dualla,  Kameruns, 

W.Africa 1870 

.Lushai,  Assam 1899 

.Tahiti 1879 

.  Wenli-Classical.  .  .  .  1900 
.  Judffio-Spanish  ..  .  .1843 
Turkish 1873 

.  Mandarin-Peking .  .  1872 
Wenli-Simple, 

or  Low 1900 

.  Temn(',  Sierra 

Leone 1866 

.Nama  (Namaqua- 

Hottentot) 1825 

.Mongol  (Western 

or  Kalmuk) 1815 

Mongol  (Northern 

orBuriat) 1824 

.  Hindi-Standard ....  1855-66 

.Hausa 1857 

.  .Accra,  Gold  Coast 

Colony 1901 

..Dualla,Kamerunsl896-1901 

.Tamil 1721 

Hindustani 1741 

Telugu 1727-32 

..Batta,  1889 

Mandailung, 
Sumatra.  ..1889-1901 
.Nyanja 1897 

.Murray  Is., 

N.Guinea..  1885-1902 

.Korean 1885 

.  Nogai  Turkish 1666 

.Nyamwezi.  Ger.  E, 

At  ica. 1896 

Wenli-Classical.  .  1890-1900 

Malay-High 1890-1900 

.Sindhi-Standard.  .  .  1868-89 

.Moskito 1890 

.Kanarese-Badaga.  1852 
.  Gujarati-Standard .  1821-25 

.SantaU 1868 

.Lifu,  Loyalty  Is 1868 

Epi-Baki 

or  Western 1896 

Arabic 1857 

Swatow 1882 

Koranko, 

Sierra  Leone 1899 

.Ebon  (Marshall 

Islands) 1862 

Kusaien 1869 

.Wenchau 1891-95 

.  Mandarin-Peking  .  .  1895 
Nez  Perces  Indians  1845 
.  Judgeo-Spanish.  .  .  .1896 
.Mongol  (Northern 

orBuriat) 1840 

Lepcha  (Sikkim) . .  .  1874 

NepaU 1850 

.  Swahih-Zanzibar.. .  1864-82 
.Taveta,  Brit.  E. 

Africa 1892 

.Sangir,  Dutch  E. 

Indies 1880 

.  Mongol-Southern 

or  Kalkhas 1899 

.Fuchau 1892 

.Mandarin-Nanking.  1856 
WenU-Classical.  .  .  .  1859 

.Ponape 1862 

.M^re,  Loyalty  Is. . .  1867 
.  Nias,  Dutch  E. 

Indies       1875 

.Uriya  (Orissa) 1844 

.Manchu 1834 

Mongol-Northern 

or  Buriat 1840 

.  Amoy  dialect 1868 

.Matabele, 

Rhodesia 1884 


Appendix  IV 


THE  ENCTi'CLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


834 


NAME  SOCIET 

Talmage,  Rev.  Dr.  J. 
vanN RCA. 

Taplin,  Rev.  Geo 

Taylor,  Dr.  John 

Taylor,  Rev.  J.  Hud- 
son  CIM., 

Taylor,  Rev.  W.  E.. .  .CMS . 

Teiasers,  Rev.  U P 


Thomas,  Mrs.  B.C., 

Thomas,  Mr.  John..  .  , 

Thomas,  Rev.  T.  Mor- 
gan  

Thomas,  Rev.  W.  F. 

Thompson,  Rev.  M 

Thomson,  Rev.  Edw.. 

Thurston,  Rev.  A  .  .  .  . 

Tims,  Rev.  J.  W 

Tisdall.Rev.W.  St.C. 

Tomlin,  Rev.  Jacob  .. 

Torrey,  Rev.  C.  C 

Tracy,  Rev.  W 

Trollope,  Rev.  M.  N... 

Turnbull,  Rev.  A 

Turner,  Rev.  Geo 

Underwood,   Rev. 
H.G 

Van  der  Vorn,  Petrus 

Van    Dyck,    Rev. 
C.V.  A 

Van  Dyke,  Rev.  J.  W 

VanEck,  Rev.  R 

Van  Hasselt,  Rev.J.L 

Verbeck,  Rev.  G.  F..  . 

Vreede,  Dr.  A  C 


ABMU. 
EMS. .  . 

LMS..  . 
ABMU.. 

ICMS!!! 
.ABCFM 
.CMS... 
.CMS... 

.LMS 

.ABCFM 
.ABCFM 


CMS.. 
LMS. . 


PN... 
Neth. 


PN... 
PN... 
Utr.  . 
,Utr.. 
RCA. 


Wade,  Rev.  T.  R CMS  .  .  . 

Wakefield,  Rev.  T..  .  .UMFC. 

Walker,  Rev.  F.  W..  .LMS. .  . 

Walker,  Rev.  W PN 

Ward,  Rev.  N.  M ABMU. 

Waterhouse,  Rev. Jos.  NHM.. . 

Watkins,  Rev.  E.  A....CMS .  .  . 

Watsford,  Rev.  John. .LMS.  .  . 

Watt,  Rev.  Wm NHM.. . 

Weakley,  Rev.  R.  H...CMS. .  . 

Weigle,  Rev.  G B 

Weitbrecht,   Rev. 

H.  U CMS.., 


LANGUAGE  DATE 

.Amoy  dialect 1853 

.Narrinyeri 1865 

.Marathi-Standard..  1819 

.  Ningpo  dialect 1868 

.  Swahili-Mombasa. .  1900 
.  .Galwa,  French 

Congo 1901 

.  Chin,  Burma 1896 

.Tamil,  India 1818 

.Matabele,  Rho'sia. .  1897 

.  Chin,  Burma 1896 

.Malayalam 1813 

,Tai-chau 1892 

Hawaiian 1828 

,  Blacktoot.Alberta. .  1890 
Kurdish,  Persia..  .  .  1896-99 

Siamese 1828 

Cherokee 1832 

Tamil 1870 

.Korean 1899 

.NepaU 1892 

.Samoan I960 

.Korean 1885 

.Malay-High 1701 

.Arabic 1884-86 

.  Siamese  (Tai) 1846 

.Bali,  or  Balinese.  .  .  1877 
..Mafur,  N.  Guinea   .  1878-83 

..Japanese 1888 

.Madura  Island, 

Dutch  E.  Indies  .1895 

.Kashmiri 1884 

..Galla-Southern.  .  . .  1890 

Nyika 1882 

.  Suan,  N.  Guinea. . . .  1886 

.Mpongwe 1850 

.  Batta,  Toba 1826 

.  Rotuma, 

N.  Hebrides 1870 

.  Chipewan 

(Chipewyan) 1878 

.Fiji 1854 

.Tanna 1890 

.Turkish-Osmanli.. .  1883 
.  Kanarese,Mysore.. .  1860 

.Hindustani 1898 


NAME 

Welchman,  Rev.  H. 


Welton,  Rev.  W.. . 
Wenger,  Rev.  Dr.. 


SOCIETY 

.MM.... 


.CMS. 
.BMS. 


Went,  Rev.  Thos.. 
Wertz,  Rev.  C 


.WMS.. 
.B 


Westlind,  Mr.  N Swed.U, 


Wherry,  Rev.  J 

White,  Rev.  John.  .  . 
Whitmee,  Rev.  S.J. . 
Whitney,  Rev.  J.  F.. 


Wigram,  Rev.  B 

Wilder,  Rev.  G.  E 

Wilkinson,  Rev.  A.  B 
Williams,  Rev.  John. . 
Williams,  Rev.  P.  J..  . 
Williams,  Rev.  R.H.. 
Williams,  Rev.  Thos. . 
Williams,  Rev.  Wm... 
Williamson,    Rev. 

H.  D 

Wilson,  Rev.  D.  A 

Wilson,  Rev.  J 

Wilson,  Rev.  Sam'l. .  . 
Wimbush,  Rev.  J.  S... 
Winquist,  Dr.  K.  .  .  .  . 
Winslow,  Rev.  Miron 

Withey,  Mr.  H.  C 

Wood,  Rev.  A.N 

Wookey,  Rev.  A.  J.  .. 
Worcester,  Rev.  S.  A., 
Wray,  Rev.  J.  A 


Wright,  Rev  A 

Wright,  Rev.  Asher.. 
Wright,  Rev.  J  N.... 


Wurtz,  Rev.  L. 


PN.. 
.WMS... 
.LMS..  . 
.ABCFM 

.CMS..  . 
.ABCFM 

BMS.... 
,LMS..., 

CMS.... 
.WMS..., 

LMS 

CMS.... 

,CMS..., 

,PN 

.PN 

,LMS 

UM 

.Swed.N. 

.ABCFM 

,ME 

,CMS..., 

LMS..., 

ABCFM. 
.CMS.... 

.ABCFM. 


Yates,  Rev.  Dr.  W... 


.PN.  . .  . 
.  Neuk  .  . 
BMS... 


Zaremba,  Rev.  Mr.. . .  B 

Ziegenbalg, 

Bartholomew,  Dan- 
ish   


LANGUAGE 

.  Bugotu,  Solomon 

Islands 

.  Fuchau 

.  Bengali-Standard . , 

Sanskrit 

.  Tonga 

.  Accra, Gold  Coast 

Colony 

.  Fioti,  Congo  Free 

State 

Wenli-Classical. .  .  . 
.Mashona,  S.Africa 

.Samoan 

.Ebon  (Marshall 

Islands) 

.  Toro,  Uganda 

.Zulu 

.  Khondi 

.  Rarotonga 

.  Igbira 

.  Mandingo,  Gambia 

.Fiji.. 

.  Maori 

.Gond 

.  Mpongwe,  Gabun  .  . 

.Laos,  Siam 

.Samoan 

.  Nyanja 

Tigrai,  Abyssinia  . . 

Tamil 

Mbundu,  Angola. . . 

Kaguru ,  ■  ■  ■  ■ 

Chuana,  S.  Africa . . 

Cherokee 

Sagalla,  Taita, 
Brit.  E.  Africa. . . 

Choctaw 

Seneca 

Turkish-  . 

Azerbaijan 

Pokomo,     Brit.    E. 
Africa 

Bengali-Standard . . 

Hindustani 

Sanskrit 

Sanskrit 

Turkish- 
Azerbaijan  


DATE 
1901 

1867 
1867 
1873 
1851 

1901 

1897 
1890 
,1897 
1850 

1885 

1900 

1861-66 

1893 

1830 

1891 

1837 

1854 

1837 

1872 

1850 

1891 

1850 

1895 

1901 

1840-50 

1900 

1885 

1901 

1832 

1892 
1831 
1875 

1882 

1894 
1833 
1847 
1818 
1840-46 

1836 


Halle.. .  .Tamil 1714 


APPENDIX    Y 


STATISTICAL    TABLES 

INTRODUCTORY    NOTE 

All  Christendom  is  home  to  the  Christian.  To  him  the  non-Christian  lands,  alone,  are  foreign 
lands.  The  statistics  of  "foreign  missions"  given  in  the  followmg  taUes,  tiierefore,  relate  to  Mission- 
ary worlv  in  non-Christian  lands.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  made,  however,  in  the  case  of,  (1) 
Protestant  Missions  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  whose  statistics  are  reported  by  some  Societies  in 
the  tables  of  their  foreign  Mission  worlc;  and  (2)  of  Missions  in  those  parts  of  North  America  and 
in  South  America  where  pagans  still  form  an  important  element  in  the  population.  Consistency 
would  require  the  exclusion  from  these  tables  of  statistics  of  Christian  work  in  lands  that  have  become 
Christianized  by  colonization  or  otherwise,  and  maintain  their  own  Missionary  Societies.  Such 
are  the  Protestant  islands  of  the  West  Indies  and  parts  of  South  Africa,  Australasia,  etc.,  where 
local  Christianity  is  thoroughly  organized  and  established.  But  this  consistency  has  not  been  pos- 
sible, because  some  Societies  do  not  separate  statistics  of  Missionary  worlc  among  East  Indian  coolies 
or  other  pagans  from  those  of  the  regular  ministrations  to  the  local  Churches  under  settled  pastors. 

The  plan  of  this  work  has  required  us  to  exclude  from  the  tables  of  statistics  work  for  European 
soldiers,  colonists  or  seamen.  It  has  also  seemed  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  reduplication  of  sta- 
tistics to  omit  mention  of  purely  auxiliary  Societies. 

The  column  "Professed  Christians"  is  intended  to  show  the  whole  number  publicly  known  as 
Christians,  whether  communicants,  probationers,  or  children  of  Christian  parents.  This  intention 
has  been  very  imperfectly  executed  because  many  societies  continue  to  give  in  reports  the  number 
of  communicants  only,  just  as  was  the  usage  before  the  rise  on  the  Mission  field  of  families  and  even 
communities  which  have  never  been  pagans. 

The  statistics  given  are  intended  to  repreGcnt  the  condition  of  the  Foreign  Missions  on  January  1, 
1903,  except  in  the  case  of  Societies  whose  names  are  followed  by  an  asterisk  (*).  The  figures  in 
such  cases  show  the  status  of  1900,  and  for  them  we  are  under  obligation  to  Beach's  Atlas  of  Prot- 
estant Missions. 

Notwithstanding  close  application  and  exhausting  labor,  we  find  ourselves  forced  to  crave 
indulgence  for  the  faults  of  the  tables.  Such  tables  can  be  no  more  than  relatively  exact,  and  they 
require  so  much  time  in  compilation  that  they  are  already  out  of  date  before  publication. 

A.     The  Operations  op  Protestant  Missionary  Societies  in  Non-Chhistian  Lands. 


Names  of  Societies. 


Africa  Inland  Mission 

African  Training  Institute  (Colwyn)* 

African  Meth.  Episcopal  Church 

American  Advent  Miss.  Society   ._ 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  1 ........  . 

American  Board  of  Com'rs  for  Foreign  Missions. 

American  Friends  Foreign  Missions 

American  Missionary  Association 

American  Norwegian  China  Mission. 

Archbishop's  Miss,  to  Assyrian  Christians 

Associate  Ref 'd  Pres.  Synod  of  the  South 

Australian  Presbyterian  Mission 

Australian  Wesleyan  Meth.  Mission 

Balaghat  Mission 

BaptistMiasionary  Society  2 

Baptist  Zenana  Miss.  Society  _ 

Basel  Evang.  Missionary  Society 

Bengal  Evangelistic  Mission 


a  o 

.2t3 

"o  a 


21 

7 

641 

644 

80 

2 

5 

2 

11 

9 

51 

8 

244 

65 

333 


2  S 


172 

300 

8 

3,595 

3,919 

138 

2 

7 

11 

17 

1,436 

2 

1,153 

236 

1,266 

21 


o  o 


348 

6 

1,312 

1,668 

33 

2 

3 

5 

10 

1,116 

4 

752 

505 
5 


1 

29 

126 

3 

1,322 

1,240 

27 

2 

46 

5 

5 

2,110 

2 

385 

98 

535 

9 


■3  3 
<^  9 

QJ   O 


1 
1 

78 

128 

10 


1 

1 
20 

1 
13 

5 
24 

1 


mS 


1 

2 
20 
4 
2 
1 


20,000 


6 

152,481 

H 

59,6E5 

3 

5,516 

36 

1 

573 

268 

43,715 

180 

6 

15,195 

2 

45,204 

117 

Appendix   V 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


836 


Names  of  Societies. 


Bengali  Mission  Union* 

Bethel  Santal  Mission 

Bible  Christian  Home  and  For.  Mission 

British  and  For.  Unitarian  Association 

British  Syrian  Schools* 

Canada;  Baptist  Convention,  Maritime  Provinces.  . 
Canada;  Baptist  Convention.  Ontario  and  Quebec. . 

Canada;   Methodist  Miss.  Society 

Canada;  Presbyterian  C'ruiicEi  in 

Central  American  Mission* 

Central  Morocco  Mission 

Ceylon  and  India  Gen.  Mission 

China  Inland  Mission 

Chinese  Blind,  Murray'sMission  to 

Christian  and   Missionary  Alliance 

Christian  (Brethren)  Mission 

Christian  Church  Miss.  Board  (U.  S.  A.)   ■  •  ; 

Christian  Women's  Board  of  Missions  (Disciples)  .  .  . 

Church  Missionary  Society 

Church  of  England's  Zenana  Missionary  Society.  .  .  . 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Missionary  Society 

Danish  Missionary  Society 

(See  also  Indian  Home  Mission  to  Santhals  and 
Loventhal's  Mission.) 

Edinburg  Medical  Missionary  Society 

Egypt  General  Mis.sion.. 

Evangelical  Association 

Finnish  Missionary  Society 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society  (Disciples)  3.  . 

Free  Baptist  Gen.  Conference 

Free  Methodist  Church  in  N.  A.. .  . 

Friends  For.  Miss.  Associiition  (British) 

Furreedpore  Mission 

German  Baptist  Brethren  Cliurch  (Dunkard) 

German  Evang.  Lutheran  H /nod  of  Ohio,  etc.* 

German  Evang.  Synod  (f  i^ .  A _ 

Germany:  German  Bapii^tsin  Berlin 

Berlin  Missionary  Society  (Berlin  I.)  .  .  .  . 

Benin  Women's  Society  for  China 

Breklum  Mi^.:>ionary  Society 

Deaconesses'  Inst,  at  Kaiserswerth 

General  Kvang.  Prot.  Miss.  Society 

Gossner's  ;Mis;;Ionary  Society  (Berlin  II). 

German  East  Africa  Mission  (Berlin  III). 

Hannover  Luth.  Free  Church 

Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 

Jerusalem  Union 

Kiel  China  Mission 

Le  pzig  Missionary  Society 

Miss,  to  Chinese  Blind 

Neudettelsau  Missionary  Society 

Neukirchen  Missionary  Institute 

North  German  Missionary  Society 

Rhenish  Missionary  Society 

Su4an  Pioneer  Mission 

\,  omens  Soc.  for  Education  of  the  Fe- 
male .Sex  in  the  East 

Oospel  Mission  Union 

Hauge's  Synod  China  Mission 

Hawaiian  Evang.  Association 

Ikwezi  Lamaci  Mission   (Young  Men's  For.  Miss. 

Soc,  Birmingham) 

Indian  Home  Mission  to  the  Santhals  (Danish) 

International     Medical     and     Benevolent     Assoc. 

(Seventh  Day  Adventist)* 

Ireland;  Presbyterian  Church  in* 

"       Ref .  Presbyterian  Church  in* 

Jaffa  Medical  Mission* 

Jamaica  Baptist  Union 

Jerusalem  and  the  East  Mission 

Kurku  and  Indian  Hill  Mission 

Labrador  Merlical  Mission 

London  Missionary  Society 

Loventhal's  Mission  (Danish) 

Lutheran  (Evangelical)  General  Council  (U.S.A.).... 

"  "  General  Synod  (U.S.A.)..  .  . 

Church  in  the  South(U.S.A.)* 

"  Free  Church  Board  of  Missions  (U.S.A.).. 

Melanesian  Mission* 

Mennonite  Mission  Board  (U.S.A.) 

Methodist  Episcopal  Missionary  Society  3 

Methodist  Episcopal  Miss.  Society,  Home  Missions. . 


.2& 

1^ 

.Sts 

®  9 

.  o 

d  <u 

&^ 

^S 

3 

5 
7 
1 

18 

24 

41 

112 

178 

26 

4 

24 

763 

1 

159 

271 

11 

60 

1,330 

200 

25 

23 


6 
13 
93 
28 
23 
94 

5 
11 

9 

15 

14 

138 

4 
23 
102 
12 
44 
24 

9 
62 

1 

6 
72 

2 

15 

17 

24 

285 

2 

11 
16 
12 
21 

15 
6 

71 
76 

3 
11 

7 
19 
18 

5 
435 

1 
16 
37 
10 

9 

28 

13 

663 


S 

17 

3 

2 

103 

46 

197 

30 

267 

25 


741 

10 

11 

26 

5,076 

930 

42 
35 


10 
10 
24 
39 

222 
67 
30 

978 

9 

20 

9 

109 
80 

924 

3 

70 

23 

746 

26 

64 

303 

22 

3 

774 

2 

54 

82 

498 

3 


1 

54 


14 
87 


488 
8 
5 
12 
6 
8 

6,465 

3 

142 

618 

6 

37 

400 

7 

4  819 

1 


o  o 


1 

3 

2 

2 

1 

21 

113 

41 

135 

16 

16 
476 


27 

5 

580 

20 
13 


3 

1 
20 
68 
12 
14 
274 

2 
11 

44 

45 

331 


460 


124 


237 

7 

55 

27 

180 

2 


128 
1 


5 

2 

1,44S 

1 

122 

172 

3 

12 

15 

3 

1,109 

1 


1 
1 

50 
17 
78 
49 


83 
1 


9 

2,325 

248 

3 

10 


10 
32 
36 

6 
239 

3 


24 
47 

85 

34 

2 

2 

178 

6 

17 

122 

8 

1 

268 

1 

6 

16 

49 

388 


12 

4 


164 
3 


1,922 

120 
240 

13 

170 

1 

1,112 


W  3 


13 
10 


1 
4 
53 
37 
1 
6 


3 

2 

2 

16 


3 
1 

4 

1 

27 


2 
18 


19 

3 

4 

1 
2 

2 
61 


oj  03 

§1 
k3 


1 

25 


3 
22 
31 

1 


IS 
3 


11 
1 


22 
6 


2 

2 

2 

40 

1 
1 
1 

2 
2 


W      3 


■a  oH 


1 

15 


1 
1 
1 

8 
1 

1 

18 


a 
■a 


1,480 
19 


495 
4,605 
2,436 
6,358 
1,425 


7,774 


382 

317 

270,063 


843 
911 


1,23* 

2,874 

1,831 

396 

31,062 

39 

45 

9 

4,499 

2,170 

43,240 

7,026 

172 

83,237 

903 

4,050 

60,163 

370 

33 

21,815 

30 

1,067 

3,545 

91,124 


2,183 


110 
11,345 


14,902 
61 


1,129 


196,026 

6,189 

26,468 

77 

230 

13,000 

100 

146,010 

63 


837 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  V 


Names  of  Societies. 


Methodist  Episcopal  (South)  Miss.  Society  4 

Methodist  New  Connexion  (England) 

Methodist  Protestant  Church  (England) ....... 

Missionary  Pence  Association 

Miss  Taylor's  Schools* 

Miss  Trotter's  Mission* 

Moravian  (Brzider  UniUtf)  Missions  5 .  . 

Netherlands;    Ermelo  Missionary  Society 

'*  Java  Committee 

*'  Lutheran  Home  and  Foreign  Mission 

Society* 

"  Mennonite  Miss.  Union  {Doopgezinde 

V  ereeniging) 

**  Missionary    Society    ( Nederlandsch 

Zendeling  genootschap) 

'*  Mission  of  the  Reformed  Church  in..  . 

"  Missionary     Union      ( Nederlandsche 

Zenclings  V ereeniging) 

"  Society  for  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

in  Egypt 

"  Utrecht  Missionary  Union 

New  England  Company 

New  Hebrides  Mission  Synod*6 

New  Zealand  Presbyterian  Church 

North  Africa  Mission 

North     India    School    of    Medicine    for    Christian 

Women*J 

Norwegian   Missionary  Soc  ety 

"  Church  Mission  ot  Schreuder* 

"  Eyang.  Lutheran  Church  (U.  S.) 

Nyasa  Industrial  Mission 

Palestine  and  Lebanon  Mission 

Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 

Peniel  Missionary  Society* 

Pentecost  Bands  of  the  World* 

toona  and  Indian  Village  Mission 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (North)  7 

Presby.  Church    in  U.  S.   (North)    Home    Mission 

Society 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Presbyterian  Church  of  England  (see  also  Canada, 

Ireland,  Scotland) 

Primitive  Methodist  Miss.  Society* 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.  A.  1 

Qua  Ibo  Mission 

Queensland  Baptist  Association,  For.  Missions 

Ramabai  Association 

Ranaghat  Medical  Mission 

Reformed  Church  in  America  (Dutch) 

Reformed  Church  in  U.  S.  (German)* 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church 

Reformed  Presby.  Church  in  N.  A.  (Gen.  Synod)*  .  . 

Reformed  Presby.  Church  in  N,  A.  (Synod) 

Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union 

Scandinavian  Alliance  in  N.  A.  * 

Scotland:    Church  of  (For.  Miss.  Com.)  4 

"  United  Free  Church  of  5 

Seventh  Day  Adventist  Society 

Seventh  Day  Baptist  Missionary  Society 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Sierra  Leone  Mission  (Counte  s  of  Huntington's  Con) 
South  Africa  Minister's  Mission  Union  (Dutch  Ref- 
orm  

South  Africa  General  Mission 

South  Atrican  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis=^ions* 

South  American  Evangelical  Mission 

South  American  Miss.  Society 

South  Arcot  Highways  and  Hedges* 

Southern  Baptist  Convention 

Southern  Morocco  Mission 

Sweden :    Church  of  Missionary;  Soc .  (  Kyrkans) 

"         Evang.  National  Society  ( Fosterlands) 

"         Holiness  Union  (  Helgeseforbundet) 

"        Missionary  Union  { Missions fbrbundeta)  .  .  . 

Y.  W.C.A.* 

Swedish  Evang.  Mission  Covenant  in  U.  S.  A 

Swedish  Mission  in  China.. . 

Switzerland:  Romande  Mission 

(See  also  Basel  Missionary  Soc.) 

Tabeetha  Mission  in  Jaffa 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 

United  Evangelical  Church 


c  o 
■2^ 


1^ 


228 

18 

17 

14 

2 

5 

402 

2 


11 

26 
16 

17 

2 
12 
14 
39 
15 
92 

10 

115 

13 

2 

6 

3 

135 

20 

27 

36 

773 

35 
165 

110 
39 

224 
10 


13 

85 

19 

5 

2 

21 

59 

87 

143 

409 

174 

6 

509 


34 
29 
11 
16 

54 
1 

127 
18 
30 
78 
11 
68 
2 
.19 
Statistics 
41 

3 

14 
7 


»s 

s 

li 

■g 

0)  Q. 

^^ 

«3 

r. 

»fe 

CO    0) 

l5S 

PN 

463 

103 

102 

211 

15 

17 

7 

6 

6 

1 

1,863 

212 

11 

1 

3 

26 

12 

13 

12 

12 

14 

42 

21 

7 

2 

26 

23 

13 

7 

341 

46 

1 

4 

16 

6 

1,836 

778 

8 

10 

1 

2 

1,243 

490 

1 

7 

1 

2 

12 

2,029 

1,554 

11 

14 

141 

210 

203 

61 

12 

21 

97 

256 

12 

11 

9 

6 

9 

2 

20 

1 

571 

273 

50 

41 

17 

4 

50 

4 

40 

17 

10 

19 

8 

34 

466 

188 

3,228 

423 

107 

165 

18 

2,864 

919 

0 

5 

16 

15 

3,531 

1,770 

5 

32 

17 

190 

170 

5 

48 

71 

71 

33 

7 

9 

72 

58 

1 

8 

10 

included 

inCIM 

10 

7 

31 

36 

3 

1 

83 
2 
2 
1 


230 

8 

1 

8 

18 
4 

21 

2 
26 

203 

3 

11 


982 
3 


1 

1,142 
1 
1 

765 

4 
15 

100 

5 

138 

12 
4 

1 

173 

0 

5 

2 

15 

9 

13 

281 

957 

24 

746 


100 

9 

581 

9 

62 

1 

56 

26 

109 

7 

14 

3 
8 
1 


c 

» 

It       c 

d'.;^ 

a;      V 

■55 

ri  m 
d  ^ 

0    A 

»3 

li 

W      3 

^-^ 

coZ 

u  a 

(U  0 

■■A       M 

•2     a 

S§ 

Ph     a 

T3 

w 

^ 

28 

8 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

7 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

12 

1 

7 

5 

2 
1 

1 

9 

4 
1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

57 

13 

1 

9 

3 

2 

23 

8 

3 

1 

1 

11 

20 

2 

1 

2 

2 

23 

7 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

6 

1 

9 

17 

3 

8 

45 

9 

1 

7 

1 

1 

106 

4 
3 

7 

10 

1 

2 

1 
5 

1 
1 

1 

1 

1 

7 
2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

Appendix  V 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


838 


Names  of  Societies. 


o  g 


1^ 


Zg 


0)   A 

o  o 


5  d 

to  CO 


S  °» 

3  .g 

PM      .5 


United  Methodist  Free  Church 

United  Presbyterian  Church  of  N.  A 

Universalist  Gen.  Convention* 

Universities  Mission.. 

United  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  of  N.  A.* 

Victorian  Baptist  Foreign  Missions 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Missions 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society 

Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society 

Zambesi  Industrial  Mission.. . 

Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Mission 

Total 

The  Bible  Societies  in  the  non-Christian  Lands, 

American  Bible  Society 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 

Scottish  National  Bible  Society 

Netherlands  Bible  Society 

Total 


27 

104 

5 

28 

23 


371 
43 
27 

104 


848 
1,496 
19 
39 
51 
35 

253 

6,270 

87 

60 

328 


211 

432 

10 

46 

37 

23 

306 

2,445 

6 

19 


281 

116 
34 
22 
401 
1,282 
16 
34 
64 


31 

7 
4 
2 
2 


10 


12,555 
16,293 

8,336 

200 

543 

16,931 

66,276 


13,371 


21 

65 

14 

2 


92 


69,670 


384 

1,134 

217 

1 

1,736 


23,527 


960 


563 


147 


2,274,117 


Notes. —  *  From  Beach's  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions.. 

1  Contains  items  rated  by  the  Society  as  Domestic  Missions. 

2  Work  in  West  Indies  (now  Independent)  is  not  included. 

3  Work  in  Protestant  Europe  not  included. 

4  Including  work  of  Women's  Societies. 

6  Christian  establishments  in  Protestant  islands  of  the  West  Indies  ^ure  in  this  report. 

6  Probably  duplicated  in  other  society  reports. 

7  Schools  not  ckuisified-in  reports  of  this  Society. 


B.     TiTE  Foreign  Missionary  Fib'lds  of  the  Protestant  Societies. 


Names  op  Societies. 


AFRICA. 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Moravian  (Briider  Unitat)  Missions. 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society 

London  Missionary  Society 

Church  Missionary  Society 

United  Free  Church  of  Scotland 

Basel  Missionary  Society 

Rhenish  Missionary  Society 

Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 

Methodist  Episcopal  Missionary  Society 

Berlin  Missionary  Society 

American  Board  of  Commis'rs  for  Foreign  Missions 

Prote.stant  Episcopal  Church  of  U.  S 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (North) 

Norwegian  Missionary  Society  of  Schreuder 

North  German  Missionary  Society 

Norwegian  Missionary  Society 

t)uthern  Baptist  Convention. 
ermannsburg  Missionary  Society 

Unite  1  Presbyterian  Church 

Unite!  Brethren  in  Christ 

Pon^as  Mission 

United  Methodist  Free  Churches 

EvangeUcal  Lutheran  Church  (U.S.)  Gen.  Synod. . . 


1752 
1792 
1796 
1799 
1804 
1821 
1828 
1829 
1833 
1833 
1834 
1834 
1836 
1842 
1843 
1847 
1849 
1860 
1864 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1859 
1860 


ap 

m 

.2t3 

"S  a 
°g 


101 

127 

114 

60 

269 

169 

130 

91 

84 

63 

115 

66 

27 

34 

13 

24 

27 

10 

50 

71 

4 

Includ 

10 

10 


II 

"  a 


18 

500 

1,872 

155 

2,709 

1,169 

414 

96 

364 

102 

758 

590 

18 

49 

8 

82 

41 

21 

182 

862 

16 

ed  in  st 

287 

12 


9 

V  o, 

o  o 


106 

69 

1,432 

57 

125 

198 

202 

37 

113 

72 

241 

182 

88 

46 

10 

27 

28 

9 

105 

223 

18 

atistics 

27 


63 

220 

89 

26l 

489 

302 

76 

186 

40 

80 

87 

66 

22 

3 

49 

32 

5 

85 

147 

8 

of  SPG 

S 


=  ■3 

b  a 

V   o 


23 


m'o 


5 
13 


*^  3 

.5  °» 
■a    H 


25,081 

16,916 

35,688 

15,763 

63,177 

17,672 

22,675 

29,325 

29,770 

3,632 

39,616 

4,566 

1,767 

1,716 

665 

3,545 

2,060 

544 

47,822 

6,800 

321 

3,739 
96 


839 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  V 


Names  of  Societies. 


AFRICA — continued 

Universities  Mission 

Swedish  National  Missionary  Society  (  Fosterlands) . 
Netherlands  Soc.  for  Prop,  the  Gospel  in  Egypt. .  . . 

Primitive  Methodist  Missionary  Society 

Finnish  Missionary  Society 

Cliurch  of  Scotland  For.  Miss.  Committee 

Romande  Mission 

Church  of  Sweden  Missionary  Society  (  Kyrkans) . .  . 
Ikwez;    Lamaci  Mission  (Young    Men's    Society    of 

Birmingham) 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 

Baptist  Missionary  Society  (England) 

Christian  (Brethren)  Missionary  Society 

North  Africa  Mission 

Swedish  Missionary  Union  (Missionsfdrbundets)*  .  ... 

(Central  Morocco  Mission 

Neukirchen  Missionary  Institute.. . 

German  East  Africa  Missionary  Society 

Qua  Ibo  Mission 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance 

Southern  Morocco  Mission 

Miss  Trotter's  Mission* 

Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union 

South  Africa  General  Mission 

Presbyterian  Church  of  U.  S.  (South) 

German  Baptists  in  Berlin 

Swedish  Hohness  Union 

Scandinavian  Alliance  of  U.  S 

Leipzig  Missionary  Society  ._ 

Hannover  Free  Church  Mission 

Zambesi  Industrial  Mission 

African  Tr.  Institute  (Colwyn  Bay)* 

Gospel  Mission  Union 

Africa  Inland  Mission ; 

Seventh  Day  Baptist  Missionary  Society 

Peniel  Missionary  Society 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society 

Int.  Medical  and  Benevolent  Miss.  Society 

Egypt  (general  Mission 

Swedish  Young  Women's  Christian  Assoc* 

Free  Methodist  Church 

American  Friends  Foreign  Missions 

Sudan  Pioneer  Mission 

South  Africa  Wesleyan  Methodist  Miss.  Soc 

Nyasa  Industrial  Mission 

South  Africa  Ministers'  Mission  Union 

Deaconess'  Institute  Kaiserswerth 

Total  Africa 

Madagascak  and  Other  Afbican  Islands. 

London  Missionary  Society 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Friends  Foreign  Mission  Association 

Norwegian  Missionary  Society 

United  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  of  N.  A 

Lutheran  (Free  Church)  Board  of  Missions  U.  S.  A.. . , 

Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 

American  Advent  Missionary  Society 

Total  Madagascar 

Total  Africa  and  Madagascar 

AMERICA— Alaska. 

Presbj;terian  Church  (North)  Home  Missions 

Moravian  Missions -.  -  -. 

Amer.  Friends  Foreign  Miss.  Association..  ._ 

Swedish  Evang.  Mission  Covenant  of  America 

Amer.  Missionary  Association _. 

Amer.  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society 

Peniel  Missionary  Society*.. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.  1. . .  .  .  . 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.,  Dom.andFor, 

Missions  1 ■  ■  ■  ■  v  Vtt'ci\*'  "  * ' 

Norwegian  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  (U.  S.)* 

Total  Alaska 


1861 
1865 
1870 
1870 
1871 
1874 
1875 
1876 

1877 
1878 
1878 
1879 
1881 
1881 
1882 
1886 
1887 
1887 
1887 
1887 
1888 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1896 
1896 
1898 
1899 
1899 


1818 
1843 
1867 
1867 
1892 
1895 
1896 
1900 


1877 
1885 
1887 
1887 
1890 
1893 
1895 
1897 

1898 


<S  a 
._  0 

aS 
t)  o 

.2-3 

o  a 
.  o 


•So 
'■§  a 


28 
35 
2 
39 
11 
36 
41 
19 

16 
33 

61 
65 
92 
40 

4 

8 
24 
10 
31 
18 

6 
35 
29 

9 
14 
10 

9 
27 


272 


2,844 


125 


39 
33 

7 
12 
39 

72 

38 

14 
217 
300 
236 


64 

60 

172 


11 

3 
3,521 


3,323 

35 

830 

1,795 

51 

37 

842 


6,913 


22,339 


O  o 

Kite 


50 

300 

87 

16 

48 


2 
1,770 


440 
17 

220 

750 
37 
12 

322 
1 


1,793 


7,880 


115 
15 
2 
5 
10 
33 
14 
31 

6 

107 

120 

50 

11 
101 

6 

6 

12 


581 
100 


3,812 


630 

180 

950 

34 

13 

950 


2,757 


6,569 


.S3 


w§ 


10 


90 


113 


D.  Cl- 


io 

12 
7 
1 


85 


94 

1 
1 


3  w 


31 


Appendix   V 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


840 


Names  of  Societies. 


AMERICA — Canada  and  Labrador. 

New  England  Company 

Moravian  Missions 

Methodist  Church  in  Canada .  . 

Church  Missionary  Society 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 

Labrador  Medical  Mission* 

Total  Canada  and  Labrador 

AMERICA— Mexico. 

American  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society  1 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.  (Dom.  and  For. 

Missions)  1 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (North) 

American  Friends  Foreign  Missions 

American  Board  of  Com.  for  Foreign  Missions 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Board., 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (South)  4 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian  Ch.  of  the  South*.. . 

Southern  Baptist  Convention 

Christian  Missions  (Brethren) ; 

International  Medical  and  Benevolent  Assoc. (S.D.A.) 

Seventh  Day  Adventists  Missions 

Christian  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  (Disciples) 

Total  Mexico 

AMERICA — Central  and  Southern. 

Moravian  Missions 

London  Missionary  Society 

Wesleyan  Missionary  Society 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S 

South  American  Missionary  Society 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (North) 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Southern  Baptist  Convention 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 

Seventh  Day  Adventists 

Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary  Union . 

Central  America  Mission* 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 

Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union 

Missionary  Pence  Association 

International  Medical  and  Benev.  Assoc.  S.  D.  A 

South  American  Evangelical  Mission  Society 

Gospel  Mission  Union 

Sweden:  Holiness  Union 

Baptist  Conventions  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  (Canada) 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance 

Christian  (Brethren)  Missions 

Total  South  America 

AMERICA — West  Indies. 

Moravian  Missions  5 

Wesleyan  Missionary  Society , 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 

United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  5 

United  Methodist  Free  Church 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 

Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary  Union 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Christian  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  (Disciples) 

American  Friends  Foreign  Missions 

Seventh  Day  Adventists  Missions 

International  Medical  and  Benevolent  Society(SDA)  . 

Arnerican  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 

Kvang.  Lutheran  Church  in  N.  A.,  Gen.  Council 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society 

Christian  Church,  Mission  Board 


32 


1649 
1771 
1822 
1822 
1866 
1892 


1870 

1870 
1871 
1871 
1872 
1872 
1873 
1873 
1874 
1880 
1880 
1890 
1894 
1894 
1897 


1776 
1808 
1825 
1835 
1836 
1844 
1856 
1869 
1876 
1882 
1885 
1887 
1887 
1890 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1896 
1898 
1898 


1732 
1786 
1820 
1835 
1838 
1861 
1870 
1872 
1872 
1876 
1881 
1890 
1895 
1898 
1898 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1901 


§0 
■2fe 

B  0 


6S 


14 
44 
87 
106 
73 
6 


329 


236 


127 

2 

7 

21 

72 

54 

54 

30 

40 

21 

4 

57 

5 

26 

1 

18 

5 

4 

16 


637 


13 

38 

4 

133 


196 


1 

81 

29 

23 

7 

174 

186 

11 

11 

19 


545 


492 

3 

91 

181 
32 
50 
18 
68 
32 
6 
49 
10 
25 


1,049 


813 
120 

709 

379 

12 

66 

2 

13 

25 
37 


oi  0- 

CO 

O  O 


135 


424 


480 


Md 


a:! 

to:' 


6 
45 
92 
16 


159 


29 

7 

4 

3 

16 

51 

5 
4 


14 


1  » 


123 


38 
26 

14 
9 

46 
2 
7 

11 

15 


24 


10 

2 


176 


108 

4 

3 

64 

9 
69 

3 
1 
6 
3 


27 

3 

1 


841 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  T 


Names  of  Societies. 


AMERICA — West  Indies — contd. 
Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance.. 

Peniel  Mission  Society 

Christian  (Brethren)  Mission 


Total  West  Indies. 
Total  America 


ASIA— China. 

London  Missionary  Society 

Amer.  Board  of  Com.  for  Foreign  Missions 

Prot.  Episcopal  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missions 

Reformed  Church  in  America 

Germany :  Women's  Society  for  Educa.  Female  Sex . 

Amer.  Baptist  Mission  Union 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (North) 

Southern  Baptist  Convention 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S 

Seventh  Day  Baptists 

Presbyterian  Church  in  England 

Rhenish  Missionary  Society 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Berhn  Women's  Mission  for  China 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society 

Basel  Missionary  Society 

China  Inland  Mission.  , 

Baptist  Missionary  Society 

Methodist  New  Connexion  Miss.  Soc 

Church  Missionary  Society 

United  Free  Church  of  Scotland 

United  States  Methodist  Free  Church 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Berlin  Missionary  Society 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Church  of  Scotland,  Foreign  Missions  Committee  4... 

Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society 

Church  of  England  Zenana  Missionary  Society 

General  Evang.  Prot.  Miss.  Society  (German) 

Christian  (Brethren)  Mission 

Bible  Christian  Home  and  For.  Missionary  Society.. . 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society 

Friends  For.  Mission  Association 

Murray's  Mission  to  the  Chinese  Blind 

Seventh  Day  Adventists  Mission 

American  Friends  Foreign  Missions 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance 

Swedish  Missionary  Covenant  in  America  6 

Sweden:  Missionary  Union  (Missionforbundets) 

Germany:Mission  to  the  Blind  in  China 

Scandinavian  Alliance  Mission  in  N.  A 

Methodist  Church  in  Canada 

Hauge's  Synod  China  Mission 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 

Baptist  Zenana  Mission 

Meth.  Protestant  Women's  Society 

Danish  Missionary  Society 

American  Advent  Missionary  Society* 

Kiel  China  Mission ■ 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church 

American  Norwegian  China  Mission 

United  Evangelical  Church 

Reformed  Pres.  Church  Synod  (U.  S.)* 

Presbyterian  Chu  chin  New  Zealand 

Finnish  Missionary  Society ■ 


«3 


a  o 


o  c 


Total  China. 


ASIA — Fartheh  India. 

Amer.  Baptist  Miss.  Union.. . ...  .... 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (North).. .  .  . 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S.. . 

Missionary  Pence  Association , 

Church  of  England  Zenana  Miss.  Society. . 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society .  . 
Christian  Missions  (Brethren) 


1807 
1830 
1835 
1842 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1847 
1847 
1847 
1847 
1848 
1850 
1851 
1852 
1853 
1859 
1859 
1863 
1863 
1864 
1867 
1867 
1869 
1874 
1878 
1881 
1884 
1885 
1885 
1885 
1886 
1886 
1888 
1888 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1894 
1896 
1897 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1900 

1901 


1813 
1840 
1859 
1885 
1892 
1900 


Total  Farther  India.. 


277 
1,604 


106 

95 
72 
19 

2 

77 

214 

63 

148 

5 
85 
23 
59 

4 
34 
60 
763 
43 
18 
230 
37 

6 
68 
23 
28 
19 
10 

4 
43 

6 
65 

7 
26 
18 

1 

1 
10 
43 

6 
22 

2 
56 
10 
12 
32 

6 

2 


2,184 


2,708 


173 

69 

37 

13 

2 

2 


306 


4,025 


326 

398 

27 

79 

232 
548 

79 
717 

16 
122 

22 
167 
3 
173 
173 
741 
187 
102 
527 
156 
182 

46 
166 
196 

15 

24 

102 
10 

3 

72 
24 


1,756 

53 

381 

38 

4 

1 

67 


326 


1,401 


239 

214 

56 

50 

161 

300 

32 

438 

12 
12 
22 

106 

57 

476 

328 

211 

49 

75 

138 

30 

90 

94 

17 

4 

1 

6 

2 
18 
15 

1 

2 

19 

4 


261 
739 


104 

134 

50 

13 

35 
162 

41 
203 


18 
47 

42 
73 
83 
18 
2 
248 
30 

7 

5 

32 


3,316 


780 

61 

17 

1 

1 


24 


2,300 


884 


1,570 


511 

23 

75 

5 


636 


10 


76 


6 

22 
4 
8 
1 
2 


23 


1 
11 


129 


35 


15 
1 


50 

no. 

k3 


21 


20 


12 
3 


18 


1 

25 
4 
2 
5 
4 


138 


Ph     a 


62 


Appendix    V 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


842 


Names  of  Societies. 


W.2 


.2^ 


•go 

^1 


3 


.S3 


W2 


9  S 


K    --S 


ASIA — India  and  Ceylon. 

Baptist  Missionary  Society 

London  Missionary  Society 

Church  Missionary  Society 

American  Board  of  Com.  for  For.  Missions 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

United  Free  Church  of  Scotland 

Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Missions 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (North) 

Basel  Missionary  Society 

Free  Baptist  General  Conference  (England) 

Christian  (Brethren)  Missions 

Reformed  Presbyterian    Church   in    N.  A.,   General 

Synod 

Amer.  Baptist  Mission  Union 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Mission 

Leipzig  Evang.  Missionary  Society 

Lutheran  Chaich  (Evangelical)  in  U.  S.,  Gen.  Synod 

Gossner  Missionary  Society 

Zenana  Bible  and  Medical  Missionary  Society 

Reformed  Church  in  America  (Dutch) 

United  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S 

Moravian  Missions  (Himalaya  Mission) 

Presbyterian  Church  of  England 

Women's  Union  Missionary  Society 

Danish  Missionary  Society.. 

Hermannsburg  Missionary  Society 

Friends  Foreign  Missionary  Association  (England)  . 

Baptist  Zenana  Mission 

Furreedpore  Mission 

Baptist  Convention  of  Ontario  and  Quebec 

Lutheran  Church  (Evangelical)  in  the  U.S.,  General 

Council 

Loventhal's  Mission  (Danish) 

Bengal  Evangelical  Mission 

Baptist  Convention  of  the  Maritime  Provs.  (Canada) 

Bethel  Santhal  Mission 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 

Swedish  National  Miss.  Society  ( FosterlandB) 

Church  of  England  Zenana  Mission 

Edinburgh  Medical  Mission 

Pentecost  Bands  of  the  World*.. 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society 

Christian  Woman's  Board  of  Missions 

Breklum  Missionary  Society 

Victorian  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  Society 

American  Advent  Missionary  Society* 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance 

Kurku  and  Central  Indian  Hill  Mission 

Queensland  Baptist  Missionary  Society 

Free  Methodist  Church  in  N.  A 

Scandinavian  Alliance  of  N.  A 

Missionary  Pence  Association 

Seventh  Day  Adventist  Missions 

Balaghat  Mission 

Poona  and  Indian  Village  Mission 

North  India  School  of  Med.  for  Christ.  Women 

Lutheran  (German  Evangelical)  Synod  of  Ohio,  etc.) 

Lutheran  (German  Evang.)  Synod  of  N.  A 

German  Baptist  Brethren 

Amer.  Friends  Foreign  Missions 

Peniel  Missionary  Society* ._ 

International    Medical    and    Benevolent    Missionary 

Society  (SDA) 

Mennonite  Mission  Board  in  U.  S.* 

Regions  Beyond  Missionary  Union 

Ramabai  Association 

Ranaghat  Mission ._ 

Indian  Home  Mission  to  the  Santhals  (Danish) 

Swedish  Church  Mission  (  Kyrkans) 

German,  Woman's  Education  Society  (for  women  in 

the  East) ._ 

Ceylon  and  India  General  Mission 

Bengali  Mission* 

British  and  Foreign  Unitarian  Association 

South  Arcot  Highways  and  Hedges  Mission* 


1793 
1798 
1813 
1813 
1817 
1821 
1829 
1829 
1834 
1834 
1836 
1836 

1837 
1840 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1842 
1844 
1852 
1853 
1855 
1856 
1866 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1867 
1868 

1869 

1872 

1874 

1875 

1875 

1877 

1878 

1880 

1881 

1881 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1886 

1886 

188S! 

1889 

1889 

1889 

1891 

1892 

1892 

1893 

1893 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1895 

1895 

1 

1896 

1897 
1899 
1900 


Total  India  and  Ceylon.. 


124 
163 
498 

90 
190 
215 
155 

97 
149 
153 

28 

74 

2 

153 

43 

24 

45 

27 

44 

104 

26 

33 

199 

22 

5 

35 

14 

12 

40 

59 

5 

32 

13 
1 

24 

5 

47 

43 

165 

1 

27 

23 

41 

23 

9 

2 

5 

50 

18 

3 

9 

16 

4 

15 

8 

36 

10 

9 

16 

9 

4 

3 

10 
13 


704 

1,863 

4,014 

1,587 

2,812 

2,199 

1,143 

370 

469 

679 

67 


50 

1246 

251 

251 

774 

606 

746 

328 

450 

634 

3,221 

9 

13 

87 

33 

121 

77 

232 

9 

196 

142 
3 
21 
46 
17 
88 
38 

827 

1 

104 

23 

70 

35 

3 
17 


109 
20 


3,584 


36 


285 
394 
238 
520 
709 
691 
113 
168 
295 
246 
12 


4 
239 
31 
301 
217 
164 
460 

165 

209 

271 

7 

4 
11 
19 

28 

2 
111 

120 

1 

6 

21 

3 

11 

18 


16 


312 
835 
1,625 
484 
936 
656 
343 
242 
173 
160 
36 


2 

663 

113 

401 

248 

232 

178 

64 

159 

134 

781 

10 

5 

16 

10 

37 

39 

80 

3 

78 

120 

9 
17 

8 

12 

11 

198 

1 
11 

5 
34 
22 

2 

5 


24 


25 


13 

5 

38 

32 

78 
4 


14 
2 


1 
32 

7 
2 

18 
2 

27 

10 
8 
7 
1 
3 
3 
5 

4 
4 


25 
1 


17 
2 

2 

3 

23 

14 

15 

1 

3 


1 

1 

8 
4 

26 

1 

10 

3 


26,938 


6,341  9,574 


408 


200 


46 


843 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  V 


Names  of  Societies. 


ASIA — Japan  (Including  Formosa) . 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (North) 

Reformed  Church  in  America  (Dutch) 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.,  Dom.  and  For- 
eign Mis^ 

Presbyterian  Church  of  England 

Church  Missionary  Society 

Amer.  Board  of  Com.  for  Foreign  Missions 

Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society 

Amer.  Baptist  Missionary  Union 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Board 

Evangelical  Association 

Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (German) 

American  Friends  Foreign  Missions 

Methodist  Protestant  Church 

Methodist  Church  in  Canada 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society 

Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  (South) 

Germany:  Gen.  Evang.  Prot.  Miss.  Society 

Methodist  Episcopal  (Church,  South  (U.S.) 

Christian  Church  Foreign  Mis.^ion  Board  (U.  S.) 

Southern  Baptist  Convention  (U.  S.) 

Uni versalist s  General  Convention* 

Scandinavian  Alliance  (U.  S.) 

Lutheran  (Evangelical)  Church,  South 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 

Seventh  Day  Adventist  Mission  Society 

Free  Methodist  Church  of  North  America 

Christian  (Brethren)  Missions 


1859 
1869 

1859 
1865 
1869 
1869 
1871 
1872 
1872 
1872 
1873 
1877 
1877 
1879 
1880 
1880 
1882 
1883 
1885 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1894 
1895 
1896 


TotalJapan. 


ASIA— KOHEA. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (North) 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Australia 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (South) 

Presbyterian  Church  in  panada 

Missionary  Pence  Association 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (South) 

Total  Korea 


ASIA — Malaysia  (Including  Malay  Peninsula, 

Singapore,  Dutch  East  Indies,  Borneo,  New 

Guinea  and  Philippine  ). 

Netherlands  Missionary  Society  (  Oenootschap) .... 

Rhenish  Missionary  Society 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Netherlands   Mennonite    Missionary    Society  (Doop- 

gezinde) 

Java  Comity ; 

Netherlands  Missionary  Union  (  Vereenigmg) 

Utrecht  Missionary  Society 

London  Missionary  Society 

Netherlands  Reformed  Church  Missions .••.■■ 

Netherlands  Lutheran  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary 

Society , 

Neukirchen  Mission  Institute 

Neudettelsau  Missionary  Society 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (North) 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society 

Amer.  Baptist  Missionary  Union 

Netherlands  Ermelo  Missionary  Society 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S 

Seventh  Dav  Adventist  Missions 

Christian  (Brethren)  Missions . 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.  1 

Presbyterian  Church  of  England ■  ...  ...... 

Ameftcan  Board  of  Commis'rs  for  Foreign  Missions 


Total  Malaysia.. 


.2g 
do 

o  0 

.  0) 

°a 


1884 
1885 
1889 
1889 
1892 
1893 
1896 
1896 


1831 
1836 
1848 
1852 

1865 
1863 
1866 
1871 
1878 

1883 
1884 
1886 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 


17 

103 

70 

4 

58 

4 

67 

26 

16 

6 

19 

7 

16 

15 

20 

28 

6 

39 

7 

12 

5 

8 

10 

3 

6 

8 

4 

2 


742 


157 


26 

171 

29 

11 


.a  o 


!?S 


136 
30 

21 

58 

152 

109 

137 

57 

161 

121 

35 

24 

50 

22 

15 

21 

26 

35 

13 

28 

10 

12 

19 

4 

6 

11 
4 
6 


Pi  3 
"o  6 


99 
52 

74 

38 

24 

216 

1 

33 

63 

51 

22 

18 

1 

41 

3 

17 

12 

13 

80 

2 

9 

18 

13 

10 

15 

3 

4 

10 

3 

3 


16 


13 


182 

26 

17 

7 

9 

30 

2 

33 


306 


13 

380 

88 

26 

11 
42 
26 
112 
12 

1 
46 


32 


75 


10 


881 


938 


374 
47 
10 
6 
19 
26 
1 
13 


496 


12 

131 

44 

12 


11 


392 


95 


94 


18 

294 

11 


423 


■a-^ 


B  a 
-a.2 


47 


10 
1 


bo  M  cj 

a  ° » 

3    w 


15 


Appendix   V 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


844 


Names  op  Societies. 


ASIA — Persia  and  the  Caucasus. 
Presbyterian  Church,  in  the  U.  S.  (North) 

Church  Missionary  Society 

Archbishop's  Mission  to  the  Assyrians. . . 
Swedish  Missionary  Union  ( Forbundets)., 

Total  Persia 


ASIA — Turkey  (Including  Arabia,  Syria  and  the 
European  districts). 

American  Board  of  Com.  for  Foreign  Missions 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S. (North) 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland* 

Church  Missionary  Society 

Deaconess'  Institute  at  Kaiserswerth 

Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  N.  A.  (Synod)  .  .  . 

British  Syrian  Mission  Schools* 

Edinburgh  Medical  Missionary  Association 

Germany;  Jerusalem  Union 

Tabeetha  Mission 

Miss  Taylor's  Schools 

Friends  Foreign  Missionary  Association 

Amer.  Friends  For.  Missions 

Reform^ed  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland* 

Seventh  Day  Adventist  Missions 

Jaffa  Medical  Mission 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society 

Baptist  Missionary  Society 

United  Free  Church  of  Scotland 

Palestine  and  Lebanon  Mission 

Reformed  Church  in  America  (Dutch) 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance 

Jerusalem  and  the  East  Mission  Fund 

German  Baptist  Brethren 

Total  Turkey 

Aggregate  Asia , 

AUSTRALASIA  (Including  AustraUa  and  New 
Zealand). 

Church  Missionary  Society 

Moravian  Missions 

Australian  Wesleyan  Meth.  Miss.  Soc 

International  Medical  and  Benevolent  Assoc.  (SDA). 
New  Zealand  Presbyterian  Mission 


Total  Australasia.. 


OCEANIA. 

London  Missionary  Society 

American  Board  of  Commis'rs  for  For.  Missions 

Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association 

Australian  Wesleyan  Meth.  Missionary  Society 

New  Hebrides  Mission*  6 

Melanesian  Mission 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society 

Seventh  Day  Adventist  Missions 

International  Medical  and  Benevolent  Assoc.  (SDA). 

Peniel  Missionary  Society 

Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society 

Prot.  Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S.  1 

New  Zealand  Presbyterian  Church 

United  Free  Church  of  Scotland 

Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada 


Total  Oceania . 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  EUROPE. 
Austria. 
American  Board  of  Com.  for  For.  Missions 

France. 

Baptist  Missionary  Society 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Missionary  Society 


1835 
1875 


1819 
1823 
1858 
1843 
1851 
1851 
1857 
1860 
1861 
1861 
1863 
1868 
1869 
1869 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1890 
1895 


1814 
1859 
1891 
1896 


1797 
1819 
1823 
1835 
1842 
1849 
1862 
1863 
1886 
1893 
1899 
1899 


.2J  fl 

.2-a 
o  fl 


172 

38 

4 

6 

76 

78 

19 

18 

6 

1 

3 

2 

13 

4 

3 

7 

11 

6 

2 

3 

3 

10 

6 

19 

2 


509 


67 


35 

25 

21 

37 

39 

28 

7 

17 

48 

8 

4 

2 

14 

5 

4 

6 


3,300 


^s 


222 
44 


266 


1,003 

207 

42 

42 

132 

38 

103 

10 

22 

7 

6 

47 

31 

8 

7 

S 

18 


1,766 


39,486 


365 

53 

1 


419 


683 
166 
54 
1,383 
341 
400 

37 
4 


19 


Pi  13 


137 
5 


265 
94 

15 

3 

21 

16 
1 


477 


70 


302 

180 

67 

1,100 

46 

15 

56 
17 

1 

3 
13 

1 
10 

3 


1,803 


105 

7 

46 

4 


162 


405 

108 

1 

19 

64 

2 

15 

50 


13,266 


37 


268 
108 
4 
2,082 
203 
170 

6 
1 


2,868 


S  °* 

.S       M 
X2       " 


2,897 
262 


3,159 


14,901 

2,542 

324 

207 

2,28S 

328 


370 


470 

150 

61 

223 

670 

129 

7 


63 


30 


22,670 


723 


415 


1 
10 


90 


1,131,184 


17,357 
106 
625 


5 
9 
6 
19 
1 
2 

2 
1 


11 


18,088 


30,346 
6,603 
2,183 

43,090 
2,603 

13,000 

4,741 
293 


100 


168 
400 


47 


103,527 


1,414 


57 
272 


845 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  V 


Names  of  Societies. 


ROiMAN  CATHOLIC  EUROPE—continued 
Italy. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Cliurch  in  tiie  U.  S 

Southern  Baptist  Convention 

Baptist  Missionary  Society '..'.'.'.'.'.'. 

"Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society  ...[.....'..'....'. 

PORTUG.AL. 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society 

Spain. 

American  Board  of  Commis'rs  for  For.  Missions 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society 

Total  in  Roman  CathoUc  Europe 

Aggregate 

Notes. — *  From  Beach's  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions. 

1  Contains  items  rated  by  the  Society  as  Domestic 

Missions. 

2  Work  in  West  Indies  (now  Independent)  is  not 

included. 

3  Work  in  Protestant  Europe  not  included. 

4  Including  work  of  Women's  Societies. 

5  Christian  establishments  in  Protestant  islands  of 

the  West  Indies  figure  in  this  report. 

6  Probably  duplicated  in  other  society  reports. 

7  Schools  not  classified  in  reports  of  this  Society. 

THE  BIBLE  SOCIETIES.'* 
America,  including  Alaska,  N.  W.  Canada,  Labrador 
and  Latin  America. 

American  Bible  Society 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 

Total 

Asia. 

American  Bible  Society 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 

Netherlands  Bible  Society 

Scottish  National  Bible  Society 

Africa. 

American  Bible  Society 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 

New  Zeal.and. 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 

Aggregate 


47 
13,371 


■S  a 


296 
69,670 


101 


281 

1,087 

1 

217 


Bo, 

O  O 


24,337 


53 


23,627 


.SU 


w§ 


960 


So 


W« 


2,274,117 


•c 
o 


2,457 
661 
697 

1,$66 


199 


351 
126 


8,100 


*Note. — These  statistics  do  not  include  superintendents,  colporteurs  or  Bible  Women  who  are  supported  by  local 
Missions  or  Auxiliaries. 


Appendix  V 


THE  ENCYCI.OPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


846 


C.     Protestant  Missions  to  the  Jews  (by  Rev.  Louis  Meyer,  Hopkinton,  la.)- 

Statistics  brought  down  to  March,  1904. 

Note. — The  CMS,  the  CA,  the  PN,  the  ZBM,  the  British  Syrian  Schools,  the  Swedish  Missionary  Union,  the  Swedish 
Evangelical  National  Society,  and  some  other.y  of  the  Foreign  Missionary  Societies  come  in  contact  with  Jews  and  labor 
for  them  in  the  course  of  their  general  work,  of  which  the  statistics  are  reported  in  Tables  A  and  B.  Table  "C"  contains 
work  that  is  not  reported  in  the  other  tables.  The  heading  "  schools"  includes  Sabbath  Schools  and  all^of  distinctly  Chris- 
tian influence. 


Names  of  Societies. 


■a 

§ 

to 

ys 

rt 

■§ 

s^ 

m 

m 

p 

29 

186 

51 

10 

in 

24 

18 

1 

19 

2 

2 

7 

7 

3 

1 

H 

3 

10 

7 

60 

9 

2 

1 

7 

1 

2 

4 

2 

1 

4 

1 

7 

12 

5 

2 

11 

2 

6 

1 

1 

7 

1 

1 

1 

1 

5 

1 

1 

1 

.5 

57 

5 

.") 

65 

5 

8 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

5 

4 

36 

1 

2 

33 

.S 

4 

3 

4 

4 

3 

2 

3 

1 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

a 

2 

1 

a 

7 

6 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

6 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

CO  o3 


w  --^ 


BRITISH  ISLANDS 
Londoa  Soc.  for  Promoting  Christianity  among  Jews — London — (1809)  (A)., 

Philo-Judaean  Society —London— ( 1828)  (A) 

Operative  Jewish  Converts'  Institution — London — 1829  (A) 

British  Soc.  for  the  Propagation  of  Gospel  among  Jews — London — 1842  (U). 
Jewish  Mission  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England — London — 1871  (P) . 

London  City  Mission,  Jewish  Branch — London — 1874  (V) 

Wild  Ohve  Graft  Mission— London— 1874  (U) 

Parochial  Missions  to  the  Jews  at  Home  and  Abroad — London — 1876  (A)..  , 

Mildmay  Mission  to  the  Jews — London — 1876  (U) 

East  London  Fund  for  the  Jews — London — 1878  (A) 

Barbican  Mission  to  the  Jews — London — 1879  (A) 

Prayer  Union  for  Israel — London — 1880  (U) 

East  End  Mission  to  Jews — London — 1881  (U) 

Jerusalem  and  the  East  Mission  Fund — London — 1887  (A) 

Hebrew  Chi  istian  Testimony  to  Israel — London — 1894  (U) 

Church  Medical  Mission  for  Jewish  Women  and  Children — Birmingham— 

1894— (A) 

Kilburn  Mission  to  the  Jews — London — 1896  (A) 

Brick  Lane  Mission — London  (A) 

Messiah's  Witnesses — London — 1902  (U) 

Gospel  Mission  to  Jews  in  Algiers — Wimbledon — 1902  (U) 

Jewish  Mission  of  the  Church  of  Scotland — Edinburgh — 1840  (P) 

United  Free  Church  of  Scot.  Mission  to  the  Jews — Edinburgh — 1843  (P).. .  . 

Jewish  Medical  Mission  in  Edinburgh — Edinburgh — 1900  (P) 

Glasgow  Jewish  Evangelical  Mission — Glasgow — 1893  (P) 

Bonar  Memorial  Mission  to  the  Jews — Glasgow — 1893  (U) 

Church  of  Ireland  Auxiliary  to  London  Jews  Society — Dublin — 1818  (A)*  -  ■ 
Jewish  Mission  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland — Belfast — 1841  (P).. . 
Irish  Mission  to  the  Jews— Belfast— 1896  (U) 


EUROPEAN  CONTINENT 

Esdras  Edzard  Fund— Hamburg— 1667  (L) 

Soc.  for  PromotingChristianity  among  the  Jews — Berlin — 1882  (L) 

Soc.  for  Christian  Care  of  Jewish  Proselytes — Berlin — 1836  (L) 

Central  Organization  of  Lutheran  Church  for  Work  among  Jews — Leipzig- 

1871  (L)  ** 

West  German  Association  for  Israel — Cologne — 1842  (L) 

Society  of  the  Friends  of  Israel — Strasburg — 1835  (L) 

Society  of  the  Friends  of  Israel — Lubec — 1844  (L) 

Institutum  Judaicum  Delitzschianum — Leipzig — 1880  (L) 

Institutum  Judaicum  (Strack) — Berlin — 1883  (L) 

Society  of  the  Friends  of  Israel — Basel — 1830  (R) 

Penny  Collection  Fund  for  Israel — Geneva — 1898  (R) 

French  Soc.  for  Promoting  Christianity  among  Jews — Paris — 1888  (F).  .  .  . 
Netherlands  Soc.  for  Promoting  Christianity  among  Jews — Amsterdam 

1844  (A)t 

Netherlands  Society  for  Israel — Amsterdam — 1861  (R) 

Netherlands  Reformed  Ch.  Miss,  to  the  Jews — ;Ryswyk — 1875  (R) 

Norwegian  Central  Committee  for  Jewish  Missions — Christiania — 1865  (L) 

Society  for  Missions  to  Israel — Stockholm — 1875  (L) 

Society  for  Missions  to  Israel — Copenhagen — 1885  CL) 

Rabbi  Lichtenstein's  Work  among  the  Jews — Budapest — 1885  (U) 

Asylum  for  Jewish  Girls — St.  Petersburg — 1864  (L) 

Jewish  Mission  of  the  Baltic  Lutheran  Church — Riga — 1865  (L) 

Finland  Missionary  Society — Helsingfors — 1859  (L) 


AFRICA  AND  THE  ORIENT 

Asylum  Rudolph — Alexandria — 1880  (U) 

South  Africa  Mission  to  the  Jews — Cape  Town — 1897  (U) 

Jewish  Mission  of  the  Dutch  Ref.  Church  of  the  Transvaal — Johannesburg 

1903  (R) 

Old  Church  Calcutta  Hebrew  Mission — Calcutta  (A) 

Calcutta  Jewish  Mission —  Calcutta — 1901  (U) 

^  om     y  Jewi  h  Mission  (M-s.  Ciitte-)- Br  mbay— 1895  (U)  .  , 

Friends  of  Israel  Prayer  TJnion — Melbourne — 1896  (U) 


11 


847 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix  V 


Names  of  Societies. 


UNITED  STATES,  OF  AMERICA 

Chiirch  Soc.  £or  Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews — New  Yoik— 1878 

(E)  (1842) 
New  York  City  Mission  and  Tract  Society,  Jewish  Work — N.Y.,1827  1878CU) 
Zion's  Society  for  Israel  of  the  Norwegian  Lutherans  in  America — Minne- 
apolis—1878  (L) 

Jewish  Mission  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  Missouri,  Ohio  and 

other  States — New  York — 1883  (L) 

New  York  City  Church  Extension  and  Missionary  Society,  Jewish  Mission — 

New  York— 1886  (M) 

Chicago  Hebrew  Mission — Chicago — 1887  (U) .  . 

Hebrew  Messianic  Council — Boston — 1888  (U) 

Gospel  Mission  to  the  Je\vs — New  York — 1892  (U) 

Brooklyn  Christian  Mission  to  Jews — Brooklyn —  1892  (U) 

Jewish  Mission  of  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio — Alleghany — 1892  (L) 

Reformed  Presbyterian  Jlission  to  Jews — Philadelphia — 1894  (RP) 

Brownsville  and  Williamsburg  Christ,  Miss,  to  the  Jews — Brooklyn — 1894(B) 

San  Francisco  Hebrew  Mission — San  Francisco — 1896  (U) 

Emmanuel    House   Hebrew    Mission   of    South  Jersey  Hebrew   Colonies — 

Rosenhayn,  N.J. 1897  (U) 

New  Covenant  Mission  to  Jews  and  Gentiles — Pittsburg — 1898  (IT) 

Immanuel  Mission  to  Jews — Cleveland — 1898  (U) 

Jewish  Bible  Mission — Philadelphia — 1898  (U) 

Presbyterian  Hebrew  Mission — San  Francisco — 1898  (P) 

The  People,  the  Land,  and  the  Book  (Schapiro) — Brooklyn — 1900  (U) 

Central  Union  Mission,  Hebrew  Branch — Washington,  D.  C. — 1902  (U) 

Union  Gospel  Mission  (Ragowski) — Cincinnati — 1902  (U) 

Friends  of  Israel  Union  Mission — St.  Louis — 1902  (U) 

Nathan  Missionary  Society — Butler,  Pa. — 1902  (U) 

Anglo-American  Board  of  Missions  to  the  Jews — New  York — 1903  (U) 

New  York  Hebrew  Christian  Association — New  Y'ork — 1903  (U) 

Postal  Mission  to  the  Jews — Chicago — 1903  (U) 

Society  for  the  Advancement  of  the  Gospel  of  the  Circumcision — Richmond, 

Va.— 1903(U) 

Christian  Catholic  Church  in  Zion  Jewish  Work  (Warszawiak) — Zion  City — 

1903  (Dowidte) 

The  World's  Gospel  Union — Kansas  City — 1894  (U) 


CANADA 

Toronto  Jewish  Mission — Toronto — 1894  (U) . 
Hamilton  Jewish  Mission  (Fretz) — Hamilton- 


-1902  (U). 


Total  Jewish  Mission  Statistics  . 


1^ 


677 


196 


no. 


87 


m  ^ 


34 


*  This  work  independent.  **Has  9  or  more  contributary  organizations. 

t  AuxiUary  to  the  London  Jews  Society. 

Note. — The  denominational  relation  of  the  above-named  Jewish  Missions  is  shown  as  follows:  A — AngUcan;  B — 
Baptist;  E — Episcopal;  F — French  Protestant;  L — Lutheran;  M — Methodist;  P — Presbyterian;  RP — Reformed 
Presbyterian;  R — Reformed:  U — IFndenominational. 


APPENDIX    YI 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    FOREIGN    MISSIONS 


A.— THE   MISSIONS 


The  following  statistics,  borrowed  from  the  "Annals  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,"  were 
compiled  from  the  Directory  of  Missions  issued  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  {Missiones 
Catholicce :  Romse,  1901),  supplemented  by  the  publications  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith. 

This  list  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  mission  field  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  but  it  is 
not  claimed  that  the  figures  are  exact.     In  some  cases  they  are  only  approximative. 


AMERICA. 


Dioceses,  ^ 

o 

Canada. 

Athabasca-Mackenzie.  . .  13,000 

Indian  Missions 6,500 

New  Westminster 28,000 

Pembrok;e 40,000 

St.  Albert 16,000 

St.  Boniface 39,000 

St.  George's(Newfoundrd)     7,000 

Saslcatchewan   9,800 

Vancouver     (Ecclesiasti- 
cally in  U.S) 9,000 

UnitedStates. 

Alaska 1,000 

Boise,  Idaho 10,000 

Brownsville,  Texas 63,000 

Cheyenne,  Wyo 6,000 

Helena,  Mont 50,000 

Indian  Territory 19,000 

Natchez,  Miss 20,000 

Natchitoches,  La 30,000 

Rocky  Mt.  Mission 20,000 

Santa  Fe,  N.  M 133,000 

Tucson,  Ariz 40,000 

West  Indies, 

Roseau,  Virgin  Islands. .  .  50,000 

Jamaica 13,000 

Curacao 38,000 

Central  America. 

British  Honduras 19,000 

South  America. 

Dutch  Guiana,  Surinam..  17,000 

French  Guiana,  Oyapok..  29,000 

N.Patagonia 90,000 

S.          "           13,000 

EUROPE. 
Balkan  States. 

Antivari 12,900 

Armenian  Missions 270,000 

Athens 17,000 

Banialuka 53,000 

Bukharest 120,000 

Candia 800 

Constantinople 45,000 

Corfu 4,000 

Durazzo 2,300 

Jassy 74,460 

Nioopolis 13,000 

Philippopolis 15,000 

Salonica 10,000 

Santorin 600 

Scopia  (UsluDl 15,000 


Priests. 


3 
2 
38 
18 
15 
58 


5 

24 


52 


15 
2 
2 

46 

'5 
2 


28 
26 
30 
14 
37 
57 
8 
23 

14 


18 

9 

20 

13 

49 
32 
19 
84 
60 
25 


24 
11 
32 


26 
22 
40 
16 


11 

480 

5 

4 

42 

10 

100     180 


«         ■S 


10 

18 
86 
25 
112 
20 
28 

11 


17 

45 

5 


5 
15 
11 

1 
12 

1 

6 
14 


19 
46 
28 
18 
I 
20 
16 


29 
19 
22 


28 


18 

5 

33 

11 


12 

15 

11 

39 

6 

80 

6 

6 

6 

9 

32 

9 

2 

10 


2 
4 
1 
1 
12 
1 
2 

'? 
3 


4 
4 
1 
1 
20 
1 
? 
2 
1 
5 
7 
1 
7 


Priests. 


Dioceses. 


O 


Scutari 27,000 

Serajevo 170,000 

Syra 8,000 

Tine 4,000 

British  Isles. 

Menevia  (Wales) 8,000 

Plymouth 14,000 

Ross 52,662 

Denmark. 

Copenhagen 7,926 

German  Empire. 

N.  German  Mission 34,000 

Saxony 150,000 


Norway 

Christiania. , 

Sweden. 

Stockholm. , 


1,575 


1,800 


AFRICA. 

Abyssinia 1,955 

Benin 16,400 

Cimbebasia,  Lower 120 

Dahomey 5,200 

Delta  of  the  Nile 8,000 

Egypt 56,180 

Erythraea 7,900 

Galla 7,000 

Gold  Coast 5,650 

Guinea,  French 1,10() 

Ivory  Coast 380 

Kabyles  Mission 582 

Kamerun 2,420 

Niger,  Lower 1,200 

Niger,  Upper 450 

Sahara 561 

Senegambia-Senegal 15,000 

Sierra  Leone 2,800 

Sudan 2,000 

Togoland 1,300 

Tripoli 5,750 

Cimbebasia  (Upper) 7,000 

Congo  (Lower  French)  . . .  1,500 
Congo    (Upper     French, 

Ubangi) 2,000 

Congo  Free  State 3,516 

Congo  (Lower) 5,689 

Congo  (Upper) 2,376 

Cunene 3,450 

Gabon 12,000 

Nile  (Upper) 3,530 

Nyassa 190 


30 

156 

7 

6 


16 

40 

9 

9 

14 

30 

52 

7 

14 

12 

11 

17 

20 

23 
62 
21 
16 
20 
35 
11 
10 


30 
22 
15 
21 


42        18 

55       56 

26 


20         8 
39        12 


24         2 
10         4 


7 
27 

8 
22 
35 
94 
53 
20 
16 


11 


1 
14 
13 


2 
24 

1 
15 
11 
84 

4 

9 
13 

8 

7 
24 
30 

5 
10 

5 
53 

6 
10 
20 
11 

7 
12 

11 

14 
16 
14 
22 
25 
3 
2 


2 

13 

? 

1 


22  2 
36  3 
14        2 


29        16       31       11 


20  5 

21  19 


18       11 
9         7 


16 

ii 

7 
20 
8 
2 
9 
2 
4 
21 


4 
2 
36 
3 
4 
5 
2 
? 
6 

18 
3 
? 
6 
8 
6 
1 
1 


849 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  toSSIONS 


Appendix  VI 


AFRICA— Coniinued. 

Priests. 


DiOCBSES. 


Tanganyika 1,689 

Uelle 600 

Unyahyembe 1.133 

Victoria  Nyahza  (North).  39,586 

(South).  1,290 

Zambesi 1,200 

Zanzibar  (North) 7,860 

(South) 700 

Basutoland 6,000 

Cape  of  Good  Hope(Cent)  762 

'      (East)..  6,830 

"      "     (West)..  6,240 

Natal 12,000 

Orange  Free  State 5,600 

Orange  River 5O0 

Transvaal 6,200 

African  Islands. 

Fernando  Po  (Annoban)  .  3,400 

Madagascar  (Central) ...  .  61,500 

(North) 6,000 

(South) ? 

Mayotte-Nossi-Be,    Mad- 
agascar   4,600 

Seychelles 17,370 

,     ,  .  ASIA. 

Araota. 

Aden 1,500 

Chinese  Empire. 

Amoy 4,800 

Che-kiang 10,500 

Chi-li,  North 40,000 

East 3,000 

"       S.  F"'t 50,000 

S.  West 52,000 

F"u-chau 41,000 

Ho-nan,  North 3,000 

South 10,300 

Hongkong 9,000 

Hu-nan,  North 250 

South ■.  5,600 

Hu-pei,  N.  West 11,600 

East 18,000 

S.  West 5,200 

Hi  Mission 112 

Kan-su 3,000 

Kiang-si,    North 5,070 

East 10,800 

"          South 5,500 

Kwei-chau 19,000 

Kwang-si 1,350 

Kwang-tung 42,600 

Manchuria  North 17,000 

South 8,900 

Mongolia,  Central 17,300 

East 9,000 

S.  West 5,600 

Nanking 124.000 

Shan-si,    North 13,160 

South 9,600 

Shan-tung,  North 18,200 

East 12,000 

South 16,190 

Shen-si,    North 20,400 

South 10,200 

Sze-chwan,  East 34,000 

West 40,000 

South 19,500 

Tibet 1,560 

Yun-nan 10,300 

Corea. 

Seoul 32,200 

India. 

Assam 1.340 

Bettiah 4,000 

Bombay 16,000 

Calcutta 54,200 

Changanacerry 107,200 

Coimbatore 36,800 

Colombo 198,000 

Dacca 11.000 

Ernaculum 80,900 


s       ^ 

CO 

0 

17 

34 

2 

12 

4 

2 

14 

6 

2 

32    . 

8 

4 

14 

5 

V 

17 

20 

9 

38 

22 

3 

6   . 

2 

2 

14 

12 

7 

7 

6 

? 

25 

38 

?, 

16 

26 

?. 

50 

7   55 

fi 

14 

1   13 

2 

10 

7 

5 

IS 

16 

3 

28 

12 

7 

49 

7  930 

15 

10 

10 

5 

8 

? 

? 

4 

6 

2 

16 

30 

5 

12 


23 

2 

29 

44 

13 

13 

64 

? 

24 

40 

133 

31 

3 

2 

30 

? 

42 

16 

418 

8 

13 

19 

97 

12 

26 

20 

61 

? 

9 

3 

11 

3 

14 

K 

51 

4 

13 

7 

36 

8 

6 

2 

3 

■1 

4 

10 

7 

5 

10 

11 

20 

5 

14 

22 

28 

5 

15 

9 

18 

6 

3 

1 

1 

17 

8 

4 

9 

2 

16 

7 

10 

10 

91 

7 

17 

6 

19 

4 

38 

8 

118 

10 

17 

31 

11 

58 

12 

150 

5 

23 

8 

147 

? 

10 

.S 

60 

14 

?M 

14 

65 

15 

27 

7 

38 

7 

27 

1 

52 

4 

115 

45 

959 

100 

H 

15 

70 

5 

21 

3 

21 

V 

13 

15 

39 

4 

12 

2 

45 

6 

31 

11 

41 

5 

16 

23 

26 

9 

13 

3 

74 

4 

43 

33 

137 

6 

35 

42 

234 

6 

35 

10 

67 

9 

IS 

1 

11 

4 

29 

8 

58 

20 

39 

9 

60 

3 

9 

9 

? 

15 

13 

11 

51 

22 

23 

2 

77 

27 

127 

7 

277 

234 

7 

36 

8 

59 

8 

sn 

14 

661 

10 

8 

15 

8 

115 

167 

V 

Priests. 


Dioceses 


Haidarabad 12,590 

Jaffna 42,500 

Kandy 21,150 

Krishnagar 4,050 

Combaconum 85,000 

Lahore 3,590 

Madras 49,000 

Madura 206,000 

Mangalore 83,600 

Mysore 41,000 

Nagpur 8,000 

Point  deGalle 6,300 

Pondicherry 134,000 

Poona 13,000 

Quillon 87,000 

Rajputana 3,600 

Trichur 69,800 

TrincomaU 7,1.50 

Verapoly 60,000 

Vizagapatam 12,915 

Indo-Chinese  Peninsula. 

Bangkok 22,000 

Burma,  East 9,600 

North 6000 

South 41,000 

Cambodia  (Prom-Penh)..  28,400 

East  Cochin  China 68,000 

North     "            "      69,800 

West       "            "      63,800 

Laos  (Nangsen) 9,430 

Singapore 19,800 

Central  Tongking 204,000 

East                 "        49,900 

North              "        27,600 

South              "        118,000 

Upper             "        18,410 

West               "        201,700 

Japan. 

Hakodate 4,600 

Nagasaki 37,100 

Osaka 4,650 

Tokio 9,050 

Malaysia. 

Batavia 49,800 

Borneo 1,200 

Persia. 

Ispahan 14,000 

Turkish  Empire. 

Bagdad 5,000 

Brusa 3,000 

Chios 400 

Cyprus 30,000 

Jerusalem 15,000 

Kurdistan 4,.500 

Marash 6,000 

Mesopotamia 66,000 

Mush 6,000 

Sebasteia  (Sivas) 3,000 

Smyrna 15,500 

Syria 40,000 

Trebizond 5,000 

Australasia.  OCEANIA. 

Auckland,  N.Z 23,500 

Christchurch,  N.Z 25,000 

Port  Augusta,  Aust 11,160 

Wellington,  N.  Z 28,000 

Wilcannia,  Aust 16,000 

Pohjnesia 

Fiji  Islands 10,200 

Gilbert  Islands 11,000 

Marquesas  Islands 3,100 

Navigators  Islands, Samoa     6,000 

New  Caledonia 34,500 

New  Guinea 4,000 

New  Pomerania 6,600 

Central  Oceania 9,450 

Sandwich  Islds.  (U.S.)...  28,000 

Solomon  Islds.  North. ...  ? 

"       South 7 

Tahiti 7,200 

Wilhelmsland ? 


19 
34 
10 
8 
19 
23 
23 
51 
34 
47 
20 
12 
77 
21 
16 
12 


13 

18 

36 
10 
21 
39 
33 
48 
46 
57 
21 
32 
17 
15 
13 
34 
24 
66 

21 
31 
27 
36 

50 
12 


3 

10 

160 

24 

10 

6 
50 

7 

40 

43 

7 


42 
32 
15 
68 
16 

32 
11 

7 
18 
61 
18 
20 
19 
24 

4 

3 
18 

3 


10 
19 

17 

22 
24 
47 
10 
5 

27 
10 
28 
2 
76 

52 


14 

1 

3 

9 

21 

29 

33 

68 

4 

2 

78 

38 

26 

68 

14 

119 

1 
27 


30 

108 
24 
18 
54 
22 
76 

239 
64 
71 
15 
34 
80 
98 
96 
5 

165 
20 

149 
25 

43 
72 
39 
75 

104 
20 
27 

168 
20 
25 

681 

200 
40 

183 
7 

645 

3 

4 


29 
10 


65       47 


15 
5 

126 
24 
21 
10 

166 

6 

10 

17 

50 

7 


25 

4 

3 

20 

67 

6 

8 

84 

? 

11 

15 

30 

4 


12 
37 
16 


67 

7 
67 
30 
29 
15 
61 
17 

? 

? 
52 

? 


5 

2 

5 

6 

4 

4 

6 

10 

15 

15 

11 

? 

19 

2 

3 

5 

? 

? 

5 

4 

23 

14 

25 

26 

5 

4 

4 

37 

10 

43 

10 

22 

11 

6 

3 

7 


2 

2 

? 

7 
20 

? 

7 
20 

? 

'5 
? 
? 


The  following  dioceses,  tho  not  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Propananda.  and  therefore  not  strictly  speaking  missionary 
dioceses  have  for  special  reasons  been  aided  by  the  "Propagation  of  the  Faith"  during  the  year  1900. 

Germany —BTesla.\i,  Cologne,  Fulda,  Hildesheim,  Limburg,  Mainz,  Munster,  Paderborn,  Pomerania  and  Brandenburg. 
Posen  and  Gn'esen,  Treves.  Warmia(Ermeland), 

Switzerland.— Baseh  Chur,  Lausanne:-Geneva,  Sion. 

Africa. Algisrs,  Carthage,  Constantino,  Oran,  Bourbon  Island. 


Appendix   VI 


THE  ENCTiXLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


850 


-ROMAN    CATHOLIC    RELIGIOUS    ORDERS    AND    SOCIETIES    ENGAGED    IN 

MISSION    WORK 


Founded.  Headquarters. 

1  African  Missions,  Lyons 1856  Lyons. 

2  African  Missions,  Verona 1S67  Verona. 

3  Algerian  Missionaries 186S  Algiers. 

4  Augustinians 1256  Rome. 

5  Augustinians  of  the  Assumption.  .  .1851  Paris. 

6  Basilians 1822  Annonay  (Fr.) 

7  Basilians  of  Bavaria Munich. 

8  Benedictines 520  Monte  Casino. 

9  Benedictines  (Sylvestrian) Rome. 

10  Benedictines  (St.  Ottilien) 1884  Bavaria. 

1 1  Carmelites 1528  Rome. 

12  Carthusians 1086  Grande-Chartreuse. 

13  Children  of  Mary  Immaculate 1820  Vendt^e. 

14  Children  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 

Mary Spain. 

15  Cistercians  (Trappists) 1098  Rome. 

16  Company  of  Mary 1710  St.  Laurent,  sur  Sevre, 

France. 

17  Dominicans 1215  Rome. 

18  Eudist  Fathers 1643  Rennes. 

19  Fathers  of  Mercy 1802  Paris. 

20  Foreign  Missions,  Belgian 1865  Scheut-lez  Bruxelles. 

21  Foreign  Missions,  English 1866  Mill  Hill. 

22  Foreign  Missions,  French 1663  Paris. 


23  Foreign  Missions,  German-Holland,  1875  Steyl,  Hoi. 

(Society  of  the  Divine  Word) . . . 

24  Foreign  Missions,  Milan 1850  Milan. 

25  Foreign  Missions,  Rome 1874  Rome. 

26  Franciscans,  Minor 1209  Rome. 

27  Franciscans,  Minor,  Conventuals. .  . .  1507  Rome. 

28  Franciscans  (Minor  Capuchins) 1528  Rome. 

29  Holy  Cross 1821  Le  Mans. 

30,  31  Holy  Ghost  (1703)  and  Sacred 

Heart  of  Mary  (1841) 1848  Paris. 

32     Jesuits 1540  Fiesole  near  Florence. 


33  .Tosephite  Society 1892  Baltimore. 

34  La  Salette 1852  La  Salette. 

35  Lazarists 1632  Paris. 

36  MaristB 1836  Lyons. 

37  Mechitarists  (Benedictines) 1700  Venice. 

38  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate 1826  Paris. 

39  Oblates  of  the  Sacred  Heart Pontigny,  Yonne,  Fr. 

40  Oblatesof  St.  Francis  de  Sales 1850  Troyes,  Fr. 

41  Oratorians 1577 

42  Passionists 1737  Rome. 

43  Paulist  Fathers 1858  New  York. 

44  Pious  Society  of  Missions  (Pallotins)1850  Rome. 

45  Precious  Blood ., 1814  Rome. 

46  Premonstratensians  (Norbertins). .  .1119  Rome. 

47  Redemptorists 1732  Rome. 

48  Resurrectionists Rome. 

49  Sacred  Heart  Missionary  Fathers. . .  1854  Issoudun. 

50  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus Rome. 

51  Sacred  Hearts  of  Picpus 1817  Pans. 

52  St.  Charles  Missionary  Fathers Piacenza. 

53  St.  Francis  de  Sales  of  Annecy 1833  Annecy. 


Mission  Fields. 

Benin,  Dahomey,  Gold  Coast,  Ivory  Coast,  U.  Niger, 
Egypt. 

Central  Africa. 

Algeria,  Upper  Congo,  Jerusalem,  Nyassa,  Unyan- 
yembe,  Sahara,  Sudan,  Tanganyika,  Tunis, 
Victoria  Nyanza. 

Cooktown  (Austraha),  Northern  Hu-nan,  Phil- 
ippines, United  States. 

Turkey,  United  States. 

Canada,  United  States,  Algeria. 

Southern  Zanzibar. 

United  States,  Australia,  England. 

Kandy. 

Zanzibar. 

Bagdad,  Quillon,  Verapoly,  United  States. 

England. 

Antilles. 

Fernando  Po. 

Africa,  Australia,  Canada,  China,  England,  Pales- 
tine, United  States. 

England,  Africa,  Haiti,  Canada. 

Amoy,  Canada,  Curacao,  Fokien  Mesopotamia, 
Philippines,  Central,  Eastern  and  Northern 
Tongking,  TJnited  States. 

Canada. 

United  States. 

Clongo  Free  State,  Hi,  Kan-su,  Mongolia. 

Borneo,  Kafiristan,  Madras,  Upper  Nile. 

Burma  (Southern  and  Northern)  Cambodia,  Cochin 
China,  Coimbatore,  Korea,  Japan,  Kwang-si, 
Kwang-tung,  Kuichau,  Malaysia,  Mysore, 
Pondicherry,  Siam,  Si-chuan,  Tibet,  Tong- 
king, Yun-nan. 

Southern  Shan-tung,  Togoland,  Williamsland, 
United  States. 

Eastern  Burma,  Ho-nan,  Hongkong,  Southern 
Hu-nan, Haidarabad,  Krishnagar. 

Southern  Shen-si. 

America,  Egypt,  Southern  Hu-nan,  Hu-peh,  Phil- 
ippines, Shan-si,  Northern  and  Eastern  Shan- 
tung, Northern  Shen-si,  Syria,  TripoU,  etc. 

Adrianople,  Constantinople,  Moldavia,  United 
States. 

Aden,  Agra,  Allahabad,  Canada,  Candia,  Erythrasa, 
Galla,  Lahore,  Mardin,  Seychelles,  Sophia, 
United  States. 

Dacca,  United  States,  Canada. 

French  Colonies;  Cimbebasia,  French  Congo,  Lower 
Congo,  Guinea,  French  Guiana,  Kunene, 
Lower  Niger,  Seneganabia,  Sierra  Leone,  Zan- 
zibar, and  small  Madagascan  Islands,  United 
States. 

Alaska,  Armenia,  Australia,  Western  Bengal,  Bom- 
bay, British  Guiana,  Canada,  Kotayam, 
Jamaica,  Madagascar,  Mangalore,  Eastern 
Chile,  United  States,  Poona,  Trichinopoli, 
Zambesi,  etc. 

United  States  (Missions  for  the  colored  people). 

Canada,  Madagascar,  United  States. 

Abyssinia,  Adrianople,  Bulgaria,  Constantinople, 
Kiang-si,  Madagascar,  Persia,  Chi-li,  Syria, 
Che-kiang,  U.  S.,  etc. 

Fiji  Islands,  New  Zealand  (Wellington  and  Christ- 
church),  New  Caledonia,  New  Hebrides,  Nav- 
igators Islands,  Central  Oceania,  Solomon 
Islands,  America. 

Armenia. 

Athabasca-Mackenzie,  British  Columbia,  United 
States,  Colombo,  Jaffna,  Natal,  Orange  Free 
State,  St.  Albert,  St.  Boniface,  Saskatchewan, 
Transvaal,  United  States. 

United  States. 

Greece.  Orange  River. 

England. 

England,  Bukharest,  Nicopolis,  United  States. 

United  States. 

Kamerun,  Kimberly  (Australia),  Brazil,  South 
America,  United  States. 

United  States. 

Canada,  Norway,  United  States,  Madagascar. 

Dutch  Gruiana,  United  States. 

Adrianople,  Canada,  United  States. 

Micronesia,  New  Guinea,  New  Pomerania,  United 
States. 

Belgian  Congo;  (Stanley  Falls). 

Marquesas  Islands,  Sandwich  Islands,  Tahiti. 

United  States. 

Nagpur,  Vizagapatam. 


851 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  MISSIONS 


Appendix   VI 


Founded.     Headquarters. 

54  Salesians  of  Turin 1855     Turin 

55  Servites 1233     Rome. 

56  Society  of  tlie  Divine  Savior Rome. 

57  Sulpicians 1642     Paris. 


Mission  Fields. 
North  and  South  Patagonia,  United  States. 
England,  United  States. 
Assam,  United  States. 
Canada,  United  States. 


Auxiliaries  to  the  Missionary  Priests:  The  chief  auxiliaries  in  mission  worlcs  are  communities 
of  Brothers  and  Sisters.  Not  to  mention  the  lay-brothers  accompanying  Religious  Orders  of  Priests 
nor  the  catechists  and  other  missionary  helpers,  in  almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe  where  the  priest 
has  planted  the  faith,  Brothers  and  Sisters  have  followed  to  help  sustain  it.  These  are  repre- 
sented in  various  countries  approximately  as  follows: 


Number 
of  Orders, 


AMERICA. 

United  States 

Canada 

Antilles  (except  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  etc.) . 

Guiana 

Patagonia 


EUROPE. 


British  Isles 

Gibraltar 

Holland 

North  German  Mission. 

Denmark 

Norway  and  Sweden. .  . 
Balkan  States 


9 

1 

15 

i 
i 


ASIA. 

Turkish    Empire    (including    the    Holy 
Land  and  Syria) 


76 
33 
11 
10 
1 


49 
3 

30 
7 
4 
6 

18 


17 


Number 
of  Orders. 


Arabia 

Persia 

India 

Indo-Chinese  Peninsula . 

Malaysia 

China 

Japan  and  Korea 


m 

SQ 

2 

1 

10 

31 

2 

16 

1 

4 

4 

13 

1 

4 

AFRICA. 

Egypt 

North  Africa(except  Egypt  and  Barbary 


Equatorial  Africa 

South  Africa  and  Islands. 


OCEANIA. 


Australia. . ._ 

Other  Oceanic  Islands.. 


10 

18 
12 
13 


28 
18 


It  is  impossible  to  furnish  satisfactory  figures  as  to  the  whole  number  of  missionaries,  because 
of  the  different  views  people  may  take  as  to  what  is  understood  by  missionary  countries  and  by 
missionaries.  In  the  popular  sense,  those  are  missionaries  who  have  gone  to  distant  regions,  and 
especially  to  heathen  countries  for  the  purpose  of  spreading  the  faith  among  unbelievers. 

Taking  these  distinctions  into  consideration  we  may  safely  assert  that  there  are  at  least  15,000 
priests  and  others  dedicated  to  the  religious  life,  5,000  teaching  brothers,  and  45,000  sisters  laboring 
as  missionaries,  not  to  speak  of  the  priests,  brothers  and  sisters  native  to  the  regions  where  they 
work,  catechists  and  others  who  make  up  the  personnel  of  a  mission,  and  the  laborers  among  the 
Oriental  Rites.  Probably  the  estimate  is  much  too  small,  but  we  may  conclude  that  there  are  in 
the  field  about  65,000  missionaries  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.