Full text of "An introduction to the study of bibliography : to which is prefixed A Memoir on the public libraries of the antients"

Cornell University
Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 039666

Cornell University Library
Z1001 .H81

V.1

An introduction to the study of bibiiogr

olin

3 1924 031 039 666

INTRODUCTION

^tuDp Of 15ttiIiO0tap{ip«

, G, -ft'OODFALT., PRINTER,
ANOEL COURT, SKINNER STREET, LONDON,

Sis

»^^1

^^'

iiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiii

null

J ITT

^m^s>

r — nTTTv,
n.miiiiiii

mmiii

•''y/y

•^

f ^^

#»»

<t>y

iiHiilililliiliiiilMilli

Hill

iiiii

'iMm^^

iiininif

Iffi

umiimiiiiliiiiiiiiiniiniiiiiiimiiiiiiiiinrt

?^--

iiiiiiiiiiiii

iiiiii.iuuvviiiin

iiiii

— illlillliltlUllii

\\\1

iminiiinTl

ntm uminmr ~s_

snuiBOBP^SPS

iiJAfiSiM \ /ill' ' 111 ' 11'*^* > 1 8^< M ruMi m t I.I * < n *iin t ■ i m n t

>e^e'e

iHiiiKiiiii ■ iif iwii M i i ^n^ ^ ^'y. «

' i*

f^Jl

INTRODUCTION

TO' THE
TO WHICH IS PREFIXED

A
MEMOIR

ON THE

PUBLIC LIBRARIES OF THE ANTIENTS.

BY THOMAS HARTWELL HORNE.

ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS.

VOL. I.

LONDON.

. PRINTED BY G. WOOBFALt,

FOR T. CADELL AND W. DAVIES, STRAND.

1814.

P R EFAC E,

HE present Work
contains a series
of Observations
Jl on the different
subjects, connected
with Bibliography . It comprises, first, a sum-
^mary account of the materials used for writing
in different ages and countries ; next in order
succeed the origin and progress of writing
and printing, the mechanism of the art, with
comparative observations on the typographi-
cal execution of early printed books. This

w PREFACE,

division is followed hy remarks on the forms
of books, — different styles of bookbinding in
various ages, — the knowledge of books, and
the causes of their relative value and scar-
city, together with the best methods of pre-
serving and repairing them. The principles,
on which the classifcation of a library should
he conducted, are then expiamed, and illus-
trated by a copious system for its arrange-
ment. The last and most extensive division
of the work is appropriated to a notice of
the principal writers, who have treated on
the different branches of Bibliography.

With regard to the engravings which are
inserted, while the author hopes they will "be
found sufficient for the purpose of eluci-
dating his work, it were unjust not to nor-
tice the fidelity and spirit with which they
have been executed by a young artist^^.par^
ticularly the facsimiles of the Books of
Images.

* Mr. J. Lee.

PBEFJtCE. «w*

l^a^hout the mmirtg pages, thi a^-
thor'is ohjebt has het)n ^o o&mph'esi bs rfiuch
iis foSsibie ; mafiy articles bf lesSer)n6thelity
therefore, have been MiitUd^for tdhibk aMpie
materials had been cqlUcted. On the third
par^ of the'preSera' "wof^lt, hehas'bdstbwed
most labour) being anxioiis that notMwg of
importance should be omitted: and in giving
this Ust of works on Bibliographi/, suth onlif
have been inserted, as appeared to be prin-
eipcdly deserving of attention froifi the Bib~
Uographrcal Student. ' Ea^ book, as far
iis was practicable^ has been described" from
perspnei examination ; and!, where the 'author
could not obtain access to it, either im, Ms own
limited cqlleciim, or in public libraries, he
has availed himself of the labour's of MM.
BiiuNET,. Cailleau, De Bure, Peig-
NOT, Renouard, Santander, the Rev.
T. F. DiBDiisr, Dr. A. Clarke, and other
Bibliographers, both British and Foreign.
From their volumes, as well as from the prin-
cipal literary Journals, he has been enabled

Viii PREFACE.

to glean the various critical notices inter-
spersed through the following pages : where
particularly valiuihle, rare, or expensive
works are to he found in our public libraries,
especially in the. Metropolis, care has been
taken to indicate such library, noticing those
chiefly which are the most easily accessible.

Such is the work now offered to the ac-
ceptance of the Public, as an Introduction to
the infant science of Bibliography. Pre-
cepts, indeed, the author does not pretend
to give: — he merely suggests some practical
hints for Students; at the same time, he
ventures to indulge a hope, that his labours
may be favourably received by every lover of
books, as well as by the more experienced
Bibliographer.

Im, 1814.

TABLE

CON TENTS.

TAGE

Introductory Memoir on the Public Libraries of
the Antients. _ _ _ .

§ 1. Libraries of the Jews. — % Of the Persians.— 3. Of
the Chaldeans. — 4. Egyptian Libraries. — 5. Library at
Mem|>his. — 6. The Alexandrian Library. — 7. Libraries
of the Greeks — Library at Athens founded by Pisis-
trdtus. — 8. Library of Pergamus. — 9. Libraries of
Rome. — 10. First public library founded by P. Mxai-
lius.— 11. Library of Sylla.— ,12. Of LucuUus.— 13.
Library erected by Asinius Pollip.— 14. The Octavian

...Library. — 15. The Palatine .Library. — 16. Library of
Tiberius. — 17. Library of Vespasian.^18. The Capi-
toline Library.— 19. The Ulpian Library.— 20. The
Gordian Lib'rary.-^21. Public Libraries in the Cities,
etc. of the Roman empire. — 23. Library at Constan-
tinople. - - -' - - i— XXV,

INTRODUCTION TO TH^ STUDY OF BIBLIO-
GRAPHY. - _ ... 27

PART I.

Chapter L' On the different substances employed
for Manuscripts- and printed Books. - - 30

» TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PACE

SECTION I. Substances in use before the invention of
Paper.

§ 1. Stone. — 2. Bricks.— s. Lead. -^4. Brass. — S. Wood.—

6. Leaves.— 7. Bark of Trees.— 8. Linen. — 9. Skins.— 10.
Parchmentand Vellum.— 11. Leather. - - SO — 48

SECTION II. Paper.

§ 1. Papyrus.- 2. Paper of Bark. — 3. Chinese Papers. — i. Ja-
panese Paper.— S. Bootan Paper. — 6. Madagascar Paper. —

7. Asbestos Paper. — 8. Cotton Paper. — 9. Paper from Li-
nen Rags. — 10. Paper from different substances. — 11. Co-
loured Paper. .... - 48—72

Chapter II. On Manuscripts in general, includ-
ing the origin of Writing. - - - 72
SECTION I. The Origin of Writing. - - 72 — 84
SECTION II. Hieroglyphics — Different kinds of Writing —
Manuscripts.

§ 1. Origin of Hieroglyphics — 2. Egyptian Hierpglyphics. —
3. Mexican Picture-writing. — 4. Picture-writing of the
North-American Indians. — S. Picture-writing of other na-
tions. — 6. Hieroglyphics of the Chinese. — 7. Writingamong
the Antient Britons. — 8. Different forms of Writing. — 9.
Codex Rescriptus.— 10. Abbreviations. — 11. Age of MSS.
12. Illuminations. — 13. MSS. of Herculaneum — Antient
Inks. ^ ..... 8'4 — 143

Chapter III. Origin and Progress of Printing,
Meclianism of the Art, etc. - - - 144

SECTION I. Origin of Printing — Introduction of the Art

into the different Cities of Europe. - - 144 — 176

SECTION II. Progress of Printing in England.

§ 1. Establishment of Printing in Westmmster and London
by W. Caxton and his successors. — 2. Establishment of
Printing at Oxford.— 3. At Cambridge.— 4. At Saint AI-
ban's. — 5. York.— 6. Southwark.— 7. Tavistock^— 8. Can-
terbury,— 9. Ipswich. — 10. Worcester. — lu Norwich. —
12. Wales. - . .- . :j76— 201

TABLE OF CONTONTS. xi

PAGE

SECTION III. Progress of Printjing ifi SG<)tJand and Ire-
land. - - . . - - 201

SECTION IV. Priiitiftgin ■China. - - 203—205

SECTION V. Progress of Printing in America.

§ 1. Spanish America,— 2. Portuguese America.— 3. The •
United States. — 4. British Colonies in America, and the
West Indies. — S. French Islands. - - - 20S

SECTION VI. Improvements in the Art of Printing.
§ 1. Stereotype Printing.— 2. Logographic Printing.^-s. Fac-
simile Printing. — t. Printing in Gold Letters. - 212 — 236-

SECTION VII. Observations on early Printers and Print-
ing, - - - . . 226—355
SECTION VIII. Mechanism of Printing. '
§ 1. Letter-press Printing. — Specimens of Types, — 2. En-
graving on Wood. — ^3, RoUing-press printing.^ — 4. Polyau- '
tographic Printing. - - . . asS— 277

PART II.— ON BOOKS.

Chapter I. General Remarks on the Denomina-
tions, Sizes, etc. of books, - - - 278
SECTION I. Denominations of Books. - - • 278 — 287

SECTION II. On the forms and sizes of books, different
styles of bookbinding. - - 388 — 309

SECTION III. Miscellaneous remarks on the preservation
etc. of books. - - ^ 310— ai4

Chapter II. Of the knowledge of books, their re-
lative value and scarcity. Prices of bbolcs, etc. 315

SECTION I. On the diiierence between antient and modern

editions. - - - - 315—318

SECTION II. On the rarity of books. - -' 319 — 328

Of Books whose rarity is absolute.— g l.Antieijt MSS.-r-

2. Works of which a few copies only have been printed.—

3. Books wluch. have been suppressed with the greatest i>

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

gonr.— 4, Those which have been almost entirely destroyed
- by some fatal accident.— S. Works of which a part; only has
; been printed.— 6. Copies printed on large and fine paper. —
1. On vellum and satin. — 8. On curiously coloured paper. —
9. Unique and illustrated copies. — lo. Books which are rare
through' decay or waste. ... 319—328

SECTION III. Of Books, whose rarity is relative.

§ 1. Books interesting only to a few persons.'— 2. Books
condemned. — 3. Editions relatively scarce. - 328 — 34S

sECTiox IV. Prices of Books. - 345 — 349

SECTION V. On the choice of books for a library.

§ 1. Choice of Books. — 2. Choice of Editions. 349 — 357

Chapter III. Essay towards an improved System
of Classification for a Library! - 358—406

Principles of Bibliography. - - 360— S72

A Bibliographical System, exhibiting the order to be pur-
sued in arranging the Faculties and Divisions of a Ca-
talogue. - - - 373—400

Compendium of the preceding System, for the arrange-
ment of a small Library. -_ - 401,402

PART III.

A NOTICE OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS EXTANT ON
LITERARY HISTORY IN GENERAL, AND ON BIB-
LIOGRAPHY IN PARTICULAR.

Chapter I. Literary History. - - 403

SECTION I. Literary History in general. i
J 1, Dictionaries of Literary History.

2. Treatises, &c. on Literary History. - 403 — 41 s
SECTION II. Literary History in particular.

$ 1. Writers on British Literary' History. ,

" 2. Writers on Foreign Literary History. - 419 — 44?

Chapter II. Writing. - - 448

SECTION I. Authors who have written on the materials ■

uSfed for Writing. - - ihid.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xii'

PACE

SECTION II. Works on Ihe Origin of Language/ Letters' -
and Writing. :

§ 1. Origin of Language.— S. Origin of Letters and of
Writing.— 3. On Hieroglyphics.— 4. Diploma-
tics. - . - . 4S1 — i69

Chapter III. Works on Printing. - 469

SECTION I. Works on the History and Art of Printing,
including a brief analysis of the Author's hypotheses,
relative to the Origin and Invention of Typog;ca-
Phy. - - - - 469—507

SECTION 11. Memoirs of eminent Printers, - 507—513^
Chapter IV. Books _ _ . 513

SECTION I. Works facilitating the knowledge of Books in

general. ■ " 513—525

SECTION II. Works treating on Rare Books. - 526—546*
SECTION III. Works treating on Anonymous, Pseudony-
mous, and Suppressed Books.

§ I. Anonymous and Pseudonymous Books.— 3. Books
condemned to be burnt, suppressed or censured. > 546 — S$0

Chapter V. Bibliographical Systems, Catalogues,
etc. - - - 551

SECTION I. General Treatises on Libraries, and Systeips
for classifying Books. - - 554 — 563

SECTION II. Catalogues, &c. of the principal Foreign Pub-
lic Libraries, including Brief Notices of their Contents.
, § I" Libraries of Denmark.— 2. Of France. — s. Of
Germany.— 4. Of Holland and the .Netherlands. — 5.. Of ■ .'
Hungary and.Poland.r— 6. Of Italy and Sicily. — 7. Of Russia.
— 8." Of ,Spain and Portugal. — 9. Of Sweden. — 10. Of-
Switzerland. — U. Of Turkey. — ig. Of North America.

564—614

SECTION III. Catalogues of British Public Libraries.

§ 1. Libraries in London. — British Museum. — The Royal
Society. — Sion College.-^-College of Physicians. — Middle '
Temple. — Inner Temple. — Library of the Hon. East India
Company. — Protestant Dissenters' Library, Red Cross Street.-

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PACE

— Londm Medical Society.— Royal Institution.— London
Institution.— Surry Institution.— Russell Institution. - 614—627

§ s.Othei; Public Libraries in England. ^Oxford.-TT-
Cambridge.— BirroiughajniT^ Canterbury .—Liverpool.— Man-
, Chester. - - - 628-635

§ 3. Public Libraries of Scotland., - 635-638

SECTION IV. Catalogues of the Principal British Private

Libraries. - - - 638-691

SECTION V. Catalogues of the principal Foreign Private

Libra;ries. - - - 693 — 733

SECTION VI. Sale Catalogues of Booksellers. - 734—741

SECTION VII. Professional, or Special'Bibliography. - ibid.

Supplement. - - - 743

APPENDIX.

No. I. Books of Images. - - x et seq.
SECTION I. Books of Images without Text.

1. Biblia Pauperum. - - , _ . ii — r.

2. Historia Sancti Johannis Evangelistae. - ' v.
S. Historia Vir^nis Marias, ex Caritieo Canticorum. - vi.
"4. Historia Virg'inis Marix, ex Evangelistis, Stc. - Hid.
S. E^erqitium, super Paternoster. - - vii. r

SECTION II. Books of Images with Text.

1. Der Entkrist. — Of Antichrist. - - ibid.

2. Quindecim Signa extremi Judicii. - - viii.

3. Ars memorandi uotabilis per figuras. ' ' - ibid.

4. Ars moriendi. - - - - ix.

5. Sujets tires de I'Ecriture-Sainte. - - x.

6. Speculum Humanae Salvatiohfs. - • x — ^xii.

7. Die Kunst Cyromantia.— The Chiromancy of Dr. Hait-

lieb. - - - - xii.
The Adventures of the Chevalier TewrdanncthS. - xiii.
No. II. Bkief notice of :works printed on pa-
per OF different colours. - xiv XX.

No. III. L;ST OF THE PRINCIPAL VIGNETTES OR

MARKS USED By THE ANTIENT PRINTERS. XX XXV.

No. IV. MoiNOGRAMS AND OEV^CES OF ANTIENT

PRINTERS, &C. - - XXV XXXvlJi

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xr

SECTION I. Early Foreign Printers. - xxv xxxi.

SECTION II. Early English Printers. - xxxii— xxxviii.

No. V. Unique and illustrated copies, xxxviii-xliv.

No. VI. Works in the macaronic style, xliv-xlvii.

No. VII. Notices of some of the most eminent
PRINTERS of the 16th, nth, and 18th centuries,
and of the principal editions executed by
them. - . - xlviii. ei seq.

I. Gutenberg, Fust, and SchoifFer. - xlviii — ^Ivii.

II. Nicholas Jenson. - - Ivii Ix.

III. Antony Koburger. - - Ix.

IV. Aldine Editions. - - ]x ^Ixxx,

V. Sedan Editions. - - - Ixxxi.

VI. Elzevir Editions. - - ibid — Ixxxiii,
VII.- Collection of Authors ad usum Delphini. Ixxxiv.

VIII. Catalogue of Antient Latin authors edited by

Maittaire. - - - Ixxxv.

IX. Cominine Editions. - - Ixxxvi.

X. List of Latin authors printed by Brindley. 262^.

XI. Classic Authorsy-pubUshed by MM. - Coutelier

and Barbou. - - . Ixxxvii.

XII. Roman Classics, published by MM. Haude and

Spener at Berlin. - - Ixxxviii.

XIII. Classics, printed by Robert and Andrew

Foulis. - - . Ixxxix.

XIV. Classics, printed by Baskerville. - xc.

XV. Notice of the Bipontine Classics - xcii — xcv.

XVI. Editions printed by Bodoni. - xcv — cviii.

XVII. Classic authors, edited by M. Renouard. cviii — ex.

No. VIII. Codex ebnerianus. - cxi.

No. IX. Collections of large works. ibid.

Notes. _ _ _ _ cxvi.

Bibliographical Index. - - cxxi.

General Index of Matters. - - cxxxix.

Da veiiiam scriptU/ quorum non gloria nobis
Causa, sed utilitas, officiumque fuit.

Ovid. Episi. ex Ponto, III. IX. |(5.

MEMOIR

PUBLIC LIBRARIES

ANTIENTS.

The Origin of Public Libraries is lost in that
remote antiquity, which envelopes the history of
the arts, sciences,^ and literature. — ^By some it
has been ascribed to the Egyptians; while others
have referred it to the Hebre\;vs, -whose regard
for the traditions of their Patriarchs, and whose
care in preserving the Sacred Books, became an
example to other nations, and especially to the
Egyptians.

§ 1 . LIBRARIES OF THE JEWS.

From some expressions in the Book of Deu-
teronomy', it has beien conjectured, that Moses
formed a Library of the Sacred Books of the
Hebrews : but the passage will not bear this con-
struction. That .may' with more propriety be
called a library, which is mentioned in the se-

' Deut. xxxi. 24—36.
B

ii PUBLIC LIBRARIES

cond Book of Maccabees ; where Nehemiah is
said to have " gathered together the acts of the
" Kings and the Prophets, and David, and the
" Epistles of the Kings concerning the Holy
« Gifts'." It is not improbable that the brave
vindicator of his country's Uberty, Judas Mac-
cabeus, had a Library, consisting of many va-
luable books and documents, from which he
compiled the narrative of his own times.

The Jews " dwelling alone, and not being
« reckoned among the nations" (agreeably to
the divine prediction,) — ^we know nothing of
their early literature, beyond the Books which
are contained in the Old Testament. It has,
however, been supposed that they had some
towns, rendered famous by the sciences that were
cultivated there*. Among them was that, called
by Joshua Kiriath-Sepher, or the city of letters,
and which was situated near the confines of the
Tribe of Judah 5 : and in later times the uni-
versity or school of Tiberias was not less cele-

■ 2 Mac. ii. 13, 23—35.

" Encyclopedic, par Diderot et D'Alembert. Tome 2. (folio
edit.) p. 229. Art. Bibliotheque.

^ Joshua XV. 15. On this passage, Calmet observes that
most commentators think that this place was denominated
Kiriath-Sepher, or the City of Letters, either because litera-
ture was antienlly taught there before the arrival of the He-
brews in Canaan ; or, because the archives and other antient
muniments of the Canaanites were preserved there.

OF THE ANTIENTS. in

brated. It is very probable that these academies
were furnished with Libraries'.

§ 2. LIBRARIES OF THE PERSIANS.

The Scriptures mention a Library of the Kings
of Persia, which some imagine to have consisted
of the historians of that country, and of memoirs
on the affairs of state : but, in effect, it appears
rather to have been a depository of the royal
laws, charters, and ordinances'. There was for-
merly a considerable Library at Susa, the resi-
dence of the Persian sovereigns ; where Metas-
tbenes consulted the annals of ihe Persian mo-
narchy, in quest of materials for bis history.
This library is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus :
but it seems (like that m^tioneS. by Ezra) rather
to have been a collection of laws and records,
than an assembfege of books (tf science.

§ 3. LIBRARIES OF THE CHALDEANS.

In the supposititious writings ascribed to Bero-
sus, extravagant claims are made in behalf of
the literature of the Chaldeans : but we do not

' Encyclopedie, torn. 3. p. ^9.

* In Ezra v. 17. die Hebrew Text calls it the Home of Trea-
sures ; and it is so rendered in the Septuagint, and other ver-
sions. In Ezra vL 1. it is afterwards called in the Hebrew
Text, the House of Rolls, where the royal treasures were de-
posited: but the Septuagint and Vulgate versions (and after
them Calnwa) expressly call it a Library.

B 2

iv PUBLIC LIBRARIES

find that any antient writers of veracity have
mentioned, that they were possessed of Libraries.
From the authority of Strabo' and the elder
Pliny*, we learn that there were in Assyria and
Chaldea different schools or sects of philosophers:
" but the accounts which we have of these sects,
are so general and imperfect, that they will
scarcely authorize us to do more, than give it as
a probable opinion, that they differed from each
other chiefly in the mode of practising the arts of
divination and astrology ; and that their know-
ledge of nature extended little further than to
the discovery of the supposed magical uses of
certain natural bodies, particularly minerals and
herbs V All the accounts, which have been
transmitted to us, concur in stating that the
Chaldeans excelled in astronomy ; as appears
by a series of observations, made during a course
of 1900 years, which Callisthenes sent to Aris-
totle^ after the capture of Babylon by Alex-
ander'*.

§ 4. EGYPTIAN LIBRAEIES.

The arts and sciences, it is well known, early
attained great progress in Egypt. Sir John
Marsham has contended that the Egyptians were

' Lib. 16. p. 1050. torn. 3. edit. Oxon.

* Nat. Hist. lib. 6. c. 26.

^ Enfield's Hist, of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 30. 4to edit,

♦ Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 35, 26.

OF THE ANTIENTS. v

in possession of Libraries from the remotest
times. The earliest public Library, in Egypt,
of which we have any authentic record, is that
of OsYMANDYAs, who is Supposed to have reigned
600 years after the Deluge, (about the year
of the world 2250.) To his munificence the
Egyptians were indebted for numerous splendid
edificesi and, among others, for a magnificent
Library, (ornamented with the statues of the
Egyptian Deities) and having this appropriate
inscription — " The Treasury of Remedies for
THE Soul."' Of the number and value of
this collection, historians have transmitted to
us no account : it probably contained works of
very remote antiquity, and also the books acr
counted sacred by the Egyptians, the whole of
which were swept away during the incursions
made by the Persians into Egypt and the neigh-
bouring countries, about 350 years i3efore the
Christian aera*.

§ 5. LIBRARY AT MEMPHIS.

According to Eustathius and some other an-
tient writers, there was a fine Library at Mem-
phis, deposited in the temple of Vulcan ; and
whence Homer has been accused of having

' "PTXHS lATPEION. Diod. Sic.lib. 1. c.49. (edit.Heyn.) —
Diodorus has described at length the edifices erected by Osy-
inandyas.

^ Lib. 16. c. 46. et seqq. (edit. Heyn.)

vi PUBLIC LIBRARIES

stolen the Iliad and Odyssey, and of having
afterwards published them as his own produc-
tions'. From this charge, however, the immor-
tal bard has been vindicated by various bio-
graphers*.

§ 6. THE ALEXANDRIAN LIBEARY.

But the most superb Library of Egypt, per-
haps of the antient world, was that founded by
Ptolemy Soter, at Alexandria, and enriched by
successive sovereigns of that country, who pos-
sessed both the means and the zeal for forming
a munificent Library.

Ptolemy Soter being a learned prince, and
himself an author', in order to encourage and im-
prove the liberal arts in his dominions, founded
an Academy at Alexandria, called the Museum^
about the year 290 before the Christian a?ra;
where a society of learned men assembled, who
devoted themselves to the study of philosophy,
and all the other sciences. For their use he
formed a collection of books, the number of

• Eustath. in pref. ad Odyss. HephsBstion, apud Photii Bib-
lioth. § 190. Enquiry into the Life &c. of Homer, p. 135.

* Pope's Homer, vol. i. p. xci. (ed. 1796.) Lipaii Syntagma
de Bibliothecis, c. 1. (Op. torn. 3. p. 637.)

' Ptolemy wrote a life of Alexander the Great, which was
greatly esteemed by the antients, but which has long since
perished. Ammian. Marcel, lib. 23. c. 16. Freinsh. Supp.
ad Quint. Curt. lib. 1. c. 1. Strabo, lib. 17. p. 1136. (ed,
Oxon.)

OF THE ANTIENTS. vii

which has variously been computed, by Epipha-
nius at 54,800, and by Josephus at 200,000'.

His son Ptolemy Philadelphus was equally the
friend of peace and of science '.—possessed of
immense riches, he collected great numbers of
books in the tersple of Serapis, in addition to
those accumulated by his father, and at his death
left in it one hundred thousand volumes.

In order to gratify this taste for literature, so
worthy of a powerful sovereign, Ptolemy had
agents in every part of Asia and of Greece, who
were commissioned to seek out and to purchase
the rarest and most valuable writings : among
these were the Works of Aristotle, (purchased of
Neleus*) and the Greek Version of the Jewish

' Encyclopedic, par Diderot, torn. 2. art. Bibliotheque. Jose-
phus, Ant. Jud. lib. 13. c. 2.

* Athenseus expressly says (lib. 1. c. 4. ed. Schweighaeuser)
tlyit Ptolemy bought all the books of Neleus. Strabo (lib. 13.
torn. 2. p. 875.) asserts that Aristotle's Ubrary descended from
Theophrastus, to whom he had bequeathed tUem, to Neleus (a
pupil of the latter,) to whom Theophrastus left thero by will,
together with his own library. Neleus caused it to be removed
to Scepsis (his native town,) and left it to his heirs ^ who,
being ignorant and illiterate, took no other care of this library
than to keep it closely shut up. These descendants of Neleus
being ipformed how diligently tl<e ki;igs of Pergamus (whose
subjects they were) sought after books, buried under ground
those of Neleus. A long time afterwards, their posterity took
tilvese v^uable works from their hiding-place, greatly damaged
by damps and vermin, and sold them for a considerable sum

viii PUBLIC LIBRARIES

Scriptures, designated the Septuagint, which was
undertaken at the suggestion of the celebrated
rhetorician, Demetrius Phalereus, who first exe-
cuted the honourable office of librarian to Ptole-
my; and whose learning and talents did not dis-
grace the judgment of his royal patron'.

The measures of Ptolemy Philadelphus, for
augmenting the Alexandrian Library, were pur-
sued by his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes, but
with less regard to the rights of private property.
He is said to have caused all books, imported

' /

to Apellicon an opulent Teiau residing at Athens (vide infra
§ II. p. xvi.)

Various solutions have been proposed, to reconcile these
contradictory statements of Strabo and Athenaeus; which the
compass of this note will not admit to be slated. They are
given at length by M. Bayle in an amusing note (D) to the
article Tyrannion, in his Dictionary, to which the reader is
referred. Bayle's opinion is in favour of Athenaeus, and that
Strabo was -mistaken. May not these discordant opinions be
reconciled, by supposing that Neleus procured transcripts to
be made of the works of Aristotle, and sold these copies to
the king of Egypt, reserving the originals for his own use .''
This conjecture is the more probable, as Athenseus does not
reckon Theophrastus among the book collectots; of whom he
has given us a list in the passage above referred to.

' Joseph. Ant. Jud. lib. 13. c. 2. The names of the follow-
ing persons have been transmitted, as the successors of De-
metrius, in the care of the Alexandrian Library, viz. Zeno-
dotus the Ephesian,' Callimachus the Poet, Eratosthenes, and
ApoUonius Rhodiiis.— Morhof. Polyhist. torn. 1. p. 42. (ed.
1747.)

OP THE ANTiENTS. ix

iftto Egypt by the Greeks or other for^signers^
tb be seized, and sent to the Academy or Mu-
seum ; where they were transcribed by. persons
employed for that purpose : the copies wer^
then delivered to the proprietors, and the ori-
ginals were deposited in the Library. This so-
vereign borrowed of the Athenians, the Works
of Sophocles, -Euripides and jiEschylus, and re-
turned to them only the copies ; which he had
caused to be transcribed in the most elegant
manner pbssible.^ The originals he retained for
his own Library, presenting the Athenians with'
fifteen talents' for the exchange.
' As the Museum (where the library was ori-
ginally founded) was situated in that quarter of
the city, which was called Bruchion, near the
royal palace, the books were at first deposited
there : when, however, this was filled with books
to the number of 400,000 volumes, another sup-
plemental library- was erected within the Se-
rapeum. The books here placed gradually in-
creased to the amount of 300,000 volumes,
making in the whole 700,000 books, of which
the royal libriaries were said to consist.

The Alexandrian Library continued for many
ages in all its splendour, until the first Alexan-
drine War ; when, during the plunder of the
city, the library of Bruchion was destroyed by

' Upwar^Js ofMfiQO steriing. Amm. Marcel, lib, 23. c. 16.

X PUBLIC LIBRARIES

fire, not by any concerted design, but acciden-
tally by the auxiliary soldiers'. The library in
the Serapeum still remained, and was augmented
by subsequent donations*; so that it surpassed
the former both in the number md value of
its books. At length, A. d. 642. after va,rious
revolutions under the Roman Emperors, (dur-
ing which the library was sometimes plun-
dered and sometimes re-established) it was ut-
terly destroyed by the Saracens, under the orders
of the Calif Omar, when they acquired pos-
session of Alexandria.

Ab'ulfaragius (in his account of the tenth
dynasty) has given us the following narrative of
this calamitous event^ — When (says he) Alex-
andria was taken by the Mohammedans, Amrou
their commander found there a celebrated phi-
losopher, John the Grammairian, who from his
lave of literary labour was surnamed Philoponusj
and with whose conversation Amrou was highly

pleased. One day, Philoponus said to him -

" You have visited all the public repositories in

" Aul. Cell. lib. 3. c. 17. Plutareh in Cjes. p. 152. (Vita,
vol. iv. ed. Bryan.) Amm. Marc. 1. 23. c. 16.

* Mark Antony gave the whole of the Pergamean Library,

which amounted to 300,000 volumes, to Cleopatra, as the

foundation of the new Library at Alexandria. Plutarch, in

Ant. (Vit. vol. V. p. 135.) An additional Museum was sufa-j

sequCTtly erected by the Emperor Cl?,udius, and called after

his name. Sueton. in Claud, c. 43.

3 Ab'ulfaragii Hist. Dynast, p. 114. vers. Pocock.
3

OF THE ANTIENTS. xi

" Alexandria, and you have sealed up articles of
" every sort, which are to be found in Alexan-
" dria. — Concerning those things which may be
" useful to you, I presume to say nothing : but
" some of those which are of no service to you,
" may be suitable to me.'* — Amrou replied : —
" And what is it you want?" « The philo-
" sophical books" (said he.) « This" (rejoined
Amrou) " is a request, upon which I cannot
" decide." — He accordingly wrote to the Calif
Omar, whose well known answer was dictated
by the ignorance of a fanatic. " If" (replied
he) " these writings of the Greeks agree with
" the Koran, or Book of God, they are useless
" and need not be preserved; if they disagree,
*' they are pernicious and ought to be de-
" stroyed."— The sentence of destruction was
executed with blind obedience : the volumes
of paper or parchment were distributed to the
four thousand baths of the city; and such was
their incredible number, that six months were
barely sufficient for the consumption of this pre-
cious fuel'.

§ 7. LIBRARIES OF THE GREEKS.

Of Grecian Literature or History we have no
authentic information, prior to the wars of

• Gibbon's Decl. and Fall, vol. ix. 440. The elegant histp-
tian has endeavoured to disprove the positive account given by

xii PUBLIC LIBRARIES

Thebes and Troy: it would therefore be fruitless
to seek for books in that nation before those
events. The LacedEemonians had no books :
they expressed their meaning so concisely, that
writing was considered a superfluous accom-
plishment.

LIBRARY AT ATHENS FOUNDED BY PISISTRATUS.

At Athens, on the contrary, the sciences and
literature were diligently cultivated. Pisistratus,
the tyrant, is said to have been the first who es-
tablishied a Library in that city, [b. c. cir. 562.]
and deposited therein, the works of Homer,'
which he had collected with great difficulty,
and at a very considerable expense. After-
wards the Athenians theaisel^^es," with great care
and pains, increased their number : all these
books however were seized and carried intd
Persia by Xerxesj when he obtained possession^

Ab'ulfaragius, by negative arguments. It should however be
considered that the positive evidence of an historian, of such
unquestionable credit as Ab'ulfaragius is, cannot be set aside
by an argument merely negative. His references (it has well
been observed) to Aulus Gellius, (1. 6. c. 17.) AmmianuS
Marcellinus, (1. 22. c. 15.) and Orosiusj (1.. 6. c. 15.) are
foreign froni the purpose : for these writers only refer to the
destruction of the Alexandrian Library in the time' of Julius
Caesar, which has been noticed in the preceding pages; after
which (as already stated) it was renovated and continued, to
flourish until its utter destruction by the Saracens. — Enfield's
Hist, of Phil. vol. ii. p. 227, note.

OF THE ANTIENTS. xiii

of Athens, and burned the whole of the city
except the citadel : but they were subsequentlj;
restored to the Athenians by Seleucus Nicanoi
king of Syria'. The Emperor Adrian is re-
corded by Pausanias to have founded a Librarji
at Athens*.

On the invasion of the Roman Empire by the
Goths, A. D. 260, Greece was ravaged, and ir
the sack of Athens, they had collected all the
libraries, and were on the point of setting fire
to this funeral pile of antient learning, had nol
one of their chiefs (possessed of more refinec
policy than his brethren) dissuaded them froir
the design j bj^ the profound observationj thai
as long as the Greeks were addicted. to the stud)
of books, they would never apply themselves t<
the study of arms^.

' Aul. Gell. lib. 6. c. 17. Athenaei Deipnosoph. lib. 1. c. 4
— Athenaeus has given us a catalogue of illustrious men, wh(
were eminent for their collections. Among these, beside Pi
sistratus,' he mentions Poly crates of Samos, Euclid the Athe
nian, Nicpcrates of Cyprus, Euripides, and Aristotle. It i
rather singular, that he has not mentioned Plato, who is knowi
to have been possessed vfith the Bibliomania, and to have pur
chased books at an i?nmense price. Aul. Gell. lib. 3. c. 17.

' Pausan. in Atticis. lib. 1. c. 18. sub fine.

' Zonaras, lib. 12. p. 635. Gibbon (vol. i. p. 434.) suspect
this circumstance to be the fanciful conceit of a sophist. Zo
naras, hovi^ever, states it as a fact, which surely he would no
have done, had not the event really taken place in the manne;

xiv PUBLIC LIBRARIES

§ 8. LIBRARY OF PERGAMUS.

Next to the Alexandrian Library, that of Per-
gamus was the most conspicuous : according to
Plutarch, it comprised two hundred thousand
volumes'. It was founded, and successively
enriched by the Eumenes, kings of Pergamus,
all of whom were zealous promoters of the arts;
and to one of whom we are indebted for the in-
vention of parchment, Charta Pergamena^.^-^
The celebrated Attalus (whose wealth became
proverbial among the Romans) surpassed all his
predecessors in magnificence : after their exam-
ple, he appropriated part of his treasures to the
purchase of the principal works of his age. The
Pergamean Library was given by Mark Antony

he has related it. — ^The Libraries and Schools of Athens sus-
tained great injury during the incursions of the Goths at the
close of the fourth century : they however survived that ha-
zardous period, and continued to flourish till after the time of
Justinian. Enfield's Hist, of Philos. vol. ii. p. 80.

* Plutarch in Anton. (Vit. vol. v. p. 125.)

" Strabo, lib. 13. torn. 3. p. 895. (ed, Oxon.) Pliny relates
from Varro, that a dispute having arisen between one of the
Ptolemies king of Egypt, and Eumenes king of Pergamus,
the former refused to allow the exportJil^ion of Egyptian paper ;
in consequence of which Eumenes invented parchment, and
ordered it to be manufactured at Pergamus, Nat. Hist. lib.
13. c. 11. The claim of Eumenes to the invention of Parch-
ment has been questioned : — see, however, this subject noticed,
infTQ, p. 46, 47,

OF THE ANTIENTS. xv

to Cleopatra, for the foundation of a new Li-
brary at Alexandria, as already noticed'. Vi-
truvius makes honourable mention of both these
Libraries*.

§ 9. LIBRARIES OF ROME.

If the antient Greeks had but few books^, the
antient Romans were possessed of a still smaller
number: incessantly occupied by military ex-
peditions, by defensive wars, and by the aggran-
dizement of their empire, that warhke people
had but little leisure for the cultivation of Lite-
rature. It was not, until they had accomplished
the conquest of Greece, that a taste for the arts,
sciences, and books, was diffused among the
Romans : the consequence of that event wias, a
more frequent intercourse with the Greeks ;
whose literature and arts were well adapted
to soften the ruggedness of character and of
manners, which distinguished those conquerors
of the world.

§ 10. FIRST PUBLIC LIBRARY, FOUNDED BY
P. iEMILIUS A. U. C. 586. B. C. 167.

Paulus ^milius, having subdiled Perses king

' Vide note 2. p. x. supra.

" TertuH. Apol. c. 18. Vitruvius, lib. 7. in praef. Reges At-
talici (says be) magnis philologia dulcedinihus inducti, cum
egregiam Bibliothecam Pergami ad communem delectationem
instituissent ; tunc item PtolenuBus, infinito zelo cupiditaiisque
incitatus studio, non minorihus industriis ad eundem modtim con-
t^derat Alexandria comparare. p. 190. (Argent. 1807.)

xvi PUBLIC LIBRARIJES

of Maoedpn, first enriched the city of Rome
with ^ public ; Library, according to Isidorus ' ;
thoi^h Plutarch expressly, says that he reserved
the books of that king's Library i'oK his sons,
who were men of letters ''. This Library was
subs^equeHtly augmented by Sylla.

§ 11. B. C. LIBRARY OF SYLLA.

On his return from Asia, where he had suc-
cessfully terminated the first war against Mith-
ridates, Sylla visited Athens, whence he took
with him the Library of Apellicdn the Teian ;
in which were the works of Aristotle and The-
ophrastus, — books (Plutarch observes), which at
that time were not sufiiciently known to the
World'.

§ 12. OF LUCULLUS. B. C.

Lucullus, another conqueror of Mithridatesj,
was not less distinguished by his taste for booka
The number of volumes in his Library was im-
mense, and they were written in elegant hands ;
but the use, which he made of them, was still
more honourable than their acquisition. His
library was open to all: the Greeks, then vi-
siting Rome, resorted to the galleries and por-

' Isidori Origenes, 1. 6. c. 4.

* Vit. iEmil. p. 180. Vit. (torn. 2. ed. Bryan.)

^ Plutarch in Sylla. (Vit. torn. 3. p. 81.) In what manner

these writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus came into Apel-

licon's possession, vide supra, note 2. p. vii.

OF THE ANTIENTS. xvii

ticos of Luctillus, as to the retreat of the Muses ;
and there spent whole days in conversation on
literary subjects'.

Notwithstanding both Sylla and Lucullus thus
liberally gave pubHc access to their literary
treasures, still their libraries can, in strictness,
be only considered as private collections. Among
the various projects which Julius Caesar had
formed, for the embellishment of Romej he
meditated a Library, which should contain the
largest possible collection of Greek and LEttiri
works; and he had assigned to the learned M.
Varro the province of selecting and arranging
them*: but this design was frustrated by the
assassination of the Dictator, so that the esta-
blishment of Public Libraries did not take place
until the reign of Augustus.

-;(^ § 13. PUBLIC LIBRARY ERECTED BY ASINIUS
POLLIO*

The honour of suggesting these valuable in-
stitutions is, by the elder Pliny, ascribed to
Asinius Pollio^; who erected a public Library
in the Court of Liberty on the Aventine Mount.

' Plutarch in Lucullo— (Vit. torn. 3. p. 196.)

* Sueton. in Caes. c. 44.

^ Qui PRIMUS, Bibliothecam dicando, ingenia homiriuih rem
publicam fecit. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. 3S. c. 3. Ovid also as-
cribes this honour to Pollio, Trist. lib. 3. el. 1. v. 71. 73. He
further decorated the library with images of the author^, whose

xviii PUBLIC LIBRARIES

The Emperor Augustus, among other ember.
lishments which he bestowed on the city of
Rome, erected two public Libraries, the Octa.-
vian and the Palatine.

§ 14. THE OCTAVIAN LIBEAKY.

The Octavian Library stood in the portico of
Octavia, and was thus denominated in honour
of his sister'; though Plutarch* asserts it to have
been in honour of Marcellus. The charge of
this library was committed to C. Melissus, who
had been manumitted by Augustus '.

§ 15. THE PALATINE LIBRARY.

The Palatine Library was added by Augustus
to the temple of Apollo, which he had erected
in that part of the Palatine House, which had
been struck with lightning'''. Here were depo-
sited the corrected books of the Sybils^: and the
superintendance of this library was given to C.
Julius Hyginus*. Lipsius and Pitiscus have

works were deposited therein. (Isid. Orig. lib. 6. c. 4.) and
particularly with that of the learned Varro. Plin. Hist. Nat. 1.
7. c. 31.

' Dion. Ub. 49. sub anno 741.

* In Marcelio, sub fine. Lipsius thinks Plutarch must be
mistaken in this passage; as Dio mentions a library, ten years
before the death of Marcellus. De Biblioth. c. 6. Op. torn.
3. p. 631.

^ Sueton. de lUust. Gram. c. 21.

* Ibid, in August, c. 29.

5 Ibid. c. 31. " Ibid, de IHust. Gram. c. 20.

OF THE ANTIENTS. iix

cited two antient inscriptions, from which it
should seem that the Palatine Library consisted
of two distinct Collections, Greek and Latin :
it survived the various revolutions of the Roman
Empire, till the time of Gregory thfe Great'
whose mistaken zeal led him to order all the
writings of the antients to be destroyed.

§ 16. LIBRARY OF TIBERIUS.

The successors of Augustus, though they did
not equally encourage literature, were not al-
together regardless of its interests. We are in-
formed by Suetonius*, that Tiberius founded a
library in the new temple of Apollo : from some
incidental notices it also appears that he insti-
tuted another in his own house, called after him
the Tiberian Library ^

§ 1 7» LIBRARY OF VESPASIAN.

Vespasian followed these laudable examples
of his predecessors ; and established a library in
the Temple of Peace, which he had erected after
Nero had set the city on fire"^: and Domitian,
in the commencement of his reign^ restored at
a vast expense the libraries which had been

' Lipsius de Eibl. c. 7. Pitisci Lexicon, torn. 1. p. 276.
Brucker, Crit. Hist. Philosoph. torn. 1. p. 20.

* In Tiber, c. 74. ^ Vopiscus in Probo, c. 2. Aul. Gell.
Jib, 13. c. 19,

* Sueton, in Vesp. c. 9. Aul. Gell. 1. 16. c. 8,

c 2

xx^ PUBLIC LIBRARIES

burnt, by collecting copies from every quarter,
and by sending scribes to Alexandria, either to
copy or to correct volumes, from the celebrated
Library in that city'.

§ 18. THE CAPITOLINE LIBRARY.

Various writers have asserted that there was a
library attached to the Temple of the Capitol ;
though it is by no means certain by whom it
was founded. Lipsius ascribes it to Domitian j
Donatus refers it to the Ernperor Adrian, by
whom at least it was enlarged, if not founded*;
and who probably erected the Tiburtine Li-
brary, at Tibur in the vicinity of Rome '.

§ 19. THE ULPIAN LIBRARY.

But the most magnificent of all the Libraries,
founded by the sovereigns of imperial Rome, was
that of the emperor Ulpius Trajanus, from whom
it was called the Uipian Library. It was erected
in Trajan's Forum, and was afterwards removed
to the Viminal Mount, to ornament the warm
Baths of the Emperor Dioclesian*. In this li-
brary were deposited the Elephantine Books,

" Sueton. in Domitianj c. 20. /

" Lips, de Bibliothecis, c. 7. Donat. Roma Vetus ac Recens,
lib. 2. c. 9. p. 105.

' Aul. Gell. 1. 9. c. 14. & 19. c. 5. Lips, de Biblioth. c. 8.
♦ Aul. Gell. 1. 11. c. 17.

OF THE ANTIENTS. xxi

(composed probably of ivory leaves or tablets ;)
in which were recorded the transactions of the
emperors, the proceedings of th^ senate and
Roman Magistrates, and the afiairs of the Pro-
vinces, &c\ It has been conjectured, that the
Ulpian Library was two-fold, Greek and X-atin*:
and some authors affirm that Trajan commanded
all the books that could be found in the cities
of the people whom he had conquered, to be
immediately conveyed to Rome, in order to
increase his library : nor is it improbable, that
the younger Pliny suggested to his patron this
method of enriching his collection ^

§ 20. THE GOEDIAN LIBRARY.

The Library of Domitian having been con-
sumed by lightning in the reign of Commodus*,
was not repaired until the reign of the emperor
Gordian ; who rebuilt the edifice and founded a
nevv^^ library, adding to it the collection of books
bequeathed to him by the celebrated Physician,
Quintus Serenus Sammonicus*. Donatus con-
jectures that this library was deposited in the
palace of Pompey*'.

' Vopiscu? in AureUano, c. 1. Tacito, C. 8. et Probo, c. 2.

* Donat. Epma Vetus, 1. % c. 24. p. 148.

^ Encyclopedie, torn. 2. (fol. edit.) Art. Bibliotheque.

* Euseb. in Commodo. Paul. Ores, lib. 17. c. 16.

* Julius Capitolinus in vit. Gord. Junioris, c. 18. >
" Roma Vet. lib. 3. c. 8. p. 199.

xxii PUBLIC LIBRARIES

§ 21. PUBLIC LIBRARIES IN THE CITIES &C.
OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

In addition to the Imperial Libraries, there
were others, to which the public had access,
in the principal cities and colonies of the Em-
pire. Thus, Pliny mentions a public Library,
which he founded for the use of his country-
men': and Vopiscus relates, that the emperor
Tacitus commanded the writings of the illustri-
ous historian Cornelius Tacitus, to be deposited
in the Libraries*. From the number of calcined
volumes, which have been excavated from the
ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii, it should
also seem that collections of books were common
in those cities.

The irruptions of the Barbarians, who deso-
lated the Western Roman Empire, were far more
terrible and destructive to the interests of lite-
rature, than either inundations, volcanoes, of
earthquakes; and soon caused the disappearance
of those libraries, which for several centuries
had been multiplied in Italy. The Libraries in
the East, however, escaped this devastating tor-
rent : and both Constantinople and Alexandria
preserved their Hterary treasures, until the sack-
ing of those cities by the Turks or Saracens,

' Epist, lib. 1, ep. 8. ' In Tacito, e. 10.

OF THE ANTIENTS. xxiii

v/ho finally subverted the Roman Empire in the
East.

The rise, progress and destruction of the
latter or Alexandrian Library having been re-
lated in a former page', it only remains that
some account be given of the Library at Con-
stantinople.

§ 22. LIBRARY AT CONSTANTINOPLE.

When Constantine the Great, in the year
S36*, made Byzantium the seat of his empire,
he in a great measure newly built that city,
decorated it with numerous splendid edifices,
and called it after his own name. Desirous of
making reparation to the Christians, for the in-
juries they had sustained during the reign of his
tyrannical predecessor, this prince commanded
the most diligent search to be made after those
books which had been doomed to destruction.
He caused transcripts to be made of such books
as had escaped the Diocletian persecution ; to
these he added others, and with the whole formed
a valuable Library at Constantinople.

On the death of Constantine, the number of
books contained in the Imperial Library was
only six thousand nine hundred ; but it was suc-
cessively enlarged by the emperors, Juhan^ and

* Supra, p. vi — xi. ^ Zonarae Annales, sub Anno.

' It is by no means clear whether Julian enlarged the library
founded byConstantine, or established another at ConstaiiH-

XXIV

PUBLIC LIBRARIES.

Theodosius the younger, the latter of whom
augmented it to one hundred thousand volumes.
Of these, more than half were burnt in the
seventh century, by command of the emperor
Leo III. in order to destroy all the monuments^
that might be quoted in proof against his oppo-
sition to the worship of images. In this library
was deposited the only authentic copy of the
Council of Nice : it has also been asserted that
the works of Homer, written in golden letters,
were consumed at the same time, together with
a magnificent copy of the Four Gospels, bound

hople: his inveteracy seems r?ither to have been directed
against the writings of the Christians, than against the book»
of profane literature which their libraries contained. For,
'hostile as that emperor was to the Christians, (whose schools
he commanded to be abolished and their libraries to be burned,)
we are notwithstanding informed by Suidas, that he erected a
Library at Nisbis (or Antioch,) which was afterwards con-
sumed by fire, ia the reign of Jovian. Julian was exceed-
ingly desirous of possessing the Library of George the Cap-
padocian. Patriarch of Alexandria, who had been assassin-
ated by the populace : from two epistles of Julian's, which
are still extant, we karn that the Arian P-atriarcb^s library
was richly stored with books of philosophy of all kinds, with
many on history, rhetoric, and on other subjects, together
with various writings of the Christians. These books the em-
peror commands the prefects of Egypt to procure for him by
all means, and even to have recourse to torture, should at-
tempts be me^de to secrete any of the volumes. Suidas, voce
Jovianus, tom. ii. p. 121. (ed. Kt^steri.) Julian, Ep. 9 to Ecdi-
cius, and 36 to Porphyry.

OF THE ANTIENTS, xxv

in plates of gold to the weight of fifteen pounds,
and enriched with precious stones.

The convulsions that weakened the lower em-
pire, were by no means'favourable to the interests
of literature. During the reign of Constantine
Porphyrogennetus (in -the eleventh century) li-
terature flourished for a short time : and he is
said to have employed many learned Greeks in
collecting.books for a library, the arrangement
of which he superintended himself. The final
subversion of the Eastern Empire, and the cap-
ture of Constantinople by Mohammed II. a.
D. 1453. dispersed the literati of Greece over
"Western Europe : but the Imperial Library was
preserved by the express command of the con-
queror, and continued to be kept in some apart-
ments of the Seraglio ; until Mourad (or Amu-
rath) IV. in a fit of devotion, sacrificed (as it is
reported) all the books in this Library to his
hatred against the Christians'.

' Such was the information given to the Ahbe Sevinj who
arrived at Constantinople, in Deceoiber 1728; but could not
obtain admission into the Grand Seignior's Library. He was
further informed that it contained only Turkish and Arabic
MSS. and not one Greek or Latin Manuscript. Toderini,
Delia Letteratura Turchesca, torn. 23. p. 55. The Abbe To-
derini was far more successful in bis researches relative to the
Imperial Library at Constantinople. Vide infra Part III. chap.
4. sect. 2.

Salvete aureoli mei libelii,
MesE delicioB, mei lepores,
Quam vos saepe oculis juvat videre,
Et tritos manibus tenere nostris !
Tot vos eximii, tot eruditi,
Prisci lumina saeculi et recenti's,
Confecere viki, suasque vobis
Ausi credere lucubrationes,
Et sperare decus perenne scriptis;
Neque hsec irrila spes fefellit illos.

Henkicus de Rantzab, de Bibliotheci suS*

Liber est lumen cordis, speculum corporis, virtutum ma-
glster, vitiorum depulsor, corona prudentum, diadema sapien-
tum, gloria honorum, decus eruditorum, comes itineris, do-
mesticus amicus, collocutor et congerro tacentis, coUega et
consiliarius praesidentis, vas plenum sapientiae, myrothecium
eloquentiae, hortus plenus fructibus, pratum iloribus dislinctum,
principium intelligentise, memoriae penus, mors oblivionis, vita
recordatioiiis. Vocatus, properat; jussus, festiiiat; semper
praesto est, nunquam non morigerus ; rogatus, confestim re-
spondet ; sincerus consultor, non assentatur ; non loquitur ad
gratiam, nemini parcens, quia neminem timet ; nihil menti-
tur, quia nihil poscit ; te nunquam fastidit, etiamsi tu ilium
fastidio habeas; arcana revelat; obscura illustrat; ambigua
certiorat ; perplexa resolvit, etc. etc.

Lucas de Pbnna, apud Morhof. Polyhist. lib. 1. c. 3. § 24.

INTRODUCTION

TO THE

STUDY

Bibliography literally signifies the description
of Books : in a more extended sense, it denotes
the knowledge of books, as it regards, firsts
the materials of which they are composedj^ — se*
condly, the subjects discussed . by their respective
authors;— ?A?Vrf/^, the knowledge of the different
editions of booksj their degrees of rarity, cu-
riosity, and real value ; — and lastly, the rank
which they ought to hold in the system of clas-
sification, adopted for arranging a Library.

Books are either manuscript or printed: the
former are written with the hand, and offer to
the bibliographer a variety of interesting in-
quiries. He ought to be acquainted with Ma-
nuscripts of every age, with the materials on

28 INTRODUCTION TO THE

which they are written, the instruments antiently
employed for writing, and the different charac-
ters used for the transmission of ideas.

The consideration of printed books leads us
to the knowledge of the origin of Typography :
and a bibliographer should be acquainted with
the details of the art of printing, as well as with
its history.

The present Manual, therefore, " divides itself
into three parts.

I. The First Part will be found to contain
a succinct account,

1. Of the different substances employed for
manuscripts and printed books,

2. Of Manuscripts in general, including the
origin of writing.

3. Of the History of Printing, whether with
blocks or types, in Europe, Asia, and America,
including the various improvements, which have
been majde in the typographic art.

II. The Second Part comprises,

1. Some general Observations on Books.

2. An Essay on the knowledge of Books, their
relative value and scarcity ; and

3. A System of Classification for a Library,
ejshibiting the order to be pursued in arranging
the faculties and divisions of a Catalogiie.

III. The Third Part presents an Arranged
List of the principal works hitherto published, re-

STUDY OF BIBLIOGRAPHY. 29

lative to Literary History in general, and to Bib-
liography in particular ; including also some
account of the chief imperial, royal, and other
modern Public Libraries, both British and fo-
reign, — ^together with a concise statement of the
principal schemes, which have been offered, for
the classification of Libraries.

PART I.

CHAPTER I,

On the different Substances employed for Many^
scripts and Printed Books,

SECTION I.
Substances in use before the Invention of Paper^

§ 1. STONE. — It is pretty generally agreed
that stone and wood were the first substances,
on which, in the earliest ages, figures, and af-
terwards letters, were engraven. Of this, we
have abundant proof from the very antient mo-
numents of the Chaldeans, and especially from
the obelisks of the Egyptians, covered with
hieroglyphics, which have subsisted to the pre^
sent age, unimpaired by the ravages of time'.

Josephus* relates that the descendants of Seth,

' Several obelisks were transported, by order of different
Emperors, to Rome, where they still remain, monuments of
Egyptian art.

* Ant. Jud. lib. 1. c. 3. sub fine.

MATERIALS USED FOR WRITING. 31

knowing from a prediction of Adam that the
world would be destroyed, once by fire and once
by water, made two pillars, — one of brick, and
the other of stone. On each of these columns
they inscribed their astronomical discoveries ;
in order that, if the pillar of brick should be
destroyed by the flood, the pillar of stone might
remain, and exhibit those discoveries to man-
kind : and this stone pillar (he adds) was to be
seen in his time in the land of Siriad.

This account of Josephus is generally cdnsi-
defed to be fabulous': nor is it improbable, that
the credulous historian of the Jews confounds
the pillars of the antediluvian Sethj, with those
erected in Syria by Seth or Sesostris, king of
Egypt, to commemorate his conquests in Asia ;
and which columns Herodotus relates that he
saw*. From the sacred writings, however, we
have indubitable evidence of engraving on
stone ^, in rembte ages : the use of marble and
stone in later times, for perpetuating the remem-
brance of events, is sufficiently attested by the

' It was, however> credited by Dr. Parsons; who, in his
Remains of Japhet, (p. 346 et seq.) has ineffectually attempted
to support their authenticity. Some plausible but (we think)
unsatisfactory conjectures are also urged, in favour of the pil-
lars of Seth, by the learned Author of " Scripture Illustrated,"
va his " Thoughts on the subject of Early Writing." (4to p. 8.)
* Herod, lib, 3. c. 106. ' Exod. xxxi. r. 1.

32 MATERIALS USED

Arundel marbles and other monuments of anti-
quity, now in existence.

§ 2. BRicKs.--The antient Ghaldeans en*
graved or wrote their astronomical observatiorig
on bricks, for 720 years according to Epigenes,
or for 480 years according to Berosus and Cfl*
todemus, as cited by Pliny'.

Considerable quantities of bricks have, withift
a few years, been dug up, in the vicinity of HiMeh
on the Euphrates, the spot where, according to
Major Rennel, and the antient geographers,
Babylon was situateid : of these interesting relics
of antiquity some specimens were transmitted
from India ; and it was stated in several peri-
odical journals, that twelve engravings of them
were to be made, and impressions of them cir-
culated among the literati of Europe. Txvo of
these bricks were presented to the National In-
stitute at Paris. On them are engraven, or rather
stamped, characters greatly resembling the ar-
row-headed Persepolitan characters, described
by Chardin, Le Brun, and other oriental tra-
vellers. It would exceed the limits of this work
to state the different hypotheses of learned men,
concerning these characters.— Are they relics of
the bricks, on which the Chaldeans inscribed
their astronomical discoveries? — This interesting
I Nat. Hist. lib. 7. c. 57. ed. Bipont.

FOR WRITING. 33

inquiry can only be answered by decyphering
the characters, — a task that may now be almost
regarded as hopeless'.

§ 3. LEAD. — The use of lead, for preserving
documents, was not unknown to the antients,'
In the book of Job (c. xix. v. 24,) the patriarch
expresses an ardent wish that his words were
engraven on kad or on a rock. The Works and
Days of Hesiod are said to have been inscribed
on a leaden table, carefully preserved in the
Temple of the Muses ; which, when shewn to
Pausanias, was almost entirely corroded through
age*. History indeed records that tablets of
lead and copper^ have been indifferently em-
ployed for preserving treaties, laws, and alliances;
Some writers have asserted, that leaden paper
(charta plumbea) was formerly used; but it is
most probable, that such paper, if it ever existed,
was nothing else than thin plates of lead, rer
duced to a very great degree of tenuity by the
mallet*. Montfaucon assures us that, in the year
1699, he purchased at Rome a book consisting

' In the MontJdi) Magazine for 1801, vol. xii. p. 5, Dr.
Hager.has given an engraving of one of the Ghaldee bripks,
and has offered various conjectures concerning them.

* Pausanias, in Boeoticis, c. 31,

? The treaty of the hero, Judas Maccabeus, with thi Ro-
mans, was on copper (or brass according to the English Ver-.
^ion), 1 Mac. c. viii. v. 23.

■? Montfaucon, Palaeog. Grasc. p. 16.

34 MATERIALS USED

entirely of lead, about four inches long, and
three inches wide. Not only the two pieces
which formed the cover, but also all the leaves
(six in number,) together with the stick inserted
through the rings which held the leaves together,
as well as the hinges and nails, were entirely
composed of lead. This volume contained Egyp-
tian Gnostic figures, and other unintelligible
writing': it is not known what has since become
of this curious article.

§ 4. BRASS. — The use of brass among the Ro-
mans, for preserving their public memorials^ is
established by various authorities*. The Roman
soldiers, when in the field of battle, were allowed
the privilege of writing their wills on their buck-
lers or on the scabbards of their swords^. It
is certain that the Laws of the Twelve Tables
were engraven on brass ; and most probably
perished in the fire, which in Vespasian's reign
consumed the Capitol, and destroyed three thou-
sand tables of brass, containing the laws, treaties,
and other important documents of the Roman
Empire*.

Brass was in like manner used in the East, as

' Antiq. Expliquee, torn. 2. p. 378.

* Liv. 1. 3. c. 57. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 1. 34. c. 9. Julius Ob-
sequens de Prodigiis, c. 123.

^ Cod. Justinian. 1. 6. tit. 21. c, 35.

♦ Liv. 1. 3. c. 57.

FOR WRITING. 35

we learn from the first Book of Maccabees',
and the Syrian Churches, recently discovered in
Malayala by the Rev. Dr. Buchanan, are in pos-
session of six antient tablets, containing grants
of privileges made to their ancestors : they are
composed of a mixed metal ; the engraved page
on the largest plate is thirteen inches in length,
by about four in breadth. They are closely
written, four of them on both sides of the plate,
making in all eleven pages : on the pla-te, re-
puted to be the oldest, the writing is perspicuously
jengraved in nail-headed or triangular headed
letters, resembling the Persepolitan or Babylo-
nish. On the same plate there is writing in
another character, which has no affinity with
any existing character in Indostan. The grant
on this plate appears to be witnessed by four
Jews of rank, whose names are distinctly written
in an old Hebrew character, resembling the Pal-
myrene Alphabet. The Jews of Cochin are in
posseS(Sipn of two similar tablets, containing pri-
vileges granted at a remote period*.

§ 5. WOOD. — Plutarch' and Aulus Gellius"^

' Ch. viii. V. 32. and xiv. v. 18.

* Appeodix to Buchanan's " Star jn the E^t." Dr. B. has
translated the Jewish Tablets in his " Christian Researches in
Asia," p. 330 — ^224. 8vo edit. The original plates are depo-
sited in the Public Library at the University of Cambridge.

3 In Solon. (Fit. vol. i. p. 30. ed. Bryan.)

♦ Noctes Attica, lib. 2. c. 12.

D 2

36 MATERIALS USED

respectively state that Solon inscribed his laws on
tablets of wood, called Axones : but it is also cer-
tain that some of that philosopher's laws were en-
graven on stone, and that these stone tables were
called Kufgfr;. A considerable difference of opi-
nion prevailed among the Greek writers, not only
concerning the names of the tablets, but also
with regard to the material of which they were
composed ; their opinions have been stated by
Archbishop Potter'; and on a review of this
subject, it should seem that all general laws con-
cerning sacrifices &c. were inscribed on trian-
gular pieces of stone called Kvp^eig, while those
which related to civil affairs, were engraven on
the wooden axones, which were quadrangular,
and so contrived as to turn on axes, and present
their contents on all sides to the eyes of the pas-
senger. Plutarch mentions these axones, as re-
maining in the Prytaneum, till his time\ The
laws on both these tables were mscrihed0ou<rTpo(prihv,
that is, the first line began ftom right to left,
the second from left to right, and so in suc-
cession, in the same manner as ploughmen trace
their furrows.

The laws of the Twelve Tables, among the Ro?
mans, were written on oaken planks according
to j^caliger, or on ivory tables according tp

■ Archseol. Grsec. vol. i. p. 157. (ed. 1804.)

* In Solon, ut supra. Meursii Lect, Att. lib. 1. c. 22.

FOR WRITING. S7

Pomponius'w It is however more certain, that
they were engraven on brass / as already
stated*. ,

Table-books, made of small pieces of wood,
were in use, long before the time of Homer ^:
box, ivory, and citron-wood were the materials
chiefly employed*. . They were, in general, co-
vered with wax, and the writing was executed
with styles or pens made of gold, silver, brass,
iron, copper, ivory or bone, which at one end
were pointed for the purpose of inscribing the
letters, and smooth at the other extremity for
the purpose of erasing. These tablets, when
collected and fastened together, composed a
book, called Codex or Caudex, i. e. a trunkj
from its resemblance to the trunk of a tree cut
into several planks*. Sometimes also they were

' De Orig. Jur. lib. 2. Pitisci Lex, Rom. Ant. tora.^ 2. Art.
tahulce duodecim.

* Liv. lib. 3; cj 57. See p. 34, supra.

^ Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. 13. c. II. Iliad, lib. 7. 1691 table-
books were also known to, and used by, the Jews. See Prov.
c. III. 3. Isa. c. XXX. 8. Habakkuk, c, ii. 2. & Luke c. i.
V. 63.

* Pitiscus, in his Lexicoii (lorn. 2. voce Pugillares) has cited
several passages from classic writers, who mention these ar-
ticles. The Edicts of the senate were written in ivory books,
thence ealled Libri Elephantini. See p. xx, xxi, supra.

' Varro, De Vita Pop. Rom. 1. 3. makes use of the word
Codex; and Seneca, De Brevitaie Vitx, c. 21. writes Cau-
dex.

38 MATERIALS USED

covered with chalk or plaster, substances equally
proper for receiving ev^ty kind of writing : when
they consisted only of two leaves, they were
called libri diptychi, and in this form they are
sometimes met with, in the cabinets of the cu-
rious.

When epistles were written on tables of
wood, they were usually tied together with
thread, the seal bieing put upon tiie knot; whence
the phrase, linUm mcidere, to break open a letter^
was common among the Romans. Some of these
table-books were large, and perhaps heavy : for,
in Plautus, a schoolboy of seven years old is
represented as breaking his master's head with
his table-book'.

Table-books, written upon with styles, con-
tinued in use on the continent, till the com-
mencement of the 14th century, and (it should
seem from a passage in Chaucer'' ) were not en-
tirely laid aside, in Erigiand, in the 15th cen-
tury ^ The Library of St. Victor, at Paris, con-
tains an account of the expenses of Philip le Bel
written on tables of wax: and Mr. Astle*
mentions, that in the Sloanian Library (No. 4852)
there are six specimens of Cufic writing, on

" Bac. Act. 3. Seen. -3. v, 38. (ed. Bipont.)

Sumpners Tale, v. 33.
' Astle's Origin of Writing, p. 201, &!. ed. 1803,
* Ibid. p. 199.

FOR WRITING. 39

Ijoards, about two feet in length by six inches
in breadth. Before the invention of paper, the
Chinese wrote, with an iron pen, on boards or
broad pieces of bamboo '.

Wood also was the material employed by the
antient Britons for conveying their ideas : an
account of their method of writing will be found

it^a, CHAP. II. SECT. II. § 7.

§ 6. LEAVEs.-T^Several antient nations made
use of leaves for the transmission of their ideas.
Pliny, speaking of the Egyptians, says that men
first wrote on the leaves of palm-trees'' : Diodo-
rus Siculus ^ relates, that the judges of Syracuse
were antieody accustomed to write, on the leaves
of the olive-tree, tJie names of such persons, as
were condemned to banishment, which sentence
was termed petajism, from the Greek woi'd
wB^cAov, a l£sa£

. Wnimg on palm, and other leaves, is still
practised in dii&rent parts of the East : in the
"Sloanian library, there are upwards of twenty
jmaituseripts written on leaves, written in the
Sanskrit, Burman, Pegman, Ceylonese and other

' Duhalde, Descr. de la Ohine, torn. 2. p. 239. He further
states, that' the Chinese wrote, antiently, upon metal, speci-
mens of which were, in his time, preserved by the curious.

^ Hist. Nat. I. 13. c. 2. Servius, (in Virg. iEn. lib. 3. v.
443.) says that the Cumaean Sybil wrote on palm-leaves. Juv.
Sat. 8. V. 126.

' Lib. 11. c. 88. (torn. 4. p. 270. ed. Bipont.)

40 MATERIALS USED

languages '. In Tanjore and other parts of Ini.
dia, the pahnyra-leaf is used "". The com-
mon books of the Birmans, like those of the
Hindoos, particularly of such as inhabit the
southern parts of India, are composed of the
palmyra-leaf, on which the letters are engraved
with a stylus ^i In their more elegant books,
the Birmans write on sheets of ivory, or on very
fine white palmyra leaves : the ivory is stained
black, and the margins are ornamented with gild-
ing, while the characters are enamelled or gilt.
On the palmyra leaves the characters are in ge-
neral of black enamel : and the ends of the leaves
and margins are painted with flowers in various
bright coloursi A hole through both ends of
each leaf serves to connect the whole into a vo-
lume by means of two strings, which also pass
through the two wooden boards that serve for
binding. In the finer binding of these kinds of
books, the boards are lacquered ; the edges of
the leaves are cut smooth and gilt, and the title
is written on the upper board. The two boards
are by a knot or jewel secured at a little distance
from the boards, so as to prevent the book from

' Ayscough's Catalogue of the Sloane Librarj/, p. 904 906.

Mr. Astle (p. 49.) has described several specimens of this sort.

' Dr. C. Buchanan's '' Christian Researches in Asia," p. 70
f 1. 8vo edit.

Symes's Account of an Embassy to Ana, vol. ii. p. 409. 8vo.

FOR WRITING. 41

falling to pieces, but sufficiently distant to admit
of the upper leaves being turned back, while
the lower ones are read. The more elegant
books are in general wrapped up in silk cloth,
and bound round by .a garter, in which the na-
tives ingeniously contrive to weave the title of
the book '.

The Ceylohese sirtihetimes make use of the
palm-leaf, but generally prefer that of the Ta-
lipoUtree, on account of its superior breadth and
thickness^ From these leaves, which are of imi
mense size^ they cut out slips from a foot to a
foot and a half long, and about two inches broad.
These slips being smoothed, and all excrescences
pared off \Vith a knife, they are ready for use
without any other preparation : a fine-pointed
steel-pencil, like a bodkin, and set in a wooden
or ivory handle .ornamented according to the
owner's taste, is employed to write or rather to
engrave their' characters on these talipot slipsj
which are very thick and tough. In order to
render the characters more visible and distinct,
they rub them over with oil mixed with pulve-
rised charcoal^ which process also renders them

' Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 306. 8vo edit. Dr. F. Bu-
chanan has given an interesting account of the table-books
and libraries of the Burmans; which is well wortliy of the read-
er's perusal.

43 MATERIALS USED

SO permanent, that they never can be effaced.
When one slip is insufficient to contain all that
they intend to write on any particular subject,
the Ceylonese string several together by passing
a piece of twine through them, and attach them
to a board in the same way as we file news-
papers '.

§ 7. BARK OF TREES. — The bark of trees has
been employed as a material for writing, in every
age and quarter of the globe ; by the antient
Latins the inner bark (Liber) was preferred;
which word in time was used to denote a book
itself. The use of bark for this purpose still
prevails in some parts of Asia.

Thus, the sacred books of the Birmans are
sometimes composed of thin stripes of bambod,
ddicately plaited, and varnished over in such a
manner as to form a smooth and hard surface
wpon a leaf of any dimensions : this surface is
afterwards gilt, and ike sacred letters are traced
upon it in black and shining japan ; the margin

" Percival^s Account of the Island of Ceylon, p. 205. The
Bramin maniascripts, in the Tehnga language, sent to Oxforp
from Fort St. George, are written on the leaviesof the Anapana,
or Palma Malabarica, In the Maldive Islands, the natives
are said to write on the leaves of the Macarciquean, which are
a fathom and a half («i«e feet!) long, and aibout a foot broad:
and in other parts of the East Indies the leaves of the plantain
tree are employed for the same purpose.

FOR WRITING. 43

is illumined by wreaths and figures of gold on a
red, green or black ground '.

The books of the Battas (one of the nations
inhabiting the island of Sumatra) are composed
of the inner bark of a certain tree, cut into
long slips, and folded in squares, leaving part
of tlie wood at each extremity to serve for the
outer covering. For this purpose, the bark is
shaved smooth and thin, and afterwards rubbed
over with rice-water : the pen employed is a
twig or the fibre of a leaf, and their ink is made
of the soot of dammar (a species of resin or tur-
pentine) mixed with the juice of the sugar-cane'.
One of these books in the Batta character is in
the Sloanian Library (No. 4726), written in per-
pendicular columns on a long piece of bark
folded' up so as to represent a book. The Su-
matran manuscripts of any bulk and importance
are written on the inner bark of a tree, cut into
slips of several feet in length, and folded together
in squares j eacih square or fold answering to a
page or leaf. For more common occasions they
write on the outer coatof the joint of a bamboo,
sometimes whole, but generally split into pieces
of two or three inches in breadth : and these
writings, or rather scratchings, are often per-

' Symes's Entbassy to Ava, vol. ii. p. 409.
" Marsden's History of Sumatra, p. 383.

44 MATERIALS USED

formed with a considerable degree of neat-
ness '.

A specimen of writing on bark occurs in the
Sloanian Library (No. 3748): it is a Nabob's
letter on a piece of bark, about two yards in
length, and richly ornamented with gold. In
the Bodleian Library (No. 3207) is a book of
Mexican hieroglyphics painted on bark ; and
a specimen of Latin writing on bark is to be found
in the Cotton Library \ The people of Malabar
also frequently write upon bark with the stylus,
of which several specimens are preserved in the
British Museum, as well as in many other re-
positories ^

§ 8. LINEN. — Among the various substances
which necessity induced men to employ, we ma^
mention linen, which Pliny seems to think was
confined to private persons and their concernsd
Welearn however, from various authorities, that
these linen books (libri lintei) contained also the
names of the magistrates^ treaties and public
documents relative to the republic, which were
deposited in the temple of the goddess Moneta^
and likewise private letters of the emperors *.

* Marsden's History of Sumatra, p. 201;
'■ Astle on Writing, p. 201, 202

' Catalogue of the Harleian MSS. Nos. 170, 195, 196.

♦ Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. 13. c. 2, Livy, lib. 4. c. 7 & 20. Vo-
piscus, in Aurel. c. 8.

FOR WRITING. 45

But the use of linen was not confined to the
Romans: the very old Egyptians were accus-
tomed to write on linen such things as they de-
signed should last for a long time, of which some
remains are extant to this day'. There is
now deposited in the British Museum a piece
of writing of this kind, which was taken out
of an Egyptian mummy ; and a similar book
was found in a mummy by M. Denon^.

§ 9. SKINS.-: — In some ages and places, men
have written on the skins of different animals.
Herodotus relates, that by a very antient cus-
tom, the -lonians called their books dipterce ov
skins, because, at a time when the plant Biblos
was scarce, they substituted for it the skins of
sheep and goats. The historian adds, that many
of the barbarians used skins for this purpose
within his recollection ^. Zonaras and Cedrenus
also state that in the fire, which happened in
Constantinople in the fifth century (in the reign
of the emperor Basiliscus,) the flames consumed
the intestines of a serpent, on which the Iliad
and Odyssey of Homer were written in letters
of gold <*.

' Harmer's Observations on Scripture^ vol. iii. p. 132. 4th
edit.

* A fac-simileof this may be found in M. Denon's Travels.

3 Herod. 1. v. c. 38, torn. 2. p. 23. ed. Oxon. 1809.

♦Zonarae Annaies, torn. 2. 1. 14. p. 52, (Paris, 1687) Cedreni
Chron. torn. 1. p. 351. (Paris, 1647.)

46 MATERIALS USED

§ 10. PARCHMENT AND VELLUM. — Parchment
is the skin of sheep and goats, prepared by such a
process as renders it proper for writing upon ;
vellum is a finer kind of parchment made of the
skins of abortive or at least of sucking calvjes,
and adapted to the same purpose.

The use of parchment is confessedly very an-
tient : there is every reason to believe that the
Jews employed this article for transcribing their
law. Josephus states that Ptolemy Philadelphus
was struck with admiration, when the volume or
roll containing the law of God in golden letters
was unfolded. The antiquity of parchment is
further confirmed by Diodorus Siculus, who
states that the antient Persians wrote their re-
gisters, or national annals, on skins : their neigh-
bours the Parthians also (according to Pliny ')
employed the same material in his time.

It is by no means certain, who was the first
inventor of parchment. Pliny relates from Varro,
that, a dispute having arisen between one of the
Ptolemies, king of Egypt, and Eumenes king of
Pergamus, concerning the erection of their great
Libraries, Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of
the papyrus or Egyptian paper ; in consequence
of this Eumenes caused parchment to be pre-
pared from skins, which was thenceforth called
Pergamenum and Charta Pergamena from the city
» Nat. Hist. lib. 13. c. 11.

FOR WRITING. 4?

of Pergamus. Learned men have differed in
opinion, concerning the Eumenes noticed by
PKny : it most probably was Eumenes, the son of
Attains I. who improved and rendered more com-
mon the use of parchment, but who certainly
could not have been its inventor'. The dura-
bility of parchment has caused it to be used in
every succeeding age for deeds and other im-
portant documents.

Sometimes the skins of other animals were
employed for the formation of manuscripts.
Thus, the Hbrary at Dresden contains a Mexican
calendar traced on human skin; and that of
Vienna presents another MS. from the same
country, full of figures designed and coloured
on the same material.

§ 11. LEATHER. — In the coffer of a synagogue
of the Black Jews, in the interior of Malayala,
Dr. Buchanan relates that there has been found
an old copy of the law, written on a roll of lea-
ther : the skins are sewed together, and the roll
is about fifteen feet in length. It is in some
places worn out, and the holes have been patched
with pieces of parchment.

Some of the Jews suppose that this roll came
originally from Senna in Arabia; others have
heard that it came from Cashmire. The Cabul

* Peigtiot, Essai sur I'Histoire <?« Parchmin et Vtlin, Paris,
1812.

Missing Page

50 MATERIALS USED

deposited in the Ambrosian Library at Milar^,
and which is now in the Imperiial Library at
Paris. It is a Latin translation, by Rufinus, of
some books of Josephus's Jewish Antiquities : the
characters are Lombardo-Roman, of the fifth
century, and almost effaced,— Mabillon, and
the authors of the Nouveau Tr,af,t6 de Diploma^
tique, mention a few other fragments of manu-
scripts on papyrus.

We learn from Pliny, that the Egyptians made
their paper in the, following manner. — They
began with lopping off the two extremities of the
papyrus, viz. the head and the root, as of no use
to the manufacturer : the remaining stem they
slit lengthwise into two equal parts ; and from
each of these they stripped the thin scaly, pel-
licles, of which it consisted, with the point of
a needle or knife. The innermost, of these pel-
licles were considered as the best, and those
nearest the rind as the worst : they were accord-
ingly kept apart, and manufactured into different
sorts of paper. As the pellicles were taken off,
they were extended on a table ; two or more of
them were laid transversely over each other, so
that the fibres formed right angles. In this state
they were cemented together by the muddy
water of the Nile, and subjected to the operation
of a press, in order to produce adhesion. When
the water and pressure proved ineffectual, a paste

FOR WRITING. 51

made of the finest wheatpn ^flouri mixed with a
small proportion of vinegar, was used; the sheets
were again pressed, and afterwards dried in the
sun "1 After this process, they were flattened
and smoothed, by beating them with a mallet,
when they became paper: which was sometimes
polished by rubbing with a smooth hemisphere
of stone, glass, &c.

Although paper was an important branch of
commerce to the Egyptians, yet its manufacture
was not materially improved, until the Romans
became masters of Egypt: to their invention
and industry the Egyptians were indebted for
the polishing with ivory, and the operations of
the hammer and press,

Phny has enumerated several kinds of- this
paper ' :

1 . Ckarta Hieratica.- — Sacred Paper : it was ap-
propriated soldly to religious :books. Afterwards,

' Mr. Bruce denies this account Of Pliny to be correct, ahd
states that no such quality is to be found in the jjcater of th^
Nile : on the contrary, he fouod 'it pf 9II others the njost im-
proper, until it had settled, ah4 was absolutely divested of all
the earth which it had gathered in its turbid" state. ' Mr. Bruce
made several pieces of paper from the jiapyrus bcth in Abys-
sinia , and in Egypt; and is of opinion . that the saccharine
piatter, withTvhjch the,whole jujce of the plant is impregnated,
causes the adhesion of the strips together, and that the use of
the water of the Nile is simply to dissolve this sugar, anc^
put it perfectly and equally in fusion. Travels, voK vii. ISSi
'-*.Nat. Hist. lib'. xiii>c. 12. (g. 23. ed. Bipont.)

E 2

52 MATERIALS USED

from adulation of Augustus, the best sort was
called Charta Augusta, and the second kipd was
termed Charta Liviana, in honour of his wife
Livia. — Om- Imperial and Royal papers probably
correspond with these two sorts.

2. Charta Jmphitkeatricaf from the place where
it was manufactured : this was a coarse kind of
paper ; but being greatly improved in its texture
by the processes introduced by FanniuSj it was
called, after his name,

3. Charta Fanniana. — The paper, however,
which was not so curiously manufactured, re-
tained its former name of Charta Amj>hitheatrka.

4. Charta Saitica was made from the coarser
pieces of the papyrus, and derives its name from
the town of Sais, where it was manufactured in
great abundance.

5. Charta Tceniotica, thus called from the place
where it was made : it was a still coarser kind
than any of the preceding sorts, • and sold only
by weight.

6. Charta Emporetica, (or shop-paper) as its
name imports, was unfit for writing, and used
only fot tying up parcels.

These different sorts of paper were of various
sizes. — The best, which was prepared froin the -
inmost parts or heart of the papyrus, was thir-
teen inches broad ; — the C. Hieratica, eleven ; —
the C. Fanniana, eleven ; — the C. Amphitheatrica,

FOR WRITING. 53

nine; — the C. Saitica was still narrower, and
would not bear the hammer ; — the C. Emporetka
was not above six inches in breadth. The C.
At^sta was held in great esteem for its white-
ness and smoothness, but was so thin as scarcely
to bear the pen j consequently it sunk, and the
letters appeared through^ on the other side. To
remedy this inconvenience, the Emperor Clau-
dius caused paper to be made of a thicker tex-
ture, which was called Charta Claudia^ in honour
of the inventor. That emperor also caused a
still larger sort of paper to be made, termed
Macrocollum : its sheets were from one foot to a
foot and a half broad ; but, being found incon-
venient in the- use, it was soon discontinued.

The Claudian paper was held in the greatest
request, the Augustan being reserved for the
writing of imj)erial letters: the Livian paper
kept its rank, possessing none of the properties
of the first, but in every respect resembling the
second. This sort of paper was very durable ;
and Pliny states, that there was in his time abund-
ance of volumes of Caius and Tiberius Gracchus,
of Cicero, Augustus and Virgil, all written on
it; and to these may be added the books of
Numa Pompilius, abovementioned (page 49).

As the date of the invention of this useful
art of making paper is doubtful, so the time
when it was lost, or superseded .by one more

54 MATERIALS USED

convenient, is equally uncertain.- Edstathfii'S,
the' Scholiast on Homer, says it was disused in
his time, ill 1170. Montfaucon has mentioned
fragments, written oh this paper in the siatk-
century : Mabillon endeavours to prove its ex*'
istence in the ninth century, and even that there
were some popish bulls' written on it so late as
the eleventh, c&ntuvy. He gives, as instances, a
part of St. Mark's Gospel' preserved at Venice^
as being upon papyrus^ and the fragment of Jo--
sephus at Milan upon cotton paper; while Maffei
proves this to be just the reverse, tha,t of St. Mark
being cotton, and the other he thinks indispu-
tably to be Egyptian papyrus, so that Mabillon's
authority, as to the papal bulls, may fairly be
questioned. Mr. Bruce confirms the Opinion of
Maffei '.

§ 2. PAPEE OF bArk (Charta CorticeaJ. — Of the
origin of this paper we know nothing: Mont-
faucon* thinks it the same as the xylochartion
of the Greeks. Though some authors have
confounded this sort of paper with that made
fi'om the papyrus, its name evidently indicates it
to be made from the bark of trees. The Scholiast
bn the BasiUcs ^ expressly affirms itj and adds

' Travels, vol. vii. 128.
^ Montfaucon, Palaeograph. 1. i. c. 2.
^ Lib. 24. cited by Du Cange, Gloss. Med. et Irif. Greec.
tsm. i, p, I026j 1027i

FOR WRITING. 55

that it was used for the Imperial Protocols, in
order to render the foi'ging of false diplomas
more difficult.

Paper made of bark is thicker than that of
papyrus, and liot only breaks easily, but also
separated into lamina ; so th^t, on lifting up the
surface, the letters come off, and the paper re-
mains blank : of this, an instance occurred in
a MS. on paper of bark, which Montfaucon saw
in thfe library of St. Germain des Pr6s. He ob*
Sertes, however, that it is very difficult to dis-
tinguish the latter from paper made with the
papyrus.

§ 3. CHINESE t'APERS. — 1* he Chinese make their
paper from the bark of the bamboo and other
trees ' : it is so thin and transparent that it will
oilly admit of writing upon one side. Frequently,
however, they double their sheets, and cement
them together with a fine glue, which is scarcely
discernible ; the paper being so smooth and
even, and the glu^ so thin and clear, that it ap-
pears like a single leaf. The invention of paper
in China is said to' have been about fifty years
after the birth of Christ; though some writers
have contended that it is of much earlier anti-
quity among that people.

'Duhalde, (torn. ii. p. 239, vol. i. p. 366, of English fol.
edit.) has described at great length the processes pursued by
the Chinese. See also Barrow's Travels in China, 4to. p. 310-

56 MATERIALS USED

Each province in China has its own paper :
thus, in the province of Se-tchuen it is made of
hemp ; — in the province of Fo-kien, it is pre-
pared from soft bamboo ;— in the northern pro-
vinces, the bark of the mulberry-tree is employ-
ed j— in the province of Tche-kiang, wheat or
rice-straw is manufactured into paper ;— in the
province of Kiang-nan, the Chinese make a kind
of parchment from the cocoons of silk-worms,
which they call Lo ouen tchi : it is fine, smooth,
and fit for inscriptions j — lastly, in the province
of Hou-quang, the tree Tchu or Ko-tchu fur-
nishes the principal material for paper. — The
Chinese also re-manufacture old. paper, in order
to supply the extraordinary demands for this ar-
ticle.

The finest silk-paper is that manufactured at
Samarkand, the metropolis of Great Tartary:
it is very highly esteemed in the East, and is
used by the Chinese for printing, as well as the
other sorts of paper mentioned above. It is
probable that tlie discovery of silk-paper was
communicated to the neighbouring nations, —
first to the Indians, and afterwards to the Per-
sians : from them it passed in the seventh cen-
tury to their Saracen Conquerors, who trans-
mitted it to the Arabs, next to the Greeks % and

' Lambinet, Recherches sur rimpriraerie, p. 29. — Peignot,
Diet, de Bibliologie, torn. ii. p. 28. — The Harleian Library in

FOR WRITING, 57

these , to the Latins, at the time of the Cru-
sadeis. :

§ J!f JAPANESE PAPER is made from the bark of
the Morus papyrifera sativa, or true paper-tree,
by the Japanese called Kaadsi ' : it undergoes
a very long preparation, in order to reduce it
into a paste, proper for making paper. With
this paste is mixed a very glutinous extract from
rice and the root oreni, which renders the paper
extremely solid and beautifully white. There is
also a false paper-tree, which the Japanese term
Kads Kadsira *. It aflfbrds- only a coarse paper,
fit for packing and for similar purposes ; and
is made in the same manner as the preceding
sort.

The Japanese paper is so prodigiously strong,
that the materials from which it is manufactured
might be made into ropes. Kaempfer adds, that

the British Museum contains- a very valuable Greek MS. of
the Geoponics, with scholia hitherto inedited : it is on silken
leaves, and was written towards the close of the twelfth cen-
tury. Cat. Harl. MSS. vol. i. (preface) p. 26, and vol. ii. p.
273. No. 1868.

'iThe plant is thus designated by Kaempfer. — Papyrus frucfu
moricelsa, sive morus sativa, foliis urticee mortuts, Cortice papy-
rifera. Amoen. Exoticae. p. 471^

* The Papyrus procumbens, lactescens, folio longo lanceolato,
cortice chartaceo of Kaempfer, p. 474. Kaempfer has given
plates of these plants, and described at considerable length the
Japanese processes in manufacturing their papers, pp. 466, et
seq.

38 MATEftlALS USfiD

at Syriga (tht Capital of the province of that
name) there is a kind of paper sold, which is fit
fdr bed-hstngings and Svearifig apparel; it is said
to bear so grieat a resemblance to silk 6r woolleri
stuff, that it is often takeii for those articles.

§ 5. BOOTAN PAPER is prepared, by a simple^
and unexpensive process, from the bark of a
tree, there called Deah. The bark is divided
into siftall shreds, and steeped and boiled in a
ley of wood-ashes : it is then drained,' and re^
dueed (by beating on a stone with a wooden
mallet) to an impalpable ptilpl ; which is thrown
into a reservoir of water and well stirred about,
in order to cleanse it from the coarse' and dirty
particles that float upon the water. It also un-
dergoes a further depuration in another large
reservoir of clean water. "When the preparation
is complete, the parts are finely broken, and that
which sinks in the water appears mucilaginous
to the touch. This paste is then formed into
sheets, upon small reeds set in frames, in the
following manner: — The labourer dips the frame
in the water, and raises up a quantity of the
pulp ; which, by moving the frame in the water^
he spreads equally over the surface of the reeds:
he then raises the frame perpendicularly, the
water drains off, and the frame is hung up till
the sheet is nearly dryj — it is then taken off,
and suspended upon lines.

FOR WRITING. 59

This process eorresponds, in a great degree,
with that ddopted by the Japanese. Colonel
Turner statesi, that the paper thus prepared is of
a much stronger texture than that of any coun-
try with which he is acquainted ; as it is capable
of being woven (when gilt by waiy of ornament)
into the tenure of silk and satin, to which use
Colonel Turner has seen it frequently applied in
the manufactures of China '.

From the bark of a tree by them called jj/io/c*
Jcloi., the Siamese manufacture two kinds of pa-
per, one white and the other black : bpth of
which are coarse artd ill made '^.

§ 6. MADAGASCAR PAPER. — In the island of
Madagascar, paper is made from the bark of the
tree Avo, in a manner not unlike that adopted
in Bootan. The bark is boiled for two day^ in
a good ley, made of the ashes of the same tree^
till it becomes soft and supple : next it is washed
in clean water, beaten to a proper consistency,
and poured afterwards on mats made of exceed-
ingly fine reeds, twisted and regularly joined
together, in order to be drained and become
paper. It is then placed on a leaf^of Balisier,
oiled with menachil, to dry in the sun : each
dried leaf or sheet is afterwards dipped in a

' Turner's Account of an Embassy to the Court of TeShoo
X&ma, in Tibet, 4to. p. 101.
* Peignot, Diet, de Bibliol. torn. ii. p. 16<

60 MATERIALS USED

thick decoction of rice to prevent the paper
from sinking, and is again dried. In this man-
ner the paper becomes smooth, even, and fit. for
use '.

§ 7. ASBESTOS PAPER. — The mineral produc-
tion known by the name of Asbestos ^, possesses
the remarkable quality of resisting the action of
fire, without sustaining any material diminution
of its weight. Its flexible fibres were, by the
antients, manufactured into linen cloth ; and the
ingenuity of the moderns has formed them intp
paper, on which books have been printed '.
The process of fabricating this paper has been
described by Mr. Edward Lloyd, in the Philo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society "*. A
certain quantity of the asbestos was pounded
in a stone mortar, till it was reduced to a downy
substance, like cotton : all the earthy or stony
particles, remaining in the asbestos, were se-
parated by means of a fine sieve ; the asbes-
tos was then taken to a mill, and made into
sheets, of paper by the ordinary process. This

'Flacourt, Hist, de Madagascar, p. 196.

^Asbestos Amiantus, Flexible Asbestos or Mountain-flax of
mineralogists.

' Dr. Burman, Professor at Brunswick, published a treatise
on this fossil ; of which four copies were taken ofF on Asbes-
tos paper. Peignot, Essai sur I'Histoire du Parchemin, p. 2,
note.

*Vol. xiv. pp. 823,824.

FOR WRITING. 61

sort of paper, however, is very brittle and
coarse.

§ 8i COTTON PAPER. — According to Montfau-
con, Cotton Paper (Charta Bomhycina'J was dis-
covered towards the end of the ninth or early in
the tenth century '. Casiri states it to have been
first manufactured in Buchariaj and that the
Arabs ascribe its invention to Joseph Atnra.
He adds that they substituted cotton for silk in
the fabrication of paper, the use of which they
had learned in Persia.

The Arabs established their new manufacture
at Ceuta in Africa, and soon after at Xativa,
Valencia, and Toledo, in Spain. Bucharia was
conquered by them about the year 704 : but the
art of making cotton paper was not introduced
into Europe till the eleventh century ; and be-
fore the twelfth century we have authentic evi-
dence of its being used in the Eastern Empire,
and also in Sicily. Montfaucon cites (from a
Sicilian historian) a diploma of king Roger,
written in the year of the world 6653 [i. e. a.d.
1 1453*, in which that sovereign says that he had
renewed on parchment a, charter which had
been written on cotton paper in the year 1 100,
and another which was dated in 1 1 1 2. Montfau-
con adds that about the same time, the empress

'PalaeoCT. Gr. lib. i. c. 2. Casiri, Bibliotheca Arabico-
Hispana, toin. ii. p. 9.

63 MATERIALS USED

Irene, in the statutes for some religious houses
at Constantinople, says that she had left three
copies of the same statutes in parchment, and
one on paper of cotton. From that period this
paper was still more in use through the Eastern
empire ; and innumerable Greek manuscripts
are found written on it in all the great national
libraries.

The discovery of cotton paper was fortunately
made at a time when parchment was so exceed-
ingly scarce, that the writings of many valuable
authors were erased, for the sake of the parch-
ment ; on which homilies and other works of
devotion were written'!!! The invention of this
paper is supposed to have destroyed the manu-
facture of the Egyptian paper ( papyrus J ; for
which it is every way a preferable substitute,
being both more proper for -writing on, as well
as more durable.

The wretched quality of this paper, subject to,
moisture, worms, and other changes, caused the
Emperor Frederic II. to issue a decree in 1221?
enacting that all public instruments on cotton
paper should thenceforth be null and void, and
allowing the term of two years, within which an-
tient deeds should be transcribed on parchment,

' The MSS. written on parchment thus erased, are called
codices rescripti : — some further account of them wilj be found
infra, chap. ii. sect. ii. § 8.

FOR WRITiN^. 63

Though the use of cotton pjiper has become
general only since the thirteenth century, ^l^arned
men have thought that we are indebted for it to
the Chinese, from whom it passed successively
to the Indians, Persians, and Arabs ; and by the
latter was communicated to, the Western people.
Its use in. Greece has already been noticed j from
that country it passed into Italy, and was by the
Venetians communicated to the Germans in the
ninth century, under the name of Greek Parch',
ment. In Spain, the manufacture of this article
did not commence till after the expulsion of the
Moors from that country.

Cotton Paper has been called by various
names : — the Greeks termed it Boja^w»(V)), from
Bo/«^j/|, (the, Greek name of the cotton shrub) j—
the Latins, Charta Bomfij/cina or Bomhica ; —
some writjers of ^he middle age, Charta gossypina
ox,/pylina; — the Spaniards, Pergamino di panno.
It has also been named Charta pgtonia, and Charta
Damascena^ the paper manufactured at Damas-
cus being of a superior quality; and, lastly,
Charta Serica, from the circumstance of cotton
being imported from the country of the Seresr
(China)'. The manufacture of cotton paper is
said to be still carried on, to a considerable
extent, in the Levant.

§ 9. PAPER FROM LINEN RAGS. — This SOrt of
• Peignot,.t;ssais sur Parchetnini p. 15.

64 MATERIALS USED

pape'r is fabricated and used throughout Europe,
and in every part of the world, whither Europe-
ans have penetrated: it is well known to be made
from linen rags ; which are reduced by various
processes into a paste, and formed into sheets
of different dimensions : these are sized, dried,
pressed, and formed into quires and reams. It
is certain that paper from linen rags is of modern
invention: for the Librl Untei mentioned by Livy
and Phny, were (as we have already seen')
nothing but pieces of linen, prepared to admit
writing, in the same manner as painters prepare
or prime it for a picture.

The period, when this important discovery
was made, has not yet been ascertained. Po-
ly dore VirgiP confesses his ignorance of these
facts : Scaliger, without any kind of proof, at-
tributes the honour of this invention to the
Germans ; M. Wehrs ' fixes the time of its dis-
covery to the year 1308; and M. Breitkopf*
ascribes it to them, in the same year, and states
that they first made it through the medium of
the Italian architects and Italian paper-makers ;
who bound themselves not to disclose the mys^

' Vide supra, pp. 44, 45.

^ De Inventoribus Rerum, lib. ii. c. 8.

^ Treatise on Paper, noticed in the Analytical Review, vol.
ii. p. 99.

* Essay on the Origin of Cards and Linen Paper^ reviewed
in the same journal, vol. ii. p. 581—584.

FOR WRITING. 65

tery of tiie art to any person on this side the
Alps. Fischer' cites an extract from an ac-
count dated 1301, written on paper from rags;
and- exhibiting for a water-mark a circl-e sur-
mounted by a branch, at the end of which is a
star. This paper is thick and well grained ; aud-
its water-lines and water-marks may readily be'
distinguished. Lambinet quotes Peter the Ve-
nerable, abbot of Gluni, who flourished about
the year 1 120, as declaring that paper from linen
rags was in use in his time*. Maffei and Tira-
boschi, however, give' the glory of first making
linen paper to the Italians; — other writersy to
some Greek refugees at Basil,to whom the manner
of making cotton paper in their own country-
had suggested the idea. Duhalde thinks that
the" Europeans derived this invention from the"
Chinese, although no intercourse subsisted be-
tween them till many centuries afterwards. Pri-
deaux thinks that linen paper was brought into
Europe from the East, by the Saracens of Spain.
Mabillon believes its invention to have been in
the twelfth century ; but Montfaucon, after the
most diligent scrutiny, both in France and Italy,
could find no book on this paper before the death

' Essay on Paper Marks, quoted by M. Delandine, Ma«
nuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Lyon, torn. i. p. 43.
* Recherches sur I'lmprimerie, p. 30.

66 MATERIALS USEEl

of Saint Louis (1270)'. Since the fourteentfiis
century, the use of paper, ma-nufaetured frora
linen rags, has become general.

§ 10. PAPER FROM DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES.—

Paper being an article of extensive usefulness,
t^arious experiments have been made by inge-
nious men, to re-fabricate it from old papers,
and also to manufacture it from vegetable sub-
stances. For the- former, we are indebted to
M.M. De Yeux, Pelletier, Molard, and other
eminent chemists : a patent was obtained for, a
similar purpose in this country, but the attempt
failed, and the manufactory has been disconti-
nued ; — re-fabriqated paper may easily be known
by its great brittleness, breaking frequently^
when attempted to be folded or rolled up. This
circumstance probably caused the failure of the
concern.

Many vegetables have been discovered, which
may be advantageously substituted for rags ; and
many schemes were proposed, but none were
carried into effect, previously to the year 1751,
when M. Guettard in France, and in 1765 Dr.
Schaeffer in Germany, published their experi-

• De Vaines, Dict.de Diplomatique, torn. ii. 171. The learned
Benedictine mentions a still earlier specimen of paper from
linen rags : it is a document, with seals, dated 1239, signed
by Adolph, Count of Schaumburg, ibid. 173.

FOR WRITING. 67

m^ts ; and communicated new speciiiieiis of
paper, made from the bark, leaves, wood, sf;raw,
&c. of different plants, shrubs, and trees. In
1786, M. de Villette published a volume of his
Works, in 16riio, on paper made from the bark
of the lime-tree, at the end of which are twenty
specimens of papers, fabricated from as many
different vegetables* Some attempts were made,
a few years since, to manufacture paper from
straw', which however did not entirely succeed.
Paper has also been manufactured from rice by
the Chinese : it is semi-transparent, of a firm
texture, and feels somewhat like the article made
from the papyrus. These specimens were of
green; pink, and straw colours, of a most vivid
hue ; and are said to be strongei', when wetted.
§ 11. COLOURED PAPER. — The most natural
colour of the materials employed for writing,
both among the antients and moderns, has uni-
formly been white, while that of the letters or
characters has been black; — the contrast be-
tween these t\<ro colours rendering the writing
more prominent, and consequently more easy to
be read^ There have however been a few ex-

' Some copies of Mr. Accum's excellent " System of Che-
mistry" (1st edition) .were printed on straw paper. The 19th
vol. of the " Transactions of the Society of Arts" exhibits a
specimen of paper made from the paut plant, a native of In-
dostan,

F 2

68 MATERIALS USED

ceptions, even in the remotest times ; and tliiese
two colours have been varied, as luxury, custom,
or the taste of the scribe have required. He-
rodotus and Diodorus Siculus mention sheep,
calf, and other skins which were tinged with pur-
ple and yellow, and on which the letters were
written in gold and silver with reeds. The Ro-
mans had their wooden or ivory table-books, and
also their tesserae, covered with green wax: their
capital letters, and the titles of their books were
likewise executed with vermillion as well as
among the Greeks.

The practice of writing with coloured ink on
coloured vellum also prevailed in the East ; but
the red writing was most celebrated in Greece,
and under the Greek emperors became a prero-
gative of the Royal Family. The emperor Leo I.
ordained, by an imperial rescript issued in the
year 470, that no imperial decree should be
considered authentic, unless it were signed by
the emperor's hand with purple ink. This re-
gulation continued in force, until the end of the
empire; but in the 12th century, the privilege
of using purple ink was granted to the great,
officers of the empire '.

De Vaines, Diet, de Diplomatique, torn. i. 512. The mark.

of the Greek emperors' signatures was a cross, made with this

sacred ink, which was composed of the blood of the Murex

or purple-fish so amply described by Pliny. (Nat. Hist. lib. ix.

FOR WRITING. 69

In the Augustan age it became the fashion to
ornament manuscripts with vermilHon; and these
decorations afforded employment to a distinct
class of artists, who were respectively called ru-
bricatores, ilhcminatores, miniatores, and minicu-
latores: at first they decorated the initial letters
of periods and paragraphs with red strokes, and
afterwards the letters themselves were wholly
red'.

St. Jerome, who flourished in the fourth cen-
tury, states that, in his time, there were books
written on parchment of a purple colour, in
letters of gold and silver, the covers of which

c. 60.) This shellfish was roasted; and with its pulverized
shells the ink was made.

' Pliny relates, (Nat. Hist. lib. xxxv. c. 2.) that Varro
wrote the lives of seven hundred illustrious Romans^ which
he enriched with their poitraits : and the celebrated Pompo-
nius Atticus, the friend of Cicero, was the author of a work
on the actions of the great men among the Romans, which
he ornamented with their portraits. Nepos in Attico, c. 18.
The practice of illuminating MSS. continued till the com-
mencement of the 17th century : in the first age of printing,
many books have the capitals, and also the first letters of
periods, formed by the hand, and painted red or blue, but
chiefly red. Hence originated the custom of printing the
title-pages of books in black and red, which subsisted in France
till the close of the 18th century, and which has been adopted
in some late reprints of valuable old works, and in a few
modern books. It may not be irrelevant to notice further, that
the word rubric (which occurs in books of Civil Law and in
Liturgies,) originated from this custom.

^0 MATERIALS USED

were .splendidly decorated with gems. Ducange
has cited similar instances from early ecclesias-
tical writers'.

Various public libraries, both in our own
country and on the continent, contain MSS.
chiefly of the Scriptures, on coloured parchment,
and written in gold and silver characters : a
few of these shall be noticed.

The MS. of the four Gospels in the Cotton
Library, entitled Harmoma Evangelica, has the
two first leaves of St. Matthew, of a pui-ple co-
lour ; and the two or three first pages of each
Gospel are in gold capital letters.— ^.The Imperial
Library at Vienna possesses a precious MS. of
the book of Genesis, on purple veUum, written
on letters of gold and silver: it consists of twenty-
six leaves, and is generally allowed to be at least
fourteen hundred years old : there is also in the
same library a manuscript fragment of the Gos-
pels of St. Mark and St. Luke, in gold and silver
letters. — The Codex Aureus, or Golden Booh of
the Royal Library, at Stockholm, contains the
Gospels : the leaves are purple ; the letters,
partly golden, and partly white, with hlack ca-
pital letters. — The Electoral Library, at Munich,
has a Codex quatuor Evangeliorum, of the 9th
century, written on 'violet-coloured paper, with
golden letters, and towards the end, with silver

' Ducange, Gloss. Med. et Inf, Laf, torn. iv. p. 654. col, 2.

FOR WRITING. 71

letters.*— The Codex Argenteus of Ulphilas (pre-
served in the Library at Upsal,) contains the
FiOur Gospels, written in gold and silver letters
on purple vellum. There are, in all, 187 leaves j
but this precious relic of antiquity is imperfect
at the beginning and end. — The Electoral Li-
brary at Dresden possesses a Turkish Chronicle,
written on paper of different colours; and
Wetstein states that he had seen iwo fsalers,
the one in Greek, then preserved in the Library
of Zurich, and the other in Latin, in the Mo-
nastery of St. Germain at Paris ; both of which
were written on purple or violet-coloured parch-
ment'.

Although white paper has liitherto been chiefly
employed for printing, both on account of its
isuperior cheapness, as well as for the greater
effect which it gives to the lettei:-press ; there
are nevertheless extant som^ Works, printed on
coloured paper, which it may not be altogether
irrelevant shortly to notice. The latter however
can only be regarded as articles of curiosity,
and must always be rare ; because a few copies
only have been printed, and the expense of Iheit
impression is also much gireater than that inci-
dent to printing on white paper. M. Peignot
has published a very curious Bibliography of

' Nov. Test. Wetstenii, torn. i. Prolegom. pp. 1, 2.

73 THE ORIGIN

the principal works, known to be in existence,
on coloured paper ' ; and fi-om this the inquisitive
reader will find some particulars in the Appendix
(No. II.) to this volume.

CHAPTER II.

On Manuscripts in general, including the Origin
of Writing.

SECTION I.
The Origin of Writing. '^

It is scarcely possible to assign the precise period
when mankind first began to give existence to
their thoughts, and to transmit their ideas to
posterity, by writing : and it is equally difficult
to ascertain what was the form of the first cha-
racters. Two modes of writing are generally
allowed to have prevailed from a very remote
age, 1. The writing or representing of thoughts
by figures, suitable to the ideas intended to be
conveyed j and 2. The writing of sounds, which
is supposed to have succeeded the former ; and

Repertoire des Bibliographies Speciales, p. 153, et seq.
We are also partly indebted to M. Peignot, for the above ac-
count of MSS. on coloured vellum, &c.

OF WRITING. 73

which by means of certain characters, signifi-
cant of the sound of language, enables us to
transfer our ideas from the eye to the ear, and
'vice versa.

From the general prevalence of hieroglyphic
or picture-writing, not only in antient times, but
also among the inhabitants of America, China,
and the Friendly Islands, when they were re-
spectively first discovered, it has been inferred
by most of the literati, who have investigated
the origin of letters, that hieroglyphic writing
is the most antient ; and that the writing of
sounds has flowed from the latter. Much of
the diificulty attending this question has arisen
from the supposed necessary connexion between
these two modes of representing ideas ;— ra con4
nexion, however, of which the author of these
hints does not perceive the strict necessity : in-
deed (as he hopes will be satisfactorily evinced)
it is equally probable that, when mankind di-
verged to a remote distance from the spot where
they were settled after the Flood, they did in the
lapse of time lose the use and knowledge of let-
ters, which had been transmitted to them by
their ancestors.

Among the different alphabetic writings, the
Chaldean, Egyptian, and Samaritan or Pheni-
cian, are the only ones that dispute the honour

74 THE ORIGIN

of antiquity ; but which of these was the pri-
mordial language, is a point that has greatly ex-
ercised the ingenuity of learned men. Buxtorf^
Conringius, Spanheira, Meier, Marinus, and
Bourguet, consider the Chaldean to be the parent
language, whence all the rest have proceeded.
Cicero, Jamblichus, TertuUian, and Plutarch
ascribe the honour of inventing letters to the
celebrated Thoth, the son and secretary of
Misraim : and their opinion is espoused by
Kircher, who has been strenuously opposed by
Renaudot. By Pliny and Diodorus Siculus, the
Phenicians are regarded as the authors of writingj
and with them agree Genebrard, BeUarmin,
Huet, Montfaucon, Calmet, Renaudot, Joseph
Scaliger, Grotius, Casaubon, Bishop Walton,
Bochart, Vossius, Capellus, Father Simon, the
late Mr. Astle, Mr. J. M. Good, and many othersc
By Phenicia, are understood not only the towns
on the seacoast of Palestine, but also Jude4
and the country inhabited by the Canaanites and
Israelites : by Pkenician writing is intended the
Samaritan or antient Hebrew, differing from the
square or Chaldean Hebrew, which is compara^
tively of modern date ; and which, according
to the opinions of St. Jerome, St. Irenaeus, and
Clement of Alexandria, has been adopted hy
the Jews since their return from the Babylonish

OF WRITING. 75

Captivity'. An additional proof in favour of
the antiquity of the Phenician letters is, the
very great resemblance of the Samaritan cha-
racters to .those of the Greeks ; whose language
is confessedly the most antient in the world,
having subsisted upwards of three thousand five
hundred years, while few other languages have
continued living and inteliigible more than five
hundred years. The most generally received
opinion is, that Cadmus the Phenician, who
settled in Boeotia b. c. 1500, first communi-
cated letters to the Greeks: and this sentiment
is supported on the authorities of Herodotus,
Diogenes Laertius, Pliny, Plutarch, and others
amx)ng the antients, and on those of Scaliger,
Salmasius, Vossius, Bochart, and other moderns.
The Greek characters originally bore a perfect
resemblance to those of the Phenicians; but,
although in the course of time they varied from
their primitive form, yet they still present nu-
merous similar features, which indicate their
origin ; and the oldest Greek monuments, when
compared with the most antient Samaritan coins
and medals, present characters exactly similar.
The most antient writing of Europe therefore
proceeded from the Samaritan, and not from
the Chaldee, to which it has not a single trait

' De Vaines, Diet, de Diplomatique, torn. i. pp. 416j 417.

76 THE ORIGIN

of conformity, nor from the Egyptian with which
it has no connexion whatever'.

The Pelasgi were the first people of Greece,
who either by means of navigation or by the
colonies which they planted, communicated their
method of writing to the Etruscans : and front
the light which has been thrown oa Etruscan
literature, we learn that of the eighteen letters,
which compose the alphabet of the latter people,
eight are precisely similar to the same number
of Samaritan characters, and six others exhibit
some traits of resemblance to as many Samaritan
letters. Ten of the Etruscan letters are evi-
dently the same as those now in use ; and the
remaining eight strongly approach them. Con-
sequently our letters have been transmitted to
us, jthrough the intervention of the Greeks and
Latins, from the Samaritans^.

The antiquity of the Phenician characters
being thus demonstrated, the question now pre-
sents itself: — From whom did the Phenicians
themselves receive them? — Were these letters of
human invention? Or, was the' knowledge of
letters immediately communicated to man by
the Supreme Being ? Almost every writer, Mr.
Astle particularly, has advocated the former

Reiiaudot, Mem. de TAcadem. des Inscriptions, torn. ii. p;
249. De Vaines, torn. i. p. 418. ' De Vaines, torn. i. p. 418.

OF WRITING-. 77

opinion, and has urged it with much ingenuity ;
but when the subsequent hints are attentively
cpnsidered, the author conceives that the latter
sentiment will be found most consistent with,
reason and with probability'.

Mr. Astle, (who has investigated this topic
with minute attention,) and the other advocates
for the human invention of letters, suppose men
to have been placed in- a state of absolute bar-
barism and ignorance, and left to .work out every
thing for themselves as necessity and experiment
should lead them. But, when were mankind
in this state of barbarism ? We know from; the
inspired volume, that the Creator, on beholding
the various works which he had commanded into
being, pronounced them very good ; and' that
the first man gave names to the different, animals
which presented themselves, before him, which
he surely could not have done, had he not. been
taught a language of some kind or other by his
Maker. And, notwithstanding his faculties would
be greatly weakened by the Fall,. yet he may rea-,
sonably be presumed to have continued in as
good a capacity for making any kind of improve-
ment, as any of his posterity have been in the.

' For the remarjcs on the Divine Origin of Letters, the au-
thor is principally indebted to the very able critique on the
first edition of Mr. Astle's work on writing, in the Monthly :
Review (Old Series,) vol. l^xi. p. 273, et seq.

78 f HE ORIGIN

highest State of civilization. One cannot hut
think that he brought out of Paradise a language
so far perfect at least, as to answer all the oc-
casions which man in that infant state of the
world could have for it : and with regard to any
improvements of which it was capable, what
should render him and his immediate descend-
ants less likely to make them than any natiori
of men who have lived since the Flood?

Further, the longevity of the Antediluvians
was favourable to their improvement in any arts,
which their ingenuity had invented: accordingly
we learn from gen. iv. 21, 22, that in the
seventh generation they had made themselves
acquainted with music, and the management of
metals ; and were, in the time of Noah, so far
skilled in the science of practical navigation, .as
to be able to build an ark. If therefore it was
within, the reach of human capacity to work out
the invention of alphabetical writing, the Ante-
diluvians were as likely to make the discovery
as any of their post-diluvian posterity.

From these considerations then it is highly
probable that the use of letters was known before
the Flood': Josephus, indeed, has expressly as-

' Bishop Cumberland, in his remarks on Sanchoniatho's
Phenician History, supports the opinion that letters were
known before the Flood, at great length and by various learned
arguments, which will not admit of abridgment.

OF WRITING. 79

serted -that remains of antediluvian writing were
to be seen in his own aera, on the pillars ascribed
to the descendants of Seth, and consequently
also the workmanship of Antediluviaa ages.
This- assertion, however, is generally considered
as a fable'.

Let us now consider the circumstances in
which we find mankind after they had left the
Ark. Moses informs us, that " the whole earth
was of one language and one speech;" a manner
of speaking which he would not have used before
men had multiplied to a very considerable num-
ber. And they, i. e. the wholfe race of mankind,
came to the land of Shinar, and from thence
were scattered ** abroad upon the face of all the
earth." (Gen. xi. v. 1. — 9Ii) That we maybe
the better satisfied of this fact, the account is
repeated, with the addition of this express cir-
cumstance, that it was the language of aU the
earth, which was then confounded; From this
account of Moses it is evident that all mankind
kept together till the confusion at Babel ; when
they separated, or " from thence did the Lord
scatter thera^ abroad upon the face of all the
earth ;"— -the sons of Japhet, north-westwardly,
through Mesopotamia and Syria, to people Eu-
rope and its adjacent islands ; the sonsofShem,
to countries on the East ; — while Ham, with his

* Videsupra, p. 31.
7

.80 THE ORIGIN

descendants, peopled the neighbouring coun-
tries, together with Palestine, Egypt, and the
rest of Africa.

Now, in the course of such a dispersion as
this, a state of barbarism may be met with : all
the arts and accomplishments of civilization
would be neglected, and soon lost among men
whose time and labour were wholly occupiedr
with providing the immediate necessaries of life;
and were we to suppose a people in comfortable
circumstances to be acquainted with letters, and
to be reduced to a state of difficulty and ne-
cessity like that just mentioned, — their letters
would soon be forgotten, and their language
degenerate into what may properly be called a
jargon. This was the case of the emigrants
from Shinar, and would be most remarkably so
with those who should be removed to the most
distant, settlements : accordingly, those who by
repeated removals wandered to Europe by one
way, and to India by another, lost the use and
knowledge of letters entirely. Those who con-
tinued in or near Shinar, free from the solicitudes
and distractions attending a removal, probably
retained the knowledge and use of them in their
perfection; while such as, though obliged to
move, did not go so far, lost their knowledge
of letters in part only ; — still retaining enough
of them to be a foundation, both of reviving

OF WRITING. SI

them among themselves, ^nld teaching them to
others. .

As 1|he removal to Ganastm was not a, great
one, the people who went thither would probaibly
remember enough of letters^ to be able to revive
-them soon after they fead. made themselves easy
in their settlements ; atid, being by their situa-
tion led to^the .practice of navigation and .com-
merce, they would carry fthe, knowledge of letters
to those iaations who had lost them, and thus be
accounted their inventors. Agreeably to whieh
Quintus Gurtius, Lttcan, HesyobisiSj and Por-
fphyry ascribe the invention ,of letters to the
;P-hemcians. ,

The progenitors of Abrahatn >were among
those who staid in or near .the -land of Shinar,
and wouldprobal^ly ^retain much gf th.e language
spoken before ithe'tdispersion : and, as they did
not leave Ur, iiheir settlement in that country,
until Abraham was seventy^five y^ars old, and
.then removed not far, they would not be tlikely
to lose or change their languBige, or ibrgetithe
use €>f letters^ op the supposition that they h«4
J^n acquainted with them. .FiiUther* their
Jitters would probably continue the same, which
had been in use among them, and would not
require the alterations that were found necessary,
jon the ej^perience and use of the Ijettters taflght

83 THE ORIGIN

by Palamedes, and by others who learned them
from the Phenicians.

Of all the antient languages, the Hebrew
evidently retains its primitive simplicity : and
hence many learned men have contended that
it was the original language spoken before the
Confusion. From the Mosaic account of that
event, it is plain that the language of the whole
earth was confounded, and consequently that
of the Hebrews as well as others ; although the
number of words, similar both in sound and idea
to those of the Hebrew, which are to be found
in other languages, afford a strong presumption
in favour of the Hebrew being the primaeval
language. It is not however unreasonable to
suppose their method of writing (the old Sama-
ritan) to be the same as that which received its
improvement and perfection by a long use of
the Antediluvian Patriarchs ; if it was not a
knowledge imparted to man by the Father of
Lights, and, as such, furnished at the dispensa-
tion of it with all the perfection necessary for
the purposes to be served by it. The latter part
of this conjecture appears to be the most reason-
able : for the means of communicating all the
thoughts, reasonings, and speculations of one
man to another, and of one age and country to
another, by the different combinations of twenty-

OF WRITING. 83

two different characters, is a discovery which
seems to be much too excellent and sublime, to
have been made by unassisted human reason.

The result, then, of the preceding' observa-
tions may thus be briefly stated. Tradition
speaks most strongly for the use of letters first
known and practised in those parts, from which
the dispersion of mankind was made. Hence it
is reasonable to presume,

1 . That letters were known before the Disper-
sion.

2. That (as already intimated ') they were
known even before the Deluge.

S. That the knowledge of language and of
letters was communicated by the Almighty Cre-
ator to man.
. . To these observations it may be added,

4, That, as there is no evidence' whatever of
any writing being in existence before the giving
of the law; and as then God is said to have
written the decalogue with his own finger (Exod.
xxxi. 18.); and further, as after this time writ-
ing is always mentionied in the sacred volume
(unquestionably the inost antient in the world);
—it may with still more certainty be concluded
that the Father of Lights himself first taught the
use of alphabetical characters to man *. And

\Supra, pp. 78,79.

" This last point is well argued by Dr. A. Clarke, in an
G 2

84 HIEROGLYPHICS,

5. Tliat the Samaritan or old Hebrew was the
original alphabet; which being communicated
to the neighbouring nations, particularly the
Phenicians, has from them been denominated
the Phenician alphabet; and that this, being
first carried into Greece', is the parent of the
letters now generally used.

SECTION II.

HlerOglypliks — Different Kinds of Writing — Manu-
scripts,

Language being of divine original, and com-
municated to Adam before the Fall, — ^it seems
not unreasonable to suppose that he was taught
to compound sounds so as to form it, by a perfect

Essay on the Origin of Language, in the " Bibliographical
Miscellany," vol. ii. pp. I — 6.

' Mr, Alwood has, in his Literary Antiquities of Greece, an-
nounced an hypothesis, that the language of the Aniorites, or
rather of the Cuthites, who are supposed to be descended from
them, was the parent of the Greek language, having under-
gone numerous migrations and changes. In a " Memoir oh
the Primaeval Language of Mankind," {Transactions of the
Royal Irish Academy, vol. x.) the late Mr. Kirwaii endeavours
to prove Greiek to be the primeval language. Independently,
however, of the generally received opinion, the similarity of
the antient Greek characters to those of the Phenicians is an
'additional confirmation of the arguments above maintained.

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. 85

-and philosophical theory : and it may be diffi-
cult to imagine a more rational and easy one
than the different variations and modifications of
a small number of simple sounds, most naturally
adapted to the organs of speech. The making
of specific marks for these to assist his memory,
or to instruct his descendants in them afterwards,
would soon produce the art of writing, if that
and speech were not taught him together. JBut
the compounding of simple sounds in order to
make words, and the joining together of marks
for those sounds, are two acts so nearly related,
that, when God brought to Adam the creatures
to be named, it seems reasonable to think (even
if we had not the subsequent testimony of Mo-
ses to the divine original of alphabetic writing)
that the first parent of mankind was taught the
one to assist his memory in the other.

§ 1. ORIGIN OF HIEROGLYPHICS. — If then (as
appears highly probable) the marks for element-
ary sounds were originally expressive also of
significant words, the people who hved at or im-
mediately after the confusiQu of tongues, finding
that these marks no longer expressed such words,
might substitute pictures to represent their ob-
jects ;— judging the latter to be more expressive
than arbitrary marks, which no longer retained
their pristine signification. Hence would soon
arise the hieroglyphic and symbalic methods of

86 HIEROGLYPHICS,

expressing ideas ; while those whose language
had undergone the least alteration, might more
readily he able to order the elementary marks,
and discover what variations were necessary, so
as to make them still as useful as they were be-
fore ; and might in time teach their neighbours
to do the same. For, notwithstanding the con-
fusion of tongues, when the method of writing
was found out for one language, the application
of it to another would soon be apparent, especi-
ally where the tongues continued to preserve a
great affinity, as is supposed to have been the
case with the Syrians, Phenicians, Egyptians,
and other neighbouring people. The intercourse,
too, of intelligent men of different nations with
these, would spread it to others where the af-
finity of language was less: and they would,
doubtless, add other marks for sounds peculiar
to themselves, and alter or omit those used by
others, just as they found it most convenient.
Hence it seems that all the diversity in languages
seen at this day, may readily be accounted for.

§ 2. EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. — Many at-
tempts have been made to explain the hiero-
glyphic writing of the Egyptians, from the few
specimens, and the imperfect accounts that re-
main from antiquity. The opinion most gener-
ally embraced by antient and modern writers,
concerning the origin and use of hieroglyphics.

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. ^7

is : — that they were invented by the Egyptian
priests, in order to conceal the mysteries of reli-
gion and philosophy from the knowledge of the
vulgar, which the initiated only could understand.
According to this hypothesis, there were two
kinds of writing in use among that people, the
hieroglyphic and the alphabetical: the former
were those symbolic characters^ inscribed by the
first Hermes on pillars or tables of stone, and
which were afterwards copied and interpreted
by the priests. The latter method of writing
was invented or adopted for the sake of explain-
ing the hieroglyphic records, but was employed
only by the priests, and for religious purposes :
whence these characters were called sacerdotal
or sacred'. This opinion, however, has been
controverted, with great learning and success,
by the late bishop Warburton, who has shewn
that this account is erroneous, and that (agree-
ably to the theory above developed) the first
kind of hieroglyphics were mere pictures ; be-
cause the most natural way of communicating
our conceptions was by tracing out the images
of things : and this is actually verified in the

' Clem. Alex. 1. v. p. 555. Porphyr. Vit. Pythag. p. 15. En-
field's Hist, of Philosophy, vol. i. p. W. There was also a third
kind of character, ia use among the common people, called
the epistolary. Dr. Shaw has collected together a mass of in-
formation on the symbolical learning of the Egyptians, in his
Travels, vol. ii. part ii. c. 3. sect. 1, pp. 163, et seg. 8vo edit.

88 HIEROGLYPHICS,

case of the Mexicans, whbse only method - of
writing their laws and history was by this pic-
ture-writing '. But the hieroglyphics, invented
by the Egyptians, were an improvement on this
rude and inconvenient essay towards writing :
for they contrived to make them both pictures
and characters *. In after times they were made
instrumental for the concealment of knowledge,
particularly when the invention of letters had
rendered their former purpose unnecessary. The
following abstract of the learned bishop's rea-
sonings and inductions will not be unacceptable
to the inquisitive student.

As the communication of ideas by picture-
writing would require the volumes to be of great
bulk, the inconvenience attending this method
would soon set the more ingenious and better
civilized people upon contriving methods to
abridge their characters: and of all the improve-
ments of this kind, that invented by the Egyp-
tians, and which was called hieroglyphics, was
by far the most celebrated. By this contrivance
that which among the Mexicans was only a sim-
ple painting, became in Egypt a pictured cha-
racter.

In order to effect this improvement, they were
obliged to proceed gradually :

' Concerning the Mexican writing, vide § 3. iiifra, p. 92,
• ^Warburton's Workfe, vol. iv. pp. 116, el seq.

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. 89

1 . By making the principal circumstance of the
subject stand for the whole. Thus, when they
would describe a battle,, or two armies in array,
they painted (as we learn from the hieroglyphics
of HorapoUo) two hands, one holding a shield,
and the other a bow ; — when a tumult, or popu-
lar ijisurrection, an armed man casting arrows; — '

' when a siege, a scaling ladder ;-^a man's two
Jeet in water signified a, fuller; and smoke ascend-
ing t^tioards denoted d^Jire. This, bishop War-
burton observes, was of the utmost simplicity;
and consequently we must suppose it to be the
earliest way of turning painting into a hiero-
glyphic, that is, making it a picture character.
This he terms the cwiologic hieroglyphic.

2. Tlie second and more artful method of
contraction was, by putting the instrument of the
thing, whether real or metaphorical, for the thing
itself. Thus — an eye^ eminently placed, was de-
signed' to represent God^s omniscience ; — an e^e
and sceptre denoted a monarch ; a sword, their
cruel tyrant, Ochus ; and Si ship and pilot, the
Governor of thfe universe. The moon was some-
times represented by a half circle, sometimes by
a cynocepliahs ;—^the overflowings of the Nile,.
sometimes b}* a spreading water in heaven and
earth, sometimes by a lion. A judge was de-
noted, sometimes by a man without hands, hold-
ing down his eyes, to intimate the duty of being

9© HIEROGLYPHICS,

unmoved by interest or pity, and sometimes by
a dog near a royal robe : for they had a super-
stition that a dog, of all animals, was only pri-
vileged to see the gods.— This was the tropical
hieroglyphic.

3. The third and still more artificial method
of abridging picture-writing was, by making one
thing stand for or represent another, where their
observations of nature or traditional superstitions
led tJiem to discover or imagine any analogy or
resemblance : and this was their symbolic hiero-
glyphic. Thus, the universe was designed by a
serpent in a circle, whose variegated spots signi-
fied the stars ; — the sun-rise, by the two eyes of
a crocodile, because they seem to emerge from
its head ; — a widow, who never admits a second
mate, by a black pigeon ; — and a man who had
borne his misfortunes with courage, and had at
length surmounted them, was signified by the
hyoena ; because the skin of that animal used as
a defence in battle, was supposed to make the
wearer fearless and invulnerable. The more
simple of these symbols, Warburton terms tro-
pical; the more artificial, enigmatical.

The proper or curiologic hieroglyphics were
employed to record openly and plainly the laws,
policies, public morals, history, and all the civil
affairs, of the Egyptians. This is evident from
their obelisks, which were full of hieroglyphic

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. 91

characters, designed to record singular events,
memorable actions, and new inventions; and
also from the celebrated inscription on the tem-
ple of Minerva at Sais, where an infant, an old
man, a hawk, a fish, and a river-horse expressed
this moral sentence : « All you who come into
the world, and go out of it, know this, that the
Gods hate impudence,"

The tropical hieroglyphics, however, which
were employed to divulge, gradually produced
symbols which were designed to secrete or con-
ceal. Thus, Egypt was sometimes expressed by
the crocodile, sometimes by a burning heart with
a censer upon it : where the simpHcity of the
first representation and the abstruseness of the
latter show, that the one was a tropical hiero-
glyphic for communication; and the other, a
tropical symbol invented for secrecy. Enigmatic
Symbols were afterwards formed by the assem-
blage of different things, or of their properties
which were less known: and though they might
have been intelligible at first, yet when the art
of writing was afterwards knowii, the hiero-
glyphics were more generally disused. The peo-
ple forgot their signification : while the priests,
retaining and cultivating the knowledge of them
because they were the repositories of their learn-
ing and history, at length applied them to the
purpose of preserving the secrets of their re-

92 HIEROGLYPHICS,

ligion ; and, ultimately, these sym|3ols led to
the introduction and establishment of animal
worship in Egypt.

§ 3. MEXICAN piCTUKE-WRiTiNG. — The first and
most natural way of communicating thoughts
by marks or figures, was (as already intimated)
by tracing out the images of things. The Egyp-
tians, we have seen, had advanced beyond this
simple and inefiicient mode of conveying ideas :
but the earliest specimens oi picture-writing, now
extant, are those of the Mexicans. Previously
however to noticing these, it may not be irre-
levant to offer a few particulars relative to the
Quipos.

The rudest species of visible communication
now known is, the variously knotted cords of the
Peruvians, called the Quipos. They have been
represented by some authors as regular annals
of the empire ; but Dr. Robertson, with more
probability, supposes them to have been a mere '
device for rendering calculation more expedi-
tious and accurate : that, by the various colours
different objects were denoted, and by each knot
a distinct number. This account is rendered
still more probable by the circumstance, that
picture-writing was then used by the Peruvians ;
and, as the names of numbers must be denoted
by arbitrary signs to repder calculation at all ex-
tensive, this species of aj:bitrary sign might be

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. 93

more convenient for their riadfe arithmetic than
any other.

When the inhabitants of the seia-shore sent
expresses to Montezuma, the sovereign of Mex-
ico, with news of the first appearance df the
Spanish navy upofe their coasts, the advices ^eUt
delineated in large paintings tipdn white cotton
cloths. On these were exactly painted the ships
with all their rigging, the Spaniards with their
arms, horses, and artillery, together with the
number of men '.

Joseph Acosta has given the following morfe
particular account of this sort of painting:
*' One of our company of Je^s (says he), a
man of much experience and discernment, as-
sembled in the province of Mexico the antients
of'Tuscuco, TuUa, and Mexico ; who, in a long
conference held with him, shewed him their
records, histories and calendars ; — things very
worthy of notice, as eontaiiaing their figures and
hierdgtyphics, \fy which they painted their con-
ceptions *in the following manner. Things which
have a bodily shape, were represented by their
proper figures ; and those which have none, by
other significative characters: and thus they wrdte
or fainted every thing which they had occasion

'Herrera's JHislory "of America, vol. ii. p. 198. Acosta's
History of the lAffies, lib. vi. chap. 10. Harris's Voyaged, vol.

ii. pp. 75, 76.

94 HIEROGLYPHICS,

to express. For my own satisfaction (Acosta
continues) I had the curiosity to inspect a
pater-noster, an ave- Maria, the creed, and a ge-
neral confession, written in this manner by the
Indians : — To signify these words, I a sinner
confess myself, they painted an Indian on his
knees before a religious, in the act of one con-
fessing ; and then for this, to God Almighty, they
painted three faces adorned with crowns, repre-
senting the Trinity ; and, to the glorious Virgin
Mary, they delineated the visage of our Lady,
with half a body and the infant in her arms ; to
St.. Peter and St. Paul, two heads irradiated, to-
gether with the keys and sword, &c. In Peru,
I have seen an Indian bring to the confessional*
a confession of all his sins written in the same
way, by picture and characters; portraying every
one of the ten commandments after the same
manner'."

A few specimens of this picture-writing have
survived the destruction of the Mexican paint-
ings, which the blind zeal of Juan de Zumma-
raga, the first bishop of Mexico, had condemned
to the flames. One of the most curious , speci-
mens of this American writing has been published
by Purchas* in sixty-six plates : it was made by
a Mexican author, and deciphered by him in

' Acosta, lib. vi. cap. 7. Warburton's Works, vol. iv. p.
118. 8v«. "Purchas's Pilgr. iii. 1065, 1066.

To fact page ^£.

N?i.

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. 95

that language, after the Spaniards had taught
him letters ; the explanation was afterwards trans-
lated into Spanish, and thence into English. It
is divided into three parts ; — the first contains
the history of the Mexican empire, under its ten
monarchs : — the second is a tribute-roll, repre-
senting the several tributes paid by each con-
quered town or province into the royal treasury;
— and the third, a digest or code of their insti-.
tutions, domestic, political, and military. The
originals of these paintings are deposited in the
Bodleian Library (No. 3134.) among Mr. Sel-
den's MSS. In the same collection, among
some other curious Mexican picture-writings,
there is one (No. 2858.) painted on thick skins,
which are covered with a chalky composition,
and folded in eleven folds. A similar specimen
occurs in the Imperial Library at Vienna, from
which Dr. Robertson obtained eight paintings,
and supposes them to be a tribute-roll. Another
is in the Hbrary of the Escurial '.

In the annexed engraving (Plate I.) is a Mex-
ican picture-history of the fifty-one years of the
Teign of their first monarch, Tenuch: it is in-

' Robertson's History of America, vol. iii. pp. 417—430.
Dr. R. has given a short notice of the different specimens of
Mexican picture-writing which have been pubhshed. The
intelligent authors of the Voyage au Nord de T Europe, in
describing the painting in the Imperial Library say that it is
executed on (feau humain) human skin !

96 HIEROGLYPHICS,

closed in a square border, the different figures
of which represent so many years, and in the ori-
ginal ane coloured blue. The pictures of men
signify the ten lords or governors of the Mexican
army, by whom Tenuch was elected king ; and
whose names are inscribed in the original |>ictures.

The facts contained in this picture-writing,
reduced to narrative, are as follow :

In the year 1324, the Mexicans who were
then called Meciti, first arrived at the place
where the city 'of Mexico was afterwards erect-
ed : this spot was at that time under water, and
covered with extensive bogs and ibulrushes which
they called Tuli, interspersed with great spots of
dry ground, covered with shrubs. This spot
was intersected by a stream of clear water run-
ning cross-wise (marked T in the platie); nearly
in the centre of this stream, the Meciti fotnrd a
high rock, on which grew a great tree , Or b«&,
tunal, in which a large eagle candal had her
nest. Having explored all the neighbouring
country, and finding none so commodious as
this, they determined to mafce it their residence.
They accordingly settled there, and erected. a
strong city or place of defence, embanked against
the waters, which was called Tenultitlan from
the Tunal growing out of the rock'.

' Tenuchtitlan, in the Cajtilian dialect means, Tunal grow*-;,
ing upon a rock.

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. 97

The army of the Meciti was under the com-
mand of ten chieftains, who elected Tenuch
their sovereign, by whom the other chieftajns
were constituted captains and governors.

After they had resided here some yearsi, the
people multiplied and were called Mexicans,
and their city, Mexico : and, becoming power-
ful, they invaded the two neighbouring towns
of Colhuacan and Tenaincan, which yielded to
their arms. These transactions occupied the
reign of Tenuch, as represented in the pic-
ture.

It only remains to add, that each space or
partition in the margin denotes a year: such
partitions, as exhibit a branch w|th a foot like
^ flower^ signify bitter and unfortunate years j'
which the Mexicans had and dreaded, observ-
ing that their ancestors from tittle immemorial
had warned them that such years as befell every
fifty-second year were unfortunate, intedations,
eclipses: of the sun, and earthqiiakes generally
taking place in them. . In these jrears- they of-
fered numerous sacrifices to their deities, pro-
fessing repentance, and abstaining from all vices
against the very day and hour of such a year:
on which day they usually extinguished all their
lights and fires, till it was past; and on the
following day they kindled new lights, whicli
were furnished to them out of a mountain by a

93 .HIEROGLYPHICS,

priest. All these spaces are blue in the original
picture ".

§ 4. PICTURE-WRITING OF THE NORTH AMERICAN

INDIANS. — Less advanced in the arts of civilized
life than the Mexicans^ the North American In-
dians have recourse to a still more simple form
of picture-writing, for the recording of past
events, and the communication of their ideas
to their distant friends. According to Charle-
voix, Lafitau, and other travellers, when they
went to war, they painted some trees with the
figures of warriors, ofte'h of the exact number
of the party ''. Further, when they are on their
excursions, and either intend to proceed or have
been on any remarkable enterprise, they peel
the bark from the trees which lie in their way,
in order to give intelligence to succeeding par-
ties of the path they must take, to overtake,
them ^.

The following instance will convey a more
accurate idea, than any mere description of the
picture-writing of the aboriginal inhabitants of
North America.

When Captain Carver was travelling from the.:

' Purchas's Pilgriois, vol. iii. pp. 1067, 1068.

*Astle on Writing, p. 6. — See also La Hontan's Travels in.
North America, vol. ii. p. 86. Mr. Bray has communicated
an interesting paper on the American picture-vifriting, in the
sixth vol. of the Archceologia. •

'Carver's Travels in North America, p. 417. .....:

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC. 99

Mississippi to Lake Superior, under the guidance
of a, Chipeway chief, the latter, apprehensive
lest they should fall in with some parties of the
Naudowessies (with whom his nation were per-
petually at war) adopted the following expedi-
ent, for the prevention of mischief.

He peeled the bark from a large tree near the
entrance of the Chipeway River ; and with wood
coal mixed with bear's grease, their usual sub-
stitute for ink, made in an uncouth but expres-
sive manner the figure of the town of the Atita-
gaumies. He then formed to the left, a man
dressed in skins, by which he intended to repre-
sent a Naudowessie, with a line drawn from his
mouth to that of a deer, the symbol of the
Chipeways. After this, he depicturedj, still
further to the left, a canoe, as proceeding up
thes river, in which he placed a man sitting,
with a hat on ; this figure represented an Eng-
lishman (Captain Carver);, whose French servant
M'as drawn iwith a handkerchief tied round his
head, and rowing the canoe ; to these he added
several other significant emblems, among which
was the pipe of peace painted on the pt-ow of
the canoe.

The meaning, which the Chipeway chief in-
tended to convey to the Naudowessies, (who
would readily comprehend it,) was, that one of
the Chipeway chiefs had received a speech from

H 2

loo HIEROGLYPHICS,

some Naudowessie chiefs at the town of the
Attagaumies, desiring them to conduct the
Englishman, who had lately been among them,
up the Chipeway River ; and that they thereby
required that the Chipeway, notwithstanding he
was an avowed enemy, should not be molested
by them on his passage, as he had the care of a
person whom they esteemed as one of theic
nation '.

Mr. Thomas, in his interesting " History of
Printing in America," has given a copy of an
Indian Gazette, taken many years since by a
French officer, and an explanation of the same,
both of which were communicated to Mr. T.
upwards of forty years ago. It relates to an
expedition of a body of Canadian warriors ;
who, soon after the settlement of this part of
America, took up the hatchet against a hostile
tribe that adhered to the English. As this In-
dian Gazette presents a curious specimen of
Picture Writing, the reader may not be dis«
|)leased to find it annexed.

' Carver's Travels in North America, pp. 418, 419.

No. IL

To face Page lOi.

AN INDIAN GAZETTE, being a specimen of Nortli Ameriean Vicinie H'riliiig.

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC.

101

EXPLANATION
OF THE

INDIAN GAZETTE,

eiVrRG AN ACCOUNT OF ONE OF THEIR EXPEDITIONS.

*«* The follovring Dmsib^s explain those oil the Engraving, at
referred to by the Numbers.

I. Each of these figures S. They departed from Mont-

represents the number ten. real, — represented by the bird

They all si^ify, that 18 times 10,
Or 180 American Indians took up the
hatchet, or declared war, in favour
of the French j which is represented
by the hatchet, placed over the arms
of France.

.. 3. They went by water, signified
by the canoe. The number of huts,
such as they raise to pass the. night
in, shews they were 21 days on their
passage.

5. When they arrived near the
habitations of their enemies, « at sun-
rise,, shewn by the sun being to the
eastward of them, beginning (as they
think) its daily course. There they
lay in wait three days, represented
by the hand pointing and by three
fauts.

7. They killed with the club eleven
of their enemies, and took five pri-
soners. The former are indicated by
the club and the eleven heads ; the
latter, by the figures on the little
pedestals.

9. The heads of the arrows, point-
ing opposite ways, represent the
battle.

just taking wing from the top
of a mountain. The Moon and
the Back shew the time to have
been in the first quarter of the
buck-moun, answering to July.

4. They then went ashore, and
travelled seven days by land, re-
presented by the foot, and the
seven huts.

6. After which they surprised
their enemies, in number 12 times
10, or 120. The man asleep
shews how they surprised them .;
and the hole in the top of the
building is supposed to signify
that they broke into some of their
habitations after that manner.

8. They lost nine of their own
men in the action, represented
by the nine heads within the bon>
which is the emblem of honour
among the Americans ; but they
had none taken prisoners, (a cir-
cumstance to which they attach
great importance) sbewn by all
the pedestals being empty.

10. The heads of the arrows,
all pointing one way, Signily th»
flight of the enemy.

102 HIEROGLYPHICS,:

S 5. PICTURE-WRITING OF OTHER NATIONS.

Similar characters were also found by Stahleri-
berg on the rocks in Siberia; and the same kind
of picture-writing was used by the inhabitants
of the Sandwich Islands, visited by CaptaiH
Cook, in 1779 '. The Greenlanders, when first
yisited by the Moravian Missionaries, had cha--
racters resembling those above described. —
Crantz relates, that they marked with a coal
upon a piece of skin the wares, which they had'
occasion to borrow, and the days their promis-
sory notes had to run, iwith so many scores : he
adds that they faithfully honoured these drafts,
wondering only that the wise Europeans could
not understand their hieroglyphics, as well as
they comprehended th^ir own scratches *.

§ 6. HIEROGLYPHLCS OF THE CHINESE. It haS

already been observed, that the antient Egyptian
hieroglyphic was an improvement on a still more
antient manner, resembling the rude picture-
writing of the Mexicans ; and we have seen that
it joined contracted and arbitrarily instituted
marks to images. The Chinese threw out the
images, and have retained only the marks,
which they have increased to a prodigious
number.

' Astle on Writing, p. 6. Warburton's Works, vol. iv.
p. 119. The bishop iias given plates from Lafitau and Stah-
lenberg, of the American and Siberian pictures.

* Hist, of Greenland, vol, i. p. 230.

MANUSCRIPTS, 'ETC. 103

In the commencement of their monarchy,
the Chinese communicated their ideas by draw-
ing on paper the naturar images of the things
they wished to express. Thus, to denote a bird,
they painted the figure of one ; several trees
indicated a forest ; a circle; the sun : a crescent,
themooa; and wavy lines, the water. But this
method of explaining their thoughts being not
only imperfect, but also very inconvenient,
they gradually changed their old manner of
writing :. they, composed more simple figures,
and invented many others to express such things
as do not come within the verge of the senses.

Nevertheless, these more modern characters
are truly hieroglyphical ; first, because they
consist of simple letters which retain the signifi-
cation of the primitive characters : Formerly,
for instance, they represented the sun by a
circle, © and called it Ge; now they represent
it by this figure Q j which is also named Ge>
&cow</^, because human institution has afiixed
to these figures the same ideas, which the first
symbols naturally represented ; and every Chi-
nese letter has its proper signification which it
always preserves. Tsai, for instance, which
signifies misfortune, calamity, is composed of the
letter Mien, a house, and the letter Ho, fire j
because it is the greatest misfortune to see one's
house on fire. Hence it is evident, that the

104 HIEROGLYPHICS,

Chinese characters are not simple letters lake
ours, which signify nothing by themselves, but
so many hieroglyphics, which form images and
represent thoughts '.

§ 7. WRITING AMONG THE ANTIENT BRITONS. — •

The original manner of communicating ideas
by letters, among the antient Britons, was, by
cutting the letters upon sticks, which were ihost
commonly squared, and sometimes formed into
three sides ; consequently a single stick con-
tained either four or three lines. (See Ezek.
xxxvii. 16.) The squares were used for general
subjects, and for stanzas of four lines in poetry;
the trilateral ones were adapted to triades, and
for a peculiar kind of antient metre, called
Triban or triplet, and Englyn Mihioyr, or the
warrior's verse.

Several sticks with writing upon them were
put together, forming a kind of frame, which
was called Peithynen or Elucidator ; and was so
conducted that each stick might be turned for
the facility of reading, the end of each running
out alternately on both sides of the frame. The
subjoined cut

' P. Magalhaen's Hist, of China/ chap. 4. p. 69. Duhalde,
Descr. de la Chine, torn. II. p. 227. Warburton's Workss
vol. iv. pp. 124. 125.

MANUSCRIPTS, ETC.

105

is au engraved specimen of antient British
writing, copied by the indulgence of Dr. Fry,
from his elegant work intituled Pantographia'.
The following is a literal reading in the modern
orthography of Wales, with a correct trans-
lation : —

" Aryv y doeth yw pwyll :
Bid ezain alltod :
Cyvneiivid a h^elion :
Diengid rhy vvaji eid rhygadarn :
Enwawg-meiciad o' i voc :
Goiaen awel yn hghyving :
Hir oreistez i ogan:
Llawer car byw i Indeg."

TRANSLATION.

" The weajlon of the wise is reason :

Let the exile be moving :

Coinraerce with generous ones :

Let the very feeble run away ; let the very powerful proceed :

' Fry's Pantographia, p. 307. The subject of Bardic
symbols or hieroglyphics is discussed at considerable length
in the 4th, 5th, and following sections of Mr. Davies's "Celtic
Researches."

106. DIFFERENT FORMS

The swineherd is proud of his swine :
' A gate is almost ice in a narrow place :
' Long' penance to slander :
The frail Indeff has many living relations."

§ 8. DIFFERENT FORMS OF WRITING. The

theory of writing having once been communi-
cated to different people, these in progress of
time introduced differentjorms of executing it,
particularly in the disposition of the lines. Pau-
sanias ' has mentioned circular writing on a
quoit of Iphitus, which was used by tlie Eleans
for the purpose of announcing a respite to the
Olympic Games j but, as this kind of writing
does not appear to have been adopted by any
people generally, the various species of writing
may be reduced to two classes, perpendicular,
and horizontal.

The Chinese, Tunquinese and Japanese write
perpendicularly from the top to the bottom ; and
the JSlexicans write from the bottom to the top.
Three kinds of horizontal writing may be dis-
tinguished. 1. From right to leji, as the He-
brew, Chaldean, Samaritan, Syrian, Turkish,
Persian, Arabic, Tartar, &c. &c. 2. From left
to right, as in the Armenian, Birman, Ethiopic,
Georgian, Greek, Roman, Servian, Sclavonic,
and all the European writings. And 3. From
left to right, for the first line, and from right to

' L. 5. c. 25.

OF writing; 107

left in the second line, and so on : this method
was in use among the antient Greeks, by whom
it was called Boustrophedon' ; it is said to have
been disused, about 457 years before the Chris-
tian aera. The most perfect specimen extant, of
Boustropkedon writing, is the Sigean Inscription,
discoveredin the' Troad by Consul Sherard, and
published by Dr. Chishull with an elaborate
commentary.

Greek manuscripts were usually written in
.capital letters till the seventh century, and
mostly without any divisions of words : Capitals
were in general use till the eighth century ; and
some so late as the ninth, but there is a striking
difference in the forms of the letters after the
seventh, century. Great alterations took place
in the mode of Greek writing, in the eighth,
,ninth, and tenth centuries : towards the close of
the tenth century, small letters were generally
adopted; and Greek . manuscripts, written in
and since the eleventh century, are in smaU let-
ters, and greatly resemble each other, though
some few exceptions occur to the , contrary.
Flourished letters rarely occur in Greek MSS.
of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth cen-
turies*. The annexed engraving will convey io

* See p. 36, supra.

* Astle on Writing, pp. 70 — 74. Mr. A. has given several
Bpecimens of Greek MSS. of different centuries. The very

108 GREEK MSS.

the student a pretty accurate idea of th'6 Greek
manuscripts of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies : it is a fac-simile of part of the first
chapter of St. John's Gospel, froni the Codex
Ebnerianus, a very valuable MS. of the New
Testament, which has only been partially coL
lated by different critics. This manuscript
bears the date of 1391 '.

In the antient Greek MSS. the Scribes fre-
quently terminated the periods of a discourse,,
instead of any other division, by lines; and
these divisions were, in Latin, called versus^
from vertendo ; for which reason these lines are
still more properly named versus, than lineie.
At the end of a work they added the number
of verses, of which it consisted, in order that
the copies might be collated with the greater
facility : and in this sense we are to understand
Trebonius, when he says, that the Pandects
contain 150,000 poene wrsuum. These codices
or MSS. were likewise vel probes vel deterioris
iiqtee, more or less perfect, not only with regard
to the calligraphy or beauty of the character,
but also to the correction of the Text.

valuable Dictionnaire Raisonne de Diplomatique of Dom De
Vaines is illustrated with numerous plates of antient writing,
of almost every age and nation.

' See a description of the Codex Ebnerianus in the Ap-
pendix, No. VIII.

No. III.

To face Page 108.

-TP H F «' -ooTuTTeu dVauTou O iAF ^ GSka p'C
CLuT ou q/°l' H^O" o e CM » P*^ ropeiJ mcrifCUJr

^ 5"cf> o3c ^p Ti tritji'Tlo. ct>atV<i' KaxHoiu>

-Lue rpn / f •7' oc "Txrw-pcL O * OK^ " " -* turrco i tu

^^^jpno- n> ouTotH>v0<Fc«c-»Ajaf>Tu»pitt4J, Im i»^

«.t q-pTcj pM on " uo C^A. ttSu c^ooToc' • ifxa."irxt+»

TiJr j'Oai ef^A-ffxocrnfl'qjjTDumii ">^-^hV«'<"F oo-

OC|>CUC> >^^l^l^axAix»(»^upftcrH-T^^^-^o'J4>a»

To' C* •M' 2?<l5coc S"'*^-* eiHop . 6 cj>coT/3 4 .
TervLYTa ttpoH ^^^X^P-i'op 'dfc "^H U-o'onM-ojJi* ^

1^ ^ , U*i o Uo' <Tx^ cr olo TcoK V'< VH <'C

ODS»

Facsimilt of the Codex Ebnerianus, a MS. executed A.D. 1391.

LATIN MSS. 109

It is generally agreed, that the Latin Letters
are derived from the Greeks. The most antient
manuscripts were in capitals : and characters of
this kind were in general use for records,^ &g.
from the earliest times to the middle of the fifth
century ; though smaller characters were occa-
sionally used, for ordinary subjects which re-
quired dispatch.

Some Latin MSS, are written in Uncial Let-
ters, which are large and round, while capitals
are square. Mr. Astle conjectures the words
Literee Unciales, (uncial letters) to. be mistaken
by ignorant monks and schoolmen for Literce
IniHaleSf the large letters generally used for the
titled and heads of chapters.

Uncial writing began to be adopted about the
middle of the fifth century : and, as it required
litde ingenuity and much patience, it was in
barbarous times preferred to the running hand.
From the close of the sixth, to the middle of
the eighth century, uncial writing generally
prevailed, except among men of business, whose
vaiious transactions required dispatch.

In the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries,
many MSS. were written, in various parts of
Europe, in characters which approach nearer to
small letters than those last described, and which
have thence been called Demi-Uncials. This
form of writing was discontinued in the ninth

110 DIFFERENT FORMS

Gentuiy, and was succeeded by the small lett&rs^
which were employed with many variatioiis till
the invention of printing. They bear a close
resemblance to the small characters, which our
printers term Roman; and were occasionally
used, before the subversion of the Roman em-
pire, in affairs of business. Afterwards, they
were adopted by all the nations of Europe under
different forms, according to their respective
taste and genius ; small letters were generally
used in the ninth century'.

The Gothic character or writing is, in the
main, the same with the Roman ; except that it
is very full of angles, turns, and bendings, espe-
cially in the beginning and ending of each letter.
The Gothic alphabet was first composed by
Ulphilas, bishop of the Goths, who flourished
towards the close of the fourth century, and
translated the Bible into the Gothic, language*
Being versed in the Greek, he borrowed, some
characters from it ; united them with those of
his native tongue ; and thus formed a new
alphabet of twenty-six letters, disposed in a
new order, and to which he gave new denomi-
nations.

In England, the MSS. of the earlier times
are far superior, in beauty and distinctness, to

' Astle on Writing, pp. 77-^85.
3

OF WRITING. Ill

those of the middle and more recent ages'.
Thus, the records of the Saxon aera, whether
written in Saxon or Latin, are infinitely more
plain and legible than those of later periods ;
they are also little obscured with abbreviations,'
which have created much doubt and ambiguity
in after-ages, particularly in that valuable record,
Domesday Book.

The characters, which were introduced into
this country by WiUiam I. were at that time
called Lombardic ; but soon afterwards they^
acquired the appellation of Norman characters,
and were generally used from that time until
the reign of Edward III. The Norman cha-
racter is smaller than the Saxon, and became so
minute in the reigns of Richard I. aUd John,
as to be scarcely legible : many abbreviations
were likewise used, which increased the diffi-
culty of reading this character. In the reign of
Richard II. variations took place in handwritings
of records and law proceedings : the characters,
Used from that time to the reign of king Henry
VIII. are those called Set-Chancery and Com-
mon Chancery, and some of the letters called"
Court-Hand. The Chancery letters were used

* Of the gradual decline in the mannei- of writing, from'
the 6th to the 16th century, some idea may be formed by in-
specting the specimens, given by Mr. Casley in the sixteen
plates at the end of his Catalogue of the Royal Library of
Manuscripts.

112 CODEX RESCRIPTIJS.

for all the records, which passed the Great Seal;
the court-hand was employed in the Courts of
King's Bench and Common Pleas, for fines and
other legal instruments. These latter charac-
ters came into general use about the middle of
the sixteenth century, and continued till the be-
ginning of the reign of George II. when they
were entirely disused : they were originally the
Lombardic or Norman, but corrupted and de-
formed to so great a degree, that they bore very
little resemblance to their prototypes. The
common text hafid, or ingrossing characters,
were founded on and succeeded to the court
and chancery hands : these are still in general
use, in the profession of the law, but they are
become almost unintelligible, except to prac-
titioners'.

§ 9. CODEX BESGBiPTUs. — A Codex Rescriptus
is a parchment, from which the original writing
has been partially or totally erased, and on
which a new work has been written in its stead.
Before the invention of paper, the great scarcity
of parchment in different places, induced many
persons to obliterate the works of antient 'Writers^
in order to transcribe their own or those of some
other favourite author in their place: hence,
doubtless, the works of many eminent writers
have perished, and particularly those of the

* First Report on Public Records, pp. 496—499.

CODEX RESCRIPTUS. 113

greatest antiquity ; for such, as were compara-
tively recent, were transcribed, to satisfy the
immediate demand j while those, which were
already dim with age, were erased '.

It was for a long time thought, that this de-
structive practice was confined to the eleventh,
twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries,
and that it chiefly prevailed among the Greeks :
it must in fact be considered as the consequence
of the barbarism which overspread those dark
ages of ignorance ; ■ but this destructive opera-
tion was likewise practised by the Latins, and
is also of a more remote date than has usually
been supposed.

In general, a Codex Rescriptus is easily known,
as it rarely happens that the former writing is so
completely erased, as not to exhibit some traces :
in a few instances, both writings are legible.
Montfaucon found a MS. in the Colbert Library,
which had been written about the eighth cen-
tury, and originally contained the works of St.
Dionysius: new matter had been written over
it, three or four centuries afterwards, and both
continued legible*. Muratori saw in the Am-

> Peignot, Essai surTHistoire de Parchemin, p. 83, et
seq.

*Palaeogr, pp. 231, 233. The greater part of the MSS. on
parchment, which Montfaucon had seen, he affirms, were
written on parchment, from which some former treatise had

114 COBEX RESCRiPTtJS.

brosian Library a MS. comprising the works of
the venerable Bed'e, the Writing of which was
from eight to nine hundred years old, and which
had been substituted for another upwards of a
thousand years old. Notwithstanding the efforts
which had been made to erase the latter, some
phrases could be deciphered^ which indicated ii
to be an antient pontifical'.

A similar MS', was discovered by Mabillon, in
the library (since destroyed by fire) at St. Ger-
main-des-Prez : it contained St. Jerome's cata-
logue of ilhistrious men, with a contihuatl'oii' by
Gennadius. Mabillon, who ha-s given an engrave
ing of it in the fifth book of his treatise de Re
3iplhmaika, assigns it to- the seventh century ;
but the learned' stuthdts df the iVdi^w/fe Z)ij?ftJ-
matique have remarked that this MS* hadi 'pte--
viously been in part rewritten*; They dikiii--
guish the ehatacters of three sorts of more an-
tient manuscripts : the first is in dertfi-uncial
writing, apparently of' the sixth cenltoy, eoir-
taining some laws of the Visigoths; the second
is probably of the ^/^ century, beiiig for the
most part written in uflciial or capital letters ; a
few words only can, be made qut, frpm whieh it

been erased, except in those of a very antient date. Mem.
de I'Acad. des Inscript. torn. ix. p. 333.

' Muratori, Anti'q. Ital. torn. iii. Dissert. 43.'col. 833, 834.

* Peighot, Essai sur Parchemin, p. 85.

COBEX HESCRIPTUS. 115

is difficult to fo^m phrases ; it seems however to
be an feulogium of thfe person to whom the dis-
co^Tse is addressed. The third is a Roman run-
ning hand-writing, still more difficult to de-
cipher than the preceding, the characters being
defaced ; it is supposed to be part of some
eh^i*ter.

Another valuable manuscript of this kind, is
preserved in the Imperial Library at Paris, and
known by the appellation of the Codex Ephre-
■ini: it is written on vellum and of high antiquity.
The first piart of it contains several Greek works
of Ephrem the' Syrian, written over some more
ailtient writings Which h<ad been erased, though
the tt*a'ces of them are still ■^i^ible and in most
places legible. These more antieiit writings are
the whole Greek Bible. The New Testament
in this MS.,, beside numerous chasms, is in many
places illegible. Wetstein cbntends that it was
written before the year 542, though his argu-
ments are not conclusive in the estimation of
Biblical critics'.

A very valuable Codex Rescriptus was dis-
covered about 25 years since by the Rev. Dr.
Barret, senior fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
While he was exahiiriing different books in the

' Marsh's MicHadiff, vol. ii. part 1. pp. 258 — 260, and part
2. (notes) p. 732: Nov. Test. Wetstenii, torn. i. prolegom. pp.
27, 28. Griesbach. Syrab. Crit. torn. i. pp. 1, et seq.

I 2

116 CODEX RESCRIPTUS.

library of that College, he accidentally met
with a very antient Greek MS., on certain
leaves of which he observed a two-fold writing,
one antient and the other comparatively recent
transcribed over the fprmer. The original writ-
ing on these leaves had been greatly defaced,
either by the injuries of time, or by art ; on
close examination he found, that this antient
writing consisted of the three following frag-
ments : — the Prophet Isaiah, the Evangelist
Saint Matthew, and certain orations of Gregory.
Nazianzen. The fragment, containing St. Mat-
thew's Gospel, Dr. Barrett carefully transcribed;
and the whole has been accurately engraved in
fac-siralle by the order and at the expense of the
University, thus presenting to the reader a per-
fect resemblance of the original'.

Of the original writing, which Dr. B. calls
the Codex Vetus, only sixty-four leaves remain,

' The title of this interesting (and comparatively little
known) publication is as follows. Evangelium Secundum Mat-
thccicm ex Codice Rescripto in Bibliotlieca Collegii SSte. Trini-
talis juxta Dublin : Descriptum Opera et Studio Johatinis
Barrett, S. T. P. Soc. Sen. Trin. Coll. Dublin. Cui adjun-,
gitur Appendix CoUationem Codicis Montefortiani com-
plectens. Dublini .ffidibus Academicis excudebat R. E.
Mercier, Academiae Typographus, 1801, 4to. The Prole-
gomena occupy 53 pages ; the fac-simile plates, 64, which
are also exhibited in as many pages, in the common Greek
type ; and the collection of the Codex Montefortianu* fills
35 pages.

CODEX RESCRIPTUS. 117

in a very mutilated state : each page contairii
one column ; and the columns in general consist
of twenty-one lines, and sometimes (though
rarely) of twenty-two or twenty4hree ; the lines
are nearly of equal lengths, and consist, ordi-
narily, of eighteen or twenty square letters,
written on vellum originally of a purple colour.
From these two circumstances, as well as from
the division of the text, the orthography, mode
of pointing, abbreviations, and from some other
considerations. Dr. Barrett with great probabi-
lity fixes its age to the si^f A century. The Codex
Recens or later writing; (which contains several
Tracts of some Greek Fathers,) he attributes to
a scribe of the thirteenth century; about which
time, as already intimated, it became a general
practice to erase antient Writings and insert
others in their place '.

This custom became so common, in Germany,
in the fourteenth and fiftfeenth centuries, that
at length it was perceived how dangerous it
might prove, to emplby- erased parchments for
public instruments, and efficacious measures
were adopted to prevent this disorder. Accord-
ingly, the patents, by which the emperors of
Germany elevated individuals to the rank of ^
count, with power to create imperial notaries,
usually contained the following clause: — **oa

' Dr. Barrett's Prolegomena, pp. 2 — 9.

118 ABBREVIATIONS

conditiQn, that they shpiild not make u§e of oJil
ajid erased parchment, but thait it should h&t)irgm
(i. e. made of ^bprtive skins) %nd quite new'*"

§ IQ. ABBREViATiQNS.-^The Scarcity and dear?
ness of parchjnent were doubtless the reasons
that induced so many copyists to destroy anti.-
ent writings for thp purp,o?e pf substituting new
ones in their place 5 J3u.t tliei^e very reasons have
been the cruise pf ftRotljgr afejijsej concerning
which it may not |(e irrelevant tq pfgr a few r&
marks, we mean that q£ a.b}?ne^ig,tmm. Under
the pretext of rendering MSIS/ less voluminous
and consequently chef^per, of eepnomising the
time of the scribes employed to copy them,
and lastly for the purpose of comprising many
volumes in o^e, tl^e Abbreviations becfune mul*
tipliefi to such an extent, especially in the mid*
die ages, that it requires no common ability to
read the manuscripts.

Abbreviations, were very e^r^y introduced into
MSS. : the antien|;s, in their most common con*
tractions, preserved part of the letters pf a word,
and substiuited certain signs for the suppressed
char^ters *. Thus, in the third §inj^ fourth cen-

' aiaflfej, 1st. DipJpm- P- W-

* pf tljis dgscrip^Uon wtte the 'Jj'yijonian If/gteg, so called
from Tyro, the freed-xnap and intimate friend of Cicero ; \\^
improved on the invention of Ennius, who had copjtrived
eleven hundred notes. To these Tyro added a great number^
and reduced the system to order, iirhich was afterwards im-

OF MANUSCRIPTS. 119

turles, they wrote Dms or Dns for Dommus ; in
the most antient MSS. the letter m or n at the
end of a line is designated by a small horizontal
bar — , or by an s placed sideways &» , either single
or accompanied by two points, one above and
the other below. In MSS. of the sixth or
seventh century the word est is rendered by this
character -=- . The letter n, serving as an abbre-
viation for an unknown person, has^ according
to Mabillon, been in use since the ninth cen-
tury ; when il^e was abbreviated by ilL Abbre-
viations were frequent in the seventh century,
still more common in the eighth and ninth cen-
turies: in the tenth, tljey were multiplied to in-
finity; in, MSS. of the eleventh, scarcely a line
occurs^ in which there are not from eight tq tein

'phfrfed arid aagttieHtdt by oifeers, arid piartfttihtfly by Seneca
tl«^ fdiilasepbet. This kind Of writing I<ad before bteft sucCess-
fy\^y prat-tiged hy t)>e Greeks/ to wTjom it was eptntannicajt^d
by Xe^oDlion.if Jie were not the JRVeatpr c£ tfee srt. Jiif
Tyronian notft were very generally used in the West; they
were taught iri the public schoots, an^ were employed for
transcrifeifig rtiariuscripts. 1'hey M irita cffsuse, to Fralnce
toward the close 6ftbe ninth century, and m. Gfermany at the
end of the teuth century. 4&er thjt time, scarcely any ves-
tige of them appears in MSS. except the abbreviation pf eiby
7, aq4 of J« by 9 at the end pf words. The modern art of
short-hand i& an improvement on the Tyronian notes. Pitisci
Lfi^con, torn. ii. p. 277. Lambinet, Recherches, pp. 33—35.
Peignot, Dkt. tpm.ii. pp. 297—339.

130 ABBREVIATIONS

abbreviations ;— at length, in the twelfth, thir-
teenth', fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, they
were carried to excess; writings of every de-
scription were filled with them. The charters
and other instruments of our country, of this
period, cannot be understood without great diffi-
culty, from the immense number of contractions;
and in France, Philip the Fair issued an ordon-
nance in 1304;, for banishing from the minutes
of notaries, and especially from legal instru-
ments, all abbreviations which rendered them
liable to be misunderstood, and falsified. The
parliament, by an arr^t of 1552, in like manner
banished from the royal letters, the et ccBtera
which tiU that time had been in use, and which
had also been greatly abused*.

These contractions, however, were not con-
fined to manuscripts : in editions printed in the
fifteenth century, the abbreviations are so nu-
merous and so complex, as not only to render
the reading fatiguing, but also the sense unin-
telligible. M. Peignot has given the following
specimen from the Logic of Okham, printed at

" Of the abbreviations in Greek MSS. of the 12th and 13th
centuries, the fac-simile of the Codex Ebnerianus will afford a
tolerable idea. See the engraving opposite page 107, supra.

* De Vaines, Dic(;. de Diplomatique, torn. i. pp. 28 — 30, which
contains a very useful alphabetical table of the chief abbrevi-
ations occurring in antient MSS. and deeds, pp. 31 — 38.

OF MANUSCRIPTS. 131

Paris in 1488, in folio, scarcely one word of
which is unabbreviated.

Sic hie e fal sm qd ad simplr a
e pducibile a Deo g a e. et stir htc
a n e g a n e pducibile a Do.

This species of Hieroglyphic signifies :

Sicut hie est fallacia secundum quid ad sim-
pliciter. A est producibile a Deo, et similiter
hie : A non est, ergo A. non est producibile a
Deo\

Towards the close of the fifteenth century,
these abbreviations were multiplied to such an
extent, that it became necessary to procure
works, for rendering them easy to be understood,
and perused. Of this description are, the treatise
by John Petit, entitled Modus kgendi abbrevia-
turas in utroque Jure. Paris, 1498, 8vo. Ars
legendi abbreviaturas ; — Modus kgendi abbrevi-
aturas, passim in jwf. tarn civil, quam pontifical,
ocurrent. Cologne^ 1582, &c. Sec. Several modern
writers have well illustrated the abbreviations
used by the Romans, as well as in MSS. Charters
and other Instruments ; of whose labours some
account will be found in a subsequent part of
this work.

§ 11. AGE OF MSS. — It is difiicult to fix the age
of antient manuscripts, which are justly con-
sidered as the brightest ornaments of a Libraty,

' Peignot, Essai sur Parchemin, p. 89.

133 AGE OF

and in fact constitute its principal wealth. In
order to ascertain the age of MSS. it is ^bso-
Jutely requisite not only to have seen many; but
the bibliographer ought also to be acquainted
with the different styles of national writing in
different ages, (the knowledge of whose rise,
progress and decay, is of the greatest utility
for determining the age of manuscripts, prior to
the thirteenth century ;)T^further he should be
familiar with the antient and modern languages
in which they are written, — the material used
for writing them,-i— the metallic or other liquors
employed, — the beauty of the writing, — the mi-
niatures, vignettes, and curious paintings with
which they are ornamented, — and with their
covering or envelope, the naaterial of which, as
well as the antique bas-reliefs ^at frequently
d^cor^rte it, are ahkg interesting to the antiquary
Wd the arysfc.

It is jlspt nece)5s?bry ^t the bibliographer
should b^ lable t(9 di§^i#^i$hge»»ine MSS, froin
such 9,s ajFe apocryphal. TQ^ 5ibii<vtheca. Pa-
^:j#in^ (lila. 1^68,) cojntainga M^, M^^fietn. el^ fkh
megmawe ei^sitgSre d& laprmcesse Pemphl^Q^«
par Mademoiselle, fille de Gaston, Monsieuut,
(brother ©f J^qpe XJII.) It is ^ed 1^59 and
\» so exap^ly copied ih^% it wght pass for the
awther'p hapd-'lvjitifl^ : th§ work is a Se<;ret His-
tory of tbje Court of jLpuis XIIJ. the characters

MAWSlCJIjlPTS. 123

of which are described under fictitious names,
M. Achard relates that he saw, among the books
of the celebrated Bibliographer, the Abb^ Rive,
a manuscript of the Speculum humanae salva-
tionis; which he had caused to be copied by
M. Lesclapart, and which bore so perfect a re-
semblance to a MS. of the 12th century, as to
deceive some pretended connoisseurs. The paper
however would be sufficient to indicate its age.
Among these copyists, there have been some
who possessed the art of imparting a certain air
of antiqijity to paper by smoking it ; but this
may be discovered by an attentive observer ; in
uncertain cases, water alone will be sufficient to
detect the fraud. Let wa,ter be poured iipon
the suspected paper ; if it be antient, it will not
lose its blackish colour by this process ; while
t;ha;fe which has been artificially coloured, or
blackened by smoke, will soon become white in
the water and consequently shew th^t ftrtifi<e©
h^ been employed'.

A njannscript is valuable l^om its antiquity,
from the subject of whiqb it treats, and on
account of its execution.

It is to be considered of a reinote antiquity,
when it is anterior to the twelfth century;
although those of tfce twelfth, thirteenth, arid

'Cburs El^mentaire de Bibliographie, par M. Ach^yd, torn.
L pp. 62,63.

124 AGE OF

fourteenth centuries, are worthy, of consideration,
when in a good state of preservation. ■

There are some MSS. of a more recent date
indeed, but which are almost of equal rarity
with those of earlier times, from the very small
number of copies made of them. Othei's are
not less valuable, whatever their age may be,
from the subject which they discuss, especially
when they contain important discoveries relative
to the arts and sciences, or to history, that
have not been published ; or when they are
written either by the author himself, or are
fenriched with notes and corrections which are
no where else to be found. '

Lastly, the beauty of their execution imparts
to MSS. a high value, whatever may be their
subject-matter. -

Various rules have been given, by which to
ascertain the age of manuscripts : the more im-
portant of these it may not be irrelevant to
subjoin, in addition to the hints already given.
' 1. In the most antient MSS. down to the
eighth century, the words are not divided, and
the lines are entire, without any intervals,

2. The full stop is omitted ; and when it first
began to be used, it was placed at the top of
the letter, and not in the line.

3. Commas were not in general use, until the
end of the tenth century.

MANUSCRIPTS. J25

4. Marks of interrogation, exclamationj and
parenthesis, were not introduced until the fif-
teenth century.

5. The division of words, , by means of short
strokes or lines, inclined from right to left,
was not invented until the thirteenth century.

6. Abbreviations are comparatively rare in MSS._
anterior to the twelfth. century ; but (as already
noticed) they became so exceedingly multiplied
in the three following centuries, as to render the
reading of MSS. almost impracticable..

7. The extreme whiteness, and great fineness
of the vellum, indicate the antiquity of a MS.
and its anteriority to the sixth cfentury. When
the skins roll up of themselves, or simply with
the heat of the hand, it is a certain mark of
their antiquity. Subsequently to the tenth cen-
tury, the vellum has not been so thin, and does
not roll up so readily.

8. Among the. Latin manuscripts, all those
may be considered as antient, which are prior
to the year 800 and to the reign of Charlem?igne :
they are precious and of great rarity. Of equal
value and rarity are such MSS. as exhibit only
feeble traces of the metaUic ink with which they
were written ; and those, of which the first two
or three lines in each work, are in red characters,
as the celebrated Florentine Virgil now in the
Imperial Library at Paris, and the works of St.

126 A6E 0&

Cyprian diid St. Aiigustitf, wMch ¥eM to be
seen dt the Abbey Gtf St. Germatn«de&-PreZj
before it was consumed by fire.

The age of MSS.' ■v<rhich are' wriliteW in the
Old Pfench dr Latin lail^tiages, niay be aseer-
tained by the ntttfifber of balrbarous w&rH^ tMf
cdntaitt: the same rufe wfll' also ap^ly to' Ait^o-
Bandti, Angl'o-Nofnia'tf, aWd' Old- Sn'gHsh Mat-
nuscripts; butitdxjes not feoid ^itfr rfega'rd to
Oreek atfd HebreMr MSB. The m^st a'fttieiit of
the latter' ate iJlie best Written, and \s(h>sicc(M->
paflied by the Masotetiic notes- :' -filie abis^nce of
Ci'ittcai interpolations and corrections, as weH a!s
Of divisio-rts in tine Peintat^tidi, are equally tfiM^
df their antiquity. Bbtfr Gfffeefc' attd Hehf^
MSB. which are feallyaritiettt, ai'e destitute of
chwrroibgioai ntrteS' ; any one indeed' -*Fhich has
fhefgfe, or which ptitports to be dkted prior to ttt'e
tenth century, is a suspected' MS. The Hebrew
jnanuscrtpt's, written in Spain-, are in square
fetters ;— thdse df die Italfan and French Jews
are in ehai^etefs; rather mote rdundfed ;-^Mife
thdse df the German JeWs abound' w^ith pdints'.
In geWeTal', it may be remarked, that all ma-
nuscripts in the driental and in the Greek lan-
guages:, aTe df very gi-eat value, as vpell as thdse
in Latin which are ant'efidr td the ittventidn of
printing, and contain th'e wdrks df the antient
' De Vaines, iSict. de Diplomatique, tbm. ii. pp. 93, 94,

MANtiSCRIPTS. 127

Roman "WViters. These have not been tratis-
mitted to us, through the preSs, withwrt maiiy
alterations, Which are to be attributed eithet to
the i^ii^ratrce of the copyists 6t to the injuries
Inflicted by the consuming haild of tftft^.^ hcnc^,
the text can Ibe restored, d,nd' cba^s caff }ltk
supplied, only by tfi'Kg'ettlfly comparing dififeffettt
MSS. and by dcfepting tiidse re*a;dings which
appro^'e themselves to be ddffeCt.

§ 12; iLLuTtmsrATioN^.^-Marty taitietit MSS;
are ornanwnted with vigftetfes-, miniatures, atld
othfer painting, whifch ate CbHectiVeiy tefltred
HhimfMti^ns'^ ; atid which, a:s they for* the thorst
part retaiifi i\Mr fffeshiiei^S', ma.tei'ialy dt^eWt
the vkfoe- of sueh MSSi and fltfe addiifoHally
aseM, as iatifet4-a*% ISfe^historf, cbsttfttrc^, ciVil
and military arts andi ScifeilCes; &t. ofantiiettt
iiatiotis. The aft of ' iifflminating- MM. was
ttluCh' pi^Cti^dd by the Clfei-g^, and even' Ify
SOifte in the highest stations of the Chureh : it
is particularly recorded of the famous Osmund,
whof was consecrated Bishi0p ©f Salisbury, a. d*
t&J&y that he did not disdain' to appropriate
some part of his time to the writJing, binding
and illumination of books *. In the following

• ilie antiquity and duration ctf the practice of illuminating
J^SS. have already been stated. See Chap. I. Sect. 11. pp. 68,
69, and note, supra.

» Henry's Hist, of Britain, vol. vi. p. 226.

12S ILLUMINATIONS

centuries, this art was carried to a high degree
of perfection.

The subjects of the illuminations were various,
consisting of the figures of Kings and Queens,
(of many pf whom they are genuine portraits
in miniature,) saints, beasts, birds, monsters,
flowers, &c. whjch sometimes bore a relation to
the contents of the page, though frequently these
symbols were not very analogous. Such embel-
lishments were costly ; but for those, who could
not meet the expense of the most superb orna-
ments, others were made of inferior degrees, to
correspond with the ability of the purchaser
When the general delicacy, taste, and splendour,
of their execution are attentively considered, we
are astonished at the time and patience' which
such works must have required.

Illuminated MSS. form a valuable part of the
riches preserved in the principal libraries of
Europe : in England, the Royal, Cottonian and

' Fifty years were sometimes employed to produce a single
volume ; an evidence of which occurred at the sale of the late
Sir Wm. Burrell's books in 1796. Among these was a MS.
Bible beautifully written on vellum, and illuminated, which
had taken the writer half a century to execute. The writer,
GuiDO DE Jabs, began it in his fortieth year, and did not
finish it until he had accomphshed his ninetieth, a. d. 1294,
in the reign of Philip the Fair, as appeared by the writer's own
autograph, in the front of the book. Lemoine's Typographical
Antiquities, p. i.

OF MANUSCRIPTS. 129

Harleian Libraries, as well as those of the two
Universities ; — at Rome, the Vatican ; — ^the Im-
perial at Paris ; — at Vienna, the Imperial ;— •
St. Mark's, at Venice; — the Escurial, in Spain; —
and many other libraries possess superb spe-
cimens of Greek and Roman art, some of which
are incidentally noticed in the subsequent part
of the present work'.

The limits assigned to this volume will only
admit a brief notice of two or three of the most
splendid MSS. in the Public Libraries of En-
gland.

Not to mention the numerous superb missals
and Other costly productions of human ingenuity,
— the Harleian Library, among other precious
relics of antiquity, contains a noble exemplar of
^the four Gospels, (No. 2788.) in capital letters
of gold; which, in point of antiquity (being
written in the eighth century) as well as elegance,
•greatly surpasses the Codex Aureus of the Escu-
rial Library. In many respects this MS. may
be said to vie with any other now extant : evety
■page of the sacred text, consisting of two se-
parate ■columns, is inclosed within a broad and

' The fac-simile of the Code^E Ebnerianus, given above (see
page -107) will convey an idea of the manner in which the
beginnii^gs of MSS. were executed. For a brief notice of this
manuscript (which is superbly illuminated) see the Appendix,
No. VHI.

130 ILLUMINATION

beautifully illuminated border. This pictures of
the Evangelists, with their symbolic animals,
are curiously painted in the front of their re-
spective Gospels: and the initial letter of each
Gospel is richly illuminated, and so large as to
fill an entire page. To the whole are prefixed
the prologues, arguments and breviaries, and
two letters to Damasus, by St. Jerome, — the
canons of Eusebius, his letters to Carpian, and
a capitular of the Gospels for the course of the
year, all of them written in small golden cha-
racters.

In the same noble collection also is deposited
a MS. (No. 2821.) of the four Gospels, of St.
Jerome's version, together with his prologues,
&c. the canons of Eusebius, and the parallel
passages, written in letters of gold in the tenth
century. This manuscript is superbly illumi-
nated, and adorned with pictures of the follow-
ing subjects, painted on purple grounds, viz.
before the Gospel of St. Matthew, in a circle,
are first the representation of our Saviour, sitting
as enthroned, holding in his right hand the book
of the New Law, that of the Old Law lying in
his lap, with the four Evangelists in the angles,
kneeling ; — secondly, our Saviour standing with
St. John' resting his head on his bosom ; — thirdly,
the portrait of St. Matthew ; and fourthly, the
Salutation of the Virgin. Before St. Mark's

OF MANUSCRIPTS. 131

Gospel are the portrait of that Evangelist, and
the salutation of the Virgin Mary. At the be-
ginning of St. Luke's Gospel are his portrait,
and the crucifixion^f our Saviour ; and before
the Gospel of St. John, are the picture of that
Evangelist, and the Ascension of our Lord.

To these may be added a very fair and beau-
tiful transcript (No. 4425.) of the celebrated
poem, intituled Le Roman de la Rose, begun
in -French by Guillaume de Lorris, and finished
by Jehan Clopinel, or de Mehun. This MS. is
so richly ornamented with a multitude of minia-
ture paintings, executed in a most masterly
manner, that it is not to be exceeded by any
other manuscript preserved in the libraries of
Europe. Mr. Astle conjectures that it probably
is the copy which was presented to Henry IV.
King of Fran.ce, as the blazon of his arms is in-
troduced in the illuminations with which the
first page of this work is illuminated.

A very antient MS. of the book of Genesis,
which was in the Cottonian Library, and almost
destroyed by fire in 1731, contained two hun-
dred and fifty curious paintings in water colours:
twenty-one precious fragments that escaped the
fire, have since been published by the Society
of Antiquaries, of London. Forty-eight drawings
of nearly equal antiquity with the above have
also been engraven, and inserted in the third

K 2

133 ILLUMINATION

volume of Lambecius's catalogue of the Imperial
Library at Vienna. The drawings in the Vatican
Virgil, made in the fourth century before the
arts fell into disuse, illustrate the different sub-
jects discussed by the Roman bard : these
likewise have been given to the public in the
splendid folio edition of Virgil, printed at Rome
in 1741. The paintings of masks, &c. in the
Vatican Terence, were also published at Rome
in 1736. Mr. Johnes has illustrated his excel-
lent translation of Froissart's Chronicles, with
engravings from the finest illuminations in our
own Libraries, as well as those of France. Mr,
Strutt's "View of the Customs, &c. of England,"
and his " Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities
of England," exhibit a great number of prints
that convey a good idea of the delicacy and
art with which illuminations were executed.
Though these prints do not exhibit the bright
and vivid colours of the originals, they give us
a view, not only of the persons and dresses of
our ancestors, but also of their customs, manners,
arts and employments, together with their ships,
houses, furniture, &c. and further enable us to
judge of their skill in drawing and colouring.
Their figures are often stiff and formal, but their
ornaments are in general fine and delicate, their
colours are clear and bright, particularly their
gold and azure; and in some of these iUu-

OF MANUSCRIPTS. 133

minations the passions are very strongly de-
picted'.

Illuminations are not confined to MSS. In the
infancy of the typographic art, the first letter of a
book or chapter was frequently left blank, for
the purpose of being illuminated at the option
of the purchaser '^ ; but, after the establishment
of printing in the different countries of Europe,
this elegant practice of illuminating gradually
declined, and at length was entirely neglected.

In concluding these brief hints on the subject

' Hfnrjr's Hist, of Brit. vol. x. p. 214. The subject of il-
luminations is also ably treated by Mr. Astle, On Writing,
p. 193, et seq. The celebrated Portland Missal must not be
forgotten : a description of it occurs infra. Part. II. Chap. I,
Sect. II. The catalogue of the Duke de la V^Uiere contained,
perhaps, the richest collection of MSS. thus splendidly illu-
minated ; many of them were sold for excessive prices. The
catalogue of M. Paris, though small in the number of its arti-
cles, was equally remarkable for the splendour with which the
MSS. were executed. One article of this catalogue (No. 145.)
must have been peculiarly valuable to book-collectors : it is in-
tituled " JJ Art de connoitre et d'apprecier les miniatures des
anciens manuscrits" by the Abbe Rive, and was illustrated with
thirty illuminated paintings on vellum, copied from the finest
MSS, in the Duke de la Vallierp's Library and other valual^le
cabinets. — The Abbe Rive proppsed to give a dissertation on
illumipated MSS. to accompany tl^ese paintings ; but, having
never accomplished it, he gave to M. Paris a description of the
difierent designs in manuscript.

' Some specimens of such illuminations occur infra. Part I.
Chap. III. Sect. VII.

134 MANUSCRIPTS

of illuminations, it may not be uninteresting to
the biblical student, to remark, that Professor
Tychsen of Rostock has furnished a certain cri-
terion, by which MSS. illuminated by Christians
may be distinguished from those executed by
Jews. He observes that all manuscripts of the
Masorah, with figures of dragons, sphinxes, hogs,
or any other of the unclean animals ; — all MSS.
of the Testament, with the Vulgate version, or
corrected to it, or corrected to the Septuagint
version ; — all MSS. not written with black ink,
or in which there are words written in gold let-
ters, or where the words or the margin are illumi-
nated; — and all manuscripts, where the word
Adonai is written, instead of the word Jehovah,
were written by Christians and not by Jews.
Professor Tychsen pays an honourable tribute
to the industry and calligraphy of the Spanish
Jews'.

§ 13. MSS. OF HERCULANEUM. — The town of
Herculaneum was swallowed up by an earth-
quake, occasioned by an eruption of Mount
Vesuvius, A. D. 79, in the reign of the Emperor
Titus. This famous city was discovered in the
beginning of the eighteenth century ; and from
its ruins have been dug busts, statues, paintings,

^ Tentamen de variis Codicum Hehrceoruin Vtteris Testamenti
MSS. Rostock. 1772. Cited by Mr. Butler, Hora Biblica,
vol. i. pp, 51 — 54. 4th edit.

OF HERCULANEUM. 135

and utensils, which have greatly contributed to
enlarge our knowledge concerning the arts, &c.
of the antients. A more valuable acquisition
was thought to be made, when a large parcel
of manuscripts was found among the ruins. In
order to form an accurate idea of them, conceive
(says the Abb6 Barthelemy) a strip of paper of
an indefinite length, and about twelve inches
wide : throughout the length of this paper are
several columns of writing, distinct from each
other, and proceeding from right to left. When
finished, it is so rolled up, that in opening the
manuscript you perceive the first column or page
of the work, and so on as you unroll it, the last
being in the inner part of the roll.

The MSS. of Herculaneum were found in an
apartment of a palace, that had not been tho-
roughly cleared, when M. Barthelemy inspected
the ruins of Herculaneum : they are of Egyptian
paper, and the colour of charcoal. Various
fruitless attempts were made to unroll them ; but
at length a patient and persevering monk sug-
gested a mode of completely unrolling the paper.
He made some efforts that occupied a consider^r
able portion of time ; but in which by degrees
he was successful. His plan is thus. — Having
found the beginning of the MS. he fastens to
the exterior edge some threads of silk, which he
winds round so many pegs in a small frame :

136 MANUSCRIPTS

these pegs he turns with the utmost precaution^
and the manuscript is imperceptibly unrolled^
Little can be expected from the first few layers
of the paper, which are in general torn or de-
cayed. Before any pages of a work can be ob-
tained, it must be unrolled to a certain depth,
that is, till the part appears which has suffered
no other injury than that of being calcined:
when a few columns have thus been unrolled,
they are cut off and pasted on linen\

The result of all these laborious pursuits has

been the publication of two fragments ;— rone

against music by Philodemus, an Epicurean Phi?

losopher : it was edited from the royal press at

Naples by M. Rosini, in 1793, under the title of

Herculemensium voluminum quae supersunt Tomus

I. The MS. is in uncial characters, without

divisions of words, and with few peculiarities of

writing, except the antient sigma C and , the

curved epsilon £. It consists of thirty-eight

fragments or columns, beside the title OIAO-

AHMOT nEPI MOT2IKH2 A_« the fourth

Book of Philodemus on Music :" each column is

copied in a fac-simile engraving, of the exact

size of the original, and minutely expressing

every crack, chasm, and defect of the MS. On

the page opposite to each plate, the same portion

of the text is given in common Greek types, with

• Travels in Italy» by M. Barthelemy, pp. 345, 246.

QF HERCULANEUM. 137

all the deficient letters or words, which have
been supplied by conjecture, distinguished by
red characters j and in a parallel column is a
Latin version. To these succeed the learned
notes of the editor, illustrating the same portion.
The other fragment, which has been pub-
lished, is a mutilated tract of Epicurus on Piety :
it occurs, as the ninth Dissertation, (by Sir Wil-
Kain Drummond) in " Herculanensia ; or Ar-
chcBological and Phihlogieal liissertations, cotir
taining a MS. found among the ruins of Hercu-
laneum". From this interesting volume we learn
that Sir W. Drummond is in possession of more
than eighty Greek MSS. and of one in Latin,
a fragment of an heroic poem. They are all
without an accent or spirit, and beautifully
written: the letters are capitals ; and there is no
distinction between the words.

Great expectations, indeed, were raised when
His Royal Highness the Prince Regent mu-
nificently engaged several literati to examine
these MSS. but hitherto their labours have been
almost entirely vain ; the recovery therefore of
the long lost decads of J^ivy, and of other pre-
cious waitings, both Greek and Roman, must
now be abandoned as hopeless.

Some charred volumes from Herculaneum

' This volume is the joint pi-oduction of Sir William Drum-
mond and Mr. Robert Walpole.

138 MANUSCRIPTS, ETC.

were sent, a few years since, as a present from
the court of Naples, to His Royal Highness the
Prince Regent : four of these, we believe, are
still untouched ; and various efforts have been
made to unroll the other two, but without suc-
cess. His Royal Highness's munificent offer of
defraying the expenses of unrolling, decypher-
ing, and publishing the MSS. in possession of
the King of Naples, having been acceded to by
the latter, the Rev. Mr. (now Dr.) Hayter was
selected; he arrived at Naples, in the beginning
of the year 1 802, and was nominated one of the
directors for the developement of the MSS. The
result of his labours. Dr. H. has recently stated
to the public' ; from which we learn that more
than two hundred "Papiri" were opened wholly,
or in part, during his residence at Naples. Ninety-
four MSS. brought by Dr. Hayter from Hercu-
laneum, are in possession of the University of
Oxford ; which has announced its intention of
publishing at large the most interesting of these
precious rehques of antiquity \

Two circumstances contributed t& impart to

" In "A Report upon the Herculaneum Manuscripts, ad-
dressed by permission to His Royal Highness the Prince
Regent, by the Rev. John Hayter, a. m." — 4to. 1811.
Monthly Magazine, vol. xxxii. p. 374.

^ ANTIENT INKS. 139

the manuscripts of the antients that durability,
to which we owe their preservation : viz. their
singular care in preparing the vellum, and the
attention paid to the ink employed for writ-
ing.

The vellum appears to have been selected for
its fineness, close texture, and perfect clearness
from every thing, which might prevent either
the cutting or formation of the characters, or
the adhesion of the ink : and for this purpose
the vellum was carefully freed from every unctu-
ous quality that would have counteracted the
striking of the ink, or caused an excoriation of
the latter when dry. The durabiUty of vellum
is truly astonishing. There are in our public li-
braries some bogks, upwards of one thousand
years old; which exhibit no signs of decay, and
which, accidents excepted, may last for many
centuries to come, equally unimpaired by the
ravages of time. Whatever might be the pro-
cesses employed in preparing vellum for MSS.
it is evident that it was better made one thou-
sand years ago, than it has since been ; as will
easily appear by comparing books of different
ages.

The use of ink was early known among the
antients, and is mentioned by Pliny, Cicero,
and Vitruvius. Horace compares a wretched
panegyrist to ink, which blackens whatever it

140 ANTIENT INKS.

touches '. It is not well ascertained how soon
the present kind of writing-ink came into use :
it has certainly been employed in most European
countries for many centuries. The ink of the
antients has nothing in common with ours but
gum and colour : gall-nuts, vitriol and gum are
the principal ingredients of modern ink, while
lamp-black or the black obtained from burnt
ivory forrned the basis of that of the antients ;
which was also made in the sun, and without
the aid of fire. Whatever were the ingredients
employed, the ink then made was unquestionably
of a more encaustic nature than that used in
subsequent ages, as is evident from its solidity
and blackness, and its consequently less liabi-
lity to fade or decay. The Chinese and many
of the oriental inks appear to be prepared in a
siinilar way. Red ink was obtained frorn Ver-
million, cinnabar and carmine ; purpje, from
the murex (mentioned in the course of this work,)
which yields a purple colour, and was employed
by the antients both for dying, and for painting
in ?edf Blue, yellow, and green colours were
made from pulverized gold and silver, sulphur.^
etted, and submitted to the action of fire ; and
weve used for ornamenting and enriching MSS.
MSS. claiming a very remote antiquity are tq.
be suspected, when they are written with ink, in

' Epist. 1. 1. a. V. 235, 236.

ANTIENT INKS. 141

all respects similar to that now used. Where
MSS. have sometimes been rendered incapable
of being decyphered, by the quality of the ink,
by time and by other accidents, they may be
restored by reviving the writing ; the following
is recommended by M. De Vaines, as the sim-
plest and most efficacious expedient for this
purpose '.

Mix half a spoonful of brandy (spirit of wine ?)
with an equal quantity of clear water, and scrape
into it a little nut-gall : when it has infused for
a few minutes, let the parchment or vellum be
lightly rubbed with a small piece of fine sponge,
and the obliterated strokes will re-appear. This
process, however, will with difficulty take eflect,
on paper that has for a long time been pene-
trated with moisture oi: damp.

The following process has also been success-
fully practised by Sir Charles Blagden, m. d. for
the purpose of restoring decayed MSS. He re-
commends prussiated alkali, to be thinly spread
with a feather over the traces of the letters, which
are to be touched with a diluted acid, applied
by means of a feather, or a piece of stick cut
to a blunt point. Though the alkali should have
produced no sensible change of colour ; yet, as
soon as the acid comes upon it, every trace of a
letter turns to a fine blue, which soon acquires

' Diet, de Diplomatique, torn. i. p. 510.
3

142 ANTIENT INKS.

its full intensity, and is beyond comparison
stronger than the colour of the original trace had
been. The corner of a piece of blotting paper
is now to be carefully and dexterously applied
near the letters, so as to absorb the superfluous
liquor, and thus prevent the parchment from
being stained : because this superfluous liquor,
which takes part of the colouring matter from
the letters, becomes a dye to whatever it touches.
Care also must be taken not to bring the blotting
paper in contact with the letters, as the colour-
ing matter is soft while wet, and may easily be
rubbed off".

The acid chiefly employed by Sir Charles
Blagden was the muriatic ; but both the vitri-
olic and nitric acids succeed very well. They
should however be so far diluted, as not to cor-
rode the parchment, after which the degree of
strength does not seem to be a matter of much
nicety \

The instruments, employed at different times
for the purpose of writing, have varied accord-
ing to the material on which men traced their
thoughts. . For tablets, the styles already men-
tioned * were in use : for paper and parchment,
which were written on by means of a fluid, a
species of reed f calamus J was antiently used,

' Philosoph. Transact, vol. Ixxvii. p. 456.
* See page 37, supra.

ANTIENT INKS. 143

being cut in the form of our modern pens. The
strokes made with these instruments were mostly
coarse and inelegant : according to Chardin,
they are still employed by the oriental Greeks,
Turks and Persians. No certain date can be
assigned, when the pens now in use were first
invented : they are supposed to have been known
since the fifth century ; and, subsequently to
the tenth, reeds have not been employed for
the transcribing of manuscripts. It is most pro-
bable therefore, that from the fifth to the tenth
century both reeds and pens were in use, and
that since the tenth century the use of pens has
crenerally and exclusively been adopted in Eu-
rope'.

' De Vaines, Diet, de Diplomatique, torn. ii. p. 182,

144 ORIGIN OF

CHAPTER III.

Origin and Progress of Printing ; Mechanism of
the Art, ^c.

No branch of Bibliography is, perhaps, of more
importance than the History of Printing : in
fact, an acquaintance with its discovery and
progress, as well as with thpse artists who by
their talents have contributed to its perfection,
becomes indispensable, in order to obtain a cor-
rect knowledge of books. The following Sec-
tions, therefore, will exhibit a concise account
of the origin and progress of printing, and the
mechanism of the art, together with some ob-
servations on the earlier specimens of typo-
graphy.

SECTION I.

Origin of Printing — Introduction of the Art into the
different Cities of Europe,

The first authors or inventors of typography,
by which we understand the art of printing
with moveable types, were extremely anxious to
preserve their important secret : occupied solely
by their pecuniary interests, they probably

PRINTING. 145

neither contemplated the incalculable benefits
which literature would derive from its practice ;
nor, still less perhaps did they regard the ho-
nour which so important a discovery would
reflect upon themselves. Hence great difficulty
has arisen, in ascertaining with precision the
time when this useful invention was discovered :
and different claims for various cities have in
consequence been maintained by men of letters,
who have urged those claims with various de-
grees of success. By no one has this interesting
topic been discussed with more ability than by
M. Santander ' ; who has ably investigated the
claims of the rival cities. In the following
pages therefore we shall chiefly give the results
of that eminent Bibliographer's enquiries.

The honour of having given birth to the typo-'
graphic art is claimed by three cities, Haerlem,
Strasburg and Mayence (or Mentz) : The pre-
tensions of Haerlem have chiefly been advocated
by M, Meerman, who has with much industry col-
lected every thing that could support his hypo-
thesis ; but his principal authority is the account
published in the Batavia of Adrian Junius, who
ascribes the invention of printing to Laurentius,
the son of John, surnamed Coster, (Koster,
that is Sacristan, of the Cathedral at Haerlem,

" Dictionnaire Bibliographique choisi du 15'. Siecle, torn. i.
pp. 1—107.

146 ORIGIN OF

at that time a respectable office.) Junius's nar-
rative runs thus ' :

" One hundred and twenty-eight years since,
while Coster was walking in a wood near the
city (as the opulent citizens of that tittie were
accustomed to do), he began first to cut some
letters upon the rind of a beech tree ; which
being impressed on paper, he printed one or
two lines as a specimen for his gfand-children
(the sons of his daughter) to follow. This hav-
ing happily succeeded, he meditated greater
things, as he was a man of ingenuity and judg-
ment ; and first of all with his son-in-law Thomas
Peter, who left threei sons (all of whom attained
the consular dighity)j he invented a more glu-
tinous writing-ink, because he found the com*
mon ink sink and spread. With this he printed
the Speculum nostree SahationiSy a Flemish work
composed of figures and letters ; the leaves of
which being printed only on one side, were
afterwards glued together, that the blanks might
not exhibit an unsightly appearance. Coster
afterwards changed his wooden types for leaden
ones, and these for tin ones: finding his new
discovery a very profitable concern, he took
into partnership one of his servants, named
John (and who is supposed to have been sur-

' See the original passage in note (A) at the end of the
Appendix.

PRINTING. 147

named Fust.) This servanti having learned the
manner of joining and casting eharactergj. as
well as other particulars relative to the art of
printing, in which he had been instructed undel*
an oath, stole from his master his whole printing
apparatus^ oft Christmas eve, while thi; fkmily
were dt iJrayers at church. Having first directed
bis flight to Amstferdam and thence to Cologne,
he finslllji^ settled at Mayence. , Here he estab*
lished his printing-officd ; and ii\ 1442 printed,
with the types he had stolen from his master,
Laurence Coster, the DoctriimleAlexak8ri Qallii
(a grammar at that time in great request), to-
gether with the TjfeatiSes of Petrus Hispdnus."

In support of this aeeodntj given on the
hearsay of some aged persons,, (jnen he says
worthy of credit,) Junius adds the comnliliiicaf
tions made to him by Nicoktis Galiu^^ (^Vho had
formerly been his tutor) aind QuirinUs TalesiuS.
By them' he was infofmedj that they had in their
yedth frequently heard the same narrative re-
lated by one Cornelius, a bookbinder^ who was
nearly eighty years- old, and whom Junius would
represent as having been employed by Coster.

Such is the substance of this celebrated fable,
the only authentic docwment, on which the
Dutch writers have i6Ued, in their strenuous
efforts to vindicate for HaerleiH its chimerical
claims : it is evident (Santander remarks) that

L 2

148 ORIGIN OF

Junius only wished to embellish his description
of a city, where he at that time resided, by an
idle tale, unknown till his own time, and the
report of which had just then only begun to be
circulated.

The truth is, no author, no Dutch work what-
ever, written in the fifteenth, or early in the
sixteenth century, makes the least possible men-
tion of this fact ; not even the celebrated
Erasmus, who, being born at Rotterdam in
1467, could not be ignorant of an event so
remarkable, and so glorious for his country.

A circumstance, which further tends to inva-
lidate Junius's account, is, that Quirinus Tale-
sius, the very authority he refers to, was for
several years Erasmus's secretary : now it is in-
credible that Erasmus could be ignorar^t of a
fact, related with all its circumstances to Adrian
Junius. If Erasmus knew it, it is difiicult to
conceive how he could suffer so remarkable an
event to pass in silence j especially as he had so
many opportunities to speak of the history of
printing, being on terms of intimate friendship
with the celebrated Thierry Martens, of Alost,
the first Dutch printer, whose epitaph Erasmus
composed ; and who was so much interested in
vindicating this honour for his country, if the.
fact had been true. But the case is quite the
reverse : whenever he speaks of the invention

PRINTING. 149

©f this art, it is always most explicitly in favour
of Mayence, and never of Haerlem, of which
he does not say a single word '.

It would exceed the limits necessarily as-
signed to this abstract of the history of the typo-
graphic art, were we to enter into all the details
of the examination of Meerman's account, in-
stituted by Santanden It may therefore suffice
to observe, that he has fully investigated the
claims in favour of Haerlem ; and, independ-
eniiy of the strong presumptive evidence already
adduced, he has proved not only that such a
person as Coster never existed, and conse-
quently that printing was not discovered at
Haerlem ; but also that the celebrated Speculum,
on which Meerman so strenuously relies, is
printed with fusile types. Far from being exe-
cuted about the year 1430, he is persuaded it
cannot be prior to the year 1480: the want of
signatures, figures, and other typographic marks,
whence Meerman would infer its antiquity, is
common to thousands of other editions of the
fifteenth century; besides, it would be ridi-
culous to look for signatm-es, figures, and catch-
words in a book, composed of a single sheet.

So strenuously, however, does Meerman ad-
vocate Junius's romantic narrative, that he
would make paradoxes pass for proofs: his

• See note (B) at the end of the Appendix.

150 ORIGIN OF

enthaslasm in favour of his country induces him
to represent Coster as an extraordinary man ;
who, contrary to the order of nature in the in-
vention of arts, begins the execution of his pre-
tended typographical art, by printing with move-
able letters an opistographous book (that is, one
printed on both sides),^afterwards retrogrades
towards elementary ideas, and finishes, where
the art must have commenced, by printing the
Speculum humance Salvationis, the Figures Biblkee,
and other similar works, which are executed
only on one side ; and which Meerman, without
Jbundation, attributes to his pretended first
printer : for, Baron Heinecken has demonstrated
that all these books, with images engraven on
wood, were originally composed and executed
in Germany. His elaborate work ' contains,
among other curious notices, a very detailed
account of several editions of the Speculum
humance Salvationis, the very work rendered so
celebrated by the fable of Junius and the pre-
tensions of the Dutch. We thence learn, that
there are two Latin editions of it extant, with-
out date ; another in Latin and German, printed
at Augsburg in 1471; several in the German
language, some of which are without date, while
others bear the dates of 1476, 1492, and 1500?

' Idde Generale d'une collection complete d'estampes,
I.eipsic, 8vo. 1771.

PRINTING. 151

two, in the Fleniish tongue without date, and a
third printed by John Veldener, in 1483 j and
lastly, others in French, which are preserved in
the libraries of the different cities, universities
and monasteries of Germany '.

It is evident therefore that Haerlem is npt the
city, where the art of printing, " the nurse and
preserver of the arts and sciences," wqs disco-
vered. If we examine all the authors without
exception, who have written in favour of that
city, we shall not find the least contemporary
document, on which to support their preten-
sions : every assertion they make, is re4uced to
the narrative of Junius, solely composed of
hearsays, on which every one comments accord-
ing to his fancy or his prejudices. Yet, on the
authority of this fable, have the Dutch pro-
ceeded to strike medals, engrave inscriptions,
and erect statues and other monuments to the
glory of the immortal and incomparable first
printer l-aurentJanssoen, whom they have some-
times represented to be a disturber of the public
peace, and have condemned him as such, some-
times 9,s a sacristan or church-warden, after-
wards a sheriff, thm a treasurer, and finally an
illustrious branch of the house of Brederode, a

' See an account of this celebrated work, illustrated with
a feG-simile, in the Appendix (No, I.)

152 ORIGIN OF

descendant in the right line from the antient
sovereigns of Holland !

If numbers could add certainty in deciding
this long-contested question, they will also be
found to militate against the claims of Haerlem.
Mallinkrot, who treats this subject with great
skill and discernment, has with indefatigable
industry collected testimonies from both sides of
the question, from the promulgation of the art
to the time in which he wrote (1640) ; and has'
placed them in the following order in the be-
ginning of his work on the origin and progress
of printing'.

For Mentz, before the dispute was started by Junius 63
Those who have written on the same side since Junius 47

109

Those who have written against Haerlem .... 13
Those who are neuters 11

From this comparison it is evident that the
numbers are greatly against the pretensions of
Haerlem. Equally decisive is the result of M.
Daunou's Analysis of the different opinions re-*
lative to the origin of typography *.

' Bernandini a Malhnkrot de ortu et progressu artis typo-
graphies. Colon. Agrippinse, 1640. 4to.
* DaunoUj Analyse des Opinions diverses sur I'origine de

PRINTING. 153

Transported by their patriotism, learned
Dutchmen have resorted to every possible ex-
pedient in order to represent Coster not only as
the father of the art of printing, but also as the
inventor of engraving on wood ; a claim that
cannot be supported, and which has even less
foundation than the former.

For, certainly, if there had lived at Haerlera
an engraver on wood, such as they would have
us beUeve in the person of their Coster, we
should have found some notice of him in Carel
Van Mander's History of the Lives of Painters
and Engravers, published in 1603 ' j a work for
which he would doubtless have made the most
accurate researches, particularly in every thing
relafive to Flemish and Dutch artists. One
would naturally expect to see, in such a work,
an exact and minute account of so celebrated
an artist as Coster, if he had really been the
inventor of the art of engraving in wood, whose
glory so deeply interested the city of Haerlem,

I'lmprimerie, 8vo. Paris, an xi. An abstract of these diflerent
opinions will be given iinfra, Part III. chap. II. sect. III. in
the account of writers who have treated on the origin of
printing.

' Charles Van Mander, or Vermander, was born at Meule-
beeke, a village in Flaliders, in the lordship of Courtray, in
1548 ; he settled at Haerlem in 1583 ; and went thence to
Amsterdam in 1603, where he died September 11, 1606, in
the 58th year of his age.

154 ORIGIN OF

where the author had settled. The famous
Laurent Coster, however, is not at aU noticed
either as a printer or as an engraver on wood,
or in fact under any other denomination what»
ever; though the Jif^tavia of Junius had then
been printed nearly twenty years, and the inr
habitants of Haerlem were perfectly acquainted
with his narrative respecting Coster. It is not
difficult (Santander observes) to divine the rea-
son pf all this : — Van Mander well knew that
historical facts, foullded on cqnjectures and
related by hearsay, were not worthy of credit ;
and therefore did not think proper to introduce
such a fable into his work, however agreeable it
miglut be to his fellow-citizens.

It appears very certain that printing is in-
debted for its- origin to the art of engraving on
wood ; at the end of the fourteenth and in the
beginning of the fifteenth centuryj the Italians,
Germans, Flemings and Dutch began to engrave
on wopd a^d copper' ; but the previous advances
were gradual. The inscriptions in relief upon-
monuments and altars, in the cloisters and over
church-porches, served as models for block-

' The progress of early engraving and ornamental printing is
traced with great ability, and illustrated with very numerous
engravings, by the Rev. T. F. Dibdin in the Preliminarty Dis-
quisition prefixed to his elegant and improved edition of Ames'
and Herbert's Typographical Antiquities of Great Britain and
Ireland, pp. iii — ^Ivii.

PRINTING. 155

printing: the letters on pointed windows greatly
resemble those in the books of images. The in-
vention of playing cards was an intermediate step.
M. Bullet (in his *' Recherches Historiques sur les
Cartes a Joiier") endeavours to shew tha,t they
were invented in France ajbout the year isvis:
but Baron Heinecken has proved that the inven-
tion of playing cards b^elongs to the Germans,
and that they were known and used in Germany,
in the year 130O. At first, the cards were piaint-
ed ; about a century afterwards a method was de-
vised of printing them from blocks. To this we
may directly trace the art of printing; of which
the books of images form the next step.

The manufacturers of playing cards first be-
gan to engrave on wood the images of the saints;
to these they afterwards added some verses or
sentences analogoius to the subject, as Baron
Heinecken found in a very curious wood-cut
of St. Christopher, which he discovered in the
convent of the Chartreux, at Buxheim, near
Memmingen'; and at the foot of which he read
the following words, engraved and printed toge-
ther with the figure : Cristojkri Jhciem die qua-
cunque tueris. Hid nempe die, morie mold non
morieris. MiNesimo CCCCf. XX^ tertio. A& the
ai't of engraving on wood proceeded, its pro-

' This great euriosity is now in the superb collection of Earl
Spencer.

156 ORIGIN OF

fessors at length composed historical subjects,
with a text or explanation engraven on the same
plates : these form the boohs of images above
mentioned: they were printed from wooden
blocks ; one side of the leaf only is impressed,
and the corresponding text is placed below, be-
side, or proceeding from the mouth of the
figure '. (

These books of images, then, may with very
great probability be regarded as the first attempts
at printing, and as indicating the means of dis-
covering that important art : for nothing more
was necessary than to cut the letters engraven
in relief on, the plates, or rather to engrave
them separately, in order to render them move-
able, and thus allow any word, sentence, &c. to
be printed at pleasure. This was accomplished
by John Gutenburg, of Mayence (or Mentz),
about the year 1438.

John Gutenburg or Gansfleisch, who is sup-
posed to have been born at Mayence, in the
beginning of the fifteenth century, settled at
Sti'asburg about the year 1424, and perhaps
before. In 1435 he entered into a partnership
with Andrew Drizhennius or Dritzehen, John
Riff, and Andrew Heilman, citizens of Stras-

' These books of images are of extreme rarity ; some account
of them will be found in the Appendix, No. I., illustrated by
accurate fac-similes.

PRINTING. 157

burg, and bound himself to disclose to them
some important secrets, by which they should
make their fortunes. Each at first contri-
buted eighty florins, and afterwards one hun-
dred and twenty-five. The workshop was in
the house of Andrew Dritzehen; who dying,
Gutenberg immediately sent his servant Law-
rence Beildeck to Nicolas, the brother of the
deceased ; and requested that no person might
be admitted into the workshop, lest the secret
should be discovered, and the forms stolen. But
tiiey had already disappeared : and this fraud,
as well as the claims of Nicolas Dritzehen to
succeed to his brother's share, produced a law-
suit among the surviving partners. The cause
was heard : from the depositions of five witnesses
who were examined, and especially from the
evidence of Beildeck, Gutenberg's servant, it is
incontrovertibly proved that Gutenberg was the
first who practised the art of printing with move-
able types, and that on the death of Andrew
Dritzehen he had expressly ordered the forms to
be broken up and the characters dispersed, lest
any one should discover his secret. The result
of this law-suit was a dissolution of the partner-
ship '.

' The document containing an account of this trial, together
with the sentence of the magistrates of Strasbui^, is dated in
December, 1439. It was puWished in the original German

158 ORIGIN OF

Gutenberg, after having sunk what he and
his associates had embarked in this speculation,
went in 1445 to his native city Mayeflce, and
resumed his typographic labours : here, in 1450,
he entered into a new partnership with John
Fust, an Opulent citizdri, who advanced him the
capital necessary to establish a new printing-
officfei At this establishment was printed for the
first time (in 1455) the celebrated Latin Bible,
so much disputed among biblidgfaphers ' j the
expenses incidental to which being vefy consider-
able. Fust ihstitntfed a suit against Gutenberg ;
who was obliged to pay interest^ and alSo part of
the capital so advanced. In consequence of this

with a Lsitin versioh by M. Schoepflin in his "Vindicife Typo-
graphieie ;" whence Santander has introduced an fextract into
his Djctionnaire Bibliographique, vol. i. pp. 74 — 77, notes. In
the different documents above referred to^ John Gutenberg is
variovlsly called Johannes Clutenberg ;-—jQha.iimes de Moguntia,
dictus Gutenberg ; — Johannes difctus Gehsejleisch, ailias iiuncu-
patus Gutenberg de Mogimtia ; — Johannes Gensefleiacli junior,
dictus Gutenberg ; — Johannes Gansfleisch, dictus Sulgeloch vel
Sorgeloch.

" For a particular account of this famous bible, see Santan^^
der, vol. ii. pp. 176 — ISO. Another specimen from Guten-
berg's press was discovered a few years since by M. Fiscfaer,
among a bundle tX old accounts in the archives of Mayence.
It is an almanack for the year 1457, and served as a wrapper
for a register of accounts for that year. M. Fischer thinks it
was printed towards the close of the year 1456; and conse-
quently is the most antient specimen of printing, that is extant

with a certain date. Peignot, Repertoire Universel, p. 358.

PRINTING. IS9

suit, the partnership w£lg dissolved; arid the Whole
of Gutenberg's printing apparatus fell into the
hands of, John Fust.

• Notwithstanding this unfortunate Gircum-^
stance, Gutenberg was not discouraged froM
fcdlowing his pursuits: he established a new
press, and continiied to exercise his art until
1465, When being admitted by the elector Adol-
phus of Nassau into his band of gentlemen-pen-
sioners, with a handsome salary, he relinquished
an art which had caused him so much troubk
and vexation.

Although no printed work has hitherto bfeen
discovered, bearing the name of John Guten-
bergj it is nevertheless certain that he printed
several* and that the Catholicon Johannis de Bal-
bis^ is one of theproduetions of his press; the Cha-
racters being exactly the same as those aftefwards
employed in the Vocabularius ex quo ', printed
in 1467 in Gutenberg's office, which after his
death in 1468 became the property of Conrad
Humery, syndic of the city of Mayence, whci,
most probably had advanced money for its es-
tablishment.

John Fust having, by virtue of the judgment
given Nov. 6, 1455, above mentioned, becomd
possessed of Gutenberg's original typographic

'A brief ticftice of these works will be found in the Ap-
pendix, No. Vll.

160 ORIGIN OF

apparatus, began to print on his own account^
with the assistance of Peter Schoiffer, of Gerns-
heim; an industrious young man of inventive
talents, who was most probably initiated into
the mysteries of the art during the continuance
of the partnership. Their first publication was
a beautiful edition of the Psalms, finished Aug.
14, 1457, soon after SchoifFer's separation from
Gutenberg : it is the first book known to be ex-
tant, which has the name of the place where it
was printed, and that of the printers, together
with the date of the year when it was executed.
From the short time which elapsed between
the dissolution of Gutenberg's and Fust's part-
nership, and the date afiixed to the above men-
tioned edition of the Psalter, there is reason to
believe that the characters employed in its exe-
cution were already at hand, and had been
finished by Gutenberg previously to his rupture
with Fust. In fact, it does not seem likely that
within eighteen months Peter Schoiffer (who
is admitted to have improved the art of letter-
founding) could have prepared all the characters
necessary for the printing of so considerable a
work, in addition to the instruments invented
for casting letters, which he must also have
made. A further proof against Schoiffer is,
that the large initial letters of his edition of the
Psalter had already been employed in former

PRINTING. 161

impressions, which were indisputably made by
Gutenberg.

Although the initialletters of this Psalter
were engraven on wood, yet the rest of the vo-
lume is certainly printed with metal types ; the
invention of which has by some authors been
ascribed to Peter Schoiffer. Trithemius ', how-
ever (who was contemporary with him), asserts
the contrary to be the case ; and positively de-
clares that Gutenberg and Fust invented the art
of casting characters in metal, which before
they were obliged to cut with the hand; but
that Schoiflfer subsequently discovered a more
expeditious method, which further contributed
to the perfection of the art.

It is evident, therefore, that the art of found-
ing metal characters was acquired from John
Gutenberg, to whom we are also indebted for
its invention ; and was afterwards perfected by
Schoiffer", who invented puncfies for striking
the matrices. For this last improvement Fust
rewarded htm, by giving him his only daughter
in marriage.

We have, under the firm of Fust and Schoif-
fer, the Psalter of 1457, and a reprint of the

'Annales Hirsaug. tom.'ii. p. 421.

"See some additional testimonies , confirming the iibove state-
ments, and drawn from publications of the younger Schoefier,
in Note (B) at the end of the Appendix.

16^ ORIGIN OF

same work in 1459; — ^the Rationale Durandt,
1459; — Clemeniis Papce Consiitutiones, 1460;—
Biblia Latina, 1462 ; — Liber seMus Decretalium,
1465 ; — Cicero de Qfficiis, 1465 ; and a reprint
of the same in 1466, quarto, die mensis Februarii.
Fust's name appears for the last time to the Cicero
de Qfficiis, of 1466 : all works subsequent to that
date exhibit the name of SchoifFer alone ; who
continued to print till his death in 1502, when
, he was succeeded by his son John Schoiifer.

Having thus traced the progress of the typo-
graphic art, we apprehend the reader will concur
in our opinion, 1. That the city of Mayence, or
Mentz, has the fairest claim to be considered
as the birth-place of this inestimable discovery ;
— 2. That Gutenberg was its inventor ; — 3.
That Schoiifer completed it by the invention of
punches for striking the matrices ;— and 4. That
John Fust, having furnished, throughout, the
money necessafy for the establishment of the
printing-office, can only be considered as a sleep-
ing partner in the concern, or i'ather as a pro-
tector of the art of printing.

When the city of Mentz was taken by Adol-
phus. Count of Nassau, in 1462, Fust and Scho-
ifFer suffered materially, in common with their
fellow-citizens : their workmen dispersed them-
selves to seek their fortunes, and the art of
printing was thus diffused over Europe. As the

PRINTING, 163

limits necessarily assigned to a Manual will not
admit of a detailed account of the introduction
of typography into the different cities of Europe,
the reader (it is. hoped) will be gratified by the
following brief series of dates and places, ex-
tracted from Santander's elaborate History of
Printing. The Roman numerals indicate the
articles; — the Arabic figures, the ddte ; — the
names of the towns follow in small capital
letters; — ^the titles of the books first print-
ed at each place with certain dates, follow in
Italic ; — and the printers' names conclude each
article. Such names as occur in parentheses are
those of printers, who are considered to be the
first in each respective town, but whose impres-
sions are destitute of dates.

I. 1457. Mayence, Psalmorum Codex, in folio. Printers,

John Fust and Peter ScTioiffer. (John Gutenberg.)

II. 1461. Bamberg, A Collection of Fables, in German. foL

Pr. Albert Pfister.

III. 1465. SuBBiACO, Lactantii Opera. 4to. Pr. Conradus

Sweynheim and Arnoldus Pannartz.

IV. 1467. Rome, Ciceronis Epistolce familiares, in 4to. The

same printers.

V. 1467. Elfeld, VocabulaHum ex quo. Pr. Henry and Nich.

Rechtermuntze, and Wigandus Spyes.

VI. 1467. Cologne, S. Au^t. deSingul. Clericor. 4to. Pr.

Ulricas Zel, or Zell, of Hanau.

VII. 1468. Augsburg, Meditationes viM Christi.M. Pr. Gin-

ther Zainer, of Reutlingen.
viii. 1469. Venice, Ciceronis Epistolte familiares. fol. Pr.
Joannes de Spira.

164 ORIGIN OF

IX. 1469. Milan, Miracoli de la glor. V. Maria: 4to. ,iV-

Philippus de Lavagna.

X. 1470. NuRENBiTRG, ComestoTum vitiorum. fol. Pr. Joannes

Sensenschmidt (1472) '.

XI. 1470. Paris % Epistolce Gasparini Pergamensis. 4to. Pr.

Ulricas Geting, M. Ctantz, andM. Fiiburger, of Colmar.

XII. 1470. FoLiGNo, Leon. Aretini die Bella Italico, fol. Pr.

Emilian de Orfinis.
xiri. 1470. Tre'vi,, Hist, de indulgenfia B. Francisci. 4to. Pr.
Joan. Reynardi.

XIV. 1470. Vekona, la Batracomiomachia. fol. Pr.- Joan, de

Verona (1472).

XV. J471. ^trasbuHg, Gratiani diecrebttm. fol. Pr. HenriGus

Eggestein (Joan. Mentel or Mentelius).

XVI. 1471. Spike, Postilla super Apocah/psim. 4to. Vt. Petrus

Drach (1477).

XVII. 1471. Treviso, Mercurius Trimegist^r, 4to. Pr, Girar-

dus de Lisa, de Flandria.

XVIII. 1471. Bologna, Ovidii Opera, fol. Pr. Balthasar Azzo-
guidi.

XIX. 1471. Ferrara, Mdrtialis epigram, 4to. Pr. Andreas

Belfortes.

XX. 1471. Naples, Bartholi de Saxo Ferrato lectura, fol. Pr.

Sixtus Riessinger, of Strasburg.

XXI. 1471. Pavia, Joann. Matthxi de Gradibus opera medicd.

fol. Pr. Anton, de Carcano (1476).

' The figures ■within parentheses in the art. x. and in some following
ones, indicate the date of impressions, in- which the printers' names, ap-
pear for the first time.

' When printing yias first established at Paris, the copyists, finding
their business so materially injured, presetlted a memorial of complaittt
to the parliament ; which tribunal (as superstitious as the people who
considered the printers to be conjurors) caused their books to be seized and
confiscated. Louis XI. however, who with all his bad qualities was the
friend and patron of letters, prohibited the parliament from taking any
further cognizance of the afiair, and restored their property to the printers.
Lambinet, Recherches sur I'Imprimerie, pp. 171, 172.

PRINTING, 165

XXII. 1471. Florence, ,Cqmnent. Servii in, Vii\gi^ fol. fPp,,-

Bemard Centjini and Son. , \ , ,

XXIII. 1472. Cremona,. Ahgeli de Perusio UctMra. M. Pr.
Dion, de Pafayistno and Stepb.de MerRnis, of Lencho.,

XXIV. 1472. FivizANOj VirgUius. fol. Pr. James Baptista (a

priest) and AJipxaB<Ien . ^

XXV. 1472. Padua, la FiamneUa, diBoceacio. 4t(>. Pr. Barth.

de Valde^aoMo, and Mart, de Septem AtboribuBi . ; , . ; z

XXVI. 1472. MmT-uA^Tmctatui,Malelkiatium,.fo\,YTiVe.it\x&

Adam de Micbaelibus.

XXVII. 1472. Montre'al,. in Sicily, or Mondbw, in Italy, ac-
cording to Peignot, S. Antmini de instruct, confe/ss. #0.
Pr. Ant. Mathias, of Antwerp, and BaltbasarCorderius.

XXVIII. 1472. Jesj, Comedia. di Dante, foU; Pf. Erictericus,
Veronensis.

XXIX. 1472. MuNSTER in Argaur, Roderici Speculiiln. fol. Pr.

Helias Helye, or de Louffen.

XXX. 1472. Parma, Tndra/J ds Peirarca. fol. Pft Andreas Por^

tiglia.

XXXI. 1473. Bresoia, Statuta Brixim. fol. Pr. Thomas Fer?

randiis.

XXXII. 1473. Messina, Vita di S-. Hiercmpno. ito. Pr. Hen-
ricus Aiding. "1

xxxiii. 1473. Ulm, Opus de mysterio- miasm. 4to. Pr. Joan.

Zainer, of Eeutlingeov
xxxiv. 1473- Bud a, CronicaHtrngarorwh fol. Pr. Andreas Hess.
xxxT. 1473. Laugincen, S. August, de Consensu IkmngeUs'

tarum. fol. Printer's name not known.

XXXVI. 1473. Merseburg,. & August, de Slumstianihus Orosii.
4to. Pr. Lucas Brandis. ■

XXXVII. 1473. Alost, Speeulwim Cdnsersionis Peccator. 4to.
Pr. Theodoricus (or Thierry) Martens.

xjpcviii. 1473. Utrecht, Historia scholasticq, novi Testam.

fol. Pr. Nicholas Ketelaer, and Ger. de Leempt,
^xxix. 1473, Lyon, Lotharii Didconi Cardinaiis Compendium

breve. 4to. Pr. Bavthdomeeus Buyer,

166 ORIGIN OF

XL. 1473. S. Uksio (a small place near Vicenza), J. Buns ScO'
tus, super tertio sententiarum. fol. Pr. Joannes de
Rheno.
xLi. 1474. Vicenza, Dita mundi. fol. Pr. Leonardus Achates,

of Basle.
XLii. 1474. CoMO, Tractatus de appellationihus. fol. Pr. Am-

brosius de Orcho, and Dionys. de Paravicino.
XLiii. 1474. Turin, Breviarium Romanum. 8vo. Pr. Job,

Fabri, and Joanninus de Petro.
XLiv. 1474. Genoa, Summa Pisanella. fol. Pr. Mathias Mo-

ravus, and Mic. de Monacho.
XLV. 1474. Savona, Boetius de Consol. philosophic. 4to. Pr.

John Bon (Bonus Johannes).
XLVi. 1474. EsLiNGEN, Th. de Aquino in Job. fol. Pr. Conradus

Fyner.
XLvn. 1474. Basle, Der Sassen Spiegel, fol. Pr. Bernardus

Richel (Bertholdus Rodt).
XLViii. 1474.VALL1S Sanctb Mabi^', Breviarium Moguntin.

4to. Pr. Fratres vitse communis.
XLix. 1474. Valencia, Obres o Trobes de la S. V. Maria.
4to. Pr. Aionso Fernandez de Cordova, and Lambert
Palmart (1478).
1. 1474. LouvAiN, Commoda ruralia. fol. Pr. Joannes de

Westphalia.
LI. 1474. Westminster, T/(e Game oi.Ctes. fol. Pr. William

Caxton. (Vide infra, sect, II. p. 176 et seq.)
Lii. 1475. Lubeck, Rudimentum Novitiorum. fol. Pr. Lucas
Brandis, of Schass.

' Santander conjectures this place to be Marikausen, a convent of the
brethren of the common life, situated in the Rhingan, a territory be-
longing to Mayenoe or Mentz. This order was instituted by Gerard t]be
Great, under the rule of St. Augustin : in addition to the other employ-
ments prescribed by their statutes, the members of this fraternity, were
bound to transcribe the works of the fathers and ecclesiastical authors.
Ai the discovery of printing deprived them of their means of subsistence,
these industrious monastics applied themselves to the practice of that art,
in order that they might fulfil the spirit of their rule.

PRINTING. 167

viii. 1473. BuRGDORFF, Tractatus de Apparitionihus. fol. Print-
er's name not known.

nv. 1475. Blauburren (or Blaubeuern), Oh eyn mm sey zu
nemen Weib, &c. ' fol. Pr. Conradus Mancz.

ivv. 1475. Cagli, Mafei Vegii, de Morte Astianactk, 4to. Pr.
Robertas de Fane and Bernardinus de Bero-amo.

cvi.'1475. Casole, Vitce Sanctorum. 4to. Pr. John Fabri.

Lvii. 1475. MoDENA, Virgilius. fol. Pr. Joan. Vurster.

Lviii. 1475. PEV.VGIA, Verulami de Arte Graimnatica. 4to. Pr.
Henricus Clayn of Ulm (1476),

MX. 1475. PieVe pi Sacco, {a small town belonging to the
late republic of Venice), Huatuor Ordines, hebraice. fol.
Pr. Rabbi MescuUam, sumamed Kotzi.

Lx. 1475. PlacEnza, BJfiZza Latina.ito. Pr. Petrns de Ferratia.

Lxi. 1475. Regqio., R. Salomon Jarchi in Pentateuchum. fol.
Pr. Abraham Garton.

Lxii. 1475. Barcelona, Valasti de Tarenta, de Epidemia. Pr.
Nicolaus Spindeler (1478).

Lxni. 1475. Saragqssa, Maniputus Curatorum. fol. Pr.
Matthasus Flandrus.

LXJV. 1476. Antwerp, Thesaurus 'Pavpervm. fol., Pr. Theodo-
ricus (or Thierry) Martens of Alost.

Lxv. 1476. Bruges, Bocace,, du-J>echietdes Nobles, &i.c.^r.
— -.. Colard Mansion.

ixvi. 1476. Brussels, Gnotosolitos'^. fol. Pr. Fratres vitai com-
munis.

Lxvii. 1476. NovaPlzna (New Pilsen, in Bohemia), Statuta
Synodalia Pragensia. 4to. Printer's name not known.

'The title of this work, according to Santander, is, Alberti Van Eyb, Ob
ein man set/ zu nemen fVeib oder nit, i. c. 'W^hetber a man should take a
wife or not ? He adds that this little treatise was repeatedly printed in the
fifteenth century. Diet. Bib. du 15° siecle, torn. i. 336, note. Blauburren
is a small town in the kingdom of Wirtemberg.

'The title of this work is. Speculum Canscieniice, quod Gnotosolitos dkitur t
;t is a very thick folio volume, printed in two columns of fifty lines each,
and in Gothic characters, Santander lias-given a very detailed account of it.

168 ORIGIN OF

Lxvni. 1476. Rostock, Lactantii Oper», fol. Pr. Fratres vitse

communis.
LXix. 1476. PoLLiANo (or Pogliano, a small place about

four miles from Verona), Peharcha,' degli huomini

ffimosi. 4to. Pr. Innocentius Ziletus and Felix Antii'

quarius.
Lxx. 1476. Trent, De Obitu Pueri Simmis, 4to. Pr. Her*

mannus Schindeleyp.
ixxi. 1476. Delft, Bihlia, belgke. fol. Pr. Jacob Jacobs and

Maurice Yemants.
Lxxii. 1477. Deventer, Reductorium Biblia. fol. Pr. Eichard

Paffi'oet.
Lxxm. 1477. GoTJDA, Epistekn en Evangelien. fol. Pr. Gerard

Leu or Leuw.
Lxxiv. 1477. AtiGSTiS, Mdnipulus Cwaiorum. fol. Pr, Joann.

• de Turre and Joan, de MoreUi.
Lxxv. 1477. Palermo, Corimetudines Panormi. 4to. Pr. An-
dreas de Worraatia.
Lxxvi. 1477. AscoLi, Cronica de S. Isidoro Menore. 4to. Pr.

Guillelmus de Linis.
Lxxvii. 1477. Lucca, Triomphi diPetrarca. fol. Pr. Barthol.

de Civitali.
Lxxviii. 1477. SEViiLE, Sacramentale, sive Catechismus Puero-

rum. 4to. Pr. Anton. Martinez> de la Talla, Bartho.

Segura, and Alfonso del Puerto.
Lxxix. 1478. CosENZA, DeW Immortalitd dell' Anima, 4to.

Pr. Octaviiis Salomonius de Manfredonia.
Lxxx. 1478. CoLLE, Dioscorides, latine. fol. Pr. Joannes Al-

lemanus de Medemblick,
Lxxxi. 1478. Chablis, Le Liwe des bonnes moeurs. fol. Pr.

Pierre le Eouge.
Lxxxii. 1478. Geneva, Le Livre des Saints Anges. fol. Pr.

Adam Steinschawer, de Schuinfordia (1480).
LxxxiiT. 1478. Oxford, Exposicio in Simbolum. 4to. Pr. Theo-

doricus Rood (1481) See sect. II. § %, infra.

V . PRINTING. 169

Lxxxiv. 1478. Prague, Statuum utraquisficm'Uin AriicuM. toi.
Printer's name unknown.

Lxxxv. 1478. MoNAST. SoRTEN., Leonardi i/hainhCdthmdia,
&c. fol. Printer's name not known.

Lxxxvi. 1478. EiCHSTETT (Neustad), Summa. Hostierisls. fol.
Pr. Michael Reyser.

Lxxxvii. 1479. WuRTZBURG, Bremarium Diocxs. Herhipolerma.
fol. Pr. Stephanus Dold, Jeorius Ryser, and Joan. Be-
kenhub. . _ . j

Lxxxviii. 1479. ZwoLL, SummulcB Petri Hispan^. fol. Pr. Jo-
hannes de VoUehoe.

Lxxxix. 1479. NiMEGUEN, Epistotu de prwilegiis Ord. Men-
dicant. 4t6. No Printer's name. . ■ i >

xc. 1479. PiGNEROL, Boetius de C&nsolatione Phildsopldm. fol.
Pr.^ Jacobus de Rubeis. ■ »,

xci. 1479. TuscuLANo, Msopi Fabula. 4tOi Pr. Gabriel
Petri.

xcii. 1479. TocLousE, Tractatus de jure emphiteotico. fd.Vr.
Joannes Teutonicus.

xciii. 1479. Poicriuiis, Breviarimn Mstoriale. 4to. Pr. Joan.
Bouyer and Guill. Bouchet (1499).

xciv. 1479. Secorba, Constitutiones Synodales. fol. No Print-
er's name.

xcv. 1479. Leriba, Breviarium Illerdense. fol. Pr. Henricus
' Botel.

xcvi. 1480. Oudenarde, Herm. de Petra Sermones. fol. Pr.
Arnoldus Cesaris.

xcvii. 1480. Hasselt, Epistelen en Evangelien. 4to. No Print-
er's name.

xcviii. 1480. NbNANTotA, Breviarium Romemum. 4to. Pr.
iGebrg. & Anselra. de Mischinis.

xcix. Reggio, Nic. Perotti Rudim. Gram. 4to. Pr. Barthol.
aind Laurentius de Bruschis.

c. 1480. VtiivLijPlatinadehonestdvohptate. 4to. Gerdrdus de
Flandria; — probably the same person as Gerardus de
Lisa, who printed at Treviso. (See No. xvii.p. 164.)

170 ORIGIN OF

CI. 1480. Caen, Horatii Epistolx. 4to. Pr. Jacobus Duran-

dus and Egidias Quijoue.
cii. 1480. Saint Albans, Laurentii Guil. de.Saona, Rhetorica

nova. 4to. No Printer's name. — See sect. II. § 4, p. 197.
cm. 1481. Salamanca, Nehrixa introductiones Latince. fol.

Pr. Leo Alemanus et Lupus Sanz (1496).
CIV. 1481. Leifsick, Glosa super Apocalipsim. 4to. Pr. Marcus

, Brand (1484).
cv. 1481. Casal, Ovidii Epist. Heroides. fol. Pr. Guil. de

Canepa nova, de Campanilibus.
cvi. 1481. Urbino, Marii Philelphi Epistolarium. Pr. Hen-

ricus de Colonia (1493).
cvii. 1481. ViENNE (in France), Nic. de Clemangis de Lapsu

justitia.Ato. Pr. Peter Schenck.
ifviu. 1481. AuiiACH (in Wirtemberg), Lehen der Heiligen

(Lives of the Saints). Pr. Conradus Fyner.
cix. 1482. AauiLA, Vita de Plutarcho. fol. Pr. Adam de Rotwii.
ex. 1482. Erfurt, L/utrei qutBstiqnes in lihros Arist. de Ani-

ma. 4to. Pr. Paulus Wider de Hornbach.
CXI. 1483. Memmingen, Fasciculus temporum. fol. Pr. Al-

bertus Kunne.
cxn. 1482. Passau, Epistola de morfe S. Hieronimi. 4to. Pr.

Conradus Stahel and Benedictus Mayr.
cxiii. 1482. Reutlingen, Surnma Pisani. fol. Job. Otraar.
cxiv. 1482. Vienna, Manipulus Curatorum. 4to. Pr. Job. Win-

terburg (1472).
cxv. 1482. PromentOub, Doctrinal de Sapience, fol. Pr. Louis

Guerin.
cxvi. 1483. Macdeburg, Officium Missce. .4to. Pr. Albertus

Rauenstein and Joachimus Westval.
cxvii. 1483. Stockholm, Dialogus Creaturarum. 4to. Pr. Job.

Snell.
CXVI II. 1483. Ghent, GaeVfcrmi Rhetorica divina. 4to. Arnoldus

Caesaris.
cxix. 1483. Troves, Breviarimn Trecense. Svo. Pr. Guil. le

Rouge (1492).

PRINTING. i7l

cxx. 1483. Schiedam,- Roman de cheoalier Delahere. 4to.

No Printer's name.
cxxi. 1483. HarleMj Formula Novitiorum, 4to. Pr. Joh.

Andriesson'.
cxxii. 1483. CuLEMBURG, Speculum humancB Salvationis, in'

Dutch. 4lo. Pr. John Veldener.
cxxiii, 1483. Leyden, Die Cronikevan Holland, Ifc. 4to. Pr.

Heynricus Heynrici.
cxxiv. 1483. Pisa, Francisci de Accoltis consilia, Pr. Lauren-

tius and Angelus Florentini (1484).
cxxv. 1483. GiRONNE, Memorial del peccador. foL. Pr. Mat-
thew Vendrell.
cxxvi. 1484. Bois-LE-Duc; Tondalus visioen. 4to. Pr. Ger,

Leempt. de Noviomago (Nitneguen).
cxxvii. 1484. WiNTERPERG (or Winterburg), Alhertus Magn&s

de Eucharistia. Pr. Joannes Alacraw.
cxxviii. 1484. Chamberri, Le livre de Baudoyn Comte de

Flandre. fol. Pr. Antoniiis Neyret.
cxxix. 1484. Breand-Loude'hac (or Loudeac), le Songede la

Pucelle. 4to. Pr. Robin Fouquet.
cxxx. 1484. Rennes, Coustumes de Bretagne. ISmo. Pr. Pierre

BeUeesculfee and Josses.
cxxxi. 1484. Sienna, Pauli de Caslri Lectura in Sextum co-

dicis. fol. Pr. Henricus de Colonia.
cxxxii. 1484. SoNciNO, Delectus Margaritarum, hehraice. 4to.

Pr. Joshua Salomon and partners,
cxxxiii. 1484. Novi, Summa Baptistiniana. 4to. Pr. Nicol. Gi^

rardengus.
cxxxiv. 1485. Heidelberg, Hugonis de Prato Florida Sermones.

fol. Pr. Fridericus Misch (1488).
cxxxv. 1485. Ratisbon, Liher Missalis Ratishonaisis. fol. Pr.

John Sensenschmidt, and John Bekenhaub.
cxxxvi. 1485. Vercelli (in Piedmont), Nic. de Auxmo

' The most antient book, printed at Harlem with a date, bears date In
1483 ; and Santander is of opinion that the art of priating was not
practised in Harlem prior to that time.

173 ORIGIN OF

Supplementum SummtB Pisanx. 8vo. Pr. Jacobinus

Suigus.
cxxxvii. 1485. Pesgia, Le Confessione de S. Bernardino de

Siena. 4to. Pr. Franc. Cenni.
cxxxvin. 1485, Udino, Nic, Perotti Rudim. Gram. 4to. Pr,

Gerardus de Flandria.
cxxxix. 1485. Burgos, Andrex Guterii opus grammaticale. fol.

Pr. Fridericus de Basilea.
cxL. 1485. Zaragoza (or Saragossa),. Epistalasi/ Evargelios,

fol. Pr. Paulus Hurus.
cxLi. 1485. Salamanca, Medicinaa de la peste. 4to. Pr,

Antonius de Barreda (1498).
cxLii. 1486. Abbeville, le Cite de Dieu de St. Augustin.

fol. Pr. Jean Du Pre and Pierre Gerard.
cxLiii. 1486. BiiuNN, Agenda secundum ehorum Olomucense^

4to. Pr. Conradus Stabel and Matheus Preinlein

(1491)..
cxLiv. 1486. M{jiiSTe.K,Rudolphi Xiangi Carmina. 4to, Pr, Jo-
annes Limburgus.
cxLV. 1486. Sleswic, Missale Slestuicense. foL Pr. Stephanus

Arndes.
cxLvi. 1486. Casale Maggioee, Machasor (a book of- prayers

in Hebrew), 4to. No Printer's name.
cxLvii. 1486. Chivasio, Angeli de Clavasio Summa. 4to. Pr.

Jacobinus Suigus.
cxLviii, 1486. ViauERiA, (Vogbera in Paria ?) Alex, de Imola

PostillcB fol, Pr, Jacobus de S. Nazario.
cxLix. 1486. Toledo, Petri Ximenez Covfutatorium. 4to. Pr.

Joannes Vasqui (Vasquez).
CL. 1487. BESANpoN, Liher de Pestilentia. 4to. John Comtel,
cLi, 1487. Gaeta, Formulario epistolare. 4to, Pr, A, F,

(Andreas Fritag.)
cm. 1487, VALER tA, El Valeria de las Hist, de Espana. fol,

Pr. Juan de Roca.
CLiii. 1487. Rouen, Croniques de Normandie. fol. Pr. Guil-

laume le Talleur.

PRINTING. 173

CLiv. 1487. IscHAR, (Ixar, inArragon?) Ordo Arba Turim,

hebraice. fd. Pr. Eliezer filius Aknta'.
CLv. 1488. ViTERBO, Senii Honorati de metrorum generibus.
Svo. No Printer's name.

CLvi.^ 1489. Hagenau, Cornutus Joan. Garlandia. 4to. Pr.
Henricus Gran.

CLvii. 1489. KoTTKNBERG, BiMiu (Bahemice). fol. Pr. Mar-
tin Van Tischiniowa.

CLViii. 1489. Lebid^, Petri de Castroziol.- in libres Nat, Arisi.
fol. No Printer's name.

CLix. 1489. San Cucuf'ate del Valles (near Barcelona), El
Abad Isach de Religione. 4to. No Printer's name.

CLX.. 1489. LisBbN, Rabbi Moses Nachmanides in Pentaieu-
chum, (Hebr.) fol. Pr. Samuel Zorba and Raban Eliezer.

oLxi. 1490. Orleans, Manipulus curatorum. 4to. Pr. Mat-
thew Vivian. '

CLXii. 1490. Ingolstadt, Rosarium celestis curia, fol. Pr.
Joan. Kachelofen.

CLXiii. 1490. Porto (a town in the Venetian territory), Statuta
Commun. Ripperim. fol. Pr. Barlhol. Zanni.

CLxiv. 1490. Zamoba, Los Evangelios dtsde Aviento, etc*
fol. No Printer's name.

cLxv.. 1491. Dijon, Cistercii Ordinis Privil^a. 4to. Pr,
Petrus Metlinger.

CLxvi. 1491. Angouleme, Auctores VIII,; Cato, Feteetns,
etc. 4to. No Printer's name.

cLxvii. 1491. Hamburgh, Laudes B. M. Virginis, fol. Pr.
Joh. and Thomas Borchard.

CLxviii. 1,491. NozANi, P. Turretini DisputaHo juris, fol. Hen-
ricus de Colonia and Henricus de Harlem.

CLxix. 1493. Dole, Joan, tieberling de Epidemia, 4lo. No
Printer's name.

CLXX. 1493. Leiria, Proverbia Salomonis, (Hebi-.) 4to. Pr,
Abraham Dortas.

• In the table of cities where printing was first introduced, Santander
(vbI, III. p. 520).assigns 1485as the date when the art was first practised at
Ixan, and mentions Jacobi Benascher liber semiia vit<e, Hebr. fol. as the first
book, the printer's name of which is not known.

174 ORIGIN OF

cLxxi. 1492. TzENNA (or Zinna, in Saxony), Psdlteriuni B.

M. Virg. 4to. No Printer's name.
cLxxii. 1493. Alba, Alex.de Villa doctrinale . fol. No Printer's

name.
cLxxiii. 1493. Clugny, Missale Cluniacense, fol. Pr. Michael

Wenssler.
cLxxiv. 1493. Fribueg, S. Bonav. in IV. sentent. fol. Pr.

Kilianus Piscator.
CLXxv. 1493. Lunenburg, Tho. d Kempis de Imit. Christi.

8vo. Pr. Joan. Luce.
CLXxvi. 1493. Nantes, Les Lunettes des Princes. 8vo. Pr.

Etienne Larcher.
CL30CVII. 1493. Copenhagen, Regulce de fig. Construct. Gram-
mat. 4to. Pr. Golhofridus de Ghemen,
CLXXVI II. 1493. Valladolid, Notas del Relator, fol. Pr. Joan*

nes de Francour.
CLXxix. 1494. QppENHEiM, Wigundi Wirt Dialogus Apolog,

etc. 4to. No Printer's name.
CLXxx. 1495. FoRLi, Nic. Ferretti de Eleg. ling. lat. servanda.

4to. Pr. Hieronymus Medesanus.
CLxxxi. 1495. Freisingen, Coinpendiosa Mat. pro juven.

Informatione. 4to. Pr. Joann. Schaeffler.
CLXxxii. 1495. Limoges, Breviarium Lemovicense. 8vo. Pr.

Joan. Berton.
CLxxxiii. 1495. Scandiano, Appiani Historia. fol. Pr. Pere-

grinus de Pasqualibus.
CLxxxiv. 1495. Schoenhoven, Breviarium Trajectensis Eccle-

sice. fol. No Printer's name.
cLxxxv. 1496. Barco, Selicoth, seu Preces pro remissione
Peccatorum. fol. Pr. Gerson fil. R. Mosis Mentz-
lan.
CLXxxvi. 1496. Offenburg, Sluadragesimale de Litio. 4to.

No Printer's name.
cLxxxvii. 1496. Provins, La Regie des Marchands. 4to.

Pr. Guil. Tavernier.
CLxxxviii. 1496. Tours, La Vie de St. Martin, fol. Pr.»-
Matth. Lateron.

PRINTING. 175

CLXXXix. 1496. Pampeluna, Petri de Gastrarle ■ sup. lab.

Yconom. Arist. fol. Pr. ArnoMus Guillen,
cxc. 1497. Gkanada, Franc. Ximenes de vita Christiana, fol.

Pr. Menardus Ungut.
cxci. 1497. Avignon, Luciani Palimirus, etc.ito. Pr. Nicol. Lepe.
cxcii. 1497. Carmagnole, Pacini Tibergm in Alex, de Villa

interpretatio. fol. No Printer's name,
cxciii. 1497. TuniNGEN, Lectura Pr. Pauli in. primum

senten. fol. Pr. Joan. Ottmar.
cxciv. 1499. Treguier (in Bretagne), the Catholicon, in Bre-
ton, French, and Latin, fol. No Printer's name,
cxcy. 1499. Montserrat, Missale Benedictinum, fol, Pr.

Joan. Luchner Alemannus.
cxcvi. 1499. Tarragona, Missale Tarraconense. fol. Pr. Job.

de Rosembach.
cxcYii. 1500. Cracow, Ciceronis Rhetor. Lib. IV. 4to, Pr.

(Joannes Haller.)
cxcviii. 1500. Munich, Ang. Mundii Oratio. 4to. Pr. Joannes

Schobser.
cxcix, (1500.) Amsterdam,, D/onyiZMS de Conversione Pecca-

toris. 8vo. Pr. D. Pietersoen.
cc. 1500. Olmutz, Aug. de Olomvoz contra Waldenses. 4to.

Pr. Conradus Bomgathem.
cci. 1300. Pfortzheim (in Suabia). Joan. Altenstaig Voca-

bularius. Pr. Thomas Anselmus Badensis.
<pcii. 1500. Perpignan, Breviarium Elnense. 8vo. Pr. J.

Rosembach de Heidelberg,
cciii. (1500.) Jaen (or Gien, in thedepartment of Loiret), Petri

Dagui tractatus de Differentiis. ' Printer's name unknown,
cciv. (1475.) Savillano, Manipulus Curatorwn, fol. Pr.

Christ. Beggiamo and J. Glein.
ccv. (1500.) Albia, Ene/B Sylvii de amoris remedio. 4to. No

Printer's name,
ccvi. (1500.) B.HJS.H'EtifDat Leevenvan H. Maget, S. Kunera.

4to. No Printer's name,
ccvti. (1500.) Amsterdam, Dionysiusde Conversione Peccatoris.

8vo. Pr, D. Pieterson.

176 PRINTING IN

Of the ' following places, the impressions re-
lated by some Bibliographers, are by Santander
considered as apocryphal. The printers' names
and dates are given from Mattaire and Panzer,
where they could be ascertained.

Date of
Cities. Printers' first

Names. Printers.

Bergamo, in the Venetian States, Anonymous. 1498.

Capua, in the tingdoiri of Naples, — —

Constance, . . ..... Anonymous. 1489.

Constantinople, Anonymous. 1490.

Gradisca, in Hungary, . . . ' ■

Halle, in Swabia, ■ — —

Lignitz [Lignis], in Silesia, . . Anonymous. 1481.

Madrid, Anonymous. 1494,

Ortona, in the kingdom of Naples, Judaei Soncinates. 1 496.

Palencia, an episcopal city in Spain,

Pesaro, in the duchy of Urbino, Anonymous. 1494.

Rimini, in the Romagna, . . . Anonymous. 1486.

Salonichi (or Thessalonica) . . . Anonymous. 1495.

VaHadolid, in Old Castile, . . .

Wittemberg, in Upper Saxony, .

SECTION II.
Progress of Printing in England.

§ 1. — Establishment of Printing in Westminster arid London^
hy W. Caxton, and his Successors.

All our historians and other writers, who
flourished in or near the time when typography
was discovered, and who mention the intro-

ENGLAND. 177

ductibn of the art into England, unatiimonsly
ascribe that honour to WilUam Caxton, citizen
and mercer, of London. His claim continued
undisputed, for nearly two centuries, until the
year 1642 ; when a dispute arose between some
persons, who printed by virtue of a patent from
the crown, and the Company of Stationers, re-
specting the patents. A committee was ap-
pointed, who heard counsel for and against the
petitioners ; and in the course of the pleadings
Caxton was acknowledged incontestibly as the
first printer in England. A small volume how-
ever was discovered soon after the Restoration,
in the public library at Cambridge, purporting to
be printed at Oxford in 1468 ; and which, by
some antiquarians, is considered as a decisive
proof that the art of printing was exercised in
that University, several years before it was prac-
tised at any other place in England.

The book is a small quarto, containing forty-
one leaves, with this title : Exposicio Sancti Je-
ronimi in Simbolum Apostolorum ad Papam Lau-
rentium. And at the end. Explicit exposicioy
^c. Impressa Oxonie et Jinita Anno Domini
M.CCCC.LXVIII. xvii die Decembris. But this
date, as will be shewn in a subsequent page^ is'
an error for M.CCCCLXXVIII. and conse-
quently the book could not have been printed
by Corsellis.

178 PRINTING IN

The claim of Corsellis to the introduction of
printing was not asserted till the year 1664;
when Richard AtkynSj a patentee under the
crown for printing, having a dispute with the
Stationers' Company, attempted to deprive Cax-
ton of that honour in a thin quarto volume,
intituled : " The Original and Growth of Print-
ing, collected out of History and the Records of
the Kinsdome : wherein is also demonstrated, that
Printing appertaineth to the Prerogative Royal,
and is a Flower of the Crown of England. By
Richard Atlcyns, Esq." The design of this
pamphlet was to give the right and title of
printing to the crown, and by that means to
ascertain the validity of the patents which had
been granted by the crown. To support this
argument, Atkyns pretended to have received
of an anonymous friend, a copy of an antient
record, which had been discovered at Lambeth
House, in the registry of the archiepiscopal
see. The substance of this Lambeth record
(which is pompously written) may thus be
briefly stated. King Henry VI. at the sugges-
tion of archbishop Bourchier, halving determined
to introduce the art of printing into England,
and knowing that it could not be effected with-
out great secrecy and a considerable sum of
money, he appropriated first 1000 marks, and
afterwards 500 more, to which the archbishop

ENGLAND. I79

added 300 marks in aid of the expense. Mr.
Robert Tumour, thien master of the rdbes to
the king, was appointed commissioner j he took
with bim William Caxton, who being a trader
to Holland, affiurded a good pretence for lihe
journey. Accordijjgly, they accomplished their
object; Frederids: CorseiMss (or Ckwsellis), one
of the under-workmen, stale ©ff from Haerjem
in disguise, and was first bromgiht to London,
whence he was sent to Oxford under a strong
guard, until he had accomplished his eng^e-
ment of icommuniealing the art of printing.

On the authority of this pretended record,
jnost of our later writers have declared Corsellis
to 'be the first printer in England : but several
weighty obpeotions tq its evidence have been
brought by Dr. Middieton, which we think ooih-
clusive against CorselKs, and consequently in
favour of Caxton. They are deduced, firstborn
the suppositious record, and secondly from an
txamination of the book itself.

FIEST, AS TO TUB EBCOJID.

1. The faet is laid quite wrong as to time ;
near the end o£ Henry the Sixth's reign, in the
very heat of the civil wars, when it jis not
credible that a prince, struggling for life as well
as his crown, should have leisure or dasj^eQiitigin
to attend jto :a project, which could hardily be

N 2

ISO PRINTING IN

thought of, much less executed, in times of
such calamity. " The printer" (it is said) " was
graciously received hy the king, made one of
his sworn servants, and sent down to Oxford
with a guard," &c. all which must have passed
before the year 1459 : for Edward IV. was pro-
claimed in London, in the end of it, (according
to our computation on the fourth of March) and
was crowned about the Midsummer following ;
and yet we have no fruit of all this labour and
expense, till nearly ten years after, when the
Symbolum is supposed to have been published
from the Oxford press.

2. The silence of Caxton concerning a fact,
in which he is said to be a principal actor, is a
sufficient confutation of it r for, in the prefaces
or conclusions of his works, he constantly gives
an historical account of his labours and transac-
tions, as far as they related to the publishing
and printing of books. A still stronger circum-
stance is, that, in the Continuation of the Poly-
chronicon (compiled by himself, and carried
down to the end of Henry the Sixth's reign),
he makes no mention of the expedition in quest
of a printer ; which he could not have omitted,
had it been true : while in the same book he
takes notice of the invention and beginning^of
printing in the city of Mentz.

There is a further circumstance in Caxton's

ENGLAND. 181

history, that seems inconsistent with the record :
for we find him still beyond sea, almost twelve
years after the supposed transaction, learning
with great charge and trouble the art of print-
ing ', which he might have . done with ease at
home, if he had had Corsellis in his power, as
the record imports, so many years before. Dr.
Middleton thinks he acquired it at Cologne,
Avhere he resided in 1471, and whence books
had first been printed with a date, in the pre-
ceding year. To the silence of Caxton may be
added that of the Dutch writers : for it is very
strange (as CheviUier observes), if the story
of the record be true, that Hadrian Junius
should never have heard of it, who has collected
all the groundless fables which favour the pre-
tensions of Haerlem ". But,

3. The most direct and internal proof of its
forgery is, its ascribing the origin of printing to
Haerlem, where John Gutenberg, the inventor,
is said to have been personally at work, when
Corsellis was brought away, and the art itself to
have been first carried to Mentz by a brother of
one of Gutenberg's workmen : for it is certain
beyond all doubt, that printing was first in-
vented and propagated from Mentz. Caxton's
testimony alone seems to be decisive ; who, in

' Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, in the end of the
second and third books.

* L'Origine de rimprimerie de Paris, c. i. p. 25,

183 PRINTING IN

tbe Continuation of the Polychronicon, says ',.
« About this time (the year 1455) the crafte
of empfynting was first found in Mogounce, in
Almayne," &c. He was abroad in the very
country, and at the time, when the first idea of
it was conceived, and the rudest typographical
essays were attempted : he continued there for
thirty years, from 1441 to 1471 ; and, as he
was particularly curious and inquisitive after this
new art, of which he was endeavouring to obtain
perfect information, he could not be ignorant of
the place where it was first exercised.

But, beside the evidence of Caxton, we have
another contemporary authority, in the Black
Book, or Register of the Garter ; where it is^
said, in the thirty-fifth year of Henry VI. (1547),
*' In this year of our most pious king, the art of
printing bookes first began at Mentz, a famous
city of Germany *." Fabian also, the author of
the Chronicle, and a contemporary of Gaxton's,
says, " This yere (viz. 35 Henry VI.) after
the opynyon of diverse writers, began in a citie
of Almaine, namyd Mogunce, the crafte of
empryntynge bokys, which sen that tyme hath
had wonderful encrease."

4. As the Lambeth record was never heard
of before the pubiicati<)n of Atkyns's book, so
it has never since been seen or produced by any

' Fol. 433.

* Anstis's Hist, of the Order of the Garter, yd. ii. p. 161.

ENGLANDi 183.

person, though particular search for it has, on
many occasions, been most diligeptly made.
They were doubtless very carefully examined
by archbishop Parker, when epmpiling his Anti-
quities of the British Church : where, in the life
of Thomas Bourchier, though \ie congratula,tes
that age on the noble and useful invention of
printing, yet he is silent as to its introduction
into England by that archbishop'. On the con-
trary, his ascribing the honour of the invention
to Strasburg, clearly shews that he was ignorant
of the story relative to the conveyance of Cor-
sellis from Haerlem ; and that the record was
not in existence in his time. Palmer admits
that " it is not to be found there now : for that
the late earl of Pen;ibroke assured him, that he
had employed a person for some time to search
for,it, but in vain*."

On these grounds then ^ye may pronounce
the record to pe a forgery, notwithstanding the
attempts made to support its credit, and to re-
present it as an authentic document.

Atkyns (Dr. Middieton furtl^er remarks), whp
by his manner of writing seems to hjave been ^
bold and vain man, might possibly be the in-

■ Godwin (de Praesulibus Anglise, p. 129) in his life of
Bourchier is also silent as to his supposed co-operation in this
design; and accounts for the little done by him fw posterity,
by the circumstance of the turbulent times in which he livedo

" Hist, of Eng:lish Printing, p. 314.

184 PRINTING IN

ventor : for Ke had an interest in imposing it
upon the world, in order to confirm the argu-
ment of his book, that printing was of the pre-
rogative royal, in opposition to the Company of
Stationers, with whom he was engaged in an
expensive lawsuit in defence of the king's
patents, under which he claimed some exclusive
powers of printing. For he tells us, that, " upon
considering the thing, he could not but think
that a publick person, more eminent than a
mercer, and a publick purse, must needs be
concerned in so publick a good ; and, the more
he considered, the more inquisitive he was to
find out the truth '." So that he had formed his
hypothesis before he had found his record,
which he published, he says, " as a friend to
truth, and not to suffer one man to be intituled
to the worthy atchievements of another ; and as
a friend to himself, not to lose one of his best
arguments, of intituling the king to this art."
If, however, Atkyns was not himself the con-
triver, he was at least imposed upon by some
more crafly person, who imagined that his in-
terest in the cause, and his warmth in prose-
cuting it, would induce him to receive as
genuine whatever might be offered to him of
the kind*.

' Atkyns's Original and Growth of Printing, p. 3.
* See Dr. Middleton's Dissertation concerning the Origin
of Printing in England, 4lo. Camb. 1735. pp. 3—7.

ENGLAND. 185

Th€ claims of Corsellis to the honour of in-
troducing typography into England being thus
exploded, it only remains briefly to consider the
evidence in favour of Caxton,

SECONDLY, FROM THE EXPOSITIO ITSELF.

The date at the end of the book purports to
be M.D.cccc.Lxviii. six years before the execu-
tion of any book by Caxton with a date. Dr.
Middleton considers it to have originally been
falsified by the printer, either by design or mis-
take, and an x to have been dropped or omitted
in the age of its impression.

Mistakes in dates are by no means unfre-
quent in the early years of printing. Mattaire,
Chevillier, Orlandi, Dr. Middleton, Santander,
and other Bibliographers, have given several in-
stances of such errors. A few are subjoined for
the information of the bibhographical student.
Pit II. PapicB Epistolce, fol. Colonics, J. KoeU
hoff, M.cccc.Lxviii. instead of M.cccc.Lxxyiii.
Francisci Mataratii de componendis versibus opus-
culum, fol. Venetiis, Erh. Ratdolt, m.cccc.lxvhi.
for M.cccc.Lxxviii. Libellus de modo Confitendi,
Antuerpice, Ger.Leeu, 8vo. m.cccc. for m.ccccxc.
or M.ccccc. &c. &c. '.

" Mistakes in dates are not confined to early printing ; Dr.
Middleton mentions a curious modern instance of the same
error, in the Inauguration Speech of the Woodwardian Pro-
fessor (Mr. Mason), printed at Cambridge with a date ten

186 PRINTING IN

These instances, with many more that might
be collected, shew the possibility of Dr. Mid-
(Jleton's conjecture ; for the probabili|;y of which
the Exposicio itself affords abundant proof But
the strongest objection to its being printed by
Corsellis is, that it is said to be printed with
wooden types or blocks. Herbert both saw and
carefully examined the book j and has given it
not only as his own opinion, but also as the
judgment of the most eminent printers to whom
he shewed it, that it is printed with separate
fusile metal types, and not on wooden blocks. —
If the fac-simile of the colophon given by Her-
bert be correct (from which the subjoined spe-
cimen is accurately copied),

^pUcit cjcpoticio (ancti Jeroniitri m
fimbolo aponroloaum ab papamtaure
cmtn^wipreifa ^ponie d^ fmita An
no tiommi ♦ yWf eeecApvv^ * jctJijVbic

the Exposicio is executed with as beautiful a
type as any with which we are acquainted from
the most eminent printer of that age.

But, independently of the neatness of the
letter and the regularity of the page, &c. the

years earlier than it should have been, viz. m.dcc xxiv. for
M.Dcc.xxxiv.; — " the very blunder exemplified in the (then)
last piece printed at Cambridge, which Dr. M. supposes to
have happened in the first from Oxford." — Dissertation, &c.

ENGLAND. 187

appearance of signatures (which were not in-
vented before the year 1472 '), sufficiently con-
futes the date of the Oxford book : and an addi-
tional proof that its date is erroneous is, that
we have no other production from the Oxford
press for the eleven following years. Now, it is
not to be supposed that a press, established with
so much pains and expense as the pretended
Lambeth record would seem to indicate, could
be suffered to remain so long unemployed and
useless : whereas, if tlie preceding remarks on
its erroneous date be correct, all the difficulties
relative to the supposed aera of printing at Ox-
ford are completely obviated ; so that the honour
of introducing the art of printing into England
may now be considered as indisputably due to
Caxton.

William Caxton, the father of Englii^ print-
ing, is supposed to havd been born about the
year 1412: between his fifteenth and eighteenth
year he was apprenticed to William Laiige, an
opxdent mercer or merchant of London ; who
was so satisfied with the fidelity of his servant,
that he left him a legacy of twenty marks, — ^a
considerable sum in l^ose days.

It is pretty certain (Mr. Dibdin observes) that

' Signatures were invented by JohnKoelhof, at Cologne.
See an account of their uses, iitfra. Part IL cliap. II. s6ct. 1.

188 PRINTING IN

mercers, in the time of Caxton, were general
merchants, trading in all kinds of goods, and
that they united a love of literature and of books
with their other multifarious concerns. Hence,
probably, Caxton acquired his passion for books
and learning, — a passion which never seems to
have deserted him.

On the termination of his apprenticeship, he
went into the Low Countries, in 1442, either on
his own account, or as agent to some merchants ;
and resided abroad about thirty years. In 1464,
he was appointed by Edward IV. his ambassa-
dor (in conjunction with Richard Whetenhall)
to negotiate a treaty of commerce with the Duke
of Burgundy, Edward's brother-in-law. During
his residence in these countries, Caxton acquired
the knowledge of printing, the learning of which
was facilitated by his commercial character: and
his taste for literature <K)uld not but be increased
in the polished court of the Duke of Burgundy,
where, he probably improved himself in the French
language, from which he afterwards made so
many translations. Here he became acquainted
with Raoul Le Fevre, chaplain to the Duke of
Burgundy, whose lUcuyell of the Historyes of
Troye he began to translate in 1468, and after-
wards published his English version, in 1471, at
the request of his patroness, Margaret, Duchess

ENGLAND. 189

of Burgundy. The original of this work was
the first book Caxton printed ' : the « Oration
of John Russel, on Charles Duke of Bui'gundy
being created a Knight of the Garter," (which
ceremony took place in 1469) was the second;
and the translation of the Recuyell was the third
book which issued from his press.

Of Caxton*s typographical labours between
the years 1471 and 1474, we have no recorded
account : neither has any information been ob-
tained of the exact period when he returned to
England and introduced the art of printing into
the metropolis. Thus much, however, is cer-
tain : that, previously to the year 1477, Caxton
had quitted the Low. Countries, and taken up
his residence in the vicinity of Westminster Ab-
bey; when Thomas Milling, Bishop of Hereford,
held the abbotship of St. Peter's in Commendam.
Caxton had, - no doubt, brought over with him
the necessary materials and implements of his
trade. The particular spot where Caxton first
exercised his business, or the place where his
press was fi?:ed, cannot now be exactly known :
Mr. Dibdin, after an elaborate examination of
conflicting testimonies, thinks it more probable

'This work is unknown to German Bibliographers; and
was printed in 1464-7. It is copiously described by Mr. Dib-
din in the firet volume of his Typographical Antiquities, from
which the present concise account of this father of English
typography is abridged.

190 PRINTING IN

that Caxton, after the manner observed in other
monasteries, erected his press near one of the
chapels ' attached to Westminster Abbey : and
as no remains of this once interesting place can
now be ascertained, there is a strong presump-

' " Each printer hence, howe'er unbless'd bis walls,
" E'en to this day his house a chapel calls."

Mr. M'Creery'a Poem, The Press, p. 18.
" The title of chapel to the internalregulatjpns of a printing-
office, originated in Caxton's exercising the profession in one
of the chapels in Westminsterr Abbey ; and may be considered
as an additional proof,- from the antiquity of the custom, of hk
being the first English printer. In extepsive houses, where
many workmen are employed, the eaiiing a chapel is a business
of great -importance, and generally takes place when any mem-
ber of the office has a complaint to allege against any' of his
fellow-workmen : the first intimation of which he makes to the
father of the Chapel, usually the oldest printer in the house :
who, should he conceive that the . charge can be -substantiated^
and that the injury supposed to have been received, is of such
magnitude as to call for the interference of the law, summonses
the members of tlie chapel before him at the imposing-stone,
and there receives the allegation and the defence in solemn
assembly, and dispenses justice with typographical rigour and
impartialily. These trials, though they are source;s of neglect
of business and other irregularities, often afford scenes of ge-
nuine humour. The punishment generally consists in the
criminal providing a libation, by which the offending workman
may wash away the stain that his misconduct has laid upon
the body at large. Should the plaintiff" not be able to sub-
stantiate his charge, the fine then falls upon himself for having
maliciously arraigned his companion ; a mode of practice which
is marked with the features of sound policy, as it never loses
-sight of the good of the chapel." —Ibid, (notes), p. 15.

ENGLAND. 191

tion that it was pulled down in making altera-
tions for the building of Henry VII/s splendid
chaf)el.

The first book printed by Caktott at Westmin-
ster is^fenerally allowed to be the Game of Chess,
in 1474. Mr. Dibdin, however, suspects it to
have been printed abroad y and if it was not ex-
ecuted here, he thinks it more probable that the
Romance of Jason was the earliest specimen of
his press in the Abbey. He continued for many
years to cultivate his important art : and, exclu-
sive of the labours attached to the working of
his press, our typographer contrived (though
*' well stricken in years") to translate not fewer
than five thousand closely printed folio pages ;
and, as Oldys quaintly expresses it, " he kept
preparing copy for the press to the very last ' !"
From the evidence of Wynkyn De Worde, in
the colophon of his edition of the Vitas Patrumf
1495, it appears that these Lives of the Fathers
were *' translated out of French into English,
by William Caxton, of Westminster, late dead;"
and that " ke^nished it at the last day of his life."
He might have chosen this work as his final lite-
rary effort, from a consideration, according to
Oldys, that " fi-om the examples of quiet and
solemn retirement therein set forth, it might

' For specimens of Caxton's types, together with observa-
tions on his style of printing, see Sect. VII. infra.

192 PRINTING IN

farther serve to wean his mind from all worldly
attachments, exalt it above the solicitudes of this
life, and inure him to that repose and tranquil-
lity with which he seems to have designed it'."
The productions of Caxton's press are sixty-four
in number.

Though Caxton was the earliest, he was not
the only printer in England, in the period dur-
ing which he flourished. John Lettou, William
de Machlinia, and Wynkyn De Worde, and
others, printed in Westminster and London, both
before and after his decease.

1. John Lettou printed at London in 1480
and 1481 : he is supposed from his name to have
been a foreigner (of what country is uncertain),
and to have come over to England, by Caxton's
encouragement, from some part of Germany, to
settle and promote the art of printing in this
kingdom. If Lettou acquired the art of print-
ing abroad, Mr. Dibdin thinks he came over
to this country for want of employment on the
continent, from his extreme unskilfulness in the
typographic art. Two works only were printed
by him (in 1480 and 1481), with rude and broken
types, before he was taken into Machlinia's of-

' Dibdin's " Typographical Antiquities," vol. i. p. ex. The
following account of the establishment of printing in England,
is abridged from the same work, and from Herbert's edition,
of Ames's " Typographical Antiquities."

ENGLAND. 193

fice, " chiefly with a view of obtaining suppbrt
in -the humble capacity of a labourer." .'

2. William Machlinia printed in London, in
partnership with Lettou, in 1481, and afterwards
alone, in 1483: he is supposed to have derived
his name from the city of Mechlin (Malines) in
Flanders. Eleven works, the productions of his
press, are described by Mr. Dibdin.

3. Wyrikyn de Worde was one of the most dis-
tinguished printers in ^Englfind in the .fifteenth
century, not only for the nea,tness and elegance
of his types, but also for tihe number andvariety
of books printed by him, and which amount to
408. He was a native of the duchy of Lorraine,
and in all probability was one of Gaxton's assist-
ants or workmen when the latter was resident, at
Bruges or Cologne : but without doubt was em-
ployed in the office, of our first printer till his
death in 1491-2, when he commenced business
on his own account. Wynkyn. de. Worde first
carried on business in Westminster, in Caxton's
house (whose real successor he may justly be
considered) ; whence, . some time between the
years 1500 and 1 502, he removed to Fleet Street,
where he continued his prosperous typographical
career at the Sign of the Sun in the Parish of St.
Bride's, from 1502 till his death in 1534.

.4. Richard Pynson (or Pinsou), by birth a
Norman, exercised . the art of printing from

194 PRINTING IN

1493 to 1531 ; and consequently was contempo-
rary with Wynkyn de Worde, if he was . not a
more antient printer than the latter. He was
the first who assumed the title of " King's Print-
er ;" though it does not appear that he had any
patent for this office. It is not known whether
Pynson died in 1531, or only retired from bu-
siness. The known productions of his press
arhount to two hundred and ten.

5. Julian Notary printed first at Westminster
(in King Street) from 1499 to 1503, in which
year he removed to St. Clement's Parish, and
established himself " mthout Temple Bar" at
the sign of the Three Kings. Julian Notary af-
terwards removed to St. Paul's Church-yard,
where he assumed the same sign. The whole
of his typographical biography is exceedingly
obscure and unsatisfactory: the period of his
death is unknown ; the works printed by him
are twenty^three in number.

§ 3- — Establishment of Printing at Oxford, a. d. 1478.

The claim of Oxford to the honour of being
the first city in England, where printing was in^
trodueed, having akeady been disproved, it will
be sufiicient here to refer the student to our first
Section (p, 177-187), and further to state, that the
Exposicio Sancti Jeronimi (the first printed book)
appeared in 1478. In addition to our former

ENGLAND. 195

remarics on this work, it may be observed that
the book is printed with fusile metal types, and
has several double letters and contractions ; the
long f is frequently used at the end of words.
The paper has different marks, somewhat like
those which Caxton printed on, and also has a
large margin. The leaves are not numbered ;
there are neither running titles nor catch-words j
nor does either printer's name or cipher occur.
For a specimen of the type of this curious pro-
duction, see page 186, supra'.

Theodore Rood and Thomas Hunt were the
first printers at Oxford : the former was a Ger-
man; — the latter an Englishman. The first
production of their press was " Francisci Are-
tint Oratoris Phalaridis Epistalarum e Greco in
Latinum versio *. Herbert assigns, its date to the
year 1485.

§ 3. — Establishment of Printing at Cambridge (a. d. 1478?)

The art of printing is supposed to have reached

* Three copies atily are known to be in existence of the
much contested Exposicio, in the Bodleian Library at Oxford,
the Public Library at Cambridge, and in His Majesty's Li-
brary. Though Mr. Dibdin calls' Caxton the first printer in-
Eiigland, he fully believes in the genuineness of the date of ^
the Oxford book, and announces his inteption of analysing it.j
as well as the controversy respecting it. (Typog. Ant. volt i. ^
p. Ixxv.) The observations of so experienced a bibliogtapher-;
cannot fail to illustrate this disputed subject.

* Herbert's Typog. Ant. vol. iii. p. 1395. • =

o 2

196 PRINTING IN

Cambridge soon after its introduction from the
Continent ; though it is difficult to ascertain the
first printed book, or the typographer from whose
press it issued. The earliest known work with
date (according to Ames and Herbert) was an
edition of the Rhetorica nova Fratris Laur. Gul.
de Saona, in folio : it has no catch-words or sig-
natures, nor are the pages numbered. The types
very much resemble Caxton's largest.'

The first printer who settled at Cambridge,
(whose name has been recorded) was John Si-
bert or Siberch : he is supposed to have been a
native of Lyon, and was the first who printed
in Greek and Latin in England. His books are
dated 1521 and 1522': but although they ex-
hibit much Greek letter, there is not one tllat is
wholly in that character.

§ 4. — Establishment of Printing at St. Alhan's, a. d. 1480.

While Caxton was regularly putting forth
specimens of the Westminster press, the art of
printing began to be exercised, in 1460, in the
Benedictine monastery at St. Alban's in the
county of Hertford, under the priorate of Wil-
liam Waliingford. Sir Henry Chatincy, whim-
sically enough, calls the printer who first exer-
cised the art here by the name of John Inso-
much, fifoni no better authority, it would seem,

' Herbert's Typog. Ant. pp. 141 ij 1412.

ENGLAND. 197

than because the three first words of the prologue
to the St. Albans Chronicle of 1483, are as fol-
low, " In so mj/che !. ' " That he was a monk is
very probable ; and that he was " sometime a
schoolmaster" is expressly stated by Wynkyn de
Worde in the colophon, to his edition of the St.
Alban's. Chronicle of 1497.

The earliest book printed at St. Alban's is the
Rhetorica nova Fratris Laur. Gul. de Saona, in
small quarto : the types are very rude, and Mr.
Dibdin thinks were probably imported from
Flanders \

, At the commencement of the sixteenth cenv
tury, the art of printing was so rapidly diffused
through Europe, that it would exceed the limits
necessarily assigned to this sketch of its history,
were we to attempt to detail its progress. A few
particulars, however, have been preserved of the

* Dibdin^s Typog. Ant. vol. i. pp. eiv, cv. Mr. Newcome
has confounded this printer (whatever was his name) with
John Hertford, who was estabUshed at St. Alban's about half
a 'century afterwards, and printed The lyfe and Passion of
Seint Alban, as it had been translated from, the French and
Latin by John Ly4gate, the celebrated monk of Bury. New-
come's Hist, of St. Alban's, p. 399. Herbert's edit, of Ames,
vol. iii, pp. 1430—1432.

* John Hertford, in 1556, endeavoured to revive the art in
this place, by printing several books ; but not finding it to
answer his expectations, he removed, in 1558, to Alders^ate
Street, London.

198 PRINTING IN

introduction of printing into some of our pro-
vincial towns; which the reader may not be dis-
pleased to find chronologically recorded from
Herbert '.

§ 5; 1509. YORK. — Bagford's Papers mention,
that in the time of Henry VII. there was one
who printed a proclamation upon vellum: it is
to be regretted that its date has n6t been ascer-
tained. — The first production of the York press
was the Pica of the Cathedral Church by Hugh
Goes *.

§ 6. 1514. souTHWARK. — The first book was
Disticha Moralia Catonis, with Erasmus's scho-
lia, printed by Peter de Treveris or Triers ; who
most probably was a native of the episcopal city
of that name in Germany.

§ 7. 1525. TAVISTOCK, Ceo. Devon. J — Here
was an exempt monastery, celebrated for its lec-
tures on the Saxon language ; which were dis-
continued about the period of the Reformation.
Several of its abbots were learned men : and the
encouragement they gave to literature is evident

' Vol. iii, pp. 1437, et seq.

* Goes is said by Herbert to have printed at Beverley, in
the county of York, a broadside, — ^being a wood-cut of a man
on horseback, with a spear in his right hand and the arms of
France in his left.—" Emprynted at Beverlay in the Highgate,
by me Hewe Goes," with his mark of a great J), and a
goose.

ENGLA]SfD. 199

by the establishment of a printing-press, within
a few years after its introduction into England.
The first printed book was John Waltwnem (or
Walton)'s translation of Boetius de ConsoJatione,
in quarto : the printer's name was Thomas Ry-
chard a monk of that monastery.

§ 8. (About) 1525. cANTisRBURY. — The first
book supposed to be printed here was, " A
goodly Narration how St. Aiigustine (the Apostle
of England) raysed two dead bodies at Long
Compto, collected out of diuers authors, trans-
lated by Joh. Lydgatej monke of Bury, Pri. at
St Austen's in Canterburie," in quarto. No
iprinter's name or date ; but Lewis ' conjectures
it to be about 1525.

§ 9: 1538. ipswictf-— dardinal Wolsey patron-
ized a printing-house at Ipswich, in the year
1538, where business was carried on by John
Oswen. In 1548 John Overton printed in this
city ; and Anthony Scoloker, from London, re-
sided hete for some time. His first work was
*' The just reckenyng or accdmpt of tli^ whole
nomber of the yeares, firom the beginnynge of
the world vnto this present yere of 1547." &c.
*' Translated out of Germaine Tongue by An-
thony Scoloker, the 6 day of July, 1547."

§ 10. 1548. WORCESTER. — ^Johu OsweH, who
first printed at Ipswich, settled at Worcester,

, ' Life of CaxtoDj p. 115.

200 PRINTING '

about 1548, in which year he ,put forth a folio
and. quarto edition of the New Testanient.
. § 11. 15Y0. NORWICH.— The art of printing
was introduced into this city, according to
Blomefield', in 1570, by Antony Solen% (a
Fleming) ; which was so well approved of by
the, city, that he was presented with his free-
dom: but in the seventh volume of the " Har-
leian • Miscellany," it is asserted that Francis
Burges was the first printer who. carried the art
to Norwich. He, published (Sept. 27, 1701,) an
octavo pamphlet of seventeen pages, intituled
" Some Observation's on the use and original of
the noble art and mystery of printing j^" in order
to vindicate himself fi'om the charge of having
brought an additional expense to the city, and
injuring the .trading interest, &c. As Blome-
field quotes the antient Book of the Freemen's
Admissions, it is most probable that the art was
introduced in 1570, but had been discontinued,
and was re-introduced by Burges in 1701.

§ 12. (1587?) WALES. — John Thackwell is
said to have printed in Wales, about the year
1587 J but, of the place where he exercised his

" Blomefield's History of Norfolk, vol. iii. p. 295. (octavo
edit.)

* Anthony de Solempne is noticed, as a printer at Norvifich,
in the Appendix to Leland's Collectanea, Part II. vol. vi. p. 41.

^ This tract is reprinted, in vol. vii. of the Harl. Misc. pp.
148—151 (first edit.).

IN SCOTLAND. 201

art, and of the title of the book or books printed
by him, nothing certain can be ascertained'.

SECTION III.

Progress of Printing in Scotland and Ireland,

As few remains of the early productions of
the Scottish press have been discovered, it is
not improbable that they perished in the almost
total destruction of the Cathedral and Monastic
Libraries at the Reformation. Edinburgh and
Aberdeen are the only two cities, of whose early
typography any, specimens have been recorded.

§ 1. 1509. EDINBURGH. — A Breviary (in Latin)
for the use of the church of Aberdeen, was
printed here, in 8vo. (The second part bears
the date of 1510.) The printer's name is not
annexed ; but from the close connexion, which
at that time subsisted between the courts of
Scotland and France, it is most probable that
both the printer and types were imported from
the latter country *.

§ 2. 1552. ABEEDEEN. — The Catechism of

' Herbert, vol. iii. p. 1466.

* From a patent of king Jannies IV. discovered a few years
since by Mr. Robertson, keeper^ of the records in Scotland,
it appears thai a printing-press was first established at Edin-
burgh during the year 1507.

203 PRINTING

John Hamilton, archbishop of St. Andrew's,
and primate of the Scottish church, is the first
production of the Aberdeen press : it contains
205 leaves, in quarto, without any printer's
name.

Ireland was one of the last European states
into which printing was introduced. It does not
appear that any work was executed in this
country, prior to 1551 ; when a black letter
edition of the Book of Common Prayer was
printed by Humphrey Powel, at Dublin, *« cum
privilegio ad mprimendum solum. Anno Domini
1551." Before, and even after, this date, Irish
authors caused their works to be printed abroad :
even so late as 1700 very few books were printed
in Ireland ; whatever was written there, being
generally sent to London. Till within a few
years the printing business in Ireland consisted
in little more than reprinting London books in
smaller sizes than they are executed in England;
and for which a ready sale was obtained abroad.

SECTION IV.
Printing in China.

Of the antiquity of printing in China, no
doubt can be entertained ; yet the Chinese have

IN CHINA. 203

never proceeded beyoild a wooden block. The
nature, indeed, of their characters is such, that
moveable types would scarcely be practicable.
It is true (Mr. Barrow remarks) the component
parts of the characters are sufficiently few and
simple in number, but the difficulty of putting
them together upon the frame, into the multi-
tude of forms of which they are capable, is
perhaps not to be surmounted. Mr. Astle con-
siders printing as a Chinese and not an Euro-
pean invention : but the process of the former
differs so much from European printing, that
the claims of the latter will not be affected by
his ingenious reasoning '.

The following is the process of Chinese print-
ing : — They first write, or draw, a fair copy of
the work intended to be printed, which is given
to the carver, who glues the leaves of the manu-
script upon a piece of hard board or plank, pro-
perly prepared. On this he traces over the
strokes of the writing, with a suitable instru-
ment, carves out the characters in relief, and
cuts down the intermediate parts of the wood ;
consequently, the beauty of the letters depends
on the dexterity of the person who. writes the
copy. The adroitness of the carver is such,
that he copies every stroke exactly; and his
work is sometimes executed with such neatness,
• Astle on Writing, pp. 214, 315. (fol, edit.)

204 PRINTING IN CHINA.

that it becomes difficult to distinguish a printed
book from a MS. The board, thus carved or
engraved, generally contains the characters for
two pages.

When, the work of the carver is completed,
the printer fixes it in a level position : then,
being provided with two brushes, he dips the
hardest into the ink, and lays it on the carved
block in such a manner as to leave a quantity,
which will be exactly sufficient for four or five
impressions, as he does not ink the board for
every impression. When the board has received
a proper supply of ink, he lays on the paper ;
and with the other brush, which is of an oblong
figure and softer than the first, he presses the
paper upon the board, by gently drawing the
brush over it, with a force, which is a little in-
creased with each impression, until the paper
has taken off the whole of the ink from the
letters. By this process, one man is able to
take several thousand copies in a day.

After an edition of a work is printed, the
plates or carved boards are collected together ;
and it is generally stated in the preface, where
they are deposited, in case a second edition
should be required.

As the printing paper used by the Chinese is
not sized by any glutinous liquid, it is too thin
and weak to receive distinct impressions on

PRINTING IN AMERICA, 205

both sides : one side therefore only is printed.
In consequence of this tenuity, when the printed
sheets are to be bound into volumes, they are
taken separately and doubled, the blank sides
touching each other: and they are folded so
exactly, as to make the extremities of one page
correspond with those of the other, in the same
manner as our book-binders proceed: but, con-
trary to the European mode of binding, all the
single edges are so placed as to form the back of
the book ; the folds make the front, and are
never cut.

The Chinese books are, in general, covered
with neatly manufactured coloured pasteboard ;
which, for those who are fond of ornamentalor
splendid binding, are covered with rich" and
elegant fancy-coloured silk or satin, and some-
times with gold and silver brocade, &c. The
folded edges of the leaves are left plain '.

SECTION V.

The Progress of Printing in America.

§ 1. SPANISH AMERICA. — As col<)nies were
first settled in Spanish America, it may natu-

' Sir G. Staunton's Embassy to China, vol. iii.p. 107, &c.
8vo edit. Barrow's China, p. 310. Duhalde, Descr, de la

206 PRINTING

rally be expected that the art bf printing would
be early established there : historians, indeed,
are silent as to the time when it was first prac-
tised on the American continent ; but it is cer-
tain that typography was introduced into this
quarter of the globe, at the close of the six-
teenth century '.

Mention has been made of books printed at
Lima, and other cities of the kingdom of
Mexico * ; but as the earliest production of the
Mexican press that has hitherto been known,
does not bear date till 1571, the introduction of
printing can only be .fixed a few years before.
Mr. Thomas (to whose interesting History bf
Printing in America we are indebted for our ac-
count of American typography) states it, with
a tolerable degree of certainty, to have been
established in the city of Mesdco some years
before 1569 ^. Of the Peruvian press, the earliest

Chine, torn. 2. p. 350. A similar methdd of printing is
employed in the empire of Tunkin. Expose Statistique du
Tunkin'tom. 1. p. 356.

' Thomas's History of Printing in America, vol. i. p. 189,
&c.

* Luckombe's Hist, and Art of Printing, p. 41.

' Vol. II. p. 510. Mr. Thomas has given the title of the
book, now supposed to be the earhest printed in America^ As
this volume does not seem to be known to European Biblio-
graphers, the following description of it may not be unac-
ceptable. Vocabulario En Lengua Castellana y Mexicanq,

IN AMERICA. 207

production appears to be the Extirpacion de la
Idolohtria de Peru, by Father Pablo Jos. de
Arriago, which was printed at Lima in 1621 ;
hence it is probable that the art of printing was
not introduced long before that time': Mr.
Thomas fixes its introduction, about the year
1590. The majority of works published in
Spanish America, till within the last fifty years,
was on religious subjects ; beside which numer-
ous works on history, morals, and classical
literature have been printed. A printing-press

eompuesto par el muy Reuerendo Padre Fray Alonso de Molina
de la Orden del bienauenturado nuestro Fadre Sunt Francisco.
JPirigido al muy excelente Senor Don Martin Enriquez, Visorrey
destariueva Fspana. En Mexico, en Casa de Antonia Spinosa,
1571. This dictionary is a folio volume in two parts, — the
first (of 123 leaves or 244 pages) of Spanish and Mexican,
and the second (of 162 leaves or<324 pages) of Mexican and
Spanish. The license for printing it is dated in 1569, and
afibrds indubitable evidence that a press was then at work in
Mexico : the epistle dedicatory is of the same date ; and both
circumstances shew that the book was two years in the press.
A very la^ge cut of a coat of arms (probably that of the
Viceroy, to whom the book is dedicated) fills two-thirds of
the title-page; the arms are in eight compartments, sur-
mounted with a coronet. A copy of this dictionary is in the
possession of Professor Barton, of Philadelphia; and is pro-
bably the oldest specimen of Spanish American printing in
the United States.

' This at least is the earliest Peruvian book, mentioned by
Dr. Robertson, in the Kst of works procured (some of them
With great difficulty) for his History of America ; and which
are enumerated in the first volume of that work.

208 PRINTING

was introduced into the Spanish part of the Isle
of St. Domingo, about the beginning of the
seventeenth century; but its use, (as. "well as
that established in the Isle of Cuba many years
since) seems chiefly to be confined to the go-
vernment.

§ 2. PORTUGUESE AMERICA. — Printing' has
long been practised in the Portuguese settle-
ments ; but the press has been reserved almost
exclusively for the use of the government. — Of
the sta-te of literature in the Brazils, we have
very scanty information : in the year 1792, when
Sir George Staunton visited Rio Janeiro, there
were but two booksellers in that city, whose-
shops contained only books on medicine and
divinity '. The intercourse at present subsisting
between the courts of Great Britain and of the
Brazils, it may be expected, will furnish us with
more ample information relative to the state of
literature in Portuguese America.

§ 3. THE UNITED STATES. — Until the middle
of the eighteenth century, divinity was the
principal topic of the books, which issued from
the- Anglo-American press; a circumstance that
may easily be accounted for, when it is recol-
lected that many parts of North America were

* Staunton's Embassy to China, vol. i. p. 181- (8vo edit.)
The same fact is confirmed by Mr. Barrow's Travels to Cochia
China, p. 90.

IN AMERICA. 209

Golonized by individuals, who had been com-
pelled to abandon their native country by perse-
cution for their religious tenets.

The following list will indicate the places
where, and the persons by whom, the art was
first practised'.

1639.

Cambridge, ^ Stephen Dayc.

1649.

Massachusetts, t Samuel Green.

1674.

Boston, Mass". John Foster ',

1687;

Philadelphia [near to], n William Bradford.
Pennsylvania, 5

1689.

Philadelphia, The same.

1693.

C The same, who removed
' t from Philadelphia.

1709.

New London, Connecticut, Thomas Short.

• Thomas's Hist, of Printing in America, vol. i. p. 149 et seq.
' Td this town the celebrated Benjamin Franklin first worked as a printer,
whence he afterwards removed to New York, and thence to Philadelphia.
3 This printer died in 1 68 1 ; and, heing much respected, his memory
was honoured by two poems, one of which (by Jacob Capen, afterwards
minister of Topsfield, Massachusetts) concluded with the following
lines :

" Thy body, which no activeness did lack j >

" Now's laid aside like an old almanack ;
" But for the present only's out of date,
" 'Twill have at length, a far more active state.
" Yea, though with dust thy body soiled be,
" Yet at the resurrection we shall see
" A fair Edition, and of matchless worth,
" Free from Eruatas, new in heaven set forth ;
" 'Tis but a word from God, the great Creator,
" It shall be done when he saith ^Imprimatur."
Whoever has read Dr. Franklin^s celebrated epitaph on himseli^ will
bB.ve some suspicion that it was taken from this original. Thomas's Hist,
vol. I. p. 217.

210 PRINTING

1726, Annapolis, Maryland, William Parks.

C The same, removed from
1739. Williamsburg, Virginia, y j, y

1730. Charlestown, South Caro- _, ^,.,.

Eleazar Philips,
lina,

1733. Newport, Rhode Island, James Franklin.

1752. Woodbridge, New Jersey, Samuel Parker.

1755. Newbern, North Carolina, James Davies.

1756. Portsmouth, New Hamp- -n. • i t. i

'^ Daniel Fowle.
shire,

1762. Savannah, Georgia, James Johnson.

1781. Westminster, Vermont, Anonymous.

1786. Lexington, Kentucky, John Bradford.

1793. Knoxville, Tennessee, R. Roulstone.

1795. Cincinnati, Ohio, S. Freeman.

18-. Natchez, Mississipi Terri- 1 Anonymous.

tory, 5

18 — . New Orleans, Louisiana, Anonymous.

§ 4. — British Colonies in America, and the West Indies.

iwci TT ivf AT o i- r Bartholomew Green, jun.

1751. Halifax, Nova Scotia, . ■? ^ , „ , „

tJohn Bushell.

ini!4 r\ V. ^ J ^W. Brown, and

1764. Quebec, Canada, <

i. Gilmore.

1775. Montreal, Canada, j Cha. Berger and Fleury

I Mesplet.
1783. New Brunswick, Anonymous.

1725. (About) Kingston, Jamaica, Anonymous.
1756. St. Jago de la Vega, Ja- Unonymous.

maica, 3

1783. Montego-Bay, Jamaica, Anonymous.

1730, Bridg^^Town, Barbadoes, C David Harry.

1731. _ : I Samuel Keimer.

1746. Basseterre, St, Cbristo- ? ™ „

f Thomas Howe,
pher s, J

IN AMERICA. 211

1752. St. John, Antigua, Benj. Mecom.

1765. Roseau, Dominica, W. Smith.

1765. St. George's Town, Grao

mda, ■ jW.Weyland.

1783. Nassau, New Providence, 7

(Bahama Islands,) J

1784. Saint George's, Bermuda, J. Stockdale.

The first productions of all these presses were,
newspapers or colonial gazettes ; and very few
other works appear to have been printed in the
West India Islands. This paucity of hterary
productions may probably be accounted for, by
the facility and cheapness with which books can
be imported and sold, from the presses of the
mother-country.

§ 5. FRENCH ISLANDS. — It cauuot be exactly
determined, when printing was introduced into
the West India Islands, formerly belonging to
France: Mr. Thomas has ascertained that there
was a press at Port-au-Prince (in the French
part of Saint Domingo) as early as 1750; at
which, in 1751, an account was printed of a
great earthquake which happened at that time
in the Island. But the presses, in Saint Do-
mingo, Martinique, and the other islands form-
erly belonging to France, were wholly for the
use, and under the control, of their respective
governments'.

• Thomas's Hist, of Printing, vol. ii. p. 393.
P 2

212 IMPROVEMENTS

SECTION VI.
Improvements in the jirt of Fiiiiting.

§ 1. STEREOTYPE PRINTING. — The histoiy of
the invention of stereotype, or printing with
solid types, is involved in obscurity: this art is
supposed to be by no means of modern origin,
but to have been derived from the cotton and
silk printing of the Indians, from the block
printing of the Chinese, and the books of images^.

For a long time, various attempts had been
made to preserve plates or forms of a whole
work: but as this would require an extensive
capital, and a large mass of printing types, few
of these experiments appear to have produced
favourable results. In the printing-office of -the
Orphan-House at Halle in Saxony, the standing
types of bibles and books of devotion have been
successfully preserved for many years; and hence
such books have been sold at a much lower price
than they could elsewhere be procured. Athias,
a Jew of Amsterdam, is said to have ruined him-
self in the attempt to preserve, for many years,
all the forms of a great English bible*.

Ingenious men, in different countries, have

' For a short notice of the principal hooks of images, see
ihe Appendix, No. I.

^ Lelong, Bibliotheca Sacra, edit. 1723. p. 433. Camus,
Histoire et Procedes du Polyiypage et du Stereotypage, p. 8.

IN PRINTING. 21 3

turned their attention towards reducing the ex^
pense of printing : of these efforts we shall en-
deavour to give a brief chronological account.

The earliest inventor of modern stereotype
printing appears to be J. Vander May, father of
the well-known painter of that name. About
the end of the sixteenth century, he resided at
Leyden ; and with the assistance of M. MuUer
(pastor of the German congregation of that
city), who carefully superintended the correc-
tion, he prepared and cast the plates for a quarto
edition of the bible. This bible he also pub-
lished in folio, with large margins ornamented
with figures, the forms of which were (in 1801)
in the possession of M. Elwe, a bookseller at
Amsterdam. An edition of the N. T. in 24mo.
was afterwards stereotyped, the plates or forms
of. which are or were in the hands of MM.
Luchtraans, booksellers at Leyden : Vander May
likewise published an English New Testament,
and Schaaf 's Syriac Lexicon, the forms of which
have been broken up'.

Early in the 18th century, (in 1725) WilHam
Ged, an ingenious goldsmith, in Edinburgh,
began to prosecute the making of metal plates,

' Extract from the Niew Algfemein Konsi en Letter Bode
for 1798, No. 232, in Philosophical Magazine, vol. x. p. 276.
Carous, pp. 8 — 10.

3U IMPROVEMENTS

for the purposes of printing. His invention was
simply this :^from any types, of Greek, Roman,
or other characters, he formed a plate for every
page or sheet of a book, from which he printed,
instead of using a type for every letter, as is
practised in the common way. In order to exe-
cute his plan, Ged, in 1729, entered into part-
nership with William Fenner, a stationer of
London, and John James the architect ; whose
brother Thomas James, a printer, and the in-
ventor's son James Ged, were afterwards admit-
ted into the concern. In 1730 they obtained a
privilege from the University of Cambridge, for
printing bibles and common prayer books, ac-
cording to their improved method ; but they
finished only two prayer books; and, after sink-
ing a considerable sum of money, they were
obliged to relinquish the undertaking. It ap-
pears that one of the partners was averse to the
success of the plan, and engaged such people
for the work, as he thought most likely to spoil
it: for the compositors, when they corrected
one fault, designedly made six more ; and the
pressmen, aiding the combination of the com-
positors, purposely battered the letter in the ab-
sence of their employers. In consequence of
these base proceedings, the books were suppress
sed by authority ; and the plates were sent first

IN PRINTING. 215

to the king's printing-office, and thence to Mr.
Caslon's type foundry '.

Ged returned to Edinburgh, ruined, but not
discouraged from pursuing his plan : having ap-
prenticed his son to a printer, he in 1739 exe-
cuted, in conjunction with the latter, an edition
of Sallust. The title is — C. Crispi Sallustii belli
Catilinarii et Jugurthini MstorUs. , Edinburgi
Guill. Ged aurifaber Edinensis non typis mobili-
bus, ut vulgojieri solet, sed tabellis seu laminis ex-
cudebat. It is a small volume in 18mo. of 150
pages *.

About the saine time, Valleyre, a Frenqh
printer, attempted to cast plates of metfil, for
printing calendars : it is a rude essay at stereo-
typing, and M- Camus has given an impression
of one .of his plates, containing the calendfir for
March and April, and supposes the date to be
about the year 1735.

In 1740, J. Michael Funckter, a printer and
bookseller of Erfurt, published a SmAll work in

' Bio^apUcal Jilempirs of William Ged, Sfc. 1781, 8vo..
from whrch the above account is abridged.

" Ged also printed an edition of " The Life of God in- the ■
Soul of Man," on a writing pot 12mo; with the following
imprint : " Newcastle : Printed and sold by John White,
from plates made by William Ged, Goldsmith in Edinburgh,
MDccxLii. It is a very neat little volume (says Mr. Tilloch)
and is as well printed as books generally were at that time.
Phil. Mag, vol. X. p. 374.

216 IMPROVEMENTS

German, intituled, " A short and useful Intro-
duction to the cutting of plates ("or blocks) of
wood and steel, for the making of letters, or-
naments, and other figures — , to the art of
baking plaster, of preparing sand-moulds for
casting letters, vignettes, tail-pieces, medals,
and of forming matrices from them. Sic." in
8vo. M. Camus has detailed the processes em-
ployed for these purposes, which the liinited
nature of this abstract will not admit of being
specified.

About the year 1775 an attempt at stereotype
printing was made at Philadelphia by Benjamin
Mecom, nephew of the illustrious Dr. Franklin.
He cast plates for several pages of the New
Testament, and made considerable progress
towards the completion of therfi ; but he never
effected it'.

Some years after, (in 1780) a discovery simi-
lar to that of Ged (see p. 214 supra) was made
by Mr. A. Tilloch, but who had no previous
knowledge of Ged's invention. In perfecting
his invention, Mr. T. had the assistance of Mr.

■" Thomas's History of Printing in America, vol. i. p. 215,
vol. ii. p. 68. Mr. Thomas adds that Jacob Perkins, an in-
genious printer of Newbury Port, M assachusetts, has lately
invented a new kind of stereotype for impressing copper and
other plates. From plates so impressed, most of the bank-
bills of Massachusetts and New Hampshire are printed at
rolling presses, and are called stereotype'hills.

IN PRINTING. 91?

Andrew Foulis, printer to the University of
Glasgow ; after great labour and many experi-
ments, these gentlemen overcame every diffi-
culty, and were able to produce plates, whose
impressions could not be distinguished from
those taken from the types from which they
were cast. Although they had reason to appre-
hend, from the treatment they afterwards found
Ged had received, that their efforts would meet
with a similar opposition ; yiet they persevered
in their object for a considerable time, and at
length obtained patents, for England and Scot-
land, in order to secure to themselves the benefit
of their invention. These patents have since
expired ; but owing to circumstances of a pri-
vate nature, they discontinued the practice of
stereotyping, after they had executed several
small volumes according to their process '. Some
years after Mr. Tilloch had relinquished the
prosecution of his art, Mr. Wilson (a respectable
printer in London) engaged with earl Stanhope
for the purpose of bringing it to perfection, and
eventually to establish it in this country. The
success which has attended these efforts are too
well known, to require any further detail: it
may therefore suffice to observe, that the finer

' Phil. Mag. vol. x. pp. 274, 275, in which Mr. Tilloch
has given specimens of his Greek and English stereotype
printing.

318 IMPROVEMENTS

specimens of his stereotype printing are in every
respect nearly equal in point of beauty and cor-
rectness to the best editions of books printed in
the common manner.

In 1783, Joseph Francis Ignatius Hoffmann,
a native of Alsace (who settled the following
ypar at Paris) availed himself of the preceding
discoveries which had been made in the art of
stereotyping, and endeavoured to extend them.
He printed, on solid plates, several sheets of
his Journal Poliftype, and advertised father
Chenier's Becherches sur les Mmires, (3 vols.
8vo.) as a polytyped book. Hoffinann was de-
prived of his printing-office in 1787, by a decree
of the council ; and in 1 792 he addressed a
memoir to the minister of the interior, to enable
him to open a new channel for his industry. He
formed two sorts of types or puncheons ; one
for detached letters, and the other for letters
collected into the syllables most frequently oc-
curring in the French language '.

Some numbers of Hoffmann's Journal Poly-
type having fallen into the hands of Joseph
Carez, a printer at Toul, the latter was struck
with the advantages which the new processes
seemed to offer; and in 1785 he commenced

' Such as ais, etre, eurs, merit, &c. Hoffmann termed the
art of casting types, the art of polytypy, and that of re-unit-
ing several characters into a single type, the art oilogotypy.—^
See § 2. Logographic Printing, ii^ra.

IN PRINTING. 319

his first essays in editions, which he called omo-
typed, in order to express the re-union of many
types in one. He executed several liturgical
and devotional works, and among others an
edition of the Vulgate Bible, in nonpareil,
which possesses great neatness. Hoffinann was
followed in his processes of polytyping and logo-
typing by M. Gengembre, who made his first
attempts in 1Y89, but rehnquished them to-
wards the close of 1794, when he embarked for
America. But the most successful of the French
printers who have practised the art of stereo-
type printing were M. Didot, the elder, Firmin
Didot, and L. H. Herhan, who in 1797 ob-
tained patents for their respective inventions :
for a short time they were in partnership, but
for some years they have stereotyped various
works on their own account ; the neatness and
cheapness of which are now too well known,
to require any description.

In 1798, experiments for stereotyping were
made at Vienna by Samuel Falka, a native pf
Hungary. Being refused a privilege for the
practice of his art, he quitted that city, and
settled in the printing-office of the university of
Buda, whence he has issued several specimens.

The precise method adopted in stereotype
printing, both in England and on the Continent,

220 IMPROVEMENTS

being a secret confided to few, it is impossible
to give the processes peculiar to each printer.
The general mode of stereotype printing, how-
ever, is' understood to be thus : first, a page is
set up in the common way ' with moveable
types J and when it is rendered as correct as
the nature of the thing" will admit, a cast is
taken from it. Into this cast is poured the
metal for the stereotype plate ; and so for every
page or sheet of a work intended to be stereo-
typed. When the plates are prepared, they are
printed off in the common way; the impressions
from the printing-press, improved by Lord
Stanhope, are very beautiful.

The advantage, proposed by stereotyping, is
that of superior cheapness and correctness *.—
To standard books of every description, (especi-
ally to bibles). — ^which circulate extensively,
and are in constant demand, — ^and in which also
no alteration in size or price is ever allowed to
take place, — ^the art has been most beneficially
applied : but, as no actual saving can be made

' See this mode described, infra. Sect. VIII. on the Me-
chanism of Printing.

* With all the care that can be given, stereotyped works
cannot perhaps be free from errors in a first edition : and al-
though stereotype plates will admit of alterations, yet if these
be numerous, the expense must be considerable. There cer-
tainly is- danger lest errors, committed in a first edition,
should be perpetuated through every subsequent impression.

IN PRINTING. 221

in the production of .other works, the common
method, by moveable types, is confessedly pre-
ferable for the ordinary and most general pur-
poses of the art of printing.

§ 2. LOGOGRAPHic PRINTING. — Some years
since, a patent was obtained by the late Mr.
Walter, for an improved mode of printing, by
him termed Logography; and in which the
types correspond to whole words and not to
single letters, as in the usual manner. In the
year 1783, the origin and utility of the art were
stated in a small 8vo volume ' : in which it
appears, that from the year 1778, the inventor
made several successful attempts for the prac-
tice of this art. By his mode of arranging
and composing for printing, with words entire,
their radices and terminations, instead of single
words, the author attempts to prove that it pos-
sesses the following adv&,ntages, viz. 1. That
the compositor shall have less charged upon his
memory than in thfe common way. 2. That it
is much less liable to error. 3. That the type
of each word is as easily laid hold of as that of
a single letter. 4. That the decomposition is
much more readily performed, even by novices,
than that of mere letters. 5. That no extraordi-
nary expense nor a greater number of types is

• An Introdtcciion to Logography, by Mr. H. Johnson, an
ingenious compositor. <

233 IMPROVEMENTS

required in the logographic than in the common
method of printing.

This method of printing however did not suc-
ceed, and from an examination of the author's
pamphlet, it should seem not to afford that se-
curity against error, which he so strenuously
asserts. In the title-page of his Introduction,
the word Majesty is printed Najesty ; and in
page 47, in the word exfensvoe, an e has dropped
below the line, which evidently shews that com-
mon types were used in the composition of the
work.

Mr. Walter's Logography is very similar to
Hoffmann's Logotypy, already mentioned ',. and
to the method of pi'inting announced m 1776 by
M. Saint Paul *. The latter consists in employ-
ing, for typographical composition, letters united
together and forming a sound, instead of de-
tached letters^ as is usual in the common way ;
so that each sound, being composed of several
letters, as am, ion, ains, or i/fes, shall be ex-
pressed by one single character, cast at once by
the founder, although containing several letters.
This mode of printing appears to have failed
also in Frahce, or rather to have been rendered

' See p. 218> sajpra. >

* Nowoeau Systhne Tgpographique, ou Moyen de diminuef de
moitie, dans toutes les imprimeries de I'Europe, le travail et les
frais de composition, de correction et de distribution, decouvert
en 1774, par Madame de ***. 4to. Paris, 1776.

IN PRINTING. 333

unnecessaiy by the successful introduction of
stereotypy.

§ 3. FAc-siMiLE PRINTING. — The art of print-
ing with types, so formed as precisely to resem-
ble the characters of MSS. was first practised at
Florence in the year 1741, when a faC'Siraile of
the celebrated Medicean Virgil was published in
small quarto. A very limited number of im-
pressions was struck oif on vellum ; copies of
which are of great rarity. Large paper copies
of this work are also of rare occurrence'.

The first great work of this kind, executed
in England, is Domesday Book, containing the
survey of England, made by order of king Wil-
liam I. and published in two vols, folio, in 1783.
The original MS. of this valuable national record
is preserved in the Chapter-house at Westmin-
ster : it is comprised in two volumes, one a large
folio, the other a quatto j the first begins in
Kent and ends in Lincolnshire, and is written on
382 double pages of vellum in a small and plain
character. The other volume, in quarto, is

' The title of this work is — P. Vergill Maronis Codtx
Antiquissimtts a Rufio Turcio Aproniano V. C. distinctus et
emendatus qui nunc Florentm in Bihliotheca MediceoLdureri-
tiana adservatur Bono Publico Wypis descripius anno ciSDCciLi.
Flormtice Typis Mannianis, 4to. Small paper copies of this
work are worth from 10s. 6d. upwards, according to their
condition. The MS. of Virgil, here dtecribed, is upwards of
1300 years old. See Dibdin on the Classics, vol. ii. p. 331.

224 IMPROVEMENTS

written on 450 double pages of vellum, but in
a single column, and in a large fair character.
This work was made pubhc in 1783, by order of
the House of Lords. It was transcribed from
the original, and most accurately revised through
the press by Abr. Farley, Esq. and is printed
with types resembling the original, cut for the
purpose, and executed at the press of Mr. John
Nichols'.

The next work of this description was the fac-
simile of part of the Codex Alexandrinus, con-
taining the New Testament. The original of
this MS. is deposited in the British Museum :
and the fac-simile, published by Dr. Woide, in
1786, in folio, exhibits its prototype, with a
degree of fidelity scarcely credible. Ten copies
only of this valuable work were printed on vel-
lum. In 1812, a fac-simile of the Book of
Psalms, from the same MS. and types, was pub-
lished by the Rev. H. H. Baber, (one of the
librarians at the British Museum); who has
issued proposals for executing the Pentateuch,
in a similar manner.

One other work only remains to be noticed,
under this head, viz. Dr. Kipling's edition of

' An index of persons, plapes and things, comprised in
this valuable work, has recently been compiled under the di-
rection of the commissioners of the public records of the
realm, which ought to be purchased by every possessor of
Domesday-Book, to render his copy complete.

IN PRINTING. 225

the four Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, ac-
cording to the Codex Bezae. This work was
printed at Cambridge, in 1793, in two volumes
folio, on the most beautiful paper. It is at once
a splendid ornament to the uiiiversity press, and
an unrivalled specimen of typographic excel-
lence.

The practice of fac-simile printing has chiefly
been confined to the rarest MSS. ; which, being
liable to decay, have thus been preserved for
every valuable purpose of collation.

§ 4. PRINTING IN GOLD LETTERS. A Splendid

mode of printing in burnished gqld letters has
recently been invented by Mr. John Whitaker,
an ingenious bookbinder, which ought not to
pass unnoticed in a retrospect of the improve-
ments in the typographic art. Mr. W. has issued
proposals for an edition of Magna Charta, (from
the original MS. deposited in the British Muse-
um), to be executed after his improved method,
on royal purple satin, and on superfine vellum
paper : the specimens we have seen are truly
superb, and reflect the highest honour on the
artist '.

' M. Crapelet, a celebrated Parisian printer, well-known
for the beautiful editions which have issued from his press,
made several experiments towards printing in golden letters ;
at length he succeeded, and executed in this style twelve copies
of Audebert's and Viellot's Oiseaza: Bores. Caille^u, however,

226 OBSERVATIONS ON

SECTION VII.
Observations on eavly Printers and Printitig.

After the introduction of printing into Eu-
rope, the scribes exerted their utmost efforts to
excel in their profession, in order that they
might retain their rank in society: but they
were soon obhged to yield to the superior utility
of the press J as the works performed by.it were
sold at a much cheaper rate than could possibly
be afforded by the scribes.

In the early stages qf typography, thq name
of the printer, his place of residences and the
date of his perforniance, were generally inserted
at the end of each boqk, and not unfrequently
accompanied by some pious dpxology or ejacu-
lation, in prase or in verse '.

does not speak in the most favourable terms of these typogra-
phical refinements, Cailleau, Hict'. Bibl. torn. iv. p. 36.

' Mr. Thomas (Hist, of Print, in America, vol. i. p. 15&)
has ^iven . the following curious cdupkt ; which, he stated, is
to be found in the edition of the "Pragmatic Sanction," print-
ed by Andrew Bocard at Paris, in 1307.

" Stet liber hie, donee fluctus formica marinos
" Exhibat ; et totum testudo perambulet orbem."

Imitated,
May this volume continue in motion.
And its pages each day be unfurl'd ;
Till an ant to the dregs drinks the ocean,
Or a tortoise has crawl'd round the vi^orld.

6 At

ANTIENT PRINTING. 227

The antient printers did not divide words at
the ends of lines by hyphens ; but, in order to
compress as much as possible within a given
compass, they made use of vowels with a
mark of abbreviation, which denoted that one
or more letters were omitted in the syllable
where it was placed. For instance, dm for
domino ; voMtas for voluntas; c' for cum; qtdiP
for quibus ; decoraff for decoratus ; rubricationi-
busqi for rubricationibjisque ; oclpittor concijpit :
xpum for christum ; ee for esse; zc. for ei cetera;
pporiatur for proponatur; puipedere, fov parui-
pendere,&cc. Thierri Martens, of Alost, abounded
particulairly in these abbreviations. At length
the great number and variety of them, which
were gradually introduced, created such obsta-
cles, as the most dexterous and persevering
readers only could overcome.

At the foot of the title-page of the Prymer of Salisbury,
1533, there is the following remarkable prayer:
God be in my bede.

And in my understandynge.
€k)d be in my eyen.

And in my lokynge.
God be in, my mouthe.

And in my spekynge.
God be in my herte.

And in my thinkinge.
God be at myn ende.

And at my departynge.

Q 2

228 OBSERVATIONS ON

Both in manuscripts and in the printed books
of the fifteenth century, the vowels and conso-
nants, u and V, i andj, are confounded toge-
ther, and indifferently used the one for the other:
the diphthongs ce and oe do not occur, their
place being supplied either by the simple e, or
by ae and oe ; c was often used for f, as wac«o for
natio, oracio for oratio ; phantasma was spelle'd
Jantasma; michi, nichil, for mihi, nihil; oteih'
platio, cotidiana, servicia, sompnum, for contem-
platio, quotidiana, servitiay somnwm, ^c. S^C'

For many years after the introduction of the
art into this country, the English printing was
inferior to that executed x)n the continent: Cax-
ton's types are greatly inferior, in point of
beauty, to the black letter of Jenson and Koe-
burger' : these latter, (Mr, Dibdin observes)
have a squareness, firmness, and brilliancy of
effect, which are not to be discovered in the
works of our typographer. He thinks it pro-
bable, however, that much of the superiority of
effect, in point of beauty, discernible in the
works of foreign printers of this period, arises
from the excellence of the paper and, press-work.
That perfect order and symmetry of press-work,
so immediately striking in the pages of foreign
books of this period, are in vain to be sought

■ See a brief notice of these eminent printers, in the Ap-
pendix, No. VII.

ANTIENT PRINTING. 229

for among the volumes which have issued from
Caxton's press; and the uniform rejection of the
Roman letter, when it was so successfully intro-
duced by the Spiras, Jenson, and S]iveynheym
and Pannartz, is unquestionably a blemish in
our typpgrapher's reputation. But on the other
hand (continues Mr. D.) whenever we meet
with good copies of his books, his type has a
bold and rich effect, which renders their perusal
less painful than that of many foreign produc-
tions, where the angular sharpness of the letters
somewhat dazzlesand hurts the eye. Caxton's
ink is of a very inferior quality : he probably
imported it, and in consequence was left at the
mercy of his agents; — to receive what had been
discarded by other printers*. '

Caxton's. books are printed on paper made
from the paste of linen rags, very fine and good,
and not unlike the thin vellum, on which MSS.
were at that time usually written. His first per-
formances are very rude and barbarous : he
used a letter resembling the hand-writing then
in use. His «? a^ the end of a word is very
singul9.r : he employed the characteristics which
we find in Enghsh MSS. before the conquest j
and instead of commas and periods, he used an
oblique stroke /, which is to this day retained

' Dibdin's Ames, vol, I. p. cxxvi.

230 OBSERVATIONS ON

by the Dutch printers in their impressions of
books in Gothic or black letter. Caxton's letter
was amixtut-e of secretary and Gothic, resembling
the usual character of our manuscripts of that
age, as the types of Fust, Schoiffer, and others
of the first printers resemble the character of the
MSS. of which they made use, all of which were
6f the same lineage, and differed but little in
the features of their countenance '. Like other
printers of that time, he never used any direc-
tion or catch-word, but placed the signatures
where that now stands ; he rarely numbered his
leaves, and never his pages. Agreeably to the
then prevalent custom, he printed, in most of
his books, only a small letter at the beginning of
the chapters, to intimate what the initial letter
should be, which was left to be inserted toy the
illuminators ; but in some of his books he used
two-line letters of a Gothic kind. As he printed
long before the present method of adding the
errata, at the end of books, was practised, his
extraordinary exactness obliged him to take con-
siderably more pains than can easily be imagin-
ed : for after a book was printed off, his method
was to revise it, and amend the feults with red
ink. One copy being thus corrected, he then

* Rowe Mores's Dissertation upon English Typographical
Founders and Foundertes, p. 4.

ANTIENT PRINTING.

SSI

H
O

employed a proper pefson to correct the whole
impression. Specimens of Caxton*s types are
given in the annexed engravings.

III!

2 8 c-;8

lilt":

No* 1. is a spedtnea of *he*^it&l letters «sed

233

OBSERVATIONS ON

by Caxton in most of the productions of bis
press : this and the following specimens of Eng-
lish types are given from Herbert's edition of
Ames's Typographical Antiquities.

I
m
O

<
O

»-(
02

<£^

>i^

No. 2. is a specimen of , the types used by

ANTIENT PRINTING. 253

Caxton in his Recueil des Histoires de Troye,
the first book ever printed by hirii : it is without
printer's name, date or place. Mr. Dibdin has
described it at great length, and given a fac-
simile engraving of the French and EngUsh edi-
tions of this work. The English edition was
executed by Caxton in 1471 '.

No. 3. is a specimen of the types with which
were printed the Dictes and Sayinges of the Phi-
losophers, printed in 1477. The work itself
was translated by Antony Woodville, Earl of
Rivers, from the French of Jehan de Teonville,
who was Provost of Paris in 1408. The passage
in the specimen is taken from the conclusion,
added by Caxton, who translated and annexed
three additional leaves, containing some stric-
tures, not the most courtly, on the fair sex. —
Ames has given this curious Appendix in the
original spelling ; Mr. Dibdin, with the spelling
modernized *.

No. 4. contains four concluding verses, from
Chaucer's translation of Boetius de Consolatione
Philosophies folio, no dater. It is destitute of
signatures, numerals, catch-words and capital
initials. The work is in Latin and English : the
Latin is not cited at length, but only a few
verses of a period, and then the whole of that
period in English, and so alternately in Latin

• Dibdin's Typog. j^nt. I. pp. 2^-ll.

* Atnes^ pp. 9 — 12. Dibdin, vol. i. pp. 67 — ^71.

334

OBSERVATIONS ON

and English throughout. The Latin type is of
the size of No. 4 ; the English of No. 3.

*J r* O ^ ^

J— (

^k^ si W
1*^

o
o

Sx St ^''^ jrs^ '^

^^^.^<^

»r5

'iti

No. S. iis a specimen from Godfi'ey ofBoiaynCt
or the last Siege and Conquest of Jherusalem '.

' Atties, pj>.i!8— 3l. DMin, I. pp. 130-«-137,

ANTIENT PRINTING. 335

No. 6. is from the FaytofArmes andChmalry^
a coffipilation by the celebrated Christine de
Pisan, from the military treatises of Vegetius,
Frontinus, and iheArbfe des Battailks. It is copi-
ously described, with extracts, by Mr. Dibdin '.

These specimens will suffice to give a general
idea of Caxton's style of printing : for addi-
tional specimens of his work, as well as those of
Caxton's immediate successors, the inquisitive
student is referred to the first and second volumes
of Mr. Dibdin's Typographical Antiquities.

The types of Lettouand Machlinia (Caxton's
more immediate successors) are rude and broken;
and the page is crowded with abbreviations.—
The press-work of the latter, when he after-
wards printed alone, is superior to that of Lettou:
but he is not oilly fiir beneath Wyilkyii de Worde
in every point of good printing j but is frequently
below Caxton.

The art of printing in England was greatly
improved by Wynkyn de Worde, who cut his
own punches, which he sunk into matrices, and
cast his own letter *. Hence his books are dis*

• Ames, pp. 49—51. Dibdin, I. pp.274— 279.

* Dibdin's Ames, vol. ii. pp. 2, 6, 9. VIII. Wynkyn de
Worde's founts were, one of double pica, two of great primer,
both good, but one thicker than the other, a rude sort of
EngUsh, a good Enghsh, cut about 1496, a long primer and
a brevief, which (says Mr. Mores) i3 "well enough." Of Eng-
lish Founders and Founderies, p. 5.

336 OBSERVATIONS ON

tinguished by their neatness and elegance. —
Richard Pynson has the honour of introducing
the Roman letter into this country ; his types
are clear and good, and his press-work well ex-
ecuted, but upon the whole inferior to that of
De Worde. In the choice, however, and in-
trinsic worth of his publications, Pynson has a
manifest superiority. Contemporary with him
was William Faques, who was king's printer,
and probably joined in the same patent with
Pynson. They both printed the act of parlia-
ment, passed in the 19th Henry VII. (1503)
and each styled himself printer to the king.
How long he printed before, or continued after,
does not appear ; but his books shew him to have
been an excellent workman. He used a new
cut English letter, equalling, if not 'excelling
in beauty, any produced by modern founderies '.

' Mores, p. 6.

ANTIENT PRINTING.

237

The subjoined engraving will afford a favour-
able specimen of Faques's typographical labours.

I liaccte;totatolutrti»:l)ttia|
I ipettedaCtttmeftfeletictai }

nnssssssi

91
11

I ]^nglietegt0!^em:icii(^ti[ I

II Jfewcitetinciint-^

1 Imzmiziiiiiiiii^iii^^^^''

It is a copy of the title of a Latin edition of the
Psalms, of the same size, printed in 1504. The
whole is inclosed in a neat chain, in red and
black ink. It begins. Per te Rosa tolunturviHa,
Per te datur mestis leticia. Beneath this .is an

338 OBSERVATIONS ON

angel with a shield on his breast, arid unden that
is PiSiaUttiUm in red. Then follow these words:
E:c mandatO' vktoriosmimi Anglie^ regtS: Henrici
septimi cum psalmorum virtttte feliciter mcipit' —
After Faques, English typography, like that of
the Continent, became greatly degenerated.

No points were used by the antient printers,
except the colon and peripd or full point : after
some time the oblique stroke, thus '', was in-
troduced ; until Aldus Manutius, in the close
of the fifteenth century, among other improve-
ments which he bestowed on the art of printing,
corrected and enlarged the punctuation. He
gave a better shape to the comma, added the
semi-colon, and assigned to the former points
more proper places. The notes of interrogation
and of admiration were not introduced! till many
years afteu..

The orftoj^aphy, in the infancy of printing,
was various, and often arbitrary : an c was fre-
quently put for an i, and vice versa ;. e for a, and
the reverse ; b for v, &g. &c. Defusce was writ-
ten for diffusm,episcobum for episcopuin,apogri/um
for apocr-ij^um, &c. Syntax also was disregarded :
capital letters were not used according to any
certain rules ; proper names and sentences were
often commenced with small letters, as well as
the beginning of verses in poetry.

It is worthy of remark, that the first produc-

ANTIENT PRINTING. 239

tions of the English press consist chiefly of
translations frtom French writers. The numer-
ous French versions of the classics, Tsfhich ap-
peared in the fifteenth century, enaHed Caxton
to enrich the literature of this cottntry with
many valuable pubKcations, which were trans-
lated into English either by himself or by his
friends ; antient learning had as yet made too
little progress among us, to encourage, this en-
terprising and industrious artist to publish the
Homan authors in their original language : and,
if the French hatd not furnished him with these
materials, it is not likely that Virgil, Ovid,
Ciceroi and many other good w^ritersy would by
means of his press have been cureulated in the
English tongue so early as the close of the fif-
teenth century. It is, however, remarkable,
that from the year 1471, when Caxton began
to print, down to the year 1540, (Juring which
period the English press flourished under the
conduct of many industrious, ingenious, and
even learned artists), only the very few following
classics were printed in England : viz. Boetius
de Comelatione, both Latin and EngKsh, with-
out date, and the Esopian Fabks, in verse, for
Wynkyn de Worde, 150S, in quarto, and once
or twice afterwards-'-T'erewce, with the com-
ment of Badius Ascensius, and the Bucolics of
Vii^U 1512, 4to. (again in 1533),— both for

240 OBSERVATIONS ON

the same person ; TuUy's Offices, with an Eng-
lish translation by Whittington, 153S, 4to.

During this period, the university of Oxford
produced only, the first book of Cicero's Epistles
at the charge of Cardinal Wolsey, without date
or printer's name : not a single classic was issued
from the Cambridge press. No Greek book of
any kind had yet been printed in England : the
-first Greek characters, used in any work exe-
cuted in England, occur in Linacer's transla-
,tion of Galen's Treatise De Temperamentls, 4to,
Cambridge, 1521, in which a few Greek words
^and abbreviatures are occasionally introduced.
The printer was John Siberch, a German, a
friend of Erasmus, who styles himself " primus
utriusque linguae in Anglia impressor :" Greek
characters are to be found in some of his other
books of this date : but he printed no. entire
Greek work. In Linacer's treatise De emen-
data structurd Latini Sermonis, printed by Pyn-
son in 1524,. many Greek characters are inter-
spersed, especially in the sixth book, where there
are seven lines together. But the printer apolo-
gizes for his imperfections and unskilfulness in
the Greek types, which he says were but re-
cently cast, and not in a sufficient quantity for
such a work, and without spirits or accents.

About the same period of the English press,
similar embarrassments appear to have happened

ANTIENT PRINTING. 341

with regard to Hebrew types, which were yet
more hkely, as that language was then so much
less known. In 1524, Dr. Robert Wakefield,
chaplain to Henry VIII. published his '< Or<itk)
de laudibus et utilitate trium Unguarum, Arakicm,
ChaldaiccBf et Hehraicx" &c. 4to. The printer
was Wynkyn de Worde j and the author com-
jdains that he was obliged to omit his whble
third part because the printer bad no Hebrew
types. Some few Hebrew and Arabic characters
are, however, introduced;' hut they are ex-
trenaely rude, and evidently cut in wood ; they
are the fiirst of the sorrt used in England, " It
was a circumstance, (Dr. Warton observe^)
ikvourable at least to English literature, owing
indeed to the general ilTiteracy of the times, that
our first printers were so little employed o^i book^
written in the learned languages. Almost all
CasDton's books are English : the multiplijc^ti^ia
erf Engliab copies multiplied EiagliphriestdeiGSij
and these again prodiiieed new vernacular writers.
The existence of a press indmced many to turn
aulfcfojsj who were cmly qualified to write iw
their laative toiague ' ."

The eariy printed Ibooks were chiefly in the
folio and quarto sizes. Before 1465, the uniform
character was the old Gothic or German, whence
our '251aCfe was ;afterwards formed; but in that

» Warton's Hist, of Eng. Poetry, vol.ii. pp. 123, 124,
R

243 OBSERVATIONS ON

year an edition of Lactantius was printed at
Subbiaco, in a kind of semi-Gothic, of great
elegance, and approaching nearly to the present
Roman type. The latter was first used at Rome
in 1467, (whence its name) and was soon after-
wards brought to great perfection at Venice, by
Nicholas Jenson.

Towards the end of the fifteenth century,
Aldus Manutius ' invented the beautiftil letter,
now generally in use and known by the name of
Italic or Aldine ; though some German writers
and their followers have attempted to call it the
cursive, to obUterate the memory of its original
descent. Aldus invented this sort of letter in
order to accomplish the design he had conceived,
of executing a collection of all the best works in
a smaller form (in 8vo.) than was at that time in
use ; and which, to convenience and portability,
should unite cheapness of price, and also con-
tain nearly as much as a folio or quarto volume.
For this purpose he invented a character, the
first idea of which, we are assured, was given
to him by Petrarch's writing; and employed
Francisco di Bologna (an able engraver who had
designed and engraven all the other characters

' So great was the care bestowed by Aldus in the correc-
tion of his proofs, that Angelo Roccha says that he printed at
most but two sheets per week. Lambinet, Recherches siir
I'lmprimerie, T^. 180.

ANTIENT PRINTING. 243

of his printing-office) to execute the small Italic,
so well known, and called after the name of its
inventor. This character, though less beautiful
than the round letters used by Vindelin de Spira,
Jenson, and othei's., about the year .1472, was
far superior to the thick and clumsy, 'Gothic,
which had before that time been ' employed' in
most printing-offices. The first work executed
with this Italic type, was a Vijgil, in' 8 vo, printed
in 1501. Aldus has commemorated the talents
of the engraver, by the three following verses
in Grammatoglyptce Laudem : ■:. . v

Qui Graiis dedit Aldus, en Latinis
Dat nunc grammata sculpta (lasdaleis
Francisci manibus Bonoiiiensis.

Notwithstanding Aldus obtained several privi-
leges for the exclusive use of this Italic type,
ftom the senate of Venice, as well as the pontiffs
Alexander VI., Julius II., and Leo X., the
printers, of Lyons published counterfeit editions
of his Latin and Italian 8vo works, as soon as
these were printed. Virgil, Horace, Juvenal
and Persius, Martial, Lucan, Ovid, Dante,
Petrarch, &c. &c. were thus printed, exactly of
the same size, with:a neat Italic, inferior to that
of Aldus, but without date, or any kind of
mark. Every thing hdwever was copied, to the
very prefaced, which Aldus or his editors had
preflxe(i to their editions. The first pirated

R 2

244 OBSERVATIONS ON

l<yonnese editions were exceedingly incorrect :
in vain did Aldus complain of this circumstance,
and point out marks by which to distinguish the
genuine from the spurious copies ; the Lyonnese
availed themselves of his corrections, and per-
fected their books '.

The first essays in Greek printing on the Con-
tinent, that can be discovered, are a few sen-
tences which occur in the edition of Cicero de
Officiis, printed at Mayence : but these were
miserably incorrect and barbarous, if we may
judge from the specimens given by Maittaire.

In the same year, 1465, an edition of Lac-
tantius's works was printed in Monasterio Sub-
lacensi (Subbiaco, in the kingdom of Naples),
in which the quotations from the Greek authors
are printed in a very neat Greek letter, of which
the subjoined engraving will exhibit a favour-
able specimen *.

' Renouard, Ann. de I'lmp. des Aides, torn. ii. pp. 14 — 18.

* This is the first edition of Lactantius, and a work of ex-
treme rarity. It is a proud circumstance, Mr. Beloe remarks,
that we should be able to boast of five copies in this country.
They are in the possession of the Duke of Marlborough, Lord
Pembroke, Earl Spencer, the British Museufti, and the Bishop
of Rochester. Beloe's Anecdotes of Literature, &c. vol. iii.
p. 34. A sixth copy (unknown to Mr. B.) was in the library
of the late Mr.Willett (whence our specimen is copied,) which
sold for £A.(i. \9s. The passage above given, stands thus in
the Bipontine edition of Lactantius. — " Tantum habet Dei
eognitio, ac justitia, potestatis. Cui, ergo, nocere possunt.

ANTIENT PRINTING.

245

■i -S .» ^ ^

e ^.v V

a- 3 a^8

?» -3-1 o

at •■ TS y

•b
>

>
§■

'3 o

o t

el §

O 2 2 X
"O -5 ^ i» o

It is taken from the
Institutiones, lib. 2.
c. 16. folio 38 verso.
The printers, Sweyn-
heym and Pannartz,
seem to have had but
a very small quantity
of Greek types in the
monastery: for, in the
first part of the work,
whenever a long sen-
tence occurred, a
blank was left (as was
usual in most of the
early printed books)
that it might be in-
serted with a pen.
After the middle of
the work, however,
all the Greek quota-
tions are printed. In
1466, they settled at
Rome, where they first
introduced the Ro-

nisi iis quos habent in sua
potestate ? Denique afflrmat
COS Hermes, qui cognoverint Deum, non tantum ab inqursibus
daemonum tutos esse, verum etiam ne fato quidem teneri.
Mj«, inquit, (pvM'^i ivmpdcc. EUo-ajSoDs ya? «v&j»«« ov Scfi^m x«ko;,

Div. Inst. 1. 2. c. 15.

24G OBSERVATIONS ON

man type in an edition of Cic.ero's Epistotce
JFamiliares, in 1467V 4to;'and in 1469^ they
printed a beautiful edition of Aulus Gellius\
-with the Greek quotations , in a fair character,
without accents or spirits, and with very few
abbreviations. About the middle of the book is
a whole page entirely Greek." The quotations
were translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza,
for which the. editor (Andrea, bishop of Aleria)
apologizes, „ by observing how very little Greek
was then understood. The piaper and types of
Sweynheim and Pannartz were both excellent:
the greait singularity, of the latter was, that they
did not place the point ovei' the i ; and at the
end of wof ds they used the long f, but no diph-
thongs are to be found in their works. Jenson*s
productions have the diphthongs ae, oe, and
Spira's, the q for the diphthong ae. " All Sweyn-
heym's and Pannartz's productions are of un-
common rarity and value; and their ink may vie
in blackness with the best of the preSent day"."

' Of this extremely rare work. Lord Spencer has an exceed-
ingly fine copy ; tliere is one in the Cracherode Collection in
the British Museum ; and another in the Bodleian Library.
At' the beginning of the volume is an interesting dedicatory
epistle of five leaves, from the editor Andrea (afterwards
bishop of Aleria) to pope Paul IL Curious extracts ft-om.
this, as well as others of his dedicatory epistles, are. giiven by
Santander. Diet. Bibl. du 15 siecle, tom. L pp: 139>— 135,
and by Mr. Beloe, vol. iii. pp. 374 — 291.
* Beloe, vol. iii. p. 273.

ANTIENT PRINTING. 247

The first entirely Greek book, that is known
to be extant, is the Greek Grammar of Constan-
tine Lascaris, 4to, revised by Demetrius Cre-
tensis, and printed at Milan by Dionysius Para-
visinus in 1476 '. In 1481 a Greek Psalter was
printed here, with a Latin translation, in foKo ;
as also were the Fables of ^sop, in 4to.

Venice soon followed the example of Milan,
and in 1486 were published in that city, the
Greek Psalter, by Alexander Cretensis, and the
Batrachamyomachia, by Leonicus Cretensis, in
4to. But all former publications in this lan-
guage were eclipsed by the matchless edition
of Homer's works, printed at Florence, in 1488,
by Demetrius . Cretensis, in two volumes fpHo.
Bibliographers are loud in their commendations
of this " immortal work," which displays all the
luxury of the typographic art %

All the preceding works are prior in point of
time to those of the elder Aldus, who has by
some writers been erroneously supposed to be
the first Greek printer : but the beauty, cor-

' Copies of this, which is one of the scarcest books in the
world, are in his Majesty's Library (from Dr. Askew's sale, for
£2\. 10s.) and in those of Lord Spencer, Colonel Johnes, and
the Cracherode Collection in the British Museum.

* Dibdin's excellent Introduction to the Greek and Latin
Classics, vol. ii. pp. 371— 373. Copies are in Lord Spencel-'s li-
brary, the Bodleian Library, and in theCracljerode Collection,
deposited in the British Museum.

248 OBSERVATIONS ON

itectness, and number of his editions, place him
in a much higher rank than his predecessors.—
His types also are allowed to be more elegant,
in general, than any before used. The first
Greek work, which issued from his press, was
Constantine Lascaris's Greek Grammar above-
mentioned '.
■ The study of the Greek language was intro-
duced into France by Francis Tissard, at Paris,
in 1507 ; and Greek printing was afterwards
practised with the greatest success by the family
of Stephens, of whom Robert (I) and Henry (II)
ivere the most distinguished for the beauty of
their characters and the extent of their learn-
ing. The Greek Testament of the former,
(Paris, fol. 1550) and the Poetae Graeci Prin-
cipes of the latter, (fol. 1566) exhibit specimens
of Greek printing that have not often been sur-
passed. The author has compared the splendid
edition of Plutarch's moral writings, edited by
Professor Wyttenbach, from tlje Clarendon press,
with the above works ; which, excepting that

' For an account of this interesting specimen of typogTaphic
excellence, the Bibliographical student will consult Eenouard^s
Annales de I' Imprimerie des Aides, torn. 1. p. 1, &c. In the
second volume of the same work (pp. 51 — 57,) Renouard
has given an account of nine different sorts of Greek type
used by Aldus, and of fourteen sorts of Latin characters, both
Roman and Italic, on the making of which he bestowed the
greatest possible attention.

ANTIENT PRINTING. 249

they contain more numerous abbreviations,; suf-
fer no disparagement by the comparison.

Printing with Hebrew characters appears to
have been first performed at Soncino, in the
duchy of Milan, in the year 1482, and at Naples
in 148Y. The first works printed with them
were — l. The Pentateuch, in 1482. — 2. The
gr^,ter Prophets, Joshua, Judges, and Samuel,
in 1484. — 3. The lesser Prophets in 1486. The
Hagiographa in 1487. The three first were
printed at Soncino, the last at Naples. The
whole text of the Hebrew Scriptures was printed
in one volume folio, in 1488, by Abraham Ben
Rabbi Hhajim. All these early editions are
destitute of the Keri and Ketib, which were not
introduced till thirty or forty years after '.

When the art of printing was first discovered,

' iCennjcott, Diss. Gen. p. 25, and his Annual Accounts of
the Collection of Hebreni MSS.rp. 113. The book above noticed
is of extreme rarity : not more than ten copies, are known to
be in existence. Santander, Diet, du xv. Siecle, torn. 2. p. 175.
The illustrious Aldus Manutius (the elder), among other
works which he projected for the benefit of literature, con-
ceived the idea of a Polyglott Bible in Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin ; a great undertaking at that time. Of this vast pro-
ject, he executed only one specimen page in folio, which is
now preserved in the Imperial Library at Paris (No. 3064.)
A very few specimens of Hebrew printing occur, among the
numerous works that issued from his presses. Renouard,
torn. 2. pp. 28, 58.

250 OBSERVATIONS ON

the printers frequently omitted to print the first
letter of a book or chapter, where the edition
was intended to be curious ; and for this a blank
space was left, that it might be illuminated or
painted at the option of the purchaser '. Several
of these early volumes have at different times
been found, where these initial letters are want-
ing, the, ppssessors having neglected to have
them , painted. Sometimes also the capital
initials ^or first letters to the first page of a work
were curiously formed by grouping together
various figures, representing the letter in ques-
tion, and by introducing both whole and half-
length portraits, as well as heraldic embellish-
ments and historical subjects *. Many instances
might.be offered, would the limits of this work
admit of their introduction ; but the folloTying
.beautiful specimen from the celebrated Psalters
of Mayence will be fully sufficient to elucidate
the remark.

^ • On the subject of illuminations, see pp. 69 — 71, 127 — 134,
supra,

* Mr. Dibditi has ably discussed these topics in his Preli-
minary Disquisiiion on early Engraving and ornamental Print-
ing, which is illustrated by numerous elegant engravings,
faithfully representing the various ornaments with which the
early printers decorated the productions of their press. Dib-
din's Ames, vol. I. pp. i — ^Ivii,

ANTIENT PRINTING.

251

It is the letter B, richly orftamented with
foliage, flowers, a bird, and a dog, and forms

the initial capital letter of the first Psalm : the
same letter was employed in the first edition of

252 OBSERVATIONS ON

1457, and in the second of 1459 ; from which
last (Merly Catalogue, No. 2027.) our copy is
made. As these editions are briefly noticed in
the Appendix, (No. VII.) it may suffice to ob-
serve, that in both impressions the letter itself
is in pale blue ; the ornaments, in which it is
placed, are redj the figures and flowers are trans-
parent and white, as well as the vellum on which
the book is printed. Heinecken justly observes,
that this latter afibrds authentic evidence, that
the artists, employed on the work, were both weU
skilled and well practised in their profession; and
that the art of engraving was no longer in its
infancy.

Beautiful, however, as most of the specimens
of early typography unquestionably are, it has
already been observed, that after the diffusion
of the art throughout Europe, it became greatly
degenerated. But from the middle of the
eighteenth century to the present time, artists
have arisen both in our own country and
on the Continent, the productions of whose press
are unrivalled for splendour and beauly of exe-
cution. In Paris, the Didots are pre-eminent,
for the number and exquisite workmanship of
their books. In Sjpain, the SaUust of Ibarra '

, ' This edition of Sallust contains the Latin text and a Spa-
nish version by the Infant Don Gabriel : it was published in
small folio in 1772, atid is both rare and dear in this country.

ANTIENT PRINTING. 253

is justly considered as a chef d'oeuvre of typo-
graphy : the letter is Italic^ but widely diifering
from the Italic type of Aldus and Colinaeus. In
Italy, the press of Bodoni has long been cele^
brated for its numerous and beautiful produc-
tions. His Greek t}'pes are peculiarly el^^nt,
though of a different kind of beauty from those
of the elder Stephens, and perhaps less free and
flowing in their forms.

In JEngland, BaskerviUe first introduced what
is generally termed ^ne printing, by producing
a type of superior elegance, and an ink, which
gave additional beauty to the type. His editions
of some of the Latin classics, as well as some
English works, are well known: the peculiar
excellence attached to his types, and the cele-
brity he consequently obtained, gave a stimulus
to the exertions and caUed fortii the emulation
of British printers* Fine work has therefore
been progressively improving; and the books,
which have issued from the presses of Davison,
Whittinghara, Ballantyne and Ramsay, of the
printer of this work, and above all of Bensley and
Bulmer, may justly be ranked among the finest
specimens of typography. The letter-press of

the noble editor reserving most of the copies for presents.—
Brunet, Manuel du Libraire, torn. 3. p. 439. Dibdin on
the Classics, vol. ii. p. 203.

254 OBSERVATIONS ON

Macklin's splendid edition of the Bible, and of
Bowyer's magnificent edition of Hume,; by Mr.
BENSLEy, and the superb . Shakespeare, Milton,
and other works by Mr. Bulmer, will justly vie
with the most costly, productions of Bodoni. .,

It only remains to notice the marks or devices
introduced by the first typographers ; a method
of ornamental printing, " which greatly contri-
buted to the beauty of the book, whether in
front or at the termination of it. The French,
printers have recently revived it : and the inser-
tion would not disgrace the public?itions of our
own country, when it is considered that such
able typographers and scholars as Aldus, Froben,
Plantin, Oporinus, and the Stephenses have
adopted it '."

The invention, of these marks, or vignettes,
as they are sometimes called, is ascribed by
Laire * to the elder Aldus, whose example was
soon followed by the most eminent printei's. An

' Dibdin's Ames, vol. I. p. Ivii.

* liaire (Index Librorum, Ssec. xv. vol. II. p. 146,) speaking
of a Greek Psalter, says : Hahet signaturas, registrum, ac cus-
todes, sed non numeraniur folia. Litterce principales. ligno in'
cisos sunt, sicut et in principio cujuslibet psalmi viticulce, quie
Gallice vignettes appellantur, quarum usum primus excogitavit
Aldus. The volume here described was printed abput 1495;
and consequently to this date the origin of vignettes or
printers' marks may be traced,

ANTIENT PRINTING. 255

alphabetical list of the principal vignettes, thus
used by antient printers, will be found in the
Appendix (No. III.)

An acquaintance with these marks or devices
may contribute towards ascertaining the names
of printers in early books, especially where those
names have been concealed: but, beside the
vignettes above referred to, most of the antient
printers made use of monograms or ciphers,
containing the initial letters of their names, or
other devices, curiously interwoven. As the
knowledge of these is essential, in order to fix
the identity of antient editions in which the
printer's name does not appear, we have given
(in the Appendix, No. IV.) engravings of the
principal monograms thus employed on the Con-
tinent from the invention of printing until the
year 1500: those of English printers are placed
by themselves, and continued a few years later.
A complete collection of these interesting marks
is a desideratum in literary history.

SECTION IX,
Mechanism of Frinting.

§ 1. letterpPress printing. — The types or
characters employed for printing, are small

256 MECHANISM

pieces of mixed metal', containing in relief a
letter of the alphabet, or a figure : they are cast
in a mould, to which is fitted a matrice,— a piece
of copper on which the intended character has
been cut or struck in creux, by means of well-
tempered steel or iron punches graven in "relief.
Each letter has its proper matrice: and there
are particular ones for figures, points, rules,
head-pieces, and other ornaments of printing,
except for quadrats ; which, not being intended
to leave any impression, are cast without ma-
trices and only in moulds. — Each matrice also
has its own puncheon. The characters are di-
vided into three sorts, Roman, Italic, and Black.
The two first sorts, as their name imports,
were respectively invented at Rome and in Italy*.
Roman is at present in general use, and has for
a long time been the prevalent letter of Europe j
although in Germany and Holland the black
letter is used for devotional and religious works.

' This metal is understood to be a compound of lead, iron,
and antimony ; the composition of type-metal however de-
pends entirely on the discretion of founders, each of whom
has proportionsj as well a^ some minutiae in the manufacture,
peculiar to himself. — ^To avoid a multiplication of references
in this sectioiv it may be proper to observe, that its materials
are derived from Fournier's Manuel Typographigue, Stower's
Printer's Grammar, and the Encyclopadia Britanniga, vol. 15,
Article Printing.

* See pp, 241, 243, ivpra,

OP PRINTING. 257

Italic was originally designed, to distinguish
notes, prefaces, and such other parts of a bookj
as might be said not strictly to belong to the
body of the work ; whence at least two fifths of
a book not unfrequently appeared in that cha-
racter. At present, it is used more sparingly,
extracts being inclosed within inverted commas,
and notes, &c. being composed in a smaller type.
It is often of service in displaying a title-page
ov distinguishing the head or subject-matter of
a chapter from the chapter itself.

"JBlacft IZtttt is thus called in England, from
its i^ldCft face; it is sometimes also termed Old
English, from its having been used in early times
for printing statutes and other law-books. It is
descended from the Gothic character, and has
therefore been called Gothic : this sort of type
is now generally disused in England.

All these different classes of letters are further
subdivided into LARGE CAPITALS, sma^l
CAPITALS, lower case (in which the body of all
works is printed,) and double letters, as fi, fl, ff,
ffi, ffl, &c. The last however do not often oc-
cur in the more elegant specimens of modern
typography.

A fount or font of letter is a set, or quantity
of characters of each kind, cast by the letter-
foundei-, and sorted. • A complete font not only
ineludes the running letter, but also single letr

?58

MECHANISM

ters, double letters,, points, commgis, lilies^ bor-
ders, head-pieces,, tail-pieces, and numeral cha-
racters : each fount is also called by a particular
name. In the following table the names of the
different bodies of letter are exhibited} in a de-
scending scale, according to the proper appella-
tions given to them in England and France.

ENGLISH.

FRENCH.

La Grosse-nompareille. [non.

Le Triple (ou gros Double) Ca-

Le Double Canon.

1. French Canon,

Le Gros Canon.

3. Two lines Double Pica.

Le Trismegiste. [main.

3. Twolines Great Primer.

Les deux Pomts de gros. Ro>

4. Two lines English.

Le Petit Canon, [le Palestine.

5. Two lines Pica.

Les deux Points de Cicero, ou

6. Double Pica.

Le Gros Parangon^

7. Paragon.

Le Petit Parangon.

-8. Great Primer.

Le Gros Remain.

9. English.

Le Saint Augustin.

10. Pica.

Le Cicero.

11. Small Pica.

La Philosophie.

12. Long Primer,

Le Petit Romain.

13. BouEgeois.

La Gaillarde.

i4. Brevier.

La Petit TcJEte.

15. Minion.

La Mignonne.

16. Nonpareil,

La Nompareille,

17. Pearl.

La Perle.

18. Diamond. /

La Parisienne ou Sedanoise.

Of the different sorts of type above enume-
rated, N". 8. 9. 10. 11. 1^. 14. 15. 16. and 17.,
are inost frequently used : and, as the origin of

OF PRINTING. t5&

the names thus given to the different founts of
l^p^iS at best conjectural, we shajl etiaeavc^kr
to convey a correct idea of their various sizes,
by giving a specimen of ®ich in the following
account of the mgiclianism of piriEiting.

1. FRENCH CANON.

There are

two
es of work-
men, em-
ployed in
the art of
printing ;

8 2

260 MECHANISM

viz. com-
positors,
and press-
men.

2. TWO LINES DOUBL E PICA.

The first
are those per-
son 85 whose
business it is

GP PRINTING. 261

to range and
dispone the
letters into
words, lines,
paragraphs,
pages &c.

3. TWO LINES GREAT PRIMER.

The pressmen
are, properly
speaking, the
printers ; for

MECHANISM

the J take off the
impressions of
the letters, after
the compositors
have prepared
them for that
purpose.

4. TWO LINES ENGLISH.

The types being
provided for the
compositor, he dis-
tributes each kind
or sort by itself into
small cells or boxes*,

orPRlNTlNCf.

made in two woed-
en frames, called
the case§5 the upper
and the lower case.

5. TWO LINES PICA.

The cells in the upper case
are ninety-ieig'ht in number;
those of the lower case are
fifty-four. The upper case
contaiits two alphabets of ca-
pitals, LARGE or FULL
CAPITALS, and small ca-
pitals.

6. DOUBLE PICA. -,

Th^ upper case also con-
tains cells for the figures, ac-
cented letters^ the characters

364 MECHANISM

used for references to notes,
&c. ; and one celL being a
middle one in the bottom row,
for the small letter k. The
capitals in this case are alpha-
betically disposed.

7. PARAGON.

The lower case is appropriated to
the small letters, the double letters,
points, parentheses, spaces and qua-
drats. The spaces are pieces of
metal, of various thicknesses, exactly
shaped to the shanks of the letters :
they are used to regulate the dis-
tances between -words.

8. GREAT PRIMER ^IdCH %tittt*

'€l)t qualimts are square pieces
of metal to|)icj) require toJbecast
UjitJ) tSe utmost s^mmetr^ aiiti mu
as mucj of ttit Umt^ of a toott
liepentis on tjeit aecutac?*

OF PRINTING. 265

9. ENGLISH.

There are two sorts of Quadrats, m and
n quadrats : the former, or m quadrat, is
the square of the letter to whatever fount
it may belong ; the latter, of n quadrat, is
half that size. M (juadrats always .begin
a paragraph, by indenting the first line:
they are also i\\e proper spaces, after a full
point, when it terminates a sentence in a
paragraph.

10. pica'.

N quadrats are generally used after the com-
ma, semi-coion, &c. and sometimes after a
curved letter: two-m, three-m, and four-m
quadrats, are likewise cast for break-lines, and
white lines, but particularly for poetry; for
which purpose they oughtto be cast with the
utmost precision, as the matter will stand un-
even, where many of them come together.

1 1 . SMALL PICA.

The boxes or cells of the lower case are of different
sizes, but the arrangement in this instance is not alpha-
betical; as the letters, most frequently wanted, are
placed nearest to the compositor's hand. Each case is
placed in an inclined direction, that the compositor may
reach the upper case with ease.

' In this type the text of the two first parts of the present
work is chiefly composed; the notes are in the size No. I^.
br Long Primer. The third part is, mostly, in No. 11. or Small
Pica.

266 MECHANISM

12. LONG PRIMER.

As there is nothing on the outside of the boxes to denote
the letters they respectively contain, it is curious to observe
the dexterity manifested by the compositor in finding and
taking up the letters as he wants them, from the diflerent cells.
The distribution of the types in the various boxes of each
case is usually the first of a compositor's, practical exercises ;
and ought to be performed with the utmost care, as the expense
of printing a work depends greatly upon the paucity or the
number of corrections, charged for printing it.

13. BOURGEOIS.

The instrument, in which the letters are set, is called a composing'
stick : it consists of a long plate of brass or iron, on the side of
which arises a ledge, that runs the whole length of the plate, and
serves to support the letters, the sides of which are to rest against it.

14. BREVIEK. — (italic.)

Along this ledge is a row of holes, for introducing a screw to levgtlhen
or slwrten the line, by moving the sliders farther from or nearer to tKe
shorter ledge at the end of the composing stick. Where marginal nates are
requiredif the two sliding pieces are opened to a proper distance from each
other,

15. minion.

Before tlie compositor begins to compose, he puts a tbin dip of brass
plate, called a rule, cut to the length of the line and of the same height as
the letter, in the composing slick, parallel with the ledge, against which
the letters are intended to t^ar.

16. nonpareil.

The compositor being thiis furnished witli an instrument, adapted to hold the
letters as they are arrang^ed into words, lines, dc> he places his copy on the
upper case just before him : and, holding tlie stick in his left hand, liis thumb
being over the slider, with the right he lalces ap the letters, spaces, Ac, on^
by one, and places them against the rule, while he supports them with his left
thumb by pressing them against the slider, the other hand being constantly
employed in. setting other letters.

17. PE.4RL.

Having in this manner composed a linci he takes the brass rale from behind it, places it before
the letters of which it is composed ( and proceeds to compose another line in the same manner.
Bat, before he removes the brass rale, he observea whether the line ends vith a complete word,
or with an entire syllable of a word, inclnding the hyiihen, which is put to denote the division
■when a word is divided into syllables. If he find that his words exactly fill the measure, he has
tiotbiDg more to do with that line, bnt proceeds with the next.

OF PRINTING. 267

18. DIAMOND. t

ir,hOwever, be find the measure not entirely filled at the endingoFa word or tyllable, be puts in more
space), diminishing the diitances between the words Until the me^atgre js full i and tfaifc ^peratlooi whicbi,U .
called 'iu"ify>ng>*i<done in order ibat alt the Unci in tbe compoiing stick may be of equal lenRth. Much
depend! upon exactnesi in jutiffy ing ; and great care is taken by expert conipoiiloni that thp line* are ncjthcr
too clbsdy wedded into thk Gorop'osing stick, nor yet loose and uneven.

When the composing stick has been filled with
lines, (generally about ten or twelve in number),
the compositor empties them upon a thin oblong
board termed a galky, which is furnished with a
ledge on two sides, and with a groove, to admit
a small bottom. When the compositor has filled
and emptied his stick until he has composed a
page, he ties it up with a piece of packthread,
and removes it from the galley, either to the
imposing-stone, or to some other safe and con-
venient place. And thus he proceeds, until he
has composed as many pages as are required to
make a sheet, or, in some instances, a half-sheet.
He then proceeds to arrange the pages on the
imposing-stpne, which is a very large obkng
stone, about five or six inches in thickness. The
pages are disposed in such a manner, that when
printed, they may be so folded as to follow each
other regularly. Each sheet is denoted by a let-
ter of the alphabet, which is termed a signature :
and sometimes a direction word, or (technically
speaking) a catch-word, is placed at the bottom
of the page ; but these words are not now in
general use, and they certainly add nothing to
the symmetry of the page. Great care, and
some ingenuity, is requisite in imposing a sheet

268 MECHANISM

or half-sheet, particularly of works in sizes less
than a folio or quarto.

Having laid down or disposed the pages in a
right order on the imposing-stone, the composi-
tor proceeds to what is called dressing the chases.
The chase is a rectangular iron frame of different
dimensions, according to the size of the paper to
be printed ; having, two cross pieces of the same
metal, called a long and 9, short cross, ihortised
at each end, so as to be takein, out occasionally.
By the different situations of these crosses, the
chase is fitted for volumes pf different sizes, as
folios; quartos, octavos, duodecimos, &c. In
order to dress the chase a set of furniture is ne-
cessary; consisting of slips of wood of various
dimen.sipnS.

The first thing to be done is, to lay the chase
over the pages ; afler which that part of the
furniture, called gutter-sticksj is placed between
the respective pages. Next, another part of the
furniture, called reglets, is placed along the sides
of the crosses of the chase: these reglets are of
such a thickness as will let the book have prO'.
per margins, after it is bound. Having dressed
the inside of the chases, the compositor proceeds
to do the same with their outsides, by putting
side-sticks and foot-sticks to them. The pages
being thus placed at proper distances, they are
all untied, a^d fastened together by small wooden

OF PRINTING. 269

wedges, called quoins. These small wedges be-
ing firmly driven up the sides and feet of thd
pages, by means of a mallet and a hard piece of
wood termed a shooting-stick, all the letters are
fastened together. In this condition the work
is called a form, and is ready for the pressman,
who lays it upon the press for the purpose of
puUing a proof. When a proof is pulled, the
forms are rubbed over with a brush dipped in a
ley made of pearl-ash and water : they are then
carefully removed from the press; and the proof,
together with the forms, is delivered to the com-
positor's further care.

It would exceed the limits prescribed to this
article by the nature of the present work, were
we to detail all the vai'ious particulars of the ty*
pographic art previously to the completion of a
work. It may, therefore, suffice to say that the
proof sheet and manuscript copy are conveyed to
the reader or corrector of the press ; whose busi-^
ness it is to read over the whole proof with grea^
care and attention, and to mark in the margin
of every page such errata as he shall observe.
These errata having been corrected in the metal
by the compositor, another proof is pulled, to
be again put into the reader's hands, or to be
sent to the author. This proof being also read
and corrected, a revise is pulled, in order to as-
certain whether all the errors marked in the last
proof are properly corrected.

S70 MECHANISM

When the sheet is supposed to be correct, the
forms are given to the pressman ; whose province
it is to work them offj after they have thus been
revised and corrected. The paper is prepared for
use by being previously dipped in water, a few
sheets at a time, and afterwards laid in a heap,
sheet over sheet : in order that the water may
equally penetrate through every sheet, a thick
deal board is laid upon the heap, on which heavy
weights are placed according to its size. The
reason why the paper must be wetted before it
is in a fit state to be printed upon, is, that it
may become sufficiently soft to adhere closely to
the sm-face of the letter, and take up a prOper
quantity of ink, that it may receive a fair arid
dear impression. It is also necessary to wet the
paper, lest its stifiT and harsh nature, when dry,
should injure the face of the letters.

The press is a curious and complex machine,
formed upon true mathematical principles; the
structure of which being unintelligible without
the aid of several figures ', it only remains to
add that the form is laid thereon ; and its surfiice
being equally covered with printer's ink by means

, ' On. the structure of printingrpresses, the' eurious reader
will find much information in the 12th chapter of Mr. Stowej's
" Printer's Grammar," in which the improved presSj invepled
and brought to perfection by the Kigiit Hon. Eafl Stanhope, is
described in all its parts, and illustrated with numerous ' sf^i-
rited engravings on wood.

OF PRINTING. 271

of balls duly prepared, the pressman subjects the
form to the powerful action of the press, which
he pulls twice, that the impression may be com-
plete. The printed sheet is then taken out, and
fresh sheets are successively supplied until the
impression is taken oflF upon the full number of
sheets of which the edition is intended to con-
sist. One side of every sheet being thus printed,
the form for the other side is laid on the press,
and worked off in a similar manner. The sheets
are then committed to the care of the printer's
warehouse-man, whosie business it is to hang
them up until they are dry, when they are ga-
thered, and delivered over to the author or
bookseller.

§ 2. ENGRAVING ON WOOD.— Engravings on
wood are worked off at the common letter-press,
the block being either inserted in the form where
the subject may require it, or sometimes printed
©n a separate leafjike a copper-plate engraving.
The earliest specimens of engraving on wood,
are probably playing cards; which were known
in Germany before the year 1376. The earli-
est impression of a wood-cut, with a date,
not confined to the subject of card-playing, is
the celebrated print of St. Christopher and the
infant Jesus, discovered by Baron Heinecken,
in the library of a convent at Buxheim, near
Memmingen in Suabia. It has the date of 1423.
This great curiosity was found pasted within the

ET2 MECHANISM

binding 6f an old book, printed in the l5th
century : it is now in the magnificent collection
of Earl Spencer '. Among the foreign engravers
on wood, Albert Durer stands pre-eminent, for
the boldness and delicacy of his strokes. The
art of engraving on wood was certainly known
in England, about the year 1474, as the second
edition of Caxton's Game of Chess is ornamented
;with wood-cuts : so are his " Thyraage or Myr-
rour of the World," (1481) ; his " Golden Le-
gend," (1483); "The Subtyl Histories and
Fables of Esope," (1484); &c\

Towards the close of the seventeenth century,
this branch of the graphic art had almost sunk
into oblivion, when Thomas Bewick of New-<
castle revived it, a few years since. Bewick has

' Dibdin's Ames, vol. i, p. 2, note. Landseer's " Lectures'
On Engraving," p. 190. See p. 155 supra.

* The earliest book With wooden cuts, that was printed with
moveable types, (in Mr. Douce's opinion) is the Ars memorativa
of Jacobus Publicius. It is executed in Gothic charactersj
with so many and complicated abbreviations, as to render it
by no means easy of perusal : it is supposed to have been
printed by John GuldenschofFof Mayence or Cologne. The
engravings are extremely rude, and very grotesque, represent-
ing the alphabet by symbols taken from diflerent objects.
Beloe's Anecdotes, vol. i. p. 228. Account of the principal
systems of Artificial Memory, appended to "The New Art of
Memory, founded upon the principles taught by M. Gregor
von Feinaigle," p. 183. A copy of this rare work of Publi-
cius/is in the British Museum, and another is in the possession
of Mr. Douce.

OF PRINTING. 273

been considered by some persons, as the re-in-
ventor of the art ; which he has brought to a
degree of perfection unknown to the later en-
gravers. The productions of his pupils, C. and
J. Nesbit and Anderson, as well as those of
Austin, Berryman, Branston, Byfield, Jackson,
Lee, (by whom the cuts in this volume are exe-
cuted) and others, leave nothing further to be
desired, towards the improvement of engraving
on wood.

§ 3. aoLLiNG-PEESs fi«NTiN0. — Rolling-press
printing is employed for the purpose of taking
off prints or impressions from cppper-plates en-
graven, etched or scraped.

Gf engravings upon copper,, the earliest known
impression is that executed by Thomaso Fini-
guerra, a goldsmith of Florence, with the date
erf 1460 upon it : aci;;ident is said to have givei^
rise to this discovery. It is known to be com-
mon with those who engrave ornaments on plate,
occasionally to rub a little charcoal, or oil, or
both, into their work, for the purpose of seeing
the better what they are doing. In the year
above mentioned, Finiguerra chanced to cast or
let fall a piece of eJQgraving filled with this sort
of ink, into melted sulphur ; and, observing
that the exact impression of his work was left
xm the sulphur, he repeated the experiment on
moistened paper, rolling it gently with a roller.

S74 MECHANISM

It was attended with success ; and Finiguerra,
imjparting his discovery to Baccio Baldini, of the
same place and profession, it was by him com*
municated to Sandro Boticelli'.

In the following year 1461, if not in 1460,
Martin Schon or Schoen first exercised the art
of engraving in Germany, and in a few years
after it was practised throughout Europe.

The earliest copper-plate engraving of the
French school, is that of Leori Daven, in 1540;
of the English school, by Thomas Geminus or
Geminie, 1545; of Lucas van Leyden, in 1509*.

The ink used for copper-plate printing is
called Frankfort black : it is composed of the
stones of peaches and apricots, of the bones of
sheep, and of ivory, all well burnt and mixed
with well-boiled nut oil, by being ground together
on a marble after the same manner as painters
grind their colours.

The method of taking off impressions from

' Landseer, pp. 191, 192. Walpole's Catalogue of En-
gravers, (Works, IV. p. 2.) Huber, however, has given
another account of the origin of engraving on copper. " It is
reported," says he, "that a washerwoman left some linen upon
a plate or dish, on which Finiguerra had just been engraving;
and that an impression of the subject engravefl, however im-
perfect, came off upon the linen, occasioned by its weight
and.moistness." Huber, Notice des Graveurs, pp. 2, 3.

* Walpole's Works, IV. p. 4. Voyage de deux Franjais au
Nord de I'Europe, torn. I. p, 37.

OF PRINTING, 27S

copper-plates, is as follows : The printer takes
a small quantity of this ink on a rubber made of
linen rags, strongly bound together; and with
it he besmears the whole faqe of the plate, as it
lies on a grate over a charcoal fire. The plate
being sufficiently inked, he first wipes it over
with a rag, then with the palm of his left hand,
and afterwards with his right hand ; in order to
dry the hand, and forward the wiping, he rubs
it from tinie to time in whiting. In wiping the
plkte' perfectly clean, yet without taking the ink
out of tbe engraving, the address of the work-
man consists. The plate thus prepared, is laid
on the plank of the press ; over the plate is laid
the paper, which has previously been well moist-
ened in order to receive the impression ; and
over the paper are two or three folds of flannel.
The arms of the cross, belonging to the press,
are then pulled, and the plate with its furniture
passes through, between rollers ; which, pinch^
ing very strongly yet equally, press the moisten-
ed paper into the strokes of the engraving,
whence it imbibes the ink, and the impression
is of course Complete.

§ 4, POIYAUTOGRAPHIC FEINTING.— ^A neW

mode of printing, or more properly engraving
upon stone, was announced a few years since,
and specimens of polyautography were publish-
ed ; consisting of prints from actual ^ketches on

T 2

276 MECHANISM

Stone, after the most eminent English artists.
It was invented by M. Aloysius Senefelder, who
carried on his discovery with great success at
Munich ; by him an assignment was made, of
his art, to M. Andr^, who in 1801 obtained a
patent for its exercise in this country, but did
not meet with very extensive encouragement.
The drawings are made with an unctuous com-
position, in the form of a crayon, or of an ink,
on a soft calcareous stone, somewhat like a
stone marie. When the drawing is finished, the
stone is moistened, and imbibes sq much water,
that the printing ink will not adhere to it, ex-
cept at the parts where the crayon or the ink
has been applied; and in this manner an im-
pression is procured, which has much of the
freedom and spirit of an original drawing. When
the ink is used, a little acid is afterwards ap-
plied to the fetone, in order to corrode its in-
termediate parts : and the bold style of the im-
pression much rescimbles that of the old wooden
euts'. . -

In the opinion of a very eminent engraver %
this method of etching on stone is calculated,
peifeaps beyond any art at present known,'' to

* Young's Lectures on Nat. Phil. vol. i. p. 123. Gent. Mag.
vcj. Ixxyiii. Part I. pp. 193 — 196. Europ. Mag. vol. Iviii.
pp. 114, 115, where the processes are described at length.

* LandSeer's Lectures on Engraving, p, 193.

OF PRINTING. 277

rendei; a faithful fee-simile of a painter's sketdh.
Four thousand iinpressicms have been taken from
the plates, without any apparent detriment :
every allowance, therefore, being made for the
partiality of the ingenious inventor, some credit
is due to his assertion, that so many as sixty
thousand copies might by this process be made
from one drawing. It certainly is to be" re-
gretted that polyautogrSphy has not met with
that success in this country, which has crowned
its exercise in Germany, France, and Italy.

PART IL

ON BOOKS.

CHAPTER I.

General Remarks on the Denominations, SizeSyS^c.
of Books.

SECTION I.

Denominations of Books.

The knowledge of authors and their works forms
a most extensive and interesting part of literary
history : it is divided into various classes, whose
limits are not easily defined, but which may, per-
haps, be reduced to the following nine classes.

§ i. MSS. and Printed Books. — The first are
those written with the hand, and are either au-
tographs, copies originally written by the authors
themselves, or such as have been transcribed by
the librarii or copyists : previously to the inven-
tion of printing, autographs were of the utmost
value, because they were not disfigured by the
ignorance or the negligence of the copyists. As
the subject of manuscripts has already been dis-
cussed at considerable length, both with regard

DENOMINATIONS OF BOOKS. 279

to the material employed for writing, and also to
the various styles of writing which have prevailed
in different ages ; it will be sufficient to refer to
the first part of this work '. Printed books are
the subject of the remainder of the present
volume. Books and authors are further distin-
guished into

§ a. Those of the antient, middle, and modern
ages, with respect to the time in which the for-
mer were written, arid the latter flourished.

The antient age comprises 1. the Gfecian
which commenced near the time of the Pelo-
ponnesian war,- and continued till the time of
Alexander the Great; and .2. the Roman age,
included nearly within the days of Julius Caesar
and Augustus ; this period, or at least a consi-
derable portion of it has been denominated the
Augustan Age. The Roman Age has by some
been extended to the close of the fourth century.

The middle age commences with the fifth cen-
tury, and is continued to the capture of Constan-
tinople by Mohammed II.

The wocferw flg"^ commences with the revival
of literature, and continues to the present time.

§ Hi. Theological, historical, poetical, S^c. ac-
cording to the subject of which each author has
treated, and the nature or species of composition
employed by him.

' See Part I. chapters i. and ii. pp. 30—143.

280 DENOMINATIONS

§ iv. Pagan, Jewish, Christian, Mohamnedan,
S^r. according to the religion of each author, and
the subjects he has treated.

§ V. Sacred, ecclesiastical; or profane. — Of the
first description are the Holy Scriptures and theo^
logical works : of the second are such as treat of
the laws, discipline, &c. of the church j profane
books are those which do not discuss matters of
religion.

§ vi. With regard to their authors, books are
(1.) AUoriynious ; those published under the
real name of some author of reputation, to whom
conse(Jueutly works are attributed which he
never composed. Such was the Book on Anti-
quities published by Aiinius of Viterbo, at Rome>
in 1498^ in folio j and a;gain in 1542, in oGtavOi
In this compilation, Annius has been charged
with fabricating works falsfely attributed to Xe-
nophon, Pbilo, and other antient authors '.

"The first Koman edition of this work (1498) i& of great
rarity : it is in fdiOj pritrted' in Gothic tetlei's,the text of whieh
is in larger characters than the commentary. It is intituled,
" Fratris Joannis Annii Viterbiensis Ord. Praedic. Th?ok Pro-
fess. Commentaria super opera diversorum Auctorum de Anti-
quitatibus loquentium &g." Joannes Anniils (or Nanhi) of
Viterbo, was a iriembei? of the order of Friars Preachers-, and
master of the sacred palace under Popfe Alexander Vlii San-
tander acquits him of the fraud usually charged against him,
and thinks he was led into a mistake, at a time when the prin-
ciples of sound criticism were unknown, and that he onfy
adopted and collected together' Writings, "Which had been forged

OF BOOKS. 281

(2t> Amnyimm ; those without any author's
name. Several works have been published on
anoi^mous books, which are noticed in a subse-
quent page '.

(3.')Cryptonif'mouSi those whose authors* names
are concealed in some anagram or the hfce : of
this description is « Telliaraedi or Discourses on
the Diminution of the Sea, the Formation of the
Earth," &c. by M. de Maillet ; of which name
Telliamed is the anagram.

(4.) Pseudonymous ; those which bear falsfe
names of authors : several publications have ap-.
peared on pseudonymous Works, which are also
noticed in the course of this volume'.

(5.) Genuine ; those really written by the au-
thors whose names they bear, and which remain
in the state in which they were left.

(6.) Apocryphal; such as come from an un-
certain author, on which much reUance cannot
be placed. In this sense we say an apocryphal
book, passage, history, &g.

(7.) SpuriotiSi such as ^re proved to have
been written by others than the real authors
whose names they bear.

(8.) Interpolated; those Which since their com-
position have been corrupted by furious addi-
tions or insertions.

before bis eiiiie. Saiitander, Diet, du 15= Siecle, torn. h.pp.
5®, hi. ' Irefra, Part III. chap, iv, sect. iii.

283 DENOMINATIONS

(9.) Posthumous; books published after their
authors' decease.

§ xtii.: Relative qualities.-^ As books may be
written on every possible subject, another natu-
ral division of them presents itself into good and
bad', according to their respective quialities.

A book may be a good one in different points
of view. — ^Thus, in the estimation of a divine
or a religious man, a theological or devotional
work is a good one : — a man of' learning consi-
ders instructive books only to be good : — an art-
ist, such as are well written on a subject relative
to his own peculiar art ; — in the language of the
curious a scarce book, — in a bookseller's lan-
guage a saleable book is a good one ; but ra-
pidity of sale is no certain criterion of the real
value of a work : the moSt worthless sometimes
obtain the greatest circulation.

Under the term bad books, may be classed 1.
All those which contain principles hostile to the
interests of morality- or religion ; and 2. Such as
are ill digested, or incorrectly written on any
topic.

According to their qualities, books may fur-
ther be divided into clear or perspicuous; which,
in dogmatical works (such as lay down doctrines
on general truths), are those whose authors ac-
curately define all their terms, and strictly adhere
to their definitions in the course of their work:—

OF BOOKS. 283

obscure ; those in which words are used vaguely,
and without being, properly defined:— -p-o/ijTi in
which more things are contained than are neces-
sary to the author's design :— useful; those which
deliver things necessary to be known, either in
other sciences or in the business of life : — cotb-
pkte; such as contain all. that is known con-
cerning the subject -.T-relativeli/ complete ; Ahose
containing all that was known concerning the
subject at a certain time ; — or if a book were
written with any particular design, it maybe said
to, be complete, if it contain neither more nor
less than is necessary for the accomplishing i of
that design:— in contrary cases, books are said
to be incomplete.., Happy wilL the author of these
sheets deem himself, if the latter quality be not
found to prevail in the present volume.

§ piii. Books, with regard to circumstances and
accidents, may be divided into books iost, pro-
mised, and: petitions.

1. Books lost, are those which have perished
by the injuries of time, or through the maUce
or zeal of enemies. Such are very many produc-
tions of Greek and Roman authors, and. several
(it is supposed) of the antient books of Scripture.
Of the latter, Fabricius has collected aU that can
be ascertained in his Codex Pseudepigraphus Ve-
teris Testamenti (tom. ii. pp. 171, 247).

2. Books promised, are those which authors

284 DENOMINATIONS

have given the public reason to expect, but which
they have never accomplished. Almeloveen pub-
lished, in 1688, a small octavo volume of books
promised, but still latent or unpublished ; and a
continuation of this Work was printed by Meel-
fuhrer in 1699. A further continuation of this
work is a desideratum in literary history.

3. Fictitious books, as the term implies, are
such as never had any existence ; to which may
be added various feigned titles of books. Loe§-
cher has pubhshed a great number of plans or
projects of books, many of which would be use-
ful enough, were works written corresponding
to them. M. Dugono has a whole volume of
schemes or projects of books, amounting tO not
less than three thousand' /

§ ?>. Miscellaneom Denominations of Books. —
It remains only that we notice a few miscel-
laneous denominations given to books; an ac-
quaintance with which will facilitate the study
of the young bibliographer.

1. Acroamatic or Acroatic books, are thos6
which contain more secret or sublime matters,
and are calculated only for proficients in the sub-
jects discussed. Reimmann published a Bibtio-

' Rees's Cyclopaedia, vol. iv. article book; frdtn which and
from the observations scattered through the volumes of Peignot
and Achard, the materials of this section have pardy been de-
rived.

OF BOOKS. 285

iheca AcroamaHca of the Imperial Library at Vi-
enna, in octavo. It is an abridgment of Lam-
becius's and Nessel's catabgues of that magnifi,
cent collection of books.

2. Authentic books are those which are deci-.
sive and of authority; — such, in the civil law,
are the Code, Digest, NoveUae, &c. ; in our own
law, the Statutes at large, printed by his Majes-
ty's printer, &c.

S. AmsiUaory ; those less essential, yet of use,
as being subservient to others ; as, in the study
of the law, books of. reports, institutes, max-
ims, &c.

4. BibliotheceSf or libraries, are collections of
books on particular subjects, containing tf eatises
by numerous authors, or digests of all the au-
thors who have treated of a certain subject. Of
the former class is the BibKotheca Patrum, or
cdUectian of the writings of the fathers of the
Cbriatian church. Of the latter are the BibHo-
thecse, Antiquaiia, Ecclesiastical Grseca, et La-f
tina,of tihe celebrated bibliographer John Albert
Fabricius ; — ^the Bibliotheca Hehraea of Wolfius;
the Bibliotheca Sacr^. and Bibliotheque Histo-
rique de la Erancse, of Father Lelong ; the lEn-
gKsh, Scotch and Irish Historical library of
Bishop Nicholson, &c. Almost every braiaeh
of human science has now its JBibliolheea or

386 DENOMINATIONS

'5. Canonical laboks are those received and al-
lowed by the Christian Church to be parts of the
Holy ScriptUi'es. Such are the books of the
Old and New Testaments, as they are commonly
bound up together.

6. Church or ecclesiastical books are those used
in the public offices of religion, as breviaries,
missals, the Book of Common Prayer, &c'.

7. Classics. The title of classic is properly
given to those Latin books only whose authors
lived in the Augustan age, when the Latin tongue
was in its greatest purity. The works of these
writers being read in the classes, at schools and
in colleges, have thence been denominated clas-
sics. This term also comprehends the purest
writers of Greece,, and also those whose authority
is received in the schools. Thus, St. Augustine
and Thomas Aquinas were formerly quoted as
classics in the divinity-schools ; Aristotle in the
school of philosophy, and so of the rest. First-
rate authors in all modern languages, are consi-
dered as the classics of the countries, in which
they respectively flourished.

8. Elementari/ hooks are grammars, principles,
rudimetits, &c. which exhibit the first principles
of any science ; and are thus distinguished from
books of a superior order, which profess to make
further advances in the sciences. . . . i

9. Esoterichooks are those intended for a-depts;

OF BOOKS. 287

as exoteric are designed for the use of popular
and ordinary readers.

10. Library books are such as are not usually
perused, but kept for occasional reference and
consultation : of this description are dictionaries,
encyclopaedias, &c.

11. ASjj/nft/a^ books treat expressly on the spi-
ritual or Christian life, and its various exercises,
as contemplation, prayer, &c. .

The Romans also had books known by pecu-
liar denominations; as the augural (Ubri augu-
rales, by Cicero termed reconditi) ; those of the
aruspices (libri aruspicini); the acker ontic, also
called libri Etrusci, from their supposed Etruscan
origin; the^/^MraZ (libri fulgurantes); the fatal,
or books of destinies, which were consulted in all
public calamities ; and the Sibylline, those said
to be composed by the Sibyls, and deposited in
the Capitol. A copious account of these various
books is given by Lomeier, in his treatise De
Bibliothecis (cap. vi.), and by Pitiscus, in his
Lexicon Romanarum Antiquitatum (vol. ii. pp.
84, et seq.) ; from whom most modern writers
-have transcribed their accounts.

288 FORMS AND

SECTION II.

On the Forms and Sizes of Boqjis— Different Styles of
Book-binding.

A KNOWLEDGE of the forms of books is essential
to the bibliographer, not only to enable him to
arrange books in a library, or in a catalogue, but
also to prevent confusion in describing editions.

The form or size of a book depends upon the
manner in which it is folded : thus a sheet folded
into two le&ves is a folio ; into four, a quarto ;
into eight, an octavo, i&c. ; and each sheet is
designated by a letter of the alphabet, placed in
succession at the foot of the first page, and termed
a signature ; its use is, to distinguish the differ-
ent sheets and pages, and consequently to facili-
tate the labour of the bookbinder. As, however,
some of the smaller forms cannot be distinguished
very readily, it becomes neaeSsary to refer to the
water-lines in the paper which indicate the size :
but as books printed on vellum paper do not
exhibit these water-marks, their size will best be
ascertained by a careful attention to the signa-
tures and pages, and also to the catch-words usu-
ally found at the right hand corner of each page ".

A printed sheet, when folded into two leaves,

" On the origin and uses of signatures and catch-words, vide
infra, chap. ii. sect. 1.

SIZES OF BOOKS. 289

is called a folio, and contains four pages. A
quarto sheet folded into four, contains eight
pages.

An 8vo

has

A 12mo

—

ISmo

—

18mo

—

24mo

—

33mo

—

36mo

—

48mo

—

64ino

—

72mo

—

96mo

—

128mo

128

leaves - - - 16 pages.

- 24

- 32

- 36

- 48

- 64

- 72

— — - . - 96

- - 128

- '■- - 144

- - 192

- - 256

The water-lines in the sheets of. paper are per-
pendicular in the folio, 8vo, iSmo, 32mo, 72mo,
96mo, and 128ino forms : in every other size
they appear horizontally, except in 24mo, in.
which, the water-line? are sometimes perpendi-
cular, and sometimes horizontal. In order to
ascertain its denomination correctly, the book
should be opened between pages 48 and 49 ; if
the catch-word be at the foot of page 48, and
the signature at the bottom of page 49, the
foj^rn is in 24mo ;, but if the catch-word is at
the foot of page 64, and the signature at the
bottom of page 65, the form is in 32mo. In
some modern works, however, particularly the
productions of the French press, catch-words
are altogether otaitted j and for the signatures

290 FORMS AND

usually given, the number of the halfoheet oi'
sheet is printed at the foot of the first page, of
each, in Arabic figures.

In general^ most forms of books may be dis-
tinguished at sight, though mistakes are fre-
quently made with regard to the size of the
paper. Every book is either in large or small
paper : in folios^ there are different sizes, as ele-
phant, imperial, atlas, super-royal, royal, crown,
copy, demy and medium fohos; quarto^ are
imperial^ royal, medium and demy : octavos are
imperial, super-royal, _ royal, demy, medium,
crown, foolscap, and copy ; — duodecimos are
l"oyal, demy and medium ; similar distinctions
also exist with regard to the smaller sizes, which
can only be ascertained by examination of the
signatures. Thus, a small fiaolscap or copy
octavo volume may easily be confounded with a
duodecimo book, when placed on the same shelf;
and a super-royal or imperial octavo, with a
small quarto. These mistakes are not material
in the arrangement of books upon shelves ; but
very important bibliographical errors would arise
from them, if, in a catalogue,' a, smatb octavo
were described as a duodecimo. Editions would
thus be created, which never had aily exist-
fence.

In the infancy of printing, before the art be-
came generally known, the books were made to

SIZES OF BOOKS. ,291

imitate in the most ^minute particulars, those
which had preceded them from the hands of the-
scribes: hence they were printed on vellum,
until that article became scarce through the
multiplication of copies, when paper was manu-
fectured to resemble vellum, and substituted in
its -place. The scribes prepared their parch-
ment according to the sizes of the books which
they wrote, which were mostly folios and quartos j^
few were octavo, and some were of a smaller
size for children. Paper was npade for books,
the dimensions of which corresponded with those
on parchment j the sizes of the; books were
chiefly folio and quarto,: with some few octavos.
Where- any difficulty occurs in ascertaining; the
form of books on this .sort of vellum pape/, a
very close inspection of the. water-lines, ^ which
may sometimes be discovered, will help to, de-
termine the size of the volume. Folios, quartos
and octavos may also be respectively 'distin-
guished by careful observation of the water-
mark, made by - the paper-manufacturer: in each
sheet ; if this be found in .the middle ;of .. the
sheet, the vohime is in folip; if it appear at the
bottom of the volume, it is in quarto ; and if at
the top of the sheet, it is in octavo. f

• Some Bibliographers have supposed that books
were not printed in the.;pctavp and smaller forms,
earlier than 1480. M. Peignpt, however, has

u 2

S93 DIFFERENT STYLES

mentioned a Diurnale sen Liber Precum^ printed
at Venice in 1478, in 24mo; and a Psalterium
Davidis, by Joannes de Westphalia, about 1480,
in 18mo, &Ci The .principal works of the
fifteenth century known to be printed on paper
without water-lines, are Pompeius Festus de Ver-.
borum significatione, 1471, 4to; — Juvenal and.
Persius, 1479, 4to ; — -Vita del Padre san Fran-
cesco, per Bonaventura Cardinak, 1477, 4to; —
and QuintusCurtmSy 1481, 4to; all printed by An-
tonio de Zarotis, at Milan. The above-mentioned
works are all considered as being in quarto and
not in folio ; because the lines, funning in a
direction contrary to the imperceptible water,
lines in the paper, are perpendicular. The
Cosmographia of Pomponius Mela, printed by
Zaroti, (Milan, 1471,) is in octavo, and not in
quarto, the transverse lines running horizontallyi

The art of bookbinding is unquestionably of
great antiquity: by some it has been conjec-
tured to be almost as antient as the science of
composing books; as, on whatever materialmen
first wrote, the several parts must necessarily be
united together, as well for convenience, as for,
their better preservation ; and hence the origin
of bookbinding;

OF BOOKBINDING. 293

Two methods of binding books were antiently
practised, — one, that of rolling them on cylin-
ders or round pieces of wood, whence they were
termed volumes, from the Latin word volvendo,
and rolls from rota ' j the other, that of binding
them square, and sewing several quires one over
another. The first is in all probability the
earliest, and was practised long after the age of
Augustus: it is now disused, except in the
Jewish Synagogues, where the law continues to
be written on vellum sewed together, forming as
it were one long roll or page, with two rollers
(the projecting ends of which were formerly
termed corrma, horns,) and gold or silver clasps
at each extremity *. The second or sqmre-
Mnding, is said to have been invented by one of
the Attali, kings of Pergamus, and from its
convenience has continued to be adopted in
every age and country. It is performed in the
following manner : — i

The leaves are first folded with a flat piece of
ivory, termed aJoMingrSticIc, and laid over each
other in the order of the signatures j then beaten
on a stone with a hammer, to make them smooth
and open freely, and afterwards pressed. Next,

• De Vaines, torn. 2. p. 176.

" To this mode of binding antient writings, there are many-
allusions in the Scriptures. Compare Psal. xl. v. 7. Jerem.
c. xxxvi. V. 3. E«ek. c. ii. v. 9. and Luke, c. iv. v. 17.

294 DIFFERENT STYLES

they are sewed upon bands, which are pieces of
cord or packthread, six bands being allowed td
a folio book, five to a quarto, octavo, &c. This
is done by drawing a thread through the middle
of each sheet, and giving it a turn round each
band, beginning with the first and proceeding
to the last. The books are then glued, and the
bands opened and scraped, for the better fixing
of the pasteboards ; the back is turned with a
hammer, and the book is fixed in a press be-
tween two boards, in order to make a groove for
fixing the pasteboards. These being applied,
holes are made for fixing them to the book^
which is pressed a third time, and is at length
conveyed to the cutting-press between two
boards, the one lying even with the press, the
other above it, for the knife to run against.

The next operation is the sprinkling of the
leaves, which is done by dipping a stiff-haired
brush into a coloured liquid, holding the brush"
in one hand and spreading the hair with the
other : by this motion the edges of the leaves
are regularly sprinkled. It now remains to fix
the covers, which are either of calf or Sheep*
skin : after being moistened in water, they are
cut out to the size of the book, then smeared
over with a strong paste made of wheat-flour,
stretched, over the pasteboard on the outside,
and doubled over the edges within side ; after

OF BOOKBINDING- 295

having first taken off the four angles, and in;
dented and pla/tted the cover at the head-band.
This manipulation being done, the book is bound
firmly between two boards and set to dry. It
is afterwards wa,shed over with a little paste and
water, and sprinkled with a fine brush, unless it
is designed to be marbled; when the spots at^e
to be made larger by mixing the ink with vitrioL
The book is then finished off, by glazing it twice
with the white of an egg beaten, "and by polish,
ing it with a polishing-iron passed hot over the'
glazed cover.

The letters or other ornanients on books are
made with gilding tools, engraven in relief,
■either on the points of puncheons or around
little cylinders- of brass : the puncheons make
their impressions by being pressed flat down,
and the cylinders by being rolled along by a
handle, to which they are fitted on an iron axis.
Tn order to apply the gold, the binders glaze the
parts of the leather with a liquor made of the
whites of eggs, by means of a piece of sponge ;
and when nearly dry, the pieces of gold-leaf are
laid on, and the tools,. being previously made
hot in a charcoal fire, are applied. The titles
of books are usually letjtered on a piece- of lea-
ther, of a colour different from thait of the cover
of the book itself, which is glued on before the
letters are impressed : but, as these lettering

296 DIFFERENT STYLES

pieces become loose by the lapse of time, a bet-
ter mode is to have the part intended to be let-
tered, first coloured black or blue, and the title,
&c» stamped thereon.

Calf and sheep-skin leather is chiefly used,
and is variously coloured according to fancy j
but for splendid or curious works Morocco
leather (of different colours) and Russia leather
are usually preferred ; the powerful odour of the
last is caused by its being strongly impregnated
with cedar oil. In general we have found a
deep brown to be the best colour for calf-bind-
ing ; it is not liable to fade, and its appearance
improves by age.

There are different styles of binding — Thus,
in half-binding the leaves are generally un-cut,
the back and corners only are covered with
leather, the paste-board sides being covered
with marbled, blue or other coloured paper. —
Law-binding is confined to law-books ; the lea-
ther is a whitish-brown, and theleayes are not co-
loured. In Italian-binding, or binding alia rmticay
a coarse thick paper is employed, which , very
soon wears out, unless it be used with the greatest
care. Dutch-binding is where the backs are of
vellum.

Manuscript books, and those printed for
many years after the first invention of types,
were variously decorated in binding. Strength

OF BOOKBINDING. 297

appeared to be the first object, neatness the se-
cond, and elegant works were executed for those,
who possessed both the means and the inclina-
tion to pay for them. They were sewed on
single or double bands, of strength proportioned
to the bulk of the work : they were fastened to
boards of, compact wood, of a proper size, and
planed to a suitable thickness. The boards were
covered with parchment, or with leather, and
then impressed with divers figures: sometimes
brass ornaments were affixed to the sides, and
pieces of brass were put on the corners of the
books, doubtless with the view of contributing
to their durability. Some of the most elegant
books were covered with clear vellum, then over-
laid with gold leaf, and impressed with a stamp
nearly the size of the boards, and others were
handsomely ornamented ; after which they were
clasped. Stamps with various devices were used
for that purpose ; and the year, in which the
book was bound, appeared in large figures on its
covers '.

Of the progressive improvement in bookbind-

' Mr. Dibdin has, in his " Bibliomania"* (p. 159.) given an
engraving of Luther and Calvin, from the covers of a book,
bound (a. d. 1569.) in thick parchment or vellum. These
portraits, he observes, are executed vcith uncommon spirit and
accuracy, and encircled with a profusion of ornamental bor-
ders, of the most exquisite taste and richness.

298 DIFFERENT STYLES

ing, the pubHc Libraries of Europe would doubt-
less exhibit many specimens: and much, infor-
mation might be (Atainedby the diligent bibli-
ographer who should compare the various styles
of binding in different ages. The following
hints on this curious subject are confessedly
imperfect ; but they are the fullest tlie author
could obtain, after diligent research.

In France, before the reign of Francis I., most
of the books in the Royallibrary were covered
with velvetj or other precious stuffs, of every
fashion and colour. The leather bindings were
very simple, and differed according to the
countries where the books had been bound : ex-
cepting some presents and a small number of
favourite authors, all his Latin, Italian and
French Manuscripts were covered with indif-
ferently wrought black leather. Such Greek
MSS. aswere not bound after the oriental style,;
were bound in morocco of various colours, with
smooth backs and without bands y the arms of
France, with the insignia of Francis I. (a Sala-
mander and the letter F.), were stamped in gold
, or silver. The dolphins, added to the salaman-
der, indicate £he book to have been bound in
the time of Francis, not for the King but for the.
Dauphin.

The books bound for Henry 11. are known
by his insignia, or by his ciphers formed of the'

. OF BOOKBINDING. 299

letters H. and D. interwoven with crescents,
bows, quivers, and other symbols of the chace.
The Imperial Library at Paris contains nearly
800 volumes bound in this style, but with more
neatness than those done in the time of Francis
I. It exhibits however only a few of the reign
of Firancis II. which are marked with an F.
crowned, and followed by the number II. Some*-
times it is accompanied by the mark of Charles
IX. which seems to have been done by the
binder, in whose hands the book was, at the
death of the former.

The books, stamped with the cipher of Charles'
IX. are more numerous : they are marked with
two C.s reversed and interwoven, and sometimes
with K. surmounted with a crown.

Under Henry IV., the celebrated historian De"
Thou was master of the ROyal Library : by his
direction many volumes were bound, almost all
in red morocco, stampied with the arms of France,'
and with the letter H. in the four corners, some-
times followed with the number IIII, and some-
times without the letter. In this case, the arms
of France are on both sides, or instead of these
occurs the following inscription: — Henrki IIIL
patris patrice virtutum restitutoris. In some vo-
lumes, the letter H., the number IIII. and the
inscription are found altogether.

In the reign of Louis Xlil. and the following

300 DIFFERENT STYLES

kings, the books ceased to be distinguished by
the different reigns ; the arms of France with
the King's cipher, and some fleurs-deJis sprinkled
on the backs, and in a few instances, on the
sides of the books^ constitute the only marks.
During the French revolution, the Royal Library
narrowly escaped mutilation, from the blind zeal
which devoted to destruction whatever bore the
impress of royalty. A law was opportunely
passed, which has preserved this invaluable col-
lection for the use of posterity.

The most eminent Bookbinders of France are
Grolier', Deseuille, Padaloup, De Rome, Bo-
zerian of Paris, and Noel of Besangon.

In England, the monks and students were,
antiently, the binders of books * ; and it appears
to have been considered as a part of the sacrist's
duty to bind and clasp the books : of their in-
genuity and skill the various missaJs and other
devotional works, preserved in public and pri-
vate libraries, are abundant evidence.

One of the earliest specimens extant is a Latin
MS. usually known by the name of Textm Sancti

' Many books of Grolier's binding are to be found in Mr.
Cracherode's Collection in the British Museum : though more
than two centuries have flown since they were executed, they
still exhibit to advantage his admirable style.

' Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, voL ii. p. 2i4, note x.
Dibdin's Bibliomania, 8vo. p. 157. Mr. D. has given some
curious items of sums paid for bookbinding.

OF BOOKBINDING. 301

Cutkherti, now preserved in the Cotton Library
(Nero D. IV:) it was adorned in the time
of the Saxons by Bilfrid, a monk of Durham,
with a silver cover gilt and precious stones. This
Bilfrid is described by Simeon of Durham as
being aurificii arte prcBdjpuus\

Mr. 4-stle has also mentioned the following :
— " A Booke of Gospelles, garnished and wrought
with antique worke of silver and gilte with an
image of the crucifix, with Mary and John, poiz
together cccxxij oz." In the secret Jewel House
in the Tower. " A booke of gold enameled,
clasped with a ruble, having on th' one syde a
crosse of dyamounts, and vj other dyamounts,
and th' other syde a flower de luce of dyamounts,
and iiij rubies with a pendaunte of white saphires
and the armes of Englande. Which booke is
garnished with small emerades and rubies hang-
ing to a cheyne pillar fashion set with xv knottes,
everie one conteyning iij rubies (one lacking) *".
These books were thus gorgeously attired (Mr.
Dibdin thinks) before the discovery of printing.

The Bedford Missal is another splendid in-
stance of the taste and ingenuity of the monks :
this beautiful and rich book of offices contains
fifty-nine large miniatures, occupying nearly
the whole page, and above a thousand small

' Simeonis Dunhelm. Hist. Ecdles. Dunhelm.p. 117.
' Archseologia, to], xiii. p. 320.

^03 DIFFERENT STYLES

pnes^ m circles of about an inch and a'half dia-
meter, displayed in brilliant borders of golden
foliage, with variegated flowers, &c. At the
bottom of every page are two lines in blue and
goldi letters, which explain the subject of each
miniature ; a circumstance peculiar to this ex-
pensive performance. Among the pictures it
contains, is an interesting one of the whole length
portraits of John Duke of Bedford (Regent of
France, temp. Henry VI.,) and of his Duchessj
whose arms frequently appear, and attest their
delicate affection for each other ; the motto of
the former being, a vous ehtier, that of the latter,
i'J'en suis contente." The dimensions of this
magnificent bijou are, eleven inches by seven
and a half in width, and two inches and a half
in thickness ; it is bound in crimson velvet with
gold clasps. The Duke of Bedford gave it to
his nephew the unfortunate" Henry VI. as,a most
suitable present'.

^ ' At the commencement of the last century it was bought
pf the Somerset family by the second Eart of Oxford ; from
whom it came into the possession of the late Duchess of Port-
land, at whose sale it was bought by Mr. Edwards of Pallmall,
for 215 guineas, in whose possession it now remains. An ac-
count of this rich illuminated missa1> was published in YlQ^t,
4to. by the late Mr. Gough, with 4 plates, containing an out-
line of as many miscellaneous paintings, with all their accom-
panying ornaments.

In -the very valuable catalogue of French books published
by Messrs. Dulau and Co. for 1813, is a Ceremoniale Romanum,

OF BOOKBINDING."

303

The Golden Manual of Prai/ers,. formerly in
the possession of Queen .Elizabeth, deserves also
to be particularly mentioned : it is bound in soHd
gold, and (it is said) was nsualUy worn by her,
hanging by a gold chain at her side. The an-
nexed engraving accurately represents the sub-
jects delineated on this most precious little vo-

lume. On one of the covers is represented the

in'small folio, in its curious antique binding (with a case) which
ihey estimate at ofSOOH It is a very beautiful MS. on vellum
of the fourteenth century, and of most , splendid execution : it
was made by the order and at the expense of Calderini bi-
shop of Ceneta, whose arms appear on several of the leaves.
The characters are very large, and the very numerous minik-
tares exhibit splendid representations of animals,, birds, fruits,
and grotest[ue figures.

304 DIFFERENT STYLES

judgment of Solomon ', whose sentence appears
in a line round the four sides of the cover; on
the other side is delineated the brazen serpent,
with the wounded Israelites looking at it : the
motto round tlie sides is the divine command
given to Moses, relative to the making of this
serpent'.

The public libraries of this country contain
very numerous specimens of splendid binding,
particularly the British Museum, one or two in-
stances of which must suffice.

The first shall be the very curious book of
indentures, dated the 16th July, in the 19th
year of Henry VII. (Harl. MSS. No. 1498.) and
made between him and the Abbot and Convent
of St. Peter's Westminster, for certain masses
&c. &c. to be performed in Henry VII. 's chapel
then intended to be built. It is indeed a most

' 1 Kings, c, in. if. 37.
" Numb. c. XXI. V. 8. — A Copious description of this literary
curiosity is given by the late accurate antiquary, Mr. Herbert,
in the Gentleman's Magazine, to\. Ixi. pt. i. pp. 27 — 29, from
vvhich the above engraving is taken, by the indulgence of Mr.
Nichols, the proprietor of that valuable miscellany. In the
same work, vol. Ix. pt. ii. pp. G18, 701, 702, 785—787, is
printed a manual of devotions, formerly belonging to Queen
Catherine Parr, and at that time belonging to John Levett,
Esq. It is a MS. on vellum, and bound in a singular manner
in plated silver. The Codex Ebnerianus of the New Tes-
tament is also bound in silver, curiously inlaid with ivory.
See it briefly described in the Appendix, No. VIII,

OF. BOOKBINDING. 305

nobleiahd: curious book: the cover is of crimson
velvet, edgedwith crimson silk and gold thread,
and ■: with tassels of. the same material at each
corner ; the inside is lined with crimson damask.
-On each, side of the cover are five bosses,
made of silver wrought! and gilt : those in the
middle have the arms and supporters of Henry
VII., with his crown and supporters made of
silver gilt, and enamelled ; in the others at each
corner are so many portcullises, gilt and ena-
melled. It is fastened by means of two hasps,
made of silver gilt and splendidly enamelled with
the red rose of Lancaster. 'The counterpart of
these indentures, bound: and decorated in all
yespects like the . original, is preserved in the
Chapter House at Westminster.

The celebrated charter, (Harl. MSS. No. 7513,
erroneously attributed to King Edgar,) .is splen-
didly, bound in red morocco and_lettere4 Carta
Regis Eadgari : Marium. Brit. Domini : it is
placed on a green silk cushion, and covered
with a large plate of glass ; the whole is inclosed
in a wooden box lined with green velvet'.

# ' Beside these splendidly executed MSS. tKe librafy of the
British Museum contains some fine specimens of foreign bind-
ing : .thdse by Groher have already been mentioned (note 1,
p. 300.) . In addition to whicli, we may notice many volumes
formerly belonging to the' president De Thou, which were
bound more, than two centuries since : some of thfem were
imitated by the late Roger Payfie..

306 DIFFERENT STYLES

The late Mr. Hollis' was accustomed to de-
corate his books in a singular manner : he em-
ployed the celebrated artist Pingo to cut a num-
ber of emblematical devices, as the caduceus of
Mercury, the wand of JEsculapius, the cap of
liberty, owls, &c. ; and with these devices the
backs and sometimes the sides of his books were
ornamented. When patriotism animated a work,
instead of unmeaning decorations on the binding,
he adorned it with caps of liberty, and the pugio
or short sword used by the Roman soldiers j.
when wisdom filled the page, the owl's majestic
gravity indicated the contents ; — ^the caduceus
pointed out eloquence ; and the wand of iEscu-
lapius was the signal for good medicines, &c. &c.

Among the most eminent EngUsh binders of
former times, the names of Kalthoeber, Baum-
garten, Faulk ener* and above all the. family of
Ferrars, and Roger Payne, deserve especial
notice for the taste and skill displayed in their
works.

' Gent. Mag, vol. li. p. 420.

* It would be injustice to the memory of an honest, indus-
trious and excellent bookbinder, wot to notice the name of tl^
late Henry Faulkener, " who in his mode of re-binding antient
.hooks was not only scrupulously particular in the preservation
of that important part of a volume, — the margin ; but in his
ornaments of toding, was at once tasteful and exact." Dib-
din's BihUomimia, 264, note. His family still carry on the
same concern, and with equal attention and civility.

OF BOOKBINDING. 307

The family of Ferrars, which settled at Little
Gedding in the county of Hertford in the reign
of James I., is chiefly known for the ascetic piety
of its members : but as industry formed an es-
sential part of their rule, the &mily was taught
the art of bookbinding in all its parts. The
fiime of their work reached the ears of Charles I.
to whom a splendid Concordance of the four
Evangelists was exhibited, adorned with many
beauti&l pictures, and bound by one of Nicholas
Ferrars's nieces, " all wrought in gold, in a new
and most elegant fashion." Dr. Wordsworlii
has given several instances of the magnificent
wdrks executed by individuals of this family,
which our limits forbid us to describe'.

To the late Roger Payne, foreign Biblic^raph-
ers are consti'ained to yield the palm of excel-
lence in the art of bookbinding. He worked
alone in a small apartment, where every thing
was huddled togeAker ; on the same shelf were
seen old shoes and precious leaves — ^bread and
cheese, with editions of the fifteenth century —
80 that it would seem next to impossible that
"superb binding should proceed from such a
place, tQ decorate the library of a noble Lord,
without being either soiled or spotted w'ith
grease. The most diflBcult bindings were those,
' Eceksiastical Bicgraphy, vol. t. pp. 172—178, 81i6, S2Q,
237.

X 2

308 DIFFERENT STYLES

in which Roger Payne excelled : this ingenidus
man introduced a style of binding, uniting ele-
gance with durability, such as no person has
ever been able to imitate. He may, indeed, be
ranked among artists of the greatest merit : the
ornaments he employed were chosen with classi-'
cal taste, and were in many instances apprd-»
priated to the subject of the work, or the, age
and time of the author ; and each book of his
binding was accompanied by a written descripi
tion of the ornaments in a most precise and cu-
rious style. His cJief d'cewvre is his jiEschylus,
in the possession of Earl Spencer, the ornaments
and decorations of which are most splendid and
classical -^ the binding of the book cost the noble
Earl fifteen" guineas. Those, who are not ac-
customed to see book-binding executed in any
other than the common manner, can have no ide£(
of the merits of Roger Payne, who lived without
a rival, and (we fear) died without a successor'.

' Roger Payne died in 1797 ; and his remains were decently
interred at the expense of that respectable and upright book-
seller the late Mr. Thomas Payne ; to whom (though in na
degree' relirted to the bookbinder,) the admirers of this art
may feel themselves indebted for the prolongation of his ex-
istence ; Mr. P. haying for the last eight years of his life sup-,
plied him with regular pecuniary assistance, both for the sup-
port of his body and the performance of his work. Nichols's
Lit. Anecdotes, vol. iii. pp. 736, 737. Gent. Mag. vol. Ixvii.
Part n. pp. 1070, 1071.

OF BOOKBINDING. : 309

In concluding this short historical account of
"bookbinding, it may be expected that some
notice should be taken of the living artists whose
works adorn our libraries: but where so many
excel, it would, be invidipus to specify any indi-
viduals. Yet we cannot but mention, Messrs.
!E.4wards, eminent , booksellers of Halifax, in
Yorkshire; whose style is unique, and has not
Ijftlierto. been successfully imitated abroad:
they hp,ve , iptroduced several new styles of
tasteful decoraljon to books, instead of profuse
gilding, an imitati^m in their proper colours of
the borders of Greek or Etruscan vases, and
q,lso a new method of ornamenting vellum bind-
ings with exquisite drawings, but. of which on
account of their expense few were executed.
To. Messrs. Edwards the lovers of ornamented
bgoks are indebted for a method of gilding upon
naarbled- leaves, and decorating the edges of
leaves, with exquisite paintings : we have seen
landscapes thus executed, with a degree of
beauty and fidelity tjiat ajre, truly astonishing;
and when, held up to, the hgbt in an obhque di-
rection, thp scenery appegxs, as defldcate as in the
finest productions, of t^^>4)pncil'. ;

■|** A "copy of the 'Book of'Common' Prayer, (printed at
dxfdrd' ih'17'74,') boutid by Messrs? Edwards, in the style
abo*e described, produced' .fS.- 13*. 6f?. at the sale off the
Merly Library; (No, 524.) )ifl : ,) hmh. v vlfu'

310 PRESERVATION, ETC.

SECTION III.

Miscellaneous Remarks on the Fresetmtion, l^.
of Books.

Books are liable to incur much damage from
the ravages of insects ; two species of which are
particularly destructive, viz. the anthrenus or
flower-beetle, and the ptinus.

The former insects attach themselves exclu-
sively to herbals, and produce much devastation
in cabinets of natural history. In order to pre.'
vent such ravages, the binder ought to put 3
little alum or vitriol, or some similar mineral
preparation into his gluej the books should
also be carefully rubbed, at the end of March,
May, and September, with a piece of wooHett
Stuff sprinkled with pulverised alum. Generally
speaking, the tops of the books ought to be
frequently dusted ; as that operation is favour-
able to the discovery of insects : when the covers
or interior of the volumes are affected by them,
a little pulverised coloquintida or bitter apple
may be strewed over them. The surest Wafy
however is to beat them, place them in the open
air, and expose them to a fumigation with sul-
phur : the vapor of this mineral destroys the
insects, in a perfect sta.te, but produ^ces no ef.
fects on their ^gs; so that th«y must be care*
fully watched until they are hatched.

OF BOOKS. 311

The insects which do so much dam^e in
libraries are the larvae of the ptinus Jur L. and
the ptinus molUs L, or the ambium moUis of
Fabricius. The latter perforate the leaves of a
book in sinuous furrows, like those made by a
silkworm when devouring a mulberry leaf: the
former pierce them through, almost in a straight
line. M. Peignot mentions an instance, where,
in a public library that was but little frequented,
twenty-seven JbUo volumes were perforated in a
Straight line by the same insect in such a man-
ner ; that, on passing a cord through the per-
fectly round hole made by the insect, these
twenty-seven volumes could be raised at once ! i !
This fact, he adds, was attested to him by an
eyewitness. M. Peignot gives the following
preventive remedies against the ravages of in-
sects, from the " DicUormaire de I'lndttsifie."

The cause of these lavages is to be attributed
to the pasteboards and to the glue, employed
by bookbinders. Fruitless attempts have been
made to mix wormwood, coloquintida and other
bitters in the paste : the only remedy is in the
mineral salts, such as alum % vitriol, &c. and

' Many processes, says M. A-chard, have been published,
for preventing worms from attacking books: I have used them
al!, or caused them to be tried, but without success. The
only one which succeeded with me, is the addition df a little
sulphat of alumine (alum) in the bookbinders' paste: but
these artisans he complains are not complaisant enough to mix

313 PRESERVATION, ETC.

not in pot-ash, salt of' tartar, ' and similar vege-
table, salts. In 1741, M. Prodiger published
(in German): some instructions to bookbinders:
he recommends, them to substitute starch (for
flour, in making their paste, insects being less
fond of the former. Further, in order to pre-
serve books from their attack, some pulverised
alum, mixed with a little fine pepper, should be
put between the book and the cover j and a
little may also be strewed upon the shelves, of
the library: and lastly, the books should be
well rubbed in March, July, and September,
with a piece of woollen cloth, strewed with
powdered alum. The placing ofr small bags of
pulverised, pepper upon the shelves will also
prevent depredations: and the progress. of mis-
chief, already commenced, has been stayed, by
strewing pepper among the damaged leaves.

Where engravings or books become brown, or
are accidentally stained, Chaptal recommends- a ,
simple immersion of them in oxygenated muri-
atic acid, for a longer or shorter space of time,
according to the strength ©f the liquid ; which
will suffice to whiten an engraving. But, in
whitening the paper of a bound book, it is ne-

the alum with their glue : this process must be performed bci-
fore their eyes. It is neither expensive nor difficulty and (he
adds) "I have always been fully satisfied with it." Achard,
Cours de Bibliographie, torn. 3. p. 217.

OF BOOKS, p3

cessaiy that all the leaves should bq moistened
by the acid : and therefore the iboctk must be
•well opened, and the leaves separated ; sand the
boards must be made to rest on the edge of the
vessel, that contains the swhitening liquor. In
the course of the procesg^, this liquor assumes a
yellow tint, and the paper becomes proportion-
ably white. : At the fend of two, or, three hours,
the book may be taken from the acid liquor,
and immersed into pure water; which should
be renewed every- hour, to extract the remain-
ing acid, and dissipate ithe disagreeable smell.
- In order to render this: process more effectual,
the bookbinders destroy the binding, unse\y the
book' and separate its leaves : — they then place
these in cases, formed in a l,eaden tub with very
thin slips of wood or glass ; so that the leaves
may lie ' flat, and separate from each other ' at
small intervals. , The acid is then gently poured
into the tub without deranging the leaves : when
the paper is become sufficiently white, the acid
Uquor is drawn off by a cock at the bottom of
the tub; and its place is supplied by clean, fresh
water. The leaves are then dried; and, after
being pressed, are re-bound.

By this operation books are not only cleaned,
but the paper acquires a degree of whiteness,
superior to that which it possessed when first
manufactured. By means of the oxygenated

ai4 PRESERVATION, ETC. OF BOOKS,

muriatic acid, ink-spots may also be extracted ;
but spots of oil or animal grease can only be re-
moved by the application of a weak solution of
pot-ash, or by the following process recom-
mended by M» Deschamps. He directs as
much as possible of the grease to be removed
by means of blotting-paper ; after which a small
brush, dipped in the essential oil of well recti-
fied spirit of turpentine heated almost to ebulli-
tion, is to be drawn gently over both sides of
the paper, which must be carefully kept warm.
This operation is to be repeated as often as the
quantity of the grease imbibed by the paper, or
the thickness of the latter, may render neces-
sary. When the grease is entirely removed, the
paper may be restored to its former whiteness
by dipping another brush in highfy rectified
spirit of wine, and drawing it in a similar man-
ner over the stained place, and particularly
round the edges, in order to obliterate the border
which would still present a stain.

ANTIENT EDITIONS OF BOOKS. SI5

CHAPTER II.

On the Knowledge of Books, tJieir relative Value
and Secaxiit^. — Friees of Books, ^c.

SECTION I.
rOtt the Dijfermce between antknt md modem Editians.^

In the in&ncy of printing, it has already been
observed, the first productions of the press were
made closely to resemble manuscripts, particu-^
larly in the forms of the letters. Hence, in
early printed books the characters were of an
extraordinaty size, as in the celebrated' bible of
Mentz: by degfees the printers diminished their
types; the alterations in which are easily per-
ceived since the close of the fifteenth century.

The first printed books are totally destitute of
figures at tiae top of the pages, as well as of aig-
Batures and catefe-words : at first, when thjS
printers beg^ to number their pages, they
placed large Roman figures at the top of the
recte^ of eacih leaf, and they reckoned by leaves
instead of pages', afterwards, each page was
numbered by Arabic figures, the use of which
is retained to the present time.

The following are the maxks, by which edi-

3 IS ANTIENT EDITIONS

tions of the fifteenth century, without date, may
be ascertained.

1. The absencfe'of titles printed on a separate
leaf.

..It was not till 1476 or 1480, that the titles of bookd
were prjnted.on detached leaves : titles to chapters were
first used in the Epistles of Cicero, printed in 1470.

2. The absence of capital letters, at the be-
ginning of divisions.

In the infancy o^ typography, the printers were
accustomed to leave blank spaces at the commencement
of books and chapters ; which the purchasers of the
books afterwards caused to be filled up by the iUuniina--
tors, who placed the initial letters on these blanks, ac-
companied by some miniature, or by some ornament of
gold or in various colours '. . : r ,

3. The rare occurrence of such divisions.

4. The disuse of commas and seixii-cplofts.
This was a consequence of the exactness, with whicb

the antient printers imitated manuscfljpts. ' Some re-
marks on the punctuation of early printed books havfe
bten given in a former page *.

5. The inequality and thickness of the types.
Although this defect, is justly imputable to some

editions of the fifteenth century^ yet others are extant,
which are not inferior to some of the best modem print-;
ing. ■ , ,, ; . ..

6. The solidity an^, thickness of , the paper,, ,.
This mark also is a consequence of thCjClpse manner

in which MSS. were imitated ; the paper being manu-
factured so as to resemble vellum as much as possiblei

' Vide supra, Part I. ch. Til. sect. vH. p. 250—252.

Vide sKpra, p. 238. ' ' ' ^ ; i ', - 'i ' ■. ^ j.

OF BOOKS. 317

*?. The, great number of abbreviations.

Of these we have already treated, {supra, pp. 1 18^— 121,
228) : in addition tp the remarks there made, it may be
observed that % was commonly used for et; neq^ and quib
for^ neque and quibi^ ; cpacone for comparatione / the
letter q was frequently printed with a cross along its tail
iims % in order to express quam, quod, &,c^ Sic,, ,

8. The absence of the printer's name, of the
■place where, and the date of the year when,
the book was printed:

9. The absence of signatures and catch-words.
Signatures are those letters of the alphabet, whicK

are put at the b6ttom of the right-hand pages of sheiets,
to distinguish their order. "When the alphabet is finish-
ed, a second begins, A a, instead of a single A; and
when that is terminated, A a a are given for the third,
and so on. In order to indicate more correctly the
order of each sheet, printers add to the initial letter
some figures on the third, fifth, and seventh pages: the
numbers of these figures, which do not pass the middle
of the sheet, point out the size of the edition. Thus
A 2, on the third page, A 3 on the fifth, and A 4 on
the seventh page, shew a work to be in octavo. In the
duodecimo size, A 5 occurs on the ninth page, and A 6
on the eleventh page, &c.

In some modern French works, figures are substi-
tuted for letters, and the other leaves are marked by
asterisks,

. The invention of signatures -is ascribed by M. Marbl-
les to John of Cologne, who printed at Venice in 1474 :
the Abbe Rive attributes it to John Koelhof, a printer at

Cologne, and cotemporary with the former; from whom

• 7

318 ANTIENT EDITIONS OF BOOKS.

we have a work dated in 1472. It is intituled (according
to Laire, for Rive has only alluded to the book) Joan-
nis Nyder freceptorium divine legis, folio, with the fol-
lowing subscription: Impreseum colonie per magistrum
Joarmem Koelqfde iMbick, anno Dni MGCCCLXXII.
In his notice of this work, Laire remarks, Folia signan-
tur ab a. ad mmiijj, iterato alpkabetico progressu. Tliis
jacoount of Laire is confirmed by Santander; who adds
ihst this book is the more remarkable as being the firsf
that issued from Koelhof 's presses. The subscription
is followed by twenty-eight leaves, mthotd signatures,
containing the alphabetical table of matters '.

Catch-words (LUeree redamantes or custodes) axe
those words, formerly placed at the right-hand corner
of the blank line, which terminates each page of a sheet:
they are always the same as those with which the follow-
ing page begins. Their use is to assist the bookbinder
in his work, and to prevent mistakes in arranging the
sheets. Catch-words are found in MSS. of the, eleventh
century, and were first applied to printing, by Vinde-
lin de Spira at Venice ' : they are now almost generally
disused, both in England and on the Continrait.

Prior to the use of catch-words, printers had recourse
to a register, or alphabetical table of the first word of the
chapters ; in order that the binder might properly disr
pose the sheets for sewing. Registers were introduced
in 1469 or 14.70.

' Laire hidex Liirorvm, torn. I. p. 281, Santander, Di<:t. fh XV.
Siecle, torn. 2. p. 207, who refers to a dissertation of Ms i)wn, at the end of
vol. V. of his own Catalogue, in which he treats on the first use pf sigT
natures and figures in the art of printing.

* SantandCT Diet, rfa XV.Sieclt, torn. 8. p. 3S3.

ON THE RARITY OF BOOKS. 319

SECTION II.

On the Rarity of Books.

NoTwiTHSTANDrNG the multiplicity of books*
which has afforded a fertile theme for complaint
ever since the days of Solomon, there are many
which it is by no means easy to obtain: their
degrees of rarity may in general be estimated
fi'om the difficulties which occur in procuring
them ; and these difficulties increase or diminish
according to the difference of times, places, and
persons.

Tlius, a book shall to-day be very common,
which, ten or twenty years hence, or perhaps in
less time, wiU be very rare. Another may easily
be obtained abroad, which may be sought &r in
vain at home. A third may readily be acquired
by one who has a very extensive correspondence
in Europe ; while it is inaccessible to another,
whose coniiexions are confined within the limits
of his own country.

As large libraries are but smftU, when com-
pared with the multitude of books which have
issued from the press since its invention, it fre-
quently happens that we seek in vain for different
works ; either because so few copies are extant
that it is morally impossible to acquire one ; or
because the work has been so widely circulated.

320 ON THE RARITY

that copies almost insensibly disappear, or are
nearly all withdrawn from commerce. Hence a
book may be common in public libraries, which
is exceedingly rare in those of private individu-
als : thus the Acta Sanctorum (a mass of .various
and profound learning, in Jifty-three volumes fo-
lio) occupies a place, in almost all public libraries
on the. Continent, but is found in few private col-
lections, on account of the very high price it
bears. , '; i

There are then two sorts or classes of scarce
books ; 1. Such as diVe absolutely rare, from the
small number of copies which have been printed;
and 2. Such as are scarce only in some respects,
which may be termed relatively rare. : To these
tmo classes are referable all the various observa-
tions concerning the rarity of books and editions.
.We must. not however confound morks with, the
different editions of them which have been; pub-
lished. A book may be obtained without diffi-
culty, of which exceedingly, rare editions may
be extant ; as will be more particularly stated in
the course of this Section '.

Of Books 'whose Rarity is absolute.

This class may be divided into nine different
articles :

• Essai de Bib)iographie, in Dados ani Cailleau, Diet. Sibliographiquf,
Historiq-ue et Critijiie, torn. 3. pp. 485 — 490. To this essay we ape partly

OF BOOKS. 321

$ 1. Antient Manuscripts before or since the In-
vention of Printing.

Origmal manuscripts constitute the riches of libraries:
they are mostly written on vellum, and are in the highest
request, especially when they are ornamented with mi-
niatures, illuminated, and in a good state of* preserva-
tion.

For an account of the age, styles of writing, illumi-
nation, and other particulars relative to MSS. the reader
is referred to Part I. chap. iL sect. ii. pp. Si — liS, supra,

§ 2. Works of which a verjj few Copies only have
been printed.
fhig arises, either from the abslruse nature of* the
subject treated in such works, and the consequently li-
mited demand for them, or from the policy and timidity
of the publisher. The recent reprints of valuable or cu-
rious old works, in this country, sufficiently illustrate
this remark. Bi;it On this point the bibliographical stu-
dent must not; be too credulous. In the Preface to his
Considerations sur les Coups d^Etdt, (Rome, 4to, 163d)
Gabriel Naude saya tha,the printed only twelve Copies.
M. de Colpmies, however, asserts, in his Mecueil des
Particiilaritis, that upwards of one hundred cqpies are
extant.: {^Colomesii Opera, p. S26, 4to. Hamb. 1709.)
The statement of Nayde is confirmed by Patin, who says
fliat the impression was made to facilitate the reading of
the book to Nance's patron. Cardinal Bagni,; for whom
h<B had composed it. {Patiniana, p. 111.) This at lea-st
is certain, that X^e Considerations are of v^ry^ rare oc-

indebted for the general principles of the preeent section ! some of its illus •
trations are, on account of their length, necessarily referre'd to the Append ix.

322 ON THE RARITY

eiwifenc^ ?iljtbp.ug^ not very de^F, (Pieignot, Rep. des
Bibliogr. Speciales, p. &8.):

I 3. Books which have been suppressed 'with the
greatest Rigour,

Snch are all those which have been suppressed, either
by religious or by political persecution, — ^the early pro-
ductions of Protestants whicb were suppressed by the
Roman Catholics, and the missals, legends, and other
works of the latter, whieh fell into disuse and obscurity
on the establishment of the glorious Reformation, — and
%o6ks developing political principlea hostile ta govern-
ment, or which are condemned by oppoate prevailing
parties in the state. Such for instance are Algernon
Sidney's Discourse on Government, and some of the
writings of Burton, Bastwicke, Pryn»e, Milton, Leigh-
ton, &c.'.

The suppression of a v/otk, however, does not always
occasion its scarcity : on the contrary, it causes the lat-
ter to be sought after with such eagerness, that adven-
turous booksellers frequently reprint it, in the hope of
a ready sale. 1^ suppressed edition, however, in&Kibly
becomes rare, either en account of part of it having es-
caped, or the work having been confiscated while in the
hands of the printer. But reprinted editions of sup-
pressed books seldom produce much profit: an instance
of this occurs in Kaude's Considerations sur tes Coups
d^Etat, which was reprinted at Strasburg in 16T3, 8vo.
with a prolix commentary by the editor, Louis de May:
this edition was reprinted in 1752, in 3 vols. 12mo.; nei-
ther of the^e reprints are held in any estimation by the

' Gent. Mag. vql. Ixxxiy. Part I. p. 34i.
7

OF BOOKS. 323

etlrious. A list of writers who have treated on sup-
J)ressed books will be found infra. Part III. chap. iv.
sect. iii.

S 4. Those which have been almost entirely de>-
stroi/ed by some fatal Accident.

The flames which consumed the house of John He-
^eKus, at the same time destroyed all the copies of his
works, and particularly the second part of his MacMna
CeelestiSf which must have been annihilated, had he not
given some copies to his friends, before the fire happened.

By a similar misfortune, nearly all the copies of the
third volume of the learned Olaus Rudbeck's Atlanfica
were consumed, excepting a few which had been deliver-
ed, as well as the different sheets already struck off of the
fourth volume, together with the author's manuscript.
This volume had been put to press in Rudbeck's own
prnltihg-house : but scarcely was the third sheet of the
second alphabet printed, before the printing-office and
its contents were consumed by a fire, which destroyed a
considerable part of the city of Upsal, in May, 1 702. Of
the sheets printed, three or four copies were saved^ aq-
eording to some; according to others, five '.

§ 5. Works ofiah^ch a Part only has been printedt

the Rest having never heenjinished.
-This generally happens in consequence of the editor's

- » Voyage de deux Ffimiois m Vford de I'Eurapf. torn. 2. pp. 90—109. M.
' ?ortia de PiUes (gne of the authors) has inserted a euiious memoir pn the
very rare 4to<ica of Endbeck, from which the above particulars are ex-
tracted. M. Fortia's Travels in Sweden llave been translated from the above
work, aiid inserted in the sixth volume of Mr. Pinkerton's.G)K«dJo?. of
Voyages and Travels.

y 3

324 ON THE RARITY

poverty, who not being able to finish his book, coul4
never exhibit it for sale; :and the vifork is saved ftojn
total' destruction, only by a few copies being preserved
by some connoisseurs or amateurs. Of this description
is a ■System, of Divinity, in a course of -sermons on the
first institutions of religion, &c. by the rev. William
Davy, A. B. Lustleigh, rD.evon. , Desirpus of diffusing
the most importantbranches of sacred science, the worljijr
editor compiled the sentiments of the ablest writers into
a system of divinity, which h^ printed himself,, and pub?
lished his first edition by subscription in 1787, in six
volumes, .12mor Although he sustained a considerable
pecuniary loss, he assiduously improved his work, and
in 1795 published the j/?r5tyo|ume of a second and im-
proved edition. He constincted a press, himself, pur-
chased old types at a cheap rate; and, by his own manual
labour unremittingly pursued; for five months, he pro-
duced :50KTY copies of a specimen (consisting of 328 pages,
beside prefatory matter. These were distributed, in part,
to such persons as the industrious author conceived most
likely to appreciate the reg,! value of his work; In this
way it has been completed, in twenty-six volumes ; but
the edition was hmited to fourteen copies. One of these
is in the library of the London Institution.

§ 6. Copies printed on larger and Jiner Paper
than the USsi of the Work.

Sometimes fifty or more copies of a work are printed
on paper of a larger dimension and superior quality thkn
the ordinary copies i these become exceedingly scarce as
soon as they are sold. The press-work and ink are al-
ways better in these copies ; which circumstance, added
le the texture and beauty of the paper, as well as the

OF BOOKS. 325

breadth of the margins, cause sucfh books toljestought
after by, the curious, with the greatest avidity. Thepripe
is consequently enhanced, in proportion to their beauty .
and rarity, and is sometimes carried beyond all bounds.
Analogous to large paper are tall copies ; that is, co-
pies of a work, published on paper of the ordinary size,
and barely cut down by the binder. A careful acquaint-
ance from actual observation and comparison alone can
prevent serious bibliographical Miistakes, and per'haps
the creation of editions which never had any~ existence.
Peignot hg^s given an interesting bibliography of books -
of ;which small impressions (chiefly on large paper) have
been printed, iahis Jtepertoire de Bibliographies Speci-
qles, Article I. Some amusing anecdotes on the subject
of large paper copies occur in Mr. Dibdin's Bibliomania.

' § 7. Copies of Books on Vellum and Satin.

These works are seldom to be obtained of modern
date ; specimens are therefore to be found only in the
early productions of the Aldine, Verard, or Giunti
presses, and in those of the first EngUsh printers. They
are consequently of extreme rarity, and are in the great-
est request: they sell at excessive prices, two or three
copies, only being worked off.

M. Peignot has announced a " BiUiothe^ue rare et
precieuse," entirely composed of books on vellum, with
bibliographical notices, and an account of the sums for
whidi they have been disposed of at the most celebrated
sales. M. Van Praet, the Imperial Librarian at Paris,
has for many years been collecting materials for a simi-
lar work'.

» This most interesting bibliographical morceau has not yet made its ap-
pearance. According to Peignot, M. Van Praet ted (in 1806) collected

326 ON THE RARITY

§ 8. Copies printed on curiously coloiared Papffr.
Coloured papers do not always receive the ink so as
to exhibit the impression to advantage : the difficulty at-
tending their execution necessarily limits their nimiber,
and of course enhances their prices. For a list of the
principal works printed on coloured paper, see the Ap-
pendix, No. II. See also Part I. ch. i. pp. 67 — 71, supra^

§ 9. Unique and illustrated Copies,

A book is said to be unique " of which only one copy
was printed,— or which has any peculiarity about it,— or
which is remarkable for its size, beauty, and condition,
— or has any embellishment, rare, precious and invalu-
able." Illustrated copies are chiefly historical or biogra-
phical works, which are ornamented with every portrait
of every illustrious person mentioned therein ; together
with every variety of the same print, whether it have

npwardB of two thousand notices of books in veHum, in wbicli he does not
include books of Bouts, unless they were printed in the fifteenth century
and have a certain date. Of these two thousand alrticles, the Imperial
library alone supplied nearly five hundred : the others are drawn ftom the
different public or private Libraries in Europe. As M. Van Praet has ac-
tually examined every article described, we may expect the iitmost accd-
racy. He has pointed out the number of copies extant of every edition,
the libraries or cabinets which have successively possessed them, as well as
those in which they are now preserved. He mentions, for induce, thirty-
five copies of the celebrated Mayende Bible, of 1462, twenty-six copies of
Durand's Rationale, of 1459, &c. &c. j ascertains the reality of their ex-
istence, and mentions the names of those who have posessed them at dif-
ferent times. Peignot, Diet. Bibliol. torn, 3. p. 306. The tabouT of such a
•work must be immense. We conclude this note on vellum copies by stating
that the noblest ooHections of such precious curiosities in this country are
those of his Majesty, his Grace the Duke of Marlborough, Eart Spencer,
the British Museum (bequeathed by the late Mr. Ctacjiersde) and Thoma.s
Johnes, Esq. of Hafod. Didd. Bibl. 693.

OF BOORS. S37

the artist's elaraieter or name s»bjo&*edj-*-'wlifethe)r the
head of the print be without thfe bddy or the hody With-
out the head, &e. &e.'. Books of this destdptieft bring
the most arbitrary and extravagant prices: a few in-
stances may be seen in the Appendix, No. V.

§ 10. Books Which are become rare through Decay
or Waste.

The mere lapse of time, in comiexion with the various
accidents jGfom fitfr, damps and *orms, to whidJi paper,
the frail material of boobs, is exposfed, is unquestionably
one of the most operadve causes «f theif Irarity. If, in^
deed, the first specimens of jprintiag had not befen exe-
cuted on a paper mudi ^superior to that in modern qse ;
and had not the binding been, as it literally was, of boards
united with strong ligatures oF skin, it would be difficult
to imagine how so many petf^et volumes could h^ve sur-
vived the use aAd abuse of between three and four cen-
turies.

Some books have also «unk into total disuse, in conse-
quence t)f their real of supposed want of merit, or from
their hal^g beeft SflpplaJntedby others thatwere cheapelf,
of more cbmtnon in their fonn, or iii some oiher respect
birttet adapted to gefletal use. Others have been ren-
deired ilttpfeirfeet by the ffequeni and careless waste of
ihem: and of both these descriptions of books, such
immbers have from time to lime beeri wasted, as unworthy
of being pSf^efVed, that atopy is scarcely if at all to be
pi^tJl^d. The literature of our own country will supr
ply an instance in Button's "Aaaiomy of Melancholy;'

» Dibdin's Bibliomania, pp. 672, 665. Mr. D. has given a lively pieture
of the SibliOUiaftiM, who is toacfeerf with the pa«si6h foi' collectiflg illus-
trated books.

338 ON THE RARITY

a treatise which was commended, and brought into notice
by Dr. Johnson, and which, after being a waste paper
book for; many years, has lately been reprinted".

SECTION III.
Of Books, whose Rarity is relative.

This question divides itself into three classes ;
1. Books wbiph are interesting only to a few
persons, or to some particular individuals.

■ 2. Books condemned.

■ 3. Editions whose scarcity is relative.

§ 1. Of Books which are interestmgonly to a few
Persons, or to some partkular Individuals,

i. LAKGE WORKS.

Large or voluminous works are commonly found in
great libraries; but, as the' knowledge of ; most of our
savans is more extensive than their fortune, there are
few who have the means or the desire .pf purchasing
them. Such are the Acta Sanctorum of the BpUandists,
the Councils, the Great BibliotJieca Patrum, the Biblio-
tJieca Maxima Pontificia of Rucaberti, the Gallia Chris-
tifzna, the Collection of Byzantine Historians,, Thesaurus
Antiqiiitatum GrtBcarum et Bomanftrim oi Graevius and
Gronovius, with the Supplements of Polenus and S^Uen-
. gre, and other similar works*.

• Gent. Mag, vol. Ixxxiy. Part I. p. 34. *See Appendix, fNo.

IX.) for an account of the principal collections of large worjis.

' OF BOOKS. 329

ii. FUGITIVE PIECES.

As soon as they are published, fugitive pieces are dis-
persed : they ought therefore to be collected in public
Libraries, to prevent their destruction. Such are old
Newspapers,; detached tracts relative to the civil wars j
elqctioneering placards, and similar ephemeral publi-
cations.

One of the rarest collections of this sort is that usually
designated by the name of " The Kings Pamphlets,"
and now preserved in the British Museum. The col-
lectipn at present consists of nearly two thousand vo^
lumes, (contiainiiig more than 30,000 tracts) uniformly
bound and numbered; the whole relate to the times of
Charles I.,, and. nearly one hundred of them are in MS.
all or most of them on that king's behalf, which no man
could venture then to publish, without endangering his
ruin. This collection was formed at an immense ex-
pfense, and after vai;ioiis revolutions was purchased by
his Majesty George III., and by him presented to the
British Museuim'- > ■ .

iii. THE HISTORY OF PARTICULAR TOWNS.

The history of a particular town is interesting to few,
besides its inhabitants, and consequently finds but few
admirers among strangers : it is in general very rare
everywhere eilse.

The topographies of particular counties and places
in our own country abundantly verify this remark: the
prices they have brought at various modern sales are
exorbitant in the extreme.

» Beloe's Anecdotes, vol. ii. pp. 348:— 356, in which an interesting ac-
count is given of the formation and journeyings of this matchless col-
lection of historical and political tracts.

330 ON THE RARITY

iv. THE HISTORIES OF ACADEMIES ^AND LITERARY
SOCIETIES.

The histories of such societies do not suit every tdSte,
the subject being of too limited a nature.-^A gb&d ac-
count of the principal academies and literary soeietifes,
as well ^ <?f their transactions, h a diesjderatum In the
annals of literature.

V. THE IIVES OP lEABNED MEN.

Biographies of lit^raty men are either fugitive pamph-
lets which are soon lost, or bulky volumes which meet
with only a few purchasers. Their sale is necessarily
slow ; they gradually disappear, and in the course of la,
few years are with diificulty to be found. This circum-
stance obviously gives them a hi^ claim to % place in
every public Library.

vi. CATALOGUES OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES.

Tlie catalogues oi private libraries fall into the hands
of so many persons, who have no taste for them," as to
render it almost impossible for them to be pl'eserved
entijre : we must however except the priced catalo^es
of celebrated libraries, which are always of a certain
value in the estimation of amateurs and bibliographers.
Folio catalogues of public libraries find a place in all
great libraries ; but having only a few admirers among
private individuals, they gradually become rare : to this
we may add that smzSL impressions only are printedj
which are seldom, and sometimes never exposed to sale '*

' A list of the principal catalogues of public and private Libraries^ to-
gether with, some account of the Libraries thsmselVres, occurs infra, Part
HI: Chap. V. Sect. II. IIL IV. V. and VI.

OF BOOKS. 331

VU. WORKS STRICTLY CRITICAL.

As the number of critics is very small, it happens that
books, written exclusively for them, are widely dispersed,
and at length most of them become very rare.

viii. BOOKS OF ANTIQUITIES.

Works, which treat on antiquities, are usually en-
riched with engravings of vases, statues, medals, &c.
&c. which (especially when they are proofs) considerably
enhance thei^ price. After the plates Jiave been iisied,
they are retouched, Mid then become of very little va-
lue, so that such works are with great difficulty re-
printed. To which we must add, that the number of
engravings and books, generally struck off, depends on
the taste and number of the putchasers ; an^ conse-
quently they become more or less rare. The antiqua-
rian works of Montfaucon, Piranesi, Overbeke, Sir "Wil-
liam Hmnilton, Wood and Dawkins, Stuart, &c. &c.
abundantly verify the correctness of this remark,

ix. BOOKS THAT TRtAT ON CURIOUS ARTS.

Books on musiC) painting, scalpture, alchymy, &c.
iare interesting only to a few curious persons : they are
dispersed among families where these arts are cultivated;
and at length disappear from commerce ; so that when
once scattered, they are only to be obtained with the
greatest difficulty. The fourth volume of the BMio-
thegue des Philosophes Mchymiques ou Hermetiques, in
l2mo. is so scarce that it costs 60 livres '. The cause

' In France. In a note to the Essai de BiSliograpfue (Diet. Bibliog. Hist.
et Crit, torn. 3. p, 498.) a new edition of the Bibliolheque des Philosophet

SSt ON THE RAWTY

of its rarity is, that of the three first volumes one thou-
sand copies were struck off, but of the foiirth only five
hundred were printed.

X. BOOKS WRITTEN IN LANGUAGES LITTIE UNDER-
STOOD, THOSE IN THE MACARONIC STYLE, OR THE

LANGUAGE OF WHICH IS PURPOSELY CORRUPTED.

The works of the Rabbins, Caraites, Arabs, Persians
and Greeks, which remain untranslated, being intelli-
gible only to a few learned men, are of great rarity.

The term Macaronic is given to a sort of burlesque
poetry, with words of diiFerent languages intermixed,
and common words latinized and travestied : as in the
following verses.

Archeros pistoliferos fiiriamque manantum,

Et grandem esmeutam qiue inopinam facta ruellcs est,

Toxinumque alto froublantem corda clockero.

Merlin Cocaye or Theophilus Folengio, and Antonius
de Arena Passevantiusj or rather Theodore Beza, have
left us some Macaronic works, the best editions of which
are in great request. Some specimens of this kind of
wit have also been produced in our own island.'.

§ 2. Books condemned.

Many centuries before the invention of print-
ing, books were forbidden by different govern-

Alchyndques ou Hermetiques, is announced in twenty volumes : it was to be
published by subscription, with plates. ,The successive revolutions; whick
soon after took place in France, in all probability prevented its publica-
tion.

• See the Appendix, No. VI.

OF BOOKS. 338

jnents, and even condemned to the flames: pro-
fessor Beckmann ' has adduced a variety of
proofs that this was the case, among both the
antient Greeks and Romans, from which the
following instances are selected.

At Athens the works of Protagoras were pro-
hibited J and all the copies of them, ,which
could be collected, were burnt by the public
crier. At Ropie, the writings of Numa, which
had been found in his grave, were by order of
the senate condemned to the fire j because they
were contrary to the religion which he had in-
troduced. As the populace at Rome were, in,
times of public calamity, more addicted to su-
perstition than the government approved, an
order was issued, that all, superstitious and as-
trologicajl bpoks should be delivered into the:
hands of the praetor. This , order was often
repeated: and the emperor Augustus caused
more than twenty thousand of these books to
be burnt at one time. Under the same emperor,
the satirical works of Labienus were jcondemned
tq the fire, which was the first instance of this
nature ; ai^idit is related as a singular circum-
stfince that,a few years- ,^fter, the writipgsof the
person, who had been i;he cause of the order for
that purpose, shared, the same fate. The burn-

» In an interesting article on Book-Censors, in his "Historjr
ef Inventions and Djiscoveries,". 8vo. vol, iii. pp^ 99—104.

334 ON nm RARITY

iiig of these works having induced Cassius Se-
verus to say in a sneering manner, that it would
be necessary to burn him alive, as he had learned
by heart the writings of his friend Labienus, a
law was in consequence passed against abusive
writings. When Cremutius Cordus, in his his-
tory, called C, Cassius the last of the Romans,
the senate, in order to flatter Tiberius, caused
the book to be burnt ; but a number of copies
were saved by being concealed.

Antiochus Epiphanes caused the books of the
Jews to be burnt ; and in the first centuries of
our era, the books of the Christians were treated
with equal severity, of which Arnobius bitterly
complains. We are informed by Eusebius, that
Dioclesian caused the sacred scriptures to be
burnt. After the spreading of the Christian re-
Egioii, the clergy exercised against books, which
were unfavourable or disagreeable to them, the
same severity which they had censured in the
heathens, as being foolish and prejudicial to
their own cause : thus, the writings of Arius
were condemned to the flames at the council of
Nice, and Constantine threatened those who
should conceal them with the punishment of
death. The clergy assembled at the council of
Ephesus requested Theodosius II. to cause the
works of Nestorius to be burnt j with which re-
quest that emperor complied. The writings of

OF BOOKS. $34

Eutyches shared the same fate at the couneil of
Chalcedon ; and it would not be difficult (pro^
fessor Beckmann remarks) to collect instances
of the same kind from each of the subsequent
reigns. More recent times have afforded similar
instances, in consequence of the institution of
censors of books, whose office was to examine
and give their |ui%ment of all books before
they went to the press j and to see that they
contain nothing repugnant to the faith and to
good moralsi. Books, circulated contrary to this
regulation, were liable (and. in some parts of
S^vtrope it is still in force) to be seized and cas-
trated, suj^ressed or, burnt, according to the
nature of the work '.

Long before the invention of printing, authors
submitted their works, previously to publication,
to the judgment of their superiors: this was

' 1r England, we formeriy had an officer of this kind under
fhet ti^tJe of Idcenierqf the Press.; but since t^e rewlution of
1688 the press has been open. At Paris the faculty of Theo-
logy clainied the privilege of censors, as granted to them by
the Pope ; but in 1634 a commission of four doctors was created
by fetters patent, who were constituted the sole public and
royal censors and examiners of bo(^ and answerable for every
thkig theresin. In most Catholie countries, tlie public &ith and
morals are still carefuUy guarded by Expurgatory. Indices, or
c^tialogues of prohibited books ; among which, hewever there
is this difference, that some are condemned purely and abso-
lutely, and others only donee eorrigantur, until they be cor-
rected,.

S3G ON THE RARITY

princip^Hy done by the clergy, partly to secure
thentselves from Censure or punishHient, and
partly to manifest their respect for the pope or
bishops. This, however, does not appear ta
have been on their part a duty, but a voluntary
act. In 768, Ambrosius Autpert,' a Benedictine
monk, sent his Exposition on the book of Re--
velation to pope Stephen III. with a request
that he would publish the work and make it
known, j On this occasion he says expressly, that'
he is the first writer who requested such a fa-
vour; -that liberty to write belongs to every one
who does not wish to depart from the doctrine
of the fathers of the Church; and he hopes
that this freedom will not- be lessened, on ac-
count of his voluntary submission.

Soon after the discovery of the typographic
art, laws began to be made for subjecting books
to examination : — a regulation proposed even by
Plato, and which has been wished for by many
since. It is indeed very probable, that the es-
tablishment of book-censors was not a little ac-
celerated by the apprehensions of the Clergy,
lest publications should be circulated prejudicial
to religion, and consequently to their power.
The earliest instance of a book, printed with a
permission from the government, is generally
supposed to occur in the year 1480 ; but pro-
fessor Beckmann mentions two books, which

OF BOOKS. 337

were printed almost a year sooner than 1479,
with the approbation of the public censor. The
oldest mandate for a book-censor, with which
he has met, is that issued by Berthold, Arch-
bishop of Metz, in the year 1486. In 1501,
pope Alexander VI, published a bull, contain-
ing several prohibitions and regulations with
regard to the printing of books ; and which
decrees all catalogues and books before that pe-
riod to be examined, and that such as contained
any thing prejudicial to the catholic religion
should be burned. In the council of Lateran,
held at Rome in 1515, it was ordered that no
books should in future be printed, but such as
had been inspected by ecclesiastical censors.

The oldest instance of an exclusive privilege,
granted for printing books, is that conferred by
Henry Bishop of Bamberg, in 1490, for the
printing of " Liber Missalis secundum ordinem
eccleske Bambergensis."

Books, condemned or censured, may be divided
into four pincipal classes : i. Books adverse to
religion ; — ii. Books adverse to morality ;— iii.
Seditious books ; — and iv. Books which treat on
superstitious arts.

i. BOOKS ADVERSE TO RELIGION.

Books hostile to religion may be subdivided into four
branches.

1. Atheistical, and 2. Deistical works.

338 ON THE RARITY

3. Books treating on religions adverse to Christianity.
These three classes are not very numerous.

, 4. Heterodoxical, Schismatical and ParadoxipaJ
works. — These are pretty numerous : g-nd bping gene-
rally prohibited or suppressed, they are sought after with
avidity, and th^ir price is consequently enhanced. There
always are eccentric persons, who, deviating from the
beaten track, devour works of this sort with such ea-
gerness that an edition is soon dispersed and in a man-
ner exhausted: — which is the infallible cause of the
rarity of such works.

ii. BOOKS ADVERSE TO MOKALITY.

Of this class there are three sorts.

1. Books, which, while they do not present glaring
obscenities, contain extravagant and dangerous opini-
ons : their subjects are the virtues, vices, manner^
education, and the customs of life. Such are the Emi-
/ms- of Rousseau — the Mawwers of Toussaint ; the Works
of Helvetius; ^c. &c.

2. Obscene books, whether in prose, verse, or graphic.
— These detestable productions are generally seized by
the police, when they can be discovered, and their
venders punished by public justice : they are generally
sold in private, are rarely to be found even in the li-
braries of the curious, and are so widely dispersed that
it becomes exceedingly difficult to meet with a copy.

3. Libels and satirical pieces injurious to civil society,
being in general replete with malignity, always find
purchasers enough, among those who delight in con-
fusion, to obtain a quick sale : as however they are sup-
pressed on their first appearance, they soon become
scarce.

Olf BOOKS. 339

l«. SEDITIOUS BOOKS.

These strike either at the roots of civil government
Itself, or are l,e\'elled against some particular gcfvem-
ment, or are dirt^^ed against the members of the admi-
nistration in a state. They are not Very numerous,
being suppressed like the books last mentioned in the
preceding class by the strong arm of the law. Conse-
quently, they soon cease to circulate, arid are not to be
purchased without great difficulty.

iv. WORKS WHICH TREAT ON SUPERSTITIOUS ARTS.

Books on geomancy, chirranancyj physiognomy, and
metoposcopy, magic, the Cabala, &c. composed only
for a few superstitious persons or for Imaves. By the
truly learned they are despised; but those who dehght
in them, sometimes puxchase them very dearly, and
preserve them with the utmost care. Hence, they do
not often appear in public sales, and thus become ex-
ceedingly scarce.

A notice of the writers, who have treated on con-
demned books, will be found infra Part III. Chap. IV.
Sect. III.

§1 3. Of Editions relatively scarce.

A book may be very common, of which there
are very scarce editions : they may be reduced
to tHe seven following classes.

i. EDITIONS, PUBIilSHED FROM ANTIENT MANUSCRIPTS.

The first edition of a work, formed after antient
MSS. is termed the Editio Princeps : although these
antient editions are frequently defective, they are ne-

z 2

340 ON THE RARITY

vertheless in universal request ; because they in some
degree represent the manuscripts from which they have
been taken. As such editions are antient, and only a
few copies of them are preserved, they consequently
become very scarce. -^

These first editions are generally, with respect to
foreign works, printed in the fifteenth or early part of
the sixteenth century y but we have also a pretty rich
sprinkling of a similar description of first editions ex-
ecuted in our own country, Ihejirst edition of Shake-
speare, in particiilar, may be mentioned, a copy of which
(with the title-page reprinted,) sold at Col. Stanley's sale
(No. 426.) for c£37. 16s. A fac-simile reprint of this edi-
tion was published a few years since '»

ii. THE FIRST EDITION OF EACH TOWN.

As there are few towns, in which the art of priittiBg
has not long been established, the editiones principes of
such places are very seldom to be met with : they are
sought out with the greatest avidity, because they are
of considerable use in illustrating different points of
literary antiquity.

The titles of the works, first executed after the in-
troduction of printing into the different cities of Europe*
are briefly stated, supra Part I. Chapter III. Sections
I. II. and III. pp. 163, et seq.

iii. EDITIONS BY CELEBRATED PRINTERS OF THE

xvith, XV. ith AND xvirith centuries.
The beauty of the type, the typographical executioj?,

' Dibdin's Bibliomania, p. 701. Mr. D. has enlivened his very amusins
work by some curious anecdotes relative to this first Shakespeare and other
dramatic works. See particularly pp. 576 — 578.

OF BOOKS. S4I

and the correctness of the works, cause such editiqns to
be sought with great avidity ; — particularly those printed
by the Aldi, Juntas, Torrentins, Giolito, Gryphii,
Rouilles, the Stephenses, Vascosan, Turnebus, Dolet,
Jannon, the Elzevirs, the Plantins, Blaeu, Coutelier,
Barbou, Brindley, Baskerville, Foulis, Didot, Bodoni,
Ibarra, Crapdet, the Bipontine editions, &c. These
may readily be found in great libraries, which are so
many receptacles, where these chefs-d'oeuvrps of the ty-
pographic art are carefully preserved. — ^See the Appen-
dix, No. VII. for a concise account of some of the most
eminent of these printers, with Hsts of the principal
dassics. Or other works executed by them.

iv. EDITIONS PRIXTED WITH PECULIAR AND EX-
TRAORDINARY LETTERS AND CHARACTERS.

In this class are comprised Greek editions printed in
capital letters, (Uteris majusculis) as the Anthologia, Cal-
lunachus, Apollonius Rhodius, Euripides, &c. The
Sedan classics, (as they are called) which are remarkable
for the smallness of their size and the beauty of their
type. The two editions of the Adventures of the Che-
valier Tewrdanck or Dheurdonck, printed in Germany
in 1516 and 1517, in folio; the characters of which,
being ornamented with flourishes^ lead one to believe
that they were cut in relievo upon blocks. These and
similar works are of extreme rarity, very curious, and
exceedingly difficult to be found. A short notice of this
work occurs in the Appendix, No. I.
* Anthologia Epigraminatum Grfficorum, ex recensione Jo-

hannis Lascaris. (edit, princ.) Florentis per Laurent.

Francisci de Alopa. mccccxciv.
This is a book of great rarity : a copy of it in good preserva-

tion (formerly Bishop Horsley's copy) is marked by Mr.

342 ON THE RARITY

Lunn at £15. 15«. another copy, in very fine condition, soM
at Dr. Heatli's sale, (No. 3344.) fbr =£"23. lOs.

Anacbeoktis Odse, praefixo commentario, additis yariis lecti-
onibus. 4to. ParaiBe, 1785.

This is one of the finest specimens of Bodopi's typographical
skill ; a more el^ant and exquisitely furnished , production
(Mr. Dibdin retfiarks) cannot be conceived.

Apolionii Rhodii Arg'onautica, Gr. cum scholiis. 4to. Flo-
rence, MCCCCLXXXVI.

A fine copy of this rare book sold at Dr. Heath's sale (No.

3480.) for ,f 10.
Callimachi ' Hyinni Gr. cum scholiis graecis, cura Johannis
Lascaris. 4ta No date, but supposed, from similarity of its
types to those of the A,nthologia, to have been ei^cuted by
the same printer, and at Florence, about the, year 1494.
EuKiPiDis Tragce4iae, (containing the Medea, Hippolylus, AI-
cestis and Andromache) Gr. cura Jo. Lascaris. The pre-
ceding remark applies to this work.
To this class may be referred, the early productions
of the British press, printed in black letter, and which
have brought such large sums at recent sales '. Books,
the text of which is engraved, also. belong to this class:
from the, splendour of their execution, and their con-
sequent high prices, these works are only to be foiind
in the libraries of the most opulent. Peignot has written
a special Bibliography on books of this description, to
which the student is referred : the following instances,
however, may be ^ven in illustration.
Anacreontis Symposiaca semi-ambia, gra;ce,, tabulis aeneis
incisa, et iconibus omata, ederite Joseph© Spaletti. lS.6me,
1781. This splendid volume is dedicated' to Don Gabriel
the then infant of Spain : it consists of only 17 pages ex-

' Particularly at the sales of the Roxburghe and Alchorne CoUeetidfils;
of which a short notice w}H be found, infra, Part III. Chap. V. Sect* IV.

OF BOOKS. 343

hibiting the text of t^ie Vatican MS. (now deposited in the
Imperial Library at Paris.). On the critical merits of this
edition, see Dibdin's Intr. to Classics, t. 15l.

Quinti HouATii Flacci Opera, Londini, seneis tabulis incidit
Johannes Pine, 1733—1737. 2 vols. 8vo. The text Of this
elegantly engraved edition, (which is in grfeat fequest) is
taken irom tte 8vo Camifridge edition Of 1701. Proof im-
pressibns are gi-eatly valued, from some of the plates having
been injured after a few copies had been Struck off. ' In vol.
II.' of the genuine edition, p: 108, the medal of Csesar ex-
hibits the words Fast, est; which in the copies subsequently
taken off are corrected. A copy Of this work, at La Yal-
li6re'« sale, was sojd for 107 livres.l sou.

Publii ViRGiLii Maronis Bucolica et Georgica, tabulis asneis
;olima Job. Pine illustrata, opus paternum in liiceni prpfert
Robertus Edge Pine. Londini,. 8yo. 2 voU. 177 i. This is
executed in the same style of elegance as tlie preceding.
The ^neid never appeared.

V. EDITIONS PUBLISHED IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

It is natural that such editions should be of as rare
occurrence among us, as our editions are in fore^n
countries: of this description are the works executed in
Italy, Spain, Portugal^ Sweden, Denmark, and par-
ticularly in Bohemia^ Poland, Hungary, Transylvania,
Turkey, 8bc. The existing political relations of the
gavernme'nts of the rfespective countries also affect the
prices of foreign books; which are always dearer in time
of war tlian during pfesice, on account of the increased
difficulty of intercourse, and consequent hazard in pro-
curing importations of foreign works.

vi. EDITIONS NEVER EXPOSED TO SALE.

Such are tHe worts whicK are issued froni royal presses,
and from those of private individuals. For instance,

344 ON THE RARITY OF BOOKS.

the writings of cardinal Quirini will never be much
known ; because they were printed at his own expense,
have never been exposed to sale, and were distributed
by himself as presents.

The duodecimo edition, in 1718, of the Amours pas-
torales de Daphnis et Chloe, with engravings after the
designs of Philip Duke of Orleans, Regent of France,
is likewise exceedingly scarce ; it was never exposed to
sale, though this book is common enough in various
other editions and sizes '. In our own country, the pro-
ductions of the Strawberry Hill press, belonging to the
late Lord Orford, have always been rare, and produce
enormous prices.^ — Lists of them may be seen in Le-
moine's Typographical Antiquities, pp. 91 — &4, and in
Mr. Dibdin's Bibliomania, pp. 716 — 725.

vii. EDITIONS WHICH HAVE BEEN SOLD UNDER
DIFFERENT TITLES.

When booksellers or authors wish to disguise a woric,
which they cannot sell publicly, or the sale of which
they wish to promote, they have recourse to the strata-
gem of giving it a new title ; and thus obtain a sale for a
work which perhaps is unworthy of circulation. The Ma^
tanasiana is an instance of this manoeuvre. It was origi-
nally published at the Hague in 1716, under the title of
Memoires litteraires, historiques, et critiques: as the work
did not sell, the title of " Matanasiana ou Memoires
litteraires, historiques, et critiques, du Docteur Mata-
iiasius, S. D. L. R. G. ;" (by Themiseul de Saint Hya-
cinthe,) La Haye 1740, 2 vols. 12mo. — was given to it
twenty-four years aftei-wards. This work contains a

' The edition was limited to 250. A copy in Messrs. Lackington's va*
talogue for 1812, (No. 10211.) is marked at £4. 14j. 6rf.

PRICES OF BOOKS. 345

few good passages; but something better was to be ex-
pected from the ingenious author of QhefSoeuvre d!un
inconnu. (Peignot, Bib. Spec. 236.)

SECTION IV.
Prices of Books.

The various circumstances which render books
scarce, also contribute to enhance their prices,
particularly when a work possesses any degree
of interest.

Before the invention of printing, manuscripts
were the only current books, and in general bore
such excessive prices, that few beside the most
opulent could acquire a library. Some few data
remain, which serve to shew us the esteem en-
tertained by the most able connoisseurs of anti-
quity, from the large sums which they paid for
the best books. Thus, it is recorded of Plato,
that, notwithstanding he had a very small pater-
nal inheritance, he bought three books of Phi-
lolaus the Pythagorean, at the price of ten thou-
sand denarii (about ^300 sterEng). It is also
said that Aristotle bought a few books belonging
to Speusippus the philosopher, after his decease,
for three attic talents (about ^^581. Ss. ' ).
In after times St. Jerome almost ruined him^
' Aulus Gdlius, Noct. Att. 1. 1. c. 17. See also p. xiii. note,
mpra.

346 PRICES OF BOOKS.

self, in order to purchase the works of Origen :
and during the dark or middle ages the prices
of books became S6 high, thstt petsofts of a' mo-
derate fortune could not aflford to purchase them.
Towards the close of the seventh century, Bene-
dict Biscdp, founder of the monastery of Were-
mouth in Northurriberland, made no fewer than
five journies to Rome^ to purchase booksj ves-
sels, vestmentSj, and other brna>ments for his
monastery. Thus he collected a very valuable
library ; for one book out of which (a volume
on Cosmography) king Alfred gave him an estate
of eight hides, ;or as much land as eight ploughs
could labour. The bali:gain was concluded by
Benedict with the king, a little before his death,
A. D. 690 : arid the b0ok was delivered, and the
estate received by his successor. Abbot Ceolfred.
At this rate, (observes Dr. Henry) none but
kingSj, bishops, and : abbots^ Could be possessed
of any books ; which is the reason, that there
were then no sehOols but in kings' palaefes, bi-
shojis' sees, or monasteries '.

Even monastmes of sfitoe cdnsideration fre-
quently had only a missaL Muratori relates that
Lupus, abbot of FerrierfeSj earnestly besought
the p6pej in a letter written in 825 to lend him
a copy of Cicero's; treatise & Oratore, and Quinc-
tiUan's Institutes: for, said he,, though we have

' Henry's Hist, of Britain, vol. iv. p. 21.
6

PRICES OF BOOKS. U7

some Aagtnents of them^ a complete copy is not
to be found throughout France. The same au-
tiior also states, that, when any one presented
a book to a church or a moiaastety, (the only
places which had a library during those ages, of
ignorance,) the donor himself came and offered
it at the altar,: amid the pomp of religious ce-
remonies* .„» . '

In the year 1174, Walter, prior of St. Swi-
thin's, Winchester, purchased of the monks of
Ddrchester, in Oxfordshire, the Homilies of Bede
and St. Augustine's PsMter^ for twelve niestsures
of barley, and a pall, on whiih was erobijoidiared
in silver the history of St. Birinus converting a
Saxon king. Among the: royal MSS. in the BbI*
tish Museum, i^ComestotfsiiSdaoiastic History
in Fretachf' which, (it is recorded in a blank piage
atliie beginning) was taken froin the ikiiHgi of
Friiiice at the ba>ttle of Poictiers ; andy being
purchased by William Montague, Earl of SaUs-
bury, for one hundred ipaars, (marks?) was- or-
dered to be sold by the last wiU of his countess
Elizabeth for forty hvres. About the year 1 400,.
a copy of Jean de Mehun's celebrated " Roman
de la Rose," w^s sold before the palace gate of
Paris for forty croWns, or ^33. 6s, 6d. The
countess of Anjou paid for a copy of the lior
milies of Haimon, bishop of Halberstadt, 200
sheep, five quarters of wheat, and the same

348 PRICES OF BOOKS.

quantity of rye and millet. Even so late as the
year 1471, when Louis XI. of France borrowed
the works of Rhasis an Arabian physician, from
the faculty of medicine at Paris, he not only
deposited a considerable quantity of plate, by
way of pledge; but he was also obliged to pro-
cure a nobleman to join with him as surety in a
deed, binding himself under a great forfeiture
to restore it'.

To descend to the period when typography
first began to be practised ; — ^we find it recorded
thatAntonio Bologna of Palermo, surnamed Bec-
catellus, was obliged to sell an estate, in order to
buy a copy of Livy, which had been written by
Poggio Bracciolini j who employed his purchase-
money in buying another estate, in the vicinity
of Florence, about the year 1455. The Cardi-
nal of Pavia (Picolomini) was, since that time,
obliged to pay forty golden crowns for a Plu-
tarch, and twenty-five for the Epistles of Sene-
ca*.

In more recent times the prices of books have
become so arbitrary, from the competition of

' Robertson's History of Charles V., vol, i. p. 274. Warton's
History of English Poetry, vol. i. Diss, ii., Some curious Anec-
dotes on this subject are also to be found in Gabriel Naude's
Additions to Philip de Comines' History of Louis XI. torn. iv.
p. 281, et seq. (edit. Dufresnoy.)

* Naude's Additions to Philip de Comines, torn. iv. p. 282,

THE CHOICE OF BOOKS: 349

purchasers, that no criterion can possibly be laid
down, by which to assist the young bibliographer
in making purchases. To give instances of all
the exorbitant prices which have been given at
the principal sales within the last five years, would
require a larger space than the limits of this vo-
lume wiU admit. A few are specified in a sub-
sequent part ' : and for the rest it may, perhaps,
suffice to refer generally to Mr. Dibdin's sprightly
bibliographical Romance, so often cited ; and
which contains abundant instances of the high
prices that have been given for valuable books '.

SECTION V.

On the Choice of Books for a Library.

Ik order to form and to arrange a well-selected
library, it is of the first importance to be ac-
quainted with the best books in every department
of literature : on this subject, men eminent for
their learning have left us difierent works, the
principal of which are noticed in the third part
of this volume.

' Vide infra. Part III. chap. v. sect. iv. and v. Some inci-
dental notices of eminent book-auctions are also to be found
in the Classical Journal, and Gentleman's Magazine. Mr.
Eeloe's " Anecdotes of Literature" contain numerous interest-
ing notices relative to the prices of books.

350 THE CHOICE

The title of a work ought to he its abridge-*
ment, and so fully to express its subject-matter,
that the contents and title should be in perfect
unison. Title-pages, however, are too frequently
faUaeious, being framed to sell the books rather
than to convey instruction j hence various rules
have been given, by which to form a correct
estimate botb of books and of editions. — A few
of the most important are annexed, for the guid-
ance of the juvenile student.

§ li OF BOOKS. — It may be observed in general^
that the choice of subject, the mode of treating
it, and the language employed by the author, are
so many criteria of the goodness of a book : the
two former evince the writer's judgment and
erudition, the latter shews his ability and practice
in writing. Where it is possible,the best method
of obtaining a correct idea of the relative good-
ness or badness of a work, is to peruse it, first
taking a general view of its argument arid scope,
and afterwards carefully examining its several
parts '.

But, more particularly, it is an indication that
a book is good :

1. If the author be known to possess the requi-
site talents and information : or should have

'Legipontii Dissertationes Philologico-BibliologicsE!, p. 98.
Heumanni Conspeetiis Reipublica; Literariae, p. 380. Baillet,
Jugement des Savans, torn. i. p. 259.

OF BOOKS. 351

already published any esteemed work on the
subject. Thus, we may conclude that Julius
Caesar will teach us the art of war better than
Peter Ramus; Cato, Palladius, and ColuEfteJla,
agriculture better than Aristotle ; and Cieero
oratory better than Varro. But it is not suf-
fieie»t that the author be skilled in the faculty;
he ought also to be versed in those particular
branches of it concerning which he treats : —
some, for instance, excel in civil law, but not
in public law; Salmasius pr-oved himself an
excellent critic in his Eosercitationes Plimance,
but was greatly inferior io Milton in his J)e-
Jensio RegM.

2. If the book be on a subject that requires great
reading, it may be presumed goad, if the au-
thor had a copious library, or could have ac-
cess to one ; or if he lived in a place where
books were not wanting ; thoiogfoin this case
there is danger le^the indulge in too many
quotations, especially, says Struvius, if the
ajuthor be a lawyer.

3. A book, the coipftposition of which oecwpied a
long time, cannot often fail of being good.

4. Boobs on points of doctrine by eclectic writ-
ers are to be presumed better than such as are
written by the adherents to particulf^r sects.

5. The age of an author may also afford some

352 THE CHOICE

indication : books requiring labour are ususdly*-
better executed by persons of a middle age
than by those who are further advanced in
years.
6. Another indication may be taken from the
author's state and condition :■ — thus a history
may reasonably be supposed to be good, if tihte-
historian were either an eyewitne'ss of the facts
which he relates, — or were concerned in pub-
lic affairs, or had access to public records or
other monuments, whence intelligence maybe
derived j — and, lastly, who is not biassed by
party, or by any other indirect or sinister mo-
tive. Cicero and Sallust, therefore, were fully
competent to write the history of Catiline's
conspiracy: — D'Avila, Philip de Comines,
Guicciardini, Clarendon, Colonel Hutchinson,
May, &c. were present in the civil wars which
they respectively describe. Xenophon, having,
an employment in the Spartan state, has treat-
ed, with singular ability, of that commonwealth;
and Amelot de la Houssaye, by living a great
number of years at Venice, was enabled to ex-
plain the secret policy of the Venetian govern-
ment. Camden wrote annals of the afl^irs of
his own time j the President De Thou held a
correspondence with the best writers in every
country; and Puffendorff had access to public

OF EDITIONS. 358

archives. — In literary matters, also, we give
credit to those who have the direction of pub-
lic libraries.
7. The time or age in which the author lived,
may afford some light in judging of his work ;
as every age has, according to Bai-clay, its pe-
culiar excellency '. .

§ 2. ON THE CHOICE OF EDITIONS. — With re-
gard to editions of works, it will be necessary,

1. To be well acquainted with the titles of the
books.

2. Not to mistake allegorical for natural titles.
M. Ameilhon has recorded some curious blun-
ders, which have been caused by not attend-
ing to this rule. In a catalogue which he saw,
a treatise De missis domtnicis was placed among
the liturgical books; the compiler having, from
its title, supposed it to treat of the mass, where-
as the work related to those magistrates whom
the kings of France, of the first and second
race, sent into the provinces to dispense jus-
tice, and to receive complaints from persons
aggrieved by the agents of government j which
magistrates were formerly called Missi Domi-
nici. M. Ameilhon adds, on the information of
a person who had actually seen it, that in the
library of a quack, who had suddenly become

.'Rees's Cyclopaedia, vol.ii. art. Book, and the authorities .
there cited.

A A

354 THE CHOICE

a doctor and a bibliomaniac, Maclaurin*s TreO'
tise on Fluxions was classed with books on pa-
thology ; the pretended connoisseur having
taken mathematical fluxions for a disease ! In
a library which had formerly belonged to a re-
ligious order, an ignorant monk had placed ^
treatise, intituled, Aurifodin^, by the side of
Agricok, among books on metallurgy ; these
supposed gold-mines being nothing else but a
common-place book, containing devotional ex-
tracts^

In a great library, M. Ameilhon saw a trea-
tise on cutting for the stone, intituled, IJisto-
rice lateralis ad extrahendum calcuhm sectionis
Appendix, placed by the side of a treatise on
Conic Sections, In the same collection, a large
foho volume, with the title, Fuggerorum et
Fuggerarum ..,,.. Imagines, was classed
among botanical works j— a genealogy of tJie
fe,mily of Fugger (the celebrated merchants
of Augsburg) having been mistaken for a
' treatise on male and female Ferns. Another;
work, entitled. Jours Caniculaires (Dog-Days)
was placed among books on astronomy ; and
these same Dog-Days were only a collection
of rhapsodies on almost every subject '.

'Ameilhon, Projet sur quelques changemens a faire aux Ca-
talogues des BibliotMqites. • Mem. de I'lnstitut, torn. ii. p. 477,
et seq.

OF EDITIONS. 35S

Instances of similar ridiculous mistakes
might easily be multiplied ; but those already-
adduced will be sufficient to shew the neces-
sity of attending to the contents of a book,
and not trusting merely to a cursory inspec-
tion of its title.

3. Where a book has two titles, it must not be
mistaken for two different works*

4. Do not confound together two authors who
have the same name, as Caius Plinius Secun-
dus, the naturalist, with Caius Plinius Cascilius
Secundus, usually called the Younger Pliny ;
or Xenophon the historian with Xenophon the
^phesian, who wrote an amatory romance.

5. Clearly to understand the titles which are
marked by abbreivations : these occur chiefly
in early printed books-

B. To know of how many parts or volumes a
work Consists.

t. To be acquainted with all the editions of a
book, and to know which of them is the best,
—as well as the place, year iand form of each
edition, — its several editors, — whether any
particular edition is. enriched with notes or
comments, with a summary or table of contents,
index, prefade, &c. — ^Whether all these are
good, indifferent or bad— Who is the author
of the notes,— -or whether the book has been
published cum notis mriorum or diversorum.
A A 2

356 THE CHOICE

8. Whether a book is divided into chapters op
paragraphs.

9. In what manner an edition is executed, whe-
ther correctly printed or not, and on good
paper or letter : and whether it is ornamented
with plates of any kind, and in what manner
these have been executed.

10. Whether a work has been criticised ; — ^if it
has, whether the critics have attacked the mat-
ter, the style, or the author personally ; — and
whether they have been competent to their of-
fice, and impartial or not in the discharge of it.

11. Whether an edition be a true or genuine one,
or not. " In printing a work, it sometimes
happens that a few copies are struck off with
deviations from those usually received';" and
although these deviations have in general no-
thing to recommend them, yet books of this
description are in great request among some
book-collectors. One or two instances will il-
lustrate this remark.

The genuine Elzevir Ccesar (Lug. Bat. 12mo,
1635) is distinguished from the. spurious one
of the same date, by having a buffalo's head
at the beginning of the preface and body of
the work j and also by having page 149 num-
bered 153*. The genuine Elzevir Virgil (Lug.

' Dibdin's Bibliomania, p. 704, and note.
'Brunet, Manuel de Libraire, toni. i. p. 198. Dibdin's In-
troduction to the Classics, vol. J. p. 221.

OF EDITIONS. Ut

Bat. 12mo, 16S6) is known from the counter-
feit edition of the same "year, by having two
passages printed in red ink, which in the lat-
- ter are in bhc^. The first passage is Ego vera
frequenter a te litteras accipio, and occurs in
page 1, before the Bucolics; the second, &*
mihi susceptumfuertt decurrere munus, is found
in page 91 '. In the genuine edition both these
passages are printed in red capital letters, but
in the spurious one they are black. The
beautiful 24mo edition of the Enghsh Bible,
printed by Field in 1653, was counterfeited
in Holland in 1658 : the genuine one is known
by having the four first psalms on one page,
" without turning over. '

12. Lasdy, in every instance where it is prac-
ticable, the best editions of every work should
be purchased : and, among such as are reputed
to be the best, those are to be preferred, the
text of which is most correct and neatly
printed, on the best paper and with the fiiUest
margins. Of this description are the works
of the more eminent printers of the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, a list
of whose productions will be found in a sub-
sequent part of this work*.

• Debure, Bibl. Inst. (Belles Lettres) p. 300.

* Vide Appendix, No. VII.

358 ON THE ARRANGEMENT

CHAPTER III.

Ess&t/, towards an improved Syitem of Chss^a-
tionjor a Library.

The best ornament of a library is an orderly a;nd
symmetrical disposition of the books : a collec-
tion destitute of order has, not inelegantly, been
compared to a deformed human body highly
dressed up ; whose external ornaments only ren-
der its deformity the more conspicuous-.

Previously to the collecting of books for a
library, some attention should be given towards
selecting a commodious place for their recep-
tion ; a few hints on this topic will not be irrele-
vant to our subject.

The a,partment, appropriated to the reception
of books, should neither be exposed to mois^
ture, nor to the burning rays of the sun : it
ought to be sufficiently lights well ceiled, and
well floored. The shelves, ivhether defended
by glass doors, in presses, or open their whole
length, should be a foot distant from the wall;
or, if they reach to the wallj guards should
be placed upon them, to prevent the books com-
ing in contact with it ; and the lowest shelf^ or

' Legipont. Diss, de Ornand. Bibl. p. 44.

OP A LIBRARY. 359

that which supports folio books, ought to be
about one foot above the floor.

Between each shelf a space should be left,
proportioned to the size of the volumes ; and
the height of the different shielves should be ad^
justed to the form or size of the books- Thus,
the first or lowetraOst shelf will be appropriated
to folio books on large paper 5 the second, to
those on common paper ; the thifd, to rdyal
quartos; the fourth, to medium quartos^ &c.
&C. A sufficient interval should be left between
each volume and the shelf above it, to admit of
its removal without difficulty, regard beiiig also
had not to place the books too closely together,
SO that the air may freely circulate around them.

A librafy thus disposed cannot fail to present
an agreeable appearance ; while the books de-
|>Osited in it, will be preserved perfectly sound,
and -v^ill be sheltered from every kind of acci-
dent: further j the dust should be frequently
removed, and the volumes be gently beaten to-
gethefi from time to time, in order to shake out
the dust that would otherwise accumulate, and
ultimately injure them.

The different branches of human knowledge
form a chain, all the links of which are mutu-
ally connected together : every part of this great

360 PRINCIPLES OF

chain ought to harmonize with that which pre-
cedes it, and with that which follows it. In a
system of bibliography, or of classification for
a library, it has been observed, that the grand
objects of attention are to divide and sub-divide
into different classes all those works, which con-
tain the objects of our knowledge : each pri-
mary class is to be considered as a trunk or stem^
bearing branches, boughs, and leaves. The
difficulty to be surmounted, in establishing the
proper and requisite order among these different
parts, is

1. To fix the rank which the priniary classes
ought to hold among themselves ;' and

2. To refer to each of them the prodigious num-
ber of branches, boughs and leaves which
belong to it.

One advantage to be derived from these divi-
sions and sub-divisions, is that of finding with
ease the books we search for in an extensive
library, or in a catalogue; and of knowing
readily the best book on the subject which we
are studying, or concerning which information
is required '.

In these general principles all Bibliographers
are agreed, though almost every one has varied
in the different modes in which he has applied

' Essai de Bibliographie, inCailleau's Diet. Bibliographique,
torn. iii. p. 505.

BIBLIOGRAPHY; 361

them. What pretensions to excellenp^ abpye the
various bibUpgraphical systems now extant, the
following essay may possess, the can4id, Biljlio^
grapher alone can appreciate.
. Engaged, some years since in an arduous un^
dertaking, the classification pf the Harleian
MSS. for the catalogue pf that library, 'j th^
authpr .of the present system was led attentively
to study the connexions and dependencies of tlie
great chain of human knowledge : at the peripd
fTpferred to he was unacquainted with any biblipi-
graphical system?, except that of M. J)e Bure^
and the very minute method pursued in the
Bibliotheca Bunaviana, fpr a catalogue of Count
Bunau's library. In the prosecution of his de-
,sign, he traced the outlines. of the present ^plan,
which he afterwards simplified : and though it
differs from most modern systems, he ventures
to hope it will be found to combine the two im-
portant requisites of conveniency of reference
and simplicity of arrangement. > '.

The following is an outline of the plan, which
the author has adopted, together with the rea-
sons which have induced him to prefer it to the

' This classed catalogue of MSS. (with the indexes of
names of persons and places) forms the fpurth volume of the
" Catalogue of the Harleian Manuscripts in the British Mu-
seum/' fol, 1813. Some alterations have been introduced in
this arrangement, which further consideriation suggested to
the author.

863 PRINCiiPLES O?

different schemes for arranging lib^ariesv that
have hitherto been icornmutiicated to the publiio.
It commences with Bibliography : to this Suc-
ceed the four primary faculties or classes 6f
Thedlbgyi Philosophy, Historyj and Literature.
Bibliegrajjhy can only be regarded as an intro-
duction to the knowledge of books ; and with-
out such kttdwledge it is obVibUs, that no well-
seledted library can be formed: Bibliography,
therefore, claims to itself the first plaee^ dS an
introduction to a systeni of classifidation for an
extensive colleetion of books ',

INTRODUdTlOiJ— BiBttoefftAPHy'*

The works which treat of Uhiirersal Bibliogra-
phy may be comprised under four principal di-
visions: — 1. Literary History ; 2. Bibliology or
Elementai-y Bibliography j 3. General Biblio-
graphy ; and 4. Prefessioftal &t Special Kblia-
graphy.

S 1- LITERARY RiatORY first demandii the at-
tention bf the bibliogrAphical stud^t : previ-
ously to aeq^uiring the knoM^fledge of bdoke, it is

' it lindy be proper to add, that acCoi'ding td the ailthor's
origihal systeni. Bibliography enterM intb thfc class of Litfeta-
ture ; but for the tieasoris, stt abiy assigned by M. Peignot/beiias
detached it froiii that faculty, ahd placed It fewt, by way 6{
Inti-oductioii. Se6 Peigriot's B,epe?teii?e BibliOtheque Uni-
verselle, pp. viii — xiv.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 363

desirable to have an idea of the history of the
subjects they discuss, arid of the authors who
have composed them. It is the only means by
which we can perfectly apprehend the spirit of
each writer, derive real advantage from his la-
bdursi and properly appreciate books. Work*
on Literaty History include

(1) General Histories of Literature, Biographi-
cal and Historical Dictionaries, &c.

(2) Literary History in particular j— ^i. e. His-
tories of literature in particular countries.

(3) Histories and Transactions of academies and
literary societies.

Some Bibliogrkphers have instituted more
numerous divisions of literary histol-y ; but the
above comprehend every thing which is really
necessary to be known oh this interesting sub-
ject : and to the two first of these three heads^
we have referred our notifce of the various books
on literary history^ which occUr in Patt III.
Chapi I. if^frd.

§ 2. BifiLiOLOGY, or Elementdry Bibliogra*
phy, considers books^ with I'egard to the mateHal
of which they are composed, and also with re-
spect to their authors, the age when these wrote
and flourished, their characters and qualifica-
tions, and the choice of editions, theit forms,
&c. &c. The general principles of elementary
bibliography are stated in the preceding pages ;

364 PRINCIPLES OF

^rid the principal works which treat on this sub-
ject are enumerated in Part III. Ghap. II. III.
and IV. infm.

§ 3. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (as we havc al-
ready had occasion frequently to observe) is, in
strict language, a science ; which consists in the
knowledge of books, of their different editions
and degrees of rarity and curiosity, their real
and reputed value, and the ranks which they
ought respectively to hold in a system of classi-
fication. General bibliography comprises works
or catalogues, whose design is to give us a know-
ledge of every kind of books whatsoever : these
are disposed either in alphabetical order, or ac-
cording to their subject, or in an arbitrary man-
lier. Some catalogTles present us with accurate
notices of the books they contain ; others offer
only a simple list : every work that exhibits a
notice, or merely the titles of books of different
sorts, belongs to general bibliography ; while
such as ti'eat of books on one particular subject,
belong to professional or special bibliography.

Books on general bibliography may be ar-
ranged as follows : —

1. Universal libraries or catalogues of books
of every description.

2. Bibliographical dictionaries, and treatises
on rare books.

3. Treatises on the arrangement of libraries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 365

4. Catalogues of public and private libraries.

5. Sale catalogues of booksellers.

6. Periodical bibliography, including Reviews
and other literary Journals.

The principal works, relative to general Bib-
liography, are noticed, infra. Part III. Chap. IV.
Sect. I. II. and III. pp. 513—550, and Chap.
V. Sect. I.— VI. pp. 551—741.

§ 4. PROFESSIONAL, or (morc correctly) spe-
cial BiBLiOGKAPHY, has reference only to one
class of books, and comprehends every work
published on the subject of which it treats, while
general bibliography makes a selection from
among these same works, chooses what is best
from each kind, and forms from them a whole of
greater or less extent. Hence it is obvious thati
although general bibliographies are in them-
selves both curious and excellent, special biblio-
graphies must possess more interest and greatei*^
advantages for those who are desirous of acquir-
ing an intimate .acquaintance with books, and
with the discoveries which have been made in
the different arts and sciences. Special biblio-
graphies may be disposed either alphabetically,
or systematically: where the latter method is
preferred, either the common arrangement must
be pursued, or such other mode as the biblio-
grapher may deem to be the most eligible.

Having thus stated our reasons for assigning
the preliminary rank to bibliography, it now

366 PRINCIPLES OF

remains^ that we consider the four faculties, of
I. theology;— II. philosophy;— III. history;—
and IV. literature ; which succeed to it, toge-
ther with their mutual dependencies.

r. theology.

Every thinking and well-regulated mind must
consider Religion as an object of paramount. in-
terest and importance. The basis of all our
knowledge, natural — moral — ^and religious, is to
be found in the Holy Scriptures ; which alone
are able to make us wise unto salvation, and
which are receiving almost daily confirmation
from the discoveries of philosophy. Further,
the works which treat of religion, possess in
general every character that can render them
desirable, whether we consider the importance
of the facts they develope, or the sublimity of
the doctrines and precepts which they inculcatej
and their beneficial tendency in promoting the
real happiness and. well-being of man. For
these reasons (and many others might be ad-
duced) we place the class of theology firist, in
our bibliographical system.

If we trace the gradual developement of the
mental feculties, we shall find that man is most
struck with sensible impressions ; and that the
first objects which arrest his infantine and juve-
nile attention, are some one or other of the

BIBLIO(^RAPHY. ?67

works of creation, by the qooteiijplation of
which he is led (at least, if he be under ^he ma-
nagement of judicious per^ns) to " look thfougli
Nature up toNature'^ GM" In the furthey
division of the class of Theology, Natural J^g,
Ugion demands the first place, a^ it demonstrates
the existence and perfections of Deity ; ftom a
consideration of the consummate beauty and
order of the works of preation, and of their
wonderful adaptation to the different purposes
for which they have been deigned by Infinite
Wisdom.

But, as Natural Religion is inadequate to dis-
close the will of God concerning man, Eevela-
tion becomes necessary for this purpose, and
also to develope the obligations due fi-om man tp
his Creator. Revealed Religion therefore natu-
rally follows the former : and, since the Holy
Scriptures contain the revealed will of Crod, thft
various editions of the Old and New Testaments,
in the original language? and versipng, are first
placed in this division. T^ correct seeming dis-
cordances, and explain obscure or difficult pasi.
sages, we are obliged to have recourse to com-
mentators and critics, both Jewish and Chris-
tian ; by whose labours the ijatur^, genius, cus-
toms, &c. of the sacred writings are elucidated.

ConncU^ are next in order: by them the
ecclesiastical discipline of churches is regfiigteda*

386 PRINCIPLES OF

and to these succeed the works of the Fathers of
the church (i. e. those who wrote previously to
the year 1030), both Greek and Latin, as well
as those of modern divines of the Greek,
Latin, and Reformed churches, whose labours
are designed to vindicate our common faith, and
to explain its doctrines and duties. When tho-
roughly instructed in revealed religion, the
theological student is prepared to examine the
religions of Heathen nations. The last division
therefore, in this class, is Pagan Theology, com-
prising the religion of the Greeks, Romans, and
ether Heathen nations, both antient and mo-
dern, and also Mohammedan Theology.

II. PHILOSOPHY.

From the consideration of the works of God,
and the acquisition of the knowledge of his will,
and of our duty to him, the human mind is next
directed to an examination of those principles
which not only influence its operations, but also
support the mundane system, and enable us to
obtain the conveniencies of life. The faculty
of philosophy therefore necessarily flows from
that of theology. Under this class is comprised
whatever relates to the mind of man, to the
moral and political principles by which nations
and empires are governed, and to the material

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 369

world, including the discoveries made in natural
and experimental philosophy, together with the
arts of peace and war.

As the general principles of philosophy are to
be found in Histories of philosophy and philoso-
phers, and in their Works, whether antient or
modern, these claim the first place: to them
succeed Logic and Metaphysics, the object of
which is to investigate the nature of man, the
soul, its faculties and sensations, &c. as weU as
the principles that ought to direct the exercise
of its rational powers.

Turning the attention from the knowledge of
our mental &.culties, we are next led to consider
their influence on civil society and the laws by
which it is governed. This important science
is termed Ethics: it includes not only the theory
and practice of morals in private life, but also
their application to the government of nations
and empires, which constitutes Politics. Ethics,
applied to the regulation of men in civil society,
constitutes the science of Jurisprudence ; it is
divided into the Law of Nature, which being
infused by God into man at his creation, for his
preservation and direction, is immutable. The
Law of Nature applied to, and established by
universal consent among, the civilized inhabit-
ants of the world, for the settlement of disputes
and for the observance of justice and good faith,

s B

370 PRINCIPLES OF

constitutes the Law of Nations. This is followed
by the Grecia;n and Roman law, many prin-
ciples of which are to be traced in our own laws,
and in those of other countries.

From the laws that regulate civil society and
nations, we proceed to those by which the ma-
terial world is influenced : these are collesctively
denominated Physics, or Natural and E3q)eri-
mental Philosophy, from which the transition is
easily made to Natural History — mineral — vege-
table — and animal, and from this to medicine,
which includes whatever relates to the preserva-
tion of health and the remo^iial of disease in
man, and in other animals.

To the physical succeed the Mathematical
Sciences, with their application to various others
both useful and ornamental, and the Arts of
Peace, by which the conveniencies of life are
secured, its elegancies obtained, and its amuse-
ments regulated. Last follows the Art of War,
which includes both military and naval tactics.

III. HISTORY.

History is philosophy teaching by example t
from the consideration of the moral, political,
and physical principles, by which men are go-
verned, we naturally extend our observations to
the practical application of those principles, ip

BIBLIOGRAEHY- 371

nations and empires. Of this application history
is the narrative, which holds the third rank in
the present system.

In order to acquire a correct notion of his-
tory, the situation, manners, cukoms, &c. of
countries should be known, together with the
different modes of calculating time: this know-
ledge is to be derived from the study of geogra-
pTiy, voyages and travels, and chronology. From
a sufvey of universal and ecclesiastical history,
we come to particular history, antient and
modern : to this succeed biographical history,
comprising the lives of eminent men in every
age of the world, and monumental history, which
traces the genealogies of sovereigns and noble
families ; the history of chivalry and nobility,
the origin, descent, and claims of dignities, —
precedency of nobility and gentry, displays of
arms, the practice of military courts of honour,
&c.

To complete our acquaintance with history,
the knowledge of antiquities is indispensable:
this science comprehends a view of the manner?
and customs of antient nations, and their an-
tique monument* now in existence. Lastly, as
history is materially illustrated by coins and in-
scriptions, the study of Numismatics and of
antient inscriptions and marbles, forms the con-
cluding link in this class of the present system
pf bibliography.

B B 2

372 PRINCIPLES OF BIBLIOGRAPHY.

IV. LITERATURE.

In the progress of nations from barbarism to
refinement, literary pursuits are the last to which
mankind direct their attention. Literature, there-
fore, forms the fourth column, that supports our
temple of knowledge.

It commences with the theory of language and
the principles of grammar; the application of
these to the examination of the works of the learn-
6dj constitutes philology and criticism ; by which
we are enabled to apply language to the purpose
of speaking with persuasion. This art is termed
rhetoric : it includes both the theory, and the
practice of eloquence. Poetry succeeds in its va-
rious kinds; and the class is terminated by the
division of Literary Miscellanies^ comprising po-
lygraphy (or the works of authors who have
written in a variety of styles), dialogues and con-
versations on different subjects — ^fables, tales,
apologues — satires — proverbs — ^facetiae —hiero-
glyphics, emblems, and devices — epistolary wri-
ters-r-and lastly such literary and miscellaneous
tracts as are not reducible to any preceding class
or division.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SYSTEM,

EXHIBITING

THE ORDER

TO BE PURSUED IN ARRANGING THE FACULTIES AND DIVISIONS

O? A

CATALOGUE.

INTRODUCTION.

1. Literary history.

2. History of letters and languages.
S. History of printing.

4. Works introductory to the knawledge of
books.

5. Treatises on rare books.

6. .Treatises on anonymous, and pseudonymous

books — on books condemned, suppressed,

&c.
7- Treatises on libraries and their arrangement.
S. Catalogues of imperial, royal, and other

public libraries, containing both MSS. and

printed books.

374 PRINCIPLES OF

9. Catalogues of private librafies.

10. Sale catalogues of booksellers worthy of

notice. ■ -

11. Periodical bibliography, including reviews

and other literary journals.

12. Professional or special bibliography.

DIVISION I. NATURAL RELIGION.

In this division are comprised treatises and
essays on natural religion, in confutation of
atheism, and demonstrating the existence and
perfections of the Deity, from a consideration
of the works of creation.

DIVISION II. REVEALED RELIGION.

CHAPTER I. HOLY SCRIPTURES.
SECTION 1. Entire Text and Versions of the Bible. _

§ 1. Polyglot Bibles— 2. Hebrew Bibles— s. Antient Oriental Ver-
sions of the Scriptures, Samaritan, Aralnc, Persian, and Syriac
—4. Greek Versions — S. Latin Versions — 6. English Versions —
7. French Versions— 8. Italian, Spahish, Pbrtilgiiese, &nd Rlo-
dem Greek Versions— 9. German and Dutch Versions — 10.
Sclavonic, Polish, Hungarian, Russian, and Danish Versions —
11. Versions in the different Languages of Africa and America
—^12. Versions in the nibdern Languages of Iridi'a, Malay,
Tamul, &c. &c,-8cc.

SECTION 3. The New Testament.

f 1. Editions of the New Testament in -Greek — 2. Versions of
&e New Testament in different Languages.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 375

SECTION 3. Detached Books of the Old Testament, in the

Original Languages, and Versions.
SECTION 4. Detached Books of the New Testament, in the

Original Languages, and Versions,
SECTION 5. Harmonies.
SECTION 6. Apocryphal Books.
§ 1. Of the Old Testament — 2. Of the New Testement.
SECTION 7. Histories of the Bible, and Books of Plates

illustrative of the Old and New Testaments.

CHAPTER II- COMMENTATORS AND CRITICS.

SECTION 1. Jewish.

§ 1. Commentators — 2. Talmudical and Rabbinical Writers.

SECTION 2. Christian.

S 1. Commentators, Interpreters, and Paraphrasts — 2. Sacred
Philology, comprising Introductions to the Study of the Holy
Scriptures, Manners and Customs of the Jews, Essays a^d
Treatises on the State of the Sacred Text, on its Style and
Idioms, and Accounts of its different Versions-^s.Concordances,
and Dictionaries of the Bible.

CHAPTER III. COUNCILS.

SECTION 1. On the Authority, &c. of Councils and Synods.

2. Histories of Councils.

3. Collections of Councils.

4. Decrees, Canons, ^c. of Councils of the Eoman.Church.

5. Canons, &C. of Synods of the E^fornjed Church of
England.

CHAPTER IV. ECCLESIASTICAL DISCIPLINE AND RITES.

SECTION 1. Jewish Liturgies, and Treatises on the Jewish
Worship.

2. Treatises on the Divine Offices and on the
RiUs and Ceremonies of the Church.

3. Liturgy and Bites of the Greek and Oriental
Churches.

376 PRINCIPLES OF

SECTION 4. Liturgy, Rites, and Indulgences of the Latin or
Roman Church.

5. Liturgies of the Gallican Church,

6. Discipline and Rites of the Foreign Reformed
Churches.

7. Discipline, Liturgy, and Rites of the United
Church of England and Ireland.

8. ;piscipline^ and Rites of the Reformed Church
of Scotlaml, atid of Dissenters in the United
Kingdom.

9. Discipline and Liturgies of Religious Orders.
10. Miscellaneous Offices of Devotion, comprising

Horae, Offices of the Virgin Mary, Prayers by
Individuals, &c.

CHAPTEK V. FATHERS OT THE CHURCH.
SECTION I. Introductions to the Study of the Fathers.

2. Collections, Extracts, and Fragments of the
Works of the Fathers.

3. Works of the Greek Fathers.

4. Works of the Latin Fathers.

The Works of all the Fathers should be chrona-
logically arranged.

CHAPTER VI. MODERN DIVINES.

SECTION 1. Of the Greek Church.

Divines of the Latin and Reformed Churches.

3. Dictionaries and General Treatises on Theology.

3. ' Schoolmen and their Commentators.

4. Dogmatic Divines.

Those who treat on the Doctrines,' Sacraments, and
general Truths taught by the Christian Church.

5. Moralists and Casuists.

Those who discuss particular Duties, Virtues and Vices,
Laws, Sports, Ca^s of Conscience, Confession, &c.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 377

SECTION 6. Catechetic Divines.

Creeds, Catechisms, Confessions of Faith, Articles of
Religion, and Explanations thereof.

SECTION 7. Polemic Divines.

§ 1. Works on the Truth of the Christian ReKgion, against
Atheists, Deists, Jews, Mohammedans, &c.— 2. Controversial
Treatises by Catholics and Protestants, on different Points of
Faith and Practice— 3. Works in favour of Toleratioiv and the
Re-union of Christians of different Denominations.

SECTION 8. Parenetic Divines.
Sermons qnd Treatises on Hortatory and Practical Divinity.

SECTION 9. Mystic and Ascetic Divines.

Comprising whatever relates to the Mysteries of the
Christian Religion, Fanatical, Visionary, andEnthu-
siasdcal Writers, &c.

DIVISION III. PAGAN THEOLOGT.

CHAPTER I. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.

II. THE RELIGION OF THE ANTIENT BRITONS
AND GAULS.

III. THE RELIGION OF THE CHINESE, INDIANS,

PERSIANS, AND OTHER NATIONS OP
ASIA, AFRICA, AND AMERICA.

IV. MOHAMMEDAN THEOLOGY.

II.

DIVISION I. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY AND

PHILOSOPHERS.

{Including tJieir epistolary Writings.)

In most bibliographical schemes, the epistles of the anlient

philosophers form part of the division Polygraphy, which is

378 PRINCIPLES OF

usually placed at the end of the class of Belles Lettres : but as
much of our knowledge of the private history and opinions of
antient philosophers can only be obtained frdm their letters,
particularly of Cicero, Pliny, 8?c. we place their epistolary
writings in this division.

DIVISION II. WOKKS OF ANTIENT AND MODERN

PHILOSOPHERS.

CHArXER I. WOKKS OF ANTIENT PHILOSOPHERS.

The antient Greek and Roman philosophers should be
placed here : (the works attributed to) Hermes Trismegistus,
Pythagoras, Democritus, Ocellus, Socrates, Epicurus, Plato,
Aristotle, and others, who lived before the destruction of the
Roman Empire ; together with their commentators and dis-
ciples.

CHAPTER II. MODERN PHILOSOPHERS.

The works of Bacon, Locke, Newton, Descartes, Gassendi,
Pascal, Malebranche, S'Gravesande, Kant, and others ; the
works of Addison, Bishop Berkeley, Burke, Dr. Franklin, Dr.
Johnson, Sir William Jones, Milton (in prose). Swift, &c. Those
of Voltaire, Diderot, Condorcet, and others, which treat on
many other subjects besides philosophy, should be placed
among the poly graphic writers at the end of the class of Belles
Lettres.

DIVISION III. LOGIC,

CHAPTER I. ANTIENT WRITERS AND SYSTEMS.
CHAPTER II. MODERN WRITERS AND SYSTEMS.

DIVISION IV. METAPHYSICS.

CHAPTER I. ANTIENT METAPHYSICIANS, AND THEIR

COMMENTATORS.

CHAPTER Ii; MODERN METAPHYSICAL WRITERS,

SECTION 1. Systems of Metaphysics.

2. Treatises on Man, on the Soul, its Faculties, and
Sensations, on Prescience, Providence, &c.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 379

CHAPTER III. OCCULT PHILOSOPHY.
SECTION 1, Treatises on the Cabala, and on Magic.

2. Treatises on Apparitions, Deemons, Sorcerers, &c.

3. Treatises for and against Magic.

4. Divination by Dreams, Palmistry, &c.

5. Writers on Physiognomy, Antient and Modern.

DIVISION V. ETHICS.
CHAPTER i. MORALS.

SECTION 1. Antient Moral Philosophers, and their Commen-
tators.
,2. Modern Moral Philosophers.

J 1. Systems of Morals. — 2. Treatises on the Passions, Virtues,
Vices, Suicide, Gaming, Good-fortune, &c. — 3. Rules for the
Conduct of Civil Life.— ^4. Essays and Treatises on Education.

CHAPTER II. POLITICS.

sEctiON 1. Treatises and Essays on Politics and Government

in general.
§ 1. Antient.— 3. Modern.

i. Qeneral Treatises.^.ii. On Civil and Pblitical Society. — lii. DlflFefeiit
'Systems of Government, and the respective Powers of SoWreigns And
Peiiple: — iv. T^atises on the -Duties of Ambassadors, Ministers, 'Colin-
tellors of State, and Courtiers.

SECTION 2. Political Economy.

§ 1. General Treatises on Political Economy.— 2. Treatises on
Population, Industry, Mendicity, Police. — 3. Finances, Money,
and Paper Credit. — 4. Trade and Commefce.-^5. Inland .Na-
vigation.

CHAPTER III. JURISPRUDENCE.

SECTION 1. Introductions to the Study of JurispWideiifce,
and General Treatises on Laws.
2. The Law of Nature and Nations.
§ 1. General Treatises and JSyitems.— 2. Law of Nations, as

380 PRINCIPLES OF

regulated by Treaties (including Collections of Diplomatic Papers
afFecting the different Nations of Europe in general).— 3. Pub-
lic Law, comprising Treatises on the Constitutions of different
Nations.
SECTION 3. Laws of the Greeks, and other Antient Nations
except the Romans.
4. Roman Law.

§ 1. Introductions to and Histories of the Roman Law. — 2. Ci-
vil Law of Rome, and Commentators thereon. — 3. The Ro-
man Law applied to the Law of England and France.

sECTTON 5. Canon Law.

Including Bulls, Decretals, Canons, and Letters of the Popes.

SECTION 6. British Law. — Public and Constitutional.

} 1. Succession and Title to the Crown. — 2. Of the King, l^is
Prerogative and Supremacy. — 3. Antiquity and Powers of Par-
liament.— 4. Constitution, Privileges, and Proceedings of the
House of Lords. — 5. Constitution, Privileges, and Proceed-
ings of the House of Commons. — 6. Privileges of the Subject
and Constitution in General.

SECTION 7. Monicipal Law of Britain.

§ 1. Histories of the English Law. — 2. Anglo-Saxon, Danish,
and Anglo-Norman Lawsw — 3. Treatises and Institutes of the
Law of England. — i. Criminal and Crown Law. — S. Forest
Law. — 6. Law of Civil Rights. '

i. Charters granted to Corporations and other Public Bodies, and to
rrivate Individuals. — ii. Conveyancing, Court-keeping, Tenures, Copy-
bolds, &c.

S 8. Ecclesiastical Law.
i. Treatises on Ecclesiastical Law in 6eneral.-r-ii. The Laws of England
relative to Dissenters and Soman Catholics. — ^iii. Tythes, appropriate
and impropriate. — iv. Wills, Executors, and Administrators.

S 9. Statutes and Acts of Parliament.

i. Collections of Statutes. — ii. Abridgements and Extracts of Statutes.
— iii. Private Acts of Parliament, separately printed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 881

§ 10. Jut^cial proceedings.

i. Court of Chancery.

ii. Court of King's Bench,
iii. Court of Couimoti Pleas>
iv. Court of Exchequer.

V. Court of 'Admiralty,
vi. Ecclesiastical Courts.
vii. Star Chamber,
viii. Court of Augmentations.
ix. Duchy Court.

X. High Commission Court
xi. Court of Wards and Liveries,
xii. Inferior Courts.

xiii. Reports, Year Books, Entries, and Pleadings.
§ 11. Miscellanies of English Law, comprising Arguments, Charges,
Common Place Books, and Legal Collections, Readings, &c.
not included under any former Division. — 12. Laws of Wales.
— 13. Laws of Scotland. — 14. Laws of Ireland.

SECTION 8. Foreign Laws. — ^The Law of France.

5 1. The Law of France previously to the Revolufion in 1789.
i. General Treatises on the Law of France.— ii, Antient Laws, Consti-
tutions, and Capitularies, Edicts and Arrets of the Kings of the dif-
ferent Baces, — iii. Criminal Lav of France. — iv. Maritime Law of
France. — ^v. Ecclesiastical Law of France.

§ 2. Law of France from the Revolution of 1789 to the Promul-
gation of the Code Napoleon. — s. The Code Napoleon, and
Commentaries thereon.

s$ciTioN ■ 9. Laws of Italy.

10. Laws of Spain and Portugal.

11. Laws of Germany and Hungary.

12. Laws of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and

Rsssia.

13. The Laws of Holland, Switzerland, and the
r minQf States of Europe.

14. Laws of Asia, Africa, and America.

DIVISION VI. SCIENCES.
Introductions to and History of the Sciences, General Trea-
tises, Encyclopedias, and other Dictionaries.

382 PRINCIPLES OF

CHAPTER I. PHYSICS OR NATURAL AND EXPERI-
MENTAL PHILOSOPHY.

SECTION 1. Antient writers.

SECTION 2. Modern writers.

§ 1. Dictionaries, Systems, and General Courses of Natural and

_ Experimental Philosophy. Surveys of the Animal, Vegetable and
Mineral Kingdoms. — 2. Natural Magic, and Recreations in
Natural Philosophy. — [For Magic, stricdy so called, see Div. IV.
Ch. III. Sect. 1. supra, p. 379.]

CHAPTER II. NATURAL HISTORY.

SECTION 1. Antient Writers.

Modern Writers.
SECTION %. Dictionaries, Systems, and Elementary Treatises.
SECTION 3. Dissertations, and Treatises on different Parts of

Natural History.
SECTION 4. Natural History of the Earth, of Mountains and

Volcanoes.
SECTION 5. Natural History of Waters,
SECTION 6. The Mineral Kingdom.

§ 1, Introductions, Dictionaries, Systems, and Elementary- Treatises on
Geology and Mineralogy.-:— 2. Treatises on Metals and the Working
of Mines.

SECTION 7. The Vegetable Kingdom, or Botany.

§ 1 . Dictionaries, and Elementary Treatises on Botany. — 2. Phy-
siology and Anatomy of Plants, — their Natures, Vegetation, and
Uses. — 3. Herbals, and Collections of Engravings of Plants
and Flowers. — 4. Systems of Botany. — S. General History of
Trees, Shrubs, and Plants. — 6. Works, treating on rare Plants,
or on particular Classes or Families of Plants. — 7. Monographs
or particular Histories of some Genera and Species of Plants. —
8. Medical Botany, — Treatises on Trees and Plants used in
Medicine. — 9. History of marine Plants. — 10. Histories of the
Plants of different Countries.

.SECTION 8. The Animal Kingdom, or Zoology.

§ 1. Dictionaries of Animals, Systems and Elementary Treatises of

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 383

Classification. — 2. Anatomy of Animals or Comparatire Ana-
tomy.— s. General Histories of . Aniraals.^4. History of
Animals of different Countries. — 5. Natural Histpfy of Zop-
phytes(, or of Bodies partaking both of Animal ^nd Vegetable
Nature.-^6. Entomology, or Natufal History of Inserts.
i. Elementary Treatises and Systems pf Classification.— ii* Qpneral His-
tory of Insects. — ^iii. Particular History of some Inse9(s. — iv. History
of the Insects of particular Countries. — v.' Crustaceous Insects.— vi.
Marine! and Fresh Water Insects, Polyi^es, Worms, &c.
§ 7. Conchology.

i. Systemsof Classification;-— General History, and Elementary Treatises
on Shells.^i. PaiticnlaT Histories pf Shells. — iii. Historic of Sheljs,
found in different Countries:

§ 8. Ichthyology.

i. general History of Fishes. — ^ii; P^tipular Histoj'ies of Fishes. — iii.
Histories of the Fishes of different Countries. — iv. Cetaceous Fishes.

§ 9. Amphibious Animals and Reptiles.^ — 10. Ornithology.

i. Systems of Classification and General Treatises. — ii. General History
of Birds. — iii. Particular History of some Birds. — iv. History of the
Birds of different Countries;

§ II. Natural History of Quadrupeds,
i. Particular History of several Species of Quadrupeds. — ^ii. Mammife-
rous Animals.

§ 12. Natural History of different Countries.— 13. Miscellanies of
Natural History. — 14. Cabinets and Collections of Natural His-
tory. — IS. Monsters, Prodigies of Nature, Lusus Natures
Giants.— 16. Natural History of Man,

CHAPTER III, MEDICINE.

SEcmoN .1. History .of Medicine.

2. Dictionaries and BiWiQtheca? of Medicine.

3. General Elementary Treatises.

4. Works of Antient MedicalWrit^s. ^

§ 1. Greek Writers.— g. LaWJ Wite«.— s. Arabic
Writers.

5. Collective Works of Modern Writers on Medi-

cine.

384 PRINCIPLES OF

SECTION 6. Anatomy.

§ 1. History of Anatomy, and Anatomical Collections. — 2. An-
' tient and Modern Anatomists. [For the Greek Anatomists, see
the Greek Writers on Medicine.] — 3. Treatises on the Anatomy
of particular Parts of the Human Body.— 4. Anatomical Miscel-
lanies, including Theses, &c.

SECTION 7. Physiology.

§ 1. General Treatises and Systems of Physiology w>— 2. Treatises
and Essays on particular Branches of Physiology.

SECTION 8. Hj'gieine, or the Art of Preserving Health.

Treatises on the Art of presernng Health and the Prolongation of
Life.

SECTION 9. Dietetics.

§ 1. Treatises on Diet and Regimen, Aliments, &c. — 2. Treatises
on Cookery.

SECTION 10. Pathology, or the Knowledge of Diseases.

§ 1. Elements, Principles, and General Treatises, — 2. Treatises on
the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases, on their Crises, and on the
Pulse.

SECTION 11. Therapeutics, or the Art of Healing.

§ 1. General Treatises on Practical Medicine. — 2. Treatises on par-
ticular Diseases, Agues, Epidemic Diseases, Fevers, Diseases of
the Skin, of Women and Children, of particular Climates, of
Soldiers and Seamen, &c.

SECTION 12. Legal Medicine.

13. The Materia Medica.

§ 1. General Treatises.— 2. Treatises on Poisons
and Antidotes.
^4. Secret or Quack Medicines.

15. Miscellaneous Medic&l Productions.

Comprising Medical Journals, Theses, &c.

16. Surgery.

§ I. History of Surgery.— 2. General Treatises on Surgery.— 3.
Antienit and Modem Surgeons, whose Works are collected toge-

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 385

ther<T-4. Treatises on particular Surgical Operations.— 5. Mid-
wifery.T-6. Miscellaneous Surreal Productions.

SECTION 17. Pharmacy,

SECTION 18, Veterinary Medicine.

CHAPTER IV. CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY.

SECTION 1. Chemistry, proper.

Dictionaries, and Systems of Chemistry in General.
SECTION 3. Vegetable, Animal, and Agricultural Chemistry.
SECTION 3. Chemistry as applied to the Arts and Manufac-
tures in General.
SECTION 4. Meteorology.
SECTION 5. Electricity — Magnetism — Galvanism.

For Chemistry, as applied to Metals/ see Metallurgy ; see Chap. 11.
Sect, 6. — ^As applied to Cookery, see Chap. Ill, Sect, 9, p. 384,
supra. — ^As applied to Pyrbtechny, see Div.VII. Chap. I. Sect. 7.
p. 387, infra.

SECTION 6. Alchymy.

§ 1. History of Alchymy, and Collections of Alchemical Works.
— 2. Works of Antient and Modem Aldhyraists comprising
Treatises on thePhUosopher's Stone, Panaceas, Universal Elixirs,
&C. &c.

CHAPTER V. MATHEMATICS,

And the Sciences which depend on them.

SECTION 1 . History of the Mathematics.
SECTION 2. Antient Mathematicians, Greek and Latin.
SECTION 3. Dictionaries and Elementary Treatises on Ma-
thematics;
SECTION 4. Works of Modern Mathematicians, who treat of

several Branches of that Science.
SECTION 5. Pure Mathematics.

S 1, Courses of pure Mathematics, — 2. Arithmetic. — 3, ^ Algebra,
both elementary and infinitesimal,— 4. Geometry, elementary and
C C

386 PRINCIPLES OF

. transcendental.— S. Practical Geometry : Land Survisying.-- «.
Logarithms and Mathematical Tables. — 7. Treatises on Matlie-
jnatical Instruments. — 8. Mathematics applied to Calculations of
Probabilities, Life Annuities, Sec

SECTION 6. Mechanical Philosophy, or Mixed Mathematics.

§ 1. Mechanics.

i. General Treatises. — li. Dynamics. — iii. Hydrodynamics, ificludin|>
Hydraulics, Hydrostatics and Pneumatics.

J. 2. Collections of Machines. — 3. Astronomy.
i. History of Astronomy.— ii. Antient Astronomers. — iii. Modern Astro-
nomers, Elementary and General Treatises.^v. System of the World,
Celestial and Physical Mechanics.^v. Treatises on Planets, and their
Satellites, on Stars and Comets. — ri. Astronomical Observations.—
vii. Astronomical Tables. — viii. Treatises on Astronomical Instruments.
— ix. Celestial. Atlases. — x. Astrology, and Astrological Predictions. —
xi. Treatises on the Calendar, and see also , Chronology, infra, p. 389.
— xii. Dialling, and the Measuring of Time by Clocks and Watches.

§ 4. Optics, Catoptrics, and Dioptrics. — S. Perspective* — 6. Ac-
oustics.

§ 7. Music.

Music is usually classed among the Liberal Arts ; but as its Theory is
founded on Mathematical Principles, it certainly ought to be placed
among the Sciences that depend on Mathematics.
i. History of Music. — ii. Antient Writers on Music— iii. Modern Writers
on Music, Dictionaries and Elementary Treatises on the Theory of Mu-
sic. — 'iv. Treatises on Instrumental and Vocal Music,

§ 8. Navigation.

i. History of Navigation, General and Elementary Treatises thereon.—
ii. Naval Architecture and the Working of Ships. — iii. Practical Na-
vigation.

DIVISION VII. AKTS.
CHAPTER I, AKTS OF PEACE.

SECTION I. Dictionaries and General Treatises on Arts,

, Trades, and Manufactures.
SECTION 2. Art of Memory, natural and artificial.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 387

SECTION 3. Art of Writinsf and Printing.

Elementary Treatises on these Arts : the History of
them prpperly belongs to Bibliography.
SECTION 4. The Fine Arts.

§ 1. General Treatises and Dictionaries of the Fine Arts.— 2. Art
of Design. — 3. Painting.

History of the Art ; General Tre9tisel| on it ; Collections of Engravings of
eminent Painters, classed according to their different Schools.

§ 4. Engraving. ' '

Histoi y of the Art ; Treatises on it ; Catalogues of Engravers and their
Works ; Collections ef Engravings, airaiiged according to the different
Schools i Collections of Costumes.

§ S. Sculpture.

5 6. Civil Architecture,
i. History, Dictionaries, and Elementary Treatises.^^ri. Qeneral Treatises,
Antient and Modern. — iii. Treatises on particular Branches of Civil
Architecture. — iv. Collections of Descriptions of Antient and Modern
Edifices. — v. Arts of Carpentry, Joining, and Manufacture of JLoeks.

SECTION 5. Rural and Domestic Economy,

S 1. Antient Writers. — 2. Modem Writers.

i. Dictionaries and Elementary Treatises.-^ii. Systems ef Agriculture
and General Treatises.— iii. Essays and Treatises on the Cultivation of
particular Crops, Management of Forests, &c. — iv. Grazing, and the
Management of Cattle. — v. Horticulture. Dictionaries and Practical
Treatises on Gardening, and the Culture of particular Fruits, &c.

SECTION 6. Manufactures.

Treatises on particular Manufkctnres.

SECTION 7. Gymnastic and other Mechanical Arts.

§ 1. Pyrotechny— Art of AiaMng Fire-Woi-ks.- 2. Gymnastic
Exercises— Wrestling, Ridii^, Swimrtiing, Dancing, Hunting,
Fishing.— 3. Games of Chance and Afflusemmt.
CHAPTER il. ARTS OF tTAft.

SECTION 1. Art of making Arms.

SECTION 2. Military Tactics.

§ 1. Antient Author*.— 2. Modem Authors.
i. History and Treatises on the Modern Art (rf Wm.— ii. Feltifi^tion,
C c 2

388 PRINCIPLES 01^

Attack and Defence of Places;— iii. Artillery;— iv. Military Ta<:tiC6.-r»-
V. Narratives of Military. -Qperations.
§ s. Naval Tactics.- ., .'

III.

DIVISION I. IWTHODUCTION TO THE STUDY AND
USE OF HISTORY.

CHAPTER I. TREATISES ON THE MANNER OF WRITING
AND STUDYING HISTORY: HISTORICAL ATLASES.

CHAPTER II. GEOGRAPHY.

SECTION I. Geographical Dictionaries, and Treatises on the

Study of Geography.
SECTION 3. Antient Geography..
SECTION 3- Modern Geogjraphy.
SECTION 4. Atlases and Maps.
SECTION 5. Maritime Geography'.

CHAPTER III. VOYAGES.

Introduction — Treatises on the Utility of Voyages, and iu
what Manner they may be con^lucted to the best Advan-
tage.

SECTION 1. General History of Voyages and Travels.-
sECTioN 2. Collections of Voyages.
SECTION 3. Voyages round the World.
SECTION 4. Voyages in Europe, Asia and Africa.
SECTION 5. Voyages in Europe, Africa and America.
SECTION 6. Voyages in Europe and Asia.
SECTION 7. Voyages in Europe and Africa.
SECTION 8. Voyages in- Asia, Africa and America.
sECTio.N S.' Voyages in Asia and America.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 389

SECTION 10. Voyages in Africa and "America.
SECTION II. Travels in Europe.

i 1. Travels in several Parts of Europe.

[Travels and Tours in England will be found infra.]
i. Russia in Europe, Sweden, Denmark and Norway. — ii. The Nether.
lands, Germany, Hungary and Poland. — iii. France and Switzerland-
— iv. Italy.— V. Spain and Portngal. — vi. Turkey in Europe,

SECTION 12. Travels in Asia.

} 1, Travels in different Parts of Asia. — 3. In Asiatic Greece,
Syria and Palestine. — 3. In Arabia. — 4. Persia and the East In-
dies. — 5. China and Tartary. — 6. Siberia and Kamtschatka. — 7.
Voyages to the South Sea and South Pole.— 8. Asiatic Islands->-
Austral Asia — ^Pdynesia.

SECTION 13. Travels in Africa.

5 1. Travels in different Parts of Africa. — 2. Egypt, Nubia,'
Abyssinia.?— 3. Mohammedan States in the North , of Africa.
— t. The Western Coast and Interior. — 5. The Cape of Good
Hope and Caffiaria, — 6, African Islands.

SECTION 14. Travels dn America.

§ 1. Different Parts of America.>— 2. Nor£h America. — 3. South
America. — 4. American Islands. — 5. Travels in quest of a
North-West Passage,

CHAPTER IV. CHRONOLOGY.

SECTION 1. Systems and Treatises on Chronology in general.
SECTION 3. Systems and Treatises on the Chronology of par-
ticular Nations and Periods.
SECTION 3. Chronological Tables.

DIVISION II. UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I. CIVIL HISTORY, ANTIENT AND MODERN.

CHAPTER II. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.

SECTION 1. General History of Religions.
SECTION 3, General History of the Christian Church.
SECTION 3. Ecclesiastical History of different Countries.
[For the Ecclesiastical History of England and Sc(>tland, see Div.
III. Ch. II. Sect. 2. § 4. and Sect. S. § 4. infra.]

390 PRINCIPLES OF

SECTION 4. Histojy of Popes, Cardinals and Conclaves.
SECTION 5. History of the Inquisition.
SECTION 6. History of Religious Orders.,
SECTION 7. History of Orders of Knighthood,, instituted for
the Defence of the Church.

[For the History of Councils, see Class I. Div. II. Chap. III.
Sect. 2, supra. Lives of SaintSj Martyrs, &c. see Div. IV. Ch. II.
inffa.]
SECTION 8. History and singular Practices of sorjne Societies,

known under the Nanjes of Brethren of the

Rooy CrosSi Freemasons, &c.

DIVISION III. PAKTICULAH HISTORY.
CHAPTER 1. ANTIENT HISTORY.

SECTION 1. History of the Origin, of Nations.

SECTION 2. General and, particular History of several Antient
Nations.

SECTION 3. History of the Sevis.

SECTION 4. Particular History of the Phenicians, Babylo-
nians, Egyptians, Persians, &G,

SECTION 5. General and particular- History of Greece,
§ 1. Antient Authors. — 2. Modern Authors.

SECTION 6. General and particular History of the Roman
RepubUc and Empire.

§• 1. Antient Authors. — 2. Modern Authors.

SECTION 7. Byzantine History.

CHAPTER II. MODERN HISTORY.

SECTION 1. General History of Modern Europe.
SECTION 2. England.

S 1. Topography of England.

i. Topography and Antiquities of England, in general ; comprising
Statistical and Political Surveys, Travels and Tours, Manners and Cus-
toms...— ii. Topography and Antiquities of the several Counties, and of
the several Places comprised in them j inclbditig Accoiints of- Mineral
Waters, Ruins, Monasteries, &c. &c. &o.

BIBLIOGRAPHT. 391

§ 2. Civil History of England— Narrative.

i. Collections, illustrative of the General History anji Antiquities of
England, Ceremonial of Coronations,, &e^ . .
ii. Chronicles atid Antient Histbries of England.

(A) Before the Conqnest. '

(n) During the Time of the Antient Britons and Hnmans.-
(*) During the Time of the Saxons.

(d) During the Time, both of the Saxons, atid of the Danes.

(B) Annals, Chronicles, Histoi'ies, since the Conquest, and Memoirs
of particular Reigns.

iii. History of England, during particular Beigns, and Memoirs rela-
tive thereto.— iv. Accounts of Military, and Naval E*|)editions, under-
taken by British Forces — v. Parliamentary History qf England, includ-
ing the History, Debates, and other Proceedings of Parliament

J 3. Civil History of England. — Documentary...

i. Royal Charters connected with British History. — ii. Diplomatic In-
struments, via. Treaties, InstfructioYis to Ambassadors, "Correspopd-
ence, &c, chronologically arratigedi — iii. Proclamations, Journals, and
Books of the Privy Council. — iv. Pariiamentary, viz. Rolls and Journals
of Parliament — v. Mint — Puhlic Revenue — and Royal Expenditure.

1. Coin and Money of England.

2. Mint

3. Public Revenue, Aids, Taxes, Subsidies, &c.

4. Royal Expenditure and Estates.

vi. Ordnance and Military Documents. — vii. Admiralty and Navyj
Victualling and Manning thereof. — viii. Trade. — ix. Custotns, Excise,

§ 4. Ecclesiastical History of England.

SECTION 3. History of Scotland.

§ 1. Tttpography , of Scotland, comprising County Histories,
Surveys, Cartularies, and Registers of Religious Houses, &c.

§ 2. Ci-vil ISstory of Scotland.

i. Collections, illustrative of the General History, &c. of fScftHondi —

ii. Chronicles and Antient History, — Memoirs of particular Reigns.

—iii. History of Scotland, during particular Periods.

S. Documentary. ,

i. Royal Charters, and other B£cords.—ii. Diplomatic Instruments, viz.

Instructions to Ambassadors, and other State Papers.

§ 4. Ecclesiastical History of Scotland.

393 PRINCIPLES OF

SECTION 4. History of Wales.

§ 1. Topography of Wales, (comprising County Histories, Sur-
veys of particular Places, Grants, Cartularies, and Registers of
Religious Houses, &c. &c.)— 2. Civil History of Wales.

SECTION 5. History of Ireland.

§ 1. Topography of Ireland.— 2. Civil History of Ireland.

i. Narrative.— -ii. Documentary, (comprising Official Lists &c. relative
to the Settlement and Government of Ireland, Proceedings in the
Irish Parliament before the Union, &e.)

SECTION 6. Islands forming Part of Great Britain.
The Norman, Western and other Isles.

SECTION 7. History of European States (geographically
disposed froni the North to the South of
Europe.)

§ 1. General History of the Northern nations. — 2. Denmark and
Norway, (including Greenland.) — 3. Sweden, (including Lap-
land.) — 4. Russia.— 5. Polapd. — 6. Germany.

i. General History of the Germanic Empire, and Emperors. — ii. His-
tory of the House of Austria, (including that of Hungary.) — iii. Prus-
sia. — iv. Antient Circles of Germany, now forming the Confederation
of the Rhine. — v. The Hanse Towns and other German States.

§ 7. The United Provinces and the Netherlands.

ii The United Provinces.— it The Netherlands.
§ g. France.

i. Topographical and Statistical Accounts of France, Antient and Mo-
dem.-.— ii. History of the Celts.-^iii. Antiquities of France-r-Ceremonial
of crowning the Sovereigns,

iv. Ciml U'lsimy — A'aft-aiioe, (comprising General History, and Collec-
tions relative thereto, Chronicles, Memoirs of particular Reigns, ar-
ranged under the difierent Races, to the Revolution, and thence to
the present Time.)

V. Ciml Hisimy—Doetimentary, (comprising Treaties, Memorials^ and
other Diplomatic Papers.) — vi. Government of France, Mint, ^c

§ 9. Switzerland and Geneva,
i. Switzerland. — ii. Geneva.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 393

S 10. Spain.

i. Topographical Descriptions of Spain and its different Provinces. —
ii. General History of Spain. — ^iii. History of Spain under particular
Reigns; — ^iv. Miscellanies relative to the History of Spain.

J 11. PortugaL — 12. Italy.

i. Collections relative to Italian History in general. — ii. Collections rela-
tive to the History of Modern Rome and the Papal See. — iii. History
of other Italian States. — iv. History of the Italian Islands.

§ IS. The Ottoman Empire.

SECTION 8. History of Asiatic Countries.

S 1. Geography and History of the different Nations of Asia. — 2.
History of the Arabs and Saracens — 3. History of Persia — 4. His-
tory of the different Countries of India — S. History of China, the
Tartars, &c. — 6. Miscellaneous Collections relative to Asiatic
History.

SECTION 9. History of Africa.

§ 1. General History — 2. History of Egypt— 3. History of the

Barbary States, Ethiopia, and other parts of Afiica — 4. History

of the African Islands.

SECTION 10. History of America.

S 1. General History— 2. History of Peru, Chili, Paraguay, Brazil
and Cayenne — S- History of Mexico, California, Florida, and
Louisiana — 4. History of the American or West Indian Islands.

DIVISION IV. BIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY.

General Dictionaries of Biography, Antient and Modern.

CHAPTER I. CIVIL BIOGRAPHY.

SECTION I. Antient Biography^

Contaning Lives,Portrats, &c.of Eminent Men among the Antienti.

SECTION II. Modern Biography.

5 I.British (including lives. Portraits, Trials, Speeches, Funeral
Discourses in Honour of Eminent Men, ?cc.)— 2. Foreign Biogra-
phy— 3. Lives and Eulogies of Eminent Artists.

CHAPTER II. ECCLESIASTICAL BIOGRAPHY,

Comprising Martyrologies, the lives. Acts, Miracles, Passions,

394 PRINCIPLES OF

&c. of Saints, Fathers, Confessors, &c. of the Grpek and
Latin Churches.

DIVISION V. MONUMENTAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I. GENEALOGICAL HISTORY.

SECTION 1. British.
SECTION 2. Foreign.

CHAPTER II. HERALDRY.

SECTION 1 . History and Regulations of Heralds.
SECTION 3. History of Chivalry and Nobility.

§ 1. History of Knights and. Knighthood,, in general— 2- History of
British Orders of Knighthood — 3. History of Foreign Orders of
Knighthood, &c.

[For Orders of Knighthood instituted for the Defence of the Church, see
Div. II. ch. II. sect. "7, p. 390, supra.']

§ 4. Heraldic Miscellanies,

Comprising Mistiellaneous Heraldic Treatises and Collections, Claims of
Dignities and Titles of Honour, Precedencyof Nobility and Gentry, Grants
and Displays of Arms, the Practice of Military Courts of Honour, Justs,
Tournaments, and Single Combats, &c.

ii British — ii. Foreign.

DIVISION VI. ANTIQUITIES — NUMISMATICS.
Dictionaries, General Treatises, &c. on Antiquities.

CHAPTER I. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE ANTIENTS.

SECTION 1. Religious Customs of the Antients, in general,

SECTION 2. Civil and Military Customs.

SECTION 3. Money, Weights> and Measures.

aEGTioN 4. Religious, Civil, and Military. Customs of Antient
Oriental Nations.

SECTION 3. Manners and Customs of tba G^-eeks, Civil>. Reli-
gious and Military.

SECTION 6. Manners and Customs of the Bomans> Girili Re-
ligious, and Military.

SECTION 7. Manners and Customs, Civil, Religious and Mili-
tary of the Gauls, and other Antient Nations.

BIBLIOGIIAPHY. 395

CHAPTER II. ANTlgUE MONUMENTS.

SECTION 1. Collections of Antique Monuments, in general.
SECTION 2. Descriptions of Cabinets of Antique Monuments.
SECTION 3. Antique Monuments found at Herculaneum.
SECTION i. Architectural Monuments of the Antients, found

in difierent countries.
SECTION 5. Obeli^s, Pyramids, Pillars, Triumphal Arches.
SECTION. 6. Mosaic Pavements,
SECTION 7. Antique Statues and other Sculptures.
SECTION 8. . Gems and Engraved Stones.
SECTION 9, Vases, Lamps, Seals, &c.

CWAiPTER III. NUMISMATICS.

SECTION 1. Introductions to, and General Treatises on. Nu-
mismatics.
SECTION 2. Collections and Cabinets of Medals.
SECTION 3. Medals of Antient People, Towns, and Kings.
SECTION 4. Dissertations on some Particular Medals.

CHAPTER IV. INSCRIPTIONS AND MARBLES.

SECTION 1. Introduction to the Study of Antique Inscriptions

and Marbles.
SECTION 2. Collections of Inscriptions and Mfifbles, Greek

and Roman.
SECTION 3. Phenician, Chinese, and other Inscriptions.

*#* In most Bibliographical S^^rgtems, Literary History forms
the concluding, division of the faculty of History: for reasons al-
ready assigned. Pi 861 — 36S,-jK^rwr we have. placed it at the-head of
Bibliography, to which it more properly belongs. The History, 6f the
different branches of Sciences and the Arts is placed at the head of
the class or division in the present System to which it belongs.

398 PRINCIPLES OF

IV.

Courses of Study, and Introductions to the Study of
hiterature.

DIVISION I. GRAMMAR.

CHAPTER I. TREATISES ON THE THEORY AND FORMATION

OF LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER II. ALPHABETS, AND POLYGLOT DICTIONARIES

OF LANGUAGES.

CHAPTER III. TREATISES AND ESSAYS ON GRAMMAR IN

GENERAL.

SECTION 1. Antient Grammarians.
SECTION 2. Modern Grammarians.

CHAPTER IV. GRAMMARS AND DICTIONARIES OF VARIOUS
LANGUAGES,

SECTION 1. Antient Oriental Languages, Hebrew, Arabic,

Samaritan, Chaldee, &c.
SECTION 2. Modern Oriental Languages.
SECTION 3. Greek.

S 1. General Treatises on Greek Grammar — 2. Dictionaries and
Lexicons of the Greek Language — 3. Grammars and Oicbonaries
of the Modem Greek Language.

SECTION 4. Latin.

§ I. General Treatises on Latin Grammar — 2. Dictionaries of the
Latin Language.

SECTION 5. English.

J 1. Treatises on English Grammar — 2. Dictionaries of the English
Language.

SECTION 6. Welsh, Scotch and Irish.
SECTION 7. French:

§ 1. Treatises on the Origin and Etymology of the French Lan-

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 397

guage— 2. Treatises on French Grammar— 3. Dictionaries of the
French Language— 4. Grammars and Dictionaries of the Dialect^
of different Parts of France.

SECTION 8. Italian,

SECTION 9. Spanish and Portuguese.

SECTION 10. Flemish and Dutch.

SECTION 11. German and Smss.

SECTION 12. Hungarian, lUyrian, and other Languages.

SECTION 13. . Antient Northern Languages.

SECTION 14. Modern Northern Languages, Russian, Danish,
Swedish, &c.

SECTION 15. American Languages.

CHAPTER V. PHILOLOGY AND CRITICISM.

SECTION I. General Treatises on Philology, Dictionaries for
understanding Antient Authors, Dictionaries of Litera-
ture.

SECTION 2. Antient Critics, Greek and Latin.

SECTION 3. Modern Critics, Latin, English, French, Spanish,
&c.

DIVISION 11. KHETORIC.

CHAPTER I. TREATISES ON THE THEORY OF RHETORIC,
SECTION 1. Antient.
§ 1. Greek — 2. Latin.
SECTION 2. Modem.

CHAPTER II. ORATORS.

SECTION 1. Antient.

§ 1. Greek Orators — 2, Latin Orators.

SECTION 2. Modem Orators.

Sermons are by some placed in this class; but they
more properly are referred to that of Theology.

SECTION 3, Orients^ Orators.

398 PRINCIPLES OF

DIVISION III. POETRY.
General Treatises on Poetry.

CHAPTER I. METRICAL.

SECTION 1. Greek Poets.

§ 1, Treatises on Greek Poetry, Antient and Modern— 2. Collec-
tions and Extracts of Greek Poets— 3. Greek Poets, Epic, Lyric,
&c.— 4. Greek Dramatic Poets.

SECTION 2. Roman Poets.

§ 1. Treatises on Latin Poetry — 2. Collections and Extracts of La-
tin Poets — 3. Latin Poets, Epic, Lyric, &c. — t. Latin Dramatic
Poets.

SECTION 3. Modern Latin Poets.

§1. History, Collections and Extracts of Modem Latin Poets. — 2.
Works of Modem Latin Poets.
[These may be arranged by Nations.]
SECTION 4. Macaronic Poets, in various Languages.
SECTION 5. English Poets.

§ 1. History and Treatises on English Poetry — ^2. Collections and
Extracts of English Poets — 3. Works of English Poets,

SECTION 6. Scottish, Welsh, and Irish Poets.

§ 1. Treatises and Histories of Scottish, Welsh, and Irish Poetry —
2. Collections and Extracts of these Poets — 3. Detached Works
of Scottish, Welsh, and Irish Poets.

SECTION 7. French Poets.

§ 1. History of, and Introduction to French Poetry^2. Collections
and Extracts of French Poets — 3. Works of the French Poets —
4. Poems in the Patois Dialect.

SECTION 8. Italian Poets.

§ 1. Introduction to Italian Poetry— '2. Collections of Poets — S.
Works of various Poets — 4. Burlesque Italian Poets.

SECTION 9. Spanish and Portuguese Poets.
SECTION 10. German, Dutch, and Flemish Poets.

BIBLIOGRAPHV. 399

SECTION 11. Poets of the Northern Nations of Europe.'
SECTION 12. Oriental Poets,

CHAPTER ir. MOli^HN BKAMATIC POETS.

SECTION 1. GeneraMntroductions to Dramatic Poetry.
SECTION 2. Modern Latin Dramatic Poets,
SECTION 3. English Dramatic Poets.

§ 1. History of the English Stage ; Treatises on the Dramatic Art— •
2. Collections of the Works of English Dramatic Poets— 3. En-
glish Tragjc Poets — 4. English Comic Poets — S. English Operas
and Farces.

SECTION 4. French Dramatic Poets.

§ 1. History of the French Stagej'Treaitises on the D^inladc Art—
2. Collections of French Dramatic Poets — 3. Works of French
Dramatic Poets — 4. Academy of Music, French Operas, Farces,
&c.

SECTION S. Italian Dramatic Poets.

5 1. History and Treatises on the Italian Theatre— 2. Works of Ita-
lian Dramatic Poets; - ■

SECTION 6, Spanish and Portuguese Dramatic Poets.

SECTION 7. Germany Danish, and Eussian Dramatic Authors.

CHAPTER III. WORKS OF IMAGINATION NOT IN METRE.

(Romances, Novels, Adventures, Fictitious Voyages, &c.}

SECTION 1. Greek Romances.

SECTION. 2. Latin Romances.

SECTION 3. English.

SECTION 4. French,

SECTION 5. Italian.

SECTION 6. Spanish.

SECTION 7. Gernaan, &c.

DIVISION IV. LITERARY MISCELLANIES,

CHAPTER I. POLYGKAPHIC AUTHORS,

' (Or those Vvho have written in a Variety of Styles.)
SECTION 1. Antient (Greek and Latin).

400 PRINCIPLES OF

SECTION 2. Modern, in English, Latin, French, and other
Languages.

CHAPTER 11. DIALOGUES AND CONVEKSATIONS ON DIF-
FERENT SUBJECTS.

CHAPTER III. FABLES, TALES, AND APOLOGUES.

SECTION 1. Antient (Greek and Latin).

SECTION 3. Modem.

§ 1. Oriental — 2. European, in Various Languages.

CHAPTER IV. SATIRES AND INVECTIVES, DEFENCES AND
APOLOGIES.

CHAPTER V. PROVERBS, ADAGES, APOPHTHEGMS, MORAL

SENTENCES.

SECTION 1. Greek and Latin.

SECTION 2. Modern, in Various Languages.

CHAPTER VI. FACETI^, BON MOTS, AND WORKS IN ANA.

CHAPTER VII. HIEROGLYPHICS, SYMBOLS, EMBLEMS, ^ND
DEVICES.

CHAPTER VIII. EPISTOLARY WRITERS.

[For the Episdes of the Greek and Latin Philosophers, vide supra.
Class ii. Div. i. page 377.]

SECTION 1. Treatises on Epistolary Writing.
SECTION 2. Collections of Modem Letters written in Various
Languages.

CHAPTER IX. LITERARY AND MISCELLANEOUS TRACTS.

Collections of Tracts on Various Subjects, Extracts from Va-
rious Authors, Common-place Books, &c.

In the preceding pages it has been attempted
to exhibit a system of Bibliography, adapted to
the classification of a large library : the follow-
ing compendium of it (fprmed on the principles

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 401

already detailed ') is offered, for the arrangement
of a smaller collection of books.

Works treating on Literary History — the History of
Languages and Letters — on the Knowledge ^qd Ra-
rity of Books — Catalogues of Libraries, Reviews, a,nd
Literary Journals.

I. %i}(!£ptT)6p,

Works treating on Natural and Revealed Religion, and
Litroductory to the Study of th? Scriptures — ^Editions
of the Holy Scriptures (Texts and Versions).

Harmonies — Commentators— rapd Critics.

Sermons and other Works q£ Divines, Polemical and
Practical.

Mohammedan and Pagan Theology.

II. pi&SULSD'SaDpj&l),

History of Philosophy — Works of Antient and Mo-
dern Philosophers.

Logic — Ethics — Metaphysics.

PoKtical Economy — Jurisprudence, including Civil and
Ecclesiastical, British and Foreign Law.

Sciences — Physics, or Natural and Experimental Philo-
sophy — Natural History — Botany, Geology, and Mi-
neralogy — Anatomy and Surgery — Medicine — Che-
mistry — Meteorology — Electricity — Magnetism —
Galvanism — Mechanics — Optics — Astronomy — Ma-
thematics — and Geometry.

Arts of Peace — Architecture — Painting — Sculpture—

' See pp. 362 — 372, mpra.
D D

402 PRINCIPLES OF BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Writing — Engraving — Music.
Art of War — Works on Naval and Military Tactics.

in. ^i%%T)np.

Geogra^y — Voyages and Travels — Chronology.
History (Antient and Modem — British and Foreign —

Civil and Ecclesiastical) — Biography.
Heraldry — Antiquities — and Numismatics.

IV. M^aEHaEaK®.

Treatises on Language — Grammars — and Dictionaries,

Philology and Criticism — Rhetoric.

Poetry and the Drama.

Works of Imagination not in Metre — Romances, Ad-
ventures and Fictitious Voyages.

Polygiaphy (Works of Authors vi^ho have vi^ritten on
Various Subjects) — Literary Miscellanies.