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ANTHROPOID APES 


BY 
ROBERT HARTMANN 


PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN * 


WITH SIXTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW YORK 


D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
1, 8, ap 5 BOND STREET 


1886 
ES 


CHAPTER 


I. 


II. 
III. 


VII. 


CONTENTS. 


Tur DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH 
ANTHROPOID APES... ee aoe wee 


Tue ExTerRNAL Form or ANTHROPOID APES is 


Tue ExtTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF 
ANTHROPOID APES, COMPARED WITH THE HuMAN 
STRUCTURE ... sage wee oe “i 


On VaRieTirs IN THE Form or ANTHROPOIDS ses 


GroarapHicaL DistrrsuTion, Hazits In a STATE oF 
Narure, AND Native Names or ANTHROPOIDS ... 


Lire In CartiviTy wii ase sie wee 
Posrrion OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL System 


A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FurTHER Con- 
SIDERATIONS OF THE ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF THE 
GorILLA, CHIMPANZEE, ORANG, AND GIBBON... 


APPENDIX igs sas oie — sip 


InpEx eos oe ae wee eu 


PAGE 


210 


225 
257 
285 


290 
309 
321 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Aged male gorilla ... ves age wae 
Ear of a male adult gorilla 
The young male gorilla, from the apedimen in the Berlin 


Aquarium of 1876-77... es wes 
The same animal at a still earlierage ... 
Ear of chimpanzee ues sais es 
Young chimpanzee AH ae ose 
Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan 
Ear of the orang-utan ... eas as ove 
Adult male orang-utan ae sae vee 
Head of the white-handed gibbon aor sia 


Ear of the white-handed gibbon ae ss 

Left hand of Hylobates albimanus as 

Left foot of the same animal eee ae 

A wauwau in the left foreground (Hylobates agilis); in 
the background to the right, two slender apes ee: 
pithecus entellus) aa tee a 

Skull of an-aged male gorilla in pedals aD 

Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla 

Skeleton of an aged male gorilla 

Skull of an aged male chimpanzee .. wists sa 

Skull of a very young female Ghiciparieee 

Skeleton of the forearm and hand of the Central ‘Attic 
bam-chimpanzee a re _ 

Skeleton of foot of the Central African bam- chimpanzee 

Skull of middle-aged female orang ... 

Skeleton of young orang-utan ... 

The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in ses curs with two 
of his men we vies . se 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Aidanill, hairless Australian... sis eis 
The same in profile we eis wed vec 
Dewan, Aidanill’s sister sie nae ene 
Human ear ose - ae sie oon 
Magot (Innuus senna tae wee aes 
Capucin ape (Cebus capucinus) aia Bee wes 
Hand of a very aged male gorilla ae Laas 
Hand of a» Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile 


Satan’s ape (Pithecia Satanas). Shows the formation 
and mode of using the feet in apes of the New World 


Human skull ae as ase aes wee 
The Neanderthal skull es _ wee 

Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon ak BGs wee 
Naulette lower jaw... aa ase ver 

Lower jaw of chimpanzee ... oom wes 
Sagittal section through the skull ar a bam-chimpanzee 
Human skeleton ... awe as ots 
Skeleton of an aged male wort soe soe 

Skeleton of human hand, back view Bud eee 
Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon 
Section through the tibia of a male gorilla ... se 


Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee ... 
Skeleton of the human foot, seen from above 

Coaita (Ateles paniscus) eos one oe 
Muscles of the head and face of a European 
Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro wes tse 
Head-muscles of gorilla presented in Fig. 3 ... 

Palmar muscles of man he an ee 
Palmar muscles of gorilla .. Sas tee 
Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hands 
Muscular system of the human foot oe aes 
Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot ... 
The brain of an orang, seen from the side... . 
Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above ao 
Brain of gorilla, side view... wee ies 
Brain of orang, seen from above Ses 
Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain ose vee 
Mafuca ene mee wae 
The home of the seans ess eee 
Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind ... 


eae 


ANTHROPOID APHS. 


CHAPTER I. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH 
ANTHROPOID APES.* 


Our first acquaintance with the great anthropoid 
apes dates from the times of remote antiquity. The 
West Coast of Africa, which is the abode of 
these animals, was known to the Carthaginians as 
early as B.c. 500. In B.c. 470 Hanno set out with 
sixty fifty-oared galleys, laden with colonists and 
_merchandise, on a grand expedition across Morocco 
to Upper Guinea. The object in view was partly 
mercantile, partly undertaken with the purpose of 
establishing a colony. It seems that at that time 
pioneering expeditions had previously taught them 
how far the coast was adapted for colonization. 
The Carthaginians met with “gorillat” on the 
lower range of the mountains of the Isle of Sherboro, 


* A list of the numerous authorities for the substance of this 
chapter is placed at the end of the volume. 


2 ANTHROPOID APES, 


and in the mountainous district of Sierra Leone (1). 
These are described as hairy sylvan creatures who 
replied to the attacks of the seafarers by throwing 
stones at them. Three of these monsters, of the 
female sex, were captured, but they bit and scratched 
so furiously that it was necessary to kill them on 
the spot. Pliny relates that at the time of the 
Roman invasion, B.c. 146, two of the skins obtained 
on this occasion were still preserved at Carthage, in 
the temple of Astarte (2). It was subsequently 
shown that chimpanzees, not true gorillas, were 
described in these “gorillai.” The latter animals 
are not now found so far north. 

An old representation of the chimpanzee, in mosaic, 
was found on the pavement of the temple of Fortuna 
at Preeneste (now Palestrina). This mosaic is now 
in a museum at Rome, and has been described by 
several authors. It represents a scene in tropical 
Africa, probably on the Upper Nile. I find it 
difficult to recognize the chimpanzee on the mosaic 
amid the giraffes, hippopotami, crocodiles, and the 
other representatives of the animal world of tropical 
Africa (3). But it is well known that these large 
apes are found on some of the streams of the Upper 
Nile, as in Niam-Niam and Uganda. Pliny writes 
of these animals: “On the Indian mountains to the 
south, in the land of the Catharcludi, there are 
satyrs. These are the swiftest of creatures, some- 
times going on all fours, sometimes upright like 
men, and they are so active that they can only be 
captured when old or sick” (4). These satyrs have 
been identified with the orang-utan, but the gibbon 


OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES. 3 


may also be intended, which is swifter and more 
agile, when in an upright position, than the orang- 
utan. 

Subsequent to the remote period which we have 
cited, there is a long silence respecting these re- 
markable animals. Only at the time when 
Portugal became subject to the power of Spain, we 
hear something about them from Congo and Angola. 
The sailor Eduardo Lopez gave an account of the 
chimpanzee, which was published by Pigafetta in 
1598 (5). There are later accounts of very large 
apes in the writings of Pedro da Cintra (6), Father 
Merolla of Sorrento (7), Froger (8), and William 
Smith (9). 

Smith gives a representation of the chimpanzee 
under the erroneous name of the mandril (Cyno- 
cephalus Maimon). The illustration is bad, but 
it may be recognized by his description. In 1641 
the Dutch anatomist N. van Tulpe (Tulpius) gave 
a better illustration of this anthropoid (10). This 
naturalist observed that the animal in question, 
Homo sylvestris or orang-utan (Satyrus indicus), is 
called quojas morrou by the Africans. An 
anatomical description of the chimpanzee, which is 
still of great value, was given by Tyson in 1699 
(11). The anatomical illustrations included in this 
work are remarkably well executed for that time. 

Our biological acquaintance with the West 
African anthropoids is considerably increased by 
the account given in the sixteenth century by 
the adventurer Battel, of Leigh, in Essex. This 
man passed through the forests of Lower Guinea, as 


4 ANTHROPOID APES, 


sergeant of the Portuguese troops under the command 
of the Governor of Angola, Don Manuel Silveira 
Pereira. In 1613 Battel’s account was published by 
his neighbour Purchas in his Pilgrims (12). Battel 
speaks of two kinds of large apes, the engeco and 
the pongo, which inhabited the forest on the banks 
of the Banna and the Mayombe. The engeco 
corresponds to the ndjéko or nschégo (chimpanzee), 
the pongo to the n’pungu of Loango, or the gorilla. 
Battel’s description of the habits of these animals 
affords some characteristic touches which will 
concern us presently. We may date our earliest 
acquaintance with the largest of all the anthropoids 
from this adventurer’s career. 

The Dutch physician Oliver Dapper published 
in 1668 a detailed description of Africa (18), in 
which there is much of value, and he mentions the 
large apes, called quofas morrau or morrou, which 
inhabit the kingdom of Congo (14). By these he 
apparently means the chimpanzee. 

Some account, unfortunately rather vague, of the 
gorilla has been recently given by Bowdich in his 
very interesting work on the “ Mission of the Anglo- 
African Company to Ashanti” (15). He says that 
there are several remarkable species of apes in the 
territory of the Gaboon, among which the ingenu 
(gorilla) is the strangest. ‘The natives asserted that 
this animal is much larger than the orang-utan, 
generally five feet tall, and four feet broad from 
shoulder to shoulder. 

In 1847 Dr. Savage, a Protestant missionary on 
the Gaboon, reported to the distinguished anatomist 


OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES, 5 


Owen that there was an ape in that country larger 
than the chimpanzee. In addition to this informa- 
tion, he sent some drawings of skulls by the wife of 
an English missionary, Prince, in which the supra- 
orbital arch is strongly developed. Savage gave 
to the animal the name of Troglodytes Gorilla, to 
distinguish it from Troglodytes niger, the chim- 
panzee. Osven also described two skulls of gorillas, 
sent to him from the Gaboon (16). The skull of 
a gorilla, sent to Boston by the missionary Wilson, 
was drawn and described by Professor Jeffreys 
Wyman, and with it the notes of the donor were 
also published (17). In 1851 the skeleton of a 
gorilla reached Philadelphia through the medical 
missionary H. A. Ford, who also published the latest 
accounts of the new anthropoid (18). In 1849 
some remains of a gorilla reached Paris through 
Gautier Laboulaye, and this valuable contribution 
to natural history was received by de Blainville 
and Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1851 and 
1852 more perfect remains were presented to the 
Museum in Paris by Dr. Franquet and Admiral 
Penaud. In the finely illustrated works by de 
Blainville (19), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (20), and 
Duvernoy (21), they are répresented with great care. 
A splendid illustration of one of these specimens, 
excellently stuffed, consisting of an adult male, 
adorns the Photographie zoologique, by L. Rousseau 
and A. Devéria, which has, so far as I am aware, 
been published without any text (22). This illus- 
tration is so true to nature that I made use. of it in 
one of my earlier publications (23). 


6 ANTHROPOID APES. 


Paul Belloni du Chaillu, born in North America 
of French parents,and reared in his father’s mercantile 
house on the Gaboon, spent the years 1855-65 in 
roaming through the lands bordering on the Gaboon, 
the Ogaowé, and the Fernao Vaz; he professed to 
have taken part in gorilla-hunts, and he published 
several books about his travels (24). Critical light 
has been thrown upon these works, especially by 
A. E. Brehm and Winwood (25); the illustrations 
are defective, and the text is full of tales of ad- 
venture. Du Chaillu’s information respecting the 
African anthropoids was published in the Proceed- 
ings of the Zoological Society of London (26). His 
remarkable collection of the remains of apes has 
been described by Jeffreys Wyman (27), to whom 
we are also indebted for a notice of the materials 
collected by Savage (17). 

Owen has published instructive anatomical treatises 
on the gorilla and the chimpanzee, in addition to 
those already cited. This English professor had 
the opportunity of dissecting a young male gorilla, 
imperfectly preserved in spirits of wine (28). The 
travellers Burton (29), de Compiégne (30), Savon- 
gnan de Brazza (31), Lenz (82), the members of the 
German-African Loango Expedition (33), and Von 
Koppenfels (34) have also contributed some infor- 
mation respecting the gorilla in a wild state. Other 
works on the zoology and anatomy of this animal 
have been published by Duvernoy, already cited, 
Dahlbom (35), Haeckel (36), Flower (37), Issel (38), 
Giglioli (89), Chapman (40), Mivart (41), Macalister 
(414), Von Aeby (42), Lucae (43), Ecker (44), 


OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES. 7 


Bolau (45), Pansch (46), Lenz (47), A. B. Meyer 
(48), R. Meyer (49), Bischoff (50), Ehlers (51), 
Virchow (52), Von Bar (53), by the author of this 
work (54), ete. Duvernoy, Chapman, Bischoff, Bolau, 
Ehlers, and I have, like Owen, been able to dissect 
-. perfect specimens of the gorilla. Two of the speci- 
mens which came into my hands were unquestionably 
in the best, condition, since I obtained them imme- 
diately after their deaths in Berlin. A larger 
specimen of a female, 1000 mm. tall, was in worse 
preservation, yet still quite available for the purposes 
of study. 

The list of anatomical treatises on the gorilla is 
not yet exhausted. Valuable information may be 
found in the anthropological works by C. Vogt (55), 
in the writings of Pruner-Bey (56), and Magitot (57), 
in Darwin’s works (58), in Histoire Naturelle des 
Mammiferes, by Gervais (59), in Huxley’s Anatomy 
of Vertebrated Animals (60), in Flower’s Osteology of 
the Mammalia (61), in Giebel’s Odontographie (62), 
and in many other handbooks and treatises on natural 
history, which want of room forbids me to mention. 

In 1860, so far as I am aware, the first living 
gorilla reached England. It survived its arrival 
seven months, and a good illustration of this 
creature, accompanied by a brief description, has 
been recently published in the Proceedings of the 
Zoological Society of London (63). In 1876, to- 
wards the end of June, Dr. Falckenstein brought 
the second living gorilla from Loango to Berlin. 
It had been kept in confinement in that country 
at the German station Chinchoxo since 1874, and 


8 ANTHROPOID APES. 


it died on November 18, 1877, at the Berlin 
Aquarium. Dr. Hermes obtained a third specimen 
in September, 1881, which died soon after its arrival 
in Berlin. In 1883 a fourth still survived in the 
Berlin Aquarium. 

The chimpanzee became the more general object 
of zoological and anatomical study at an earlier 
period, since the species occupied a wider area than 
the gorilla, and is more easily captured. I have 
already mentioned Hanno’s observations on the 
subject, and the animal described by von Tulpe. In 
1740 Buffon had seen a young specimen of the 
chimpanzee, and another was in existence in London 
at the same time. In vol. 35, pl. 2, of his Natural 
History, Buffon gives an illustration of the chim- 
panzee, and pl. 3 represents an orang-utan, not very 
true to nature, but still recognizable (64). It is 
commonly supposed that the Dutch traveller Bosman, 
cited by Buffon, was acquainted both with the gorilla 
and the chimpanzee. He speaks of an ape about 
five feet high, living near Fort Wimba “d’une 
couleur fauve” (65). Although Buffon was ac- 
quainted with the names chimpanzee and chimpezée, 
as well as with Battel’s surmises about the pongo 
and the enjeco, yet he regarded the jockos, pongos, 
and orangs as animals all belonging to one species. 
The young African animals observed by him and 
von Tulpe (chimpanses) must have been young 
pongos (66). The name pongo was afterwards ap- 
plied to the old misshapen orang-utan. The skin 
and skeleton of the chimpanzee observed by Buffon 
when still alive, was preserved in the Zoological 


OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES, 9 


Museum in Paris as late as 1842 (67). There is a 
beautiful illustration of a young female which lived 
in the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris 
in 1838 in the catalogue of this noble institution 
(68). This illustration, in which the animal is re- 
presented on all fours, has since been frequently 
copied. Copies have also been made of the drawings 
of the same individual in a walking position, and 
swinging by one arm, which originally appeared in 
Vélins’ famous catalogue of the Museum of Paris, 
Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Dahlbom have given 
good illustrations of the head and body of an old 
male chimpanzee (69). Numerous, and for the most 
part correct, pictures of the chimpanzee have been 
given in several modern works and illustrated papers 
(70). Undoubtedly the best representations of the 
chimpanzee, corrected from photographs taken from 
life, are found in my osteological treatise on the 
gorilla which appeared in 1880, and also in the 
little book which preceded it (71). The form and 
mode of life of this species of ape are fairly well 
described by Bischoff (72), as well as in the books 
already mentioned, and especially in those by Tem- 
minck (73), Gervais, Reichenbach, and Brebm. 
Recently the opportunities of describing the bodies 
of chimpanzees have been frequent. Remarks on the 
anatomy of this animal may also be found in the 
works of Tyson (11), Vrolik (74), Champneys (75), 
Brithl (76), and Schroeder van der Kolk and 
Vrolik (77), as well as in the works we have already 
mentioned by Owen, Duvernoy, Bischoff, Issel, Gig- 
lioli, Lenz, ete. Du Chaillu (26), Duvernoy (78), 


10 ANTHROPOID APES. 


Bischoff (50), Gratiolet and Alix (79), A. B. Meyer 
(80), and the author of this work (81) have treated 
of the external form and internal structure of new 
species of apes, and varieties of the chimpanzee. 

Much has been written about the orang-utan since 
Vosmaer’s (82) day, among others by Rademacher 
(83), Wurmb (84), Griffith (85), Temminck (86), 
Schlegel and 8. Miller (87), Is. Geoffroy Saint- 
Hilaire (88), Brooke (89), Abel (90), and Wallace 
(91). Camper (92), Owen (93), J. Miller (94), 
Schlegel and §. Miller (95), Heusinger (96), Du- 
mortier (97), Briihl (98), Bischoff, Langer (99), etc., 
have studied the anatomy of this animal. Good 
illustrations of the orang-utan are found in Vélins’ 
catalogue, copied by Chenu (100) and Gervais (101), 
and in Wallace; also in the designs by Miitzel (102) 
and Max (103), and in my work on the Gorilla, 
already cited. 

It had been already shown by Tilesius (104) and 
Cuvier (105) that Wurmb’s young pongo is identical 
with the orang of Linnzeus. We now know cer- 
tainly that the name pongo (n’pungu in Loango) 
should only be applied to the gorilla. 

The fourth and smallest species of anthropoid 
apes, the Indian long-armed apes or gibbons, have 
been recently described, with reference to their form 
and mode of life, by various travellers and naturalists, 
especially by Duvaucel (106), Bennet (107), Martin 
(108), Lewis (109), S. Miller (110), Diard (111); 
also by Buffon (112), Is. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire (113), 
and Blyth (114), ete. Gulliver (115), Bischoff (116), 
and the author of this work have studied the 
anatomy of these creatures. 


. CHAPTER II. 
THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES, 


In the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan 
the external form is subject to essential modifica- 
tions, according to the age and sex. The difference 
between the sexes is most strongly marked in the 
gorilla, and these differences are least apparent in 
the gibbon. “ 

When a young male gorilla is compared with an 
aged animal of the same species, we are almost 
tempted to believe that we have to do with two 
entirely different creatures. While the young male 
still displays an evident approximation to the 
human structure, and develops in its bodily habits 
the same qualities which generally characterize the 
short-tailed apes of the Old World, with the exception 
of the baboon, the aged male is otherwise formed. 
In the latter case the points of resemblance to the 
human type are far fewer; the aged animal has 
become a gigantic ape, retaining indeed in the 
structure of his hands and feet the characteristics 
of the primates, while the protruding head is some- 
thing between the muzzle of the baboon, the bear, 


12 ANTHROPOID APES. 


and the boar. Simultaneously with these remark- 
able alterations of the external structure there occurs 
a modification of the skeleton. The skull of an 
aged male gorilla becomes more prognathous, and 
the incisor teeth have almost attained the length of 
those of lions and tigers. On the upper part of 
the skull, which is rounded in youth, great bony 
crests are developed on the crown of the head and on 
the occiput, and these are supported by the high, 
spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae, and thus 
supply the starting-point for the powerful muscles 
of the neck and jaw. The supra-orbital arches are 
covered with wrinkled skin, and the already savage, 
and indeed revolting, appearance of the old gorilla 
is thereby increased. A comparison of the two 
illustrations (Figs. 1 and 3) which accompany the 
text, will make this clear. 

These distinctions are not so striking in the 
female as in the male gorilla. Although there is 
ruuch which is bestial in the appearance of an aged 
female, yet the crests, so strongly marked in the 
male, the projecting orbits, and strong muscular pads 
are absent in the female, as well as the prognathous 
form of the skull and the length and thickness of 
the canine teeth. The aged female gorilla is not, 
in her whole structure, so far removed from the con- 
dition of the same sex in youth as is the aged male, 
The structure of the female has on the whole more 
in common with the human form. It has been said, 
and indeed on good authority, that the female type 
should take the foremost place in the study of the 
animal structure, since it is the more universal. 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES, 13 


But H. von Nathusius maintains that we must take 
both sexes into consileration in the study of 
domestic animals, since both are needed to determine 
the breed.* I accept this condition in the scientific 
study and description of wild animals also, of every 
kind and species. All that is said of the universal 
type of the female animal is and must remain in my 
eyes a mere phrase. Only the accurate observation 
of males and-femalcs, and of young individuals of 
both sexes, can throw sufficient light on the history 
of the race. The male animal is the larger, and 
predominant with respect to the complete develop- 
ment of certain peculiarities of form in the specific 
organism, since these are doubtfully present in the 
adult female, and are either altogether absent in the 
immature young, or only rudimentary. 

Let us now consider, in the first place, the proto- 
type of the species, the aged male gorilla in the 
full strength of his bodily development (Fig. 1). 
This animal, when standing upright, is more than 
six feet in height, or 2000 mm. The head is 
300 mm. in length. The occiput appears to be 
broader below than above, since the upper part 
slopes like a gabled roof towards the high, longita- 
dinal crest of the vertex. The projecting supra- 
orbital arches start prominently from the upper 
and central contour of the skull. In this species, 
as in other apes, and indeed among mammals 
generally, and especially in the case of the car- 
nivora, ruminants, and multi-ungulates, eyebrows 

* Vortriige iiber Viehzucht und Rassenkenntniss, i. 61: Berlin, 


1872. 
2 


ANTHROPOID APES. 


14 


Fig. 1.—Aged male gorilla, 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES, 15 


are present. In the gorilla these consist of a rather 
scanty growth of coal-black bristles, about 40 mm. 
in length. Beneath the projecting supra-orbital 
arches are the eyes, opening with somewhat narrow 
slits, and with lids which display many and deep 
longitudinal folds. The upper lid is set with longer 
and thicker eyelashes than the lower. The dark eyes 
glow between,the lids with a ferocious expression. 
The bridge of the nose rises gradually outwards 
from between the inner corners of the eyes, and is 
keel-shaped in the centre. This part of the head 
is from 70 to 80 mm. in length, longer and narrower 
in one individual, shorter and wider in another. 
The skin in this region is covered with a network 
of wrinkles of varying size. The end of the nose 
and the nostrils are high, conical, and very wide at 
the base. This part of the nose, attached to the 
very projecting forehead, has the effect of an alto- 
gether snout-like muzzle. It is intersected by a 
central longitudinal furrow, which divides the whole 
tip of the nose into two symmetrical halves. ‘This 
furrow is more strongly marked in the case of 
adult animals than in the young. The aperture 
of the nostrils is large and triangular, with the 
cartilaginous point turned upwards, and the edges 
applied to the bridge of the nose and to the cheeks 
have a somewhat retreating appearance. The lateral 
margins of this part of the nostril take an arched 
form, first diverging in different directions, then 
gradually converging again towards the upper lip. 
‘he lip is short, and this, combined with the large 
nose, gives a certain resemblance to the mouth of 


16 ANTHROPOID APES. 


an ox. This resemblance is the more striking, as 
the whole of this region is covered with glandular 
skin of a deep black colour, which is either glabrous 
or provided with a few scattered hairs, but furnished 
with small flattened warts. 

Below the eyes the cheeks are broad and very 
round, dwindling away and becoming depressed in 
the lower part of the face. They are seamed with 
curved wrinkles of varying depth, which tend down- 
wards in the same direction as the wrinkles on the 
lower eyelids. The short upper lip is provided with 
oblique folds which converge outwards in the 
centre. The points of the strong canine teeth, which 
in many individuals are from 38 to 40 mm. long, 
and 20 mm. wide, diverge a little from each other, 
and stretch the upper lip in an oblique direction, 
so that this part of the face takes the form of a 
triangular, bevelled surface, with its prominent base- 
line between the canine teeth. It may also be ob- 
served that in many individuals of this species the 
nose is not very deeply set on the upper lip; that in 
others, again, the nose is decidedly raised, and the 
lip only presents a small hem below the nose. In 
many such cases the prognathism of the face is 
strongly marked, so as to give a baboon-like effect. 
In other specimens, again, this debased type is not 
allied with strongly marked prognathism. 

If we take a front view of the skull of an aged 
male gorilla we see that the upper edges of the 
great supra-orbital arches are bevelled off below and 
at the sides. This bevelled form is repeated in the 
broad cheek-bones, as we see them in front. The front 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 17 


view of the head, and indeed of the whole animal, 
presents a strongly projecting contour, an impres- 
sion which is strengthened by the puffed cheeks, 
with their lateral pads of fat. The lower jaw, with 
its scarcely indicated chin, retreats in the centre and 
dwindles into a triangular form. This contour is 
characteristic of the species. The whole skin of the 
face is glossy set with few hairs, and of a deep 
black colour. 


Fig. 2.—Ear of a male adult gorilla. 


The ear (Fig. 2) averages 60 mm. in length, and 
from 36 to 40 mm. in width. It seems to be fastened 
to the head by the back and upper part, is generally 
of an oval shape, and furnished with a strongly 
marked helix. The helix varies in width in different 
individuals, and often terminates on its inner edge 
in the projecting peaked excrescence described by 
Darwin, of which I shall have more to say presently. 
The anti-helix, tragus, and anti-tragus, and the cleft 


18 ANTHROPOID APES. 


which lies between these two latter parts (incisuru 
inter tragica) are generally fully developed; the 
lobule is more rarely present. Individual variations 
in the special structure of these parts may frequently 
be observed. 

The strong trapezoid muscles are prominent on 
the neck, and when the head is stretched they 
stand out like pillars on the sides of the neck. 
Owing to the great development of the spinous pro- 
cesses of the cervical vertebree and of the muscles 
attached to them, and to the occipital bones of the 
skull, the neck is very powerful, almost like that of 
a bull. The shoulders are remarkable for their 
breadth, and the pectoral muscles for their large 
size. The nipples of the breast, which are not sur- 
rounded by any visible areolz, stand out in youth, 
and afterwards assume a horny texture which stiffens 
into a kind of bone. When one of these animals is 
gorged with food the navel is still apparent on the 
tun-shaped, rounded belly, of which the sides fall 
in when the stomach is empty. 

On the upper and forearms the plastic form of 
the strongly developed flexor and extensor muscles 
is very apparent, testifying to the enormous strength 
of the upper extremities. The hands are large, and 
very wide, with short, thick fingers. The thumb, 
of which the extremity takes a conical form, is short, 
extending little beyond the middle of the second 
metacarpal bone. The extremities of the other- 
wise broad fingers are somewhat laterally compressed. 
The fore-finger is not materially shorter than the 
middle finger. The third finger is sometimes shorter 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 19 


than, sometimes of the same length as, the first, aud 
the fourth is decidedly shorter. The back of the wrist 
is covered with deep oblique folds. A network of 
wrinkles, oblique or curved, also covers the skin on 
the back of the fingers, on which there are 
callosities up to the first joint. The gorilla closes 
the fingers when going’ on all fours, and turns the 
back of the hand on the ground, thus producing 
this thickening of the upper skin on the joints. 
Callosities of the same nature, although not so ex- 
tensive, are not rare on the second finger-joints. 
The palm of the hand is covered with a hard, horny 
skin, generally beset with warts, especially at the 
roots of the fingers. In spite of the blackness of 
the skin which covers them, these characteristics are 
still apparent. 

The fingers are united by a strong web, remind- 
ing us of the membrane found on the otter and other 
web-fovted animals, and reaching nearly to the first 
finger-joint. A thick coat of hair extends to the 
root of the fingers, although on the backs of the 
fingers there are only a few isolated hairs. 

The trunk of the body of a gorilla, seen from 
behind, somewhat resembles a trapezium in form, of 
which the longer of the two parallel sides extends 
between the shoulders, and the shorter between the 
two halves of the pelvis. The longitudinal sides, 
which are not parallel, correspond to the sides of the 
back. The arrangement of all the lower part of the 
trunk, on which the bones of the pelvis stand out 
prominently in an oblique direction, somewhat re- 
sembles a four-sided pyramid with its apex reversed. 


20 ANTHROPOID APES. 


The gluteal muscles are not strongly developed. 
The tuberosity of the ischium projects in a somewhat 
angular form. 

While the external sexnal organs of the male are 
so covered by the wrinkled skin of the abdomen 
that they ave not prominent in their passive condi- 
tion, those of the female are, on the contrary, very 
apparent ; the external lips of the vagina, provided 
with large nymphe, and a large clitoris, are only 
apparent when the sexual instinct is excited. 

The thighs are covered with strong muscles, which 
appear to be smoothed off on the inner side, and 
somewhat arched on the outside. The lower part of 
the leg is also muscular, and its section is of a long- 
oval form; the region of the calf is more strongly 
developed than in other anthropoids. The bones of 
the foot are not at all prominent, and the same 
remark applies to those of the hand. The contour 
of the back of the long, broad foot is flat; the sole is 
convex, covered with strong muscles, and padded 
with layers of fat. When the animal puts the sole 
of the foot on the ground, its muscles go back to the 
region of the heel, and forward into the inner side 
of the foot, thus presenting the primitive formation 
of a heel. 

The great toe, as in all apes, is detached like a 
thumb from the other toes, and can be used as such. 
The metatarsus serves as a base for its projection, in 
the same manner as the thumb starts from the fore 
part of the contour of the wrist. The great toe 
sometimes extends as far as the joint between the 
first and second phalanges of the second toe, some- 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 21 


times nearly as far as the middle of the second 
phalanx. This characteristic varies in different 
individuals. At the point of union of the first 
metatarsal bone with the hinder extremity of the 
first phalanx of the great toe, there is a round pro- 
jection on the inner side of the foot. The great 
toe is very broad at its root, then becomes smaller, 
and widens again into a broad final phalanx. With 
its strong lateral ridges of skin, which cover the 
sinews and cushions of fat, all this part of the foot 
appears to be wide and flattened off from the back 
to the sole, 

The second, third, fourth, and fifth toes are more 
slender than the great toe. The second toe is in 
most cases rather shorter than the third. The third 
and fourth toes are almost of the same length, and 
only a little longer than the second toe.* The fifth 
toe is considerably shorter than the fourth. The 
last phalanges of the toes taper in front, and are fur- 
nished on their, lower surface with long, laterally 
compressed pads. The section of such a phalanx is 
almost trapezoidal, with a long upper parallel side. 
The upper part of the foot, although generally flat, 
rises a little in the neighbourhood of the first meta- 
tarsal bone, and slopes thence to its outer edge. 

The hair grows thickly on the back of the foot as 
far as the extremity of the metatarsal bones, more 
sparsely on the back of the toes. There are strongly 
marked oblique furrows on this part of the foot, 
especially on the joints, often combined with horny 


* Comp. Is, Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire, table v.; also Hartmann, Der 
Gorilla, p. 14, Anin 4. 


22 ANTHROPOID APES. 


callosities, since the animal sometimes doubles up 
the toes and runs upon the back of them. The nails 
of the hands and feet are black, like the whole of 
their skin-covering, distinctly grooved, very much 
arched, and generally somewhat wider at the base 
than in front. 


Fig. 3.—The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin Aquarium of 
1876-77. 


On the sole of the foot we find the region of the 
heel, the ball of the great toe, in this case resem- 
bling the ball of a thumb, the roots and tips of the 
toes, together with pads consisting of muscles, ten- 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 23 


dons, and skin. The several divisions of these padded 
balls are separated from each other by furrows which 
are longitudinal, oblique, and transverse, and more 
or less distinct from each other. The black skin 
which covers the sole of the foot is thick and horny, 
but provided with a series of papilla. The whole 
skin of an aged animal is of a deep black colour, 
somewhat glossy, and covered with intersecting 
wrinkles, 


Fig, 4.—The same animal at a still earlier age. 


The young male gorilla does not essentially differ 
from the old male in its general and external ap- 
pearance. Its skull is, however, without the crest 
which characterizes the latter animal, and is still of 
a rounded form in the region of the crown and occi- 
put. At this age the head is not so high at the 
back and on the top as in aged males. The orbits 
are less prominent, the general aspect of the face is 


24 ANTHROPOID APES. 


not so decidedly prognathous, and the bridge of the 
nose is shorter. The lines of the body in the young 
male are softer and less exaggerated, and the expres- 
sion of the face is less ferocious than in an aged 
male. The horny callosities on the hands and feet 
are altogether wanting or only faintly indicated, and 
the hands, fingers, and toes have not arrived at the 
powerful development which we observe in the older 
animal. (Comp. Figs. 3 and 4.) 

Considerable differences may be observed in the 
whole structure of the adult female gorilla. The 
animals of this sex are smaller and weaker than 
males of the same age. The skull of the female is 
smaller and more rounded than that of the male, 
and the great bony crests are also absent. The orbits 
are less prominent, and a front view of the bead 
gives the impression of a trapezoidal form. The 
coronal arch rises above this trapezoid. In the 
male, on the contrary, the crown seems to lengthen 
above and behind into a pyramidal form. In 
the aged female the bridge of the nose is gene- 
rally shorter than in the aged male, but even in 
this particular there is great variation in different 
individuals. Sometimes the bridge of the nose in a 
female is much depressed, and then the interval 
between the orbits and the end of the nose is 
shorter: I intentionally avoid the term tp of the 
nose, on account of the blunted form of this organ. 
Even when the bridge of the nose is more promi- 
nent, the interval between its end and the orbits is 
sometimes very short. 

The aged female gorilla usually has wider cheeks, 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 25 


a smaller nose, and a higher upper lip. This last 
peculiarity is shown in the correct and well-stuffed 
specimens in the museums at Paris and Liibeck. 
Although in the process of drying, the skin of the 
nose may have shrunk a little, yet there is still room 
for the upper lip, provided with folds which are either 
vertical and parallel or diverge like a fan. Owen 
and Mitzel *» have given satisfactory illustrations of 
these parts. In the aged female the shape of the 
neck is not, as in the aged male, strong and bulging, 
so as to resemble a cowl. Yet it is enlarged in 
conformity with the not inconsiderable development 
of the spinous processes of the cervical vertebre, 
and with that of the powerful cervical muscles. 
Even in a young male, of the age of the specimen 
which was kept in the Berlin Aquarium, between 
July, 1876, and November, 1877, this enlargement 
of the neck was present in a marked degree. In 
still younger individuals, however, under a year old, 
in which the spinous processes of the vertebrae have 
not yet been developed, there is no such enlarge- 
mént, but, on the contrary, this region of the neck 
takes a concave form. 

In conformity with the smaller size of the body, 
the shoulders, arms, and thighs of the adult female 
are smaller than those of the full-grown male, but 
they are still very powerful. While giving suck, 
the breasts of the female are swelled in the form of 
a half-cone, instead of assuming the convex shape 
which is observed in many European women, and 
still more frequently in those of the negro, Indian, 


* Owen, Memoir, etc., plate ii. ; Brehm, Thierleben, i. 56. 


26 ANTHROPOID APES. 


and South Sea races. The nipple is cylindrical 
rather than conical in shape, and covered with 
finely wrinkled black skin, which is sometimes hard 
and horny. When not giving suck, the breasts hang 
slackly down, like short empty pouches. The belly 
swellsin the neighbourhood of the crest of the ilium, 
and increases in thickness at the groin. The ex- 
ternal sexual organs, in the period of excitement, 
swell in a manner resembling the lips of a woman’s 
pudenda. 

In a young female the cranium is rounded, and 
the face is only slightly prominent. In aged 
specimens, especially in those of the male sex, there 
is asomewhat typical prolongation of that part of 
the face which lies between the eyes and the end 
of the nose, and this is to a slight extent apparent 
in the young female. Variations in form and in the 
extent of the prolongation are, however, apparent 
even at this early period. The trunk and limbs 
are more slenderly built than in a male of the 
same age. . 

The hairy coat of the gorilla consists of long, 
thick, straight or stiffly curved bristles, and also of 
shorter, thinner, and curled woolly hair. On the 
crown of the head the hair is somewhat stiff, from 
12 to 20 mm. in length, and it becomes erect under 
the influence of anger. While the sides and fore- 
part of the chin are only clothed with short, stiff 
hairs, they grow thickly on the back part of the 
chin, like a beard or forelock. The hairs which 
turn outwards from the sides of the face and on the 
neck are 30 or more mm. in length. On the 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 27 


shoulders the hair is from 130 to 150 mm. long, 
hanging down on the upper arms and the back. In 
the middle of the upper arm the hair is from 50 to 
70 mm. long, growing downwards as far as the bend 
of the elbow. At this point it generally begins to 
grow in an upward direction. On the back of the 
forearm it again grows downwards. In the middle 
of the forearm on its inner side, a parting of the 
hairs takes: place, as one portion goes in front of 
the radius, while the other portion turns behind 
the ulna. On the back of the wrist a tuft of 
curved hair turns upwards; a middle tuft goes 
directly back ; and the lower tuft, also curved, turns 
outwards, On the back of the hand the hairs turn 
towards the fingers. On the breast and belly the 
hairs are shorter and grow more sparsely. On the 
breast their direction is as a rule upwards and out- 
wards. On the belly they converge from the ribs 
towards the centre and the navel. On the thighs 
the hairs are about 160 mm. long, and here, as on 
the lower part of the leg, they tend outwards, while 
on the back of the foot they grow towards the toes. 
On the back, shonlders, and on the thigh and 
leg, the bristles are slightly curved. This quality 
increases the general impression of shagginess and 
fleeciness which is produced by the hairy coat of 
these creatures. The woolly hair does not grow very 
thick, and is not much matted. 

The colour of the hair not only differs on different 
parts of the body, but also in different individuals. 
On the crown of the head it is of a reddish brown, 
or rarely of a decided brown or black. ‘The hairs in 


28 ANTHROPOID APES. 


this region are sometimes dun-coloured at the root, 
greyish white in the centre, and brownish red, 
shading into the dark brown tip. The hair on the 
lips is sometimes of a blackish brown, sometimes 
whitish, or both colours are found together. The 
hair growing at the sides of the face is grey below, 
dark brown or almost black above. On the neck 
and shoulders the hair is of a grey colour at the 
root, and gradually becomes lighter towards the tip. 
In the centre it is brown, shading into a lighter 
colour at either end, but this ringed form of colour 
is not universal. The tips of the hair are dark, 
sometimes brown or reddish. The hair on the 
back, on the upper arms and thighs, is whitish or 
light grey for half its length, with a blackish brown 
ring towards the tip, which is of a dark grey colour. 
Many of these hairs on the back have two brown 
rings on them. The forearms, hands, shanks, and 
feet are covered with hairs which are grey at the 
root, brownish grey, dark brown, or black at the tip. 
Round the posteriors there is a circle of white, grey, 
or brownish yellow hairs from 10 to 20 mm, in 
length. In both sexes variations from the colour of 
the coat here described are not rare. It has been 
already observed that the brownish red colour of the 
hair on the head is sometimes exchanged for another 
shade. In many individuals the neck, shoulders, 
and back are of a dark grey, brown, or even black 
colour. In others the forearms, hands, shanks, and 
feet are covered, like the rest of the body, with grey 
and brown bair intermingled. 

The second species of anthropoid apes is the 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 29 


chimpanzee. In this case also we must consider 
successively the aged and young male, and the aged 
and young female animals. 

The full-grown chimpanzee is smaller than the 
adult gorilla. In this species also the male is larger 
than the female. The chimpanzee is, speaking 
generally, of a slighter build than the gorilla. 

The head «f the aged male chimpanzee funda- 
mentally differs from that of the aged male gorilla, 
since the skull of the former has a depressed crown, 
and the transverse occipital ridge is only faintly 
indicated. Since the orbits are also less strongly 
developed than in the aged male gorilla, and the 
spinous processes of the cervical vertebree do not 
assume the same elevated form which is characteristic 
of the latter species, the countenance of the chim- 
panzee is not of a square shape, and there is not space 
for the strong muscular system arching over the neck 
like a cowl, which is so characteristic of the gorilla. 
The head of the chimpanzee displays, both in aged 
and young specimens, the concave neck which is 
common among apes, that is to say, a depression 
between the head and the throat. In an aged male 
the crown of the head presents a rounded, arched 
contour, since, as we bave already said, the prominent 
bony processes are wanting. Although the supra- 
orbital arches are not so excessively prominent as in 
a gorilla of the same age, they are strongly developed, 
covered with wrinkled skin, and in this case also 
there is a species of eyebrow, stiff and bristly, with 
shorter hairs between. ‘The large, wrinkled lids 
are furnished with thick eyelashes. The inner 


30 ANTHROPOID APES. 


angle of the eye somewhat resembles that of the 
gorilla. 

A general physiognomical distinction between 
the gorilla and the chimpanzee consists in the fact 
that the bridge of the nose is shorter in the latter 
than in the former. In the chimpanzee this part 
of the organ is depressed, yet the depression is 
of a conical and convex form, and is covered with. 
a network of wrinkles of varying depth. In the 
chimpanzee the interval between the inner angle 
of the eye and the upper lateral contour of the 
cartilaginous end of the nose is shorter than in the 
gorilla. There is also some difference in the form 
of the nose: it is on the whole flatter, the tip is less 
apparent, the nostrils are not so widely opened nor so 
thickly padded. (Fig. 3.) In the chimpanzee, as 
well as in the gorilla, a central and vertical furrow 
directly divides the triangular nostrils, and these 
are likewise divided from the rest of the face by the 
broad pear-shape furrow which surrounds them. The 
upper lip is generally high, sometimes as high as 
30 mm.; but in some individuals it is much lower, 
As in the gorilla, the chin forms a triangle of equal 
sides, with its apex reversed. 

The external ear of the chimpanzee has on the 
whole less resemblance to the human ear, and its 
contour is larger than that of the gorilla. But this 
organ varies so much in individuals that it is difficult 
to lay down any rule for its average size. It ranges 
from 59 to 77 mm. in length, and from 42 to 80 mm. 
in width. Many individuals have a distinct lobule 
to the ear, others not. (Fig. 5.) In this example 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 31 


the helix and anti-helix are developed, in others 
they are wanting. The tragus and anti-tragus are 
more or less apparent in different individuals, as 
- well as the other modifications of the external carti- 
lage of the ear. - 
An aged male chimpanzee has broad, rather 
rounded shoulders, a powerful chest, long muscular 


Fig. 6.—Ear of chimpanzee. 


arms, reaching to the knees, and a long hand, which 
seems to be very slender in comparison with that 
of the gorilla. The thumbs vary in length, for the 
most part reaching as far as the metacarpal pha- 
langes, but not in all cases. The middle finger 
is longer than the other three; the first and third 
fingers are shorter by the length of the last phalanx, 


32 ANTHROPOID APES. 


the third is a little longer than the first, and the 
fourth is again shorter. A web, which reaches to 
the middle of the first row of phalanges, stretches 
between the bases of the four fingers. There are 
borny callosities on the back of the hand of the 
aged male, since the chimpanzee, like the gorilla, 
supports himself on the backs of his closed fingers. 
The fingers are laterally compressed, but slightly 
arched on the back of the hand, and more decidedly 
so on the palm. A net-work of furrows covers the 
back of the hand, and these are more deeply im- 
pressed on its palm. The thumb is separated from 
the palm by a distinct furrow; and from four to 
six furrows of varying depth cross the centre of the 
palm. The finger-nails are short, wide, and arched, 
very convex at their free edges. 

In the aged male the sides of the belly are com- 
pressed, the thighs are broad and muscular, and 
somewhat flattened both on the inner and outer 
sides. The knees are rather prominent, the shanks 
are somewhat laterally compressed, and the calf of 
the leg is very slightly developed. As in the 
gorilla, the long, wide feet have a thumb-like forma- 
tion of the great toes, which are of considerable 
size. They extend, when drawing anything towards 
them, as far as the second phalanx of the second toe. 
The four other toes are more slender and only a little 
longer than the great toe. The heel is but slightly 
developed, and slopes away below. The joint be- 
tween the first phalanx of the great toe and the first 
metatarsal bone is marked by an angular projection 
on the inner edge of the foot. ‘The back of the foot 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 33 


is very slightly convex. The last phalanx of the 
great toe is very much sloped off on its upper surface 


Fig. 6.—Young chimpanzee. 


but this is less apparent in the other parts of this 
member. The last phalanges of the other laterally 


34 ANTHROPOID APES. 


compressed toes are strongly arched on the under 
surface. Considerable convexities may also be ob- 
served under the metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the 
great toe and under its last phalanx. The shape of 
the toe-nails resembles that of the fingers. Large 
callosities are not unfrequently found on the backs 
of the toes, since the animal sometimes supports 
himself on these parts. A connective web is found 
between all the toes except the great toe and its 
neighbour, but it does not extend so far as that 
between the roots of the fingers. 

Although the young male chimpanzee is dis- 
tinguished from the aged male of the same species 
by differences in the structure of many of its parts, 
yet these distinctions are not so characteristic as 
those between the young and aged male gorillas. 
The skull of the younger animal, which is altogether 
devoid of the- prominent bony crest and ridges, is 
shaped almost like a truncated cone in the region 
of the crown; in some individuals of only a few 
years old, the bony development of the orbits has 
already begun, starting from the principal part of 
the frontal bone, and covered with pads of wrinkled 
skin. ‘The short and depressed bridge of the nose 
becomes longer and higher, the cartilaginous end 
of the nose becomes larger, and the prognathism 
of the face mereases with each successive stage of 
growth. The strength of the trunk and limbs is 
early developed. The sexual characteristics are 
gradually and plainly developed; but the male 
gorilla far exceeds the chimpanzee in demoniacal 
ferocity. 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES, 35 


The adult female is smaller, and has a smaller 
head, with an oval crown to the skull. The orbits 
are not so strongly developed as in the aged male, 
the nasal parts are less prominent, and the teeth are 
not nearly so strong. The body of an animal of 
this sex is rounder in all its parts; and the belly, 
with its wider pelvis, is more tun-shaped than in 
the aged male. Neither do the limbs display the 
same angular formation of muscles.* The hands 
and feet of the female are also smaller and slenderer. 
In a young female the characteristics here described 
are presented in the mitigated form which corre- , 
sponds with its youthful condition. But the female 
sometimes becomes a very strong and even violent 
creature. This was often proved in the Hamburg 
Zoological Garden, where a female specimen, in 
splendid condition, survived for several years under 
the faithful care of old Siegel.t 

The skin of the chimpanzee is of a peculiar light, 
yet muddy flesh colour, which sometimes verges upon 
brown, Spots, varying in size and depth of colour, 
sometimes isolated, sometimes in groups, and of a 
blackish brown, sooty, or bluish black tint, are found 
on different parts of the body of many individuals, 
especially on the face, neck, breast, belly, arms and 
hands, thighs and shanks; more rarely on the back. 


* Comp. Hartmann, Der Gorilla, fig. 8. This is undoubtedly 
one of the most successful illustrations of the chimpanzee, its 
habits, expression, and disposition. 

+ Comp. Hartmann, Der Gorilla, fig. 27, representing the Ham- 
burg animal in middle age. Fig. 6 gives the wild Paulina of 
the German Loango expedition. The inscription, by an error of 
the press, states that it is a male, not a female chimpanzee. 


36 ANTHROPOID APES. 


The face, which is soon after birth of a flesh colour, 
merging into a yellowish brown, assumes a darker 
shade with the gradual development of the body. 
The hairy coat is sleek, or only in rare cases slightly 
curled, and the coarser and bristly hair is generally 
stiff and elastic. The parting on the forehead is 
often so regular that it might have been arranged 
by the hairdresser’s art (see Fig. 6). Close behind 
that part of the head at which the projecting supra- 
orbital ridges of the gorilla generally meet, there is 
in the chimpanzee an altogether bald place, or only 
a few scattered hairs. Round the face the growth 
of hair streams downwards like a beard. On the 
neck it is from 60 to 80 or 100 mm. in length, and 
it falls in the same long locks over the shoulders, 
back, and hips. The hair on the limbs is not so 
long, and takes a downward direction on the upper 
arm, and an opposite direction on the forearm, while 
there is often a longitudinal parting on the centre 
of the inner surface of this part of the limb. On 
the back of the wrist the hair grows in a kind of 
whorl; the upper hairs turn upwards and backwards, 
the middle ones turn backwards, the lower ones 
backwards and downwards. The backs of the hands 
and the roots of the fingers are hairy. On the 
front of the thigh the hair takes a downward direc- 
tion, while behind it grows backwards. On the 
shank it grows downwards in the region of the 
tibia, and turns back on the inside of the leg. 
The back of the foot and the roots of the toes are 
likewise hairy. There is a shorter growth of these 
scattered hairs on the face, chin, and ears. On the 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 37 


supra-orbital arches there are from eiyht to twenty, 
or even more, stiff, scattered hairs, after the manner 
of eyebrows ; and eyelashes are likewise present. 

In most cases the hair of the true chimpanzee is of 
a black colour. Short whitish hairs may be observed 
on the lower part of the face and chin, as well as 
round the posteriors. Sometimes the colour of the 
hair is shot throughout with reddish or brownish 
black. =~ 

The orang-utan, the chief representative of the 
anthropoids in Asia, differs from the African forms 
of this group, almost at the first glance, in the 
height of his skull, of which the fore-part is com- 
pressed and shortened in a backward direction. In 
the aged male it is, however, provided with high 
and erect bony crests, which give a prognathous ap- 
pearance to the countenance. We take an aged 
male as the type of our description. 

The forehead is high and erect, not retreating 
like that of the chimpanzee; it is open, and has 
moderately convex frontal eminences. From the 
centre of the forehead a round or bluntly oval 
eminence sometimes projects. The supra-orbital 
ridges are strongly arched, yet not so prominent as- 
that of the aged male chimpanzee, setting aside 
that of the gorilla. The eyes are not widely opened, 
nor are their lids large and furrowed, but on the 
lower lids there are deep wrinkles. The small 
bridge of the nose is generally much depressed, but 
sometimes assumes a slightly conical form as it 
issues from the central longitudinal depression of 


the face. The end of the nose, further removed 
3 


38 ANTHROPOID APES. 


from the eyes than is generally the case in the 
chimpanzee, is not so broad as it is in the latter 
animal and in the gorilla. The wings of the nose 
are narrow and highly arched in their upper part, 
divided from each other by a vertical furrow, and 
the nostrils are small and oval, separated by a thin 
partition. The upper lip is high, broad, and projec- 


Fig. 7.—Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan, 


ting, and seldom much wrinkled. It is divided from 
the cheeks and from the upper part of the face by 
a deep depression ; and behind the cheeks two large 
and long-shaped or sometimes triangular pads of fat 
often project forwards and downwards. 

The very mobile lips are furrowed, and not 
remarkably thick. The chin is very retreating, 
but somewhat uniformly rounded in front (Fig. 7). 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES, 39 


The small ear averages 55 mm. in length, and 
12 mm. in width, and has a general resemblance in 
structure to the human ear (Fig. 8). On the fore- 
part of the short, thick neck there are irregular, 
and in some places very deep 
circular folds of skin. The 
throat-pouch distends part of 
this slack, wrinkled skin, which 
hangs down in front like a great 
empty wallet (see Figs. 7 and 9). 
The structure of the other 
parts of the body lacks even to 
some extent the powerful and ee 
symmetrical formation which we Fig. 8.—Ear of the 
observe in the gorilla, and in- aia 
deed in the chimpanzee. The trunk, with broad yet 
rather angular and sloping shoulders, with flattened 
breast, rounded back, and still more rounded belly, 
is tun-shaped, and gives the impression: of a want 
of proportion. In lean individuals the gluteal 
region resembles the projecting rump of a fowl, 
and this may also be observed in the young gorilla 
and chimpanzee. The lonz, muscular arms reach 
to the ankles when the animal is in an erect posi- 
tion, and are altogether out of proportion with the 
rest of the body. The powerful upper arm is 
shorter than the lean forearm. The hand is long 
and narrow. The thumb, which reaches as far as 
the metacarpo-phalangeal joint, has a displeasing 
and almost rudimentary effect. A web unites the 
fingers, sometimes extending along a third of the 
first phalanx, sometimes along half. The middle 


40 ANTHROPOID APES. 


finger is somewhat longer than the first and third 


fig. 9.—Adult male orang-utan. 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 41 


fingers, and the third is next to it in length. The 
fourth finger is comparatively long. The palm of 
the hand is flat, only marked by a few deep furrows. 
The long, slender fingers are laterally compressed, 
and the nails on their tapering ends are arched. 

The thighs, somewhat compressed on the inner 
side, are, however, very muscular, but become much 
smaller on their back side. The calf of the leg is less 
developed than in the gorilla, or even than in the 
chimpanzee. The feet are, like the hands, long and 
slender. The narrow, flat heels project very slightly 
behind. The great toes are short, with wide ex- 
tremities, rounded above, and provided on the sole 
with thick, fatty skin. In old age these animals not 
only often lose the nails of their great toes, but some- 
times even the last phalanges themselves. This is 
not merely a disease produced by confinement, as is 
the case with sea-cat monkeys, hyenas, etc., which in 
this condition lose portions of their tails or toes, but 
it also occurs among orang-utans in their wild state. 
The middle toe is the longest, and the fourth toe 
is the shortest. Layers of fat may be observed on 
the under side of all but the great toe, where 
they rarely occur. The backs of the hands and 
feet are covered with very ribbed and wrinkled skin, 
and on the hands there are callosities. 

This animal, of a quieter and more phlegmatic 
disposition than the gorilla and chimpanzee, has 
a very strange appearance, with its projecting head 
and short neck; its face widening in the middle and 
tapering towards the forehead and chin; its tun- 
shaped trunk, long, thin extremities, and shaggy 


42 ANTHROPOID APES. 


coat. It differs widely from the chimpanzee and 
gorilla in these particulars. In the young male the 
compression of the forehead is less marked than in 
aged animals, and the bony crests which conduce to 
raise the coronal arch in its upper and hinder part are 
also absent. The supra-orbital arches are less strongly 
developed, the jaws are less prominent, and the layers 
of fat upon the cheeks are absent. The head is more 
detached from the neck, the structure of the whole 
body is slenderer, the expression of the countenance 
is milder. A small, conical nail, blunted at the end, 
may generally be observed on the great toe. 

In the adult female, as I have pointed out else- 
where, the physical characteristics of the young 
male are repeated in an exaggerated form. Theskull, 
displaying only very small bony crests, is indeed 
high, but more rounded than in the aged male; the 
face is prominent, but the head is more detached 
from the neck than in the latter case. On account 
of the greater width of the pelvis, the body is still 
more tun-shaped than in the aged male. When 
giving suck, the breasts are distended in the form of 
a half cone, but when this condition ceases they fall 
together and only present two short, wrinkled, 
slightly prominent folds of skin; the small, horny 
nipples are almost cylindrical; and the areola, of 
which the traces are scanty at all times, altogether 
disappears. The throat-pouch is less strongly de- 
veloped than in the aged male, but the limbs are as 
fully developed. The head of the young female is 
still more rounded, with a more flattened though 
still projecting fave, and the limbs are slenderer, aud 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 43 


thus still more out of proportion with the thick 
trunk than is the case with a young male. 

The orang-utan’s skin is of a greyish blue colour, 
sometimes mixed with brown, but the greyish blue 
shade is predominant. A yellowish or brownish 
grey is less common. Round the eyes, nostrils, 
upper lips, and chin there is often a ring of a dirty, 
yellowish brown colour, forming a strange contrast. 
with the general bluish grey tone of the face. The 
arms, legs, hands, and feet are black or greyish 
black, more rarely brown or reddish brown. 

The hairy coat of the orang-utan consists of long, 
curved, waving bristles, and some scanty downy 
hairs. On the back of the head, on the shoulders, 
back, and hips I have measured hairs from 220 to 
235 mm. in length. In other individuals they were, 
however, much shorter—20, 40, or 60 mm. long. 
There is often a natural parting of the hair of the 
head, which falls asunder on either side. In some 
cases there is no parting, and the hair streams wildly 
down; and in others, again, it stands upright, stiffening 
from the sides and top of the head in a demoniacal 
manner (Figs. 7 and 9). A beard frequently en- 
circles the cheeks and chin. The hair grows up- 
wards and outwards on the neck and fore-part of the 
throat, on the shoulders, back, breast, belly, upper 
arms, and thighs, while it takes the opposite 
direction on the forearm. On the wrist the hair 
grows in the manner described in the case of the 
gorilla, There is only a scanty growth of hair on 
the breast and belly, and it is also short and weak 
on the face, ears, and backs of the hands and feet. 


44 ANTHROPOID APES. 


I have not observed eyebrows on the animals I have 
seen, but they may occur, and the eyelashes are 
fully developed. 

The hair is of a reddish brown colour, something 
like burnt sienna, and the hair-tips on the back 
parts of the body are generally brown. In some 
individuals the hair is darker, of a russet or blackish 
-brown ; in others it is lighter, and in the latter case 
‘the breast and belly are of a yellowish white. The 
beard is sometimes dark yellow. Some individuals 
almost devoid of hair have been observed. 

The gilbbons, or long-armed apes (Hylobates), con- 
stitute the fourth group of anthropoids. Many 
kinds of this group are known, and I feel bound to 
describe, at any rate, a few of them, in order to be able 
to give an idea of their structure. With respect to 
these animals, I cannot only rely on the materials 
which are accessible to me, but must also make use 
of the descriptions given by others.* 

The gibbons have as arule very long arms, reach- 
ing to their ankles when they stand upright. The 
face is not very prognathous, the crown of the head 
is rounded off, and the nails are flat. There are 
small callosities on their posteriors, which are absent 
in the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan. 

The largest species of these animals, which inhabit 
part of the continent and of the islands of Asia, is 

* While writing these words I obtained a dried specimen, Hylo- 
bates lenciscus (Kuhl), injected with Wickersheiner’s fluid; a large 
Hylobates of the same species, preserved in spirits of wine; another 
Hylobates albimanus (Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire), preserved in the 


same way; and the skeletons of Hylobates syndactylus (F. 
Cuvier), and of Hylobates agilis. 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES, 45 


the siamang (Hylobates syndactylus, F, Cuvier).* 
According to Diard, its arms are not quite so long 
as those of the wauwau (H. agilis, F. Cuvier). This 
animal’s head is small, with a somewhat retreating 
forehead, a long, moderately arched crown to the 
head, and a slightly arched occiput. The base of 
the nose is depressed, the region of the jaws is only 
slightly prognathous in the aged male. According 
to Diard, the eyes are deeply set, the nostrils are 
very wide, the cheeks fall in below the zygomatic 
arch, the mouth upens widely, the chin is of in- 
significant size. It is the only one of the gibbons 
which possesses the throat-pouch, already described 
as common to the other forms of anthropoids, and in 
aged animals it hangs slackly down, almost bare in 
front. ‘The second and third toes are connected to- 
gether by a thin web, reaching to the last joint in 
the male, and to the penultimate joint in the 
female. The hairs on the forearm turn their points 
upward, and form a kind of whorl on the wrist. The 
animal is of a glossy black colour, with a thick and 
tolerably long coat of hair on the body and limbs. 
According to Bock, the face is encircled by a grey 
ov white beard. This animal is about a metre in 
height, and inhabits the woods of Sumatra. 

The lar (Hylobates Lar, Illig) is another species of 
gibbon. The structure of the body is much more 


* A very good illustration of this animal may be seen in Ed. 
Poeppig’s Illustrirter Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs, vol. i. fig. 
24 (Leipzig, 1847), which is taken from some English source with 
which I am not acquainted. Another woodcut of this animal is in 
Bock’s Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo, p. 842: Jena, 1882. 


46 ANTHROPOID APES, 


slender than that of the animal just described ; the 
head is round, the eyes are large, the nose projects 
from its depressed surroundings with only a very 
slight ridge, and the cartilaginous end is shaped like 
a triangle with unequal sides. This triangular end 
is divided by a longitudinal furrow, and the small 
nostrils converge downwards and inwards, and are 
divided from each other by a thin partition. The 
structure of the upper lip is peculiar. In the 
centre, just below the base of the nasal partition, it 
is depressed, and divided into two symmetrical 
lateral halves by a vertical furrow. Each of these 
halves forms a rounded edge, overhanging the small 
lower lip. Above the upper lips, between them and 
the zygomatic arch, which slopes away below the 
lower eyelids, there are the flat, depressed cheeks. 
The small chin presents itself below the central cleft 
of the upper lips and their convex rims. The face 
of this gibbon, of which the general appearance is 
very singular, is surrounded by a circle of thick 
hair, which resembles the cireular hood of an 
Eskimo. This characteristic form of the head, both 
generally and in detail, is not confined to the lar, 
but applies to other species of gibbons, including 
the siamang (see Figs. 11 and 15). It is a feature 
which distinguishes the long-armed apes, almost at 
the first glance, from the other forms of anthropoids 
already described. The colour of the lar’s face is 
reddish brown or tawny ; the hair which surrounds it 
is of a light grey: the body is of a dark grey, with 
short, light grey hair on the backs of the hands and 
feet. The black ears are almost hairless. The lar 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 47 


has up to this time seldom found a place in our 
zoological collections. It is found in Malacca and 
Siam. 

The white-handed gibbon (Hylobates albimanus, 
Vigors and Horsfield) is often confounded with H. 
Lar. But H. albimanus has a black face, and the 
general colour of the skin is black, including the 
inside of the hands and feet. Thick white hair 
encircles the face, and the backs of the hands and 


Fig. 10.—Head of the white-handed gibbon. 


feet are covered with short white or light grey 
hairs, while the rest of the coat is quite black. The 
hair of the forearm grows downwards, towards the 
wrist. The ears of these apes are almost of the shape 
of an equilateral triangle. ‘The helix of the ear runs 
like a flap round its free outer edge. The anti-helix 
passes through the centre of the slightly depressed 
external surface of the ear, of which the whole 
arrangement does not essentially differ from that of 


48 ANTHROPOID APES. 


the ear of other anthropoids. The cartilaginous sub- 
stance of the organ is a good deal inflected, broad 
behind and in the upper part, dividing into two 
limbs in front and below. There are indications 
of the tragus and anti- 
tragus. The detached 
lobule of the ear is 
absent (Fig. 11). This 
structure of the external 
ear is common to other 
species of gibbons, al- 
though in many cases 
the upper part of the 
Fig. 11.—Ear of the white-handed gibbon, helix is wrinkled, and 

the anti-helix is some- 
times more fully developed, and more like nat of 
the human ear. 

The face in this species issmall. The supra-orbital 
arches are strongly developed, and almost join in the 
centre. The eyes are large, dark, and have a mild 
and placid expression. The cheeks are prominent 
in the region of the zygomatic arch, and depressed 
below it. The bridge of the nose is imbedded 
between the cheeks, which, especially when seen in 
profile, take a slightly conical form. The nose is 
covered with cross-folds. Its cartilage is of the shape 
described in the former species, and so are the 
upper lip and chin (Fig. 10). Long, bristly hairs 
stand out on the supra-orbital arches and upper lip, 
and short, thin hairs cover the end of the nose. The 
white hairs which encircle the face grow like a 
beard on the chin. The whole face has a melancholy, 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 49 


almost tearful expression. The neck is short, the 
trunk drawn out. On the long, narrow hand there 
is a short thumb, laterally compressed, which does 
not quite reach to the metacarpo-phalangeal joint. 
The ball of the last phalanx 
forms a thick, rounded 
pad, which is repeated in 
a lesser degree on the 
under side “of the first 
phalanx of the thumb, 
and on its ball. The 
thumb-nail is bent back, 
as unlike a claw as the 
flattened, long, and narrow 
nails of the other fingers. 
The middle finger is only 
a little longer than the 
first, and the fourth not 
much shorter than the 
third finger (Fig. 12). 
The foot is neatly made, 
short and narrow, with- 
out a projecting heel. 
The great toe is very long, 
reaching almost to the last Fig. 12.—Left hand of Hylobates 
phalanx of the second toe. albimanus. 
The sole of the foot, and the under side of the great 
toe, especially its last joint, are provided with thick, 
rounded pads. The middle toe is not much ‘longer 
than the second, the fourth is shorter again, and the 
fifth is only half as long as the fourth. There is 
only a very short web between the roots of the 


50 ANTHROPOID APES. 


fingers, but it extends much further on the toes 
(Fig. 13). This species of ape is found in Further 
India. 

The wauwau (Hylobates agilis, F. Cuvier, Fig. 14), 
an ape of a rare species, may, according to Duvaucel, 
be recognized by his prominent supra-orbital arches, 
sunken eyés, a moderately flat nose, and large nostrils 
with lateral openings. ‘he face of the male is hairless, 
and of a bluish black; that of the female is brown. 
The face is encircled by thick, whitish hair, through 
which the ears are only partly visible. There are a 


Fig. 13.—Left foot of the same animal. 


few black hairs on the chin. In the male the head, 
belly, inner surface of the arms and of the thighs 
are dark brown. The neck and shoulders are of a 
lighter shade, and the hair on the heels is dun or 
whitish. The backs of the hands and feet are dark 
brown. The sides of the posteriors and the backs of 
the thighs are brown, chestnut, or white. In the 
female the white hair which encircles the face is 
shorter, and verges on dun.colour. The young 
animals are light yellow or brown. This animal 
inhabits the island of Sumatra. 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. 51 


The grey gibbon (Hylobates leuciscus, Kuhl) is 
covered with a thick, long, and woolly coat, with 
seattered hairs which are curly, and have two or 


Wy 
yy Y Uff 


apes (Semnopithecus entellus). 


Fig. 14.—A wauwau in the left foreground ( ‘/y/obates agilis); in the background to the right, two slender 


three rings of dark colour on a light ground. The ~ 
upper part of the head is black ; light, or sometimes 
white, hair encircles the blackish face. The general 


52 ANTHROPOID APES, 


colour is dun. The front of the throat, the breast, 
and belly are of a lighter shade; while the back of 
the neck, the shoulders, upper arms, and thighs are 
darker. A brown or black stripe runs down the 
breast and belly from the armpits. The insides of 
the hands and feet are black. The colour of young 
specimens is more uniformly grey or dun. This 
animal is found in Java and Sumatra. 

The hulock, otherwise called yulock or yoluck 
(Hylobates Hoolock, Harlan), has, in its adult con- 
dition, a prognathous face with prominent sup a- 
orbital arches, a long, low bridge to its nose, with high, 
narrow nostrils, and a very small upper lip. In aged 
animals there are two oblique folds over the eyes, 
of a light grey colour. The rest of the hairy coat, 
the face, hands, and feet are black, or, in the younger 
animals, brownish black, with grey extremities. A 
line of grey extends from the breast downwards over 
the belly. This animal inhabits the mountainous 
district of Assam. 

The unko (Hylobates Rafflesit, Is. Geoff. Saint- 
Hilaire) is of a black colour, shading into reddish 
brown on the back and sides. Hair, of a grey colour 
in the male and white in the female, encircles the 
face. This ape is a native of Sumatra, 

The dun-coloured gibbon (Hylobates entelloides, Is, 
Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is so called from its coat, which 
is thick and woolly, and furnished with long hairs 
of a greyish yellow or dun colour. This coat is 
somewhat darker on the inner surface of the arms 
and on the neck, where it shades into reddish 
yellow. The growth of hair surrounding the face is 


THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES, 53 


lighter, verging upon white. The female is generally 
more yellow in colour than the male, and the hair 
on her face is of a reddish yellow rather than white, 
but not without a trace of white hairs. The face 
and the bare places on the hands and feet are black. 
Between the second and third toes there is a con- 
nective web reaching as far as the first joints. This 
animal inhabits the Malacca peninsula. The name 
of the species is derived from its assumed likeness 
to the Indian hanuman (Semnopithecus Entellus, F. 
Cuvier), of which an illustration is given in the 
background to the right of Fig. 14. 

The white-bearded gibbon (Hy ylobutes leucogenys. 
Ogilby *) is remarkable for the long, erect hairs 
which grow on the upper and back part of the scalp, 
and for the long white beard on the cheeks and 
chin, which joins the thick growth above the eyes. 
The rest of the body is dark black. Its native place 
is doubtful. 

The general colour of the tufted sition (Hylobates 
pileatus, J. E. Gray) is black, shading into grey 
on the shoulders, back, and thighs. A white ring 
surrounds the hands, feet, face, and scalp; and there 
is also a patch of white on the sexual organs, and 
often a patch of black on the breast. ‘The whiskers 
are black. In other respects the animal varies 
according to its sex and age. It is found in Siam 
and Kambodja. ¢ 

* A specimen of Hylobates leucogenys (Ogilby) may be seen in 
the British Museum. Comp. J. E. Gray, Catalogue of monkeys, 
lemurs, etc. ; London, 1870. 


t A good woodcut of Hylobates pileatus (J. E. Gray) appears in 
Huxley’s work, Man’s Place in Nature. 


54 ANTHROPOID APES. 


The dark grey gibbon (Hylobates funereus, Is. 
Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is of an ashen grey colour on 
the upper and outer side of its limbs, verging into 
brown; and on the under side it is dark brown. 
There is a narrow strip of light grey round the face, 
with a darker band round the back of the head. It 
is found in the island of Sulu.* 

In addition to these species of gibbons of which 
we have given a brief account, there are several 
others—as, for example, Hylobates concolor (Harlan), 
from Borneo; H. Mueller: (L. Martin), from the 
same place; H. choromandus (Ogilby), from India, 
and many others. But since our space is limited, 
the description given above must suffice for a diag- 
nosis of the species. 


* A very good coloured illustration of Hylobates funereus, 
probably taken from life by Werner, may be seen in Is. Geoff. 
Saint-Hilaire’s Description des mammiféres nowveaua, ou inpar- 
faitement connus de la collection du Muséum histoire naturelle. 
Archives du Muséum, v. 26, 


* CHAPTER IIL 


THE EXTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF 
ANTHROPOID APES, COMPARED WITH THE HUMAN 
STRUCTURE. 


In order to complete as far as possible the descrip- 
tion which we propose to give of the general natural 
history of these remarkable animals, it is necessary 
to examine their anatomical structure. Yet it is 
not so much our aim to give a detailed and 
exhaustive description of their anatomy, as to 
glance rapidly at those peculiarities of their inner 
structure which catch the eye. It seems to me 
expedient in this case to follow the method of 
systematic and descriptive anatomy, and to take 
the several natural organs in succession. This 
method, which has long prevailed for studying the 
structure of the human body, should also be our 
guide in our researches in comparative anatomy. 
Our readers need scarcely be told that_the anatomy 
of anthropoids” is only a small ‘branch of the com- 
parative anatomy of vertebrate animals in general. 

I begin by considering the bony structure of 
anthropoids, and, in particular, of the gorilla. And 


56 ANTHROPOID APES. 


it will be well to note the important differences 
between the structure of the skull of a young and 
aged male, and of a young and aged female gorilla. 

The skull of the aged male animal is large and 
heavy. Its average weight is one and a quarter 
kilogrammes. The longitudinal diameter, from the 


Fig. 15.— Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile, 


alveolar point of the upper jaw to the occipital 
point, may be as much as 294 mm. The over- 
hanging orbits are high in front, and flattened off 
behind, and their upper edges unite to form a ridge 
in the middle of the face. To these the back parts 
of the orbits are attached, in shape like a trun- 
cated cone, round and prominent in front, and nar- 
rowing into bony capsules in the direction of the 
brain-pan. They open directly in front, and the 
aperture is generally in the form of a regular square. 
The edges are seldom so blunted off as to present a 
figure somewhat approaching to a circle (comp. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 57 


Figs. 15,16). The frontal bone, which in the young 
of both sexes is high, broad, and arched, becomes 
depressed in the centre in the aged male. The 
temporal ridges, thickened to a hem, pass over this to 
the coronal crest. 


Fig. 16.—Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla. 


This crest is highly characteristic. It begins in the 
region of the frontal bone, and, rising abruptly, unites 
itself with the transverse occipital crest. It is of 
varying height,* but is rarely altogether absent in 
an adult male animal. On the top of this coronal 

* The coronal crest has attained to a quite unusual height in 


the fine specimen of the skull of an aged male gorilla, No. 92, in 
the Natural History Museum in Paris. 


58 ANTHROPOID APES. 


crest we may see the two well-developed bony ridges 
which almost touch each other, and which indicate 
the upper limits of the temporal muscles on either 
side. In young animals these ridges tend down- 
wards over the sides of the head, below the vertex 
of the skull. Their position and direction vary 
with the growth of the skull, and correspond with 
that of the coronal crest. The transverse occipital 
crest is of considerable height in the case of aged 
and vigorous animals, and is frequently somewhat 
concave in front, and convex at the back. The fore 
surface of this crest is formed of the two parietal bones, 
the hinder surface of the squamose portion of the 
occipital bone. The lambdoidal suture is on the 
top of this occipital crest, and in this case, as in 
that of other mammals, including man, it unites the 
parietal bones with those of the occiput. The point 
of union between the coronal and occipital crests 
divides the latter into two symmetrical lateral halves, 
curving outwards and downwards. The high, wide 
squamose portion of the occipital bone is somewhat 
- flattened behind, or more rarely arched, while it is 
abrupt at its base and in some degree in front. Six 
curved lines, three on either side, opposite each 
other, sometimes mark the limits of the attachments 
of the cervical muscles on the head. The mastoid 
process of the temporal bone is present, but Brih] 
could find no trace of a styloid process on the skulls 
of gorillas and chimpanzees. 

The squamous portion of the temporal bone is 
often connected with the frontal bone by the pro- 
cess termed Virchow’s frontal process of the tem- 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 59 


poral bone. The nasal bones are high, very narrow 
in their upper part, and widening below. When 
they are united in the centre of the nasal bridge, a 
sloping, keel-shaped projection may often be observed. 
The inferior turbinated bones of the nasal cavity are 
remarkable for their size. In the skulls of young 
animals the inter-maxillary bones, which are in all 
anthropoids early united with those of the same 
region, stand up high and peaked between the nasal 
bones and those of the upper jaw. 

The crowns or prominent external surfaces of the 
enormous canine teeth project in the centre of the face 
on either side like pillars, just below the nostrils, and 
extend above and below the row of teeth in the two 
upper jaws (see Fig. 16). In this way the crowns of 
the canine teeth form a retreating triangular space, 
of which the base-line of the equilateral triangle 
corresponds with the row of teeth. The chin part 
of the lower jaw, in a front view, also takes the 
form of an equilateral triangle. In the latter case 
the base-line is covered by that section of the row of 
teeth containing the incisor teeth. The sides of the 
triangle are covered by the converging canine teeth 
(see again Fig. 17). The incisor teeth, enclosed 
between the latter, in that part of the lower jaw 
already described, are retreating. The rami of the 
lower jaw are high and very wide. The angle of 
the lower jaw is obtuse (Fig. 15). The front or 
coronoid process and the back or condyloid process of 
the ramus of this bone are separated from each 
other by a deep, hollow cleft. The condyloid process 
projects abruptly above, but is less marked behind. 


N 


60 ANTHROPOID APES. 


When we consider the internal form of the skull 
of an aged male gorilla, the first thing that strikes 
us is the marked development of the frontal 
sinuses, and especially their width in the region of 
the nasal portion of the frontal bone. We next 
observe the wings of the sphenoid bone, and that 
these large concave apophyses are provided with 
spaces only slightly separated from each other. 
These sinuses are not only plainly connected with 
each other, but with the sphenoidal sinuses. There 
is a broad sinus in the malar bone, provided with 
vestibules, and this has a deep communication with 
the maxillary sinus, or antrum of Highmore, em- 
bedded in the body of the upper maxillary bone. 
There are, finally, sinuses at tle point of junction 
between the coronal and occipital crests. 

The maxillary region of the cranium of the young 
male gorilla is already somewhat prognathous, and 
the keel-shaped elevation of the bridge of the nose 
is also very apparent, but the development of these 
parts is not nearly so advanced as in the aged male. 
The whole contour of the cranium is oval, and with- 
out the high crests so characteristic of the aged 
male animal. It is well known that the Swedish 
anatomist and anthropologist Anders Retzius has 
classified the skulls of different races of men as long- 
headed (dolichocephali) and short-headed (brachy- 
cephalic). In the former class, the length is consider- 
ably greater than the height; while in the latter, the 
difference is either slight or non-existent. The 
skulls of the dolichocephali are long and oval; those 
of the brachycephali are short, round, or square. In 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 61 


addition to this division, which is of great value in 
the rapid and superficial, yet sound classification of 
racial skulls, Retzius has constituted another. He 
has characterized skulls of which the profile is 
straight, or nearly straight, as orthognathous (recht- 
zdihnige) ; and those of which the maxillary region is 
very prominent, as prognathous (schiefedhnige). These 
orthognathous and prognathous skulls may be either 
dolichocephalic or brachycephalic.* 

In applying this classification by Retzius to an- 
thropoids, the gorillas and chimpanzees have been 
characterized as dolichocephalic and prognathous, 
the orang-utans and the gibbons as brachycephalic 
and prognathous. Several scientific men have 
sought to establish the noteworthy distinction that 
dolichocephalic anthropoids are found in Africa, 
and brachycephalic anthropoids in Asia. This dis- 
tinctive characteristic is held to agree with the 
geographical and ethnological conditions of the 
continents in question.t Virchow remarks in a later 
work that the skull of a gorilla becomes longer with 
every year of life, but that this is not so much due 
to the cranium as such, as to its bony outworks, such 
as the strongly developed supra-orbital arches, the 
enlargement of the frontal sinuses, etc. Measure- 
ments rather tend to show that the young gorilla 


* Ethnologische Schriften, nach dem Tode des Verfassers gesam- 
melt von dessen Sohne Professor Gustav Retzius, p. 33: Stockholm, 
1864. 

t Zur Kenntniss des Orangskopfes, etc., p. 3. Virchow observes 
(Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, March 
18, 1876): “The fact that the gibbon, as well as the orang-utan, 
is brachycephalous is of great geographical interest.” 

4 


62 ANTHROPOID APES. 


is brachycephalic, but that this characteristic 
diminishes with increasing age, at any rate, if the 
external excrescences are taken into account. But it 
is quite otherwise when the furthest point of measure- 
ment is taken from the frontal arch, not from the 
nasal prominence. In such a case the increase of 
the brachycephalic condition is established.* 

In the skulls of such young males as those here 
mentioned, the temporal ridges, which in aged animals 
are in close proximity in the region of the developed 
bony crests, have already in some cases begun to 
approach each other, but they are still far apart. In 
young specimens we can distinguish, on each side 
of the parietal bones, two temporal ridges, opposite 
each other, and taking a nearly parallel course. 
The upper ridge, which loses itself on the external 
surface of the mastoid process, which is already 
developed, corresponds to the junction of the fascia 
of the cranial muscles (Galea aponeurotica musculi 
epicranit) with the fascia enclosing the large tem- 
poral muscles. The lower ridge, which is gradually 
merged in the upper edge of the zygomatic process 
of the temporal bone, forms the demarcation of the 
fleshy origin of the temporal muscle. This corre- 
sponds to the spot at which the two layers of the 
temporal fascia unite. In a very young male these 
temporal ridges can be only faintly traced; they be- 
come more strongly marked as his growth advances, 
and as they approximate more closely to each other 
on the vertex of the cranium, I have examined a 


* Monthly report of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin, 
June 7, 1880. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 63 


skull of which the sutures were still open, and could 
already trace the development of the coronal crest 
in two divisions, separated from each other by a 
longitudinal furrow. The upper edges of these 
divisions corresponded to the two temporal ridges, 
which were in close proximity to each other. If the 
animal had not died at this stage of its development, 
it is probahle that, with advancing growth, the two 
divisions of the crest would have been welded into 
one structure. Such a condition only characterizes 
a transitory stage of development, repeated in each 
individual. 

In the centre of the vertex of the cranium, where 
the longitudinal crest of which we have so often 
spoken is subsequently developed, we may often 
observe on the sagittal suture of the cranium of 
a young malea longitudinal swelling, which increases 
very gradually. In the region of the two upper 
semicircular curved lines (linew semicireulares s. 
nuche supreme), on the squamous occipital portion, 
or between these and the two central cervical lines, 
a transverse swelling is early developed; this swell- 
ing sometimes extends to the lambdoidal suture, 
or, at any rate, to its neighbourhood. This bony 
excrescence, of which the anatomical term is Torus 
oceipitalis transversus, corresponds to the first layer 
of the transverse occipital crest so characteristic of 
the old male gorilla (see Fig. 15). 

In several skulls of young gorillas, in the region 
of the coronal suture, a small, insulated, intermediate 
bone may be observed (Virchow’s os epiptericum) 
between the squamous portion of the temporal bone 


64 ANTHROPOID APES. 


and the greater wing of the sphenoid, with which it 
is sometimes completely welded. In this case there 
is, above the os epiptericum, a direct connection 
between the temporal and frontal bones by means 
of the frontal process (Virchow’s processus frontalis 
squame temporalis), which is not rare in anthro- 
poids.* This process often owes its origin to the 
os epiptericum, which is in its early stages attached 
to the temporal bone. I shall have to refer again 
to this frontal process. 

The orbits are more rounded in young than in 
aged skulls; in the latter they are always angular, 
although the angles, especially the upper and 
external angles, may be more or less blunted. 
Virchow remarks that in the skull of a very young 
gorilla the height of the orbit exceeds its width, 
and that at that age the skull is therefore high, 
In the aged male gorilla the height of the orbit, 
according to the several measurements I have taken, 
varies between 39 to 52 mm., and the width between 
37 to 45 mm. 

The rest of the skeleton of the aged male gorilla 
corresponds in its powerful and massive form with 
the general structure of the body, which is remark- 
able for its height and strength (see Fig. 16). In 


* Virchow, Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am 
Schddel, p. 41: Berlin, 1875. Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, xii. 23: 
1880. Monatsbericht der Kéniglichen Akademie der Wissen- 
schaften zu Berlin, p. 523: 1880. The os epiptericum may be 
observed in cranium No. 92 of the Paris collection. It is plainly 
seen in Fig. 4, p. 127, in Darwinismus und Thierproduction 
(Munich, 1876), in which I refer to this skull. See also Bischoff, 
Schadelwerk, 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 65 


\ 
4 
wn 
ft 


Fig. 17.—Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.* 


* This illustration is from Duvernoy’s Des caractéres anatomiques 
des grandes singes pseudo-anthropomorphes, plate ii. It is an 
excellent illustration of the characteristic spinous processes of the 
vertebral column, and of the relative position of the limbs. 


66 ANTHROPOID APES. 


the skeleton of the trunk there are seven cervical, 
thirteen dorsal, and four lumbar vertebre, thirteen 
ribs, and, even in aged animals, a sternum composed 
of several pieces of bone. The cervical vertebre 
display long spinous processes, which are most 
strongly developed between the fourth and seventh 
vertebre. The extremities of this colossal struc- 
ture, combined with the elevation of the occipital 
region, present a convex outline when seen from 
behind. This structure provides the point of inser- 
tion and support for the powerful cushion of cervical 
muscles. The dorsal vertebrae, which increase in 
height, width, and depth as they stand lower on the 
column, taper, and are keel-shaped at their junction 
with the cervical vertebra. The central parts of the 
widely arched ribs, which are thirteen .or sometimes 
fourteen in number, are very thick and powerful in 
the aged male. Only seven pairs of ribs are attached 
by the costal cartilages to the sternum, and two 
other costal cartilages are in proximity with them. 
The other cartilages are only rudimentary, and the 
terminations in the muscular system of the belly 
are free. There are, indeed, variations from the type 
here established, and from ten to eleven ribs are 
sometimes attached to the sternum by thread-like 
strips of ligament or cartilage. 

The formation of the pelvic girdle in this animal 
is of special interest. The chief parts of this por- 
tion of the skeleton—that is, the hip, pelvic, or 
innominate bones—are high, tapering in their lower 
part, and broad and flat above, where they terminate 
in the crest of the ilium, which describes a quarter 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 67 


of acircle. There is, for the most part, only one 
small superior iliac spine, and the ischii are some- 
what turned outwards, and furnished with broad, 
rounded tuberosities, and for the most part with only 
a single large sacro-sciatic notch. ‘The horizontal 
rami of the pubes are narrow, while the descending 
rami are wide. The os sacrum is narrow, and shaped 
like a protracted cone, turning abruptly outwards, 
and resembling the basal joint of a true tail. The 
coccyx appears to be the rudiment of a genuine tail. 

The bones of the shoulder-girdle present interest- 
ing peculiarities. The clavicles are long and slender, 
with a leaf-shaped, flattened end articulating with 
the scapula, and a thickened end articulating with 
the sternum. The scapula is a very large triangular 
bone, resembling the human scapula in its general 
form, and the supra- and infra-spinous fossee are not 
strongly marked. The long and powerful humerus 
has its head inclined at an angle of sixty degrees 
towards the axis of the shoulder. Frequently, but 
not invariably, the lower, flattened extremity of the 
humerus is pierced on one or both~sides above its 
rounded eminence, and this is termed by Darwin 
the intercondyloid foramen. 

The radius las a powerful head, and a shaft con- 
siderably curved outwards while it is, on the other 
hand, curved backwards and inwards at the elbow. 
The bones of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges 
are remarkably long, broad, and deep. The develop- 
ment of the femur corresponds to that of the whole 
skeleton. Its middle piece or shaft is curved in 
front and flattened behind. The shaft of the tibia 


68 ANTHROPOID APES, 


is generally rounded off, but is sometimes rather 
laterally compressed. 

The os calcis of the foot is slender, curved out- 
wards in the centre and inwards behind the astra- 
galus. The head, with its cuneiform extremity, is 
of a transverse oval shape, turned inwards. The 
scaphoid bone, which is generally in connection with 
this projection, takes the same direction towards the 
inner side of the foot. This peculiar contortion 
causes the tarsus of the gorilla to appear almost as 
if it had been subjected to a deviation or fracture 
of its longitudinal axis. 

In young and adult males, as well as in young 
females, the structure of the bones is generally 
less massive than in aged males. In the female 
skeleton the strongly developed depressions and 
ridges, especially in the bones of the extremities, 
are absent. The head of the ulna is, for example, 
less deeply set in the case of a female, and its pro- 
jections are smaller than in the male animal. In 
the female, also, the head of the radius is smaller, 
and the triangular shape of its shaft is less strongly 
marked. The pelvic bones of a female gorilla are 
wider, flatter, and less concave on their very pro- 
jecting inner surface. They diverge more widely 
from each other, and this is also the case with the 
tuberosities of the ischium. The pubic arch is less 
depressed than in the male gorilla. Although the 
spinous processes of the vertebrae attain to some 
length and thickness, their development in the 
female is not so great as it is in the male sex. 

The bony structure of the chimpanzee offers 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 69 


many points of resemblance to that of the gorilla, 
while it differs in certain particulars from the 
structure of other anthropoids. And first, the size 
of the skeleton is smaller than that of the gorilla, 
which is in agreement with the smaller relative size 
of the body of the chimpanzee. 


Fig. 18,—Skull of an aged male chimpanzee, 


We must begin with a general view of the skull 
of the chimpanzee. In both sexes the frontal 
regions are smaller, while the coronal region is more 
rounded than in the gorilla. The high bony crests 
and prominent supra-orbital arches are wanting in: 
the chimpanzee ; the peculiar character of the bony 
ridges, projecting like tubes from the other parts 
of the skull, is less marked, and they belong more 
directly to the frontal region (see Fig. 18). The 
bony bridge of the nose is more concave in the 


70 ANTHROPOID APES. 


chimpanzee; the jaw-bones are smaller and less 
compressed in the centre than they are in the 
gorilla. 

When we undertake to describe the skull of the 
chimpanzee in detail, it becomes necessary to consider 
separately the skulls of aged and young males, and 
of aged and young females; for in this case also 
the distinctions of sex and age are very evident. 
On the skull of an aged male chimpanzee the 
temporal ridges are not much developed on the 
coronal arch. They meet on this arch from 60 
to 90 mm. behind the orbits, and form only a 
small coronal crest. The transverse occipital crest 
is somewhat developed, and at its point of union 
with the coronal crest the temporal ridges divide to 
form its upper edges. This is the case not only 
with the Rio Quillu skull, from which Fig. 18 is 
taken, but with that of the so-called troglodyte 
Tschégo given by Duvernoy.* In some other speci- 
mens belonging to aged male animals the presence 
of a coronal crest cannot, however, be detected. In 
these the temporal ridges are very small, and more 
or less distant from each other. While the trans- 
verse occipital crest maintains an almost uniform 
height on the gorilla skull, like a detached ridge, 
it is only slightly elevated behind in those chim- 
panzee skulls in which the crest is partially de- 
veloped. In the gorilla male this ridge divides the 
squamous occipital portion, which is sometimes 
bevelled, sometimes slightly convex; in the male 
chimpanzee this part is more decidedly arched, and 


* Duvernoy, table vi. fig. B. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 71 


takes the form of a half-oval. The mastoid processes 
are also present in the chimpanzee. The external 
occipital crest and the curved lines are generally 
apparent. The styloid processes are more plainly 
traced than in the gorilla. In the latter, as well as 
in the chimpanzee, there is a blunt, tubular process 
of the temporal bone, opposite to another bony 
process, issuing from the occipital bone. This has 
been observed by Virchow, and is termed by him 
the carotid process (Processus caroticus). 

The orbits of the chimpanzee are generally more 
rounded, with a distinctly circular rim, while the 
nasal bones are as long and narrow as in the gorilla. 
The region of the jaws is very prognathous; the 
external nasal openings are rounder and smaller than 
in the gorilla. The crowns of the canine teeth pro- 
ject in the same pillar-shaped form (Fig. 18). The 
triangular space enclosed by these and by the row 
of teeth in the upper jaw is often very wide and 
projecting, even more so than in the gorilla, But 
whereas in the latter the canine teeth are shaped 
almost like a three-sided pyramid, in the chim- 
panzee they are more rounded and conical. In the 
general structure of the teeth of both species there 
are certain differences of which we shall. speak 
presently. 

The brain-pan of a young male chimpanzee is 
still more arched than it is in aged animals. The 
temporal ridges are still far apart. The transverse 
occipital crest displays near the mastoid process 
well-defined wing-shaped indentations. In the skulls 
of very young males the transverse occipital swell- 


72 ANTHROPOID APES. 


ing of which we have spoken (Torus oceipitalis 
transversus) is already developed. The orbits are 
distinctly detached from the skull; the bridge of 
the nose is depressed; the crowns of the canine 
teeth are, in conformity with the still slight develop- 
ment of the teeth themselves, less marked, and the 
triangular space enclosed by the teeth is less convex 
than in older animals. 

The skull of the adult chimpanzee is, in its 
coronal and occipital parts, more uniformly arched, 
narrower, and more elongated than in aged males. 
The transverse occipital ridge usually develops 
itself in the region of the upper curved lines, or 
in the bony parts enclosed between these and the 
central lines. The nasal and upper maxillary region 
is depressed. That section of the upper jaw which 
contains the incisor and canine teeth is small. In 
the skulls of all chimpanzees, of whatever sex or 
age, the body of the lower jaw is comparatively 
small, with two low but wide rami, of which the 
coronoid and condyloid processes are divided from 
each other by a comparatively wide cleft. The 
rami of the chimpanzee’s lower jaw are still more 
abruptly retreating than is usually the case in the 
gorilla. 

The skull of a very young female gorilla is shaped 
almost like a half-sphere. The orbits are scarcely 
detached from the forehead; the want of elevation 
of the orbital arch, and the slighter prognathism of 
the jaw, is marked by the deep depression between 
it and the nose and forehead (Fig. 20). 

The cancellous texture of the bones of the chim- 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 73 


panzee’s skull admits of a whole system of cavities 
communicating with each other, which are of the 
nature of the so-called sinuses 
present in the frontal, sphenoid, 
ethmoid, and maxillary bones of 
the human skull. In the chim- 
panzee, however, the sinuses are 
more extensive than in man, or 
even than in the gorilla. The rig. 20—stutt ota very 
large cavities of the forehead *"" ee ea 
communicate with those of the nose and jaws. ‘The 
sphenoidal sinuses and ethmoidal cells are large 
and deep. The greater wings of the sphenoid bone 
and its pterygoid processes are provided with con- 
siderable cavities. The mastoid cells of the tem- 
poral bones are in connection with the cells of the 
greater wings and pterygoid processes of the sphe- 
noid bone, and also extend through the squamous 
portions and zygomatic processes of the temporal 
bones, losing themselves in their upper part in the 
smaller cells of cancellous bone which are found 
between the outer and inner walls of the skull. 
These are of more uniform shape and size. 

The skeleton of the chimpanzee, in accordance 
with the smaller size of the species, is relatively 
of a slenderer build than that of the gorilla. 
The spinous processes of the seven cervical ver- 
tebre are more slightly developed, and have 
undivided extremities. The transverse processes of 
the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae are almost of 
the same shape as cervical ribs. There are thirteen 
dorsal vertebre, somewhat laterally compressed : 


Fig. 20.—Skeleton of the 
furearm and hand of the 
Central African bam- 
cbimpanzee. a, Ulna, b, 
Radius. c, Scaphoid bone. 
d, Semi-lunar bone. e, 
Cuneiform bone. Jf, Pisi- 
form bone. g, Trapezium. 
h, Os magnum. j, ‘Tra- 
pezoid. x,Unciform bone, 
é. Phalanges of thumb. m, 
Metacarpal bones. n, 
Phalanges. 


ANTHROPOID APES. 


this compression is greater than in 
man and in the gorilla. The four 
lumbar vertebra of the chimpanzee 
are furnished with long, thin, rib- 
like transverse processes. The so- 
called mammillary processes of 
the final vertebra are strongly de- 
veloped in the male. The inter- 
vertebral foramina are small, as 
they are also in the gorilla and 
orang-utan. The thirteen ribs of 
the chimpanzee remind us of the 
human structure. The collar-bone 
is slightly curved, as in the gorilla. 
There is a marked difference 
between the sexes in the struc- 
ture of the scapula which is 
broad and three-sided in the male, 
small and leaf-shaped in the fe- 
male. 

The humeri have slender shafts, 
with well-developed condyles and 
ridges. ‘The bones of the forearm 
are much curved, so that the in- 
terval between them is, as in the 
gorilla, somewhat wide. From the 
wrist to the final phalanges the 
hand is more slender than in the 
gorilla, 

The pelvis in this species of ape 
has high, narrow ilia, spreading 
in their upper parts, and pro- 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 75 


jecting forwards, so as to form the cavity of the 
abdomen, and, especially in the male sex, the anterior 
spines of the ilium are more strongly developed than 
in the gorilla and orang-utan. The ischiatic tube- 
rosities are of a spreading form, and diverge con- 
siderably from each other. The pubic arch is deeply 
hollowed, but the point of juncture is elevated. 
As in the, gorilla, the os sacrum resembles the 
basis of a tail, but it is less developed and less 
conical in form. 

In the chimpanzee, as well asin other anthropoids, 
the coccyx gives altogether the impression of a 
laterally compressed and rudimentary tail. This is 
especially the case in young animals, in which the 
coccyx always appears to be very narrow and pro- 
longed. In older animals this part gradually 
widens, yet without losing its resemblance to a 
rudimentary tail. 

The head of the femur resembles a section of a 
sphere, of which the upper part is sometimes want- 
ing. Its shaft, which is curved in front, is much 
slenderer in the female than the male. The patella 
is oval. In the tibia the narrow shaft is laterally 
compressed, and bent inwards. The bones on the 
inner side of the foot take a backward direction, 
while those on the outer side, attached to the 
fibula, turn outwards. 

In the ankle-joint the head of the astragalus is 
much arched, and turned inwards. The scaphoid 
bone is thick and deeply hollowed. The metatarsal 
bones and phalanges have a considerable upward 
convexity (Fig. 21). 


76 ANTHROPOID APES, 


The skeleton of the orang has also its special 
characteristics. We have already remarked, in 
describing the external form of the 
heads of these animals, that the 
skull is high and projecting, and 
retreating in its hinder part. In 
the old male orang this part of 
the bony structure is of smaller 
‘size than in the old male gorilla. 
The arch of the cranium is shorter 
and rounder than in that animal 
and in the chimpanzee. The cen- 
tral longitudinal crest of the vertex 
is present, but in accordance with 
the more spherical shape of the 
coronal part of the cranium, this 
crest is more arched above than 
Fig. 21.—Skeleton of foot n the gorilla, in which it slopes 
tamckimnanee, aas, gently upward to the transverse 
Saeed tinea, e, ¢ occipital crest, which rises high 
Dua bone a Test “aera. and peaked from the back of the 
ith nemtrsé? bce head. This latter crest is indeed 
ee developed in the orang, but it is 
not so high, and is more retreating. In consequence 
of this formation, the upper posterior part of the 
gorilla-skull appears in profile to be much more 
abrupt and peaked than that of the orang. In the 
latter, also, the orbital arches are not so high and 
abrupt, and not so much detached from the rest of 
the skull. In the orang the squamous occipital 
portion declines abruptly in front and below, yet 
it is generally more arched than in the gorilla. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 7¢ 


The orbits of the orang, which are sometimes 
rounded, sometimes more square, are divided from 
each other by a narrow partition. ‘The space be- 
tween them and the anterior nares is not so 
great as in the gorilla. While in the last-named 
animal the space between the root of the nose and 
the teeth of the upper jaw-bone is convex, in the 


Fig. 22.—Skull of middle-aged female orang. 


chimpanzee it is generally vertical, and in tne orang 
it is depressed (Fig. 22). The maxillary parts, 
furnished with strong canine teeth, are very prog- 
nathous, yet hardly to the same extent as in the 
chimpanzee. The body of the lower jaw is high, 
and its rami are high and wide. The bony crests 
of which we have spoken are absent in the female. 


78 ANTHROPOID APES. 


The coronal part and the squamous occipital parts 
are arched; the upper jaw is smaller, and the lower 
jaw is also less massive, than in the male animal. 
In very young animals the predominance of the 
strongly arched cranium over the countenance is 
apparent, and the increase of size in the latter 
oceurs gradually (Fig. 23). 

The anterior nares are narrow at the top, and 
wide at their base. They are more decidedly pear- 
shaped (Apertura pyrtformis) than those of the gorilla 
and chimpanzee. In the latter animals these aper- 
tures are generally wider and more uniformly rounded. 
Bischoff justly observes that the bony part below 
the orbits, which in the gorilla is wide above, 
tapering away in the lower part of the face, is 
narrower and more vertical in the orang. The 
nasal bones of the orang are high and of moderate 
width. Brihl mentions the styloid process of the 
orang’s skull, which is, however, somewhat abortive 
when we compare it with that of the human skull. 
It has its origin in a tolerably deep groove. On the 
other hand, Briihl, as we have already observed, can 
find no trace of the styloid process in the skulls of 
the gorilla and the chimpanzee ! * 

There are many large-celled bony cavities in the 
orang’s skull. These may be observed in the greater 
wings and pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone, 
in the mastoid and squamous parts of the temporal 
bones, in the lachrymal bones, in the body, and in 
the condyles of the occipital bone, and in the zygo- 
matic arch. The larger fore-cells on the squamous 


* Bruhl, Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes, pp. 2, 3. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 79 


80 ANTHROPOID APES. 


part of the temporal bones are connected by a wide 
aperture with the sinuses of the greater wings and 
pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone. A sinus 
which may be observed on the greater wing gene- 
rally communicates by a large round hole with the 
temporal cells. Theye is generally, but not always, 
a communication between the sinuses of the greater 
wing and pterygoid process and the nasal cavity. 
These cavities sometimes communicate with each 
other through a wide aperture at the base of the 
nose. The squamous part of the temporal bones 
has a cellular sinus, which communicates with the 
cells of the mastoid process, in its lower part with 
the tympanum, and in its fore-part with the ossicles 
of the lower wall of the tympanum. The maxillary 
sinuses are in connection with the cells of the 
lachrymal bone. There is nothing in the orang’s 
skull corresponding to the Vidian canal of the 
sphenoid bone, but it may be traced in the gorilla 
and the chimpanzee. 

The vertebral column of the orang has not the 
same colossal spinous processes which distinguish 
that of the gorilla. It differs also in many other, 
though less striking, particulars both from the 
gorilla and the chimpanzee. In the orang there 
are generally twelve dorsal vertebra, tapering in 
their lower parts; while their long, thick, transverse 
processes, which are full of knots, take an upward 
direction. The upper articular processes of the four 
lumbar vertebre present short and rather insig- 
nificant mammillary processes. The sternum of the 
young orang is generally formed of one large 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 81 


upper bone, with six smaller bones below. In older 
animals the body of the sternum appears to consist 
of a tier of three bones connected together. The 
ribs resemble those of the human skeleton, the 
lavicle is long and straight, and the scapula also 
resembles that of a man in form. The flat 
pelvic bones of the orang also turn outwards; the 
ischiatic bones are short, with spatula-shaped tube- 
rosities; the pubic arch is high, and the obturator 
foramen is narrow and oval. The sacrum and 
coccyx do not resemble a rudimentary tail so much 
as in the case of the anthropoids we have already 
described. Weare reminded of the human structure 
in the humerus, of which the shaft is much curved 
behind, and on its outer side. The ulna is very 
slender, and provided with a protracted, jagged 
styloid process. The neck of the radius is tapering, 
while its shaft is arched like that of the ulna, and 
the anterior border and oblique line are sharp. The 
wrist, metacarpus, and fingers are long and narrow. 

The femur of the orang is remarkable for its 
large head, shaped like a séction of a sphere, and 
its slender shaft. The latter is less bent than in the 
gorilla. The patella, which, in my opinion, should 
be classed among the so-called sesamoid bones, is in 
this case of an irregular form. The shank and foot- 
bones are remarkably slender. The scaphoid is 
tapering; the head of the astragalus does not turn 
inward so much as in the gorilla. The hinder sur- 
faces of the metatarsal bones and of the phalanges 
turn decidedly outwards. 

We have now to consider the bony structure of 


82 ANTHROPOID APES, 


gibbons, in which there are many specific variations 
which our space will not allow us to consider in 
detail, but a slight sketch of their organic system 
must be given. The brain-pan of this animal’s 
skull is of an oval shape, without the crests so 
characteristic of other anthropoids, and even in the 
aged males of this species their development is so 
slight as to be scarcely perceptible. The occipital 
bone of male animals is, indeed, generally rounded, 
and the whole occipital portion is somewhat com- 
pressed in a downward direction, while the coronal 
region is at the same time flattened. The cranium 
gradually widens behind, so that, when seen from 
above, its form is somewhat pear-shaped. In aged 
males the orbits project from the low, retreating 
frontal bone, and are surrounded by a bony, circular 
rim. 

The face is not very prognathous, and the short 
wide nasal-bones form a wide, depressed partition 
between the orbits. The edges of the jaw-bones 
describe a parabolic curve and are considerably 
elongated. ‘The palate is consequently long and 
narrow. The rami of the lower jaw are wide and 
low, and their coronoid processes are only slightly 
developed. In aged males the teeth, and especially 
the canine teeth, are long and projecting; yet, com- 
patatively speaking, they never attain to the great 
development of those of other anthropoids. 

The number of vertebrae seems to be subject to 
considerable variation even in the same species, and 
various estimates are given by different naturalists. 
Miller, for example, has said that in several 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 83 


species (Hylobates syndactylus, H. leuciscus, H. varia- 
gatus, and H. concolor) there are thirteen dorsal, five 
lumbar, six sacral, and four coccygeal vertebra. 
Cuvier counted in the siamang, thirteen dorsal, five 
lumbar, four sacral, and three cocecygeal vertebre. 
In Hylobates agilis I counted thirteen dorsal, six 
lumbar, five sacral, and four coccygeal vertebre. 
Hylobates sypdactylus has long coccygeal bones, and 
an elongated os sacrum, which gives the impression 
of serving for the application of a short tail, or, 
indeed, of being in itself a rudimentary tail. In 
other respects the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar 
vertebree differ little in structure from those of man. 

The ribs on the sternum, which widens abruptly 
outwards, are strongly arched: The lowest of these 
project, owing to the width of the shaft. In the 
sternum there is a want of proportion between the . 
smallness of its body and the size and width of its 
extremity. The ensiform appendix of this bone 
is long and wide, and spatula-shaped at its lower 
extremity. In the shoulder-girdle the clavicles are 
very slender, and much arched. The scapule, 
on the other hand, are high and narrow, spatula- 
shaped, and provided with a steeply projecting 
acromion process, a strongly developed coracoid 
process, and deep glenoid cavities. The upper 
limbs are, in conformity with the general structure 
of these apes, very slender; the shafts of the bones 
of the upper and forearm are elongated, with small 
extremities. The condyles are small, especially 
those of the elbow. The bones of the wrist, the 
metacarpus, and the fingers are also long and slender. 


84 ANTHROPOID APES. 


In the pelvis we note that the ilia are narrow 
below, and expand in the form of a spatula above, 
and that their position is almost vertical. Their . 
inner surfaces are only slightly concave, and are 
directed somewhat forwards. The ischiatic benes 
are low, with wide, flattened, rugged tuberosities, 
and rounded foramina obturatoria. The ischiatic 
rami project forwards in an almost horizontal direc- 
tion. There are large prominences on the pubic 
arch of the siamang. 

The leg-bones are much shorter than those of the 
arm. The heads of the femurs stand out plainly 
from their short necks and large trochanters, as 
segments of perfect spheres. In this case, as in 
that of other anthropoids, the third trochanter (¢ro- 
chanteres tertii), often so apparent in the human 
femur, is barely indicated. The shank-bones are 
arched. The tibia is often laterally compressed, 
so that its transverse section forms a scalene triangle. 
The malleoli are compressed from before backwards. 
The elongated heel-bones appear to be laterally 
compressed. The canal between the astragalus and 
the os calcis (Sinus tars?) is very wide. The meta- 
tarsal bones and phalanges have large bases, long 
slender shafts, and heads projecting on the under 
side. Even the final phalanges are long and 
slender. 

We shall now find it profitable to compare the 
external characters of anthropoids with those of 
man. We are sometimes disposed to see the true 
likenesses of anthropoid apes in dark-skinned, naked 
savages. These savages are often insufficiently fed, 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 85 


the skin is wrinkled, the face, even at an early age, 
is deeply furrowed, and their general appearance is 
neglected. The dark silhouette of such people 


Fig. 24.—The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array, with two of his men. 


stands out so distinctly against a clear background, 
their habit of life is so rude, their attitudes impress 
us so disagreeably, that we are involuntarily led to 


86 ANTHROPOID APES. 


makesuch a comparison. Thistendency unfortunately 
gives a wide field for exaggeration among dilettanti 
naturalists, and such as are zealous to establish a pre- 
conceived theory. A conscientious inquirer must, 
however, be cautious, and avoid too great generaliza- 
tion in such comparisons. For instance, much has 
been said of the pithecoid structure of all African 
negroes, yet this only applies to some peculiarly 
hideous races, in a state of physical degradation. 
There aremany negro tribes in different parts of Africa 
which are remarkable for their well-formed bodies,and 
fur a not ignoble bearing. The warlike demeanour 
of the natives of Ashanti, Dahomey, and Ibos is well 
known. Although the Hausanese are flat-nosed and 
thick-lipped, yet when armed and dressed in uniform, 
as we see in the photographs of Captain Glover's force, 
their military bearing is very apparent. The tribes 
of Schilluk, Nuehr, Bari, Niam-Niam, and A-Bantu 
present examples of distinguished warriors, however 
rude and savage. Dabulamanzi, commander of the 
Zulus at the butcheries of Isandlhwana and Ulundi, 
and his chiefs, give me, in a photograph in my pos- 
session, the impression of gallant warriors, however 
uncivilized. In all these cases it is difficult to establish 
the resemblance to anthropoid apes (see also Fig. 24). 

The Papuans, especially on the Australian con- 
tinent, are generally classed with the African negroes 
in such comparisons. We admit that a horde of 
Australian blacks, degraded by hunger and fatigue, 
emaciated and dirty, may, as they roam through the 
shadeless woods, the steppes and thick scrub of their 
native country, present a strange and brute-like ap- 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 87 


pearance. And if the foreign intruder takes a 
coarse pleasure in giving drink to these savages, 
their immodest gestures may afford a revolting im- 
pression of their bestial nature. Yet the habits even 
of these dark-skinned savages are altogether different 
under more favourable conditions. Although of 
small stature, they are not badly proportioned, and 
their manners and bearing are capable of im- 
provement, sd that they can act as native police, 
messengers, etc. This was the case also with the 
natives of Queensland, Australia, whom I saw in the 
Zoological Gardens, Berlin, throwing the boomer- 
ang. Even in these tamed savages, however, we 
must note the projecting orbits, the deep depression 
between the forehead and nose, and the flatness of 
the latter organ. There are aged, wrinkled bush- 
men, negroes, Papuans, Malays, Japanese, and 
Mongols of inland Asia whose countenances are 
altogether pithecoid. And such a cast of face may 
even be found in Europe. 

Some years ago, Mr. Bond, a land-surveyor in 
British India, asserted that he had found the 
missing link between man and apes in the moun- 
tainous district of the Western Ghauts. And 
indeed, the race he describes seems to have a strong 
resemblance to apes. “The forehead is low and 
retreating. The lower part of the face projects 
like the muzzle of an ape; the legs are short and 
bent outwards. The trunk and arms are compara- 
tively long. The hands and fingers are contracted 
so that the latter cannot be freely extended; a 
thick skin covers the hollow of the hand and the 


88 ANTHROPOID APES. 


fingers, especially their tips; the nails are small 
and imperfect; the feet are broad, and covered 
both on their backs and soles with a thick skin. 
This tribe seems to worship nature. They have no 
fixed dwellings; they live chiefly on roots and 
honey, and exchange the latter, together with wax 
and other productions of their forests, for tobacco, 
clothes, and rice.” * 

Nothing more, so far as I am aware, has been 
published concerning this race. The description 
given above leaves much to be desired. The asser- 
tion respecting the contracted fingers is obscure, 
and such a condition is directly opposed to any 
resemblance with the flexible hand of apes. 

Let us turn from a tribe of which the existence 
is still dubious, to consider the portraits we subjoin 


Fig. 25. Fig. 26. 
Aidanill, hairless Australian. The same in profile, 


of a man and woman, aborigines of Queensland, 
in a district watered by the Ballone. These are 
Aidanill, the brother, and Dewan, the sister, 


* “The Missing Link,” Engineering and Mining Journal, xx. 3: 
New York. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 89 


members of a hairless family. The indefatigable 
Miklucho-Maclay went to Gulnarber, 140 miles 
from Tulba, in order to examine them, and took 
the photographs from which our illustrations are 
taken.* 

A likeness to the chimpanzee, when deprived of 
its hair, may be traced in the keel or roof-shaped 
form of the skull; in the prominence of the supra- 
orbital arches} in the deep depression between the 
forehead and nose, of which only the centre of the 
bridge has a slight vertical elevation; in the broad, 
flattened nostrils, bounded by deep furrows; in the 
wide, fleshy mouth, and the large, laterally project- 
ing ears. Gratiolet and Alix give such a head in 
their treatise on Troglodytes Aubryi (Figs. 25, 26, 
27). When we add to this the dark brown skin, 
the deeply furrowed countenance, and the dark 
brown eyes, as they are described by Miklucho- 
Maclay, the external resemblance between many of 
the Australian aborigines and apes becomes more 
marked. 

Projecting ears are common among men of dif- 
ferent races, and I have observed them in Europeans 
who are otherwise well formed. Even in this latter 
case the effect is ape-like. Much has been said of 
the resemblance which may often be observed be- 
tween the human ear and that of apes. It is ad- 
mitted that hardly any part of the organism varies 
so much in its characteristics as the external ear. 
This is the case with anthropoids, and almost more 
frequently with men. Individuals of all nations 

* Report of Anthropological Society, Berlin, April 16, 1881. 


90 ANTHROPOID APES. 


are found with defective development of this or 
that characteristic helix, angle tragus, notch concha, 
and fossa, with lobules imperfectly formed or alto- 
gether absent. I have 
frequently observed 
such misshapen ears, 
which vary from the 
perfect type, and bear 
a certain resemblance 
to the ear of apes, 
among the _ hard- 
ll <W™XN featured peasantry of 
/ as Siero ‘ Germany, Switzerland, 

Tig. 27.—Dewan, Aidanill's sister. France, T taly, and Po- 
land, who cannot be said to count beauty as part of 
their inheritance. In Africa I found this defective 
formation more common among the Maltese, Greeks, 
and Turks who were living in the country, than 
among the fellaheen, Berbers, and negroes. The 
latter have been unjustly charged with the possession 
of “hideous ape-like ears,” whereas,among the African 
races, these organs are, in the majority of cases, 
of a pleasing form. With respect to the Australian 
blacks, and to the Malay, Mongolian, and Indian 
races, I cannot rely on my personal observation. 
According to my very limited experience, there is 
much individual variation among these races, and 
ears of the hideous, ape-like formation might be 
sought for with success. The specific resemblance 
to apes can, indeed, only be ascertained by one who 
is accurately acquainted with the organism of these 
animals. These and similar ideas are often expressed 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 91 


by the unlearned, who do not really understand the 
characteristics in question. 

Darwin speaks of the anthropoid form of the ear 
in the chimpanzee and orang.* “The ears of the 
chimpanzee and orang are curiously like those of 
man, and I am assured by the keepers in the Zoolo- 
gical Gardens that these animals never move or 
erect them, so that they are in an equally rudimen- 
tary condition, as far as that function is concerned, 
as man. Why these animals, as well as the pro- 
genitors of man, should have lost the power of 
erecting their ears, we cannot say. It may be, 
though I am not quite satisfied with this view, that 
owing to their arboreal habits and great strength 
they were but little exposed to danger, and so 
during a lengthened period moved their ears but 
little, and thus gradually lost the power of moving 
them. This would be a parallel case with that of 
those large and heavy birds, which from inhabiting 
oceanic islands have not been exposed to the attacks 
of beasts of prey, and have consequently lost the 
power of using their wings for flight. 

“The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me 
of one little peculiarity in the external ear which he 
has often observed both in men and women, and of 
which he perceived the full signification. His at- 
tention was first called to the subject whilst at 
work on his figure of Puck, to which he had given 
pointed ears. He was thus led to examine the ears 
of various monkeys, and subsequently more care- 
fully those of man. The peculiarity consists in a 


* Darwin’s Descent of Man, p. 21. 


92 ANTHROPOID APES. 


little blunt point, projecting from the inwardly 
folded margin, or helix. These points not only pro- 
ject inwards, but often a little outwards, so that 
they are visible when the head is viewed from 
directly in front or behind. They are variable in 
size and somewhat in position, standing either a 
little higher or lower; and they sometimes occur on 
one ear and not on the other. Now the meaning 
of these projections is not, I think, doubtful; but 
it may be thought that they offer too trifling a 
character to be worth notice. This thought, how- 
ever, is as false as it is natural. Every character, 
however slight, must be the result of some definite 
cause; and if it occurs in many individuals de- 
serves consideration. The helix obviously consists 
of the extreme margin of the ear folded inwards; 
and this folding appears to be in some manner con- 
nected with the whole external ear being  per- 
manently pressed backwards. In many monkeys, 
which do not stand high in the order, as baboons 
and some species of macacus, the upper portion 
of the ear is slightly pointed, and the margin 
is not at all folded inwards; but if the margin 
were to be thus folded, a slight point would neces- 
sarily project inwards and probably a little out- 
wards. This could actually be observed in a speci- 
men of the Ateles beelzebuth in the Zoological Gardens; 
and we may safely conclude that it is a similar 
structure—a vestige of formerly pointed ears—which 
occasionally reappears in man.” 

I subjoin an illustration of the human ear, in , 
which the pointed tip mentioned by Darwin may be | 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 93 


easily discovered. This point may also be perceived 
in the ears of anthropoids, and especially in those of 
the orang-utan. Meyer has at- 
tempted to show that this Dar- 
winian pointed tip is only due to 
the abortive development of part 
of the helix, and in this case we 
should not regard the occurrence 
as an ape-like pointing of the 
helix, but rather as its partial 
interruption owing to the patho- 
logical condition of that organ.* 
In a later edition of his work, 
Darwin admits,in reply to Meyer, 
that this explanation may apply 
to many cases in which there 
are several very small points, or when the whole of 
the helix is sinuate. In one case, photographed by 
Darwin, the prominence was so large that, if we were 
to assume with Meyer that the ear would have been 
normal if the cartilage had been uniformly developed 
along the whole extent of the helix, the latter must 
have occupied a third part of the ear. Two cases 
were mentioned to Darwin in which the upper edge 
of the ear had no inner fold, and was so pointed 
that it was very like that of an ordinary mammal. 
The ear of the foetus of an orang given in Darwin’s 
illustration appears to be pointed, although in the 
adult animal that organ is very like the human ear. 
The Darwinian tip may also be seen in the footus of 
an orang described and illustrated by Salvatore 
* Virchow’s Archiv. fiir Pathologische Anatomie, liii. 485: 1871. 


Fig. 28.—Human ear. 


94 ANTHROPOID APES, 


Trinchese in the Annali del Museo civico di Storia 
Naturale di Genova (1870). The tip of the helix is 
pointed in very young individuals of the gibbon 
species, especially in 
Hylobates Lar. Among 
the lower apes the 
pointed ear is very 
common (see Fig. 29). 

The eyelids of an- 
thropoids greatly  re- 
semble those of man in 
their structure. In adult 
gorillas and chimpan- 
zees there is always a 
semilunar fold (plica 
semilunaris) correspond- 
ing to the membrana 
nictitans, or third eyelid 
of birds. In man there 
exists, instead of this, only a rudimentary apparatus, 
the caruncula lachrymalis. In some individuals it 
attains to a considerable size, as I have observed in 
the fellaheen, Berbers, Shillook, and other tribes. 
On the other hand, the conversion of the caruncula 
into a true, although only rudimentary, plica semt- 
lunaris has not been observed by me in the human 
eye. Miklucho-Maclay describes the caruncula 
in Melanesians (the Papuans of New Guinea), in 
the Orang-Sakay (of the Malay peninsula), and in 
the Mikronesians (of the island of Japan and of the 
Palau archipelago), as two ov three times as wide 
as that of the average European.* 

* Report of Anthropological Society, Berlin, March 9, 1878: 


Fig. 29.—Magot (Innuus ecaudatus). 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 95 


The eye of the young male gorilla which was 
kept alive in the Berlin Aquarium from 1876-77 
was carefully examined by me in June, 1877. I 
found that the sclerotic membrane of the eyeball 
was whitish, surrounded by a dark brown ring. A 
second darker ring, sharply defined, surrounded the 
cornea. The iris was of a yellowish brown. The 
sclerotic membrane, however, gradually deepens in 
colour so as fo give the effect of a uniform dark brown. 
The iris retains a light brown colour for a longer 
period, but it darkens with age. In an aged animal 
there is no brightness in the eye, except from reflected 
light. In the chimpanzee the iris is light brown, verg- 
ing on yellow; and this is also the case in the orang. 

The expressionless, indifferent look of anthropoids 
has often been observed, and undoubtedly chimpan- 
zees and orangs generally gaze placidly before them. 
I have, however, observed an animated expression 
in the eyes of the former species, and W. L. Martin 
has also observed a flash and brightening of their 
eyes. I shall never forget the expression of 
malicious anger in the eyes of the fewale animal 
Mafuca, at Dresden, as soon as she was teased. The 
expression of the eyes of the gorilla in the Berlin 
Aquarium also changed frequently, especially when 
he was about to perform some mischievous trick, or 
when he was provoked to anger. The expression of 
this animal was very human, but necessarily it could 
only recali the darkly coloured eyes of negroes and 
other black races. In 1876 there were two very 
young orangs in the Berlin Aquarium, one hairy and 
the other hairless. ‘These animals clung together in 


96 ANTHROPOID APES. 


a close embrace. If they were separated, their eyes 
became bright and restless, and they again sought 
to embrace each other while uttering plaintive cries. 
On tickling one of the animals under the chin, it 
made a most absurd grimace, and its eyes brightened, 
as Martin has observed in similar cases. The eyes 
of the gibbons which I have observed had a 
thoroughly mild and placid expression, rarely 
animated by any fire. , 

The instance we have mentioned of hairless 
Australians is the more remarkable since these 
aborigines are for the most part distinguished for 
their luxuriant growth of hair. The Australian 
blacks and the Ainos of Yedo are, as a rule, perhaps 
the most hairy races in the world. It is known, 
however, that in all countries and climates excep- 
tional cases are found of individuals whose bodies 
are wholly or partially covered with hair, and these 
conditions sometimes affect whole families. Inte- 
resting historical and morphological researches 
respecting these hairy men have recently been made 
by von Siebold, Ecker, Virchow, Bartels, and Orn- 
stein. In many of these cases we are presented 
with decidedly brute-like phenomena. The Mexican 
woman Julia Pastrana displays the strongest resem- 
blance to apes. Other hairy men remind us at the 
first glance of some of the canine species. In all 
races the women are less hairy than the men. Dar- 
win states that in the females of some species of 
apes the under side of the body is less hairy than in 
the males, and this is also the case with anthropoids, 
especially with the chimpanzee. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 97 


The beard is, as we know, common to man and 
apes. Among apes it is more strongly developed in 
the male than in the female, and this is also the case 
in the human species. Darwin points out that the 
growth of the beard both of men and apes occurs at 
the period of their sexual maturity, and also that 
there is a remarkable parallel between men and apes 
in its colour. For when the human beard varies in 
colour from the hair of the head, which is frequently 
the case, it is, without exception, of a lighter, and 
.generally of a reddish hue. Darwin observed this 
in England, and Hooker found no exception to the 
rule in Russia. J. Scott carefully observed the 
numerous races which are to be found in Calcutta, 
as in other parts of India, namely, the two Sikh 
races, the Bhoteas, Hindus, Burmese, and Chinese. 
Although most of these races have very little hair 
on the face, Scott found that in all cases without 
exception, in which there was any difference in 
colour between the hair of the head and the beard, 
the latter was of a lighter shade. In apes the 
colour of the beard often differs widely from that of 
the hair of the head, and in such cases it is always 
of a lighter shade, often white, sometimes yellow or 
reddish. 

“It is well known,” says Darwin, “that the hair 
on our arms tends to converge from above and below 
to a point at the elbow. This curious arrangement, 
so unlike that in most of the lower mammals, is 
common to the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, some 
species of Hylobates, and even to some few American 
monkeys. But in Hylobates agilis the hair on the 


98 ANTHROPOID APES. 


forearm is directed downwards or towards the wrist 
in the ordinary manner; and in Hylobates lar it is 
nearly erect, with only a very slight forward inclina- 
tion; so that in this latter species it is in a tran- 


sitional state. It.can hardly be doubted that with 
most mammals the thickness of the hair and its 
direction on the back is adapted to throw off the 
rain; even the transverse hairs on the forelegs of a 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 99 


dog may serve for this end when he is coiled up asleep. 
Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the 
hair towards the elbow on the arms of the orang 
(whose habits he has so carefully studied) serves to 
throw off the rain, when, as is the custom of this 
animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped 
round a branch or over its own head. We should, how- 
ever, bear in mind that the attitude of an animal 
may perhaps be in part determined by the direction 
of the hair; and not the direction of the hair by the 
attitude. If the above explanation is correct in the 
case of the orang, the hair on our forearms offers 
a curious record of our former state; for no one sup- 
poses that it is now of any use in throwing off the 
rain, nor in our present erect condition is it properly 
directed for this purpose.” * 

Darwin also remarks that it is erroneous to deny 
that apes have eyebrows. In fact, long bristly eye- 
brows are present in all anthropoids—not growing 
thickly together like those of men, but scattered 
among the shorter and thicker growth of hair which 
clothes the parts above the orbits; nor do they 
maintain any definite direction. In the white-handed 
gibbon, these eyebrows are remarkable for their length 
and stiffness. A growth of hair corresponding to 
eyebrows may, indeed, be observed above the upper 
eyelids of all mammals, including seals and pachy- 
dermata. On the upper lip of gorillas, chimpanzees, 
and orangs we may also observe a number of some- 
what longer, stiff, and bristly hairs which stand apart 
from the otherwise short hairs on the lips, and give 


* Darwin’s Descent of Man, vol. i. p. 192. 


. 


100 ANTHROPOID APES, 


the impression of a cat’s “whiskers.” In Hylobates 
albimanus I observed that these vibrisse attain to a 
considerable length (Fig. 10). 

The external form of the trunk of anthropoids, 
taken as a whole, does not greatly differ from that 
of man. We have not, indeed, the well-formed 
human torso, with its graceful lines; and the forma- 
tion of the posteriors, together with a want of expan- 
sion about the hips, displeases us ih its departure 
from the human type (see Figs. land 6). We shall 
not be disposed to compare the torso of the Apollo 
Belvedere, or of the Olympian Hermes with that of 
a gorilla or chimpanzee. Yet the torso of a power- 
ful male gorilla, from which the hair has been 
removed, may be favourably compared with that of 
one of the large-bellied, lean-armed weaklings who 
are everywhere to be found as living caricatures of 
the human species. 

The neck of anthropoids is generally short 
and thick. In the gorilla that part of the body 
has a great backward convexity, owing, as we have 
said, to the great development of the spinous pro- 
cesses of the cervical vertebra, and of the muscles 
attached to them. A short, thick throat, and con- 
siderable development of the neck, a bull-neck, as it 
is called, is also not unfrequent in man. This pecu- 
liarity is sometimes supposed to be one of the national 
characteristics of the African blacks. Burmeister 
says that “ the negro’s thick neck is the more striking, 
since it is generally allied with a short throat. In 
measuring negroes from the crown of the head to 
the shoulder I found the interval to be from nine 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 101 


and a quarter to nine and three-quarter inches. In 
Europeans of normal height, this interval is seldom 
less than ten inches, and it is more commonly eleven 
inches in women, and twelve in men. The shortness 
of the neck, as well as the relatively small size of the 
brain-pan, and the large size of the face may the more 
readily be taken as an approximation to the simian 
type, since all apes are short-necked, and the relative 
distance of these animals is somewhat further from 
the negro than that of the negro from the Euro- 
pean. This shortness of the neck in the negro 
explains his greater carrying power, and his prefer- 
ence for carrying burdens on his head, which is 
much more fatiguing to the European on account of 
his longer and weaker neck.* 

Burmeister’s assumption on this subject is, how- 
ever, much too general. It does not apply to 
many of the negro races—at any rate, not to those 
of the Upper Nile valley. A long, thin neck is 
the characteristic of the Funje, Shillooks, Denkas, 
Baris, and other large tribes of those regions. 
Among these people the interval between the top 
of the head and the shoulder is from ten to 
eleven, and even from eleven to twelve inches (240 to 
260 mm., and 260 to 286 mm.) Burmeister has 
been thinking exclusively of the Brazilian blacks. 
Yet I am unable to trace the typical short neck, 
either in the well-known portraits of slaves by 
Maurice. Rugendas,f or in the collection of photo- 


* Geologische Bilder zur Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Bewohner, 
ii. 120: Leipzig, 1851-53. 
+ Voyage pittoresque dans le Brésil: Paris, 1839, 


102 ANTHROPOID APES. 


graphs of Brazilian negroes which is in my posses- 
sion. This characteristic is also absent, even in 
many portraits of West African and Mozambique 
blacks, tribes from which the slave population of 
Brazil has been chiefly drawn. Many Mongolians, 
Malays, Papuans, and Polynesians have short, thick 
necks, but this characteristic is more rare among 
the American aborigines and among Europeans. If 
we are to recognize an approximation to the simian 
type in this formation, it is one common to several 
nations, and it is not confined only, nor even chiefly, 
to the negro races. 

The remarkable elongation of the upper limbs of 
anthropoid apes cannot be compared with the length 
of the corresponding limbs in men. For although 
among negroes and the members of other primitive 
peoples we may occasivnally observe unusually long 
arms, yet these are individual peculiarities which 
are also found among Europeans, and cannot be 
counted among racial characteristics. 

The hand of the orang and the gibbon is too long 
and narrow to be directly compared with the human 
hand. The chimpanzee and the gorilla, especially 
the latter, have hands more like those of man. In 
the case of an adult male gorilla the first glance at 
this member reminds us of the knotty fist of a black 
dock labourer or lighterman, like those who, at Rio 
de Janeiro, Bahia, or La Guayra, lift the heavy bags 
of coffee and place them on their heads or on their 
herculean shoulders. Much has been said of the 
enlargement of the connective skin between the 
bases of the fingers of a negro hand, and of the 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 103 


pointed extremities of the fingers. Van der Hoeven, 
in his well-known treatise, De Natuurlijke Geschie- 
denis van den Negerstam, has described and drawn 
the hand of an Ashanti boy, formed in this manner. 


Fig. 31.—Hand of a very aged male gorilla, 


Hence there isa disposition to recognize in this 
peculiarity an important characteristic of the negro 
race. As in the hand of the gorilla, the connective 
web between the bases of the fingers is also extensive, 


104 ANTHROPOID APES. 


and the ungual phalanges taper at their extremities, 
there is also an inclination to ascribe an expressly 
anthropoid character to the negro hand. Yet this 
structure of the fingers is by no means universal 


Fig. 32.—Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile. 


among the negroes. An enlargement of the connec- 
tive web is not indeed uncommon, but its extent 
varies considerably. Nor is it wanting in the fingers 
of.other races. An attentive observer will be able 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 105 


to trace it in the labouring population of country 
districts in Europe. I have myself frequently 
observed this characteristic in Canton Wallis, and in 
the Lombard and Genoese provinces, through which 
I travelled on foot in 1869 and 1871, when I devoted 
special attention to this point. In Fig. 32 I give a 
negro hand of a type which seems to be common 
among the blacks in the inland districts of North- 
eastern Africa. It can hardly be denied that the 
furm of this hand, which is certainly not flattered, 
possesses the characteristics of a thoroughly human 
organization. 

With respect to other primitive peoples besides 
negroes, we have not at present sufficient informa- 
tion, and we ought therefore to beware of pre- 
mature generalization. The thin shanks, with 
imperfectly developed calves, found among many 
primitive races, and especially among the African 
and Australian blacks, are often and not unjustly 
adduced as an instance of their ape-like formation. 
In fact, the general uncomeliness of these parts in 
the races in question is one of their significant 
characteristics. 

The anthropoid foot resembles in structure those 
of other apes, including those of the New World, 
and as a rule it differs from the human foot 
in the flexibility of the great toes. It has, how- 
ever, been justly observed that many individuals of 
different races have been able to use the great toe 
almost as if it were a thumb. Such persons may be 
found everywhere. Men who have been born without 
arms, or who have been deprived of them during life, 


106 ANTHROPOID APES. 


have been able to use their feet like hands, as some 
compensation for this privation. The most surpris- 
_ing instance of our time has occurred in the violinist 
without arms, whose performances are heard in 
various continental capitals. Another, mentioned 


ae 
Fig. 33.—Satan’s ape (Pithecia Satanas). Bliows the formation and mode of using 
the feet in apes of the New World. 


by Bar, was able to write with his feet. But even 
people who have the-full use of their upper limbs 
can often grasp with the great toe as if it were a 
thumb, so as to pick up small objects from the 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 107 


ground, or draw them towards them. Constant 
practice in such feats produces a certain dexterity. 
Negroes, Malays, Polynesians, and Indians make 
use of their outstretched great toes in climbing 
with as skilful a gripe as our schoolboys and sailors 
are also able to do in gymnastics, or in climbing up 
the masts. Among such people the distinction 
between the foot of man and apes is less marked, 
since, even when at rest, the great toe is apt to be 
somewhat detached from the others. This may be 
seen in A. Buchta’s excellent photographs of indi- 
viduals of the Central African tribe, the Makraka. 
Haeckel justly observes that there is no marked 
physiological distinction between the hand and foot 
which can be established on a scientific basis. In 
order to make such a distinction it is necessary to 
consider their morphological characteristics.* 
Structure of the skeleton.—In comparing the skulls 
of anthropoids with those of men, we sHfould, in the 
case of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-utan, 
content ourselves with young specimens rather than 
with the skulls of adults. In aged apes of these 
species, the colossal development of the bony crests 
of the skull, as well as that of the jaws, the promi- 
nence of the orbital rim, and the flattening of the 
occipital bone, present distinctions of such a search-: 
ing character that we are greatly hindered in the 
pursuit of the comparative method. But during 
the process of development the anthropoid skeleton 
admits of a direct comparison with that of man. 
In a young animal the rounded skull suggests a 


* Anthropogenie, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874. 


108 ANTHROPOID APES. “ 


parallel between it and the human head. It must 
be admitted that we find, especially in primitive 
peoples, many human skulls which in their whole 
plastic form differ little from the skulls of young 


ji 
ji: 
Mp 


Fig. 34.—Human skull. a, Nasal bone. 6, Upper jaw. c, Lower jaw. d, Occi- 
aoe e, Temporal bone. f, Parietal bone. g, Frontal bone, A, Malar 
gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs. Even in the 
way the occipital bone is rounded off, young anthro- 
poids and men are often found in a similar stage 
of development. The squamous occipital portion 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 109 


in a young negro, Papuan and Malay, is indeed often 
flatter and more bevelled than it is in a young 
gorilla or chimpanzee. 

We must not, however, assume that the two 
individuals brought into comparison are of precisely 
the same age, since such a point cannot easily be 
ascertained, even when subjects for examination are 
afforded by ong of our larger museums. Savages 
are seldom able to give their precise age, and the 
attempt to do so often relies on insufficient data. 
The direct examination of the skull will afford some 
information on this point; but the conditions of 
growth in anthropoids are not so well known as to 
admit of an accurate estimate. We have to rely on 
the state of the teeth, on the stage at which the 
development of the bony crests has arrived, etc., in 
order to form an approximate estimate of the age 
of the skull. 

On the squamous occipital portiow the arrangement 
of the curved lines which are the boundaries to 
the attachments of the cervical muscles, is common 
to men, to anthropoids, and to other apes. Only in- 
dications of these lines are to be found in the lower 
order of mammals. Inthe human skull there is some- 
times a formation belonging to the squamous occipital 
portion which has a distinctly pithecoid or ape-like 
character. This is the occipital swelling we have 
already described (Torus ocetpitalis transversus), which 
may be either enclosed by the two upper curved 
lines, or lie between these and the central curved 
lines, or may be altogether in the region of the 


latter. This swelling extends in a gradual manner 
6 


110 ANTHROPOID APES. 


above and below its bony support. Its edge may be 
more or less sharp, more or less like a crest in its 
development, wider or narrower, with or without a 
central eminence, but its appearance is always 
striking. In young male and female gorillas, orangs, 
and chimpanzees this formation represents the com- 
pletely formed transverse occipital crests, which are 
found for the most part in aged male animals of 
these species. These swellings may also be observed 
on the skulls of adult men of all times and all 
nations. They are by no means rare in the skulls 
which are in ordinary use at the Berlin School of 
Anatomy, and they are remarkably common in 
many groups of skulls. They are frequent among 
the skulls, for the most part without their lower 
jaws, which the late Dr. Sachs disinterred in 
a Mohammedan burial-ground of the thirteenth 
century, near Cairo. These are the remains of 
Mohammedans of different ranks, but, for the most 
part, of the peasantry or fellaheen. Hcker was able 
to trace the sagittal crest in the skulls of Australian 
males, while it is absent in the females. Similar 
indications of the bony crest have been observed by 
me in the roof-shaped or scaphocephalic skulls of 
many negroes, but in these cases I am not aware 
whether there is a corresponding distinction of sex. 
It can hardly be denied that this bony prominence 
is a human characteristic. 

Broca has given the term pterion to the H-shaped 
connection formed by the sutures between the parietal 
bone, the greater wing of the sphenoid bone, the 
squamous portion of the temporal bone, and the 


‘ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 111 


frontal bone. One of the most common disturbances 
in the symmetry of the connecting suture, as we 
have already briefly mentioned, arises from the 
insertion of a frontal process of the squamous portion 
of the temporal bone between the lower angle of 
the parietal bone, the fore-part of the frontal bone, 
and the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. This 
process of the temporal bone varies in size, and may 
occur on one or both sides. A similar formation is 
common among gorillas, chimpanzees, macacas, 
magots (Inwus), and baboons.* It is less frequent 
among orangs,f gibbons, marmosets, and American 
species (howlers, hooded apes, etc.). 

Virchow and W. Gruber have agreed in repre- 
senting this frontal process as theromorphological— 
that is, as a characteristic of the lower animals, and 
more especially of apes. Virchow has found this 
abnormal formation of the skull to be more com- 
mon in some races than others, None of those in 
whom it occurs appear to belong to the Aryan 
races, and the existence of this process and steno- 
crotaphy, or temporal stenosis, seem to be due to a 
defective development of the greater wing of the 
sphenoid bone, and to the compression of the bones 
in its vicinity, by which the whole temporal region 
is contracted. ‘This is a characteristic of the lower, 
but by no means of the lowest, races of men. 

Stieda, Hyrtl, Gruber, and Calori have sought to 


* It appears to be very common among Japanese apes (Inuus 
spectosus). 

+ Briihl has noted the intermittent occurrence of a connection 
between the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the temporal 
bone. 


112 ANTHROPOID APES. 


controvert the fact that this temporal process is a 
characteristic of the lower races. Stieda asserts 
that it may occur exceptionally in all races of men.* 
He himself, aided by Anutschin, has ascertained the 
existence of this anomalous pterion on more than 
10,000 human skulls, and he has also received 
information from others. He considers the frequency 
of this frontal process in man to be theromorpho- 
logical, or indeed pithecoid. According to Anutschin, 
this anomalous condition is not equally common in 
all races. In the dark-skinned and woolly-haired 
races (Australians, Papuans, and negroes) the frontal 
process is most widely diffused ; it is less frequent 
among Mongolians and Malays; and among Ameri- 
cans and white men its occurrence is from five to 
six times more uncommon than in the black races. 
Sometimes the frontal process occurs on the inter- 
calary bone (Ossa epipterica), which is fused into the 
squamous portion of the temporal bone; and some- 
times the process grows out of the squamous portion 
of the temporal bone. These imperfect processes or 
intercalary bones are not regarded by Anutschin as 
pithecoid, since they are more rare in apes.than in 
men. Schlocker has sought to show that the frontal 
process of the squamous portion of the temporal 
bone, the less common temporal process of the frontal 
bone, and the temporal intercalary bone (Ossa epip- 
terica) are of equal value from the genetic point of 
view.f This author regards the frontal process and 


* Archiv. fiir Anthropologie, p. 121: 1878. 
{ Schlocker, Ueber die Anomalien des Pterion. Inaugural 
dissertation. Dorpat, 1879. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 113 


the immediate connection of the frontal and squa- 
mous portion of the temporal bones, as theromor- 
phological characteristics, but he does not believe 
the occurrence of this process to be restricted to the 
lower races.* This is also the opinion of Ten Kate. 
However this may be, the establishment of this 
theromorphological formation is important. Its im- 
mediate value as a contribution to the theory of the 
origin of species remains, as we shall presently see, 
even if we cannot trace it through intermediate and 
lower types. 

In the great prominence of the supra-orbital ridges 
which has been observed in some pre-historic human 
skulls, a likeness to the corresponding feature in 
anthropoids has been traced. And indeed there is 
such a likeness, especially to the female chimpanzee, 
in the well-known Neanderthal skull, which is very 
dolichocephalic, with prominent supra-orbital arches, 
only divided from each other by a shallow depression. 
In the same skull the development of the supra- 
orbital ridges is related to that of the frontal sinuses. 
In this pre-historic specimen—which, by the kindness 
of Professor Schaafhauser, I was able to examine 
closely at the congress of anthropologists at Berlin 
in 1880—the forehead retreats in a marked manner 
towards the flattened region of the crown. De 
Quatrefages and Hamy say that the skull is both 
flattened and long (dolichoplatycephalic). The tem- 
poral ridges are not only very marked, but they 
approach each other in the region of the coronal 


* Zur Kraniologie der Mongoloiden: Beobaehtungen und Mes- 
sungen, p. 56. Dissertation. Heidelburg, Berlin, 1882. 


114 ANTHROPOID APES. 


arch (Fig. 35). This also occurs in the adult female 
chimpanzee, as well as in the young male gorilla, 
in the aged female orang, and in the gibbon. 

It may here be observed that our men of science 
differ widely in opinion respecting the origin and 
ethnological significance of the Neanderthal skull, 
of which I will cite only a few instances. Pruner 
regards it as the skull of an idiot.* Virchow 
considers the specimen, and the similar one from 
Kailykke in the Copenhagen Museum, as an alto- 
gether individual formation,} atypical form modified 
by disease,} in other words, a pathological skull.§ 
King regards the skull as one belonging to one 
of the primitive races.|| Schaaffhauser has, indeed, 
endeavoured to make an artistic portrait of such 
a primitive man. Spengel holds that skulls which 
are “ Neanderthaloid” in form are to be found 
chiefly in Europe.f Huxley says decidedly that 
the Neanderthal skull can by no means be regarded 
as the remains of a human being which was a link 
between man and apes. At most this discovery 
only proves the existence of a man whose skull 
reverted in some respects to the simian type, just 
as a carrier or tumbler pigeon may sometimes 


* Bulletin de la Société d’ Anthropologie, iv. fig. 305. 

Tt Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, 
p. 164: 1872. 

f Die vierte allgemeine Versammlung der deutschen Gesellschaft 
jur Anthropologie, p. 49. 

§ Die Urbevilkerung Europas, p. 46. 

|| Quarterty Journal of Science, January, 1864. Comp. also 
Fuhlrott, Der fossile Mensch aus dem Neanderthal: Duisburg, 1865. 

q Archiv. fiir Anthropologie, viii. fig. 63. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 115 


display the plumage of their original ancestor, the 
rock-pigeon (Columbia livia). And although the 
Neanderthal skull is more like that of the ape than 
any other human skull with which we are acquainted, 


A Donne 


u 
(Pvrsnn. 7 
LUT, 
SEER 


" i 


(eu NH 
att 
f Ni Ml 
a 
I 
Fig 35.—The Neanderthal skull. A. In profile. B. A front view. 
yet it is by no means so isolated as it at first appears, 


but is rather the ultimate expression of a series 
which may be gradually traced back from the 


116 ANTHROPOID APES, 


highest and most fully developed type of human 
skulls. On the one side it approximates to the 
flattened Australian skulls, from which other 
Australian forms gradually lead to skulls which 
rather resemble the type afforded by the Engis 
skull. On the other side, it is still more closely 
allied with the skulls of certain ancient races 
which were either contemporaries or successors of 
those which dwelt in Denmark during the Stone 
Age, people whose kitchen middens have been dis- 
covered in that country.* 

Huxley justly observes that some of the skulls 
drawn by Busk, and taken from the tumuli of 
Borrely, resemble the Neanderthal skull, especially 
in the abruptly retreating forehead. Some other 
European skulls may, within certain limits, be 
compared with the Neanderthal skull, as, for instance, 
those found at Brix, Staengenaes, Olmo, Louth, 
Clichy, Bougon, Cro-Magnon, Grenelle, Furfooz, 
Engisheim, Cannstadt, and Toul. These all present, 
interesting peculiarities of structure—strongly de- 
veloped supra-orbital arches, a retreating forehead, 
a flattened crown, etc., although none of them are so 
remarkable in these particulars as the Neanderthal 
skull. It has not, however, yet been proved that 
this skull represents a definite racial type, and it 
seems more probable that it was simply an indi- 
vidual form. 

The skulls of the Australian aborigines are, as 
Spengel justly observes, distinguished from the 
Neanderthal skull, and from others of like character, 


* Zeugnisse, etc., 157. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 117 


by their pronounced scaphocephalism. On the 
other hand, they have the prominent supra-orbital 
arches, the retreating forehead, the skull compressed 
in the temporal region, the prognathous countenance, 
relatively shorter than that of Europeans, and in all 
these respects the skulls of the Australians greatly 
resemble those of anthropoids. If, for instance, we 
turn to the illustration given by de Quatrefages and 
Hamy of a skull procured from Camp-in-Heaven, 
Arnhem’s Land, North Australia, and also Dr. 
Schadenburg’s negro skull, the most determined 
sceptic must be struck by their resemblance to the 
anthropoid skull.* 

Similar characteristics to those which we have 
already mentioned as distinguishing the structure 
of the Australian skull, enable us to determine the 
anthropoid character of the skulls of many in- 
dividuals belonging to the dark-skinned African 
races. These consist chiefly in the retreating fore- 
head, the flatness and compression of the coronal 
arch, the pronounced prognathism, and the obtuse 
angles of the lower maxillary bones, which may be 
noted in so many negro skulls. On the other hand, 
the prominence of the supra-orbital arches is, as a 
rule, less marked in African races than in anthro- 
poid species. There are specimens, however, as, for 
instance, the Congo skull given by de Quatrefages and 
Hamy,t which give an overwhelming impression of 
anthropoid characteristics. And we find the same to 


* Orania Ethnica, plate xxvi.; Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, series 
12, plate viii. fig. 2. 
} Crania Ethnica, plate xxxvi. 


118 ANTHROPOID APES. 


a surprising degree in the skulls of intelligent, war- 
like, and light-skinned races of Central and Western 
Africa, and as the Monbuttre, Haussaua, Bakale, 
Fan, etc. This character may be discovered in all 
races of men, and especially among the Papuans 
and some African negroes. 

A mutual approximation of the temporal ridges 
in the coronal region may be observed in the skulls 
of various nations. This formation is most frequent 
in the long-headed negro and Papuan skulls. In 
these cases it is generally allied with the shortness 
of the interval between the sides of the skull, taken 
in its transverse diameter (stenocephalism). 

In an adult female chimpanzee, the parietal bones 
often rise abruptly towards the sagittal suture, and 
in its vicinity there arises a longitudinal bony 
prominence, of which the sides pass gradually into 
the external surface of the parietal bones. The 
sagittal suture sometimes remains intact, and is 
sometimes included by this process. This produces 
a modified development of the so-called keel-shaped 
skull (seaphocephalus). Such a formation may be 
often observed in negroes and Papuans, and more 
rarely in the skulls of other races. The occur- 
rence of a divided malar bone in human skulls, 
especially in those of the Ainos and Japanese, has 
been considered to be theromorphic, since it is 
occasionally observed in the skulls of apes.* I have 


* Ten Kate, loc. cit. pp. 17, 42. Virchow is of opinion that 
the facts are not sufficiently clear to enable us to judge how far 
this formation affects men (Monatsbericht der Akademie der 
Wissenschaft zw Berlin, p. 268: 1881). The detachment of the 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 119 


myself, in a very few instances, found obscure traces 
of such a formation among anthropoids. 

In 18633 Boucher de Perthes found at Abbeville 
half of a human lower jaw deposited in a black layer 
of clay and sand mixed with iron, and lying on 
the chalk. As far as we can judge from illustrations 
which are for the most part imperfect, there was 
nothing remarkable about it except its abruptly re- 
treating ramus (Fig. 36), but the specimen aroused 
great attention at the time, and it was assigned by 


Fig. 36.—Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon. 


many intelligent observers to the primitive men of 
the diluvial period. Unfortunately it was after- 
wards proved to be a gigantic imposture.* 

This is not the case with the lower jaws of 
Naulette, Aurignac, and Arcy, which are un- 
doubtedly genuine and of great antiquity. The 
Naulette jaw is, indeed, very imperfect, yet we can 
trace the construction of the symphysis of the chin, 
malar bone from the spheno-maxillary fissure of the orbit has up 
to this time been too rarely observed in anthropoids to merit 


serious consideration in this work. 
* Joly, Man before Metals: London. 


120 ANTHROPOID APES. 


which provokes comparison with the lower jaws of 
‘many anthropoids, especially those of the gorilla 
and chimpanzee (Fig. 37). The resemblance consists 
chiefly in the uprightness of the anterior surface, 
and especially of the body of the maxillary bone. 


Fig. 37.—Naulette lower jaw. 


In anthropoids this surface of the bone retreats from 
the row of teeth backwards and downwards to the 
lower edge of the body of the maxillary bone (Fig. 
38); and in the Naulette specimen, as well as in 
the lower jaws of some modern Papuan skulls (of 


Fig, 38. 


New Hebrides and elsewhere), there is a certain 
approximation to the simian type. A fossil ape 
(Dryopithecus Fontanii) has been found in the Middle 
Miocene of Saint-Gaudens, assumed to be one of the 
higher anthropoids, and in this case the jaw is only 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 121 


slightly retreating. Gaudry considers that the Dryo- 
pithecus was about the size of aman. The incisor 
teeth were small. The cusps of the back molar teeth 
were less rounded than in Europeans, and more like 
those of Australians. It has been surmised, although 
the fact cannot be established, that the last molar 
teeth were only cut after the canine teeth, as is the case 
with the human wisdom teeth. Gaudry givesthe illus- 
tration of the lower j jaw of a Tasmanian, from eleven to 
twelve years old, together with that of Dryopithecus 
Fontanti. In the human jaw the first molar tooth is 
larger than in the Dryopithecus, while the canine tooth 
and the pre-molars are much weaker. This distinc- 
tion is important, since the smaller size of the front 
teeth is connected with the slight projection of 
the face, which is always a sign of human superiority. 
Although the canine tooth of the Dryopithecus is 
broken, we can see that it must have been consider- 
ably higher than the other teeth, and indeed the 
canine teeth of the male animal must have been very 
powerful. There is also a slight prominence in the 
teeth of this ape, which is absent in those of men. 
Mesopithecus, from the Miocene of Pikermi, Attica, 
was an ape less closely resembling the anthropoids. 
In the structure of the head it resembles the slender 
ape (Semnopithecus), and in the structure of the limbs 
it is like a macaca (Macacus). Gaudry believes that 
Sansan’s Pliopithecus was related to the gibbon. An 
ape of the size of the orang-utan, which belongs to 
the slender apes (Semnopithecus sub-himalayanus),* 


* Gaudry, Les enchainements dw monde animal, p. 232: Paris, 
1878. 


122 ANTHROPOID APES. 


was found by Baker and Durand in the Miocene of 
the Sewalik mountains. 

In the comparative study of the human organiza- 
tion, and that of anthropoid apes, it is important to 
examine sections, and especially longitudinal sections, 
of characteristic skulls.* Virchow has caused draw- 
ings to be made, from specimens in the Berlin 
Museum, of a gorilla, a chimpanzee, an orang-utan, 
and an Australian woman. The gorilla’s skull, 
when compared with the Australian’s, is so narrow 
that it looks as if compression had been applied to 
it; and yet the Australian skull is extremely small 
in comparison with that of men in general, since its 
cubic space is only 1150 cem. In the gorilla t—at 
least in the old male, from which the drawing is 
taken—the immense size of the frontal sinuses, and 
the swellings which cover them, together with the 
strongly developed jaw, increase the impression of 
size. But, as Virchow observes, “all which adds to 
the size of the skull is bestial, and not human.” It 
is much the same in the orang-utan. Only in the 
chimpanzee the cubic space of the skull may be 
somewhat more favourably compared with that of 
the human skull. It approaches in size to that of a 
microcephalic native of the Rhein-Pfalz (of which 
an illustration is also given), which ranks a good deal 
below the Australian skull, and approximates more 
closely to the simian type. The internal space 
of the skulls of an adult female gorilla or orang 


* Hartmann, Der Gorilla, pp. 68, 109. 
+ Correspondenzblatt der Deutscher Anthropologischen Gesell. 
schaft, p. 148, with illustration: 1878. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 123 


may also be more favourably compared with those 
of men. 

We have already mentioned the’ presence of 
extensive sinuses and cells in the skulls of anthro- 
poids, exceeding those of human skulls, and this 
is apparent in the accompanying illustration of 
a longitudinal section of the skull of a chim- 
panzee carrigd through its centre (Fig. 39). The 
length of this skull between the nasal partition and 
the most prominent part of the occipital bone is 
128 mm.; that of the internal space is 108 mm. 
10 mm. of this difference is due to the depth of the 


Fig. 39.—Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee. 


frontal sinuses, and the rest is owing to the thick- 
ness of the bony part of the skull. In an aged male 
gorilla, the first measurement is 153 mm., the second 
115 mm. In another aged gorilla the measurements 
were respectively 183 mm. and 117 mm. Ina 
still more aged male orang they were respectively 
140 mm. and 114 mm. The comparative thinness 
of the centre of the squamous occipital portion is to 
be noted in the aged gorilla male. In the adult 
chimpanzee the large cells of the squamous portion 


124 ANTHROPOID APES, 


of the temporal bone extend into this bone, and 
indeed without interruption into the parietal bone 
adjoining it. For such investigations the thin 
and light bones of individuals which have lived 
a wild life are more suitable than the heavy and 
fat specimens which have died after prolonged 
confinement. 

Zuckerkandl has observed that among Europeans 
the orbital part of the nose, or that part which is 
between the orbits, is longer than the infra-orbital 
or lower part. In anthropoids the infra-orbital por- 
tion is considerably the longest, although only in 
adult animals. There are stages in the period of 
development in which these animals display the 
characteristics of an adult European, or indeed of 
a child. The proportions of the skulls of Malays 
take a middle place between those of Europeans and 
of apes. The growth of the infra-orbital part of the 
nose in the Malay does not equal that of apes, but 
in many cases it differs essentially from that of 
Europeans. Zuckerkandl makes a skilful attempt 
to establish this statement by statistics. 

The same inquirer makes some interesting 
remarks on the comparative height and width of 
the orbits. He observes that the skulls of adult 
apes and men differ more in these respects than 
the young specimens of these organisms. The 
orbits both of a child and an adult, especially in the 
case of a European, are much more like those of a 
young ape than of an aged animal of the same 
species. In the chimpanzee and the orang-utan the 
proportions are the same as in men; that is, the width 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 125 


of the orbit exceeds its height. In man, this seems 
to arise from the exceptionally strong development 
of the supra-orbital ridge. It is most probable 
that in very young anthropoids the width of the 
orbit exceeds its height.* Zuckerkandl goes on to 
say that in anthropoids the height of the orbits is 
greater than their width, and that this difference 
increases with age. But this is not absolutely cor- 
rect, for even in aged animals the proportions vary, 
and the height and width of the orbits sometimes, 
although rarely, remains the same. 

In comparing the vertebral column in men and 
anthropoids, Rosenberg has sought to show in the 
embryo, that the first sacral vertebra assumes the 
form of a lumbar vertebra, and that in a later stage 
of development it is enclosed by the ilia, and 
anchylosed with the sacrum. The same author has 
proposed a theory of the homologous or genetic 
equivalents of the vertebra, which we must now 
consider. According to this theory, as Welcker has 
observed, f the twentieth vertebra of an animal A is 
homologous to the twentieth vertebra of an animal B, 
the thirtieth vertebra of one animal to the thirtieth 
of another, although in one case it may be a lum- 
bar vertebra, in another a pelvic vertebra, and in 
a third a coccygeal vertebra. The dorso-lumbar 
vertebrae of the lower apes have, in the case of men, 
their descendants, undergone a threefuld metamor- 


* Zur Morphologie des Gesichtsschadel, pp. 73, 85, 89: Stuttgart, 
1877. 

t Welcker on His und Braune, Archiv. fiir Anatomie, 1881. 
Rosenberg, Gegenbaur’s Morphologisches Jahrbuch, i. 172. 


126 ANTHROPOID APES. 


phosis, and, after their modification into sacral verte- 
bre, have assumed their fourth form as coccygeal 
vertebrae. 

Froriep, a follower of Rosenberg, remarks that the 
lumbo-sacral vertebra, ¢.e. those constituents of the 
vertebral column which form the transition from 
the lumbar to the sacral vertebree, are invested with 
fresh interest by Rosenberg’s hypothesis. Accord- 
ing to their position in the vertebral column, they 
are to be regarded as lumbar vertebra, introduced 
too early or too late into the structure of the sacrum. 
If the twenty-fourth vertebra is assimilated with the 
sacrum, so as to form an upper promontory or out- 
work, this variety offers a point of transition to a 
future formation (?) in which this vertebra normally 
becomes the first sacral vertebra, and the column will 
now display twenty-three free vertebra. If, again, 
this transition occurs in the twenty-fifth vertebra of 
the series, which thus becomes the chief sacral verte- 
bra, this is, in Rosenberg’s opinion, a characteristic 
survival of the racial development, an atavism.* 

According to Welcker’s theory, the chief sacral 
vertebra in one animal corresponds to the same 
sacral vertebra in another animal, whatever their 
number may be. The cervical vertebree of one 
animal, which may be five, seven, or even eleven in 
number, correspond to the cervical vertebre of 
another animal. The vertebral column of one 
animal corresponds to the vertebral column of 
another, taken as a whole, but not to two-thirds or 
three-fourths of that column. In accordance with 

* Beitrige zur Geburtshiilfe, p. 161. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 127 


the requirements of a given animal, that part 
of the bone which belongs to the sections of the 
breast and loins is more or less abundant, and the 
vertebra are homologous in accordance with their 
region, and not with their number. 

Holl has asserted that one vertebra is in close 
connection with the ilium, joined with it through- 
out its extent, and that this vertebra at the same 
time always appears to support the pelvis. This 
vertebra is, in normal cases, the first sacral vertebra, 
and the twenty-fifth of the series. It may be termed, 
as Welcker suggests, vertebra fulcralis, Such a 
main support is found, according to Holl, in every 
vertebral column, however anomalous its other con- 
ditions may be, and the only irregularity consists 
in its number in the series. This bone serves as a 
natural starting-point in our division of the vertebral 
column. The vertebra fuleralis must always be 
regarded as the first sacral vertebra. It begins the 
series of sacral vertebra, and, on account of its sub- 
sequently important position, it must be regarded as 
primary. Holl finds that it is followed by four lower 
vertebrae, which are afterwards included with it in 
the sacrum. When in its primary condition the ver- 
tebra fulcralis is tw: nty-filth in the series, the twenty- 
fifth to the twenty-ninth vertebrae are included in 
the sacrum. When the fuleralis is the twenty-sixth 
vertebra, the sacrum includes the thirtieth. Hence 
it follows that the sacrum is, from the first stages of 
its development, a formation which begins with the 
twenty-fifth or twenty-sixth vertebra, and includes 
four other vertebre. Holl considers that the lumbo- 


128 ANTHROPOID APES. 


sacral form of the last lumbar vertebra, which stands 
between the lumbar and sacral vertebrae, does not 
indicate a gradual transition into a sacral vertebra, 
but rather an arrest in its development.* 

When we examine a human sacrum we see that its 
first vertebra, the twenty-fifth of the series, is formed 
like the lumbar vertebre in its upper part, setting 
aside those portions of it which form part of the 
lateral masses of the sacrum. These lateral masses, 
which serve as a support to the ilia, owe most of 
their substance to the first sacral vertebra. Thus, 
since it has to support the whole weight of the pre- 
sacral vertebrae, it is in fact a true vertebra fulcralis, 

Holl justly says that there are few instances in 
which the human os sacrum consists of less than 
five vertebree, and in no case are there less than 
four. In such a case the first sacral vertebra defines 
the pre- and post-sacral segment of the vertebral 
column. 

In anthropoids the lower segment of the lumbar 
vertebral column is deeply sunk between the high, 
wide, and flattened ilia, which converge closely 
towards the vertebral column. In man these bones 
are not so much higher than the base of the sacrum, 
and their crests diverge more widely from the ver- 
tebral column. In the large apes the lateral masses 
of the sacrum are comparatively deeply set below 
their anchylosis with the pelvic bones. In an aged 
male gorilla, for instance, the transverse processes 
of the two lower lumbar vertebre often extend to the 

* Siteungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien, 
Ixxxv. fig. 1: 1882, 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 129 


hinder borders of the ilia, although the second of 
the lower lumbar vertebre is somewhat higher than 
the top of the crest of the ilium. This is still more 
remarkably the case in an old male chimpanzee, in 
which the lowest lumbar vertebra seems to be wedged 
in between the two ilia. In a young male chim- 
panzee, and in the adult female, both the lower 
Tumbar vertebrae are almost compressed between 
the upper segments of the ilia. In the orang the 
lowest lumbar vertebra is placed between the ilia. 
Out of the five sacral vertebre the first and second 
are articulated with these bones. 

In the gorilla the highest sacral vertebra, the 
twenty-fifth of the series, is the fulcralis, In this 
animal the first to the third sacral vertebrae form 
part of the connection with the crests of the ilia. 
In the chimpanzee the twenty-fifth is also the ver- 
tebra fulcralis, and from the first to the third are 
likewise connected with the ilia, but the third only 
to a limited extent; and in young males and in old 
females the connection is generally confined to the 
first and second sacral vertebrae. In the orang-utan 
the twenty-fourth vertebra is generally the fuleralis. 

In the gibbon the twenty-fifth vertebra is usually 
the fulcralis. In the siamang I found that the fifth of 
the five lumbar vertebree was between the ilia. 
Out of the five sacral vertebra the first and second 
were articulated with the said pelvic bones. In 
Hylobates agilis the fifth and sixth of the six lumbar 
vertebrze were between the ilia, and the first and 
second of the five sacral bones were articulated with 
these. 


130 ANTHROPOID APES. 


In the vertebral columns of the gorilla, the chim- 
panzee, and the orang we may observe an incon- 
siderable forward projection between the penultinate 
cervical and the second and third dorsal vertebre. 
In the region below the second lumbar vertebra a 
similar forward projection may sometimes be observed. 
The so-called promontory at the entrance of the 
pelvis, that is, in the region developed between the 
lumbar and sacral vertebre, which is remarkable in 
man, is only faintly apparent in anthropoids. The 
vertebral column is arched behind, since there is a 
dorsal curvature (see Figs. 17 and 23). 

Aeby observes that the bodies of the vertebra 
are tapering in the gorilla, and this is, in fact, the 
case. In climbing, or when he goes on all fours, 
the dorsal curvature of an anthropoid maintains its 
position. This curvature is still more apparent 
when the animal, in climbing, withdraws his body 
from the tree, mast, or whatever it may be, and 
bends forward his head. A similar dorsal curvature 
of the vertebral column may be observed in men 
who stiffen their hands and feet to climb up a tree 
or mast. If an anthropoid holds himself so erect 
as to be able to place his hands behind his head, 
the dorsal curvature of his spine is necessarily 
straightened, and indeed it becomes rather a ven- 
tral curvature. 

The bony pelvis of anthropoids, with its high, 
narrow, and projecting ilia, and the lowest lumbar 
vertebre deeply embedded between them, together 
with the sacral and coccygeal vertebra, which 
directly remind us of the vertebra of a rudimentary 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 131 


tail, present the points of unlikeness with the human 
skeleton in this part of the skeleton of these animals 
in the strongest light (comp. Figs. 40 and 41). 

The bony thorax of anthropoids is distinguished 
from the human thorax in normal cases by the 
abrupt way in which it widens outwards, The 
thorax of the gorilla, and the widely diverging 
pelvic bones, which enclose the belly and give it a 
tun-shaped form, contrast with the graceful moulding 
of the corresponding parts of the human form. 

Certain peculiarities in the structure of the bones 
of the shoulder-girdle and of the extremities of 
anthropoids, in which they differ from corresponding 
parts in the human structure, have been already 
mentioned. 

With reference to the humerus of the gorilla, Aeby 
asserts that the head of the bone forms a cycloid, 
placed transversely, while in man its shape is that 
of the segment of asphere. But I have pointed 
out in my treatise on the gorilla that there is a not 
inconsiderable variation in the form of the head of 
the humerus in these animals, and it is sometimes 
cycloidal or vertically-cycloidal, sometimes a seg- 
ment of a true sphere. In the chimpanzee, orang, 
and gibbon this part of the humerus is always a 
segment of a sphere, while in man its form is 
not equally invariable. Aeby further observes that 
the transverse-cycloidal form of the head of the 
humerus in the gorilla justifies the inference that 
this animal, in the use of its fore-limbs, is accus- 
tomed to turn them transversely on their axis. But 
the direct observation of a living anthropoid, as 


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Fig. 41.—Skeleton of an aged male gorilla. 


7 


134 ANTHROPOID APES. 


well as the examination of its dead body, make it 
clear that the action of the ball and socket is remark- 
ably free, and this theoretical surmise is contradicted 
by the perfection of the natural mechanism. 

The excessive curvature of the forearm which we 
notice in the gorilla and the chimpanzee in their 
natural condition is rare in man, and when it does 
occur it must be regarded as an abnormal and 
pathological phenomenon. 

The orang-utan always displays a ninth carpal” 
bone, corresponding to de Blainville’s os intermedium 
and Gegenbaur’s os centrale carpi. In a very young 
animal I found that this small bone was furnished 
with a peculiar point of ossification, The bony 
structure of the wrist is developed in the following 
succession :—First, the os magnwm and unciform 
bones; second, the scaphoid bone; third, the 
trapezium ; fourth, the semi-lunar bone; fifth, the 
cuneiform bone; sixth, os centrale carpi ; sepaiith? 
the trapezoid bone. The pisiform bone and the 
sesamoid bone, between the trapezium and the sca- 
phoid bone, of which we shall speak presently in 
their relation to the muscular system, are at first 
simply cartilaginous. 

Up to this time my search for this ninth carpal 
bone in the gorilla and the chimpanzee has been fruit- 
less, since its occurrence is only exceptional. Inthe 
gibbon it is plainly inserted between the scaphoid, 
semi-lunar, trapezoid, and os magnum. Gegenbaur 
considers the os centrale to be a true constituent of 
the wrist, dating from an earlier condition, but he 
has nothing to suggest as to its subsequent survival. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 135 


Rosenberg has lately given an incontestable proof 
of the presence of this bone in the human embryo. 
It is generally absorbed again, but sometimes it 
persists, and may be found in an adult as a well- 
formed ninth carpal bone. Cases of the persistence 
of the os centrale in man have been chiefly collected 
and published by the diligence of the Russian 
anatomist, Gruber. It is now suggested that there 
may also be indications of os centrale in the carpus 
of embryos of the gorilla and chimpanzee, but up 
to this time materials for such researches have been 
wanting. 

I cannot accept the theory that os centrale carpi 
is merely a detached portion of the scaphoid bone. 
In a very young chimpanzee this bone is undoubtedly 
superficially indented with two transverse furrows, 
but the three segments display only one uniform 
development of bone. The distinct formation of os 
centrale, and its occasional appearance in man, testify 
that it has an independent existence. Rosenberg 
holds that this bone is not merely the os centrale of 
mammals, but that it is homologous with the two 
ossa, centralia of the fossil Enaliosauria. It has 
become abortive in proportion to the reduction in 
size which has taken place.* There would be no 
great difficulty in tracing back this bone to remote 
types of vertebrate animals, even as far as the 
Urodela (Wiedersheim) of Eastern Asia.t The per- 
sistence of this bone in man must be regarded as 
- a reversion, not as an arrest, of development. 

* Hartmann in Archiv. fiir Anatomie, etc., by Reichert and Du 


Bois-Reymond, pp. 639-643 : 1876. 
+ Wiedersheim, Morphologisches Jahrbuch, ii. 421. 


136 ‘  ANTHROPOID APES. 


On the femur of several mammals, especially in 
the horse, ass, rhinoceros, and tapir, and more slightly 
indicated in the carnivora and ‘other families, there 
is, in addition to the two great and small trochanters, 
a third, termed by Waldeyer trochanter tertius.* 


Fig. 42.—Skeleton of human hand, back view. a, Scaphoid bone. 6, Semi-lunar 
pone. c, Cuneiform bone. d, Pisiform bone. e, Trapezium. #, Trapezoid bone. 

, OS magnum. fh, Unciform bone. l-l, Metacarpal bones. m-m* and nn, 
Phalanges. 


Such a formation, low, blunt, and generally placed 
at the top of the outer ridge of the superior bifurca- 
tion of the linea aspera, may be observed in human 
skeletons of all races, but is either absent in anthro- 
poids or only faintly indicated. Virchow justly 


* Archiv. fiir Anthropologie, p. 463 : 1880. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 137 


regards its presence as theromorphic, but not as 
a characteristic of savage or lower races.* 

The human tibia displays in some instances a 
compression or lateral flattening of its shaft or 
centre-piece, so that its transverse diameter is quite 
out of proportion to its depth. Such a tibia is 
termed sword-bladed, or platyecnemic. Bones of 
this form have been chiefly discovered in ancient 
deposits, as, for instance, at Gibraltar, at Perthi- 
Chwareu, in Wiltshire, in Lozére, at Clichy, at 
Saint-Suzanne (Sarthe), and especially at Cro- 
Magnon (Fig. 43), Janischwek, ete. 

A similar formation has also been observed among 
men belonging to cultured races, both of ancient 
and modern times. Virchow, for example, dis- 
covered such bones in Transcaucasia (of the third 
and fourth century of the Christian era) and at 
Hanai-Tepe in Troas, All the large schools of 
anatomy in Europe contain specimens of tibia, 
which are to some extent platycnemic. These are 
also observed in the skeletons of primitive peoples 
of our time, as for example in the Negritos, Kanakas, 
and other African races. While some scientific men 
regard these bones as the result of an unhealthy 
condition, and the effect of rachitis, others more 
justly ascribe them to a vigorous exercise of the 
muscles in a one-sided direction. The idea expressed 
by Busk and others, that the platycnemic tibize 
discovered in ancient sites of Europe have belonged 
to a degraded race diffused over the whole cuntinent, 


* Alitrojanische Graber wnd Schiidel. Aus der Abhandlungen 
der Kinigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, p. 47: 1882. 


138 ANTHROPOID APES. 


is contradicted by the wide diffusion of this charac- 
teristic, even in modern times. And it is doubtful 
whether platycnemy is absolutely restricted to the 
lower races. At Janischewek, Virchow found an 
extremely platycnemic tibia, exhumed from a kuja- 
wish grave of the Stone Age, which belonged to 
a skull remarkable for its unusual beauty and size, 
so that, taken by itself, the impression which it 
gave to an anatomist was that of a highly organized 
race.* 

It is important to remark that platycnemy has 


Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. 


Section through a Section through the tibia Section iipoueli the 
platycnemic tibia of a male gorilla. tibia of a male 
from Cro-Magnon. chimpanzee. 


been regarded as a pithecoid structure, and for this 
reason the attempt has been made to establish the 
degraded position of those peoples which are most 
remarkable for platyenemy. But, as Boyd-Dawkins 
has already observed, although the tibize of the 
gorilla and the chimpanzee are to some extent 
platycnemic, they are much less so than the platyc- 
nemic bones of the human skeleton. The tibia of 


* Siteungsbericht der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft : 
April 17, 1880. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 139 


a male gorilla in the College of Surgeons Museum 
has an index width of 68-1, that of a female of 65:0, 
while the index of the chimpanzee’s tibia is 61:1, 
which is about the average of the tibias of Perthi- 
chwareu. It is unnecessary to indicate the other 
marked distinctions between the tibie of men and 
apes; if platycnemy is to be regarded as genetic, it 
must be admitted that man has in this particular 
far exceeded apes.* Neither the gorilla, the chim- 
panzee, the orang-utan, nor even the baboon pos- 
sesses a tibia which is flattened in its upper or middle 
part. In all these apes the middle of the bone is 
more or less rounded, almost as if it had been rounded 
by a turning-lathe. According to my experience, 
the degree of platycnemy in anthropoids is subject 
to certain variations. It appears to me to be least 
marked in the aged male gorilla (Fig. 41), and in 
the gibbon (Hylobates agilis, syndactylus), in which 
latter animal the transverse section of the tibia 
represents an almost equilateral triangle. The 
platyenemy was more marked in an almost adult 
female gorilla, still more decided in an aged male 
chimpanzee, which came from the river Kiulu, and 
again in an aged female chimpanzee. On the other 
hand, the centre of the shaft of the tibia in another 
aged male chimpanzee which came from Loango, 
was rounded, and not platyenemic. In the tibia of 
an adult orang-utan which J examined, the platyc- 
nemy was very marked. But I agree with Boyd- 
Dawkins in never having met with an anthropoid in 
which the platyenemy is so considerable as it is, 


* See Spengel’s Caves and Primitive Inhabitants of Europe. 


140 ANTHROPOID APES. 


for instance, in the Cro-Magnon tibia, and in another 


found at Troy. 


If we give a cursory glance at the lower limbs of 
apes, we see that all the same characteristics are 


Fig. 46.—Skeleton of the human 
foot, seen from above. a, As- 
tragalus. b, Os calcis. c, Sca- 
phoid bone, d,e, f, Cuneiform 
bones. g, Cuboid bone. hk, 
Metatarsal bones. i, Pha- 
langes. 


present in their tarsus that we 
find in the human tarsus. In 
each case there is an astra- 
galus, an os caleis, a scaphoid 
bone, three cuneiform bones, 
and a cuboid bone. There are 
undoubtedly several peculiari- 
ties in which the tarsus differs 
from the corresponding part 
of the human foot. The first 
metatarsal bone is joined to 
the first cuneiform bone by 
an articular facet which ex- 
tends from the back to the 
sole of the foot. This joint 
plays a part resembling that 
of the thumb of the human 
hand (see Figs. 20 and 46). 

In Huxley’s opinion, the 
hinder limbs of the gorilla 
terminate in a true foot, with 
a very movable great toe. It 
is undoubtedly a prehensile 
foot, but in no sense a hand. 
It is a foot which does not 


differ from the numan foot in any essential cha- 
racteristics, but only in relative circumstances, in 
the degree of flexibility, and in the subordinate 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 141 


arrangements of its parts. Huxley adds that it 
rust not be supposed that he wishes to undervalue 
differences which, however, he does not regard as 
fundamental. They are important enough of their 
kind, since in any case the structure of the foot 
is in close correlation with the other parts of the 
organism. Although it cannot be doubted that the 
increased division of labour in man, which relegates 
the function of support entirely to the legs and 
feet, is a significant advance in structure; yet, re- 
garded as a whole from the anatomical point of 
view, the points of agreement between the human 
foot and that of the gorilla are much more striking 
and significant than their differences. 

The differences in the foot of the orang are still 
greater; in the very long toes and short tarsus, the 
short great toe and the removal of the heel from the 
ground, in the great obliquity of the joints which 
connect the foot with the shank-bones, and in the 
absence of a long flexor muscle to move the great 
toe, the orang’s foot differs still more from that of the 
gorilla than the latter differs from the human foot. 
In some of the lower apes the hands and feet are still 
further removed from those of the gorilla than in the 
case of the orang. In the American apes the thumb 
can no longer be opposed ; in the ateles it is reduced to 
a mere rudiment, covered with skin; in the sahius it 
is bent forwards and provided with a curved claw like 
the other fingers. In all these cases there is no doubt 
that the hand differs more from that of the gorilla 
than the gorilla’s hand differs from that of man.* 


* Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, p. 481: 
London, 1871. 


142 ANTHROPOID APES. 


Flower remarks that the chief distinction between 
the foot of a man and an ape consists in the fact 
that the latter is transformed into a prehensile 
organ. The tarsal and metatarsal bones, and the 


Fig. 47.—Coaita (Ateles paniscus). 


phalanges are of the same number in both orders, 
and in the same relative position, only in the foot 
of the ape the facet for articulation of the first cunei- 
form bone with the great toe is saddle-shaped, and 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 143 


obliquely directed towards the inner or tibial side 
of the foot. Thus, the great toe is separated from 
the others, and so placed, that when it is bent, it 
is directed downwards towards the sole, and is op- 
posed to the other toes, much more opposed to them 
than is the case with the thumb of the human hand.* 
Owen also speaks of the characteristic transformation 
of the great toe of an ape’s foot into a thumb, opposed 
to the other toes, and adapted for grasping. f 

K. E. von Bar does not agree with Huxley in 
considering that there is less difference between 
man and the gorilla than that which exists be- 
tween different species of apes. “There are,” Von 
Bar remarks, “differences of various kinds among 
apes. In some the thumb is only a stump; in 
others, as in the orang-utan, the fingers of the 
hinder extremities are so long and curved that they 
cannot be extended on flat ground; in many of the 
smaller apes this member is still more like a band 
than in the larger species, and the fingers can be 
easily spread out on the ground. In this case the 
foot is of a much blunter form, and is more flexible, 
so that the sole, which is properly turned inward, 
can lie flat on the ground. The heavier the body of 
the animal, the more sharply cut the structure of the 
foot must be, so that it does not admit of the free 
movements which are -possible in the hand. But 
all these are only modifications of a climbing foot, 


* An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia, p. 310: 
London, 1870. 

t On the Anatomy of the Vertebrates, ii. 551. Also see my 
own works in Archiv. fiir Anatomie, p. 648: 1876. 


144 ANTHROPOID APES. 


or prehensile member—that is, of a hand, not modi- 
fications of a foot resting firmly on the ground and 
supporting the whole weight of the body. 

“Tt must not be forgotten that the structure of 
the skeleton is subject to mechanical laws, which 
may be traced through the whole series of the 
animal world. This is readily apparent when we 
turn to the human structure. 

“The human foot rests for the greater part of its 
length on the ground, that is to say, with the heel 
and centre of the foot, which form together a firm 
arch. The tarsus consists of the astragalus, and’ 
also of the os caleis, which in man form a very 
prominent part, taking a backward and downward 
direction, and of five other bones. The metatarsus 
consists of five bones, on which the five toes are 
inserted. In man these metatarsal bones are con- 
siderably longer than the separate phalanges. Thus, 
the arch on which man is supported in an erect 
position extends from the heel to the extremities 
of the metatarsal bones. The several bones are 
slightly movable, but they are so firmly connected 
that they can diverge but little from each other, 
unless muscular power is exerted. In order to press 
the toes upon the ground, it is again necessary to 
exert the muscles. The arched instep has this ad- 
vantage, that the foot can take a better hold of the 
slight inequalities of the ground. In a profile view 
of the skeleton of a human fvot, the shortness of 
the toes, in comparison with the length of the 
arched instep, is very apparent. In any natural 
position, even when man is not walking or standing, 


wn 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 145 


the sole of the foot is not turned inwards, but down- 
wards... . The toes of the gorilla take the form 
of a hand, since the great toe stands separate like a 
thumb, while the other toes are turned outwards. In 
the gorilla the tarsus is short, and the heel is bent 
inwards, The several bones of the human foot are 
undoubtedly present in the hind hand of a gorilla, 
but the organ is changed into a prehensile organ or 
hand, The conditions are the same as in the parts 
of the mouth in insects which in some cases form 
movable mandibles, while in others they are at- 
tenuated into a proboscis. When it is asserted that 
apes are not quadrumanous, it is as if we were to 
say that flies have no proboscis, but attenuated 
mandibles.” * 

All apes, including anthropoids, occasionally 
make use of their hinder extremities in order to 
snatch at objects. They also grasp with them in 
climbing. On such occasions, when they wish to 
secure the fruit they have seized from the voracity 
of their fellows, they take it between the toes of one 
hinder extremity, in order to be able to get away 
more quickly by means of the other, and by the 
use of both hands. 

From what we have said, it will be seen how 
difficult it is to reconcile the views of different 
observers with respect to the fitting term to be 
given to the hinder extremities of apes. Against 
those who uphold the designation of hind hunds we 
must oppose the anatomical structure, and also the 


* Studien aus dem Gebiete du Naturwissenschaften, ii. 316: 
St. Petersburg, 1876. 


146 ANTHROPOID APES. 


fact that a true hand ought to possess the power of 
rotation in a degree which exists in the fore, but 
not in the hind, extremities of apes. On this account 
I have already adopted, as more suitable and equally 
distinctive, the term of prehensile foot for this 
member.* JI agree with Haeckel in rejecting the 
common designation of apes as four-handed or 
quadrumanous. 

The bands or ligaments which connect the dif- 
ferent parts of the anthropoid skeleton together, 
and convert the detached elements into a movable 
machinery, do not on the whole differ much from the 
same structure in man. A detailed account of these 
ligaments would, for several reasons, be out of place 
in this work, and I shall only mention a few special 
and more interesting distinctions. Such, for ex- 
ample, is the uncommon strength of the ligamentum 
nuche# in the gorilla, which is quite in harmony with 
the great development of the spinous processes of 
the upper cervical vertebrae, and with the flattening 
of the squamous occipital portion. Since the sacral 
vertebrae are deeply inserted between the high ilia, 
the ilio-lumbar ligaments (ligamenta <liolumbalia) 
‘and the sacro-iliac ligaments (ligamenta iliosacralia) 
are of considerable size. In agreement with the 
projection in a downward direction of the high, 
narrow ischial bones, the sacro-sciatic ligaments 
which extend between these and the sacrum are 
very long in the chimpanzee. Although in this case 
the ischial spine is only represented by a roughness 
of the bone, yet there is on either side between this 

* Hartmann iu Archiv. fiir Anatomie, etc., p. 653: 1876. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 147 


and the sacrum a powerful lesser sacro-sciatic liga- 
ment (ligamentum spinoso-sacrum). 

The well-known anatomist, J. F. Meckel, has 
asserted that the depression in the head of the 
femur (fovea capitis), which serves for the insertion 
of the round ligament (ligamentum teres), is absent 
in the chimpanzee and orang, and he adds that 
it is also absent in the gibbon. In a skeleton of 
a young chimpanzee which had not shed its milk- 
teeth, and of which the ligaments were also pre- 
served, Welcker found a fully developed round 
ligament inserted almost in the centre of the head 
of the femur. This agrees in every particular with 
the same furmation in man. On the other hand, 
no trace of a round ligament was to be found in 
the hip-joint of a young orang-utan. The cartila- 
ginous envelope of the head of the femur was smooth 
throughout, without any indication of a place for in- 
serting the ligament. Welcker again found no such 
depression in the femurof an aged maleorang-utan, nor 
was there any trace of it in another aged male orang, 
designated as Simia Morio, Welcker believes that 
he has established the fact that the round ligament 
is wanting in the orang-utan, but that it is present 
in the gorilla, chimpanzee, and gibbon. The same 
naturalist remarks that, although we may certainly 
assume that the round ligament is absent wherever 
there is no depression in the head of the femur, yet 
the existence of such a depression in the acetabulum 
(fovea acetabuli) is not enough to prove that a round 
ligament was inserted in it. The innominate bones 
of an adult orang-utan were examined by Welcker, 


148 ANTHROPOID APES. 


and displayed a small, but well-defined depression, 
as if destined for a receptacle for this ligament,* 
running from the cotyloid notch down to the bottom 
of the acetabulum, between the two horns of the 
semilunar-shaped articular cartilage. 

In a subsequent paper, Welcker states that the 
absence of the round ligament in the orang-utan, 
and its presence in the chimpanzee, had been pre- 
viously established by Camper and Owen.f In 
three specimens of orangs which he had obtained 
immediately after death, Owen found that the 
round ligament was imperfectly developed on both 
sides. The chimpanzee differs from the orang in 
possessing a depression on the head of the femur. 
In the gorilla, as Owen observes, this depression 
has almost the same depth and relative position as 
in man. At Welcker’s request, Professor Dippel 
ascertained the presence of the depression in the 
femur of a gorilla skeleton which is preserved 
in the natural history collection at Darmstadt. 
St. George Mivart saw the skeleton of an orang in 
which the femur was marked with a slight but 
plainly indicated depression, just where the round 
ligament is usually attached. Welcker thinks it pro- 
bable that in some specimens of the gorilla the 
round ligament is only slightly developed, and that 
in others it is altogether wanting. On several 


* Welcker in His and Braune’s Archiv. Jahrg., i. p. 71. 

t Camper, Guvres, i. 152; Naturgeschichte des Orang-utan, 
etc.; Owen, Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, 
i. 365-368; Ibid., v. 15; Welcker in His and Braune’s Archiv. 
Jahrg., ii. p. 106. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 149 


femurs of gorillas, this naturalist observed only 
doubtful traces of the depression in question. Duver- 
noy found the round ligament fully developed in 
the gorilla and chimpanzee. Vrolik failed to find 
it in the orang-utan, but ascertained its presence in 
the chimpanzee. Gratiolet and Alix saw that it was 
fully developed in Troglodytes Aubryi. 

In addition to these somewhat conflicting asser- 
tions, I have myself observed, in the gorilla innomi- 
nate and femur bones examined by me, more or less 
distinct indications of the depression which receives 
the round ligament. The ligament itself has been 
preserved with the body of a gorilla. The same 
remark applies to the skeletons and bodies of chim- 
panzees. In the case of the skeleton of an orang, 
slight indications of a depression were observed on 
the head of the left femur, and these indications 
were absent in the femurs of other specimens. Ina 
large orang-utan which died in the Berlin Aquarium, 
only short, filamentous tufts of streaky fibres were 
apparent in the right acetabulum, and these were 
intermingled singly or in groups with the cartila- 
ginous cells, somewhat resembling the cartilaginous 
corpuscles of the synovial membrane. From these 
facts we may conclude that the round ligament is 
generally but not invariably present in the gorilla 
and chimpanzee, and that it is altogether absent in 
the orang-utan. In the gibbon it is present in the 
majority of cases. I have myself observed it in 
Hylobates agilis, leuciscus, and syndactylus. Owen 
asserts that the unsteady gait of the orang is partly 
due to the absence of this ligament, but the truth 


150 ANTHROPOID APES. 


of this surmise is rendered doubtful by the fact that 
the ligament is not unfrequently absent in other 
anthropoids. Moreover, the gait of all these arboreal 
and climbing animals is extremely ungainly. 

The muscular system of anthropoid apes is very 
interesting. I must necessarily refrain from giving 
a detailed account of it, and will only mention 
some points in connection with this organic system, 
and their relation to corresponding points in the 
muscular system of man. I rely partly on the 
researches of others, and partly on my own. The 
amount of ‘material which has been collected up 
to this time is, unfortunately, too scanty to enable 
us to draw satisfactory conclusions in all cases. 
We are often unable to decide whether the con- 
ditions presented to us in the case of anthropoids 
are normal or exceptional. Nor are the statistics of 
muscular variations in the human subject by any 
means firmly established. My own labours in this 
direction are not yet concluded. The assertions on 
the subject which have been published to the world 
and accepted as authoritative have already been 
shown to be to some extent untrustworthy. Even 
the little which I am now able to produce may not 
altogether stand the test of subsequent research. 
Brith] justly remarks that in no department of 
anatomy more than in that which treats of the 
muscles, is it more essential that we should not 
decide whether a form is normal or exceptional until 
it has been repeatedly examined.* 

The cranial muscles of anthropoids are formed 

* Wiener medicinische Wochenschrift, p. 4: 1871. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 151 


like those of men, except in a few unimportant parti- 
culars (comp. Figs. 48 and 50). I have not observed 
in anthropoids the muscular fibres which in man 
branch out from the orbicular muscle of the eye, 
and overlap the cheeks and temples, and which are 
considerably developed in the head of a Monjalo 
negro which was dissected by me (Fig. 49, 3,3" In 


Fig. 48.—Muscles of the head and face of a European. 1, 1’, Occipito-frontalis, 
2, 3, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator labii superioris 
aleque nasi. 6, Compressor naris, 7, Levator labii superioris. 7’, Zygomaticus 
minor. 8, Levator anguli oris. 98’, Zygomaticus major. 9, Orbicularis oris. 
9’, Levator menti. 9”, Depressor labii inferioris. 10, Depressor anguli oris. 
11, Masseter. 12, 13, Risorius and the buccinator by which it is covered. 
15, Trapezius. 16, Attrahens. 17, 19, Attollens. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21, 
Sterno-mastoid. 22, Splenius. A. Tendinous aponeurosis. C. Malar bone (the 
parotis is removed). F. Skin of neck. 


apes that portion of the orbicular muscle which 
covers the supra-orbital ridge is very marked. 
There is generally a considerable layer of muscle 
on the nose and upper lip. I have dissected it in 
detail in anthropoid and other apes, including those 


152 ANTHROPOID APES. 


of America; z.e. the zygomatic muscles, the levator 
labii superioris, and the levator labii superioris 
aleeque nasi. This has also been done by Duver- 
noy, Alix, and Gratiolet, in the case of anthropoids 
dissected by them, as well as by Macalister and 
Bischoff. 

Bischoff was only able to identify a wide zygo- 
matic muscle in the orang with the small zygomatic 


Fig. 49.—Head-musrcles of a Monjalese negro. 1, 2, Occipito-frontalis. 3, 3’, 
Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 4’, Levator labii superioris. 6,” 
Levator labii superioris aleque nasi. 6’, Compressor naris 7’, Levator anguli 
oris. 8, 8’, Zygomatici major et minor. 9, Orbicularis oris. 9’, Levator menti. 
9, Depressor labii inferioris. 9’”, Depressor anguli oris. 11, Masseter. 13, 
Buccinator. 14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, 18, Attollens and attrahens 
aurem. 19, Embedded temporal muscle. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21, Sterno- 
ma-toid. 22, Deeply set muscles of neck, A, Tendinous aponeurosis. C, 
Zygoma, HK, Purotis. *, Stensonian duct. 


in man. In the orang, the gibbon, and the baboon, 
as well as in Innus sinicus and Ateles, I myself was 
quite able to trace a division into a large and small 
zygomatic. In the gorilla dissected by me the 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 153 


levator labii superioris aleeque nasi was very wide 
(Figs. 50,6). In the case of a gorilla, Ehlers dis- 
sected the small zygomatic muscle, together with 
the levator labii superioris aleque nasi, in the 
manner introduced by Henle as a single square 
muscle of the upper lip (Musculus quadratus labit 
superioris). In the gorilla I observed a levator 
alaque nasi, together with the already mentioned 


a 6 


Fig. 60,—Head-muscles of gorilla presented in Fig. 3. 1, 2, Occipito-frontalis, 
3, 8', Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator alw nasi. 6, 
Levator labii superioris aleque nasi. 7, Zygomaticus minor. 7, Levator 
anguli oris. 8, Zygomaticus major. 9, 9’, Orbicularis oris. 10, Risorius. 
11, 16, Masseter. 1/, Buccinator. 12, Depressor anguli oris. 13, Buccinator. 
14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, Temporal. 18, 19, 20, Attrahens, attollens, 
and retrahens aurem. 21, Lesser muscle of helix. A, Tendinous aponeurosis, 
B, Cartilage of nostril. C, Zygoma. D, External ear. *, Stensonian duct. 


levator labii superioris; but I failed to find any 
separate levator labii superioris. The very wide 


cartilage of the nose is occupied by a considerable 
amount of muscular tissue. All these muscles are 


154 ANTHROPOID APES. 


present in the orang, but they are of small size and 
separated into detached bundles. The pyramidalis 
nasi may be traced in every instance, especially in 
the gorilla (Figs. 50, 4) and in the orang. It is not 
go strongly developed in the chimpanzee and gibbon, 
but is not absent in these apes, nor in those which 
are not anthropoid, such as the baboon, and ateles, 
or climbing ape. 

I myself follow the original division of the muscles 
into those which belong to the nostril and upper 
lip, in accordance with the principles of Duchenne, 
Darwin, Gamba,* and others, and I do so the more 
readily, since it is impossible not to perceive the 
manifold and lively mimetic action which takes place 
in this particular region of an ape’s head. The 
distinct action of the levator labii superioris aleeque 
nasi, the dilation of the nostrils, the function of a 
strongly developed levator anguli oris, are especially 
characteristic of the gorilla; but they are also per- 
ceptible in the chimpanzee and gibbon. The orang’s 
face is the least mobile. I observed that in the 
gorilla the risorius was very long, branching slightly 
in the fore-part of the corner of the mouth, and 
behind into three distinct wide bundles. The lowest 
bundle covered the platysma myoides, but could 
not be regarded as part of the latter. In one chim- 
panzee I found that the risorius was slightly de- 
veloped, and in other animals of that species I failed 
to trace it at all. Alix and Gratiolet represent the 


* Duchenne’s Mécanisme dela physiognomie humaine. Darwin’s 
Ewpression of the Emotions. Gamba’s Lezioni di anatomo-fisiologia 
applicata alle arti belle. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 155 


Aubry chimpanzee (Plate ix. Fig. 1, 15) with the 
risorius strongly developed. I have not observed 
this formation either in the orang or the gibbon, 
but it was apparent in one of the ateles (Ateles 
leucophthalmos). In this case the muscle covered 
the platysma myoides and Stenson’s duct, ze. the 
duct leading out of the parotid gland (Fig. 50,"*). 

For some time I was disposed to regard the risorius . 
of this ape” as only a radiation of the platysma 
myoides, but my opinion upon this point is again 
shaken. 

In the gorilla a faint depressor anguli oris and an 
equally faint depressor labii inferioris may be ob- 
served, the latter partly covered by the large and 
predominant orbicularis oris (Fig. 50). In the chim- 
panzee the two depressors are plainly apparent, and 
in the gibbon the one first: named was at any rate 
developed. ‘The platysma myoides, the depressors 
just mentioned, and the crescent-shaped orbiculares 
are in this animal in close connection with each other. 
Froriep’s suggestion becomes ever more probable, 
that these muscles of the lower lip owe their origin 
to the intersection of the opposite portions of the 
skin-muscles of the neck which overlap the face. The 
buccinator muscle in anthropoids resembles on the 
whole that of man, and in both cases is pierced by 
Stenson’s duct (Fig. 50). The form of the mas- 
seter muscle is common to both (see Fig. 50, 11, 16). 
In the external ear of anthropoids there is an attra- 
hens, attollens, retrahens (Fig. 50). Compared with 
that of a white man, and still more with that of 
a negro (see Figs. 48, 19, and 49, 17), the attollens is 


156 ANTHROPOID APES, 


only slightly developed. The muscles attached to the 
cartilages of the ear are extremely scanty or partially 
wanting, which is also sometimes the case with man. 
The muscles of the helix are most strongly marked 
in the gorilla (see, for example, Fig. 50,21). Tiede- 
mann, Bischoff’s brother-in-law, carefully observed 
two living chimpanzees in Philadelphia for six 
months without detecting any movement of the 
ears. My own observation confirms his assertion 
and the remarks of Darwin, which I have already 
quoted, to the effect that anthropoids are incapable 
of moving their ears. I know of no individual 
exceptions. This is the more remarkable since 
some men have retained the power of voluntarily 
moving their ears, and the same power is also found 
in some species of apes, such as the sea-cats, baboons, 
macacas, and magots. 

It will not here be out of place to say something 
of the characteristics, previously mentioned, of the 
physiognomical expression of anthropoid apes. Thus, 
for example, when the gorilla is agitated, he can 
move the skin of his head and bristle the hair which 
covers this region. The chimpanzee can also move 
the skin of the head, but with no very apparent 
bristling of the hair. The large male orang, which 
was in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, bristled his 
hair and the skin of his head when he was much 
enraged. It is known that in some instances man 
also possesses this power. 

I have already spoken of the expression of the 
eyes of these animals. I will only add that when 
anthropoids of every species are in great pain or 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 157 


seriously ill, the expression of their eyes is often 
most affecting. 

The forehead of these animals is frequently 
marked by transverse furrows, and especially, as 
Darwin justly observes, when they raise their eye- 
brows. The same great observer considers that the 
countenances of anthropoids are, in comparison with 
those of men, generally inexpressive, and indeed, 
chiefly in consequence of the fact that they do not 
wrinkle the forehead when they are excited. “The 
wrinkling of the forehead, which is one of the most 
significant forms of expression in man, is due to 
the action of the corrugatores supercilii, by which 
the eyebrows are drawn down and closer to each 
other, so as to form vertical folds on the forehead. 
It has been asserted that the orang and chim- 
panzee possess these muscles, but they seem to be 
rarely exercised—at any rate, to any remarkable 
extent.* When Darwin brought a chimpanzee 
out of his dark chamber into bright sunshine, 
he only once observed a slight wrinkling of the 
forehead. When the same observer tickled the 
nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, its face was 
slightly wrinkled, and faint vertical furrows appeared 
between the eyebrows.t Darwin never observed any 
wrinkling of the forehead in an orang. I myself 
have observed a contraction of that region of the 


* Macalister, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 
vii. 342 (1871) asserts that he was unable to distinguish the 
corrugator from the orbicular muscle, and I have been equally 
unsuccessfal. ; 

+ Darwio’s Ewpression of the Emotions. 


8 


158 ANTHROPOID APES. 


brows which is covered with bristly hairs, and a 
wrinkling of the skin which covers the bridge of 
the nose in the gorilla and the chimpanzee, and 
have illustrated this expression by a drawing. 

Darwin goes on to say that when a young chim- 
panzee is tickled, to which, as in the case of children, 
their armpits are peculiarly sensitive, he generally 
utters a chuckling or laughing sound, although 
sometimes the laugh is silent. The corners of the 
mouth are then drawn back, and this sometimes 
causes the eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. This 
wrinkling, which is so characteristic of the human 
laugh, is still more apparent in some of the other 
apes. In the chimpanzee the teeth of the upper 
jaw are not exposed when he utters this laughing 
sound, and in this respect he differs from man. 
Darwin further observes that when the tickled 
young orang ceases to laugh, an expression passes 
over his face, which, according to Wallace, may be 
called a smile. Darwin has observed something 
similar in the chimpanzee.* 

My own observation confirms what has been said 
of the chuckling of a tickled chimpanzee. When 
Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin Aquarium, 
played with the chimpanzee which was kept in that 
establishment, a contortion of the corner of the 
mouth, resembling a somewhat sardonic smile, at 
once appeared. No specimen displayed this smile 
with so much effect as the lively Augustus, who 
delighted visitors by his inexhaustible humour in 
1879, The gorilla, of which an illustration is given 


* Darwin, Expression of the Emotions, 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 159 


in Fig. 3, also drew down the corner of his mouth 
when he was pleased, by means of the muscular 
system which we have just described. 

When the gorilla is provoked, he displays both 
rows of teeth, and opens his mouth to utter sounds 
of fury, while making ready to fight. It is well 
known that anthropoids are able to pout and project 
their lips;,and Darwin says that they do this, not 
only when they are slightly teased, and are sullen 
or disappointed, but also when anything occurs to 
make them uneasy. 

I have often observed in chimpanzees a slight 
wrinkling of the region of the nasal cartilage, and 
even a vibration in a lateral and upward direction. 
In any case, the muscles which we have described 
as acting on the nose and upper lip are exercised. 

The platysma myoides, which extends in man from 
the lower row of teeth to just below the clavicle, 
occupies about the same area in the gibbon and in 
other apes (Fig. 50). In the chimpanzee, however, 
this muscle extends as high as the zygomatic arch, 
or even higher. In the gorilla also I observed that 
this part extends comparatively high on the face. 
In chimpanzees, orangs, and gibbons the upper 
fibres of this muscle seem to form the risorius. 
In one case the platysma myoides sent forth a 
fasciculus, about 18 mm. in width, to the begin- 
ning of the lower temporal ridges. In the gorilla 
I saw that the uppermost fibres of the platysma 
myoides were partly covered by the risorius (Fig. 
50, 10). 

From the corresponding muscle in the orang the 


160 ANTHROPOID APES. 


lower fibres tend far backward, and are in connection 
with the deltvid muscle covering a segment of the 
capsular ligament. This muscle wrinkles the skin 
of the neck, and helps to draw down the lower jaw. 
In cases in which it extends far in an upward direc- 
tion, as in those we have cited, it affects the lateral 
extension of the middle and lower skin on the faces 
of these animals, as well as the grinning contortion 
of the corner of the mouth. It may also have to do 
with the grumbling sound issuing from the throat- 
pouch, which is uttered by the animal when agitated, 
as he rapidly opens and closes his mouth. 

The strong sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle found in 
these animals, and especially in the orang and 
gibbon, can be divided without difficulty into a 
sternal and clavicular portion. The two portions 
diverge from each other in a downward direction. 
As Bischoff justly states, a muscle not hitherto ob- 
served in man may be traced in all four species of 
anthropoids, a muscle which extends from the ex- 
ternal part of the clavicle to the transverse process 
of the first cervical vertebra. Bischoff has called it 
. the musculus omocervicalis. It is found in other 
apes, although the site of its origin varies, some- 
times occurring on the spine of the scapula. Our 
Munich anatomist differs from Huxley in regarding 
this muscle as “a brilliant proof of the relation of 
all apes with each other.” I give this assertion 
without further comment. 

The muscles which extend between the head, 
sternum, and clavicle, together with the muscles of 
the acromion process of the scapula, make an ex- 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 161 


ternal covering to the throat-pouch, which I shall 
describe presently. The pectoralis major of the 
gorilla, as well as that of man, divides into two 
portions, one attached to the clavicle, the other to 
the cartilages of the true ribs. The former is divided 
from the deltoid by a wide interval, filled with 
connective tissue and fat. But both portions of 
the pectoralis m major are divided by a tolerably 
wide space, into which, in Bischoff’s opinion, the 
throat-pouch is inserted. This, however, I do not 
believe, since that organ would be compressed and 
strangulated between the two portions of muscle 
whenever they were exercised. It may, however, 
be supposed that room for an enlargement of the 
throat-pourh when the animal is bellowing is 
afforded by the existence of these spaces. Bischoff 
is right in the assertion that the clavicular portion 
of the pectoralis major is wanting in the orang- 
utan. The upper part of this muscle springs 
directly from the sternum. The lower sternal ribs 
give origin to the pectoralis minor. The chim- 
panzee and gibbon display clearly in this muscle 
the separation we have mentioned into a clavicular 
and a sternal portion. 

The structure of the pectoralis minor in these apes 
is full of interest. In the gorilla it divides into an 
upper portion of firmer tissue, less easily separable 
into digitations, which arises from the third to the 
fifth ribs, and a lower portion, separable into three 
digitations, of which the upper segment laps con- 
siderably over the lower segment of the upper portion. 
In the chimpanzee an upper portion of less firm 


162 ANTHROPOID APES. 


texture extends from the second to the fourth, and 
a lower with three digitations from the fourth to the 
seventh ribs. This second lower portion is sometimes 
absent. I have seen the upper portion attached to 
the coracoid process of the scapula, and the lower 
portion to the ridge of the greater tuberosity of the 
humerus. In the orang an upper portion, separable 
into three digitations, extends from the second to 
the fifth ribs, and is attached to the coracoid process. 
A lower portion, also separable into three digitations, 
extends from the fifth to the seventh ribs, and is 
also attached either to the greater tuberosity of the 
humerus or to its edge; this latter portion projects 
below over the pectoralis major. In the gibbon 
(Hylobates albimanus), the upper portion starts from 
the second, the lower from the third to the fifth 
ribs. It may here be remarked that the pectoralis 
minor is in man also sometimes separable into digita- 
tions, which may be connected both with the cora- 
coid process and with the capsular ligament of the 
shoulder-joint. In anthropoids the tendon of inser- 
tion of this muscle is remarkably slender. 
According to Duvernoy, in the gorilla a fibrous, 
hood-like fascia covers the whole region of the occi- 
put and neck. In adult males this fascia is 20 mm. 
in thickness. In a female dissected by me the rudi- 
ments of a similar hood-like cervical fascia were 
present. Duvernoy is justified in supposing that 
this is not yet developed in the young gorilla, and 
that a layer of connective tissue and fat is substi- 
tuted for it. In a young gorilla I saw the trapezius 
divided into distinct bundles of flesh by layers of 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 163 


fat (Fig. 50, 15). The fascia corresponds to the 
great development of the trapezius, and the same 
characteristic development exists in other anthro- 
poids. The adult male gorilla displays a powerful 
ligamentum nuche in connection with the long spinous 
processes of the cervical vertebra, as well as powerful 
inter-spinales muscles, spinales colli, and semi- 
spinales colli and dorsi. The great development 
of the spinédus processes of the dorsal vertebre of 
gorillas (Fig. 17), and also chimpanzees and orangs, 
involve the development of powerful semi-spinales, 
as well as of strong, fourfold spinules and inter- 
spinales muscles. ‘The whole of the fleshy forma- 
tion of the neck of an adult male gorilla which 
is covered by the trapezius is very voluminous, and 
especially the splenius capitis and colli, the long 
cervical muscle (Musculus longissimus cervicis), and 
the long head-muscle (Musculus longissimus capitis), 
which have also been regarded by me as parts of 
the long spinal extensor, and finally the oblique and 
vertical muscles at the back of the head. With 
Chappuy, I am disposed to regard the latter as 
modifications of the spinales and inter-spinales, 

The levator anguli scapule is divided in anthro- 
poids as in man. ‘The subclavius is slender, except 
in the gorilla, and in the latter animal it sends a 
tendon obliquely to the coracoid process. 

In all anthropoids the deltoid is strongly de- 
veloped. In the gorilla it projects forwards and 
outwards in order to attach itself to the humerus, 
almost in its centre. Here it is separated from the 
brachialis anticus in a manner with which we are 


164 ANTHROPOID APES, 


only imperfectly acquainted. It extends nearly as 
far in the gibbon and orang, while in the chimpanzee 
its attachment is higher up. Bischoff observes, and 
it was previously suggested by Vrolik, that in the 
chimpanzee the coraco-brachialis muscle possesses 
at its origin a moderately large second portion, 
which tends downwards over the lesser tuberosity of 
the humerus, and adheres to its edge. But I have 
seen both portions of the muscle in question attached 
to the coracoid process of the scapula in apes of 
this species. In the gorilla, orang, and gibbon the 
position of this muscle corresponds to that in man. 

Chapman and Bischoff speak of a muscle common 
to all apes which starts trom the tendinous attach- 
ment of the latissimus dorst on the edge of the lesser 
tuberosity of the humerus, and tends downwards on 
the inner side of the humerus, and to this muscle 
they give the name latissimo-condyloideus. Bischoff 
goes on to say that this muscle goes in some cases 
into the fascia which covers the biceps; and in 
others, as in the baboon, it is attached to the inner 
inter-muscular septum and to the internal condyle 
of the humerus. In the gibbon it only extends as 
far as the centre of the humerus, but in the orang it 
reaches to the condyle, where it is pierced by the 
ulnar nerve. Bischoff adds that this formation is 
wanting in man. 

This structure is indeed remarkable in anthro- 
poids. The muscle starts ina lateral direction from 
the insertion point of the lutissimus dorst. In the 
gorilla alone I observed that it started from the 
coracoid process of the scapula, together with the 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 165 


two portions of the pectoralis minor; it was con- 
nected for a space with the coraco-brachialis, and 
finally it was attached, in the upper part of the lower 
third of the humerus, to the inter-muscular septum 
which is found between the brachialis anticus and 
the triceps. In the chimpanzee, on the other hand, 
it has its origin in the laéissimus dorsi, and divides 
into an anterior and posterior portion ; the former is 
attached to the inner condyle of the humerus, while 
the latter is connected either with the middle or 
inner head of the triceps. In the orang the same 
division of this muscle may occur. In one of these 
animals I observed an anterior portion, very thin and 
semi-membranous, attached by an extremely slight 
tendon to the coracoid process of the shoulder-blade, 
while the hind portion issued from the latissimus 
dorsi. They were both in connection with the triceps 
and brachialis anticus. In other instances the 
muscle consisted only of the posterior portion, 
issuing from the latissimus dorsi. In the white- 
handed gibbon, the muscle issued from the region 
in which the tendons of the ldatiss¢mus dorsi and of 
the teres major are united, and was inserted into 
the fascia which is found between the bicipital and 
the brachialis anterior. This attachment may also 
occur in the centre of the shaft of the humerus. 
Chapman and Chudzinsky have observed anomalous 
instances of this formation in coloured races.* 

It is well known that in man the biceps is in- 
serted into the tuberosity of the radius by means of 


* Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 
delphia, 1879. Revue @’ Anthropologie, 1873, 1874. 


166 ANTHROPOID APES. 


a flattened round tendon. This tendon, however, 
opposite the bend of the elbow, gives off a broad 
expansion, which passes into the fascia of the 
forearm, and is termed Aponewrosis bicipitis. In 
the gorilla this aponeurosis is carried on as strong 
fibrous bundles of the fascia of the forearm into 
the palmar fascia. In the gibbon the short head 
of the muscle does not always start from the lesser 
tuberosity of the humerus, nor from the tendon of 
the pectoralis major (Huxley), but sometimes from 
the edge of the lesser tuberosity, which is here 
connected with the latisstmus dorsz, as well as with 
the sub-scapularis, the brachialis anticus, which is 
more to the side, and with the triceps. In the 
gibbon, as Bischoff justly observes, the supinator 
longus only reaches as far as the centre of the radius, 
instead of extending to the styloid process of that 
bone, as it does in other anthropoids, and in man. 
The palmaris longus is wanting in the gorilla, 
but not in other anthropoids. ‘The long flexor 
muscles of the fingers and the lumbricales resemble 
those of man (Figs. 51, 52). The flexor longus 
pollicis is absent in the gorilla. Duvernoy con- 
siders that it is replaced by a tendon of the long 
flexor of the fore-finger, but I have been unable to 
verify the existence of this tendon. The same 
muscle is also absent in the chimpanzee and the 
orang, but it may be traced in Hylobates albimanus. 
Chapman states that in the gorilla the pronator 
radii teres only sends forth one head,* but I have 


* Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 
delphia, 1879. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 167 


found it to be bicipital in animals of this species. 
The lower or hinder head issues, as in man, from 
the coronoid process of the ulna. Both in the 
gorilla and in the chimpanzee it extends far in a 
downwards direction on the radius (Fig. 52). The 
flexor carpi radialis starts in the chimpanzee with 
one head from the inner condyle of the humerus, and 
with the other from the radius. Bischoff describes 
the structure of the long abductor of the thumb in 
the orang, the baboon, the pithecta, and the hapale 
as resembling that of man. But in the gorilla, the 
chimpanzee, and the macaca the tendon divides into 
two parts. Nor does one tendon belong, as in man, 
to a short extensor of the thumb, but the latter is 
wholly absent, and the division of the tendon only 
implies a continued division of the attachment to 
the trapezium, as well as to the metacarpal bones of 
the thumb. This division of the tendon also occurs 
in the gorilla, which likewise possesses a short ex- 
tensor of the thumb. In this point, again, apes 
display a greater likeness to one another than to man. 

According to my own researches, the long abduc- 
tor of the thumb in anthropoids forms a muscle not 
more considerable than one in proximity with it, of 
which the origin and more central direction recall 
the short extensor of the human thumb. In all 
four species I found that the abductor had two 
tendons, and was attached to the trapezium. The- 
muscle in its vicinity is inserted above the base of 
the first metacarpal bone. I have not been able to 
discover an extra extensor of the thumb in the 
gorilla. The question now arises what we should 


168 ANTHROPOID APES, 


think of the second muscle, which is found in these 
animals in the vicinity of the abductor. In my 


Fig. 51.—Palmar muscles of man. a, Ligaments of wrist, especially the anterior 
ligament. c,c/, Sheathing ligaments. d, e, f, Oblique fibres of the ligaments 
of the sheath of the flexor tendons. 1, 2, Tendons flexor sublimis, and of the 
flexor profundus muscles of the fingers. 3, The reciprocal perforation of these 
tend 7 inuation of the di of the flexor profundus of the fingers. 
5, Tendon of the flexor longus pollicis. 6, Abductor pollicis. 7, 8, 9, Flexor 
brevis, adductor, and opponens pollicis. 10, 11, 12, Flexor brevis, abductor, 
and opponens minimi digiti. 13, Lumbricales. 14, First dorsal intcr-osseous 

- muscle. . 


opinion, it may be confidently accepted as a short 
extensor of the thumb, since it always effects an 
extension of the metacarpal bone of that member, 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 169 


and in this act of extension it is supported by the 
long extensor which acts upon the phalanges. It 


Fig. 52.—Palmar muscles of gorilla. a, Anterior ligament. 6, Remains of the 
skin of palm, here covered with a very sinewy skin. c,f, Oblique fibres of 
the ligaments of the sheath of the flexor tendons of fingers. 1, 2, Flexor 
tendons. 3, Spaces between the heads of the flexor brevis pollicis, whence 
in man the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis issues (comp. Fig. 51, 5). 
4, 3, 3’, 5, Abductor, flexor brevis, abductor pollicis. 6, 7, 8, Opponens, flexor 
brevis, abductor, minimi digiti. 9, Dumbricales. 10, Supinator longus. 12, 
Flexor sublimis digitorum. 13, Flexor minimi digiti. 14, Flexor carpi ulnaris, 


170 ANTHROPOID APES. 


must be remembered that the comparatively short 
thumbs of anthropoids have not to be employed in 
so many different ways as the human thumb, and 
that we cannot therefore be surprised that the de- 
velopment of the short extensor is less complete. 
A special extensor muscle of the index finger is 
either altogether absent in the gorilla or very 
slightly developed, while it is very apparent in 
Hylobates albimanus (6, Fig. 53). In the chimpanzee 


Fig. 53.—Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand. 1, The extensor carpi 
radialis longior and brevior. 2, Abductor longus pollicis. 3, Extensor primi in- 
ternodii pollicis. 4, Extensor secundi internodii pollicis. 5, Extensor communis 
digitorum, 6, Extensor indicis. 7, Extensor minimi digiti. 8, Extensor carpi 
ulnaris. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous muscle. 10, Continuation of the same 
to index finger. 11, 12, The other inter-osseous muscles of this region. A, ‘The 
posterior annular ligament. 


this muscle sends a tendon to the middle finger. 
In the orang there is one extensor common to the 
four fingers. In the gibbon’s hand, this, as well as 
the other extensor and flexor muscles, is remark- 
able for its excessive slenderness. The manifold 
connections of the extensor tendons with each other 
are an interesting peculiarity (Fig. 53). 

In the chimpanzee I observed a superficial flexor, 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 171 


common to the fingers, and enlarged in the region 
of the third and little fingers. A superficial flexor, 
belonging to the index finger, started from the 
inner condyle of the humerus, and from the back of 
the inter-muscular septum. The deep finger-flexor 
was attached to the four fingers. In the orang the 
first of these flexors forms a two-tendoned belly 
for the index finger, as well as one for the other 
three fingérs. The deep flexor only displayed two 
bellies. In the gibbon, on the other hand, the 
superficial flexor displays four bellies. 

Tn the carpus of the chimpanzee there is, so far at 
least as my experience goes, a so-called sesamoid 
bone. It is in this instance in connection with 
the scaphoid and trapezium bones, just where the 
fibres of the anterior and posterior ligaments of the 
wrist pass into each other. In the chimpanzee the 
tendon of the long abductor muscle of the thumb 
sends some fibres into this sesamoid bone, while the 
other fibres of the tendon of this muscle, which 
divides into several strips, are inserted in the 
trapezium bone, and a few also in the base of the 
first metacarpal bone. 

The short flexor muscle of the thumb, of which 
Bischoff has denied the existence, is certainly 
present in these animals. In the chimpanzee the 
lower fibres of the short abductor muscle of the 
thumb have their origin in the sesamoid bone. 
The middle fibres, of the same muscle issue from 
the strips of ligament attached to the sesamoid 
bone. On the other hand, the upper part of the 
muscle has its origin in the anterior annular liga- 


172 ANTHROPOID APES. 


ment. In the orang, the lower fibres of the short 
abductor of the thumb likewise have their origin 
in the sesamoid bone, while the central fibres 
again start from the anterior annular ligament. 
The upper fibres are strong, and are inserted into 
the base of the first metacarpal bone. In a dissec- 
tion of the orang the flexor longus pollicis sent 
a thin, tendinous expansion on to the bone. This 
sesamoid bone is also found in the gorilla, although 
Duvernoy and Rosenberg do not appear to be aware 
of its existence.* 

In the palm of the gorilla’s hand there is a short 
abductor, a short bicipital flexor, an opponens, and 
an abductor of the thumb. The longer belly 
of the short flexor extending in a more radial direc- 
tion, and in connection with the opponens, is only 
slightly developed. In the muscular system of a 
gorilla’s little finger we may observe an abductor, 
a short flexor, and an opponens. The palm of the 
chimpanzee displays a short abductor, an opponens, 
a short bicipital flexor, and an adductor of the 
thumb; also an abductor, a short flexor, and an 
opponens of the little finger. In the orang I observed 
a short abductor, a short flexor with two bellies, 
an opponens, and an adductor of the thumb. In 
addition to the short flexor of the thumb, Langer 
and Bischoff describe another short, independent 
muscle, representing the long flexor, and attached 
to the second phalanx, but I have not myself ascer- 
tained the existence of this muscle. The same 


* Hartmann in Archiv. fiir Anatomie, by Reichart and Du Bois- 
Reymond, p. 743 (1875); p. 636 (1876). 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 173 


anatomists mention an adductor between the third 
metacarpal bone and the first joint of the thumb, 
and another between the second metacarpal bone 
-and the second joint of the thumb, passing on into 
the extensor tendon. I am myself convinced of the 
existence of a twofold adductor, but not of the 
fact that the tendon of one of the muscles (termed 
by Langer the second opponens) passes on into the 
extensor tendon. In the little finger of the orang 
there is an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. 
In the gibbon there is a short abductor, a faintly 
indicated opponens, a short bicipital flexor, and an 
adductor of the thumb. In Hylobates albimanus 
this adductor divides into four or five portions, 
which are attached to the whole of the first meta- 
carpal bone. In the little finger there is an 
abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. In the 
same animal the first inter-osseous muscle is attached 
by one portion to the second metacarpal bone, by 
the other to the base of the second phalanx of the 
index finger (Fig. 53, 9,'10). 

Bischoff has described the muscles which Halford 
terms Contrahentes digitorum (contractors of the 
digits), which lie deep in the palm of the hands 
and feet of the chimpanzee and gibbon, the mandril, 
baboon, and other apes.* They rest upon the inter- 
osseous muscles, and are covered by the tendons 


* Halford, Not like man, bimanous and biped, nor yet quad- 
rumanous, but cheiropodus: Melbourne, 1863. Lines of demar- 
cation between Man, the Gorilla, and the Macaca: Melbourne, 1863, 
I only know these two treatises from Bischoff’s quotation. 
Anatomie, etc., des Hylobates leuciscus, pp. 28, 24, 


174 ANTHROPOID APES, 


of the long flexors of the digits, as well as by the 
lumbricales muscles. I have been unable to trace 
these Musculi contrahentes in the gorilla. Ina female 
chimpanzee I observed a Musculus contrahens for 
the fourth, and another for the fifth finger, and the 
same for the fourth and fifth toes. In the orang I 
observed a Musculus contrahens for the fourth, and 
one for the fifth fingers, and two faintly indicated 
Contrahentes for the fourth and fifth toes. Similar 
muscles of the second, fourth, and fifth fingers, and 
of the fourth and fifth toes, may be observed in 
the white-handed gibbon. 

In correspondence with the height of the pelvic 
bones, the gluteus maximus of these animals only 
displays a moderate width in comparison with its 
length. The tendon which attaches it to the 
femur extends low down, almost as far as the knee- 
joint. The gluteus medius and minimus are also 
long, in correspondence with this structure of the 
pelvis, although they are attached to the large tro- 
chanter, and to the posterior inter-trochanteric line. 
The climbing muscle (Musculus scansorius), which 
extends between the hip-bone and the condyles of 
the femur, was discovered by Troill in the chim- 
panzee, and by Bischoff in the orang, and is described 
by them as strongly made; it appears to be absent 
in the gorilla and the gibbon. The pyriformis 
generally forms portions of the neighbouring muscles. 
The tensor vagine femoris, which is strong and wide 
in most anthropoids, is either greatly reduced or 
altogether absent in the orang. The sartorius is 
not, as in man, attached to the inner surface of the 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 175 


tibia, just below the internal tuberosity, but it is 
inserted much lower down on this surface. In the 
gorilla it has a tricipital attachment, one to the 
deep fascia of the thigh, and two others to the in- 
ternal border of the tibia. In the chimpanzee and 
the gibbon the muscle extends equally low down. 
In the orang it does not go so far, but the gracilis 
and semi-tendinosus are in the same relative position. 
The biceps Of the femur is very apparent in the 
orang ; its long head divides in two parts, of which 
the lower is inserted in the fibula, and is here united 
with the short head. 

Bischoff at first denied the existence of the 
plantaris in the chimpanzee, and Brihl had pre- 
viously done the same, but it is as normally present 
in that animal as in man, in whom also it is some- 
times absent. I, however, as well as other observers, 
have failed to discover it in the gorilla, orang, and 
gibbon. The popliteus is developed in every in- 
stance. The tibio-fibular muscle (Musculus peroneo- 
tibialis), covered by the popliteus, of which the 
existence was ascertained by Gruber, has not been 
observed by me in any of the anthropoids, with the 
exception of the chimpanzee. But it was very 
apparent in a red sea-cat monkey (Cercopithecus ruber). 

The gastrocnemius, which is easily separable into 
two heads, and the peroneal muscles have not 
the same relative width in anthropoids and man, 
since in the former case the calf of the lower limb 
is small, and it lacks the pleasing roundness which 
characterizes this part of the human structure. 
These muscles, especially in the orang and gibbon, 


176 ANTHROPOID APES. 


appear to take a lateral direction. The Tendo 
Achillis is present, but it has not the prominent 
development in height and width which we observe 
in man. The long extensor, flexor, and_ tibial 
muscles are in all cases fully developed. The 
_peroneus tertius, as it is termed, although it should 
only be regarded as a part of the extensor longus 
digitorum, is absent in anthropoids.* I myself am 
not disposed, with Huxley, Bischoff, and others, to 
regard this muscle as an abductor. Brihl perceived 
in a chimpanzee a fuurth rudimentary peroneal 
muscle (Musculus peroneus intermedius), extending 
between the peroneus and the little toe, a muscle 
sometimes found in man, and which I have myself 
only observed in one adult chimpanzee. In the 
gorilla and the chimpanzee the extensor longus 
digitorum passes through a remarkably strong trans- 
verse ligament, formed of fibrous cartilage, which 
covers the tarsus. It acts upon the four outer toes 
(Fig. 55). Brihl has described the characteristic 
contraction and extension of the tendons of the long 
and short extensors of the toes in the chimpanzee, 
but I have myself found some difficulty in producing 
this action. In Fig. 55 I have endeavoured to repre- 
sent this condition in the most natural way. The ex- 
tensor proprius pollicis is in all cases developed. The 
extensor brevis digitorum produces a large, dblique 
belly for the great toe (Fig. 55). In the gorilla there 
is for the great toe an abductor, a bicipital flexor, an 
adductor, and an opponens (comp. Fig. 54). 


* Ruge also considers this muscle to be part of the extensor 
longus digitorum. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 177 


From the extensor brevis digitorum the belly for 
the great toe rises with a certain independence. 
On the right foot of a chimpanzee I observed a fifth 
belly of this muscle, going to the little toe (Fig. 55). 


Fig. 54.—Muscular system of the human foot. 1, Tibialis anticus and extensor 
proprius pollicis. 2, Extensor longus digitorum. 3, Tendon of peroneus ter- 
tius. 4,5, Peroneus longus and peroneus brevis. 4’, 5’, Tendons of the same. 
6, 7, Tendons of the extensor longus and extensor brevis digitorum. 


As my illustration is taken from this specimen, 
I have represented the foot with, or in spite of, this 
interesting anomaly, which, as we know, sometimes 
occurs in man. 

The flexor brevis digitorum displays perforated 


178 ANTHROPOID APES. 


tendons, belonging to the second and third toes. 
The flexor longus digitorum displays perforated 
tendons for the fourth and fifth toes. The flexor 
longus pollicis divides into two tendons, one of which 
goes into the toe itself, while the other is connected 


Fig. 55.—Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot. 1, Tibialis anticus 
muscle. , 2, Extensor proprius pollicis. 3, Extensor communis digitorum. 
4, 5, Peroneus brevis and peroneus longus. 6, Tendon Achilles. 7, Extensor 
brevis digitorum. 8, Slip of the same for great toe. 9, First dorsal inter- 
osseous muscle. 10, Adductor pollicis. 11, Abductor minimi digiti. 


with the flexor longus digitorum, and displays per- 
forated tendons for the third and fourth toes, while 
the perforated tendons of the second and fifth toes 
have their origin in the other flexor 

In the gorilla the lumbricales muscles of the foot 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 179 


are powerful. The first inter-osseous muscle is like- 
wise well developed and bicipital. There is a short 
flexor and an abductor for the little toe. I have 
not yet been able to assure myself of the existence 
of an opponens for that toe. In the chimpanzee 
the muscular system of the great and little toe 
does not essentially differ from that which we 
have described in the gorilla. The flexor brevis 
digitorum forms the perforated tendons of the 
second and third toes. The flexor longus digitorum 
provides the fourth and fifth toes with perforated, 
and the second and fifth toes with perforating, 
tendons, while those which belong to the third 
and fourth toes have their origin in the flexor 
longus pollicis. As in the gorilla, the latter 
muscle produces a fibrous investment for the tendons 
of the flexor longus digitorum. In the orang there 
is an abductor of the great toe, a very slightly 
developed opponens, a short bicipital flexor, and an 
adductor. One of the long flexors of the toes 
appears to represent the flexor longus pollicis in 
man. It provides the second and fifth toes with 
perforating tendons, while those of the third and 
fourth toes have their origin in the other flexor longus 
digitorum. There is no long flexor tendon on the 
great toe. The perforated tendons in this case 
generally belong to the short flexor muscle, In 
addition to the perforated tendons of the fourth toe, 
there is the long flexor already described. 

In a gibbon’s great toe I observed an abductor, 
a short bicipital flexor, and a slightly developed 
opponens, to which a wide fan-shaped adductor is 


180 ANTHROPOID APES. 


attached. The first dorsal inter-osseous muscle 
is, as in the same animal’s hand (Fig. 53), attached 
to the first phalanx of the second toe. The flexor 
longus digitorum provides the third and fourth 
toes with perforating tendons, and also gives off 
a tendon for the great toe. On the little toe 
there is a remarkably slender perforating tendon. 
While the first of the two long flexors represents 
the human flexor longus pollicis, the flexor longus 
digitorum is in this instance limited to the little 
toe. In the gibbon, as well as in the orang, the 
gorilla, and the chimpanzee, the two muscles are 
connected together by an aponeurosis. It may be 
here mentioned that in the human foot the flexor 
longus pollicis occasionally gives off a flexor for the 
second and even for the third toes. In the gibbon, 
as Bischoff justly observes, a muscle covers the 
flexor longus digitorum, which is still undivided, but 
already enlarged. From this: muscle perforated 
tendons issue for the third and fourth toes. The 
second toe is provided with such a tendon from the 
flexor brevis digitorum. The muscle we have men- 
tioned seems to represent the Quadratus plante, 
which is often developed in the other anthropoids, 
although only to a slight extent. With respect to 
the muscles of the small toe of the orang and gibbon, 
I need only say that in the latter species the opponens 
seems to be absent (Fig. 55). 

It will be seen from the foregoing account that, 
in spite of several apparently important pecu- 
liarities, in spite of great and manifold, variations 
which are established, even although our authorities 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 181 


do not always agree together, the muscular system 
of anthropoids is on the whole very like that of 
man. It displays, especially in the lower limbs, 
peculiarities of structure which render them capable 
of walking in an upright position, and others again 
which they have in common with the lower animals, 
but on the whole the anthropoid characteristics of 
the muscular ,system of these animals are predomi- 
nant. 

The digestive system of anthropoids likewise 
affords interesting points of comparison. The cavity 
of the mouth is, as we have seen, bordered by large 
and flexible lips. The mucous membrane of the 
mouth and the gums are flesh-coloured; they 
assume a darker colour in older animals, and are 
then sometimes marked’ with spots of a bluish or 
brownish grey. Ehlers describes, as a peculiarity 
in the mucous membrane of the mouths of the 
gorilla and chimpanzee, that there are what he calls 
buccal folds, which pass on both sides from the fore 
surface of the upper and lower jaw into the mucous 
membrane of the cheeks, and are of the height of 
the canine teeth.* I have myself only observed 
these folds in the gorilla, of which an illustration is 
given in Fig. 8, and not in any other specimen. I 
have observed scarcely any indications of these 
folds in other anthropoids, and then only of such a 
doubtful nature that I am not disposed to regard 
the circumstance as of any special significance. 
A small band on the upper and lower lips, sometimes 


* Beitrdge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse, p. 32, plate 
il. fig. 3. 


182 ANTHROPOID APES. 


only slightly developed, but always perceptible, is 
present in all anthropoids. 

The tongue is small, and not provided at its base 
with several great concave follicles as in man; these 
are at least only faintly represented, and not easy 
to observe. Around them there rise pock-like, 
tufted warts, very close together, which in an aged 
gorilla are apt to become hard and horny. These 
are also prominent between the follicles of the 
tonsils. The circumyallate papillae of the tongue 
are less numerous than in man, and often, especially 
in the chimpanzee, they take the form of a cross, or 
of the letter T, or in the gorilla of a V. 

The uvula and palate present no special variation 
from the human type. On the hard palate there 
are a number of folds, or rather swellings, which 
extend laterally from the central suture of the 
palate, towards the row of teeth in the upper jaw; 
these are sometimes simple, sometimes complex, 
and vary in their details in individual cases. 
They are particularly marked in the adult chim- 
panzee, and are also very apparent in the gibbon, 
and they are arranged with a somewhat ornamental 
regularity. These inequalities are not altogether 
insignificant in the human palate, but this subject 
has not been much studied since Gegenbaur directed 
the attention of scientific men to them, and special 
light has been thrown upon it by Bischoff and 
Ehlers, as far as anthropoids are concerned, 

The teeth afford us important material for com- 
parison. In the case of anthropoids the formula for 
the teeth of the slender-nosed or Old-World apes 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 183 


(Catarrhina) will generally apply: 72 ¢ + p3m i. 
The following is the formula for the milk-teeth: 
72¢e1%m 3 Magitot and Giglioli* have shown 
that the milk-teeth are cut in the same order as 
those of man—first, the lower; second, the upper 
incisor teeth; third, the front pre-molars; fourth, 
the back pre-molars; fifth, the canine teeth. Ac- 
cording to the same authors, the permanent teeth are 
cut in the following order:—first, the first molar 
teeth ; second, the lower, and then the upper incisor 
teeth; third, the pre-molars; fourth, the canine 
teeth; fifth, the second molar teeth; sixth, the 
third molar teeth. In the skull of a male gorilla, 
Giglioli found that the permanent canine teeth were 
cut almost simultaneously with the third molar 
teeth, and after the appearance of the second molar 
teeth. The cutting of the canine teeth appears to 
be a longer process than that of the other teeth. 

In anthropoids the structure of the permanent 
teeth varies with the species, and even with the sex. 
In the gorilla the two upper central incisor teeth are 
wide, chisel-shaped, and much larger than the pair 
of lateral incisors. The four lower incisor teeth 
are of about the size of the upper lateral in- 
cisors, and, like these, are chisel-shaped, but not so 
wide. The powerful upper canine teeth of an aged 
male are curved in their lower part, both outwards 
and inwards. Their form is that of a three-sided, 
cuneiform pyramid. The anterior surface is rounded, 
and near its inner edge a deep furrow may be ob- 


* Bulletin de la Société d Anthropologie de Paris (1869), pp. 83, 
118. 


184 ANTHROPOID APES, 


served, extending from the neck of the tooth almost 
to its point. The outer and inner sides of the 
tooth meet in a sharp angle, somewhat convex in 
front, and level or slightly concave behind. The 
inner side is concave, and furnished, nearly in the 
centre, with a deep longitudinal furrow. The lower 
canine teeth of an aged male are shorter than the 
upper, curved on their upper and outer surface, and 
somewhat behind. Their form is also that of a 
three-sided pyramid, rounded in front. The longi- 
tudinal furrow which traverses their inner segment 
is much shorter than that on the upper tooth. The 
outer side is somewhat convex, and at the same time 
somewhat retreating, and is provided on its posterior 
segment with two longitudinal furrows, or more 
rarely with one, reaching from the neck to about 
the centre of the tooth. The inner side, like that 
of the upper teeth, is somewhat concave. The lower 
canine teeth project like pillars over the upper ones 
(Figs. 15, 16). The canine teeth of a young male 
gorilla are less sharp in their angles, although 
they already present the form of a three-sided 
pyramid. The canine teeth of the adult female 
gorilla are much smaller than those of the adult 
male, and are laterally more compressed. The 
three-sided pyramidal form is only slightly marked. 
The outer surface is convex and furnished with a 
scarcely apparent central longitudinal ridge. On 
the inner surface, or that which is turned to the 
cavity of the mouth, there are from two to three 
longitudinal furrows reaching from the neck to the 
centre of the tooth. The lower teeth are of a 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 185 


three-sided, pyramidal form, presenting an interior, 
posterior, and inner superficies. 

The pre-molars of an aged male gorilla are wide, 
and are furnished with a large outer, and a smaller 
inner, cusp. The three four-cusped upper molars 
display a more regular and symmetrical arrange- 
ment of their cusps than is the case with the 
female, in which the position of the cusps is rather 
variable. Except for the difference of size, the 
relative conditions of these teeth are the same in 
male and female. The first pointed lower pre- 
molars are in the male of the form of a four-sided 
pyramid, convex on the anterior and outer surface, 
flat on the side directed to the cavity of the mouth, 
and marked with furrows on the posterior surface. 
The small second and lower pre-molars have two 
anterior and one posterior cusp. The last is gene- 
rally worn away at an early age. Each molar tooth 
has two outer and two inner cusps, opposite to each 
other, and one posterior cusp. We cannot here fail 
to notice the likeness to the conditions of the human 
teeth, a likeness which is still more striking in the 
female. 

In the chimpanzee, also, the upper central 
incisor teeth are broadly chisel-shaped, while the 
upper and lower lateral incisors are smaller. In 
the male there is often a considerable gap be- 
tween these and the canine teeth. The latter 
present the form of a three-sided pyramid, of which 
the anterior edge is blunt and tends outwards, while 
the posterior angle is sharp, scooped out in its 
upper third, and terminating at the base of the 


186 ANTHROPOID APES. 


crown in a posterior cusp. The pre-molars have an 
external and an inner cusp; the molars have two 
external and two inner cusps, connected with each 
other by their enamel. The lower canine teeth of 
these animals are likewise of the shape of a three- 
sided pyramid, of which the anterior angle is very 
blunt, while the inner and posterior angles are 
sharply cut. The anterior surface is not grooved 
like the upper canine teeth. The lateral angle is 
much rounded. The back teeth plainly display 
the posterior fifth cusp, which may also be observed 
in man. In the orang-utan the characteristics of 
the upper incisors are such as we have described in 
the case of other anthropoids. The upper canine 
teeth are shaped like a three-sided pyramid, and 
are furnished with a longitudinal furrow on the 
anterior side. A similar furrow is found on the pos- 
terior superficies of the lower canine teeth. The 
back teeth display no special characteristics when 
compared with those of other anthropoids. 

The canine teeth of these anthropoids are much 
worn down by age on their posterior surface. Deep 
transverse grooves of varying size characterize the 
teeth of anthropoids, owing to the unequal distribu- 
tion of the coating of enamel. These are developed 
with their advancing growth. In addition to these 
incised furrows, longitudinal marks, with raised 
edges, also appear, and especially on the anterior 
surface of the incisor teeth. 

In the gibbon the anterior surface of the incisor 
teeth is smooth; in this animal the upper central 
incisor teeth are the largest, while the lower central 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 187 


incisors are the smallest. The long and strong 
upper canine teeth, which are laterally compressed, 
display a sharp posterior angle, and an anterior and 
inner longitudinal furrow. 

It has sometimes been said that the grooves 
found on the external contour of the back teeth of 
anthropoids, extending to their roots, constitute a 
not unimportant distinction between their structure 
and that of the human teeth, in which the grooves 
do not extend to the roots. But the corresponding 
human teeth do sometimes exhibit very deep and 
extensive furrows. I cannot, therefore, ascribe any 
peculiar significance to this assumed distinction. 
The development of the canine teeth, like those 
of beasts of prey, seems to me much more important. 
A supernumerary back tooth may sometimes be 
observed both in man and in anthropoids, including 
also the gibbon.* 

The stomach and intestines of these animals pre- 
sent only a few striking differences from the same 
organs in man. The length of the intestines varies 
in man as well as in anthropoids. I have only 
observed the valvule conniventes to be somewhat 
clearly developed in the gorilla and the orang. The 
cecum of these apes is long, broad, placed with the 
power of free movement in the peritoneum, and 
furnished, especially in the case of the orang, with 
a large, very long, and spirally coiled vermiform 
appendix. 

The liver is divided into two principal lobes, but 


* As, for example, in Hylobates syndactylus. Comp. Giebel, 
Odontographia, p. 2: Leipzig, 1855. 


188 ANTHROPOID APES. 


in the orang this division is not very clearly marked. 
I have not myself observed a subdivision of these 
lobes, occurring on their edges, which is mentioned 
by Bolau and Auzoux in the case of the gorilla. 
Bischoff notices in the gorilla the absence of the 
H-shaped arrangement of the fissures on the under 
surface of the liver, so noticeable in man; and the 
same remark applies to other species of anthropoids, 
Moreover, the fissures on this part of the liver are 
not incised on the substance with the same uniform 
depth. The gall-bladder of the gorilla and the 
orang is not remarkable for its size; in the chim- 
panzee I found that this organ is large and twisted, 
and it is also large in the gibbon. 

The spleen is elongated in the gorilla, chim- 
panzee, and gibbon, shorter and wider in the orang. 
On its left contour it is uniformly bevelled off. There 
is nothing in the pancreas which calls for remark. 

The larynx of anthropoids possesses on the whole 
a structure resembling that of man. This is es- 
pecially the case at the entrance to that organ. 
The anterior and specially vocal portion of the 
glottis is short, about as long as the respiratory 
portion. In the chimpanzee there is a deep cavity 
in the body of the hyoid bone. In the gorilla, chim- 
panzee, and orang the throat-pouches or air-sacs 
correspond to Morgagni’s sacs. These are the thin- 
skinned elastic sacs, closely united with their sur- 
roundings by connective tissue. The right laryngeal 
sac appears to be of larger diameter than the left. 
According to Duvernoy’s and Ehlers’ accurate ac- 
count only the upper portion of this organ occurs 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 189 


in the gorilla. In that animal, and in the orang, 
a lower projection is displayed, extending behind 
the sterno-mastoid as far as the shoulder, and 
another extending to the. pectoralis major muscle. 
In the chimpanzee only the posterior segment is 
developed. It has been asserted that in several 
cases there is found a single, irregular laryngeal 
sac, communicating with the two Morgagni sacs, 
but I agree with Ehlers in thinking this impro- 
bable. In such instances it seems likely that, owing 
to the great want of symmetry in this organ, one 
of the sacs has been overlooked. In an aged orang 
the throat-pouches, fastened together by connective 
tissue, and covered by the external skin of the 
throat, hang down slackly and heavily over the 
middle of the breast (see Fig. 9). According to 
Sandifort, the siamang is the only one of the gibbons 
which displays a single throat-pouch; while Broca 
asserts that it has two detached sacs, placed close 
to the larynx.* The halves of the thyroid carti- 
lage are generally connected with each other by an 
intermediate piece. 

The trachea of anthropoids generally includes from 
sixteen to eighteen cartilaginous rings, but in the 
siamang there are twenty-one. They ramify into 
branches which are, as a rule, wider on the right than 
on the left side? There is a further lateral ramifi- 

* Ortleetkundige Beschryving van een volvassen Orang Oetan. 
Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neederlandsche 
Bezittingen: Leiden, 1840. Bulletin de la Société d’ Anthropologie 
de Paris, iv. pp. 368-371: 1869. 


t Comp. Aeby, Der Bronchialbaum der Stiugethiere und des 
Menschen, p. 7, table v. fig. 11: Leipzig, 1880. 


190 ANTHROPOID APES. 


cation on the right side, situated above the artery. 
Huxley and Ehlers hold that the lungs of a gorilla 
are cleft like those of the human organism, the 
right divided into three, and the left into two 
lobes. I have myself observed this type, and 
in one instance I found three lobes on. the left. 
In the chimpanzee I saw that the right lung was 
divided into three, and the left into two lobes. 
Bischoff observed an instance of a chimpanzee 
which had four lobes on the right and two on the 
left side. In an orang dissected by me I found 
only one lobe on each side, with thin, slightly 
indented notches on the anterior edges of the right 
lobe, and two on the left, and there was at the same 
time a strongly marked indentation between the 
lobes. The lungs of a gibbon are described as 
having four lobes on the right, and only one or two 
on the left. I myself have examined a gibbon in 
which there were three lobes on the right, and two 
on the left. It appears that there are not unim- 
portant individual variations of this structure in 
every species of anthropoids; and indeed, human 
lungs are by no means exempt from them. 

The male sexual organs correspond on the whole 
with the form and arrangement of these organs in 
man. I must not omit to mention that the penis 
of the swine-snouted baboon, and of other dog- 
headed apes, is much more like the penis in man 
than is the case with anthropoids, with the excep- 
tion of the gorilla. In the last-named animal the 
scrotum is short and tightly stretched. The right 
testicle is a little higher than the left, and is divided 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, 191 


from it by a wide raphé. The internal female organs 
are also like-those of the buman organism, with 
only slight variations. Bischoff is correct in the 
assertion that the external lips of the pudendum and 
the mons veneris are almost wholly absent. Bolau, 
Ehlers, and Hermes have ascertained that there is 
a menstruation which occurs periodically, at any 


"IE Frontal tober 'P, Parietal iebe. 0, Occipltal lobe. Rs Fissure of Holando 
S, Fissure of Sylvius. ©, Cerebellum. 
rate, in the case of the chimpanzee, and the other 
species cannot be exempt from the process. Atsuch 
times there is a blush and enlargement of the 
external parts, and a protusion of the external lips of 
the pudendum, which are at other times scarcely 
apparent. The nymphe and the clitoris are of 
considerable size and importance. There is often 
an excessive enlargement and reddening of these 


192 ANTHROPOID APES. 


parts, as well as of the posterior callosities in the 
chimpanzee, and also in the baboon and macaca, 
during the period of sexual excitement. 

Nervous system.—In this part of the organism we 
are especially interested in the structure of the 


i) fe 
Intly i 
if! fh! 


Fig. 57.—Braim of the chimpanzee, seen from above. The upper part of the 
right hemisphere is removed so as to lay bare the lateral ventricle (Vogt, from 
Marshall). L, Longitudinal fissure (other indications the same as in Fig. 56). 
¢ s, The corpus striatum in-anterior cornu of the ventricle. c a, Hipppo- 
campus major in descending cornu, hk m, Hippocampus minor in posterior 
cornu. 

brain. Bastian justly remarks, with reference 

to the brain of apes, that this family possesses 

many cerebral characteristics in common, by which 
their close connection with each other may be 


verified. Distinct stages of development have been 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 193 


observed, which, however, cannot be classified in a 
consecutive series. Starting from the brains of 
lemurs, which do not greatly differ from those of 
rodents, we can advance by means of very distinct 
transition forms to the more highly developed cere- 
bral hemispheres of the large anthropoid apes, the 
chimpanzee, the gorilla, and orang-utan.* 


Fig. 58.—Brain of gorilla, side view (from Bolau aud Pansch). I., Frontal lobe. 
IL. Tissue of Rolando, ILI., Parietal lobe. IV., Temporal lobe. C. Cerebellum, 
St 3 Fissure of Sylvius. s ‘ External fissure parieto-occipital, 


Very opposite views prevail among ana.omists 
with regard to the question which species of anthro- 
poids possesses the most highly developed brain. 
Some regard the chimpanzee’s brain as the simplest, 
and that of the orang as the most highly de- 
veloped. In all these apes the lateral halves of 


* The Brain as an Organ of Mind. International Scientific 
Series. 


194 ANTHROPOID APES. 


the cerebrum, always divided from each other by 
a deep longitudinal fissure, overlap the cerebellum 
as far as a minute posterior segment. In this 
respect I find the brain of the gorilla a little behind 
the other anthropoids. Up to this time, I have only 
observed the projection of the cerebellum through 
the cerebrum in the case of an orang * (see also 
Fig. 56). Retzius asserts that the cerebellum of 
Lapps is incompletely covered, while the covering is 


Fig. 59.—Brain of orang, seen from above (Duncan, from a specimen i 
Museum of Royal College of Surgeons). F, frontal lobe. 0, Occipital lobe. a 


generally complete in the case of Slav and Tartar 
races. In German and Latin races the cerebrum 
overlaps the cerebellum. In Mongolian, Indian, 


* Pansch writes of a gorilla’s brain: “The cerebellum ought, 
in a horizontal position, to be somewhat overlapped by the cere- 
brum.” Ido not understand what he means by the expression 
ought. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 195 


and Negro races the covering appears to be generally 
imperfect. 

While the ground form of the gorilla brain 
approximates to a long oval, and in this respect 
resembles the human brain, the brain of chim- 
panzees and orangs is of a round-oval form. This 
ig. especially the case with the chimpanzee (Hig. 57). 
In my opinion, the gorilla brain is distinguished 
from that of the chimpanzee, but not from that 
of the orang, by its very complex convolutions 
(Fig. 56). 

In the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang, the island 
of Reil in the fissure of Sylvius is generally—at least, 
according to my experience—overlapped by the 
operculum, although there are instances in which 
this is not the case. In these three anthropoids, as 
Bastian justly observes, the fissure of Sylvius is 
much less horizontal than in man, and occupies a 
position more like -that which it takes in the black 
sea-cat monkey, the wanderers, and other macacas. 
In the gorilla its direction is more horizontal than 
in the two other species of anthropoids. The central 
fissure, termed fissure of Rolando, is very marked, 
especially in the chimpanzee (Fig. 57 R); but it 
may also be easily traced in other species of anthro- 
poids (Fig. 58, IL, 56, R). The so-called simian 
fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes of 
the cerebrum (Meynart’s elongated external occi- 
pital fissure), presented in Fig. 58 sc, is very marked 
in the chimpanzee (Fig. 57, d). The frontal lobes 
of the goriJla brain are high, while those of the 
chimpanzee are short and low. It is said that those 


196 ANTHROPOID APES. 


of the orang, which are high and short, terminate 
in a beak-shaped curvature, but this is not invariably 
the case. 

In the anthropoids we have been considering, and 
also in several of the lower species of apes, there 
are three other fissures of less importance in addition 
to those we have mentioned, namely, the fissure 
parallel to the fissure of Sylvius, and placed behind 
it, the corpus callosum fissure, placed immediately 
above the corpus callosum on the inner side of the 


Fig. 60.—Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s~brain (Bola and Pansch). s.cm, 
Colloso marginal fissure. f, p, Internal parieto-occipital fissure. jf, c, Calcarine 
fissure, the posterior part of the hippocampal fissure. 


hemisphere of the cerebrum, and the calcarine fissure 
(Fissura calearina) (Fig. 60). The latter ends near 
the point of junction of the inner and lower sur- 
faces of the posterior division of the hemisphere. 
The upper temporal convolution, termed by several 
anatomists Gyrus supramarginalis, is said by Gra- 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 197 


tiolet to be absent in anthropoids; but Rolleston, 
Bastian, and myself have all found it well deve- 
loped * (Fig. 56, orang, and Fig. 58, gorilla). 

Bischoff asserts that the third frontal convolution 
(Broca’s convolution) is very slightly developed in 
the chimpanzee, orang, and gibbon. “Its great 
development in men,” Gewahrsmann writes, “con- 
stitutes one of the most_marked distinctions between 
the brains of apes and of men.” t In most of the 
other species of apes this convolution is altogether 
absent, but Pansch is justified in the assertion that 
it is fully developed in anthropoids. I cannot wholly 
agree with Pansch in his analysis; but I must 
accept his statement on this point (see the orang, 
Fig. 59). Gratiolet remarks that the so-called 
annectant gyri (plis de passage) which serve 
as a covering or operculum for the posterior lobes 
in apes, are only superficially apparent in man. In 
the chimpanzee the upper of those convolutions 
is absent, while it is large in the orang, and likewise 
large and undulated in man. In the orang the 
second annectant gyrus is covered, but this vovering 
is absent in man.} 

In considering the inner structure of the brain 
of these animals, we are first struck by the shortness 
of the corpus callosum. The soft and thick anterior 
commissure of the third cerebral ventricle and the 
thin posterior commissure have also been justly 


* Natural History Review, p. 201: 1861. 

+ Sitewng der Mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der kénigl. 
bairischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, p. 100: Feb. 4, 1871. 

{ Gratiolet, Mém. sur les plis cérébraum de Vhomme et des 
primates. 


198 ANTHROPOID APES. 


noted. In the lateral ventricles more of the charac- 
teristics described in the human brain are absent. 
The four eminences resemble those of man; nor does 
the fourth cerebral ventricle present any remarkable 
differences of form. Neither does the base or lower 
surface of the brain display any important deviation 
from the human type. The transverse section of 
the nerves at their intersection appears to me, how- 
ever, to be somewhat more oval than is the case in 
man. 

There has recently been an attempt to recognize 
a pithecoid character, or atavism, in microcephalic 
men, the smallness of whose heads is allied with 
a greater or less degree of idiocy. A pithecoid 
structure of the brain has also been traced in several 
individuals who are not microcephalous, but subject 
to pathological affections. We will first consider 
those who belong to the latter category. Krause 
examined the brain of an ape-like boy aged seven 
years and a half, which, as the author remarks, 
approximated in structure to the pithecoid type, 
although without displaying microcephalic charac- 
teristics. The two cerebral hemispheres were wanting 
in symmetry ; they diverged from each other in the 
region where the parieto-occipital fissure occurs on the 
left cerebral hemisphere, and they formed an edge 
which curved outward and backward so that the 
cerebellum remained uncovered. On the lower 
surface of the frontal lobes there was a strongly 
marked ethmoidal prominence. Neither of the 
fissures of Sylvius were closed, the left less so 
than the right; the operculum was only slightly 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANIHROPOID APES. 199 


developed ; and the island of Reil and its fissures were 
almost uncovered. This formation is almost the 
same as that of the brain of anthropoids. The two 
central fissures of Rolando were close together, or 
less deeply impressed on the edge of the hemi- 
spheres than is normally the case, and forming no 
joint angle. Large and deeply marked pre-central 
fissures seemed to represent the central fissures. 
The intra-parietal fissures, diverging outwardly 
further than in man, received the parieto-occipital 
fissure, a structure in conformity with the typical 
brain of apes. The transverse occipital fissure 
became in this case a deep fissure like the simian 
fissure, crossing the occipital lobes, and almost 
completely dividing them from the parietal lobes. 
The so-called Fissura calcarina, to which we have 
referred above, had its origin on the upper surface 
of the occipital lobe, then joined the parieto- 
occipital fissure, and went directly into the hippo- 
campal fissure (Fissura hippocampi) on its right 
side. This abnormal structure is also in conformity 
with the typical brain of apes. The first occipital 
convolution is divided from the upper parietal lobes 
by the parieto-occipital fissure. Gratiolet asserts 
that this formation occurs in many species of apes. 
The upper temporal convolution was remarkably 
reduced on both sides, possessing only an average 
width of 5 mm. This characteristic reminded 
Krause of the brain of the chimpanzee. In that 
animal the upper temporal convolution is always 
reduced. Krause therefore asks whether some human 
brains may not possess the typical structure of apes 


200 ANTHROPOID APES, 


without being microcephalic. The brain we have 
described scarcely differed from the normal weight ; 
it possessed all the convolutions and fissures, and 
indeed, the eonvolutions were perhaps more numer- 
ous than in the normal structure, yet it was different 
in every respect, and approximated in its whole 
structure to the simian rather than to the human 
type. Krause adds that if the brain had been 
placed before him without any intimation of its 
origin, he should have been quite justified in con- 
cluding that it belonged to an anthropoid ape, 
which stood somewhat nearer to man than the 
chimpanzee. 

It is an unquestionable fact that some human 
beings, whether children or adults, who are endowed 
with a defective bodily structure, and who are 
affected with more or less pronounced physical 
incapacity and mental weakness, by their appear- 
ance, ungainly tricks, and helpless and aimless 
motions, impress us in the most forcible way with 
their resemblance to apes. Different degrees of 
idiocy affect individuals of limited intellect, and 
remind us of an absolutely brutish condition. 
Krause describes the “ape-like” boy of seven and 
a half years old, whom he had examined, as cheerful 
and inclined to play and dance, but as passionate 
when he was teased. The child was very supple, 
fond of climbing, and with great strength in his 
arms and hands, of which the latter had a horny 
appearance, reminding him of the hands of a 
chimpanzee. He could sit on the ground with his 
legs wide apart. His gait was uncertain, and he 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 201 


was apt to tumble, falling with his knees bent 
forward and his legs doubled under him; he was 
fond of hopping, and at such times looked still more 
like an ape. The great toes of both feet were at 
an angle to the foot, and thus gave the impression 
of a prehensile foot. At first Krause supposed that 
this deviation was produced by the child’s endeavour 
to supply a broader basis of support for his uncertain 
gait; but he subsequently changed his opinion, 
since he did not find the same peculiarity in other 
children of diseased brain, as, for instance, in those 
suffering from water on the braiv. The boy could 
say very little, only papa and mamma, and it was 
long before he could pronounce these words in two 
syllables; for the most part, he only uttered a sound 
resembling a grunt. He imitated the barking of 
a dog, with the sound of rolling 7’s, He often 
stamped his feet and clapped his hands together, 
making a grunting noise as Krause had observed 
in the case of gorillas and chimpanzees. The boy 
was smaller than other children of his age, and had 
weak eyes; his head was sore, and his forehead 
narrow. His imitative tendency was strongly 
marked, and his whole nature and all his move- 
ments strikingly resembled those of apes. He had 
been much neglected by his parents.* 

When I was a student at Berlin I had the oppor- 
tunity of observing a similar being of twelve years 
old, in what was at that time the Weinbergswege, 
near the Rosenthaler Gate. This was a boy with 


* Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Cesell- 
schaft, p. 133: 1878. 


202 ANTHROPOID APES. 


a large head, a low retreating forehead, glazed eyes, 
a morose expression, a thin neck, prominent belly, 
crooked legs, large hands and feet. The boy was of 
a slouching appearance, and his gait was unsteady : 
saliva often dribbled from his wide mouth; and 
as he walked he held on to the furniture, walls, 
etc., and often he fell powerless on his side, and 
so remained in a crouching position. It seemed to 
give him peculiar pleasure to creep on his hands 
and knees, and at such times he would stamp with 
the closed fingers of one or the other hand upon 
the ground, as if in triumph. This habit, his gait, 
and the gurgling sound which was all that the boy 
could utter, constituted the points of his resem- 
blance to apes. All the other conditions of life 
were those of a being whose mental and physical 
growth was arrested, and who, although not epilep- 
tic, was to a certain extent idiotic. I am ignorant 
what afterwards became of him. 

In the course of a discussion on the instance 
adduced by Krause, Virchow asks whether the 
psychological conditions of such a brain are indeed 
simian. He is convinced that whoever has studied 
the microcephalic child Margaret Becker (of 
Biirgel, Hanau) will find that psychologically she 
had nothing in common with an ape. In her ease 
all the positive faculties and qualities of the ape 
were wanting ; the simian psychology was altogether 
absent, and there was only the psychology of an 
imperfectly developed and deficient young child. 
Every characteristic was human. Virchoff had the 
child in his room for hours together during a period 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 2038 


of two months, and was constantly occupied about 
her, without observing anything in her nature 
which reminded him even remotely of the psycho- 
logical conditions of apes. She was a degraded 
specimen of humanity, differing in no respect from 
the human type.* 

I also examined Margaret Becker, as well 
as another, microcephalic girl, who was in the 
Berlin Asylum in the years 1868 and 1869. With 
respect to the former and more animated being, I 
have nothing essential to add to the information 
published by Virchow. Ida X , the other 
individual whom I examined at Berlin, was at the 
time of my researches aged thirteen years and five 
months. Her figure was slightly made and well 
proportioned, while her profile reminded me to a 
modified extent of that of the microcephalic Aztec, 
and also of the heads represented in ancient sculpture 
of Mayapan, Palenque, and Copan. I must not omit 
to say that Ida had light blue eyes and fair, glossy 
hair. She was altogether impassive ; could only 
utter the syllables da-da ; and once betrayed a slight 
sign of displeasure when the cold metal of the 
measuring-rod was placed against the inner side 
of her thigh, for the sake of obtaining the dimensions 
of the different parts of her body. 

Virchow’s information respecting Esther Jacob- 
witz, of Waschahel, is also extremely interesting. 
She was a microcephalic girl of the age of fourteen, 
and a Hungarian Jew by race.t Virchow remarks 


* Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, 1877. 
+ Ibid. p. 25: 1878, 


204 ANTHROPOID APES. 


that, in his opinion, all Esther’s most striking charac- 
teristics presented the strongest contrast to those of 
apes, since only negative traits have hitherto been 
established, while all which characterizes the positive 
development of the psychical life of apes was absent 
in this case. The same remark applies to Ida X 2 
Virchow goes on to say that there was undoubtedly 
something brute-like in the defects in question, 
but that in order to reproduce the animal in its 
actual form and nature, so as to show that the 
microcephalic child was really theromorphic, the 
positive side of animal life must to some extent be 
presented to us, and this was absolutely wanting. 

Virchow also had the opportunity of examining 
a pair of twin children, one of whom was quite 
normally developed, while the other (Karl R——) 
was microcephalic. This was a very significant 
case, since two individuals of the same birth were 
under consideration, so that the question could be 
asked with greater confidence—Is this atavism, or 
a morbid condition? From this point of view, it 
was of special interest to establish the fact that the 
microcephalic child had, in fact, displayed positive 
signs of a morbid condition.* 

When I go through the accounts collected by 
C. Vogt of the lives of well-known microcephalic 
beings,f I can find nothing which specifically 
reminds me of the actions and habits of apes, 
although we have an intimate acquaintance with 
their ways. These individuals give the general 


* Vehandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft. 
p. 28: 1878. 
t+ Archiv. fiir Anthropologie, p. 129 : 1867. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 205 


impression of human beings whose bodily and 
mental development has been arrested. According 
to Virchow’s experience, all the cerebral disturbances 
are concentrated in the cerebrum in these micro- 
cephalous cases. The anterior portions of the 
cerebrum are affected to the greatest, and the 
posterior to the least, extent. Those parts which 
are developed latest suffer the most, while those 
which are the first to be developed generally escape 
disturbance.” 

Klebs, Schaaffhausen, and others have sought to 
show that the mothers of microcephalic children 
have suffered from severe pains of the uterus during 
pregnancy. All scientific men consider that spasms 
of the uterus distinctly affect the development of the 
brain of the offspring. Flesch thinks it possible that 
these spasms of the uterus may have something to do 
with the origin of microcephaly.t But he also asks 
whether this morbid condition of the uterus may not 
have been produced by a previously diseased con- 
dition of the offspring. This observer is, moreover, 
still more inclined to make the influence of the 
father responsible for the occurrence of microcephaly. 
In view of the fact that there is much reason to 
suppose there has been a compression of the uterus, 
and in default of any better suggestion, Flesch feels 
justified in looking for a compression which has 


* Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, 
p. 283 : 1877, 

+ Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesell- 
schaft, p. 184: 1877. H. Gerhartz, Ueber die Ursachen der Micro- 
cephalte. Inaugural dissertation. Bonn, 1874. 

10 


206 ANTHROPOID APES, 


perhaps resulted from some growth on the ovary. 
Hence ensues a disturbance, probably inflammatory, 
of the organ of nutrition.* 

Aeby also regards microcephaly, not as an ex- 
pression of atavism, but as the result of a morbid 
degeneration. “Microcephalic subjects do not 
point back to the milestone which man left behind 
him in hoar antiquity, and it is not through them 
that the chasm between man and animals can be 
bridged over, nor even rendered less wide.” 

Virchow’s researches led to the following con- 
clusions, which we must here subjoin:—1. There is 
no species of apes which presents that precise cor- 
figuration which is found in a microcephalic brain. 
2. Psychology offers the strongest arguments against 
men-apes. 3. The instinctive side of psychical 
activity, which is almost wholly absent in micro- 
cephalic subjects, is very prominent in anthropoids 
as well as in other animals. 

In addition to these remarks, it may also be ob- 
served that among savage races the medicine-men, 
shamans, sorcerers, rain-doctors, etc., often assume 
ape-like attitudes in the contortions, leaps, dances, 
and other gestures which are inseparable from their 
trade. Owing to their state of excitement, in which 
they are not always mentally responsible for their 
acts, this imitation may be often partly or wholly 


* Anatomische Untersuchung eines Microcephalen Knaben. Re- 
print of a paper written for the celebration of the three hundredth 
year of the University of Wurzburg, p. 27. 

t Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, 
p. 248: 1877. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 207 


unconscious. It is very common among the inspired 
Arabs termed Haschasch, who, sometimes as der- 
vishes, sometimes as poets or beast-tamers, roam 
through the country and extend their wanderings 
from the interior of Africa to the latticed gates of 
Dolma Bakhtsche. To them belong also the dancing 
mendicant monks of Islam, who display their ape- 
like gesture in the market-places and streets of 
Bokhara, as well as in the other chief cities of 
Central Asia. In this case, indeed, many gestures 
are conventional, and even adopted as the means of 
stimulating the proposed effects, but at the same 
time they impress us with the idea that a man under 
such conditions of life and work involuntarily adopts 
the gestures of anthropoids. When we see a Zikr, 
an Islamite rite of worship, accompanied by obli- 
gatory howls and contortions of body, we are tempted 
to imagine ourselves in the midst of a troop of wild 
apes. And the illusion is still stronger if the per- 
formers in the Zikr are black fakirs, dressed as 
warriors. 

The peripheral nervous system of anthropoids 
has not, up to this time, been analyzed with the 
completeness we could wish. As far as the observa- 
tions of Vrolik, Gratiolet, and Alix go, together with 
my personal experience in this department, no 
marked distinction can be established between the 
structure of these organs in anthropoids and those of 
the nervous system in man. 

H. von Ihering has studied the relation of the 
nervous lumbo-sacral plexus to the vertebral column 
of men and animals, and has come to the conclusion 


208 ANTHROPOID APES, 


that there is the most complete agreement between 
men and animals with respect to the relations 
of the vertebral column to the peripheral nervous 
system. According to this author, man, from the 
anatomical point of view, stands so completely within 
the class of anthropoids, that the attempt to assign 
to him any other place in zoology is open to the 
charge of being biassed by considerations which 
have nothing to do with facts.* 

The organs of the senses in anthropoids do not 
present any noteworthy points of difference from 
these organs in man. I have written, but not yet 
published, a treatise on the eyes of these animals, 
showing their general agreement with the conditions 
of the human eye. On the skin of the fingers and 
toes of anthropoids developed corpuscles may be 
detected which are connected with the sense of 
touch. 

The vascular system of anthropoids has not up to 
this time been studied in any exhaustive manner. 
The heart strongly resembles that organin man. In 
the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang the great 
arterial branches have the same relative conditions 
as in the human organism. A common origin from 
one branch of the subclavian artery, and of .the 
right and left carotid arteries, often occurs in the 
orang and with a certain constancy in the gibbon, so 
far as we can judge from the researches which have 
been made up to this time. But we know that this 
form of deviation from the common type is not 


*Das peripherische Nerversystem der Wirbelthiere, p. 219: 
Leipzig, 1878. 


ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES. 209 


altogether rare in man. Bischoff and others have 
justly maintained that the resemblance to man which 
is found in these animals in the arrangement of the 
heart and larger blood-vessels appears to be con- 
nected with their mode of life. For although their 
habits are arboreal, this very fact implies that they 
are for the most part in an upright position. 

The division of the femoral arteries displays a 
somewhat interesting deviation from the normal 
human type. High up near the femoral arch an 
artery, accompanied by veins and a large nerve, 
diverges from the femoral artery, which extends, 
together with its accompanying parts, as far as the 
back of the foot. In the gorilla this branch pierces 
the sartorius, 


210 ANTHROPOID APES, 


CHAPTER IV. 
ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 


Up to recent times it was generally supposed that 
there was only one species of gorilla, and the differ- 
ences in the structure of the skeleton and of the 
external body which were observed in the several 
specimens under examination, were either regarded 
as the expression of a purely individual variation 
or as ‘due to differences in age and sex. Not long 
ago Alix and Bouvier obtained from Landana on the 
Congo the skeleton and skin of an aged female 
gorilla, which had been killed by Lucan and Petit 
in the village of the negro chief Mayema, on the 
Kuilu river in 4° 35’ south latitude. This speci- 
men was of less bulk than the common gorilla 
(Gorilla Gina), and its head was comparatively small. 
The occipito-temporal crest, or transverse crest of the 
occiput, was much more strongly developed in this 
animal and the temporal fossee were deeper. That part 
of the skull which extends behind the supra-orbital 
arches was narrower, and so also was the space between 
the eyes. The keel-shaped prominence rising in the 


ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 211 


centre of this space is more marked, the nasal bones 
are arched and not flattened, the orbital aperture 
is larger in comparison with the general size of 
the skull, and the frontal processes of the malar 
bones are wider and more arched. One interesting 
characteristic consists in a small, vertical, styloid 
prominence on the posterior surface of the orbital 
process. On the vertebral column the spinous pro- 
cesses of the first, second, and third cervical vertebree 
are only slightly developed in height, while the 
spinous processes of the three lower cervical vertebre 
are as high and large as those of Gorilla Gina. The 
transverse processes of the first lumbar vertebre are 
remarkable for their length, and in their transverse 
extension reach almost to the angle of the last rib. 

In this supposed variety of the gorilla the iliac 
crest is more convex, the tuberosity of the ischium 
is somewhat more everted, the neck of the femur 
is more oblique, the os calcis is slenderer, and 
its lower surface is more arched. The clavicle 
appears to be shorter and less curved: the scapula 
is more arched near its inner border; its outer 
border is distinctly concave, while in Gorilla Gina 
it is prominently convex. The base of the acromion 
process is larger, and the olecranon fossa of the 
humerus is perforated. The bones of the forearm 
and hand, as well as of the shank and foot, are more 
slender, and their prominences and inequalities are 
less marked. The smaller bulk of the fore and hind 
limbs corresponds with the comparative smallness of 
the head. 

The colouring, grey and brown on the trunk, 


212 ANTHROPOID APES. i 


black on the limbs, with red patches on the head, 
and reddish in the pubic region, does not essen- 
tially differ from that which has been described 
by different authors in the case of other skins which 
have indeed been artificially restored. But the 
hide essentially differs from that of other specimens 
in the sharp division of the brown colouring of the 
belly from the grey of the bavk, by the reddish tint 
of the hair which clothes the pubic region, and also 
in the abundant growth of hair which so closely ea- 
circles the cheeks and chin. But, according to our 
authorities, the most remarkable difference consists 
in the fact that the whole of the back is covered 
with long, thick hair, while in Gorilla Gina this 
part is either bare or only covered with short hair, 
partly worn away. Hence these authors conclude 
that this species, which they assert to be new, and 
have named Gorilla Mayema, from the negro chief of 
that name, does not rest its back against a tree so 
often as the Gorilla Gina, but leads a more arboreal 
life, climbing from tree to tree.* 

Tadmit that if I were to take into account all 
the individual differences of the gorilla skulls and 
skeletons of the same sex and of about the same 
age, I should be able to produce a half-dozen or 
more species of gorillas. I have observed such 
differences in the case both of male and female 
individuals of about the same age, and have given 
an exact description of them in my osteological 
work on the gorilla to which I have so often referred. 
I cannot, however, refrain from regarding these 


* Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France, p. 1: 1877. 


ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 213 


differences as of a purely individual character. 
Much in the description by Alix and Bouvier—as, 
for instance, their remarks on the comparative 
smallness of the head, on the slenderness and 
smoothness of the limb bones—appears to me to 
point to the youthfulness of this Landana specimen. 
The unlearned may be struck by what is said of 
the small spinous processes of the upper cervical 
vertebrae in this specimen, but in the common gorilla 
the processes of the three upper vertebre are also 
small (see Fig. 17). Individual and sexual varia- 
tions in the general development of the cervical 
spines may be observed, not only in this case, but in 
the chimpanzee, and even in man. I think it very 
doubtful whether a characteristic of species can be 
founded only or chiefly on this distinction. What 
is said of the colouring of the coat of the so-called 
new species appears to me still less worthy of con- 
sideration. I have spoken above in detail of the 
many individual varieties of the colour of the hair 
in different specimens of gorillas. I have also 
observed long, thick hair, not always short, scanty, 
and worn away, on the backs of many gorillas of 
different sexes. The condition described by Alix 
and Bouvier must refer to the hides of aged and 
sickly animals, or to those younger individuals 
affected by the kind of mange which is widely 
diffused in Africa. Every gorilla delights to rub 
his back against the trunk of a tree, and leans 
against it in a contented mood, and so also does the 
chimpanzee. This is the habit of many other mam- 
mals, such as cats, lions, boars, deer, and elephants. 


214 ANTHROPOID APES. 


Man himself will sometimes adopt such an attitude. 
Without more convincing proofs that Gorilla Mayema 
Alix et Bouvier constitutes a distinct species, I should 
prefer to leave the matter in suspense. 

I frankly admit that Iam more doubtful how to 
decide the question whether we can at present 
assume that there are several or only one species of 
chimpanzees. Troglodytes niger has always been 
regarded by me as to a certain extent a typical form 
of this animal, and in the second chapter of this 
work I selected it as the subject for my general 
description. It is this type of chimpanzee which 
has usually reached Europe from the West Coast 
of Africa. The face of this animal is moderately 
prognathous ; the head, even in aged males, is round, 
the ears are large and of somewhat the form pre- 
sented in Fig. 6, the skin is of a dirty flesh-colour, 
and the hair is black. Reichenbach’s Pseudan- 
thropos (Troglodytes) leucoprymnus * is only so specified 
on account of the whitish hair which clothes its 
posterior—a character observed in all true chim- 
panzees, and therefore without specific value. 
Lainier, the keeper of the Museum at Havre, has 
had an illustration made from a damaged skin of a 
large (probably male) chimpanzee ; but we can only 
form an imperfect opinion of its general external 
appearance from this figure.t There is as little 
certainty about Gray’s Troglodytes vellerosus from 


* Die Vollstindigste Naturgeschichte der Affen, p. 191: Leipzig 
and Dresden. 

ft See Chenu, Encyclopédie d’ Historie Naturelle, Quadrumanes, 
p. 34, 


ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 215 


the Kamarum mountains.* Duvernoy’s remarks on 
Troglodytes Tchégo, which he asserts to be a new 
species, relate to an aged male specimen of which 
the form is also doubtful. 

From the materials brought home by Du Chaillu, 
Jeffries Wyman has sought to establish two new 
species of anthropoids, the Nschiego Mbouvé (Troglo- 
dytes calvus) and the Koolo-Kamba (Troglodytes 
Koolo-Kamba). I have vainly endeavoured to obtain 
a satisfactory account of these two supposed new 
species from the descriptions which are intended to 
establish them. The whole matter is unfortunately 
rendered more confused by the illustrations he sub. 
joins. That of the Nschiego Mbouvé is only taken 
from a very badly stuffed skin of a chimpanzee, 
that of the Koolo-Kamba from the skin of a female 
gorilla, But we may come to the general conclusion 
that there are, in fact, not inconsiderable, and per- 
haps even specific, variations from the ordinary type 
of chimpanzee. 

Much was said in the years 1875 and 1876 of the 
female ape Mafuca (often erroneously termed Mafoca), 
which was brought from the Loango coast and placed 
in the Zoological Gardens at Dresden. This was 
a wild, unmanageable creature, 120 cm. in height, 
reminding us in many respects of the gorilla. The 
face was prognathous; the ears were comparatively 
small, placed high on the skull, and projecting out- 
wards; the supra-orbital arch was strongly developed ; 
the end of the nose was broad; and there were rolls 


* Catalogue of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Fruit-eating Bats in the 
British Museum, Appendix, p. 127: London, 1870. 


216 ANTHROPOID APES. 


of fat on the cheeks. The creature was, moreover, 
strongly built, and the region of the hips and the 
belly were contracted, while the hands and feet 
were large and powerful. When I first saw this 


Fig. 61.—Mafuca. 


savage creature, early in September, 1875, it was 
full of vigour, and I was almost convinced that I 
saw a female gorilla, not quite adult, an opinion 
shared by such zoologists as K. Th. von Siebold and 
others, while it was vehemently opposed by Bolau 
and A. B. Meyer. At that time I made a drawing 
of its profile, which is given in Fig. 61, and which 
was taken at a moment when the animal happened 


ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS, 217 


to be resting from its wild gambols. In spite of some 
slight errors,* the illustration faithfully reproduces 
its general and quite original character, and espe- 
cially the expression of its countenance. From the 
structure of the brain Bischoff attempted to show 
that this animal was simply a chimpanzee. No 
rational explanation can be attached to this sug- 
gestion. | 

If, while Mafuca was still alive, I had examined 
the dead body of the female gorilla of which I have 
already spoken, and which was of about the same 
age, I should have been still more disposed to regard 
Mafuca as a true gorilla. The general physio- 
gnomical resemblance between these animals was 
very great. As I have mentioned in detail in my 
earlier works, the female gorilla had a high upper 
lip, and a somewhat small nose. Mafuca’s upper 
lip is undoubtedly still higher, but otherwise the 
physical correspondence between the two animals 
is very great. The hands of the female gorilla are 
still broader than those of Mafuca; and indeed, 
Brehm proposes to classify the latter animal as 
a new slender-handed species of anthropoid. The 
assumption which I have already contested in the 
earlier pages of this work, that the female type 
should be placed in the foreground in describing 
the species, is especially untenable in the case of the 


* For example, the ears are represented as somewhat too 
small. Although the growth of hair on the crown of the head 
makes them look larger, the want of proportion must be admitted. 
It might easily have been altered, but I preferred to reproduce 
the original sketch as it stood. 


218 ANTHROPOID APES. 


gorilla, in which the male character is extremely 
predominant. 

To what species, then, did Mafuca belong? A 
eross between the gorilla and the chimpanzee was 
often suggested at the time. I was myself inclined 
to take this view, and it was advocated by C. Vogt 
in his contemporary treatise on the subject, as 
well as in the magnificent work which has lately 
appeared, remarkable for the beauty of its illustra- 
tions and the genius of its style.* H. von Koppenfels 
heard much of such crossings when he was on the 
Ogowe, nor is their occurrence by any means 
impossible, and indeed they have been directly 
observed among other species of apes while in con- 
finement. Koppenfels also affirmed that he had 
shot two such cross-bred animals, which were asso- 
ciating with a troop of gorillas. The traveller 
sought to kill others of the troop, but, when creeping 
on hands and knees through the thick bushwood, he 
was constrained to retreat by the attacks of some 
stinging ants (Anomma arcens). The skins and 
skeletons of the supposed cross-breds were brought 
to the Natural History Institution in Dresden. 
A. B. Meyer observed that the traveller was mis- 
taken in these instances, and that the remains 
sent by him to Europe were undoubtedly those of 
chimpanzees.t It must be remembered that Kop- 


* Die Stéugethiere in Wort und Bild., by C. Vogt and Specht, 
p. 11: Munich, 1882. 

t Mafoca Betreffendes. Reprinted from the reports of the 
Gesellschaft fiir Natur und Hetlkunde zu Dresden, Sitzung, xxvii. 
p. 9: 1876. 


ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS, 219 


penfels was a clever hunter, and on the whole a 
good observer of nature, but that he was no zoologist, 
and may have been mistaken as to the nature of 
the animals he had shot. At the same time the 
possibility of the existence of such cross-bred 
animals cannot by any means be disputed. Meyer 
must be convinced that his assertion cannot be 
generally accepted: “Any consideration of the 
question as to cross-breeding is like fighting with 
windmills—that is, making difficulties where none 
exist.” 

If the trophies of von Koppenfels’ hunting are 
merely chimpanzees, it is, at any rate, very interesting 
to learn that these animals were found in the company 
of gorillas. We must hope that scientific travellers 
will in future feel bound to devote their special 
attention to this question. 

In the end of June, 1876, von Falkenstein, who 
was attached to Giissfeldt’s Loango Expedition, 
brought from Chinchoxo to Berlin a female chim- 
panzee, Paulina, which varied a good deal in coun- 
tenance from thechimpanzees we have commonly seen. 
The ears projected widely in a lateral direction, the 
supra-orbital arches were prominent, the nose was wide, 
the colour of the skin dark and blending into russet. 
I have seen chimpanzees, both living and dead, 
which reproduced these characteristics of Paulina 
with more or less distinctness. I have nothing to 
urge against those who wish to regard such indi 
viduals as the representatives of a special variety. 
I would only warn them against the risk of accept- 
ing as such the species entitled by Du Chaillu and 


220 ANTHROPOID APES. 


Wyman, Trolodytes Koolo-Kamba, which appears to 
be ill-established. : 

An attempt has been made, chiefly by the 
unlearned, to regard Paulina as the image of Mafuca. 
There is, however, a considerable physiognomical 
difference between the two animals. For me and 
many other naturalists Mafuca remains up to this 
time an enigma, which is slurred over by others with 
the help of a few phrases. Paulina, on the other 
hand, and animals of the same character, display 
much to remind us of the illustration given by 
Gratiolet and Alix of their Troglodytes Aubryi, 
although the drawing was taken from a specimen 
dissected by the French naturalists which had lost its 
hair through maceration in an impure preserving 
fluid. The growth or the lack of hair involves 
considerable external differences in specimens of 
these animals, yet I repeat my assertion that there 
is a resemblance between Pauliua and her fellows, 
and Aubry’s chimpanzee. 

The certain special characters presented by chim- 
panzee forms here mentioned (Paulina and Trog- 
lodytes Aubry) remind us of the bam found on the 
Niam-Niam in Central Africa, which was probably 
first discovered by A. de Malzac, and was after- 
wards more exactly described by Schweinfurth. 

In Cassell’s Natural History (i. 39) the Nschiego- 
Mbouvé (Troglodytes Tschégo Duvernoy ; Troglodytes 
calvus Du Chaillu et Wyman), is described and 
drawn by Duncan, but only in profile, from a stuffed 
specimen. In this there is much to remind us of 
the profile of Mafuca, including the very shrivelled 


ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. 221 


nose. An illustration is given in the same work of 
the anthropoid Koolo-Kamba, here given as a distinct 
species, and identified in the systematic catalogue 
as Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba, together with Troglo- 
dytes Aubry ; here we see a full-grown chimpanzee 
of the ordinary kind, to which a front view of the 
head of the Aubry chimpanzee, as it was published 
by Gratiolet and Alix, has been affixed. Honest 
research should stand aloof from such confusion. 
By Brehm, the Mafuca was given as the represen- 
tative of the species already established by Duver- 
noy, Troglodytes Tschégo or Anthropopithecus, and this 
assertion is accepted by Martin.* The latter remarks 
that this ape cannot be classified either with the 
chimpanzee or the gorilla, and gives some reasons 
for his assertions. 

In my opinion it is a difficult question to decide 
whether there are several or only oue species of 
chimpanzee. As things are at present, my convic- 
tion is strengthened that it is only possible to make 
a provisional settlement, and I am able to admit 
a certain constancy in the varieties of chimpanzees. 
First, The original representative of the species 
(Troglodytes niger, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire). This 
animal has a round head, and the supra-orbital arches 
are strongly developed in the male, more slightly in 
the female ; the countenance is not very prognathous, 
and has an angle of 70 degrees; the ears are 
from 75 to 78 mm. in height; and the whole height 
of the body varies between 1100 and 1300 mm. 


* Thierleben, ii. 80, 81. Illustrirte Naturge:chichte des Thier- 
reichs, i. 11: Leipzig, 1880. 


222 ANTHROPOID APES. 


The face, hands, and feet are of a dark reddish flesh- 
colour, or rarely of a blackish brown. or speckled 
general colour. The hair is either wholly black or 
black shot with reddish brown. Second, Another 
variety, bam or mandjaruma (Troglodytes niger 
varietas Schweinfurthit Giglioli). The head of this 
animal is somewhat long, the supra-orbital arches are 
only slightly developed, the nose is wide, and the 
upper lip rather low in comparison with the other 
variety; the ears are somewhat smaller, and the face is 
more prognathous, with an angle of 60 degrees. The 
limbs of this variety are slenderer, yet still strongly 
-developed. The skin is of a dark reddish flesh- 
colour in youth, and with the increase of physical 
development it becomes a reddish brown, dark 
brown, or blackish. The hairy coat is black, shot 
with reddish or dark brown, or sometimes of a 
reddish brown colour, tipped with tawny or yellowish 
grey, especially on the back. To this variety the 
mandjaruma belongs, of which an illustration is given 
by von Issel, and also the portrait taken from life 
of Paulina of Loango, which is given in my osteolo- 
gical work on the gorilla,* as well as T'roglodytes 
Aubryi (?), and similar animals, of which I have 
given illustrations in the Archiv. fiir Anatomie.t 
The question might now be raised whether we 
may assume that there is any distinct species of 
anthropoids intermediate between the gorilla and 
the chimpanzee. As such, we may perhaps regard 
* Der Gorilla, vi. p. 25. The inscription to this fine cut errone- 


ously gives this as a male instead of a female specimen. 
+ Series for 1876, plate vii. figs. 2, 4, 


ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS, 223 


Du Chaillu’s Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba, Duvernoy’s 
Troglodytes Tschégo, the large stuffed animals in the 
Museum at Havre, and the heads of which I have 
given illustrations in the Archiv fir Anatomie, 
plate vii. fig. 1 (1875); and in the Zeitschrift fiir 
Ethnologie, p. 121 (1876). Perhaps Mafuca and the 
ape which Livingstone found in Manyema might 
also be included.* Duvernoy’s name for the species, 
Troglodytes Tschégo, seems to me not quite suitable, 
since the West African chimpanzees in general 
are distinguished by that Latinized specific name. 
However, this scientific term may be accepted in 
default of a better, until we are enabled by the 
possession of more abundant materials to establish 
the existence of such an independent species. 

With respect to the orang the unity of species is 
also not yet ascertained. The Malays of the country 
to which they belong assert that there are different 
forms of this animal, which go by the general name of 
meias. The descriptions current among that people 
respecting these varieties are surprising. We are 
tempted to believe in the existence of diff-rent 
species, and some zoologists,. Brihl among others, 
hold that there are, at any rate, two such species. 
Wallace, who is intimately acquainted with the 
species, says nothing on this point in his work on 
the Malay Archipelago, but it seems to appear from 
his general remarks that he is disposed to recognize 
only one species of thisanimal. There are, perhaps, 
constant varieties, limited to different places, and the 


* Livingstone’s Last Journals in Central Africa from 1865 to his 
death, ii, 52-55: London, 1874, 


224 ANTHROPOID APES. 


future will throw more certain light on this question. 
It is better, therefore, to leave it in abeyance, instead 
of indulging in peremptory and unnecessary nega- 
tions. With respect to the gibbon, the question of 
variety of species has been long decided, 


CHAPTER V. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, HABITS IN A STATE OF 
NATURE, AND NATIVE NAMES OF ANTHROPOIDS. 


Tue gorilla inhabits the forests of West Africa, 
between lat. 2° N. and 5° §., and long. 6° and 16° E. 
They are most widely diffused in the northern part 
of this territory, on the rivers Ogowé, Gaboon, and 
Danger. Ford asserts that these apes are chiefly 
found in the chain of mountains which extends for 
about a hundred miles from the coast of Guinea, 
between the Camaroon and Angola, and which is 
known as the Serra do Cristal. They have also been 
found at the source of the Danger (Muni, Mooney). 
In Ford’s time, about 1851, he saw them half a day’s 
journey from the mouth of that river. In the years 
1851 and 1852 gorillas were seen in large numbers 
on the sea-coast, probably driven thither from the 
interior by a scarcity of food. At that time four or 
five specimens were obtained in the course of,a few 
months. After this they again completely dis- 
appeared from the neighbourhood of the coast, so 
that an American merchant captain offered 6000 


226 ANTHROPOID APES. 


dollars for a live specimen without being able to 
obtain it. According to H. von Koppenfels, the 
gorilla inhabits the district which lies between the 
mouth of the Muni and that of the Congo. 

According to Pechuél-Lésche, the gorilla is rare 
on the Loango coast. In this district it inhabits the 
mountainous forests or the strip of country in their 
immediate vicinity. Some years ago these apes 
were found on the Luemme and Kuilu, even down 
to the mouths of these rivers, and also in the ravines 
of the plateau of Buala; but they now only come to 
the coast at Banya, where the same authority be- 
lieves that he once heard gorillas. Neither Pechuél- 
Loésche, Falkenstein, nor Giissfeldt have ever seen 
the species in its wild state.* The specimen brought 
to Berlin by these travellers in 1876 was obtained 
by Falkenstein in October, 1875, at Ponta-Negra on 
the Loango coast, where it was presented to him 
by the Portuguese trader Laurentino Antonio dos 
Santos. This animal, which was then extremely 
young, had been brought from the Kuilu district by 
a negro, who had shot its mother.t 

In earlier accounts given by Owen, the district 
most frequented by gorillas was in the region of the 
Gaboon, which presents a pleasant variety of hill 
and dale. Here the high ground is clothed with fine, 
tall trees, while the valleys are rich in grass, with a 
scattered growth of underwood. There are a num- 
ber of trees and shrubs, bearing fruits which the 
natives find inedible, but which are greedily de- 

* Die Loango Expedition, Abth. iii. p. 248: Leipzig, 1882. 

t Ibid., Abth. ii. p. 150. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 227 


voured by gorillas. They show a special preference 
for the following fruits:—First, those of the oil 
palm (Elacis guineenis), of which they also devour 
the developed, folded leaves, called the palm-cab- 
bage; second, the grey plum tree (Parinarium 
excelsum), which bears a mealy and insipid stone- 
fruit; third, the melon tree (Carica Papaya) ; fourth, 
the pisang (Musa paradisiaca, Musa sapientum) ; 
fifth, two sorts of scitamines (Amomum granum para- 
dist s, Afzelei, Amomum malaguetta), the last of which, 
according to Lindley, produces the malaguetta 
pepper; sixth, Amomum grandiflorum; seventh, 
a tree bearing a walnut-like fruit, of which the 
gorilla cracks the shell with a stone (this is pro- 
bably one of the Sterculiacew, like the Kola-nut) ; 
eighth, another tree with which we are not yet 
botanically acquainted, bearing a cherry-like fruit. 
Du Chaillu asserts that these animals are also very 
fond of sugar-cane and the wild pine-apple. Although 
they live in places far from human habitations, yet 
they rob the cane-plantations and the rice-fields of 
the negroes in the harvest-time, and this is a fact 
confirmed by Koppenfels. Savage reports that 
gorillas also devour the bodies of animals killed in 
hunting, and even human bodies, and this does not 
sound improbable. Like most species of apes, the 
gorilla preys upon the smaller mammals, upon birds 
and their eggs, and upon reptiles. The gorillas 
which have been kept in confinement at Berlin have 
been quite omnivorous, and have displayed a special 
taste for animal food. 

In the little village of Ntondo, near the Kuilu, 


228 ANTHROPOID APES. 


Giissfeldt saw a fetish called Bunsi, constructed of 
the skulls of animals, and quite peculiar to Bakunya- 
land. It consisted of a pile of the skulls of animals 
which had been slain in hunting, and which were 
brought as an offering to the fetish by the hunter 
in order that his good luck might be maintained. 
The heap consisted for the most part of the skulls 
of antelopes, buffaloes, and wild boars, but there 
were also many skulls of gorillas. Among these 
Giissfeldt saw two fine specimens with high bony 
crests. When he inquired where gorillas were 
found and killed, the natives of Ntondo pointed to 
a neighbouring forest.* 

Gissfeldt describes the character of the forest of 
Mayombe, where gorillas are also found, somewhat 
as follows :—This forest does not correspond to our 
idea of a primeval tropical forest, and would perhaps 
perplex a South American traveller, since it is more 
like the forests of mountainous districts in Germany. 
The luxuriant growth of lianas is characteristic of 
a tropical primeval forest: they form a second 
roof of leaves above the green masses of the closely 
set trees. But in this case the parasitic vegetation 
is scanty, although not wholly absent, as the 
kautschukranke (Landolphia florida) shows, which 
was at one time very abundant, but is now nearly 
extinct. Its growth no longer obstructs the view of 
the tall and slender trees, somewhat resembling 
beeches. The underwood of our German forests is 
here chiefly supplied by the large linear leaves of 
the scitamines, of which the most common variety is 


* Die Loango Expedition, Abth. i. p. 123. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 229 


termed matombe by the natives, Ferns, or rather 
tree-ferns, are not wanting, and the ground is 
covered with dead leaves. The trees of this forest 
have been untouched by the axe, except in places 
cleared for the construction of a new village. 
Where a tree falls there it lies, encumbering, as it 
may for years, the narrow path which leads through 
the thicket. , An eternal twilight always prevails 
here, and on cloudy days it might be supposed 
that the sun was eclipsed. The atmosphere is close 
and damp, like that of a hothouse, and its weight 
is most depressing to mind and body. The dense 
stillness is rarely broken by the wailing ery of 
a bird, and no wild creature can be seen. Those 
who wander in these forests are always going up 
or down hill, since there is no level ground, and 
by paths scarcely wide enough for a white man, 
which are covered with smooth and slippery roots, 
while the feet and clothes are constantly caught by 
boughs and lianas, which also sting the face, so that 
the traveller longs for free, unimpeded motion, for 
light and air, and rejoices to see the cleared space 
on which the village of Bayoma stands, surrounded 
by palms and bananas.* In the work I have quoted 
on the Loango Expedition, a fine water-colour 
drawing, by Pechuél-Lésche, of a forest frequented 
by gorillas is reproduced, and I subjoin a copy of 
this interesting illustration (Fig. 62). 

The gorilla lives in a society consisting of male 
and female and their young of varying ages, and 
the family group inhabits the recesses of the 

* Die Loango Eupedition, p. 108, 
11 


ANTHROPOID APES. 


Fig. 62.—The home of the gorilla. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 231 


forest.* According to von Koppenfels, they frequent 
the same sleeping-place not more than three or 
four times consecutively, and usually spend the 
night wherever they happen to be when night 
comes on. Koppenfels differs from other narrators 
in the assertion that the gorilla constructs a bed for his 
night lair upon the trees. He chooses for this pur- 
pose a full-grown tree, not more than 0°30 m. in thick- 
ness, breaks and bends the branches together at a 
height of from five to.six metres from the ground, and 
covers them with the twigs he has torn off, or with 
the leaf-moss, which grows scantily in this part of 
Africa. The male animal spends the night crouching 
at the foot of the tree, against which he places his 
back, and thus protects the female and their young, 
which are in the nest above, from the nocturnal 
attacks of leopards, which are always ready to 
devour all species of apes. 

In the daytime the gorillas roam through the 
tracts of forest which surround their temporary 
sleeping-places, in order to seek for food. In walk- 
ing they place the backs of their closed fingers on 
the ground, or more rarely support themselves on 
the flat palm, while the flat soles of the feet are also 
in contact with the ground. The toes are generally 
extended, and a little separated from each other, 
but occasionally they are doubled under. Their 


* The account given by H. von Koppenfels, whose early death 
we must all deplore, is taken from his article in the Gartenlaube 
(1877, No. 25) ; from his correspondence with his family, which 
T have been allowed to see; and from a long paper addressed to 
Professor Bastian from Adalinalonga, dated March 26, 1874. 


232 ANTHROPOID APES. 


gait, as Huxley justly observes, is tottering; the 
movement of the body, which is never in an upright 
position as in man, but bent forward, rolls to some 
extent from one side to another. As their arms are 
longer than those of the chimpanzee, they do not 
reach out so much; but the gorilla also throws his 
arms forward, sets his hands upon the ground, then 
gives a half-swinging, half-springing motion to his 
body. When assuming the position for walking, 
the body is much sloped, and its great bulk is so 
balanced as to bend the arms upwards. In spite 
of his apparently clumsy and unwieldy form, the 
gorilla, like the bear, displays great bodily dexterity. 
He is a very skilful climber, and, as Koppenfels 
asserts, when ranging from tree to tree, he will 
go to their very tops. He first tries whether the 
branches will bear his weight, and if one branch 
is not strong enough, he makes use of three or four 
at once. He will also run along the branches on all 
fours, stepping warily. Koppenfels saw a full- 
grown animal, as danger approached, spring down 
from a tree which was thirty or forty feet high, 
and then hastily crash through the brushwood. All 
Huxley’s informants concur in the assertion that 
there is only one adult male attached to each group. 
As soon as the young male reaches maturity, a conflict 
for the mastery takes place, and, after his rival is 
killed or driven away, the stronger. animal becomes 
the head of the community. 

I have already spoken of the diet of the gorilla. 
Koppenfels once observed a male and female with 
two young ones when they were feeding. The head 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 235 


of the family remained at his ease, while his wife 
and children plucked fruits for him from a small 
tree which stood by, and if they were not sufficiently 
nimble, or if they took too large a share for them- 
selves, the old gorilla growled furiously and inflicted 
a box on the ear. 

The gorilla is regarded as a dreadful and very 
dangerous animal by the negroes who inhabit the 
same country, and who themselves are often deficient 
in spirit, while their tales of exaggerated horror 
serve to increase their scanty fame as hunters. And 
what even the luxuriant fancy of negroes could not 
paint as sufficiently terrible has been exaggerated 
by Du Chaillu for the benefit of his readers. We 
will not here repeat these bloodthirsty tales, of 
which Brehm justly says that they seem to have 
been devised by an indifferent romance-writer, who 
has given his pen free play.* In the letters to 
Bastian, which are in my hands, Koppenfels has 
endeavoured to modify the accounts of the alleged 
ferocity of the gorilla. This appears in the frag- 
ment of poetry given by that esteemed traveller in 
one of his letters. 

The same author writes in another place: “ As 
long as the gorilla is unmolested he does not attack 
men—and indeed, rather avoids the encounter.” 
These apes generally utter deep guttural sounds, 
sometimes protracted like kh-eh, kh-eh, sometimes 
roaring or growling. When the animal is scared by 
man, he generally takes to flight screaming, and he 
only assumes the defensive if wounded or driven 


* Illustrirtes Thierleben, i. 17: Hildburghausen, 1864. 


234 ANTHROPOID APES. 


into a corner. At such times his size, strength, and 
dexterity makes him a by no means despicable 
enemy. He sends forth a kind of howl or furious 
yelp, stands up on his hind legs like an enraged 
bear, advances with clumsy gait in this position 
and attacks his enemy. At the same time the hair 
on his head and the nape of the neck stands erect, 
his teeth are displayed, and his eyes flash with 
savage fury. He beats his massive breast with his 
fists, or fights the air with them. Koppenfels adds 
that if no further provocation is given, and his 
opponent gradually retreats before the animal’s rage 
has reached its highest point, he does not return to 
the attack. In other cases he parries the blows 
directed against him with the skill of a practised 
fighter ; as is also done by the bear, he grasps his 
opponent by the arm and crunches it, or else throws 
the man down and rends him with his terrible 
canine teeth. 

The native hunter stalks the gorilla and kills him 
with his firearm. Savage states that the hunter 
awaits the approach of his prey with levelled gun, 
and if he cannot take a sure aim he allows the 
animal to seize the barrel of the gun, and fires 
when, as is commonly the case, he tries to carry it 
to his mouth. If the weapon does not go off, the 
barrel, which is not strongly made, is crushed be- 
tween his teeth. When hunters of the Ogiwé are 
attacked by a gorilla, they will sometimes make 
a last attempt to defend themselves from the animal’s 
fury with the axe used for felling trees. Buchholz 
told me that he had seen the skin of a male gorilla 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 235 


which was injured in the region of the arms, pro- 
bably in this way. But such a duel generally ends 
in the death of the hunter. 

Pechuél-Lésche talked with two Loango hunters 
who had killed gorillas. They stated that they had 
not gone in search of the dreaded animals, but that 
they chanced to encounter them in the forest. 
Only if they met a solitary animal did they venture 
to creep close to it and shoot it, and then they 
escaped as quickly as possible in order to be safe 
from the fury of any of its companions which might 
be lingering near. After several hours they would 
return in a larger company to carry off their prey. 
In Loango the flesh of these animals was not eaten ; 
but, according to Ford and Savage, it was cooked 
by the negroes, in the Gaboon territory, and con- 
stituted one of their favourite dainties. 

Up to this time Europeans have been rarely 
successful in killing gorillas. Du Chaillu asserts 
that he has been one of the luckiest, but this 
assertion has been disputed by others. Fruitless 
attempts were made by Winwood Reade, de Com- 
piégne, Buchholz, Lenz, and de Brazza. In the 
letters quoted above from Koppenfels to Bastian, he 
mentions that he had already, up to March, 1874, 
four gorillas. In the number of the Gartenlaube shot 
which we have mentioned above, he describes some 
of his hunting adventures, and goes into details 
scarcely adapted for the readers of such a publica- 
tion. On December 24, 1874, Koppenfels, accom- 
panied by a young Galloa, was on the shores of Lake 
Eliva, observing a gorilla family, consisting of the 


236 ANTHROPOID APES, 


parents and two young ones. The female climbed 
up an iba, or wild mango tree, and shook down its 
fruits. The male went to the water’s edge to drink, 
and was then shot by Koppenfels, while the female 
and her young swiftly escaped. Another time this 
traveller was in the neighbourhood of Busu, in the 
Bakalayan country, which is on the Eliva Sanka, 
and is bounded on the south-east by the mountains 
of Aschangolo and by extensive primeval forests. 
It was here that he observed the troop of chim- 
panzees and gorillas of which we have already 
spoken, feeding on the kola nuts, of which they are 
very fond. He shot a large and a small specimen 
of the chimpanzee; and again in the Aschangolo 
mountains he shot a male gorilla, 1090 mm. in 
height. The bullet pierced the animal’s heart, and 
it sprang into the air with outstretched arms, and 
then crashed down upon its face. It dragged down 
in its fall a liana of great strength with all its dry 
and green branches. 

Adult male gorillas attain to a height varying 
between 1500 to 2000 mm., and very rarely exceed 
that height. The height of the females is about 
1500 mm. An ape of this species, examined by 
Ford, weighed 170 lb. without the viscera. The 
gorilla shot by Koppenfels in the Aschangolo moun- 
tains was more than 400 lbs. in weight. By the 
people of Mpongwe, Orungu, Kamma, Galloa, and 
Bakalay the gorilla is called Njina, Njeina, or 
Indjina, and by the people of Fan it is called 
Neguyala. On the Loango coast it is called N’Pungu 
or M’Pungu. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 237 


As I have already remarked, the chimpanzee 
occupies a much wider area than the gorilla. In 
West Africa it is found in the latitude of the Portu- 
guese territory, which ranges from Cachéu in the 
north down to the Coanza in the south. The species 
is known to exist in certain districts of north and 
south Central Africa, and its presence is surmised in 
East Afvica, to the south of Abyssinia, in the Djuba 
territory, and, as the missionary A. Nachtigall asserts, 
even in the remote district of Sofalla in the south- 
east of Africa, but I cannot pledge myself to the 
truth of this fact. 

The chimpanzee is also a denizen of forests. They 
subsist on wild fruits of various kinds, but they will 
also visit forsaken plantations, and even those which 
are still under cultivation, and in some cases it seems 
that they do not reject animal food. Pechuél-Lésche 
says that on the Loango coast they frequent the 
mountains and their vicinity. They are found in the 
district of Luemme as far as the lagoon of Tschis- 
sambo, and in those of Kuilu and Banya, as far as 
the coast. 

The chimpanzee either lives in separate families 
or in small groups of families. In many districts, 
as, for example, in the forest regions of Central 
Africa, its habits are even more arboreal than those 
of the gorilla. Elsewhere, as, for instance, on the 
south-west coast, it seems to live more upon the 
ground, The bam-chimpanzee of Niam-Niam in- 
habits the galleries, as they were called by Piaggia 
and Schweinfurth ; that is, the forest trees growing 
one above the other in stages, of which the growth is 


238 ANIHROPOID APES, 


so dense that it is difficult to get at them. Here 
the pisang plantain rises from the soil. The power- 
ful stems, thickly overgrown with wild pepper, bear 
branches from which hang long streams of bearded 
moss, and also a parasitic growth of that remark- 
able fern to which Schweinfurth gave the name of 
elephant’s ear. The large tun-shaped structures of 
the tree-termites are found on the higher branches: 
Other stems, rotten and decayed, serve as supports 
for the colossal streamers of Mucuna urens, and form 
bowers overhung with impenetrable festoons, which 
are as large as houses, in which perpetual darkness 
reigns.* 

When the chimpanzee goes on all fours, he 
generally supports himself on the backs of his closed 
fingers rather than on the palm of the hand, and he 
goes sometimes on the soles of his feet, sometimes 
on the closed toes. His gait also is weak and 
vacillating, and he can stand upright on his feet for 
a still shorter time than the gorilla. At the same 
time he seeks support for his hands, or clasps them 
above his head, which is a little thrown back, in 
order to maintain his balance. 

These animals send forth loud cries, which echo 
plaintively through the great tropical forests. 
Pechuel-Lische says that the horrible wails, the 
furious shrieks and howls, which may be heard 
morning and evening, and often in the night, make 
these creatures truly hateful to travellers. “Since 
they are really accomplished in the art of bringing 


* Schweinfurth, Im Herzen von Afrika, p. 335: New edition, 
Leipzig, 1878. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES. 239 


forth these unpleasant sounds, which may be heard 
at a great distance, and are reproduced by the echoes, 
it is impossible to estimate the number of those 
who take part in the dreary noise, but often we 
seemed to hear more thana hundred. They generally 
remain upon the ground among the dense under- 
wood and thickets of scitamine, and only climb trees 
for the sake of obtaining fruit. Their track may be 
plainly discerned on soft ground: they stop short 
wherever the amomum grows, of which they are very 
fond, and the red husks of its fruit may be seen 
seattered all around.” The same narrator observes 
that the mischievous and active sea-cat monkeys, 
which abound on the Loango, frequently provoke 
the defenceless chimpanzees by their malicious 
tricks until the tormented creatures cause the forest 
to echo with their discordant cries. 

These animals wander about, always in search of 
fresh feeding-grounds. They also construct nests 
and, as Koppenfels states, the male passes the night 
below the nest of his family, which is placed on 
a forked branch. Du Chaillu asserts that the 
Nschiego-Mbouvé also builds a pent-house. An 
illustration of this structure, which is only mode- 
rately successful, and has undoubtedly been em- 
bellished in London, is given by him. Koppenfels 
believes that the so-called pent-house is only the 
family nest, under which the male places himself; 
while Reichenfels thinks it possible that some 
parasitic growth, perhaps a Loranthus, gave rise to 
the belief that such a pent-house is erected. 

When chimpanzees are provoked they strike the 


240 ANTHROPOID APES. 


ground with their hands, but they do not, as the 
gorilla does, beat their breasts with the fist. They 
generally take to flight at the sight of men, but if 
driven to extremity, or wounded, they defend them- 
selves with their hands and teeth. The direct 
conflict with a full-grown chimpanzee demands, in 
order to obtain the mastery over him, all the 
strength and presence of mind of a strong and 
courageous man. Ishall always remember the large 
female animal at Hamburg, which was able to stand 
up against a powerful man. Great daring was 
required to control the fury of Mafuca. The Soko 
also, which Livingstone found in Manyema, to the 
west of Lake Tanganyika, bravely defended itself, 
when attacked. 

The native hunters shoot chimpanzees with fire- 
arms or arrows, and also kill them with javelins. 
The Niam-Niam tribe go in hunting-parties of . 
twenty or thirty men, to track the bam in the wood- 
land galleries so closely interwoven by the liana, and 
when they have thrown nets over these, they kill 
the animals with lances. Their flesh is eaten in 
different parts of Africa, and their skulls sometimes 
serve for fetishes. In a Niam-Niam village, by the 
stream Diamwonu, Schweinfurth saw the skulls of 
men, chimpanzees, sea-cat monkeys, baboons, ante- 
lopes, wild boars, etc., hung on the stump of a tree. 

In the Gaboon district,as we have already said, 
the chimpanzee is called Nschégo, Nschiego, 
Ndjéko, and the same names serve for the people 
of Mpongwe, Galloa, Kamma, and Orungu. By 
the people of Aschira and Malimba the animal is 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 241 


called Kulu. The natives of Niam-Niam call the 
chimpanzee Ranja or Mandjaruma. The traders 
who speak Arabic adopt the name Bam or M’Bam. 

The orang-utan is found in the large Asiatic 
islands of Borneo and Sumatra, more frequently in 
the former island. It is particularly common a few 
days’ journey to the west of Sungi-Kapajan, on the 
river Sampiet, in Kotaringin, and in other remote 
districts on the southern and western coasts.* The 
Dyaks of Long-Wai told the traveller Bock that the 
orang was also found further to the north, and at 
Teweh, as well as in Dusem, to the west of Kutai.f 
Wallace states that this animal is widely diffused 
in Borneo, inhabiting many parts of the south-west, 
south-east, north-east, and north-west coasts, but that 
it is restricted to the low-lying marshy forests. It 
seems at first sight inexplicable that this ape should 
be unknown in Sarawak, while it abounds in Sambas 
on the west, and in Sadong on the east, but a closer 
acquaintance with the habits and mode of life of 
the orang enables us to discern sufficient grounds 
for the apparent anomaly in the physical conditions 
of Sarawak. In Sadong, where Wallace observed 
the orang, he only found it in low marshy districts 
which were at the same time covered with pri- 
meval forests. Many isolated hills rise from these 
marshes, upon which the Dyaks have settled, and 
have planted them with fruit trees. These are a 


* Duirentuin: Illustrated description of the mammals and 
birds kept in the Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam. Published 
in the Dutch language about 1862. i 

+ Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo, etc., p. 31. 


242 ANTHROPOID APES, 


great attraction to the orang, which devours the 
unripe fruits, and then retires again to the marsh. 
He cannot live on high and dry ground. Thus, for 
example, he comes in troops into the low parts of 
the Sadong valley ; but on reaching the limits where 
the ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible, and the 
ground, though flat, is dry, the orang is no longer 
found. The lower part of the Sadong valley is 
indeed marshy, but it is not covered throughout 
with a growth of tall trees, only for the most part 
with the Nipa palm ; and near the town of Sarawak, 
the country becomes dry and hilly, interspersed 
with scattered tracts of primeval forest, and with 
jungle which was formerly cultivated by the Malays 
and Dyaks. 

The orang is more rare in Sumatra than in Borneo, 
and in the former island is chiefly found in the 
north-eastern districts of Siak and Atjin. Rosenberg 
states that the orang only frequents the flat, marshy 
forests on the coast between Tapanoli and Singkel, 
living in thick woods which, on account of their 
impenetrability, are seldom trodden by the foot of 
man. : 

The chimpanzee also frequents the marshy forests 
which are not too thickly overgrown, while the 
gorilla prefers such tablelands as are not wholly 
devoid of water. : 

Wallace declares that a large area of unbroken 
and tolerably high primeval forest is necessary for 
the well-being of the orang. Such forests are like 
open ground to them, since they can move to and 
fro in every direction, with the same ease that the 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 243 


Indians cross the prairie and the Arabs the desert ; 
they go from the top of one tree to the other with- 
out ever touching the ground. Those tracts of country 
which stand high and dry, being more frequented by 
men, and more often traversed by clearings, and 
subsequently covered with a low-growing jungle, 
are unsuitable to the motions characteristic of this 
animal. He is, in these tracts, more exposed to 
danger, and more frequently constrained to descend 
upon the ground. It is also probable that in the dis- 
trict frequented by orangs there is a greater variety 
of fruits, since the low hills, which stand like islands 
in the marshy plain, serve as gardens or plantations 
in which the trees of the hill country flourish. 

Wallace observes that it is strange and interest- 
ing to watch an orang passing at his ease through 
the forest. He goes with circumspection along one 
of the larger branches in a half-upright position, 
which is rendered necessary by the great length of 
his arms and the shortness of his legs. He seems 
always to choose such trees as have their branches 
interwoven with those which surround them, and 
when these are within reach he extends his long 
arms, seizes the boughs in question with both hands, 
as if to try their strength, then swings himself care- 
fully on to the next branch, and goes on as before. 
The woodcut we subjoin, taken from a photograph 
by Hermes, in the Berlin Aquarium, may help to 
explain this ape’s mode of climbing * (Fig. 63). 

* This illustration confirms the remark already made, that the 


posterior of this ape somewhat resembles the rump ofa bird in 
structure. 


244 ANTHROPOID APES. 


As Wallace further remarks, the orang never 
leaps or springs, seems to be in no haste, and yet 


oe I. & a 
Ar 
A. hs 


Fig. 63.—Climbing orang-utan, seen from bebinu. 


makes his way through the forest almost as fast as 
a man can run on the ground below. His long, 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 245 


powerful arms are of the greatest use, enabling him 
to climb the highest trees with ease, to seize the 
fruits and young leaves from branches which would 
not bear his weight, and to collect the young leaves 
and boughs with which he forms his nest. This 
structure, which serves for his nocturnal refuge, is 
generally placed on some low, small tree, which 
stands only from twenty to fifty feet from the 
ground, probably because such a situation is warmer 
and less exposed to the wind. It is said that the 
orang makes a fresh layer for himself every night, 
but Wallace thinks this improbable, since, in this 
case, the deserted nest would be more frequently 
found ; this author saw some such nests in the neigh- 
bourhood of the coal mines of Simunjon, but since 
many orangs must have been there every day, in 
the course of a year their forsaken layers would be 
very numerous. The Dyaks say that when the 
orang is wet he covers himself with pandanus-leaves 
or large ferns, and this has perhaps led to the 
belief that he builds himself a hut in the trees. 
The orang only leaves his layer when the sun is 
tolerably high, and the dew has dried off the leaves. 
He feeds throughout the middle of the day, but 
seldom returns two days running to the same tree. 
These animals seem to be much afraid of man. 
Wallace never saw two full-grown specimens together, 
but both male and female are often accompanied by 
their half-grown young, and three or four young 
animals may be seen going about together without 
their parents. The orang generally lives on fruit, 
but occasionally also on leaves, buds, and young 


246 ANTHROPOID APES. 


shoots, as, for instance, on the bamboo. They are 
particularly fond of the durian, of which the smell 
is so offensive and the taste so good (Durio 
zibethinus). They destroy much more than they 
consume, and leave many fragments below the 
trees on which they have been feeding. I do not 
know whether orangs, as well as gorillas and chim- 
panzees, display any taste for carnivorous food. 
Huxley, who has collected much information about 
anthropoids which is not accessible to others, states 
that it is not known whether the orang destroys 
living animals. 

The same naturalist terms the orang’s gait on all 
fours laborious and unsteady. If chased, he runs 
faster than a man, but is soon overtaken. The very 
long arms, which are only slightly bent in running, 
raise the body in a remarkable way, so that the 
orang almost assumes the position of a very old 
man, bowed by age, who supports himself with a 
stick. When walking, this ape places the closed 
fingers, or rarely the open palm, of the hands upon 
the ground. The toes of the feet are also curved 
inwards, so that the outer edge of the foot is turned 
downwards. More rarely the toes are completely 
closed, or the whole of the sole of the foot serves as 
the support. The use of the outer edge of the foot 
in walking, as Huxley justly observes, is such as to 
bring the heel more upon the ground, while the 
curved toes partly touch the ground with the 
upper surface of their first phalanges, and the surface 
of the outermost toes of each foot rest altogether 
on the ground. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 247 


Wallace says that the orang seldom comes down 
upon the ground, and indeed only when he is driven 
by hunger to seek for the juicy young shoots on the 
banks of rivers, or when in very dry weather he goes 
down to the water, of which he generally finds a 
sufficient supply in the hollow of leaves. This 
traveller on only one occasion saw two half-grown 
orangs on the ground in a dry hole at the foot of 
the Simunjon hills. They were at play together, 
standing upright and alternately seizing each other 
by the arms. This observer also considers that the 
orang is only able to stand upright when he 
has some support for his hands, or when he is 
attacked. 

Like other anthropoids in a state of nature, when 
the orang drinks, he crouches down to the water’s 
edge and sucks in the liquid with his lips. Occa- 
sionally, also, he draws water in the palm of his hand, 
and gulps or licks it off; at any rate, he does this 
when in captivity. In an old number of the Penny 
Magazine there is a woodcut of an orang which is 
very true to nature, in which he is represented as 
squatting down by the water, washing his hands, 
and this is really his habit. 

Miller and Schlegel * state that the adult males 
live alone except during the pairing season. Aged 
females and young males are often seen together in 
parties of two or three, and the mothers generally 
keep their young with them. Pregnant females 
generally live apart, and continue to do so for a 


* Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neder- 
landsche overzeesche Bezittingen: Leiden, 1840-45. 


248 ANTHROPOID APES. 


good while after the birth has taken place. The 
young, which are slow in coming to maturity, live 
long under the protection of their mother, who, 
when she is climbing, carries her little ones in her 
bosom, while they cling to her long, shaggy hair. 
It is not yet ascertained at what age the orang 
becomes capable of propagating his species, nor how 
long the females continue to bring forth young. 
This animal is slow, phlegmatic, and has none of 
the agility of the chimpanzee, nor even of the 
gibbon. Hunger alone seems to prompt his actions, 
and when appetite is appeased the animal relapses 
into repose. In sitting, the back is so bent, and the 
head so depressed, that the orang’s eyes are directed 
downwards to the earth. Sometimes he holds on 
with his hands to the higher branches, but generally 
his arms fall idly by his sides. In such positions 
the orang will remain for hours in his place, almost 
motionless, and only occasionally sending forth a 
note of his deep, gruff voice. By day he is ac- 
customed to go from one tree-top to another, and he 
only comes down tothe ground at night. When 
anything occurs to scare him, he conceals himself 
in the underwood. When not hunted, he remains 
long in one place, and indeed, for several days to- 
gether on the same tree. He seldom passes the 
night on a high tree, which he finds too cold and 
windy, and when night approaches he scrambles 
down to the lower and more sheltered parts, or to 
the top of some low, leafy tree, such as the Nibong 
palm, the pandanus, or the parasitic orchids which 
are characteristic of the primeval forests of Borneo. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 249 


He constructs his nest out of small branches and 
leaves, laid crosswise, and lined with fronds, or with 
the leaves of orchids, Pandanus fuscicularis, Nipa 
fruticans, ete. The nests observed by Miller were 
some of them still quite fresh, placed at a height of 
from ten to fifteen feet from the ground, and were 
from two to three feet in diameter. S me of them 
had a lining of pandanus leaves several inches thick. 
In others the branches intertwined for a foundation 
were united in a common centre, forming a uniform 
surface, 

The Dyaks say that the orang generally leaves 
his lair about nine a.m., and repairs fo it again about 
five p.m., or a little later, when it is growing dusk. 
He sometimes lies on his back, or, by way of change, 
on his side, drawing his legs up to his body, and 
supporting his head on his hand. When the night 
is cold, windy, or rainy, he covers his body, and 
especially his head, with pandanus or nipa leaves, 
or with: fronds of fern. 

Although the orang lives in the daytime on the 
branches of large trees, he seldom crouches on a 
thick bough, as other apes, and especially the 
gibbon, are in the habit of doing. He keeps rather to 
the slender, leafy branches, so that he really reaches 
the tree-top. He has not the sessor-callosities found 
on other apes, including the gibbon, and the hips 
are not so wide and prominent as in those species 
provided with callosities. 

The orang is a slow and deliberate climber. He 
is particularly careful about his feet, and seems 
much more sensitive to any injury to them than is 


250 ANTHROPOID APES. 


the case with other apes. In climbing he alter- 
nately uses one hand and one foot, or else, as soon 
as he has taken a firm hold with his hands, he draws 
up both feet together. In his passage from one 
tree to another, he always looks out for a place 
where two branches come close together, or inter- 
twine. Even when hotly pursued, he displays 
wonderful caution, trying the strength of the 
branches, and pressing them down by the weight of 
his body, so as to make a bridge from tree to tree. 
On this point the accounts of the Dutch naturalists 
essentially agree with those of Wallace. 

There is an eager search for these apes in their 
native place. Bock states the Malays of Samarinda, 
in the south-east of Borneo, capture them near the 
small brooks and streams which flow into the 
Mahakkam close to that town. These animals come 
down to the river-bank in the early morning and 
return in the course of the day to the thicket. 
When the natives take an orang alive, they sell him 
for three dollars to the Chinese, who at first feed 
the animal on fruit, and afterwards on rice, but are 
never able to keep him alive for any time in 
captivity.* 

Although, in the ordinary course of his existence, 
the orang shows himself to be melancholy, slothful, 
and indifferent, yet in moments of danger he becomes 
angry and able to defend himself. When pursued, 
he is said to pelt his aggressors with broken branches, 
and the thick, thorny outer husks of the durian fruit. 
This is the more probable since the Tscheladas 

* Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo, p. 31. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 251 


(Cynocephalus Gelada), the Hamadryas (Cynocephalus 
Hamadryas), and other baboons are, in the habit of 
hurling branches, stones, and hardened clods of 
earth with great adroitness at those who attack 
them. In a hand-to-hand fight, the orang seizes the 
arm of his opponent, biting and scratching it when- 
ever he can get at it. Wallace says that no wild 
animal ventures to fight with these powerful crea- 
tures, and that they can even obtain the mastery 
over crocodiles and gigantic snakes. 

The name orang-utan is derived from the words 
orang, man, and utan (belonging to woods), and is 
therefore merely wood-man. It is an error to write 
orang-utang, which, according to Von Martens, 
signifies an indebted man.* The Malay name, meias, 
is often used, and they are distinguished as meias- 
pappan or zino, meias-kassu, and meias-rambi. Ac- 
cording to Rosenberg, the orang is called mawas 
in Sumatra, and Bock says that the Dyaks of Dusun 
call it kéu. 

The gibbon in all its movements, and especially 
in those of its long arms, has a very singular 
appearance. In the second chapter of this work I 
have already described the geographical distribution 
and grouping of the species of these remarkable 
animals, Although they occasionally come down 
upon the ground, they are for the most part arboreal 
in their habits. They prefer the tropical forests of 
high and even of mountainous districts to any others. 
Many find shelter in the bamboo thickets, especially 


* Die Preussiche Expedition nach Ostasien. Zoologische Abtheilung, 
vol. i, p. 249: Berlin, 1876. 


252 ANTHROPOID APES, 


in those formed by the gigantic stems of Bambusa 
macroculmis and Bambusa gigantea. 

The siamang, properly Si-Amang, since Rosenberg 
asserts that the first syllable is merely the article, 
lives gregariously in Sumatra, and possibly in 
Malacea. Martens saw one of these animals in 
Sumatra, swinging himself from tree to tree, right 
across the path, about fifty feet in front of him. 
Diard states that a powerful old male acts as leader 
to each troop. They raise a fearful clamour at sun- 
rise, and keep quiet during the day, always on the 
watch, and scampering off at the slightest noise. 
They find it easy to get away on trees, but, accord- 
ing to some accounts, when surprised upon the 
ground, they show no agility, and are readily 
captured. Rosenberg says that in Sumatra the 
siamang and unko inhabit mountainous forests 
3000 ft. above the sea, keeping to the trees which 
grow on the mountain-side, and rarely descending 
to the ground. At the slightest sign of danger 
they hasten down the mountain with speed which 
rivals the flight of birds, in order in a few moments 
to disappear in the dark ravines. In the forests 
which partly enclose Tobing, as well as on the 
mountains of Barissa, the siamang is notrare. Bock 
says that in the recesses of the Sumatran forests, 
this animal subsists chiefly on the leaves of a plant 
called Daun stemantung. This ape makes a horrible 
roaring noise.* When a young one is wounded, its 
mother turns in a threatening manner towards the 
aggressor, yet without being able to do him any 

* Unter der Kannibalen auf Borneo, p. 327. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 253 


serious injury. ‘The mothers seem to act with great 
tenderness towards their young, taking them down 
to the water to wash and dry them, etc. Diard affirms 
that before they are able to run alone the young 
animals are always carried by the parent of the 
same sex, the male by the father, the female by the 
mother. The siamang must fall an easy prey to 
tigers and panthers (Felis macroscelis). The species 
is considered by the natives to be slothful and 
unintelligent; and Bock adds that, although the 
Malays are skilled in the care of animals, they are 
unable to keep these stupid and slothful apes alive 
in captivity for any length of time.* 

Harlan states that the hulock is found on the 
Garrau mountains, near Gulpara, in Assam. These 
apes prefer the adjoining hilly ground to the 
mountains themselves, which are several hundred 
feet higher, and exposed to the winds. Their 
favourite food is a fruit called propul, which is very 
abundant in this district. A traveller named Owen 
encountered troops of these animals, from 100 to 
150 together, near the Naga and the Abors in the 
wooded hills to the east of Assam. The noise they 
made was deafening. On one occasion, when Owen 
crossed their path, he was threatened by them, and 
pursued with angry gestures and piercing howls. 
They had also attacked a native of the district. 
Snakes of considerable size (Python reticulatus) 
were torn to pieces by them. 

The wauwau, or, as Martens calls it, the uwa-uwa, 

* Sir Stamford Raffles saw a perfectly white specimen of this 
species (Transactions of the Linnean Society, xiii. 241). 

12 


254 ANTHROPOID APES. 


appears to live more commonly in pairs than in 
troops. We learn from Duvaucel that these animals 
move through the trees with great swiftness, grasp- 
ing the slenderest and most flexible branches. They 
swing two or three times to and fro, and then spring 
with outstretched arms so that the flat surface of 
the body resists the air like a parachute, and in this 
way they can pass through spaces of forty feet, and 
go on for hours without fatigue. 

Gibbons are generally more capable than other 
anthropoids of walking upright. Some species, 
such as the lar, the white-handed, and the slender 
gibbon, display special dexterity and endurance in 
maintaining this position. They press the flat soles 
of their feet upon the ground, turn out their knees 
and toes, hold their bodies fairly erect, draw the 
shoulders together, and place their half-bent arms 
by their sides, with the slender hands hanging 
slackly down. Others walk with their raised arms 
crossed above the head. When a gibbon is walking 
on perfectly flat ground, he sways his arms to 
and fro like balancing poles. On irregular ground 
they seize any projection in the way with their out- 
stretched arms, and, holding on to it, swing the 
body strongly forwards. In this way they make 
better progress over wide tracks of country, since 
every such effort enables them to pass more readily 
over difficult ground. When in great haste, they 
go upon all fours without closing either fingers 
or toes. In repose, these animals take a sitting 
position upon their posteriors, cross their long arms 
and stare at whatever is before them with an air 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, AND NATIVE NAMES, 255 


of indifference. When seated on the branches of 
trees, they lay hold of the higher branches above 
them for the sake of security (Fig. 14). In this 
position some gibbons (Hylobates lar, Hulock, Albi- 
manus) have recently been photographed in the 
Zoological Gardens, London. Although they are for 
the most part content with a vegetable diet, gibbons 
sometimes eat animal food, such as lizards; and 
Bennet saw a siamang seize and devour one of these 
animals whole. I do not at this moment remember 
Huxley’s authority for the statement that gibbons, 
when they drink, dip the hand in water and lick it 
off, but I have myself seen this done by a captive 
animal. They sleep in a sitting position without 
building nests: like other anthropoids, they digest 
their food quickly. 

In the case of gibbons, as of anthropoids generally, 
the length of the period of gestation is still a matter 
of uncertainty. The young are of slow develop- 
ment, and are not fully mature before their four- 
teenth or fifteenth year. Neither is the duration 
of their lives accurately known, since observations 
made on captive specimens only lead to vague con- 
clusions. If we observe the processes of osseous 
development in the skeletons of aged specimens of 
gorillas in order to make an approximate estimate, 
we may infer that the duration of the life of anthro- 
poids, at any rate in their larger forms, hardly falls 
short of the average length of human life. But up 
to this time the question remains undecided. 

These creatures do not appear to be free from 
morbid conditions in the wild life which is in con- 


256 ANTHROPOID APES. 


formity with their nature. In addition to the 
injuries to the hide and skeleton which may often 
be observed, and which have been caused by the 
weapons of man, or by the teeth and claws of their 
own kind, there are often traces, especially on the 
skulls of chimpanzees, of the decay of teeth and 
maxillary necrosis, as well as of curvatures, ex- 
crescences, and united fractures of other parts of the 
bony structure. 

This brief description is enough to show that 
anthropoids in their free life develop an intelligence 
which sets them high above the other mammals. 
They do not, however, display the keenness of scent 
and quickness of sight which distinguish some 
animals of a lower order, such as canine beasts 
of prey and ruminants manifest in many different 
ways. The structure of their nests is rude in com- 
parison with that of some other mammals—as, for 
example, of rodents. But we must not forget that 
several of the lower races of men, such as the 
degraded Bedja, the Obongo, the Fuegians, many 
aborigines of the Brazilian forests, and the Australian 
blacks, scarcely rise abuve the inartificial structure 
of an anthropoid’s nest in the construction of their 
huts. 


CHAPTER VI. 
LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 


THE accounts given by the earliest observers of 
gorillas would lead us to expect that the attempt 
to tame even young apes of this species must be 
fruitless. Du Chaillu tells us that he obtained a 
young male gorilla, a creature of from two to three 
years old, which was quite as furious and unmanage- 
able as any adult specimen could have been. The 
negroes of the district between the Rembo and 
Cape Santa Catharina had surprised the mother 
and her young one in the forest, and after killing 
the former, they succeeded, with great difficulty, in 
capturing the latter by throwing a cloth over his 
head. By means of a wooden slave-fork, fixed upon 
its neck, the animal was transported to the village 
in which Du Chaillu was staying at the time. 
Young as he was, the gorilla displayed extra- 
ordinary strength, and after he had been success- 
fully fastened into his cage, he contrived to attack 
his new master again, tearing his trousers, and then 
retreating sullenly into a corner. He would only 


258 ANTHROPOID APES. 


eat the wild berries and fruits collected for him in 
the forest, and also the soft parts of pine-apple 
leaves. He escaped from his cage, and was only 
recaptured, after many fruitless endeavours, by 
throwing a net over him. The traveller adds that 
he had never seen so furious a creature as this 
gorilla. He flew at every one who came near him, 
bit the bamboo lattice-work of his cage, and showed, 
on every possible occasion, that he was of a tho- 
roughly malicious and unkindly nature. He broke 
loose a second time, and was again captured, and at 
the end of ten days he died suddenly. 

Somewhat later Du Chaillu obtained a young 
female gorilla, which clung affectionately to its 
mother’s dead body, so that all the spectators were 
affected by its grief. The creature was too young 
to be fed on anything but milk, and since this was 
unattainable, it died three days after its capture. 

Reade, Lenz, and Buchholz were more fortunate 
in their experience with the gorillas captured by 
them, and Lenz wrote to me as follows about one 
of these animals :—“On my return to the Gaboon 
from a journey to Okanda, I was attacked by a some- 
what serious fever which hung about me for a long 
while. A living gorilla, which was brought to the 
German factory on the Gaboon, was some compen- 
sation to me for this involuntary idleness. The 
creature came from Kamma (Fernand Vaz), the 
place from which Du Chaillu also obtained his 
specimens, and was captured out of a troop of eight 
animals, A small dog, which had been somewhat 
injured by an old gorilla, afterwards killed, pre- 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 259 


vented the young one from escaping until a negro 
came up, seized it by the neck, and got another 
man to bind its hands. In this way the gorilla was 
conveyed to the basket-factory of the house, and 
there, as is unfortunately done in most cases, the 
two large canine teeth were filed off for fear of his 
using them to bite his captors. 

“ This gorilla is a young, male specimen, probably 
two years old, and has reconciled himself to cap- 
tivity and to intercourse with men with no great 
difficulty. A long, slender iron chain is fastened 
round his neck, which gives him plenty of room to 
move about; but for the greater part of the day 
he sits in a cask, and makes himself very comfort- 
able in the straw. He is very susceptible to cold, 
wind, and rain, and a thick sail-cloth is wrapped 
round the cask at night. He generally adopts a 
squatting position, with his arms folded across his 
breast, and he is always observant of surrounding 
objects. He always seats himself so as to have 
nothing at his back, but to keep his enemies before 
him. When asleep, he stretches himself at full 
length on his back or side, using one hand as a kind 
of pillow; and he never sleeps like other apes, in a 
squatting position, He goes upon all-fours with 
the soles of his hindhands on the ground, while 
the forehands are closed, so that he goes upon the 
knuckles, and he has the lateral gait characteristic 
of the species, At this moment he suffers terribly 
from the so-called dissous or sand-fly ; both his fore- 
hands are full of blisters, which contain the eggs of 
this annoying little insect. 


260 ANTHROPOID APES. 


“In any attempt to transport the gorilla, the ques- 
tion of food is necessarily the most important. We 
have already offered him rice, bread, milk, etc., such 
things as may be obtained on board ship, as well as 
in Europe, but with indifferent success. He has 
occasionally eaten some bread, and has taken ship’s 
biscuit more readily, and once he ate some rice, 
but for the most part he does not touch it. His 
favourite food is a red fruit, very common here, of 
which he eats the inner kernel; he is likewise fond 
of bananas and oranges, and above all, of sugar- 
cane, which he takes from my hand with evident 
pleasure, and chews. He will also take a glass of 
water from my hand, carry it steadily to his mouth, 
and drink it up. Only on rare occasions, when he 
was much excited, I have heard him utter a growl- 
ing noise; generally he is quite dumb.” This 
animal died on the voyage to Europe, and its body, 
preserved. in rum by Pansch and Bolau, was used by 
me in some of the researches of which I have given 
an account. 

Falkenstein gives an attractive description of the 
gorilla represented in Figs. 3, 4, during the first 
months of his captivity : “When this animal reached 
the station (Chinxoxo, in Loango) it was our first 
care to procure all the forest fruits within reach, 
as well as a she-goat, in order to restore the young 
anthropoid’s failing strength. It can easily be sup- 
posed that we watched his attempts to eat with 
great interest, and were very much relieved when 
he not only readily drank milk, but ate various 
fruits with evident increase of appetite, and es- 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 261 


pecially those of Anona senegalensis, which are of 
about the size of a walnut, with a rough husk, and 
grow in the savanvahs. In spite of this, however, 
he remained for a long while so weak that he would 
fall asleep while eating, and he passed great part of 
the day crouching asleep in a corner. He gradually 
became accustomed to cultivated fruits, such as 
bananas, guavas, oranges, and mangoes, and as he 
became stronger, and was more often present at our 
meals, he began to demand for himself whatever 
he saw us eating. Since he was thus gradually 
accustomed to eat all kinds of food, the likelihood 
of transporting him successfully to Europe was 
increased,” 

This is perhaps the only way in which other 
and possibly older specimens can be rendered fit to 
endure the passage to Europe. Every attempt to 
embark them immediately after their capture, with- 
out previously weaning them from their old modes 
of life, and adapting them slowly and systematically 
to their altered conditions, has invariably resulted, 
sooner or later, in sickness and death. Falkenstein 
also recommends, relying on the experience he has 
had of apes in a state of nature, that this species 
should be supplied with some form of animal food. 
He gives this further account of the captive 
gorilla :— 

“In the course of a few weeks he became so accus- 
tomed to his surroundings, and to the people whom 
he knew, that he was allowed to run about at 
liberty, without fear that he would make any at- 
tempt to escape. He was never chained, nor con- 


262 ANTHROPOID APES, 


fined to a cage, and was watched only in the way 
that little children are watched when they are at 
play. He was so conscious of his own helplessness 
that he clung to human companionship, and dis- 
played in this manner a wonderful dependence and 
trustfulness. He showed no trace of mischievous, 
malicious, or savage qualities, but was sometimes 
self-willed. He expressed the ideas which occurred 
to him by different sounds, one of which was the 
characteristic tone of importunate petition, while 
others expressed fright or horror, and in rare in- 
stances a sullen and defiant growl might be 
heard. 

“In his moods of exuberant satisfaction and 
simple pleasure, he might be seen to rub his breast 
with both fists, while raising himself on his hind 
legs. Moreover, he often expressed his feelings 
after quite a human fashion, by clapping his hands 
together, an action which no one had taught him; 
and he executed such wild dances, sometimes over- 
balancing himself, reeling to and fro, and whirling 
round, that we were often disposed to think that 
he must be drunk. Yet he was only drunk with 
pleasure, and this impelled him to display his 
strength in the wildest gambols. 

“ His dexterity in eating was particularly remark- 
able. If any of the other apes chanced to enter 
his chamber nothing was safe from them; they 
snatched greedily at everything, only to throw it 
away with a certain aversion, or carelessly to let 
it drop. The gorilla behaved quite differently: he 
took up every cup or glass with instinctive care, 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 263 


clasped the vessel with both hands, and set it down 
again so softly and carefully that I cannot remember 
his breaking a single article of our household goods. 
Yet we never taught the creature the use of our 
vessels and other manufactured articles, since we 
wished to bring him to Europe, as far as possible in 
a state of nature. His behaviour at meal-times was 
quiet and mannerly; he only took as much as he 
could hold with his thumb, fore, and middle finger, 
and looked on with indifference when any of the 
different forms of food heaped up before him were 
taken away. If, however, nothing was given him, 
he growled impatiently, looked narrowly at all the 
dishes from his place at table, and accompanied 
every plate carried off by the negro boys with an 
angry snarl or a short, resentful cough, and some- 
times he sought to seize the arm of the passer-by 
in order to express his displeasure more plainly by 
a bite or a blow. In another minute he would play 
with the negroes as with his fellows,,and this dis- 
tinguishes him altogether from other apes, and 
especially from baboons, who appear to feel an in- 
stinctive hatred against many of the black race, and 
take a peculiar pleasure in displaying their animosity 
against them. 

“ He drank by suction, stooping over the vessel 
without even putting his hands into it or upsetting 
it, and in the case of smaller vessels, he carried them 
to his mouth. He was a skilful climber, but some- 
times his high spirits made him careless, and he 
once fell to the ground from a tree, which was 
fortunately not very high. His cleanliness was 


264 ANTHROPOID APES. 


remarkable, for if by accident he touched a spider’s 
web, or rubbish of any kind, he sought to brush it 
off with absurd horror, or held out his hands to have 
it done for him. There was no offensive smell about 
him. It was his favourite amusement to play and 
paddle about in the water, nor did the fact that he 
had just taken a bath prevent him from amusing 
himself by rolling in the sand with other apes 
immediately afterwards. His good-humour and 
shyness, or rather roguishness, deserves special men- 
tion as his strongest characteristic. When he was 
chastised, as it was necessary to do at first, he never 
resented the punishment, but came up with a be- 
seeching air, clinging to my feet, and looking up 
with an expressive air which disarmed all dis- 
pleasure. When he was anxious to obtain anything, 
no child could have expressed its wishes in a more 
urgent and caressing manner. If in spite of this he 
did not obtain what he wanted, he had recourse to 
cunning, and looked anxiously about to see if he was 
watched. It was just in these cases, when he ob- 
stinately pursued a fixed idea, that it was impossible 
not to recognize a deliberate plan and careful calcu- 
lation. If, for example, he was not allowed to leave 
the room, or, again, was not allowed to come in, he 
would, after several attempts to get his own way 
had been baffled, apparently submit to his fate and 
lie down near the door in question with assumed 
indifference. But he soon raised his head in order 
to ascertain whether fortune was on his‘side, edging 
himself gradually nearer and nearer, and then, look- 
ing carefully round, he twisted himself about until 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 265 


he reached the threshold; then he got up, peered 
cautiously round, and with one bound galloped ofi, 
so quickly that it was difficult to follow him. 

“He pursued his object with equal pertinacity 
when he felt a desire for the sugar or fruit which 
was kept in a cupboard in the eating-room ; he 
would suddenly leave off playing and go in an 
opposite direction, only altering his course when he 
believed that he was no longer observed. He then 
went straight to the room and cupboard, opened it, 
and made a quick and dexterous snatch at the sugar- 
box or fruit-basket, sometimes closing the cupboard 
doors behind him before beginning to enjoy his 
plunder, or, if he was discovered, he would escape 
with it, and his whole behaviour made it clear that 
he was conscious of transgressing into forbidden 
paths. He took a special, and what might be called 
a childish, pleasure in making a noise by beating on 
hollow articles, and he seldom omitted an oppor- 
tunity of drumming on casks, dishes, or tin trays, 
whenever he passed by them—a noisy amusement to 
which he was much addicted during our homeward 
voyage on board the steam-vessel, in which he was 
at liberty to roam about. He very much disliked 
strange noises. Thunder, the rain falling on the 
skylight, and especially the long-drawn note of a 
pipe or trumpet threw him into such agitation as to 
cause a sudden affection of the digestive organs, and 
it became expedient to keep him at a distance. 
When he was slightly indisposed, we made use of 
this kind of music with results as successful as if we 
had administered purgative medicine.” 


266 ANTHROPOID APES. 


My personal observations enable me to add but 
little to this excellent and exhaustive account. It 
is well known that this ape throve in the Berlin 
Aquarium. His skin, especially on the extremities, 
was at first covered with dry, cracked patches, which 
the late veterinary surgeon Gerlach believed to be 
due to mange; but these gradually disappeared, and 
as they scaled off the skin became smooth and of a 
dark black colour, and there was a fresh growth of 
hair. The creature generally slept in the bed of his 
keeper Viereck, covered himself up in an orderly 
manner, and ate at the man’s table of plain but 
nourishing food, cooked by the keeper’s wife. He 
sometimes ate fruit, and bananas were occasionally 
provided for him. When taking his meals, drink- 
ing, etc., J saw that he always behaved with good 
manners. He often moved freely about in an office- 
room of the Aquarium, and he was as obedient to 
the Director as to his keeper. He was generally 
good-tempered, fond of play, but rather mischievous, 
and he would snatch roughly, and occasionally try 
the sharpness of his teeth. Sometimes he tried to 
seize from visitors things which attracted his 
curiosity, such as the trimmings of ladies’ bonnets, 
lace falls, and the like. But on the whole he be- 
haved with propriety, playfulness, and good temper,. 
and there was much which resembled man in his 
look and bearing. 

Early in 1876, before leaving Africa, this ape 
suffered from malaria, and he subsequently suffered 
from other complaints, from which he recovered. 
He died in November, 1877, of a galloping con- 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 267 


sumption.* The gorilla now living in the Berlin 
Aquarium is also very playful and affectionate. 

The chimpanzees which have up to this time been 
observed in captivity, have been, while in good 
health, lively and amusing animals, and generally 
good-tempered. Buffon in 1740 possessed a speci- 
men about two years of age, and this ape always 
walked upright, even when he carried heavy loads. 
It is known fhat other apes can also be trained to 
adopt this posture. Buffon’s chimpanzee had a 
serious and melancholy expression, moved slowly, 
was gentle and patient, and obedient to a word or 
sign. He offered people his arm, walked with them 
in an orderly manner, sat down to table like a man, 
opened his napkin and wiped his lips with it, made 
use of his spoon and fork, poured out wine and 
clinked glasses, fetched a cup and saucer and put in 
sugar, poured out tea, let it get cold before drinking 
_ it; but, while doing all this, he did not seem happy. 
He ate all the ordinary food of men, but preferred 
fruit, and he was not so fond of wine as of milk, tea, 
and sweet liqueurs. He was friendly with every one, 
coming close to them, and taking pleasure in their 
caresses. He took such a fancy to one lady, that 
when other people approached her he seized a stick 
and began to flourish it about, until Buffon intimated 
his displeasure at such behaviour. 

Dr. Traill, of Liverpool, obtained a female chim- 
panzee which likewise came from the Gaboon, and 
which, as soon as she came on board, reached out her 


* G. Broesike, Sitzwngtbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender 
Freunde zu Berlin : December 18, 1877. 


268 ANTHROPOID APES. 


hand to some of the sailors, and remained on good 
terms with the whole crew, including the cabin-boy. 
When the sailors were at meals the ape regularly 
appeared, and begged for her portion. When angry 
she made a baying noise like a dog, and on another 
occasion she wailed like a spoiled child, scratching 
herself vehemently. She was lively and cheerful in 
warm regions, but the nearer the vessel approached to 
northern latitudes the more inert she became, and was 
glad to wrap herself in a warm coverlet. She seemed 
uneasy in an upright position, and when she assumed 
it she rested her hands on her thighs. Her -hands 
were very strong, and she could hold on to acord and 
swing for a long while without interruption. She 
‘gradually acquired a taste for wine, and once stole 
a bottle and uncorked it with her teeth. She was 
fond of coffee and sweetmeats, ate with a spoon, drank 
from a glass, and took pleasure in imitating the be- 
haviour of men. She was attracted by shining metals, 
pleased with articles of clothing, and often put on 
a hat. She was unclean, and of a timid disposition. 
According to the account of Captain Grandpré, a 
female chimpanzee on board his vessel would heat 
the oven, taking care that no coals fell out, and 
carefully watching until it was of the right heat, of 
which she would inform the baker. She fulfilled all 
the duties of a sailor, such as drawing up the anchor, 
furling and making fast the sails. She patiently 
endured maltreatment by a brutal mate, stretching 
out her hands imploringly to ward off his blows. 
But after this she refused all food, and died in five 
days of grief and hunger. 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 269 


A chimpanzee in Brosse’s possession was sick, 
and twice blooded. When he again fell ill, he held 
out his arm as if to demand another venesection. 

In reading these accounts, which have gone the 
round of various old-fashioned books on natural 
history, the question arises what we are or are not 
to believe, for many particulars appear to be ex- 
aggerated, Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin 
Aquarium, disputes the assertion made by others 
that the female chimpanzee, Molly, which was kept 
for a long while in that establishment, poured out 
wine for herself at an evening party, and clinked 
glasses with a neighbour.* 

There is, however, an account given by Broderip 
of a male chimpanzee, which was brought from the 
Gambia, and placed in the London Zoological 
Gardens in 1835, which appears to be simple and 
faithful. The creature, clothed in a little jacket, 
nestled for the most part in the lap of an old female 
keeper. When he had nothing else to do, he played 
with his toes, just as a child does under like cir- 
cumstances. He took Broderip’s hand without fear, 
and touched the ring on one of his fingers with his 
teeth, but without bending it. He tried all artificial 
substances with his teeth. He held fast to his 
keeper’s gown when she proposed to leave him, and 
he played with Broderip like a child. He displayed 
great terror when an anaconda was brought into the 
room in a basket, and did not dare to take an apple 
from off the closed lid of the basket; but as soon as 


* Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, 
March 18, 1876, p. 93. 


270 ANTHROPOID APES. 


the snake and its basket were removed, he ate the 
apple and became cheerful again. He willingly 
placed himself in a swing, and held on to the cords 
with both hands. He generally slept in a sitting 
position, leaning forwards with folded arms, or some- 
times resting his face on his hands. But he would 
also sleep upon his belly, with his feet drawn up, 
and his head on his arms. 

A male chimpanzee, which was kept in the Berlin 
Aquarium in 1876, was remarkable for his excessive 
liveliness. He had contracted a friendship with a 
fellow-captive, a young female orang, and their 
intimacy was confirmed by their games together, 
accompanied by many tender embraces. The small 
orang, a good-tempered, phlegmatic creature, allowed 
the chimpanzee to do what he pleased with her, and 
the former betrayed remarkable intelligence. In 
consequence of a general repair of his cage, Dr. 
Hermes, the director of the institution, to whom we 
owe this account, was obliged to keep the chimpan- 
zee in his office, in company with himself and other 
officials. The chimpanzee soon accustomed himself 
to his new surroundings, and was on particularly 
friendly terms with Dr. Hermes’ two-year-old boy. 
When the child entered the room, the chimpanzee 
ran to meet him, embraced and kissed him, seized 
his hand and drew him to the sofa, that they might 
play together. The child was often rough with 
his playfellow, pulling him by the mouth, pinching 
his ears, or lying on him, yet the chimpanzee was 
never known to lose his temper. He behaved very 
differently to boys between six and ten years old. 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 271 


When a number of schoolboys visited the office, he 
ran towards them, went from one to the other, shook 
one of them, bit the leg of another, seized the jacket 
of a third with the right hand, jumped up, and with 
the left gave him a sound box on the ear; in short, 
he played the wildest pranks. It seemed as if he 
were infected with the joyous excitement of youth, 
which induced him to riot with the troop of school- 
boys. ‘ 
One day when Hermes gave his nine-year-old son 
a slight tap on the head, on account of some mis- 
calculation in his arithmetic, the chimpanzee, who 
was also sitting at the table, gave the boy a smart 
box on the ear. If Hermes pointed out to him that 
some one was staring or mocking at him, and said, 
“Do not put up with it,” the creature cried, 
“Oh! oh!” and rushed at the person in question 
in order to strike or bite him, or express his dis- 
pleasure in some other way. As he made dis- 
tinctions in the age of human beings, so also with 
animals. He was gentle and considerate in his 
behaviour to young dogs and apes, while with older 
animals he was as boisterous as he was with the 
schoolboys. When he saw that Hermes was writing, 
he often seized a pen, dipped it in the inkstand, and 
scrawled upon the paper. He displayed a special 
talent for cleaning the window-panes of the aquarium. 
It was amusing to see him squeezing up the cloth, 
moistening the pane with his lips, and then rubbing 
it hard, passing quickly from one place to another. 
Mafuca was a remarkable creature, not only in 
her external habits, but in her disposition. At one 


272 ANTHROPOID APES. 


moment she would sit still with a brooding air, only 
occasionally darting a mischievous, flashing glance 
at the spectators; at another she took pleasure in 
feats of strength, or she roamed to and fro in her 
spacious enclosure like an angry beast of prey. She 
would insert the index finger of her right hand in the 
opening of a vessel which weighed thirty pounds, 
climb up the pole with it, and let it fall with a crash 
and clatter from a height of six feet. This ape would 
sometimes rattle the bars of her cage with a violence 
which made the spectators uneasy. She was fond 
of playing with old hats, which she set upon her 
head, and if the top was quite torn off, she drew it 
down upon her neck. Mafuca clawed at people who 
entered the vestibule of her cage and tried to tear 
their clothes. She hardly obeyed any one except 
Schépf, the director of the Dresden Zoological 
Gardens, and when in a good humour she would sit 
on his knee and put her muscular arms round his 
neck with a caressing gesture. In spite of this, 
Schépf was never secure from Mafuca’s roguish 
tricks, since her good-humour was of short duration. 
She was rather fond of the keeper, but not always, 
obedient to him, and the whip was often in request, 
even at feeding-times. Mafuca was able to use a 
spoon, although somewhat awkwardly ; and she could 
pour from larger vessels into smaller ones without 
spilling the liquor. She took tea and cocoa in the 
morning and ,evening, and a mixed diet between 
whiles, such as fruit, sweetmeats, red wine and 
water, and sugar. 

Mafuca, for a while, was pleased with the com- 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 273 


panionship of a pretty sea-cat monkey, but she teased 
the creature so much that a special refuge was set 
apart for it, into which she could not enter. She 
was so scared and terrified by a heavy thunderstorm 
that she seized her sleeping playfellow by the tail 
and dashed it to the ground. She chased the mice 
which ran about her cage with deadly fury. She 
was much afraid of snakes, which is not usually the 
case with chimpanzees. If she was left alone for 
any time she tried to open the lock of her cage 
without having the key, and she once succeeded 
in doing so. On that occasion she stole the key, 
which was hanging on the wall, hid it in her 
axilla, and crept quietly back to the cage. With 
the key she easily opened the lock, and she also 
knew how to use a gimlet. She would draw off 
her keeper’s boots, scramble up to some place out 
of reach with them, and throw them at his head 
when he asked for them. She could wring out wet 
cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief. 
When her illness began, she became apathetic, and 
looked about with a vacant, unobservant stare. Just 
before her death, from consumption, she put her 
arms round Schépf’s neck when he came to visit 
her, looked at him placidly, kissed him three times, 
stretched out her hand to him, and died.* The last 
moments of anthropoids have their tragic side ! 

We owe to Wallace an interesting account of 
young orangs in a state of captivity. This observer 
shot, near Simunjon, in Borneo, a large female ape 


* See also Nissle, Die Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, pp. 56, 57: 
1876. 


274 ANTHROPOID APES. 


of this species, which had a young one about a foot 
long. As Wallace carried this creature home, it 
took such a firm hold of his beard that he had much 
difficulty in getting free, for the unequal phalanges of 
the fingers in these animals are hook-shaped. At 
that time the creature had not a single tooth, but 
the two lower front teeth were cut a few days later. 
Unluckily, there was no milk, nor any female animal 
to give suck to the little ape. Wallace was obliged 
to give it rice-water from a bottle, with a quill in- 
serted in the cork, from which, after some attempts, 
it learned to suck very well. Sugar and cocoa-milk 
were added, to make the pap more nourishing. 
When Wallace put his finger in the creature’s 
mouth, it sucked at it vigorously, then pushed it 
angrily away and began to scream, as a child does 
in like circumstances. When it was fondled and 
caressed, it was quiet and content, but began to 
scream again as soon as it was laid down; and for 
the first two nights it was very noisy and restless. 
Wallace arranged a little box for the creature’s 
cradle, with a soft mat which was changed and 
washed every day. The little ape itself liked to be 
washed. As soon as it was dirty it began to scream, 
and never stopped until carried to the spring by its 
master, when it became quiet at once, although it 
struggled when first touched by the cold water, and 
made absurd grimaces when water was poured over 
its head. It was extremely fond of being dried and 
rubbed, and appeared to be perfectly happy when 
Wallace brushed its hair, lying quite still with 
extended arms and legs while the long hair on its 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 275 


back and arms was brushed out. At first it clung 
helplessly by all-fours to whatever it could get hold of, 
and Wallace had to be always on the watch to save 
his beard. When restless, it worked its hands above 
in the air, in search of something to hold, and if it 
got hold of a stick or piece of cloth with two or three 
of its hands, it was perfectly happy. In default of 
anything else, it nursed its own foot, and after a while 
it often folded its arms, and seized with each hand the 
long hair which grew below the opposite shoulder. 
The strength of the creature’s gripe soon diminished, 
however, and Wallace had to invent expedients for 
giving it exercise and strengthening its limbs. 
With this object he made a short ladder of three or 
four rounds, to which he suspended the young orang 
for a quarter of an hourat atime. At first it was 
pleased, but finding itself unable to assume a com- 
fortable position when holding on by all four hands, 
it let go with one after another and at last fell to 
the ground. Often, when only hanging by two 
hands, it let go with one, in order to cross it over 
the opposite shoulder, and get hold of its own hair, 
and on finding this much more agreeable than the 
piece of wood, it let go with the other, and so fell to 
the ground, where it lay on its back with folded 
arms, quite content and apparently none the worse 
for its numerous tumbles. 

When Wallace saw how fond the creature was of 
hair, he endeavoured to construct an artificial mother 
by stitching together a piece of buffalo hide which 
he suspended about a foot from the ground. At 
first this seemed quite successful, since the small 


276, ANTHROPOID APES. 


orang could cling round it and always find some- 
thing hairy to which it held fast with great per- 
aubrey: Wallace now hoped that he had made 
the little orphan happy, and so it was for a while, 
until it remembered its lost mother and tried to 
suck. It raised itself so as to be quite close to the 
hide, and hunted about for promising places; but 
when its mouth was only filled with wool and hair 
it was much displeased, cried vehemently, and gave 
up the attempt after two or three endeavours. On 
one occasion it got some wool into its throat, and 
Wallace was afraid it must be choked; but after a . 
good deal of cough it threw it up, and he destroyed 
the mock mother and relinquished the last attempt 
to give the little creature some occupation. 

At the end of a week Wallace began to feed the 
ape with a spoon. He mixed soaked biscuit with 
egg and sugar, and sometimes with sweet potatoes. 
It took this food readily, and made droll grimaces 
in order to express its satisfaction or displeasure 
with what was offered. The little being licked its 
lips, drew in its cheeks, and screwed up its eyes with 
an expression of extreme content when it had a 
mouthful of anything it particularly liked. On the 
other hand, when the food was not sufficiently sweet 
and savoury, the orang turned it about in its mouth 
for a moment, as if to taste it thoroughly, and then 
spat it out. If the same food was presented again, it 
screamed violently and threw its arms about like a 
passionate child. 

Three weeks after Wallace obtained the young 
orang, a macaca (Macacus cynomolgus), likewise 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 277 


young, was brought to him. The two animals 
became at once the best of friends, neither showing 
the least fear of the other. The small macaca had 
not the slightest scruple about sitting on the other’s 
body, and even on its face. When Wallace fed the 
orang, the macaca sat by to pick up any morsels 
which dropped, and when the meal was over it 
licked off whatever remained on the orang’s lips, 
and even tore open its mouth to see if anything 
remained there; then it lay down on the poor crea- 
ture’s body as if it were a comfortable cushion. The 
small, helpless orang endured all these insults with 
the most unexampled patience, only too glad to 
have something warm to cling to and encircle fondly 
with its arms. But it had its revenge, for when the 
other little ape wished to get away, the orang held 
on as long as possible to the movable skin of the 
back or head, or to its tail, so that it cost the macaca 
many violent struggles to escape. 

Wallace carefully observed the different behaviour 
of these two animals, which were of nearly the same 
age. All the observations hitherto made show that 
very young anthropoids display a helplessness re- 
sembling that of children of about the same age, 
although other families of apes, in common with most 
young mammals, kittens, puppies, ete., early attain 
to greater activity and independence. 

When Wallace had kept the orang for about a 
month, and placed it on the ground, its legs strag- 
gled outwards, or it overbalanced itself and fell 
heavily forwards. When lying in its box, it would 
hold on to the edge, and once or twice it fell out 

13 


278 ANTHROPOID APES. 


in consequence. If allowed to be dirty or hungry, 
or otherwise neglected, it would ery loudly until it 
received attention, or sometimes would cough or 
struggle like an adult animal. If there was no one 
in the house, or if no one paid attention to its cries, 
it would be quiet for a time, and only renew them 
when a step was heard. 

At the end of five weeks the two upper front 
teeth were cut, but throughout that period the 
creature had not grown, and remained of the same 
size and weight. This was doubtless owing to the 
want of milk or other nourishing food. Cocoa-milk 
seemed to produce diarrhoea, of which it was cured 
by castor-oil. A week or two later it sickened of 
what appeared to be intermittent fever, and died 
within a week.* 

In 1837 the Zoological Gardens in London received 
an orang of two or three years old. He was for the 
most part sluggish and inert, but had occasional fits 
of better humour and playfulness. When angry he 
would attack strangers, but he generally sat cross- 
legged on a low stool, or on the ground before the 
fire, wrapped in a woollen rug. When the giraffes 
of the establishment inquisitively stretched their 
long necks over the bars of the ape’s cage, the 
creature evinced no fear, but tried to seize the long- 
legged animals by the muzzle. This orang answered 
to his name, and was obedient to his keeper, often 
searching in his pocket for the dainties concealed 
there. He was uneasy when separated by the cage- 
bars from his master ; and when confined in an enclo- 

* Wallace’s Malay Archipelago, vol. i. 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 279 


sure of cane interwoven with wire, he bent the wire 
asunder and squeezed himself through the hole, so 
that the cage had to be made stronger. The creature 
presented an absurd appearance dressed in a jacket 
and breeches. When he desired any dainty that he 
saw, he looked alternately at it and his keeper, and 
protruded his lips like a snout. In drinking, this 
animal took fhe vessel in his hand, brought the rim 
to his lips, and then drank with an air of gravity. 
I may here observe that when anthropoids drink in 
this way, they generally take the vessel in one hand, 
and support it with the back of the fingers of the 
other. 

When the orang we have just described was dis- 
appointed in his desire to obtain anything, he threw 
himself on the ground, howling and screaming until 
he got his own way. He sometimes had furious fits 
of ‘passion, in one of which he tried to destroy the 
bars of his cage by hitting them with the stool. 
As he did not succeed in this attempt, he gave vent 
to his fury in a loud outcry, which only ceased on 
the return of his keeper. 

An orang brought by Montgomery to Calcutta in 
1827, was less phlegmatic than animals of this species 
usually are. He played with those who carried him 
when they stooped over him, caught them by the hair, 
and so on. He tried to scour his tin vessel with a 
cloth, throwing one end over his shoulder, as he had 
seen the servants of the house do. He was particu- 
larly fond of milk, tea, wine, and pandanos fruit. 
He was very inquisitive, and tried everything that he 
could reach, first with the fingers, then with the 


280 ANTHROPOID APES, 


lips, and finally with his teeth. He was fond of 
biting off the coat-lappets of his visitors. His 
absurd gestures, combined with his air of solemnity, 
excited laughter even in the grave natives. He was 
once drinking tea, when some one filled the empty mug 
with water; he emptied it out upon the floor, threw 
himself on his back, screamed, and struck his breast 
and belly with his hands. His gait was clumsy and 
unsteady when he tried to walk upright. When he 
went on all-fours, he sometimes supported himself 
on his hands and swung himself forward with his 
feet. If he lost his balance in walking upright, he 
fell upon his head, and then went on by turning 
somersaults. As soon as he was unchained, he went 
into the house and tried to get a portion of his 
master’s breakfast. In spite of his usual inquisi- 
tiveness, he was not at all excited by the sight of 
his melancholy countenance in the glass. 

The large orang which was in the Berlin Aqua- 
rium in 1876 was a sullen companion, and looked 
like an old Bedouin as he crouched down and peered 
from under the covering which was thrown over 
him. His keeper could only trust him when he 
brought him an orange, and if he approached the 
bars of the cage without food, the ape flew at him, 
gnashing his teeth. He was sluggish whenever he 
was not excited by hunger. Then he started from his 
usually sitting position, and devoured the food which 
was cautiously passed through the door. If kept wait- 
ing, he threw himself on his back in a rage. When 
his hunger was satisfied, he played with the straw, 
the cord, or with his blanket. When it was neces- 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 281 


sary to change his straw, he was lured away by 
holding out an orange at the top of his pole, and the 
change was effected while the ape was tearing open 
the rind and sucking out its contents. In the even- 
ing he never omitted to clear out a hole in the 
straw, and to roll himself in his blanket. Gabriel 
Max has drawn a striking likeness of the resigned 
attitude of a.sick orang. 

Gibbons have often been observed in a state of 
captivity. Of the slothful and inanimate siamang 
there is nothing of much interest to report. The 
other species are, with few exceptions, phlegmatic, 
shy, and timid, but hardly ever averse from human 
society. Within a month Harlan was able to make 
a hulock so tame that he would hold on with one 
hand to him, while putting the others on the ground, 
and so walk about with his keeper. He came to 
his master’s call, seating himself close to him on 
a chair, shared his breakfast, and took an egg or 
chicken-bone off the table so neatly as not to soil 
the cloth. He was fond of cooked rice, bread soaked 
in milk, bananas, oranges, coffee, tea, chocolate, 
milk, ete. Generally he only dipped his fingers 
in the drinking vessels and licked off the liquid, 
but he could drink in human fashion. He searched 
the house for spiders and other creeping things, 
and brushed away flying insects with his right 
hand. The creature was very affectionate, and 
when Harlan came to him in the morning, he 
greeted him with a joyful sound like a bark, which 
went on forabouta minute. He came to a call even 
when at a distance, and was pleased to be combed, 


282 ANTHROPOID APES, 


brushed, and fondled. Two other hulocks taken by 
Harlan behaved in the same way. 

The Hylobates albimanus of the Berlin Aquarium, 
which I have already mentioned, was, as described 
by Hermes, and also according to my own observa- 
tions, a very peaceable creature, although, if com- 
pelled to do what he did not like, he sometimes 
tried to bite a little, especially when just taken 
from his warm bed. But as soon as he was taken 
by the hand or lifted up, his anger was appeased. 
Although much less lively than the chimpanzee 
which was his companion, and less inclined to play, 
he was pleased with children, and watchfully ob- 
served their movements. His dexterity was won- 
derful. He was almost always present at dinner 
and supper, when the table was covered with dishes, 
and he ran up and down it, in order to go from one 
person to another, without touching, still less up- 
setting, the smallest article. His food consisted 
chiefly of white bread, milk, sweet cocoa, fruit, and 
Kiel sprats, of which he was particularly fond, as 
well as of sweet grapes. Before taking any liquid, 
he cautiously touched it with his tongue, to ascer- 
tain that it was not too hot; then he drank it up, 
without taking the cup or vessel in his hand, as the 
chimpanzee did. He did not like cold or moist food, 
and would seldom touch a peeled pear, while willing 
to eat it from Herme’s hand. Grapes were his 
favourite dainty, and if hungry when he saw them, 
he uttered a gentle noise which resembled the cry 
of a wood-pigeon. He often repeated this noise, 
Hu, Hu, to express pleasure, surprise, or curiosity, 


LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. 2838 


or when the same sound was uttered by others; and 
it was in this way that he greeted Hermes when he 
came to his bed in the morning. He was happiest 
when seated on a woman’s arm, with his long arms 
wound round her neck, and would sit quiet in this 
position as long as he was permitted to do so, and 
when taken away would scream like a child. When 
Frau Hermes left the room, he would run after her, 
and try to scramble up as soon as he reached her; 
if she took his hand, he went with her quietly. 
This gibbon may be compared favourably with other 
anthropoids, on account of his extraordinary clean- 
liness. He always returned to the place first used 
for his necessities, and never made his bed or the 
room unclean. There was not a trace of smell about 
him, so that he was quite an agreeable companion ; 
and he shared the bed of one of Dr. Hermes’ chil- 
dren without causing the least disturbance or discom- 
fort. He was fond of swinging to and fro by a 
cord, to which he held with one hand. 

A specimen of Hylobates funereus was kept in Paris 
for about a year. It was very intelligent, yet less 
so than other anthropoids. It knew its keepers and 
frequent visitors, and was pleased to be fondled; 
but it showed no preference for one person more 
than another, not even for its keeper. 

Martin describes how in 1840, in Paris, a live 
bird was let into the cage of an Hylobates agilis. 
After watching its flight, the ape swung himself on 
to a distant bough, which he seized with one hand 
and the bird with the other. Its objects, both 
the bird and the bough, were attained with as much 


284 ANTHROPOID APES. 


certainty as if only one object had arrested its 
attention. He bit off the bird’s head, plucked ont 
the feathers, and then threw it away. 

Another female specimen of Hylobates agilis 
suddenly attacked her keeper, sprang upon him, 
scratched him with hands and feet, and bit him on 
the breast, so that it was fortunate for the man that 
the creature had shortly before lost her canine 
teeth. It was said that the same ape had killed 
a man in Macao. 

Anthropoids when kept in confinement suffer from 
caries of the teeth and jaws, from chronic and acute 
bronchial and intestinal catarrhs, from inflammation 
and consumption of the lungs, from inflammation of 
the liver, from pericardial dropsy, from parasites of 
the skin and intestines, etc. When ill, as we learn 
from many sources, these animals display much 
resemblance to men. -Among others, Bock observed 
an aged male orang-utan in Sumatra, suffering from 
consumption, which lay nearly all day wrapped in 
a coverlet, and was constantly racked by a violent 
cough.* 

On the skulls of wild gorillas and chimpanzees 
we find traces of caries of the teeth and jaws, by 
which, therefore, these animals may be affected in a 
state of nature, as well as by parasites on the skin 
and intestines. 


* Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo, p. 81. 


CHAPTER VII. 


POSITION OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL 
SYSTEM. 


THE racial history of apes can only be traced with 
any certainty up to the Miocene period. The fact 
of the contemporary existence of apes and pachy- 
dermata has been frequently asserted, but it is still 
too far from being established to merit further con- 
sideration here. Traces of the slender ape (Semno- 
pithecus) have, however, been found in the Miocene 
of Greece, Wurtemburg, the mountains of Sewalik, 
and in the region bordering on the Himalayas. The 
name given to one of these fossil species (Semnopi- 
thecus subhimalayanus) seems to establish its locality. 
The numerous remains of Mesopithecus Pentelict in 
Attica have, however, given rise to controversy. 
Gaudry and Beyrich were disposed to assign these 
specimens exclusively to the slender ape, but Gaudry 
has since declared that, while the structure of the 
skull and teeth is that of Semnopithecus, the struc- 
ture of the limbs is that of a macaca. He regards, 


286 ANTHROPCID APES. 


therefore, Mesopithecus as an interesting form of 
apes, and this is expressed by its scientific name.* 
The separation of these two species of apes (Sem- 
nopithecus and Macacus) must, he considers, have 
occurred rather late. Pliopithecus, from the fresh- 
water marl, Sansan, is assigned by Gaudry and 
others to the gibbon. Lartet and Quenstedt believe, 
however, that it is nearer to the next neighbour on 
the south, the magot (Inuus), on account of the five 
fangs of its last tooth. K®6llner thinks the connec- 
tion with Semnopithecus not improbable. 
Dryopithecus Fontanii, of which I have already 
spoken, seems, as I judge from a cast taken by Fric 
in Prague, to be of an expressly anthropoid cha- 
racter; but the scantiness of the materials do not 
allow us to form any precise conclusions as to the 
zoological position of this extinct animal. The 
structure of the back teeth, as we have already 
said, is certainly anthropoidal. Quenstedt, always 
cautious in his judgments, is of opinion that the 
ape’s teeth found in the ironstone of the Suabian 
Alps in the secondary mammal formation, are of 
a decidedly anthropoid character, and the animals 
to which they belonged must therefore have been 
of the same type. Fossil remains of the African 
stumpy ape (Colobus) have also been found at Stein- 
heim. + Macacus priscus of the valley of the Arno 
seems to be allied with the African macaca.t Owen’s 


* Enchainements, p. 235. 

t Fraas, Wurtembergische Jahresheft, xxvi. plate iv. fig. 1: 1870. 

t Forsyth, Atti della Societé Italiana di Scienze Natwrali, xiv. : 
1872. 


PLACE OF ANTHROPOIDS IN NATURE. 287 


Macacus pliocenus from Essex is closely related to 
Macacus sinicus. Fossil apes have also been ob- 
served in America. Protopithecus was a very large 
animal, related to Mycetes. Another fossil species, 
found in South America (Laopithecus), must have 
been closely related” to man. This latter fact is 
the more remarkable, since it has generally been 
assumed, and indeed with reason, that there is a 
marked division between the apes of the Old and 
New Worlds. 

The species now found in tropical America of 
the silky apes (Hapale), the Sahui (Jacchus), the 
leaping apes (Cullithrix), the bellowing apes (My- 
cetes), and the rolling apes (Cebus), were already 
represented in the diluvial period of that continent. 
It does not appear that any extensive generic diffu- 
sion of apes has taken place since that period. It 
is otherwise with the development of species, which 
seems, at any rate to a partial extent, to have 
occurred late. This may be inferred from the 
physical characteristics of gorillas and chimpanzees, 
which, with all their differences, have much in com- 
mon with each other. In the fourth chapter we 
have described forms of apes lying between the 
gorilla and the chimpanzee, and it seems possible 
that these are a reversion to one or the other form. 
The numerous varieties of form among anthropoids 
point to a continuance of the process of severance 
in this family of apes, and little more than an 
isolating influence is needed to produce the gradual 
conversion of varieties into constant species. 

On account of their external bodily character- 


288 ANTHROPOID APES. 


istics, of their anatomical structure, and their highly 
developed intelligence, anthropoids not only stand 
first among apes, but they take a still higher place, 
approximating to the human species. In accord- 
ance with what I have said in the second and third 
chapters, I set. aside the order of the Quadrumana, 
and accept the Linnean order of the Primates, both 
for men and apes. I would include men as Erect? 
with anthropoids as Anthropomorpha in a sub-family 
of the Primarti. In the case of apes (Simiina) I 
should retain the convenient distinction between 
those with a narrow and those with a wide nasal 
aperture (Catarrhina and Platyrehina). The semi- 
apes (Prosimz) should constitute a separate order of 
mammals. The following systematic scheme shows 
the classification I suggest :— 


I. Mammats (Mammalia). 
A. Monodelphia, Blainv. (Placentalia, Owen). 


I. Order: Primates, Linnzus. 
1. Family: Primarii. 
(1) Sub-family : Hrecti (Homo sapiens). 
(2) Sub-family : Anthropomorpha, Linnzus. 
(a) Dasypoga, t.e. Anthropomorpha, without the sessor 
callosities. 
(a) Genus: Troglodytes, B. Geoffroy. 
Species: The gorilla (Troglodytes Gorilla, Savage 
and Wyman). The chimpanzee (Zr. niger, 
E. Geoffroy). 
The other speeies are not accurately known, 
(8) Genus: Pithecus, E. Geoffroy. 
Species: Orang-utan (Pithecus Satyrus, E. Geoffroy). 
(b) Tylopoga, i.e, Anthropomorpha, with sessor callosities. 
(y) Genus: Hylobates, Mllig. 
Species: see p. 45. 


PLACE OF ANTHROPOIDS IN NATURE, 289 


(2) Family: Apes proper (Simiina). 
(1) Sub-family : Catarrhina. 
Genera: Semnopithecus, Colobus, Cercopithecus, Inuus, 
Macacus, Cynocephatlus. 
(2) Sub-family: Platyrrhina. 
Genera: Mycetes, Lagothrix Ateles, Cebus, Pithecia, 
Nyctipithecus, Cullithrix, Chrysothrix, Rapale. 


290 ANTHROPOID APES. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CON- 
SIDERATIONS OF THE ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF 
THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE, ORANG, AND GIBBON. 


HUvx.ey’s statement, that the lowest apes are further 
removed from the highest apes than the latter are 
from men, is, according to my experience, still per- 
feetly valid. It cannot be denied that the highest 
order of the animal world is closely connected with 
the highest created being. 

In the third chapter I have sought to show in 
what way the pithecoid characteristics of men may 
be proved. From the latter chapters, also, much 
may be learned with respect to the anthropoid 
characteristics of anthropoids, The external form 
first provokes the comparison. There is much in 
the bodily structure which spans the apparent 
chasm between men and apes, and this is evident 
to the simplest understanding. The head, and the 
general form of the body, especially in young male 
and female gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs, and 
even in gibbons, if we exclude the length of their 


SUMMARY. 291 


arms, display many points of resemblance with man. 
It is shown even in separate organs of the body—as, 
for instance, in the ear. The illustrations given in 
the second chapter of the ears of apes, including 
that of the gorilla, were intentionally taken by me 
from such specimens as had least resemblance to 
man, and yet even in these a certain likeness must 
be recognized. 

I have already observed that the old males of 
an anthropoid species are always further removed 
from man than the young, and this is especially the 
case with the gorilla. The head of an aged male 
gorilla, with its great cranial crests and powerful 
jaw, displays striking differences from the human 
type. This is an important fact, since in the case 
of man we almost without exception regard the fully 
developed male adult as the typical form. 

In considering the limbs, the differences between 
the arms and hands of man and those of anthropoids 
are apparent, but less striking than in the case of the 
lower limbs. For the prehensile foot of apes has in 
it something abnormal which distinctly differs from 
the human foot, adapted for walking. Nor can the 
prehensibility of the human toes in certain cases be 
directly compared with the prehensibility of an 
ape’s foot, in which the great toe has the action of a 
thumb. Haeckel remarks that newly born children 
can also take a strong grip with the great toe, and 
if a spoon is inserted they can hold it with the foot 
as firmly as with the hand.* This power is, however, 
only partial and subordinate, compared with the 

* Anthropogenie, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874. 


292 ANTHROPOID APES. 


manifold and developed prehensibility of an anthro- 
poid’s foot. The possibility of walking upright to a 
certain, although sometimes to a very limited, extent 
is no exclusive privilege of anthropoids, since this 
power may be acquired by training in the case of 
other apes, as well as of dogs, pigs, horses, ete. 
Many apes of the New World, such as the tailed and 
climbing apes, as well as some semi-apes, bears, 
ichneumons, scaled and rodent animals, can go for 
sone distance in an upright position, quite as readily 
as anthropoids, and without being trained to do so.* 
The structure of anthropoids is, indeed, better adapted 
for going on all-fours, or for climbing. The pro- 
jection of the coccyx in the form of a rudimentary 
tail has, as is well known, been observed in some 
isolated cases in the human species. This pecu- 
liarity is supposed to be hereditary in the case of 
some non-European peoples, such as the Niam-Niam 
of Central Africa, and some of the Southern Malays. 
But this surmise has not yet been confirmed. 

It has already been said that when we compare 
men and anthropoids, the profile of the coloured man 
presents a striking likeness to that of anthropoids. 
This is believed by the coloured people themselves, 
who, especially among negro races, regard the large 
apes as accursed individuals of their own species, as 
dumb and hairy men, and so on. It should, however, 
be noticed that anthropomorphism plays an important 
part in the religious life of rude peoples, and that it is 
comparatively easy for uncivilized men to place them- 
selves on the same level as animals, while civilized 


* We do not here include the leaping and running mice. 


SUMMARY. 2938 


races reject such ideas with self-conscious pride, I 
may add that civilized men are revolted by the prover- 
bial ugliness of apes, and therefore reject with abhor- 
rence any admission of actual relationship with them. 
We must, however, remember that men are by no 
means generally endowed with physical beauty, and 
especially with beauty of feature. Among all nations 
we find indiyiduals whose ugliness is little inferior 
to that of anthropoids, and which sometimes even 
exceeds it. A claim toa widely diffused physical 
beauty may be made by the peoples of classical 
antiquity; by the Teutonic, Roumanian, and Slav 
races; by the Circassians, Armenians, Tartars, Turks, 
Senites, Berbers, Bedja; and by some of the Indians, 
Polynesians, American Indians, and negroes: but 
such attractions are rare among other peoples of the 
world, such as the Mongols, the majority of negroes, 
Papuans, Guaranis, and Malays. We have already 
shown that among some of the lower races it is 
impossible not to recognize a purely external and 
physical approximation to the simian type. 

Some men, again, altogether on psychical grounds, 
shrink from admitting any relationship between 
men and apes, since the mental organization of the 
former seems to them to be allied by no connecting- 
link with the anthropoids of which they think so 
meanly. Yet it should not be forgotten that the 
modes of living in degraded races differ little from 
those of anthropoids. I may here refer to what 
I have said of the Australian aborigines, whose 
brutal instincts demand our whole attention when 
we undertake such comparisons. A horde of Boto- 


294 ANTHROPOID APES. 


cudos, mentioned by the intelligent observer Prince 
Maximilian of Neuwied,* and a village on the upper 
Yupura, inhabited by the Mirenhas, and described 
by Martius, left upon the travellers a grisly impres- 
sion of their brutal degradation. This impression 
might be further strengthened if we could inspect 
a hutted encampment of the Obongo or the Doko. 
It has been observed that the rudest savage is in 
a condition to show pity and loyalty to his own 
fellows. Thus, for example, in the winter of 1881-82, 
when some Fuegians were exhibited in Europe, 
one of them fell sick, and was cared for by his 
savage companions with affection, and even with 
a certain appearance of tenderness. But, as we 
have seen, anthropoils take care of and defend the 
members of their family in the same way, and 
display mutual dependence and loyalty; this has 
been especially noticed in the case of several orang- 
utans which have tended each other. Love for 
their young, and not rarely love for their mates 
expressed in the strongest manner, is, speaking 
comparatively, deeply rooted in the animal world. 
It is well known that both rude and civilized peoples 
are capable of showing unspeakable, and as it is 
erroneously termed, inhuman cruelty towards each 
other. These acts of cruelty, murder, and rapine 
are often the result of the inexorable logic of 
national characteristics, and are unhappily truly 
human, since nothing like them can be traced in 


* Reise nach Brasilien, ii. 177: Frankfurt-am-Main, 1821. 
} Beitrage zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas, etc., 
i. 5384: Leipzig, 1867. 


SUMMARY, 295 


the animal world. It would, for instance, be a grave 
mistake to compare a tiger with a bloodthirsty 
executioner of the Reign of Terror, since the former 
only satisfies his natural appetite in preying on 
other mammals. The atrocities of the trials for 
witchcraft, the indiscriminate slaughter committed 
by the negroes on the coast of Guinea, the sacrifice 
of human victims made by the Khonds, the dis- 
memberment of living men by the Battas, find no 
parallel in the habits of animals in their savage 
state. And such a comparison is, above all, impos- 
sible in the case of anthropoids, which display no 
hostility towards men or other animals unless they 
are first attacked. In this respect the anthropoid 
ape stands on a higher plane than many men. 

A great chasm between man and anthropoids is 
constituted, as I believe, by the fact that the 
human race is capable of education, and is able to 
acquire the highest mental culture, while the most 
intelligent anthropoid can only receive a certain 
mechanical training. And even to this training 
a limit is set by the surly temper displayed by 
anthropoids as they get older. They are interesting 
subjects of study in the menagerie, but they never 
become, like our ordinary domestic animals, useful 
members of the household economy. I myself hold 
that all human races are capable of culture, while 
differing in the degree to which it is possible for 
them to attain. I do not, for example, suppose 
that a tribe of Queensland Australians can be so 
educated as to be placed on a level with the highest 
intellects of our own nation. But how many ages 


296 ANTHROPOID APES. 


it has taken to raise us so far above the Papuans! 
It is indeed manifest that even very rude savages 
may be constituted serviceable members of human 
society, as we may see from the changes which have 
taken place among the Sandwich Islanders, the 
Tahitians, and the Maoris in the course of the last 
eighty years. In our days the envoys of the Queen 
of Madagascar have understood how to move in the 
highest Berlin circles with high-bred demeanour, 
and we must recognize this fact as significant, 
without, however, deluding ourselves by too wide 
deductions from it. 

The remark has often been made that the African 
blacks, Indians, etc., display great docility when 
young, and are very receptive of wisdom and cul- 
ture, but stop short at a certain point, as if unable 
to advance beyond it, and sometimes, indeed, like 
apes in advancing age, relapse into their originally 
savage state. It may, however, be inferred that 
these attempts to educate young savages are 
generally wrecked by mistaken methods of instruc- 
tion. The young sons of nature are often too much 
indulged, their childish performances are over-esti- 
mated, their minds are over-taxed, the due develop- 
ment of mind and body is checked; they become 
arrogant, and then people are surprised that, as 
self-consciousness increases in their immature brains, 
a greater or less amount of conceit is developed. 
There are cases in which a savage, who has been 
with much labour educated and civilized, relapses 
into barbarism, and comes to a violent end as the 
enemy of his former protector, as a robber or a 


SUMMARY. 297 


rebel; yet, even to the end of his life, he has de- 
veloped qualities and conditions which recall to 
him better times. We see an example of this in 
some of the civilized Maoris who afterwards joined 
the revolted tribes, and who introduced among their 
countrymen the strength of a firmer organization 
against the English supremacy. The bearing of 
these relapsed savages always has in it something 
higher than we can trace in the savage obstinacy 
of a morose old chimpanzee or orang. 

Nor have the attempts to educate savages been 
uniformly unsuccessful. The great Indian chief 
Tekumseh; the presidents Benito Juarez, and Ramon 
Castilla ; the negro Toussaint l’Ouverture; the Hova 
king, Radama I.; the Polynesian rulers, Kameha- 
meha IT, Pomare I., Georges, and Kokabau, show 
what may be made of such materials under favour- 
able circumstances. The poor Indian from Oaxaca ; 
the steadfast leader Perus, who belonged to a needy 
Arriero family ; the Haytian who was formerly driver 
on a plantation, are as far removed from aboriginal 
savages as the Malagasy and Polynesians educated 
by European missionaries. 

It is well known that nations, in the earliest 
periods of their existence, have to pass through 
certain rude conditions of their development, and 
the most highly civilized nations are not exempt 
from this law. The transition period of the Stone 
Age is necessary for all, and with the use of metals 
a higher and more cultivated life has been gradually 
developed. Even for those who do not recognize 
any sharp line of demarcation between the stone 


298 ANTHROPOID APES. 


and metal periods, yet, speaking generally, they will 
admit that the times in which stone instruments, 
and those in which bronze and iron instruments 
were chiefly used, preseut tokens of actual epochs in 
historical culture. As we know, there are also 
certain phases of development in the Stone Age. In 
its earliest stages the rudely shaped and unworked 
tool could not procure for its owner any regular 
shelter: he lived in caves, clefts, or under a scanty 
covering of leaves,and made use of his tool in 
killing wild animals; in cutting wood ; in preparing 
skins, tendons, and gourd-vessels ; in dismembering 
the prey obtained in hunting; and in extracting 
marrow from bones. With the art of shaping and 
sharpening these stone tools, a progressive improve- 
ment in the conditions of human life went hand in 
hand, 

We can picture to ourselves the physical and 
psychical conditions of the first and earliest men of 
the Stone Age as those of extremely rude savages, 
but who were endowed with the gift of working out 
for themselves higher conditions of life. 

In the year 1868 Colonel Laussedat, of the Berlin 
Academy of Sciences, exhibited the lower jaw of a 
rhinoceros, found in the Miocene at Billy, Allier, in 
which there was a notch which must, in the opinion 
of many naturalists, have been made by the hand of 
man. The Abbé Delaunay found in the Miocene of 
Pouancé, Maine-et-Loire, the rib of a Halitherium, 
which was notched, and which likewise appeared to 
have been subjected to human manipulation. 
Garrigou is of opinion that certain bones found at 


SUMMARY. 299 


Sansan were broken by the hand of man, and 
Diicker expressed a similar belief about the fossils 
of Pikermi. These ideas have been strongly opposed. 
Many of the marks on these bones have been re- 
presented to bear traces of the teeth of carnivora, 
rodents, etc. The Abbé Bourgeois found flints in 
the Miocene of Thenay, near Pont-Levoy, Loir-et- 
Cher, of which he ascribes the working to beings 
of a higher intelligence than the animals of that 
period. This opinion is shared by eminent anthro- 
pologists, such as Vibraye, Worsaae, Mortillet, de 
Quatrefages, and Hamy. Gaudry does not doubt 
the accuracy of the account given of their position 
at Thenay, by so experienced a geologist as 
Bourgeois. The illustrious observer of the quater- 
nary epoch is ‘only concerned with the question 
whether these flints at Thenay were artificially 
worked or not. The stones were found in a layer of 
the same kind of rubble. When a number of such 
flints are placed together, only a few people can 
discover an incontestible distinction between the 
artificially shaped and the unshaped stones. The 
alleged presence of shaped flints in the Miocene Age 
still demands careful examination. The epoch of 
the Middle Miocene is very ancient, and Léberon 
distinguishes between fauna found in the limestone 
of Beauce and Faluns and those of the Upper 
Miocene, of Eppelsheim and Pikermi. According to 
this author, the next in succession was the Lower 
Pliocene of Montpellier; then the Pliocene of 
Perrier, Solilhac, and Coupet. Next came the fauna 
of the forest bed at Cromer, and then those of the 


300 ANTHROPOID APES. 


boulder clay. To judge from the Norfolk strata, 
these latter were of very long duration. Above the 
fauna of the boulder clay are those of the diluvium, 
followed by the fauna of the reindeer period and of 
our own time. 

Whatever may be thought of the many changes 
which have taken place, whether they are regarded 
as the result of distinct and independent creations 
or as the result of transformations, no geologist can 
doubt that an immense tract of time was required 
for the production of these forms. In the Middle 
Miocene there is not a single species of mammal 
which corresponds to any of our extant species. If 
we start from the standpoint of simple paleontology, 
it would be difficult to assume that the being which 
shaped the flints at Thenay can have remained un- 
altered in the midst of all these changes. If, as 
Gaudry remarks, it can be shown that the flints 
collected by Bourgeois in the Beauce limestone 
were really artificially shaped, he as a geologist 
would not hesitate to recognize in the Dryopithecus 
the author of this handiwork.* 

But, speaking provisionally, the Dryopithecus which 
is assumed to have used these flints, and of which we, 
unfortunately, know only the little which can be 
gleaned from a few fragments of bone, must remain 
the object of an interesting hypothesis, so far as his 
advanced anthropomorphism is concerned. No an- 
thropoid now in existence has shown itself capable 
of adapting stones, etc., to his personal use. More- 
over, the most fanatical advocates of the doctrine of 


* Les Enchainements du monde animal, p. 240. 


SUMMARY. 301 


descent are becoming ever more convinced that man 
cannot be the issue of any extant form of anthro- 
poids. It is true that a close, and in many respects 
a very close, physical connection may be traced 
between men and anthropoids, but not the possi- 
bility of a direct descent from the one to the other. 
This is especially shown from the physical develop- 
ment of the larger apes, which only strongly resemble 
men in theif youthful stages, and lose this character 
more and more as they grow older. The absolute 
deficiency of any capacity for the further develop- 
ment of the intellectual qualities of our modern 
species of anthropoids is another proof of this fact ; 
their intelligence is, indeed, higher than that of 
other mammals, and also of other apes, but they are 
still far behind the intelligence of man, which is 
capable of still further development. 

In the process of physical growth, as I feel my- 
self compelled often to repeat, anthropoids con- 
stantly diverge further from the human organization. 
C. Vogt justly observes: “ When we consider the 
principles of the modern theory of evolution, as it is, 
applied to the history of development, we are met 
by the important fact that in every respect the 
young ape stands nearer to the human child than 
the adult ape does to the adult man. The original 
differences between the young creatures of both types 
are much slighter than in their adult condition: 
this assertion, made long since in my lectures on the 
human race, has received a striking confirmation 
from recent autopsies of young anthropoids which 
have died in the Zoological Gardens of Europe. In 

14 


302 ANTHROPOID APES. 


proportion to the age of the specimen, the charac- 
teristic differences in the form of the jaw, the 
cranial ridges, etc., become more evident. Both 
man and apes are developed from an embryonic 
condition, and from the period of childhood in a 
diverging or almost opposite direction into the final 
type of their species, yet even adult apes still retain 
in their whole organization features which corre- 
spond to those of the human child.” * Quenstedt 
also says: “ However much Homo sapiens is raised 
by his intelligence above all other animals, however 
important the physical differences are which divide 
him from apes, yet the scene of their existence in the 
world is by no means so wide that, as time goes on, 
the narrow limits between them may not approxi- 
mate more closely.” f 

In these words the opinion I have already 
expressed is set forth, an opinion which continues 
to gain ground; namely, that man cannot have 
descended from any of the fossil species which have 
hitherto come to our notice, nor yet from any of the 
species of apes now extant. It is more probable 
“that both types have been produced from a com- 
mon ground-form, which is still more strongly 
expressed in the structure of young specimens, 
because the age of childhood is less advanced ” 
(Vogt). 

This supposed progenitor of our race is neces- 
sarily completely hypothetical, and all the attempts 
hitherto made to construct even a doubtful repre- 


* Die Stéugethtere in Wort und Bild, p. 49. : 
t Handbuch der Petrefactenkunde, 3rd edit., i. 38 : Tiibingen, 1882. 


SUMMARY. 303 


sentation of its characteristics are based upon the 
trifling play of fancy. 

Darwin came to the conclusion that man has, at 
any rate, descended from a highly organized form. 
He goes on to say: 

“The grounds upon which this conclusion rests 
will never be shaken, for the close similarity be- 
tween man and the lower animals in embryonic 
development, as well as in innumerable points of 
structure and constitution, both of high and of the 
most trifling importance, the rudiments which he 
retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is 
occasionally liable—are facts which cannot be dis- 
puted. They have long been known, but until 
recently they told us nothing with respect to the 
origin of man. Now, when viewed by the light of 
our knowledge of the whole organic world, their 
meaning is unmistakable. The great principle of 
evolution stands up clear and firm, when these 
groups of facts are considered in connection with 
others, such as the mutual affinities of the members 
of the same group, their geographical distribution 
in past and present times, and their geological 
succession. It is incredible that all these facts 
should speak falsely. He who is not content to 
look, like a savage, on the phenomena of nature as 
disconnected, cannot any longer believe that man 
is the work of a separate act of creation. He will 
be forced to admit that the close resemblance of 
the embryo of man to that, for instance, of a dog; 
the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole 
frame, independently of the uses to which the parts 


304 ANTHROPOID APES. 


may be put, on the same plan with that of other 
mammals; the occasional reappearance of various 
structures—for instance, of several distinct muscles, 
which man does not normally possess, but which are 
common to the Quadrumana; and a crowd of analo- 
gous facts ;—all point in the plainest manner to the 
conclusion that man is the co-descendant with the 
_ other mammals of a common progenitor.” * 

“The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom 
of the vertebrata,” observes the same great English 
naturalist in another place, “at which we are able 
to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of 
a group of marine animals, resembling the larve 
of existing Ascidians. These animals probably gave 
rise to a group of fishes as lowly organized as the 
lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other 
fishes like the Lepidosiren, must have been de- 
veloped. From such fish a very small advance 
would carry us on to the amphibians. We have 
seen that birds and reptiles were once intimately 
connected together; and the Monotremata now, in 
a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles. 
But no one can at present say by what line of 
descent the three higher and related classes, namely, 
mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived from 
either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely, 
amphibians and fishes. In the class of mammals, 
the steps are not difficult to conceive which led from 
the ancient Monotremata to the ancient Marsupials ; 
and from these to the early progenitors of the 
placental mammals. We may thus ascend to the 

Darwin’s Descent of Man, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 385. 


SUMMARY. 305 


Lemuride, and thé interval is not wide from these to 
the Simiadw. The Simiade then branched off into 
two great stems, the New World and Old World 
monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period, 
Man, the wonder and glory of the universe, pro- 
ceeded.” * 

Setting aside for the present this long pedigree 
of man, let us consider some of the isolated phases 
which have been established in the still incomplete 
condition of modern science. As far as semi-apes 
are concerned, whose near relation to men and 
apes has of late been strongly urged, I agree with 
those who, like Vogt, consider that their order, with 
its variety of forms, points to a complex origin, 
probably from marsupial animals, with which their 
organization presents many common features ; hence 
it appears that some of their forms belong to the 
earliest Tertiary mammals with which we are well 
acquainted. “In conclusion,” he writes, “it appears, 
from these facts, that any very close connection 
between the semi-apes and apes, and hence with 
man, cannot be proved. With the exception of the 
opposing thumb, which is and was a widely diffused 
characteristic common to many species, the semi- 
apes have not a single anatomical feature in common 
with apes. Their jaw, the most permanent charac- 
teristic, places them in the insectivorous class; to 
enroll them among the ancestors of man is to set 
at nought all the principles of scientific research.” f 

That purely hypothetical being, the common 


* Darwin’s Descent of Man, i. p. 212. 
t Die Séugethiere in Wort und Bild, p. 67. 


306 ANTHROPOID APES. 


ancestor of man and apes, is still to be found, and 
this is the task assigned to paleontology. Whether 
this science, to which a great future belongs, will 
ever accomplish the task, is a question which con- 
cerns itself. Meanwhile, considering the great 
palzontological achievements of our day, the dis- 
covery of the Odontornithes, Aitosaurt, Rhamphoryncht, 
Holoptychia, etc., we need not despair of the possi- 
bility of discovering the true link between the 
world of man and mammals. This purely specula- 
tive side of research, this purely scientific mode of 
treating the descent of man, is no longer satisfied 
with unproved assertions, but will rather trust to 
the strenuous labour of future times, and this need 
vot disturb any religious or political convictions. 
Even if the assumed ancestral type should really be 
discovered in some geological stratum, yet research 
will have to overcome immense difficulties, if it is to 
explain the development of the understanding and 
of speech, and the growth of independent human 
intelligence. Yet we must not, on this account, 
refuse to recognize the possibility of achieving some 
new discoveries in this direction. To do so would 
be to stifle the impulse to scientific research, and 
this would be unworthy of our former intellectual 
achievements. Let us therefore labour on with 
courage. 

In matters which concern ethnology we are con- 
stantly shown that even those races of men which 
are very remote from each other, and of whom it 
cannot be supposed that they were in earlier times 
united in one nation, have made the same technical 


SUMMARY. 307 


discoveries, and have adopted similar manners and 
customs and similar religious observances. This 
allows us to infer that there is a physical and 
psychical unity of human nature which indeed 
separates into races and varieties, but not into 
distinct species. Certain tokens of what is hypo- 
thetically the primeval type will predominate even 
in the progeny which has been modified by a distinct 
and separate development, and we need not be 
surprised by reversions to the animal structure, 
even in man, the ultimate scope of organic develop- 
ment. Nor will the developed culture of man offer 
any hindrance to such reversions. The theromorphic 
conditions which we have pointed out in the third 
chapter of this work, such as the frontal process of 
the squamous temporal portion, the transverse 
enlargement of the occipital bone, the pointed 
ear, etc., occur both in the higher and lower races 
of man; just as, for example, both in primitive and 
high-bred races of horses there are reversions to 
fossil forms in hind toes, cloven hoofs, etc. 

Not only the physical, but the mental develop- 
ment of man advances uniformly, and not per saltum. 
Physical qualities and defects may occur in a given 
number of negroes and Papuans, and may be absent 
in an equal number of Europeans, and conversely 
may occur in the one and be absent in the other; 
yet, in their mental condition, negroes and Papuans 
must always be regarded as in a lower order than 
Europeans. And if physical superiority is more 
widely diffused in European peoples than elsewhere, 
owing to higher culture, less exposure, and better 


308 ANTHROPOID APES. 


nourishment, a more regular mode of life, and often 
also to the sexual selection prompted by esthetic 
considerations, yet the reversion to such animal 
characteristics as do not exercise any modifying 
influence on the bodily development of the indi- 
vidual, occurs both in these and other races. I 
conclude these remarks with the reproduction of the 
fine passage with which Darwin ends his work on 
the descent of man. 

“Man may be excused for feeling some pride at 
having risen, though not through his own exertions, 
to the very summit of the organic scale; and the 
fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been 
aboriginally placed there, may give him hopes for 
a still higher destiny in the distant future. But we 
are not here concerned with hopes or fears, only with 
the truth, as far as our reason allows us to discover it. 
Ihave given the evidence to the best of my ability : 
and we must acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man, 
with all his noble qualities; with sympathy which 
feels for the most debased ; with benevolence which 
extends not only to other men, but to the humblest 
living creature; with his god-like intellect, which 
has penetrated into the movements and constitution 
of the solar system ;—with all these exalted powers, 
man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible 
stamp of his lowly origin,” 


APPENDIX. 


—+ 


Ir was after I had finished this treatise that Mohnike’s 
Blicke auf das Pflanzen-und Thierleben in den indischen 
Malaienlindern (Minster, 1883) came into my hands. 
The author, who was for several years physician 
and medical superintendent in the Dutch Indies, has 
given an interesting account of the orang-utan. It 
appears that this animal is only found in the northern 
part of Sumatra, and is more common on the western 
than on the eastern coast. Even there the orang is 
only occasionally captured. The Dyaks of Borneo are 
fund of the flesh of this ape, which they shoot, especially 
in the interior of the island, with poisoned darts, 
projected from a blow-pipe. The wounded part is 
then carefully cut out. 

Mohbnike states that in Borneo Hylobates concolor is 
called Ouo-ouo by the Malays, and Kalawet by the 
Dyaks. Dark specimens of Hylobates variegatus are in 
the Malay dialect called téam, or black Unko, and light 
specimens are called puti, or white Unko. A good illus- 
tration of Hylobates leucogenys is given in the Proceedings 
of the Zoological Society, p. 680, Plate 42: London, 1877. 

It should be added to what I have said in the text, 


310 APPENDIX. 


that the uvula of the orang-utan is often absent (Bischoff, 
Beitrage zur Anatomie des Gorilla, p. 37; and Rickart, 
Der Pharynx als Sprach-und Schluck-apparat, p. 24, 
plate iii. fig. 10: Munich, 1882. I have, however, 
examined a specimen in which the uvula was quite 
perceptible, as well as the palate and arched root of the 
tongue. 

In addition to the lower jaw from Naulette, of which 
I have spoken above, the fragment of a lower jaw 
has lately been found in the Schipka cave, Moravia, 
declared by Schaaffhausen to be that of an ape-like child. 
Virchow has carefully examined this fragment, and 
considers that it belongs to an adult of the mammoth 
age, who suffered from retention of the teeth, and that 
there is nothing pithecoid about it. The same author 
subjected the Naulette jaw, which he has repeatedly 
examined in Brussels, to a close analysis, and is some- 
what disposed to admit the pithecoid character of this 
specimen (Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, p. 277: 1882). 

R. Baume, on the other hand, considers that both the 
Naulette jaw and that from the Schipka cave are 
pithecoid forms. He finds in these two specimens the 
actual proof of the existence of man-apes in the diluvial 
period, since they differ widely, in the form of the lower 
jaw, from any living specimens. This author is of 
opinion that in the diluvial period there must have 
been races of men far inferior to the lowest races now 
in existence (Die Kieferfragmente von La Naulette und 
aus der Schipkahohle, Leipzig, 1883). 

See Hartmann, Sitzwngsbericht der Gresellschaft natur- 
forschender Freunde zu Berlin, November 19, 1878, for 
remarks on the tendon, the blood-vessels of the shoulder 
and thigh in anthropoids, in addition to those given in 
the text. 


AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I. 


(1) “Hine (i.e. Océv bynua) tridui navigatione tor- 
rentes igneos preetervecti in sinum venimus, qui Noti 
Ceras dicitur (Nérov Képas). In sinus recessu insula erat 
priori, illi similis; nam lacum habebat, in quo insula 
erat altera, referta hominibus silvestribus. Erant 
autem multo plures mulieres hirsutis corporibus, quas 
interpretes Gorillas (TopiAAas) vocabant. Nos perse- 
quentes viros quidem capere non potuimus, omnes enim 
effugiebant quum per precipitia scanderent et saxis se 
defenderent ; sed feminas cepimus-tres, que mordentes 
et lacerantes ductores sequi nolebant. Atque occidimus 
eas et pelles detractas asportavimus Carthaginem. 
Neque enim ulterius navigavimus, quum annona de- 
ficeret”” (Hannonis Carthaginiensis Periplus. Geo- 
graphi Graci Minores, ed. C. Muelleri, vol. i.). 

(2) Comp. Temminck, Esquisses zoologiques sur la 
cote de Guinée (Leiden, 1853), p. 3. 

(3) Mare. de Serres first directed the attention of 
naturalists to this mosaic. Comp. Froriep, Notizen zur 
Natur-und Heilkunde, book 42. It has been frequently 
said that the original of this mosaic is in the Museum 
of Antiquities at Berlin. Undoubtedly the mosaic in 
question also consists of a landscape with hippopotami, 
crocodile, etc., but it cannot be compared with that of 


312 AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I. 


Palestrina, which is to my knowledge in the Barberini 
palace at Rome. 

(4) See the Natural History of the younger Pliny, 
ii. 172; vii. 2. 

(5) Regnum Congo: hoc est Vera Descriptio Regni 
Africani quod tam ab incolis quam Lusitanis Congus 
appellatur, per Philippum Pigafettam, olim ex Edoardo 
Lopez acromatis lingua Italica excerpta, nunc Latio 
sermone donata ab Aug. Cassiod. Reinio. Iconibus 
et imaginibus rerum memorabilium quasi vivis, opera 
et industria Joan. Theod. et Joan. Israelis de Bry, 
fratrum exornata (Francofurti, MDXcvVIII.). 

(6) Abhandlungen der Konig]. Bayrischen Akademie 
der Wissenschaften (iii. cl. ix. div. 1). 

(7) A voyage to Congo and several other countries 
in Southern Africa, Church collection of voyages and 
travels (London, 1744), i. 651. 

(8) Relation d’un voyage fait en 1695-97 aux cétles 
d’ Afrique, etc. (Paris, 1699). 

(9) Nouveau voyage en Guinée, p. 74. 

(10) Observationes Medica (Amsterdam), § 56. I 
have recently had occasion to doubt whether Tulpe’s 
representation of an ape is not founded on that of an 
orang-utan of average size. At any rate, the head of 
the animal given by this anatomist reminds me more 
of an orang than of a chimpanzee. 

(11) The Anatomy of a Pygmy, compared with that 
of a Monkey, an Ape, anda Man. With an Essay con- 
cerning the Pygmies, etc., of the Ancients (edit. i, 
London, 1699; edit. ii., 1751). 

(12) Purchas, His Pilgrims. I have made use of 
the edition published in London in 1625 (vul. ii, 982). 

(13) Beschryvinge des Afrikaensche gewesten van 
Egypten, Barbaryen, Lybien, Biledulgerid, Negrosland, 
Ethiopien, Abyssinie, etc. (Amsterdam, 1688; edit. ii. 
1679). I have made use of the German version of 1760, 


AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I, 313 


(14) The name Quojas Morrou is also used by 
Tulpe. <A living specimen of these animals was given 
by Dapper to Prince Frederick Henry of Orange, and 
is perhaps the one described by Tulpe. 

(15) Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashanti 
(London, 1819: trans, Weimar, 1820; Vienna, 1826). 
1 have made use of the latter translation. 

(16) Trans. of the Zoolog. Soc., vol. iii., 1848: Ona 
new species of Chimpanzee, by Professor Owen. 

(17) A deScription of the external characters and 
habits of Troglodytes Gorilla, by Ph. S. Savage, and 
of the osteology of the same, by Jeffreys Wyman 
(Journal of Nat. Hist., Boston, 1847, vol. v.). 

(18) Th. Savage: Notice of Troglodytes Gorilla, a 
new species of Orang on the Gabvon (Boston, 1847). 
Comp. Kneeland in Proc. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. 
Hist., 1850, 1852. 

(19) Ostéographie (Paris, 1839-64), Atlas, vol. iv., 
Mammiféres, plate i. 

(20) Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de 
Paris, vol. x. 

(21) Ibid., vol. viii. 

(22) An impression on steel: A mode of photo- 
graphic illustration used by Niépce de St. Victor, 
which has since been materially improved. 

(23) Der Gorilla, ete. A coloured illustration by 
G. Miitzel, plate i. 

(24) Adventures and explorations in Equatorial 
Africa (London, 1861). A journey to Ashango Land 
(London, 1867). The country of the Dwarfs (London, 
1872). 

(25) Reade, Savage Life: being the narrative of a 
tour in Equatorial, South-Western, and North-Western 
Africa, ete. (London, 1863). Brehm, Thierleben, edit. i., 
i. 16. See also Hartmann, Der Gorilla, p. 4. 

(26) Observations on Du Chaillu’s papers on the 


314 AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER L 


new species of mammals discovered by him in Equa- 
torial Africa: Proceed. of the Zool. Soc., London, 1861. 

(27) Proceed. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1860. 
See also Du Chaillu’s Adventures and Explorations, 
chap. 22; and Reichenbach’s Vollstindigste Natur- 
geschichte der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig), p. 196. 

(28) Description of cranium of an adult male gorilla 
from the River Danger, indicative of a variety of the 
great chimpanzee (Troglod. Gorilla): Trans. of Zoolog. 
Soc., London, vol. iv., 1853. Memoir on the Gorilla 
(London, 1865): well illustrated. Odontography 
(London, 1840-45). Article on Teeth, by Todd and 
Bowman, in the Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physi- 
ology, vol. iv. part ii. Lectures on the comparative 
anatomy and physiology of Vertebrata (London, 1866— 
68, vol. iii.). 

(29) Burton’s Two Trips to the Gorilla land, and 
the cataracts of the Nile (London, 1876). 

(30) Compiégne’s L’Afrique Equatoriale (Paris, 
1875; Gabonais, p. 260). 

(31) De Brazza’s Le Tour du Monde, Année 1878, 
No. 936. 

(82) Lenz’s Skizzen aus Westafrika (Berlin, 1878), 
p. 171. 

(33) Die Loango Expedition, pt. ii., by Falkenstein, 
p- 149. 

(34) Koppenfels’ Die Gartenlaube (1877), No. 25. 

(35) Zoologiska Studier, Andra Hiftet. (Lund, 1857). 

(36) Revue d’Anthropologie (1876), p. 1, eto. 

(37) The Medical Times, 1872. 

(88) Descrizione di una scimmia antropomorfa pro- 
veniente dall’ Africa centrale, in den Annali del Museo 
Civico di Genova, i. 53. 

(39) Studii craniologici sui Cimpanzé. Ibid., iii. 3. 

(40) Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences 
(Philadelphia, 1879), pt. iii. p. 385. 


AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I, 315 


(41) On the Appendicular Skeleton of the Primates: 
Philosophical Transactions (1867), 299. ~ 

(414) Macalister’s Muscular Anatomy of the Gorilla: 
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy of Science, 
2nd series, vol. i. 

(42) Ueber die Schidelform des Menschen und der 
Affen, Leipzig, 1867. 

(43) Die Hand und der Fuss. Abhandlungen der 
Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, vol.v. 

(44) Archiv. fiir Anthropologie, viii. 67. 

(45) Abhandl. aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissen- 
schaften, herausgeg. vom Naturwis. Verein zu Hamburg- 
Altona (Hamburg, 1876), pp. 74-83. 

(46) Ibid., p. 84, ete. 

(47) Die anthropomorphen Affen des liibecker Mu- 
seums (Liibeck, 1876). 

(48) Mittheilungen aus dem kénigl. Zoolog. Museum 
zu Dresden (1877), No. 2, p. 225. 

(49) Der Gorilla, mit Beriicksichtigung des Unter- 
schiedes zwischen Menschen und Affen, ete. Denk- 
schrift des Offenbacher Vereins fiir Naturkunde (Offen- 
bach, 1863). 

(50) Ueber die Verschiedenheit in der Schidelbildung 
des Gorilla, Chimpanse und Orang-utan, etc. (Min- 
chen, 1867). Vergleichende anatomische Untersuch- 
ungen iiber die dussern weiblichen Geschlechts-und 
Begattungsorgane des Menschen und der Affen. Ab- 
handl, der kénig]. bayrischen Akad. d. Wissensch., cl. 
ii. vol. xiii. plate ii. Beitrige zur Anatomie des 
Gorilla. Thbid. cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate iii. 

(51) Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chim- 
pause. Abhandl. der K. Gesellsch. der Wissensch. Gét- 
tingen, vol. 28. 

(52) Ueber den Schiidel des jungen Gorilla. Monats- 
berichte der kénigl. Akademie der Wissensch. zu 
Berlin (June 7, 1880), p. 516. 


316 AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I. 


(53) Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissensch., 
plate ii. (Petersburg, 1876), v. 235. 

(54) Various works on the gorilla under the follow- 
ing titles :—Beitrige zur Kenntniss der sogen. anthro- 
pomorphen Affen, Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, series iv. 
198; viii. 129; ix. 117. Ueber das Hiiftgelenk der 
anthropoiden Affen. Sitzungsber der Gesellsch. Natur- 
forsch. Freunde zu Berlin, April 17, 1877. Ueber den 
Torus occipitalis transversus am Hinterhauptbeine des 
Menschen; Ibid., Nov. 26,1880. Die menschenihnlichen 
Affen, No. 247 of the Sammlung gemeinverstindlicher 
wissensch. Vortrige, by Virchow and Holtzendorff, p. 11. 

(55) Vogt’s Vorlesungen tiber den Menschen (Giessen, 
1863). 

(56) L’homme et les singes. Bulletin de la Société 
d’ Anthropologie, vol. iv. series i1., 1870. 

(57) Magitot, Bulletin de la Soc. d’Ethnographie de 
Paris, 1872. 

(58) Gesammelte Werke. A.d. Engl. von J. V. Carus, 
v. 1, 2 (Stuttgart, 1875). 

(59) Gervais’s Hist. Nat. des Mammiféres (Paris, 
1854), vol. i. p. 27. 

(60) Huxley’s Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated 
Animals (London, 1871). 

(61) Flower’s Introduction to the Osteology of the 
Mammalia (London, 1870). 

(62) Giebel’s Odontographie. Vergleichende Dar- 
stellung des Zahnsystems der lebenden und fossilen 
Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1855). 

(63) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc (London, 1876). 

(64) Hist. Nat. générale et particuliére, vol. 35 
(Paris). 

(65) I qnote here the passage which Bosman has 
taken from the foregoing work by Buffon: “ Les singes 
que l’on appelle smitten (forgerons) en flamand, sont 
de couleur fauve, et deviewnent extrémement grands: 


AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I. 317 


jen ai vu un de mes propres yeux qui avait cing pieds 
de haut et de bien moins grand que l’homme. [Is sont 
méchants et trés forts ; un marchand m’a conté, que dans 
le voisinage du fort de Wimba, le pays est occupé par 
un trés-grand nombre de ces singes, qui sont de force 
& attaquer ’homme, ce dont on citait des exemples.” 
Bosman goes on to speak of another species of ape in 
the same district, which is as hideous as those of the 
larger kind (B:schrijving van Guiné (1737), p. 34; 
Voyage de Guinée, p. 258). 

(66) Comp. on this point Huxley’s very lucid re- 
marks in his work on the position of an in nature. 

(67) Le Jardin des Plantes, by Bernard, Couailhac, 
Gervais and Lemaout (Paris, 1842), i, 82. 

(68) Ibid., p. 83, together with the illustration. 

(69) Copied by Chenu, Encycl. d’Hist. Nat. Quad- 
rumanes (Paris, 1851), plate i. fig. 836. By Gervais, 
Hist. Nat. des Mammiféres (Paris, 1854), i. 16, 22. 
By A. B. Reichenbach, Praktische Naturgesch. des 
Menschen und der Siugethiere (New edit., Leipzig), 
plate i. fig. 4. H. G. L. Reichenbach, Die Voll- 
stindigste Naturgesch. der Affen (Dresden and Leip- 
zig), plate xxxiv., fig. 466; etc. 

(70) J. B. Brehm’s Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876), i. 
46, 68. 

(71) Hartmann, Der Gorilla, etc. Woodcuts, Nos. 
vi., vii., vili., xiii. 

(72) Beobachtungen an zwei lebenden Chimpanse, by 
H. Tiedemann, Philadelphia. Nach brieflichen Mitthei- 
lungen bearbeitet by L. Bischoff (Bonn, 1879). 

(73) Temminck’s Esquisse Zoologique, pt. i., ete. 

(74) Vrolik, Recherches d’anatomie comparée sur le 
Chimpanse (Amsterdam, 1841). 

(75) On the muscles and nerves of a Chimpanzee, 
ete. (Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, series ii. 
1871, p. 176). 


318 AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I. 


(76) Brihl, Myologisches iiber die Extremitaiten des 
Chimpanse (Wiener Medicin. Wochenschrift. Jahrg. 
1817). 

(77) Ontleedkundige nasporingen over de hersenen 
van den Chimpanse (Amsterdam, 1849), 

(78) Des caractéres anatomiques des grands singes 
pseudo-anthropomorphes, Archives du Muséum, vol. viii. 
Vergleichung der Anatomie des Gorilla mit derjenigen 
des Chimpanse: very well illustrated. 

(79) Recherches sur l’anatomie du Troglodytes 
Aubryi (Nouvelles Archives du Muséum d’Histoire 
Naturelle. Mémoires, vol. ii.). 

(80) Mittheilungen aus dem kénig]. Zoologischen 
Museum zu Dresden, No. 2 (Dresden, 1877). 

(81) Comp. the works cited in note 54. Also Hart- 
mann, Beitrige zur Zoologischen und Zootomischen 
Kenntniss der sogenannten anthropomorphen Affen. 
Archiv. fiir Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., by Reichert 
and Du Bois-Reymond. Series for the years 1872-76, 
with many plates, some of them chromo-lithographs. 

(82) Description de Vespéce de singe aussi singulier 
que trés rare, nommé Orang-Outang, de Visle de Borneo. 
Apporté vivant dans la ménagerie de M. le Prince 
d’Orange. Description dun recueil exquis d’animaux 
rares, etc. (Amsterdam, 1804). The plates, represent- 
ing the orang, which accompany this work are not 
badly done. 

(83) Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genoot- 
schap. Tweede Deel. (Derde Druk, 1826). 

84, Beschrijving van der groote Borneosche Orang- 
‘outang of de Oostindische Pongo. Ibid. Also Briefe 
des Herrn v. Wurmb und des Herrn Baron v. Wollzogen 
(Gotha, 1794). 

(85) General and particular descriptions of the ver- 
tebrated animals; order quadrumana (London, 1831); 
with coloured plates. 


AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I. 319 


(86) Monographies de Mammalogie, vol. ii. 

(87) Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis 
der Nederlandsche overzeesche besittingen (1839-45). 
Zoologie, p. 1. 

(88) Description des mammiféres nouveaux ou im- 
parfaitement connus de la collection du Muséum 
@histoire naturelle. Nouv. Archives du Muséum, etc., 
ii. 485. 

(89) Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1842), 
ix. 54, . 

(90) Calcutta Government Gazette, Jan. 13, 1853. 
Asiatic Researches, xv. 489, 491. 

(91) Wallace’s Malay Archipelago. 

(92) Naturgeschichte des Orang-Utan und einiger 
anderer Affenarten. Herbell (Diisseldorf, 1791). 

(93) On the Comparative Osteology of the Orang- 
utan and Chimpanzee: London and Edinburgh Philo- 
soph. Magazine, vi. 457; x. 259. Trans. of the Zoolog. 
Soc. of London, i. pt. iv. 

(94) Archiv. fiir Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., 1836, 
p. 46; 1839, p. 209. 

(95) L. s. cit. 

(96) Vier Abbildungen des Schidels der Simia 
Satyrus von verschiedenem Alter zur Aufklirung der 
Fabel vom Oraii-Utai (Marburg, 1838). 

(97) Note sur les métamorphoses du crane de l’Orang- 
Outang, Bulletins de Académie de Bruxelles (1838). 
Annales des Sciences Naturelles (1839), p. 56. 

(98) Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes und der Oran- 
garten (Wien, 1856). 

(99) Die Muskulatur der Extremititen als Grundlage 
einer vergleichend-myologischen Untersuchung, 

(100) L. 8. «, Fig. 42, plate vii. 

(101) L. s. ¢., plate i. p. 30 (left figure). 

(102) Zeitschrift fir EHthnologie (1876), vol. 15. 
Brehm’s Thierleben, i. 83. 


320 AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I. 


(103) Copied in Cassell’s Natural History, i. 8 (52), 
with the erroneous title, “ Sick Chimpanzee.” 

(104) Naturhistorische Friichte der ersten kais. 
russischen Erdumsegelung (Petersburg, 1813), p. 130. 

(105) Le régne animal (nouv. edit.), i. 88. 

(106) Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire et F. Cuvier, Hist. 
Nat. des mammiféres (Paris, 1819-35), plate iii. fig. 4. 

(107) Wanderings in New South Wales (London, 
1834), vol. ii. chap. viii. 

(168) Man and Monkeys (London, 1840), p. 423. 

(109) Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., i. 

(110) See work cited in note 83. 

(111) See work cited in note 63, p. 140. 

(112) Hist. Nat, des Singes (Paris, an. ix.), p. 154 

(113) Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat., v. 529. 

(114) Blyth in Journal of the Asiatic Soc., 1846, xv. 
172; Ibid., 1847, xvi. 730. 

(115) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, xiv. 11. 

(116) Beitrige zur Anatomie des Hylobates leuciscus. 
From the Proceedings of the Bavarian Academy of 
Science, 2nd series, vol. x. plate iii. 


INDEX. 


= —+ 

A of, 208; structure of, 210; 
varieties in the form of, 210; 
A-Bantu, 86 geographical distribution, habits 
Abel, 10 in a state of nature, and native 
Abors, 253 names of, 225 ; life in captivity 
Aeby, 6, 130, 131, 206 of, 257; position of, in the 

Africa, 90 zoological system, 285. 


African negroes, pithecoid struc- 
ture of, 86 

Aidanill, 88 

Ainos, 96 

Alix, 9, 149, 207, 213 

Angola, 225 

Anthropoid apes, development of 
acquaintance with, 1; external 
form of, 11; external and ana- 
tumical structure of, compared 
with the human, 55; ears of, 
and men, 89; neck of, 100; 
trunk of, 100; carpus of, 102 ; 
hand of, 102; upper limbs of, 
102; skull of, 107; vertebral 
column of, and men, 125; 
humerus of, 131; tibia of, 137; 
hinder extremities of, 145; 
muscular system of, 150; skin 
of head of, 156; clavicle of, 
160; digestive system of, 181; 
teeth of, 182; tongue of, 182; 
vertebral column of, 182; liver 
of, 187; stomach and intestines 
of, 187; spleen of, 188; sexual 
organs of, 190; brain of, 192; 
nervous system of, 192; peri- 
pheral, 207; vascular system 


Anthropomorphism of gorilla, 
orang, chimpanzee, and gib- 
bon, 290 


Aschangolo, 236 

Aschira, 240 

Ashanti, 86 

Astarte, temple of, 2 
Authorities for Chapter I, 311 
Australian blacks, 86, 96 


B 


Baboon, 11, 92 

Baker, 122 

Ballone, river, 88 

Bam (Troglodytes niger), 222, 237 
Banya, 237 

Bar, K. E. von, 6, 143 

Bari, 86 

Bartels, 96 

Bastian, Ch., 192, 197 
Battel, 3, 8 

Bennet, 10 

Beyrich, 285 

Biceps of anthropoids, 165 
Bischoff, 6, 78, 152, 167, 188 


322 


Blainville, D. de, 4, 134 
Blyth, 10 

Bock, 45, 241, 284 
Bolau, 7, 188, 260 
Bond, 87 

Borneo, 241 

Bosman, 8 

Boucher de Perthes, 119 
Bourgeois, 299 

Bouvier, 210 

Bowdich, E., 4 

Brain of apes, 192 
Brazza, De, 6, 235 
Brebm, A. E., 6, 9, 217 
Brooke, 10 

Brosse, 269 

Briihl, 10, 58, 78, 150, 176 
Broca, 110 

Broderip, 269 

Buala, plateau of, 226 
Buchholz, 235, 258 
Buchta, 107 

Buffon, 8, 267 
Burmeister, 101 
Burton, R., 6 

Bushmen, 87 

Busu, Bakalaya, 256 


Cc 


Cachéu, 237 

Camaroon river, 225 

Carpus of antbropoid apes, 102 

Catharcludi, land of, 2 

Champneys, 9 

Chapman, 6, 164 

Chenu, 10 

Chimpanzee, 2, 8, 29, 33, 58, 91, 
219, 237, 267; anthropomor- 
phism of, 290 

Chimpezée, 8 

Chinchoxo, 7 

Chudzinsky, 165 

Clavicle of anthropoids, 160 

Colobus, 286 

Compiégne, A. de, 6, 235 

Congo, 226 

Cuvier, G., 10, 45, 50 


INDEX. 


D 


Dabulamanzi, 86 

Dahlbom, 6, 9 

Dahomey, 86 

Danger, per, 225. 

Dapper, O., 4 

Darwin, 7, 91, 97, 157, 308, 308 

Delaunay, 298 

Devéria, A., 5 

Diard, 10, 45, 252 

Digestive system of anthropoids, 
181 


Dippel, 148 

Dryopithecus, 286 

Du Chaillu, 6, 215, 227, 257 
Duchenne, 154 

Diicker, Von, 299 
Dumortier, 10 

Duncan, P. M., 220 
Durand, 122 

Duvaucel, 10, 50, 254 
Duvernoy, 6, ‘149, 172, 215 
Dyaks, 245; of Dusun, 251 


E 


Ears of anthropoids and men, 89 

Ecker, 6, 96 

Ehlers, 6, 7, 153, 188 

Eliva, lake, 236 

Engeco, 4 

Eyelids of anthropoids 
man, 94 


and of 


Fan, 236 

Falkenstein, 7, 219, 260 

Femur of mammals, 136 

Flower, 6, 142 

Foot of anthropoids, 22 

Ford, 5, 225 

Fortuna, temple of, 2 

Four-handed, rejection 
term, 146 

Franquet, 5 

Froger, 3 

Froriep, 126 


of the 


INDEX, 


G 


Gaboon district, 5, 226, 240 

Galloa, 240 

Gamba, 154 

Garrau mountains, 253 

Garrigou, 298 

Gaudry, 285, 299 

Gautier Laboulaye, 5 

Gegenbaur, 134 

Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 5, 9 

Geographical distribution of an- 
thropoids, 225, 

Gervais, 7, 9 

Ghauts, 87 . 

Gibbon, anthropomorphism of, 290 

Gibbon, skeleton of, 81 

Gibbon (Hylobates), 11, 45, 251, 
281 


— H. albimanus, 49, 282 

——- H. entelloides, 52 

—_ H. funereus, 54, 283 

— H. Hoolock, 52, 282 

—— H. Lar agilis, 45, 50, 283 

—— H. leuciscus, 51 

—- H. leucogenys, 53 

—— II. pileatus, 53 

H. Raffiesit, 52 

Giebel, 7 

Giglioli, 6, 9 

Glover, 86 

Gorilla, 12, 26, 55, 60, 210, 225, 
257; skull of an aged male, 56; 
skull of young male, 60; skele- 
ton of aged male, 65; skeleton 
of female, 68 

Gorilla, anthropomorphism of, 290 

Grandpré, 268 

Gratiolet, 9, 152, 199, 209 

Gray, 214 

Griffith, E., 10 

Gruber, 111, 135, 175 

Gulliver, 10 

Gulnarber, 89 

Giissfeldt, 228 


H 


Habit of anthropoids in a state of 
nature, 225 : 


323 


Haeckel, 6, 107, 146, 291 

Hair, growth of, in man and an- 
thropoids, 96 

Hamadryas (Cynocephalus), 251 

Hand of anthropoids, 102 ; muscles 
of, 166 

Hanno, 1 

Harlan, 253, 281 

Hausanese, 86 

Head, skin of, 156; muscles of, 
151 

Henle, 153 

Hermes, 7, 243, 269, 283 

Heusinger, 10 

Hoeven, Van der, 103 

Holl, 128 

Hooker, 97 

Human foot, skeleton of, 140 

Human structure compared with 
that of anthropoid apes, 55 

Humerus of gorilla, 131 

Huxley, 11+, 143, 176, 190 

Hyrtl, 111 


I 


Tbos, natives of, 86 
Thering, H. von, 207 
Issel, 222 


J 


Japanese,.the, 87 
Jeffreys Wyman, 5, 215 
Jockos, 8 


K 


Kamma, 240 

Klebs, 205 

Kolk, Van der, 9 

Koolo-Kamba, the anthropoid, 221 
Koppenfels, H. von, 6, 219, 231 
Kotaringin, 241 

Krause, R., 192, 202 

Kuilu, 226, 237 


3824 INDEX. 
L Merolla, 3 
Meyer, A. B., 6, 216 
Lainier, 214 Meyer, B., 93 
Lambdoidal suture, 58 Meyer, R., 6 


Langer, 10, 173 

Laopithecus, 287 

Lartet, 286 

Larynx, 188 

Laussedat, 298 

Lewis, 10 

Lenz, H., 6, 9, 235, 258 

Life in captivity of antbropoid 
apes, 257 

Ligaments of anthropoids, 146 

Ligaments, 187 

Limbs of anthropoids, 102 

Liver of anthropuid apes, 187 

Livingstone, 223, 240 

Loango, 7, 226, 237 

Lopez, Ed., 3 

Lucae, 6 

Lucan, 210 

Luemme, 226, 237 


M 


Macacu, 92 

Macalister, 152 

Mafuea, 95, 215, 240 

Magitot, 7 

Mahakkam, 250 

Malays, 87, 250 

Malacea peninsula, 53 

Malimba, people of, 240 

Malzac, A. de, 220 

Mammals, femur of, 136 

Mammals, systematic scheme of, 
288 

Mandril, 3 

Mandjaruma, 222 

Martens, Von, 251 

Martin, W. L., 221 

Martius, Von, 294 

Max, G., 10, 281 

Maximilian of Neuwied, Prince, 
294 

Mayombe, 228 

Meckel, J. F., 147 

Meias, 251 


Miklucho Maclay, 89, 94 

Mivart, F., 6 

Mpongwe, 236, 240 

Miiller, 10, 247 

Muni (Mooney), 225 

Mirenhas, 294 

Muscular system of anthropoid 
apes, 150 

Miitzel, 10, 25 


or 


Naga, 253 

Nathusius, H. von, 13 

Native names of anthropoids, 225 
Ndjéko (nschégo), 4, 215, 220, 239 
Niam-Niam, 86, 240 

Nervous system of anthropoids, 192 
Neck of anthropoids, 100 

Ntondo, village of, 227 


Nuebr, 86 
0 
Obongo, 294 
Ogowé, 6, 225 
Orang-utan, anthropomorphism 
of, 290 


Orang-utan, 8, 11, 41,-43, 91, 223, 
242, 273; skull of, 76; skeleton 
of, 76, 79 

Ornstein, 96 

Orungu, 240 

Owen, R., 7, 25, 148, 206, 286 


P 


Pansch, 6, 197, 260 
Pechuél-Ldsche, 226, 229 
Papuans, 87 

Pedro da Cintra, 3 

Pelvis of anthropoids, 130 
Penaud, 5 

Petit, 210 


INDEX. 


Pigafetta, P., 3 
Platysma myoides. 159 
Plinius, 2 
Pliopithecus, 286 
Pongo, 4 
Ponta-Negra, 226 
Primarii, 288 

Prince, Mrs., 5 
Protopithecus, 287 
Pruner-Bey, 7, 114 


Q 


Quatrefages, 117 
Quenstedt, 286, 302 
Quojas morrau, 4 


R 


Rademacher, 10 

Reade, W., 235, 258 
Reichenbach, 9 

Retzius, 60, 194 

Rolleston, 197 

Rosenberg, 126, 135, 172, 242 
Rousseau, 5 


8 


Sachs, Dr., 110 

Sadong, 241 

Sambas, 241 

Sarawak, 241 

Satyrs, 2 

Savave, Dr., 4, 227 

Schaaff bausen, 205 

Schilluk, 86 

Schlegel, 10, 247 

Sch weinfurth, 220, 238 

Scott, J., 97 

Semnopithecus, 285 

Sexual organs of anthropoids, 190 

Siam, 53 

Siamang, 252 

Siebold, 9 

Simiina, 28 

Skeleton of human foot, 140 
15 


325 


Skeleton of aged male gorilla, 65; 
of female gorilla, 68; structure 
of, 107 

Skeleton of chimpanzee, 73 

Skin of head of anthropoids, 156 

Skull of adult chimpanzee, 72 

Skull of aged male gorilla, 56; of 
young male gorilla, 60 

Skull of orang-utan, 77 ; of anthro- 
poids, 107 

Smith, W., 3. 

Soko, 240 

Spengel, 114 

Spleen of anthropoids, 188 

Stieda, 111 

Structure of anthropoid apes, 210 

Stomach of anthropoid apes, 187 

Sumatra, 241, 252 

Sungi-Kapajan, 241 


T 

Tapanoli, 242 
Teeth of anthropoids, 182 
Temminck, 10 
Teweh, 241 
Throat pouch, 161 
Thorax of anthropoids, 131 
Tibia of anthropoids, 137 
Tiedemann, 156 
Tilesius, 10 
Tongue of anthropoids, 182 
Traill, Dr., 267 
Trinchese, Salvatore, 92 
Troglodytes Gorilla, 5 
Trunk of anthropoids, 100 
Tscheladas(Cynocephalus Geleda), 

250 
Tschissambo, 237 
Tulpe, N. von, 3, 8 
Tyson, E., 3, 9 


U 
Unko, (Hylobates Rafflesti), 5 
252 


ro 


326 


v 


Vascular system of anthropoids, 
208 

Vélins, 10 

Vertebre, cervical, of chimpanzee, 
73 

Vertebral column of anthropoids 
and men, 182 

Virchow, R., 6, 58, 96, 111, 114, 
138, 202 

Vogt, C., 7, 204, 218, 301 

Vosmaer, 10 

Vrolik, 9, 207 


INDEX. 


Ww 


Waldeyer, 136 

Wallace, 10, 99,158, 223, 244, 273 

Wau-wau (Hylobates agilis), 45, 
50, 253 

Welcker, 126, 147 

Wilson, 5 

Wimba, Fort, 8 

Woolner, 91 

Wurmb, 10 


Z 
Zuckerkanll, 124 


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THE ORIGIN OF CIVILIZATION AND THE PRIMITIVE CON. 
DITION OF MAN, Mental and Social Condition of Savages. 
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ith Illustrations, Fourth edition, with numerous Additions. 8vo, cloth. 

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THE PRINCIPLES OF THE LAW: An Examination of the Law 
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1 


THE 


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A WEEKLY REVIEW OF MEDICINE. 
Eprtzep sy FRANK P. FOSTER, M.D. 


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By reason of the condensed form in which the matter is arranged, 
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The articles contributed to the Journan are of a high order of ex- 
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